From 07d74449f7168c9131a35a3da5a5919d1af5e39f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Marco Kuhlmann <marco.kuhlmann@liu.se>
Date: Mon, 27 Jan 2025 16:00:38 +0100
Subject: [PATCH] Add lab 1
---
labs/lab1/nlp-lab1.ipynb | 639 ++
labs/lab1/reviews-dev.txt | 512 ++
labs/lab1/reviews-train.txt | 2048 ++++++
labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.tok | 768 ++
labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.txt | 11487 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.tok | 768 ++
labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.txt | 12828 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.tok | 768 ++
labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.txt | 9266 ++++++++++++++++++++++++
9 files changed, 39084 insertions(+)
create mode 100644 labs/lab1/nlp-lab1.ipynb
create mode 100644 labs/lab1/reviews-dev.txt
create mode 100644 labs/lab1/reviews-train.txt
create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.tok
create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.txt
create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.tok
create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.txt
create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.tok
create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.txt
diff --git a/labs/lab1/nlp-lab1.ipynb b/labs/lab1/nlp-lab1.ipynb
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..929b06b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/labs/lab1/nlp-lab1.ipynb
@@ -0,0 +1,639 @@
+{
+ "cells": [
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "# Lab 1: Tokenisation and embeddings"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "In this lab, you will build an understanding of how text can be transformed into representations that computers can process and learn from. Specifically, you will explore two key concepts: *tokenisation* and *embeddings*. Tokenisation splits text into smaller units such as words, subwords, or characters. Embeddings are dense, fixed-size vector representations of tokens in a continuous space.\n",
+ "\n",
+ "*Tasks you can choose for the oral exam are marked with the graduation cap đ emoji.*"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "## Part 1: Tokenisation"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "In the first part of the lab, you will code and analyse a tokeniser based on the Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) algorithm."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Utility functions"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "The BPE tokeniser transforms text into a list of integers representing tokens. As a warm-up, you will implement two utility functions on such lists. To simplify things, we define a shorthand for the type of pairs of integers:"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "type Pair = tuple[int, int]"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.01: Counting pairs\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Write a function that counts all occurrences of pairs of consecutive token IDs in a given list. The function should return a dictionary that maps each pair to its count. Skip counts that are zero."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "def count(ids: list[int]) -> dict[Pair, int]:\n",
+ " # TODO: Replace the following line with your own code\n",
+ " return {}"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.02: Replacing pairs\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Write a function that replaces all occurrences of a specified pair of consecutive token IDs in a given list by a new ID. The function should return the modified list."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "def replace(ids: list[int], pair: Pair, new_id: int) -> list[int]:\n",
+ " # TODO: Replace the following line with your own code\n",
+ " return []"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Encoding and decoding"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "The next cell contains the core code for the tokeniser in the form of a class `Tokenizer`. This class implements two methods: `encode()` converts an input text to a list of token IDs by exhaustively applying rules for merging pairs of consecutive IDs, and `decode()` reverses this process by looking up the tokens corresponding to the token IDs."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "class Tokenizer:\n",
+ " def __init__(self):\n",
+ " self.merges = {}\n",
+ " self.vocab = {i: bytes([i]) for i in range(2**8)}\n",
+ "\n",
+ " def encode(self, text):\n",
+ " ids = list(text.encode(\"utf-8\"))\n",
+ " while True:\n",
+ " counts = count(ids)\n",
+ " mergeable_pairs = counts.keys() & self.merges.keys()\n",
+ " if len(mergeable_pairs) == 0:\n",
+ " break\n",
+ " to_merge = min(mergeable_pairs, key=self.merges.get)\n",
+ " ids = replace(ids, to_merge, self.merges[to_merge])\n",
+ " return ids\n",
+ "\n",
+ " def decode(self, ids):\n",
+ " return b\"\".join((self.vocab[i] for i in ids)).decode(\"utf-8\")"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.03: Encoding and decoding\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Explain how the code implements the BPE algorithm. Use the following steps to check your understanding:\n",
+ "\n",
+ "**Step 1.** Annotate the attributes and methods of the `Tokenizer` class with their Python types. In particular, what is the type of `self.merges`? Use the `Pair` shorthand.\n",
+ "\n",
+ "**Step 2.** Explain how the implementation chooses which merge rule to apply. Provide an example that illustrates the logic."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Training a tokeniser"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "Upon initialisation, a tokeniser has an empty set of merge rules. Your next task is to complete the BPE algorithm and write code to learn these merge rules from a text."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.04: Training a tokeniser\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Write a function that induces a BPE tokeniser from a given text. The function should take the text (a string) and a target vocabulary size as input and return the trained tokeniser."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "def from_text(text: str, vocab_size: int) -> Tokenizer:\n",
+ " # TODO: Replace the following line with your own code\n",
+ " return Tokenizer()"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "To help you test your implementation, we provide three text files together with tokenisers trained on these files. Each text file contains the first 1 million Unicode characters in a language-specific Wikipedia:\n",
+ "\n",
+ "| Text file | Tokeniser file | Wikipedia |\n",
+ "|---|---|---|\n",
+ "| `wiki-en-1m.txt` | `wiki-en-1m.tok` | [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/) |\n",
+ "| `wiki-is-1m.txt` | `wiki-is-1m.tok` | [Icelandic](https://is.wikipedia.org/) |\n",
+ "| `wiki-sv-1m.txt` | `wiki-sv-1m.tok` | [Swedish](https://sv.wikipedia.org/) |\n",
+ "\n",
+ "A tokeniser file consists of lines specifying merge rules. For example, the first line in the tokeniser file for Swedish is `101 114`, which expresses that this rule combines the token with ID 101 (`e`) and the token with ID 114 (`r`). The ID of the new token (`er`) is 256 plus the (zero-indexed) line number on which the rule is found. The following code saves a `Tokenizer` to a file with this format:"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "def save(tokenizer: Tokenizer, filename: str) -> None:\n",
+ " with open(filename, \"w\") as f:\n",
+ " for fst, snd in tokenizer.merges:\n",
+ " print(f\"{fst} {snd}\", file=f)"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "To test your code, compare the saved tokeniser to the provided tokeniser using `diff`."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Tokenisation quirks\n",
+ "\n",
+ "The tokeniser is a key component of language models, as it defines the minimal chunks of text the model can âseeâ and work with. As you will see in this section, tokenisation is also responsible for several deficiencies and unexpected behaviours of language models.\n",
+ "\n",
+ "One helpful tool for experimenting with tokenisers in language models is the web app [Tiktokenizer](https://tiktokenizer.vercel.app/). This app lets you play around with, among others, [`cl100k_base`](https://tiktokenizer.vercel.app/?model=cl100k_base), the tokeniser used in the free version of ChatGPT and OpenAIâs APIs, and [`o200k_base`](https://tiktokenizer.vercel.app/?model=o200k_base), used in GPT-4o."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.05: Tokenisation quirks\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Prompt [ChatGPT](https://chatgpt.com/) to reverse the letters in the following words:\n",
+ "\n",
+ "```\n",
+ "creativecommons\n",
+ "MERCHANTABILITY\n",
+ "NSNotification\n",
+ "authentication\n",
+ "```\n",
+ "\n",
+ "How many of these words come out right? What could be the problem when words come out wrong? Generate ideas by inspecting the words in Tiktokenizer. Try to come up with other prompts that illustrate problems related to tokenisation."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Tokenisation and multi-linguality\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Many NLP systems and the tokenisers used with them are primarily trained on English data. In the next task, you will reflect on the effect this has when they are used to process non-English data.\n",
+ "\n",
+ "The *context length* of a language model is the maximum number of preceding tokens the model can condition on when predicting the next token. This number is fixed and cannot be changed after training the model. For example, the context length of GPT-2 ([Radford et al., 2019](https://cdn.openai.com/better-language-models/language_models_are_unsupervised_multitask_learners.pdf)) is 1,024. \n",
+ "\n",
+ "While the context length of a language model is fixed, the amount of information that can be squeezed into this context length will depend on the tokeniser. Informally speaking, a model that needs more tokens to represent a given text cannot condition on as much information as one that needs fewer tokens."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.06: Tokenisation and multi-linguality\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Train a tokeniser on the English text file from Task 1.04 and test it on the same text. How many tokens does it split the text into? Based on this, what is the expected number of Unicode characters of English text that can be fit into a context length of 1,024?\n",
+ "\n",
+ "What do the numbers look like if you test the English tokeniser on the Icelandic text instead? What could explain the differences?\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Interpreting the expected number of Unicode characters as a measure of representation efficiency, what do your results tell you about the efficiency of a language model primarily trained on English data when it is used to process non-English data? Why are these findings relevant?"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "## Part 2: Embeddings"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "In the second part of the lab, you will explore embeddings. An embedding layer is a network component that assigns each item in a finite set of elements (often called a *vocabulary*) a fixed-size vector. At first, these vectors are filled with random values, but during training, they are adjusted to suit the task at hand."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Bag-of-words classifier"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "To help you build an intuition for embeddings and the vector representations learned by them, we will use a simple bag-of-words text classifier. The core part of this classifier only takes a few lines of code:"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "import torch.nn as nn\n",
+ "\n",
+ "\n",
+ "class Classifier(nn.Module):\n",
+ " def __init__(self, num_embeddings, embedding_dim, num_classes):\n",
+ " super().__init__()\n",
+ " self.embedding = nn.Embedding(num_embeddings, embedding_dim)\n",
+ " self.linear = nn.Linear(embedding_dim, num_classes)\n",
+ "\n",
+ " def forward(self, x):\n",
+ " return self.linear(self.embedding(x).mean(dim=-2))"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.07: Bag-of-words classifier\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Explain how the bag-of-words classifier works. How does the code match the diagram you saw in the lectures? Why is there only one `nn.Embedding`, while the diagram shows three embedding layers? What does the keyword argument `dim=-2` do?"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Dataset"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "You will apply the classifier to a small dataset with Amazon customer reviews. This dataset is taken from [a much larger dataset](https://www.cs.jhu.edu/~mdredze/datasets/sentiment/) first described by [Blitzer et al. (2007)](https://aclanthology.org/P07-1056/).\n",
+ "\n",
+ "The dataset contains whitespace-tokenised product reviews from two topics: cameras (`camera`) and music (`music`). Each review is additionally annotated for sentiment towards the product at hand: negative (`neg`) or positive (`pos`). The topic and sentiment labels are prepended to the review. As an example, here is the first review from the training data:\n",
+ "\n",
+ "```\n",
+ "music neg oh man , this sucks really bad . good thing nu-metal is dead . thrash metal is real metal , this is for posers\n",
+ "```\n",
+ "\n",
+ "The next cell contains a custom [`Dataset`](https://pytorch.org/tutorials/beginner/basics/data_tutorial.html) class for the review dataset. To initialise an instance of this class, you specify the name of the file containing the reviews you want to load (`filename`) and which of the two labels you want to use (`label`): topic (0) or sentiment (1)."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "from torch.utils.data import Dataset\n",
+ "\n",
+ "\n",
+ "class ReviewDataset(Dataset):\n",
+ " def __init__(self, filename: str, label: int = 0) -> None:\n",
+ " with open(filename) as f:\n",
+ " tokenized_lines = [line.split() for line in f]\n",
+ " self.items = [(tokens[2:], tokens[label]) for tokens in tokenized_lines]\n",
+ "\n",
+ " def __len__(self) -> int:\n",
+ " return len(self.items)\n",
+ "\n",
+ " def __getitem__(self, idx: int) -> tuple[list[str], str]:\n",
+ " return self.items[idx]"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Vectoriser"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "To feed a review into the bag-of-words classifier, you first need to turn it into a vector of token IDs. Likewise, you need to convert the label (topic or sentiment) into an integer. The next cell contains a partially completed `ReviewVectoriser` class that handles this transformation."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "from collections import Counter\n",
+ "\n",
+ "import torch\n",
+ "\n",
+ "# Type abbreviation for reviewâlabel pairs\n",
+ "type Item = tuple[list[str], str]\n",
+ "\n",
+ "\n",
+ "class ReviewVectorizer:\n",
+ " PAD = \"[PAD]\"\n",
+ " UNK = \"[UNK]\"\n",
+ "\n",
+ " def __init__(self, dataset: ReviewDataset, n_vocab: int = 1024) -> None:\n",
+ " # Unzip the dataset into reviews and labels\n",
+ " reviews, labels = zip(*dataset)\n",
+ "\n",
+ " # Count the tokens and get the most common ones\n",
+ " counter = Counter(t for r in reviews for t in r)\n",
+ " most_common = [t for t, _ in counter.most_common(n_vocab - 2)]\n",
+ "\n",
+ " # Create the token-to-index and label-to-index mappings\n",
+ " self.t2i = {t: i for i, t in enumerate([self.PAD, self.UNK] + most_common)}\n",
+ " self.l2i = {l: i for i, l in enumerate(sorted(set(labels)))}\n",
+ "\n",
+ " def __call__(self, items: list[Item]) -> tuple[torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor]:\n",
+ " # TODO: Complete the implementation of this method\n",
+ " return torch.tensor([], dtype=torch.long), torch.tensor([], dtype=torch.long)"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "A `ReviewVectoriser` maps tokens and labels to IDs using two Python dictionaries. These dictionaries are set up when the vectoriser is initialised and queried when the vectoriser is called on a batch of reviewâlabel pairs. They include IDs for two special tokens:\n",
+ "\n",
+ "`[PAD]` (Padding): Reviews can have different lengths, but PyTorch requires all vectors in a batch to be the same size. To handle this, the vectoriser adds `[PAD]` tokens to the end of shorter reviews so they match the length of the longest review in the batch.\n",
+ "\n",
+ "`[UNK]` (Unknown): If a review contains a token that is not in the token-to-ID dictionary, the vectoriser assigns it the ID of the `[UNK]` token instead of a regular ID."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.08: Vectoriser\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Explain and complete the code of the vectoriser. Follow these steps:\n",
+ "\n",
+ "**Step 1.** Explain how unzipping works. What are the types of `reviews` and `labels`?\n",
+ "\n",
+ "**Step 2.** Explain how the token-to-ID and label-to-ID mappings are constructed. How does the `most_common()` method deal with elements that occur equally often?\n",
+ "\n",
+ "**Step 3.** Complete the implementation of the `__call__()` method. This method should convert a list of $m$ reviewâlabel pairs into a pair $(X, y)$ where $X$ is a matrix containing the vectors with token IDs for the reviews, and $y$ is a vector containing the IDs of the corresponding labels."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Training the classifier"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "With the vectoriser completed, you are ready to train a classifier. More specifically, you can train two separate classifiers: one to predict the topic of a review, and one to predict the sentiment. The next cell contains a simple training loop that you can adapt for this purpose."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "import torch.nn.functional as F\n",
+ "\n",
+ "\n",
+ "def train():\n",
+ " dataset = ReviewDataset(\"reviews-train.txt\", label=0)\n",
+ " processor = ReviewVectorizer(dataset, 1024)\n",
+ " model = Classifier(1024, 64, len(processor.l2i))\n",
+ " optimizer = torch.optim.Adam(model.parameters(), lr=0.001)\n",
+ " data_loader = torch.utils.data.DataLoader(\n",
+ " dataset,\n",
+ " batch_size=16,\n",
+ " shuffle=True,\n",
+ " collate_fn=processor,\n",
+ " )\n",
+ " for epoch in range(10):\n",
+ " model.train()\n",
+ " running_loss = 0\n",
+ " for bx, by in data_loader:\n",
+ " optimizer.zero_grad()\n",
+ " output = model(bx)\n",
+ " loss = F.cross_entropy(output, by)\n",
+ " loss.backward()\n",
+ " optimizer.step()\n",
+ " running_loss += loss.item()\n",
+ " print(f\"Epoch {epoch}, loss: {running_loss / len(data_loader):.4f}\")\n",
+ " return processor, model"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.09: Training loop\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Explain the training loop. Follow these steps:\n",
+ "\n",
+ "**Step 1.** Go through the training loop line-by-line and add comments where you find it suitable. Your comments should be detailed enough for you to explain the main steps of the loop.\n",
+ "\n",
+ "**Step 2.** The training loop contains various hard-coded values like filename, learning rate, batch size, and epoch count. This makes the code less flexible. Revise the code so that you can specify these values using keyword arguments. Use the concrete values from the code as defaults."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.10: Training the classifier\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Adapt the next cell to train the classifier for the two prediction tasks. Based on the loss values, which task appears to be the harder one? What is the purpose of setting a seed?"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "torch.manual_seed(42)\n",
+ "vectorizer, model = train()"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Inspecting the embeddings"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "Now that you have trained the classifier on two separate prediction tasks, it is interesting to inspect and compare the embedding vectors it learned in the process. For this you will use an online tool called the [Embedding Projector](http://projector.tensorflow.org). The next cell contains code to save the embeddings from a trained classifier in a format that can be loaded into this tool."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "def save_embeddings(\n",
+ " vectorizer: ReviewVectorizer,\n",
+ " model: Classifier,\n",
+ " vectors_filename: str,\n",
+ " metadata_filename: str,\n",
+ "):\n",
+ " i2t = {i: t for t, i in vectorizer.t2i.items()}\n",
+ " embeddings = model.embedding.weight.detach().numpy()\n",
+ " items = [(i2t[i], e) for i, e in enumerate(embeddings)]\n",
+ " with open(vectors_filename, \"wt\") as f1, open(metadata_filename, \"wt\") as f2:\n",
+ " for w, e in items:\n",
+ " print(\"\\t\".join(\"{:.5f}\".format(x) for x in e), file=f1)\n",
+ " print(w, file=f2)"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "Call this code as follows:"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "code",
+ "execution_count": null,
+ "metadata": {},
+ "outputs": [],
+ "source": [
+ "save_embeddings(vectorizer, model, \"vectors.tsv\", \"metadata.tsv\")"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.11: Inspecting the embeddings\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Load the embeddings from the two classification tasks (topic classification and sentiment classification) into the Embedding Projector web app and inspect the vector spaces. How do they compare visually? Does the visualisation make sense to you?\n",
+ "\n",
+ "The Embedding Projector offers visualisations based on three dimensionality reduction methods: [UMAP](https://umap-learn.readthedocs.io/en/latest/), [T-SNE](https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-distributed_stochastic_neighbor_embedding), and [PCA](https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_analysis). Which of these seems most useful to you?\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Focus on the embeddings for the words *repair* and *sturdy*. Are they close to each other or far away from another? What happens if you switch to the other task? How do you explain that?"
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "### Initialisation of embedding layers\n",
+ "\n",
+ "The error surfaces explored when training neural networks can be very complex. Because of this, it is crucial to choose âgoodâ initial values for the parameters. In the final task of this lab, you will run a small experiment to see how alternative initialisations can affect a modelâs performance.\n",
+ "\n",
+ "In PyTorch, the weights of the embedding layer are initially set by sampling from the standard normal distribution, $\\mathcal{N}(0, 1)$. However, research suggests other approaches may work better. For example, you have seen that embedding layers share similarities with linear layers, so it makes sense to use the same initialisation method for both. The default initialisation method for linear layers in PyTorch is the so-called Kaiming initialisation, introduced by [He et al. (2015)](https://www.cv-foundation.org/openaccess/content_iccv_2015/papers/He_Delving_Deep_into_ICCV_2015_paper.pdf)."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "#### đ Task 1.12: Initialisation of embedding layers\n",
+ "\n",
+ "Check the [source code of `nn.Linear`](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/_modules/torch/nn/modules/linear.html#Linear) to see how PyTorch initialises the weights of linear layers using the Kaiming initialisation method. Apply the same method to the embedding layer of your classifier and see how this affects the loss of your model and the vector spaces."
+ ]
+ },
+ {
+ "cell_type": "markdown",
+ "metadata": {},
+ "source": [
+ "**đ„ł Congratulations on finishing lab 1!**"
+ ]
+ }
+ ],
+ "metadata": {
+ "kernelspec": {
+ "display_name": "Python 3",
+ "language": "python",
+ "name": "python3"
+ },
+ "language_info": {
+ "codemirror_mode": {
+ "name": "ipython",
+ "version": 3
+ },
+ "file_extension": ".py",
+ "mimetype": "text/x-python",
+ "name": "python",
+ "nbconvert_exporter": "python",
+ "pygments_lexer": "ipython3"
+ }
+ },
+ "nbformat": 4,
+ "nbformat_minor": 2
+}
diff --git a/labs/lab1/reviews-dev.txt b/labs/lab1/reviews-dev.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22fe64a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/labs/lab1/reviews-dev.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,512 @@
+music neg we read all the previous reviews and thought this disc would be a keeper . we ( my husband , three kids 14 , 10 , and 5 ) tried it on a warm , spring evening in the car . one or two songs , like the banana splits , speed racer , and scooby-doo were fun . most however , were harsh , and too fast for the parents and youngest guy . i would rather try these songs in their original state and skip the covers
+music neg the only reason i picked up this album was the name norah jones . i was expecting to hear her at the forefront , and i did n't really . to be honest , i was hoping to hear more of what she sounded like in come away with me and feels like home . if you 're looking for norah jones , this is n't really the album you 're looking for
+camera pos this cable came in a cheap packing and it does not have any logo on it so you ca n't say which company it belongs to . i have used a lot of sony products and i feel it is not up to the standard of sony . it works great had no problems so far . it is flexible kinds so you do n't have to worry about positioning your laptop according to your tv .
+music pos king elvis . queen madiona . prince justin . and now princess hillary ! duff is slowly making her way up to the queen of pop . it was espicially nice to here my teen idol singing all christmas classics with some other pop stars too . if you love hillary duff and you really need some new cd 's by her and it 's crhistmas time then this is cd for you ! let me tell ya somethin ' , that girl can sing . so go to the cd store . buy it ! play it ! plop down on the couch and have a glass of egg nog .
+music neg i have all her other cds i especially love unsung heroes there is a vibe to that cd that gets u right in but with this one its like shes just tryin far toooo hard to be good....sure the technique is spot on but there is no soul the emotion is missing...for me i like my jazz vocals with feeling . i like the singer to take u on a journey deep into to the song . u wont get that here all u will get is technique. .
+music pos if you 're a fan of latin music and especially spanish guitar , you will love cafe tropical . every song is different from the next with instrumentation ranging from guitar , to piano , violin , trumpet , and a whole host of spicy percussion instruments . every time i put this cd on i hear new things , which i find makes for an even more enjoyable listen . as usual , johannes linstead delivers some of the most catchy and memorable melodies in the nouveau flamenco genre , and of course his guitar playing speaks for itself . highly recommended
+music pos just lay back and listen . brian wilson never misses a note . his voice was one of the natural wonders of sixties pop . his composing and arranging skills are without peer and he even plays some awesome bass ( the slow middle eight section on " would n't it be nice " ) on this album . these songs are the sound of former teen idols settling into adulthood and feeling both excited and uncertain . recorded with a large selection of musicians and sung heartbreakingly well by the beach boys themselves , this is a true pop magnum opus . the best tracks are the gorgeous " you still believe in me " , " do n't talk ( put your head on my shoulder " ) , the title cut , and the tear inducing " caroline no " . instead of trapping you outside his pain and insecurity , brian wilson invites you into his world and lays his soul bare with a suite of songs that have n't aged a day since 1966. the more you listen to " pet sounds " , the more it 's beauty envelopes you
+camera neg i bought this from another retailer on " black friday " for half of what amazon is selling it for and i 'm still bringing it back . i think it 's horrible . i was so excited to get a mini-dv camcorder because i heard how great the picture was , but this takes horrible video . it comes out so dark that you can hardly see anything , even using the light . even in a fairly well-lit room it came out dark . it looked ok on the lcd screen , but when i hooked it up to the tv , horrible ! and it 's not my tv either because i hooked up my old camcorder and it looked fine . i love that it 's so small , but if i ca n't see the video , it 's no use to me . back to by big old sony
+music pos this cd is a must for anyone who enjoys great guitar music . its packed full of amazing pieces and inspiring playing . my favorite track is is n't it romantic because it successfully makes a classic out of this song . buy it now ! !
+camera neg but the stitching was irregular on the front . i thought the company produced good products , but i was mistaken when i bought this item . next time i 'll just go to bestbuy for a camera case
+camera pos getting great pictures from this new flash for my sony digital slr camera
+camera pos this camera is excellent one ! ! really when you compare its price and its results and the level of quality you get you will know why this is the best in its category , i 'm getting a very professional results using it with a lot of styles. . highly recommended
+camera pos i bought this product almost a month ago , its sleek , its reliable and has all good features a good digital camera should . worth the money for a sony camera , this camera has the usualy seen high quality for a sony product
+music neg their new stuff is even worse . but this is still sexist , boring , annoying music at its worst . there are much better artists out there , so why listen to these two untalented rappers
+music pos the title track is one of the best country songs ever performed proving the talents of hank as a true caftsman when it comes to song writing . fitting that category as well are outlaw women , and women i 've never had . hank also lends his southern rockin ' style to white lightnin ' written by j.p. richardson a.k.a. the big bopper . what bocephus album would be complete without at least one tribute to his father ? hank serves up a whopper here along with waylon jennings in a classic called the conversation . in a time , much like today , when country was straying from it 's roots hank finds a way to keep the southern bluesy traditions alive on all ten cuts of this must have country album
+music pos the best place to start with the best is at the beginning . enya 's the celts ( identical to the original 1980s release simply called enya ) is a beautiful collection of music . enya is not an artist where you just get the " best of " album . every cd is a best of in itself
+music neg ok , booty rap was good in the 90 's , when it was offensive and raunchy like , 2 live crew , disco rick and the dogs , poison clan etc.....but this is just wack weak lyrics , corny typical krunk beats that start all sounding the same....and is it just me are these guys as rappers , just horrible there voices all raspy , and annoying and one the guy 's from the groups always does that annoying shout thing in interviews like hahhhhherrrrrr.... . ( what is he on crack or something ) so if you like radio friendly , pretty boy music then the ying yang twins are for you peace.. .
+music neg lou reed rocks ! ! ! dude ! ! but methinks this collection dost not . the tunes are all good , but there are n't very many of them , and the sound is deplorable , in that inimitable rca-first-cd-edition sort of way ( fans of the jefferson airplane and harry nilsson know what i 'm talking about ) . a much better jumping off point would be " different times : lou reed in the 70's " , or , even better , check out " transformer " or " rock ' n ' roll animal "
+camera neg like another reviewer 's , my experience has been mixed . i use this remote with the d50. sometimes the remote works , then it goes on strike . then suddenly it works again . same distance and angle from the camera . i changed the battery - same result . i hardly use it anymore because it is so unreliable
+music neg ryuichi sakamoto 's credibility is on the precipice with chasm , a turgid unlistenable work of crud . check out coro and only love can conquer hate , both sound like factory machinery at work . dire , dreadful and diabolical . stop being the artiste ryuichi and have a go at entertaining . your fans deserve better
+camera neg my hunting buddy purchased a nikon 800. my intent was to put him in the shade . that nikon kicks the crap out of my bushnell yardage pro 1000. tried new batteries , tried bluffing , even tried to lie but nothing helped this product past 500 / 600 yards . my opinion is this product is not worth the postage . anyone with similar opinion or someone that has had a good experience with this product . [...
+music neg this is a cd of the history of the band . interesting but was not a music cd . was not worth the price
+camera pos a great add-on for the xacti hd1 , but two minor problems i 've found so far . 1. i ca n't use a circular polarizing filter with the wide angle lens as it cuts off the corners of a picture and ; 2. flash photography wo n't work as the pop-up flash becomes obscured by the barrel of the add-on lens
+camera neg this is a complete waste of money . ( 1 ) it 's clunky and hard to carry around . ( 2 ) not really a good value for money based on the mp 's it offers . i would recommend you spend the add'l $50 and get a nicer camera ! this one is crap
+music pos this book helps toddlers put into context how they fit into the animal kingdom , and the natural things all animals do . it teaches them to be comfortable with - without shame - the move from being a diaper-clad baby to a big kid . the drawings are charming ! i bought this book for a friends who runs a day care center and got a very positive reaction
+camera pos i just got my new photo box today . i was so excited i opened it at work . then i took a picture of my wendy 's salad just to see how it looked . the quality of the pictures are excellent ( macro mode ) . light is evenly distributed . caution about the lights : the lights get really hot really fast . untouchable within 2min . after i turn them on . i suggest for the shear sanctity of safety , shut off the lights between object / scene changes . the package arrived intact , the box was beat up a little , nothing major . when i opened the item , i noticed the camera stand had pierced the nylon on the bottom . this could 've been a bad / weak stitch , or may have happened during shipping , but nothing major was wrong , only that . besides , i can sew it ! overall , this is a great product , and is easy to setup and carry around . i 'd definitely buy again
+camera neg unless you take picture outside , no matter what you do , the picture comes out blurry . flash does n't help at all - it takes more than 5 seconds for it to take a picture , and you still get a blurry picture with horrible quality indoors . my sister had a camera from olympus , with 5 megapixel and 3x zoom too , but i found it so much easier to take a picture ( and a better one too ) with that one . unless you want to buy your 5th grader his / her toy camera , you should n't consider nikon 5600.
+music neg etta never fails to deliver in the vocals . gutteral bombast , sweet soul , gospel , blues , the lady is a living legend . but this album , like the last album " produced " by her son , is a nightmare . chessy arrangments , tinkly bass , poor sound all around . she is a fierce mother and i 'm sure she thinks her kids know best , but there is a reason why labels pair vocalists with the right producer . should etta get the chance to work with a fresh ear at the deck , she would n't need the novelty of some of the song choices . ps - 200lbs lighter and she remains the best live performer ; blues , r / b , soul , whatever , in the world .
+music pos no doubt about it , from start to finish , this is a classic for anybody 's collection . i can remember back in the spring of ' 93 when the movie came out and it was a classic as well but the soundtrack matches up to what the movie was and this soundtrack sent a big message to a lot of us about what goes on the inner cities today . this was rap music at it 's best from spice 1 to dj quik . there will not be a soundtrack like this ever again that addresses what goes on in our neighborhoods . so add this to your collection if you still love the true gangster rap , west coast fan ( like myself ) , or just want to hear a great soundtrack
+camera pos we canoe / kayak down various rivers and creeks . i wanted a way to take my $1500 camera on the water without fear of damaging it . the sports pack is completely water proof ( up to 7m ) . i 've submersed the case in a test and in a real-life situation and the camera stayed dry . the case does not cause any noticeable reduction in picture quality . it is relatively simple to operate and assemble . you have only the basic functions of the camera while in the case , so you need to change any setting for the camera before putting it in the case and advanced camera features are not able to be used . my only concern is the scratch resistance of the plastic over the lens area . so far i have n't had any problems but i 've only taken on the river for about 30 hrs . all told , i 'm very pleased and if you plan on filming in or near water i would recommend this case
+camera pos our firm uses our powershotsd500 camera daily and often takes long videos of our work for our clients and material processing . long battery life is very important . we have over a dozen of the canon batteries . pleased with them all .
+camera neg while this lens has an attractive price tag , this lens has serious trouble with sharpness . only at high shutter speeds ( 1 / 250 and above approx . ) or with a good flash and middle apertures ( f / 8 to f / 22 approx . ) does it deliver sharp images . horribly slow autofocus . i am already saving to buy and l-series or the is usm version
+music pos unbelievably and indubitably a bona fide , and fortified roots reggae album ! if you do n't have firehouse rock in your cd collection and you consider yourself a reggae fan , you may need to re-evaluate what you think you know about jamaican music . the roots radics , especially the rythym section , utilize ( with supreme efficacy , i might add ) and epitomize the manipulation of space and time so often associated with reggae " riddims . " on top of the radics , the wailing souls add ethereal vocals , while staying masterfully conscious . firehouse rock is a beautifully recorded piece of audible jamaican history and an absolute must have
+music neg i 'm a big fan of great big sea and i purchase everything they release . apparently they were trying to give this cd the " feel " of a live , medium-size venue performance . unlike their other live dc offerings , this one sounds like it was recorded with a micro-cassette tape in some fan 's front pocket . it does n't give justice to their usual great vocals and unique sound . overall , i was pretty disappointed and i 'd recommend their earlier offerings over this one .
+camera neg i was happy at first when i got this memory card but when my phone crashed the memory card was completely wiped out . i was ok with the memory card getting wiped out but when i tried re-formatting the card my phone , computer and laptop couldnt even read the card so i ended up throwing it away . i guess you really get what you pay for
+camera neg i 've purchased seven items from amazon in 2005 , so i 'm not a complete rookie . this item 's ad title includes the word " battery " in big , bold letters . i purchased this kit advertised with a " used price " , but " condition : new " . the ad picture clearly shows a battery . i had looked at several ads and did not read the individual seller 's comment " battery missing " in uppercase , though in regular font . to me , a missing part warrants more of a warning than a " comment " . that 's my " lesson learned " , but i still find it confusing to advertise both complete and incomplete kits together under identical ad titles without a prominently displayed warning in big , bold text indicating that the most valuable part is missing . lesson learned : read the whole ad for the specific seller , especially the " seller 's comments "
+music pos at the end of the day , when you come home from school or work , one ca n't say " i feel great . " rather than great , we are stressed and tired . the sounds of falling rain is evermore relaxing that this cd captures it it almost perfectly . i too , am always stressed at the end of a work day and have relaxed to the sound of falling rain ; and it does work . it would also be helpful to listen to while sleeping . with quiet , natural sounds , it will have a soporific effect on its listeners and relax you
+camera neg i purchased this camera for my 13-yr old daughter as her first digital camera . it was a christmas present so i am highly dissapointed that 3 months after purchase , the flash stopped working . the picture quality was good but it hardly makes up for the fact that she can no longer take photo 's indoors or in low light . i would not recommend this camera .
+music pos europe and japan - the final great pop frontiers ! ....last i heard it was austin ? - oh well ! canada shows love too...our favorite neighbors....do ya a favor ! there are some really interesting japanese based labels...search on web and be impressed !
+music pos wow ! what a great collection of great classic songs ! we highly recommend this to anyone with any age kids who want to have fun and have fun without the tv ! hokey pokey baby...that 's what it 's all about
+camera pos great little camera case . has a main pocket for the camera and a second smaller pocket to hold batteries and memory stick . it 's well made ballistic nylon - very durable . attaches to belt or sholder strap
+music neg roni griffith has just come out with her new release " only you " its great ! ! ! ! ! [...]she has come back so much stronger . check it out . evi
+camera neg this dock does not fit the r817 camera . just bought this and the hp r817 and i am very disappointed . the input for the camera is to big for the 817. so do not buy this if you get the 817 **update** this review was written , when the dock was stated to fit the r817 , which has been changed because it does not fit
+camera neg i bougt this camera because i had had a sony coolpix 3 , which took great pictures . with this camera , you can never get it adjusted right . if you use the flash the pictures are to light , if you dont they are too dark . it is a constant battle with this little cute camera . worse camera purchase i ever made .
+music pos i found this cd by browsing amazon and decided to give it a try . i am happy with all of the tracks . some tracks remind me of beatles a little , but not all , so the band does have a unique sound . even though from the 90s , the sound is like many bands making it today . i like it .
+music pos this album is the shyit , cougnut and c-fresh deliver , the only problem you might have with this album is figuring out which one is cougnut and which one is c-fresh , but as you listen you will tell differences . " back in the days " is real old album , so audio can be bad for a couple of the tracks but there isnt a weak track on this album . the beats do n't get too bass heavy untill " hillary " after that song the next 4 tracks or so are very bass heavy , but the flows are tops . these guys are the definition of gangsta , and is a must for anybody who likes gangsta rap . all guests are sick to , dre dog , cellski , chewy , r.b.l , 2.2 and mack and al kapone . definetly a classic
+music pos wonderful instrumentals and lyrics . a shenandoah lullaby is simply beautiful . i love the way the ending segues into brahm 's lullaby . his version of arkansas traveller is refreshing . teddy bears ' picnic is a quaint song that few people have heard . there ai n't no bugs on me is my two-year-old daughter 's favorite , judging from the way she belts out this song and giggles from time to time . i like all the songs on the cd . a breath of fresh air for parents who prefer real instruments to synthesized pop .
+music pos from the manic whirlwind prelude to the shocking cake and sodomy , portrait of an american family is an album that stands on its own two feet as being catchy and memorable . cake and sodomy dishes out the obscene gestures , lunchbox is told with a twist of humor , organ grinder is pleasing vocally , cyclops is addictingly wild , get your gunn is catchy ( if not overly insulting ) , dope hat is great and fierce , and my monkey is hysterically enjoyable . snake eyes and sissies is another winner , easy to get lost in . the rest all work to varying degrees , though not as appealing . every song on this album is worth listening to , from fast paced and rock style to techno overload .
+music neg this soundtrack was ` heart-brokenly ' disappointing to me mainly because it lacks a few songs that were in the film . i bought this soundtrack for one specific song ( and it would 've been worth every penny if only it was included ) : the song near the end when alexander marches through the desert to return home to babylon after his recovery . such a disappointment that was n't included . in the other hand , i 'm satisfied with some of the tracks that were included . i particularly liked " roxane 's veil " even though i do n't recall hearing it in the film .
+music neg as much as i have been a lifelong fan of black moon and buckshot in general this album just lacked the ironically titled " chemistry " between buckshot and 9th wonder . the beats were a bit lackluster and boring and rides that razor thin line of boring and laid back with most of the beats raiding the boredom zone . they are working on a part two so i hope they take their times to create something permament rather than something disposable as this album was .
+music pos always loved this group....own several of their cd 's and this is by far my favorite . darryl hall 's phrasing of his songs are superb .
+music pos when i first purchase this album the first time . it was exceptional then and it still is . exceptional and gifted group these ladies rule the early 90's . some of my favorites free your mind , my lovin , it ai n't over till the fat lady sings , just to name a few . envogues voices all of them work masterfully together they way a head of their time . as far as female groups they rank 5 stars in my book following such groups as supremes , labelle , tlc the had allot orginiality and appeal that drew people to them because of the voices and their orignal material . they are trendsetters . please go buy this cd . i will buy it again myself . i have the cassette . i need the cd for my collection . i know they came out with a new album hopefully this will be a great album as well . go envogue g
+camera neg it was suggested by amazon.com that i buy this product since i was purchasing a canon powershot s2is digital camera . not knowing any better , i bought it . it does n't even work with this model camera . i bought a memory card reader instead at a local store & bypassed the need for an adapter altogether
+camera pos product is excellent . however when using in motion , whether on bike or vehicle , it is difficult to grip and falls off hand . in addition , the " mode / menu " button is accidentally hit or depressed by your thumb while in motion
+music neg being a fan of jack johnson , i thought this one would be as good as the others . i was n't impressed at all . it sounds like a few guys pickin ' around in the basement . the recording quality has very little production value . at best , these are okay live versions of usually great songs . this is an unnecessary piece for your jack johnson collection .
+camera pos bought as a gift for daughter in law . she loves it . seems to be an excellant entry level camcorder . enough bells and whistles to satisfy most without being excessively expensive . quality is good which is to be expected from jvc . operation is simple enough and picture quality even for jpeg internet quality stills is satisfactory .
+camera neg i selected a sony vf-30cpkxs polarizing filter but it took me to this page where i got a sony vf-r30nkx 30mm neutral density filter . there is a big difference . may 9 , 2006. i hope this is a mistake and not intentional deception
+music neg ...and im happy about it ! i think i might cry if'n it shows up again . fareals . if albums where 3 dimensional this wouldn e'en make the c-side ! i love me some roy , but bruh hurt me with this one . i forgive him tho , cause he done gave me much much pleasure up til now.. . ...um , hope that came out right . *pimp struts off stage / pounds chest with gorilla fist / machismo free flowing* m'out yall , peace !
+camera pos i did a lot of research before buying the pv-gs250. now that i have the camera in my hands i know i made a great choice . great image quality . great build quality . the low light problems you read about are not really a big deal . in a noramlly lit room everything is fine .
+camera pos i always say that there is technology you can use and technology you can impress others with . this model helps you do both . you have a nice 5.1 mp still camera and mpegmovie4tv video . the very fact that you have a camera which you can take both still pictures and video is huge . i never had a video camera before because i hate to carry two camera and a big camera case , so this was the obvious solution . i realize that instead of embracing the moment ( for which they need the memory ) most people often juggle between cameras . cons : * sometimes people might confuse it with camera phone * buttons are harder to find * software is not the best * wish had more zoom pros : * convince * compact * battery lasts long * flash is good * video sound quality is good i wonder why this model has not swept the market - another story of good product and mad marketing
+music pos this is the only albulm i have of the exies for christmas i am getting the last albulm . if its the same as this one the exies must be good . this is the best albulm i have listened to . my favourites are ugly , babtise me , splinter and dear enemy my least favourites are none i like every song its an amazing albulm . ihave listened to some of the tracks over and over again and everytime i think wow this band should be more popular from craig from the uk
+music pos this is the type of music to sit down , relax , put on a pair of headphones and let it absorb your concious . from spacey sounding electronics to soft vocals over piano to heart pounding rhythms to skittering percussion...this is just a taste of what is supersilent , and from what i hear it is all improvised which blows my head clean off . all this coming from someone who has never heard them before...talk about a great buy ! highly , highly recommended , i close my eyes , to awaken among the cosmos traveling without a tangible body , drunk with the infinite beauty , i sigh without a mouth and think. .
+music pos i was a music director at a college radio station when this came out , and along with a ton of other albums this one commanded my attention . shoegazers ? ? ? i am sure all the label slinging yahoos are still wiping the egg off their faces . its as if the band heard they were pigeonholed and gave them all the big finger . just buy it...and all the rest
+camera neg we returned this video camera due to video picture quality . the camera requires a lot of light to have a decent video , even after changing settings , the video had a " grainy " look . we just needed something basic to replace our 10 year old video camera and thought this would work , but the picture was worse than our previous camera . purchased the pv-gs65 , next model up with 3ccd 's and love this model . as a matter a fact we still had the gs-31 , used the same tape , shot the same footage , and reviewing the two different shots , the gs-65 did 100% better . the camera has a great feel in your hand , although the menu button can be difficult to press
+camera neg if you are going to lay out $500 for a camera , you should expect a fair amount of camera . however , i have a few gripes here . first , there is no remote control for it which makes setting up a shot tough . all the nikons in the d series can use a wireless remote . you can buy an underwater case for those magnificent nikons so you can shoot underwater . you can get over 10 megapixels in a d80 , or d200 and you get that great nikkor lens . you do n't get much of a lens on the dc500 , and 5 megapixels do n't get you very far when it comes to printing and publication quality images . lets face it : this is an expensive point-n-shoot camera for a tourist , not a serious camera . nuff said . -
+camera pos love my new jvc everio . the original model just used compact flash cards , but the new everio gz uses an ipod like hard drive that lets you store a year 's worth of video on it ! tape is definitely dead , and dvd camcorder 's 30 mintues a disc does n't hold a candle to the everio . the only issue i had was that the software that come with it was pretty basic , but all the other video editing software programs did n't recognize the everio video files ( .mod files which contain mpeg2 video and dolby stereo audio ) . i did finally find adobe premiere elements 2.0 which supports this new file type natively . it has made editing a breeze .
+camera pos i bought this camera in august . it is really well made and the controls are easy to navigate . i think it takes really good pictures , inside and outside . who cares about video quality ? its a camera , not a camcorder , lady . i think it is a really nice camera . its really durable too . and it looks nice . i would buy it again . i researched a bunch of cameras before this one and i chose the sony in the end . its one step up from just taking everyday pictures . they look really pro . i 'd buy it again
+music neg this cd was supposed to expose a new side of dar willams , it has failed to do this . the lyrics , and songs are repetitive of previous works . i would suggest buying something else
+camera pos i had this camera for 6 months and so far there have been no problems . the only flaw is that it dosent have a long battery time . it takes good pictures and short videos
+music pos i drive alot commuting to and from my job . this music has served as the perfect backdrop to an lovely indiana fall ! i 'm sure i 'll recall those colorful images as i continue to listen to this cd through the colorless days of winter
+music neg this album is one of the best sonic youth album...i advise everyone to listen this album...break the circle of common popular music...this album irritates your soul and freedback your dreams. .
+music pos i love that garage days re-re visited is on the flip side...in the cassette i had warped a long time ago ! i like this one
+music pos i 've always liked tevin campbell , he had a beautiful voice and really did it on " break it down " . i particularly like break it down , shhh , brown eyed girl among others. . excellent cd overall .
+camera pos i just bought this waterproof case in order to use my canon s410 on a scuba diving trip . i was a little nervous at first ( i could see me scrapping the camera after it got soaked to the bone ! ) , but i have to say that the waterproof case performed admirably ! i used it on 6 dives , and all of them were to depths of 80+ feet . i did not have one leak ! a word of caution- -i followed instructions and coated the seal of the camera with a fine coat of silicon gel ( just a small amount ) . i would like to think that the camera would not leak without this , but i did not want to take any chances . i would recommend this case to anyone who wants to use their canon camera on dive trips or excursions at the beach
+camera pos the canon underwater housings are designed to protect your camera from the elements , whether they are sand , rain , pool , or ocean . for use on the beach , while snorkeling , or taking shots of your kids in a pool there is little or no need to worry about the buoyancy of your camera housing . if you free dive or scuba dive you do not want your camera housing floating out of your hands . these weights are an easy way to adjust the buoyancy of your housing . the kit comes with four weight plates so you can fine tune your housing 's buoyancy . i prefer a heavier setup and have added an extra plate compared to what was recommended by canon . i 'm very happy with the setup and they are very easy to use .
+camera neg the main reason for buying this camera is to be able to take good pictures from far away . the quality is very poor . the unit is very bulky to carry around your neck . the sd card slot has some block in it . i was not able to even insert an sd card . all in all , not satisfied at all
+music pos i just refreshed my ears listening to " riot " again ! getting to to hear 1 / 2 full , which clocking in at just over 4 minutes , is sheer electric blues magic . the price of this album is worth this one rocker alone . it was nice to see it on " easy street " ( along with lukin ' excellent ! ) any way this number totally kicks ! definitely get this if you do n't already own it .
+camera pos we got this camcorder for our daughter for her birthday and she loves it ! her only problem with it is that a memory card is needed because there is n't as much space as she would like and alot of light is needed to film . we were aware of both of these complaints when we purchased it but we were certain that she could work around them . we were also aware of the battery problem , so she got rechargeable batteries . awesome little camcorder , especially for the price
+music neg if you want the original recordings , do n't purchase any volume of television 's greatest hits . i 've had better luck recording the songs off of my tv with a cassette tape recorder and then dehissing them on my pc . these collections have sterile sounding fake stereo recordings of " the beverly hillbillies " and " the munsters " that just do n't sound right to me . if the original recordings do n't matter to you , then you may like this cd
+camera pos i purchased the videocamera thinking i could watch my old tapes also . this videocam does not do that . i had to return it
+music neg now , if we 're being completely honest and true to the stats this album is killing the charts , but maybe just because people are lowering their standards . besides , the fact that i dont like this girl because she is just too rough around the edges , this cd is no " dangerously in love " . where beyonce 's sultry vocals and powerhouse notes highlight her entire album , cole 's raspy voice and sometime-y pitch concern me . aside from the obvious car banger " i just want it to be over " and the wildly popular " love " ( which cole butchers when singing live by the way ) , nothing here surprises me . like i said , you can call me a hater , but with women like beyonce and fantasia around cole 's fire will probably be put out soon
+camera neg it 's only redeemingly quality is the price ( if you get a good deal ) . photo quality is poor , and screen is quite small ( 3x5 ) . navigation is not overly complicated , but buttons must be pushed hard to work . it did work perfectly fine - took sd card , even connected to my mac and drag and drop photos onto the sd card i inserted into the frame . but , because of the poor quality of the photos , i do n't suggest buying
+camera neg careful , this cable may work " for most digital cameras , " but it does not work with canon digital camera
+music pos i was already a fan of mike and the jacksons , but when motown 25 came on in 83 , this guy set the standard for what music and performance could be and where it could go . till this day in my lifetime that one performance at motown 25 is the single most perfect performance i 've ever seen . i remember the next day at school and the next month after that performance we had all kind of talent shows where all of the kids were trying to out moonwalk each other . the saddest and funniest part was watching the less fortunate kids who could not afford the michael gear wearing tube socks with dress shoes and kids making home made glitter and rhinestone gloves . hilarious . as an adult , i refuse to let the media and even michael himself ruin my childhood memories of this untouchable piece of music . 24 years later thriller remains the album to beat
+music pos i bought this because i thought this cd would be nice to listen to in the car while on out and about . i love that our 2 1 / 2 year old daughter who is from china loves this cd and will request it " chinese flute " please . this is just one way to keep her heritage alive and expose her to different kinds of music beyond the wiggles & lilo & stitch cd . i would have liked to have had more information on the songs like what province of china . but not having this information really does not lessen the rating of 5 stars ! our family thinks this is an excellent cd
+camera pos is an product of great quality , is a kit complete kit of accessories for hp 435i digital camera
+music pos i am just writing this review to correct alexander from russia , who cites this album as a christianity peddler . leonard cohen is a jew , who unlike bob dylan ( on john wesley harding ) embraces his sense of jewish heritage and religion within his music . alexander , you 've brought your own interpretation to what is a distinctly jewish artist and his work
+camera pos i bought this rangefinder for golf . it is small enough that i could keep it in my pocket . it really helps me with the approach shots to the greens . it takes a bit of experience to be able to focus on the flag . i usually use a person on the green as my target . after i got an approximate read , i use the scan mode to find the exact distance to the flag . be careful with the tiny battery cover . it came loose and i lost it on the golf course . fortunately , i recovered it amongst the green grass . the cover is also green . i now put a tape over it to secure the cover .
+camera pos this was my first digital camera , and after reading everything i could get my hands on to read about digital cameras i chose this one . it so happens that the last 35mm camera i owned for years was also an olympus
+music neg i purchased this cd shortly after finding out that nickel creek would be disolving their union as a band . i hoped that this collection would be suitable for both myself ( as a strong supporter of nickel creek ) and my two children . this cd honestly fails to deliver a suitable substitution for the music that nickel creek produced over the past 7 years . although , i guess that was an unrealistic expectation to have for this cd . you have to keep in mind that the members of nickel creek were just children themselves when they released this cd . i do n't believe that they had found their true musical identity , and they obviously would n't have reached their full musical potential yet . this cd is n't really the best for a todler either , so i have to say that this purchase was a let down overall
+music pos earlier , i had an lp called " best of the band " that was 10 cuts and maybe 35 minutes . this is 18 well chosen cuts and double the length . there are a lot of " best of / greatest hits " type collections from veteran artists that originally came out in 70 's or early 80 's that had a limited number of songs and length . this is a case where the record decided to offer more songs and give the customer a better value for their money . the music itself is 5 stars and they were a major artist due to the fact that they had 3 very good but very different lead vocalists handling the vocals . it gives the music a lot more variety and they put out a lot of fine music in their 1968-76 prime . as an aside , 3 of the band members ( helm , danko , and hudson ) also put out some good music in the 1990 's
+music pos this is a good collection , 15 of supertramp 's best songs and the best single-disc collection of theirs you will find . the sound is great and there are no filler songs , here , they 're all great to listen to . highly recommended
+music neg man , can she get anymore stupid and talentless . she needs to spend some of that undeserved bling bling on some singing lessons than her skimpy outfits . all the songs on this album are totally unlistenable ! she completely lacks power , vocal range and versatility . jennifer lopez represents everything that is wrong with music today . she gets a recording contract because her good looks and success with her acting career . just because your a great actor / actress does n't necessarily mean you can sing , too . some actors / actresses were able to achieve it , but not jennifer lopez . she needs to quit the music business while she still can . please stick to acting...oh , wait ! i forgot , she ca n't do that either !
+camera neg got this camera for my wife - a digital novice - during christmas 2005. camera is easy to use and takes good pictures . easily interfaces with pc through usb . however , i also ( as did another reviewer ) started having problems after about 11 months . camera would not take pictures as the ccd went bad . luckily i had an extended service contract and it was repaired . unfortunately , it just quit working again ( april 2007 ) and the service contract company says they " ...wo n't bother fixing it again.. . " and is refunding my purchase price . gracious but a hassle doing without a camera for a second time . good camera but if you buy one make sure you get the service contract
+music neg it might not be a good album but it definitely shows shania 's potential
+camera pos i purchased an off brand to use with my fxf-10 when this case was on back order . it was terrrible , so i ordered this case and am thoroughly pleased . the camera fits perfectly into the case and , although it is described as a " soft case , " it is durable and will protect your camera with style without adding additional bulk
+camera pos better than a photo album for showing off a series of pictures . buttons are fairly intuitive , instructions are understandable , and there 's nothing like being the " first kid on the block " with a new toy . getting all sorts of comments about my picture show
+camera pos the digital rebel is the most amazing camera i 've ever owned . my previous camera was a canon a90 and i loved using all the features on it [great camera ! ]. i decided recently that maybe i should graduate to a slr because i was starting to get more creative with my photography . i spent a great deal of time researching cameras and finally decided on the digital rebel . after a few months of owning it i still am amazed . the image quality is fantastic , it 's quick and responsive , and every day using it i learn a little more . it 's the perfect intro slr camera for me because everything makes sense and it 's easy to learn . i 've gotten amazing shots that i could never dream of getting with a point and shoot . if you are finding yourself wanting a little more than a point and shoot , go for this camera , you wont be sorry .
+music pos this soundtrack cd is the perfect compliment to the visionary film- -cater burwells score is a pitch-perfect aural equivocation of the profound sadness and blithe absurdity on display , with his sense of minimalist suggestiveness and rich textural instincts shining bightly.also an added bonus of the above-mentioned dream combination- -bartok 's " allegro " ( i know diddly about classical music , but bartok rocks ! ! ) , and a typically great bjork song " amphibian " ( in two versions ) , that book-ends the album with an etherial , dream-like haze
+music neg gonzalo is a fantastic pianist . this cd however is meant to capture his more thoughtful and sensitive side . however , it is languid and the tunes do n't stand out . it is hard to tell if track 2 is really track 4 as the plodding bass and minimalist approach on piano make for sleepy moments - if driving later in the day . i have heard him with fire and brimstone and sometimes it goes over the edge of taste . but it is exciting . not here . there is barely a hint of any cuban influence in this music as well . now some will like the gentleness i suppose , but with weak material and not much diversity , it sits pretty flat with me
+camera pos this lens is fantastic very fast .colors that will blow you away.2.8f stop can set very fast sutter speeds .i put this lens on my reble xt and i dont want to take it off . love it amazon great........ .
+camera neg it 's unfortunate that one of the best lens bargains out there is followed up by one of the worst photo ripoffs - - this hood . how can you pay $75 for a great prime lens , and $25 for a flimsy piece of plastic to cover it
+camera neg i had high hopes for this battery for my nikon camera . it promised more mah than the oem battery that came with the camera . unfortunately , it must be leaking electrons all over the place , since a charge in this model does not compare to the original . i would guess that the charge lasts half the life of the original nikon battery . the price was cheap and you get what you pay for . if you are going to purchase this one , get two since you 'll need to keep one charging while using the other . cheers
+music neg i 'd like to second some of the other reviewers ' reviews of this album . it really lacks the energy and the coherence of the previous album . the tracks in general are a little slower . the production quality is overall about the same , but it is just not as " listenable " as believe was . the exception i find on the album is the " club mix " of " turn it around . " but if we think about that for a second , are n't we talking about " club music " here afterall ? are we under any pretenses that this is elevator or lobby music ? i should think not . what we expect from this band , and from a second album is an equal or better effort at club music . house-ish , trance-ish , and anthemic . it 's just missing on turn it around . i wholeheartedly recommend believe , but i 'd steer clear of this one unless you find it used .
+camera neg if you want to load directly from your camera 's memory card the system takes forever to copy photos to the internal card . there is no " copy all " function . loading information from a computer did n't work . the usb connection was not recognized by windows xp and i could n't find any drivers on the web . a setup cd would be a nice addition . btw the screen was not as large as one might think . it is very wide but not tall and it crops the top & bottom of most pictures making it great for shots of the grand canyon but not for portraits of people
+camera pos this seemingly simple piece of molded plastic was recommended to me by a professional photographer . basically it 's the shape of an open box that slides firmly onto the flash . it is small and sturdy enough to stash in your camera bag without worrying about damage . when used the light disperses more evenly and is less harsh on the subject being photographed . the white box is for general use . also available are the green omni-bounce for florescent lighting and the gold omni-bounce for a warming effect . pros : inexpensive solution for better flash photography . a quality product that works . cons : non
+music pos neil young 's latest release has some very clever and interesting songs . they are very political so unless you are a completest who likes neil young , if you agree with president bush , this album will be a turn-off . for the politically neutral or those who agree with neil young this is a good album . maybe this is not neil young 's best but it still is a good album
+camera pos this is an excellent device . quick respond with my d80. i use it to take the family pictures that include me . i just point and press this remote to activate the d80 's timer and it works beautifully
+camera neg amazon replaced the original coolpix p3 because of technical defects but the new one has worst problems . this one does not even focuses at all . i dont know what to do now because there is no technical service for nikon in my country venezuela or latin america . i basicly lost my 300 dollars please answe
+camera pos i bought this as a present for my wife . i was looking for something that she could carry in her purse . the automatic functions are easy and functional . it is not an enthusiasts camera : too hard to get into the menus . the screen is easy to turn off ( this sucks battery power ) . and it even has an optical viewfinder ( a rare finding lately ) the optical viewfinder helps to get steady pictures for those of us with the shakes . the pictures are clear and the colors are excellent . the drawback is the that sony batteries cost an arm and a leg . the wire for downloading pix is multifunctional and very proprietary ( read that as expensive if you lose it
+camera pos very clear , bright day , strong magnification quality seems to be good . very well priced at around $100.00.i will know more over the passage of time .my firstimpression is good mj schra
+camera pos this camera was the best " little " camera i have ever owned . it is so amazing . it takes fantastic pictures and it is cheap
+music neg you know the music industry is in decline when people are giving this single a perfect rating . run for cover
+music pos after trouble and his austin city limits appearance , i thought he was just another very good singer songwriter . this follow up has made me reconsider , because this is the work of a very thoughtful perfectionist . he waited and it was worth the wait . this reminded me immediately of john lennon ( please do n't punish me for blasphemy ) and others that knew how to touch you with simplicity done in a classy way . i did n't expect something this deep for a sophomore recording . enjoy
+music pos good stuff ! an excellent collection of original and classic gypsy jazz tunes , artfully performed by jorgenson . i recommend it as an introduction to the virtuosity of john jorgenson and the genius of django reinhardt
+music pos i owned this as an lp and played it over and over on my tiny , mono phonograph . i loved it then and i love it now . rainmaker , i 'm on my way back home and love is all that i ever needed would all have been sucessful singles . i would have loved you anyway is the only song i do n't really like but the lyrics are unintentionally funny . all the lyrics seem more suggestive now than they did then but that 's ok ! the background singers get a tad tiring but go david cassidy ! i do n't care if it 's the memories or not , i enjoy putting this on and turning it up
+camera neg i was looking for a pair of roof-prism binoculars like this , for hawk and bird watching . i had looked at swarovskis , but they were way out of my budget , nearly a thousand dollars for this resolution . these binoculars are crystal-clear , with sharp focus . the 42mm lens lets in lots of light , lots more than the 35 's i 've been using . i wear glasses and the twist - up - and -down eyecups are a blessing . there are also attached lens protectors for the 42mm , nice because i always used to lose them . for the price , these ca n't be beat
+music pos very interesting cd . some of the vocals are distracting , but the music is driving modern psychadelia . as i said , think syd barrett 's floyd mixed w / melt bannana . i highly recommend
+camera neg hp is selling this bag for $30 bucks , so when i found it here for $10 less i could n't let this " deal " pass me by.. . however when i received the bag , i wished i had.. . the color is less vibrant , it 's cheap , poor quality , plus hp is n't embroidered on the bag.. . walk away from this bag and get the blue and black hp bag instead , it costs a little bit more but it 's well worth it ! !
+music neg i was misled and thought i was buying the entire cd and it contains one song
+camera pos this was the best item i ever bought for my camera . i do a lot of walking with my camera , and thought i would use it as a walking stick , which i do , but the best part of this monopod is what i never thought would happen . my pictures are never fuzzy ! i can take low light photos and have they come out clear . i paid very little for this item and would never be caught without it and my camera . the three levers on the bottom allow for quick expansion at all different lengths . the carrying case allows for this item to be packed next to my camera without it getting scratched
+music neg for fans , i suppose this would be a rather big delight ; for non-fans , it 's nothing that will turn you on to the band from jersey . they had some okay , cheesy hits in the ' 80s - but listening to some of their modern songs from this collection proves how completely out of touch they are nowadays
+camera neg i have had this camera for about a year and a half . i got so fed up with it that i just bought a new one . i admit , this camera takes decent pictures in good lighting when the zoom is n't used . however , this camera takes horrible pictures if the zoom is used . i would only recomomend this camera to someone who just wants to take pictures of of thier surroundings or to a younger person who is getting their first digital camera
+music neg blatant sentimentality without any touch of irony or wit = elefant 's lyrics . i personally like interpol and the strokes ; i resent that they are being compared to these cheeseballs
+music pos i have to tell you lionel hampton has yet to be matched in talent , and drive on the " phones . " funny story , it was tito puente the late and legendary " king of the mambo " was the one who showed lionel ( by carefull persuation ) the light of the " phones " and shuned him away from the piano . unfortunatly not much was known on this subject of the two meeting but i believe they meet in the service or right after tito was discharged for ww ii . i can tell you lionel , to me , is best know for his big version of " flying home " . a bigger , badder version of the small groups version he did with benny goodman , and teddy wilson . lionels closest match would have to be red narrvo form the 1930 's , but still mr. hampton ' s drive and moves on the stage has yet to be matched
+camera pos i love this camera ! i shake when i take pictures and this easter every picture i took came out perfectly ! there are so many options on this camera i am having fun just playing with it to see what all it can do ! i would recomend this camera to anyone who is looking for a high quality camera at a good price
+music neg the movie was bad and unreal and so was the soundtrack , spend your money elsewher
+camera neg i purchase this instrument twice . the first time there were black specks in the lense , so it was returned . the second time was worst , i.e. same black specs but the thing did n't work at all . i have also checked this manufacturer 's other models out and most come with the disturbing black specks in the lense . this is n't a quality optical product
+music neg this stuff is so boring . i ca n't believe people still listen to this stuff . seriously come on people ! i laugh every time i see some guy trying to play this stuff anywhere . plus busta has admitted to having " relationships " with men if you get what i mean . makes you wonder about a lot of rappers... .
+music pos i saw this band open for placebo in tampa , fl. i had never heard of them before that night . i bought the cd immediately . though it 's a bit plain , it 's a great cd . it 's a comforting kind of plain & it rocks . i played it in my cd player for about a month straight . the lead singers voice is unique . this band definitely has much potential to become a well known group . a great debut album . if you ever get to see them live do it ! their live show definitely makes the cd come alive .
+music neg who could like a band like the rolling stones ? they are not the world 's greatest rock band and they never made anything good but start me up and shattered . their new album is the most horrible cd i have ever heard . stay far away from that cd . get anything from the stones that contains start me up or shattered insted .
+music pos the one song i know is a remake is " goodnight my love . " i know this because i have it on the original 45 issue and the cd version is an inferior remake . but the others with which i 'm familiar - but do n't have original vinyl to compare , only memories - seem authentic . the audio quality is great and certainly superior to some of the cds you find these days which are only re-recordings of old vinyl or cassettes .
+camera pos isiklandirmanin iyi olmadigi yerlerde netlik sorunu oluyor . birde floresan isik altinda beyaz dengesi tam tutmuyor . diger ozellikleri gayet guzel . bellek kartina cekim yapabiliyor olmasi cok guzel
+music pos the rosary is very well produced . a powerful tool to crush the devils head
+music pos this guy is amazing . i keep playing this for people and they love it and tell me they have never heard anything like it . i even got a huge discount at the auto shop for just having this cd . after the mechanic took my car from the parking lot and listened to one minute of this , he came in and said " that sounds crazy ! you have to let me copy this " after getting a nice chunk of cash taken off my bill , this cd already paid for itself and never collects dust . i know everyone compares clark to aphex twin , boards of canada , and autechre , but for good intentions . he is already that good , after just a few releases
+camera pos the bushnell perma focus 7x50 wide angle binoculars were the ideal choice for my recent trip to tanzania and the serengeti . they worked perfectly for the application needed . a really happy surprise on just how well these worked . as we bounced around on dirt roads and cross country in land rovers , the perma focus feature was outstanding and made things simple and easy ! : - ) the magnification level was perfect for almost every scenario we came across . anything that was outside of about 80 feet came through in crystal clear vivid color and clarity . it really made for up close and personal viewing of all the animals we saw . by far , these were the best investment i made before the trip ! i ca n't imagine being without them now on such an expedition . really fantastic performance and a great value to boot ! ! ! ! the vendor was fast & flawless in the transaction too . in my opinion you wo n't be disappointed with these binoculars . troy : - )
+music pos i 'll have to accept that even tough i 'm not a great fan of this band they have impressed me with this new release , the lyrics are in some cases very deep and in songs like evil angel they can touch you right there . for me the band has progressed a lot and you can tell that in this album , it 's very melodic and more mature . also the acoustic version of " the diary of jane " is amazing . i personally recommend the songs " breath " , " evil angel " and my favorite " dance with the devil "
+camera pos this filter is a must have for photographers that care about their gear . it remains a cost effective tool for protecting the camera lens while serving as a great every day filter .
+camera neg i got this telescope for my desk at work because i have a decent view . it stinks , i think i can see better with my naked eye . plus you can not focus it because the slider is so stiff . i guess i will be buying another telescope now
+music pos this was the first punk-o-rama cd i listened to , and boy i was not dissapointed . most of the songs on this cd are the type of punk i would listen to , quite fast and energetic . the best song on the cd has to be either nofx - bath of least resistance ( nofx being the greatest punk band of all time , of course ) , or beatsteaks - let me in . i heard the beatsteaks for the first time on this cd and there absolutely bloody excellent . obviously , the cd is made complete with songs from the descendents , pulley , pennywise , dropkick murphy's . the only let down on this cd is noise conspiracy , there song on this cd , well plainly sucks i 'm sorry to say . but overall this cd is one hell of a good listen if your into punk . that 's all , oh yeah , buy it ! by
+camera neg huge problems with the lcd screen , two cameras within one month after purchase showed the lcd " shattered . " one has already been shipped for service and the other one will be going in tomorrow . sure it is easy to use and produces great pictures , but the lcd problem is a definite negative .
+camera neg i have purchased the pv-gs65 and everytime i use the camera with autofocus it makes everything blurry and only stays in focus for about 3 seconds . i returned my camcorder and got another one ( pvgs65 ) and i am still having this problem . everytime i have used the camera i have to use manual focus . if anyone else has had this problem or knows how i could get this fixed please email me or post another review . brandonwg8677@comcast.net thank you
+camera neg i was very disappointed in nikon 's service . this camera has a 2in lcd display that apparently is very fragile . when i returned for service , nikon claimed i dropped it.. . which i did n't ! i was very careful in handling this camera , but the fragile lcd still broke . to be blamed by the manufacturer was really disappointing . they offered to repair it for $210 , nearly the price of a new camera . i will never by a nikon product again . if they are going to sell such a fragile product , they should at least include a hard case for it .
+camera pos i 'm new to the digital slr world . i had been using the built in flash on my rebel xt . the built-in flash had done alright , but was nothing to write home about . since i had spent most of my money on the camera , i needed a flash that was both affordable and would get the job done . this flash met both requirements . if you are an advance user , you will want a higher end flash because the flash has limited adjuastable features . yet , if you a newbie like me , this flash is great ! it has improved my picture quality dramaticly .
+camera pos i am not much of a photographer . i found this camera easy to use and my pix are just great . believe me , it 's the camera . the stabilizer thing works to give clear focus almost every time . i can even put the pix up on the computer and send them easily . i 'm thrilled . you do need to upgrade to a 1 mgb . memory card when you buy the camera .
+music neg i really , really hate foreigner and i rank them as bad as green day.dont make the mistake of buying this disgustingly awful cd which contains trash like waiting for a girl like you which has to be one of the most moronic and stupid songs ever.get any led zeppelin album instead
+camera pos this is why sony is hot ! this sexy little ( yes its really small the size of a pack of cards ) it takes perfect clear and crisp pictures and the battery life is a long 320mins perfect for a vacation , make sure to get a memory stick with it though , because w / o it it only holds about 15 pics . this is my first digital camera and i would definitely buy sony again
+camera pos after 2+ years , the camera 's original battery was losing its ability to hold a charge . this replacement battery arrived promptly , fit easily and was fully charged in a couple of hours . i wish i had replaced the battery sooner , instead of constantly worrying about running out of battery power
+camera neg i have had several people take my pictures.at first , everything is fine.the pictures are ok.the next day , my face looks like a pile of baby vomit.it is soooo blury.then it got 2 the point where every picture i took was blury.i tried fixing it online ( like on the program for the camera ) and it would not work.i hate this camera ! ! ! not to mention the battery sucks.it lasts maybe 3 1 / 2 hours.this camera should be $99.00.trust me people......if i could rate this thing at a zero i would.it is not worth it.however , a camera i absolutely love is the sony cybershot dsct5.an awesome little camera
+camera neg my boyfriend bought this for me not realizing that my camera came with a case ( i have the sd200 ) . this case is n't a good fit for the camera and i 've never used it because of that
+music neg this album is all about sex and infidelity , is this all way usher 's life is about . this album contains to substance worth listening to . this album is a total waste of money . i like 8701 100 percent better
+music pos i got this disc for one song , the uncut , full length version of " boogie wonderland " by earth , wind and fire ( with the emotions ) . the rest of the disc is good - but " boogie wonderlan " is in a class by itself ! ! five stars !
+music neg i really do n't want to be mean , but i find this album very shallow . classical indian music is a very complex , subtle and beautiful thing . comibining it in this way may help to get these wonderful tabla players to a wider audience , but the true energy has been tainted and lowered to make it palatable to simple-minded people who need westernized electronic and wishy-washy " world music " cliches . i do n't find this music to be uplifting or enlightening or interesting . and this is not coming from a strict old fundamentalist of anything , i have delved deep into the avante guard , minimalism , " new music " , eastern and western music theory , microtonal , etc. i would recomend jsut being a non-westernized album and getting the full benefit of tabla playing . however if your mainstay is jungle / drum&bass , then this would be a step up for you , so go for it , it is worth the pruchase in that case
+camera neg this case is good for protecting your camera from nicks and scratches caused by storing it in purses , briefcases or luggage . but do n't count on it to protect your camera from falls , dirt or dust . it looks good , the powershot logo gives an authentic look to it
+camera pos this is the first is lens that i 've owned . i had trouble justifying the extra expense but am now quite pleased that i took the step up . keep in mind that tis is an ef not ef-s lens . this makes its effective focal length about 45-215mm on my digital rebel . i love the zoom range ( great for shooting action shots of kids without getting in their faces ) and the ability to easily control the depth of field on my nature shots . just uploaded some of my recent shots with this lens under " share your own customer images " . pete leclair http : / / www.agentz.com / digitalimagesbyjpl
+camera neg i won this camera in a contest and now i 'm kinda wishing i never had . practically everything i 've shot with this thing has turned out bad in some way or another . from the autofocus that can never decide what it wants to focus on , to the very poor image quality in slightly low lighting situations , to the camera recording glitches in the audio when i capture onto my computer . i know you may look at this thing and feel like the price is right , but i really suggest you just hold out a little while longer to save up a bit more and buy a canon camera that 's not gonna cause you these problems
+music pos this is the stuff that rap dreams are made of ! just like the movie itself , this cd is packed with moment after moment of perpetual rollercoaster type thrills that leaves the listener in a sheer state of funk frenzy ! the talent assmbled here is tops and just seems to keep coming at you so , get in , sit down , buckle up and shut the f&#k up because it 's about to get rowdy up in here !
+camera neg very slow storage even with a fast card....small but too thick for comfortable handling . i ended up selling it on ebay and buying a canon sd600 which is a great camera , thin enough to fit in your shirt pocket , fast storage of images and the battery lasts a very long time . i 've charged it once and have taken many many holiday pictures . do n't buy the nikon without first checking out the canon sd600.
+camera neg i bought this camera on the recommendation of a store technician over another hp digital . the camera has spent as much time in the repair shop as it has being used . the delay between pictures is incredibly long . the lens / shutter does n't open properly . ( two other family members who own powershot a520 's are having the same problems
+camera pos i had a previous generic charger that did not work . well if you go with this one , you wo n't have to worry about that . this one works like a charm and seems to charge pretty fast too . i 've had this for a while now , and never had any problems with it .
+music pos david foster , who wrote a few tunes on yes 's " time and a word " is here on bass with tony kaye on the b3 and it 's the performance of their lives captured live at the rainbow . a brave but good way to record a debut album , album was produced by jon anderson and the cover drawn by roger dean , just like yes . it gives you feeling that tony left yes on good terms when rick wakeman stepped in
+camera pos what 's not to like ? light , compact and comes with the strap , case and wipe cloth . they are perfect . keep in mind 12 power can be more challeging to hold still
+music pos i am new to ron sexsmith . where have i been ? this cd is outstanding and so soothing... . the instrumentals are soul syrup , the melodies are whipped cream and the lyrics are full of cherries , nuts and fudge sauce.....it is putting something so sweet and so nurturing into the hearts and minds of the hungry and starving . i am still in the stage where his songs resonate in my mind just before i fall asleep at night and that waking up means i get to hear his " comfort food " again... . this honeymoon will last forever... . fall in love folks , it 's worth the risk....calorie free , i promise...thanks ron , god speed !
+music neg i heard from a number of people that amon amarth were an excellent death metal band , so with that in mind , i though i 'd try osftgh . what i hear , and it certainly seems i 'm missing out on something , is sloppy musicianship and poor songwriting . just because you have mead dripping from your beard , and you scream out lyrics that contain , no mercy , vengeance and " it 's your time to die " does not mean you can create " authentic " viking / metal . these idiots could definitely take lessons from : enslaved , manegarm , falkenbach to name a few . do n't fall for the hype !
+camera pos i love this battery charger ! i used to use store bought aa batteries for my olympus digital camera , but after keeping the batteries in the camera for only a week , the batteries were drained of power . for some reason , this twin battery pack can stay charged for a few months if i am just storing my camera . highly recommended
+camera pos the housing worked great . took it to 80ft scuba diving and with the flash on the colors came out ok . no leaks and access to all functions a plus .
+music pos loreena has a pure talent for weaving melody music and words together . her song the highwayman is absolutely astounding to be able to put the old poem into music melody and verse is quite amazing
+camera neg i recently purchased the g600 printer dock and have n't even gotten to try it out yet- -the print cartridge that came with it did n't work . i ordered another and inserted it and it still does n't work . it constantly tells me the cartridge is empty and needs replaced . lots of time and money involved in this mess- --stick with hp !
+camera pos i 'm very pleased with this small unit that has a great deal of power . it 's compact , not heavy , has an adjustable power output by simply spinning the wheel on the camera to the left or right . in addition to the light output , the head can be tilted so the light can be direct or bounced , an excellent feature . getting up and running with this unit was a breeze because i am totally " brochure reading averse . " twenty years ago i was a photographer with big equipment , but had given up both . i was surprised by the control one has with such a small and relatively inexpensive unit
+camera pos very easy to install ; great tool for easily downloading photos to computer and removing from camera ; would recommend to anybody
+music pos if you really into french baroque that is..... .
+camera neg i bought this harness because of the connecting straps from the harness to the binoculars . i have compact binoculars and wanted the extention straps for a better fit . the set i received did not have the extention straps included . the harness was the same as all the other harnesses i could buy locally for much less money with the only difference being the name on the back . if you are buying these because of the extention straps , you should email the seller first to make sure the straps are included before spending the extra dollars . they were well made , just not the same item as shown in the picture
+music pos this is one of the most beautiful , restorative collections of celtic music i have ever heard . haunting , sublime harp , cello , guitar , flute , and soundscapes create an atomosphere of serenity for meditation , prayer , or simply unwinding the mind and emotions . the poetry which originated each selection is included and provides a meditation in itself . highly recommended
+music neg mindless jock rock masterminded by a dope fiend . this kind of crap could n't even sell a can of coke these days . choreographed crunches of noise as lame as a crackhead on crutches . i hear scott weiland kept a billy goat in his trailer during the making of this snoozer - - and that when recording was all done the goat was nowhere to be found , but scotty was sporting a fresh new goatie
+camera pos the best buy in the marketplace . it easily fits into my suitcase for travel...the level works nicely and very sturdy for as light as it is
+music neg man i do n't know what he was thinking when he recorded some of these songs . the musicianship is , of course , outstanding and his voice is perfect for covering lightning hopkins , furry lewis , son house ( shaker lp ) but who wants to hear repeated renditions of my old dog blue ? i agree with other reviewers who laud " james alley blues " " richland woman " the 2 l.hopkins songs " katie mae " and " darling , do you remember me " muddy waters ' " little geneva " and sonny boy williamson 's " do n't start me to talking . " the other songs do not merit a second listening for anything other than historical interest . the " shaker " cd is even worse . son house 's " death letter " is above average , maybe even great . the rest is barely listenable . if you love the blues , particularly folk blues you will be infinitely happier with any l . hopkins cd
+music pos the beats is cool , but you understand his lyrics ! & its not bout all that pimp trash ! snoop not a pimp...but this is a bangin c
+camera neg i bought this camera in february , and after taking 6 shots the camera almost died , i could review the photos i had taken , but when switched the dial to take photos the camera turned out black either the lcd / efv , and only turned off when i removed batteries , i sent it to fuji repair center , and got it back again almost one month later . then six months later the camera did exactly same thing , i have n't received my camera back yet , but i 'm sure never will buy a fuji camera again and of course my camera will died again in the next months after i get from the repair center and at the end of the day i will have wasted almost 500 dlls
+music neg boo-wop ? haha ok , anyways i bought his through middle-piller distro . and it 's got a couple of o.k. songs on it . the problem is the singing and the overall production . this is definetely a home-recording on computer deal . the vocals are waaaaay weak . what exactly is a " re-worked " debut album ? ? ? i thought once an album was out it was done , set in stone ? apparently not , so mister monster gets to pull a blitzkid ( who changed their first album cover years after it came out ! ) and take the cheezy way out . a definete step up from bands like blitzkid , but still in the cellar of rock n roll . do yourself a favor and buy some good old deathrock from the golden years
+camera pos having just gone back to using a film camera from digital ( my wife still uses digital ) i have found this to be an excellant camera so far . i have taken 6 rolls of film and everyone one has came out perfect . i would recommend it
+music pos excellent 24 track compilation of this surperb psychedelic dutch band . each tune was a single sometime between 1965-69. these guys are not to be confused with a u.s. band from the same era of the same name . cuts that make this cd a true keeper are " sun 's going down " , the tripping " feel like i wanted to cry " , " keep on trying " , the familiar sounding " touch " and " ballad of john b " . this is yet another band i 've heard at least one or two tracks on the rhino release of ' original artyfacts : nuggets ii ' 4-cd box set.should appeal to fans of pretty things , q65 , early beatles , creation and the action.a must-have
+music neg not the type of music i had envisioned...much slower than i was hoping for .
+music neg i was prepared to spend the original $26.05 list price for this motion picture soundtrack . at that price it was already the most expensive out of 12 cds ordered . i was refunded the money to " the last starfighter " due to an error listing . when i went to re-order , the new price is $49.95. what a joke ! someone is pocketing an incredibly high profit margin . i would love to have focussed my comments on the actual composition , but until it is sold at a fair price , i will reserve my rating
+camera neg i was very excited to see this frame , and thought that would be a perfect gift for a fellow geek . i was extremely disappointed to see poor the picture quality - it looked like the photos were taken using one of the first generation digital cameras that came on the market some 10 years ago . the resolution was similar to my first palm pilot ( iiix ) , just enlarged . i sent it back after trying to get it to display pictures where you could actually see peoples faces . i believe that the pictures of this device showing colorful and detailed images were doctored or transposed to make this product look better
+camera pos its a cable , it works , what else do you want ? i know its not the cheapest one out there , but this one says " sony " on it . yea ! ! but , i am a true believer that you only get what you pay for . im sure its better quality than the five dollar version at the flea market . who knows , but i sure feel all warm and fuzzy about getting quality sony products .
+camera neg i received this filter and it had been used , seals were open and case that holds filters cracked , piece of plastic floating loose inside , smug marks on it . i was shocked , i order from amazon all the time and never had anything show up like this .
+camera pos it was time to upgrade my 2.0 mp canon powershot s200 which is more than three years old ( ancient in a digital world ) to a camera which takes higher quality pictures . the newer canon cameras had a larger screen , but it was basically the same camera . after a month , i am still pleased that i purchased the nikon coolpix s6 : + push button to switch between camera versus play modes ( versus a toggle slide which is hard on the nails ) + easy-to-navigate mode and menu options with flywheel like an ipod + no telescopic lens = no annoying zoom sound during focus , on / off , less wear-and-tear on the most vulnerable component
+camera pos first of all i do not consider myself anything more than a very beginning photographer ! ! ! so i will not go into anything technical . i will leave that to people who know more than i do . but what i am is an international traveler . i simply got tired of coming home from fantastic trips with " snapshots " . i wanted someting much better , and boy did i get it with this camera . i looked at the d70s and since i have very small hands , i could never feel comfortable holding it . this camera is smaller without being small . i have only taken photos locally , but at this time of the year with the leaves changing it makes a good start . the built in editing features ( filters etc. ) are wonderful to work with . i would highly recommend this camera to anyone who wants something more than " point and shoot " snap shots
+music pos this is the jacksons second album for epic and producers gamble and huff . it would be their last with gamble and huff but together they made a great album that doesnt get the play it should . music 's takin over , different kind of lady and do what you wanna are great , catchy dance tracks . the real greatness here lies in the ballads where michael 's voice is in peak form . even though you 're gone and find me a girl are classic ballads . so good , i feel that find me a girl is probably the best michael jackson song you 've never heard . this is probably michael jackson 's most overlooked album and its one of his best ! the jacksons all sing together great and you can see why destiny and triumph were such big hits after this one was recorded . overall , great ballads , catchy feel good dance tracks , and michael jackson singing his heart out . get this , you will not be dissaponted
+camera pos i bought this camera six months ago for my 12 year old daughter . it was her ( and ours ) first digital camera . i read so many reviews prior to selecting this model . the reviews for this camera were so helpful . this camera has been so easy to use and it takes excellent pictures . rechargeable batteries are definitely a must ! this camera is the best camera for this price , no doubt about it . we have taken still shots and videos . it is so fun to have the option to take a video . we have some great clips . all i can say is we are so happy with the camera . we would definitely choose it again
+camera pos puts a protective glass over your expensive gla$$ without distortion .
+camera pos i 've been using this directional mic for almost three years and have never noticed camera noise . it 's compact and provides a good reach for most ambient sound situations
+camera neg i was extremely disappointed with this product ; i felt very let down by sony , because for years i bought sony items with confidence , knowing that anything produced by them would be good and reliable . this item only goes to prove that sony 's standards have dropped and , as such i will use considerable caution when buying anthing else of theirs . what lets this product down is the lack of distance one can be before the sound breaks up ; 2 metres ( not 45 metres as stated on the wrapping ) was the best i could do , and that was in a straight line . no , all this item is fit for is the rubbish bin
+camera neg this canon camera has poor quality interlacing artifacts all though out , on a 1080p monitor . i have used other hdv format cameras , and they were much better . the low light level recording was filled with fairly large digital grain . if you use a 1080i tube then it will probably look ok in high light , but still plauged in low light
+music neg this cd is boring and derivative to the point of being cynical . a better alternative would be to listen to either : a ) the original artists who influenced this band or b ) someone at least trying to do something new with music . to enjoy this cd you 'd have to really want to like this band , either because you liked dig or because you 're attracted to their super-cool reputation . if you 're afraid you 're missing out on something by not owning bjm 's back catalogue do n't worry , you 're not .
+camera pos hi have a rebel extreme , and needed to use the high-speed mode.. . but the flash could n't even vaguely keep up . i was taking pictures of dancers , so needed a flash system that could keep up . the speedlite really does this perfectly - i 'm able to take a rapid-fire sequence of photos , and this flash system is there each time . i do n't know if it really helps when taking a single photo , but if you want a flash that can keep up , this one is great ! i like it so much , i 'm planning on buying one or two more for my next shoot , to run in slave mode with this one .
+music pos not speaking or understanding tibetian , did n't lessen the joy of being totally absorbed by this wonderful movie , and the music from this soundtrack is the reason why . it guides you like a sherpa , gently leading you along the high trails , powerfully pulling you to the heights of ever thinning air . you are at once engulfed in the tibetian life , you live the experience through the deep gutteral chants , singing bowls , and drums
+music pos this album is a classic , but its really short . dead prez are the best duo in rap in my opinion . i highly recommend this and all of dead prez 's other albums
+music neg i 'm going to the trouble of writing this review to warn you : this cd is not like the other putumayo cds . no , it is not fun , hip , relaxing , good to dance to , or stimulating . it is a selection of hackneyed sinatra-style slop sung by a variety of leery-sounding men with fake deep voices . i have this rule for music : if it makes me think of animated dogs kissing over pasta , it sucks . consider yourself warned . if you like good music , try french cafe instead
+music neg i did n't listen the disk but know the recording label . never heard anything good produced by the company in several occasions when i was hooked by the low price : very poor immitations . just go for the real things
+music neg fight club is without a doubt the greatest film i 've ever seen . yeah , i 'm a fanboy . and what ? and to make a great film flow , you need great music , right ? well , you need great music that fits the film , and the dust brother 's score more than does the trick . the film is dark yet satirical , and it needed a score that would compliment that . however , the score simply does n't stand up on its own . at times in the film it perfectly enhances the dark atmosphere , but its only a part of a tense scene . and hence , it sounds rather empty by itself . no matter how much you like the film or thought the music sounded good in it ( as i did ) , i would n't recommend it . like so many other scores , it could have been made into great music but fails since its just lifted from the film
+music pos bo diddley is one of the most underrated rock and roll artist . such gems as " bo diddley " " say man " and " who do you love " are just the tip of the iceberg . add in the blues , like " i 'm a man " and you have a truely outstanding set . the set also includes a very informative booklet that includes a bio , pictures and discography . do not settle for less than what is offered here
+music neg maybe its just me but the piano is out of tune badly enough that it should not have been recorded . i had to force myself to finish listening to the concerto and did not even bother with the rest . sad piece of work
+music pos tosca 's suzuki is not breaking any ground , but by god they have mastered the art . this album is just so professional sounding , very nicely produced . this is how i envision trance to sound like , so much garbage out there it taked a while to sift through and find a golden little record like this . funky bassbeats and killer sounds . it 's what they call ethereal....i think . it flows so well from track to track , quite the odyessy in under an hour
+music neg read the the second reveiw from the bottom that says a music fan from the east coast . the olny good song on this cd is fly
+camera neg i 've had the a510 for about six months and have been pleasantly surprised by the ease of use and reasonable picture quality for a 3.2m camera . after six months the lens and cover have jammed and i noticed that many amazon reviewers have had the same issue . one evening i took several pictures and the next morning the camera would not operate . i 'm hoping the service center can provide me better service than some of the reviewers .
+camera pos the camera fits perfectly . the case is very stylish . best of all , its pink
+camera neg this is the worst camera i 've ever owned . i 'm not exaggerating . i 'm so upset for wasting money on it . the only pictures that turn out , are outside in bright daylight . it takes horrible pictures in low light , there 's a high level of noise in the photos . the video mode moves in and out on its own , ruining the video . i sometimes get colored lines down the right side of the videos . my friend 's $88 dollar digital camera takes way better pictures than this thing . it just plain sucks .
+music pos two of the greatest names in show business at their zenith . there are so many good tracks on this set that it 's hard to pick out some over the others . a couple of superb standouts are jolson 's " swanee " and " rock-a-bye , " although every track is just excellent . the sound quality on the set is outstandingly great . i hope the people that put this set together will do the same incredible job with other classic recordings by jolson and crosby
+music neg oh , this is pure adult garbage all right . i have never heard a more disguisting piece of music then this , then again the movie was garbage also
+camera pos the camera handles very well - it 's light and drives my zoom lens and 18-55mm lens beautifully . i get professional photographs and can use it all day without suffering from heavy weight , which it does not have . the view finder is excellent and the readout on the back of the camera is extremely helpful , showing photos as they are taken - with zoom on the back screen , which immediately gives me the idea of the photo i want to use in my books . i say this is an outstanding lens and camera .
+music pos this cd has alot of tight hits including : nann by trick daddy and who dat ' by j.t. money . there are too many good songs to name for this cd , those are the biggest i like and i like all the others too . i can practically just listen to the whole cd without stopping it , which usually never happens with other cd 's b / c u buy it for about 3 good songs and all the other songs are junk . but this cd has all the hip hop hits that it proclaims . i suggest anyone looking at this review or cd , to buy the cd . it 's worth it , definetely ! one last word is that you will have no regrets buying this cd at all i think in my own opinion.i am from st. louie and i am telling ya 'll to look out for a new group called nelly also , there hit single is already out " country grammar " and cd soon to be out . get that when it comes out to . peace out ya 'll
+music neg jessica is blessed with a powerful and beautiful voice , but you wo n't get the chance to hear it on this cd . this cd is a complete let down . it is her worst one yet ! do n't get me wrong . i love jessica , but seeing her waste her god given gift on a bunch of kitty cat songs is just so.. . tragic
+camera pos great product . good value . maybe a little slow for focusing , compared to my old 18-55mm canon lens . good quality pictures . great all in one lens
+camera neg dsc series camera all have a ccd imager defect that will leave screen blank after you use the camera for 2 or 3 years . ( do a google search . you will find out what happened . ) sony knew this problem years ago . but refuse to fix it . they will wait until the camera fail and then charge you $300 to fix it . that 's what happens to my dsc-f717. ever wondering why dell , hp etc all recall sony battery for laptop , but sony did not recall their own laptop battery ? sony will never fix their own problem . we the customer have to pay for their mistake .
+music pos i was in walmart 's electronic area ( which is where you can usually find me ! ) and i saw the album . i heard unbelieveable and i was sold on that song but could n't find the single . the album on first listen was not my favorite , but after a while i started liking it . it is a great album and i 'm glad i bought it . talent is a virtue !
+camera neg my ownership of this camera was brief . first , you must know i love nikon . i have 2 other nikons- -an old cooplix 2200 and a coolpix 5700. they have wonderful lenses and give great pix . i thought my experience with this model would be similar . not ! ~ from picture numero uno , the lens cover refused to completely open and cooperate . i got pictures , yes , but they had lazy black eyelids on each corner where the lens cover had not opened up to clear the lens . what a dissappointment ! i traded it in for a canon a520 and am happy with that camera . i suppose it is just what it is . if i 'd saved and spent a lot more money on a d50 or rebel , who knows ? anyway , that is my sad tale with the nikon 4800
+music pos i am listening to badfinger even as i type this review . this is the best of badfinger vol 2 , and i thought volume 1 was great ! ! as previous reviewers have said , what an absolute tragedy the story of badfinger is ( buy the book " without you " the tragic story of badfinger ) . well i have everything they have released , if you do buy any of the badfinger best ofs , you will more than likely get hooked and start collecting all of their albums.some of the best songs on this cd are off " wish you were here " their best album by a mile imho.in fact 6 of the 9 songs on wywh are on this compilation . they were such an original group with every member capable of writing an exhilirating hit song . just have a taste of " just a chance " , " you 're so fine " , " meanwhile back at the ranch / should i smoke " .they were just so good , damn i miss them
+music pos the title gets it right - this is a very fun album . there are a lot of great songs on here . infectious lyrics and music - it still surprises me that matthew sweet is n't more popular than he is . one other thing...it 's a sin that " we 're the same " was n't a bigger hit than it was . truly a great song
+music pos this cd is absolutely wonderful . i am in australia so strawberry shortcake merchandise is not as readily available down here as it is in the usa , so you can imagine my daughters delight when this cd is being played . the songs are just gorgeous - i just wish they were a little longer . i thoroughly recommend this item to any little ss fans .
+music neg this soundtrack does not have all the songs in it from the movie . i was looking for two from the movie , and the soundtrack did not have them . like , a song by michelle branch that is in the movie is not in there . bo
+music pos this album is incredible . for me this is one of those few albums that defines a time in my life . an album that for months i played over and over . an album that i 've played countless times , that i have passed out to when i came home after a late night , that i have ran to , and worked out to , that i play at work for a pick-me up . it 's great . it 's filled with so much emotion and passion , from beginning to end its just brilliant , the entire album . the songs are composed more like classical music with sweeping scores that start off slow and steady and then build up and explode into these intense jams . i love it . you have to buy this album . then buy their next self titled album . then play it and play it , and play it . it grows on you . i ca n't wait to see them live.. .
+camera neg i made the mistake of ordering this camera to substitute buying a pro camera . the color and noise was terrible . if you want a great point and shoot camera get the canon powershot s50 while they are still available . the camera has pro features , it was so good they stopped making it because it should have been in the pro camera line at a much higher price tag . if you want to see s50 pictures go to [...] and search my gallery cathreen styles . all most all of the pictures in the gallery were taken with the s50. i am going to buy another just to have when mine breaks . by the way , i did end up buy a pro camera , mainly because of the look . i got the canon 30d and love it
+camera pos after checking prices with all the usual pricing bots , i found a better price , including free shipping , by going directly to amazon . this lowest price did not appear in the other searches , so it pays to go to amazon first . i replaced my canon sd400 with the casio and find the controls more logical to use . this is important if you do n't use the camera for a while , because you can just pick it up and start shooting without hunting for the manual . also , the docking base is much more convenient than plugging small cables into the camera . you do not have to remove the battery in the casio to charge it as you do with the canon sd400. the vga movie quality is superior on the casio . still pictures appear to be about equal . amazon delivered by ups in record time even with a weekend inbetween . i ordered on a friday and received it the following tuesday . go with amazon !
+music pos this is a wonderful effort by the del castillo brothers and their band . mark and rick are great guitarists and the band is one of the best that i have ever heard . i hate that anyone would compare them to the gypsy kings or strunz and farrah , because i believe they ( del castillo ) are far superior . even though i am a huge fan of santana , i think brothers of the castle and vida are more entertaining and satisfying than santana 's last cd . if you are a fan of this genre , you should possess both del castillo cd's .....brothers of the castle and vida . their live show is among the best that i have ever seen
+music neg i love ray charles when ray 's doing ray . this was terrible . ray was out of tune , out of touch and the song selection was ridiculous . i 'm sorry ray , i love you . it 's a shame this had to be one of your last cd 's
+camera neg i returned this item . i have not received notice that they did receive it back so i will have to wait and see if my credit card account is credited
+music pos " debut " is used to describe someone 's first release . not their third . a classic , 5 stars...pmg in an exciting , formative mode
+music pos ahh this is a great cd . i listen to it every day . it 's fun music , and the lyrics are wonderful . hope everybody enjoys it as much as i do
+music neg this is no saw 85-92 as some people compare it to . oh , no . this is a largely unfulfilling listen . the tracks all sound too similar . i realize richard 's concept was to just utilize anlaog gear , but the drum programming and harmonic " development " is lackluster . only track worth burping over is the last one.. . xmd something . has he been taking piano lessons since druqks ? for those that want some new electronic music that packs a punch , check out nick forte 's new release " young man 's disease " which is better than anything else i 've heard this year .
+music pos this is just a great cd . whenever i need to restore inner harmony after work , or dealing with any upsetting situation , this is the one i go to . instantly i am transported to the calm , soothing setting of a traditional japanese house and garden . it is fantastic for meditation , too . let all the nonessentials of life slip away while you listen to this beautiful recording
+camera pos canon 's bg-e3 battery grip is one awesome extra you cannot be without . i found the extra weight and size not to be even a minor burden . i rec 'd product 2 days after initial receiving date / 17th st photo did a fantastic job ( once again )
+camera neg this thing stinks ! so much digital noise its output is terrible . i do n't know how they can put this thing out and have it be so bad . do n't be fooled thinking wow 8 megs for a low price , i have a 5 meg sony that is many times better . all that noise blows the detail out . get it if you like lots of little green and red flecks in your pictures , other wise stay away
+camera neg the camera ( canon s-80 ) barely fits in the case and there is no room for even an extra storage card , much less a second battery pack or the charger . i ended up using my old tamrac case that has an extra zippered pouch for accessories . total waste of $$$
+camera pos just as advertised , very small , very useful , great video , great photos , just what i needed this is the second jvc camera i own and both satisfy my needs
+camera pos thank you for showing me , i will use it as many times when it comes into my mailbox soon
+music pos even though gary allen is a country singer , he rocks as an artist ! he has a vein of rock mixed in with his deep country voice . this man 's voice is so smooth , he could melt butter along with any woman 's heart . guys will like him too , but he 's a crooner , his ballads touch women ( sigh ! ) and make men want to emulate him . i enjoyed every song on this cd , but my personal favorites are : tough little boys , and songs about rain , both beg to be sang along with
+camera pos this replacement battery is half the cost of canon 's yet offers longer life . i bought it when i first got my sd10. when one battery runs out , the spare goes in . the lenmar still works great while the canon is near end life ! i am buying two more since they are so cheap ! do not buy no name batteries on ebay . they do not last worth a darn and are basically a waste of money ! do n't do it. .
+music neg deep lyrics man , i 'm getting a lot out of this.. . but just wait for the next record when you 'll get " hold on loosely ! & quot
+music pos i caught sonny in a live performance this past november , so i got to hear at least 3 tracks off of his most current album...sonny please . he opened the set with a fiery " sonny please " which smoked for a good 15 minutes ( i believe that victor lewis was on traps that night so the percussion section helped do the driving ) . for a man approaching 77 years of age , i was impressed with not only sonny 's playing and gracious presence , but his stamina in performing two 40 - 50 minute sets...trust me , the man can still play ! this album may not be another " saxophone colossus " or " the bridge " , but it is a solid recording and should satisfy a majority of sonny 's fans . if you have no recorded music by this jazz legend , this cd is a respectable starting point
+camera neg it was not all there the part to put the camera on did not come and i need that to put the camera on so please it for a c875 camera please think you w.b
+camera neg i bought this camera because i 'm going to jamaica and i needed a camera , the video camera was a bonus . when i first tested it , it was during the night time , however in a well lit room , but i could n't see anything . i figured i could deal with that as long as it took good pictures during the day . when i stepped outside , which was very bright and sunny , all i could see on the screen was white . i tried all the settings and still encountered a white screen . the only time i actually saw anything on my screen was when i was inside during the day . i brought it back right away , thankfully i had bought it at wal-mart and they were happy to refund my money . i hope anyone reading this review will take my advice and not buy this video camera . i would have loved to give it zero stars if amazon gave that option
+camera neg i bought this camera just under 12 months ago and recently the battery cover door would not stay closed . i sent it into nikon along with my proof of purchase and about a week later got a letter saying it would not be covered under warranty . the repair charge with shipping and tax would be $115.22. i am the only person that uses this camera and it was never dropped or abused . battery was only taken in and out maybe 4 or 6 times over the time i had it . for this reason i would never buy another nikon product again . next digital camera will charge without removing battery . camera takes great pictures , but ca n't do business with a firm that is very difficult to get ahold of and does not honor their warranty . bye bye nikon
+music neg if this is n't worst dead album then in the dark is
+music neg after chancing upon galactic 's rather remarkable live show at a local bar , i jumped through numerous hoops to track down this disc . was n't worth the effort , i 'm afraid . velveeta on wonder bread-dull collection of acid jazz duds . not bad as background noise for your next dinner party , but captures exactly none of the blood and soul that make galactic such a great live act . a pass for all but galactic completeists , if such an animal exists
+music neg i love this band and have all the rest of their cds
+music neg this album had two good songs at the most . ralph was good with new edition . it 's apparently obvious that he ca n't stand alone . bobby should have been the lead for new edition . then we may never have seen this terrible album . ralph is n't that good of a singer . this shows that just because your the lead singer in a group does n't mean you are the best . ralph is miles behind bobby
+music pos i must agree with the comments made by other reviewers . this album is great . nancy wilson 's voice on this album is unlike anything i have ever heard . you ca n't honestly say you 're a fan of jazz if you do n't own this
+music neg there 's nothing in this i 'd say even remotely resembles jazz . it 's repetitive , has a rock beat , and consists mostly of licks taken from other players . if you 're looking for backrgound music to play in a waiting room , this might be a good choice
+music neg well , i like the song " i shall believe " and that 's why i purchased this album , but it would have been better to buy just the single
+camera neg i got this sd400 to replace my s400 which after a year started giving me a memory card error message . i now find out that was a design flaw . anyway , i spent hundreds of dollars on this one , and now , just over a year after i got it , it wo n't hold a battery charge . i loved both cameras while they worked , but i ca n't afford a $400 camera plus the related accessories every year or so . i 've written to canon tech support . unless they are willing to repair or replace this one free of charge , i 'm moving on to another brand camera
+music pos this is pure inspirational quintessential oteil and the peacemakers . it 's gospel , funk , jazz , rock.. . features his distinctive scatting and amazing bass , a wonderful blend of talent.. . glorious vocals.. . you will not regret this purchase.. . it 's a joy all the way through from beginning to end. .
+music neg nothing even close to " say no more " i 'm sorry i spent the mone
+camera neg this is a good charger - quick and portable . but the battery life of the battery sucks !
+music pos without getting too much into it this album is pretty good . 4 stars for some bad ass tracks . my favs are tears from the moon , beautiful things , as the rush comes . all in all worth the money
+music neg dan fogelberg is an extremely talented songwriter and performer . unfortunately , the songs that get the most radio play are his weaker efforts , songs that seem formulaic and " safe . " his best songs are the lesser known works - - listeners have to buy the albums in order to hear them . they 'll never make it to the pop airwaves . serious fogelberg fans will be disappointed by this greatest hits cd . " greatest hits " is not synonymous with " greatest music . "
+camera pos i really enjoy this small , high quality camara . i purchased a 2.0 gb memory disk so i could take advantage of the 7.1 mega pixel.and i get great pix everytime . i have lots of fun with it . since its so small , it 's easy to take everywhere with me . i also get lots of compliments on it 's " fashionable " sleek design . i highly recomend his camera .
+music neg [first of all : i only gave this one star because the rating does n't let you go any lower] i only listened to this album because someone who was utterly disgusted with it threw it on the floor and stomped on it , leaving me to pick it up . i proceeded to suffer through it so i could give you fair warning . if you buy this , consider yourself warned
+camera neg the battery looked like a second hand battery signs of leak battery poles discoloured . out of country on holiday will return item on retur
+camera neg the field of vision is too small for any useful viewing . if you already know where your object is in the dark , then you can point this device towards the object and view it in dark . but if you are searching for an object in the dark , the small field of vision makes the search useless . also , there is too much " noise " in the image , thus making it very difficult to recognize the object that you are viewing . the ir makes the field of vision even smaller . overall i did not find this device useful even for ordinary pleasure viewing . by the way , if you own a camcorder with night-view , you already know how how the objects look in the dark . you can use your camcorder 's night view feature instead of buying this expensive devic
+music neg this album is okay not their best . a few songs are good other than that this album is fair.purcahse it with your money intelligently ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
+music neg she does sound like a goat bleating . yodeling . it 's a shame , really .
+camera neg this camera was great at first and very easy to use , however , the condensation error many others seem to have came true for us as well . when we first got the error it had not been anywhere near any water or moisture , so we put it in our cedar chest ( we keep our house very dry and do n't live in a humid area - nebraska ) . this worked for a few months , but the error is now on permanently and the camera is useless . i wish it was different , but bottom line , this is a disposable video camera - a nice one , but still disposable
+camera pos solidly built , this tripod balances well even when used with the heavier sony cybershots like the dsc-r1. the remote shuttle release button helps to further reduce camera shake , which is priceless when taking photos in conditions where camera shake is amplified ( high optical zoom , supressed flash , etc ) . what surprises me is the fact that the shuttle release button on the remote works exactly the same as any sony cybershot : press halfway to focus , and all the way down to capture the shot . the zooming buttons do not work for the sony dsc-r1 as the camera has a manual zooming ring , but they should work fine with any other cybershot that comes with an electronic zoom and of course , an acc terminal . highly recommended .
+camera neg i realize this is not a true gunshot mic though i had hope . the product presents itself as cheap and i hate to say the results are not good quality . at this time , i 'm the only reviewing customer and i can see i must have been the only guy to buy one of these . product attaches well and there is a noticable change in the audio . three settings , zoom ( syncs with camcorder 's zoom ) , gun ( which maxs the zoom of the mic regardless of video zoom ) , and off . i purchased this to make recordings of presentations better . i know now that i should have just bought a wireless mic for the speaker . i thought i 'd get more use this route
+music pos hands down , a 5 star , two thumbs up , classic joint . after it dropped , puba reigned supreeeme . disregard the amazon reviewer , there are no " gaffes " in this one , period.. . these guys were true to their beliefs . they were n't packaging a product for " pop " consumption , they were telling a generation what they thought . check it out and the music will speak for itself . the best track in my opinion was " wake up " , but the whole album was great . as someone else mentioned , fast tracks put it in the 90 's but most of the tracks are relevant sound as good as ever .
+music neg this album is lame as hell but next to the air pollution on the airwaves today , this aint too bad thats why it gets a 2. right before female rappers ( there 's a few exceptions ) , i hate all little kid rappers . even when i was a kid . i do n't like anything on this album , i still got the tape and it has n't " krossed " my mind to even cop the cd . if you like this kind of stuff , or you loved " jump " back in the day then i guess this is for you
+camera neg the reviews are worthless unless the writer mentions the model of device they are using the batteries for . fifty percent of the reviews here do n't mention what they were using the batteries for . do this service justice and mention the type and model equipment for which the battereis are utilized
+camera neg i read other review , and decided to give it a try . as soon as i recieve it in the mail , and opened the box , i realized this was a mistake . cheap quality binocular with " high power " being a selling point . it came in already broken with two eye ruber pieces falling apart . you can see how the cheap glue was being used to put it in place ! it is extremly heavy to hold in hands for more than one minute for nature observation . you will be constantly ajdusting the focus . your fingers bumps with focus bar while you are holding it . indeed strap , case , lense protectors are all cheap crap , and annoying to have it all on~ ! i am taking this back , and buying made in japan " nikon eagle view " 100 times better . you get what you pay for~ ! ! ! ! !
+music pos every thing he sings is perfect , i 've yet to find one song that does n't move me . this cd has some beauties . " daughter of mine " is priceless . " steal away " is very nice . " one small star " brings tears . this arrangement of " voyage " is probably the best i 've heard . his traditional songs ( " when you and i were young maggie " and " mary of argyle " ) are beautiful . i ca n't find anything on this cd i could n't listen to for hours . i truly love music and listen to it constantly . i find myself reaching for the mcdermott cd 's almost exclusively . i have them all , more please
+camera neg i was looking for a pair of roof-prism binoculars like this , for hawk and bird watching . i had looked at swarovskis , but they were way out of my budget , nearly a thousand dollars for this resolution . these binoculars are crystal-clear , with sharp focus . the 42mm lens lets in lots of light , lots more than the 35 's i 've been using . i wear glasses and the twist - up - and -down eyecups are a blessing . there are also attached lens protectors for the 42mm , nice because i always used to lose them . for the price , these ca n't be beat
+camera neg this is a terrible product : 1. the binoculars are very heavy and awkward to use . 2. the pictures are extremely poor . 3. the company offers poor service and packaged instructions are very brief and insufficient . w
+music neg okay , here is the major problem with this release : it is not a tuffgong / island release . the marley family has struggled with this reality for a long time . because bob 's music has become so widespread and lacks the legal protections that american and european recording artists have enjoyed for decades , his recordings have gone onto the cheap market ( flea markets , push carts , gas stations , etc-and now amazon ) . buying one love only serves to strengthen these sleazy record companies and hurts reggae artists and the jamaican economy . look closely at the albums before you buy them . find out what label has produced them and try to stick with tuffgong when possible .
+camera pos i 'm using it for a few months now ; i have n't found a single problem so far . earlier , i was using an old finepix and the optic / sensor sensitivity was not very good ; poor quality of photos taken in dark environment . this is not a problem any more . also , i was impressed with the sharpness of photos of sport actions taken with 10x zoom . in general , i was pretty enthusiastic about all the features of this camera ; it took me nearly 3 days to try everything out : - ) . sure , there are better cameras on the market ; however , considering the price it is just a great deal
+music pos the slowed down almost spoken version of downpressor man nearly makes it worth the purchase price alone . sure i 've got most of the tracks on other tosh collections , but these recordings are excellent variants
+music neg hey , brrrrruuuuuccce ! what 's the deal ? just about every major top 40 artist has had their catalogs sonically updated except yours . why can we buy the " tracks " editions , and get glorious hdcd-encoded sound , but " town " sounds like it 's coming out an am radio ? ok , you did your best , but dubya 's back in the white house for the next four years , and kerry 's home in his underwear watching the weather channel . you should have plenty of time on your hands now.. . get busy ! let 's see some remastering !
+music pos when i bought this i played it on repeat for about 45 hours . different versions than on the album ( i think it 's their demo ) . this version of modern age is amazing . definitely worth buying
+camera pos this camera is the best point and shoot cameras for the money . just think of what you are getting . not just a 7.2mp camera , but a lica lens and technology . not a bad deal . the images are not bad when printed . on a scale of 0-10 , 10 beining the best , i give this camera an 8. david the photog in chicago
+camera neg i bought my canon a95 in november 2004. a little after 1 year just after the manufacturer 's warranty expired , the infamous e18 error struck . i called the factory repair center to get a repair estimate , and they quoted $89 plus $8 shipping & handling . i bought the camera for $300 online , now it 's going to cost me roughly 1 / 3 of its purchase cost to repair it . for all i know , it might break down again after the repair ! the repair comes with 90-day warranty period , but it could break again after 90 days . and then.. . there is an upgrade option . canon offers a program where you can upgrade a95 for a610 for $125 plus $10 shipping and handling . this comes with only 6-month warranty . again , it could be flawed with the same e18 error that could struck after warranty expires . i would really do extensive research before buying another canon .
+music pos ...yes , the beatles by which i 'm not comparing supergrass to them . no , supergrass are riding the road built by not only the beatles , but other british rock'n'roll greats like the kinks , david bowie , the zombies and many others . but the exploding energy of supergrass delivers a deeply satisfying listen that does not exist as frequently in the present 2000's . this will definitely be a group that will represent the virtouso side of british rock'n'roll of the 1990 's and 2000 's , and without doubt represent the bohemia-intellectual-hard rocking spark that has lighten recent generations that has been going on since circa-sgt . pepper . an intoxicating and highly addictive album . 100% recommended for anyone any age .
+music neg inspiring ? no ! pleasant ? no ! entertaining ? no ! worthwhile ? no ! what are you folks sniffing out there anyway ? whatever it is , please consider passing it along , because other than the single authentic and melodic track by patsy cline ( i.e. , back in baby 's arms , which is available on a zillion other collections including some of her own ) , this cd does n't have an ounce of redeeming musical , lyrical or social value in my view . nada ! zip ! even the dylan track is junk ! the entire cd is essentially drivel , put to the dull , homicide-provoking sound of endless , droning noise , with an overall signal-to-noise ratio of about one ( 1.0 ) ! ! ! what a waste of an a-to-d converter
+camera neg the camera came with no memory chip . the online store had no more of this camera or chips so the only thing they could suggest was to return it for a refund . not a great experience
+camera pos i read many reviews at fredmiranda.com before i purchased this lens and i was not dissapointed one bit . i was lucky enough to receive a very sharp copy of this lens on the first try . the macro shots were very sharp and contrasty . the center part is already reaching near maximum sharpness at f2.8 anything beyond f4 is tack sharp . be carefull with this lens though . the dof at f2.8 is extremely narrow . do n't mistaken the out of focus shots for being unsharp . focus properly and crank up the aperture and you 'll get some very satisfying macro shots . the only thing i wish this lens had was image stabilizer . canon , how about a 100mm macro with is ?
+camera pos i am totally satisfied with product features . for me still it 's better than any available product from other company in this segment . i ranked this product 4 because it manual dial malfunction very often . if i select album mode it still thinks to be in snapshot mode and vice-versa . it 's out of guarantee and i 'll hv to live with it . anyway there are many products present in market in this series to go with like w50 or something like that
+camera neg i bought this for my 8 year old daughter to begin learning about digital photography . it has been nothing but a headache from day one . we have yet to be able to download any pictures . all of the endless number of pictures she has taken have been erased before we can download them . the one button mode is very confusing and the directions although written in english seem to be in a foreign language . the directions say do not return to the store if you are having difficulties . you are suppose to call the phone # , but good luck getting through . i 've tried for 2 days straight . they apparently are experiencing high call volume from all the other unhappy customers who were fooled into buying this " educational camera " . as i am shopping for another camera , i will not buy anything from the company who manufactured this camera - sakar
+music neg this cd should have been called " the most annoyingly overplayed songs of the 1990's . " with the exception of " shine , " every single track on this cd is juvenile , mindless , fluff that was overplayed on the radio in the radio until you were ready to scream ! if you 're looking for a cd that represents the greatest music of the 1990 's , check out non stop 90 's rock or forever 90 's instead . however , you might be interested in this cd if you want to host a cheesy 90 's dance party . the songs are kind of fun and catchy if you listen to them in moderation
+music neg this disk is truly as bad as nitin 's previous disks were wonderful . take any previous nitin disk , throw in some alpha , a bit of craig armstrong , some predictable eco-freindly american diatribe , mix until extremely smooth and you have a prophesy . as with most prophesies there no good news about it . my prophesy is that anyone who buys this wo n't ever buy another nitin dis
+music neg every one is obbsessed with " hips do n't lie " . do n't they relize that the songs horrible . well , so is every other track on this album . save your money to waste on something that is atleast some what decent
+music pos this band reminds me of the thrill i first got when i listened to an atreyu album . it dies today rip off the former bands style , but they are still a very good band . in the over-crowded metalcore market of today , that is a rarity . my only complaint , is that the vocalist has a beautiful singing voice ( as heard on " the radiance ) , but more often then not goes for the screams and growls that are associated with this type of music . still 5 / 5 material though . favorite songs : " the radiance , " " freak gasoline fight , " " our disintigration , " and :the caitliff choir:defeatism
+music neg this is as bad as the film.in fact just like the film the soundtrack is the same old formula.will& ; his movies& ; music never change the same old beat.the rest of the soundtrack is just as bad.unoriginal& ; boring.what a waste of kool moe dee
+camera pos i bought one of these for my canon sd-800 and can recommend it . for many years now , i 've carried canon pocket cameras on my belt while traveling and the canon-branded cases are simply the best for this purpose . my only criticism of the canon cases has been their lack of a small pocket for media . i was hoping that with the tiny size of sd cards canon would have added such a pocket to their newer cases , but they haven't . on the plus side , the case retains the superior leather construction , uses a neat magnetic tie down for the flap instead of velcro or a snap , and has a belt loop that is tight enough to hold the camera comfortably against your body . the package also includes a nice looking leather replacement strap for your camera . incidentally , the sd-800 is well matched to the case , fitting quite securely
+music neg yo gotti in the past can spit some raw ish but on this one , i dunno what happpened.....the production seemed too generic , the rapping was pretty average and generic and not that impressive at all , and doesnt carry much replay value....to be honest , id pop in a three 6 mafia cd rather than this one....album was slacking on so many levels , now theres some tracks that listenable , but the rest make it hard to enjoy this album , nothin special bout it at all...this album waz overhyped i believe and flopped horribly.......gotti can do much better than this.....wouldnt recommend anyone to chek it out.... . 2.5 /
+music pos this is by far the best psychopathic album ever released . riddlebox is now in second place . madrox schools ever other artist on psychopathic with this album . beats are bangin ' and lyrics are flawless ! great flows and he mixes funny with wicked . best songs are this b*tch and hey phatty . great album by the best rapper of our time . madrox is so under rated . i wish for his sake he would blow up huge but not lose his soul in the process . buy this album , best rap album ever made
+music neg how can he be such an enormous talent when all he does is copy off of other people ? sorry i just cant see it . i dont think he does justice to nolan porter 's " if i could only be sure " on the first track at all : if you want to hear some great music listen to the original ! ! !
+music neg whomever decided on putting this box set together must have been smoking crack . since when did 8675309 / jenny become a classic rock hit ? are you kidding me....come on ! no hendrix , floyd , zeppelin . classic rock my arse
+music neg sounds like it should be in a meg ryan romantic comedy . did they intentionally try to erase his personality ? sounds like it was produced in nashville ! this should be a demo for another singer to record . it 's just too schmaltzy for me . i think phil ramone may be slipping too . billy is a much better singer than this . after listening to this song i instinctively lit a match . i 'm going to go listen to glass houses
+camera neg i bought this flash hoping to improve my indoor pictures with my rebel xt . amazingly , i find absolutely no difference between using the built in flash of the camera or this unit . i find pictures taken at a very reasonable distance ( 8-10 feet ) to be under-exposed unless i correct the exposure using the menu . would be curious if the more expensive units including the 430ex are better , but i cannot recommend this one
+camera neg not impressed at all with this product . you are better off just to plug in your camera in the usb port and let windows process it . at least you will get a chance to indicate where you want your pictures saved . i suggest you do n't use easyshare software . windows pic and fax viewer is far superior to this software . if you decide you will use it you will find that all your pics on the hard drive will be set to use easyshare . the solution to this is to uninstall easyshare and all pics with revert to windows
+camera pos i 've had my d70s for about a year now , have n't regretted it for a second . the controls are laid out logically , with everything to hand . the dual control wheels make adjustments fast and accurate . i personally love the optional grid overlay , i have no excuses for horizons that are n't horizontal . the wireless flash system is great , though you have to buy an sb-600 or sb-800 to get the full benefit . this camera is bigger and heavier than the d50 and d80 , which in my opinion is a positive thing .
+camera pos i started with the battery grip initially wanting the double battery availability . having used a 35mm with a hand strap and already realizing the value of the stability of such a strap , this was my second attraction for the purchase of the battery grip and last but not at all least , is the ability to use shoot from the grip itself , allowing full ease of rotation of the camera . though i have never used the battery magazine that allows for the use of aa batteries , having it offers a backup should the canon batteries need charging and i am in the heat of shooting . i always travel with my charge and four aa batteries . i would recommend this grip as a standard accessory for the eos-20d and eos 30-d . one thought to consider once on the camera it increases the overall height creating challanges with some camera cases .
+camera pos before i get k10d , i experienced with olympus e-500 , canon xti , nikon d80. i used olympus e-500 to take lots vivid color pictures that i love very much , but no water resistance and no second display window , also only 3 focus point makes it not so enjoyable . same thing happen to canon xti , no water resistance and no second display window make it little hard to use when you need to change settings . the nikon d80 is a great camera but also have no water resistance and shake reducer build in on camera , the color tone of d80 is n't the kind that i would love . finally i bought pentax k10d , the feeling of the body , the water resistance , shake reducer , auto dust remove , vivid color tone , etc...makes me feel the k10d is the way to go . only complaint would be the limited edition lens are hard to get . get it while you can
+camera neg the camera operates good , but i thought it was suppose to be new . it looked a bit used and was cracked on the bottom . it does work , but unfortunately all the packageing was tossed out
+music pos as a collector of musical scores , i thoroughly enjoyed this selection . it is rated as one of my favorites . but i must warn that if you do not like instramental style music , then this is n't for you . but if you are then this is a must
+camera neg i had this camera for 2 months . it was kept in a case and was very well taken care of . i would not even allow my husband to touch it . i was taking pictures and then one suddenly came out as a white screen . i took another and the same thing . i asked my husband what he thought was wrong . we took out our memory card and tried internal . same thing again . he said maybe it was the lcd screen . we loaded the pictures in the computer and it was even worse . i contacted kodak several times . they do n't care about their customers . i have talked to several others in similar situations with similar results . we will try to get their attention with a lawsuit . if interested contact me [...
+music neg look , as music goes , variations on a theme is part of any genre . this album , however , yells out " leave well enough alone . " a remix of sgt.peppers lhcb might thrill a person born in 1986 , but when you hear the real thing , you ask why change it ? this album is a total waste of a truly great disc . like gipeto said to pinocchio , " stay wood ! & quot
+music pos with freddie backed by herbie , ron carter , and tony williams.this is high-flight crisp and inspiring music.worthy of repeated listenings . listen and enjoy.williams is over the top , very creative and will continue to suprise you with his unceasing inventiveness.i 've always noticed how carter and williams really spur hancock on as you will notice in this set.hancock , one the the truly great pianist of post-bop era , sounds like he is his having the time of his life.it does n't get much better than this .
+music pos the opening song " cups " by the salt lake city orchestra was one of the first songs i downloaded on my ipod . it is such a great mix ! i just love it ! oh yeah.. . and the rest of the cds are n't bad either.. . ; - )
+music pos a top quality recording with all of artie shaw 's favorites . artie 's music as fresh today as when it was recorded - with the power and appeal that hits you right between the eyes
+camera neg i purchased this camera for my own birthday present last october . i have owned it for 1 year and 2 months and now it is n't working . i paid $400.00 for it last year when it was " new . " the lcd will only turn on every 15 - 20 times after i take the batteries out and turn the camera on and off . i purchased new rechargeable batteries , but that was n't the answer . i contacted panasonic but it is out of the warrantee period . they will charge a flat $140.00 to fix it and i can get a new one for about $150.00. i loved this camera , but it is such a disappointment . i was very easy with it - it just stopped working ! buy a different camera - i wish i had
+music neg any group that is so lacking in imagination that it has to steal as unusual and distinctive a song title as " boulevard of broken dreams " ( a 1934 hit song ) deserves to be ridiculed , not rewarded with a grammy . i 'm just full of original ideas . i ca n't decide whether to write a song called " wake me up before you go-go " or " grandma got run over by a reindeer " - or maybe " do you know the way to san jose " ?
+music pos this is mood making , sexy , great music . neal adds a slight rock edge to some beautiful and familiar melodies . this album is great for background music ( we play it in our store ) , party music or just for listing . one of the best guitar players of all time ' sings ' with his instrument . buy it now
+camera neg i gave this picture frame to my wife for a christmas gift , we pluged it in and within a half an hour it made a loud bang and smoke poured out of the thing like crazy....not a good gift .
+music neg who in the world called this ' 'hard rock' ' ? ! ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ! ! ? this is a bunch of self-pitying , mainstream jibberish..nothing interesting at all . i shall dub this as ' 'alternative whine'' .
+music pos i was looking for some music i could play in the car or around the house with my 19-month-old son and came across this one- -the exact same " album " that i had when i was his age ! i 'm so glad they redid it ! one of my fondest memories
+camera pos i bought this for my new hdv fx1 camcorder , and it works great . unlike the century wide-angle lens , this is fully zoom-through . lens is .8x , which is less than the century and others , but just about right for hd- -since the fx1 already can do a pretty decent wide shot when the zoom is fully backed out , this just gives it an extra boost , converting the camera view from roughly a 35mm lens on a 35mm camera to about a 28mm . also , very little barrel distortion . in all a great lens . only drawback is that it 's a big ( heavy ) lens , but then , hey , it 's for a serious prosumer camcorder
+music pos evan dando has once again delivered an astounding collection of pop / punk songs . this album rocks like lovey and is almost as catchy as come on feel . i 've been listening to this album for weeks on end .
+camera neg i bought this for my wife and she loved it . but it broke after the amazon return policy was up . i contacted the company by email twice and have not heard from them .
+camera neg i purchased this for my 4 year old son because he loves to take pictures . i did n't want to spend a lot of money , however this product is way over priced for the quality and ease of use . not to mention after having it less than 24 hours it completely stopped working . however , when it did work every single picture was blurry . there is only one button for every option and it is very confusing . i would n't recommend this product to anyone . it is being returned
+camera pos i have been shooting away for the last few weeks . the olympus 720 is a gem . i must have filled up my card 3-4 times so far . being new to the digital camera era , i am finding that it is not as hard as i thought it would be . shoot , pop the card into the card reader , copy to computer , upload to walmart 's photo service , and i have my prints mailed to my house in a few days . i am happy that everything was included with the kit . i would have never known what i needed and it basically has everything covered
+camera pos seems a little much to pay for an " extension cord " but upon receipt i see it is of very high quality and nice build on the connectors . plus , its a brand item from canon , so what can you do
+camera neg i have tried everything . firewire , usb . there was an insert in the guide that mentioned that you have to connect the cable first to your pc then to your camera , then turn on the pc then turn on the camera...then wait for the stars to align in the right order . if you do anything in a different order then your camera can get damaged . what kind of a crazy world does panasonic live in ? well , i followed the instructions to the tee , downloded the right drivers and all and yet my pc does not recognize the gs19 or the gs9. i have used both . the gs19 is a new purchase so this is definitely going back . i thought , this model would have gone away with the kinks but , no ! so , my panasonic recorded dvs are gonna remain on the tape . i will never be able to put them on dvds . what a joke , this camera turned out to be
+camera neg bought this to get short vid clips of my daughter to post on her page , so i didnt think i would need anything with uber high quality . but didnt realize just how poor the quality was on this one . in low light conditions it is horrendous even with the night shot on , and in good lighting it is barely adequate . wish i hadnt spent the money on this and memory card...should have put out the dough to get something a bit nicer . you get what you pay for
+music pos in august 1969 five session singers were invited to form a new session group . main singer was tony burrows of ivy league and flowerpot men fame . the first success came with the second single united we stand . this cd collects together the three us hits of the session group plus the only us hit of the group that was the face of the session group in concert during 1971-1973 and that would become the second outfit of the group , the eurovision winning song save your kisses for me . the rest of the songs are a mix of songs from this second outfit 1974-1980. this outfit is still on tour at the end of the centur
+camera pos excellent quality / price / speed of delivery.. . works as expected.. . would definately buy again , from this vendor , if the need ever arose .
+music pos sorry , ya just ca n't replace michael hutchence . this is a great overview of all of their greatest hits . i am not a huge fan of greatest hits cds b / c people tend to buy them and , therefore , miss all of the excellent songs that were n't released as singles . all inxs cds are worth buying separately . but , if you must.....this will work
+music pos i love this cd ! everything they sing about is so true to life . it 's a great arrangement of songs
+camera neg this camera was easy to use and it was light and had decent quality picture and audio , however , i was unable to make copies for back-up or to share with family members . i took it back and bought a mini-dv camcorder as i was told it was easier to make copies . this has yet to be tested
+music neg i bought this cd for one song , " walk away " which was one of their best known songs . i was hoping since that particular song was so good that maybe the album would harbor a few more gems . there wasn't . the rest of the album is like an anti-climax . i would suggest a greatest hits instead . if you see this cd just turn your pretty head and walk away
+camera neg i bought the converter since i wanted to use it for landscape photography . i took some test shots and discovered that the converter has an unacceptable amount of barrel distorion . if you are thinking about buying this product just be aware that you will have to correct your images through software after you take them
+music pos considered one of coltrane 's ' searching ' periods , this cd has a lot to offer in the way of understanding trane 's restless nature . never one to stand on laurels , coltrane does indeed continue to set the bar ' higher ' every time out . this one is mostly ballad and blues based , with the exeption of 2 tracks in particular which stand out - on both ends of the trane spectrum . track #2 , " i love you " finds him playing furious , cerebral runs on the instrument , and , frankly , not as ' listenable ' as one may like ; whereas the track with donald byrd is as ' in the pocket ' as you 'll ever hear . all in all , a very realistic look at a genius in motion
+music neg wild card is the best song on this cd . the rest just did n't do it for me and i did n't care for the latin flavor . this cd was a mess . if the rest of the songs were along the lines of wild card , i would have kept the cd . this did n't say rippingtons to me .
+music neg do you love " on eagles wings " ? if the answer is yes , then do you know the words to panis angelicus ? the answer is probably " no . " i do n't blame you for liking this cd . the problem is that it is n't catholic and it is n't classic . you should ask yourself if you are willing to entertain the songs that catholics have enjoyed for thousands of years . if you are willing to look beyond the guitars at your local mass , start with sacred songs by bocelli , or simply baroque by yo yo ma
+music neg this is probably the worst cd i have ever bought . it had won some award and just bought it without listening to it , hopping that it would be ok . i listened to it and threw the cd in the trashbin . waist of money or just not my kind of music
+music pos while volume 1 of the dream babes series is more accessible with its very girly girl group pop , sun-shiney vocals - volume 2 offers a little bit of everything - from pop r&b , girl group vocals , pop , swinging pop & even some very early school grrl rock ' n roll - they might be a little more lyrically serious ( hence the subtitle reflections ) but if anything , that 's a good thing . it 's nice to hear that women were trying different styles and genres and not just singing about about boys ... and also know - these are not just timepieces to be admired from a distant - these are all still fun , interesting and downright cool to hear again or for the first time . if you 're a collector , this whole series should be on your checklist
+camera pos i have been using this lens for about 2.5 years and it is an exceptional piece of equipment , especially for the price ! i very rarely feel the need to get a closer image than i can achieve with this lens . it 's very solidly built and i am sure it will continue to be a primary piece in my kit for years to come
+camera pos i have been using my sony cybershot dscn1 8.1mp for about a month now . it 's so easy to use . and , i love how you can easily delete picture via the touch screen . the only issue i have with it , is that i ca n't use the memory pro stick with my sony photo printer ( a 5 year old model ) , because the stick is not compatible . ps : do n't forget to buy a memory stick pro if you purchase this camera . you 're gonna need it .
+camera neg canon 's 28-135mm with is ( image stabilizer ) is a far better choice for the money
+music neg can this be the same d-12 that packed in witty rhymes in a non-serious demeaner ? well , i guess this really does prove they are only a side-show . eminem has different production , so the group will have different production . eminem went more serious , now the group is more serious . besides that , shady himself ( or what is left of what he use to be ) is basically a no-show . in any track eminem 's in , it 's usually the strongest , and that is the case here ; however , that does n't mean he was great . that means the cd itself is misconfusion , contradiction , and a side-show for eminem 's next cd ( " encore " , which was better then this , but not that great overall , as well ) . d-12 is the commercials to the eminem show , everyone 's just waiting to get in between them . that 's the case here
+music neg ya , abomination to god also set it right in his worthy review . i remember the days where this panzy was praised and all of you ate that " one call away " and " right thurrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr " garbage . does 2 stars explain anything ? this apparently is equal to that d4l s*** , which is actually the lowest of the low . anyways , did n't i tell you chingy would die one year after -jackpot - hit ? now that he 's dead , everybodies focused on t-pain , oh s*** !
+camera pos got the lowero slingshot 100 about 2 months ago , and it is really coming in handy . in the main area , it holds my pentax digital slr with one lens mounted , 1 rather small lens and 1 decently big zoom lens ( 80-320mm ) , plus a sigma ef-500 super flash . it 's packed in there , and the flash just barely fits , but i do n't need much more room . the top compartment holds extra batteries , recharger , etc. really easy to access the main pocket when it is on my back...just by pulling the case to my front ( no need to take it off my back ) . well made . zippers are strong so i do n't have to worry about one loosening and my equipment falling out . perfect for the amateur to semi-pro photographer .
+music neg all i got to say about this is that dudes need to stop making this kinds of records cuz this is not hip hop , its not what ll , rakim , krs-one , kool g rap , ice t , ice cube , nwa , and ( rip ) big and pac , started . we as fan have the power to end this buy simply not buying the album . please do not buy this , this fake rap is got to sto
+camera pos it 's easy to use and makes good pictures , easily a match for the disposable cameras that require you to turn the camera in and wait . i also have a 1gb san card so i can shoot up to almost 1400 pictures . as it is i shoot a couple and then load them into my laptop and send them to people via e-mail
+camera pos it 's good as my title says , however , i found one con about it is there is no place i can put a string on it so that i have to put it in my pocket when i take it off
+camera pos i do not trust any batteries except canon for my canon cameras . i have found " compatible " batteries do not always charge in canon charger , and do not last as long on camera
+camera neg we have had this camera for about a year . we wanted an inexpensive camera but buying this was a big mistake . the picture quality is terrible and now it is not even working . we have a canon powershot a60 as well and have been very happy with the performance . i would not recommend this polaroid camera to anyone
+music pos i dug the soundtrack better than the film.the music sounds good through out.if the film had have just focused on the music it would have been incredible.the musicianship is solid here
+camera neg i was going to buy this camera for my teenage daughter today , but after reading the reviews i decided that it is not a god risk if the customer service is that bad and the screen seems to break without any kind of impact . i 'm sure it takes nice pictures , but a lot of cameras take nice pictures . i have to go where the service will at least respect you .
+camera pos this case was well thought out for snorkeling / diving and using your own digital camera without going to the expense of a really expensive camera . definitely a better choice than using those throw-away underwater cameras or renting one . the only drawback is that it triples the size of the great 720sw camera - since size is one of its strongpoint
+camera neg it was n't obvious to me which battery to purchase for the olympus stylus 710. this is not it . i had to send it back and get the li-40b
+camera pos i 've bought several lenses from adorama , two of which include a new 300 / 2.8 is and the other , this 500 / 4 is . all of their deliveries were prompt and well packed . i have zero complaints with them . i dealt the john ( green , i think is his last name ) via email . i highly recommend them . as for this lens , it is incredible . wide open it creates a wickedly sharp subject against a wonderfully soft background ( good bokeh ) . af is very fast . this lens is extremely good and will still af when used with the 1.4x converter . ( af works up to f5.6.
+music neg this album lacks a lot of the controversy ( not all of it ) of the original , uncensored " cop killer " ( new censored version now titled body count ) . go to ebay and find someone auctioning off the real version of the 92 album . you will like it a hell of a lot better
+camera pos fall through spring i always carry my r817 in coat pocket when i go out . this jacket fits my camera like a glove . allows access to all controls and lcd display through clear , heavy duty plastic film , once flap is opened . open flap allows lens to zoom while still protecting rest of camera . only time i zip open jacket is to remove memory chip or change battery , otherwise , i just leave jacket on camera at all times .
+music neg not exactly the " vaults " blowing open , as stated in the promo . these are mostly leftovers and one-offs from the late 1990s , when the group was on hiatus from serious recording . that 's why the set is overloaded with forgettable jingles from television shows , literary journals and graphic design firms . whats good is the material that was recorded for albums and subsequently rejected , such as " reprehensible " , " rest awhile " and " certain people i could name " . but there are too few of these real songs , and they 'd have fit a lot better on that long-awaited b-sides collection from their major label career
+music pos " vangelis : themes " is a collection of some rare and some more popular theatrical theme music from movies including " blade runner " and " mutiny on the bounty . " it 's an extraordinary album and i highly recommend it
+camera neg we returned this item . it was a glorified external dvd burner . it was not worth the money
+music neg it really does n't appeal to me . but if you like them that is your opinion . i 'm not going to say your stupid for liking them because your different from me . but i just feel that there is way to much cursing for my liking i mean the creativity here is not very high i just feel you could use better words . but i mean the measure of a man is not how many girls you slept with . i mean that is how you lose money on child support . sex has never been the most important thing in life . honestly though i mean you just ca n't see these guys rapping about these same things when they 're 40 right cause that is wrong . i mean why be interested in a group of rappers that in 10 years probably wont be making music anymore let alone still be together
+music neg the cd came as promised and in the condition promised . i 'm very satisfied
+music neg when will artist realize you ca n't change the old classics . the only successfull r&b group to sing the classic " night and day " to their own beat was the temptations cd " what women want " the best rendition i have ever heard . smokey does have the voice for these kinds of songs . another good cd with classics is willie nelson 's stardust
+camera neg you have this camera case listed under accessories for the panasonic dmc fa20pp lumix camera . the camera does not come close to fitting in this case . the camera is 1 1 / 2 inches wider than the case .
+camera neg i got this for my s70. first off , in order to use it , you have to set the s70 to " radio control " ( about 9 button pushes ) . then you had better stay no further away than six feet or so ( and only in *front* of the camera-the remote does n't work from the rear ! ) . oh , and if you want to adjust your framing , forget it-the zoom is immobilized . if you need a " cable release , " i strongly suggest simply using the self-timer built into the camera . it gives you 2-second and 10-second settings , and you 're almost certain to have a steady tripod by that time .
+camera neg i agree with the previous reviewer . buying , attaching , and using this microphone is a waste of time and effort . save your money and get a good microphone , unless you want your sound track to sound like someone mumbling into a tin can
+music pos i was waiting in anticipation for this cd to arrive and was not disapointed . etta is the bes
+music neg a mix of the softest chessyest mushy reggae from the 80s . do n't even bother.. .
+music pos although each track is beautiful in it 's own way , it 's their sum that makes this such an incredible album in my mind . where felt mountain remained rather mellow and etheral thruought the entire album , black cherry offers more in the way of diverse melodies and tempo . the tracks seem to be placed specifically in a way that makes the album feel like a journey , and , personally , like a lay 's potato chip , not able to listen to just one....yeah , i need the whole thing. .
+camera pos wow ! ! ! this is my 4th sony , i keep trading up and i am so impressed . there is no delay on the shutter speed , great pictures and enough special effects to be fun , but not enough that you need a phd to operate
+music pos i purchased this cd after reading one of the reviews . i have another streetwize cd that i love , but i was a litter weary about getting this one ( jazz meets dre and all ) . but i am glad i made the purchase , as i am thoroughly enjoying it
+music neg ok , so the song playing when brian goes and we see mia for the first time is a song called " deep enough ( urban remix ) " by live . i have the other songs written down , including the one played between the two buildings , so i will find them and tell you . if you all want only the songs that were actually in the movie , rent the dvd , and take about ten minutes to watch the credits and write down the song names and artists . that 's how i have only the songs that are in the movie
+camera neg i was so excited to buy a camcorder that recorded straight to dvd and took pictures.......well , the picture quality is awful ! i have gotten maybe 20 nice pics out of over a 1000........the problem is its so low in pixels . we hear about 5mp cameras and up , this camera has less than 1mp ! ! ! ! i bought this before i knew anything about megapixels........you have to have 5 or more for the prints to be decent . all of my prints from this camera are bad ! and they are only good for email . that 's it . the camcorder capabilities are fair . my problem is that it does n't work well on the computer , and it does not play immediately in all dvd players . you have to buy the very expensive ram discs for editing....overall , i definitely would not buy again and i would not reccommend to a friend . i wish i had spent all that money on something else... .
+camera pos this digital photo frame has reasonably good picture quality and once set up , can be used by anyone in the selected mode . i have it set for slide presentation mode and people enjoy looking at it . i could easily see giving it , already set up , to people who are not computer savvy , such as grandparents . to give them new pictures , send a new card and they slip that in . that said , the cost is still fairly high and the buttons on the top of the frame useless unless you have them memorized or really good vision . i would recommend this product
+music pos quem não gosta de samba , bom sujeito não é , é ruim da cabeça ou doente do pé...essa letra desse samba serve para definir melhor o cd da marisa monte . quem não gostar dele , é doente da cabeça , do ouvido , do corpo , etc. à um trabalho dedicado , na medida certa para esta cantora , verdadeira diva da mpb . recomendo a todos .
+camera neg i was not satisfied with the quality of the digital pictures on this ziga digital frame . i returned it
+camera neg bought the samsung 363 from amazon and it developed mechanical fault while i was test running . making strange noise after loading the tape making it unuseable . about 2 weeks later , i decided to show it to a friend in case it was something unserious and then i realised again that it was not even coming up again . problem with the power system . paralysing it completely ( all in less than 3 wks from purchase . left it plugged to charge for 2 days without difference it 's indeed a sad story . that would be my last time of buying a tape camcorder .
+music neg i am a huge fan of thomas newman but really this cd presents nothing new . it comes across as merely a re-hash of the airy , atmospheric , melody-free cues from his other recent scores . it has none of the originality of american beauty or road to perdition . frankly , as much as i like his scores , i do n't think this warranted a cd release , it 's just got too bland and ordinary , no matter how beautifully constructed and pristine it all sounds . a pity
+music neg well , unless you are a hardcore collector like myself ( had it originally on vinyl all those years ago ) , stay clear of this album . if you want to hear noise that you & your wife / girlfriend / boyfriend could do yourself , then forget this album & make your own noise . the best track on the album is the bonus track . that tells you that this album has nothing to do with beatles music . i give it one star for being terrible & one star for the packaging ; - ) . search judemac forever " on msn
+music neg i like the music , but the sound quality is terrible . i bought this cd because it was released in 2003 , but there is zero improvement in sound quality from previous older tracks
+music neg all i got to say about this is that dudes need to stop making this kinds of records cuz this is not hip hop , its not what ll , rakim , krs-one , kool g rap , ice t , ice cube , nwa , and ( rip ) big and pac , started . we as fan have the power to end this buy simply not buying the album . please do not buy this , this fake rap is got to sto
+camera neg i got this lens in a kit with a nikon d80 camera . this lens failed to deliver the goods 99% of the time . why buy an expensive camera and then use a cheap lens like this ? its silly to spend big money on the camera and have only blurry pictures to show from it . it was only tolerable in very bright situations and using less than 100mm focal length . a cloudly day or all of the 200 mm zoom would result in a picture that had significant distortion noticeable even on little 4x6 prints . very few pictures came out when it was used in the fullest zoom ( 200mm ) . i disliked this lens enough to return the entire camera kit and purchase a different camera ( d200 ) that came with the highly ranked 18-200 vr lens from nikon . if your interested in nice sharp pics , then pass on this lens . if you want to save a few bucks and like blurry photos , this lens is for you. .
+camera neg far better models for similair price range - dissapointed with the quality of the finish etc etc. works fine though .
+music neg having watched most , if not all of john waters films i was sorely dissapointed by this album , obviously his name was put to something he had n't quite looked deeply enough in to . talk about misleading . as we all know john waters has a certain reputation for sleaze , trash , camp , kitch and bad taste in all the best possible terms , this album had none of this . shame on you john waters for putting your name to a complete load of rubbis
+camera pos the new olympus stylus 770sw is the nicest camera to date i 've purchased . it takes great pictures and is extremely durable . the picture quality is awesome in all types of weather conditions and lighting . i stronly suggest to purchase this if the price is right
+camera pos i have not yet used an fz30 or fz50 , but i think this thing beats the pants off an fz5 or fz10 as far as image quality is concerned . really nice camera . has a nice dslr type feel . 71% of people that check out the fz20 here actually end up buying the fz7 , ( as of today ) but i do not believe the iq of the fz7 could hold a candle to that of the fz20. buyers may be on the *more megapixel* bandwagon . you can do a lot with 5 megapixels . i have found that the iq of the fz20 is very close to that of a dslr
+camera neg i got this charger with my sd110 , and within a few months , it stopped working ; it was obviously a battery problem . the battery is n't the best quality either , but when i got a new one , the problem persisted . so obviously it 's the charger .
+camera neg this camera takes blurry pictures straight out of the box . one mistake i made was to not take my own sd card to the camera shop and look at the output . i thought the blurry image i was seeing at the camera store was because of the low resolution screen but it really is the camera . i 've missed too many pictures of my kids and am in the process of buying a new camera a short 2 months after buying this . casio support was responsive and tried to help but nothing appears to work . and point and shoot is definately not an option . i thought it would be nice to take quick pictures of the kids but none of them are worth keeping . i 've taken over 200 pictures and i will not print any of them .
+music pos too many people are overwhelmed with the more modern christmas songs out there today and are unaware of the wonderful music available on cds like this . john rutter proves his brilliance in arranging and conducting . the music overwhelms the senses and the joy of christmas overcomes you as you listen . this is one of the most peaceful christmas cds i have ever heard . " wassail song " is incredible , and if you are ever in a small vocal ensemble , this song is a must to perform . you will not be disappointed when you purchase this cd
+music neg bobby bare is a great singer , one of the most underrated country singers ever . however , most of the songs on this cd pale in comparison to his earlier work like " detroit city " and " millers cave "
+camera neg as a professional photographer , i find myself going through 5-6 of these cords each year . my equipment is my livelyhood and although it is used often , i am exceptionally careful with all of my gear and do not bang it around or abuse it . i use a stroboframe which makes it necessary to use this cord to raise the flash well above the focal plane of the camera . these cords are very expensive to get just a few months out of them . eventually , the hot shoe connector will either become loose and the connection will no longer function or the plastic connector will break and your flash unit will fall to the ground . ( this has happened twice to me and fortunately i was able to catch the flash unit ! ) the cord is indespensible if you need it , but contact canon usa and ask them to reengineer this cord or expect to replace them every few months
+camera pos i am certainly happy i bought this filter kit . for a starting photographer , the price was right , and i have not noticed any quality issues . the uv filter stays on a lens at all times , as it 's cheaper to replace the filter , than it is to have a scratched lens element repaired . the light polarizer is very handy , and also works very well , cutting down greatly on glare . i have not yet had the occasion to use the warming filter yet . the filter case is a nice extra , it fits right in my camera bag , and is out of the way untill i need it
+camera neg i gave it two stars because it was great.. . when it worked . i got it sometime in january , and it lasted until about june . i take good care of my things , so i know its not me . it just suddenly *stopped* working . i 'm more than just a little miffed . i 've tried getting all different types of batteries - i 've tried letting it sit for a while . i 've taken it to my friend who works with cameras for a living and had him take it apart and clean it and all sorts of stuff . its dead . i just threw it away
+music pos being a professional dancer as well as a teacher and having seen hundreds of musicals , i must say i rate this as " one of the best " . the dancers are fantastic ! the music utterly great , the choice of dances ( from classical to rock ) is highly deversified . ca n't wait till i get it so i can play it again and again . as well as " rock the house , shake my bootie , etc"
+camera pos be careful when you use this lens because it does not have is ( image stabilizer ) so if you have shaky hands and the exposure is any more than 1 / 8 of a second you are going to going to get some blur . this is why the lens is so cheap . this is especially bad when you are at the far end spectrum of this lens . if you are really zoomed in and it 's cloudy then you should know to use a tripod just in case . this goes for any lens , but if you will be using the 300-mm end of this then use a tripod . it 's common sense , but i 've loaned out this lens and they complained to me afterwards
+music neg what a load of junk . gu 29 cd1 was ok . everything else these two have done separately is pretty useless . make sure you hear a sample before buying this . do n't say you were n't warned .
+music neg imagine buying this cd after seeing " the mirror has two faces " fully expecting the soundtrack music to the movie , and reading overall great reviews on amazon . imagine the shock of receiving the cd and the surprise of hearing 20 brief cuts of plain instrumental music out of the 24 cuts - the remaining 4 cuts contained very short lines of verse . perhaps barbara , with her tremendous unlimited wealth , felt she would be giving away a " free album " to the masses if the soundtrack contained the vocals in the film . shameless misrepresentation
+camera pos i bought this camera to take pictures of my family and friends . i have had if for more than one year , and it has performed above expectations under all conditions . the 1 minute video feature is great , and was an unexpected bonus ( since i did n't know about it when i bought it off amazon ) . the camera works great with iphoto and macos x . i bought a 512 mb card for it and so far it has been great . both my father and my father in law have the previous powershot s400 and they have had no problems with it . i figure at some point i 'll have to change the battery , because lithium-ions lose 20% capacity per year , but so far it has worked flawlessly .
+music neg if the name pink floyd was n't on this cd , who would really rate it higher that one or two stars ? i am a pink floyd fan , but i have to say that i do n't like any of their early works . to me , the band begins to make great stuff with " meddle " and their first cd were boring , even with the pink floyd name on it . the only good track is " childhood 's end " , the other tracks are poor
+music pos trip hop and lounge lovers need to have this cd at home . bajo fondo tango club is not as pure tango as piazzola 's nor as chill out percolated as gotan project 's , which makes them a band for all publics . nor even one single person in my office could n't help download at least one song of this cd into their ipods . three of them already bought their copy
+music neg i ca n't discard these songs completely , because they have such potential ! clever , fun lyrics , great beat , but boy i wish this guy could hit his notes more often ! i suppose this fellow requires the sort of " pitch does n't matter " mindset that grateful dead listeners perfected years ago ( or similar drugs ) . i 'm just not that tolerant or substance affected
+camera neg when i received the camera i thought of giving it a 5 star because the good looking and nice picture . after 6 months use , i wish i could give it a 0 star . it 's true it looks good but it 's very hard to hold the camera . it droped twice when i took pictures . also the lens is too small . the dirt is very easy to get onto the lens and very hard to clean b / c it 's small . thanks the dirty lens , the picture quality is worse than ever . the battery is very small too . after 6 months use , it can not hold enought power to shoot 10 pictures ! they have to put the buttons here and there to fit the small space . it 's not a user friendly camera .
+music pos i loved the cd , it took me back to the days of the original recordings , however the sound was not as good as the original .
+music pos overdrive , watching the rain , enchanted , teaching myself to dream , glow , lemon , because i can are really excellent songs , this album is really worth it .
+music pos i love this album , the best of phil collins . i believe every great artist always delivers their best stuff when they are in a rut . i know he wrote some of the songs on this album bases on his bad times / suffering with his ex wife . he did not realize how much pain she was in and the mood and moment is captured very well . he is a great composer . too bad most of his new songs...2006 , times are different and so is his life , i do not enjoy them as much . once an artist becomes more self-actualized much of their best work becomes just that a memory .
+camera pos i so love the size and shape of this camera . this one takes some good pictures , and appear to be quite clear . it 's better than the integrated camera on my cell phone . this camera may seem like it 's taken a poor quality image , but when you transfer them onto a pc , they seem so clear ! however it is recommended that you get a memory card for this camera as it only has 14mb of internal memory . as this camera was a gift to me , i 'd have to say it was the best birthday present i have received
+camera pos picked mine up used on ebay for $180. with the growth of the vr market everyone is dumping there old lenses . you can get a used one for a great price . this lens is great for the serious amatuer . i have taken some incredible pictures with this lens . the autofocus is a little slow and i have heard people complain about softness on the high end but i have a photo blown up to 20 x 17 taken from my d70 at 300mm . of course i shoot the photo on a tripod... . i have not experienced the softnes
+camera pos i 'm surprised to see that a lot of people only give 1* to this camera ! i 've had it for 2 years now and i just love it ! thanks to it , i discovered i had a real passion for photography.. . it 's very easy to use and my pictures are great ! when i show them , people usually tell me " you must have an expensive camera " ... and i just show them my little canon s500 and they are surprised with the result ! i 'm just loving it
+camera neg the look and feel of this camcorder is very good . unfortunately my camcorder use is limited to low light indoor activities . for example , evening party , indoor school activities , kid drama and orchestra . this camcorder is not at all suitable for these activities . earlier i had a sony dcr trv140 , which was way better than this camcorder . this camcorder has a very small sensor and hence such a low price . one easy guide to evaluate the sensor size is to look at the optical zoom . most of the camcorders with more than 10x optical zoom has small sensors . these large optical zoom camcorders will perform poorly in low light . if you are planning to use this camcorder in low indoor light , i do not recommend it .
+music pos i was looking for some nice background nature sounds to have playing while i work throughout the day . this collection hits the spot . great sounds , great variety , great price
+camera pos i really enjoy my photosmart r725. it 's small , easy portable , takes wonderful photos , and is very versatile in terms of settings . i just have one thing i do n't like about it , and that 's the fact that there is no viewfinder . there is an lcd screen on the back which acts as a viewfinder , but it 's hard to see in bright sunlight , and i 'm afraid that it will eventually become scratched beyond use . for now , it 's great but i 'm not sure how it will hold up for the long run . at the same time , it 's not spendy , so it might be worth it
+camera pos this is a replacement for an identical battery pack that i lost . works great , long life , no problems
+music pos live alive is good enough to buy in my standered's .....i really think this was recorded poorly but the songs on it are really good if you play it in your car , or on bigger speakers so you can really hear everything much better . their are many good songs included on this complination of live performence 's spanning from performences from montreux jazz festival , austin opera house , and the dallas starfest . this recordings are all from 85-through 86. jimmie vaughan appears on willie the wimp , love struck baby , look at little sister , and change it playing guitar , and string bass . i think the worst song on the entire complination is voodoo chile ( slight return ) which is kind of weird for me to say because i think that was truely the best song stevie ray played live but in this case its not . other than that i really think for what it is it 's a average live performence .
+music neg especially when there 's a pretty girl invovled but this is just dreadful . the songs are so cheesy , her voice is out of place in half the songs . it 's whiny , irritating , dull and at this point , i 'm not sure who 's more talented , her or her sister . they got the looks , sure , but there 's lots of pretty girls in this world , does n't mean they deserve a singing contract just to look hot on the cover of the cd . & that 's the only thing that intrigued me to listening to this album . & i 'm sorry jes , but maybe u really are as brain dead as people say
+camera neg if you are looking to take high quality pictures , then look elsewhere . it is nice for taking quick snapshots with the family or what-have-you , but not much else . ( or for a beginner in photography or a child . ) you have to hold very still if you do n't want your pictures to come out blurry . also , the flash makes images far too bright and if you do n't use the flash it sometimes makes images come out far too dark . the only thing i like about this camera is it 's size . it 's great to just keep in your pocket or your bag.. . anyway , i 'm buying a better one soon
+music pos this is my favorite jazz album of all time . put simply , this was miles davis at his best . the notes on this album simply float , and yet it flows together better than anything i 've ever heard . the composition is disorganized but in a way that it all makes complete sense . do n't let the thirty second clips fool you . i almost missed out on this because the clips are misleading . i took a chance on it , and it was the best gamble i 've ever made . a must have for any jazz enthusiast
+camera pos nice portable background support kit . stability might be an issue but if portability is your first concern then you can overcome the stability issues with weights or caution . easy and quick to put up . i put it up by myself with very little effort . all rolls up in a nice compact bag for transporting
+camera neg i added these batteries to an order of a few other things , and did n't realize that they were going to ship this separately from circuit city . make sure if you pick this , that you are getting something else from cc , or else you will end up like me . with a huge box ( you could fit 4 tom clancey novels in the box ) shipped to you with a pack of batteries and end up paying more for shipping then you spend on the batteries
+music neg e40 is the worst mc i have ever heard i would rather listen to someone drag their nails down a blackboard . how on earth can someone like him get a record contract and sell records . anytime he comes on another rappers album no matter how good the beats are i always skip the track
+camera neg try to call panasonic customer service @1-800-973-4264 and tell them you have question about your camcorder first . panasonic service is the worst one in this world .
+camera neg i recommend not to purchase this item . look for another one . the lens itself seems ok , although i ca n't really say , but the adapter which is built in to the lens is shoddy and cumbersome and ruins the the whole deal . the adapter is a quick release type where one end attaches to the camera and the lens simply snaps in , or is quickly released . this would be great , except for two very important things . one , the lens fits very loosely in the quick release adapter . this causes some major distortion , especially when moving . two , the housing is made of thin plastic which does not seem very durable . in fact it is so cheaply thin that i am afraid to leave it in my car because the heat may distort the plastic . one drop , even a small one , and it is done for
+camera pos yes , i am slow to make this review , maybe because i spend a great deal of time using this camera . the only thing i would like to have changed , is a rechargable pack . at first i burned thru many batteries . i switched to rechargables , and find that i still use a great deal of power , ( i shoot often with the flash , ) but now i can recharge the spent batteries after each session . i use the charge of 12 aa 's in a 3 hour shoot . i use this camera for studio work and it has served me well for a good number of years already
+music neg there is not enough space for me to explain why this film ( and soundtrack ) are woefully inadequate of the name dr. seuss . the fact that there are so many songs on the album screams commercialism ( what the book was complaining about , wake up people ! ) and james horner 's score which has a couple of nice moments but does n't have that seussian sound . ' where are you christmas ' is annoying beyond all reason and i mean both versions . and whose bright idea was it to have jim carrey mangle ' you 're a mean one ' ? if you 're looking for a more grinch like score , go find elfman 's nightmare before christmas
+camera neg cons only , no pros : the velcro closure is week and opens easily terrible look the side zippers are a mistery , totally useless no space for extra memory or battery attaches only to a very small belt the flash opens spontaneously while inserting the camera in its pouch making it difficult to get it out later on and probably damaging the flash
+camera neg this bag is very small . my canon 20d fits nicely with a small lens , but you cannot fit more than one lens with the camera body . we kept the bag for informal use when we only need the body and one lens to avoid always having to carry a bulky bag
+camera neg this camcorder has an excellent form factor and conveniently transfers clips to pc via usb . however , the camera picks up the sound of its own zoom and auto-focus , which makes the video unacceptable in my opinion . the clicking and whirring is louder than the level of normal conversation . we returned the first unit that we got thinking that it may have been a production defect , but the second unit had the same problem . apparently , according to the manual , this is " not a malfunction "
+camera pos can someone who bought the kit from adorama tell me : 1 ) the battery is the canon genuine nb-1lh battery ? 2 ) the camera case is canon psc-50 case ? thank you in advance
+camera pos i have looked everywhere for this charger . everywhere in town wants me to buy something else that might work . it was great to finally find the actual charger that comes with the camera . it 's just the right size and plugs right into the wall . the prongs fold down and can fit nicely in a carry-on bag . thanks so much for having this item available
+music neg i could not wait to get this album . i usually love to hear the new the hypnotize minds albums . however after so many years groups do make mistakes . this is a major one . chrome could suck his name off of a trailer hitch . i own the original copies of every prophet / hypnotize relese since mystic styles , and this is by far the worst to emerge . they never release a lord infamous solo album in 12 years ( not to mention he is dj paul 's brother...wait i just did ) and now this ? ? ? what 's next , a crunchy black album lol ? ? this is a personal note to dj paul and juicy j...please swallow your pride and re-hire ( at least ) t-rock , gangsta boo , mc mack , and bribe some judges to get lord infamous out of jail ! ! ! p.s. - this only gets 2 stars for the production value .
+camera neg the main reason i ordered this kit was for the battery . when i received it ....no battery included . i contacted amazon and all they could do was give me a number for sony customer service . thanks amazon ! !
+music pos an outstanding compilation of a wide variety of popular and regional styles from across mexico . this set examines both traditional and contemporary music , including a brilliant ska-banda mix by the popular " rock en espanol " band , cafe tacuba . rancheras , corridos , boleros , indie rock and various stylistic fusions are represented , and even a few sones from veracruz - - one of my favorite musical genres ! if you are curious about the rich musical heritage of this large but often slighted nation , then check this collection out.. . it might open more than a few new musical doors
+music neg i never write reviews for anything , but this one was so bad , i could n't help myself . everybody has different tastes , but if you like music with any kind of structure or melody at all , you will not like belladonna . i could not make sense of it at all , it rambled on and on , never getting to the point , never picking a path , never building on a theme . it bored me with it 's vague attempts to build a song . i listened to it 2 times just to make sure i was n't imagining how bad it was , and then i dumped it . it was not my style , and i do n't see how it could be anybody 's style , but that 's just me . i felt obligated to voice my opinion and possible save somebody out there from being bitterly disappointed . good luck on your listing adventures
+music pos sombre romantic is a step up if you will in the gothic metal genre . it is a very solid album from start to finish but has alot of layers that keep things interesting . its not what you would really consider to be a " religious " album but there are many undertones that help get the message across . this point being made very clear in " museum of iscariot " which talks of jesus from judas ' point of view . rowan 's vocal stylings change to meet the moods of every song on this album , from low opera type to screaming , in a superb way that stays consistent and never gets old . if you are into relaxed darkwave / goth music this is a perfect album to purchase
+music pos ...else if michigan was on vinyl i would have worn it out by now . illinois was my first venture into the sound-world of sufjan stevens , and no doubt it his most impressive outing to date . however the subtle spendour of the earlier michigan has ousted it as my favourite . perhaps less eclectic and entertaining than illinois , but more soulful and beautiful . ultimately it 's the one i 'd take to the proverbial desert island . there 's not a single track in this 74 minute cd that i 'd want to skip or drop from my mp3 playlist , but highlights for me are romulus ( gentle and heartbreaking ) , sleeping bear ( musically gorgeous ) , and vito 's ordination song ( like being gently hugged ) . p.s. so often the ' bonus tracks ' on a cd can seem superfluous and substandard but the 2 extras on my cd ( marching band and pickerel lake ) are both excellent .
+music pos if you are expecting " safari moon pt. 2 " , you will be dissapointed . air took a more adventuourous , darker , ambient , serious , experimental , and ultimtately brilliant journey into electronic music . the songs here range from sounding like aphex twin ( without the weird off-putting effects or heavy drums ) to thievery corp. air still has a beautiful sense of melody and as usual the tunes themselves are beautifully and creatively put together ( even a throwaway air song is a well-crafted one ) . overall , all us true hardcore air fans love this album . those who only loved ms may not like it , but that 's their loss i say
+camera pos this kit is a must have for any of the compatible canon cameras . digital camera rule #1 : always carry a spare battery - the kit is almost worth it for that alone . the leather case is great : stylish looks that provides a tough protective armor in case you drop the camera . the neck strap is quite strong and looks good too . it may not be everyone 's cup of tea but i like it . it comes in handy when i need quick access to the camera and do n't want to fumble through pockets or bags
+music pos i love " fool for the city " i have also always loved savoy brown " looking in " and did n't know until recently that lonesome dave was the singer and most of the savoy brown band went on to form foghat . if you are a foghat fan you should check out " looking in " by savoy brown . if you 've heard other stuff by savoy brown and did n't like it , do n't be discouraged because " looking in " ( and only " looking in " ) is essentially foghat . there were a lot of changes in savoy brown personnel through the years and the guys that did looking in were the best .
+music pos this is not only brian eno 's best album , but one of the finest albums ever made- -a work of simple beauty , complex intelligence , and imagination. .
+music pos its just realy sad that hip-hop dont sound like hard to earn anymore.. . gang starr still gets daily airplay on my stereo and im glad i support these guys
+music pos this album is great but i 'm looking for a song that i think they sung . it goes : pressing on we 're pressing on ( repeat ) . waiting on jesus to answer our call we 're holding on ( repeat ) pressing , pressing , pressing . if anyone knows the name of the song , or has any suggestions on who sings this song , please email me at udeebear1984@yahoo.com . thank you and have a blessed day ! :
+music neg first off that has to be the worst rhyme i 've ever heard in my life.. . andre nickatina ( in the rapping world ) is one of the worst i 've ever heard , but if you 're into dope beats and his style in flowing with them ( reminds me of someone on the ocean just being carried by waves , paddling every which way to stay with them ) , and what i mean by that is he tries to keep up with the pace and the beat and says ( what feels like ) every single thing that pops into his head from coke to what he had for dinner that night . but overall , " if you ca n't dig it like its shovelled man i guess you ai n't able " summs this and the rest of the nickatina c.d.s up
+camera pos celestron 's tool is easy to carry , easy to use , and ( at least in my case ! ) gives me quick , precision collimation with my newtonian . why pay for a laser collimator ( which needs to be calibrated ) when you can use this ? collimation is the most important part of your setup ; without good mirror alignment , all you 'll see are blobs and blurs even on the best viewing nights . this combination tool makes aligning both primary and secondary mirrors fairly painless , and also fairly fast . highly recommended for any level of observer
+camera neg i read the reviews and thought i 'd still give it a try . after one battery charge , i was " lucky " enough to have a defective unit - the camera would n't start again after the first charge . my observations from that first short use were : - quality of pictures was very poor ( my pentax optio 4mp camera takes better quality photos ) - - very disapointing for a 6mp camera . - the flash was generally useless , and actually hurt quality - the camera was very uncomforable if you do n't have very small hands . my wrist hurt after using it for 20 minutes . - the video was ok , but the focus was very slow ( and noisy ) . - i had the same problem as several others - - that the camera died shortly afer getting it ( shows very poor quality ) . all-in-all do n't waste your money . you can get a much better camera at a lower price
+camera pos this is a great camera - it 's so thin , and takes amazing pictures , even when the subject is moving . the best shot option makes taking pictures under any kind of lighting great quality . i suggest this to anyone
+camera neg one of the most disastrous purchases we 've ever made . it works fine until you try to get the video images onto your computer . do n't bother trying to consult the instruction guide ; it 's the worst one you 've ever seen . you could go to the website to attempt to download all the drivers that you supposedly need , but they 're not actually on the website . definitely find another brand
+music pos hot hot heat is one of the few new bands to pique my interest . their first release was decent , but " elevator " is even better . great tunes , drums and guitars - and , of course , steve bays ' yelping vocals . there 's only three songs i really do n't care for - " pickin ' it up " , " soldier in a box " and " shame on you " . looking forward to the next cd
+camera pos very speedy delivery . a gift for my daughter . she loves it . i thought we were to receive a free photo card but did not . not really necessary . did not know that . still playing with it and having a blast . i do like that it is weather resistant
+music neg i can understand that robin felt a need to include some of the biggest bee gees hits to appease the fans , but the ones that were sung by barry are below wretched here . robin frequently disappears in the sound mix , becoming little more than one of a group singing harmony . that 's fine for a group concert , like the bee gees , but inexcusable for a solo effort . his stiff between song talk sounds like a bad lounge act . they should have kept this in the can . it seems like it is meant as little more than a money grab for robin . do n't do him the favor
+music neg it was awful ! the reproduction of the music was grainy , scratchy and virtually impossible to listen to
+music neg some reviews have suggested that this is not the ideal first purchase for the un-inititiated . i am writing to confirm that assertion . i have read enough raving reviews about their subsequent releases to know that it really does get better from here , but what a disappointment this album was for me . it sounds like what you would hear coming from the garage next door . my advice to the kids would be to keep practing and please turn it down . jack 's appreciation of the blues is admirable , but only realised on the song " i fought piranhas " . tellingly , this is the final song on the album . otherwise the songs are forgettable and even annoying at times .
+music neg this cd is awesome from beginning to end . i really enjoy listening to this type of music . this cd is a must have .
+music neg based on other reviews here and comparisons to jellyfish , jason falkner and the beatles , i was expecting a lot better . instead i find this work very shrill and hard to listen to . is the guy talented musically ? yes . but his voice is mediocre and his songs really do n't do it for me . sorry but i feel the need to give an honest assessment so others wo n't be mislead by the breathless reviews here . i am a big fan of power pop and all good music but this does not rank with the best of that genre
+music pos ethereal , rhythmic , haunting , eclectic . wake : best of dead can dance is a collection of songs that will move your soul and spirit . the haunting combination of modern and ancient tunes , combined with phenomenal vocals and instrumentals make this album one to cherish and listen to over and over . each time you hear it will lead to new discoveries and emotions .
+camera neg gosh , i would really like to review this adapter , but- - - amazon has put my order on indefinate hold , as thier supplier is unable to get any more . but wait ! what 's that blurb on the product page - " availability : ususally ships within 24 hours " and " want it delivered tomorrow ? order it in the next 5 hours and 36 minutes , and choose one-day shipping at checkout . see details . " so they ca n't deliver it , yet they still list it as available for delivery tomorrow ? do n't order from amazon
+music pos much improved voice , same great guitar . slow album , especially on his two remakes . country sound on no reason to cry ( beautiful solo ) . this cd would have been a 6 stars had he mixed in a thunderstorm to the background of gonna rain today
+camera pos excellent clarity even on cloudy days . i have had others that cost 4 times the price and would not match the quality of these . comes complete with with case , caps and neck strap
+music neg ...sorry , guys , i think that the cover says it all . totally out of focus and falling apart . i much prefer his later work
+camera neg i have owned the s410 camera for almost two years , when on new years eve i pulled out my handy camera , from the padded case it 's always in , and to my horror , the e18 error message appeared ! it has n't worked since . i paid $400 for this camera and canon would like $110 ( plus taxes ) to fix the problem - ridiculous . especially since this seems to be a very common problem with their cameras . i 've enjoyed the camera 's picture quality and ease of use , but what a waste to spend that much money to take pictures with it for just under two years ! beware of this flaw that canon does n't seem to acknowledge
+camera neg quite unsatisfied with this product and will be returning the 2 i purchased as gifts . in fact , the recipients asked me to return them . main reason , in order for it to be " portable " it requires a special battery that you can only buy from the manufacturer for an additional $30. i already spent $100 , not planning on spending more money . i think photoco needs to rethink their product and improve customer satisfaction .
+music neg the raising arizona part of the cd is almost exclusively electronic and only one 90 second track of the great banjo that i remember from the movie . i recommend listening to samples before you buy
+camera pos my sony fx1 has great low light capability , 3 lux , but eventually you will need extra light . using your software to lighten dark shots will likely reveal some degree of graininess , no matter which camera you use . i 'm so glad i bought it . used it for my birthday party . though the overhead light was good , dark corners of the room require more light . if you consider yourself advanced , semi-pro , or a pro videographer , you must have a light . my only major beef is it runs at either 10 or 20 watts . no variable for 5 , or 15. it is worth getting a long life battery like the np-970. independent power source ( battery ) is a plus . but no outlet plug adaptor that i know of
+camera neg just turned out ot be more complicated to set up than i wanted . never used . returned it
+music pos all of the isleys early work without the younger isleys is just as good with them . but these early workouts are more raw-stripped down and pop-oriented . ron isley has a way of making country , and rock remakes sound like they were never before recorded . not too many black artists can do that . to get a taste of the " real isleys " before the " mr. biggs " persona , get this with " get into something " , and " givin ' it back"
+camera pos this case is vital to protect the lightweight s1 which could be easily damaged from a drop . the case does not detract from the convenience of the s1 , it adds virtualy no bulk to the camera so that it still slips in a pocket or a purse easily .
+camera neg the quality of the pictures are nice when they will actually print . unless you use the printer with your camera on the dock it is incredibly hard to get the darn thing to work . if you decide to crop the picture on your pc and then want to print it be prepared to invest time in getting the darn thing to work ! i have had it for sometime now and i have never been more irritated than when it comes time to print pictures on this thing .
+camera pos i bought this dock from a seller called miga . they did an excellent job of answering my questions on the product and sending everything in mint condition . i use the dock for my hp r817. having read the reviews regarding the insert i just went through hp 's part site and ordered the correct insert for my camera . it was only $5 ( before shipping ) and it arrived the same day as the dock package . the dock transfers data so much faster then the cradle that comes with the camera plus it has an extra battery which would cost $50 and up by itself from hp . i bought the dock for its dual charging ability for when i go on trips since this dock is less expensive then the fast charge travel kit . i probably wo n't use the remote control feature or print images right from the dock . but for what i will use it for its an excellent product for the price and i highly recommend it for you 817 818 users out there .
+camera neg after reading the reviews a bought the accessory kit . i compared the eyepieces and the barlow with standard inexpensive plossls ( orion , knigth owl , gso ) and the celestron 's optics looked the worst one . i sold the kit after 2 weeks. .
+camera pos every picture of mine that included larger portions of the sky would have these stubborn spores on it . pretty infuriating , especially when you got the shot just like you wanted it . yes , you can always remove those on photoshop ( or cheaper yet , the gimp ) ; but is n't it cool when you look at a picture and say : " that is it , nothing to do on it ! " ? ? and it was n't just the sky . any off-white but light plain colored background would suffer visibly from the acursed specks . with this blower , greatly priced ( pity that adorama does n't have free shipping though ) , i put my camera on the tripod , pointed it down , squirted three or four times - and gone are the specs ! ! ! great buy for dslr owners
+camera pos i used the product at victoris falls and was very pleased . at this time i have not gone under water with it .
+music neg i played several samples of this cd on my computer while visiting the amazon website and my male cat started meowing along . this cd is good for calming a cat and lining his box . face it , yoko ca n't sing ( unless you have a cat 's ears . )
+music neg the people who have mentioned aphex twin and four tet have clearly never listened to either of these artists . if you liked the stone roses you will like this . it 's not an ' electronic ' album at all . i 've ordered manitoba 's earlier cd after listening to the samples ( the reason for purchasing both these albums ) and i certainly hope it sounds nothing like ' up in flames' . it 's funny , i promised myself i would never buy an album again without listening to it and yet it seems that samples on the net can be misleading , either that or dan snaith has had a serious identity crisis in the last few years
+camera pos i bought this camera for my 80 year old mother because i knew that if she was going to try digital photography , it had to be easy ! the printer dock is simple for her to use to transfer snapshots of her cat to her computer and email them to her friends . i have used the older cx-7300 , ( very similar camera ) for backpacking for years and it has never failed under harsh conditions . the lack of optical zoom is a plus for me ; less to break . the c530 is more compact , has better resolution , and still has the option of using aa batteries when the rechargables die . if you want simple digital snapshots , you will love this little camera
+music pos but a good debut album . this is when i felt proud knowin ja was from ny . no radio friendly s*** here just street for the most part . but i guess when you were never really gangsta in the first place you ca n't keep talkin about it , which is why i guess he changed his style . now the subject i wanna hit . has anyone noticed that guy named progressive ? why does amazon allow goofs who hate hip hop trash our culture ? and everytime i turn around its some damn rocker / junkie hippie . last time i checked rhythm and melody was part of music . i dont hear none of those when i through on heavy metal or rock . i 'm tired of our music bein trashed . you know what im a go trash one of they " artist " right now
+camera neg i bought this camera two years ago , the pictures were always perfect , even though from the sixth month it started getting stains everywhere , but then i found out that it was normal , not good but it usually happens to this cameras . but the worst of all is tha fact that it displays the error 18 ( e18 ) , the lens gets stock and the camera wo n't work at all . i searched in google about it , because the user guide says nothing about this error , and then i read many reviews that said that there was nothing to do about it and many canon cameras have the same defect.. . i am really mad and dissapointed on canon , i will never buy a camera of this brand , and i would n't recommend it , unless you are willing to buy a camera for 2 years or less and then throw your money to the trash
+camera pos this battery recharger does its job well . no bells or whistles , just plug it in , put the battery in , and wait for the red light to turn green
+music neg on the liner notes to one of the two blues albums ( i think it is shaker ) it is said that the original idea was just to perform some of these songs in a one night concert . that should have been as far as it went . to foist these songs on an unsuspecting public at 19 bucks a crack is highway robbery . if these are blues songs , then i am robert johnson 's illegitimate son . " death letter " is good , maybe even great , but cannot compare to the original or to any of the covers i have previously heard . the rest is a waste of time . the cover art is excellent but hardly the reason you would be expected to buy the cd . these are my first 2 reviews by the way , but all these 5-star reviews for both cd 's finally got me motivated . go buy a muddy waters or lightning hopkins cd and save 10 bucks in the bargain
+camera pos so far , i really love this camera . it 's very user friendly and gives you the option to put it in a very basic mode or normal mode . what attracted me to purchasing this camera was because of the long battery life and because of the picture quality . it has a large viewing area which is nice and it 's very clear . i recommend this camera
+camera neg it worked fine the first week . then the focus stopped working . i sent it to repair . it worked well for a couple of weeks and then the focus stopped working . i sent it for repair for the second time . it worked well for a couple of weeks and then stopped working . also , it is impossible to contact the repair center or the customer relation center at sony ! ! ! they make you wait over an hour ! ! ! si if you want a camera for two of three weeks this is probably what you are looking for ! ! ! sony repair reference number : e3317596
+camera neg grainy iso 100 pictures at any light conditions . usage of 5mp and low sharpness options partially solves the problem , but if you take pictures with panasonic dmc-fz7 and compare ... it will be clear that a garbage trash is the right place for this camera . i had panasonic dmc-fz7 and the only cons . is really noisy high iso sensitivity mode . in fz8 camera panasonic implemented the venus iii processor ( fz7 has venus ii processor ) . as a result picture quality really improved at high iso sensitivity modes but dramatically changed for the worse in iso 100 mode
+music neg i 'm a " compleat " beatlemaniac , and i do n't mind the political statements at all , but this is a nearly unlistenable record that i have a hard time counting as a serious musical effort or even a real album . i would have loved it if it had been a 7 " single , " woman is the nigger of the world , " with the rest of it just words written in liner notes . after that opening track , the remainder is a serious chore to get through . it 's almost unimaginable that this came out between the excellent " imagine " ( 1971 ) and the solid " mind games " ( 1973 ) , but then again , john was not consistent , in part surely due to his apparent and admirable lack of commitment to being a pop star . love john for the genius he was , his commitment to peace , and the great music he made - - it 's just that there 's barely any of it on this particular record .
+music neg this cd just does n't have the quality it should . some of the songs have had the lyrics cut out or removed such as danny boy . i have the cassette and it was great but this just does n't do justice to ray price or his songs
+camera neg it 's a great concept , but my unit was n't recognized by any of my 3 pc 's , despite hours of work with tech support and even trying a second unit . one of my pcs runs xp ( they had no idea why this computer did n't recognize the magpix ) and the others run win98 ( which they said sometimes has problems with the magpix , although they do n't say that in their marketing literature ) . they gave me my money back , but refused to refund the shipping charge as promised , and in addition i wasted several hours and the cost of mailing two units back to them . i suggest waiting for the next version , or even better , for a better company to introduce a similar product
+music neg this cd its just horrible , they sold only 10 , 000 copies enough to pay for their instruments lol ! there are better bands than this an example is bleeding through so i think no one cares about a re release peace out
+camera neg do not buy this camera , i repeat do not buy this camera ! just read the reviews and you 'll know exactly what i mean . lucky i got this piece of junk for christmas , so i did n't spend a dime on it . i opened the package before reading any reviews . now i wish i 've read the reviews before opening the box . i do n't care what setting you use , i tried them all and i have yet to take a picture any better than my cell phones camera . the lighting sucks , you either end up with dark pictures or super bright ones . i really wanted this camera to work , it looks sweet but sadly it ca n't take pictures .
+camera neg if you got here looking for a bag for an xacti camera , keep looking . this bag is too small . it can be used for holding memoery cards and batteries , but not much more .
+camera pos this is my first time to purchase a battery grip for a digital slr camera and it was a good investment . i do n't have to worry about running out of battery power and at the same time it works as a vertical grip for my camera . it also looks nice on my canon 30d camera , coupled with an " l " series zoom lens
+music neg im not surprised that this album is garbage because fiddy has been putting out trash lately ( think tony gayo ) . there are no standout tracks and prodigy doesnt even rhyme anymore . all prodigy does is spit run-on sentences throughout every track and havoc sounds like he 's just there to be there . amerikaz nightmare was a sign that it was over for them . did we really have to hear this one to see that ? if you are a mobb deep fan buy every album before amerikaz nightmre and keep it moving
+music neg collective soul had a few nice attempts toward pop music like dosage . the main problem i have with this album is none of the songs are hits so no airwaves and the fact that the album probably has about 7 fillers ! its just to flawed to recommend to everyone it may be if you are a diehard collective soul fans . i wouldnt lose this album but i wouldnt buy it again
+music neg this is the only album i own of joe strummer minus the clash . i ca n't say it 's very good . i hate having to compare it with it with his work with the clash but it 's inevitable . his lyrics are n't as great , edgy or provocative . there is n't any fantastic music either . i am not really sure what to say since i have n't listened to the album in so long because it was so bad , i truly tried my hardest to like it . but i feel it is my duty to advise others to not make the same mistake . believe me : i absolutely love everything about the clash , the lyrics , joe 's voice , the music , the attitude and how cool they were , this is not joe at his best , it 's cool though cause now he 's gone : go buy some bob marley albums instead , joe would not have minded
+camera pos this spotting scope from bushnell is an excellent buy if you are an outdoors person or if you like watching the world from your window . you can even view the craters on the moon . plus it 's waterproof and comes with two cases and a tripod . the amazon price is the best deal on the internet
+music pos i 've been a jim brickman fan for a few years now . when i saw this cd came out , i could not resist getting it . it is absolutely amazing and fully worth it . when i first put it in my stereo , i had to sit there just to listen to the first few tracks without doing anything . that was how impressive they were . the title of the album is incredibly fitting . while my roommate is venting about the latest drama in her group of friends , i have this cd turned up in my own little corner to " escape " from it all . i swear i could not have found anything more fitting to be listening to while trying to get away from real life for a bit . if you love jim brickman , or just like soft jazz , or piano music , this cd is a must have
+music neg this is as bad as the film.in fact just like the film the soundtrack is the same old formula.will& ; his movies& ; music never change the same old beat.the rest of the soundtrack is just as bad.unoriginal& ; boring.what a waste of kool moe dee
+camera neg i got to the tip of alaska , and none of the four batteries worked no power ! i missed getting a day of once in a life time pictures . david highe
+camera pos excellent camcorder . the only thing i would do different is spend the little more it would take to go up to the pv-gs85
+music pos undoubtedly , marnie belongs to the top list of bernard herrmann 's best film scores , a wonderful musical image of alfred hitchcock 's underrated movie . written for small ensemble ( strings , woods , harp and horns ) herrmann gives the music a wonderfully flowing mood , tasteful and delighted along with the dark characteristics in every second bar that herrmann so masterful handles in all his works for hitch . joel mcneely 's reading is simply stunning as ever , so is the performance , but i just do n't like the overall acoustics on these varĂšse rerecordings with the large hall reverb giving the orchestra no room for details . they simply are overheard in this muffled sound . this is far from ideal for recording a film score and i bet herrmann would not have liked this ! but , it 's a great , great score
+music neg something that someone who claims to be country should not do . even though these girls are already pop , remixing it to make it even more pop was a huge mistake ! then again , they have to do something to sell more cd 's ! lol ! !
+music pos my husband and i play this cd all the time . we both love it
+music pos i was thrilled to see this available on cd .......... it is the most delightful christmas ' album ' of it 's time & it continues to delight ! i purchased several and gave to friends for christmas - every single receipient was immediately thrilled to have this ' album ' on cd stating , ' this was my favorite , where 'd you find it ? " great gift
+camera neg i bought a sony icd-mx20 digital voice recorder a week ago . i was surprised that sony does not provide downloads of the associated software named " digital voice editor " . sony customer service staff told me that if you lost the cd that came with the box , you had to buy a new one . only patches of the software are available to download . the customer service personnel told me that it was corporate policy despite the fact that the software is bound to the digital device . this immoral policy violating the norm of digital appliance industries and should not be encouraged . sony is demoting its brand name by offering poor post-sales services . think twice before making your buying decision .
+camera pos photos printed are very sharp . some difficulty with printer cartidge and as expensive as they are , you ca n't afford to have much difficulty . good for craft times with the kids
+camera neg crap . does n't work . wanted to return it but had to go out of town and lost the time period . plastic junk , never did get a good signal . the worst sony item i 've ever purchased - - and i 'm a sony fan . will still attempt to return somehow . do n't even bother
+music pos how dare you compare oasis to phil collins . phil collins sucks and oasis rules ! how come you do n't get the message ? you 're retarded
+camera pos this is a nice bag , but do n't buy it for a canon s2 is it will not fit . the product compatibility lists the s1 is since the s2 and s1 are very similar i purchased this bag . i ca n't even get the thing in the bag . it is a nice bag however and have put my smaller kodak camera in it . there is plenty of room for a typical point and shoot camera and all of it 's accessories . good quality
+camera pos i purchased this lens to take photographs of vintage wristwatches . i use an original canon digital rebel and the shots are really very detailed . it is easy to use in fact , i can hand hold the camera and capture the details in the hand-made craftsmanship of the watches . its f2.5 opening is a welcome change when you are use to shooting with a zoom lens and it is quite sharp edge to edge . if you own a canon digital slr and want to pocket some extra coin then this is the lens for you .
+camera neg i have one and panasonic does n't have driver or processing downloads for it or even respond to requests . the proprietary video format requires special handling in your pc and can leave you with a camera full of useless clips . are they abandoning this product ? look on the panasonic website and see for yourself
+camera pos for an all-purpose color film , i nearly always shoot fuji 's 200 speed . it has the cooler tones that i prefer in my images and a good saturation level . the only drawback that i 've seen while looking at various film prices here is that they are way over-priced ! the only place that i 've seen where you pay more for film is in the supermarkets . any regular camera store or photo finisher will have this stuff for a lot less , and you wo n't have to wait for it to ship
+music neg this industry is " goin down " u call this an album ? ? ? lo
+music pos coltranes recordings with his classic quartet of ' 61-5 varied between very good and stunning . coltrane fans may want to get the impulse ! box set instead though ( which includes this cd and the other works of the quartet
+camera neg description or product is wrong . there is no quad independent power / charging indicators . they are set up in banks of two . one light for two charging bays . batteries must be charged in banks of two . tried e-mailing vidpro for additional info on this charger . e-mail came back as undeliverable . cannot find any reviews on the internet for this charger
+camera neg i guess i really should n't complain because my husband won the camera in an office rally . but the pictures it takes are disgraceful for a samsung product every two to three pictures are blurred unrecognizably-where you ca n't even tell what you have taken . if you have found yourself among the fortunate few who actually found success with this camera thank your lucky stars . even if it is a less expensive choice versus the other cameras on the market today spend the extra money it would be worth it not to miss any family moments like my family did , on this useless piece of crap
+music pos well , here we are . one of the true works of the electronic genre in the 90 's , " lifeforms " is true sonic adventure . this is obviously some of the best work that fsol ever did . " lifeforms " is a double album of electronic and ambient moments spliced together , interchanged and meshed . for ambient work , it has a lot of randomness and bright detail thrown in at a rapid pace . there is a lot of energy and terse grab to the songs , despite their being ambient . it is very original , i praise originality in music . give it a try , put on some " flower " " bird wings " or some " elaborate burn .
+music pos it is good for old eric gale fans to be able to purchase this cd . it will bring back many memories . it will also remind you of how great a guitar player he was . i am grateful that i 've had a chance to own many recordings that he has played on . pay close attention to she is my lady and morning glory . this is a must have cd . jaye price beltsville , md .
+music neg generally harmless , except for one very offensive song about siblings that hate each other and hate their parents . the song is probably funny to ultra-sophisticated , cynical adults . but the song is totally inappropriate for a four year old . i would n't bring this cd into your house
+camera pos i bought this lens on a whim to see what it would be like to shoot with a prime lens . at $80 it certainly was worth the risk unlike the many other canon lenses which cost thousands of dollars . the quality of the pictures from this lens is the only thing making me move away from zoom lenses
+camera pos this is an elegant leather case for the canon elph cameras . it fits in the pocket easily . i 'm satisfied
+camera pos pros : - reduces flare and ghosting when shooting in bright light . - helps protect your lens from dirt and scratches . - somewhat protects the lens in case of a fall . better to break the hood than the front element . - makes you look more like you know what you are doing and helps to keep others from carelessly walking in front of you . cons : - will increase lens movement in windy situations , kind of like a sail on a boat . - takes up more room in your bag , even when reversed they still add to the diameter of the lens . - people take more notice of you , will help to blow your cover if you are trying to keep a low profile
+camera pos of course , it had to be kodak . no matter what people say , i have always and will always use a kodak digital camera , i 've found this camera to be a real warrior , last one i had lasted about 4 year and this one looks even better , photo cuality its very good and colors are great , no excesive blue or red in your pics , night photo taking its excelent in close shots . 4 stars beacuse its really a batterie eater , but its nothing a 25$ batterie charger can ` t solve . sorry for grammar mistakes but english is not my natal lenguaje
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+music neg oh man , this sucks really bad . good thing nu-metal is dead . thrash metal is real metal , this is for posers
+music pos his singing style is very unique as are his lyrics . he has an eclectic mix of love songs , " we are the world " type songs and a few others on this album . he has the staying power for long the long term and i would love to see him mature throughout the years and watch to see where he goes . i loved streetcorner symphony ! it is so upbeat it can pull me out of whatever is ailing me . lonely no more is my theme song for right now in my life - needless to say i am replaying grooves in that one ! enjoy this album - i sure do
+music pos i can only say that this was my favorite record of last year . this record is hard to find in your local record store , so search it out.. . incredible - ca n't wait to hear more !
+camera pos i purchased this camera 2 weeks ago . i love using it . it has lots of function to play with . it is easy to use . i didnt have trouble taking good pictures in zoom mode outdoor . indoor , i had to use tripod if i use zoom . however , i cant really think of any occasion that i have to use zoom indoor other than my testing last week . besides , it gives great pictures and i loved the price . i kind of considered dslr camera but i gave it up becasue lenses were more expensive than camera itself . i considered one wide angle lense and one zoom lense . it would have cost me almost 2000 dollars so far , i love this camera . if this helps to anyone considering buying this camera , id give two thumbs up .
+camera neg not seeing many reviews , i 'm writing this as a warning . this mic is horrible . i bought it to get rid of the " motor noise " from my canon optura pi , as many others have . when i listen now , the sound is much worse . you can barely hear people speak over the loud humming.. . this mic is horrible
+music pos these tunes may not immediately remind you of steve miller but his talent is not belied . it 's some really peaceful music . great to turn on just at bedtime and drift off to la la land
+music neg i agree fully with " a music fan " above ... this and david 's self titled album are really poor in comparison to the rest of his solo work . i love most of talking heads music but do n't rate remain in light highly like most fans do
+music neg being a huge blondie fan , i want to rate this one higher , but sadly i cannot . it 's just a sad mishmash of bad songs , it feel very negligant too . i love the way blondie contributed to rap and disco , but their calypso number on this one is so awful . they had lost it here . check out thier truly great albums instead like paralel lines or eat to the beat. .
+camera neg this product is worthless . you 'd be better off keeping your money and buying a good case at a store . overpriced , cheap , plastic-y rip-off . no " deluxe " here
+music pos the best r&b band ever ! ! ! i know some will disagree with me , but this is the band that really rock my boat . i mean , they were awesome and it was n't forced or fake . the rawness of their funk is sooo addictive that you will never put this cd down . i am in the process of getting all their cds , but this one is a great way to be introduce to their music
+camera pos i 'm very happy with my camera . i recomend it for anyone . various funtions , the sofware included is good as well
+music pos del spits brilliant lyrics and produces excellently.. . the beats of songs merge together as tracks change.. . el-p makes a cameo.. . casual makes a cameo.. . prince paul produces a track.. . get this album
+camera pos i am extremely happy with this purchase ! i love the 10x zoom when taking pics of my kids
+camera pos this took my d-200 to the final level...great investment...went 2to 3 days while on vacation while shooting 4 gigs a day of stuff...love this little guy...plus it allows for aa usage in a pinch..gotta love that. .
+camera pos i am new to slrs and i cant belive how good this camera is . this camera is worth every penny for the amazing quality it produces . i always thot my old digital pics with point and shoot were excellent , but looking back , they look terrible compared to this .
+music pos modern dub stylings from an assortment of recording artists , ranging from the bizarre and brilliant ( check the lost scrolls of hamarik 's darkly deranged how to find royal jelly ) , to the utterly unforgiveable ( namely , luciano 's appaling attempt at police & thieves ) . luckily for us , most of the tunes here fall into or around the former category , with great contributions from st. germain ( bouncing dub-disco on a dub experience ) , grant phabao ( updated roots righteousness on andub head yudu ) and boozoo bajou ( with the wonderfully cheesey divers ) . and let 's not overlook cottonbelly 's 90 's classic tempest dub , which resurrects an old scientist tune to spine-tingling effect . only the fairly plain seven dub and the aforementioned luciano really fail to ignite...all in all then , a worthwhile collection which works very nicely as a whole - providing you program the cd player to skip the occassional duffer
+camera neg i love everything about this camera but....the display is very touchy . i only owned the camera for 2 months and my display broke . i had it in a case and must have bumped it just right . my display shattered . mind you there is not a view finder so you can only guess what you are taking pictures of . this is not covered under your warranty . my camer has been in the repair shop for 3 weeks now and since the camera is so new there is no parts available yet . so i am sitting here with no camera , which is really bothersome since i love taking pictures . i figured i would spend more for a nice quality camera and have no worries but who knew this would happen ! so i highly recommend this camera but you must be very very careful with it !
+music neg this disc is bad ! ! ! right at the 2 " mark the sound of the " rock water " is join by what sounds like a slow draining bathtub . this sound is more or less present throughout the entire hour . other discs of this type that i 've heard do n't do this
+music neg chicane should just stop releasing material under that guise ever again . fftmc and bts were lush and beautiful productions . nicks latest attempts have been pathetic...from a musical standpoint and from a professional production standpoint...even his older ' pop ' remixes for other artists were better than this rubbish he 's doing these days...no , we 're not saying recycle the older productions , but instead it 's a matter of putting the effort and ' originality ' in the profuctions...a signature if you will...and hey , it does n't have to pigeon hole you if done with class...yes , how the mighty have fallen.. . oh brother. .
+camera neg i have owned numerous celestron telescopes up to 11-inch apertures , so i expected better . i ordered this for my daughter - it arrived defective ; the primary mirror had slipped from its bracket , making collimation impossible . in celestron 's defense , it likely happened in transit . amazon 's return policy is not a hassle , and i 'm upgrading her to another telescope . i 'm sure that had this particular scope not arrived in a defective condition it would have made a great scope . only criticism is the plugs on the back to cover the collimation screws pop out a bit too easily
+music neg blues singers should n't try to go mainstream . if they do try and succeed , fine . that means they 've stayed true to their roots . when they try and fail ( as susan has done with hope and desire ) , one would hope they 'd try to get back to where they started . for me that was just wo n't burn . i guess when one is happily married with children , it 's hard to sing the blues since you 're not feeling them . . . you 're faking them
+music pos what can i say that most of the people reviewing this cd have n't already said . arthur is outrageously talented . it 's almost shocking . the depth of songwriting and production values are so intense . it 's extremely well recorded and mixed music . anyone into audio manipulation should just buy all of his albums right now . " stumble and pain " is probably my favourite track . the sinister tone of it and the synth effects are just superb . as with all arthur albums the vocals are dense , layered , and its something he 's obviously worked on for a long time and it really pays off on this album ! anyone new to him should buy this immediatly and buy redemption 's son straight after that . what a musician
+camera neg i purchased this frame as a gift for a friend of mine . when i saw it on her desk and noticed the terrible quality of the images , i was embarassed that i had given such an inferior item as a gift . perhaps the images she had loaded were quite low resolution , but the pictures looked terrible with huge pixels . i would not recommend this item at all
+music neg perhaps it 's a bit unfair because lucinda engenders such high expectations , but i was really disappointed with this record the songwriting is weak , the singing is weak , and the arrangements are dull something kicked all the life out of the music- -the songs are not all the same , but for some reason they all sound the same- -and embarrassingly , you can sing most of them after one listen , they are so simplistic and cliched
+music pos this era of tangerine dream ( td ) was just great . the virgin years were truly a great period for td . for me it deals with space and landscape . it 's so close to repetitive music that would come much later . it 's also the one group that used rythm to structure these flying melodies . you could fly with them and end up with more in the end . you ca n't say that for too many of these electronic groups . after that period they would go on with this ambient music that was n't up to the same standards . it seems they are back ( with other musicians of course ) with the same kind of concept . great ! they were an important link on the electronic scene . a great album ! a great period
+camera pos i honestly do n't see why people would give this camera less than 4 stars . the moment i got it , i was delighted with the quality of the pictures ( except in very dark places - which is why the review gets minus 1 star ) , and by its portability . i 've dropped it , abused it , took it to countless parties , countries and it is now full of scratches and bumps ( get the camera case ! ) , and guess what : it still works as perfectly as the first day i got it . this little piece of technology is amazing , so if you 're looking for something affordable and with a great picture quality ( for us amateurs , of course ) just go for it . actually , i even took quite a few gorgeous pictures with it . i even love it and rely on it so much that i wo n't change it even now that it looks all messed up . do n't think twice . just go for it
+music neg i hate saying this as a huge good charlotte fan but their new album is just a major waste of money . their first album is one of my top five albums of all time , but this one sucks . the songs are all dance pop synthesized junk . no real guitars , no messages to any of the songs , no nothing . i dont know if joel is just too busy running around town with nicole richie or what but they skipped out on this album . the only redeaming song is the river , on which they colaberated with m shadows and synester gates of avenged sevenfold . i hate hate hate to say it but dont waste your money or time on this one , just listen to the first album and remember what a great band they used to be .
+camera neg someone earlier had complained that this lense was suggested to them by amazon and it was the wrong size . well , that person is n't alone . the camera i purchased is a canon s2is , which i love . the lense does n't fit it . i even bought the hood / lense adapter set and it still does n't fit . this simply is not the right lense for a canon s2is , no matter what amazon suggests . now , too much time has passed for me to return the lense . i 'm stuck with it , and i do n't like that
+music pos the title says it all , im so happy i bought it and i listen to it all the time :
+camera neg i was looking for a pair of roof-prism binoculars like this , for hawk and bird watching . i had looked at swarovskis , but they were way out of my budget , nearly a thousand dollars for this resolution . these binoculars are crystal-clear , with sharp focus . the 42mm lens lets in lots of light , lots more than the 35 's i 've been using . i wear glasses and the twist - up - and -down eyecups are a blessing . there are also attached lens protectors for the 42mm , nice because i always used to lose them . for the price , these ca n't be beat
+music neg great recording , but if you want to actually use it , like load it on your ipod it has sony 's stupid drm . meaning you can't . do n't buy sony products ! !
+camera pos now , this is n't the fastest card on the market . but it is a solid , reliable card . the camera itself is the bottle kneck , and typically not this card . however , if you are using a canon dslr of a recent flavor , i would check if it needs to be rma'd . a known quantity of these cards have proven to lose images . scary . however , i 've not experienced the mysterious loss of images with my card or rebel xt . i 've only ever pushed the cards speed limits with my pd70x , and definately not with my rebel xt
+music neg i was expecting it to have a lot of international type music to it but it virtually sounded the same as the original . i think i may have mistaken this cd title for another of shania's . her music is great but i do n't see a difference with the international version
+music pos i 've been listening to satoshi tomiie for a long time and this is definetly one of his best cd 's yet . its one of those cd 's that is a must have before a road trip . just play it and let it ride . from beginning to end it keeps your ears on high alert just waiting for that next track to hit . before you know it your at the end , but who says you cant just hit repeat and start the ride all over again .
+music pos i purchased this cd with the intent of finding fine players playing fine music . what i found , however , was and outstanding example of chamber music as its finest . the ensemble these 3 players generate is some of the finest ensemble music playing recorded . each player displays exceptional technique , both in the mechanical and lyrical aspects of their playing . most impressive is listening to istomen who , playing a very technically and lyrically demanding part , voices his playing with such finess and carefull attention to detail to the strings ; a feat very difficult to do as a pianist . this is an excellent recording for the professional to study a score from or for the avid listener to play over and over
+camera neg i will keep this review simple . for the price this is an ok deal . however : the bag is a bit bulky and has no belt loop . the battery charger is finicky and has below average build quality batteries are generic rechargeables . you are better off finding a bag that fits your needs perfectly and picking up a separate charger / batteries . it will wind up costing you less in the long run
+camera neg use less than 3 times , the touch screen does n't work.do n't know why~
+camera neg do n't be fooled by the enticing 6 megpixels that this camera offers . i 'd been waiting along time to upgrade from my 3 mp nikon coolpix sq as the prices of the higer resolution cameras continued to drop . what 've i 've discovered , however , is that there is so much sensor noise in the full resolution 6 mp images from this hp camera that the additional resolution is worthless . the images look absolutely horrible . my little nikon sq with it 's lower resolution produces much sharper pictures at every image size . do your homework and make sure that the sensor in the camera you 're buying is a good one
+camera pos wow..okay so i was thinking this was a screen about the size of a smaller camera because i didnt read the dimensions before i bought it here on amazon so i was a little disappointed in the size . this is about half the size of an ipod mini . it is by no means big . read the dimesions well before you purchase . the photos are really good quality and clear ..just small lol .
+camera pos this tripod was a total shock ! i was amazed at the quality , stability and portability . the heavy duty denier carrying case is a great bonus . the level and quick release were also a welcome surprise . this was the best $9.00 i ever spent for photography accessories .
+camera pos outstanding service . product as advertised . excellent packing job . arrived in record time . would buy again from this seller
+camera neg camera worked great for us for 6 months . easy to use , decent pictures and good software . the battery life was fine for our use . it quit working at six months and would no longer focus and is now useless . for a six month disposable camera its a little expensive .
+camera neg almost useless ! tried it for several days of photo shoots and finally gave up in frustration . went back to using the viewfinder without this magnifier . professional medical photographer
+music neg " maiden voyage " appears on innumerable lists of jazz masterpieces , and it is clear from the first listen that both the composition and the playing are at a level of technical proficiency unmatched on most albums of this era or any time afterward . nevertheless , the finished product is not one that all listeners will find appealing . to these ears , this album seems aimless and even somewhat annoying . the songs meander without clear structure and tony williams ' drumming seems at times to be going in a direction opposite that of the rest of the band . the influence of this album is indisputable , but its enjoyability is a more subjective matter . if you enjoy groundbreaking , cerebral jazz such as the music made by miles davis ' second quintet , then this album will probably work for you . if , on the other hand , you favor hancock 's earlier and more accessible albums " takin ' off " and " my point of view , " this album may be a bit of a letdown
+music pos this is an amazing cd - i cannot believe that more people have not discovered charlie sexton . the songs are personal and beautifully written . the music rocks , and yet it 's different than any of sexton 's other music . he is a brilliant artist and this is a brilliant wor
+music pos now i know what you 're thinking , why are there two releases of " xx " ? well after they switched from eclipse to universal records they re-released the album " xx " but they also re-recorded all the songs with less hard core vocals ( big mistake ! ) the original album is by far much better than the universal release in december of 2001. if you 're not sure which one to go with go with this one !
+camera neg this product did n't appear to add any appreciable sound benefit ; the sound from the ecm-hgz1 appears to be the same as that recorded with the native audio of the camera itself . i wish i had not bought it
+music pos although this sports new remastering , unless you have either the golden hits cd available here at amazon and your local cd shop , the now out of print golden celebration boxed set or the 2 volume " patti page collection " series ( volume 2 is also out of print ) , this is unnecessary as it duplicates every track on golden hits except for let me go lover instead of with my eyes wide open i 'm dreaming and the songs are arranged in a different order . fans are better off looking for the 2 previous out of print collections with let me go lover to obtain this track and for the rest of this stuff , either buy golden hits , the boxed set and the 2 volume patti page collection series , and btw , vol . 1 is still in print so you can order it right here at amazon
+camera neg like most people i got this camera because it is quite compact for the quality of the image . i 've been pleased with the image quality when it works , but from the start it 's felt flimsy and felt like it would die with any rough treatment . sure enough : * the shutter cover has often stuck open or shut . * sometimes it refuses to start at all . * it sometimes powers on as you 're putting it into your pocket , which opens the barrel which has got to damage the camera . * finally , the lcd stopped working altogether . this is after 8 months . casio has decided i 'm not under warranty ( no explanation as to why , no phone number to argue with them ) , and is charging me $97 to repair it . do n't be seduced ! it 's a poor quality product
+camera neg i received this as a christmas present . this digital camera works fine for still shots , pictures of my family , etc , but for action shots , kids playing outside , basketball games , etc. it is a big disappointment . i took 47 pictures of my son playing basketball in our school gym and only 5 of them were worth keeping . i 've taken to several games / activities to try it out . i 've tried using the different functions , adjusting the manual setting , and playing with the zoom but nothing has worked . many of the shots are blurred , have shadows ( because of movement ) , or are so dark the people ca n't be seen . i wish i would have known this before i asked for this camera .
+music pos to start off i am a huge grateful dead fan and i have prabably about 150 cd 's that cover many years of there carrer . this release is very good and worth buying . it has some great music on it and the price of the album is worth the eyes of the world with branford marsalis on the sax alone . all and all this was among my first bunch of grateful dead cd 's that i got and it got me hooked so do yourself a favor if you are thinking about listening to the grateful dead and you want to hear something from the 1990 era buy this cd . but i would also get something from the 77 era too
+music pos this is a great cd ! each track fades up to full volume at the start and fades down to silence at the end . this makes it nice to just play the entire cd or to loop one track since there are no sharp changes from one noise to another . so far the car and washing machine tracks seem to be our baby 's favorites . when she outgrows the need for this white noise cd , we 'll transition her to lullaby or classical music . for now though , this cd helps us keep her on a schedule and well rested by helping keep her relaxed and usually asleep during her nap times . as a bonus , the waves and rain on the roof tracks are soothing for grown-ups needing to drown out noise while they sleep
+camera pos received camera exactly as described . easy and smooth transaction would by from this vendor again . thank
+music neg as far as drum and bass cds go this cd was terrible very boring and anything with clever on the cover im going to stay far away from nuff said
+music neg though these are the songs that make the mills brothers famous , they are not the original recordings that made these songs famous , and not necessarily sung by the same men that sang the originals ( certainly they are considerably older ) . these are ok , but they lack the punch and familiarity ( to a fan like myself ) of the originals . the title , though not actually misleading , leads one to believe you will be listening to the original songs- -they are not . i recommend only if you must have the complete set of mills brothers records
+music pos it 's impossible to like all of country music , but randy travis is liked by even those who do n't like country music . from 1986 and through the 90 's he was always on top or near the top of the country charts . his calm , nasal drawl reminds me a bit of lefty frizell , but there 's no mistaking his unique style . these are some of the best recordings in the history of country music including digging up bones , forever and ever , amen , too gone too long , is it still over ? , hard rock bottom of your heart etc. randy had 16 no . 1 's on the country charts . there are 20 cuts here . if you only want one cd with all his greatest hits this is your logical choice . by the way , the sound from rhino is bright and punchy and the booklet features dates , neat pixs , and peak positions . you 've got a winner for life with this one !
+camera neg " lens error , restart camera " message appears today ( mar 26 ) after buying production on amazon on feb 20 , 07. when i searched google for this error message saw thousands of canon users having similar error / e18 error with older and newer version of the canon . i have tried panasonic and sonys before and never had an issue . i dread that canon customer service is going to waste my hours in getting a replacement and ultimately may end up charging me over a 100 for repairs like they have done to other users ( after reading user feedback on web )
+camera neg this camera is a waste of money and should be taken off the market . after purchase we were never able to retreive pictures . the computer would recognize the camera but stated that no pictures were available to download . it not only is difficult to use but not even an adult could figure out how to take a picture and this product is made for a child . the instructions are complicated and eventually you give up . even putting in the batteries is complicated and you need a screwdriver ( the smallest one you can find ) to achieve it . unfortunately , i have wasted my money but luckily you do n't have to
+music pos the clean kick-started the illustrious new zealand label flying nun in 1981 , providing a key blueprint for indie-rockers from australia ( the chills ) to california ( pavement ) . over this two-disc , 46-track set of rarities and essentials , the trio takes the chugga-chugga racket of the velvet underground and stretches it into an entire garage aesthetic of excited , rudimentary playing , shaky , kiwi-accented vocals and endearing melodies . disc one , as influential for the lo-fi sonics as for the songs , ends with the clean 's 1983 breakup . disc two spans their 1988 reunion and 1996 's unknown country , mining similar material with even more exciting ( and even better-sounding ) results . but by then , lots of bands were doing what the mighty clean had helped pioneer .
+camera pos due to a canoe accident on vacation , mine went completely underwater for at least 5-10 seconds . but - only a trickle of water got inside . once that dried out , much to my surprise , both the af and vr functions worked fine . all that 's left is two small water spots on the inside of the objective lens ( okavango delta water is clean ! ) . do n't try this at home . next time i 'm even near a canoe , i 'll have everything in dry bags .
+music pos but not the only one you should get . make this a purchase , but get live / dead also because it has all different songs , and then look at other live releases . the dead have a lot of good recordings , just pick and choose among them . this one has become a staple of great dead songs in my collection . it is amazing how many good songs they have , and how intimidating it seems to get their best stuff , but you ca n't go wrong with this release even though some people feel it is n't up to scratch
+camera neg this kit conveniently contains 20 sheets of photo paper . unfortunately , kodak does n't contain an ink cartridge for them . fine , i thought , i 'll buy a separate cartridge . guess what ? you ca n't ! kodak only sells cartridges bundled with paper so you will be forced to use their paper . why do they sell paper separately but not ink cartridges ? seems pretty dirty
+music neg i ususally like aguilera and i need a song to practice for dance so i bought this one for " no other man " figuring i would like the other songs as well . i was so wrong . i hate the rest of them .
+music pos i have been a fan for jaci velasquez for the past eight years and enjoy hearing her voice in both languages . i do not speak spanish but enjoy her artistic abilities none the less . this album lived up to the velasquez name in my book - my family and i only really enjoy the traditional sounding christmas carols and tend to not enjoy the revised versions . jaci 's album not only made sure the carols were sung traditionally but she has given us a gift a couple new songs that will be added to my christmas traditions ! overall i love this album and the only reason i did not give it a full five stars was that i am done with that chipmunk song . sorry everybody .
+camera pos this is original equipment battery charger manufactered by canon . the performance of the charger is excellent as are most canon products . the price paid was comparible to non-sale priced items puchased via internet sites . the item was recieved in original packaging , 3 days after placing the order , was new ( not reconditioned with a new appearance ) . i am extremely pleased with the entire purchase process experienced , from the information given at the site to ease of ordering and fast shipping
+music neg this movie was only good because of two reasons . rammstein , and queens of the stone age . other than that , completel out of control p.o.s. that keeps its viewers contemplating whether they have died and this movie is their eternal punishment in hell
+camera pos very good camera . this was a present for my wife as she needed a new camera . she picked it out and liked that it came as a complete kit . directions can be hard to follow at times and could be printed larger . takes some getting used to . zoom lense works great and takes good pictures . where the on-off button is so close to the shutter , you have to be careful that you do n't accidentally shut the camera off . she is very satisfied with it .
+music neg i 've never written a review , but i just wanted to let you know if you buy this album you are a complete idiot , and you 're killing hip-hop . stop killing my music
+camera pos the camera is a superb , light-weight wonder . the controls are logical and the large display area is amazing . i love it .
+camera neg do n't let the product description fool you into thinking it will work with a zr85mc camcorder . it did n't work with mine . it did n't even fit
+music neg i like meav 's voice , and this cd is ok , if you like this kind of stuff . think slow and somewhat depressing . i think irish music has moved on so much since bill whehlan of riverdance brought it into the modern times , and came up with this vocal sound , i guess to hark back to earlier times , which worked well because riverdance has so much contrast in it and the choir songs only appear as relief to the other music . this is all a bit samey and dull . i would say saved by this lady 's fine voice though
+camera pos the seller was super fast , the product well packaged and as described . thank you
+music neg whilst leo kottke plays guitar like a man with three hands and john fahey like a man with at least 11 or 12 fingers , robbie basho plays like a man with about eight thumbs . that this kind of tuneless twanging should be mentioned in the same breath as anything by kottke or fahey ( or peter lang ) is puzzling to say the least . but , credit where credit 's due : it 's not easy to make an acoustic guitar sound this unpleasant
+camera neg i bought this over the sony and i regret it . i get a tape eject error every time i try to rewind . i can only rewind at 10 second intervals before i get an error message to eject the tape and do the same thing over again . that 's a long time to rewind a 60 minute tape . many canon users are having this problem and the only way they address the problem which is clearly a mechanical problem is to charge a ridiculous price to send it off to be repaired . canon needs to own up to this problem and have a recall on the item . i will never buy canon again after they have turned a blind eye to a serious problem
+camera pos awesome , compact camera that takes remarkably sharp pics - very easy to use touchscreen and ( my favorite ) reliable stabilization feature
+camera neg i purchased a canon camera carrying case that came with an extra battery and uv filtering lense . the case came within a few days and is perfect for what i needed . smooth fast transaction . five star
+camera neg i have two 8 " picture frames that are other brands , and they are great and i use them for open houses all the time ! i got this one as a gift from a friend , and it is terrible ! ! the instructions are difficult to understand . the wide screen makes everyone in the picture look fat and distorted ! this is a weird size and i am not happy at all ! ! i do n't recommend it
+camera neg i agree with reviewer steve - anything less than a few hundred feet and these binocs are worthless . the paper works says the " may " focus down to 35' . maybe some will but not certainly not my pair . i am returning them since they are not good for simple viewing around the yard . and no , the rubber eye caps absolutely will not stay back making these binocs almost unusable by people with glasses ( like me ) . scot
+camera neg a close friend made the unfortunate mistake of plunking down 2 grand for this camera . honestly olympus produces cameras that can do the same thing for $400. i 've used hers and the image quality is horrible and the colours are wrong 9 times out of 10. if you 're going to spend that much on a camera , get the d70 instead and buy a nice extra lens or some other gadgets to go with . the pictures are better and it offers more mp
+camera neg you got to have extremely steady hand , or camera stand to use this camaera . during my niece wedding , i put in a 2gb of memory and we were trigger happy , we must have took over couple hundred of pictures , however , i am very unhappy about the result . 3 out of 5 pictures are fuzzy , messy , out of focus . on the other hand , for the pictures that took a few mins to line up and with a very very steady hand , you got a great picture . size is good , weight is a bit on the heavy side for the size , but to some people that 's good quality
+music neg i am wondering when this plague will be over... . and when we 'll be set free to listen to real music.. . we all are so tired of her
+music pos tom delonge is at it again with a new band and a new album . even with being accompanied by the lead guitarist from boxcar racer , angels and airwaves managed to have a completely different sound . they dropped the more punk rock tone of boxcar racer in favor of an emo-alternative style of rock . the first released single " the adventure " is quite enjoyable and even though i have n't checked too deeply into it , i think it 's the theme song for nbc 's studio 60. besides , how can you go wrong with an album that 's gone double platinum in the uk and gold in canada
+camera neg i bought this camera for my 4yr old granddaughter who can handle my digital camera quite well and found it to be a total waste . the camera was much smaller than expected , trying to figure out what mode you 're in is ridiculous and the display is quite difficult to see let alone interpret . nothing is a simple " one step " procedure which you would expect for an item geared towards children . i was so frustrated setting it up that i did n't bother giving it to her . the software installed okay but was also far from " kid friendly " . i wish i would 've found and read these user opinions before making the purchase . ironically , the reviews i did see made it out to be better than the other cameras on the market for kids . i believe you 'd be better off purchasing a " regular " inexpensive digital camera for your potential " shutterbugs " .
+camera neg i bought it for my 18-55 ef-s , and it looks like it is not very efficient - but i guess it is normal for a 18mm ( x 1.6 ) . i would have prefered a " tulip " design like those of sigma
+music pos having read some of the reviews here i just thought i should mention that for those who enjoy punk rock music rather than the sameness of most emo music these days they should definitely check out this band ! while the singer ( conor oberst ) does have that emo voice so familiar to many other bands , he utilises it well and his conviction can be heard throughout ( unlike a band like taking back sunday ) the music is uplifting without being soppy or sentimental , the lyrics are refreshingly different from most punk-politics band and do n't come across as just the singer throwing a badly worded hissy fit . if you want to feel sorry for youself go listen to bright eyes , if you want to do something about it listen to desaparecidos
+camera neg it looks cool and it 's easy to carry , but that is about it . camera is slow and pictures are often blurry . sorry i wasted my money on this one . get one of the new ones with vr so you do n't have that issue .
+music pos all i can say is you must try this !
+camera neg i was really disappointed in this product . it worked great when i first got it . but before the first charge on the batteries wore out it stopped working . it was more expensive to return it or have it repaired than it was to buy a new camera . like i said , disappointed
+camera pos this is a great camera . plenty of resolution . excellent shot speed . sturdy frame . the kit lense does n't do the camera justice . buy the body separate and add a better lense . on the bad side , i had a small glitch with the camera 's firmware soon after purchase and had to return it for a fix . it was two months before the camera was returned . sorry , canon.. . you lose a star for that
+camera pos the philips digital frame truly stands out from all other digital pictures frames that i 've gotten . the resolution and picture quality superb , and the sleek outer design is an additional plus . also , the picture frame can be charged and last a couple of hours without a cord , which is very convenient . as another reviewer said , you have to scroll through your entire collection one-by-one on your memory card in order for you to get to the picture you want . it would be more convenient if you could skip through pages or have a blackberry type rolling scroll on the side of the frame to speed through if you needed to . also , i would like to see philips next frame include a flashdrive slot as well , that way we can upload pictures from our computers to the usb flash drive and directly insert the flash drive into the frame without tranferring them onto a memory card . thank you
+camera pos i bought this sweet little thing because i am planning a day in nyc and do n't want to bring along my regular camera , which is bulky . this camera is nice and small and would fit in any purse or coat pocket . it has 5 mp and a 3x optical zoom which is great for the price . the pictures i took outside turned out outstanding . inside pics were a bit pixelated , but i may have had the settings wrong . the camera is easy to use right out of the box . perfect for a second camera to keep on you just in case
+camera neg when mated to a sony wide-angle lens , the on-camera flash becomes partially blocked causing a dark area in the photo . a major flaw in my opinion . sony makes no mention of this on the packaging
+camera neg very disappointed in this product and amazon 's response to the problem . item clearly shows that a metal neck strap is included and until i complained that it was not included , this was still written up as being part of the accessary back at time of complaint but since been changed . they have told me they ca n't supply the missing part ( the metal neck strap showing in the photo ) as item comes from a freight forwarder . i did not get what i paid for and unable to return because item has been forward shipped out of the country
+music neg with 2 cds of endless repeated chords , they do n't have much to say
+music pos i have just about all of robben 's albums and i believe that this is his best work . the interpretations and musicianship are outstanding . robben 's improvisational playing actually comes across more like composition . his technique is extremely melodic . he is , in my opinion , one the best blues guitar players around and his profound knowledge of jazz gives his music a very refreshing " twist " . check out his prowess on " you cut me to the bone " , " prison of love " or " my love will never die "
+camera neg this item does not charge your camera . it does provide power to your camera while plugged in , but it does not recharge your camera 's battery
+camera neg if you lose this cord just get a flash card reader . it 's cheaper and more practical
+music neg this is the 4th worse song to be put out in 2006. seriously , this is awful . very juvenile and materialistic . this guy and his rented chains need to disapear . what a waste
+camera pos i am very satisfied with this purchase . it is exactly what i wanted . i purchased 5 more as business gifts for important clients
+camera pos for $14.00 , you should get this sleek little package to protect your camera and battery / accessories . if you 've ever accidentally dropped an expensive camera , you know just what i 'm talking about . it 's nice looking as well
+music neg if you are looking for boring , lifeless adult contemporary music , then this cd is for you . if you are looking for a great guitar cd , this is n't it . i had such high hopes for this cd after the robert johnson cds and the cream reunion , but all winning streaks must come to an end , and clapton 's comes to a screeching halt with this . of all the eric clapton cds that i like , this is n't one of them . i 'm glad clapton is now in a happy place ( and deservedly so ) , but this cd just does n't do it for me
+camera neg this is a poor excuse for a lens coming from canon . can only be used at a certain zoom or you will get a circular ring around the photo . please do not waste your money like i did
+music pos as with all of zucchero 's cd 's , this is also wonderful . i listen to it all the time , it 's sensual and sexy and great
+music neg is this the same kool keith that created dr. octagon , dr. dooom , and black elvis ? " spankmaster " represents a regression of creative energy . it sounds like keith decided he wanted to make a record one morning and whimsically threw together some tracks . it contains little of the genius of his earlier cds . with the exception of a couple songs ( " jewelry shine " and " blackula " ) , this album stinks
+camera pos despite reading glowing reviews about this lens , i was still surprised to see how well it performed . the lens is so sharp you can get very good cropped pictures of running athletes , from a distance of three quarters of a football field away , shooting hand held , with late afternoon light , which will print a 5x7 and still look like a pro took them ! if you want a tack sharp lens for indoor sports pictures and ca n't afford , or otherwise do not want another long lens for outdoor sports pictures , then you should give this lens your serious consideration .
+music pos this cd is great . it is a must have . picture yourself in the wild or on a lake in a boat and a thunderstorm comes rolling in slowly . you hear the rain , the thunder in the distance , you sense the storm getting closer . the storm is over head , loud piercing thunder claps and you duck for cover . the thunderstorm slowly moves out but the rain is a constant presents . the thunder rolls on but the wild life moves in , bullfrogs , owls in the distance , all the animals are alive now . this cd is all in one , the real deal . it is not all thunder . i love it . i also bought thunderstorm [rykodisc] ; this was a waste of money . to me , in my opinion it sounds like the storm just knocked the cable out , static and more static .
+camera pos i bough this waterproof case for a trip to st. thomas over christmas . the photographs that we took came out perfect . the flash diffuser worked well , by eliminating the air bubbles that normally are captured with underwater cameras . make sure that you set up your camera to the underwater mode so that it automaticlaly adjusts your color balance . the only problem that i had was since it is so compact , i often accidently would move the switch to movie mode . this ruined a few photographs , but also made a great movie of a sea turtle coming up for air . i know that it was expensive , but much cheaper than buying a new camera or buying multiple disposable underwater cameras and having x-ray machines fog up the pictures
+camera neg i 've owned this camera a little over a year . it was my 2nd digital camera . it always had focus issues in low-light . i thought it was me , but after working extensively with the manual , after i finally had some time , i discovered that it was the camera . you really need a tripod for those low-light shots . i was n't able to return it , so i 've taken hundreds of pictures with it . it takes beautiful pictures with good light and has a really nice size screen . however , the lens will no longer contract and i get an error message that is unresolvable unless i pay at least $170. i 'm just going to get a better quality camera . i will not buy sony again
+camera pos thes item is gretes item i used befoer for these prise ! ! yes is true is very clear optics , you can see in total darknes about 350 m it 's agood rand , price and qulity .
+music pos this is a really great follow up to allison moorer 's debut album alabama song . the hardest part , her sophomore cd , was released two years after her debut in september 2000. it builds on the sound presented on her first , and the songs are nothing short of great . my favorite track , though not her own , is her emotional reading of the rolling stones ' " bring me all your lovin " . she makes this song into her own . " no next time " is another favorite , the lyrics are excellent , a great breakup song . the title track is a nice midtempo country number . " send down an angel " is very sad but touching at the same time . other highlights include " it 's time that i tried " , " day you said goodbye " , " is it worth it " and " feeling that feeling again " . overall , to me this is her best album . you ca n't go wrong with any of them but this is an artistic acheivement , and one of her best albums yet
+music pos jock rock is a must for anyone in the fitness business . nothing gets a crowd hopping like a little james brown ! not much for listening to , but a good collection when your looking for just the right song to play for a certain event
+music pos juice newton is one of the best counry-pop singers of all times . a great energetic voice and some real unforgettable songs . my personal favourites include the beautiful angel of the morning , the rollicking queen of hearts and the strong and sorrowful it 's a heartache after all these years , her work is unforgettable , catchy and full of energy and vibe
+music pos better balance of songs on this cd. this cd shows growth in a the band.they are great fun live check them out if you get the chance ! ! ! ! ! ! !
+music pos please do yourself a favor and buy this cd ! whatever you do , dont listen to it in your car though . no kidding aside , i almost ran my car off the road because i was laughing so hard
+camera pos i purchased this bag to carry my hp photosmart digital camera and photo printer along with , 100pk 4 " x 6 " photo paper , power cord and two chargers that each hold 4 aa batteries , and i still have room left . i 'm very pleased
+music neg these guys are not artists . they are unimaginative lamebrains unwittingly and badly rewriting already overplayed music from a long dead scene . it 's like a few monkeys build a house , and all the other monkeys rave about it , but in reality the house is just a banana tree with a welcome mat.. . whatever that means . i am constantly astounded as to how waste like this gets on the radio . buy this cd if you want to vomit everywhere .
+music neg what a terrible excuse for music from generally excellent musicians . it sounds like espn called them asked them to put a diddy together and 10 minutes later....presto ...instant mush
+music pos i supposed i should not have been watching this movie when i was nine years old , but i remember seeing it several times via hbo . more importantly , my father bought the soundtrack and we used to listen to it over & over in the car . the songs stuck with me for years , and every know and then i 'll hear something out of context and i 'll be taken back to roadtrips with my family . it 's something that i wo n't think about for ages , but when i 'm reminded of it , i ca n't believe i do n't still have a copy of the soundtrack . i remember it had quiet and comforting songs mixed in with songs you could sing along too . it 's perfect for driving and just having on in the background
+camera neg image quality is pathetic . it generates ludicrous amounts of noise even at the lowest iso ( 80 ) . rest assured , you will be disappointed . i returned mine within a day
+camera pos sony continues to exhibit the highest quality in their product design and manufacturing process . this case is very slim , compact , well made , and has a very luxurious feel to it . it completely enhances the look and attractiveness of the sony camera it is designed to hold
+music neg it 's loud . you ca n't hear the lyrics nor the words . just a lot of loud noise . great if you want to damage your hearing
+music neg okay , i will admit to liking poor tom , bonzo 's whatever ( it sure beats moby dick ! ) and wearing and tearing , but other than that this is a collection of outtakes that should 've stayed outtakes . low points include we 're gonna groove , the live i ca n't quit you baby , walter 's walk and ozone baby . it 's a shame that traveling riverside blues and hey hey , what can i do were left off this album , and included only in the boxed set reissue - it 's the only place you can find hey hey , what can i do , one of my favorite zeppelin songs , and with riverside blues , you have a choice : shell out $100 to get it , or sit through the crappy bbc sessions album . if you 're obsessed with the band , i guess this would be good for you . but the best version of coda is in the aforementioned $100 boxed set .
+music neg i wanted to give this cd as a gift to my 7 year old niece who loves the movie . i listened to it first to make sure the quality was good . i was so surprised when all i heard was music and no words . although the music is nice , i know she would not be too impressed . we had seen the movie together and we loved mr. ray 's song and wanted to know the words . it 's too bad that i 'll have to return or sell it
+music pos i recently purchased this cd again . i once owned it on cassette . keith is a real smooth old school type singer and his music and sound has sustained very well since it was released in the early 90's . if you are building an old school collection with great singers this is a good one to have . it 's great for romance or with that special lady . jaye price beltsville md
+music pos i did n't think it was possible for the delays to top their debut release - but they have . while " faded seaside glamour " is more immediately catchy and refined , " you see colours " comes at you in a much more intense manner . the songs are more mature , the musicianship is top-notch and the recording sparkles with fat bottom-end and soaring harmonies . the high points for me are valentine and winters memory of summer , but there 's honestly not a bad track on this release . the delays put it all together - great songwriting , strong musicianship and excellent production in a genre-bending mix that has something for everybody . it 's a shame these guys do n't get more recognition here in the states . buy it
+camera neg this is my third digital camera , i bought it after my tot dunked my previous camera under water . i did a lot of research before i bought this and it was highly rated in consumer reports . after a few months of ok pictures ( the macro setting is not very good though ) the lens cover started sticking but i learned to live with it . i would manually open up the lens cover each time . then the lens cover got stuck in the open position and i was learning to live with that . but now the camera is almost completely dead . it will not power up properly and sometimes it beeps . i 'm not sure but i think i am out of the warranty period with this . i will not buy another canon camera . this camera was made too cheaply . i wish things were not made to break right away
+music pos i remember listning to this album over and over again when i was young . to this day i still ca n't get these awesome songs out of my head ! a must get album for you old school folks or anyone that enjoys great music
+camera neg boy , this is way too much to pay for a hood on this lens . it 's a great a lens , but this is hardly worth the price
+camera neg i purchased this camera for a friend to use in hawaii . we had nothing but problems getting it to wind properly and the pictures both on land and underwater were all blurred and my friend was very unhappy and i was frustrated . i do not know if this is just a bad camera or what
+camera pos i really liked this cam bag..it serves its purpose very well and is really cute too !
+camera neg this camera is the worst ! ! ! i bought this on black friday there are many reasons why i am returning this piece of junk : 1.first of all , it runs on double a batteries 2.when i came home i started taking pictures.after i took my first picture , it said error saving image ! 3.then it worked and it didnt work.i tried downloading some of the pictures that were actually saved on the camera onto the computer.when i finished downloading them , i looked for the pics on the computer.i f0und them but the pics were all blurry.i was so fed up that i left it sitting on my computer desk for the next 2 months . do not buy this camera , it will be a waste of your money and time ! i actually thought hp made good cameras.....- _ -
+music neg an absolutely lackluster effort from some very talented musicians . i gotta say , i could have used a little more cowbell
+music neg when mike & the mechanics ushered in the ` madchester ' scene with the living years it was only a matter of time before these jokers attempted to jump on the bandwagon . if you want to be adored you should write some decent songs lads ! verdict : do n't waste your money .
+music pos i think his debut had the best lyrics . this joint gets off to a good start with we still party and pretty much bangs till the end . his production on here is best described as " late 90 's roger troutman-esque g-funk " . geust stars like 2nd ii none , amg , suga free and el debarge get their shine on . top joints : we still party ( peter gunz and quik on the track ) quik jacks the verb song from school house rock . ( the jam ) so many wayz hand in hand you'z a ganxta ( quik refutes rumors that he was involved in biggie 's demise . also denounces reference to death in rap songs . ) i useta know her ( should be called i useta hit that ) speed medley for a ' v ' ( the p***y medley ) get 2getha again ( class of 91 , 2nd ii none , amg and quik triple team on this track . ) reprise ( medley for a ' v )
+camera neg not worth the $10 i paid especially when i had to spend $7 to ship it ! !
+camera pos for less $100 you can hide all your electronic equipment and still control it with the original remotes . this product does everything it promises , i recommend it with no reservations . 110% satisfied ! ! ! !
+music pos i love this pretenders album and chrissie always rocks but i love the songwriting skill of billy steinberg & tom kelley . they wrote " love colours " , " night in my veins " and the hit " stand by you " . her follow-up to this , " viva ! el amor ! " also contains three tracks written by them . i purchased this long after its release and was glad i did . steinberg kelley write memorable hooks and good lyrics with interesting chord changes . something not all big names can do on their own and chrissie wisely is aware of this .
+music neg this cd was devoid of any of govi 's usual emotional imprint or soaring guitar work . frankly , it was just a bunch of new age background noise that one would hear on elevators . some of the craig chaquico-style stuff was interesting , but better left to craig . try 7th heaven , mosaico or guitar odyssey instead
+music neg as a peripheral bnl fan , i have always admired the off beat sense of humor these guys dish out . with previous releases , i have been able to discover new things in repeated listenings . this cd got stale fast . seems to be geared to the tween crowd . i am hopeful newer releases will stay true to the bnl i have enjoyed in years past
+music neg i loved her first album but this one is the same old same old rehashed time and time again she has reached her limits i 'm afriad
+music pos i got the pleasure of seeing albert open for bb king . unfortunately for bb king , because once albert started playing his flying v , with blues power , he demoralized anybody that came after him . he had the entire universal amphitheater standing . and stayed standing for most of his show . blues power is one of his best . get , listen , and then really listen . because you can feel your skin crawl with extacy from those notes. .
+camera pos i had a chance to compare it with a tokina glass . canon is better on a contrast and better on a distortion , same or even slightly worse on a sharpness , and complete looser on a build quality . if you are ok with 12mm - get tokina
+camera pos me encuentro muy conforme con el producto , es de excelente calidad y muy buen precio . amazon es para mi el mejor sitio para la compra de cualquier producto
+music pos you wo n't stop bobbin yo head until its over . i bought this when it first came out and we still bump this at every party we go to and everyone is happy to hear it , cougnut is easily as good as biggie ever was , he just never got the exposure that biggie did
+music neg i was literally horrified when i first put this album in my cd player . this cd is absolutly terrible , every song sounds like its been composed for some middle school band to play . furthermore the songs hardly sound like the songs they represent , they 'll go through like one riff from the origional then just do their own thing . do not , i repeat , do not purchase this album . i was expecting some cool , fun , funky lounge music but this cd is just obnoxious . the only thing that makes this cd remotley worth purchasing is the cool album art and free coaster
+camera neg i would love to really rate this camera case but i have not received it yet . we have been waiting for almost two months and still no case
+camera pos great little package ! small , compact , fits easily in your pocket . took them to giants stadium to use from my end zone seat . able to see action very clearly in the opposite end of the field . easy focus for my bad eyes
+camera pos i like using a tripod with my long zoom lens , and this device has really added to my hobby . the remote is perfect for taking pictures of birds in my birdbath and squirrels and other critters in my yard . i personally do n't like cables , i do n't like dealing with them . this is just right for my purposes . the remote is also better for taking pics of people . it is much better than a timer in my opinion since i can move people in and out easier and more efficiently , taking pictures more quickly . this gives me so much more control than using a timer .
+music pos i just love this cd . over 8 years ago my much older coworker turned me onto this album . it is definetly not just for st paddy 's day . this is an album you can listen to over and over . the sinead songs are a bit whiney , but she does have an excellent voice . you can not get better that mic and sting . sting 's song is just incredible .
+music neg why are they butchering pac 's songs like this . i advise anyone to get the bootlegs over this album . the original ghetto gospel and loyal to the game are 2 of my favorite pac songs but the one 's on here are painful to listen to . afeni should have let dj quik , daz , and whoever else that worked with pac do this album . they should have just digitally remastered the bootlegs . this started with still i rise to until the end of time to better dayz and the quality has been going down and down and they hit rock bottom with this one . the 2 stars is 1 because it is pac and another for the song uppercut . the most obvious butcher job is black cotton where em chose a fast beat and you could tell he is trying to speed up pac 's rhyme . i hope they do better with this last album due out this year
+music neg this album is very weak compared to his earlier efforts . the music is simple and straightforward , and the rapping is poor
+music pos i went through a painful final separation from the love of my life when this cd was released in 1997 , and i identified with every song . i listened to this cd over and over for several months . i saw kim at the " house of blues " in hollywood during that time and sang along to every song . this cd is my favorite " bitter sweet " cd of all time . i love you , kim
+music pos this mos def album is a good album to listen to . he shows off his lyrical skills and gives social commentary that is on point . why listen to a bunch of guys who have " lil " in front of their names when you can listen to a man give his views on life , love , and this country we live i
+music neg this is the #1 worse song of 2006 ( #2 is " sexyback " by justin timberfake ) . for real . his voice is awful and i do n't know who is worse : james blunt , macy gray , or shakira . imagine the three of them doing a performance together on a stage . it would be pure he11
+music pos any one of the first 4 cuts on this album are worth the price of admission . these pieces , each melodically rich and honed like a fine gem , remind me more of classical romanticism than what normally passes for " new age " . sit back in a cosy armchair with a glass of wine and let this beautifully-crafted music weave its web...it 's " feel good " music that also has an intellectually satisfying bittersweet flavor
+music pos brilliant , glorious music- -all of it , although i agree with those who have come to feel that the ellington / strayhorn version of " the nutcracker suite , " in particular , is an all-too-often-buried treasure that no christmas season should be without ( and if you can ignore it for the rest of the year , you have more willpower than i ) . what happens to tchaikovsky 's marvellous music- -and grieg 's , too- -in these hands is creative homage of the highest order : the music is re-imagined from the inside , in wholly jazz terms , in a way that simultaneously illuminates and completely reconceives the original . what balanchine did for tchaikovsky and stravinsky in dance , ellington here does for tchaikovsky and grieg in another realm of music , and leaves us with works that deserve to be every bit as loved and celebrated as their older and better-known prototypes . and to top it all off , you get ellington and strayhorn 's own superb " suite thursday . " listen and rejoice
+camera pos i am really satisfied with the purchase of this camera . good quality workmanship . canon has been a leader in photography in my book . easy to use controls for any one
+music pos do i mean the best album or the best singer ? you are correct if you said both ! i saw kristin chenoweth on a pbs show " broadway 's best at the pops , " ( though it was not the first time i had heard her ) and decided to check out the offerings here . this is a collection of the kind of music and performances i love . she has a great range , a precise pitch , and a great style that is at the same time true to the music and to herself . in an era when singers try to outdo each other re-interpreting the composer 's original work , not usually with great success , she is a blessing
+camera pos i bought these for a trip to costa rica and used them every day . they are comfortable , easy to focus , and a great choice for the price . these are perfect for folks like me who are interested in casual use for travel , concerts , sports , etc
+music pos another solid 70 's band that faded into obscurity . the nice thing about living in canada was that we got to see all of the minor as well as the major acts . edward bear fell between the two . the original members got together in the late sixties and took their name from a more famous bear named winnie . all of their hits are here as well as a cover of " freedom for the stallion " , a song that was also covered by " the hues corporation " and popularized by " three dog night " . its mostly the type of music that most will remember a favourite love by from " the last song " to " close your eyes " ( i 'm back again ) . a good middle of the road pop album to melt back the years
+camera neg it looks great , genuine leather , much better than synthetic . like a brand named leather wallet . but there is no where you can tie the case to the camera . hence you have to hold onto it with another hand when you pull the camera out to take photos . there is no where to put the essential accessories ( battery and another memory stick ) . there is no way to clip to the belt . will like to return if if not the hassle of mailing and the associated cost . bought another handy synthetic case afterwards
+music neg simply put , jay-z is incredibly overrated . i own a couple of his cds but to be honest , i never really liked him . his beats never grabbed me and his lyrics never stunned me so much that i just had to go back and listen to a specific song again . he mostly raps about drugs , money and cars . nothing special , nothing new . i 'm just being real about it , since everyone else is on his d ! ck . i think the reason he 's so respected is because he blew up right after biggie died and he was the closest thing to him at the time . granted , jay-z does use some good metaphors , but for the most part his lyrics are shallow . best tracks on this album : ca n't knock the hustle brooklyn 's finest w / biggie dead president
+camera pos from all the reviews i read , i expected certain pros and cons from this lens . i was not disappointed . pros : very sharp lens with very good colors cons : vignetting at wide open , and a little too contrasty for myself , the pros outweighed the cons for the price . it is ideal for the 1.6 multiplier cameras , where it becomes a 38mm lens
+camera pos this product offers a realy equity between price and quality , and a good results in photos
+camera pos i switched from the digital rebel xt . since i already had l-glass lenses , i did n't run into problems with the 5d " exposing " cheaper lenses . the 17-40mm really shines on the full sensor ! the burst rate is simply astonishing . missing flash does n't bother me , heck it 's a $3000 camera , i do n't expect a built-in flash . i have the speedlite 580ex , which of course is wonderful in itself . i also have the battery grip which i recommend , as well as the rs-80n3 cable release . image quality is superb overall - the 5d really shines in high iso numbers - more so than even the 1d from what i 've read . even at 1600 there 's hardly any noise . it allows you to take great , crisp photos in low light where other cameras would require a flash . the camera also is quite light while being very sturdy at the same time . the 3 fps might bother some , but i prefer the incredible burst numbers .
+camera pos i bought two , one for me , one for my daughter . it is compact , user-friendly , it has nice sized screen . it comes with a charger ( i 've been told that some do n't ) . 6.2 mgp . video with audio . all this for a very nice price
+music neg me especially i cannot hate on cam cuz i got his first albums and thats when he was serious lyrically . either the money went to his head or he just ran outta s*** to say . and judgin that his subject matter stays the same i guesss its true . dude spits some retarded a** lyrics . i give this cd a two cuz of the beats . but this dude is a certified beatwaster . these producers need to give these beats to rappers who can actually spit bars . this n***a sumtimes do n't even rhyme
+music pos if you 're a dion fan do n't miss this cd . all the hits including my favourite - donna the prima donna
+music pos i rarely write reviews of music but feel that i must share my impressions of this cd . i have long heard some of my favorite singers praise the songwriting prowess of townes but somehow never got around to buying one of his records . i finally picked this one up because it had two songs that were covered by two of my favorite singers- -lyle lovett - " lungs " ( among others ) and steve earle - " tecumseh valley " . i was blown away by the sheer beauty and poetry of every song on this recording . other reviewers seem to be comparing this to other townes ' records . i come from a different angle . as someone who has long heard townes sopken of with the highest praise , i can say this disk does not disappoint and will influence me to fill out my collection of his recordings . i will also say that i am deeply frustrated that i never took advantage of the chance to see townes perform while he was alive .
+music pos really nothing on this is bad . the best imho is rubyhorse , the brian jonestown massacre and the subways but a case could be made for any of the songs . the only problem is now i have 8 other cds i need to buy
+music pos i got what i wanted in the time frame promised...the way it 's supposed to work
+camera pos i agree with many of the reviewers- -in the mid range and wide angle the lens is superb , but it is not quite as sharp as a tele- -as one of the reviewers said- -it does many things , and not all of them perfectly- -the lens is a compromise , but an excellent compromise- -the vr is an added boost- - i 'm still debating whether or not to keep it or send it back , because of the weakness in the tele- - but there is nothing else that can replace its versatility.- -i do n't want to keep changing lenses
+camera pos this is one fantastic flash . i had it on my canon a2e for four years , and was ambivilent , but if you match this lens with one of canon 's newer bodies that has the funcionality to access all of the 550ex 's features , you have an awesome , powerful , flexable flash that can change the way you shoot
+camera pos easy to use . produce pretty good quality . it takes pretty long to process between the shots . so you wo n't be able to take quick continuous shots . but for the price it is pretty good valu
+music neg this music is a rip off . all is borrowed to the 4 first albums of marc bolan playing under the name of tyranosaurus rex . something more bluesy here and there but nothing allowing to give any credit to this guy . a shame
+music pos i 've always been a terri clark fan but this is the first cd i 've purchased by her . i was surprised at how much i really enjoyed this cd ! terri has an amazing voice and the songs kept me listening to the cd over and over again
+camera neg i ordered this product from amazon.com and when it arrived i fully charged the batteries . when i went to use them they were dead . i charged them again and when i went to use them a few days later the batteries were dead again ! i want my money back
+camera neg bought this camera to have better print pictures than what i get with the digital . i 've tried using it in every mode auto , close-up , etc. but the autofocus never works so most of the pictures come out blurry ! my older simpler camera took better pictures
+camera neg be careful ordering this item - make sure it 's the right one for your camera . while it says it 's for the a95 , it isn't . while it does n't say in the header that it 's the la-dc52c , it is , and the a95 camera requires the la-dc52d . i had to return the wrong one and reorder the right one . i purchased the wrong one based on amazon 's direction when purchasing accessories and do n't want others to make the same mistake
+music neg as if the song for mesmerize was'nt bad enough . a f*** 'in grease video ? ? ? ! ! ! ! ja officially became a diva with this album . this album is horrible . the pledge had some life due to nas appearance , thats why it 's hard for me to request a zero star rating . bottomline if ja 's body was made up of his albums , this part would gangrene , maggots would avoid this and you should too
+camera neg canon 's 28-135mm with is ( image stabilizer ) is a far better choice for the money
+music neg ...unless it is rock and roll played by ac / dc . i f***ing hate them . they are overplayed so much on the radio , and that is the most annoying voice i have ever heard in my life . do n't waste your money on this cd , just turn on the radio...then turn it off
+camera neg this was a waste of money . my 5 year old loves taking photos . she uses my digital camera sometimes . i thought this would be a great gift for her . she could see the photos on the back of the camera like mom's . this was not the case . the lcd does not project the images and it is so small you can not read what mode you are in . if the batteries run out , it erases the photos . i think they should have made it and the directions kid friendly . my daughter was frustrated quickly and it has laid in the drawer for 3 months . if your child likes to take photos , i would invest in something else
+camera neg the en-el3a is a works fine and with no problems . however , amazon is misleading its customers by putting a lower price from a partner company as the primary price of the item . amazon should market the item at it 's price and show the partner price as an option unless the item can only be obtained from the partner . the 2 stars is not for the item but for amazon 's misleading advertisment
+music pos i bought this cd after i 'd watched the movie the first three times . the music is wonderful . i bought it specifically for the song they sing in the church scene - " i do n't care to stay here long " and i want it played at my own funeral way out there in " someday " . you ca n't hear it without smiling and the words are much easier to understand on the cd than in the movie . but just in case , here 's the first foot-stompin ' verse : fare - - well , vain world ! i 'm going home . my savior smiles and bids me come and i do n't care to stay here long . bright angels beckon me away to sing god 's praise in endless day and i do n't care to stay here long . right up yonder ! christians , away up yon-der . oh , yes my lord , for i do n't care to stay here long
+camera neg rated one star for the lack of value . you can buy the same canon brand case for under $14 and a higher capacity , imho better , albeit non name brand , 1200mah battery for under $10 from amazon . the neck strap is not worth the difference .
+camera neg for nearly $100 , this adaptor provides very little ( 1.5x ) magnification . it is also a nuisance because you have to switch the camera settings every time you use the lens for it to function properly . this is no big deal with the wide angle adaptor , which is used infrequently by me , but it is when you want to capture a fleeting image at a distance . it is lightweight , but cumbersome and does n't accept filters . for real telephoto capabilities , get an slr with interchangeable lenses . i sent this product back .
+camera pos i have received this camera for serveral weeks . it 's a good long zoom digital camera . i can use it for 18x optical zoom when i set its photo size less than 3m ez . the photo is n't blur as i use image stabilized . the picture is sharp . image quality is good . however i have to set the iso at 100 or 200. when the iso is 400 or above , i can see the noise , and the picture lose detail . but every camera has its own defect . overall , i am satified with this camera , and i am enjoying using it to take pictures .
+camera neg very cheap , you can tell it 's an fake camera miles away . sure it has these features of motion detector which makes it move and has led lights ; but not worth 6 dollars at all . stay awa
+music pos i inhaled this cd . after all the hype and hyper blowin ' up about this dance / punk / rock genius , i finally broke down and bought it . not that i was old enough to get into the discos in the mid 70's -early / mid 80 's ( i was still in elementary school , then middle school ) , but i remember ( and still love ) the groups that influenced this disc...the buzzcocks , heaven 17 , pil , blondie...hell even the rolling stones " some girls " album . and yes , i have to say ( after finding " death disco-songs under the dance floor 1978-1984 " cd and i 'm ordering it ) the old stuff is more fun . but for the hipsters who do n't know this is not original genre , it 's pretty great . no , it 's very great . the first song " daft punk is playing at my house " was fun , and both discs made it worth driving through snowy / sleety / frozen rain covered streets to work out at the gym these last couple weeks
+camera neg i bought this item for $40 online and then found out my canon camera didnt need a cannon brand charger and i could have bought one for $10 instead . in total i spent for this charger which included the shipping and handling . not worth it . go to another store and by one for $10
+camera neg mini dv cams are better , and should cost about the same . this particular camera has poor quality video and it is a pain to get video transferred to your computer . the software is glitchy , so you 'll probably end up downloading drivers yourself . find a different camera
+camera neg i received the remote this evening and have not been able to get the remote to work with my canon rebel xt camera . followed the directions that were furnished with the remote to no avail . it appears that this remote is defective
+camera pos hi have a rebel extreme , and needed to use the high-speed mode.. . but the flash could n't even vaguely keep up . i was taking pictures of dancers , so needed a flash system that could keep up . the speedlite really does this perfectly - i 'm able to take a rapid-fire sequence of photos , and this flash system is there each time . i do n't know if it really helps when taking a single photo , but if you want a flash that can keep up , this one is great ! i like it so much , i 'm planning on buying one or two more for my next shoot , to run in slave mode with this one .
+music pos this is a great album . two of their biggest hits , " another one bites the dust , " and " crazy little thing called love , " are here . my favorites are " need your loving tonight , " and " prime jive . " most of the other songs are top notch , too . none of the later queen albums matched this one . definitely in the class of night at the opera , day at the races and news of the world
+camera neg it is hardly one month old and the pockets on the sides have already started coming off . it is not the stuff that i expected froma brand name like panasonic
+music neg this album is pure crap ! just a marketing move to capitalize on the sales from straight outta cashville , until he can make a real new album , not this microwaved crapola . if you like buck , get straight outta cashville , an beg for mercy , than wait for his future release , with actual new tracks . i strongly advise you not to buy this . it is a total rip off . i wasted my time downloading this
+camera pos i bought this camera to replace a 3mp kodak cx series when i thought i had lost it . my 3mp took great pics and i never had any problems with it and i did n't want to have to learn to use a different brands software . the kodak easyshare software did n't impress me much when i bought the first camera but they have made some improvements and the updated version is much better . the kodak gallery is a nice option that allows you to share pics without sending large email files . i have n't used the c533 a lot since i bought it but the pics i 've taken have come out great . but just like the other reviews state , slow shutter speed at low light and it does like batteries . however , if you spend the extra money for the lithium batteries you 'll get much improved battery life . all in all a great value and a perfect camera for a point and shoot person
+music neg this guy sounds worse than brian johnson does now . why ca n't people my age stop copying the past ? be original . that 's it . this style is well worn out .
+camera neg it seems as if every time i want to use the camera , the battery is dead . i find that if i charge it and try to use it the next day , i should expect very much . i 'm going to purchase a new battery and see how that goes , but i should n't have to do so
+camera neg horrible camera . barely had it 2 months before it went on the fritz.drained the batteries within a few pictures.so not worth more then the cost of a disposable ! ! sorry kodak...but i 'll stick with the good ol ' reliable sony
+music pos its a pretty good mix , good song choices , its mostly a harder mix , thought it could be smoother flowing though , but all in all its pretty good , also thought the robot walk to the party deal woulda made a better begining , it was a lot of down time during the middle of the cd , but hey people gotta switch it up now and then , like the last 3 / 4s better.. .
+camera neg i got it on sale for $88.00 thinking it would be a great bargain at that price . i feel i was ripped off . the video quality is ghastly when given enough light , and absolutely unusable without . the same goes for the pictures . even at highest quality - and a lot of image enhancements , the results are mediocre . the audio portion of the video had a very noticeable hum , which i was able to remove with my audio editing software . otherwise , the audio recording and playback were " acceptable , " at best . this device is useful only as an audio recorder / mp3 player , and is not really a bargain
+music pos this is one of my all-time favorite cds . i loved all the songs on this cd except one . my favorite is " black girl pain " and it should be an anthem and inspriration for black women all over the globe . i had the pleasure of seeing talib in concert a few months ago in atlanta and his live show was even better than his cd . true hip-hop lives
+music pos this is the album that all kenny g fans have been waiting for ! ! ! it was well worth the wait too . not only is kenny g at the top of his game but the vocalists are great ! the entire group of artists is so eclectic . thank you kenny g ! !
+music neg um. i have nothing against bands that are " mainstream " . that has nothing to do with their quality of sound . ( granted , many mainstream bands are horrible , but they all deserve a chance , no ? ) dave , though , he has never impressed me . not that he 's awful , i suppose it 's okay background music...better than nothing . just oh so mediocre . i do n't understand why is he so highly praised ? voice-wise ? eh. nothing special . lyrics ? hah ! music ? umm.. . bland ? it 's all the same ! maybe i 'm missing something ? if you like one of dave 's songs , then by all means , buy this ! you can be sure your money will be spent on nearly exact replicas of that song . two stars because it 's at least music . but that 's on the high side , considering how static it is . dave will never find a place in my cd player or in my computer .
+music pos as always , opinions vary in terms of who is the master at recording timeless pieces of music such as these bach cello suites . starker himself pronounced in the sleeves of this cd that this edition , the 4th recordings of these music by himself is not " technically perfect " , but in many ways , his most mature interpretation . you can spend hundreds trying to find a mercury copy of " the perfect " rendition ; or you can appreciate the little imperfections of an aged artist , at the height of his humanistic understanding of music , and of life .
+camera pos it was everything it advertised as being . i can carry my digital camera and lenses as well as two point and shoot digital cameras . being a slingshot backpack , my back does n't moan and groan as it did with other camera bags . i like the feature of swinging the bag to the front and to get my cameras with out removing the backpack
+camera neg i purchased this case for my dscs90. i hate it ! it is only big enough to hold the camera and nothing else . there is no handle to the case , in fact the case only has zippers and you are suppose to use the strap from the camera itself for the handle . the zippers do not stay in place and the camera can easily fall out of the case so i do n't recommend doing this . look for a better case for your new camera .
+music pos this is a fantastic holiday christmas album . doris day 's beautiful voice singing these terrific christmas songs make for a beautiful sound that will bring all who listen years of enjoyment . a must have for those who enjoy hearing terrific christmas music over the holidays
+camera neg me and my wife bought the jvc camcorder and burner set up to send dvd 's back to my parents because we did not have an computer at the time . at first it worked great then after 2-3 disc in it would pull up the same message unable to formate the disc . we have been throught about 25 disc just to burn off 10. we returned it to get another and it did the same thing . we thought i might of been a bad batch of disc so we used the one that came with the burner and no deal . i do not recommend this to anyone
+music pos i do n't know where this guy gets off saying that the drummer , jorge rossy , and the bassist , larry grenadier , " are competent but do nothing overtly interesting " . jorge incredible groove , use of space , and musicality is as good as one could ask for , and grenadier 's huge warm tone , amazing time , and great thematic development is unparalleled by other bassists of his generation
+music neg i cant understand how anyone can give this album more than one star . luckily i got this cd for free when they were handing them out to everyone who came to their shows on their 2005 tour . i love classic journey , but this band has gone downhill faster than i ever thought possible . most of the songs are terrible-boring music and even worse lyrics . ' arrival ' was pretty mediocre , but this is about 5 steps down from there . granted , steve augeri does complete justice to the old songs in concert and really sounds great , but he obviously has nothing to offer in the way of songwriting . the only way this band will ever create quality new music is if perry were to stop sitting around at home and come back to the band . otherwise , the band should seriously consider not making any more new music and just go on tour every couple of years
+music pos i had first bought the " here and now " hoping to hear the original recordings , but was slightly disappointed that on that cd the older songs were live performances only . if you want their hits as you remember hearing them on the radio or your old album that may be trashed , this is the cd for you
+music neg i 'm sorry but the guy below me does n't know music if he was slapped with a gang starr cd . this mess is ridiculous . i would n't even want to hear this garbage in the klub let alone banging in my car . they are the modern day version of young mc....here today gone tomorrow
+camera pos for years now i have been buying " bargain " cameras with the foolish notion that i did not need a nice one . finally , i got sick of it and bought the exilim ex-z600. this camera is awesome . the screen is huge , the picture quality is great , it is easy to use and is sooo small . overall , a great buy . the one downside is that i can only connect it to my computer using the dock . luckily , i have an sd card reader , so i normally just use that to download my pictures
+camera neg the minute i took the monopod out of cover it broke . the mounting head fell apart from the leg . the glue they use is very bad . i did n't return the product because i think the replacement would be the same quality and it was not worth the affords . i just fixed it myself
+camera neg this camcorder worked well , but i had two complaints with it . 1. on the sound track you can hear noise from the recording head moving back and forth , sounds like a woodpecker . this alone made it unacceptable or what i wanted to do . 2. i wanted high quality video , but since it records on a small dvd disk , the video is compressed before it is recorded on the disk . this causes some loss of detail in the picture , especially if you 're going to edit it and rerecord the video which i need to do . if you just want a camera to record a small dvd which you can then play in a dvd player ( and not all dvd players will play the small dvds ) this camera might be acceptable . i returned it and bought a panasonic pv-gs35minidv camcorder which uses the minidv cassette tape . much better video quality because its not compressd , and no noise from the tape drive
+camera pos go to nikon 's own website nikonusa.com and compare the technical specifications of this version and the ' g ' version of this lens . there are only three differences . one is that the ' g ' version has its aperture set only by the camera body , while the ' d ' version can have its aperture set either by the body or by a ring on the lens . all recent nikon bodies set the aperture . the ring on the lens is invariably locked on all recent camera bodies . the second difference is that one ( 1 ) of the 13 lens elements in the d version of the lens is made of extra low dispersion ( ed ) glass . if the dispersion difference is so important what is the deal with the other 12 elements ? sounds like marketing to me . the third difference is that the ' d ' version costs three times as much as the ' g ' version
+music pos percy grainger was a man of spectacular gifts . he was one of the most original composer / arrangers in the early part of this century . he was also a spectacular pianist in an age of spectacular pianists . this amazing cd documents grainger 's formidible gifts . it cannot be over-praised . both the music and the performances are well worthy of any piano lover 's attention . do n't miss this one
+music neg while i love billie , in her own words , these sessions were dull , and uninspired . since the reviews should focus on one cd , that is the jist of it ; boring renditions , and back up musicians that are not the ones that billie was used to making for a very uneven collection
+camera neg i purchased this product about 2 months ago , the resolution is not the best but it 's acceptable . after a month , it turned off by itself and would n't turn on again ! ! i sent it to repair and had to pay $50.00 ! ! ! somenthing to do with the power button . i have it on a ups with battery , also freezes for no reason . i do n't recomend it
+music pos this is a must have for anyone with an r&b " oldies " collection . you wo n't be disappointed
+camera neg the nikon camera s3 is a good camera but the camera takes to long to take a picture i dont like it because when i am at a party i want to take a fast picture . it sucks and i wish i never bought it dont make the same error i did and waist my money on the piece of junk .
+camera pos i love the new digital canon . the only problem is it 's not nearly as tough as it 's film twin . i had the camera less than a month when the pop-up flash quit working . the canon people have been great , and very helpful , but i 'd rather not have had to send a brand new camera back to the factory . the photos , however , are wonderful . film quality for the most part - printable and enlargable . ( it would probably be better to use the camera with a tripod when using the 300mm telephoto but i hike with it , so just remember to steady it before taking wildlife photos .
+camera neg im not from usa . my brother bought me the camara in a trip three months ago and it is not working ! ! it has serious conection problems in the body that i cant fix in my country . i lost 1000 us
+music neg while the title cut with joe public was bumping most of this disc is so-so& ; formula driven.without teddy riley the grooves& ; vibe are n't as strong
+music neg i received emails about delaying my order three times . since it showed that the product was available , i did n't understand why i had to wait less than two months to get my order . i was so disappointed by the amazon this time ! doing business like that , i am not sure how long you will survive
+music pos there have been innumerable motorhead collections over the years , but this is one of the few that attempts to mix old with the new . on this collection , all the classics are present , and some newer material is thrown in as well . unfortunately , there are some throw-away tracks , mainly the girlscool and headgirl tracks . ( to be honest , these tracks are pretty much worthless . ) some live tracks are meshed in and fit well , and the newer songs help to add some variety to the old-scool stuff . i would recommend this collection to listeners looking to get a nice , cheap collection of some of motorhead 's best just for the sake of getting into the band . but if you 're wanting the prime collection of older material , save up some extra dough and buy " no remorse " or " stone deaf forever .
+music pos along with son volt 's " trace " and nadine 's " downtown saturday , " this is one of the best rock albums of the 1990s and certainly one of the best alt.country albums ever released . standout tracks include " blue canoe , " " soul sister , " " eyes of a child , " " wink " and " let 's go runnin' " all examples of first class rock songwriting . the rest ai n't too shabby either . fans of the allman brothers and lynyrd skynyrd in particular should give this mississippi band a listen . but so should any mainstream rock fan
+music neg i got this album because obie trice did some great stuff on the 8 mile soundtrack , so i figured i 'd check out what else he 'd done . this album just does n't live up to that .
+camera neg for average people who want a camera that just works-and takes good pics you should not buy this . i do n't know about the specifics , but like other reviewers mine got stuck and quit working for no reason after a couple of months . so , i do n't really see what all the bells and whistles are for if it does n't even take a picture . it was fine while it worked , it ate batteries but the pics were good
+camera neg i bought this lens in may for my brand new rebel xt . i used it on a vacation mainly , and am pretty dissapointed . i 'm no pro , or even skilled amateur , but i do know the lens is not giving me quality shots . the autofocusing is slow , and af or manual shots are n't very sharp at any zoom . there seems to be a fingerprint on one of the inner lenses that indicates poor quality control to me . i wanted a good , all around lens before building a real lens collection of different types . i guess this would fit the bill , if it took sharp pictures . i would n't pay more than $150 for this lens again
+camera pos 300 plus minutes of recording time ( without lcd ) . i still got several hours with the lcd , backlight on . for when you are out all day , this is a good long lasting battery . on the hdr-fx1 i found it preferable to the smaller and lighter battery as it helped provide a touch extra rear weighting . that helped balance when using the camcorder at hip height for me . i ca n't say i noticed the extra weight as an issue when using at shoulder height , though i did n't have it on my shoulder for long periods at a time
+camera neg i bought this in august 2005 , when the original battery that came with my nikon coolpix 880 ( late 2000 ) started running down fast . on the page i ordered from , it appeared to be a genuine nikon battery , however , when i received it , it was not . it was made in taiwan , and does not have the nikon brand name anywhere on the battery ( or packaging , as i remember ) . this battery has never held a charge well . it 's about as bad as the original battery is now , and i 've only had it a few months . maybe i just got a lemon- -but i 'd recommend you buy a genuine nikon , if you can find one
+music pos even if you do n't know much about donny hathaway , this collection of songs is a fun mix and it 's very moving . it includes some classics with roberta flack that are terrific . i enjoy it tremendously
+music pos so many times , older recordings are not very high quality but not with this group of songs . if you are a marty robbins fan ( and i am ) this cd is a must
+music pos some musicians , like fine chefs , make it look so easy . david grisman is one of them . on the cd , " i 'm beginning to see the light , " the prolific mandolinist extraordinaire is joined by scottish guitar virtuoso martin taylor and veteran grisman quintet members jim kerwin and george marsh ( on bass and drums / percussion , respectively ) for one hot little album . while the song list is comprised of many well-loved standards , such as " autumn leaves , " " makin ' whoopee , " " lover man , " and " cheek to cheek , " the taylor / grisman quartet seems to have so much fun preparing its stew and adds enough incredible seasonings to the pot to make emeril shout , " bam ! " as don stierberg , who penned the liner notes , says : " music need not be trendy to be great . " i wholeheartedly agree . ( c.a. carlino
+music neg come on . i cannot play these dual discs in my car nor any regular cd players . j&mc are excellent though
+music pos i wo n't say to everybody this greatest hits is highly recommended . being that i never heard all of her albums , so a true fan may feel like some songs is missin' . however for me , who is just really startin to seriously get into pop is somewhat satisfied with these and this is a 5 star collection to me . some of the tracks i love , a couple i do n't like at all and the rest i just like . my favorite ones are in order ; erotica ray of light beautiful stranger the power of goodbye deeper and deeper the prodution is excellent and i love the vocals . if your new to madonna , my opinion would be to start here . but a true fan can give me lessons .
+camera neg i too , loved the camera , despite the small lcd screen size , until it got the infamous white screen of death that this particular camera is known for , which usually occurs after the warranty expires ( 1 year ) . photos outside are great , poor low-light photos though , but i paid $100 for it ( and with $20 coupon it was $80 ) . small lcd screen means that it takes less battery power , so the rechargeable aa batteries lasted a long time . white screen of death temporary solution : turn the camera off , and do a quick rap with your knuckles to the " cybershot " logo on the front of the camera . then turn it back on . repeat if necessary . it 'll probably happen again , but it beats buying a brand new camera if you 're on vacation and do n't have time to bargain shop
+camera neg this camera is a piece of junk . you have to be standing outside in bright sunlight to get a decent picture . and then when you try to use the flash it is so bright that everything in the foreground of the picture is washed out . not to mention the battery life is horrible . i got a 1 gb memory card so i could take lots of pictures , but the battery runs out after i took about 10. so all in all , if you 're considering buying this thing , save the money and frustration and just do n't
+camera pos not too hard and not too soft . camera fits nicely , with compartments for just about anything you need for your camera .
+camera neg i had just recently bought this camera , and it was ok . the quaility of the pictures was pretty ok . i couldnt really understand it , and what really stinks is that i lost the stupid cd that comes with it and now i cant install it . overall i would say that the camera is a stinky peice of junk . now im begging my parent to buy me a reall digital camera ! ! not a peice of crap .
+camera pos this is a great lens for any user , professional or amateur . this lens offers incredibly wide focal lengths all while giving very impressive / clean results . a slight distortion is noticeable when shooting at 10mm ( 16mm cropped ) but this is easily correctable with software . in addition , the very fast and absolutely silent usm is a huge plus . i highly recommend this lens to anyone wanting great landscapes or great in door / architecture shots ( especially realtors )
+camera pos i purchased this camera so i could photograph wildlife on hikes . i needed something that was not too heavy , was image-stabilized , with telephoto power . this camera meets all those requirements . it does have one problem , however . in bright light , the viewfinder blanks out , so one cannot clearly see the object to be photographed . i have solved that problem to some extent , by pointing the camera at the object , and letting the autofocus do the rest . this " fix " has resulted in many excellent photos . like many other small cameras , the results tend to be contrasty , and i modify this tendency in photoshop
+music pos there is nothing more intimate then the human voice . i am a voice major at a university . nothing speaks to me more highly then choral music . i was a little skeptical about this cd when i first got it . i have since fallen in love with every aspect of it . of course if you get this cd you must get the companion cd lux aeterna by the los angeles master chorale . you cannot have one without the other
+camera pos i absolutely love this camera . i 've told everyone i know to buy it . the picture quality is amazing . there are so many options with this tiny little camera ! you can edit pictures before you even print them . zoom in on a picture already taken and save it that way , and so much more . i take pictures of everything ! i charged the battery when i got the camera , which was about three weeks ago , and it 's still going . i have 7 / 8th of battery life left . i have n't had to charge it again . i am so happy with my purchase ! i hope this helps you
+camera pos i have own this camcorder for 6 month it 's a good camcorder , esay to use , easy to bring as it 's design purpose , pc-55 is enough for home use only one thing i want to mention here , before i buy this camcorder , i thought that i can record video on ms duo in mepg format , and it 's easy for post-edit on pc , you know , tansfer a minidv tape to computer may need a huge space to save . however , when i replay the video which stored on ms , the sreen was full of mosaic fortunately , when use dv type to record , this situation never happens . good quality . the one press photo button also becomes useless because the bad quality
+camera pos my printer fits perfectly , with plenty of room for the paper tray , extra paper and a few other things that i have managed to get in also . i love this bag....thank
+music pos i just loved this album the songs really related to my life . it was nice to see that there was personal experience involved while writing the songs
+music neg i 've always seen sheryl crow as a middle-of-the-road rock artist . my wife and i got a couple of her disc 's , plus that " very best of " cd and was really looking forward to her latest , but this one...zzzzzzzz , makes me wonder what they 're putting in sheryl 's coffee . some reviewers are saying there 's " heart and soul " all over this album ? that may be , but it 's also very slick dullsville stuff too . as for the album cover graphics , i do n't see the roger dean yes covers or the 60 's style psychedelia like one reviewer wrote , but a very " modern " graphic art that lots of artists and bands have been using . kelly clarkson , the vines , the donnas , the list goes on . highlights : good is good ( i guess it 's time for a new " very best of " collection )
+camera neg i only wish i could return this camera . its automatic focus does not work well in photographing landscape scenes and plants ( what i do most ) and its manual focus is difficult ( very difficult ) to use . my much cheaper , and lower resolution , old minolta does a much better job in low light conditions . i find i have to delete half my photographs due to bad focus . in addition , photo files take 5 to 6 seconds to save to my so-called high-speed memory card . do n't buy this camera
+music pos sensational is a word i 'd use to describe singer jesse mccartney . good looks and powerful vocals . he 's talented and sweet . if you have n't gotten a copy of his latest cd ' right where you want me ' , buy it today
+music neg i was a huge fan of the jam , but ive grown to despise paul weller and this cd strengthens my view . this is a covers cd and has n't got a patch on albums like all mod cons or sound affects.with paul weller everything is about a quick buck and ripping off a loyal fan base , with over a dozen jam compilations , rarities , box sets and dvd 's in the last few years.[since he bought the exclussive rights to all the jam recordings from the rest of the band].this album is bland so give it a miss and spend your money on the new stiff little fingers cd which features bruce foxto
+music pos chris joss delivers some serious blaxploitation inspired grooves that will wisk you back to the times of bell bottoms , afros and platform shoes ! joss ' " you 've been spiked " is a retrospective piece of marvellously produced tracks that pays true homage to an era that gave us some of the funkiest music ever ! in fact , this music sounds so authentic you would think they came straight out of the 70's ...but it 's all circa the 21st century . it 's good to know that there are still modern cats ( especially on the esl record label ) who know how to recapture music from days gone by .
+camera pos the enclosure has a solid feel to it . i dove with it three times with no problem at all . it would be nice if the weight does not cost extra . the only compliant i have is that the enclosure is a tight fit , so it is very difficult to fit a desiccant into the enclosure
+camera pos some reviewers below have said that this microphone does n't work with the sony hot shoe . wrong . click on the " technical details " on this page and you 'll see the sony camcorder models that this microphone works with . failure to look at which camcorders are compatable with this microphone is the fault of the customer , not any fault with the microphone ! so do n't give it a low rating based on your own lack of research when buying a product , please
+camera pos i purchased this camera online one month ago from amazon here [...] and i have taken pictures from alaska to florida and in washington i love how the mark ii captures images imho more clearly than any film slr could ever take . best camera i have every use
+music neg while well produced , i was disappointed in the album - mostly because the majority of the tracks were re-recordings . frankie laine still sounds great - but it just was n't the same . i bought the cd to replace a well worn vinyl album , but on listening to the cd i found the songs to all be slightly ( and in a couple of cases very ) , different in tempo and vocal inflection - it 's definitely not the album i 've loved for over 30 years ! high noon in particular is quite different , much slower , with vocal emphasis changed . i 'll probably listen to the cd from time to time , but not with the same relish that i enjoyed my old lp
+camera neg not too long after i purchased this camera the screen turned white when i turned it on . i would turn it off and on and nothing would help . finally i would take the batteries out and put them back in . this seemed to fix the problem a few times . after that i thought it was just operator error . but it wasn't . the camera finally gave out and the white screen never went away . so after being annoyed i left the camera alone for awhile . an event came up about a month later . i got my camera and tried to turn it on . nothing happened . so i changed the batteries . still nothing happened . i 'm not sure what happened . i do believe i purchased a lemon camera . i 'm hoping to resolve these issues with samsung . it was one of the cheapest cameras on the market at the time . so i guess you get what you pay for !
+music pos dope cd..im a huge spice 1 fan..this cd is off da hook...check out immortilized and bossalini cds...those are dope quality cds..i have over 600 hip hop cds in my collection..and i do n't really express my fealings on amazon unless its worth it..i love hip hop till da day i die...and spice 1 is one dope smokin hip hop lyracist...tru dat...plus im from da old school..nwa , pe , rakim , boogie down , naughty by nature ( 1rst cd ) , big daddy kane , old school jazzy jeff and fresh prince , old school ll...naw mean..wor
+music pos this cd was well worth the wait ! it contains music and artists that were previously unavailable and not even heard on the radio in years . i took one of the cds out of the box , put it in the player , and within minutes my wife and i were dancing . the sound quality , in my judgment is solid , the packaging is fun and creative , and the booklet containing the cameo parkway " story " was an interesting read . there will always be arguments about stuff that was included and not included , but this is an excellent overview of a wonderful era . what great fun to hear the orlons , chubby checker , the tymes , the dovells , bobby rydell , and dee dee sharp once again .
+camera pos easy , fast and serius tool , for cleaning your optics . the easy use is discribe in the manual that is very clear to understand . cleaning is fast with the nikon lens pen , cuase it has the necesary to do the job well done , as any profesional tool . now i have 2 of them , for my two camera bags .
+camera pos i have gone from the old 640x480 about nine years ago to a 3.1m for the last few years to the canon 20d now , what a pleasure to shot . the battery life has not been an issue even with over 250 shots , which should be sufficient for most anybody . there is a small learning curve but you would expect this with any new camera . the lens choice was a great idea which came from an earlier review of the excellent walk around ability of this lens from the general shots to the closeups of those favorite flowers . for those individuals who are on the fence about this product i tout it to all i have spoken to . it turned a good photo experience on our west coast road trip into a real serious photo shoot , it also uses the commonly accessable compact flash . the built in flash works well have not had to explore the options at this time . the delivery of this item when promised was a nice bow on the package
+music neg there is not much i can add to these reviews here . just like me , a lot of people here were dissapointed because of the fact that so many classic 2pac songs were remixed only to sound like disasters . why would such an abomination happen ? suge knight is trying to milk the pac legacy until it is bone dry . well at least he has done something right if you ask me . it sucks that this is how we are forced to remember tupac shakur , over tracks chopped up into this . die hard pac fans wo n't even like this , if they have n't heard it already . i 'm so waiting for a remix album of " the chronic " and " doggystyle " . if suge knight was smart you would reissue tha dogg pound 's " dogg food " on dual disc , because that is the only reason why i do n't have that album yet .
+music neg i bought this cd not long after it came out . it did n't last long in my collection because it only has a few good songs on it ! ! ! i like somehow our love survives and abandoned garden . other than that this is a mediocre effort for michael . he has used this kind of brazilian theme on sleeping gypsy already . stick with your roots michael...you are from california...not south america . try buying blue pacific instead ! ! ! i abandoned this one a long time ago
+music neg yep , this cd sucks . that depeche mode guy is really random , what makes you think anyone who is looking at the punk-o-rama review would be interested in depeche mode ? rem sucks too , michael stipe is the most self absorbed old bald guy ever .
+camera pos i just got my new camcorder and start to operate it . first of all is 's very easy to operate with the joystick , the use in the still image function is allways available , even while shooting a video ( nice feature but as all camcorders - low quality pitures ) the stabalizer ( one of the reason why i 'd preffered that cam over the other ) is great and even in full zoom you can get pretty steady videos . the large zoom ( x32 ) is also very nice . overall i think this is great value for my money... .
+camera pos the battery is great , but amazon offers the accessory kit with the same battery , plus a mini-dv tape and a carrying case for the same price . the case is useless for the zr series , but might come in handy for some other purpose
+music neg with much anticipation we awaited the arrival of clay 's second album , thinking this one would make the career of one of our favorite singers.. . and instead we fear that it is likely to end his career . while clay 's voice still sounds great , the cd is an entire collection of uninspired , underproduced remakes ... not one of which goes beyond the original . as you can see , this cd is nowhere on the billboard charts , and we 're very sad to say in our household , that it 's for good reason . save your money and buy one of the much better idol cds ... and almost any of them are , most recently kelly pickler and carrie underwood .
+music neg i bought this album because i loved the title song . it 's such a great song , how bad can the rest of the album be , right ? well , the rest of the songs are just filler and are n't worth the money i paid for this . it 's either shameless bubblegum or oversentimentalized depressing tripe . kenny chesney is a popular artist and as a result he is in the cookie cutter category of the nashville music scene . he 's gotta pump out the albums so the record company can keep lining their pockets while the suckers out there keep buying this garbage to perpetuate more garbage coming out of that town . i 'll get down off my soapbox now . but country music really needs to get back to it 's roots and stop this pop nonsense . what country music really is and what it is considered to be by mainstream are two different things .
+music pos for anyone who loves trumpet music as i do , this album is a must . wynton marsalis has mastered twenty all-time favorite pieces with such brilliance , that no other trumpeteer comes near by comparison . opening with j . clarke 's , the king 's march , wynton proceeds to favor listeners with such baroque favorites as purcell 's entrada from " the indian queen , " j . clark 's the prince of denmark 's march and j . stanley 's trumpet voluntary . fantastic selections from bach , mozart , and haydn follow , with the album also including such delightful listening as the last rose of summer , carnival of venisee , and flight of the bumblebee . you wo n't be disappointed with this purchase
+camera neg i 've had other digital cameras but this is the first one i 've had problems with . i started getting a zoom lens error shortly after i bought it but it would clear if i turned it off then back on . it is now unusable as the lens can not be retracted at all . it lasted 18 months
+music neg apart from the great selection of soundtracks , what really makes this compilation top value is the quality of the sound processing . executed with finesse , these tracks sound better than when first issued and many are unedited , fuller versions : like " singing in the rain " , for example . throw in the great price , and this double disc set is a " must have " for all lovers of classic movie music
+camera neg im not from usa . my brother bought me the camara in a trip three months ago and it is not working ! ! it has serious conection problems in the body that i cant fix in my country . i lost 1000 us
+music pos whoa.. . this cd rocks , one of my favorite anti-flag albums for sure . this cd may not be what some of the harder punk fans want from anti-flag but i think it also shows they 're growth as a band . they can play more than just really loud hard punk ( though they play that awesome too ! ! ) . some of the songs on this album incredibly powerful , and some are really catchy too . war sucks lets party is a great anarchist anthem , and one trillion dollars is amazingly moving ( i mean , seriously ! 1 trillion $ spent on weapons around the world in 2004 ! ) every track is good and has its own message ! they seem to have no problem coming up w / new songs.. . there are so many things to ridicule in our gov . i just wish that more people would listen to this band 's message . peace and lov
+music pos -unique -highly artistic -creative -more credit to drummers -beatifully polishe
+camera pos the picture and dimensions are incorrect . it is a soft case but is ribbed horizontally and mine came in blue . the correct dimensions are 2.9 " x4.2 " x1.8 " ( wxhxd ) . it also fits the fujifilm v10 camera which i bought it for . amazon has a different case built specifically for the v10 but it costs more and might be nicer based on that picture . i am keeping this one , it is a perfect fit
+music pos well , this is n't at the gates . nightrage reminds me of many old arch enemy guitar tunes that were so melodic . of course , that leads into gus g . substituting chris on concerts being an excellent choice , as they make very similar melodies . some people say this album is heavy , which it is in some parts . but its melodic death , there are no signs of thrash or anything . just great melodies , great headbanging music . add this to your collection , i think its better than sweet vengeance
+music neg after months of searching , i found the out of print cd here . i had never heard it , but after hearing the fabulous song " my only " from the " good as it gets " movie soundtrack , i had to hear the album . what a disappointment ! oh well , it would have been hard to make a cd as good as that song
+camera pos i liked this lens . i used it , for the first time , while traveling through peru . it was light-weight and easy to use . at 200mm , most of my pictures turned out great , especially when i was on steady ground ( taking pictures from a rocking boat with no tripod is a bit of a challenge ! ) . i 've printed some 8x10 's of close-ups i took using this lens and i was quite impressed with the quality . it was also in my price range . overall , i 'd say it was a " good bang for the buck .
+camera pos i am very happy with this set of filters . the price was right and they come with a carry case so you dont have to worry how you are going to carry them if you go lite , camera and filters
+camera pos my cousin 's wife is a professional studio photographer who occasionally lends out her lenses to me for clothing / lifestyle photoshoots ( i 've been pretty active in this area for some time , just now starting to go full digital ) , and i 've used the f / 2.8l about four or five times and this is one of the best lenses i 've used . period . shooting wide open allows you to retain high shutter speeds for night shots , as well as get very interesting and vibrant long shutter shots ( of crowds , the freeway at night , etc ) . when shooting action shots , the tripod mount can get in the way of zooming and focusing , but it can be removed easily enough . i personally just purchased the f / 4.0l , which , coupled with a relatively wide max aperture and shooting at either 1600 or 3200 on my 20d , should do nicely , but i still rate the 2.8 high up on my list
+camera pos i bought this for my mother...she loves it ! its easy for her to use and the screen is large enough for her to view . the print quality is excellent . i got more ( merchandise and quality ) with this hp brand than i would had with any other brand . the price was excellent too . good job hewlett packard for making me a " smart " person
+camera pos the only two drawbacks to this lens are that it requires a huge amount of light to take quality photographs and it is relatively slow to autofocus , especially where there is not adequate light . aside from this it is a good but not great lens . it is probably worth the money that it cost , however , i believe that a better lens would be the 70 - 300 mm vr which costs about 4x the price of this lens
+camera pos very good rechargable battery pack.holds charge for a long time even if camera is not used much . capable of taking many shots with plenty of review time . very pleased with it
+camera pos i have had my canon eos 30d for about a week and after 500 shutter actuations i am completely addicted to photography . i bought the 17-85mm canon lens and it takes phenomenal pics especially using the software and post-processing in raw . i also have a 70-300mm lens for sports / outdoors / nature and bursts of 5fps are a beautiful sound . i bought the camera through dell and with rebates currently this is the best deal out there ! strongly recommend . pay the extra $$$ and get this over the rebel xti . you wo n't be disappointed
+camera neg half of my pictures are out of focus making it useless . should have sent it back
+music pos this remasted disc is nice with the bonus tracks and spiffed up sound , but the only way top hear aoxomoxoa is to find a original w7 ( warner brothers-seven arts ) green label vinyl pressing . the cd features the 1971 remix ( like the 1989 cd ) in which 1 / 3 of the backing has been stripped like constanten 's prepared backrounds on " what 's become of the baby " , the extra drums and barbershop vocal on " doin that rag " . st stephen lost something in the remix as well . anthem was remixed as well in 1972 but the band was wise to issue the 1968 mix on cd . no hidden goodies on this disc , but the bonus tracks are great
+music neg wow , did someone slip the wrong cd into my jewelbox or what ? if you 're a fan of allison 's other work , epect nothing like what you 've heard before . this is mostly a pop album , and the songs that could have been saved are ruined by the awful engineering . the sound is way over compressed and artificial sounding . even allisons voice has no drive to it . steve earl is no match on the guitar for joe mcmahan who played on the show cd / dvd .
+camera neg i read other review , and decided to give it a try . as soon as i recieve it in the mail , and opened the box , i realized this was a mistake . cheap quality binocular with " high power " being a selling point . it came in already broken with two eye ruber pieces falling apart . you can see how the cheap glue was being used to put it in place ! it is extremly heavy to hold in hands for more than one minute for nature observation . you will be constantly ajdusting the focus . your fingers bumps with focus bar while you are holding it . indeed strap , case , lense protectors are all cheap crap , and annoying to have it all on~ ! i am taking this back , and buying made in japan " nikon eagle view " 100 times better . you get what you pay for~ ! ! ! ! !
+camera pos i needed a tele lens to complement my d50 purchase . a did n't want to spend too much money on it but i needed one that a least matched my lumix fz10 in sharpness . this certainly did and the vr really works , i am able to take sharp pictures up to 1 / 40. my d50 flies on it
+music pos this is lovely stuff . the other reviews say why much better than i can , but i just had to add to the adoration
+music neg i found the music rather annoying . it was not what i expected at all
+music neg as long as artists keep making albums with only one good song , people will keep getting them for free in internet . nestor keeps insisting in doing instrumental hip hop , pop , commercial , elevator music . if you like that kind of music , buy this cd , otherwise buy hubert laws , or dave valentin among others . if you want to listen to good nestor music , buy " morning ride " , " dance of the phoenix " , " talk to me " , " mi alma latina " or the charanga album " mis canciones primeras " . sorry nestor , i am a big fan of your music but you are wasting your talent doing this kind of stuff . when do you plan to make a good non commercial latin jazz album
+music pos if you do not yet own dark side of the moon , wish you were here and the wall , do not even consider purchasing a momentary lapse of reason . amlor is junk by comparison . that said , very few rock albums ever made can hang with those three , and amlor certainly has its bright spots . " learning to fly " and " on the turning away " are as good as anything pink floyd has ever produced . some of the other songs are adequate , but this album does not contain the front-to-back brillance of the earlier floyd releases . it 's definitely worth having , but make sure that you have the others first .
+music neg crikey ! ! ! ! what is this chunder ? wait a minute....art students from " down under " get together and make fun little songs while watching reruns of " the wiggles " , decide they can market these tunes to an adoring fan base ! yeah , this stuff could be the soundtrack to " forrest gump " alright . " run , forrest , run ! run as fast as you can from this crap ! ! ! " and these guys are touring , too ? are they touring with barney & friends ? there is not one thing of value to this other than that the cd itself makes a handy coaster for your foster's ..
+camera pos wonderful camara , excellent characteristics , has an ample selection of accessories available and protected by one of you lead in manufacture of camaras and lenses
+camera neg i purchased this camera case for my granddaughter for christmas to go with the camera her parents had bought for her . this is the first time i have ever been disappointed with a product i purchased from amazon . it was , in my opinion , not worth the price i paid ! the picture looked much larger that it actually was . i wil continue to purchase through amazon but i will be much more careful and definitely return it if i 'm not satisfied . in this case i did not have time to find another camera case . thanks for giving me the opportunity of expressing my opinion . linda sutto
+music pos for hard-driving well-crafted rock-and-roll from the late 70s / early 80s , you ca n't do much better than pat benatar ( and heart ) and this collection carries most - - but not all - - of the singles that dominated the airwaves for 4 years : heart breaker , hit me with your best shot , love is a battlefield , fire and ice , promises in the dark . but no benatar collection is complete without ' treat me right ' , ' you better run ' , and ' i want a lover who wo n't drive me crazy ' ( superior , in my opinion , to the john mellencamp version ) , especially if you prefer benatar 's hard-driving rockers to her slower ballads . nevertheless , ' best shots ' is a great place to start and certainly - at $10-15 versus $50 for the more complete ' all fired up ' - - the best value for the money .
+camera neg doesnt work even though the lenmar website says it does . i thought it was a pretty good deal for $26. i wouldnt even give it one star coz it plain doesnt work
+music neg i ca n't believe some of the songs on this soundtrack...they are horrible pieces of s$# ! ? * &%# ! #$ ! there are a couple good ones , but its not worth spending the money on for the c.d , not even at a used price.i ca n't believe they did'nt put " low rider " on the soundtrack , how cheap is that
+camera pos these cameras are as simple to use as any i have ever seen and the quality of the pictures are as good or better than cameras costing 3 times as much . great buy
+music neg a terrible , terrible waste of money . all this cd serves in doing is to illustrate what a knuckle-head paul godfrey is . face it : no one gives a sh@t about morcheeba anymore , we 're not interested in who ' inspired ' them , ( poor annette peacock - has anyone told her ? ) . the next time we see paul godfrey he 'll probably be asking that age-old question : " paper or plastic ? & quot
+music neg this live album / in-studio acoustic ep is hard to figure . most of the live stuff is selected from bls 's " stronger than death " album , which was n't all that great to begin with . the only good thing being ; that album was so poorly mixed that live versions of " all for you " and " 13 years of grief " sound much better and immediate than their studio counterparts . a new heavier version of " no more tears " tries to please , but fails by showing zakk wylde 's gruff vocals do n't always work . unexpectedly , the bonus acoustic ep is the far better attraction . " like a bird " is the best song neil young never wrote and " blood in the well " shows zakk 's soloing chops in full form . bls needed some better songs before doing a live record . end of story
+camera neg over 90% of pictures i took by this canon are blurry . no way can you fix it . i really got fed up with it . waist your money . waist your time . more important , waist your precious moments !
+camera pos i bought this camera for my 16 year old granddaughter and she just loves it . the pics are bright and clear and the camera is very easy to handle
+camera neg just turned out ot be more complicated to set up than i wanted . never used . returned it
+music neg i like funny rappers who have some talent at least . i do not think that his songs or the man is funny at all . and even the people that i know that enjoyed this the first couple times say that they do n't like it at all by the third time . truly bad pointless music that makes all rap music seem like a joke . avoid this one
+music neg i understand why so many people like dido..she is beautiful , has a decent voice , comes across as a decent human being and is inoffensive...this album is the same - ' inoffensive' ...some might say , bland...the tracks that work for me are ' thank you ' ( used on eminem 's ' stan ' ) , but is done solo here and it works , ' hunter ' and ' here with me' ...the rest just disappear into the background like a passing car...nothing much happens , nothing inspires...i really want to like her , but it 's all been done before. .
+music neg i would love to own this soundtrack but why anyone would pay 120 bucks is just plain dumb . quite frankly i would like to see your copyright on this item to see if you are just reburning these cd 's and reselling them . for 120 bucks you should be reported to the authorite
+music pos we started playing this for our one year old when we were driving on a short trip out of town . as babies sometimes do , she began screaming and was unconsolable.. . until we turned on rocket ship beach . polly wolly doodle calmed her right down and continues to do so . we played that song at least 6 times in a row that day ! now that she 's a little older , she points to the cd player in the car if something else is playing , requesting her cd be played . i 've always enjoyed a wide range of music , and was afraid that after having a child , we 'd be reduced to listening to watered down " kid music " like that purple dinosaur and those australian guys . there is a mixture of classics reimagined and new songs that i find myself humming all of the time . there is a good variety of instrumentation and styles . our daughter claps at the end of her favorites and often waves her arms about . got kids ? buy this cd !
+camera neg i have n't got this item because it is too expensive for what it gives . i have a fujifilm e550 camera which cost is usd 250.00 by this date . this lens cost is usd 95.00 and it need a special adapter ring that cost extra usd 20.00. that means you will pay usd 365.00 for a 8x zoom camera . for that price or less you can get a +10x slr like camera like the fujifilm s5100 or s5200.
+music neg save your money on this one . it 's sooooooo bland - with no jams ! what a disappointment . can i get a refund
+camera neg i lost the weights the second day of use . bottom line the motion of the water as you swim unscrews the weights from the camera body . save your money on this one .
+music neg ignore the big word " karaoke " on the cover and the microphone shown , this is just a music cd , it does not display anything in a karaoke player
+music neg dull and uninspiring , listening to this cd i could n't see what distinguished the doves from the other insipid sound-a-like bands that plague the modern music scene . if you like the white stripes , franz ferdinand , arctic monkeys , the killers then be grateful that they 've saved rock music from boring dross like this
+music pos this is a wonderful , fun and soothing cd ! it will relax children and parents will enjoy it even after the 100th listen ! ! my husband is a musician and he loves both of the dan zanes cds we have . this will now be a gift i give to all my friends and family when they have a baby
+music neg let me first say this , roots is basically paul simon 's graceland , except nu-metalized . these guys went to south america , cut a couple of terrible tracks with " natives " ? , then filled the rest of it out with generic nu-metal crapola with that guy from korn cut and pasted into the mix for good measure . this is a particularily bad example of the vile and thank-you-god-in-heaven-it's -dead nu-metal genre-meaningless pissed off lyrics , excessive " guesting " of other crappy artist , bad guitar , bad sitar ( ! ) , and the inclusion of anything to do with korn , all presumabely done with band members sporting loinclothes and rambo style striped face paint . the biggest waste of time , money , and matter . its a shame that these guys are living and breathing and taking up space and resources that someone else could be using . a real bummer .
+music neg on the track , " cleo 's mood " , it sounds like something that bookert.and the mg 's , along with the mar-key horns would 've cut . it sounds like steve cropper on the guitar , and booker t.jones on the keyboards.the sax style is definately jr.it 's a soothing piece
+music neg i 'm mean , i know these guys do n't have a shred of originality. . afterall , that make some of the same crappy beats you can put together on piano 's and they just got to mess up classic songs also . he 's about as good of a musician as he is an actor . this country is just too unoriginal these days
+music pos of course , no jazz musician can pack the energetic wallop that dizzy could . his trumpet can only be described as hot , and hearing his music makes you think of people dancing their legs off with garbage cans burning all around and smoke in the air . this man 's music has life in it . unfortunately , the real energy to dizzy is in his latin jazz work , and a more complete compilation of that style would be the compact jazz series . ken burns ' collection here is more versatile , but just not as lively as dizzy 's music can be . proceed with caution
+music neg i liked the santana - steven tyler song / video . since i found out about the sneaky root kit this software installs and the idea of no free use of something i buy within reasonable means - i wont buy the cd . want to make sure that sony loses money in this effort - will teach them a lesson . i have been burned by sony 's proprietary [...] before on other items , so i will stay away .
+music pos i think this my first ep purchase ever - and i generally feel that , despite the quality many offer , eps just are not worth it . sam beam was clearly on a mission to change my mind , as these apparent " outtakes " from the creek drank the cradle are every bit as good as that miracle debut - if not better . i only very recently discovered iron and wine through our endless numbered days , and have since been backtracking only to see that this remarkably talented artist can do no wrong . the standout track to me is the night descending , it has the feel of a track pulled right out of the past . the other four tracks are just as excellent though , and i think sam 's managed to make an avid fan out of me . damn.. . and just when i thought there were no new artists to be excited about !
+camera pos this is a great camera for travel and everyday events because of its small and convenient size . we bought it to replace our bulkier sony dsc-f707. the large screen is wonderful ! the video feature is a lot of fun but due to the small size it is hard to take a steady video . the battery meter is very useful as it tells you how much time you have left . the main downside with this camera is the flash . it does n't work well in very dark conditions for distant or even slightly distant shots . if it were n't for the flash , i would have given this a rating of 5 stars . this is overall a good camera . for more serious digital photography , we prefer to use the sony dsc-f707 as it has a better flash and zoom . however , it is too bulky to carry around
+music neg i opend the cd filled with joy till it started ; at the beginning i thought there should be some kind of mistake but no , there were no letters . not even one word , we could n't sing at all ; we just had the letters printed in very tiny letters but no guide to sing
+music neg if you work in a comic book store , live in your mom 's basement , own a lot of black candles , and think that h . p . lovecraft wrote history books , then you might like this garbage . if you have a life , a clue , or a girlfriend , then you probably will not have any use for this stuff . i still ca n't figure out how record companies get away with classifying this pseudointellectual fluff as metal . it belongs in a category with sisters of mercy or morrisey . this record is completely lacking any imagination or energy : depressing teenagers is like shooting fish in a barrel . i guess if you want to play dungeons and dragons and fester about feeling like an outcast , this would be the thing to listen to . personally i think it 's a huge ripoff when somebody takes five minutes worth of music and stretches it out into an hour . do n't give these jokers your money .
+music pos while i am not a big fan of john mclaughlin or mahvishnu orchestra - i cannot deny that they really had something with this album. . it is something new - not just an extension of miles davis - they were breaking new territory.. . there is a cohesiveness amongst the band members - of course abounding with improvisational talent - this is fushion but first of all it is music
+music pos trace adkins has set them up and knocked them down once more ! can trace ever produce any music that sounds bad ? his low deep bass voice continues to tickle our ears and the message of the songs he chooses to put together on cd continue to proclaim loud and strong that he loves everything in life from his dog to his woman to his god ! i strongly recommend that everyone has trace 's latest cd in their collection ! a big ten-four in my cd player
+music pos julieta venegas did it again . she scored an album that is not alternative in style , however it is very catchy pop music . her melodies are perfect for a morning drive with the radio on . you can sing along and express day to day feelings . julieta continues to use instruments i like such as the harmonica . and of course , julietas nice character and her lovely behavior shine through in her public appearances . my personal favorite is " me voy " , a very positive song about a not so positive event , breaking-up . keep up the good work , julieta . your songs are appreciated .
+music neg i got hooked on tiesto about 5 years ago . heard a live taping on the radio of him a couple of weeks ago and they said its from this album . neverhteless , it was n't but it was still tiesto though right ? well...the hits on this cd are about 5 years old . the build ups are terrible and i felt like the songs were redone about 10 times from other various artists . stick with " tiesto:nyana " ...10130340345435 times better
+camera neg bought the camera , charger and the kit as part of the deal . every thing looks good except the missing npf-50 battery . requested for a replacement . in the replacement kit also battery was missing . returned both the items . 59.99 for a carry bag and 3 dvd sis not worth buying this item
+camera neg i guess i really should n't complain because my husband won the camera in an office rally . but the pictures it takes are disgraceful for a samsung product every two to three pictures are blurred unrecognizably-where you ca n't even tell what you have taken . if you have found yourself among the fortunate few who actually found success with this camera thank your lucky stars . even if it is a less expensive choice versus the other cameras on the market today spend the extra money it would be worth it not to miss any family moments like my family did , on this useless piece of crap
+camera neg the cybershot dscs40 was bought as a christmas gift for my daughter in 2005. a few days after christmas 2006 , the camera ceased functioning . because the camera was shipped in november 2005 , sony refused to honor the one year warrantee and the repair price was given as $111. needless to say , we will not be purchasing another sony product in the future
+music neg sinceramente , no puedo entender la devocion de muchas perosnas , incluso renombrados artistas , hacia este musico.. . ungido de la leyenda grape , amparado en el descontrol y la libertad absoluta que encierra la locura , esta coleccion de temas no genera mas que sentimientos encontrados..lastima , piedad , curiosidad...no se , me genera igual sensacion que muchos discos de erickson ( 13th.... . ) .. en ningun momento se me revela como la creacion de un genio. . en fin , son opiniones , nada mas .
+camera neg i was very disappointed with the images produced by this camera . i had hoped the ultra-wide photos ( which was my main reason for going with this camera ) also would be ultra sharp , but instead they tended to be soft . the camera has a lag time of about 1 / 10th of a second , so it 's more of a point , shoot and wait camera . the v705 may be okay for posting internet images or enlarging to small prints , but do n't expect the sharpness typical of better quality cameras . in my opinion , the camera squeezes too much out of a jpeg photo by way of compression and shooting tif files just is n't practical . i demand better image quality from my cameras and , when zooming in , i like to see detail . i certainly do n't like everything going soft .
+music pos " i have been a brickman fan since the very first album . much of his early songs were uplifting piano solos without much " electronic enhancement . " escape is a wonderful album full of songs you might find on his early albums . there are three excellent vocals on the cd that will please fans who favor his more recent work which tends to feature the vocalist over the piano . if you are a brickman fan , this is a must have album .
+music pos other than that this is a proper introduction to the heavster
+music pos " animal farm " is a personal favorite of mine . and i dont understand why this song does't get more recognition - in my opinion , the most underrated song ever written ( yes i know , its a bold statement ) . theres something about davies ' voice in " animal farm " that makes this song unforgettable - particularly in this part : ' while i lay my head upon my pillow little girl , come play beneath my window though she 's far from home she is free from harm and she need not fear she is by my side and the sky is wide so let the sun shine bright ' the build up to davies screaming " she is by my side " is really breathtaking . the title track and " starstruck " are just as excellent . this album is a real treat and should be in everybody 's collection
+music neg i bought this cd only yesterday.the recording level is too low and i could not listen to the performance even with the volume cranked fully up.rather than going in for another high wattage amplifier i decided to return the cd ! !
+camera pos i bought this lens on a whim to see what it would be like to shoot with a prime lens . at $80 it certainly was worth the risk unlike the many other canon lenses which cost thousands of dollars . the quality of the pictures from this lens is the only thing making me move away from zoom lenses
+music neg unfortunately , i forked out $14 for this cd . upon first listen i am extremely dissapointed . being a huge fan of sp for years this album offers none of the harmonic resonance of green 's previous work . also gone are the magnificant beats we have come to expect from this artist . use this as sunday background music on a rainy day ; but do not expect to get the party started with this album.. .
+camera pos i 'm sure there are those who 'd wax philosophical over the subject of filters and how one brand is " much better " than another , but for my canon ef-s 10-22mm on a 20d , i figure canon would be fairly good at making a filter that they 're willing to have branded " canon . " it fits fine , does n't interfere with the lens hood , looks clear , seems to attenuate that nasty ultra-violet part of the light spectrum and perhaps best of all , protects the front element . what more would one want
+camera neg the first day i took them out to hunt with them they fogged over . i brought them home and there is fog inside . also inside is some dark crap that you cannot get to...and it is on the lens . i called bushnell 's help line and they told me.. . " well , it is n't internally fog proof , just externally " when asked about the stuff on the inside . " that is probably fungus , that sometimes happens " i just bought the binoculars ! ! ! he stated i could send them in and miss my entire hunting season and they would take the fungus out . avoid these at all costs ! ! ! they are a shoddy product with an even worse strap that is plastic and cuts into your neck
+camera pos this is a great buy if you are just wanting to have some fun , with no real investment . although it does go beyond 17 feet , and that is not as far as you may think . but , i used it while snorkeling and the pictures turned out great , and i am sure a few were more than 17 feet .
+camera neg i just opened my dock kit and began to assemble and the included battery is too big for the c743 camera . the battery must be for one of the older cameras that is bigger . i think it 's odd , as the camera dock series 3 is the correct camera dock . i 'm disappointed with my purchase and wasted the money that went toward the battery . i do n't know whether the dock works okay , because i did n't get that far . this is my second easyshare camera and dock and i was very happy with the first one . now i have to buy another battery
+music pos this will be short . it is worth the price of this album just to hear the branford and harry connick jr. duet carolina shout . that being said , all of the other tracks on this album are excellent . from jungle blues to doug wamble 's solo guitar on autumn lamp , with this record you get a pile of blues and at the same time gain an appreciation for romare breaden 's art . a must have . branford keeps outdoing himself
+camera neg i love my nikon coolpix 5900 however , the lens failed in less than one year . service took 6 weeks to repair . the lens failed again after less than 10 days after repair . why is the lens failing to open again ? i absolutely hate the inconvenience of returning this item again for service although i do have a paid plan for it . why ca n't warranty be fast , local and competent
+camera pos good camera for the money. . picture quality excellent . used camera on recent trio to florida for spring training and colors superb.still learning the fine points and capabilties of the product . dealing through amazon exceptional . product arrived well within promised time frame . no doubt a good deal
+music neg nothing like eon . eon is the one . this was a hack sequel with no guts . very dissapointing
+camera neg i loved this camera when i received it and used it a couple of times . then , it just stopped working . i have since purchased the same camera elsewhere and it is works great . maybe this was just a bad egg . good camera , but 2 months of use for the money was n't good
+camera pos i do weddings , portrait , and outdoor photography and i do n't see any reason why i 'd ever switch from the d70 ( other than the d80 : ) . this camera is professional grade at the consumer price point . do n't be scared by the 6.1 mp . i print at 20x30 all the time w / out any problems . i 'd recommend reading thom hogans manual
+camera neg it takes too long to focus and shoot ! this , coupled with the very long time it takes to write to the memory card , well , it is horrible . people who write in saying they did n't notice the the slow focus and writing , must be either paid by nikon or total nubs . do not buy this camera . it did take decent movies , and the size is nice
+music pos this cd is supberb ! ! absolutely fabulous . i received it timely and have enjoyed listening to it over and over again . all my deslings with amazon thusfar have been outstanding . thanks , amazon laura rig
+camera pos i recently recieved my new camera , and i am thrilled . i have been researching which camera to buy since december ( when our last camera went capoot ) . there have been mixed reviews for the olympus sw series , but could not resist the appeal of this camera 's unique features . i cannot wait to take it into the pool this summer with the kids . so far , the point and shoot options and pictures have been lovely . any person can screw up pictures with any camera , but this camera has so many features to avoid that . my husband and i had a wonderful time taking extreme close up shots of our garden . i have not seen that quality , and had that much satisfaction from a camera since we first switched over to digital . i am very pleased , to say the least , with this purchase .
+camera pos the battery is great and it 's pretty nice to own two of these , so when one battery is discharged i can just pop in the spare . it was in stock and delivered to me in a reasonable amount of time
+camera neg we just bought this camera to replace our minidv jvc-dvl500 that was bought in 2000. in short the picture taking ability is worthless and the quality is very grainy and dark . i applied the workaround listed above , but found that i had to set the frame rate to 1 / 15 in order to ge the brightness that i needed which caused a very jittery image . the quality of this camera is something that i would expect for $200 , needless to say i am returning this camera today
+music neg this has got to be the worst pile of trash i ever heard , right now i cant think of anything worse then this . the same ol trash bling and girls . and if you got jd and bow wow on your album at the same time , its gonna be wack . and do these n***** even know what franchise mean ? what does that word have to do with their name ? i 'll just start a click called ham & cheese and rap about flip flops and thongs for that matter
+music pos with a compelling story , great music , great lyrics , and two outstanding female leads , aida certainly delievers . right from the start with the goregous " every story is a love story " , the listener is captured by the wonderful spirit of the show . the seamless tranisition between ballads and showtunes is flawless . the three stars of the show each being something different to this recording . while adam pascal is always great , he 's the weak point on this recording . i much more prefer him in rent , and i do n't think his voice suits this show very well . sherie renee scott is teriffic as amneris , and her powerful voice fills this recording with the powerful opener and " i know the truth " . the star , however , is heather headley as aida . her tony-winning performance will be forever immortalized on this recording with big , raw , emotional , and powerful voice . she 's is perfect in every way
+music neg this is nothing like the classic dead you 've heard about . far from it . the sound is too polished . " alabama get away " and " althea " are okay but the rest is junk . i think most dead heads would agree that this is not the one to look for if you just want some of the deads ' best music . really.. . the grateful dead with a polished sound ? ? just does n't seem to fit . save your money for one of their greatest hits compilations , plus american beauty , worjing man 's dead , europe ' 72 and " dead set "
+music neg listening to the standards being sung by rod stewart is like listening to classical music being played on a kazoo ! if you 're new to this music , try out some sinatra cd's . he 's the guy who sets the standard when it comes to singing the standards
+camera neg i picked this up with a music order for my 350d - big mistake . the class came chipped , scratched and smuged ; tiffen filters are of very poor quality . do yourself a favor , like i did , and find your local camera supply store and pick up an optical grade filter for maybe , oh , 10 dollars more . this tiffen one was so bad that the scratches made their way onto some shots and ruined an entire day of shooting
+music pos the first four albums are so unbelievably great that for me it 's almost impossible to say one is better that the others . taken together , they are almost like one long album . the family that plays together shows the band turning a slightly more commercial corner without sacraficing any of their artistic integrity . their blending of styles is a bit mote intergrated than on the first . randy california 's influence on the music was becoming stronger as well . one thing that differd spirit from most of their comtempories was the strength with whch they were able to convey their songs in concert . i saw the original version 11 times and they never failed to astound me . it 's a shame that the only legitimate live recordings of the band are of the later ed cassidy / randy california version . not that the later versions of the band were n't great - they just were n't quite as good as the original band . if your'e just being introduced to spirit , the family that plays together is a fine place to start
+music pos this is one of his best cd's . you really have to listen to the words on the cd , he takes you to whole another level . he is one of the best r&b singers ever , just close your eyes and listen to the song " maybe " and think of that special place for you and your lady
+music neg agreed , the fan is there , but i must admit they are actually singing well in the actual solesmes style ( based on these samples ) . i have heard superb chant and frighteningly bad chant . this is not as bad as it gets i assure you . try to find something from a seminary or monastery
+music pos i bought this out of a cut rack for $3.99. it sat in my cd tower for at least 5 years before i ever really listened to it.i could n't stand the way it sounded over my stereo and i came close to trading it.i brought it to work and put my headphones on and it sounds like a completely different album.i really like the whole experience . i 'm lucky i brought it up here-it was going nowhere at home but i 'm playing it a couple of times a day over my headphones . i do n't know anything about this band , i bought it on a whim , but i 'd reccommend this album and i may follow up on this band
+music neg i bought two copies of this sacd , both had glitches and would not play in my player correctly , be forewarned . i dont have any other problems with other sacds so i assume it is in the production somewhere . they would lock up for no reason , this is right out of the box , both copies .
+camera pos to all , i just purchased the sp-550uz after searching for the best camera bang for the buck - olympus fills the bill.... . 3 / 3 / 07 was my first day of use and i decided to check all the features - with the batteries supplied - still in use and a 2gb card - i took off for the outdoors and began shooting pictures at a local park - 300 pictures - including several 15 fps and 30 fps shoots and three videos - 15 , 30 and 45 seconds in length . i am not a pro and will be using this camera for sports , vacations and every day family events . no cons yets - i love the " scn " feature - just select how you want to take the picture and the camera setups the camera - all you have to do is take the picture
+camera neg panasonic offers a usb driver however no video driver . this means that anyone using windows xp will be unable to transfer video to their computer . when talking to panasonic they just said they didnt have a driver and were not developing one . they offered no suggestions or alternatives
+camera neg the wifi is a great idea ! the idea on paper sounds amazing , but the way you had to do it was horrible . it gave you no control over what pictures or anything . plus it was slow . the picture quality was horrilbe ! ! ! m y two megapixel cell phone takes better pictures than this camera . they look amazing on the lcd screen , but once you get them on the computer , they are fuzzy , grainy , etc. i would not recomend this camera to anybody . yes , it has some nice features , but the pictures are anything but acceptable
+camera pos i am a busy mom of two young children . this camera is perfect for capturing all of their cute faces and happy moments . i love the fast cycle time . i love that i can take multiple pictures in seconds . would recommend to anyone
+music neg the cd is great ! ! ! the legendary johnny cash comes thru loud and clear on this cd . however , it took amazon over 30 days to deliver this item and that was only after numerous emails to them . their attitude of " just wait a few more days and email us again " was both insulting and annoying . thank goodness this was n't a christmas gift for someone .
+music pos i never have understood how some people have an inate quality for music and some don't . well , willie was one of those that definately did . it is hard to imageine the blues without the likes of willie dixon : the writer , the musician , the producer , the businessman . i listen to his work over and over again , each time learning new nuances i did not hear before . how incredible is that
+music pos when my boyfriend bought this for me i was so happy and i remember i would play this music and sing for him in the car on cool dark , starry nights and i would be mesmerized not only by the intensity of those nights , but by the music she sang and how she deeply , richly portrayed those songs . she really knew how to set the mood for any lover or lonely lover as well . i totally recommend this cd to start if you have not heard much of her music...she truly is addicting once you hear these songs...these songs will definetly put you in an enchanting and romantic journey
+camera neg my hunting buddy purchased a nikon 800. my intent was to put him in the shade . that nikon kicks the crap out of my bushnell yardage pro 1000. tried new batteries , tried bluffing , even tried to lie but nothing helped this product past 500 / 600 yards . my opinion is this product is not worth the postage . anyone with similar opinion or someone that has had a good experience with this product . [...
+camera pos am very pleased with all aspects of the camera except one . i do not like that the viewfinder is no longer operational once you flip open the lcd screen . sometimes i like to verify my shot with both
+camera neg i had a kodak camera for years that i absolutely loved . we took it ice skating and ended up falling on it . therefore , my family bought me this sony for my b-day and i have to say this is the worst camera i have ever owned . if you have any movement ( such as action shots or small children ) the picture always comes out blurry . what a pain ! also , the picture quality is horrible . i will not purchase a sony again and am going back to a kodak
+camera pos the sony cybershot is a great camera . the colors and the features are amazing . is very easy to use . the only thing i dont like about the camera is the zoom in and out button . if you zoomed in you wont be able to zoom out .
+music neg even as dedicated of a radiohead fan as i am , i really do n't care much for this album . i say thank goodness for " creep " because we may have never heard from them again ( or at least not in the same way ) if that song had not become as popular as it did
+camera neg this is a poorly designed camera case . you have to take the camera out of the case completely each time you shoot pictures . i expected the case to remain on the camera body and just uncover the lens so you can shoot . i was very disappointed . this is rather a leather box than a camera case
+camera pos my search for a semi pro digicam made me do a lot of research and after i shortlisted a few models i had to find the best deal . amazon helped me get that deal and today when i look at the performance of the camera so far. . i am amazed.. . the camera was bound to be good but a special thanks to amazon.com for helping me get one at a gr8 price
+camera neg image quality is pathetic . it generates ludicrous amounts of noise even at the lowest iso ( 80 ) . rest assured , you will be disappointed . i returned mine within a day
+camera pos small and compact . let me see everyting i wanted to
+camera pos this camera was a great investment . the photos turn out wonderfully . better than a regular film camera and i have kept an eye out on simular cameras...price wise we got a fantastic deal on this camera and it was well worth the price . the only problem i have found with it is that the batteries wear out soooo fast but i think all digital cameras have that problem . this is a great camera
+music pos this album was so good to hear when it came out . i like every song on here but my favorites are " still dre " , " the watcher " , " xxplosive " , " what 's the difference " and " forget about dre . those are my favorites but there a lot of other songs that people will like . recommend this album highly to rap fans . buy this album you have nothing to loose because its dre one of the best producers in the game right now so click on add to cart and be happy you hearing this classic
+camera pos this is an excellent battery that powers my canon 5d camera very well . although i have n't tested it against the spec for how many shots i can get from it , i 've been very impressed with the longevity of it 's charge
+music pos comparing gogol bordello and juf is like comparing apples and oranges . i have seen gogol live more times than i have fingers and toes to count on . when i bought juf i did not expect to hear anything remotely resembling a gogol album . this is a dancehall album . you like it or you do n't , but just remember it is a side project . it does not make any sense to compare it to other gogol albums . listen before you buy
+music neg as a gene autry fan , particularly of his christmas recordings , i was really looking forward to this release . but...what a disappointment ! i will look over the dropouts - obviously the source tapes have deteriorated - but what happened to the final three cuts ? they are so laden with noise reduction artifacts that they are barely listenable . and , i know the disc is short , but were the 2 second pauses between tracks really necessary ? talk about choppy . no flow at all . this cd did make me do one thing...go back into my archives and pull out my original grand prix vinyl . i think i 'll be doing a transfer and retire this cd to the bottom shelf .
+camera pos high iso and large screen were the reasons for my purchase . the screen is great but , when you force the iso 1600 , it seems to darken the pictures more than in 800. i have a s5200 and that one seems to adjust other options like white balance much better when an iso is set w / o having to go to full manual option . definitely something to improve ! the auto option seems to work much better and i was surprised with how good the high speed three frame shooting works . also , the two picture function ( it takes two with slightly different sets automatically ) saves me on a lot of ' re-posing
+music neg my wife got this cd for me because i like the music from the movie cast away . she saw the words " cast away " in large and prominent print . she saw the picture of tom hanks , very large . she assumed it was the soundtrack for the movie and not just the 10th track of 10 on the cd . in hindsight she should have read the entire panel on the cd . i guess the producers of this cd did n't think the rest of the music could stand on its own and so they deceptively packaged it this way figuring most people would n't waste time returning it . if you had it listed in the rate column , i would give it a negative rating instead of just the one star
+camera neg attention ! i got this lenmar from amazon . however , it is not compatible with my latest model of sony 's dcr-hc96 camcorder ! the camcorder warns you to use infolithium battery , and then shuts down . that 's it
+music neg mississippi and sugar baby are great songs , up there with the best dylan has done . however , the rest of the album , while listenable , is n't all that memorable . still , i suppose it 's amazing that he can still produce a couple of great songs still , after over 40 years performing and recording . the same cannot be said for ' 60s peers like paul mccartney or the stones . overall , time out of mind was better , although that too was a little overrated , with only not dark yet , standing in the doorway and trying to get to heaven truly belonging to the canon of great bob songs .
+music pos i am not sure about my baby , but i love this cd ! actually baby loves it too but probably not to that great extent . : -
+music pos as with her second album , i love " thankful " . kelly clarkson has a beautiful voice and has a lot of talent . i especially like " whats up lonely " , " you thought wrong " , and " just missed the train " . although the whole album is very good .
+camera neg this gets 1 star for the simple fact that it does n't seem to fit my mark ii body properly .
+camera pos every picture of mine that included larger portions of the sky would have these stubborn spores on it . pretty infuriating , especially when you got the shot just like you wanted it . yes , you can always remove those on photoshop ( or cheaper yet , the gimp ) ; but is n't it cool when you look at a picture and say : " that is it , nothing to do on it ! " ? ? and it was n't just the sky . any off-white but light plain colored background would suffer visibly from the acursed specks . with this blower , greatly priced ( pity that adorama does n't have free shipping though ) , i put my camera on the tripod , pointed it down , squirted three or four times - and gone are the specs ! ! ! great buy for dslr owners
+music neg this is not what i expected from such a gifted artist as jaheim , did he change producers ? the music and the man with the voice did n't go together well for me . this is one i will not be purchasing , it is a serious down grade from his previous two albums . better luck next time , jaheim i was truly disappointed .
+music neg i do n't want to hear any more of their music on the radio . it is all just nonsense , and none of it should have ever been made . they are one of the worst hip hop acts in recent memory
+camera neg loved this camera the first month or so that i owned it . two years later my feelings are very different . batteries need to be recharged constantly . camera rarely turns on after being off it 's dock for more than an hour . all i can get is a flashing red light signifying that the batteries are dying . zoom is worthless , pictures turn out very blurry and pixelated . flash is also way too bright , half of my pictures are annoyingly " white " looking because of this . definitely going with canon on my next purchase
+music pos a great recording . " the greatest bass solo ever recorded " ( as put by another reviewer ) is certainly a stretch , but the album is still magnificent . heavy sounds is a title that accurately describes the music . buy and enjoy .
+music neg i think india is one of the most talented artists today . her voice is sensational . sadly , as with many great artists today , this album feels more producer / market-driven rather than artist-driven . i understand that regaetton is popular right now . i would even understand including a few reggaeton-flavored songs to " keep up with the times " ( shakira 's " la tortura " comes to mind ) . but who mixes two genres within a single song ? ! ? " soy differente " flows perfectly as a salsa , until regaetton beats come in . the style feels very out-of-place in this song , as in most other songs in this album . maybe this kind of thing will work at a club , but not for extended listening . in my opinion , the producers are making this album more marketable while stiffling india 's own style . i hope she will regain contol by the next album
+camera pos i bought this camera to replace a casio exilim ex-s500 that was sadly stolen from me . it 's the same size , which i love , and as convenient , which is awesome . it has a large bright screen to see the pictures you are taking or have taken . it 's one of my favorite things ever
+camera neg i bought this frame in jan. ' 07 and the screen burned out march ' 07. i returned it and the newest one burned out last night - april ' 07. this product needs a redesign - the screens do n't work for long .
+camera pos this camera is really great . i knew i liked it before , but i immediately began to appreciate this camera all the more when i ended up with a rebel xt as a " loaner " while my 20d was in repair . not that the xt is a bad camera , it just does n't really compare to the 20d . the 20d has a nice feel to it ; it is fairly large , which is great since i have somewhat large hands . the features are great too . and the image quality is awesome . i do n't really need to go into all of the details , as most of the other reviewers have done an excellent job . let me just say that it is a great camera and is worth the five stars . the only complaint i have about the camera is that it does n't have spot metering . the ability to do your light metering off of a single point of interest would be great - and they did add it to the 30d .
+music pos the music contained trout mask replica is some of the most unique , acid-drenched art to ever be pressed . the songs on the album are mainly divided into folkish a capella tunes and the crazed jams the captain and his band are known for . several strange , unconventional themes are visited and revisted throughout the track list , such as bulbs , gingham , trout , and a variety of other surreal , sensously described wildlife . however , if there 's any reason to buy captain beefheart 's trout mask replica , it 's to listen to the album as a whole . i find it difficult to listen to any other way . while i find this to be true , i do have favorites that i go to when introducing friends to the captain , or simply jamming out to without dedicating myself to the full experience : " ella guru " , " dachaus blues " , " dust blows forward " , " neone meat dream " , and " old fart at play " stick out
+music pos these guys and this album rocks . just because the songs force you to move other parts of your body beside your head , does n't ' demote ' it to pop . props to the great use of two bass guitars . released amid the misery / grunge rock explosion of the early 90 's , this was a great escape into rock that just simply made you feel good again . this album is highly recommended . kill your television , grey cell green , cut up , throwing things , happy , and until you find out are just an awesome experience . if you can find the grey cell green single release , i highly recommend that for the track entitled ' trust . '
+camera pos started to by a less expensive bag last january ( dec. now ) and i 'm shure glad i didn't . for the money this bag is a good one . it 's not flimsy and you can get in and out of it and the pockets easly . the tripod holder on top has been real convenient
+music pos " the guitars are n't loud enough , and neither is the bass for that matter " which is so true , but it 's still a great album . seeing them live , makes up for this cd no doubt . stand out songs : -the city sleeps in flames -the world as we know it -just a taste -my darkest hour -empty glasses -the only medicine ' my darkest hour ' & ' empty glasses ' are my favorites . i know those songs by heart
+camera neg i made the mistake of ordering this camera to substitute buying a pro camera . the color and noise was terrible . if you want a great point and shoot camera get the canon powershot s50 while they are still available . the camera has pro features , it was so good they stopped making it because it should have been in the pro camera line at a much higher price tag . if you want to see s50 pictures go to [...] and search my gallery cathreen styles . all most all of the pictures in the gallery were taken with the s50. i am going to buy another just to have when mine breaks . by the way , i did end up buy a pro camera , mainly because of the look . i got the canon 30d and love it
+camera pos this is a good , affordable uv filter for protecting your expensive lenses . i leave it on my lens all the time . this particular filter ( l-39 sharp cut ) is especially good for wide angle lenses ( < 24mm focal length ) , because of its ultrathin profile , which prevents vignetting . i have used regular filters on wide angle lenses , with very bad results . although this filter is not multi-coated , i have not found it to be a big deal in the pictures i 've taken . multi-coated uv filters can cost 2x or 3x the price of this one , which i do n't think is worthwhile . all in all , i recommend this filter for canon or non-canon lenses
+camera neg i bought this camera for my wife and we find it unusable . the problem is the flash recovery time which takes a good 5 seconds . during this time the camera 's view finder goes black and you cannot use it . because the camera is so slow , we have missed many important pictures of our children ; consequently , we found that for any important family events , this is not the camera we use . i own nikon 35mm slr cameras and i am shocked that nikon would sell this unusable product . if it is your life your recording , i recommend that you buy a different camera
+camera pos the optical x6 zoom on the canon a710 is is already better than cameras in it s range ( i.e. non slr ) . however , the zoom takes the picture up to the natural size ; the tele converter lens really does make a difference . firstly , if there are any negatives , they are very minor ; the lens and adapter are black - would have been nice to have been silver to match with the camera . erm , that 's it ! the main quality of canon is the lens , which they always do well . the clarity of this lens is very good , with very little fuzziness at the edge . it also connects simply the adapter and seems fairly solid when connected . the electronics features help in the overall control of adding the attachment . the tele lens does make a difference for just getting that bit closer to get what you want .
+camera neg this camcorder is only good for outdoor recording . in indoor recording or recording in little bit low light , picture quality is very bad . i tried to record in my living room where i have two 100 watt bulbs but recorded picture was very blurred . in outdoor recording in a sunny day , picture quality is quite good with sharp colors . zoom works well
+camera neg this camera took some great pictures , and i enjoyed it 's size and functionality for several months . i was sitting in a lawn chair at a barbecue last weekend when i was passing it to a friend who was also seated . the camera fell about 2 feet onto soft grass . the end . the lens assembly is shot , according to my local camera store , not economical to fix . this was about the softest fall a camera could take , and not work , it was like landing on a pillow . i will not buy hp cameras again
+camera pos i had used some third party batteries with 15 minute charger , that used to die for 10 photoes or so . this canon one seems to realllly laaast looong.. .
+music pos joe cocker has one of the most distinctive gravelly voices in r & b history . he 's always stuck to his roots and never gone with temporary fads or novelties . this collection is another classic with great covers from the beatles , elton john and gary wright . his interpretive voice has always been the focal point of his songs , but in dts 5.1 , you are surrounded ( as if in concert ) by his presence . the completely adept and intuitive musicians that accompany him add more atmosphere without taking from his performance . imagine hearing him in live in a theater and you 'll know what to expect from this warm and heartfelt album
+camera neg i tried the trick of resizing , but honestly , the image quality is still abyssmal . the images are so low-resolution that only the vaguest of detail comes out . please , if you 're thinking of buying this for someone for christmas this year , choose something else . it might be okay for someone with low standards or poor eyesight , but for anyone who can see well and knows what a good digital image looks like , this will be a huge disappointment . the good news is that in a few years these digital keychains will have advanced and will offer much better performance - that 's almost guaranteed . so put this one on the " must buy for mom " list for the 2008 christmas season . i very seldom write a review , and only wrote this one to keep people from making the same mistake i did
+music neg i agree with other reviewers . do n't waste your money . i should have listened to the samples . to hear more awful fakes , visit the producer 's web site at drewsfamous.com . listen to their selection of garbage before you make the purchase
+music neg certainly this album offers very little to a fan of the ocean blue 's eariler work . the vocals and guitars sound quite different ( gone is that beautiful dreamy sound ) . and what about those awesome saxaphone and keyboard sounds that made their earlier tracks so fun ? just because steve lau is gay is no reason for the band to abandon keyboards altogether . so , anyway , what does this album offer instead ? harder sounding guitar , angrier sounding vocals , and songs that are somewhat intersting , but are lacking in any magic that would make you want to listen to them after you 've had the cd for a couple weeks . exceptions : " whenever you 're around " , and " slide " are good enough songs to standout inspite of boring production
+camera neg the title says it all : one month the warranty expired , the zoom feature on the camera broke , making a horrible grinding noise if you attempted to turn it on . the camera is all but useless . the fuji shop said they need to replace the lens assembly , at a cost of at least us$120 ; for that price , i 'm buying a new camera , but not another f10.
+music neg this cd and the one entitled " night ranger 's greatest hits are almost identical , but are different in this way : " best " contains " i did it for love " . " greatest " contains , instead , " rumours in the air " and " restless kind " . the other 10 tracks on each cd are the same . so , which one to buy ? my choice is the one with the extra track . also , in my opinion , both tracks on " greatest " are better than the one on " best " . in addition , here 's hoping that the band or record label decides to release a true " greatest hits " or " best of " album that will contain about 15 or 16 songs . or maybe a multi-disc compilation that will include some rare tracks . night ranger fans would surely delight to see something like that
+music neg amazingly this compilation has managed to get together some of the most untallented performances of brahms ' music . with a few exceptions the moto of this cd can be summed up as ' no understanding and appreciation for a musical genius' . the choice of music is also quite perfunctory . there are many brahms pieces that could have served better the bedtime purpose . buy at your own risk . my only fear is that some people will get their first impressions of brahms from this cd. .
+music pos ok good cd . im not suprised . ok jaheim may not have the b best voice but his music is good and it goes will with the voice that he has . yes yall this album does use profanity but the songs actually have meanings . i like that daddy thing song , and like a dj . this album looks at issues from a mans point of view . ya know we 've heard the angry woman and how the man did t his and that now jaheim looks at it from a males view . ok yall i know he is not the first one to do this but he did it well . also this is a break from that [...] that is played on the radio .
+music pos great music , great band . this is a must buy . recommended to all hard rock lovers
+music neg i cant believe there are so many positive ratings given to this sub-par testament release . testament must have taken hints from metallica and tried to attract a different audience . this is not a horrible album , but compared to any other testament album , it is easily their worst . only the die-hard testament fan , or those into commercial metal should pick this up .
+music pos i have been listening to this album for at least 12 years and it rarely leaves my cd changer . i played the cassette version until it literally would not play any more , and it was one of the first cds i bought . a relative first introduced me to this album and of course " coming up close " was the reason i bought my own copy . but i came to love each song and appreciate aimee mann as an exceptionally gifted songwriter . it is a great " road trip " album and " on sunday " makes the perfect " summer song " . the mix is not mainstream pop / rock . it is not a 1980 's anthem , but it is one of the defining moments , for me . the lyrics have meaning , which sometimes defies what the ' 80 's were about . the only other thing i can say is listen to this cd ! i am sure you will find mann 's unique voice as captivating as i do . it is a definite must have for one 's cd library
+music neg this is junk not music.neon moon is the worst song ever ! it is so boring and dull.and a cool drink of water is a horribly written and sung song ! this music bores me ! leave it alone and stick to rap , rock , or metal.country sucks
+camera neg the filters that i got are poorly finished . the 812 filter has a smudge on it , while all 3 filters do n't screw on properly on my lens . all filters come off easily . they are totally useless . i suggest that you buy filters in a real store so you can try them on your lens
+music neg i am very dissapointed with this dualdisc , because there is no comment ( worning ) about dvd region protection . what can i do with this disc - region 1 , in europe ( region 2 ) ? my message for sony corporation is : " this format will not exist for long with dvd region protection ! sorry . " . my first , and last dualdisc . back to the sacd
+camera neg a great idea poorly executed . the construction is cheap . the screen is marginal at best . but worst of all , it refuses to recognize any of the 3 digital cameras i have on hand or a usb card reader . a piece of junk that i am now returnin
+music neg you win some and you lose some . this purchase was a definite loss . what a dissapointment
+camera neg decent camera , but not great . shark mode is nice . housing looks good , but mine leaked at ~20 ft...camera was dead by the time i got it out of the water . good news is that amazon processed the defective product return rapidly and credited my account in about a week . net result was one decent picture and a disappointing christmas present . next time i will buy a housing for a better camera . canon has some nice ones
+camera neg i got the dreaded " e18 " error after owning this ( naturally ) for just over a year . repairs will be at least $100 , and repairs are only guaranteed for 90 days...even if the exact same problem occurs again ! this is clearly a design flaw ( just read how many users had the same problem ) . my first photoshot broke after about a year and a half , and since i liked the ease of use and basic design , i chalked it up to bad luck and bought another . big mistake
+camera pos great camera . . . one of the few lower priced cams to keep the mic jack and the headphone jack , but beware . .. . this camera does not come with a lens cap , and no remote control . other sources state that this camera does not have a leica lens . this camera does not have a / v input . no flash , no hot accessory shoe ( though it has one which has no power ) . no widescreen lcd . it does record in widescreen but no image stabilization in widescreen .
+camera neg after about 2 months of light use , the camera stopped working . also , the output format was very difficult to work with . absolutely will not work on a mac . the price is coming down greatly...i saw it for $88 at target
+camera pos i bought these for a trip to costa rica and used them every day . they are comfortable , easy to focus , and a great choice for the price . these are perfect for folks like me who are interested in casual use for travel , concerts , sports , etc
+camera neg i bought this camera after owning an olympus digital camera for years . i was extremely happy with my olympus , but wanted something smaller that would fit in my purse or diaper bag since i 'm expecting . this camera was such a disappointment . just about every single picture i took had huge white blobs all over it . ( this only happened when using the flash . i must admit the camera takes great pictures in broad daylight without the flash . ) plus , if you used the zoom at all , the pictures came out fuzzy . the first digital camera i ever owned ( 7 years ago ) took better pictures ! the store i bought the camera from would n't take it back because i waited two days past the 14-day return policy . so , i sold the camera and took a $100 loss . i 'd much rather lose $[...] than keep this camera
+camera pos this is a great camera . plenty of resolution . excellent shot speed . sturdy frame . the kit lense does n't do the camera justice . buy the body separate and add a better lense . on the bad side , i had a small glitch with the camera 's firmware soon after purchase and had to return it for a fix . it was two months before the camera was returned . sorry , canon.. . you lose a star for that
+music pos this is a great movie soundtrack ! . i 'm a passport fan since i was a kid back in the 70's . i have all klaus doldinger 's official releases with his passport signature . please go and look for this cd " running in real time " from passport and listen to track number 2 : auryn . then go and get all his passport releases ( almost 20 cds since the 70 's ) . then you will see why klaus doldinger is very creative
+music pos i was introduced to nitin through my cousin who lives in england . she saw him live in london and raved about it...so off i went in search of this artist . he was difficult to find ; nonetheless i was determined . i am one of those people who love music from almost all genres , cultures and corners of the globe . in other words , i am not a radio-pop saccharine sweet loving music listener . i look for music that proposes thought ( although i do believe even top 40 has its place ) if you are looking for an album / artist that resonates emotion , along with a powerful subtlety check nitin sawhney out . you wo n't be disappointed .
+camera neg the zipper was broken within one day , and the hook was broken within two days
+camera neg should have listened to the reviewer before me . unit arrived dead . neither ac power or car charger worked . tried replacing the 4 batteries that came with it with my other known batteries and unit still did not work
+music pos i 've been waiting for this one.this disc and this group period was funky.movin was one of the baddest instrumental jams that i 've ever heard period.can you see the light is a tight jam as well.one of the many bad groups from back in the day
+music neg atleast they are trying this time around . still no where near as good as the band was with max . pros : faster and more back to their roots than the other releases without max at the helm . guitar playing is passable . cons : lack of solos . derrick is still lacking as a vocalist . just is n't as good as old sepultura , songs lack hooks and are mostly forgetable . bottom line : this album falls short of expectations . the current sepultura is nothing more than a very average metal band at best . if you like old sepultura i suggest you not waste your money on this , but then again you might like it . buyer beware
+camera neg we bought this camera two years ago . we have loved using it , until last week . the camera showed an " e18 " error in the middle of a special event . we researched the error online and found that almost anything can cause this error , from turning the camera off while it has a low battery to having something in front of the lens while turning it on . we 're not sure how ours developed the e18 ( never dropped or damaged . ) our camera has been rendered useless and canon 's only response it to have us mail it in for $100 repair
+music pos first of all bob dylan is certainly not for everyone . however , if his style is up your alley this is a classic . you can turn on the radio and hear all those classic songs of his like " lay lady lay " or " like a rolling stone " to name a couple . planet waves is the type of album where the sum of the songs come together wonderfully . this is probably my favorite dylan album and i have all the " classics " like blonde on blonde , blood on the tracks , highway 61 revisited . ect . i 'd recommend this to any dylan fan
+camera neg i bought this camera after owning an olympus digital camera for years . i was extremely happy with my olympus , but wanted something smaller that would fit in my purse or diaper bag since i 'm expecting . this camera was such a disappointment . just about every single picture i took had huge white blobs all over it . ( this only happened when using the flash . i must admit the camera takes great pictures in broad daylight without the flash . ) plus , if you used the zoom at all , the pictures came out fuzzy . the first digital camera i ever owned ( 7 years ago ) took better pictures ! the store i bought the camera from would n't take it back because i waited two days past the 14-day return policy . so , i sold the camera and took a $100 loss . i 'd much rather lose $[...] than keep this camera
+camera neg i bougt this camera and a olymus camera , both in the same price range , the kodak camera was by far deficeint in quality of image and workmanship . avoid this at all cost the olympus was well made , durable , higher quality picture and ease of use
+camera neg cheaply made and ill-fitting , this " deluxe " case is n't worth half the price . there is no handle or wrist strap provided ; your camera 's strap becomes the carry handle . a small , snap-strap is provided , but i ca n't figure out what it 's for.. . the snap is easily unfastened with light pressure , and i would n't trust it to hold the weight of the empty case , much less with the heft of a camera inside . do n't buy this item : amazon will not reimburse you for the return postage , because it 's not their fault you do n't like it.. . and you will be returning it . save yourself the trouble .
+music pos wonderful cd the music brings back a lot of childhood memories ! a must have for those who are looking for a cd that includes neil diamond 's top hits .
+music neg just another cd of the awful , awful techno-crud that has infested goth / industrial clubs , while real artists like cinema strange and knifeladder get the shaft . worthless on every level
+music pos this movie was a favorite in our household and my daughters always enjoyed the karaoke a the end of the dvd , so we searched for the soundtrack . i actually chose this volume over volume 1 for two reasons...it contains the favorite from the movie , " i want to grow old with you " actually sung by adam sandler and secondly , because volume 1 contains the song that adam sandler sings about his ex-girlfriend , which contains quite a bit of profanity , so i did n't want to get it for my kids . i would have given it five stars , but we find the introduction by billy idol at the start of the last track , " i want to grow old with you , " which is dialog from the movie , to be distracting and it gets tiring to have to listen to over and over when you just want to hear the song , which i mentioned was the absolute favorite
+music neg charlotte church had the most beautiful and captivating voice i ever heard when she debuted . i purchased all of her albums and played them to death . this cd is horrible ! her beautiful voice is no more as she makes no attempt to even use it . some of the other reviews said this release is the result of her growing up . ridiculous ! she could easily have kept the angelic voice as she grew . this is simply a tragic waste of talent
+camera pos this camera delivers excellent video quality . i use it with the hot-shoe attachable microphone and the audio is quite good . i 've plugged this into my hd television and the quality is excellent . i have also had the optura xi from canon and while the build quality of the hv20 is not quite as good as that of the optura xi , the video quality is nothing short of stunning . this is a very good deal for $1000. you wo n't be disappointed
+camera pos good camera for the $129 i paid . does everything pretty well , and your picture modes are pretty customizable . only qualm is it takes a second or two longer than i wish when the camera saves / loads pictures to the memory card . might be a problem when trying to shoot consecutive pictures- - but probably would n't be doing it with this type of camera anyways .
+camera neg purchased this item in dec 06 ' screen burned out mar 07' . on top of that screen quality was not that great . do not order order this item
+music pos i heard this music on the excellent p b s documentary : " liberty - the american revolution " and i knew i had to have it ! it is the finest music i have heard , capturing the heart and soul of the american revolution . the documentary " liberty " was a masterpiece that was beautiful and moving . so too this music with its most wonderful arrangements and accompaniment . i love it ! i could hardly wait to get it in the mail . it framed the documentary ( which i also bought ) like a great frame compliments a beautiful canvas painting . superlatives fail me . this music must be experienced by first watching the great series on the american revolution and then by listening to it apart . this is some of the most wonderful music i have ever heard . it reminds me of the genius of aaron copland who wrote the applachian spring and rodeo suites
+music pos joe bonamassa is a blue / rock musical phenomenon that is awe-inspiring to anyone who will take the time to listen to his music . in his musical style / class , i would count him the second greatest musician on the planet - with walter trout weighing in first place . as you can easily see from all of the other reviews , i believe that you will find this cd well worth purchasing - as i have found all his material is . ( after purchasing this item , i eventually went on to purchase everything he produced and have n't been disappointed . ) as with any cd , you may not like all the selections but i believe the vast majority of his material you will . among my favorites on this cd are : ` pack it up ' , ` you upset me baby ' , and ` man of many words' . bonamassa is an extraordinary adept and versatile musician . since he is young and gifted , we can expect many more superb cd 's in the future . highly recommended
+camera neg be warned , if you have a computer with a slot dvd drive , you simply cannot transfer your video files to your computer for editing , sharing , whatever . ca n't be done without a series of possibly mythical workarounds and loss of quality with each step . i was even willing to consider buying an external dvd drive with a firewire connection and a loading tray that supported the 8 cm disks , but could n't find one . i searched all over , asked in several places on the apple web boards , talked to the ' geniuses ' at the apple store - this camera is simply not usable with a macintosh that has a slot drive . talk about crazy !
+music pos this is tha best master p album this and the movie this came out when i was and the 6 grade to lisen to this it 's emosional to me it reminds me of back n da day friends i knew all that my favrite song is mama raised me it gots bone , snoop , e-40 all no limit all them it 's a great album you can lisen to it most the way though it 's a great album gansta classic you gotta get this
+camera neg they sent me wrong lens cover and said i ordered the wrong one..........do n't think so since i got copy.......poor customer service all around.... .
+music pos the original jack johnson lp was my favourite miles record . i also had an expensive japanese cd but all this would not prepare me for what i discover here . over these cds one discovers the original sessions from which the record was made . this is simply wonderful . ok sometimes it takes quite a bit of patience to sit trhough all this but it is worth the time
+music neg this air supply should 've been cut off a very long time ago . whenever any of their songs comes on the radio i immediately shut it off . bad ear candy is all they ever recorded . mindless , sappy garbage . even bread 's music was more interesting than this
+music pos i just saw this woman live and she 's amazing ! ! ! ! the songs come alive when you hear them ! it 's hard to put into words the state that her music and lyrics put you in . but trust me it 's a good place ! please check her music out if you 're into heartfelt music
+music neg listening to this c.d. first gave me a headache , then it made my stomache churn . it is so uninspired , it 's not even funny ( or listenable ) . yeah , it 's loud , but i can be loud , too , if i had some pots and pans and a " guitar . " do n't get this , it 's nothing but d-r-i-v-e-l
+music pos like it says in the ( " 33 1 / 3 " ) liner notes : " ...world class chops and originality " . if jazz is your bag and guitar licks get your attention , these tracks will set off fireworks ! my music collection started circa 1960 , but these guys made it to the top of my list in a heartbeat ! if i could , i 'd give it 10 stars
+camera pos very clear , bright day , strong magnification quality seems to be good . very well priced at around $100.00.i will know more over the passage of time .my firstimpression is good mj schra
+music pos this record is a must from the middle of the 50 's . excellent singer , very good musicians and an excellent recording . this record is still amazing and seems to sound very modern due to the quality of the recording and the mastering . i recommend this record to all rock and roll fan
+camera pos the lens fulfilled all of our expectations as to quality of portraits and field of view flexibility . the stabilization aspect is a great help , although it does n't compensate for someone pushing the shutter too fast in low light conditions . highly recommend this lens as the standard use lens for the canon rebel xt
+camera pos i wish there was also a photo that showed the backside of this camera case . if there was i would have known that this excellent quality case unfortunately does not have a belt loop which is what i was looking for in this product . great quality nevertheless
+camera pos i am very pleased with this camera . i especially like the light meter that tells you how many apertures you are away from the correct exposure . i am using this for my photo class and is easy to use
+camera neg i used this camera once and have no good photos to show for it . it took 5 frames then skipped several and took 2 more , then nothing for the rest of the roll . we swam with sharks and i have nothing to show for it . should have bought a disposable one
+music neg i was looking to get the dvd of dazed and confused but got the cd . when it was advertised on the amazon website it led me to believe that it was a dvd as you see it above . ( 1993 film ) i had to return it and my expense . very disappointing transaction with amazon . threfore , i am not impressed
+camera neg this camera has an attractive look and price but it does not take good pictures . i bought this camera for my 12 year old daughter and although she was happy with it ( she 's happy with anything pink ) i was very disappointed at the quality and functionality
+camera pos i bought this as a gift for my mother and she absolutely loves it ! definitely a good buy
+music pos thoroughly enjoyed the cd . have some of the songs as performed by other artists , but it 's nice to hear them as performed by the writer . i 'm always impressed by one with that kind of creativity .
+music pos immerse yourself in the incredible genius of mark o'connor and his amazing chameleon-like creative ability to tease so many different moods and styles from his violin . if you like cajun music - this is for you . if you like western swing - this is for you . if you like foot tapping fiddle with a celtic slant - then this is for you ! classical ? jazz ? blues ? country rock ? then yeah - you guessed it - this is for you ! this is an absolutely fantastic album - a brilliant collection of melodies that bring together some of today 's greatest violinists . pure genius
+camera neg hi , i bought this camera and installed the driver from both the cd and then the web . it caused my computer ( a good , modern , fast computer ) to crash both times . the camera worked without interfacing with the computer , but , then , what 's the point ? also , the pictures and movies were very grainy and low quality . the tech support when i had these problems was horrible . they really did n't stand behind the product at all and to me that 's the most important thing ! maybe i could have gotten it to work , but not without some input from aiptek . i 've never written one of these reviews before , but this really got to me . do n't buy this camera is my advice .
+camera pos good remote . can be finnicky at times if not lined up correctly with the camera
+camera pos seems to hold a charge just as well or better then the original one that came with the camer
+music neg i said i was going to be honest in all reviews , and yes , i kinda clunkered on this one . i hate this cd . simply put . they ca n't sing , and the songs are boring . i 'm sorry i bought this cd , and other people might not like me saying that , but it 's my opinion . i listen to power metal extensively and there is much better stuff out there like symphony x , nightwish or sonata artica . do n't buy this , though , you might like it . i 'd definitely listen to it first
+camera pos this camera is a steal . the reviews on amazon helped me decide on this camera and sure it is worth it .
+music pos just wanted to answer reviewer : " homedecaramel " and his question as to who melissa refers to from the song titled ' " melissa 's garden " . melissa was the daughter of close friends of steve vai . she passed away 5 years ago at a fairly young age due to ovarian cancer . melissa 's parents built a beautiful garden as a remembrance of her . melissa had a wonderful spirit and her spirit lives on as is apparent in steve 's beautiful tribute and in melissa 's garden .
+music neg i purchased this album because i am a fan of the last poets . upon listening to the samples provided by amazon.com , i thought i was getting an album that would contain very similar content to the last poets : some great politically charged poetry , perhaps accompanied by some funky beats . however , when i listened to the whole cd , i was disappointed to find out that the vast majority of the tracks sound the most like " get out of the ghetto blues . " if more of the tracks had the sound of the title track , this would be a five-star album , in my opinion . true , scott-heron has a lot of great social commentary throughout the album , but not in the form i had hoped for . i would take the last poets ' album " this is madness " over this particular scott-heron album
+music pos for any seasoned fans of the waifs ( or anyone out there with a predilection for folksy girl duets sporting brilliant guitar skills and voices to boot ) , ' shelter me ' will be no departure - -and no disapointment - - from what you 've heard before . the album weighs heavily on the waifs accoustical appeal . the majority of the songs carry themselves without backbeat or excessive instrumentation - - mostly it 's just the girls , their guitars , and the usual , typically wonderful songwriting that comes from josh cunningham , the third member of this stellar folk ensemble . the title track ' shelter me ' is a gorgeous , magnificently charged piece that will leave you reeling , " take me now where shelter be / before there 's nothing left of me . " vikki 's final track ' spotlight ' is a pure gem , emotional and raw but utterly beautiful . ' attention ' finishes the album well with that familliar waify energy and pulse , almost blue grass , almost country , but totally wonderful .
+music pos these guys are the best group out right now . every single rapper is amazing even bizarre who is not great so far as flow but probably has the funniest lyrics . this album brought me some of my favorite songs to date including sh*t can happen , pistol pistol , ai n't nuttin ' but music , american psycho , fight music & revelation . my favorite rappers are swifty & eminem but the fact is every one should have a solo album out by now ( besides em , only proof ( r.i.p. ) & bizarre do.. . which are my least favorite rappers in the group ) every song is great even the skits are enjoyable . if you do n't have this yet , you are missing out on one of the best cds ever
+music neg there is a reason why you cannot listen to any tracks on amazon - you would n't buy if you could . i read a number of reviews and figured that it was worth a try given that metallica was mentioned as being similar in some small way . this band is nothing even near metallica . i have thrown the disk away - do n't bother
+music neg i like to have natural sounds or some type of ' yoga style ' music while i 'm either practicing yoga or just trying to relax . this cd just did n't fit . there are a few ok ' songs ' but the rest of it is either too fast / upbeat or there 's too much talking / chanting . i found myself distracted when i put this cd on
+music pos this cd has tons of power , and soothing energy . it really shows off how well part understands the human voice
+camera pos we use our batteries a lot . no problems . works as advertised .
+camera neg i bought this camera because i 'm going to jamaica and i needed a camera , the video camera was a bonus . when i first tested it , it was during the night time , however in a well lit room , but i could n't see anything . i figured i could deal with that as long as it took good pictures during the day . when i stepped outside , which was very bright and sunny , all i could see on the screen was white . i tried all the settings and still encountered a white screen . the only time i actually saw anything on my screen was when i was inside during the day . i brought it back right away , thankfully i had bought it at wal-mart and they were happy to refund my money . i hope anyone reading this review will take my advice and not buy this video camera . i would have loved to give it zero stars if amazon gave that option
+camera neg i got for christmas , it was easy to use but only lasted 1 day then the screen does not turn on , , , stay away from this one !
+music neg sorry , bill ! poor lyrics and only fair production have made this a most disappointing purchase . the guitar playing is adequate , but not good enough to save this material . i hope bill spends a little more time on the thought process before bringing out his next material .
+music pos the sundays come out with a cd once a decade , thus putting me in constant cravings for new material . though camera obscura is very original and very much their own band , they satisfy the cravings that only harriet wheeler could touch . truly vast and intimate at the same time , and a voice that speaks to something very deep , sad and lovely inside you
+camera neg i lost my hp r607 while on vacation and needed to replace it quickly . i could n't fine another r607 ( which i really liked ) , so i purchased the hp m407. i thought it would be the next best thing to my misplaced camera...not ! ! i do n't like anything about this camera...it 's terrible ! you can take about 4 pictures with regular batteries , about 10 with rechargeable ones ( even with screen off ) . it says " auto focus " , but i do n't think it has any focus at all....not far away , not close up , nothing ! it takes a really looooooooong time to actually take the picture after you press the button . i really hate it ! keep looking...do n't buy this camera
+camera neg overall , i was entirely disappointed with this camaera . the packaging and description were deceiving . there was no view finding screen , only a teeny , tiny window as in a regular camera . this was a gift for a child who would have had just as much fun with a throw away camera . i bought it because i wanted to give her a digital that had a large view finding screen . the construction would not hold up to a single drop on the ground . i would not recommend this to anyone
+camera neg they sent me wrong lens cover and said i ordered the wrong one..........do n't think so since i got copy.......poor customer service all around.... .
+music neg i have to disagree with the majority of folks here who consider this cd the jazz end all . i find it grating , and darn near unlistenable . i have built a small but quality jazz library the last few months . miles davis , dave brubeck , kenny burrell , grant green , cannonball adderley , stan getz , chet baker , wes montgomery , bill evans and thelonius monk to name a few . this guy is by far my least favorite . his playing on miles davis cd 's i have and with monk is largely enjoyable and i know he 's a giant . but this stuff ? . the live recording on disc two was so grating i could n't make it through . it sounded to me like a bunch of geese being slaughtered . give me the other guys anytime
+music pos kudos to harvey fierstein for being so true to the jean poiret play . jerry herman did a wonderful score - my favorite song was " the best of times " . gene barry turns out to be a good singer , esp paired with the talented george hearn
+music neg i purchased a copy of this album after a suggestion from a friend.....a few hours later in ended up in the bin.....very dissapointing , bland and not to mention boring and derivative ( some people from new york would understand what i mean ) . in summary....not only does kylie mingogue ( i wont grace her name with capitals ) fall flat on cd....she also cannot perform live and rely 's on " gay camp it up " imagery to hide behind ( a very cheap and politically incorrect exploit ) . a very bad performer and a shameful album .
+music neg this album is not very good . i am a big fan of life in general , at the show , and slowly going the way of the buffalo but this sucks . i listened to it for about 2 weeks and then it cracked my backpack on a road trip . but i did n't care , becuase it sucked . it was boring , and it had no flavor . not the mxpx i used to know
+music pos while nothing in the film works very well except perhaps the chemistry between travolta and stowe , the sublime soundtrack is another story . descriptions such as " haunting " and " soul moving " are right on the money , one might also add ineffable to the list .
+music neg this cd is not at all what it appears to be . they got other people singing and playing the music , so it 's not what you 're probably looking for . terrible misrespresentation . i was so disappointed ! thank goodness i used my other party cd 's or my guests would have left......and i would have held the door open.....not blamed them for leaving !
+camera neg el producto es de muy bajas caracteristicas . material barato , zoon de baja calidad , en otras palabras es sumamente inferior a otros equipos que he probado los cuales se encuentran en el mismo rango de precios . kodak tiene una linea de camaras econĂłmicas las cuales paracen ser desechables . no lo recomiedo
+music neg i have all 5 volumes and this is the only one i do n't like . the selection of music is just plain bad . there are a few songs that are ok but most are just dull , dull , dull . i recommend going with one of the first 4 volumes instead
+camera pos the balance with the grip on is really much better . yes i am aware there were problems with some earlier ones , but mine seems just fine ( knocking on wood as i type )
+music pos this album was released in the summer of ' 86 when queen 's radio airplay was at a rather low point in the u.s. and at a very high point in europe.by now , the band had adventured into pop genres beyond rock , yet colouring their songs with their distinctive style of interpretation and playing.here we find the gorgeous ballad one year of love and the catchy friends will be friends.the ominous anthem who wants to live forever and the highlander themed princes of the universe are gems in this crown.the first two usa singles , the rocker one vision ( from iron eagle ) and the danceable a kind of magic barely cracked the us top 40 in a decade when alternative music was preferred and classics were often overlooke
+music pos i bought this cd on a whim after i heard joaquin phoenix was directing their " tired of being sorry " video . whoa ! i was addicted ! i could n't stop listening to it...i had to get a 2nd copy for the car just so i could stop carrying it back and forth . great driving music ! the songs are catchy and have a great beat...i have n't heard anything this good in a long while . i had to have more immediately and luckily found some earlier stuff of scott thomas' ....more on the acoustic / indie side , but awesome ! i highly recommend lovers & thieves ( cdbaby.com ) my faves from ringside are " struggle " , " trixie " , and " dreamboat 730 " . you will not be disappointed
+camera pos i bought this camera owning 2 more digital cameras . one kodak and another canon ( a70 ) . amazing product.. . pro.. . almost everything. . cons.. . no audio on video i definetly recommend the product for the price
+music neg while i like some of these songs , i cannot understand a single word he sings . i even heard him interviewed and i did n't understand a word . when he sings , he spends all the time looking down , so you ca n't even lip read . i do n't think he has stage presence and i think it will be hard to grow a fan base with a singer who ca n't form words . he does n't sing clearly and i just ca n't get into his music completely . i think i 'll stick to r&b
+camera pos i got this for my mom when i got the digital frame for my husband it is very easy to download pictures on and she can show off all of her grandbabies this is an awsome gift for anyone the color and pictures are great
+music neg i wo n't dispute emmylou 's wonderful voice and mark knopfler 's superb guitar playing but this album just did n't cut it for me . pretty lame , about as likely as hank and phoebe snow
+music neg hey , that just goes without being said . all of their live albums suck because they suck . go creed ! i ca n't wait for scott stapp 's solo album ! awesome , baby
+camera neg even though amazon specifically recommended this bag for the panasonic lumix ( dmc-fz20pp ) camera , and even though i had to return it because it was too small , and even though my camera does not appear on the compatibility list shown in another customer 's review , amazon annoyingly continues to recommend this bag for my camera . to add insult to injury , amazon tried to deduct shipping from my refund by claiming that the error was not their fault . ( it took two emails to get the full refund , and that was even after i put a large message in my return box not to deduct shipping - - aargh ! ) regarding the bag itself , construction seemed sound and this might be a good bag for a small point-and-click camera that requires no accesories
+camera pos this is my first digital picture frame , so i do not have anything to compare it against . i am generally very happy with this product - it is very easy to use , and i am happy with the resolution and the picture quality . the only downside to this frame is that the instruction manual is not helpful at all , and as one other reviewer noted , i had to learn how to do things by trial and error . i also do not like that when you make changes to the layout - rotating or deleting images , it is not " saved " to the memory card and so you need to make the changes each time . however , i like this product enough to buy more of these for the grandparents this next christmas
+camera neg i bought this camera on the recommendation of a store technician over another hp digital . the camera has spent as much time in the repair shop as it has being used . the delay between pictures is incredibly long . the lens / shutter does n't open properly . ( two other family members who own powershot a520 's are having the same problems
+music pos cool cd...have n't heard it in probably 15 to 20 years...it was fun to hear it again....funny though , it 's a bit different than the way i remember it
+music neg good music but a bad title ! elvis has left the planet but a new king has been born with the self proclaimed new king of rock and roll ken rondell at http : / / www.cdbaby.com / cd / bigra
+music pos bought this cd for my daughter , a new bill withers fan and she loved the whole collection ! it 's a great compilation of classic bill withers music
+music pos this is the best album / band noones ever heard of . this is the most underrated bands ever ( including fm static . ) and they deserve some appreciation . this cd is a great rock cd and it has a bit of seemingly hip-hop bits here and there in just about every song . almost every song on this cd rocks , so buy it
+music neg most of these songs were previously sold on other albums from martina . what a waste of money to buy this album of mostly " old " songs and only a few new ones ! martina is sucking money out of the pockets of hard-working individuals . maybe she should try getting a real job instead of using the average working person to support her lavish & luxurious lifestyle . many of us are living in trailer parks & working 80 hours a week while martina sitting on her a** in her million dollar house making money like rain ! you , the people who are buying her albums are making her rich...what the hell is wrong with you people ? do n't buy her albums and let her get a freakin ' job so she can feel what it 's like to work every day and actually earn a damn dollar ! martina , quit using poor people to accommodate your ridiculously high lifestyle
+music pos very rich in music , fully orchestrated and full of energy . i highly recommend this album for everyone who loves new age music and to all those who like classical music . david took it to another level on this one . i myself like new age artists that incorporate orchestra to their music and that is why i loved this album . if you like this album , i recommend you to explore yanni , secret garden , giovanni and bernward koch
+music neg hooba...stank...stinks and will always stink . i do n't know about the rest of the cd , but listening to the reason is about as pleasant as sticking your hand into a running garbage disposal . i 'm not a perfect perrrrsssonn . egad
+music pos this is one of my favorite releases from common . this chi town warrior crafted an underground release that will bring a vibrant smile to the hardcore hip hop head and even awaken the minds of some of the fake commercial rap artist lovers . songs like i used to love h.e.r and ressurection start the classic album and take you on the road to classic chicago hip hop . not only the lyrics are dope but also the beats and the hooks . this is a pivotal album that needs to be in everyone 's collectio
+music pos linkin park are still together and they are making their next album , it is due out eairly next year . mike just did this for fun . look into things a little more buddy before you start saying things . oh yeah , and if you like good hip-hop , you 'll like this album . give it a shot . you dont have to be a linkin park fan to enjoy this record , since its nothing like lp . peace
+camera pos the picture viewer is a fun way to carry lots of digital pictures in a small device . however , setting it up and loading it was a nightmare . i spent hours writing to tech support and ultimately on the phone to figure out how to move the pictures from my computer to the device
+camera neg i 'm a diehard nikon fan . my first nikon was a gift from my father when i was 13. since then , photography has been a serious hobby , having had a few photos published and even spent time working in a photo lab while in college . having said that , and after reading several reviews about people having trouble focusing this camera , i absolutely agree with them . someone responded by saying those reviewers have n't read the manual . baloney . i bought the coolpix l1 to replace a 4 year old coolpix 850. the l1 's camera 's focus feature works fine in the daylight and works for s**t indoors , especially with the macro settings . i 've been patient and have given it three months . i am fed up . this camera is going back to amazon in the morning
+music neg i received a cd , the tango cd ( the best tango album in the world ever ) was defectuous , since it plays alright until the 12th song , but then the songs starts giving weird tones . and the 2nd cd acts the same way , since my tango album is a double cd.the problem is not from the radio , since my other purchase from amazon is in good shape , as al my other cds . the music always stops playing right at the same time of the cd , the 12 th song , so its pretty much a cd problem . i dunno whats the refund policy , or customer service number , its so bad , cos this tango cd is great . i enjoyed it much , until........ . th
+camera pos this camera case fits the camera perfectly and the extra battery is a must . the price of the two items together is the same as the battery alone in local electronics stores . so , i look at it as getting the case for free !
+music neg sinceramente , no puedo entender la devocion de muchas perosnas , incluso renombrados artistas , hacia este musico.. . ungido de la leyenda grape , amparado en el descontrol y la libertad absoluta que encierra la locura , esta coleccion de temas no genera mas que sentimientos encontrados..lastima , piedad , curiosidad...no se , me genera igual sensacion que muchos discos de erickson ( 13th.... . ) .. en ningun momento se me revela como la creacion de un genio. . en fin , son opiniones , nada mas .
+music neg boo-wop ? haha ok , anyways i bought his through middle-piller distro . and it 's got a couple of o.k. songs on it . the problem is the singing and the overall production . this is definetely a home-recording on computer deal . the vocals are waaaaay weak . what exactly is a " re-worked " debut album ? ? ? i thought once an album was out it was done , set in stone ? apparently not , so mister monster gets to pull a blitzkid ( who changed their first album cover years after it came out ! ) and take the cheezy way out . a definete step up from bands like blitzkid , but still in the cellar of rock n roll . do yourself a favor and buy some good old deathrock from the golden years
+music pos too bad this group supported by keith sweat did n't go any further . i bought it for one song , but the whole cd is great for listening . lyrics contain songs about love and such , and i like they way speak about it . it gives you something to look forward to .
+music pos i owned the album as a kid.......i enjoy it as much now as i did then
+music pos i just purchased this album , my first misfits album and every song on it rocks ( i especially like where eagles dare ) . i just bought two more albums , walk among us and static age and i wish they would hurry up and get here in the mail because i cant wait . my only complain is the sound quality . it sounds like they put a dollar store tape recorder in the corner and started rocking...but i guess that makes it sound more real too . metallica covered a couple of their albums on their garage album but it just isnt the same .
+camera neg i 'm giving this a 2 stars only because my daughter also had this camera on her wish list . if not i would of been upset having recieved the wrong camera that i ordered........ .
+music pos i have been looking for a particular song for several years . this album had it
+camera neg i bought this camera for christmas and it is absolutely horrible ! it takes really bad quality pictures and it has a very noisy lens . it 's a great looking camera but the screen is only 2 inches which is very small . this camera is not a good buy for it 's class
+music pos if you like post modern lounge music , you will like the tracks on this disc .
+camera pos great camera , only bad thing are the batteries die very quickly it takes great pictures and has some good features. .
+camera pos got this camera because a friend had a similar one . the blue tooth feature is just great . you need a memory card to make if you want to take video 's and store a lot of photos . the video 's are not bad and pretty remarkable for a camera this size . all in all a great buy
+camera neg after doing a bunch of research , i bought two of these for my teenage kids since they were said not to have the defective sony ccd that late model 2005 point-and-shoots all seem to have had . the first zamera lasted six months before the lcd display began to worsening exhibit dark striations . after a few days of that , the camera dies completely . the second camera made it another two months before falling prey to the same disease . one camera . . . a fluke maybe . but two ? that suggests a real problem so beware .
+camera pos i do n't like pink so i bought the blue bag . i had bought a black one , but it was so skimpy i returned it and prayed until this one arrived . i had no trouble with amazon crediting me for the return , either . it was so cute ! i 'm too old for " cute , " but i kept it because i needed a case for my new hp r717. it is small , yet padded enough to trust that your camera will be cushioned if you drop it . i have dropped my camera and it was not injured . it has a little pouch inside to store an extra battery for my camera , not the big aa batteries , but the flat type that come with my r717. i recommend this little bag , or the pink one , even if you do n't like pink...or blue . they are well cushioned and snug , but not too snug you think they will tear . the are sturdy and have nice shoulder straps and magnet closures
+camera neg there is currently a known issue with many of the sony camcorders . this is being called the " black screen of death " . what happens is that the camera works great for 1-2 years then the ccd goes out like a light . the camera will not take video again . sony is evasive if not downright deceitful about this issue when you call tech support . the fact is sony does not stand behind their product . if this happens to you , sony will not own the defect and you will be out hundreds of dollars . there is a lengthy thread on cnet on this issue . search for sony black screen . wishing you luck in the purchase of your ( not sony ) video camera , scot
+music neg camera obscura is similar , in an inferior manner , to nico , of the velvet underground & nico . the band makes pleasantly dull " chamber pop " in the vein of belle & sebastian and all those other similar bands to emerge over the last few years . even their name is ripped off of nico 's last studio album , camera obscura . but , as i said before , camera obscura is much worse than nico . if you want to hear what music like this was meant to sound like , pick up " chelsea girl , " nico 's first solo album
+camera pos very well made . once you are holding it you will feel the price was quite low for a product this solid and well designed .
+camera neg i bought it for my 18-55 ef-s , and it looks like it is not very efficient - but i guess it is normal for a 18mm ( x 1.6 ) . i would have prefered a " tulip " design like those of sigma
+camera pos i highly recommend this super wide angle lens for anyone wanting to take landscape pictures , buildings or lots of other stuff ! it is so different than the standard kit lens ( 18-55 ) . you wo n't be sorry when you start learning all the possibilities of the extraordinary lens
+camera neg this cable did not fit my camera as stated . because of the cost factor , i chose not to return it . the shipping was more than the cable was worth
+music pos buy it . now . stop reading . are you still reading ? ? ? ? okay , so i 'll tell you my reason why . reason ( s ) why . 5.1 sound . dts . different ( some versions better to my ears / psyche ) than the cd . flavor . beautiful production . did i mention dts - you gotta hear this in dts . and she and her band deserve and have earned every penny you could spend on her ( gratuitously inciting flaming ) . i am just hoping that she will give us the opportunity to have dvd 's covering her ' girl in the other room ' and her ' from this moment on' .
+music neg i do not like parker 's style at all . i ca n't really say anything else . it is all in the way you format a song , and i just do n't like parker
+music pos the music here frequently reminded me of pagan 's mind with a touch of porcupine tree and flashes of iron maiden . a fantastic mixture of 1970s progressive rock bands such as yes and kansas molded with european-style power metal and brazilian folk music . while this can be extremely interesting there are a few moments here and there that do n't quite mesh . in actuality i give the cd 4.5 stars for its superb songcraft and inspired , sometimes flawed ambition . but as an overall package , this special edition of " temple of shadows " is an excellent place for newcomers as the bonus dvd holds a concert in 5.1 surround sound that is loaded with songs from their back catalog . this is a great album filled with high quality progressive power metal and a dvd concert that gives a taste of their other albums ( not to mention it 's just plain fun to watch as the band members are clearly enjoying themselves , smiling throughout the show ) . highly recommended .
+music neg it seems that other than a song or two , fall out boy forgot their guitar's . very disappointing and slow paced
+music pos this is truly one of the great jazz albums of all time . surprisingly , evans ' introspective style and cannonball 's soulful approach meld together perfectly . perhaps this is testament to just how hugely talented these men are . both the technical skill and pure musicmanship displayed on this record is just amazing . i 've owned this cd for over 10 years now and still find so much to listen to in these recordings . highlights are the amazing " waltz for debby " and earl zindars ' waltz " elsa " , easily one of the most beautiful songs ever written , in my opinion . you simply cannot go wrong with this cd
+camera pos because of it 's non-intrusive red lighting , and especially because of its size and brightness control , this is the perfect little light to bring out in to the field for observing . one caution ; make sure you have the lanyard securely around your wrist , especially if you 're shining the light down a tube to collimate . one slip , and it 'll be headed toward your primary
+camera pos the changer performs perfectly . i was surprised that the price was so high for such a simple gadget . the only other drawback is that the cord is not as long as the original , about one foot shorter . other than that , it is fine . i gave my original changer to my daughter , whose charger died just before leaving the country
+camera neg i have an r717 camera . i bought the dock too . each one comes with a battery and the batteries look identical . hp labels both as an r07 battery but the l1812a has squared edges running logitudinally and this feature makes it very difficult to remove from the camera . the other battery is the l1812b and is identical in every way except its edges are rounded and that makes enough difference to allow it to easily slide out of the camera . i bought a " clone " battery ( not hp ) and its edges are rounded too . maybe hp could explain the difference . just thought you would like to know
+camera neg this kit is just junk . the " deluxe blower brush " is a cheap plastic blower in the tiniest size . there is a " tweezers " that is just folded aluminum sheet metal - there 's no way that is getting anywhere near my cameras . there are a few sheets of lense tissue and a few swabs to use with the cleaning solution . the " lintless cleaning cloth " is an about 3 " x 5 " piece of something akin to reusable paper towels that you 'll use about three times and then throw away . this kit is not worth buying at any price , because it 's not worth the shipping charges
+camera pos like others i have compared it in a scuba diving trip to the kodak max sport and this one had a few advantages : 1. film winded at greater depth . 2. the pictures came out clearer - not grainy and with better colors . do n't expect too much of it at depths below 8 meters since light wo n't be enough ( i used it on a bright summer day in the red sea ) . even at shallower depths colors turn blue / green without use of flash . i have taken it down to depth of 35 meters and the camera was fine , but would n't take pictures at depths below 20 meters . the pictures i took at shallow depth came out excellent
+music neg i really liked this when it came ut on vinyl , but in retrospect , it was the cause , not the music . b . raitt is grand , g nash with an excellant cathedral , j c young , and the highlight to me we almost lost detroit by the great gil scott-heron . but the second disc is second rate . edit the filler and it rates higher
+camera neg in my experience , this camera takes great pictures , but the zoom lens is so delicate that it breaks easily . it stops extending and just makes a clicking noise . this happened to me when the camera accidentally turned on while in my pants pocket rendering the camera unusable . my brother and two of my friends experienced a similar problem with their ex-s500 after they accidentally dropped the camera while the lens was extended . i would recommend looking into another camera that is not so delicate
+music pos great cd for young and old alike . the music puts a smile on your face each time you listen to it . i have it on in my car and it keeps me in a good mood at all times
+camera pos i gave this monopod to my boyfriend , as a gift , and it 's been perfect for his use . he videotapes his kids 's baseball and softball games , and was tired of holding the camcorder for so long . he did n't want to deal with a bulky tripod when he was getting up and down , so a monopod seemed like a great idea . he has loved it ! ! he says it keeps the camera very steady and it 's very easy to change the height so he can use it sitting or standing . he 's no professional , but he uses his camcorder a lot , and he 'll be happily using the monopod for a long time
+camera neg " lens error , restart camera " message appears today ( mar 26 ) after buying production on amazon on feb 20 , 07. when i searched google for this error message saw thousands of canon users having similar error / e18 error with older and newer version of the canon . i have tried panasonic and sonys before and never had an issue . i dread that canon customer service is going to waste my hours in getting a replacement and ultimately may end up charging me over a 100 for repairs like they have done to other users ( after reading user feedback on web )
+camera neg hp is selling this bag for $30 bucks , so when i found it here for $10 less i could n't let this " deal " pass me by.. . however when i received the bag , i wished i had.. . the color is less vibrant , it 's cheap , poor quality , plus hp is n't embroidered on the bag.. . walk away from this bag and get the blue and black hp bag instead , it costs a little bit more but it 's well worth it ! !
+music pos i just saw the movie and throughly enjoyed the performance by all the actors involved . kevin spacey has a velvety , smooth voice . i was surprised to learn his background is in musicals . he has a beautiful voice and in this movie , it rocks ! ! ! love the music ! i highly recommend you buying the cd and the dvd
+camera pos other than the months of waiting for nikon to deliver them to amazon for shipping , the battery itself in a good deal . they work well , charge up easy and hold their charge nicely . priced well , they cost less than the same type battery than canon or sony . i bought them for a d80 and the older en-el3a would not fit . of course i had 10 of the older batteries for my d70s and was rather surprised when they did n't fit the d80. basically the same size and shape , but keyed differently . i was also surprised to find the 3e would fit in the d70s , meaning they are backward compatable .
+camera pos this digital camera is awesome . i have no problem with the batteries . i made sure i put the good batteries in ( no cheap ones ) . i looked at purchasing a canon and a hp but the features it had on this one was outstanding and for the price . i purchased this camera with the 1gb card with it . i ca n't wait to start using it when i go to san diego in march.... . awesome digital camera..... . you wo n't be sorry on this purchase.. .
+music pos this 1989 debut album from this texas sleaze metal outfit is chocked full of great vocals from jason mcmaster , catchy guitar riffs , and generally a collection of feel good tunes about getting drunk and having a good time.it fits quite nicely in my cd collection in the " d " column next to the dirty looks cd.i thought " scared " was the best song on here along with the opener , " teasin pleasin " and " queen of the nile " but i liked all of them.the best way to describe dangerous toys is that it has a heavy guns n roses sound with a poppier edge to it.it 's too bad they never made a good album after this one and dangerous toys would never get to this level again.if you want late 80 's hard rock / metal without the spandex and the makeup , this debut album is highly recommended.nothing fancy , just good old fashioned rock and roll
+camera neg when i tried to install the software , my antivirus said it was infected . i tried to install on a different machine with a different antivirus program and got the same result . i e-mailed celestron over a week ago and no reply .
+music pos released is the kind of album you put in , kick your feet up with a good beverage , and head off to someplace on the silverscreen of your mind that is pure tranquility . oster 's trumpet echoes on long after the music is off . here 's hoping there 's more from this new and amazing artist
+camera neg so i saw that this product got 5 stars , so i ordered it......when i got it , its like " um.. . is that it ? ? ? " it 's really cute , and really well made , but it has no where to hold my usb cord or memory cards.. . also , there is no hp embroidered in the front like the picture has it , also , the strap that i got is really cracked and does not look good at all.. . other than that , it 's cute , but not the best out there .
+camera pos well , this lens does work wonderfully to expand your angle for better shots , but if you do n't have good lighting , you end up with pictures that are worthless . i suggest never using this in poor indoor lighting as the flash that comes on the dx6490 does not clear the top of the wide angle lens and therefore becomes useless . best for outdoor shots or areas where overhead and backlighting are sufficient enough to take pictures without the use of a flash . plan ahead before just attatching the lens and taking pictures . also remember that because you ca n't use the flash option , you will need to stabilize the camera better to avoid blurry shots . otherwise , this lens is excellent . it fits easily into my camera bag , is simple to attach ( with the lens converter of course ) and takes great shots without the fisheye effect . other than the inability to use my flash with the lens , i think it is great
+camera pos i have no complaints . i have had this camera for over a year and a half and it has been reliable , fast , and gives me crisp , quality photos ! the only option i wish this camera had was a better stabilization mode to prevent blurred pictures , but the software edits the blur without reducing the quality . blurry pictures are not a problem as long as you know how to aim and shoot . everyone loves playing with my camera because it has many cool features to make your photos fun ! i highly recommend this camera ( especially to beginners or for those who just want a simple camera that can capture those precious moments , with high quality photos ) . excellent camera overall ! ;
+music neg what a shame . c.a. was such a talented and beautiful young woman but apparently got some horrible career advice . maybe she wanted to be this way , but most likely , it was a manager , or record company trying to create a even more slutty successor to britney spears . more is not always better , and in this case , it is definitely worse . hopefully , she banked her $$ , cuz i ca n't imagine that she 'll ever recover from this debacle . that would be as likely as a porn star trying to make it in hollywood . very sad
+camera pos for the price and quality i rated this lenses with 5 stars . if you really want to see how good this lens are see the photos i took in europe . i too around 5000 photos . i posted a few on the web ( see link below ) . for the price i recommend this lens as walk around lens . the zoom is pretty usefull they are very realiable and ( almost ) very sharp . get this lens instead of the kit lens ( 18-55 mm ) until you are ready to spend more . here are some of my pictures taken in europe with this lens ( images have been compressed ) : http : / / www.laplazita.net / europa /
+camera neg it fits in the s1 , but it does n't always charge - - the contacts arent the same size as the oem version . when it does n't charge i just re-insert the batter and it works , but its sort of a bummer
+music neg i saw the movie and liked the songs in it . i ordered the soundtrack from the movie , but it was not the soundtrack . they have a dubbed another person in on ike 's part . all the songs from the movie were not on the soundtrack and some other of tina 's were included . i feel that if it is going to be advertised as a soundtrack then it should be a true soundtrack . i was disappointed .
+music neg this album is so boring in most places . i do n't know where keith sweat 's head was at . it does n't keep your attention on the second half . keep it comin ' was okay , but the other songs keith produced as well as joe public were lousy . he was smart to include there you go from new jack city , but the songs before and after it are so bland , it seemed like the formula that worked for keith sweat 's first two albums did n't work here . i fell to sleep while hearing the album 's second half- -how can anyone create such dull songs on here ? sweat 's trademark whining just does not blend with these songs . if he had wanted to , he would have given these songs to usher instead of singing them himself- -they 'd be better under him ( usher ) . but i warn you , do n't get this album- -it 's going to let you down
+camera pos case is pretty much what you see...i have no complaints . = ) the case protects my camera very well
+camera pos for the money , you absolutely ca n't beat this lens . it 's very fast and sharp . not fast to focus , but what do you expect at $70 ? i have four lenses , some costing 4x 's as much as this one...yet i use this one the most . anyone looking to step up from the kit lens , or anyone looking to buy a camera body w / out the kits lens should look to buy this lens
+music neg made another bull**** album . honestly i did n't hear this whole album . about 5 years ago i was ridin wit one of my boys and he played this cd . oh my god for the first time in my life i wished i was deaf . i see the reason why her albums sell though . cause its her looks and nothin else . she 's not ugly at all to me . she just ca n't sing . but she can livin up a crowd . i 'm just waitin to see her and 50 cent doin a song together , two of the worst people in music , millionaires . go figure
+camera pos holds all my lenses , camera body , remote , card reader , etc.. . with room to spare . compares to bags costing 3 times more .
+camera pos good camera for the $129 i paid . does everything pretty well , and your picture modes are pretty customizable . only qualm is it takes a second or two longer than i wish when the camera saves / loads pictures to the memory card . might be a problem when trying to shoot consecutive pictures- - but probably would n't be doing it with this type of camera anyways .
+music neg but for " the drugs do n't work , " which is marginal at best , this album is boring...cookie-cutter , nothing original
+music neg bits of beatles , zappa , queen , ( herman 's hermits ? ) , may be laudable in intent but reveals the crucial difference between an original musical mind and a talented imitator . elfman 's themes are good but his songs have some of the same faults as your normal musical pieces , they have fairly banal , repetitive lyrics and are cut and paste music . has the creepy competence of a dave grusin album . if you like that you 'll be ok here
+music neg i am a huge fan of elvis costello and ran to the shop as soon as i read the great reviews of this album , what a mistake ! ! ! very few of the arrangements offer an improvement over the original version . the cardboard cut salsa montuno of ' clubland ' sounds as classy and natural as a plastic flamingo and the wonderful ska sound of ' watching the detectives ' is lost in a jazz arrangement that does n't offer much to the melody . elvis ' voice is not suited the long sustained notes of ' almost blue ' and most of the songs . it worked well on his ' juliet letters ' album because the brodsky quartet played for his style but with the clean and crisp sound of the metropole orkest it is just painful . for me , ' hora decubitus ' is the only song worth listening from this musical jumble
+camera neg i bought a 743 for the wife for christmas . i had a 6330 that i was very happy with . so a 743 should be better right ? every time that she went to use it the batteries were dead . we finally figured out that a new set would go dead in two days without ever turning it on ! after several e mails they told me to call service . i got someone in india that could not understand me and i had a really hard time figuring out what he was saying . they made it very dificult to get it sent in . i sent it in today , but i do not expect much from the example that their service has done so far . i hope it comes back at least .
+music pos a true musical genius . take a blow get a zyr voduski and snapple lemonade and let the music cover you up . powerplus from the 70 's and 80's . tight lyrics and pop masterpiece arangements . go todd go
+camera pos easy to learn , takes very good photos in well-lighted areas but you do need to use the flash for dimmer environments - its low-light capabilities are n't that great . very fast readiness time from the moment you switch on the camera - a bit slow to recharge from a flash , though , and there 's a bit of a lag when you press the shutter button to when the photo is actually taken ( not so great for fast action shots , even though it touts a " sports " mode ) . it 's a good beginner 's camera , a good pocket-style camera , but certainly not to be mistaken for a high-end unit .
+camera neg the camera case only works if you wear a belt- - there is no clip on . the case itself holds only the camera , not even space for a spare battery or memory card . ( i 've heard the case will darken your camera , but i did n't end up using the case ) . the neck strap is not useful , it 's too long . at ' 34 inches , if you 're not careful you could swing your camera into something and break it . ( the canon camera rocks , however .
+music neg hey folks , this is brilliant and all , like the articles say , but what they do n't mention is that it 's impossible to listen to . there are no verses , choruses , or even beats to speak of . there are no songs . it 's just a sound collage or something , from start to finish . the booklet prints lyrics but i could n't find ' em . this music is too brilliant for its own good . and you can forget about using it as party or background music . jdub 's other offerings are much better
+camera pos this is a great camera . plenty of resolution . excellent shot speed . sturdy frame . the kit lense does n't do the camera justice . buy the body separate and add a better lense . on the bad side , i had a small glitch with the camera 's firmware soon after purchase and had to return it for a fix . it was two months before the camera was returned . sorry , canon.. . you lose a star for that
+music pos the debut release entitled " breathe " by artist called blue stone is one of the best new age albums that i 've heard in years ! i would even go as to say that it is even better than any of amethystiums albums . " i am " is heavenly and " contact " is an eerie number that is destined to be a future classic !
+music neg rhymefest is an ok rapper and the first two joints are bumping . man , i thought i was in for a classic hip hop album , it was like the lakers were ahead by 30 points then all of a sudden the other team caught up and eventually won the game because after that it was just wack track after wack track . i admire his thought provoking lyrics but if the beat ai n't hittin i could care less what you 're rapping about . rhymefest used so many r&b singers i thought i was listening to some old new edition or after 7 joints not that i do n't like those singers but i do n't want to hear that on no hip hop album . if you want to hear some real chicago hip hop check out all natural the best besides common to ever come from the city of wind
+camera pos unlike many reviewers i am not diver . i bought this to for the peace of mind that my camera would n't get ruined taking pictures of my son at the water park , pool , and beach . this equipment exceeded my expectations with always clear photo and underwater flash . this case has out lived an s400 and s500. well worth the $170 price tag
+camera neg the leather case has a magnetc latch , the magnetic force is strong enough for an sd card to stick onto it . i have not lost any images yet and the camera has not gone haywire , but i decided not to chance it . i am surprised that canon cautions against placing the camera in strong magnetic fields in their user guide yet produce an accesory with this feature ! although constructed of fine leather , the case is also very bulky , making the tiny slim elph twice as thick and too big to fit into a pocket or purse . the neck strap is ok , it looks metallic but is wrapped inside a clear plastic tubing , making it look quite cheap and stiff , again increasing the bulk of the camera . the battery works fine , but the two other accessories are not worth the extra money
+music neg garbage metal - music for the american mainstream to feed on . i saw them open for slayer about 4-5 years back , and they had about 5 guys on stage doing nothing except jumping up and down . how pathetic ! pick up some real metal... . like old kreator .
+camera neg i bought two one time , but there was no vedio on lcd as opened for both ! they could not recorded vedio but audio only . it seemed that they had n't ccd at all ! i had to mail them back to repare just the day i got them , and the jvc even would not cover the charge
+music pos gene watson 's music was introduced to me by a friend who played drums for sonny james , ernest tubb , and dottie west . i had never heard of him but then when i heard his voice on the cd i knew the songs . it 's amazing to me how a person with such a great voice has never received the attention that he should . every song is great but the one which i really like is " the old man and his horn " . this was a song i had never heard . it also shows the versatility of gene 's song selections . he has the best voice of any country singer i have ever heard
+music pos this is my favorite ghostface slbum . it has a geat vibe to the cd and you could not get sick of hearing it . check it out and you wont be dissapointed . rating a
+camera pos i 've been using 35mm slr cameras for over 30 years . for the last 9 or 10 years i have gone through several under $400 digital cameras as the technology has improved . this kodak z710 is a very economical compromise . the built-in 10x optical zoom is a great feature . the z710 does not have image stabilization ( is ) as do some of the more expensive models but if you have a moderately steady hand and you press the shutter button rather than pound it ( and the whole camera ! ) that 's not really a problem . another feature of this camera that i really appreciate is the manual settings position which allows much more creative control of a shot . check out the kodak web site for more information on this . i bought this camera from an amazon dealer for less than $200 shipped to me . that 's cheaper than a reconditioned unit ( same model ! ) recently sold on ebay
+music pos del the funky homosapien has been my favorite mc for years , and this album does n't dissapoint . the dvd is raw , and packs in lots of live footage , interviews , and is well produced . if you are a fan of del , you know you have to pick this up .
+camera neg not worth the money spent on it . after reviewing info on my new digital camera i followed suggestions to get the rechargeable batteries kit to save money on aa batteries . i did not need the camera case that came with this kit , and it really had too many pockets for my liking . the batteries did not hold a charge . i only got a few pictures taken before they went dead . if the spare set sat in the camera for a few days they too were dead . at least i got a full set of pictures taken on the duracell ones . i would much rather buy batteries and have them on hand then always be running back to the charger after a few shots . i have had no experience with rechargables before so i do not know if this is common . but i returned this item as a defect because for this amount of money you should get more then six pictures per charge
+camera pos this is a must have item for your kodak dig . camera . it allows for filters , tele / wide aux lenses or any 55mm screw on attachment . apart from that the black metal enclosure compleatly covers the entire lens assemby , at any zoom or focal length . this adds a very strong and valuable protection to your lens . if you accidentally bang the camera against a hard surface this adapter may very likely save your lens ( camera ) from destruction . i always keep it on with a skylight filter , the skylight or a uv filter further protects the lens from impact , scratches and dust . if used when the lens is not fully extended ex : wide angle to normal zoom , the adpter also helps block out stray light and acts as a light shade . kodak aught to have this built into their camera as a permanent fixture , but alas they make extra revenue on their accessories . do buy it !
+camera pos this camera does all that canon says it does . fantastic pictures . great flexibility for manual control or simple point-and-shoot use . i did a lot of research before buying , and i could not be happier with the canon g6
+camera neg they say 100% compatible but is not , because is not an info ion-litio , so is not a eqivalent battery , dos n't work . do n't expend your money on this stupid batter
+music neg rob touches on so much with this cd . my favorite song is one that has n't got any airplay and , in my opinion , the public missed out a great hit ! " streetcorner symphony " is about people coming together . it 's what i call my happy song . each day as i go to work i play the song as loud as i can get it ! we , my daughters and i , saw him live and he also called it a happy song ! i ca n't wait for his live albulm to come out ! there are fast and slow songs on this cd and will be worth every penny you spend to buy it ! incredible voice and songwritting
+camera neg bought this housing new in november 2005.in april i used it for the first time and it flooded on the first dive ! neither amazon ( since it is ouside the 30 day return policy ) nor canon will stand behind this product ! period ! i got so much run around from canon it was ridiculous . they wanted to " evaluate " the housing to determine if it was defective...dah ? they would not tell me if i sent it back for the " evaluation " what the final resolution would be ( refund , rework etc ) . coincidentally , another person on the same trip had the same housing...it flooded on their first dive too ! ! ! ! coincidence ? no . just terrible quality control and no product support from canon . do not buy canon products ! !
+music pos at first i did n't think there was enough new material on this soundtrack to make it worthwhile , but the four previously unreleased songs are so completley wonderful , especially " all i want to know " and " heather " . this is an essential for any stephin merritt fan
+camera neg the bag is suppose to hold two cameras , i have a rebel and two lens and cant fit them in with lens filters and extra batteries . i recomend you buy a bigger bag it does not meet the billing here . might be good for a couple of point and shoot cameras but not sl
+music neg not what i expected . it was n't as ' manly ' as i had hoped
+camera pos excellent case , no question about it . it is stylish and well-put together . this can not be worn on a belt , though , it must go in a pocket , purse , or in your hand . the main thing is that it keeps the awesome camera safe and sound , and it looks good doing it .
+camera pos after researching several cameras in this price range , i bought the rebel t2 last month . it has met my expectations and perhaps then some . after recently trying out a friends camera in the 150.-ish range , i partially regret spending what i did . it all comes down to what you need , want , and how many bells and whistles you like . for the money though , compared to the competitors , i still think i made a good purchase . after all , if i use it for ten years , which i most likely will , i will have surely got my moneys worth . bottom line : no complaints with it
+camera pos the d300 is easy to use it takes great video outside , and is very good in low light . it also takes very good pictures , and the battery last a long time . i would buy it again
+music neg do not buy this cd . he is definitely wack . his silly rhyme style and dull voice sounds lethargic over uninspired beats . as a member of " children of the corn " he was weak and he still is weak . the other member of his dip-set crew outshine him on his own cd...how lame is that . through away any cam'ron cd 's you own and immediately replace them with music by jay-z .
+camera neg on reciept of the tripod , i found it wrapped and packed ( on the outside ) in a manner that should have insured an undammaged product . when i opened the box , i found a tripod that looked like it had been run over by a fork lift and then thrown into the box . there was minimal packing around the tripod itself , mostly just nylon bags to prevent scratching , and nothing to keep the unit from being tossed around . i have to wonder about the quality control prior to shipping . also , if you are not familure with how to assemble and work this type of tripod you will be better served with a different model or company , instructions are not part of their package
+music neg i bought this cd after having seen ken burns ' special on pbs . the energy that came through on screen in the benny goodman segments does n't really come through in this cd . artie shaw said that benny goodman was too much of a perfectionist to take risks and so his music languished in predictability . that shows in this collection . afterall , where would jazz be if jazz musicians did n't take risks
+camera neg i 've had this camera for 2 years and i am glad that it broke so i can ( in good conscious ) buy a new camera . it is so slow that it is impossible to catch anything but the back of my kids heads as they run away because they got tired of saying " cheese " . i always thought the battery life was sufficient , and that the quality of the images was fine , but i hardly got good shots because of how slow the camera was . i 'd put the shoot button and it would take about 2 seconds before the camera would click . i actually sent it back to the manufacturer thinking there was something wrong with it , but they said it was functioning normally . it was probably the most disappointing $200 purchase i 've made
+music neg i ca n't believe i just spent over an hour of my life listening to ten ( ten ! ! ) different mixes of this not too remarkable dance hit . by the third version , my brain turned to jelly . by the fifth , i needed a drink . by the final re-mixed version , my hangover already started to set in . this e.p. is for dj 's and masochists only . - tom rya
+music pos this guy is a freak of nature ! different but in the same vein as illinoise . i loved it..no fillers to speak of . if you liked some of the more laid back songs on illinoise ! , you 'll love this album . its great regardless . highlights are : avalanche adlai stevenson saul bellow the mistress witch from mcclure springfiel , or bobby got a shadfly caught in his hair no man 's land the perpetual self , or " what would saul alinsky do ? s
+camera neg my kids can see better through a toilet paper roll than this " telescope . " meaning , you ca n't see a freaking thing through it . do n't waste your money
+music pos this album is a great representation of what spoon is about . great music along with fantasticly written lyrics provide a feeling of sheer uphoria to one 's ears . spoons sound is somewhat like cake but different in ways as well . they are a very good band that should be getting more cred than what they are getting . some of my faves on this cd include mathematical mind , the two sides of monsieur valentine , sister jack and i turn my camera on . i would strongly recommend this cd to anyone that like alternative rock . definately money well spent
+music neg i got this cd because i loved their radio hits " bring me to life " and " my immortal . " while those songs are beautiful , they are not representative of the rest of the album . although i tried and tried to get into this cd , the hard rock teen goth style just is n't my cup of tea , and the lyrics are too depressing . if you are a fan of bands such as linkin park or seether , you might enjoy this . however , if you only like " my immortal " and " bring me to life " because of amy 's powerful vocals , you 'd be better off listening to tori amos or sarah mclachlan .
+camera neg the minute i took the monopod out of cover it broke . the mounting head fell apart from the leg . the glue they use is very bad . i did n't return the product because i think the replacement would be the same quality and it was not worth the affords . i just fixed it myself
+camera neg please be aware of this camera 's shock sensitivity i was pretty happy with this all-in-one compact camera until it had to be repaired for the second time . it 's sensitivity to vibration or a slight bump while the lens is out is way too sensitive for the real world . the result is it loses it 's ability to focus and zoom . it did n't help that it commonly powered on while in a pocket , with the lens protruding , thereby causing unintentional harm to the lens assembly . the first time it happened casio repaired it under warranty . the second time it was outside of warranty and the repair center wanted $137 to repair it - that 's more than 1 / 3 the original purchase price . i wo n't reinvest in a weak product . i 'd rather put that money into a new camera altogether
+camera pos i purchased this prior to the birth of my son , and it 's doing the job perfectly . i do n't have a 2.4ghz phone at home so i ca n't say how it would 've affected its performance , but video and sound are very clear at a remote location . i 'm happy with the product and highly recommend it
+music pos i love jazzy hip-hop of the early ' 90s and if you do too , this is the album you must listen to ! all the songs are wonderful but there are some of these which are something of supernatural like the famous ( and the most beautiful of the entire cd ! ) " award tour " , " steve birko ( stir it up ) " and " midnight " . enjoy this pearl of real hip-hop ! ! !
+music pos this is jewel 's first cd and i enjoyed it especially foolish games and you were meant for me . i ca n't wait for her latest
+music pos this is a very well done record by 3 of raps most elite personalities . cube , dub , & mack definitely knew what they were doin when they made this record . the beats are amazing on all the tracks . this is one you can listen to straight through and not feel any need to hit the skip button . for me all these songs were hot from the first time i heard them . if you 're a fan of the whole west coast gangsta rap thing , you gotta have this ! my fav tracks are " all the critics in new york " , " do you like criminals " , " gangsta 's make the world go round " , " westward ho ! " , & " hoo bangin ' " ...although like i said , all the tracks are badass . peac
+camera neg im not from usa . my brother bought me the camara in a trip three months ago and it is not working ! ! it has serious conection problems in the body that i cant fix in my country . i lost 1000 us
+music neg i want this guy to succeed so badly , yet he just could n't pull it off . his voice has a great sound to it , pleasant to the ears , yet his interpretation was just not there . his phrasing was very lazy and boring most times . it seemed like he did n't know where to start the next word . and he also sounded out of breath . he sounded so out of breath that i started gasping for air...i had to stop listening . to add to that , john 's vibrato sounded washed out and faded in places where it needed to be stronger . i truly hope with age and experience he improves . there 's no reason why he should not . he 's not in the catagory of a buble ' or connick jr. yet .
+music neg i 've been down for monica since the beginning ; but now i am finished , i love monica 's voice , but whats up with all these singers wanting to be rappers...wtf ! ! ! i want the soulfoul monica from the first cd , " sideline ho " are you serious ! ! ! again wtf ! ! could someone please come out with a soulful mature cd , cause this one aint even close .
+camera neg i have gotten better results with sterlingtek batteries for a fraction of the price...like less the $15 shipped
+music neg do yourself a favor and only buy his albums . they 're much more solid . one love . peace
+camera neg this camera has major problems . do your research . go to any digital camera forums and you will see tons of post of the " black screen " . after using our camera about 5 times the screen became black . apparently had to do with defective lens housing or something . sent it to their customer care service . took 1 month to get back . 3 days later black screen is back . sanyo is doing everything they can to prevent me from getting money back or get new camera . they just want me to keep sending to customer . care . sanyo has a very defective product and they do not want to admit their mistake and replace the defective cameras . see for yourself . go to the forums and see what others have been saying . do n't make the mistake i did
+camera neg this is the worst camcorder i 've ever owned.the picture quality is the worst.i ca n't get a clear picture unless i focus at one distance.if i move a little , or something moves in the picture it goes out of focus.i have n't got one decent video with this piece of garbage yet . i recommend panasonic , it was the last camera i owned and every picture was crystal clear.it 's my fault i did n't do my research before i bought this
+music neg will not run on my computer.. . love the content however i keep my music on my hard drive and was looking forward to working out with this album on my mp3. i will be demanding a refund ! do not buy if you have a mp3 supported car stereo , if you plan on playing at your computer. . it will not work due to ill conceived piracy protection ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
+camera pos i bought this item to be used with my sony hdr-hc3 camcorder in combination the fig rig . it works as advertised . i do wish the clamp portion of the item was removeable , but it can be worked around . i found the remote to be very responsive , as you would expect from sony . and the price was a bargin .
+music pos i bought this for my kids because i knew they would love these songs just as i did . forget them ! i love it ! there is nothing like the chipmunks and never will be again . the christmas song is worth the price alone . do n't think about it . just get it
+camera pos i purchased this camera brand new for a fraction of the price of my first digital camera . this is my second point and shoot digital camera since i have abandoned film . it is a very solid and durable and it takes beautiful pictures . it has almost no shutter lag time and the battery has never run out on me . i have used it on an entire week long vacation without re-charging it . kodak keeps making these cameras better and more reliable for less
+camera pos pros : - reduces flare and ghosting when shooting in bright light . - helps protect your lens from dirt and scratches . - somewhat protects the lens in case of a fall . better to break the hood than the front element . - makes you look more like you know what you are doing and helps keep others from carelessly walking in front of you . cons : - will increase lens movement in windy situations , kind of like a sail on a boat . - takes up more room in your bag , even when reversed they still add to the diameter of the lens . - people take more notice of you , will help to blow your cover if you are trying to keep a low profile
+camera neg i bought this camera based on an older 3mp version a friend of mine has that i liked . the older model is far superior . this camera is slow to focus , slow to shoot , and slow to save . i took 5 pictures in a row of the same thing in the same lighting condition ( indoor , medium light ) on the automatic setting , all 5 pictures turned out different , only one turned out clear . i returned it the next day and bought a cannon that i am very happy with
+music pos i first encountered bird3 opening for veruca salt the summer of 2001. that band had put their faith into bird and so have i . we fell in love with them all together . this band has successfully combined infectious pop hooks with soul-baring lyrics to create something unique , beautiful , and far from most of the trite pop or rock music you hear on the radio today . you 'll find yourself not only humming along , but holding this music close to your heart at your most intimate moments . you will not once regret buying this piece of art
+music neg the songs are boring , the lyrics are plain . i am so dissapointed . i bought it without listening to it first thinking i would at least find one song . how wrong was i to find out that not even one track speaks to me . andrea 's solo album sucked . now this ! i think their creative days are over and if i see them in concert again , i hope i am not tortured with the music from this new album . instead i hope they play the oldies but goodies that characterize them as the band i love so muc
+music neg i was babysitting , and the kid was listening to the cd , and asked why billie joe sounded so sick . x
+camera pos well , i 've had my rebel xti for about 6weeks now , and all i can say is wow ! ! ! i did have the rebel xt , which was an awesome camera . i 'm not a professional , but i do take pictures of what ever it may be outside or inside , youth or adult events as a hobby . this camera is not for the person who wants to just point and shoot or to have a camera to stuff in your pocket . this camera is for the creative person who wants control of the pictures they are taking . the sensor cleaner and wide lcd are just a few of the wonderful advances from the xt to the xti . the camera for me is easy to use and takes great pictures in auto mode or in my mode . i hope this helps you in your decision whether to buy or not .
+music pos like i said i would , i finally got around to purchasing this cd . i especially like tracks 9-12. cheap trick is solid as always . i have been a long time fan and enjoy all their releases . if i do have any criticism at all , it is the fact that some songs sound like recycled trick riffs . i guess it 's hard to create new stuff after 30+ years . anyway , there are some great tunes on this . buy it like i did !
+camera pos the compact power adapter for camcorder that we had ordered was in excellent condition and as described . thank
+music pos rare are the electronic albums that are so consistantly inspired . melodies are beautifully simple and soothing , sounds are particularly well crafted . a great album . the drum box could be a bit more discreet though
+music neg after carefully researching as many rain recordings as possible on amazon and reading all reviews i had hoped i had made a good choice with this cd . unfortunately i discovered that not only is the recording looped about every 60 seconds but there is an unmistakable low frequency rumble that is very apparent listening though my 5.1 system and my bose tri-port headphones . as a recording engineer i recognize this to most likely be a truck or car passing by and passing the sound up through the microphone stands that were obviously not de-coupled from the ground . the bottom line is i hear this rumble each and everytime i start to relax and it renders the cd completely useless to me . the recording is otherwise a good one and the stereo image presented seems authentic . since nobody else has complained of this rumble , i will assume that it will only bother someone with a trained ear
+camera neg these are not pioneer boxes . these are mbi boxes . i bought them and was very disappointed since i also have bought pioneer boxes before , and when i compared with the mbi , the latter one is much less sturdy and even the index cards are flimpsy compared with the pioneer's . do not buy these . also , adorama 's customer service is very unfriendly in regard to making their customers satisfied . they insist that they are the same , that i need to return them on my cost , because of their mistake . they flew from one reason to another with blame from that they have never carried pioneer products , to amazon 's mistake in naming them pioneer . but then their own website also has named them pioneer . anyway , just reconsider about buying any products from this company . it 's not worth it , considering the shipping is outrageously high . it is my honest opinion .
+camera neg i purchased this camera for my 13-yr old daughter as her first digital camera . it was a christmas present so i am highly dissapointed that 3 months after purchase , the flash stopped working . the picture quality was good but it hardly makes up for the fact that she can no longer take photo 's indoors or in low light . i would not recommend this camera .
+music pos when this album first came out , i felt jilted . but i recently had an oppertunity to listen to it for what it is and i think its a great album . make no mistake , if you 're a die-hard 80 's rocker , you 'll hate this album . the production is raw , and the songwriting is lean and mean as opposed to elaberate and detailed . but that does n't mean that the musicianship is lacking on this record . if you can keep an open mind , i think this ablum is one that you 'll love
+music neg this is the cheesiest music ever . phil collins , glenn frey , chaka khan ? are you kidding me ? these were the worst artists of the 80's . where 's u2 , rem , the pixies , x , the pretenders , tom petty , prince , springsteen , the replacements , husker du ? does anyone like rock and roll ? phil collins writes songs for disney and pixar now ! what did glenn frey know about ' smugglers blues ' ? do you think he was writing from the experience or from the heart ? these are the worst artists , songwriters and performers of the 80's . enjoy the nostalgia , but the art which is song is seriously missing on this cd .
+camera pos i purchased this camera a year ago ( summer 05 ) . definitely a great upgrade over the original rebel , although the new xti has a larger screen which is the one aspect of this camera that is not perfect . there are other sites that will perform more comprehensive reviews of this camera , but after a year mine is still working perfectly
+camera pos i have had mine for over a year , i *love* this camera ! it is so easy to use , takes great pictures , is very easy to use and program etc.. . i love everything about this camera . ps : unlike the other poster , i have not had any battery problems at all
+music pos the more i listen to this album , the more i love it . what 's sounds somewhat familiar even formulaic at first becomes totally captivating on further listening . like a girl you thought was nothing special at first glance but then becomes beautiful as you get to know the complete package . this is one cooooool cd .
+camera pos i spent alot of time evaluating this product . finally after reading the reviews i dug deep and spent the extra dollars to get this lense . it has been a wounderful addition to my canon reble . it is a very high quality product that is easy to use and delivers beautiful shot every time .
+camera neg description or product is wrong . there is no quad independent power / charging indicators . they are set up in banks of two . one light for two charging bays . batteries must be charged in banks of two . tried e-mailing vidpro for additional info on this charger . e-mail came back as undeliverable . cannot find any reviews on the internet for this charger
+camera neg what a pile of junk . three full seconds pass between pushing the shutter button and when the camera actually takes the picture . if you move at all during that three seconds , the picture is a blurred mess . even if you do n't move , the pictures turn out blurry and dark . and if you use the flash , you get a lovely white picture of nothing . i ca n't believe they sell this thing .
+camera neg after three weeks the batteries fails . i buy a knew one in walmart , and less expensive
+music neg wow guys.. . how many of you are on crack ? ive given this album 2 whole listens an it still sucks ass . besides if i should have to listen to something more than a few times to know its hot then its wack . cause if you listen to anything enough you will like it . it 's human nature.. . keith , ummm.. . excuse me " dr. octagon " is a retard , mentalcase , and has no lyrical ability . half of you people like this just cause its so different . what he says makes no sence , and has no meaning . that which he does say that does make sence is nasty , and weak . his flow is awefull . his delivery is awefulll . automator does a good job on the boards making nice beats , but keiths lame ass f***s up good beats.. . feel free to click that you dont agree with this kool keith d***riders . :
+music neg i had never heard leonard cohen 's music but saw references to it frequently when looking at other singers / songwriters . given his status / reputation i thought i should get this cd and learn what all the fuss was about . having had no preconceptions , i have to say i was quite disappointed . i think the music has not aged well and is pretty unremarkable . perhaps the style liberated others to pursue new directions but the work in and of itself is ho hum at best . specific example that speaks volumes : listen to cohen 's singing of his " hallelujah " and then listen to jeff buckley 's cover of that song on " grace " which was recorded in 1994. sorry , leonard , you cannot hold even a birthday-sized candle to jeff buckley 's rendition of your own song . it is a very unflattering comparison that pretty much put the first and last nail in the coffin for my appreciation of cohen 's legacy . " tant pis , vers le bonheur .
+music neg i 'm not exactly sure how to classify this , nor do i think it really deserves the time . how this album has garnered so many positive reviews is beyond me . my only guess is that some tired , pretentious teen on myspace raved over it and voila , the clique was born . now , i really wanted to like this and gave it numerous listens . but each time , it sounds more and more like these guys were just doing some busy work around the house , started humming some melodies and then recorded them . immature and pretty much unoriginal . and just because an album is labeled " concept " does n't automatically qualify it as a masterpiece . if you want a flawless concept album that actually has an interesting story just go and buy " the wall " . unless your circle of friends has threatened to emascualte you for not owning this , do n't bother with this bloat .
+music pos if you enjoyed explosions in the sky 's last album " the earth is not a cold dead place " , and the songs by the group on the " friday night lights soundtrack " , then surely , you shall find love for their newest record " all of a sudden i miss everyone " . if you are new to explosions in the sky , i can only personally describe their music to you as lush , captivating , graceful , energetic , and highly inspirational art rock instrumentations . please ignore reviewers who rate this album negatively because they do n't like it as much as their last album ( yet ) . " all of a sudden i miss everyone " is different than previous records ; it is alot darker , but at the same time hopeful and promising , best listened to on a rainy day or a cold dark night ( again , personal description ) . what more can i say.. . this is about as beautiful as three guitars and a drum set can sound . my favorite album of 2007 so far .
+camera pos i bought this for my mother-in-law who is in her 80s and set it up for her . it 's quite easy if you 're already computer literate , and the controls are very user friendly as well . the software could use a few tweaks to make it not look so basic , but for someone like my mother-in-law , it works well . wish i had a docking station for my nikon .
+camera neg they tell you tha this product holds 6aa batteries , and works with the 20d 's battery grip , but when i received the item it is for a completely different product and does not work with the 20d 's bg-e2 grip . it has the product name of cpm-e3 , just as stated...but it accepts 8 aaa batteries and does n't even come close to working with the bg-e2.
+camera pos the black of this is the same as on my camera , and with all the parts together , this is one professional looking set up ! i am not sure if this hood cuts down on glare / reflection , as i have not used it on a sunny day , but i do n't see why it shouldn't . and as cheap as this little product is , it is pretty much a must have with this camera ! ( s3 is ) one last side note , should you alreay own a extra lens or two . and they happen to be metal , be very carful about screwing them into this plastic adaptor ! i made that mistake and had to put the whole thing in the fridge for an hour , so the metal would shrink , and i could get the pieces apart
+music pos some of the catchiest melodies and harmonies ever from curt . lots of cool instrumentation . pete anderson did a great job with the production . this has n't left my cd player since i got it 4 days ago
+camera pos i gave this camera 5 stars because of it 's awesome features . this camera is the perfect size for kids and you can put a video on this camera . i love this camera . i think it takes awesome pictures
+music pos rap music today is a tragic lack of creativity . its not real hip hop . this album , brings back the good feeling that is real hip hop . honestly , the light is a song that never gets old , thats real . if you do n't have this album , get it .
+music pos i 've been a robben ford fan since 1979. each time he offers a new recording , i try to purchase it as quickly as possible . robben can rock and play slow blues . every cut on this cd is worth listening to over and over again . i ca n't say enough ! robben is one of the least known and treasured guitartists of our generation ! if you like robben ford , do n't miss chris cain . this man is also a guitar genius
+camera pos when i had seen this camera on net , i had anticipated to be quite big but this one is really small & handy.. . except for the lcd panel which is cumbersome to open always , its a great camera.. . the zoom is amazing and so is the image stabilization to go with it.. .
+camera pos was pleased to receive the kodak schneider-kreuznach xenar 1.4x 55mm telephoto lens and at a huge discount compared to other merchants . i do freelance photography and purchased this lens to use with the kodak p712. the kodak p712 is a great camera and takes excellent pictures . by adding the kodak schneider-kreuznach xenar 1.4x 55mm telephoto lens to the p712 , it makes already great pictures even better , and what clarity . i recommend this product to everyone !
+music pos bireli is not only one of the best living guitar players in gypsy jazz - he is also one of the most creative . on this album , he gives us a new take on django 's music that is simply stunning . " move " has a smaller , more focused sound that it 's predecessors , and the addition of the saxophone brings a really fresh twist to this great old music . bireli is one of the hottest jazzmen around - this disc is all the evidence you 'll need to draw the same conclusion . bravo !
+camera pos good basic set of inexpensive filters . nice case . great for a beginner / starting set . if you 're willing to spend more money on filters , getting b+w or hoya will suit you better .
+camera pos i mainly bought this to go on the end of the lens adapter for the s2 is . it does well to protect the lens , but you ca n't put a lens cap over it . it ends up being easier to use without the lens cap...and quicker when taking pictures . the pictures are very good through it
+camera neg looks nice . unfortunately did not power up the camera , so i ca n't say much else . going to cost me return shipping at the very least . sorry i did n't buy the canon product instead
+music neg here 's a line from the song vato on this album : " i would n't be the n_____ that i am if i did n't pop n____z in the mouth . " is n't that poetic ? snoop dogg manages to pull off an amazing feat . he makes sex , drugs and violence seem so ... boring . i feel like i am supposed to be offended . but it 's too boring to be offensive . we have songs about every kind of gang violence , every kind of drug , and every kind of cheap sex . and what are we left with ? he gets two stars because his approach to the city of los angeles is fresh and loving . hip hop should be local , and he does a good job with that . otherwise it 'd be a one-star
+music neg this album is waaay too deep and self-indulgent for my taste . being a huge alan parsons fan , it pains me to have to say this , but this was almost a total waste of vinyl , energy and money
+music pos his playing on this album reminds me of that of bill evans . i am glad to see on reading all the reviews that someone else had that exact thought . comparison to bill evans is the best compliment i know how to give
+camera pos the lens adaptor threads on very easily and i 've not seen any loss in color or light from using this filter
+music pos guys , if you 've got feelings for tim , you 're gonna love this one . if you know anything about honest to god country music , this is what you look for . this guy is extremely good and his music fits
+music pos saw this fella in ' you see me laughin ' on ifc . good straight ahead delta style blues . this is the real deal
+camera neg the eye piece that comes with the scpe is practicaly unuseable . but of course you can ' buy ' the eye piece that really works separately from the manufacturer . the whole thing was a waste of time...i gave it to my five year old to trash . at least he will have some fun with it that way....it 's realy just a childs toy .
+camera neg the power cord that accompanies this charger is bulkier than the charger itself . you would n't get that from the picture . too bad , other manufacturers have learned to incorpaorate the plugging mechanism directly into the charger .
+music neg sorry to say i 'm not a huge fan of tanghetto even after seening them play live at la viruta last month . few of the tracks are just undanceable and the music gets pretty boring after a while . i say if you want neuvo tango try narcotango or otro aires .
+camera pos he adquirido este flash para completar mi cĂĄmara evolt e-500 y considero que es la combinaciĂłn perfecta . se requieren de conocimientos adicionales de iluminaciĂłn y fotografĂa para obtener las mayores prestaciones que ofrecen ambos equipos . altamente recomendado
+music neg i expected more african vocals in it. . thats the main reason i brought the cd , i recently became a fan of that kind of music. . it had like 3 songs on there that i liked , besides that this album is garbag
+camera neg i bought this camera after owning an olympus digital camera for years . i was extremely happy with my olympus , but wanted something smaller that would fit in my purse or diaper bag since i 'm expecting . this camera was such a disappointment . just about every single picture i took had huge white blobs all over it . ( this only happened when using the flash . i must admit the camera takes great pictures in broad daylight without the flash . ) plus , if you used the zoom at all , the pictures came out fuzzy . the first digital camera i ever owned ( 7 years ago ) took better pictures ! the store i bought the camera from would n't take it back because i waited two days past the 14-day return policy . so , i sold the camera and took a $100 loss . i 'd much rather lose $[...] than keep this camera
+music pos i loved this album . strangely enough i was introduced to the title song by gray 's anatomy where i just had to find out who was singing that lead ( alice russell ) . the rest of the album is like the r& b music i grew up with . definitely worth a listen
+music pos i get the sense that the fleetwoods'body of recorded work is n't given the respect it deserves . over the course of their career , the trio recorded thirteen albums and yet this collection , as good as it is , is pretty much all that 's out there on cd , save for a few other compilations that cover much of the same ground . rock and roll has always had a soft side and it 's in this area that the fleetwoods really shine . their cover of thomas wayne 's " tragedy " is an evocative slice of 1961 teen angst-i ca n't put it any other way . maybe that 's the reason why the fleetwoods are given short shrift today : they 're the perfect embodiment of a ( then ) nascent teen culture 's soft and gentle side.this collection features all of their hits , some well chosen album tracks and the original pre-overdub version of " come softly to me " . if you like this recording , try looking for their original lps . ( my personal favourite is the 1963 " goodnight my love " album .
+music pos this is a wonderful album , that evokes memories of the 60 's folk boom , yet contains original songs . i was amazed at the fantastic harmonies and musical arrangements . anyone who loves the movie " a mighty wind " and who loves folk music will fall in love with this album . i know i did
+camera pos i am really enthusiastic about this lens because it is an excellent accessory for my camera at a very convenient price . i add it and use it for landscapes , mountain views , nature images and such , and also for group pictures in family photos . it does what is supposed to do : it increases the field of view while keeping the whole image very clear , and in this way the pictures appear more natural - - a whole view and not a narrow frame - - with perspective and deepness also , quite similar it seems to me to what i see with my own eyes . a very useful additional tool
+camera neg when i received the camera i thought of giving it a 5 star because the good looking and nice picture . after 6 months use , i wish i could give it a 0 star . it 's true it looks good but it 's very hard to hold the camera . it droped twice when i took pictures . also the lens is too small . the dirt is very easy to get onto the lens and very hard to clean b / c it 's small . thanks the dirty lens , the picture quality is worse than ever . the battery is very small too . after 6 months use , it can not hold enought power to shoot 10 pictures ! they have to put the buttons here and there to fit the small space . it 's not a user friendly camera .
+music pos despite the excellent screenplay by sam shepherd and the solid acting by harry dean stanton , i found " paris , texas " a rather unimpressive film , and the only thing that kept it together for me was cooder 's astounding soundtrack . the music here is simple , yet very moving and even haunting . his guitar stylings really captured the mood and feel that the film was otherwise supposed to convey . it seems to seep right out of the desolate landscape of the southwest . every time i listen to this cd it reminds me of driving along some deserted highway in nevada , se california , etc. also , it 's really nice that the soundtrack contains the story ( " i knew these people " ) told by stanton 's character , since to me that was the best part of the movie . even so , seeing " paris , texas " is not a prerequisite for enjoying this cd , the music is phenomenal in its own right
+music pos sidney bechet was one of the first real fathers of jazz . burns puts together a great combination of early recordings . jazz historions note bechet as one of the only horn players that could keep up with louis armstrong . you have to include bechet in your jazz collection , and this one is as good as any
+music pos i 'm a spanish fan of soul music of the 90's . these days is almost impossible to find a good soul / r&b cd to purchase . in the 90 's i had to buy about 2 or 3 cds per week . now , with all the rap & hip hop topping the charts , what kind of music could i purchase ? luther , anita , lalah , smooth jazz & maybe , some joe 's cd . and of course , this terrific cd by mr.benson . if you 're a fan of good r&b music and you hate the hip hop music , buy this cd now ! ! ! ! you wo n't regret !
+music pos this cd provides a fantastic overview of rypdal , who has been recording for ecm for 30+ years now . the tracks range from pieces with an " electric miles " sound to an orchestrated track . while very diverse , the tracks work well together and are unified by his unique , atmospheric tone and excellent compositions . the infamous ecm sound quality is even better due to 24 bit mastering . informative liner notes as well . highly recommended
+camera neg thought i 'd died and gone to heaven ; this lens was everything i wanted and more . three weeks after receiving it we went to the grand canyon , and on the way home it suddenly quit doing the focus - now it does a focus dance , clunking and whirring and never coming to rest anywhere close to focus . it 's not my d70 , which still works wth other lenses . this one 's going back to it 's maker ! if they fix it , i 'll revise this review
+music pos this disc dates from monk 's early period before he achieved recognition and started to descend into a long series of formulaic recordings for columbia . so it 's valuable from that point of view . it 's also a wonderful chance to hear him showcased without horns although the standard is perhaps not quite as high as the trio blue note recordings that immediately preceded it . the best tracks both from a musical and recording quality view point are an extended blue monk , which many consider the definitive version , and a lovely unaccompanied just a gigolo , which anticipates later solo masterpieces such as alone in san francisco . sweet and lovely is in a similarly reflective vein . much of the rest of the album has a forceful , driving quality , with aggressive use of dissonance in places - even for monk . a particular highlight is monk tearing through these foolish things
+camera pos bought this remote about a month ago . it does what it says . you can even use it from behind . great little device for the price
+camera pos do n't listen to the reviews that claim that this lens is not a good choice for cropped sensor cameras ( ie the 20d , 30d , rebels etc ) the canon l lens are the best and this particular lens is no exception . i have had the lens for less than 24 hours now and am in love with the sharpness and color already . great lens , great color , so well built , super sharp , just watch out if this is your first l lens , you 'll be hooked . this is a lens you will have for many years , great investment
+music pos this was not a waste of brad 's time or mine . good job !
+music pos my personal favorite dashboard cd . every other one of their cds have maybe a few good songs that i like , but the places you have come to fear the most has pretty much a solid tack lis
+camera pos bought these binoculars for my husband . he loves them . they are very powerful and he loves the way they feel - not too heavy . he can look at stuff across the creek and is amazed at the clarity in the things that he sees
+music neg right the people i work with love this band and album so really i was pressured into buying this album..so i bought and i thought i was going to be blown away due to the hype from my friends but in reality this sucks more than the mudvayne album i 've just reviewed terrible distorted guitars bad production off key singing , half baked lyrics the only good thing is the cover and maybe one of the singles are vaguely average apart from that the rest sucks...do n't be fooled by the hype by the press this band sucks so will babyshamble
+camera pos i have used this lens for over 6 months now and have over 1k shots through it . it is as fantastic as others note herein . the 2.8 through the focus range is really great . superb . the vr function is really a neat trick . it is super fun to play with . the drawbacks are size and weight . after a 1 / 2 hour of shooting , your arms will get tired . remember to be careful and hold the lens and not the camera . this lens is definately heavy enough to bend / warp the camera body
+camera neg after a week the cammera did not work . the shop has a return police , but they did not send a ra number needed to return the item . they asked me an adress in the usa , and whwn i sent it they did nor answered . in my country , argentina , the local distributor said the garantee is not valid for them
+camera pos this is a fabulous gift for grandparents if you preload the pictures . just be aware that the customer support folks are not that knowledgeable , probably since the product is new . do n't bypass their software to load the pix if you 're transferring from your pc to the frame - their software reduces the memory needed for each one . and even though the software for different size frames is labelled the same , it is not compatible and you can only have one version installed on your pc at a time
+camera neg i guess i really should n't complain because my husband won the camera in an office rally . but the pictures it takes are disgraceful for a samsung product every two to three pictures are blurred unrecognizably-where you ca n't even tell what you have taken . if you have found yourself among the fortunate few who actually found success with this camera thank your lucky stars . even if it is a less expensive choice versus the other cameras on the market today spend the extra money it would be worth it not to miss any family moments like my family did , on this useless piece of crap
+music neg thr pros about this album s that there alot of tight rappers and beats the cons about this album is that clue calls himself a dj but he 's a dumb phony who does n't know when to shut his mouth all he does is yell out throughout the whole album saying stupid stuff and giving shoutouts while the rappers rap he nees o shut up an lets us hear the song if u want this album still , go copy it off the net cause the is not worth the money ohyeah he dose n't even scratc
+camera neg my hunting buddy purchased a nikon 800. my intent was to put him in the shade . that nikon kicks the crap out of my bushnell yardage pro 1000. tried new batteries , tried bluffing , even tried to lie but nothing helped this product past 500 / 600 yards . my opinion is this product is not worth the postage . anyone with similar opinion or someone that has had a good experience with this product . [...
+camera pos 2 years of heavy use - not even one little bitty problem . they 've traveled well under harsh conditions , and they still function wonderfully . there you go
+camera pos i have had this camera for about six months and i still find new features to play with . one of my favorite mode is the sequence shots . i love its sleek design and its durable shell . i carry the camera in my back pocket , even in my tightest jeans . this is a great camera
+camera pos i bought a canon powershot a70. they say your best camera is the one you use most , and man i use it . i 'm a high schooler , so i dont have much money , but with the a70 , i can attach this adapter ( la-dc52c ) to my camera , and i can have more photographic freedom with lenses , for alot less money . you have to have this adapter first . then any lense which fits ( most ) , can be used.. . good idea canon ! ! !
+camera neg i purchased a 510 powershot in summer of 2005. after couple time of use the zoom on the cameras lens would n't work anymore . i cound't take any picture anymore . i contacted canon over this and they ask me to pay shiping to send the camera to them to fix .
+music pos if you are a fan of oscar peterson this belongs in your collection
+music pos building a library of oldies to listen to just would n't be complete without this album .
+music neg do not buy this cd , the first two reviews said this is a good cd . nope . i 'll tell ya the real about this cd . i believe this was 305 's first cd , and i do n't see how this cd was ever in mass production . while it does have a few decent cuts most of this cd belongs to a different artist . 305 got much of the material for this cd on techmaster p.e.b 's masterpiece bass computer . any one who has both cd 's can tell . if your looking for bass , you 'll find it here . but you can find knock with any bass artist . i give this cd one star for biting techmaster
+music pos this is where afi began their sound change from their first 2 cd 's ( answer that & stay fashionable , very proud of ya ) . it is much more serious than the first 2 , alot angrier , heavier , darker , and more screaming / yelling as well . some people say this is their best , i disagree , i prefer their " punkier " 1st 2 but i still enjoy this alot , it 's all down to personal taste , it gets a 5 / 5 for me
+camera neg dont bother upgrading your power shot camera...just buy a better one . the zoom lens ads a whole 5 ft to the view before the pixels become a big issue
+camera pos the best binoculars i have owned , and i have had many . excellent clarity , great field of view too . nice size also not to big , not to small . you cant go wrong with this fine set , highly recommended
+music neg this tribute was announced almost ten years ago , and it seems to have undergone a transformation since then . to be fair , there are some interesting additions such as the sufjan stevens and brad mehldau tracks . and emmylou harris is brilliant . but sarah mclachlan 's " blue " has been heard before as has prince 's " a case of you . " earlier reports indicated contributions from heaviweights like steely dan and lindsey buckingham . i sure would like to have heard what they would have done . even more disappointing is that joni 's hejira-mingus era albums are mostly ignored - and that was her best music , in my opinion . as a final indignity , it sounds to me that too much compression was added in the mastering phase , and hence the overall sound quality of the cd is lacking in dynamics .
+music pos this album is hard ! e-40 always come sic wit it . if you do n't got it , ya betta git it . it reminds me of his ( my fav . ) " i a major way " album . sluppin ' from intro till outro . he is the bay area 's finnest . please belave it
+camera pos camera has good features and decent battery life for a " regular " camera . for those of you who do n't need a special camera and just want something that can take decent pictures . this is a good one . i like it
+music neg i found a supposedly " new remastered edition " of sade 's " diamond life " on sale for less than 10 bucks . oops ! great mistake ! when i tried to return it , the cd store was already out of business , and the copy is one issued in the netherlands which is marked into the booklet as " 2000 digital remastered version " . the whole album has been re-recorded with new arrangements ! the digital sound is quite good , but the new arrangements made for ' smooth operator ' really sucks ! !
+music neg no strings attached is to my memory one of the worst albums ever made.no one listens to the stupid boy bands anymore.this piece of c@#p does not sell even a thousand copies today unless the previous reviewer is buying up all the million copies himself.dont buy any album from n stync or the equally horrible justin timberlake.get any beatles album instead
+music pos i do n't see how they can compare these guys to the mars volta or coheed and cambria . i can hear the prog elements but it 's more of a rush kind of prog rock , shorter 3 minute songs compared to 12 minute epics . they are missing the one thing that would make them a true prog rock band : the songs just are n't as epic as a tmv or a c& ; c song . i think reviewers liken brazil to these other bands because their singer has a high pitched singing voice . this is still an amazing album that is well worth your time . go into it expecting sparta rather than the mars volta and you wo n't be disappointed
+camera neg this keychain photo viewer sold by a company called " smartparts " is identical to one sold by " argus . " neither company manufactures the device nor do they offer a shred of tech support . you buy this , you 're on your own . you seem to be able to find the argus one a little cheaper.. . though they do mar the front of it with a big , black imprint of their logo . in any case , this thing is maybe worth $20 as a novelty . do n't pay more . image quality is mediocre and the software , while functional , is stunningly primitive . if you can pick it up cheap and approach it with low expectations , it 's a kind of cute gizmo . but do n't give yourself agita by overpaying for an obsolete little toy . check the bargain bins for this thing , or just wait for the next generation device . - - m
+camera pos there 's no question that paying $100 or more will get you a better monopod . but for $16 the sima smp-1 is a tremendous value . i have a sony dsc-w5 digital camera and have done everything i can think of to reduce camera-shake in low-light photos . this monopod has been great for adding stability and making my photos less blurry . the key is that it is small enough and light enough that i can take it almost wherever i go . and because it 's so small , i can bring it in to places that would frown upon a tripod . a monopod is not a total replacement for a tripod . but this monopod is now the only addition to my camera that i take on trips
+music pos this is a really great cd . the candian and american idol winners are not usually that great , but melissa is an exception . she just belts out her soul whenever she 's at the microphone . my absolute favourite is definitely " alive " . it 's just a beautiful song . really , i recommend this cd who likes songs with great messages and a good beat . she 's a great pop / rock singer . you ca n't go wrong with this cd
+camera pos if you are expecting clear professional sound transmission , this is not it . that 's a wireless system costing $1 , 000 - $3 , 000. this system is strictly for home none professional use . i think people were expecting this system to deliver the hi fidelity sound they hear on movies or tv soundtrack . professionals do not use this system . that is the reason for the low price . home movies only .
+camera neg if you purchase this lens adapter for the xacti hd1a , you will not be able to take still photos using the built in flash . the adapter blocks the flash and causes black shadows in the bottom half of your photos
+camera neg i bought a sony icd-mx20 digital voice recorder a week ago . i was surprised that sony does not provide downloads of the associated software named " digital voice editor " . sony customer service staff told me that if you lost the cd that came with the box , you had to buy a new one . only patches of the software are available to download . the customer service personnel told me that it was corporate policy despite the fact that the software is bound to the digital device . this immoral policy violating the norm of digital appliance industries and should not be encouraged . sony is demoting its brand name by offering poor post-sales services . think twice before making your buying decision .
+camera neg we bought three of these for christmas presents and two of them stopped working already . they wo n't turn on at all . one of them broke almost immediately , and philips sent a refurbished unit to replace it . that one is now broken , too . the units have not been dropped or mistreated in any way .
+music neg yet even some of you who agree that the album bites still say that " tub thumping " is okay , even if it " gets old after awhile " . that song is crap ! ! ! has to be one of the worst songs ever to get play . ever ! sounds like a bad radio commercial for some english beer they 're trying to market in the states . that song ( if you can call a random string of cheesy choruses a song ) makes the strongest argument against anarchy that i 've ever heard . proves that people who ca n't agree on anything ca n't make a song that makes any sense or follows any consistent theme . gotta go - just threw up in my mouth from the bilious memory of this worthless pop drivel
+camera pos very small and easy to carry . neat on the zoom , a bit hazy on the image stabilization but overall a good buy for the buck
+camera pos i was using this lense for a week now with d50 and i can tell you that in low light indoor shooting this lense is awesome . at 1.8f this lense should be fast enough for any semi-profesional ( like myself ) . at 8f this lense produces the most sharpest photo ever and given that you shoot in nef ( raw ) format and use photo editor software ( i use nikon 's capture nx ) photoes become master pieces . at 22f , outside group portrait are sharp to the last hairy detail on each single person . i highly recommend this lense
+music pos if you like music you ca n't help but like mariachi from mexico . it is superb . is there another volume ? if so , tell me about it
+music neg this album was released in 1999. and now , seven years later , this album does not even matter . britney spears is remembered not for her musical talent but for her inability to parent a child . great music lasts dozens of years for its complexity , innovation , creativity , and ability to transcend cultures and generations . great music stirs something inside the listener , and matters to the person who created it . britney spears and the ridiculous product that her record companies have created is none of these things . it saddens me to see the number of copies an album such as this sells originally . and yet , the great albums of all times sell thousands of copies years - decades , even - after their release . music like this , britney spears and her peers , disappears into the folds of time . it does not matter .
+music pos this album is simply one of the coolest things around , and when i listened to it , it inspired me to a similar project using the same ' weaving and zoning from place to place ' kind of method . what this basically is , are field recordings of various different indigenous and mainstream musics from mostly indian / middle eastern / oriental festivals ; they are then mixed together nicely into one flowing peice . you get indian gamelan , mussette accordion , vocal choruses , foreign tongue talking , and psychadelic bagpipes all in one 33 minute track , and then some . it 's very trippy , and it hints at some kind of endless dream where we flow from place to place without reason . get this for your own good
+music neg ok i 'll make it short but sweat great music , singing sucks...this guy is flat every song and he should go back to the honk tonk and get away from rock...if you think i 'm lying listen close how can anyone listen to this voice , he ca n't hold a note and sounds like he has a mouth full of mush , he sucked at country and has no place in rock...home boy go back to texas and get back to branded some cows cause you suck
+music neg this is a pep rally on cd ; an unsingable , emotionally charged pep rally . it really upsets me that this is the face of today 's christian music . the melodies are not easily singable at all , and the songs use all the same musical cliches . this is worship manipulation at it 's best . if you read the words to learn something concrete about god , you will find nothing of substance . they talk about actions to give god and our response to god , but no meat-and-potatoes of why we should be doing this . god is great , but why ? this is very disturbing , and completely unacceptable for congregational worship .
+camera neg i originally purchased the samsung duocam scd6040. it fortunately broke 1 week before the warranty ran out . the video began having giant pixilated squares when video taping and on playback . though under warranty , it still cost me $49 ( their fee ) to send in the camera for a repair . the repaired camera came back broken . i had to deal with many customer service people , but finally got them to agree mine was a " lemon " and they sent me the scd6550. now 10 months later , the video and playback on this duocam has broken . you see a black screen with yellow blocks on the lcd and through the viewfinder . i cannot video tape or playback anything on tape . it is not under warranty . i ca n't believe their cameras / duocams do n't last longer than one year . they must use cheap parts . please save yourself the headache and chose another brand .
+camera pos the camcorder compact power adapter worked very well . i was given great help in finding the right one for my canon camcorder , which in itself was amazing . 5 stars to the product and to the helpers who helped me locate the right one
+camera pos kodak v705 black : small , can carry in pocket . wide angle lens , great for group photos . fast start up time . video mode is easy , built in mic picks up all the sounds.camera can stitch 3 photos together-great for vistas . i am happy with this camera . bought another v705 in silver for my friend and she loves it.kodak makes easy to take photos . weak flash - try not to be more than 6-8 feet away-or use photoshop on photos
+camera neg i bought this item over a year ago , and it has never served for anything . once i spotted a deer and turned on the " ir " illuminator , and the deer ran away - not too surprising , it is actually a red light and totally visible for most animals . better use a flashlight . this is a first-generation nightscope , and has a very small range of utility : if there is a little light , the adapted human eye sees better , and if there is almost no light the device does not see either . 100 bucks is not too much of a waste , but if you are serious about nightvision you should spend about 10 times as much
+music pos i read some of the other reviews before i submitted this . i do n't see how someone could get upset over the liner notes . redd does n't include danny gatton as an influence because he did n't listen to him . as far as other reviews concerning tone and the lack of fire , well , i do n't even know how to address that . redd has one of the best tones i 've heard on the tele and his note selection is what sets him apart from other pickers . ever hear of diarrhea of the guitar ? well , you wo n't get that on this cd because redd does n't play something to just play it . this cd showcases redd 's versatility from country , to swing , to blues , to rock , it has it all . if you like good pickin ' , then by this cd
+camera pos this is a good teleconverter that added 1.5x to the camera 's native zoom . it adds a great degree of stability to the camera for taking those critical shots . of course when the digital zoom is used it is very sensitive to shake and movement . overall a good addition especially for the birds and nature shots
+camera pos the product was easy to use and accurate . it is also a great buy
+camera pos what i love about this case is its softness and its superior quality . it fits just like a glove and it protects the camera at the time it never poses a danger to it . ( i have had other older cases that scratched or even crushed the cameras ) . this one seems to be an improved model . it does not need to have handles because you are supposed to use the strap on the camera . highly recommendable
+camera neg i purchased this wide angle lens for my digital camera . when i was experimenting with it taking photos inside my house , there was a dark shadow in the lower right hand portion of the photo . when i took a photo outside , there was no shadow . i went to my local camera shop to ask for help in this matter and he said i would need to adjust the white balance according to the light in the room , but he said , in reality , ' these digital cameras are really not meant for attachments' . i did experiment with the light balance , but still had no luck in getting that dark area to disappear.the flash on the camera is not strong enough to compensate for the area the lens blocks . i returned the product .
+camera neg i had this camera for 2 months . it was kept in a case and was very well taken care of . i would not even allow my husband to touch it . i was taking pictures and then one suddenly came out as a white screen . i took another and the same thing . i asked my husband what he thought was wrong . we took out our memory card and tried internal . same thing again . he said maybe it was the lcd screen . we loaded the pictures in the computer and it was even worse . i contacted kodak several times . they do n't care about their customers . i have talked to several others in similar situations with similar results . we will try to get their attention with a lawsuit . if interested contact me [...
+music neg there are only two artists ' music that i will purchase not having heard one note of the cd . those two artists are barbra streisand and linda eder . " songs of judy garland " was a huge disappointment . i was surprised at the cd cover . i do n't know what " look " ms. eder was shooting for but she missed the mark . instead of coming off as 10 years younger , she has been transformed to the point of being unrecognizable . she looks both spooky and a little like a petulant child . ms. eder has always been a very attractive woman and definitely did not need this kind of " makeover " . and the music...i tried so many times to like it . but the more i listended the more i realized i was listening to " liza minnelli " singing her mother 's music . i did not hear linda eder . i 'm begging you ms. eder , go back to what works . i 'm sorry...this does n't
+camera neg i bought this lens and was pretty excited about it , but i 've been disappointed . previous to this i bought the 50mm 1.8 for $70 and that lens completely puts this one to shame . i need a wider angle lens and went for this one , but all too often found myself quite disappointed with the results . edges of subjects were all messy and just looked terrible , even at higher f stops . i shoot with a 20d . the usm is awesome though and will for sure be an option in whatever lens i choose to buy in place of this one . the focal range of 28-105 was also very nice , but to me the picture quality was not so good
+camera pos a really cool digital picture frame , very simple to use and supports all types of memory cards even a pen drive
+music pos jeff beck is the best guitarist on the planet and has been for a very long time . what you get here is an abbreviated version of him live . his song selection is not the best , but freeway jam which is one of my all time favorite beck songs is included . you also ger scatterbrain and blue wind . she 's a woman the old beatles song is also included . jeff beck at this time was playing some of his best guitar and his solo instrumental career was taking off . the songs with the jan hammer group to me are very average and infact distract what beck is trying to to . unfortunately this is his only live album from his instrumental era . i truely wish he would release a dvd of himself in concert for those who either havent seen him live or would like to see him live on dvd . the idea was good , the cd is too short and not up to snuff
+music pos i borrowed this cd from a public library , having liked the track " crazy life " on the empire records soundtrack , and i was immediately blown away by how consistently good coil is the whole way through . it is their most mature album , full of gentle emotion and idealism , and puts the listener in a good mood . glen phillip 's voice is unique , confident , and beautiful . i fell in love immediately with " rings " and " dam would break " . the haunting and beautiful harmonies captivate . " little buddha " is so different but so good as well . after i got coil , i bought two of toad 's older albums : fear and dulcinea . both are really good , but something keeps drawing me back to coil . it is achingly beautiful , vibrant , thoughtful , and pleasurable . it is hearing toad at their best .
+music pos even though mitchell wanted to feel reckless in this album , she accomplished one thing with her music : coming closer to weather report . it 's obvious she loved its jazz-fusion and admired jaco pastorious and wayne shorter so much to have invited them to reach their peaks , but as master musicians they could only achieved what joni allowed them to do . in " paprika plains " ( a song over 16 min . long ) joni unloads wonderful lyrics but only allows her group of pioneers to explode at the last two and half minutes . i would have hoped to hear a longer and more robust instrumental finish worthy of weather report 's reputation . over all the album is interesting because mitchell is not afraid of going out on a very tiny limb... .
+camera pos reading the reviews of this camera reminds me that cameras are tools . an imperfect tool in the hands of a master is much better than a perfect tool in the hands of a amatuer . i am not a master , but i do appreciate this camera for what it can do and what its limitations are . when you use iso settings higher than 200 you will see increased noise . i think it is a great little camera and i have used it a lot on my latest photo project . keep in mind one of the assets of this camera is its small physical size . this also means small optical lens = less light gathering ability . there is no way to compensate for this in the camera - so know this is a limitation and deal with it .
+music pos this album has some of the best country songs in the business . mark sings songs straight from his heart . there are songs for every occasion from the slow ballads like " too cold at home " , " i 'll think of something else " , and " almost goodbye " to the fast , heels kicking " bubba shot the jukebox " , and " going through the big ' d' " . these songs are about real life realtionships and how they affect the heart . so if you 're in the mood to cry about that lost love or smile now that they 're gone this is the album for you
+camera neg 1 year old.. . 3 e18 errors 2 battery erros shipped back for service 4 times ! search the net for e18 before you buy !
+camera pos i received this product in a timely manner . it was exactly what i needed . thank you
+camera pos do n't believe the marketing kodak does . i was using only kodakfilms for nearly 5 years . i recently switched to fuji based on some online reviews...i was pleasantly surprised at the results . i highly recommend this film
+music neg i never could understand why the beatles are so popular ? they are pretty boring too just like pink floyd . each and every song on this album can put me to sleep in about 55 seconds . i just dont like it because it sucks ! dont listen to the moronic 5 star reviewers below . the beatles only made one good album and that 's the one which contains ballad of john and yoko , hey jude .
+camera neg so i saw that this product got 5 stars , so i ordered it......when i got it , its like " um.. . is that it ? ? ? " it 's really cute , and really well made , but it has no where to hold my usb cord or memory cards.. . also , there is no hp embroidered in the front like the picture has it , also , the strap that i got is really cracked and does not look good at all.. . other than that , it 's cute , but not the best out there .
+camera neg probably a very good case , but not a very operatable one in the field - you have to undo two closures to open the camera compartment , a strap and a velcro . the shoulder strap is not detachable - looks kind of silly when you are trying to use the belt strap . for the olympus stylus digital cameras , look to the lowepro case - better case and value
+music pos darren aronofsky 's movies are beautiful masterpieces . from " pi " to " the fountain " , going through " requiem for a dream " , they will forever stand as timeless jewels . so they are hard to top in any way , but clint mansell has been able to do it every single time , scoring each of them . for " the fountain " , he teamed up once more with kronos quartet and had scottish post-rock band mogwai join in too , to produce a score that fits the movie like a glove , in a very organic way . the central theme to the movie is instrumented in a way that works fantastically well across all the time periods the movie encompasses . the combination of the talents of mansell , the quartet and mogwai yields a relatively dark , yet breathtaking musical piece that will stand the test of time much like the movie it was meant to score
+camera pos i 've seen this item for no less than $7.00 elsewhere , so i got a good deal .
+music neg the music for the soundtrack was so lame ! i though i was gonna cry cause i figured this was the end of b2k by this point . the s'track was n't even all b2k either . i like the song with jhene and omarion " happy " . also i liked " out of the hood " other then that it was boring .
+camera neg the first day i took them out to hunt with them they fogged over . i brought them home and there is fog inside . also inside is some dark crap that you cannot get to...and it is on the lens . i called bushnell 's help line and they told me.. . " well , it is n't internally fog proof , just externally " when asked about the stuff on the inside . " that is probably fungus , that sometimes happens " i just bought the binoculars ! ! ! he stated i could send them in and miss my entire hunting season and they would take the fungus out . avoid these at all costs ! ! ! they are a shoddy product with an even worse strap that is plastic and cuts into your neck
+music pos its kind of hard to deny what krs-one has brought to the game . his flow is phenomenal and the insight he gives is precious even now . standout tracks : duck down , ruff ruff ( dope match up with freddie foxx ) , 13 and good ( the story of a guy who sleeps with a teen that calls her father who is a gay cop will have you in stitches ) , poisonous products , questions and answers , like a throttle , we in here , the real holy place ( the deepest track on here ) , who are the pimps ? and the reggae tinged joints like say gal and sex and violence are gems also . filler : none ! bottom line : bdp 's six album is still a classic with a message that still isnt heeded till this day . besides the slammin production , krs showed that he was 100 steps ahead from the average rapper with this album . any born again hip hop head would do well to start off with edutainment and work their way down to this album .
+camera neg this was the first digital camera i purchased . i am an adventurous person and wanted something that would stand up to my lifestyle . this camera was n't it . the good *it is compact , which is pretty convenient *it has several camera functions that have the potential to work well if you are techno-savvy . the bad *after snorkeling with it for 30 minutes , the camera leaked and broke . olympus replaced it , but only after my 2 month stay in costa rica was over . *the functions are unreliable and difficult to use . rarely if ever do i get them to work how i want . the pictures always need touched up afterwards , sometimes seriously . *the zoom sucks . do n't expect to get those awesome close ups they advertise unless you have some serious patience . *the image stabilization is a joke . you need a tripod or surgeons hands to take pictures that are n't blurry . *the user manual left me with a lot of questions
+music neg the cd came without a cd case and the cd did not play . i am very disappointed
+music pos growing up with classical rock and having enjoyed rock music by rod stewart , i did n't think i 'd like this cd . one evening i was having dinner at a friend 's home and they had this one playing . it was beautiful . being a little older now ( in my early 40 's ) , i enjoy more mellow music than the head banging variety that is heard now . this cd of rod 's was nostalgic , romantic and extremely easy to listen to .
+camera pos it is a great compact camera with a good zoom . i can now leave a larger lens on my nikon dx 70 and use this for closer shots . you do need to try different settings to make sure you get the color you want . i really like it for most general quick shots , carry it wth me most of the time
+music pos este cd es excelente ! se los recomiendo a todos los que les guste la musica buena . robi es un gran poeta y filosofo
+music neg denis leary 's whole act is stolen from bill hicks nearly word for word . save your money and search amazon for bill hicks
+camera pos when i purchased this camera i was really conflicted on wheather i should get a digital still camera or a digital video camera . so when i decided still and found out the canon powershot had a video feature , i was pleased but had very low expectations . boy was i suprised ! this camera has so many fun features for both still and video pics . and the quality is awesome for both ! there is a video email option so you do n't have to guess if your videos are going to fit into an email . but if you want you can create some really good quality video with a quick adjustment . and all of it transfers easily to my computer . plus with still pics there are lots of easy features to choose from so you can quickly set up for any kind of shooting sinario .
+music neg i was deeply disappointed by the so-called " return of the funk " with the headhunters reuniting with their original lineup . as compared to herbie hancock 's original " headhunters " release , the return of the headhunters is missing one main ingredient , the grease . this recent release has traded the " grits and gravy " created by the sounds of overdriven analog equipment and early model synthesizers , for over-produced smooth jazz-funk , complete with overused n'dea davenport r& ; b hooks that left this album flat
+camera neg bought these for my nikon d200 about 3 months ago . never having used tiffen before i took a chance on a recommendation . vignetting can be an issue for polarizing filters and the vignetting on this one is the worse i 've seen . build quality of all the filters is really not very good . going to go back to hoya 's which are much better
+camera pos i have the white one ( black was unavailable at the time of purchase ) 1. the camera will not slide out even though the clasp is magnet . it is made snug enough that the felt holds it in the case even with a shake or jostle . 2. durable . no scrapes or scratches in 7 months . 3. have n't missed the belt clip option , its small enough to fit in my pocket 4. well constructed / durable . people think its some sort of ipod case / holder
+camera pos though being a nikonist for years and knowing the possibilities of that camera i could never imagine the results and performance of this item , easy to handle , incredible small for the capacity and giving the same options to get the same quality of pictures than the d80.i have both
+camera pos i bought a spare battery for my d70s and charged it up one time . since then , i have been waiting to use my spare but the original ( charged hundreds of pictures ago ) has been going strong for , literally , months . follow the directions . do n't use it until your fully charge and do n't recharge until it 's run down . this will help maintain battery life . good product from a great company
+camera neg i purchased this camera for my 6 yr old daughter . it is n't even good enough for a child 's toy camera ! she had asked for a camera with a flash and screen for viewing what she had taken photos of . this camera looked like it would fit the bill . it was small and " cool " looking , had a dock ( great idea ) , li-ion battery ( great idea ) and a skin ( great idea . ) unfortunately it lacks the ability to take decent photos in varied environments ( we are not always outside in the sun ! ) if they would put a better camera in the same package it would become very desirable . save yourself the grief and buy something else . i 'm getting a 5mp hp ( for less money even !
+music pos love.this.album . every song is awesome ! this is the kind of album you play over and over because you feel great after listening to it . my favorites are " in a moment " and " know " . half past forever rocks !
+music pos three six mafia has out done there self with this new guy chrome about every song is decent which is hard to find these days
+music neg i bought this album because i loved the title song . it 's such a great song , how bad can the rest of the album be , right ? well , the rest of the songs are just filler and are n't worth the money i paid for this . it 's either shameless bubblegum or oversentimentalized depressing tripe . kenny chesney is a popular artist and as a result he is in the cookie cutter category of the nashville music scene . he 's gotta pump out the albums so the record company can keep lining their pockets while the suckers out there keep buying this garbage to perpetuate more garbage coming out of that town . i 'll get down off my soapbox now . but country music really needs to get back to it 's roots and stop this pop nonsense . what country music really is and what it is considered to be by mainstream are two different things .
+music neg lol ! some people cant be serious these days . the lyrics on every track are straight garbage . so he failed bad lyric wise . production wise , some of the beats are pretty good , but a beat doesnt make a song good ! nor does it make horrible lyrics good ! ! so i think some tracks where he gets deep are worth the try j-kwon , but the game aint for you . i think this album is garbage
+music pos digressing from their first 2 albums , transmutation ( 5 stars ) and sacrifist ( 5 stars ) , praxis unleashes metatron . trimmed down to a 3 piece with laswell , bucket and brain covering all bases , metatron lacks bootsy 's space bass , yamatsuka eye 's agonizing screams or john zorn 's out of tune saxamaphoning , but it still rocks . track 1 is a laid back acoustic # and is absolutly beautiful . the album lacks the speed of some of sacrifist 's songs but makes up in phat grooves . half of the collection cd ( again 5 stars ) is from this album , but with nothing from transmutation , hmmm . instead of going further ill ' say this... . get this album at alll costs . burn copies for friends and spread the gospel according to praxis
+camera pos this is a quality bag for the price . it is a little small and tight for the nikon coolpix 8700
+music pos what can be said about this album ? this is one of those albums that re-invigorates your faith / enthusiasm in music ( those who listen to a lot of albums know what i mean ) . some tracks from here were most famously covered by nirvana on their unplugged album , although pained i do n't think cobain quite got the feel that kirkwood gives to these songs . it has a perfect blend of songs that make you want to almost hoe-down and those that you can just reflect on and chill out . particular stand outs on this album are split myself in two , magic toy missing , aurora borealis and the whistling song . this album does take some growing as kirkwood 's voice is abrasive , but this is an album that will truly make you love music . do try it , you wo n't be disappointed .
+camera pos after waiting months for an order to be filled and then getting screwed by customer service / returns , i decided never to buy from amazon again . go to an electronics or camera store , you 'll get better service and the fresh air will do you good
+camera neg if you are shoting kid at the swiming pool , it 's ok . but , if you are the open water diver , please do n't buy it . i try it yesterday , it will not work after 10m / 33ft , it will show the red screen and count down timer , it scare me . and i miss a lot of shot for yesterday 's dive . it 's really disappointed to me
+camera neg i took it straight out of the package , plugged it in for a charge . charger never reached " green " ready but the battery overheated and melted several hours later . customer service was not the best i 've had . do n't make the same mistake , keep looking
+music neg there are 2 really good songs on here . the first is " untitled , " which sounds like gibbard was listening to a lot of brian wilson at the time he wrote it . the percussion sounds like it could have been on pet sounds . " underwater " is a pretty good song...but the real jewel on the album is " send packing . " it really is a beautiful , well-written song . the rest of the album sounds kind of thrown together and most of the songs would have been much better if they had been recorded with real instruments . basically , the novelty of the kid instrument thing wears off really quickly . all in all , i would n't spend 10 bucks on it , but a couple tracks are pretty good
+camera neg i loved my 4.1mp sony cypershot i got for christmas in 2005. then a few days after christmas in 2006 the screen was getting these fuzzy lines in it . if i would tap the camera they would go away . but then a few days later i was taking pictures and the camera just stopped working . it would turn on but then shut off . i had this problem before with low batteries but i changed them and it still did n't work . it would let me review pictures but not take them and now it wont turn on at all and the lens is stuck out . so many other people have had this exact problem after just one year of use . so sad camera dea
+music pos i have been hankering after this great album on cd for a long time now . imagine my surprise to suddenly find out that it is available . surprise turned to shock when i saw the price . does the company that produces this cd not realise that are people all around the world ( including south africa where i live ) who are very keen on this album ? at this stage though , it is only the very wealthy that can afford it .
+camera pos wow is all there is to say no problems with it perfect for a casual picture take
+camera neg i purchased the 75-300mm for a trip to a nascar nextel cup championship in homestead , fl . i was mostly disappointed with the lens from the beginning . the lens is not very sharp , feels very cheap , and the autofocus is slow and hilariously innaccurate in low light . i packed up and returned the lens about an hour after i got off the plane . i am going to save my money for something sturdier and with a better maximum aperture . i suggest you do the same .
+music pos great anniversary present . fav song.. . i love the way you love me.. . my husband loves to listen to it in the car
+camera pos this is an excellent device . quick respond with my d80. i use it to take the family pictures that include me . i just point and press this remote to activate the d80 's timer and it works beautifully
+music pos a great series concept - highly significant artists performing material which taken individually or collectively represents a major section of the american music library . ofcourse the originally withdrawn [w . new at-the-time funky people] " talkin ' loud. . " by jb ( i bought it retail ! ) is the highlight , along with the live " it 's my thing.. . " by marva whitney . ( yes , i saw mw sing it **l-i-v-e** at madison square garden in july , 1969 ) . the prev . unrel . bobby byrd track and vicki anderson 's contribution to the " cold sweat " session also reinforce the value for listeners
+music pos one of the greatest rap albums of all time . wicked backgrounds and rhyming
+music neg i did not like this cd at all . there was not even one song that i liked . however , given the positive result the cd received , it may just have been my personal taste . i also got her new cds , and did not like those eithe
+music neg after really enjoying the amici forever album , i went shopping for another amici album and found this one . there really is no comparison between the two . i 've tried listening to it several times to see if i 'm missing something , but somehow the selections and arrangements seem more appropriate for the lawrence welk generation than anyone interested in a spicy little opera troupe . i was very disappointed
+camera neg i purchased this for my 10 yr old son . i was surprised at how , well , cheap it appeared . we took it out of the box and turned it on and it would not work at first , then it worked for about 10 minutes , then it never worked again and we had to return it . amazon was great during the return process and refunded our money quickly . we ended up buying the dgx 5.1 mp from a local store i it 's place . it has worked well for my son and is holding up to the rigors of youth . not a professional photography instrument , but a pretty decent unit for him
+camera pos i purchased this battery as a back-up to the one that came with the camcorder . the great thing about this is , once charged , it can sit in a camcorder for a month without loosing any power . i discovered this last week when i wanted to use the camcorder and was worried that the battery may be dead by now but ...surprise surprise . its recharge time is very fast . the only negative part ( if i must have to give ) is , it 's a little bigger then the one that comes with camcorder . i say go for it .
+music neg tihs album is not all that good when it came out in still not good till this day . i like all his other albums better i do n't know why he decided to release this crap.but the only song i really like is hip hip qurtables
+music pos every listen i get more into this cd . many catchy songs . i now need to buy more of donald 's solo stuff . great music
+music neg i 'm a huge fan of christopher lawrence 's stuff , but i aboslutely refuse to buy this cd because of the copy protection . i do not pirate music , and should be allowed to copy music i purchase onto my mp3 player of choice . this is just sad
+camera pos this was the best item i ever bought for my camera . i do a lot of walking with my camera , and thought i would use it as a walking stick , which i do , but the best part of this monopod is what i never thought would happen . my pictures are never fuzzy ! i can take low light photos and have they come out clear . i paid very little for this item and would never be caught without it and my camera . the three levers on the bottom allow for quick expansion at all different lengths . the carrying case allows for this item to be packed next to my camera without it getting scratched
+music neg i sorta of agree with the person below , this album sucks....plain and simple , however i think he is still doing a great job in rhapsody . i gave it one star not so much because it is garbage , but becuase i was looking forward to this album since " prophets of the last eclipse " which was great , but trully...i do n't know went wrong . i do n't have a problem with female vocalists , but in this album...it is retched . i do n't think i will ever listen to this album ever again . sorry ! but its true...do not buy this album , pretend you never knew he had a new album...oh ! and do not buy luca turilli 's dreamquest either ! another bomb
+music pos if you think yer gonna puke everytime you have to suffer through a " country " song from nashville these days , and you happen to like classic rock , you would probably appreciate what shooter 's trying to do here . folks , this is the real deal . i do n't mean real country or real rock - this is a hybrid - i mean he 's making music that is honest and down to earth . a flash in the pan , he 's not . he 's going to be around for awhile
+music neg i ordered this cd based on the reviews . first , i have to say that i am not sure why it is called ' paris under a groove' . i was thinking that it would be in french , at least . the beats are nice , i would not in any way compare it to buddha bar. . i just was n't as thrilled as i thought that i would be . it sounded very cheap . no originality . my fiancee is from paris , and this was very disappointing - not only to him - but i was embarrassed as offering it as a present....so far , it sits on the shelf. .
+music pos ...heart-wrenching break-up with his girlfriend of 8 years , elastica 's justine frishmann . 13 is a dark record , produced by william orbit . nearly every song is injected with despair , sorrow , bitterness , and an achy , heart-breaking sadness . these moods are encompassed on such tracks as tender , 1992 , battle , and the tear-jerking no distance left to run . also included are the trip-hop masterpiece trimm trabb , the humourous trailerpark and b.l.u.r.e.m.i. , and coxon and albarn 's co-written pop-masterpiece , coffee and tv
+camera pos you can check the photos that i took with canon s45 and this housing . it works brilliant . i just tested in 10meters . also there are supported extra lenses for this housing ( macro , wide ) ..
+music neg jj , the name of the song you are looking for is " like you like an arsonist " by paris texas
+camera pos at a recent nye event , i shot a lot of photos in a concert setting without a flash and am very impressed with the sharpness & clarity of this lens performance . its so fast and the colors are vibrant . i am not a seasoned pro but with the 20d and this lens , it makes me look pretty close . i did shoot in manual and once i got my aperture & shutter speed dialed in , it pumped out a lot of great pics . i have also shot some pics of waterfalls ( slowing down my shutter speed to get that soft flowing image ) and portraits of people and again , it oozed excellence . the 135mm focal range is not as convenient as a zoom , but the quality of this prime lens makes up for any incovenience
+camera pos this is a great lens for star fields . it is about the least expensive lens canon makes and also one of the fastest . the focus was sharp to the corners without coma . see my photo of a portion the milky way . this was obtained with a 30sec exposure with a rebel xt on an inexpensive clock drive sitting on a picnic table
+music pos very different , very cool ! an awesome cd that all ages in my house ( from 13 to 68 ) really enjoy listening to
+camera neg i ordered this tripod , and it arrived broken . the assembly to which a camera is attached is made out of plastic . i asked for an rma order via e-mail , and they only gave me an address to mail it back to with a ' copy of the invoice . ' being lazy about mailing things back , and since it was cheap to begin with i tried repair it myself . where it broke ( the three plastic rings on the camera mount ) , it was impossible to re-glue , because of the torsion placed on those rings with any sort of pressure . even if your tripod arrives un-broken , it will likely break the first time you drop it on the camera mount from any height at all .
+music neg can it be that people are letting their personal beliefs block the receptors in the brain that signal bad music ? ive listened to many bob dylan albums , and every one is a gem . freewheelin ' is my favorite , but so what ? it does n't matter which ones we love , because we all know what bob dylan 's worst record was , and its saved . im not one to question this man 's beliefs or anything like that , bob dylan deserves all the respect in the universe , but could it be that bob dylan made a transfer to christian music to help us all see how bad it is ? could he have made the transfer to make a mockery of the christian faith ? almost certainly not . but only a seriously bad album could have planted these seeds in my brain
+music pos and he know 's nothing about popular music and really should get back to work and stop sitting around convincing himself that he does . dumbass
+music pos this was the first queen album that i ever had so getting it on cd is great . " sheer heart attack " is an overlooked queen gem
+camera pos this lens has extremely fast ( and quiet ) focus , and is razor sharp . what more could you want , when photographing wildlife up close
+music neg before you get all worked up , let me say that he has a voice , but he really does n't have a style . he sings songs way too straight , he makes even bobby short sound like an improviser ! he also does n't seem to be in touch with his masculine side , his vocie is very , well if ying is male , and yang is female , he sounds very yang . he needs to take some liberties with the songs he sings and then he wo n't sound so obnoxious , then he needs to take some vocal lessons and try to bring out the ying ( masculine side ) in his voice . he needs to hear a few billy eckstine lp's . i do n't think he can change but here 's hoping he 'll take my advice . as far as you buying this cd it is your decision , this is just my honest opinion
+camera pos this case fits the z650 perfectly by just removing the inner piece .
+music neg wots happened to memphis hiphop it goin out the window or its already gone out the window there pushin any old sh' ' out for bucks anyone who is in2 real memphis years 94 to 98 2000 max when rappers were hungry no , s wot im talkin about old underground tapes the only guy doin stuff to that form now is evil pimp and thats a bit over the top but come on guys we want them simple murder beets back with them sik lyrics instead of that shoutin crunk sh , t 36 is now pushin , , , , get back to your roots alot of people are now reachin out for the old siccness from back in the day tommy wright playa fly kinda sh , t even koopstas devil playground piss , s on this wack sort your stall out koopsta
+music pos this album is ridiculous . i almost want to say part of srv 's soul is in this guy...he is that good . honestly i think this album rips apart his previous two . my hope is that jimmy , dt and apo will bring out a 4th release...as good as this album or better ! this is one of those great albums where every song is good . buy it . you like srv , buy it . double trouble must have brought part of srv back , because this album is just plain sweet
+camera neg this camera / mp3 / camcorder / webcam / voice recorder is way to good to be true ! i brought one because it was cute and looked perfect for mini movies . but i was sadly mistaken.. . this camera just takes cheap pictures and videos . the only thing that actully worked properly was the voice recorder that i had no need for . after about 3 days of trying to make it work a little better i gave up and sold it on ebay for the same price as i brought it for . it 's a great idea.. . but it just is n't a good camera but if you want a voice recorder this is pretty nice . the mp3 player is n't all that wonderful either . it does n't work with itunes . or easy work with windows . hope this helps.. . i wish i would have read this before i brought this camera
+camera neg overall this is a well-designed case which is custom fit for your panasonic lx1 or lx2 camera , but it has a few major flaws . first , there is no simple way to attach it to your belt . there is a belt loop on the back but it is so small and tight that it wo n't fit any belt more than 1 / 2 " wide . also , there are two zippers on this case , one on each side , which could potentially scratch your camera coming in or out of the pocket . finally , the velcro tab that closes the case is not particularly strong and can occassionally pop loose on its own . this might be a good case if you are going to keep it in your backpack or suitcase , but not for carrying around for everyday use .
+camera neg the 5x7 digital photo frame from pacific digital is very cheaply made , the lcd is very dark and flickers constantly .
+camera pos i purchased this camera for my son . he is a doctoral student and needed to photograph items for his research . he was able to learn to use it quickly . the battery life is phenomenal
+music pos i love almost all of these songs on this cd . if you want songs that grab your every emotion...this cd is for you ! i also recommend their other cds also
+camera neg this case looks good and protects the camera adequately , but is too bulky . it has n't got a lot of room inside - i was unable to fit an extra sd card in its little case and a spare battery . the belt clip is difficult to use , and i end up carrying the case in my hand most of the time . there are better cases for this camera
+music neg gnr were a very overrated band . i found appetite for destruction very dull . this atleast has the band 's 3 great songs in november rain , civil war , and live and let die . get this for 3 great songs but stay away from gnrs other crappy songs and albums ! ! they are not metal !
+camera pos got this camera in 1999 and it is still doing very well ! more than 3000 great pictures have been taken . the camera is very easy to use and needs no maintenance . a word of caution - ensure that the camera does n't get pressurized laterally - this can happen if it is stuffed in a bag and someone sleeps over it . the spring-operated shutter is very sensitive . would recommend this for anyone who is looking for a cost-effective and easy-to-use film camera
+music pos my first monk album was monk 's dream from columbia . i loved that album 15 years ago and had been searching for the same satisfaction from the multitude of monk recordings from the blue note years , presitge , and riverside . what monk 's dream offered that the prior work lacked , was production . raw , edgy , spontaneous ...yes all those recordings offered that . but i longed for that sense of confidence , tightness and richness of sound monk 's deream provided . i found that in this set which makes sense since monk 's dream came out of these sessions at columbia . so what if these are reworks of the old stuff...they sound just as new and gripping " produced " as they did in their earlier days without big money helping out . will i throw out my older stuff and just play this ? no chance..there is a time for polish and a time for purity
+camera pos i bought this underwater housing in anticipation of a trip to the galapagos . it worked perfectly , and i obtained some really incredible shots , both still and video . the combination of the canon sd550 and this housing were amazing . i did make sure to lubricate the primary o-ring each time i opened the housing . but the need to do so was reduced by using a larger , 1gb memory card - both card and battery would last a little over two dives , before i need to change one or the other
+music pos i love this album but the other review from anonymous is wrong . this cd is not remastered . i baught this cd because of that review and got burned . the cd even says right on it aad . in other words analog recording / analog master / digital playback . i will say this much though , the transfer is better than mca 's version which i own . however , if you want a remastered version of the song monster look to the " all time greatest hits / original recording remasterd " cd from mca . it also has move over from this cd , i love this cd and want it remastered . if you gotta have this album ( i do ) than this version sounds better than the mca version
+camera pos ok.. . i do n't know who reviews batteries but this one is pretty good .
+music pos a truly glorious recording , just what i want in music , with brilliancy , sensitivity , and beauty . this is a must have for every music lover worth the name
+music pos chandos ' grainger edition is a significant contribution to modern art . this particular volume ( vol . 14 ) features grainger 's settings of various folk and popular songs which he made in the first quarter of the 20th century . the accompaniments are set for small ensembles , and grainger utilized the harmonium on many of the song settings on this disc . sound is 24-bit
+music neg aerosmith were one of the worst most annoying bands of all time . they only made 3 decent songs in same old song and dance , seasons of wither , and janies got a gun . rest of the songs just stink explosively . avoid most albums from this hugely overrated band , steven tyler screams , he ca n't sing at all ? ? ? this is music for drug addicts
+music pos no other compilation of garland 's work exemplifies her genius and versatility than this astounding compilation that shows why she was the entertainment phenomenon that took the world by storm . all her original soundtrack performances are here , sounding magnificent . far superior to thin-sounding studio re-creations , this is the real deal , assembled with obvious skill , intelligence and dedication to the talented legend . in a sense , this should be the " soundtrack album " for that magnificent documentary about her that pbs produced a while back . do n't pass this up
+camera neg the camera worked fine ; however , after six months , it stopped working . i took it to a pentax authorized repairer and pentax refused to pay for the camera because the was dirt and grit in the zoom mechanism . my use was in no way abusive . i had a previous canon powershot s200 that lasted forever with the same usage , until i gave it away . i guess i should have stayed with canon . i bought the pentax for its size and lightweight , but what good is that if it does n't last ! do n't get the pentax and expect long term use out of it
+music neg like the other reviewer of this cd , i am also a fan of buffalo tom . unfortunately this does n't sound very similar to bt , in fact it is a bit dull . none of the songs seem to have hooks or melodies that stick - after you hear it you instantly forget it . i gave it 2 stars instead of 1 to be fair , since i only played it 3 times , hoping it would grow on me . i 'd recommend " up here " instead of this one , it 's much more listener friendly
+music neg these are the same tracks from totally buble which was released without buble 's consent . " totally buble " is not an album that i wanted to be released . they were songs i recorded for a film called " totally blonde " many years ago before i was signed to 143 / reprise records . the decision to release it as an album was made by the film 's producer , and i had no control over stopping him . it is important for everyone to know , that i only want to release quality music to my fans by offering my best work and i sincerely apologize if you purchased this album . " - michael buble
+camera neg i bought this because it was 50% off . i ca n't see how anybody can get much enjoyment from trying to look at photos on this viewer . i guess for background noise , it would be good but as a photo viewer , it 's not . small screen + low resolution = poor viewer
+camera pos i fried my charger in mexico and needed to replace it . this was the exact replica and it works great
+camera pos looked at a number of cameras including the tz3 , p5000 , and a few others . nothing compared to the g7 which is the one i ended up going with ; is , 6x lens , incredible quality , etc. if you want the best camera out there and do n't feel like messing with a dslr , the canon g7 is in a league of it 's own ~ the benchmark by which all other manufacturers strive towards .
+music neg while there are some flashes of brilliance in this album , it is compromised by a lack of direction . the ' tastes so sweet ' mix of rapture is beautiful , although cut far too short . faithless , afrika bambaataa & soulsonic , and crystal method are all good driving tracks at the tail end of this album . the high point , without contest , is darude 's ripping mix of rising star 's ' touch me' . this is a cut to throw on for the peak.. . when you find the party is just outside of barstow with hunter . that said , then there are all the uninspired tracks in the center of the album . these are more appropriate in an adolescent brit girl 's drawer next to the spice girls . for some labels , this would be normal , for ministry however , it is a dissapointment
+music pos this cd is truly a classic and one of my all-time favorites . love it
+camera pos i am pleased with the purchase . very good value . picture quality is good and it is easy to operate . only negative is that it was advertised as wood frame when in fact it is plastic . however , it looks good . this is my second purchase of this product : one for myself and one as a gift
+music neg nothing new here . i like reading the ridiculous reviews of these cds where people gush all over the screens over how much they love patton . this cd is dull . suffering from patton overexposure . maybe he should actually spend some time and make an awesome album ( like secret chiefs 3 - book of horizons ) rather than dozens of merely adequate ones
+music pos i recommend this cd to anyone stuck in a rut like i was . listening to the same artists over and over but wanting something new and fresh . life on planet groove will be a welcome addition to your collection . great for the drive
+music pos the only problem with betty buckley is that she is n't nearly as well known as she deserves to be , considering the length and quality of her career . this album of somgs from her 1996 aids benefit concert at carnegie hall is simply flawless . naturally , it 's heavy on music from broadway , the london stage , and film scores , but she sings one mary chapin carpenter song , " come on , come on , " that comes from none of those sources and is guaranteed to give you chills every time you hear it . if you 're tired of recordings by singers of little talent and less style , listen to betty buckley for fifteen minutes and you 'll feel as if you 'd never heard real singing before . she is an original , and she has the best voice in theater of this or almost any decade
+camera pos nice and compact . the tripod does n't really work as i expected . i am using my own tripod . overall is a nice little unit for the money
+music pos i received " the piano " promptly , and in pristine , excellent condition .
+music neg can it be that people are letting their personal beliefs block the receptors in the brain that signal bad music ? ive listened to many bob dylan albums , and every one is a gem . freewheelin ' is my favorite , but so what ? it does n't matter which ones we love , because we all know what bob dylan 's worst record was , and its saved . im not one to question this man 's beliefs or anything like that , bob dylan deserves all the respect in the universe , but could it be that bob dylan made a transfer to christian music to help us all see how bad it is ? could he have made the transfer to make a mockery of the christian faith ? almost certainly not . but only a seriously bad album could have planted these seeds in my brain
+music pos great compilation of songs from massive attack , all of their singles plus new never release songs . the videos are great and their new single ' live with me ' is a great song ( very sad video though ) . includes new version / remix of ' i want you ' with madonna . the combo is great you can own all of the videos , is a lot of fun to see the videos from blue lines until 100th window from the 90s all the way to the new single , the changes in the way they used to make music videos . there 's even the first video with tricky ) . a must have for any massive attach fan , and if you never heard from this band , you get the best of the best with this cds / dvd . massive attack is a band that had influenced a lot of artist from bjork , tricky , madonna , morcheeba , portishead , unkle , etc.
+music neg this cd shocked me . at first i was listening and enjoying the beats on every track . but then listening to the actual content of each song , b*tch this and h*e that . come on , as a young female , how am i supposed to bump this in my car ? every single song on the cd is disrespectful . you know what really makes me mad , this is what 's supposed to be hot , popular . what kind of message is this sending to our young black men ? our young women ? i would not recommend this for any one , especially anyone under the age of 16 or any woman .
+camera neg i agree with the two previous reviewers . there needs to be a user manual and there is n't one . the fine adjustment will adjust the vertical angle maybe 15 degrees . this is n't very helpful for star gazing . the maximum height of the tripod is only 45 inches . this is an uncomfortable height for looking through binoculars while standing . celestron should have a users guide showing how their tripod and binoculars are supposed to work together
+camera neg when i got this camera for my birthday april 2005 i thought that it was a dream come true . the picture quality was brilliant , it was easy to use . the device was ment to be envied . it took marvelous pictures until within 3 months , july 2005 - the lcd screen cracked . the camera had been in a case sitting on a bed with no possibility of misuse or accidental damage . i was never suspiscious of it until i took it to be fixed and reading countless reviews of similar problems . something bad will happen to this camera . either the sceen will break or the memory card thing . a friend of mine also owned the s410 , and her screen broke before mine did . the camera still takes photos , but without the screen the device is near worthless as you have no options . it is not worth the price of repair . tomorrow i am going to buy a new camera .
+camera pos when i sow this in amazon and read the spec . and everything on it i knew this is exactly what i 'm looking for . it 's portable , handy , and it 's easy to use . the video has a great picture on it as well as the picture too . you can even download mp3 music and use it to make music video , or any music of your own . here 's what you do , output the audio to a power amp / speaker so the performer will hear the music let the performer lipsink the music and start shooting the video . shoot different location at the same music and edit it whala you have just made the mtv music video
+music pos for those who have only heard the hits this is a fine addition for your collection . bruce and the boys were young and completely up to the task of handing out the long jams you find here . the title sums up the overall feeling of the songs . there 's a certain joy and a ton of fun to be had . put this on one nice warm spring day and see if it does n't lift your mood . caution : must be listened to while drinking a cold domestic beer
+music pos with all the ' neuvo flamenco ' and its accompaning popularity . it is nice ( and a relief ) i might add , to hear the flamenco guitar in its purist form . not only does this cd contain sabicas and nino ricardo . it also contains four very rare perfomances by manolo de huelva . which are difficult to find anywhere . also included are melchor de marchena performing six pieces . this is truly pure flamenco at its best
+music neg this young woman has a fine coloratura soprano voice , albeit a little underpowered , but she simply has no understanding of musical architecture . there is too much emphasis on virtuosic technique and no regard at all for musical subtleties . in fact , i suspect the only reason this little filly was favored over so many of her betters is that she looks mighty tasty in that skimpy frock and short-shorts . once again , sex sells and the vox vulgus dominates at the expense of true art
+music pos i love to working with this soundtrack in the back ground . the music is fun , whimsical , and out of the ordinary . i like pop and rock , but sometimes you just need good music without the lame lyrics
+camera neg while this lens has an attractive price tag , this lens has serious trouble with sharpness . only at high shutter speeds ( 1 / 250 and above approx . ) or with a good flash and middle apertures ( f / 8 to f / 22 approx . ) does it deliver sharp images . horribly slow autofocus . i am already saving to buy and l-series or the is usm version
+music pos i agree with everyone else ; the music on this album is completely magical . two masters at work with a great rhythm section , very spontaneous-sounding contrapuntal harmonies , unbounded joy in every tune , and some interesting arrangements . this is also the worst-sounding cd ( or lp , for that matter ) that i have ever heard . it sounds worse than lo-res mp3s played over the web ; i have recordings of 78s that sound better . i cannot believe that even laserlight would release this . i have other laserlight cds and none of them sound this bad . if they remastered this and made it sound better , i would buy it again . that 's the only reason for 4 stars rather than 5. still , it 's worth getting if you can listen past the horrible sound quality
+music pos i bought this recording along with blood on the tracks recently and all i can say is " doggonit " it do n't get any better than this . they called elvis the king but bob dylan must be the " wizard " . who will tell us great stories when he is gone ?
+camera pos this is a great product . i wish i had not waited so long to purchase it . you must be aware that it only works with l type batteries . i though that it would work with p or m types , which is what i have for 2 sony camcorders . i had to then purchase an l battery ( np-f970 ) . my old camcorder that uses p batteries is able to charge l batteries as well . do your homework with the batteries
+camera neg ok this is the third sony handycam i have owned and this is the most lacking in options..sony messed up with the usb port because if your looking for that one just spend the extra cash and get the trv 280 i had the 280 and it was stolen from me so i came on here and saw the trv 138 and i purchased it and was disapointed in the picture quality..its fuzzy. . im in the process of seeing if the seller will return this camera so i can get the trv280 back. . i hope this has helpe
+camera pos i bought this flash to use on a light pole with a flash trigger when we shoot weddings . rather than use one of my canon 580 's , i thought this was a better use of my $$-since i use this additional light in manual mode anyway . it does the job for under $10
+camera neg this camera has a very poor lens . at 1x zoom , the barrel / spherical distortion is enormous ; try taking a picture of a tiled wall . image quality is also so-so when a picture is viewed at 100% ; scaled down on a computer monitor , the quality is ok . color fidelity is next to nothing when using flash and auto white balance . [...]
+music pos this cd is really really good . warped tour never fails to please . the best songs are by these people...the used , yellowcard , story of the year , matchbook romance , the early november , avoid one thing , taking back sunday , audio karate , simple plan , maxeen , coheed and cambria , and mest . buy this c
+music neg reba is not country anymore period ! ! this cd will prove that . just listen to the first track which i think is horrible . as a matter of fact i think the whole cd is horrible . not deserving of reba 's talent .
+music pos yes , there may be some small issues with the sound quality , but you get used to it , and wilhelm kempff is definitely one of the great pianists of the 20th century , so it is worth it . these are incredible performances that are often justly called definitive . kempff seems to always bring out every theme of every work and magnifies its emotional intensity , whereas other pianists would not have nearly as much attention to detail and neglect many subtle themes . highly recommended
+camera pos this is not a high-tech digital frame . it does n't play mp3's . it does n't come with a remote . it simply reads your digital pictures from a card and displays them in a slide show mode . there 's an " on " button and an " off " button . there is no manual to read in order to learn how to operate your frame ( though it does come with a one-page instruction sheet ) . it 's great for your office desk when all you need to do is reach over and turn it on or off . if you want to display it in a difficult-to-reach location , or choreograph your pictures with music , then this is not the frame for you
+music pos her voice takes my breath away , i fell in love with her . i highly reccomend it
+camera neg with this pup it is simple to record video or images and almost impossible to download them successfully ! in standard mode , the playback of video is anything but smooth . looks like an old time movie . the software could best be described as , " user hostile " . i have n't been able to download any videos without getting an error message before the transfer is complete . the normal video is n't as good as my dv camcorders and downright sad indoors . the photo portion is slightly better than my cell phone ( a pocket pc ) . still pictures have n't downloaded successfully either ( approximately 11 out of 185 have made it across the wire before error messages start interrupting the transfer ) . it 's a handy size and easy to operate . after you 're done recording you 'll likely spend a lot of time with the manual ( i have ) and then you start getting frustrated . if i could return it , i would
+music neg yes the game has been missing the constant songs about drugs , girls , cars and jewelery . i tell you juelz really came with an original formula with this album . the stuff he mentions on this one has never been said before and juelz is an innovator as well as the rest of the dipset . lol ! ! ! ! these guys listen to other peoples albums and just reiterate the same stuff in a different song and beat . save your money
+music neg thankfully i checked this out of the library and did not spend money on it . i felt the need to add a review though to spare those who might be thinking of buying it . i made it through the cd once with my kids , but that was it . we will not be listening again . as others have said , go buy the radio disney cds ( or possibly later version of kidzbop if they come with better reviews ) . the singers ( kids and adults ! ) on kidzbob are out of tune and just painful to listen to .
+music neg i do not see how reviewers can rate this guy 5 stars . his voice is so mediocre that i am suprised he manages to sell many cd 's at all . i would n't waste my hard earned cash on this guy . stick with sinatra and get the best . if not , and you want someone who can sing sinatra style , then i would recommend you listen to the young canadian , michael buble . in my opinion michael buble is a much better singer that tyrell . he can swing and do justice to that genre of music
+music neg if any kid music annoys you , this cd is not for you . these are good old classic songs , but almost ruined with strange styles and irrelevant talking to intro the songs . i 'm throwing it away . i want my two-year-old to know the songs i know and love , but this was a bad buy on my part .
+camera pos this rangefinder is great ! much lighter than the big bulky other units . has all the great features that is needed . this is one that you will take with you and not leave in the truck because it 's too big . i tested this against some of my buddies ' bigger units at known distances and this one out did the bigger units in speed and accuracy . great scan mode . best buy . should be sold for about ( $ ) more than asked for
+music neg i would call this the musical equivalent of the worst of abstract art . there are those that " appreciate " unintelligable works for fear of being thought stupid if they do n't . . . just as the emporer 's subjects " ooh " ed and " ah " ed in admiration of his clothing as he paraded naked in front of them
+music neg hmm sounds good , jazzy and chic . this should only be played in lounges . the only tracked i liked was amour . the rest i wanted to close my ears . too much noise
+music neg i am a huge fan of btnh , but even i will admitt this is not a good album . the worst being " home " which uses samples from phil collins . the whole thing feels kind of empty , with very little of the passion that you would hear on the groups earlier works . there are a few songs worth listening to . most notably is " clevland is the city " which is one of the only songs that still sounds like it has any " harmony " to it . other songs worth mentioning are " what about us " , " not my baby " and " pump , pump " , the rest of the album in my opinion is garbage . it is not surprising that the group broke up shortly after this album was released
+music neg is there anything more sanctimonious than filming your last concert and inviting a bunch of fellow overrated hacks ( clapton , neil diamond , joni mitchell ) to the occasion , as if it 's some monumental event ? please ! as if the band were anything worthwhile in the first place . sorry , but the whole concept of a bunch of canadians ( well , four of five anyway ) writing this stuff about americana always came across to me as pretentious - - and it does n't get much worse than that stupid shot of levon helm wheezing through " the night they drove old dixie down . " these guys were just the beneficiaries of rolling stone / elitist rock critic propaganda . ( and to think they made fun of prog bands for writing inane lyrics - - huh ! ) i think martin newell put it best when he called the band " dreadful bearded ghastliness . "
+music neg do n't waste your money . this album is cheesy , sounds like a million other pop rock songs , and is nothing compared to their earlier work . with donnie van zant and max carl on vocals , all i have to say is : they need the old lead singer back ! the guitar work is ok , but the classic .38 special sound has definitely been lost
+camera neg i bought this camera about a month ago and i am highly disappointed with it . the quality of the pictures is very poor , showing large grain , even at shq and low iso settings . no combination of settings seems to improve quality
+music pos this was one of those rare performances where dylan 's raw energy swept the stage and transformed these selections from his collection into somthing entirely new and great . the sound is rough , the intonation is off , the recording is filled with horrible buzzes , whistles , and clicks . none of which matters . once youe listened to some of the tracks on this disk , you 'll prefer them to the original album cuts . i know i do . absolutely essential to any collection of dylan 's work , " hard rain " is not to be missed .
+music neg when john cipollina was in the lineup and he and rhythm guitarist gary duncan were in the groove , there was no better sounding group than qms . cipollina 's talent was awe inspiring . unfortunately , one of quicksilver 's overbearing and domineering members ways led to cipollina 's departure . without cipollina , qms sounded like just another mediocre rock group , despite the talents of duncan , freiberg and elmore . i saw them at the hollywood palladium 33 years ago and can verify this.if you want to hear them at their best , buy the 1st album , happy trails , or lost gold and silver
+music pos this is a great collection of the many " atom bomb " songs that are in movies such as " atomic cafe " , dr. strangelove , and other films of the genre . i highly recommend this to anyone who collects " bomb " memorabilia
+camera pos i bought this camera for myself at christmas . it is my first digital camera purchase . i love the clarity of the pics . i love the shutter speed ! i do wish the lens cap would stay on better , but that is so minor compared to my likes of the camera .
+camera neg i ordered the camera case for the canon digital elph 450. and i was given a completely different one . prices sound great , but they do not deliver what you buy . had a bad experience with them .
+music neg i agree with all the other reviewers .. nice quality recording for its time considering it was in the vaults for decades ..great playing from all concerned ( except the cursed drummer ) , i cannot imagine what poor jerry gemmot went through with that drummer .. he should have been dismissed immediately ..or shot ..it would have sounded better without him .. gawd ' awful .. spoils the whole dang thing .. any way .. i cannot listen to this anymore without getting uncomfortable , so it 's back to soul of a man , re-kooperation , live adventures , super session , and kooper sessions with shuggie
+music neg nana has a beautiful voice , but her singing is monotonous , predictable . she lacks passion . sometimes you feel she is reading the lyrics instead of really interpreting the song . in addition to this , the arrangements are unfortunately very poor . her soprano range deserves a proper orchestra . only love could be the perfect background music for a romantic dinner with candles , but this is not the album i would like to listen to again and again
+camera pos i purchased this camera primarily as a back-up camera . but i find myself using it more and more inplace of my main camera . it is a beautiful piece of work
+camera pos the nikon s3 has proven to be a good buy . it is affordable yet takes a quality photo . in addition this camera is easy to use and fits conveniently in a pocket . this camera has the ranging ability to take both a simple aim and shoot photo , and at the same time complex skill shots that is complemented by computer editing and redeye reduction . my only complaint is as a result of the user . if the camera does not have time to focus , then the picture quality suffers immensely . this camera has only been in use for about two months but has not let me down yet ! my rating : 9 / 10
+camera neg this tripod seemed to be very nice.. . until we tried to extend the legs all of the way . two and a half of the legs worked well , the third had a section that would not stay extended . the locking devices are pretty poor . they are made of a cheap plastic and i believe that even the ones that do work well now , will not last very long with even moderate use . next time i will try to find a tripod with a set screw type of leg extension lock
+camera neg i 'm going to be completely honest with you . i hated the hp camera 's because 1. does not take great pictures at night 2. digital zoom is not great either 3. blur 's out if you do not stand still taking the picture . i 've had an old hp camera and i have had this newer hp camera and they are all the same . it doesnt seem like it really matters what mp they are . still bur 's out and it is disappointing . i guess it really depends on the person about this camera but i 'd rather have a sony , samsung , or some other company 's item . =
+camera neg i bought the meade captureview 8x42 1.3mp digital camera binocular . the first one had software / hardware that hung up after 3 pictures , the second one had so many pixels missing from the screen it was unreadable , the third one wouldnt turn on and the black side flashing fell off on removal from the box . a truely tatty product
+music neg just saw the video for this while flicking . the song talks about london bridge going down and everything but the bridge is fixed , it does n't go up or down with the video showing tower bridge . so bit of a mix up there . petty maybe but just thought it should be pointed out
+music neg i was unable to play in my car cd player , so only choice i got is to listen at home using my home dvd player .
+camera pos this is a pretty accurate radar gun for baseball , as far as i can tell . if you follow the directions , and are as close to the action as possible , and at a " straight on " angle , it looks like its correct in the + - 1 mph statement . however , this is a cool gadget , but if you are serious about " speed " and would like more versatility , then your going to have to go with the official mlb jugs gun...but at a much higher price . good luck
+camera neg this item is either not coated or has a single coating and thus any time sun hits the filter , it produces flare in the picture . furthermore , after doing more research it turns out that these uncoated or single coated filters can cause up to 9% light loss vs multi-coated filters like hoya s-hmc or b+w mrc filters . as for polarizer effect itself , i think it 's amazing and you owe it to yourself to at least try it on a nice sunny day . ( the sky and foliage will look completely different and alive
+camera neg i thought i was upgrading from analog to digital but after seeing the videos i shot indoors i liked the analog better . very poor and grainy . also the focus is terrible ! while filming 3 people in a row moving from one to the other the focus would blur then refocus . i filmed my daughter 's ballet recital and could not believe how the auto focus kept bluring then focusing . very disappointed with this purchase . i guess it 's true what they say . " you get what you pay for " it seems under $600.00 does n't get you much
+music neg my two parakeets seem to enjoy this cd a bit , but if you want a cd for relaxing listening , be prepared to be irritated . i tried to go to sleep listening to it one night . i had to turn it off because it just got on my nerves.....i kept thinking it was stuck....like a record stuck in a grrove . it sometimes seems they recorded it by just hitting the " repeat " button on a couple of bird sounds . i think i could have done that . i 'm just glad it did n't cost a lot , but now i can see why . sorry for such a bad review , but i just had to tell anyone planning on buying it . i now just play it for my birds when i am not in the room
+camera pos i bought my canon a540 recently from amazon and am completely satisfied . i added a 1gb sd card for $11 from ebay and a charger with 4 2500nimh aa batteries from the supermarket . the images are clear and large . you have the options of full automatic , various manual settings up to full manual and a wide selection of preprogrammed modes . at work we needed a new camera to record tiny scratches and imperfections in our manufactured product , so i took my camera in to demo . using the standard lens ( a macro lens is available but i do n't have it yet ) we photographed a quarter using only ambient light . in less than a minute we had the image on the screen and were able to blow it up until the date filled the screen and still maintain good detail . as a result we are now buying one for work with a macro accessory lens . i totally recommend it as an excellent all rounder
+music neg the remix is totally devoid of any taste:first the vocals are completely-off ; the mix levels of vocals is far lower than the new musical dressings . secondly , there is absolutely no respect on part of the " mixing djs " for the great vocalists:there is no melody and absolutely no ' jelling-together ' of the music with the vocals . i was deeply disappointed with this cd.if you are into remixes get the rod stewart " do ya think i am sexy " single cd instead
+music neg i remember buying a record by dna when it first came out...and i was really surprised later when arto lindsay and the ambitious lovers were able to turn this mess into great music . this is very unprofessiona
+camera pos i took this with me recently to australia and shot landscapes as well as others , and the pictures came out better than the film cameras i have used recently , plus you do n't need a scanner . this camera works great , a must have for semi-pros . pros , wait for the new 1d . pictures come out great at 11 " x17 "
+music pos what else can be said about this great cd ? it 's one of the best pop records ever made and you never get sick of hearing these 10 songs . " child of vision " is the best ( the piano solo is killer ) of the best , but this is one of those rare cd 's that you just pop in and let the entire thing play till the end ( no skipping over songs you do n't like ) . a true classic
+camera pos photos were excellent . but photo print quality depends very much on the print shop . for the same photo file , it can look like a 4m photo when taken to a below quality printer shop . photos taken indoor with marginal lighting ( no flash used ) turned out to be yellowish . battery life is very long despite its large 3 " lcd . battery charging time is over 3 hours - too long . photos files viewed on computer looks just great . 8'x10 ' prints are great but have not tried larger prints . touch screeen control is a delight and very easy to choose and set . date on photo is red ( would be better if it is black ) . and the location of the date is not at the far right hand corner
+camera neg the camera case only works if you wear a belt- - there is no clip on . the case itself holds only the camera , not even space for a spare battery or memory card . ( i 've heard the case will darken your camera , but i did n't end up using the case ) . the neck strap is not useful , it 's too long . at ' 34 inches , if you 're not careful you could swing your camera into something and break it . ( the canon camera rocks , however .
+camera pos i do n't have that much stuff , but fits all my dslr gadgets plus my camcorder . fits - my canon xti with my canon 50 mm attached . - my kit lens - my new canon 70-300 is - my panasonic video cam - minor accessories ( extra batteries , cables , memory cards , etc ) there are separators with velcros inside , so you can configure the bag however you want it . the only issue i have with this bag is that i wa n't able to configure it to store my xti with my 70-300 attached
+camera neg we purchased this camera and overall it was a good camera . it took excellent outside video and was not a great performer in low light conditions but that is not atypical of today 's reasonably priced minidv camcorders . however after six months the lcd screen suddenly stopped working . it was not mishandled and the otherwise the camera works great . we sent it last november to the panasonic authorized service center . they returned it three months later unrepaired because the part is not available . we were out $100 in labor fees plus we still have a broken camera that is less than a year old . i only share this as a warning to potential buyers . panasonic did not honor our warranty
+camera pos the canon rs-60e3 is all that canon says it is....it is a simple one handed operation switch that can open the flash , focus , then release the shutter once , a multiple of times , or hold it open for bulb exposure . although the cord is not long enough to include the photographer in the picture , it was simple enough to make an " extension " that allows for very remote exposures
+camera neg another lense jam problem . the lense cover accidentally slide open in my pocket , and the lense extended and jammed . this happened frequently with my old powershot s30 but never caused a problem . canon said the warranty is void because there 's a tiny dent on the front and back . they said any physical damage voids the warranty . i complained that the camera has an all metal body which dings easily . they gave me 20% off the repair
+music neg out of all of the early ' 90s , l.a. gangster flicks , this one probably had the best set of chicano oldie tracks . the movie was laced with them , yet none are on the soundtrack . kind of a waste . sure , you can get those oldies anywhere . but it would be nice to have those songs from this movie on one cd . again , it was a good sequence they used . aside from that ; it 's okay , i guess , if you 're a fan of b-list l.a. chicano rappers . but , even if you are , you can get better music from their respective albums . lsob 's first cd from ' 91 was tight . if you have that , then you 're really not missing anything by letting the ' loca ' soundtrack pass .
+camera pos one of the reviews i read before purchasing these suggested that the reviewer should 've had them for her celine dion concert . i took the suggestion and they were perfect ! they fit nicely in my evening bag and brought celine closer to me as i sat in the second mezzanine at caesar 's palace ! not only that - but the price was right ! i could n't be happier ! plus , now i have them for our next trip to rocky mountain park to get up close and personal to some wildlife
+camera neg i bought a 743 for the wife for christmas . i had a 6330 that i was very happy with . so a 743 should be better right ? every time that she went to use it the batteries were dead . we finally figured out that a new set would go dead in two days without ever turning it on ! after several e mails they told me to call service . i got someone in india that could not understand me and i had a really hard time figuring out what he was saying . they made it very dificult to get it sent in . i sent it in today , but i do not expect much from the example that their service has done so far . i hope it comes back at least .
+camera pos this film seems a lot better than kodak max 400 even though it is basically the same thing ( except for the fact that it 's black and white ) . i would n't recommend this for proffesionals , but it 's great for the average person
+music pos i thought this album was good not great , but saying that i do recomend it to everyone because it does have some great songs it . the best songs on the cd to are . 2. comfortable liar 3. send the pain below 4. closure 5. the red 6. wonder what 's next and my favorite track is #2 it sounded so sweet , you will love that song
+camera pos we love this camera . it 's small , easy to use , has a big lcd screen and takes great pictures . fuji has always been a great product and this one is no exception
+music pos i have been into vaisnava spirituality a long time , and they really got it , perfect and professional
+music neg the music of dowland is wonderful - but sting is n't up to interpreting it . you ca n't even distinguish the words half the time , just a jumble of nice sounds from his pretty tenor - he does n't possess the skills to carry it off . this music has to be interpreted by someone with an ability to express thoughts in heightened language...sting , for all his merits , has n't got that in his repertoire yet . it 's an exercise in pretention , laughable at times . the letter reading is ridiculous . i love both sting 's voice and dowland 's song , but this cd is a failure .
+camera pos i enjoy the tc80n3.you may think it 's costly , but the features are out standing.i think it was worth the buy.the only disappointment i have is there is no " on , off " power switch
+music neg lonestar did n't really surprise me with their 2001 effort . i 'm already there and not a day goes by suffers from " amazed " syndrome . amazed 's 1999 multi-format mega success is spread all over this album , their wanting to sound like every ' 80s heavy metal band power ballad . did they listen to monster ballads 2 too much while making this album in nashville ? i 'm already there comes off as very diane warren-ish in its sappy lyrics . their wanting to be diverse as a country band is okay , but these songs do n't work for them . these songs are just complete fluff and their other songs are far better than this .
+music neg i bought this because a few people had put it in their amazon lists . i just did n't like it at all . it is one of those albums where you play it , and you do n't take notice of it until the cd stops playing . it is very old and the music is simplistic . cool cover though
+camera neg i thought my jvc digital camera was handy , easy to use and worked pretty well for what it was.. . then one day at my daughter 's ballet show , i turned it on ( i made sure i charged it all night ) and it would n't record . it kept saying that the lens cap was on . i am so frustrated and sad . i spent a good chunk of money on this item and do n't know what happened.. . still do n't have a way of recording my daughter 's milestones... . do n't buy it , if you have other options .
+camera neg like others , mine will review pictures but shuts off almost immediately when in i turn it on in still mode . bought in december 2005 , it is now not working . it is scandalous that so many of us have the same issue and sony is not addressing it . sony should be forced to recall these cameras .
+music pos i really enjoyed the song kids in america by no secrets . both of my children enjoyed it as well . in fact i have been looking for their cd or for more information on them . i thought they were cute , fresh , and brought a new touch to the song
+camera neg nice looking . good quality . but the case has two large flaps on the sides which make it difficult to put the camera in and out .
+camera pos do n't listen to the reviews that claim that this lens is not a good choice for cropped sensor cameras ( ie the 20d , 30d , rebels etc ) the canon l lens are the best and this particular lens is no exception . i have had the lens for less than 24 hours now and am in love with the sharpness and color already . great lens , great color , so well built , super sharp , just watch out if this is your first l lens , you 'll be hooked . this is a lens you will have for many years , great investment
+camera neg this is first canon product that has disappointed me with its quality . they must acquire them from their chinese supplier for about 98 cents . this plastic device wobbles even when fully rotated to the detente position . i bought it to use with the canon 250d close-up lens and it 's barely adequate for that function . canon should refund anyone who mistakenly bought one of these hockey pucks .
+camera neg i bought a sony icd-mx20 digital voice recorder a week ago . i was surprised that sony does not provide downloads of the associated software named " digital voice editor " . sony customer service staff told me that if you lost the cd that came with the box , you had to buy a new one . only patches of the software are available to download . the customer service personnel told me that it was corporate policy despite the fact that the software is bound to the digital device . this immoral policy violating the norm of digital appliance industries and should not be encouraged . sony is demoting its brand name by offering poor post-sales services . think twice before making your buying decision .
+camera neg i ordered this digital frame for my husband for christmas , with the assurance from a " tech weenie " that it would work , based on the advertisement found at amazon . still uncertain whether the ad ( also found in philips cursory literature ) is really true . my husband is working with the " phone people " at philips to determine whether it will or will not interface with mac . if it does eventually work , the process has not been easy
+camera pos i use this little gadget mainly for macro and portrait work . when you have it on the light emitting from the flash is diffused which gives you a more flattering less contrasty light to illuminate your subjects with . unless you are going for a very shadowy , high-contrast , image this diffuser can save the day . it is very light weight and easy to pack in small places , so you should never have a good reason to leave it behind . sometimes it is the simple things that make the biggest difference in a photo , and using this can defiantly make very noticeable differences
+music neg i like how the people on here who turn to sarcasm when rating this cd think they 're funny . heh , so witty . anywho i 'm not a big fan of fall out boy , but there are a couple of good songs on this cd........notably grand theft autumn and saturday . those are really the only two that hold up its rating for me tho...2 stars
+camera pos very easy to use . menuing is extremely intuitive . do n't forget to order spare disks , 30 mins goes by quick
+camera neg the e550 is a good camera and this lens does do a good job of zooming in on the subject but due to the way the camera and lens are designed , you must have the camera 's zoom fully extended in order to use this tele lens . so this means if the subject is moving around a lot , such as my daughter playing soccer , you will miss the shots where the action has moved to close to you because you ca n't zoom out . as long as the action remains at some distance to you than this zoom lens is useful . i unfortunately have too many ruined shots because the action moved too close and their heads get cut off , etc. another negative is that the viewfinder does n't show the zoomed in image , you must use the lcd screen to frame a shot , which can be difficult in bright sunlight
+camera pos this is my 5th digital camera . it is the best i have used in this size camera
+music pos we really liked the cd of music from the sound track of the movie , elf. it was what we expected and we appreciated getting it promptly since it is christmas music and we we able to enjoy it all through the holiday season .
+camera neg did not get kodak max , instead recieved regular kodak crv3 battery . i thought i was ordering a better version , seller needs to change misleading picture !
+music neg their new stuff is even worse . but this is still sexist , boring , annoying music at its worst . there are much better artists out there , so why listen to these two untalented rappers
+camera neg very disappointed by canon on the fit of this adapter . adapater and shade attachments block camer lens view and create flash shadows
+camera neg the camera takes a long time between pictures to regenerate for the next picture . compared to other digital camera 's this has presented a problem for the two users i purchased these camera 's for . also the flash does not adjust for the correct exposure at protraits within 3 to 5 feet . the pictures are too hot , over exposed and no adjustment works properly .
+music pos .and so worth the price of admission . 6 cds worth to be exact . coleman 's musical voice is so free and full of life ! it really is beautiful
+camera neg this bag could be a bit larger and have more pockets . quite small for the price . just paying for the name on the bag
+camera pos love this digital camera compared to our previous ones . we 're mostly a point-and-click family , and this is an easy-to-use camera that does a good point-and-click and gives an opportunity to do more if you should so choose some day
+camera pos this item is cute . my only complaint is that it really can only hold the camera . there is no space for an extra card or battery . it does however have a convenient belt clip on the back that you could also attach a shoulder strap to .
+music neg there are 2 good songs on this disc , stinkfist and aenema . the rest are pure crap . half of the tracks are n't even songs , they 're just a bunch of noise . no wonder tool wo n't put any of thier music on itunes or napster . they want you to buy the whole cd so they can have your $14 for like four real songs and ten tracks of filler crap . if you gave this cd 5 stars there is something wrong with you and you should be beaten severely
+music pos i used to be a bigger fan of joe satriani than steve vai about 10 years ago . now i quickly get bored of new satriani albums , but vai 's music just moves me . lotus feet for example , wow , words cannot describe what that song does to me . thanks steve
+music neg i 'm sure it was fun for van to record a bunch of songs he likes , but overall this would have made for a disappointing bootleg . thanks for all the great music through the healing game . all good times have to come to an end
+camera pos this battery is backwards compatible with the d50 , d70 / 70s , and is used in the d80 and d200. so if you have any nikon dslr and want a second battery , you want to get this one so that when you upgrade your camera you can use the battery . this battery has built-in circuitry that tells you the actual charge status of the battery , and it is accurate . this is a big deal ; *if you are using the d200 or d80* it lets you know when your really do need to switch batteries or charge up . this is the first battery i 've seen that is accurate in this regard . kudos to nikon . ( this feature does not work in the d50 / 70 / 70s but the battery otherwise works fine )
+camera pos great flash , all the good qualities of the sb800 but less of the data dump and decision quagmire ! it has the built in flash disperser , its lighter than the 800 , so unless you 're into more info than you need , go with the sb600. oh , it has a shorter recycle time too .
+music pos this music is undefinable ultimately . oh yes , one can say parts sound like hard rock or progressive . one can say many things about it . for me , this , along with " up the downstairs " are probably their two best and they are both as different as night and day . i 've become a collector of pt 's stuff and like most of it very much indeed . check out some of the side projects of the members in the band- -like blackfield and no-man . they are worth good listenings too . but , you know , this would n't be a bad album to start your pt experience with . no , not at all
+music neg this album is lame as hell but next to the air pollution on the airwaves today , this aint too bad thats why it gets a 2. right before female rappers ( there 's a few exceptions ) , i hate all little kid rappers . even when i was a kid . i do n't like anything on this album , i still got the tape and it has n't " krossed " my mind to even cop the cd . if you like this kind of stuff , or you loved " jump " back in the day then i guess this is for you
+music neg kate moss ? that gawddamn rollerskate song ? oh , no . the spoken tracks are equally repelling . there is really no atmosphere to this album
+camera pos i recently purchased this for use with my 550ex . if you use alot of flash for event photography , you will want this in your kit . it is expensive , but i think it is worth every penny . it will keep you from changing aas in your strobe and it quickens the recycle times to nearly instant . you can shoot bursts and still get the proper flash exposure . you can attach a strap to sling it over your shoulder or slip it on your belt . mounting on my 20d was just not comfortable . it gets in the way of the hand-grip
+camera neg this camera took some great pictures , and i enjoyed it 's size and functionality for several months . i was sitting in a lawn chair at a barbecue last weekend when i was passing it to a friend who was also seated . the camera fell about 2 feet onto soft grass . the end . the lens assembly is shot , according to my local camera store , not economical to fix . this was about the softest fall a camera could take , and not work , it was like landing on a pillow . i will not buy hp cameras again
+music pos ummm if you buy it you will know i borrowed it from a friend and he never got it back...so i bought him another
+music neg first of all floetic was a brilliant album and after i heard superstar on the radio i thought flo'ology was going to be a classic too . i was wrong . this album lacks originality , its inferior to be precise . the first time i popped this cd into the system , i found myself being friends with the skip forward button . the length of the records is despicable this cd is not worth having....the only track that stands out for me is superstar and i think common is amazing
+camera pos i bought this camera to take pictures of my sons playing basketball . my other camera shot dark grainy pictures indoor . i have had a lot of success with this and really nice outdoor shots as well . what i just started playing with , and i love is the video feature . it is so easy to use and the images are better than i expected . i bought this camera in december as a present to myself and i have used it constantly and recharged the battery twice . this is major to me as my nikon was devouring batteries in an afternoon . the optical zoom is clean , but the digital is definitely noisy . i have had fun shooting pictures of my kids because the shutter speed is so quick and i do n't miss the shot .
+music neg i agree with the other negative review below - uninspired , simply forgettable radio trash . cliched lyrics ? check . muddy , simple riffs ? check . boring drumming with a couple of poorly played double bass kicks ? check . thank god i got this in a box of cd 's from a dj buddy of mine for free awhile back . if i actually paid for this crap i 'd have to kill myself . judging from all the " positive " reviews however , it seems some people at lava records or possibly the band themselves ( if they 're still around . i hope not . ) have been trying to plug this sorry excuse for music .
+camera pos i got this camera so i could have more control . i 'm learning to use the shutter and aperture settings...i have n't explored all the fancy settings much , but there are tons of them . i really like the continuous shooting option so i 'm more likely to catch a good action shot . the wide-angle lens has also allowed me to get some pretty cool shots and the macro settings work great for close-ups . i think it 's one of the best buys you can find if you want to take some pretty cool photos , but do n't feel quite ready for an slr
+camera pos i recently bought this lens amid trepidation that the 85mm focal length would overwhelm the x1.6 crop factor of my digital rebel xl . my worries were needless : just a step or two back from the subject plus some getting used to the telephoto perspective were enough to turn this lens into the most effective portrait lens that i have . when attached to my eos elan 7n film camera , however , the lens really truly comes into its own , as the full frame 35mm slr delivers the entire focal range of this lens . the focused image is incredibly crisp compared to any other non-l grade lens . and i agree that this lens deserves the red ring of courage around it , like the l lenses have . this glass is absolutely essential in a very short list of affordable lenses , and should give many of the non-affordable ones a run for their money . solidly built too , with an old-fashioned no-nonsense look to it . i highly recommend it
+camera pos i had the tokina 12-24 f4 and it was a great sharp lens . this canon focuses faster and is wider . if you 're worried about full frame in the future do n't be . just buy this lens and enjoy the ultra wide images . it light , fast and sharp . " l " quality pictures . the build could be better but i do n't see any problems down the road .
+music neg i just finished seeing the movie and loved the song at the end and immediately started looking up amazon for this song . thanks to melania for pointing out the song title at the end . i realize this cd is just a soundtrack , but typically most soundtracks also include the ending songs . it is just plain dumb not to include the best music in this cd . my vote - do not buy this cd . the soundtrack is all pretty generic stuff . but get the ending title song if you can - it 's great .
+music pos rien a dire si ce n'est que too $hort et ses potes ça claque c'est tout
+camera neg we never dropped our camera and until now its still looks fresh and new . and one day , the lens just wo n't open . it lights up then after a few seconds , it turns off automatically . called a up a kodak service center and they gave me a quote for repair . the price they 've given me is close to my purchase price here in amazon ! i 'll never buy a kodak camera again until they come up with a good pricing for repairs . i do believe that all electronic gadgets die at some point . so i 'm expecting a believable quote for repairs . i think kodak is making expensive disposable digital camera
+music pos though i own alot of paul desmond recordings , this one as been in the cd changer for weeks now . there 's great , gentle interplay with jim hall , and a total sound that is most enjoyable . warm and round notes make this perfect evening music which i have found pleases most everyone
+camera neg i bought this frame as a gift for my parents and ended up returning it . the price was right but the quality was poor and there were 2 spots on the screen that looked like they were already burned out ( displaying blue and green pixels ) . i did enjoy the fact that it hooks right up to the computer with a usb port but that is about all . overall do n't waste your time and money
+camera neg well at least , some stuff is cool , free cam bag , the pics come out excellent . the video feature is really crappy and when you play back video its very choppy and the audio is a little hard to know whats being heard . also you could through dozens of batteries with this cam . the adapter doesnt help only if youre going to sit down and review whats on it or keep the power from draining . the sd card kept popping out for someone which caused the cam to " freeze up " . bottom line...i recommend at least researching other brands of mini-tapeless cams...but this one...isnt worth 159 or whatever . its trash . go for something else
+music neg i tried to listen to samples of the songs and you have them all wrong . i click on one song and get another from on the list . what gives anyway
+music neg i love the song " nasca lines " which i first heard on a putamayo world music cd , so i ordered " under one sky " since it has " nasca lines . " i figured all the music would be as good , but i was so disappointed . it was very jazzy , which i hate . i 'm going back to the putamayo cds
+camera pos i 've purchased other bags but this one beats all & it was a great price to
+camera pos pros : compact and complete , this portable lighting studio offers flexibility with it 's reversible backdrop ( gray / blue ) . i also have used the black back panel for some shots as well . construction quality is good ( i found one of my cats sleeping on the top panel , which is fabric and held in place with velcro tabs ) , sturdy enough for its intended purpose . i like the output of the lights- -seems to be a broad spectrum similar to daylight . cons : only one complaint : the output of the lights could be stronger . requires a tripod to gain depth of field with a smaller aperture
+camera pos i am starting my career as a professional photographer , and i have n't had any problems with these filters . they come in a nice case , and are easy to attach to my lenses .
+camera pos xti is feature laden , but takes fantastic " point and shoot " photos . seems to be a significant improvement on canon 's rebel xt , a wonderful camera . for the money , the best slr going
+music neg i own all of bebo norman 's cds , and i love all of them , except for this one . i bought it and listened to it once , and i hated it . it does not sound like bebo . this sounds like steven curtis chapman or michael w . smith or any of the other mass produced christian / pop music artists . on all of his previous albums , even though he changed his sound slightly , it was still generally very acoustic and bebo-ish . this album sounds nothing like his previous music . i was disappointed .
+music neg zoolook~ jean-michel jarre is a case where the artist is way to avant-garde for his own best . after having made amazing albums such as oxygene , equinox and magnetic fields he unfortunately creates this mess of an album . i find it a bit too much like modern art , i.e. , confusing , confounding and impossible to grasp . it also seems like jarre was a bit over confident when he recorded this album . he had recorded some of the best synth albums of all time and decided to create a total arts album and it just does not work . this is an album that should have stayed unrealesed since it is just to avant-garde and sounds more like an experimental sound session rather then as a well produced album . very disapointing indeed !
+camera neg i agree with the people complaining about the poor cs policy at jvc . they let me down as well , when it was obvious the camera was poorly designed and built . i am now using a different brand and will definitely avoid jvc in the future . i just hate it when companies do not care about their customers but just about profit . this will come back and bite them in the behind
+camera neg so i get my camera and first off they basically lie because they act like you have a lot of memory on it to start off but you dont.then after a week it just stops working.dont get it , theres no flash whatsoeve
+music pos this record is one of the best that has found its way out since the new millenium . i am partial to good songwriting and bill 's particular folk-country-alt-emotive sound . the tracks to me all over the place and take it from someone who has been there and back -it was well worth the trip
+music pos this is one of the truly great handel opera recordings of the last twenty years . as usual , nicholas mcgegan proves himself to be one of the two or three greatest handelian conductors of our time . the singing from beginning to end is first class . this opera is known for the famous largo " ombra mai fu , " but the music in this entire performance is a sheer delight
+camera pos i purchased this kit , primarily for the extra battery , which retails for about what i paid for this item . having the backup battery is great , but i was pleasantly suprised by the soft case . it protects my dsc-p200 , without being bulky or heavy . with the camera being so small , it was hard to find good protection without spending quite a bit of money . the case for the memory sticks is nice as well . it is easy to lose a stick if it 's just floating around and the case keeps them securely . all in all , this is an excellent value
+music pos i 'm only giving this 5 stars because the actual recordings are priceless . however i 'm telling you now . do not buy this album this is stolen goods and the recordings that are on this cd are not even of the finest quality . this is purely a commercial album released by the record company without the permission of jack off jill 's members . and thus they recieve no royalties for the selling of this album . fear not though . you can get the tracks off this album completely free and in better quality . agent moulder of jack off jill has remastered and released them on her website for your downloading pleasure . you can find them here : t-c-r.net / jojmusic while you are there check out and support her new band tcr , and their new album ' the chrome recordings' . singer jessicka also has an amazing new band if you did n't already know . check her and scarling . out at scarling.com god bless jack off jill .
+camera neg ok , maybe a 1 star is actually fair since my nose does n't smudge the lcd screen as much . the most annoying thing for me is it constantly falls off the camera . both my 30d and rebel xt . if i am lucky enough it will fall off , get lost and eventually i will not be reminded i wasted money on this accesory
+camera neg my 5-year old daughter spent all day taking pictures of her and her baby sister in san francisco . we put new batteries in that morning . the next day i was wondering why the picture numbers had reset . when i tried to download the pictures to my computer , they were all gone , and the battery icon was flashing . based on what i 've read here , it appears the batteries died after one day of use and the pictures were all erased . the picture quality is about the same as an old camera phone - - pretty poor , but good enough for my 5-year to enjoy . but what good is that when there are n't even any pictures the next day . i 'm hoping the store will take it back
+camera pos this is something you will really need to keep you camcorder save and sound . defenitely worth the money
+camera neg probably would buy other camera if i could do over this one takes along time to gechage after flash . it is very touchy and you get alot of blurred pictures . you have to learn how to be very steady with it
+music neg i heard that song recently " three strange days " ...and i recalled how much i detested it when it came out . overt pandering to tyros in altered states . now i ca n't get it out of my head , and may require a lobotomy . there was a lot of interesting stuff that came out in ' 91 ; but this was n't part of that canon . nice try school of fish . have fun playing the cyo circuit
+music pos i 'm not particularly familiar with sonic youth and the bits i 've heard from their other albums have n't really grabbed me . this does . the rhythm section would n't be out of place in pseudo-tribal funk , the guitars are dissonant , jangling , sometimes hypnotically repetitive , and just plain weird , and the vocals are distant , airy , lazy . some of the best music i 've heard in a good long while
+camera neg i bought this to play back old hi8 tapes so i could transfer them to dvd . however , there is no s-video out and no stereo out . video quality was bad : output was noisey and reds were over saturated . i imagine this is because there is no s-video out . i returned it and have ordered a sony gv-d200. hopefully it will give me better quality since it was more than twice as much . there are some cheaper used options available , e.g. sony evo-250
+music neg i was ( and still am ) a huge fan of " mr. show " . it was the only reason i kept my hbo subscription . it 's hard for me to believe that the same talent that created " mr. show " produced this weak offering . might be the least funny comedy cd i 've ever heard . virtually all the material in the album has been done before , and much better , by other comedians . most of the bits just lay there and die . mr. cross seems to realize this and tries to make up for it by saying f*ck a lot . sorry , it just does n't work . do n't waste you money on this one . get the " mr. show " dvds instead and forget this ever existed .
+music pos the fisrt cd is alot better than this one , but this one is still okay . i only liked one song on this disc and it is . track 4. will the circle be unbroken / i 'll fly away / jesus loves me . do n't get me wrong the music is beautiful , but i think the first one is alot better
+music neg i think someone forgot to tell molotov that rap-metal / rock-rap was dead . had potential , but the simple riffage and annoying rapping killed it for me
+camera pos yep , it extends the eyepiece out a little bit ... which helps those of us with noses not smudge the lcd display ... but it also distorts the view in an annoying way . i use mine on occasion ... but not all the time
+music pos for those who have watched the movie jaws ( ask yourself , who has n't ) will know that one of many key elements that made the movie a huge success was the fantastic score john williams did for it . this cd captures all the music from the movie perfectly , with some new elements thrown in that are not found in the film . the linear notes are bright and colourful and provide some interesting information , which gives the overall package a nice touch . the overall cd package is certainly not a rushed effort and is worth every cent . a highly recommended purchase for those who love their soundtracks or anyone who wants to relive the film through the music
+music neg this was one of the most dissappointing debut albums to come out of the mid nineties g-funk heyday . warren g . did n't even produce one song on this sorry attempt at making hard / soft gangsta rap except for the title track that was already used on his album a year before . the skits are ridiculous , the music is halfass , and the lyrics are amateur . there is absolutely nothing that keeps the listener 's attention for a whole album . this is similar to other west coast rap albums that play it too safe such as w.c. and the madd circle 's debut and coolio 's " it takes a thief " . one star for the hit single " summertime in the l.b.c. " .
+camera pos i 've had other 3 digital cameras and this is the best i think , i shots very quick , flash is brighty , and even soft flash for more natural shots . can browse pictures very fast and is has a lot of posibilities to edit inside the camera , is light tiny and slim . one of the best cameras . i do n't find a negative feature on it . i love it
+camera neg i just bought this camera and took it to one of my kid 's indoor soccer games . the light was low , but not that low . you should be able to take a picture without the flash . when i took the flash off , the picture looked fine on the preview , but came out completely black . yet the camera was able to take perfectly fine video at the same light level ! what a disappointment . i am going to try to return it
+music pos brian regan is simply a comedic genius . this cd is especially funny after having seen him live- -you can just picture his hilarious gestures and facial expressions ! he has managed to create a hysterical routine based on the silly stuff we 've all said / done / thought . while i too enjoy comedians who are more " cutting edge " , i do n't think a routine has to be peppered with profanity to be funny . this cd is well worth any price ; check out his dvd and his live show , too
+camera neg yes , it does provide a bit more eye relief , and can make it easier to see the whole frame ( by making it smaller ) , but there is a major problem with this . the eyepiece lens surface will not be as deeply couched in the rubber trim when you use this , and the result is a lot more reflections flashing around in the eyepiece when you have light behind you . this is especially a problem when you are wearing glasses .
+music neg the track selection is fine and okay , but the track order is bad . no flow ! proving that he just took popular tracks that other big djs are spinning and sold an album without a smile . the mixing is terrible and abrupt , its basically not mixing . no art there .
+music neg http : / / www.strangeland.com / asp / show.asp ? id=13635 http : / / www3.strangeland.com / asp / show.asp ? id=99
+camera neg i was not satisfied with the quality of the digital pictures on this ziga digital frame . i returned it
+camera neg i bought this camera for my 13-year old son to take with him on a soccer trip to bermuda . it was ok . felt sort of cheap , but seemed like it would do what it was supposed to . big drawback....there is no lens cover that slips into place when a picture is n't being shot , so the danger of scratching the lens is immense . my son was so afraid of scratching the lens , that he barely used it . some of the few pictures that he did take were ok , but others were not of the best quality . i think this camera is a bit too costly for what you get , and i 'm surprised , because i usually love samsung products
+music neg this recording is not great company . i 'm really confused : is it a broadway recording or a very poor amatuer recording ? and if so , did this rubbish actually make it to the broadway stage ? i feel for the people that saw it , and were expecting the rich full melodies that sondheim produced for this show . the musical director for this abomination should be called a mutilation director , because that is precisely what he did to the music of this show . so the only advice i give to future musical directors that want to revive and revamp a show : if it 's not broke , please , please , please do n't try and fix it ! some things are just perfect the way they are . do n't buy this cd . i did and it is now a coaster where it gets better use
+music pos the ufo space travel theme of astonomy domine is continued on let there be more light saucerful of secrets and set the controls . rick wrights two songs are real good remember a day is one of the best on here . seesaw has interesting percusson . corporal clegg floyds first ww2 song is upbeat syds song jugband blues is one of the best early pink floyd songs.saucerful of secerets is a good early pink floyd cd it is an important part of pink floyds history .
+music neg while filled with talented performers , this cd sucks . rocky is a campy , 1970 's b-movie , that 's what makes it enjoyable . even as a stage show it 's a hokey , rock-and-roll extravaganza . this cd tries to turn rocky into thoroughly modern millie , and it just does n't work . the corny sci-fi sound and less than amazing vocals are just what make rocky..rocky . this cast has so much less enthusiasm and energy than the original roxy cast . and lastly , tim curry is frank . his rendition is too ingrained in my head for me to accept the twangy annoyance that is the frank on this album . ripley is a little too legit for janet , and the female eddie weirds me out . buy the roxy cast . it 's so superior it 's almost laughable .
+music neg i absolutely love charlotte church 's voice , but i could n't stand even 1 song on this cd . she 's lowered herself to a " brittany spears-wanna-be . " monotone songs , horrible bass , every song sounds the same . i am extremely disappointed in this collection of music . buy this one and you 're just wasting your money . would the real charlotte church please come back ? ? ? ?
+music neg anyone ever see any of these rap " artists " perform live ? they 're the most boring , derivative " entertainers " in the world . they walk up and down the stage grabbing their crotch and yell their lyrics . they go from talking on records to yelling on stage . quite a stretch . all this is done with about thirty of their no-name friends prancing around stage with microphones saying " yeah ! " " uh-huh ! " " what ! " " that 's right ! " " uh ! " etc. get real . meanwhile , the only " music " provided is a backing track cued by some dude backstage . it makes for the most dull , predictable " concert " you 'll ever see . i ca n't wait until all this nonsense just disappears . in a world of common sense , these idiots would still be flipping burgers at mcdonald's .
+camera neg please buy a different camera . i have owned 5 different pocket digital cameras . under normal wear and tear , the cannon sd400 's lcd screen broke where other cameras i 've owned have not . i just purchased the nikon s7c with a bigger screen that is so well protected that i can hit it with no adverse affect . if you do buy the sd400 , set aside the $150 you 'll likely need to replace the lcd
+music neg this is the album when ja officially became a b*tch . his first 2 albums was good , i enjoyed them both and those are highly recommended . i hated this s*it from start to finish . this is a waste of space in the cd case . how can you be a murderer and a singer at the same time ? now i do n't mind too much about redoing a song about or with a dead rapper , but you should 've at least knew him muthaf***er ! another disembowelment to one of pac 's classics . i stopped listenin ' to ja because he made a big change . not cause of 50. unlike some turncoat fans .
+camera pos price went up ! ! ! great value for money spent . will be buying a " ball " attachment for better adjustability . got some great steady shots with 48x digital zoom with the canon s2 i
+music pos i love this soundtrack ! it stands alone as beautiful , haunting , alluring , and innocent- -just as griet herself was in the film . desplat perfectly captured the spirit of the story , enhanced and deepened a plot that was less than stellar . scarlett johanssen 's acting is superb , as well as essie davis and colin firth . the story , though , was a bit tired- -pretty housemaid / jealous wife / do-nothing husband . its portrayal of vermeer and his wife was a disservice to the real people , even though it is a fictionalized account . the two best tracks on this album are ' griet 's theme ' and ' colours in the clouds' . while i 'm not keen on seeing the film again , this soundtrack is a treasure . it 's a real work of art , second only to vermeer 's work
+camera neg i received this filter and it had been used , seals were open and case that holds filters cracked , piece of plastic floating loose inside , smug marks on it . i was shocked , i order from amazon all the time and never had anything show up like this .
+music pos top to bottom this album has it all - makes you laugh , makes you think , makes you want to dance . i ca n't wait till mainstream finally catches up and the music industry finally recognizes what a gift todd snider is and the talent he posseses . his music will inspire you to move something whether it 's your brain or your bottom ! check him out
+music pos anyone who had access to a radio in the 80 's would know at least two songs by missing persons . their fun music and amazing flare ( dale did have pink and white stiped hair and it looked great ! ) make this a good party album . i also have their album color in your life and most of the songs are great . just as an added note , warren cuccarullo is now a member of duran duran ( my personal favorite band ) and has been since he appeared on their notorious album which was released in 1986 ! !
+music neg as much as it pains me to say it this live cd is not a worthy billy joel release . in fact one wonders why it was released at all . billy 's voice is strained and is prone to over singing and the arrangements are overblown . from the sound of things billy sounds like he was drunk or on medication . a lot of the running time is waisted with lengthy monologues with the audience . why this was put on the cd is anyones guess but it just neans less songs ! however the good news is that this cd has now been blown away by his superb new 12 gardens cd in which billy is the billy of old . the one who sung well and sung the songs straight as they were meant to be sung . 12 gardens is crammed with 32 songs rather than the 26 on offer here and there 's no timewaisting audience chat ! !
+music neg this is another " rip-off " cd . 3 songs and a video , do n't make this a good purchase . i expect a cd to have , at least , 8-10 songs on it .
+music pos i purchased this cd during the lowest time of my life emotionally . every track brought solace and comfort beyond belief , especially the title track , deep peace . i would listen to it over and over , bathing in the lush healing sounds . each element , from the perfectly balanced vocals to the simple piano and violin motifs , is seemingly structured at a spiritual level . this is more than ambient music , it 's true music therapy .
+camera neg the default supplier for this item is adorama . they have sku numbers mixed up on the back end , so they will ship you the hp 6221 dock instead . will not work with the r series . they do not even carry the actual hp 8887 dock . huge hassles , so click on the new and used link and buy directly from amazon . it 's a few dollars more , but at least you get the right item
+camera neg the battery is half the side of the battery came with the camera an last half the time , an number or not the same , an it , s not the same battery . do not buy any thing from them because lying about what they are selling
+camera neg the camera worked perfectly for one week and then stopped working permanently . i just sent it off for repairs and have not received a diagnosis as to the root of the problem
+music pos incredible follow up to rated r which i did n't think could be equaled and they did . flat out incredible songwriting , amazing vocal identity and muscianship at its best . if you grew up in the 70 's as i did and miss those albums that you would play constantly from beginning to end then this album is for you . " go with the flow " is one of the greatest rock singles of all time but you wo n't be skipping any songs on this disc . baby boomers rejoice , rock is back
+music neg i do n't see the comparison to jeff buckley at all ! that was a singer who had more talent in his little pinky than this band has on the entire album . all the songs are much too similar , the guy 's voice gets boring to listen to after a while and , if you remember london suede , has a very similar sound to them ( though i will say that london suede was much better ) . no one has come close to the pipes of j . buckley ( or even tim b . , for that matter ) in years and this does n't count any where near that , either
+camera pos this monopod does a great job for my camera . you have the quick , easy-off , it attatches to your camera by a screw , and you can press the button on the side of the monopod and just slide your camera right off of it quickly . i wanted a nice , inexpensive monopod for my new zoom lense . i have a canon 35mm , and i recently purchased a 75-300 zoom lense for it , and i needed a monopod to stabilize the shoot . if i knew then what i know now , i would buy it again . nice product
+music neg this is definitely not a bad collection , but there are so many better ones out there , that this should not be your first choice . the song sweet emotion has been completely destroyed on this album . the entire bass intro has been cut out , and the song starts about an entire minute into it . there really is no reason to do this , as even on the radio , they play the entire thing , as it runs about 4 and a half minutes long . the song starts at a terrible place too . it sounds like it would if you turned on your radio to the middle of the song , then just stuck it on the cd that way . again , not a terrible compilation , but definitely not a good first choice
+camera pos while not on the ' highest end ' of tripod purchases , this one is a must for anyone owning a hdr-hc1 or other compatable camcorder . operating the camera from the tripod ( rather than the touch screen ) provides steady footage for the amatuer videographer . the unit assembles easily and has stable panning and rotation . the only drawback is the soft storage bag which does n't provide adequate head protection
+camera neg hp is selling this bag for $30 bucks , so when i found it here for $10 less i could n't let this " deal " pass me by.. . however when i received the bag , i wished i had.. . the color is less vibrant , it 's cheap , poor quality , plus hp is n't embroidered on the bag.. . walk away from this bag and get the blue and black hp bag instead , it costs a little bit more but it 's well worth it ! !
+music neg as others have noted , this turns out to be only a handful of lullabyes in spanish sung by maria del rey , plus nursery rhymes spoken by children and men ( not very good for putting a baby to sleep ) , plus the whole thing repeated in english . in addition , i had been looking for traditional latin american pieces and apparently all of these are contemporary . do n't waste your money...i 'm planning on giving my copy away if i can figure out someone i know who could actually use it
+camera pos this is the perfect gift for any occasion.i bought one for my husband for his birthday and he took it to work next thing you know everyone was on here buying theirselves one.it is a very easy thing to load pics on and hook up to your tv.he sales cars and hes got his on his desk showing his family off and cars that they also have on the lot for the older people who are unable to withstand the heat so they sit right at his desk and check every car out on his digital frame.i give this frame an a++++++
+camera pos since this is my first digital camera , i really ca n't compair it to others out there . however , it does everything i need it to do and has more features than i make use of ! i 've never had a problem with it
+music neg one word . generic . terrible . boring . ( well , they are all one word ) people must learn to have a better taste in music . granted there is at least one good song . a few others are decent , but only because there are no vocals . if you have heard any new band for the last 3 years , you have heard pulse ultra . my friend likes breaking binjaman ( another uber generic rock band in my book ) and he listened to 2 songs from pulse ultra and said " thats enough " . do yourself a favor and buy a good cd . when will people learn !
+camera neg cons only , no pros : the velcro closure is week and opens easily terrible look the side zippers are a mistery , totally useless no space for extra memory or battery attaches only to a very small belt the flash opens spontaneously while inserting the camera in its pouch making it difficult to get it out later on and probably damaging the flash
+music neg no need to say more , these f@gs are just making lousy punk pop for the teenage girls and mtv watching kids who think they 're quite rebel with listening to this kind of sheit , and these suckers do it just for the money like green day or blink 182. there just have to be some stuff like this to fill all the pop and mtv charts
+music pos robbie 's flow corses through your veins causing a feeling of total ecstacy and rejuvination . to have a cd that has the power to lift your spirit and your soul is something i feel so honored to have in my possesion . hats off to robbie
+music pos this is the first of alison 's album 's that i bought , many years ago.....i 've watched her career blossom.....she was an unknown when she recorded this album but in my opinon , it 's her best ! true bluegrass , beautiful voice , wonderful music ! i 've had the opportunity to see her and the band in concert several times and their music never leaves me disappointed
+music pos this cd is perfect for driving . the downtempo / beat driven ambient feel and overall togetherness of this cd is a perfect choice for easy electronic listening . overall very pleased with mr. schnauss ' contribution to the genre . highly reccomende
+camera neg i picked this up with a music order for my 350d - big mistake . the class came chipped , scratched and smuged ; tiffen filters are of very poor quality . do yourself a favor , like i did , and find your local camera supply store and pick up an optical grade filter for maybe , oh , 10 dollars more . this tiffen one was so bad that the scratches made their way onto some shots and ruined an entire day of shooting
+camera pos your site was the only place where could find a replacement for my lost nikon uc-e6 usb cable for my nikon coolpix 3100. even nikon could not satisfy my request . thank you cynthia valesi
+music pos i just love lynch mixed with dooms production . it is what real is
+camera neg have never before provided a negative review but this is a product to avoid . instructions worthless - - only learned by reading reviews here that it is possible to change some display settings then went to much trial and error . after getting best possible settings , main problem is still picture quality : using high quality jpg files as input , photos display with about the visual sharpness of the sunday funnies - - individual dots very noticeable even at some distance . not at all like what i have seen in other digital picture frames . just arrived from amazon and intended as a v-day gift ( tomorrow ) for my wife , big disappointment , guess i better make a dash to the florist .
+music pos i have just purchased this cd ( the day it came out ! ) and from what i 've heard , it is amazing , surpassing ( but not replacing ) boulez 's earlier recording . if you are a fan of boulez , 20th century music , or music in general , this is a must get
+music pos i bought this cd yesterday and i immediatly knew it was going to rock ! after hearing the title track , go ! , i knew this cd was going to be different then the spice girls cds. it is better . my favorite songs are never be the same again , ga ga , and goin down .
+music pos i had been hearing " always thinking of you . " but , i never got who it was . i purchased xm radio and on the smooth jazz channel , i heard the cut again and got the artist name . purchased the cd based on that one cut . every cut is great on this cd . i look forward to catching him live at some point and will continue to look for more from him in the future . he has his own style . but , not only do you hear hints of benson and brown..........i hear a little doc powell as well . i will be introducing friends to this great artist............keep it coming........... .
+camera neg i wish that i could review how well this charger works , but unfortunately i can't . the reason is because it was dead on arrival . i essentially bought a $20.00 ( with eek technology 's outrageous shipping ) brick . it never worked , ever , and shipping it back to exchange would cost more than a new unit ! at least i have the 4 batteries it came with , so it is n't a total loss . do n't make the same mistake . steer clear of this piece of junk
+camera pos i bought this together with the sony alpha ( very good deal from amazon ) . the lens is a great complement to the kit lens or the identical but older km 18-70. images are very sharp and the lens is built very well . great for wildlife imaging . the other reviewers are right ; the af is n't too good at the long end of this lens but overall a great camera . the end of the lens does rotate while zooming . it may not be good for some filters
+music pos those who liked suede may be looking for more of the same from the tears , but despite the obviously recognisable vocals from brett , and the familiar wailing of bernard 's guitar , this marks a watershed in their repertoire . the most obvious difference is that all the songs seem to have been crafted as ' hits ' ( much more radio-friendly , and why not ? ) . it 's also a more mellow sound than suede ( there were fewer opportunities for vigorous bouncing and hand-clapping at the tears concert i attended ) . another important difference is the guitar work , with bernard soaring off into sonic highs not experienced since reeves gabrels and tin machine . among the better songs are apollo 13 , brave new century , refugees and co-star . though brett and bernard are capable of better , this is a shot in the arm for us disenfranchised suede-heads , and i recommend you turn it up loud
+camera pos this lens works really fast . it is a great lens . captures the color in real depth and detail with my canon 20d camera
+music pos one of his best times . all the songs on this cd are great he express his fellings very openly . with this cd people can really see who marc anthony really is
+music neg i bought the cd because i thought it was instrumental music . then i hit the tracks with vocals - yikes ! this is the only cd of lee ritenour that i bought . i am a first time listener . i must say that i do like the instrumental music very much . however , i really hate the tracks with vocals .
+camera pos works great on my s2is , clicked on silver on main page but switched to black on order form , did n't notice this but i like the black anyway . looks good with acc
+music pos have loved this album since it first came out years ago ( bought on vinyl - lost to the mists of time ) . the cd was out of print but i kept looking and found it on amazon ( it was re-released ) , yeah ! ! ! ! last steam engine , from the cradle to the grave , louise , owls , you do n't have to need me - some of my favorites . this , to me , is kottke in his prime
+music neg ok - let me preface my comments by justifying the 2-star rating...it 's rodney dangerfield - he was a class act . as for the cd : if you 're looking for a few songs by a comedian accompanied by someone 's cheesy clavinova , then this cd is for you . i bought this because of the last track , " rappin ' rodney " , and boy was i disappointed . it sounds like it was recorded from an old worn out cassette . do yourself a favor - get all of rodney 's dvd 's with his standup material and remember him for what he was - a comedy legend
+camera pos i needed this tripod to use with my 20x50 binoculars since the least movement with 20x magnification causes the subject to wind up outside the viewing field . this tripod works well for that use . it is sturdy , has lots of features and is reasonably priced . however , if you wish to use the tripod for binoculars , a right angle adapter will be needed . i found one on ebay for a few dollars .
+music neg the songs just did not get me dancing . i have to say i was disappointed . but i love kids favorite songs vol 2 but was never able to buy it as it was not availabl
+camera pos takes great pics and the 3 " screen is really nice . wall plug in recharger is nice also . i have taken pics outside in sunny , overcast , & rainy conditions . indoors at sporting events and around the house . in all settings the pics have been truly wonderful . a few instances of blurriness caused by an unsteady hand but otherwise very nice pics . however , as canon 's top of the line powershot commanding a higher dollar price this camera really should have a higher optical zoom . 3x isnt enough when other , cheaper cameras have 6x optical zoom . also image stabilzation should be included
+music neg i love the sludge and the roar but the vocals are monotone and the lyrics laughable . gimme earth or sunno ) ) ) anyday
+camera neg amazon 's aggressive marketing tacticts now include shipping you goods when you called them to cancel it . i will never buy from amazon again . i bought over 100 items over 5 years . i purchased the camera on a 1 day delivery plan . they then just ship 4-5 day completely insensitive to a photographer 's needs . i cancelled order 2 days before it ships , they say sorry we cannot cancel . 2 days ? ? ? come-on . i guess the $3000 just creates nice interest . the end for me and amazon , i do not like this kind of " aggressive marketing " . good advice , rather buy direct from b&h photo , pay double if you like , but you will get what you pay for there , not aggressive marketing and shoving of a product down your throat at their terms . i am truly annoyed . run , hide .
+camera pos i own several canon lens for my 20d and this is hands down the best . i had a 28-135 which was a very good lens regardless of some reviews , and i got many excellent photos with it - this is distinctly better in all ways . ( of course , it costs a lot more ) . recently went with the grandchildred to sea world and i got 100% good photos , with several really outstanding ones . it is light , accurate and has is - what more do you want ? you can replace a slew of lens with this one and perhaps selling the old ones will help pay for it . bought it as soon as it was available and have not regretted it one moment . if you have one lens , this is the one
+camera pos slightly smaller than the charger that comes with the s ( 40 , 45 , 50 , ... ) series cameras and the digital rebel series cameras . seems to charge in about the same time . feels a bit more substantial , but that 's not saying much as the chargers that come with those cameras seem pretty flimsy . i ca n't give it 5 stars because it does nothing more than the chargers that come with the cameras ( which i lost )
+camera pos solid construction , good optics , nice sound . as mentioned by others , the output for the usb transfer is found in the handycam console and not the camera itself...a minor annoyance . all in all , this is a good camera that is touch pricy but you do get what you pay for... .
+music pos eddie 's first all-studio recording , and the album that got me hooked . i must say that even though they are uncomparably fantastic live , this album demonstrates the range and diversity of eddie from ohio . " oh my brother " is a particular favorite with julie murphy wells displaying her amazing range and beautiful voice , and robbie schaffer 's talent for emoting the absolute best of a heartwrenching situation . if this song does n't touch your heart , you have no appreciation for music . a particular plus on this album is a beautiful violin solo of " yerushalyim shel zahav " by guest musician pete wilson on " jerusalem , " another song by robbie , this time also performed by him . as always , the amazing prowess of this group is displayed magnificently
+camera neg just turned out ot be more complicated to set up than i wanted . never used . returned it
+music neg i was very disappointed with this volume . the past 2 volumes had great retro / loungy mixes and this new one is too repetitive and clubby . i was excited to see the postal service doing a mix , however it sounded just like any of their other songs . this cd sucks .
+camera pos this fugifilm padded soft case is strong , durable and very attractive . it was more than i expected . it is very professional looking
+camera pos i recently purchased this camera . it arrived one day before i was due to fly out to palm springs . i took lots of pictures with this camera and was pleased with all of them except the night time pictures . this may or may not be because i am a novice photographer . even with the night time setting my pictures came out blurry , but all others came out better than i ever expected . i think once i play around with it , my night time pictures will improve , but straight out the box this was kinda disappointing to me . no regrets with this purchase though . also , buy a larger memory stick . the one that comes with the camera only stored 6 pictures and i had to run out and buy another .
+camera neg i wear glasses and press against the viewfinder as hard as i can to help keep the shot stable ( i shoot birds at 700mm ) . the first thing my friend and i did was to compare two identical lenses / cameras etc. - one with , one without , the extender . result : - the image appeared the same size , and the extender slightly blurred the image . in other words - completely useless
+camera neg here 's one more a95 to add to the ever increasing list of e18 failures . thanks to the horror stories from the other posters i 'm not even going to waste my time trying to get this repaired . the camera is only about 2 years old.. . guess i 'll put it back in the box and wait to see the outcome from the class action suits ! the camera really performed nicely when it was working.. . thus the 2 stars . hope you have better luck than me if you get one
+music neg id advise not to buy the album . listening to it is like contacting gonorrhea . trust me ive done both
+camera neg although easy to load a smart card , this viewer was disappointing in quality . my pictures look fine on my computer , but the pictures were dark and there was no instruction on how to change the contrast etc. ( although i found that it the picture could be adjusted , it was never mentioned in the manual ) . the manual is , because of the comment above , disgustingly incomplete . if not going through the bother of returning it through amazon because i purchased it on line , i would not have kept it . i actually bought another digital frame that was smaller and cheaper and it was worse , otherwise i would have given it only one star . i could have purchased a unit a circuit city or bestbuy and been better off
+camera neg got this from toys-r-us for 35 dollars , it stopped working within a week , if there was a rating less than one star i 'd give it that , they should call it dummy - buyer - you 've - been - conned camera ki
+music neg i gave this a good listen , but did not find it all that funny ... or memorable
+music neg this cd has some good songs on it , but the majority of them are less than 2 minutes ! it 's kind of a rip off since the songs are much shorter than i expected . they are mixed together , and sometimes a song is so short that the one before it is still fading out by the time the song after it has started ! if you do n't mind really short songs , buy this , but i would n't recommend it otherwise
+music neg this album is not what i call a album first 4 trackz are the tightest with the tightest beats . best track on here is " i practice looking hard " probably one of the best trackz he eva made in his whole career i love that song but otha than that " captain save a hoe " and " mail man " are a discrace . he shouldnt have even made this cd until he got more track
+music pos this is a great cd with many good songs as it is one of my favorites and bruce rules
+camera pos i upgraded from the canon digital rebel ( grey body ) to this because i was ready to take my photography to a new level . one thing i like most about this camera is it 's flash compenstation . i purchased the 430ex flash with it because i was tired of having to use the built in flash and always getting those hard shadows on the wall
+music pos anais is one of the best cingers . i have seen her since objetivo fama , and she is just great . do n't listen to people who say this cd is bad because the are just hating . this cd is just great
+music pos with his snarling , gritty guitar tones , swampy grooves , and scratchy vocals , c.c. adcock makes butt-shakin ' music that blends rockabilly , old-school memphis r&b , new orleans funk , cajun dancehall tunes , and juke-joint blues . he 's young , but no poseur : having paid dues with bo diddley and buckwheat zydeco , adcock knows rootsy textures like the back of his hand . but despite the tremolo guitar and slapped upright bass , this is n't a retro-sounding record . adcock and his various producers bring a hip sonic edge to the music that keeps the moods fresh and the vibe ominous . doyle bramhall joins adcock on two songs , and together they raise 6-string hell . boasting richly layered guitars and heaps of attitude , adcock 's music is soulful , somewhat twisted , and deeply satisfying
+music neg this is anything but soothing . the tone is too high pitched ; nothing like the deep bass of crashing waves along the rocky carmel coastline that i was hoping for . i did buy the twofer and got the ocean surf cd by dan gibson and found it much more relaxing , even though it is n't a tumbling surf sound . i was able to fall asleep.. . which was my goal . now if i could only return ocean waves .
+camera neg there is a serious design flaw with this camera and it is even acknowledged on the faq section of the sony website . " if there are dust particles floating in the air , they can be illuminated by the strong light of the flash and sometimes appear in a recorded image as white , round glare spots . this symptom tends to occur in low-light environments when using a compact digital camera due to the close proximity of the flash to the lens assembly . however , this is not a malfunction . " read : your low-light pictures will have spots all over them ! sony does not think this is a problem . it is a design flaw . if you are only going to use this camera in full sun , then it is fantastic but seriously , there are many other cameras out there that do a much better job !
+camera pos i was a little skeptical on this product because of the cheap price and the lack of reviews . but it is just what it says it is , and i am really happy with my purchase . i would definitely buy this again
+music neg i did n't really feel like some of the songs were really love songs . a lot of these songs i had not even heard before .
+music pos ca n't say enough about how great this record is . it still stands the test of time by remaining relevant . " summerland , " and " mission man " are my personal favs , but the whole album deserves raves
+camera neg this battery does not fit the camera i purchased . the camera comes with a battery , so why did you try to sell me another one , one that does not fit , no less ? i have returned the battery but have not heard back from you on the return . it has been two weeks
+camera neg my cheap 10x50 rugged exposure brand binoculars give me a better view . the rubber eye cups did not stay folded back for use with my glasses and i could n't get my glasses close enough to eleviate the round " binocular effect " . i did a side-by-side comparison with my cheap binocs and liked the cheap ones better - my vision is not that bad either . maybe with perfect vision they would work for , but i doubt it
+music neg there are only a couple of songs i did like on this cd . i did enjoy ice cube and aaliyah , but the rest of the cd left me cold . i do think that if you can just find the two songs and pay to download them , it would have been better ! i suggest borrowing first from a friend and seeing if you actually like it first before you buy .
+music neg item never came . however in their defense refund was promptly given out . i only wish that i had a chance to receive this one
+music pos really enjoyed hearing all of them again . there is some great talent on here . i hope they all get their own opportunities ! i do think in some cases there are some better songs to show off these great singers voices .
+camera neg yes , it does provide a bit more eye relief , and can make it easier to see the whole frame ( by making it smaller ) , but there is a major problem with this . the eyepiece lens surface will not be as deeply couched in the rubber trim when you use this , and the result is a lot more reflections flashing around in the eyepiece when you have light behind you . this is especially a problem when you are wearing glasses .
+music neg je suis un peu du par cet album.. . c'est morne , le son est pas top.. . a trane dans les longueurs.. . bref ennuyeux ! mais bon il faut se mettre l' poque aussi ! a qd mme 13 ans
+music neg ( it ? ) i have many of david and japan 's albums , but this thinly composed album is repetitive , boring and annoying . i think there were some hidden tracks too , but i just wanted the album to be over . you are better off with " dead bees on a cake " , " secrets of the beehive " or any bee related titled album of his
+camera neg well of course i read the previous reviews regarding amazon shipping the grey-market version of this timer and figured that certainly by now they were shipping a us version.. . wrong ! i just received mine today and it 's got the international warranty card and users manual . i have n't decided if i 'm going to return it or not but figured that anyone else considering ordering this item should be advised that it appears that amazon is only shipping the grey-market version of this unit
+music pos umm...i do n't think you quite got the point of this album . it is not about the artists that you like , it is about the artists that inspired moore . your ignorance forces me to do nothing but laugh . i find it funny that you feel you are making a point by saying " f*ck you soad " and so on . have some respect for other 's opinions . unfortunately , you are a steriotypical " ignorant american " .so with all that said , and with all due respect , i say , f*ck you pal
+camera neg very disappointed by canon on the fit of this adapter . adapater and shade attachments block camer lens view and create flash shadows
+camera neg i bought three of these - - one for myself and one for each pair of grandparents . two of them stopped working . one of the two had tons of bad pixels and the other one just stopped . unfortunately , out of the warranty period ! and inquiry to the manufacturer has been ignored . i 'm out a lot of money for this garbage . do not waste your money on this garbage ! ! ! !
+camera neg i loved this camera but i have had to send it back 3 times for the infamous " system error 2 " design fault which plagues many of these . the repair service is slow - the camera has been in repair 50% of the year i have had it
+music neg paul brown is a tremendously talented artist and producer with a wonderful engineering background that allows him to set the standard in smooth jazz for clean production and versatile music . however , content on his latest project , " white sand " is n't musically expressive as the content heard on his first two solo albums . the artist collaborations on " white sand " make it tempting to purchase , but you quickly realize brown 's musical wittiness and versatility ( smooth , latin or r&b ) are lacking . overall it is still a cd worth paying for
+music neg i really think snoop is a good rapper . he should only have stopped 10 years ago . i 'm very tired of his gizzle wizzle nizzle stuff , and i do n't like none of the beats here . and what 's left then ? nothing . i found out after i bought this album : i 'm not a snoop fan anymore.. . old school is the bes
+music pos i have seen joe many years ago when he had played in a group called bloodline and he is even better now
+camera neg i bought this with my camera and i guess i didnt realize i could get 3 sony tapes at walmart for the same price . my bad . but i would recommend you get the sony ones locally versus spending $14 on one tape
+camera neg the s9000 fits perfectly in the case . too bad the case has no strap and no belt loop . apparently , the camera strap is supposed to function as the case strap also . too bad the camera strap is extremely short , made for very small people . so , instead of returning it and using a generic case that would not protectthe camera as well , i will adapt the case to work for me . i will get a bigger aftermarket strap for the camera . i can take the case to my seamstress and have a belt loop sewn on . it will work but only after extensive modification . great camera design so it 's odd that the case appears to have been designed by someone who has never used a camera before
+music neg listening to this album made me question my own life . it is simply unoriginal , boring and really bad . save your money
+camera pos this is the best price i found for my second rechargeable battery for my nikon coolpix 5200. it 's perfect , and so nice to have a second battery ! ! ! it was shipped so fast , i received it within a few days
+camera pos the remote control works well with the olympus digital camera . it was delivered on time and without any problems .
+music neg jonny 's conversion is fine and i hope he is happy , but this album was not good if you are expecting the blues guitar work of his early albums . if you want christan rock maybe this could be for you , but he missed the mark with me big time
+camera pos after much research i finally found the binoculars that fit my every need . the price was right , the delivery was right on schedule , and the product is excellent
+music neg i bought 4 of their cd 's from amazon after hearing the song " bad days " in a batman movie . this cd is the worst of the 4 i bought . not one good song . totally lame . i 'm not even going to stick someone else with it . i 'm just going to throw it out
+camera pos i was able to scout out the different case options for my sony dsc-n1. after much review , i asked my wife for her opinion and she picked the lcs-nb . it holds the camera nice and snug but you could work in a memory stick or battery . so far , so good
+music pos what can you say about mfl that has n't already been said . sublime , perfect , classic . this is still the definitive recording of the show , and no one has ever come close to the original cast . sadly , while the movie is wonderful , had warner bros . used andrew 's it might have been one of the greatest film musicals of all time . and while audrey hepburn gamely gives it her all , andrew 's had clearly made eliza doolittle her own , and she would have been uncomparable on film , and raised the level of the entire movie . well , the rest is history , andrews went on to be one of the biggest movie stars of the 60's . still , probably the best example of a play being adapted into a musical . as george bernard shaw said ( when he finally gave in and saw it during it 's london run ) " i do n't know where shaw ends and lerner and lowe begins .
+camera pos it gave me the option to change the angle of the light.. . this is a nice option to have i am sure
+music pos very good piece of music history . i still like the lp 's sound a bit better then cd 's due to some of the characteristic noise flaws but unfortunately lp 's do not play in the car .
+camera pos all i can say is , if you know what you 're doing ( basic knowledge in digital photography ) you 'll love this camera . adobe photoshop would be nice to have , too , if you like to play around with the pictures to make it more better . have fun
+music pos this album is absolutely beautiful . the full musical sound and talent of calexico together with the soothing warm vocals of iron & wine make the perfect match . it 's almost unheard of that i love every song on an album , but this one makes the cut . each song wraps you in a warm trance , a coccoon of well-being . it has a really positive emotional effect on me . it creates an ambiance of gentle strength . wonderful . i really hope to see a these two bands getting together for more albums
+camera pos i took this case with me to my trip to new zealand and it allowed me to take amazing pictures of rafting and cave tubing . if i did n't have this case i would have missed out on amazing shots . it 's a great way to protect your camera from sand as well . i loved it so much i actually bought one for my sister as well . it is a great investment for anyone that does n't want to worry about their camera getting ruined and also wants to take amazing underwater pictures and videos
+camera neg fuji fails to honor warrantee - do n't buy from them do not buy the fuji digital camera . they charged me $[...] for a fix within the warrantee period . their support manager told my wife the cameras are not being built well and dust gets inside destroying the gears . rather than fixing them they replace them and then they charged me for the replacement even though it still had months left on the warrantee . [...
+music pos i 've gotten a copy of this cd for every friend i have so they can know what i 'm talking about when i crack a random joke . my mom even loves it and she would not be considered the ' target market' . for mitch check out his first cd , if you can find it in stores , if not , go online
+camera pos i love the new digital canon . the only problem is it 's not nearly as tough as it 's film twin . i had the camera less than a month when the pop-up flash quit working . the canon people have been great , and very helpful , but i 'd rather not have had to send a brand new camera back to the factory . the photos , however , are wonderful . film quality for the most part - printable and enlargable . ( it would probably be better to use the camera with a tripod when using the 300mm telephoto but i hike with it , so just remember to steady it before taking wildlife photos .
+camera pos works as great as orignal battery . you will never know the difference except that is a lot cheaper !
+music neg if you want to get into blind melon very quick , buy this....if you really like blind melon and wnat to hear something new...do n't buy this.. .
+camera pos if you take lots of photos , rechargeable batteries are the way to go . carry the other charged batteries with you in case you need to swap them out
+music neg this album is n't not very good at all . there are about four songs i like . first off , the production on this cd is disgusting considering some of the producers make great beats . then , the guest artists do a sub-par job lyrically . then , there are no new verses from biggie , on the album . they should have stopped with born again , because album will be a forgotten one , not a great way to close out the legecy of bigge smalls
+camera neg sure my canon sd-30 is super cute and i get lots of compliments on how small and sexy it is , but heaven forbid you want to take pictures with it ! ! this camera cannot take pictures in low light at all ! every picture i 've taken at parties has been out of focus , which adds up to a lot of hazy photos of great memories . i took it back to the camera shop and the guy said i had the setting right but " yeah , they do n't work well in low light . " well if i needed a bright sunny day for every shot i could make a pinhole camera out of a cardboard box ! the pictures it takes in daylight are nice . but anyone who wants a tiny little camera like this is planning on putting it in their pocket and taking it to parties ! i got the sony cybershot 10.1 and it takes great pictures in low light . later , canon .
+music neg i bought this soundtrack in 1984 when the movie adaptation of george orwell 's book came out , simply because it was attached to the movie . i 'll try not to use any non-family words here , but this soundtrack sucks . muldowney 's original score is available on cd , and simply imagining it used as intended adds a whole new dimension to the movie . as far as this soundtrack goes , though ; skip it
+camera neg product is hard to review because you sent me the wrong battery . as of 1 / 29 / 07 it has not been taken off my credit card . how would you rate my review
+camera pos my sony dscw100 camera is small but very functional and user friendly , it makes photography an easy and interesting hobby .
+camera pos i purchased this camera case for the kodak z650. this case is perfect for the kodak z650. it looks and feels like a high quality camera case and does allow for the storage of an sd card or two . i 'm very happy with this purchase
+music pos one ca n't go wrong with this one . a classic , which according to the well written liner notes was recorded 3 days after opening night . and , a pit orchestra that sounds like a pit orchestra...before the days of electronic music
+music neg this album in some ways is a perfect antithesis of the quirky , wacky , vivid personality of the first three galactic studio albums- -this is boring , flat and generic . is that stanton moore or a drum machine ? precede straight to garage a trois
+music neg after reading so many positive reviews , i was very exited when i recieved this cd in the mail . i popped it in my bose wave radio , turned it up to 85 , and listened to the most annoying hissing sound i 've ever heard coming from my system . i regret purchasing this cd
+camera pos this is a great lens . i do not want to repeat all the good things other reviewers have written about this lens . it is not so heavy so i use tripod without using tripod collar ( costs 119.99 in b & h ) . this is the best value i have ever got for a lens . now i ca n't wait to get 17-40mm f4l too . you can get a very nice bokeh when wide open at f4 and f5.6 , of course depending on the how far the background is from the subject . people complain how ugly the hood looks but that is subjective . i like it because it works great and you can attach it in a reversed position on the lens so that it will fit in your camera bag . i think the fit and finish of the lens is beautiful
+camera neg im not from usa . my brother bought me the camara in a trip three months ago and it is not working ! ! it has serious conection problems in the body that i cant fix in my country . i lost 1000 us
+camera pos now that i have had this on my camera for a while now , my camera feels so weird with it off , i love the grip it gives and the extra battery life is great for those all day shooting events that i go to . i wish the buttons were the same plastic / chrome color as the ones on the camera but its a well built product and works fine so i cant complain
+music pos if you want to learn about texas music just buy this disc . tom 's love of life and artist 's eye infect every song . the opening number " tonight we ride " is hard to beat . he sang it on david letterman 's show ( paul shaffer played the accordian ! ) . letterman described it as a " song that will make you want to saddle up a horse , ride up to connecticut and rob a liquor store . " me , i just went out and bought some good reposado gold . letterman 's got a point , though - the songs on this disc will move you one way or the other . my other favorites are bucking horse moon , and all this way for a short ride . tom russell is true american artist like woody guthrie or pete seeger , and this is one of his best .
+music pos this cd is so awesome , it stays in my cd player and i have recently added it to my mp3.
+music neg i basically love anything mr. carter does , but this one has alot of great lyrics ( as usual ) . i 'm so glad he 's coming out of retirement . any fan of jay-z will enjoy this cd
+music neg i am very disappointed in this cd . not because the music is n't good , because it is . but because it is just not the pat green that used to play in stillwater . the passionate , soulful pat green . back then he sang about things that he believed in and loved . now he is singing what nashville tells him to . and this coming from the guy who sang " nashville sucks " with cory morrow . there are a ton of country singers out there that could have released this cd and it would have sounded exactly the same . but songs like " southbound 35 " and " three day " can only be sang by pat green . he needs to revisit his roots and come back to the red dirt country music that he was born to play . will the real pat green please stand up
+music neg bob james - the mastermind of smooth jazz . " h " , " touchdown " , " grand piano cannyon " . eternal pieces of art. brave and thoughtful new directions in jazz . we owe him a lot . but the recent releases of fourplay -including " x " - do n't meet my expectations at all : predictable , repetitive , overproduced computer-music . the typical fourplay sound squeezed out like a lemon in another cd . larrys guitar playing takes a nice direction on " tournabout " - but then the song falls back again to old routine . " screenplay " is a good one ( one of two songs that were done by bob ) . the rest , hmm.. . some nice solos constricted in predictabiltiy . do n't get me wrong , i like all of the guys . every single member of the group has done great things in the past . so - a bit more breveness , yes please
+music pos this is a great cd . " back where i come from " , is on of those feel good songs that gives me chill bumps every time i here it . chesney is a extremely talented artist whose passion is shown in every song . i recommend all his albums
+camera pos handy item for price . not a great telescope , but a very useful tool to look at roof shingles , broken tree limbs , bird 's nests , etc. must be stable , but can be carried in a pocket , weighs very little and is very clear . very good deal .
+music pos this talented woman can sing anything . i really enjoyed this cd with the lights turned down and a glass of wine to relax after a very stressful day at work . renee could definitely have another singing career outside of opera should she choose . hearing her drop that gorgeous voice down one octave rivals the best chanteuses in the business - cassandra wilson , nancy wilson , regina belle , sarah vaughan , etc. this cd of different musical styles reminds me of nina simone and cassandra wilson , two great singers whom could interpret any song genre and make their versions special . i loved all the songs and the standouts here are " haunted heart " , " river " , " my one and only love " , " my cherie amour " , " cancao do amor " , and beatles " in my life " , and " hard times come again no more " . i hope renee keeps recording whatever catches her fancy because i 'll certainly always listen
+camera pos i think is a " must " for any beginner , for a low price you can have almost all the different size of ep . try them for a few months and then when you will be completely sure what do you want and buy the ep that you need .
+camera pos the battery works as specified , the pricing was excellent and the order came in very timely . i 'm completely satisfied with this product and vendor
+music pos another typical funk classic album from the brilliant tenor sax sounds of lou donaldson . the album released on blues notes features lou 's popular and individual classic jazz funk tones . lou even opts to ' chill ' out on a number called ' over the rainbow ' but on other numbers like ' donkey walk ' lou 's style and also his unique band really shine . the unmistakable hammond adds yet more funk and along with the jazzy guitar sound and funk and swinging drums this brings together another great album.keep on funkin mr lou donaldson ! ! ! !
+camera neg the battery lasts for about 10 minutes even with a full charge . i made the mistake of buying two of them for my husband 's dvd player and they were useless . what a waste of my money
+camera pos an excellent flash to use with my canon 20d at a fantastic price , the canon 580ex was an expensive option , but should i buy one in the future ? the 430ex is perfect as a slave unit . great product from canon as always
+camera pos the charger really did what it was supposed to do . i have an li-10b , so i was still some what worried that it was n't going to do the job , but it did . i also liked that it was small so you can travel with it anywhere .
+camera pos this gadget is a must-have for gadget lovers.....and picture lovers . it is compact , solid and fits any small pocket or clutch bag . the images are crisp if you get it set appropriately . if you love attention get this product and if you do n't .....not to worry the camera gets all of it .
+camera neg this kit is just junk . the " deluxe blower brush " is a cheap plastic blower in the tiniest size . there is a " tweezers " that is just folded aluminum sheet metal - there 's no way that is getting anywhere near my cameras . there are a few sheets of lense tissue and a few swabs to use with the cleaning solution . the " lintless cleaning cloth " is an about 3 " x 5 " piece of something akin to reusable paper towels that you 'll use about three times and then throw away . this kit is not worth buying at any price , because it 's not worth the shipping charges
+music pos marias and srayle , if you like the guaraldi original then keep it and chuck the winston , personally , i think the winston performance is refreshing and a delightful ' twist ' on guaraldi 's works . the piano is brillaint sounding and at volume , thru a good system sounds like there 's a piano in the room . it should be emphatically understood , you are buying winston in this case , and not guaraldi . i have both versions
+music pos this album is just non-stop funky . i originally got it just because i loved living in america when i first heard it - but i was pleasantly surprised to find the rest of the cd just as good . check out turn me loose i 'm dr. feelgood , let 's get personal , and gravity - they 're among the best on the cd
+camera pos i bought this item for a present , and the person really liked it ! ! . he uses it to watch deer , and other animals . the focus is very good , and i am very happy that i bought this product !
+music neg this album sounds to much like pop music than hardcore reggaeton . they even have that rbd boyband in this piece . a few years ago lt saved reggaeton with their producing skills now it looks like they set out to kill the monster they created with this embarrasing album transforming a music of the streets into the music even grandmas like and that is scary . the only reason for the two star is because the zion and the arcangel & de la ghetto songs . if you wanna hear some real reggaeton look for producers like dj memo , meka , mambo kings , dj wassie & dj fat this dudes are doin it right and keepin reggaeton calle my friend
+music pos i bought this the year it came out , after seeing george in concert and it is great ! most of these were big hit songs and i found that i really loved the others too especially hard day
+music neg i was very disappointed that the version of " paper roses " included on this cd is an updated and new recorded version from 1990. it is not the original 1973 classic marie recorded when she was twelve.interestingly , this new version is produced by sonny james , the original producer of the original single , that also features many of the original studio musicians . so all is not lost . still , i prefer the original hit version and am disappointed there was no indication that this cd included an updated " paper roses . "
+music neg the worst christmas album i ever heard . i just bought it , played it once , and will never play it again
+camera pos the previous review is not completely correct . the problem is not with the product but with the description what amazon.com put up for the canon cpm-e3 battery magazine . it is a battery magazine for the canon compact battery pack cp-e3 and not for the camera battery grip . i think the product itself is a great thing , it lets you switch the whole magazine with 8 preloaded batteries instead replacing the batteries in the canon compact battery pack cp-e3. the previous reviewer should not judge a product by the incorrect infromation given by a retailer
+music neg someone suggested i listen to this because i was , at the time , into what lame beret-wearing record-store dips would call " creatively aggresive " music . then it was death metal ( which i prefer without cursing or filth , you understand . ) since then i 've found the ascension into gabber and then full-on unmitigated hardcore . anyway , mr. bungle... . tepid . uninteresting . bland . stupid . gives the chin-strokers something to fascinate over . let them . someone 's got the fuel the economy
+music neg it sounds like someone somehow got the deftones to suck worse than they already do . this album is n't nearly as musically interesting as tear from the red . i do n't mind the singers new approach to vocals , but it just sounded like they did n't try at all . all the songs sound the same , the tempo is too fast on almost all the songs for the screamo sound , and hearing random voices and sounds of them in the studio between recordings just makes the album drag . although they 've goten much tighter as a band and are n't as sloppy as they used to be , ( they fell out of sync a lot in the opposite of december ) this album was definitely a backwards step in their progression as real musicians . save your money and buy tear from the red instead
+music pos the relaxation set is just that , pure relaxation . i love the active relaxation cd . i can read or work and i am real calm , on an even keel , feeling like when you go to sleep at night , not quite asleep and not quite awake . i also enjoy the water and the piano playing . highly recommended
+camera pos i was able to use the canon ef 1.4x ii extender for some nature photography recently in wyoming . i shot elk in low light conditions so i was shooting pretty much wide open . the extender did not compromise the inherent sharpness of the lens at all . you could see the hairs on the animals heads . it 's fantastic
+music neg when merging female vocal yodels and copying elements from switchblade syphony , one can only be disappointed in diva destruction 's music . the positive aspect is the better production on this cd compared to their debut
+music neg many albums , including this one , have the problem that all the songs pretty much sound the same ; but this also has the troublesome problem of music that is too easy on the ears and that never gets very exciting - except for the first two tracks . the use of many poetry elements in their lyrics ca n't save the blandness of the music . " what about everything " and " life less ordinary " are good songs . the rest pretty much sound the same and will put you to sleep .
+camera neg the only reason i am giving this 1 start is becuase of amazon 's poor service , otherwise i would give 5 stars for the product . i placed this order more than 30 days ago . amazon still has not shipped the item so i cancelled my order and placed it with j&r . if amazon did not have the item in stock , they should have stated on their web site or at least communicated with me that there will be a delay in shipping
+camera neg in my opinion this is not a marketable product . the cameras features are irrelevant if it does not work . there is clearly a design fault and the product should be withdrawn from sale until there is a fix . when it did work it was a convenient pocketable unit . as for hd - possibly at high noon in the sahara , but in anything but perfect light the results are dissappointing .
+camera neg i am a novice photographer , so take this with a grain of salt.. . i just bought this kit and it included no instructions and lots of components . i suppose if you are accustomed to using these kits , putting them together must seem self-explanatory . if you are new to these kits you will find it frustrating . it is also frustrating to discover smith victor does not have a support site ( just references on photography ) . they do not even provide a support # or address . keep all this in mind when considering something from this company
+camera neg yes , i have to agree with the previous review . it does n't seem to make any difference in reducing lens flare from light sources . it does n't seem to extend far enough to actually do anything . if it was less expensive i would n't mind as much , and just chalk it up to extra protection . but that seems to be all it 's good for
+camera pos holds all my lenses , camera body , remote , card reader , etc.. . with room to spare . compares to bags costing 3 times more .
+music neg i did not get my order . you were suppoused to send my money back . i am waiting . thank
+camera neg there 's little more to say....great item , almost a " must have " , but forty bucks for a half ounce of plastic is absolutely criminal
+music neg as a fan of pete seeger 's music , i bought this cd in the hope that the family connection would ensure similar quality of the music . disappointingly , i 've found this album really grates on me after a couple of songs . peggy 's vocal style in particular becomes mighty annoying to listen to over the length of the album , as her delivery can best be described as a neo-hillbilly twang . i may end up combining the best half-dozen songs from this album with some other folk albums to generate a listenable " best-of " set , but i 'd find it unthinkable to listen to this entire set in one sitting . only devoted fans of the genre or the duo should invest in this set ; more casual fans of folk should direct their dollars to any of pete 's fine albums such as the carnegie hall classic
+music neg it is ludicrous to even mention the fact that the duprees have lasted so long and can still be seen in atlantic city considering the fact that there is not one original member of the duprees in the group that is seen in atlantic city . this is a major problem with many groups purporting to be from the 50 's and 60's . the duprees appearing today is a perfect example of caveat emptor ... buyer beware for those readers who do n't read latin ! for those of us who were duprees fans , this is a not to be missed cd of the original duprees with the incomparable sound of joey vann and harmony that is hard to match . they did joni james proud in their remake of a number of her hits . it is nostalgia personified hearing the original duprees
+camera pos i bought this camera around the beginning of july and have used it several times already . i 've upgrade from a nikon coolpix 3200 to this one due to smaller , sleaker size and more megapixels . this camera takes excellent pictures , in broad daylight as well as in the dark . red eye reduction is wonderful , however the flash does go off about 4 or 5 times . it 's not broken.. . it 's supposed to do that for everybody who thinks their camera has a glitch . overall , i think this was definitely a good buy and am looking forward to taking the camera on vacation !
+music neg i had the privilege of attending recitals of many of the 50 's and 60 's jazz legends - before they became household names . it was truly an honor and a blessing to be part of an era that will never come around again . i heard brief notes from this cd and i must agree that mr. winston did attempt to capture mr. guaraldi 's timeless expressions , but the this production did not have the same " golden flow " as the original .
+camera neg i only got about 2 hours of run time per charge out of this battery so i returned it for my money back and picked up a batterygeek universal dvd battery which is now giving me 7+ hours of run time per charge .
+camera pos i am a photographer and i am always running down my batteries.. . i have n't found one so cheap as i did here . thank you amazon. .
+camera pos if you use the viewfinder instead of the lcd field , it does not appear on the lcd , you can only see it through the viewfinder . this is different from previous models . minor annoyance . the quality of the videos was surprisingly good , but it saves them in the quicktime .mov format . mov is not my favorite format , but perhaps others will not be bothered by this . although i had heard that the color on kodaks is not natural , i have found it to be excellent . the overall quality of the pictures is good . for the price , i think this is a very good value and adequate for most casual photographers .
+music neg for starters i love bun b and pimp c and ugk and all that but the thing that kills it is lil jon yelling " gansta grizzel " like 10 times in every track . i love lil jon too , but they coulda done without it . also they just rappin over other peps beats , it just sounds like a mixed tape kinda deal . but heard rumor that bun b is bout to come out with an offical bun b record , not a mixed tape , or nothin like that , but only reason why i gave it two stars is just cuz they got tight flows on the tracks , but not their own beats , and lil jon coulda just shut the hell up on those tracks . just keepin it real . i wouldnt spend the money , id just wait for bun b to release his own offical cd , or till pimp c get out and ugk hooks it back up
+camera pos i bought these binoculars for my dad for christmas , and he is absolutely in love with them . the distance it can handle is slightly above average , but the clarity is really where this thing shines . its very easy to use , and has held up reasonably well . i would recomend it to the casual user
+camera pos excellent product , easy to use , great for edging cards and making trims for cards and craftwork . i ca n't wait to experiment with it
+camera neg i had my sony dsc w70 for just one month when the viewing screen suddenly cracked without being dropped or hit . the glass itself was intact , but something underneath was clearly broken . mailed it in to the factory service company for sony , and i was informed 3 weeks later that it is not covered by warranty and will cost $181 to repair . this is 2 / 3 the cost of a new camera and does not make sense financially . i have a friend who had the same problem of a broken screen with the identical sony camera .
+camera pos this tripod arrived on time and in good condition . however i have to put the " heavy duty " in quotations as this item is for amateurs mostly and is made of plastic as well . the weight you can put on it is limited . however it does the job well for the amateur photographer or videographer
+music pos sweet brazillian jazz piano combined with guaraldi 's 1960 's hit " cast your fate to the wind . " throw in a coupla classics like " since i fell for you " and " moon river " masterfully interpreted by vince and you have the perfect album for unwinding , loving , or waking up
+camera pos aside form the fact that canon charges an arm and a leg for a 1 dollar piece of plastic , the remote switch does work well . it does not feel very sturdy and does not seem nearly as well built as the canon cameras . people with big hands may have a little trouble using this product . overall , a " must have " addition for anyone interested in long exposures , images with excellent sharpness and depth of field
+music neg layla is one of the most overrated songs of all time . cream is one of the most boring bands in history . why not do yourself a favour and buy enjoyable bands like dire straits , and metallica who rock . ps.this clapton compilation has no good songs so please do n't buy it at all
+music pos these 3 discs ( there is a limited edition 10 disc set which has obviously sold out ! ! ) are a continuation of live dead . if you have n't heard the dead live then start with this or live dead . you will realise why to many they were america 's greatest improvisational rock band . the playing , the interplay between the musicians - particularly garcia and lesh is staggering . and how about a big hand for bill kreutzman on drums
+camera neg it looks great , genuine leather , much better than synthetic . like a brand named leather wallet . but there is no where you can tie the case to the camera . hence you have to hold onto it with another hand when you pull the camera out to take photos . there is no where to put the essential accessories ( battery and another memory stick ) . there is no way to clip to the belt . will like to return if if not the hassle of mailing and the associated cost . bought another handy synthetic case afterwards
+music neg method : take a monster , genre defining album you recorded over 15 years ago , borrow the voicings , polyrhythms and sound effects , rearrange them to slightly ( but not *that* ) different tunes , crib the album art ( cheesy then ; cheesier now ) and re-release . the point ? well , to the man , it 's obvious . there 's one born every minute . but for genuine , discerning afficionados of electronica ? search me . like a good souffle , it was better the first time . indeed , inventing oxygene parts 7 - 13 is almost as pointless an exercise as going back and re-recording the original album from scratch . and guess what turned out to be jarre 's next project ? whoops ! writer 's block , perchance ? olly buxto
+camera neg it takes around 3-4 seconds to take the picture after i click the button ! ! and then another 8-10 seconds just to store that picture on the sd card ! ! so basically , i cant take another picture until atleast 10-15 seconds of one picture ! !
+camera pos have had good luck with these batteries . they last for a long time . first time with amazon and it was a good experience . will use them again
+music pos i am a big ambrosia fan and i love " biggest part of me " , " you 're the only woman " , " how much i feel " and the newer track " i just ca n't let go " . however , i wish this cd contained all of their billboard hot 100 hits . the cd is missing their cover of " magical mystery tour " ( #39 ) and " how can you love me " ( #86 ) . for the casual listener , this cd is perfect . for the chart hit completionists out there , it misses a couple songs . i bought this cd used for $1.99 , which was a huge bargain for the songs included . for that price , i can certainly try to download the missing tracks
+camera neg ...unless you want to have trouble focusing , have difficulty using them indoors at a sporting event , or have the neck strap bracket break off , etc. i wear glasses and these never did focus well for me . i was not happy when the bracket broke off the day i received them , just as i was to leave for an africa safari vacation . the biocs kept slipping off my neck the whole trip , and it was frustrating . even more frustrating was trying to get them repaired . suposedly there is a warranty on these . hah ! when i sent them to bushnell for repair , they wanted [...]
+camera pos this was delivered so fast that it was unbelievable . they sent exactly what was pictured and it works perfectly
+music neg this cd isnt real good if you like compilations than get the ruff ryders c
+music pos right , so , you 're reading this either because you are a big oasis fan and realize that this album is wonderful , or because you 've heard some oasis songs on the ever-disappointingly-dull radio and it 's sparked yer interest . " the masterplan " is a compilation of oasis b-sides that have been released over the years . what has always made oasis the best band in the world is the fact that the songs that they include on their " albums proper " are not necessarily their best songs . as such , songs like " acquiesce " , " talk tonight " and " stay young " are vacant on their albums , yet they represent the best of this lovely band and are included here in stunning fashion . so in summary , i absolutely do not recommend you buy this album until you at least own and fall in love with " definitely maybe " and " morning glory " . to those who own and love this album , it is a part of rock history and is not to be overlooked .
+music neg what an outrageous group , how can anyone like this rubbish . maybe an horde of brainless people . how i feel happy in being intelligent , and live my life with things of absolute quality and not consuming this kind of food for mediocres . how said romans , " it 's just bread and circus to the poors " . give to people what they deserve , rubbish ! it 's because you mediocre people that buy this , that this kind of people , the members of this group , get money and laughs behind the scenes about how dumb people can be . it 's the same horde that buy , beyonce , spears , madona , and other outrageous poor music .
+music neg john mayer can grow his hair long and play his guitar slung low , but he is still a professionaly trained monkey , i mean musician . mayer along with " artists " like gavin degraw , teddy geiger , etc. , are todays n'sync and backstreet boys , nothing more .
+music pos nas ' street 's disciple definitely has plenty of memorable / outstanding cuts on it . nas sounds very confident and his lyrical skill is prevelant throughout both discs . the subject matter varies which is way cool in that , it delivers to all audiences of his fans . every nas fan will be doing themselves a huge favor by supportin him and pickin this up today . a
+camera neg the magnetic clasp is weak very weak - making it vulnerable to thieves with sticky fingers or opening up on it 's own . i keep this camera case inside of my purse . i would n't recommend this product there has to be something better
+music neg ok......avoid this at all costs not worth your money ! ! ! ! as luck would have it i found it a a garage sale . the only track whorth listening to is track 12 which is vivi 's theme from ff9. the others well....they could have done better . most of the songs are to put it nicely......suck ( at least the way they where done ) . the only reason i rated 2 ( 1 1 / 2 to be accualy ) is because of vivi 's theme at the end . this is not whorth your time . get the imported cd 's they have much better music on them
+music neg i bought this album after hearing america , their single off this album , and listening to the increasing hype about razorlight and johnny borrell being one of the most talented singer-songwriters of his generation . this follow up is a thorough disappointment compared to their first . it 's not bad , but it 's not that good either . the songs all sound like i 've heard them somewhere before , and the lyrics - well , how many times have we heard popstars going on about waiting by the phone , nothing on the radio , and not known what it all meant , while smoking cigarettes late at night . yawn.. .
+music pos aretha 's voice , her style , delivery and interpretation of her music is incomparable . these songs are more than just classics ; they 're a songbook to millions of people 's lives who grew up listening to her in the 60 's and 70 's as i did . they evolk memories of times that changed our world , and showed just how powerful and influential music could be for generations to come . there is not much that came before , and very little that came after these golden years for aretha , that can compare to this treasury of her music . sadly the aretha frankiln of 2007 pales in comparison to the aretha franklin of this time , who was truly and rightfully the queen of soul .
+camera pos it 's good as my title says , however , i found one con about it is there is no place i can put a string on it so that i have to put it in my pocket when i take it off
+music pos i saw these guys live in the twin cities last week . they opened for keane and the zutons . these guys were definitely the best part of the show . they had great energy and actually looked like they were having fun . to top it off , they sounded great and their songs were well written . give these guys a shot , unless you hate rock ' n ' roll ! !
+camera pos this scope is one of the best gen 1 units on the market . at 36 lines / mm , it has just about the best resolution . most other units only have 24 lines / mm . the illuminator is bright ( almost too bright ) , uniform , and has a crisp edge . it could be a bit larger , however , so that it would fill the field of view . note that if you remove the eyepiece or lens , ( to put on the riflescope eyepiece or change the magnification ) you will break the seal and the unit will no longer be waterproof . do n't bother with the ir flashlight . it 's output is actually less than the built-in illuminator and it is far from uniform .
+music neg the lack of someone lurking behind prince 's shoulder while in the recording studio and having the courage to tell him when he produces second rate nonsense has been missing since the departure of the fargnoli management team . this is a poor track incorporating biblical references that have little relevance or sense of genuine compassion to the katrina disaster . musically the lack of emotion conveyed by the unnecessarily complicated chord changes and irrelevant reference to sade also make the feel of this track disjointed . while prince fans will generally hype this track , the reality is that " 4 the tears in your eyes " this is n't and to add a charity track with an instrumental showing off your musical skills is just pure self indulgence and frankly crass . lets hope this is not an indication of the upcoming 3121.
+camera pos the cover over the lense broke / small lcd screen / pictures are pritty good / battery life is pritty good / some images can come out a bit blurry if theres no flash and your hands arnt that steady / takes nice portaits / easy to use / has a veiw-finder
+camera neg looks nice . unfortunately did not power up the camera , so i ca n't say much else . going to cost me return shipping at the very least . sorry i did n't buy the canon product instead
+music neg somehow not up to her earlier work . the instrumental accompaniment is good , but tends to dominate at the expense of cesaria 's voice and the songs do n't strike me as particularly memorable . one reviewer said this was perhaps the best thing she 's done . if so , i just do n't see it . i was disiappointed and found myself wondering if maybe her best days are behind her . i hope not
+music pos i just want to put it out there...audra mcdonald is an absolute genious . everything she touches turns to gold , and i just want to smack some of you for saying that she failed in her attempt to make a great record . this may not be the audra that we are used to , but if you listen closely she 's near by . so this cd is a little less difficult vocally . so what ? my favorite quality of ms. mcdonald 's is that she is emotionally connected to whatever she is singing . she could record twinkle twinkle little star and i would want to listen to it over and over again because she tells a story . so if you buy this cd , listen to it more than once . let it grow on you . let audra do her thang children . let her do her thang .
+camera pos the philips 8-inch digital picture frame is an excellent , high-quality device . very easy to get it going - the included cable and computer software make it simple to select digital pictures already stored on your computer and copy them onto the device . no need to mess around with memory cards - although the device accepts those as well if that works best for you . everyone who has seen ours loves it . it looks great and the picture quality and size are excellent
+music pos i recently discovered joyce cooling . yeah , i 've been in the dark ages . she is one of the smoothest guitarists out there and she does not try to sound like everyone else . i especially appreciate her percussive use of intonations . she 's got chops galore and is a beautiful woman to boot . you can hear it all in her music . buy revolving door ! you 'll love it
+camera pos very compact , light and easy to hold - full marks for design . buttons etc can take a bit of getting used to , but ok once mastered . main downside for me it only takes dvd-r / rw - and not dvd-r / rw+ , bit of a problem when you pick up the wrong ones ! also , can be a problem taking it abroad - i had issues charging it as it would take a standard us to uk converter plug as the pins are slightly wider than normal us plugs .
+camera neg as a professional photographer , i find myself going through 5-6 of these cords each year . my equipment is my livelyhood and although it is used often , i am exceptionally careful with all of my gear and do not bang it around or abuse it . i use a stroboframe which makes it necessary to use this cord to raise the flash well above the focal plane of the camera . these cords are very expensive to get just a few months out of them . eventually , the hot shoe connector will either become loose and the connection will no longer function or the plastic connector will break and your flash unit will fall to the ground . ( this has happened twice to me and fortunately i was able to catch the flash unit ! ) the cord is indespensible if you need it , but contact canon usa and ask them to reengineer this cord or expect to replace them every few months
+camera pos yes this is a very good first camcorder . i am a first time user of any cam corder . i have olny had mine for a month or so but i have made several films with it and it is very inersting . but the software is harder to use that movie maker . but if you are a first time buyer then i would go for this becasuse 20gb is engough to use. . but the battery life is short but u wont need to make a feature length film ! ! ! it is just fantastic . enjoy. . do
+camera neg unfortunately i received the items damaged . the exterior postage box was unharmed but the paper boxes were obviously dropped at some point before packaging .
+camera pos for those wishing to purchase this product , and who also want accessory filters to protect the lens , or to add special effects , although not mentioned , the size of the filter is 30mm . ( not the 37 mm mentioned at other locations , which caused me to order the wrong size which now must be returned . ) remember , 30 ( thirty ) mm
+camera neg there is a serious design flaw with this camera and it is even acknowledged on the faq section of the sony website . " if there are dust particles floating in the air , they can be illuminated by the strong light of the flash and sometimes appear in a recorded image as white , round glare spots . this symptom tends to occur in low-light environments when using a compact digital camera due to the close proximity of the flash to the lens assembly . however , this is not a malfunction . " read : your low-light pictures will have spots all over them ! sony does not think this is a problem . it is a design flaw . if you are only going to use this camera in full sun , then it is fantastic but seriously , there are many other cameras out there that do a much better job !
+music neg i agree complete with erik cobbett . this is covenant 's most unnecessary and boring album ever . there are a couple of nice parts on it , but generally it 's a big disappointment .
+music neg don ` t waste your time and money on this compilation . what a cheap shot to take the consumers money . read the very fine print , it does have a disclaimer but you really have to look for it . shame on the distributor !
+music neg all in all , i was really dissapointed ; i really enjoyed the king geedorah album . i thought the king geedorah album boasted stellar , thematic , production , tolerable skits , and street-wise but deep lyrical content . doom is on the boards for about 1 / 3 of the tracks on ' escape.. . ' all have the stereotypical doom sound , with the only standout being ' 1 , 2...1 , 2. ' the x-ray produced tracks are minimal , but generally sound stiff , lacking much of a groove - thin synth lines , few sampled melodies . i did like ' warning ( kong ) , ' which has a nice , minimal , dark groove . the lyrical flows have a classic new york sound , pretty good . lyrical content is pretty bad , unless you enjoy repetitious rhymes about smoking weed and women riding my d$ &*.
+music neg i thought it would have nice , soft songs . but , it is riddled with annoying sound effects and strange instrumentation
+music pos relationships and drug use are major themes . this album starts off with two absolute killer tunes , lets down some but has a joy thoughout . i ca n't believe this is going to be his only album.....what a shame . from someone who has been listening to rock for a long time , i tell ya , this is a blast . pure fun . something you might want to give to someone you have broken up with as its full of a broken heart and the joy of being in love.....mostly rather quickly paced . one of my favorite albums of the 90s . more people should listen
+music pos i am realtively new to country music . i purchased this because i had the pleasure of hearing willie sing " you do n't know me " on cmt one afternoon . i was quite taken with his rendition and recalled hearing this song growing up . from this one time " soft rocker " i could n't be happier . go willie
+music pos i used to listen to a friend 's copy of the original " metal box " of ep 's , when it first came out . years later the " second edition " came out on lp 's for those of us who had n't sprung for the metal box before it sold out . eventually the second edition came out on this cd . so i finally could own a digital copy myself . pristine , audio quality at least as good as the original metal box in my opinion , if i remember correctly . you do need to listen to this . you do need to buy a copy and get other people to listen to this too
+music pos i own a lot of waylon jennings albums but i have to say , i find myself playing this one on 9 out of 10 times . if you want to buy just one waylon album this is the one to own , the recording quality is brilliant for a live album and the music is alive . simply great , i ca n't say enough good things about this cd
+camera pos i bought one of these items in december ' 04 from adorama . it had directions written in raised letters on the canister itself . i just ordered here and received a second one in march ' 07 and the " new " model has no instructions . other than that , it looks identical to the old one , so i assume the contents are the same . here are the exact words written on the old one : " hydrosorbent 40 gram silica gel " " when pink , reactivate 3 hours at 300f " the pink referred to is the little circle in the center of the canister . i keep this product with my camera ( in closed stuff sack ) and it seems to work as advertised - though i guess you just have to have faith that it does - no easy way to prove it ( except maybe in extremely humid climes )
+music pos it 's been a while since someone has sang the praises of this album . this is a timeless work . it never gets old no matter how many times it is played . i 've had this album for 5-6 years and i pull it out every summer . great music for boating or bbq 's on the deck . i promise you will love it . something everyone should have in their collection
+music pos sounding thing occurred when ex-springfield messina melded with loggins , and it was large ! c.s.n. & ; y . strove to be this good every time they released a tune . this compilation not only displays the music-crafting abilities of these two in conjunction , but also showcases their power to deliver dynamic live performances . dedicated to todd j
+camera neg this is the worst camera i 've ever owned . i 'm not exaggerating . i 'm so upset for wasting money on it . the only pictures that turn out , are outside in bright daylight . it takes horrible pictures in low light , there 's a high level of noise in the photos . the video mode moves in and out on its own , ruining the video . i sometimes get colored lines down the right side of the videos . my friend 's $88 dollar digital camera takes way better pictures than this thing . it just plain sucks .
+music neg this great underground master dj deservedly gets a release on a major record label.. . but there are too many rappers , not enough personality in the production , and obvious restraint in the sampling ( surely the result of copyright clearance issues . ) compared to z-trip 's amazing and audacious uneasy listening with dj-p and live at the future primitive with radar , this is just a bore.. . yawn.. .
+camera pos for the price , you get a lot out of this camera . 6x zoom stabilized , the images comes out great at full zoom ( 2 stabilization mode ) . the aid of a histogram will tell you the right exposure to set for your picture . the multiple program modes , just about lets you take a great picture under different situation ! controls are easy to use and get to . in all definitely a great buy for the price . the down side is that movie mode has no sound but if that is a factor then get the dmc-lz5 or a camcorder .
+music pos this collection of italian cello sonatas by the great janos starker is one of the most delightful chamber albums i own . the world renowned cellist was joined on this 1966 recording by pianist stephen swedish on five of the selections , and by his frequent collaborator gyorgy sebok on the bach sonata in g minor , which was recorded in 1963 and added to this collection to increase its length ( it is a welcome addition musically too ) . the selections here range from famous composers like bach , boccherini and vivaldi , to the lesser known corelli , locatelli and valentini . for me , the common thread of this recording is the passionate performances of starker . whether it is the happy bounce of the vivaldi allegro , the sublime rendering of the boccherini adagio , or the precise interplay with sebok on the bach sonata , starker plays masterfully and his cello is captured in rich , full sound by the mercury living presence recording technique . this is an excellent purchase for all cello enthusiasts
+music neg please change your name to ( kid rap ) .. when you start producing true rock cd 's then and only then you should put rock back into your fake name.. . stop playing both sides. . i realize that the rap - hip hop scene is much easier because over half the fan base is little girls / boys and people that dont have a clue what music is all about. . do yourself a favor and take the rap / hip hop out of your so called music . one day you will realize that the rap / hip hop scene is like a bad smell that real music fans hate and wish would go away. .
+camera neg to customer before me , you camera d200 might be on recall . please check the nikon website for more info . you have described the exact recall problem . good luck ! btw , have you tried or someone tried this battery on a d70 ? i am thinking to consolidate and have all greys batteries rather than black for the d70 and grays from the d200.
+camera pos i received the tripod ahead of the expected schedule . i 've been looking at tripods in stores in and around the greater boston area . you ca n't get a better tripod for the money . in fact , you ca n't get anything " decent " for under $40-50 and even then i 'm not sure you will get something this good . i had it shipped to my job and a few guys in the office ( which i did n't know ) had purchased a tripod in the past and where really impressed when i told them i only paid $25 for it . conclusion : is the tripod perfect , no . the head looks a little like plastic . but it has nice rubber feet and rubber grip in addition to everything listed on the website . this tripod is perfect for the beginner to enthusiast photographer .
+music neg long studio sessions . if you want a truly incoherent album strung together in a twisted way , then this is it . if you do n't , get near the beginning or rock & roll . get some of their quality stuff . this definitely is n't it
+music pos ( in reference to another review ) - the symbol on the cover of still is the factory records logo , joy division 's record label . since i 'm in the area... . i 've owned this album for about 15 years and it still sounds , in parts , as solid as anything joy division ever did . some of the live stuff is so-so but studio tracks like the kill , dead souls , exercise one , they walked in line and something must break are damn near worth the price of admission alone . if you already like joy division , thereby showing good taste , this is a great album . if you find yourself slowly descending beneath the black cloud of depression , unknown pleasures should fit . if you have been there and find yourself wanting out , closer is the soundtrack . this album is more varied in mood , for established fans and safer for household pets
+music neg another unspeakable album from the most unspeakably overwrought , over-produced and over-rated rock band of all time . did i mention over the top ? let 's face it , queen was a group of crypto-fascists , working hard to put a human face on thatcherism . ghastly stuff . k .
+camera pos installing the software was a piece of cake , using it is quite another matter . the basic introductory instructions are easy enough but after that it seems to require a phd in mathematic astrophysics to get round all the available toggles , tweaks and options . first attempts ? the moon came out real nice , but saturn was a white blob with no fine detail . nothing like type of pics that the super-whizzkids proudly display on the celestron site . will go back to night school and one day you might see my fine efforts published as well ( oh - was using it on a classic lx200 in good see'ing conditions - sorry celestron !
+camera pos this is a cool implimentation of a much needed device for those with d200s . the camera loves batteries . having two is good ! having the ability to watch one drain and knowing there 's another on standbye is a fine feeling . knowing that there are two more batteries in the case waiting is even better ! for a full day of shooting , you need this and some serious memory . highly recommended . also handles aas.. . always good in field conditions
+camera neg this is another example of how sony is alienating its customer base . not only will it not work with standard sd memory like everyone else , it does not include a docking station . you have to shell out more money for that option . i dont think so
+camera pos i purchased the canon off camera shoe cord to use with the canon ex 580 for weddings . i needed the cord to use the flash on a braket to avoid red eye . it does what it 's supposed to . no complaints .
+camera pos this is a very powerful flash unit that works as a master to other canon flash units . you can get very nice results with a small amount of experimentation . it does what it suppose to . i used it with the 420ex i 've had for several years and it worked fine . mounted on the camera it 's a larger version of the built in popup on the 30d with some extra niceties and lots more power . thinking of the 430ex ? cough up the few extra bucks for this baby , you 'll be glad you did . it 's a one shot deal , [no pun intended] , you 'll be using it for years to come . i bought the 420ex for my elan ii e about 6 years ago . it 's been a great unit . this one recharges faster and has gobs more power . you 'll love it ! do n't let all the dials and switches scare you , read the instruction manual
+music pos i feel bad doing this becuase i love iggy and the stooges but the quality on this set is pretty bad . all the live recordings are worth listening to and probably owning but the quality is very rough and can get frustrating . it 's like the first beatles anthology set : the material is amazing but the quality is bad . on the plus side the studio outtakes are decent quality wise and amazing content wise . the packaging is also very nice . i just though i 'd share this information before you drop all the money on the set . if you are a stooges fan do n't hesitate purchase now but if this is your introduction you should probably wait .
+music pos all-instrumental collections of bluegrass are hard to find , and if you like it when a band takes a break from singing and just plays their instruments , here 's your chance for total immersion . all the songs on this compilation are from rounder records albums released 1976-1998 , by artists with familiar names like alison krauss and tony rice , and others you may never have heard of . all are first rate , foot stompin ' renditions of bluegrass traditionals , with a few great originals - - bill monroe 's " bluegrass breakdown " and earl scruggs ' " foggy mountain chimes . " best known for most listeners is a rousing version of " orange blossom special " by the johnson mountain boys . if you like bluegrass with plenty of pickin ' at breakneck speed , this cd will keep you smilin ' through many , many replays
+camera neg the documentation is terrible . its going to take a lot of practice . if you 're just going to stick it on top your camera its fine . however i want to use it off-camera to trigger 2 x sb600s . just setting the d200 to fire a pre-flash that will trigger the sb800 / masster & sb600s it 's a nightmare and its not covered in any detail , in the manual . the sb800 is designed for this purpose . so why not include information on how to do this ?
+camera pos easily snaps in place and does the job . considerably less expensive than the local retail outlet - and delivery was quick as well
+music neg bands from the 90s just sucked and nirvana fits in with that . they had a couple of ok songs and kurt cobain was some what talented but this is nothing to get excited about . i can not for the life of me see the things people see that just go off about how great they were . i do n't see it . this is another cd in a long line of cds from the 90s that are a disgrace to music .
+camera pos it works as specified on my sony hdr-hc3 hd camcorder . i have used it several times and cant find any noticeable blurs / distortions using this lens . its a little pricey , but well worth the money
+music pos in temporary secretary theres a great melody struggling to escape from the space invaders backing.memo to paul-turn this into a ballad for your next album bogey music , inspired by a book , is quite interesting . waterfalls is the standout song and comin'up was the hit . the rest you just get used to what more could you ask
+camera pos the fisheye lens is a lot of fun , and i enjoy using mine . however , i find that the practicality of the lens is minimal . i do n't usually want my " serious " photographs to have fisheye distortion . i do n't tend to like the 1.6x crop on canon 's lower-end digital slr cameras , but with the fisheye this has an interesting benefit : it 's reasonably easy to use the fisheye as a standard wide-angle lens , since most of the distortion is removed by the 1.6x crop . you can still get distortion , but it 's a lot easier to compose a shot without it using a 1.6x camera than a full-frame camera . either way , lots of fun . buy one for the enjoyment , or even for professional assignments if your work calls for it , but think about if you really want the distortion before getting one of these
+music neg when i played the first composition on this cd , i started thinking that perhaps i had purchased a really stellar cd because the first song was really jumping . but after that , this cd is disapointing to me . there are maybe three pretty good compositions with the rest being totally unmemorable . with the three good cuts from this disc and a few from her first cd , joyce cooling could have made one good cd . but , in my opinion , there are n't enough good songs here to warrant a release of this cd . joyce certainly has potential , but she needs to work on her creativity . she sound here like an artist still maturing in style
+camera pos out of the box this is a simple to use camera . the convenience of having the video or picture right on a hard drive is great . i did a lot of searching and this one was the most bang for the buck . just starting to use it so ca n't say much for now . my wife loved it for its size and weight
+music pos i heard the chairman dances and went right to amazon to order this . this ia a lovely little gem of a cd , and it is so pleasing to find john adams , another great modern american composer . i 'm also a fan of composers such as christopher rouse , for example , and joe leniado chira is my cousin . modern composers are a precious resource that we should explore , demand more of and nurture . we afficianados would like to see symphony orchestras and ensembles giving more attention to the modern genre . meanwhile , john adams has impressed me with this disc . the chairman dances is my favorite . i can just see chairman mao doing a vigorous foxtrot to this , and tricky dick feeling jealous . this might be the music that opened china to the west
+music neg i bought this based on reviews of " bass queen in the mix . " to me it sounds like the west coast edition of northern exposure without the 4 / 4 house beat . in other words , its very electronic sounding , almost completely non-vocal and not very funky at all . i listened to " eargasm " by plump dj 's and icey 's " funky breaks " after this and it 's definitely missing variety , skill in mixing and that " neck snapping " funky quality that make the plumps and icey so indispensible . not too bad but not that interesting either . i prefer her " mixtress " and still have not heard " bass queen.. . " btw , my speakers are flat down to below 30 hz and i did n't find the recording quality or the bass that impressive . listen to crystal method 's " phd " or " block rockin ' beats " by chemical brothers after this to see what i mean
+camera neg they arrived on time and after that everything went downhill . the batteries charged lasted atleast five hours , so no complaints there , but the charger would keep coming out from the wall . it only seemed to work if it was all the way in and it would n't stay all the way in , i tried several outlets , finally after a whole two months it no longer worked at all
+camera neg i purchased this set , and upon arrival , i found the circular polarizer to be defective . amazon quickly replaced the set , and this polarizer did not work either ! i returned the set , as i am not going to waste any more time trying to get a polarizer that works . i 'll pay more , and get a quality product from a different maker . i will say that amazon is second to nobody for customer service . i appreciate that , and will continue to be an amazon customer . however , i ca n't say the same for tiffen .
+music neg i would n't know i never got my cd and its been over two month
+music pos not only do you get some great music with this cd , you get the beginnings of climax as well . ( the last 2 cuts are essentially sonny geraci solo songs done by 1 / 2 of the band that would play on climax records ) includes their 4 hits ( time wont let me , girl in love , respectable & help me girl ) and a slew of other very like-minded material . if you like any of their 4 hits , you will love the rest . if you like climax , you should buy this for the 2 last songs which are essentially climax tunes
+camera pos i have used this charger & battery package for a while now in my digital slr , battery performance is excellent ! the downside is that the charger has issues : the top bay charges faster than the bottom bay and the batteries get very hot when charging , it has not seemed to affect the batteries in the year i have had them . if you are looking for exceptional batteries buy these , and the charger is okay , just beware that it does not charge all nimh batteries but does do most
+camera pos i just bought this for about $190 at the local px . i am impressed so far . i was going to buy the gs180 , but for the sale price i would be crazy to pass this up . so far the low light is much better than a single ccd . the video playback is quiet compared to a few other camcorders that record the motor noise onto the tape . i plan on buying an extended battery and a tripod today at the same sale . i will use this camcorder mostly for home videos of my son and vacations we take around europe . i look froward to using this camcorder a lot
+camera neg very good product very satisfied , the night vision is great clarity is very good and portability is awesome plus the price is even bette
+camera neg not too long after i purchased this camera the screen turned white when i turned it on . i would turn it off and on and nothing would help . finally i would take the batteries out and put them back in . this seemed to fix the problem a few times . after that i thought it was just operator error . but it wasn't . the camera finally gave out and the white screen never went away . so after being annoyed i left the camera alone for awhile . an event came up about a month later . i got my camera and tried to turn it on . nothing happened . so i changed the batteries . still nothing happened . i 'm not sure what happened . i do believe i purchased a lemon camera . i 'm hoping to resolve these issues with samsung . it was one of the cheapest cameras on the market at the time . so i guess you get what you pay for !
+music pos this cd is a classic , a must for all those who loved the movie . i wondered if i would get a crackling type of sound , but it is as crystal clear as the movie sound . this is perfect for those who want to practice the songs for a " sound of music " event or a singing class !
+camera neg gosh , i would really like to review this adapter , but- - - amazon has put my order on indefinate hold , as thier supplier is unable to get any more . but wait ! what 's that blurb on the product page - " availability : ususally ships within 24 hours " and " want it delivered tomorrow ? order it in the next 5 hours and 36 minutes , and choose one-day shipping at checkout . see details . " so they ca n't deliver it , yet they still list it as available for delivery tomorrow ? do n't order from amazon
+music neg this was o.k. nothing more nothing less . this album was hard to review , beacuse no songs really stick out . i mean the guy is a mediocre artist with mediocre rhymes , laced over just above mediocre beats . i have heard better sesame street singalongs for yappy kids in the back seat of a mini van . i mean what does the album have that sticks out ? " saturday to saturday " ? " bloody horseshoe " ? or the multi - faceted " boo , we ai n't forgot about you " none of the above , or none on the album . sorry . and please , all angry people who think that this is a bad review , remember , it 's a review . i can say what i want
+music neg gerry marsden and his pacemakers are great . i just want to point out that the double-cd ' best of ' import has 15 extra tracks and sells for about the same price . there is just no reason to buy this compilation instead of the import
+music pos hey there all , want to listen to some great songs by a country artist , chely wright , then go ahead and purchase this cd you will be amazed at the talent chely has . songs spanning from her ealier days to her current hits , a great collection for the diehard fan , and a great gift for those who have not been able to experience the very talented chely wright
+music neg i own this set , as does my roomate , and we both hate it . it highlights bands like ' red lorry , yellow lorry ' that no one likes or listens to , and uses great classic bands like bauhaus ' worst song as the first track . it is the hollow , tin-y , embarrassingly hokey side of goth , and i am ashamed to even have it in my house
+camera pos i 've had my d2h for 9 months now . i 've heard of the magenta skin tones issue but have never seen it..skin tones on my unit are great . it seems this issue plagued a minority of users . camera is very fast , exposes well and delivers results . it 's primarily designed to be a sports and photojournalism camera - - for situations where speed counts . it 's a 4 megapixel wonder - - it 's true it only has 4 megapixels , but they are 4 great megapixels . images upsize wonderfully . i love my unit , and am debating whether to buy a second one as a backup , or wait for the d2x . the price of the d2x is making that decision a bit easier and i 'm leaning toward another d2h .
+music neg very disappointing - nothing like riverdance would not recommend and i am avid fa
+camera neg when i was buying my husbands olympus camera this rechargeable battery popped up as a suggested purchase to go with camera so i ordered it . not paying close enough attention and because the title does have stylus in it i assumed it was compatable with the camera i was purchasing at that time . no it was not ! ! ! so i paid for and wraped ( christmas present ) something that did not only not work for the camera but made me look like a idiot shopper when my husband opened it and saw that it was not compatiable . now i have to figure out how to send it back for a refund which will cost me shipping charges yet again...not to mention the frustration of a return ! ! ! ! not a happy amazon shopper !
+music neg this one is for you . but honestly now , the guy does n't write- -beautiful voice- -but songwriting is a major appeal . so guess a solo garfunkel is a lot like a step above justin timberlake . ok , there are definitely highlihgts like a heart in newyork , ( what a ) wonderful world , but generally this a very casual compilation , good for a couple listens . in general , art garfunkel is n't really good for more than that . check out him witht paul simon , that is amazing stuff , but this is kinda boring . i might have a bit more respect if he wrote the songs- -but even though there are good songwriters writing for him , the songs are still sub-par
+music pos i first heard joe playing in that urgent style of his , on horace silvers ' " song for my father " album . the thing about him is that his playing has always sounded mature and developed , like he was born to play . on this cd , felicidade in particuliar , he simmers , builds to a rolling boil , and simmers again so nicely as he takes you to brasil . also the straight ahead playing on triste ' is nothing short of marvelous playing by the group ! the whole is cd is great . go ' head joe
+camera neg the photoshare digital frame is a classic example of poor engineering . the " plug and play " ability is aggravating , at best , freezing two of my computers , requiring endless reboots to transfer images . photoshare provides zero customer support or technical assistance when you have problems interpreting the very poor operations manual . the expensive battery is almost impossible to install . the power cord has to be super glued to stay in place . and the frame is sloppy and dangerous - very easy for unit to fall out . buy another brand or just put pictures on disc and use a portable dvd player instead .
+music pos no collection of blues / rock is complete without " a piece of your soul " . there very simply is not a weak track on the entire disc . from the raunchy ( " bitter rain " ) to the uplifting ( " good day for the blues " ) to the bittersweet ( " cynical " ) to the soft ( " share that smile " ) storyville encompasses the entire range of musical expression with a style that is as provocative as it is unique . put this disc on your list of music to have on a deserted island
+music pos ...wandering through the dorms in the 1970 's this was one of those albums that was in everyone 's collection . it was usually very near the front of the record stack . every time i hear that opening guitar riff from reelin ' in the years i glide back to a very nice place in time . if you hope to understand the evolution of us pop / rock music you need to become intimate with this recording !
+camera pos this product offers a realy equity between price and quality , and a good results in photos
+camera neg i agree with the many other users who have experienced the " condensation , operation paused " defect on their jvc gr-xxxx . despite numerous others reporting this problem , jvc says its not a recognized problem . i would disagree - it is a recognized problem , but its your problem , not theirs .
+music pos this is a cd that one can listen to countless times . the virtuoso playing and beautiful tone produced by michael aptly display the characteristics of the euphonium . the selections are for college and graduate level players , as well as the occasionally " gifted " highschooler . a must hear , and a must buy
+camera pos this is the perfect case for my sony m2 camera ! yes i said sony m2 ! this camera case is perfect for it.very sturdy and not expensive at all.cool sony cybershot insignia on it and good " d " ring for your belt.fits perfectly for my m2 and it has a very cool and stylish look to it ! 100% recommended to those who need a case for their m1 or m2 sony cybershot
+music pos this album was by far the bands most daring ablum . they went away from the classic inxs sound that made them superstars ( kick , x ) and instead updated their sound to fit the time . like a previous reviewer noted , this was when grunge was becoming very popular in the us , and unfortunately , caused this album to go unnoticed for the most part . its sad too , cuz there are many solid tracks , inlcuding heaven sent ( my favorite ) , not enough time , baby dont cry and beautiful girl . i have recently become a big fan of inxs and have purchased all of their albums . i like this one in particular because it is different from all their other albums . i recommend " welcome " to any inxs fan and any other fan of great music
+music neg buddy holly has a number of collections that are superior to the one put out under the 20th century masters series . every one of the cds in this series is skimpy in content and superfluous . this one is no exception . look elsewhere
+camera pos it lasts a lot of shots , about 1000 shots , it 's amazing , with two of these batteries you have for almost a month in holiday without any recharge
+camera neg i paid extra for air next day service . item was advertised as available and ready to ship immediately . item eventually arrived two weeks later . i had left for a trip . item was eventually sent back to merchant . merchant did n't credit me for item returned . i had to email merchant and wait for another 2 weeks before item was credited . i wo n't buy from willoughby 's again
+music pos like louis jordan , his less well-known contemporary jump / jive artist , cab calloway fits into an area much beloved by americans who recall the boggie woogie era or simply love the jumpin bumpin scufflin shufflin sound of that pre-rock and roll music . though in truth i do love jordan more and think he was a truely protean genius who was the grandfather of r& ; b , calloway was the consumate showwman whose jive / jump music ca n't help but bring a smile to your lips and a lift to your heart
+camera neg i purchased a 510 powershot in summer of 2005. after couple time of use the zoom on the cameras lens would n't work anymore . i cound't take any picture anymore . i contacted canon over this and they ask me to pay shiping to send the camera to them to fix .
+camera neg i purchased this camera for my 13-yr old daughter as her first digital camera . it was a christmas present so i am highly dissapointed that 3 months after purchase , the flash stopped working . the picture quality was good but it hardly makes up for the fact that she can no longer take photo 's indoors or in low light . i would not recommend this camera .
+camera pos i was amazed on how well this battery has performed . i did make sure when i got it i did a complete charge and complete discharge and it has not let me down since . i can shoot well over two hours without needing to change to the very meek battery that came with my camcorder ( sony hdr-hc1 ) . it is thicker and sticks off the back a little bit more so you can not get your eye up to the eyepiece but i use the lcd when shooting anyway , and almost always on tripod
+music pos it does n't get any better than this . this album is a must have for all true judas priest fans . this is priest when they were really getting good . the guitars and the vocals rock you to the core
+music pos stephen stills " for what it 's worth " is , of course , a classic song . " burned , " neil young 's strongest effort for this album , is another classic song . the rest of it is all very good . i would say that it does sound a bit dated , however ; , and that this one is mostly for fanatics of 60 's music . your average " artic monkeys " fan is not going to find this a good match for their musical sensiblities . better was on the way from buffalo springfield . their next album , " buffalo springfield again " is an all out rock masterpiece that everybody should own , whatever your age or inclinations .
+music pos mr. kimbrough done come thru with the dirt on this one . this aint just blues music , it 's soul music right in there with isaac hayes and nem . it 's hard played and honest and that 's the true pleasure of it
+camera pos after using both lenses i think this is much better . here are my reasons : 1 - f 2.8 makes the autofocus much faster and accurate . 2 - bokeh is much better in this one . 3 - macro is slightly better on this one . 4 - 105 mm does make a very little difference in image size . 5 - is is not very crucial in 24-50 range .
+music pos that nigga 's crazy and bicentennial nigger both surpass this album in laughs , but it would still rank high if it was n't for the poor sound quality- -there 's a few audience members who can be heard a lot more clearly than pryor himself half the time . but some great classic bits , and believe me you 're never bored
+camera neg i bought this camera 3 months ago and have used it a few times . last week all of a sudden the pictures look out of focus and over-exposed . i have n't changed anything or done anything . i have no idea what 's wrong with the camera , but given the price i 'm pretty annoyed and amazon.com will not refund my money because it has been over 30 days
+camera pos this case is so well made , and just the right size to give the canon elura , a nice snug paddeded cushioned fit . plus secondary compartments for all the accessiories that you need to carry for your video photography...... .
+music neg it 's a decent album but she seems to copy riffs a bit on this album . mother mother definitly rips of stairway to heaven from stairway 's ending vocals riff . ( and as we wind on down the road. . ) does she give zep credit on that ? now that rockstar supernova has used the song twice it has brought mother , mother back to life a bit but that riff rip just annoys me . good female yell and complain song but i just ca n't get past that riff rip
+music neg vote this one off the island : 19 overproduced prog-tropical instrumentals consisting entirely of primitive thumping , chanting and grunting - sort of a new age tribal orgy with pygmy porn music composed by phil collins . it 's all supposed to convey the drama , intrigue and relevance of a tv show ( survivor yell , mud bath , chase race , tally the vote , i can see it , buzzed ) with no drama , intrigue and relevance . a desperate last ditch dig for one of the most unimportant moments in television
+music neg how can anyone say this chick has talent ? ! ! ! my god , she is sooooooooo bad . and yes , i actually listened to it . the only reason it sounds semi ok is because she 's got millions backing her and that much technology could even make me sound good ! she does n't write any of her songs and she ca n't hold a tune . gives celine a run for her money ? please ! ! ! ! the only singer she sounds better than is paris hilton ! but whatever . if you like it , that 's all that matters . if you like pretty young pop stars , christina aguilera is much better . she can actually sing ! !
+camera neg i had my sony dsc w70 for just one month when the viewing screen suddenly cracked without being dropped or hit . the glass itself was intact , but something underneath was clearly broken . mailed it in to the factory service company for sony , and i was informed 3 weeks later that it is not covered by warranty and will cost $181 to repair . this is 2 / 3 the cost of a new camera and does not make sense financially . i have a friend who had the same problem of a broken screen with the identical sony camera .
+camera neg i agree with m. arse with the 2star rating . i was disappointed with this camera from the beginning . not a user friendly one and the pictures turn out very grainy with bad color quality unless you are in an optimum light . i 'm interested in the 7 mp camera canon offers . i 've read that it has much better shutter speed . recommended ? ?
+music pos another great album by firehouse . my favorites are reach for the sky , when i look into your eyes , and hold your fire . i have other favorites , but there are my top 3. i have a story to go along with this album , ladies and gentlemen . see , i was heading to cross-country one day , for the huge " group 2 " meet . ( there 's a section , and 5 groups from every section make it , and there were four sections , so you can make the calculations ) . i listened to this album , having a bad day before , and having a bad night of rest . listening to this album , i got a river of positivity , and i had a great start and a great finish . i ended up smashing my last personal best in cross-country . basically ladies and gentlemen , this cd has alot of effect . get it . i love to review things . have a great day
+camera neg in an email , adorama specified that the filter diameter was , " 28mm . " on the amazon.com website is states that the same filter is a 55mm filter mounting ! either they do n't know their products or they do n't care about the customers . now i have to return it because of faulty information they supplied . please beware that their shipping charges equal approximately 25% of the purchase price - an amount i feel is beyond absurd . i can buy this locally for a lot less ( even though i would have to pay sales tax ) . buyer beware
+camera neg for quite sometime lured by media publicity i thought sony a good brand . but this was not at all true for digital cameras . i bought this p73 for myself and an hp 4 mp camera for my cousin much cheaper than sony . both 3x optical zoom . the hp one was far better in image quality . main problem is that photo quality is not so good . it lacks sharpness and in most of the natural occassions becomes a bit hazy . this fact becomes annoying because your friend who has a cannon or an hp camera will take sharper pictures better than you in any light conditions . also , in the same price you might look for something higher than 3x optical zoom , say 5x or so in other brands . also during video , every option of adjusting to light conditions etc will be shut off , another irritating fact . not recommended
+music pos this is a great classic rock cd including some timeless songs . if you like " summer breeze " as much as i do and have not heard the remix of it yet , you are in for a pleasent suprise . a remix album came out in november of 2004 called " what is hip " and in my opinion is the best remix album of 70 's music that i 've ever heard . their version of " summer breeze " is near perfect . a modernized , but not over the top version that manages to preserve the true melody of the song with out removing the original rhythm . the entire album is great too . i have this " greatest hits " and the " what is hip " cd and simply ca n't get enough . here 's a link to the cd . enjoy . http : / / www.amazon.com - - what is hip
+music pos purchased this album because of the great album cover , was i surprised when i popped it into my cd player . i had n't heard of rick braun before but after listening to this cd , i ran out and purchased everything he has ever recorded . never have i heard a trumpet sound so beautiful . share this music with someone you love
+music pos ok , i just could not resist coming on here to review this . i 've had this cd for about 4 years now and i still listen to quite a bit , proof right there that this cd is definetly a classic ( in my book at least ) every single song on here is original , the guitar riffs are simply amazing , and the lyrics i can not even describe in words how much they hit home and how breathtaking they are . if your a goo goo doll fan , and you still do not have this cd , i deeply encourge you to go buy it now ! this is the is the goos like you 've never heard them before . the cd is pure genius , and in my opinion the best cd i 've ever heard
+camera neg this camera / mp3 / camcorder / webcam / voice recorder is way to good to be true ! i brought one because it was cute and looked perfect for mini movies . but i was sadly mistaken.. . this camera just takes cheap pictures and videos . the only thing that actully worked properly was the voice recorder that i had no need for . after about 3 days of trying to make it work a little better i gave up and sold it on ebay for the same price as i brought it for . it 's a great idea.. . but it just is n't a good camera but if you want a voice recorder this is pretty nice . the mp3 player is n't all that wonderful either . it does n't work with itunes . or easy work with windows . hope this helps.. . i wish i would have read this before i brought this camera
+camera pos im a graphic design student in college , so i really needed a camera . i decided on this one and i am really glad i did . the pictures are nice and clean . the camera itslef is a very sleek looking one and is very compact . the only downfall to this is that it eats batteries pretty quick , but i just took them out when i wasnt using them . buy this camera
+music neg i just purchased my sacd player and picked up boston and billy joel 's the stranger at the same time . after listening to the stranger , my mouth dropped . billy 's voice coming from the center speaker and all the other instruments and melodies coming from every different direction . then i put in boston and could n't tell a difference from the cd version i already own . i think it 's one of the best albums , but if you already own it on cd , do n't bother upgrading - there 's nothing special about the sacd version
+music pos only 2 words can describe this great cd and they are ( simply incerdible ) im only 17 but i know great oldschool when i hear it and this is fantastic musi
+camera neg a close friend made the unfortunate mistake of plunking down 2 grand for this camera . honestly olympus produces cameras that can do the same thing for $400. i 've used hers and the image quality is horrible and the colours are wrong 9 times out of 10. if you 're going to spend that much on a camera , get the d70 instead and buy a nice extra lens or some other gadgets to go with . the pictures are better and it offers more mp
+music neg as much as i like most of the songs on this cd...it 's just too short . also the production is lousy . the recording quality sounds awful in places . hopefully , the updated compilations are better . this one is not worth the money ! ! !
+music neg if i ca n't buy the cd with all the songs that were played in the movie then i wo n't buy it . i know one cd could cover the entire movie so why ca n't this be done ? does it concern copy rights and releases
+music neg hey ! never liked ja fool ! he is and will always be over ! where is he ? ? ? ? ? ? ? like i care ! any way ! ! ! ! 50 has sold 16 million+ cd 's and ja fool had the nerve to say 50 do n't sell ! ! ha ! ! ! ! ! ! ja fool ! ! ! greatest hits ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! nuff said ! over ja fool rule ! !
+camera pos kodak door strains to shut with this battery . nice idea but , too bad for kodak owners . i have great success though with energizer lithium batteries . they last me a long time and fit perfectly
+music pos i have been following gospel since the early 80s . i am a big fan of contemporary gospel and shei atkins defines how r&p gospel should sound . trinitee 5:7 along with dawkins & dawkins have done a great job so far , but shei atkins covers it all- -relationships ( cheating , divorce , pre-marital sex ) ; worship ; hymns ; enocuragement ; you name it and she has a song for it . i just bought the cd and i ca n't take it out of my cd player ! ! her voice is so annointed and unique ! she can easily give beyonce , erykah badu and mary blige a run for their money ! she can easily be played on mainstream radio and everyone would be bobbin ' their heads to it- -yet she has no problem mentioning jesus in any of her songs ! for those christians who are looking for something that they can groove and relax too ( with some anointing ) please buy this cd- -i promise you that you wo n't be disappointed ! i can literally listen to every song on this cd over and over again
+music pos first up i give this album a 4.5 / 5 for the fac that it has real hiphop beats and good lyrics . real hiphop , they stayed true to the sound . i just didnt give it a 5 since im not the biggest tcq fan and of that style . but all these emcees spit hott lyrics in this album . tracks like " keep it movin " , " hot sex " have ill beats . this album does have a real jazzy sound to it , which im not the biggest fan of , but its more of a unique style , and they deserve props for trying new styles . so overall this is a really good album , and worth getting . my top 5 songs 1.buggin out 2.hot sex 3.oh my god 4.luck of lucien 5.keep it movi
+camera pos the item was exactly as expected . the packaging for shipment , along with the other item i ordered , was unacceptable . a child could have done better
+camera pos i bought this a year ago and have taken many great pictures with it . it 's light , has many features and can be used as an automatic when all you want to do is point and click . i ca n't recommend it enough .
+camera neg i wish there was a space for zero stars . we bought this frame for my in-laws for christmas and it worked for ten minutes and then died . it was definitely a fault unit and gauging by the other reviews on here , others have had a problem with it freezing . once it does that , there 's no fixing it , apparently . do some research and buy another unit ; that 's what i 'm going to do
+camera pos i have had great luck with other opteka lenses , but i had to by a thread adapter . what is the thread size of this lens here ? i need to know before i buy . opteka , please put thread sizes of your lenses in the description . thanks !
+camera pos the picture is fine at this price . i bought the panasonic vdr-d100 for my daughter because she usually does n't want to do anything with the computer like edit video . when we gave it to her the first thing she asked was , " can i edit the movies ? " i did a quick test to make sure the dvds would finalize and work on another dvd player with success on 3 computers and 3 dvd players . i did n't find anything the disc would n't play on . then i started up vegas movie studio platinum which i use to edit my minidv movies . i selected import from dvd and it went straight to the minidvd and loaded in the files where i was able to edit and add titles , music , sound effects and a voice over if i wanted to . since i already bought dvd-r / w discs she will be able to reuse them if she ever edits the movies because you can unfinalize the discs and reformat them .
+camera neg i am a nikon fan i have nikon 6t and nikon d50. but about coolpix 4600 : all picutures are always blurred or atleast fuzzy . it somehow take decent photos of face and buildings ( if they have strong straight edges / stripes )
+music neg i bought this cd for the avril lavigne song keep holding on. i really like her song , and this is the only way i could find to buy get it . was to buy the eragon sound track . i havent seen the movie . besides that i would n't have bought it
+music neg i remember listening to this years ago , and i thought i would add this to my cd library , now i know why it has been years sense i 've listened to it , , very sqeaky , dull , slow paced stuff , bob segar makes this stuff sound like tin foil. .
+camera neg after discovering that the makers of a great camera would only offer such an inferior case , i did some more looking . what i ended up with was a pelican case . for those not familiar with these cases stop by any camera / photo shop , and they most likely carry them . they come in many sizes and are simply an airtight , waterproof high impact plastic case with very snug fitting latches . the inside is solid soft foam that you " pluck " to fit what ever you want to store in the case . i purchased the 1300 for my finepix 3800. the case easily holds the camera , battery charger , mini tripod , and 3 xd cards . they come in 4 or 5 colors , and can be used for almost anything you want to protect from damage
+music neg if you like early priest , buy genocide . it has both rocka rolla and sad wings of destiny in their entirety ( the only thing it does not have is the original album artwork ) . not leaving out important tracks like the ripper , for pete 's sake ! ! ! how could you leave out the ripper ? and what about island of domination ? i feel sorry for anyone that bought this that is unfamiliar with priest . they got jipped and did n't even know it . these are my favorite albums by priest and i hate to see them butchered like this.. . and what about the order of the songs ? why would they mess with that too ? do youself a favor and buy either genocide , or if you like to have the original artwork , buy rocka rolla and sad wings of destiny seperately
+music pos i am a motown , oldies , r& ; b , soul , love songs , music lover.i like the songs that hit the heart and soul and hearing them brings back memories that come alive to the rhythem and bill withers definately fits right in there . i do n't realy have a favorite artist because i like sooooo many of them but if i had to pick my top 10 , this album would be in there
+music neg so this is the winner of plop idol from the u.k then . well they do n't come prettier than this from scotland i guess , that 's for sure . as far as the music is concerned , avoid ! it 's nothing but a calchony of crap . perhaps michelle should stick at something she is good at - eating chips and mars bars
+music pos gene watson was one of the finest voices in country music , and this compilation of 18 hits provide a fine sampling of that voice . considered by some to be " hard country " , i find gene watson to have a more " pop " oriented voice that combined well with his selection of songs ; and in the ' 70 's , that proved to be enough to keep him on the charts . while many of the songs on this album are pure country , others are the typical , drab , 70 's pop that filled the void between the nashville sound and the new traditional era of the 80's . in any case , there is no doubt that gene watson earned his spot in country music , and this collection carries those hits that made him the household name he is today ; including his signature songs " farewell party " and " love in the hot afternoon " . if you prefer the more traditional country sound , his " you could know as much about a stranger " and " should i come home " are also included
+camera neg i 've had this battery for half a year and i agree with a fellow reviewer 's assessment that the battery does not hold much power . i am diligent about expending all energy before recharging because they have memory , but this delkin model 's life span was noticeably short . now i am going to buy a new charger / battery altogether because i do n't want to buy another delkin battery
+camera neg this filter is fine for normal shooting , but if you do low-light work , beware ; you will see bad internal reflections on night shots , and will need to remove the filter
+camera neg as i have gotten older seeing the tiny print inside the view finder has become more dificult , as well a seeing the image clearly enought to get super sharp focus . i thought this might be a solution . this eyecup fails on all requards . worst feature , the optics are not nearly as clear as you would expect . second the magnification is so minimal as to be useless . last it has the cheep feel of cracker jack plastic , well and the optics to match . now i know where olympus had it manufactured
+music neg this cd had the makings of a great recording . the problem was telling popper where they were performing ! butch , please record another one but leave popper at home.he 's full of a lot of things , but talent is n't one of them
+music pos ' live etc ' is an absolute must-have compilation for all true gong fans.it features a total of fifteen live tracks of tunes that originally appeared on the band 's key albums ' camembert electrique ' , ' flying teapot ' , ' angel 's egg ' and ' you' .taken from unreleased live soundboard tapes ( i assume ) from shows between 1973-75.absolute best cut here is " where have all the flowers gone ? " along with " 6 / 8 tune " , that are the disc 's only unreleased material.other cosmic gems include " dynamite / i am your animal " , " isle of everywhere " , " oily way " and " master builder " .duration is 78:33.heard they wanted to add the 16th cut that was originally on the 2-lp record , but the cd simply would n't hold it.talk about wanting to give your fans their money 's worth.long live the mother gong ship ! recommended
+camera pos i ordered this hoping that it would fit my camera and accessories and it did . i have a stylus 750 plus a pop up screen shade , an extra battery , and an extra picture card . there are two slots specifically designed to fit two picture cards on the inside cover . in the main compartment , a small slit will fit an extra battery or two plus a creit card and perhaps a bit of paper money . ( it wo n't fit much more than that , though . ) it 's compact , stylish and functional- -i 'm glad i bought it
+camera pos i use this gem on my 20d along with my 24-105mm , and as far as i 'm concerned it is one of the best optical lenses out there . my 24-105 is n't the ideal indoor / low light lens nor is it the ideal sports photography lens ( although it is sharp , just not quite long enough ) the 70-200 fills in that gap in my arsenal with is to boot ! the photos i 've taken so far on the sidelines are all keepers . if you can afford it , do it , you wo n't regret i
+camera neg this gets 1 star for the simple fact that it does n't seem to fit my mark ii body properly .
+music neg i was disappointed by ms. jackson . though it 's not such a big loss b / c i did n't pay much for it . none of the songs " jumped " out at me . thank god i did n't waste time putting this on my ipod why upset it
+camera pos worked like a charm in my panasonic ag-dv30 video camera ! having 5+ hours of battery life really helps when you 're on vacation and do n't want to mess with charging batteries or being " selective " in your shooting . this gives you the freedom to tape what you want and edit out the boring stuff later . worth the money and a good deal here
+camera neg this is a nice looking brown suede camera case . based on all the stylus models listed , i assumed my olympic stylus 595 would fit in it but , unfortunately , it does not .
+camera pos it is a great camera , very small and gives very good photos in most circumstances . grainy pic in dim light . go to the casio website to download the new firmware for 4gb sd card compatibility . you will get over 1500 high res photos with a 4 gb card , where outpost is selling for 5o dollars a car
+music neg as a contemporary of joan baez ( age-wise ) , i loved her early music and the power of her incredible voice . i even empathize with much of her politics , but unfortunately it 's time she rested on her laurels . her voice on this cd is quite far removed from what she was once capable of , and in fact i would have to say that there is no comparison between her vocal ability on bowery songs , and her earlier quality . like some professional athletes , she seems to not know when to quit.. .
+camera neg i made the mistake of selecting the bundle without reading the requirements closely . the lens is for a variety of canon cameras but the adapter only works with the a6xx series . my adapter arrived and it does n't work with my camera . kinda misleading and now i have to spend more to buy the correct adapter separately . bummer . also , captain jack is correct about the vignetting . this lens is sort of like a magnifying class that sits in front of the built-in zoom lens . if you zoom wide angle , you see the horrible vignetting he mentioned . if you stay zoomed in , it works ok . disappointing
+music pos dj quik ( the best producer ever ) did all the tracks in this one with help from robert bacon on some tracks . this album is just classic nuthin more to it !
+camera neg review : unit had a very large defect in the field of view . it 's not one of the usual spots from the intensifier tube ; those i am aware of as i have other night vision devices . this goes about 1 / 4 of the way across , near the center . had to return it . poor quality control . update - the new one does not have any image defects . it also does n't focus as sharply as the first one did ( or my other one does ) , but it is n't too bad
+music pos i 'm just starting to become a true fan of pigpen . earlier , i just did n't get him and i would constantly skip forward to more of the gd extended jams . lately , i 've started to get what he was all about and what made him such an important part of the early dead shows . i 'm glad i picked up this set . it 's pigpen 's night and we should all be happy for this nice memory . pick it up . note : the rest of the band has some fine moments too ! !
+music neg back 2 da basics *1 / 2 stars yo gotti has made some decent albums , but this one is just so ridiculous and silly that it made me sick , gotti who thinks he put memphis on the map , has some good songs here and there , but the rest are just ridiculous , obnioxus and real pretentious . this is not a good album thumbs down
+camera pos set the diffusion to ' stun ' when you do n't want your flash to ' kill ' with harsh , sharp , shadowy edges . yes , you need this if you have an sb-600. why ? nikon does n't make a diffuser for that model . basically , it fits snugly on the tip of the flash , slides off and on easy , will also protect your flashbulb from acidental nicks , like that macro shot of the benihana chefs . here 's what it does : diffuses your flash without having to go all into your menu settings and make adjustments . simple , sherlock . the omni-bounce ( what an imaginative name for a piece of shaped plastic ) performs as expected , no real cons , except shipping adds almost 50% to the price , so check your local camera shop to see if they have it in stock before ordering
+camera pos i highly recommend the raynox dcr 1540pro teleconverter for the canon s2 instead of the canon branded one . hoya makes a 67mm uv filter for this and both are available at lensmate.com . the canon wc-dc58a wide angle converter however is really good . tiffen made a better one but it seems to not be available anymore . by the way , the function that the s2 provides for settings using the lens adaptors and teleconvertors are to adjust for the autofocus function of the camera and are necessary unless you wish to try to focus yourself using the manual focus which , in my mind , because of the lcd both in the screen as well as in the viewfinder with a lower resolution than an optical viewfinder , is iffy at best . trust the camera.....it really does an excellent job . one final note , i would recommend using the focus bracketing option in lower light situations as the auto focus is weak in those situations .
+camera pos this lens does ok at magnifying about 2x max . on full zoom , the magnification was not as sharp as without the close-up lens
+camera pos my fuji e900 fits perfectly and also the battery charger and extra batteries . the front pocket for additional memory cards is a great idea . case goes on belt or on neck strap to accomodate personal taste . very nice and reasonably priced
+camera pos i recently moved into the prosumer level of digital . the canon d30 has proven to be an awesome camera . there maybe better ( d60 ) , but if you are serious about digital , the d30 has to be one of the best cameras for the price . there is a slight lag between shots , but if you are not photographing speeding bullets and express trains , the time between shots is hardly a distraction
+music pos the most juiced-up sountern rock around . check out the tango guitar on " too hard to handle " and i always get a kick out of rick 's ole ' man . it 's a shame that there are n't bands like this around today .
+camera neg i read other review , and decided to give it a try . as soon as i recieve it in the mail , and opened the box , i realized this was a mistake . cheap quality binocular with " high power " being a selling point . it came in already broken with two eye ruber pieces falling apart . you can see how the cheap glue was being used to put it in place ! it is extremly heavy to hold in hands for more than one minute for nature observation . you will be constantly ajdusting the focus . your fingers bumps with focus bar while you are holding it . indeed strap , case , lense protectors are all cheap crap , and annoying to have it all on~ ! i am taking this back , and buying made in japan " nikon eagle view " 100 times better . you get what you pay for~ ! ! ! ! !
+camera neg i purchased this camera case for my granddaughter for christmas to go with the camera her parents had bought for her . this is the first time i have ever been disappointed with a product i purchased from amazon . it was , in my opinion , not worth the price i paid ! the picture looked much larger that it actually was . i wil continue to purchase through amazon but i will be much more careful and definitely return it if i 'm not satisfied . in this case i did not have time to find another camera case . thanks for giving me the opportunity of expressing my opinion . linda sutto
+music pos i finally got this cd , i have been looking for this cd for awhile now , a great by well worth it
+music pos as one of the founding fathers of today 's heavy metal rock music , iron butterfly has them power , drive , and sound that made them unique in the world of rock music . this live album serves as a testament to that fact . eventhough the recordings of live concerts from the late 1960 's through the mid 1980 's was primative at best ( by today 's standards ) , this live recording of iron butterfly captures most of the groups best music durring their prime as a chart-topping group of that era . this is a " must-have " for all iron butterfly fans
+music neg i hate the beatles . they are amongst my music guide top 20 worst bands ever . they only made a few decent songs in hey jude , let it be , and ballad of john and yoko . rest of their songs just stink ! even a mark knopfler cd without dire straits is better than this ! like i said , anyone who listens to the beatles or zeppelin do n't know what good music is about , huh ! ! ! good music is required dire straits , green day , foreigner , gnr , metallica , and nirvana . get any album from those bands insted . the beatles suck ! ! ! !
+music neg the kidz bop series is the ultimate travesty in music . and do n't think that it 's good just because your kids might love it . kids also like to eat mcdonalds , but do n't try telling me that their food is healthy . there is plenty of good music out there than is clean enough for children . and , surprisingly , a lot of these songs are very inappropriate for children , even with the expletives deleted . there is no reason on earth why these records should exist , excepting for the fact that record execs want to milk more money out of the singles once their radio play starts to diminish . i agree with the person who suggested the beatles as an alternative . seriously , do n't buy this !
+music neg stinkish-i totally agree with you 100% ! ! ! ! what was mattel thinking when they released this item ? some songs are ok , but " hit me baby one more time ? " that song is soooo old ! and so yesterday , by lip singer , hilary duff , is sooooo yesterday ! ! ! ! you gotta be desperate for music to actually buy this or want it.if you think that i am way wrong then include me in your review
+music neg i purchased " empty " not long after it came out and it was fairly enjoyable , but eventually forgettable , pop / rock . this sophomore effort is , simply put , amatuer and sub-par . some of these sound like they would have been packaged more effectively as " empty " b-sides , while the cover of " electric avenue " never really distracts most listeners from thinking " what is this and why ? " over all , this might appeal to most christian radio listeners , but only because they will never scrutinize it for what it actually is : mold-fitting white noise
+music neg i loved shedaisy 's first album the whole shebang . and i also really enjoy their christmas albumn . they have beautiful voices and i love the three part harmonies they come up with . i was very excited to get their newest album but i was sure dissapointed . this is a very dark and depressing album . almost every song is about lost love . also , all the songs but 1 are slow . where is the upbeat shedaisy i fell in love with ? ? ? i would suggest passing this one up and instead just listening to the whole shebang again . still , i look forward to what the future may bring from them . these sisters have alot of talent
+music neg metallica never recovered from the death of cliff burton , as this album is prime evidence of . he helped to bring depth to the songs that is not present here . also , newstead only gets one song on this album , which is ironically the best song on the album . in the history of metallica , this album marks the transition from artistic song writing to commercial
+camera neg i purchased this for my daughter since i had already had purchased one for myself . the pictures are clear and crisp . if i had to buy another i would purchase the same
+camera neg i bought this camera and it took great pictures above water , but none of the pictures i took underwater turned out . i looked at the negatives and it was like i never even clicked the shutter . the negatives were blank where i took the underwater pictures
+music pos jodeci 's forever my lady has a problem that most nineties r&b releases had at that time , if the fast songs were tight then the slow songs suck and vice versa . jodeci 's first cd had some of the finest slow songs to come off of one cd in 1991. stay , forever my lady , come & talk to me , u&i , and i 'm still waiting rank with the best but every single fast is hot trash
+music neg i got this cd after seeing what i remembered as a decent video on fuse tv . maybe i was half-asleep , because after listening to this ho-hum entry into the world of emo copycats , i ca n't even remember or recognize which song it was . this album is ultimately forgettable- - better off listening to any jimmy eat world cd again and again , which is actually an enjoyable experience
+camera neg i made mistake getting such a big & bulky case for small minidv sony camcorder hc26. this case can take any big size old camcorders ( like old sony hi8 ) , so if you are looking for your new camcorder this definately is a bad choice
+camera neg the camera is a great camera.it is one of the best kind of camera in its level.everything is great in that ( perfect picture and easy to work ) but in that package as i saw in amazon add , the remote suppose to be in the package and comes with it but it wo n't and there is not remute in that package and it is kind of cheating...be careful about this product if you think whatever has written comes with package but not .
+music pos tim mcgraw does it again . it is a great album with some really great songs . a must have
+camera pos purchased a printer dock and camera bundle , from a local office supply store for $100. it only came with a 10 picture sample cartridge , so i purchsed this from amazon . amazon had the best price around on this item and free shipping . it works great . no complaints . the paper is not quite as shiny and or as thick as the epson photo glossy paper that i still use for some pictures , but works well for my classroom , to give to my students . the pictures do not run like some inkjet pictures do if you accidentally drip water on them
+music pos if you want a feel good , come home from work and forget your day cd you found it her
+music neg certainly not deserving of the grammy ( for cast recording ) . each of the other nominated productions is much better than this poor excuse of a revival .
+music neg a lame group of angry teenagers screaming about themselves . ironic lyrics like " image of the invisible " do not make them intellectual . this trash is not music . get it off my radio ! if only i could give 0 stars. .
+music neg this was the worst thing i 've ever heard , except maybe clap your hands say yeah . my cousin who has absolutely no musical taste introduced me to them and i hate them forever
+camera pos bought this tripod to use with my spotting scope for target shooting . easy attachment to my scope and multiple adjustment heights , with the crank , make it easy to zero in on the target and allow anyone to see thru the scope , no matter how tall they are . compact and lite to carry , makes it easy to transport to and from the range
+music pos grew up on this group . love them then and love them now . own the " best of " collection but you can never compile the best on one cd . for those winans fans you know what i 'm talking about . these brothers are music genuises especially marvin winans . like stevie wonder they were ahead of their time . my favorite song on this album shares the message of all times . " together we stand " opens up the eyes to all race , religion , and creed that its time to come together if we want to see a change in this world regardless of background . entire album is great including the celebrity appearances such as stevie wonder , teddy riley , and aaron hall . i like the flavor the cameos add to this album . if you 're into mid-tempo music this is the album to purchase
+music pos this cd is a confusing mix of punk bands , from pop-punk 's sum 41 & good charlotte to punk favorites alkaline trio , vandetta red , & the casualties to bands that i 've never even heard of such as unsung zeros , ozma , & destruction made simple . i reccomend this cd if you 're looking for new bands to like & listen to . although it 's a confusing cd , it gives you new ideas of just how deep you 're going to go in the punk underground
+music neg i was disappointed when i received this cd . although it is original , the music is hard for me to listen for more than a minute or two . by your side , ( my favorite ) is good for about two minutes . then the beat gets off track , and starts to sound terrible . if this was done on purpose , i cannot fathom why . i know this is " lo-fi " , but a hint of bass would n't hurt at all . as it stands , the cd sounds like an unfinished product , and is not nearly good enough to stand on its own . i think this cd would best be used for some sampling...especially in today 's hip-hop . if you are looking for beautiful , relaxing music...look elsewhere
+camera neg i agree with m. arse with the 2star rating . i was disappointed with this camera from the beginning . not a user friendly one and the pictures turn out very grainy with bad color quality unless you are in an optimum light . i 'm interested in the 7 mp camera canon offers . i 've read that it has much better shutter speed . recommended ? ?
+camera neg at 300mm this lens is very soft , it 's hard to get a shot that looks like it 's in focus . to do so , you need to shoot at about f / 11 , and then since there is little light available , you usually have to bump the iso to 800 or 1600 just to get an acceptable shutter speed . of course , the high iso then introduces other artifacts . the focus is also dead slow and often does n't lock on . this is a lens that i have constantly fought with . do n't upgrade to the new 70-300 is either , as it 's only marginally better . buy the 70-200 f / 4l . it 's a far superior lens
+camera neg i feel that it is just way too much money for what you get . i own a lot of professional ( canon ) equipment and gladly paid the price because they are the best things out there . but it makes little sense to market a marginal product and still expect to command a high price . i have the s80. no complaint there . the leather case was just way too tight , which invites a fumble as you try to pull out the camera . the flap issue is an issue . the neck chain is a bit short , and similar and better items can be had for a lower price . if you shop around you can also find the li battery for less . i 'm not upset , but just disappointed with what i got for the price
+camera neg not too long after i purchased this camera the screen turned white when i turned it on . i would turn it off and on and nothing would help . finally i would take the batteries out and put them back in . this seemed to fix the problem a few times . after that i thought it was just operator error . but it wasn't . the camera finally gave out and the white screen never went away . so after being annoyed i left the camera alone for awhile . an event came up about a month later . i got my camera and tried to turn it on . nothing happened . so i changed the batteries . still nothing happened . i 'm not sure what happened . i do believe i purchased a lemon camera . i 'm hoping to resolve these issues with samsung . it was one of the cheapest cameras on the market at the time . so i guess you get what you pay for !
+music pos the sounds were very convincing , i actually felt like i was there even my daughter thought it was really storming outside since i have a subwoofer and was able to control the thunder intensity ( all this was at night ) the only thing missing was the strobe light to add to the lightnig effect . it does relax you and allows you to destress . there are other types of stress management cd 's out there but if you like the outdoors and your'e not able to get away then this is what may work for you . johnny lina
+music pos at first , i thought the only reason why i wanted this cd was because idina menzel was on it . but now , after listening to the whole cd , i was right , idina menzel was amazing , and all of the other cast members are incredibly talented too . i would highly recommend this because it is a very interesting story , it 's incredibly complex music ( theoretically ) , but at the same time it is very enjoyable ! ! ! ! i would give it more stars if i could.. . but i am only allowed 5... : (
+camera pos i enjoy all the features of this item . the main compartment that hold the camera is soft and secure . you can open it without worrying about your camera falling off . the back compartment is roomy enough for all the basic gear . the slot for memory cards 1-4 ( depends on the card type ) , batteries ( roomy for four aa ) , and cables can fit in it . the shoulder strap is basic and looks flimsy . it 's not long enough to hold comfortable diagonally but on the side is good . the belt loop is very secure and can fit on belt three inch in width . it can even handle the worst environment ever . hot , dry climate with sandstorms and occasional accidental drops . it has protected my dig . camera very well
+music neg after reading glowing reviews of the dbts i picked up three of their cds . while some of the lyrics are strong , the songs have no melodies whatsoever . most of the arrangements consist of guitars blaring over a terrible singer . they 're reputed to be carrying on the tradition of skynyrd and the allmans . but those bands were n't just loud guitars...they had memorable tunes and great singers . dbts are a huge letdown
+music neg i mainly bought this album because i was going to see them on this tour . in fact the gig i was at was the opening show on the tour . again , the band uses their patented formula basically creating the same album over and over again . i find most of this album to be very average . actually after listening , this album is not very good at all . the majority of the songs are cliché ridden in both music and lyrics . there are a couple of catchy tracks most notably " safe in new york city " which is a bit different but most of this album is cock rock at its most basic . probably one of the bands weakest efforts
+camera neg poor quality unit . worked sometimes , sometimes not . gave up and returned it after a couple of weeks of trying it out
+music neg people this is easy listening at it 's easiest . every song is and will be a candidate for adult contemperary rotation in 2 years , that is if it is n't allready . i do n't know anything about what they have done in the past , except for a song i remember being played on the radio a few years ago . must have been on the album prior to this . but that song sounds just like two tracks on this one . not only that but if there was n't a pause in between these mini mediocre fests i could n't really tell any of them apart . horrible music with no feeling or soul , not even creative . do n't waste your time with this .
+music pos this is the soundtrack that led me into the wonderful world of glam rock ! it is outstanding and i could just play it again and again... . it is certainly one of the most brilliant albums out there and probably my favourite soundtrack of all time .
+music neg there is now no trace of delight left in this band . all songs are either moderately slow and somewhat self-indulgent or frightfully slow and quite self-indulgent . i do love this band and pronounce praises upon them whenever i receive a doe-eyed look saying their name , but this cd and the cd previous ( which did have 1 tune , " apples , " with which one could smile ) does , for the first time , take away any anticipation for their next collection of chopfallen tunes . first , we loose the roses , then the ned 's disband , following that , swervedriver breaks apart and velocity girl is gone forevermore . now my charlatans have become charlatans of the great band they once were .
+music pos when i bought this cd it was for a little bit of nostalgia - those were the days . since playing it once when it blew me away with the tracks and the memories , i have played it so often that if it were vinyl it would be worn out by now . if you liked mary hopkins then this is a fantastic selection of her music and well worth a place in your collection
+music neg some of the songs here are good , most notably " never be forgotten " .....beautiful . i heard this song on the radio and i thought it was faith hill or martina mcbride singing . herein lies the problem . the song is good , the voice is good . but if she sounds like faith or martina , there 's no distinction to set her off from the rest of the pack out there . add to this that this is mostly bubble-gum pop and not country....there 's really nothing that stands out here . why are recording companies giving contracts to people who sound like everybody else out there ? that 's the question .
+camera neg the product features are ok , but the screen is very small . also , the resolution needs to be better . the photos were very grainy . an impressive looking product with not so impressive output
+camera pos i took this with me recently to australia and shot landscapes as well as others , and the pictures came out better than the film cameras i have used recently , plus you do n't need a scanner . this camera works great , a must have for semi-pros . pros , wait for the new 1d . pictures come out great at 11 " x17 "
+camera neg good : motor drive speed . grip feel . takes nikon lenses . reacts fast to pressing the shutter release . bad : skin tone renditions a color other than skin . white balance does n't balance well . noise at anything above iso 200 , looks like 3200. cf card door tough to open . screen fogs if you breathe when you shoot . battery cover is not part of the battery . button placement not as intuitive as on the d100. 4.1mp allows for virtually no cropping of enlargements . dumped mine a month after i got it
+camera pos very nice bag and well made . however , i bought it for the canon dc100 dvd camcorder and found it a little small for carrying all the equipment ( cords and charger ) .
+camera pos it was n't the easiest thing to transfer photos from a computer and to delete the " samples " on the frame was no picnic either , but once learned it becomes easier . i went from frustrated to happy , soon enough
+music pos i am 62 years old , and seen them all . i have never seen anyone as visually and emotionally stunning as beth hart at the paradiso ! simply the most powerful stage performance i have ever witnessed ! she takes every single song to an epic level of entertainment , and just plain never coasts through a song . some of the spectators in attendance looked almost scared by what they were seeing , and most were mesmerized by her on-stage and off stage sexually potent antics ! she has been compared to janis . i saw janis twice , and beth hart would bury janis in any category ! i ca n't imagine how she can possibly maintain a level like that captured at the paradiso for very long- -it just does n't seem humanly possible ! i am so glad someone was there with so highly skilled a video crew to capture one of the most shattering evenings of music ever . magnificent in its fury !
+music pos i love this show so much ! ! it just has so much passion and beauty and all the cast members sing so well ! ! sutton foster as jo , was cast very well , its obvious she deserved that tony nomination in 2005 , and the sisters , even though they were n't the leads , they all had such great songs , especially beth , whose song , " some things are meant to be " always brings tears to my eyes , its just so touching . i would definitely recomend this cd to anyone who loves musical theatr
+music pos i love this album . mc lyte is one of the best female rappers.how can someone not like her rap
+camera neg i found the same problem that other users of this product experienced . particularly the issue of the shutter release being at the bottom of the camera when composing a portrait oriented shot . i found a stroboframe flash bracket that rotates the camera counter clockwise within the flash bracket instead of flipping the flash . this leaves the shutter release at the top of the camera and also alleviated the other problem of speed light hot shoe breakage from repeated " flipping " of the flash that some other users have reported . the item is manufactured by stroboframe and can be found at an ebay store called " gadget infinity " under the listing title of " flash bracket with 90 degrees camera rotate feature " . buy it now price is $29.99. i just bought one and it arrived yesterday and i could not be happier . pass the word of this ingenious new product that will solve the issues that have plagued photographers for the past several years
+camera neg i would spend a little more money and buy a better quality camera . the picture quality was not good at all . i previously owned another kodak camera with the same megapixels and the picture quality on that camera was much better . just after a year of using the kodak c300 camera , it stopped working and i did not use it that much . i now own the sony cybershot dsc-w50 that takes great pictures , i have n't had any problems with it and i have been using it on an almost daily basis since may 2006
+music pos omg ! ! this is relient ks best cd yet . you should buy it , even if you did n't care for their other cds . because....well...it rocks ! !
+camera pos i have n't used it much but the few photos i have taken are excellent . i 'm not a photography expert so i 'll leave the technicalities to others . telephoto capability is increased noticeably but not a huge amount . the high quality of this lens , as with the wide-angle , is obvious . comes with caps and a storage bag
+camera pos i upgraded from the canon digital rebel ( grey body ) to this because i was ready to take my photography to a new level . one thing i like most about this camera is it 's flash compenstation . i purchased the 430ex flash with it because i was tired of having to use the built in flash and always getting those hard shadows on the wall
+music neg it has been nearly three months and i have yet to receive the subject michael henderson cd . amazon should not be offering this item for sale , if they do not have access to a supplier
+music neg this is a pep rally on cd ; an unsingable , emotionally charged pep rally . it really upsets me that this is the face of today 's christian music . the melodies are not easily singable at all , and the songs use all the same musical cliches . this is worship manipulation at it 's best . if you read the words to learn something concrete about god , you will find nothing of substance . they talk about actions to give god and our response to god , but no meat-and-potatoes of why we should be doing this . god is great , but why ? this is very disturbing , and completely unacceptable for congregational worship .
+music neg so far , so good...so what ! ( in it 's origional form ) used to conjure feeling . the remastered edition sounds like a group of studio musicians tried to remake the album and just did n't quite hit the nail on the head . if you bought this album on cassette when it came out in the late 80s , get your hands on that version .
+music pos this is the latest entry in the lost legend series and it is the best alblum since the very first lost legends alblum release . the songs match up and compliment each other better than any of the previous alblums in this series , so well that it sounds like a dance alblum . i give it a high recommendation for any surf music fan . try alldirect.com for the best prices on this series of alblums
+music neg there is at times , a fine line between noise and music . nin not only crossed that line in this cd , but stomped on it a few times in the process . not even close to the calibre of with teeth , this cd is a waste of time and an insult to the talent that resides within this group of musicians . songs that go from semi-music to irritating noise and last four times as long as one can abide , while " playing " the same thing over and over and ...well , you get my drift . if great music is your thing , pass this one up . or write me a note and tell me why on earth such a great group would release such an abomination
+music neg this never should 've been pressed . they should 've taken the mix and thrown it out . do not buy ! !
+camera pos this is a wonderful lens with great image quality , very fast , and very good build quality . no complaints
+music neg i ca n't believe the touch of b.b. king . i enjoy his playing immensely . i know this album gets buried in accolades . but i do n't like it . the quality is poor and , differing from other 's opinions , the crowd noise takes away from the music . b.b. said , in so many words , that live at the regal was far from his choice as his best recording . typically , he said he would n't argue with success- -and left it at that . there are so many good albums by b.b. you ca n't go wrong for $4.65 for the " ultimate collection " . sure it does n't have them all- -but it has quite a few of his great songs , including a few from live at the regal . i would steer clear of this selection . or i 'll send you mine for free
+music neg to much guitar , drowns out all the other instruments . survivor was made famous by heavy keyboards and drums , not guitars . i was expecting another burning heart , is this love , high on you . no songs on this albums have that sound . the vocals by jamison are top notch , but none of the songs sound like the survivor i remember . survivor guitars were only there to complement the keyboards , bass and drums , not drive the whole song . i guess jim peterik was the man behind survivor all along . i give the cd 2 stars for fire makes steel , the rest are throw aways . ***recommended for die hards only*** i highly recommend ' when seconds count ' for anyone getting started with survivor
+music pos forget the nit-picky comments you may read here , if you are a fan of any of the artists on this album , buy it ! the recording is of very high quality , and i agree with another review , vacuum tube amplification makes the vocals even better . the banter between the artists in between the musical numbers is a real treat for fans too young to experience these shows live . one other observation , if you buy this not having a huge appreciation for sammy already , you will be blown away by his talent . ..thanks to sinatra family for releasing this disc . hopefully many more are forthcoming
+camera pos the case is great ! it fits the camera perfectly and is exactly what i expected to receive when ordering . the price was right but the shipping was a little higher than i expected
+camera neg the camera is just plain cheap . takes nothing but fuzzy , low resolution pictures . the thing weighs a ton and even for all that the binoculars are only mediocre . a great idea , maybe someday someone will actually do it right
+camera pos the sony cybershot is a great camera . the colors and the features are amazing . is very easy to use . the only thing i dont like about the camera is the zoom in and out button . if you zoomed in you wont be able to zoom out .
+music pos i just bought this on cd as it was on sale through the cd club . i have the original vinyl , but had n't listened to it in years . this is one of the best works of music ever conceived , written and performed . it is absolutely timeless and each song impresses you more than the last . put this one on repeat and let it play three or four times . it just keeps getting better . stevie is an awesome talent and this may be his best . do n't forget how great music was in the 70's . this work is one of the major reasons for the resurgence of 70 's music today by artists that were n't even born then . you can see quite clearly the artists that followed stevie . most recently alicia keys who would be the first to say his music is pure inspiration
+music pos wrathchild alone is worth the purchase of this album . its just that darn good of a song . but hey , the whole album is good . the title track is brutally awesome , especially live on the beast over hammersmith cd ( iron maiden box set ) . and murders in the rue morgue is another classic . then there is drifter , and the two intrumentals the ides of march and ghengis khan ( who papa roach would rip off the guitar riff from for their one hit wonder song last resort ) . maybe not as good as their debut album , but still a masterpeice of an album
+camera neg i purchased this camera case for my granddaughter for christmas to go with the camera her parents had bought for her . this is the first time i have ever been disappointed with a product i purchased from amazon . it was , in my opinion , not worth the price i paid ! the picture looked much larger that it actually was . i wil continue to purchase through amazon but i will be much more careful and definitely return it if i 'm not satisfied . in this case i did not have time to find another camera case . thanks for giving me the opportunity of expressing my opinion . linda sutto
+music pos my one complaint is that after i listen to this cd , the catchy tunes get stuck in my head ! and then i want to keep listening to it more and more . i love the selections on this cd , the fact that the songs are in english ( i always wondered what the " figaro , figaro , figaro " song was about ! ) , and that a little background is given to each piece as well
+camera pos for its size and price , this little light ca n't be beat . very transportable and produces a dramatic influence on the image quality of evening shoots indoors . i think this is a must have for camcorder owners . my vhs family movies shot over 20 years ago are still a source of pure joy , so i see this as a miniscule investment for the long-term return .
+music pos like many of the highly talented and innovative groups of the 1980 's , the pet shop boys were ahead of their time . this album was purchased mainly for " west end girls " and " it 's a sin . " play this album from beginning to end without interruption - it 's fantastic . " loves comes quickly " emerges for me as the best of the pet shop boys remarkable and unique sound - a composition reflecting orchestral complexity and pulsating energy . the great contributions of great britain and australia to music in the 1980 's in my opinion comes largely from their composers and performers effectively combining the power and harmonic complexity of some classical music compositions of the mid 1920 's to the early 1950 's ( no doubt the origins of some great movie scores ) with the emerging sophistication and always present upbeat effect of rock and roll . you will love the pet shop boys
+music pos jeff beck is far from the typical rock guitarist . he never took the easy path of showing how fast or virtuoso he is . instead , he is full of intriguing and explosive ideas that make you want to listen to this cd over and over again . that 's what musicianship is all about , and jeff has plenty of it
+music neg ashlee 's recent face lift and apparent nose job is proof that 's she 's all plastic and no talent . she must of asked the dr to make her look like her sister . very sad cause she 's unrecognizable now . better looking , maybe , still ca n't sing or dance .
+camera neg i bought this frame as a gift for my parents and ended up returning it . the price was right but the quality was poor and there were 2 spots on the screen that looked like they were already burned out ( displaying blue and green pixels ) . i did enjoy the fact that it hooks right up to the computer with a usb port but that is about all . overall do n't waste your time and money
+camera neg this camera has an attractive look and price but it does not take good pictures . i bought this camera for my 12 year old daughter and although she was happy with it ( she 's happy with anything pink ) i was very disappointed at the quality and functionality
+camera pos the np-bg1 type g lith pack had good picture life , but i 'd carry a spare if your going to use your cameras movie feature
+camera pos i have been using kodak cameras for years . this is my third kodak digital camera . it does everything , including taking excellent close-up wildlifephotos . it is as easy to use as a point and shoot . however , it does have all the bells and whistles needed for a professional style camera . it is well worth the money . look no further this is the camera for you
+music pos i love these albums . get all 3 cause they are great
+music neg if you are short on money , do not buy this c.d. you will regret it . however if you are trying to get rid of a gift voucher or something side one is really good , especially the dr. evil " just the two of us " . really this is not a good album , as side two is rubbish . i still have n't listened to it all the way throug
+music neg about half the songs are great old songs i 'm familiar with , the other half are songs made famous by other artists and most are clangers for elvis that are painful to listen to
+music pos " the passion of the christ - songs " is a fine collection of great songs , each in their own way a reaction to the spectacular film that mel gibson has created . the standouts are the song " i see love " by steven curtis chapman , third day an mercyme ; scott stapp 's powerful solo debut song " relearn love ; " " rainy day " by big dismal , and the emotional " new again " by brad paisley and sarah evans . despite a couple of songs that do n't reach their true potential ( " the passion , " and " how many lashes " ) , this is a fine cd that belongs in anyone 's and everyone 's christian music collection . grade : a -
+camera pos the sony cybershot is a great camera . the colors and the features are amazing . is very easy to use . the only thing i dont like about the camera is the zoom in and out button . if you zoomed in you wont be able to zoom out .
+music neg this collection is a must have if you like the bee gees and do n't have any of their albums...or even if you do . it 's one hit after another plus some i 've never heard , which is nice for variety . i could n't ask for a better collection - it 's like i had burned this for myself .
+music neg she is not a singer , she is not able to write , play and read the scores / music . she is an entertainer ! the problem is : you ca n't stop the stupid kids for buying the celebrate pop crappy albums today . who still recognize this maid in the next 10 years ? it is the same case like britney spears and spice girls ! ps : pls throw away the cd from your window or burn it to the hot ash volcanos ! ! ! thank god for america 's future pop artists like this one !
+camera neg i own several great digital cameras . it seems like i get one for each use - one with good zoom , another camera for its good flash use in lowlight and others . this one i wanted for the high mp in a small compact size that i can put into my pocket . the first few photos were great , taken outdoors in my sunny patio . then every picture i took after that ( same settings - fine , hq , poster 10m etc.. . and vertical lines started showing on the lcd screen and the pictures were all washed out . when i download them on the computer , they look exactly that way too - with the lines and almost all white . i 've played around with the settings ( and i do know how to work them ) but still it does the same . so time to return to find a better one . that 's too bad since i read some good reviews and wanted to have it
+camera pos i 've had a ton of these , and i take them on camping trips with kids where the main activity is playing in big mud fields . i 've had them in my pocket while rolling around in the mud , taken it out , shot a few pics , put it back in the pocket with no problem . ( see pictures for examples of " mud photos " ) a couple of times i 've had them stand up to so much moisture and abuse that the cardboard falls off , but still had beautiful pictures every time , no jams or over-exposures . i 've found the two pack at walmart on sale for $8.99 a couple of times , and you absolutely cannot be that deal . this is my favorite disposable camera , and i 've tried them all .
+music pos what can i say about vince gill that his many fans have n't already mentioned . i had never been particularly interested in country music . but , one day i was listening to a country radio station and vince gill was singing " when ever you come around " and i was hooked . this cd is as consistant as all his others . great lyics and superb musicianship . i rate this five stars as i believe gill is one of the best singer songwriters in the world today
+music neg the fact that this has had no us release was an immediate warning .... however as a longtime fan i figured i would check it out . boy is this bad . there are a few decent tracks , however the truly awful " crazy little thing called love " , " this magic moment " , " only you " - among many others - make this unlistenable . miss ross is a great singer and interpeter - check out the delicacy she approached the billie holliday material . she is a producer 's singer : ashford and simpson , chic , holland dozier holland - even hall & oates - all were able to take her talent and create - in some cases - true all time classics . this is a mess . diana , your voice still sounds great - stop executive producing your projects
+camera neg this camera was a pain to pick the mode to get the camera to work . it 's batteries died all the time and lost all of the pictures . when you did get a picture loaded on the computer the software was terrible . we trashed it within 2 weeks of purchasing
+camera neg i purchase this instrument twice . the first time there were black specks in the lense , so it was returned . the second time was worst , i.e. same black specs but the thing did n't work at all . i have also checked this manufacturer 's other models out and most come with the disturbing black specks in the lense . this is n't a quality optical product
+camera neg this was the first digital camera i purchased . i am an adventurous person and wanted something that would stand up to my lifestyle . this camera was n't it . the good *it is compact , which is pretty convenient *it has several camera functions that have the potential to work well if you are techno-savvy . the bad *after snorkeling with it for 30 minutes , the camera leaked and broke . olympus replaced it , but only after my 2 month stay in costa rica was over . *the functions are unreliable and difficult to use . rarely if ever do i get them to work how i want . the pictures always need touched up afterwards , sometimes seriously . *the zoom sucks . do n't expect to get those awesome close ups they advertise unless you have some serious patience . *the image stabilization is a joke . you need a tripod or surgeons hands to take pictures that are n't blurry . *the user manual left me with a lot of questions
+music neg after souring to dizzying heights with their first four albums ( a feat achieved by only a handful of bands ) the inevitable fall seems to have come on this disc . the bunnymen built their reputation on moody , psychedelic concept pieces that culminated in ocean rain . for this release the band moves into more ' mainstream ' territory , eschewing album-wide cohesiveness for a more radio friendly approach . unfortunately these lightweight songs do n't work as well as the tantalizingly obscure sound they abandoned . if you 're new to the bunnymen you 're probably better served by checking out their first four albums ( crocodiles , heaven up here , porcupine and ocean rain ) or skipping forward to their more recent efforts evergreen and flowers
+music pos this cd is soo cool ! ! i love all the songs ! they are all good efforts . i especially like mr. coffee you have gotta hear that song ! other than that this is a great cd ! ! buy it today ! ! you 'll enjoy i
+camera pos i love this camera . i have now traveled all over the usa , some places in europe , and will be using it in china . lens is excellent . i wish it were lighter weight , but ca n't have everything . and this weight has certainly no been a problem given its zoom . i have had this camera for over two years now and have no desire to switch to anything else
+music neg it is bad ! as much as i like " 10 new songs " , this one disappointed me a lot .
+camera pos i purchased this camera to use with my previous church 's media ministry , based on my trial use of the vx2000. that was three years ago . this camera is still running as well as it did when i bought it . i use it upwards of 3 times a week to create content for web and dvd production , plus , i get great digital audio recordings when i plug directly into my current church 's sound system . the ability to tweak audio and video input on the fly is incredible . now that i am creating a multimedia team for our church , i 've convinced the church to buy one for themselves
+music pos i agree with most of the reviewers that this band was very underated.great singing electric and acoustic guitar playing and great songs.why were songs like natures way and i got a line not huge hits ? i got a line made the top 40 i think.natures way was a great acoustic ballad.also nothing to hide has a nice acoustic / electric section.also mister skin could of been a hit catchy.this band was better than a lot of the crap that came out in the late 1960 's all the bad hippie bands of that era.as for the whole album i think it would get five stars if it had some live tracks as bonus cuts , like a live i got a line or natures way live hearing that live would of been fun . i heard samples on a live spirit cd.a great unknown band that everyone should give a listen to and to remember what real musicians and songs were about in the old days
+camera neg nothing special and probably over-priced for what it is . the leather is nigh on invisible . it 's more of a skin to protect the camera from scratches , " case " would be stretching the definition somewhat
+camera neg i bought this toy a year ago and tried it on my etx-90ec telescope all i got is hazy moon video , the resolution is poor the maximum pixels is 640*420 which is very pooooooor resolution it didnt reach even 1 mega pixels , hey we 've got now 12 megapixels chips why dont provide it celstron ? ? ? tried to edit it with the included poor software but it was useless i thought it might need bigger telescope so the aperture would be higher and i might able to see some stars or galaxies as per advertisement i went to my cousin who has lx90 8 " telescope , the result was bright dots seem to be stars i dont recommend this toy its a waste of money if you want really to take serious photograph try to attach your film or digital camera to your telescope by t-adapte
+camera neg i do n't see how they can recommend this kit for all dx cameras . the dx7590 would barely fit in that case
+camera neg i bought the 2700 easy share camera and printer dock . money thrown away ! ! the camera does n't take quality pictures in my opinion and the printer was junk , also in my opinion . it truly is junk now as i got so frustrated with it , i threw it on the floor and smashed it . not kidding ! when i first got it , i called kodak and they told my son ( who is knowledgeable in this stuff ) how to reset the printer . we reset it and it worked for awhile . then it would n't work any more and i did away with it . no more kodak for me and my son bought a different brand after he saw how mine worked
+camera pos it is light ; has 6x magnification ; and easy to use . this little tool is great for any golfer . you must know the yardage before you can select the correct club . how far is it to either the top of that bunker next to the green or the flagstick ? next , you just then need to pull the club that will get you there . fits on your belt through a loop in the safe carrying case or use the supplied clip to attached the case to your golf bag . these new laser rangefinders are better than ever and at a lower price than previous models . love it
+music neg this cd is garbage . juvenile should go hang him self after putting out this album . he was alright when he first came out but now he sucks the big one . if i was you dont listen to the retards who tell you " this is a good comeback album " . instead of wasting you cah on this crap i recommend welcome back by mase . that is a good comeback album . the only thing that makes the album even worth noting is the beats of mannie fresh . juvenile just was a waste of those excellent beats . a shame they could n't go to ja rule , whose cd sucked with his beats . he has the vocal and writing talent but his beats blow
+camera neg i bought this camera a year ago , the camera is goog only for outdoor use with a lot of light , but for using indoor ( with flash ) is very , very bad . when you use flash the photo are not good , but if you go to beach this may be a regular choice , if you can bought another camera .
+camera pos this thing is perfect for carrying your stuff around in a not-so-fattening way . i hvae an external flash , macro kit , 28-80 lens , 50mm lens , 18-55mm lens , dslr w / batt grip and 75-300mm lens attached all fit into the main body of this thing . everything is seperated by the dividers making me feel confident and safe while walking , hiking , biking , etc. the addon pouches seem to make it a bit more bulking that you 'd want , but the bag all by itself is fantastic and i ca n't recommend it enough - get away from huge bulky shoulder bags ! ! lowepro did it again
+music neg very very dissapointed . e-40 raps too quick , he is too hard to understand and he sounds like a trick
+camera neg the battery which " popped up " with my camera order does not match the camera . thus i am stuck with the hassel of returning a battery . i was leaving for a trip when it arrived and so i had to go out and buy a replacement after it arrived .
+camera pos i read many reviews at fredmiranda.com before i purchased this lens and i was not dissapointed one bit . i was lucky enough to receive a very sharp copy of this lens on the first try . the macro shots were very sharp and contrasty . the center part is already reaching near maximum sharpness at f2.8 anything beyond f4 is tack sharp . be carefull with this lens though . the dof at f2.8 is extremely narrow . do n't mistaken the out of focus shots for being unsharp . focus properly and crank up the aperture and you 'll get some very satisfying macro shots . the only thing i wish this lens had was image stabilizer . canon , how about a 100mm macro with is ?
+camera pos this camera is an exelent camara . it has plenty of effects , plenty of modes , plenty of scenery options . the image quality is 3.2 megapixel , but its quite good . the pictures you take without the flash do end up getting a bit blury , where as if you take it with the flash , it comes out exelent . and sometimes it takes a long time for the picture to get taken with out the flash , and sometimes it happens imediatly . but all these flaws are only with my version . but if you are looking for a good camera with a great price , this is your best option
+camera neg made the mistake of taking this camera on a trip to the pool ! ! pictures were horrible . eye piece is the biggest pain ! ! do n't buy this piece of junk . if you want great , good , wonderful pictures , buy the fuji quicksnap camera . kodak could have done much , much better
+camera pos i purchased a nikon l5 from costco 2 weeks ago but returned it on saturday after i saw the lz-7. the lz-7 is way better in all aspects than the nikon l5 , save for the adjustable zoom in movie mode . pros : takes great pictures ; optical image stabilization ; 6x zoom ; and , great price . it is also made in japan , not china as the nikon l5 is . cons : fixed zoom while in movie mode ; no on-board camera speakers
+camera neg i bought this about 10 months ago with an additional camera . the night vision only works on one of the cameras and the interference is horrible . it snaps and pops all night long and i have to move it all around to find " just the right spot " .i actually have to sleep with earplugs in to drown out the noise . i live in a single story 2100 sq . foot house . i should have returned it right away , but i kept it because i had no other monitor at the time . now , 10 months later , the volume control does not work anymore ! i am now trying to find a new monitor . i love having the video monitor though , so i will look for a different brand
+music neg the only thing you can say about today 's music is that it 's disguisting , gross , and made by recording artists who drop out of school and seem to think that a life as a rap music artists is so cool , until they get shot . every copy of this cd should be burned
+music neg phaeton 's son flew on wings of wax into sun crashed and burned instea
+music neg i just wanted to let you know about a copyright situation . in this movie there is a part where they are sitting in a mexican food restuarant and there is a song playing in the back round . that song is not listed on the song track and i think it should be . the song is atrevido by orishas . i think this is wrong .
+music neg i love love tegan and sara and when i found out this was one of their favorite cds i have to admit....i think i was devastated . i just saw pretty girls make graves last night and they really could not have sounded worse.not just not enjoyable...unbelieveably horrible . i think you should take your money and spend it on a cd that actually sounds like good music . do n't make your ears go through this much pain
+music neg maybe her harp playing could be acceptable , but when she sings.. . everything turns awful . the worst singer i ever heard
+music pos i had originally heard " drive away " on a radio station and i was instantly blown away . upon seeing the music video for it , i decided to buy the cd . i was hardly disappointed . the emotion that goes into the cd is amazing and it 's definitly a cd to sit down and enjoy . i saw the band in concert and met jonah after the show and was amazed by how down to earth he was . give gratitude a chance and you wo n't be disappointed .
+camera neg i bought the 4600 for my parents in 2005. a seal in the lens housing broke in november and we sent it to nikon . when nikon recieved the camera they said it had " liquid " damage to the lens shutter area . my parents did n't send the camera in that condition , yet nikon claims that it is " impossible " for that kind of " accident " to occur at their facility . two months later i am still arguing with them over this . one of their service represatives , rob mustard , told me ( paraphrasing ) " i have 70 service orders in front of me and our facility gets hundreds of repairs each week ; i 've heard every excuse imaginable for why it is n't the customer 's fault . " besides being rude , does n't that scare you about his facility getting in hundreds of repairs each week ? ? ? ? do n't buy nikon is my recommendation .
+camera pos i use this film just normally for everyday stuff . it is n't grainy when you enlarge the photos , and the colors are just outstanding . i use the 800 for the really important stuff though because i think the colors are more vibrant . but , for just vacations , stuff around the house , the 400 will do a great job . anything less it basically a waste of money . i shoot at least a roll a week just of everyday life and this is the one that i choose all the time . i have a basket full
+music pos i 've had this cd since it came out and it continues to be my favorite . it 's a cd that i can put in anytime and thoroughly enjoy . this would be my pick for the cd to have while stranded on an island . it never gets boring and made me appreciate just how good schon is . unbelievable . if you like this , you 'll like eric johnson 's venus isle album too . two of my all time favorites
+music neg i should first state that i am a huge ej fan . his music has been extremely important to me over the years . he is , without a doubt , a genius ... i would go so far as to call him the mozart of our times . but , elton can also write bloated , self-indulgent tripe , and if you ask me , this album belongs in that bucket . i give it 2 stars just because of ssmlt , one of his all-time greats . i never cease to be blown away by that song . but the rest of this album ? booooooring ! ! !
+camera neg i found the product to be made very poorly....all it too is one drop on the floor and the camera battery door cracked and that was is for the camera too....not a kid friendly camera at all
+music neg i love milton nascimento 's early work ( " travessia " and " clube da esquina " ) , but this does not reach that level by far . my main objection is that it does not live up to the promise delivered by the famous names of the participants like herbie hancock , wayne shorter , pat metheny a.o. " vera cruz " is ok , but the rest is just too pretentious . just as a warning to all brazilian music lovers out there : this is certainly not a must have , apart from die hard milton fans . i would rather recommend to check out the latest releases by fellow brazilian caetano veloso ( " livro " and " prenda minha " ) , because they are really indispensable
+camera neg i have had both the s5000 and the s5100 i was disapointed when my s5000 power switch stopped working after 18 months , but i was happy with the picture quality . i replaced it with the s5100 , it has a slightly better feature set over the s5000 ( in particular shutter speed choices ) while on a trip to niagara falls , i was unfortunate to give my camera a slight jolt ( and i mean slight ) after that it would n't power up . i am now looking for something a liitle more robust and reliable .
+music pos plain and simple...cage is one of the best underground rappers around.....and soon after hell 's winter drops i think he will be accepted into mainstream......this cd is cage at his craziest , the beats are hott , the rhymes are hot...buy this cd....and if you like this cd buy some of his other cds , weatherproof , night hawks , smut peddler 's : porn again , the leak brothers : water world , and hell 's winter
+music pos i 'm a bit surprised by the negative reviews , this cd is amazing . it 's not anything like soundgarden or audioslave - but it 's amazing none-the-less . every song on here is beautifully written , and , as always , cornell 's voice does n't disappoint . it 's different , but one of my new favorite cds
+camera pos i purchase this on december 2006 i have other 10x50 binocular but when i look at sky through this binox..it 's amazing ! ! ! i recommend it for astronomy and birding trip. .
+camera pos this is the only tripod that i have ever owned , however , i do agree that it seems to be a very nice piece of equipment , especially for the very low price . it suits my needs well for a small digital camera . the only downside is that it does not come with a carry bag . this was an oversight on my part when i ordered , and i 'm sure i would have to pay just as much as i did for the tripod to get a bag for it , so i will live with it as is
+camera pos excelent battery ! i recommend it for all olympus slr digital cameras . i am using it on my e300 and you can take a lot of pictures in one day . i have 2 batteries because of outdoors shoots and this is really enough .
+music neg pls tell me tat tis boxset is a joke ! ! ! ! classic rock - reo , romantics ... bangles ? ? ? its more like classic new wave . only thing good would be the price . pls ... who ever the a& ; r people are ... pls ... pls ... design something bette
+camera pos have used this lens from the deer stand while hunting , at sporting events ( indoor and outdoor ) and at concerts . fast focusing and great image stabilization ( is does use quite a bit more power , though ) . have not had one problem with it . solid build and has a little heft to it . it is a bit pricey , but i chaulk that up to it being about the best on the market . would recommend it to anyone looking for a top shelf lens .
+camera neg i was expecting much more from this flash , i already started looking for the better one . if i knew this was a closeout item i 'd never buy it . it died on me with no indication , sent to canon fixed and returned with a big scratch on it . now it does work but sometings wrong with recycle time even with brand new duracell batteries.. . save money and buy 5xx series flash. .
+music neg is n't wearing your ancestry on your sleeve so blatantly and in such a predictable fashion just a 21st century version of al jolson ? the problem with so many new-traditionalist artists is that they lessen rather than deepen the understanding of the complexity and diversity of the celebrated cultural groups experience . hippies and white liberals love it , but where does that leave those that are living it ? far better capturing the latina experience are julietta venegas , south of the border , and east la 's lysa flores , north of the border
+music neg great cd . imus in the morning recommended highly and the i-man was not wrong . one of the best cd 's i 've owned in years . i listen to a lot of buffett , james taylor , delbert mcclinton , and this cd places high in these ranks
+camera pos i went to ritz camera today and took a good look at the tz3. i 'll tell you , its pretty nice . the build quality is really good , as a previous person mentioned . the body is metal . the dials and buttons click with precision , and have a nice resistance . it has a nice weight to it . i took some nice shots in the store . i must have clicked off 100 pics . i 'm impressed with it . if you want something relatively small , powerful and tough , this camera is for you . the 10x zoom is great , but on such a small camera it is difficult to hold it steady enough ( at least for me ) to use the zoom too much . i love the build quality and style , so i may be biased . it 's a nice piece of equipment . i cannot speak to the photo quality only having seen pics on the camera 's lcd
+camera neg very dissappointed . my son ( i bought this for them ) hooked it up and there is so much interference it cannot be used . audio just static and noise . i did find it interesting that the instructions tell you it might not work . try telling this to me before i purchase thank you . this is the last i purchase equipment on-line . i will stick to books thank you very much
+music neg it would be impossible for me to write you a review . i never received the subject cd . you sent me some piece of crap dics which i sent back . i have not received the gene watson cd i ordered and paid for . if i do n't get it soon , you will never hear from me again . edward n clark - herrin , i
+music pos the first time ever i saw this group " amici forever " as they were singing " unchained melody " , i have confused that song like classical music . because , it was very familiar . actually , i did n't know exactly what 's that song that moment . finally , i knew that song is popular music i used to sing . so , laughed myself . it was brilliant and great performance i ever heared before . i bought dvd , too . and i recommended my friend and he also felt their singing like me . he said great and thanks to me
+music neg this is a great album and a great artist with albert king theres no going wrong when you buy one of his albums . he is the king of electric-blues . you can hear all these songs in great format . just awsome playing awsome singing . its sure no wonder srv . and hendrix really loved albert king
+music pos this cd has all of the cuts that you remember from back in the day...you will love it...it is always in my car
+music pos this record is a fine example of earnest juju music . other artits have tricked it up some with synths and keyboards . chief commander obe has always managed to offer more traditional representation of juju as it evolved from highlife . keep in mind , this means amazing percussion work , intertwining guitar lines , loving vocals and long well developed instrumentals . if you 're interested , you should buy it . it will make you happy , no matter how you were feeling , and what you 're doing
+camera pos this lens is outstanding . speed and sharpness are top-notch . i use this lens for a wide array of situations and it has always delivered impressive results . best lens in it 's class at a reasonable price . it 's well built , sturdy , and not so heavy so it 's relatively easy to carry around . canon really impressed me with this lens . i use it with my eos system ( traditional and digital cameras ) .
+music neg this cd was a big seller upon it 's release in 1992 , boasting a plethora of big hits , along with some new songs . looking back through 2005 eyelids , it 's hard to hear why these songs were so huge....the cd starts off well , with hits from the primitive love album , but as one keeps listening , he realizes that none of these songs have passion or depth , a few catchy melodies and pleasant , if plain vocals . the dance numbers at least keep you awake , but the years 1988-92 found estefan leaning on ballads , and one was barely distinguishable from another ; on top of that , the 4 new cuts feel like padding , to fill a cd 's worth of material for a christmastime release...a couple of hits are missing , too ( i.e. , bad boys ) , so to summarize , nothing truly bad here , but precious little on target.. .
+camera pos the casio exilim ex-s770rd is a great camera for the price . camera is the smallest on the market and will fit in any pocket . lcd sreen is large and very clear . 7.2 mp produces great picture quality and the functions are easily accessed . as this is my first casio purchase , i am very pleased with the quality
+camera pos camera arrived earlier than i expected , and was just what i wanted . very small , but versitle . large screen . very satified with my purchase
+music neg i 'm an avid tony yayo fan , but this album just did n't cut it . maybe its just trying to commercialize in the rap game and having pressure . i do n't know . but i listened to most of his mixtapes and this album sounds nothing like them . hopefully his next album will be way better . a few songs are good to listen to . i would think , coming out of prison you would have a lot to talk about , but " so seductive " being your first single ? ? come on . i am not a hater but just listen to the album and then listen to the gunit mixtapes and you will see what i mean . rating c
+music pos i ca n't say with the words must listen !
+music neg see bonnie raitt be slowly overtaken by the blahs , actually one is temped to think the album will be cool when listening to ` the fundametal things ' , but no
+music neg to those of you interested in this cd in lieu of finding the " songs with lyrics " in the movie ice age , got bad news for you . they are not here ! i really do hate it when a soundtrack is put out for a movie and they do n't include the best or features songs in the movie . anyway , the song that pretty much everyone wants when manny , sid , diego and the baby are together and walking towards half peak is called " send me on my way " by rusted root . it is on their latest album " when i woke " . put rusted root in the amazon search engine and you should find it . hope this helps those looking for this song
+music pos excellent songwriting , guitar playing and overdubbing . another live album following his first with previously recorded songs not on frampton comes alive would have been just as successful as comes alive . days dawning , crying clown , fanfare are a few such songs . a few songs from wind of change , something 's happening , and even a couple from his early days with the herd would have contributed to a second successful live album rather than the i 'm in you album which was a terrible disappointment
+camera pos i love this camera the first day i received it i took 3 rolls of film . it has been the best purchase i bought this year . i got a real good price on it and i received it fast !
+camera neg bag is ok but you must be careful if your moving around a lot . with extra batteries in the top zip compartment it is really top heavy and tips upside down while on your shoulder if the camera is out of it . the velcro does not hold it closed well either . my memory card fell out of the bag during one of these episodes , thank goodness my husband noticed
+music pos this album has new meaning to me now in 2007 , where i go to a college next to a high school , where i see a bunch of " punk rockers " spending lots of money to make sure their hair is pretty and that their clothes are properly tattered to maximize trendiness . there are plenty of punk rock bands out there that keep the spirit of social distortion alive , but sometimes their music is hard to find , and all the posers you see start to slowly extinguish that old punk rock fire . albums like this exist for times like those . just stick it in , turn up the volume , and rock out
+music neg in general i 'm a big fan of movie music , but to tell the truth i expected more from this one . this soundtrack is incomaparable to say lord of the rings or star wars movie music . it lacks depth and emotion and power . unlike emotionally potent melodies present in lotr soundtrack the eragon is pretty dull and uninteresting . i get the impression that the entire album is in fact a variation of a single theme called eragon . i get the feeling that entire album has only one very long and boring track . i hope they 'll make better album for the next movie of the inheritence trilogy .
+camera pos this camera case is great . it 's very small and fits my coolpix 4600 perfectly . there is enough room to fit an extra memory card and some batteries ( but the batteries make it tight ) . i originally purchased the camera case listed for the 4600 , but it was a little bulky and the zipper could scratch the camera if you are n't careful . this camera case does not come with a strap like the other , but that is something i would never use . i highly recommend this case for those who want a small sleek case to protect their camera .
+camera neg you got to have extremely steady hand , or camera stand to use this camaera . during my niece wedding , i put in a 2gb of memory and we were trigger happy , we must have took over couple hundred of pictures , however , i am very unhappy about the result . 3 out of 5 pictures are fuzzy , messy , out of focus . on the other hand , for the pictures that took a few mins to line up and with a very very steady hand , you got a great picture . size is good , weight is a bit on the heavy side for the size , but to some people that 's good quality
+music neg i 've owned this cd , but did n't keep it for very long because it 's too poppy and slick for my tastes . i guess when about 1981 came around billy just wanted to distance himself from the brilliance of his 70 's style , and on this offering , he kind of wanted a 50 's or 60 's kind of sound . this stuff is just to slick for this hombre . he never made a solid album , after the release of glass houses , in about 1980. this is the kind of stuff that yuppies rave about , but if you 've got some integrity , you 'll probably want to steer clear of this one , and buy anything he recorded in the 70 's
+camera pos has any one tried the compatible battery from power101 ? i ca n't believe the price . i am struggling btwn buying the sony brand battery and the compatible ones
+music pos the soundtrack is great but some of the good songs from the movie arent on it . overall it is a good produc
+camera neg loved the concept of this camera...small , 10x zoom and sleek looking , but the first one lasted 3 days , had it replaced and the second one lasted 1 week . both stopped operating completely . so given that kind of problem i do not recommend this camera
+camera neg i bought a sony icd-mx20 digital voice recorder a week ago . i was surprised that sony does not provide downloads of the associated software named " digital voice editor " . sony customer service staff told me that if you lost the cd that came with the box , you had to buy a new one . only patches of the software are available to download . the customer service personnel told me that it was corporate policy despite the fact that the software is bound to the digital device . this immoral policy violating the norm of digital appliance industries and should not be encouraged . sony is demoting its brand name by offering poor post-sales services . think twice before making your buying decision .
+music neg i love south music like three 6 , lil jon , master p , but this is a disgrace to every rapper alive and dead . man jd is just signing anyone these dayz to make money cuz he ca n't get no one wit talent . every song on here sounds like it was hurried up . fu*k so so de and fu*k dem franchize boyz they make me sick .
+camera neg as the previous reviewer pointed out , this is not the klic-5001 1700 mah battery as described in the product details , it is the lower capacity ( 1050 mah ) klic-5000. at least it is the kodak battery , if that matters to you . ( i have a new kodak camera and want to protect the warranty . ) if not , plenty of places sell the generic klic-5001 for less than amazon sells the kodak klic-5000
+camera pos i really enjoy this camera ; mine has the carl zeiss vario-tessar lens . it works grewat - be sure to use the memory stick pro media . a great reasonable priced camera
+music neg i am a cellist of 15 years on the breakthrough of becoming a renowed cellist . this cellist tone is so powerfull and clear.she tells a story this is so clear to understand because the music speaks . alisa should watch the slurs from the f to b and be more gracefull . the apres un reve was ok i guess . she really should of tooken more time . like floating on a dream cloud . when i play this piece i take the music from the begining as a fuzzy dream and play the pitch so the music tells a story and becomes more clear every measure . the elgar is somenthing she might not want to touch because no one plays it better than du pre
+music pos my 8-month-old son and i listen to this cd every night , and by the pachelbel canon ( track 7 ) he 's usually sound asleep . it is not all synthesizer . the jacket clearly states that the " music box orchestra " includes flute , piano , cello , percussion , english horn , and oboe . as a musician , i am not offended by the " easy-listening " versions of these classics . in fact , i enjoy them . they introduce my son to the timeless melodies without overstimulating him at bedtime . i find them relaxing too
+music neg this album contains only rap and no rock songs . this was very disappointing to say the least
+music neg never shipped . i ordered this before christmas . they said it was in stock . where is it
+music neg all the cds this band has made suck . not even the first one so never buy something this idiots have made . blink-182 , sugarcult or sum 41 are good punk-pop
+camera pos i deal in major brand cameras and panasonic cameras are my personal favorite ! i 've seen people whine about the " noise " they make many times but have never found it to be a problem . i own the fz10 and the fx01 for my personal cameras . the fx01 is a very fast camera and takes great pics ! i love the 28mm wide lens . compared to most cameras i 've used the fx01 does a real good job of metering the light and exposing the images . i love panasonic 's solid build and reliability . they may not be as popular as canon or sony but in my opinion are every bit as good .
+music neg this cd while full of nice music , is to me rather pointless . it 's listed as a sound track but all it has is background music instrumentals . does anyone know the titles of the actual songs used in the movie ? aside from crazy train
+camera neg return ? ha ha ! ! ! you must email them for permission . they do n't provide the email address . i have spent untold hours trying to get them to respond . they will do everything to avoid returns . and amazon just looks the other way . do n't do it !
+camera pos i purchased this for my canons500. i have it for over a year now and it is still as good as new . good quality construction and a great look & feel
+music neg maan , ima venda spenda of dis shizzi hur but fur shur , iz hord cor poor . i meanz what i be sayin is i be buyin all the hip s*** but when i play dis on ma player my mind be hurtin , in da bad way . so fow sho , to all da playaz out thay stay clean of this bad crack , itll hurt yow mind and yow poket . fur shur dis is da flippa , keep it clean boyz ( yea , you punks now what i be sayin
+camera neg keep in mind that you ca n't use this product unless you buy an external flash . the built-in flash results in harsh shadows on the left edge of the photos . canon 's response thank you for your inquiry regarding the powershot g6. we are sorry to hear of any issues with the conversion lens . when using the built-in flash , a portion of the image may be blocked by the converters and appear dark . please refer to page 186 of the camera manual for detailed information . when the converters are used , it is recommended to not use the built-in flash . thank you for choosing canon
+camera neg bought this case along with a digital rebel xti , my first slr . instead of the 18-55mm kit lens i opted for the sigma 17-70mm lens . sad to say , but the case fits only with the kit lens. . the rebel xti with the 17-70mm lens barely fits . so a word of cuation to everyone , if you 're planning on anything other than the kit lens , then do n't get this
+camera pos this product fits my camera perfectly and is not at all bulky . a great safeguard from falls and the velcro latch provides just enough security .
+camera neg hi , i have had the vdr-d300 for about 6 months now . i have never gotten a recording session to last more than about 20 min . the camcorder constantly locks up , usually after about 10 min . this is on a full battery - the unit never gets even to a battery alarm . several times the reset button nor the reset proceedure per the manual works . i must have a faulty unit . i 'm investigating repair . the unit has a great lens , camera , and video image , but my unit is not stable at all
+music pos i like the main voice ( s ) and i like the music , but the voices are over powered by the music . if they turned up the voices a bit i think this would be a great album . this album does not sound like other albums i have so i 'm not sure what to compare it to .
+music neg i may not be an expert on steel drums , but i do listen to jimmy buffett a lot ! he has a great steel drum drummer . after listening to this cd , i gave it away in a white elephant gift exchange this past xmas
+music neg when i think of the sex pistols , i think the monkeys did it better as a boy band . let 's face it , dears , that is all the sex pistols were : a marketing ploy . they are f- -- --g nsync for another generation
+camera neg when it was new out of the box it worked for baseball about 50% of the time if i was within a few feet of the pitcher or catcher . it seemed to become less effective each time i used it to the point that now i 'm lucky to get a reading 10% of the time . it still works for clocking cars but for baseball it is almost useless .
+camera pos multi-element add-on lense used with kodak dx-7590 provides good wide-angle capability . note that this is a very large add-on lense ( screws into dx-7590 extension-piece which costs an additional $20 ) . does the job well in most portraiture and scenic applications , however two caveats : ( 1 ) slight curvature of field in extreme corners of wide-angle shots ( ie , corners of shots may be noticeably out of focus ) . suggest cropping to 95% of original picture to maintain sharpness across plane . ( 2 ) size of lense will render pop-up flash and outside the lense focusing system ( ultra-sonic ) less functional .
+music pos since sunset boulevard is one of my favorite films , i bought the london cast album long before the musical came to america . patti lapone is the ultimate broadway star , having created the role of evita . her soaring versions of " as if we never said goodbye " , and " with one look " are unmatched . her power and vocal range soar ! all of norma 's songs had to be drastically reduced in vocal range to accomodate glen close 's lack of , ( or nonexistent ) singing ability . in fact , this dvd was unavailabe to the american market during the american run of the musical and was literally pulled from the shelves . perhaps alw did n't want the american audience to hear the masterwork of this production . kevin anderson , a brilliant actor , does not have the operatic quality of alan cambell in the u.s. cast , but he portrayed joe gillis with far more guts and passion . this is not for the lover 's of oklahoma of showboat , but for lovers of more contemporary musicals , this one is perfect
+music neg after reading her excellent halloween book , i figured her halloween cd would be worth owning . i always search for " different " halloween cds , but this was filled with the same old stuff . chains , moans , and spooky laughs.. . then more chains , moans and spooky laughs . very dissapointing
+music pos i am a lover of " greatest hits " compact discs but this one by far is the best one i have purchased recently . this compact disc has almost all of the best tunes that joe walsh made and i highly recommend it to anyone who loves to rock !
+music pos i had tears in my eyes when i first heard this album . i get emotional over music i really like , and this album got to me.so many great standards so well delivered by the duo . they deliberately chose slower ballads for this album so do n't look for uptempo , snappy songs in this one.not that harry warren could not write faster stuff like jeepers creepers , shuffling off to buffalo etc. this album is to sing along with softly or hum.i kept thinking of bogart in the rain in casablanca and other lovers in w.wii.i know the main tune in that movie was not by harry warren ; it simply reminded me of great love tunes from that era by julie styne[time after time] and the grossly underrated harry warren.grab someone you love , some good wine and savor one of the great popular composers and a great duo.they should do more harry warren albums , michael and george.i thank them profusely
+camera neg the night owl optics monocular had a major flaw as soon as i started using it . the system uses high voltage derived from 2-aa bateries . occationally the unit would create a large snap ( arcing noise ) and emit a bright flash of light from the eyepiece . if one is using the instrument , the light actually hurts the eye . i have returned the monocular to night owl for repairs . i do not know the result of the repairs as it is still in transit . they told me to ship it at my expense . another strange requirement of the instrument is that the batteries are recommended to be removed if not used for 24 hours . other than the above , the monocular has performed well . epilogue-night owl optics did repair the unit and returned it .
+music neg buyer beware . these new journey releases are reissues of their 1996 remastered releases . they are not remastered in 2006. rhino should be ashamed of itself for this ( it 's been 10 years - i would have gladly paid for a remastered version , but not for new packaging )
+music pos engelbert humperdinck ` s name has remained for almost five decades in the great musical stages . in spain there is a term that fits so well to describe his magnetism : duende . he shone with radiant intensity in the age of the great crooners , the most difficult , indeed : frankie , tony bennet , andy williams , dean martin , matt monroe , bobby vinton , booby goldsboro , glenn campbell , o.c. smith , otis reading , pat boone , kenny rogers , paul anka and neil diamond ( from time to time ) among the most remarkable ones . his peculiar style has deserved him the best acknowledgments all over the world . his multifacetic repertoire and elegant voice confers him presence and conviction every time he appears on stage . his name is now a legend . go for this admirable collection , you will enjoy it over and over
+music neg with perverse , mike edwards set out to prove that jesus jones was more than a ` sunny , breezy pop band ' , what he ended up proving was that if they were n't no one was interested . sad to say , but pop hooks were what people expected from jj , and actually there are some here , but they are smothered by industrial / techno gook . stick with doubt , that 's where jj peaked , even if some claimed they had ` sold out' . here they are pushing the boundaries , but that does n't always make for a great listening experience
+music pos i saw the outlaws live twice in the early eighties and had a great time at both shows . this album is just plain fun to listen to and brings back some very fond memories
+camera neg sd110 not a good digital camera . better yet find something else . i 've had this camera almost a year but i just seldom use it because the result of the pictures are very disappointing . it is just fine downloading them on the internet but when you have it printed on the paper , the pictures get blurred . now , im looking for another digicam that wo n't disappoint me
+music neg ..and what 's the point ? all of these songs ( minus a few ) are on the anthology , along with countless others . the beastie boys did n't put this out , their record label did . it 's just way for corporate to make money . if you consider yourself a real beastie boys fan , that is you 're interested in all the other music they made that was n't put on radio , then do n't buy this . if you occasionally heard them on the radio and fight for your right is your favorite song , then go ahead . the beastie boys are much more than just their greatest hits . to fully appreciate them , you have to listen to an album all the way through .
+camera neg i received the remote this evening and have not been able to get the remote to work with my canon rebel xt camera . followed the directions that were furnished with the remote to no avail . it appears that this remote is defective
+music neg i ca n't believe the other people giving this high marks . i love the wheel , but darn if this is n't just terrible . there is n't even a single on it ; i ca n't believe the studio released it . thank god i got a promotional copy and did n't have to go buy it in the store . the catherine wheel needs to get back together- -quick
+camera pos i have enjoyed using my camera . i have been able to get some great pictures . the stabilization feature work well
+music neg this is not the music from the movie . this purchase was a major dissapointment . you would do beter searching for the music credits for titles , then download the tracks form your music subscriber
+music pos quite different from his later big-band recordings . some of the songs that you may find on wes ' ' best of ' collections sound too much like elevator music . not so with this debut album . a drummer , a organist , and a guitar player ; no horn section . stripped down in the sence of band size but very deep and articulate playing . he shows of his trade mark octave playing , his chord solos ( played over the organs rythm chords none the less ) , and flashy runs across the fret board when needed . a good cd to start with for the guitarist who wants to play jazz .
+camera pos this case is the perfect size to hold our sony camcorder and a few blank tapes . we purchased it for a cruise , because we wanted to carry-on the camcorder and have it protected , but not have to lug the large case we owned that holds all the accessories . this smaller case still protects the camera and allows room for some extras
+music neg golijov 's music incorporates jewish , arabic , christian , afro-brazilian , and other ethnic influences ad nauseum.. . so what ? listening to this disc is like having dental work done without novocaine . only diversity nazis who want to smugly bask in their own " enlightened " weltanschauung will find much to enjoy here . golijov cunningly caters to these folks ' taste . may he ride it all the way to the bank .
+music neg as a 21 year old , i felt a little out of place buying this soundtrack . but , i was so excited that i had finally found a soundtrack to these two wonderful movies . imagine my disappointment when i could aurally pick out that rosemary clooney 's parts were not sung by rosemary clooney ! i do not recommend buying this album . enjoy the music when you watch the movies , instead . trust me , it 's better that way
+music neg this disc was simply a waste of my time...very mediocre songs , heavy emphasis on sex instead of talent...corey 's voice is below average....i get the feeling that corey clark is imitating a good singer with a viable career , and not doing it very well....clearly ' fake it till you make it ' is n't working here . the songs all sound the same , i kept waiting for something to get me grooving , but it just did n't happen . i think his ego is much larger than his actual musical potential...he either needs voice lessons , a little humility , and some professional grooming ( and i do n't mean clothing ) .
+music pos nice cd cool beats songs like welcome to atlanta pick it u
+camera neg they tell you tha this product holds 6aa batteries , and works with the 20d 's battery grip , but when i received the item it is for a completely different product and does not work with the 20d 's bg-e2 grip . it has the product name of cpm-e3 , just as stated...but it accepts 8 aaa batteries and does n't even come close to working with the bg-e2.
+music neg i remember listening to this years ago , and i thought i would add this to my cd library , now i know why it has been years sense i 've listened to it , , very sqeaky , dull , slow paced stuff , bob segar makes this stuff sound like tin foil. .
+music neg i saw this movie ' cause i was interested to see cathy rigby , " who was born to play peter pan " . i hated it a lot . so , now i am in a high school production of peter pan , and i happend to see the mary martin version , and the mary martain cd . i loved it ! then i realized that ' peter pan ' is not a bad musical at all . cathy rigby and the " crew " were making it bad . i have no idea why they think cathy rigby is the greatest thing since sliced bread . do n't believe them . she isn't . she sounded like she was a stuiped little brat that just wanted to rot the rest of his [her] time just sitting in a dark corner carving forks while on the other hand , mary martain sounds all cheerful , fun , and real . i reccomend mary martain 's video and cd . i say no more
+music neg i have been a ronstadt fan since the early 70 's , and although the nelson riddle stage and the mexican stage were not my style , i still loved her vocal perfection . this is truly the only album i have n't played more than twice ( i did n't like it the first time , which surprised me , so i tried it again ) . it does n't showcase her voice or her talents . the songs are very ho hum . linda , put out a christmas album ( been waiting for years ) , and try to get sweetness back for this old fan
+camera pos it 's great . nice top storage for memory cards and extra battery . compact . perfect for camera size .
+camera neg the adorama silica gel came without any instructions on how to use and reuse it . i emailed customer service at adorama to ask how to use it and how to recharge it once it has absorbed enough moisture but they did not respond . i ca n't tell when it needs recharging and when it is ready . what color should it be and what color should indicate recharging . how to i recharge it ? nothing tells me how to recharge it . so far , money wasted . unresponsive to my emails
+music pos my roomate from two years ago had a cd of doris ; and i must admit , at first , i was a little skeptical . but soon i became stunned by her vocal prowess and the emotional heart juice that she brought to these classic songs . plus , you should see her in a football uniform ! man can she catch the pigskin
+music pos toad the wet sprocket have to be one of the most underated bands of the ninties . they wrote some brilliant material and a lot of the songs on this album are very enjoyable . but , there are some strange ones that are do not appeal to my taste . my fave song is ' is it for me' . it is hard to classify them though . it sort of deep and meaningful ( at most times ) pop rock . other good tracks include walk on the ocean , pray your gods and i will not take...etc . i regard this album and ' dulcinea ' as their two best albums
+camera neg if you purchase this wide angle lens adapter for the xacti hd1a , you will not be able to take still photos using the built in flash . the adapter blocks the flash and causes black shadows in the bottom half of your photos . it does work well for video . the sanyo xacti hd1a camera itself is a disappointment
+music neg after reading her excellent halloween book , i figured her halloween cd would be worth owning . i always search for " different " halloween cds , but this was filled with the same old stuff . chains , moans , and spooky laughs.. . then more chains , moans and spooky laughs . very dissapointing
+camera neg received as a christmas present , dead by february 24. well , actually , that 's two months . now all it does is flash an error message , and nothing i do gets it out of that mode . i liked it before it died on me
+camera neg i bought this camera after using a sony minidv ( very small one ) camera over 8 years . the image quality of sanyo is horrible compared to my old sony under any condition : daylight , night etc. however price , size and easy operation makes this camera a winner as you can have it with you all the time . so if you want to use this camera as a second camera for everyday use go for it , but this is not a serious replacement to a high-end camcorder .
+music pos there are plenty of reasons to get this dead album . one is the fact that this is probably the best recorded psychedelic cd of all time . it was the first rock album recorded on a 16 track . in fact it was rerecorded to take advantage of the technology . the remaster is splendid . another good reason is the great bonus tracks . almost 80 minutes of dead for less than the price of driving your suv to the record store . can you dig it
+music pos tame 's music is all about the beat . it 's what got me right from the start , a grinding , repetitious backbone to every song . tame one rides every beat on these tracks without faltering and shows some true style in his delivery . tame gets rid of the verse-hook standarda , periodically ad-libing and allows the music to play when he feels like pausing . its an amazing album well worth purchasing .
+music pos what an awesome cd.. . i bought a flogging molly cd as well but dropkick murphy 's are better by far !
+music pos as a pretty big comedy fan thanks to xm radio , i have listened to a lot of comics and i own a lot of comic cd 's ( mitch hedberg , bill hicks , emo philips , lewis black , steven wright , pablo francisco etc. ) and my absolute favorite is unprotected . there is not a slow part on this cd and it never fails to bring everyone to tears on a long car ride . his quick and merciless wit is better than any other comic in the us . his family must be very understanding since he does n't hesitate to include every detail of their personal lives in his act , but it all serves to create a punchline that we can all relate to . the highlights of this cd are his daughter 's boyfriend and guidelines for resuming sex after a heart attack . i highly highly reccomend this
+camera pos this is a good padded case for your camera . but the back pocket shown in the picture with a phone stick out , was not deep enough for my phone with antenna attached . it measure 4 " x 3.5 " . but other than that i enjoy using this bag
+music neg while the sound of the stream is relaxing and well recorded , there are way too many birds around . the cd describes their sound as distant and faint , but that 's far from accurate . the parts of the cd where all you hear is the stream alone do n't add up to more than 10 minutes , and never last more than a minute . for the most part you will hear the stream and plenty of birds , rather close and sometimes very loud . buyer beware : the 30 second samples you get here are precisely from the parts with no birds at all ! very misleading
+camera pos i canceled this order because shipment was n't going to arrive in time for christmas
+music neg unfortunately ttd went off the deep end on this album . consequently he put off many fans from buying the brilliant next album " symphony or damn " and the superb follow up " vibrator " . if you loved the first album , give this one a miss and get the two i just mentioned . come on ttd hurry up and release a new album
+music pos you definetely gotta own this . after an 11 years break from the music scene , seger 's back full-force . already 400.000 copies sold . more info on bob at [...
+camera pos i am a female bowhunter who really had trouble judjing distances on green fields . this is a great product . it is easy to use and very accurate
+music neg i was never much of a chili peppers fan over the years , but i thought i 'd give them a chance and listen to this disc.and just as i always thought , it 's crap . very few bands have been able to pull off the repulsive people / repulsive music combo as thoroughly as these guys have . i feel like i need a bath after just looking at their picture . as far as the " music " is concerned , the singing is awful ( deadpan monotone voice ) , the instrumentation is very limited , and the overall production is 2nd rate . the only plus , if any , is that the band manages to show some progression on the newer material , which is still not very good . the fact that this band has been successful over the years just proves that a lot of people have really bad taste .
+music pos although the real roots lie with the black artists who inspired these guys , the pbbb is where the hippy generation , ( this is a couple years pre-san francisco , and before the stones and beatles began stretching their arrangements out on record ) , learned to just play . their next record was more representative of what they were actually doing live at time time , and is the single greatest influence on what became the san francisco sound of the late 60 's and early 70 's , ( really long and experimental jamming ) , so this is in fact the " roots of the roots of the roots " of todays jam bands and guitar-heavy blues bands , mixed-race bands , and , for all practical purposes , the white-blues-man in todays ' world
+camera neg poor and slow focus and flash . thought nikon had a good name.......wrong if you like this camera it must be you first digital
+camera neg the first day i took them out to hunt with them they fogged over . i brought them home and there is fog inside . also inside is some dark crap that you cannot get to...and it is on the lens . i called bushnell 's help line and they told me.. . " well , it is n't internally fog proof , just externally " when asked about the stuff on the inside . " that is probably fungus , that sometimes happens " i just bought the binoculars ! ! ! he stated i could send them in and miss my entire hunting season and they would take the fungus out . avoid these at all costs ! ! ! they are a shoddy product with an even worse strap that is plastic and cuts into your neck
+camera neg i purchased this to display mpeg movies ( which it says it can ) . i was told by tech support that i had to use a divx encoder and that they must be avi ( which is also incorrect ) . the sanyo xacti video camera i was using was mpeg-4 ( the ipod accepts the files without issue ) , i tried converting them in quicktime to several different types of mpeg4 and none worked . there are better frames out there and i intend on finding out which one is the best . i have ordered another brand and will see if it works . this was by first product return on amazon .
+music pos this cd is the funniest cd i own . the first half of the cd is pure comedy and super funny . the second half is a little hard to understand , and it louds like is was recorded poorly , that is why i gave it four stars . track 2 is worth the money spent on the cd because that track is 8 mins of pure comedy . eddie makes fun of stevie wonder and boxer larry holmes , and he does it well
+camera neg hey this is for everyone buying cameras over the world out of the united states , i have a problem with my camera and i do n't have anyone to help , i 've been trying some help in amazon 's help area but they just have thousands of links but any simple email where i can ask for some help , i do n't really understand why is this site so well known on " customer service " , but i just cannot communicate with no one in the company to ask anything , i 'm just mad about this , if anyone can help me to contact amazon or fujifilm please post an email or whatever cause there 's no such a thing like help in the " help area " . i need to repair my lcd monitor of my camera , it 's really fragile , so if you 're still thinking on buying in this site or even buying something from fujifilm , do n't do it , they do n't care about the customer satisfaction at all
+camera pos it was everything it advertised as being . i can carry my digital camera and lenses as well as two point and shoot digital cameras . being a slingshot backpack , my back does n't moan and groan as it did with other camera bags . i like the feature of swinging the bag to the front and to get my cameras with out removing the backpack
+camera neg i was counting on a three hour working battery . after all , that 's what it says it gives you . so far all i get from it , after more than a month of use , is two hour , max. .
+camera pos i went from taking the camera out of its packing to taking professional quality pictures in twenty minutes . it 's amazing
+music neg you 'll find better works out there , particularly if you 're a miles fan . the emphasis here is on milt jackson and his vibraphone , which gives the album a light , airy feeling . missing is much of miles ' horn and sentiment . you also get a bit shortchanged with a mere 30 minutes of music . i would call this a " pleasant " album , which in my jazz-world is not a happy thing
+camera neg i bought this camera in about february 2005 but did n't know enought about digital to know what i can actually get . goes through batteries pretty fast . the recharge time between pictures sometimes causes me to miss another good shot . takes way too much time between pressing shutter button and taking the picture . i just thought this was normal for digital cameras till i began reading later reviews . then i accidentally dropped the camera onto a soft surface ( loose dirt and sawdust ) and now the lens is stuck most of the way out and will not retract and camera will not come on . contacted hp to get it fix but will cost close to $100 and they will just send a reconditioned one . so i am in the market for another digital camera-maybe a canon or sony or something besides an hp
+music pos wow what a great cd . i 'm a big music fan of alot of different types of music and i have to say that this is one of the best cds that came out in 2004. you ca n't go wrong with this one . a
+music pos joan . you do n't love me . because i 'm a guy . but i have loved you since 1976. ok so i 'm an old man ( age 43 ) . so what . she 's just the best rock and roll female on the planet . i like the young ones like sahara hotnights and the donnas as well but they just do n't measure up to joan born to be bad jett . this album - like most of her other albums - consists of a mix of old and new songs . does n't mattar . i love it . and the video.. . well it confirms what we have always known . not that it matters . the music matters
+music pos hey bret is one of the most tallented song writers of our time ! he will be in the rock n ' roll hall of fame when he is done and his guitar playin ' and singin ' is very underrated ! buy this
+music pos this is some great music from a litte know movie . you wo n't be let down
+camera neg i purchased the camera in mid june 2006. after 1 month / 1 hr of recording the screen went black when in recording mode . it took the shop about 7 week to fix the problem . i used the camera to record another 20 minutes and now it does not want to focus to infinite . the recording now flickers a lot and a dot appears floating around the screen . this camera has been in the shop more time than in my hands . the store were i bought it said that it would give me a new camera if this happends for the thrid time . the only problem is that if this is a design problem , what do i get by getting a new camera ? just avoid buying this camera until they fix the problem
+music pos i wonder if the two reviewers who said they were disappointed in this soundtrack watched the film ? my guess is that they did not . the film was enhanced by the james horner score and it would have been hurt by anything that was not light and subtle . it is a unique and amazing film and the score is a perfect match . by the way , the bigwigs at universal nearly died when they heard it and then were equally stunned when they asked horner for the written score and he had to admit that none existed ! wonderful music
+camera neg this is a wonderful item if or when it works . it prints the pictures beautifully if it works . the trouble is that after using it for a little while ( and i mean a little while ) it will quit feeding the paper in and the lights start blinking saying that you are out of paper and that you are out of ink . i have messed with it and messed with it , for some of you who have the same problems sometimes cleaning the feeder roller with rubbing alcohol will get it to work but this does n't work all the time . right now my printer wo n't work and i cleaned the roller and it is very aggravating as the paper and ink are n't cheap . i think it is cheaper going down to walmart and using their instant photo machine . this is not worth the money or the aggravation ! ! ! !
+camera neg i have two 8 " picture frames that are other brands , and they are great and i use them for open houses all the time ! i got this one as a gift from a friend , and it is terrible ! ! the instructions are difficult to understand . the wide screen makes everyone in the picture look fat and distorted ! this is a weird size and i am not happy at all ! ! i do n't recommend it
+music pos la pelicula es mas o menos , pero la banda sonora es buena , en especial la cancion #1 crush de garbage , es una excelente cancion.. .
+music neg beautiful voice , but so much anger in the lyrics ruins the cd . i was offended just reading every name on this cd...it is really a shame , what pretty " vulgar " voice . if this cd sells millions will you be proud of the message of hate you just pushed into millions of ears . you should be ashamed of yourself as an artist , as you have such power , but it is spent on prepetuating hate . nina simone was a angry artist also , but not once did she offend me ( caucasian male ) with her lyrics and all of her hate for racism in america . the first song i ever heard of hers " mississippi goddam " made me cry , so emotionally charged and commanding of a voice . there will always be a " racist america " because people are selfish , but be responsible as a descent human being and as an artist . i liked the cd until i heard the lyrics , one less sale adds up after awhile
+camera pos i 'm new to the digital slr world . i had been using the built in flash on my rebel xt . the built-in flash had done alright , but was nothing to write home about . since i had spent most of my money on the camera , i needed a flash that was both affordable and would get the job done . this flash met both requirements . if you are an advance user , you will want a higher end flash because the flash has limited adjuastable features . yet , if you a newbie like me , this flash is great ! it has improved my picture quality dramaticly .
+camera pos this case is great for the quick day outings . it is rugged and keeps the camera safe . my wife can throw it in her purse and i do n't have to worry about it getting banged up and she does n't have to worry about it being too bulky . everyone should have two batteries with any of the canon cameras since their battery meter only shows up minutes before it goes dead .
+music neg the problem with america was that started out great . the first album was fresh and different from everything . three young boys and accoustic quitars was a song all it own . " horse with no name " and " sandman " , was what pave the way for them . the problem was that each album after that they got farther away from their roots and into the middle of mainstream pop . they should of left " muskrat love . " to the captain and tennille . this album does a fine job of showing their career from beginning to end . the problem was that there was their first two albums , ( america and venture highway ) and there was their others . my recommandation would be to pick up the first 2 and leave this for the die hard fans
+music pos forza eros ! may you live to make much more great music ! whether you understand italian or not , i heartily recommend this cd . in ogni senso lives up to its billing - it delights each and every one of the human senses , in all " sense " of the expression . this is a must-have for any true music lover
+music pos this is one of my personal favorites . i bought this cd when my daughter was 1 month old . we would listen to it during those " late night " feedings to create a peaceful environment . i 'm pretty sure it was a benefit for her . it was definitely a benefit for me
+music pos maiden had evolved into a new metal standard in 1986. not only did they lead the metal world with the greatest artwork on covers , but their music took a new form and justifed everything they had done in the past . iron maiden to powerslave were just the stepping stones to this standard classic . the cd starts out with caught somewhere in time , a galloping bassline , and parallel guitar make it , not only a classic , but ahead of its time . the rest of the cd id in pure form . my favorite track , however , is alexander the great . the intro starts out with a whisper of that era , and slowly builds to the howl of , i feel , the battle cry of the great warrior of history . iron maiden did not dissapoint with this cd . it is very well mixed and produced , and remains a standard in my collection of cd's .
+camera neg the idea is wonderful but the window is too small to be useful . i have it , have pictures on it , but never show it to anyone . trying to find the right light to illuminate a tiny picture was ridiculous . easier to show a few pictures in my wallet
+music pos it was good . there are so many albums like this . this is one of the good ones
+camera pos the camera is good . had it 1 week now . low light it works and produces fair results . bright light is much better . small and light weight . you must use the supplied docking station to transfer as ther is no usb port on camera . there is the dc in and tv out on camera ( as well as the docking station...just no usb...why ? ) 30gb hard drive is plenty...maybe too much . if you fill this up you are looking at 8 dvd 's and hours of transfer . the software is weak and conflicts with roxio 7.5. roxio became unusable . roxio stinks anyway . found a simple program to burn after this...ashampoo . plan on getting adobe premier elements , too . amazon had the best deal...89 less 30 mail in rebate from adobe . much better then the software in box . my first cam as we now have a cute baby . easy to keep it rolling and have gigs to save .
+camera pos very clear pictures , very happy with this camera . note that it has only the lcd screen and no viewfinder , but this has n't been a problem for me as it 's pretty easy to use
+music neg forget the fact that despite the grumbling about today 's " music " too many people just swallow and digest the slop record companies throw at them , " hollaback girl " is the absolute dumbest " song " i 've ever had the displeasure to hear . there are two main parts to this travesty : 1. where she says " that 's my sh** " no less than a million times , and 2. she demonstrates that she 's hooked on phonics by being kind enough to spell bananas for the rest of us . if this is supposed to be rap , stefani failed miserably . if it 's supposed to be dance , again , she failed miserably . to be honest , i do n't know what the hell this is supposed to be because it sure is n't music . the fact that it was number one for so long proves that perhaps people do n't have any requirements for their ears . - donna di giacom
+camera pos at 10mp , this camera takes some of the clearest and visually stunning pictures i have ever taken with a digital camera . the clarity and detail alone are reason to get this camera . the display , although pooh-poohed by others as too small , is quite large to me . the cameras small , lithe design is another selling point . nothing bulky about this camera . you can put it in your front pants-pocket if you needed to . do yourself a favor and get this camera . you wo n't regret it .
+camera pos i was very happy with the product . it serves me well . fast delivery , good service by the vender . i got the project done and it will serve me well on into the future . great travel storage case , heavy plastic unit . good quality light stands
+camera neg i 've never ordered anything and been this disappointed . i ordered two of these and both did n't work . i contacted the company 's tech support and they told me to send it back and they will replace it . i tried contacting ritz camera where i purchased the item and they refused to give me a refund . i am now stuck dealing with this company that has horrible customer support . i will never buy another product from this company again .
+camera pos this 10-20mm lens is equivalent to a 15-30mm in a 35mm film camera , so it 's an ultra-wide lens at 10mm . i was pleasantly surprised at how sharp the images are from this lens ; and it 's rectilinear , which means that straight lines in real life remain straight in the photograph . it is a well-made lens , made with high-grade materials . what this lens excels at is when you want to photograph sweeping landscapes , close-quarters interior photography , and in architectural photography where you do n't mind the exaggerated converging lines that an ultrawide produces . personally , that 's what i like , so i 'm very happy with this sigma 10-20mm
+camera pos this product delivers exactly as promised and we could not be more pleased . the pictures are wonderful . the initial downloading process was straighforward and problem-free . we actually purchased three photo frames for ourselves and our children and they love them as much as we do . the slideshow feature is wonderful as well . everyone of our friends that have seen the photo frame are equally amazed by this product as some were not aware that such a product even existed . to be sure , they are expensive but worth the cost . we will enjoy our photo frame for years to come as we update with new pictures regularly . thanks to the folks at philips for getting this soooooooooooo right .
+music pos a friend of mine gave me this cd about a year ago , i listened to a few minutes of it and was like " what is this crap ? " and i shelved it for a couple months . i then picked it back up and gave it another listen . to my surprise it was really catchy to me . the music ( and lyrics ) are simple , but thats what i like about them . theyre simple ! this is a great college-rock cd . i plan on checking out more teenage fanclub , and i suggest you do the same . notable tracks are sidewinder , what you do to me , and is this music ?
+camera neg this backpack was very uncomfortable . the inserts are stiff . it does n't represent canon quality ( i hope )
+music neg she does n't sing.. . she yells ! ! ! and using one of ednita 's songs as she did with " lo que son las cosas " is just sacrilege at its " best " ( or worst ) . it 's really easy to hit it big with your first single when the song is already a classic by itself . she has absolutely nothing on beyonce or cristina aguilera . her cd is just plain bad ! if you want to hear good music by latin women with beautiful powerful voices ( and that actually sing ) , you might want to look for la lupe , celia cruz , ednita nazario and lucecita benitez.. . and these are only the ones i remembered at the moment
+music neg as if metalcore wasnt a chainsaw to your head enough , its absolutely ridiculous when metalcore bands mix emo with there already inoriginal sound . this band sounds like a even more flaccid killswitch engage , a hawthorne heights / silverstein with downtuned guitars . as if it wasnt an abomination already , they even sing about vampires . yes , thats right , vampires . and you couldnt get any g*yer .
+music neg as you might think , i am not a die hard fan of jmj , i think that when only die hard fans rates an album , it makes you think that with such a high rating , everybody should love this album and this is not the thruth . not everybody like this king of musical experimentation , some do but some don't ...i like oxygene and equinoxe , and even after all those years , they are still good to listen too . rendez vous offers some really good moments , but we are far from the perfection as oxygene or equinoxe . rendez-vous is easier to get use to that zoolook is , but we are far from a near perfect album . that 's all
+camera pos this accessory is very useful when taking group pictures with the photographer included
+music neg in answer to a music fan from temple hills , the song was called king holiday by the king dream chorus & holiday crew . it came out on mercury in 1986 and featured the singers and rappers you mentioned . it made no.30 on the r& ; b charts but did n't crossover pop . the lyrics are on the net ( try google ) but i do n't know if the song still is
+camera neg i bought this camera like 7 months ago since it was so small and i liked the design....but the pictures it takes suck , specially in the night time or with flash , you can barely see what you are photographing . the video feature its ok even though you cant change the zoom while making the video , but the design doesnt suit well this feature since the audio-in is in the exact same place where you are suppossed to hold the camera...so most of my videos dont have audio since i was blocking the audio entrace.. . its small and portable , and i could fit it in any pocket , so thats good , but its so small that the battery lasts only aorund 90 min...that 's what it says , but it keep going down like 5times faster than a regular min , so it only does last like 30 min
+music pos hayley westenra , at only 18 years old , is an enchanting voice we should be hearing from for many years to come . this is an uplifting and at times , spiritual album that shows shades of greatness . throughout , westenra 's voice is captivating , though the musical scores are at times , sub-par and do not equal the vocal talent . there was an advertising tag on this cd that stated " the female josh grobin " , but i think a more accurate sentiment would be " a young sarah brightman " . odyssey is a fine mix of spiritual and operatic tunes , all of which match up well with westenra 's abilities . bocelli fans will also appreciate the duet , dell amore non si sa . they pair up for that one song , but the rest is all westenra . this is smooth , soothing and easy listening . if you like brightman , you will truly appreciate the voice of westenra .
+camera pos you wo n't go wrong with a panasonic dv . i 've had a few models . i have several of this model for my business . they 're rock solid reliable , nice and small for portability , and the quality of the recording is very goo
+music pos i have listened to this wonderful soundtrack and i think it is superb ! ! i now know that the alien movies rock ! the tone of the music fits the movie . i especially like " ripleys them " because it reflects on what has happened with ripley through-out the movie . the cloning , learing , remebering and also meeting her clones . i would also like to say that the movie was excellent aswell . the cast did a great job , acting their hearts out . jean-pierre jeunet should be proud of the music and his film.so if you are n't an alien fan , you sure as heck will be after you listen to the soundtracks ! ~ jenna
+camera pos this filter is an excellent cost efficient way to protect your valuable lenses .
+camera pos the battery is perfect and once in the camera , is indistinguishable from the original .
+music neg am i the only ones who actually liked nelly 's first album , i thought it had charm , style , grandier to me and kind of scale and kind of importance , you thought it mean something , but this is just a lame gimmick from the start , i mean there are some moments and some good songs ( including the sexy and very funny music video hot in herre with cedric the entertainer ) , but the rest are just horrible , there is nothing else about this album that i can engage with nor cared about and who cares ? country grammer was funny and good , this one 's an utter disaster . one of the worst albums of the decade .
+music neg do n't think dale can play a song the same way twice . did n't like the selection of songs nor the way they produced .
+camera pos i 've had this camcorder for a week now and i think it works great .. except for the touch screen feature . that takes a little getting used to .. especially when accessing the special features ( such as fader effects ) while filming . the digital still quality is poor when recording directly to the memory stick .. but the same images taken as a still from prerecorded tape is much clearer . all in all it is a good product .. just takes some getting used to
+camera neg ...but it stopped working after a year . the only thing the lens sees now is black , although the camera still turns on and i can look at pictures i took before the problem started . nonetheless , i loved this camera , and i think it was worth it , even though it only worked a year . now i 've learned my lesson and will buy a longer warranty or exchange for m new camera
+music pos gun 's & roses came out in the nick of time . record companies were mass producing cookie cutter bands and they all sound the same . g&r made their debut on the music scene in 87 but did n't get big until almost late 88 early 89. appitite is a true masterpiece . welcome to the jungle , it 's so easy , mr. brownstone , my michelle....the list goes on and on . put it in turn it up to 10 and rock on ! the they made a mistake . they realeased an albums worth of great songs on 2 albums . so instead of another masterpiece they wound up with 2 ok albums . then they vanished . anyone who is a fan of the music but could n't care less about axl should pick up velvet revolver with slash and scott wieland from stone temple pilots
+camera pos i bought this hood after reading elsewhere that it fits the 50mm f / 1.8 mark i ( the version with the metal mount and distance scale ) that i purchased recently . canon specs the discontinued es-65 hood for this lens . the great thing about this et-65iii is that it is longer , so it blocks more stray light without vignetting on full-frame or 1 / 6-frame slrs . the interior on this mark iii version is also flocked , providing a bit more light absorption . i 've used those collapsible rubber hoods before while in college , but this hood is definitely worth the investment : well built , fits backward on the lens for storage ( but too long while the lens is on the camera ) , and provides good protection for the front of the lens ( it 's quite deep ) . note that this will not fit the newer 50mm f / 1.8 mark ii version ( all plastic mount with no distance scale )
+music pos so , incubus rocks no matter who you are or which of their albums is your favorite . plainly put , this album was not my favorite of theirs . it 's good . it 's really good . but if you 're expecting incubus good , you 'll be slightly disappointed
+music pos if you are a fan of the winter 's solstice series , than you will enjoy this cd , especially if you like the earlier volumes with the more original pieces rather than mostly traditional christmas music .
+camera pos this lens is fairly inexpensive and the reason for that is while it definitely lets you get really close and the image is definitely larger than without it , the fact is the fz7 and the fz30 macro settings are already so good that the image is perhaps 15% or so bigger than without it . if i can i 'll post a couple flower images to permit comparison with and without the lens . the camera i have is a fz7. because i want as large an image as possible of my focus i am very happy
+music pos all i have to say is great album
+camera pos an excellent purchase that lives up to the sony name . my main concern before buying it was that it would swivel enough that i could point my mini-camera straight down to take macro photos of documents . it does this easily , and the legs do n't get in the way . it 's small enough to chuck in my backpack and take it all the time in case i need it , and it has its own little sturdy fabric carrying bag so that it does n't get tangled up in anything else . overall , i would rate it as excellent
+camera neg the worst thing for this is , you have to bring a bench of disc with you and replace disc every 20 min if you are capturing hd video . i think most of buyers would take hd video if you buy a hd camcorder . but a small disc can only hold 20 min hd video , have to change disc time by time . the cmos sensor is worse than ccd but it is the best sensor among cmos in this price today . a lot of noise will come in low light condition ! i bought it for $800 and return it . i think you 'd better buy sr1 with a 30g hard drive . that would be a much better one !
+camera pos this diffuser is the same quality as the one that comes with the nikon sb 800 flash . it is much better than other aftermarket diffusers that require velcro . this is made to fit the sb 600 perfectly . it snaps on and off easily . angled at 75 degrees it provides excellent fill . i use it on the sb 600 set up as a slave with the sb 800 for fill and back lighting . it should have been included by nikon as original equipment but is inexpensive and cost effective . much better than the built in plastic flat diffuser
+music pos jigga is incredibly hot on this album beanie is good to great . memphis bleek , is really good on this album , but is overshadowed . his " 534 " shows how good he is , this album does not . overall as an album it does a good job of showing off roc a fella , but not to much about the dynasty
+camera neg this battery is not compatible with the the jvc-grd270us video camera . i did get a purchase price refund , but i am out shipping costs both ways
+camera pos i won the kodak printer at a scrapbook convention & then went on the hunt to find the refills at a reasonable price . purchasing the 160 count made the price per print the lowest & beat out anything i could find in the local stores . it is a great convenience to be able to whip out a 4x6 print instead of having to download it to a store 's website , wait a few days , go there & pick it up , etc. great value
+camera neg i bought this bag looking at the display on amazon . but compare to price i paid this bag is not atall good . size is small , extra pockets are useless , where you cant keep much . camera pocket is also not convenient . only plus point is quality of material used .
+music neg i listened to this cd and unless you are into the whole barking dog sound of a band i did n't like this one , one bit , but than again it was also for my husband . i definitely would not recommend unless you have heard of the band and like that style of music
+camera pos this case fits the camera perfectly . you hardly notice it when it 's attached to your belt .
+camera pos it was everything it was reported to be . it works very well . we take it on every trip we take
+camera pos it is exactly the same thing as came with my camera - just what i neede
+camera pos took some nice pictures underwater in cuba . pretty easy to use . worked fine at our depth ( ~8 meters , 24 feet ) . still waiting for the chance to use it at greater depths .
+camera pos small and compact . let me see everyting i wanted to
+camera pos this is a good tool , does the job well , and serves the purpose , but is a little overpriced and canon keeps changing connectors , forcing us to buy new accessories which is a wrong practice against the consumer . i give a 4 star because of canon , not because of the product . if you are willing to pay for it , it 's a good product .
+camera neg i am not satisfied by this product . the calrity is not good . also this is the most battery consuming device i have ever seen
+music neg i love his voice , but the arrangements are way too complex and stilted . there are about 12 key changes in every song . the melodies are buried so far beneath his reinterpretations that one can barely recognize the songs . i feel these affectations detract from the songs . while his vocal gymnastics are very impressive , the result just is n't enjoyable to listen to ( unless you are a voice student or professional singer )
+music pos ...and if you 're fortunate enough to find it , i recommend buying the version with the bonus dvd , which chronicles the making of yellow brick road . when i bought it , it cost the same as the 2 sacd set without the dvd , so it was still a great deal . my only complaint- -and it 's really minor- -is that it would have been nice if they could have fit the original album onto a single sacd . a second disc could have included the bonus tracks that are included in this package , plus any extra- -maybe even audio-only interviews- -still remaining in the vaults . no matter . the important thing , if you are able , is to make sure you have an sacd-compatible player ( like the pioneer dv-563a , or one of the really expensive players if you 've got the cash and love audiophile formats in both your hardware and your cds ) . even if you do n't , the stereo cd layer still sounds truly excellent
+camera neg sd card worked fine for a week . problems arise then worsens over time for one more week then it just does n't work anymore . problem is not the pda , nor software on it . tried to use the card on a separate flash reader / writer . tried formatting it to fat32 , create test directory , data stays on for less than one hour . i would refrain from buying this product .
+camera neg this item was offered as a suggested accessory to the nikon monarch atb 8x42 waterproof binoculars that i purchased . i later also purchased the 12x42 binoculars . this harness can not be attached to either pair of binoculars ! the hook part of the snap is too thick to go through the strap eyelet on the binoculars . other than that the harness is a well made quality product
+camera pos with these weights i was able to send my canon powershot s70 to the bottom of the atlantic , and i have great faith that they will keep it there . reliable , and more professional than a brick
+music pos nothing at all like boy-band cds ( insync , backstreet boys , etc like editorial compared it to ) . while some of the songs are over-processed and do n't allow clay 's strong , clear , and beautiful voice to shine through enough , it is overall a very good cd . it has some catchy tunes on it . his second cd , merry christmas with love , allows his wonderful voice to shine through even more
+camera neg the article that receipt is difrente to that of the photo that appears . the conector to the camera is not usb / fire wire , but it is a type nini stereo
+camera neg at 300mm this lens is very soft , it 's hard to get a shot that looks like it 's in focus . to do so , you need to shoot at about f / 11 , and then since there is little light available , you usually have to bump the iso to 800 or 1600 just to get an acceptable shutter speed . of course , the high iso then introduces other artifacts . the focus is also dead slow and often does n't lock on . this is a lens that i have constantly fought with . do n't upgrade to the new 70-300 is either , as it 's only marginally better . buy the 70-200 f / 4l . it 's a far superior lens
+camera pos i got this camera for my 17th birthday last summer , and it 's great . as much as i 'd love to have a canon powershot , it 's a bit out of my price range . all the people who think that using the lcd screen runs out the batteries after " 2-4 pictures " are lying to you . i bought rechargable batteries from radioshack , and i 've taken up to 400 picture without the batteries needing to be changed . this is a good camera with good quality in good lighting . in dark or overcast situations , it can look a bit grainy , but that 's easily photoshopped . i recommend that when uploading , plug it into the wall with a digital camera adapter , because uploading sucks all battery power right out . i recommend this for someone who has n't owned a digital camera before , or for someone that wants good quality at a not-so-crazy price
+camera pos it 's a wonderful piece of equipment . love it . wish they made one for larger objects
+camera pos i bought this camera for my sister , as an early christmas present , thinking i would need some time to set it up for her , well in less then 30 minutes i was ready , it 's a awesome camera , i was impressed , of the ease from set up to formatting the 512 sd card . i have sent the site to another sister whom is interested . it is the easiest camera to use and has features that will impress anyone , great photos from very close to far away . i would recommend this camera to anyone
+music neg get 's one star in appreciation of the technicians who had to record the cd . what a mess ! never should have been made . even julie is way past the point of playing this onstage . she half talks her way through her songs , her voice clearly not what it was when she made the film . sorry julie , should have left it alone . the rest of the cast is not on a par with the film . tony roberts in place of robert preston...not on his best day . leslie ann warren was riotuosly original in the film , rachel york trying to copy her , is not . and michael nouri ? dismal . the songs added to the score for the stage.......forget it . not even worth mentioning any more . goes into the what were they thinking ? file . as for julie refusing her tony nomination because the rest of the show was overlooked ? c'mon julie , there was a reason for that , the show sucked !
+camera pos for the price it is a very good value especially with the capability of bouncing the flash in several directions . using the internal flash either left dark or washed out images at times . this flash solves the problem . i 've dealt with adorama several times and it was a pleasant experience . items were sent quickly
+camera pos the lenes work on the factory lens only with no feature to add additional lens . it works as advertized , i would have like to add the wide / tell lens to the filter for better out door videoing
+music neg just be sure to read up on this closely.. . it 's not the orchestra you hear in the movie , and you may be especially disappointed when you hear the vocal tracts - gone are great talents enya and annie lennox , replaced by no-name voices . this is not bad music , but do n't think you 're a genius for capturing the music of the movies on one inexpensive 2-cd set
+music pos when i bought this cd i did not know that much about supergrass . the only songs i had even heard were " pumping on the stereo " and " sun hits the sky " and i liked both of these songs a lot . so while i was cruising the aisles in the record shop , my eyes caught a glimpse of supergrass is 10 , so i decided to buy it because it was at a great price , and i am glad i did . the cd has not left my car since i bought it two months ago . every single one of the songs can get stuck in your head , and you won'tbe upset . from the opening track " caught by the fuzz " to the finale " wait for the sun " the album just rock throughout , and everytime i listen to it i want more . the album clocks in at 71 minutes , but everytime i am done listenintg to it i feel unfulfilled . that is a sign of a band making great music
+music neg if you need an experience of pure meaningless noise , this one 's for you . however , dont expect it to change your life much . the price listed above for the album is a very good example of the old cliche , " you get what you pay for .
+camera pos i have been using this camera quite a bit and am completely happy . it has both point and shoot , and slr features . you can take quick shots or get started with amiture photography . the software was easy to use , easy to set up , and it works well on my mac . it has the quality the you would expect with the canon name .
+camera pos purchased as a gift and well received . seems to handle larger chips in a timely manner . runs everyday , all day and no problems encountered . displays vacation pictures clearly . like that it is big enough to view across the room . frame is more compatible with decore than the 7 " model previously purchased
+music pos i really like this cd a lot and i am looking forward to seeing them live
+music pos bone thugs is always keepin it real . this album gots good production and of course them good lyrics . i love the beats on this album . the songs i got in my top 5 are straight bangers no doubt . this double album is a classic by bone thugs . you should cop this album . all tracks are 4-5 minutes long , each emcee spittin there verses , good stuff . definately check out this album now ! ! ! my top 5 songs 1.handle the vibe 2.look into my eyes 3.body rott 4.it 's all mo ' thug 5.ai n't nothin change
+camera pos great product , great price , great company , quick delivery . we love the small size
+camera pos excellent product for the price . pictures are not that good , but you ca n't ask more for this price
+music neg i am at a loss to hear what people appreciate about this cd . we were barely able to make it through one listening . this is a classic example of a cd that never would have been produced had the artist ( using the term very loosely ) not already been famous for something besides music . the lack of talent and originality on this cd is apalling . it only gets a star because that 's the lowest rating . i want my money back
+camera pos not knowing fully what i was getting into , on a whim i purchased this monopod hoping that is was a half-way decent product , i mean-it was so cheap . i was pleasantly surprised to find how sturdy the unit was and that what i had was a very high quality monopod . this was my second monopod and so i had another to compare it with ( the other was bought on an auction website ) . in comparison the opteka was a far better monopod in height and robust thickness and i use it exclusively on my minidv shoots
+camera neg i made sure i did my research and read all the reviews on various cameras before deciding to go with this one . i was highly disappointed when i got my camera home and put in the batteries , turned it on and immediately the lens got stuck in the " out " position with an error reading that said : lens error , restart camera . i tried to restart it a zillion times , only for it to say the same thing . i went on line and found that this is a problem with some canon cameras and now , instead of being excited about having this particular camera , i am completely disappointed . i 'm glad others have had such good luck with their cameras . please research the error because , in some cases , it did n't happen until a year later
+camera neg i ordered two of the items above in error . i did not think the first order was submitted properly so therefore a second one was ordered and came from antonline . i have been trying since dec. 19 to return the wide angle lens and adapter to them . i am 71 years old and not computer savvy . i just wish i could get return labels and my account credited . they are still in the original packing as received and never been opened . thank you for being interested . i was informed by them that my time had expired . i do not believe this to be true , or does your opening web page not apply to them .
+music neg i have to admit , i expected a lot more from mr setzer . the first track was ok , then it proceeded to go down hill from there . not much rockabilly happening , then it all comes clear with " really rockabilly " when he slags off all his traditional rockabilly fans...world wide . he even gives us aussies a serv , even though i do n't think he has ever set foot here . if brian wants to turn his back on rockabilly and try swing , jazz , rock or whatever , then go ahead , but why slag your old fans ? . it 's the last time i buy one of his cds without listening to it first
+music pos this album marked a return of sorts to the old trademark isley brothers sound , and it 's off the hook.jam and terry , steve huff , rafeal saddiq , kelly and angela winbush all took their turns puttin ' it down , and that 's exactly what they did.from the time move your body kicks in until the very end this album is absolutely slammin' .highlights in my opinion are you desreve better , just like this , warm summer night and move your body.but the absolute highlight and ( in my opinion ) one of the most slept on songs of all times is the title cut eternal.that is one of my top ten isley brothers favorites of all times.the song kind of reminds me of make me say it again , and earnie showed all the way out on the guitar solo on that song.contagious even had a bit of the isleys sound and probably introduced them to a whole new audience.as a whole , i am extremely fond of this album
+music neg i read several different on-line reviews for this cd before i purchased it . each seemed to imply that this cd was a new direction for jaci , that her lyrics were bolder and the overall sound was much more independent in nature . strange . i must have purchsed the prozac copy of this cd because there is nothing new here from her . like my title line to this review states , it 's the exact same music she has always sang , just in a different package . now the cd just collects dust . what a shame
+camera neg i bought this camera in oct 2005. i brought it everywhere . loved it . in april 2006 , the lcd screen blew . canon replaced it with a refurbished camera . in march 2007 , the exact same thing happened to the screen and now they will only repair for $97.00 , as they have determined this is the result of impact damage . how they determine this is unclear to me , as it was not dropped or impacted...apparently , you will spend 100.00 / yr maintaining this camera . that , to me , is the hallmark of a faulty product . unfortunate - as i really loved this camera
+music pos pablo is definitely the babe ruth / moses of these pieces . however , tempo , cadence , clarity , consistency and emotional projection are much better here . starker is at least the michael jordan of the bach suites . -and compared to pablo ( i heard the naxos one ) the sound quality on this disc is the right hand of god . starker is the dog 's balls ; big ones , like a great dane .
+camera neg instead of this pick up a plextor convertor box . it takes the output of the camcorder ( composite / rca or s-video ) and compresses that to mpeg-2 ( dvd ) or mpeg-4 ( or divx ) and includes software which easily burns that to dvd or cd ( mpeg-1 or mini dvd ) . look for plextor 's m402u box . unless you really want to deal with 3.125 mb of data per second ( 25 mbps ) , or about 180 mb per minute , or about 11 gb per hour through the firewire link , get the m402u . your options will be greatly expanded , and you wo n't tell the difference by looking
+camera pos this battery for my cannon camera is a great little " back up " battery . my camera came with a cannon battery and charging unit . the replacement cannon battery sells for over $40.00 so purchasing this cta battery at less than $10.00 is a very good choice .
+music neg yo nu-mixx sux i hate when people make cd 's like this to make some money off of great artist like pac . this cd is disrespecting pac and nobody should get this if your a pac fan . they take great songs and make crappy beats . get this if you want to support pac haters or waste your money
+camera pos not much to add to the other positive reviews posted , other than i am another user that loves my d50. have had it for a year now and shot over 10 , 000 photos with excellent results ( mostly landscape and wildlife ) . excellent image quality and the hand grip fits perfectly to both my hand and my husbands . the only con i can think of at this time is that there is no backlight on the top panel - this makes it difficult to adjust settings in low / no light situations . also , for people that are used to the little compact point & shoot cameras this might seem a little overwhelming at first and bulky to carry around ( which is why i have a little pocket camera for my purse ) . i also got the 18-200 lens and love it - perfect walk around lens
+camera pos the beauty of this charger is that it is 110 / 220v compatable , so with the appropriate international connector you can charge your batteries on european voltage . i have used two of these with the plug adapters and have kept four sets of batteries charged overnight for two olympus cameras giving a day plus of batteries available for each . very few cheap us chargers offer this multi voltage compatability . lots cheaper than multiple voltage convertors . if you plan on traveling internationally , this charger is a must !
+camera neg boy , this is way too much to pay for a hood on this lens . it 's a great a lens , but this is hardly worth the price
+music pos if you like vocalese , then this cd is for you . the song selection and performances are excellent . in my opinion , it stands up with the best lambert , hendricks , and ross stuff . it is clear that a lot of love and effort went into the making of this record . buy and enjoy
+camera pos i bought this filter for my 28-135 is canon lens and so far it has worked out great . unlike some of the other tiffen filters i bought , this one fits just right on the lens . all sides are even and it sits flush against the lens . i have n't noticed any artifacts from pictures i 've taken yet , but i have n't really had much of a chance to take many pictures with the lens . the night shots i 've take so far , i 've been quite pleased with , however
+camera neg well of course i read the previous reviews regarding amazon shipping the grey-market version of this timer and figured that certainly by now they were shipping a us version.. . wrong ! i just received mine today and it 's got the international warranty card and users manual . i have n't decided if i 'm going to return it or not but figured that anyone else considering ordering this item should be advised that it appears that amazon is only shipping the grey-market version of this unit
+camera pos these binoculars provide a good tool for night time sky viewing . easier to carry than a telescope with the advantage of using both eyes . the tripod mount can be used with most any tripod with a standard screw mount . the 15 power makes hand holding a challenge but with practice they work great .
+music pos okay bryce nickelback yells not screams big difference and wtf sum 41 your kiding right sum 41 does not scream at all and you say " i like music " well you dont know any thing about music and another thing you poser is that limp bizkit is not metal they rap so how can you say that they scream all the time...limp bizkit is the worst band out their they give a bad name to music itself and as for you dont write anymore reviews until you know more about music wich with the information i just got from you that will take a long tim
+camera pos i 'm still learning to use this camera and all the features . so far it is amazing . i 've been taking pictures of the kids and it looks like a pro did the shots . i use the auto mode a lot and it works great . the zoom is amazing . i love that it tells me when i am focused . also it has great battery life . i 'm very happy with this camera
+camera neg i bought this for my 9 year old son to take movies and edit on the pc . it worked for about 2 days before there was no image from the lens to either the lcd or the viewfinder . i could see other information on the lcd , such as the date , time , menu , but no image from the screen . i called samsung and that is where it is now for repairs . a check of the web indicated that this problem is well documented . i did try to install the software that came with the camera , but that did not go to well either . i will retry when i get a working camera again .
+music neg usually jerry 's scores for movies are priceless , ( i.e. the other score for " legend " ) but rudy is a little bit too unoriginal and the feelings meant to be expressed seem much too " forced " for my taste.it 's ok as a weird sort of comedy album , i suppose , but from the main theme i was laughing because it 's meant to be such a serious experience-but is n't ! i think that only the biggest goldsmith efficianado could find joy in this cd . ( .
+camera pos this is my first camcorder , so i do n't have much to compare it to , but i 've enjoyed it so far . it 's easy to use . the picture quality seems high . the only minor problem i 've found is with the headphone input . had to try three different sets of headphones before i could find one that would fit into the narrow slot where the headphone jack is
+camera neg i bought this for my husband for valentine 's day , so he could have photos of our new baby boy handy . unfortunately , the images appeared for one day , and then the unit stopped working . we had to send the unit back . i was very disappointed as there were many good ratings on the item .
+music pos this is the best cd i have ever listened to ! i highly recommend i
+camera pos i purchased this at a photographic store because a professional said you should n't go higher than 1.4x . just keep in mind- -1.4x is only " 40% better " . it worked really well , but did n't increase the zoomage enough . i decided to go with a 2x ( that 's twice the zoomage ) teleconverter by kenko instead . i gave this one to my brother-in-law for christmas . you have to think about what you want- -i want to get in really close to the birds . i have a 70-300mm zoom lens and 1.4x takes it to 98-420mm . it is an improvement , but not nearly enough ! if you want to get twice as close , this is n't going to do it for you . if you want to get half-again-as close , this almost gets you there . as far as quality , the quality is definitely there . five stars for quality , 3 for insufficient zoomage
+camera pos i have had my canon eos 30d for about a week and after 500 shutter actuations i am completely addicted to photography . i bought the 17-85mm canon lens and it takes phenomenal pics especially using the software and post-processing in raw . i also have a 70-300mm lens for sports / outdoors / nature and bursts of 5fps are a beautiful sound . i bought the camera through dell and with rebates currently this is the best deal out there ! strongly recommend . pay the extra $$$ and get this over the rebel xti . you wo n't be disappointed
+camera neg i just got this printer dock with a camera , and the printer feature is a real pain ! the paper will almost never feed no matter what i 've tried . when it does feed , it ends up jamming . i only successfully printed one picture and tried 7 others and then the laminate was gone . i 'm very unhappy with it and will probably send it back
+camera neg the charger unit or the batteries ( or both ) do n't work right : i use the batteries one at a time , in rotation to power my zen mp3 player . sometimes i put discharged batteries in the charger , plug it in , the light blinks red , then goes off . only supposed to show either red ( discharged , charging ) or green ( fully charged . ) this morning 3 batteries show fully charged , i take one out , it is discharged . all these problems happened with a first unit , i returned it to monster and after they took their sweet time , got a replacement which works just as erratically . monster 's stuff looks good , but it is the last time i am going to buy their brand
+music pos this is an amazing , beautiful album . probably a little more difficult to get into than streethawk , but after about the 4th or 5th listen , i found it more rewarding . the music is very dense , and the lyrics are beautifully poetic ( it helps that dan bejar has chosen to include a lyric sheet in the cover this time ) . a great album for any fan of intelligent independent music
+camera pos this item worked , allowed me to use printer and docking station from another kodak camera . would do it agai
+music neg first they started out as nu-metal , then they moved onto metalcore , and now psuedo-death metal . it should be no surprise to the fools who listen to this garbage that they are clearly following trends , and after each trend dies , they just move on to another one . if my calculations are correct , expect a psuedo-black metal release . but , what about the musicians ? sure , they have a fast drummer...who likes to trigger alot , then they have two guitarists...who like to steal pantera riffs , and then they have the singer , who , well , sounds just like all the rest . atleast they dont have the dj anymore ( oh wait , they do , nevermind . ) enough of my rambling , how does this untalented group of posers fair up ? well , image if mushroomhead went metalcore . ' nuff said . avoid
+camera pos it is simple , handy and works well to prevent shaking your camera . but i am still doubt if this simple accessory really deserves 50 bucks.. . this wired release would be the choice only if you are not a digital rebel user who has a more reasonable price option for the additional shutter button .
+camera neg i found it on sale - luckily because it did not work . cute as the dickens and came with a great strap and the art program was fun for the kids - but no go on the camera . never able to get it to power up - yes fresh batteries too . we were very disappointed :
+music neg although prince is an utter genious ! this cd is merely a boring contract filler . i suggest you buy one of his older albums or the new album " musicology " instead
+music pos both the italian version ( io canto ) and the spanish version ( yo canto ) are excellent , and amongst the best albums that i have heard this past year . the music is absolutely beautiful , fresh , and very well paced , and laura 's voice is soaring ! the quality of this album is exceptional....the production of the songs lends to laura 's very passionate approach to them . without understanding a word of either version , i cannot get enough of them ! listening to laura on this latest release of hers over and over again , each song continues to grow on me and i find myself completely absorbed in this album ! do yourself a favor and get this one....especially if you live in the united states . it will give you an opportunity to experience the power of what music can be if done right . you 'll find yourself relating to words you do n't even understand !
+music neg flcl is the worst anime of all time , and possibly the worst thing to come out of japan since the pearl harbor attacks , and the soundtrack is just as bad , if not worse . its nothing more than j-pop mixed with bad japanese rock . bad guitar playing , boring drum beats , and inaudible bass ; you 've heard one pillows song , you 've heard them all . only " otakus " with no life love this s*** ( like matthew g . salisbury ) . if you want good japanese music , go for king 's evil . ps , that album cover is possibly the worst ever made
+music pos together with ' the best of kool& ; the gang' ..... t h i s is the ultimate bit of funk that i 've found so far . the tracks may not always have a " song structure " ( and for me the women singers may be omitted. . ) - the funkiest bits in history are found here ! ! ! ! ! !
+music neg yes , she has a great voice , but this entire cd is so overproduced , so lifeless , so very boring that i had to force myself to listen to the entire thing - searching desperately for a track that measures up to the voice . she sounds as bored as i was on every song . i hope she wakes up soon before we all fall asleep
+camera pos when it comes to buying camcorders , i personally like the one with the build in memory . but after using this camcorder i was forced to change my mind . unlike other sony camcorders , first of all , it offers upto 40x zoom which is a lot . its a good use of your money . you can have it for under $400 and still works better than a lot of choices out there . easy to use , touch screen , takes still photos , has a good speaker so it 's easier to record video and voice , fits into your palm so to speak , and if you use rewritable mini dvds , you would n't have to worry about go out of memory . so when it comes to sony camcorders , i would say the better quality of this one would get the job done properly .
+camera pos i love my new canon a710. large lcd makes taking pictures easy to frame , color and sharpness is good all around and needing only 2 aa batteries is great . i no longer need to search and buy special camera batteries , i can go into any drug store . only draw back on this camera is the size of the memory card 16mb . for a few bucks more put in at least a 1gig . overall rating for a camera in this price range - above average
+music neg wen i bouht dis cd i thought is waz my holmes on it but it was jus sum dude wid a big azz hoodie and hat . when i put dis in my playa it was broken the rappers , main peter , voice sounded liek a blender . dah turntables sound like my moms bong a bubblin damn nigga was my favorite track but that was n't on dis cd . i wish i had da real copy and not da malufunked up one . peace out dawg keep it real and stay won wid dah underdawgzz
+camera neg if you can actually get the picture to turn out right , it does take pretty decent pictures . most of the time the photo is either over-exposed or too dark and grainy . it also only holds about 5 pictures , so you will have to buy a memory card if you want to really use this alot . i was a little disapointed with it due to the fact that it cost 40 dollars , and it does n't really seem worth it
+music neg this entire cd & hbo special is stolen material . all this material was originally written & performed by bill hicks . buy hicks dvd " bill hicks live - satirist , social critic , stand-up comedian " if you want the material in its true form http : / / www.amazon.com / exec / obidos / tg / detail / - / b0004z33fk / qid=1130712550 / sr=1-1 / ref=sr_1_1 / 104-5459925-2315938 ? v=glance&s=dvd bill hicks was also paid tribute on tool 's aenima album
+music neg shannon lawson is capable of a much better album . i saw him down in nashville when he was with the galoots , and it was amazing ! if they were to put out a cd i 'm sure it would be one of my favorites . shannon has a voice and a talent for bluegrass music and that 's what nashville should have let him do on his first solo cd . instead they gave it this generic , overproduced sound , leaving shannon sound like everyone else . with the way bluegrass is selling these days , it 's a shame that shannon could n't showcase his enormous talent in the proper arena. .
+music pos this has to be one of the most beautiful cds ever recorded . damien 's vocal range is vast ; his musicianship excellent ; but it 's the crafting of songs at which he truly surpasses most artists . haunting , sensitive , flowing , crashing.. . ( if i have one criticism , it 's the mixing levels - at times , his vocals are drowned . in concert , when he lets rip , you really feel the power of his vocals / music , which , unfortunately , does n't come over quite as well on the album . ) a truly magical album .
+music pos in the early 60 's etta james was to r& ; b what patsy cline was to country . she could cross over and yet remain true to her roots , and that 's only one part of a nearly 50 year career ! from the velvety cross over soul of " at last " to the hard driving memphis soul of " tell mama " , this is one legend who certainly deserves a wider audience than she has today . she ranks right up with aretha franklin as an influential vocalist . i took far too many years to discover her power . if you have n't given her a serious look yet , stop wasting time and begin here
+camera pos i got this camera for my birthday present in january and i 'm extremely satisfied . i 'm very new to the entire " photography world " , however this camera makes it easy to get into . the camera is smaller than i expected , however it takes great pictures . i use it often for pictures while we are on trips . the picture quality is great , however screen quality is n't up-to-par with other brands . this is a great value and i really like it . my only complaint is that the easyshare software is bad . it 's slow , outdated , and does n't work well overall . i recommend getting a 1 gb sd card . i have 3 of them
+camera neg i bought this camera in february , and after taking 6 shots the camera almost died , i could review the photos i had taken , but when switched the dial to take photos the camera turned out black either the lcd / efv , and only turned off when i removed batteries , i sent it to fuji repair center , and got it back again almost one month later . then six months later the camera did exactly same thing , i have n't received my camera back yet , but i 'm sure never will buy a fuji camera again and of course my camera will died again in the next months after i get from the repair center and at the end of the day i will have wasted almost 500 dlls
+camera pos this is a very flexible and capable camera . if you are looking for more than a point & shoot will offer , there are very few that would compare . for me the deciding factor was the high quality lieca lens with wide angle , if you havent compared this directly with a conventianal lens you will be amazed at what youve been missing . the 16:9 is an ok feature if you plan on hdtv veiwing but the screen size is compromised when you switch to 4:3. i would prefer a larger screen and lose the 16:9 feature . the lens cap is a little annoying as well but those issues aside , i am very satisfied
+music pos this cd was beautifully sung by the cambridge singers , a boys / mens choir , mostly a ' capela . it 's the first christmas cd i 've bought that really tempts me to crank up the volume so i can revel in every note
+camera neg before that it was kind of nice , but it cannot focus in even semi-low light . it is definitely light and easy to take everywhere , but there are so many conditions where the results are disappointing . no way i would call the output hd quality , just the best sd ever with a 16 * 9 format . and then it broke
+camera pos this uv filter produces high quality pictures at a fraction of the cost of many ather brands
+music pos i usually do n't do album reviews but i gotta say this was tight from beginning to end and i was shook that this was given a low reading by a magazine i call " the sauce " so many of yall need to stop reading magazine ratings and come to sites likes this and read your own peers ratings . word of mouth is bliss . a-g-2-a-ke who came out on rap-a-lot has n't come out with a cd since this classic . i 'm salty they did n't " make it " because this was heavily slept on
+camera neg overall this is a well-designed case which is custom fit for your panasonic lx1 or lx2 camera , but it has a few major flaws . first , there is no simple way to attach it to your belt . there is a belt loop on the back but it is so small and tight that it wo n't fit any belt more than 1 / 2 " wide . also , there are two zippers on this case , one on each side , which could potentially scratch your camera coming in or out of the pocket . finally , the velcro tab that closes the case is not particularly strong and can occassionally pop loose on its own . this might be a good case if you are going to keep it in your backpack or suitcase , but not for carrying around for everyday use .
+camera neg i purchased this along with a sony dcrhc21. this carry case was listed as an accesory so i expected it to be appropriately sized ( as other sony cases i 've purchased fit like a glove ) . this case is entirely too large to hold a minidv camcorder . the camcorder rattles around inside it . if you have extra attachments and lenses maybe you might need this one . otherwise i suggest you look at the product specifications , note the dimensions and then look at your camcorder 's size .
+camera neg hi , i have lost the cd rom to download the movie from the camera . sony does not offer it for free on its website . you have to pay $70 dollars to get it again . that clearly disappoints me .
+music pos spice 1 's just different from every other rapper . and he 's awesome . if you love hardcore rap , you 'll love spice 1
+camera pos i got this cam as a gift and it is very nice and sleek and easy to use ! the pictures are nice and it is light and easy to have it with you everywhere
+music neg this album is dull and without any emotion.the only reason this guy is even known is because of his backgroud
+music neg i loved " come away with me " the first moment i heard it . i also had the opportunity to see norah and her wonderful band in concert ... the experience was absolutely fantastic ! i could n't have asked for a better ! so naturally i waited in eager anticipation for her new album " feels like home " which after only one listen made me feel narcoleptic . it was a good thing i did n't try and listen to it while driving . to be perfectly honest , i have n't listened to it since . she is so talented , i wish this effort had been as successful as the first , but not everyone hits a homerun each time at bat . but i still hold out hope that her next album will be better
+music pos i would like to point out that mtv rocks is funny and you guys are suckers . this album does rule , just not as much as top40 radio hits
+music neg great cd . imus in the morning recommended highly and the i-man was not wrong . one of the best cd 's i 've owned in years . i listen to a lot of buffett , james taylor , delbert mcclinton , and this cd places high in these ranks
+music pos it realy has been a long wait after jellyfish . this roger joseph manning solo effort is as beautiful as music can get , giving wagonloads of goosebumps all the way . if you have a craving for the ultimate in sophisticate popmusic you should get this rare jewel . and do n't wait for the us release : it lacks one song from a perfect 11 like the japanese has . i sure would n't want to miss any of these tracks . very higly recommended !
+music neg this album bores me out of my mind . only two decent tracks : bad boys and bonnie and clyde . and i 'm no avid radio listener . bet and mtv actually hit the nail on the head with these tracks . so i guess they good for somethin
+camera neg these glasses should not have the bushnell name on them , which misleads one to think they are good quality . i bought them for my son , and by the time i got around to sending them , i discovered that the plastic housing was cracked where the front lens screws in , so the lens was misaligned . it was past the 30-day return date , so i glued the crack and kept them for my own use . they are still not right , but i keep them in my car for occasional use . my advice - - spend some extra money and get a good pair .
+music pos need to say more ? this is one of the most beautiful and honest records western popular music ever seen . she sings beauty , so lovely , as some fairy enchanting gnomes in a huge yet peaceful forest , away from the horrors of humanity . that alien feeling you 'll get it since its first five seconds and it will lasts till the end . druids of the world unite
+camera pos i got a nikon laser rangefinder for chrisymas and it had an 8x magnification . i found this to be to powerful for golf.i could not hold it steady on the flag.the 6x magnification on the bushnell yardage pro scout was much better . also it is very compact and stores easily in my golf cart . the price from amazon was well below i could find anywhere else .
+music pos this is a fabulous cd and exactly what i was looking for . i 'm also thrilled that it has an accompanying book with all the sheet music . i am leading a seder this year for a church group who has never heard any of the songs before , so i wanted the traditional melodies , easy to follow sheet music , and easy guitar chords . this is perfect ! i 'm so pleased
+music neg this cd is pretty awful , you wonder why leona even got the chance to record a cd , one of the worst songs ever is calling , , it sounds like taunting from elementary school kids on the playground , na na na na , na na na na , i agree with the reviewer who said she is a very weak edie brickell sounding singer....... .
+music neg with the caliber of musicians playing on this album , i expected a hard hitting original . instead we get re-arranged covers and lots of " filler " salsa . no surprises here . the classic salsa albums are worth your cash but if you are curious , you 'll play this one once
+music pos sing of mary is a work of art ! the beauty of the music is only surpassed by the woman it praises...mary ! god bless this cd. .
+camera pos this is my second digital camera . although it does so much more than my first , it is much easier to operate . i especially love the fact that i can video my grandson 's baseball game , and then convert individule frames to photos ( jpeg ) with great quality . i have a series of photos with him getting a hit . it looks great ! thanks for a great product . ralp
+music neg i love running to the marine corps cadence cds . volumes 1 and 2 are very good . volume 3 sounds studio produced and more choral . when running vols 1 & 2 are better synched for continuous running . the transitions on vol 3 feel out of synch to me . others do n't seem to agree and i still run to this cd ; i 'd buy 1 and 2 first if you do n't have them
+camera neg i was all set to purchase this bag but wanted to try it out first . i had great difficulty finding one locally but finally after many many phone calls i located one bag and asked the merchant to hold it till i could get there to try it out . firstly , the bag is nice but does n't hold as much as i thought . it still could have worked for my but for one thing : this bag is not designed for those with a , er.....womanly build . it was the most uncomfortable bag i have ever tried out and looked absolutely ridiculous on me . so glad i was able to take it for a test drive before purchasing online . just a word of warning to the ladies ; -
+music neg i was so disappointed with this cd . at least 6 of the songs were recorded from very old albums....scratches and all ! they were so bad . i play two of the songs over and over...the only two i liked . when i read the other reviews and there was mention of leaving out some of the songs , i assumed that they meant doubles of the same song....i was wrong . i do n't know why they had to add the scratchy music..a filler ? i would quickly skip to another song...only to have to " skip " many times !
+camera pos the case with battery and filter is well worth thr price paid
+camera pos this seemingly simple piece of molded plastic was recommended to me by a professional photographer . basically it 's the shape of an open box that slides firmly onto the flash . it is small and sturdy enough to stash in your camera bag without worrying about damage . when used the light disperses more evenly and is less harsh on the subject being photographed . the white box is for general use . also available are the green omni-bounce for florescent lighting and the gold omni-bounce for a warming effect . pros : inexpensive solution for better flash photography . a quality product that works . cons : non
+camera neg i keep this frame on all day and night . the lcd backlight should last longer than 4 months but mine just burned out . the quality of the pictures are okay if viewed from a distance but the low res . is not good if viewing up close . there is no external power controls or a remote so turning this unit on and off is a drag . regular lcd backlights should last a few years even if it stays on all day and night . this one just lasted 4 months . so the image is almost non-existant now . in the glare , you can barely make out the image so it 's still there but with no backlight so good as dead . i would recommend a more expensive philips ones . my friend has had it for about two years and it 's still going . plus it 's higher res and and has more controls such as a timer function and also can play video clips , which this one ca n't
+camera neg i wear glasses and press against the viewfinder as hard as i can to help keep the shot stable ( i shoot birds at 700mm ) . the first thing my friend and i did was to compare two identical lenses / cameras etc. - one with , one without , the extender . result : - the image appeared the same size , and the extender slightly blurred the image . in other words - completely useless
+music pos this was 2pac 's last good album before he joined deathrow.he was a good rapper but never the best , he started too much beef with other rappers for no reason.he had alot of beef with east coast rappers like biggie , nas , jay-z and mobb deep , but he never opened his mouth about wu-tang because they would lyrically destroy him.this is one of the best albums from 95 right behind gza 's liquid swords and mobb deep 's the infamous
+music neg presumably the label is trying to cater to mid-range fans who have a prince album or two but do n't want to buy them all and who want more than a single disc hits collection . the way this is laid out though is confusing at best : disc 1 seems to be for the mid-range fan and it makes sense that they would choose the single edits though some of those chosen are questionable . ( " my name is prince " ? his take on " nothing compares 2 u " when sinead o'connor 's is definitive ? ) disc 2 compiles 12 " mixes and remixes and similar rarities..i.e . for the diehard only who has to have every little bleat his purpleness every records . bottom line : this is haphazardly thrown together . middle range fans are better off with the hits / the b-sides which compiles his biggest chart stuff with a pretty decent selection of interesting flip side material ( some of which equals his singles )
+camera pos very easy to use , multiple languages , something nice and easy for even unexperienced users . recommend to anybody buy it , it 's worth it . and the price is right for the features and mp . i would not hesitate to pay more for this camera . kodak has done wonderful job with this on
+music pos ok ( i imagine there 's still drool over my " earlier " review...and my wife is none too pleased either.. . ) truth or dare time ! i bought this cd out of none-too-scientifical curiousity , that , and " let me blow ya mind " - and guess what ? i 'm beginnin ' to dig the entire cd . as i mentioned , 99 & 44 / 100th% of " rap music " fully explains to me what gregg allman meant when he sang , " it 's not my cross to bear . " ok , that being said , eve pulls no punches ( although the " skits " on the thing about wet myself laughing ) , and she 's not a lady whom 'd i 'd like to cross . but " i bought the ticket , so i 'm gonna take th ' ride . " and enjoy myself mightily while doing so. .
+camera neg was dropped onece and it broke . computer doe n't recongise software with windows xp . kids were disappointed they could n't see there pictures . called the company and they were no help
+music neg i forgot how bad this album was until i popped it into my cd player the other day . it seems like every song has one or two parts that are totally killer , followed by 3-4 minutes of boredom . the song " epic problem " is good throughout , and full disclosure is excellent except for the horrible screamed verses . strangelight is awesome too , and not very typical of fugazi . the kill is also good in the same way , it 's very chilled out . past these few standout tracks ( which would n't be standouts at all on any other album of theirs ) there is n't much reason to listen to the album . it 's incredibly boring . i suggest picking up any other fugazi album first , maybe 13 songs , red medicine or in on the kill taker
+camera neg this product link needs to be corrected , as the battery contained in the kit is not the same battery which is used in the dcr-dvd7. do not purchase this accesory kit if you intend to use it for the dcr-dvd7 camera .
+camera pos the case is protective and stylish without hindering the camera 's ability to store and transport easily . it 's definately worth the dough to keep your nikon s1 or s2 from scratching or even breaking from a minor fall
+camera pos -this camara picture quality is nice , and depend on user purpose . my gf is kinda satify with it . -function is easy to use . -battery life is so so . -battery charger design is not convenience . you have the put the battery into the batter charger . recommand to get a cradle charger , but extra cost . it should sell with cradle charger .
+camera neg i would agree with the other review . the indoor / low light quality of the video is unacceptable . i will be returning the camcorder today to purchase another
+music neg i do n't even own this cd , and after seeing the reviews i do n't want it . 90% of the " 5 star " reviews are people with only one review . suspicious ? ? look for yourself , it 's right there to see . i have some other meditation cds that are very repetitive , i 'm not going to make the same mistake here , especially with such shameless self-promotion
+camera neg to customer before me , you camera d200 might be on recall . please check the nikon website for more info . you have described the exact recall problem . good luck ! btw , have you tried or someone tried this battery on a d70 ? i am thinking to consolidate and have all greys batteries rather than black for the d70 and grays from the d200.
+music pos brubeck and desmond work their special magic here and produce their finest live recording . this is sophisticated improv to tame the beast . i have listened to these tracks uncountable times and i never get tired of them . this is truely a wistful soundtrack to transport one to a higher realm . try this the next time you are caught in heavy traffic on a rainy afternoon . you wo n't mind the delay . it never fails
+music neg ( ... ) this cd is sub-par . most of the beats are cool , but they 're overlayed with too many cheesy lyrics
+music neg " modern " usually sounds like some outdated mid-80s new wave album by the cars , flock of seagulls , or somesuch . it is not a punk record , mostly midtempo pop . the three songs diggle wrote and sings on are basically awful ; shelley 's are considerably better - the usual wry lyrics and great hooks . i would say about 3 or 4 of the tunes are topnotch buzzcocks stuff ; newbies should buy " operator 's manual " or " going steady . " or dig up the amazing " different kind of tension " from a used record store somewhere ! also , see them live if you have a chance
+music pos good cd , but where is his recent hit " i wanna feel that way again " and his classic hit " walkin ' to jeruselum "
+music neg might just be me- -but this is one of those cd 's that the song they play on the radio is the only decent one . maybe i 'm too old for the rest- -but wish i had kept the crystal so i could sell it on ebay
+music neg boston have to be one of the worst bands ever ! ! the singer screams and they made some of the lousiest songs like rock n roll band , and the horrible more than a feeling . they would not hold a candle to smart bands like metallica who rock ! i just got metallica 's 4th lp today . get and justice for all by metallica insted
+camera pos it is rated for 5 meters but i took it to 9 and there were no sings of moisture or a single drop . the antifogging solution provided works for more than an hour . the microphone records sound well . i have a high def cam and the s.pack did not decrease image quality inside or outside the water . in the specs it is stated that its buoyancy is positive , and by experience i recomend to buy a weight for it to avoid the camera going up in the water while you push and push down - even more snorkeling . there are special weights that are mounted to the enclosure using the trypod whole . i would say a 14-18 onz it fine . it is a great item
+music neg is it really necessary to take minute-long solos in every song ? really ? if you like your solos long-winded and lacking in destination , and your lyrics trite ( get a job ? ? ? ) , check these guys out . if you actually plan on listening to the music you buy , skip it
+camera neg there is a serious design flaw with this camera and it is even acknowledged on the faq section of the sony website . " if there are dust particles floating in the air , they can be illuminated by the strong light of the flash and sometimes appear in a recorded image as white , round glare spots . this symptom tends to occur in low-light environments when using a compact digital camera due to the close proximity of the flash to the lens assembly . however , this is not a malfunction . " read : your low-light pictures will have spots all over them ! sony does not think this is a problem . it is a design flaw . if you are only going to use this camera in full sun , then it is fantastic but seriously , there are many other cameras out there that do a much better job !
+music neg i was first introduced to the symphonic power metallers formerly known as rhapsody ( name changed due to copyright issues ) on their 2006 live album live in canada . i have to say that i am just not that impressed or entertained by their latest studio effort . the group tends to rely more or the theatrical elements rather than focusing on their metal music . the vocals tend to be oversung , or drowned out by the chaos in the background . rather than enhancing your metal experience with musical theatrical elements , rhapsody of fire puts you to sleep with them . the group does stay true to their fantasy themes however
+camera neg i got to get it off my chest . this camera takes great photos and they print out wonderful . but , the camera has several down sides : 1. as all have said , it eats batteries big time . this is a pain . 2. it recharges slow between flash and between non flash . forget about catching a great spontaneous moment . 3. not durable . i dropped mine out of the case from below waist hight and it does nto work at all . i am sure by the time i send it in and pay for shipping and repair i can buy a new one that is cheaper and more reliable . any suggestions ? ? ?
+camera neg i got it just today and used it for cleaning my lens . the solution might be useful , the blower is useful , the swabs can be useful with their pointed tips , but the so called " magic cloth " is anything but magic . it kept leaving lint on my lens
+music pos my son loves music and really likes dan zanes . we started with the videos on disney and the " catch that train " song really got us singing , so we ordered this cd . now my son sings along with it , dances and jumps around . dan zanes really is fun for the family
+camera pos i purchased this case for my canon a530 camera . i find that it does a great job of being light , durable , and compact . it keeps the camera clean and scratch free . however i wish the case had a better carrying capacity . i would have liked a bit more space for spare batteries and chips . i use different ones for different pictures or video . batteries do tend to give out after a long day shooting and convient extras would be handy . the case has beltloops but not a good shoulder strap for times when a belt is not worn . that can be a bit akward . otherwise this case is a good protector of my camera and fits it well .
+camera neg you have this camera case listed under accessories for the panasonic dmc fa20pp lumix camera . the camera does not come close to fitting in this case . the camera is 1 1 / 2 inches wider than the case .
+camera neg beware of assuming that the uv filter recommended by amazon for a particular camera with a fixed lense size that i purchased is the correct size . it was n't even close . no size was given for the lense diameter . i returned the filter for a full refund minus my shipping & all the hassel of packaging it
+camera pos i owned this lens for about a year before upgrading to the image stabilized f / 2.8 version . overall i was very happy with the f / 4 lens and miss having it available because of the significantly lower weight . sharpness is amazing and comparable for both lenses , and the f / 4 can provide plenty of background blur . if you are shooting mostly outdoors i would recommend the f / 4.
+music neg this album is disgusting . no musical talent . this people are the farthest thing from musicians . if you enjoy overproduced music , and a rip off of fellow label mates fob and p ! atd - buy this . it is boring and it is a weak attempt at a record . shaant ca n't sing either . go back to buffalo
+camera neg i measured 7 batteries out of the pack of 20 with la crosse charger , which i also bought from amazon . the capacity ranged from 547 mah to 2002 mah , with the average being 886 mah . that 's about a third of the stated capacity . before i took the measurements , i made sure the charger works properly by testing it with two different brands of aa nimh batteries : la crosse and energizer . both scored very close to their stated capacity . therefore , the test is valid and sunpak 's claim of 2650 mah is grossly overstated . my advice : avoid sunpak like the plague !
+camera pos third camera from kodak easyshare . great performance and pics . slendor size
+camera pos i decided i wanted this a while before i got it . as i read reveiws i realized majority of them were postive . there is nothing wrong with it , the microphone works really good but you can not watch your videos with sound on the camera . it can take around 300 some pictures and about 60 minutes of video on super sine mode , where it uses the most megapixels . it is definetly something i would recommend for anyone
+music pos i absolutely loved the string music on track 3. i remembered it from an old pc rpg called quest for glory iv . i was disappointed to find out that track 4 was only a minute and a half long , because i grew up loving that song from the various places i heard it ( fantasia and a kid detective pc game from the late 80 's ) . overall , though , grieg 's greatest hits is a must-have for collectors of classical music . grieg is revered as norway 's greatest composer of all time and he certainly has a knack for creating imagery of bustling fjords and majestic mountainsides with interlaced river ravines .
+music pos i ca n't say enough how great this album is . grant green was one of the most soulful jazz guitarists who ever graced the planet . his soloing on this cd is filled with beautiful melodicism matched with a bluesy grit that is such a pleasure to listen to . and for me as a guitarist it has been an encyclopedia of how to play blues from a jazz perspective . my favorites are " miss ann 's tempo " and " blues for willarene " . it is such a shame that he died so young and never collected his just due
+camera pos great seller ! shipping was very fast ! this battery out does the oem one that came with the camera.. . very happy ! thank
+camera neg i bought a jvc mini dv just over a year ago . it now does not work . of course , the warranty has now expired and i am out of luck . spent $400 on this model . i do not recommend jvc .
+music pos miss saigon is my favorite all-time musical ! i was hesitant when buying this recording because in my mind lea salonga is and always will be kim ! but i was pleasantly surprised . joanna ampil as kim holds her own . while she does n't have the vocal range of lea , she has a beautiful , crisp voice which she uses to emote the emotional turmoil of kim . she expresses herself in a way that makes you feel her love , pain and anguish and in turn she makes this part her own . the rest of the cast is superb ( especially the amazing ruthie henshall as ellen ) but make no mistake , this show belongs to ampil ! i also fell in love with some of the material left out of the lcr . there a beautiful bridges and songs which enrich the story . " back in town " stands out for me because of the gorgeous melodies . anyone who has fallen in love with the story of " miss saigon " will appreciate these added gems ! this cast recording is definitely worth a listen !
+camera neg pictures do not come out very good . poor quality ! i would not recommend it
+music pos we are using this series of cds in our homeschool music program - they are fantastic ! we especially love this one about bach - what an awesome man ! the story of his life is told in a way that is very interesting and holds the children 's attention while also using various pieces of his music in the narration . it is done very well ! my children are gaining a tremendous amount of knowlege and appreciation for music through this cd and so are my husband and i
+camera neg i thought i was ordering the right size batteries , but i found out too late this was not the case . now i am unable to get full credit for them when i return them
+music pos considering how much bad music is out there these days , this was nice to come across . covers a wide range of topics and moods , musicianship is pretty good . i 'd recommend it to just about anyone . my tastes are usually heavier and more progressive - rush , dream theater , iron maiden , queensryche . but i like this disc too
+camera neg it got to me and upon my sons birthday and opening it ( a month or so later ) it worked for about an hour and since has not registered speed correctly . a huge disappointment and waste of my money
+camera neg i only wish i could return this camera . its automatic focus does not work well in photographing landscape scenes and plants ( what i do most ) and its manual focus is difficult ( very difficult ) to use . my much cheaper , and lower resolution , old minolta does a much better job in low light conditions . i find i have to delete half my photographs due to bad focus . in addition , photo files take 5 to 6 seconds to save to my so-called high-speed memory card . do n't buy this camera
+music pos for those of us who thought phil collins was to be lost in the mass pop culture , think again.. . that was back in the early 80s when i heard this. . it is mastery distille
+camera pos this camera works well , except that the shutter speed is a bit slow . the image quality is decent . the use of aa rechargeable batteries is also convenient . the camera is pretty sturdy . i 've dropped it a few times and it still works fine
+camera neg straight out of the box disappointment with the extremely poor quality . plug into wall and does not work . after trying numerous different outlets / wiggles of the cord , it finally powered on . after putting in a card , the pics were ok , passable . the mp3 popped and moaned and popped some more , and i was only playing very quiet jazz . this is not worth the money even though it is cheap . pay a little more and get one that is of better quality
+music pos if you want some classical music to sleep to , do n't buy this cd . if you want some high energy symphonies , however , i highly recommend it . from bach to vivaldi , the pure energy of this cd will give you a new understanding of the joys of classical music . just do n't listen to track 25 , because i have no idea why john philip sousa is included with tchaichovsky
+camera pos this is the perfect camera for me . i take alot of close-up detail shots and the images come out great . it is smaller than my old g3 ( which i loved , but was pretty chunky )
+music pos metheny 's an innovator and has been all over the map over his long career in terms of styles , moods , textures , and sounds . here we have an early effort in which he takes his guitar and overdubs an introspective , wide-open-spaces musical journey across america , weaving in jazz , folk , country , rock , mountain music , and everything in between . if you love his work on joni mitchell 's amelia ( performed live on shadows and light ) , you 'll love the sound of this record . the mood is mellow but not dull , quiet but not silent , and the results are spectacular . this is the cd to take with you on a trip across the western frontier , or a short hop to burger king . works either way
+music neg this band is getting alot of critical acclaim right now , but i 'm just not feeling it . the single " wolf like me " is the only song that stands out to me on the whole album . it is a great song , but everything else is just blah . i think the band could use a different singer , the guy they got does n't sing very well or very " soulful " . the music is good , very original and the only reason i have n't sold the cd yet . i really think ppl need to hear this one for themselves before they buy . do n't be fooled by these 5 star reviews . just listen to the cd before you buy it . that 's my advice
+camera pos i 've used all types of film thoughout my photography days and by far kodaks treated me the best . if your out to capture rich , vibrant colors this is the film for you . so far i 've shot 4 rolls of it and i 'm amazed at how much the colors stand out . its definatly the film i 'll be using
+music pos anybody know the name of the song played at the very end of the movie , when the brother and the sister are saying goodbye to each other , when she is crying and asking him what he is going to do with his life ? right before he enters the bus.. . i would love to listen to it again but i ca n't find it anywhere. .
+music neg after discovering and loving the sound of gotan project i was shopping around for groups with a similar sound . i stumbled along emigrante and upon reading the other reviews written on this site about this cd , i thought i had found another gem . boy was i wrong . the first track drew me in and left me spellbound , unfortunately , it was all downhill after that . i was listening to the cd for the first time in my car and forgot it was even on . the rest of the songs were so uninspiring , the music soon became nothing more than meaningless background noise
+camera pos i was n't sure if it would be worth spending the money on this case . how wrong i was . if you 're into diving and have one of these cameras , buy it now
+camera pos fast delivery , great price . i would buy from them again , thanks =
+camera pos i use this little gadget mainly for macro and portrait work . when you have it on the light emitting from the flash is diffused which gives you a more flattering less contrasty light to illuminate your subjects with . unless you are going for a very shadowy , high-contrast , image this diffuser can save the day . it is very light weight and easy to pack in small places , so you should never have a good reason to leave it behind . sometimes it is the simple things that make the biggest difference in a photo , and using this can defiantly make very noticeable differences
+music neg the 1 star is for this 5 star cd box set being no longer available . does anyone know why or if it will be reissued soon ? i have the highlights cd and the " live at the plugged nickel " double lp - but not being able to buy this is disappointing and puzzling . thank you in advance for any help . scott k fis
+camera neg wow.. . now if you really want to see a rip-off , here it is . not to be damaging to amazon.com but hey for the 50mm just get some carboard and tape it to the front to shield it from the sun . the hood is definitely not worth it
+music neg i was disappointed with the album as a whole . when i heard the song " drink to me babe , then " , i thought it was great and sounded like the shins . the rest of the album was boring lyrically
+camera pos this is the same charger came with my digital rebel , however , i like to charge two batteries at a time . so , i bought a second charger and place them side by side on the power strip . the prongs for the outlet fold over and into the back of the charger making the charger very compact , flat and easy to take along with you . it 's nice having a charger without long cords to fuss with .
+camera pos this can be used in lieu of a replacement battery . plus if an electrical outlet is convienent , like when shooting inside , you never have to worry about running out of power . also handy if you are mobile and have a auto dc / ac converter . but not as overall convienent as an extra battery . i thought it would also trickle recharge the battery , but it doesn't . nikon should add this feature in
+camera neg i was so dissapointed with this camera ! i purchased a sony cybershot 3 years ago and , it had been such a great camera , i automatically thought this newer model would be great . almost every picture i took was either blurry or the light areas of the picture were blown out ! as an experienced cybershot user , i tried all settings to fix the problem , but no luck . terrible for capturing a child 's first steps , as the description says . would not recommend
+camera pos this was a great addition to the " photography basket " i made my grandson for easter
+music pos i picked this up in a bootleg store in korea a few years back , since it was cheap , and i had loved the movie ( perhaps more so than any other of mallicks 's others , even - speaking of which , if you get a chance to see badlands on the big screen , do yourself a huge favour and do so ) . as i recall , i did n't really enjoy it on first listen . but then , somehow , i got sucked in . almost as much as the film itself , this is a hypnotic , haunting slice of poetry . nothing happens for about a minute , and then it builds and builds . unforgettable , otherwordly and quite beguiling . the structure of the soundtrack ( especially the songs toward the end featuring polynesian gospel-style singing ) is strongly reminiscent of the mike oldfield cd , ' songs of distant earth' . highly recommended , but do give it a couple of listens , because it might take a while to make its charms felt
+music neg having listened to steven 's previous albums , greetings from michigan and seven swans countless times , i cannot help but to notice the amount of regurgitation on this album . stevens blatantly rips off his own music . i consider michigan to be sufjan 's masterpiece . do yourself a favor and start there
+music neg too lisa loeb for me . sorry . maybe if someone else wrote her lyrics
+camera neg i just got this camera a week ago and thought it was great . but today i tried to turn it on and it 's completely dead ! i even changed out the batteries and it 's still completely dead . this is the first digital camera i 've had and i bought it because i 'm going to europe ( two days after it died ) . now i have to scramble to get a replacement before i take off . grrrrr ! !
+music neg great fan of the man they call ' sugar ' zucchero , but this outing is really below par . this cd consists of rerecordings of older songs , with the addition of other famous singers . did he send the original recordings to these people , en did they ad little pieces here and there ? it sounds like it ! none of the songs have gotten ' better compared to the originals . to me this cd is a total rip off intended to make easy money ( and get more attention for ' sugar ' outside of italy ? ) . do n't buy it , get ' oro ' , ' shake ' or ' blue sugar ' instead
+music pos a great sampling of one of top 10 musicians from the 20th century
+music pos i personally like this compilation of prince , it 's got most of the songs i like and the sound is great . sure , there could have been a few more songs included , like " pop life " , " hot thing " , but when compared to the other compilations , this disc has more of the songs that are a must-have , for me , such as " i wanna be your lover " , which i do n't think was included on any of the other compilations . so , it 's just a matter of weighing what songs you most want , so that 's why i chose this disc and i 'm glad i did !
+camera pos the quality is definitely great . when attached to the s3 is , it makes your camera look serious about taking good shots . if you are attaching the hood and doing flash photography , i suggest you use a slave flash to eliminate the shadow caused by the hood
+music pos this is such an good industrial album , that i was sitting and listening to it and all the adjectives that i wanted to use seemed not good enough . however , if i have to put one then it has to be these , brilliant , astounding , stupendous and awesome . this is probably one of the best industrial albums of all time . the first track is good and then it just gets better and better . in fact the first track is not as good as the other ones and could have been replaced with another track . the book-let is ok but the lyrics are missing , but still it is an important release since it showed that inudtrial bands are tallented muisicians and can sing . minphaser , life line , guna are some of the best made industrial tracks ever with the intricate layers of sounds , bets and samples . the keyboard sounds are constantly amazing and this is an album not to be missed if one likes industrial music
+music neg nelly could make the wort rapper sound like a lyricyst , and how dare him to diss krs-one , he just said the truth and he really did not diss him on number 1 , he just added to why he sucks . lets face it , all his songs are basically dumb and and really don , t have much texture involved . and how funny is it that his friends really have no skill and they are all over this album it is just laughable . if you buy this album , you throw away good money . unless you like bubblegum rap . this is more for a teen white girl who wants to be cool , but lets face it , its played out
+camera pos easy to use , including zoom and uploading to computer . nice clear photos when printed out
+camera neg this is the worst camera i 've ever owned . i 'm not exaggerating . i 'm so upset for wasting money on it . the only pictures that turn out , are outside in bright daylight . it takes horrible pictures in low light , there 's a high level of noise in the photos . the video mode moves in and out on its own , ruining the video . i sometimes get colored lines down the right side of the videos . my friend 's $88 dollar digital camera takes way better pictures than this thing . it just plain sucks .
+camera neg these glasses should not have the bushnell name on them , which misleads one to think they are good quality . i bought them for my son , and by the time i got around to sending them , i discovered that the plastic housing was cracked where the front lens screws in , so the lens was misaligned . it was past the 30-day return date , so i glued the crack and kept them for my own use . they are still not right , but i keep them in my car for occasional use . my advice - - spend some extra money and get a good pair .
+music neg i 'm a hardcore lynch fan and find this album a big dissapointment . i like his older season of da sicc style nott this new stuff . in one song they 're talking about louie vitton , thats not the lynch i kno
+music pos i saw her perform most of these songs on austin city limits . i must admit i had n't paid much attention to her since her debut album , back when i was playing in country bands . much of this material is kinda introspective , but hey , on the plus side you get great vocals , well crafted songs , tons of sincerity and just flat out integrity from this great artist who does n't have to pretend she is anything she isn't . and these days , that is pretty refreshing ! i think i am becoming a fan
+music pos what makes a voice distinctive and memorable ? nat ( king ) cole i believe had the smoothest voice of any male singer . clarity and a sureness in phrasing was also gifts of his . aside from ' unforgettable ' the songs i best remember are ' mona lisa ' and ' nature boy' . but this recording also includes originals of the ' nat king cole trio' . it also includes the famous duet put together of ' unforgettable ' from his early version and his daughter natalie cole 's recording made after he had passed on . that particular recording was a ' knockout ' sentimental and beautiful .
+camera pos this thing is great i just got it for a trip to seattle from hawaii . ( i know opposite ) but i was afraid when i had this default battery that came with my canon zr 500. ( which only last 45 min . ) but this one last at least 3 hours i love it . best buy for my camera so far , completely worth the $$$$
+camera neg i bought these binoculars because i wanted a medium size pair to use primarily for birding . first time out , i had difficulty getting a clear focus . to make maters worse , every bird that i looked at had a halo of red chromatic aberration around it 's head . i have a pair of nikon 10x25s which out performed the bushnell 's hands down in terms of both clarity and sharpness . i am returning the bushnell 's and considering the audubon equinox hp binoculars instead .
+music neg although a few of the tracks seem inspired , it 's mainly mulligan going through the motions with getz , with very little chemistry between them . " anything goes " and " scrapple from the apple " are nice enough but beyond that it 's weak . mulligan himself did n't speak very highly of the recording session , saying that he enjoyed his other dates with desmond , webster , and hodges , but mentioning that " granz wanted that session a lot more than i did . " of course , it would be quite out of the ordinary to hear anything but negative remarks about stan getz and his sparkling personality . save your money and go buy the 2-disk reissue of " meets ben webster " . or , if you do n't have it already , the seminal pacific recordings with chet baker
+music neg i think ms hewitt misses the mark , yes for an actress turned singer she 's ok and its more her acting clout that has landed her this record deal and not her talent as a singer.. . would someone off the street with the same looks and musical level get a record deal ? i think not.. . same goes for the other latin jennifer. .
+camera neg here 's the good news : i have had many cameras in my life , digital and film , and i have found the z1 to be my favorite . the camera is very user friendly and the pictures are sharp with great color . my previous camera was a minolta dimage 7 ( $800 ) and i found that this camera 's photo quality was just as good . the best feature of the camera is the fact that it is sturdy and compact enough to carry with you daily . owning this camera made taking pictures a daily part of my life . here 's the bad news : recently my camera broke and when i tried to contact fuji to get a replacement or a repair , the service was terrible . their website is very difficult to navigate and offers very little support . summary : great camera as long as it does n't break . it 's easier to pay someone to fix it than actually get fuji to repair it
+music pos i remember hearing of this band when i was just a lad , but i never owned any of their albums , and none of my closest friends played this for me , so this is a great discovery for me . i 'm only on my second listen , but it 's already obvious to me that this is going to become a favorite . it 's from my favorite rock period , the early seventies , and it 's not only nicely remastered , it 's also remixed , meaning they went back to the original multi-tracks , not the stereo master . i wish more reissues were done this way
+camera pos this kit is a must have for any of the compatible canon cameras . digital camera rule #1 : always carry a spare battery - the kit is almost worth it for that alone . the leather case is great : stylish looks that provides a tough protective armor in case you drop the camera . the neck strap is quite strong and looks good too . it may not be everyone 's cup of tea but i like it . it comes in handy when i need quick access to the camera and do n't want to fumble through pockets or bags
+music neg ignore the unique cover , clever song idea ( there is 30 ) which represent a comic book . ignore all that . it simply is not good . what is this ? i dont even know how to describe this music . it 's not even songs , but more a bunch of really short experimental , non-sensequel , inerworkings of annoyance . they will start off with a riff as if they are going on to a song , but its only a tease , until they stop and go slow , to say , " get on with it ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " add a bunch of zany sound effects , not to mention the recurring anoyance of a high pitched voice ringing out , sci-fi clips and completly hoarse vocals that are screams , and sounds , that add up , to one of the most pointless albums ever put out
+music pos i do n't like this album as much as their earlier stuff . i have liked each release less than the previous , and this one falls right in line with that trend . the opener " quality revenge . . . " is one of their best songs hands down , though . this is a very good cd , but the farther from braid we get in time the less i seem to like their music
+music pos this is the first cd i 've bought in the liquid mind series , but after hearing this one , i 'll buy more . the music is calming and soothing ; great to fall asleep by which i often do . it lulls you into a peaceful state of relaxation , letting your mind drift away from the cares of the day . it makes me think of floating on a cloud . i would highly recommend this cd for anyone with a busy , stressed-out life .
+camera neg bought this camera for my wife . takes good pictures but handle this camera with extreme caution . if you drop it be prepared for a large repair bill . fuji customer relations is sub-par . warranty does not cover any impact internal damage . i 've had better luck with nikon and kodak and will steer clear of fuji in the future
+music pos all i want to know is when is the next album going to be released ? i ca n't wait ! this album is fantastic
+music neg this is not , i repeat not five stars ! in all honesty it 's more like 1.5 or 2 stars and i 'm a big fan of slug & atmosphere.albums like overcast , godlovesugly , the felt project , and the dynospectrum album is much better than this.though the lyrics are thought provoking , but slug has been better , the production does n't hold up.it 's some of the weakest i 've heard from rhymesayers.there 's only a couple tracks that stand out , but i 'd have to say " do n't ever f**king question that " is the best.if you wanna hear slug at his best check out the dynospectrum album.slug spits classic verse after classic verse
+camera neg ordered two frames from the third party source . neither on of them worked at all . it has been a nightmare trying to return them for a refund
+music neg bought this cd based upon the reviews and the fact that they were recommended with some other albums i like , and man , what a mistake . this cd borders on unlistenable , with no discernable melody / talent to be found . i 'm hardly some ignorant pop-music lover...i consider " blueberry boat " to be one of my favorite records - but this is just horrible
+camera neg i do n't know what case others got , some have said " too tight " but mine was very loose . the camera is swimming around in the case , easily half a centimeter of clearance . not recommended . just buy the battery and wait for someone to make a good aftermarket case .
+music neg this is the perfect cd for taking a nap to . it 's mostly full of slow pop and rock . if you 're a fan of this type of music , i recommend this cd , but if not , do n't buy it . there are only a few good tracks . all star , bad reputation , i 'm a believer , stay home . and i do n't enjoy buying a cd that only 1 / 3 of it is good . so , i would n't buy it , if i were you .
+camera neg there is a serious design flaw with this camera and it is even acknowledged on the faq section of the sony website . " if there are dust particles floating in the air , they can be illuminated by the strong light of the flash and sometimes appear in a recorded image as white , round glare spots . this symptom tends to occur in low-light environments when using a compact digital camera due to the close proximity of the flash to the lens assembly . however , this is not a malfunction . " read : your low-light pictures will have spots all over them ! sony does not think this is a problem . it is a design flaw . if you are only going to use this camera in full sun , then it is fantastic but seriously , there are many other cameras out there that do a much better job !
+music neg this is the perfect example of why black women and women in general are disrespected . lil kim is teaching generations of women to be nasty as you can be and to disrespect yourself . then to top all of this off she is still hanging on the coat tails of biggie , the ultra fantasy gangsta rapper . queen latifah never had to talk like this to get her name out or to make good music . this is ridiculous ! kim would be better off in a porn movie than in the rap game . please please please spare us and stop rapping
+camera pos what a great little accessory for my camera . could have used it in seattle last month , boy did it rain
+camera neg you have listed this battery as an accessory to the camera and now that i have purchased it i discover that this battery does n't fit this camera . it is listed wrong
+camera pos this is a neat idea . you do have to have close up pictures to really be able to see them in the small screen . it was very easy to load the pictures and it is very handy to have with me to show others our most recent pictures
+camera neg i just got this camera a week ago and thought it was great . but today i tried to turn it on and it 's completely dead ! i even changed out the batteries and it 's still completely dead . this is the first digital camera i 've had and i bought it because i 'm going to europe ( two days after it died ) . now i have to scramble to get a replacement before i take off . grrrrr ! !
+camera pos i do n't like pink so i bought the blue bag . i had bought a black one , but it was so skimpy i returned it and prayed until this one arrived . i had no trouble with amazon crediting me for the return , either . it was so cute ! i 'm too old for " cute , " but i kept it because i needed a case for my new hp r717. it is small , yet padded enough to trust that your camera will be cushioned if you drop it . i have dropped my camera and it was not injured . it has a little pouch inside to store an extra battery for my camera , not the big aa batteries , but the flat type that come with my r717. i recommend this little bag , or the pink one , even if you do n't like pink...or blue . they are well cushioned and snug , but not too snug you think they will tear . the are sturdy and have nice shoulder straps and magnet closures
+camera pos bought these batteries & charger just before going on an overseas trip . i did n't want to be bothered with frequently changing aa batteries , which seemed to last only a day or so of heavy use . i was quite pleased with the performance of these rechargeables . they lasted several days of heavy use before needing to be charged and they re-charged in only a few hours . a big bonus that i did n't expect : the recharger is compatible with european 240 voltage so i did n't have to use an electric converter !
+music neg the quality of this cd recording sounds like someone tapped it in their garage and burned it to cd with thier personal pc . very bad recording . it 's too bad because lathleen madigan is very witty and funny .
+music neg the cat carol is the most depressing christmas song i have ever heard . not to ruin the ending for you but the cat dies ! did n't exactly put me in the holiday spirit
+camera neg this frame is just ok you have to resize all your pictures and the quality is not good at all you are just better off paying the extra $75 and getting the phillip
+camera pos as a novice astronomer i really enjoy the sharp , steady view with these binoculars . the view is fairly steady even with the i.s. off - depending how stable you are of course . my binoculars cost more than my telescope ! ! and my telescope is a decent one too . but i think they are worth it . you see so much more in the night sky than what the naked eye can see - by far . they are of course great during the day too . their weight is not much of an issue for me , although each person is different depending on their viewing habits . i think a hard carry case would have been the best but it 's not a big deal for my use . i recommend this pair of binoculars to anyone who is serious about great quality and performance
+music neg the second cd was scratched and hence i cannot play it . i would appreciate it if you would send me another one and also include the information needed to return the damaged one sent to me . thanks . jeann
+music pos the band is excellent and this album is just shy of the high quality of the first . however , the encroachment of our free use rights as legal consumers by the major record companies will not stop until they see a negative financial impact from pushing these copy crippled products . do n't support these products
+music neg carter burwell 's soundtrack music to " rob roy " was an early sign that he was not just getting it right . the score is all wrong but so is the movie . this movie needed an uplifting score . carter burwell could not deliver it
+camera pos i got this bag for a samsung digimax i got for a friend , and is a very nice , and usefull bag , she can put there , the camera , her cell phone , replacement batteries , memory stick and some keys :
+music pos i just want to say that this record blows my mind ! only the japanese could come up with this musical hybrid that defies definition . only miss minekawa could inject such beautiful innocence into this thrilling aural rollercoaster of breaks , samples , and guitars . cornelius and dj me dj you are brilliant
+camera neg after just over a year , my lens jammed and the display read " e18 " . so i was pretty upset to discover that this is an extremely common defect - and a defect that canon refuses to admit . try googling canon s500 e18 " , and you 'll see what i meant . do n't buy it unless you want a very expensive paperweight
+camera neg not only is the physical appearance of this model ugly , it is a complete downgrade . panasonic takes off one of the most important features on the pv gs320 model , a microphone jack ! i currently own a 300 model and needed another camera to shoot different angels at the same time , since the 300 is discontinued i purchased the so called upgraded model . now the only available model with mic jack is the vdr 310 , and i have heard dvd is quality on camcorders is not what it should be . if you do any video prodcution and need to hook up your camera to a mic , this camera is not for you
+camera pos love this battery . long lasting and just as good as the name brand
+music neg only way you are gonna like this music is if you are some depressed emo kid who listens to punk rock music just because it is punk , and you think that 'll make you cool . this cd just does n't display musical talent , maybe originality , but this is not high quality music
+music pos nwa was an original rap group and with that being said , this is definitely a must have album for rap lovers . along with public enemy , nwa christened their genre with hard core lyrics and tight bass beats . although i do n't agree with some of their lyrics , one would not expect this white kid to fully understand their view on life . anyways , buy this album , i recommend it . keep it away from the kiddies though
+camera pos looks exactly as the posted picture except the badge reads " panasonic " , not " lumix " . fits the camera perfectly . no extra room for memory cards , spare battery , charger , etc. it 's easier to insert the camera with both zippers down . the belt loop wo n't fit most belts . no straps . however , the camera 's strap is good enough . good protection
+music pos i have both the " heat " and " seduction " cd 's by oscar lopez and listen to both of them with wonder . this man is magic . i have about 20 " new flaminco " cd 's and these are right at the top as far as my tastes are concerned . oscar , if you 're listening , i check at least once a month for your next one
+camera neg do not buy the case canon sells for this camera . it takes 20 seconds to take the camera out or put it in
+music neg i like these guys alot.i own a bunch of there stuff and love to see them live . i played this cd a few times liked it at first , but it did n't grow on me at all liked i 'd hoped.to cute for me , not spontaneous enough.i feel this cd will be just another dust collector in a short period of time.just let it rip guys , that 's what you do best.thank god my brother bought this instead of me.i bought live at cow palace ( the dead ) great cd
+camera pos the binoculars were suprisingly lightweight for their size and power . the 70mm lens were great at light gathering , and the 4.75 mm exit pupil provide more light than most adults can use . ( the avg . is 3-4 mm ) with a good strap is easy to wear for long periods and excellent for long distance terrestrial viewing or general astromical use . you really need a tripod to use the full power effectively , but for short periods those with steady hands can enjoy the binocs on the fly
+music pos michelle branch carved out a place for herself in the young female pop singer market serveral years ago with a brilliant debut and a successful if derivitive duet with carlos santana . this record is her first with friend jessica harp . the ladies mine the borderline between the singer / songwriter and country genres for quality songs that should fit well in the americana format . highlights include the opening track leave the pieces , way back home , the good kind , and the title track stand still look pretty . of special note is the presence of producer / multi-instrumentalist john leventhal on many tracks . i recommend this record for folks who like songs that do n't sound like formula country
+music pos a very proud and highly recommended production , it 's a real pitty this cd is not available , i still have this one as a precious thing , i hear it all the time as well as i want . nobody will forget jeff lynne as an excellent musician , ever
+music pos mountain music offers what alabama is famous for , great music and great harmony all packaged together . the title cut is great , that harmonica and " old man of the mountain " intro is unique . as for " close enough to perfect " if any man sings that song to his lady , she is his forever . the cuteness of " never be one " also reminds us of the sadness that our children grow up so fast we hardly know it . there is n't a bad song on the whole cd and will make a good addition to any collection
+music pos this is one of his older cds , but one of my favorites . the music is smooth and wonderful to listen to . great cd after a long day or to play on a special night
+music neg very possibly the worst cd i have ever heard in my life . i could barely force myself to listen until the last song was blissfully over . this is not music . it is stupid noise !
+camera neg just returned the mobicam - had poor reception , even in adjacent room ! smallo screen & not stable - falls easy & seems like would break very quickly with a 3 yr old in the house !
+camera pos i purchase this lens for the digital rebel xt body i also purchased through amazon . so far the lens has performed as expected . it is solid and well built . sticks slightly , when zooming through 200mm . images are crisp and focus is sharp . working at 300mm can be a challenge without using a mono or tripod . shooting a bird in flight at 300mm is a trick . overall , good lens for $200. if you have more money , then a lens with image stabilization ( is ) would be the way to go .
+music neg of the dozen tracks featured here , chances are the typical listener will only recognize four : " signs , " " sweet city woman , " " one fine morning " and " gimme dat ding " - and the last-named is out of sequence , having come out more than a year before the others . the star of this show is lighthouse 's " one fine morning , " and rhino must be praised for offering up the full ( lp ) version rather than the 45-rpm edit , which was about two minutes shorter . it 's a shame , in a way , that this song had lyrics ; had it been an instrumental , it would have found a perfect and permanent home - on " music from nfl films " - it had that quality about it . as for the other eight offerings : if they wanted to pick some obscure stuff , why did n't they go all the way and throw in dusk 's " treat me like a good piece of candy ? & quot
+music neg after hearing " i 'm n luv ( wit a stripper ) " i do n't know why anyone would want to buy and listen to this cd in its entirety . i 'm not going to type a bunch of long paragraphs about why this cd sucks . this cd is a waste and t-pain is illiterate . there ! i said it in one sentence . holllaaa
+camera pos for the price paid , this is a great camera . should last me for a long time . debated buying a slr , but this seems to have all the features of an expensive slr ( actually it is a slr , just no interchangable lenses ) and a lot easier to use
+music pos fournier plays exquisitely , imbuing each note with an elegance of its own and keeping the piece lyrical yet still rhythmically precise . although his interpretation is romantic , the spirit is all bach with no egoism on the part of fournier . there is both serenity and tension in these recordings , and fournier 's smooth interpretation is one of the most moving recordings available
+music pos collin has done it again . i did n't think i 'd enjoy a cd as much as his " the walls came down , " but " tracks " is just great . every song is better than the last . you ca n't go wrong with collin raye and you ca n't find anyone with a better voice . buy this one
+music neg first show on broadway i ever left at intermission . i bought the tickets because i did n't think i could go wrong seeing a show directed by strohman , starring craig bierko who was fantastic in music man and was flat flat flat in this show , and music by harry connick jr. whom i have loved forever . it taught me that everything has it 's place and harry 's place is not a broadway stage . i hope for his sake , he does not try again . if i could rate something at zero stars , this would get that rating
+music pos i like this album . its got a nice mix of old and new material . along with some live material . great to see pe still at it in this ever changing rap game
+music neg despite all the rave reviews i 'm wondering if this is a dreaded rerecord . maybe i 'm paranoid , but the country music industry is so sleazy . and some stars feel entitled to cash in . how else can you explain the john anderson anthology...horror . ( john , how could you ? ) or the bill anderson oh boy classic [oh boy here comes a rerecord ) . hey , the cd sounds great . but what makes me suspiscious is that there are no copyright dates anywhere on this cd except for one . also the cryptic message on the inside sleeve . could someone please clear this up . and not some rcr bud logan shill either . john conlee is one of my hero 's and this is really worrying me . i ca n't look at this cd with rose colered glasses anymore
+music pos the performances for every sonata and every partita are wonderful . this is the kind of material one can expect from deutsche grammophon . wonderful music , a wonderful violinist , wonderful interpretations , and wonderful sound ( not just for its time ) . there are also very few " squeaks " and he is almost always right on pitch ! often called definitive , this is the one to get . highly recommended
+music neg this was just to much country for this parrothead . i liked one song , piece of work and that was about it
+camera neg i have an olympus fe 100 camera and the battery did not fit ! my niece has an olympus fe 140 camera and the battery did not fit in hers either ! the company does not accept returns on batteries that are opened so i was just out of luck
+camera neg i bought this camera to mainly use the digital macro mode , it worked great for several months , now it will not lock focus , this camera is very frustrating , every picture that i take i have to edit to lighten the picture , i tried just about every setting to get the pictures to come out , to no avail , i am a commercial real estate appraiser , so i have taken close to 2000 pictures with this camera , and just about every one i had to lighten , now the macro mode wont work , i will not buy another cannon product ever again ! !
+camera neg beware of poor cs policy at jvc . they recently let me down when it was obvious the camera was poorly designed and built . they were not interested in even trying to help . i hate it when companies only care about their profits
+camera neg i had this camera for about a month and the first time it broke , i do n't know why it broke . i set it down and when i turned it back on , it had cracked . i then bought another lcd screen and repaired it myself , but two weeks later , i had a case for it , and put it in my purse . i carried my purse around and had not set my purse down . when i took it out , it had cracked again . i would not recommend getting this camera
+camera pos i wish i 'd bought this a loooong time ago ! it is so helpful , esp . with macro shots . highly recommend
+music pos gerry beckley is " timeless " . his new cd is awesome and seems to go back to his roots . his songs over the years last lifetimes and bring back amazing memories.this new cd just proves he hasnt lost his touch . anyone who does not agree , doesnt know the real gerry . i have had the privilege to meet him and talk with him many times , including being able to celebrate new years eve with them after a concert with the rest of america and their families.he is one of the nicest people i have ever met , and his songs have always been a part of my life . i hope there are still many more cd 's still to come and look forward to seeing him again in the near future in concert and afterwards
+music pos its quite difficult to sum up the impact of this cd with few mere words . suffice to say , level 1 is a timeless classic , in fact , it was my entry pass into the realm of d-n-b . logical progressions level 1 is a must-have for all d-n-b heads & music lovers in general . demon 's theme , western , danny 's song & horizons remain some of my favorite songs in any genre . bukem 's level 1 displays his flawless production & track mastery which cascades the listener with the ideal mid-tempo balance between dance-floor adrenaline & ambient bliss
+music pos this is their best album.easily better than anything the likes of oasis ever managed.richard iii , going out , late in the day and the title track are all top quality.if you rated blurs 3 " britpop " ( horrible term really ) albums from the 90s then get this.its up there with them.simple as that
+music pos dream is a great album where keller coloboarates with many of his favorite musicians including bob wier , bella fleck , victor wooten and string cheese incident . all the songs are unique and great to sing too while driving or anytime !
+music neg this is a saccharine and banal take on irish music , with all the emotional intesity of a hummel figuraine . upon first listen , i remarked to my wife that they sounded more like peter , paul , and mary than the dubliners . she correctly pointed out that peter , paul , and mary were actually much better than this pablum , and that the irish rovers more closely resemble the fictional main street singers from a mighty wind . truly , absolutely , unlistenably passionless , cloying and bland
+camera neg while the everio will work on a mac , it is with jvc 's movie program . it is not imovie ready . there is a very strange " work around " involving dvdrop that will make it work . not very pleased with what i feel is misleading information about compatibility with mac
+camera neg after just over a year , my lens jammed and the display read " e18 " . so i was pretty upset to discover that this is an extremely common defect - and a defect that canon refuses to admit . try googling canon s500 e18 " , and you 'll see what i meant . do n't buy it unless you want a very expensive paperweight
+camera neg i own the olympus fe-100 digital camera , and it came with unchargeable batteries ( oxyride ) . i switched to energizer batteries and bought an energizer 4-battery charger that can be had for less than the price of half a tank of gas . it 's not a quick charger like this one , but i say for less than half the investment , i 've got a charger that does the job . i would not spend this kind of money on a charger . so i say , if you 're part of the " gotta have it now " generation , you definitely pay for convenience . otherwise , charge your batteries more slowly ( 2-3 hours ) and save a lot of money
+camera neg i purchased this bag because i did not wnat to spend a ton of money on a case to protect my canon rebel eos digital camera . i only have 2 lenses , but the bag is capable of holding the camera and 4 lenses as well as pockets for cables , batteries , etc. i think this is a great unit , for the beginner ( like me ) or the pro .
+camera neg i bought this camera about a month ago and i am highly disappointed with it . the quality of the pictures is very poor , showing large grain , even at shq and low iso settings . no combination of settings seems to improve quality
+camera neg very easy to set up , but no matter what i did , i got several horizontal interference bars . one very nice feature is a built in video modulator that allows you to connect to older tvs using a coax cable instead of rca . i am returning this product
+camera neg have had an olympus 4.0m.for 4 years and been very happy with it . as a gift i got this canon and was very diappointed in the color quality and sharpness . shot about 600 pictures people were blurred , not crisp and dim even on a sunny day . had to return it.do n't bu
+music neg being an osmond fan can be very frustrating at times.. . this cd has nothing new to offer . there have been several osmond compilation cds in the past 10 years . what 's so different about this one besides the photograph on the cover ? nothing . i agree with the reviewer who wishes the osmonds would put some of their old albums on cd instead of putting out hit compilation cds all the time . been there . done that . bored to tears
+music pos low tech and brilliant , music that seems to have channeled zappa , winchester cathedral , and god knows what else . incredibly funny , and then suddenly sad . mr pink is a genius , you betcha . and he explains what it is and how it is to live here in this strange quasi-city in the shadow of the industry , in the curiously full and fun wasteland of other people 's dreams
+music neg after norah 's first two cds and the little willie 's cd i was greatly looking forward to this release . to say the least i am disappointed . i was listening to it on my commute home and had to switch to something else to keep from falling asleep . where is the range of work ? all of the songs on this cd sound very much the same and nothing really stood out to me . i 'm giving it 2 stars just because of norah 's angelic voice , otherwise i 'd have to give this one a 1 star rating
+music neg i bought usher 's 8701 on tape long ago , and i remember liking it . then a couple of years ago , i bought it again on cd , listened to it , and wondered why i wasted my money . maybe it 's the fact that i 've grown , but this album sounds so un-soulful now . it is just lacking any spirit , sort of like an over-produced record : all studio magic , but no magic from the singer . even the songs that are supposed to sound heartfelt , don't . the album sounds dated , not transcendent of time and era like all the albums that become classics . the songs are very forgettable , and i do n't see any of them being seen as classics twenty years from now . usher has yet to make a masterpiece . addendum : i was a little unfair in my rating . the album deserves 3 stars , not 2. unfortunately , i ca n't change it .
+music neg god , i ca n't believe this guy . ja rule was never a gangsta in his life , he ca n't talk gangsta . and stop trying to be like tupac , tupac actually was a gangsta . your a fake and if he was still alive he would not only not role with you but diss you so badly you 'd wet your pants . this guy should be booted out of the game , not only his he lying when he talks all this gangsta s*** as if he went through it , his ruining hip hop . yeah and ja , stop dissing eminem and 50. you know perfectly well that they 'd kill you in a battle anyday . ja rule has always been s***. go listen to real rap
+music pos this is what i grew up with on the radio , and listened to at the dance halls . this is not some sissy nashville sound .
+camera pos yes it is a very fine lens . is and 105 mm long end are also appealing but after buying this i decided to sell it in favour of my ef 24-70 2.8l after 2 weeks of usage . f4 makes clearly the autofocus slower and fuzzier . bokeh is also worse than the other one . the viewfinder gets darker in 1.6 crop bodies . 105 mm does make a very little difference in image size . plus the macro option is weaker on this one . if you do n't care about the weight go with the ef 24-70 2.8l imho .
+music pos beres has done it again . this is a great cd . i can actually say that enjoyed all 19 tracks
+camera pos this is a camera that is very very easy to use . i was amazed by the colour quality even at a very low light . i took a movie at my nephew 's theater play and i am the contrasts and crispness of the picture are just perfect . the zoom is also very clear and crisp . putting it onto my imovie was also a piece of cake . the only down point is that the still image mode is worthless , but if you need that you should buy the next level up which has a memory card slot . i highly recommend this camer
+music pos i love this cd ! i often put it in my personal cd player and take it to the coffee shop to help me as i study french . the music is relaxing but not sleep-inducing . steven halpern composes great music
+camera neg i agree with the many other users who have experienced the " condensation , operation paused " defect on their jvc gr-xxxx . despite numerous others reporting this problem , jvc says its not a recognized problem . i would disagree - it is a recognized problem , but its your problem , not theirs .
+camera neg i ca n't speak to how well the product performs because mine was doa . customer service was unable to do anything over the phone . since it was purchased as a gift and i had time before christmas , i opted for a different brand . does n't inspire confidence in their quality control when a unit fails to start up fresh out of the box
+camera neg date on still photo will not print , it 's no good where yoy need that type of info on the printed photo
+camera neg the plastic stand that holds the frame upright broke immediately . also , be sure to note that there is no memory card . spend the extra money and buy something better . i wish i had
+music neg there was only one good song on the disk dont waste your mone
+camera neg junk . you will get a lens cap error in about a year or so , where it will tell you lens cap is on and you will not be able to record anymore
+camera neg bought the camera on a recommendation , and also what looked like good specs on the web . owned it for less than two weeks when the lcd screen cracked ( below the surface of the protective cover ) . turns out this is a very common problem with these cameras . panasonic will not warranty fix this ! if you do get one , or own one , be very careful not to use the left nav button . if you do , be very careful on the pressure you apply . this is the camera 's glass jaw , and you might end up " bricking " a brand new camera . i am replacing mine with a canon
+music neg if you 're looking for billie in her prime , look elsewhere . all the music on this cd was recorded between ' 45 and ' 47 after she had lost her voice . look for the classic recording of strange fruit from ' 39 on one of the other cds available .
+music pos i never loved a man the way i love you , what more can you say about the greates soul album of all time . this album released all of the music in aretha that was screaming to be released . it displayed a very mature aretha with complex emotions , very everyday lyrics , ones that make you say , oh yeah girl , lol . but also a delivery that the average person could n't lay down and dream about pulling off . this is just testiment that , even at such a young age , she was the queen
+camera neg i purchased the wp-dc700 underwater case for my a70 and followed the directions exactly , oiling the gasket and cleaning it after each use . it leaked and ruined my month old camera . customer service was rude , blamed me and then tried to bargain with me to fix it for $190 instead of the $280 that they initially requested . the underwater case has a 7 day waranty and the camera is not covered for water damage . my father had a similar problem with his $1000 nikon digital which just stopped working for no aparent reason , they claimed it was water damage and tried to bargain with him to buy a rebuilt one for $500. so beware of bad customer service . canon 's customer service has all bad unreasolved reviews at the better business burea
+camera neg do not buy the case canon sells for this camera . it takes 20 seconds to take the camera out or put it in
+music neg this is simply a transfer of the lp master done when cds were just getting started . the quality is inferior to other collections and the selection is weaker . go for the collectables twofer instead . much better sound and more cuts
+camera pos this is a great camera that takes the place of an earlier canon digital elph that i lost several years ago . the 7.1 megapixels ensures great quality and the 3x zoom provides crisp clear pictures . in fact the digital zoom also works great - just make sure the camera is steady ( i purchased a nice compact monopod and the results were awesome ) . although the image stabilization feature on the newer models would have been great to have , you ca n't beat the price and overall quality of this camera and the pictures it takes . the canon sd500 is a great little camera
+music neg tihs album is not all that good when it came out in still not good till this day . i like all his other albums better i do n't know why he decided to release this crap.but the only song i really like is hip hip qurtables
+music neg based on the reviews for this cd i decided to buy it without having sampled it . big mistake . i love , among others , marshall crenshaw , don dixon and peter holsapple , but what happened here ? this was so not fabulous
+camera pos compare to the price of the product i highly recommend to any one who own canon eos camera.. .
+camera neg it 's unfortunate that one of the best lens bargains out there is followed up by one of the worst photo ripoffs - - this hood . how can you pay $75 for a great prime lens , and $25 for a flimsy piece of plastic to cover it
+camera neg i had jvc product and some of my friends too . these are good at the begining and after an year the motors will have problem and also the tape heads will have problem . even the cable pins will wearout easaly and will not work properly . price may be less buy its not worth for long run . i feel sony and canon are better than jvc . even hitachi is good
+camera neg i 've just returned this camera for poor facial image quality after using it extensively for months . my regular camera is a fuji finepix s602z which is large and bulky , but , takes superb facial shots . i tried the casio due to needing something small to carry in my purse for special events and i 'm heartbroken at the incredible photo opps i 've had that resulted in poor facial quality . do n't buy this camera if you care about what everyone looks like . i 've just ordered the powershot sd1000 because of the facial detection feature on it . hopefully , it is better since i do n't want to have to carry my bulky fuji to get great facial photos . i 'll review the cannon once i 've had it for a few months
+camera pos i just got back from vacation . i have a bad back , and it was sore . i was very happy to discover that the way this bag hangs , i could carry my nikon d-70 and one or two extra lens very comfortably . gear is super easy to access and the bag provides a nice platform for changing lenses . i have other bags which heft lots of gear , and they 're great for travel days and the occasional big shoot , but if you 're looking to hike ( and have a separate way to carry a tripod ) , then this is a wonderful bag
+camera pos took the camera bag on vacation and it came in very handy . i carried both my camcorder and my regular camera in the bag . it has plenty of pockets for storage and the main space inside is flexible ( has a divider you can place where ever you want ) so you can secure cameras however you wish
+camera neg as i watch the videos of my kids on my 50 " plasma , 32 " lcd and mac , trying to convince myself that i like the quality , my wife walks by and says , " fuzzy . " i know most guys out there will know what i 'm talking about - she just killed the deal . regardless of the specs , the wives do n't lie - the picture quality just does n't cut it . it 's unacceptably noisey in all but the brightest of light and is an incremental improvement over my 6 year old sony dvr . the product design is cool , the price is good , the sd card recording idea is perfect , but the hd promise does n't come close to paying off . if you 're looking for sharp , crystal clear images - you 're just not going to be happy with this camera unless the gathering of technology and low price are enough to cause you to settle .
+music pos blue note was on the mark to re-release this classic . tina brook 's style of blues laced jazz is a sound that will bring joy to your soul . a must have cd for any jazz collection
+camera pos this item was purchased for casio exilim 8 megapixel camera . the quality of this item is strong and durable . the camera is small any ways to take with you anywhere by putting it in your pocket . however , to protect the camera , this case provides outstanding protection and is still small and compact to take it with you anywhere
+music neg bill charlap is undoubtedly one of the most talented , lyrcially-blessed jazz pianiasts around today . he has a deft touch and a senisbility that far exceeds his age and life experiences . that told , i find it very hard to give his latest effort , stardust , more than two stars . with very few exceptions , i found this cd to be fairly self-indulgent and charlap rather morose in his intrepretations . it was n't nearly a refeshing to the ear as written in the stars . i would recommend this for a charlap devotee but no one else . he has made better albums
+camera neg the thing is that it is not a very stable camera , hence it does not give you very stable shots , so many of your pics will be blured . even those taken with a tripod . i am a pro photographer , and i would not recommend this camera . yes , it 's very thin , but is not worth the pics it takes...seek for other model not so tiny if you 're expecting better images
+music pos this was the first queen album that i ever had so getting it on cd is great . " sheer heart attack " is an overlooked queen gem
+camera neg i bought this camera 3 months ago and have used it a few times . last week all of a sudden the pictures look out of focus and over-exposed . i have n't changed anything or done anything . i have no idea what 's wrong with the camera , but given the price i 'm pretty annoyed and amazon.com will not refund my money because it has been over 30 days
+camera pos i absolutely love this camera . i got it about 3 months ago and i cnt imagine life w / o it . im 13 nd mega clumsy nd it still has not one single scratch on it . it eats up batteries but so wat ? i love it buy it
+camera pos this is a fabulous and reliable camera . feels solid . fantastic pictures . easy to operate . a new d40 has been announced over the past few days , but its lack of an lcd display and buttons to manage basic camera controls ( to reduce weight and make it more user friendly ) would still make this my recommended nikon dslr . expect prices to fall as the d40 becomes available
+camera pos with most of the carrying case made of either fake leather or some kind of neoprene material , this one is really different . the rigid structure also seem to do a great job to protect the camera . there is also a belt loop and d-ring feature which is great .
+camera neg i received this as a gift and at first i thought it was great , but then i realized it would only display 142 images . i worked with technical support for several months ( they are not the speediest or most helpful ) . i resized , renamed , restructured the photos , tried them on different media and finally they admitted it was a bug . i rma 'd the unit at my shipping expense of course , only to recieve another with the same problem . i would n't recommend this purchase
+camera neg last march ( 2002 ) i bought this camera and it was wonderful , although it was " refurbished " by canon it worked perfectly . i bought also a new battery and a 48mb compactflash memory card and everything was working fine . 6 months later the camera had electrical problems and warranty had expired . now the cost to fix this problem is far bigger than to buy a new camera because warranty period for " refurbished " items is less than 6 months
+music pos this is a wondrful cd and quite a bargin . two discs and the very best of nancy wilson . i liked so much , i bought two and gave one to a friend
+camera neg i got this camera when it was rather new . i am not extremely pleased with it . it is not acting this way because it is 2 years old...it was like this when i bought it . -first of all...it has no lens cover so you have to keep it in a camera bag . incase you touch the lens without relizing...all your pictures will be ruined . -it takes for ever to take a picture . you have to wait for like 2 seconds for the picture to be taken . -it eats up batteries like crazy -it takes forever to turn on -if you have the flash setting on autoflash , the camera will still flash in bright sunlight -the pictures are extremly blurry when you print at home -it has no optical zoom ( but the zoom is really the customer 's choice .
+camera pos purchased as a gift and well received . seems to handle larger chips in a timely manner . runs everyday , all day and no problems encountered . displays vacation pictures clearly . like that it is big enough to view across the room . frame is more compatible with decore than the 7 " model previously purchased
+camera neg i bought this lens and was pretty excited about it , but i 've been disappointed . previous to this i bought the 50mm 1.8 for $70 and that lens completely puts this one to shame . i need a wider angle lens and went for this one , but all too often found myself quite disappointed with the results . edges of subjects were all messy and just looked terrible , even at higher f stops . i shoot with a 20d . the usm is awesome though and will for sure be an option in whatever lens i choose to buy in place of this one . the focal range of 28-105 was also very nice , but to me the picture quality was not so good
+music pos i assume you already know what 's on this recording or you would n't be here , right ? do n't you probably have a thirty-year-or-so old vinyl copy of this that you have n't listened to for years because it 's dusty and has scratches and pops and who listens to that stuff anymore anyway ? well , i wo n't review the music here because others have done better than i would , but i will say that listening to this remaster through a high quality set of headphones ( sennheiser ) has enabled me to hear this as if it were the first time . it 's totally worth the money to get this new version , and the bonus tracks just make it even more fun .
+music neg i guess i was expecting more of a ferrante and teicher thing with more than one piano going at a time ... could be that it is but , if so , am missing depth ... great family but disappointing albu
+music pos i saw midlake at festival recently and had never heard of them . the live set was strong enough to convince me to order some albums and i 'm now a solid fan . the opening track , roscoe , reminds me a bit of adrian belew , a bit of xtc and a whole lot of midlake themselves . it 's like suddenly realizing how coldplay should sound . the music is layered and atmospheric with a bit of an eels feel . midlake is definitely their own band , for all the influences i 'm throwing out . they make the sort of music that feels old , like your favorite album you lost long ago . try ' roscoe ' or ' young bride ' for an indication of their style . if you like either of those , you need to buy the album .
+camera pos i use it with my nikon d70 , and am very satisfied with it . i most often use it for long exposures , for taking picture that include myself , and for taking pictures of my 6-month old daughter , who stops acting naturally when she notices i hold the camera , so i place it on the tripod , and take pictures of her .
+music pos the dead were primarily a live road band , but on this and the other great album from 1970 ( american beauty ) the band proved their mettle in the studio , moving into less spacey territory . the music reflects their range , from country and bluegrass to folk , blues and rock . superb . ps . their early studio effortsanthem.. . , aoxomoxoa ) were also noteworthy experiments , but the music was n't as powerful as the live interpretations
+camera neg this was a terrible purchase on my part . it does n't even deserve 1 star . i just wanted a small bag to wear over the shoulder for quick access to my z7590 without holding other equipment or being too bulky . the bag was too small for my z7590 , and i paid $8 shipping plus return shipping . i only hope they do n't charge me a re-stocking fee . i went to walmart , found a cute little bag in the electronics dept . that the camera fits great in , with room for the strap and extra memory cards or battery if necessary . they have cute ones for ladies too , with pink polka dots or stripes inside ! for only $12. next time , i 'll be smarter !
+music neg i ordered the dvd of damn yankees to watch on tv for my daughter because she is doing a play and needed it for the day i ordered it . i paid for fast delivery because she had a deadline and we were thrilled to receive it on time but was very disappointed to see that it was the cd of only music ! i do n't think i will order from amazon again , it was my first time and probably my last . liz snyde
+camera neg i purchased this bag because i did not wnat to spend a ton of money on a case to protect my canon rebel eos digital camera . i only have 2 lenses , but the bag is capable of holding the camera and 4 lenses as well as pockets for cables , batteries , etc. i think this is a great unit , for the beginner ( like me ) or the pro .
+music pos good singing and good production must i say anything else ? .....no get this if you love mixtures of good uptempo and slow rn
+music neg it ' curious how an interesting history can be not well told by a modern music . in some cases the music go to the hand with the story , but not in this cd , in which we say the music that it is not for the story . i did n't ejoyed with that c
+music pos the music intelligentia probably wo n't like james morrison 's new album because almost everybody else will love it . bourgeois = uncool . however , if you just listen and feel this album , even if you have snobbish tendencies , it will move you . enjoy this amazing new album . i am
+camera neg bought this about a year ago and now it has a lens cap error ( appears like the shutter never opens ) and will not record video . spoke with jvc and they seemed to know that this is a problem and are having me send it in . will update my rating after i see what is wrong , if they can fix it , if they will stand behind their product . watch for more details . before it failed only complaint i had was it was a little flakey with lighting but otherwise worked okay for the price
+music neg dis gy is da kying of da south ! ! ! give me a f***ing break . when are we going to stop seeing crappy rapper after even crappier rappers that are so full of themselves that they feel the need to plasture their faces all over every one of their crappy unintelligent so called albums ! ! nothing descent to say at all , just a bunch of mindless [...]. i bet you they do n't even like music , they just want to be a " celebrity " and be rich for 3 years ( till their broke ) . if they really did geniunly like music , it would n't sound that sh**y ! ! ! ! get over yourselves ! ! !
+music pos this album is the foudation of modern hip hop...the format of the album the presence of rakim ....his image everything was new territory when this album came out in 86 ' all hip hop lovers should have this album especially people down south
+camera neg if you want a nice camera that works well for 15 months , then look no further . but mine died completely and is headed for the electronic recycling bin . i did n't realize i was getting a disposable when i bought it
+music pos i first heard this album in the late 6o 's when it was originally released . starting with the first track , " blood of the sun " , i was hooked . leslie west was and has been a vastly unnoticed guitarist treasure . his throaty singing and driving band , featuring felix pappalardi , made this band one that should be placed on the list of " great ones " . probably due to the many other better publicized bands , like led zeppelin and the like , leslie west and mountain seemed to get shoved away into the closet . open the closet , you guitarists out there , and give this cd a try . i do n't think you will be anything but delighte
+camera pos looks exactly as the posted picture except the badge reads " panasonic " , not " lumix " . fits the camera perfectly . no extra room for memory cards , spare battery , charger , etc. it 's easier to insert the camera with both zippers down . the belt loop wo n't fit most belts . no straps . however , the camera 's strap is good enough . good protection
+camera pos i purchased this bag to carry my hp photosmart digital camera and photo printer along with , 100pk 4 " x 6 " photo paper , power cord and two chargers that each hold 4 aa batteries , and i still have room left . i 'm very pleased
+camera pos it is easy to mount and puts out a surprising amount of ligh
+camera pos this is not a high-tech digital frame . it does n't play mp3's . it does n't come with a remote . it simply reads your digital pictures from a card and displays them in a slide show mode . there 's an " on " button and an " off " button . there is no manual to read in order to learn how to operate your frame ( though it does come with a one-page instruction sheet ) . it 's great for your office desk when all you need to do is reach over and turn it on or off . if you want to display it in a difficult-to-reach location , or choreograph your pictures with music , then this is not the frame for you
+music neg bread8 , that 's one of the stupidest comments i 've ever read . you do n't know s*** about metal . you ca n't handle the intensity of real metal because you 're a fat virgin who 'd cry to your mommy if you heard godly metal songs like " immortal rites " and " pleasure to kill . " leave the metal to the metalheads you mallcore f@ggot . anyway , " dysfunction is better than staind 's other stuff , but only by a microscopic margin . aaron lewis is a weak , talentless crybaby whose bandmates could n't make a good song to save their lives . every song on here is full of bogus " pain " and " depression " coupled with abyssmal musicianship just like every other nu-metal band . if you want heavy music that 's accessible for the masses , go for rage against the machine ( except for " evil empire " ) , faith no more , helmet , living colour , and quicksand .
+camera neg good : motor drive speed . grip feel . takes nikon lenses . reacts fast to pressing the shutter release . bad : skin tone renditions a color other than skin . white balance does n't balance well . noise at anything above iso 200 , looks like 3200. cf card door tough to open . screen fogs if you breathe when you shoot . battery cover is not part of the battery . button placement not as intuitive as on the d100. 4.1mp allows for virtually no cropping of enlargements . dumped mine a month after i got it
+camera pos i 'm not a professional but this lens makes me feel like one . it is a very versatile lens , working well inside or out , low light or extremely bright . am looking forward to taking sporting pictures next spring
+camera pos i already have 2 of the smaller versions for other lenses but wanted to be sure my efs 17-85-mm would be snug as a bug in its own pouch instead of a cheap felt sling thing . well , canon came through again with another of its soft felt line the lp1116. this pouch is thick and has the same firm bottom made of naugahide that protects the inside lens . the cord is strong and silky and does n't open accidently the way a silky cord would . obviously we ca n't throw the pouch around and we have to be careful but it really does the trick and feels good in your hand . the moment i buy another lens , i shall have to buy its matching pouch
+camera pos this is an elegant leather case for the canon elph cameras . it fits in the pocket easily . i 'm satisfied
+music pos i had this album for many years when i was younger . i had looked for along time to try and find it on cd with no luck . i finally found it on amazon . this is my favorite christmas album , i even have my teenage daughter hooked on it now . the caroling medely is awesome and my daugher loves the pinecones and hollyberries song . no one should be without this cd in their christmas collection .
+music neg as for many of these kind of unknown groups , the music in the album is useless . in the meaning that this music has no use . it is not relaxing . it is not for contemplation . it is not spiritual . it is nothing but electronic esperiments that many vendors try to deliver under the name of " ambient " . but ambient music is music . this is crap . well differently from two a.d. where probably the producers realized that crap is crap and no more crap was good to be sold , because people is n't stupid . two a.d. is light years away from this crap . do n't waste your money . listen the the samples by yourself to grab what i mean . sergi
+camera neg just for the record , my lens has frozen as many others have complained on this and earlier casio models . presently in iraq , i do want to have a camera with me , but am not inclined to send it back in view of the reports of poor customer service . sad . it looked to be a great camera
+camera pos i recently purchased this camera and i 'm loving it . as a whole it 's very easy to use and carry . i 'm a college student going into photograpy and this is a great starter camera . i have a feeling this one is going to be with me for a very long time
+music pos if you like beatles , monkees and the who , then you will like the group that is better than all of them ; the rascals ! " lonely too long " is a sad rock pop painful staple in your 60 's elbow...it hurts...then theres all this other good sh*** here...and i do n't mean groovin ! the harmonys and the killer keyboards and tight drumming in these little pop angry yet cheerful nuggets is where its at ! ...i can remember listening to the rascals intermitently with black sabbath and the stooges...and i realised that above all...i liked my rascals record the most back in 1987 up in that cold lonely bel air gardening cabode ! also known at times as ' the young rascals ' but to me...this band will always be the one from way back in childhood that got me listening to queen and the who later on........its hard to say that they are underrated since in any given conversation , you realise the rascals get tone of respect and people will take over and talk about them ; five stars...buy this thing
+camera neg i read other review , and decided to give it a try . as soon as i recieve it in the mail , and opened the box , i realized this was a mistake . cheap quality binocular with " high power " being a selling point . it came in already broken with two eye ruber pieces falling apart . you can see how the cheap glue was being used to put it in place ! it is extremly heavy to hold in hands for more than one minute for nature observation . you will be constantly ajdusting the focus . your fingers bumps with focus bar while you are holding it . indeed strap , case , lense protectors are all cheap crap , and annoying to have it all on~ ! i am taking this back , and buying made in japan " nikon eagle view " 100 times better . you get what you pay for~ ! ! ! ! !
+camera pos great tripod . we 're using it in a television studio w / sony vx-2000 cameras . they work great
+music neg i was , overall , disappointed by this cd . there are many good reviews here , but they generally overpraise . tracks 4 through 8 have too much synthesizer for my ears . a major highlight is track 9 , the crab and the egret , but interestingly , the flute is accompaniment to the wondrous chinese percussion . disappointingly , the cd is only 40 minutes long and left me wanting more tunes without synthesizer accompaniment
+camera neg the camera worked fine ; however , after six months , it stopped working . i took it to a pentax authorized repairer and pentax refused to pay for the camera because the was dirt and grit in the zoom mechanism . my use was in no way abusive . i had a previous canon powershot s200 that lasted forever with the same usage , until i gave it away . i guess i should have stayed with canon . i bought the pentax for its size and lightweight , but what good is that if it does n't last ! do n't get the pentax and expect long term use out of it
+camera pos i 've had it for several weeks now and it seems like a great camera . i am still learning new features . i would highly recommend it
+camera neg yes , i have to agree with the previous review . it does n't seem to make any difference in reducing lens flare from light sources . it does n't seem to extend far enough to actually do anything . if it was less expensive i would n't mind as much , and just chalk it up to extra protection . but that seems to be all it 's good for
+music neg this was not as good as i had hoped and half of it is too slow to listen to while i am working out but the rest is good .
+camera neg i 've read good reviews of this camera on this and other sites but i am not having the same experience . the quality of the photos are horrible so i started thinking it was me and i tried it with different settings , tried being very , very still etc but , i only get one good shot out of about ten . i have a fuji 4mp that i bought about 6 years ago and it takes way better pictures than this . i bought this so i could give my old one to my daughter but i 'm gonna end up giving this one to my daughter and and keeping my fuji . we recently had snow here in tucson so i took pictures with mu fuji and compares them to the canon and the 6 year old fuji finepix beat it hands down . i do n't get it , did i get a defective camera or am i doing something wrong or does this camera just suck
+camera neg this is a nice case , however , i needed something more sleek and small to fit into my purse when i go out with my friends . this case is bulky and my panasonic fxo1 would fit into something much smaller . i ended up going with a great case that i found at wal-mart for a cheeper price , sleeker design , small enough to hold my memory cards and camera and still fit into the small purses i take when i go out on the town
+music neg however despite what amazon reviewer kristy martin may believe , ms croft does not need to get her freak on . wow . i guess hip hop can do no wrong . in a soundtrack which is filled with apporpriate trax to supplement the film , here comes another fanboy / girl of hip hop 's hopele$$$ley misplaced garbage . thank you kristy for proving to be yet another white suburban supporter of the most mass marketed crap to come along . ( missy ) this song is soo done it 's practically taboo to listen too . and outkast ? puhf_ckingleez . these clowns sold out a long long time ago
+camera neg so , you go out and plunk down nearly 600 bucks of your hard-earned cash for a panasonic pb-gs65 dv camcorder . it is a digital video camcorder , after all . that 's why you bought it . well , guess what ? it does n't come with a dv cable to plug it into anything . that is so pathetically stupid i take it as an outright slap from a company that must think i 'm just some sort pain in their shorts . it cost me completion of a project that i had to put together as soon as the camera arrived . so , panasonic , i 'll post a negative review of as many of your products i possibly can over the next few weeks and make you pay as much as possible for being about as stupid a company as i 've ever had to deal with . oh yeah , and you 're camcorder is being returned . go buy a cable and have a ball
+camera pos the bushnell powerview 12x25 is a fine , small pocket-sized binocular . since my wife is an avid bird watcher , we already have several binoculars of various sizes and viewing power . our grandson accidentally broke her small 10x25 bushnell that we used for trips , so i researched , then bought this one from amazon for her birthday . she loves it . the viewing power is a bit greater than the other and is every bit as compact , which makes it easy to pack for vacations , yet provides for a good viewing experience when enjoying the various bird populations around the country . we both highly recommend this , and other bushnell products
+music neg if you have children that are five years & younger , this would be a good album to put in your child 's boom box or get it in cassette for their tape player . but if your children are six and up . your better off finding the real songs and burning them if you can find these songs . this album should be saved strictly for the poor folks who wnat music for their kids but cannot afford it . this ablum would be number 1 if it were sold in rwanda , sudan or other third world nations since it could be sold for like dirt cheap . parents , if you buy this album , after your children turn 6 years old . pack this cd and other ki8dz bop cd 's and send them to africa . this is pop music for impoverished folks
+music pos buy this cd now if you do n't have it , it is an instant classic . the beats are banging , and fit cougnut and c-fresh 's lyrics perfectly . the lyrics are tight , and touch on many different things . " the last breath " is real life song about death and injustice , and decisions we all have to make in life . " protect what you hustle fo " is gangsta , about the individual struggle / hustle . " tell me something good " ( remix ) is even better than the west coast bad boyz version with master p . its about real life in the ghetto
+music pos i have been a fan since valotte . and i like the other reviewers here , ca n't believe why this cd did n't receive the airplay it deserves ! there must have been some politics in there , with sean 's cd coming out on the same day ( yoko ? ) it is one of those cds that you just leave on and you do n't feel like you have to go and skip over songs that you do n't like ! i love every song ! ! especially " day after day " , " i should have known " , " i do n't want to know " and my fav right now " cold " .. i hope that what i have heard is true that he is working on his latest now . ca n't wait ! buy this cd. . you wo n't regret it
+camera pos i like that the protection filter is threaded so you can screw a conversion lens right over it , rather than having to use one or the other
+camera pos after checking prices with all the usual pricing bots , i found a better price , including free shipping , by going directly to amazon . this lowest price did not appear in the other searches , so it pays to go to amazon first . i replaced my canon sd400 with the casio and find the controls more logical to use . this is important if you do n't use the camera for a while , because you can just pick it up and start shooting without hunting for the manual . also , the docking base is much more convenient than plugging small cables into the camera . you do not have to remove the battery in the casio to charge it as you do with the canon sd400. the vga movie quality is superior on the casio . still pictures appear to be about equal . amazon delivered by ups in record time even with a weekend inbetween . i ordered on a friday and received it the following tuesday . go with amazon !
+music pos the coltrane soundscapes that this cd is infused flies to the mountain and back again , that 's the truth , but one troubling question for me remains ; no matter how much i enjoy this fusion incarnation by masters ( new & old ) - where in the world is alan holdsworth ? if any fusion guitar player has the rightful title claim to the coltrane moniker - it 's holdsworth . for years he 's been building the bridge between the good old philosophies and the new world order . including holdsworth would have just been the jazziest thing to do .
+music pos i bought this cd six months ago because i am a miami vice fan . i did n't expect it to be good , but it is wonderful . " in dulce decorum " is incredible ! this is a hard-to-find cd . you will love it ! i enjoy it more with each playing
+music pos this cd is dave bromberg 's best effort . playing solo allows his guitar playing capabilities to be clearly demonstrated .
+music neg except for the song , mother mother , i did n't really care for the rest of the cd . i bought it for mother , mother so i guess i got what i wanted . i had hoped to like other songs as well , but , oh well
+camera pos order received in good time - no problems . battery lifetimes are short - not as good as first original from dealer , but twice as good as poorer choice batteries from other suppliers
+camera neg you have this camera case listed under accessories for the panasonic dmc fa20pp lumix camera . the camera does not come close to fitting in this case . the camera is 1 1 / 2 inches wider than the case .
+camera pos make sure to check the compatibility charts to verify that your lenses will work with this before buying it since only a handful of l series lenses are compatible . if you do already have one or more of these lenses though this is a nice addition . the af only works with lenses f / 4 and faster on most camera bodies . you do also give up a little image quality by putting this between your lens and camera body , but the extra reach is really nice
+music pos i remember thinking when this film came out that few things in life were as cool as lloyd dobler . this soundtrack is also one of those things . this album for me , as for many i 'm sure , somewhat reflected my taste in music at the time , and even now actually . of course the biggie here is " in your eyes " from peter gabriel . who has n't that track touched at some point ? this also confirmed my love for the red hot chili peppers , and here we get a slightly extended version of their classic " taste the pain " . toss on a few from fishbone , living colour , and the replacements and you solidify this soundtrack as a must own for the late 80 's alt-rock lover . not to mention the goods from depeche mode and nancy wilson ( heart ) . in fact the only thing that could 've made this album any better , is if it ended with a " ding "
+camera neg i spent a couple hours , trying to get transfer dv from my camcorder to my mac powerbook . after hours and hours i had to realize that the usb cable delivered with the sony camcorder was absolutely worthless . if you do n't own a sony vaio ( which in my opinion just a overdesigned peace of fancy 007 gear with an i.link connection , which no other pc / mac has ) your getting frustrated pretty quick . i would have given the cable a 5 star rating , but the way i had to get the cable , by having to buy it seperately , is a big rip off . however i found the exact same cable in an apple store called " thin fire wire " . the exact same cable ( 1.8 meter 4 to 6 pin to be exact ) for only $29 and it works just fine . so check out an apple store near you and save some money . shame on you sony
+camera neg if you like to take pictures with macro lense , it sucks . i 've had many canon cameras and this one takes the the prize for worst quality . if you get closer than five inches , the pictures messes up . i 've had no other problem with the hardware , though i hate carrying around that dock and it 's odd shaped charger . no other charger cable in the world is going to fit ! so loose it and you 're screwed . oh , and night photos also suck . big time , even with the flash on
+camera neg because the camera eye moves only in one direction , the device had to be permanently attached on a wall across baby 's bed . you have to decide whether you want sacrifice the resolution to see the entire crib ( older child can crawl away from the view ) or see just a part of it . we have cell phones and wireless network so static was pretty bad . we went with graco 's excellent digital imonitor .
+music pos this album is essentially a fusion of great musical minds . the legendary khan payes more attention to making this a better experience for the western audiences of the sufi music by playing more with his ( brilliant ) vocal skills then with the lyrics . micheal brooks ' music stands out and enhances the experience further . this is not to say that the mainstream indo-paki audience wo n't enjoy this album ( this is one of my all time favs ) . it is fabulous background listening while doing work which may need focus - for those who need music to do such things.. . : ) for those who have been thinking of testing out sufi music , this is the place to start . this is a fine introduction to the great nfak and sufi music .
+music pos jon brion does such a great job capturing emotion with great music . hes also so damn great and fitting sound witht the mood of a movie . if you liked this movie , by all means , buy the soundtrack . you will not be dissapointed . eevery time it listen it not only reminds me of the amazing movie , it makes me feel. . just. . good . also , be sure to pick up his solo record , meaningless . if you liked the movie , buy this cd , you wont regret it
+camera pos it is extremely easy to use . hard to figure out the menu , but once that is done there is no problem . takes beautiful pictures . great for action shots as well . seldom find a blurry photo as it has a stabelizer built in
+music pos although i like this album , there 's nothing that especially stands out about it . it 's typical bright eyes , and if you already love the band you wo n't be disappointed . however , it 's not one of their best albums . it 's not as good as lifted , not as addicting as fevers and mirrors , and not as raw and endearing as letting off the happiness . but yet again , conor succeeds in writing songs that capture all of the emotion without making me ill in a dashboard confessional sort of way
+camera pos my family goes swimming quiet a bit . i got the sports pack to take pictures of the kids underwater in the pool . this is a big hit . it works extremely well . i also highly recommend the sony dsc-t9 camera . it 's great for trips . it 's so small you can put it in your pocket and the pics look great
+music neg this cd is 100% pure junk ! the cd is sung by kids ! they have high-pitched voices that are n't even good enough to win the school talent show . the other singers are adults who have voices that are n't anything impressive , either . if the songs were sung by the original singer it would of been better . stop this s****y music !
+music pos i rarely write reviews , but i need to comment on how fantastic this compilation is . i have a four-year-old and an eighteen-month-old , and this cd is in heavy rotation at our house . my husband and i love the music at least as much as they do - - it 's stylish and sets a great mood as we 're making dinner and doing dishes . the kids love it too , needless to say . my four-year-old 's favorites are three blind mice ( she loves when the farmer 's wife squeaks that she 'll give back the tails ) and the final track by peggy lee ( where she says the word *poop* , as in " party poop " - - endless laughter ensues ) . ella fitzgerald 's a-tisket , a-tasket and chew , chew your bubblegum are priceless . all in all , i highly recommend this cd - - everyone will be happy to hear it again and again
+music pos this is a cd that everyone should have ! there are four great voices and they do country music the way it should be ! lorrie morgan is the best and i like everything on this ! ! buy it and enjoy ! chery
+music pos this is their best studio album . what more can i say ? brokedown palace may be the most beautiful rock song of all time . a must
diff --git a/labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.tok b/labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.tok
new file mode 100644
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diff --git a/labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.txt b/labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c72a28e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11487 @@
+April (Apr.) is the fourth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, and comes between March and May. It is one of the four months to have 30 days.
+
+April always begins on the same day of the week as July, and additionally, January in leap years. April always ends on the same day of the week as December.
+
+The Month
+
+April comes between March and May, making it the fourth month of the year. It also comes first in the year out of the four months that have 30 days, as June, September and November are later in the year.
+
+April begins on the same day of the week as July every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. April ends on the same day of the week as December every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
+
+In common years, April starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, April starts on the same day of the week as January of the previous year, and in leap years and years immediately after that, April finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.
+
+In years immediately before common years, April starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year.
+
+April is a spring month in the Northern Hemisphere and an autumn/fall month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of October in the other.
+
+It is unclear as to where April got its name. A common theory is that it comes from the Latin word "aperire", meaning "to open", referring to flowers opening in spring. Another theory is that the name could come from Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love. It was originally the second month in the old Roman Calendar, before the start of the new year was put to January 1.
+
+Quite a few festivals are held in this month. In many Southeast Asian cultures, new year is celebrated in this month (including Songkran). In Western Christianity, Easter can be celebrated on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25. In Orthodox Christianity, it can fall between April 4 and May 8. At the end of the month, Central and Northern European cultures celebrate Walpurgis Night on April 30, marking the transition from winter into summer.
+
+April in poetry
+Poets use April to mean the end of winter. For example: April showers bring May flowers.
+
+Events in April
+
+Fixed Events
+
+ April 1 - April Fools' Day
+ April 1 - Islamic Republic Day (Iran)
+ April 2 - International Children's Book Day
+ April 2 - Thai Heritage and Conservation Day
+ April 2 - World Autism Awareness Day
+ April 2 - Malvinas Day (Argentina)
+ April 4 - Independence Day (Senegal)
+ April 4 - International Day for Landmine Awareness and Assistance
+ April 4 - Peace Day (Angola)
+ April 5 - End of Tax Year (United Kingdom)
+ April 6 - Tartan Day (Canada and United States)
+ April 6 - Chakri Day (Thailand)
+ April 7 - Day of Maternity and Beauty (Armenia)
+ April 7 - Genocide Memorial Day (Rwanda)
+ April 7 - World Health Day
+ April 7 - Women's Day (Mozambique)
+ April 8 - Buddha's Birthday (Buddhism)
+ April 9 - Martyrs' Day (Tunisia)
+ April 9 - Day of National Unity (Georgia)
+ April 9 - Day of the Finnish language
+ April 12 - Cosmonauts' Day (Russia), marking the day of Yuri Gagarin's space flight
+ April 13 - Songkan (Laos), local New Year celebration
+ April 13 - Cambodian New Year
+ April 13 - Thomas Jefferson's Birthday (United States)
+ April 14 - Southeast Asian New Year festivals, including Songkran
+ April 14 - Georgian language Day
+ April 14 - Youth Day (Angola)
+ April 14 - Ambedkar Jayanti (India)
+ April 14 - Pan-American Day
+ April 15 - Tax Day (United States)
+ April 15 - Kim Il-Sung's Birthday (North Korea)
+ April 15 - Father Damien Day (Hawaii)
+ April 15 - Jackie Robinson Day (Major League Baseball)
+ April 16 - Birthday of Queen Margrethe II of Denmark
+ April 16 - Emancipation Day (Washington, DC)
+ April 16 - World Voice Day
+ April 16 - Selena Day (Texas)
+ April 17 - National Day of Syria
+ April 17 - Flag Day (American Samoa)
+ April 17 - Women's Day (Gabon)
+ April 17 - World Hemophilia Day
+ April 18 - Independence Day (Zimbabwe)
+ April 18 - Invention Day (Japan)
+ April 18 - International Day of Monuments and Sites
+ April 19 - Bicycle Day
+ April 19 - Dutch-American Friendship Day
+ April 19 - Birthday of King Mswati III of Swaziland
+ April 19 - Patriots' Day (Massachusetts, Maine, Wisconsin)
+ April 20 - 4/20 in Cannabis Culture
+ April 21 - John Muir Day (California)
+ April 21 - San Jacinto Day (Texas)
+ April 21 - Kartini Day (Indonesia)
+ April 21 - National Tree Planting Day (Kenya)
+ April 21 - First Day of Ridran (Baha'i faith)
+ April 21 - Grounation Day (Rastafari movement)
+ April 22 - Earth Day
+ April 22 - Discovery Day (Brazil)
+ April 23 - Saint George's Day, celebrating the patron saint of several countries, regions and cities (including England and Catalonia)
+ April 23 - World Book Day
+ April 23 - National Sovereignty and Children's Day (Turkey)
+ April 24 - Democracy Day (Nepal)
+ April 24 - Genocide Day (Armenia)
+ April 24 - Republic Day (the Gambia)
+ April 25 - Australia and New Zealand celebrate ANZAC Day. ANZAC means Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, and began in 1915.
+ April 25 - World DNA Day
+ April 25 - World Malaria Day
+ April 25 - Flag Day (Swaziland, Faroe Islands)
+ April 25 - Freedom Day (Portugal)
+ April 25 - Liberation Day (Italy)
+ April 25 - Army Day (North Korea)
+ April 26 - Union Day (Tanzania)
+ April 26 - Confederate Memorial Day (Texas, Florida)
+ April 27 - Independence Day (Sierra Leone and Togo)
+ April 27 - Freedom Day (South Africa)
+ April 27 - World Tapir Day
+ April 27 - King's Day (Netherlands) from 2014, birthday of Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
+ April 28 - Workers Memorial Day
+ April 28 - National Day (Sardinia)
+ April 28 - National Heroes Day (Barbados)
+ April 29 - Showa Day (Japan), birthday of Emperor Hirohito, who died in 1989
+ April 29 - International Dance Day
+ April 30 - Former Queen's Day Holiday in the Netherlands (changed to King's Day, April 27 in 2014), was the birthday of former Queen Juliana of the Netherlands
+ April 30 - Flag Day in Sweden (birthday of King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden)
+ April 30 - International Jazz Day
+ April 30 - Walpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe)
+
+Moveable Events
+
+ Easter-related events in Western Christianity:
+ Palm Sunday (between March 15 and April 18)
+ Maundy Thursday (between March 19 and April 22)
+ Good Friday (between March 20 and April 23)
+ Easter Sunday (between March 22 and April 25)
+ Easter Monday (between March 23 and April 26)
+ Eastern Orthodox Easter falls between April 4 and May 8.
+ Ascension Day (Western Christianity), falls between April 30 and June 3.
+ Jewish Passover - falls in the same week as Western Christianity's Holy Week, which is the week leading up to Easter.
+ Mother's Day (UK) falls between March 1 and April 4.
+ World Snooker Championship (late April, early May)
+ Horse racing - Grand National (UK), Kentucky Derby (United States)
+ Start of Daylight Saving Time - Clocks going forward one hour:
+ Most of Mexico
+ Morocco (Ramadan does not include Daylight Saving Time)
+ End of Daylight Saving Time - Clocks going back one hour:
+ Southeast Australia, and New Zealand
+ Chile
+ Marathon Events in the following cities:
+ Belgrade, Serbia
+ Boston, Massachusetts, United States
+ Brighton, United Kingdom
+ Enschede, Netherlands
+ London, United Kingdom (held in October from 2020 to 2022 because of COVID-19)
+ Madrid, Spain
+ Paris, France
+ Rotterdam, Netherlands
+ Utrecht, Netherlands
+ Zurich, Switzerland
+
+Selection of Historical Events
+
+ April 1, 1918 - The Royal Air Force is founded.
+ April 1, 1976 - Apple Inc. is founded.
+ April 1, 1979 - The Islamic Republic of Iran is founded.
+ April 1, 1999 - The territory of Nunavut is created in Northern Canada.
+ April 1, 2001 - The Netherlands introduces same-sex marriage, as the first country to do so.
+ April 2, 1519 - Florida is sighted by a European for the first time.
+ April 2, 1930 - Haile Selassie becomes Emperor of Ethiopia.
+ April 2, 1982 - Start of the Falklands War, as Argentine forces land on the Falkland Islands.
+ April 2, 2005 - Pope John Paul II dies aged 84, after years as Pope.
+ April 3, 1973 - The first-ever mobile phone call is placed by Martin Cooper in New York City.
+ April 4, 1721 - Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of Great Britain.
+ April 4, 1841 - William Henry Harrison dies. He was President of the United States for 31 days, the shortest-ever time in office for a US president.
+ April 4, 1960 - Senegal becomes independent.
+ April 4, 1968 - Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee.
+ April 5, 1722 - Jacob Roggeveen becomes the first European to land on Easter Island, landing there on Easter Sunday.
+ April 6, 1320 - Scotland's independence is confirmed with the Declaration of Arbroath.
+ April 6, 1830 - The Mormon Church is founded.
+ April 6, 1909 - Robert Peary claims to have been first at the North Pole on this date.
+ April 7, 1994 - The Rwandan Genocide begins.
+ April 9, 1865 - American Civil War: Confederate forces under Robert E. Lee surrender to Union forces.
+ April 9, 1940 - World War II: Denmark and Norway are invaded by Nazi Germany.
+ April 9, 1989 - April 9 tragedy: In Tbilisi, Georgia, a peaceful demonstration for independence is broken up by the Soviet Army, killing 20 people. The country gains independence on this date exactly two years later.
+ April 10, 1815 - Mount Tambora in Indonesia erupts in a huge eruption, affecting the world's climate for at least a year.
+ April 10, 2010 - A plane crash near Smolensk, Russia, kills several people who were important in Poland, including President Lech Kaczynski.
+ April 11, 1814 - Napoleon Bonaparte is exiled to the island of Elba.
+ April 11, 1954 - Said to have been the most boring day of the 20th century.
+ April 12, 1861 - The American Civil War begins at Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina.
+ April 12, 1945 - US President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies, and Harry S. Truman replaces him.
+ April 12, 1961 - Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to fly into space.
+ April 14, 1865 - US President Abraham Lincoln is shot dead at Ford's Theatre by John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln dies the next day.
+ April 14, 2010 - Qinghai Province, China, is hit by an earthquake, killing tens of thousands of people.
+ April 14, 2010 - The eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland shuts down air traffic around Europe for a week, due to its ash cloud.
+ April 15, 1912 - The ship RMS Titanic sinks near Newfoundland after hitting an iceberg, resulting in the deaths of many of the people on board.
+ April 16, 1943 - Albert Hofmann discovers LSD's effects.
+ April 17, 1946 - Syria gains full independence from France.
+ April 17, 1955 - Albert Einstein dies.
+ April 18, 1906 - 1906 San Francisco earthquake: San Francisco, California, is hit by a big earthquake, resulting in fires that destroy large parts of the city.
+ April 18, 1980 - Zimbabwe gains full independence.
+ April 19, 1897 - The first Boston Marathon is held.
+ April 19, 1971 - Sierra Leone becomes a republic.
+ April 19, 1993 - The siege of the Branch Davidians at Waco, Texas, ends in a fire that kills 82 people.
+ April 19, 1995 - Timothy McVeigh carries out the Oklahoma City bombing, killing 169 people.
+ April 19, 2005 - Joseph Alois Ratzinger becomes Pope Benedict XVI.
+ April 20, 1889 - Adolf Hitler is born.
+ April 20, 1902 - Marie Curie and Pierre Curie refine Radium.
+ April 20, 2010 - Deepwater Horizon oil spill: A massive fire on the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico kills 11 workers and causes a massive oil spill, the worst spill in US history.
+ April 21, 753 BC - Legendary founding date of Rome
+ April 21, 1509 - Henry VIII of England becomes King.
+ April 21, 1908 - Frederick Cook claims to have reached the North Pole on this date.
+ April 22, 1502 - Pedro Alvares Cabral becomes the first European to reach present-day Brazil.
+ April 22, 1970 - Earth Day is observed for the first time.
+ April 23, 1533 - The Church of England declares that Henry VIII of England and Catherine of Aragon are not married.
+ April 24, 1916 - The Easter Rising occurs in Dublin, Ireland.
+ April 24, 1990 - The Hubble Space Telescope is launched on the Space Shuttle Discovery.
+ April 25, 1915 - World War I: In Turkey, the Battle of Gallipoli begins, Australian, French, British and New Zealand forces land at Anzac cove.
+ April 25, 1974 - Portugal's dictatorship is overthrown in a coup, in what is known as the Carnation Revolution.
+ April 26, 1937 - Spanish Civil War: German planes bomb the town of Guernica, Basque Country, later depicted in a painting by Pablo Picasso.
+ April 26, 1964 - Tanganyika and Zanzibar merge to form Tanzania.
+ April 26, 1986 - A reactor explosion occurs at the Chernobyl nuclear plant in present-day Ukraine, with radiation spreading around Europe and the world.
+ April 26/27, 1994 - South Africa holds its first free elections.
+ April 27, 1960 - Togo becomes independent from France.
+ April 27, 1961 - Sierra Leone becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
+ April 28, 1789 - Mutiny on the ship Bounty in the Pacific Ocean, lead by Fletcher Christian.
+ April 28, 1945 - Benito Mussolini is executed by Italian partisans.
+ April 28, 1947 - In Peru, Thor Heyerdahl starts his Kon-Tiki expedition aimed at proving his theory that the Polynesian settlers on the Pacific Ocean's islands came from South America.
+ April 29, 1991 - A cyclone in Bangladesh kills an estimated 138,000 people.
+ April 29, 2011 - The wedding of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge is broadcast worldwide.
+ April 30, 1789 - George Washington becomes the first President of the United States.
+ April 30, 1803 - The United States purchases (buys) the Louisiana territory from France.
+ April 30, 1945 - Adolf Hitler commits suicide on the same day that the Soviet Army raises the Red Flag on Berlin's Reichstag.
+ April 30, 1952 - The Diary of Anne Frank is published in English.
+ April 30, 1975 - The Vietnam War ends, as North Vietnamese forces take Saigon.
+ April 30, 1980 - Queen Juliana of the Netherlands abdicates the throne, and her daughter becomes Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands. Beatrix later also abdicates, on this day in 2013, in favor of her son, King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands.
+
+Trivia
+ April has the 100th day of the year. April 10 in a common year, April 9 in a leap year.
+ In Western Christianity, Easter falls more often in April than in March.
+ The months around April (March and May) both start with an 'M' in the English language, with an 'A' as the second letter.
+ In the English language, April is the first of three months in-a-row, along with May and June, that is also a female given name.
+ The astrological signs for April are Aries (March 21 to April 20) and Taurus (April 21 to May 20).
+ The sweet pea and daisy are the traditional birth flowers for April.
+ The birthstone for April is the diamond.
+ April 1 is the only day in April to start within the first quarter of the calendar year.
+ If the months of the year were arranged in alphabetical order in the English language, April would come first.
+ Five current European monarchs were born in April. They are King Philippe of Belgium (April 15), Queen Margrethe II of Denmark (April 16), Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (April 16), King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands (April 27), and King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden (April 30). Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms - who died on September 8, 2022 - was also born in April (on April 21).
+
+04
+August (Aug.) is the eighth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between July and September. It has 31 days. It is named after the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar.
+
+August does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August always ends on the same day of the week as November.
+
+The Month
+
+This month was first called Sextilis in Latin, because it was the sixth month in the old Roman calendar. The Roman calendar began in March about 735 BC with Romulus. October was the eighth month. August was the eighth month when January or February were added to the start of the year by King Numa Pompilius about 700 BC. Or, when those two months were moved from the end to the beginning of the year by the decemvirs about 450 BC (Roman writers disagree). In 153 BC January 1 was determined as the beginning of the year.
+
+August is named for Augustus Caesar who became Roman consul in this month. The month has 31 days because Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in 45 BC. August is after July and before September.
+
+August, in either hemisphere, is the seasonal equivalent of February in the other. In the Northern hemisphere it is a summer month and it is a winter month in the Southern hemisphere.
+
+No other month in common years begins on the same day of the week as August, but August begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August ends on the same day of the week as November every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.
+
+In common years, August starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the previous year, and in leap years, June of the previous year. In common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as March and June of the previous year, and in leap years, September of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, August starts on the same day of the week as February of the previous year.
+
+In years immediately before common years, August starts on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, October of the following year. In years immediately before common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, February and October of the following year.
+
+August observances
+
+Fixed observances and events
+
+ August 1 National Day of Switzerland
+ August 1 Independence Day (Benin)
+ August 1 Emancipation Day (Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago)
+ August 1 Army Day (People's Republic of China)
+ August 1 Lammas, cross-quarter day in the Celtic calendar
+ August 1 Statehood Day (Colorado)
+ August 2 Republic Day (Republic of Macedonia)
+ August 2 Emancipation Day (Bahamas)
+ August 3 Independence Day (Niger)
+ August 5 Independence Day (Burkina Faso)
+ August 5 Victory Day (Croatia)
+ August 6 Independence Day (Bolivia)
+ August 6 Independence Day (Jamaica)
+ August 7 Independence Day (Ivory Coast)
+ August 8 Father's Day (Taiwan)
+ August 9 National Day of Singapore
+ August 9 Day of the Indigenous People (Suriname)
+ August 9 National Women's Day (South Africa)
+ August 10 Independence Day (Ecuador)
+ August 10 Missouri Day
+ August 11 Independence Day (Chad)
+ August 12 Perseid Meteor Shower
+ August 12 Queen Sirikit's Birthday (Thailand)
+ August 13 Independence Day (Central African Republic)
+ August 14 Independence Day (Pakistan)
+ August 15 Assumption of Mary in Western Christianity
+ August 15 Independence Day (India)
+ August 15 Independence Day (Republic of the Congo)
+ August 15 Independence Day (Bahrain)
+ August 15 National Day of South Korea
+ August 15 National Day of Liechtenstein
+ August 15 Victory in Japan Day
+ August 17 Independence Day (Indonesia)
+ August 17 Independence Day (Gabon)
+ August 19 World Humanitarian Day
+ August 19 Independence Day (Afghanistan)
+ August 20 Feast day of Stephen I of Hungary
+ August 20 Regaining of Independence (Estonia)
+ August 21 Admission Day (Hawaii)
+ August 21 Ninoy Aquino Day (Philippines)
+ August 21 Saint Helena Day
+ August 22 Start of Ashenda (Ethiopia and Eritrea)
+ August 23 National Heroes Day (Philippines)
+ August 24 Independence Day (Ukraine)
+ August 25 Independence Day (Uruguay)
+ August 26 Heroes' Day (Namibia)
+ August 27 Independence Day (Moldova)
+ August 28 Assumption of Mary (Eastern Christianity)
+ August 29 National Uprising Day (Slovakia)
+ August 30 Constitution Day (Kazakhstan)
+ August 30 Republic Day (Tatarstan)
+ August 30 Victory Day (Turkey)
+ August 31 Independence Day (Kyrgyzstan)
+ August 31 Independence Day (Malaysia)
+ August 31 Independence Day (Trinidad and Tobago)
+
+Moveable and Monthlong events
+
+ Edinburgh Festival, including the Military Tattoo at Edinburgh Castle, takes place through most of August and beginning of September.
+ UK Bank Holidays: First Monday in Scotland, last Monday in England and Wales
+ National Eisteddfod, cultural celebration in Wales: First week in August
+ Children's Day in Uruguay: Second Sunday in August
+ Monday after August 17: Holiday in Argentina, commemorating José de San Martin
+ Discovery Day in Canada: third Monday in August
+ Summer Olympics, often held in July and/or August
+
+Selection of Historical Events
+
+ August 1 1291: Traditional founding date of Switzerland.
+ August 1 1914: World War I begins.
+ August 1 1944: Anne Frank makes the last entry in her diary.
+ August 1 1960: Dahomey (now called Benin) becomes independent.
+ August 2 1990: Iraq invades Kuwait.
+ August 3 1492: Christopher Columbus sets sail on his first voyage.
+ August 3 1960: Niger becomes independent.
+ August 4 1944: Anne Frank and her family are captured by the Gestapo in Amsterdam.
+ August 4 1984: Upper Volta's name is changed to Burkina Faso.
+ August 5 1960: Upper Volta becomes independent.
+ August 5 1962: Film actress Marilyn Monroe is found dead at her home.
+ August 6 1825: Bolivian independence.
+ August 6 1945: The Atomic Bomb is dropped on Hiroshima.
+ August 6 1962: Jamaica becomes independent.
+ August 7 1960: Ivory Coast becomes independent.
+ August 9 1945: The Atomic Bomb is dropped on Nagasaki.
+ August 9 1965: Singapore becomes independent.
+ August 9 1974: US President Richard Nixon resigns following the Watergate scandal, with Gerald Ford replacing him.
+ August 10 1792: Storming of the Tuileries Palace during the French Revolution
+ August 10 1809: Beginning of Ecuadorean independence movement.
+ August 11 1960: Chad becomes independent.
+ August 13 1960: The Central African Republic becomes independent.
+ August 13 1961: Building of the Berlin Wall begins.
+ August 14 1945: Japan announces its surrender at the end of World War II.
+ August 14/15 1947: India is partitioned at independence from the UK, as the new mainly Islamic state of Pakistan is created.
+ August 15 1960: The Republic of the Congo becomes independent.
+ August 15 1971: Bahrain becomes independent.
+ August 16 1977: Elvis Presley dies aged 42, leading to a worldwide outpouring of grief.
+ August 17 1945: Indonesia declares independence from the Netherlands.
+ August 17 1960: Gabon becomes independent.
+ August 17 1962: Peter Fechter becomes the first person to be shot dead at the Berlin Wall.
+ August 19 43 BC: Augustus becomes Roman consul.
+ August 19 14: Augustus dies.
+ August 19 1919: Afghanistan becomes independent.
+ August 19 1991: The August Coup against Mikhail Gorbachev, in the Soviet Union, begins.
+ August 20 1940: Leon Trotsky is fatally wounded with an ice pick in Mexico.
+ August 20 1968: The Prague Spring uprising is crushed.
+ August 20 1991: Estonia regains its independence from the Soviet Union.
+ August 21 1959: Hawaii becomes the 50th State of the US.
+ August 24 79: Vesuvius erupts, destroying Pompeii and neighbouring Herculaneum.
+ August 24 1991: Ukraine regains independence from the Soviet Union.
+ August 24 2006: Pluto is demoted to a dwarf planet.
+ August 25 1825: Uruguay declares independence from Brazil.
+ August 25 1989: Voyager 2 flies by the planet Neptune.
+ August 27 1883: Krakatoa, in the Sunda Strait between Sumatra and Java, explodes, after a very violent eruption.
+ August 27 1991: Moldova becomes independent from the Soviet Union.
+ August 28 1963: The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom takes place, where Martin Luther King, Jr. makes his "I Have a Dream" speech for Civil Rights in the United States.
+ August 29 2005: Hurricane Katrina wreaks devastation in Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. New Orleans is flooded.
+ August 31 1957: Malaysia, then the Federation of Malaya, becomes independent.
+ August 31 1962: Trinidad and Tobago becomes independent.
+ August 31 1991: Kyrgyzstan becomes independent.
+ August 31 1997: Diana, Princess of Wales is killed in a car crash in Paris, leading to a big outpouring of grief.
+
+Trivia
+ Along with July, August is one of two calendar months to be named after people who really lived (July was named for Julius Caesar and August was named for Augustus).
+ Only one US President has died in August, Warren G. Harding, on August 2, 1923.
+ August's flower is the Gladiolus with the birthstone being peridot.
+ The astrological signs for August are Leo (July 22 - August 21) and Virgo (August 22 - September 21).
+August is the second of two months beginning with 'A', the other being April, with both April 21 and August 21 falling either side of the Northern summer solstice.
+
+References
+
+08
+Art is a creative activity. It produces a product, an object. Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, performing subjects, and expressing the author's thoughts. The product of art is called a work of art, for others to experience.
+
+Some art is useful in a practical sense, such as a sculptured clay bowl that can be used. That kind of art is sometimes called a craft.
+
+Those who make art are called artists. They hope to affect the emotions of people who experience it. Some people find art relaxing, exciting or informative. Some say people are driven to make art due to their inner creativity.
+
+"The arts" is a much broader term. It includes drawing, painting, sculpting, photography, performance art, dance, music, poetry, prose and theatre.
+
+Types of art
+
+Art is divided into the plastic arts, where something is made, and the performing arts, where something is done by humans in action. The other division is between pure arts, done for themselves, and practical arts, done for a practical purpose, but with artistic content.
+
+ Plastic art
+ Fine art is expression by making something beautiful or appealing to the emotions by visual means: drawing, painting, printmaking, sculpture
+ Literature: poetry, creative writing
+ Performing art
+ Performing arts are expression using the body: drama, dance, acting, singing
+ Auditory art (expression by making sounds): music, singing
+ Practical art
+ Culinary art (expression by making flavors and tastes): cooking
+ The practical arts (expression by making things and structures: architecture, filming, fashion, photography, video games)
+
+What "art" means
+Some people say that art is a product or item that is made with the intention of stimulating the human senses as well as the human mind, spirit and soul. An artwork is normally judged by how much impact it has on people, the number of people who can relate to it, and how much they appreciate it. Some people also get inspired.
+
+The first and broadest sense of "art" means "arrangement" or "to arrange." In this sense, art is created when someone arranges things found in the world into a new or different design or form; or when someone arranges colors next to each other in a painting to make an image or just to make a pretty or interesting design.
+
+Art may express emotion. Artists may feel a certain emotion and wish to express it by creating something that means something to them. Most of the art created in this case is made for the artist rather than an audience. However, if an audience is able to connect with the emotion as well, then the art work may become publicly successful.
+
+History of art
+There are sculptures, cave painting and rock art dating from the Upper Paleolithic era.
+
+All of the great ancient civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt, India, China, Greece, Rome and Persia had works and styles of art. In the Middle Ages, most of the art in Europe showed people from the Bible in paintings, stained-glass windows, and mosaic tile floors and walls.
+
+Islamic art includes geometric patterns, Islamic calligraphy, and architecture. In India and Tibet, painted sculptures, dance, and religious painting were done. In China, arts included jade carving, bronze, pottery, poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, and fiction. There are many Chinese artistic styles, which are usually named after the ruling dynasty.
+
+In Europe, after the Middle Ages, there was a "Renaissance" which means "rebirth". People rediscovered science and artists were allowed to paint subjects other than religious subjects. People like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci still painted religious pictures, but they also now could paint mythological pictures too. These artists also invented perspective where things in the distance look smaller in the picture. This was new because in the Middle Ages people would paint all the figures close up and just overlapping each other. These artists used nudity regularly in their art.
+
+In the late 1800s, artists in Europe, responding to Modernity created many new painting styles such as Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism. The history of twentieth century art includes Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and Minimalism.
+
+Roles of art
+In some societies, people think that art belongs to the person who made it. They think that the artist put his or her "talent" and industry into the art. In this view, the art is the property of the artist, protected by copyright.
+
+In other societies, people think that art belongs to no one. They think that society has put its social capital into the artist and the artist's work. In this view, society is a collective that has made the art, through the artist.
+
+Functions of art
+The functions of art include:
+
+1) Cognitive function
+
+ Works of art let us know about what the author knew, and about what the surroundings of the author were like.
+
+2) Aesthetic function
+
+ Works of art can make people happy by being beautiful.
+
+3) Prognostic function
+
+ Some artists draw what they see the future like, and some of them are right, but most are not...
+
+4) Recreation function
+
+ Art makes us think about it, not about reality; we have a rest.
+
+5) Value function
+
+ What did the artist value? What aims did they like/dislike in human activity? This usually is clearly seen in artists' works.
+
+6) Didactic function
+
+ What message, criticism or political change did the artist wish to achieve?
+
+Related pages
+ Art history
+ Modern art
+ Abstract art
+ Magnum opus
+ Painting
+ Sculpture
+ Street art
+
+References
+
+
+Non-verbal communication
+Basic English 850 words
+A or a is the first letter of the English alphabet. The small letter, a or α, is used as a lower case vowel.
+
+When it is spoken, Ä is said as a long a, a diphthong of Ä and y. A is similar to Alphabet of the Greek alphabet. That is not surprising, because it means the same sound.
+
+"Alpha and Omega" (the last letter of the Greek alphabet) means from beginning to the end. In musical notation, the letter A is the symbol of a note in the scale, below B and above G.
+
+A is the letter that was used to represent a team in an old TV show, The A-Team. A capital a is written "A". Use a capital A at the start of a sentence if writing.
+
+A is also a musical note, sometimes referred to as "La".
+
+Where it came from
+The letter 'A' was in the Phoenician alphabet's aleph. This symbol came from a simple picture of an ox head.
+
+This Phoenician letter helped make the basic blocks of later types of the letter. The Greeks later modified this letter and used it as their letter alpha. The Greek alphabet was used by the Etruscans in northern Italy, and the Romans later modified the Etruscan alphabet for their own language.
+
+Using the letter
+The letter A has six different sounds. It can sound like ĂŠ, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, such as the word pad. Other sounds of this letter are in the words father, which developed into another sound, such as in the word ace.
+
+Use in mathematics
+In algebra, the letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities.
+
+In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to label line segments, lines, etc. Also, A is typically used as one of the letters to label an angle in a triangle.
+
+Its letter shape is referred to abstractly in Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge's 5th postulate, the basis for, as one of the Millennium Prize Problems, the Hodge Conjecture.
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Vowel letters
+Air is the Earth's atmosphere. Air is a mixture of many gases and tiny dust particles. It is the clear gas in which living things live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has mass and weight, because it is matter. The weight of air creates atmospheric pressure. There is no air in outer space.
+
+Atmosphere is a mixture of about 78% nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, and 1% other gases, such as Carbon Dioxide.
+
+Animals live and need to breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere. In breathing, the lungs put oxygen into the blood, and send back carbon dioxide to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off the oxygen that we breathe. Without it we die of asphyxia.
+
+Air can be polluted by some gases (such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides), smoke, and ash. This air pollution causes various problems including smog, acid rain and global warming. It can damage people's health and the environment. There are debates about whether or not to act upon climate change, but soon enough the Earth will heat up to much, causing our home to become too hot and not support life! Some say fewer people would die of cold weather, and that is true but there is already a huge amount of people dying from heat and that number is and will keep increasing at a frighting height.
+
+Since early times, air has been used to create technology. Ships moved with sails and windmills used the mechanical motion of air. Aircraft use propellers to move air over a wing, which allows them to fly. Pneumatics use air pressure to move things. Since the late 1900s, air power is also used to generate electricity.
+
+Air is invisible: it cannot be seen by the eye, though a shimmering in hot air can be seen.
+
+Air is one of the 4 classical elements.
+
+Main history
+
+Original atmosphere
+At first it was mainly a hydrogen atmosphere. It has changed dramatically on several occasionsâfor example, the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago, greatly increased oxygen in the atmosphere from practically no oxygen to levels closer to present day. Humans have also contributed to significant changes in atmospheric composition through air pollution, especially since industrialisation, leading to rapid environmental change such as ozone depletion and global warming.
+
+Second atmosphere
+Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases.
+
+Third atmosphere
+
+The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide was transferred to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago. The Great Oxygenation Event is shown by the end of the banded iron formations.
+
+Related pages
+ Air pollution
+ Air craft
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Atmosphere
+Spain is divided in 17 parts called autonomous communities. Autonomous means that each of these autonomous communities has its own executive, legislative judicial powers. These are similar to, but not the same as, states in the United States of America, for example.
+
+Spain has fifty smaller parts called provinces. In 1978 these parts came together, making the autonomous communities.
+Before then, some of these provinces were together but were broken. The groups that were together once before are called "historic communities": Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia.
+
+The Spanish language is the sole official language in every autonomous community but six, where Spanish is co-official with other languages, as follows:
+ Catalonia: Catalan and Occitan
+ Valencian Community: Catalan (also called Valencian there)
+ Balearic Islands: Catalan
+ Galicia: Galician
+ Basque Country: Basque
+ Navarre: Basque (only in the north and near the border with the Basque County)
+
+List of the autonomous communities, with their Capital city (the place where the government has its offices):
+
+ Andalusia (its capital is Sevilla)
+ Aragon (its capital is Zaragoza)
+ Asturias (its capital is Oviedo)
+ Balearic Islands (its capital is Palma de Mallorca)
+ Basque Country (its capital is Vitoria)
+ Canary Islands (they have two capitals - Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife)
+ Cantabria (its capital is Santander)
+ Castile-La Mancha (its capital is Toledo)
+ Castile and LeĂłn (its capital is Valladolid)
+ Catalonia (its capital is Barcelona)
+ Extremadura (its capital is MĂ©rida)
+ Galicia (its capital is Santiago de Compostela)
+ La Rioja (its capital is Logroño)
+ Community of Madrid (its capital is Madrid)
+ Region of Murcia (its capital is Murcia)
+ Navarre (its capital is Pamplona)
+ Valencian Community (its capital is Valencia)
+
+Spain also has two cities on the north coast of Africa: Ceuta and Melilla. They are called "autonomous cities" and have simultaneously the majority of the power of an autonomous community and also power of provinces and power of municipalities.
+Alan Mathison Turing OBE FRS (London, 23 June 1912 â Wilmslow, Cheshire, 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician and computer scientist. He was born in Maida Vale, London.
+
+Early life and family
+Alan Mathison Turing was born in Maida Vale, [London] on 23 June 1912. His father was part of a family of merchants from Scotland. His mother, Ethel Sara, was the daughter of an engineer.
+
+Education
+Turing went to St. Michael's, a school at 20 Charles Road, St Leonards-on-sea, when he was five years old.
+"This is only a foretaste of what is to come, and only the shadow of what is going to be.â â Alan Turing.
+
+The Stoney family were once prominent landlords in North Tipperary. His mother Ethel Sara Stoney (1881â1976) was daughter of Edward Waller Stoney (Borrisokane, North Tipperary) and Sarah Crawford (Cartron Abbey, Co. Longford), who were Protestant Anglo-Irish gentry. She was educated in Dublin at Alexandra School and College. On October 1st 1907 she married Julius Mathison Turing, who was Reverend John Robert Turing and Fanny Boyd, in Dublin. Alan Turing was born on June 23rd 1912. He would go on to be regarded as one of the greatest figures of the twentieth century.
+
+Alan was a brilliant mathematician and cryptographer. He became the founder of modern-day computer science and artificial intelligence. He designed a machine at Bletchley Park to break secret Enigma encrypted messages used by the Nazi German war machine to protect sensitive commercial, diplomatic and military communications during World War 2. This made the single biggest contribution to the Allied victory in the war against Nazi Germany. It possibly saved the lives of an estimated 2 million people, and shortened World War II.
+
+In 2013, almost 60 years later, Turing received a posthumous Royal Pardon from Queen Elizabeth II. Today, the âTuring lawâ grants an automatic pardon to men who died before the law came into force, making it possible for living convicted gay men to seek pardons for offences now no longer on the statute book.
+
+Turing died in 1954, after being subjected by a British court to chemical castration. He is known to have ended his life at the age of 41 years, by eating an apple laced with cyanide.
+
+Career
+Turing was one of the people who worked on the first computers. He created the theoretical Turing machine in 1936. The machine was imaginary, but it included the idea of a computer program.
+
+Turing was interested in artificial intelligence. He proposed the Turing test, to say when a machine could be called "intelligent". A computer could be said to "think" if a human talking with it could not tell it was a machine.
+
+During World War II, Turing worked with others to break German ciphers (secret messages). He worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking centre that produced Ultra intelligence.
+Using cryptanalysis, he helped to break the codes of the Enigma machine. After that, he worked on other German codes.
+
+From 1945 to 1947, Turing worked on the design of the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine) at the National Physical Laboratory. He presented a paper on 19 February 1946. That paper was "the first detailed design of a stored-program computer". Although it was possible to build ACE, there were delays in starting the project. In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a sabbatical year. While he was at Cambridge, the Pilot ACE was built without him. It ran its first program on 10 May 1950.
+
+Private life
+Turing was a homosexual man. In 1952, he admitted having had sex with a man in England. At that time, homosexual acts were illegal. Turing was convicted. He had to choose between going to jail and taking hormones to lower his sex drive. He decided to take the hormones. After his punishment, he became impotent. He also grew breasts.
+
+In May 2012, a private member's bill was put before the House of Lords to grant Turing a statutory pardon. In July 2013, the government supported it. A royal pardon was granted on 24 December 2013.
+
+Death
+In 1954, Turing died from cyanide poisoning. The cyanide came from either an apple which was poisoned with cyanide, or from water that had cyanide in it. The reason for the confusion is that the police never tested the apple for cyanide. It is also suspected that he committed suicide.
+
+The treatment forced on him is now believed to be very wrong. It is against medical ethics and international laws of human rights. In August 2009, a petition asking the British Government to apologise to Turing for punishing him for being a homosexual was started. The petition received thousands of signatures. Prime Minister Gordon Brown acknowledged the petition. He called Turing's treatment "appalling".
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+Jack Copeland 2012. Alan Turing: The codebreaker who saved 'millions of lives'. BBC News / Technology
+
+English computer scientists
+English LGBT people
+English mathematicians
+Gay men
+LGBT scientists
+Scientists from London
+Suicides by poison
+Suicides in the United Kingdom
+1912 births
+1954 deaths
+Officers of the Order of the British Empire
+Alanis Nadine Morissette (born June 1, 1974) is a Grammy Award-winning Canadian-American singer and songwriter. She was born in Ottawa, Canada. She began singing in Canada as a teenager in 1990. In 1995, she became popular all over the world.
+
+As a young child in Canada, Morissette began to act on television, including 5 episodes of the long-running series, You Can't Do That on Television. Her first album was released only in Canada in 1990.
+
+Her first international album was Jagged Little Pill, released in 1995. It was a rock-influenced album. Jagged has sold more than 33 million units globally. It became the best-selling debut album in music history. Her next album, Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie, was released in 1998. It was a success as well. Morissette took up producing duties for her next albums, which include Under Rug Swept, So-Called Chaos and Flavors of Entanglement. Morissette has sold more than 60 million albums worldwide.
+
+She also acted in several movies, including Kevin Smith's Dogma, where she played God.
+
+About her life
+Alanis Morissette was born in Riverside Hospital of Ottawa in Ottawa, Ontario. Her father is French-Canadian. Her mother is from Hungary. She has an older brother, Chad, and a twin brother, Wade, who is 12 minutes younger than she is. Her parents had worked as teachers at a military base in Lahr, Germany.
+
+Morissette became an American citizen in 2005. She is still Canadian citizen.
+
+On May 22, 2010, Morissette married rapper Mario "MC Souleye" Treadway.
+
+Jagged Little Pill
+Morissette has had many albums. Her 1995 album Jagged Little Pill became a very popular album. It has sold over 30 million copies worldwide. The album caused Morissette to win four Grammy Awards. The album Jagged Little Pill touched many people.
+
+On the album, Morissette sang songs about many different things. These things include:
+love (in the song "Head Over Feet")
+life (in the songs "Ironic" and "You Learn")
+her feelings (in the songs "Hand In My Pocket" and "All I Really Want")
+sadness (in the song "Mary Jane")
+anger (in the song "You Oughta Know")
+frustration (in the songs "Not the Doctor" and "Wake Up")
+
+Discography
+
+Albums
+Alanis (Canada-only, 1991)
+Now Is the Time (Canada-only, 1992)
+Jagged Little Pill (1995)
+Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie (1998)
+Alanis Unplugged (1999)
+Under Rug Swept (2002)
+Feast on Scraps (CD/DVD, 2002)
+So-Called Chaos (2004)
+Jagged Little Pill Acoustic (2005)
+Alanis Morissette: The Collection (2005)
+Flavors of Entanglement (2008)
+Havoc and Bright Lights (2012)
+
+Selected songs
+Morissette has written many songs. Some of her most famous songs are:
+"You Oughta Know" - This song is to Morissette's ex-boyfriend, a man she once loved. In this song, Morissette is very angry. She wants her ex-boyfriend to know that he caused many problems after leaving her for another woman.
+"Ironic" - This song is about life. It contains several stories about unlucky people. In one of the stories, a man is afraid of flying on airplanes. He finally flies in one, but the airplane crashes.
+"You Learn" - In this song, Morissette says that bad things happen in life, but people learn from them. Anyone can make bad things into good things. She wants people to try new things in life.
+"Uninvited" - In this song, Morissette is not happy because she is famous. She does not know whether she wants to continue to be famous or not.
+"Thank U" - In this song, she thanks many things that have helped her. She thanks India, a country she visited and almost died in. She also lists ways she can improve herself.
+"Hands Clean" - In this song, a man does something bad, and tells Morissette not to tell anyone else the bad thing the man did. She hides the man's secret for many years.
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Official website
+
+1974 births
+Living people
+
+American child actors
+American movie actors
+American pop musicians
+American rock singers
+American singer-songwriters
+American television actors
+Canadian movie actors
+Canadian pop singers
+Canadian rock singers
+Canadian singer-songwriters
+Canadian television actors
+Grammy Award winners
+People from Ottawa
+Singers from Ontario
+Twin people from Canada
+Adobe Illustrator is a computer program for making graphic design and illustrations. It is made by Adobe Systems. Pictures created in Adobe Illustrator can be made bigger or smaller, and look exactly the same at any size. It works well with the rest of the products with the Adobe name.
+
+History
+It was first released in 1986 for the Apple Macintosh. The latest version is Adobe Illustrator CS6, part of Creative Suite 6.
+
+Release history
+
+References
+
+Vector graphics editors
+Adobe software
+Andouille is a type of pork sausage. It is spicy (hot in taste) and smoked. There are different kinds, all with different combinations of pork meat, fat, intestines (tubes going to the stomach), and tripe (the wall of the stomach).
+
+Other sorts are "French andouille" and "German andouille"; they are less spicy than Cajun. Cajun has extra salt, black pepper, and garlic. Andouille makers smoke the sausages over pecan wood and sugar cane for a maximum of seven or eight hours, at about 175 degrees Fahrenheit (80 degrees Celsius).
+
+Sausage
+Farming is growing crops and keeping animals for food and raw materials. Farming is a major part of agriculture.
+
+History
+Farming started thousands of years ago, but no one knows for sure how old it is. The development of farming gave rise to the Neolithic Revolution as people gave up nomadic hunting and became settlers in cities.
+
+Farming and domestication probably started in the Fertile Crescent (the Nile Valley, the Levant and Mesopotamia). The area called Fertile Crescent is now in the countries of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt. Wheat and barley are some of the first crops people grew.
+
+Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC.
+
+Livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats were taken to the Americas, from the Old World. The first of those horses, came with the Spanish conquistadors (or soldiers and explorers) in the 1490s. Moving those cattle, sheep, goats and horses, were part of the Columbian Exchange.
+
+People probably started agriculture by planting a few crops, but still gathered many foods from the wild. People may have started farming because the weather and soil began to change. Farming can feed many more people than hunter-gatherers can feed on the same amount of land.
+
+This allowed the human population to grow to such large numbers as there are today.
+
+Types
+Arable farming means growing crops. This would include wheat or vegetables.
+Growing fruit means having orchards devoted to fruit. They cannot be switched easily with growing field crops. Therefore, they are not classed as arable land in the statistics.
+
+Many people still live by subsistence farming, on a small farm. They can only grow enough food to feed the farmer, his family, and his animals. The yield is the amount of food grown on a given amount of land, and it is often low. This is because subsistence farmers are generally less educated, and they have less money to buy equipment. Drought and other problems sometimes cause famines. Where yields are low, deforestation can provide new land to grow more food. This provides more nutrition for the farmer's family, but can be bad for the country and the surrounding environment over many years.
+
+In some countries, farms are often fewer and larger. During the 20th century they have become more productive because farmers are able to grow better varieties of plants, use more fertilizer, use more water, and more easily control weeds and pests. Many farms also use machines, so fewer people can farm more land. There are fewer farmers in rich countries, but the farmers are able to grow more.
+
+This kind of intensive agriculture comes with its own set of problems. Farmers use a lot of chemical fertilizers, pesticides (chemicals that kill bugs), and herbicides (chemicals that kill weeds). These chemicals can pollute the soil or the water. They can also create bugs and weeds that are more resistant to the chemicals, causing outbreaks of these pests. The soil can be damaged by erosion (blowing or washing away), salt builddup, or loss of structure. Irrigation (adding water from rivers) can pollute water and lower the water table. These problems have all got solutions, and modern young farmers usually have a good technical education.
+
+Farmers select plants with better yield, taste, and nutritional value. They also choose plants that can survive plant disease and drought, and are easier to harvest. Centuries of artificial selection and breeding have changed crop plants. The crops produce better yield. Fertilizers, chemical pest control, and irrigation all help.
+
+Some plants are improved with genetic engineering. One example is modifying the plant to resist herbicides.
+
+Livestock
+Farms may also keep animals. That is called animal husbandry. If they are used to make meat for people to eat, that is livestock production. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, are kept for their produce. "Produce" here means their eggs and milk, which are sold by the farm, usually in markets. Large animals need grassland of some kind for grazing. What they need depends on the animals. Goats eat a much wider range of plants than cows. In some parts of the world, that makes goats a more sensible choice for a farmer than cows.
+
+Food
+
+It is important for there to be enough food for everyone. The food must also be safe and good. People say it is not always safe, because it contains some chemicals. Other people say intensive agriculture is damaging the environment. For this reason, there are several types of agriculture.
+ Traditional agriculture is mostly done in poor countries.
+ Intensive agriculture is mostly done in countries with more money. It uses pesticides, machinery, chemical fertilizers.
+ Organic farming is using only natural products such as compost and green manure.
+ Integrated farming is using local resources, and trying to use the waste from one process as a resource in another process.
+
+Agricultural policy means the goals and methods of agricultural production. Common goals of policy include the quality, amount, and safety of food.
+
+Problems
+There are some serious problems that people face trying to grow food today.
+These include:
+ Pollution
+ Erosion
+ Diseases
+ Pests
+ Weeds
+ Drought
+ Rainfall
+ Climate: Earth warming is an important example
+ Contamination
+
+There are also difficulties with the distribution of food:
+ Warfare: see Nigerian Civil War (Biafran War) for an example. See RussiaâUkrainian war for an example.
+ Distribution: Difficulties with moving product from grower to consumer. It is expected that this difficulty will increase in future. The reasons for this are complex, but one important factor may be the absence of a dominant international naval power. The British Navy provided protection against pirates in the 19th and early 20th century, and the US Navy protected shipping after WWII. The US is still a dominant naval power, but its power will soon be based on its small number of huge aircraft carriers. They will not deal with small boats full of armed pirates, which is the usual way piracy is done. So we can expect grain ships (etc) will have to carry any protection they may need, or they will have to go the long way around. That means avoiding the shortcuts into the Mediterranean. Other kinds of warfare, such as we see in the Ukraine, adds to the problem of shipping food products safely.
+
+Crops
+In produced weight, these crops are the most important (global production in metric tonnes):
+
+The figure for sugarcane is rather deceptive. It omits sugar beet, but includes the weight of the woody stalk. Most of the plants which produce food are in the grass family Poaceae.
+
+Related pages
+ Aquaculture
+ Bee keeping
+ Animal husbandry
+ Fertilizers
+ Crop rotation
+ Urban farming
+ Breeding
+ Fencing
+ Ranching
+ Plantation
+ Crop protection
+Cultured meat
+Genetically modified food
+
+Agriculture by country
+Agriculture in Azerbaijan
+Agriculture in Pakistan
+
+References
+In mathematics, arithmetic is the basic study of numbers. The four basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, although other operations such as exponentiation and roots are also studied in arithmetic.
+
+Other arithmetic topics includes working with negative numbers, fractions, decimals and percentages.
+
+Most people learn arithmetic in primary school, but some people do not learn arithmetic and others forget the arithmetic they learned. Many jobs require a knowledge of arithmetic, and many employers complain that it is hard to find people who know enough arithmetic. A few of the many jobs that require arithmetic include carpenters, plumbers, mechanics, accountants, architects, doctors, and nurses. Arithmetic is needed in all areas of mathematics, science, and engineering.
+
+Some arithmetic can be carried out mentally. A calculator can also be used to perform arithmetic. Computers can do it more quickly, which is one reason Global Positioning System receivers have a small computer inside.
+
+Examples of arithmetic
+ (addition is commutative: is the same as )
+ (subtraction is not commutative: is different from )
+ (multiplication is commutative: is the same as )
+ (division is not commutative: is different from
+
+Related pages
+ Affine arithmetic
+ Elementary algebra
+ Interval arithmetic
+ Modular arithmetic
+
+References
+
+Arithmetics
+Not to be confused with building extension which are also called additions
+
+In mathematics, addition, represented by the symbol , is an operation which combines two mathematical objects together into another mathematical object of the same type, called the sum. Addition can occur with simple objects such as numbers, and more complex objects and concepts such as vectors and matrices.
+
+Addition has several important properties. It is commutative, meaning that the order of the operands does not matter, and it is associative, meaning that when one adds more than two numbers, the order in which addition is performed does not matter (see Summation). Repeated addition of 1 is the same as counting. Addition of 0 does not change a number. Addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as subtraction and multiplication.
+
+Arithmetic
+
+In arithmetic, addition is the operation where two or more numbers called "addends" are used to make a new number, which is the "sum" or total that is expressed with the equals sign. The symbol for addition, in infix notation, is the plus sign "+" placed between the operands.
+
+Counting examples
+For example, there are objects in two groups (as shown on the right). The objects are various shapes, where one group has 3 of them while the other has 2. When the two groups combine into one, the overall amount (sum) of the shapes become 5.
+
+Vertical Addition
+
+The animation above demonstrates the addition of seven hundred eighty six and four hundred sixty seven. The problem's digits have been separated into units, tens and hundreds (see Place value).
+
+First, the units 6 and 7 are added together to make 13, so 1 ten and 3 units, with the 3 written below and the 1 ten carried to the tens column. Next, in the tens column, the 1, 8, and 6 are added together to make 15 tens, so 1 hundred and 5 tens, with the 5 written below and the 1 hundred carried to the hundreds column. Finally, in the hundreds column, 1, 7, and 4 are added together to make 12 hundreds, so 1 thousand and 2 hundreds, with the 2 written below and the 1 thousand carried to the thousand column. The final answer is thus one thousand two hundred fifty three.
+
+A measurement example
+Tom wants to know the distance between his house and Sally's house. Bob's house is 300 m east of Tom's house. Sally's house is 120 m east of Bob's house:
+
+Tom's house 300 m Bob's house 120 m Sally's house
+
+The distance from Tom's house to Sally's house can be found by adding the distances already measured. The distance from Tom's house to Bob's house, added to the distance from Bob's house to Sally's house, is the same as the distance from Tom's house to Sally's house. That is, 300 m plus 120 m.
+
+Hence Sally's house is 420 m to the east of Tom's house.
+
+Properties
+
+Commutativity
+
+Addition is commutative, meaning that one can change the order of the numbers in a sum, but still get the same result. For example:
+ and
+
+Associativity
+
+Addition is also associative, which means that when three or more numbers are added together, the order of operations does not change the result.
+
+For any three numbers , , and , it is true that . For example, and , which means that .
+
+When addition is used together with other operations, the order of operations becomes important. In the standard order of operations, addition is to be computed later than exponentiation, roots, multiplication and division, but has equal importance as subtraction.
+
+Addition table
+
+Related pages
+ Operations
+ Identity element
+ Order of operations
+ Hyperoperation
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+ AAA Math: Addition
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Hyperoperations
+Australia (officially called the Commonwealth of Australia) is a country and sovereign state in the southern hemisphere, located in Oceania. Its capital city is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney.
+
+Australia is the sixth biggest country in the world by land area, and is part of the Oceanic and Australasian regions. Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and other islands on the Australian tectonic plate are together called Australasia, which is one of the world's great ecozones. When other Pacific islands are included with Australasia, it is called Oceania.
+
+25 million people live in Australia, and about 85% of them live near the east coast. The country is divided up into six states and two territories, and more than half of Australia's population lives in and around the cities of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide. The first people to live in the country were the Indigenous Australians: many of them died from smallpox during colonisation.
+
+Australia is known for its mining (coal, iron, gold, diamonds and crystals), its production of wool, and as the world's largest producer of bauxite. Its emblem is a flower called the golden wattle.
+
+Australia is also known for its animals and rich wildlife. The national symbols of Australia are the kangaroo and the golden wattle. Scientifically, perhaps even more important are its two monotreme mammals: the platypus and the echidna.
+
+Geography
+
+Australia's landmass of is on the Indo-Australian plate. The continent of Australia, including the island of Tasmania, was separated from the other continents of the world many millions of years ago. Because of this, many animals and plants live in Australia that do not live anywhere else. These include animals like the kangaroo, the koala, the emu, the kookaburra, and the platypus.
+
+People first arrived in Australia more than 50,000 years ago. These native Australians are called the Australian Aboriginals. For the history of Australia, see History of Australia.
+
+Most of the Australian colonies, having been settled from Britain, became mostly independent democratic states in the 1850s and all six combined as a federation on 1 January 1901. The first Prime Minister of Australia was Edmund Barton in 1901. Australia is a member of the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations. It is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with King Charles III as King of Australia and Head of State and a Governor-General who is chosen by the Prime Minister to carry out all the duties of the King in Australia.
+
+Regions and cities
+
+Australia has six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia and Tasmania (which is a large island). The two major mainland territories are the Northern Territory (which is huge) and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) which is not much more than a city.
+
+The population is about 26 million people (2021 census = 25,890,773). Most Australians live in cities along the coast, such as Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, Newcastle and the Gold Coast. The largest inland city is Canberra, which is also the nation's capital. The largest city is Sydney.
+
+Australia is a very large country, but much of the land is very dry, and the middle of the continent is mostly a hot desert. Only the areas around the east, west and south coast have enough rain and a suitable climate (not too hot and dry) for farms and cities. The island state of Tasmania has a more balanced climate than much of the mainland.
+
+Climate change
+All the capital cities except Perth and Darwin are in the south-east of the country. There is now increasing rainfall and flooding which affects this region, which is ominous [threatening]. It is thought this is caused by climate change, and may continue to get worse. The BBC report comments: "In the past three years, record-breaking bushfire and flood events have killed more than 500 people and billions of animals. Drought, cyclones and freak tides have gripped communities". The BBC report continues: "Nowhere is this a bigger issue than in Queensland. It is home to almost 40% of the 500,000 homes projected to be effectively uninsurable". This means people can't get insurance because the risk of flooding (in one season) or fire (in another season) is too great.
+
+History
+
+Aboriginal people
+
+The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people arrived in Australia about 60,000 years ago or maybe even earlier. Until the arrival of British settlers in 1788, the Aboriginal people lived by hunting and gathering food from the land. They lived in all sorts of climates and managed the land in different ways. An example of Aboriginal land management was the Cumberland Plain where Sydney is now. Every few years the Aboriginal people would burn the grass and small trees. This meant that a lot of grass grew back, but not many big trees. Kangaroos like to live on grassy plains, but not in forests. The kangaroos that lived on the plain were a good food supply for the Aboriginal people. Sometimes, Aboriginals would name a person after an animal, and they could not eat that animal to help level out the food population.
+
+Aboriginal people did not usually build houses, except huts of grass, leaves and bark. They did not usually build walls or fences, and there were no horses, cows or sheep in Australia that needed to be kept in pens. The only Aboriginal buildings that are known are fish-traps made from stones piled up in the river, and the remains of a few stone huts in Victoria and Tasmania. The Aboriginal people did not use metal or make pottery or use bows and arrows or weave cloth. In some parts of Australia the people used sharp flaked-stone spearheads, but most Aboriginal spears were made of sharply pointed wood. Australia has a lot of trees that have very hard wood that was good for spear making. The boomerang was used in some areas for sport and for hunting.
+
+The Aboriginal people did not think that the land belonged to them. They believed that they had grown from the land, so it was like their mother, and they belonged to the land.
+
+Terra Australis
+In the 1600s, Dutch merchants traded with the islands of Batavia (now Indonesia), to the north of Australia and several different Dutch ships touched on the coast of Australia. The Dutch governor, van Diemen, sent Abel Tasman on a voyage of discovery and he found Tasmania, which he named Van Diemen's Land. Its name was later changed to honour the man who discovered it.
+
+The British Government was sure that there must be a very large land in the south, that had not been explored. They sent Captain James Cook to the Pacific Ocean. His ship, HMS Endeavour, carried the famous scientists, Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander who were going to Tahiti where they would watch the planet Venus pass in front of the Sun. Captain Cook's secret mission was to find "Terra Australis" (the Land of the South).
+
+The voyage of discovery was very successful, because they found New Zealand and sailed right around it. Then they sailed westward. At last, a boy, William Hicks, who was up the mast spotted land on the horizon. Captain Cook named that bit of land Point Hicks. They sailed up the coast and Captain Cook named the land that he saw "New South Wales". At last they sailed into a large open bay which was full of fish and stingrays which the sailors speared for food. Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander went ashore and were astonished to find that they did not know what any of the plants or birds or animals that they saw were. They collected hundreds of plants to take back to England.
+
+Captain Cook saw the Aboriginal people with their simple way of life. He saw them fishing and hunting and collecting grass seeds and fruit. But there were no houses and no fences. In most parts of the world, people put up a house and a fence or some marker to show that they own the land. But the Aboriginal people did not own the land in that way. They belonged to the land, like a baby belongs to its mother. Captain Cook went home to England and told the government that no-one owned the land. This would later cause a terrible problem for the Aboriginal people.
+
+Settlement
+
+In the 1700s, in England, laws were tough, many people were poor and gaols (jails) were full. A person could be sentenced to death for stealing a loaf of bread. Many people were hanged for small crimes. But usually they were just thrown in gaol. Often they were sent away to the British colonies in America. But by the 1770s, the colonies in America became the United States. They were free from British rule and would not take England's convicts any more, so England needed to find a new and less populated place.
+
+By the 1780s the gaols of England were so full that convicts were often chained up in rotting old ships. The government decided to make a settlement in New South Wales and send some of the convicts there. In 1788 the First Fleet of eleven ships set sail from Portsmouth carrying convicts, sailors, marines, a few free settlers and enough food to last for two years. Their leader was Captain Arthur Phillip. They were to make a new colony at the place that Captain Cook had discovered, named Botany Bay because of all the unknown plants found there by the two scientists.
+
+Captain Phillip found that Botany Bay was flat and windy. There was not much fresh water. He went with two ships up the coast and sailed into a great harbour called Port Jackson, which he said was "the finest harbour in the world". There were many small bays on the harbour so he decided on one which had a good stream of fresh water and some flat shore to land on. On 26 January 1788, the flag was raised and New South Wales was claimed in the name of King George III of England, and the new settlement was called Sydney.
+
+For the first few years of the settlement, things were very difficult. No-one in the British Government had thought very hard about what sort of convicts should be sent to make a new colony. Nobody had chosen them carefully. There was only one man who was a farmer. There was no-one among the convicts who was a builder, a brick-maker or a blacksmith. No-one knew how to fix the tools when they broke. All of the cattle escaped. There were no cooking pots. All the plants were different so no-one knew which ones could be eaten. It was probable that everyone in the new colony would die of starvation.
+
+The little group of tents had a hut for the Governor, Arthur Phillip, and another hut for the supply of food. Soon it grew into a small town with streets, a bridge over the stream, a windmill for grinding grain and wharves for ships. By the 1820s there was a fine brick house for the Governor. There was also a hospital and a convict barracks and a beautiful church which are still standing today. Settlements had spread out from Sydney, firstly to Norfolk Island and to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), and also up the coast to Newcastle, where coal was discovered, and inland where the missing cattle were found to have grown to a large herd. Spanish Merino sheep had been brought to Sydney, and by 1820, farmers were raising fat lambs for meat and also sending fine wool back to the factories of England.
+
+While the settlement was growing in New South Wales, it was also growing in Tasmania. The climate in Tasmania was more like that in England, and farmers found it easy to grow crops there.
+
+Exploration
+
+Because Australia is such a very large land, it was easy to think that it might be able to hold a large number of people. In the early days of the colony, a great number of explorers went out, searching for good land to settle on.
+When the settlers looked west from Sydney, they saw a range of mountains which they called the Blue Mountains. They were not very high and did not look very rugged but for many years no-one could find their way through them. In 1813 Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and a 17-year-old called William Charles Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains and found land on the other side which was good for farming. A road was built and the governor, Lachlan Macquarie founded the town of Bathurst on the other side, 160 km (100 miles) from Sydney. Bathurst became Australia's first inland settlement.
+
+Some people, like Captain Charles Sturt were sure that there must be a sea in the middle of Australia and set out to find it. Many of the explorers did not prepare very well, or else they went out to explore at the hottest time of year. Some died like Burke and Wills. Ludwig Leichhardt got lost twice. The second time, he was never seen again. Major Thomas Mitchell was one of the most successful explorers. He mapped the country as he went, and his maps remained in use for more than 100 years. He travelled all the way to what is now western Victoria, and to his surprise and annoyance found that he was not the first white person there. The Henty brothers had come from Tasmania, had built themselves a house, had a successful farm and fed the Major and his men on roast lamb and wine.
+
+Self government
+
+The gold rushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold. The population grew across south east Australia and made great wealth and industry. By 1853 the gold rushes had made some poor people very rich.
+
+The transportation of convicts to Australia ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and not be told what to do from London. The first governments in the colonies were run by governors chosen by London. Soon the settlers wanted local government and more democracy. William Wentworth started the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government. In 1840, the city councils started and some people could vote. New South Wales Legislative Council had its first elections in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote. In 1855, limited self-government was given by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1855, the right to vote was given to all men over 21 in South Australia. The other colonies soon followed. Women were given the vote in the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 and they became the first women in the world allowed to stand in elections.
+
+Australians had started parliamentary democracies all across the continent. But voices were getting louder for all of them to come together as one country with a national parliament.
+
+The Commonwealth of Australia
+
+Until 1901, Australia was not a nation, it was six separate colonies governed by Britain. They voted to join to form one new country, called the Commonwealth of Australia, in 1901. Australia was still part of the British Empire, and at first wanted only British or Europeans to come to Australia. But soon it had its own money, its own Army and its own Navy.
+
+In Australia at this time, the trade unions were very strong, and they started a political party, the Australian Labor Party. Australia passed many laws to help the workers.
+
+In 1914, the First World War started in Europe. Australia joined in on the side of Britain against Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Australian soldiers were sent to Gallipoli, in the Ottoman Empire. They fought bravely, but were beaten by the Turks. Today Australia remembers this battle every year on ANZAC Day. They also fought on the Western Front. More than 60,000 Australians and New Zealanders were killed.
+
+In 1932, the Sydney Harbour Bridge was opened.
+
+Australia had a really hard time in the Great Depression of the 1930s and joined Britain in a war against Nazi Germany when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. But in 1941 lots of Australian soldiers were captured in the Fall of Singapore by Japan. Then Japan started attacking Australia and people worried about invasion. But with help from the United States Navy, the Japanese were stopped. After the war, Australia became a close friend of the United States and Japan.
+
+When the war ended, Australia felt that it needed many more people to fill the country up and to work. So the government said it would take in people from Europe who had lost their homes in the war. It did things like building the Snowy Mountains Scheme. Over the next 25 years, millions of people came to Australia. They came especially from Italy and Greece, other countries in Europe. Later they also came from countries like Turkey and Lebanon. An important new party, the Liberal Party of Australia was made by Robert Menzies in 1944 and it won lots of elections from 1949 until in 1972, then Gough Whitlam won for the Labor Party. Whitlam made changes, but he made the Senate unhappy and the Governor-General sacked him and forced an election in 1975. Then Malcolm Fraser won a few elections for the Liberal Party.
+
+In the 1960s many people began coming to Australia from China, Vietnam, Malaysia and other countries in Asia. Australia became more multicultural. In the 1950s and 1960s Australia became one of the richest countries in the world, helped by mining and wool. Australia started trading more with America, than Japan. Australia supported the United States in wars against dictatorships in Korea and Vietnam and later Iraq. Australian soldiers also helped the United Nations in countries like East Timor in 1999.
+
+In 1973, the famous Sydney Opera House opened. In the 1970s, 80s and 90s lots of Australian movies, actors and singers became famous around the world. In the year 2000, Sydney had the Summer Olympics.
+
+In the 1980s and 90s, the Labor Party under Bob Hawke and Paul Keating, then the Liberal Party under John Howard made lots of changes to the economy. Australia had a bad recession in 1991, but when other Western countries had trouble with their economies in 2008, Australia stayed strong.
+
+Today Australia is a rich, peaceful and democratic country. But it still has problems. Around 4-5% of Australians could not get a job in 2010. A lot of land in Australia (like Uluru) has been returned to Aboriginal people, but lots of Aboriginals are still poorer than everybody else. Every year the government chooses a big number of new people from all around the world to come as immigrants to live in Australia. These people may come because they want to do business, or to live in a democracy, to join their family, or because they are refugees. Australia took 6.5 million immigrants in the 60 years after World War Two, including around 660,000 refugees.
+
+Julia Gillard became the first woman Prime Minister of Australia in 2010 when she replaced her Labor Party colleague Kevin Rudd (who later replaced her).
+
+Politics
+
+Australia is part of the Commonwealth of Nations. Australia is made up of six states, and two mainland territories. Each state and territory has its own Parliament and makes its own local laws. The Parliament of Australia sits in Canberra and makes laws for the whole country, also known as the Commonwealth or Federation.
+
+The Federal government is led by the Prime Minister of Australia, who is the member of Parliament chosen as leader. The current Prime Minister is Anthony Albanese.
+
+The leader of Australia is the Prime Minister, although the Governor-General represents the Queen of Australia, who is also the Queen of Great Britain, as head of state. The Governor-General, currently His Excellency David Hurley, is chosen by the Prime Minister.
+
+Culture
+
+Australia was colonised by people from Britain, but today people from all over the world live there. English is the main spoken language. Christianity is the main religion, though all religions are accepted and not everybody has a religion. Australia is multicultural: all its people are encouraged to keep their different languages, religions and ways of life, while also learning English and joining in with other Australians. Australia has many immigrants from different countries around the world.
+
+Famous Australian writers include the bush balladeers Banjo Paterson and Henry Lawson who wrote about life in the Australian bush. More modern famous writers include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Colleen McCullough. In 1973, Patrick White won the Nobel Prize in Literature, the only Australian to have achieved this; he is seen as one of the great English-language writers of the twentieth century.
+
+Australian music has had world-wide stars, for example the opera singers Nellie Melba and Joan Sutherland, the rock and roll bands Bee Gees, AC/DC and INXS, the folk-rocker Paul Kelly (musician), the pop singer Kylie Minogue and Australian country music stars Slim Dusty and John Williamson. Australian Aboriginal music is very special and very ancient: it has the famous didgeridoo woodwind instrument.
+
+Australian TV has produced many successful programs for home and overseas. Skippy the Bush Kangaroo, Home and Away and Neighbours are examples. It has had well known TV stars, such as Barry Humphries (Dame Edna Everage), Steve Irwin (The Crocodile Hunter) and The Wiggles. Major Australian subgroups such as the Bogan have been shown on Australian TV in shows such as Bogan Hunters and Kath & Kim.
+
+Australia has two public broadcasters (the ABC and the multicultural SBS), three commercial television networks, three pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has its daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review.
+
+Australian movies have a long history. The world's first feature movie was the Australian movie The Story of the Kelly Gang of 1906. In 1933, In the Wake of the Bounty, directed by Charles Chauvel, had Errol Flynn as the main actor. Flynn went on to a celebrated career in Hollywood. The first Australian Oscar was won by the 1942 Kokoda Front Line!, directed by Ken G. Hall. In the 1970s and 1980s Australian movies and movie stars became world famous. There were movies like Picnic at Hanging Rock, Gallipoli (with Mel Gibson), The Man From Snowy River and Crocodile Dundee. Russell Crowe, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger became global stars during the 1990s and Australia starring Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman made a lot of money in 2008.
+
+Australia is a popular destination for business conferences and research, with Sydney one of the top 20 meeting destinations in the world.
+
+Sport
+
+Sport is an important part of Australian culture because the climate is good for outdoor activities. 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly take part in organised sporting activities. The most popular sports are Australian rules football, rugby league and cricket. In international sports, Australia has very strong teams in cricket, hockey, netball, rugby league and rugby union, and performs well in cycling, rowing and swimming. Local popular sports include Australian Rules Football, horse racing, soccer and motor racing. Australia has participated in every summer Olympic Games since 1896, and every Commonwealth Games. Australia has hosted the 1956 and 2000 Summer Olympics, and has ranked in the top five medal-winners since 2000. Australia has also hosted the 1938, 1962, 1982 and 2006 Commonwealth Games and are to host the 2018 Commonwealth Games. Other major international events held regularly in Australia include the Australian Open, one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, annual international cricket matches and the Formula One Australian Grand Prix. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and elite athletes is common in Australia. Televised sport is popular; some of the highest-rated television programs include the Summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions.
+
+The main sporting leagues for men are the AFL (Australian rules football), the NRL (rugby league), the A-League (soccer) and the NBL (basketball). For women, they are the AFLW (Australian rules football), ANZ Netball Championships (netball), the W-League (soccer) and WNBL (basketball).
+
+Famous Australian sports players include the cricketer Sir Donald Bradman, the swimmer Ian Thorpe, the cricketer Shane Warne and the athlete Cathy Freeman.
+
+Art festivals
+Just 60 years ago, Australia had only one big art festival. Now Australia has hundreds of smaller community-based festivals, and national and regional festivals that focus on specific art forms.
+
+Indigenous life
+Australia is home to many animals and plants that can be found nowhere else on Earth, except perhaps New Guinea.
+
+The platypus and the short-beaked echidna are unique, and are two of the only five surviving monotremes. Monotremes are only found in Australia and New Guinea.
+
+Koalas, kangaroos, wombats, numbats and many others others, are marsupials. Most of the marsupials in the world are found only on the continent or on the neighbouring island of New Guinea. Wildfires from global warming in 2020 have reduced their population.
+
+Trees
+The gum trees are almost as remarkable as the animals. They are mainly Eucalypts and other gum trees. These are woody evergeens which make essential oils and are prone to fire. Sticky heavily scented gum squeezes out of their wood. The tribe has about 860 species. They are all native to Southeast Asia and Oceania. Most live in Australia. Until British settlement in Australia, these trees were almost entirely unknown. They had been separated from the Americas, Africa and much of Asia for millions of years.
+
+References
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Official website for australia travel Official website for Australia travel.
+ Australia travel informations User generated guide to Australia.
+
+
+Australasia
+Commonwealth realms
+English-speaking countries
+Federations
+1901 establishments
+American English or US English is the dialect of the English language spoken in the United States of America. It is different in some ways from other types of English, such as British English. Most types of American English came from local dialects in England. During the 18th and 19th centuries, pronunciation changed less in America than in England.
+
+Use
+Many people today know about American English even if they live in a country where another type of English is spoken. They hear and read American English through the media, for example movies, television, and the Internet, where the most common form of English is American English.
+
+Because people all over the world use the English language, it gets many new words. English has been changing in this way for hundreds of years. For example, the many millions who speak Indian English frequently add American English words to go along with its British English base and many other words from the various Indian languages.
+
+Sometimes people learn American English as it is spoken in the US. For example, in telephone call centers in India and other places, people often learn American English to sound more like their customers who call from the US. These people often keep using American English in everyday life.
+
+Spelling
+
+There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often keeps more traditional ways of spelling words than American English.
+
+Vocabulary
+There are also some words in American English that are a bit different from British English, e.g.:
+ aeroplane is called "airplane"
+ ladybird is called "ladybug"
+ lift is called "elevator"
+ toilet is called "bathroom", "restroom" or "comfort station"
+ lorry is called "truck"
+ nappies are called "diapers"
+ petrol is called "gas" (or "gasoline")
+ the boot of a car is called a "trunk"
+ a dummy is called a "pacifier"
+ trousers are called "pants"
+ underground is called "subway"
+ football is called "soccer"
+ braces are "suspenders" ("suspenders" in British-English are a type of clothing worn around the lower leg to stop socks/sox from sagging, or around the upper leg by people wearing stockings)
+
+Regional accents
+General American English is the kind most spoken in mass media. It more vigorously pronounces the letter "R" than some other kinds do. "R-dropping" is frequent in certain places where "r" sound is not pronounced after a vowel. For example as in the words "car" and "card" sounding like "cah" and "cahd". This occurs in the Boston area.
+Some regional accents of American English include
+
+Appalachian English - This is the stereotypical hillbilly accent. This accent is completely rhotic and can even have phantom Rs (in words they don't belong)
+
+General Southern - This is a range of accents which tend to be rhotic or semi-rhotic, have glide deletion (in which I is converted to broad A)
+
+Tidewater English - A non-rhotic (r-dropping) southern variety that also has a "Scottish" or "Canadian" raising of the "ow" diphthong in words like "house" "about" "brown", etc.
+
+Charleston and Savannah English - Almost extinct accents that are non-rhotic
+
+Boston English (also east New England English) - This is the most famous non-rhotic American accent and what most other non-rhotic American varieties often get compared to. Other Bostonian features include limited Canadian raising of the "ow" diphthong (before voiceless consonants such as in words like "house" and "about").
+
+New York City English - One of the most recognizable dialects in the US, NYC English is characterized by variable non-rhoticity or semi-rhoticity, a rounding of the long o sound ( making " coffee" and "thought" sound like "cawfee" and "thawt").
+
+South Louisiana English - This group of non-rhotic accents can be heard in New Orleans and its surrounding areas and can be described as a combination between New York City English and Southern American English.
+
+Northern Midwest English - The accents of this area tend to sound a lot like Canadian English.
+
+Valley girl and surfer dude - This accent is common to southern California and has features like " vocal fry" (creaky voice), and "upturn" at the ends of sentences.
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ American English -Citizendium
+Aquaculture is the farming of fish, shrimp, abalones, algae, and other seafood. Aquaculture supplies fish, such as catfish, salmon, and trout. It was developed a few thousand years ago in China. Aquaculture supplies over 20% of all the seafood harvested.
+
+Fish farming has been practiced, in some parts of the world, for thousands of years. Goldfish originated about a thousand years ago in carp farms in China, and the Roman Empire farmed oysters and other seafood. Today, half of the seafood eaten in the U.S. is farmed. To help meet the growing global demand for seafood, aquaculture is growing fast.
+
+The environmental impact of fish farming varies widely, depending on the species being farmed, the methods used and where the farm is located. When good practices are used, it's possible to farm seafood in a way that has very little impact to the environment. Such operations limit habitat damage, disease, escapes of farmed fish and the use of wild fish as feed.
+
+References
+
+Aquaculture
+An abbreviation is a shorter way to write a word or phrase. People use abbreviations for words that they write a lot. The English language occasionally uses the apostrophe mark ' to show that a word is written in a shorter way, but some abbreviations do not use this mark. More often, they use periods, especially the ones that come from the Latin language. Common Latin abbreviations include i.e. [id est] that is, e.g. [exempli gratia] for example, and et al. [et alia] and others.
+
+Some new abbreviations have been created by scientists, by workers in companies and governments, and by people using the Internet.
+
+People often think words are abbreviations when in fact they are acronyms.
+
+Here are examples of common acronyms: The word "radar" is an acronym for "Radio Detection and Ranging". The name of the large computer company IBM comes from the words "International Business Machines". The name of the part of the United States government that sends rockets into outer space is NASA, from the words "National Aeronautics and Space Administration". When people using the Internet think that something is very funny, they sometimes write "LOL" to mean "Laughing Out Loud". People sometimes write "ASAP" for "As Soon As Possible".
+
+Other websites
+ Acronym Finder - largest acronym site with many ways to search for acronyms and abbreviations in many languages. Over 10-year history.
+ All Acronyms - a website with a large number of abbreviations and acronyms
+ Acronyms Abbreviations and Slang - over 3 million different acronyms and abbreviations in searchable database
+ SlangLang Abbreviations - Slang Words: 2,700 abbreviations and their meanings
+Linguistics
+In many mythologies and religions, an angel is a good spirit. The word angel comes from the Greek word angelos which means "messenger". Angels appear frequently in the Old Testament, the New Testament, Qur'an and Aqdas.
+
+Different references to angels throughout the Bible suggest different kinds and ranks of angels, such as seraphs (Hebrew plural: seraphim) or cherubs (Hebrew plural: cherubim). This resulted in medieval theologians outlining a hierarchy of such divine messengers, including not only cherubs and seraphs, but also archangels, powers, principalities, dominions and thrones.
+
+The study of angels is called angelology.
+
+In the Bible
+Angels are powerful spirits that obey God's commands. They sometimes appear to humans in a human form. They can deliver messages to people in person or in dreams. Angels that are named in the Bible are Michael (called a "chief prince"), Gabriel (known for telling Mary that she would be the mother of Jesus), and Raphael (in the Apocryphal Book of Tobit). The Ethiopian Book of Enoch also lists four Archangels which watch over the four quadrants of heaven; Michael, Raphael, Gabriel and Uriel. Lucifer is also known as an angel in the Bible.
+
+Types
+ Cherubs are described as creatures which have four wings. Cherubim guard the Eden with a sword of fire. This suggests that the author of Genesis was aware of different types of angels. A Cherub is mentioned in Ezekiel 28:13-14, saying that the angel was in the Garden of God.
+
+Ezekiel 28:13-14
+13. Thou hast been in Eden the garden of God; every precious stone was thy covering, the sardius, topaz, and the diamond, the beryl, the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald, and the carbuncle and gold: the workmanship of thy tabrets and of thy pipes was prepared in thee in the day that thou wast created.
+14. Thou art the anointed cherub that covereth; and I have set thee so: thou wast upon the holy mountain of God; thou hast walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire.
+
+It describes the sound of their wings, "like the roar of rushing waters."
+
+Ezekiel 10:5-7 ; Ezekiel 10:8 reveals that they have hands like a man under their wings .
+
+Ezekiel 1:7 KJV reveals that they look like man but are different because they have "straight feet" and four wings and four faces.
+
+Ezekiel ch 1, and 10 describe the cherubim creatures ascending and descending from the earth with wheels. Ezekiel 1:14-20 ; Ezekiel 10:16
+
+Ezekiel 10:9-13 describes what the wheels appeared to look like, and how they moved around, how they moved or flew through the sky quickly but turned not as they went; and how the inside workings of the wheels appeared to be "a wheel in the midst of a wheel" and that the color of the wheels was the color of "Amber" Stone. There are four separate wheels in both accounts, one for each single cherub which is there.
+ Seraphs (Hebrew for "burning") are depicted as having six wings They are known for singing and praising God. They can shout so loud, they shake the temple.
+ Archangels like Gabriel (Gospel of Luke 1:19) are the highest type of angel. They are considered saints in the Catholic church. However, in the King James Version of the Bible; they are another type of angel. In the Book of Revelation the Angel Michael casts the 'great dragon' Satan out of heaven and down to earth in a great battle between the good and bad angels, just before the Great Judgement of angels and man. (Revelation 12)
+ The Leviathan in Book of Job 41:19-21 has flame that goes: 'out of his mouth' like a dragon. Isaiah 30:6 also talks of a 'fiery flying serpent'. Compare Revelation 20:2: , where an angel: 'laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him a thousand years'.
+
+Religion
+
+Rabbinic Judaism
+In Judaism angels are created by God from fire. They fullfil tasks given by God. Rabbinic Judaism rejects earlier accounts on fallen angels who sinned by mating with humans. Instead, angels are servants of God. Still, not all angels are benevolent. Some angels are jealous of humans, because God loves them so much. Unlike angels, humans can overcome sin and repent. Angels cannot repent their sin, because they are already sinless.
+
+When the Bible speaks about the creation of humans in the plural, Judaism sometimes argues that God discussed his decision with the angels. But they make clear, it is God alone who creates humans. God only wanted to discuss with the angels to show that someone in power, should still try to value the opinion of people lower.
+
+Islam
+In Islam angels are created by God (Allah) before jinn and humans. Angels live in heaven and fullfil God's orders. Some angels deliver messages to humans and prophets, most famous among them is Gabriel. Other angels support humans with rain. Some angels don't have a task on earth, but dwell in heaven, for example, to praise God. Muslims disagree if angels can fail a task, but they agree that an angel never want to disobey. Sometimes angels might simply make mistakes on accident, like the angels Harut and Marut. But these angels are not considered evil, they just lose their rank as punishment, but can restore their rank later again. Not all angels are nice. God gives angels violent tasks too. For example, God orders angels to punish people in hell, not demons. Muslims believe hell is under God's control, and not the demon's. They believe hell is not only suffering, but also justice. Angels watch out that people don't escape their punishment. While the benevolent angels are said to be created from light, some Muslims think the angels in hell are created from fire.
+
+In art
+They are often shown in art as having wings and a halo. The wings represent their speed, and the halo represents their holiness.
+
+The cherubim in art always appear as baby faced angels with very small, non-useful wings.
+
+The cherubim statue or bronze casting of cherubim in the Temple of Solomon depicted them as two four winged creatures whose wings touched at the peak of the ark that they were making.
+
+The same cherubim creatures were said to be cast in gold on top of the Ark of the Covenant. Casting metal is one of the oldest forms of artwork, and was attempted by Leonardo da Vinci.
+
+In literature
+Angels are generally held to be holy and virtuous, hence the term is used loosely to apply to anyone particularly good or kind, or having a good influence. In his novel Far From the Madding Crowd, Thomas Hardy chooses the name of an angel, Gabriel, for his kind and helpful hero. On the other hand, in his play Measure for Measure, Shakespeare's use of the name Angelo is ironic, since Angelo is a character who likes to see himself as virtuous, but who is concealing evil aspects of his nature. Fallen angels, who are no longer holy or virtuous, are also known as devils.
+
+However, since angels are held to be spirits (that is, non-material beings), medieval theologians were faced with the problem of how humans could see a non-physical creature. Eventually a theory was put forward that angels must make themselves a body out of the nearest thing to the non-physical, i.e. from air. Hence in his famous poem Aire and Angels, the seventeenth century metaphysical poet John Donne uses this idea to write a cynical comment on women, whose love, he says, is like an angel's body of air, while men's love is like the real thing, the angel itself.
+
+Idea of Guardian angel
+From the era of the Romantics onwards, there has developed the widely held belief that everyone has an angel assigned to guard them. This concept is probably based on Jesus' comment in Matthew 18:10 regarding children, though it is not mentioned elsewhere in the Bible.
+
+In superstitions
+Seeing repetitive numbers are thought to be associated with numerology, also referred to as angel numbers. It is believed that angels communicate with humans through repetitive appearances of numbers. Humanity has studied and used numbers since the dawn of time, and no matter what the culture is, there are certain numbers that hold specific value or meaning over other numbers.
+
+References
+
+Related pages
+Demigod
+
+Other websites
+Ad hominem is a Latin word for a type of argument. It is a word often used in rhetoric. Rhetoric is the science of speaking well, and convincing other people of your ideas.
+
+Translated to English, ad hominem means against the person. In other words, when someone makes an ad hominem, they are attacking the person they are arguing against, instead of what they are saying.
+
+The term comes from the Latin word homo, which means human. Hominem is a gender neutral version of the word homo. In ancient Rome it referred to all free men, or in other words, all free human beings.
+
+Ad hominem can be a way to use reputation, rumors and hearsay to change the minds of other people listening. When a social network has already excluded or exiled one person, or applied a negative label to them, this can work more often.
+
+It is most of the time considered to be a weak and poor argument. In courts and in diplomacy ad hominems are not appreciated.
+
+Ad hominems are not wrong every time. For example, when people think that someone can't be trusted, things that they have said previously can be doubted.
+
+What an ad hominem argument looks like
+In logic, a proof is something that starts with premises, and goes through a few logical arguments, to reach a conclusion.
+
+Normal (valid) proof
+ All humans are mortal.
+ Socrates is human.
+ Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
+
+Ad hominem example
+ Person A thinks abortion should be illegal.
+ Person A is uneducated and poor.
+ Therefore, abortion should not be illegal.
+
+In this example it can be seen that the (completely unrelated) fact that person A is uneducated and poor is used to prove that abortion should not be illegal.
+
+Related pages
+ Fallacy for a list of other types of (false) rhetorical arguments.
+
+
+
+Latin words used in English
+Native Americans (also called Aboriginal Americans, American Indians, Amerindians or indigenous peoples of the Americas) are the indigenous peoples and their descendants, who were in the Americas before Europeans arrived.
+
+Sometimes these people are called Indians, but this may be confusing, because it is the same word used for people from India. When Christopher Columbus explored, he did not know about the Americas. He was in the Caribbean but thought he was in the East Indies, so he called the people Indians. Today, some think that calling a Native American an Indian is racist.
+
+There are many different tribes of Native American people, with many different languages. Some tribes were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to place. Others lived in one place and built cities and kingdoms.
+
+Many Native Americans died after the Europeans came to the Americas. There were diseases that came with the Europeans but were new to the Native Americans. There were battles with the Europeans. Many native people were hurt, killed, or forced to leave their homes by settlers who took their lands.
+
+Today, there are more than three million Native Americans in Canada and the U.S. combined. About 51 million more Native Americans live in Latin America. Many Native Americans still speak native languages and have their own cultural practices, while others have adopted some parts of Western culture. Many Native Americans face problems with discrimination and racism.
+
+Origins
+The ancestors of Native Americans came to the Americas from Asia. Some of them may have come to America 15,000 years ago when Alaska was connected to Siberia by the Bering land bridge.
+
+The earliest people in the Americas came from Siberia when there was an ice bridge across the Bering Strait. The cold but mainly grassy plain which connected Siberia with Canada is called Beringia. It is reckoned that a few thousand people arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum before moving into the Americas sometime after 16,500 years before the present (BP). This would have occurred as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted, but before the bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 years BP.
+
+Before European colonization, Beringia was inhabited by the Yupik peoples on both sides of the straits. This culture remains in the region today, with others. In 2012, the governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish "a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage". Among other things this agreement would establish close ties between the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve and the Cape Krusenstern National Monument in the United States and Beringia National Park in Russia.
+
+Native Americans are divided into many small nations, called First Nations in Canada and tribes elsewhere.
+
+Culture
+Each Native American tribe has their own culture. The cultures can be grouped together depending on region. For example, the tribes living in Mesoamerica have similar cultures.
+
+Food
+Native Americans ate many different things depending on where they lived.
+
+Native Americans from Mesoamerica introduced vanilla, avocados, and chocolate to the world.
+
+Religion
+Before Europeans came, the native peoples of the Americans practiced many different religions. Each tribe had their own different beliefs.
+
+Today, many Native Americans practice Christianity, a religion that was brought to the Americas by Europeans. Meanwhile, others still practice their own religions.
+
+Languages
+Native Americans today speak over a thousand different languages. Some of these languages had writing systems before Europeans came.
+
+Many of these languages are endangered because more people are speaking European languages and not teaching Native American languages to their kids.
+
+Music
+Native Americans make musical instruments using the things around them.
+
+Art
+Native Americans made a lot of different art.
+
+Today
+
+North America
+
+United States
+According to the 2010 United States census, 0.9% of Americans say they are Native American, 2.9 million people, and 0.8% of Americans say they are both Native American and something else. They are not evenly spread out through the United States. About a third of the people in Alaska are Native Alaskan and about a sixth of the people in Oklahoma are Native American.
+
+In the United States, most Native Americans live in cities. About 28% of Native Americans live on Indian reservations. Many Native Americans are poor, and 24% are extremely poor. The history of violence against Native Americans persists today in higher rates of violence against Native American people than white people.
+
+Mexico
+Many Mexicans are of Native American or mestizo ancestry. Mexico has the largest and most diverse Native American population in Latin America.
+
+Canada
+In the 2016 census, More than 1.67 million people in Canada identified as Indigenous, making them 4.9 per cent of Canadaâs population.
+
+Central America
+
+Guatemala
+About 40% of the people of Guatemala identify as Native American. Many indigenous groups in the country are descendants of the Maya.
+
+Many Native Americans in Guatemala are poor. Many of them have left the country to find better jobs elsewhere.
+
+South America
+
+Bolivia
+The majority of Bolivians belong to indigenous groups. Many are Aymara and Quechua.
+
+Peru
+Peru has a large indigenous population, around 80% of Peru's population identify as indigenous or mestizo.
+
+Indigenous activism
+In the later half of the 20th century, many Native Americans started to protest the unfair treatment they experienced from the societies they lived in.
+
+Some Native Americans have become famous in politics. For example, an Aymara man named Evo Morales was elected as president of Bolivia in 2005. He was the first indigenous presidential candidate in Bolivia and South America.
+
+Related pages
+First Nations
+Plains Indians
+Native Americans in the United States
+
+References
+An apple is the edible fruit of a number of trees, known for its juicy, green, or red fruits. The tree (Malus spp.) is grown worldwide. Its fruit is low-cost, popular, and common all over the earth.
+
+Applewood is a type of wood that comes from this tree.
+
+The apple tree comes from southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and northwestern part of China. Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and Europe. They were brought to North America by European settlers. Apples have religious and mythological significance in many cultures.
+
+Apples are generally grown by grafting, although wild apples grow readily from seed. Apple trees are large if grown from seed, but small if grafted onto roots (rootstock). There are more than 10000 known variants of apples, with a range of desired characteristics. Different variants are bred for various tastes and uses: cooking, eating raw and cider production are the most common uses.
+
+Trees and fruit are attacked by fungi, bacteria and pests. In 2010, the fruit's genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control and selective breeding in apple production.
+
+Worldwide production of apples in 2013 was 90.8 million tonnes. China grew 49% of the total.
+
+Botanical information
+The apple has a small, leaf-shedding tree that grows up to tall. The apple tree has a broad crown with thick twigs.
+The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals. They are 5 to 12 centimetres long and 3â6 centimetres (1.2â2.4 in) wide. It has a sharp top with a soft underside. Blossoms come out in spring at the same time that the leaves begin to bud. The flowers are white. They also have a slightly pink color. They are five petaled, and 2.5 to 3.5 centimetres (0.98 to 1.4 in) in diameter. The fruit matures in autumn. It is usually 5 to 9 centimetres (2.0 to 3.5 in) in diameter. There are five carpels arranged in a star in the middle of the fruit. Every carpel has one to three seeds.
+
+Wild ancestors
+The wild ancestor of apple trees is Malus sieversii. They grow wild in the mountains of Central Asia in the north of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China, and possibly also Malus sylvestris. Unlike domesticated apples, their leaves become red in autumn. They are being used recently to develop Malus domestica to grow in colder climates.
+
+History
+
+The apple tree was possibly the earliest tree to be cultivated. Its fruits have become better over thousands of years. It is said that Alexander the Great discovered dwarf apples in Asia Minor in 300 BC. Asia and Europe have used winter apples as an important food for thousands of years. From when Europeans arrived, Argentina and the United States have used apples as food as well. Apples were brought to North America in the 1600s. The first apple orchard on the North American continent was said to be near Boston in 1625. In the 1900s, costly fruit industries, where the apple was a very important species, began developing.
+
+In culture
+
+Paganism
+
+In Norse mythology, the goddess IĂ°unn gives apples to the gods in Prose Edda (written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson) that makes them young forever. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson suggests that apples were related to religious practices in Germanic paganism. It was from there, she claims, that Norse paganism developed. She points out that buckets of apples were discovered in the place of burial for the Oseberg ship in Norway. She also remarks that fruit and nuts (IĂ°unn having been described as changing into a nut in SkĂĄldskaparmĂĄl) have been discovered in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England. They have also been discovered somewhere else on the continent of Europe. She suggests that this may have had a symbolic meaning. Nuts are still a symbol of fertility in Southwest England.
+
+Cooking
+Sometimes apples are eaten after they are cooked. Often, apples are eaten uncooked. Apples can also be made into drinks. Apple juice and apple cider are drinks made with apples.
+
+The flesh of the fruit is firm with a taste anywhere from sour to sweet. Apples used for cooking are sour, and need to be cooked with sugar, while other apples are sweet, and do not need cooking. There are some seeds at the core, that can be removed with a tool that removes the core, or by carefully using a knife.
+
+The scientific name of the apple tree genus in the Latin language is Malus. Most apples that people grow are of the Malus domestica species.
+
+Most apples are good to eat raw (not cooked), and are also used in many kinds of baked foods, such as apple pie. Apples are cooked until they are soft to make apple sauce.
+
+Apples are also made into the drinks apple juice and cider. Usually, cider contains a little alcohol, about as much as beer. The regions of Brittany in France and Cornwall in England are known for their apple ciders.
+
+Apple variants
+If one wants to grow a certain type of apple, it is not possible to do this by planting a seed from the wanted type. The seed will have DNA from the apple that the seeds came from, but it will also have DNA from the apple flower that pollinated the seeds, which might be a different variant of apple. This means that the tree which would grow from planting would be a mixture of two, or a hybrid. In order to grow a certain type of apple, a small twig, or 'scion', is cut from the tree that grows the type of apple desired, and then added on to a specially grown stump called a rootstock. The tree that grows will create apples of the type needed.
+
+There are more than 7,500 known variants of apples. Different variants are available for temperate and subtropical climates. One large collection of over 2,100 apple variants is at the National Fruit Collection in England. Most of these variants are grown for eating fresh (dessert apples). However, some are grown simply for cooking or making cider. Cider apples are usually too tart to eat immediately. However, they give cider a rich flavor that dessert apples cannot.
+
+Most popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Colorful skin, easy shipping, disease resistance, 'Red Delicious' apple shape, and popular flavor are also needed. Modern apples are usually sweeter than older cultivars. This is because popular tastes in apples have become different. Most North Americans and Europeans enjoy sweet apples. Extremely sweet apples with hardly any acid taste are popular in Asia and India.
+
+World production
+
+Apples are grown around the world. China produces more than half of all commercially grown apples. In 2020/2021, China produced 44,066,000 metric tons. Other important producers were the European Union (EU) (11,719,000 metric tons, the United States (4,490,000 metric tons), and Turkey (4,300,000 metric tons). Total world production was 80,522,000 metric tons.
+
+In the United Kingdom
+In the United Kingdom there are about 3000 different types of apples. The most common apple type grown in England is the 'Bramley seedling', which is a popular cooking apple.
+
+Apple orchards are not as common as they were in the early 1900s, when apples were rarely brought in from other countries. Organizations such as Common Ground teach people about the importance of rare and local varieties of fruit.
+
+In North America
+Many apples are grown in temperate parts of the United States and Canada. "Washington State currently produces over half the Nation's domestically grown apples and has been the leading apple-growing State since the early 1920s." New York and Michigan are the next two leading states in apple production. "The total reported area dedicated to the crop in the United States is 336,940 acres or 526.47 square miles."
+
+In many areas where apple growing is important, people have huge celebrations:
+
+ Annapolis Valley Apple Blossom Festival - held five days every spring (May-June) in Nova Scotia
+ Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival - held six days every spring in Winchester, Virginia.
+ Washington State Apple Blossom Festival - held two weeks every spring (April-May) in Wenatchee, Washington.
+
+Varieties of apples
+
+There are many different varieties of apples, including:
+
+ Aport
+ Cox's Orange Pippin
+ Fuji (apple)
+ Gala
+ Golden Delicious (sometimes called a Green Delicious Apple)
+ Granny Smith
+ Jonathan
+ Jonagold
+ McIntosh
+ Pink Lady
+ Red Delicious
+ Winesap
+ Yellow Sweeting, the first variety of the U.S.
+
+Family
+Apples are in the group Maloideae. This is a subfamily of the family Rosaceae. They are in the same subfamily as pears.
+
+References
+
+Further reading
+ Potter D. et al 2007. Phylogeny and classification of Rosaceae. Plant Systematics and Evolution. 266 (1â2): 5â43.
+
+Other websites
+
+
+
+
+
+Basic English 850 words
+
+National symbols of Poland
+An Abrahamic Religion is a religion whose followers believe in the prophet Abraham. They believe Abraham and his sons/grandsons hold an important role in human spiritual development. The best known Abrahamic religions are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Smaller religious traditions sometimes included as Abrahamic religions are Samaritanism, Druze, Rastafari, Babism and BahĂĄ'Ă Faith. Mandaeism (a religion that holds many Abrahamic beliefs) is not called Abrahamic because its followers think Abraham was a false prophet
+
+True Abrahamic religions are monotheistic (the belief that there is only one God). They also all believe that people should pray to God and worship God often. Among monotheistic religions, the Abrahamic religions have the world's largest number of followers.
+
+Religions
+
+
+Mythology
+Algebra (from Arabic: ۧÙۏۚ۱â, transliterated "al-jabr", meaning "reunion of broken parts") is a part of mathematics. It uses variables to represent a value that is not yet known or can be replaced with any value. When an equals sign (=) is used, this is called an equation. A very simple equation using a variable is: . In this example, , or it could also be said that " equals five". This is called solving for .
+
+Besides equations, there are inequalities (less than and greater than). A special type of equation is called the function. This is often used in making graphs because it always turns one input into one output.
+
+Algebra can be used to solve real problems because the rules of algebra work in real life and numbers can be used to represent the values of real things. Physics, engineering and computer programming are areas that use algebra all the time. It is also useful to know in surveying, construction and business, especially accounting.
+
+People who do algebra use the rules of numbers and mathematical operations used on numbers. The simplest are adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. More advanced operations involve exponents, starting with squares and square roots.
+
+Algebra was first used to solve equations and inequalities. Two examples are linear equations (the equation of a straight line, or ) and quadratic equations, which has variables that are squared (multiplied by itself, for example: , , or ).
+
+History
+Early forms of algebra were developed by the Babylonians and Greek geometers such as Hero of Alexandria. However the word "algebra" is a Latin form of the Arabic word Al-Jabr ("casting") and comes from a mathematics book Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, ("Essay on the Computation of Casting and Equation") written in the 9th century by a Persian mathematician, Muhammad ibn MĆ«sÄ al-KhwÄrizmÄ«, who was a Muslim born in Khwarizm in Uzbekistan. He flourished under Al-Ma'moun in Baghdad, Iraq through 813-833 CE, and died around 840 CE. The book was brought into Europe and translated into Latin in the 12th century. The book was then given the name "Algebra". (The ending of the mathematician's name, al-Khwarizmi, was changed into a word easier to say in Latin, and became the English word algorithm).
+
+Examples
+
+Here is a simple example of an algebra problem:
+
+Sue has 12 candies, and Ann has 24 candies. They decide to share so that they have the same number of candies. How many candies will each have?
+
+These are the steps you can use to solve the problem:
+
+ To have the same number of candies, Ann has to give some to Sue. Let represent the number of candies Ann gives to Sue.
+ Sue's candies, plus , must be the same as Ann's candies minus . This is written as:
+ Subtract 12 from both sides of the equation. This gives: . (What happens on one side of the equal sign must happen on the other side too, for the equation to still be true. So in this case when 12 was subtracted from both sides, there was a middle step of . After a person is comfortable with this, the middle step is not written down.)
+ Add to both sides of the equation. This gives:
+ Divide both sides of the equation by 2. This gives . The answer is six. This mean that if Ann gives Sue 6 candies, they will have the same number of candies.
+ To check this, put 6 back into the original equation wherever was:
+ This gives , which is true. They each now have 18 candies.
+
+With practice, algebra can be used when faced with a problem that is too hard to solve any other way. Problems such as building a freeway, designing a cell phone, or finding the cure for a disease all require algebra.
+
+Writing algebra
+As in most parts of mathematics, adding to (or plus ) is written as ;
+
+subtracting from (or minus ) is written as ;
+
+and dividing by (or over ) is written as or .
+
+In algebra, multiplying by (or times ) can be written in 3 different ways: , or just . All of these notations mean the same thing: times . The symbol "" used in arithmetic is not used in algebra, because it looks too much like the letter , which is often used as a variable.
+
+When we multiply a number and a variable in algebra, we can simply write the number in front of the letter: . When the number is 1, then it is not written because 1 times any number is that number () and so it is not needed. And when it is 0, we can completely remove the terms, because 0 times any number is zero ().
+
+As a side note, you do not have to use the letters or in algebra. Variables are just symbols that mean some unknown number or value, so you can use any letter for a variable (except (Euler's number) and (Imaginary unit), because these are mathematical constants). and are the most common, though.
+
+Functions and Graphs
+
+An important part of algebra is the study of functions, since they often appear in equations that we are trying to solve. A function is like a machine you can put a number (or numbers) into and get a certain number (or numbers) out. When using functions, graphs can be powerful tools in helping us to study the solutions to equations.
+
+A graph is a picture that shows all the values of the variables that make the equation or inequality true. Usually this is easy to make when there are only one or two variables. The graph is often a line, and if the line does not bend or go straight up-and-down it can be described by the basic formula . The variable is the y-intercept of the graph (where the line crosses the vertical axis) and is the slope or steepness of the line. This formula applies to the coordinates of a graph, where each point on the line is written .
+
+In some math problems like the equation for a line, there can be more than one variable ( and in this case). To find points on the line, one variable is changed. The variable that is changed is called the "independent" variable. Then the math is done to make a number. The number that is made is called the "dependent" variable. Most of the time the independent variable is written as and the dependent variable is written as , for example, in . This is often put on a graph, using an axis (going left and right) and a axis (going up and down). It can also be written in function form: . So in this example, we could put in 5 for and get . Put in 2 for would get . And 0 for would get . So there would be a line going through the points , , and as seen in the graph to the right.
+
+If has a power of 1, it is a straight line. If it is squared or some other power, it will be curved. If it uses an inequality ( or ), then usually part of the graph is shaded, either above or below the line.
+
+Rules
+In algebra, there are a few rules that can be used for further understanding of equations. These are called the rules of algebra. While these rules may seem senseless or obvious, it is wise to understand that these properties do not hold throughout all branches of mathematics. Therefore, it will be useful to know how these axiomatic rules are declared, before taking them for granted. Before going on to the rules, reflect on two definitions that will be given.
+ Opposite: the opposite of is .
+ Reciprocal: the reciprocal of is .
+
+Commutative property of addition
+Commutative means that a function has the same result if the numbers are swapped around. In other words, the order of the terms in an equation does not matter. When two terms (addends) are being added, the commutative property of addition is applicable. In algebraic terms, this gives .
+
+Note that this does not apply for subtraction (i.e. except if ).
+
+Commutative property of multiplication
+When two terms (factors) are being multiplied, the commutative property of multiplication is applicable. In algebraic terms, this gives .
+
+Note that this does not apply for division (i.e. , when and , except if ).
+
+Associative property of addition
+Associative refers to the grouping of numbers. The associative property of addition implies that, when adding three or more terms, it doesn't matter how these terms are grouped. Algebraically, this gives . Note that this does not hold for subtraction, e.g. (see distributive property).
+
+Associative property of multiplication
+The associative property of multiplication implies that, when multiplying three or more terms, it doesn't matter how these terms are grouped. Algebraically, this gives . Note that this does not hold for division, e.g. .
+
+Distributive property
+The distributive property states that the multiplication of a term by another term can be distributed. For instance: . (Do not confuse this with the associative properties! For instance: .)
+
+Additive identity
+Identity refers to the property of a number that it is equal to itself. In other words, there exists an operation of two numbers so that it equals the variable of the sum. The additive identity property states that any number plus 0 is that number: . This also holds for subtraction: .
+
+Multiplicative identity
+The multiplicative identity property states that any number times 1 is that number: . This also holds for division: .
+
+Additive inverse property
+The additive inverse property is somewhat like the inverse of the additive identity. When we add a number and its opposite, the result is 0. Algebraically, it states the following: , which is the same as . For example, the additive inverse (or opposite) of 1 is -1.
+
+Multiplicative inverse property
+The multiplicative inverse property means that when we multiply a number and its reciprocal, the result is 1. Algebraically, it states the following: , which is the same as . For example, the multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal) of 2 is 1/2. To get the reciprocal of a fraction, switch the numerator and the denominator: the reciprocal of is .
+
+Advanced Algebra
+In addition to "elementary algebra", or basic algebra, there are advanced forms of algebra, taught in colleges and universities, such as abstract algebra, linear algebra, and universal algebra. This includes how to use a matrix to solve many linear equations at once. Abstract algebra is the study of things that are found in equations, going beyond numbers to the more abstract with groups of numbers.
+
+Many math problems are about physics and engineering. In many of these physics problems time is a variable. The letter used for time is . Using the basic ideas in algebra can help reduce a math problem to its simplest form making it easier to solve difficult problems. Energy is , force is , mass is , acceleration is and speed of light is sometimes . This is used in some famous equations, like and (although more complex math beyond algebra was needed to come up with that last equation).
+
+Related pages
+ List of mathematics topics
+ Order of operations
+ Parabola
+ Computer Algebra System
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Khan Academy: Algebra theory and practice
+ algebrarules.com: A free place to learn the basics of Algebra
+ Khan Academy: Origins of Algebra, free online micro lectures
+
+Algebra
+An atom is the basic unit of matter. All normal matter â everything that has mass â is made of atoms. This includes solids, liquids, and gases. The atom cannot be broken to parts by chemistry, so people once thought it was the smallest and simplest particle of matter. There are over 100 different kinds of atoms, called chemical elements. Each kind has the same basic structure, but a different number of parts.
+
+Atoms are very small, but their exact size depends on the type. Atoms are from 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers across. One nanometer is about 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. This makes one atom impossible to see without special tools. Scientists learn how they work by doing experiments.
+
+Atoms are made of three kinds of subatomic particles. These are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons have much more mass. They are in the middle of the atom, the nucleus. Lightweight electrons move quickly around them. The electromagnetic force holds the nucleus and electrons together.
+
+Atoms with the same number of protons belong to the same chemical element. Examples of elements are carbon and gold. Atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons, are called isotopes. Usually an atom has the same number of electrons as protons. If an atom has more or less electrons than protons, it is called an ion, and has an electric charge.
+
+Atoms can join by chemical bonds. Many things are made of more than one kind of atom. These are chemical compounds or mixtures. A group of atoms connected by chemical bonds is called a molecule. For example, a water molecule is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The forming or breaking of bonds is a chemical reaction.
+
+Atoms split if the forces inside are too weak to hold them together. This is what causes radioactivity. Atoms can also join to make larger atoms at very high temperatures, such as inside a star. These changes are studied in nuclear physics. Most atoms on Earth are not radioactive. They are rarely made, destroyed, or changed into another kind of atom.
+
+History
+The word "atom" comes from the Greek (áŒÏÏÎŒÎżÏ) "atomos", which means indivisible or uncuttable. One of the first people to use the word "atom" is the Greek philosopher Democritus, around 400 BC. He thought that everything was made of particles called atoms, which could not be divided into smaller pieces. Some Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist philosophers also had ideas like this. Atomic theory was a mostly philosophical subject, with not much scientific investigation or study, until the early 1800s.
+
+In 1777 French chemist Antoine Lavoisier defined the term element as we now use it. He said that an element was any substance that could not be broken down into other substances by the methods of chemistry. Any substance which could be broken down was a compound.
+
+In 1803, English philosopher John Dalton suggested that elements were made of tiny, solid balls called atoms. Dalton believed that all atoms of the same element have the same mass. He said that compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine. In any one compound, the atoms would always combine in the same numbers.
+
+In 1827, British scientist Robert Brown looked at pollen grains in water under his microscope. The pollen grains appeared to be shaking. Brown used Dalton's atomic theory to describe patterns in how they moved. This was called Brownian motion. In 1905 Albert Einstein used mathematics to prove that the pollen particles were being moved by the motion, or heat, of individual water molecules. By doing this, he proved that atoms are real without question.
+
+In 1869, Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev published the first periodic table. The periodic table groups elements by their atomic number (how many protons they have; this is usually the same as the number of electrons). Elements in the same column, or group, usually have similar qualities. For example, helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are all in the same column and are very similar. All these elements are gases that have no color or smell. Also, they cannot combine with other atoms to form compounds. Together they are known as noble gases.
+
+The physicist J.J. Thomson was the first person to discover electrons. This happened while he was working with cathode rays in 1897. He learned they had a negative charge, and the rest of the atom had a positive charge. Thomson made the plum pudding model, which said that an atom was like plum pudding: the dried fruit (electrons) were stuck in a mass of pudding (having a positive charge).
+
+In 1909, Ernest Rutherford used the GeigerâMarsden experiment to prove that most of an atom is in a very small space, the atomic nucleus. Rutherford took a photo plate and covered it with gold foil. He then shot alpha particles (made of two protons and two neutrons stuck together) at it. Many of the particles went through the gold foil, which proved that atoms are mostly empty space. Electrons are so small and fast-moving that they did not block the particles from going through. Rutherford later discovered protons in the nucleus.
+
+In 1913, Niels Bohr created the Bohr model. This model showed that electrons travel around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits. This was better than the Rutherford model, but it was still not completely true.
+
+In 1925, chemist Frederick Soddy discovered that some elements had more than one kind of atom, called isotopes. Soddy believed that each different isotope of an element has a different mass. To prove this, chemist Francis William Aston built the mass spectrometer, which measures the mass of single atoms. Aston proved that Soddy was right. He also found that the mass of each atom is a whole number times the mass of the proton. This meant that there must be some particles in the nucleus other than protons. In 1932, physicist James Chadwick shot alpha particles at beryllium atoms. He saw that a particle shot out of the beryllium atoms. This particle had no charge, but about the same mass as a proton. He named this particle the neutron.
+
+The best model so far comes from the Schrödinger equation. Schrödinger learned that the electrons exist in a cloud around the nucleus, called the electron cloud. In the electron cloud, it is impossible to know exactly where electrons are. The Schrödinger equation says where an electron is likely to be. This area is called the electron's orbital.
+
+In 1937, German chemist Otto Hahn became the first person to make nuclear fission in a laboratory. He discovered this by chance when shooting neutrons at a uranium atom, hoping to make a new isotope. However, instead of a new isotope, the uranium changed into a barium atom, a smaller atom than uranium. Hahn had "broken" the uranium atom. This was the world's first recorded nuclear fission reaction. This discovery led to the creation of the atomic bomb and nuclear power, where fission happens over and over again, creating a chain reaction.
+
+Later in the 20th century, physicists went deeper into the mysteries of the atom. Using particle accelerators, they discovered that protons and neutrons were made of other particles, called quarks.
+
+Structure and parts
+
+Parts
+
+An atom is made of three main particles: the proton, the neutron, and the electron. Protons and neutrons have nearly the same size and mass (about grams). The mass of an electron is about 1800 times smaller (about grams). Protons have a positive charge, electrons have a negative charge, and neutrons have no charge. Most atoms have no charge. The number of protons (positive) and electrons (negative) are the same, so the charges balance out to zero. However, ions have a different number of electrons than protons, so they have a positive or negative charge.
+
+Scientists believe that electrons are elementary particles: they are not made of any smaller pieces. Protons and neutrons are made of quarks of two kinds: up quarks and down quarks. A proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, and a neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark.
+
+Nucleus
+
+The nucleus is in the middle of the atom. It is made of protons and neutrons. The nucleus makes up more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom. However, it is very small: about 1 femtometer (10â15 m) across, which is around 100,000 times smaller than the width of an atom, so it has a very high density.
+
+Usually in nature, two things with the same charge repel or shoot away from each other. So for a long time, scientists did not know how the positively charged protons in the nucleus stayed together. We now believe that the attraction between protons and neutrons comes from the strong nuclear force. This force also holds together the quarks that make up the protons and neutrons. Particles called mesons travel back and forth between protons and neutrons, and carry the force.
+
+The number of neutrons in relation to protons defines whether the nucleus stays together or goes through radioactive decay. When there are too many neutrons or protons, the atom tries to make the numbers smaller or more equal by removing the extra particles. It sends out radiation in the form of alpha, beta, or gamma decay. Nuclei can also change in other ways. Nuclear fission is when the nucleus breaks into two smaller nuclei, releasing a lot of energy. This release of energy makes nuclear fission useful for making bombs, and electricity in the form of nuclear power.
+The other way nuclei can change is through nuclear fusion, when two nuclei join or fuse to make a larger nucleus. This process requires very high amounts of energy to overcome the electric repulsion between the protons, as they have the same charge. Such high energies are most common in stars like our Sun, which fuses hydrogen for fuel. However, once fusion happens, far more energy is released, because some of the mass becomes energy.
+
+The energy needed to break a nucleus into protons and neutrons is called its nuclear binding energy. This energy can be converted to mass, as stated by Einstein's famous formula E = mc2. Medium-sized nuclei, such as iron-56 and nickel-62, have the highest binding energy per proton or neutron. They will probably not go through fission or fusion, because they cannot release energy in this way. Very small and very large atoms have low binding energy, so they are most willing to go through fission or fusion.
+
+Electrons
+
+Electrons orbit, or travel around, the nucleus. They are called the atom's electron cloud. They are attracted to the nucleus because of the electromagnetic force. Electrons have a negative charge, and the nucleus always has a positive charge, so they attract each other.
+
+The Bohr model shows that some electrons are farther from the nucleus than others in different levels. These are called electron shells. Only the electrons in the outer shell can make chemical bonds. The number of electrons in the outer shell determines whether the atom is stable or which atoms it will bond with in a chemical reaction. If an atom has only one shell, it needs two electrons to be complete. Otherwise, the outer shell needs eight electrons to be complete.
+
+The Bohr model is important because it has the idea of energy levels. The electrons in each shell have a certain amount of energy. Shells that are farther from the nucleus have more energy. When a small burst of energy called a photon hits an electron, the electron can jump into a higher-energy shell. This photon must carry exactly the right amount of energy to bring the electron to the new energy level. A photon is a burst of light, and the amount of energy determines the color of light. So each kind of atom will absorb certain colors of light, called the absorption spectrum. An electron can also send out, or emit, a photon, and fall into a lower energy shell. For the same reason, the atom will only send out certain colors of light, called the emission spectrum.
+
+The complete picture is more complicated. Unlike the Earth moving around the Sun, electrons do not move in a circle. We cannot know the exact place of an electron. We only know the probability, or chance, that it will be in any place. Each electron is part of an orbital, which describes where it is likely to be. No more than two electrons can be in one orbital; these two electrons have different spin.
+
+For each shell, numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on, there may be a number of different orbitals. These have different shapes, or point in different directions. Each orbital can be described by its three quantum numbers. The principal quantum number is the electron shell number. The azimuthal quantum number is represented by a letter: s, p, d, or f. Depending on the principal and azimuthal quantum numbers, the electron can have more or less energy. There is also a magnetic quantum number, but it does not usually affect the energy level. As more electrons are added, they join orbitals in order from lowest to highest energy. This order starts as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d. For example, a chlorine atom has 17 electrons. So, it will have:
+2 electrons in the 1s orbital
+2 electrons in the 2s orbital
+6 electrons in the 2p orbitals
+2 electrons in the 3s orbital
+5 electrons in the 3p orbitals
+In other words, it has 2 electrons in the first shell, 8 in the second shell, and 7 in the third shell.
+
+Properties
+
+Atomic number
+
+The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. Atoms of the same element have the same atomic number. For example, all carbon atoms have six protons, so the atomic number of carbon is six. Today, 118 elements are known. Depending on how the number is counted, 90 to 94 elements exist naturally on earth. All elements above number 94 have only been made by humans. These elements are organized on the periodic table.
+
+Atomic mass and weight
+Because protons and neutrons have nearly the same mass, and the mass of electrons is very small, we can call the number of protons and neutrons in an atom its mass number. Most elements have several isotopes with different mass numbers. To name an isotope, we use the name of the element, followed by its mass number. So an atom with six protons and seven neutrons is called carbon-13.
+
+Sometimes, we need a more exact measurement. The exact mass of an atom is called its atomic mass. This is usually measured with the atomic mass unit (amu), also called the dalton. One amu is exactly 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, which is grams. Hydrogen-1 has a mass of about 1 amu. The heaviest atom known, oganesson, has a mass of about 294 amu, or grams. The average mass of all atoms of a particular element is called its atomic weight.
+
+Size
+The size of an atom depends on the size of its electron cloud. Moving down the periodic table, more electron shells are added. As a result, atoms get bigger. Moving to the right on the periodic table, more protons are added to the nucleus. This more positive nucleus pulls electrons more strongly, so atoms get smaller. The biggest atom is caesium, which is about 0.596 nanometers wide according to one model. The smallest atom is helium, which is about 0.062 nanometers wide.
+
+How atoms interact
+When atoms are far apart, they attract each other. This attraction is stronger for some kinds of atoms than others. At the same time, the heat, or kinetic energy, of atoms makes them always move. If the attraction is strong enough, relative to the amount of heat, atoms will form a solid. If the attraction is weaker, they will form a liquid, and if it is even weaker, they will form a gas.
+
+Chemical bonds are the strongest kinds of attraction between atoms. The movement of electrons explains all chemical bonds.
+Atoms usually bond with each other in a way that fills or empties their outer electron shell. The most reactive elements have an almost full or almost empty outer shell. Atoms with a full outer shell, called noble gases, do not usually form bonds.
+
+There are three main kinds of bonds: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds.
+
+In an ionic bond, one atom gives electrons to another atom. Each atom becomes an ion: an atom or group of atoms with a positive or negative charge. The positive ion (which has lost electrons) is called a cation; it is usually a metal. The negative ion (which has gained electrons) is called an anion; it is usually a nonmetal. Ionic bonding usually results in a regular network, or crystal, of ions held together.
+
+In a covalent bond, two atoms share electrons. This usually happens when both atoms are nonmetals. Covalent bonds often form molecules, ranging in size from two atoms to many more. They can also form large networks, such as glass or graphite. The number of bonds that an atom makes (its valency) is usually the number of electrons needed to fill its outer electron shell.
+
+In a metallic bond, electrons travel freely between many metal atoms. Any number of atoms can bond this way. Metals conduct electric current because electric charge can easily flow through them. Atoms in metals can move past each other, so it is easy to bend, stretch, and change the shape of metals.
+
+All atoms attract each other by Van der Waals forces. These forces are weaker than chemical bonds. They are caused when electrons move to one side of an atom. This movement gives a negative charge to that side. It also gives a positive charge to the other side. When two atoms line up their sides with negative and positive charges, they will attract.
+
+Although atoms are mostly empty space, they cannot pass through each other. When two atoms are very close, their electron clouds will repel each other by the electromagnetic force.
+
+Magnetism
+To understand how magnets work, we can look at the properties of the atom. Any magnet has a north and south pole, and a certain strength. The direction and strength of a magnet, together, are called its magnetic moment. Every electron also has a magnetic moment, like a tiny magnet. This comes from the electron's spin and its orbit around the nucleus. The magnetic moments for the electrons add up to a magnetic moment for the whole atom. This tells us how atoms act in a magnetic field.
+
+Every electron has one of two opposite spins. We can think of one as turning to the right, and the other as turning to the left. If every electron is paired with an electron with the opposite spin in the same orbital, the magnetic moments will cancel out to zero. Atoms like this are called diamagnetic. They are only weakly repelled by a magnetic field.
+
+However, if some electrons are not paired, the atom will have a lasting magnetic moment: it will be paramagnetic or ferromagnetic. When atoms are paramagnetic, the magnetic moment of each atom points in a random direction. They are weakly attracted to a magnetic field. When atoms are ferromagnetic, the magnetic moments of nearby atoms act on each other. They point in the same direction. This means that the whole object is a magnet, and it can point in the direction of a magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, are strongly attracted to a magnetic field.
+
+Radioactive decay
+
+Some elements, and many isotopes, have what is called an unstable nucleus. This means the nucleus is either too big to hold itself together, or it has too many protons or neutrons. When a nucleus is unstable, it has to eliminate the excess mass of particles. It does this through radiation. An atom that does this is called radioactive. Unstable atoms emit radiation until they lose enough particles in the nucleus to become stable. All atoms above atomic number 82 (82 protons, lead) are radioactive.
+
+There are three main kinds of radioactive decay: alpha, beta, and gamma.
+ Alpha decay is when the atom shoots out a particle having two protons and two neutrons. This is a helium-4 nucleus. The result is an element with an atomic number of two less than before. So, for example, if a uranium atom (atomic number 92) went through alpha decay, it would become thorium (atomic number 90). Alpha decay happens when an atom is too big and needs to lose some mass.
+ Beta decay is when a neutron turns into a proton, or a proton turns into a neutron. In the first case, the atom shoots out an electron. In the second case, it shoots out a positron (like an electron but with a positive charge). The result is an element with one higher or one lower atomic number than before. Beta decay happens when an atom has either too many protons or too many neutrons.
+ Gamma decay is when an atom shoots out a gamma ray, or wave. It happens when there is a change in the energy of the nucleus. This is usually after a nucleus has gone through alpha or beta decay. There is no change in the atom's mass, or atomic number, only in the stored energy inside the nucleus, in the form of particle spin.
+
+Every radioactive element or isotope has a half-life. This is how long it takes half of any sample of atoms of that type to decay into a different isotope or element.
+
+Creation of atoms
+Nearly all the hydrogen atoms in the Universe, most of the helium atoms, and some of the lithium atoms were made soon after the Big Bang. Even today, about 90% of all atoms in the Universe are hydrogen.
+
+All other atoms come from nuclear fusion in stars, or sometimes from cosmic rays that hit atoms. At the start of their life, all stars fuse hydrogen to make helium. The least massive stars, red dwarfs, are expected to stop there. All other stars will then fuse helium to make carbon and oxygen. In stars like the Sun, the temperature and pressure are too low to make larger atoms. But more massive stars continue fusion, until they create iron (atomic number 26) or nickel (atomic number 28). Atoms can also grow larger when neutrons or protons hit them. This could happen inside stars or in supernovae. Most atoms on Earth were made by a star that existed before the Sun.
+
+People make very large atoms by smashing together smaller atoms in particle accelerators. However, these atoms often decay very quickly. Oganesson (element 118) has a half-life of 0.00089 seconds. Even larger atoms may be created in the future.
+
+Related pages
+Atomic physics, for more detail about the physics of atoms
+Atomic theory, for more detail about the history
+Exotic atom, an atom with different parts instead of protons, neutrons, and electrons
+Quantum mechanics, the study of small particles and how they interact with energy
+States of matter, the different forms in which atoms or molecules can be found
+
+Sources
+
+References
+
+Bibliography
+
+Other websites
+
+ Atom (science) -Citizendium
+ General information on atomic structure
+
+
+Chemistry
+Nuclear physics
+Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial bodies. That means stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets and nebulae are studied, as are supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation. Astronomy concerns the development, physics, chemistry, meteorology and movement of celestial bodies. The big questions are the structure and development of the universe.
+
+Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. The patterns in the night sky were called constellations by the Arabs. They used the positions of the stars to navigate, and to find when was the best time to plant crops.
+
+Astrophysics is an important part of astronomy. A related subject, cosmology, is concerned with studying the universe as a whole, and the way the universe changed over time. Astronomy is not the same as astrology, a belief that the motion of the stars and the planets may affect human lives.
+
+There are two main types of astronomy, observational and theoretical astronomy. Observational astronomy uses telescopes and cameras to observe or look at stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects. Theoretical astronomy explains what we see. It predicts what might happen. Observations show whether the predictions work. The main work of astronomy is to explain puzzling features of the universe. For many years the most important issue was the motions of planets. Many other topics are now studied.
+
+Day-time astronomy is possible. First, there's the Sun, but observing directly is dangerous. It is too bright, and can burn your eyes and can cause permanent blindness. To look at the Sun you need proper shields and equipment. Some other individual bright stars and planets can be seen during daylight hours through a telescope or a powerful pair of binoculars.
+
+History of astronomy
+
+Ancient history
+Early astronomers used only their eyes to look at the stars. They made maps of the constellations and stars for religious reasons and calendars to work out the time of year. Early civilisations such as the Maya people and the Ancient Egyptians built simple observatories and drew maps of the stars positions. They also began to think about the place of Earth in the universe. For a long time people thought Earth was the center of the universe, and that the planets, the stars and the sun went around it. This is known as geocentrism. Astronomy is from the Greek astron (áŒÏÏÏÎżÎœ) meaning "star" and nomos (nÏÎŒÎżÏ) meaning "law")
+
+Ancient Greeks tried to explain the motions of the sun and stars by taking measurements. A mathematician named Eratosthenes was the first who measured the size of the Earth and proved that the Earth is a sphere. A theory by another mathematician named Aristarchus was, that the sun is the center and the Earth is moving around it. This is known as heliocentrism. Only a few people thought it was right. The rest continued to believe in the geocentric model. Most of the names of constellations and stars come from Greeks of that time.
+
+Arabic astronomers made many advancements during the Middle Ages including improved star maps and ways to estimate the size of the Earth. They also learned from the ancients by translating Greek books into Arabic.
+
+Renaissance to modern era
+
+During the renaissance a priest named Nicolaus Copernicus thought, from looking at the way the planets moved, that the Earth was not the center of everything. Based on previous works, he said that the Earth was a planet and all the planets moved around the sun. This brought back the old idea of heliocentrism. Galileo Galilei built his own telescopes, and used them to look more closely at the stars and planets for the first time. He agreed with Copernicus. The Catholic Church thought Galileo was wrong. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. Heliocentric ideas were soon improved by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, who invented the theory of gravity.
+
+After Galileo, people made better telescopes and used them to see farther objects such as the planets Uranus and Neptune. They also saw how stars were similar to our Sun, but in a range of colours and sizes. They also saw thousands of other faraway objects such as galaxies and nebulae.
+
+Modern era
+The 20th century after 1920 saw important changes in astronomy.
+
+In the early 1920s it began to be accepted that the galaxy in which we live, the Milky Way, is not the only galaxy. The existence of other galaxies was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy. It was also Hubble who proved that the universe was expanding. There were many other galaxies at large distances and they are receding, moving away from our galaxy. That was completely unexpected.
+
+In 1931, Karl Jansky discovered radio emission from outside the Earth when trying to isolate a source of noise in radio communications, marking the birth of radio astronomy and the first attempts at using another part of the electromagnetic spectrum to observe the sky. Those parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that the atmosphere did not block were now opened up to astronomy, allowing more discoveries to be made.
+
+The opening of this new window on the Universe saw the discovery of entirely new things, for example pulsars, which sent regular pulses of radio waves out into space. The waves were first thought to be alien in origin because the pulses were so regular that (so it was thought) it implied an artificial source.
+
+The period after World War II saw more observatories. Large and accurate telescopes were built and operated at good observing sites, usually by governments. For example, Bernard Lovell began radio astronomy at Jodrell Bank using leftover military radar equipment. By 1957, the site had the largest steerable radio telescope in the world. Similarly, the end of the 1960s saw the start of the building of dedicated observatories at Mauna Kea in Hawaii, a good site for visible and infra-red telescopes thanks to its high altitude and clear skies.
+
+The next great revolution in astronomy was thanks to the birth of rocketry. This allowed telescopes to be placed in space on satellites.
+
+Space telescopes gave access, for the first time in history, to the entire electromagnetic spectrum including rays that had been blocked by the atmosphere. The X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light and parts of the infra-red spectrum were all opened to astronomy as observing telescopes were launched. As with other parts of the spectrum, new discoveries were made.
+
+From 1970s satellites were launched to be replaced with more accurate and better satellites, causing the sky to be mapped in nearly all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
+
+Discoveries
+Discoveries broadly come in two types: bodies and phenomena. Bodies are things in the Universe, whether it is a planet like our Earth or a galaxy like our Milky Way. Phenomena are events and happenings in the Universe.
+
+Bodies
+For convenience, this section has been divided by where these astronomical bodies may be found: those found around stars are solar bodies, those inside galaxies are galactic bodies and everything else larger are cosmic bodies.
+
+Solar
+ Planets
+ Asteroids
+ Comets
+
+Galactic
+ Stars
+
+Diffuse Objects:
+ Nebulas
+ Clusters
+
+Compact Stars:
+ White dwarf stars
+ Neutron stars
+ Black holes
+
+Cosmic
+ Galaxies
+ Galaxy clusters
+ Superclusters
+
+Phenomena
+Burst events are those where there is a sudden change in the heavens that disappears quickly. These are called bursts because they are normally associated with large explosions producing a "burst" of energy. They include:
+ Supernovas
+ Novas
+
+Periodic events are those that happen regularly in a repetitive way. The name periodic comes from period, which is the length of time required for a wave to complete one cycle. Periodic phenomena include:
+ Pulsars
+ Variable stars
+
+Noise phenomena tend to relate to things that happened a long time ago. The signal from these events bounce around the Universe until it seems to come from everywhere and varies little in intensity. In this way, it is "noise", the background signal that pervades every instrument used for astronomy. The most common example of noise is static seen on analogue televisions. The principal astronomical example is: cosmic background radiation.
+
+Methods
+
+Instruments
+ Telescopes are the main tool of observing. They take all the light in a big area and put in into a small area. This is like making your eyes very big and powerful. Astronomers use telescopes to look at things that are far away and dim. Telescopes make objects look bigger, closer, brighter.
+ Spectrometers study the different wavelengths of light. This shows what something is made of.
+ Many telescopes are in satellites. They are space observatories. The Earthâs atmosphere blocks some parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, but special telescopes above the atmosphere can detect that radiation.
+ Radio astronomy uses radio telescopes. Aperture synthesis combines smaller telescopes to create a phased array, which works like a telescope as big as the distance between the smaller telescopes.
+
+Techniques
+There are way astronomers can get better pictures of the heavens. Light from a distant source reaches a sensor and gets measured, normally by a human eye or a camera. For very dim sources, there may not be enough light particles coming from the source for it to be seen. One technique that astronomers have for making it visible is using integration (which is like longer exposures in photography).
+
+Integration
+Astronomical sources do not move much: only the rotation and movement of the Earth causes them to move across the heavens. As light particles reach the camera over time, they hit the same place making it brighter and more visible than the background, until it can be seen.
+
+Telescopes at most observatories (and satellite instruments) can normally track a source as it moves across the heavens, making the star appear still to the telescope and allowing longer exposures. Also, images can be taken on different nights so exposures span hours, days or even months. In the digital era, digitised pictures of the sky can be added together by computer, which overlays the images after correcting for movement.
+
+Adaptive optics
+Adaptive optics means changing the shape of the mirror or lens while looking at something, to see it better.
+
+Data analysis
+Data analysis is the process of getting more information out of an astronomical observation than by simply looking at it. The observation is first stored as data. This data then has various techniques used to analyse it.
+
+Fourier analysis
+Fourier analysis in mathematics can show if an observation (over a length of time) is changing periodically (changes like a wave). If so, it can extract the frequencies and the type of wave pattern, and find many things including new planets.
+
+Subfields of astronomy
+Pulsars pulse regularly in radio waves. These turned out to be similar to some (but not all) of a type of bright source in X-rays called a Low-mass X-ray binary. It turned out that all pulsars and some LMXBs are neutron stars and that the differences were due to the environment in which the neutron star was found. Those LMXBs that were not neutron stars turned out to be black holes.
+
+This section attempts to provide an overview of the important fields of astronomy.
+
+Solar astronomy
+
+Solar astronomy is the study of the Sun. The Sun is the closest star to Earth at around 92 million (92,000,000) miles away. It is the easiest to observe in detail. Observing the Sun can help us understand how other stars work and are formed. Changes in the Sun can affect the weather and climate on Earth. A stream of charged particles called the Solar wind is constantly sent off from the Sun. The Solar wind hitting the Earth's magnetic field causes the northern lights.
+
+Stellar Astronomy
+
+Stellar Astronomy, sometimes generally stellar astrophysics is the scientific study of stars, their formation, evolution and fate (stellar evolution). In the most basic sense,Stellar Astronomy attempts to answer the questions to the universe's most common phenomena â stars. Heavily relating with Galactic and Planetary Astronomy.
+
+Planetary astronomy
+Planetary astronomy is the study of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets and asteroids as well as other small objects that orbit stars. The planets of our own Solar System have been studied in depth by many visiting spacecraft such as Cassini-Huygens (Saturn) and the Voyager 1 and 2.
+
+Galactic astronomy
+Galactic astronomy is the study of distant galaxies. Studying distant galaxies is a good way of learning about our own galaxy, as the gases and stars in our own galaxy make it difficult to observe. Galactic astronomers try to understand the structure of galaxies and how they are formed by using different types of telescopes and computer simulations.
+
+Gravitational wave astronomy
+Gravitational wave astronomy is the study of the Universe in the gravitational wave spectrum. So far, all astronomy that has been done has used the electromagnetic spectrum. Gravitational waves are ripples in spacetime emitted by very dense objects changing shape, which include white dwarves, neutron stars and black holes. Because no one has been able to detect gravitational waves directly, the impact of gravitational wave astronomy has been limited.
+
+Unsolved problems
+Great discoveries also produce unsolved problems. This is just a short-list:
+Dark matter and dark energy: what are they?
+Ultimate fate of the Universe? What will it be?
+Why is lithium 4 times less than predicted?
+Origin of supermassive black holes.
+The source of ultra-high energy cosmic rays.
+The existence of life elsewhere.
+
+Related pages
+
+ Asteroid
+ Astrobiology
+ Black hole
+ Comet
+ Galaxy
+ Meteor
+ Planet
+ Planetarium
+ Satellite (natural)
+ Solar system
+ Star
+ Universe
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Astronomy site specifically designed for kids and their parents.
+ Astronomy Picture of the Day
+Architecture is the process of designing structures and buildings. It uses both art and engineering. Examples include houses, churches, hotels, office buildings, roads, viaducts, tunnels and bridges.
+
+Architecture is the profession of an architect. Usually, a person must study at an institution of higher education (university) to become an architect. There were architects long before there was higher education. They learnt by being an apprentice to an established architect.
+
+Architecture can do small designs, such as for a garage, or large designs, such as for a whole city. The capital cities of BrasĂlia, and Canberra were designed. Architects often work with structural engineers to make structurally sound buildings.
+
+
+
+History
+
+In the past, people built huts and wood houses to protect themselves from the weather. For safety, they were often close together. Great civilizations like the Ancient Egyptians built large temples and structures, like the Great Pyramids of Giza. The Ancient Greeks and Romans made what we now call "Classical Architecture". The Romans, working over 2000 years ago, copied the arch from the Etruscans, who copied it from the Mesopotamians.
+
+Classical architecture was formal, and it always obeyed laws. It used symmetry, which really means balance, and it used proportion between shapes. The Golden Mean was a rule which said, (to put it simply) if you are making a room, or any other thing, it will work best if you always make the long side 1.6 times as long as the short side. There are many 'laws' in classical architecture, like how high the middle of an arched bridge needs to be (which depends on how wide the bridge needs to be). These laws were learned from thousands of years of experience and they are often used today. However, today more notice is taken of specific facts, such as what wind speeds occur once or twice in a century. Several bridges have blown down because that was not properly taken into consideration.
+
+In some parts of the world, like India, the architecture is famous for carving the stone on temples and palaces. Different architectural styles occur in China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Africa, Mexico, and Central and South America.
+
+Architects in Western Europe in the Middle Ages made Romanesque architecture, then Gothic architecture. Gothic buildings have tall, pointed windows and arches. Many churches have Gothic architecture. Castles were also built at this time. In Eastern Europe, churches usually had domes. People added their own ideas and decoration to the Classical Architecture of the past. The Renaissance brought a return to classical ideas.
+
+In the late 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, people began to invent machines to make things quickly and cheaply. Many factories and mills were built during, or after this revolution. Decades later, in the Victorian era, architects like George Fowler Jones and Decimus Burton still followed the Gothic style to build new churches. Up to this point, buildings were limited in size and style by the strength of the wood and masonry used to construct them. Gothic cathedrals were among the largest buildings because the gothic arch when combined with buttresses allowed stone buildings to be built taller. For example, the cathedral in Ulm, Germany is over 500 feet tall. However, building with stone has its limits, and building too tall could result in collapse. This happened to the Beauvais Cathedral, which was never completed.
+
+Towards the end of the 19th Century with a second Industrial Revolution, steel became much cheaper. Architects began to use inventions like metal girders and reinforced concrete to build. An example is the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Buildings can now be built taller than ever before. We call them skyscrapers. This new technology has made us free from traditional limitations, and because of the new possibilities presented by these materials, many traditional methods of construction and ideas about style were reevaluated, replaced, or abandoned. Cheap, strong glass soon brought transparent exterior walls, especially for office buildings.
+
+Modernism is the name for the architectural style which developed because of these new building technologies, and its beginnings can been seen as early as 1890. Modernism can also refer to a specific group of architects and buildings from the early to late 20th century, and so may not be the proper term to use for many building built since then, which are sometimes called "post-modern".
+
+Many of the world's greatest structures were built by modern-day architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright; Sir Hugh Casson; Norman Foster; I. M. Pei; Adrian Smith; Edward Durell Stone; Frank Gehry; Fazlur Khan; Gottfried Böhm; and Bruce Graham.
+
+Related pages
+ Acoustics
+ Architect
+ Art
+ Building code
+ Building materials
+ Earthquake engineering
+ List of buildings
+ Pattern language
+ Skyscraper
+ Structural Engineering
+ World Heritage Sites
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ American Institute of Architects
+ Australian Institute of Architects
+ Royal Institute of British Architects
+ Royal Architectural Institute of Canada
+ New Zealand Institute of Architects
+ Architecture Citizendium
+Anatomy is the study of the bodies of people and other animals. Anatomy is the study of the inside of the body and outside the body. Anatomy notes the position and structure of organs such as muscles, glands and bones. A person who studies anatomy is an anatomist.
+
+The history of anatomy dates back to 1600 BC when Egyptians began studying human anatomy. They discovered the functions of many organs like the liver, spleen, kidneys, heart etc. and were the first to discover the structure and functions of the lymphatic system.
+
+For long periods the dissection of deceased people was forbidden, and correct ideas about human anatomy was a long time coming.
+
+Academic human anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools and teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching and research. Gross anatomy studies parts of the body that are big enough to see. Micro-anatomy studies smaller parts.
+
+Body systems
+There are different organ systems, such as the cardiovascular system, also known as the circulatory system (the system that gets blood around the body), the muscular system (the system that contains muscles), the nervous system (the system that controls the nerves,and the brain) and the skeleton (the bones).
+
+Anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are similar basic medical sciences.
+
+Related pages
+ Anatomical terms of location
+ Medicine
+ Zoology
+ Comparative anatomy
+ Organ (anatomy)
+ Gray's Anatomy
+ Vesalius
+ William Harvey
+
+References
+An asteroid is a minor planet that orbits within the inner solar system. It is a small object in the Solar System that travels around the Sun. It is like a planet but smaller. They range from very small (smaller than a car) to 600 miles (1000 km) across. A few asteroids have asteroid moon.
+
+The name "asteroid" means "like a star" in the ancient Greek language. Asteroids may look like small stars in the sky, but they really do move around the Sun. Like planets, asteroids do not make their own light. Because of this, some people think "asteroids" is not a good name, and think that the name "planetoid" ("like a planet") would be a better name.
+
+Giuseppe Piazzi found the first asteroid, in 1801. He called it Ceres, and it is the biggest object in the asteroid belt. Others, like Juno, Pallas, and Vesta were found later. In the 1850s, so many had been found that they were numbered by a Minor planet designation starting with 1 Ceres. Today, astronomers using computerized telescopes find thousands of asteroids every month. Asteroid impact prediction is one of their purposes.
+
+Asteroids are the leftover rock and other material from the formation of the Solar System. These rocks were too small to come together to make a planet. Some are made of carbon or metal. Depending on what's on the surface, they are classified into various asteroid spectral types including Type M (metal), Type S (stone), and Type C (carbon).
+
+Most asteroids in our Solar System are in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Many are not in the main asteroid belt. The ones that come close to Earth are called Near-Earth asteroids. Some scientists think asteroids striking the Earth killed off all the dinosaurs and caused some of the other extinction events.
+
+References
+Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (Pashto/Dari: ), is a country in Central Asia. It borders with Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast. Kabul is the country's capital city.
+
+Afghanistan is currently governed by the Taliban, after the collapse of the internationally recognized Islamic Republic of Afghanistan on 15 August 2021. In early times people passed through it with animals and other goods as it connected China and India with Central Asia and the Middle East. More recently, Afghanistan has been damaged by many years of war. There are not enough jobs.
+
+The country is around in size. There are 40.976 million people in Afghanistan. There are about 3 million Afghan refugees (people who had to leave the country) who are in Pakistan and Iran for some time. In 2011, its capital, Kabul, had about 3,691,400 people living in it.
+
+United Nations Human Rights Council decided in October to appoint (an independent expert, or) United Nations special rapporteur on "Afghanistan to [find out about, or] probe violations carried out by the Taliban and" others who are now part of a [big] conflict, media said.
+
+Geography
+
+Afghanistan has many mountains. The mountains are called the Hindu Kush and Himalayas. The tallest mountain in Afghanistan is Mount Nowshak. There are plains (which have soil that is good for growing plants) and foothills. Parts of the country are also dry, especially the Registan Desert.
+
+Afghanistan has snow and glaciers in the mountains. Amu Darya is the big water stream, or river.
+
+The country has an abundance of a valuable stone called lapis lazuli, which was also used to decorate the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun.
+
+Climate
+Afghanistan has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. Having no water sometimes causes problems for farmers. Sandstorms happen a lot in the desert.
+
+Plants and animals
+
+Southern Afghanistan has not many plants because it is dry. There are more plants where there is more water. Mountains have forests of pine and fir, cedar, oak, walnut, alder, and ash trees.
+
+Afghanistan's wild animals live in the mountains. There are wolves, foxes, jackals, bears, and wild goats, gazelles, wild dogs, camels, and wild cats such as the snow leopard in the country. The birds are falcons, eagles and vultures. The Rhesus Macaque and the red flying squirrel are also in Afghanistan.
+
+Many years of war, hunting, and years of no water have killed animals in Afghanistan. There used to be tigers in Afghanistan, but now there aren't any. Bears and wolves are almost gone.
+
+People and culture
+
+Many people have moved through or invaded the land of Afghanistan. Today's people of Afghanistan are known as Afghans. They have many traits passed down from these previous peoples.
+
+The largest group of people are the Pashtuns. These make up about half the population. Tajiks are the second-largest ethnic group, making up about one-fifth of the population. Before the 20th century, Tajiks were called Sarts and some come from the Iranian peoples. Most Pashtuns are also related to the Iranian peoples. Some Pashtuns and Tajiks marry each other but at the same time they are rivals. The third-largest group are the Hazaras. They are native to the Hazaristan area in central Afghanistan. The country's other groups include the Uzbek, Aimaq, Turkmen, Nuristani, Baloch, Pashayi and a few others.
+
+Dari-Persian and Pashto are the official languages of Afghanistan. Many people speak both languages. Both are Indo-European languages from the Iranian languages sub-family. They are usually written with the Arabic alphabet. Uzbek and Turkmen are widely spoken in the north and Nuristani and Pashai are spoken in the east. Around 99% of all Afghans follow the religion of Islam.
+
+Afghanistan is a largely rural country. This means there are only a few major cities. About one fifth of the population live in cities. Kabul, the capital, is the largest city. It is south of the Hindu Kush range and alongside the Kabul River. Other cities in Afghanistan include Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-e Sharif, and Jalalabad. The rural population is made up of farmers and nomads. The farmers live mainly in small villages along the rivers. The nomads live in tents while moving from place to place with their animals and belongings. Some people live in the high central mountains. Some live in the deserts in the south and southwest. Millions of people left Afghanistan to get away from the wars that happened in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Most of them lived in neighboring Pakistan and Iran.
+
+History
+Afghanistan is in the path of important trade routes that connect southern and eastern Asia to Europe and the Middle East. Because of this, many empire builders have decided to rule over the area. Signs that these emperors were near Afghanistan still exist in many parts of the country. Afghanistan is near what used to be the Silk Road, so it has many cultures. From up to 8,000 years ago, the peoples of Afghanistan helped develop (create) major world religions, traded and exchanged many products, and sometimes controlled politics and culture in Asia.
+
+Prehistory
+
+Archaeologists digging a cave in what is now northeastern Afghanistan (in Badakhshan), discovered that people lived in the country as early as 100,000 years ago. They found the skull of a Neanderthal, or early human, as well as tools from about 30,000 years ago. In other parts of Afghanistan, archaeologists uncovered pottery and tools that are 4,000 to 11,000 years oldâevidence that Afghans were among the first people in the world to grow crops and raise animals.
+
+Farmers and herders settled in the plains surrounding the Hindu Kush as early as 7000 B.C. These people may have grown rich off the lapis lazuli they found along riverbeds, which they traded to early city sites to the west, across the Iranian plateau and Mesopotamia. As farms and villages grew and thrived in Afghanistan, these ancient people eventually invented irrigation (digging ditches for water so it flows to crops) that allowed them to grow crops on the northern Afghanistan desert plains. This civilization (advanced state of organization) is today called BMAC (BactriaâMargiana Archaeological Complex), or the "Oxus civilization".
+
+The Oxus civilization expanded as far east as western edge of the Indus Valley during the period between 2200 and 1800 B.C. These people, who were the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans, used the term "Aryan" to identify their ethnicity, culture, and religion. Scholars know this when they read the ancient texts of these people; the Avesta of Iranic peoples and the Vedas of Indo-Aryans.
+
+Zoroaster, the founder of the Zoroastrian religion, the world's earliest monotheistic religion, (meaning a religion believing in one god) lived in the area (somewhere north of today's Afghanistan), around 1000 B.C.
+
+Ancient history
+
+Before the middle of the sixth century BCE, Afghanistan was held by the Medes.
+Then the Achaemenids took over control of the land and made it part of the Persian empire. Alexander the great defeated and conquered the Persian Empire in 330 BCE. He founded some cities in the area. The people used Macedonian culture and language. After Alexander, Greco-Bactrians, Scythians, Kushans, Parthians and Sassanians ruled the area.
+
+Kushans spread Buddhism from India in the 1st century BCE, and Buddhism remained an important religion in the area until the Islamic conquest in the 7th century CE.
+
+The Buddhas of Bamiyan were giant statues, a reminder of Buddhism in Afghanistan. They were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. There were international protests. The Taliban believe that the ancient statues were un-Islamic and that they had a right to destroy them.
+
+Medieval history
+
+Arabs introduced Islam in the 7th century and slowly began spreading the new religion. In the 9th and 10th centuries, many local Islamic dynasties rose to power inside Afghanistan. One of the earliest was the Tahirids, whose kingdom included Balkh and Herat; they established independence from the Abbasids in 820. The Tahirids were succeeded in about 867 by the Saffarids of Zaranj in western Afghanistan. Local princes in the north soon became feudatories of the powerful Samanids, who ruled from Bukhara. From 872 to 999, north of the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan enjoyed a golden age under Samanid rule.
+
+In the 10th century, the local Ghaznavids turned Ghazni into their capital and firmly established Islam throughout all areas of Afghanistan, except the Kafiristan region in the northeast. Mahmud of Ghazni, a great Ghaznavid sultan, conquered the Multan and Punjab region, and carried raids into the heart of India. Mohammed bin Abdul Jabbar Utbi (Al-Utbi), a historian from the 10th century, wrote that thousands of "Afghans" were in the Ghaznavid army. The Ghaznavid dynasty was replaced by the Ghorids of Ghor in the late 12th century, who reconquered Ghaznavid territory in the name of Islam and ruled it until 1206. The Ghorid army also included ethnic Afghans.
+
+Afghanistan was recognized as Khorasan, meaning "land of the rising sun," which was a prosperous and independent geographic region reaching as far as the Indus River.
+
+All the major cities of modern Afghanistan were centers of science and culture in the past. The New Persian literature arose and flourished in the area. The early Persian poets such as Rudaki were from what is now Afghanistan. Moreover, Ferdowsi, the author of Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, and Rumi, the famous Sufi poet, were also from modern-day Afghanistan. It has produced scientists such as Avicenna, Al-Farabi, Al-Biruni, Omar KhayyĂĄm, Al-Khwarizmi, and many others who are widely known for their important contributions in areas such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, physics, geography, and geology. It remained the cultural capital of Persia until the devastating Mongol invasion in the 13th century.
+
+Timur, the Turkic conqueror, took over in the end of the 14th century and began to rebuild cities in this region. Timur's successors, the Timurids (1405â1507), were great patrons of learning and the arts who enriched their capital city of Herat with fine buildings. Under their rule Afghanistan enjoyed peace and prosperity.
+
+Between south of the Hindu Kush and the Indus River (today's Pakistan) was the native land of the Afghan tribes. They called this land "Afghanistan" (meaning "land of the Afghans"). The Afghans ruled the rich northern Indian subcontinent with their capital at Delhi. From the 16th to the early 18th century, Afghanistan was disputed between the Safavids of Isfahan and the Mughals of Agra who had replaced the Lodi and Suri Afghan rulers in India. The Safavids and Mughals occasionally oppressed the native Afghans but at the same time the Afghans used each empire to punish the other. In 1709, the Hotaki Afghans rose to power and completely defeated the Persian Empire. Then they marched towards the Mughals of India and nominally defeated them with the help of the Afsharid forces under Nader Shah Afshar.
+
+In 1747, after Nader Shah of Persia was killed, a great leader named Ahmad Shah Durrani united all the different Muslim tribes and established the Afghan Empire (Durrani Empire). He is considered the founding father of the modern state of Afghanistan while Mirwais Hotak is the grandfather of the nation.
+
+Since the 1800s
+During the 1800s, Afghanistan became a buffer zone between two powerful empires, the British Indian Empire and the Russian Empire. As British India advanced into Afghanistan, Russia felt threatened and expanded southward across Central Asia. To stop the Russian advance, Britain tried to make Afghanistan part of its empire but the Afghans fought wars with British-led Indians from 1839 to 1842 and from 1878 to 1880. After the third war in 1919, Afghanistan under King Amanullah gained respect and recognition as a completely independent state.
+
+The Kingdom of Afghanistan was a constitutional monarchy established in 1926. It was the successor state to the Emirate of Afghanistan. On 27 September 1934, during the reign of Zahir Shah, the Kingdom of Afghanistan joined the League of Nations. During World War II, Afghanistan remained neutral. It pursued a diplomatic policy of non-alignment.
+
+The creation of Pakistan in 1947 as its eastern neighbor created problems. In 1973, political crises led to the overthrow of the king. The country's new leader ended the monarchy and made Afghanistan a republic. In 1978, a Communist political party supported by the Soviet Union seized control of Afghanistan's government. This move sparked rebellions throughout the country. The government asked the Soviet Union for military assistance. The Soviets took advantage of the situation and invaded Afghanistan in December 1979.
+
+Most people in Afghanistan opposed the sudden Soviet presence in their country. For nearly a decade, anti-Communist Islamic forces known as Mujahideen were trained inside neighboring Pakistan to fight the Soviets and the Afghan government. The United States and other anti-Soviet countries supported the Mujahideen. In the long war, over one million Afghan civilians were killed. The Soviet Army also lost more than 15,000 soldiers in that war. Millions of Afghans left their country to stay safe in neighboring Pakistan and Iran. In 1989 the Soviet Army withdrew the last of its troops.
+
+After the Soviets left in 1989, the Afghan Civil War started; different Afghan warlords began fighting for control of the country. The warlords received support from other countries, including neighboring Pakistan and Iran. A very conservative Islamic group known as the Taliban emerged in an attempt to end the civil war. By the late 1990s the Taliban had gained control over 95% of Afghanistan. A group known as the Northern Alliance, based in northern Afghanistan near the border with Tajikistan, continued to fight against the Taliban.
+
+The Taliban ruled Afghanistan according to their strict version of Islamic law. People whom the Taliban believed violated these laws were given cruel punishments. In addition, the Taliban completely restricted the rights of women. Because of such policies, most countries refused to recognize the Taliban government. Only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) accepted them as the official government.
+
+The Taliban also angered other countries by allowing suspected terrorists to live freely in Afghanistan. Among them were Osama bin Laden and members of the al-Qaeda terrorist network. In September 2001, the United States blamed bin Laden for the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon outside Washington, D.C. The Taliban refused to hand him over to the United States. In response, the United States and its allies launched a bombing campaign against al-Qaeda in October 2001. Within months the Taliban abandoned Kabul, and a new government led by Hamid Karzai came to power, but fighting between the Taliban and US-led armies continued. Taliban fighters have gone into Afghanistan from neighboring Pakistan. Afghans accuse Pakistan's military of being behind the Taliban militants but Pakistan has rejected this and stated that a stable Afghanistan is in Pakistan's own interest.
+
+In December 2004, Hamid Karzai became the first democratically elected president of Afghanistan. NATO began rebuilding Afghanistan, including its military and government institutions. Many schools and colleges were built. Freedom for women has improved. Women can study, work, drive, and run for office. Many Afghan women work as politicians, some are ministers while at least one is a mayor. Others have opened businesses, or joined the military or police. Afghanistan's economy has also improved dramatically, and NATO agreed in 2012 to help the country for at least another 10 years after 2014. In the meantime, Afghanistan improved diplomatic ties with many countries in the world and continues.
+
+In August 2021, the Cabinet of Afghanistan lost its power. Most of the country fell to the Taliban on 15 August 2021 with President Ashraf Ghani escaping the country. As of 18 August 2021, the former government's last remaining holdout is the Panjshir Valley.
+
+Government
+Since the Taliban captured Kabul on 15 August 2021, the governance of Afghanistan is disputed between the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.
+
+According to Transparency International, Afghanistan remains in the top most corrupt countries list.
+
+Provinces
+As of 2004, there are thirty-four provinces. Each province is divided into districts. (For cities see List of cities in Afghanistan.)
+
+Relationship with other countries
+ Russia's ambassador (Dmitrij Zjirnov) had a meeting with representatives from Taliban on 18 August 2021; Russia's embassy was still in operation (or open).
+ An "Indian [ diplomat or] envoy to Qatar" had [at least one] meeting "with Taliban leader Stanekzai in Doha in late August", media said.
+ A United States "team led by" [then] "Deputy Special Representative Tom West and [a] top USAID humanitarian official" had meetings, in Qatar in October, with Afghanistani officials. Women's rights was a subject during the talks.
+ Norway's ambassador visited Afghanistan - and had meetings with Taliban - during a two-day visit in the middle of January 2022. Representatives of the Taliban leadership will come to Norway and meet diplomats from different countries, during 23.-25. January. Also, Norway has stopped (as of 2022's first quarter) supporting with money - (to) the authorities of Afghanistan, media said. Previously, Norwegian diplomats had at least two meetings with Taliban in Doha, in 2021's fourth quarter; There are no political talks yet (as of 2021's fourth quarter); the talks are about humanitarian aid and evacuation.
+ Turkey's foreign minister had a meeting (in Turkey) with "a delegation led by" foreign minister of Afghanistan, in 2021's fourth quarter.
+ In Russia, a meeting about Afghanistan was held on October 20; "The participants [... were] India, USA, Afghanistan, China, Pakistan, Iran and Central Asian" countries, media said.
+
+Diplomatic missions that still represent the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
+ The ambassador in Oslo, Norway does not recognize the Taliban-led government (as of 2021's fourth quarter).
+
+Related pages
+ Government of Afghanistan
+ Afghanistan at the Olympics
+ Afghanistan national football team
+ List of rivers of Afghanistan
+ Saeeda Etebari, Afghan jeweler
+ Wahida Amiri, Afghan activist
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+
+ Afghan Studies Center
+
+Least developed countries
+Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
+1709 establishments
+Former British colonies
+Landlocked countries
+Afghanistan
+Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country in southern Africa. It shares borders with Namibia in the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the north, and Zambia in the east. Its west border touches the Atlantic Ocean. Its coastline is 1600 kilometers. Angola's capital is Luanda. The country has many natural resources. Angola is the seventh largest country in Africa. The capital and most populated city of Angola is Luanda.
+
+Angola is a member state of the African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin Union, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone and the Southern African Development Community.
+
+History
+Portugal built up its power in Angola from the late 15th to the middle 20th century.
+
+After independence there was a civil war from 1975 to 2002. Cuba and the Soviet Bloc supported the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). South Africa supported the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) until the end of apartheid. The war ended after the rebel leader Jonas Savimbi was killed.
+
+Geography
+Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country. Angola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, the Republic of the Congo via the exclave of Cabinda, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west.
+
+Climate
+Angola's average temperature on the coast is in the winter and in the summer. It has two seasons; dry (May to October) and hot rainy (November to April).
+
+Demographics
+
+Angola had a population of 25,789,024 in 2014.
+
+Provinces
+
+Angola is divided into eighteen provinces.
+
+See List of settlements in Angola for the cities and towns in the country.
+
+Related pages
+Angola at the Olympics
+Angola national football team
+List of rivers of Angola
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+
+
+
+Portuguese-speaking countries
+Least developed countries
+1975 establishments in Africa
+Argentina (officially the Argentine Republic) is a country in South America. Argentina is the second-largest country in South America and the eighth-largest country in the world.
+
+Spanish is the most spoken language, and the official language, but many other languages are spoken. There are minorities speaking Italian, German, English, Quechua and even Welsh in Patagonia.
+
+In eastern Argentina is Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, it is also one of the largest cities in the world. In order by number of people, the largest cities in Argentina are Buenos Aires, CĂłrdoba, Rosario, Mendoza, La Plata, TucumĂĄn, Mar del Plata, Salta, Santa Fe, and BahĂa Blanca.
+
+Argentina is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. It is bordered by Paraguay and Bolivia in the north, Brazil and Uruguay in the northeast, and Chile in the west and south. It also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Most citizens of the Argentine Republic are descendants of immigrants from Europe. They are united by citizenship and not necessarily by ethnicity. Most Argentinians embrace both their ethnic origins and Argentinian nationality.
+
+History
+The name Argentina comes from the Latin argentum (silver) as the Spanish conquistadors believed the area had silver. In the Americas (South and North), Canada, US, Brazil and Argentina are the largest countries (in that order).
+
+The oldest signs of people in Argentina are in the Patagonia (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and are more than 13,000 years old. In 1480 the Inca Empire conquered northwestern Argentina, making it part of the empire. In the northeastern area, the GuaranĂ developed a culture based on yuca and sweet potato however typical dishes all around Argentina are pasta, red wines (Italian influence) and beef.
+
+Other languages spoken are Italian, English and German. Lunfardo is Argentinean slang and is a mix of Spanish and Italian. Argentinians are said to speak Spanish with an Italian accent.
+
+Argentina declared independent from Spain in 1816, and achieved it in a War led by JosĂ© de San MartĂn in 1818. Many immigrants from Europe came to the country. By the 1920s it was the 7th wealthiest country in the world, but it began a decline after this. In the 1940s, following the "infamous decade" where the country's politics were not stable, Juan Peron came to power. Peron was one of the most important people in the country's history and many politicians today call themselves Peronist. Peron was forced out of power in 1955. After spending years in exile he returned to power in the 1970s.
+
+In 1976, the country was falling into chaos, and the military took power. This was not the first time the military had done this. Leading the new government was Jorge Rafael Videla. Videla was one of history's most brutal dictators. Thousands of people disappeared or were killed during his time as president. Videla retired in 1980.
+
+One of his successors was another general turned dictator, Leopoldo Galtieri. By the time Galtieri was in office in 1981 the dictatorship became unpopular. To stir up support, Galtieri ordered an invasion of the Falkland Islands, starting the Falklands War. Argentina lost the war, and soon the country fell into chaos again. Galtieri was removed from power and eventually democracy was restored. Galtieri and Videla would be charged with "crimes against humanity" because of the mass murder and other crimes that they ordered as president.
+
+In the early 21st century Argentina is one of the most important countries in Latin America, though it still has many problems. It has a large economy and is influential in the "southern cone" of South America and a member of the G20 developing nations.
+
+Politics
+Argentina is a federal republic. The people of Argentina vote for a President to rule them and Senators and Deputies to speak for them and make laws for them. The President is Alberto FernĂĄndez since December 2019.
+
+Administrative divisions
+
+Argentina is divided into 23 provinces (provincias; singular: provincia), and 1 city (commonly known as capital federal):
+
+Geography
+
+Argentina is almost 3,700 km long from north to south, and 1,400 km from east to west (maximum values). It can be divided into three parts: the Pampas in the central part of the country, Patagonia in the southern part down to Tierra del Fuego; and the Andes mountain range along the western border with Chile, with the highest point in the province of Mendoza. Cerro Aconcagua, at 6,960 metres (22,834 ft), is the Americas' highest mountain.
+
+The most important rivers include the River Plate, Paraguay, Bermejo, Colorado, Uruguay and the largest river, the ParanĂĄ. River Plate was incorrectly translated though, and should have been translated to English as River of (the) Silver. River Plate is also a famous Buenos Aires soccer team.
+
+See List of cities in Argentina for the many places people live in Argentina.
+
+Other information
+The majority of the Argentineans are descendants of Europeans mainly from Spain, Italy, Germany, Ireland, France, other Europeans countries and Mestizo representing more than 90% of the total population of the country. More than 300,000 Roma gypsies live in Argentina. Since the 1990s, Romanian, Brazilian and Colombian gypsies arrived in Argentina.
+
+Football or soccer is the most popular sport, although the national sport of the country is Pato. Argentina has a number of highly ranked Polo players. Field hockey (for women) rugby and golf are also favorites.
+
+Argentina is a Christian country. Most of Argentina's people (80 percent) are Roman Catholic. Argentina also has the largest population of Jewish community after Israel and US. Middle Eastern immigrants who were Muslims converted to Catholicism, but there are still Muslims as well.
+
+Medicine is socialized and so is education, making Argentina's literacy rate about 98%. State University is free as well.
+
+Related pages
+Argentina at the Olympics
+Argentina national football team
+List of rivers of Argentina
+
+References
+
+ General information and maps
+ Geography and tourism
+ Pictures from Argentina grouped by provincia
+
+Other websites
+
+ Argentina.gov.ar - Official national portal
+ Gobierno ElectrĂłnico - Official government website
+ Presidencia de la NaciĂłn - Official presidential website
+ Honorable Senado de la NaciĂłn - Official senatorial website
+ Honorable CĂĄmara de Diputados de la NaciĂłn - Official lower house website
+ SecretarĂa de Turismo de la NaciĂłn - Official tourism board website
+
+
+Spanish-speaking countries
+Austria (, ; ), officially the Republic of Austria ( ), is a country in Central Europe. Around Austria there are the countries of Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein.
+
+The people in Austria speak German, a few also speak Hungarian, Slovenian and Croatian. The capital of Austria is Vienna (Wien).
+
+History
+Austria is more than a thousand years old. Its history can be followed to the ninth century. At that time the first people moved to the land now known as Austria. The name "Ostarrichi" is first written in an official document from 996. Since then this word has developed into the Modern German word Ăsterreich, which literally means "East Empire."
+
+Ancient times
+There has been human settlement in the area that is now Austria for a long time. The first settlers go back to the Paleolithic age. That was the time of the Neanderthals. They left works of art such as the Venus of Willendorf. In the Neolithic age people were living there to dig for mineral resources, especially copper. Ătzi, a mummy found in a glacier between Austria and Italy, is from that time. In the Bronze Age people built bigger settlements and fortresses, especially where there were mineral resources. Salt mining began near Hallstatt. At that time, Celts began to form the first states.
+
+The Romans
+
+The Romans came 15 B.C. to Austria and made the Celtic Regnum Noricum to a province. Modern Austria was part of three provinces, Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia. The border in the north was the Danube.
+
+Holy Roman Empire
+From the early Middle Ages, the area of modern-day Austria was a part of the Holy Roman Empire. The capital of the Holy Roman Empire was the Austrian city Vienna. The Austrian Habsburg family were the rulers of the Empire and the son of the Holy Roman Emperor held the title of Archduke of Austria.
+
+In 1806, France defeated the Holy Roman Empire and replaced it with the Confederation of the Rhine. Former Holy Roman Emperor Francis II became the Emperor of the new Austrian Empire, which later became Austria-Hungary.
+
+Modern history
+In 1914, Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and this led to World War I. In 1918, both Austria and Hungary became republics. They also both split into two separate countries.
+
+During World War II, Austria was part of Nazi Germany. It became independent in May 1945.
+
+Geography
+
+Austria is a mountainous country since it is partially in the Alps. Grossglockner is the tallest mountain in Austria. The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country where the Danube flows.
+
+Climate
+Austria has a continental climate.
+
+The highest temperature ever recorded in Austria was , on 8 August 2013 in Bad Deutsch-Altenburg. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Austria was , on 19 February 1932 at GrĂŒnloch doline.
+
+Politics
+
+Austria is a democratic republic. The President of Austria is the head of state and the Chancellor of Austria is the head of government.
+
+It is a neutral state, that means it does not take part in wars with other countries. It has been in the United Nations since 1955 and in the European Union since 1995.
+
+Austria is also a federal state and divided into nine states ():
+ Burgenland (Burgenland)
+ Carinthia (KĂ€rnten)
+ Lower Austria (Niederösterreich)
+ Upper Austria (Oberösterreich)
+ Salzburg(erland) (Salzburg)
+ Styria (Steiermark)
+ Tyrol (Tirol)
+ Vorarlberg (Vorarlberg)
+ Vienna (Wien)
+
+More information: States of Austria.
+
+Currently, the chancellor is Karl Nehammer The previous chancellor was Alexander Schallenberg (2021). Austria has been a member-state of the United Nations since 1955, the European Union since 1995 and OPEC since 2019.
+
+Culture
+
+Music and Arts
+Many famous composers were Austrians or born in Austria. There are Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr., Johann Strauss, Jr. and Gustav Mahler. In modern times there were Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg, who belonged to the Second Viennese School.
+
+Austria has many artists, there are Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele or Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Inge Morath or Otto Wagner and scienc.
+
+Food
+Famous Austrian dishes are Wiener Schnitzel, Apfelstrudel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, Knödel, Sachertorte and Tafelspitz. But you can also find a lot of local dishes like KÀrntner Reindling (a kind of cake), KÀrntner Nudeln (also called "KÀrntner Kasnudeln", you may write it "...nudln" too), Tiroler Knödl (may be written "...knödel"; ), Tiroler Schlipfkrapfen (another kind of "KÀrntner Nudeln"), Salzburger Nockerl (also may be written ..."Nockerln"), Steirisches Wurzelfleisch (..."Wurzlfleisch") or Sterz ("Steirischer Sterz").
+
+UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Austria
+ Historic Centre of Salzburg â 1996
+ Schönbrunn Palace â 1996
+ HallstattâDachstein Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape â 1997
+ Semmering Railway â 1998
+ Historic Centre of Graz and Schloss Eggenberg â 1999 (extended in 2010)
+ Wachau Cultural Landscape â 2000
+ Historic Centre of Vienna â 2001
+ Lake Neusiedl â 2001
+
+Gallery
+
+Related pages
+ List of rivers of Austria
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+
+ Austria Maps
+
+
+European Union member states
+German-speaking countries
+Federations
+Armenia (Armenian: ŐŐĄŐ”ŐĄŐœŐżŐĄŐ¶, Hayastan), officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country located in the Armenian Highlands, spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia.
+
+History
+The Hittites and Hayasa-Azzi may have played a significant role in the ethnicity of Armenians. It has an ancient cultural heritage. One of the earliest Armenian kingdoms such as Urartu was established in 860 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia. The Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC and became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion in the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The official date of state adoption of Christianity is 301.
+
+Foreign invasion
+Between the 16th century and 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland composed of Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia came under the rule of the Ottoman and Iranian empires, repeatedly ruled by either of the two over the centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, while most of the western parts of the traditional Armenian homeland remained under Ottoman rule.
+
+20th century
+During World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically
+exterminated in the Armenian Genocide, perpetrated by Ottoman Young Turks. Around 1.5 million people were slaughtered and many more deported. In 1918, following the Russian Revolution, all non-Russian countries declared their independence after the Russian Empire ceased to exist, leading to the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and in 1922 became a founding member of the Soviet Union. In 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
+
+21st century
+
+Administrative divisions
+Armenia is divided into ten provinces, with the city of Yerevan having special administrative status as the country's capital. The chief executive in each of the ten provinces is the marzpet (marz governor), appointed by the government of Armenia. In Yerevan, the chief executive is the mayor, appointed by the president.
+
+, Armenia includes 915 communities, of which 49 are considered urban and 866 are considered rural.
+
+â 2011 censusSources: Area and population of provinces.
+
+Culture
+Armenia is a Christian majority country, with European and some wider Eurasian cultural influences. The Republic of Armenia recognises the Armenian Apostolic Church, the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD.
+
+Armenia is a member of the Council of Europe, the Eurasian Economic Union and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia supports the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh, which was proclaimed in 1991.
+
+Gallery
+
+References
+
+Notes
+
+Armenia
+Caucasus
+Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of the human past. It looks at remains and objects left by the people who lived long ago. These remains may include old coins, tools, buildings, and inscriptions. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived.
+
+Fieldwork
+
+When archaeologists do fieldwork, they look for remains, often by digging in the ground. As settlements (places where people lived in groups) change and grow, old buildings get buried. Usually, this is a natural process. A typical student project is to leave an object in a place where there is nothing going on. It will get covered rather quickly, because wind, water and plants will bury it. Sometimes buildings are deliberately buried to make way for new buildings. Ancient Rome, for example, is now up to 40 feet (12 metres) below the present city. This process of natural or man-made burial is why archaeological fieldwork involves digging, and is expensive and takes a long time.
+
+When things are found, or even when nothing is found, the results of the fieldwork are taken back to a base. Short term, the base is often on or near the site. Longer term, the results will usually go to a university or museum. Everything is written down on paper or entered into a computer. Gradually, they build up a picture of what happened long ago. Archaeologists publish their research so others can understand what they learned.
+
+Fields of interest
+Archaeologists do not all study the same topics. They have specialties. Some fields of interest include Ancient Egypt (these specialists are called Egyptologists), Ancient China, or the Vikings. Archaeologists study every civilization that is known, especially the ones where there is no written history. They can study any time period. For example, one might study the beginning of human life in Africa, or study World War II. Marine archaeologists study things that are now underwater. They search for sunken ships or cities that have been lost under the sea.
+
+Subdisciplines
+There are many different ways of doing archaeology. these depend on the methods used, the things studied, and the environment. Some of these subdisciplines overlap with each other.
+
+Marine archaeology
+Archaeology relating to oceans, seas and lakes is usually done underwater. It includes the study of sunken ships and submerged coastlines. "Maritime archaeology" is a part of this subdivision. It refers to the archaeological investigation of past ships and seafaring. A famous example of maritime archaeology is the recovery and restoration of the ship burial at Sutton Hoo.
+
+Ice-patch archaeology
+When a glacier melts, objects that were captured in it are revealed. The recovery and study of these objects is called "ice-patch archaeology". A famous example is Ătzi the Iceman.
+
+Historical archaeology
+Historical archaeology deals with places, things, and issues from the past or present at or related to sites with written records or oral traditions. Or it can be defined as "the archaeological investigation of any past culture that has developed a literate tradition." A prominent example of historical archaeology is the work done at Colonial Williamsburg.
+
+Industrial archaeology
+This relatively new branch of archaeology consists of "the systematic study of structures and artefacts as a means of enlarging our understanding of the industrial past."
+
+Archaeozoology
+Archaeozoology, or zooarchaeology, is the study of the relationships between humans and animals in the archaeological record. This includes the study of bones, feathers, teeth and other body parts as well as their interpretation.
+
+Experimental archaeology
+This field involves attempts at replicating the actions and conditions of ancient cultures. Good examples are Butser Ancient Farm and Overton Down.
+
+Sites
+In many countries, governments and other groups of people protect important archaeological sites so they will not be destroyed and so that visitors can always come and see them.
+
+Sometimes archaeological sites are found when foundations are dug for new buildings. Archaeologists have to work quickly when this happens, because people who are building often don't have a lot of time. As soon as the archaeologists are done with their work, the remains that they have found will be covered over, unless they are very important.
+
+Related pages
+ Archaeological site
+ Civilization
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Archaeology -Citizendium
+The word application has several uses.
+
+In medicine, 'application' means putting some drug or ointment usually on the skin where it is absorbed into the human body.
+
+In computer software, an application is a type of program which is designed for a particular function. Example: word processing. It is most used to mean a Mobile app.
+
+In business or government, an application is a (usually paper) form filled out and handed in by a person seeking a privilege from a state or company, such as work, credit, some type of license or permit, or a place to live.
+
+At work, generally engineering, when dealing with certain materials or objects, an "application" is a purpose that material or object can be used for. Wood and steel have many applications.
+Animals (or Metazoa) are living creatures with many cells. Animals get their energy from other living things. Usually, they eat them or are parasites. Animals, plants, fungi, and some other living things have complex cells, so they are grouped together as eukaryotes.
+
+The study of animals is called zoology. The study of ancient life is called palaeontology.
+
+Most animals are mobile, meaning they can move around. Animals take in oxygen, and give out carbon dioxide. This cellular respiration is part of their metabolism (chemical working). In both these ways they are different from plants. Also, the cells of animals have different cell membranes to other eukaryotes like plants and fungi.
+
+Plants are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms, but live by using light, water and basic elements to make their tissues.
+
+Grouping animals
+There are many different types of animals. The common animals most people know are only about 3% of the animal kingdom. When biologists look at animals, they find things that certain animals have in common. They use this to group the animals in a biological classification. Several million species may exist, but biologists have only identified about one million.
+
+Animals can mainly be divided into two main groups: the invertebrates and the vertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone, or spine; invertebrates do not. Vertebrates are the only group to have an adaptive immune system, which may be partly responsible for their size and success.
+
+Vertebrates are:
+Fish (or 'fishes': both ways are correct)
+Amphibia
+Reptiles
+Birds
+Mammals
+
+Some invertebrates are:
+Insects
+Spiders
+Crustacea
+Molluscs (like a snail or squid)
+worms
+jellyfish
+
+Life styles
+The animal mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic because they get their food from other living organisms. Some animals eat only plants; they are called herbivores. Other animals eat only meat and are called carnivores. Animals that eat both plants and meat are called omnivores. Some animals get their energy from photosynthetic protists that live inside them.
+
+The environments animals live in vary greatly. By the process of evolution, animals adapt to the habitats they live in. A fish is adapted to its life in water and a spider is adapted to a life catching and eating insects. A mammal living on the savannahs of East Africa lives quite a different life from a dolphin or porpoise catching fish in the sea.
+
+The fossil record of animals goes back about 600 million years to the Ediacaran period, or somewhat earlier. During the whole of this long time, animals have been constantly evolving, so that the animals alive on Earth today are very different from those on the edges of the sea-floor in the Ediacaran.
+
+Everyday language
+In scientific usage, humans are animals. But in everyday use, humans are often not regarded as animals.
+
+Related pages
+ List of animal phyla
+Ethology, the study of animal behaviour
+
+References
+
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Acceleration is a measure of how fast velocity changes. Acceleration is the change of velocity divided by the change of time. Acceleration is a vector, and therefore includes both a size and a direction. Acceleration is also a change in speed and direction, there is:
+
+Speed (a scalar quantity) (uses no direction)
+
+ Distance is how far you traveled
+ Time is how long it took you to travel
+ Speed is how fast you are moving - Speed = Distance / Time
+
+Velocity (a vector quantity) (uses a direction)
+
+ Displacement is how much your position has changed in what direction
+ Velocity is how quickly your position is changing and in what direction
+ Velocity = Displacement / Time
+
+The measurement of how fast acceleration changes is called jerk.
+
+Examples
+ An object was moving north at 10 meters per second. The object speeds up and now is moving north at 17 meters per second. The object has accelerated.
+ An apple is falling down. It starts falling at 0 meters per second. At the end of the first second, the apple is moving at 9.8 meters per second. The apple has accelerated. At the end of the second second, the apple is moving down at 19.6 meters per second. The apple has accelerated again.
+ Jane is walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Jane's velocity does not change. Jane's acceleration is zero.
+ Tom was walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Tom turns and walks south at 3 kilometers per hour. Tom has had a nonzero acceleration.
+ Sally was walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Sally slows down. After, Sally walks east at 1.5 kilometers per hour. Sally has had a nonzero acceleration.
+ Acceleration due to gravity
+
+Finding acceleration
+
+Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object. Acceleration can be found by using:
+
+where
+ is the velocity at the start
+ is the velocity at the end
+ is the time at the start
+ is the time at the end
+
+Sometimes the change in velocity is written as Î. Sometimes the change in time is written as Ît.
+
+In difficult situations, the acceleration can be calculated using mathematics: in calculus, acceleration is the derivative of the velocity (with respect to time), .
+
+Units of measurement
+Acceleration has its own units of measurement. For example, if velocity is measured in meters per second, and if time is measured in seconds, then acceleration is measured in meters per second squared (m/s2).
+
+Other words
+Acceleration can be positive or negative. When the acceleration is negative (but the velocity does not change direction), it is sometimes called deceleration. For example, when a car brakes it decelerates. Physicists usually only use the word "acceleration".
+
+Newton's second law of motion
+Newton's laws of motion are rules for how things move. These rules are called "laws of motion". Isaac Newton is the scientist who first wrote down the main laws of motion.
+According to Newton's Second Law of Motion, the force something needs to accelerate an object depends on the object's mass (the amount of "stuff" the object is made from or how "heavy" it is).
+The formula of Newton's Second Law of Motion is ,
+where is the acceleration, is the force, and the mass.
+This formula is very well-known, and it is very important in physics. Newton's Second Law of Motion, in short "Newton's Second Law", is often one of the first things that physics students learn.
+
+Deceleration
+Deceleration is negative or backwards acceleration. This means that something slows down instead of speeding up. For example, when a car brakes, it is decelerating.
+
+Basic physics ideas
+Mechanics
+Black pudding is an English name for zwarte pudding. It is food made by cooking down the blood of any mammal (usually pigs or cattle) with meat, fat or filler until it is thick enough to congeal (become firm or solid) when cooled.
+
+Types of black pudding
+
+In Great Britain, blood sausage is called "black pudding". The ingredients include pig's blood, suet, bread, barley and oatmeal. Bury is well known for them. The most common kind of German Blutwurst is made from fatty pork meat, beef blood and filler such as barley. Though already cooked and "ready to eat" it is usually served warm.
+
+Other kinds of blood sausage include boudin noir (France), boudin rouge (Creole and Cajun) and morcilla (Spain).
+
+History
+A legend says that blood sausage was invented in a bet between two Bavarian butchers drunk on the alcoholic drink absinthe during the 14th century. Homer's Odyssey from Ancient Greece says that "As when a man besides a great fire has filled a sausage with fat and blood and turns it this way and that and is very eager to get it quickly roasted...".
+
+Related pages
+Sausage
+
+References
+
+Sausage
+A boot device is used to start a computer. It is named after a boot which fits on the foot. The word bootstrap is also closely related, and means, to use something simpler to get something more complex to make itself work better. It comes from the English phrase "pull yourself up by your own bootstraps."
+
+Before a computer can operate normally, it must have operating system instructions that tell it how to perform basic functions. A boot device loads the operating system into the memory of the computer.
+
+Devices that can boot a computer are usually boot disks or boot drives (normally a hard drive or Solid State Drive, but can be a floppy disk, flash drive or a CD). Some network computers use boot chips that get the operating system over a network. Web phones also use such chips to identify the user to the mobile phone network. Boot card standards may let many users boot kiosk computers with full privacy and access to all application software they own. There are also boot boards or boot add-in cards that are more permanent than boot cards.
+
+Some people refer to the boot device as just a boot and non-boot devices as data devices, although it is not the computer but the operating system that cares about the difference between these.
+
+Origin
+The boot in boot device is the same as booting (or starting up). This is short for bootstrapping, or to start with simple stuff and make complex stuff out of it.
+
+Related pages
+Booting
+
+software
+Computer hardware
+A boot is a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle. Boots are higher and larger than shoes and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the calves (lower part of the leg) as well. Some boots are held on with bootstraps or bootlaces. Some also have spats or gaiters to keep water out. Most have a very strong boot sole, the bottom part of a boot.
+
+Types of boots
+ Rain boots (or rubber boots) are made from rubber or plastic. Rain boots protect a person's feet from water and rain. People who work on fishing boats and farmers wear rubber boots to keep their feet dry. People who work in chemical factories wear rubber boots to protect their feet from dangerous chemicals.
+
+ Winter boots are boots that keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as Canada and Sweden wear winter boots during the cold season. Winter boots can be made from many different materials, such as leather, fabric, or plastic. Winter boots are insulated with wool or fur to keep the feet warm. Most winter boots also keep people's feet dry.
+
+ Work boots (or "construction boots") are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs. Work boots often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work boots are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals. Some work boots have a flat piece of steel in the sole to protect the foot from sharp nails. Many countries require construction workers to wear work boots when they are on a construction site.
+
+ Fashion boots are boots that are worn for style than for protection. Usually the term is used for women's boots. These kind of boots come in many heights, where the top ends at the ankle, the knee, or the thigh. The ones that are tall are usually closed by a zipper or can stretch for putting it on easily. This is because using shoe laces would take time for the taller types.
+
+Other websites
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Bankruptcy is a legal process which happens when a person or an organization does not have enough money to pay all of its debts. Legally they are insolvent.
+
+Where it is a person who cannot pay their debts, the person's creditors may ask the court to appoint a trustee in bankruptcy. This is a professional accountant who is appointed by the court, to take control of the bankrupt person's assets. Some assets are protected by law, but the trustee in bankruptcy will sell off all of the other assets and use the money to pay as much of that person's debts as possible. After the process is complete the person is discharged from bankruptcy, and the person is free from any further liability to pay those claims, but normally that person will be limited in their ability to borrow money again because their credit rating will be damaged.
+
+Where it is an organisation which cannot pay its debts, the creditors may ask the court to appoint a liquidator. The liquidator does a very similar job to the trustee in bankruptcy except that there are no assets which are protected so the liquidator can sell everything. Once all of the assets of the organisation have been sold, the organisation is then dissolved and no longer exists. Organisations do not get discharged from bankruptcy in the same way that a living person does.
+
+Insolvency or bankruptcy
+People often confuse the terms bankruptcy and insolvency, and sometimes they use one word when they really mean the other. Insolvency usually just means that a someone does not have enough money to pay their debts or (sometimes) that the total amount of their debts is worth more than the total amount of their assets. Bankruptcy is a formal legal process in front of the courts. Although the two terms are connected, just because a person is insolvent does not necessarily mean that they will go into bankruptcy.
+
+Alternatives to bankruptcy
+Many countries have alternatives to bankruptcy to try and allow people and businesses to try and avoid the bankruptcy process.
+
+In various countries, individual people can try and reach individual voluntary arrangements (or IVAs) with their creditors. This means that the creditors agree to take less money to discharge their debts. There are similar processes for companies and other organisations, and they go by various different names in different countries, but in many countries they are called schemes of arrangement.
+
+Bankruptcy protection
+In many countries a company or business can ask the courts for bankruptcy protection to try and protect the business so that the creditors cannot destroy all of the physical capital and goodwill by breaking it apart and moving it away. The aim of this is to provide more time for the business to reorganise itself and to work out a new deal between the owners and the people with whom the business owes money. In many countries this is called going into administration.
+
+However, not all countries have bankruptcy protection laws for businesses.
+
+Debt slavery
+Often a creditor threatens a debtor with debt slavery in many parts of the world. In some cases the debtor does not know that they have a right to go bankrupt. This is a human rights problem in some countries. Also, some creditors continue to harass a debtor even though bankruptcy laws say they should not, hoping that the debtor will pay them money that they do not deserve.
+
+United States
+Bankruptcy in the United States falls mostly under federal law, Title 11 of the United States Code (Bankruptcy Code). The types of bankruptcy available in the United States are named after the primary divisions, or "chapters", of that law. The person or business that files a bankruptcy case is known as the debtor.
+
+When a bankruptcy case is filed, a trustee is chosen by the court. The trustee has authority over the property of the bankrupt person or business and may use some of the debtor's assets to pay the creditors. After a bankruptcy is filed, creditors are notified that they are to stop trying to collect money directly from the debtor and are to make claims for payment to the bankruptcy court.
+
+Chapter 7
+The most common form of bankruptcy is the Chapter 7 Bankruptcy, which can be filed by businesses or individuals. It is also called liquidation bankruptcy because some of a debtor's property may be sold (liquidated) to satisfy creditors. When a business is in debt which it cannot pay, it may ask or be forced to file bankruptcy in court under Chapter 7. This usually makes a company stop doing business. Employees often lose their jobs when company files for chapter 7.
+
+Chapter 11
+Chapter 11 bankruptcy is a complicated type of bankruptcy that reorganizes the debtor's finances, usually reducing the amount of debt owed and changing debt repayment terms. A Chapter 11 bankruptcy case allows a business to keep running while it finds ways to reduce and arrange payment of its debts.
+
+Almost all Chapter 11 bankruptcies are filed by businesses. Ordinary people do not usually file Chapter 11 bankruptcy, because a Chapter 13 bankruptcy will almost always be cheaper and easier for them.
+
+Chapter 13
+Chapter 13 is the most popular form of bankruptcy in the United States for ordinary people. In a Chapter 13 bankruptcy some of your debts may be forgiven (discharged), but you will have to pay back a portion of your debt. The debt repayment plan is supervised by the bankruptcy court and usually lasts for three to five years. Businesses cannot file for Chapter 13 bankruptcy.
+
+Other bankruptcy chapters
+
+Less common forms of bankruptcy may be filed under Chapter 9 and Chapter 12 of the bankruptcy code.
+
+ Chapter 9 bankruptcy allows municipalities, smaller units of government such as cities and towns, to restructure their debts.
+ Chapter 12 bankruptcy is a special type of bankruptcy for family farms and fishermen. It combines elements of Chapter 11 and Chapter 13 bankruptcy to allow smaller farms and fishing businesses to stay open while they restructure their debts.
+
+References
+
+Finance
+Business law
+Breakfast sausage is a type of fresh pork sausage made from seasoned ground meat mixed with bread crumbs. Breakfast sausage has a blander flavor than many other types of sausage, such as British or Italian-style sausages.
+
+Using breakfast sausages
+Breakfast sausages are not cured or smoked like other types of sausages, which means that they have to be cooked soon after they are purchased (unless they are frozen). Uncooked sausages should be stored in the refrigerator or the freezer. Individuals handling them should wash their hands in hot soapy water, because uncooked pork is unhealthy for humans. Pork sausages have to be heated until all of the meat inside is cooked.
+
+They are usually fried or grilled in a pan until they are browned and served at breakfast, often with cooked eggs, pancakes, and toasted bread. Breakfast sausages are also used in other dishes, such as "toad in the hole" a cooked batter dish.
+
+Types of breakfast sausages
+Different types made from pork and beef mixtures as well as poultry can now be found. There are also vegetarian types that use textured vegetable protein in place of meat. Breakfast sausages are available in patties or slices from a large roll, or in weiner-like links of different lengths and thickness.
+
+Sausage
+Breakfast foods
+A browser is a name given to any animal, usually a herbivorous mammal, which eats leaves and shrubs rather than grass. It is contrasted with grazers, which eat grass.
+
+Animals by eating behaviors
+Beekeeping or apiculture is the farming of honeybees.
+
+Uses
+The keeping of bees is usually, and has been in the past, for honey. That is becoming less true. Instead, it is more used for crop pollination and other products. These are wax and propolis.
+
+There is only one queen bee in each hive and she is bigger than the rest. She lays all the eggs, which makes all the other bees in the hive her daughters and sons. However, they do not control the hive.
+
+Types of beekeeping
+The largest beekeeping operations are agricultural businesses that are operated for profit. Some people also have small beekeeping operations that they do as a hobby. Urban beekeeping is a growing trend, and some have found that "city bees" are actually healthier than "rural bees" because there are fewer pesticides and greater biodiversity.
+
+Threats
+Colony Collapse Disorder is a growing problem, along with mites.
+
+References
+British English or UK English is the dialect of the English language spoken in the United Kingdom. It is different in some ways from other types of English, such as American English. British English is widely spoken throughout most countries that were historically part of the British Empire.
+
+Use in other countries
+American English is used in the United States. In Canada, the accent sounds extremely similar to American English but with few exceptions (see Canadian English). Canada has mixed the spelling rules of American and British English to form its own spelling rules.
+
+All members of the Commonwealth of Nations learn British English, while American English is often learnt in the Americas, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. The United Kingdom and Ireland use British layout keyboards, while Australia, South Africa, Canada, New Zealand and the US use American layout keyboards. In continental Europe, English as a second language is sometimes taught in American English, except in Scandinavia and the Netherlands where British English is taught.
+
+Pronunciation
+In the United Kingdom, the spelling remains the same but the pronunciation varies with local dialect. For example, a person from a place near London may not pronounce his "r"s the same as a person from Scotland. Across the country, the accent is different. In Liverpool, people may speak with a "Scouse" accent, in Birmingham with a "Brummie" accent.
+
+In London the "Cockney" accent was once common, but is almost never heard today. All these regional accents became less extreme in the 20th century. This is generally attributed to the arrival of radio and television. Another factor is the increased mobility of people. A similar process has been noted in the United States, where regional differences are much less noticeable than they used to be.
+
+Spelling
+
+There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often keeps more traditional ways of spelling words than American English. Many of the British English rules are also used in other countries outside of the United Kingdom. Most of those countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
+
+Vocabulary
+In British English, "dock" refers to the water in the space between two "piers" or "wharfs". In American English, the "pier" or "wharf" could be called a "dock", and the water between would be a "slip".
+
+Some common differences:
+
+British English â American English
+ accelerator â throttle
+ autumn â fall
+ biscuit â cookie
+ bonnet â hood (of a car)
+ boot â trunk (of a car)
+ bum â butt
+ caravan â travel trailer, mobile home
+ chips â French fries
+ courgette â zucchini
+ crisps â chips (especially potato chips)
+ care home - assisted living facility\home
+ sweets - candy
+ face flannel â washcloth
+ flat â apartment
+ football â soccer
+ garden â yard
+ bungalow - ranch house
+ handbag â purse
+ jumper â sweater
+ lift â elevator
+ lorry â truck
+ manual gearbox â stick shift
+ metro, underground, tube â subway
+ motorway â freeway
+ mum â mom
+ nappy â diaper
+ number plate â license plate
+ pants - underpants
+ pavement â sidewalk
+ lower ground floor - basement
+ ground floor - first\main floor
+ let - rent or lease
+ fuzz\coppers - police, the cops
+ knackered - exhausted, tired
+ aeroplane - airplane
+ pram â stroller
+ petrol â gas or gasoline
+ phone box - phone booth
+ post â mail, mailbox
+ railway â railroad
+ shopping trolley â shopping cart
+ loo â toilet
+ take-away â take-out
+ trousers â pants - Only Superman wears his pants outside of his trousers
+ torch â flashlight
+ tram â streetcar
+ holiday - vacation
+
+Other websites
+ British and American English differences
+
+References
+Being is also a present tense part of to be
+
+The word being means a living person or animal. âHuman beingâ means the same as âpersonâ. Men, women, and children are human beings.
+
+Some people write stories or make movies about beings from other planets. Most religions talk about supernatural beings, for example spirits, angels, devils, gods, or God.
+
+Philosophy
+Religion
+Beijing is the capital of the People's Republic of China. The city used to be known as Peking. It is in the northern and eastern parts of the country. Having more that 21 million residents, it is one of the most populous capital cities.
+
+The city of Beijing has played a very important role in the development of China. Many people from different cities and countries come to Beijing to look for better chances to find work. Nearly 15 million people live there. Beijing hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 2008, and the Winter Olympic Games in 2022. It is the only city that has hosted both.
+
+Beijing is well known for its ancient history. Since the Jin Dynasty, Beijing has been the capital of several dynasties (especially the later ones), including the Yuan, Ming, and Qing. There are many places of historic interest in Beijing.
+
+Name
+
+The Mandarin Chinese name of the city is BÄijÄ«ng, which means "The Northern Capital". It got this name when the Yongle Emperor of the Ming family of rulers moved most of his government from Nanjing ("The Southern Capital") in the early 1400s. In Chinese, Beijing's name is written Today, people spell it "Beijing" because they use the pinyin way of spelling, which shows what the name should sound like in Mandarin. People used to spell it "Peking" because that was the spelling used by some of the first people from Europe to visit the Ming and write home about it; the Jesuits' work was made popular by their French brother Du Halde. It then became the official Chinese Postal Map spelling around 1900 and continued to be used until pinyin became more popular.
+
+Beijing was also known as Beiping ("City of Northern Peace") between 1928 and 1949, when the Nationalists moved the Chinese capital to Nanjing and Chongqing.
+
+History
+The center of Beijing was settled in the 1st millennium BC. In those days, the Kingdom of Yan (ç, YÄn) set up their capital where Beijing is today. They called it Ji (è, JĂŹ). After the Kingdom of Yan was destroyed, the city became smaller, although it was still an important place.
+
+Beijing became more important again in the 10th century, when the Jin dynasty set its capital there. This city was destroyed by Mongol forces in 1215. Then in 1267, Mongols built a new city on the north side of the Jin capital, and called it "Great Capital" (性éœ, DĂ dĆ«), which was the beginning of modern Beijing. When Kublai Khan the Mongolian monarch, set up the Yuan dynasty, this city became his capital.
+
+The Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty and Qing dynasty all made Beijing their capital. When the Qing dynasty lost power and the Republic of China was set up, the new Republic moved its capital from Beijing to Nanjing. When the People's Republic of China seized power, Beijing became the capital of China again.
+
+In 1989, there were protests in Tian'anmen Square because some people wanted democracy.
+
+Special places
+Important places in Beijing include:
+ The Great Wall of China (Chångchéng), in the mountains between Beijing and the grasslands of Mongolia
+ The Forbidden City (GĂčgĆng), the most important home of the emperors of Ming and Qing China
+ Tian'anmen Square (TiÄn'ÄnmĂ©n GuÇngchÇng), surrounded by China's most important government buildings and museums
+ Jingshan & Beihai Parks, the hill overlooking the Forbidden City and the lake beside it, with many temples
+ The Summer Palace (YĂŹhĂ©yuĂĄn) and Old Summer Palace (YuĂĄnmĂng YuĂĄn), the more natural home of the last Qing emperors and what is left of an older one
+ Prince Gong's Mansion, a very nice old house for one of the Qing princes
+ The Imperial Ancestral Temple (TĂ imiĂ o), where the emperors remembered the earlier people in their families
+ The Temple of Heaven (TiÄntĂĄn) and Temple of the Earth (DĂŹtĂĄn), important places for China's old national religion
+ The Temples of the Sun and the Moon, other important places for China's old national religion
+ The Temple of Confucius and Imperial Academy, important places for China's old kind of education
+ Niujie Mosque, a place for Beijing's Muslims and one of the city's oldest buildings
+ The National and Urban Planning Museums
+ Olympic Green, the park left from the 2008 Beijing Olympics
+ Marco Polo Bridge, a very old bridge across the main river west of town
+ Ming Tombs, where many Ming emperors were buried
+ Zhoukoudian, caves in the mountains west of town where people lived long, long ago
+
+Education
+Beijing is the education center of People's Republic of China. More than 500 famous universities of China are in Beijing. They also include 5 of the top universities: Peking University, Tsinghua University, China People University, Beijing Normal University, and Beihang University. Beijing is also education center of China for teaching Chinese as a foreign language. The standard Chinese pronunciation is based on Beijing dialect, so over 70% foreigners who want to study Chinese go to Beijing for their studies.
+
+Sources
+
+Pages
+
+Books
+ .
+ .
+
+Other websites
+
+ Beijing Travel
+ Beijing Travel Guide
+ Voyage PĂ©kin
+ Photos of Beijing
+
+Beijing
+Olympic cities
+Articles containing Chinese-language text
+A bottle is a container used to carry liquids. Bottles can have many different sizes. Bottles are usually made of glass or plastic. Drinks such as milk, wine, lemonade, soft drinks, and water are often put into bottles. Other liquids put into bottles include chemicals like bleach or detergent, and some kinds of medicines.
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Containers
+The word berry is used for many different kinds of small fruits that have many seeds and can be used as food. Some examples are raspberry, strawberry, sutberry, lingonberry and blueberry.
+
+When botanists talk about berries, they mean a simple fruit produced from a single ovary. They sometimes call this true berry, to distinguish it from false berries. By that statement of how words are used, grapes or tomatoes are true berries.
+
+The berry is the most common type of soft fruit in which the entire ovary wall gets to the right stage of development of the pericarp which can be taken as food. The flowers of these plants have an upper ovary with one or more carpels. The seeds are inside the soft body of the ovary.
+
+Berries are small, sweet, bright colored fruits. Due to this, they are able to bring more animals towards them and spread their seeds.
+
+Some fruits that are called berries in English are not true berries by the use of words above. These include raspberries, strawberry, sutberry, blackberries, cranberries, and boysenberries. Some true berries do not have berry in their name. These include tomatoes, bananas, eggplants, guavas, pomegranates and chillies. Pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, oranges and lemons are also berries that have slightly different structure and may be called by different names (pepo for pumpkins, cucumbers, and melons, or hesperidium for oranges and lemons).
+
+References
+Boil might mean:
+
+Boiling, heating a liquid to the point where it turns into gas
+Boil, a type of Staphylococcal infection
+
+Basic English 850 words
+A beard is the hair growing on the lower part of a man's face.
+
+The hair that grows on the upper lip of some men is a mustache. When a man has hair only below the lower lip and above the chin, it is called a soul patch. Some men have a lot of hair and a big beard, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their beards, or cut their beard so it does not get very long.
+
+Some animals also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a beard.
+
+Facial hair
+In light, black is lack of all color. It is a shade. In painting, however, the black pigment is the combination of all colors. In heraldry, black is called "sable". It is the opposite of white.
+
+Origin of black
+The word "black" comes from Old English blĂŠc ("black, dark", also, "ink"), from Proto-Germanic *blakkaz ("burned"), and from Proto-Indo-European *bhleg-. Black is the darkest color/tone on a scale.
+
+Black in science
+In science, an object that is black absorbs the light that hits it. Because these objects do not reflect any light, the human eye can't see any color coming from that object. The brain then sees these objects as black.
+
+A way to create black objects is to mix pigments. A pigment works by reflecting only the color of the pigment. For example, a blue pigment absorbs all colors except blue. By mixing pigments in the right quantities, black can be made.
+
+In sunlight, black objects become quickly warm because they absorb much light.
+
+Meaning of black
+
+Black is associated with power, elegance, formality, safety, birth, male, evil and mystery. Black is a dark color, the darkest color there is. Black, along with gray and white, is a neutral color. This means that it is not a hot color or a cool color.
+
+Black is a color seen with fear and the unknown (black holes). It can have a bad meaning (blackbird, black bunny) or a good meaning ('in the black', 'black is beautiful'). Black can stand for strength and power. It can be a formal, elegant, and high-class color (black tie, black Mercedes, black man). Black clothing is dark in emo and goth subculture.
+
+Related pages
+
+ List of colors
+ Blackbody radiation
+ Black people
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Bubonic plague is the best-known form of the disease plague, which is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. The name bubonic plague is specific for this form of the disease, which enters through the skin, and travels through the lymphatic system.
+
+The plague was spread by fleas on rats. This method of spreading disease is a zoonosis.
+
+If the disease is left untreated, it kills about half its victims in three to seven days. The bubonic plague was the disease that caused the Black Death, which killed tens of millions of people in Europe, in the Middle Ages.
+
+Symptoms of this disease include coughing, fever, and black spots on the skin.
+
+Different kinds of the same disease
+There are different kinds of Bubonic plague. The most common form of the disease is spread by a certain kind of flea, that lives on rats. Then there is an incubation period which can last from a few hours to about seven days.
+
+Septicemic plague
+Sepsis happens when the bacterium enters the blood and makes it form tiny clots.
+
+Pneumonic plague
+This happens when the bacterium can enter the lungs. About 95% of all people with this form will die. Incubation period is only one to two days.
+
+The abortive form
+This is the most harmless form. It will result in a small fever. After that, the victim's body produces antibodies that protect against all forms of the disease for a long time.
+
+History
+The first recorded epidemic was in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), It was called the Plague of Justinian after emperor Justinian I, who was infected but survived through extensive treatment. The pandemic resulted in the deaths of an estimated 25 million (6th century outbreak) to 50 million people (two centuries of recurrence).
+
+During the 1300s, this epidemic struck parts of Asia, North Africa, and Europe. Almost a third of the people in Europe died of it. Unlike catastrophes that pull communities together, this epidemic was so terrifying that it broke people's trust in one another. Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer of the time, described it: "This scourge had implanted so great a terror in the hearts of men and women that brothers abandoned brothers, uncles their nephews, sisters their brothers, and in many cases wives deserted their husbands. But even worse,... fathers and mothers refused to nurse and assist their own children".
+
+Local outbreaks of the plague are grouped into three plague pandemics, whereby the respective start and end dates and the assignment of some outbreaks to either pandemic are still subject to discussion. The pandemics were:
+ the first plague pandemic from 541 to ~750, spreading from Egypt to the Mediterranean (starting with the Plague of Justinian) and northwestern Europe
+ the second plague pandemic from ~1331 to ~1855, spreading from Central Asia to the Mediterranean and Europe (starting with the Black Death), and probably also to China
+ the third plague pandemic from 1855 to 1960, spreading from China to various places around the world, notably India and the West Coast of the United States.
+
+Globally about 600 cases of plague are reported a year. In 2017 the countries with the most cases include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, and Peru.
+
+Vector
+The transmission of Y. pestis by fleas is well known. Fleas are the vector. The flea gets the bacteria as they feed on an infected animal, usually a rodent. Several proteins then work to keep the bacteria in the flea's digestive tract. This is important for the survival of Y. pestis in fleas.
+
+Modern history
+In the 20th century, some countries did research on the bacteria that causes bubonic plague, in order to use it for biological warfare.
+
+Samples of this bacteria are carefully controlled. There is much paranoia (fear) about it. Dr. Thomas C. Butler, a US expert in this organism was charged in October 2003 by the FBI with various crimes. This happened after he said he lost samples of Yersinia pestis. This is the bacteria that causes bubonic plague. The FBI did not find the samples. They do not know what happened to them.
+
+References
+
+Plague
+Pulmonology
+Zoonoses
+Biology is the science that studies life, living things, and the evolution of life. Living things include animals, plants, fungi (such as mushrooms), and microorganisms such as bacteria and archaea.
+
+The term 'biology' is relatively modern. It was introduced in 1799 by a physician, Thomas Beddoes.
+
+People who study biology are called biologists. Biology looks at how animals and other living things behave and work, and what they are like. Biology also studies how organisms react with each other and the environment. It has existed as a science for about 200 years, and before that it was called "natural history". Biology has many research fields and branches. Like all sciences, biology uses the scientific method. This means that biologists must be able to show evidence for their ideas and that other biologists must be able to test the ideas for themselves.
+
+Biology attempts to answer questions such as:
+
+ "What are the characteristics of this living thing?" (comparative anatomy)
+ "How do the parts work?" (physiology)
+ "How should we group living things?" (classification, taxonomy)
+ "What does this living thing do?" (behaviour, growth)
+ "How does inheritance work?" (genetics)
+ "What is the history of life?" (palaeontology)
+ "How do living things relate to their environment?" (ecology)
+
+Modern biology is influenced by evolution, which answers the question: "How has the living world come to be as it is?"
+
+History
+The word biology comes from the Greek word ÎČÎŻÎżÏ (bios), "life", and the suffix -λογία (logia), "study of".
+
+Branches
+ Algalogy
+ Anatomy
+ Arachnology
+ Bacteriology
+ Biochemistry
+ Biogeography
+ Biophysics
+ Botany
+ Bryology
+ Cell biology
+ Cytology
+ Dendrology
+ Developmental biology
+ Ecology
+ Endocrinology
+ Entomology
+ Embryology
+ Ethology
+ Evolution / Evolutionary biology
+ Genetics / Genomics
+ Herpetology
+ Histology
+ Human biology / Anthropology / Primatology
+ Ichthyology
+ Limnology
+ Mammalology
+ Marine biology
+ Microbiology / Bacteriology
+ Molecular biology
+ Morphology
+ Mycology / Lichenology
+ Ornithology
+ Palaeontology
+ Parasitology
+ Phycology
+ Phylogenetics
+ Physiology
+ Taxonomy
+ Virology
+ Zoology
+
+References
+
+
+Science-related lists
+Botany is the study of plants. It is a science. It is a branch of biology, and is also called plant biology. It is sometimes called phytology. Scientists who study botany are called botanists. They study how plants work.
+
+Branches of botany
+AgronomyâApplication of plant science to crop production
+BryologyâMosses, liverworts, and hornworts
+ForestryâForest management and related studies
+HorticultureâCultivated plants
+MicropaleontologyâPollen and spores
+MycologyâFungi
+PaleobotanyâFossil plants
+PhycologyâAlgae
+PhytochemistryâPlant secondary chemistry and chemical processes
+PhytopathologyâPlant diseases
+Plant anatomyâCell and tissue structure
+Plant ecologyâRole of plants in the environment
+Plant geneticsâGenetic inheritance in plants
+Plant morphologyâStructure and life cycles
+Plant physiologyâLife functions of plants
+Plant systematicsâClassification and naming of plants
+
+Recent trends
+University departments of botany are often now merged into a wider group of specialities, including cell biology, genetics, ecology, cytology, palaeontology and other topics. This gives students and research workers access to a wider education and a wider range of research techniques.
+
+Notable botanists
+ Theophrastus, Hellenistic philosopher, wrote books, systematized botanical descriptions.
+ Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248), Andalusian-Arab scientist, author of one of the largest botanical encyclopedias.
+ Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707â1788) was a French naturalist, Intendant of the Jardin du Roi ('King's Garden'). Buffon published thirty-five volumes of his Histoire naturelle during his lifetime, and nine more volumes were published after his death.
+Luther Burbank (1849â1926), American botanist, horticulturist, and a pioneer in agricultural science.
+Charles Darwin (1809â1882) wrote eight important books on botany after he published the Origin of Species.
+Al-Dinawari (828â896), Kurdish botanist, historian, geographer, astronomer, mathematician, and founder of Arabic botany.
+Conrad Gessner (1516â1565) was a Swiss naturalist and bibliographer.
+Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817â1911), English botanist and explorer. Second winner of Darwin Medal.
+Carl Linnaeus (1707â1778), Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of Binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology.
+Gregor Mendel (1822â1884), Augustinian priest and scientist, and is often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants.
+Reid Venable Moran (1916â2010) was an American botanist and a curator of the San Diego Natural History Museum. He wrote a document titled "Cneoridium dumosum (Nuttall) Hooker F. Collected March 26, 1960, at an Elevation of about 1450 Meters on Cerro QuemazĂłn, 15 Miles South of BahĂa de Los Angeles, Baja California, MĂ©xico, Apparently for a Southeastward Range Extension of Some 140 Miles".
+John Ray (1627â1705) was an English naturalist, the father of English natural history.
+G. Ledyard Stebbins (1906â2000) was an American botanist and geneticist. He was one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century.
+Eduard Strasburger (1844â1912) was a Polish-German professor who was one of the most famous botanists of the 19th century.
+Nikolai Vavilov (1887â1943) was a Russian botanist and geneticist. He showed how and where crop plants evolved. He studied and improved wheat, corn, and other cereal crops.
+
+References
+
+Related pages
+
+ Botanical garden
+Belgium (officially the Kingdom of Belgium; , , ) is a country in Western Europe. Its capital, Brussels, is the home of many organisations including the European Union and NATO. Belgium is bordered by The Netherlands in the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast and France to the south.
+
+Belgium has an area of . Around 11.6 million people live in Belgium. It is a founding member of the European Union and is home to its headquarters.
+
+Regions
+There are three regions in Belgium. The regions are mainly based on language and culture. Flanders and Wallonia are both split up into five provinces each.
+ Flanders is the name of the northern half of Belgium, just south of the Netherlands. Most of the people in this region, called the Flemish people, speak Dutch.
+ Wallonia is the name of the southern half of Belgium, just north of France. Here, most of the people, the Walloons, speak French. There is a small part of Wallonia next to the border with Germany where the people speak German.
+ The Brussels-Capital Region, where the capital of Brussels is found, is in the middle of the country, but surrounded by Flanders on all sides. It used to be Dutch-speaking, but today French is mostly spoken, with some Dutch.
+The population is about 60% Dutch-speaking, 39% French-speaking, and 1% German-speaking (the so-called Deutschbelgier). To look after all these groups, Belgium has a complex system of government with highly autonomous regions.
+
+History
+
+The name 'Belgium' comes from Gallia Belgica. This was a Roman province in the northernmost part of Gaul. Before Roman invasion in 100 BC, the Belgae, a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples, lived there. The Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings. A slow shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to change into the Carolingian Empire. The Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the region into Middle and West Francia. They were vassals either of the King of France or of the Holy Roman Emperor.
+Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries.
+
+The Eighty Years' War (1568â1648) divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. Southern Netherlands were ruled by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs. This made up most of modern Belgium.
+
+After the campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars, the Low Countries were added into the French First Republic. This ended Austrian rule in the area. Adding back the Low Countries formed the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. This happened at the end of the First French Empire in 1815.
+
+The Belgian Revolution was in 1830. Leopold became king on 1831. This is now celebrated as Belgium's National Day.
+
+The Berlin Conference of 1885 gave control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II. Millions of Congolese people were hurt or killed, mostly to make rubber, and Leopold became very wealthy. In 1908 the Belgian state took control of the colony after a scandal about the deaths.
+
+Germany invaded Belgium in 1914. This was part of World War I. The opening months of the war were very bad in Belgium. During the war Belgium took over Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi). After the War, the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy were added into Belgium in 1925. The country was again invaded by Germany in 1940 and under German control until 1944. After World War II, the people made king Leopold III leave his throne in 1951. This is because they thought he helped the Germans. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member.
+
+In 1960 the Belgian Congo stopped being under Belgian rule. Two years later Ruanda-Urundi also became free.
+
+Geography
+
+Belgium is next to France, Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Its total area is 34,143 square kilometers (including sea area). The land area alone is 30,689 kmÂČ, of which 195 kmÂČ or 0.64% are inland and coastal waters. Belgium has three main geographical regions. The coastal plain is in the north-west. The central plateau are part of the Anglo-Belgian Basin. The Ardennes uplands are in the south-east. The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium's southernmost tip, Belgian Lorraine.
+
+The coastal plain is mostly sand dunes and polders. Further inland is a smooth, slowly rising landscape. There are fertile valleys. The hills have many forests. The plateaus of the Ardennes are more rough and rocky. They have caves and small, narrow valleys. Signal de Botrange is the country's highest point at 694 metres (2,277 ft).
+
+Regions
+Belgium is divided into three regions: Flemish Region (Flanders), Walloon Region (Wallonia), and Brussels-Capital Region (Brussels Region or Brussels - also the name of the city):
+
+Âč The city of Brussels does not lie in Flanders Region and therefore cannot be the largest city of this region.
+
+ÂČ German name: Wallonie(n): the very eastern part of the Walloon Region is officially German-speaking, the so-called German-speaking Community of Belgium.
+
+Provinces
+Flanders and Wallonia are divided into provinces. Brussels (Region) is not part of any province.
+
+{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left"
+! style="width:110px;"| Province
+! style="width:110px;"| Region
+! style="width:110px;"| Dutch name
+! style="width:110px;"| French name
+! style="width:115px;"| Capital
+! style="width:115px;"| Largest city
+! style="width:50px;"| Area (kmÂČ)
+! style="width:70px;"| Population (2022)
+|-
+| Antwerp || Flanders || Antwerpen || Anvers || Antwerp(Dutch: Antwerpen)(French: Anvers)|| Antwerp || style="text-align:right"|2,876|| style="text-align:right"|1,886,609
+|-
+| East Flanders || Flanders || Oost-Vlaanderen || Flandre-Orientale || Ghent(Dutch: Gent)(French: Gand) || Ghent || style="text-align:right"|3,007|| style="text-align:right"|1,543,865
+|-
+| Flemish Brabant || Flanders || Vlaams-Brabant || Brabant flamand || Leuven(French: Louvain) || Leuven || style="text-align:right"|2,118 || style="text-align:right"|1,173,440
+|-
+| Hainaut || Wallonia || Henegouwen || Hainaut || Mons(Dutch: Bergen) || Charleroi || style="text-align:right"|3,813|| style="text-align:right"|1,351,127
+|-
+| LiĂšge Âč || Wallonia || Luik || LiĂšge || LiĂšge Âč(Dutch: Luik) || LiĂšge || style="text-align:right"|3,857 || style="text-align:right"|1,110,989
+|-
+| Limburg || Flanders || Limburg || Limbourg || Hasselt || Hasselt || style="text-align:right"|2,427|| style="text-align:right"|885,951
+|-
+| Luxembourg || Wallonia || Luxemburg || Luxembourg || Arlon(Dutch: Aarlen)(Luxembourgish: Arel) || Bastogne(Dutch: Bastenaken) || style="text-align:right"|4,459|| style="text-align:right"|291,143
+|-
+| Namur || Wallonia || Namen || Namur || Namur(Dutch: Namen) || Namur || style="text-align:right"|3,675|| style="text-align:right"|499,454
+|-
+| Walloon Brabant || Wallonia || Waals-Brabant|| Brabant wallon || Wavre(Dutch: Waver) || Braine-l'Alleud(Dutch: Eigenbrakel) || style="text-align:right"|1,097|| style="text-align:right"|409,782
+|-
+| West Flanders || Flanders || West-Vlaanderen || Flandre-Occidentale || Bruges(Dutch: Brugge) || Bruges || style="text-align:right"|3,197|| style="text-align:right"|1,209,011
+|}
+
+Âč German name: LĂŒttich - the very eastern part of the province of LiĂšge is officially German-speaking, the so-called German-speaking Community of Belgium.
+
+ Climate
+Belgium has a mostly oceanic climate, but the Belgian Ardennes has a continental climate.
+
+The highest temperature ever recorded in Belgium was , on 25 July 2019 in Begijnendijk. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Belgium was , on 20 January 1940 in Lesse.
+
+ Politics
+
+Since 1993, Belgium is a federal state, divided into three regions and three communities.
+
+Regions:
+ Brussels-Capital Region
+ Flemish Region (or Flanders)
+ Walloon Region (or Wallonia)
+
+Communities:
+ Flemish Community
+ French Community of Belgium
+ German-speaking Community of Belgium
+
+It has a system of government known as a constitutional monarchy, meaning that it has a monarch, but that the monarch does not rule the country, and that a government is elected democratically.
+
+Belgium has had its own monarchy since 1831. King Albert II left the throne on July 21, 2013 and the current king is Philippe.
+
+In Belgium, the government is elected. Between mid-2010 and late 2011, after no clear result in the election, Belgium had no official government, until Elio Di Rupo became Prime Minister. Flanders and Wallonia both also have their own regional governments, and there is a notable independence movement in Flanders. Alexander De Croo is currently the Prime Minister.
+
+Military
+The Belgian Armed Forces have about 46,000 active troops. In 2009 the yearly defence budget was $6 billion. There are four parts: Belgian Land Component, or the Army; Belgian Air Component, or the Air Force; Belgian Naval Component, or the Navy; Belgian Medical Component.
+
+Science and technology
+
+Adding to science and technology has happened throughout the country's history. cartographer Gerardus Mercator, anatomist Andreas Vesalius, herbalist Rembert Dodoens and mathematician Simon Stevin are among the most influential scientists.
+
+Chemist Ernest Solvay and engineer Zenobe Gramme gave their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo in the 1860s. Bakelite was formed in 1907â1909 by Leo Baekeland. A major addition to science was also due to a Belgian, Georges LemaĂźtre. He is the one who made the Big Bang theory of the start of the universe in 1927.
+
+Three Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Belgians: Jules Bordet in 1919, Corneille Heymans in 1938 and Albert Claude together with Christian De Duve in 1974. Ilya Prigogine was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977. Two Belgian mathematicians have been awarded the Fields Medal: Pierre Deligne in 1978 and Jean Bourgain in 1994. (Retrieved: November 10, 2011)
+
+In February 2014, Belgium became the first country in the world to legalize euthanasia without any age limits.
+
+Culture
+Fine arts
+
+There have been many additions to painting and architecture. Several examples of major architectural places in Belgium belong to UNESCO's World Heritage List. In the 15th century the religious paintings of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden were important. The 16th century had more styles such as Peter Breughel's landscape paintings and Lambert Lombard's showing of the antique. The style of Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck was strong in the early 17th century in the Southern Netherlands.
+
+During the 19th and 20th centuries many original romantic, expressionist and surrealist Belgian painters started. These include James Ensor and other artists in the Les XX group, Constant Permeke, Paul Delvaux and René Magritte. The sculptor Panamarenko is still a remarkable figure in contemporary art. The artist Jan Fabre and the painter Luc Tuymans are other internationally known figures in contemporary art.
+
+Belgian contributions to architecture were also in the 19th and 20th centuries. Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde were major starters of the Art Nouveau style.
+
+In the 19th and 20th centuries, there were major violinists, such as Henri Vieuxtemps, EugĂšne YsaĂże and Arthur Grumiaux. Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846. The composer CĂ©sar Franck was born in LiĂšge in 1822. Newer music in Belgium is also famous. Jazz musician Toots Thielemans and singer Jacques Brel have made global fame. In rock/pop music, Telex, Front 242, K's Choice, Hooverphonic, Zap Mama, Soulwax and dEUS are well known. In the heavy metal scene, bands like Machiavel, Channel Zero and Enthroned have a worldwide fan-base.
+
+Belgium has several well-known authors, including the poet Emile Verhaeren and novelists Hendrik Conscience, Georges Simenon, Suzanne Lilar and Amélie Nothomb. The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. The Adventures of Tintin by Hergé is the best known of Franco-Belgian comics. Many other major authors, including Peyo, André Franquin, Edgar P. Jacobs and Willy Vandersteen brought the Belgian cartoon strip industry a worldwide fame.
+
+Belgian cinema has brought a number of mainly Flemish novels to life on-screen. Belgian directors include André Delvaux, Stijn Coninx, Luc and Jean-Pierre Dardenne. Well-known actors include Jan Decleir and Marie Gillain. Successful films include Man Bites Dog and The Alzheimer Affair''.
+
+Cuisine
+
+Belgium is famous for beer, chocolate, waffles and french fries. French fries were first made in Belgium. The national dishes are "steak and fries with salad", and "mussels with fries".
+Other local fast food dishes include a Mitraillette. Brands of Belgian chocolate and pralines, like CÎte d'Or, Guylian, Neuhaus, Leonidas, Corné and Galler are famous. Belgium makes over 1100 varieties of beer. The Trappist beer of the Abbey of Westvleteren has repeatedly been rated the world's best beer. The biggest brewer in the world by volume is Anheuser-Busch InBev, based in Leuven.
+
+Sports
+
+Since the 1970s, sports clubs are organised separately by each language community. Association football is one of the most popular sports in both parts of Belgium, together with cycling, tennis, swimming and judo. With five victories in the Tour de France and many other cycling records, Belgian Eddy Merckx is said to be one of the greatest cyclists of all time. Jean-Marie Pfaff, a former Belgian goalkeeper, is said to be one of the greatest in the history of football (soccer). Belgium and The Netherlands hosted the UEFA European Football Championship in 2000. Belgium hosted the 1972 European Football Championships.
+
+Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin both were Player of the Year in the Women's Tennis Association. The Spa-Francorchamps motor-racing circuit hosts the Formula One World Championship Belgian Grand Prix. The Belgian driver, Jacky Ickx, won eight Grands Prix and six 24 Hours of Le Mans. Belgium also has a strong reputation in motocross. Sporting events held each year in Belgium include the Memorial Van Damme athletics competition, the Belgian Grand Prix Formula One, and a number of classic cycle races such as the Tour of Flanders and LiĂšgeâBastogneâLiĂšge. The 1920 Summer Olympics were held in Antwerp.
+
+Related pages
+ Belgium at the Olympics
+ Belgium national football team
+ List of rivers of Belgium
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Official website of Belgian monarchy
+ Official website of the Belgian federal government
+ Belgian Telephone directory
+ Belgium Travel Guide
+ TopoMapViewer, National Geographic Institute (official map of Belgium)
+
+
+European Union member states
+Benelux
+Current monarchies
+Dutch-speaking countries
+French-speaking countries
+German-speaking countries
+Federations
+Brazil (officially called Federative Republic of Brazil; how to say: ) is a country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country. The country has about 212 million people. The capital of Brazil is BrasĂlia. Brazil was named after brazilwood, which is a tree that once grew very well along the Brazilian coast.
+
+History
+The first people to come to Brazil came around 9,000 B.C. That group of indigenous people is often called the South American Indians and probably came from North America. They practiced hunting, foraging, and farming. Over thousands of years, many different indigenous people were living there.
+
+Pedro Ălvares Cabral was the first European to see Brazil. He saw it in 1500. He was from Portugal and the Portuguese kingdom claimed Brazil. Soon, Portugal colonized Brazil and created colonies all along the coastline. They began to import black slaves from Africa and force them to work. Because of the violence of the slave masters, many of these slaves would run away into the forest and create their own communities called quilombos.
+
+In the late 1500s and early 1600s, the Dutch and the French tried to take some land in Brazil. Dutch, French, and Portuguese started moving inland further than the Treaty of Tordesillas said they could. This caused some fights with the Spaniards (people from Spain) and indigenous people in the area.
+
+In 1822, Brazil claimed to be its own country and not a part of Portugal anymore. Soon there was civil war. Meanwhile, the quilombos survived and Brazil was bringing in more slaves than any other country in the Americas, even though many countries were beginning to legally abolish slavery. This led to an increase in slave revolts, especially in the 1860s and 1880s, which forced the government to change the system to keep the country stable. Slavery was legally abolished in 1888.
+
+In 1889, there was a military coup, and Pedro II had to leave the country. In 1889, Brazil became a republic. The only people who could vote were people who owned land. There were some uprisings in the 1920s because some people thought the government was unfairly helping coffee growers. Brazil joined the Allies during World War II.
+
+During the 1960s, the military leader Castelo Branco overthrew the government and created a dictatorship that was supported by the United States. It was very anti-communist and they imprisoned, tortured, or killed many people on the left. Since then, the country has become more democratic, but some people feel that there are still big problems in health, education, crime, poverty and social inequality.
+
+In August 2016, then-president Dilma Rousseff was removed from office because of impeachment.
+
+Languages
+The official language of Brazil is Portuguese. Brazil is the only country in South America that speaks Portuguese but people in South America speak Portuguese than Spanish because the population of Brazil is larger than the combined population of all the Spanish-speaking countries in South America.
+
+Some people in Brazil speak German dialects. That came from German immigrants. 2% of Brazilians speak German as their first language. Yiddish is spoken by the elders of the Jewish community.
+
+Other people in Brazil speak their ancestors' languages like Italian, Japanese, Polish, Ukrainian, French, Russian, Lithuanian, Chinese, Dutch and Korean. Spanish or "Portunhol", a mix of Portuguese and Castilian (Spanish) is spoken at some of the borders. Indigenous languages as Guarani and AymarĂĄ are the first languages of a small number of Brazilians.
+
+Geography
+Brazil has the world's largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest. It makes up 40% of the country's land area. Brazil also has other types of land, including a type of savanna, called cerrado, and a dry plant region named caatinga.
+
+The most important cities are BrasĂlia (the capital), BelĂ©m, Belo Horizonte, Curitiba, FlorianĂłpolis, Fortaleza, GoiĂąnia, Manaus, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, SĂŁo Paulo (the biggest city) and VitĂłria. Other cities are at List of largest cities in Brazil.
+
+Brazil is divided into 26 states plus the Federal District in five regions (north, south, northeast, southeast and centre-west):
+ North: Acre, Amazonas, RondĂŽnia, Roraima, ParĂĄ, AmapĂĄ, Tocantins
+ Northeast: MaranhĂŁo, Pernambuco, CearĂĄ, PiauĂ, Rio Grande do Norte, ParaĂba, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia
+ Centre-West: GoiĂĄs, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Distrito Federal/ Federal District
+ Southeast: SĂŁo Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, EspĂrito Santo, Minas Gerais
+ South: ParanĂĄ, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul
+
+The country is the fifth-largest in the world by area. It is known for its many rainforests and jungles. It is next to every country in South America except Chile and Ecuador.
+The name Brazil comes from a tree named brazilwood.
+
+Culture
+Brazil is the largest country in South America and the fifth-largest in the world. Its people are called Brazilians or Brasileiros (In Portuguese). The people include citizens of Portuguese or other European descent who mainly live in the South and Southeast, Africans, Native Americans, Arabs, Gypsies, and people of mixed ancestry. Brazil also has the largest Japanese community outside Japan. Other East Asians follow the Japanese group. The Amazon River flows through Brazil, it is the 2nd longest river in the world (after the Nile). The current President of Brazil is Jair Messias Bolsonaro. Two major sporting events were held in Brazil recently: the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro.
+
+Notable people
+
+ José Paulino Gomes, supercentenarian
+
+Related pages
+ Civil Police (Brazil)
+ Political subdivisions of Brazil
+ CIA World Factbook
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+
+
+
+Portuguese-speaking countries
+1825 establishments in South America
+Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with chemical elements and compounds, and how they work together and change. In other words, chemistry is the branch of science about fundamental properties of matter and chemical reactions. Chemistry is the study of the substances and their transformations (or change).
+
+History
+Before 1600, people studied substances to figure out how to do things such as turn lead into gold, but no one managed to do that. This was called alchemy. After 1600, using the scientific method alchemists became chemists. Chemists separated the air into many parts and isolated the noble gases from it. They also processed special minerals from a mine in Sweden to get rare earth metals. Radioactivity was also discovered. 118 different elements have been found. Some are very common, like oxygen. Many are very rare and expensive, like platinum. Some cannot be found on earth and can only be made in labs, like rutherfordium.
+
+Since the 1920s, the increased understanding of physics has changed chemists' theories about chemical reactions. With smaller and faster computers, chemists have built better tools for analyzing substances. These tools have been sent to study chemicals on Mars. Police also use those tools to study evidence from crime scenes.
+
+Types of chemistry
+There are several types of chemistry. Analytical chemistry looks at which chemicals are in things. For example, looking at how much arsenic is in food. Organic chemistry looks at things that have carbon in them. For example, making acetylene. Inorganic chemistry looks at things that do not have carbon in them. One example is making an integrated circuit. Theoretical chemistry tries to explain chemical data with mathematics and computers.
+
+A large area of chemistry is polymer chemistry. This looks at plastics. One example is making nylon. Because plastics are made of carbon, polymer chemistry is part of organic chemistry. Another area is biochemistry. This looks at the chemistry of living things. An example would be seeing how arsenic poisons people. Biochemistry is also part of organic chemistry. There are many other small branches of chemistry.
+
+Concepts of chemistry
+
+Basic concepts
+The basic unit of an element is called an atom. An atom is the smallest building block that you can cut an element into without the element breaking down (turning into a lighter element, for example through nuclear fission or radioactive decay). A chemical compound is a substance made up of two or more elements. In a compound, two or more atoms are joined to form a molecule. The tiniest speck of dust or drop of liquid, that one can see is made up of many millions or billions of these molecules. Mixtures are substances where chemicals are mixed but not reacted. An example would be mixing sand and salt. This can be undone again to produce salt and sand separately. Chemical compounds are changed by a chemical reaction. An example would be heating sodium bicarbonate, common baking soda. It will make water, carbon dioxide, and sodium carbonate. This reaction cannot be undone.
+
+One very important concept in chemistry is that different atoms interact with one another in very specific proportions. For example, two hydrogen atoms interacting with one oxygen atom lead to the water molecule, H2O. This relationship is known as the "Law of constant proportions" and leads to the idea of "stoichiometry", a term that refers to the ratios of different atoms in chemical compounds. For example, in water, there are always exactly 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen atom. In carbon dioxide, there are exactly 2 oxygen atoms for 1 carbon atom. These relationships are described using chemical formulas such as H2O (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom) and CO2 (one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms).
+
+Mole
+Because atoms of different elements react with one another in very specific proportions but atoms of different elements have different weights, chemists often describe the number of different elements and compounds in terms of the number of "moles". A "mole" of any element contains the same number of atoms: 602,214,150,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. The atomic mass of an element can be used to see how much of the element makes a mole. For example, the atomic mass of copper is about 63.55. That means about 63.55 grams of copper metal has a mole of atoms. The atomic mass of chlorine is about 35.45. That means 35.45 grams of chlorine has a mole of atoms in it.
+
+Moles can be used to see how many molecules are in chemical compounds, too. Copper(II) chloride is an example. CuCl2 is its chemical formula. There is one copper atom (63.55) and two chlorine atoms (35.45 · 2 = 70.90). Add all the molar masses of the elements together to get the molar mass of the chemical compound (63.55 + 70.90 = 134.45). That means in 134.45 grams of copper(II) chloride, there is one mole of copper(II) chloride molecules. This concept is used to calculate how much chemicals are needed in a chemical reaction if no reactants (chemicals that are reacted) should be left. If too much reactant is used, there will be some reactants left in the chemical reaction.
+
+Acids and bases
+Acids and bases are common chemicals. Acids release H+ ions when in water, and bases release OHâ ions when in water. Acids can react with bases. The H+ ion is taken from the acid by the base. This makes water, H2O. A salt is also made when an acid and a base react together. An example would be reacting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Hydrochloric acid releases H+ and Cl- ions in water. The base releases Na+ and OH- ions. The H+ and the OH- react to make water. There is a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) left. Sodium chloride is a salt.
+
+Usefulness
+Chemistry is very useful in everyday life and makes up the foundation of many branches of science. Most objects are made by chemists (people who do chemistry). Chemists are constantly working to find new and useful substances. Chemists make new drugs and materials like paints that we use every day.
+
+Safety
+
+Many chemicals are harmless, but there are some chemicals that are dangerous. For example, mercury(II) chloride is very toxic. Chromates can cause cancer. Tin(II) chloride pollutes water easily. Hydrochloric acid can cause bad burns. Some chemicals like hydrogen can explode or catch fire. To stay safe, chemists experiment with chemicals in a chemical lab. They use special equipment and clothing to do reactions and keep the chemicals contained. The chemicals used in drugs and in things like bleach have been tested to make sure they are safe if used correctly.
+
+Related pages
+
+ Periodic table
+ List of common elements
+ Laboratory techniques
+ Aerosol
+
+References
+Chemical compound, a chemical combination of two or more chemical elements
+ Compound word, a word made from two or more other words
+Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of computation and practical techniques for their application.
+Computer science is the science of information. Computer scientists study different ways of reading, using, and encoding information.
+
+There are many different areas within computer science. In some areas, scientists only work with ideas "on paper". In other areas they use those ideas to make things like computers and computer programs.
+
+A person who works in computer science will often need to understand logic and mathematics.
+
+Common tasks for a computer scientist
+
+Asking questions
+This is so people can find new and easier ways to do things, and the way to approach problems with this information.
+
+While computers can do some things easily (like simple math, or sorting out a list of names from A-to-Z), computers cannot answer questions when there is not enough information, or when there is no real answer. Also, computers may take too much time to finish long tasks. For example, it may take too long to find the shortest way through all of the towns in the USA - so instead a computer will try to make a close guess. A computer will answer these simpler questions much faster.
+
+Answering the question
+Algorithms are a specific set of instructions or steps on how to complete a task. For example, a computer scientist wants to sort playing cards. There are many ways to sort them - by suits (diamonds, clubs, hearts, and spades) or by numbers (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King, and Ace). By deciding on a set of steps to sort the cards, the scientist has created an algorithm. The scientist then needs to test whether this algorithm works. This shows how well and how fast the algorithm sorts cards.
+
+A simple but slow algorithm is: pick up two cards and check whether they are sorted correctly. If they are not, reverse them. Then do it again with another two, and repeat them all until they are all sorted. This is called a bubble sort. This method will work, but it will take a very long time.
+
+A better algorithm is: find the first card with the smallest suit and smallest number (2 of diamonds), and place it at the start. After this, look for the second card, and so on. This algorithm is much faster, and does not need much space. This algorithm is called a "selection sort".
+
+Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm in 1843, for a computer that was never finished. Computers began during World War II. Computer science separated from the other sciences during the 1960s and 1970s. Now, computer science has its own methods, and has its own technical terms. It is related to electrical engineering, mathematics, and language science.
+
+Computer science looks at the theoretical parts of computers. Computer engineering looks at the physical parts of computers (hardware). Software engineering looks at the use of computer programs and how to make them.
+
+Parts of computer science
+
+Central math
+ Boolean algebra (when something can only be true or false)
+ Computer numbering formats (how computers count)
+ Discrete mathematics (math with numbers a person can count)
+ Symbolic logic (clear ways of talking about math)
+Order of operations (which math operations are performed first)
+
+How an ideal computer works
+ Algorithmic information theory (how easily can a computer answer a question?)
+ Complexity theory (how much time and memory does a computer need to answer a question?)
+ Computability theory (can a computer do something?)
+ Information theory (math that looks at data and how to process data)
+ Theory of computation (how to answer questions on a computer using algorithms)
+ Graph theory (math that looks for directions from one point to another)
+ Type theory (what kinds of data should computers work with?)
+ Denotational semantics (math for computer languages)
+ Algorithms (looks at how to answer a question)
+ Compilers (turning words into computer programs)
+ Lexical analysis (how to turn words into data)
+ Microprogramming (how to control the most important part of a computer)
+ Operating systems (big computer programs, e.g. Linux, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS) to control the computer hardware and software.
+ Cryptography (hiding data)
+ Parallel computing (many instructions are carried out simultaneously)
+ Theoretical computer science (how information can be processed)
+
+Computer science at work
+ Artificial intelligence (making computers learn and talk, similar to people)
+ Computer architecture (building a computer)
+ Computer graphics (making pictures with computers)
+ Computer networks (joining computers to other computers)
+ Computer program (how to tell a computer to do something)
+ Computer programming (writing, or making, computer programs)
+ Computer security (making computers and their data safe)
+ Databases (a way to sort and keep data)
+ Data structure (how to build or group data)
+ Distributed computing (using more than one computer to solve a difficult problem)
+ Information retrieval (getting data back from a computer)
+ Programming languages (languages that a programmer uses to make computer programs)
+ Program specification (what a program is supposed to do)
+ Program verification (making sure a computer program does what it should do, see debugging)
+ Robots (using computers to control machines)
+ Software engineering (how programmers write programs)
+ Blockchain (use blockchain technology for security, and privacy)
+
+What computer science does
+ Benchmark (testing a computer's power or speed)
+ Computer vision (how computers can see and understand images)
+ Collision detection (how computers help robots move without hitting something)
+ Data compression (making data smaller)
+ Data structures (how computers group and sort data)
+ Data acquisition (putting data into computers)
+ Design patterns (answers to common software engineering problems)
+ Digital signal processing (cleaning and "looking" at data)
+ File formats (how a file is arranged)
+ Human-computer interaction (how humans use computers)
+ Information security (keeping data safe from other people)
+ Internet (a large network that joins almost all computers)
+ Web applications (computer programs on the Internet)
+ Optimization (making computer programs work better)
+ Software metrics (ways to measure computer programs, such as counting lines of code or number of operations)
+ VLSI design (the making of a very large and complex computer system)
+
+Related pages
+ Computing
+ Formal language
+ Turing Award
+ Computer jargon
+ Encyclopedia of Computer Terms
+
+References
+A computer is a machine that uses electronics to input, process, store, and output data. Data is information such as numbers, words, and lists. Input of data means to read information from a keyboard, a storage device like a hard drive, or a sensor. The computer processes or changes the data by following the instructions in software programs. A computer program is a list of instructions the computer has to perform. Programs usually perform mathematical calculations, modify data, or move it around. The data is then saved on a storage device, shown on a display, or sent to another computer. Computers can be connected together to form a network such as the internet, allowing the computers to communicate with each other.
+
+The processor of a computer is made from integrated circuits (chips) that contains many transistors. Most computers are digital, which means that they represent information using binary digits, or bits. Computers come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the brand, model, and purpose. They range from small computers, such as smartphones and laptops, to large computers, such as supercomputers.
+
+Characteristics
+The two things make it a computer are that it responds to a specific instruction set in a well-defined manner, and that it can execute a stored list of instructions called a program. There are four main actions in a computer: inputting, storing, outputting and processing.
+
+Modern computers can do billions of calculations in a second. Being able to calculate many times per second allows modern computers to multi-task, which means they can do many different tasks at the same time. Computers do many different jobs where automation is useful. Some examples are controlling traffic lights, vehicles, security systems, washing machines and digital televisions.
+
+Computers can be designed to do almost anything with information. Computers are used to control large and small machines that, in the past, were controlled by humans. Most people have a personal computer at home or at work. They are used for things such as calculation, listening to music, reading an article, writing, or playing games.
+
+Hardware
+Modern computers are electronic computer hardware. They do mathematical arithmetic very quickly, but computers do not really "think." They only follow the instructions in their software programs. The software uses the hardware when the user gives it instructions and produces useful outputs.
+
+Controls
+Computers are controlled with user interfaces. Input devices which include keyboards, computer mice, buttons, and touch screens, etc.
+
+Programs
+Computer programs are designed or written by computer programmers. A few programmers write programs in the computer's own language, called machine code. Most programs are written using a programming language like C, C++, JavaScript. These programming languages are more like the language with which one talks and writes every day. The compiler converts the user's instructions into binary code (machine code) that the computer will understand and do what is needed.
+
+History of computers
+
+First computer
+In 1837, Charles Babbage proposed the first general mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine. The Analytical Engine contained an Arithmetic Logic Unit, basic flow control, punched cards, and integrated memory. It is the first general-purpose computer concept that could be used for many things and not only one particular computation. However, this computer was never built while Charles Babbage was alive, because he didn't have enough money. In 1910, Henry Babbage, Charles Babbage's youngest son, was able to complete a portion of this machine and perform basic calculations.
+Before the computer era there were machines that could do the same thing over and over again, like a music box. But some people wanted to be able to tell their machine to do different things. For example, they wanted to tell the music box to play different music every time. This part of computer history is called the "history of programmable machines" which in simple words means "the history of machines that I can order to do different things if I know how to speak their language."
+
+One of the first examples of this was built by Hero of Alexandria (c. 10â70 AD). He built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums. These ropes and drums were the language of the machine- they told what the machine did and when. Some people argue that this is the first programmable machine.
+
+Some people disagree on which early computer is programmable. Many say the "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is the first known programmable analog computer. The length of day and night could be adjusted every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. Some count this daily adjustment as computer programming.
+
+Others say the first computer was made by Charles Babbage. Ada Lovelace is considered to be the first programmer.
+
+The computing era
+At the end of the Middle Ages, people started thinking math and engineering were more important. In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard made a mechanical calculator. Other Europeans made more calculators after him. They were not modern computers because they could only add, subtract, and multiply- you could not change what they did to make them do something like play Tetris. Because of this, we say they were not programmable. Now engineers use computers to design and plan.
+
+In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard used punched paper cards to tell his textile loom what kind of pattern to weave. He could use punch cards to tell the loom what to do, and he could change the punch cards, which means he could program the loom to weave the pattern he wanted. This means the loom was programmable. At the end of the 1800s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine, developing punched card data processing technology for the 1890 U.S. census. His tabulating machines read and summarized data stored on punched cards and they began use for government and commercial data processing.
+
+Charles Babbage wanted to make a similar machine that could calculate. He called it "The Analytical Engine". Because Babbage did not have enough money and always changed his design when he had a better idea, he never built his Analytical Engine.
+
+As time went on, computers were used more. People get bored easily doing the same thing over and over. Imagine spending your life writing things down on index cards, storing them, and then having to go find them again. The U.S. Census Bureau in 1890 had hundreds of people doing just that. It was expensive, and reports took a long time. Then an engineer worked out how to make machines do a lot of the work. Herman Hollerith invented a tabulating machine that would automatically add up information that the Census bureau collected. The Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (which later became IBM) made his machines. They leased the machines instead of selling them. Makers of machines had long helped their users understand and repair them, and CTR's tech support was especially good.
+
+Because of machines like this, new ways of talking to these machines were invented, and new types of machines were invented, and eventually the computer as we know it was born.
+
+Analog and digital computers
+In the first half of the 20th century, scientists started using computers, mostly because scientists had a lot of math to figure out and wanted to spend more of their time thinking about science questions instead of spending hours adding numbers together. For example, if they had to launch a rocket ship, they needed to do a lot of math to make sure the rocket worked right. So they put together computers. These analog computers used analog circuits, which made them very hard to program. In the 1930s, they invented digital computers, and soon made them easier to program. However this is not the case as many consecutive attempts have been made to bring arithmetic logic to l3.Analog computers are mechanical or electronic devices which solve problems.Some are used to control machines as well.
+
+High-scale computers
+Scientists figured out how to make and use digital computers in the 1930s to 1940s. Scientists made a lot of digital computers, and as they did, they figured out how to ask them the right sorts of questions to get the most out of them. Here are a few of the computers they built:
+
+ Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine that used binary arithmetic. Binary arithmetic means using "Yes" and "No." to add numbers together. You could also program it. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete. Turing complete means that it is possible to tell this particular computer anything that it is mathematically possible to tell a computer. It is the world's first modern computer.
+ The non-programmable AtanasoffâBerry Computer (1941) which used vacuum tubes to store "yes" and "no" answers, and regenerative capacitor memory.
+ The Harvard Mark I (1944), A big computer that you could kind of program.
+ The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which could add numbers the way people do (using the numbers 0 through 9) and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). At first, however, the only way to reprogram ENIAC was by rewiring it.
+
+Several developers of ENIAC saw its problems. They invented a way to for a computer to remember what they had told it, and a way to change what it remembered. This is known as "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. John von Neumann talked about this design in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture started around this time. The first of these was completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first really useful computer that used the stored program design. Shortly afterwards, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paperâEDVACâwas completed but was not ready for two years.
+
+Nearly all modern computers use the stored-program architecture. It has become the main concept which defines a modern computer. The technologies used to build computers have changed since the 1940s, but many current computers still use the von-Neumann architecture.
+
+In the 1950s computers were built out of mostly vacuum tubes. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the 1960s because they were smaller and cheaper. They also need less power and do not break down as much as vacuum tubes. In the 1970s, technologies were based on integrated circuits. Microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004 made computers smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable. By the 1980s, microcontrollers became small and cheap enough to replace mechanical controls in things like washing machines. The 1980s also saw home computers and personal computers. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household.
+
+In 2005 Nokia started to call some of its mobile phones (the N-series) "multimedia computers" and after the launch of the Apple iPhone in 2007, many are now starting to add the smartphone category among "real" computers. In 2008, if smartphones are included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold, was no longer Hewlett-Packard, but rather Nokia.
+
+Kinds of computers
+There are many types of computers. Some include:
+ personal computer
+ workstation
+ mainframe
+ minicomputer
+ supercomputer
+ embedded system
+ tablet computer
+ quantum computers
+
+A "desktop computer" is a small machine that has a screen (which is not part of the computer). Most people keep them on top of a desk, which is why they are called "desktop computers." "Laptop computers" are computers small enough to fit on your lap. This makes them easy to carry around. Both laptops and desktops are called personal computers, because one person at a time uses them for things like playing music, surfing the web, or playing video games.
+
+There are larger computers that can be used by multiple people at the same time. These are called "mainframes," and these computers do all the things that make things like the internet work. You can think of a personal computer like this: the personal computer is like your skin: you can see it, other people can see it, and through your skin you feel wind, water, air, and the rest of the world. A mainframe is more like your internal organs: you never see them, and you barely even think about them, but if they suddenly went missing, you would have some very big problems.
+
+An embedded computer, also called an embedded system is a computer that does one thing and one thing only, and usually does it very well. For example, an alarm clock is an embedded computer. It tells the time. Unlike your personal computer, you cannot use your clock to play Tetris. Because of this, we say that embedded computers cannot be programmed because you cannot install more programs on your clock. Some mobile phones, automatic teller machines, microwave ovens, CD players and cars are operated by embedded computers.
+
+All-in-one PC
+All-in-one computers are desktop computers that have all of the computer's inner mechanisms in the same case as the monitor. Apple has made several popular examples of all-in-one computers, such as the original Macintosh of the mid-1980s and the iMac of the late 1990s and 2000s.
+
+Uses of computers
+
+At home
+ Playing computer games
+ Writing
+ Solving math problems
+ Watching videos
+ Listening to music and audio
+ Audio, Video and photo editing
+ Creating sound or video
+ Communicating with other people
+ Using The Internet
+ Online shopping
+ Drawing
+ Online bill payments
+ Online business
+
+At work
+ Word processing
+ Spreadsheets
+ Presentations
+ Photo Editing
+ E-mail
+ Video editing/rendering/encoding
+ Audio recording
+ System Management
+ Website Development
+ Software Development
+
+Working methods
+Computers store data and the instructions as numbers, because computers can do things with numbers very quickly. These data are stored as binary symbols (1s and 0s). A 1 or a 0 symbol stored by a computer is called a bit, which comes from the words binary digit. Computers can use many bits together to represent instructions and the data that these instructions use. A list of instructions is called a program and is stored on the computer's hard disk. Computers work through the program by using a central processing unit, and they use fast memory called RAM (also known as Random Access Memory) as a space to store the instructions and data while they are doing this. When the computer wants to store the results of the program for later, it uses the hard disk because things stored on a hard disk can still be remembered after the computer is turned off.
+
+An operating system tells the computer how to understand what jobs it has to do, how to do these jobs, and how to tell people the results. Millions of computers may be using the same operating system, while each computer can have its own application programs to do what its user needs. Using the same operating systems makes it easy to learn how to use computers for new things. A user who needs to use a computer for something different, can learn how to use a new application program. Some operating systems can have simple command lines or a fully user-friendly GUI.
+
+The Internet
+One of the most important jobs that computers do for people is helping with communication. Communication is how people share information. Computers have helped people move forward in science, medicine, business, and learning, because they let experts from anywhere in the world work with each other and share information. They also let other people communicate with each other, do their jobs almost anywhere, learn about almost anything, or share their opinions with each other. The Internet is the thing that lets people communicate between their computers. The Internet also allows the computer user to play an Online game.
+
+Computers and waste
+A computer is now almost always an electronic device. It usually contains materials that will become electronic waste when discarded. When a new computer is bought in some places, laws require that the cost of its waste management must also be paid for. This is called product stewardship.
+
+Computers can become obsolete quickly, depending on what programs the user runs. Very often, they are thrown away within two or three years, because some newer programs require a more powerful computer. This makes the problem worse, so computer recycling happens a lot. Many projects try to send working computers to developing nations so they can be re-used and will not become waste as quickly, as most people do not need to run new programs. Some computer parts, such as hard drives, can break easily. When these parts end up in the landfill, they can put poisonous chemicals like lead into the ground-water. Hard drives can also contain secret information like credit card numbers. If the hard drive is not erased before being thrown away, an identity thief can get the information from the hard drive, even if the drive doesn't work, and use it to steal money from the previous owner's bank account.
+
+Main hardware
+Computers come in different forms, but most of them have a common design.
+ All computers have a CPU.
+ All computers have some kind of data bus which lets them get inputs or output things to the environment.
+ All computers have some form of memory. These are usually chips (integrated circuits) which can hold information.
+ Many computers have some kind of sensors, which lets them get input from their environment.
+ Many computers have some kind of display device, which lets them show output. They may also have other peripheral devices connected.
+
+A computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a human body, the CPU is like a brain. It does most of the thinking and tells the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is on the Motherboard, which is like the skeleton. It provides the basis for where the other parts go, and carries the nerves that connect them to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides electricity to the entire computer. The various drives (CD drive, floppy drive, and on many newer computers, USB flash drive) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books. The hard drive is like a human's memory, and keeps track of all the data stored on the computer. Most computers have a sound card or another method of making sound, which is like vocal cords, or a voice box. Connected to the sound card are speakers, which are like a mouth, and are where the sound comes out. Computers might also have a graphics card, which helps the computer to create visual effects, such as 3D environments, or more realistic colors, and more powerful graphics cards can make more realistic or more advanced images, in the same way a well trained artist can.
+
+Largest computer companies
+
+References
+Chinese might mean:
+
+Anything related to the country of China
+Chinese people, the people of China
+Chinese language
+Chinese characters, the symbols used to write the Chinese and Japanese languages
+A continent is a large area of the land on Earth that is joined.
+
+There are no strict rules for what land is considered a continent, but in general it is agreed there are six or seven continents in the world, including Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe, North America, Oceania (or Australasia), and South America.
+
+Statistics
+
+The most populous continent by population is Asia, followed by Africa. The third most populous continent is Europe. The fourth most populous is North America, and then South America. In sub-Saharan Africa, the largest age group are denarians (in their teens). In north Africa, the largest age group are vicenarian (in their twenties). In Europe, most people are tricenarian (in their thirties) or quadragenarian (in their forties).
+
+Continents
+Geologists use the term continent to mean continental crust, a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Continental crust is less dense and much thicker than oceanic crust, which is why it "floats" higher than oceanic crust on the underlying mantle. This explains why the continents form high platforms surrounded by deep ocean basins.
+
+Australia
+Some sources say that Australia is one of the seven continents. Others say that Australia is part of a larger continent, such as Australasia, or Oceania. Oceania is a region which includes Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. Australasia includes at least all countries on the Australian continental plate. This includes the islands of New Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand and a number of smaller islands. It is on the south-eastern side of the Wallace Line, with distinct differences in its biology from the Asian side of the line.
+
+"It includes all the islands of the Malay Archipelago... as well as the various groups of islands in the Pacific. The term has been used in very different senses".
+
+Zealandia
+Zealandia is an almost entirely submerged land mass, and 93% of it still remains under water. Zealandia may have broken off the Australian plate between 85 and 130 million years ago.
+
+North and South America
+North America and South America together are often described as one continent, "the Americas", or simply "America". This has the advantage of including Central America and the Caribbean islands. Otherwise, Central America is counted as part of North America.
+
+Eurasia
+Eurasia is not really an alternative, rather it is a recognition that the landmasses of Europe and Asia are continuous, and some of its largest countries are in both regions. Russia extends from eastern Europe to the far east of Asia without a break. The Ural Mountains, which run roughly northâsouth, are the traditional dividing-line between Europe and Asia. For many purposes it is convenient to consider the great landmass as a single continent, Eurasia.
+
+When British people talk about "the Continent" (or "Continental" things) they mean the European mainland. This meaning is not used as much as it used to be, but is still seen in phrases like "Continental breakfast" (rolls with cheese, jam etc. as distinct from an "English breakfast" which is a cooked breakfast).
+
+Continents not only move but also sometimes move against each other. The Indian subcontinent has been colliding with the Eurasian continent for a while now. As these continents push against each other, they buckle and bend. Because of this, the Himalaya Mountains, with Mount Everest, are still being built up today.
+
+Antarctica
+Antarctica is Earth's fifth largest continent. Antarctica, the coldest place on Earth, covers Earth's South Pole. It has a surface area of ~13.6 â14 million km2: this is about 1.4 times the size of Europe, The continent only has two seasons, a brief summer and a long winter. Antarctica is a cold desert. It does not rain or snow much there. Ever since its discovery in 1812, Antarctica was a great challenge for explorers. Despite being nearly completely covered by a thick layer of ice, Antarctica has a range of aquatic and terrestrial environments.
+
+Origin of continents
+A craton is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere. It is the Earth's two topmost layers, the crust and the uppermost mantle.
+
+There are various hypotheses of how cratons have been formed.. Continents may have been formed by giant meteorite impacts in the first billion years of Earth's existence. The question is not yet settled. What is clear is that the cratons are very old, and are the basis for the continents we see today.
+
+Related pages
+ List of countries by continents
+
+References
+
+
+Geology
+The Greek classical elements are fire, air, water, and earth. In Greek philosophy, science and medicine, these make up a whole.
+
+Fire is both hot and dry.
+Air is both hot and wet.
+Water is both cold and wet.
+Earth is both cold and dry.
+
+The image below has two squares on top of each other. The corners of one are the classical elements. The corners of the other are the properties.
+
+Galen said these elements were used by Hippocrates to describe the human body. The elements are linked to the four humours: phlegm (water), yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), and blood (air).
+
+In Chinese Taoism the elements are metal, wood, water, fire, earth ().
+
+References
+
+Ancient Greece
+History of science
+China ( Pinyin: ZhĆngguĂł) is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and a nation in East Asia. The official name is People's Republic of China or PRC.
+
+The last Chinese Civil War (19271949) resulted in two different political powers today:
+
+ The Republic of China (ROC) (since 1911), commonly known as China since 1 January, 1911 to 25 October, 1971. Now commonly known as Taiwan, has control over the islands of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu.
+ The People's Republic of China (PRC) (since 1949), commonly known as China, has control over mainland China and the largely self-governing territories of Hong Kong (since 1997) and Macau (since 1999).
+
+China is one of the world's oldest civilizations: it has the oldest continuous civilization near the Yellow River region. There is archaeological evidence over 5,000 years old. China also has one of the world's oldest writing systems (and the oldest in use today). China has been the source of many major inventions. Geographically, Chinaâs longest river is the Yangtze River which runs through mega cities and is home to many species. It is the worldâs third longest river.
+
+Origins
+The first recorded use of the word "China" is dated 1555. It is derived from chīnī, a Persian adjective meaning 'Chinese' which was popularized in Europe by Marco Polo.
+
+History
+
+Ancient (2100 B.C. 1500 A.D.)
+Ancient China was one of the first civilizations and was active since the 2nd millennium BC as a feudal society. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing, with the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley civilization, the Maya civilization, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt. It reached its golden age during the Tang Dynasty (c. A.D. 10th century). Home of Confucianism and Daoism, it had great influence on nearby countries including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam in the areas of political system, philosophy, religion, art, writing and literature. China is home to some of the oldest artwork in the world. Statues and pottery, as well as decorations made of jade, are some classic examples.
+
+Before the Qin Dynasty united China, there were many small feudal states, nominally loyal to the Zhou King, that fought each other for hundreds of years in a war to control China. The majority of these states were ruled by relatives and clansmen of the Zhou royal house and carried the surname Ji (槏) and so were tied by family bonds to the Zhou king, to whom they were ritually subordinate, as members of collateral or lesser lineages. A minority of these states, such as the Qin and Chu, were ruled by non-Zhou clansmen, and were awarded their fiefs on account of some merit. Over time, these feudal states attained to power and wealth, that exceeded that of their Zhou nominal overlord, whose direct authority became confined to a very small territory near present-day Zhengzhou. These states also began to acquire some distinctive characteristics and identities of their own during the long centuries of loose control by the Zhou. Eventually, the Zhou kings were eclipsed in power by two especially problematic vassals - the Qin and Chu, and the functional independence of the Qin later led to its gradual conquest of all other vassal states and the formal supplantation of the Zhou to form a heavily centralised Empire.
+
+The long decline of the Zhou, incidentally the longest ruling dynastic house of China, is known as the Warring States Period. Despite the bloodiness and strife of the period, this was the time when many great philosophies emerged - including Confucianism and Daoism as a response to disintegrating central authority of the Zhou kings and fluctuating power of the vassal states, and the general uncertainty of that era. Confucianism and Daoism have been the foundation of many social values seen in modern east Asian cultures today.
+
+Other notable dynasties include the Han (from which is derived the ethnonym the Han Chinese, which is synonymous with the older self-referential term - the Huaxia) as well as dynasties such as the Tang, Song, and Ming, which were characterised by periods of affluence, wealth, population growth, and the proliferation of literature.
+
+During the later years, China was often raided or invaded by northern nomadic people such as the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Jurchens and the Mongols (the latter led by Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan). One effect of regular nomadic invasion and the collapse of native dynasties was the massive migration of Han Chinese - especially the aristocratic elite and the literati, to sparsely populated frontier regions south of the Yangzi river such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian. Several notable waves of Han Chinese immigration to Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian took place during the collapse of the Jin, the Tang, and the Song.
+
+Some nomadic groups succeeded in conquering the whole territory of China, establishing dynasties such as the Yuan (Mongol) and Qing (Manchu). Each time, they also brought new elements into Chinese culture - for instance, military uniform, the qipao and the pigtail, the latter of which was deeply resented by the Han Chinese.
+
+A new age
+
+While China achieved many things in the First millennium and early 2nd millennium, it became an isolationist country in the 15th century C.E. This was because Spain found enormous silver in the new continent, which was the main currency (money) in China and Europe at the time, and China did not want to be bought by the foreigners.
+
+By the time of the Renaissance, European powers started to take over other countries in Asia. While China was never actually taken over, many European countries, such as Britain and France built spheres of influence in China. Since China had cut itself off from the world over the previous few centuries, by the Qing Dynasty, it had fallen behind other countries in technology, and was helpless to stop this from happening. This had become clear when it lost the Opium Wars to Britain in the 19th century.
+
+Still influenced by Western sources, China faced internal strife. The Taiping Rebellion or Taiping War occurred in China from 1851 through 1864. The Taiping Rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan from Guangdong. Hong Xiuquan was influenced by Christian missionaries and declared himself the brother of Jesus. Hong made his mission to bring down the Qing Dynasty. Gaining influence on the southern Chinese population, the Taiping Rebellion attracted tens of thousands of supporters. The Taiping regime successfully created a state within the Qing Empire with the capital at Nanjing. Hong called his new state the Taiping Tianguo or "The Heavenly State of Great Peace". Local armies eventually suppressed the rebellion at the final battle of Nanjing.
+
+In 1911, the Republic of China was founded after the Xinhai revolution led by Sun Yat-sen, but its government was very weak. Warlords controlled many areas. Chiang Kai-shek led wars against them, and he became president and dictator.
+
+In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, a place in the northeastern part of China. On July 7, 1937, the Japanese attacked the rest of the country, starting what was called the Second Sino-Japanese War.
+
+On December 13 of that same year, The Japanese Army killed an estimated (guessed) 200,000 to 300,000 Chinese civilians (people) which is called Nanjing Massacre. The war later became part of World War II. The war was fought for eight years and millions of Chinese people were killed.
+
+However, the Chinese Civil War later started between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Communists of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Communists wanted to make China like the Soviet Union, whereas the other side wanted to keep China in its current state at the time. The Communists were led by Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai and others. The Communists eventually won the war by uniting all the people from different positions. The Nationalists (led by Chiang Kai-shek) fled to the island of Taiwan and set up their new capital city in Taipei. After the Chinese Civil War, the Communist leader Mao Zedong declared a new country, the People's Republic of China (PRC), in Beijing on October 1, 1949.
+
+Under Mao the country stayed poor while Taiwan became richer. His attempt at industrialization and collectivization with the Great Leap Forward led to the deaths of many people from famine. The Cultural Revolution caused great social upheaval. After 1976, China underwent market economy reforms under Deng Xiaoping, and experienced rapid economic growth, which made the former progress made by Taiwan became overshadowed. China is now one of the largest economies in the world, relying mainly on exports and manufactering.
+
+In recent history, China has had problems with protests, blocking of information on the Internet, and censorship of news. 1989 was notable for the controversial Tiananmen Square protests. Since the 2008 Olympics, China has hosted many major international events, and the 2022 Winter Olympics were held in Beijing, China.
+
+Geography
+
+China's landscape is vast and diverse. It ranges from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the north to subtropical forests in the south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern coast. The Yangtze River is the third-longest river in the world while the Yellow River is the sixth-longest. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers (9,000 mi) long. It is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe. The Eurasian Steppe has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the Steppe route. The Steppe Route is the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Road(s).
+
+Politics
+
+China's constitution states that The People's Republic of China "is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants". It also states the state organs "apply the principle of democratic centralism." The PRC is one of the world's only socialist states openly being communist.
+
+Military
+With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world. The PLA is commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC). China has the second-biggest military reserve force, only behind North Korea. The PLA consists of the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF), and the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF). According to the Chinese government, China's military budget for 2017 was US$151,5 billion. China has the world's second-largest military budget.
+
+Science and technology
+
+China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the Ming dynasty. There are many Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions. For example, papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder are known as the Four Great Inventions. They became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers. By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world became better than China in science and technology.
+
+Demographics
+The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China to be about 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old. The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.
+
+Culture
+China is the origin of Eastern martial arts, called Kung Fu or its first name Wushu. China is also the home of the well-respected Spa Monastery and Wudang Mountains. Martial art started more for the purpose of survival, defense, and warfare than art. Over time some art forms have branched off, while others have retained their distinct Chinese flavor.
+
+China has had renowned artists including Wong Fei Hung (Huang Fei Hung or Hwang Fei Hung) and many others. Art has also co-existed with a variety of paints including the more standard 18 colors. Legendary and controversial moves like Big Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture.
+
+China has many traditional festivals, such as Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-autumn Festival and so on. The most important is Chinese New Year. People in China will have holidays to celebrate these festivals.
+
+Festivals
+Spring Festival is the Chinese New Year.
+
+Dragon Boat Festival is celebrated to commemorate the death of Qu Yuan, a patriotic poet of the State of Chu during the Warring States period. He persuaded his emperor not to accept Qin's diplomats' offers several times but his emperor did not listen to him. He was very sad and ended up jumping into the river to end his life. The people loved him so much that they did not want the fish to eat his corpse. They made and threw rice dumplings into the river. They hope the fish eat these dumplings instead of the poet's corpse. They also rowed dragon boats in the river to get rid of the fish. Such practices, eating rice dumplings and holding dragon boat races, become what Chinese do in this festival nowadays.
+
+Held on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, Mid-Autumn Festival is a festival for families. Now when the festival sets in, people would sit together to eat moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon, celebrate the bumper harvest and enjoy the family love and happiness. To the Chinese people, the full moon symbolizes family reunion, as does the "moon cakes." Hence the Mid-Autumn Festival is also called the Family Reunion Festival.
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Map of China
+ City Photo Gallery of China
+ China | Geography | People | Economy
+ China -Citizendium
+
+Divided regions
+
+Republics
+A country is a distinct territory with defined borders, boundaries, people and government. Most countries are sovereign states while others make up one part of a larger state Every part of the world is in a country. The people that live in a country are referred to as a nation. The government that runs the country is called the state.
+
+Vatican City is the smallest country in the world and the largest is Russia.
+
+Number of countries
+There is no universally accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there actually are, however the minimum answer is 193 for the 193 United Nations members.
+
+This can be developed on even further by adding the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, The Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Denmark which could add anywhere from three to eleven morecountries.
+
+There are multiple organisations that have their own lists of countries, one example being the Travellers Century Club which recognises 330 countries as of January 2022.
+
+Disputed countries
+Taiwan is classified as a country. However, there is an ongoing dispute over Taiwan's independence with the People's Republic of China.
+
+There are a number of disputed areas that have declared independence from their parent state and receive limited recognition. For example, Kosovo, Transnistria, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Northern Cyprus, Artsakh and Somaliland. These are just some of the many examples of territories with limited to no recognition that are sometimes classed as countries.
+
+There is a lot of controversy surrounding the above examples and quite often any of these territories may be counted as countries purely based on opinion. If all of the above were added the list of U.N members there could be anything up to 211 countries.
+
+There are, however, many more territories with unique political circumstances that could also be counted.
+
+Depending on how loosely the dictionary definition for the word country is used there could be many more than 193 countries in the world. The matter is purely subjective depending on varying opinions.
+
+Constituent country
+
+Constituent country is a term sometimes used, usually by official institutions, in contexts in which a number of countries are part of a sovereign state. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has used the term referring to the former Yugoslavia, and the European institutions like the Council of Europe often use it in reference to the European Union.
+
+Territorial dispute
+
+A disputed territory is that territory whose sovereignty is jealously desired by two or more countries. Usually the administration of the territory is carried out by one of the countries that claims sovereignty, while the other country does not recognize the sovereignty over the territory of the other country. This does not usually happen in land or sea areas on which none possesses effective control, such as Antarctica, or only partially.
+
+Related pages
+State
+Sovereign state
+Nation
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+ Geography Trainer 1.3.5 - Educational game aimed at school children to teach world capitals
+ Geography Trainer US States 1.1 game
+ List of countries
+ Geography Site Country Profiles - Based on the CIA World Factbook
+
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Colchester is a city in the northern part of the English county of Essex. It has a population of 104,000 people. People believe that Colchester is the oldest Roman town in England.
+
+History
+
+Before Roman times, Colchester was Camulodunon. This is a Celtic name that came from Camulos. Camulos was the Celtic god of war. The Romans called Colchester Camulodunum (written "CAMVLODVNVM") and made it the capital of Roman Britain. Colchester was attacked and burnt by Boudicca in 61 AD. The Romans moved their capital of Britannia to Londinium (now London), but Camulodunum remained an important city until the fifth century, when the Saxons conquered the region.
+
+The Roman town of Camulodunum, officially known as Colonia Victricensis, reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD. It may have reached a population of 30,000 in those centuries, but when the Romans withdrew from Britannia in 410 AD it probably had fewer than 5,000 inhabitants.
+
+The church at the Benedictine abbey of Saint John the Baptist was destroyed in 1539. This action was part of the dissolution of the monasteries by King Henry VIII. Only a gate remains, that people still go to visit.
+
+King Cunobelinus (or "Cunobelin") was from Colchester.
+
+Until 2022, Colchester was officially a town, not a city. On 5 September, Queen Elizabeth II signed letters patent to grant it city status. This was planned as part of her Platinum Jubilee celebrations. However, she died three days later. On 29 September, these letters were publicly released.
+
+Twin cities
+Colchester is twinned with the following cities:
+ Imola, Italy
+ Wetzlar, Germany
+ Avignon, France
+
+Notes
+
+Bibliography
+ B D'Ambrosio. "Roman Camulodunum". Universita' Statale di Genova (Genova University). Genova, 2007
+
+Settlements in Essex
+Cities in England
+Cartography is making maps. It is part of geography. How people make maps is always changing. In the past, maps were drawn by hand, but today most printed maps are made using computers and people usually see maps on computer screens. Someone who makes maps is called a cartographer.
+
+Making a map can be as simple as drawing a direction on a napkin, or as complicated as showing a whole country or world. Anyone can make a map, but cartographers spend their lives learning how to make better maps.
+
+For many centuries maps were usually carefully drawn onto paper or parchment. Now they are made on a computer which makes them look neater with accurate images.
+
+Maps are of two main types:
+ General maps with a variety of features.
+ Thematic maps with particular themes for specific audiences.
+
+General maps are produced in a series. Governments produce them in larger-scale and smaller-scale maps of great detail.
+
+Thematic maps are now very common. They are necessary to show spatial, cultural and social data.
+
+References
+
+Related pages
+ Map projection
+ Surveying
+ Topography
+
+Geodesy
+History of science
+Topography
+Topology
+A creator is a person who creates something.
+
+In some religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) God (or Allah meaning the God in Arabic) is the most important and original creator of the whole universe - including Man who is made "in his image" (see Genesis) to observe it and control it like God. The idea that anything that a person is creating, like an idea, can be owned as property comes from the ethical traditions and legal codes that came from these religions.
+
+In other traditions (Buddhism, Native American mythology) anyone has this potential for creating, and can become part of the greater creating of the universe. Stewardship of home, land and all of Earth is a test for participating in this, or just good sense.
+
+Related pages
+Creation myth
+
+Theology
+Contact network may mean:
+Creative network
+Social network
+Power network
+Chorizo is a pork (pig-meat) sausage which people first made in the Iberian Peninsula. It is made with large pieces of fatty pork, chili pepper and paprika. The special taste of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it.
+
+In the western hemisphere, the Mexican and Caribbean types are better known. These types of chorizo are made with smaller pieces of pork and different seasonings and peppers are used.
+
+Cured smoked chorizo is edible and can be eaten without cooking. Fresh chorizo must be cooked before eating. It can be eaten by its self, or as part of meal. It can also be used in place of ground beef or pork.
+
+Chorizo can be fresh. Also it can be dried. It can be spicy or not spicy depending on the recipe. There are many ways to eat chorizo. It can be sliced and eaten as a snack, or cooked. Dishes like stews, soups and rice dishes also use Chorizo. In Spain, chorizo is served as a small plate of food with drinks. In Latin America, chorizo is served with beans and eggs for breakfast. To make chorizo, the pork is cut into small pieces. Then it is mixed with spices and other ingredients. The mixture is then put into a casing. Casing is a thin, tube-like skin. Casing is made from the intestine of a pig. The chorizo is then left to dry for a few weeks. By doing this chorizo gets its special flavor and texture. There are many kinds of chorizo. Recipe of chorizo also different in different countries. In Spain, there are two main kinds of chorizo: chorizo de verdeo, and chorizo de cantimpalo. Chorizo de verdeo made with white wine and chorizo de cantimpalomade with red wine. In Latin America, chorizo is made with a mixture of chili peppers and other spices. It makes chorizo spicy. There are a few different ways to cook with chorizo. One popular way is to slice the chorizo and fry it in a pan until it is crispy. It can then be added to dishes like soups, stews and rice dishes. Chorizo can also be grilled, which gives it a smoky flavor. It can be sliced and added to sandwiches or served as a topping on pizza. Chorizo is a tasty and versatile food that can be enjoyed in many different ways.
+
+References
+
+Sausage
+Creativity is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the process of making something new and useful or valuable. It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music.
+
+ As a personal ability it is very difficult to measure. The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others. Judging what is creative is also controversial. Some people say only things which are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity.
+
+Some think that creativity is an important thing that makes humans different from apes. Others recognize that even apes, other primates, other mammals and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools). Liane Gabora believes that all culture comes from creativity, not imitation. Therefore, these people say, human science should focus on it (pay special attention to it): Ethics for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas. Politics would focus on the political virtues that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of education. Linguistics might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in grammar.
+
+Intellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or intellectual property in the law) are a way to reward creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is copyright which is supposed to pay writers and artists, but may only pay lawyers to make (imitative) arguments in court.
+
+Creativity is a central question in economics, where it is known as ingenuity (the ability to come up with new ideas) or individual capital - capacities that individuals have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a patent or training system that helps others do what the individual leader or founder of the system can do. In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this accurately and predict the economic growth of cities based on creativity.
+
+Related pages
+Art
+Imagination
+Innovation
+
+Human behavior
+The Cathar faith was a version of Christianity. They were usually considered Gnostics. The word 'Cathar' comes the Greek word katharos meaning 'unpolluted' (from Tobias Churton, The Gnostics) or "the pure ones".
+
+Principles
+The Cathars believed that the world had been made by a bad god. They believed that this bad god had taken them from the good god and put them in the world, but inside their bodies there was a spirit, and that spirit needed to return to the good god. They were famous for a belief in a form of reincarnation and believed that when someone died the bad god would put that person's spirit in a new body. They believed this cycle of coming back to life could be escaped by a ritual cleansing. They were opposed to the doctrine of sin.
+
+Women were prominent in the faith. They were pacifists. They didn't eat anything that was made from other animals, including meat and cows milk. The only exception to this was fish. Fish was OK to eat because they believed fishes were not alive but just things that were sometimes produced from dirt and water.
+
+They preached tolerance of other faiths. They rejected the usual Christian rules of marriage and only believed in the New Testament. An earlier 10th-century Bulgarian heresy, Bogomilism and also Manichaeism started some of these trends.
+
+Language
+They used a bible in the language people spoke. Many other Christians used a Bible in Latin. Latin was spoken only by the priests.
+
+Problems
+In 1145, open challenge to Catholic dominance began. In about 1165, the first Cathars said that the Church was "full of ravening (starving) wolves and hypocrites" and "worshipping the wrong God", right in front of the most powerful Catholics. In 1166, the Council of Oxford in England wiped out the English Cathars. It was also suppressed in Northern France. In 1167, Cathar bishops met to discuss organizing a counter Church - in the South of France, the Languedoc nobles protected it, and many noble women became "Perfects". Parish clergy had low morale, or confidence.
+
+Reactions
+The Catholic Church was against Catharism, seeing it as a heresy.
+
+In the South of France there was tremendous religious fervor, and an economy that was starting to grow, and a social class of merchants and peasants was starting to grow. Peasants owned their own land. Meanwhile, in other parts of Europe, peasants were forced to give up their land to nobles and become serfs or slaves - the system of feudalism. There was a strong central absolute monarchy that did not exist in the South of France. The burghers and bankers had more power in this looser system. R. I. Moore is a historian who believes that it was desire to crush this system and take over the land that drove the attack.
+
+However, there was real cultural and religious difference to cause problems: Troubadors, who combined some of the traditions of the Bards of the Celts, and Jews, were both part of the multicultural society in the South of France. Their influences were not appreciated by local or Roman Church figures. The 12th century Roman Catholic Monks were founding their monasteries outside the towns, drawing the best people there.
+
+Results
+The Cathars thus had little competition. The Cathar "Perfects", the so-called Good Men or Good Women, lived restrained lives and spread their faith in towns - where the Catholics in general did not have their best agents. Also, Cathars preached that only these Good leaders had to follow the regimens their whole lives - lay people could repent only on their deathbeds. Many 20th century Christian sects have similar beliefs.
+
+The Albigensian Crusade
+
+Methods
+The Pope ordered a crusade against the Cathars in southern France. He said any crusader who answered the call would be given the same rewards as a crusader who went to the Holy Land. This was an absolution of all sin.
+
+In the Launguedoc, on the 22nd of July 1209, a force of about 30,000 Crusaders arrived at the walls of Beziers bearing the cross pattee to mislead and create ease among the Cathars, thinking they were friend, not foe, and demanded that about 200 Cathars be surrendered. The people of the town who were mostly Catholic, said that rather than turn over their friends and family, "we would rather be flayed alive."
+
+A mistake by the defenders of Beziers let thousands of attackers in. Arnauld Amaury made the famous quote "Kill them all, God knows his own" on being asked how to tell who were Cathars during the assault. Everyone in the town was killed, some while taking refuge in the church. It is guessed that 20,000 were killed, many of whom were Catholics and not Cathars at all. The crusade became known as the Albigensian crusade after the town of Albi. It was to wipe out the Cathars almost entirely over forty or so years. The Crusaders wanted to go home, but were ordered by the Pope to continue until the whole South of France was controlled and all Cathars were dead. In 1210, they attacked the fortress at Minerv and built "the first great bonfire of heretics" - beginning the practice of burning at the stake that would continue in the Inquisition of the Counter-Reformation. It is interesting to note that at the siege of Montsegur when the fires were lit the Cathars ran down the hill and threw themselves on, as their beliefs were very strong.
+
+Result
+Catharism disappeared from the northern Italian cities after the 1260s, pressured by the Inquisition. The last known Cathar perfectus in the Languedoc, Guillaume BĂ©libaste, was killed in 1321.
+
+Other websites
+ http://dannyreviews.com/h/Cathars.html
+ http://gnosistraditions.faithweb.com/mont.html
+ http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gui-cathars.html
+ http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/christ/west/cathar.html
+ http://pages.britishlibrary.net/forrester-roberts/cathars.html
+ Cathar Center in Barcelona: Books, spirituality, exhibition
+
+Gnosticism
+Nontrinitarianism
+Christianity of the Middle Ages
+Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that deals with the origin, structure, evolution and space-time relationships of the universe. NASA defines cosmology as "The study of the structure and changes in the present universe". Another definition of cosmology is "the study of the universe, and humanity's place in it".
+
+Modern cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics.
+
+Though the word cosmology is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's Cosmologia Generalis), the study of the universe has a long history.
+
+History
+Until the Renaissance people thought the universe was only the planets up to Saturn, and stars. With the invention of the telescope, we could see more of the universe. Early in the 20th century, astronomers thought the Milky Way was the entire universe. Later, with astrophotography and spectroscopy, astronomers (for example Edwin Hubble) showed that the Milky Way was only one of many galaxies.
+
+Modern cosmology is considered to have started in 1917 with the final paper of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. This made physicists realize that the universe changed. When a scientific discipline begins to change an idea that is believed by many people, it is known as a paradigm shift. During this paradigm shift, the Great Debate took place. Many scientists debated if there were other galaxies. The debate ended when Edwin Hubble found Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1926.
+
+The Big Bang model was then proposed by Belgian priest, Georges LemaĂźtre in 1927. This was supported by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the redshift in 1929. Later the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation was made. This was found by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964.
+
+All of these discoveries have been further supported throughout the 21st century. Some more observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation were found by the COBE, WMAP, and Planck satellites. Some more observations of the redshift were found by the 2dfGRS and SDSS. These are known as redshift surveys. Survey is this context refers to an astronomical survey. An astronomical survey looks at a place in space. A redshift survey is a survey that looks for redshifts.
+
+On 1 December 2014, at the Planck 2014 meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% regular matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy.
+
+Key terms
+ Mass
+ Gravity
+ Electromagnetic radiation
+ Dark matter
+ Dark energy
+ Speed of light
+ Age of the Universe
+
+Related pages
+String theory
+Earth science
+Inflation
+
+References
+
+Astrophysics
+A church is a building that was constructed to allow people to meet to worship together. These people are usually Christians, or influenced by Christianity. Some other non-Christian religious groups also call their religious buildings churches, most notably Scientology.
+
+The following description is about Roman Catholic churches, although some parts are the same in Episcopalian and Lutheran churches. Depending on the number of people that are in a community, the churches come in different sizes. Small churches are called chapels. The churches in a particular geographical area form a group called the diocese. Each diocese has a cathedral. In most cases, the cathedral is a very big church. Cathedrals are the seat of bishops.
+
+History of church buildings
+
+
+
+In the early days of Christianity people met in private buildings. Church buildings are mentioned for the first time around the year 260 A.D. when the Emperor Galienus ordered an end of a persecution and to return the places of worship. In the third century we hear of large church buildings. We do not know, how these early buildings looked. Only in Dura-Europos (Syria) a building was discovered, which had been a private house modified for Christian services.
+
+After the death of the Roman emperor Constantine in 337 A.D. Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in. These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman basilicas. This plan was later used for the fine Gothic cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the Middle Ages.
+
+The parts of a church
+
+There are several parts in the architecture of a church. Not all churches will have all these parts:
+
+ The nave is the main part of the church where the congregation (the people who come to worship) sit.
+ The aisles are the sides of the church which may run along the side of the nave.
+ The transept, if there is one, is an area which crosses the nave near the top of the church. This makes the church shaped like a cross, which is a symbol of Jesus's death on a cross.
+ The chancel leads up to the altar at the top of the church. The altar is in the sanctuary. The word âsanctuaryâ means âsacred placeâ. People were not allowed to be arrested in the sanctuary, so they were safe. The altar is usually at the east end of the church. People in the church sit facing the altar. We say that the church âfaces eastâ.
+ Churches will also have a tower or steeple, usually at the west end. If the church has a transept the tower may be above the centre of the transept.
+
+In Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of holy water near the entrance of the church. This tradition comes from the fact that Roman basilicas had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance. The font is a bowl where people (often babies) are baptized. This is also near the entrance of the church. This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church.
+
+Traditionally the nave has long benches for the congregation to sit on. These are called pews. Some churches may now have replaced their pews with chairs so that they can be moved about for different occasions. At the front of the nave is the pulpit where the priest preaches (these talks are called âsermonsâ). There is also a lectern (like a large music stand) from where the lessons (the Bible readings) are read.
+
+If there are aisles along the side of the nave there will be pillars which hold up the roof. In large churches or cathedrals there may be a row of little arches along the top of these pillars. This is called the triforium. Over the triforium is the clerestory which is a row of windows high up in the church wall.
+
+The chancel is the most holy part of the church, and this is why it is often separated from the nave by a screen which can be made of wood or stone, or occasionally iron. The congregation can see through the screen. On the top of the screen there may be a cross. This is called a rood (pronounce like ârudeâ) screen. Priests used to climb up a staircase to the top of the rood screen to read the epistle and the gospel. Sometimes people sang from there.
+
+Inside the chancel are the benches where the choir sit. These are called choir stalls. They are on both sides. The two sides of the choir sit facing one another. The choir members who sit on the left (north side) are called âcantorisâ (the side where the âcantorâ sits) and those on the right (south side) are called âdecaniâ (the side where the deacon sits). In some large churches or cathedrals the seats for the priests tip up. The top of these seats, when they are tipped up, are called misericords (from the Latin word for âmercyâ). This is because the priests or monks were able to lean against them when they got tired if they had to stand up for a long time.
+
+Sometimes there are holes in the walls of the screen so that the congregation can see through. These are called squints. If there is a recess in the wall it is called an aumbry. It is a cupboard for communion wine and bread that have been consecrated by a priest.
+
+The altar may be right at the east end of the church, but in larger churches or cathedrals it is often much farther forward. In that case the very east end is called an apse. Sometimes it is a separate chapel called the âLady Chapelâ.
+
+Churches through the ages
+
+The design of churches changed a lot during the course of history. Often churches were made bigger. When this happened there may be a mixture of architectural styles. These styles vary a lot in different countries.
+
+English churches
+
+In English churches there were several different periods of architecture:
+
+ The Saxon period (700â1050) was a time when churches were very simple. The end of the church (end of the sanctuary) was often rounded. Hardly any are left now because they were mostly made of wood.
+ The Norman period (1050â1190) came from the style called Romanesque which was popular in Europe. The arches had ornaments which were called âmouldingsâ. The tops of the pillars looked like cushions, so they were called âcushion capitalsâ. The windows were narrow and rounded at the top.
+ Early English or Gothic architecture (1190â1280) was not as solid and heavy as Norman architecture. Towers were elegant and tall, like the tower of Salisbury Cathedral.
+ The Decorated style of architecture (1280â1360)was popular at a time when the plague (Black Death) was raging and a third of the people in England died. For that reason, not so much building was done then. There were lots of stone carvings were made in churches at that time.
+ The Perpendicular style (1360â1540) was very grand. It had lots of straight upward lines and fan vaulting. This can be seen in Westminster Abbey and King's College Chapel, Cambridge. Many churches that can be seen in England were built in this period.
+
+In the 1600s, churches were built in a variety of styles. Often they copied some of the older styles. After the Great Fire of London many new churches were built by the architect Sir Christopher Wren. They were built in the classical style. Churches continued to be built in later centuries like this, but also the Gothic style continued to be used.
+
+Modern churches often do not have the traditional cross-shape. It is difficult for the congregation to see and hear what is happening in the chancel. Modern churches bring the congregation, choir and priests in closer touch. An example is the round design for the Church of Christ the Cornerstone in Milton Keynes. Modern churches are often simpler but with a warmer character than the Gothic churches. Many have beautiful mosaic glass windows. Coventry Cathedral is a famous example of a modern church building.
+
+Related pages
+Cathedral
+Chapel
+Choir (music)
+
+References
+
+ EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica, 1973
+
+Other websites
+
+ Virtual Church
+A city is a place where many people live close together.
+
+A city has many buildings and streets. It has houses, hotels, condominiums, and apartments for many people to live in, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work, and a government to run the city and keep law and order in the city. People live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do everything they want there. A city usually has a "city center" where government and business occur and suburbs where people live outside the center.
+
+Definition
+
+No rule is used worldwide to decide why some places are called "city," and other places are called "town."
+
+Some things that make a city are :
+ A long history. Although many cities today have only been around for tens or hundreds of years, there are a few which have been so for thousands of years. For example, Athens, Greece was founded in 1000 BC and Rome, Italy has existed since 700 BC.
+ A large population. Cities can have millions of people living in and around them. Among them are Tokyo, Japan, and the Tokyo Metropolis around it, which includes Yokohama and Chiba.
+ In Japan, the population of a city ( ćž ) is at least over 50,000 people. and among cities, there are various grades according to laws, which the central government of Japan governs.
+ A center where business and government takes place. The first case is often described as the financial capital, such as Frankfurt in Germany. The second case is true for different levels of government, whether they are local or part of a larger region (for example, Atlanta, Georgia, or the capital of the United States Washington, D.C.) Cities that contain the government of the region it is in are called capitals. Almost every country has its own capital.
+ Special powers called town privileges which have been given by the government of the country or its ruler. Europe during the Middle Ages was a great example of having town privileges.
+ Having a cathedral or a university. This rule is found in the United Kingdom. The smallest "cathedral cities" are St. David's and St. Asaph's which are both in Wales, Ripon and Wells which are in England.
+
+In American English, people often call all places where many people live cities. (See below: Size of cities )
+
+Size of cities
+
+The sizes of cities can be very different. This depends on the type of city. Cities built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much are much smaller than modern cities. There are two main reasons. One reason is that old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it. Another important reason is that the streets in old cities are often narrow. If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the marketplace. People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city.
+
+Cities that were on a river like London could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like Sienna in Italy, because the river made a transport route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people. London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Sienna, a significant city in the 1300s, has changed very little in 700 years.
+
+Modern cities with modern transport systems can grow very large, because the streets are wide enough for cars, buses, and trucks, and there are often railway lines.
+
+In the US, the word city is often used for towns that are not very big. When the first European people went to America, they named " city " to new places. They hoped the places would be great cities in the future. For example, Salt Lake City was the name given to a village of 148 people. When they started building the town, they made street plans and called it Great Salt Lake City (for the nearby Great Salt Lake).
+
+Now, 150 years later, it really is a big city.
+
+In modern times many cities have grown bigger and bigger. The whole area is often called a "metropolis" and can sometimes include several small ancient towns and villages. The metropolis of London includes London, Westminster, and many old villages such as Notting Hill, Southwark, Richmond, Greenwich, etc. The part that is officially known as the " City of London " only takes up one square mile. The rest is known as "Greater London. " Many other cities have grown in the same way.
+
+These giant cities can be exciting places to live, and many people can find good jobs there, but modern cities also have many problems. Many people cannot find jobs in the cities and have to get money by begging or by crime. Automobiles, factories, and waste create a lot of pollution that makes people sick.
+
+Urban history
+
+Urban history is history of civilization. The first cities were made in ancient times, as soon as people began to create civilization . The oldest city on Earth is probably Catal Huyuk, which existed from 7500BCE to 6500bce, although mainstream historians consider Catal Huyuk to be a proto-city.Famous ancient cities which fell to ruins included Babylon, Troy, Mycenae and Mohenjo-daro.
+
+Benares in northern India is one among the ancient cities which has a history of more than 3000 years. Other cities that have existed since ancient times are Athens in Greece, Rome and Volterra in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt and York in England.
+
+In Europe, in the Middle Ages, being a city was a special privilege, granted by nobility. Cities that fall into this category, usually had (or still have) city walls. The people who lived in the city were privileged over those who did not. Medieval cities that still have walls include Carcassonne in France, Tehran in Iran, Toledo in Spain and Canterbury in England.
+
+Features
+
+Infrastructure
+
+People in a city live close together, so they cannot grow all their own food or gather their own water or energy. People also create waste and need a place to put it. Modern cities have infrastructure to solve these problems. Pipes carry running water, and power lines carry electricity. Sewers take away the dirty water and human waste. Most cities collect garbage to take it to a landfill, burn it, or recycle it.
+
+Transport is any way of getting from one place to another. Cities have roads which are used by automobiles (including trucks), buses, motorcycles, bicycles, and pedestrians (people walking). Some cities have trains and larger cities have airports. Many people in cities travel to work each day, which is called commuting.
+
+Buildings and design
+Houses and apartments are common places to live in cities. Great numbers of people in developing countries (and developed countries, in the past) live in slums. A slum is poorly built housing, without clean water, where people live very close together. Buildings are usually taller in the city center, and some cities have skyscrapers.
+
+City streets can be shaped like a grid, or as a "wheel and spokes": a set of rings and lines coming out from the center. Streets in some older cities like London are arranged at random, without a pattern. The design of cities is a subject called urban planning. One area of the city might have only shops, and another area might have only factories. Cities have parks, and other public areas like city squares.
+
+United States politics
+
+Cities in the US are usually very-left leaning. The best examples of these would be New York, New York, and Washington, D.C. For example, in Louisiana, the only Democratic delegate in US Congress who is a Democrat was elected from a district comprising in New Orleans. Below is a list of states and the major city/cities that provide much of the liberal support in them :
+
+ Atlanta, Georgia: 5 of the 16 delegates representing Georgia in the US Congress are Democrats. All hail from districts in Atlanta.
+ New Orleans, Louisiana: the only Democratic delegate from Louisiana in the US Congress was elected from a New Orleans district.
+ Kansas City, Kansas: the only Democratic congressman from Kansas was elected from a district in Kansas City.
+ Las Vegas, Nevada: all of the Democrats in the US House who represent Nevada are from Las Vegas.
+ Salt Lake City, Utah: the only Democrat representing Utah in the US Congress was elected from a Salt Lake City district.
+ Chicago, Illinois: if it weren't for Chicago, the state of Illinois would be as conservative as Indiana.
+ Louisville, Kentucky: the only Democrat representing Kentucky in the US Congress was elected from a Louisville district.
+
+World's largest cities
+
+These cities have more than 10 million people and can be called megacities:
+ Tokyo, Japan - 37 million
+ Delhi, India - 29 million
+ Shanghai, China - 26 million
+ SĂŁo Paulo, Brazil - 22 million
+ Mexico City, Mexico - 22 million
+ Cairo, Egypt - 20 million
+ Mumbai, India - 20 million
+ Beijing, China - 20 million
+ Dhaka, Bangladesh - 20 million
+ Osaka, Japan - 19 million
+ New York, United States - 19 million
+ Karachi, Pakistan - 15 million
+ Buenos Aires, Argentina - 15 million
+ Chongqing, China - 15 million
+ Istanbul, Turkey - 15 million
+ Kolkata, India - 15 million
+ Manila, Philippines - 13 million
+ Lagos, Nigeria - 13 million
+ Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 13 million
+ Tianjin, China - 13 million
+ Kinshasa, DR Congo - 13 million
+ Guangzhou, China - 13 million
+ Los Angeles, United States - 12 million
+ Moscow, Russia - 12 million
+ Shenzhen, China - 12 million
+ Lahore, Pakistan - 12 million
+ Bangalore, India - 11 million
+ Paris, France - 11 million
+ BogotĂĄ, Colombia - 11 million
+ Jakarta, Indonesia - 11 million
+ Chennai, India - 10 million
+ Lima, Peru - 10 million
+ Bangkok, Thailand - 10 million
+
+Gallery of cities
+
+References
+Cooking is a process to make food ready to eat by heating it.
+
+Raw food is food that is not cooked. Some foods are good to eat raw. Other foods are not good for the body when they are raw, so they must be cooked. Some foods are good to eat either raw or cooked.
+
+Methods
+Cooking is often done in a kitchen using a stove or an oven. It can also be done over a fire (for example, over a campfire or on a barbecue).
+
+The heat for cooking can be made in different ways. It can be from an open fire that burns wood or charcoal. It can be on a stove or in an oven that uses propane, natural gas, or electricity.
+
+There are several different ways to cook food. Boiling cooks food in hot water. Frying (deep or shallow) cooks food in hot butter, fat or oil. Baking and roasting cook food by surrounding it with hot air. Grilling means cooking food on a metal grill that has heat under it.
+
+People often cook meat by boiling, roasting, frying, or grilling it. Some foods such as bread or pastries are usually baked.
+
+Usually food is cooked in some kind of pot or pan. Sometimes people cook food by putting it directly into the fire, or by wrapping the food in leaves before they put it into the fire.
+
+Cooks
+
+A person whose job it is to cook food may be called a cook or a chef. The word cooker means a machine or tool that a cook might use to cook food. Rice cookers and pressure cookers are examples.
+
+
+Basic English 850 words
+To chat is to talk about ordinary things that are not very important. A person can chat with another person, or to many people. People also use this word now for parts of the Internet where we can talk with many different people at the same time. Usually, people chat on the Internet in a chat room or messaging service like AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Yahoo Messenger Windows Live Messenger or Tencent QQ. There are also programs which let people use different messaging services from one program, such as Pidgin.
+
+Related pages
+ Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
+ Conversation
+
+Human communication
+Internet communication
+Messaging
+A cup is any kind of container used for holding liquid and drinking. These include:
+
+teacup
+paper cup
+
+Cup may also mean:
+
+Measuring cup, a measuring instrument for liquids and powders, used primarily in cooking
+Cup (unit), a customary unit of volume and measure
+Cancer of unknown primary origin, form of cancer
+The cup of a brassiĂšre, the part that covers the breasts
+A cup-shaped trophy or award for winning in a sport
+
+Basic English 850 words
+A crime (or misdemeanor or felony) is an act done by a person which is against the laws of a country or region. A person who does this is called a criminal.
+
+The basic idea of what things are called "crimes" is that they are thought to be things that might cause a problem for another person. Things like killing another person, injuring another person, or stealing from another person are crimes in most countries. Also, it can be a crime to have or sell contraband such as guns or illegal drugs. The latter two often fall under the category of victimless crime
+
+When some criminals make money from crime, they try to stop the police finding out where the money came from by money laundering. Men and boys commit many more crimes than women and girls.
+
+Etymology
+The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernĆ, meaning "I decide, I give judgment". Originally the Latin word crÄ«men meant "charge" or "cry of distress." The Ancient Greek word ÎșÏÎŻÎŒÎ±, krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to an intellectual mistake or an offense against the community, rather than a private or moral wrong.
+
+In 13th century English crime meant "sinfulness", according to the Online Etymology Dictionary. It was probably brought to England as Old French crimne (12th century form of Modern French crime), from Latin crimen (in the genitive case: criminis). In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following: "charge, indictment, accusation; crime, fault, offense".
+
+Definition
+
+England and Wales
+Whether a given act or omission constitutes a crime does not depend on the nature of that act or omission; it depends on the nature of the legal consequences that may follow it. An act or omission is a crime if it is capable of being followed by what are called criminal proceedings.
+
+Scotland
+For the purpose of section 243 of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, a crime means an offence punishable on indictment, or an offence punishable on summary conviction, and for the commission of which the offender is liable under the statute making the offence punishable to be imprisoned either absolutely or at the discretion of the court as an alternative for some other punishment.
+
+Sociology
+A normative definition views crime as deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms â cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave normally.
+
+Levels of crime
+There are various levels of crimes. In some jurisdictions they are:
+ misdemeanor - a minor crime, typically punished by a fee or less than 1 year in jail.
+ felony (or high crime) - a major crime, typically punished by 1 year or longer in prison.
+
+Different countries have different ideas of what things are crimes, and which ones are the worst. Some things that are crimes in one country are not crimes in other countries. Many countries get their ideas of what things are crimes from religions or controversial events which cause a law to be quickly created. For example, a religious Taboo might say eating a particular food is a crime. When automobiles became numerous, they killed or hurt many people in road accidents, so new laws were made for them.
+
+In many countries, if people say they made or wrote a book, movie, song, or Web page that they did not really make or write, it is a crime against copyright laws. In many countries, helping to grow, make, move, or sell illegal drugs is a crime.
+
+In most countries, police try to stop crimes and to find criminals. When the police find someone who they think might be a criminal, they usually hold the person in a jail. Then, usually, a court or a judge decides if the person really did a crime. If the court or judge decides that the person really did it, then he or she might have to pay a fine or go to prison. Sometimes the judge might decide that the criminal should be executed (killed). This is called Capital punishment (or the Death Penalty). There are countries in the world that execute criminals, and others that do not.
+
+In many countries, two conditions must exist for an act to be thought of as a crime:
+ Actus rea - the criminal did something against the law
+ Mens rea - the criminal knew what they were doing was against the law and did it anyways, or they knew they were doing something that could accidentally end up being against the law and didn't care
+
+Both must be present for the act to be thought of as a crime.
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Time Cube was a personal website created on 1997 by Otis Eugene Ray. On that website, Ray explained his theory of everything, known as "Time Cube". It described the planet Earth as having a cubic symmetry, and time as rotating four "corners". He also said that all of modern physics is wrong. Scientists reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be tested.
+
+The Time Cube website was written in an angry and hateful voice. On his site, Ray said that not believing in Time Cube would be "stupid and evil". Some of the comments were racist and discriminatory, especially against black people and Jews. There were also many comments against gay people. Many people found the site to be difficult to understand.
+
+Ray spoke about Time Cube at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in January 2002. At MIT, a professor tried to cancel the lecture before it took place. Ray believed this is proof of a conspiracy to keep information about Time Cube hidden. Ray also spoke about Time Cube at the Georgia Institute of Technology in April 2005.
+
+Otis Eugene Ray died on March 18, 2015. He was 87 years old. The website went down in August 2015. It was last archived by the Wayback Machine on January 12, 2016.
+
+Related pages
+ Conspiracy theory
+ Pseudoscience
+
+References
+
+Pseudoscience
+American websites
+1997 establishments in the United States
+Conspiracy theories
+The Census of Marine Life was a ten-year survey of life in the oceans, starting in 2000. Its head was Ron O'Dor of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It used data from researchers all over the world. More than 70 nations were involved and over a billion US dollars were spent on it.
+
+It was a major work of marine ecology. It was founded by J. Frederick Grassle.
+
+The purpose of the Census of Marine Life was to say what is alive in our seas and oceans.
+
+Other websites
+ Census of Marine Life website
+
+Biological oceanography
+Marine life
+Maize or Indian corn (called corn in some countries) is Zea mays, a member of the grass family Poaceae. It is a cereal grain which was first grown by people in ancient Central America. Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year. However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans. Most is used to make corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup.
+
+Maize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside. It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell. It is has long been a staple food by many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa. In Europe and the rest of North America, maize is grown mostly for use as animal feed. In Canada and the United States, maize is commonly referred to as "corn".
+
+Centuries of cross breeding have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties. Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of corn starch. People have long eaten sweet corn and popcorn with little processing, and other kinds after processing into flour for making cornbread, tortillas, and other artificial foods.
+
+Maize has been a fruitful model organism for research in genetics for many years: see Barbara McClintock. Research has shown that artificial selection developed maize from a Mexican plant called Teosinte.
+
+The genus Zea
+There are five species and many subspecies in the genus. They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs. The wild ones are sometimes called teosintes, and they are all native to Mesoamerica.
+
+References
+
+
+Model organisms
+Civics is the study of government. It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen. In college, civics is usually called political science. Since a city has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city.
+
+Theories of civics can be grouped as:
+
+Anarchist
+Capitalist
+Democrat
+Green
+Libertarian
+Republican
+
+It contains the rule and regulations of the citizen to make the country democratic
+Political science
+Calculus is a branch of mathematics that describes continuous change.
+
+There are two different types of calculus. Differential calculus divides (differentiates) things into small (different) pieces, and tells us how they change from one moment to the next, while integral calculus joins (integrates) the small pieces together, and tells us how much of something is made, overall, by a series of changes. Calculus is used in many different sciences such as physics, astronomy, biology, engineering, economics, medicine and sociology.
+
+History
+In the 1670s and 1680s, Sir Isaac Newton in England and Gottfried Leibniz in Germany figured out calculus at the same time, working separately from each other. Newton wanted to have a new way to predict where to see planets in the sky, because astronomy had always been a popular and useful form of science, and knowing more about the motions of the objects in the night sky was important for navigation of ships. Leibniz wanted to measure the space (area) under a curve (a line that is not straight). Many years later, the two men argued over who discovered it first. Scientists from England supported Newton, but scientists from the rest of Europe supported Leibniz. Most mathematicians today agree that both men share the credit equally. Some parts of modern calculus come from Newton, such as its uses in physics. Other parts come from Leibniz, such as the symbols used to write it.
+
+They were not the first people to use mathematics to describe the physical world â Aristotle and Pythagoras came earlier, and so did Galileo Galilei, who said that mathematics was the language of science. But both Newton and Leibniz were the first to design a system that describes how things change over time, and can predict how they will change in the future.
+
+The name "calculus" was the Latin word for a small stone the ancient Romans used in counting and gambling. The English word "calculate" comes from the same Latin word.
+
+Differential calculus
+
+Differential calculus is used to find the rate of change of a variableâcompared to another variable.
+
+Variables can change their value. This is different from numbers because numbers are always the same. For example, the number 1 is always equal to 1, and the number 200 is always equal to 200. One often writes variables as letters such as the letter x: "x" can be equal to 1 at one point and 200 at another.
+
+Some examples of variables are distance and time, because they can change. The speed of an object is how far it travels in a particular time. So if a town is 80 kilometres (50 miles) away and a person in a car gets there in one hour, they have traveled at an average speed of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per hour. But this is only an average: they travelled faster at some times (say on a highway), and slower at other times (say at a traffic light or on a small street where people live). Certainly it is more difficult for a driver to figure out a car's speed using only its odometer (distance meter) and clockâwithout a speedometer.
+
+Until calculus was invented, the only way to work this out was to cut the time into smaller and smaller pieces, so the average speed over the smaller time would get closer and closer to the actual speed at a point in time. This was a very long and hard process, and had to be done each time people wanted to work something out.
+
+Differential calculus is also useful for graphing. A very similar problem is to find the slope (how steep it is) at any point on a curve. The slope of a straight line is easy to work out â it is simply how much it goes up or down (y or vertical) divided by how much it goes across (x or horizontal). On a curve, however, the slope is a variable (has different values at different points) because the line bends. But if the curve was to be cut into very, very small pieces, the curve at the point would look almost like a very short straight line. So to work out its slope, a straight line can be drawn through the point with the same slope as the curve at that point. If this is done exactly right, the straight line will have the same slope as the curve, and is called a tangent. But there is no way to know (without complex mathematics) whether the tangent is exactly right, and our eyes are not accurate enough to be certain whether it is exact or simply very close.
+
+What Newton and Leibniz found was a way to work out the slope (or the speed in the distance example) exactly, using simple and logical rules. They divided the curve into an infinite number of very small pieces. They then chose points on either side of the range they were interested in and worked out tangents at each. As the points moved closer together towards the point they were interested in, the slope approached a particular value as the tangents approached the real slope of the curve. The particular value it approached was the actual slope.
+
+Given a function . f is short for function, so this equation means "y is a function of x". This tells us that how high y is on the vertical axis depends on what x (the horizontal axis) is at that time. For example, with the equation , we know that if is 1, then will be 1; if is 3, then will be 9; if is 20, then will be 400. The slope of the tangent line produced using this method here is , or 2 multiplied by . So we know without having to draw any tangent line at any point on the curve that the derivative, often written as (marked with the prime symbol), will be at any point. This process of working out a slope using limits is called differentiation, or finding the derivative.
+
+The way to write the derivative in mathematics is
+
+Leibniz came to the same result, but called h "", which means "with respect to x". He called the resulting change in "", which means "a tiny amount of y". Leibniz's notation is used by more books, because it is easy to understand when the equations become more complicated. In Leibniz notation:
+.
+
+Mathematicians have grown this basic theory to make simple algebra rulesâwhich can be used to find the derivative of almost any function.
+
+In the real world, calculus can be used to find the speed of a moving object, or to understand how electricity and magnetism work. It is very important for understanding physicsâand many other areas of science.
+
+Integral calculus
+
+Integral calculus is the process of calculating the area underneath a graph of a function. An example is calculating the distance a car travels: if one knows the speed of the car at different points in time and draw a graph of this speed, then the distance the car travels will be the area under the graph.
+
+The way to do this is to divide the graph into many very small pieces, and then draw very thin rectangles under each piece. As the rectangles become thinner and thinner, the rectangles cover the area underneath the graph better and better. The area of a rectangle is easy to calculate, so we can calculate the total area of all the rectangles. For thinner rectangles, this total area value approaches the area underneath the graph. The final value of the area is called the integral of the function.
+
+In mathematics, the integral of the function f(x) from a to b, is written as
+.
+
+Main idea of calculus
+The main idea in calculus is called the fundamental theorem of calculus. This main idea says that the two calculus processes, differentiation and integration, are inverses of each other. That is, a person can use differentiation to undo an integration process. Also, a person can use integration to undo a differentiation. This is just like using division to "undo" multiplication, or addition to "undo" subtraction.
+
+In a single sentence, the fundamental theorem runs something like this: "The derivative of the integral of a function f is the function itself".
+
+Applications of calculus
+Calculus is used to describe things that change, like things in nature. It can be used for showing and learning all of these:
+
+How waves move. Waves are very important in the natural world. For example, sound and light can be thought of as waves.
+Where heat moves, like in a house. This is useful for architecture (building houses), so that the house can be as cheap to heat as possible.
+How very small things like atoms act.
+How fast something will fall, also known as gravity.
+How machines work, also known as mechanics.
+The path of the moon as it moves around the earth. Also, the path of the earth as it moves around the sun, and any planet or moon moving around anything in space.
+
+Related pages
+
+ Calculus of variations
+ Derivative (mathematics)
+ Difference quotient
+ Mathematical analysis
+ Multivariable calculus
+ Vector calculus
+
+References
+A coin is a piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. The earliest coins were in Lydia, in what is Turkey today, in 7th Century BC. They were made from electrum, an alloy found in riverbeds.
+
+Most people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints.
+
+Appearance
+Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a king or ither important person's head on it.
+
+The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called "tossing a coin". A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it. You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries.
+
+Collecting
+
+Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little.
+
+References
+A conceptual metaphor or cognitive metaphor is a metaphor which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another. For example, treating quantity in terms of direction:
+Prices are rising.
+I attacked every weak point in his argument. (Argument as war rather than enquiry or search for truth).
+Life is a journey.
+Love talked about as if it were war or competition.
+Time talked about as if it were a path through space, or a quantity that can be saved or spent or wasted.
+
+The idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: Metaphors we live by.
+"The most recent linguistic approach to literature is that of cognitive metaphor, which claims that metaphor is not a mode of language, but a mode of thought". Donald Freeman.
+A convention is to write conceptual metaphors in small capital letters, e.g. , with the target domain (idea being referred to) first, here "money," and the source domain (terms used to refer to it) second.
+
+Political metaphors
+ eminence grise: literally, "grey man," from French. Colloquially, the power-behind-the-throne. An official close to the president or monarch who has so much power behind the scenes that he or she may double or serve as the monarch.
+ figurehead: a leader whose powers are entirely symbolic, such as a constitutional monarch.
+ puppet government: a government that is manipulated by a foreign power for its own interests.
+ star chamber: a secretive council or other group within a government that possesses the actual power, regardless of the government's overt form.
+ character assassination: spreading (usually) manufactured stories about a candidate with the intent to destroy his or her reputation in the eyes of the public.
+ landslide victory: a huge victory for one side.
+ riding coattails: victories by local or state politicians because of the popularity of more powerful politicians.
+ grassroots: a political movement driven by the constituents of a community.
+ astroturfing: public relations campaigns in politics and advertising that try to create the impression of being spontaneous, grassroots behavior.
+ straw man: the practice of refuting an argument that is weaker than one's opponent actually offers, or which he simply has not put forth at all. A type of logical fallacy.
+ spin (public relations): a heavily biased portrayal of an event or situation.
+ witch-hunt: the hysterical pursuit of political enemies
+ bread and circuses: satisfaction of shallow or immediate desires of the populace at the expense of good policy; also, the erosion of civic duty and the public life in a populace.
+
+There are many more, enough to prove the importance of the metaphor in our lives.
+
+Notes
+
+Metaphors
+Crust is a piece of bread where the edge where it is harder and darker.
+
+Crust can also mean:
+Crust (geology) - the outer solid layer of a planet such as the Earth but other planets also.
+On Earth the crust can be divided into:
+continental crust on which the land of the planet Earth sits
+oceanic crust which forms most of the ocean floor
+Comedy (from ), in modern times, is an entertainment with generally funny content. It is able to make people laugh. This definition was used for theatre plays, and was first used in Ancient Greece. Aristotle defined this as âComedy is, as an imitation of characters of a lower type- not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious example, the comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain.â To him, the lampooners became writers of Comedy and the truly artistic ones became writers of Tragedy.
+
+Comedy is also a media genre that is for television shows or movies that are either funny or silly. People who are known for acting in comedies are termed as comedians or comedic actors.
+
+History
+
+Satire
+The ancient Greeks had comedies, which were presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia.
+
+One of the best-known comedy authors of the time was Aristophanes (about 446386 BC). One of his works, The Clouds was performed 425 BC. The work did not survive completely, but a later version did survive. It is a satire against Socrates, and pictures the great philosopher as a swaggering con artist. Some of the accusations were re-used at Socrates' trial, twenty years later.
+
+Typical for satire are that the author criticizes society, and living people.
+
+Satyr plays
+Another type of Ancient Greek theatre was the satyr play. This was mock drunkenness, brazen sexuality (including phallic props), pranks, sight gags, and general merriment. The modern equivalent would be knock-about comedy.
+
+Humour
+Humour, or 'New Comedy' is not about criticizing people or ideas, but rather about showing characters in funny situations. The most important Greek playwright of this type was probably Menander. The best known Roman comedy writer was Plautus. He often used Greek comedies for his plays.
+
+Many comedy plays were written in the 1500s by the British writer William Shakespeare.
+Shakespeare's comedy plays include: Allâs Well That Ends Well, The Comedy of Errors, A Midsummer Nights Dream, and Twelfth Night. In Shakespeare's day a comedy did not mean a play that would make people laugh or that had a lot of jokes. Instead it was a play in which all the problems work out all right in the end. This was unlike a tragedy, where the problems do not work out, usually resulting in someone's death.
+The two masks, one was smiling, the other crying, often associated with theatre represent comedy and tragedy.
+
+Types
+
+Slapstick
+There are different types of comedy. One type of comedy is called "slap stick comedy." In "slap stick comedy," people do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Slap stick comedy can be used in comedy movies or comedy television shows.
+
+Slap stick comedy was used a lot in silent (no sound) movies from the 1920s. A comedian who acted in the silent movies who used a lot of slapstick comedy was Charlie Chaplin. In the 1950s and 1960s, comedian Jerry Lewis also used silly slap stick comedy in his comedy movies.
+
+Comedy movies
+A comedy is a very popular type of movie. Some comedy movies have "slapstick comedy," in which people just do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Other comedy movies show funny stories or situations in which people are behaving in a silly manner. Some comedies make the audience laugh by showing strange or unusual images or situations that do not make sense.
+
+Parody/Spoof
+A parody or spoof movie imitates or exaggerates another person or movie to make them seem silly, dumb, or just plain out of it.
+
+Different types of comedy movies
+Some types of comedy movies mix comedy with other types of movies.
+There is a type of movie called a dramedy, which is a mix of a drama movie and a comedy movie.
+There is also a type of movie called a romantic comedy (sometimes called a "rom-com"). In romantic comedies, there is a love story about a couple who fall in love, along with silly or funny comedy parts.
+
+Comedy television shows
+Comedy shows are very popular on television. Comedy shows on television are often called "sitcoms." The word "sitcom" is a shortened way of saying "situational comedy." Television situational comedies usually show characters who do silly or funny things which make the audience laugh.
+
+Related pages
+Comedian
+Opera buffa
+
+
+Genres
+A comet is a ball of mostly ice that moves around in outer space. Comets are often described as "dirty snowballs". They are very different from asteroids. The orbital inclinations of comets are usually high and not near the ecliptic where most solar system objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the Kuiper belt. That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at night.
+
+They have long "tails", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the solar wind.
+The hard centre of the comet is the nucleus. It is one of the blackest things (lowest albedo) in the solar system. When light shone on the nucleus of Halley's Comet, the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us.
+
+Periodic comets visit again and again. Non-periodic or single-apparition comets visit only once.
+
+Comets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela did in the 19th century. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in 1994. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. Astronomers think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object.
+
+Famous comets
+
+Halley's
+Hale-Bopp
+Shoemaker-Levy 9
+Ikeya seki
+
+History of comets
+For thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry shows the return of Halley's Comet and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. During the Renaissance, astronomers started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their science on observations. Tycho Brahe reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and calculations showed that comets must be six times farther than the earth is from the moon.
+
+Edmond Halley reasoned that some comets are periodic, that is, they appear again after a certain number of years, and again and again. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, Halley's Comet, named after him.
+
+Isaac Newton also studied comets. He realised that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked his friend Edmond Halley to publish this in his book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun.
+
+In later years, some astronomers thought comets were spit out by planets, especially Jupiter.
+
+All this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that hell was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space.
+
+In modern times, space probes have visited comets to learn more about them.
+
+Related pages
+List of comets
+
+Other websites
+Are Comets Made of Antimatter?
+Cytology is the study of the cells, especially their appearance and structure. Cells are the small parts that make up all living things, and their effects on each other and their environment.
+
+There are two types of cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a clear and easy-to-see nucleus, and do not have a membrane, or wall, around them. Eukaryotic cells have an easy-to-see nucleus where all of the cell's functions take place, and a membrane around them. The main organelles of a cell and their uses are:
+ Mitochondria: produces energy for the cell
+ Endoplasmic reticulum: makes proteins and carbohydrates for the cell to use
+ Golgi bodies: store and package products that the cell uses
+ Plastid (present in plant cells only): contains chemicals needed to photosynthesize (create energy from sunlight); in plants only.
+ Nucleus: directs the actions of the cell
+ Centrosomes: guides the cell in mitosis and meiosis, the processes for cell division.
+
+Related pages
+Cell biology is mostly about how cells work, and about cell division and molecular biology.
+Histology deals with techniques for looking at tissues under a microscope.
+Cytopathology is a medical discipline that deals with techniques for looking at cells under a microscope.
+
+
+Molecular biology
+A Christian () is a person who believes in Christianity, a monotheistic religion. Christianity is mostly about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, in the New Testament and interpreted or prophesied in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. Christianity is the world's largest religion, with 2.1 billion followers around the world.
+
+Views of the Bible
+Christians consider the Holy Bible to be a sacred book, inspired by God. The Holy Bible is a combination of the Hebrew Bible, or Torah, and a collection of writings called the New Testament. Views on the importance of these writings vary. Some Christian groups prefer to favor the New Testament, while others believe the entire Bible is equally important. Also, while many Christians prefer to consider the Bible as fully true, not all Christian groups believe that it is completely accurate.
+
+Who is a Christian?
+The question of "Who is a Christian?" can be very difficult. Christians often disagree over this due to their differences in opinion on spiritual matters. In countries where most persons were baptized in the state church or the majority Christian church, the term "Christian" is a default label for citizenship or for "people like us".
+In this context, religious or ethnic minorities can use "Christians" or "you Christians" as a term for majority members of society who do not belong to their group - even in a very secular (though formally Christian) society.
+
+Persons who are more devoted the their Christian faith prefer not to use the word so broadly, but only use it to refer to those who are active in their Christian religion and really believe the teachings of Jesus and their church. In some Christian movements (especially Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism), to be a born-again Christian is to undergo a "spiritual rebirth" by believing in the Bible's teachings about Jesus and choosing to follow him.
+
+Church life
+Many Christians choose to go to church. Most Christians believe this to be a sign of their religious devotion to God and an act of worship. However, some Christian groups think that one can be a Christian without ever going to a church. Though there are many different viewpoints on the issue, most Protestants believe all Christians are part of the spiritual church of Christ, whether or not those Christians go to an actual church each week. On the other hand, Catholics in the past have believed that the Holy Catholic Church is the only true church.
+
+Related pages
+ Christianity
+ Religion
+ Salvation
+ Meitei Christians
+
+References
+
+Christians
+
+
+Origin
+People have been making cheese since before history was written down. It is not known when cheese was first made. It is known that cheese was eaten by the Sumerians in about 4000 BC.
+
+Classification
+There are many different ways to classify cheeses. Some ways include:
+
+ How long the cheese was aged
+ The texture of the cheese. These include Hard, Soft and Softer.
+ How the cheese was made
+ What type of milk was used to make the cheese. This is mainly what animal the milk comes from, such as cows, sheep, and goats. The diet of the animal can also affect the type of cheese made from its milk.
+ How much fat is in the cheese
+ What color the cheese is (common colors are yellow, and white)
+
+There are also man-made foods that some people use instead of cheese. These are called Cheese analogues.
+
+Different types of cheese include:
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+Basic English 850 words
+The constitution of a country (or a state) is a special type of law document that tells how its government is supposed to work. It tells how the country's leaders are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in office, how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed based on law, what kind of people are allowed to vote and what other rights they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed.
+
+Limits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution (see Rule of Law ). On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions without giving freedom to citizens and others. This can be known as dictatorship or simply "bending the rules". A Constitution is often a way of uniting within a Federation.
+
+The UK's constitution is not written in one single document like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights Act 1689 and including more modern Acts of Parliament. Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of judges over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or judicial precedence. Because of this, some people say that the United Kingdom has a de facto or "unwritten" constitution.
+
+The United States in 1787 began a trend in the writing of constitutions. The United States Constitution is also the shortest that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the Articles of Confederation but the Articles were replaced with today's Constitution.
+
+The Indian constitution of 1950 is the longest ever written constitution in the world. It originally consisted of 395 Articles arranged under 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. As of 2021, it has 470 Articles, 12 schedules, and 25 Parts with 5 appendices and 98 amendments.
+
+Related pages
+ Constitutional law
+ Constitutionalism
+ Constitutional economics
+ Democracy
+ International law
+ Jurisprudence
+ Rule of law
+ Social contract
+ US Constitution
+
+References
+A circle, also known as a nought, is a round, two-dimensional shape. All points on the edge of the circle are at the same distance from the center.
+
+The radius of a circle is a line from the center of the circle to a point on the side. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of a circle's radius. The center of a circle is the point in the very middle. It is often written as .
+
+The diameter (meaning "all the way across") of a circle is a straight line that goes from one side to the opposite and right through the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of this line. The diameter of a circle is equal to twice its radius ( equals times ):
+
+The circumference (meaning "all the way around") of a circle is the line that goes around the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of this line.
+
+The number (written as the Greek letter pi) is a very useful number. It is the length of the circumference divided by the length of the diameter ( equals divided by ). As a fraction the number is equal to about or (which is closer) and as a number it is about .
+
+The area, , inside a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by itself, then multiplied by ( equals times times ).
+
+Calculating Ï
+ can be measured by drawing a circle, then measuring its diameter () and circumference (). This is because the circumference of a circle is always equal to times its diameter.
+
+ can also be calculated by only using mathematical methods. Most methods used for calculating the value of have desirable mathematical properties. However, they are hard to understand without knowing trigonometry and calculus. However, some methods are quite simple, such as this form of the Gregory-Leibniz series:
+
+While that series is easy to write and calculate, it is not easy to see why it equals . A much easier way to approach is to draw an imaginary circle of radius centered at the origin. Then any point whose distance from the origin is less than , calculated by the Pythagorean theorem, will be inside the circle:
+
+Finding a set of points inside the circle allows the circle's area to be estimated, for example, by using integer coordinates for a big . Since the area of a circle is times the radius squared, can be approximated by using the following formula:
+
+Calculating measures of a circle
+
+Area
+Using the radius:
+
+Using the diameter:
+
+Using the circumference:
+
+Circumference
+Using the radius:
+
+Using the diameter:
+
+Using the area:
+
+Diameter
+Using the radius:
+
+Using the circumference:
+
+Using the area:
+
+Radius
+Using the diameter:
+
+Using the circumference:
+
+Using the area:
+
+Related pages
+ Semicircle
+ Sphere
+ Squaring the circle
+ Pi
+ Tau
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Calculate the measures of a circle online
+
+Shapes
+Conic sections
+Capitalization (North American spelling), or capitalisation (British spelling), is a process to make one letter or more uppercase. The first letter of a sentence is capitalised in many languages, as are the first letters of proper nouns such as names of people and places. In German, however, all nouns are capitalized..
+
+In the Latin alphabet, which is used in English, these are the uppercase or capital letters:
+
+A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
+
+These are the lowercase or small letters:
+
+a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z
+
+The homonym capitalize is a different word, and means "to fully fund as an investment".
+
+Spelling
+Cuba is an island country in the Caribbean Sea. The country is made up of the big island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud island (Isle of Youth), and many smaller islands. Havana is the capital city of Cuba. It is the largest city. The second largest city is Santiago de Cuba. In Spanish, the capital is called "La Habana". Cuba is near the United States, Mexico, Haiti, Jamaica and the Bahamas. People from Cuba are called Cubans (cubanos in Spanish). The official language is Spanish. Cuba is warm all year.
+
+In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on the island of Cuba. He claimed it for the Kingdom of Spain. Cuba became a Spanish colony until the SpanishâAmerican War of 1898. After the war, it was part of the United States. It gained independence in 1902.
+
+In 1959, guerrilla fighters led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara overthrew Cuba's dictator, Fulgencio Batista, in what became the Cuban Revolution. Castro began making relations with the Soviet Union and tried to close a lot of American businesses in Cuba; the United States did not like this. In 1961 Castro officially announced that his government was socialist. The US attempted to invade Cuba to regain control of it and overthrow its communist-led government but failed. The Communist Party of Cuba was created in 1965 and has ruled the island ever since. Today, Cuba is the only socialist state outside of Asia, in the Caribbean, and in the western hemisphere.
+
+Culture
+Cuba is famous for many types of music, especially dance music such as the Salsa and Mambo. Because Cubans have ancestors from Spain, Africa, South America and North America, Cuban music is special and different.
+
+Reading is very popular in Cuba. Many people especially enjoy reading books or things that come from outside the country, even though the government does not approve of this. They also love music and sports. Cuban music is very lively. This is because a lot of it comes from African and Spanish rhythms. Baseball, basketball, and athletics events are loved by many Cuban people. The Chiefs football-team took at one Football-World-Cup part. In 1938, they reached the quarter-final and lost against Sweden 0:8.
+
+History
+
+Early history
+Before Cuba was conquered by the Spaniards, three tribes lived on the island. They were the TaĂnos, the Ciboneys, and the Guanajatabeyes. The TaĂnos were the largest and most common of the three tribes. They farmed crops such as beans, corn, squash, and yams. The TaĂnos also slept in hammocks, which the Spaniards would introduce to the rest of the world. Then, in 1492, Christopher Columbus arrived in Cuba on his first trip to the Americas. Three years later, he claimed the islands for the Spanish. The Spanish began to rule Cuba afterwards. The Spanish brought thousands of slaves from Africa to Cuba to work for them. Most of the native Cubans died because of the new diseases brought by the Spanish and Africans. The Spanish also treated the native Cubans very cruelly and massacred many of them.
+
+The Spanish ruled for many years. Cuba became the most important producer of sugar. In the early 1800s, Cubans rebelled against the Spanish rulers, but failed until 1898, when the United States went to war with the Spanish and defeated them. Cuba became American for four years afterwards, before it became an independent republic in 1902. Even though Cuba was independent, the Americans still controlled the island by a law called the Platt Amendment. In 1933 the Cubans stopped the Platt Amendment, but the Americans still had a big say in Cuban politics. Americans owned most of Cubaâs businesses. The Americans supported the leader Fulgencio Batista, who was seen by many Cubans as corrupt.
+
+In addition to political control, the United States also exercised significant control over the Cuban economy. At the time, Cuba was a monoculture economy. While they produced coffee, tobacco, and rice, they relied primarily on sugar. Thus, they were known by other countries as the "sugar bowl of the world." The United States bought sugar from the Republic of Cuba at a price higher than the global standard. In exchange, Cuba was to give preference to the United States, and its industries. Cuba depended on the United States and their investments. Cuba was not industrialized and needed the revenue for goods and oil. They also needed the US investment for gas, electricity, communications, railways, and banks. While Cuban workers had better conditions than other countries in the continent, they still faced inequality, lack of infrastructure, high illiteracy rates, and a lack of full-time work (the sugar industry was seasonal).
+
+Cuban Revolution
+In 1959, Fidel Castro led a revolution against Fulgencio Batista. Castro took power in Cuba with Che Guevara from Argentina, his brother Raul, and others who fought against Batista. Castro made many changes to Cuba. He ended American ownership of Cuban businesses. This made Castro unpopular in America and the United States banned all contact with Cuba. Many Cubans went to America because of this. In 1961, the Americans helped some of these Cubans to attack Cuba and try to remove Castro, but they failed. Castro then asked the Soviet Union to help defend them from the Americans, which they did. The Soviet Union put nuclear weapons in Cuba and aimed them at the United States. American President Kennedy demanded that they be removed or a new war would begin. This was known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Soviet Union removed the missiles when the United States agreed to not continue attacking Cuba and to remove missiles from Turkey.
+
+Cuba became a communist-led country like the Soviet Union after this. The Soviet Union bought most of Cubaâs sugar for expensive prices. Cuba spent this money on health, education and the army. This made Cubaâs schools and hospitals some of the best in the world. The army fought in Africa to support black Africans against the white South African army. Cuba also supported groups in South America fighting against the dictators of those countries.
+
+However, the Cuban government began to control most of life in Cuba under the communist system. Disagreeing with the Cuban government and Fidel Castro in public was not allowed. Some Cubans did not like this and tried to leave Cuba. Most Cubans who left went to the United States. Some Cubans who did not like the government and stayed were put in jail. Many groups from around the world protested against Cuba because of this, and demanded that Fidel Castro give up power.
+
+In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. This meant that Cuba, which had sold most of its products to the Soviet Union, had no money coming into the country. The Americans made the restrictions against contact with Cuba tighter. America said the restrictions on contact would continue unless Fidel Castro gave up power. Cuba became very poor in the 1990s. This became known in Cuba as âThe Special Periodâ. Because of the disaster, Cuba changed to allow less control by the government, more discussion amongst the people, and private shops and businesses. Cuba also tried to get tourists to visit the island.
+
+In the 2000s, tourism to Cuba began to make money for the island again. Though Fidel Castro had remained in power, he had passed all duties to his brother Raul after an illness. Fidel Castro was one of the longest-serving heads of state. In 2018, Miguel DĂaz-Canel became the official President of Cuba.
+
+In April 2015, historic talks took place with US President Obama and Cuban General Secretary RaĂșl Castro in improving relations between the two nations.
+
+The trade embargo issued by President Kennedy in the 1960s has been considerably loosened under Obama's administration. US citizens can now travel directly to Cuba at certain times of the year. Before, Americans had to go via Mexico if they wanted to go to Cuba. Americans are still not allowed to purchase or smoke Cuban cigars. The cigars are smuggled over the US-Canadian border since they are legal in Canada.
+
+For military service, men from the age of 17 to 28 years old must go into the army for two years. It is optional for women.
+
+In July 2021, there were demonstrations against the government. See the English Wikipedia article, 2021 Cuban protests, for details.
+
+Administrative divisions
+
+The country is divided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). The provinces are divided into municipalities.
+
+Demographics
+The population of Cuba is close to 13 million. The people of Cuba come from three different groups. The largest group is the descendants of the Spanish settlers who came to Cuba. The smallest group is the descendants of the black African slaves who were brought in to do the work and birth children (in the barracoon) as New World slaves who could be legally sold into life time bondage in the United States. The middle-sized group is a mix of African and Spanish. The government succeeded in seeing that the three different groups were treated the same. According to a DNA Caribbean Studies Institute, the racial-makeup of the population of Cuba is:
+ European Cubans descend from settlers that came during the very late 15th century and onward. Most white Cubans came from many different parts of Spain, but the most numerous were the Canary Islanders, Andalusians, and Catalans. There was as well some French, Italian and English peoples. Whites makeup approximately 30% of Cuba's population as of 2012, and they mostly populate the western part of Cuba, specially cities like Havana and Pinar del Rio. These brought with them their language, religions, music and others.
+ Africans and Mulatto Cubans descend from the arrival of African slaves that came from various parts of Africa but the most numerous were West Africans. There were also more than 500,000 Haitians that came to Cuba during the Haitian Revolution days. Most Cuban slaves tended to come from the Kongo and Yoruba tribes, there were also the Igbos, Ewes, Fons, Fulas, Mandinkas and some others. Afro-Cubans range enormously from 33.9 percent to 70 percent of the population, and they are mostly concentrated in the east parts of Cuba. These brought with them their instruments, reigion (Santeria), and customs to the Cuban culture.
+ Mediterranean Cubans are about 3% of the population, however; one must know that a lot of the Southern Spaniard Cuban descendants have good portion of Moor blood in their family lines; due to the close proximate Spain is to North Africa. Many Mediterranean Cubans came during the 1820s-1880s and sometimes onward. These are most concentrated in the East specially cities like Guantanamo Bay. They brought much of their foods and cuisines to Cuba and a few vocabularies.
+
+Health and education
+Cuba is a developing country, and is often depicted as a very poor country. In some aspects, however, like education, health care and life expectancy it ranks much better than most countries in Latin America. Its infant death rate is lower than some developed countries. The average life expectancy is 78 years.
+
+All the children are required to go to school from six to twelve years old, and nearly everybody is able to read and write at least. There is free education at every level. Because of this, Cuba has a 99.8% literacy rate.
+
+In 2006, the World Food Programme certified Cuba to be the only country in this region without undernourished children. In the same year, the United Nations said that Cuba was the only nation in the world that met the World Wide Fund for Nature's definition of sustainable development.
+
+Geography
+
+Cuba is the largest island in the West Indies. It has many resources. Only about one-fourth of the land is mountains or hills. Much of the land is gentle hills or plains which are good for farming or raising cattle. Cuba has fertile soil and a mostly warm and humid climate that makes it a great place for growing crops.
+
+Sugar is the most important crop of Cuba, and they may get it from the sugar cane. Sugar cane is the largest cash crop grown in Cuba, and it brings in most of the money. After that, the second is tobacco. Tobacco is made into cigars by hand. A hand-made cigar is considered by many people to be the finest in the world. Other important crops are rice, coffee, and fruit. Cuba also has many minerals. Cobalt, nickel, iron, copper, and manganese are all on the island. Salt, petroleum, and natural gas are there too. The coast of Cuba has many bays and a few good harbors. Havana, which is the capital, is also a port. Other harbors have port cities. Nuevitas is a port city on the north coast. Cienfuegos, GuantĂĄnamo, and Santiago de Cuba are some of the port cities on the south coast.
+
+Cuba has a semi-tropical climate. That means that the cool ocean winds keep it from becoming hot, despite it being in the tropical zone. Cuba has a wet season and a dry season. The dry season is from November to April, and the wet season is from May to October. August to October is also the hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean. Because of this, most of Cuba's port cities can be flooded along the coast.
+
+Related pages
+ Cuba at the Olympics
+ Cuba national football team
+ List of rivers of Cuba
+
+References
+
+
+Spanish-speaking countries
+Caribbean Community
+Current dictatorships
+A cube is a type of polyhedron with all right angles and whose height, width and depth are all the same. It is a type of rectangular prism, which is itself a type of hexahedron.
+
+A cube is one of the simplest mathematical shapes in space. Something that is shaped like a cube can be called cubic.
+Surface area of cube=6l^2
+Lateral Surface area of cube=4l^2
+Volume of cube=l^3
+
+Relative 2-dimensional shape
+The basic difference between a cube and a square is, a cube is a 3D figure (having 3 dimensions) i.e. length, breadth and height while a square has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth.
+The 2-dimensional (2D) shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc.) that a cube is made of is squares. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight lines. The corners (vertices) are at right angles. A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 faces, as in the most usual kind of dice. A tesseract carries this idea into the fourth dimension (4D) and is made of 8 cubes.
+
+Volume
+ The volume of a cube is the length of any one of the edges (they are all the same length so it does not matter which edge is used) cubed.
+ This means you multiply the number by itself, and then by itself again.
+ If the edge is named 'd' (See Diagram), the equation would be this: Volume=dĂdĂd (or Volume=d3).
+
+Cube-shaped figures
+ Dice
+ Boxes
+
+Platonic solids
+Cost of living is the amount of money it costs just to live in a certain place. It includes food, housing, etc.
+Economic indicators
+December (Dec.) is the twelfth and last month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between November (of the current year) and January (of the following year). It has 31 days. With the name of the month coming from the Latin decem for "ten", it was the tenth month of the year before January and February were added to the Roman calendar.
+
+December always begins on the same day of the week as September, and ends on the same day of the week as April.
+
+December's flower is the Narcissus. Its birthstone is the turquoise.
+
+Some of the holidays celebrated in December are Christmas, New Year's Eve, Kwanzaa, and Hanukkah.
+
+The Month
+
+December is the twelfth and last month of every calendar year in the Gregorian calendar, and is one of seven months of the year to have 31 days. December 31 is followed by January 1 of the following year.
+
+December begins on the same day of the week as September every year, as each other's first days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart. December ends on the same day of the week as April every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
+
+In common years, December starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the previous year, and in leap years, October of the previous year. In common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, December both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.
+
+In years immediately before common years, December starts on the same day of the week as June of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and November of the following year. In years immediately before common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year.
+
+December is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is June, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), and in this month the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere is turned towards the Sun, meaning that December 21 or December 22 is the Northern Winter Solstice and the Southern Summer Solstice. This means that this date would have the least daylight of any day in the Northern Hemisphere, and the most in the Southern Hemisphere. There are 24 hours of darkness at the North Pole and 24 hours of daylight at the South Pole.
+
+In mainly Christian countries, December is dominated by Christmas, which is celebrated on December 25 in most of those countries, though Eastern Orthodox Christians celebrate it on January 7. It marks the birth of Jesus Christ. Epiphany, January 6, is also important in relation to Christmas. Advent starts on the Sunday on, or closest to, November 30, and some countries have their own related celebration before the 25th. Sinterklaas is celebrated on December 5 in the Netherlands and Belgium, and St. Nicholas Day on December 6 is also celebrated in some countries. The Scandinavian countries, mainly Sweden, celebrate St. Lucia Day on December 13, while Iceland celebrates Thorlaksmessa on December 23. The week after Christmas is spent preparing for New Year.
+
+Judaism's festival of light, Hanukkah, is also celebrated over eight days in this month.
+
+Holidays and Festivals
+
+Fixed dates
+
+ December 1 - World AIDS Day
+ December 1 - National Day of Romania
+ December 1 - Self-government Day (Iceland)
+ December 1 - Day of Restoration of Independence (Portugal)
+ December 1 - First Day of Summer (Australia)
+ December 2 - National Day of Laos
+ December 2 - National Day of the United Arab Emirates
+ December 2 - International Day for the Abolition of Slavery
+ December 4 - Navy Day in India and Italy
+ December 4 - Miners' Day (Poland)
+ December 4 - Tupou I Day (Tonga)
+ December 5 - Sinterklaas (Netherlands, Belgium)
+ December 5 - Birthday of King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand
+ December 6 - Saint Nicholas Day
+ December 6 - Independence Day (Finland)
+ December 6 - Constitution Day (Spain)
+ December 7 - Pearl Harbor Day (United States)
+ December 8 - Constitution Day in Romania and Uzbekistan
+ December 8 - Day of the Immaculate Conception (Roman Catholicism)
+ December 9 - National Day of Tanzania
+ December 10 - Nobel Prize Day
+ December 10 - Constitution Day (Thailand)
+ December 10 - Human Rights Day
+ December 11 - Republic Day (Burkina Faso)
+ December 11 - Indiana Day
+ December 11 - International Mountain Day
+ December 12 - Independence Day (Kenya)
+ December 12 - Our Lady of Guadalupe (Roman Catholicism)
+ December 13 - St. Lucia Day
+ December 14 - Alabama Day
+ December 15 - Homecoming Day (Alderney)
+ December 15 - Kingdom Day (Netherlands)
+ December 15 - Zamenhof Day (Esperanto supporters)
+ December 16 - Independence Day (Kazakhstan)
+ December 16 - Day of Reconciliation (South Africa)
+ December 16 - Victory Day in India and Bangladesh
+ December 17 - National Day of Bhutan
+ December 18 - National Day of Qatar
+ December 18 - New Jersey Day
+ December 18 - Republic Day (Niger)
+ December 18 - International Migrants Day
+ December 18 - United Nations Day of the Arabic language
+ December 21/22 - Northern Winter Solstice and Southern Summer Solstice
+ December 22 - Dongzhi Festival (East Asia)
+ December 22 - Mother's Day (Indonesia)
+ December 23 - Birthday of Emperor Akihito (Japan)
+ December 23 - Thorlaksmessa/St. Thorlak's Day (Iceland)
+ December 23 - HumanLight (Secular Humanism)
+ December 24 - Independence Day (Libya)
+ December 24 - Christmas Eve in Western Christianity
+ December 25 - Christmas Day in Western Christianity
+ December 25 - Birthday of Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Pakistan)
+ December 26 - Boxing Day (UK)
+ December 26 - St. Stephen's Day (Republic of Ireland)
+ December 26 - First Day of Kwanzaa
+ December 27 - Constitution Day (North Korea)
+ December 27 - St. Stephen's Day (Eastern Orthodox Church)
+ December 28 - Proclamation Day (South Australia)
+ December 28 - Day of the Holy Innocents, celebrated in Spanish-speaking countries in a similar way to April Fools' Day
+ December 29 - Independence Day (Mongolia)
+ December 31 - New Year's Eve/ St. Silvester's Day - known as Hogmanay in Scotland and Calennig in Wales
+
+Moveable and Non-Single Day Events
+
+ Hanukkah (Judaism) - celebrated over a period of eight days
+ Advent in Western Christianity
+First Sunday in Advent occurs between November 27 and December 3
+Second Sunday in Advent occurs between December 4 and December 10
+Third Sunday in Advent occurs between December 11 and December 17
+Fourth and final Sunday in Advent occurs between December 18 and December 24
+ Kwanzaa is from December 26 to January 1
+ Marathon races held in December
+Fukuoka, Japan
+Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
+Singapore
+Taipei, Taiwan
+Honolulu, Hawaii, United States
+
+Historical Events
+
+ December 1, 1918 - The Kingdom of Yugoslavia is proclaimed. On the same day, Transylvania unites with Romania.
+ December 1, 1918 - Iceland becomes independent, but remains under the Danish crown.
+ December 1, 1955 - A protest by Rosa Parks on an Alabama bus starts the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
+ December 2, 1804 - Napoleon Bonaparte crowns himself Emperor of France.
+ December 2, 1942 - A team led by Enrico Fermi initiates the first nuclear chain reaction.
+ December 3, 1984 - A deadly chemical leak in Bhopal, India, kills 8,000 people instantly.
+ December 5, 2013 - Former South African President and Anti-Apartheid icon Nelson Mandela dies aged 95.
+ December 6, 1917 - Finland declares independence from Russia.
+ December 7, 1941 - During World War II, The Japanese attack Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, US.
+ December 8, 1980 - John Lennon is shot dead by Mark David Chapman.
+ December 9, 1961 - Tanganyika becomes independent. It later merges with Zanzibar to form Tanzania.
+ December 10, 1901 - The first Nobel Prizes are awarded.
+ December 11, 1936 - King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom abdicates from the throne.
+ December 12, 1911 - Delhi becomes the capital city of India.
+ December 12, 1963 - Kenya becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
+ December 14, 1861 - Albert, Prince Consort of Great Britain and Ireland dies aged 42, placing Queen Victoria in a state of mourning his loss for the rest of her life.
+ December 14, 1911 - A Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen reaches the South Pole, where previously no human had ever been.
+ December 15, 1891 - James Naismith introduces basketball.
+ December 16, 1920 - An earthquake in Gansu province, China, kills around 200,000 people.
+ December 16, 1991 - Kazakhstan declares independence from the Soviet Union.
+ December 17, 1903 - The Wright brothers make their first flight in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
+ December 17, 1907 - Ugyen Wangchuck becomes King of Bhutan.
+ December 17, 2010 - Start of the Arab Spring, a series of uprisings across North Africa and the Middle East.
+ December 19, 1783 - William Pitt the Younger becomes the youngest Prime Minister of Great Britain.
+ December 20, 1999 - Portugal gives control of Macau to the People's Republic of China.
+ December 21, 1898 - Marie and Pierre Curie announce their discovery of radium.
+ December 21, 1913 - The first crossword puzzle is published.
+ December 21, 1988 - A terrorist bomb explodes on Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, southern Scotland, killing 270 people.
+ December 21, 2012 - End of the Mayan long-count calendar.
+ December 22, 1989 - The Brandenburg Gate is re-opened.
+ December 22, 1990 - Lech Walesa becomes President of Poland.
+ December 23, 1972 - A major earthquake strikes Nicaragua, killing thousands of people.
+ December 24, 1818 - The Christmas carol Silent Night is first performed at a church in Austria.
+ December 24, 1914 - The World War I Christmas truce takes place.
+ December 24, 1951 - Libya becomes independent.
+ December 24, 1968 - Apollo 8 orbits the Moon, and a stunning photograph of the Earth rising is taken.
+ December 25, 800 - Charlemagne is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
+ December 25, 1066 - William the Conqueror is crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey.
+ December 26, 1991 - The USSR collapses.
+ December 26, 2004 - An earthquake off Sumatra, Indonesia, leads to tsunamis that kill over 300,000 people on Indian Ocean coasts, with nearby Sumatra being worst affected.
+ December 27, 531 - Inauguration of the Hagia Sophia as a church in what was then called Byzantium.
+ December 27, 1949 - Queen Juliana of the Netherlands officially recognizes Indonesia's independence.
+ December 28, 1612 - Galileo Galilei observes the planet Neptune, though there is dispute as to whether he mistook it for a star.
+ December 28, 1879 - The Tay Rail Bridge disaster on the east coast of Scotland kills 75 people.
+ December 28, 1895 - The Lumiere brothers open their first cinema in Paris.
+ December 29, 1911 - Mongolia becomes independent.
+ December 30, 1922 - The USSR is founded.
+ December 30, 2011 - This date is skipped in Samoa as the International Date Line is shifted.
+ December 31, 1857 - Ottawa is chosen as capital city of Canada.
+ December 31, 1999 - The US hands control of the Panama Canal over to Panama.
+
+Trivia
+
+ The first Sunday of Advent is slightly more likely to fall in November than in December.
+ The star signs for December are Sagittarius (November 22 to December 21) and Capricorn (December 22 to January 20).
+ December 28 falls exactly half-way between the two Scottish celebrations of Saint Andrew's Day (November 30) and Burns Night (January 25).
+ In a leap year, December 31 is the 366th day of the year, rather than the 365th.
+ At the North Pole, the Sun does not rise in December; at the South Pole, it does not set.
+
+12
+Dublin () is the capital of the Republic of Ireland, and the biggest city on the island of Ireland. In 2011, there were over 1.1 million people living in the Greater Dublin Area.
+
+Dublin was built by the Vikings upon the river Liffey. The river divides the city into two parts, North Dublin and South Dublin.
+
+Many famous writers lived in Dublin. Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw were born in Dublin. James Joyce is probably Dublin's best known and most international writer.
+
+Dublin is home to Ireland's largest stadium for all sports, Croke Park. It can hold up to 85,000 people. Croke Park is the usual venue for all Ireland hurling and football finals. The Aviva Stadium hosts rugby and soccer.
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ "The Reflecting City"
+ Dublin GDP stats
+ WikiSatellite view of Dublin at WikiMapia
+ The Dublin Community Blog
+ Satellite map of Dublin - Including local geographic features.
+ Dublin - Tourist information.
+
+
+County towns in Ireland
+Dance is a performing art. It is described in many ways. It is when people move to a musical rhythm, like a drum beat. They may be alone, or in a group. The dance may be an informal play, a part of a ritual, or a part of a professional performance. There are many kinds of dances, and every human society has its own dances.
+
+As with other performing arts, some people dance to express their feelings and emotions, or to feel better. Dance can be used to tell a story. In some societies, dance goes with song as well as music. Dancing is sometimes done as sport, and has similar athletic aspects. People who want to learn to dance can go to dance schools. It may take years of practice to become an experienced and capable dancer.
+
+To plan a dance is called choreography, done by a choreographer. Often this goes with music, and fits into a certain style. Dances may be planned in detail, or they may be whatever dancers feel like doing. However, most dancing does follow some general style or pattern. One style is the couple dance, where (usually) a man and a woman dance together. Other dances need an ensemble, a group of people together to make it work.
+
+History
+
+People have always danced. Many cultures have their own dances. There are pictures, on pottery and stone, which show dances from several thousand years ago, in Egypt and Greece.
+
+Sachs divides early dances into 'Imageless dances' and 'Image dances'. By 'imageless dances' he meant dances which have no set form, but aim at getting the dancers into a state of ecstasy. In this state the dancer(s) seem changed, in a trance, and are often thought of (by their society) as being 'possessed by spirits'. These dances are done on certain occasions: marriage, war, famine, illness or death, and so on. They are found in all early ('primitive') societies.p49; 62
+
+The 'image dances', according to Sachs, are to do with the world outside the dancer. By imitating an animal or object, the dancer believes he can capture a power and make it useful. To dance in imitation of the animal which is going to be hunted is to become one with them. To imitate the act of sex is to achieve fertility. This is the kind of thinking behind an image dance. Sachs points out that societies of this kind do not really understand the connection between cause and effect. They really believe the image dances work. The dance type which is used in image dances is mime.p49; 77
+
+The two styles of dance may be joined. Fertility dances may involve both ecstatic states and mime. The great dancer Nijinsky used some of these ideas in his choreography for the ballet Le Sacre du Printemps (The Rite of Spring), a ballet about the sacrifice of a girl during a primitive celebration of Spring.
+
+In more recent times, the first dance school we know about was opened in 1661 in Paris. Only men were accepted until 1681. After 1681, women were accepted too. Ballroom dances are forms of modern dance. Ballroom dances such as the waltz are done by couples.
+
+Until the 20th century, most ballroom dances were sequence dances. The way people moved was planned in set formation. These formations were usually lines or squares. Everyone moved at the same time, and finished at the same time. The music played for a set time, and then stopped. After the invention of the waltz, around 1800, another style of dancing developed. In the waltz, and later dances, people danced in couples, but they did so separately. They did not dance in formation, but moved round the room as they pleased (but anti-clockwise). Often, new dance styles arrive. Some dance as individuals, separately, as they please. Street dance is like that. All these types of dance have music.
+
+At the same time, round the world there are many traditional dances. Some of them have been going for hundreds of years. We call them folkloric dances.
+
+The coming of popular music videos and DVDs led to a kind of dancer previously seen in some stage shows. A backup dancer (or background dancer) is a performer who dances with or behind the lead performers in a live musical act or in a music video.
+
+Styles
+
+There are many different styles of dance, which fall into these general types:
+
+ Classic dance
+ Professional dancing
+ Ballet
+ Modern dance
+ Theatre dance
+ Belly dancing
+ Jazz dance
+ Tap dance
+ Social dancing
+ Ballroom dancing (International style)
+ Waltz
+ Foxtrot
+ Tango
+ Quickstep
+ Viennese waltz
+ Cha-cha-cha
+ Jive
+ Paso doble
+ Samba
+ Rumba
+ Other styles
+ Salsa
+ Rock and Roll
+ Street dance
+ Breakdancing
+ Funk
+ Hip hop
+ Folk dance
+ Irish Dance
+ Morris Dance
+ Country Dance
+ Indian Classical Dances
+ Bharat Natyam
+ Kathak
+ Mohini Attam
+ Kathakali
+ Kuchipudi
+
+Professional dancers
+ Alvin Ailey
+ George Balanchine
+ Vernon and Irene Castle
+ Misty Copeland
+ Katherine Dunham
+ Bob Fosse
+ Loie Fuller
+ Gene Kelly
+ Vaslav Nijinsky
+ Margot Fonteyn
+ Monsieur Pierre
+ Antonio Ruiz Soler
+ Matt Steffanina
+
+References
+
+
+Non-verbal communication
+The dissolution of the monasteries was an event that happened from 1536 to 1540, when English King Henry VIII took away the land and money that the nuns and monks of the Roman Catholic church owned. Henry VIII then gave this land and money to people that supported him.
+
+This was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the Church of England (which is a type of Christianity). Parliament made the Act of Supremacy to give him the right to do both these things. It was part of the Protestant Reformation in England.
+
+16th century in England
+Anglicanism
+Protestant Reformation
+A deadline is a time by which some task must be completed.
+
+Very often, it means a time limit that is set in place by an authority - for example, a teacher tells students that they must turn in their homework in by a certain time. This is so the teacher is able to report fairly to his or her principal that every student had the same chance to do the work.
+
+Deadlines may also be set by a time horizon that comes from something that is not a human authority, but part of nature. For example, by sunset one must do those tasks requiring daylight. However, a human must watch the sun and decide what light is strong enough to still be daylight, so time limits will still be involved even if one observes a horizon and sets a deadline oneself.
+
+A way to remember this is that a time horizon is like the physical horizon where sunset happens and a time limit is a thing people set up to deal with this. A deadline is a thing powerful people set up to ensure less powerful people comply with their way of doing things.
+
+time
+Planning
+Problem solving
+Dutton Speedwords is a made-up language written by Reginald John Garfield Dutton. The idea of Dutton Speedwords is to make frequent words short, and very frequent words very short. Dutton Speedwords can be used as a second language for international communications. Dutton Speedwords is also a shorthand writing system â this means you can use it to write quickly.
+
+The method was made up by Reginald John Garfield Dutton (1886-1970) in 1922. It was first published in 1935. It was called International Symbolic Script. A year later, it was called Speedwords. It was changed in 1946 and 1951.
+
+It has two uses; to be a language and to be used for writing quickly. Dutton hoped that this would mean more people would learn it because they could use it for two reasons.
+
+The books that Dutton wrote about Speedwords are not printed anymore. But Speedwords is now being used by more people because they find it is good for working online. For example, it makes it faster to type an email.
+
+Another way of writing quickly is Pitman's shorthand. This uses special symbols instead of letters. Speedwords uses Roman letters. This makes it easier to learn. It also means it can be typed using a normal keyboard. Each word means only one thing. This means you do not need to use different forms of the same word.
+
+The words used in Speedwords are the same as the words used in many other languages. The words are like short versions of the writer's own language.
+
+Other websites
+
+ overview of Speedwords by Richard K Harrison 1994
+
+Constructed languages
+In some religions and mythology, the Devil is an evil spirit, demon or supernatural being that tries to create problems for people and distance them from God. In some cultures, the Devil seen as the embodiment of evil. He is characterised by his red skin, horns and tail.
+
+Some people also use the words "the Devil" or "Satan" for the most powerful devil.
+
+Etymology
+The word "devil" comes from the Greek word "diabolos" which means "someone who tells lies to hurt you". ("Diabolos" is translated to the English word "slanderer.") The New Testament uses "diabolos" as a title for Satan, so "the Devil" became another name for Satan in English.
+
+In the Old Testament, there is the Serpent and the Shaitan, who may be two different characters. "Shaitan" in Hebrew means "adversary", which is a word for an enemy or opponent. It is also a word used for the Devil in the Koran, who often appears as an animal and tries to get people to do the wrong thing.
+
+Appearances in religions
+
+Christianity
+According to Christianity, the Devil wanted to be a deity besides God and be independent from God. Therefore, a war in heaven started and the angels battled. After the Devil lose the battle and was thrown out of heaven, he started doing bad things on the earth. He wants people to worship him instead of God. Sometimes he tries to trick people by giving them false promises.
+
+The other angels who were thrown out of heaven became evil spirits called demons. They obey the Devil and help him do evil things.
+
+The Book of Revelation says that God will punish the Devil and his demons by throwing them into a Lake of Fire that burns in Hell. This will happen in the future.
+
+Some Christians understand the Devil as the embodiment of chaos and death. They think that the Devil is the farest someone can get away from God. God, as the opposite of the Devil, stands for life and the Devil for death. The closer someone gets to the Devil the closer people come to death and will not be resurrected.
+
+Islam
+In Islam, there is not only one devil, but there are several devils, who support Satan. The devils are invisible and tempt humans and djinns into sin. Humans and djinns, who follow the will of the devils, are called devils too.
+
+Other cultures and religions
+Not all religions believe in the Devil. For example, some forms of Buddhism do not believe in the Devil. Judaism, has Satan, but does not believe that Satan is the Devil, but only an angel.
+
+In Wicca, the concept of the Devil and demons is also rejected, simply because, in Wiccan tradition, the creative energy is neither positive nor negative. According to Wiccans: "We are the ones who use this energy for good or evil. Therefore, the consequence of this action is our entire responsibility, not of an evil supernatural being." The corniferous god Cernunnos of Wicca was confused with the Christian Devil, for having horns (in antiquity, given the horns were phallic, they were associated with virility (fertility)), and were soon symbols of ancient European religions. He was already worshipped by pagan religions before Christianity arrived in Europe and the British Isles. Many satanists believe in the Devil or Satan only as a metaphor, not an actual being or person. In the BahĂĄ'Ă Faith, the Devil as a malevolent, supernatural entity is not believed to exist. These terms do, however, appear in the BahĂĄ'Ă writings, where they are instead used as metaphors for the lower nature of man.
+
+Arts
+Artists draw pictures of the Devil that show him as ugly and evil. But nobody knows what he may look like in fact. Usually he is a spirit that nobody can see, but he can make himself look like a real person in order to trick people. Many modern depictions of the Devil portray him as a red human-like being with horns and a pointed tail, carrying a red pitchfork or trident.
+
+References
+
+Theology
+Demons
+Diarrhea (DIE-uh-REE-uh), also spelled diarrhoea, happens when the body makes more watery feces than normal. Diarrhea can occur in humans as well as most other mammals.
+
+Causes
+Diarrhea is not a disease. But it may be a symptom of a disease. The most common causes of diarrhea are:
+ Viruses, like Norovirus (the most common cause of viral gastroenteritisâ"stomach flu"âin humans)
+ Bacteria, like E. coli or C. diff
+ Some medicines, especially antibiotics
+ Food poisoning
+ Lactose intolerance
+ Artificial sweeteners, like sorbitol and mannitol, which are in many sugar-free food products like sugarless gum
+ Other problems with the intestines, like Crohn's disease and irritable bowel syndrome
+
+Child death
+In developing nations, diarrheal diseases are the second most common cause of death in children under age 5. Every year in the world, diarrhea kills around 760,000 children under age 5.
+
+In developing countries, diarrhea is also one of the most common causes of malnutrition in children under age 5.
+
+When children die from diarrhea, the cause is often dehydration (losing too much water from the body). Because diarrhea is watery, it takes away a lot of the water. It also takes away electrolytesâimportant salts that the body needs to survive. Dehydration is extra dangerous for small children because they have less water in their bodies to begin with. This means they cannot lose as much water as adults before they start to have serious health problems.
+
+Causes
+In developing countries, diarrhea is usually caused by an infection in the intestines. These infections can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites. These infections spread easily in some developing countries because of the following reasons:
+ Unsafe drinking water. Bacteria, viruses, and parasites often get into the water, which people then have to drink. Anyone who drinks the water can then get an infection that causes diarrhea.
+ Sanitation, with clean toilets, is often not available. This makes it easier for infections to spread.
+ Clean water and soap for washing hands are often not available, either. If people cannot wash their hands, bacteria, viruses, or parasites can stay on their hands. These microbes can then enter the mouth or get spread to other people with handshaking.
+
+Preventing child deaths
+Child deaths from diarrhea can be prevented in different ways.
+
+Re-hydration
+When a child is sick with diarrhea, the best way to keep them from dying is to rehydrate them (give them the water and electrolytes (salts) they are losing by having diarrhea). If the child can go to a clinic or hospital, this can be done by giving water and salts intravenously (through a needle placed into a vein).
+
+If the child cannot go to a clinic or hospital, oral rehydration solution can be used. ("Oral" means "given by mouth"; a "solution" is a mixture.) Oral rehydration solution is a mixture of the most important things the body loses when it is dehydrated. These things are clean water, salt, and sugar. Some oral rehydration solutions have extra electrolytes, like potassium, in them also.
+
+Some oral rehydration solutions come in packets and just need to be mixed with clean water. Oral rehydration solution can also be made at home. If the water in the area is not safe, it can be boiled to make it safe. (Boiling the water will kill any bacteria, viruses, or parasites in the water.) Salt and sugar are then mixed into the water. Drinking this mixture, after the water cools, will re-hydrate the child, if he drinks enough. Adding a banana or orange juice can add potassium to the mixture.
+
+Breast milk will also re-hydrate a child with diarrhea.
+
+Preventing diarrhea
+There are some ways to prevent diarrhea, or the spread of diseases that cause diarrhea. However, some of these ways are expensive and difficult to do. These include:
+ Making drinking water safe
+ Making sanitation better
+ Making clean water and soap available for hand washing
+
+Related pages
+ Feces
+
+References
+
+Symptoms
+Dimensions are the way we see, measure and experience our world, by using up and down, right to left, back to front, hot and cold, how heavy and how long, as well as more advanced concepts from mathematics and physics. One way to define a dimension is to look at the degrees of freedom, or the way an object can move in a specific space. There are different concepts or ways where the term dimension is used, and there are also different definitions. There is no definition that can satisfy all concepts.
+
+In a vector space (with vectors being "arrows" with directions), the dimension of , also written as , is equal to the cardinality (or number of vectors) of a basis of (a set which indicates how many unique directions actually has). It is also equal to the number of the largest group of straight line directions of that space. "Normal" objects in everyday life are specified by three dimensions, which are usually called length, width and depth. Mathematicians call this concept Euclidean space.
+
+Dimensions can be used to measure position too. The distance to a position from a starting place can be measured in the length, width and height directions. These distances are a measure of the position.
+
+In some occasions, a fourth (4D) dimension, time, is used to show the position of an event in time and space.
+
+Other Dimensions
+In modern science, people use other dimensions. Dimensions like temperature and weight can be used to show the position of something in less simple spaces. Scientist study those dimension with dimensional analysis.
+
+Mathematicians also use dimensions. In mathematics, dimensions are more general. Dimensions in mathematics might not measure things in the world. The rules for doing arithmetic with dimensions in mathematics might be different than usual arithmetic rules.
+
+Dimensions and vectors
+Vectors are used to show distances and directions. Vectors are often used in engineering and science, and sometimes in mathematics.
+
+A vector is a list of numbers. There is one number for each dimension. There are arithmetic rules for vectors.
+
+For example, if Jane wants to know the position of Sally, Sally can give Jane a vector to show the position. If Jane and Sally are in the world, there are three dimensions. Therefore, Sally gives Jane a list of three numbers to show her position. The three numbers in the vector Sally gives Jane might be:
+ Sally's distance north of Jane
+ Sally's distance east of Jane
+ Sally's height above Jane
+
+Related pages
+
+ 3D
+ Hypercube, generalization of square and cube beyond three dimensions
+ Minkowski spacetime, a four-dimensional manifold
+ Space-time
+
+References
+
+Geometry
+Algebra
+Distance is how far one thing is from another thing. It is also a measure of the space between two things. It can be measured along any path. Thus, someone who goes around in a circle has traveled a distance, even though his position has not changed.
+
+In geometry, the distance between two points A and B is sometimes written as . Pythagorean theorem is often used in the calculation of distance. Distance is a scalar, and thus is different from displacement. Displacement is a vector that measures distance with a straight line (and in only one path). Displacement is the shortest way to travel the distance.
+
+Examples
+ One ball is 5 feet from another ball. The distance between the two balls is 5 feet.
+ John walks at a speed of 6 kilometres per hour for one hour. John walks a distance of 6 kilometres.
+ A circle is a curved line. Each point on the circle is the same distance from the centre of the circle.
+
+Related pages
+
+ Euclidean distance
+ Norm (mathematics)
+
+References
+
+Physical quantity
+Mathematics
+Geometry
+In math, the distance between the nearest end and the farthest end of an object is its depth.
+
+For example, you can measure the depth of a box. When you find the distance between one end of the box and another end of the box, you measure the box's depth.
+
+Depth in Liquids
+
+For liquids, the distance between the top or surface of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid is the liquid's depth.
+
+For example, water is a liquid. If you fill a container with water, the distance between the top of the water and the bottom of the container is the water's depth. If the depth is big, we say the water is deep.
+
+Related pages
+ Volume
+ Geometry
+ Width
+ Height
+ Length
+
+Physical quantity
+A dictionary is a type of book which explains the meanings of words or, more precisely, lexemes. The words are arranged in alphabetical order so that they can be found quickly. The word "dictionary" comes from the Latin "dictio" ("saying").
+
+There are several types of dictionaries: dictionaries which explain words and how they are used, dictionaries which translate words from one language to another, dictionaries of biography which tell about famous people, technical dictionaries which explain the meanings of technical words or words connected to a particular subject (sometimes called a thesaurus). Some of these come close to being an encyclopedia, but an encyclopedia gives a lot of extra information about things (knowledge) and does not explain the use of the language. An encyclopedic dictionary gives less information about the topic than a real encyclopedia does, but more than a simple dictionary.
+
+Dictionaries which explain the meaning of words
+
+Online dictionaries
+ TheFreeDictionary
+ Longman English Dictionary Online
+Dictionaries which explain what words mean will give a clear "definition" of the word (e.g. hippopotamus : a hoofed mammal with thick skin, large mouth and short legs that lives in rivers and lakes of Africa.)
+
+A big dictionary will also give more information about the word. It will explain how it is pronounced. Usually the International Phonetic Alphabet is used for this. It will explain how the word is used. This is not a problem for a word like "hippopotamus", but a word like "put" has so many different meanings that a large dictionary may have a whole page or more to explain how it can be used. It will also explain the origin of the word (e.g. Greek "hippos" horse and "potamus" river).
+
+A dictionary may also give the form of the word in different tenses, plural form etc.
+
+Dictionaries which translate into foreign languages
+There are also dictionaries which translate words into foreign languages. Often one volume (one book) will translate both ways; for example, half the book might be translating from English to Dutch and the other half from Dutch to English.
+
+When using a dictionary to find out how to say something in another language one has to be careful to choose the right word. A word like "right" has two basic meanings in English: 1) "correct", and 2) the opposite of "left". Other languages have different words for these different meanings, but they have homonyms of their own. A word like "put" has many meanings. A good dictionary will have a large list of these meanings to help people find the word they want. In many languages, for example, the word âputâ will be different according to whether something is being put onto something (e.g. a table) or into something (e.g. a cupboard).
+
+Updating dictionaries
+
+Dictionaries need to be updated frequently because of the way language changes. New words are often brought into a language (e.g. lots of computer terms) or words change their meanings (e.g. "gay" or "cool"). In this sense, the most famous English Dictionary is the Oxford English Dictionary (or OED). Words are always being added to the OED. They are never taken out even if they are obsolete (not used any more). The OED can be accessed online (with a subscription).
+
+Related pages
+Wiktionary
+
+Relevant literature
+ Henning Bergenholtz/Sven Tarp (eds.): Manual of Specialised Lexicography. Benjamins 1995.
+ Sandro Nielsen: The Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Gunter Narr 1994.
+
+Other websites
+ Centre for Lexicography
+ Dictionary -Citizendium
+
+ Oxford English Dictionary
+ Oxford Learner's Dictionary
+ Cambridge Learner's Dictionary (British English)
+ Macmillan Dictionary
+ Collins Cobuild English Dictionary
+ American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
+ Merriam-Webster American English dictionary
+ Merriam-Webster Learner's Dictionary
+ Learn These Words First: Multi-Layer Dictionary
+ SimpleVocab Multi-word Dictionary
+ English to English Dictionary
+ Terms Dictionary - English to Multi-Lang Dictionary
+
+
+Reference works
+A definition in language explains what a word or phrase means. A definition usually answers the question what is.... Defining means giving a definition.
+
+Other words with this meaning are description and explanation. It describes what a word means and explains to the person when and where it can be used.
+
+In mathematics, a definition is an exact way of saying what a mathematical concept is. It might not be the easiest way to say what it is, but it is used because it is exact. It can be used in a mathematical proof.
+
+Words
+Denmark (), officially named the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the furthest south of the Scandinavian countries, to the south of Norway and south-west of Sweden (which it is connected to by a bridge). It has a south border with Germany. It borders both the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the east. Denmark is a developed country with a large welfare state; In 2006 and 2007, surveys ranked Denmark as "the happiest place in the world," based on standards of health, welfare, and education.
+
+The origin of the name Denmark () is uncertain. In Old Norse, the country was called Danmǫrk, referring to the Danish March (the marches of the Danes).
+
+The capital city of Denmark is Copenhagen, on the island of Zealand. Denmark is a constitutional monarchy (meaning the head of state is a monarch who has few established powers) with a queen, Margrethe II. Denmark is a parliamentary state, meaning the people appoint a parliament to make decisions for them, and it has a democratic government headed by an elected Prime Minister, who currently is Mette Frederiksen since 2019.
+
+History
+Denmark was first united in the 10th century, during the Viking period, by king Harald Bluetooth (), who first converted Denmark to Christianity. The Vikings are well known for invading countries. In the 11th century, the Danish Vikings controlled England (the Danelaw) for a while. In 1397 Denmark, Sweden and Norway became a single country with one queen (this country was called the Kalmar Union) Sweden became a separate country again in 1523. Denmark and Norway (called Denmark-Norway) stayed united, until 1814. Denmark-Norway controlled many islands in the Atlantic Ocean, including the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland. Iceland became independent from Denmark in 1944.
+
+Denmark became a constitutional monarchy on June 5, 1849 when it adopted a constitution which took away powers from the King and gave rights to ordinary Danish people. June 5 is now a holiday in Denmark, called "Constitution Day".
+
+Over the years Denmark lost many of the lands that it controlled in battle. Denmark's biggest war defeat was the Second Schleswig War (in 1864) when the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were conquered by the Kingdom Prussia (now a part of Germany). This was a big loss for Denmark and, consequently, it began a policy of neutrality after the loss, meaning it would no longer take part in any wars or support other countries. Denmark did not take part in the First World War.
+
+On April 9, 1940, Denmark was invaded by Nazi Germany and the Nazis stayed in Denmark throughout World War II. During the war, in 1943, Danes helped over 8,000 Jews to escape from Denmark into Sweden after the Nazis tried to arrest them.
+
+After the liberation of Denmark, one part of the country was not. That was the island of Bornholm. The German Commandant von Kamptz who was stationed there, refused to surrender to the Soviets as the German were fleeing to Bornholm and further to Sweden. The Soviets then bombed the two biggest towns RĂžnne and NexĂž. After the Germans were captured on May 9, 1945, the Soviet Army occupied the island until April 6, 1946.
+
+After World War Two, Denmark became a member of NATO and the European Union. Greenland and the Faroe Islands are now part of the Kingdom of Denmark and have their own governments and limited power.
+
+Geography
+
+Denmark is the smallest of the Scandinavian countries. The neighbours are Germany (to the south), Sweden (to the east), Norway (to the north) and the United Kingdom (to the west). The country is surrounded by the sea except for Jutland (Jylland), the largest part of Denmark. It is connected to Germany by land. To the south-east there is the Baltic Sea, to the west the North Sea, to the north the Skagerrak and to the north-east the Kattegat.
+
+The western part of Denmark is the peninsula of Jutland (, pronounced yooÂŽ-land), bordering Germany. This is the only part of Denmark that is not an island. The rest of Denmark includes 76 islands people live on, and many tiny islands. The largest islands are Zealand (SjĂŠlland), and Funen (Fyn). To the east is the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea, the only place in Denmark where the bedrock can be seen.
+
+The country is quite flat. The highest hill or mountain is MÞllehÞj, which is 170.86 metres (560.56 ft) tall. There are many small hills, lakes, creeks, forests and farmland. Denmark's shore line covers 7,314 km (4,545 mi). Nobody in Denmark lives more than 60 km from the coast. The longest river in Denmark is the GudenÄ.
+
+Climate
+The weather in Denmark is quite windy and rainy. In the winter, it does not get very cold; in most years, there are only a few weeks of snow. Every ten years or so, the sea around the islands freezes over, but in most winters, it does not. The climate and topography are not good for winter sports.
+
+Most summers are not very hot. People always dress to be ready for rain or wind. There are also very sunny times, but nobody can know ahead of time when these will be. The best time of the year for outdoor activities is the months of May and June until midsummer.
+
+The highest temperature ever recorded in Denmark was , on 10 August 1975 in Holstebro.
+And the lowest temperature ever recorded in Denmark was , on 8 January 1982 in HĂžrsted.
+
+Top 5 warmest days
+
+
+Top 5 coldest nights
+
+Politics
+
+Denmark has three branches of power; the judiciary (the courts), the executive (the Prime Minister and the cabinet) and the legislature (the Danish parliament). The current Prime Minister of Denmark is Mette Frederiksen, who was elected in June 2019.
+
+Denmark is a Kingdom which means it has a monarch (a king or queen). The current monarch is Queen Margrethe II. Margrethe II does not have a lot of power (she does not make any important decisions) and has a symbolic role. Denmark became a constitutional monarchy in 1849.
+
+Elections to the parliament are held every four years, and the winner of the election is the party or coalition which gets the most votes and seats in the parliament. After the elections are done, several parties who are in agreement will group together to form a coalition government, and the leader of the largest party becomes the prime minister.
+
+Here is a short summary of the biggest political parties in Denmark, from left to right on the political axis:
+ Red-Green Alliance (Danish: Enhedslisten), a far-left socialist party.
+ The Alternative (Danish: Alternativet), a green progressive party.
+ Socialist People's Party (Danish: Socialistisk Folkeparti), a socialist party.
+ Social Democrats (Danish: Socialdemokraterne), a left-wing party which is "social democratic" (slightly socialist).
+ Venstre, Liberal Party of Denmark (Danish: Venstre (meaning "left")), a liberal party.
+ Danish Social Liberal Party (Danish: Det Radikale Venstre), a radical left/borderline right-wing liberal party.
+ Conservative People's Party (Danish: Det Konservative Folksparti), a conservative party.
+ Liberal Alliance (Danish: Liberal Alliance), a right-wing liberal party.
+ Danish People's Party (Danish: Dansk Folkeparti), a right-wing political party who dislike immigration (people from other countries who come to live in Denmark).
+
+Welfare
+Denmark, like the other Nordic countries. is well known for being a large welfare state. The government provides many services to the public such as free health care, free education (school and college) and free housing for the poor. Danes pay high taxes to fund welfare.
+
+Kingdom of Denmark
+
+In geography, Denmark is the land in northern Europe, where the Danes live. In the political sense, the Kingdom of Denmark is the area which the Danish Monarch rules over. The Kingdom of Denmark includes Denmark and also includes the Faroe Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, and Greenland in North America. All three parts of the kingdom have different languages and culture. The Faroe Islands and Greenland are often considered to be separate countries but Denmark holds their sovereignty.
+
+Regions and municipalities
+
+Denmark is divided into five regions (Danish: regioner or region for one). The regions replaced the former counties (amter) in January 2007. The regions are in charge of hospitals and health care.
+
+The regions are then subdivided into municipalities (). There are currently 98 municipalities, but before January 2007 there were 275. The number of municipalities was decreased when it was decided that, to become more efficient, each should have a population of at least 20,000 .
+
+People
+
+The biggest part (90.5%) of Denmark's population of just under 5.4 million is of Danish descent, according to 2009 statistics. Of the rest 8.9% who are immigrants or descendent from recent immigrants, many come from South Asia or the Middle East. There are also small groups of Inuit from Greenland and Faroese.
+
+The Danes speak the national language, Danish, which is very similar to the other Scandinavian languages. Swedish and Norwegian are so close to Danish that most Danes understand them.
+
+As well as Danish, most Danes speak a foreign language too, such as English, which is popular as an international language, or German. In the southern part of Jutland, a German minority speaks German. On the Faroe Islands, Faroese is spoken, and people living in Greenland speak Inuit.
+
+Religion does not play a large part in the life of most Danes and church attendance is very low. However, even though many Danes are atheist, 80.4% are members of the Protestant "Church of Denmark" (, The National Church) which is the official "state church" of Denmark. The National Church is Lutheran, which means it separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th Century. Other important faiths include Judaism, Islam (the number of Muslims is increasing), other Protestant groups and Catholicism.
+
+Transport
+
+Because of the many islands, Denmark has many bridges. The main parts of the country, and most of the bigger islands, are connected by roads and railroads. One of the world's longest bridges connects the eastern and the western parts of the country, and there is a large bridge to Sweden also. There is still no bridge across the Baltic Sea to Germany, but it will most likely be built in a few years. The bridge to Sweden was expensive, took a long time to build, and required much planning by engineers.
+
+There are still many islands with no bridges to the mainland. People have to go by boat or airplane to reach these islands. Many islands will never be reached by bridges, because they are too small or too far away. If the island has too few people, bridges are often not built because it is expensive to build.
+
+Cycling is very popular in Denmark because the ground is so flat. Copenhagen is a city that is very bicycle friendly, with bicycle lanes extending over 12,000 km.
+
+Culture
+The people of Denmark have always depended on the sea. In earlier days, people could not travel anywhere unless they went by boat. Many Danes were fishermen or merchants. Even today, many Danes spend much time near or at the sea.
+
+Farming has always been one of the main occupations. Because of the climate and the soil, Denmark is a good place for agriculture. Export of food to the neighbouring countries is one of the most important sources of income for the country. Danish hams and cookies are exported throughout the world.
+
+Perhaps the most famous Dane is actually Hamlet, the title character of William Shakespeare's famous play, which was set in the real castle of Kronborg in HelsingĂžr, north of Copenhagen. The play was based on an old Danish myth of the Viking Prince Amled of Jutland, and his quest for revenge against his father's killer. Another widely known Dane is Hans Christian Andersen, a writer mostly famous for such fairy tales as "The Little Mermaid", and "The Ugly Duckling". Also Karen Blixen, Tycho Brahe and the philosopher SĂžren Kierkegaard are well known worldwide. There are many famous Danish scientists, including Niels Bohr, the famous physicist who developed the first working model for the atom, and Ole RĂžmer, who discovered the speed of light. Hans Kirk, although less well known outside of Denmark, is the writer of the best-selling Danish novel of all time, The Fishermen.
+
+Music
+Danes enjoy many different types of music, including ballets, jazz music, pop and rock. Denmark's most famous classical composer is Carl Nielsen. Famous Danish bands include Aqua, a pop band, and The Raveonettes, an indie rock band. The most famous Danish rock star is Lars Ulrich of the band Metallica.
+
+Food
+
+The cuisine of Denmark shares much with the other Nordic countries (Finland, Norway, Iceland, and Sweden) as well as northern Germany. Common meats are pork and fish. Traditional Danish food includes frikadeller (fried meatballs, often served with potatoes and various sorts of gravy). Fish is widely eaten, especially on the west coast of Jutland.
+
+Holidays
+Christmas () is the main feast of the year. Christmas is traditionally celebrated on the eve, December 24, and this is when the main Christmas meal is eaten and presents are unwrapped.
+
+In midwinter, a fast is celebrated. Children are dressed up, and go from house to house begging for money. This practice has in the recent years been taken over by Halloween, and most people give candy not money. A barrel filled with candy is smashed with clubs. The person who makes the candy fall out is appointed queen of cats and the person who hits the last stick is appointed king of cats.
+
+Midsummer is celebrated with a huge bonfire in the evening of June 23. Most Danes have a three-week summer holiday in July or August.
+
+Sports
+The most popular sport in Denmark is football (soccer). Sailing, swimming and other water sports are very popular because of the long coastline. Another common sport is cycling, (Copenhagen has been nicknamed the "City of Cyclists" because of the popularity of bicycles for moving around), which has become popular in Denmark partly because of the flat land all over the country. Indoor sports such as badminton and handball are also popular during the long winters.
+
+Monarchy
+
+Monarch is a word that means king or queen. Denmark is the oldest monarchy in Europe. The current monarch is Queen Margrethe II, who has been the queen since 1972. Denmark does not currently have a King. Margrethe's husband was called a prince because he was the son-in-law, not the son, of the previous King. He died on 13. February 2018 at the age of 83. The royal couple have two children:
+ Crown Prince Frederik who married an Australian woman named Mary, and have 4 children:
+ Prince Christian
+ Princess Isabella
+ Prince Vincent & Princess Josephine (twins)
+ Joachim married a British woman from Hong Kong but later divorced in 2005 after being married for 10 years. He has two sons:
+ Prince Nikolai
+ Prince Felix
+
+In 2008 Prince Joachim married for the second time. His new wife is from France and is called Marie, with whom he has a son and a daughter.
+ Prince Henrik
+ Princess Athena
+
+Related pages
+ Denmark at the Olympics
+ Denmark national football team
+ List of rivers of Denmark
+
+References
+
+Notes
+
+Other websites
+
+ Denmark.dk â The official website of Denmark
+ VisitDenmark.com â Official travel guide to Denmark
+ Danish Culture
+
+
+European Union member states
+Nordic countries
+Current monarchies
+10th-century establishments in Europe
+Death is the end of a life in an organism. All biological and living activity of the living thing stop, including the mind and the senses. The usual signal for death in humans and many other animals is that the heart stops beating and cannot be restarted. This can be caused by many things. All living things have a limited lifespan, and all living things eventually die.
+
+Living things that have died are normally described as being dead. Death of humans is often investigated for the cause, in case of crime (such as murder), accident or disease that may continue to kill other humans. About 150,000 people die every day around the world. About two thirds of these people die because of age. In addition to the physical body, some believe humans also have a soul and believe that the soul can continue without a body (afterlife), move into another body (reincarnation), or cease to exist (annihilationism). Religions have different beliefs about this issue. Many cultures have their own customs and rituals to respect the dead.
+
+When people talk about things or events that lead to the death of a plant or animal, those things or events are usually described as being deadly, or fatal. In the case of diseases, they are described as terminal. Humans are no different from any other lifeform. Our bodies have an ability for self-repair, but that ability is limited. Finding the cause of death is a medical speciality called pathology. In medicine, death is when the heart stops beating for more than several minutes. There are special times in which people recover even though the heart has stopped for 30 minutes, such as near-drowning in very cold water. If machines are used to help the heart and lungs work, then the moment of death is more difficult to know.
+
+Society and culture
+
+Death is commonly a sad or unpleasant thing to people. It can make people think about their own death. People might miss or be sad for the person who has died. They might also be sad for the family and friends of the person who has died.
+
+In any society, human death is surrounded by ritual - a wake or funeral is normal. In some places it was common to eat the dead in a form of ritual cannibalism. But this is no longer common, in part because disease like kuru can be passed this way. Human dead bodies are taboo in most societies and must be handled in special ways - for a combination of religious and hygiene reasons. A human dead body must always be reported in law, to be sure it is disposed of properly. In 2021 the leading cause of death in the United States was heart disease followed by cancer and then COVID-19.
+
+Dealing with dead bodies and their property
+
+Finding the cause of any human death and stopping a similar death from happening to someone else are the main reasons people look into human morbidity or let dead bodies be cut open and looked at in an autopsy. Some religions do not allow autopsies, because they feel the body is holy. Autopsies are usually required by the state if someone dies and people do not know why. The autopsy helps find out if someone killed the person on purpose, tried to hurt them, or if they died from a sickness.
+
+To prepare for their own death, humans can write a last will and testament to be clear about who gets their property and possessions. A person will sometimes also volunteer to be an organ donor. This might mean giving the whole body to medical research. It can also save the lives of others by making organ transplants possible.
+
+Religious views of death
+
+For a long time, many people have been afraid of death and a lot of people have wondered about what may happen to people after they die. This is one of the largest questions of philosophy and religion. Many people believe there is some form of afterlife.
+
+Ancient rulers sometimes did insist not only that their own bodies, and much property, but even their servants and relatives be destroyed at their funeral.
+
+Christianity has a special focus on death because of the state killing of Jesus Christ by the Romans. In Islam this is thought to demonstrate the injustice of human systems of dealing out death, and the ability of the best people to overcome it and even forgive it. In Christianity itself it is thought to prove that Jesus himself was really God and so could lose his body and still have the power of resurrection. In Buddhism reincarnation is believed to occur. Reincarnation is an idea taken from Hinduism.
+
+Confucianism advises respect for parents and forms of ancestor worship to respect both dead and living ancestors.
+
+Rituals surrounding death
+
+Every ethical tradition including the medical view of the body has some ritual surrounding death. Often these excuse behaviours that might be hated if they did not have the ritual. For instance, one may say that organ transplant is like cannibalism.
+
+Very much of what happens at a human death is ritual. People who wish theirs to be dealt with a certain way, and who wish a particular treatment like cremation of their body, should decide in advance and set up the necessary payments and agreements. This makes it much easier for their family after they die, since there is no longer the ability to clearly communicate the wish.
+
+For the same reason, saying goodbye is important. Most of the stress of death seems to come for loved ones who "did not have a chance to say goodbye".
+
+Maybe it is to relieve this stress that rituals are created, and to bring together those that knew someone so that the personal experience a person can no longer communicate for themselves, can be exchanged by others.
+
+Some ritual, such as seances, claim to allow people to speak to the dead. This is not claimed to be very reliable, both by scientists and even by those who do them very often.
+
+Preparing for death
+
+Aside from wills, goodbyes, organ donations and funerals, there is important personal experience to decide to pass on, or not, when someone knows they may soon die. Palliative care focuses on basic decisions people make when they are very close to the end of their lives, and it ensures someone is always available to talk to them. It is a replacement for heroic medical intervention that may keep them physically alive but with no quality of life. Human psychology must prepare for death if it is anything other than a quick surprise:
+
+Elizabeth Kubler-Ross wrote that there were several stages in dying, of which denial was the first, and acceptance was the last. Recording one's life is often something people with acceptance will do to leave a memoir or a full autobiography:
+
+Because events leave living memory, and may only be part of oral tradition, there are projects to record everything that people remember about World War I and the Shoah. The first of these was to record everything remembered about the U.S. Civil War. This discipline has changed history since we have so many more first person accounts of the times, and made social history much more standard.
+
+Other terms for death
+There are other terms for death. Examples are, "to pass away", "to go to a better place", "to buy the farm" (generally used in the military), "to leave the earth", "big sleep", and "to kick the bucket". the term gone may also be a term for describing death. for example: if a person has died, they are also said to be gone, as in gone to a better place or no longer here.
+
+Unnatural causes of death
+Old age and illness are not the only things that can end a person's life. People make other people die. This is called killing or murder. Three famous murders are John Wilkes Booth killing Abraham Lincoln, James Earl Ray killing Martin Luther King Jr. and Lee Harvey Oswald killing the President of the United States John F. Kennedy. People can also die by accidents resulting in terminal trauma, hypothermia, starvation, suicide and dehydration.
+
+References
+
+Related pages
+Funeral
+Death (personification)
+Will (law)
+Basic English 850 words
+A diesel-electric engine is a diesel generator, a diesel engine that drives an electric generator. The generator feeds electric power to an electric motor which turns a driveshaft. Its efficiency is higher than when an engine drives a shaft through gears. Most locomotives and many ships use diesel-electric drive.
+
+Many diesel-electric drives, especially small ones, store the electricity in a battery. Some designs also store braking energy in a flywheel, which can also charge a battery. However, these add even more complexity and weight to the vehicle, so are more appropriate for city driving where service stations are always available and there is much stop and go driving.
+
+Because they do not require any change or investment in stations nor much in vehicle design, diesel-electric vehicles are believed to be the most likely replacement for today's internal combustion engine. When properly tuned, they have low emissions and they use only about one-third of the fossil fuel of most gasoline engines powering similar vehicles.
+
+Honda and Toyota are presently delivering consumer priced diesel-electric cars. By contrast, hydrogen infrastructure is thought to be decades off, and is not fully implemented even in Iceland where there is abundant free geothermal electricity.
+
+In countries like India, government is focusing on fully electric trains rather than diesel electric. That too electricity will be produced by renewable sources like Solar.
+
+Many activists feel that promoting hydrogen is a stall, a way to avoid forcing the shift to diesel-electric vehicles in the nearer term.
+
+Motors
+A foreign embassy is the official office of one country in another. It is usually in the capital city of the other country. It is where the [[ambassador]relationship between the two countries.
+
+The head of the embassy is usually an ambassador, but can also be a minister, high commissioner, or other level of diplomatic personnel appointed by the sending country to represent it.
+
+
+
+Diplomacy
+Europe is the western part of the continent of Eurasia, often thought of as its own continent. It is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains in Russia and the Bosporus strait in Turkey.
+
+Europe is bordered by water on three sides. On the west is the Atlantic Ocean. To the north is the Arctic Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea separates Southeastern Europe from Africa. On the eastern border of Europe are the Ural River and Ural Mountains.
+
+There are at least 44 countries in Europe (the European identities of 5 transcontinental countries: Cyprus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkey are disputed). Most of these countries are members of the European Union.
+
+Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometers (3,930,000 square miles). This is 2% of the Earth's surface (6.8% of its land area).
+
+As of 2017, about 510 million people lived in Europe.
+
+Europe contains the world's second most-active volcano, which is Mount Etna that is currently the most-active volcano in the continent.
+
+Europe is a major tourist attraction. People come from all over the world to see its many World Heritage Sites and other attractions.
+
+Origin of name
+Europe is named after a princess in Greek mythology called "Europa." The myth says that Zeus kidnapped Europa and took her to Crete, where she became the mother of King Minos (from whom Europeâs first civilization gets its name, the Minoans).
+
+The name "Europa" was later used to describe Greece. Then, as the rest of modern-day Europe started to have cities and empires, the entire area West of the Ural Mountains came to be called "Europa".
+
+History
+
+The history of Europe is long and has many turns. Many great countries originated from Europe. Greek mythology and the beginning of western civilization came from European nations.
+
+Some of the major periods in European history have been:
+ Ancient Greece (Minoan, Mycenaean, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic): c.2000 BC to 146 BC
+ Ancient Rome (Roman kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire): 753BC-476
+ Middle Ages (Early, High, Late): 476 to 1492
+ Early Modern Era (Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Discovery, Enlightenment): 1492-1789
+ 19th Century, 20th Century and 21st Century (French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars, Industrial Revolution, Colonialism, World War 1, October Revolution, World War 2, Cold War): 1789-present.
+
+Regions and countries
+Andreas M. Kaplan describes modern Europe as a continent where many different cultures live closely together, "embracing maximum cultural diversity at minimal geographical distances".
+
+There are several major regions of Europe:
+ Eastern Europe
+ Central Europe
+ Western Europe
+ Northern Europe
+ Southern and Southeastern Europe
+Within these regions, there are up to 48 independent European countries (with the identities of 5 transcontinental countries being disputed). The largest is the Russian Federation, which covers 39% of Europe.
+
+The European city with the largest population is Istanbul. The country with the largest population is the Russian Federation. About 15% of Europeans live in Russia.
+
+Two European countries, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, are on islands called the British Isles.
+
+Climate
+Most of Europe lies in temperate climate zones.
+
+However, there are many different climates throughout Europe. For example, during the winter, it may be snowing and -30 degrees Celsius for 4â5 months in Finland. Yet it may be much warmer, with no snow at all except on high mountains, in Spain.
+
+European organizations
+Council of Europe
+European Court of Human Rights
+European Union
+Union of European Football Associations
+Warsaw Pact Organization (1955-1989)
+
+European Union
+
+The European Union is a confederation of 27 European countries. These countries agree to follow common laws so that their citizens can move and trade in EU countries almost the same as they do in their own. Twenty of these countries also share the same type of money: the euro.
+
+List of widely-recognised independent European countries
+
+
+
+ Geographically in Europe and Asia
+ EU member state
+ Geographically in Europe and Asia
+
+ EU member state
+
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ EU member state, geographically in Europe and Asia
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ Geographically in Europe and Asia
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ Geographically in Europe and North America
+ EU member state
+
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ Geographically in Europe and Asia
+ (not fully recognised as independent by other European countries)
+ EU member state
+
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+
+
+
+ EU member state
+
+
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ Geographically in Europe and Asia
+
+
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+ EU member state
+
+ Geographically in Europe and Asia
+
+References
+
+
+Laurasia
+An encyclopedia (also known in English as an encyclopĂŠdia) is a collection (usually a book or website) of information. Some are called "encyclopedic dictionaries".
+
+All encyclopedias were printed, until the late 20th century when some were on CDs and the Internet. 21st century encyclopedias are mostly online by Internet.
+The largest encyclopedia in the English language is English Wikipedia, which has more than 6 million articles. The second largest is the EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica, which is the largest one that is printed. Either kind of encyclopedia can inform us on many different topics.
+
+Book series were used to summarize all knowledge have been published for thousands of years. A famous early one was the Natural History by Pliny the Elder. The name "encyclopedia" is from the 16th century and meant "complete knowledge". The French Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot was the first that had major parts written by many people from all around the world.
+
+After the printing press was invented, dictionaries with long definitions began to be called encyclopedias that were books that has articles or subjects For example, a dictionary of science, if it included essays or paragraphs, it was thought of as an encyclopedia or knowledgeable book on the subject of science. Some encyclopedias then put essays on more than one subject in alphabetical order instead of grouping them together by subject. The word, encyclopedia, was put in the title of some encyclopedias.
+
+Companies such as Britannica were started for the purpose of publishing encyclopedias for sale to individuals, and for public use in libraries. Like dictionaries (which had definitions), these publishers hired hundreds of experts to write articles and read and choose articles. Some internet encyclopedias allowed their paying customers to submit articles from other encyclopedias. Other internet encyclopedias accepted writing from non-paying users (users who did not sign in) of the encyclopedia.
+
+Types of encyclopedias
+
+There are different types of encyclopedias. Some are general and have pages on lots of topics. The English language EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica and German Brockhaus are general encyclopedias. Some are about specific topics. For example, there are encyclopedias of medicine or philosophy. Others include the Dictionary of National Biography, the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, and Black's Law Dictionary. There are also encyclopedias that cover many topics with one perspective or one cultural bias. They include the Great Soviet Encyclopedia and Conservapedia.
+
+There are two main ways of organizing printed encyclopedias: from A to Z (the alphabetical way) or by categories. Most encyclopedias go from A to Z.
+
+Many dictionaries have similar information to encyclopedias.
+
+Examples of encyclopedic dictionaries
+
+ The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. Volume I AâM, volume II NZ. 1971. Oxford University Press.
+ Websterâs Third New International Dictionary . . . Unabridged . . . Merriam-Webster. 1961. Encyclopedia. Springfield, MA: G & C Merriam Company.
+ Fowler's Modern English Usage. Fowler H.W; 2nd revised edition by Gower E. Oxford University Press.
+
+Examples of encyclopedias
+
+ Citizendium
+ EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
+ Encyclopaedia Hebraica
+ Encyclopaedia Metallum
+ Everipedia
+ Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls, Inc.
+ The Columbia Encyclopedia in one volume. 1940. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
+ Wikipedia
+
+References
+Earth science is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science may also be called geoscience. Geoscience is the study of the architecture of the earth.
+
+It is a broader term than geology because it includes aspects of planetary science, which is part of astronomy. The Earth sciences include the study of the atmosphere, oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to understand the Earth, and how it evolved to its current state.
+
+If there is one fact which underlies all Earth science it is this; the Earth is an ancient planet which has been changing the whole time since its formation. The extent of the changes is much greater than people used to think.
+
+Fields of study
+
+The following disciplines are generally recognised as being within the geosciences:
+ Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology, Mineralogy, petrophysics, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology and sedimentology.<ref
+name="smith 5">Smith, Gary A. & Pun, Aurora 2006. How does the Earth work?. Pearson Prentice Hall, NJ. .</ref>
+ Geophysics and Geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere.
+ Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or pedosphere).
+ Oceanography and hydrology (includes limnology) describe the marine and freshwater domains of the watery parts of the Earth (or hydrosphere). Includes Marine biology.
+ Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere).
+ Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the exosphere (about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines are meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry and physics.
+ Astronomy includes the study of distant stars and galaxies to the examination of the 4.6 billion years old Earth from an astronomical point of view. It is also closely related with the study of the solar system and its planets, a subdiscipline called planetology. A more distant relative of astronomy is physical cosmology, which aims to study the Universe as a whole.
+ Closely related to the earth sciences are physical geography and biology.
+
+List of Earth science topics
+
+Atmosphere
+
+ Atmospheric chemistry
+ Climatology
+ Meteorology
+ Paleoclimatology
+
+Biosphere
+ Biogeography
+ Paleontology
+ Micropaleontology
+
+Hydrosphere
+ Hydrology
+ Limnology
+ Hydrogeology
+ Oceanography
+ Marine biology
+ Paleoceanography
+ Physical oceanography
+
+Lithosphere or geosphere
+ Geology
+ Environmental geology
+ Historical geology
+ Planetary geology
+ Sedimentology
+ Stratigraphy
+ Structural geology
+ Geography
+ Physical geography
+ Geochemistry
+ Geomorphology
+ Geophysics
+ Geodynamics (see also Tectonics)
+ Geomagnetics
+ Seismology
+ Glaciology
+ Mineralogy
+ Crystallography
+ Petrology
+ Volcanology
+
+Pedosphere
+ Soil science
+
+Systems
+ Environmental science
+ Geography
+ Gaia hypothesis
+
+Others
+ Engineering Geology
+ Geostatistics
+ Geodesy
+
+References
+Earth is the third planet from the Sun in the Solar System. It is the only planet known to have life on it. The Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago. It is one of four rocky planets on the inner side of the Solar System. The other three are Mercury, Venus, and Mars.
+
+The large mass of the Sun keeps the Earth in orbit through the force of gravity. Earth also turns around in space, so that different parts face the Sun at different times. Earth goes around the Sun once (one year) for every 365 times it turns around (one day).
+
+Earth is the only planet in the Solar System that has a large amount of liquid water on its surface. About 74% of the surface of Earth is covered by liquid or frozen water. Because of this, people sometimes call it the blue planet.
+
+Because of its water, Earth is home to millions of species of plants and animals which need water to survive. The things that live on Earth have changed its surface greatly. For example, early cyanobacteria changed the air and gave it oxygen. The living part of Earth's surface is called the "biosphere".
+
+Orbit and turning
+
+Earth is one of the eight planets in the Solar System. There are also thousands of small bodies which move around the Sun. The Solar System is moving through the Orion Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, and will be for about the next 10,000 years.
+
+Earth is about away from the Sun (this distance is called an "Astronomical Unit"). It moves on its orbit at an average speed of about . Earth turns all the way around about 365 times in the time it takes for Earth to go all the way around the Sun. To make up this extra bit of a day every year, an additional day is used every four years. This is named a "leap year".
+
+The Moon goes around Earth at an average distance of . It is locked to Earth, so that it always has the same half facing Earth; the other half is called the "dark side of the moon". It takes about 27 days for the Moon to go all the way around Earth, but because Earth is moving around the Sun at the same time, it takes about 29 days for the Moon to go from dark to bright to dark again. This is where the word "month" came from, even though most months now have 30 or 31 days.
+
+History of Earth
+
+Earth and the other planets formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Their origin was quite different from that of the Sun. The Sun was formed almost entirely of hydrogen, while the planets were formed mostly from higher elements. The smaller "rocky" planets are made almost entirely of higher elements. The Sun must have moved through areas where supernovae had previously exploded. All the planets have higher elements which are only made in supernovae. Only the so-called "gas giants" have much hydrogen and helium.
+
+The Moon may have been formed after a collision between the early Earth and a smaller planet (sometimes called Theia). Scientists believe that parts of both planets broke off becoming (by gravity) the Moon.
+
+Earth's water came from different places. Condensing water vapour, and comets and asteroids hitting Earth, made the oceans. Within a billion years (that is at about 3.6 billion years ago) the first life evolved, in the Archaean era. Some bacteria developed photosynthesis, which let them make food from the Sun's light and water. This released a lot of oxygen, which was first taken up by iron in solution. Eventually, free oxygen got into the atmosphere or air, making Earth's surface suitable for aerobic life (see Great Oxygenation Event). This oxygen also formed the ozone layer which protects life from ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Complex life on the surface of the land did not exist before the ozone layer.
+
+Earth's land and climate has been very different in the past. About 3 to 3.5 billion years ago almost all land was in one place. This is called a supercontinent. The earliest known supercontinent was called Vaalbara. Much later, there was a time (the Cryogenian) when Earth was almost entirely covered by thick ice sheets (glaciers). This is discussed as the Snowball Earth theory.
+
+What it is made of
+
+Earth is rocky. It is the largest of the rocky planets moving around the Sun by mass and by size. It is much smaller than the gas giants such as Jupiter.
+
+Chemical make-up
+Overall, Earth is made of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%). The 1.2% left over is made of many different kinds of other chemicals. Some rare metals (not just gold and platinum) are very valuable. Rare Earth metals are used in all types of electronic phones and computers.
+
+The structure of Earth changes from the inside to the outside. The center of Earth (Earth's core) is mostly iron (88.8%), nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% other elements. The Earth's crust is largely oxygen (47%). Oxygen is normally a gas but it can join with other chemicals to make compounds like water and rocks. 99.22% of rocks have oxygen in them. The most common oxygen-having rocks are silica (made with silicon), alumina (made with aluminium), rust (made with iron), lime (made with calcium), magnesia (made with magnesium), potash (made with potassium), and sodium oxide, and there are others as well.
+
+Density
+The Earth is the densest of all the planets. It has a lot of heavy metals in it.
+
+Shape
+Earth's shape is a spheroid: not quite a sphere because it is slightly squashed on the top and bottom. The shape is called an oblate spheroid. As Earth spins around itself, centrifugal force forces the equator out a little and pulls the poles in a little. The equator, around the middle of Earth's surface, is about long. The reason the Earth is roughly a sphere (and so are all planets and stars) is gravity. Meteorites, on the other hand may be any shape because, in their case, the force of gravity is too weak to change their shape.
+
+The highest mountain above sea levelâthe well-known Mount Everest (which is above sea level)âis not actually the one that is the farthest away from the center of the Earth. Instead, the sleeping volcano Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador is; it is only above sea level but it is almost at the equator. Because of this, Mount Chimborazo is from the center of the Earth, while Mount Everest is closer to it. Similarly, the lowest point below sea level that we are conscious of is the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. It is about below sea level, but, again, there are probably places at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean that are nearer to the center of the Earth.
+
+Earthâs core
+
+The deepest hole ever dug is only about . We know something about the inside of the Earth, though, because we can learn things from earthquakes and the times when volcanoes erupt. We are able to see how quickly the shock waves move through Earth in different places.
+
+The inside of Earth is very different from the outside. Almost all of Earth's liquid water is in the seas or close to the surface. The surface also has a lot of oxygen, which comes from plants. Small and simple kinds of life can live far under the surface, but animals and plants only live on the surface or in the seas. The rocks on the surface of Earth (Earth's crust) are well known. They are thicker where there is land, between thick. Under the seas they are sometimes only thick. There are three groups of rocks that make up most of the Earth's crust. Some rock is made when the hot liquid rock comes from inside the earth (igneous rocks); another type of rock is made when sediment is laid down, usually under the sea (sedimentary rocks); and a third kind of rock is made when the other two are changed by very high temperature or pressure (metamorphic rocks). A very few rocks also fall out of the sky (meteorites).
+
+Below the crust is hot and almost-liquid rock which is always moving around (the Earth's mantle). Then, there is a thin liquid layer of heated rock (the outer core). This is very hot: . The middle of the inside of the Earth would be liquid as well but all the pressure of the rock above it makes it a solid. This solid middle part (the inner core) is almost all iron. It is what makes the Earth magnetic.
+
+Pieces of the crust form plates
+
+The Earth's crust is solid but made of parts which move very slowly. The thin skin of hard rock on the outside of the Earth rests on hot liquid material below it in the deeper mantle. This liquid material moves because it gets heat from the hot center of the Earth. The slow movement of the plates is what causes earthquakes, volcanoes and large groups of mountains on the Earth.
+
+There are three ways plates can come together. Two plates can move towards each other ("convergent" plate edges). This can form islands, volcanoes, and high mountain ranges (such as the Andes and Himalayas). Two plates can move away from each other ("divergent" plate edges). This gives the warm liquid rock inside the earth a place to come out. This makes special mountain ranges below the sea or large low lands like Africa's Great Rift Valley. Plates are able to move beside each other as well ("transform" plate edges, such as the San Andreas Fault). This makes their edges crush against each other and makes many shocks as they move.
+
+Surface
+The outside of the Earth is not even. There are high places called mountains, and high flat places called plateaus. There are low places called valleys and canyons. For the most part, moving air and water from the sky and seas eats away at rocks in high places and breaks them into small pieces. The air and water then move these pieces to lower places. Because of this, the Earth would have been very flat a long time before now. The fundamental cause of the differences in the Earth's surface is plate tectonics. The shape of the entire planet itself is not a ball. Because of its spin, Earth has a slight bulge at the Equator.
+
+All places on Earth are made of, or are on top of, rocks. The outside of the Earth is usually not uncovered rock. Over 70% of the Earth is covered by seas full of salty water. This salty water makes up about 97% of all Earth's water. The drinkable fresh water is mostly in the form of ice. There is only a small amount (less than 3%) of fresh water in rivers and under the ground for people to drink. The air above the Earth stops the water from going away into outer space. Also, much of the land on Earth is covered with plants, or with what is left from earlier living things. Places with very little rain are dry wastes called deserts. Deserts usually have few living things, but life is able to grow very quickly when these wastes have rainfall. Places with large amounts of rain may be rain forests. Lately, people have changed the environment of the Earth a great deal. As population has increased, so has farming. Farming is done on what were once natural forests and grassland.
+
+Air
+
+All around the Earth is the of air (the atmosphere). The mass of the Earth holds the gasses in the air down and does not let them go into outer space. The air is mostly made of nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%) and there are a few other gasses as well. Most living things need the air (or, more precisely, the oxygen) to breathe and live. They use the gasses â especially oxygen and carbon dioxide â to make and use sugar and to give themselves power.
+
+The air animals and plants use to live is only the first level of the air around the Earth (the troposphere). The day to day changes in this level of air are called weather; the larger differences between distant places and from year to year are called the climate. Rain and storms come about because this part of the air gets colder as it goes up. Cold air becomes thicker and falls, and warm air becomes thinner and goes up. The turning Earth moves the air as well and air moves north and south because the middle of the Earth generally gets more power from the Sun and is warmer than the north and south points. Air over warm water evaporates but, because cold air is not able to take in as much water, it starts to make clouds and rain as it gets colder. The way water moves around in a circle like this is called the water cycle.
+
+Above this first level, there are four other levels. The air gets colder as it goes up in the first level; in the second level (the stratosphere), the air gets warmer as it goes up. This level has a special kind of oxygen called ozone. The ozone in this air keeps living things safe from damaging rays from the Sun. The power from these rays is what makes this level warmer and warmer. The middle level (the mesosphere) gets colder and colder with height; the fourth level (the thermosphere) gets warmer and warmer; and the last level (the exosphere) is almost outer space and has very little air at all. It reaches about half the way to the Moon. The three outer levels have a lot of electric power moving through them; this is called the ionosphere and is important for radio and other electric waves in the air. It is also where the Northern Lights are.
+
+Even though air seems very light, the weight of all of the air above the outside of the Earth (air pressure) is important. Generally, from sea level to the top of the outer level of the air, a space of air one cm2 across has a mass of about 1.03 kg and a space of air one sq in across has a weight of about 14.7 lb. Because of the air, small meteorites generally burn up long before they get to the earth.
+
+The air also keeps the Earth warm, specially the half turned away from the Sun. Some gasses â especially methane and carbon dioxide â work like a blanket to keep things warm. In the past, the Earth has been much warmer and much colder than it is now. Since people have grown used to the heat we have now, though, we do not want the Earth to be too much warmer or colder. Most of the ways people create electric power use burning kinds of carbon â especially coal, oil, and natural gas. Burning these creates new carbon dioxide and can cause more warming. A discussion is going on now about what people should do about the Earth's latest warming, which has gone on for about 150 years. So far, this warming has been acceptable: plants have grown better. The weather has been better than when it was colder. Bad things may happen if the warming goes on.
+
+People
+
+About eight billion people live on Earth. They live in about 200 different lands called countries. Some, for example, Russia, are large with many large cities. Others, for example, Vatican City, are small. The seven countries with the most people are China, India, the United States, Indonesia, Pakistan, Brazil and Nigeria. About 90% of people live in the northern hemisphere of the world, which has most of the land. Human beings originally came from Africa. Now, 70% of all people do not live in Africa but in Europe and Asia.
+
+People change the Earth in many ways. They have been able to grow plants for food and clothes for about ten thousand years. When there was enough food, they were able to build towns and cities. Near these places, men and women were able to change rivers, bring water to farms, and stop floods (rising water) from coming over their land. People found useful animals and bred them so they were easier to keep.
+
+Future
+There is wide agreement that the future of Earth is tied to the future of the Sun. As time passes, the Sun will get hotter, and that will eventually make the Earth uninhabitable.
+
+Gallery
+
+Related pages
+
+ Formation and evolution of the Solar System
+ Age of the Earth
+ Geology
+ List of planets
+ Solar System
+ Structure of the Earth
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+
+
+ ("WP discussion")
+
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Earth
+Geology
+Astronomical objects
+Planets
+Terrestrial planets
+Et cetera means "and the rest" in Latin. It is often used in English to continue a list that is longer than what can be normally written. People most often write "et cetera" as etc.. Very rarely, it is also written "&c" because the ampersand, or the "&", is the same as "et", having been formed by 'e' and 't' being joined into a single letter. It is also the symbol for "and". Some people write it as "ect", but that is wrong since it incorrectly abbreviates "et cetera".
+
+Examples
+ "Jane has a lot of pets. She has cats, dogs, cows, horses, kangaroos, rabbits, etc."
+ "Robert ordered a large amount of groceries in order to stock for later. He ordered carrots, tomatoes, potatoes, eggs, etc."
+ "Rocco ordered a lot of chips. He ordered cheese puffs, potato chips, Pringles, etc."
+
+Latin phrases
+An experiment is a test of an idea or a method. It is often used by scientists and engineers. An experiment is used to see how well the idea matches the real world. Experiments have been used for many years to help people understand the world around them. Experiments are part of scientific method. Many experiments are controlled experiments or even blind experiments. Many are done in a laboratory. But thought experiments are done in mind.
+
+Experiments can tell us if a theory is false, or if something does not work. They cannot tell us if a theory is true. When Einstein said that gravity could affect light, it took a few years before astronomers could test it. General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.<ref>Shapiro S.S. et al 2004. Measurement of the solar gravitational deflection of radio waves using geodetic very-long-baseline interferometry data, 1979â1999. Phys. Rev. Lett'. 92 (12): 121101. </ref>
+
+Now, a hundred years or so after Einstein published his ideas, there have been many tests, all of which have been consistent with Einstein's predictions. But, one day, we might find the theory has some limits beyond which it does not work. What we test are implications of the theory, because the theory itself is too large and complicated to test all at once.
+
+"The universe does not tell us when we are right, only when we are wrong". â Karl Popper
+
+Controlled experiments
+A controlled experiment is a kind of comparison. It often compares the results from experimental samples against control samples. Control samples are the same as the experimental sample, except for one difference. This difference is the one thing whose effect is being tested (the independent variable). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the experimental group (treatment group); and the one receiving the placebo or an older treatment would be the control group.
+
+Difference with observational study
+An observational study is used when an experiment would be difficult, unethical, or expensive. Observational studies are not experiments. Experiments can control for other variables, and it allows the researchers to change something. Observational studies often do not have random samples, and they often have many variables.
+
+ Famous experiments
+ Galileo Galilei did some experiments about free fall (1623)
+ Benjamin Franklin showed that lightning is a form of electricity (1752)
+ The MichelsonâMorley experiment proved a flaw in old physics, and prompted Einstein's work (1887)
+ Ivan Pavlov did some experiments about the classical conditioning of dogs (1927)
+ The AveryâMacLeodâMcCarty experiment proved DNA was the molecule which caused heredity (1944)
+ Stanley Milgram showed that people follow orders; this became known as the Milgram experiment (1961)
+
+ References
+
+ Shadish, William R; Cook, Thomas D. & Campbell, Donald T. 2002. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
+
+Related pages
+Experimental physics
+Experimental psychology
+Ethics is the study of good and bad behavior. It is one of the main parts of philosophy. Ethics tries to answer questions like:
+
+ What actions are good? What actions are evil?
+ How can we tell the difference?
+ Are good and evil the same?
+ How should we make hard decisions that might help or hurt other people?
+ How do our actions affect others?
+
+Ideas about ethics
+When discussing ethics, the philosophy is generally separated into:
+ thinking about morality,
+ the involvement of science,
+ the freedom of people to decide for themselves how to act within their own beliefs.
+
+Morality is what someone thinks or feels is good or bad. There are many different moralities, but they share some things. For example, most people think that murder (killing somebody) is wrong. (compare Exodus 20:13) Some philosophers hope to find more things that moralities share. They think that ethics should use the scientific method to study things that people think are good or bad. Their work can be used to test the fairness of a situation, such as how people should treat each other. An example of this kind of thinking is the categorical imperative. Many countries have laws based on this idea of fairness.
+
+What is ethics used for?
+Understanding ethics can help people decide what to do when they have choices. Many philosophers think that doing anything or making any choice is a part of ethics.
+
+Ethics is part of other fields of study in many ways. Here are some ways:
+
+ Ethics is part of the study of religion. In religion, people often learn what is good or bad from what they believe about God (or gods). Some important ideas about what is good or bad have come from religion. See Ten Commandments.
+ Some theories of economics say ethics has to do with money. Money is a big part of most people's lives. Thinking about morality can be important in economics. For example, there is a saying about ethics taken from the Bible that 'the love of money is the root of all kinds of evil' (1 Timothy).The philosophy of Marxism also says that a few people using money in the wrong way can hurt many other people.
+ Government policy can be affected by what politicians think is ethical. Politicians try to create laws that help everyone do what is right. Political debates happen when the people who make public policy do not agree about what is right.
+ In work, thinking about ethics can help with hard questions. Work can be like both economics and politics. Workers have to make money and follow laws. But the best way to do both is not always easy to know. The study of this is called business ethics
+ People like doctors and nurses have to make hard choices about how to care for people. Sometimes the person being cared for, their family or the doctor do not agree what is best for them. Also, choices have to be made if there are enough resources to help all. The study of this is called medical ethics. Similar studies for specific professions include bioethics and legal ethics.
+ Discussing ethics can also be a way to stop people fighting or starting a war. By talking about ethics, people hope to get what they want without being violent. This works when all people agree that peace is very important. But not everyone agrees about what is right or wrong. So, sometimes anger can make it hard to talk without fighting.
+
+Along with aesthetics ethics forms part of axiology, the philosophy of what people like.
+
+Related pages
+ Conflict of interest
+ Ethical tradition
+ Morality
+ Utilitarianism
+ Virtue
+ The Republic, a book by Plato that says that people who have power should use ethics to make choices.
+ The Prince, a book by NiccolĂČ Machiavelli that says that people who have power should not use ethics to make choices.
+
+Further reading
+ Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics
+ The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Ethics
+ Encyclopedia of Ethics. Lawrence C. Becker and Charlotte B. Becker, editors. Second edition in three volumes. New York: Routledge, 2002. A scholarly encyclopedia with over 500 signed, peer-reviewed articles, mostly on topics and figures of, or of special interest in, Western philosophy.
+ Blackburn, S. (2001). Being good: A short introduction to ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
+ De Finance, Joseph, An Ethical Inquiry, Rome, Editrice Pontificia UniversitĂ Gregoriana, 1991.
+ Derrida, J. 1995, The Gift of Death, translated by David Wills, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
+ Fagothey, Austin, Right and Reason, Tan Books & Publishers, Rockford, Illinois, 2000.
+ Solomon, R.C. Morality and the Good Life: An Introduction to Ethics Through Classical Sources, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1984.
+ Vendemiati, Aldo, In the First Person, An Outline of General Ethics, Rome, Urbaniana University Press, 2004.
+ John Newton, Ph.D. Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century, 2000. .
+ Guy Cools & Pascal Gielen, The Ethics of Art. Valiz: Amsterdam, 2014.
+ Lafollette, Hugh [ed.]: Ethics in Practice: An Anthology. Wiley Blackwell, 4th edition, Oxford 2014.
+
+Other websites
+ Brute Ethics: animal ethics encyclopedia
+E Prime (it means English Prime) defines a way of speaking English without using the verb "to be" in any way ("be, is, am, are, was, were, been, and being"). Instead, an E Prime speaker or writer uses different verbs like "to become," "to remain," and "to equal" or they might choose to rearrange the sentence to show that the "thing" does not actually "act". For example, in E Prime, a writer would change the statement "Mistakes were made" to "Joe made mistakes." This change in wording reveals an actor (Joe) where the previous form concealed the actor. Users of E Prime would consider the changed sentence more accurate.
+
+What E Prime is
+D. David Bourland, Jr. first suggested E Prime in 1965. Bourland had studied the discipline (way of thinking) of General Semantics. The main idea of General Semantics is that people can only know what they observe and experience when they see, hear, touch, taste, smell, think, and feel, and furthermore, that what they observe and experience can affect how they observe and experience in the future. Because each person has different experiences throughout their lives, they interpret their experiences differently.
+
+Students of General Semantics and users of E Prime contend that to say "This cat is soft" leaves out many other attributes, and implies that the outside "object" of the cat is the "same as" the inside experience of "softness". Instead, E Prime users say "This cat feels soft TO ME" to remind themselves of the following:
+That their experience of "softness" involves both the outside "object" called "cat" and the eyes, hands, brain and nervous system of the observer.
+ That someone else might experience different aspects of the cat.
+ That they themselves might experience something different at a different time or in different circumstances. (The cat might scratch them, or look or feel wet or matted with dirt.)
+
+What E Prime is not
+Although languages like Russian, Arabic, Turkish, and Cantonese do not always use a separate verb for "to be," they do have the idea of "being." For example, an English speaker might say "This apple is red." An Arabic speaker might say "This apple red." Most languages can be used to express the idea of a red apple. An E Prime user chooses to say "This apple looks red to me" to remind themselves that "seeing red" involves both the apple and the eye and brain of the person looking at the apple.
+
+Many teachers of English encourage students to use verbs other than "to be." To them, using more active verbs makes writing clearer and more interesting. These teachers want to improve their students' writing and may not agree with the ideas of General Semantics or E Prime.
+
+Different functions of 'to be'
+In English, 'to be' can have different functions:
+It talks about Identity: The cat is my only pet, The cat is Garfield
+It talks about belonging to a class, or a group: The cat is an animal
+It can talk about properties: The cat is furry
+It can be an auxiliary verb: The cat is sleeping, The cat is bitten by the dog
+It can talk about existence: There is a cat
+It can talk about location: The cat is here
+
+English language
+Einstein on the Beach is an opera written by the minimalist composer Philip Glass and theater director and designer Robert Wilson. It was first acted for an audience in Avignon, France in 1976.
+
+It is a single act opera, about five hours long with no intermission. Because of the length and the minimalist (repetitive) nature of the music, audience members are free to enter and leave the opera as they wish. Glass's music tends to cycle round, but does not exactly repeat itself. Admittedly, he has described himself as a composer of "music with repetitive structures". Though his earlier music fits what is normally called "minimalist", he has since evolved stylistically.
+
+References
+
+1970s operas
+1976
+Were you looking for the English Wikipedia, the full English Wikipedia version of Simple?
+
+The word English can mean:
+ From or about the country England
+ English people
+ English language
+ The Amish word for somebody who is not in their group
+ Avoirdupois, a system of measurement sometimes called "English".
+English opening, a chess opening
+ English, Indiana, the county seat of Crawford County
+An ethnic group is a group of people who are considered to be the same in some or multiple ways. They may all have the same ancestors, speak the same language, or have the same culture, which could sometimes include religion. They often live in the same or surrounding area.
+
+Sometimes almost all of the people in one country are of the same ethnic group, but not always. Often one country may have several different ethnic groups, or the people of one ethnic group may live in several different countries.
+
+The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ensures the rights of ethnic groups in Article 27 and also gives them the right to use their own language.
+
+An example of an ethnic group is the Slavic peoples.
+
+Related terms
+
+ Supraethnicity or supra-ethnicity: a grouping of several interrelated ethnicities that have similar but unique cultures.
+
+Related pages
+
+ Ethnic groups of the United States
+ Minority group
+
+References
+Ewe might mean:
+
+ A female sheep
+ Ewe language
+Ebola virus or Ebola virus disease (EVD), often shortened to Ebola, is a very dangerous virus. It belongs to the family Filoviridae. Four different types of Ebola virus can cause a severe disease which is often fatal. Ebola infection causes hemorrhagic fever which starts suddenly. "Hemorrhagic" means that the victim will bleed a lot, inside and outside of their body. The virus attacks almost every organ and tissue of the human body, causing multiple organs to fail at once. Out of every 100 people who get Ebola, on average 25 to 90 die.
+
+The virus was first found in Sudan. It is mostly found in Africa, with very few cases in Europe and the United States.
+
+Transmission
+
+The Ebola virus that makes people sick lives in the blood and other liquids and organs in some kinds of non-human animals without killing them. Scientists think the animals it lives in are mainly some kinds of monkeys or fruit bats. When people touch animals that have the virus, or secretions that came out of those animals, they can get sick.
+
+Ebola cannot be caught through the air, or by being near sick people. The virus can only go from liquids into people's bodies. This means Ebola can be caught by touching a sick person's blood, saliva, mucus, semen, diarrhea, vomit, or other fluids that come out of a sick person's body.
+
+If a person does not die from the disease, he can still give other people the infection by having sex for nearly another two months after they stop being sick. This is because the virus can still be in the man's semen after a long time.
+
+1. Once the virus enters the human body via mucosal surfaces, abrasions or injuries in the skin or by direct parental transmission, it fuses with the cells lining the respiratory tract, eyes, or body cavities.
+
+2. It invades the macrophages and dendritic immune cells and releases its genetic content. The cell explosion triggers the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines initiating a âcytokine stormâ. The genetic material takes over the cell machinery to replicate itself; new copies of the virus are formed and released into the system.
+
+3. The virus then, goes on to attack spleen, kidneys and even the brain. The blood vessels leak blood and fluid into the surrounding tissues. This atypical clotting and bleeding at the same time manifests externally in the form of rashes.
+
+4. The virus causes the shutdown of other vital organs such as liver and lungs too. In fact, it is able to invade almost all human cells through different attachment mechanisms for each cell type (except for lymphocytes). The very cells that are meant to fight infection are used as carriers to spread infection to other body parts
+
+5. It has been found that the ebola-infected cells do not undergo normal apoptosis, but exhibit vacuolization and signs of necrosis.
+
+Symptoms
+When people get Ebola the first symptoms look like some other diseases. People get a fever and feel very tired. Their head, stomach, joints, and throat might hurt. Sometimes, people think they have other diseases like malaria or typhoid fever.
+
+Later, people get much sicker. They bleed both inside and outside their bodies. They have blood in their diarrhea and vomit. They bleed from their noses, mouths, and genitals/sex organs. They get shock: low blood pressure, fast pulse (heart rate), and low blood circulation to the body. Their organs might stop working. Ebola also causes stiffness throughout the body which makes it hard for sick people to move.
+
+Five to nine out of every ten people who get sick with Ebola die.
+
+Treatment
+There is no cure for Ebola, but if people get care quickly from doctors and nurses at a hospital, more of them live. People with Ebola need a lot of fluids to replace fluids lost from diarrhea, vomiting, and bleeding. The most important care is giving them water with a very small amount of salt and sugar in it. This is called oral rehydration. It helps to replace their fluids and blood. It is also important to give medicines in case they get bad blood pressure and blood circulation.
+
+Prevention
+In December 2016, a study found the VSV-EBOV vaccine to be very effective (in the neighborhood of 70â100%) against the Ebola virus, making it the first vaccine against the disease.
+
+Many Ebola vaccine candidates had been developed in the decade prior to 2014, but as of October 2014, none had yet been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in humans.
+
+Research
+World Community Grid is a computing project that is seeking possible drug treatments. People donate the spare time on their computers to the project.
+
+Reference
+
+Viruses
+Diseases caused by viruses
+Zoonoses
+Ecology is the branch of biology that studies the biota (living things), the environment, and their interactions. It comes from the Greek oikos = house; logos = study.
+
+Ecology is the study of ecosystems. Ecosystems describe the web or network of relations among organisms at different scales of organization. Since ecology refers to any form of biodiversity, ecologists research everything from tiny bacteria in nutrient recycling to the effects of tropical rain forests on the Earth's atmosphere. Scientists who study these interactions are called ecologists.
+
+Terrestrial ecoregion and climate change research are two areas where ecologists now focus.
+
+There are many practical applications of ecology in conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource management (agriculture, forestry, fisheries), city planning (urban ecology), community health, economics, and applied science. It provides a framework for understanding and researching human social interaction.
+
+Population ecology
+
+Population ecology measures the size of a population: all the living things from one species that live in an place. A population gets bigger because of birth and movement into a place, and it gets smaller because of death and movement out of a place. Growth rate is the change in population size divided by the current population size. When a population is small, growth rate does not change, so the population shows exponential growth. Rate of exponential growth depends on how a living thing reproduces. If it has only a few offspring (children) which grow slowly, like a human, the rate will be low. If it has a lot of offspring which grow quickly, like a fruit fly, the rate will be high. Any environment only has enough natural resources, such as food, water, or space, for a certain size of population. This size is called the carrying capacity. When population size is near the carrying capacity, growth rate will become less. The graph of population growth will be an S-shape, called logistic growth.
+
+Community and ecosystem ecology
+
+A community is all populations of different species that live in the same place. An ecosystem is a community and its environment. Ecosystem ecology studies how energy and nutrients move through an ecosystem. All living things need energy to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. A trophic level is the number of times energy moves from one living thing to another, before reaching a particular living thing. The first trophic level, called producers or autotrophs, gets energy from the environment. They use the energy to make organic compounds. Most producers, such as plants, take in energy from sunlight, but some take it from inorganic compounds. Other trophic levels, called consumers or heterotrophs, get their energy by eating other living things. All animals are consumers, and there are three kinds: herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. Herbivores eat only plants, carnivores eat only other animals, and omnivores eat both. Decomposers are living things which break down dead things. A food web shows the movement of energy in an ecosystem.
+
+Humans and ecology
+
+Ecology in politics
+Ecology starts many powerful philosophical and political movements - including the conservation movement, wellness movement, environmental movement, and ecology movement we know today. When these are combined with peace movements and the Six Principles, they are called green movements. In general, these put ecosystem health first on a list of human moral and political priorities, as the way to achieve better human health and social harmony, and better economics.
+
+People with these beliefs are called political ecologists. Some have organized into the Green Parties, but there are actually political ecologists in most political parties. They very often use arguments from ecology to advance policy, especially forest policy and energy policy.
+
+Also, ecology means that it is the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions between organisms and their environment, including other organisms.
+
+Ecology includes economics
+Many ecologists also deal with human economics:
+
+ Lynn Margulis says that economics studies how humans make a living, while ecology studies how every other animal makes a living.
+ Mike Nickerson says that "economy is three-fifths of ecology", since ecosystems create resources and dispose of waste, which the economy assumes is done "for free".
+
+Ecological economics and human development theory try to separate the economic questions from others, but it is difficult. Many people think economics is just part of ecology now, and that economics that ignores it is wrong. "Natural capital" is an example of one theory combining both.
+
+Ecology and anthropology
+Sometimes ecology is compared to anthropology. Anthropology includes how our bodies and minds are affected by our environment, while ecology includes how our environment is affected by our bodies and minds. There is even a type of anthropology called ecological anthropology, which studies how people interact with the environment.
+
+Antoine de Saint-Exupery stated: "The earth teaches us more about ourselves than all the books. Because it resists us. Man discovers himself when he measures himself against the obstacle".
+
+Related pages
+ Prey-predator equations
+Ecological economics
+Ecomuseum
+Environmentalism
+Sustainable development
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+Economics is the social science which studies economic activity: how people make choices to get what they want. It has been defined as "the study of scarcity and choice" and is basically about the choices people make. It also studies what affects the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in an economy.
+
+Investment and income relate to economics. The word comes from Ancient Greek, and relates to ÎżáŒ¶ÎșÎżÏ oĂkos "house" and ÎœÏÎŒÎżÏ nomos "custom" or "law". The models used in economics today were mostly started in the 19th century. People took ideas from political economy and added to them because they wanted to use an empirical approach similar to the one used in the natural sciences.
+
+Subjects and objects in economics
+The subjects (actors) in economic study are households, business companies, the government (the state), and foreign countries. Households offer their "factors of production" to companies. This includes work, land, capital (things like machines and buildings) and information. In exchange for their factors of production, households get income which they use to consume (buy) goods from other subjects.
+
+Business companies produce and sell goods and services and buy factors of production from households and from other companies.
+
+The state or public sector includes institutions and organisations. The state takes some of the earnings from the business companies and households, and uses it to pay for "public goods" like streets or education, to be available for everyone. The last subject is foreign countries. This includes all households, business companies and state institutions, which are not based in one's own country. They demand and supply goods from abroad.
+
+The objects (things acted upon) in economic study are consumer goods, capital goods, and factors of production. Consumer goods are classified as "usage goods" (for example, gasoline or toilet paper), as "purpose goods" (for example, a house or bicycle), and as "services" (for example, the work of a doctor or cleaning lady). Capital goods are goods which are necessary for producing other goods. Examples of these are buildings, equipment, and machines. Factors of production are work, ground, capital, information, and environment.
+
+General economic rules
+ All people have to decide between their options.
+ The cost of goods is what a person gives up for the goods.
+ When a person gives up something (like money) to get a good, they also give up other things that they could have gotten instead. This means that the true cost of something is what you give up to get it. This includes money, and the economic benefits ("utility") that you didn't get because you can no longer buy something else.This is called opportunity cost.
+ People choose between options based on the rewards ("incentives") or bad things ("disincentives") they expect from each option. Adding to the rewards for an option will often make more people choose it.
+ Trade can make everyone better off.
+ Markets are usually good for the organisation of economic life. In the free market, goods will be shared by people and companies making small decisions. The âinvisible handâ of the market (Adam Smith) states that if everyone tries to get what they want, everyone will be as well-off as they could possibly be.
+ Sometimes prices do not fully show the cost or benefit to society. For example, air pollution is bad for society, and education is good for society. The government can put a tax (or do something to reduce sales) on items that are bad for society. It can also support (like giving money for) items that are good for society.
+ The living standard of a country depends on the skills to produce services and goods. Productivity is the amount of the produced goods divided by total working hours.
+ When there is an increase in the total money supply, or when the cost to produce things rises, prices go up. This is called inflation.
+
+History
+ 18th century analysis of wealth
+ Physiocracy
+ Classical economics
+ Marxist economics
+ Austrian economics
+ Neoclassical economics
+ Welfare economics
+
+The ideas that economists have depend a lot on the times they live in. For example, Karl Marx lived in a time when workers' conditions were very poor, and John Maynard Keynes lived through the Great Depression of the 1930s. Today's economists can look back and understand why they made their judgments, and try to make better ones.
+
+Branches of economics
+The two main branches of economics are microeconomics and macroeconomics.
+
+Macroeconomics is about the economy in general. For example, macroeconomists study things that make a country's wealth go up and things that make millions of people lose their jobs. Microeconomics is about smaller and more specific things such as how families and households spend their money and how businesses operate.
+
+There are a number of other branches of economics:
+
+ Behavioral economics
+ Business economics
+ Constitutional economics
+ Cultural economics
+ Development economics
+ Ecological economics
+ Economic geography
+Economic policy Analysis
+ Environmental economics
+ Energy economics
+ Financial economics
+ Industrial economics
+ Information economics
+ International economics
+ Labor economics
+ Managerial economics
+ Mathematical economics or econometrics
+ Resource economics
+ Urban economics
+ Public economics
+ descriptive, theoretical and policy economics
+ monetary economics
+
+Famous economists
+
+Famous economists in history include:
+ Adam Smith (His works include The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments. First introduce the concept of "Invisible Hand").
+ Thomas Malthus (Author of An Essay on the Principle of Population. Establish the theory of population ).
+David Ricardo (First introduce the theory of Comparative advantage).
+ Karl Marx (His works include Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto; a famous critique of Capitalism).
+ John Maynard Keynes (Founder of the school of Keynesian economics).
+Milton Friedman (Proponent of monetarism. His works include Capitalism and Freedom ).
+
+Famous economists of the 19th and 20th century include Friedrich August von Hayek, Wassily Leontief, Carl Menger, and LĂ©on Walras.
+
+Related pages
+Political economy
+Constitutional economics
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Economics Citizendium
+A chemical element is a substance that is made up of only one type of atom. Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
+
+The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number. For example, all atoms with 6 protons are atoms of the chemical element carbon, and all atoms with 92 protons are atoms of the element uranium. The number of neutrons in the nucleus does not have to be the same in every atom of an element. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Saying that a substance "contains only one type of atom" really means that it contains only atoms that all have the same number of protons.
+
+The number of protons in the nucleus causes its electric charge. This fixes the number of electrons in its normal (un-ionized) state. The electrons in their atomic orbitals determine the element's various chemical properties.
+
+Elements are the basic building blocks for all types of substances. If a substance contains more than one type of atom, it is a compound or a mixture. The smallest particle of a compound is a molecule.
+
+118 different chemical elements are known to modern chemistry. 92 of these elements can be found in nature, and the others can only be made in laboratories. The human body is made up of 26 elements. The last natural element discovered was uranium, in 1789. The first man-made element was technetium, in 1937.
+
+Chemical elements are commonly arranged in the periodic table. Where the elements are in the table tells us about their properties relative to the other elements.
+
+Chemical symbols
+Chemical elements are given a unique chemical symbol. Chemical symbols are used all over the world. This means that, no matter which language is spoken, there is no confusion about what the symbol means. Chemical symbols of elements almost always come from their English or Latin names. For example, carbon has the chemical symbol 'C', and sodium has chemical symbol 'Na', after the Latin natrium. Tungsten is called 'W' after its German name, wolfram. 'Au' is the symbol for gold and it comes from the Latin word for gold, aurum. Another symbol which comes from Latin is 'Ag'. This is the element silver and it comes from the Latin argentum. Lead's symbol, 'Pb', comes from the Latin plumbum and the English word plumber derives from this as pipes used to be made out of lead. Some more recently discovered elements were named after famous people, like einsteinium, which was named after Albert Einstein.
+
+Compounds
+Elements can join (react) to form pure compounds (such as water, salts, oxides, and organic compounds). In many cases, these compounds have a fixed composition and their own structure and properties. The properties of the compound may be very different from the elements it is made from. Sodium is a metal that burns when put into water and chlorine is a poisonous gas. When they react together they make sodium chloride (salt) which is generally harmless in small quantities and edible.
+
+Mixtures
+Some elements mix together in any proportion to form new structures. Such new structures are not compounds. They are called mixtures or, when the elements are metals, alloys.
+
+Isotopes
+Most elements in nature consist of atoms with different numbers of neutrons. An isotope is a form of an element with a certain number of neutrons. For example, carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes: carbon-12 (6 neutrons) and carbon-13 (7 neutrons). Carbon-14 (8 neutrons) is a naturally occurring radioactive isotope of carbon. At least two isotopes of each element are known (except for Oganesson, of which only a few atoms have been made).
+
+Classification
+Elements can be classified based on physical states. At room temperature and pressure, most elements are solids, only 11 are gases and 2 are liquids.
+
+Elements can also be classified into metals and non-metals. There are many more metals than non-metals.
+
+However, a few elements have properties in between those of metals and non-metals. These elements are called semimetals (or metalloids).
+
+Related pages
+ Periodic table
+
+References
+
+
+Nuclear physics
+Egypt is a country in northeast Africa, parts of the country hang on to the Middle East. Its capital city is Cairo. Egypt is famous for its ancient monuments, such as the Pyramids and the Sphinx.
+
+History
+Ancient Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country in the world as it used to be ruled by pharaohs. As a province of the Roman Empire, it became Christian and some Coptic Church people are thereafter more than a thousand years of Muslim rule. The Fatimid Caliphate ruled Egypt in the tenth through twelfth centuries. Mamlukes ruled it until 1798 when Napoleon defeated them. Muhammad Ali Pasha soon took over and started a dynasty of Khedives under the Ottoman Empire. The Empire fell apart after World War I. Egypt became an independent country in 1922 and the khedive became a king. Egypt is a member of the United Nations and the Arab League. It became a republic after the Army's revolution of 1952.
+
+Geography
+Egypt is a large country, but a large portion of it is desert. Most people (95% of Egypt's total people) live in areas around the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and along the Nile River. This includes the cities of Cairo, Alexandria, Aswan, and Port Said. Not many people live in the desert. Today, Egypt has about 90 million people.
+
+Egypt is divided into 29 areas, called Governorates of Egypt.
+
+Politics
+Egypt is a country that has had many different rulers and many political systems. After World War II, Egypt was still ruled by a king, Farouk of Egypt (11 February 1920 â 18 March 1965). He was the last ruler of the Muhammad Ali dynasty.
+
+Farouk was overthrown on 23 July 1952 by a military coup. The coup was led by Muhammad Naguib, and Gamal Abdel Nasser. From then on, Egypt had military rulers or rulers who had the backing of the army and many citizens.
+
+Nasser became president, from 1956 to 1970. Later rulers were Anwar Sadat, and Hosni Mubarak.
+
+Abdel Fattah el-Sisi became president in 2014.
+
+Revolution of 2011
+
+In January 2011, thousands of protesters gathered in Cairo. They wanted Hosni Mubarak to leave office. He had been the President for almost 30 years. On February 11, 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman made an announcement. He said that Mubarak agreed to leave office. In 2012, Egypt had a democratic election for the post of President. The winner was the Muslim Brotherhood candidate, Mohamed Morsi.
+
+The events which followed are still controversial, but one aspect stands out. Morsi issued a declaration that in effect gave him unlimited powers. He had the power to legislate (make laws) without legal overview by the courts. This caused widespread protests. On 3 July 2013, he was unseated by a military coup council (a coup d'Ă©tat). After an election in June 2014, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi became President of Egypt. Islamist movements, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, rejected the change of regime as a military coup, and not democratic.
+
+Demographics
+
+Religion
+Today, the people of Egypt are mostly Sunni Muslims. There are many Christians in Egypt today. Many of these belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
+
+Languages
+The official language in Egypt is Arabic. The majority speak Egyptian Arabic but many speak other dialects. Some Egyptians still speak Coptic and English. They also speak French and German in Egypt. These are taught in Egypt as additional languages.
+
+Famous people
+Many famous people are from Egypt. Some of these include Omar Sharif, who was an international actor, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, who was the first person from Africa to lead the United Nations, and four Nobel Prize winners: Anwar Sadat, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978, Naguib Mahfouz, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988, Ahmed Zewail, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1999, and Mohamed ElBaradei, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. Mohamed Salah is a famous footballer who plays for Liverpool in England. A famous Egyptian singer is called Amr Diab.
+
+Governorates
+Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are divided into regions. The regions have towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital. Sometimes capital has the same name as the governorate.
+
+Culture
+Egypt is a country with an immense cultural mix. Life in the countryside differs from life in large cities. There are differences between the families which are Muslim, and the smaller number which are Coptic Christians. There are noticeable differences in the standards of education.
+
+Tourism
+
+Tourism is one of the most important national incomes in Egypt. In 2008, about 12 million tourists visited Egypt providing nearly $12 billion of national income to Egypt. Tourism affects the economy of the country as a whole.
+
+Giza Necropolis is one of Egypt's iconic sites. It is a popular destination for tourists to visit. It includes the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
+
+Transport
+There are methods of transport in Egypt. The Suez Canal carries ships of many countries.
+
+Cairo Metro is one of the most important projects in Egypt. It consists of 3 lines. Metro is the most preferable transport in Egypt due to persistent major traffic jams in the streets of Cairo. Metro line 4 is being developed to reach the New Cairo District.
+
+Egypt established EgyptAir in 1932. The airline is based in Cairo International Airport and is owned by the government.
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+
+
+Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
+1922 establishments in Africa
+North African countries
+Everything2 or E2 is a website. It lets people make pages about many different things, and some people use it as a diary.
+
+E2 users create pages called nodes and add stuff in writeups. Only logged-in users can create writeups. Only the person who created the writeup or someone who the website owners (called "gods") choose can edit the writeup. On the other hand, on Wikipedia, anyone can edit pages, but on Everything2 only those who can edit the writeup can edit pages.
+
+Everything2 does not require a neutral point of view like Wikipedia does. So, it is possible to have more than one article (writeups) under the same title (node), each by different authors, and presenting different points of view.
+
+Other websites
+ Everything2 website
+ Everything2.com article about Wikipedia
+
+Websites
+1998 establishments
+An Editor is a person who makes changes to documents.
+More specifically the word editor can mean:
+ a person who edits texts; see copy editing. A newspaper or magazine editor is a person who prepares articles for printing and sometimes chooses which articles to put in the newspaper. The main editor of a newspaper or magazine is called the "editor-in chief".
+ a Wikipedia user who makes changes (also called "edits") to pages ("articles")
+ text editor, an application program for editing an electronic text or media document
+ one who, or that which, edits photos
+ film editor, a person who edits movies
+ a human or machine for movie film or video editing
+Ecological yield is the harvestable growth of an ecosystem. It is most commonly measured in forestry - in fact sustainable forestry is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year, within a given patch of forest.
+
+However, the concept is also applicable to water, and soil, and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed - the so-called renewable resources. The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is "renewed" (refreshed or regrown or rebuilt).
+
+
+Ecology
+The experience economy is the intangible service economy that customers experience directly. In moral purchasing, Natural Capitalism and other theories of how consumers make choices, they are actually choosing experiences or comprehensive outcomes of their choices. For instance to buy local is to choose a whole experience of local suppliers, such as in a farmers market or Slow Food, that is quite different than the experience associated with factory food or fast food.
+
+Economics
+Execution is where state authorities kill someone for having committed an extremely serious crime, usually treason or especially terrible murders. In most countries where the death penalty is still provided for by law, using it is an option available to the sentencing judge: even if the jury or judicial panel recommends the death penalty, the presiding judge still has the option to lock the convicted person in a prison for the rest of their life. A person whose job is to execute others is an executioner.
+
+Beheading
+
+Beheading means cutting the person's head off. It is one of the oldest execution methods and mentioned in the Bible. Beheading used to be the standard method of execution in Scandinavia and Germany. Commoners were usually beheaded with an axe and noblemen with a sword. A special device, like the guillotine, may be used, as in France. Nazi Germany used the guillotine to execute criminal convicts, such as murderers.
+
+Many countries formerly used beheading as an execution for important people, including England. In England, many noblemen and even some kings and queens have been beheaded. There, the prisoner would be led up the scaffold and might be allowed a last speech. Then, he/she would be blindfolded and put his/her neck onto a block. Then, the executioner would lift up his axe and swing it down onto the victim's neck. If the executioner was skilled and the axe was sharp, then the axe would usually cut through the bone and organs of the victim in one stroke. But if the executioner was inexperienced, then it might take several strokes before the head was cut off.
+
+Other ways of execution
+
+Many countries do not allow executions as punishment any more, because it is too violent or immoral. However, many states of the United States and some other countries use it. In the United States, less violent ways of execution are used than in the past. Here are some ways of executing people:
+
+ Hanging: Using a rope to either break the convict's neck or to choke (or strangle) them. Widely used around the world until the 20th century. Still today in use in some countries, such as Iraq, Singapore and Japan.
+ Firing Squad: Several people shoot and kill a person. Armies around the world have long used this method, since guns and bullets are readily available. Firing squad was the lawful means of execution in Finland until 1944, when death penalty was abolished (stopped by the law). It was also used in the state of Utah in the 20th century. In most cases, not all the shooters have real bullets. After the execution, it is not possible to determine which of the people firing killed the person just executed.
+ Gas chamber: killing a person by filling the air in a room with poison gas until the person cannot breathe and dies. This method was used for executions in some U.S. states, and for mass murder by the Schutzstaffel during the Holocaust.
+
+Lethal injection: Killing a person by placing poisons into their bloodstream. This is the choice of execution in most U.S. states that allow executions.
+Electrocution: Killing a person by placing them in an electric chair and giving them a very high electric shock.
+
+Old-fashioned methods
+Crucifixion: a person (or their corpse) is fixed to a timber by nails or by impalement. The Romans used crucifixion to punish traitors, rebels and runaway slaves because the Romans considered it the most unpleasant death. Death by this method may take days. Besides ancient Greece, ancient Rome, and the Persian empires, this method was also used in feudal Japan.
+Drawing and Quartering: A violent form of execution common in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. It involved taking a person's organs out while they were still alive.
+Breaking on the wheel: the executioner breaks all the bones of a person's limbs with a heavy object. The executioner wraps the person's limbs around a wheel from a carriage, and lifts the wheel to the top of a tall pole. Slowly, the person dies.
+Crushing, also called pressing: used in the common law legal systems. A defendant who refused to plead ("stood mute") would be subjected to having heavier and heavier stones placed upon their chest until a plea was entered or the person suffocated.
+Garroting, a method of strangulation used in Spain for hundreds of years.
+
+Capital punishment
+The Flesch Reading Ease (FRES) score says how easy something is to read. J. Peter Kincaid and others made this formula for the U.S. Navy in 1975.
+
+How it works
+The FRES test works by counting the number of words, syllables, and sentences in the text. It then calculates the average number of words per sentence and the average number of syllables per word. The idea is that shorter words and shorter sentences are easier to read. The higher the score, the easier the text is to understand. The formula is:
+
+Some points of reference for the score are:
+
+The highest score possible is 121.22. It is gained if every sentence only has a one-syllable word.
+"The cat sat on the mat" scores 116. There is no lower limit to this score. Some very complicated
+sentences can have negative scores.
+
+The Flesch score is usually lower for technical documentation because the topic itself is complicated.
+Someone who uses the test regularly will develop a sense of a reasonable score for this type of writing.
+They can then aim to align with this score.
+
+The Flesch score for this subsection is 74.
+
+Tools
+Tools to calculate the Flesch Reading Ease include:
+
+ Microsoft Word's grammar check
+ Abiword (open source)
+ KWord (open source)
+ koRpus
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ CheckText.org ; A website that calculates Flesch Reading Ease
+ Rudolf Flesch, the developer of the test, provides some background information on how to write plain English .
+ readabilityofwikipedia.com: a website that calculates the score for Wikipedia
+
+Reading
+February (Feb.) is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between January and March. It has 28 days in common years, and 29 days in leap years. In Sweden in 1712 and 1732 the month had 30 days. This was to make the calendar match to the rest of the world. In 1930 and 1931, February had 30 days in the Soviet Union because the government changed all the months to be 30 days long. The name comes either from the Roman god Februus or else from "februa", the festivals of purification celebrated in Rome every fifteenth of this month.
+
+February begins on the same day of the week as March and November in common years, and August in leap years. February always ends on the same day of the week as October, and additionally, January in common years.
+
+The Month
+
+February is one of the last two months to be added to the calendar at the beginning of the year (the other is January). This is because in the original Roman calendar, the two months of winter, when not much would happen in agriculture, did not have names.
+
+February is the second month of the year, coming between January and March, and is also the shortest month, with 28 days in a common year, and 29 days in a leap year.
+
+February begins on the same day of the week as March and November in common years and on the same day of the week as August in leap years. February ends on the same day of the week as January in common years and October every year, as each other's last days are exactly 4 weeks (28 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. In a leap year, February is the only month to begin and end on the same day of the week.
+
+Every year, February starts on the same day of the week as June of the previous year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In common years, February finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August and November of the previous year.
+
+In common years immediately before other common years, February starts on the same day of the week as August of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, May of the following year. In years immediately before common years, February finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and December of the following year.
+
+February is also the only month of the calendar that, once every six years and twice every 11 years consecutively, either back into the past or forward into the future, will have four full 7-day weeks. In countries that start their week on a Monday, it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday, in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday, this was observed in 2021 and can be traced back 11 years to 2010, 11 years back to 1999, 6 years back to 1993, 11 years back to 1982, 11 years back to 1971 and 6 years back to 1965, and will be observed again in 2027 In countries that start their week on a Sunday, it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday, with the next occurrence in 2026, and previous occurrences in 2015 (11 years earlier than 2026), 2009 (6 years earlier than 2015), 1998 (11 years earlier than 2009) and 1987 (11 years earlier than 1998). This works unless the pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100.
+
+From circa 700 BC, when Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, added it to the calendar, February had 23 days and 24 days on some of every second year, until 46 BC when Julius Caesar assigned it 29 days on every fourth year and 28 days otherwise. Leap year Day, February 29, is added in every year that can be divided equally by four, such as 2012 and 2016, but this does not apply when the year ending in "00" at the turn of the century does not divide equally into 400. This means that 1600 and 2000 were leap years in the Gregorian calendar, but 1700, 1800, and 1900 were rather common years. This is where the Julian calendar calculated dates differently, as it always repeated February 29 every four years.
+
+February is a winter month in the Northern Hemisphere and a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of August in the other. In weather lore, Groundhog Day, in the United States, is set to decide what the weather will be like for the rest of the winter.
+
+February's flower is the violet and its birthstone is the amethyst. The meaning of the amethyst is sincerity. The zodiac signs for February are Aquarius (January 21 to February 19), and Pisces (February 20 to March 20).
+
+Events in February
+
+Fixed Events
+
+ February 1 - Freedom Day (United States)
+ February 1 - Imbolc (Paganism)
+ February 2 - Groundhog Day (United States)
+ February 2 - Candlemas (Western Christianity)
+ February 2 - Inventor's Day (Thailand)
+ February 2 - World Wetlands Day
+ February 2 - Constitution Day (Philippines)
+ February 3 - Heroes' Day (Mozambique)
+ February 3 - Veterans' Day (Thailand)
+ February 4 - Independence Day (Sri Lanka)
+ February 4 - Day of the Armed Struggle (Angola)
+ February 4 - World Cancer Day
+ February 5 - Constitution Day (Mexico)
+ February 5 - Runeberg's Birthday (Finland)
+ February 5 - Unity Day (Burundi)
+ February 6 - Waitangi Day (New Zealand)
+ February 6 - SĂĄmi National Day (Norway, Sweden, Finland, parts of Russia)
+ February 6 - Ronald Reagan Day (California)
+ February 7 - Independence Day (Grenada)
+ February 10 - Feast of St. Paul's Shipwreck (Malta)
+ February 10 - Fenkil Day (Eritrea)
+ February 11 - National Foundation Day (Japan)
+ February 12 - Darwin Day
+ February 12 - Abraham Lincoln's birthday (United States)
+ February 12 - Union Day (Burma)
+ February 12 - Youth Day (Venezuela)
+ February 14 - Valentine's Day
+ February 14 - Statehood Day in Arizona and Oregon
+ February 15 - Day of the Flag of Canada
+ February 16 - Independence Day (Lithuania)
+ February 17 - Celebrated as Independence Day in Kosovo
+ February 18 - Independence Day (the Gambia)
+ February 18 - International Asperger's Day
+ February 21 - International Mother Language Day
+ February 21 - Language Movement Day (Bangladesh)
+ February 21 - Biikebrennen, celebrated in Northern Schleswig-Holstein (Germany) and southern Denmark
+ February 22 - George Washington's birthday (United States)
+ February 22 - Independence Day (Saint Lucia)
+ February 23 - Republic Day (Guyana)
+ February 23 - National Day (Brunei)
+ February 23 - Defender of the Fatherland Day (Russia)
+ February 24 - Independence Day (Estonia)
+ February 24 - Flag Day (Mexico)
+ February 25 - National Day (Kuwait)
+ February 25 - People Power Day (Philippines)
+ February 25 - Soviet Occupation Day (Georgia)
+ February 26 - Liberation Day (Kuwait)
+ February 27 - National Day (Dominican Republic)
+ February 28 - Kalevala Day (Finland)
+ February 28 - National Science Day (India)
+ February 28 - Peace Memorial Day (Taiwan)
+ February 29 - Leap day
+
+Moveable and month-long Events
+
+ Chinese New Year, falls on a new moon between January 21 and February 21.
+ Lent-related observances in Western Christianity:
+ Shrove Monday - can fall between February 2 and March 8
+ Shrove Tuesday (Pancake Day) - can fall between February 3 and March 9
+ Ash Wednesday, start of Lent - can fall between February 4 and March 10
+ Carnival - most famous ones take place in Rio de Janeiro and Venice
+ Black History Month (Canada and United States)
+ Presidents' Day (United States) - Third Monday in February, celebrating the birthdays of Abraham Lincoln and George Washington.
+ Super Bowl (American football), usually on the first Sunday in February
+ Six Nations (rugby union), tournament running from early February to mid-March between England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales.
+ Winter Olympics are often held in February, last in 2010, and next in 2014.
+
+Selection of Historical Events
+
+ February 1, 1884 - The first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary is published.
+ February 1, 1953 - In the night from January 31, parts of the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom are severely flooded.
+ February 1, 2003 - Space Shuttle Columbia breaks up on re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts on board.
+ February 2, 1913 - Grand Central Terminal in New York City is opened for the first time.
+ February 3, 1931 - A magnitude 7.8 earthquake hits the cities of Napier and Hastings, New Zealand.
+ February 3, 1959 - Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and The Big Bopper die in a plane crash in Iowa on the "Day The Music Died".
+ February 4, 1948 - Ceylon, present-day Sri Lanka, becomes independent.
+ February 4, 2004 - Facebook is founded.
+ February 5, 1818 - Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte becomes King of Sweden.
+ February 5, 1909 - Leo Baekeland announces the creation of Bakelite.
+ February 6, 1788 - Massachusetts becomes a US State.
+ February 6, 1840 - The Treaty of Waitangi is signed in New Zealand, officially making it a British colony.
+ February 6, 1952 - Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom becomes Queen.
+ February 7, 1979 - Grenada becomes independent.
+ February 8, 1542 - Mary, Queen of Scots is executed.
+ February 10, 1763 - In the Treaty of Paris, France has to give Quebec to Great Britain.
+ February 10, 1863 - The fire extinguisher is patented.
+ February 11, 1979 - Islamic Revolution.
+ February 11, 1990 - In South Africa, Nelson Mandela is released from prison.
+ February 11, 2011 - Hosni Mubarak resigns as President of Egypt, after widespread protests.
+ February 11, 2013 - Pope Benedict XVI announces his resignation, effective at the end of the month.
+ February 12, 1809 - Charles Darwin and Abraham Lincoln are born on the same day.
+ February 12, 1818 - Bernardo O'Higgins signs the Independence of Chile near Concepcion.
+ February 13, 1668 - Spain recognizes Portugal as an independent country.
+ February 13, 1931 - New Delhi becomes the capital city of India.
+ February 14, 1779 - James Cook is killed by local people in the Hawaiian Islands.
+ February 15, 1965 - The Maple Leaf Flag becomes the Flag of Canada.
+ February 15, 2013 - A meteorite explodes over Chelyabinsk, western Siberia, Russia, injuring over 1,000 people.
+ February 16, 1918 - Lithuania declares independence.
+ February 16, 1959 - Fidel Castro becomes leader of Cuba.
+ February 17, 2008 - Kosovo declares independence from Serbia, which does not recognize it as an independent state.
+ February 18, 1930 - Clyde Tombaugh discovers the dwarf planet Pluto.
+ February 18, 1965 - The Gambia becomes independent.
+ February 19, 1861 - Serfdom ends in Russia.
+ February 20, 1472 - Orkney and Shetland become part of Scotland.
+ February 20, 1929 - American Samoa becomes a US territory.
+ February 21, 1613 - Mikhail I of Russia becomes Tsar, starting the Romanov Dynasty.
+ February 21, 1848 - Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish the Communist Manifesto.
+ February 21, 1958 - The peace symbol is designed.
+ February 22, 1862 - Jefferson Davis officially becomes President of the Confederate States of America.
+ February 22, 1979 - Saint Lucia becomes independent.
+ February 22, 2011 - A strong earthquake strikes the city of Christchurch, New Zealand, killing 181 people, and destroying the city's cathedral.
+ February 23, 1941 - Plutonium is first produced and isolated by Glenn T. Seaborg.
+ February 23, 1970 - Guyana becomes a republic.
+ February 24, 1918 - Estonia declares independence.
+ February 24, 2022 - Russia invades Ukraine.
+ February 25, 1921 - Soviet Russia occupies Tbilisi, Georgia.
+ February 25, 1947 - Prussia no longer exists from this date.
+ February 25, 1986 - Through the People Power Revolution, Corazon Aquino becomes President of the Philippines.
+ February 26, 1815 - Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from exile on the island of Elba.
+ February 26, 1993 - A terrorist bomb explodes in a car park under the World Trade Center, New York City.
+ February 27, 1844 - The Dominican Republic becomes independent from Haiti.
+ February 27, 2010 - The 2010 Cauquenes earthquake strikes Central Chile, causing major destruction and killing around 500 people.
+ February 28, 1922 - Egypt declares independence.
+ February 28, 1986 - Prime Minister of Sweden Olof Palme is murdered.
+ February 29, 1960 - An earthquake strikes Agadir, Morocco, killing 3,000 people.
+ February 29, 1984 - Pierre Trudeau announces his resignation as Prime Minister of Canada.
+ February 29, 2004 - Jean-Bertrand Aristide resigns as President of Haiti following a popular rebel uprising.
+
+Trivia
+
+ In February the Sun passes through zodiac constellations Capricornus and Aquarius.
+ The signs of the zodiac within the month of February are Aquarius (January 21 to February 19) and Pisces (February 20 to March 20).
+ February is the shortest month of the year.
+ In a leap year, February 29 falls on the same day of the week as October 31.
+ The birth flower of February is the violet.
+ The Amethyst and the Pearl are considered birthstones of the month of February.
+ Two of the most highly rated US Presidents were born in February - Abraham Lincoln and George Washington. Other US Presidents born in February are Ronald Reagan and William Henry Harrison, who was the shortest-serving President.
+ Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, two famous astronomers, were both born in February.
+
+02
+FAQ is an abbreviation for "Frequently Asked Question(s)". The term is used for a list of questions and answers. All of the questions are supposed to be asked often and they all are about the same thing. Since the acronym was first used in written form, there are different ways it is said; both "fak" and "F.A.Q." are commonly used.
+
+Internet slang
+A flame is the part of a fire that can be seen. Flame might also mean:
+
+ Flaming (internet) - Insult sent over the internet on purpose
+ Flame polishing
+ Flame retardant, a kind of material that resists heat and flame.
+ Flame Nebula, a star in Orion's Belt
+
+Organizations
+ Calgary Flames, Canadian ice hockey team
+ Atlanta Flames, original name of the Calgary Flames
+ Guildford Flames, English ice hockey team
+ Northumbria Flames, Northumbria University's ice hockey team
+ Westchester Flames F.C., American football (soccer) team
+ Canterbury Flames, New Zealand netball team
+ Florida Flame, American basketball team
+ Black Flame, publishing company
+
+Wilflife
+ Flame (moth), a kind of moth
+ Flame Skimmer, a kind of dragonfly
+ Flame maple, a kind of maple tree
+ Flame Robin, a kind of robin
+
+Other
+ Flame gun
+ Flame cell
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Financial capital is a form of capital. It is things that have value, but do not do anything by themselves. They are only valuable because people value (want) them. For example, money is a form of financial capital. You cannot do anything with money but it still has value.
+
+Financial capital is used to pay for things, this is because there is always more of it and people always want it. This means that financial capital has a stable value and can be traded in most places and with most people.
+
+Some forms of financial capital, such as stocks, gold or bonds are not wanted by everybody. However they can be traded with people for money or another type of financial capital. Because of this, these forms of financial capital do not have a stable price. This means that some people try to make a profit by buying and selling these types of financial capital in a market.
+
+Some things are treated as financial capital, even though they do have a use. For example, some people buy and sell land but are not interested in doing anything with it. Some people think this sort of trade is bad because the land should be used and not just treated like money. Other types of capital, such as social capital and human capital are rarely treated like financial capital. This may be because they involve people. Treating useful capital like financial capital is called comodification.
+
+In politics, a common question is how often the government should use financial capital. In particular, should the government use financial capital to make a profit? Traditionally, liberal politicians do not mind this kind of trading for profit, but socialist or conservative politicians are against it.
+
+Factors of production
+Finance
+Fecund universes is a multiverse theory of Lee Smolin. It relies on models of our universe and statistics from astrophysics but is more correctly a theory of cosmology.
+
+In this theory, collapsing stars, or black holes, are always creating new universes with slightly different laws of physics. Because these laws are only slightly different, each is assumed to be like a mutation of the original universe, as if each universe was a kind of single-celled organism. It would reproduce by "splitting" in some sense.
+
+This theory relies on many models of our universe to model these "mutated" alternative universes, the ones that Smolin supposes are generated or "spun off" by black holes.
+
+No human can ever be part of any of these "other" universes. Observations from astrophysics can only say if the black holes exist or are common, and give some idea of how much the laws of physics can vary and still let the new universes produce new black holes.
+
+Smolin predicts that there would be many black holes in the universe humans can see, since they are likely in a very late born universe, by simple probability. If there are many black holes, that is evidence for his theory,
+
+As this shows, cosmology has a very different standard of evidence and burden of proof than is required for models of our universe only, which humans (using mathematics) can observe and exchange knowledge on.
+
+It is hard to separate science from religion on such questions. It may be a simple matter of preference whether one wants to see one's universe as part of a system like biology or like mechanics - clockwork. Smolin's theory is important mostly because it challenges the mechanistic paradigm.
+
+Even if it is wrong, it raises the idea that living beings might have to see their universe as also living to be able to understand or care about it at all. Some compare Smolin's theory to Gaia philosophy which combines biology, geology and ecology to explain the Earth, our planet, as a living thing. If both are right, humans are on a living planet in a living universe. This idea is very appealing - which does not mean it is really "right".
+
+Cosmology
+Food is what people, plants and animals eat to live. Every organism needs energy to carry on with the process of living which comes from food. Food usually comes from animals and plants. It is eaten by living things to provide energy and nutrition. Food contains the nutrition that people and animals need to be healthy. The consumption of food is normally enjoyable to humans.
+
+It contains protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, water and minerals. Liquids used for energy and nutrition are often called "drinks". If someone cannot afford food they go hungry.
+
+Food for humans is mostly made through farming or gardening. It includes animal and vegetable sources. Some people refuse to eat food from animal origin, like meat, eggs, and products with milk in them. Not eating meat is called vegetarianism. Not eating or using any animal products is called veganism.
+
+Food produced by farmers or gardeners can be changed by industrial processes (the food industry). Processed food usually contains several natural ingredients and food additives (such as preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifiers, flavor enhancers). For example, bread is processed food.
+
+Food processing at home is done in the kitchen, by the cook. The cook sometimes uses a cookbook. Examples of cooking utensils are pressure cookers, pots, and frying pans.
+
+Food can also be prepared and served in restaurants or refectory (in particular for children in school).
+
+The utensils used may be a plate, knife, fork, chopsticks, spoon, bowl, or spork.
+
+Many people do not grow their own food. They have to buy food that was grown by someone else. People buy most of their food in shops or markets. But some people still grow most or all of their own food.
+
+People may buy food and take it home to cook it. They may buy food that is ready to eat from a street vendor or a restaurant.
+
+Other countries have their own way of eating food. An example of an ethnic food is Mexican food.
+
+Production of food
+Originally, people got food as hunter-gatherers. The agricultural revolution changed that. Farmers grew crops including those invented and improved by selective breeding. These improvements, for example the invention of maize, allowed feeding more people, and further improvements gave it a better taste.
+
+Food shortage has been a big problem throughout history. Many people do not have enough money to buy the food that they need. Bad weather or other problems sometimes destroy the growing food in one part of the world. When people do not have enough food, we say that they are hungry. If they do not eat enough food for a long time, they will become sick and die from starvation. In areas where many people do not have enough food, we say that there is famine there.
+
+Food and water can make people sick if it is contaminated by microorganisms, bad metals, or chemicals.
+
+If people do not eat the right foods, they can become sick.
+ If people do not eat enough protein, they get the disease called kwashiorkor.
+ If they do not eat enough vitamin B1 (thiamine), they get the disease called beriberi.
+ If they do not eat enough vitamin C, they get the disease called scurvy.
+ If children do not eat enough vitamin D, they get the disease called rickets.
+
+People may often have a variety of eating disorders that cause them to either eat too much, or not be able to eat certain things or amounts. Common diseases like Coeliac disease or food allergies cause people to experience ill effects from consuming certain foods that are normally safe. If people eat too much food, they can become overweight or obese. This causes numerous health problems. On the other hand, eating too little food, from lack of access or anorexia could cause malnutrition. Therefore, people have to balance the amount, the nutrition, and the type of food to be healthy.
+
+Food in religions
+Many cultures or religions have food taboos. That means they have rules what people should not eat, or how the food has to be prepared. Examples of religious food rules are the Kashrut of Judaism and the Halal of Islam, that say that pig meat cannot be eaten. In Hinduism, eating beef is not allowed. Some Christians are vegetarian (someone who does not eat meat) because of their religious beliefs. For example, Seventh-day Adventist Church recommends vegetarianism.
+
+In addition, sometime beliefs do not relate to the religion but belong to the culture. For example, some people pay respect to GuÄn YÄ«n mothergod and those followers will not consume "beef" as they believe that her father has a shape of the cow.
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+If someone is found guilty of a crime, their punishment may be to pay a fine, a certain amount of money. In many countries, fines can be ordered by police, court judges and some government officers.
+
+When agreeing to a contract with a business, a customer may agree to certain rules. If the customer breaks the rules, then they agree to pay a fine for doing so. For example, when somebody hires a car and agrees to return it by Friday, they agree that if they do not return the car by Friday, they must pay a $50 fine to the business.
+
+Punishments
+Money
+Frying is cooking food in hot butter or vegetable oil or other fat. We can fry food in a small amount of fat in a pan or in a lot of oil in a pot. Some restaurants use deep frying to fry a large amount of food.
+
+Cooking methods
+Fish (plural: fish or fishes) are a group of animals with bones which live in water and respire (get oxygen) from their gills. As a group, they are much older than other vertebrates. The first fish developed about 500 million years ago.
+
+Fish used to be a class of vertebrates. Now the term covers five classes of animals that live in the water:
+Jawless fish
+Armoured fish
+Cartilaginous fish
+Ray-finned fish
+Lobe-finned fish
+
+There are more fish than four-limbed animals: there are over 33,000 described species of fish. Fish are usually covered with scales. They have two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are cold-blooded (poikilotherm).
+
+There are many different kinds of fish. They live in fresh water in lakes and rivers (freshwater fish), and in salt water (marine fish) in the oceans. Some fish are less than one centimeter long. The largest fish is the whale shark, which can be almost 15 meters long and weigh 15 tons. Almost all fish live in the water. A group of fish called the lungfish have developed lungs because they live in rivers and pools which dry up in certain parts of the year. They burrow into mud and aestivate until the water returns.
+
+The English word "fish" does not fit neatly into cladistics, which is the scientific way to put living things into groups. So scientists call it a paraphyletic word. This means that the animals called "fish" in English do not fit into just one phylum. Some fish are more closely related to land animals than they are to other fish. For example, lobe-finned fish were the first animals with bones to come live on land, and all land animals are their descendants. Lobe-finned fish are more closely related to humans than to ray-finned fish.
+
+Types of fish
+"Fish" is not a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals all descended from lobe-finned fish. But the use of the term "fish" is so convenient that we go on using it.
+
+Fish are the oldest vertebrate group. The term includes a huge range of types, from the Middle Ordovician, about 490 million years ago, to the present day. These are the main groups:
+
+ Agnatha: the jawless fish. Cambrian to present day.
+ Pteraspids: the head-shields
+ Anaspids: gills opened as holes. Silurian to end-Devonian.
+ Cephalaspids: early jawless fish
+ Lampreys: living ectoparasites
+ Osteostraci: bony-armoured jawless fish.
+ Gnathostomata: the jawed fish. Includes all types commonly called fish, except the lamprey.
+ Placoderms: heavily armoured fish
+ Chondrichthyes: cartilaginous fish: sharks, rays and skates.
+ Acanthodii: extinct spiny sharks
+ Osteichthyes: bony fish.
+ Actinopterygii: the ray-finned fish.
+ Chondrostei: sturgeons and some other early types.
+ Neopterygii: first seen in the later Permian, lighter and faster-moving than previous groups.
+ Holostei: the gars and bowfins
+ Teleostei: the most successful group, Triassic to present day.
+ Sarcopterygii: the lobe-finned fish
+ Dipnoi: the lungfish; eight genera survive.
+ Coelacanths: two species survive. They were probably a sister-group to the tetrapods.
+
+Certain animals that have the word fish in their name are not really fish: crayfish are Crustacea, and jellyfish are Cnidaria. Some animals look like fish, but are not. Whales and dolphins are mammals, for example.
+
+Anatomy
+
+Bony and cartilaginous fish
+Most kinds of fish have bones. Some kinds of fish, such as sharks and rays, do not have real bones. Their skeletons are made of cartilage, and so they are known as cartilaginous fish.
+
+Fish scales
+All fish are covered with overlapping scales, and each major group of fish has its own special type of scale. Teleosts ('modern' fish) have what are called leptoid scales. These grow in concentric circles and overlap in a head to tail direction like roof tiles. Sharks and other chondrichthyes have placoid scales made of denticles, like small versions of their teeth. These also overlap in a head to tail direction, producing a tough outer layer. Shark skin is available for purchase as shagreen, a leather which as original is smooth in one direction, and rough in the other direction. It may be polished for use, but is always rough in texture and resistant to slipping.
+
+The scales are usually covered with a layer of slime which improves passage through the water, and makes the fish more slippery to a predator.
+
+There are various types of eel: most are in the Anguilliformes. Their life-style has evolved many times. Eels have scales with smooth edges or are absent.
+
+Freshwater fish
+
+41% of all fish live in freshwater. There are also some important fish which breed in rivers, and spend the rest of their life in the seas. Examples are salmon, trout, the sea lamprey, and three-spined stickleback. Some fish are born in salt water, but live most of their mature lives in fresh water: for example the eels.
+Species like these change their physiology to cope with the amount of salt in the water.
+
+Saltwater fish
+
+59% of fish live in saltwater and are known as marine fish. Some of the common marine fish are from the family Pomacentridae and sub-family Pomacentrinae. Many of the smaller, colourful marine fish are used in aquariums.
+
+Swimming
+Fish swim by exerting force against the surrounding water. There are exceptions, but this is usually done by the fish contracting muscles on either side of its body. This starts waves of flexion which travel the length of the body from nose to tail, generally getting larger as they go along.
+
+Most fishes generate thrust using lateral movements of their body & tail fin (caudal fin). However, there are also species which move mainly using their median and paired fins. The latter group profits from the gained manoeuvrability. This is needed, for example, when living in coral reefs. Such fish cannot swim as fast as fish using their bodies & caudal fins.
+
+Muscle
+Fish can swim slowly for many hours using red muscle fibres. They also make short, fast bursts using white muscle. The two types of muscle have a fundamentally different physiology. The red fibres are contined in the middle of the body along the spine and usually alongside a much greater number of white fibres.
+
+The white fibres get their energy by converting the carbohydrate glycogen to lactate (lactic acid). This is anaerobic metabolism, that is, it does not need oxygen. They are used for fast, short bursts. Once the lactic acid builds up in the muscles, they stop working, and it takes time for the lactate to be removed, and the glycogen replaced. Using their white fibres, fish can reach speeds of 10 lengths per second for short bursts.
+
+Swimming for long periods needs oxygen for the red fibres. The oxygen supply has to be constant because these fibres only operate aerobically. They are red because they have a rich blood supply, and they contain myoglobin. Myoglobin transports the oxygen to the oxidising systems. Red muscle gets its energy by oxidising fat, which weight for weight has twice as much energy as carbohydrate or protein. Using their red fibres, fish can keep up a speed of 35 lengths per second for long periods.
+
+Swimming in groups
+
+Many fish swim in groups. Schools of fish can swim together for long distances, and may be chased by predators which also swim in schools. Casual groups are called 'shoals'.
+
+Body shape
+The shape of the body of a fish is important to its swimming. This is because streamlined body shapes makes the water drag less. Here are some common fish shapes:-
+
+The picture on the right shows a shark. This shark's shape is called fusiform, and it is an ovoid shape where both ends of the fish are pointy. This is the best shape for going through water quickly. Fishes with fusiform shapes can chase prey and escape predators quickly. Many live in the open ocean and swim constantly, like marlins, swordfish, and tuna. Ichthyosaurs, porpoises, dolphins, killer whales all have similar shapes. This is an example of convergent evolution.
+
+Eel-like
+The long, ribbon-like shape of an eel's body shows another shape. This enables them to hide in cracks, springing out quickly to capture prey, then returning quickly to their hiding spot.
+
+Flatfish
+
+Flatfish live on the bottom of the ocean or lake. Most use camouflage: they change colours to match the ocean floor. During their early lives, their eyes move to the upper side of their flat body.
+
+Reef fish also have flat bodies, and their body is often highly coloured. Flat bodies can slip in and out among the corals, sponges, and rocks, avoiding predators. Angelfish, surgeonfish, and butterflyfish are examples.
+
+Fish as food
+
+Some people eat many different kinds of fish. These include carp, cod, herring, perch, sardines, sturgeon, tilapia, trout, tuna, and many others. A person who buys and sells fish for eating is called a fishmonger.
+
+The word to fish is also used for the activity of catching fishes. People catch fish with small nets from the side of the water or from small boats, or with big nets from big boats. People can also catch fish with fishing poles and fishhooks with bait. This is often called angling. Anglers also different types of fishing lures.
+
+Because people are catching too many fish for food or other uses, there are less and less fish in the sea. This is a problem known as overfishing.
+
+Fish as pets
+Selective breeding of carp made them into the domesticated koi in Japan, and goldfish in China. This breeding began over 2,000 years ago. The Chinese brought their goldfish indoors during the Song Dynasty. They kept them in large ceramic vessels. That we now do in glass fish tanks.
+
+Gallery
+
+Related pages
+ Shark
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Foot is also the name of a unit of measurement. See foot (unit).
+
+A foot (one foot, two or more feet) is a body part on the end of a leg. It is used when walking. It is also important for balance: it helps people stand straight. People also use it to kick, in both fighting and sports, football being an example.
+
+People's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five digits (the fingers and toes). Many other animals with backbones also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the heel. The bottom of the foot is called the sole.
+
+Most land vertebrates have feet, and there are many different sorts of foot. The feet of monkeys are much like the hands. The hard foot of an ungulate is a hoof. When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, it is called a paw. Many invertebrates also have feet.
+
+Many use footwear to protect themselves from weather and dirt. There are multiple kinds of footwear, for example sandals, shoes, and boots. When people do not remove footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (foot odour). Wearing footwear that is too big or small can be bad for the feet, causing blisters. People who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes.
+
+People have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear. For example, in many countries, usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home. In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home. In Japan, people do not wear shoes in homes, and floors are often made of very soft materials. In Japan it is also important to keep the floors clean. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them. Not wearing shoes can be good for the feet, especially if they are damaged.
+
+Conditions like Athlete's foot affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked. Doctors who work with people's feet are podiatrists or chiropodists''.
+
+Bones
+Half the bones in a human body are in the foot. There are 26 bones there. They are 14 phalanges (toes), 5 metatarsals (arch of the foot), and 7 tarsals (ankle bones).
+
+Basic English 850 words
+France ( or ; ), officially the French Republic (, ), is a country in Western Europe. It also includes various departments and territories of France overseas.
+
+Mainland France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is sometimes referred to as LâHexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the shape of its territory.
+
+France is a unitary semi-presidential republic. The head of state is the President, who is also a politician. The Prime Minister is secondary to the President.
+
+Metropolitan France is bordered (clockwise from the North) by Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, and Spain. The overseas departments and collectives of France share land borders with Brazil and Suriname (bordering French Guiana), and the Netherlands Antilles (bordering Saint Martin). France is linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes under the English Channel.
+
+France is the largest country in the European Union and the second largest in Europe. It has been one of the world's most powerful countries for many centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonized much of North America. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built one of the largest colonial empires of the time. This included large parts of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific Islands. France is a developed country and has a large economy.
+
+It is the most visited country in the world, with 82 million foreign visitors every year.
+
+France was one of the first members of the European Union, and has the largest land area of all members. It is also a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, NATO, and the Latin Union. It is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. France has the largest number of nuclear weapons with active warheads, and the largest number of nuclear power plants, in the European Union.
+
+France's official language is French, which is also official in 29 other countries. Some other French speaking countries include the Congo, Quebec, and Mauritius.
+
+An interesting fact is that the French King Louis XIX only enjoyed 20 minutes of royal fame after his father Charles X abdicated, leaving him to ascend the French throne in July 1830.
+
+Geography and climate
+France is in Western Europe. France shares its borders with Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, and Spain. France has two mountain ranges near its borders: the Alps in the east and the Pyrenees in the south. The climate of southern France is similar to Greece which both have Mediterranean climate. There are many rivers in France, including the Seine and the Loire. In the north and the west of France, there are low hills and river valleys.
+
+In France there are many different climates. The Atlantic has a major effect on the weather in the north and west. This means the temperature is about the same most of the year. It is in the marine west coast climate region. In the east, winters are cold and the weather is good. Summers are hot and stormy. In the south, winters are cool and wet. Summers are hot and dry. The north has a temperate climate similar to that of the United Kingdom and other Northern European countries.
+
+France has the second-largest exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the world. It covers 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,637 sq mi). Only the United States has a larger one.
+
+History
+
+Name
+The name "France" comes from the Latin word Francia ', which means "land of the Franks".
+
+Roman Gaul
+The borders of modern France are about the same as those of ancient Gaul. Celtic Gauls inhabited Ancient Gaul. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul for Rome in the 1st century BC. Eventually, the Gauls adopted Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved) and Roman culture. Christianity first appeared in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. It became firmly established by the fourth and fifth centuries.
+
+Franks
+In the 4th century AD, the Germanic tribes, principally the Franks invaded the Gauls. This is how the name Francie appeared. The modern name "France" comes from the name of the Capetian Kings of France around Paris. The Franks were the first tribe of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Christianity rather than Arianism. The French called themselves "the most Christian Kingdom of France".
+
+The Treaty of Verdun (843), divided Charlemagne's Empire into three parts. The biggest area was Western Francia. It is similar to modern France.
+
+Kingdom
+
+Middle Ages
+The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet became King of France. His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon, unified the country with many wars and dynastic inheritance.
+
+Enlightenment
+The monarchy was the most powerful during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV of France. At that time, France had the largest population in Europe. The country had a big influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the common language of diplomacy in international affairs. Much of the Enlightenment happened in France. French scientists made big scientific discoveries in the 18th century. France also conquered many overseas possessions in the Americas and Asia.
+
+Republic
+
+Napoleonic Wars
+France had a monarchy until the French Revolution in 1789. King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were executed in 1793. Thousands of other French citizens were killed. Napoleon Bonaparte took control of the Republic in 1799. He later made himself Emperor of the First Empire (1804â1814). His armies conquered most of continental Europe. The metric system was invented by French scientists during the French revolution. That time 3 estates were developed.
+
+After Napoleon's final defeat in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, another monarchy arose. Later Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte created the Second Empire in 1852. Louis-Napoléon was removed after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. The Third Republic replaced his regime.
+
+Colonialism
+The large French colonial empire in the 19th century included parts of West Africa and Southeast Asia. The culture and politics of these regions were influenced by France. Many ex-colonies officially speak the French language.
+
+World Wars
+The country actively took part in both the First and Second World Wars, with battles taking place on its soil. During the First World War, millions were killed in the trenches including over a million in the Battle of the Somme. The conditions were extremely difficult for the soldiers on the front. The last surviving veteran was Pierre Picault who died on 20 November 2008 at the age of 109.
+
+During the Second World War, Nazis occupied France. The Allies landed in Normandy on 6 June 1944 and began the Battle of Normandy. German forces lost France in just a few months.
+
+Divisions
+
+The 13 regions and 96 departments of metropolitan France include Corsica. France is divided into (administrative) regions:
+ Auvergne-RhĂŽne-Alpes
+ Bourgogne-Franche-Comté
+ Brittany (Bretagne)
+ Centre-Val de Loire
+ Corsica (Corse)
+ Grand Est
+ Hauts-de-France
+ Ăle-de-France
+ Normandy (Normandie)
+ Nouvelle-Aquitaine
+ Occitanie
+ Pays de la Loire
+ Provence-Alpes-CĂŽte d'Azur
+
+Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolitan regions. It is called collectivité territoriale.
+
+France also has five overseas regions:
+ French Guiana (in South America)
+ Guadeloupe (in the Caribbean)
+ Martinique (in the Caribbean)
+ Mayotte (in the Indian Ocean)
+ RĂ©union (in the Indian Ocean)
+These five overseas regions have the same status as the metropolitan ones. They are like the overseas American states of Alaska and Hawaii.
+
+Then France is divided into 101 departments. The departments are divided into 342 arrondissements. The arrondissements are re-divided into 4,032 cantons. The smallest subdivision is the commune (there are 36,699 communes). On 1 January 2008, INSEE counted 36,781 communes in France. 36,569 of them are in metropolitan France and 212 of them are in overseas France.
+
+Government
+The government of France is a semi-presidential system determined by the constitution of the French Fifth Republic. It provides for a separation of powers.
+
+The main ideals are expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The constitution declares the nation to be "an indivisible, secular, democratic, and social Republic". With a Prime Minister subordinate to the President, this slightly strange system was chosen by General Charles de Gaulle in 1958.
+
+Military
+
+The French armed forces has four branches:
+ The Armée de Terre (Army)
+ The Marine Nationale (Navy)
+ The Armée de l'Air (Air Force)
+ The Gendarmerie Nationale (a military force which acts as a National Rural Police)
+
+France has about 359,000 military personnel. France spends 2.6% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on defense. This is the highest in the European Union. France and the UK spend 40% of the EU defence budget. About 10% of France's defence budget is for its nuclear weapons force.
+
+Foreign relations
+
+France is a member of the United Nations. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and has veto rights. It is also a member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). It hosts the headquarters of the OECD, UNESCO and Interpol. In 1953, the United Nations asked France to choose a coat of arms to represent them internationally. The French emblem is now on their passports.
+
+France was a founding member of the European Union. In the 1960s, France wanted to exclude the United Kingdom from the organisation. It wanted to build its own economic power in continental Europe. France and Germany became closer after World War II. This was to try to become the most influential country in the EU. It limited the influence of the new Eastern European members. France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). However, under President de Gaulle, it left the joint military command. In the early 1990s, France received criticism for its underground nuclear tests in French Polynesia. France vigorously opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq. France retains strong political and economic influence in its former African colonies. For instance it has supplied economic aid and troops for peace-keeping missions in the Ivory Coast and Chad.
+
+Economy
+
+France is a member of the G8 group of leading industrialised countries. France has the eighth-largest economy in the world by Gross domestic product (GDP) (which takes into account how much it costs to live in different countries and inflation rates). France and 11 other European Union members jointly launched the euro on 1 January 1999 and started using it in 2002.
+
+France's economy has nearly 2.9 million registered companies. The government has a considerable influence over railway, electricity, aircraft, and telecommunications firms (as it owns big companies like SNCF and EDF (French electricity)). France has an important aerospace (design of aircraft and spacecraft) industry led by Airbus. It can also launch rockets from French Guiana.
+
+France has invested a lot in nuclear power. This made France the smallest producer of carbon dioxide among the seven most industrialised countries in the world. As a result, 59 nuclear power plants generate most of the electricity produced in the country (78% in 2006, up from only 8% in 1973, 24% in 1980, and 75% in 1990).
+
+France is the leading agricultural producer and exporter in Europe. France exports wheat, poultry, dairy products, beef, and pork. It is also famous for its wine industry. France received 10 billion euros in 2006 from the European Community as subsidies to its farmers.
+
+At one time, the Factory Act of 1833 limited the workday for women and children to 11 hours a day.
+
+Demographics
+On 1 January 2008, it was estimated that 63.8 million people live in France, including in the Overseas Regions of France. 61,875,000 of these live in metropolitan France, the part of the country that is within Europe.
+
+Ethnic groups
+The major ethnic groups living in France today are descended from Celtic people and Roman people. The significant minority groups living in France are:
+ Teutonic, that is Germanic peoples
+ Slavic
+ people from North Africa
+ Sub-Saharan African - people from Africa who live south of the Sahara desert
+ people from Indochina
+ people from the Basque Country of southwest Europe
+
+Culture
+
+Language
+
+French is the official language of France. It belongs to the Romance language group, which includes Italian and Spanish. Many regional dialects are also used in France. Alsatian, a German dialect, is spoken in Alsace and in parts of Lorraine in eastern France. French was the language of diplomacy and culture in Europe between the 17th and 19th century and is still widely used.
+
+Some people in France also speak Basque, Breton, Catalan, Corsican, German, Flemish, and Occitan.
+
+Religion
+
+France is a secular country and the constitution guarantees freedom of religion. The population is about 51% Roman Catholic, and 31% of people are agnostics or atheists. 5% are Muslim, 3% say they are Protestant and 1% say they are Jewish. 10% are from other religions or do not have an opinion about religion. There are also Zoroastrian, Unitarian Universalist, Jain and Wiccan communities. Religions founded in France include Raelism.
+
+According to a Poll in 2007:
+ 34% of French citizens responded that "they believe there is a God".
+ 27% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force".
+ 33% answered that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force".
+
+Literature
+
+French literature began in the Middle Ages. French was divided into several dialects at the time. Some authors spelled words differently from one other.
+
+During the 17th century, Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, MoliÚre, Blaise Pascal and René Descartes were the main authors.
+
+In the 18th and 19th centuries, French literature and poetry reached its best. The 18th century saw writings of authors, essayists and moralists as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
+As for French children's literature in those times, Charles Perrault wrote stories such as "Little Red Riding Hood", "Beauty and the Beast", "Sleeping Beauty" and "Puss in Boots".
+
+Many famous French novels were written in the 19th century by authors such as Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas and Jules Verne. They wrote popular novels like The Three Musketeers, The Count of Monte-Cristo, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, The Hunchback of Notre-Dame and Les Misérables. Other 19th century fiction writers include Emile Zola, Guy de Maupassant, Théophile Gautier and Stendhal.
+
+Famous novels were written during the 20th century by Marcel Proust, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre and Michel Houellebecq.
+
+Sports
+
+The Tour de France cycling race in July is one of the best-known sporting events. It is a three-week race of around 3,500 km that covers most of France and ends in the centre of Paris, on the Avenue des Champs-Elysées. Football is another popular sport in France. The French team won the FIFA World Cup in 1998 and 2018. They also won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1984 and 2000. France also hosts the 24 Hours of Le Mans car race. France also hosted the Rugby World Cup in 2007 and finished fourth.
+France is closely associated with the Modern Olympic Games. At the end of the 19th century, the Baron Pierre de Coubertin suggested having the Olympic Games again. France hosted the Summer Olympics twice, in 1900 and 1924, in Paris. France will host the Summer Olympics in 2024, in Paris. France also hosted the Winter Games three times: in 1924 in Chamonix, in 1968 in Grenoble, and in 1992 in Albertville.
+
+Cuisine
+
+French cuisine has influenced the style of cooking throughout Europe, and its chefs work in restaurants throughout the world.
+
+The roots of modern haute cuisine lie in chefs like La Varenne (1615â1678) and the notable chef of Napoleon, Marie-Antoine CarĂȘme (1784â1833). These chefs developed a lighter style of food compared to the food of the Middle Ages. They used fewer spices, and more herbs and creamy ingredients.
+
+Typical ingredients like roux and fish stock, and techniques such as marinading, and dishes such as ragout, were invented. CarĂȘme was an expert pĂątissier (pastry-maker), and this is still a mark of French cooking. He developed basic sauces, his 'mother sauces'; he had over a hundred sauces in his repertoire, based on the half-dozen mother sauces.
+
+French cuisine was introduced in the 20th century by Georges Auguste Escoffier (1846â1935). He was a genius at organisation. He worked out how to run large restaurants, as in a big hotel or a palace; how the staff should be organised; how the menu was prepared. He had methods for everything. Escoffier's largest contribution was the publication of Le Guide Culinaire in 1903, which established the fundamentals of French cookery. Escoffier managed the restaurants and cuisine at the Savoy Hotel and Carlton Hotel in London, the HĂŽtel Ritz Paris, and some of the greatest cruise ships.
+
+Escoffier, however, left out much of the culinary character to be found in the regions of France.
+
+Gastro-tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to make people familiar with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had great influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have become common all over the country. Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles regionally and nationally. In the north of France, people often prefer to use butter to cook. In the south, they prefer olive oil and garlic. In France, each region has its own special dish; choucroute in Alsace, quiche in Lorraine, cassoulet in the Languedoc-Roussillon, and tapenade in Provence-Alpes-CĂŽte d'Azur.
+
+In November 2010, French gastronomy was added by UNESCO to its lists of the world's 'intangible cultural heritage'.
+
+Tourism
+
+France is the number one tourist destination in the world. In 2007, 81.9 million foreign tourists visited France. Spain comes second (58.5 million in 2006) and the United States comes third (51.1 million in 2006).
+Some of the most famous attractions in Paris, are the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe. Another one is Mont Saint Michel, in Normandy.
+
+A European Disneyland is located in a suburb east of Paris. The resort opened in 1992 and is also a popular tourist destination in Europe.
+
+Related pages
+ France at the Olympics
+ France national football team
+ List of rivers of France
+
+References
+
+Notes
+
+Other websites
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+European Union member states
+Former good articles
+French-speaking countries
+G8 nations
+G7 nations
+Finland (Finnish: Suomi) is a country in Northern Europe and is a member state of the European Union. Finland is one of the Nordic countries and is also part of Fennoscandia. Finland is located between the 60th and 70th latitudes North. Its neighbours are Sweden to the west, Norway to the north, Russia to the east and Estonia to the south, beyond the sea called Gulf of Finland. Most of western and southern coast is on the shore of the Baltic Sea.
+
+The capital of Finland is Helsinki; the second largest city is Tampere. The official currency of the country is the euro (EUR); before 2002 it was the markka, the Finnish mark (FIM). The president of Finland is Sauli Niinistö. 5.5 million people live in Finland. Finnish and Swedish both are the official languages of Finland; the most spoken languages is Finnish, mother tongue of about 90% of the population. Swedish is spoken by the Swedish speaking minority of Finland, called the Finnish Swedes, who make up 5% of the total population. Finland became independent of Russia on 6 December 1917.
+
+The most important cities and towns in Finland are Helsinki, Espoo, Tampere, Vantaa, Turku, Oulu, Lahti, Kuopio, JyvÀskylÀ and Pori.
+
+Finland is a highly industrialised First World country. The most important Finnish industrial products are paper, and steel products such as machines and electronics. Nokia (the mobile company) is originally a company of Finland, named after a small town called Nokia.
+
+Finland has been top of the list of least corrupt countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index more times than any other country.
+
+People and culture
+The people of Finland are called Finns. Most Finns speak Finnish as their mother tongue. About six percent of Finns have the Swedish language as their mother tongue. They live mostly in the western part of Finland and on Ă
land (Finnish Ahvenanmaa)
+
+Finns also study mandatory English and Swedish in school. Most Finns work either in services (that is: shops, banks, offices or businesses) or in factories. Finns often like saunas and nature. Many Finnish families have summer cottages, small houses where they go to relax on their summer holidays. The most important festivals that Finnish people celebrate are Midsummer and Christmas.
+
+The most popular sports in Finland are ice hockey, skiing, track and field and association football (soccer). Finns have also won events in swimming, motor sports and gymnastics.
+
+There is a group of a few thousand SĂĄmis (also called Lapps) in the most northern part of Finland, called Lapland. Most of the Samis live in Norway and Sweden. Many Sami people farm reindeers. Originally, Samis were hunter-gatherers. In the past the Sami were nomads, but nowadays they live in regular houses.
+
+Very few people in Finland are from other countries. In 2016 about 4% of residents were born in another country.
+
+Nature and weather
+
+Most of Finland is covered by pine forest. The swan, which was considered holy long ago, is the national bird of Finland. Wood is the most important natural resource of Finland. It is estimated that up to one-third of all wood resources of the European Union are in Finland.
+
+The national animal of Finland is the brown bear. The largest animal is the elk, a type of moose, which is a member of the deer family.
+
+There are hundreds of rivers and thousands of fresh water lakes. Fishing is a popular sport. It is estimated there are almost 180,000 lakes in Finland.
+
+Many islands in the Baltic Sea belong to Finland, too. Thousands of islands are part of the Ă
land archipelago. Tourists from all over the world come to see the fells and the northern lights in Lapland.
+
+The highest mountain of Finland is Halti, which is 1328 meters high. The largest lake is Saimaa, 4,400 square kilometres. The longest river of Finland is Tornionjoki. The largest river (by watershed) is Kemijoki, 552 kilometres long.
+
+The weather in Finland varies widely by season. Summer usually lasts from May to early September, and temperatures can reach up to +30 °C. Autumns are dark and rainy. Winter snow usually begins to fall in Helsinki in early December (in Lapland it can fall as early as October) and in the winter the temperature can drop to -40 °C. Highest temperature recorded in Finland is +37,2 °C and lowest temperature is -51,5 °C. Winter usually lasts to mid-March, when the snow melts in Helsinki (in Lapland the snow usually doesn't melt until early May), and Spring lasts till late May. Spring can be erratic, and the weather can change from frost to sunshine within a matter of days. The famed Northern Lights are common in Lapland.
+
+History
+People first came to Finland 10,000 years ago. That was just after an ice age, after a glacier that covered the ground had receded.
+
+Some think the first people in Finland already spoke a language similar to the Finnish language that is spoken today. It is known that an early form of the Finnish language was spoken in Finland in the Iron Age. (The Iron Age in Finland was 2,500â800 years ago).
+
+The first residents in Finland hunted animals, as "hunter-gatherers". Some people started to farm crops about 5,200 years ago. Farming slowly became more and more popular and became the major way of life until the modern age.
+
+The ancient Finns were pagans. The most important god of the Finnish pantheon was Ukko. He was a god of sky and thunder, much like Odin, another Scandinavian god-king. These powers were common among the pagan god kings in pantheons ranging from the Finnish Ukko, to the Scandinavian/Germanic/Saxon Odin, all the way east to Zeus of the Greeks and Jupiter of the Romans.
+
+Around a thousand years ago, when most of Europe was adopting Christianity, Finland also began following Christianity. During the Reformation of Christianity in the 16th century, most Finns became Protestants. Some pagan practices still remain amongst the now Christian Finns, such as bear worship.
+
+From the Middle Ages Finland was a part of Sweden. Then, in the year 1809, Russia took Finland from Sweden. Finland was a part of Russia, but after a short period of time it became autonomous. The Finns essentially controlled Finland, though the Tsar was in control officially. Finns could create their own laws and had their own currency, (called the markka), their own stamps and own customs. However, Finland did not have its own army.
+
+During the 1905 Russian Revolution, in the Grand Duchy of Finland:
+the Social Democrats organised the general strike of 1905 (). The Red Guards were formed. On , Russian artillerymen and military engineers rose to rebellion in the fortress of Sveaborg (later called Suomenlinna), Helsinki. The Finnish Red Guards supported the Sveaborg Rebellion with a general strike, but the mutiny was quelled by loyal troops and ships of the Baltic Fleet within 60 hours.
+
+After independence
+On 6 December 1917, Finland became independent, which meant that it no longer was a part of Russia. There was a communist revolution in Russia and after 1922 Russia was a part of the Soviet Union. There were communists in Finland too, who tried to create a revolution in Finland
+This attempt at revolution caused the Finnish civil war. The communists lost the civil war, and Finland did not change its old capitalist system
+
+Stalin, who was the leader of the Soviet Union, did not like having a capitalist country as its neighbour. Stalin wanted Finland to become a communist state and be a part of the Soviet Union. The leaders of Finland refused: they wanted to stay independent. The Soviet Union sent many troops across the eastern border of Finland to try to make Finland join them, which resulted in the Winter War. The Soviet Union eventually won, and took most of Karelia and other parts of Finland.
+
+Adolf Hitler was the dictator of Germany, and he wanted to invade the Soviet Union. Finland wanted to retrieve the areas that it had lost, so they joined the German invasion, which started with Operation Barbarossa in 1941. The Finnish part of the Second World War is called the Continuation War in Finland. However, Finland was not a fascist or an antisemitic country. Finns were interested in freedom rather than dictatorship.
+
+While Germany was losing the war, Finland had already progressed into the Soviet Union in order to regain the areas lost in the previous peace. Finland wanted to end the war with the Soviet Union, which resulted in peace. Once again Finland had to give up the areas they had conquered. This time, the peace with the Soviet Union made Finland and Germany enemies. Finns fought the Germans, and Germans retreated to Norway, burning down all of Lapland behind them. This is called the Lapland War. Finland remained independent.
+
+After the war, many factories were built in Finland. Many people moved from farms to cities. At that time, big factories manufactured products like paper and steel. More and more people worked in more advanced jobs, like high technology. Also, many people went to universities to get a good education. Finland was one of the first countries where most people had Internet connections and mobile phones. A well-known company that makes mobile phones, Nokia, is from Finland.
+
+Finland joined the European Union in 1995. The Finnish currency was changed to the euro in 2002.
+
+Finland joined NATO in 2023, after the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
+
+Economy
+Finland has a mixed economy. Free market controls most of production and sales of goods, but public sector is involved in services. In 2013, taxes were 44% of gross national product. This is 4th largest in Europe, after Denmark, France and Belgium.
+
+In 2014 services were 70% of the gross national product.
+
+The largest company in 2014 was oil refinery Neste Oil. The second largest was Nokia. Two forest industries Stora Enso and UPM-Kymmene, were numbers three and four. Number five was Kesko which sells everyday goods in K-supermarkets.
+
+Elections
+Elections are organized to select 200 members to the Parliament of Finland. Also selected are the president of Finland, members of town and city councils and Finnish members to the European Parliament. The elections are secret and direct. People vote directly for the person they want to be elected. In presidential elections votes are only cast for a person, not for a political party. All the other elections are proportional. The system is a combination of voting for individuals and parties. The right to vote is universal and equal. In general elections everybody has one vote.
+
+Famous Finnish people
+
+ Alvar Aalto, architect
+ Markku Alen, 1978 World Rally Champion
+ Valtteri Bottas, current Formula One driver
+ The Dudesons, also known as Duudsonit, a four-man stunt group with several TV shows and a movie. Close friends with the Jackass crew
+ Akseli Gallen-Kallela, artist
+ Marcus Gronholm, 2000/02 World Rally Champion
+ Mika HĂ€kkinen, 1998 and 1999 Formula One World Champion
+ Tarja Halonen, former President of Finland
+ Tuomas Holopainen, founder of the internationally famous band Nightwish
+ Sami HyypiÀ, football coach; 2005 UEFA Champions League winner
+ Juha Kankkunen, 1986/87/91/93 World Rally Champion
+ Urho Kekkonen, former President of Finland during the cold war
+ Jari Kurri, 5 time Stanley Cup Winner, NHL Hall Of Famer
+ Eino Leino, poet
+ Elias Lönnrot, compiler of National epic Kalevala
+ Jari Litmanen, footballer; 1995 UEFA Champions League winner
+ Tommi Makinen, 1996-99 World Rally Champion
+ Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, a president and military commander
+ Karita Mattila, world famous opera singer, winner of the first Cardiff singer of the world competition
+ Hannu Mikkola, 1983 World Rally Champion
+ Paavo Nurmi, famous Olympic long-distance runner
+ Kimi RÀikkönen, 2007 Formula One World Champion
+ Keke Rosberg, 1982 Formula One World Champion
+ Timo Salonen, 1985 World Rally Champion
+ Timo Sarpaneva, famous designer mainly in glass
+ Teemu Selanne, 2007 Stanley Cup Winner
+ Jean Sibelius, the most important Finnish composer
+ Lauri Törni, later known as Larry Thorne, a winner of the Mannerheim Cross during the Continuation War
+ Linus Torvalds, the creator of Linux
+ Tarja Turunen, former member of the internationally famous band Nightwish
+ Ville Valo, Lead Singer songwriter of HIM
+ Ari Vatanen, 1981 World Rally Champion
+ Tapio Wirkkala, designer and artist
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+ History
+ Finland Travel Community - Discussion Forum (English)
+ Finland -Citizendium
+
+
+European Union member states
+Nordic countries
+Members of NATO
+1917 establishments in Europe
+In botany, a fruit is a plant structure that contains the plant's seeds.
+
+To a botanist, the word fruit is used only if it comes from the part of the flower which was an ovary. It is an extra layer round the seeds, which may or may not be fleshy. However, even in the field of botany, there is no general agreement on how fruits should be classified. Many do have extra layers from other parts of the flower.
+
+In general speech, and especially in cooking, fruits are a sweet product, and many botanical fruits are known as vegetables. This is how ordinary people use the words. On this page, we describe what botanists call a fruit.
+
+The fleshy part of a fruit is called the mesocarp. It is between the fruit's skin (exocarp) and the seeds. The white part of an apple, for example, is the "fleshy" part of the apple. Usually, when we eat a fruit, we eat the "fleshy" part.
+
+Types of fruits
+
+Berry
+If the entire fruit is fleshy, except for maybe a thin skin, the fruit is called a berry. A berry might contain one seed or many. Grapes, avocados, and blueberries are berries. They all have a thin skin, but most of the fruit is fleshy. Don't get confused by the name of fruits like strawberries, because actually they are not berries. The seeds are on the outside: on a real berry, the seed or seeds are inside the fruit.
+
+Pepo
+A pepo (pronounced pee' po) is a modified berry. Its skin is hard and thick and is usually called a "rind". Pumpkins and watermelons, for instance, are pepos.
+
+Hesperidium
+A hesperidium is another modified berry. It has a leathery skin that is not as hard as the skin of a pepo. All citrus fruit like oranges and lemon are hesperidiums.
+
+Pome
+
+A pome (pohm) is a fruit that has a core surrounded by fleshy tissue that one can eat. The core is usually not eaten. Berries are different - the seeds are inside the fleshy part, not separated from it by a core. apples and pears are pomes.
+
+Drupe
+
+Drupes are also called stone fruit. A drupe is a fleshy fruit with a hard stone around the seed. We usually call this 'stone' the 'pit' of the fruit. Peaches and olives are drupes. Actually, the almond fruit is a drupe, too, though we eat the seed that is inside the 'pit' of the almond fruit.
+
+Botanical fruits
+Since fruits are produced from fertilised ovaries in flowers, only flowering plants produce fruits. Fruits are an evolutionary 'invention' which help seeds get dispersed by animals.
+
+The botanical term includes many that are not 'fruits' in the common sense of the term. such as the vegetables squash, pumpkins, cucumbers, tomato, peas, beans, corn, eggplant, and bell pepper and some spices, such as allspice and chili
+
+.
+
+Accessory fruits
+
+An accessory fruit or false fruit (pseudocarp) is a fruit in which some of the flesh is derived not from the ovary but from some adjacent tissue.
+
+A fig is a type of accessory fruit called a syconium. Pomes, such as apples and pears, are also accessory fruits: the core is the true fruit.
+
+Non-botanical fruits
+Strictly speaking, these are not botanical fruits:
+ any produced by non-flowering plants, like juniper berries, which are the seed-containing female cones of conifers.
+ fleshy fruit-like growths that develop from other plant tissues (like rhubarb).
+
+Area of agreement
+These are fruits which you can buy in shops, and which are also acceptable as botanical fruits:
+ berry fruits: redcurrant, gooseberry, cranberry, blueberry Also, but not commonly known as berry fruits, are tomato, avocado, banana.
+ false berries: raspberry, strawberry, blackberry: they are aggregate fruits (see below). The yew berry is not a fruit at all because the yew is a conifer.
+ stone fruits or drupes: plum, cherry, peach, apricot, olive.
+ citrus fruits, like oranges, grapefruits, and tangerines.
+ aggregate fruits: raspberries, blackberries.
+ multiple fruits: pineapples, figs.
+
+Many fruits come from trees or bushes. For plants, fruits are a means of dispersal, usually by animals. When the fruit is eaten, the seed(s) are not digested, and get excreted. Where fruits have big stones, just the soft parts are eaten.
+
+Most fruits we eat contain a lot of water and natural sugars, and many are high in Vitamin C. They have a large amount of dietary fibre. Fruits are usually low in protein and fat content, but avocados and some nuts are exceptions to this. Not only humans, but our closest living relatives (primates) are keen fruit-eaters. So are many other groups of herbivorous mammals and many birds.
+
+Seedless fruits
+Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial bananas, pineapple, and watermelons are examples of seedless fruits. Some citrus fruits, especially oranges, satsumas, mandarin oranges, and grapefruit are valued for their seedlessness.
+
+Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant which is produced by fertilisation. The method requires normal pollination and fertilisation.
+
+Related pages
+ List of fruit
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+
+Plant anatomy
+A farm is a piece of land used to grow crops and/or raise animals.
+
+People who grow these plants or raise these animals are called farmers. This work is called farming.
+
+Land that is used to grow plants is called farmland. Land that is used to feed animals with its grass is called pasture. Land that can be used to grow plants for food is called arable land.
+
+Many farms are very large and can cause damage. In some places farms are many and small, and can also cause damage. Farms provides most of the food for people. Some people farm to eat the food they produce (subsistence agriculture). Other farms, including large ones, sell their products to markets far away in urban areas (commercial or industrial farming). Most subsistence farms are in poorer countries, while industrial farms are in richer countries.
+
+Kinds of farms
+
+ A farm that produces fruits or nuts is called an orchard.
+ A farm that produces grapes is called a vineyard.
+ A farm that raises and trains horses is called a stable.
+ A farm that produces milk and dairy products is called a dairy farm.
+ If the animals are raised for meat it is a ranch.
+ A large farm that produces non-essential crops like tobacco, coffee, cotton or sugarcane is called a plantation.
+
+Related pages
+ Farming
+ Ranch
+
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Geography (from Greek: , geographia, literally "earth description") is the study of earth and its people. Its features are things like continents, seas, rivers and mountains. Its inhabitants are all the people and animals that live on it. Its phenomena are the things that happen like tides, winds, and earthquakes.
+
+A person who is an expert in geography is a geographer. A geographer tries to understand the world and the things that are in it, how they started and how they have changed.
+
+Geography is divided into two main parts called physical geography and human geography. Physical geography studies the natural environment and human geography studies the human environment. The human environmental studies would include things such as the population in a country, how a country's economy is doing, and more. There is also environmental geography.
+
+Maps are a main tool of geography, so geographers spend much time making and studying them. Making maps is called cartography, and people who specialize in making maps are cartographers.
+
+Branches
+
+Physical geography
+
+Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere).
+
+Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:
+
+{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"
+| || || ||
+|-
+| Biogeography || Climatology & Meteorology || Coastal geography || Environmental management
+|-
+| || || ||
+|-
+| Geodesy || Geomorphology || Glaciology || Hydrology & Hydrography
+|-
+| || || ||
+|-
+| Landscape ecology || Oceanography || Pedology || Palaeogeography
+|-
+|
+|-
+| Quaternary science
+|}
+
+Human geography
+
+Human geography is the social science that covers the study of people and their communities, cultures, economies and their interaction with the environment. Geographers studying the human environment may look at:
+ Population
+ Countries of the world
+ Land use
+ Agriculture
+ City
+ Industry
+ Energy
+ Pollution
+
+History
+The oldest known world map dates back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC. The best known Babylonian world map is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC. Star charts (maps of the sky) are of similar age.
+
+During the Middle Ages, people in Europe made fewer maps. People in the eastern countries made more. Abƫ Zayd al-Balkhī created the "Balkhī school" of mapping in Baghdad.
+
+Western Europe became known as the leader of geographic thought during the European Renaissance and The Age of Exploration (1400â1600). The printing press made maps and information about the world available to everyone.
+
+This caused more interest in how the world worked.
+
+In the 1700s and 1800s scientists started to study the relationship between the environment and its people
+
+Related pages
+ Geographer
+ Geographical renaming
+ Geopolitics
+ International Geographical Union
+ Landform
+ Map
+ Navigator
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+ Geography Trainer 1.3 - Educational game aimed at school children
+ www.geoknow.net - Geography resources at your fingertips!
+ PopulationData.net
+ PopulationMondiale.com
+ Using Literature To Teach Geography in High Schools. ERIC Digest.
+ Teaching Geography at School and Home. ERIC Digest.
+ The National Geography Content Standards. ERIC Digest.
+Grammar is the study of words, how they are used in sentences, and how they change in different situations. The Ancient Greeks used to call it grammatikÄ tĂ©khnÄ, the craft of letters. It can have any of these meanings:
+ The study of a language: how it works, and everything about it. This is background research on language.
+ The study of sentence structure. Rules and examples show how the language should be used. This is a correct usage grammar, as in a textbook or manual/guide.
+ The system which people learn as they grow up. This is the native-speaker's grammar.
+
+When we speak, we use the native person's grammar, or as near as we can. When we write, we try to write with correct grammar. So, speaking and writing a language each have their own style.
+
+Different languages
+All languages have their own grammar. Most European languages are rather similar.
+
+English makes few changes to its word endings ('suffixes'). In the Italic or 'Romance' languages (such as French, Italian, and Spanish), word endings carry a lot of meaning. In English we have just a few: plurals and possessives (John's) are the most common. In our verbs we have dropped most endings except one: I love, you love, but she loves. That final 's' comes from the Anglo-Saxon, which had more suffixes. Verbs do have endings which show changes in tense: walked, walking.
+
+Word order is the other big difference. Romance languages normally put adjectives after the nouns to which they refer. For example, in English, a person may say I like fast cars, but in Spanish, it is Me gustan los coches rĂĄpidos. The order of the words has changed: if just the words, without the grammar, are translated into English, it would mean 'to me they please the cars fast'. This is because Spanish and English have different rules about word order. In German, verbs often come near the end of sentences (as: Die Katze hat die Nahrung gegessen), whereas in English we usually put them between subject and object, as: the cat has eaten the food.
+
+Changing language
+Written grammar changes slowly but spoken grammar is more fluid. Sentences which English speakers find normal today, might have seemed strange 100 years ago. And they might not, because many of our favourite sayings come from the Authorized King James Version of the Bible, and from Shakespeare.
+
+Different people speak with grammar that differs from that of other people. For example, people who use the dialects called General American English and BBC English might say, I didn't do anything, while someone who speaks what is called African American Vernacular English or AAVE might say, I didn't do nothing. London working class version: I ain't done nuffink! These are called double negatives, and are found almost entirely in spoken English, and seldom written.
+
+These differences are called dialects. The dialect a person uses is usually decided by where they live. Even though the dialects of English use different words or word order, they still have grammar rules. However, when writing in American English, grammar uses the rules of General American English. When people talk about using 'proper English', they usually mean using the grammar of general British English, as described in standard reference works. The models for spoken English in Britain are often called Received Pronunciation or BBC English.
+
+Parts of speech
+Grammar studies nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, sentences, phrases, clauses, interjections.
+
+Nouns
+Nouns are 'thing' words like 'table and 'chair'. They are objects, things you see in everyday life. Proper nouns are names of specific places, people, or other things like days of the week. The name 'James' is a proper noun, as is 'Wednesday' and 'London'. Nouns can also be abstract things, such as 'suffering' or 'happiness'.
+
+Verbs
+Verbs are words that describe actions: "Ryan threw the ball". State: "I am worried". The basic verb form is called the infinitive. The infinitive for existence is "to be". A famous example is the speech of Hamlet: To be or not to be, that is the question.
+
+Variations of the infinitive create verb tenses.
+
+ Past tense = was
+
+Present tense = is
+
+Future tense = will/shall
+
+Adjectives
+Adjectives describe nouns. For example, the pretty in "pretty bicycle" says that the bicycle is pretty. In other words, the "pretty" is describing the bicycle. This can also happen with a place. For example, the tall in "that's a tall building" is describing the building.
+
+Syntax
+Grammar studies syntax which is how the "parts of speech" fit together according to rules and create sentences. Sentences fit together and create paragraphs.
+
+References
+The Great Lakes are five large lakes in east-central North America. They hold 21% of the world's surface fresh water.
+
+The five lakes are: Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario.
+
+Geography
+
+Four of the Great Lakes are on the border between Canada and the United States of America. The other, Lake Michigan, is completely inside the United States.
+
+All together, by volume, they are the largest group of fresh water lakes in the world. No one of the Lakes is larger than Lake Baikal (Russia) or Lake Tanganyika (East Africa).
+
+The cities of Chicago, Illinois (9.8 million people, on Lake Michigan), Toronto, Ontario (5.5 million, on Lake Ontario); Detroit, Michigan (5.3 million, on the Detroit river); Montreal, Quebec (3.9 million, on the St. Lawrence River), Cleveland, Ohio (2.9 million, on Lake Erie), Buffalo, and Ottawa (1.2 million, Ontario, on the Ottawa River) are on the shores of the Great Lakes or their rivers.
+
+Though the five lakes have separate basins, they form a single, connected body of freshwater. The lakes connect the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. Lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie are approximately equally high and ships can easily pass from one to the next. Water flows from Lake Superior and Lake Michigan into Lake Huron; then through the Detroit River into Lake Erie; then through Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario; and then through the Saint Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean. Water also drains from the Chicago River on the south.
+
+Many rivers flow through a large watershed into the lakes. The lakes have about 35,000 islands. The Great Lakes region includes the five lakes and many thousands of smaller lakes, often called inland lakes.
+
+Lake Michigan and Lake Huron hit all-time record low levels in 2013.
+
+The unusual shape of the Great Lakes has created the possibility of large waves called seiche. If a storm causes a fast, strong increase in air pressure on one side of a lake, the water level on that side of the lake will drop and suddenly push up the water level on the opposite side of the lake. A 10 foot tall wave in Chicago caused several deaths in 1954.
+
+Ecological threats
+The Great Lakes are home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. In recent years, overfishing caused a decline in lake trout. The drop in lake trout increased the alewife population. In response, the government introduced salmon as a predator to decrease the alewife population. This program was so successful that the salmon population rose rapidly, and the states surrounding Lake Michigan promoted 'salmon snagging'. This has been made illegal in all of the Great Lakes states except for a limited season in Illinois. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species such as lampreys, round goby, and zebra mussels threaten the native fish populations.
+
+Invasive species
+Accidentally introduced species are a big problem. Since the 19th century about 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem, causing severe economic and ecological impacts. According to the Inland Seas Education Association, they deprive fish of food, cause blooms of toxic algae, and foul boats, spawning areas and drinking water intakes. On average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.
+
+Two important infestations in the Great Lakes are the zebra mussel, first discovered in 1988, and the quagga mussel in 1989. These molluscs are efficient filter feeders. They compete with native mussels, and also reduce available food and spawning grounds for fish.
+
+Also, the mussels hurt utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5 billion over the next decade. Because the quagga mussel is good at filtering plankton from the lake water, sunlight reaches deeper into the lake. This increases the growth of algae.
+
+Pollution
+Chemicals from industrial plants run off the land into rivers and arrive in the lakes. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic, such as mercury. Contaminated water from sewer overflows also reaches the lakes, and beaches get closed because of the threat of pathogenic bacteria.
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+
+Lakes of Canada
+Geography of Ontario
+Lakes of the United States
+The GNU Free Documentation License (GNU FDL or simply GFDL) is a copyleft license for open content such as software. It was made by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) for the GNU project. It was initially created for use with software documentation, but can be applied to other types of works as well, such as Wikipedia.
+
+As a copyright license, the GFDL is a type of contract between the creator of a copyrightable work (such as a book, an encyclopedia article, a painting, or a piece of music) and anyone else who might want to use it. The GFDL is considered "copyleft" because the license is meant to make it easier to use and re-use the copyrighted work, not to restrict its use.
+
+If a copyrightable work is released under the GFDL, the creator of the work is saying that anyone else may reproduce, distribute, or modify the work, as long as they follow a set of requirements specified in the GFDL. Among the requirements of the GFDL are that any new work created from the original work is also licensed under the GFDLâthat is, once something is licensed as GFDL, it will always stay licensed as GFDL, and anything which uses it also is licensed as GFDL.
+
+The GFDL also says that in order to distribute or modify a work licensed with the GFDL, the re-user must give credit to any previous authors of the work, and include a list of changes they made to the work.
+
+Finally, any work licensed with the GFDL must contain, somewhere, the entire text of the license. This provision has been criticized, because it is not always easy to include an entire, long license with a copyrighted work. In a book, for example, it is easy to include one extra page with the license, but if the work is something like a song, or a photograph, it is not easy.
+
+The GFDL has other requirements that are more complicated. For example, if part of the work is labeled as an "invariant section," it cannot ever be removed or changed by someone using the work ("invariant" means "does not change").
+
+Works licensed under the GFDL may be included in with non-GFDL-licensed works only if it is clear which parts of the work are licensed as the GFDL. For example, in a book of poetry it would be easy to label some poems as licensed under the GFDL and some not licensed under it. But it would not be easy to label if part of a song was licensed as GFDL and the rest was not, so this would not be allowed.
+
+Any use of GFDL material which violates the terms of the GFDL is potentially copyright infringement. Infringement issues are managed through a community based approach with the approval and assistance of the Free Software Foundation.
+
+A number of online projects use the GFDL. An online project to license its content under the GFDL is Wikipedia.
+
+The GFDL has been criticized by many people who wish that it made it even easier for content to be re-used. Among the criticisms are that it is very hard to combine GFDL material with other copyleft licenses, that it is not always clear and easy to understand, and that some of its requirements, such as the "invariant sections", are not free at all.
+
+History
+The GFDL was released in draft form for feedback in September 1999. After revisions, version 1.1 was issued in March 2000, version 1.2 in November 2002, and version 1.3 in November 2008. The current state of the license is version 1.3.
+
+Conditions
+Material licensed under the current version of the license can be used for any purpose, as long as the use meets certain conditions.
+
+All previous authors of the work must be credited.
+All changes to the work must be logged.
+All derivative works must be licensed under the same license.
+The full text of the license, unmodified invariant sections as defined by the author if any, and any other added warranty disclaimers (such as a general disclaimer alerting readers that the document may not be accurate for example) and copyright notices from previous versions must be maintained.
+Technical measures such as DRM may not be used to control or obstruct distribution or editing of the document.
+
+Related pages
+
+ BSD license
+ Copyleft
+ Copyright
+ Free software license
+ GNU
+ Non-commercial educational
+ Open content
+ Simple English "translation" of the GFDL text
+ Share-alike
+ Software licensing
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ FSF guide to the new drafts of documentation licenses
+ GFDL official text
+ Free Software and Free Manuals, essay by Richard Stallman
+ Apple's Common Documentation License , an alternative license
+Software licences
+Glass is a hard material that can be made in many shapes. It is usually transparent, but it can also be made in colours. Glass is mainly made of silica; glass made of silica only is called silica glass. It originated in India.
+
+Glass used to make windows and bottles is a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of about 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives.
+
+By changing the proportions, and adding different ingredients, many kinds of glass can be made. Coloured glass is made by adding small amounts of metal oxides. For example, a blue colour is given by tiny amounts of cobalt oxide.
+
+Crystal glass is made by adding lead and zinc oxides. It is not actually a crystal because all glass is a non-crystalline solid. Crystal glass is called cut glass if it has been cut by hand:
+" 'Cut glass' is glass that has been decorated entirely by hand by use of rotating wheels. Cuts are made in an otherwise completely smooth surface of the glass by workers holding and moving the piece against various sized metal or stone wheels".
+
+Because glass is used to make lenses, the word "glasses" often means eyeglasses.
+
+The myth that glass is actually a liquid comes from the fact that old windows in houses and churches (200â300 years old) are sometimes a little out of shape: thicker at the bottom than the top. This is actually due to the process of glass making in the past which led to the glass pane being thicker at one edge than the other. It was sensible to install the windows with the thick edge at the bottom. Sometimes a window can be found with the thick edge at the top of the window.
+
+Glass can be recycled over and over. Glass bottles and jars can easily be recycled to make new glass bottles and jars or used in industry as aggregate (building material) or sand.
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Corning Museum of Glass
+ A comprehensive guide to art glass and crystal around the world
+ Working Description Furnace & Moleria - Murano Glass
+ Informative website about the glass industry
+ Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass
+ Almost 400 articles and images about glass (mostly art glass)
+
+
+Basic English 850 words
+God is a being or spirit worshipped as a deity. He is considered to be the creator of the universe in some religions. Theists believe that God created everything that exists and has ever existed. Some theists think God is immortal (cannot die) and has power without limits. Deism is the belief that God exists, but God does not very often change or never changes things in the universe. Pantheism is the belief that the universe is God, while atheism is the belief that there are no deities. Agnostics think we cannot know for sure whether God or gods exist, but still might (or might not) believe at least one deity exists. People who believe that the word "God" should be defined before taking a theological position are ignostic.
+
+In some religions, there is only one deity, God. This is called monotheism. Some monotheistic religions are the Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), the BahĂĄ'Ă Faith, and Sikhism. In other religions there are many gods. This is polytheism. Some polytheistic religions are Hinduism, Shinto, Taoism, paganism, Wicca and some variants of Buddhism. Some say that there is one God who can come in many forms, or that there is one God that is more powerful than the other gods.
+
+In philosophy and theology, people normally write about a God that has a personality but no body and is everywhere at once; that God made the world and time and is separate from the world; that no-one made God; that God knows everything and has all power; that God is both free and good; and that God is perfect and the start of all morality.
+
+There are different names for God in different religions. Some examples are Yahweh, Elohim in Judaism and Christianity, Allah in Islam, Baha in BahĂĄ'Ă Faith, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.
+
+In English, people write the words "god" and "gods" are in lowercase letters. People that believe in only on god (monotheists) like to write God with a capital letter. Some people that believe in more than one god (polytheists) also like to use capital letters when writing about their gods. Most people that believe in God or gods do not believe in the gods of other religions.
+
+Does God exist?
+Many people have asked themselves if God exists. Philosophers, theologians, and others have tried to prove that it exists. Others have tried to disprove the hypothesis. In philosophical terminology, such arguments are about the epistemology of the ontology of God. The debate exists mainly in philosophy, because science does not address whether or not supernatural things exist.
+
+There are many philosophical issues with the existence of God. Some definitions of God are not specific. Arguments for the existence of God typically include metaphysical, empirical, inductive, and subjective types. Some theories try to explain order and complexity in the world without evolution or scientific method. Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive arguments. Conclusions sometimes include: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost certainly does not exist" (de facto atheism); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism); "God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (deism or theism); and "God exists and this can be proven" (theism). There are many variations on these positions, and sometimes different names for some of them. For example, the position "God exists and this can be proven" is sometimes called "gnostic theism" or "strong theism".
+
+Believing in God
+
+By the year 2000, approximately 53% of the world's population were part of one of the three main Abrahamic religions (33% Christian, 20% Islam, less than 1% Judaism), 6% with Buddhism, 13% with Hinduism, 6% with traditional Chinese religion, 7% with various other religions, and less than 15% as non-religious. Most of these religious beliefs involve God or gods. Some religions do not believe in a god or do not include the concept of gods.
+
+God in the Abrahamic religions
+Abrahamic religions are very popular monotheistic ones. Well-known Abrahamic religions include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Monotheistic means the people in these religions believe there is only one God. The name of God is usually not allowed to be said in Judaism, but some Jews today call him YHWH (Yahweh) or Jehovah. Muslims say the word Allah, which is the Arabic word for "God".
+
+Believers in the Abrahamic religions (except Islamic believers) believe that God has created human beings in his image, but this idea is not easily understood by humankind. One artistic idea is that of an wise elder man in use since the Renaissance.
+
+God in Christianity
+
+The Christian Bible talks about God in different ways. Within Christian canon the Old Testament talks about "God the Father", whilst the Gospels in the New Testament are about Jesus, or "God the Son". Many Christians believe that Jesus was God's incarnation on Earth. Christians consider the Holy Spirit to be God as well, the third person of God.
+
+In the New Testament, there are three beings who are said to be God in different forms: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (also known as the Holy Ghost). This is called the Trinity. Although the word "Trinity" is not in the Bible, the word used for God in chapter one of Genesis is actually plural, and the phrase "in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit' is used in the New Testament, (e.g. Matthew 28:19). Another word that Christians believe has exactly the same meaning as "Trinity" is the word "Godhead", which is in the Bible.
+
+Christians believe that God incarnated in a human body, through the normal birth process, normally growing up into a man named Jesus or (Yeshua), coming to Earth specifically to give every person an opportunity of salvation from their own evil, called sin. The effect of personal evil far transcends the repercussions humans cause to one another in the world, but affects one's relationship with God the Father, and that aspect of the self cannot be addressed through one's own self-improvement efforts, but requires God to intervene in order to set one right. When Jesus prayed and talked to God, he called him "Father," and taught others to do the same.
+
+Jesus also taught that one must be born again in order to receive God's Spirit, otherwise one remains separated from God, acting merely from their own mind, thus being vulnerable to deception by human philosophies or the many spiritual philosophies which do not come from God but from fallen angels, which are within various false religions. After a person consciously accepts the free gift of eternal life, which Jesus's sacrifice offers, God comes to live in the individual, as God lived in humankind before the Fall.
+
+God in Eastern religions
+In Hinduism, there is only one God, named Brahman, but Brahman is said to have taken on many different incarnations. Some of these are Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Shiva, Kali, Parvati, and Durga. To many outsiders, the worship of God's different incarnations is considered to be the worship of many gods. However, it is really only the worship of one God in different ways.
+
+Some Hindus also believe that the spirit of God lives in everyone. This idea is called Advaita Vedanta, which is the Hindu term for Monism.
+
+Religions like Buddhism and Confucianism involve the worship of many gods, or sometimes no gods at all.
+
+In Shinto, there is not a single specific God, as is in most religions, but instead, a wide variety of deities called kami, they are the spirit and essence of all nature things, both animate and inanimate, even including rocks, trees and poetry, for example. As Shinto is a polytheistic religion, it is usually believed that there are eight-million Kami (ć
«çŸäžăźç„ yaoyorozu-no-kami), in the Japanese language, the number "eight-million" is normally used to mean infinity.
+
+God in Western philosophy
+Philosophers can talk about God or god; sometimes they talk about a specific god, but other times they are just talking about the idea of god.
+
+One of the earliest Western philosophers to write about God in a monotheistic way was the Greek Aristotle, who describes god as the Supreme Cause. Aristotle saw God as a being that makes everything happen, but is not influenced by anything else.
+
+The idea of an "all powerful" God raises some interesting questions. One of them is called the God paradox. It asks whether God can make a mountain (or rock) that is so heavy he cannot lift it. The question considers if a god "who can do anything" could do two things that are mutually contradictory.
+
+There have been several attempts to prove the existence of God with logic. Blaise Pascal said that it is better to believe there is a god, than to believe there isn't. This argument is known as Pascal's wager today. Note that Blaise Pascal was a mathematician, and he used this argument to illustrate the concept of expected value in statistics. Other attempts known as the ontological argument, the cosmological argument, and teleological argument today. Kurt Gödel formulated an argument for the existence of God using modal logic in the 1970s.
+
+Related pages
+Cosmogony
+Deity
+Thomas Aquinas
+Immanuel Kant
+
+References
+
+Gods and goddesses
+In folklore, a ghost is thought to be the spirit of a dead person which tried very much to scare us or they are referred to as the supernatural by others. Scientists say that there are no real ghosts, but many people believe that there are. There are a huge amount of stories about ghosts in books and movies. Sometimes the ghost is the spirit of a person who was killed by someone or who was already dead.
+
+The ghost may stay on Earth because he or she has unfinished problems or is still trying to say goodbye to people who they missed. Sometimes ghosts are said to live in a particular locality, for example an abandoned house or a place that existed hundreds of years ago.
+
+Sometimes the ghosts in these stories exist because of some problem the person had during life or to say goodbye to loved ones, that was not solved before he or she died. The ghost stays on Earth trying to fix the problem. If the problem is fixed, the ghost can leave. Many people say they have seen or heard ghosts. People who try to talk to ghosts as their job are called mediums.
+
+There can be bad ghosts and there can also be good ones. There have never been any ghosts that have actually hurt or killed people, although people tell stories about it.
+
+Many people believe they have seen ghosts. Others believe they have felt ghosts near them. Often the ghost is said to appear as a feeling of cold and a light or a misty cloud, but sometimes people say they have seen ghosts that look more like people. Sometimes ghosts are said to come in human form. Some ghosts might cause fear in the person who sees them, by being seen suddenly. Some ghosts are said to be friendly and help people who have problems. People or animals that can sense ghosts cannot feel them touching them as they are the spirit of a person, or a personified force.
+
+Ghosts are said to form right after people die, or even centuries later. Many people make up stories or urban legends. Many try to prove the existence of these paranormal creatures with special technology such as heat sensors. They also make TV shows dedicated to proving the existence of ghosts. They often investigate cases where a person has seen one or visit a place of sighting.
+
+Stories of ghosts can be found all over the world. Chinese philosopher Confucius said "Respect ghosts and gods, but keep away from them."
+
+The most feared spirit in Thailand is Phi Tai Hong, the ghost of a person who has died suddenly of a violent death. The Koran discusses spirits known as jinn. In Europe there is the recurring fear of "returning" or revenant deceased who may harm the living. This includes the Scandinavian , the Romanian , the Serbian vampir, the Greek vrykolakas among others.
+
+Modern times
+
+In modern days, ghosts have become common features in horror and fantasy stories. Their appearance can take the form of the person they once were or sometimes they are depicted wearing white cloaks over their body and face.
+
+At Halloween, many people dress up as ghosts.
+
+Related pages
+Spiritual séance
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Ghost and the musical traditions within the County of Nice, France
+ Ghostsandstories.com Ghost stories and haunted places.
+ Your Ghost Stories People sharing their ghost experiences.
+
+Occult
+Afterlife
+Green is a color between the yellow and blue colors in the rainbow. Green is a primary color (a color that can be mixed with another color) of light. The others are red and blue.
+
+Green and blue are next to each other on the spectrum, and there are languages which do not distinguish between them. Examples are old Chinese, Thai, old Japanese, and Vietnamese.
+
+Green paint can be made by mixing yellow paint and blue tempera paint together.
+
+Green light, like all light, is quantaâcomposed of photons. The wavelength of green light is about 550 nanometers (one-billionth of a meter).
+
+Most leaves of growing plants, such as trees and bushes, are green. This is because there is a chemical in leaves, called chlorophyll, which is colored green.
+
+See color vision for more on the significance of green.
+
+Meaning of green
+ Green is used as a color associated with jealousy. The phrase "green-eyed monster" means a jealous person.
+
+ The color green is the color of nature. Having a "green thumb" means that you're good at gardening.
+
+Green is a color associated with poison. Paris green is a highly toxic chemical compound.
+
+Green is a color of the Islamic religion. Search the shade "Islamic Green" below.
+
+ Green is also the color of sickness. The phrase "green around the gills" is an expression implying that the person is nauseated.
+
+Comparison of green, teal, blue and ultramarine
+
+Tones of green color comparison chart
+Green is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by range with a wavelength of roughly 570-520 nm.
+
+Related pages
+
+ Color vision
+ List of colors
+ Chartreuse green
+ Emerald green
+ Erin
+ Fruitamins
+Grape
+Gray-green
+Harlequin green
+ Kiwi green
+ Lime green
+ Mint green
+ Olive green
+ Parrot
+ Spring green
+ Sweet Lime green
+ Viridian
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+God's eye view is a name for a point of view where the speaker or writer assumes he or she has knowledge only God would have. It appears several ways:
+
+In religion, when an institution claims to speak for a divine being.
+
+In writing, when a writer leaves the point of view of the main actor to start writing about things they could not know if the story were in real life.
+
+In science, when a scientist ignores the way a subject-object problem affects statistics or an observer effect affects experiment.
+
+In medicine when a doctor makes a claim that The Gaze they use on a patient, actually sees the problem, rather than making a guess at a problem.
+
+In ethics when a statement is made about who or what is right, without an honest attempt to make the process of deciding this consider all points of view.
+
+A special case of the last is in a wiki with a GodKing. Often this person can get others to believe what they say about what is right, without making any special effort to be fair to other views.
+
+Many people think René Descartes took a God's eye view when he said cogito ergo sum. George Berkeley argued that optics from Isaac Newton and Johannes Kepler also had this problem.
+
+Social sciences
+Google LLC is an American multinational corporation from the United States. It is known for creating and running one of the largest search engines on the World Wide Web (WWW). Every day more than a billion people use it. Google's headquarters (known as the "Googleplex") is in Mountain View, California, part of Silicon Valley. The motto of Google is "Do the right thing".
+
+Since September 2, 2015, Google has been owned by a holding company called Alphabet Inc.. That company has taken over some of Google's other projects, such as its driverless cars. It is a public company that trades on the NASDAQ under the ticker symbols GOOG and GOOGL.
+
+Google's search engine can find pictures, videos, news, Usenet newsgroups, and things to buy online. By June 2004, Google had 4.28 billion web pages on its database, 880 million pictures and 845 million Usenet messagesâsix billion things. Google's American website has an Alexa rank of 1, meaning it is the most widely visited website in the world. It is so widely known that people sometimes use the word "google" as a verb that means "to search for something on Google". Because more than half of people on the web use it, "google" has also been used to mean "to search the web".
+
+History
+Larry Page and Sergey Brin, two students at Stanford University, USA, started BackRub in early 1996. They made it into a company, Google Inc., on September 7, 1998, at a friend's garage in Menlo Park, California. In February 1999, the company moved to 165 University Ave., Palo Alto, California, and then moved to another place called the Googleplex.
+
+In September 2001, Google's rating system (PageRank, for saying which information is more helpful) got a U.S. Patent. The patent was to Stanford University, with Lawrence (Larry) Page as the inventor (the person who first had the idea).
+
+Google makes a percentage of its money through America Online and InterActiveCorp. It has a special group known as the Partner Solutions Organization (PSO) which helps make contracts, helps to make accounts better and gives engineering help.
+
+Advertising
+Google makes money by advertising. People or companies who want people to buy their product, service, or ideas give Google money, and Google shows an advertisement to people Google thinks will click on the advertisement. Google only gets money when people click on the link, so it tries to know as much about people as possible to only show the advertisement to the "right people". It does this with Google Analytics, which sends data back to Google whenever someone visits a website. From this and other data, Google makes a profile about the person and then uses this profile to figure out which advertisements to show.
+
+Branding
+The name "Google" is a misspelling of the word googol. Milton Sirotta, nephew of U.S. mathematician Edward Kasner, made this word in 1937, for the number 1 followed by one hundred zeroes (10100). Google uses this word because the company wants to make lots of stuff on the Web easy to find and use. Andy Bechtolsheim thought of the name.
+
+The name for Google's main office, the "Googleplex," is a play on a different, even bigger number, the "googolplex", which is 1 followed by one googol of zeroes 1010100.
+
+Products
+ Android is an operating system for mobile devices and was originally made by Google as part of the Open Handset Alliance, which Google leads. It is the chief competitor to Apple's iOS and Windows Phone by Microsoft (now discontinued).
+ Google Adsense is a free program that enables website publishers of all sizes to display relevant Google ads and earn money.
+ Google Analytics is the enterprise-class web analytics solution that gives one rich insights into his website traffic and marketing effectiveness.
+ Google Alerts Google Alerts are email updates of the latest relevant Google results (web, news, etc.) based on one's choice of query or topic.
+ Google Allo was software for discussing with other people live.
+ Google Assistant is a virtual assistant application built into Android devices.
+ Blogger is a free tool that allows users to publish blogs on a Google website.
+ Google Books lets people search for books.
+ Google Calendar is an online calendar.
+ Google Chrome is a web browser that Google made.
+Google Classroom is an online system for students. It was popular during COVID-19.
+ Google Docs is an online Google full of docs.
+ Google Drive is an online document editor.
+ Google Earth is the 3D version of Google Maps with a digital globe.
+ Google Groups is a place for users to discuss topics. Google bought Deja News in 2001 and made it into Google Groups.
+ Google Images is an image search utility.
+ Google Maps is a service from Google to provide satellite pictures and road maps for everywhere around the world.
+ Google News is a facility which shows news stories from over 4,500 news sources. Google News Archives
+ Google Pay is a way to pay online. Users can send money using their credit cards or bank accounts to other users.
+ Google Photos is a software for organizing and editing photos.
+Google Play is a sector that has games, and other things.
+ Google Products is a pack of Google software.
+ Google Search is a search utility.
+ Google Shopping lets the user find out about things for sale on the Internet.
+ Google Translate is an online translation service. It can translate websites and text into other languages.
+ Google Sites is a service for making websites.
+ Google Video is a video search utility.
+ Google+ was a social networking service that is like Facebook. The service launched on June 28, 2011.
+ Gmail is an e-mail service that Google started in 2004. It is called Google Mail in the United Kingdom and Germany. Users get free space to store e-mail.
+ Hangouts is an instant messenger where one can talk to friends. It ended up shutting down on November 1, 2021.
+ Sidewalk Labs
+ Tenor is a search utility for GIF files
+ Waze is a navigation service that gives driving directions.
+YouTube is a video hosting service which was bought by Google from PayPal for 1.65 billion dollars and now runs as a Google service.
+
+References
+
+Notes
+
+Other websites
+
+
+ The search engine
+
+
+
+
+1998 establishments in the United States
+Companies listed on NASDAQ
+Mountain View, California
+Search engines
+Companies based in California
+A gallon is a volumetric unit of measurement. People have used many different gallons throughout history. Only two gallons are still commonly used, which are the imperial and U.S. liquid gallon.This is 3,57 liter
+
+Sale of petrol
+Petrol, also known as gasoline, is sold by the imperial gallon in four British Overseas Territories (Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, and Montserrat) and six countries (Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines). All of the countries and territories just mentioned also use miles per hour for speed limits and drive on the left side of the road.
+
+Gasoline is sold by the U.S. gallon in Belize, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, and Peru, as well as in the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau.
+
+Sizes
+
+References
+
+Imperial units
+Units of volume
+A government is a group of people that have the power to rule in a territory, according to the administrative law. This territory may be a country, a state or province within a country, or a region. There are many types of government, such as democratic, parliamentary, presidential, federal or unitary.
+
+Works
+Governments make laws, rules and regulations, collect taxes and print money.
+Governments have monopolies on the legal use of force.
+Governments have systems of justice that list the acts or activities that are against the law and describe the punishments for breaking the law.
+Governments have a police force to make sure people follow the laws.
+Governments have diplomats who communicate with the governments of other countries by having meetings. Diplomats try to solve problems or disagreements between two countries, which can help countries to avoid war, make commercial agreements, and exchange cultural or social experiences and knowledge.
+Governments have a military force such as an army that protects the country from terrorists and other major threats that attack or which can be used to attack and invade other countries.
+The leader of a government may have advisors and ministers for various departments. Together they are called the administration.
+
+Types of governments
+Plato listed five kinds of government in The Republic:
+
+Democracy
+The most common type of government in the Western world is called democracy. In democracies, people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or political parties that they prefer. The people in democracies can elect representatives who will sit on legislatures such as the Parliament or Congress. Political parties are organizations of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people.
+
+However, many countries have forms of democracy which limit freedom of choice by the voters. One of the most common ways is to limit which parties can stand for parliament, or limit the parties' access to mass media such as television. Another way is to rig (unfairly manipulate or interfere with) the voting system by removing votes from opposition voters and substituting votes for the party in power. Few countries are textbook (classic, paradigmatic) democracies, and the differences between them has been much studied.
+
+Monarchy
+A monarchy is a government ruled by a king or a queen who inherits their position from their family, which is often called the "royal family." There are two types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers. In a constitutional monarchy a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a constitution.
+
+In modern times, monarchies still exist in Great Britain and the Commonwealth, the Netherlands, Spain, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and Thailand, along with several other countries. A monarch may have one of several titles: King or Queen, Emperor or Empress, or Emir.
+
+Aristocracy
+An aristocracy is a government run by the people of a ruling class, usually people who come from wealthy families with a particular set of values, or people who come from a particular place. A person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat. Aristocracy is different from nobility, in that nobility means that one bloodline would rule, whereas an aristocracy would mean that a few or many bloodlines would rule, or that rulers be chosen in a different manner.
+
+Dictatorship
+Under a dictatorship, the government is run by one person who has all the power over the people in a country. A dictatorship may also be called one-man rule, autocracy or tyranny.
+
+Originally, the Roman Republic made dictators to lead during time of war. The Roman dictators (and Greek tyrants) were not always cruel or unkind, but they did hold power all by themselves, rather than sharing power with the people. Roman dictators only held power for a short period of time.
+
+In modern times, a dictator's rule is not stopped by any laws, constitutions, or other social and political institutions, and can last many years or even decades. After leaving the Spanish Empire, many countries in Latin America were dictatorships. World War II was partly a war between dictators, and later new countries in Asia and Africa also were ruled by dictators. Examples of dictators include Josef Stalin, Adolf Hitler, Augusto Pinochet, Idi Amin, Muammar al-Qaddafi, and Gamal Abdul Nasser. These men ruled from when they took power until when they died, because they would not let anyone else take power from them. There is no evidence of a woman serving as a dictator in modern times.
+
+Oligarchy
+An oligarchy is a government ruled by a small group of powerful people. These people may spread power equally or not equally. More so a different version of a monarchy, where everyone makes decisions together instead of one person making them all or telling people what to do, such as in a Dictatorship. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or passed down from father to son. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people. Some past examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Apartheid South Africa. A fictional example is the dystopian society of Oceania in the book Nineteen Eighty-Four. Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy. This view is shared by anarchists. An oligarchy may have a leader in the ruling group.
+
+The history and the theory of government
+The simplest idea of government is those who rule over people and land. This may be as small as a community or village or as big as a continent (like Australia and India).
+
+The people who rule can allow others to own land. It is a deed by government that gives this right in the way that laws describe. Some think they have the right to hold land without government permission. This view is called libertarianism. Others think they can do without government. This view is called anarchism.
+
+Almost every place on Earth is connected to one and only one government. Places without government are where people follow traditions instead of government rules, small border disputed areas and the continent of Antarctica, because almost no people live there. For every other place on Earth there is a government that claims 'sovereign control' over it. The word "sovereign" is old and means "control by a King" (sovereign). Governments of villages, cities, counties and other communities are subordinate to the government of the state or province where they exist, and then to that of the country.
+
+It is from Kings and feudalism that modern governments and nation states came. The capital of a country, for instance, is where the King kept his assets. From this we get the modern idea of capital in economics. A government may regulate trade as well as to rule over land.
+
+Governments also control people and decide things about what morality to accept or punish. In many countries, there are strict rules about sexual intercourse and drugs which are part of law and offenders are punished for disobeying them.
+
+Tax is how government is paid for in most countries. People who buy, sell, import, invest, own a house or land, or earn money are made to pay some of the money to a government.
+
+There are many theories of how to organize government better. These are called theories of civics. Many people think leaders must be elected by some kind of democracy. That way, they can be replaced at election. Many governments are not a democracy but other forms in which only a few people have power.
+
+There are many theories of how to run a government better, and keep people from hurting each other. These theories are part of politics.
+
+Related pages
+
+ Constitution
+ Horseshoe Theory
+ Justice system
+ Law
+ Legal rights
+ Local government
+ Political economy
+ State
+ Big Government
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+A galaxy is a group of many stars, with gas, dust, and dark matter. The name 'galaxy' is taken from the Greek word galaxia meaning milky, a reference to our own galaxy, the Milky Way.
+
+Gravity holds galaxies together against the general expansion of the universe. In effect, the expansion of the universe takes place between groups of galaxies, not inside those groups. Gravity holds the galaxy together. The same applies to groups and clusters of galaxies, such as our Local Group where the Milky Way is, and the Virgo Cluster, a collection of more than 1,000 (might even be 2,000) galaxies. The gravitation is produced by the matter and energy in a galaxy or group of galaxies. Everything in a galaxy moves around a centre of mass, which is also an effect of gravity.
+
+There are various types of galaxies: elliptical, spiral and lenticular galaxies, which can all be with or without bars. Then there are irregular galaxies. All galaxies exist inside the universe. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (1012) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).
+
+Description
+There are galaxies of different sizes and type. Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (107) stars up to giants with a hundred trillion (1014) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass. Galaxies may contain many multiple star systems, star clusters, and various interstellar clouds. The Sun is one of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy; the Solar System includes the Earth and all the other objects that orbit the Sun.
+
+Star clusters are not galaxies, they are inside galaxies. Globular clusters are spherical-shaped star clusters which are part of the outer halo of the Milky Way. One of the largest (and oldest) known star clusters, Messier 15, has several million stars, packed closely together, with a black hole at its centre. The stars are too closely packed to get an accurate count, but it certainly has more stars than some of the smaller galaxies.
+
+Within galaxy clusters, galaxies move relative to other galaxies. They can and do collide. When this happens, the stars generally move past each other, but gas clouds and dust interact, and can form a burst of new stars. Gravity pulls both galaxies into somewhat new shapes, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures.
+
+Many galaxies continue to form new generations of stars. The Milky Way, and all spiral shaped galaxies like it (see right side image of NGC 2997), produce new stars at a rate of one or two stars per year. This star formation happens in the vast interstellar clouds that account for about 1% to 10% of the mass of these galaxies. Globular star clusters, on the other hand, are not currently forming stars because this activity happened billions of years ago and then stopped once all of the gas and dust clouds were used up.
+
+In the astronomical literature, the word 'Galaxy' with a capital G is used for our galaxy, the Milky Way. The billions of other galaxies are written as 'galaxy' with a lowercase g. The term Milky Way first came out in the English language in a poem by Chaucer.
+
+When William Herschel wrote his catalogue of deep sky objects, he used the name spiral nebula for objects like the Andromeda Galaxy. 200 years later astronomers discovered that they are made of stars as the Milky Way is, so the term 'nebula' is now only used for diffuse structures within a galaxy.
+
+Types
+
+There are two main kinds of galaxies, spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy. They are classified according to the Hubble Sequence.
+
+Spiral galaxy
+
+A spiral galaxy is a galaxy that has a spiral shape. Most of the galaxies in the universe observed by astronomers are spiral galaxies (about 77%).
+
+They are divided into two :
+ Barred spiral galaxy (classified as "SB")
+ Unbarred spiral galaxy (classified as "SA")
+NGC 1300 and NGC 1672 are examples of barred spiral galaxies. The Whirlpool galaxy and Messier 81 are examples of unbarred spiral galaxies.
+
+The identifying characteristics of a spiral galaxy are disk-shaped rotating, spiral arms, and a bulge in the galactic core. The spiral arms are where new hot stars are born. "Bulge" in the galactic core has old stars. This feature is common to the most spiral galaxies.
+
+Elliptical galaxy
+
+An elliptical galaxy is a galaxy that has a ellipsoid (3D of ellipse) shape. This type of galaxy are dominant in universe, especially in galaxy clusters. The shape ranges from circle, ellipse, and cigar-shaped. In Hubble Sequence, this shape can be represented as class :
+ E0 (circle-shape)
+ E53 (ellipse-shape)
+ E7 (cigar-shaped)
+Elliptical galaxies have a large range in size. The giant elliptical galaxy can be over a more 1 million light years and the smallest (know as "dwarf elliptical galaxy") are less than one-tenth the size of Milky Way The effective radius defines the area from which half its light comes. The mass of elliptical galaxy is also large. A giant elliptical galaxy can have mass of 1013 (many trillions) of solar masses.
+
+Other kinds of galaxies
+
+
+A lenticular galaxy is a galaxy seen as a disc shape. The shape of a lenticular galaxy can be between spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy. The shape can be known by looking at the bulge of the galactic center. If the bulge is very bright, it is a spiral galaxy
+
+Related pages
+List of galaxies
+List of nearest galaxies
+Most distant things
+Local Group
+IC 1101: the largest known galaxy, with about 100 trillion stars.
+Milky Way
+Andromeda galaxy
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages
+ An Atlas of The Universe
+ Galaxies â Information and amateur observations
+ The oldest galaxy yet found
+ Galaxies â discussed on BBC Radio 4's "In Our Time" programme
+ Galaxy classification project, harnessing the power of the internet and the human brain
+ How many galaxies are in our universe?
+Geometry (from Ancient Greek: ÎΔÏΌΔÏÏία (romanized: Geometria (English: "Land measurement") derived from Îη (romanized: Ge; English: "Earth" or "land") and also derived from ÎÎÏÏÎżÎœ) (romanized: MĂ©tron; English: "A measure")) is a branch of mathematics that studies the size, shapes, positions and dimensions of things. We can only see shapes that are flat (2D) or solid (3D), but mathematicians (people who study math) are able to study shapes that are 4D, 5D, 6D, and so on.
+
+Squares, circles and triangles are some of the simplest shapes in flat geometry. Cubes, cylinders, cones and spheres are simple shapes in solid geometry.
+
+Uses
+Plane geometry can be used to measure the area and perimeter of a flat shape. Solid geometry can measure a solid shape's volume and surface area.
+
+Geometry can be used to calculate the size and shape of many things. For example, geometry can help people find:
+ the surface area of a house, so they can buy the right amount of paint
+ the volume of a box, to see if it is big enough to hold a liter of food
+ the area of a farm, so it can be divided into equal parts
+ the distance around the edge of a pond, to know how much fencing to buy.
+
+Origins
+Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. Geometry began as the art of surveying of land so that it could be shared fairly between people. The word "geometry" is from a Greek word that means "to measure the land". It has grown from this to become one of the most important parts of mathematics. The Greek mathematician Euclid wrote the first book about geometry, a book called The Elements.
+
+Non-Euclidean geometry
+Plane and solid geometry, as described by Euclid in his textbook Elements, is called "Euclidean Geometry". This was simply called "geometry" for centuries. In the 19th century, mathematicians created several new kinds of geometry that changed the rules of Euclidean geometry. These and earlier kinds were called "non-Euclidean" (not created by Euclid). For example, hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry come from changing Euclid's parallel postulate.
+
+Non-Euclidean geometry is more complicated than Euclidean geometry but has many uses. Spherical geometry for example is used in astronomy and cartography.
+
+Examples
+Geometry starts with a few simple ideas that are thought to be true, called axioms. Such as:
+ A point is shown on paper by touching it with a pencil or pen, without making any sideways movement. We know where the point is, but it has no size.
+ A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. For example, Sophie pulls a piece of string from one point to another point. A straight line between the two points will follow the path of the tight string.
+ A plane is a flat surface that does not stop in any direction. For example, imagine a wall that extends in all directions infinitely.
+
+Related pages
+ Topology
+
+References
+Graph theory is a field of mathematics about graphs. A graph is an abstract representation of: a number of points that are connected by lines. Each point is usually called a vertex (more than one are called vertices), and the lines are called edges. Graphs are a tool for modelling relationships. They are used to find answers to a number of problems.
+
+Some of these questions are:
+ What is the best way for a mailman to get to all of the houses in the area in the least amount of time? The points could represent street corners and lines could represent the houses along the street. (see Chinese postman problem)
+ A salesman has to visit different customers, but wants to keep the distance traveled as small as possible. The problem is to find a way so they can do it. This problem is known as Travelling Salesman Problem (and often abbreviated TSP). It is among the hardest problems to solve. If a commonly believed conjecture is true (described as P â NP), then an exact solution requires one to try all possible routes to find which is shortest.
+ How many colors would be needed to color a map, if countries sharing a border are colored differently? The points could represent the different areas and the lines could represent that two areas are neighboring. (look at the Four color theorem)
+ Can a sketch be drawn in one closed line? The lines of the drawing are the lines of the graph and when two or more lines collide, there is a point in the graph. The task is now to find a way through the graph using each line one time. (look at Seven Bridges of Königsberg)
+
+Different kinds of graphs
+
+ Graph theory has many aspects. Graphs can be directed or undirected. An example of a directed graph would be the system of roads in a city. Some streets in the city are one way streets. This means, that on those parts there is only one direction to follow.
+ Graphs can be weighted. An example would be a road network, with distances, or with tolls (for roads).
+ The nodes (the circles in the schematic) of a graph are called vertices. The lines connecting the nodes are called edges. There can be no line between two nodes, there can be one line, or there can be multiple lines.
+ In graph theory, Trees structures are widely used, they represent hierarchical structures. A Tree is a directed or undirected graph where there is no cycle, meaning: no way of going from one vertex (for example a town) to the same one using each edge you use only once (walking only once on each road you take).
+
+History
+ â
+ â
+
+A visualization of the Seven Bridges of Königberg. Leonhard Euler solved this problem in 1736, which led to the development of topology, and modern graph theory.
+
+A graph is an abstract data structure. It holds nodes that are usually related to each other. A node is a dataset, typically in the form of ordered pairs. Nodes are either connected or not connected to another node. The relation between nodes is usually defined as an Edge. Graphs are useful for their ability to associate nodes with other nodes.
+There are a few representations of Graphs in practice.
+
+Leonhard Euler used to live in a town called Königsberg. (Its name changed to Kaliningrad in 1946). The town is on the river Pregel. There is an island in the river. There are some bridges across the river. Euler wanted to walk around and use each of the bridges once. He asked if he could do this. In 1736, he published a scientific article where he showed that this was not possible. Today, this problem is known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg. The article is seen as the first paper in the history of graph theory.
+
+This article, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the knight problem, carried on with the analysis situs initiated by Leibniz. Euler's formula was about the number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized by Cauchy and L'Huillier, and is at the origin of topology.
+
+The fusion of the ideas coming from mathematics with those coming from chemistry is at the origin of a part of the standard terminology of graph theory. In particular, the term "graph" was introduced by Sylvester in an article published in 1878 in Nature.
+
+One of the most famous and productive problems of graph theory is the four color problem: "Is it true that any map drawn in the plane may have its regions colored with four colors, in such a way that any two regions having a common border have different colors?"
+
+Graph theory in perspective
+Graph theory is an important part of mathematics and computer science. To many such problems, exact solutions do exist. Many times however, they are very hard to calculate. Therefore, very often, approximations are used. There are two kinds of such approximations, Monte-Carlo algorithms and Las-Vegas algorithms.
+
+References
+
+Related pages
+Data structure
+A goatee is a beard formed by a tuft of hair under the chin, resembling that of a billy goat.
+
+Other websites
+Information on goatees
+
+Facial hair
+Herm is the smallest of the Channel Islands that is open to the public.
+
+Herm is only 1 miles long. Cars are banned from the small island just like its Channel Island neighbour, Sark. Unlike Sark, bicycles are banned too. The sandy white beaches make Herm a walker's paradise.
+
+Population: 60 (2002).
+
+Islands of the Channel Islands
+History is the study of past events. People know what happened in the past by looking at things from the past including sources (like books, newspapers, scripts and letters), buildings and artifacts (like pottery, tools, coins and human or animal remains.) Libraries, archives, and museums collect and keep these things for people to study history. A person who studies history is called a historian. A person who studies pre-history and history through things left behind by ancient cultures is called an archaeologist. A person who studies mankind and society is called an anthropologist. The study of the sources and methods used to study and write history is called historiography.
+
+People can learn about the past by talking to people who remember things that happened at some point in the past. This is called oral history. For example, when people who had been slaves and American Civil War survivors got old, some historians recorded them talking about their lives, so that history would not be lost.
+
+In old times people in different parts of the world kept separate histories because they did not meet each other very often. Some groups of people never met each other. The rulers of Medieval Europe, Ancient Rome and Ancient China each thought that they ruled the only important parts of the world and that other parts were "barbarian". But they were still connected, even if they didn't realize it.
+
+The term "historically" is used to say that something has been a certain way during most of its history. For example, a historically female university is a university which has had a student body that was mostly or entirely female for most of its history. The term is often used for historically female and historically black (African American) schools.
+
+Timeline of history
+
+Pre-history
+ Ancient history
+ Sumer
+ Ancient Egypt
+ Babylonia
+Ancient Armenia
+ Ancient Greece
+ Ancient India
+ Ancient China and Japan, Korea, Mongolia
+ Ancient Southeast Asia - Cambodia - Thailand - Indonesia
+ Ancient North America - Iroquois, Mohawk, Huron, Haida, Lenape, Mohican, Cree, Sioux, Inuit, Dene
+ Ancient Central America - Aztecs, Maya, Olmecs, Toltecs, Teotihuacan, Mixtecs
+ Ancient South America - Inca, Chimu, Tihuanacu, Huari
+ Ancient Africa
+ Ancient Australia
+ Roman Empire
+ Christian Rome - Justinian to the rise of Byzantium
+ Chinese Dynasties
+ Byzantine Empire
+ Early Islamic Caliphate - Muhammad to The Crusades
+ Early Middle Ages - end of European Dark Ages to rise of Roman Catholic Church
+ High Middle Ages and the Crusades - conflict with Islam, Cathars, pagan tribes in Lithuania, etc.
+ Late Middle Ages - 13th century to 15th century
+ Late Islamic Caliphate - to fall of Muslim Spain
+ Mongol Empire
+ Renaissance - 15th century renewal of science etc., based on texts from Ancient Greece and Roman Empire that were preserved by Muslims and captured by Christians
+ European colonization of the Americas - 15th century impact on America
+Spanish Empire
+British Empire
+ Baroque era - mid 16th century to mid-late 18th century
+ Conflict of Ottoman Empire with Austria-Hungary
+ Rise of the Qing Dynasty in China
+ Enlightenment - mid 17th century to late 18th century
+ 19th century
+British Empire
+ 20th century
+History of Australia since colonizing Australia
+History of the United States
+ Modern History and origins of modern world power structure
+World War I
+ World War II
+ United Nations ascendance - how it became so central.
+ Chinese Revolution, Partition of India, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
+ US-Soviet Cold War including Korean War, Vietnam War, Soviet-Afghan War
+ Recent conflicts in the Muslim World - Arab-Israeli Wars, US invasion of Afghanistan, US invasion of Iraq
+ Recent conflicts in West Africa - Uganda, Chad, Rwanda, Congo, Liberia, Ivory Coast, and so on
+
+Current events, modern economic history, modern social history and modern intellectual history take very different views of the way history has affected the way that we think today.
+
+Related pages
+
+ List of historians
+ World History
+ Political economy
+ Historical novel
+Basic English 850 words
+
+References
+Health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease" according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Physical health is about the body. Mental health is about how people think and feel. Social health talks about how people live with other people. It is about family, work, school, and friends.
+
+Aspects of health
+
+Physical health
+Physical fitness refers to good body health. It is dependent on genetic determinators and also on social, economic and ecological factors. That means, one's genes are partly responsible for one's physical health, but also other circumstances: where you live, how clean or polluted your water and the air around you is and also how good your social and medical system is. It is also the result of regular exercise, proper diet and nutrition, and proper rest for physical recovery. A person who is physically fit will be able to walk or run without getting breathless and they will be able to carry out the activities of everyday living and not need help. How much each person can do will depend on their age and whether they are a man or woman. A physically fit person usually has a normal weight for their height. The relation between their height and weight is called their Body Mass Index. A taller person can be heavier and still be fit. If a person is too heavy or too thin for their height it may affect their health. Better health is central to human happiness and well-being. It also makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer, are more productive, and save more. Many factors influence health status and a country's ability to provide quality health services for its people.
+
+Mental health
+Mental health refers to a person's emotional and psychological well-being. "A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her thinking and emotional (feeling) abilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life."
+
+One way to think about mental health is by looking at how well a person functions. Feeling capable and efficient; being able to handle normal levels of stress, have good friends and family, and lead an independent life; and being able to "bounce back," or recover from hardships, are all signs of mental health. Itâs normal for all of us to feel worried, sad, upset, or have difficult emotions from time to time. For most people though, these feelings are only temporary and are resolved without causing any long-term problems. However, for some people, these negative feelings can become worse over time and lead to a mental health problem such as depression, anxiety, stress or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
+
+Public health
+
+Public health refers to trying to stop a disease that is unhealthy to the community, and does not help in living a long life or promote your health. This is fixed by organized efforts and choices of society, public and private clubs, communities and individuals.
+
+It is about the health of many people, or everybody, rather than one person. Public health stops instead of encouraging a disease through surveillance of cases. To prevent being sick, it is good to act according to some simple advice: Hand washing, regular check-ups, vaccination programmes, drinking clean water, and using condoms. When infectious diseases break out, washing hands for about 30 seconds may be especially important. Sometimes it is necessary to avoid masses of people or wear a surgical mask to protect yourself and to stop the spreading of the disease. Teaching people how to live healthily and educate them, especially about sex and childbirth, is also very important.
+
+Related pages
+ Medicine
+ Healthy lifestyle
+ Fitness
+ Right to health
+
+References
+
+Health
+Basic English 850 words
+A harbor (American English) or harbour (British English) is a place where ships may shelter. Some harbours are used as ports to load and unload ships. The port will have quays or piers where the ships may be moored or tied up and a transport system for taking goods inland. Often railway and road transport will be used. Goods also move by pipeline transport and by smaller ships on rivers.
+
+Harbor means to shelter or keep safe. Harbors can be natural as in San Francisco or artificial as in ancient Carthage or a mix of both. During the D-Day operations of 1944, two artificial harbors (named mulberry) were built just off the beaches where the invasion was happening.
+
+Related pages
+ Dock
+ Dockyard
+ Marina
+ Naval base
+ Quay
+ Seaport
+ Transport
+ Wharf
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Hawaii (sometimes spelled "Hawai'i") is a U.S. state and the only U.S. State that is in Oceania. It is the last state that joined the United States, becoming a state on August 21, 1959. It is the only state made only of islands. Hawaii is also the name of the largest island. The capital and largest city of Hawaii is Honolulu on the island named Oahu.
+
+Name
+Hawaii is known as the "Aloha State". Aloha is a Hawaiian word that has many meanings like welcome, hello and goodbye. Aloha also means love and care. The different meanings are brought together in the term "Aloha Spirit" to describe the friendly people of Hawaii.
+
+Geography
+Hawaii is an archipelago, a long chain of islands. There are eight main islands and many small islands and atolls. They are the tops of underwater volcanos. The main islands are Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui and Hawaii.
+
+History
+The first people of Hawaii were Polynesians. They came to the islands sometime between 200 and 600 AD. Captain James Cook discovered the islands in 1778. Others may have been there before him. Captain Cook named the islands the Sandwich Islands for the fourth Earl of Sandwich, John Montague.
+
+Kamehameha I was the first king of Hawaii. He united the separate small Hawaiian kingdoms into one large kingdom in 1795. In 1893, American soldiers stopped Queen Liliuokalani from leading Hawaii when American business people took over the government and made their own laws. She was the last monarch of Hawaii. She also wrote the original words of the song called Aloha Oe.
+
+The Americans made Hawaii into a republic for a short time. The new leader, Sanford Dole was called the President of Hawaii. In 1898, the United States of America took over the government and made Hawaii into a territory.In 1907, University of HawaiÊ»i is established. In 1959, Hawaii became the fiftieth American state. In other words, it was taken ("annexed") against the wishes of its native people. Their queen, Liliâuokalani, wrote that âit had not entered into our hearts to believe that these friends and allies from the United States⊠would ever go so far as to absolutely overthrow our form of government, seize our nation by the throat, and pass it over to an alien powerâ.
+
+Reason for statehood
+Early in World War II the U.S. Pacific Fleet was based on the Philippines. Perceiving that this was not safe, the navy moved its base to the Hawaiian islands, namely Oahu (the main island in the chain). It was there that the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. That was significant in the later discussions about the future of the islands.
+
+Economy
+The biggest industry of Hawaii is tourism. Almost seven million people visited in 2000. Important exports are sugar, pineapple, macadamia nuts, and coffee.
+
+Popular tourist sites include Waikiki Beach, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Polynesian Cultural Center, and the USS Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor.
+
+State symbols
+The state flower is the yellow hibiscus (Hibiscus brackenridgei or ). The state bird is the Hawaiian goose (nene). The state fish is the reef triggerfish, also called the . The state tree is the candlenut, also called kukui. The state song is Hawaii Ponoi. The state motto is . In English it says, The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness.
+
+References
+
+Notes
+
+Other websites
+
+
+1959 establishments in the United States
+Honolulu is the capital city of the U.S. state of Hawaii. It is also the largest city in Hawaii and it has the most important harbor. It is on the south-east shore of the island of Oahu.
+
+Etymology
+Honolulu means "sheltered harbor" in the Hawaiian language. No one knows for sure when Honolulu was first settled or when the name was first used.
+
+History
+Honolulu harbor was called Kulolia before foreigners came. The first foreigner was Captain William Brown of the English ship Butterworth, in 1794. He named the harbor Fair Haven. Other foreign captains is started calling it Brown's Harbor. The name Honolulu was used some time after that.
+
+Honolulu quickly became the most important harbor of Hawaii. At that time, sandalwood was a big export. Honolulu was also an important supply point for whalers.
+
+Kamehameha III made Honolulu the capital city of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1850. It was also the capital of the Republic of Hawaii and the Territory of Hawaii. It stayed the capital when Hawaii became a state in 1959.
+
+Notable people
+Ferdinand Marcos, President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986, died in Honolulu
+Bruno Mars, singer, was born in Honolulu
+Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States, was born in Honolulu
+Nicole Scherzinger, singer, was born in Honolulu
+Jason Momoa, actor currently lives in Honolulu
+
+References
+
+
+State capitals in the United States
+1907 establishments in North America
+1900s establishments in Hawaii
+County seats in Hawaii
+The Island of Hawaiʻi is the largest U.S. Hawaiian Island, and it is the farthest south. It is also called the "Big Island." Its area is 4,038 sq. miles (10,458 km2). The widest part of the island is 93 miles (150 km) across.
+The Big Island has more than half (~62%) of the total land area of State of Hawaii. It is part of County of Hawaii.
+
+The island is seven separate shield volcanos that erupted more or less one at a time, one partly covering the other. These are (from oldest to youngest): Kohala (extinct), Mauna Kea (dormant), Hualalai (dormant), Mauna Loa (active), Kulani (extinct, mostly buried), and Kilauea (very active). The volcanos were caused by the Pacific oceanic tectonic plate moving over a hotspot. There lava from the Earth's lower mantle or upper core is close to the surface.
+
+The largest city on the island is Hilo. Hilo has many historic buildings, interesting shops, parks, many performances, festivals and events. It is on the rainy, east side of the island. The city of Kailua-Kona is on the dry, west side of Hawaii, and is popular with tourists.
+
+References
+
+MacDonald, G. A., and A. T. Abbott. 1970. Volcanoes in the Sea. Univ. of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 441 p.
+History and culture of Hilo. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.hiloliving.com/Hilo_Culture.html
+
+Islands of Hawaii
+"Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī" (; "Hawai's Sons") is the state song of Hawaii. The words were written by King David Kalakaua, the music by Prof. Henry Berger, the Royal Bandmaster. "Hawai`i Ponoi" was also the anthem of the Kingdom of Hawai`i and the Territory of Hawai`i.
+
+Lyrics
+
+References
+
+Culture of Hawaii
+
+Historical anthems
+Healing is a process that happens in the body. Through healing, cells are able to repair damaged tissue.
+There are two different ways healing can happen:
+ The damaged tissue is replaced with tissue of the same kind. This is called regeneration.
+ The damaged tissue is replaced with scar tissue. This is called repair
+
+Most healing processes combine both ways of healing.
+
+Other websites
+ How wounds heal and tumors form With this simple Flash demonstration, Harvard professor Donald Ingber explains how wounds heal, why scars form, and how tumors develop. Presented by Children's Hospital Boston.
+ Wound Healing
+ Wound Healing and Repair
+ Lorenz H.P. and Longaker M.T. Wounds: Biology, Pathology, and Management . Stanford University Medical Center.
+ Romo T. and McLaughlin L.A. 2003. Wound Healing, Skin. Emedicine.com.
+ Rosenberg L. and de la Torre J. 2003. Wound Healing, Growth Factors. Emedicine.com.
+
+Health
+Tissues
+People have lived in Australia for over 65,000 years. The first people who arrived in Australia were the Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander people's. They lived in all parts of Australia. They lived by hunting, fishing and gathering.
+
+Aboriginal peoples invented tools like the boomerang and spear. There is also evidence that the Aboriginal people used farming methods. Tradition was very important in their lives. Their religion is called the Dreamtime, which has lots of stories about the creation of the world by spirits. Aboriginal art started at least 30,000 years ago and there are lots of Dreaming stories painted on walls and cut in rocks all around Australia. Aboriginal music has songs about the Dreamtime, sometimes with special instruments like the didgeridoo.
+
+In 1606 the first European, Dutch explorer Willem Janszoon (1571â1639), visited the west. Luis Vaez de Torres sailed through the water between Australia and New Guinea later that year.
+Only after Dirk Hartog chanced upon the west coast in 1616 did other European vessels visit and map the coast. After sixty more ships visited the coast, enough was known for a map to be published in 1811. The land was dry because of not much rain; some was a desert. The explorers thought no crops could be grown and so it would be difficult for people to live there. They decided there would be no economic reasons to stay.
+
+In 1642, Dutchman Abel Tasman, working for the Dutch East Indies Company reached Tasmania, which he called Antony van Diemenslandt. He then called the continent he charted the north coast of on his second visit in 1644 New Holland. In 1688, William Dampier became the first Englishman to reach Australia. But in 1770 a British sailor, Captain James Cook, found the fertile east coast of Australia. He called it New South Wales, and claimed it for Britain.
+Englishman Matthew Flinders published his map of the coast in 1814, calling it Australia for the first time, a name later formally adopted by the authorities.
+
+Colonial Australia
+
+The British decided to use the land visited by Captain Cook as a prison colony. Britain needed a place to send its convicts (people who had been sent to jail for theft and other crimes) because its gaols were full and it had just lost its American colonies in the American War of Independence. In 1788 the British First Fleet of 11 ships, carrying about 1500 people arrived at Botany Bay (Sydney). Arthur Phillip led them as the first Governor of New South Wales. About 160 000 convicts were brought to Australia from 1788 until 1868. Free immigrants began arriving in the 1790s.
+
+For the first few years they did not have much food, and life was very hard. But soon they began to farm, and more people came. Sydney grew, and new towns were started. Wool brought good money. By 1822, many towns had been set up and people from the towns often visited Sydney for additional economic resources.
+
+Soon people from Sydney found other parts of Australia. George Bass and Matthew Flinders sailed south to Tasmania and a colony was started at Hobart in 1803. Hamilton Hume and William Hovell went south from Sydney by land. They found the Murray River, and good land in Victoria. Thomas Mitchell went inland, and found more rivers. In 1826, the first British military outpost was set up at King George Sound in Western Australia. The Swan River Colony was started in 1829, with townsites at Fremantle and Perth. In 1836, a free-settler colony was started in South Australia, where no convicts were ever sent. Queensland became a separate colony in 1859. As the towns and farms spread across Australia, the Aboriginal people were pushed off their land. Some were killed, and many died from illness and hunger. Soon, Australia's Aborigines were outnumbered by Europeans, and many were made to live on reserves.
+
+The goldrushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold. The population grew across south east Australia and made great wealth and industry. By 1853 the goldrushes had made some poor people very rich.
+
+Convict transportation ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and self-govern. The first governments in the colonies were run by Governors chosen by London. Soon the settlers wanted local government and more democracy. The New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in 1825 to advise the Governor of New South Wales, but it was not chosen by voters. William Wentworth established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales. In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were started and some people could vote for them (but only men with a certain amount of money). Then, Australia's first parliamentary elections were held for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote. The Australian Colonies Government Act [1850] allowed constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1850 elections for legislative councils were also held in the colonies of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.
+
+In 1855, limited self-government was granted by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. A new secret ballot was introduced in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia in 1856, allowing people to vote in private. This system was copied around the world. In 1855, the right to vote was given to all men over 21 in South Australia. The other colonies soon followed. Women were given the vote in the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 and they became the first women in the world allowed to stand in elections. In 1897, Catherine Helen Spence became the first female political candidate.
+
+Australians had started parliamentary democracies all across the continent. But voices were getting louder for all of them to come together as one country with a national parliament.
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ History of the Australian nation â State Library of NSW
+ The Australian History page at Project Gutenberg of Australia
+ Bush Poetry a source of Australian History
+ An Aborigine on his understanding of tradition
+Spain is a country in Europe.
+
+Early History
+People have lived on the Iberian Peninsula for about 500,000 years. Neanderthal man came about 200,000 years ago. Modern humans first came about 40,000 years. Thousands of years ago Iberians and Celts lived there, and the Phoenicians made a few cities there to get tin and silver to trade.
+
+The Roman Empire controlled Spain for three hundred years; then people from Eastern Europe called Visigoths fought for Spain, won it from the Romans, and controlled Spain for over two hundred years.
+
+Medieval times
+The Visigoths converted from Arian Christianity to Roman Catholics. Muslims who were Arab and Berber invaded in 711 and conquered Spain in 718. They called it Al-Andalus. Roman Catholics eventually decided to fight to take Spain back from the Muslims. They fought wars called the reconquista for more than seven hundred years. They also fought Crusades against other Christians like the Cathars. The Moors also fought each other for control of Al-Andalus.
+
+In the year 1492, they took the last part of Spain that had belonged to the Moors. Boabdil, the last Moorish Leader of Granada, gave the city to King Ferdinand of Aragon on 2 January 1492, and Christians now ruled all of Spain.
+
+Before this, several different kings had ruled different countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when the king of Aragon, Ferdinand II, married the queen of Castile, Isabella.
+
+In the same year, 1492, they decided to send Christopher Columbus to explore the Atlantic Ocean. Columbus found a land there that the people of Europe did not yet know. These were the islands of the Caribbean Sea.
+
+Late 15th century
+Columbus and other sailors explored more and found that there were two continents there - North America and South America. Spain sent many soldiers and businessmen to North and South America, and they took over very large parts of those two continents. Owning this empire made Spain very rich. But when they conquered that empire, they killed millions of the Native Americans who had lived there before. Spain owned this empire for more than three hundred years.
+
+Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or spread to other countries. Jews had been expelled from Spain. The multicultural society was destroyed, and so was the learning. Among the few things kept and respected in Spain were in music: harmony and stringed instruments, and of course the buildings, many of which became churches, by adding crosses.
+
+16th and 17th centuries
+The Spanish Empire was the strongest in the world through most of the next two centuries, thanks to gold from the Americas. This new gold made rulers and colonial governors rich. Meanwhile, others' savings became worth less due to inflation. Spain became a society of very rich and very poor. Some of the poorest went to the new colonies in the Caribbean, Central America and South America, mostly to find gold.
+
+Native American peoples were killed by diseases brought by the Spaniards, but most Spaniards did not know this. They found damaged and dying societies with people who had lost some of their most important leaders and thinkers. The Spaniards thought this meant they were inferior, and used this as an excuse to enslave the natives. Millions of natives died mining gold for the Spanish.
+
+The Spanish Empire also at this time funded the Spanish Inquisition which tortured and killed anyone who disagreed with the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformation which created Protestant sects in Europe was not allowed into Spain, it was kept out and, as with Jews or Muslims, its believers were killed.
+
+The nobles of Spain no longer had to fight anyone since the internal feuds were over. No one could challenge their power. In many ways it was held together as a reign of terror. People who challenged them were often called heretics, so that the Inquisition could torture them, and then nobles take the property.
+
+For ordinary people on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, life got worse. A few rulers got rich. Today we would say that these people were guilty of war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity. Many Church people who had the power to speak out at that time, did so, and they said many of the same things as we would say today. But none of this mattered much to the rulers.
+
+The great satire Don Quixote was written about this time.
+
+18th century
+In the 18th century, there was doubt over who should become king of Spain; this doubt led many of the kings of Europe to fight to become king of Spain. This was called the War of the Spanish Succession.
+
+France occupied Spain for a long time. This made Spain very weak. It also made Spain lose its empire in North and South America; all of the parts of that empire became their own countries, or were taken over by other countries such as the United States of America.
+
+20th century
+There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century. Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made the King of Spain leave the country. However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, or take orders from one person. In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government.
+
+Franco died in 1975. He had decided that Spain should have a king again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of the king who had been forced to leave the country, to be king. But the king did not rule as a dictator; instead, he chose to set up a democracy. Also since Franco's death, Spain appointed Adolfo SuĂĄrez to became Spain's first democratically elected prime minister. Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world. It is a part of the European Union.
+Height is the distance between the lowest end and highest end of an object.
+
+For example, it is said the bottom of the foot is a person's lowest end, and the top of the head is a person's highest end. If the distance between the bottom of a person's foot and the top of that person's head is 64 inches, then that person's height is 64 inches.
+
+Height is measured in 3D objects. 2D objects do not have height; they only have length and width.
+
+Related pages
+ Depth
+ Elevation
+ Volume
+
+Physical quantity
+A historian is someone who studies history. Historians use written sources to understand past events and societies.
+
+Related pages
+List of historians
+
+References
+
+Sources
+ Richard B. Todd, ed. (2004). Dictionary of British Classicists, 1500â1960, Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 .
+ Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing. London [etc.] : Fitzroy Dearborn
+ Lateiner, D. (1989). The historical method of Herodotus. Phoenix, 23. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
+ John Cannon et al., eds. (1988). The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988 .
+ Hartog, F. (1988). The mirror of Herodotus: the representation of the other in the writing of history. Berkeley: University of California Press.
+ Erik Christiansen (1970). The Last Hundred Years of the Roman Republic, Odense: Andelsbogtrykkeriet
+ Gottschalk, L. R. (1950). Understanding history; a primer of historical method. New York: Knopf
+ Barnes, M. S. (1896). Studies in historical method. Heath's pedagogical library. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.
+ Taylor, I. (1889). History of the transmission of ancient books to modern times, together with the process of historical proof: or, a concise account of the means by which the genuineness of ancient literature generally, and authenticity of historical works especially, are ascertained, including incidental remarks upon the relative strength of the evidence usually adduced in behalf of the Holy Scriptures. Liverpool: E. Howell.
+ Herodotus, Rawlinson, G., Rawlinson, H. C., & Wilkinson, J. G. (1862). History of Herodotus. A new English version. London: John Murray.
+VĂ©ricour, L. R. d. (1850). Historical analysis of Christian civilisation. London: J. Chapman.
+ Taylor, I. (1828). The process of historical proof. London: Printed for B. J. Holdsworth.
+ Elizabeth Kostova "The Historian"
+
+
+
+Writing occupations
+The human body is the body of a person. It is the physical structure of a person.
+
+The body is a thing that can be hurt or killed. Its functions are stopped by death. You need your muscles and your joints to move.
+
+Study of the human body
+
+Some people study the human body. They look at where it is different from, or the same as, other animals' bodies. These animals can be alive today. Or they can be extinct animals like other hominids. (Hominids are primates that are close to humans. Neanderthals and Homo erectus were hominids.) Some people study how the human body works and lives in its environment. Some people study what people think about their body. Artists study how to draw or paint the human body.
+
+Fields of study
+Many different fields of study look at the human:
+ Biology is a field of science. It studies living things. It looks at how the human body works. It studies how the human body came from evolution. It studies how genetics makes the human body.
+ Anatomy studies the parts of the body and how they work together.
+ Ecology studies the environment including how humans affect it.
+Physical anthropology is a field of science. It compares humans to other hominids. It also studies all other hominid bodies. They look at how humans and chimpanzees are the same or different.
+ Psychology is a field of medicine. It looks at how people think and feel. The brain is part of the body. How we think and feel comes from the brain. So psychologists study the body. They study how the brain lets us be who we are.
+ Religion also talks about the body. Some religions see the body as where the soul lives. Some see the body as like a church. This is because a church is where people worship God. These people think God should be worshiped inside people. Some religions think the body is made from chakras that connect us to the universe.
+ Medicine sees the body like a machine. Doctors want to fix problems with the body. They study how to fix the problems, called diseases.
+
+Parts of human body
+
+Head
+Ear
+Face
+Forehead
+Eyebrow
+Eye
+Cheek
+Nose
+Mouth
+Lips
+Chin
+Neck
+Torso
+Chest
+Breast
+Abdomen
+Umbilicus
+groin
+Pelvis
+Vulva
+Penis
+Scrotum
+Back
+Upper limb
+Shoulder
+Axilla
+Elbow
+Forearm
+Wrist
+Hand
+Finger
+Lower limb
+Buttocks
+Thigh
+Knee
+Calf
+Ankle
+Foot
+
+Organ system
+
+Various organ systems give the body the ability to live and do things.
+
+ circulatory system is the body system that moves blood around the body.
+ digestive system is the parts of the body that digest food.
+ The endocrine system includes those organs of the body which produce hormones.
+ immune system is the set of tissues which work together to resist infections.
+ integumentary system is everything covering the outside of an animal's body.
+ lymphatic system is a network of thin vessels that branch into tissues throughout the body.
+ musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton and attached muscles.
+ nervous system is a body system which sends signals around the body.
+ reproductive system is the part of an organism that makes them able to sexually reproduce.
+ respiratory system is the body getting rid of carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen.
+ urinary system is a system of organs that makes urine/pee and takes it out of the body.
+
+The human body and other animals
+The human body is like other animals. The skeleton, muscles and other parts are very much like those of other primates. Our body is also like other mammals, and somewhat like other vertebrates. DNA differences follow a similar pattern. The human genome is closer to that of other primates than to other vertebrates, and closest to chimpanzee.
+
+References
+
+Anatomy
+Hydrogen is a chemical element at the start of the periodic table. It has the symbol H and atomic number 1. It also has a standard atomic weight of 1.008, which makes it the lightest element in the periodic table.
+
+Hydrogen is the most common chemical element in the Universe, making up 75% of all normal (baryonic) matter (by mass). Most stars are made of mostly hydrogen. Hydrogen's most common isotope has one proton with one electron orbiting around it.
+
+Properties
+Hydrogen is grouped as a reactive nonmetal, unlike the other elements found in the first column of the periodic table, which are grouped as alkali metals. The solid form of hydrogen should behave like a metal, though.
+
+When by itself, hydrogen normally binds with itself to make dihydrogen (H2) which is very stable, because of its high bond-dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol. At normal temperature and pressure, this hydrogen gas (H2) has no color, smell, or taste and is not poisonous as it is a nonmetal and burns very easily.
+
+Combustion
+Molecular hydrogen is flammable and reacts with oxygen:
+
+2 H2(g) + O2(g) â 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)
+
+At temperatures higher than 500 °C, hydrogen suddenly burns in air.
+
+Compounds
+While hydrogen gas in its natural form is not reactive, it does form compounds with many elements, especially halogens, which are very electronegative, meaning they want an electron very badly. Hydrogen also forms massive arrays with carbon atoms, forming hydrocarbons. The study of the properties of hydrocarbons is known as organic chemistry.
+
+The H- anion (negatively charged atom) is named a hydride, though the word is not commonly used. An example of a hydride is lithium hydride (LiH), which is used as a "spark plug" in nuclear weapons.
+
+Acids
+Acids dissolved in water normally contain high levels of hydrogen ions, in other words, free protons. Their level is generally used to determine its pH, that is, the content of hydrogen ions in a volume. For example, hydrochloric acid, found in people's stomachs, can dissociate into a chloride anion and a free proton, and the property of the free proton is how it can digest food by corroding it.
+
+Though uncommon on Earth, the H3+ cation is one of the most common ions in the universe.
+
+Isotopes
+
+Hydrogen has 7 known isotopes, two of which are stable (1H and 2H), which are commonly named protium and deuterium. The isotope 3H is known as tritium, has a half-life of 12.33 years, and is produced in small amounts by cosmic rays. The 4 isotopes left have half-lives on the scale of yoctoseconds.
+
+Hydrogen in nature
+In its natural form on Earth, hydrogen is generally a gas. Hydrogen is also one of the parts that make up a water molecule. Hydrogen is important because it is the fuel that powers the Sun and other stars.
+Hydrogen makes up about 74% of the complete universe.
+
+Natural hydrogen is normally made of two hydrogen atoms connected together. Scientists name these diatomic molecules. Hydrogen will have a chemical reaction when mixed with most other elements, though it has no color or smell.
+
+Natural hydrogen is very uncommon in the Earth's atmosphere, because nearly all primordial hydrogen would have escaped into space because of its weight. In nature, it is generally in water. Hydrogen is also in all living things, as a part of the organic compounds that living things are made of. In addition, hydrogen atoms can join with carbon atoms to form hydrocarbons. Petroleum and other fossil fuels are made of these hydrocarbons and commonly used to make energy.
+
+Some other facts about hydrogen:
+ It is a gas at room temperature
+ It acts like a metal when it is solid.
+ It is the lightest element in the Universe.
+ It is the most common element in the Universe.
+ It burns or explodes at temperatures higher than 1000°F / 528°C, such as in fire.
+ It glows purple when it is in plasma state.
+
+History of Hydrogen
+Hydrogen was first separated in 1671 by Robert Boyle. In 1776, Henry Cavendish identified it as its own element and named it "inflammable air". He saw in 1781 that burning it made water.
+
+Antoine Lavoisier gave Hydrogen its name, from the Greek word for water, 'Ï
ÎŽÎżÏ (read /HEEW-dor/) and gennen meaning to "produce" as it forms water in a chemical reaction with oxygen.
+
+Uses of Hydrogen
+The most common uses are in the petroleum industry and in making ammonia by the Haber process. Some is used in other places in the chemical industry. A little of it is used as fuel, for example in rockets for spacecraft. Most of the hydrogen that people use comes from a chemical reaction between natural gas and steam.
+
+Nuclear fusion
+
+Nuclear fusion is a very powerful source of energy. It depends on forcing atoms together to make helium and energy, as in a star like the Sun, or in a hydrogen bomb. This needs a large amount of energy to get started, and is not easy to do currently. A big advantage over nuclear fission, which is used in today's nuclear power stations, is that it makes less nuclear waste and does not use a poisonous and uncommon fuel like uranium. More than 600 million tons of hydrogen undergo fusion every second on the Sun.
+
+Using hydrogen
+Hydrogen is mostly used in the petroleum industry, to change heavy petroleum parts into lighter, more useful ones. It is also used to make ammonia. Smaller amounts are burned as fuel. Most hydrogen is made by a reaction between natural gas and steam.
+
+The electrolysis of water breaks water into hydrogen and oxygen, using electricity. Burning hydrogen joins with oxygen molecules to make steam (natural water vapor). A fuel cell joins hydrogen with an oxygen molecule, releasing an electron as electricity. For these reasons, many people believe hydrogen power will replace other synthetic fuels in the future.
+
+Hydrogen can also be burned to make heat for steam turbines or internal combustion engines. Like other synthetic fuels, hydrogen can be made from natural fuels such as coal or natural gas, or from electricity, and therefore represents a valuable addition to the power grid; in the same role as natural gas. Such a grid and infrastructure with fuel cell vehicles is now planned by a number of countries, such as Japan, Korea and many European countries. This lets these countries buy less petroleum, which is an economic advantage. The other advantage is that, used in a fuel cell or burned in a combustion engine as in a hydrogen car, the engine does not make pollution. Only water, and a small amount of nitrogen oxides, forms.
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+ Hydrogen - Citizendium
+
+Hydrogen
+Helium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol He, atomic number 2, and atomic weight of about 4.002602. There are 9 isotopes of helium, only two of which are stable. These are 3He and 4He. 4He is by far the most common isotope.
+
+Helium is called a noble gas, because it does not regularly mix with other chemicals and form new compounds. It has the lowest boiling point of all the elements. It is the second most common element in the universe, after hydrogen, and has no color or smell. However, helium has a red-orange glow when placed in an electric field. Helium does not usually react with anything else. Astronomers detected the presence of helium in 1868, when its spectrum was identified in light from the Sun. This was before its discovery on Earth.
+
+Helium is used to fill balloons and airships because its density is lighter than air. It does not burn, so is safe for that kind of use. It is also used in some kinds of light bulbs. People can breathe in helium: It makes their voices sound higher than it normally does. This may seem silly, but it can actually be quite dangerous as if they breathe in too much, hypoxia can injure or kill them as they are not breathing normal air. Breathing too much helium can also cause long-term effects to vocal cords.
+
+Helium is created through the process of nuclear fusion in the Sun, and in similar stars. During this process, two hydrogen atoms are fused together to form one helium atom. On Earth it is made by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements like thorium and uranium, although there are other examples. The alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei.
+
+History
+Helium was discovered by the French astronomer pierre Janssen on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was thought to be sodium. On the same year, English astronomer, Norman Lockyer, also observed it and found that it was caused by a new element. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element helium, from the Greek word for the Sun, ጄλÎčÎżÏ (helios).
+
+Characteristics
+Helium is the second least reactive noble gas after neon. It is the second least reactive of all elements. It is chemically inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Helium is the least water-soluble monatomic gas.
+
+Uses
+Helium is used as a shielding gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in making titanium and zirconium, and in gas chromatography, because it is inert. Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding.
+
+Helium is mixed with oxygen and other gases for deep underwater diving because it does not cause nitrogen narcosis.
+
+Helium is also used to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is used to remove the fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment before the rocket launches. It is used to cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles before the rocket launches.
+
+Helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some nuclear reactors that are cooled down by gas. Helium is also used in some hard disk drives. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics.
+
+Supply
+Helium has become rare on Earth. If it gets free into the air it leaves the planet. Unlike hydrogen, which reacts with oxygen to form water, helium is not reactive. It stays as a gas. For many years after the 1925 Helium Act, the USA collected helium in a National Helium Reserve. American helium comes from wells in the Great Plains area. At present, more helium is supplied by Qatar than by the USA.
+
+Several research organisations have released statements on the scarcity and conservation of helium. These organisations released policy recommendations as early as 1995 and as late as 2016 urging the United States government to store and conserve helium because of the natural limits to the helium supply and the unique nature of the element. For researchers, helium is irreplaceable because it is essential for producing very low temperatures. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain cryogenics applications. Liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging.
+
+References
+The home page of a website is the document that a web server sends to another computer's web browser application when it has been contacted without a request for specific information. That is, when one enters only a domain name in the Address box without specifying a directory or a file, the home page is usually the first part of the website one would be taken to. The Home Page is also called the Main Page.
+
+A properly written home page will tell a user about the information available on the website, and how to view different parts of the website.
+
+The home page of simple.wikipedia.org can be found at this link.
+
+Home Page was a popular computer application used for composing web pages.
+
+In Linux servers
+In Linux-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc. This is a problem for website administrators to install website applications like MediaWiki. Mainly because most website applications are created with the homepage as index.php for PHP applications.
+
+In Windows servers
+Similarly, in Windows-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc.
+
+Websites
+Web design
+Hair is something that grows from the skin of mammals. Hair is made of keratins, which are proteins.
+
+Animal hair is usually called fur. Sheep and goats have curly hair, called wool. Wool is used to make many products, like clothing and blankets.
+
+Humans and some other animals have lost much of their hair through evolution, and some other mammals, such as the elephant and the whale, have almost none at all.
+
+Functions of hair
+
+Hair has different functions:
+It can protect against losing body heat. This is thought to be the basic, original function of hair.
+It protects against UV radiation, which damages the skin.
+It can protect against rain or water. Air can be trapped in the fur, or oil can be secreted by the skin. Both these methods prevent the rain or water from making the body too cold. Aquatic mammals in cold waters usually have blubber (fat) under the skin, and almost no hair.
+Defence: hair is modified in mammals like porcupines, for protection.
+Hair colouring can perform different functions. It helps to camouflage some animals. It can also signal to others of the same species. Examples are: signalling to females for mating purposes and signalling to others for territory control. Signalling danger to other species (aposematic colouring) is also done by, for example, skunks.
+Animals can change their hair so they look bigger, or more threatening. This can also be used for mating; which is the case with lions, for example. Also, the male lions' mane also protects their neck from damage when fighting other males.
+
+False hair
+Some animals, for example certain insects and spiders also have hairs. However, these are not hair in the biological sense, but are actually bristles. The hairs found on certain plants are also not true hair, but trichomes.
+
+Human hair
+
+In humans, hair grows mostly on the head, and the amount of body hair is different from person to person.
+
+Hair color
+
+Hair color is passed down by parents only. Natural hair color can be given only by genes. Natural hair color is passed down genetically by both mother and father. This relies on dominant and recessive genes carried by a parent. These genes may not be the color of their hair, however, many people carry genes that are recessive and do not show in their traits or features.
+
+Dyeing hair is to change the color of hair. It consists of a chemical mixture which can change the color of hair by a chemical reaction. Many people dye their hair to hide gray or white hairs. This is because most people gain white or gray hairs as they grow older.
+
+Genetics and chemistry
+Two types of melanin pigment give hair its color: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Pheomelanin colors hair red. Eumelanin determines the darkness of the hair color. A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair, but more brown eumelanin will color the hair brown. High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair, while low concentrations give gray hair. All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair.
+
+The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established. According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color.
+
+One phenotype (brown/blond) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child.
+
+The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the not-red allele is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair, but it will be either auburn or bright reddish orange depending on whether the first gene pair gives brown or blond hair, respectively.
+
+The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blonde/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several other gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect (quantitative genetics).
+
+Hair texture
+Hair texture is also inherited genetically. The thickness of hair, its color and its tendency to curl are all inherited. There are also genetic differences between men and women.
+
+Hair loss
+People have about 100,000 hairs on their head. About 100 fall out each day, but they usually grow back. Some men are bald but girls and women may become bald if they lose their hair from a disease called alopecia.
+
+Men often lose some of their hair as they grow older. This is known as baldness. Doctors call it "male pattern baldness" because hairs often fall out in similar places. It often begins by hair falling out first from the front of the head, and then from the top of the head. After a while, all that may be left is a some hair running above the ears and around the lower back of the head. Even though it is unusual for women to go bald, many women suffer from thinning hair over the top of their head as they grow old.
+
+People have tried to find cures for hair loss for thousands of years. In an effort to get their hair back, men have tried "cures" like applying strange lotions or even having their heads packed in chicken manure. Many unproven "cures" are still marketed today. It is only in the last decade or so that treatments have been developed which do sometimes work. Some doctors do hair transplants, where they take tiny plugs of hair from areas like the back of the neck and plant them in the bald spots on the head. Some drugs have been tested and approved for sale as hair loss treatments. They encourage hair regrowth and thickening, but work better if applied before hair loss turns to baldness.
+
+History and culture
+ People have been interested in hair on their heads for hundreds of thousands of years. For both men and women, styling and coloring hair have been ways to look good, and get attention. Sometimes society makes rules about hair, for example by not allowing people to cut their hair or beards, like in Sikhism
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Ireland (; ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic. It is about 486 kilometres (302 miles) long and about 288 kilometres (179 miles) wide. To the west of Ireland is the Atlantic Ocean; to the east of Ireland is the island of Great Britain. Over 6.4 million people lived on the island in 2016.
+
+Countries
+Today, the island of Ireland is made up of two countries: the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland:
+ The Republic of Ireland is a sovereign state and occupies 84% of the island. Its capital and largest city is Dublin. The official languages of the Republic are Irish and English. Even though Irish is official in the country, only a small part of the population is fluent or a native speaker. While the Irish language (or Gaelic) is taught in most schools, most people speak English in their day-to-day lives.
+ Northern Ireland, which is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom, makes up the remaining 17% of Ireland and is in the north-east part of the island. It has a population of 1.8 million people, and its capital and largest city is Belfast.
+ During the 1550s and the 1650s four plantations had taken place in Ireland.
+
+From 1801 to 1921, all of Ireland was part of the same country, called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1919, a war broke out, the Irish War of Independence, and on December 6 1921, the Irish Free State became independent. After a new constitution came into effect in 1937, the state became a republic. Northern Ireland stayed with the UK, and this would lead to The Troubles beginning in the 1960s and ending with the Good Friday Agreement signed in 1998.
+
+Facts
+ The flag colours of the Republic of Ireland are green, white and orange.
+ A symbol of Ireland is the shamrock.
+ Popular games in Ireland include Gaelic football and hurling.
+ The population of the Republic of Ireland is around 4.7 million.
+ The president of the Republic of Ireland is Michael D. Higgins.
+ The two parts of Ireland are the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
+ The River Shannon, which runs from north to south, is the longest river on the island. Ireland has many lakes and Lough Neagh, in Northern Ireland, is the largest lake in Ireland. Ireland is known for its landscapes, music, history, and mythology.
+ the great potato famine was very bed about 1 million people died
+
+Provinces and counties
+Ireland is traditionally divided into four provinces and thirty-two counties. Twenty-six counties are in the Republic and six in Northern Ireland. Three of the provinces are entirely within the Republic (Connacht, Leicester and Munster), and one province (Ulster) has some counties in both the Republic and in Northern Ireland.
+ Connacht - Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo
+ Leinster - Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, Laois, Longford, Louth, County Meath, Offaly, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow
+ Munster - Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, Waterford
+ Ulster - Cavan, Donegal, Monaghan (Republic of Ireland); Antrim, Armagh, Derry, Down, Fermanagh, Tyrone (Northern Ireland)
+
+Main cities
+Dublin is the largest city. It is the capital of the Republic of Ireland. Dublin was established as a Viking settlement in the 9th century. The population is 525,383 in Dublin City, and 1,270,603 in Co. Dublin.
+
+Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland. It has 483,000 people in the Greater Belfast urban area there are 267,000 in the city itself. Shipbuilding used to be a major industry here. The Titanic was built in Belfast at the Harland and Wolff shipyard.
+
+Armagh is a city in Northern Ireland. It is often called the 'Ecclesiastic Capital of Ireland' as it is the seat of both the Catholic Church and the (Protestant) Church of Ireland. The population is 14,590.
+
+Cork is the largest city in Munster. Corkonians often refer to it as 'the Real Capital'. The population is 119,230. but following a 2019 Cork boundary change|boundary extension in 2019, the population increased to c. 210,000.
+
+Derry (Or Londonderry) is the second largest city in Northern Ireland. Derry is notable for the Medieval city walls which still stand. Because the walls have never been breached, the city is nicknamed "The Maiden City". In 2013 Derry was the UK Capital of Culture. Many cultural events took place there during the year. The population is 83,652.
+
+History
+
+During the last glacial period (the "ice age"), most of Ireland was covered with ice. After that, Ireland became covered with trees. The first people came to Ireland about 9,000 years ago, in the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic period). They were nomadic. Once food ran out in the place they lived, they would move to another place. Evidence of these people was found in Mount Sandel, Co. Derry.
+
+About 4000 BC, in the New Stone Age (Neolithic period), the first farmers arrived in Ireland. These people cleared openings in the forest and built permanent settlements with houses and farmland. When people in this age died, they were buried in tombs called megaliths. Many megaliths are left standing today, such as portal dolmens and passage tombs.The most famous megalith is Newgrange passage tomb in co.Meath.
+
+New settlers came around 2000BC, marking the start of the Bronze Age. Copper was mined mainly in Mount Gabriel, Co. Cork and tin was imported from Cornwall. These people used bronze to make weapons, such as swords. They also used it to make early forms of jewellery, such as sun discs and torcs. These settlers buried the dead in court tombs or wedge tombs, and burial places have been found with stone circles.
+
+It is unknown when the Celts came to Ireland, but it is likely they brought the use of iron with them. The use of iron marks the start of the Iron Age. It is known that by about 300BC, the use of iron and Celtic culture was widespread in Ireland. The Celts lived in ring forts, hill forts, promontory forts and crannĂłgs. It is thought that only the richer families and settlements lived in crannĂłgs. These were man-made islands in the middle of lakes with houses on them.
+
+Celtic Ireland was split into around 150 kingdoms called tuath. The king was elected from the royal family. Below the king were the Nobles, and the Aos DĂĄna, who were people with special skills, such as poets, Druids (priests), judges and craftsmen.
+
+By the early 6th century, Ireland was mostly Christian through the work of St. Patrick and other missionaries. Druids were replaced by priests and monks. Monasteries soon were built such as Glendalough in co. Wicklow. Glendalough and other monasteries built round towers for safety when Vikings attacked. Small monasteries were also built in remote places, the most famous being Skellig Michael, off the coast of co. Kerry.
+
+At this time many hand-written manuscripts were created by the monasteries. They include the Cathach, the Book of Durrow, and the Book of Kells. Monks also produced fine silver chalices, croziers and brooches, and carved high crosses.
+
+In 1169, Anglo-Norman lords invaded Ireland. They were led by Strongbow who landed at Passage East, Co. Waterford. The Anglo-Normans conquered many parts of Ireland in the following 60 years. They introduced their way of life to the Irish people. The feudal system was soon introduced in Ireland as a means of organising land. Castles were built to defend the land like Trim Castle, Co. Meath. During the Middle Ages, Ireland's first proper towns were built.
+
+From 1801 until 1921, all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1921 Northern Ireland was created and 'partitioned' from the south. Northern Ireland has stayed within the United Kingdom since then. The full name of the UK is 'The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'.
+
+In 1921 the south became the Irish Free State. In 1937 the Irish Free State adopted a new constitution which named the state 'Ireland', and in 1948 this state passed the Republic of Ireland Act which declared it to be a republic.
+
+Migration
+Many Irish people have left Ireland and moved to the United States, Canada, Australia, and South America. The Great Famine (1845 to 1849 inclusive) forced many to leave; it is estimated almost a million people died of starvation, and a million more emigrated. From a maximum of over 8 million in 1841, the total Irish population dropped to just over 4 million in the 1940s. Since then, the population has grown to over 6 million. This has been helped by the economic growth of the "Celtic Tiger" and since 2004 immigration from countries in Eastern Europe such as Poland.
+
+Today almost 80 million people around the world are descended from Irish immigants.
+
+Climate
+
+Ireland has an oceanic climate.
+
+The highest temperature ever recorded in Ireland was , on 16 July 1876 in Dublin.
+
+Top 5 warmest days
+
+Sports
+
+Ireland's main sports are Gaelic Games (Gaelic football, hurling, etc.) and soccer.
+
+The many sports played and followed in Ireland include Gaelic games (mainly Gaelic football, hurling and camogie), horse racing, show jumping, greyhound racing, basketball, fishing, handball, motorsport, MMA, boxing, target shooting and tennis. Hockey, golf, rowing, cricket, rugby union and Olympic target shooting are organised on an all-island basis, with a single team representing the whole of Ireland in international competitions. Other sports, such as soccer and netball, have separate organizing bodies in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
+
+As Northern Ireland is a constituent nation of the United Kingdom it also sends a Northern Ireland Team to the Commonwealth Games. At the Olympic Games, a person from Northern Ireland can choose to represent either Ireland or Great Britain.
+
+Soccer is the most popular team sport in terms of participation. According to the Irish Sports Monitor 2015 annual report, 4.8% of adults over 15 participate in Soccer. Gaelic football 2%, camogie 1.2, rugby 1.1%. Individual exercise pursuits are most popular with 43% of all sport participated by individuals on their own. Personal exercise 13.7%, running 8.2%, swimming 8%, cycling 5.5%, dancing 3%, golf 2.7%, weights 2.3%, yoga 1.5% and pilates 1.4%.
+
+Soccer is by far the most popular team pursuit for males at 8.8% with Gaelic football attracting 3.4%. Personal exercise 13.4% and running 8.9% are the most popular male activities. Team sports do not figure highly amongst females with dancing at 4.6% and yoga 2.4% are two of the highest shared activities.
+
+Given the variety of sports in Ireland, it is of interest to note how the government's Capital Sports programme 2017 allocated it's âŹ56 million funds. âŹ23.5 million went to the GAA which highlights the strength of the GAA lobby. âŹ7.25 million to soccer, Rugby âŹ3.1 million, tennis âŹ2.64 million, golf âŹ1.97 million, sailing âŹ1.21 million, athletics just under âŹ1 million, diving âŹ451,000 while other sports did not fare so well.
+
+Gaelic Football is one of the most popular sports in Ireland in terms of match attendance, and in 2003 had 34% of total sports attendances at events in the Republic of Ireland, followed by hurling at 23%, soccer at 16% and rugby at 8%. Initiative's ViewerTrack study, which measured 2005 sports audiences, showed the sport's highest-profile match, the All-Ireland Football Final, to be the most watched event of the nation's sporting year. Soccer is the most played team sport in Ireland.
+
+References
+
+
+Divided regions
+The Internet is the biggest world-wide communication network of computers. The Internet has a lot of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry many different kinds of information. The short form of internet is the 'Net'. The World Wide Web is one of its biggest services. It is used by countless people all over the world.
+
+The Internet was developed in the United States by the Department of Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Internet was first connected in October 1969 and was called ARPANET. The World Wide Web was created at CERN in Switzerland in 1990 by a British (UK) scientist named Tim Berners-Lee.
+
+Today, people can pay money to access the Internet from internet service providers. Some services on the Internet cost nothing to use. Sometimes people who offer these free services use advertising to make money. Censorship and freedom of speech on the Internet can be controversial.
+
+Services
+
+The Internet is used for many things, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer and other documents of the World Wide Web.
+
+The most used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web (which is also called the "Web" or âwwwâ). The web contains websites, including social media, blogs, and wikis like Wikipedia. Webpages on the Internet can be seen and read by anyone (unless the page needs a password, or it is blocked).
+
+The second biggest use of the Internet is to send and receive e-mail. E-mail is private and goes from one user to another. Instant messaging is similar to email, but allows two or more people to chat to each other faster.
+
+Some governments think the internet is a bad thing, and block all or part of it. For example, the Chinese government thinks that Wikipedia is bad, so often no one in China can read it or add to it. Another example of the internet being blocked is in North Korea. Some parents and schools block parts of the Internet they think are bad for children to see.
+
+Dangers
+The Internet makes communication easy, and communication can be dangerous too. People often send secret information, and sometimes other people can steal that information. They can use the Internet to spread lies, steal secrets, or give dangerously bad advice. For example, Facebook has had some problems with privacy settings.
+
+ Some websites may trick people into downloading viruses that can harm a computer, or spyware that spies on its users (looks at what they are doing and tells someone else).
+E-mails can have harmful files with them as "attachments".
+ In internet chatrooms, people might be preying on others or trying to stalk or abuse them.
+ The Internet contains content that many people find offensive , as well as content intended to be offensive.
+ Criminals may steal people's personal information or trick people into sending them money.
+
+Related pages
+Communications satellite
+Media studies
+World Wide Web
+ARPANET
+Happy
+
+Further reading
+
+References
+Italy ( [iËtaËlja]) is a country in Southern Europe. It is a member of the European Union. Its official name is the Italian Republic (). The Italian flag is green, white and red. Italy is a democratic republic.
+
+Italy is a founding member of the European Union. In 2022, Italy's president is Sergio Mattarella. Its prime minister is Giorgia Meloni. Italy is also a member of the G7, as it has the eighth largest gross domestic product in the world.
+
+Italy has become famous for its wine and food. Some foods are different between regions. Famous dishes include various types of pasta, pizza, and grapes. Olives are also often used.
+
+Before 1861, Italy was made up of smaller kingdoms and city-states.
+
+The country's capital, Rome, is one of the most famous cities in the world. It was the capital of the Roman Empire. Other famous cities in Italy include Venice, Naples, Turin, Genoa, Florence, Palermo, and Milan.
+
+Geography
+
+Italy is a peninsula. It is surrounded by the sea on all of its sides except its north side. Northern Italy is separated from France, Switzerland, and Austria by the Alps, a chain of mountains. Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco in Italian or white mountain in English), the highest mountain in Western Europe, is in this chain. The second important chain of mountains in Italy is the Apennines (), which are in central and southern Italy.
+
+The Po River is the longest river in Italy. It flows through 5 cities: Turin, Piacenza, Cremona, and Ferrara. The Tiber River runs through the city of Rome.
+
+Northern Italy has some of the biggest lakes in the country, such as Lake Garda, Lake Como, Lake Maggiore and Lake Iseo. Because it is surrounded by the sea, Italy has a very long coast, which brings tourists from all over the world. Tourists also come to see Italy's historical places.
+
+The country has a number of islands, the biggest of which are Sicily and Sardinia, which can be reached by ship or aircraft. Italy has a border at sea with Libya to the south.
+
+Political geography
+
+The capital of Italy is Rome. This is where the Roman Empire started. Other large cities in Italy include Milan, Naples, Turin, Florence, Palermo, and Venice.
+
+Two enclaves (separate countries) are located within Italy. They are San Marino, which is surrounded by Northern Italy, and the Vatican City, which is surrounded by the city of Rome. Vatican City is also the only enclave in the world to also be surrounded by a city.
+
+Climate
+Italy has both an oceanic climate and continental climate.
+
+The highest temperature ever recorded in Italy was on 25 June 2007 in Foggia.
+
+The lowest temperature ever recorded in Italy was on 10 February 2013 at Pale di San Martino.
+
+People and culture
+
+People from Italy are called Italians. Even if an Italian were to leave Italy, it is possible that their descendants could also claim Italian citizenship. This is because of Italian nationality law relying mostly on ius sanguinis, or "right of blood" in Latin. Almost all Italians are Christians. Most of these are Roman Catholics. Roman Catholicism
+
+is based in the Vatican City, which is home to its leader, the Pope.
+
+The population of Italy is about 60 million people. Almost 3 million of them live in Rome, and 1.5 million in Milan. As of December 2015, over 5 million foreigners were living in Italy, which is 8.3% of the total population.
+
+The official language of Italy is Italian. German, Slovenian, French, and a few others are also recognized. People also speak dialects of Italian such as Sicilian and Sardinian. There are many different dialects spoken in Italy. They vary between regions and sometimes between provinces.
+
+The people of Italy are mostly descendant from the ancient Romans.
+
+Italy is home to more World Heritage Sites than any other country in the world. These sites are culturally important and valued according to UNESCO. About 60% of the works of art of the world are in Italy. Italy is also a big wine producer. In 2005, it made over 5 million tonnes of wine.
+
+Food
+Famous Italian foods include pasta and pizza.
+
+Art
+Many notable artists were from Italy. They include:
+ Donatello, sculptor
+ Leonardo da Vinci, painter
+ Michelangelo, sculptor and painter
+ Amedeo Modigliani, painter
+ Raphael, painter
+
+Economy
+
+Italy has a modern social welfare system. The labor market is very strong. Many foreigners, especially from Romania, work in Italy where the wages are much higher.
+
+Italy's modern society has been built up through loans. Now the country has a very high debt of 1.9 trillion euros or 120% of the country's total GDP.
+
+Religion
+
+Most people in Italy are Roman Catholics, but the Catholic Church is no longer officially the state religion. 87.8% of the people said they were Roman Catholic.
+Only about a third said they were active members (36.8%). There are also other Christian groups in Italy, with more than 700,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians. 180,000 of them belong to the Greek Orthodox Church.
+
+550,000 are Pentecostals and Evangelicals (0.8%). 235,685 Jehovah's Witnesses (0.4%), 30,000 Waldensians, 25,000 Seventh-day Adventists, 22,000 Mormons, 20,000 Baptists, 7,000 Lutherans, 4,000 Methodists.
+The country's oldest religious minority is the Jewish community. It has about 45,000 people. It is no longer the largest non-Christian group.
+About 825,000 Muslims live in Italy. Most of them immigrated. (1.41% of the total population) Only 50,000 are Italian citizens. In addition, there are 50,000 Buddhists 70,000 Sikh and 70,000 Hindus in Italy.
+
+Major cities
+
+ Rome
+ Venice
+ Milan
+ Naples
+ Turin
+ Florence
+ Bologna
+ Palermo
+ Trieste
+ Bari
+
+Regions
+Italy has 20 regions (). Every region is divided into provinces.
+
+There are 20 regions. Five of them have a special status, called autonomous. This means that they can make certain local laws more easily. These regions are marked with an asterisk (*) below.
+
+Politics
+
+The head of state is Sergio Mattarella. He became President of the Italian Republic in February 2015. The first president was Enrico De Nicola.
+
+The head of government is Giorgia Meloni. She became Prime Minister on October 22, 2022, the first woman in that role. She succeeded Mario Draghi. Draghi's cabinet, fell after support for his coalition fell.
+
+Italy was one of the first members of the European Union. In 2002 along with 11 other European countries, it changed to using the euro as its official currency. Before this, the Italian lira had been used since 1861.
+
+Anyone who wants to be President of Italy must have Italian citizenship, be at least 50 years old, and must be able to uphold political and civil rights.
+
+History
+
+The capital of Italy is Rome. Rome was founded in 753 BC. It was a separate state well known as Roman Kingdom firstly, Roman Republic and Roman Empire later. It conquered various neighbors including the Etruscan civilization in the north and the states in the south known as Magna Graecia.
+
+Before 1861, Italy was not a state. The area included a group of separate states that were ruled by other countries (such as Austria, France, and Spain). In the 1850s, the Earl of Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour was the head of government of the "State of Sardinia". He talked to the Austrians in Lombardy and Veneto and said they should create a Northern Italian state. This happened, but other Central and Southern Italian states also joined Piedmont to create a bigger state.
+
+Kingdom of Italy
+
+In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi took control of Sicily, creating the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Victor Emmanuel II was made the king. In 1861, Latium and Veneto were still not part of Italy, because they were ruled by the Pope and Austrian Empire.
+
+Veneto was made part of Italy in 1866 after a war with Austria. Italian soldiers won Latium in 1870. That was when they took away the Pope's power. The Pope, who was angry, said that he was a prisoner to keep Catholic people from being active in politics. That was the year of Italian unification.
+
+Italy participated in World War I. It was an ally of Great Britain, France, and Russia against the Central Powers. Almost all of Italy's fighting was on the Eastern border, near Austria. After the "Caporetto defeat", Italy thought they would lose the war. But, in 1918, the Central Powers surrendered. Italy gained the Trentino-South Tyrol, which once was owned by Austria.
+
+Fascist Italy
+In 1922, a new Italian government started. It was ruled by Benito Mussolini, the leader of Fascism in Italy. He became head of government and dictator, calling himself "Il Duce" (which means "leader" in Italian). He became friends with German dictator Adolf Hitler. Germany, Japan, and Italy became the Axis Powers. In 1940, they entered World War II together against France, Great Britain, and later the Soviet Union. During the war, Italy controlled most of the Mediterranean Sea.
+
+On July 25, 1943, Mussolini was removed by the Great Council of Fascism. On September 8, 1943, Badoglio said that the war as an ally of Germany was ended. Italy started fighting as an ally of France and the UK, but Italian soldiers did not know whom to shoot. In Northern Italy, a movement called Resistenza started to fight against the German invaders. On April 25, 1945, much of Italy became free, while Mussolini tried to make a small Northern Italian fascist state called the Republic of SalĂČ. The fascist state failed and Mussolini tried to flee to Switzerland and escape to Francoist Spain, but he was captured by Italian partisans. On 28 April 1945 Mussolini was executed by a partisan.
+
+After World War Two
+
+The state became a republic on June 2, 1946. For the first time, women were able to vote. Italian people ended the Savoia dynasty and adopted a republic government.
+
+In February 1947, Italy signed a peace treaty with the Allies. They lost all the colonies and some territorial areas (Istria and parts of Dalmatia).
+
+Since then Italy has joined NATO and the European Community (as a founding member). It is one of the seven biggest industrial economies in the world.
+
+Transportation
+
+The railway network in Italy totals . It is the 17th longest in the world. High speed trains include ETR-class trains which travel at speeds of up to .
+
+Related pages
+ Italy at the Olympics
+ Italy national football team
+ Italian cuisine
+ Italophilia
+ Italian Mare Nostrum
+ List of rivers of Italy
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Official tourism website
+
+
+European Union member states
+Italian-speaking countries
+G8 nations
+G7 nations
+If is a word to describe a statement where one thing depends on something else.
+
+For example:
+We can call this true if there is proof.
+We will play outside if it does not rain.
+
+If â is a poem written by Rudyard Kipling. It appeared in the Brother Square Toes chapter of Kipling's book Rewards and Fairies. In a 1995 BBC opinion poll, it was voted Britain's favourite poem. It is arguably Kipling's most famous poem.
+
+Basic English 850 words
+An island is a piece of land that is surrounded by a body of water such as a lake, river, sea or ocean. Islands are smaller than continents. Although there are many Islands that surround fresh water, the vast majority of them surround oceans.
+
+Greenland and Australia are huge islands, but they are built of continental rock, and the latter is generally considered a continent. The most ancient part of continental rock is far older and chemically more complex than the rock of the sea floor.
+
+The heart of continents is their cratons, which are the most ancient and stable parts of the Earth's crust. In the cratons are all the rare elements needed for electronic equipment. They were swept up as the Sun moved through areas where supernovae had exploded. The rare elements we need were all got indirectly from supernovae explosions. The Sun's energy comes from turning hydrogen into helium.
+
+There are some islands which do have rare elements, and that is a sign that they were once part of a large supercontinent. So Great Britain was once part of a supercontinent. The oldest rocks are 2,700 million years old, and include many rare elements only found in cratons. Britain is a snapped-off piece of the Old Red Sandstone continent, now known as Laurasia.
+
+Other islands that were formed from the ocean floor, as Japan, and Hawaii were, lack most of the rare elements. Japan has for many years since WWII imported iron ore from Australia. Its seizing of Manchukuo (~Manchuria) and the infamous attack on Pearl Harbour no doubt had many reasons. Lack of raw materials was one of these Now it looks for potential in its nearby deep-sea muds.
+
+Big islands
+
+In Europe
+ Great Britain 218,995 kmÂČ
+ Iceland 101,826 kmÂČ
+ Ireland 81,638 kmÂČ
+ The island in the north of Novaja Zemlja 47,079 kmÂČ
+ Spitsbergen 38,981 kmÂČ
+ The island in the south of Novaja Zemlja 33,246 kmÂČ
+ Sicily 25,662 kmÂČ
+ Sardinia 23,812 kmÂČ
+ Nordaustlandet (archipelago of Svalbard, Norway) 14,247 kmÂČ
+ Cyprus 9,234
+ Corsica 8,741 kmÂČ
+
+Other places
+ Greenland 2,130,800 kmÂČ
+ New Guinea 785,753 kmÂČ
+ Borneo 748,138 kmÂČ
+ Madagascar 587,041 kmÂČ
+ Baffin 507,451 kmÂČ
+ Sumatra 677,658 kmÂČ
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+An interim is a period of temporary pause or change in a sequence of events, or a temporary state, and is often applied to transitional political entities.
+
+Interim may also refer to:
+
+Temporary organizational arrangements (general concept)
+Provisional government, emergency government during the creation, collapse, or crisis of a state; also called interim government
+Caretaker government, temporary rule between governments in a parliamentary democracy; also called interim government
+Acting president, interim head of a state
+Acting (law), designation of a person temporarily exercising the authority of any position
+Interim management, in business
+
+Specific temporary political arrangements
+
+Provisional and interim governments and constitutions
+Articles of Confederation, United States 1781â1788
+Interim government of California, 1846â1850
+Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States, 1861â1862
+Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, 1912â1931
+DĂĄil Constitution, Ireland 1918â1921
+Interim National Assembly (Czechoslovakia), 1945â1946
+Interim Government of India, 1946â1947
+Provisional Constitution of 1950, Indonesia 1950â1959
+Interim Constitution of Tanzania, 1964â1977
+Interim presidency of Suharto, Indonesia 1967â1968
+Interim Constitution of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (1974), from 1974
+Interim Batasang Pambansa, government of the Philippines 1978â1984
+Interim Government of Iran 1979â80, also covered by Interim Government of Iran (1979â80),
+Interim Government of Iran (1981)
+Interim Parliament of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 1983
+Transitional Government of Ethiopia, 1991â1995
+Interim Government of Somalia, 1991â1996
+Interim National Government, Nigeria 1993
+Interim Constitution (South Africa), 1994â1997
+National Transitional Council (Congo), 1997â2001
+Joint Interim Administrative Structure, Kosovo 2000â2001
+Afghan Interim Administration, 2001â2002
+Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 2004â2005
+Iraqi Interim Government, 2005
+Iraqi Transitional Government, 2005â2006
+Interim National Constitution of the Republic of Sudan, 2005
+2006 interim constitution of Thailand and 2006 Thai interim civilian government
+Interim Cabinet of Fiji, 2007
+2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, 2011â2012
+National Transitional Council, Libya 2011â2012
+Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration, from 2011
+Regmi interim cabinet, Nepal 2013â2014
+Interim Government of Ambazonia, from 2017
+2020 interim government of Kyrgyzstan
+
+Caretaker interim governments
+
+Specific states generally
+Interrex (English: "between kings"), office in the Roman Kingdom and Republic, a type of regent
+Caretaker government of Australia, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
+Caretaker government of Bangladesh, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
+Caretaker government of Malaysia, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
+Caretaker Prime Minister of Pakistan, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country
+Interim and Acting President of Israel
+Interim leader (Canada), a temporary party leader appointed upon the resignation or death of a party leader
+
+Specific caretaker interim governments
+Churchill caretaker ministry, United Kingdom 1945
+Iraqi Governing Council, government under the Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 2004â2005 (see above)
+Interim legislature of Nepal, from 2009
+Interim Cabinet of Panagiotis Pikrammenos in Greece, 2012
+2015 interim election government of Turkey
+Caretaker Government of Myanmar (2021), from 2021
+Sub-state entities
+Interim East Punjab Assembly, 1947â1951
+Interim Morgan Government, Wales 2000
+Interim Uttarakhand Assembly, Indian state of Uttarakhand 2000â2002
+Ituri Interim Administration, government of the Ituri region of the Congo, from 2003
+Syrian Interim Government, government of some parts of Syria from 2013
+Bangsamoro Interim Cabinet, government of Bangsamoro in the Philippines from 2018
+
+Temporary peaces
+Regensburg Interim, 1542 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany
+Augsburg Interim, 1548 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany
+Leipzig Interim, another 1548 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany
+Interim Peace between Finland and the USSR 1940â1941
+
+Diplomacy
+Chargé d'affaires ad interim, temporary head of a diplomatic mission
+Interim Meeting of Foreign Ministers, 1945, also called the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers
+Interim Agreement, commonly known as the Oslo Accords, relating to the IsraeliâPalestinian conflict
+Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, commonly known as the Oslo II Accord
+Sinai Interim Agreement, also known as the Sinai II Agreement, between Egypt and Israel 1975
+Interim Self Governing Authority, 2003 Tamil proposal
+Geneva interim agreement on Iranian nuclear program, 2013, commonly known as the Joint Plan of Action
+
+Other
+Interim Committee, precursor to the American Atomic Energy Commission 1945â1946
+Interim Independent Electoral Commission (Kenya), 2009â2011
+Interim Committee on Un-American Activities, commonly known as the Canwell Committee, legislative committee of Washington State in the United States, 1947â1949
+Nassau Interim Finance Authority, from 2000, New York State commission
+Interim Climate Change Committee, New Zealand 2018â2019
+
+Legal concepts and procedures
+Interim order, court order in effect pending outcome of a case
+Interim trustee, concept in United States bankruptcy law
+Interim appeal, a partial appeal in United States law
+Interim interdict in Scots law, a temporary injunction
+Judicial interim release, part of Canadian bail law
+
+Peacekeeping forces
+United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, from 1978
+United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei in Sudan, from 2011
+
+Sports
+Caretaker manager, temporary manager of a soccer team; also called interim manager
+Interim championship, temporary world championship in boxing and other contact sports
+IFA Interim Intermediate League, Ireland 2008â2009
+
+The arts
+Interim (film), 1953 short film by Stan Brakhage
+Interim (album), 2004 album by British rock band The Fall
+Interim Resurgence, 1985 album by Zoogz Rift
+INTERIM-Theater in Munich
+
+Other
+Interim analysis, in science, analysis of incomplete data
+Interim state, in some religious thought, an intermediate state between one's death and the End Times
+Interim alternative educational setting, in American education, temporary placement for a special-needs student
+Interim Housing, in China, provision for temporarily displaced persons
+MCC Interim Linux, provisional software release 1992
+Institute of Interim Management, United Kingdom
+Interim Fast Attack Vehicle, American scout vehicle
+Interim Control Module, NASA machine
+Interim Capability for Airborne Networking, United States Air Force process
+Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera, taxonomic database
+Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia
+
+Related pages
+Ad interim, Latin phrase for "in the meantime"
+Interim velim a sole mihi non obstes ("In the meantime, don't block my sun")
+Regent, temporary ruler standing in for monarch currently unable to exercise rule
+Locum tenens, a person who temporarily fulfills the duties of another
+An idiom is a common phrase which means something different from its literal meaning but can be understood because of their popular use.
+
+Idioms are difficult for someone not good at speaking the language. Some idioms are only used by some groups of people or at certain times. The idiom shape up or ship out, which is like saying improve your behavior or leave if you don't, might be said by an employer or supervisor to an employee, but not to other people.
+
+Idioms are not the same thing as slang. Idioms are made of normal words that have a special meaning known to almost everyone. Slang is usually special words, or special meanings of normal words that are known only to a particular group of people.
+
+To learn a language a person needs to learn the words in that language, and how and when to use them. But people also need to learn idioms separately because certain words together or at certain times can have different meanings. In order to understand an idiom, one sometimes needs to know the culture from which the idiom comes.
+
+To know the history of an idiom can be useful and interesting. For example, most native British English speakers know that "No room to swing a cat" means "there was not much space" and can use the idiom properly. However, few know this is because 200 years ago sailors were punished by being whipped with a "cat o' nine tails". A big space was cleared on the ship so that the person doing the whipping had room to swing the cat.
+
+An idiom is a phrase whose meaning cannot be understood from the dictionary definitions of each word taken separately. The linguist's term for the real meaning of an idiom is the subtext.
+
+Simple Definition
+Idioms are phrases or expressions that have a figurative meaning different from their literal interpretation. They are commonly used in everyday language to convey a specific idea, often with cultural or historical significance. Idioms are not meant to be taken literally, and their meaning can be understood only by familiarizing oneself with their usage and context.
+
+Some common idioms
+ Break a leg
+ A way to wish someone good luck.
+ To live it up
+ To enjoy life, to live widely
+ To kick the bucket
+ To die.
+ Shape up or ship out
+ Used to tell someone that they should leave if they don't improve their behavior or performance
+ Learn the ropes
+Learn and often perfect the skills of a craft, job, etc.
+ Mad as a hatter
+Mentally unstable, especially as the result of poisoning.
+ To shed crocodile tears To cry about something but without actually caring.
+ Wild goose chase A useless journey or pursuit.
+ Nothing burger An idea or promise without substance
+ There's no room to swing a cat
+ There is not a lot of space.
+ To pay through the nose
+ To pay a lot of money, more than is normal.
+ Cost an arm and a leg
+Be extremely expensive.
+ To bark up the wrong tree
+ To choose the wrong course of action.
+ To spill the beans
+ To tell a secret.
+ It's raining cats and dogs
+ It's raining heavily.
+ To get into hot water
+ To get into trouble.
+ Skate on thin ice
+To disregard caution.
+ Chicken-hearted
+ Frightened or cowardly
+ To chicken out
+ Not doing a thing, because of fear.
+ Top dog
+ Leader.
+ To smell a rat
+ To think that something is wrong.
+ To give up
+ To quit.
+ To give up on
+ To stop believing in something or someone.
+ I could eat a horse
+ I am very hungry.
+ To be on top of the world
+To be really happy.
+ Once in a blue moon
+Rarely
+ Wouldn't touch with a ten-foot pole! (Or barge pole in British English)
+Not wanting anything to do with something or someone.
+ Avoid like the plague
+Avoid at any cost.
+ Miss the boat
+Be too late for a chance or opportunity.
+ Child's play
+Easy to do.
+ Cakewalk
+Something easy to accomplish.
+ Chinese puzzle
+Extremely difficult task.
+ Castle in the clouds or pie in the sky
+An impossible or improbable dream, project, etc.
+ Hit the sack
+To go to bed
+ Get\give the sack
+Dismiss or be dismissed from one's employment.
+ The whole nine yards
+Everything
+ Bells and whistles
+All the unnecessary luxuries, features, etc
+ Mad as a hater
+Insane, as from poisoning.
+ Turn a blind eye \ deaf ear
+To ignore.
+ Cry wolf
+Report a false emergency.
+ One's cup of tea
+What someone prefers.
+ Not for all the tea in China
+
+ Less common idioms include
+ Safe as houses
+Very safe and secure.
+
+Idioms which have unclear meaning
+Articles by Oxfam and the BBC have said that many idioms in English are unclear, or ambiguous. Many are understood differently in different countries. Many of the examples are taken from face-to-face talk, but may also apply in written reports.
+
+Examples
+Satisfactory (in a report, or in an assessment) might mean not satisfactory.
+I hear what you say. Might mean I'm listening, but more likely I totally disagree.
+With the greatest respect. May mean You are quite wrong. 68% of British thought it meant "I think you are an idiot", whereas 49% of Americans thought it meant "I am listening to you".
+I'll bear it in mind. In a survey 55% of British thought it meant I've forgotten it already. 43% of Americans thought it meant I will probably do it.
+
+Vocables are sounds that are not proper words, but mean something, and are often ambiguous. One is a long drawn-out sound hmmmmmm.
+
+One suggestion is that these idioms are used to smooth over difficult areas in social interaction. They cover passive-aggressive statements which might cause more conflict if openly expressed.
+
+Related pages
+Proverb
+
+References
+
+Figures of speech
+The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) tests how fluent you are in the English language. People who take the test take the Academic Module or the General Training Module. The academic one is for people who want to go to university. The general one is for people who want to do other training or want to get work experience. People who want to emigrate to a country that uses English also take the general one.
+
+Most universities in Australia, Britain, Canada, New Zealand and the United States accept the IELTS. Many professional companies do as well.
+
+Other websites
+ IELTS Web Site
+ IELTS Exams
+
+English language
+Tests
+Ink is a liquid that is used to write, draw, print, or make marks. The word ink is from Latin and means "colored water". Ink is used in pens, in some computer printers, and in printing presses. In some countries, people write by using ink and brushes. People usually write or print using black ink, but ink can be any color. The first ink was used in Egypt about 2600 BC.
+
+The first inks were carbon inks, made from soot, which is 80% carbon, water and gum arabic. Red ink would need iron oxide (such as haematite) from ground rocks instead of soot. Later, in Europe, people used iron gall ink. This is the kind of ink Johann Sebastian Bach and Leonardo da Vinci used. Now ink colours are produced by man-made dyes.
+
+A disadvantage of many kinds of ink is that they may smudge when wet, spoiling the picture or writing. If water-based ink is used, the writing situation needs to be stable, with the writer seated at a table. Ink in a ballpoint pen (biro) is a kind of gel. It is held in a thin long cylinder (tube) inside the pen. The ink does not fall out of the cylinder as it sticks to the sides of the tube. Therefore, ballpoint pens can be used in a wider range of circumstances compared to water-based inks.
+
+== References ==
+ .
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Writing tools
+Art materials
+The inch is a unit of length in the Imperial system and the United States customary system. The abbreviation for inches is in or ". There are 12 inches in a foot. One inch is equal to 2.54 centimetres.
+
+The word "inch" came from Middle English unche, which came from Old English ynce, from Latin uncia meaning "a twelfth part".
+
+History
+
+The inch was originally defined as 3 barleycorns. The inch was finally standardised in the International Yard and Pound Treaty in 1959 between the United States, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. The international yard was made equal to 0.9144 metres. From this, subdivisions and multiples of the yard were specifically defined.
+
+Usage
+
+In Britain and the United States, people use inches more than they use millimetres or centimetres. In the rest of the world, international units are almost always used. The inch is not used by scientists.
+
+In the United Kingdom, road signs that show how high a vehicle can be in order to pass through a tunnel are required to be in feet and inches. Theme parks and drive thru signs usually show it in metres. People regularly measure their height in feet and inches. Official medical records, however, are required to record people's height in metric measurements only.
+
+In Canada, a mix of centimetres and inches are used in height. Older generations, especially, use Imperial units. A lot of exposure to Americanized phrases leads to younger generations often having a good understanding of both the Imperial and metric systems.
+
+In the United States, height is always in feet and inches. Science is the only field to use metric measurements.
+
+Other Commonwealth countries, including Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Jamaica use inches to varying degrees. From every day use to exclusively the older community.
+
+Length
+
+Units of length
+Imperial units
+The pint (abbreviated pt) is a unit of volume in imperial units and United States customary units. There are three types of pints used in different countries. An imperial pint and US pint both equal of a quart and of a gallon.
+
+An imperial fluid ounce is approximately 4% smaller than a US fluid ounce although an imperial pint has 4 more fluid ounces than a US pint, making an imperial pint approximately 20% larger than a US pint.
+
+Imperial Pint
+The imperial pint is the pint used in England, Canada, Ireland, and Burma. The unit may appear in other Commonwealth. Confusion in Canada often arises as liquids are occasionally sold in U.S. pints, near the border, although the official and only pint that is legal in Canada is the imperial pint. The imperial system has no dry pint and volume in dry units, since solid objects are measured by mass. 1 imperial pint equals 568,261.25 mm3.
+
+An imperial fluid ounce is approximately 4% smaller than a US fluid ounce although an imperial pint has 4 more fluid ounces than a US pint, making an imperial pint approximately 20% larger than a US pint.
+
+US Wet Pint
+The US wet pint, or more commonly 'pint', is the unit used to measure volume in the United States. It is more common than the dry pint which is used for non-liquid volume measurements. 1 US pint is exactly equal to 473,176.473 mm3, defined by the international yard and pound agreement.
+
+US Dry Pint
+The US dry pint was a unit used for measuring the volume of solid objects instead of mass or quantity.
+
+Usage
+ The wet U.S. pint is still commonly used in the United States.
+ In Canada, it is commonly used for alcohol although a pint can vary from 12 fl oz to 20 fl oz and is sometimes incorrectly given in US fl oz.
+ In England and Ireland, only milk and pure ethanol are sold in pints; however, milk must have litres next to pints.
+ In England, milk is often sold in metric quantities near to imperial pints.
+
+Imperial units
+Units of volume
+The word Italian may mean:
+Anything related to the country of Italy
+Italians, people of Italy
+Italian cuisine, food of Italy
+Italian language
+Italians ( ) are a Romance ethnic group native to the Italian peninsula. Italians have a common culture, history, ancestry and language.
+
+References
+
+Italy
+Ethnic groups in Europe
+ISO 19011 is the new global accounting standard, replacing accounting standards that were part of ISO 14001 and ISO 9001. It is the most likely basis for accounting reform which could put an end to accounting scandals.
+
+The standard offers four resources to organizations to "save time, effort and money":
+
+ A clear explanation of the principles of management systems auditing.
+ Guidance on the management of audit programs.
+ Guidance on the conduct of internal or external audits.
+ Advice on the competence and evaluation of auditors.
+
+Accounting
+19011
+India (Hindi: ), officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ) and also known as HindustÄn or BhÄrat within the country, is a country in South Asia. It is the largest country by number of people and seventh largest country by land area. India is a peninsula, bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It has six neighbors: Pakistan in the north-west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan in the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east. Sri Lanka is nearby to the south.
+
+The capital city of India is New Delhi. India has the second largest military force in the world and is also a nuclear weapon state. India's economy became the world's fastest growing in the G20 developing nations during 2014, replacing the People's Republic of China. India's literacy and wealth are also rising. According to New World Wealth, India is the fifth richest country in the world with a total individual wealth of $12.6 trillion. However, it still has many social and economic issues like poverty and corruption. India is a founding member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and has signed the Kyoto Protocol.
+
+India has the fifth largest economy by nominal GDP, the third largest by GDP (PPP) and is the fastest growing major economy. India is a nuclear power and has the second largest standing military in the world. India has its own space agency (ISRO) and has done various research throughout the solar system, including sending spacecraft to the Moon, Mars, and Venus. India is also a member of the G20 developing nations, and has been described as a potential superpower due to its rising economy and increase in global influence.
+
+India has the fourth largest number of spoken languages per country in the world, only behind Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Nigeria. People of many different religions live there, including the five most popular world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, and Christianity. The first three religions originated from the Indian subcontinent along with Jainism.
+
+National symbols
+
+The national emblem of India shows four lions standing back-to-back. The lions symbolize power, pride, confidence, and courage. Only the government can use this emblem, according to the State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005.
+
+The name India comes from the Greek word, Indus. This came from the word sindhu, which, over time, turned into Hind, Hindi, or Hindu. The preferred endonym (the name given to the country by its own people) is "BhÄrat" in Hindi and other Indian languages as contrasted with names from outsiders. Some of the national symbols are:
+ National anthem: Jana Gana Mana
+ National song: Vande Mataram
+ National animal: Tiger
+ National bird: Peacock
+ National flower: Lotus
+ National tree: Banyan
+ National river: Ganges (Ganga)
+ National Aquatic Animal: Ganges River Dolphin
+ National fruit: Mango
+ National heritage animal: Elephant
+ National heritage bird: Indian eagle
+
+History
+
+Some of the main classical languages of the world, Tamil and Sanskrit, were born in today's India. Both of these languages are more than 3000 years old. The country founded a religion called Hinduism, which most Indians still follow. Later, a king named Chandragupt Maurya built an empire called the Maurya Empire in 300 BC. It made most of South Asia into one whole country. From 180 BC, many other countries invaded India. Even later (100 BC AD 1100), other Indian dynasties (empires) came, including the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandyas. Southern India at that time was famous for its science, art, and writing. The Cholas of Thanjavur were pioneers at war in the seas and invaded Malaya, Borneo, Cambodia. The influence of Cholas are still noticeable in Southeast Asia.
+
+Many dynasties ruled India around the year 1000. Some of these were the Mughal, Vijayanagara, and the Maratha empires. In the 1600s, European countries invaded India, and the British controlled most of India by 1856.
+
+In the early 1900s, millions of people peacefully started to protest against British control. One of the people who led the freedom movement was Mahatma Gandhi, who only used peaceful tactics, including a way called "ahimsa", which means "non-violence". On 15 August 1947, India peacefully became free and independent from the British Empire. India's constitution was founded on 26 January 1950. Every year, on this day, Indians celebrate Republic Day. The first official leader (Prime Minister) of India was Jawaharlal Nehru.
+
+After 1947, India had a socialist planned economy. It is one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. It has fought many wars since independence from Britain, including the wars in 1947-48, 1965, 1971, and 1999 with Pakistan and in 1962 with China. It also fought a war to capture Goa, a Portuguese-built port and a city that was not a part of India until 1961. The Portuguese refused to give it to the country, and so India had to use force and the Portuguese were defeated. India has also done nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998. It is one of the few countries that have nuclear bombs. Since 1991, India has been one of the fastest-growing economies in the world.
+
+Government
+
+India has the most people of any democracy in the world.
+
+India's government is divided into three parts: the Legislative (the one that makes the laws, the Parliament), the Executive (the government), and the Judiciary (the one that makes sure that the laws are obeyed, the supreme court).
+
+The legislative branch is made up of the Parliament of India, which is in New Delhi, the capital of India. The Parliament of India is divided into two houses: the upper house, Rajya Sabha (Council of States); and the lower house, Lok Sabha (House of People). The Rajya Sabha has 250 members, and the Lok Sabha has 552 members.
+
+The executive branch is made up of the President, Vice President, Prime Minister, and the Council of Ministers. The President of India is elected for a period of five years. The President can choose the Prime Minister, who has most of the power. The Council of Ministers, such as the Minister of Defence, helps the Prime Minister. Narendra Modi became the Prime Minister of India on 16 May 2014. He is the 19th Prime Minister of India. The president has less power than the prime minister.
+
+The judicial branch is made up of the courts of India, including the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of India is the head of the Supreme Court. Supreme Court members have the power to stop a law being passed by Parliament if they think that the law is illegal and contradicts (opposes) the Constitution of India. In India, there are also 24 High Courts.
+
+Geography and climate
+
+India is the seventh biggest country in the world. It is the main part of the Indian subcontinent. The countries next to India are Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Bhutan, and Nepal. It is also near Sri Lanka, an island country. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a union territory of India, is near Thailand, Indonesia, and Myanmar.
+
+India is a peninsula, which means that it is surrounded on three sides by water. In the west is the Arabian Sea, in the south is the Indian Ocean, and in the east is the Bay of Bengal. The coastline of India is of about long. The northern part of India has many mountains. The most famous mountain range in India is the Himalayas, which have some of the tallest mountains in the world. There are many rivers in India. The main rivers are the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, the Kaveri, the Narmada, and the Krishna.
+
+India has different climates. In the South, the climate is mainly tropical, which means it can get very hot in summer and cool in winter. The northern part, though, has a cooler climate, called sub-tropical, and even alpine in mountainous regions. The Himalayas, in the alpine climate region, can get extremely cold. There is very heavy rainfall along the west coast and in the Eastern Himalayan foothills. The west, though, is drier. Because of some of the deserts of India, all of India gets rain for four months of the year. That time is called the monsoon. That is because the deserts attract water-filled winds from the Indian Ocean, which give rain when they come into India. When the monsoon rains come late or not so heavily, droughts (when the land dries out because there is less rain) are possible. Monsoons normally come around JulyâAugust.
+
+Military
+
+The Indian Armed Forces is the military of India. It is made up of an Army, Navy and Air Force. There are other parts like Paramilitary and Strategic Nuclear Command.
+
+The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief. However, it is managed by the Ministry of Defence. In 2010, the Indian Armed Forces had 1.32 million active personnel. This makes it one of the largest militaries in the world.
+
+The Indian Army is becoming more modern by buying and making new weapons. It is also building defenses against missiles of other countries. In the years 2018-2022, India imported more arms than any other nation in the world.
+
+From its independence in 1947, India fought four wars with Pakistan and a war with China.
+
+Indian states
+For administration purposes, India has been divided into smaller pieces. Most of these pieces are called states, some are called union territories. States and union territories are different in the way they are represented. Most union territories are ruled by administrators (called Lieutenant Governors) sent by the central government. All the states, and the territories of Delhi, and Puducherry elect their local government themselves. In total, there are twenty-eight states and eight union territories.
+
+States:
+
+Union territories:
+
+<li>
+
+Trouble with the borders
+There are disputes about certain parts of the Indian borders. Countries do not agree on where the borders are. Pakistan and China do not recognise the disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian government claims it as an Indian state. Similarly, the Republic of India does not recognise the Pakistani and Chinese parts of Kashmir.
+
+In 1914, British India and Tibet agreed on the McMahon Line, as part of the Simla Accord. In July 1914, China withdrew from the agreement. Indians and Tibetans see this line as the official border. China does not agree, and both mainland China and Taiwan do not recognize that Arunachal Pradesh belongs to India. According to them, it is a part of South Tibet, which belongs to China.
+
+Economy
+
+The economy of the country is among the world's fastest growing. It is the 7th largest in the world with a nominal GDP of $2,250 billion (USD), and in terms of PPP, the economy is 3rd largest (worth US$8.720 trillion). The growth rate is 8.25% for fiscal 2010. However, that is still $3678 (considering PPP) per person per year. India's economy is based mainly on:
+ Service sector: 43%
+ Industries: 41%
+ Information technology: 7%
+ Farming: 7%
+ Outsourcing: 2%.
+
+India's economy is diverse. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles.
+
+However, despite economic growth, India continues to suffer from poverty. 27.5% of the population was living in poverty in 2004â2005. In addition, 80.4% of the population live on less than US$2 a day, which was lowered to 68% by 2009.
+
+People
+
+There are 1.4 billion people living in India. In 2023, India passed China to become the world's most populous country.
+About 65% of Indians live in rural areas, or land set aside for farming. The largest cities in India are Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Ahmedabad. India has 23 official languages. Altogether, 1,625 languages are spoken in India.
+
+Languages
+There are many different languages and cultures in India. There are two main language families in India, the Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian languages. About 69% of Indians speak an Indo-Arayan language, and about 26% speak a Dravidian language. Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic group. Around 5% of the people speak a Tibeto-Burman language.
+
+Hindi is the official language in India with the largest number of speakers. It is the official language of the union. Native speakers of Hindi represent about 41% of the Indian population (2001 Indian census). English is also used, mostly for business and in administration. It has the status of a 'subsidiary official language'. The constitution also recognises 21 other languages. Either many people speak those languages, or they have been recognized to be very important for Indian culture. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652.
+
+In the south of India, many people speak Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Malayalam. In the north, many people speak Chhattisgarhi, Punjabi, Bengali, Gujarati, and Marathi, Odia, and Bihari.
+
+India has 27 official languages. Its constitution lists the name of the country in each of the languages. Hindi and English (listed in boldface) are the "official languages of the union" (Union meaning the Federal Government in Delhi); Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Odia are officially the "classical languages of India."
+
+Culture
+
+Cave paintings from the Stone Age are found across India. They show dances and rituals and suggest there was a prehistoric religion. During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were written from about 500â100 BCE, although these were orally transmitted for centuries before this period. Other South Asian Stone Age sites apart from Pakistan are in modern India, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art showing religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.
+
+Several modern religions are linked to India, namely modern Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. All of these religions have different schools (ways of thinking) and traditions that are related. As a group they are called the Eastern religions. The Indian religions are similar to one another in many ways: The basic beliefs, the way worship is done and several religious practices are very similar. These similarities mainly come from the fact that these religions have a common history and common origins. They also influenced each other.
+
+The religion of Hinduism is the main faith followed by 79.80% of people in the Republic of India; Islam â 14.23%; Christianity â 2.30%; Sikhism â 1.72%; Buddhism â 0.70% and Jainism â 0.37%.
+
+Technology
+India sent a spacecraft to Mars for the first time in 2014. That made it the fourth country and first Asian country to do so, successfully. It was called the Mars Orbiter Mission.
+
+ISRO launched 104 satellites in a single mission to create a world record. India became the first nation in the world to have launched over a hundred satellites in one mission. That was more than the 2014 Russian record of 37 satellites in a single launch.
+
+Pop culture
+India has the largest movie industry in the world. It is based in Bombay which is now known as Mumbai, the industry is also known as Bollywood. It makes 1,000 movies a year, about twice as many as Hollywood.
+
+Sports
+
+Indians have excelled in hockey. They have also won eight gold, one silver, and two bronze medals at the Olympic games. However, cricket is the most popular sport in India. The Indian cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 Cricket World Cup and the 2007 ICC World Twenty20. They shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka and won the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Cricket in India is controlled by the Board of Control for Cricket in India or BCCI. Domestic tournaments are the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy, and the Challenger Series. There is also the Indian cricket league and Indian premier league Twenty20 competitions.
+
+Tennis has become popular due to the victories of the India Davis Cup team. Association football is also a popular sport in northeast India, West Bengal, Goa and Kerala. The Indian national football team has won the South Asian Football Federation Cup many times. Chess, which comes from India, is also becoming popular. This is with the increase in the number of Indian Grandmasters. Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played throughout India.
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ Government
+ Official entry portal of the Government of India
+ Official directory of Indian Government websites
+
+
+Gondwana
+1947 establishments in Asia
+Commonwealth member states
+An insult is a description of someone that will offend them. It may or may not be true. It is called derogatory language. Terms like foolish, stupid, idiot and moron are insults, because they say that a person's mind is not quick or smart.
+
+Insulting someone's mother directly is a serious insult in many cultures.
+
+Ritual insults are part of many cultures. For example, they can be found in sports and military training. They are also very common in jargons. For example, the word newbie is a part of net jargon. Calling someone a newbie is usually insulting.
+
+One should be very careful when using new words to describe others.
+
+Reason
+Usually, someone insults others because they want to feel like they are better or have more power (influence) than the people they insult. They may want this because they are actually afraid that they are worse or less powerful than the people they are insulting.
+
+Effects
+When someone is insulted, their pride is hurt. They may want to fight back by insulting the person who insulted them, or by telling someone who is older.
+
+Figures of speech
+Immunology is the study of the immune system. The immune system is the parts of the body which work against infection and parasitism by other living things. Immunology deals with the working of the immune system in health and diseases, and with malfunctions of the immune system.
+
+An immune system is present in all plants and animals. We know this because biologists have found genes coding for toll-like receptors in many different metazoans. These toll-like receptors can recognise bacteria as 'foreign', and are the starting-point for immune reactions. The type of immunity which is triggered by the toll-like receptors is called innate immunity. This is because it is entirely inherited in our genome, and is fully working as soon as our tissues and organs are properly developed.
+
+Vertebrates, and only vertebrates, have a second type of immunity. This is called adaptive immunity, because it 'remembers' previous infections. Then, if the same infection occurs again, the reaction is much stronger and faster. This immunological memory "confers a tremendous survival advantage" and with it vertebrates "can survive over a long lifetime in a pathogen-filled environment".
+
+Types of immunity in vertebrates
+
+Innate immune response
+
+The innate immune system is usually means all of the cells and systems that does not have to be exposed to a particular pathogen before they can work.
+
+Innate immunity starts with the skin, which is an excellent barrier to infection.
+
+Adaptive immune response
+
+The adaptive immune system includes cells and systems that do require previous exposure to a pathogen. It explains the unique ability of the mammalian immune system to remember previous infections and mount a rapid and robust reaction to secondary infections. This immunological memory is due to the biology of T-cells and B-cells.
+
+Other aspects of immunity
+Vaccines boost the acquired immune system by offering weak forms of infection that the body can fight off. The system remembers how to do it again when a stronger infection happens. If the vaccine works, the body can then fight off a serious infection.
+
+The distribution of vaccines and other immune system affecting cures can be considered another level of acquired immune system, one governed by access to vaccination and medicine in general. The intersection of this with the spread of disease (as studied in epidemiology) is part of the field of public health.
+
+Errors and weaknesses
+Errors of the immune system may cause damage. In autoimmune diseases, the body attacks parts of itself because the system mistakes some parts of the body as 'foreign'. Some kinds of arthritis are caused this way.
+
+Sometimes serious pathogens slip in because their surface is disguised as something the host cell walls can accept. That is how viruses work. Once inside a cell, their genetic material controls the cell. Infections like HIV get in this way, and then attack cells which are the basis of the immune system. Artificial means are often used to restore immune system function in an HIV-challenged body, and prevent the onset of AIDS. This is one of the most complex issues in immunology as it involves every level of that system. This research during the 1980s and 1990s radically changed the view of the human immune system and its functions and integration in the human body.
+
+History of immunology
+
+Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides (460â395 BC) noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of some diseases could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.
+
+In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom. This and other observations of acquired immunity led to Louis Pasteur (1822â1895) developing vaccination and the germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until the proofs Robert Koch (1843â1910) published in 1891 (for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905) that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, when the yellow fever virus was discovered by Walter Reed (1851â1902).
+
+Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity. Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich (1854â1915), who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction. The Nobel Prize for 1908 was jointly awarded to Ehrlich and the founder of cellular immunology, Ilya Mechnikov (1845â1916).
+
+The simplest form of immunity is the DNA restriction system in bacteria that prevents infection by bacteriophages.
+
+References
+
+Related pages
+ Lymphatic system
+ White blood cell
+Infinity () is a number which is about things that never end. It is written in a single digit. Infinity means many different things, depending on when it is used. The word is from Latin origin, meaning "without end". Infinity goes on forever, so sometimes space, numbers, and other things are said to be 'infinite', because they never come to a stop.
+
+Infinity is usually not an actual number, but it is sometimes used as one. Infinity often says how many there is of something, instead of how big something is. For example, there are infinitely many whole numbers (called integers), but there is no integer which is infinitely big. But different kinds of math have different kinds of infinity. So its meaning often changes.
+
+There are two kinds of infinity: potential infinity and actual infinity. Potential infinity is a process that never stops. For example, adding 10 to a number. No matter how many times 10 is added, 10 more can still be added. Actual infinity, on the other hand, refers to objects that are accepted as infinite entities (such as transfinite numbers).
+
+Infinity in Mathematics
+Mathematicians have different sizes of infinity and three different kinds of infinity.
+
+Counting infinity
+The number of things, beginning with 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., to include infinite cardinal numbers. There are many different cardinal numbers. Infinity can be defined in one of two ways: Infinity is a number so big that a part of it can be of the same size; Infinity is larger than all of the natural numbers. There is a smallest infinite number, countable infinity. It is the counting number for all of the whole numbers. It is also the counting number of the rational numbers. The mathematical notation is the Hebrew letter aleph with a subscript zero; . It is spoken "aleph naught".
+
+It was a surprise to learn that there are larger infinite numbers. The number of real numbers, that is, all numbers with decimals, is larger than the number of rational numbers, the number of fractions. This shows that there are real numbers which are not fractions. The smallest infinite number greater than is (aleph one). The number of mathematical functions is the next infinite cardinal number, .
+And these numbers, called aleph numbers, go on without end.
+
+Ordering infinity
+A different type of infinity are the ordinal numbers, beginning "first, second, third, ...". The order "first, second, third, ..." and so on to infinity is different from the order ending "..., third, second, first". The difference is important for mathematical induction. The simple first, second, third, ... has the mathematical name: the Greek letter omega with subscript zero: . (Or simply omega .) The infinite series ending "... third, second, first" is .
+
+The real line and complex plane
+The third type of infinity has the symbol . This is treated as addition to the real numbers or the complex numbers. It is the result of division by zero, or to indicate that a series is increasing (or decreasing) without bound. The series 1, 2, 3, ... increases without upper bound. This is written: the limit is . In calculus, the integral over all real numbers is written:
+
+The arithmetic of infinity
+Each kind of infinity has different rules.
+
+Addition, multiplication, exponentiation
+
+ Addition with "alephs" is commutative.
+
+ Multiplication with "alephs" is commutative.
+
+.
+
+. Addition with "omegas" is not commutative.
+
+. Multiplication with "omegas" is not commutative.
+
+Subtraction, division
+
+ when X is a real number. Otherwise, division by infinity (for example, with omegas or alephs) is not meaningful. Subtraction with infinity is not meaningful.
+
+Related pages
+Countable set
+Eternity
+Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel
+Riemann sphere, complex plane with a point at infinity
+Uncountable set
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+ A Crash Course in the Mathematics of Infinite Sets , by Peter Suber. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59. The stand-alone appendix to Infinite Reflections, below. A concise introduction to Cantor's mathematics of infinite sets.
+ Infinite Reflections , by Peter Suber. How Cantor's mathematics of the infinite solves a handful of ancient philosophical problems of the infinite. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59.
+ Infinity, Principia Cybernetica
+ Hotel Infinity
+ The concepts of finiteness and infinity in philosophy
+
+Numbers
+Mathematics
+January (Jan.) is the first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between December (of the previous year) and February (of the current year). It has 31 days.
+
+January begins on the same day of the week as October in common years, and April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years, and July in leap years.
+
+The Month
+
+January is named for Janus, the Roman god of doors and gates.
+
+January and February were put on the calendar after all the other months. This is because in the original Roman calendar, winter did not have months. Although March was originally the first month, January became the new first month because that was when people chose the new consuls (Roman leaders). The month has 31 days.
+
+January is a winter month in the Northern Hemisphere and a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of July in the other. Perihelion, the point in its orbit where the Earth is closest to the Sun, also occurs in this month, between January 2 and January 5. January is the only month of the year that always has a "twin" - a month that both begins and ends on the same day of the week as it does. In a common year, this is October, and in a leap year, July.
+
+January begins on the same day of the week as October in common years and on the same day of the week as April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years and on the same day of the week as July in leap years.
+
+Every year, January both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
+
+In common years immediately before other common years, January starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, September and December of the following year. In common years immediately before other common years, January finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, April and December of the following year.
+
+January's flower is the carnation with its birthstone being the garnet.
+
+The first day of January is called New Year's Day. It is said that it became this date when Roman consuls took office on this day in 153 BC. Different calendars across Europe made this the start of the New Year at different times, as some observed it on March 25.
+
+Reaching over from December, the Christmas season in Christianity also extends into this month. Eastern churches celebrate Christmas on January 6 or January 7, and Epiphany on January 18 or January 19 - In Western Christianity this occurs on January 6, with Christmas occurring on December 25.
+
+January 1 is celebrated the Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God, that is a feast day of precept of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
+
+Events
+
+Fixed Events
+
+ January 1 - New Year's Day
+ January 1 - Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God
+ January 1 - World Day of Peace
+ January 1 - Founding Day (Republic of China)
+ January 1 - Independence Day in Brunei, Haiti and Sudan
+ January 1 - Triumph of the Revolution (Cuba)
+ January 1 - Constitution Day (Italy)
+ January 2 - New Year's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland)
+ January 2 - Ancestry Day (Haiti)
+ January 2 - Berchtold's Day (Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Alsace
+ January 3 - Statehood Day (Alaska)
+ January 4 - Independence Day (Burma)
+ January 4 - Day of the Fallen Against Colonial Repression (Angola)
+ January 4 - Day of the Martyrs (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
+ January 5 - Twelfth Night in Western Christianity - night to January 6
+ January 6 - Epiphany in Western Christianity.
+ January 6 - Christmas in the Armenian Apostolic Church
+ January 7 - Christmas in Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
+ January 7 - Tricolour Day (Italy)
+ January 7 - Victory from Genocide Day (Cambodia)
+ January 8 - Commonwealth Day (Northern Mariana Islands)
+ January 8 - Celebration of Elvis Presley's birthday at Graceland
+ January 8 - Kim Jong-un's birthday (North Korea)
+ January 9 - Martyrs' Day (Panama)
+ January 11 - Kagami Biraki (Japan)
+ January 11 - Republic Day (Albania)
+ January 11 - Day of National Unity (Nepal)
+ January 12 - Memorial Day (Turkmenistan)
+ January 12 - National Youth Day (India)
+ January 12 - Zanzibar Revolution Day (Tanzania)
+ January 13 - Korean American Day
+ January 13 - Old New Year (parts of Eastern Europe)
+ January 13 - St. Knut's Day (Norway, Finland, Sweden)
+ January 14 - New Year's Day (Eastern Orothodox Church)
+ January 14 - National Flag Day in Georgia
+ January 14 - National Forest Conservation Day (Thailand)
+ January 15 - Armed Forces Day (Nigeria)
+ January 15 - Army Day (India)
+ January 15 - Tree Planting Day (Egypt)
+ January 16 - Teacher's Day (Thailand)
+ January 16 - Flag Day (Israel)
+ January 17 - Roman Catholic feast day of St. Anthony
+ January 18 - Royal Thai Armed Forces Day
+ January 18 - Revolution Day (Tunisia)
+ January 18 - World Religion Day
+ January 19 - Epiphany in Eastern Orthodox Christianity
+ January 20 - Armed Forces Day (Mali)
+ January 20 - Martyrs' Day (Azerbaijan)
+ January 20 - Inauguration Day (United States) - newly elected US president takes office in a year after a leap year (last in 2021, next in 2025)
+ January 21 - Flag Day (Quebec)
+ January 21 - Christian feast day of St. Agnes.
+ January 22 - Wellington Anniversary (New Zealand)
+ January 22 - Reunion Day (Ukraine)
+ January 23 - National Pie Day (United States)
+ January 23 - Bounty Day (Pitcairn Island)
+ January 24 - Feast Day of Our Lady of Peace (Roman Catholicism)
+ January 24 - Unification Day (Romania)
+ January 25 - Burns Night (Scotland and Scottish communities), celebrating the birthday of Scottish poet Robert Burns
+ January 25 - Dydd Santes Dwynwen (Welsh equivalent of Valentine's Day)
+ January 25 - National Voters Day (India)
+ January 25 - Tatiana Day (Russia)
+ January 26 - Australia Day
+ January 26 - Republic Day (India)
+ January 26 - Duarte Day (Dominican Republic)
+ January 26 - Liberation Day (Uganda)
+ January 27 - Holocaust Memorial Day
+ January 28 - Army Day (Armenia)
+ January 28 - EU Data Privacy Day
+ January 28 - Unofficial day commemorating Charlemagne by some Christians
+ January 30 - Martyrs' Day (India)
+ January 30 - School Day of Non-Violence and Peace (Spain)
+ January 31 - Independence Day (Nauru)
+
+Month-long or Moveable Events
+
+ Coming of Age Day (Japan), second Monday in January
+ Martin Luther King, Jr. Day (United States), third Monday in January, commemorating civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., who was born on January 15.
+ Chinese New Year (between January 21 and February 21)
+ Australian Open - One of the major Grand Slam tennis tournaments. Starts between January 13 and January 19, ends between January 26 and February 1.
+ Auckland Anniversary (New Zealand) on a Monday between January 26 and February 1.
+ Weight Loss Awareness Month (United States)
+ National Mentoring Month (United States)
+
+Selection of Historical Events
+
+ January 1, 153 BC - Roman consuls are said to have taken office on this day for the first time.
+ January 1, 1801 - The United Kingdom is created, with the inclusion of Ireland.
+ January 1, 1804 - Haiti becomes the second independent country in the Americas, after the US.
+ January 1, 1901 - Australia is given self-government.
+ January 1, 1956 - Sudan becomes independent.
+ January 1, 1959 - Fidel Castro takes over in Cuba.
+ January 1, 1962 - Samoa becomes independent.
+ January 1, 1984 - Brunei becomes independent.
+ January 1, 2002 - The Euro currency comes into use in 12 EU countries.
+ January 2, 1492 - Spanish Reconquista: Granada, the last Moorish stronghold, surrenders.
+ January 3, 1868 - Meiji Restoration in Japan.
+ January 3, 1959 - Alaska becomes the 49th US State.
+ January 4, 1948 - Burma becomes independent.
+ January 4, 2010 - The world's tallest building, the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, opens.
+ January 5, 1066 - Edward the Confessor, King of England, dies.
+ January 6, 1066 - Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England.
+ January 7, 1610 - Galileo Galilei discovers Jupiter's four Galilean moons - Io, Callisto, Ganymede and Europa.
+ January 7, 1979 - The Khmer Rouge in Cambodia is overthrown by Vietnamese troops.
+ January 7, 1989 - Japanese Emperor Hirohito dies, aged 87.
+ January 7, 2015 - Charlie Hebdo shooting in Paris.
+ January 8, 1642 - Galileo Galilei dies.
+ January 8, 1912 - The African National Congress is founded.
+ January 8, 1935 - Elvis Presley is born.
+ January 10, 1863 - The first section of the London Underground opens.
+ January 12, 2010 - The 2010 Haiti earthquake causes many deaths and destruction across Haiti.
+ January 13, 1915 - The Avezzano earthquake in Italy kills 29,800 people.
+ January 13, 1935 - Most voters in Saarland choose to be part of Germany.
+ January 14, 1954 - Marilyn Monroe marries Joe DiMaggio.
+ January 14, 1972 - Margrethe II of Denmark becomes the first Danish Queen since 1412.
+ January 15, 1929 - Civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. is born in Atlanta, Georgia, US.
+ January 15, 2001 - Wikipedia goes online.
+ January 15, 2009 - US Airways Flight 1549 is safely landed on the Hudson River in New York City by Chesley Sullenberger, after experiencing difficulties shortly after take-off.
+ January 16, 2006 - Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf of Liberia becomes the first female President in Africa.
+ January 17, 1893 - American and European sugar planters overthrow the government of Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii.
+ January 17, 1912 - Robert Falcon Scott's expedition reaches the South Pole over a month after that of Roald Amundsen.
+ January 17, 1991 - Operation Desert Storm in the Gulf War.
+ January 17, 1995 - The Great Hanshin earthquake strikes Japan, mainly the city of Kobe, killing over 6,000 people.
+ January 18, 1778 - James Cook reaches the Hawaiian Islands.
+ January 20, 1936 - King George V of the United Kingdom dies, leaving the throne to Edward VIII of the United Kingdom, who lasts less than 11 months in the post.
+ January 20, 2009 - Barack Obama becomes the first African American President of the United States.
+ January 21, 1793 - King Louis XVI of France is executed by guillotine.
+ January 22, 1901 - Queen Victoria dies aged 81, ending Britain's Victorian Era.
+ January 22, 1968 - Apollo 5 lifts off, carrying the first lunar module.
+ January 23, 1960 - In the Bathyscaphe Trieste, Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh, dive to the deepest point of the Pacific Ocean, the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench.
+ January 24, 41 - Roman Emperor Caligula is assassinated by the Praetorian Guard.
+ January 24, 1965 - British statesman Winston Churchill dies.
+ January 24, 1986 - Voyager 2 flies by the planet Uranus.
+ January 25, 1919 - The League of Nations is founded.
+ January 25, 2011 - The 2011 Egyptian protests begin.
+ January 26, 1788 - The first British fleet arrives in what is now Sydney Harbour, Australia.
+ January 26, 1950 - India becomes a Republic.
+ January 26, 2020 - NBA legend Kobe Bryant, his 13-year-old daughter Gianna and seven others are killed in a helicopter crash in Calabasas, California.
+ January 27, 1945 - The Red Army liberates Auschwitz.
+ January 27, 1967 - US astronauts Gus Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee are killed in a fire while testing the Apollo 1 spacecraft.
+ January 28, 1935 - Iceland becomes the first country to legalize abortion.
+ January 28, 1986 - The Space Shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after take-off from Cape Canaveral, Florida, killing all seven astronauts on board.
+ January 29, 1996 - Venice's La Fenice opera house is destroyed by fire.
+ January 30, 1649 - King Charles I of England is executed.
+ January 30, 1933 - Adolf Hitler comes to power in Germany.
+ January 30, 1948 - Indian independence and non-violence campaigner Mahatma Gandhi is shot dead by a Hindu extremist in Delhi.
+ January 31, 1968 - Nauru becomes independent from Australia.
+ January 31, 1990 - Moscow's first McDonald's restaurant opens.
+
+Trivia
+
+ January is named after the Roman God Janus, who was the Roman God of doors and gates.
+ January and July are the only pair of 31-day month's that are exactly six months apart. In the English language, they are also the only pair of months to both begin and end with the same letters (J and Y respectively).
+ The star signs for January are Capricorn (December 22 to January 20) and Aquarius (January 21 to February 19).
+ It is the coldest month in the Northern Hemisphere, and the warmest in the Southern Hemisphere.
+ It is one of three months in the English language to begin with "J", along with June and July, but unlike the latter two, does not have a "U" as a second letter.
+
+References
+
+01
+June (Jun.) is the sixth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between May and July. It has 30 days. In Sweden in 1732 the month had 31 days. June is named for the Roman goddess Juno, the wife of Jupiter. She is goddess of marriage. Because of this, getting married in June was thought to be lucky.
+
+June never begins on the same day of the week as any other month, but always ends on the same day of the week as March.
+
+The Month
+June comes between May and July and is the sixth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar. It is one of the four months to have 30 days.
+
+No other month of any year begins on the same day of the week as June; this month and May are the only two months with this property. June ends on the same day of the week as March every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.In common years, June starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the previous year, and in leap years, April and July of the previous year. In common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as September of the previous year, and in leap years, April and December of the previous year.
+Every year, June starts on the same day of the week as February of the following year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In years immediately before common years, June starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, August of the following year. In years immediately before common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year.
+
+June is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is December, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), and in this month the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere is turned towards the Sun, meaning that June 20 or June 21 is the Northern Summer Solstice and the Southern Winter Solstice. This means that this date would have the most daylight of any day in the Northern hemisphere, and the least in the Southern Hemisphere. There are 24 hours of daylight at the North Pole and 24 hours of darkness at the South Pole.
+
+Events in June
+ The solstice occurs around June 21, but it may occur on either the 20th or the 22nd. It is the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere and the winter solstice in the southern hemisphere.
+ Midsummer is celebrated in Sweden on the third Friday in June.
+ Father's Day is celebrated in the United States on the third Sunday in June.
+ Gay pride celebrations happen in many countries, in honour of the Stonewall riots.
+ World Environment Day is celebrated on June 5.
+ World Ocean Day is celebrated on June 8.
+ June Holiday (LĂĄ Saoire i mĂ Mheitheamh) in the Republic of Ireland is celebrated on June 1
+ Queen's Official Birthday in New Zealand, Cook Islands and Western Australia is celebrated on June 1
+ Western Australia Day is celebrated on June 1
+ Global Running Day is celebrated on June 3
+ World bicycle day is celebrated on June 3
+ Labour Day in the Bahamas is celebrated on June 5
+ National Doughnut Day is celebrated on June 5
+ National Trails Day in the United States is celebrated on June 5
+ Armed Forces Day in Canada is celebrated on June 7
+ Children's Day in the United States is celebrated on June 7
+ Father's Day in Lithuania and Switzerland is celebrated on June 7
+ National Cancer Survivors Day in the United States is celebrated on June 7
+ Teacher's Day in Hungary is celebrated on June 7
+ The Seamen's Day in Iceland is celebrated on June 7
+ Queen's Official Birthday in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Australia, except Western Australia is celebrated on June 8
+ Seersucker Thursday in the United States is celebrated on June 11
+ China's Cultural Heritage Day in China is celebrated on June 13
+ National Day in Montserrat, Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, Tristan da Cunha in the United Kingdom is celebrated on June 13
+ Queen's Official Birthday in the United Kingdom and Tuvalu is celebrated on June 13
+ Canadian Rivers Day is celebrated on June 14
+ Father's Day in Austria and Belgium is celebrated on June 14
+ Mother's Day in Luxembourg is celebrated on June 14
+ Queen's Official Birthday in the Norfolk Island is celebrated on June 15
+ World Bisexuality Awareness Day in the United States is celebrated on June 15
+ National Flip Flop Day in the United States is celebrated on June 19
+ International Surfing Day is celebrated on June 20
+ International Yoga Day is celebrated on June 20
+ World Music Day is celebrated on June 20
+ Father's Day in Afghanistan, Albania, Antigua, Barbuda, Argentina, Aruba, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brunei, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Curaçao, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Dominica, Ecuador, Ethiopia, France, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guyana, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Ireland, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Kosovo, Kuwait, Laos, Macau, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Mozambique, Namibia, Netherlands, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, People's Republic of China, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovakia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States, Venezuela, Vietnam, Zambia and Zimbabwe is celebrated on June 21
+ National Bomb Pop Day in the United States is celebrated on June 25
+ Take Your Dog to Work Day in the United Kingdom and United States is celebrated on June 26
+ Armed Forces Day in the United Kingdom is celebrated on June 27
+ Inventors' and Rationalizers' Day in Russia is celebrated on June 27
+ Veterans Day in the Netherlands is celebrated on June 27
+ Father's Day in Haiti is celebrated on June 28
+ Log Cabin Day in Michigan, United States is celebrated on June 28
+ Mother's Day in Kenya is celebrated on June 28
+
+Selection of Historical Events
+June 1, 1794: French Revolutionary Wars: The battle of the Glorious First of June is fought, the first naval engagement between Britain and France.
+
+June 2, 1953: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.
+
+June 3, 1965: The launch of Gemini 4, the first multi-day space mission by a NASA crew. June 4, 1783: The Montgolfier brothers publicly demonstrate their montgolfiĂšre (hot air balloon).
+
+June 5, 1837: Houston is incorporated by the Republic of Texas.
+
+June 6, 1844: The Young Men's Christian Association is founded in London.
+
+June 7, 1942: World War II: The Battle of Midway ends in American victory.
+
+June 8, 1949: George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is published.
+
+June 9, 1944: World War II: Tulle massacre
+
+June 10, 2003: The Spirit rover is launched for NASA's Mars Exploration mission
+
+June 11, 2010: 2010 FIFA World Cup (first African FIFA)
+
+June 12, 2018: 2018 North Korea-United States Summit
+
+June 13, 1983: Pioneer 10 becomes the first man-made object to leave the central Solar System
+
+June 25, 1950: Korean War starts.
+
+June 30, 1908: Tunguska event.
+
+Trivia
+ June is one of the two months that never begins on the same day of the week as any other months within any calendar year. (May is the other)
+ The months of June and July both start with the "Ju" letter combination in the English language, and in some languages have only one letter's difference between their names.
+ June's flower is the Rose.
+ Its birthstone is the pearl.
+ The Zodiac signs for June are Gemini (May 21 â June 20) and Cancer (June 21 â July 21).
+ At the North Pole, the Sun does not set in June; at the South Pole, it does not rise.
+
+06
+July (Jul.) is the seventh month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between June and August. It has 31 days. July was named after Julius Caesar. The halfway point of the year is either on July 2 or in the night of July 1-2.
+
+July always begins on the same day of the week as April, and additionally, January in leap years. July does not end on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but ends on the same day of the week as January in leap years.
+
+The Month
+
+In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of January in the other hemisphere. In the North, it is summer and in the South it is winter.
+
+In the Northern Hemisphere, July is often the warmest month of the year, and major sporting events and music festivals are held around this time. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is a winter month, with the coldest-recorded temperature having been measured in Antarctica in this month.
+
+July begins on the same day of the week as April every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. No other month in common years ends on the same day of the week as July, but July ends on the same day of the week as January in leap years.
+
+In common years, July starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as February and October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, July both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.
+
+In years immediately before common years, July starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as April and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, September of the following year.
+
+July's flower is a variety of the water lily. Its birthstone is the ruby. The meaning for the birthstone ruby is contented mind. Astrological signs for July are Cancer (June 21 - July 21) and Leo (July 22 - August 21).
+
+In the old Roman calendar, July was called Quintilis, meaning Fifth Month, because, in the old calendar, the year began in March. Augustus later renamed it July in honor of Julius Caesar, whose birthday was in this month. Augustus later also named the following month, August, after himself.
+
+Holidays
+
+Fixed Events
+
+ July 1 Canada Day, National Day of Canada
+ July 1 Independence Day in Somalia
+ July 1 Independence Day in Burundi
+ July 1 Independence Day in Rwanda
+ July 1 Keti Koti (Suriname)
+ July 1 Republic Day (Ghana)
+ July 1 Doctor's Day (India)
+ July 2 Canada Day, observed on this date if July 1 is a Sunday
+ July 2 Bahia Independence Day (Brazil)
+ July 3 Independence Day in Belarus
+ July 3 Emancipation Day (US Virgin Islands)
+ July 4 Independence Day in the United States, commemorating the Declaration of Independence.
+ July 4 Filipino-American Friendship Day
+ July 4 Liberation Day (Rwanda)
+ July 5 Independence Day in Venezuela
+ July 5 Independence Day in Algeria
+ July 5 Independence Day in Cape Verde
+ July 6 Independence Day in Malawi
+ July 6 Independence Day in the Comoros
+ July 6-14 San Fermin festival and bull run in Pamplona, Spain.
+ July 7 Independence Day in the Solomon Islands
+ July 7 Tanabata in Japan, traditional 'Make a Wish' celebration
+ July 9 Independence Day (Argentina)
+ July 9 Independence Day (South Sudan)
+ July 10 Independence Day in the Bahamas
+ July 10 Silence Day
+ July 10 Statehood Day (Wyoming)
+ July 11 Day of the Flemish Community (Belgium)
+ July 11 World Population Day
+ July 11 National Day of Commemoration (Ireland)
+ July 11 to 13 Naadam (Mongolia)
+ July 12 Battle of the Boyne/Orangeman's Day (Northern Ireland)
+ July 12 Independence Day (SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe)
+ July 12 Independence Day in Kiribati
+ July 13 Statehood Day (Montenegro)
+ July 14 Bastille Day, national holiday of France
+ July 14 Republic Day (Iraq)
+ July 15 St. Swithun's Day in UK weather lore
+ July 18 Mandela Day
+ July 18 Constitution Day (Uruguay)
+ July 19 Sandinista Day (Nicaragua)
+ July 20 Independence Day (Colombia)
+ July 21 National Day of Belgium
+ July 21 Liberation Day (Guam)
+ July 22 Saint Mary Magdalene Day (Roman Catholicism)
+ July 23 Birthday of Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia
+ July 23 Revolution Day in Egypt
+ July 24 Pioneer Day (Utah)
+ July 24 Simon Bolivar Day (Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela)
+ July 25 Constitution Day (Occupation Day) in Puerto Rico
+ July 25 Christian feast day of Saint James, includes regional holiday in Galicia
+ July 26 Independence Day in Liberia
+ July 26 Independence Day in the Maldives
+ July 27 Victory Day (North Korea)
+ July 28 Independence Day in Peru
+ July 28 Liberation Day (San Marino)
+ July 29 Feast Day of St. Olav, celebrated in the Faroe Islands
+ July 29 International Tiger Day
+ July 29 World Hepatitis Day
+ July 30 Independence Day (Vanuatu)
+ July 30 Throne Day (Morocco)
+ July 31 Ka Hae Hawaii Day
+
+Moveable events
+ Wimbledon tennis tournament, held in late June and early July
+ FIFA World Cup, often held in June and/or July
+ Summer Olympics, often held in July and/or August
+ Tour de France cycling race
+ In Northern Hemisphere countries, many Sports events and Music Festivals take place in July
+ National Ice Cream month in the United States
+ Presidents' Day (Botswana) on the 3rd Monday or Tuesday
+ So-called "Dog Days" in some Northern Hemisphere countries, referring to the hot summer weather
+ Marathon Races:
+Gold Coast, Australia
+Recife, Brazil
+Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
+San Francisco, California, United States
+
+Selection of Historical Events
+
+ July 1 1863: American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg is fought until July 3.
+ July 1 1867: The Canadian Confederation is founded.
+ July 1 1937: The 999 emergency dialing service begins in the UK.
+ July 1 1997: The United Kingdom hands control of Hong Kong back to China.
+ July 1 1999: The new Scottish Parliament is opened in Edinburgh.
+ July 1 2013: Croatia joins the European Union.
+ July 2 1937: Amelia Earhart goes missing.
+ July 3 1844: The Great Auk becomes extinct, after the last group were killed in Iceland.
+ July 4 1776: 13 colonies on the East coast of North America issue the Declaration of Independence, now celebrated on this date in the United States.
+ July 4 1826: US Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson die on the same day as each other.
+ July 4 2012: Scientists at CERN announce the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson, after experiments at the Large Hadron Collider.
+ July 5 1811: Venezuela declares independence.
+ July 5 1962: Algeria becomes independent.
+ July 5 1975: Cape Verde becomes independent.
+ July 6 1964: Malawi becomes independent.
+ July 6 1975: The Comoros become independent.
+ July 7 1937: The Second Sino-Japanese War begins.
+ July 7 1978: The Solomon Islands become independent.
+ July 7 2005: Islamic extremists detonate explosives at tube stations around London and on a bus, killing 52 people.
+ July 9 1816: The United Provinces of Rio de la Plata declare independence, as the predecessor state of present-day Argentina.
+ July 9 2011: South Sudan becomes independent from Sudan, after a referendum six months earlier.
+ July 10 1913: At nearly 57 degrees Celsius, the hottest-recorded temperature on Earth, is measured in Death Valley, California.
+ July 10 1973: The Bahamas become independent from the UK.
+ July 10 1985: French agents torpedo the Rainbow Warrior vessel docked in Auckland harbour, New Zealand, where activists on board were protesting against French nuclear tests.
+ July 11 1960: The novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is first published.
+ July 11 1987: World population reaches 5 billion.
+ July 11 1995: The worst massacre in post-World War II Europe occurs at Srebrenica, at the height of the Balkan War.
+ July 11 2010: Spain wins the 2010 FIFA World Cup against the Netherlands after a bad-tempered match.
+ July 12 or 13 100 BC: Julius Caesar is born.
+ July 12 1561: St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow is consecrated.
+ July 13 1930: The 1930 FIFA World Cup in Uruguay begins.
+ July 14 1789: The Bastille prison is stormed in Paris, starting the French Revolution.
+ July 14 2015: New Horizons flies by the dwarf planet Pluto.
+ July 16 1950: Uruguay wins its second FIFA World Cup, defeating host nation Brazil in the final.
+ July 17 1918: The family of Tsar Nicholas II is executed by the Bolsheviks in Russia.
+ July 17 1936: The Spanish Civil War begins.
+ July 19 1903: Maurice Garin wins the first Tour de France.
+ July 20 1810: Bogota, New Granada (now Colombia) declares independence from Spain.
+ July 20 1969: Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the Moon, followed shortly after by Buzz Aldrin.
+ July 21 1983: At -89.2 degrees Celsius, the coldest-ever recorded temperature is measured in Antarctica.
+ July 21 2011: End of the Space Shuttle programme.
+ July 22 2009: Solar eclipse over Asia and the Pacific Ocean.
+ July 22 2011: The 2011 Norway attacks occur, as Anders Behring Breivik kills a total of 77 people in two separate attacks.
+ July 23 1952: The Egyptian monarchy is removed from power in a coup.
+ July 24 1911: Explorer Hiram Bingham re-discovers the remains of Machu Picchu in Peru.
+ July 25 1978: Louise Brown, the first 'test-tube baby', is born in the UK.
+ July 26 1847: Liberia declares independence.
+ July 26 1965: The Maldives declare independence.
+ July 27 1940: Cartoon character Bugs Bunny makes his first appearance.
+ July 27 1953: The Korean War ends, though an official state of war still exists between North Korea and South Korea.
+ July 28 1821: Peru declares independence.
+ July 28 1914: World War I - Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.
+ July 28 1976: Tangshan, China, is struck by a huge earthquake, killing many thousands of people.
+ July 29 1900: King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Gaetano Bresci.
+ July 30 1930: Uruguay wins the first FIFA World Cup, defeating Argentina in the final in Montevideo.
+ July 30 1980: The New Hebrides, changing their name to Vanuatu, become independent.
+ July 30 2012: A massive power blackout affects around 620 million people in Northern India.
+ July 31 1790: The first US patent is given to Samuel Hopkins for a potash process.
+
+Trivia
+
+ July has the 200th day of the year. July 19 in a common year, July 18 in a leap year.
+ July is often the hottest month in the Northern Hemisphere
+ The hottest and coldest-ever recorded temperatures on Earth were both recorded in July.
+ The months of June and July both start with the "Ju" letter combination in the English language and in some languages have only one letter's difference between their names.
+ July and August are the only months named after people who really lived (Julius Caesar and Augustus respectively).
+ January and July are the only 31-day months that are exactly six months apart. In the English language, they are also the only pair of months to both begin and end with the same letters (J and Y respectively)
+ July 1 is the only day in July that is entirely within the first half of the calendar year.
+ Canada, the United States and France are among the countries that celebrate their national holidays in July.
+ The astrological signs for July are Cancer (June 21 to July 21) and Leo (July 22 to August 21).
+
+07
+Japan (; romanised as nihon or nippon) is a country in East Asia. It is a group of many islands close to the east coast of Korea, China and Russia. The Pacific Ocean is to the east of Japan and the Sea of Japan is to the west. Most people in Japan live on one of the four islands. The biggest of these islands, Honshu, has the most people. Honshu is the 7th largest island in the world. Tokyo is the capital of Japan and its biggest city.
+
+The Japanese people call their country "Nihon" or "Nippon", which means "the origin of the Sun" in Japanese. Japan is a monarchy whose head of state is called the Emperor. Japan is the oldest monarchy in the world, lasting more than 2,000 years.
+
+History
+
+The first people in Japan were the Ainu people and other JĆmon people. They were closer related to Europeans or Mongols. They were later conquered and replaced by the Yayoi people (early Japanese and Ryukyuans). The Yayoi were an ancient ethnic group that migrated to the Japanese archipelago mainly from southeastern China during the Yayoi period (300 BCEâ300 CE). Modern Japanese people have primarily Yayoi ancestry at an average of 97%. The indigenous Ryukyuan and Ainu peoples have more JĆmon ancestry on the other hand.
+
+The earliest records on Japan are from Chinese documents. One of those records said there were many small countries (in Japan) which had wars between them and later a country, ruled by a queen, became the strongest, unified others, and brought peace.
+
+The Japanese began to write their own history after the 5th and 6th centuries, when people from Korea and China taught Japan about the Chinese writing system. Japan's neighbours also taught them Buddhism. The Japanese changed Buddhism in many ways. For example, Japanese Buddhists used ideas such as Zen more than other Buddhists.
+
+Japan had some contact with the Europeans in the 16th century. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to visit Japan. Later, the Spanish and Dutch came to Japan to trade. Also, they brought Christianity. Japan's leaders welcomed them at first, but because Europeans had conquered many places in the world, the Japanese were scared they would conquer Japan too. So the Japanese did not let the Europeans come into Japan anymore, except in a small area in Nagasaki city. Many Christians were killed. Only the Chinese, Korean, and Dutch people were allowed to visit Japan, in the end, and they were under careful control of the Japanese government. Japan was opened for visitors again in 1854 by Commodore Matthew Perry, when the Americans wanted to use Japanese ports for American whale boats. Perry brought steamships with guns, which scared the Japanese into making an agreement with him.
+
+This new contact with Europeans and Americans changed the Japanese culture. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 stopped some old ways and added many new ones. The Empire of Japan was created, and it became a very powerful nation and tried to invade the countries next to it.
+
+It invaded and annexed Ryukyu Kingdom, Taiwan, and Korea. It had wars with China and Russia: the First Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, the Russo-Japanese War, World War I and Siberian Intervention.
+
+In 1918, World War I allowed Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to capture German possessions in the Pacific and in China.
+
+which grew to become a part of World War II when Japan became allies with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.
+In 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, a water base of the United States, and destroyed or damaged many ships and airplanes. This started the United States' involvement in World War II. American and Japanese forces fought each other in the Pacific. Once airbases were established within range of the Japanese mainland, America began to win, and started dropping bombs on Japanese cities. America was able to bomb most of the important cities and quickly brought Japan close to defeat.
+To make Japan surrender, the United States dropped two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing 150,000 Japanese citizens. Soon after this the Soviet Union began to fight against Japan, and the Japanese army in Manchuria lost. Japan surrendered and gave up all the places it took from other countries, accepting the Potsdam Proclamation. The United States occupied Japan from September 1945 to April 1952 and forced it to write a new constitution, in which it promised to never go to war again.
+
+Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. A period of record growth propelled Japan to become the second-largest economy in the world. On 11 March 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history, triggering the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. On 1 May 1 2019, after the historic abdication of Emperor Akihito, his son Naruhito became Emperor, beginning the Reiwa era. On 8 July 2022, former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe was assassinated while giving a campaign speech in Nara.
+
+Geography
+
+Japan is a group of islands in the Western Pacific, off the coast of China. The four biggest islands are Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, and Kyushu, and there are about 6,000 smaller islands there. Japan is separated from the Asian continent by the Sea of Japan and the East China Sea. Honshu, which means 'Mainland' in the Japanese language, is the biggest island. Hokkaido is the island north of Honshu. Kyushu is the island west of Honshu. Shikoku is the island to the south-west of Honshu.
+
+In the middle of Japan there are mountains. They cover the middle of the islands and leave a very narrow strip of flat land on most coasts. Many of the mountains are extinct volcanoes, but some are still active. The highest of these mountains is the beautiful, volcano-shaped Mt Fuji (3,776 metres or 12,389 feet high). Japan has many earthquakes, in fact there are about 1500 of these every year. The biggest earthquake recorded in Japan was in 2011 - called '2011 Tohoku Earthquake'. It caused great damage to several power plants forcing Japan to shut down all its nuclear plants. There was nuclear core meltdown which caused a serious health risk to nearby villages and cities.
+
+90% of the people living in Japan live in just 10% of the land, near the coast. The other 10% of the people in Japan live away from the coast.
+
+Over 10 cities have more than a million people in them. The biggest city in Japan is Tokyo, which is the capital.
+
+Science and technology
+Japan has made many contributions to science and technology.
+
+The QR code, the camera phone, the CD player, and the VHS were invented in Japan.
+
+Japan is a leader in the robotics industry: It is the world's largest maker of industrial robots. It has the 2nd most industrial robots behind China.
+
+Economy
+Japan has one of the strongest economies of any country. Its nominal gross domestic product (GDP) is the 3rd highest in the world. It has a very low unemployment rate and was the 4th-largest exporter and 4th-largest importer in 2021.
+
+Japan is known for its automotive industry: It is home to Toyota, the world's largest car company. Honda, Nissan, Suzuki and Mazda are other popular car makers from Japan.
+
+Tokyo is the most populous city in the world. It also has one of the largest economies of any city. It is an important financial center: It has the Tokyo Stock Exchange, one of the largest stock exchanges in Asia.
+
+Society and culture
+
+Many things in Japanese culture originated in China, like Go and bonsai.
+
+Cherry blossom also known as Japanese cherry and Sakura is thought to be the national flower of Japan.
+
+Japan's traditional food is seafood, rice, miso soup, and vegetables. Noodles and tofu are also common. Sushi, a Japanese food made of cooked rice with vinegar with other ingredients such as raw fish, and sometimes fried shrimp, is popular around the world.
+
+The religion in Japan is mostly Shinto and Buddhist. Due to the tolerant nature of the two main Japanese religions, and the resulting intermixing of the two, many Japanese identify as both Shinto and Buddhist at the same time. There are small numbers of Christians and Hindus, and a few Jews.
+
+When it comes to popular culture, Japan is famous for making video games. Many of the biggest companies that make games, like Nintendo, Namco, and Sega, are Japanese. Other well-known parts of Japanese arts are its comics, called manga, and its digital animation, known as anime. Many people get to know Japanese or how life in Japan is like by reading manga or watching anime on television.
+
+The Ryukyuans and the Ainu both have their own separate cultures, languages and religion.
+
+Armed forces
+
+Education
+
+Cities, regions and territories
+The biggest cities in Japan are:
+ Tokyo (capital cityïŒ
+ Yokohama
+ Nagoya
+ Osaka
+ Kyoto
+ Kobe
+ Hiroshima
+ Fukuoka
+ Kitakyushu
+ Sendai
+ Sapporo
+ Nagasaki
+
+In Japan there are seven traditional regions:
+ Hokkaido
+ Tohoku
+ Kanto
+ Chubu
+ Kansai
+ Chugoku
+ Shikoku
+ Kyushu
+
+Territorial problem
+Since Japan is an island nation, Japan has several problems over territory because maritime boundaries can be hard to protect. These days, Japan is competing for at least 4 different territories. It cannot agree with some neighbouring countries on whether the land belongs to Japan or the other country.
+ Senkaku Islands problem (with China and Taiwan)
+ Liancourt Rocks island problem (with South Korea)
+ Southern Chishima Islands problem (with Russia)
+ Sea of Japan problem (with South Korea and North Korea)
+
+Public transportation
+
+There are several important international airports in Japan. Narita is the major international airport in the Tokyo area. Kansai International Airport serves as the main airport for Osaka, Kobe, and Kyoto. Chƫbu Centrair International Airport near Nagoya is the newest of the three. Haneda Airport is close to central Tokyo and is the largest domestic airport in the country.
+
+The Shinkansen is one of the fastest trains in the world and connects cities in Honshu and Kyushu. Networks of public and private railways are almost all over the country. People mostly travel between cities in buses.
+
+Subdivisions
+
+Modern Japan is divided into 47 prefectures. Before the Meiji period (1868-1912), the nation was divided into provinces which were consolidated in the prefectural system.
+
+Sports
+
+Japan has many traditional sports such as sumo, judo, karate, kyudo, aikido, iaido and kendo. Also, there are sports which were imported from the West such as baseball, soccer, rugby, golf and skiing. Baseball is the most popular sport.
+
+Japan has taken part in the Olympic Games since 1912. It hosted the Olympic Games in 1964, 1972, 1998 and 2020. From 1912 until now, Japanese sportspeople have won 398 medals in total.
+
+Professional sports are also popular and many sports such as baseball (see Pacific League and Central League), soccer (see List of Japanese football teams), sumo, American football, basketball and volleyball, are played professionally.
+
+Related pages
+ Japanese food
+ Japanese language
+ Japanese calendar
+
+References
+
+Notes
+
+Other websites
+
+ Government
+ Kantei.go.jp, official prime ministerial and cabinet site
+ Ministry of Foreign Affairs, papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life
+ National Diet Library
+ Sntv24samachar
+ Shugi-in.go.jp, official site of the House of Representatives
+ Chief of State and Cabinet Members. .
+
+G7 nations
+
+Current monarchies
+Monarchies of Asia
+G8 nations
+Jargon is a special way to use words that are shared only by a certain group of people. They may not mean what the dictionary says they mean. They have different meanings to the people using them than their everyday meaning.
+
+For example, the ordinary words boot, net, and web also have special meanings for users of computers, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. These, and to flame, to ping and many acronyms are part of net jargon.
+
+An acronym means that only some of the letters in the word or phrase are used. Often this is the first letter of each word. Other acronyms found online are simply common shorthand.
+
+Usually, more jargon is created over time.
+
+Jargon is common in the military and other complex organisations. It includes phrases like SNAFU.
+
+Jargon can be used by a clique to prevent others from joining or understanding, but it also is often just used because it is shorter.
+Terminology
+Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System. It is the fifth planet from the Sun. Jupiter is a gas giant because it is so large, and made mostly of gas. The other gas giants in the Solar System are Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
+
+Jupiter's mass is about 318 times the mass of Earth. This is more than twice the mass of all the other planets in the Solar System put together.
+
+Jupiter can be seen from Earth without using a telescope, in fact, it is the third-brightest object in the night sky. Only the Earth's moon and Venus are brighter. The ancient Romans named the planet after their King of the Gods, Jupiter (Latin: Iuppiter).
+
+Jupiter has 95 known moons. About 75 of them are very smallâless than five kilometres wide. The four largest moons of Jupiter are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They are called the Galilean moons because Galileo Galilei discovered them. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System. Its diameter is larger than that of the planet Mercury.
+
+Name and symbol
+
+Jupiter was named for the king of the gods. The Greeks called him Zeus. The Romans called him Jupiter. The symbol for Jupiter, â, is from the Greek zeta. It has a horizontal stroke . This stands as an abbreviation for Zeus.
+
+Structure
+Jupiter is the biggest planet in the Solar System. Its diameter is 142,984 km. This is eleven times larger than the diameter of Earth. Jupiter is twice as massive as all the other planets in the Solar System put together. Jupiter is 318 times as massive as Earth. The volume of Jupiter is 1,317 times the volume of Earth. In other words, 1,317 Earth-sized objects could fit inside it. It gives off more heat than it gets from the Sun.
+
+Atmosphere
+The atmosphere near the surface of Jupiter is about 90% hydrogen, 10% helium, and less than 1% other gases.
+
+The lower atmosphere is so heated and the pressure so high that helium changes to liquid. It rains down onto the planet. Based on spectroscopy, Jupiter seems to be made of the same gases as Saturn. It is different from Neptune or Uranus. Those two planets have much less hydrogen and helium gas.
+
+Core
+It is not possible to say exactly what metals are in the core of Jupiter.. However, by measuring the gravity around Jupiter, one can estimate its size. The inner core is dense. It has a lot of heavy elements, probably in the form of rock and ice. The heavy elements in the core have a total mass of 7â25 times that of Earth.
+
+Round the unknown inner core is an outer core. The outer core of Jupiter is thick, liquid hydrogen.
+
+Jupiter is mainly made of the same elements (hydrogen and helium) as the Sun, but it is not large enough to have the internal pressure and temperature necessary to cause hydrogen to fuse to helium, the energy source that powers the Sun and most other stars. If Jupiter had 75 times its mass, it could fuse hydrogen to helium.
+
+Cloud layers
+Jupiter has many bands of clouds going horizontally across its surface. The light parts are zones and the darker ones are belts. The zones and belts often interact with each other. This causes huge storms. Wind speeds of 360 kilometres per hour (km/h) are common on Jupiter. To show the difference the strongest tropical storms on Earth are about 100 km/h.
+
+Most of the clouds on Jupiter are made of ammonia. There may also be clouds of water vapor like clouds on Earth. Multiple spacecraft such as Voyager 1 have seen lightning on the surface of the planet. Scientists think it was water vapor because lightning needs water vapor. These lightning bolts have been measured as up to 1,000 times as powerful as those on Earth.
+
+Great Red Spot
+One of the biggest features in Jupiter's atmosphere is the Great Red Spot. It is a huge storm that is bigger than the entire Earth. It is on record since at least 1831, and as early as 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two smaller "red spots" next to the Great Red Spot. Storms can last for hours or as long as hundreds of years in the case of the Great Red Spot.
+
+Magnetic field
+Jupiter has a magnetic field like Earth's but 10 times stronger. It also has a magnetosphere much bigger and stronger than Earth's. The field traps radiation belts much stronger than Earth's Van Allen radiation belts, strong enough to endanger any spacecraft travelling near. The magnetic field is probably caused by the large amounts of liquid metallic hydrogen in the core of Jupiter. The four largest moons of Jupiter and many of the smaller ones orbit or go around the planet within the magnetic field. This protects them from the solar wind. Jupiter's magnetic field is so large, it reaches the orbit of Saturn 7.7 million miles (12 million km) away. The Earth's magnetosphere does not even cover its moon, less than a quarter of a million miles (400,000 km) away. Jupiter also experiences large aurorae, which happen when charged particles from the volcanic moon Io land in its atmosphere.
+
+Ring system
+
+Jupiter also has a thin planetary ring system. These rings are difficult to see and were not discovered until 1979 by NASA's Voyager 1 probe. There are four parts to Jupiter's rings. The closest ring to Jupiter is called the Halo Ring. The next ring is called the Main Ring. It is about wide and only thick. The Main and Halo rings of Jupiter are made of small, dark particles. The third and fourth rings, called the Gossamer rings, are transparent and are made from microscopic debris and dust. This dust probably comes from small meteors striking the surface of Jupiter's moons. The third ring is called the Amalthea Gossamer Ring, named after the moon Amalthea. The outer ring, the Thebe Gossamer Ring, is named after the moon Thebe. The outer edge of this ring is about from Jupiter.
+
+Formation
+Jupiter and other gas giants probably started as rocky planets, similar to Earth. This theory is called the core accretion model. The rocky core would have formed in the early Solar System, within a disk of gases around the Sun. When the planet reached a critical mass, its gravity started to quickly capture lots of gas. In this way, Jupiter became a giant planet. In order for Jupiter to reach this critical mass before the gas disk disappeared, there must have been lots of ice in the area. Jupiter must have formed outside the snow line, the area that is cold enough for water to freeze.
+
+The disk instability model is another theory. It says that Jupiter was formed by gas clumping together in the disk around the Sun. In this case, a rocky core would not need to form. However, this process would probably create planets that are bigger than Jupiter, so most scientists think Jupiter was formed by core accretion.
+
+Orbit
+The orbit of a planet is the time and path it takes to go around the Sun. In the time it takes for Jupiter to orbit the Sun once, the Earth orbits the Sun 11.86 times. One year on Jupiter is equal to 11.86 years on Earth.
+
+The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million kilometres. This is five times the distance between Earth and the Sun. Jupiter is not tilted on its axis as much as Earth or Mars. This causes it to have no seasons, for example summer or winter. Jupiter rotates, or spins around very quickly. This causes the planet to bulge in the middle. Jupiter is the fastest spinning planet in the Solar System. It completes one rotation or spin in 10 hours. Because of the bulge, the length of the equator of Jupiter is longer than the length from pole to pole.
+
+Jupiter in the Solar System
+
+Grand tack hypothesis
+The orbit of Jupiter is unusual compared to planets in other star systems. It is usual for giant planets to be much nearer to their stars. Because Jupiter is not, this suggests an unusual explanation is needed for the arrangement of the planets in the Solar System. Astronomers have an idea on why this happened. It is called the grand tack hypothesis.
+
+It is suggested that Jupiter formed about 3.5 astronomical units from the Sun. It started migrating inward and scattered the rocky planet-forming materials out beyond its orbit. Saturn formed later than Jupiter and started its own inward migration. When Jupiter reached 1.5 astronomical units, it became locked into an orbital resonance with Saturn. Both planets turned around and moved outward until Jupiter arrived at its current position, 5.2 astronomical units from the Sun. Saturn arrived at about 7 astronomical units.
+
+The grand tack hypothesis explains another mystery of the Solar System. Mars should have been larger than Earth but is instead only of this size. On Jupiter's grand tack, it cleared the area where Mars orbits today. After it left, the material remaining was only enough to form a small planet and a low-mass asteroid belt. Although the hypothesis has not been absolutely proven, there is no other competing explanation why the Solar System's giant should be so far from its star, and Mars so small.
+
+Asteroids and comets
+
+Jupiter's large gravity has had an effect on the Solar System. Jupiter protects the inner planets from comets by pulling them towards itself. Because of this, Jupiter has the most comet impacts in the Solar System.
+
+Two groups of asteroids, called Trojan asteroids, have settled into Jupiter's orbit around the Sun. One group is called the Trojans and the other group is called the Greeks. They go around the Sun at the same time as Jupiter.
+
+Research and exploration
+
+From Earth
+Jupiter is the third brightest object in the night sky, after the Moon and Venus. The first person known to really study the planet was Galileo Galilei in 1610. He was the first person to see Jupiter's moons Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. This was because he used a telescope, unlike anyone before him.
+
+No new moons were discovered for more than two hundred years. In 1892, astronomer E.E. Barnard found a new moon using his observatory in California. He called the moon Amalthea. It was the last of Jupiter's 67 moons to be discovered by human observation through a telescope.
+In 1994, bits of the comet Shoemaker Levy-9 hit Jupiter. It was the first time a collision between two Solar System objects was seen.
+
+From spacecraft
+Seven spacecraft have flown past Jupiter since 1973. These were Pioneer 10 (1973), Pioneer 11 (1974), Voyagers 1 and 2 (1979), Ulysses (1992 and 2004), Cassini (2000) and New Horizons (2007). Two spacecraft have been brought into orbit around Jupiter. These were Galileo (1995) and Juno (2011).
+
+The Pioneer missions were the first spacecraft to take close-up pictures of Jupiter and its moons. Five years later, the two Voyager spacecraft discovered three new moons. They captured photo evidence of lightning on the night side of Jupiter.
+
+The Ulysses probe was sent to study the Sun. It only went to Jupiter after it had finished its main mission. Ulysses had no cameras so it took no photographs.
+In 2006, the Cassini spacecraft, on its way to Saturn, took some very good, very clear pictures of the planet. Cassini also found a moon and took a picture of it but it was too far away to show the details.
+
+The Galileo mission in 1995 was the first spacecraft to go into orbit around Jupiter. It flew around the planet for seven years and studied the four biggest moons. It launched a probe into the planet to get information about Jupiter's atmosphere. The probe travelled to a depth of about 150 km before it was crushed by the pressure of all the gas above it. The Galileo spacecraft was also crushed in 2003 when NASA steered the craft into the planet. They did this so that the craft could not crash into Europa, a moon that scientists think might have life.
+
+NASA has sent another spacecraft to Jupiter called Juno. It was launched on August 5, 2011 and arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016. NASA published some results from the Juno mission in March 2018.
+
+Several other missions have been planned to send spacecraft to Jupiter's moons, Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede. One called JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) was cancelled in 2006 because it cost too much money. The European Space Agency launched JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer) on April 14, 2023. It will enter orbit around Jupiter in July 2031.
+
+Moons
+
+Jupiter has 95 known moons, as of February 23, 2023. The four largest were seen by Galileo with his primitive telescope and nine more can be seen with modern telescopes. Three moons were identified by the Voyager spacecraft. All other moons were first seen on Earth, using modern telescopes and advanced photography methods. The smallest moon (S/2003 J 12) is only one kilometre across. The largest, Ganymede, has a diameter of 5,262 kilometres. It is bigger than the planet Mercury. The other three Galilean moons are Io, Europa and Callisto. Due to the way they orbit Jupiter, gravity affects three of these moons greatly. The friction caused by the gravity of Europa and Ganymede pulling on Io makes it the most volcanic object in the Solar System. It has over 400 volcanoes, more than three times as many as Earth.
+
+Related pages
+ List of planets
+ Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9
+
+References
+
+Notes
+
+Other websites
+
+
+
+
+ Jupiter (planet) -Citizendium
+
+
+Very good articles
+A king is a male monarch who rules a country or territory which is a monarchy. The person usually inherits the title and position. A king comes to power when the previous monarch dies, who is usually a family member of his, most likely a parent. Sometimes a person may become king due to the previous monarch's abdication, for example George VI (who became King of Britain after his brother decided to abdicate).
+
+If a country has a king or a queen, that means it is a monarchy. A country which a king or queen rules is called a kingdom.
+
+For most of history, most countries were ruled in this way, especially in Europe. However, most countries, such as France, decided to become republics. Some, such as the United Kingdom, still have a royal family. In some countries, people chose a new king from other people to decide from.
+
+The wife of a king is called a queen. A woman who becomes a ruler because of inheritance is also called a queen.
+
+In the Muslim world a King would be known as Malik, Sultan or shah.
+
+Shah (Persian: ێۧÙ) is a Persian word which means the king or ruler of a country. The term "Shah" often means Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran from 1949 to 1979.
+
+Some modern kings today include Charles III of the United Kingdom and Felipe VI of Spain.
+
+Related pages
+ Shah
+ Emperor
+ Prince
+ Queen
+ Princess
+ Sultan
+ Duke
+Knowledge means the things which are true, as opposed to opinion. Information which is correct is knowledge. Knowledge can always be supported by evidence. If a statement is not supported by evidence, then it is not knowledge. The evidence makes it justified.
+
+Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. This was the point of Ryle's distinction between "knowing that" and "knowing how". It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be more or less formal or systematic. In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology. The philosopher Plato defined knowledge as "justified true belief". This definition is the subject of the Gettier problems.
+
+All knowledge is a claim to be true, but the claim can be incorrect. The only claims (propositions) which are certainly true are circular, based on how we use words or terms. We can correctly claim that there are 360 degrees in a circle, since that is part of how circles are defined. The point of Aristotle's syllogism was to show that this kind of reasoning had a machine-like form:
+If all swans are white, and this is a swan, then it must be white.
+But actually, in the real world, not all swans are white.
+
+The most widely accepted way to find reliable knowledge is the scientific method. Yet one thing all philosophers of science agree is that scientific knowledge is just the best we can do at any one time. All scientific knowledge is provisional, not a claim of absolute truth.
+
+Religion and knowledge
+Knowledge in religion is different in that it depends on faith, belief and the authority of religious leaders, not on evidence of a scientific or legal kind. There are differing views on whether religious statements should be regarded as knowledge.
+
+In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.
+In the Garden of Eden knowledge is the factor that made humans greedy and treacherous. But in the Book of Proverbs it states: 'to be wise you must first obey the LORD' (9:10).
+
+In Islam, knowledge has great significance. "The All-Knowing" (al-ÊżAlÄ«m) is one of the Names of God, reflecting distinct properties of God in Islam. The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God and various hadith encourage getting knowledge. Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title alim, meaning 'knowledgeable'.
+
+References
+
+Basic English 850 words
+Kauai (Kaua'i in Hawaiian) is the second oldest (after Ni'ihau) and fourth largest of the main Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kaua'i lies 73 miles (117 kilometers) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of Honolulu on Oahu. It is of volcanic origin. The highest point on the island is Kawaikini. It is located above sea level. The wettest spot on Earth, with average rainfall of a year, is just east of Mount Waialeale. The high yearly rainfall has eroded deep valleys and canyons in the central mountain. The waterfalls that have been created by erosion in canyons are now popular tourist spots.
+
+The city of Lihue, on the island's southeast side, is the seat of Kauai County. It has a population of around 6,500, and is the main city on the island. Waimea, which is located on the island's southwest side and the first capital of Kauai, was the first place visited by Englishexplorer Captain James Cook in 1778. It was also the first capital of Kauai. The city is at the head of one of the most beautiful canyons in the world, Waimea Canyon, whose gorge is 900 meters (3,000 feet) deep.
+
+The island of Kauai was featured in Disney's 2002 animated feature film Lilo & Stitch.
+
+Lihue Airport is the only commercial airport on the island. There are two other general aviation airports on the island: Port Allen Airport, and Princeville Airport.
+
+Islands of Hawaii
+Kahoolawe is the smallest of the eight main volcanic islands of Hawaii. It is west of Maui and south of Lanai. It is roughly 11 miles long by across (). The highest point, Lua Makika, is above sea level. The island is dry because its low elevation does not cause much rain (orographic precipitation) to fall from the northeastern trade winds.
+
+Kahoolawe was used as a gunfire and bombing target by the United States military during World War II. It was a defense training area by the United States Navy from around 1941 until May 1994. Popular opinion in the state against this practice brought the end to this use. Navy has since been trying to cleanup unexploded ordnance (bombs and explosive shells) from the island. Ordnance is still buried or lying on the ground. Other items have washed down gullies and still other unexploded ordnance is underwater offshore. In 1981, the entire island was included on the National Register of Historic Places.
+
+The island is planned to be given back to the Hawaiian people. In 1993, the U.S. Congress passed a law that "recognized the cultural importance of the island, required the Navy to return the island to the State, and directed the Navy to do an unexploded ordnance (UXO) cleanup and environmental restoration" . The turnover officially occurred on November 11, 2003, but the cleanup has not yet been completed. The U.S. Navy was given $400 million and 10 years to complete the large cleanup task, but this work has gone much slower than planned.
+
+After the cleanup is finished, the restoration of Kahoolawe will need ways to control erosion, restore the plant life, recharge the water table, and slowly replace alien plants with native ones. Plans will include methods for damming gullies and reducing rainwater runoff. Non-natives will temporarily stabilize some areas before the permanent planting of native plants.
+
+Other websites
+http://www.state.hi.us/kirc/main/home.htm
+
+Islands of Hawaii
+Volcanoes of Hawaii
+Killing a living thing is when someone or something ends that life and makes the living thing die. It means causing a death. When a human being kills another human being, it is called murder or homicide, such as manslaughter.
+
+Pesticides and herbicides are poisons for killing bad wild small animals or plants, respectively.
+
+When a soldier kills another in war, it is called "combat". When the state kills a convict sentenced to capital punishment, it is called execution. When someone kills a powerful person it is called assassination. When a person who wants to die kills himself it is suicide, or euthanasia if killed by another. When people kill other people to eat them, it is called cannibalism.
+
+Related pages
+ Death
+ Murder
+ Suicide
+ Manslaughter
+
+Violence
+Death
+The kilometre is a common unit used for longer distances on Earth. The international unit for measuring distances is the metre and a kilometre is 1000 metres. It is used in most countries for measuring road and sea distances. In the UK and the USA, the statute mile is used more than kilometres for road distances and the nautical mile for sea distances.
+
+It is often used to measure the speed of cars, planes and boats by saying how many kilometres it can travel in an hour. This is shown as km/h.
+
+It is also spelled kilometer. This spelling is used in American English.
+
+One kilometre is 0.6214 miles (1093 yards or 3280.84 feet). This means that one mile is 1.6093 kilometres.
+
+One kilometre is the approximate distance a healthy adult human being can walk in ten minute
+
+A kilometer is sometimes called a klick
+
+Related pages
+ Yard (unit of length)
+
+Units of length
+Language is the normal way humans communicate. Only humans use language, though other animals communicate through other means. The study of language is called linguistics.
+
+Human language has syntax, a set of rules for connecting words together to make statements and questions. Language can also be changed, by adding new words, for example, to describe new things. Other animals may inherit a set of calls which have pre-set functions.
+
+Language may be done by speech or by writing or by moving the hands to make signs. It follows that language is not just any way of communicating. Even some human communication is not language: see non-verbal communication. Humans also use language for thinking.
+
+When people use the word language, they can also mean:
+ the language of a community or country
+ the ability of speech
+ formal language in mathematics, logic and computing
+ sign language for deaf people (people who cannot hear)
+ a type of school subject
+
+UNESCO says that 2,500 languages are at risk of becoming extinct.
+
+Universals of language
+All languages share certain things which separate them from all other kinds of communication.
+ A language has rules which are shared by a community.
+ All human languages are based on sound and hearing, or in the case of sign language, vision. All the basic sound units, or phonemes, have this in common: they can be spoken by the human voice, and heard by the human ear.
+ The sounds come out in a sequence, not all at once. This is mimicked in writing, where the marks are put on the paper or screen in the same sequence.
+ The stream of sounds have little gaps between them, and come in bigger packages. We call the bigger packets sentences or questions or replies or comments.
+ In most languages, English being one, the syntax or order of the words can change the meaning: "the cat sat on the man" is different from "the man sat on the cat".
+ Words (which may be made up of more than one phoneme) divide up into two classes: content and non-content. Content words have meaning: nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.. Non-content words are there to make the language work: and, not, in, out, what, etc. Grammar consists of studying how words fit together to mean something.
+ All languages have:
+ sentences with two types of expression: nouns and verbs: Jill is here.
+ adjectives to modify nouns: good food.
+ ways of linking: sink or swim.
+ dummy elements: Jill likes to swim, so do I.
+ devices to order or ask questions: Get up! Are you ill?
+ Most of the languages have a written form. Before the invention of audio recording, the writing system was the only way to keep track of spoken information.
+ All languages constantly evolve. New words appear, new forms of saying things, new accents.
+There are many more things in common between languages.
+
+Inheritance
+The capacity to learn and use language is inherited. Normally, all humans are born with this capability. Which language is learned by a child depends on which language is spoken by the child's community. The capacity is inherited, but the particular language is learned.
+
+Children have a special period, from about 18 months to about four years, which is critical for learning the language. If this is seriously disrupted, then their language skills will be damaged. Older people learn differently, so they seldom learn a second language as well as they learn their native language.
+
+Types of language
+Mathematics and computer science use created languages called formal languages (like computer programming languages), but these may or may not be 'true' languages. Mathematics itself is seen as a language by many. Some people consider musical notation to be a way of writing the musical language.
+
+Chinese is the language with the most native speakers in the world, but Chinese is not really a language. It is a close family of dialects, some of which are as different as Romance languages are from one another.
+
+Greek is one of the world's oldest surviving languages. In its modern form, Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. About 13.5 million people speak the Greek language.
+
+English is often called "the international language", or lingua franca. It is the main second language of the world and the international language of science, travel, technology, business, diplomacy, and entertainment. French had a similar status until the 20th century, and other languages had it at other times.
+ English as a first language: 380 million.p108
+ English as an official second language: up to 300 million.
+ English taught as a second language, but with no official status: anyone's guess, up to 1000 million/1 billion.
+ Chinese (Mandarin): 390 million native speakers.p96
+Hoffish(Swedish Dialect): 176 (smallest spoken language)
+Some languages are made up so that a lot of people around the world can learn them, without the new languages being tied to any specific country or place. These are called constructed languages also known as Oral Sects. One of the most popular of these languages is Esperanto, which is sometimes called "La Internacia Lingvo," or "The International Language." Another of these languages is called VolapĂŒk, which was popular about a hundred years ago but is much less popular now. It has mostly been replaced by languages like Esperanto, Interlingua, and Ido. Dialects are basically other versions of a language. For example, Hoffish is a dialect of Swedish.
+
+Part of the reason that VolapĂŒk became unpopular is that some sounds are hard to say for people who speak Spanish or English, two of the most widely spoken languages in the world.
+
+Some languages are only spoken by closed ethnic groups such as the Romani language, which is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by only gypsies.
+
+Related pages
+
+ Alphabet
+ Basic English
+ Sign language
+ English as a foreign language
+ English language
+ Historical linguistics
+ Language education
+ Language families and languages
+ Linguistics
+ List of languages
+ Orthography
+ Phonology
+ Second language
+ Semantics
+ Speech therapy
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+ Language (general) -Citizendium
+Leisure (or free time) is when a person can choose what to do. During a person's leisure time, they do not have an obligation to be at school or work at a job. During leisure time, people can do fun activities, family activities, or other non-work activities, such as hobbies.
+
+Common forms of recreation or leisure are:
+
+ Playing sports such as football or hockey
+ Playing games such as chess or cards
+ Exercising such as running or lifting weights
+ Watching television and movies
+ Listening to music
+ Hobbies such as playing piano or guitar, knitting, or sewing
+ Travelling
+ Reading
+ Drawing
+ Painting
+
+A vacation or holiday is the setting aside of time specifically for leisure. During their vacation, some people travel to a different region or country, and stay at a hotel so that they can do things they could not do near home. Other people prefer to spend their vacation time at home in their own community.
+
+In rich industrialized countries such as the US and Canada, as well as in most European countries, workers are allowed to stay home on the weekend (usually Saturday and Sunday), and use it as leisure time. People in poorer developing countries usually have less leisure time, as they have to work longer hours and more days per year.
+Live can be a verb. It rhymes with "give". "To live" means "to be alive" (and it is not dead). If you live, then you have life.
+
+It can be used in a general way:
+"I live in London".
+"I live in a house".
+"A person can always live in fear".
+
+Live can be an adjective. It rhymes with "five".
+In television, a "live" program is one where what is happening can be seen at the same time as it is happening. Sports program are usually "live".
+In music, If a CD is a "live recording" it means a recording which was made at a concert with an audience present. If it is not a live recording it may be a recording made in a studio.
+Live album
+"Live" can also mean "full of energy" or simply "happening now". Something that is being talked about in the newspapers at the moment can be a "live issue".
+
+VOA Special English words
+Life is a concept in biology. It is about the characteristics, state, or mode that separates a living thing from dead matter.
+The word itself may refer to a living being or to the processes of which living things are a part. It may refer to the period when a living thing is functional (as between birth and death).
+
+The study of life is called biology: people who study life are called biologists. A lifespan is the average length of life in a species. Most life on Earth is powered by solar energy: the only known exceptions are the chemosynthetic bacteria living around the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. All life on Earth is based on the chemistry of carbon compounds, specifically involving long-chain molecules such as proteins and nucleic acid. With water, which all life needs, the long molecules are wrapped inside membranes as cells. This may or may not be true of all possible forms of life in the Universe: it is true of all life on Earth today.
+
+Summary
+
+Living things, or organisms, can be explained as open systems. They are always changing, because they exchange materials and information with their environment. They undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli and reproduce.
+
+Through natural selection, they adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means. Many life forms can be found on Earth. The properties common to these organismsâplants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteriaâare a carbon and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information.
+
+The systems that make up life have many levels of organization. From smallest to biggest, they are: molecule, cell, tissue (group of cells with a common purpose), organ (part of the body with a purpose), organ system (group of organs that work together), organism, population (group of organisms of the same species), community (all of the organisms that interact in an area), ecosystem (all of the organisms in an area and the non-living surroundings), and biosphere (all parts of the Earth that have life).
+
+At present, the Earth is the only planet humans have detailed information about. The question of whether life exists elsewhere in the Universe is open. There have been a number of claims of life elsewhere in the Universe. None of these have been confirmed so far. The best evidence of life outside of Earth is are nucleic acids that have been found in certain types of meteorites.
+
+Definitions
+One explanation of life is called the cell theory. The cell theory has three basic points: all living things are made up of cells. The cell is the smallest living thing that can do all the things needed for life. All cells must come from pre-existing cells.
+
+Something is often said to be alive if it:
+ grows,
+ takes in food, uses the food for energy, and passes waste products (see metabolism),
+ moves: it must either move itself, or have movement inside itself,
+ reproduces, either sexually (with another living thing) or asexually, by creating copies of itself,
+ reacts to its surroundings,
+ functions
+
+However, not all living things fit every point on this list.
+ Mules cannot reproduce, and neither can worker ants.
+ Viruses and spores are not actively alive (metabolising) until the conditions are right.
+
+They do, however, fit the biochemical definitions: they are made of the same kind of chemicals.
+
+The thermodynamic definition of life is any system which can keep its entropy levels below maximum (usually through adaptation and mutations).
+
+A modern approach
+A modern definition was given by Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela in 1980, to which they gave the name autopoiesis:
+ The production of their own components
+ The correct assembly of these components
+ Continuous repair and maintenance of their own existence.
+Roth commented that "In short, organisms are self-reproducing and self-maintaining, or 'autopoietic', systems". This approach makes use of molecular biology ideas and systems science ideas.
+
+What life needs
+
+Chemistry
+
+Life on Earth is made from organic compoundsâmolecules that contain carbon. Four types of long-chain molecules (macromolecules) are important: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
+ Simple carbohydrates (sugars) are used for energy, or as a building block. Complex carbohydrates, like starch and cellulose, can keep energy for a long time. They are also used to make a strong structure, like a plant stem.
+ Lipids can be insulation to keep a living thing warm, such as fat on a penguin, or to stop water from passing in or out, such as waterproof feathers. Two layers of phospholid (a kind of lipid) make up all cell membranes. Some kinds of lipids are hormones, which send messages from one cell to another.
+ Proteins, long chains of amino acids, have many purposes. They fold into complex shapes because their amino acids interact. Proteins are involved in many chemical reactions, to make them go faster.
+ Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, are long chains of nucleotides. There are only four kinds of nucleotides in each chain, but they are the instructions for life, like a language. Each three nucleotides tell the cell to make one amino acid. One part of a nucleic acid is the code for one protein molecule.
+
+Almost all living things need the chemical elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, to build these macromolecules. Living things also need small amounts of other elements, called trace elements. Water is a very important part of all living things. For example, humans are about two-thirds water. Water is a solvent that lets molecules mix and react with other molecules.
+
+Energy sources
+All living things need energy to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. Some can get energy from the environment without help from other living things: these are called producers, or autotrophs. Plants, algae, and some bacteria, a group of producers called photoautotrophs, use the sun's light for energy. When producers use light to make and store organic compounds, this is called photosynthesis. Some other producers, called chemoautotrophs, get energy from chemicals that come out of the ocean floor in hydrothermal vents. Other living things get their energy from organic compounds: these are called consumers, or heterotrophs. Animals, fungi, most bacteria, and most protists are consumers. Consumers can eat other living things or dead material.
+
+Both producers and consumers need to break down organic compounds to free energy. The best way to do this is aerobic respiration, which frees the most energy, but living things can only do aerobic respiration if they have oxygen (O2). They can also break down these compounds without oxygen, using anaerobic respiration or fermentation.
+
+Cells
+
+All living things have cells. Every cell has a cell membrane on the outside, and a jelly-like material that fills the inside, called cytoplasm. The membrane is important because it separates the chemicals inside and outside. Some molecules can pass through the membrane, but others cannot. Living cells have genes, made of DNA. Genes say to the cell what to do, like a language. One DNA molecule, with many genes, is called a chromosome. Cells can copy themselves to make two new cells.
+
+There are two main kinds of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells have only a few parts. Their DNA is the shape of a circle, inside the cytoplasm, and they have no membranes inside the cell. Eukaryotic cells are more complex, and they have a cell nucleus. The DNA is inside the nucleus, and a membrane is around the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells also have other parts, called organelles. Some of these other organelles also have membranes.
+
+Types of life
+
+Taxonomy is how lifeforms are put into groups. The smaller groups are more closely related, but the larger classes are more distantly related. The levels, or ranks, of taxonomy are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. There are many ideas for the meaning of species. One idea, called the biological species concept, is as follows. A species is a group of living things that can mate with each other, and whose children can make their own children.
+
+Taxonomy aims to group together living things with a common ancestor. This can now be done by comparing their DNA. Originally, it was done by comparing their anatomy.
+
+The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic and have only one cell. Bacteria range in size from 0.15 cubic micrometres (Mycoplasma) to 200,000,000 cubic micrometres (Thiomargarita namibiensis). Bacteria have shapes which are useful in classification, such as round, long and thin, and spiral. Some bacteria cause diseases. Bacteria in our intestines are part of our gut flora. They break down some of our food. Both bacteria and archaea may live where larger forms of life cannot. Bacteria have a molecule called peptidoglycan in their cell wall, but archaea do not. Archaea have a molecule called isoprene in their cell membrane, but bacteria do not.
+
+Eukarya are living things with eukaryotic cells, and they can have one cell or many cells. Most eukaryotes use sexual reproduction to make new copies of themselves. In sexual reproduction, two sex cells, one from each parent, join to make a new living thing.
+
+Plants are eukaryotes that use the Sun's light for energy. They include algae, which live in water, and land plants. All land plants have two forms during their life cycle, called alternation of generations. One form is diploid, where the cells have two copies of their chromosomes, and the other form is haploid, where the cells have one copy of their chromosomes. In land plants, both diploid and haploid forms have many cells. Two kinds of land plants are vascular plants and bryophytes. Vascular plants have long tissues that stretch from end to end of the plant. These tissues carry water and food. Most plants have roots and leaves.
+
+Animals are eukaryotes with many cells, which have no rigid cell walls. All animals are consumers: they survive by eating other organic material. Almost all animals have neurons, a signalling system. They usually have muscles, which make the body move. Many animals have a head and legs. Most animals are either male or female. They need a mate of the opposite sex to make offspring. Sex cells from the male and female can meet inside or outside the body.
+
+Fungi are eukaryotes which may have one cell, like yeasts, or many cells, like mushrooms. They are saprophytes. Fungi break down living or dead material, so they are decomposers. Only fungi, and a few bacteria, can break down lignin and cellulose, two parts of wood. Some fungi are mycorrhiza. They live under ground and give nutrients to plants, like nitrogen and phosphorus. Eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi are called protists. Most protists live in water.
+
+Evolution
+
+Over thousands or millions of years, living things can change, through the process of evolution. One kind of evolution is when a species changes over time, such as giraffes growing longer necks. Most of the time, the species becomes better suited to its environment, a process called adaptation. Evolution can also cause one group of living things to split into two groups. This is called speciation if it makes a new species. An example is mockingbirds on the Galapagos Islandsâone species of mockingbird lives on each island, but all the species split from a shared ancestor species. Groups that are bigger than species can also split from a shared ancestorâfor example, reptiles and mammals. A group of living things and their shared ancestor is called a clade.
+
+Living things can evolve to be quite different from their ancestors. As a result, parts of the body can also change. The same bone structure became the hands of humans, the hooves of horses, and the wings of birds. Different body parts that evolved from the same thing are called homologous.
+
+Extinction is when all members of a species die. About 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are extinct. Extinction can happen at any time, but it is more common in certain time periods called extinction events. The most recent was 65 million years ago, when the dinosaurs went extinct.
+
+Origin of life
+
+By comparing fossils and DNA, we know that all life on Earth today had a shared ancestor, called the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). Other living things may have been alive at the same time as the LUCA, but they died out. A study from 2018 suggests that the LUCA is about 4.5 billion (4,500,000,000) years old, nearly as old as the Earth. The oldest fossil evidence of life is about 3.5 billion years old.
+
+How did non-living material become alive? This is a difficult question. The first step must have been the creation of organic compounds. In 1953, the MillerâUrey experiment made inorganic compounds into organic compounds, such as amino acids, using heat and energy.
+
+Life needs a source of energy for chemical reactions. On the early Earth, the atmosphere did not have oxygen. Oxidation using the Krebs cycle, which is common today, was not possible. The Krebs cycle may have acted backwards, doing reduction instead of oxidation, and the cycle may have made larger molecules. To make life, molecules needed to make copies of themselves. DNA and RNA make copies of themselves, but only if there is a catalystâa compound which speeds up the chemical reaction. One guess is that RNA itself served as a catalyst. At some time, the molecules were surrounded by membranes, which made cells.
+
+Gallery of images of life
+
+Related pages
+ Artificial life
+ Biology
+ Birth
+ Death
+ Earliest known life forms
+ Evolution
+ Tree of life
+
+References
+
+Life
+Law is a set of rules decided by a particular place or authority meant for the purpose of keeping the peace and security of society.
+
+Courts or police may enforce this system of rules and punish people who break the laws, such as by paying a fine, or other penalty including jail. In ancient societies, laws were written by leaders, to set out rules on how people can live, work and do business with each other. But many times in history when laws have been on a false basis to benefit few at the expense of society, they have resulted in conflict. To prevent this, in most countries today, laws are written and voted on by groups of politicians in a legislature, such as a parliament or congress, elected (chosen) by the governed peoples. Countries today have a constitution for the overall framework of society and make further laws as needed for matters of detail. Members of society generally have enough freedom within all the legal things they can choose to do. An activity is illegal if it breaks a law or does not follow the laws.
+
+A legal code is a written code of laws that are enforced. This may deal with things like police, courts, or punishments. A lawyer, jurist or attorney is a professional who studies and argues the rules of law. In the United States, there are two kinds of attorneys - "transactional" attorneys who write contracts and "litigators" who go to court. In the United Kingdom, these professionals are called solicitors and barristers respectively.
+
+The Rule of Law is the law which says that government can only legally use its power in a way the government and the people agree on. It limits the powers a government has, as agreed in a country's constitution. The Rule of Law prevents dictatorship and protects the rights of the people. When leaders enforce the legal code honestly, even on themselves and their friends, this is an example of the rule of law being followed. "The rule of law", wrote the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350 BC, "is better than the rule of any individual."
+
+Culture is usually a major source of the principles behind many laws, and people also tend to trust the ideas based on family and social habits. In many countries throughout history, religion and religious books like the Vedas, Bible or the Koran have been a major source of law.
+
+Types of law
+Medical law is the body of laws concerning the rights and responsibilities of medical professionals and their patients. The main areas of focus for medical law include confidentiality, negligence and other torts related to medical treatment (especially medical malpractice), and criminal law and ethics.
+Physician-Patient Privilege protects the patient's private conversations with a medical physician (doctor), this also extends to their personal information (like their contact details) shared with medical personnel.
+ Property law states the rights and obligations that a person has when they buy, sell, or rent homes and land (called real property or realty), and objects (called personal property).
+ Intellectual property (IP) law involves the rights people have over things they create, such as art, music, and literature. This is called copyright. It also protects inventions that people make, by a kind of law called patent. It also covers the rights people have to the names of a company or a distinctive mark or logo. This is called trademark.
+ Trust law (business Law) sets out the rules for money that is put into an investment, such as pension funds that people save up for their retirement. It involves many different types of law, including administrative and property law.
+Tort law helps people to make claims for compensation (repayment) when someone hurts them or hurts their property.
+Criminal law is used by the government to prevent people from breaking laws, and punish people who do break them.
+Constitutional law deals with the important rights of the government, and its relationship with the people. It mainly involves the interpretation of a constitution, including things like the Separation of powers of the different branches of government.
+A court order is an official proclamation by a judge that defines and authorizes the carrying out of certain steps for one or more parties to a case.
+Administrative law is used by ordinary citizens who want to challenge decisions made by governments. It also involves things like regulations, and the operation of the administrative agencies.
+International law is used to set out rules on how countries can act in areas such as trade, the environment, or military action. The Geneva Conventions on the conduct of war and the Roerich Pact are examples of international law.
+Custom and tradition are practices that are widely adopted and agreed upon in a society, thought often not in a written form. Custom and tradition can be enforced in courts and are sometimes considered as part of the legal reasoning in matters decided in courts. In some societies and cultures all law is or was custom and tradition, though this is increasingly rare although there are some parts of the world where custom tradition are still binding or even the predominant form of law, for example tribal lands or failed states.
+
+Civil law and common law
+Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. Civil law is based on legislation that is found in constitutions or statutes passed by government. The secondary part of civil law is the legal approaches that are part of custom. In civil law governments, judges do not generally have much power, and most of the laws and legal precedent are created by Members of Parliament.
+
+Common law is based on the decisions made by judges in past court cases. It comes from England and it became part of almost every country that once belonged to the British Empire, except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec. It is also the predominant form of law in the United States, where many laws called statutes are written by Congress, but many more legal rules exist from the decisions of the courts. Common law had its beginnings in the Middle Ages, when King John was forced by his barons to sign a document called the Magna Carta.
+
+Religious law
+Religious law is law based on religious beliefs or books. Examples include the Jewish Halakha, Islamic Sharia, and Christian Canon law.
+
+Until the 1700s, Sharia law was the main legal system throughout the Muslim world. In some Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, the whole legal systems still base their law on Sharia law. Islamic law is often criticised because it often has harsh penalties for crimes. A serious criticism is the judgement of the European Court that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".
+
+The Turkish Refah Party's sharia-based "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The Court decided Refah's plan would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy".
+
+History of law
+The history of law is closely connected to the development of human civilizations. Ancient Egyptian law developed in 3000 BC. In 1760 BC King Hammurabi, took ancient Babylonian law and organized it, and had it chiseled in stone for the public to see in the marketplace. These laws became known as the Code of Hammurabi.
+
+The Torah from the Old Testament is an old body of law. It was written around 1280 BC. It has moral rules such as the Ten Commandments, which tell people what things are not permitted. Sometimes people try to change the law. For example, if prostitution is illegal, they try to make it legal.
+
+Legislature
+In democracies, the people in a country usually choose people called politicians to represent them in a legislature. Examples of legislatures include the Houses of Parliament in London, the Congress in Washington, D.C., the Bundestag in Berlin, the Duma in Moscow and the Assemblée nationale in Paris. Most legislatures have two chambers or houses, a 'lower house' and an 'upper house'. To pass legislation, a majority of Members of Parliament must vote for a bill in each house. The legislature is the branch of government that writes laws, and votes on whether they will be approved.
+
+Judiciary
+The judiciary is a group of judges who resolve people's disputes and determine whether people who are charged with crimes are guilty. In some jurisdictions the judge does not find guilt or innocence but instead directs a jury, how to interpret facts from a legal perspective, but the jury determines the facts based on evidence presented to them and finds the guilt or innocences of the charged person. Most countries of common law and civil law systems have a system of appeals courts, up to a supreme authority such as the Supreme Court or the High Court. The highest courts usually have the power to remove laws that are unconstitutional (which go against the constitution).
+
+Executive (government) and Head of State
+The executive is the governing center of political authority. In most democratic countries, the executive is elected from people who are in the legislature. This group of elected people is called the cabinet. In France, the US and Russia, the executive branch has a President which exists separately from the legislature.
+
+The executive suggests new laws and deals with other countries. As well, the executive usually controls the military, the police, and the bureaucracy. The executive selects ministers, or secretaries of state to control departments such as the health department or the department of justice.
+
+In many jurisdictions the Head of State does not take part in the day-to-day governance of the jurisdiction and takes a largely ceremonial role. This is the case in many Commonwealth nations where the Head of State, usually a Governor almost exclusively acts "on the advice" of the head of the Executive (e.g. the Prime Minister, First Minister or Premier). The primary legal role of the Head of State in these jurisdictions is to act as a check or balance against the Executive, as the Head of State has the rarely exercised power to dissolve the legislature, call elections and dismiss ministers.
+
+Other parts of the legal system
+The police enforce the criminal laws by arresting people suspected of breaking the law. Bureaucrats are the government workers and government organizations that do work for the government. Bureaucrats work within a system of rules, and they make their decisions in writing.
+
+Lawyers are people who have learned about laws. Lawyers give people advice about their legal rights and duties and represent people in court. To become a lawyer, a person has to complete a two- or three-year university program at a law school and pass an entrance examination. Lawyers work in law firms, for the government, for companies, or by themselves.
+
+Civil society is the people and groups that are not part of government that try to protect people against human rights abuses and try to protect freedom of speech and other individual rights. Organizations that are part of civil society include political parties, debating clubs, trade unions, human rights organizations, newspapers and charities.
+
+"Corporations are among the organizations that use the legal system to further their goals. Like the others, they use means such as campaign donations and advertising to persuade people that they are right. Corporations also engage in commerce and make new things such as automobiles, vaporisers/e-cigarettes, and Unmanned aerial vehicles (i.e. "drones") that the old laws are not well equipped to deal with. Corporations also makes use of a set of rules and regulations to ensure their employees remain loyal to them (usually presented in a legal contract), and that any disobedience towards these rules are considered uncivilized and therefore given grounds for immediate dismissal.
+
+Related pages
+Constitution
+Death penalty
+Ethics
+Legal code
+Legal rights
+Parliament
+ Physical law
+ Political economy
+
+Further reading
+H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law, (Penelope A. Bullock & Joseph Raz eds. 2nd ed. 1994) (1961).
+Sandro Nielsen: The Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Principles and Practice for Legal Language. Benjamins 1994.
+A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. edited by Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit. .
+Johnson, Alan (1995). The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology. Blackwells publishers. .
+Handbook of Political Institutions. edited by R. A. W. Rhodes, Sarah A. Binder and Bert A. Rockman. Oxford University Press.
+An Introduction to IP Law. edited by John Watts. Oxford University Press. Available at Patent Professionals LLC
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+ Law -Citizendium
+Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof (; , ; â ), credited as L. L. Zamenhof and sometimes as the pseudonymous Dr. Esperanto, was an eye doctor, linguist (who creates a language), and scholar who created the international language Esperanto.
+
+Biography
+Zamenhof was born in 1859 in the town of BiaĆystok, Poland. At the time, Poland was a part of the Russian Empire. Bialystok contained three major groups: Poles, Belorussians, and Yiddish-speaking Jews. Zamenhof thought that one common language would join these groups and stop fights between them.
+
+His first language was said to be Polish. His parents spoke Russian and Yiddish at home. His father was a German teacher, so Zamenhof learned that language from an early age and spoke the language fluently. Later he learned French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew and English. He also had an interest in Italian, Spanish and Lithuanian.
+
+Zamenhof decided that the international language must have a simple grammar and be easier to learn than VolapĂŒk, an earlier international language. He attempted to create the international language with a grammar that was rich, and complex. The basics of Esperanto were published in 1887. He translated the Hebrew Bible into Esperanto.
+
+His grandson, Louis-Christophe Zaleski-Zamenhof, was an engineer.
+
+He was 14 times nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize between 1907 and 1917.
+
+References
+
+1859 births
+1917 deaths
+Bible translators
+Esperantists
+Inventors
+Jewish scientists
+Legion of Honour
+Linguists
+Polish Jews
+Polish scientists
+Zionists
+This is a list of sovereign states. Disputed countries are listed at the bottom.
+
+A
+ -
+ - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+
+B
+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+
+C
+
+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+
+D
+ - - -
+
+E
+ - - - - - - - -
+
+F
+ - -
+
+G
+ - - - - - - - - - -
+
+H
+ - - -
+
+I
+ - - - - - - - -
+
+J
+ - -
+
+K
+ - - - - - -
+
+L
+ - - - - - - - -
+
+M
+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+
+N
+ - - - - - - - - - - -
+
+O
+
+P
+ - - - - - - - - -
+
+Q
+
+R
+ - - -
+
+S
+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+ -
+
+T
+ - - - - - - - - -
+
+U
+ - - - - - -
+
+V
+ - (Holy See) - -
+
+W
+ - -
+
+Y
+
+Z
+ -
+
+Disputed countries
+
+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+
+Places sometimes considered countries, but not actual countries according to international law
+ - - - -
+Canada is a country and sovereign state in the north of North America. It is made up of thirteen administrative divisions: ten provinces and three territories.
+
+The different levels of government in Canada are based on the principles of a federation: the governments of each province and territory share power with the federal government. The territories' governments have a more limited set of powers than the federal government.
+
+The provinces are in the south of Canada, near the border with the United States. They go from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. The territories are to the north, where fewer people live, close to the Arctic Circle and Arctic Ocean.
+
+Here is a list of the provinces and territories, and their standard abbreviations, with their capitals (the cities where their governments are based) and largest cities. Canada's national capital, where the federal government meets, is Ottawa.
+
+References
+
+
+Canada geography-related lists
+Las Vegas is a city in the American state of Nevada. There were 641,903 people living in the city in 2020, and more than 2,000,000 people living in the metropolitan area. It is the largest city in Nevada. Las Vegas is also the county seat of Clark County.
+
+Las Vegas is famous for its casinos and resort hotels. It is one of the world's most popular places for tourism.
+
+Hispanics (especially Mexicans and Cubans) and white people are the largest racial and ethnic groups in Las Vegas. Las Vegas has many Italians, Germans, English people and Irish people.
+
+Politics
+Las Vegas leans to the left. Three of the four congressional districts in Nevada include parts of Las Vegas, and all three congresspeople representing those districts are Democrats from Las Vegas.
+
+History
+Native Americans were the first to reside in the area, specifically the Paiute tribe. It was first called Las Vegas (which means The Meadows in the Spanish language) by the Spanish. The city is known for its dry weather, as is the rest of southern Nevada. It is surrounded by desert.
+
+The US Army built Fort Baker there in 1864. Las Vegas has natural springs, where people used to stop for water when they were going to Los Angeles or other places in California.
+
+In 1905, 110 acres owned by William A. Clark, on which he built a railroad to Southern California were auctioned and Las Vegas was founded as a railroad town. Las Vegas officially became a city in 1911.
+
+The Hispanic population in Las Vegas is growing and has rapidly increased. Most Latino Las Vegas residents are of Mexican, Cuban and Salvadoran descent. Las Vegas also has a small Puerto Rican, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Peruvian, Colombian, Honduran, Nicaraguan and Argentine population. The most common European ancestries in Las Vegas are German, Irish, Italian, Polish, French, Scottish, Russian, Swedish, Norwegian, Dutch and Welsh. Filipino, Korean, Vietnamese, Japanese, Indian and Chinese are the most common Asian ancestries.
+
+People
+There is a Mexican, Chinese, Greek, German, Korean, Japanese, French, Arab, Italian, Jewish, African-American, Turkish, Croatian, Polish, Filipino, Indian, Ethiopian and Chilean community in Las Vegas.
+
+Las Vegas has a growing Hispanic population. Many Hispanics in Las Vegas are of Mexican, Cuban and Salvadoran ancestry.
+
+Most of the foreign-born population were born in Mexico, the Philippines and El Salvador.
+
+References
+
+
+County seats in Nevada
+1905 establishments in the United States
+20th-century establishments in Nevada
+Lanai (or LÄnaÊ»i) is sixth largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. It is also known as the "Pineapple Island". The island is almost a circle in shape and is 18 miles wide in the longest direction. The land area is 140 sq. miles (367 km2). It is separated from the island of Moloka'i by the Kalohi Channel to the north.
+
+History
+Lana'i was first seen by Europeans on 25 February 1779 by Captain Clerke, with HMS Resolution on the James Cook Pacific Ocean trip. Clerke took command of the ship after Capt. Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14, and was leaving the islands for the North Pacific.
+
+In 1922, Jim Dole, the president of Dole Pineapple Company, bought the island of Lana'i. He made a large part of it into the world's largest pineapple plantation.
+
+Tourism
+Tourism on Lana'i started not long ago. That was when the growing of pineapple was slowly coming to an end in the Islands. On Lana'i, you can be with nature and feel the mood of the Hawaiian countryside. Not like nearby O'ahu, the only town (Lana'i City) is small. It has no traffic or shopping centers. Tourists come mainly to relax.
+
+There are three hotels on Lana'i and several golf courses.
+
+Islands of Hawaii
+A leap year is a calendar year in which an extra day is added to the Gregorian calendar, which is used by most of the world. A common year has 365 days, but a leap year has 366 days. The extra day, February 29, is added to the month of February. In a common year, February has 28 days, but in a leap year it has 29 days. The extra day, called a leap day, occurs on the same day of the week as the first day of the month, February 1. Additionally, a leap year does not begin and end on the same day of the week, as a common year does.
+
+Leap years are evenly divisible by 4. The most recent leap year was 2020 and the next leap year will be 2024. However, any year that is evenly divided by 100 would not be a leap year unless it is evenly divided by 400. This is why 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, while 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300 are common years, even though they are all divisible by 4.
+
+We have leap years because instead of 365 days, the Earth really takes a few minutes less than 365-1/4 days (365.24219) to go completely around the Sun. Without leap years, the seasons would start one day earlier on the calendar every four years. After 360 years, spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere would begin on December 21 (which is when winter in the Northern Hemisphere and summer in the Southern Hemisphere presently begins).
+
+A number of countries use a lunar calendar (based on the Moon, instead of the Sun, like our solar calendar is). They have leap years when they add an extra lunar month. Different calendars add the extra month in different ways. So a year which has 366 days instead of 365 days where the month of February has 29 days is called a leap year.
+
+In a leap year, the corresponding months are January, April, and July, February and August, March and November, and September and December. No month corresponds to May, June, or October.
+
+In the Gregorian calendar, 97 out of every 400 years are leap years. In the outdated Julian calendar, 100 years out of every 400 are leap years. All other years are common years.
+
+Related pages
+ February 29
+ Common year
+ Century leap year
+
+Years
+Leather is the skin of an animal made into a durable material by tanning. The skins of cows, pigs, and goats are often used to make leather. Skins of snakes, alligators or crocodiles, and ostriches are sometimes used to make fancier leather. Shoes, bags, clothes, and balls are often made of leather. Sometimes people make leather out of whales, ducks, giraffes, and African elephants. All of these ways of making leather are very simple but some are rare.
+
+How leather is made
+The way leather is made is divided into three processes. They are preparing the leather, tanning it, and crusting.
+
+In preparing the leather, many things are done to make it ready for tanning. They include soaking it, removing the hair, liming, deliming, bating, bleaching, and pickling.
+
+Tanning is a process that makes the proteins, especially collagen, in the raw hide stable. It increases the thermal and chemical stability of the animal skins. The difference between fresh and tanned animal skin is that fresh animal skin dries to make it hard and stiff. When water is added to it, it becomes bad. But, animal skin that is tanned dries to make it flexible. It does not become bad when water is added to it.
+
+Crusting is a process that makes the leather thin and lubricates it. Chemicals added when crusting must be set in place. Crusting ends with drying and making the leather soft. It may include splitting, shaving, dyeing, whitening or other methods.
+
+From other animals
+Today, most leather is made from the skin of cattle, which makes up about 67% of all the leather made. Other animals that are used include sheep (about 12%), pigs (about 11%), and goats (about 10%).
+
+Horse skin is used to make strong leather. Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather. It is used in work gloves and indoor shoes.
+
+Kangaroo leather is used to make things that must be strong and flexible. It is used in bullwhips.
+
+In Thailand, stingray leather is used in wallets and belts. Stingray leather is tough and durable.
+
+References
+
+Natural materials
+A license (in American English) or licence (in British English) allows someone to do something that they otherwise are not allowed to do. A person usually has to pay some money, and maybe pass a test to get a license. A license is usually written but it does not have to be. Most kinds of licenses can only be used by the person they were given to. Licenses may be temporary or permanent. Some licenses can not be taken away once they are given. A person with a license is called a licensee.
+
+In many countries, if a person tries to do something without the correct license to do it, they might have to pay a fine or go to prison.
+
+Examples of licenses
+There are many different types of licenses.
+
+Driver's license
+The laws of most countries say that people are only allowed to drive cars if they have a driver's license. If a person does not have a license, they may have to pay a fine if they are caught by the police. In many countries, a person must take a test and pay money to get a license. The test would check that they know the road rules, and have the skill to drive a car.
+
+Hunting license
+Other licenses give permission to shoot animals (often called a hunting license). The hunting license usually says when a person may hunt. A hunter may have to pass a test to show that they understand the rules about hunting.
+
+Television licence
+In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, if someone has a television set, they must buy a "television licence" every year.
+
+Copyright licenses
+Copyright is a law that gives the owner of a creative work the right to decide what other people can do with it. A person or a company can give a license to a copyright that they own. So in order for another person to use an owner's copyright they need permission from the owner. For example, when someone buys computer software, they also need a license from the creator of the software (a copyright owner) allowing the buyer to use the software.
+
+Difference between license and licence
+"License" is a verb and "licence" is a noun. "Licensing sessions" were the meetings of magistrates which decided about giving licences to sell alcohol.
+
+In American English there is no difference in spelling between the verb "to license" meaning to give permission, and the noun "a license" meaning the permission to do something.
+
+Distinction between a licence and a qualification
+A degree in medicine is a qualification showing a person has successfully studied medicine. It is awarded for life. A licence to practice medicine is a legal permission to do so within the territory covered by the licensing authority. The licence may be taken away ('revoked') in certain situations.
+
+Related pages
+ Copyright
+ Patent
+ Trademark
+
+References
+
+Law
+A link, also hyperlink in computing, is a part of a chain. A chain is made of many pieces of metal; each piece is a link.
+
+Today, people also use the word link in a new way. The World Wide Web on the Internet is made of many different Web pages. The computer software that people use to make these pages (HTML) lets us go to other pages in a very fast and easy way.
+
+The person who makes the web page can tell the computer to show a word or a picture on the Web page as a link. This means that when we click on the link with our computer mouse, the computer will show us the new page we want to see. Most links are blue, but they can be any color.
+
+The color of the link will change to dark blue when clicked as the web browser recognises it in the browser's cache. Unless the cache is cleared, the link will always stay dark blue.
+
+Ways of making links
+There are many ways in making a link on a web page. The process is different for different internet software.
+
+Plain HTML
+In .htm and .html files, a link can be created using this code:
+
+<a href="http://www.example.com">Text of link</a>
+
+WikiSyntax
+WikiSyntax like MediaWiki uses a simpler way of making links. To create a link to another page of the same website:
+
+[[Page name|Link text]] or just [[Page name]].
+
+To link to an external website:
+
+[http://www.example.com Link text], [http://www.example.com], or just http://www.example.com.
+
+BB code
+BB code is used in forum software. To create a link:
+
+[url]http://www.example.com[/url], or [url=http://www.example.com]Link text[/url]
+
+Internet
+A library is a place where many books are kept. Most libraries are public and let people take the books to use in their home. Most libraries let people borrow books for several weeks. Some belong to institutions, for example, companies, churches, schools, and universities. The people who work in libraries are librarians. Librarians are people who take care of the library.
+
+Other libraries keep famous or rare books. There are a few "Copyright libraries" which have a copy of every book which has been written in that country. Some libraries also have other things that people might like, such as magazines, music on CDs, or computers where people can use the Internet. In school they offer software to learn the alphabet and other details.With the spread of literacy, libraries have become essential tools for learning. Libraries are very important for the progress and development of a society. Libraries are collections of books and other informational materials, however a library can also be a collection of items or media. People come to libraries for reading, study or reference. Libraries contain a variety of materials. They contain printed materials, films, sound and video recordings, maps, photographs, computer software, online databases, and other media.
+
+A library is not a bookstore (a store that sells books).
+
+Importance of a Library
+The prime purpose of a library is to provide access to knowledge and information. To fulfil this mission, libraries preserve a valuable record of culture. Then they pass down this to the coming generations. Therefore, they are an essential link between the past, present and future.
+
+People use libraries to work. They also use library resources to learn about personal interests. Sometimes, they get recreational media such as films and music. Students use libraries to study.
+
+Libraries help the students to develop good reading and study habits. Public officials use libraries for research and public issues. The libraries provide information and services that are essential for learning and progress.
+
+Public libraries
+
+Many places have a public library, where anybody can join if they live in the area. With a library card, people can borrow books and take them home for several weeks. It does not cost money to get a library card at most public libraries.
+
+Books are kept on shelves in a special order so they are easy to find. Public libraries have lot of books on various topics including story books and many others. Many public libraries have books and CDs about learning English. Stories are kept in alphabetical order by the last name of the person who wrote them, the writer. Books about other things are often given a special number, that refers to what they are about. They are then put on the shelf in number order. One number system used by many libraries is the Dewey decimal system.
+
+Mobile libraries
+
+In rural areas books may be taken in a bookmobile, or mobile library to remote places.
+
+Academic libraries
+Many colleges and universities have large academic libraries. These libraries are for the use of college students, professors, and researchers. Academic libraries are used mainly for doing research like studying the solar system or how earthquakes happen. These libraries do not have the same types of books you would find in a public library. They usually do not have fiction books or books for children (unless they are being studied). Academic libraries can have many books, sometimes more than a million.
+
+Special libraries
+Special libraries are those libraries that are not public libraries or academic libraries. They are usually small. Many times a special library holds books on a particular subject or even a special kind of book. Some special libraries keep just old books or books by Shakespeare. A special library can be owned by a business for use only by that business. For example, Disney World in Orlando has its own library that is not open to the public but for the use of the people who work for the company.
+
+Librarians
+A librarian is a person who works in a library. Librarians help people find books and information. They can teach people how to find books and use the library. A professional librarian is a person who went to school to study library science. They can earn a degree called a Masters in Library Science.
+
+History
+The earliest known library was discovered in Iraq and belonged to the ancient civilization in Sumer. They didn't use paper books but instead wrote everything on clay tablets using a style of writing called cuneiform. These tablets are over 5,000 years old. The Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most important library of the ancient world. It was destroyed when the Romans conquered Egypt in 30 BC. Romeâs first public library was established by Asinius Pollio who was a lieutenant of Julius Caesar. Eventually Rome would build 28 public libraries within the city. When the Roman Empire fell in 330 AD, many books went east to the city of Byzantium where a large library was built. Other libraries were built in monasteries and public homes.
+
+Libraries began to appear in many Islamic cities, where science and philosophy survived after the fall of the Roman Empire. Christian monks and Islamic libraries exchanged books to copy.
+
+Recent times
+COVID-19 pandemic has further changed how libraries operate in year 2020 and many of them around the world were faced with really hard choices as to which services to offer and which services to shut down for a limited time.
+
+Related pages
+Archive
+Bookcase
+
+References
+There are a number of topics in mathematics. Some of them include:
+
+ Algebra
+ Analysis
+ Arithmetic
+ Calculus
+ Combinatorial game theory
+ Cryptography
+ Differential equations
+Partial differential equations
+Ordinary differential equation
+ Discrete mathematics
+ Geometry
+ Graph theory
+ Infinity
+ Linear algebra
+ Number theory
+ Numerical analysis
+ Numerical integration
+ Numerical linear algebra
+ Validated numerics
+ Order of Operations
+ Probability
+ Statistics
+ Topology
+ Trigonometry
+
+Related pages
+ List of mathematicians
+ Mathematics Genealogy Project
+ Mathematics Subject Classification
+ Timeline of women in mathematics
+
+Mathematical societies
+ American Mathematical Society
+ Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
+
+Other websites
+ For a much more complete list of mathematics topics, see Math Topics from the Internet Mathematics Library
+
+Topics
+Like can mean some different things:
+
+1. We can use to like to say that we find a thing is good:
+I like my house. = I think my house is good.
+I like Jenny = I think Jenny is an OK person.
+
+2. We can use like for "the same as" or "nearly the same as":
+
+This cheese sandwich feels like rubber = the sandwich is difficult to eat, nearly the same as rubber.
+Jenny is like her mother = Jenny has brown hair, and her mother also has brown hair (for example).
+Your pen is like my pen = Your pen and my pen are the same sort.
+
+3. We can also use like for "the same way as":
+She runs like the wind - she and the wind are both fast.
+She talks like a child - she and children speak slowly or with a high voice.
+
+4. In a question, we can use like to ask people to talk about a thing, or to say if they find it good or not:
+What's your house like? (Answer: "It has two bedrooms and a big kitchen...")
+What was the film like? (Answer: "It was very good!")
+
+5. We can also use like as "for example":
+I often go to other countries, like France or Germany = I go to other countries, for example France and Germany.
+
+6. In British and American English young people, when talking, have recently started using like as an extra word in the middle of sentences. Sometimes they use it to report what someone said, especially when mimicking the way they said it. This should never be used in writing:
+The teacher was like: "Don't do that!"
+
+As works in the same way as example 2 - comparing two things using either the word "like" or the word "as" is called making a simile (As big as an elephant). It may be better to use the word "as" for this to stop confusion with example 1.
+
+Basic English 850 words
+There are twenty-three provinces, four municipalities, five autonomous regions and two special administrative regions in the People's Republic of China. Provinces are pronounced ShÄng in Chinese Pinyin. The island of Taiwan is claimed as a province by the People's Republic of China (PRC), but it is not under their control. Taiwan is an island known as Republic of China (Taiwan).
+
+Provinces and autonomous regions are broken into prefectures and sub-provincial cities.
+
+Provinces
+There are 23 provinces in the People's Republic of China.
+ Anhui
+ Fujian
+ Gansu
+ Guangdong
+ Guizhou
+ Hainan
+ Hebei
+ Heilongjiang
+ Henan
+ Hubei
+ Hunan
+ Jiangsu
+ Jiangxi
+ Jilin
+ Liaoning
+ Qinghai
+ Shaanxi
+ Shandong
+ Shanxi
+ Sichuan
+ Taiwan*
+ Yunnan
+ Zhejiang
+
+* The island of Taiwan is claimed as a province by the People's Republic of China (PRC), but it is not under their control. Taiwan is an island known as Republic of China (Taiwan).
+
+Municipalities
+There are 4 municipalities in the People's Republic of China. "Municipality" is the common English name for the Chinese zhĂxiĂĄshĂŹ, meaning a city directly controlled by the national government.
+ Beijing, formerly part of Hebei
+ Tianjin, formerly part of Hebei
+ Shanghai, formerly part of Jiangsu
+ Chongqing, formerly part of Sichuan
+
+Autonomous Regions
+There are 5 autonomous regions in the People's Republic of China. "Autonomous region" is the common English name for the Chinese zÏzhÏqƫ, meaning an area with greater levels of self-government to accommodate minority groups.
+ Xinjiang, for the Uygurs and other Turkic peoples
+ Tibet, for Tibetans
+ Inner Mongolia, for Mongolians
+ Guangxi, for the Zhuang
+ Ningxia, for the Hui
+
+Special Administrative Regions
+There are 2 special administrative regions in the People's Republic of China. "Special administrative region" is the common English name for the Chinese tĂšbiĂ© xĂngzhĂšng qĆ«, meaning an area under special administration as a result of treaties that returned former European colonies to Chinese control.
+ Hong Kong, formerly a British colony
+ Macau, formerly a Portuguese colony
+Fruits on this list are defined as the word is used in everyday speech. It does not include vegetables, whatever their origin.
+
+The following items are fruits, according to the scientific definition, but are sometimes considered to be vegetables:
+
+Related pages
+ List of vegetables
+
+Food-related lists
+Lists of plants
+Legislature is a word that comes from the Latin language, meaning "those who write the laws." A legislature is therefore a group of people who vote for new laws, for example in a state or country.
+
+Each person in the legislature is usually either elected or appointed. The constitution of that state or country usually tells how a legislature is supposed to work.
+
+In many countries, the legislature is called a Parliament, Congress, or National Assembly. Sometimes there are two groups of members in the legislature. This is called a "bicameral" legislature. A unicameral legislature has only one group of members.
+
+A country, district, city, or other small area may also have something like a legislature. These are often called councils, and they make smaller laws for their areas.
+
+List of titles of legislatures
+
+National
+ Parliament
+ Congress
+ Diet
+ National Assembly
+ Althing â Iceland
+ Assembleia da RepĂșblica â Portugal
+ Bundestag â Germany
+ Riksdag â Sweden
+ Cortes Generales â Spain
+ Eduskunta â Finland
+ Federal Assembly â Russia, Switzerland
+ Folketing â Denmark
+ Stortinget â Norway
+ Knesset â Israel
+ Assembly of Albania â Albania
+ Legislative Yuan â Republic of China/Taiwan
+ moganane â Iran
+ United States Capitol - United States
+
+Sub-National
+ List of state legislatures of the United States â United States
+ General Assembly / Assembly
+ Great and General Court / General Court
+ House of Delegates
+ Landtag â Germany, Austria
+ Canada
+ Legislative Assembly â All provinces and territories except:
+ National Assembly â Quebec
+ House of Assembly â Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador
+ Australia
+ Legislative Assembly - All States and Territories except:
+ House of Assembly - South Australia and Tasmania
+ Legislative Council - All States except Queensland
+ United Kingdom
+ Scottish Parliament â Scotland
+ Northern Ireland Assembly â Northern Ireland
+ National Assembly for Wales â Wales
+Houses of Parliament â United Kingdom overall.
+Linear algebra is a branch of mathematics. It came from mathematicians trying to solve systems of linear equations. Vectors and matrices are used to solve these systems. The main objects of study currently are vector spaces and linear mappings between vector spaces. Linear algebra is useful in other branches of mathematics (e.g. differential equations and analytic geometry). It can also be applied to the real world in areas such as engineering, physics and economics.
+
+Linear algebra describes ways to solve and manipulate (rearrange) systems of linear equations.
+
+For example, consider the following equations:
+
+These two equations form a system of linear equations.
+It is linear because none of the variables are raised to a power.
+The graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line.
+The solution to this system is:
+
+This is because it makes all of the original equations valid, that is, the value on the left side of the equals sign is exactly the same as the value on the right side for both equations.
+
+Linear algebra uses a system of notation for describing system behavior, called a matrix. For the previous example, the coefficients of the equations can be stored in a coefficient matrix.
+
+Related pages
+
+ Abstract algebra
+ Matrix analysis
+ Matrix function
+ Numerical linear algebra
+ System of linear equations
+
+Further reading
+ Israel Gelfand (1998), Lectures on linear algebra, Courier Dover Publications.
+
+Linear algebra
+London is the capital of the United Kingdom (UK), and its largest city. It is also the city with the highest population in the UK. The population is just under 9 million. The city is the largest in western Europe by population and area.
+
+On the Thames, London has been a central city since it was founded by the Romans two millennia ago as Londinium. The Romans bridged the river Thames and built a road network to connect Londinium with the rest of the country.
+
+London's original city centre, the City of London is England's smallest city. In 2011 it had 7,375 inhabitants on an area of 1.12 square miles. The term "London" is used for the urban region which developed around this city centre. This area forms the region of London, the Greater London administrative unit led by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
+
+London is one of the world's most important political, economic and cultural centres. London was the capital of the British Empire and so for almost three centuries the centre of power for large parts of the world.
+
+The city has about 9.1 million inhabitants (2018). If one counts the entire metropolitan area of London (London Metropolitan Area), it has about 15 million people. The climate is moderate.
+
+History
+The Romans built the city of Londinium along the River Thames in AD 43. The name Londinium (and later 'London') came from the Celtic language of the Ancient Britons. In AD 61, the city was attacked and destroyed. Then the Romans rebuilt the city, and London became an important trading hub.
+
+5th century: end of Roman rule to 12th century
+After the decline of the Roman Empire, few people remained in London. The Anglo-Saxon people of sub-Roman Britain were mainly agricultural. Once the Romans had gone, trade with Continental Europe dwindled. In the 9th century, more people started living in London again. It became the largest city in England. However, it did not become the capital city of England again until the 12th century. For a long time after the Romans, England was not unified, and so had no capital.
+
+15th/16th century
+Trade grew and the East India Company was founded as a monopoly trader. Trade expanded to the New World. London became the main North Sea port, and migrants went from England and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.
+
+17th century
+The 17th century saw Londoners suffer from the plague and the fire of London. The century starts with the famous Gunpowder Plot.
+
+In the 17th century the Stuart kings ruled: James I and Charles I. Charles Stuart was defeated by Cromwell, so the century was remarkable in that respect. Cromwell marks the beginning of the modern system whereby Parliament is more important than the monarch. The war between Cromwell and Charles was bitterly fought. London was the key city, and Oxford was also important.
+
+The century also had two great disasters: the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London. The control of London by Cromwell and Parliament was one of the decisive factors in the civil war. Cromwell's victory was followed by his death in 1658, and the country for a time moved back to royal rule under Charles II.
+
+The plague virus, carried by fleas on rats, came to Britain from Europe.
+
+The Great Fire of London broke out at the beginning of September 1666. Unfortunately there were warehouses full of timber, pitch, tallow, wine and tar. These caught fire and, in the end, all the riverfront buildings were destroyed. The fire eventually destroyed about 60% of the city, (mainly the City of London, rather than the large city we have today). Old St Paul's Cathedral was destroyed. Some fires burnt more widely, up to present-day Southwark and even Highgate (which are not in the city, but are in London).
+
+Modern era
+Another famous old part of Greater London is Westminster, which was a different city from the City of London. In Westminster is Westminster Abbey (a cathedral), the Palace of Westminster (the Houses of Parliament, and 10 Downing Street (where the Prime Minister lives).
+
+After the railways were built, London grew much larger. Greater London has 33 boroughs (neighbourhoods) and a mayor. The old City of London is only a square mile in size but has its own Lord Mayor.
+
+Expansion of London
+In stages, London has several times increased in size by statute in Parliament. The main motive for this has been taxation, and the increase in houses in what was once countryside. Since taxation was paid to the counties surrounding London, there was a motive for absorbing the countryside into London. This happened in several stages.
+
+Outside London, local taxes are paid to the County Councils; inside London they are paid to the Greater London Council. One county has been lost entirely (Middlesex) and all the others have lost land and revenue. The London Boroughs and the GLA (Greater London Authority) both raise taxes, and the representatives are elected. There is a London Plan which sets out the priorities. The number of local authorities which raise local taxes and spend it is 33: 32 London boroughs and the City of London.
+
+Geology
+One aspect of its geology had big consequences. North of the Thames London is on chalk, which is easy (with modern equipment) to tunnel through. South of the Thames London is on clay, which was, and still is, much more difficult to dig out. So most of the subterranean engineering is north of the Thames. The road system south of the Thames is also inadequate by modern standards. This difference is reflected in the prices for property, the road transport, the Underground railway and the definition of "London" as a taxable area. The growth of London has been more vigorous North of the Thames, and has included the complete absorption of Middlesex, once a separate county.
+
+Events
+ AD 43 Londinium is founded by the Romans.
+ 61 â Londinium is sacked by Queen Boudica and the Iceni.
+ 100 â Londinium becomes the capital of Roman Britain.
+ 200 â The population is about 6,000.
+ 410 â the end of Roman rule in Britain
+ 8th century â London is captured by Vikings.
+ 885 â King Alfred the Great recaptures the city and makes peace with the Viking leader Guthrum.
+ 1045/50 â Westminster Abbey is rebuilt by Edward the Confessor who is buried there in January 1066.
+ 1066 â William the Conqueror is crowned in Westminster Abbey.
+ 1100 â The population is about 16,000.
+ 1300 â The population of London has risen to 100,000.
+ 1381 â the Peasants' Revolt â the first poll tax riots
+ 1605 â The Gunpowder Plot is stopped.
+ 1642 â The English Civil War starts.
+ 1647 â London supports Cromwell's army.
+ 1665 â the Great Plague of London
+ 1666 â the Great Fire of London
+ 1700s â the Georgian era (the time of George III)
+ 1780 â the Gordon Riots
+ 1900s â Canals, railways, bridges. British Empire.
+ 1851 â The Great Exhibition is held at the Crystal Palace.
+ 1908 â The Olympic Games take place in London.
+ 1940/1941 â London was bombed by German planes during World War II: explosive and incendiary bombs. This was known as The Blitz.
+ 1944/45 â London bombed by V-1 flying bomb and later the V2 rockets.
+ 1948 â The Summer Olympic Games take place in London for the second time.
+ 1966 â The Football World Cup final took place in London. It was won by England.
+ 1990 â the Second Poll Tax Riots
+ 2005 â The 7 July bombings on the London Underground and a bus. 52 people die and over 700 people are injured.
+ 2012 â The Summer Olympic Games take place in London for a third time.
+ 2017 â There were two terrorist attacks. The first happened in March on Westminster Bridge and Parliament Square. Five people were killed outside the Palace of Westminster, including the attacker and a police officer. 40 more people were injured. Another attack happened on London Bridge in June. Seven people were killed before the Metropolitan Police shot down the three attackers near Borough Market. The Islamic State has said they were responsible for both attacks.
+2020 â COVID-19 did not affect London much until the Spring of 2020. From then until mid 2022, every aspect of life was affected. Government regulation of private life was almost unknown except in wartime (WWII). Many aspects of consumer activity have taken time to recover. Education of young people was interrupted, shops closed and all forms of live mass entertainment were banned.
+
+Landmarks
+
+ Big Ben (Elizabeth Tower)
+ Buckingham Palace
+ Millennium Dome
+ London Eye
+ Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square
+ Tower Bridge
+ London Underground
+ Natural History Museum
+ St. Paul's Cathedral
+ Palace of Westminster
+ The Shard
+ Alexandra Palace
+ Tower of London
+
+Business and economy
+London has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark.
+
+The London Stock Exchange is the most international stock exchange and the largest in Europe.
+
+Financial services
+London's largest industry is finance. This includes banks, stock exchanges, investment companies and insurance companies The Bank of England is in the City of London and is the second oldest bank in the world.
+
+Professional services
+London has many professional services such as law and accounting firms.
+
+Media
+The British Broadcasting Company (BBC), which has many radio and TV stations, is in London.
+
+Tourism
+Tourism is one of London's biggest industries. London is the most visited city in the world by international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors per year. Within the UK, London is home to the ten most-visited tourist attractions. Tourism employed about 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003. Tourists spend about ÂŁ15 billion per year.
+
+Technology
+A growing number of technology companies are based in London.
+
+Retail
+London is a major retail centre, and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around ÂŁ64.2 billion. The UK's fashion industry, centred on London, contributes tens of billions to the economy.
+
+Manufacturing and construction
+For the 19th and much of the 20th centuries London was a major manufacturing centre (see Manufacturing in London), with over 1.5 million industrial workers in 1960. Many products were made in London including ships, electronics and cars. Nowadays, most of these manufacturing companies are closed but some drug companies still make medicine in London.
+
+Transportation (trains, airports and underground)
+The city has a huge network of transport systems including trains, underground (metro) and five main airports.
+
+The Victorians built many train systems in the mid-19th century (1850s). Their main stations are in London, and the lines go to every part of Great Britain. There were originally five major companies but the five companies became a national rail network in modern times. Their terminals at King's Cross, St. Pancras, Paddington, Waterloo and Charing Cross are still used as terminals.
+
+There are five airports, though only one is actually in London (London City Airport). The most used airport is Heathrow Airport, although it is actually outside the city. There is the London end of the LondonBirmingham canal, which was important to the industrial 19th century. Really heavy goods can be transported on water by canal or sea.
+
+The London Underground is a system of electric trains which are in London. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the Metropolitan Railway. Later, the system was copied in other cities, for example Paris, New York, Moscow and Madrid. Even though it is called the London Underground, about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is the name used for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are semi-round tubes running through the ground. The Underground has 274 stations and over 250 miles (402 km) of track. Over one billion passengers used the underground each year.
+
+With the need for more rail capacity in London, the Elizabeth Line (also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022. It is a new railway line running east to west through London, with a branch to Heathrow Airport. It is Europe's biggest construction project, with a ÂŁ15 billion projected cost.
+
+There is a black taxi system regulated by the Metropolitan Police, and various other private enterprise hire car companies. Efforts are being made to make roads safer for cyclists.
+
+Sewage tunnel
+London's biggest tunnel has just been completed to take sewage from the capital to the East where it will be processed.
+
+Climate
+London has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb). It is not usually very hot or cold. It is often cloudy.
+
+Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. Winters are generally cool. Spring and autumn are mild.
+
+London has regular, light rain throughout the year. July is the warmest month, with an average temperature at Greenwich of 13.6 °C to 22.8 °C. The coldest month is January, with an average of 2.4 °C to 7.9 °C. The average annual precipitation is fairly low at 583.6 mm, and February is normally the driest month. Drought is sometimes possible, especially during longer heatwaves in summer. Snow is uncommon but usually falls at least once each winter and heavy snow is rarer and does not happen every winter. While snow is uncommon in central London itself, there is more snow in the outer areas; this is because the "urban heat island" the big city generates makes the city about 5 °C warmer than surrounding areas in winter.
+
+Temperature extremes in London range from at Heathrow Airport on 19 July 2022 down to at Northolt on 1 January 1962.
+
+Twinnings
+
+London has twin and sister city agreements with these cities:
+ Sister cities:
+ Berlin, Germany (since 2000)
+ New York City, USA (since 2001)
+ Moscow, Russia
+ Beijing, China (since 2006)
+ Partner cities:
+ Paris, France (since 2001)
+ Rome, Italy
+
+London also has a "partnership" agreement with Tokyo, Japan.
+
+References
+
+Other websites
+
+ London City Government
+ WorldFlicks in London: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps. .
+ Events in London
+
+
+Olympic cities
+A litre (international spelling) or liter (American spelling) is one of the metric units of volume. It is not a basic SI unit, but it is a supplementary unit.
+
+One litre is the volume of 1000 cubic centimetres, that is a cube of 10 Ă 10 Ă 10 centimetres (1000 cm3). One litre of water at has the mass of exactly one kilogram. This results from the definition given in 1795, where the gram was defined as the weight of one cubic centimetre of melting ice.
+
+Liters are usually utilized to measure the volume of liquids, this is because the density of liquids can vary a lot. However it can be applied to solids as well, for example 1 liter of Iron is around 7.7 kg. The symbol for litre is l or L. The script letter â is also sometimes used.
+
+For smaller volumes, the decilitre is used: 10 dl = one litre.
+
+For smaller volumes, the centilitre is used: 100 cl = one litre.
+
+For smaller volumes, the millilitre is used: 1000 ml = one litre.
+
+The capital letter "L" is preferred by some people as the small "l" can look like the number one "1".
+ 1 litre = 0.2200 imperial gallons
+ 1 litre = 0.2642 US gallons
+ 1 imperial gallon = 4.5461 litres
+ 1 US gallon = 3.7854 litres
+ 1 litre = 1 dm3
+
+History
+The metric system was first introduced in France in 1791. That system did not have its own unit of capacity or volume because volume can be measured in cubic metres. In 1793 work to make the metric system compulsory in France was started by the Temporary Commission of Republican Weights and Measures. Due to public demand, the commission said that the cubic metre was too big for everyday use. They said that a new unit based on the old cadil should be used instead. One cadil was to be 0.001 cubic metres. This was equivalent to a cube with sides 10 cm. The cadil was also known as the pinte or the litron. The pinte had been an old French unit of measure of capacity. In 1795 the definition was revised. The cadil was given the name litre.
+
+In 1795 the kilogram was defined to be exactly one litre of water at 4 °C. In 1799 the kilogram was redefined. The new definition said that the kilogram was the mass of the kilogram des archives. In 1901 scientists measured the volume of one litre of water at 4 °C very carefully. They found that it occupied about dm3. The BIPM redefined the litre as being exactly the volume of one kilogram of water at 4 °C.
+
+In 1960 the SI was introduced. The BIPM changed the definition of the litre back to "one dm3". The litre is not part of SI. The BIPM defined the litre as a "Non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI". This was because it is used in many countries. The BIPM said that the litre should not be used for very accurate work.
+
+According to SI rules, the symbol for the litre should be "l". This is because the litre was not named after somebody whose name was "Litre". However the symbol "l" and the number "1" are easily confused. In 1979 the BIPM made an exception for the symbol for the litre. They said that people could use either "L" or "l" as its symbol.
+
+In Europe, milk is sold in one litre cartons. One litre bottle is also a popular package for soft drinks. Most alcoholic drinks are sold as 1/3 litre (0.33 l), litre (0.5 l) or 3/4 litre (0.75 l) bottles.
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Units of volume
+Lime is a green fruit, and the tree fruit itself. They are citrus fruits similar to lemons. Citrus fruits like limes are rich in vitamin C. Sailors from Britain were given lemon or lime juice to stop them falling ill with scurvy. This is how they got the nickname Limey. There are several citrus trees whose fruits are called limes. They include the key lime Citrus aurantiifolia, the Persian lime, the kaffir lime, and the desert lime Citrus glauca.
+
+Limes are small, round and bright green. If they stay on the tree for a long time they turn yellow. Then they look like small round lemons.
+
+Lime juice is used in cooking and in drinks. Lime oils are often used in perfumes, used for cleaning, and used for aromatherapy.
+
+Lime tastes acidic and bitter. Lime juice is also made from limes.
+
+Different kinds of limes
+ Persian lime â This lime is most often sold in supermarkets as lime.
+ Key lime â Smaller than the Persian lime, used to mix Cocktails and make pies.
+ Kaffir lime â Very small fruits, vegetable oil from the leaves is used for perfumes, leaves are used for cooking.
+
+Other websites
+ http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/citrus/limes.htm
+
+Citrus
+Mathematics is the study of numbers, shapes, and patterns. The word comes from the Greek ÎŒÎŹÎžÎ·ÎŒÎ± (mĂĄthema), meaning "science, knowledge, or learning", and is sometimes shortened to math.
+
+It is the study of:
+ Numbers: including how things can be counted.
+ Structure: including how things are organized, but also how they can be or could have been. This subfield is usually called algebra.
+ Place: where things are, and spatial arrangement, including arrangements of spaces themselves. This subfield is usually called geometry.
+ Change: how things become different. This subfield is usually called analysis.
+
+Applied math is useful for solving problems in the real world. People working in business, science, engineering, and construction use mathematics.
+
+Problem-solving in mathematics
+Mathematics solves problems by using logic. One of the main tools of logic used by mathematicians is deduction. Deduction is a special way of thinking to discover and prove new truths using old truths. To a mathematician, the reason something is true (called a proof) is just as important as the fact that it is true, and this reason is often found using deduction. Using deduction is what makes mathematical thinking different from other kinds of scientific thinking, which might rely on experiments or on interviews.
+
+Logic and reasoning are used by mathematicians to create general rules, which are an important part of mathematics. These rules leave out information that is not important so that a single rule can cover many situations. By finding general rules, mathematics solves many problems at the same time as these rules can be used on other problems. These rules can be called theorems (if they have been proven) or conjectures (if it is not known if they are true yet). Most mathematicians use non-logical and creative reasoning in order to find a logical proof.
+
+Sometimes, mathematics finds and studies rules or ideas that we don't understand yet. Often in mathematics, ideas and rules are chosen because they are considered simple or neat. On the other hand, sometimes these ideas and rules are found in the real world after they are studied in mathematics; this has happened many times in the past. In general, studying the rules and ideas of mathematics can help us understand the world better. Some examples of math problems are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, calculus, fractions and decimals. Algebra problems are solved by evaluating certain variables. A calculator answers every math problem in the four basic arithmetic operations.
+
+Areas of study in mathematics
+
+Number
+Mathematics includes the study of numbers and quantities. It is a branch of science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity, and arrangement. Most of the areas listed below are studied in many different fields of mathematics, including set theory and mathematical logic. The study of number theory usually focuses more on the structure and behavior of the integers rather than on the actual foundations of numbers themselves, and so is not listed in this given subsection.
+
+{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20"
+| || || || ||
+|-
+| Natural numbers || Integers || Rational numbers || Real numbers || Complex numbers
+|-
+|| || || || ||
+|-
+|| Ordinal numbers || Cardinal numbers || Arithmetic operations || Arithmetic relations || Functions, see also special functions
+|}
+
+Structure
+ Structural mathematics studies objects' and constructions' shape and integrity. These are areas of algebra and calculus.
+
+{| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30"
+| || || || ||
+|-
+| Number theory || Abstract algebra || Linear algebra || Order theory || Graph theory
+|}
+
+Shape
+Some areas of mathematics study the shapes of things. Most of these areas are part of the study of geometry.
+
+{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20"
+| || || || ||
+|-
+| Topology || Geometry || Trigonometry || Differential geometry || Fractal geometry
+|}
+
+Change
+Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of analysis.
+{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40"
+| || ||
+|-
+| Calculus || Vector calculus || Analysis
+|-
+|| || ||
+|-
+|| Differential equations || Dynamical systems || Chaos theory
+|}
+
+Applied mathematics
+Applied math uses symbolic logic to solve problems in areas like engineering and physics.
+
+Numerical analysis â Optimization â Probability theory â Statistics â Mathematical finance â Game theory â Mathematical physics â Fluid dynamics - Computational algorithms
+
+Famous theorems
+These theorems and conjectures have interested mathematicians and amateurs alike:
+
+Pythagorean theorem â FLT â Goldbach's conjecture â Twin Prime Conjecture â Gödel's incompleteness theorems â PoincarĂ© conjecture â Cantor's diagonal argument â Four color theorem â Zorn's lemma â Euler's Identity â Church-Turing thesis
+
+These theorems and hypotheses have greatly changed mathematics:
+
+Central limit theorem classification theorems of surfaces â Continuum hypothesis â Fourier Theorem â Fundamental theorem of calculus â Fundamental theorem of algebra â Fundamental theorem of arithmetic â Fundamental theorem of projective geometry â Gauss-Bonnet theorem - Kantorovich theorem â P Versus NP â Pythagorean theorem â Riemann hypothesis
+
+These are a few conjectures that have been called "revolutionary":
+
+Beal Conjecture (a generalization of FLT) â Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer Conjecture â Collatz Conjecture â Goldbach's Conjecture âHodge Conjecture â PoincarĂ© Conjecture
+
+Foundations and methods
+
+Set theory â Symbolic logic â Model theory â Category theory â Logic â Table of mathematical symbols
+
+History and the world of mathematicians
+
+History of mathematics â Timeline of mathematics â Mathematicians â Fields Medal â Abel Prize â Millennium Prize Problems (Clay Math Prize) â International Mathematical Union â Mathematics competitions â Lateral thinking â Mathematics and gender
+
+Awards in mathematics
+There is no Nobel Prize in mathematics. Mathematicians can receive the Abel Prize and the Fields Medal for important works.
+
+The Clay Mathematics Institute has said it will give one million dollars to anyone who solves one of the Millennium Prize Problems.
+
+Mathematical tools
+There are many tools used to do math or find answers to math problems.
+
+Older tools
+ Abacus
+ Napier's bones, Slide rule
+ Ruler and Compass
+ Mental calculation
+ Writing
+
+Newer tools
+ Graphing calculators, scientific calculators and more complex computer visual tools
+ Programming languages
+ Computer algebra systems (listing) and automated matrix analysis
+ statistics software (for example SPSS)
+ SAS (programming language)
+ R (programming language)
+
+References
+
+Related pages
+ Timeline of women in mathematics
+ American Mathematical Society
+ Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
+ EASIAM
+ International Congress on Industrial and Applied Mathematics
+ International Congress of Mathematicians
+ International Mathematical Olympiad
+ Mathematics Genealogy Project
+ Mathematics Subject Classification
+
+Other websites
+
+ Mathematics Citizendium
+
+
+Mathematics
+March (Mar.) is the third month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between February and April. It has 31 days. March is named after Mars, the Roman god of war.
+
+March always begins on the same day of the week as November, and additionally, February in common years. March always ends on the same day of the week as June.
+
+The Month
+
+In ancient Rome, March was called Martius. It was named after the war god (Mars) and the Romans thought that it was a lucky time to begin a war. Before Julius Caesar's calendar reform, March was the first month of the year in the Roman calendar, as the winter was considered to be a monthless period. It is one of seven months to have 31 days.
+
+March begins on the same day of the week as February in common years and November every year, as each other's first days are exactly 4 weeks (28 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. March ends on the same day of the week as June every year, as each other's last days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart.
+
+In common years, March starts on the same day of the week as June of the previous year, and in leap years, September and December of the previous year. In common years, March finishes on the same day of the week as September of the previous year, and in leap years, April and December of the previous year.
+
+In years immediately before common years, March starts on the same day of the week as August of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year. In years immediately before common years, March finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year.
+
+In leap years, the day before March 1 is February 29. This determines the position of each day of the year from there on. As an example, March 1 is usually the 60th day of the year, but in a leap year is the 61st day.
+
+In terms of seasons, March is one of two months to have an equinox (the other is September, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), with daylight and darkness of roughly the same number of hours, halfway between the December and June solstices. In the Northern Hemisphere, spring starts in this month, while it is autumn in the Southern Hemisphere.
+
+Start of the season
+
+The official start of either season is March 1, though the equinox can fall on March 20 or 21, occasionally on March 19. The northern spring equinox marks the start of the Iranian New Year and Baha'i New Year. It is from the March 21 date that Easter's date is calculated, on the Sunday after the first full moon in spring, meaning it can fall between March 22 and April 25 in Western Christianity.
+
+Events in March
+
+Fixed events
+
+ March 1 - Saint David's Day (Wales)
+ March 1 - March 1st Movement Memorial Day (South Korea)
+ March 1 - Beer Day (Iceland)
+ March 1 - Independence Day (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
+ March 2 - Independence Day (Morocco)
+ March 2 - Texas Independence Day
+ March 2 - jana day (Algeria)
+ March 2 - Peasants Day (Burma)
+ March 3 - Hinamatsuri, Girls' Day (Japan)
+ March 3 - Liberation Day (Bulgaria)
+ March 3 - Mother's Day (Georgia)
+ March 3 - Sportsmen's Day (Egypt)
+ March 3 - Martyrs' Day (Malawi)
+ March 4 - Saint Casimir's Day (Poland and Lithuania)
+ March 5 - Custom Chief's Day (Vanuatu)
+ March 5 - Lei Feng Day (China)
+ March 5 - National Tree Planting Day (Iran)
+ March 5 - Saint Piran's Day (Cornwall)
+ March 6 - Independence Day (Ghana)
+ March 6 - Alamo Day (Texas)
+ March 6 - Foundation Day (Norfolk Island)
+ March 7 - Felicity and Perpetua (Roman Catholicism)
+ March 7 - Teachers' Day (Albania)
+ March 8 - International Women's Day
+ March 9 - Teachers' Day (Lebanon)
+ March 10 - Tibetan Uprising Day (Supporters of Tibetan Independence)
+ March 11 - Re-establishment of Independence (Lithuania)
+ March 11 - Moshoeshoe Day (Lesotho)
+ March 11 - Johnny Appleseed Day (United States)
+ March 12 - National Day of Mauritius
+ March 12 - Youth Day (Zambia)
+ March 14 - Pi Day
+ March 14 - Mother Tongue Day (Estonia)
+ March 14 - White Day (Japan and Korea)
+ March 15 - The Ides of March, and the assassination of Julius Caesar.
+ March 15 - National Day of Hungary
+ March 15 - Holiday in Liberia, celebrating its first President, Joseph Jenkins Roberts
+ March 15 - Honen Matsuri (Japan)
+ March 16 - Saint Urho's Day (Finnish Communities in Canada and the US)
+ March 16 - Latvian Legion Day
+ March 16 - Day of the Book Smugglers (Lithuania)
+ March 17 - Saint Patrick's Day, celebrating Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland
+ March 19 - Saint Joseph's Day (Roman Catholicism)
+ March 19 - Unity Day (Kashubia, northern Poland)
+ March 20/21 - Equinox, northern Spring, southern Autumn
+ March 20/21 - Iranian New Year
+ March 20 - Independence Day (Tunisia)
+ March 20 - Francophone Day
+ March 21 - Baha'i New Year
+ March 21 - Independence Day (Namibia)
+ March 21 - Benito Juarez' Birthday (Mexico)
+ March 21 - World Poetry Day
+ March 21 - Youth Day (Tunisia)
+ March 21 - Harmony Day (Australia)
+ March 21 - Human Rights Day (South Africa)
+ March 21 - World Down syndrome Day
+ March 22 - World Water Day
+ March 22 - Emancipation Day (Puerto Rico)
+ March 22 - Day of the People's Party (Laos)
+ March 23 - Republic Day (Pakistan)
+ March 23 - Polish-Hungarian Friendship Day
+ March 23 - Family Day (South Africa)
+ March 24 - World Tuberculosis Day
+ March 24 - Day of Remembrance for Truth and Justice (Argentina)
+ March 25 - Independence Day (Greece)
+ March 25 - Maryland Day
+ March 25 - Mother's Day (Slovenia)
+ March 25 - Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholicism), also known as Lady Day, old New Year in some European countries
+ March 26 - Independence Day (Bangladesh)
+ March 26 - Prince Kuhio Day (Hawaii)
+ March 26 - Prophet Zoroaster's Birthday (Zoroastrianism)
+ March 26 - Day of Democracy (Mali)
+ March 28 - Serfs Emancipation Day (Tibet)
+ March 28 - Teachers' Day (Czech Republic and Slovakia)
+ March 29 - Boganda Day (Central African Republic)
+ March 29 - Youth Day (Republic of China)
+ March 31 - Cesar Chavez Day (United States)
+ March 31 - Freedom Day (Malta)
+
+Moveable events
+
+ On a Sunday between March 1 and April 4, Mother's Day is celebrated in the UK.
+ Lent and Easter-related observances in Western Christianity.
+Shrove Monday - between February 2 and March 8
+Shrove Tuesday (Pancake Day) - between February 3 and March 9
+Ash Wednesday, start of Lent - between February 4 and March 10
+Palm Sunday, start of Holy Week - between March 15 and April 18
+Maundy Thursday - between March 19 and April 22
+Good Friday - between March 20 and April 23
+Easter occurs on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25 (note: In Eastern Christianity, Easter falls between April 4 and May 8).
+Easter Monday - between March 23 and April 26
+ Jewish Passover coincides with Christian Holy Week, earliest run is March 15 to March 22, latest run is April 18 to April 25.
+ Commonwealth Day (second Monday in March)
+ Canberra Day (Second Monday in March)
+ Daylight Saving Time
+Canada and the United States start Daylight Saving Time on the second Sunday in March. Clocks go forward one hour.
+European Summer Time begins on the last Sunday in March. Clocks go forward one hour.
+ The Winter Paralympics are often held in this month.
+ Six Nations - rugby union tournament running from early February to mid-March, competing countries are England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales
+ Start of the Formula One motor racing season
+
+Selection of historical events
+
+ March 1, 1872 - Yellowstone National Park becomes the world's first national park.
+ March 1, 1910 - An avalanche buries a train in northeastern King County, Washington.
+ March 1, 1919 - The March 1st Movement begins in Korea.
+ March 1, 1936 - The Hoover Dam is completed.
+ March 2, 1956 - Morocco declares its independence from France.
+ March 3, 1845 - Florida becomes the 27th State of the US.
+ March 3, 1925 - The Mount Rushmore monument is founded, starting work on carving four Presidents' faces into the mountain.
+ March 5, 1953 - Russian composer Sergei Prokofiev and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin die on the same day as each other.
+ March 6, 1788 - The first fleet of convicts arrives at Norfolk Island.
+ March 6, 1957 - Ghana becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
+ March 7, 1867 - Alexander Graham Bell is granted a patent for the telephone.
+ March 7, 1912 - Roald Amundsen announces that his Norwegian expedition successfully reached the South Pole on December 14 of the previous year.
+ March 8, 1911 - First celebration of International Women's Day.
+ March 8, 1918 - The first cases of the deadly Spanish flu virus are reported.
+ March 8, 2014 - Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappears.
+ March 9, 1908 - A five-man team climbs to the top of Mount Erebus in Antarctica.
+ March 9, 1959 - The first Barbie dolls are sold.
+ March 10, 1906 - A deadly mining disaster in Courrieres, France, kills 1,099 miners.
+ March 10, 1957 - Osama bin Laden is born.
+ March 10, 1977 - Astronomers discover rings around the planet Uranus.
+ March 11, 1985 - Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader of the Soviet Union.
+ March 11, 1990 - Lithuania declares its independence from the Soviet Union.
+ March 11, 2004 - Terrorists bomb rush-hour trains in Madrid, killing 191 people.
+ March 11, 2011 - The 2011 Sendai earthquake and tsunami disaster kills many thousands of people in northeastern Japan, after a magnitude 9.1 earthquake, tsunamis, and a nuclear disaster at Fukushima.
+ March 12, 1913 - Canberra is officially named.
+ March 12, 1930 - Mahatma Gandhi begins his Salt March, as part of the movement for Indian independence.
+ March 12, 1968 - Mauritius becomes independent.
+ March 13, 1781 - William Herschel discovers the planet Uranus.
+ March 13, 1881 - Tsar Alexander II of Russia is murdered when a bomb is thrown at his carriage.
+ March 13, 2013 - Pope Francis is chosen as Pope. Coming from Argentina, he is the first Latin American Pope.
+ March 14, 1879 - Albert Einstein is born.
+ March 14, 1883 - Karl Marx dies at the age of 64 years.
+ March 14, 2018 - Stephen Hawking dies.
+ March 15, 44 BC - Julius Caesar is murdered on the Ides of March.
+ March 15, 1820 - At the easternmost tip of the US, Maine becomes the 23rd State.
+ March 15, 1848 - Revolution in Pest, Hungary.
+ March 15, 2019 - A terrorist shooting occurs in Christchurch, killing 49 Muslims.
+ March 17, 1861 - Italy becomes a Kingdom, making Italy a unified state.
+ March 17, 1959 - Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama flees to India.
+ March 17, 1992 - A referendum in South Africa supports the end of Apartheid.
+ March 18, 1965 - Aleksei Leonov performs the first spacewalk.
+ March 19, 1932 - Sydney Harbour Bridge is opened.
+ March 20, 526 - The 526 Antioch earthquake kills around 300,000 people in Syria and southeastern Turkey.
+ March 20, 1861 - Mendoza, Argentina is destroyed by an earthquake that kills 6,000 people.
+ March 20, 1956 - Tunisia becomes independent.
+ March 20, 1995 - The Aum Shinrikyo cult carries out a deadly sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway.
+ March 20, 2003 - Iraq War starts.
+ March 21, 1844 - Start of the Baha'i calendar.
+ March 21, 1960 - Sharpeville massacre: Police open fire on demonstrators in South Africa, killing 69 people.
+ March 21, 1990 - Namibia becomes independent.
+ March 21, 2006 - Twitter is founded.
+ March 22, 1818 - Most recent occurrence of Easter on its earliest possible date.
+ March 22, 1957 - The Arab League is founded.
+ March 22, 1997 - Comet Hale-Bopp makes its closest approach to Earth.
+ March 23, 1956 - Pakistan becomes an Islamic Republic.
+ March 24, 1603 - Queen Elizabeth I of England dies aged 69, without children. James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England.
+ March 24, 1989 - The Exxon Valdez oil tanker runs aground at Prince William Sound in Alaska, causing a devastating oil spill.
+ March 25, 1655 - Christiaan Huygens discovers Saturn's moon Titan.
+ March 25, 1821 - Greece declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire.
+ March 25, 1957 - The European Economic Community is founded.
+ March 26, 1830 - The Book of Mormon is published in Palmyra, New York.
+ March 26, 1971 - Bangladesh's war of Independence starts.
+ March 26, 1997 - Members of the Heaven's Gate cult commit mass suicide.
+ March 27, 1964 - The Good Friday earthquake strikes south-central Alaska.
+ March 28, 1939 - Spanish Civil War: Francisco Franco conquers Madrid.
+ March 29, 1792 - King Gustav III of Sweden dies as a result of being shot at a masquerade ball.
+ March 30, 1867 - United States Secretary of State agrees to purchase Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million.
+ March 30, 1981 - John Hinckley shoots at Ronald Reagan in an attempt to kill him.
+ March 31, 1889 - The Eiffel Tower is opened to the public.
+ March 31, 1968 - US President Lyndon B. Johnson announces that he intends not to run for re-election.
+ March 31, 1995 - American singer Selena is shot and killed by her former manager and friend of her boutiques, Yolanda Saldivar.
+
+Trivia
+
+ March's flower is the daffodil.
+ March's birthstones are the bloodstone and aquamarine. The meaning of the bloodstone is courage.
+ The star signs for March are Pisces (February 20 to March 20) and Aries (March 21 to April 20).
+ March is one of two months of the year that begin with an 'M' in the English language (May is the other). Both have an 'A' as their second letter, and they come on either side of April.
+ March 1 is the only day in March to start within the first sixth of the calendar year.
+ It is less common for Easter to occur in March than in April. Recent occurrences in March were in 2002 (March 31), 2005 (March 27), 2008 (March 23), 2013 (March 31) and 2016 (March 27).
+ March is named for Mars, the Roman god of war, and is called "mars" in some languages. This is also where the planet Mars gets its name from.
+
+Other meanings
+ A march is also a type of music, originally written for and performed by marching bands.
+ March also refers to a certain way of walking.
+ March is also the name of a place in Germany.
+ There is a
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.tok b/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.tok
new file mode 100644
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diff --git a/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.txt b/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e19067b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,12828 @@
+Finnland (finnska Suomi, Suomen tasavalta, sĂŠnska Republiken Finland) er eitt NorĂ°urlandanna Ă norĂ°anverĂ°ri EvrĂłpu. LandiĂ° liggur aĂ° tveimur flĂłum Ășr Eystrasalti, Helsingjabotni Ă vestri og KirjĂĄlabotni Ă suĂ°ri. ĂaĂ° ĂĄ einnig landamĂŠri aĂ° SvĂĂŸjóð Ă vestri, Noregi Ă norĂ°ri og RĂșsslandi Ă austri. Ălandseyjar Ă Eystrasaltinu eru undir finnskri stjĂłrn en njĂłta vĂĂ°tĂŠkrar sjĂĄlfstjĂłrnar. Finnland er stundum nefnt ĂĂșsundvatnalandiĂ°.
+
+Finnland er Ă EvrĂłpusambandinu og er eina NorĂ°urlandaĂŸjóðin sem hefur tekiĂ° upp evruna sem gjaldmiĂ°il.
+
+HöfuĂ°borg Finnlands heitir ĂĄ finnsku Helsinki og sĂŠnsku Helsingfors og er einnig stĂŠrsta borg landsins. AĂ°rir stĂŠrstu bĂŠir Ă stĂŠrĂ°arröð eru eftirfarandi: Espoo (sĂŠnska: Esbo), Tampere (s. Tammerfors), Vantaa (s. Vanda), Turku (s. Ă
bo) og Oulu (s. UleĂ„borg). Espoo og Vantaa ĂĄsamt Helsinki mynda höfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°iĂ°, og Tampere myndar annaĂ° stĂłrt ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli.
+
+Heiti
+Uppruni nafnsins Suomi er ĂłljĂłs, en taliĂ° er aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° sĂ© skylt baltneska orĂ°inu zeme, sem merkir grund, jörĂ°, ĂŸjóð.
+
+NafniĂ° Finnland, sem haft er um landiĂ° ĂĄ öðrum tungum, lĂkist öðrum skandinavĂskum staĂ°arheitum. Ăar mĂĄ nefna Finnmörk, Finnveden og Finnskogen. Ăll eiga ĂŸau rĂŠtur aĂ° rekja til germanska orĂ°sins finn, sem er heiti yfir hirĂ°ingjaveiĂ°imenn (sem er andstĂŠĂ°a viĂ° kyrrsetubĂŠndur). Hvernig ĂŸetta heiti komst yfir Finna er aĂ° mestu leyti ĂłĂŸekkt. Ă meĂ°al fyrstu rituĂ°u heimilda ĂŸar sem âland Finnaâ er nefnt eru tveir rĂșnasteinar. Annar ĂŸeirra er Ă Söderby Ă SvĂĂŸjóð meĂ° ĂĄletruninni finlont og hinn ĂĄ Gotlandi meĂ° ĂĄletruninni finlandi frĂĄ 11. öld.
+
+Saga
+Af fornleifum mĂĄ rĂĄĂ°a aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° svĂŠĂ°i, sem nĂș er Finnland, byggĂ°ist ĂĄ nĂundu öld fyrir Krist, ĂŸegar Ăshella sĂĂ°ustu Ăsaldar hörfaĂ°i undan. Fyrstu ĂbĂșar ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu bjuggu viĂ° steinaldarmenningu og lifĂ°u ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ sem freĂ°mĂœrin og sjĂłrinn gĂĄfu. Ekki er vitaĂ° hvenĂŠr finnsk-ĂșgrĂskumĂŠlandi ĂŸjóðflokkar hafa fyrst numiĂ° land ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ svĂŠĂ°i sem nĂș kallast Finnland.
+
+Elstu leifar akuryrkju eru frĂĄ seinni hluta ĂŸriĂ°ja ĂĄrĂŸĂșsundsins fyrir Krist en veiĂ°imennska og söfnun voru lengi eftir ĂŸaĂ° algengasti lĂfsmĂĄtinn, ekki sĂst Ă austur- og norĂ°urhluta landsins.
+
+Bronsöld (1500â500 f. Kr.) og jĂĄrnöld (500 f. Kr. â 1200 e. Kr.) einkenndust mjög af nĂĄnum samskiptum viĂ° SkandinavĂu, norĂ°urhluta RĂșsslands og EystrarsaltssvĂŠĂ°iĂ°. Finnar og Kvenir eru nefndir ĂĄ nokkrum stöðum Ă rĂłmverskum heimildum og Ă Ăslendingasögunum, ĂŸĂł er sennilegast aĂ° ĂĄtt sĂ© viĂ° Sama en ekki Finna. FĂĄeinar ritaĂ°ar heimildir um sögu Finnlands eru til frĂĄ 13. öld en ĂŸaĂ° er ekki fyrr en ĂĄ 14. og 15. öld sem raunveruleg rituĂ° saga hefst.
+
+Finnland og SvĂĂŸjóð eiga nĂŠrri 700 ĂĄra sameiginlega sögu. Sögur herma aĂ° upphaf ĂŸess sĂ© krossferĂ° undir stjĂłrn EirĂks IX SvĂakonungs, sem ĂĄ aĂ° hafa ĂĄtt sĂ©r staĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1154. ĂvĂst er hvort ĂŸessi krossferĂ° var farin eĂ°a hvort ĂŸetta er einungis sögusögn. RitaĂ°ar heimildir eru hins vegar fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Finnland var hluti af rĂki Birgis jarls ĂŸegar krossferĂ° var gerĂ° ĂŸangaĂ° 1249.
+
+SĂŠnska var rĂĄĂ°andi meĂ° fram allri strandlengjunni og Ă stĂłrum hluta SuĂ°ur-Finnlands allt fram undir lok 19. aldar og var ĂŸar aĂ° auki tungumĂĄl yfirvalda og menntunar enda landiĂ° hlĂști SvĂarĂkis. Lengi var ĂŸaĂ° sem nĂș er Finnland ekki skilgreint sem sĂ©rstakt svĂŠĂ°i innan sĂŠnska rĂkisins, frekar var aĂ° miĂ°hluti SvĂĂŸjóðar og suĂ°urhluti Finnlands vĂŠru ĂĄlitin sameiginlegt meginsvĂŠĂ°i rĂkisins enda voru samgöngur sjĂłleiĂ°ina mun auĂ°veldari en yfir land.
+
+SĂŠnskir kĂłngar leituĂ°ust viĂ° aĂ° flytja landamĂŠri rĂkisins lengra austur ĂĄ bĂłginn og voru meira og minna stöðugar erjur viĂ° RĂșssa gegnum aldirnar af ĂŸeim sökum. Ă 18. öld snerist tafliĂ° og rĂșssneskur her hertĂłk nĂĄnast allt ĂŸaĂ° sem nĂș er Finnland tvisvar (1714â1721 og svo aftur 1742â1743). Upp frĂĄ ĂŸessu fer hugtakiĂ° âFinnlandâ aĂ° eiga viĂ° allt landsvĂŠĂ°iĂ° frĂĄ Helsingjabotni aĂ° rĂșssnesku landamĂŠrunum, bĂŠĂ°i Ă umrĂŠĂ°um innan sĂŠnska rĂkisins og Ă RĂșsslandi. SuĂ°urhluti Finnlands, ĂŸaĂ° sem ĂĄĂ°ur hafĂ°i veriĂ° kallaĂ° Finnland, fĂ©kk nĂș nafniĂ° HiĂ° eiginlega Finnland (Egentliga Finland ĂĄ sĂŠnsku, Varsinais-Suomi ĂĄ finnsku) og heitir svo enn.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1808 hertĂłk rĂșssneskur her Finnland og SvĂar neyddust til aĂ° afsala sĂ©r yfirrĂĄĂ°arĂ©tti yfir ĂŸvĂ. Finnland varĂ° sjĂĄlfstjĂłrnarsvĂŠĂ°i, StĂłrfurstadĂŠmiĂ° Finnland, innan rĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmisins allt fram til 1917. Alexander I, RĂșsslandskeisari, varĂ° fyrsti stĂłrfursti Finnlands. SmĂĄm saman fĂ©kk finnskan mikilvĂŠgara hlutverk Ă opinberu lĂfi, upphaflega sem hluti af rĂșssneskri viĂ°leitni til aĂ° draga Ășr sambandinu viĂ° sĂŠnska menningu og menningarhefĂ° en meir og meir sem hluti af finnskri ĂŸjóðernishreyfingu. MikilvĂŠgt skref var söfnun og ĂștgĂĄfa sagnaverksins Kalevala ĂĄriĂ° 1835 og ekki sĂĂ°ur ĂŸegar finnska var gerĂ° jafnrĂ©tthĂĄ sĂŠnsku sem opinbert mĂĄl 1892. Finnsk ritmenning hĂłfst ĂĄ fyrri hluta 19. aldar og voru ĂŸaĂ° ekki sĂst sĂŠnskumĂŠlandi menntamenn sem stóðu fremst Ă aĂ° smĂĂ°a ĂŸetta nĂœja ritmĂĄl, m.a. meĂ° slagorĂ°inu: âSvenskar Ă€ro vi icke, ryssar vilja vi icke vara, lĂ„t oss bli finnarâ.
+
+FljĂłtlega eftir byltingu bolsĂ©vĂka Ă RĂșsslandi lĂœsti finnska ĂŸingiĂ° yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i Finnlands, hinn 6. desember 1917. BolsĂ©vĂkastjĂłrnin viĂ°urkenndi sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°iĂ° en Ă Finnlandi braust Ășt blóðug borgarastyrjöld 1918 Ă kjölfar barĂĄttu hvĂtliĂ°a og rauĂ°liĂ°a Ă RĂșsslandi. Ă Finnlandi endaĂ°i styrjöldin meĂ° sigri hvĂtliĂ°a.
+
+FrĂĄ strĂĂ°slokum og fram undir miĂ°jan fjĂłrĂ°a ĂĄratug tuttugustu aldar voru tengsl Finnlands og SovĂ©trĂkjanna nokkurn veginn hlutlaus. ĂriĂ° 1939 gerĂ°u SovĂ©trĂkin talsverĂ°ar landakröfur ĂĄ Finnland sem ekki var orĂ°iĂ° viĂ° og hĂłf ĂŸĂĄ sovĂ©ski herinn ĂŸaĂ° sem nefnt er Finnska vetrarstrĂĂ°iĂ° meĂ° innrĂĄs Ă Finnland. Finnar vörĂ°ust mĂĄnuĂ°um saman en mĂĄttu sĂn ĂĄ endanum lĂtils gegn ofureflinu.
+
+Mikil hefndarhugur var Ă mörgum Finnum eftir lok vetrarstrĂĂ°sins 1940 og Finnland tengdist nĂĄiĂ° ĂĂœskalandi undir stjĂłrn nasista. Finnar drĂłgust aftur Ășt Ă strĂĂ° viĂ° SovĂ©trĂkin 1941 og börĂ°ust ĂŸĂĄ meĂ° Ăjóðverjum. Eftir strĂĂ°iĂ° neyddust Finnar til aĂ° lĂĄta af hendi stĂłr landsvĂŠĂ°i til SovĂ©trĂkjanna og greiĂ°a ĂŸeim strĂĂ°sskaĂ°abĂŠtur ĂĄrum saman.
+
+TĂmabiliĂ° frĂĄ lokum seinni heimstyrjaldarinnar fram aĂ° upplausn SovĂ©trĂkjanna einkenndist af hlutleysi Finnlands Ă alĂŸjóðamĂĄlum og nĂĄnu samstarfi viĂ° grannann Ă austri. ĂĂłtti mörgum nĂłg um undirgefni Finna og varĂ° til Ășr ĂŸessu alĂŸjóðlega hugtakiĂ° âfinlandiseringâ.
+
+Finnland fĂ©kk inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1995 um leiĂ° og SvĂĂŸjóð og AusturrĂki og er hiĂ° eina NorĂ°urlandanna sem hefur tekiĂ° upp evru sem gjaldmiĂ°il. Finnland gekk jafnframt Ă AtlantshafsbandalagiĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 2023 og batt ĂŸannig enda ĂĄ ĂĄratugalangt hlutleysi sitt.
+
+LandfrĂŠĂ°i
+Finnland prĂœĂ°a mörg ĂŸĂșsund vatna og eyja. Stöðuvötn sem eru 500 mÂČ aĂ° flatarmĂĄli eĂ°a meira eru 187.888 talsins og eyjarnar 179.584. Saimaa-vatn er eitt ĂŸessara vatna og er ĂŸaĂ° 5. stĂŠrsta stöðuvatn Ă EvrĂłpu. Finnskt landslag er aĂ° mestu leyti flatt, en ĂŸĂł er ĂŸaĂ° hĂłlĂłtt ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°um. HĂŠsti punktur landsins er Halti (1328 m) Ă norĂ°urhluta Lapplands, viĂ° landamĂŠri Noregs. BarrskĂłgur ĂŸekur landiĂ° aĂ° mestu leyti og lĂtiĂ° er af rĂŠktanlegu landi. Algengasta bergtegundin er granĂt. ĂaĂ° er alltaf nĂĄlĂŠgt yfirborĂ°inu og sjĂĄanlegt ĂŸar sem jarĂ°vegur er af skornum skammti. JökulruĂ°ningur er algengastur lausra jarĂ°efna, gjarnan ĂŸakinn ĂŸunnu lagi af mold. Meirihluti eyjanna eru Ă suĂ°vesturhluta Eyjahafsins (hluti af eyjaklasa Ălandseyja) og meĂ° fram suĂ°urströnd KirjĂĄlabotns.
+
+Plöntu- og dĂœrarĂki
+
+Gróður- og dĂœralĂf Ă Finnlandi er mjög fjölbreytt. Plöntu- og dĂœrategundir eru mismunandi eftir landshlutum, vegna mismunandi loftslags ĂĄ milli norĂ°ur-, vestur- og suĂ°urhluta Finnlands. Ă landinu eru yfir 1200 tegundirir af ĂŠĂ°plöntum, 800 af mosaplöntum og 1000 tegundir af flĂ©ttum, og er auĂ°ugasta gróðurfariĂ° Ă suĂ°urhluta landsins og ĂĄ Ălandseyjum. LĂkt og allt annaĂ° Ă vistfrĂŠĂ°i Finnlands, ĂĄ plöntulĂf auĂ°velt meĂ° aĂ° aĂ°lagast og ĂŸola ĂłlĂkar ĂĄrstĂĂ°ir og veĂ°urskilyrĂ°i. Um ĂŸaĂ° bil tveir ĂŸriĂ°ju af flatarmĂĄli landsins er ĂŸakinn barrskĂłgi, furu og greni. Ă nyrsta hlutanum vex ĂŸĂł einungis birki. Eik og önnur lauftrĂ© vaxa ĂĄ Ălandseyjum og Ă syĂ°sta hluta landsins. LandiĂ° klĂŠddist skĂłgi eftir ĂŸvĂ sem ĂsjaĂ°arinn hopaĂ°i Ă lok sĂĂ°ustu Ăsaldar, fyrst birkitegundum en sĂĂ°an furu fyrir um 10.000 ĂĄrum sĂĂ°an. FrĂĄ ĂŸvĂ fyrir um 6.000 ĂĄrum fĂłr greni aĂ° breiĂ°ast Ășt austan frĂĄ og nĂĄĂ°i vesturströndinni fyrir um ĂŸaĂ° bil 3.000 ĂĄrum. 72 % flatarmĂĄls Finnlands er skĂłgur, ĂŸaĂ° hĂŠsta Ă EvrĂłpu.
+
+Einnig bĂœr Finnland yfir fjölbreyttu og vĂĂ°tĂŠku dĂœralĂfi. ĂĂł ĂŸurrkuĂ°ust öll dĂœr nĂĄnast Ășt ĂĄ meĂ°an aĂ° sĂĂ°asta Ăsöld stóð yfir. DĂœrin komu til Finnlands ĂĄ nĂœ fyrir u.ĂŸ.b. 10.000 ĂĄrum sĂĂ°an, fylgdu hopi jökla og framsĂłkn gróðurs. NĂșorĂ°iĂ° eru ĂŸar a.m.k. sextĂu innlendar tegundir spendĂœra, 248 tegundir varpfugla, rĂșmlega 70 fiskategundir og ellefu skriĂ°dĂœra- og froskdĂœrategundir.
+
+Af stĂłrum villtum spendĂœrum eru ĂŸau algengustu skĂłgarbjörn (ĂŸjóðardĂœriĂ°), grĂĄĂșlfur, elgur og hreindĂœr. Ănnur algeng spendĂœr eru rauĂ°refur, rauĂ°Ăkorni og fjallahĂ©ri. MeĂ°al sjaldgĂŠfari skepna eru flugĂkorni, kĂłngsörn, hringanĂłri og heimskautarefur, sem er talinn vera Ă mestri ĂștrĂœmingarhĂŠttu finnskra dĂœra. Ăjóðarfugl Finnlands er ĂĄlft. Algengustu fuglategundirnar eru laufsöngvari, bĂłkfinka og skĂłgarĂŸröstur.
+
+Ă Saimaa-vatnasvĂŠĂ°inu Ă SuĂ°austur-Finnlandi bĂœr Saimaa-hringanĂłri (Phoca hispida saimensis), ein af ĂŸremur ferskvatnsselategundum Ă heiminum. Samtök finnskra nĂĄttĂșruverndarsinna hafa barist fyrir verndun hringanĂłrans og hefur tekist vel aĂ° bjarga honum frĂĄ ĂștrĂœmingu. Samt sem ĂĄĂ°ur telst tegundin enn ĂŸĂĄ vera Ă ĂștrĂœmingarhĂŠttu. NĂș er taliĂ° aĂ° um 270 Saimaa-hringanĂłrar sĂ©u ĂĄ lĂfi. TaliĂ° er aĂ° ĂŸeim ĂŸurfi aĂ° fjölga upp Ă 400 seli til ĂŸess aĂ° stofninn komist Ășr ĂștrĂœmingarhĂŠttu.
+
+Vegna veiĂ°a og ĂĄreitis Ă gegnum tĂĂ°ina hefur mörgum dĂœrum ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° kĂłngsörn, skĂłgarbjörn og gaupu fĂŠkkaĂ° mjög. En vegna mikillar verndunar og stofnunar vĂĂ°lendra ĂŸjóðgarĂ°a hefur ĂŸeim fjölgaĂ° ĂĄ nĂœ undanfarin ĂĄr.
+
+Loftslag
+LoftslagiĂ° Ă SuĂ°ur-Finnlandi er kaldtempraĂ°. Ă NorĂ°ur-Finnlandi, sĂ©rstaklega Ă Lapplandi, rĂkir heimskautaloftslag sem einkennist af köldum, jafnvel hörĂ°um vetrum og nokkuĂ° heitum sumrum. ĂaĂ° sem ĂĄ stĂŠrstan ĂŸĂĄtt Ă loftslagi Finnlands er lega ĂŸess ĂĄ milli 60. og 70. breiddarbaugslĂnu ĂĄ evrasĂsku strandlengjunni, sem veldur ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸar er bĂŠĂ°i sjĂĄvarloftslag og meginlandsloftslag, breytilegt eftir vindĂĄtt. Finnland er nĂłgu nĂĄlĂŠgt Atlantshafinu til aĂ° njĂłta hlĂœrra ĂĄhrifa Golfstraumsins, sem ĂștskĂœrir fremur hlĂœtt loftslag miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° legu.
+
+FjĂłrĂ°ungur af Finnlandi nĂŠr norĂ°ur fyrir heimskautsbaug, ĂŸaĂ° veldur ĂŸvĂ aĂ° miĂ°nĂŠtursĂłl er ĂŸar ĂĄ lofti Ă marga daga. Ă nyrsta punkti Finnlands sest sĂłl ekki Ă 73 daga samfellt yfir sumariĂ° og rĂs ekki Ă 51 dag yfir veturinn.
+
+StjĂłrnmĂĄl
+Finnland er lĂœĂ°veldi eins og Ăsland en hefur ekki ĂŸingbundna konungsstjĂłrn eins og skandinavĂsku löndin. Forseti Finnlands hefur framkvĂŠmdavald og er ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingi landsins. Einnig sĂ©r forsetinn um utanrĂkismĂĄl utan EvrĂłpusambandsins, Ă samstarfi viĂ° finnska ĂŸingiĂ°. ĂingiĂ° er valdamesta stofnun landsins og er ĂŠĂ°sti maĂ°ur ĂŸess forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herrann. Finnska ĂŸingiĂ° er yfirlöggjafarvald Finnlands, ĂŸar sitja 200 manns. Ă finnsku nefnist ĂŸaĂ° Eduskunta og ĂĄ sĂŠnsku Riksdag.
+
+Forseti
+Forseti Finnlands er ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingi landsins. SamkvĂŠmt stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ landsins hefur forsetinn framkvĂŠmdavald ĂĄsamt rĂkisstjĂłrninni. ĂbĂșar landsins kjĂłsa forsetann Ă lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°islegum kosningum og er kjörtĂmabiliĂ° sex ĂĄr. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1991 hefur enginn forseti mĂĄtt sitja lengur viĂ° völd en tvö kjörtĂmabil. Forsetinn verĂ°ur aĂ° vera innfĂŠddur rĂkisborgari.
+
+NĂșverandi forseti landsins er Sauli Niinistö. Hann tĂłk viĂ° forsetastöðunni ĂĄriĂ° 2012 og var endurkjörinn 28. janĂșar 2018. Hann getur ĂŸvĂ setiĂ° til ĂĄrsins 2024. Hann er tĂłlfti forseti Finnlands. Forveri hans, Tarja Halonen, var fyrsta konan til aĂ° gegna stöðunni.
+
+ĂingiĂ°
+
+Finnska ĂŸingiĂ° er Ă einni deild meĂ° tvö hundruĂ° ĂŸingmönnum, sem eru kosnir til fjögurra ĂĄra Ă senn meĂ° hlutfallskosningu. SamkvĂŠmt stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ Finnlands kĂœs ĂŸingiĂ° svo forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra, sem forsetinn skipar Ă embĂŠtti. AĂ°ra rĂĄĂ°herra skipar forsetinn Ă embĂŠtti eftir tilnefningum frĂĄ forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra.
+
+UtanrĂkisstefna
+UtanrĂkisstefna Finnlands byggir ĂĄ nĂĄinni samvinnu viĂ° aĂ°rar NorĂ°urlandaĂŸjóðir bĂŠĂ°i formlega, Ă gegnum samstarfiĂ° Ă NorĂ°urlandarĂĄĂ°i og Ăłformlega, ekki sĂst innan EvrĂłpusambandsins og SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna. FrĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Finnland gerĂ°ist aĂ°ili aĂ° EvrĂłpubandalaginu 1995 hefur ĂŸĂĄtttakan Ă starfi ĂŸess Ă vaxandi mĂŠli veriĂ° ĂŸungamiĂ°ja utanrĂkisstefnunnar. StĂŠrstan hluta 20. aldar var sambĂșĂ°in viĂ° SovĂ©trĂkin hins vegar helsti ĂŸĂĄttur Ă utanrĂkismĂĄlum landsins. FrĂĄ lokum seinni heimsstyrjaldarinnar hefur Finnland ekki ĂĄtt Ă neinum alĂŸjóðlegum deilum um landamĂŠri landsins. Formlega er finnski herinn eingöngu til sjĂĄlfsvarnar og heimilar finnska stjĂłrnarskrĂĄin honum einungis ĂŸĂĄtttöku Ă hernaĂ°araĂ°gerĂ°um sem SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðirnar eĂ°a ĂSE heimila. Finnland er mjög hĂĄĂ° utanrĂkisverslun, sem gefur af sĂ©r u.ĂŸ.b. ĂŸriĂ°jung ĂŸjóðartekna. LandiĂ° er mjög hĂĄĂ° innflutningi hrĂĄefna, mĂĄlma og olĂu.
+
+VarnarmĂĄl
+Her Finnlands er skipt upp Ă ĂŸrjĂĄr greinar, landher, sjĂłher og flugher. Herinn gegnir ekki landamĂŠragĂŠslu ĂĄ friĂ°artĂmum, sĂș gĂŠsla er undir stjĂłrn innanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°uneytisins. Almenn herskylda karlmanna er Ă landinu, aĂ° undanteknum Ălendingum, og um 80 % hvers ĂĄrgangs karla gegnir herĂŸjĂłnustu. Herskylda nĂŠr ekki til kvenna en frĂĄ 1995 geta ĂŸĂŠr boĂ°iĂ° sig fram til herĂŸjĂłnustu til jafns viĂ° karla. HerĂŸjĂłnustutĂminn er 6, 9 eĂ°a 12 mĂĄnuĂ°ir allt eftir ĂĄbyrgĂ° og verkefni. Um 34.000 manns eru aĂ° jafnaĂ°i undir vopnum en samanlagt eru um 350.000 manns ĂŸar aĂ° auki reiĂ°ubĂșnir aĂ° vera kallaĂ°ir inn ef ĂĄ ĂŸarf aĂ° halda. Mögulegt er aĂ° inna aĂ°ra ĂŸegnskylduĂŸjĂłnustu af hendi Ă 12 mĂĄnuĂ°i Ă staĂ° ĂŸess aĂ° gegna herĂŸjĂłnustu. FjĂĄrmagn til varna jafngildir u.ĂŸ.b. 1,4% af landsframleiĂ°slu.
+
+Finnland hefur ĂĄtt aĂ°ild aĂ° NATO frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2023.
+
+StjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar
+
+Fyrrum fylki
+
+Til ĂĄrsins 2009 var landinu skipt Ă sex fylki (ĂĄ finnsku lÀÀni, fl. lÀÀnit, ĂĄ sĂŠnsku lĂ€n) en ĂŸĂĄ voru ĂŸau afnumin. Fylkin voru stjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar rĂkisvaldsins og sĂĄu m.a. um löggĂŠslu og dĂłmsmĂĄl.
+
+FylkisstjĂłri og fylkisstjĂłrn voru skipuĂ° af rĂkisstjĂłrninni og engar kosningar fĂłru fram til embĂŠtta innan fylkisins. Fylkjaskipunin var upphaflega sett ĂĄ laggirnar ĂĄriĂ° 1634 en sĂĂ°asta uppskipting var gerĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1997 og ĂŸĂĄ voru fylkin eftirfarandi (sjĂĄ mynd til hĂŠgri):
+ SuĂ°ur-Finnland
+ Vestur-Finnland
+ Austur-Finnland
+ Oulu
+ Lappland
+ Ăland
+
+NĂșverandi hĂ©ruĂ°
+
+NĂș eru Ă Finnlandi 19 hĂ©ruĂ°:
+Lappland
+NorĂ°ur-Austurbotn
+SuĂ°ur-Austurbotn
+MiĂ°-Austurbotn
+Austurbotn
+Kainuu
+NorĂ°ur-KarelĂa
+SuĂ°ur-KarelĂa
+SuĂ°ur-SavonĂa
+NorĂ°ur-SavonĂa
+MiĂ°-Finnland
+Pirkanmaa
+Satakunta
+PÀijÀt-HÀme
+Kanta-HĂ€me
+Kymenlaakso
+Uusimaa
+SuĂ°vestur-Finnland
+Ălandseyjar
+
+Ălandseyjar eru sjĂĄlfsstjĂłrnarsvĂŠĂ°i innan finnska rĂkisins. LögĂŸing og heimastjĂłrn Ălandseyja hafa sjĂĄlfstjĂłrn um Ăœmsa mĂĄlaflokka, t.d. mennta- og heilsugĂŠslumĂĄl, Ăștvarp og sjĂłnvarp og lögreglu- og atvinnumĂĄl. Ă Ălandseyjum er sĂŠnska eina opinbera mĂĄliĂ° og er ĂŸvĂ strangt framfylgt m. a. geta einungis sĂŠnskumĂŠlandi ĂbĂșar veriĂ° landeigendur.
+
+Sveitarfélög
+
+AĂ°alstjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar Finnlands eru sveitarfĂ©lögin (ĂĄ finnsku kunta, sĂŠnsku kommun), 310 aĂ° tölu ĂĄriĂ° 2020. KosiĂ° er til sveitarstjĂłrna Ă beinum kosningum fjĂłrĂ°a hvert ĂĄr. SveitarstjĂłrn og borgarstjĂłrn eru Ă grĂłfum drĂĄttum ĂŸaĂ° sama, fyrir utan muninn ĂĄ dreifbĂœli og ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1977 hefur ekki veriĂ° greint ĂĄ milli borga, bĂŠja og dreifbĂœlis. SveitarfĂ©lög eru sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt stjĂłrnvald innan ramma laga sem sett eru af rĂkinu. Enginn getur ĂĄfrĂœjaĂ° ĂĄkvörĂ°unum sveitarfĂ©lags svo lengi sem ĂŸĂŠr eru löglegar.
+
+SveitarfĂ©lög hafa meĂ° sĂ©r tvenns konar skipulagt samstarf. Annars vegar Ă tuttugu samstarfseiningum sem eru nefndar ĂĄ finnsku maakunta og ĂĄ sĂŠnsku landskap. Hlutverk ĂŸessara hĂ©raĂ°ssamtaka er menntunar- og heilsugĂŠslusamstarf. Hins vegar eru sjötĂu og fjĂłrar samstarfseiningar sem nefndar eru ĂĄ finnsku seutukunta og ekonomisk region ĂĄ sĂŠnsku. Hlutverk ĂŸessara samstarfseininga er efnahagssamvinna.
+
+Ăland hefur sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°a stöðu innan finnska rĂkisins meĂ° eigiĂ° lögĂŸing og heimastjĂłrn og er ĂŸar aĂ° auki formlega sĂ©rstakt fylki.
+
+Samar hafa takmarkaĂ°a sjĂĄlfstjĂłrn ĂĄ sviĂ°i tungumĂĄla og menningarmĂĄla Ă Lapplandi.
+
+StÊrstu bÊir og sveitafélög
+Taflan hĂ©r aĂ° neĂ°an sĂœnir fjölda ĂbĂșa fjölmennustu sveitarfĂ©laganna Ă heild, ekki einungis ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlis. Tölurnar eru frĂĄ 31. mars 2011. HöfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°iĂ°, sem samanstendur af Helsinki, Vantaa, Espoo og Kauniainen, myndar samtals milljĂłn manna byggĂ°.
+
+EfnahagslĂf
+ĂriĂ° 2022 var Finnland Ă 16. sĂŠti yfir lönd eftir vergri landsframleiĂ°slu ĂĄ mann aĂ° nafnvirĂ°i samkvĂŠmt AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðnum. Finnland er ĂŸvĂ eitt af rĂkustu löndum heims, en er lĂka ĂŸekkt fyrir ĂŸrĂłaĂ° velferĂ°arkerfi meĂ° gjaldfrjĂĄlsri menntun og fullkomnu heilbrigĂ°iskerfi.
+
+ĂjĂłnustugeirinn er stĂŠrsti geiri efnahagslĂfsins meĂ° 66% af vergri landsframleiĂ°slu. Ăar ĂĄ eftir koma iĂ°naĂ°ur og mĂĄlmhreinsun meĂ° 31%. FrumframleiĂ°sla stendur undir 2,9%. Ef miĂ°aĂ° er viĂ° utanrĂkisverslun er iĂ°naĂ°urinn lykilgeiri atvinnulĂfsins. StĂŠrstu iĂ°ngreinarnar ĂĄriĂ° 2007 voru rafeindatĂŠkni (22%); vĂ©lar, bifreiĂ°ar og annar stĂĄliĂ°naĂ°ur (21,1%); skĂłgrĂŠkt (13%) og efnaiĂ°naĂ°ur (11%). Verg landsframleiĂ°sla nĂĄĂ°i hĂĄpunkti ĂĄriĂ° 2021. ĂriĂ° 2022 var Finnland Ă 9. sĂŠti yfir mestu nĂœsköpunarlönd heims Ă NĂœsköpunarvĂsitölunni.
+
+Finnland bĂœr yfir miklum auĂ°lindum timburs, jarĂ°efna (jĂĄrns, krĂłms, kopars, nikkels og gulls) og ferskvatns. SkĂłgrĂŠkt, pappĂrsverksmiĂ°jur og landbĂșnaĂ°ur eru mikilvĂŠg starfsemi ĂĄ landsbyggĂ°inni. Um einn ĂŸriĂ°ji af vergri landsframleiĂ°slu Finnlands verĂ°ur til ĂĄ stĂłrborgarsvĂŠĂ°i Helsinki. Einkarekin ĂŸjĂłnustufyrirtĂŠki eru stĂŠrstu vinnuveitendur landsins.
+
+Loftslag og jarĂ°vegur Ă Finnlandi gerir jarĂ°rĂŠkt sĂ©rstaklega erfiĂ°a. Vetur eru harĂ°ir og vaxtartĂmabiliĂ° hlutfallslega stutt og stundum meĂ° hretum. Vegna temprandi ĂĄhrifa Golfstraumsins bĂœr Finnland samt yfir helmingi alls rĂŠktanlegs lands norĂ°an viĂ° 60. breiddargrĂĄĂ°u. ĂrsĂșrkoma er oftast nĂŠgileg, en fellur nĂŠr eingöngu yfir vetrarmĂĄnuĂ°ina, ĂŸannig aĂ° ĂŸurrkasumur eru stöðug Ăłgn. Til aĂ° bregĂ°ast viĂ° ĂŸessum ĂĄskorunum hafa bĂŠndur treyst ĂĄ hraĂ°vaxta og frostĂŸolin afbrigĂ°i, og rĂŠkta Ă hlĂĂ°um sem snĂșa Ă suĂ°ur og frjĂłsamari dalverpum til aĂ° tryggja jafna framleiĂ°ni ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir sumarfrost. Oft ĂŸarf aĂ° gera afrennsli til aĂ° ĂŸurrka landiĂ°.
+
+SkĂłgar leika lykilhlutverk Ă efnahag landsins. Finnland er einn stĂŠrsti framleiĂ°andi hrĂĄefnis fyrir viĂ°arvinnsluiĂ°naĂ°inn. LĂkt og Ă landbĂșnaĂ°i hefur rĂkiĂ° lengi veriĂ° Ă leiĂ°andi hlutverki Ă skĂłgrĂŠkt meĂ° lögum um skĂłgarhögg, styrkjum til tĂŠkniĂŸrĂłunar og langtĂmastefnumĂłtun til aĂ° tryggja aĂ° skĂłgar landsins framleiĂ°i ĂĄfram nĂŠgjanlegt hrĂĄefni.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2008 voru kaupmĂĄttarjafnaĂ°ar tekjur svipaĂ°ar og ĂĄ ĂtalĂu, Ă SvĂĂŸjóð, ĂĂœskalandi og Frakklandi. ĂriĂ° 2006 störfuĂ°u 62% mannaflans fyrir fyrirtĂŠki meĂ° innan viĂ° 250 starfsmenn sem stóðu undir 49% af heildarveltu fyrirtĂŠkja. Atvinnuleysi er mikiĂ° meĂ°al kvenna og skipting milli starfa ĂŸar sem karlar eru rĂĄĂ°andi annars vegar og konur hins vegar, er meiri en Ă BandarĂkjunum. Hlutfall fĂłlks Ă hlutastarfi var meĂ° ĂŸvĂ lĂŠgsta meĂ°al OECD-rĂkja ĂĄriĂ° 1999. ĂriĂ° 2013 voru 10 stĂŠrstu einkareknu fyrirtĂŠkin Ă Finnlandi Itella, Nokia, OP-Pohjola, ISS, VR, Kesko, UPM-Kymmene, YIT, Metso og Nordea. Atvinnuleysi var 6,8% ĂĄriĂ° 2022.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2022 voru einstĂŠĂ°ingar ĂĄ 46% heimila Ă Finnlandi, tvĂŠr manneskjur ĂĄ 32% heimila og ĂŸrjĂĄr eĂ°a fleiri ĂĄ 22% heimila. MeĂ°alfermetrafjöldi ĂĄ mann er 40 mÂČ. ĂriĂ° 2021 nĂĄĂ°i verg landsframleiĂ°sla Ă Finnlandi 251 milljörĂ°um evra. ĂriĂ° 2022 störfuĂ°u 74% mannaflans Ă ĂŸjĂłnustu og stjĂłrnsĂœslu, 21% Ă iĂ°naĂ°i og byggingariĂ°naĂ°i, og 4% Ă landbĂșnaĂ°i og skĂłgrĂŠkt.
+
+Ă Finnlandi er hĂŠst hlutfall samvinnufĂ©laga miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° ĂbĂșafjölda. StĂŠrsta verslunarkeĂ°jan, sem er lĂka stĂŠrsti vinnuveitandinn, S Group, og stĂŠrsti bankinn, OP Group, eru bĂŠĂ°i samvinnufĂ©lög.
+
+ĂbĂșar
+
+Ă Finnlandi bĂșa um 5,5 milljĂłnir manna og er ĂŸĂ©ttleiki byggĂ°ar aĂ° meĂ°altali 17 ĂbĂșar ĂĄ hvern ferkĂlĂłmetra. ĂaĂ° gerir landiĂ° aĂ° ĂŸriĂ°ja strjĂĄlbĂœlasta landi EvrĂłpu, ĂĄ eftir Noregi og Ăslandi. SuĂ°urhluti landsins hefur alltaf veriĂ° fjölmennastur og ĂŸar jĂłkst ĂbĂșafjöldinn enn meir viĂ° ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisĂŸrĂłun 20. aldar. StĂŠrstu og mikilvĂŠgustu borgir Ă Finnlandi eru StĂłr-Helsinki (sem nĂŠr yfir Helsinki, Vantaa, Espoo og Kauniainen), Tampere, Turku og Oulu.
+
+Eftir VetrarstrĂĂ°iĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1939 (og FramhaldsstrĂĂ°iĂ° 1941), urĂ°u 12% af ĂbĂșum Finnlands aĂ° flytjast bĂșferlum. StrĂĂ°sskaĂ°abĂŠtur, atvinnuleysi og Ăłvissa um ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingja og sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ SovĂ©trĂkjunum olli miklum fĂłlksflĂłtta, sem ekki fĂłr aĂ° draga Ășr fyrr enn ĂĄ 8. ĂĄratug 20. aldar. Um hĂĄlf milljĂłn Finna fluttist til SvĂĂŸjóðar ĂĄ ĂĄratugunum frĂĄ 1950 fram til 1980, en allstĂłr hluti ĂŸeirra hefur flust heim aĂ° nĂœju.
+
+FrĂĄ seinni hluta 10. ĂĄratugar 20. aldar hefur Finnland tekiĂ° ĂĄ mĂłti svipuĂ°um fjölda flĂłttamanna og innflytjenda og hin NorĂ°urlöndin. Finnland er ĂŸjóðfrĂŠĂ°ilega mjög einsleitt land. Ătlendingar eru einungis 4% af heildarĂbĂșatölu landsins. Umtalsvert hlutfall innflytjenda ĂĄ rĂŠtur sĂnar aĂ° rekja til fyrrum SovĂ©trĂkjanna. Innflytjendur tala ĂĄ ĂŸriĂ°ja tug tungumĂĄla Ă Finnlandi Ă dag, miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° aĂ° a.m.k. 1000 manns tali hvert mĂĄl.
+
+TungumĂĄl
+Finnska og sĂŠnska eru bĂŠĂ°i opinber tungumĂĄl Ă Finnlandi og jafnrĂ©tthĂĄ samkvĂŠmt finnskum lögum. Meirihluti Finna (88%) hefur finnsku aĂ° móðurmĂĄli. Finnska tilheyrir finnsk-ĂșgrĂsku tungumĂĄlafjölskyldunni og er ĂĄ milli ĂŸess aĂ° vera samloĂ°unarmĂĄl og beygingamĂĄl. Ă finnsku breytast og beygjast nafnorĂ°, lĂœsingarorĂ°, fornöfn, töluorĂ° og sagnorĂ° eftir hlutverki ĂŸeirra Ă setningunni. Finnland er eitt af ĂŸremur sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°um rĂkjum ĂŸar sem meirihluti ĂŸjóðarinnar talar finnsk-ĂșgrĂskt mĂĄl. Hin eru Eistland og Ungverjaland.
+
+StĂŠrstu minnihlutamĂĄlin Ă Finnlandi eru sĂŠnska (5,2%), rĂșssneska (1,4%) og eistneska (0,9%). TĂŠplega 2000 samar hafa samĂsku aĂ° móðurmĂĄli, einkum Ă norĂ°urhluta landsins. SamĂsku mĂĄlin eru einnig finnsk-ĂșgrĂsk mĂĄl. Alls eru ĂŸrjĂș samĂsk mĂĄl töluĂ° Ă Finnlandi: norĂ°ursamĂska, inarisamĂska og skoltsamĂska.
+
+Auk finnsku er sĂŠnska opinbert tungumĂĄl Ă Finnlandi. SĂŠnskumĂŠlandi Finnum fĂŠkkaĂ°i talsvert ĂĄ sĂĂ°ustu öld af Ăœmsum ĂĄstĂŠĂ°um. T.d. flutti mikill fjöldi sĂŠnskumĂŠlenda til SvĂĂŸjóðar, fjölskyldur sĂŠnskumĂŠlenda eru minni og ekki sĂst varĂ° fjölskyldumĂĄliĂ° finnska Ă fjölmörgum blönduĂ°um fjölskyldum. SĂŠnska er samkvĂŠmt lögum eina opinbera tungumĂĄliĂ° ĂĄ Ălandseyjum.
+
+MinnihlutahĂłpar hafa rĂ©tt ĂĄ aĂ° hlĂșa aĂ° menningu sinni og tungumĂĄlin eru vernduĂ° meĂ° lögum, ĂŸar hafa Samar sĂ©rstöðu. SamĂska er opinbert minnihlutamĂĄl.
+
+SĂŠnska er skyldunĂĄmsgrein Ă finnskum skĂłlum sem og finnska Ă skĂłlum sĂŠnskumĂŠlandi Finna og Finnar lĂŠra einnig ensku Ă skĂłlum og af ljĂłsvakamiĂ°lum til aĂ° vera samrĂŠĂ°ufĂŠrir ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ mĂĄli. Margir lĂŠra aĂ° auki ĂŸĂœsku eĂ°a frönsku.
+
+Frumbyggjar
+Samar eru frumbyggjar sem bĂșa Ă Finnlandi, SvĂĂŸjóð, Noregi og RĂșsslandi. ĂĂ°ur fyrr voru Samar oft kallaĂ°ir Lappar, en nĂș til dags telja margir Samar ĂŸaĂ° vera niĂ°randi heiti. Auk eigin tungumĂĄla hafa Samar sinn eigin lĂfsstĂl, yfirbragĂ° og menningu. SvipuĂ° saga, hefĂ°ir, lifnaĂ°arhĂŠtti og siĂ°ir sameina Sama sem bĂșa Ă mismunandi löndum. Samtals eru Samar um 75.000 til 100.000 en af ĂŸeim bĂșa minna en 7.000 Ă Finnlandi, sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir aĂ° Samar eru einungis 0,13% af ĂbĂșum Finnlands.
+
+TrĂșarbrögĂ°
+
+Meirihluti Finna (um 65,2%) eru mĂłtmĂŠlendatrĂșar og tilheyra Ăjóðkirkju Finnlands. Einnig tilheyrir minnihluti Finnsku rĂ©tttrĂșnaĂ°arkirkjunni (1,1%). AĂ°rir mĂłtmĂŠlendasöfnuĂ°ir og kaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan eru talsvert minni sem og Ăslam, gyĂ°ingdĂłmur og önnur trĂșarbrögĂ° (samtals 1,8%). RĂșm 32,0% af ĂbĂșunum eru utan trĂșfĂ©laga. Meirihluti ĂŸeirra sem tilheyra ĂŸjóðkirkjunni tekur lĂtinn ĂŸĂĄtt Ă starfi hennar.
+
+Menntun
+
+MenntakerfiĂ° Ă Finnlandi er ekki ĂłlĂkt ĂŸvĂ sem er ĂĄ öðrum NorĂ°urlöndum. Nemendur Ă fullu nĂĄmi ĂŸurfa ekki aĂ° borga nein nĂĄmsgjöld. SkĂłlaskylda er frĂĄ aldrinum 7-18 ĂĄra og fĂĄ nemendur Ă grunn- og menntaskĂłlum mĂĄltĂĂ°ir sĂ©r aĂ° kostnaĂ°arlausu ĂĄ skĂłlatĂma. SkĂłlaskylda er fyrstu nĂu ĂĄr skĂłlagöngunnar og sĂŠkja nemendurnir skĂłla Ă nĂĄgrenni viĂ° heimili sitt. FramhaldsnĂĄm er ekki skylda en ĂŸaĂ° fer annaĂ°hvort fram Ă iĂ°nskĂłla eĂ°a skĂłla sem undirbĂœr fyrir ĂĄframhaldandi nĂĄm, Ă verknĂĄmsskĂłlum eĂ°a hĂĄskĂłlum. SamkvĂŠmt alĂŸjóðlegu PISA-mati OECD samtakanna ĂĄ frammistöðu 15 ĂĄra unglinga Ă nĂĄmi eru Finnar ofarlega ĂĄ blaĂ°i. ĂriĂ° 2006 voru 15 ĂĄra finnskir unglingar hĂŠstir ĂĄ heimsvĂsu hvaĂ° varĂ°aĂ°i lesskilning, nĂĄttĂșruvĂsindi og stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+
+HeilsugĂŠsla
+HeilbrigĂ°iskerfi Finnlands ĂŸykir mjög ĂŸrĂłaĂ° ĂĄ heimsvĂsu. Heimilin sjĂĄlf greiĂ°a 18,9% af kostnaĂ°i viĂ° heilsugĂŠslu, 76,6% borgar rĂkiĂ° og ĂŸaĂ° sem eftir stendur aĂ°rir aĂ°ilar. Um hvern lĂŠkni eru 307 ĂbĂșar.
+
+Ă ĂĄttunda ĂĄratugnum gerĂ°u Finnar miklar breytingar ĂĄ lĂfsvenjum sĂnum, Ă ljĂłsi ĂŸess aĂ° dĂĄnartĂĂ°ni ĂŸeirra af völdum hjartasjĂșkdĂłma var ein sĂș hĂŠsta Ă heiminum. Ă dag eru Finnar meĂ°al heilbrigĂ°ari ĂŸjóða.
+
+LĂfslĂkur kvenna eru 82 ĂĄr og karla 75 ĂĄr.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Ătarefni
+ Opinbert vefsvĂŠĂ°i forseta Finnlands
+ Opinber heimasĂĂ°a rĂksistjĂłrnarinnar
+ VefgĂĄtt Finnlands
+ TölfrĂŠĂ°iupplĂœsingar um Finnland ĂĄ Norden.org
+
+Tenglar
+ ĂĂșsund vatna ljĂșfa land; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1953
+ AukablaĂ° um Finnland; fylgdi MorgunblaĂ°inu 24. aprĂl 1983
+
+Evrópulönd
+Evrópusambandslönd
+Norðurlönd
+Finnland
+Grein mĂĄnaĂ°arins
+
+Eldri greinar â Tilnefna grein mĂĄnaĂ°arins
+
+à fréttum
+
+SjĂĄ aĂ°ra atburĂ°i ĂĄrsins
+AtburĂ°ir .
+
+SjĂĄ hvaĂ° fleira gerĂ°ist .
+
+Vissir ĂŸĂș...
+
+Ăr nĂœjustu greinunum
+
+Systurverkefni
+
+ReykjavĂk er höfuĂ°borg Ăslands, fjölmennasta sveitarfĂ©lag landsins og eina borgin. Ăannig er ReykjavĂk efnahagsleg, menningarleg og stjĂłrnmĂĄlaleg ĂŸungamiĂ°ja landsins. Ă ReykjavĂk bĂșa tĂŠplega 140.000 manns (1. aprĂl 2023), ĂŸar af eru um 11% innflytjendur. ĂbĂșar höfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°isins eru um 249 ĂŸĂșsund Ă sjö sveitarfĂ©lögum. Opinbert heiti sveitarfĂ©lagsins ReykjavĂkur er ReykjavĂkurborg.
+
+IngĂłlfur Arnarson, sem er Ă LandnĂĄmabĂłk sagĂ°ur vera fyrsti landnĂĄmsmaĂ°ur Ăslands, settist aĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄriĂ° 870, aĂ° ĂŸvĂ taliĂ° er, og bjĂł sĂ©r bĂłl og nefndi Reykja(r)vĂk, ĂŸar sem borgin stendur nĂș. NĂœlegir fornleifafundir Ă miĂ°borg ReykjavĂkur, einkum Ă AĂ°alstrĂŠti, SuĂ°urgötu og KirkjustrĂŠti benda til ĂŸess sama, og hafa fundist mannvistarleifar allt frĂĄ um 870. Sagan segir aĂ° IngĂłlfur hafi gefiĂ° bĂŠ sĂnum nafniĂ° vegna reykjarstrĂłka sem ruku Ășr hverum Ă grenndinni.
+
+Saga
+
+SamkvĂŠmt ĂslendingabĂłk nam IngĂłlfur Arnarson allt suĂ°vesturhorn landsins og byggĂ°i bĂŠ sinn Ă ReykjavĂk. MeĂ° tĂĂ° og tĂma byggĂ°ust fleiri bĂŠir Ă kring og mĂĄ ĂŸar helst nefna Laugarnes og Nes viĂ° Seltjörn. ĂriĂ° 1226 hĂłfst byggĂ° Ă ViĂ°ey ĂŸegar munkar af ĂgĂșstĂnusarreglu stofnuĂ°u ĂŸar klaustur. VĂkurkirkja stóð viĂ° ReykjavĂkurbĂŠinn aĂ° minnsta kosti frĂĄ 1200. Ekki fĂłr aĂ° myndast ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli aĂ° rĂĄĂ°i Ă ReykjavĂk fyrr en ĂĄ 18. öld, en fram aĂ° ĂŸvĂ lĂĄgu bĂœli af Ăœmsum stĂŠrĂ°um ĂĄ vĂĂ° og dreif um svĂŠĂ°iĂ° ĂŸar sem borgin stendur nĂș. Ă 18. öld var gerĂ° tilraun til aĂ° reka ullariĂ°naĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk. Ăessi tilraun var ĂŸekkt sem InnrĂ©ttingarnar, og markaĂ°i hĂșn ĂŸĂĄttaskil Ă ĂŸrĂłun svĂŠĂ°isins, sem Ă kjölfariĂ° fĂłr aĂ° taka ĂĄ sig einhverja ĂŸorpsmynd. Danska konungsvaldiĂ° studdi ĂŸessar tilraunir til uppbyggingar meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° gefa jarĂ°ir sem ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄtti Ă ReykjavĂk og Ărfirisey. SextĂĄn hĂșs voru byggĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk vegna InnrĂ©ttinganna, sem hefur veriĂ° mikil fjölgun ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma, merki um tvö ĂŸeirra mĂĄ enn sjĂĄ. ĂĂĄ var fyrsta fangelsi landsins byggt ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1761â71, stĂŠĂ°ilegt steinhĂșs sem Ă dag er StjĂłrnarrĂĄĂ° Ăslands viĂ° LĂŠkjargötu.
+
+Ă tillögum Landsnefndarinnar fyrri 1774 var mĂŠlt meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° gera ReykjavĂk aĂ° âhöfuĂ°bĂŠâ landsins og aĂ° tillögu Landsnefndarinnar sĂĂ°ari var ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° aĂ° flytja biskupsstĂłlinn frĂĄ SkĂĄlholti til ReykjavĂkur og reisa ĂŸar nĂœja dĂłmkirkju. ReykjavĂk fĂ©kk kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi ĂĄriĂ° 1786, Ă kjölfar afnĂĄms einokunarverslunar Ă landinu, og sama ĂĄr var HĂłlavallaskĂłli stofnaĂ°ur ĂŸar. Ă nĂtjĂĄndu öld mynduĂ°ust ĂŸĂ©ttar ĂŸyrpingar lĂtilla hĂșsa eĂ°a kofa sjĂłmanna Ă bĂŠnum. AlĂŸingi var endurreist Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄriĂ° 1845. Ări sĂĂ°ar var MenntaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk fluttur frĂĄ Bessastöðum Ă miĂ°bĂŠinn. ĂriĂ° 1881 var AlĂŸingishĂșsiĂ° fullbĂșiĂ°. StĂœrimannaskĂłlinn tĂłk til starfa 1891 eftir aĂ° ĂŸilskip voru komin til landsins. ĂriĂ° 1898 var MiĂ°bĂŠjarskĂłlinn viĂ° Tjarnargötu fullbĂșinn. Hann var ĂŸĂł ekki tekinn Ă notkun fyrr en haustiĂ° 1908 og ĂŸĂĄ hĂłfu tĂŠplega ĂŸrjĂș hundruĂ° grunnskĂłlabörn nĂĄm ĂŸar. Ă nĂłvember 1906 kom upp taugaveikisfaraldur Ă Skuggahverfinu.
+
+Fyrsti bĂŠjarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur, PĂĄll Einarsson, tĂłk til starfa 1908 og fyrstu konurnar sem settust Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrn ĂĄ Ăslandi voru kjörnar af kvennalistum sem buĂ°u fram til bĂŠjarstjĂłrnarkosninga Ă ReykjavĂk Ă janĂșar ĂĄriĂ° 1908. Vatnsveita ReykjavĂkur tĂłk til starfa 1909. Gasstöð ReykjavĂkur viĂ° Hlemm var tekin Ă gagniĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1910. Gasstöðin starfaĂ°i til 1956. ReykjavĂkurhafnir voru byggĂ°ar Ă ĂĄföngum ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1913â17 bĂŠttu mjög skipaaĂ°stöðu. ĂaĂ°an af gĂĄtu hafskip lagst aĂ° bryggju en ĂĄĂ°ur fyrr ĂŸurfti aĂ° ferja fĂłlk og varning ĂĄ milli smĂŠrri bryggja og hafskipa sem lĂĄgu Ăști fyrir. Veturinn 1917â1918, nefndur Frostaveturinn mikli, var sĂĄ kaldasti sem mĂŠlst hefur; ĂŸĂĄ lĂĄ hafĂs Ă ReykjavĂkurhöfn og hitastigiĂ° fĂłr niĂ°ur Ă -24,5 °C. Ă oktĂłber 1918 barst spĂŠnska veikin, sem geysaĂ°i vĂĂ°ar Ă heiminum, til Ăslands meĂ° skipum frĂĄ Kaupmannahöfn og er taliĂ° aĂ° um ĂŸriĂ°jungur bĂŠjarbĂșa hafi veikst ĂĄ örfĂĄum vikum. ElliĂ°aĂĄrvirkjun var byggĂ° 1921 til ĂŸess aĂ° sjĂĄ ört stĂŠkkandi borginni fyrir rafmagni.
+
+Heimskreppan mikla hafĂ°i slĂŠm ĂĄhrif um allan heim. Ă Ăslandi nĂĄĂ°u ĂŸau hĂĄmarki Ă GĂșttĂłslagnum ĂĄriĂ° 1932 ĂŸegar ĂŸunnskipuĂ° lögregla ĂŸurfti aĂ° berjast viĂ° verkamenn fyrir utan GóðtemplarahĂșs ReykjavĂkur, ĂŸar sem haldinn var bĂŠjarstjĂłrnarfundur ĂŸar sem lĂŠkka ĂĄtti laun Ă atvinnubĂłtavinnu ĂĄ vegum bĂŠjarins. Einu sinni hafĂ°i ĂĄĂ°ur skorist alvarlega Ă odda ĂĄ milli lögreglunnar og annarra hĂłpa, en ĂŸaĂ° var Ă HvĂta strĂĂ°inu svokallaĂ°a rĂșmum ĂĄratugi fyrr. Ă mars 1937 var Sundhöll ReykjavĂkur vĂgĂ° og var ĂŸaĂ° fyrsta sundlaug bĂŠjarins. Ăann 10. maĂ 1940 gengu breskir hermenn ĂĄ land Ă ReykjavĂk og hernĂĄmu Ăsland. Ă meĂ°an veru ĂŸeirra stóð hĂłfu ĂŸeir byggingu varanlegs flugvallar Ă ReykjavĂk. BandarĂkjamenn tĂłku viĂ° af Bretunum rĂșmu ĂĄri seinna og fĂłru ekki fyrr en aĂ° strĂĂ°inu loknu, 8. aprĂl 1947.
+
+LandafrĂŠĂ°i
+
+ReykjavĂk er ĂĄ suĂ°vesturhorni landsins. StrandlĂna ReykjavĂkur einkennist af nesjum, fjörĂ°um, skerjum og eyjum. FjalliĂ° Esja (914 m) er ĂŸekkt kennileiti Ă ReykjavĂk. ElliĂ°aĂĄr sem renna Ă gegnum ElliĂ°aĂĄrdal eru virkjaĂ°ar. StĂŠrsta eyjan sem liggur nĂŠrri ReykjavĂk er ViĂ°ey, ĂŸar ĂĄ eftir eru Engey og Akurey Ă KollafirĂ°i.
+
+Ă ReykjavĂk hafa veriĂ° gerĂ°ar samfelldar veĂ°urathuganir frĂĄ 1920, en elstu skrĂĄĂ°u veĂ°urathuganir eru frĂĄ fyrri hluta 19. aldar. Ăann 3. janĂșar 1841 mĂŠldist loftĂŸrĂœstingurinn Ă ReykjavĂk 1058,5 hPa, sem er sĂĄ mesti sem mĂŠlst hefur ĂĄ Ăslandi. MeĂ°al opinna og grĂŠnna svĂŠĂ°a Ă ReykjavĂk mĂĄ nefna HljĂłmskĂĄlagarĂ°inn, KlambratĂșn, ĂskjuhlĂĂ° og ElliĂ°aĂĄrdal.
+
+ReykjarvĂk er 2 886 km frĂĄ norĂ°urpĂłlnum og 7116 km frĂĄ miĂ°baug.
+
+VeĂ°urfar
+Golfstraumurinn gerir veĂ°urfar Ă ReykjavĂk mun hlĂœrra og jafnara ĂĄ ĂĄrsmĂŠlikvarĂ°a en ĂĄ flestum öðrum stöðum ĂĄ sömu breiddargrĂĄĂ°u. Hitastig aĂ° vetrarlagi fer sjaldan undir -10 °C. Lega borgarinnar ĂĄ suĂ°vesturströnd Ăslands ber meĂ° sĂ©r fremur vindasamt veĂ°ur og eru rok algeng, sĂ©rlega aĂ° vetrarlagi. Sumur eru svöl, hitastig venjulega ĂĄ bilinu 10 °C til 15 °C og fer einstaka sinnum upp undir 20 °C. ĂĂł svo aĂ° Ășrkoma sĂ© ekki mjög mikil Ă ReykjavĂk mĂŠlist ĂŸĂł Ășrkoma aĂ° meĂ°altali 213 daga ĂĄ ĂĄri. Lengri ĂŸurrkatĂmar eru sjaldgĂŠfir. VoriĂ° er aĂ° öllu jöfnu sĂłlrĂkast og ĂŸĂĄ helst maĂmĂĄnuĂ°ur. Ărlegir sĂłlartĂmar mĂŠlast um 1.300 sem er sambĂŠrilegt viĂ° stĂłran hluta norĂ°urhluta EvrĂłpu. Hitamet Ă borginni var sett 30. jĂșlĂ 2008 og mĂŠldist hiti ĂŸĂĄ 25 7 °C.Kaldast var 21. janĂșar 1918 og mĂŠldist hiti ĂŸĂĄ -24,5 °C.
+
+VeĂ°uryfirlit
+
+StjĂłrnsĂœsla
+
+BorgarstjĂłrn
+
+Ă borgarstjĂłrn ReykjavĂkur sitja 23 fulltrĂșar sem kjörnir eru hlutfallskosningu ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra fresti. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1908 til dagsins Ă dag hafa 22 einstaklingar, ĂŸar af 18 karlmenn og fjĂłrar konur, setiĂ° sem borgarstjĂłrar ReykjavĂkur. SĂĂ°ast var kosiĂ° til borgarstjĂłrnar Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarkosningum 14. maĂ 2022. BorgarstjĂłrn kĂœs sĂ©r borgarstjĂłra, sem er framkvĂŠmdastjĂłri borgarinnar.
+
+SĂĂ°an 2014 hefur Dagur B. Eggertsson Ășr Samfylkingu veriĂ° borgarstjĂłri. Eftir kosningarnar 2022 mynduĂ°u Samfylkingin, FramsĂłknarflokkurinn, PĂratar og ViĂ°reisn meirihluta Ă borgarstjĂłrn. SamkvĂŠmt meirihlutasĂĄttmĂĄlanum mun Dagur B. Eggertsson sitja sem borgarstjĂłri til ĂĄrsloka 2023 en ĂŸĂĄ muni Einar Ăorsteinsson taka viĂ° sem borgarstjĂłri ĂŸaĂ° sem eftir lifir kjörtĂmabilsins.
+
+RĂĄĂ° og nefndir
+BorgarrĂĄĂ° er framkvĂŠmdastjĂłrn borgarinnar. Ăar sitja sjö borgarfulltrĂșar kosnir af borgarstjĂłrn og sjö til vara, ĂĄsamt borgarstjĂłra. Ănnur rĂĄĂ° borgarinnar skipuĂ° kjörnum fulltrĂșum (ĂĄriĂ° 2022) eru mannrĂ©ttinda- og ofbeldisvarnarrĂĄĂ°, menningar-, ĂĂŸrĂłtta- og tĂłmstundarĂĄĂ°, skĂłla- og frĂstundarĂĄĂ°, velferĂ°arrĂĄĂ°, umhverfis- og skipulagsrĂĄĂ° og stafrĂŠnt rĂĄĂ°.
+
+Meðan nefnda borgarinnar eru almannavarnanefnd, barnaverndarnefnd, fjölmenningarråð og öldungaråð.
+
+Borgin skipar fulltrĂșa Ă stjĂłrnir fyrirtĂŠkja sem eru Ă hennar eigu aĂ° hluta eĂ°a heild: BrĂș lĂfeyrissjóðs, FaxaflĂłahafna, Orkuveitu ReykjavĂkur, StrĂŠtĂł, Sorpu, SlökkviliĂ° HöfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°isins, Malbikunarstöðvarinnar HöfĂ°a, FĂ©lagsbĂșstaĂ°a og Betri samgangna.
+
+SviĂ°
+Starfsemi borgarinnar skiptist ĂĄ ĂĄtta fagsviĂ°; ĂĂŸrĂłtta- og tĂłmstundasviĂ°, skĂłla- og frĂstundasviĂ°, menningar- og ferĂ°amĂĄlasviĂ°, velferĂ°arsviĂ°, mannauĂ°s- og starfsumhverfissviĂ°, fjĂĄrmĂĄla- og ĂĄhĂŠttustĂœringarsviĂ° og ĂŸjĂłnustu- og nĂœsköpunarsviĂ°.
+
+Hverfaskipting
+
+SamkvĂŠmt samĂŸykkt borgarrĂĄĂ°s ReykjavĂkur frĂĄ jĂșnĂ 2003 skiptist ReykjavĂk Ă tĂu hverfi, hvert meĂ° sĂnu hverfisrĂĄĂ°i. Ăau eru (meĂ° tilheyrandi hverfahlutum):
+
+Samgöngur
+
+EinkabĂllinn er algengur samgöngumĂĄti Ă ReykjavĂk sem og leigubĂlar. StrĂŠtisvagnar StrĂŠtĂł bs. ganga um allan bĂŠinn og tengja Ășt fyrir borgarmörkin til Akraness, BorgarfjarĂ°ar, Akureyrar og vĂĂ°ar. Ă undanförnum ĂĄrum hafa fleiri og fleiri hjĂłlreiĂ°astĂgar veriĂ° lagĂ°ir til ĂŸess aĂ° gera hjĂłlreiĂ°ar aĂ° raunhĂŠfari samgöngumĂĄta. Oft hefur veriĂ° rĂŠtt um aĂ° koma upp skilvirkari almenningssamgöngum ĂĄ höfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°inu. MeĂ°al ĂŸess sem stungiĂ° hefur veriĂ° upp ĂĄ sĂĂ°ustu ĂĄr eru LĂ©ttlestakerfi höfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°isins og BorgarlĂna. Eitt af ĂŸvĂ sem stendur Ă vegi fyrir slĂkum ĂĄformum er hvaĂ° svĂŠĂ°iĂ° er Ă raun dreifbĂœlt.
+
+Helsti innanlandsflugvöllur Ăslands, ReykjavĂkurflugvöllur, er Ă VatnsmĂœri Ă ReykjavĂk. Skiptar skoĂ°anir eru um hvort fĂŠra eigi hann annaĂ°. Ăann 17. mars 2001 var haldin atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°sla meĂ°al borgarbĂșa ĂŸar sem naumur meirihluti var fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° flytja flugvöllinn burt. Hins vegar tĂłku aĂ°eins 37% ĂŸĂĄtt ĂŸannig aĂ° kosningin var ekki bindandi.
+
+Menning
+
+Söfn
+Ă ReykjavĂk eru flest söfn ĂĄ Ăslandi. Elsta listasafniĂ° er Listasafn Einars JĂłnssonar. Ă borginni er einnig aĂ° finna Listasafn Ăslands og Listasafn ReykjavĂkur sem hefur aĂ°stöðu bĂŠĂ°i Ă miĂ°bĂŠ ReykjavĂkur og viĂ° MiklatĂșn. Listasafn Ăsmundar Sveinssonar tilheyrir einnig Listasafni ReykjavĂkur. BorgarbĂłkasafn ReykjavĂkur er einnig aĂ° finna Ă miĂ°bĂŠnum og mörg ĂștibĂș eru Ă hverfum borgarinnar.
+
+Ăjóðminjasafn Ăslands er nĂŠrri miĂ°bĂŠnum viĂ° HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands. Borgarsögusafn rekur meĂ°al annars SjĂłminjasafniĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk og ĂrbĂŠjarsafn ĂŸar sem hĂŠgt er aĂ° skoĂ°a gömul hĂșs sem ĂŸangaĂ° hafa veriĂ° fĂŠrĂ° og torfbĂŠinn ĂrbĂŠ sem safniĂ° dregur nafn sitt af, en hann hefur veriĂ° ĂŸar frĂĄ upphafi. ReĂ°ursafniĂ° hefur veriĂ° vinsĂŠlt hjĂĄ ferĂ°amönnum.
+
+HĂĄtĂĂ°ir
+ListahĂĄtĂĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk er gamalgrĂłin hĂĄtĂĂ° sem rekja mĂĄ til 1970. Hinsegin dagar hafa veriĂ° haldnir Ă ĂĄgĂșst frĂĄ 1999. MenningarnĂłtt hefur veriĂ° frĂĄ aldamĂłtum 2000. JazzhĂĄtĂĂ° ReykjavĂkur ĂĄ rĂŠtur aĂ° rekja til NorrĂŠnna Ăștvarpsjazzdaga Ă maĂ 1990 og InnipĂșkinn hefur veriĂ° haldin um verslunarmannahelgi frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ ĂĄriĂ° 2001 (aĂ° undanskildum ĂĄrunum 2020 og 2021 ĂŸegar hĂĄtĂĂ°in var felld niĂ°ur vegna COVID-19). AĂ°rar tĂłnlistarhĂĄtĂĂ°ir eru t.d. Iceland Airwaves um haustiĂ°. HĂĄtĂĂ°ir Ă jĂșnĂ eru SjĂłmannadagurinn og 17. jĂșnĂ.
+
+SkipulagsmĂĄl
+Ă ReykjavĂk er Ă gildi aĂ°alskipulag fyrir tĂmabiliĂ° 2010-2030 sem samĂŸykkt var ĂĄriĂ° 2013. Vinna viĂ° endurskoĂ°un aĂ°alskipulagsins hĂłfst ĂĄriĂ° 2007 og hefur Haraldur SigurĂ°sson skipulagsfrĂŠĂ°ingur haft umsjĂłn meĂ° endurskoĂ°un og breytingum aĂ°alskipulagsins. SviĂ°sstjĂłri Umhverfis- og skipulagssviĂ°s viĂ° endurskoĂ°un var Ălöf ĂrvarsdĂłttir. FormaĂ°ur umhverfis- og skipulagsrĂĄĂ°s viĂ° samĂŸykkt ĂĄĂŠtlunarinnar var PĂĄll Hjaltason arkitekt og fullltrĂși Besta flokksins Ă BorgarstjĂłrn. AĂ°alskipulag ReykjavĂkur 2010-2030 (AR 2010-30) markaĂ°i breytingar ĂĄ ĂĄherslum Ă skipulagi borgarinnar meĂ° aukinni ĂĄherslu ĂĄ ĂŸĂ©ttingu byggĂ°ar Ă staĂ° uppbyggingar nĂœrra hverfa utan marka byggĂ°ar.
+
+Systraborgir/VinabĂŠir
+ReykjavĂk viĂ°heldur vinabĂŠjatengslum viĂ° eftirfarandi borgir:
+
+ BakĂș, AserbaĂsjan
+ Karakas, VenesĂșela
+ Kaupmannahöfn, Danmörku
+ Helsinki, Finnlandi
+ Kingston upon Hull, Bretlandi
+ La Paz, BĂłlivĂu
+ MexĂkĂłborg, MexĂkĂł
+ LvĂv, ĂkraĂnu
+ Nuuk, GrĂŠnlandi
+ ĂslĂł, Noregi
+ Seattle, BandarĂkjunum (frĂĄ 1986)
+ StokkhĂłlm, SvĂĂŸjóð
+ Strumitsa, NorĂ°ur-MakedĂłnĂa
+ ĂĂłrshöfn, FĂŠreyjum
+ VilnĂus, LithĂĄen
+ Winnipeg, Kanada
+ WrocĆaw, PĂłllandi
+ Zevenaar, Hollandi
+
+Ă jĂșlĂ ĂĄriĂ° 2013 lagĂ°i JĂłn Gnarr borgarstjĂłri til aĂ° samstarfssamningur ReykjavĂkur og Moskvu yrĂ°i endurskoĂ°aĂ°ur vegna lagasetninga sem beindust gegn mĂĄlÂefnÂum samÂkynÂhneigĂ°ra, tvĂÂkynÂhneigĂ°ra og transÂfĂłlks Ă RĂșsslandi. LvĂv Ă ĂkraĂnu kom Ă staĂ° Moskvu ĂĄriĂ° 2023.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+
+ Reykjavik.is, opinber vefur ReykjavĂkurborgar
+ Saga ReykjavĂkur ĂĄ vef ĂrbĂŠjarsafnsins
+ ReykjavĂk - LjĂłsmyndavefur islandsmynda.is
+ LjĂłsmyndablogg af ReykjavĂk
+ UpplĂœsingavefur fyrir ferĂ°amenn ĂĄ leiĂ° til ReykjavĂkur
+ AlfrĂŠĂ°i ReykjavĂkur; SkrĂĄ um reykvĂsk fyrirbĂŠri Ă stafrĂłfsröð
+ ReykjavĂk - upphaf höfuĂ°staĂ°ar; LĂœĂ°ur Björnsson, SkĂrnir janĂșar 1979, bls. 42â63.
+
+Skipulag ReykjavĂkur
+ ĂĂĄttaskil Ă byggingarsögu ReykjavĂkur; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1959
+ Skipulag ReykjavĂkur fyrr og sĂĂ°ar; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1966
+ LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins; um ReykjavĂk og skipulag hennar; 1966
+ FramtĂĂ°arsĂœn; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1999
+ ReykjavĂk ĂĄriĂ° 2000; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1978
+ Skipulag à eina öld; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1997
+ ĂyrnirĂłsasvefn Ă heila öld; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1982
+ VerĂ°ur gamla ReykjavĂk reist ĂĄ eiĂ°inu Ă ViĂ°ey; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1980
+ Hverfi ReykjavĂkur; 1. grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1929
+ Hverfi ReykjavĂkur; 2. grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1929
+ Byggingarnefnd ReykjavĂkur 100 ĂĄra; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1940
+ VanĂŸrĂłunarsvipurinn ĂĄ MiĂ°bĂŠ ReykjavĂkur; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1981
+
+
+AĂ°setur sĂœslumanna ĂĄ Ăslandi
+ĂĂ©ttbĂœlisstaĂ°ir Ăslands
+Höfuðborgir
+VeĂ°urathugunarstöðvar ĂĄ Ăslandi
+Ărnefni Ă ReykjavĂk
+LandafrĂŠĂ°i ReykjavĂkur
+SvĂĂŸjóð (sĂŠnska: Sverige), formlegt heiti KonungsrĂkiĂ° SvĂĂŸjóð (sĂŠnska: Konungariket Sverige), er land Ă NorĂ°ur-EvrĂłpu og eitt NorĂ°urlandanna. LandamĂŠri liggja aĂ° Noregi til vesturs og Finnlandi til norĂ°austurs. LandiĂ° tengist Danmörku meĂ° EyrarsundsbrĂșnni yfir EystrasaltiĂ° til austurs. SvĂĂŸjóð er fjölmennast NorĂ°urlanda meĂ° 10 milljĂłnir ĂbĂșa en er ĂŸĂł frekar strjĂĄlbĂœlt. Langflestir ĂbĂșanna bĂșa Ă suĂ°urhluta landsins.
+
+HöfuĂ°borg SvĂĂŸjóðar er StokkhĂłlmur. AĂ°rar stĂŠrri borgir landsins eru: Gautaborg, MĂĄlmey, Uppsalir, Linköping, VĂ€sterĂ„s, Ărebro, Karlstad, Norrköping, Helsingjaborg, Jönköping, GĂ€vle, Sundsvall og UmeĂ„.
+
+BarrskĂłgar landsins eru nĂœttir Ă timbur- og pappĂrsgerĂ°. Ă norĂ°urhluta landsins er mikil nĂĄmuvinnsla; einkum er ĂŸar unninn jĂĄrnmĂĄlmur en ĂŸar er einnig aĂ° finna Ăœmsa aĂ°ra mĂĄlma. AĂ°aliĂ°naĂ°arsvĂŠĂ°iĂ° er um mitt landiĂ° en landbĂșnaĂ°ur einkennir mjög suĂ°urhlutann.
+
+Saga
+Fornleifar sĂœna aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° landsvĂŠĂ°i sem nĂș er SvĂĂŸjóð byggĂ°ist ĂŸegar ĂĄ steinöld. Eftir ĂŸvĂ sem Ăsaldarjökullinn hopaĂ°i fylgdu hĂłpar veiĂ°imanna og safnara sem fluttu sig lengra norĂ°ur meĂ°fram strönd Eystrasaltsins.
+
+FornleifafrĂŠĂ°ingar hafa grafiĂ° upp marga stĂłra verslunarstaĂ°i sem styrkja ĂŸĂĄ kenningu aĂ° landsvĂŠĂ°iĂ° hafi veriĂ° fullbyggt ĂŸegar ĂĄ bronsöld.
+
+Ă nĂundu og tĂundu öld stóð vĂkingamenning ĂĄ stĂłrum hluta ĂŸess svĂŠĂ°is sem nĂș er SvĂĂŸjóð. Einkum hĂ©ldu sĂŠnskir vĂkingar Ă austurveg til Eystrasaltslandanna, RĂșsslands og allt suĂ°ur til Svartahafs. SĂŠnskumĂŠlandi ĂbĂșar settust aĂ° Ă suĂ°urhluta Finnlands og einnig Ă Eistlandi. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma tĂłk einnig sĂŠnskt rĂki aĂ° myndast meĂ° ĂŸungamiĂ°ju Ă Uppsölum og nĂĄĂ°i ĂŸaĂ° allt suĂ°ur aĂ° SkĂĄni, sem ĂŸĂĄ var hluti Danmerkur.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1389 sameinuĂ°ust Danmörk, Noregur og SvĂĂŸjóð undir einum konungi. KalmarsambandiĂ° var ekki pĂłlitĂskt sambandsrĂki heldur konungssamband. Meirihluta 15. aldar reyndi SvĂĂŸjóð aĂ° hamla ĂŸeirri miĂ°stĂœringu sem Danir vildu koma ĂĄ Ă sambandinu undir dönskum kĂłngi. SvĂĂŸjóð sagĂ°i sig Ășr Kalmarsambandinu 1523 ĂŸegar GĂșstaf EirĂksson Vasa, sĂĂ°ar ĂŸekktur sem GĂșstaf I, endurreisti sĂŠnska konungdĂŠmiĂ°.
+
+Ă 17. öld varĂ° SvĂĂŸjóð eitt helsta stĂłrveldi EvrĂłpu eftir mikla sigra Ă ĂrjĂĄtĂu ĂĄra strĂĂ°inu. Ăegar ĂĄ leiĂ° 18. öld hvarf ĂŸessi staĂ°a ĂŸegar RĂșssland vann ĂĄ Ă barĂĄttunni um völdin viĂ° Eystrasalt.
+
+Saga SvĂĂŸjóðar sĂĂ°ustu aldirnar heftur einkennst af friĂ°i. SĂĂ°asta stĂłra styrjöldin sem SvĂĂŸjóð tĂłk ĂŸĂĄtt Ă var viĂ° RĂșssland 1809 ĂŸegar Finnland var innlimaĂ° Ă RĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmiĂ°. MinnihĂĄttar skĂŠrur urĂ°u ĂŸĂł viĂ° Noreg 1814. ĂĂŠr enduĂ°u meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° sĂŠnski krĂłnprinsinn samĂŸykkti norsku stjĂłrnaskrĂĄna 17. maĂ sama ĂĄr og meĂ° ĂŸvĂ gengu Noregur og SvĂĂŸjóð Ă konungssamband. Ăegar norska stĂłrĂŸingiĂ° samĂŸykkti upplausn ĂŸessa sambands 1905 lĂĄ viĂ° strĂĂ°i en ĂŸaĂ° tĂłkst aĂ° koma Ă veg fyrir ĂŸaĂ° og ĂŸess Ă staĂ° enduĂ°u deilurnar meĂ° samningum.
+
+SvĂĂŸjóð lĂœsti yfir hlutleysi Ă bĂĄĂ°um heimsstyrjöldunum og hefur allt sĂĂ°an haldiĂ° fast viĂ° ĂŸĂĄ stefnu aĂ° standa utan hernaĂ°arbandalaga Ă ĂŸvĂ augnmiĂ°i aĂ° halda sig utan viĂ° vĂŠntanlegar styrjaldir.
+
+LandfrĂŠĂ°i
+SvĂĂŸjóð liggur aĂ° JĂłtlandshafi, Noregi, Finnlandi og Eystrasalti. Lengsta lengd ĂŸess frĂĄ norĂ°ri til suĂ°urs er 1.572 km og frĂĄ austri til vesturs 499 km. Um ĂŸaĂ° bil 221.800 eyjar tilheyra SvĂĂŸjóð. ĂĂŠr stĂŠrstu eru Gotland og Eyland sem bĂĄĂ°ar eru Ă Eystrasaltinu.
+
+Meirihluti SvĂĂŸjóðar er flatur og hĂŠĂ°Ăłttur, en SkandinavĂufjöllin rĂsa Ă yfir 2.000 m hĂŠĂ° viĂ° landamĂŠrin aĂ° Noregi. HĂŠsti hnjĂșkurinn er Kebnekaise sem er 2.111 m yfir sjĂĄvarmĂĄli. 28 ĂŸjóðgarĂ°ar eru dreifĂ°ir um landiĂ°. Ăeir stĂŠrstu eru Ă norĂ°vesturhluta landsins.
+
+SuĂ°ur- og MiĂ°-SvĂĂŸjóð (Gautland og Svealand) nĂĄ aĂ°eins yfir tvo fimmtu hluta landsins en NorĂ°ur-SvĂĂŸjóð (Norrland) nĂŠr yfir ĂŸrjĂĄ fimmtu hluta landsins. SyĂ°sti oddur landsins er hĂ©raĂ°iĂ° SkĂĄnn. HĂ©ruĂ° Ă SvĂĂŸjóð eru 25.
+
+Gróður og dĂœralĂf
+Um helmingur landsins er skĂłgi vaxinn (aĂ°allega greni og furu). Ă suĂ°urhluta landsins eru einnig eikarâ og beykiskĂłgar.
+
+Alls eru 65 tegundir landspendĂœra Ă SvĂĂŸjóð og er engin ĂŸeirra einlend Ă landinu. Af spendĂœrategundum mĂĄ nefna elg, rĂĄdĂœr, rauĂ°hjört, Ăœmsar tegundir nagdĂœra svo sem rauĂ°Ăkorna, mĂœs, lĂŠmingja og bifur, kanĂnur og hĂ©ra.
+
+ĂrjĂĄr tegundir spendĂœra eru taldar Ă mikilli ĂștrĂœmingarhĂŠttu Ă landinu. TvĂŠr ĂŸessara tegunda eru leĂ°urblökur og ĂŸriĂ°ja tegundin Ă mikilli ĂștrĂœmingarhĂŠttu er Ășlfurinn.
+TĂŠplega 260 tegundir fugla verpa aĂ° staĂ°aldri Ă SvĂĂŸjóð.
+Alls hafa fundist sjö tegundir skriĂ°dĂœra Ă SvĂĂŸjóð, ĂŸar af ĂŸrjĂĄr tegundir snĂĄka. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir kalda veĂ°rĂĄttu hluta ĂĄrs eru 13 tegundir froskdĂœra Ă SvĂĂŸjóð.
+
+StjĂłrnmĂĄl
+SvĂĂŸjóð hefur veriĂ° konungdĂŠmi Ă hĂĄtt Ă ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr. Konungur hefur stĂŠrstan hluta ĂŸessa tĂma deilt löggjöf meĂ° ĂŸinginu (ĂĄ sĂŠnsku: Riksdag). ĂingiĂ° hefur hins vegar haft mismikil völd gegnum tĂĂ°ina. FrĂĄ endurreisn konungdĂŠmisins 1523 var lagasetningu og stjĂłrn rĂkisins skipt milli konungs og stĂ©ttarĂŸings aĂ°alsmanna. ĂriĂ° 1680 gerĂ°ist sĂŠnski konungurinn hins vegar einvaldur.
+
+Eftir tap SvĂa Ă NorĂ°urlandaĂłfriĂ°inum mikla hĂłfst ĂŸaĂ° sem nefnt er frelsistĂminn frĂĄ 1719. Honum fylgdu ĂŸrjĂĄr stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingar, 1772, 1789 og 1809, sem allar styrktu vald borgara gagnvart konungi. ĂingrĂŠĂ°i var komiĂ° ĂĄ 1917 ĂŸegar GĂșstaf 5. sĂŠtti sig viĂ° aĂ° skipa rĂkisstjĂłrn Ă samrĂŠmi viĂ° valdahlutföll ĂĄ ĂŸingi, eftir langa barĂĄttu. Almennum kosningarĂ©tti var komiĂ° ĂĄ 1918 â 1921. MeĂ° nĂœrri stjĂłrnaskrĂĄ 1975 var allt vald konungs afnumiĂ°. TĂĄknrĂŠnu embĂŠtti konungs var haldiĂ° en ĂĄn nokkurs valds.
+
+Ă upphafi 20. aldar mĂłtaĂ°ist ĂŸaĂ° flokkakerfi sem aĂ° miklu leyti hefur einkennt sĂŠnsk stjĂłrnmĂĄl sĂĂ°an. SĂŠnski jafnaĂ°armannaflokkurinn hefur veriĂ° langstĂŠrsti stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkurinn allar götur frĂĄ öðrum ĂĄratug 20. aldar og hefur setiĂ° Ă stjĂłrn meira og minna samfleytt Ă yfir sjötĂu ĂĄr. Ă ĂŸingi sitja nĂș fulltrĂșar sjö flokka sem skiptast Ă tvĂŠr fylkingar, vinstri og hĂŠgri. Til vinstrifylkingarinnar teljast sĂŠnski jafnaĂ°armannaflokkurinn (Socialdemokraterna), sĂŠnski vinstriflokkurinn (VĂ€nsterpartiet), sĂŠnski umhverfisflokkurinn (Miljöpartiet). Til hĂŠgrifylkingarinnar teljast sĂŠnski hĂŠgriflokkurinn (Moderaterna), sĂŠnski ĂŸjóðarflokkurinn (Folkpartiet) (frjĂĄlslyndur miĂ°juflokkur), sĂŠnski miĂ°flokkurinn (Centerpartiet) og kristilegir demĂłkratar (Kristdemokraterna) og sĂĂ°an SvĂĂŸjóðardemĂłkratar (Sverigedemokraterna) lengst til hĂŠgri.
+
+StjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar
+
+EfnahagslĂf
+
+SvĂĂŸjóð er tĂłlfta rĂkasta land heims mĂŠlt Ă vergri landsframleiĂ°slu ĂĄ mann og ĂbĂșar bĂșa viĂ° mikil lĂfsgĂŠĂ°i. SvĂĂŸjóð er meĂ° blandaĂ° hagkerfi. Helstu auĂ°lindir landsins eru timbur, vatnsafl og jĂĄrngrĂœti. Hagkerfi landsins leggur mikla ĂĄherslu ĂĄ Ăștflutning og alĂŸjóðaviĂ°skipti. VerkfrĂŠĂ°igeirinn stendur undir helmingi af Ăștflutningi, en fjarskiptageirinn, bĂlaiĂ°naĂ°ur og lyfjafyrirtĂŠki eru lĂka mikilvĂŠg. SvĂĂŸjóð er nĂundi stĂŠrsti vopnaframleiĂ°andi heims. LandbĂșnaĂ°ur stendur undir 2% af landsframleiĂ°slu og atvinnu. LandiĂ° er meĂ° eina mestu ĂștbreiĂ°slu farsĂmaĂŸjĂłnustu og Internets Ă heimi.
+
+Samningar verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©laga nĂĄ yfir hĂĄtt hlutfall launĂŸega Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. Ăessi mikla ĂștbreiĂ°sla samninga hefur nĂĄĂ°st ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir skort ĂĄ löggjöf og endurspeglar styrk verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©laga ĂĄ sĂŠnskum vinnumarkaĂ°i. Ăegar Ghent-kerfinu Ă SvĂĂŸjóð var breytt ĂĄriĂ° 2007, sem leiddi til hĂŠrri greiĂ°slna Ă atvinnuleysissjóði, drĂł Ășr aĂ°ild aĂ° verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lögum.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2010 var Gini-stuĂ°ull SvĂĂŸjóðar sĂĄ ĂŸriĂ°ji lĂŠgsti meĂ°al ĂŸrĂłaĂ°ra rĂkja. Hann var ĂŸĂĄ 0,25, eilĂtiĂ° hĂŠrri en Ă Japan og Danmörku, sem bendir til mikils tekjujöfnuĂ°ar. EignaĂłjöfnuĂ°ur var hins vegar sĂĄ annar hĂŠsti Ă ĂŸrĂłuĂ°u rĂki, og yfir meĂ°altali EvrĂłpu og NorĂ°ur-AmerĂku, sem bendir til lĂtils eignajöfnuĂ°ar. Gini-stuĂ°ullinn er mjög ĂłlĂkur innan ĂłlĂkra hĂ©raĂ°a og sveitarfĂ©laga Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. Daneryd, utan viĂ° StokkhĂłlm, hefur hĂŠsta Gini-stuĂ°ul SvĂĂŸjóðar, eĂ°a 0,55, meĂ°an Hofors viĂ° GĂ€vle er meĂ° ĂŸann lĂŠgsta, eĂ°a 0,25. Ă kringum StokkhĂłlm og SkĂĄn, tvö ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlustu svĂŠĂ°i SvĂĂŸjóðar, er Gini-stuĂ°ull tekna ĂĄ milli 0,35 og 0,55.
+
+SĂŠnska hagkerfiĂ° einkennist af stĂłrum, ĂŸekkingarfrekum og ĂștflutningshneigĂ°um iĂ°naĂ°i; stĂŠkkandi en tiltölulega litlum viĂ°skiptaĂŸjĂłnustugeira, og hlutfallslega stĂłrum opinberum ĂŸjĂłnustugeira. StĂłrfyrirtĂŠki, sĂ©rstaklega Ă iĂ°naĂ°i og ĂŸjĂłnustu, einkenna efnahagslĂf SvĂĂŸjóðar. HĂĄtĂŠkni- og meĂ°alhĂĄtĂŠkniiĂ°naĂ°ur stendur undir 9,9% af landsframleiĂ°slu.
+
+20 stĂŠrstu fyrirtĂŠki SvĂĂŸjóðar miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° veltu ĂĄriĂ° 2007 voru Volvo, Ericsson, Vattenfall, Skanska, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB, Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget, Electrolux, Volvo Personvagnar, TeliaSonera, Sandvik, Scania, ICA, Hennes & Mauritz, IKEA, Nordea, Preem, Atlas Copco, Securitas, Nordstjernan og SKF. Mikill meirihluti sĂŠnskra iĂ°nfyrirtĂŠkja er Ă einkaeigu, ĂłlĂkt mörgum iĂ°nvĂŠddum vestrĂŠnum rĂkjum.
+
+TaliĂ° er aĂ° 4,5 milljĂłnir SvĂa sĂ©u ĂĄ vinnumarkaĂ°i og um ĂŸriĂ°jungur vinnandi fĂłlks hefur lokiĂ° hĂĄskĂłlaprĂłfi. LandsframleiĂ°sla ĂĄ vinnustund var sĂș nĂunda hĂŠsta Ă heimi Ă SvĂĂŸjóð ĂĄriĂ° 2006, eĂ°a 31 dalur, miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° 22 dali ĂĄ SpĂĄni og 35 dali Ă BandarĂkjunum. LandsframleiĂ°sla ĂĄ vinnustund vex um 2,5% ĂĄ ĂĄri à öllu hagkerfinu og viĂ°skiptajafnaĂ°ur framleiĂ°nivöxtur er 2%. SamkvĂŠmt OECD hefur afnĂĄm regluverks, hnattvĂŠĂ°ing og vöxtur tĂŠknigeirans veriĂ° helstu drifkraftar aukinnar framleiĂ°ni. SvĂĂŸjóð stendur fremst allra landa hvaĂ° varĂ°ar einkarekna lĂfeyrissjóði og vandamĂĄl viĂ° fjĂĄrmögnun lĂfeyris eru tiltölulega lĂtil miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° mörg Vestur-EvrĂłpurĂki. ĂriĂ° 2014 var ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° aĂ° prĂłfa sex tĂma vinnudag Ă SvĂĂŸjóð ĂĄ Ăłbreyttum launum, meĂ° ĂŸĂĄtttöku starfsfĂłlks sveitarfĂ©lagsins Gautaborgar. MeĂ° ĂŸessu leitast sĂŠnska rĂkiĂ° viĂ° aĂ° draga Ășr kostnaĂ°i vegna veikindaleyfa og auka afkastagetu.
+
+Ăegar skattafleygurinn hefur veriĂ° dregiĂ° frĂĄ heldur dĂŠmigerĂ°ur sĂŠnskur verkamaĂ°ur eftir 40% af launum sĂnum. Skattar sem hlutfall af vergri landsframleiĂ°slu nĂĄĂ°u hĂĄmarki, 52,3%, ĂĄriĂ° 1990. Sem liĂ°ur Ă aĂ° takast ĂĄ viĂ° fasteigna- og bankakreppu ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄr rĂ©Ă°ist rĂkisstjĂłrnin Ă umbĂŠtur ĂĄ skattkerfinu, lĂŠkkaĂ°i skattahlutfall og vĂkkaĂ°i Ășt skattheimtuna. FrĂĄ 1990 hefur skattahlutfalliĂ° lĂŠkkaĂ° miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° landsframleiĂ°slu og skattahlutfall fĂłlks meĂ° mestar tekjur hefur lĂŠkkaĂ° mest. ĂriĂ° 2010 voru skattar 45,8% af vergri landsframleiĂ°slu, sem var annaĂ° hĂŠsta hlutfalliĂ° innan OECD, og nĂŠstum tvöfalt hĂŠrra hlutfall en Ă SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu. ĂriĂ°jungur vinnandi fĂłlks Ă SvĂĂŸjóð er Ă störfum sem fjĂĄrmögnuĂ° eru meĂ° sköttum, sem er umtalsvert hĂŠrra hlutfall en à öðrum löndum. SĂĂ°an umbĂŠturnar voru gerĂ°ar hefur hagvöxtur veriĂ° mikill, sĂ©rstaklega Ă iĂ°naĂ°i.
+
+SamkvĂŠmt World Economic Forum var SvĂĂŸjóð meĂ° fjĂłrĂ°a samkeppnishĂŠfasta hagkerfi heims 2012-2013. SvĂĂŸjóð var Ă efsta sĂŠti Global Green Economy Index (GGEI) ĂĄriĂ° 2014 og Ă 4. sĂŠti ĂĄ lista IMD-viĂ°skiptaskĂłlans yfir lönd eftir samkeppnishĂŠfni 2013. SamkvĂŠmt bĂłkinni The Flight of the Creative Class eftir bandarĂska hagfrĂŠĂ°inginn Richard Florida, er taliĂ° aĂ° SvĂĂŸjóð bĂși yfir bestu aĂ°stĂŠĂ°um heims fyrir skapandi greinar og muni virka sem segull fyrir einbeitt starfsfĂłlk. Röðun bĂłkarinnar byggist ĂĄ ĂŸĂĄttum eins og hĂŠfileikum, tĂŠkni og umburĂ°arlyndi.
+
+SvĂĂŸjóð er meĂ° sinn eigin gjaldmiĂ°il, sĂŠnska krĂłnu (SEK), eftir aĂ° SvĂar höfnuĂ°u upptöku evru Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu. SeĂ°labanki SvĂĂŸjóðar var stofnaĂ°ur ĂĄriĂ° 1668 og er ĂŸvĂ elsti seĂ°labanki heims. Bankinn leggur ĂĄherslu ĂĄ verĂ°stöðugleika meĂ° 2% verĂ°bĂłlgumarkmiĂ°. SamkvĂŠmt könnun OECD frĂĄ 2007 hefur meĂ°alverĂ°bĂłlga Ă SvĂĂŸjóð veriĂ° meĂ° ĂŸvĂ lĂŠgsta sem gerist meĂ°al EvrĂłpurĂkja frĂĄ miĂ°jum 10. ĂĄratug 20. aldar, aĂ°allega vegna afnĂĄms regluverks og snöggra viĂ°bragĂ°a viĂ° hnattvĂŠĂ°ingu.
+
+Helstu viĂ°skiptalönd SvĂĂŸjóðar eru ĂĂœskaland, BandarĂkin, Noregur, Bretland, Danmörk og Finnland.
+
+AfnĂĄm regluverks ĂĄ 9. ĂĄratugnum hafĂ°i neikvĂŠĂ° ĂĄhrif ĂĄ fasteignamarkaĂ°inn, leiddi til eignabĂłlu og hruns snemma ĂĄ 10. ĂĄratugnum. FasteignaverĂ° lĂŠkkaĂ°i um 2/3 sem varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° sĂŠnska rĂkisstjĂłrnin varĂ° aĂ° taka yfir tvo sĂŠnska banka. Ă nĂŠstu tveimur ĂĄratugum styrktist fasteignamarkaĂ°urinn. ĂriĂ° 2014 vöruĂ°u hagfrĂŠĂ°ingar og AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðurinn viĂ° ört hĂŠkkandi fasteignaverĂ°i og versnandi skuldastöðu heimilanna. Hlutfall skulda af tekjum Ăłx um 170%. AGS mĂŠlti meĂ° umbĂłtum Ă byggĂ°askipulagi og öðrum leiĂ°um til aĂ° auka framboĂ° ĂĄ hĂșsnĂŠĂ°i, ĂŸar sem eftirspurnin var meiri sem ĂŸrĂœsti upp fasteignaverĂ°i. Ă ĂĄgĂșst 2014 voru 40% fasteignalĂĄna vaxtalĂĄn, en önnur lĂĄn greiddu ĂŸaĂ° lĂtiĂ° af höfuĂ°stĂłlnum aĂ° full greiĂ°sla hefĂ°i tekiĂ° meira en 100 ĂĄr.
+
+ĂbĂșar
+
+TrĂșarbrögĂ°
+SĂŠnska kirkjan er fjölmennasta trĂșfĂ©lagiĂ° en hĂșn var ĂŸjóðkirkja til ĂĄrsins 2000. 52.8% SvĂa eru meĂ°limir hennar. ĂĂł sĂŠkja aĂ°eins um 2% kirkju reglulega. Um 5% eru mĂșslimar og 2% kaĂŸĂłlskir. Ă SvĂĂŸjóð er fjöldi trĂșlausra.
+
+Menning
+
+Margir SvĂar lĂta svo ĂĄ aĂ° tengsl viĂ° nĂĄttĂșruna og ĂĄhugi ĂĄ Ăștivist sĂ© eitt af helstu einkennum sĂŠnskrar menningar. SĂ©rstök sĂŠnsk menning ĂŸrĂłaĂ°ist ĂĄ 19. öld Ășt frĂĄ ĂłlĂkri menningu landshluta og ĂŸjóðflokka, sem sumir hverjir höfĂ°u aĂ°eins tilheyrt SvĂĂŸjóð um stutt skeiĂ° og höfĂ°u sĂnar eigin mĂĄllĂœskur og alĂŸĂœĂ°uhefĂ°ir. Sumar af ĂŸessum staĂ°bundnu hefĂ°um voru teknar upp sem sĂŠnsk ĂŸjóðmenning, eins og Dalahestar, skĂĂ°aĂĂŸrĂłttin og bĂĄlkestir ĂĄ Valborgarmessu. Dalarna hafa lengi veriĂ° ĂĄlitnir kjarnasvĂŠĂ°i sĂŠnskra alĂŸĂœĂ°uhefĂ°a.
+
+SĂŠnsk menning hefur veriĂ° ĂŸekkt fyrir ĂĄherslu ĂĄ jafnrĂ©tti og jöfnuĂ° (meĂ°al annars Ă gegnum Jantelögin og arfbĂłtastefnu ĂĄ 20. öld), sterka hefĂ° fyrir borgararĂ©ttindum og frjĂĄlslyndi Ă hjĂșskaparmĂĄlum. SĂŠnska ĂŸjóðarheimiliĂ° var einkenni ĂĄ stefnu sĂłsĂaldemĂłkrata Ă velferĂ°armĂĄlum lengst af ĂĄ 20. öld, undir ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ kenningum hagfrĂŠĂ°ingsins Gunnar Myrdal, ĂŸar sem allir nytu aĂ°stoĂ°ar og umhyggju, ĂłhĂĄĂ° efnahag eĂ°a uppruna. SamkvĂŠmt hugmyndinni um ĂŸjóðarheimiliĂ° ĂĄtti rĂkiĂ° aĂ° tryggja öllum ĂbĂșum sambĂŠrileg grunnlĂfsgĂŠĂ°i meĂ° gjaldfrjĂĄlsri menntun og heilsugĂŠslu. Hugmyndinni um ĂŸjóðarheimiliĂ° var stillt upp sem âĂŸriĂ°ju leiĂ°â milli kommĂșnisma og kapĂtalisma.
+
+Ă 7. ĂĄratugnum reyndi SvĂĂŸjóð aĂ° seilast til ĂĄhrifa ĂĄ alĂŸjóðavettvangi Ășt frĂĄ hugmyndinni um âsiĂ°ferĂ°ilega risaveldiĂ°â. SĂŠnsk stjĂłrnvöld reyndu aĂ° miĂ°la mĂĄlum Ă Ăœmsum deilumĂĄlum risaveldanna ĂĄ tĂmum kalda strĂĂ°sins og kynntu landiĂ° sem hlutlausan vettvang fyrir rĂĄĂ°stefnur alĂŸjóðastofnana. Ă sama tĂma var SvĂĂŸjóð leiĂ°andi Ă kynlĂfsbyltingunni og sĂŠnskar kvikmyndir sem fjölluĂ°u um kynlĂf ĂĄ opinskĂĄan hĂĄtt, eins og Forvitin gul, vöktu athygli um allan heim. GagnrĂœnendur uppnefndu ĂŸessi viĂ°horf âsĂŠnsku syndinaâ. FrjĂĄlslynd viĂ°horf til samkynhneigĂ°ar hafa lĂka veriĂ° talin einkenna sĂŠnskt samfĂ©lag.
+
+SvĂĂŸjóð hefur lengi veriĂ° stĂłrveldi Ă vĂsnasöng og dĂŠgurtĂłnlist. Lög Carl Michael Bellman nĂĄĂ°u miklum vinsĂŠldum um öll NorĂ°urlönd ĂĄ 18. og 19. öld, og sĂŠnski Ăłperusöngvarinn Jussi Björling slĂł Ă gegn ĂĄ alĂŸjóðavĂsu ĂĄ millistrĂĂ°sĂĄrunum. SvĂĂŸjóð varĂ° stĂłrveldi Ă alĂŸjóðlegri dĂŠgurtĂłnlist eftir aĂ° hljĂłmsveitin ABBA nĂĄĂ°i heimsfrĂŠgĂ° ĂĄ 8. ĂĄratug 20. aldar. SĂĂ°an ĂŸĂĄ hafa SvĂar ĂĄtt marga frĂŠga lagahöfunda, danshöfunda, leikstjĂłra tĂłnlistarmyndbanda og tĂłnlistarframleiĂ°endur.
+
+FrĂŠgir sĂŠnskir rithöfundar eru meĂ°al annars Astrid Lindgren, Selma Lagerlöf og leikskĂĄldiĂ° August Strindberg. Ăekktasti kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri SvĂĂŸjóðar er Ingmar Bergman. Leikkonurnar Greta Garbo og Ingrid Bergman eru ĂŸekktustu leikarar SvĂĂŸjóðar. MĂĄlarinn Anders Zorn nĂĄĂ°i alĂŸjóðlegri frĂŠgĂ° undir lok 19. aldar og Carl Larsson ĂĄtti ĂŸĂĄtt Ă aĂ° skapa Ămynd sĂŠnskrar alĂŸĂœĂ°umenningar Ă verkum sĂnum. MeĂ°al ĂŸekktra sĂŠnskra vĂsindamanna eru Carl Linneus, Jöns Jacob Berzelius, Anders Celsius, Eva Ekeblad, Alfred Nobel, Ulf von Euler og Harry Nyquist.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+ StaĂ°reyndir um SvĂĂŸjóð
+
+Evrópulönd
+Evrópusambandslönd
+Norðurlönd
+Danmörk (danska: Danmark; ) er land Ă EvrĂłpu sem ĂĄsamt GrĂŠnlandi og FĂŠreyjum myndar KonungsrĂkiĂ° Danmörk.
+
+Danmörk samanstendur af JĂłtlandsskaga og 443 eyjum en af ĂŸeim eru 72 (2007) byggĂ°ar. LandiĂ° liggur aĂ° sjĂł aĂ° vestan, norĂ°an og austan. AĂ° vestan er NorĂ°ursjĂłr, Skagerrak og Kattegat aĂ° norĂ°vestan og norĂ°austan og Eystrasalt aĂ° austan, en aĂ° sunnan ĂĄ Danmörk landamĂŠri aĂ° ĂĂœskalandi viĂ° suĂ°urenda JĂłtlands. JĂłtland er skagi sem gengur til norĂ°urs Ășt Ășr EvrĂłpuskaganum. ĂaĂ° er stĂŠrsti hluti Danmerkur. Auk JĂłtlandsskagans er mikill fjöldi byggĂ°ra eyja sem eru Ă Eystrasalti. StĂŠrstar eru SjĂĄland og FjĂłn. Helstu borgir eru Kaupmannahöfn ĂĄ SjĂĄlandi; ĂĂ°insvĂ© ĂĄ FjĂłni; ĂrĂłsar, Ălaborg, Esbjerg, Randers, Kolding, Horsens og Vejle ĂĄ JĂłtlandi.
+
+Danmörk var ĂĄĂ°ur mun vĂĂ°ĂĄttumeira rĂki en ĂŸaĂ° er Ă dag. BĂŠĂ°i ĂĄtti ĂŸaĂ° miklar lendur austan Eyrarsunds, SkĂĄn, Halland og Blekinge og einnig bĂŠĂ°i hĂ©ruĂ°in SlĂ©svĂk og Holtsetaland og nĂĄĂ°u landamĂŠrin suĂ°ur fyrir Hamborg ĂŸegar veldiĂ° var sem mest. Danska konungsĂŠttin er elsta rĂkjandi konungsĂŠtt Ă heimi. Ă nĂtjĂĄndu öld gekk Noregur Ășr konungssambandi viĂ° Danmörku og var ĂŸĂĄ um tĂma undir sĂŠnska konunginum. Ă 20. öld fĂ©kk svo Ăsland sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ Dönum, en FĂŠreyjar og GrĂŠnland eru enn Ă konungssambandi viĂ° Danmörku ĂŸĂł aĂ° bĂŠĂ°i löndin hafi fengiĂ° heimastjĂłrn.
+
+Heiti
+
+MikiĂ° er deilt um orĂ°sifjar âDanmerkurâ, sambandiĂ° milli Dana og Danmerkur og sameiningu Danmerkur Ă eina ĂŸjóð. Deilurnar snĂșast um forskeytiĂ° âDanâ og hvort ĂŸaĂ° eigi viĂ° ĂŠttflokkinn Danir eĂ°a konunginn Dan, og merkingu viĂ°skeytisins â-mörkâ. Oftast er forskeytiĂ° taliĂ° eiga rĂŠtur aĂ° rekja til orĂ°s sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir âflatt landâ, tengt ĂŸĂœska orĂ°inu Tenne âĂŸreskigĂłlfâ, enska den â hellirâ og sanskrĂt dhĂĄnuáčŁ- (à€§à€šà„à€žà„; â eyĂ°imörkâ). ViĂ°skeytiĂ° â-mörkâ er taliĂ° eiga viĂ° skĂłga Ă SuĂ°ur-SlĂ©svĂk, kannski svipaĂ° nöfnunum Finnmörk, HeiĂ°mörk, Ăelamörk og ĂĂ©ttmerski. Ă fornnorrĂŠnu var nafniĂ° stafaĂ° DanmÇ«rk.
+
+Fyrsta ĂŸekkta notkun orĂ°ins âDanmörkâ Ă Danmörku sjĂĄlfri er ĂĄ Jalangurssteininum, sem eru rĂșnasteinar taldir hafa veriĂ° settir upp af Gormi gamla (um ĂĄriĂ° 955) og Haraldi blĂĄtönn (um ĂĄriĂ° 965). OrĂ°iĂ° âDanmörkâ er notaĂ° ĂĄ bĂĄĂ°um steinunum, Ă ĂŸolfalli âtanmaurkâ ([danmÉrk]) ĂĄ stĂłra steininum og Ă eignarfalli âtanmarkarâ ([danmarkaÉœ]) ĂĄ litla steininum. ĂbĂșar Danmerkur eru kallaĂ°ir âtaniâ ([danÉȘ]) eĂ°a âDanirâ ĂĄ steinunum.
+
+Saga
+
+Fornsaga
+BĂșiĂ° hefur veriĂ° Ă Danmörku sĂĂ°an um ĂŸaĂ° bil 12.500 f.Kr. og eru sannindamerki um landbĂșnaĂ° frĂĄ 3600 f.Kr. Bronsöldin Ă Danmörku var frĂĄ 1800â600 f.Kr. og ĂŸĂĄ voru margir haugar orpnir. Ă ĂŸeim hafa fundist lĂșĂ°rar og SĂłlvagninn. Fyrstu Danir komu til landsins ĂĄ rĂłmversku jĂĄrnöld (1â400 e.Kr.). ĂĂĄ var verslun milli RĂłmaveldisins og ĂŠttflokka Ă Danmörku og rĂłmverskir peningar hafa fundist ĂŸar. Ennfremur finnast sannindamerki um ĂĄhrif frĂĄ Keltum, meĂ°al annars Gundestrup-potturinn.
+
+VĂkingaöld
+
+FrĂĄ 8. öld til 11. aldar voru Danir meĂ°al ĂŸeirra sem ĂŸekktir voru sem VĂkingar. VĂkingar nĂĄmu Ăsland ĂĄ 9. öld meĂ° viĂ°komu Ă FĂŠreyjum. FrĂĄ Ăslandi sigldu ĂŸeir til GrĂŠnlands og ĂŸaĂ°an til VĂnlands (lĂklega NĂœfundnalands) og settust ĂŸar aĂ°. VĂkingar voru snillingar Ă skipasmĂĂ°um og gerĂ°u ĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ Bretlandi og Frakklandi. Ăeir voru lĂka mjög lagnir Ă verslun og viĂ°skiptum og sigldu siglingaleiĂ°ir frĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi til KonstantĂnusarborgar um rĂșssneskar ĂĄr. Danskir vĂkingar voru mjög virkir ĂĄ Bretlandi, Ărlandi og Ă Frakklandi og settust aĂ° Ă sumum hlutum Englands og nĂĄĂ°u ĂŸar völdum (ĂŸ.e. Danalög).
+
+LandfrĂŠĂ°i
+Danmörk ĂĄ aĂ°eins landamĂŠri aĂ° ĂĂœskalandi og er lengd landamĂŠranna 140 km. Strandlengjan er 7 314 km. HĂŠsti punktur er MĂžllehĂžj, ĂĄ miĂ°-austur JĂłtlandi, 171 (170,86) metra hĂĄr. FlatarmĂĄl Danmerkur er 42 434 km2. Danmörk ĂĄ ekki verulegt hafsvĂŠĂ°i og bĂŠtist innan viĂ° ĂŸĂșsund ferkĂlĂłmetrar viĂ° heildaryfirrĂĄĂ°asvĂŠĂ°i Danmerkur sĂ© ĂŸaĂ° tekiĂ° meĂ° Ă 43 094 km2. Stöðuvötn ĂŸekja 660 km2.
+
+StjĂłrnmĂĄl
+
+Ă Danmörku er formlega ĂŸingbundin konungsstjĂłrn. Drottning Danmerkur, MargrĂ©t 2., er ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingi sem fer formlega meĂ° framkvĂŠmdavald og er forseti rĂkisrĂĄĂ°s Danmerkur. Eftir upptöku ĂŸingrĂŠĂ°is Ă Danmörku er hlutverk ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingjans aĂ°allega tĂĄknrĂŠnt eins og formleg skipun og uppsögn forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Danmerkur og annarra rĂĄĂ°herra Ă rĂkisstjĂłrn Danmerkur. Drottningin ber ekki sjĂĄlf ĂĄbyrgĂ° ĂĄ stjĂłrnarathöfnum og persĂłna hennar er friĂ°helg.
+
+Danmörk er Ă fimmta sĂŠti Ă lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°isvĂsitölu Economist og Ă fyrsta sĂŠti spillingarvĂsitölu Transparency International.
+
+Stjórnvöld
+
+StjĂłrnskipan Ă Danmörku byggist ĂĄ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ Danmerkur sem var samin ĂĄriĂ° 1849. Til aĂ° breyta stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni ĂŸarf hreinan meirihluta ĂĄ tveimur ĂŸingum og sĂĂ°an einfaldan meirihluta Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu meĂ° minnst 40% ĂŸĂĄtttöku. Henni hefur veriĂ° breytt fjĂłrum sinnum, sĂĂ°ast ĂĄriĂ° 1953.
+
+ĂjĂłĂ°ĂŸing Danmerkur (Folketinget) fer meĂ° löggjafarvald og situr Ă einni deild. ĂaĂ° er ĂŠĂ°sti löggjafi landsins, getur sett lög um alla hluti og er ĂłbundiĂ° af fyrri ĂŸingum. Til aĂ° lög öðlist gildi ĂŸarf aĂ° leggja ĂŸau fyrir rĂkisrĂĄĂ°iĂ° og ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingjann sem staĂ°festir ĂŸau meĂ° undirskrift sinni innan 30 daga.
+
+Ă Danmörku er ĂŸingbundin konungsstjĂłrn og fulltrĂșalĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°i meĂ° almennum kosningarĂ©tti. Ăingkosningar eru hlutfallskosningar milli stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokka ĂŸar sem flokkar ĂŸurfa minnst 2% atkvĂŠĂ°a til aĂ° koma aĂ° manni. Ă ĂŸinginu eru 175 ĂŸingmenn auk fjögurra frĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi og FĂŠreyjum. Ăingkosningar eru haldnar ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra fresti hiĂ° minnsta en forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra getur ĂłskaĂ° eftir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingi boĂ°i til kosninga ĂĄĂ°ur en kjörtĂmabili lĂœkur. ĂingiĂ° getur neytt forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra til aĂ° segja af sĂ©r meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° samĂŸykkja vantraust ĂĄ hann.
+
+FramkvĂŠmdavaldiĂ° er formlega Ă höndum drottningar, en forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra og aĂ°rir rĂĄĂ°herrar fara meĂ° ĂŸaĂ° fyrir hennar hönd. ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra er skipaĂ°ur sĂĄ sem getur aflaĂ° meirihluta Ă ĂŸinginu og er venjulega formaĂ°ur stĂŠrsta stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokksins eĂ°a leiĂ°togi stĂŠrsta flokkabandalagsins. Oftast er rĂkisstjĂłrn Danmerkur samsteypustjĂłrn og oft lĂka minnihlutastjĂłrn sem reiĂ°ir sig ĂĄ stuĂ°ning minni flokka utan rĂkisstjĂłrnar til aĂ° nĂĄ meirihluta Ă einstökum mĂĄlum.
+
+FrĂĄ ĂŸingkosningum 2019 hefur Mette Frederiksen veriĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ă eins flokks minnihlutastjĂłrn JafnaĂ°armannaflokksins meĂ° stuĂ°ningi annarra vinstri- og miĂ°juflokka.
+
+DĂłmsvald
+Ă Danmörku gildir rĂłmverskur rĂ©ttur sem skiptist milli dĂłmstĂłla ĂĄ sviĂ°i einkarĂ©ttar og stjĂłrnsĂœslurĂ©ttar. DĂłmskerfi landanna sem mynda konungsrĂkiĂ° er aĂ°skiliĂ° en hĂŠgt er aĂ° skjĂłta mĂĄlum frĂĄ FĂŠreyjum og GrĂŠnlandi til hĂŠstarĂ©ttar Danmerkur sem er ĂŠĂ°sta dĂłmsvald Ă Danmörku.
+
+Greinar 62 og 64 Ă stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni kveĂ°a ĂĄ um sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i dĂłmstĂłla frĂĄ rĂkisstjĂłrn og ĂŸingi.
+
+AlĂŸjóðatengsl og her
+
+AlĂŸjóðatengsl Danmerkur mĂłtast aĂ° miklu leyti af aĂ°ild landsins aĂ° EvrĂłpusambandinu sem Danmörk gekk Ă ĂĄriĂ° 1973. Danmörk hefur sjö sinnum fariĂ° meĂ° formennsku Ă EvrĂłpurĂĄĂ°inu, sĂĂ°ast ĂĄriĂ° 2012. Danmörk batt enda ĂĄ hlutleysi landsins sem hafĂ°i veriĂ° hornsteinn utanrĂkisstefnunnar Ă tvĂŠr aldir eftir SĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöld ĂŸegar landiĂ° var hernumiĂ° af Ăjóðverjum. Danmörk varĂ° ĂŸannig stofnaĂ°ili aĂ° Atlantshafsbandalaginu 1949. Danmörk rekur virka utanrĂkisstefnu meĂ° ĂĄherslu ĂĄ mannrĂ©ttindi og lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°i. Ă sĂĂ°ari ĂĄrum hafa GrĂŠnland og FĂŠreyjar Ă auknum mĂŠli tekiĂ° sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°ar ĂĄkvarĂ°anir Ă utanrĂkismĂĄlum, meĂ°al annars Ă tengslum viĂ° fiskveiĂ°ar, hvalveiĂ°ar og EvrĂłpumĂĄl. FĂŠreyjar og GrĂŠnland eru hvorki aĂ°ilar aĂ° EvrĂłpusambandinu nĂ© Schengen-svĂŠĂ°inu.
+
+Her Danmerkur (Forsvaret) hefur ĂĄ aĂ° skipa um 33.000 manna liĂ°i ĂĄ friĂ°artĂmum sem skiptast milli landhers, flota og flughers. Drottningin er yfirmaĂ°ur heraflans.
+
+Danska neyĂ°arĂŸjĂłnustan hefur ĂĄ aĂ° skipa um 2.000 manns og um 4.000 starfa Ă sĂ©rhĂŠfĂ°um deildum eins og dönsku landvarnasveitinni, rannsĂłknarĂŸjĂłnustunni og leyniĂŸjĂłnustunni. AĂ° auki eru um 55.000 sjĂĄlfboĂ°aliĂ°ar Ă danska heimavarnaliĂ°inu. Danmörk hefur veriĂ° virkur ĂŸĂĄtttakandi Ă alĂŸjóðlegum friĂ°argĂŠslusveitum, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al Ă KosĂłvĂł, LĂbanon og Afganistan. Um 450 danskir hermenn voru Ă Ărak frĂĄ 2003 til 2007. Danmörk hefur haft umsjĂłn meĂ° aĂ°stoĂ° Atlantshafsbandalagsins viĂ° Eystrasaltslöndin.
+
+StjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar
+
+
+Danmörk skiptist Ă fimm hĂ©ruĂ°. HĂ©ruĂ°in skiptast enn fremur Ă tĂu landshluta (kjördĂŠmi) Ă ĂŸingkosningum. NorĂ°ur-JĂłtland er eina hĂ©raĂ°iĂ° sem er Ăłskipt. TölfrĂŠĂ°istofnun Danmerkur skiptir landinu Ă ellefu landshluta. HöfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°iĂ°, Hovedstaden, skiptist Ă fjĂłra landshluta og ĂŸar af er eyjan BorgundarhĂłlmur einn en hinir ĂŸrĂr ĂĄ StĂłr-KaupmannahafnarsvĂŠĂ°inu.
+
+à Danmörku eru 98 sveitarfélög. Austasta land Danmerkur, eyjan Ertholmene, tilheyrir hvorki héraði né sveitarfélagi og heyrir undir danska varnarmålaråðuneytið.
+
+HĂ©ruĂ°in voru stofnuĂ° viĂ° sveitarstjĂłrnarumbĂŠturnar ĂĄriĂ° 2007 og tĂłku viĂ° af sextĂĄn ömtum. Ă sama tĂma var sveitarfĂ©lögum fĂŠkkaĂ° Ășr 270. NĂș er ĂbĂșafjöldi sveitarfĂ©laga aĂ° jafnaĂ°i meiri en 20.000 meĂ° nokkrum undantekningum. SveitarstjĂłrnir og hĂ©raĂ°srĂĄĂ° eru kosin Ă beinum kosningum ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra fresti. SĂĂ°ustu sveitarstjĂłrnarkosningar Ă Danmörku voru haldnar ĂĄriĂ° 2013. SveitarfĂ©lögin eru grunnstjĂłrnsĂœslueining Ă hĂ©raĂ°i og jafngilda löggĂŠsluumdĂŠmum, hĂ©raĂ°sdĂłmsumdĂŠmum og kjördĂŠmum Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarkosningum.
+
+Ă hĂ©raĂ°srĂĄĂ°um sitja 41 fulltrĂși kjörnir til fjögurra ĂĄra Ă senn. Yfir hĂ©raĂ°srĂĄĂ°inu er hĂ©raĂ°srĂĄĂ°sformaĂ°ur sem rĂĄĂ°iĂ° kĂœs sĂ©r. HĂ©raĂ°srĂĄĂ°in fara meĂ° heilbrigĂ°isĂŸjĂłnustu, fĂ©lagsĂŸjĂłnustu og atvinnuĂŸrĂłun, en ĂłlĂkt ömtunum innheimta ĂŸau ekki skatta. HeilsugĂŠslan er aĂ° mestu fjĂĄrmögnuĂ° meĂ° sĂ©rstöku 8% heilbrigĂ°isframlagi og fjĂĄrmunum frĂĄ rĂkinu og sveitarfĂ©lögum. Ănnur mĂĄl sem ömtin bĂĄru ĂĄbyrgĂ° ĂĄ voru flutt til hinna stĂŠkkuĂ°u sveitarfĂ©laga.
+
+HĂ©ruĂ°in eru mjög misfjölmenn. HöfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°iĂ° er ĂŸannig meira en ĂŸrisvar sinnum fjölmennara en NorĂ°ur-JĂłtland. MeĂ°an ömtin voru viĂ° lĂœĂ°i höfĂ°u sum sveitarfĂ©lög ĂĄ höfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°inu, eins og Kaupmannahöfn og Frederiksberg, fengiĂ° sömu stöðu og ömtin.
+
+GrĂŠnland og FĂŠreyjar
+KonungsrĂkiĂ° Danmörk er eitt Ăłskipt rĂki sem nĂŠr yfir FĂŠreyjar og GrĂŠnland, auk Danmerkur. Ăetta eru tvö lönd Ă NorĂ°ur-Atlantshafi meĂ° heimastjĂłrn Ă eigin mĂĄlum ĂŸĂłtt danska rĂkiĂ° fari aĂ° mestu leyti meĂ° utanrĂkis- og varnarmĂĄl. Ăau hafa ĂŸvĂ eigin ĂŸing og rĂkisstjĂłrn, en auk ĂŸess tvo fulltrĂșa hvort ĂĄ danska ĂŸinginu. RĂkisumboĂ°smenn eru fulltrĂșar danska rĂkisins ĂĄ lögĂŸingi FĂŠreyja og grĂŠnlenska ĂŸinginu. GrĂŠnlendingar eru auk ĂŸess skilgreindir sem sĂ©rstök frumbyggjaĂŸjóð meĂ° aukinn sjĂĄlfsĂĄkvörĂ°unarrĂ©tt.
+
+EfnahagslĂf
+
+Danmörk bĂœr viĂ° ĂŸrĂłaĂ° blandaĂ° hagkerfi og telst vera hĂĄtekjuland samkvĂŠmt Heimsbankanum. ĂriĂ° 2017 var Danmörk Ă 16. sĂŠti ĂĄ lista yfir lönd eftir ĂŸjóðartekjum ĂĄ mann kaupmĂĄttarjafnaĂ° og Ă 10. sĂŠti aĂ° nafnvirĂ°i. Danmörk er meĂ° hĂŠstu löndum ĂĄ vĂsitölu um viĂ°skiptafrelsi. Hagkerfi Danmerkur er ĂŸaĂ° 10. samkeppnishĂŠfasta Ă heimi og ĂŸaĂ° 6. samkeppnishĂŠfasta Ă EvrĂłpu, samkvĂŠmt World Economic Forum ĂĄriĂ° 2018.
+
+Danmörk er meĂ° fjĂłrĂ°a hĂŠsta hlutfall hĂĄskĂłlamenntaĂ°ra Ă heimi. LandiĂ° situr Ă efsta sĂŠti hvaĂ° varĂ°ar rĂ©ttindi verkafĂłlks. LandsframleiĂ°sla ĂĄ vinnustund var sĂș 13. hĂŠsta Ă heimi ĂĄriĂ° 2009. TekjuĂłjöfnuĂ°ur Ă Danmörku er nĂĄlĂŠgt meĂ°altali OECD-rĂkja, en eftir skatta og opinbera styrki er hann umtalsvert lĂŠgri. SamkvĂŠmt Eurostat er Gini-stuĂ°ull Danmerkur sĂĄ 7. lĂŠgsti Ă EvrĂłpu ĂĄriĂ° 2017.
+SamkvĂŠmt AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðnum eru lĂĄgmarkslaun Ă Danmörku ĂŸau hĂŠstu Ă heimi. Ă Danmörku eru engin lög um lĂĄgmarkslaun, ĂŸannig aĂ° ĂŸetta stafar af öflugum verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lögum. Sem dĂŠmi mĂĄ nefna aĂ° vegna samninga verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lagsins Fagligt FĂŠlles Forbund og atvinnurekendasamtakanna Horesta, hefur starfsfĂłlk hjĂĄ McDonald's og öðrum skyndibitakeĂ°jum Ă Danmörku 20 dollara ĂĄ tĂmann, yfir helmingi meira en starfsfĂ©lagar ĂŸeirra fĂĄ Ă BandarĂkjunum, auk ĂŸess aĂ° fĂĄ greidd sumarfrĂ, foreldraorlof og lĂfeyri. AĂ°ild aĂ° verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lögum Ă Danmörku var 68% ĂĄriĂ° 2015.
+
+Danmörk ĂĄ hlutfallslega mikiĂ° rĂŠktanlegt land og efnahagur landsins byggĂ°ist ĂĄĂ°ur fyrr aĂ°allega ĂĄ landbĂșnaĂ°i. FrĂĄ 1945 hafa iĂ°naĂ°ur og ĂŸjĂłnusta vaxiĂ° hratt. ĂriĂ° 2017 stóð ĂŸjĂłnustugeirinn undir 75% af vergri landsframleiĂ°slu, framleiĂ°sluiĂ°naĂ°ur var um 15% og landbĂșnaĂ°ur innan viĂ° 2%. Helstu iĂ°ngreinar eru framleiĂ°sla ĂĄ vindhverflum, lyfjaframleiĂ°sla, framleiĂ°sla ĂĄ lĂŠkningatĂŠkjum, vĂ©lar og flutningstĂŠki, matvĂŠlavinnsla og byggingariĂ°naĂ°ur. Um 60% af ĂștflutningsverĂ°mĂŠti er vegna Ăștflutningsvara, en 40% er vegna ĂŸjĂłnustuĂștflutnings, aĂ°allega skipaflutninga. Helstu Ăștflutningsvörur Danmerkur eru vindhverflar, lyf, vĂ©lar og tĂŠki, kjöt og kjötvörur, mjĂłlkurvörur, fiskur, hĂșsgögn og aĂ°rar hönnunarvörur. Danmörk flytur meira Ășt en inn af mat og orku og hefur Ă mörg ĂĄr bĂșiĂ° viĂ° jĂĄkvĂŠĂ°an greiĂ°slujöfnuĂ° ĂŸannig aĂ° landiĂ° ĂĄ meira Ăștistandandi en ĂŸaĂ° skuldar. Ăann 1. jĂșlĂ 2018 jafngilti staĂ°a erlendra eigna 64,6% af vergri landsframleiĂ°slu.
+
+Danmörk er hluti af innri markaĂ°i EvrĂłpusambandsins meĂ° 508 milljĂłn neytendur. ViĂ°skiptalöggjöfin er aĂ° hluta bundin samningum milli aĂ°ila sambandsins og löggjöf ĂŸess. Danskur almenningur styĂ°ur almennt frjĂĄls viĂ°skipti; Ă könnun frĂĄ 2016 sögĂ°ust 57% svarenda telja aĂ° hnattvĂŠĂ°ing vĂŠri tĂŠkifĂŠri, meĂ°an 18% litu ĂĄ hana sem Ăłgnun. 70% af viĂ°skiptum landsins eru innan EvrĂłpusambandsins. StĂŠrstu viĂ°skiptalönd Danmerkur ĂĄriĂ° 2017 voru ĂĂœskaland, SvĂĂŸjóð, Bretland og BandarĂkin.
+
+Dönsk krĂłna (DKK) er gjaldmiĂ°ill Ă Danmörku. HĂșn er fest viĂ° evru ĂĄ genginu 7,46 krĂłnur ĂĄ evru, Ă gegnum gengissamstarf EvrĂłpu. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° Danir hafi hafnaĂ° upptöku evrunnar Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu ĂĄriĂ° 2000 fylgir Danmörk stefnu Efnahags- og myntbandalags EvrĂłpu og uppfyllir kröfur fyrir upptöku evrunnar. Ă maĂ 2018 sögĂ°ust 29% svarenda Ă Danmörku Ă könnun frĂĄ Eurobarometer vera hlynnt myntbandalaginu og evrunni, meĂ°an 65% voru ĂĄ mĂłti ĂŸvĂ.
+
+StĂŠrstu fyrirtĂŠki Danmerkur miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° veltu eru: A.P. MĂžller-MĂŠrsk (skipaflutningar), Novo Nordisk (lyfjaframleiĂ°andi), ISS A/S (eignaumsĂœsla), Vestas (vindmyllur), Arla Foods (mjĂłlkurvörur), DSV (flutningar), Carlsberg Group (bjĂłr), Salling Group (smĂĄsala), Ărsted A/S (orkufyrirtĂŠki), Danske Bank (fjĂĄrmĂĄlafyrirtĂŠki).
+
+ĂbĂșar
+
+TrĂșarbrögĂ°
+
+Yfir 72% ĂbĂșa Danmerkur eru skrĂĄĂ°ir Ă dönsku ĂŸjóðkirkjuna sem er lĂștersk-evangelĂsk ĂŸjóðkirkja. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸennan mikla fjölda eru aĂ°eins um 3% sem mĂŠta reglulega Ă messur. Ă stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ Danmerkur er kveĂ°iĂ° ĂĄ um trĂșfrelsi en einn meĂ°limur dönsku konungsfjölskyldunnar verĂ°ur aĂ° vera meĂ°limur ĂŸjóðkirkjunnar.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1682 fengu ĂŸrjĂș trĂșfĂ©lög leyfi til aĂ° starfa utan ĂŸjóðkirkjunnar: kaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan, danska frĂkirkjan og gyĂ°ingar. Upphaflega var samt Ăłlöglegt aĂ° snĂșast til ĂŸessara trĂșarbragĂ°a. Fram ĂĄ 8. ĂĄratug 20. aldar fengu trĂșfĂ©lög opinbera viĂ°urkenningu en sĂĂ°an ĂŸĂĄ er engin ĂŸĂ¶rf ĂĄ slĂku og hĂŠgt er aĂ° fĂĄ leyfi til aĂ° framkvĂŠma giftingar og aĂ°rar athafnir ĂĄn formlegrar viĂ°urkenningar.
+
+MĂșslimar eru rĂ©tt um 3% ĂbĂșa Danmerkur og eru fjölmennasti minnihlutatrĂșarhĂłpur landsins. ĂriĂ° 2009 voru nĂtjĂĄn trĂșfĂ©lög mĂșslima skrĂĄĂ° Ă Danmörku. SamkvĂŠmt tölum danska utanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°uneytisins eru ĂbĂșar sem hafa önnur trĂșarbrögĂ° um 2% ĂbĂșa landsins.
+
+Menning
+
+ĂĂŸrĂłttir
+
+Danir hafa nĂĄĂ° langt ĂĄ alĂŸjóðavĂsu Ă fjölda ĂĂŸrĂłttagreina. Knattspyrna er langvinsĂŠlasta ĂĂŸrĂłttin Ă Danmörku og er danska Ășrvalsdeildin efsta deildin. Ăekktustu knattspyrnumenn Danmerkur eru Allan Simonsen, Peter Schmeichel og Michael Laudrup. Handbolti hefur vaxiĂ° aĂ° vinsĂŠldum sĂĂ°ustu ĂĄratugi og danska karlalandsliĂ°iĂ° Ă handknattleik hefur unniĂ° flest verĂ°laun allra liĂ°a Ă EvrĂłpumĂłti karla Ă handbolta. Danska kvennalandsliĂ°iĂ° Ă handknattleik hefur sigraĂ° EvrĂłpumĂłt kvenna Ă handbolta ĂŸrisvar og unniĂ° alls til fimm verĂ°launa.
+
+VatnaĂĂŸrĂłttir eins og kappsiglingar, kappróður, kanĂł- og kajakróður, sund og stangveiĂ°i eru vinsĂŠlar ĂĂŸrĂłttagreinar Ă Danmörku. Paul ElvstrĂžm vann gullverĂ°laun Ă siglingum ĂĄ fjĂłrum ĂlympĂuleikum Ă röð. Danmörk er mikiĂ° hjĂłlreiĂ°aland og danski hjĂłlreiĂ°amaĂ°urinn Bjarne Riis sigraĂ°i Tour de France ĂĄriĂ° 1996. Golf, tennis, badminton og ĂshokkĂ eru lĂka vinsĂŠlar greinar. Lene KĂžppen og Camilla Martin urĂ°u heimsmeistarar Ă badminton 1977 og 1999. Danir hafa nĂĄĂ° langt Ă speedway-mĂłtorhjĂłlakappakstri og unniĂ° Speedway-heimsbikarinn nokkrum sinnum.
+
+Ă ĂłlympĂuleikunum Ă London 2012 unnu Danir til gullverĂ°launa Ă kappróðri og hjĂłlreiĂ°um karla og silfurverĂ°laun Ă siglingum, skotfimi karla, kappróðri kvenna og badminton karla.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+ Staðreyndir um Danmörku å Norden.org
+
+
+Norðurlönd
+EvrĂłpa eĂ°a NorĂ°urĂĄlfa er ein af sjö heimsĂĄlfum jarĂ°arinnar. Frekar mĂŠtti kannski kalla ĂĄlfuna menningarsvĂŠĂ°i heldur en ĂĄkveĂ°na staĂ°hĂĄttafrĂŠĂ°ilega heild, sem leiĂ°ir til ĂĄgreinings um landamĂŠri hennar. EvrĂłpa er, sem heimsĂĄlfa, ĂĄ miklum skaga vestur Ășr AsĂu (EvrĂłpuskaganum) og myndar meĂ° henni EvrasĂu.
+
+LandamĂŠri EvrĂłpu eru nĂĄttĂșruleg aĂ° mestu leyti. Ăau liggja um NorĂ°ur-Ăshaf Ă norĂ°ri, Atlantshaf Ă vestri (aĂ° Ăslandi meĂ°töldu), um MiĂ°jarĂ°arhaf, Dardanellasund og BospĂłrussund Ă suĂ°ri og eru svo yfirleitt talin liggja um Ăralfjöll Ă austri. Flestir telja KĂĄkasusfjöll einnig afmarka EvrĂłpu Ă suĂ°ri og KaspĂahaf Ă suĂ°austri.
+
+EvrĂłpa er nĂŠstminnsta heimsĂĄlfan aĂ° flatarmĂĄli, en hĂșn er um 10.180.000 ferkĂlĂłmetrar eĂ°a 2,0 % af yfirborĂ°i jarĂ°arinnar. HvaĂ° varĂ°ar ĂbĂșafjölda er EvrĂłpa ĂŸriĂ°ja fjölmennasta heimsĂĄlfan, ĂĄ eftir AsĂu og AfrĂku. Ă henni bĂșa fleiri en 740.000.000 manna (2011). ĂaĂ° eru 12 % af ĂbĂșafjölda heimsins.
+
+EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° (ESB) er stĂŠrsta stjĂłrnmĂĄlalega og efnahagslega eining ĂĄlfunnar en ĂŸvĂ tilheyra 27 aĂ°ildarrĂki. NĂŠststĂŠrsta einingin er RĂșssland.
+
+OrĂ°sifjar
+
+Ă grĂskri goĂ°afrĂŠĂ°i var EvrĂłpa afburĂ°a fögur fönikĂsk prinsessa. Seifur brĂĄ sĂ©r Ă nautslĂki og nam hana ĂĄ brott til KrĂtar, ĂŸar sem hĂșn fĂŠddi MĂnos en hann var aĂ° hluta maĂ°ur og aĂ° hluta naut. Ă huga HĂłmers var EvrĂłpa (GrĂska: ÎÏ
ÏÏÏη) hin goĂ°sagnalega drottning KrĂtar en ekki landfrĂŠĂ°ilegt hugtak. Seinna stóð EvrĂłpa fyrir meginland Grikklands og um ĂĄriĂ° 500 f.Kr. var merking orĂ°sins orĂ°in vĂĂ°ari og ĂĄtti nĂș einnig viĂ° um landsvĂŠĂ°iĂ° fyrir norĂ°an.
+
+GrĂska hugtakiĂ° EvrĂłpa er komiĂ° Ășr grĂsku orĂ°unum eurys (breiĂ°ur) og ops (andlit), ĂŸar sem âbreiĂ°urâ er lĂking viĂ° móður jörĂ° Ă hinum endurreistu forn-indĂłevrĂłpsku trĂșarbrögĂ°um. Sumir telja hins vegar aĂ° merking hugtaksins hafi afmyndast ĂĄ ĂŸann hĂĄtt aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° hafi komiĂ° Ășr semitĂsku orĂ°i eins og hinu akkadĂska erebu sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir âsĂłlarlagâ. FrĂĄ MiĂ°-Austurlöndum sĂ©Ă° sest sĂłlin yfir EvrĂłpu, Ă vestri. Eins telja margir orĂ°iĂ° AsĂa hafa öðlast merkingu sĂna Ășr semitĂsku orĂ°i eins og hinu akkadĂska asu, sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir sĂłlarupprĂĄs, en AsĂa er einmitt Ă austri frĂĄ MiĂ°-Austurlöndum.
+
+Meirihluti tungumĂĄla heimsins nota orĂ° skyld âEuropaâ um heimsĂĄlfuna â aĂ°alundantekningin er hiĂ° kĂnverska æŹ§æŽČ (ĆuzhĆu) en uppruni ĂŸess er ĂłljĂłs.
+
+Saga
+
+Uppruni vestrĂŠnnar menningar, lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°is og einstaklingshyggju er oft rakinn til Forn-Grikklands. AĂ°rir ĂĄhrifavaldar, til dĂŠmis kristni, hafa eflaust einnig haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ vestrĂŠn gildi eins og jafnrĂ©ttisstefnu og rĂ©ttarrĂkiĂ°.
+
+Eftir fall rĂłmverska stĂłrveldisins gekk langt breytingaskeiĂ° yfir EvrĂłpu meĂ° ĂŸjóðflutningunum. ĂaĂ° skeiĂ° er ĂŸekkt sem miĂ°aldirnar eĂ°a âhinar myrku miĂ°aldirâ eins og ĂŸĂŠr voru gjarnan kallaĂ°ar ĂĄ endurreisnartĂmanum enda litu menn ĂĄ ĂŸĂŠr sem hnignunarskeiĂ°. Afskekkt klaustursamfĂ©lög ĂĄ Ărlandi og vĂĂ°ar vernduĂ°u og skrĂĄĂ°u skrifaĂ°a ĂŸekkingu sem ĂĄĂ°ur hafĂ°i safnast saman.
+
+Undir lok 8. aldar var HiĂ° heilaga rĂłmverska rĂki stofnaĂ° sem eins konar arftaki Vest-rĂłmverska rĂkisins en var Ă raun laustengt samband Ăœmissa smĂĄrĂkja Ă MiĂ°-EvrĂłpu. Austurhluti RĂłmaveldis varĂ° AustrĂłmverska rĂkiĂ°, meĂ° KonstantĂnĂłpel (BĂœzantĂon, sĂĂ°ar IstanbĂșl) sem höfuĂ°borg. ĂriĂ° 1453, ĂŸegar OttĂłmanveldiĂ° yfirtĂłk KonstantĂnĂłpel, riĂ°aĂ°i AustrĂłmverska rĂkiĂ° til falls.
+
+Endurreisnin og nĂœju konungsdĂŠmin ĂĄ 15. öld mörkuĂ°u upphaf tĂmabils rannsĂłkna, uppgötvana og meiri vĂsindalegrar ĂŸekkingar. ĂĂĄ hĂłf PortĂșgal og skömmu sĂĂ°ar SpĂĄnn landvinningana. SĂĂ°ar fylgdu Frakkland, Holland og Bretland Ă fĂłtspor ĂŸeirra. MeĂ° nĂœlendustefnunni byggĂ°u ĂŸessi lönd upp vĂĂ°feĂ°m nĂœlenduveldi Ă AfrĂku, SuĂ°ur- og NorĂ°ur-AmerĂku og AsĂu.
+
+Eftir landvinningana miklu tĂłk lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°isleg hugsun viĂ° Ă EvrĂłpu. BarĂĄtta gegn einrĂŠĂ°i varĂ° meiri, sĂ©rstaklega Ă Frakklandi Ă Frönsku byltingunni. Ăetta leiddi til grĂĂ°arlegra umbrota Ă EvrĂłpu meĂ°an ĂŸessar byltingakenndu hugmyndir og hugsjĂłnir breiddust Ășt um ĂĄlfuna. LĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°i leiddi til aukinnar spennu Ă EvrĂłpu ofan ĂĄ ĂŸĂĄ spennu sem fyrir var vegna samkeppninnar viĂ° nĂœja heiminn. FrĂŠgustu ĂĄtökin urĂ°u ĂŸegar NapĂłleon BĂłnaparte komst til valda og hĂłf aĂ° hertaka nĂĄlĂŠg lönd, og byggĂ°i ĂŸannig upp nĂœtt franskt stĂłrveldi, sem ĂŸĂł fĂ©ll skömmu seinna. Eftir ĂŸessa landvinninga varĂ° EvrĂłpa aftur stöðug, en byrjaĂ° var aĂ° hrikta Ă gömlu undirstöðunni.
+
+IĂ°nbyltingin hĂłfst Ă Bretlandi seint ĂĄ 18. öld, en meĂ° henni drĂł Ășr mikilvĂŠgi landbĂșnaĂ°ar, almenn hagsĂŠld jĂłkst og fĂłlki fjölgaĂ°i. Mörg af rĂkjunum Ă EvrĂłpu komust Ă nĂșverandi form eftir fyrri heimsstyrjöldina. FrĂĄ lokum seinni heimsstyrjaldarinnar og fram til ĂŸess aĂ° kalda strĂĂ°inu lauk skiptist EvrĂłpa Ă tvĂŠr pĂłlitĂskar og efnahagslegar blokkir: kommĂșnistarĂki Ă Austur-EvrĂłpu (Tyrkland og Grikkland eru undantekningar), sem byggĂ°u ĂĄ ĂĄĂŠtlunarbĂșskap, og kapĂtalistarĂki Ă SuĂ°ur- og Vestur-EvrĂłpu, sem byggĂ°ust ĂĄ markaĂ°shagkerfi. Um ĂĄriĂ° 1990 fĂ©ll BerlĂnarmĂșrinn og meĂ° honum JĂĄrntjaldiĂ° og SovĂ©trĂkin liĂ°uĂ°ust Ă sundur.
+
+FrĂĄ lokum seinni heimsstyrjaldar hefur samstarf evrĂłpskra rĂkja veriĂ° einkennandi fyrir ĂĄlfuna og hefur breiĂ°st til Austur-EvrĂłpu eftir kalda strĂĂ°iĂ°. EvrĂłpubandalagiĂ° og sĂĂ°ar EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° er bandalag 27 rĂkja um samvinnu ĂĄ Ăœmsum sviĂ°um. ĂaĂ° hefur ĂŸrĂłast Ășr friĂ°ar- og efnahagssamstarfi Ă einingu sem svipar til rĂkjabandalags. NATO hefur lĂka stĂŠkkaĂ° frĂĄ enda kalda strĂĂ°sins og mörg austur-evrĂłpsk rĂki hafa gengiĂ° Ă ĂŸaĂ°.
+
+StaðhÊttir og landamörk
+
+LandfrĂŠĂ°ilega er EvrĂłpa vestasti hluti mun stĂŠrra landflĂŠmis sem kallast EvrasĂa. HeimsĂĄlfan byrjar viĂ° Ăralfjöll Ă RĂșsslandi, sem skilgreina austurmörk ĂĄlfunnar viĂ° AsĂu. SuĂ°austurmörkin eru ekki staĂ°fest. Ăralfjöll eĂ°a Emba-fljĂłt eru bĂŠĂ°i mögulegir kostir. Mörkin halda ĂĄfram yfir KaspĂahaf, KĂĄkasus-fjöll (eĂ°a Kura-fljĂłt) og um SvartahafiĂ°, gegnum BospĂłrussund, MarmarahafiĂ° og Dardanellasund og Ășt Ă Eyjahaf en ĂŸar gilda landamĂŠri Tyrklands og Grikklands. Mörkin halda svo ĂĄfram um MiĂ°jarĂ°arhaf Ă suĂ°ri, N-AtlantshafiĂ° Ă vestri (Ăsland er ĂĄ mörkum EvrĂłpu) og um N-ĂshafiĂ° Ă norĂ°ri.
+
+Vegna pĂłtitĂsks og menningarlegs mismunar eru til margar lĂœsingar ĂĄ mörkum EvrĂłpu. Sumir telja ĂĄkveĂ°in svĂŠĂ°i ekki Ă EvrĂłpu en aĂ°rir telja ĂŸau Ă henni. Til dĂŠmis telja landafrĂŠĂ°ingar frĂĄ RĂșsslandi og öðrum fyrrum sovĂ©tlöndum aĂ° Ăralfjöllin sĂ©u Ă EvrĂłpu en KĂĄkasus-svĂŠĂ°iĂ° Ă AsĂu.
+
+Ănnur notkun ĂĄ orĂ°inu EvrĂłpa er stytting fyrir EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° og meĂ°limi ĂŸess og nokkur önnur rĂki sem eru talin ĂŠtla sĂ©r aĂ° ganga Ă sambandiĂ° Ă framtĂĂ°inni. Ăessi skilgreining ĂĄ hins vegar ekki viĂ° um lönd utan sambandsins, t.d. Noreg, Sviss og Ăsland.
+
+StaĂ°hĂŠttir
+HĂŠĂ°armunur Ă EvrĂłpu getur veriĂ° mjög mikill ĂĄ milli tiltölulega lĂtilla svĂŠĂ°a. SuĂ°ur-EvrĂłpa er fjalllendari en Ă norĂ°urĂĄtt lĂŠkkar landiĂ° frĂĄ hĂĄum fjallgörĂ°um eins og Ălpunum, PĂœreneafjöllum og Karpatafjöllum og breytist Ășr hĂĄlendu fjallsvĂŠĂ°i Ă hĂŠĂ°ir og hĂłla og loks Ă lĂĄglendar og frjĂłsamar slĂ©ttur Ă norĂ°ri og sömuleiĂ°is Ă austri ĂŸar sem ĂŸĂŠr eru mjög stĂłrar. Ăetta risavaxna lĂĄglendi er ĂŸekkt sem evrĂłpska slĂ©ttan og hjarta ĂŸess er Ă norĂ°ur-ĂŸĂœsku slĂ©ttunni. Ă NorĂ°vestur-EvrĂłpu liggur langur fjallgarĂ°ur, frĂĄ Bretlandseyjum og um ögrum skorinn SkandinavĂuskagann norĂ°ur til KĂłlaskaga. Helstu ĂĄm Ă EvrĂłpu mĂĄ skipta Ă tvo flokka, annars vegar straumhörĂ° fljĂłt sem koma Ășr fjallgörĂ°um, t.d. DĂłnĂĄ, RĂn og RĂłn, og hins vegar lygn fljĂłt sem aĂ°allega mĂĄ finna ĂĄ hinum miklu slĂ©ttum austar Ă ĂĄlfunni eins og Volga, DnĂ©pr og Don.
+
+Ăetta er einfölduĂ° lĂœsing. SvĂŠĂ°i eins og ĂberĂuskaginn og ĂtalĂa hafa hvert sĂna eigin flĂłknu landfrĂŠĂ°ieiginleika, eins og meginland EvrĂłpu. Ăar er aĂ° finna margar hĂĄslĂ©ttur, ĂĄrdali og vĂĂ°ĂĄttumikla dali sem ekki fylgja aĂ°alstefnunni. Ăsland og Bretlandseyjar eru sĂ©rstök tilfelli. Ăsland myndaĂ°ist fyrir tilstilli flekamĂłta N-AmerĂkuflekans og EvrasĂuflekans. Bretland var eitt sinn tengt meginlandinu en vegna hĂŠkkandi sjĂĄvarstöðu myndaĂ°ist ErmarsundiĂ° milli ĂŸess og meginlandsins.
+
+Lönd
+Eftirfarandi er kort af EvrĂłpu og ĂŸau lönd sem henni tilheyra.
+
+Listi yfir lönd
+
+Menning
+
+Segja mĂĄ aĂ° menning EvrĂłpu sĂ© sambland af menningu Ăœmissa smĂŠrri svĂŠĂ°a sem skarast. Greina mĂĄ merki blandaĂ°rar menningar um heimsĂĄlfuna ĂŸvera og endilanga. Spurningin um sameiginlega menningu EvrĂłpu eĂ°a evrĂłpska kjarnamenningu er ĂŸvĂ flĂłkin.
+
+Grunninn aĂ° evrĂłpskri menningu er aĂ° finna Ă menningu, sögu og bĂłkmenntum Forngrikkja og RĂłmverja. ViĂ° ĂŸennan grunn bĂŠttist svo kristni, sem varĂ° rĂkjandi trĂș og mĂłtaĂ°i heimsmynd EvrĂłpumanna frĂĄ sĂĂ°fornöld og upp gegnum miĂ°aldir. Endurreisnin ĂĄ 15. öld og siĂ°askiptin höfĂ°u ĂĄhrif Ăști um alla EvrĂłpu, eins og upplĂœsingin ĂĄ 18. öld.
+
+Heimildir
+
+Tengt efni
+ EvrĂłpurĂĄĂ°iĂ°
+ EvrĂłpusambandiĂ°
+ Listi yfir stĂŠrstu borgir EvrĂłpusambandsins
+
+Tenglar
+
+
+
+
+HeimsĂĄlfur
+Nefnifall er fall sem fallorĂ° geta staĂ°iĂ° Ă. Nefnifall er almennt notaĂ° fyrir frumlag setninga og fyrir sagnfyllingar.
+
+Nefnifall Ă forngrĂsku
+Frumlag setningar stendur alla jafnan Ă nefnifalli Ă forngrĂsku. Ă Ăłbeinni rĂŠĂ°u ĂŸar sem gerandi stĂœrandi sagnar er sĂĄ sami og gerandi nafnhĂĄttar Ă Ăłbeinu rĂŠĂ°unni, stendur frumlag nafnhĂĄttarins Ă nefnifalli (sĂ© ĂŸaĂ° tekiĂ° fram) en vĂŠri annars Ă ĂŸolfalli.
+
+Nefnifall Ă Ăslensku
+
+Nefnifall er eitt af fjĂłrum föllum Ă Ăslensku. OrĂ° sem eru Ă nefnifalli eru annaĂ°hvort frumlag setningar eĂ°a sagnfylling. Einnig er nefnifall notaĂ° Ă ĂĄvörpum. Ă sumum örĂ°um tungumĂĄlum, svo sem latĂnu, er sĂ©rstakt ĂĄvarpsfall notaĂ° Ă ĂŸessum tilgangi. Einstöku sinnum er ĂŸetta latneska fall notaĂ° Ă Ăslensku.
+
+Venja er hjĂĄ Ăslendingum aĂ° bĂŠta viĂ° hĂ©r er fyrir framan nefnifalliĂ° Ă eintölu en hĂ©r eru Ă fleirtölu ĂŸegar orĂ° eru fallbeygĂ° sĂ©rstaklega.
+
+SjĂĄ einnig
+ NefnifallssĂœki
+
+Föll (målfrÊði)
+Föll Ă Ăslensku
+Ă Ăslensku eru fjögur föll, nefnifall, ĂŸolfall, ĂŸĂĄgufall og eignarfall (ĂŸolfall, ĂŸĂĄgufall og eignarfall kallast aukaföll). Auk ĂŸeirra mĂĄ geta aĂ° orĂ°myndin JesĂș er ĂĄvarpsfall af orĂ°inu JesĂșs ĂĄ latĂnu og er stundum notuĂ° sem slĂk Ă Ăslensku. Annars er nefnifall notaĂ° Ă ĂĄvörpum ĂĄ Ăslensku.
+
+Form fallorĂ°a breytast eftir ĂŸvĂ Ă hvaĂ°a falli ĂŸau standa. Til fallorĂ°a teljast orĂ°flokkar nafnorĂ°, lĂœsingarorĂ°, fornöfn og raĂ°tölur auk töluorĂ°anna einn, tveir, ĂŸrĂr og fjĂłrir. Hlutverk orĂ°s Ă setningu rĂŠĂ°ur ĂŸvĂ Ă hvaĂ°a falli ĂŸaĂ° er. Til dĂŠmis eru fallorĂ° Ă ĂŸolfalli ĂĄ eftir forsetningunni um, Ă ĂŸĂĄgufalli ĂĄ eftir frĂĄ og Ă eignarfalli ĂĄ eftir til. Algengt er aĂ° gefa fallbeygingar upp meĂ° hjĂĄlp ĂŸessara forsetninga:
+
+DĂŠmi:
+ (HĂ©r er) hestur (nefnifall)
+ um hest (ĂŸolfall)
+ frĂĄ hesti (ĂŸĂĄgufall)
+ til hests (eignarfall)
+
+ (HĂ©r er) kĂœr
+ um kĂș
+ frĂĄ kĂș
+ til kĂœr
+
+Föll Ă Ăslensku
+Noregur (norska: Norge) er land sem nĂŠr yfir vestur- og norĂ°urhluta SkandinavĂu Ă NorĂ°ur-EvrĂłpu. Noregur fer lĂka meĂ° stjĂłrn fjarlĂŠgu eyjanna Jan Mayen og SvalbarĂ°a. Auk ĂŸess er Bouvet-eyja Ă SuĂ°ur-Atlantshafi norsk hjĂĄlenda. Noregur gerir tilkall til tveggja landsvĂŠĂ°a ĂĄ SuĂ°urskautslandinu: Eyju PĂ©turs 1. og Matthildarlands. Noregur ĂĄ landamĂŠri aĂ° SvĂĂŸjóð, Finnlandi og RĂșsslandi, og er eitt NorĂ°urlandanna. Sunnan viĂ° Noreg skilur Skagerrak landiĂ° frĂĄ Danmörku. Noregur ĂĄ mjög langa strandlengju aĂ° Atlantshafi og Barentshafi.
+
+Ă Noregi bĂșa 5,5 milljĂłnir (2023). HöfuĂ°borg landsins er ĂslĂł. Haraldur 5. af LukkuborgarĂŠtt er konungur Noregs og Jonas Gahr StĂžre hefur gegnt embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra frĂĄ 2021. Noregur er einingarrĂki meĂ° ĂŸingbundna konungsstjĂłrn ĂŸar sem rĂkisvaldiĂ° skiptist milli dĂłmsvalds, norska stĂłrĂŸingsins og rĂkisstjĂłrnar Noregs, samkvĂŠmt stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ Noregs frĂĄ 1814. Norska konungsrĂkiĂ° var stofnaĂ° 872 ĂŸegar mörg smĂĄkonungsdĂŠmi runnu saman. FrĂĄ 1537 til 1814 var Noregur hluti af Danaveldi og frĂĄ 1814 til 1905 var landiĂ° Ă konungssambandi viĂ° SvĂĂŸjóð. Noregur var hlutlaus Ă fyrri heimsstyrjöld, en Ă sĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöld hernĂĄmu Ăjóðverjar landiĂ° til strĂĂ°sloka.
+
+StaĂ°bundin stjĂłrnvöld Ă Noregi eru ĂĄ tveimur stjĂłrnsĂœslustigum: fylki og sveitarfĂ©lög. Samar njĂłta sjĂĄlfsĂĄkvörĂ°unarrĂ©ttar og ĂĄhrifa ĂĄ stjĂłrn hefĂ°bundinna landsvĂŠĂ°a sinna Ă gegnum SamaĂŸingiĂ° og Finnmerkurlögin. Noregur ĂĄ Ă nĂĄnu samstarfi viĂ° EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° og BandarĂkin og er hluti af EvrĂłpska efnahagssvĂŠĂ°inu. Noregur er stofnaĂ°ili aĂ° SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðunum, NATO, EvrĂłpurĂĄĂ°inu, AlĂŸjóðaviĂ°skiptastofnuninni og OECD. Noregur er hluti af Schengen-svĂŠĂ°inu. Norska er norrĂŠnt mĂĄl sem lĂkist dönsku og sĂŠnsku.
+
+Noregur bĂœr viĂ° norrĂŠnt velferĂ°arkerfi sem byggist ĂĄ jafnaĂ°arhugsjĂłnum. Norska rĂkiĂ° ĂĄ stĂłra eignarhluti Ă lykilgeirum eins og olĂu- og gasvinnslu, nĂĄmum, timburframleiĂ°slu, ĂștgerĂ° og ferskvatnsframleiĂ°slu. Um fjĂłrĂ°ungur af vergri landsframleiĂ°slu landsins kemur Ășr olĂuiĂ°naĂ°inum. MiĂ°aĂ° viĂ° höfĂ°atölu er Noregur stĂŠrsti framleiĂ°andi olĂu og jarĂ°gass utan MiĂ°-Austurlanda. Tekjur ĂĄ mann eru ĂŸĂŠr fjĂłrĂ°u hĂŠstu Ă heimi miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° lista AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðsins og Heimsbankans. Norski olĂusjóðurinn er stĂŠrsti ĂŸjóðarsjóður heims, metinn ĂĄ 1,3 billjĂłn dali.
+
+Heiti
+HeitiĂ° Noregur kemur fyrir Ă heimildum frĂĄ miðöldum sem bĂŠĂ°i âNoregurâ og âNorvegurâ og er taliĂ° merkja ânorĂ°urvegurâ. Ă FrĂĄsögn Ăttars hĂĄleygska frĂĄ um 880 kemur nafniĂ° fyrir (ĂĄ engilsaxnesku) sem NorĂ°weg og ânorĂ°manna landâ sem heiti ĂĄ ströndinni frĂĄ ĂgĂ°um til HĂĄlogalands. NorĂ°menn gĂŠtu ĂŸĂĄ hafa veriĂ° ĂbĂșar norĂ°an fjallanna, âAustmennâ austan ĂŸeirra og âDanirâ Ă VĂkinni. NorĂ°urvegur vĂŠri aftur Ă andstöðu viĂ° Austurveg (austan Eystrasalts), Vesturveg (til Bretlands) og âSuĂ°urvegâ til ĂĂœskalands. AĂ°rar orĂ°myndir frĂĄ miðöldum eru Nortuagia (Durham Liber Vitae), Nuruiak (Jalangurssteinarnir) og nuriki (rĂșnasteinn frĂĄ Noregi). Seinna var heitiĂ° tĂșlkaĂ° sem samsetning Ășr Nor- og rige (ârĂkiâ, sbr. âSvĂarĂkiâ). Hugsanlega hefur ĂŸĂĄgufallsmyndin Norege haft ĂŸar ĂĄhrif. NĂșverandi rithĂĄttur ĂĄ norsku er frĂĄ 17. öld og gĂŠti veriĂ° samdrĂĄttur ĂĄ danska orĂ°inu Norrige.
+
+Ă nĂœnorsku heitir landiĂ° Noreg, en var ĂĄĂ°ur Norig. Ă norĂ°ursamĂsku heitir ĂŸaĂ° Vuodna (âfjörĂ°urâ), Nöörje ĂĄ suĂ°ursamĂsku og Norja ĂĄ kvensku.
+
+Ă fornsögunni âHvernig Noregur byggĂ°istâ Ă FlateyjarbĂłk segir frĂĄ börnum Ăorra sem eru sögĂ° vera synirnir NĂłrr, GĂłrr og dĂłttirin GĂłi. Ăar segir aĂ° NĂłrr hafi lagt undir sig löndin vestan viĂ° Kjölinn og Noregur dregiĂ° nafn sitt af honum. TaliĂ° er aĂ° nafn sagnkonungsins sĂ© dregiĂ° af landinu fremur en öfugt, en til er tilgĂĄta um aĂ° nafniĂ° sĂ© dregiĂ° af norska orĂ°inu nor, âsundâ eĂ°a âvĂkâ.
+
+Saga
+
+âââFĂłlk hefur bĂșiĂ° Ă Noregi Ă yfir 12.000 ĂĄr. FĂłlkiĂ° fluttist frĂĄ ĂĂœskalandi Ă suĂ°ri eĂ°a Ășr norĂ°austri, ĂŸ.e. frĂĄ NorĂ°ur-Finnlandi og RĂșsslandi. Milli 5000 og 4000 fyrir Krist var landbĂșnaĂ°ur fyrst hafinn Ă OslĂłarfirĂ°i. Heimildir eru fyrir verslun viĂ° RĂłmverja.
+
+Ă 8. - 11. öld fĂłru margir norskir vĂkingar til Ăslands, FĂŠreyja og GrĂŠnlands og til Bretlandseyja. Ăeir sem fĂłru til Ăslands gerĂ°u ĂŸaĂ° meĂ°al annars til aĂ° flĂœja ofrĂki Haralds hĂĄrfagra sem reyndi aĂ° leggja undir sig allan Noreg. AĂ°rir fĂłru vegna skorts ĂĄ góðu landbĂșnaĂ°arlandi Ă Vestur-Noregi og leituĂ°u nĂœrra landsvĂŠĂ°a. NĂœ siglingatĂŠkni, eins og langskipin, ĂĄtti sinn ĂŸĂĄtt Ă ĂștrĂĄsinni. Kristni breiddist Ășt ĂĄ 11. öld. Ătök urĂ°u Ă landinu vegna tilkomu kristninnar og StiklastaĂ°aorrusta var einn af atburĂ°unum sem mörkuĂ°u ĂŸau. AĂ° lokum kristnaĂ°ist Noregur og varĂ° NiĂ°arĂłs biskupsstĂłll landsins.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1349 gekk Svarti dauĂ°i og aĂ°rar plĂĄgur yfir Noreg og urĂ°u til ĂŸess aĂ° fĂłlki fĂŠkkaĂ°i um helming. Ă 14. öld varĂ° Björgvin helsta verslunarhöfn Noregs en henni stjĂłrnuĂ°u Hansakaupmenn. ĂriĂ° 1397 gekk Noregur Ă rĂkjasamband meĂ° SvĂĂŸjóð og Danmörku Ă Kalmarsambandinu. SvĂĂŸjóð gekk Ășr sambandinu ĂĄriĂ° 1523 og Ășr varĂ° rĂkjasamband Danmerkur og Noregs.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1537 urĂ°u siĂ°askiptin Ă Noregi. Konungsveldi var sett ĂĄ laggirnar ĂĄriĂ° 1661 og danski konungurinn varĂ° einvaldur. NĂĄmavinnsla hĂłfst Ă stĂłrum stĂl ĂĄ 17. öld og ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al voru silfurnĂĄmur Ă Kongsberg og koparnĂĄmur Ă RĂžros. ĂriĂ° 1814 gaf Danmörk SvĂĂŸjóð eftir yfirrĂĄĂ° yfir Noregi. Noregur lĂœsti ĂŸĂł yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i. Ăann 17. maĂ 1814 fĂ©kk Noregur stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ.
+
+IĂ°nvĂŠĂ°ing hĂłfst upp Ășr 1840 en eftir 1860 fluttist fĂłlk Ă stĂłrum stĂl til NorĂ°ur-AmerĂku.
+
+Noregur varĂ° sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt land 7. jĂșnĂ ĂĄriĂ° 1905 vegna sambandsslita Noregs og SvĂĂŸjóðar. Eftir ĂŸaĂ° hefur 17. maĂ veriĂ° ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°ardagur Noregs.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1913 fengu norskar konur kosningarĂ©tt og urĂ°u nĂŠstfyrstar Ă heiminum til aĂ° nĂĄ ĂŸeim ĂĄfanga. FrĂĄ ĂŸvĂ um 1880-1920 fĂłru norskir landkönnuĂ°ir aĂ° kanna heimskautasvĂŠĂ°in. MeĂ°al ĂŸeirra mikilvirkustu voru Fridtjof Nansen, Roald Amundsen og Otto Sverdrup. Amundsen komst fyrstur manna ĂĄ SuĂ°urpĂłlinn ĂĄriĂ° 1911.
+
+Ă byrjun 20. aldar urĂ°u skipaflutningar og vatnsorka ĂŠ mikilvĂŠgari. JĂĄrnbrautir voru lagĂ°ar milli helstu ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisstaĂ°a. Efnahagurinn sveiflaĂ°ist og upp spruttu verkalĂœĂ°shreyfingar. Ăjóðverjar hernĂĄmu Noreg ĂĄriĂ° 1940 eftir bardaga viĂ° norskar og breskar hersveitir og stóð hernĂĄm ĂŸeirra til 1945. RĂkisstjĂłrnin og konungsfjöldskyldan flĂșĂ°u til London. Vidkun Quisling vann meĂ° nasistum og lĂœsti sig forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra fyrst um sinn en sĂĂ°ar tĂłk Ăjóðverjinn Josef Terboven viĂ° taumunum.
+
+Eftir sĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöld varĂ° Noregur stofnmeĂ°limur NATO ĂĄriĂ° 1949 en leyfĂ°i ĂŸĂł ekki erlendar herstöðvar eĂ°a kjarnavopn Ă landinu til aĂ° styggja ekki SovĂ©tmenn. LandiĂ° gekk Ă frĂverslunarbandalagiĂ° EFTA ĂĄriĂ° 1960.
+
+OlĂa var uppgötvuĂ° Ă NorĂ°ursjĂł ĂĄriĂ° 1969 og undir lok 20. aldar var Noregur einn af mestu olĂuĂștflutningsaĂ°ilum heims. Equinor er stĂŠrsta olĂufyrirtĂŠkiĂ° og ĂĄ norska rĂkiĂ° 2/3 hluta Ă ĂŸvĂ.
+
+RĂkisstjĂłrn Noregs er nĂș undir forystu Jonasar Gahr StĂžre.
+
+LandfrĂŠĂ°i
+Strönd Noregs er mjög vogskorin og meĂ° Ăłtal fjörĂ°um sem Ăsaldarjökullinn mĂłtaĂ°i. SognfjörĂ°ur er stĂŠrsti fjörĂ°urinn og inn af honum ganga margir smĂĄfirĂ°ir. Einnig eru margar eyjar undan ströndum Noregs. Eyjaklasinn LĂłfĂłtur er rĂłmaĂ°ur fyrir nĂĄttĂșrufegurĂ°. Jan Mayen og SvalbarĂ°i heyra undir Noreg. SkandinavĂufjöll liggja frĂĄ norĂ°ri til suĂ°urs Ă gegnum landiĂ°. Ă fjalllendinu Jötunheimum eru jöklar; stĂŠrsti jökull fastalands Noregs, Jostedalsjökull, er ĂŸar og einnig hĂŠsta fjalliĂ°, Galdhöpiggen (2469 m.). Mun stĂŠrri jöklar eru ĂĄ SvalbarĂ°a (Austfonnajökull). Hornindalsvatnet er dĂœpsta vatn EvrĂłpu.
+
+Einstakir firðir, Geirangursfjörður og NÊrÞyfjörður, hafa verið settir å heimsminjalista UNESCO.
+
+38% landins eru skógi vaxin. Af trjåtegundum må helst nefna rauðgreni, skógarfuru, gråelri, ilmbjörk, hengibjörk, ilmreyni og eini. Sunnarlega må finna beyki og ask.
+
+HeiĂ°ar Ă yfir 1000 metra hĂŠĂ° eru algengar Ă Noregi. MeĂ° ĂŸeim ĂŸekktari er Hardangervidda.
+
+DĂœralĂf
+DĂœralĂf er fjölbreytt. Til dĂŠmis finnast 90 tegundir spendĂœra, 250 tegundir staĂ°fugla, 2800 tegundir hĂĄplantna, 45 tegundir ferskvatnsfiska, 150 tegundir sjĂĄvarfiska og 16.000 tegundir skordĂœra.
+
+Ă dag telja lĂffrĂŠĂ°ingar aĂ° aĂ°eins 80-100 Ășlfar finnist Ă norsku ĂłbyggĂ°unum og er jarfastofninn litlu stĂŠrri. Uppi ĂĄ heiĂ°unum finnast lĂŠmingjar en ĂŸeir ganga Ă gegnum miklar stofnsveiflur meĂ° reglulegu millibili, ĂŸannig aĂ° stofninn nĂŠr hĂĄmarki reglulega ĂĄ 11-12 ĂĄra fresti.
+
+Ă hĂĄlendisheiĂ°inni Hardangervidda og Ă aĂ°liggjandi fjöllum finnst sĂĂ°asti villti stofn hreindĂœra Ă EvrĂłpu. Hann telur nĂș um 15 ĂŸĂșsund dĂœr. Elg hefur fjölgaĂ° mjög Ă Noregi ĂĄ undanförnum 50 ĂĄrum og er stofninn geysistĂłr ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° 40-50 ĂŸĂșsund dĂœr sĂ©u felld ĂĄ ĂĄri. BjĂłrnum hefur einnig farnast vel Ă skjĂłli friĂ°unar en eftir seinni heimsstyrjöld var heildarstofn hans Ă gjörvallri EvrĂłpu aĂ°eins rĂșmlega 500 dĂœr. NĂș hefur hann, bĂŠĂ°i Ă Noregi og vĂĂ°ar, numiĂ° gömul vatnasvĂŠĂ°i aĂ° nĂœju.
+
+SamkvĂŠmt AlĂŸjóðlegu nĂĄttĂșruverndasamtökunum teljast ĂŸrjĂĄr tegundir landspendĂœra vera Ă hĂŠttu ĂĄ aĂ° hverfa Ășr norskri nĂĄttĂșru. Ăetta eru skĂłgarbjörn, Ășlfur og fjallarefur en ĂŸeim sĂĂ°astnefnda hefur fĂŠkkaĂ° mjög Ă Noregi ĂĄ sĂĂ°ustu öld, sennilega vegna hlĂœnunar. ViĂ° hlĂœnun sĂŠkir rauĂ°refurinn mun norĂ°ar og melrakkinn hefur ekki roĂ° viĂ° honum Ă harĂ°ri samkeppni.
+
+Flestar fuglategundir sem teljast til fuglafĂĄnu Noregs eru farfuglar. HarĂ°gerĂ°ar tegundir eins og hrafn og rjĂșpa eru dĂŠmi um tegundir sem ĂŸreyja ĂŸorrann Ă kaldri vetrartĂĂ°inni. Sumar fuglategundir fara langt suĂ°ur ĂĄ bĂłginn ĂĄ veturna meĂ°an aĂ°rar leita aĂ°eins niĂ°ur ĂĄ ströndina.
+
+FuglalĂfiĂ° Ă Noregi er afar fjölbreytt enda eru ĂŸar gjöful hafsvĂŠĂ°i sem nĂŠra milljĂłnir sjĂłfugla, skĂłgar sem hĂœsa milljĂłnir fugla og heiĂ°alönd sem eru heimkynni rjĂșpu og annarra tegunda. Ă kjarrlendi eru akurhĂŠnur ĂĄberandi og Ă skĂłgunum mĂĄ sjĂĄ spĂŠtur, ĂŸiĂ°ur og orra auk fjölda tegunda ugla og smĂŠrri rĂĄnfugla sem veiĂ°a ĂŸessa fugla auk urmuls smĂĄrra spendĂœra sem lifa Ă skĂłgunum.
+
+Ă fuglafĂĄnu Noregs er fjöldi tegunda vatna- og votlendisfugla, svo sem andfuglar og rellur, auk ĂŸess sem svartfuglar eru algengir meĂ°fram ströndinni. Haförninn er ĂĄberandi fugl sem lifir viĂ° hina löngu strandlengju Noregs. LangstĂŠrsti hluti heimsstofns hafarnarins lifir Ă Noregi eĂ°a ĂĄ milli 3.500 og 4.000 fuglar en heimsstofninn er vel innan viĂ° 5.000 fuglar.
+
+StjĂłrnmĂĄl
+
+StjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar
+Fylki Noregs eru 11 og 356 sveitarfĂ©lög. Fylkin eru ĂŸessi:
+
+Landshlutar
+Noregi er skipt Ă fimm landshluta.
+ Austur-Noregur, Austlandet.
+ NorĂ°ur-Noregur, Nord-Noreg.
+ SuĂ°ur-Noregur, SĂžrlandet.
+ Vestur-Noregur, Vestlandet.
+ ĂrĂŠndalög, TrĂžndelag.
+
+EfnahagslĂf
+
+Ă Noregi er verg landsframleiĂ°sla ĂĄ mann sĂș önnur hĂŠsta Ă EvrĂłpu ĂĄ eftir LĂșxemborg og sĂș sjötta hĂŠsta kaupmĂĄttarjöfnuĂ°. Noregur er Ă dag annaĂ° auĂ°ugasta land heims aĂ° nafnvirĂ°i og ĂĄ stĂŠrsta varasjóð Ă heimi miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° höfĂ°atölu. SamkvĂŠmt CIA World Factbook lĂĄnar Noregur meira en landiĂ° skuldar. Noregur var Ă efsta sĂŠti vĂsitölu um ĂŸrĂłun lĂfsgĂŠĂ°a sex ĂĄr Ă röð (2001-2006) og nĂĄĂ°i ĂŸvĂ svo aftur ĂĄriĂ° 2009. LĂfskjör Ă Noregi eru meĂ° ĂŸvĂ besta sem gerist Ă heiminum. TĂmaritiĂ° Foreign Policy setti Noreg Ă sĂĂ°asta sĂŠti lista yfir brostin rĂki ĂĄrin 2009 og 2023, ĂŸannig aĂ° landiĂ° var metiĂ° best virkandi og stöðugasta land heims. Ă betra lĂf-vĂsitölu OECD var Noregur Ă 4. sĂŠti og Ă ĂŸriĂ°ja sĂŠti yfir teygni tekna milli kynslóða.
+
+Norska hagkerfiĂ° er dĂŠmigert blandaĂ° hagkerfi; auĂ°ugt kapĂtalĂskt velferĂ°arrĂki meĂ° blöndu af frjĂĄlsum markaĂ°i og eignarhaldi rĂkisins Ă lykilgeirum, undir ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ frjĂĄlslyndum stjĂłrnum 19. aldar og stjĂłrnum Verkamannaflokksins eftir sĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöld. AĂ°gangur aĂ° heilbrigĂ°iskerfi Noregs er gjaldfrjĂĄls (fyrir utan 2000 krĂłna ĂĄrgjald fyrir alla yfir 16 ĂĄra aldri) og foreldrar fĂĄ 46 vikna foreldraorlof. RĂkiĂ° hefur miklar tekjur af sölu nĂĄttĂșruauĂ°linda, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al frĂĄ olĂuframleiĂ°slu. Atvinnuleysi Ă Noregi er 4,8% og atvinnuĂŸĂĄtttaka er 68%. FĂłlk ĂĄ vinnumarkaĂ°i er Ăœmist Ă vinnu eĂ°a Ă leit aĂ° vinnu. 9,5% fĂłlks ĂĄ aldrinum 18-66 ĂĄra eru ĂĄ örorkubĂłtum og 30% vinna hjĂĄ rĂkinu, sem er hĂŠsta hlutfall meĂ°al OECD-rĂkja. FramleiĂ°ni ĂĄ vinnustund er meĂ° ĂŸvĂ mesta sem gerist Ă heiminum.
+
+JafnaĂ°arhyggja einkennir norskt samfĂ©lag, ĂŸannig aĂ° launamunur ĂĄ ĂŸeim hĂŠst og lĂŠgst launuĂ°u er miklu minni en Ă flestum öðrum vestrĂŠnum rĂkjum. Ăetta endurspeglast Ă lĂĄgum Gini-stuĂ°li Noregs.
+
+RĂkiĂ° ĂĄ stĂłra eignarhluti Ă lykilgeirum Ă iĂ°naĂ°i, eins og Ă olĂuiĂ°naĂ°inum (Equinor), vatnsaflsvirkjunum (Statkraft), ĂĄlframleiĂ°slu (Norsk Hydro), stĂŠrsta norska bankanum (DNB ASA) og fjarskiptafyritĂŠki (Telenor). Ă gegnum ĂŸessi stĂłrfyrirtĂŠki fer rĂkiĂ° meĂ° um 30% af skrĂĄĂ°um hlutabrĂ©fum Ă kauphöllinni Ă OslĂł. Ef ĂłskrĂĄĂ° fyrirtĂŠki eru talin meĂ° er hlutur rĂkisins jafnvel enn hĂŠrri (aĂ°allega vegna eignarhalds ĂĄ olĂuleyfum). Noregur er ĂĄberandi Ă skipaflutningum og ĂĄ sjötta stĂŠrsta kaupskipastĂłl heims, meĂ° 1412 skip Ă norskri eigu.
+
+NorĂ°menn höfnuĂ°u ESB-aĂ°ild Ă tveimur ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slum 1972 og 1994. Noregur hefur aĂ°gang aĂ° innri markaĂ°i EvrĂłpusambandsins, ĂĄsamt Ăslandi og Liechtenstein, Ă gegnum samninginn um EvrĂłpska efnahagssvĂŠĂ°iĂ°. Samningurinn kveĂ°ur ĂĄ um innleiĂ°ingu EvrĂłpusambandslöggjafar Ă norsk lög. Samningurinn nĂŠr ekki aĂ° öllu leyti yfir suma geira, eins og landbĂșnaĂ°, olĂu og fisk. Noregur ĂĄ lĂka aĂ°ild aĂ° Schengen-samkomulaginu og fleiri samningum EvrĂłpusambandsrĂkja.
+
+Noregur ĂĄ mikiĂ° af nĂĄttĂșruauĂ°lindum, eins og olĂu- og gaslindir, vatnsafl, fiskimiĂ°, skĂłga og jarĂ°efni. Ă 7. ĂĄratug 20. aldar uppgötvuĂ°ust stĂłrar olĂu- og jarĂ°gaslindir undan ströndum Noregs sem leiddu til mikils vaxtar Ă efnahagslĂfinu. AĂ° hluta hefur Noregur nĂĄĂ° aĂ° skapa bestu lĂfskjör heims meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° nĂœta ĂŸessar rĂkulegu auĂ°lindir miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° smĂŠĂ° ĂŸjóðarinnar. ĂriĂ° 2011 komu 28% af tekjum norska rĂkisins Ășr olĂuiĂ°naĂ°inum. Eftirlaunasjóður norska rĂkisins var stofnaĂ°ur ĂĄriĂ° 1990 til aĂ° halda utan um tekjur rĂkisins af olĂuvinnslunni. ĂriĂ° 2011 var ĂŸessi sjóður orĂ°inn stĂŠrsti rĂkisfjĂĄrfestingasjóður heims.
+
+ĂbĂșar
+
+TungumĂĄl
+TungumĂĄl NorĂ°manna er norska (sem hefur tvenns konar opinbert ritmĂĄl, bĂłkmĂĄl og nĂœnorsku), ĂĄsamt samĂskum tungumĂĄlum. Norskt talmĂĄl einkennist af miklum mĂĄllĂœskumun. AĂ° nota mĂĄllĂœsku Ă venjulegu talmĂĄli er jafn algengt hjĂĄ ĂŸeim sem rita bĂłkmĂĄl eins og ĂŸeim sem nota nĂœnorsku sem ritmĂĄl.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tengt efni
+ UpplĂœsingasĂĂ°a frĂĄ norska sendirĂĄĂ°inu ĂĄ Ăslandi
+ StaĂ°reyndir um Noreg
+ Ăslendingar Ă Noregi; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1961
+ 350 ĂĄr frĂĄ stofnun norska hersins; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1978
+ SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isbarĂĄtta Noregs ĂĄriĂ° 1905; grein Ă SkĂrni 1908
+BorgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur er ĂŠĂ°sti embĂŠttismaĂ°ur ReykjavĂkurborgar. BorgarstjĂłri framkvĂŠmir samĂŸykktir borgarstjĂłrnar og er yfirmaĂ°ur starfsmanna borgarinnar. Hann er oftast valinn Ășr hĂłpi borgarfulltrĂșa ĂŸĂł hann geti lĂka veriĂ° rĂĄĂ°inn. NĂșverandi borgarstjĂłri er Dagur B. Eggertsson og tĂłk hann viĂ° embĂŠtti 16. jĂșnĂ 2014.
+
+Sögulegt yfirlit
+
+Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrnarlögum fyrir ReykjavĂk sem sett voru ĂĄriĂ° 1907 var Ă fyrsta sinn kveĂ°iĂ° ĂĄ um embĂŠtti borgarstjĂłra. EmbĂŠttiĂ° var auglĂœst ĂĄriĂ° 1908 og sĂłttu tveir um stöðuna, ĂŸeir PĂĄll Einarsson og Knud Zimsen. PĂĄll var rĂĄĂ°inn til sex ĂĄra en aĂ° ĂŸeim tĂma loknum ĂĄkvaĂ° hann aĂ° hĂŠtta störfum og Knud Zimsen tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠttinu. Hann hĂ©lt ĂŸvĂ til ĂĄrsins 1932. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1935 til 1994 komu allir nema einn af borgarstjĂłrum ReykjavĂkur Ășr röðum SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokksins, sem hĂ©lt lengi vel hreinum meirihluta Ă borginni. Ă kosningunum 1994 stofnuĂ°u ĂŸĂĄverandi fĂ©lagshyggjuflokkar (AlĂŸĂœĂ°uflokkurinn, AlĂŸĂœĂ°ubandalagiĂ°, Kvennalistinn og FramsĂłknarflokkurinn) sameiginlegan framboĂ°slista sem kallaĂ°ur var ReykjavĂkurlistinn undir forystu Ingibjargar SĂłlrĂșnar GĂsladĂłttur. ReykjavĂkurlistinn bauĂ° fram og hĂ©lt meirihluta Ă borginni til ĂĄrsins 2006 ĂŸegar flokkarnir sem mynduĂ°u listann (ĂŸĂĄ Samfylkingin, Vinstrihreyfingin - grĂŠnt framboĂ° og FramsĂłknarflokkurinn) buĂ°u fram undir eigin merkjum ĂĄ nĂœ. NĂœtt framboĂ°, Besti flokkurinn, sem leiddur var af JĂłni Gnarr bauĂ° fram Ă SveitarstjĂłrnarkosningunum 2010 og varĂ° stĂŠrsti flokkurinn Ă borgarstjĂłrn Ă kjölfar efnahagshrunsins ĂĄ Ăslandi 2008. ĂĂĄ mynduĂ°u borgarfulltrĂșar flokksins meirihluta ĂĄsamt Samfylkingunni og varĂ° JĂłn Gnarr borgarstjĂłri. Besti flokkurinn bauĂ° ekki fram aftur Ă SveitarstjĂłrnarkosningunum 2014 en ĂŸĂĄ varĂ° Samfylkingin stĂŠrsti flokkurinn Ă borgarstjĂłrn meĂ° fimm borgarfulltrĂșa og tĂłk Dagur B. Eggertsson viĂ° sem borgarstjĂłri. FĂłr Samfylkingin fyrir meirihluta ĂĄsamt Vinstri hreyfingunni - grĂŠnu framboĂ°i, Bestaflokknum og PĂrötum.
+
+Ă kosningum til borgarstjĂłrnar ĂĄriĂ° 2018 varĂ° SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokkurinn ĂĄ nĂœ stĂŠrsti flokkurinn meĂ° naumum mun yfir Samfylkginguna. Gamli meirihlutinn frĂĄ kosningunum 2014 hĂ©lt aĂ° mestu leyti Ă sinni mynd, utan ĂŸess aĂ° ViĂ°reisn kom Ă staĂ° Besta flokksins. Eins bĂŠttust viĂ° ĂŸrĂr nĂœir flokkar sem ekki höfĂ°u ĂĄĂ°ur setiĂ° Ă borgarstjĂłrn: MiĂ°flokkurinn, SĂłsĂalistaflokkur Ăslands og Flokkur fĂłlksins. NĂșverandi meirihluti ReykjavĂkurborgar er myndaĂ°ur af Samfylkingunni, ViĂ°reisn, Vinstrihreyfingunni - grĂŠnu framboĂ°i og PĂrötum en Ă minnihluta sitja borgarfulltrĂșar SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokksins, MiĂ°flokksins, SĂłsĂalistaflokks Ăslands og Flokks fĂłlksins.
+
+Starf
+Starf borgarstjĂłra felst Ă tveimur meginhlutverkum, annars vegar aĂ° starfa sem framkvĂŠmdarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkurborgar og hins vegar aĂ° koma fram sem opinber fulltrĂși hennar. IĂ°ulega er borgarstjĂłri jafnframt pĂłlitĂskur leiĂ°togi meirihluta borgarstjĂłrnar. Svo ĂŸarf ekki aĂ° vera, enda getur borgarstjĂłri veriĂ° rĂĄĂ°inn ĂĄ faglegum forsendum eĂ°a veriĂ° pĂłlitĂskur fulltrĂși sem hefur ĂŸĂł ekki sĂ©rstakar leiĂ°togastöðu.
+
+Hann getur tekiĂ° sĂŠti ĂĄ fundum nefndar borgarinnar og hefur ĂŸar bĂŠĂ°i mĂĄlfrelsi og tillögurĂ©tt. Einnig gegnir hann skyldum sem prĂłkĂșruhafi borgarsjóðs og undirritar skjöl varĂ°andi kaup og sölu ĂĄ fasteignum, lĂĄntökur og annaĂ° sem varĂ°ar fjĂĄrhagslegar skuldbindingar og rĂĄĂ°stafanir eftir aĂ° borgarstjĂłrn hefur samĂŸykkt ĂŸĂŠr. BorgarstjĂłri fer lĂka meĂ° eignarhluta ReykjavĂkurborgar Ă svokölluĂ°um B-hluta fyrirtĂŠkjum.
+
+BorgarstjĂłrar
+Eftirtaldir hafa gegnt embĂŠtti borgarstjĂłra Ă ReykjavĂk:
+
+Heimildir
+ Reykjavik.is - BorgarstjĂłrar Ă ReykjavĂk frĂĄ 1908
+ UpplĂœsingasĂĂ°a um JĂłn Gnarr af vef ReykjavĂkurborgar
+ Ăld frĂĄ skipun fyrsta borgarstjĂłra
+
+
+Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄlasaga
+Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄl
+AuĂ°ur AuĂ°uns (f. ĂĄ ĂsafirĂ°i 18. febrĂșar 1911 - d. 19. oktĂłber 1999) var Ăslenskur lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur. HĂșn var fyrsta konan sem ĂștskrifaĂ°ist ĂĄ Ăslandi sem lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur og fyrsta konan sem varĂ° borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur og rĂĄĂ°herra ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+
+Ăvi
+AuĂ°ur var dĂłttir JĂłns AuĂ°uns JĂłnssonar alĂŸingismanns, fyrst fyrir Ăhaldsflokkinn og svo seinna fyrir SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokkinn, og MargrĂ©tar GuĂ°rĂșnar JĂłnsdĂłttur. AuĂ°ur tĂłk stĂșdentsprĂłf viĂ° MenntaskĂłlann Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄriĂ° 1929 og lauk lögfrĂŠĂ°iprĂłfi frĂĄ HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands ĂĄriĂ° 1935, fyrst Ăslenskra kvenna. Ări seinna giftist hĂșn Hermanni JĂłnssyni, hĂŠstarĂ©ttarlögmanni og eignaĂ°ist meĂ° honum fjögur börn; JĂłn (1939), Einar (1942), MargrĂ©ti (1949) og Ărna (1954).
+
+AuĂ°ur starfaĂ°i sem lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur MĂŠĂ°rastyrksnefndar ReykjavĂkur ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1940 til 60. HĂșn var bĂŠjar- og sĂĂ°ar borgarfulltrĂși Ă ReykjavĂk 1946-1970, forseti bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar og sĂĂ°ar borgarstjĂłrnar 1954 til 1959 og 1960 til 1970. AuĂ°ur var fyrsta konan sem gegndi embĂŠtti borgarstjĂłra Ă ReykjavĂk en hĂșn gegndi embĂŠttinu ĂĄsamt Geir HallgrĂmssyni frĂĄ 19. nĂłvember 1959 til 6. oktĂłber 1960.
+
+HĂșn var alĂŸingismaĂ°ur ReykvĂkinga 1959 til 74 fyrir SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokkinn. HĂșn sat ĂĄ AllsherjarĂŸingi SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna 1967. HĂșn var skipuĂ° dĂłms- og kirkjumĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra ĂŸann 10. oktĂłber 1970 og gegndi embĂŠttinu fram ĂĄ mitt sumar 1971. HĂșn var fyrsta Ăslenska konan til aĂ° gegna rĂĄĂ°herraembĂŠtti. Loks mĂĄ geta ĂŸess aĂ° hĂșn sat Ă ĂștvarpsrĂĄĂ°i 1975 til 1978.
+
+AuĂ°ur var virk Ă KvenrĂ©ttindafĂ©lagi Ăslands og var gerĂ° aĂ° heiĂ°ursfĂ©laga ĂŸess, 19. jĂșnĂ 1985 ĂŸegar sjötĂu ĂĄr voru liĂ°in frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Ăslenskar konur fengu kosningarĂ©tt. Landssamband sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°iskvenna og Hvöt, fĂ©lag sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°iskvenna Ă ReykjavĂk gĂĄfu Ășt AuĂ°arbĂłk AuĂ°uns ĂĄriĂ° 1981 Ă tilefni af sjötugsafmĂŠli AuĂ°ar.
+
+Tengt efni
+ BrĂet BjarnhĂ©Ă°insdĂłttir
+ Ingibjörg H. Bjarnason
+
+Tenglar
+ Vefur ReykjavĂkurborgar
+ AlĂŸingismannatal
+ Safn efnis ĂĄ vefsiĂ°u MorgunblaĂ°sins um AuĂ°i
+ Greinin Framlag sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°iskvenna - heiĂ°rum minningu AuĂ°ar ĂĄ heimasĂĂ°u Sambands ungra sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°ismanna
+ ĂverpĂłlitĂsk kvennaframboĂ° leysir engan vanda, viĂ°tal viĂ° AuĂ°i Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 7. ĂĄgĂșst 1983
+
+DĂłmsmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herrar Ăslands
+Ăslenskir stjĂłrnmĂĄlamenn
+BorgarstjĂłrar ReykjavĂkur
+KvenborgarstjĂłrar ReykjavĂkur
+Ăslenskir lögfrĂŠĂ°ingar
+KvenrĂ©ttindi ĂĄ Ăslandi
+Ăslenskar kvenrĂ©ttindakonur
+StĂșdentar Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk
+Ăingmenn SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokksins
+Ăslenskar stjĂłrnmĂĄlakonur
+Handhafar stĂłrriddarakross Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorĂ°u
+Ăslenskar konur ĂĄ 20. öld
+
+BorgarfulltrĂșar SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokksins
+18. febrĂșar er 49. dagur ĂĄrsins samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 316 dagar (317 ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1145 - EvgenĂus 3. varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1229 - FriĂ°rik 2. keisari nĂĄĂ°i völdum Ă JerĂșsalem, Betlehem og Nasaret meĂ° tĂu ĂĄra vopnahlĂ©ssamningi viĂ° soldĂĄninn Al-Kamil.
+ 1478 - George Plantagenet, hertogi af Clarence var dĂŠmdur sekur fyrir landrĂĄĂ° gegn eldri bróður sĂnum JĂĄtvarĂ°i 4., og tekinn af lĂfi Ă Tower of London.
+ 1563 - Frans hertogi af Guise, foringi kaĂŸĂłlikka Ă Frakklandi, var sĂŠrĂ°ur af HĂșgenottanum Jean de Poltrot de MĂ©rĂ© ĂŸegar hann sat um OrlĂ©ans og dĂł sex dögum sĂĂ°ar.
+ 1678 - BĂłkin För pĂlagrĂmsins eĂ°a Krossgangan eftir John Bunyan kom Ășt.
+ 1797 - Bretar lögĂ°u undir sig eyjarnar TrĂnidad og TĂłbagĂł.
+ 1875 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă SveinagjĂĄ ĂĄ MĂœvatnsörĂŠfum.
+ 1878 - StofnaĂ°ur var AlĂŸĂœĂ°uskĂłlinn Ă Flensborg Ă HafnarfirĂ°i. Ăar var fyrsti vĂsir aĂ° kennaramenntun ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸar til KennaraskĂłli Ăslands var stofnaĂ°ur 1908.
+ 1885 - SnjĂłflóð fĂ©ll ĂĄ fjĂłrtĂĄn ĂbĂșĂ°arhĂșs ĂĄ SeyĂ°isfirĂ°i og grandaĂ°i 24 mönnum.
+ 1910 - Tuttugu manns fĂłrust Ă snjĂłflóði ĂĄ HnĂfsdal.
+ 1930 - SĂŠnska frystihĂșsiĂ° hĂłf starfsemi Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1930 - Clyde Tombaugh fann PlĂștĂł ĂŸegar hann var aĂ° skoĂ°a myndir sem hann tĂłk Ă janĂșar sama ĂĄr.
+ 1930 - Elm Farm Ollie varĂ° fyrsta kĂœrin sem flaug Ă flugvĂ©l og var mjĂłlkuĂ° Ă hĂĄloftunum.
+ 1934 - SjĂșkrahĂșs HvĂtabandsins Ă ReykjavĂk var vĂgt.
+ 1959 - Vitaskipið Hermóður fórst undan Reykjanesi með tólf manna åhöfn.
+ 1959 - Fidel Castro varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra KĂșbu.
+ 1965 - GambĂa fĂ©kk sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ Breska samveldinu.
+ 1967 - GolfklĂșbburinn Keilir Ă HafnarfirĂ°i var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 1974 - KISS sendi frĂĄ sĂ©r samnefnda plötu, ĂŸeirra fyrstu.
+ 1975 - Ăjóðfrelsishreyfing TĂgra stofnuĂ° Ă EĂŸĂĂłpĂu.
+ 1977- GeimskutluĂĄĂŠtlunin: Geimskutlan Enterprise flaug âjĂłmfrĂșarflugâ ĂĄ Boeing 747 burĂ°arĂŸotu.
+ 1977 - Fyrsta tölublaĂ° breska myndasögutĂmaritsins 2000 AD kom Ășt.
+ 1979 - Ă SaharaeyĂ°imörkinni snjĂłaĂ°i Ă hĂĄlftĂma.
+ 1983 - Nellie-fjöldamorĂ°iĂ°: Yfir 2000 mĂșslimar Ă bĂŠnum Nellie Ă indverska hĂ©raĂ°inu Assam voru myrtir.
+ 1983 - Wah Mee-blóðbaðið à Seattle.
+ 1993 - Marita Petersen varĂ° fyrsti kvenkyns forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra FĂŠreyja.
+ 1996 - Sprengja IRA sprakk Ă strĂŠtisvagni Ă London meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° sprengjumaĂ°urinn lĂ©st og 9 aĂ°rir sĂŠrĂ°ust.
+ 2001 - BandarĂski alrĂkislögreglumaĂ°urinn Robert Hanssen var handtekinn fyrir njĂłsnir fyrir RĂșssa.
+ 2003 - 198 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar maĂ°ur kveikti eld Ă neĂ°anjarĂ°arlest Ă SeĂșl Ă SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu.
+ 2004 - 320 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar sprenging varĂ° Ă jĂĄrnbrautarlest Ă Ăran.
+ 2010 - Forseta NĂger, Mamadou Tandja, var steypt af stĂłli af hĂłpi hermanna undir stjĂłrn Salou Djibo.
+ 2011 - BĂłkabĂșĂ°in MĂĄl og menning tilkynnti um gjaldĂŸrot eftir margra ĂĄra rekstur viĂ° Laugaveg.
+ 2012 - 3/4 kjĂłsenda Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu um stöðu rĂșssnesku Ă Lettlandi höfnuĂ°u ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hĂșn yrĂ°i annaĂ° opinbert mĂĄl landsins.
+ 2016 - RĂșssneska farsĂmafyrirtĂŠkiĂ° VimpelCom samĂŸykkti aĂ° greiĂ°a bandarĂskum og hollenskum yfirvöldum 795 milljĂłn dala sekt vegna spillingar ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 2006-12.
+ 2018 - Iran Aseman Airlines flug 3704 hrapaĂ°i Ă Sagrosfjöllum meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° allir 65 um borĂ° fĂłrust.
+ 2021 - Mars 2020: MarsbĂllinn Perseverance og drĂłninn Ingenuity lentu ĂĄ yfirborĂ°i Mars eftir 7 mĂĄnaĂ°a geimferĂ°.
+ 2022 - Hin ĂĄrlega öryggisrĂĄĂ°stefna Ă MĂŒnchen var haldin, en RĂșssland sniĂ°gekk hana.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1516 - MarĂa 1. Englandsdrottning (d. 1558).
+ 1635 - Johan Göransson Gyllenstierna, sÊnskur stjórnmålamaður (d. 1680).
+ 1642 - Marie Champmeslé, frönsk leikkona (d. 1698).
+ 1838 - Ernst Mach, austurrĂskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1916).
+ 1847 - Thomas Alva Edison, bandarĂskur uppfinningamaĂ°ur (d. 1931).
+ 1849 - Alexander Kielland, norskur rithöfundur (d. 1906).
+ 1886 - JĂłn SigurĂ°sson frĂĄ KaldaĂ°arnesi, Ăslenskur ĂŸĂœĂ°andi (d. 1957).
+ 1898 - Enzo Ferrari, Ătalskur ökuĂŸĂłr og bĂlaframleiĂ°andi (d. 1988).
+ 1911 - AuĂ°ur AuĂ°uns, stjĂłrnmĂĄlakona (d. 1999).
+ 1931 - Toni Morrison, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (d. 2019).
+ 1933 - Yoko Ono, japönsk myndlistarkona.
+ 1936 - Ian Hacking, kanadĂskur heimspekingur.
+ 1947 - Dennis DeYoung, söngvari og hljómborðsleikari Styx.
+ 1949 - Ingibjörg Pålmadóttir, fyrrverandi heilbrigðisråðherra.
+ 1950 - Cybill Shepherd, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1954 - John Travolta, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1954 - HerdĂs ĂorgeirsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur lögmaĂ°ur.
+ 1955 - StefĂĄn JĂłn Hafstein, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1956 - Arnbjörg SveinsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1957 - Marita Koch, ĂŸĂœsk ĂĂŸrĂłttakona.
+ 1957 - Vanna White, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1959 - HallgrĂmur Helgason, Ăslenskur rithöfundur.
+ 1959 - Jayne Atkinson, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1961 - Armin Laschet, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1963 - Ăorsteinn M. JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur athafnamaĂ°ur.
+ 1964 - Matt Dillon, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1965 - Dr. Dre, bandarĂskur rappari og Ăștgefandi.
+ 1967 - Roberto Baggio, Ătalskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1968 - Molly Ringwald, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1973 - Claude Makelele, franskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1975 - Keith Gillespie, norĂ°ur-Ărskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1975 - ĂĂłra ArnĂłrsdĂłttir, Ăslensk fjölmiĂ°lakona.
+ 1975 - Gary Neville, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1983 - Jermaine Jenas, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1995 - RĂșnar Alex RĂșnarsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 999 - GregorĂus 5. pĂĄfi.
+ 1294 - KĂșblaĂ Kan, keisari MongĂłlaveldisins (f. 1215).
+ 1379 - Albert 2., hertogi af Mecklenburg (f. um 1318).
+ 1455 - Fra Angelico, Ătalskur listamaĂ°ur (f. um 1395).
+ 1546 - Marteinn LĂșther, ĂŸĂœskur munkur og siĂ°bĂłtarfrömuĂ°ur (f. 1483).
+ 1564 - Michelangelo Buonarroti, Ătalskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1475).
+ 1851 - Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, ĂŸĂœskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1804).
+ 1967 - J. Robert Oppenheimer, bandarĂskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur, kallaĂ°ur âfaĂ°ir atĂłmsprengjunnarâ (f. 1904).
+ 2003 - Isser Harel, Ăsraelskur Mossad leiĂ°togi (f. 1912).
+ 2008 - Alain Robbe-Grillet, franskur rithöfundur (f. 1922).
+ 2017 - Norma Leah McCorvey, sĂŠkjandi Ă dĂłmsmĂĄlinu âRoe gegn Wadeâ (f. 1947).
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+FebrĂșar
+Ăessi grein fjallar um gömlu stjĂłrnsĂœslueininguna. Fyrir ĂŸĂĄ sem er viĂ° lĂœĂ°i Ă dag, sjĂĄ sĂœslumenn ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+
+SĂœslur Ăslands eru fyrrverandi stjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar ĂĄ Ăslandi sem eru ekki lengur opinberlega Ă gildi. SĂœslur voru umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna sem fĂłru meĂ° framkvĂŠmdavald Ă hĂ©raĂ°i allt frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Ăsland gekk undir stjĂłrn Noregskonungs ĂĄ 13. öld. SĂœslumörk festust smĂĄm saman Ă sessi og ĂĄ fyrri hluta 17. aldar voru sĂœslurnar 19 talsins. SĂœslum var svo Ăœmist skipt upp eĂ°a ĂŸĂŠr sameinaĂ°ar en ĂŸĂŠr voru 23 talsins ĂŸegar ĂŸĂŠr voru afnumdar sem stjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar. Ă 9. ĂĄratug 20. aldar voru gerĂ°ar miklar breytingar ĂĄ sveitarstjĂłrnum og hlutverkum sĂœslumanna sem leiddu Ă raun til ĂŸess aĂ° hin hefĂ°bundna sĂœsluskipting hafĂ°i ekki lengur neitt stjĂłrnsĂœslulegt gildi.
+
+ĂrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° sĂœslurnar hafi falliĂ° niĂ°ur sem stjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar ĂŸĂĄ hafa ĂŸĂŠr lifaĂ° ĂĄfram Ă daglegu tali ĂŸegar vĂsaĂ° er til tiltekinna landsvĂŠĂ°a.
+
+Saga
+
+Upphaf sĂœsluskipunar
+
+Ăegar Ăsland gekk undir Noregskonung ĂĄ 13. öld ĂŸurfti konungur umboĂ°smenn ĂĄ landinu til aĂ° fara meĂ° vald sitt og komu ĂŸĂĄ til sögunar nĂœ embĂŠtti hirĂ°stjĂłrar og sĂœslumenn. Ăess er getiĂ° Ă Gamla sĂĄttmĂĄla sem sagĂ°ur vera frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1262 aĂ° Ăslenskir höfĂ°ingjar hafi sett ĂŸaĂ° sem skilyrĂ°i fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° gangast undir vald konungs aĂ° sĂœslumenn yrĂ°u Ăslenskir og af ĂŸeim höfĂ°ingjaĂŠttum sem ĂĄĂ°ur höfĂ°u fariĂ° meĂ° goĂ°orĂ°in. Settar hafa veriĂ° fram efasemdir um aĂ° ĂŸessi texti Gamla sĂĄttmĂĄla sĂ© Ă raun frĂĄ 13. öld en ljĂłst er aĂ° Ă framkvĂŠmd fĂłr konungur eftir ĂŸessu og skipaĂ°i einungis Ăslendinga sem sĂœslumenn. OrĂ°iĂ° sĂœsla merkir Ă raun verk, vinnu eĂ°a athöfn sem maĂ°ur innir af hendir fyrir sjĂĄlfan sig eĂ°a annan. SĂœslumaĂ°ur var ĂŸvĂ sĂĄ embĂŠttismaĂ°ur sem innir eitthvaĂ° af hendi fyrir konung. SlĂkir embĂŠttismenn ĂŸekktust fyrir Ă Noregi og Danmörku. Menn höfĂ°u sĂœslu meĂ° ĂĄkveĂ°num landshlutum og hugtakiĂ° var ĂŸĂĄ einnig notaĂ° til aĂ° vĂsa til landssvĂŠĂ°is sem sĂœslumaĂ°ur hafĂ°i sĂœslu meĂ°. SĂœslumanna var getiĂ° Ă JĂĄrnsĂĂ°u og JĂłnsbĂłk en ĂŸar var ĂŸĂł ekki getiĂ° um stĂŠrĂ° og staĂ°armörk sĂœslanna. Ă upphafi konungsstjĂłrnar ĂĄ Ăslandi hafa sĂœslur veriĂ° mjög stĂłrar, nĂĄĂ° yfir heila landsfjĂłrĂ°unga eĂ°a jafnvel fleiri en einn fjĂłrĂ°ung. SĂœsluskiptingin var lengi ĂĄ reiki, sĂœslur misstĂłrar og aĂ°allega mĂłtaĂ°ar af samkomulagi hvers og eins sĂœslumanns viĂ° konung eĂ°a hirĂ°stjĂłra. SmĂĄtt og smĂĄtt fĂłru ĂŸĂŠr ĂŸĂł aĂ° taka ĂĄ sig fastmĂłtaĂ°ri mynd, m.a. meĂ° tilliti til ĂŸeirra rökrĂ©ttu landslagsmarka sem hin forna skipting landsins Ă hĂ©raĂ°sĂŸing hafĂ°i ĂĄĂ°ur byggt ĂĄ en ĂŸaĂ° var ekki fyrr en ĂĄ sĂĂ°ari hluta 16. aldar sem aĂ° sĂœslurnar voru komnar meĂ° ĂŸau nöfn og staĂ°armörk sem hĂ©ldust Ă tiltölulega föstum skorĂ°um eftir ĂŸaĂ°. Ă sĂĂ°ari hluta 17. aldar voru allt aĂ° 24 sĂœslumenn Ă landinu.
+
+TekiĂ° var manntal ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄriĂ° 1703 og voru ĂŸĂĄ 23 sĂœslumenn ĂĄ Ăslandi sem fengu ĂŸaĂ° hlutverk aĂ° skila skĂœrslu Ășr sinni sĂœslu um alla menn sem ĂŸar fundust fyrir.
+
+FjölĂŸĂŠtt hlutverk
+ViĂ° endurreisn AlĂŸingis ĂĄriĂ° 1844 var sĂœsluskipting landsins notuĂ° til grundvallar kjördĂŠmaskipan viĂ° kosningar til ĂŸingsins. Ă fyrstu kosningunum voru sĂœslurnar allar einmenningskjördĂŠmi auk ReykjavĂkur sem myndaĂ°i sĂ©rstakt kjördĂŠmi. Eftir ĂŸvĂ sem ĂŸingmönnum ĂĄ hinu endurreista ĂŸingi var fjölgaĂ° var sumum sĂœslum breytt Ă tvĂmenningskjördĂŠmi en öðrum skipt upp. StĂŠrstu kaupstaĂ°ir urĂ°u einnig aĂ° sĂ©rstökum kjördĂŠmum. MeĂ° uppstokkun kjördĂŠmakerfisins 1959 var hĂŠtt aĂ° notast viĂ° sĂœslurnar og Ă staĂ°inn voru tekin upp ĂĄtta stĂŠrri kjördĂŠmi meĂ° hlutfallskosningum.
+
+SamkvĂŠmt konunglegri tilskipun um sveitarstjĂłrnarmĂĄl ĂĄriĂ° 1872 fengu sveitarfĂ©lög forrĂŠĂ°i yfir eigin mĂĄlum og settar voru ĂĄ laggirnar kjörnar hreppsnefndir og sĂœslunefndir auk amtsrĂĄĂ°a sem sĂœslunefndarmenn kusu fulltrĂșa Ă. MeĂ° ĂŸessum breytingum drĂł mjög Ășr boĂ°valdi sĂœslumanna sem fulltrĂșa konungs Ă hĂ©raĂ°i ĂŸar sem Ăœmis staĂ°bundin mĂĄl heyrĂ°u nĂș undir forrĂŠĂ°i kjörinna fulltrĂșa Ă hrepps- og sĂœslunefndum. SĂœslur höfĂ°u upp frĂĄ ĂŸessu Ă raun tvöfalt hlutverk, annars vegar sem sveitarstjĂłrnarumdĂŠmi sem höfĂ°u umboĂ° kjĂłsenda og hins vegar sem lögsagnarumdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna sem umboĂ°smanna framkvĂŠmdavaldsins. Ăetta tvöfalda hlutverk birtist til dĂŠmis Ă ĂŸvĂ aĂ° fariĂ° var aĂ° skipta sumum sĂœslum upp Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarskyni ĂŸĂł aĂ° ĂŸĂŠr hĂ©ldust Ăłbreyttar sem lögsagnarumdĂŠmi. Ăannig var t.d. HĂșnavatnssĂœslu skipt upp Ă tvö sĂœslufĂ©lög Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarmĂĄlum (Austur- og Vestur-HĂșnavatnssĂœsla) en Ăłskipt HĂșnavatnssĂœsla hĂ©lt ĂĄfram aĂ° vera til sem lögsagnarumdĂŠmi sĂœslumanns.
+
+Allir hreppar voru hluti af sĂœslufĂ©lagi og völdu kjĂłsendur Ă hverjum hreppi einn fulltrĂșa til aĂ° sitja Ă sĂœslunefndinni. SĂœslumaĂ°ur var ĂĄvallt formaĂ°ur sĂœslunefndar. Verkefni sĂœslufĂ©laganna voru fjölbreytt og snertu til dĂŠmis gerĂ° og viĂ°hald sĂœsluvega, fjallskil, fĂĄtĂŠkraframfĂŠrslu og frĂŠĂ°slumĂĄl. SĂœslufĂ©lögin fjĂĄrmögnuĂ°u verkefni sĂn meĂ° gjöldum sem lögĂ° voru ĂĄ hreppana samkvĂŠmt ĂĄkvörĂ°unum sĂœslunefnda en ĂŸessi gjöld voru mjög mishĂĄ ĂĄ milli sĂœslufĂ©laga ĂŸar sem umfangiĂ° ĂĄ Ăștgjöldum ĂŸeirra var einnig misjafnt. Ă sumum sĂœslum voru sĂœslufĂ©lög meĂ° umfangsmikinn rekstur ĂĄ skĂłlum, söfnum, elliheimilum o.s.frv. ĂĄ meĂ°an hrepparnir sjĂĄlfir fĂłru meĂ° ĂŸau mĂĄl milliliĂ°alaust à öðrum sĂœslum.
+
+KaupstaĂ°ir voru ĂĄ hinn bĂłginn ekki hluti af sĂœslufĂ©lögunum og ĂŸegar hreppur fĂ©kk kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi gekk hann um leiĂ° Ășr sĂœslufĂ©laginu. KaupstaĂ°ir höfĂ°u ĂŸannig meiri stjĂłrn ĂĄ sĂnum mĂĄlum og greiddu ekki Ă sĂœslusjóði. KaupstaĂ°ir mynduĂ°u einnig sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ° lögsagnarumdĂŠmi og bĂŠjarfĂłgetar fĂłru ĂŸar meĂ° ĂŸau löggĂŠslu- og dĂłmsmĂĄl sem sĂœslumenn sĂĄu um Ă dreifbĂœlinu. Hins vegar var ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸĂł vĂĂ°a ĂŸannig aĂ° sami embĂŠttismaĂ°urinn gegndi samhliĂ°a stöðu bĂŠjarfĂłgeta og sĂœslumanns, til dĂŠmis var sĂœslumaĂ°ur GullbringusĂœslu einnig bĂŠjarfĂłgeti kaupstaĂ°anna Ă KeflavĂk, NjarĂ°vĂk og GrindavĂk.
+
+AfnĂĄm
+
+Ăegar leiĂ° ĂĄ seinni helming 20. aldar var fariĂ° aĂ° kalla eftir umbĂłtum og einföldun stjĂłrnkerfisins, bĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ sveitarstjĂłrnarstiginu ĂŸar sem fariĂ° var aĂ° leggja ĂĄherslu ĂĄ sameiningu fĂĄmennra sveitarfĂ©laga og einnig ĂĄ fyrirkomulagi umboĂ°svalds og dĂłmsvalds sem var ĂĄ höndum sĂœslumanna og bĂŠjarfĂłgeta. Ă 9. ĂĄratugnum var ĂŸvĂ rĂĄĂ°ist Ă miklar lagabreytingar sem Ă reynd lögĂ°u sĂœslur af sem stjĂłrnsĂœsluumdĂŠmi. ĂriĂ° 1986 voru samĂŸykkt nĂœ sveitarstjĂłrnarlög sem mĂŠltu fyrir um aĂ° sĂœslufĂ©lög skyldu afnumin Ă ĂĄrslok 1988 og aĂ° öll sveitarfĂ©lög Ă landinu skyldu hafa sömu rĂ©ttarstöðuna, hvort sem um hreppa eĂ°a kaupstaĂ°i vĂŠri aĂ° rĂŠĂ°a. Ă staĂ° sĂœslufĂ©laga ĂĄttu aĂ° koma hĂ©raĂ°snefndir sem byggĂ°u ĂĄ valfrjĂĄlsri ĂŸĂĄtttöku sveitarfĂ©laga og sem kaupstaĂ°ir gĂĄtu lĂka veriĂ° aĂ°ilar aĂ°. SlĂkar hĂ©raĂ°snefndir störfuĂ°u sums staĂ°ar ĂĄ grunni gömlu sĂœslufĂ©laganna en sĂĂ°ar hefur samstarf sveitarfĂ©laga aĂ°alega fĂŠrst yfir ĂĄ vettvang landshlutasamtaka sem taka yfir stĂŠrra svĂŠĂ°i. VĂĂ°a hafa sveitarfĂ©lög einnig sameinast ĂŸannig aĂ° ĂŸau nĂĄ nĂș yfir heilar sĂœslur. SveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° BorgarbyggĂ° er til dĂŠmis myndaĂ° Ășr öllum hreppum fyrrum MĂœrasĂœslu, mörgum hreppum fyrrum BorgarfjarĂ°arsĂœslu og einum hreppi aĂ° auki Ășr fyrrum SnĂŠfellsnes- og HnappadalssĂœslu.
+
+SamhliĂ°a breytingum ĂĄ sveitarstjĂłrnarstiginu var rĂĄĂ°ist Ă breytingar ĂĄ embĂŠttum sĂœslumanna og bĂŠjarfĂłgeta. AĂ°alhvatinn aĂ° ĂŸeim breytingum var sĂĄ aĂ° fyrirkomulag framkvĂŠmdavalds og dĂłmsvalds ĂĄ landsbyggĂ°inni hafĂ°i sĂŠtt gagnrĂœni erlendis vegna ĂŸess aĂ° sami embĂŠttismaĂ°urinn (eĂ°a fulltrĂșar hans) fĂłru meĂ° lögregluvald og rannsĂłkn mĂĄla og svo dĂŠmdu svo Ă sömu mĂĄlum. DĂłmur MannrĂ©ttindadĂłmstĂłls EvrĂłpu vegna mĂĄls manns sem hafĂ°i veriĂ° dĂŠmdur fyrir umferĂ°arlagabrot ĂĄ Akureyri var svo korniĂ° sem fyllti mĂŠlinn. MeĂ° lögum um aĂ°skilnaĂ° dĂłmsvalds og umboĂ°svalds Ă hĂ©raĂ°i var skiliĂ° ĂĄ milli rannsĂłkna og ĂĄkĂŠruvalds Ă sakamĂĄlum annars vegar og dĂłmsvaldsins hins vegar meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° stofnaĂ°ir voru sĂ©rstakir hĂ©raĂ°sdĂłmstĂłlar sem lĂŠgsta ĂŸrep dĂłmsvaldsins à öllum mĂĄlum. Um leiĂ° voru ĂŸĂŠr breytingar gerĂ°ar ĂĄ umboĂ°svaldinu aĂ° landinu var skipt Ă 27 umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna. HĂŠtt var aĂ° kenna embĂŠttin viĂ° hinar fornu sĂœslur heldur tekiĂ° upp aĂ° kenna embĂŠttin viĂ° aĂ°setur sĂœslumanns, t.d. varĂ° sĂœslumaĂ°ur BarĂ°astrandarsĂœslu aĂ° sĂœslumanninum ĂĄ PatreksfirĂ°i. Eftir ĂŸessa breytingu voru umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna einnig skilgreind Ă reglugerĂ° meĂ° upptalningu ĂĄ sveitarfĂ©lögum sem falla undir hvert umdĂŠmi. Ăessi nĂœju sĂœslumannsumdĂŠmi fĂ©llu aĂ° mestu leyti saman viĂ° hina hefĂ°bundnu sĂœsluskipan en ĂŸĂł meĂ° nokkrum undantekningum, s.s. aĂ° leggja nokkur nĂĄgrannasveitarfĂ©lög ReykjavĂkur Ășr fyrrum KjĂłsarsĂœslu undir sĂœslumanninn Ă ReykjavĂk og aĂ° lĂĄta SvalbarĂ°sstrandar- og GrĂœtubakkahrepp fylgja sĂœslumanninum ĂĄ Akureyri ĂŸĂł aĂ° ĂŸessir hreppar hafi ĂĄĂ°ur tilheyrt ĂingeyjarsĂœslu. Eftir ĂŸvĂ sem sveitarfĂ©lög sameinuĂ°ust ĂĄ nĂŠstu ĂĄrum voru ĂŸau stundum sameinuĂ° ĂŸvert ĂĄ sĂœslumörk ĂŸannig aĂ° umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna Ăœmist minnkuĂ°u eĂ°a stĂŠkkuĂ°u eftir ĂŸvĂ Ă hvaĂ°a umdĂŠmi hinu sameinaĂ°a sveitarfĂ©lagi var skipaĂ°.
+
+EmbĂŠtti sĂœslumanna voru stokkuĂ° upp ĂĄ nĂœjan leik meĂ° lagabreytingu ĂĄriĂ° 2014 og var ĂŸeim ĂŸĂĄ fĂŠkkaĂ° niĂ°ur Ă nĂu. LögsagnarumdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna byggja nĂș ĂĄ sömu skiptingu landsins Ă landshluta og landshlutasamtök sveitarfĂ©laga, meĂ° ĂŸeirri undantekningu aĂ° Vestmannaeyjar eru sĂ©rstakt umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanns.
+
+SĂœslurnar
+SĂœslurnar voru 23 talsins.
+
+KaupstaĂ°ir
+Auk sĂœslnanna voru 24 sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°ir bĂŠir, kaupstaĂ°ir.
+
+GrundarfjörĂ°ur (fĂ©kk kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi 1786 en missti ĂŸau og endurheimti ekki aftur)
+
+AnnaĂ°
+Ă flokkunarkerfi Sarps er minjum ĂșthlutuĂ° landfrĂŠĂ°ileg staĂ°setning eftir sĂœslum.
+
+NeĂ°anmĂĄlsgreinar
+
+Tenglar
+ Vefur SĂœslumanna ĂĄ Ăslandi
+ Lög um framkvĂŠmdarvald rĂkisins Ă hĂ©raĂ°i 1989 nr. 92 1. jĂșnĂ ĂĄ vef AlĂŸingis
+ ReglugerĂ° 1151/2014 um umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna.
+ Svar dĂłmsmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra viĂ° fyrirspurn Hjörleifs Guttormssonar um sĂœslur., 122. löggjafarĂŸing 1997â98. Ăskj. 1251 â 668. mĂĄl.
+Ăsland er nĂŠst stĂŠrsta eyja EvrĂłpu, 103 ĂŸĂșsund kmÂČ aĂ° stĂŠrĂ°. Ăsland er ĂĄ heitum reit ĂĄ Atlantshafshryggnum tĂŠplega 300 km austan viĂ° GrĂŠnland. Ă Ăslandi er mikil eldvirkni og vĂĂ°a jarĂ°hiti, vĂĂ°a eru heitir hverir og er jarĂ°hitinn nĂœttur til upphitunar hĂșsa. Um ĂŸaĂ° bil 10% eyjarinnar er undir jöklum, tĂŠplega fjĂłrĂ°ungur er grĂłinn, rĂșmlega helmingur er auĂ°n og um 75% telst til hĂĄlendis. Eyjan er vogskorin nema suĂ°urströndin, og flestir ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisstaĂ°ir standa viĂ° firĂ°i, vĂkur og voga.
+
+Helstu ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisstaĂ°ir eru ĂĄ höfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°inu ĂŸar sem ReykjavĂk, KĂłpavogur, GarĂ°abĂŠr, HafnarfjörĂ°ur og MosfellsbĂŠr liggja saman. MeĂ°al stĂŠrri ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisstaĂ°a Ă dreifbĂœli mĂĄ nefna Akureyri, höfuĂ°staĂ° NorĂ°urlands, ĂsafjörĂ° ĂĄ VestfjörĂ°um, ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli Ă ReykjanesbĂŠ ĂĄ Reykjanesi og Vestmannaeyjar. Akranes og Selfoss eru vaxandi ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisstaĂ°ir.
+
+StaĂ°setning og stĂŠrĂ°
+
+Ăsland er vestasta land Ă EvrĂłpu en nĂĄgrannalandiĂ° GrĂŠnland er austasta land Ă AmerĂku. AsĂłreyjar, lĂtill eyjaklasi Ă Atlantshafi sem tilheyrir PortĂșgal, liggja aĂ° hluta vestar en Ăsland. Ăsland liggur Ă um 970 km fjarlĂŠgĂ° frĂĄ Noregi, um 1489 km eru til Danmerkur, 420 km til FĂŠreyja og 550 til Jan Mayen.
+
+Ăsland er um 103.000 kmÂČ, 106. stĂŠrsta land heimsins, rĂflega 5 ĂŸĂșsund kmÂČ minna en Gvatemala og tĂŠpum 4 ĂŸĂșsund km stĂŠrra en SuĂ°ur KĂłrea, og um 0,07% af flatarmĂĄli jarĂ°arinnar. StrandlĂna landsins mĂŠlist 4.970 km en VestfjarĂ°akjĂĄlkinn, Reykjanes og SnĂŠfellsnes hafa mikla strandlĂnu. Nyrsti tangi Ăslands heitir Rifstangi (66°32,3ÂŽ N) og sĂĄ syĂ°sti Kötlutangi (63°23,6ÂŽ N), Ăsland liggur ĂŸvĂ ĂĄ milli 63 og 66 breiddargrĂĄĂ°u. Vestasti oddi landsins eru Bjargtangar (24°32,1ÂŽ V) og sĂĄ austasti Gerpir (13°29,6ÂŽ V).
+
+StĂŠrstu eyjarnar viĂ° strendur landsins eru Vestmannaeyjar (samanlagt 17 kmÂČ), HrĂsey (8 kmÂČ), Hjörsey (5,5 kmÂČ), GrĂmsey (5,3 kmÂČ) og Flatey ĂĄ SkjĂĄlfanda (2,8 kmÂČ). ByggĂ° er ĂĄ Vestmannaeyjum, ĂŸar bĂșa rĂflega fjögur ĂŸĂșsund manns.
+
+JarĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+
+Ăsland tĂłk aĂ° myndast fyrir um 26-44 milljĂłnum ĂĄra. Elsta berg landsins er yst ĂĄ VestfjörĂ°um og er um 16 milljĂłn ĂĄra gamalt samkvĂŠmt aldursgreiningum. Vegna norĂ°lĂŠgrar legu landsins eru ummerki Ăsaldarinnar ĂĄberandi en hĂșn hĂłfst af fullum krafti fyrir rĂșmlega 2 milljĂłnum ĂĄra. Seinasta kuldaskeiĂ°i Ăsaldar lauk fyrir um 11.500 ĂĄrum og er tĂmabiliĂ° eftir ĂŸaĂ° nefnt nĂștĂmi.
+
+Eins og ĂĄĂ°ur hefur komiĂ° fram er Ăsland ĂĄ heitum reit, og er jarĂ°hitasvĂŠĂ°um skipt Ă hĂĄhitasvĂŠĂ°i eins og Kröflu, Brennisteinsfjöll og Hengil annars vegar og lĂĄghitasvĂŠĂ°i eins og viĂ° Reykholt Ă BorgarfirĂ°i ĂŸar sem Deildartunguhver er aĂ° finna. Ă gegnum Ăsland liggja ĂŸrjĂĄr aĂ°alsprungureinar sem allar tilheyra NorĂ°ur-Atlantshafshryggnum; ein kemur sunnan frĂĄ vestan Vestmannaeyja og endar viĂ° syĂ°ri rĂŠtur Langjökuls Ă norĂ°ri. Ănnur kemur norĂ°an aĂ° austan GrĂmseyjar, yfir MelrakkaslĂ©ttu og niĂ°ur Vatnajökul meĂ° BĂĄrĂ°arbungu og GrĂmsvötnum til suĂ°urs. Milli ĂŸessarra tveggja klemmist svo ĂŸverbrotabelti SuĂ°urlandsundirlendisins sem gerir ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° mjög virku jarĂ°skjĂĄlftasvĂŠĂ°i. ĂriĂ°ja og mĂĄttlausasta sprungureinin gengur vestan viĂ° Ăsland og norĂ°ur meĂ° landinu austan viĂ° GrĂŠnland, og snertir eingöngu ĂĄ föstu landi viĂ° SnĂŠfellsjökul.
+
+Jöklar, vötn, år og fossar
+
+Jöklar ĂŸekja 11.922 kmÂČ eĂ°a 11,6% landsins. Vatnajökull, stĂŠrsti jökull EvrĂłpu, er ĂĄ SuĂ°-Austurlandi en hann er 8.100 kmÂČ. Ăr Vatnajökli ganga nokkrir skriĂ°jöklar; SkaftĂĄrjökull, KöldukvĂslarjökull, TungnĂĄrjökull, SĂĂ°ujökull, SkeiĂ°arĂĄrjökull, BreiĂ°amerkurjökull, SkĂĄlafellsjökull, FlĂĄajökull, Eyjabakkajökull, BrĂșarjökull og Dyngjujökull. NĂŠst-stĂŠrsti jökull landsins er Langjökull um 950 kmÂČ, Hofsjökull er litlu minni eĂ°a 925 kmÂČ, MĂœrdalsjökull er 596 kmÂČ, Drangajökull 160 kmÂČ og fjölda smĂŠrri jökla er aĂ° finna ĂĄ landinu.
+
+Alls ĂŸekja stöðuvötn um 2.757 kmÂČ af yfirborĂ°i Ăslands eĂ°a sem samsvarar 2,68% af flatarmĂĄli landsins. StĂŠrsta stöðuvatn Ăslands er ĂĂłrisvatn eĂ°a Ăingvallavatn, eftir ĂŸvĂ hver vatnsstaĂ°an Ă ĂĂłrisvatni er en ĂŸaĂ° er miĂ°lunarlĂłn fyrir Vatnsfellsvirkjun. DĂœpsta stöðuvatn landsins er Ăskjuvatn viĂ° Ăskju, um 220 m ĂĄ dĂœpt. MĂœvatn er ĂŸekkt stöðuvatn sem er nĂĄlĂŠgt Kröflu og er mjög grunnt og Ă eru fjöldi eyja. Ă MĂœvatni finnast stĂłrir, kĂșlulaga grĂŠnĂŸĂ¶rungar sem nefnt er kĂșluskĂtur en ĂŸeir eru sĂ©rstakir fyrir ĂŸĂŠr sakir aĂ° ĂŸeir finnast aĂ°eins Ă MĂœvatni og Ă Akanvatni ĂĄ Hokkaidoeyju Ă Japan.
+
+Lengsta ĂĄ Ăslands er ĂjĂłrsĂĄ sem rennur frĂĄ norĂ°anverĂ°um Sprengisandi um 230 km leiĂ° til sjĂĄvar. Vatnsmesta ĂĄ Ăslands er ĂlfusĂĄ en viĂ° Selfoss mĂŠlist meĂ°alrennsli hennar 400 mÂł/s. JökulsĂĄ ĂĄ Fjöllum sem rennur undan Vatnajökli er önnur lengsta ĂĄ landsins, JökulsĂĄ ĂĄ Dal sem rennur lĂka undan Vatnajökli hefur veriĂ° virkjuĂ° meĂ° KĂĄrahnjĂșkavirkjun.
+
+HĂŠsti foss landsins er Morsi Ă MorsĂĄ, mĂŠldur 227,3 m ĂĄ hĂŠĂ°. Gullfoss er einn ĂŸekktasti foss landsins sem ĂĄsamt hvernum Geysi trekkir aĂ° fjölda ferĂ°amanna ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri. Dettifoss, GoĂ°afoss, Glymur Svartifoss og Dynjandi eru einnig ĂŸekkt örnefni.
+
+VeĂ°urfar
+Ă Ăslandi er tempraĂ° loftslag, landiĂ° er ekki stĂłrt og geta mĂĄnaĂ°armeĂ°altöl Ă hita ĂĄ tilteknum staĂ° veitt góða hugmynd um aĂ°ra staĂ°i ĂĄ landinu. Golfstraumurinn hefur talsverĂ° ĂĄhrif ĂĄ hitastig, aĂ° vetri til er hlĂœjar meĂ°fram ströndinni en inni ĂĄ landi. Ăetta getur ĂŸĂł breyst sĂ© hafĂs viĂ° landiĂ° eĂ°a ef mjög hĂŠgviĂ°rasamt er. AĂ° sumri til rĂŠĂ°ur vindafar miklu um hitastig ĂĄ landinu. Mesti hiti sem mĂŠlst hefur ĂĄ landinu var 30,5 °C Teigarhorni ĂŸann 22. jĂșnĂ 1939 en lĂŠgsti hiti mĂŠldist ĂĄ GrĂmsstöðum og Möðrudal -38 °C ĂŸann 21. janĂșar 1918. MeĂ°alhiti Ă ReykjavĂk Ă janĂșar er 1,8 °C en â8 °C ĂĄ miĂ°hĂĄlendinu ĂŸar sem vetur eru kaldastir. MeĂ°alhiti Ă jĂșlĂ er um 10 °C ĂĄ landinu öllu, aĂ°eins lĂŠgri ĂĄ norĂ°urlandi.
+
+Fylgni er ĂĄ milli Ășrkomu og hitastigs ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ă sĂĂ°astliĂ°inni hĂĄlfri öld eĂ°a svo hefur Ășrkoma aukist. TalsverĂ°ur munur er Ă meĂ°alĂșrkomu og meĂ°alhita ĂĄ veĂ°urathugunarstöðvum fyrir ĂĄriĂ° 2006; ĂĄ KirkjubĂŠjarklaustri mĂŠldist Ășrkoman 2.218 mm og hitinn 5,6 °C, ĂĄ Raufarhöfn 509 mm og 3,8 °C Ă ReykjavĂk 890 mm og 5,4 °C.
+
+Gróðurfar
+
+Ă landnĂĄmsöld er ĂĄĂŠtlaĂ° aĂ° um fjĂłrĂ°ungur landsins hafi veriĂ° ĂŸakinn birkiskĂłgi eĂ°a kjarri en Ă dag er um 2% lands skĂłg eĂ°a kjarri vaxiĂ°. Ăar af er 0,5% rĂŠktaĂ°ur skĂłgur og 1,5% birkiskĂłgar og kjarr (2019) .
+
+Algengasta trĂ©Ă° er ilmbjörk. Ănnur innlend trĂ© eru ilmreynir og hin sjaldgĂŠfa blÊösp. Einnig finnast runnar og kjarr eins og gulvĂĂ°ir og loĂ°vĂĂ°ir og fjalldrapi. Innfluttar trjĂĄtegundir sem notaĂ°ar hafa helst Ă skĂłgrĂŠkt eru: Alaskaösp, sitkagreni, rĂșssalerki og stafafura. SkĂłgrĂŠkt innfluttra trĂĄa jĂłkst mjög eftir seinni heimsstyrjöld. TaliĂ° er aĂ° eingöngu um 500 tegundir hĂĄplantna sĂ© aĂ° finna ĂĄ Ăslandi vegna sĂĂ°ustu Ăsaldar, er landiĂ° var huliĂ° jökli. Bróðurpartur ĂŸeirra plantna sem nĂș ĂŸrĂfast ĂĄ landinu hafa borist eftir Ăsöld meĂ° vindum, fuglum eĂ°a mönnum en sumir telja aĂ° allt aĂ° fimmtungur hafi lifaĂ° af Ăsöldina, til dĂŠmis ĂĄ jökulskerjum.
+
+LĂtil fjölbreytni er Ă gróðurfari milli landshluta. ĂĂł er talaĂ° um einkennisplöntur, ĂŸaĂ° er blĂĄklukku og gullsteinbrjĂłt ĂĄ Austurlandi og draumsĂłley og krossjurt ĂĄ VestfjörĂ°um. Nokkrar plöntur eru bundnar viĂ° ĂĄkveĂ°in svĂŠĂ°i, til dĂŠmis skeggburkni ĂĄ NorĂ°urlandi og burstajafni ĂĄ SuĂ°austurlandi. Yfir 600 mosategundir, 700 flĂ©ttutegundir og um 2.000 tegundir af sveppum hafa fundist ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ein ĂĄstĂŠĂ°a fjölda sveppategunda er sĂș aĂ° sveppagrĂł eru smĂĄsĂŠ og geta borist meĂ° vindum, aukinheldur ĂŸrĂfast sveppir Ă tiltölulega ĂłfrjĂłum jarĂ°vegi. Eitt megineinkenni gróðurfars ĂĄ Ăslandi er mosi en hann er vĂĂ°a eini gróðurinn sem ĂŸrĂfst Ă hraunum og söndum landsins.
+
+DĂœralĂf
+
+MiĂ°aĂ° er viĂ° aĂ° um 1.600 tegundir dĂœra finnist ĂĄ Ăslandi, rĂflega helmingurinn skordĂœr. FĂĄ stĂłr spendĂœr finnast ĂĄ Ăslandi, heimskautarefurinn er eina upprunalega spendĂœriĂ°. HvĂtabirnir hafa einnig borist til landsins meĂ° hafĂs. Ănnur stĂŠrri dĂœr hafa veriĂ° flutt til landsins og meĂ°al ĂŸeirra mĂĄ nefna hagamĂșsina, hreindĂœr, minkinn, rottuna, ketti og hunda. BĂșskapur er hafĂ°ur ĂĄ kindum, hestum og nautgripum. ĂĂĄ tĂĂ°kast einnig eldi hĂŠnsna (kjöt og eggjaafurĂ°ir), loĂ°dĂœra, svĂna og geita.
+
+Rostunga mĂĄ finna viĂ° strendur landsins og sex tegundir sela sömuleiĂ°is; landselur, vöðuselur, hringanĂłri, Ăștselur, blöðruselur og kampselur. SĂ©st hafa 23 tegundir hvala ĂĄ ĂslandsmiĂ°um en ĂĄ hverjum tĂma er metiĂ° sem svo aĂ° ĂĄ bilinu 3-4 hundruĂ° ĂŸĂșsund hvali megi finna ĂŸar. Einna fjölmennustu tegundirnar eru langreyĂ°ur, hrefna, grindhvalur og sandreyĂ°ur en einnig finnast steypireyĂ°ar, andarnefjur, hĂĄhyrningar, bĂșrhvalir og blettahnĂœĂ°ar. HnĂșfubakur er aftur ĂĄ mĂłti mjög sjaldgĂŠfur aĂ° taliĂ° er vegna ofveiĂ°a NorĂ°manna en hann var friĂ°aĂ°ur ĂĄriĂ° 1955. Enn sjaldgĂŠfari tegundir eru nĂĄhvalur og mjaldur. Ă ferskvatni lifa laxar, urriĂ°ar, bleikjur, hornsĂli og ĂĄlar.
+
+Alls hafa sĂ©st um 370 tegundir fugla ĂĄ Ăslandi, ĂŸ.m.t. mĂĄvar, endur, svanir, hafernir, hrafnar og fĂĄlkar. Um 80 tegundir fugla verpa ĂĄ Ăslandi. Lundinn er ĂĄlitinn eins konar einkennisdĂœr landsins, enda er hann fjölmennastur fugla, taliĂ° er aĂ° 10 milljĂłn lunda verpi ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ hverju sumri. Ăsland er einnig viĂ°komustaĂ°ur farfugla, s.s. gĂŠsa og vaĂ°fugla. Mikil dĂșntekja hefur veriĂ° viĂ° Ăslandsstrendur Ă gegnum aldirnar en hĂșn er mikilvĂŠg ĂĄ hlunnindajörĂ°um. ĂĂ°arfuglinn var friĂ°aĂ°ur ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄriĂ° 1786.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+<div class="references-small">
+
+Heimildir
+ UpplĂœsingar ĂĄ Ăœmsum vefsĂĂ°um NĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°istofnunar Ăslands
+
+Tenglar
+
+ NĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°istofnun Ăslands
+ NĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°istofa KĂłpavogs
+ Island.is - Ferðalög og samgöngur > Innanlands
+ NĂĄttĂșrustofa Austurlands
+ NĂĄttĂșrustofa Vesturlands
+ NĂĄttĂșrustofa NorĂ°austurlands
+ NĂĄttĂșrustofa SuĂ°urlands
+ NĂĄttĂșrustofa Reykjaness
+ NĂĄttĂșrustofa VestfjarĂ°a
+ NĂĄttĂșrustofa NorĂ°urlands vestra
+ LandmĂŠlingar Ăslands
+ HafrannsĂłknarstofnun
+ VeiĂ°imĂĄlastofnun
+ Orkustofnun - Gögn og fróðleikur
+ Landshagir 2007 - Land og umhverfi, rit gefiĂ° Ășt af Hagstofu Ăslands
+ FlĂłra Ăslands
+
+Félagasamtök
+ Landvernd
+ NĂĄttĂșruverndarsamtök Ăslands
+Getur lĂka ĂĄtt viĂ° Ăslenska menningu, bĂłk SigurĂ°ar Nordals.
+Ăslensk menning er menning Ăslendinga. HĂșn er ĂŸekkt fyrir bĂłkmenntasögu sĂna, sem er byggĂ° ĂĄ höfundum frĂĄ 12. og 14. öldum.
+
+BĂłkmenntir
+Elstu Ăslensku bĂłkmenntirnar eru skrifaĂ°ar Ă kringum 1100, ĂŸĂł ĂŸĂŠr eigi sĂ©r mun eldri rĂŠtur Ă munnlegri geymd. ĂaĂ° sem fyrst var skrifaĂ° voru lög, ĂĄttvĂsi (ĂŠttfrĂŠĂ°i) og ĂŸĂœĂ°ingar helgar (kristinfrĂŠĂ°i), auk Fyrstu mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°iritgerĂ°arinnar og ĂslendingabĂłkar Ara fróða. Sögur af konungum fylgdu svo Ă kjölfariĂ° og ĂŸĂĄ Ăslendingasögur, riddarasögur og fornaldarsögur.
+
+ Ăslensk skĂĄld
+ Ăslenskar bĂłkmenntir
+
+Leiklist
+ Ăslenskir leikarar
+
+Kvikmyndir
+Ărlega eru veitt verĂ°laun fyrir afrek liĂ°ins ĂĄrs Ă kvikmyndagerĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi. VerĂ°launin, sem hafa ĂskarsverĂ°launin bandarĂsku sem fyrirmynd, eru kölluĂ° EdduverĂ°launin.
+
+ Ăslenskar kvikmyndir
+
+TĂłnlist
+ Ăslenskir tĂłnlistarmenn
+ Ăslenskar hljĂłmsveitir
+ Ăslensku tĂłnlistarverĂ°launin 2004
+
+Myndlist
+Myndlist ĂĄ Ăslandi er ung ĂĄ alĂŸjóðamĂŠlikvarĂ°a. ĂĂ°ur voru ĂŸaĂ° aĂ°allega mĂĄlverk sem voru gerĂ°, en um 1965 varĂ° til hĂłpur sem kallaĂ°i sig SĂM og ĂŸeir komu meĂ° nĂœjar stefnur Ă Ăslenska myndlist Ă fyrsta sinn. Innsetningar, gjörningar og fleira Ă ĂŸeim dĂșr kom Ă fyrsta sinn til landsins og var listamaĂ°urinn Dieter Roth helsta driffjörĂ°in Ă SĂM.
+
+ Ăslenskir myndlistamenn
+ Ăslenskir mĂĄlarar
+ MyndlistarskĂłlar
+
+HannyrĂ°ir og klĂŠĂ°agerĂ°
+
+ ĂjóðbĂșningurinn
+
+AnnaĂ°
+Ăekktustu Ăslendingarnir eru lĂklega tĂłnlistarkonan Björk GuĂ°mundsdĂłttir og rithöfundurinn HalldĂłr Laxness, NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi Ă bĂłkmenntum ĂĄriĂ° 1955.
+
+Ăslensk menning
+Lofsöngur er sĂĄlmur eftir MatthĂas Jochumsson viĂ° lag Sveinbjörns Sveinbjörnssonar samiĂ° fyrir ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂĂ° Ă tilefni af ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄra afmĂŠli ĂslandsbyggĂ°ar ĂĄriĂ° 1874. Lag og ljóð voru frumflutt af blönduĂ°um kĂłr viĂ° hĂĄtĂĂ°arguĂ°sĂŸjĂłnustu sem hĂłfst klukkan 10:30 Ă DĂłmkirkjunni Ă ReykjavĂk sunnudaginn 2. ĂĄgĂșst 1874 sem Lofsöngur Ă minningu Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄra og var konungur Danmerkur (og ĂŸar meĂ° konungur Ăslands), KristjĂĄn IX, viĂ°staddur ĂŸĂĄ athöfn.
+
+LjóðiĂ° öðlaĂ°ist Ă kjölfar ĂŸess vinsĂŠldir meĂ°al almennings sem ĂŸjóðsöngur og var flutt sem slĂkt viĂ° fullveldistökuna 1918, sĂș staĂ°a ljóðs og lags var svo fest Ă âlög um ĂŸjóðsöng Ăslendingaâ, sem voru samĂŸykkt ĂĄ AlĂŸingi 8. mars 1983 og tĂłku gildi 25. mars sama ĂĄr. ĂĂ°ur var vĂsan Eldgamla Ăsafold eftir Bjarna Thorarensen viĂ° lagiĂ° God Save the Queen oft sungin sem einhvers konar ĂŸjóðsöngur, en ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸĂłtti ekki hĂŠfa aĂ° notast viĂ° sama lag og aĂ°rar ĂŸjóðir nota viĂ° ĂŸjóðsöng sinn.
+
+Lofsöngurinn gengur oftast undir heitinu Ă, GuĂ° vors lands, sem er fyrsta ljóðlĂna hans og er ĂŸaĂ° meĂ°al annars notaĂ° sem heiti ljóðsins Ă lögum um ĂŸjóðsönginn, en er ĂŸĂł skrifaĂ° ĂŸar ĂĄn kommu ĂĄ eftir Ăł-inu.
+
+Saga
+Gefinn var Ășt konungsĂșrskurĂ°ur ĂŸann 8. september 1873 ĂŸess efnis aĂ° opinber guĂ°sĂŸjĂłnusta skyldi haldin à öllum kirkjum landsins Ă tilefni 1000 ĂĄra afmĂŠli ĂslandsbyggĂ°ar sumariĂ° 1874, og ĂĄtti biskup Ăslands samkvĂŠmt honum aĂ° ĂĄkveĂ°a messudag og rĂŠĂ°utexta, PĂ©tur PĂ©tursson sem ĂŸĂĄ ĂŸjĂłnaĂ°i sem biskup ĂĄkvaĂ° aĂ° messudagurinn skyldi vera 2. ĂĄgĂșst 1874 og aĂ° sĂĄlmurinn sem flytja skyldi vĂŠri 90. DavĂĂ°ssĂĄlmur, 1.-4. og 12.-17. vers, og urĂ°u ĂŸau vers innblĂĄstur MatthĂasar Jochumssonar aĂ° Lofsöngnum:
+
+Drottinn, ĂŸĂș hefir veriĂ° oss athvarf
+frĂĄ kyni til kyns.
+ĂĂ°ur en fjöllin fĂŠddust
+og jörðin og heimurinn urðu til,
+frĂĄ eilĂfĂ° til eilĂfĂ°ar ert ĂŸĂș, Ăł GuĂ°.
+
+ĂĂș lĂŠtur manninn hverfa aftur til duftsins
+og segir: "HverfiĂ° aftur, ĂŸĂ©r mannanna börn!"
+ĂvĂ aĂ° ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr eru Ă ĂŸĂnum augum
+sem dagurinn Ă gĂŠr, ĂŸegar hann er liĂ°inn,
+jĂĄ, eins og nĂŠturvaka.
+
+Kenn oss aĂ° telja daga vora,
+að vér megum öðlast viturt hjarta.
+
+SnĂș ĂŸĂș aftur, Drottinn. Hversu lengi er ĂŸess aĂ° bĂĂ°a,
+aĂ° ĂŸĂș aumkist yfir ĂŸjĂłna ĂŸĂna?
+Metta oss aĂ° morgni meĂ° miskunn ĂŸinni,
+að vér megum fagna og gleðjast alla daga vora.
+
+Veit oss gleĂ°i Ă staĂ° daga ĂŸeirra, er ĂŸĂș hefir lĂŠgt oss,
+ĂĄra ĂŸeirra, er vĂ©r höfum illt reynt.
+LĂĄt dĂĄĂ°ir ĂŸĂnar birtast ĂŸjĂłnum ĂŸĂnum
+og dĂœrĂ° ĂŸĂna börnum ĂŸeirra.
+
+Hylli Drottins, Guðs vors, sé yfir oss,
+styrk ĂŸĂș verk handa vorra.
+
+LjóðiĂ° var ort ĂĄ Bretlandseyjum veturinn 1873-1874, fyrsta erindiĂ° ĂĄ heimili Sveinbjörns Sveinbjörnssonar aĂ° London Street 15 Ă Edinborg ĂĄriĂ° 1873, ĂŸar sem MatthĂas dvaldi um hrĂĂ° en annaĂ° og ĂŸriĂ°ja erindiĂ° Ă LundĂșnum og segir MatthĂas svo frĂĄ yrkingu ĂŸess Ă sjĂĄlfsĂŠvisögu sinni, Sögukaflar af sjĂĄlfum mĂ©r, Ă kaflanum âĂriĂ°ja Ăștförin mĂnâ, undirkaflanum âHjĂĄ kunningjum ĂĄ Bretlandiâ:
+
+BrynjĂłlfur TĂłbĂasson segir Ă bĂłk sinni, ĂjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°in 1874, ĂŸannig frĂĄ fyrsta flutningi Lofsöngsins:
+
+UmrĂŠĂ°ur um aĂ° skipta um ĂŸjóðsöng
+Reglulega hefur sĂș hugmynd komiĂ° upp Ă ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagsumrĂŠĂ°unni aĂ° skipta um ĂŸjóðsöng og hafa ĂŸĂĄ oft veriĂ° nefnd lögin Ăsland er land ĂŸitt eftir MagnĂșs ĂĂłr Sigmundsson viĂ° texta MargrĂ©tar JĂłnsdĂłttur og ljóð Eggerts Ălafssonar Ăsland ögrum skoriĂ° viĂ° lag Sigvalda KaldalĂłns og Ăxar viĂ° ĂĄna, lag Helga Helgasonar viĂ° ljóð SteingrĂms Thorsteinssonar. Ăjóðsöngurinn hefur einkum veriĂ° gagnrĂœndur fyrir aĂ° ĂŸykja torsunginn; aĂ° vera of langur, en iĂ°ulega ĂŸarf aĂ° auka spilunarhraĂ°a lagsins eĂ°a stytta ĂŸaĂ°, oftast niĂ°ur Ă fyrsta erindiĂ°, viĂ° alĂŸjóðlega kappleiki og aĂ°rar ĂŸjóðlegar samkomur; fyrir aĂ° vera torskilinn og aĂ° lokum fyrir aĂ° fjalla aĂ°allega um GuĂ° kristinna manna.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1996 (121. löggjafarĂŸing, 35. mĂĄl) var lögĂ° fram ĂŸingsĂĄlyktunartillaga um âendurskoĂ°un ĂĄ lögum um ĂŸjóðsöng Ăslendingaâ og m.a. lagt til aĂ° taka upp annan ĂŸjóðsöng ĂĄsamt lofsöngnum og hafa ĂŸĂĄ tvo ĂŸjóðsöngva (lĂkt og t.d. NĂœja SjĂĄland hefur gert), tillagan var felld.
+
+Ăann 8. nĂłvember 2004 (131. löggjafarĂŸing, 279. mĂĄl) lögĂ°u tveir ĂŸingmenn SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokksins Ășr NorĂ°austurkjördĂŠmi, SigrĂĂ°ur IngvarsdĂłttir og Hilmar Gunnlaugsson fram ĂŸingsĂĄlyktunartillögu ĂŸess efnis aĂ° kannaĂ° yrĂ°i hvort rĂ©tt vĂŠri aĂ° skipta um ĂŸjóðsöng, âmeĂ° ĂŸaĂ° fyrir augum aĂ° taka upp nĂœjan ĂŸjóðsöng sem vĂŠri auĂ°veldari Ă flutningi og hentaĂ°i betur til almennrar notkunar, svo sem Ă skĂłlum, ĂĄ ĂĂŸrĂłttakappleikjum og viĂ° önnur svipuĂ° tĂŠkifĂŠri.â Ăau mĂŠltu einkum meĂ° tveimur staĂ°genglum: ljóðinu Ăsland ögrum skoriĂ° og laginu Ăsland er land ĂŸitt. Fyrri umrĂŠĂ°a var haldin 16. nĂłvember 2004 og var ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° skv. atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu aĂ° halda henni ĂĄfram Ă sĂĂ°ari umrĂŠĂ°u.
+
+Ă könnun Gallup Ă mars 1994 var spurt tveggja spurninga: âHvaĂ° heitir ĂŸjóðsöngurinn?â og âĂ aĂ° skipta um ĂŸjóðsöng?â
+
+ViĂ° fyrri spurningunni svöruĂ°u 60% âĂ guĂ° vors landsâ, 1,8% âLofsöngurâ, 6% nefndu aĂ°ra söngva, 32% aĂ°spurĂ°ra kvĂĄĂ°ust ekki vita nafn ĂŸjóðsöngsins. Mikill munur var eftir aldri ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ hvort aĂ°spurĂ°ir vissu hver ĂŸjóðsöngurinn vĂŠri, eĂ°a um 30% 15-24 ĂĄra fĂłlks og 90% 55-69 ĂĄra.
+
+ViĂ° seinni spurningunni svöruĂ°u 65% ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸeir vildu halda sig viĂ° nĂșverandi ĂŸjóðsöng, tĂŠplega 5% kusu Ăxar viĂ° ĂĄna.
+
+Ă annarri Gallupkönnun sem gerĂ° var Ă nĂłvember 1996 Ă kjölfar umrĂŠĂ°na ĂĄ AlĂŸingi um hvort skipta ĂŠtti um ĂŸjóðsöng, vildu 68% halda nĂșverandi ĂŸjóðsöng og tĂŠplega 32% vildu nĂœjan. StuĂ°ningur viĂ° ĂŸjóðsönginn jĂłkst meĂ° hĂŠkkandi aldri en fĂłr ĂŸĂł aldrei niĂ°ur fyrir 50%. Athuga skal, aĂ° Ă hvorugri könnuninni gaf Gallup upp stĂŠrĂ° Ășrtaks eĂ°a svarhlutfall.
+
+Lagaleg staĂ°a
+âLög um ĂŸjóðsöng Ăslendingaâ, ĂŸar sem söngurinn er nefndur âĂ GuĂ° vors landsâ, voru samĂŸykkt ĂĄ AlĂŸingi 8. mars 1983 og tĂłku gildi 25. mars sama ĂĄr. Ăar er m.a. staĂ°hĂŠft aĂ° hann sĂ© eign Ăslensku ĂŸjóðarinnar, aĂ° hann skuli ekki flytja eĂ°a birta Ă annarri mynd en hinni upprunalegu, aĂ° eigi sĂ© heimilt aĂ° nota hann Ă viĂ°skipta- eĂ°a auglĂœsingaskyni, aĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra skuli skera Ășr um allan ĂĄgreining um rĂ©tta notkun hans og aĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°uneytiĂ° fari meĂ° umrĂĄĂ° yfir ĂștgĂĄfurĂ©tti hans. Forsetinn hefur svo vald til aĂ° setja nĂĄnari ĂĄkvĂŠĂ°i um notkun hans meĂ° forsetaĂșrskurĂ°i ef ĂŸĂ¶rf ĂŸykir.
+
+Brot ĂĄ lögunum vörĂ°uĂ°u upprunalega varĂ°haldi allt aĂ° 2 ĂĄrum, en ĂŸvĂ var breytt meĂ° lögum nr. 82, 16. jĂșnĂ 1998. Eftir aĂ° ĂŸau tĂłku gildi varĂ°aĂ°i brot ĂĄ lögum um ĂŸjóðsöng Ăslendinga fangelsisvist allt aĂ° 2 ĂĄrum.
+
+Ljóðið
+Lofsöngurinn samanstendur af ĂŸremur erindum og er yfirleitt lĂĄtiĂ° nĂŠgja aĂ° syngja ĂŸaĂ° fyrsta viĂ° opinberar samkomur.
+
+1. erindi
+Ă, guĂ° vors lands! Ă, lands vors guĂ°!
+VĂ©r lofum ĂŸitt heilaga, heilaga nafn!
+Ăr sĂłlkerfum himnanna hnĂœta ĂŸĂ©r krans
+ĂŸĂnir herskarar, tĂmanna safn.
+Fyrir ĂŸĂ©r er einn dagur sem ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr
+og ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr dagur, ei meir:
+eitt eilĂfĂ°ar smĂĄblĂłm meĂ° titrandi tĂĄr,
+sem tilbiĂ°ur guĂ° sinn og deyr.
+Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr,
+Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr,
+eitt eilĂfĂ°ar smĂĄblĂłm meĂ° titrandi tĂĄr,
+sem tilbiĂ°ur guĂ° sinn og deyr.
+
+2. erindi
+Ă, guĂ°, Ăł, guĂ°! VĂ©r föllum fram
+og fĂłrnum ĂŸĂ©r brennandi, brennandi sĂĄl,
+guĂ° faĂ°ir, vor drottinn frĂĄ kyni til kyns,
+og vér kvökum vort helgasta mål.
+VĂ©r kvökum og ĂŸĂ¶kkum Ă ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr,
+ĂŸvĂ ĂŸĂș ert vort einasta skjĂłl.
+VĂ©r kvökum og ĂŸĂ¶kkum meĂ° titrandi tĂĄr,
+ĂŸvĂ ĂŸĂș tilbjĂłst vort forlagahjĂłl.
+Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr
+Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr
+voru morgunsins hĂșmköldu, hrynjandi tĂĄr,
+sem hitna viĂ° skĂnandi sĂłl.
+
+3. erindi
+Ă, guĂ° vors lands! Ă, lands vors guĂ°!
+VĂ©r lifum sem blaktandi, blaktandi strĂĄ.
+VĂ©r deyjum, ef ĂŸĂș ert ei ljĂłs ĂŸaĂ° og lĂf,
+sem aĂ° lyftir oss duftinu frĂĄ.
+Ă, vert ĂŸĂș hvern morgun vort ljĂșfasta lĂf,
+vor leiĂ°togi Ă daganna ĂŸraut
+og ĂĄ kvöldin vor himneska hvĂld og vor hlĂf
+og vor hertogi ĂĄ ĂŸjóðlĂfsins braut.
+Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr
+Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr
+verĂ°i grĂłandi ĂŸjóðlĂf meĂ° ĂŸverrandi tĂĄr,
+sem ĂŸroskast ĂĄ guĂ°srĂkis braut.
+
+SjĂĄ einnig
+Ăslenski fĂĄninn
+Skjaldarmerki Ăslands
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Heimild
+
+ Sögukaflar af sjĂĄlfum mĂ©r eftir MatthĂas Jochumsson. 1959.
+
+Tenglar
+
+ Upprunalegt nótnahandrit Lofsöngsins
+ Lög um ĂŸjóðsöng Ăslendinga . og lög um breytingu ĂĄ ĂŸeim (ĂĄsamt öðrum lögum) ().
+ Tillaga til ĂŸingsĂĄlyktunar um nĂœjan ĂŸjóðsöng, ĂștbĂœtt 8. nĂłvember 2004.
+ VefsĂĂ°a ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°uneytisins um ĂŸjóðsönginn ĂŸar sem fariĂ° er Ă sögu hans, sĂœndar eru nĂłtur fyrir blandaĂ°an kĂłr, pĂanĂł og karlakĂłr, auk ĂŸess sem hĂœstar eru ĂŸĂœĂ°ingar ĂĄ fyrsta erindi ljóðsins yfir ĂĄ fjölmörg tungumĂĄl.
+ Ăjóðsöngur Ăslendinga - formĂĄli eftir SteingrĂm J. Ăorsteinsson - 1957
+ Ăgrip af sögu ĂŸjóðsöngsins eftir Birgi Thorlacius - 1991
+ âĂ, GuĂ° vors landsâ - Ăjóðsöngur Ăslendingaâ inniheldur m.a. sönginn Ă flutningi blandaĂ°s kĂłrs og blandaĂ°s kĂłrs ĂĄsamt hljĂłmsveit.
+
+Greinar um lofsöngin
+ Land vors guðs? - Saga lofsöngsins; af Vantru.is .
+ NĂș vantar ĂŸjóðsönginn; grein eftir HalldĂłr Laxness, birtist Ă Ăjóðviljanum 1944
+ âĂtti medalĂu skiliĂ°â; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1972
+
+Ăslensk tĂłnlist
+SĂĄlmar
+ĂjóðartĂĄkn Ăslands
+Ăjóðsöngvar
+Ăslenska er vesturnorrĂŠnt, germanskt og indĂłevrĂłpskt tungumĂĄl sem er einkum talaĂ° og ritaĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi og er móðurmĂĄl langflestra Ăslendinga. ĂaĂ° hefur tekiĂ° minni breytingum frĂĄ fornnorrĂŠnu en önnur norrĂŠn mĂĄl og er skyldara norsku og fĂŠreysku en sĂŠnsku og dönsku.
+
+ĂlĂk mörgum öðrum vesturevrĂłpskum tungumĂĄlum hefur Ăslenskan Ătarlegt beygingarkerfi. NafnorĂ° og lĂœsingarorĂ° eru beygĂ° jafnt sem sagnir. Fjögur föll eru Ă Ăslensku, eins og Ă ĂŸĂœsku, en Ăslenskar nafnorĂ°abeygingar eru flĂłknari en ĂŸĂŠr ĂŸĂœsku. BeygingarkerfiĂ° hefur ekki breyst mikiĂ° frĂĄ vĂkingaöld, ĂŸegar NorĂ°menn komu til Ăslands meĂ° norrĂŠna tungumĂĄl sitt.
+
+Meirihluti ĂslenskumĂŠlenda bĂœr ĂĄ Ăslandi, eĂ°a um 300.000 manns. Um 8.000 ĂslenskumĂŠlendur bĂșa Ă Danmörku, en ĂŸar af eru 3.000 nemendur. Ă BandarĂkjunum eru talendur mĂĄlsins um 5.000, og Ă Kanada 1.400. StĂŠrsti hĂłpur kanadĂskra ĂslenskumĂŠlenda bĂœr Ă Manitoba, sĂ©rstaklega Ă Gimli, ĂŸar sem Vestur-Ăslendingar settust aĂ°. ĂĂł aĂ° 97% Ăslendinga telji Ăslensku móðurmĂĄl sitt er tungumĂĄliĂ° nokkuĂ° Ă rĂ©nun utan Ăslands. Ăeir sem tala Ăslensku utan Ăslands eru oftast aĂ°fluttir Ăslendingar, nema Ă Gimli ĂŸar sem ĂslenskumĂŠlendur hafa bĂșiĂ° frĂĄ 1880.
+
+Ărnastofnun sĂ©r um varĂ°veislu mĂĄlsins og hĂœsir miĂ°aldahandrit sem skrifuĂ° voru ĂĄ Ăslandi. Auk ĂŸess styĂ°ur hĂșn rannsĂłknir ĂĄ mĂĄlinu. FrĂĄ 1995 hefur veriĂ° haldiĂ° upp ĂĄ dag Ăslenskrar tungu ĂŸann 16. nĂłvember ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri, sem var fĂŠĂ°ingardagur JĂłnas HallgrĂmssonar skĂĄlds.
+
+Saga
+Sögu Ăslenskunnar mĂĄ skipta Ă ĂŸrjĂș skeiĂ°: fornmĂĄl til um 1350, miĂ°mĂĄl frĂĄ 1350 til um 1550 (eĂ°a 1600), og nĂștĂmamĂĄl frĂĄ lokum miĂ°mĂĄls. Ă ĂŸeim tĂma sem hefur liĂ°iĂ° hafa orĂ°iĂ° talsverĂ°ar breytingar ĂĄ tungumĂĄlinu, einkum ĂĄ orĂ°aforĂ°a og framburĂ°i, en lĂtt ĂĄ mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i. Breytingar ĂŸessar, einkum ĂĄ orĂ°aforĂ°a, mĂĄ rekja til breyttra lifnaĂ°arhĂĄtta, breytinga ĂĄ samfĂ©laginu, nĂœrrar tĂŠkni og ĂŸekkingar, sem og ĂĄhrifa annarra tungumĂĄla ĂĄ Ăslensku, einkum ensku og dönsku.
+
+Uppruni
+Ăslenska tilheyrir hinni germönsku grein indĂłevrĂłpskra tungumĂĄla sem greindist snemma Ă norĂ°ur-, austur- og vesturgermönsk mĂĄl. Ăslenska ĂĄ rĂŠtur sĂnar aĂ° rekja til elsta stigs norĂ°urgermanskra mĂĄla: frumnorrĂŠnu, sem töluĂ° var ĂĄ NorĂ°urlöndum ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 200 til 800.
+
+Ă kringum vĂkingaöld (frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 793â1066) greindist norrĂŠnan svo Ă austur- (dönsku og sĂŠnsku) og vesturnorrĂŠnu (Ăslensku, norsku, fĂŠreysku og norn) og er Ăslenska ĂŸvĂ skyldari norsku og fĂŠreysku en sĂŠnsku og dönsku. ĂĂĄ fluttu norskir landnĂĄmsmenn meĂ° sĂ©r tungumĂĄl sitt ĂŸegar ĂŸeir settust aĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ 9. öld en ĂŸeir komu flestir frĂĄ Vestur-Noregi.
+
+FornĂslenska
+ĂaĂ° er ĂĄlitamĂĄl hvenĂŠr Ăslenskan sjĂĄlf hafi orĂ°iĂ° til og ĂștilokaĂ° aĂ° tĂmasetja ĂŸaĂ° nĂĄkvĂŠmlega: Ăslenskan og norskan fjarlĂŠgĂ°ust svo hĂŠgt og rĂłlega og voru ĂŸau orĂ°in talsvert ĂłlĂk Ă kringum 1400 en eĂ°lilegast vĂŠri aĂ° segja aĂ° Ăslenska hafi orĂ°iĂ° sĂ©rtungumĂĄl ĂŸegar orĂ°inn var einhver ĂĄkveĂ°inn munur ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ og ĂŸvĂ norsku.
+
+Sumir landnĂĄmsmenn voru frĂĄ Bretlandseyjum af norrĂŠnum og keltneskum uppruna og einnig fluttu landnĂĄmsmenn meĂ° sĂ©r fĂłlk frĂĄ Ărlandi. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸaĂ° hafa ĂĄhrif Kelta ĂĄ Ăslenskuna ekki veriĂ° mikil eru einskorĂ°uĂ° viĂ° tökuorĂ°, mannanöfn og örnefni.
+
+Ă fornĂslensku var raddaĂ° blĂsturshljóð /z/, sem afraddaĂ°ist og styttust forliggjandi sĂ©rhljóðar (Ăzur â Ăssur, Gizur â Gjissur). Milli 1100 og 1200 urĂ°u s aĂ° r-um (samanber vas â var og es â er).
+
+ĂĂĄtĂĂ° fyrstu persĂłnu eintölu framsöguhĂĄttar veikra sagna sem nĂș endar meĂ° -i endaĂ°i meĂ° -a (ek kallaĂ°a â Ă©g kallaĂ°i). Beygingarendingar fyrstu persĂłnu viĂ°tengingarhĂĄttar hafa sömuleiĂ°is breyst Ă hvort tveggja eintölu sem fleirtölu. ViĂ°tengingarhĂĄttur fyrstu persĂłnu eintölu nĂștĂĂ°ar endaĂ°i Ă fornmĂĄlinu ĂĄ -a (ĂŸĂłtt ek brjĂłta), en ekki -i (ĂŸĂłtt Ă©g brjĂłti) eins og Ă dag. Ă fleirtölu endaĂ°i hann ĂĄ -im en ekki -um. Enn fremur breyttist miĂ°myndarendingin Ășr -sk Ă -st (barĂ°isk â barĂ°ist).
+
+MiĂ°Ăslenska
+
+Ăslenskt ritmĂĄl hefur lĂtiĂ° breyst sĂĂ°an ĂĄ 11. öld meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° Ăslendingar geta enn Ă dag â meĂ° nokkurri ĂŠfingu â lesiĂ° forn rit ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° LandnĂĄmu, Snorra-Eddu og Ăslendingasögurnar. SamrĂŠmd stafsetning, og ĂŸĂł einkum nĂștĂmastafsetning, auĂ°veldar lesturinn ĂŸĂł mikiĂ°, auk ĂŸess sem orĂ°aforĂ°i ĂŸessara rita er heldur takmarkaĂ°ur. Meiri breytingar hafa orĂ°iĂ° ĂĄ framburĂ°i, en minni breytingar hafa orĂ°iĂ° ĂĄ mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i.
+
+Helstu breytingar ĂĄ framburĂ°i Ă miĂ°Ăslensku voru meĂ°al annars aukin notkun samhljóðaruna. Eftir 1300 var u skotiĂ° inn ĂĄ undan -r-endingum (samanber maĂ°r â maĂ°ur) Ă auknum mĂŠli. Svo breyttist framburĂ°ur ĂĄ samhljóðalklösunum -ll- og -nn- Ășr [lË] og [n:] Ă [tl] og [tn]. Svo önghljóðuĂ°ust mörg lokhljóð, samanber mik â mig, barnit â barniĂ°.
+
+Breytingar ĂĄ mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i voru minni en samt markverĂ°. TvĂtalan hvarf Ășr mĂĄlinu, sem tĂĂ°kaĂ°ist Ă fyrstu og annarri persĂłnu persĂłnufornafna, og varĂ° fleirtala. Svo varĂ° fleirtalan hĂĄtĂĂ°legt mĂĄl, en ĂŸĂ©ranir tĂĂ°kast ekki enda eru ĂĄvörp tiltölulega Ăłformleg Ă daglegum samskiptum. Nokkrar sterkar sagnir fengu veikar beygingar, samanber hratt â hrinti, fĂłl â faldi, hjalp â hjĂĄlpaĂ°i, en athyglisvert er aĂ° sterku beygingarnar eru enn notaĂ°ar Ă ĂĄkveĂ°nu samhengi. Endingar sagna Ă annarri persĂłnu breyttust lĂka, samanber ferr â ferĂ°, slĂŠr â slĂŠrĂ° og less â lest, lĂklega vegna ĂĄhrifa frĂĄ fornafni annarrar persĂłnu.
+
+OrĂ°aforĂ°i Ăslenskunnar hefur breyst töluvert Ă gegnum söguna. Fjöldi tökuorĂ°a hefur bĂŠst viĂ° mĂĄliĂ°, en ĂĄ stigi miĂ°Ăslensku voru ĂŸau aĂ°allega Ășr grĂsku og latĂnu (samanber orĂ° eins og biblĂa, kirkja og prestur). Ă 12. öldinni voru tekin upp nĂœ dagaheiti (fyrir ĂĄhrif frĂĄ JĂłni Ăgmundarsyni HĂłlabiskupi) ĂłlĂkt ĂŸvĂ sem var à öðrum germönskum mĂĄlum. HeiĂ°in heiti og heitin Ă dag eru tilgreind Ă töflunni til hĂŠgri.
+
+NĂștĂmaĂslenska
+Ă upphafsstigi nĂștĂmaĂslensku fĂłr straumur tökuorĂ°a aĂ° vaxa ört. MikiĂ° var tekiĂ° af orĂ°um Ășr latĂnu og sĂĂ°ar dönsku, og viĂ°horf til ĂŸeirra voru misjöfn. Ă 19. öld tĂłku Fjölnismenn upp hreintungustefnu og reyndu aĂ° koma tökuorĂ°um Ășr umferĂ° Ă mĂĄlinu. Ăau bjuggu til nĂœyrĂ°i Ășr Ăslenskum eĂ°a fornĂslenskum orĂ°hlutum en ĂŸessi hefĂ° er enn lifandi Ă dag. Dönsk orĂ° eins og bĂginna âbyrjaâ, bĂtala âborga fyrirâ og forsĂŠkja âreynaâ voru hreinsuĂ° Ășr mĂĄlinu og eru ekki lengur notuĂ° Ă dag.
+
+Ă 20. öld varĂ° hreintungustefna opinber rĂkisstefna en OrĂ°anefnd verkfrĂŠĂ°inga var stofnuĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1919. Ăessi var fyrsta nefndin sem hafĂ°i ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° markmiĂ° aĂ° skipuleggja nĂœyrĂ°asmĂĂ°i ĂĄ formlegan hĂĄtt. Ăslensk mĂĄlnefnd var stofnuĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1964, en hĂșn sĂĄ um nĂœyrĂ°asmĂĂ°i Ă miklum mĂŠli og greip meĂ°al annars til samstarfs viĂ° fjölmiĂ°la til aĂ° koma nĂœyrĂ°um sĂnum Ă umferĂ°. Ăslensk mĂĄlnefnd sameinaĂ°ist nokkrum öðrum stofnunum ĂĄriĂ° 2006 og varĂ° svo aĂ° Ărnastofnun.
+
+Ă dag koma langflest tökuorĂ° Ășr ensku, en ĂŸetta endurspeglast Ă minni stöðu dönskunnar ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ 21. öld. Auk ĂŸess hefur dregiĂ° mikiĂ° Ășr notkun Ăslenskra mĂĄllĂœska og tungumĂĄliĂ° er orĂ°iĂ° samrĂŠmdara um landiĂ° allt. Ăetta er Ă miklum mĂŠli ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisĂŸrĂłun um aĂ° kenna, en ĂĄhrif fjölmiĂ°lanna frĂĄ höfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°inu gegna einnig hlutverki Ă ĂŸessu.
+
+HljóðfrÊði
+Ă Ăslensku eru bĂŠĂ°i einhljóð og tvĂhljóð. Samhljóð geta veriĂ° annaĂ°hvort rödduĂ° eĂ°a ĂłrödduĂ°. Greinarmunurinn ĂĄ samhljóðum er yfirleitt gerĂ°ur meĂ° röddun, nema ĂĄ lokhljóðum. Lokhljóðin b, d og g eru ĂłrödduĂ° og eini munurinn ĂĄ ĂŸeim og p, t og k er frĂĄblĂĄstur. Ă undan löngu p, t eĂ°a k er aĂ°blĂĄstur, en ekki ĂĄ undan löngu b, d eĂ°a g. AĂ°blĂĄsiĂ° tt-hljóð samsvarar samhljóðaklasanum cht ĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku og hollensku (samanber nĂłtt, dĂłttir og ĂŸĂœska Nacht, Tochter og hollenska nacht, dochter).
+
+Samhljóð
+
+Sérhljóð
+
+MĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+Ăslenska beygingarkerfiĂ° er flĂłkiĂ° og hefur ekki breyst mikiĂ° frĂĄ fornĂslensku. NafnorĂ° og fornöfn beygjast Ă kyni, tölu og föllum. Kynin eru ĂŸrjĂș: karlkyn, kvenkyn og hvorugkyn. Ă hverju kyni eru misjafnar beygingarmyndir. Föllin fjögur sem voru til Ă fornĂslensku hafa öll varĂ°veist, en ĂŸau eru nefnifall, ĂŸolfall, ĂŸĂĄgufall og eignarfall. LĂœsingarorĂ° beygjast Ă kyni, tölu, föllum og ĂŸremur stigum (frumstigi, miĂ°stigi og efsta stigi). Auk ĂŸess hefur hvert lĂœsingarorĂ° sterka og veika beygingu. ĂkveĂ°inn greinir er skeyttur viĂ° nafnorĂ°, eins og ĂĄ hinum norrĂŠnu mĂĄlunum, en enginn óåkveĂ°inn greinir er til ĂĄ Ăslensku. TöluorĂ°in einn, tveir, ĂŸrĂr og fjĂłrir beygjast Ă kyni og föllum, en hin töluorĂ°in eru ĂłbeygĂ°. ĂĂ©run er Ă rauninni ĂștdauĂ° Ă mĂĄlinu, og er notuĂ° aĂ°eins Ă kaldhĂŠĂ°num eĂ°a hĂĄtĂĂ°legum tilgangi Ă dag.
+
+SagnkerfiĂ° ĂĄ Ăslensku er margbrotiĂ°. Sagnir beygjast Ă tveimur tĂĂ°um, persĂłnu, tölu, hĂĄttum og myndum. TĂĂ°arnir eru tvĂŠr, eins og ĂĄ öðrum germönskum mĂĄlum: nĂștĂĂ° og ĂŸĂĄtĂĂ°. PersĂłnurnar eru ĂŸrjĂĄr: fyrsta, önnur og ĂŸriĂ°ja. SagnhĂŠttirnir eru ĂŸrĂr: framsöguhĂĄttur, viĂ°tengingarhĂĄttur (sem horfin Ășr hinum norrĂŠnu mĂĄlunum) og boĂ°hĂĄttur. Svo eru sagnmyndirnar, en ĂŸĂŠr eru ĂŸrjĂĄr: germynd, miĂ°mynd og ĂŸolmynd. MiĂ°myndin er frekar sĂ©rstök, en uppruni hennar liggur Ă afturbeygĂ°a fornafninu sig. Deilt er um hvort hĂșn eigi aĂ° vera talin sagnmynd, ĂŸvĂ margar sagnir Ă miĂ°mynd hafa öðruvĂsi merkingar en samsvarandi germyndarformin, t.d. gera â gerast, taka â takast. Ăslenskar sagnir geta veriĂ° annaĂ° hvort sterkar eĂ°a veikar, en stĂŠrri fjöldi Ăslenskra sagna eru veikar en ĂĄ hinum germönsku mĂĄlunum. Flokkun Ăslenskra sagna er mismunandi, en taliĂ° er aĂ° flokkarinar eru allt aĂ° 3 til 7. Langflestar Ăslenskar sagnir enda meĂ° -a Ă nafnhĂŠtti, en ĂŸaĂ° er lĂtill hĂłpur sagna sem endar ĂĄ -ĂĄ. TvĂŠr sagnir enda meĂ° -u Ă nafnhĂŠtti, en ĂŸĂŠr eru munu og skulu. Svo eru undantekningarnar ĂŸvo (ĂŸvĂĄ ĂĄ fornĂslensku) og ske (tökuorĂ° Ășr dönsku).
+
+OrĂ°aröðin ĂĄ Ăslensku er frumlag-sögn-andlag (FSA), en hĂșn er frekar frjĂĄlsleg og nĂŠstum hvaĂ°a orĂ°aröð sem er mĂĄ nota Ă skĂĄldamĂĄli. Samt sem ĂĄĂ°ur er sögnin oftast à öðru sĂŠti Ă setningunni, eins og ĂĄ öðrum germönskum mĂĄlum.
+
+VarĂ°veisla
+Ămsar ĂĄstĂŠĂ°ur eru fyrir ĂŸvĂ hversu vel mĂĄliĂ° hefur varĂ°veist. HefĂ°bundna skĂœringin er auĂ°vitaĂ° einangrun landsins en lĂklega hefur fullmikiĂ° veriĂ° gert Ășr ĂŸvĂ og er sĂș skĂœring ein tĂŠpast fullnĂŠgjandi. Ănnur ĂĄstĂŠĂ°a sem oft er nefnd er sĂș aĂ° mĂĄliĂ° hafi varĂ°veist Ă skinnhandritunum, hvort sem var um afĂŸreyingarbĂłkmenntir aĂ° rĂŠĂ°a eĂ°a frĂŠĂ°i. Handritin hafi veriĂ° lesin og innihald ĂŸeirra flutt fyrir ĂŸĂĄ sem ekki voru lĂŠsir, ĂŸannig hafi mĂĄl ĂŸeirra varĂ°veist og orĂ°aforĂ°i handritanna haldist Ă mĂĄlinu.
+
+Enn fremur hafi lĂŠrĂ°ir Ăslendingar skrifaĂ° aĂ° miklu leyti ĂĄ móðurmĂĄlinu, allt frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Ari fróði og fyrsti mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingurinn skrĂĄĂ°u sĂn rit, ĂŸess vegna hafi latĂnuĂĄhrif orĂ°iĂ° minni en vĂĂ°a annars staĂ°ar. Kirkjunnar menn ĂĄ Ăslandi voru lĂka fljĂłtir aĂ° tileinka sĂ©r aĂ°ferĂ°ir Marteins LĂșthers og BiblĂan var snemma ĂŸĂœdd ĂĄ Ăslensku. BiblĂur og önnur trĂșarrit voru ĂŸvĂ snemma til ĂĄ Ăslensku ĂĄ helstu frĂŠĂ°asetrum landsins og prestar boĂ°uĂ°u GuĂ°s orĂ° ĂĄ Ăslensku. Ăessa kenningu mĂĄ helst styĂ°ja meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° bera okkur saman viĂ° ĂŸjóðir sem ekki ĂĄttu BiblĂu ĂĄ eigin tungu, til dĂŠmis NorĂ°menn en ĂŸeir notuĂ°ust viĂ° danska BiblĂu. Orsakir ĂŸeirrar ĂŸrĂłunar sem varĂ° ĂĄ Ăslensku verĂ°a seint ĂștskĂœrĂ°ar til hlĂtar en ĂŸeir ĂŸĂŠttir sem nefndir eru hĂ©r aĂ° ofan hafa allir haft einhver ĂĄhrif.
+
+Margir Ăslendingar telja Ăslenskuna vera âupprunalegraâ mĂĄl en flest önnur og aĂ° hĂșn hafi breyst minna. ĂaĂ° er ekki alls kostar rĂ©tt og mĂĄ Ă ĂŸvĂ sambandi nefna aĂ° Ăslenskan hefur einungis fjögur föll af ĂĄtta Ășr indĂłevrĂłpska frummĂĄlinu, ĂĄ meĂ°an flest slavnesk mĂĄl hafa sex föll og pĂłlska sjö. ĂĂœska hefur einnig fjögur föll eins og Ăslenska og varĂ°veitt eru rit ĂĄ fornhĂĄĂŸĂœsku sem eru mun eldri en Ăslensku handritin eĂ°a frĂĄ ĂĄttundu öld. Ă Grikklandi er enn töluĂ° grĂska, rĂ©tt eins og fyrir ĂŸrjĂș ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄrum og svo mĂĄ lengi telja. Grikkir geta ĂŸĂł ekki skiliĂ° forngrĂsku eins og Ăslendingar skilja texta ĂĄ fornĂslensku, ĂŸvĂ breytingarnar voru of miklar milli forn-, miĂ°- og nĂœgrĂsku, vegna Ăœmissa mĂĄllĂœskna sem höfĂ°u ĂĄhrif hver ĂĄ aĂ°ra. Ăll ĂŸessi mĂĄl eiga ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸĂł sameiginlegt aĂ° hafa breyst aĂ° einhverju leyti og er Ăslenskan ĂŸar engin undantekning.
+
+MĂĄllĂœskur
+
+Ăsland er taliĂ° nĂŠr mĂĄllĂœskulaust land og skiptist ekki greinilega upp Ă mĂĄllĂœskusvĂŠĂ°i. Ămis svĂŠĂ°isbundin afbrigĂ°i mynduĂ°ust Ă mĂĄlinu, ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir hinar litlu breytingar, en deildar meiningar eru um hvort sĂĄ munur geti kallast mĂĄllĂœskumunur. HingaĂ° til hefur yfirleitt veriĂ° einblĂnt ĂĄ framburĂ°armun ĂŸĂł einnig hafi einhver munur veriĂ° ĂĄ orĂ°anotkun. MĂĄlvöndunarmenn ĂĄ fyrri hluta tuttugustu aldar gengu hart fram Ă aĂ° ĂștrĂœma flĂĄmĂŠli, einkum vegna ĂŸess aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° var taliĂ° geta raskaĂ° samrĂŠmi milli talmĂĄls og ritmĂĄls. SkĂłlarnir voru meĂ°al annars notaĂ°ir Ă ĂŸeim tilgangi.
+
+MĂĄllĂœskumunur hefur dofnaĂ° talsvert ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ tuttugustu öld og sumar framburĂ°armĂĄllĂœskurnar eru nĂĄnast horfnar Ășr mĂĄlinu.
+
+Helstu Ăslensku framburĂ°armĂĄllĂœskurnar eru skaftfellskur einhljóðaframburĂ°ur, vestfirskur einhljóðaframburĂ°ur, harĂ°mĂŠli og raddaĂ°ur framburĂ°ur, ngl-framburĂ°ur, bĂ°- og gĂ°-framburĂ°ur, hv-framburĂ°ur og rn- og rl-framburĂ°ur.
+
+Ăslenska utan Ăslands
+Ăslenska er töluĂ° af ĂĄhugamönnum og fĂłlki af Ăslensku bergi brotnu vĂĂ°svegar um heim. Mest var af ĂslenskumĂŠlandi fĂłlki Ă Kanada (t.d. Ă Gimli Ă Manitoba), og BandarĂkjunum (til dĂŠmis NorĂ°ur-Dakota) en ĂŸangaĂ° fluttust stĂłrir hĂłpar Ăslendinga (kallaĂ°ir Vesturfarar) viĂ° lok 19. aldar, en ĂslenskukunnĂĄtta er ĂŸar nĂș lĂtil meĂ°al yngra fĂłlks.
+
+Merk rit, rituĂ° ĂĄ Ăslensku
+ RitaĂ°ar um 1190â1320: Ăslendingasögurnar
+ RituĂ° um 1140: Fyrsta mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°iritgerĂ°in
+ Kom Ășt 1952: Gerpla HalldĂłrs Laxness (skrifuĂ° Ă stĂl Ăslendingasagna, ĂŸar er greint ĂĄ milli tvĂtölu og fleirtölu eins og gert var til forna).
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Heimildir
+ Gyldendals Tibinds Leksikon. 1977. Aðalritstjóri: JÞrgen Bang, cand. mag.. Gyldendalske Boghandel, Nordisk Forlag A.S. Kaupmannahöfn.
+ Heimir PĂĄlsson. 1999. FrĂĄ lĂŠrdĂłmsöld til raunsĂŠis - Ăslenskar bĂłkmenntir 1550-1900. Vaka-Helgafell hf., ReykjavĂk.
+ Ăslensk orĂ°abĂłk. 1985. Ărni Böðvarsson ritstĂœrĂ°i. BĂłkaĂștgĂĄfa Menningarsjóðs, ReykjavĂk.
+ Ăslenska AlfrĂŠĂ°iorĂ°abĂłkin A-G. 1990. RitstjĂłrar: DĂłra HafsteinsdĂłttir og SigrĂĂ°ur HarĂ°ardĂłttir. Ărn og Ărlygur hf., ReykjavĂk.
+ Ăslenska AlfrĂŠĂ°iorĂ°abĂłkin H-O. 1990. RitstjĂłrar: DĂłra HafsteinsdĂłttir og SigrĂĂ°ur HarĂ°ardĂłttir. Ărn og Ărlygur hf., ReykjavĂk.
+ Ăslenska AlfrĂŠĂ°iorĂ°abĂłkin P-Ă. 1990. RitstjĂłrar: DĂłra HafsteinsdĂłttir og SigrĂĂ°ur HarĂ°ardĂłttir. Ărn og Ărlygur hf., ReykjavĂk.
+ Ăvar Björnsson. [ĂtgĂĄfuĂĄr ĂłĂŸekkt]. MĂĄlsaga fyrir framhaldsskĂłla. 2. ĂștgĂĄfa. Offsetfjölritun hf., ReykjavĂk.
+
+Tengt efni
+ Ăslenska stafrĂłfiĂ°
+ GĂŠsalappir
+ HĂĄfrĂłnska
+
+Tenglar
+
+ Ăslenskar fornbĂłkmenntir
+ Ritreglur Ă samrĂŠmi viĂ° auglĂœsingar mennta- og menningarmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°uneytis nr. 695/2016 og 800/2018 meĂ° leiĂ°rĂ©ttingum.
+ BragfrĂŠĂ°i og HĂĄttatal
+ Iðunn - KvÊðamannafélag
+ Safn af Ăslenzkum orĂ°skviĂ°um, fornmĂŠlum, heilrĂŠĂ°um, snilliyrĂ°um, sannmĂŠlum ... Eftir GuĂ°mundur JĂłnsson, Ăslenska bĂłkmenntafĂ©lag, ĂștgefiĂ° 1830.
+ Nokkur erfiĂ° atriĂ°i Ășr daglegu mĂĄli tekin fyrir
+ Stofnun Ărna MagnĂșssonar Ă Ăslenskum frĂŠĂ°um - Ămislegt varĂ°andi Ăslenska mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i, orĂ°abĂŠkur o.fl.
+Ăslenska: Ă senn forn og nĂœ
+
+Greinar um Ăslensku
+AĂ° rĂłsta kjötiĂ° og klĂna upp hĂșsiĂ°. LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 22. tölublaĂ° (16.06.1984), BlaĂ°sĂĂ°a 3
+HĂșn fĂłr Ășt meĂ° bojfrendinu sĂnu. LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 23. tölublaĂ° (23.06.1984), BlaĂ°sĂĂ°a 11
+SiĂ°menning ĂŸjóðar bĂœr Ă mĂĄli hennar. LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 32. tölublaĂ° (16.09.1995), BlaĂ°sĂĂ°a 1
+SiĂ°menning ĂŸjóðar bĂœr Ă mĂĄli hennar; 2. grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1995
+MĂĄlfrelsi. LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, TölublaĂ° (05.09.1926), BlaĂ°sĂĂ°a 1
+Ălyktun um stöðu Ăslenskrar tungu 2007; pdf-skjal
+HvaĂ° heitir maĂ°urinn?. MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 82. tölublaĂ° (11.04.1980), BlaĂ°sĂĂ°a 19
+FostroĂ°ra fĂłr Ă ĂjĂșlgĂșsiĂ°. LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 11. tölublaĂ° (19.03.1994), BlaĂ°sĂĂ°a 9
+JĂłn forseti og rĂ©ttur tungunnar. LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 16. nĂłvember (16.11.1996), BlaĂ°sĂĂ°a 4
+FyrirtÊkjanöfn; grein à Morgunblaðinu 1987
+
+OrĂ°abĂŠkur
+ ĂĂ°orĂ°abankinn
+ Ăslensk nĂștĂmamĂĄlsorĂ°abĂłk (OrĂ°abĂłk HĂĄskĂłlans)
+ OrĂ°anet - Ăslenskur orĂ°aforĂ°i flokkaĂ°ur eftir merkingareinkennum orĂ°anna
+ Landaheiti og höfuðstaðaheiti
+ Hugtakasafn ĂĂœĂ°ingamiĂ°stöðvar utanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°uneytisins
+ A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic
+ An Icelandic-English Dictionary (innskönnuĂ°) eftir GuĂ°brand VigfĂșsson og Richard Cleasby, gefin Ășt 1874.
+ Ăslensk-ensk orĂ°abĂłk University of Wisconsin-Madison
+ StĂłr ensk-Ăslenskur tölvuorĂ°alisti
+ Annar stĂłr ensk-Ăslenskur tölvuorĂ°alisti (html ĂștgĂĄfa)
+ĂslĂł (eĂ°a OslĂł; norska: Oslo) er höfuĂ°borg Noregs. Ăar bjuggu rĂșmlega 700 ĂŸĂșsund ĂbĂșar ĂĄriĂ° 2020 en rĂșm milljĂłn ĂĄ stĂłrborgarsvĂŠĂ°inu. FylkiĂ°, sveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° og bĂŠrinn heita öll ĂslĂł. Borgin er vinabĂŠr ReykjavĂkur. BorgarstjĂłri er Marianne Borgen sem situr fyrir sĂłsĂalĂska vinstriflokkinn. FylkiĂ° ĂslĂł er ĂŸaĂ° fjölmennasta Ă landinu og er staĂ°sett Ă landshlutanum Austurland.
+
+Saga
+SamkvĂŠmt Heimskringlu byggĂ°ist svĂŠĂ°iĂ° viĂ° AkersĂĄna fyrst ĂĄriĂ° 1048 og var ĂŸaĂ° fyrir tilstilli Haraldar HarĂ°rĂĄĂ°a sem ĂŸĂĄ var konungur Noregs. FrĂĄ aldamĂłtunum 1300 allt fram ĂĄ nĂștĂĂ° hefur borgin veriĂ° höfuĂ°borg landsins.
+
+Eftir borgarbrunana ĂĄrin 1567 og 1624 byggĂ°i KristjĂĄn 4. borgina upp ĂĄ nĂœtt ĂĄriĂ° 1624 og lĂ©t hana heita KristjanĂu (no: Christiania og sĂĂ°ar Kristiania) og hĂ©t hĂșn ĂŸaĂ° allt til ĂĄrsins 1925. ViĂ° ströndina lĂ©t KristjĂĄn konungur byggja Akershusvirki sem ĂĄtti aĂ° vernda borgina gegn herfylkingum sem gĂŠtu komiĂ° sjĂłleiĂ°ina inn ĂslĂłarfjörĂ°inn.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1814 varĂ° borgin höfuĂ°borg Noregs ĂŸvĂ ĂŸĂĄ sundraĂ°ist samstarf NorĂ°manna og Dana. Ă 19. öldinni blĂłmstraĂ°i borgin og margar mikilfenglegar byggingar voru reistar, s.s. Konungshöllin, HĂĄskĂłlinn, ĂinghĂșsiĂ°, ĂjóðleikhĂșsiĂ° og fleiri.
+
+Borgin og umhverfiĂ°
+
+Borgin skiptist Ă 15 bĂŠjarhluta; Alna, Bjerke, Frogner, Gamle Oslo, Grorud, GrĂŒnerlĂžkka, Nordre Aker, Nordstrand, Sagene, St. Hanshaugen, Stovner, SĂžndre Nordstrand, Ullern, Vestre Aker og ĂstensjĂž. Hver bĂŠjarhluti sĂ©r um hluta af ĂŸjĂłnustuverkefnum sem borgin ĂŸarf aĂ° ĂŸjĂłnusta ĂbĂșa meĂ°.
+
+Ă kring um ĂslĂł eru fjöll og ĂĄsar, sĂĄ hĂŠsti heitir Kjerkeberget og er 629 m.y.s. Ă firĂ°inum eru margar eyjar og eru ferjusamgöngur til ĂŸeirra.
+
+Ă Frogner er aĂ° finna VigelandsgarĂ°inn, en ĂŸar eru styttur eftir myndhöggvarann Gustav Vigeland. MeĂ°al annars er ĂŸar aĂ° finna 14 metra hĂĄa styttu sem kallast Monolitten en hĂșn sĂœnir gang lĂfsins. Styttan er skorin Ășt Ășr einum granĂt-steini. VĂkingaskipasafniĂ° er ĂĄ eyjunni Bygdö, ĂŸar eru heilleg vĂkingaskip: GauksstaĂ°askipiĂ° og ĂsubergsskipiĂ°.
+
+Menning
+
+VetrarĂłlympĂuleikarnir 1952 voru haldnir Ă ĂslĂł, en borgin er mikil ĂĂŸrĂłttaborg. Ekki ĂŸurfa borgarbĂșar aĂ° fara langt til aĂ° komast Ă ĂĂŸrĂłttaiĂ°kun. Ă veturnar er ĂŸaĂ° sĂ©rstaklega vinsĂŠlt aĂ° fara ĂĄ gönguskĂĂ°i Ă skĂłgunum Ă kring, auk ĂŸess sem skautahlaup er iĂ°kaĂ° ĂĄ ĂsilögĂ°um fĂłtboltavöllum Ășt um alla borg og ĂĄ vötnum Ă skĂłgunum.
+
+Norwegian Wood-tĂłnlistarhĂĄtĂĂ°in er haldin ĂĄr hvert ĂĄ Frogner og margir af ĂŸekktustu tĂłnlistarmönnum heims koma ĂŸar fram. Oslo Horse Show er einnig haldiĂ° ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri, en ĂŸaĂ° er stĂłr hestasĂœning og -keppni sem haldin er Ă Oslo Spektrum-fjölnotahĂșsinu Ă miĂ°borg ĂslĂłar. Oslo Spektrum er Ăœmist notaĂ° undir tĂłnleikahald, ĂsdanssĂœningar auk ĂŸess sem hĂșsiĂ° hefur marga aĂ°ra möguleika Ă sĂœninga- og rĂĄĂ°stefnuhaldi.
+
+Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva var haldin Ă ĂslĂł ĂĄriĂ° 1996 vegna ĂŸess aĂ° Noregur vann keppnina ĂĄri fyrr meĂ° Secret Garden meĂ° laginu Nocturne meĂ° Ă Point Theatre Ă Dublin, Ărlandi. Keppnin, 1996 var haldin Ă Oslo Spektrum Ă ĂslĂł. Keppnin var svo aftur haldin Ă ĂslĂł ĂĄriĂ° 2010 eftir aĂ° Alexander Rybak vann keppnina og slĂł öll met meĂ° laginu Fairytale og fĂ©kk 387 stig. Keppnin var haldin Ă Telenor Arena Ă ĂslĂł.
+
+Ăekkt fĂłlk frĂĄ ĂslĂł
+ ThorbjÞrn Egner (1912-1990), rithöfundur
+ Carl I. Hagen, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur
+ Sonja Henie (1912-1969), skautakona
+ Odd Nerdrum, listmĂĄlari
+ Jens Stoltenberg, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra
+ KĂ„re Willoch, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og fyrrum forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tengill
+ Opinber vefsĂĂ°a ĂslĂł
+
+
+
+ĂslĂł
+Fylki Noregs
+Marteinn LĂșther (stundum lĂka Marteinn LĂșter ĂĄ Ăslensku) (10. nĂłvember 1483 â 18. febrĂșar 1546) (ĂŸĂœska Martin Luther) var ĂŸĂœskur munkur af ĂgĂșstĂnusarreglunni og prĂłfessor Ă biblĂufrĂŠĂ°um viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă Wittenberg. Hann er ĂŸekktastur fyrir aĂ° vera einn af siĂ°bĂłtarmönnum kirkjunnar ĂĄ 16. öld. ViĂ° hann er kennd evangelĂsk-lĂșthersk kirkja. LĂșther var fjölhĂŠfur guĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur og iĂ°inn rithöfundur. Eftir hann liggur mikiĂ° safn rita af Ăœmsum toga. Hann stóð einnig fyrir ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu BiblĂunnar yfir ĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku.
+
+Marteinn LĂșther negldi tĂĄknrĂŠnt skjal ĂĄ dyr kirkjunnar Ă Wittenberg, ĂŸar sem hann setti fram Ă 95 greinum kenningar sĂnar um kristna trĂș og leiĂ°ir til ĂŸess aĂ° endurbĂŠta hana, ĂŸĂĄ sĂ©r Ă lagi meĂ° tilliti til sölu ĂĄ syndaaflausn. MeĂ° ĂŸessum gjörningi kom hann af staĂ° MĂłtmĂŠlendahreyfingunni innan RĂłmversk-kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunnar sem ĂŸrĂłaĂ°ist loks Ă evangelĂsku-lĂșthersku kirkjuna.
+
+Tengt efni
+ Hinar 95 greinar
+
+Tenglar
+ Marteinn LĂșther. StuttorĂ° frĂŠĂ°sla - um ĂŸaĂ° sem leita bera aĂ° og vĂŠnta skal Ă fagnaĂ°arboĂ°skapinum; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1967
+ Hann birti frelsi og nĂĄĂ°; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1983
+ Ă slóðum LĂșthers; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1981
+Erlendir
+ Martin Luther â Eine Bibliographie
+
+DĂœrlingar ensku biskupakirkjunnar
+LĂștherstrĂș
+SiĂ°askiptamenn
+ĂĂœskir prestar
+ĂriĂ° 1911 (MCMXI Ă rĂłmverskum tölum)
+
+Ă Ăslandi
+ 20. febrĂșar - FiskifĂ©lag Ăslands, verslunarfĂ©lag meĂ° sjĂĄvarafurĂ°ir, var stofnaĂ°.
+ 11. maà - Knattspyrnufélagið Valur var stofnað.
+ 17. jĂșnĂ - HĂĄskĂłli Ăslands stofnaĂ°ur.
+ IĂ°nsĂœningin 1911 fĂłr fram sama dag Ă MiĂ°bĂŠjarskĂłlanum.
+ 18. september - LestrarfĂ©lag kvenna var stofnaĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk af konum Ășr KvenrĂ©ttindafĂ©lagi Ăslands.
+ 4. oktĂłber - kennsla hefst Ă HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands.
+
+Ădagsett
+ TĂmaritiĂ° Fjallkonan hĂŠtti ĂștgĂĄfu.
+ SelvĂkurnefsviti viĂ° SiglufjörĂ° var fyrst reistur sem stĂłlpaviti.
+ Sambandsflokkurinn var stofnaĂ°ur eftir AlĂŸingiskosningar af Hannesi Hafstein og meĂ°limum HeimastjĂłrnarflokksins.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 15. janĂșar - Ălafur KalstaĂ° ĂorvarĂ°sson, knattspyrnumaĂ°ur, fyrsti forstjĂłri Sundhallarinnar Ă ReykjavĂk og formaĂ°ur KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram.
+ 17. janĂșar - JĂłn MagnĂșsson, verslunarmaĂ°ur Ă HafnarfirĂ°i, knattspyrnumaĂ°ur og formaĂ°ur KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram og FimleikafĂ©lags HafnarfjarĂ°ar.
+ 18. febrĂșar - AuĂ°ur AuĂ°uns, fyrsta konan sem ĂștskrifaĂ°ist ĂĄ Ăslandi sem lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur og fyrsta konan sem varĂ° borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur (d. 1999).
+ 19. aprĂl - Barbara Ărnason, Ăslenskur listamaĂ°ur af enskum uppruna.
+ 24. aprĂl - Sigursveinn D. Kristinsson, tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1990).
+ 30. jĂșnĂ - Sigurbjörn Einarsson, biskup Ăslands frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1959-1981.
+ 14. ĂĄgĂșst - Helgi HĂĄlfdanarson, apĂłtekari og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi, m.a. heildarverka Shakespeares (d. 2009).
+ 21. oktĂłber - Hulda DĂłra JakobsdĂłttir, fyrsta konan ĂĄ Ăslandi sem varĂ° bĂŠjarstjĂłri (Ă KĂłpavogi).
+ 26. október - Einar Kristjånsson, rithöfundur og bóndi.
+ 13. jĂșlĂ - HalldĂłr HalldĂłrsson, mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur og prĂłfessor viĂ° HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands.
+ 23. jĂșlĂ - Carl Billich - Ăslenskur hljĂłmsveitarstjĂłri af austurrĂskum ĂŠttum.
+ 23. ĂĄgĂșst - ĂrĂĄinn SigurĂ°sson, klĂŠĂ°skeri, knattspyrnuĂŸjĂĄlfari og formaĂ°ur KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram.
+ 2. september - LĂșĂ°vĂk KristjĂĄnsson, frĂŠĂ°imaĂ°ur og rithöfundur.
+ 30. oktĂłber - SigurĂ°ur SamĂșelsson, hjartalĂŠknir og stofnandi HjartasjĂșkdĂłmafĂ©lag Ăslenskra lĂŠkna.
+ 16. nóvember - Oddgeir Kristjånsson, tónlistarmaður og lagahöfundur.
+ 9. desember - Ăorvaldur GuĂ°mundsson, athafnamaĂ°ur kenndur viĂ° fyrirtĂŠki sitt SĂld og fisk.
+ 19. desember - Jón Karel Kristbjörnsson, knattspyrnumaður.
+ 27. desember - Sigvaldi Thordarson, arkitekt.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 10. janĂșar - Oddur V. GĂslason, Ăslenskur guĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur, sjĂłmaĂ°ur og barĂĄttumaĂ°ur fyrir öryggi sjĂłmanna.
+ 10. jĂșnĂ - GuĂ°jĂłn Baldvinsson, Ăslenskur sĂłsĂalisti
+ 7. september - Hans J. G. Schierbeck, danskur lĂŠknir sem starfaĂ°i Ă um ĂĄratug sem landlĂŠknir ĂĄ Ăslandi. ĂhugamaĂ°ur um garĂ°yrkju og trjĂĄrĂŠkt.
+ 20. oktĂłber - SigfĂșs Eymundsson, ljĂłsmyndari og bĂłksali.
+ 20. oktĂłber - Ăorsteinn Sveinbjörnsson Egilson, kaupmaĂ°ur og sparisjóðsstjĂłri Ă HafnarfirĂ°i. Sonur Sveinbjarnar Egilssonar rektors, skĂĄlds og ĂŸĂœĂ°anda.
+
+Erlendis
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1. janĂșar - NorĂ°ur-svĂŠĂ°iĂ° fĂŠr sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ SuĂ°ur-ĂstralĂu.
+ 25. maĂ - MexĂkĂłska byltingin: Porfirio DĂaz, forseti MexĂkĂł, sagĂ°i af sĂ©r.
+ 24. jĂșlĂ - Inkaborgin Machu Picchu fannst ĂĄ nĂœ.
+ 21. ĂĄgĂșst - MĂĄlverkinu MĂłna LĂsa var stoliĂ° Ășr Louvre-safninu.
+ 1. desember - Aðaljårnbrautarstöðin à Kaupmannahöfn opnaði.
+ 29. september - ĂtalĂa lĂœsti strĂĂ° ĂĄ hendur OttĂłmanveldinu.
+ 1. nĂłvember - ĂtalĂa gerĂ°i fyrstu loftĂĄrĂĄsina Ășr flugvĂ©l ĂĄ LĂbĂu sem var hluti af OttĂłmanveldinu. Nokkrum dögum sĂĂ°ar innlima Ătalir borgina TrĂpĂłlĂ.
+ 1. desember - Ytri-MongĂłlĂa, forveri MongĂłlĂu verĂ°ur sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ° frĂĄ KĂnaveldi.
+ 14. desember â Roald Amundsen komst ĂĄ SuĂ°urpĂłlinn.
+Ădagsett
+ Ernest Rutherford einangraĂ°i kjarna atĂłms.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 17. janĂșar - George J. Stigler, hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1991).
+ 6. febrĂșar - Ronald Reagan, BandarĂkjaforseti (d. 2004).
+ 16. mars - Josef Mengele, ĂŸĂœskur lĂŠknir nasista sem gerĂ°i tilraunir ĂĄ fĂłlki.
+ 20. mars - Alfonso GarcĂa Robles, mexĂkĂłskur rĂkiserindreki og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur sem vann til friĂ°arverĂ°launa NĂłbels ĂĄriĂ° 1982.
+ 28. mars - John L. Austin, breskur heimspekingur.
+ 15. maà - Max Frisch, svissneskur rithöfundur.
+ 27. maĂ - Vincent Price, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 27. maĂ - Hubert Humphrey, bandarĂskur öldungardeildarĂŸingmaĂ°ur og varaforseti BandarĂkjanna.
+ 31. maĂ - Maurice Allais, franskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur og nĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi.
+ 9. jĂșnĂ - Leopold Kielholz, svissneskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur og ĂŸjĂĄlfari (d. 1980).
+ 11. jĂșnĂ - Norman Malcolm, bandarĂskur heimspekingur.
+ 30. jĂșnĂ - CzesĆaw MiĆosz, pĂłlskt skĂĄld, rithöfundur og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi.
+ 5. jĂșlĂ - Georges Pompidou, forseti Frakklands frĂĄ 1969.
+ 21. jĂșlĂ - Marshall McLuhan, kanadĂskur bĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°ingur og fjölmiĂ°lafrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 6. ĂĄgĂșst - Lucille Ball, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 17. ĂĄgĂșst - MĂkhaĂl BotvĂnnĂk, sovĂ©skur stĂłrmeistari Ă skĂĄk.
+ 18. ĂĄgĂșst - Herbert Bloch, ĂŸĂœskur fornfrĂŠĂ°ingur og textafrĂŠĂ°ingur og prĂłfessor Ă fornfrĂŠĂ°i viĂ° Harvard-hĂĄskĂłla.
+ 28. ĂĄgĂșst - Joseph Luns, hollenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur, utanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°herra Hollands 1952 til 1971 og fimmti framkvĂŠmdastjĂłri Atlantshafsbandalagsins.
+ 19. september - William Golding, breskur rithöfundur og ljóðskåld. Nóbelsverðlaunahafi à bókmenntum.
+ 24. september - KonstantĂn Tsjernenko, sovĂ©skur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og aĂ°alritari sovĂ©ska kommĂșnistaflokksins.
+ 14. oktĂłber - LĂȘ Äức Thá» vĂetnamskur byltingarmaĂ°ur, hershöfĂ°ingi, rĂkiserindreki og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 2. nĂłvember - Odysseas Elytis, grĂskt skĂĄld og verĂ°launahafi bĂłkmenntaverĂ°laun NĂłbels 1979.
+ 11. desember - Naguib Mahfouz, egypskur rithöfundur sem hlaut Nóbelsverðlaunin à bókmenntum årið 1988.
+ 29. desember - Nicolae KovĂĄcs, rĂșmenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 1977).
+
+DĂĄin
+ 17. janĂșar - Francis Galton, breskur mannfrĂŠĂ°ingur, landkönnuĂ°ur, uppfinningamaĂ°ur, og tölfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 15. febrĂșar - Theodor Escherich, bĂŠverskur barnalĂŠknir og örverufrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1857).
+ 25. aprĂl - Emilio Salgari, Ătalskur rithöfundur.
+ 18. maĂ - Gustav Mahler, var austurrĂskt tĂłnskĂĄld.
+ 18. september - Pjotr StolypĂn, ĂŸriĂ°ji forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra RĂșsslands og innanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°herra rĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmisins frĂĄ 1906 til 1911.
+ 29. oktĂłber - Joseph Pulitzer, ungversk-bandarĂskur dagblaĂ°aĂștgefandi og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+
+NĂłbelsverĂ°launin
+ EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i - Wilhelm Wien
+ EfnafrĂŠĂ°i - Marie Sklodowska-Curie
+ LĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i - Allvar Gullstrand
+ BĂłkmenntir - Maurice (Mooris) Polidore Marie Bernhard Maeterlinck Greifi
+ FriĂ°arverĂ°laun - Tobias Michael Carel Asser, Alfred Hermann Fried
+
+1911
+janĂșar
+
+febrĂșar
+
+mars1
+2
+3
+4
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+1
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+1
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+Listar
+Mars eĂ°a marsmĂĄnuĂ°ur er ĂŸriĂ°ji mĂĄnuĂ°ur ĂĄrsins og er nefndur eftir Mars, rĂłmverskum strĂĂ°sguĂ°i.
+
+OrĂ°sifjar
+MĂĄnaĂ°arheitiĂ° mars er komiĂ° Ășr latĂnu. Fyrir daga JĂșlĂusar Sesars byrjaĂ°i ĂĄriĂ° hjĂĄ RĂłmverjum meĂ° marsmĂĄnuĂ°i. ĂĂĄ fĂłr aĂ° vora suĂ°ur ĂŸar og ĂŸĂłtti ĂŸĂĄ hentugt aĂ° fara Ă strĂĂ°. MĂĄnuĂ°urinn var ĂŸvĂ helgaĂ°ur herguĂ°inum Mars og heitir eftir honum. Vegna ĂŸess aĂ° mars var fyrstur Ă röðinni innan ĂĄrsins skĂœrast nöfn mĂĄnaĂ°anna september, oktĂłber, nĂłvember og desember (= sjöundi, ĂĄttundi, nĂundi og tĂundi mĂĄnuĂ°ur). Ăetta er lĂka orsök ĂŸess aĂ° hlaupĂĄrsdagur er sĂĂ°asti dagur febrĂșar, sem ĂŸannig var sĂĂ°asti dagur ĂĄrsins, sem verĂ°ur aĂ° teljast eĂ°lilegur staĂ°ur fyrir innskotsdag.
+
+VeĂ°urfar ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă mars
+ReykjavĂk
+ Meðalhiti 2,9°C
+ Ărkoma 59,3mm
+ SĂłlskinsstundir 140,0
+
+Akureyri
+ Meðalhiti -1,3 °C
+ Ărkoma 43,3mm
+ SĂłlskinsstundir 77,0
+
+ĂĂ°ey (ĂsafjarĂ°ardjĂșpi)
+ Meðalhiti -1,9 °C
+ Ărkoma 46,1mm
+ SĂłlskinsstundir NA
+
+Dalatangi (Austfjörðum)
+ Meðalhiti 0,1 °C
+ Ărkoma 116,0mm
+ SĂłlskinsstundir NA
+
+Stórhöfði (Vestmannaeyjum)
+ Meðalhiti 1,7 °C
+ Ărkoma 141,4mm
+ SĂłlskinsstundir NA
+
+Heimildir
+ VeĂ°urfarsupplĂœsingar af vef VeĂ°urstofu Ăslands sem sĂœna meĂ°altöl ĂĄranna 1961-1990
+
+Mars
+Ăetta er listi yfir einstaklinga sem gegnt hafa embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ăslands. ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra er leiĂ°togi rĂkisstjĂłrnar Ăslands.
+
+RĂĄĂ°herrar heimastjĂłrnar Ăslands
+
+ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herrar Ăslands
+
+ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herrar hins fullvalda konungsrĂkis Ăslands
+HiĂ° fullvalda konungsrĂki Ăsland (1. desember 1918 â 17. jĂșnĂ 1944)''
+
+ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herrar LĂœĂ°veldisins Ăslands
+ LĂœĂ°veldiĂ° Ăsland (frĂĄ 17. jĂșnĂ 1944)
+
+Tengt efni
+ ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ăslands
+ RĂkisstjĂłrn Ăslands
+ Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄl
+ Forsetar lĂœĂ°veldisins Ăslands
+ UtanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°herrar ĂĄ Ăslandi
+ FjĂĄrmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herrar ĂĄ Ăslandi
+ Forseti AlĂŸingis
+ ĂslandsrĂĄĂ°gjafi
+
+
+StjĂłrnmĂĄl
+Listar tengdir Ăslenskum stjĂłrnmĂĄlum
+Listar yfir Ăslendinga
+Ăsland forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herrar
+PĂłlland (pĂłlska: Polska), formlega LĂœĂ°veldiĂ° PĂłlland, er land Ă MiĂ°-EvrĂłpu. ĂaĂ° ĂĄ landamĂŠri aĂ° ĂĂœskalandi Ă vestri, TĂ©kklandi og SlĂłvakĂu Ă suĂ°ri, ĂkraĂnu, HvĂta-RĂșsslandi og LitĂĄen Ă austri og RĂșsslandi (KalĂnĂngrad) Ă norĂ°ri. LandiĂ° ĂĄ strönd aĂ° Eystrasalti og renna ĂŸar ĂĄrnar Odra og Visla Ă sjĂł. PĂłlland er landfrĂŠĂ°ilega fjölbreytt land sem nĂŠr aĂ° SĂșdetalandi og Karpatafjöllum Ă suĂ°ri. PĂłlland er 312.679 ferkĂlĂłmetrar aĂ° flatarmĂĄli og er nĂunda stĂŠrsta land EvrĂłpu. ĂbĂșar PĂłllands eru rĂșmlega 38 milljĂłnir og ĂŸaĂ° er sjötta fjölmennasta rĂki EvrĂłpusambandsins. VarsjĂĄ er höfuĂ°borg landsins og stĂŠrsta borgin. AĂ°rar helstu borgir PĂłllands eru KrakĂĄ, ĆĂłdĆș, WrocĆaw, PoznaĆ, GdaĆsk og Szczecin.
+
+Saga PĂłllands nĂŠr ĂŸĂșsundir ĂĄra aftur Ă tĂmann. Ă sĂĂ°fornöld settust Ăœmsir ĂŸjóðflokkar og ĂŠttbĂĄlkar aĂ° ĂĄ NorĂ°ur-EvrĂłpuslĂ©ttunni. Vestur-PĂłlanar lögĂ°u hluta svĂŠĂ°isins undir sig og landiĂ° dregur nafn sitt af ĂŸeim. Stofnun rĂkis Ă PĂłllandi mĂĄ rekja til ĂĄrsins 966 ĂŸegar Mieszko 1., fursti yfir landsvĂŠĂ°i sem samsvarar nokkurn veginn nĂșverandi rĂki, tĂłk kristni og snerist til rĂłmversk-kaĂŸĂłlskrar trĂșar. KonungsrĂkiĂ° PĂłlland var stofnaĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1025 og ĂĄriĂ° 1569 gekk ĂŸaĂ° Ă konungssamband viĂ° StĂłrhertogadĂŠmiĂ° LitĂĄen meĂ° Lublinsamningnum. PĂłlsk-litĂĄĂska samveldiĂ° var eitt af stĂŠrstu og fjölmennustu rĂkjum EvrĂłpu ĂĄ 16. og 17. öld meĂ° einstaklega frjĂĄlslynt stjĂłrnkerfi sem tĂłk upp fyrstu stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ EvrĂłpu.
+
+PĂłlska gullöldin leiĂ° undir lok viĂ° skiptingar PĂłllands af hĂĄlfu nĂĄgrannarĂkja undir lok 18. aldar. LandiĂ° fĂ©kk aftur sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i ĂŸegar AnnaĂ° pĂłlska lĂœĂ°veldiĂ° var stofnaĂ° eftir Versalasamningana 1918. Eftir röð ĂĄtaka um yfirrĂĄĂ°asvĂŠĂ°i komst PĂłlland til ĂĄhrifa Ă evrĂłpskum stjĂłrnmĂĄlum ĂĄ nĂœ. SĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöldin hĂłfst meĂ° innrĂĄs Ăjóðverja Ă PĂłlland og sĂĂ°an innrĂĄs SovĂ©trĂkjanna Ă kjölfariĂ°, samkvĂŠmt Molotov-Ribbentrop-sĂĄttmĂĄlanum milli rĂkjanna. Um sex milljĂłn PĂłlverjar, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al ĂŸrjĂĄr milljĂłnir gyĂ°inga, tĂœndu lĂfinu Ă styrjöldinni. Eftir strĂĂ°iĂ° varĂ° PĂłlland hluti af Austurblokkinni og PĂłlska alĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldiĂ° var stofnaĂ°. LandiĂ° var einn af stofnaĂ°ilum VarsjĂĄrbandalagsins Ă Kalda strĂĂ°inu. ĂriĂ° 1989 hĂłfust mĂłtmĂŠli gegn kommĂșnistastjĂłrninni og verkföll verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©laga Samstöðu. StjĂłrn SameinaĂ°a pĂłlska verkamannaflokksins fĂ©ll og PĂłllandi var breytt Ășr flokksrĂŠĂ°i Ă forsetaĂŸingrĂŠĂ°i.
+
+PĂłlland er meĂ° ĂŸrĂłaĂ° markaĂ°shagkerfi og telst til miĂ°velda. Hagkerfi PĂłllands er ĂŸaĂ° sjötta stĂŠrsta Ă EvrĂłpusambandinu aĂ° nafnvirĂ°i og ĂŸaĂ° fimmta stĂŠrsta kaupmĂĄttarjafnaĂ°. PĂłllandi situr hĂĄtt ĂĄ lista yfir lönd eftir lĂfsgĂŠĂ°um, og skorar hĂĄtt fyrir öryggi og viĂ°skiptafrelsi. HĂĄskĂłlamenntun og heilbrigĂ°isĂŸjĂłnusta eru opinber og gjaldfrjĂĄls. PĂłlland ĂĄ aĂ°ild aĂ° Schengen-svĂŠĂ°inu, EvrĂłpusambandinu, EvrĂłpska efnahagssvĂŠĂ°inu, Ăryggis- og samvinnustofnun EvrĂłpu, SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðunum, Höfunum ĂŸremur, VisegrĂĄd-hĂłpnum og NATO.
+
+Heiti
+Ă pĂłlsku heitir landiĂ° Polska. NafniĂ° er dregiĂ° af heiti PĂłlana, vesturslavnesks ĂŸjóðarbrots sem bjĂł viĂ° Warta-ĂĄ frĂĄ 6. til 8. aldar. Heiti ĂŸjóðarbrotsins er dregiĂ° af frumslavneska orĂ°inu pole sem merkir âakurâ og er dregiĂ° af frumindĂłevrĂłpska orĂ°inu *plehâ- âflatlendiâ. OrĂ°iĂ° vĂsar til landfrĂŠĂ°i svĂŠĂ°isins og flatlendrar slĂ©ttunnar Ă PĂłllandi hinu meira.
+
+LandiĂ° hĂ©t ĂĄĂ°ur fyrr PĂłlĂnaland og ĂbĂșar ĂŸess PĂłlĂnar ĂĄ Ăslensku, en frĂĄ miĂ°ri 19. öld var fariĂ° aĂ° notast viĂ° orĂ°myndina PĂłlland. Nafn landsins var ĂŸĂœtt sem âSlĂ©ttumannalandâ Ă 4. hefti Fjölnis. Latneska heitiĂ° Polonia var almennt notaĂ° Ă EvrĂłpu ĂĄ miðöldum.
+
+AnnaĂ° fornt norrĂŠnt heiti ĂĄ ĂbĂșum landsins er LĂŠsir, dregiĂ° af forna heitinu Lechia sem er uppruni heitis PĂłllands ĂĄ ungversku, litĂĄĂsku og persnesku. NafniĂ° er dregiĂ° af sagnkonungnum Lech sem ĂĄtti aĂ° hafa stofnaĂ° rĂki Ă PĂłllandi hinu minna. OrĂ°iĂ° er skylt fornpĂłlska orĂ°inu lÄda âslĂ©ttaâ. BĂŠĂ°i nöfnin Lechia og Polonia voru notuĂ° af sagnariturum ĂĄ miðöldum.
+
+Saga
+
+Forsögulegur tĂmi
+Elstu merki um mannabyggĂ° (Homo erectus) ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu eru um ĂŸaĂ° bil 500.000 ĂĄra gömul, en Ăsaldir sem fylgdu Ă kjölfariĂ° hafa gert varanlega byggĂ° Ăłmögulega. VĂsbendingar eru um aĂ° hĂłpar neanderdalsmanna hafi hafst viĂ° Ă suĂ°urhĂ©ruĂ°um PĂłllands ĂĄ Eem-hlĂœskeiĂ°inu (128.000-115.000 f.o.t.) og nĂŠstu ĂĄrĂŸĂșsund. Koma nĂștĂmamanna fĂłr saman viĂ° lok sĂĂ°ustu Ăsaldar (10.000 f.Kr.) ĂŸegar PĂłlland varĂ° byggilegt. Minjar frĂĄ nĂœsteinöld sĂœna umtalsverĂ°a ĂŸrĂłun mannabyggĂ°a ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu; elstu dĂŠmi um ostagerĂ° Ă EvrĂłpu (5500 f.Kr.) fundust Ă KujavĂu, og Bronicice-potturinn er grafinn meĂ° mynstri sem gĂŠti veriĂ° elstu ĂŸekktu myndir af hjĂłli (3400 f.Kr.).
+
+Bronsöld hĂłfst Ă PĂłllandi um 2400 f.Kr. en jĂĄrnöld hĂłfst um 750 f.Kr. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma varĂ° LĂșsatĂumenningin, sem nĂŠr frĂĄ bronsöld til jĂĄrnaldar, ĂĄberandi ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu. FrĂŠgasti fornleifafundur frĂĄ forsögulegum tĂma Ă PĂłllandi er vĂggirta byggĂ°in Ă Biskupin (endurbyggĂ° sem Ăștisafn), sem er frĂĄ LĂșsatĂumenningunni ĂĄ sĂĂ°bronsöld, um 748 f.Kr.
+
+Mörg aĂ°skilin menningarsamfĂ©lög settust aĂ° ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu ĂĄ klassĂskri fornöld, sĂ©rstaklega Keltar, SkĂœĂŸar, Germanar, Sarmatar, Slavar og EystrasaltsbĂșar. FornleifarannsĂłknir hafa auk ĂŸess staĂ°fest aĂ° rĂłmverskar herdeildir hafi komiĂ° til svĂŠĂ°isins.
+Ăetta hafa lĂklega veriĂ° könnunarsveitir sendar til aĂ° verja flutninga rafs um RafleiĂ°ina. PĂłlskir ĂŠttbĂĄlkar komu fram ĂĄ ĂŸjóðflutningatĂmabilinu um miĂ°ja 6. öld. Ăetta voru aĂ°allega Vestur-Slavar og LekĂtar aĂ° uppruna, en blönduĂ°ust öðrum hĂłpum sem bĂșiĂ° höfĂ°u ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu Ă ĂŸĂșsundir ĂĄra. Elstu ĂŠttbĂĄlkasamfĂ©lögin gĂŠtu tengst Wielbark-menningunni og Przeworsk-menningunni.
+
+Piast-ĂŠtt
+
+RĂki tĂłk aĂ° myndast Ă PĂłllandi um miĂ°ja 10. öld ĂŸegar Piast-ĂŠtt barĂ°ist til valda. ĂriĂ° 966 tĂłk Mieszko 1. kristni og gerĂ°i aĂ° rĂkistrĂș. BrĂ©f um hann frĂĄ um 1080 sem ber titilinn Dagome iudex skilgreinir landamĂŠri PĂłllands, segir höfuĂ°borgina vera Gniezno og staĂ°festir aĂ° konungur landsins sĂ© undir verndarvĂŠng PĂĄfadĂłms. Saga PĂłllands var fyrst sögĂ° af sagnaritaranum Gallus Anonymus Ă ritinu Gesta principum Polonorum. MikilvĂŠgur atburĂ°ur ĂĄ miðöldum var ĂŸegar AĂ°albert af Prag var myrtur af heiĂ°ingjum ĂĄriĂ° 997 og lĂkamsleifar hans keyptar fyrir ĂŸyngd ĂŸeirra Ă gulli af eftirmanni Mieszkos, BolesĆaw 1.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1000 lagĂ°i BolesĆaw grunninn aĂ° ĂŸvĂ sem sĂĂ°ar varĂ° sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt konungsrĂki. Hann fĂ©kk skrĂœĂ°ingarleyfi frĂĄ OttĂł 3. keisara sem samĂŸykkti stofnun biskupsdĂŠma. Fyrstu pĂłlsku biskupsdĂŠmin voru stofnuĂ° Ă KrakĂĄ, KoĆobrzeg og WrocĆaw. Ă ĂŸinginu Ă Gniezno gaf OttĂł BolesĆaw konungstĂĄkn og eftirmynd af spjĂłtinu helga fyrir krĂœningu hans sem fyrsta konungs PĂłllands Ă kringum 1025. BolesĆaw stĂŠkkaĂ°i rĂkiĂ° umtalsvert meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hertaka hluta af LĂșsatĂu, MĂŠri, Efra-Ungverjalandi og svĂŠĂ°i sem GarĂ°arĂki rĂ©Ă°i yfir.
+
+Umskiptin frĂĄ slavneskri heiĂ°ni til kristni Ă PĂłllandi urĂ°u ekki umsvifalaus og leiddu til andspyrnu pĂłlskra heiĂ°ingja ĂĄ 4. ĂĄratug 11. aldar. ĂriĂ° 1031 missti Mieszko 2. konungstitilinn og flĂșĂ°i eftir ĂĄtök. ĂfriĂ°urinn leiddi til ĂŸess aĂ° höfuĂ°borgin var flutt til KrakĂĄr af KasimĂr 1. ĂriĂ° 1076 endurreisti BolesĆaw 2. konungdĂŠmiĂ°, en var sĂĂ°an bannfĂŠrĂ°ur ĂĄriĂ° 1079 fyrir aĂ° myrĂ°a andstĂŠĂ°ing sinn, Stanislaus biskup. ĂriĂ° 1138 var landinu skipt Ă fimm furstadĂŠmi ĂŸegar BolesĆaw 3. skipti ĂŸvĂ milli sona sinna. Ăessi furstadĂŠmi voru PĂłlland hiĂ° meira, PĂłlland hiĂ° minna, SlĂ©sĂa, MasĂłvĂa og Sandomierz, sem stundum nĂĄĂ°i lĂka yfir Pommern. ĂriĂ° 1226 baĂ° KonrĂĄĂ°ur 1. af MasĂłvĂu ĂĂœsku riddarana aĂ° hjĂĄlpa sĂ©r gegn hinum heiĂ°nu baltnesku PrĂșssum. SĂș ĂĄkvörĂ°un leiddi ĂĄ endanum til strĂĂ°s gegn riddurunum.
+
+Um miĂ°ja 13. öld reyndu Hinrik hinn skeggjaĂ°i og Hinrik hinn frĂłmi aĂ° sameina hertogadĂŠmin, en innrĂĄs MongĂłla Ă PĂłlland og lĂĄt Hinriks frĂłma Ă orrustunni viĂ° Legnica komu Ă veg fyrir sameiningu. EyĂ°ilegging og mannfĂŠkkun Ă kjölfar innrĂĄsanna og eftirspurn eftir faglĂŠrĂ°u vinnuafli leiddu til innflutnings ĂŸĂœskra og flĂŠmskra handverksmanna til PĂłllands, sem pĂłlsku hertogarnir studdu. ĂriĂ° 1264 fengu GyĂ°ingar mikiĂ° sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i meĂ° Kalisz-sĂĄttmĂĄlanum. ĂriĂ° 1320 varĂ° VladislĂĄs 1. af PĂłllandi fyrsti konungur sameinaĂ°s PĂłllands frĂĄ 1296 og var sĂĄ fyrsti sem var krĂœndur Ă Wawel-dĂłmkirkju Ă KrakĂĄ.
+
+KasimĂr 3. hĂłf aĂ° reisa net kastala, bĂŠta herinn og laga- og dĂłmskerfi landsins og efla alĂŸjóðatengsl. Undir hans stjĂłrn gerĂ°ist PĂłlland stĂłrveldi Ă EvrĂłpu. Hann lagĂ°i RĂșĂŸenĂu undir pĂłlska stjĂłrn ĂĄriĂ° 1340 og setti reglur um sĂłttkvĂ sem komu Ă veg fyrir ĂștbreiĂ°slu svarta dauĂ°a. ĂriĂ° 1364 stofnaĂ°i hann hĂĄskĂłla Ă KrakĂĄ sem er ein af elstu hĂĄskĂłlastofnunum EvrĂłpu. AndlĂĄt hans ĂĄriĂ° 1370 markaĂ°i endalok valdatĂĂ°ar Piast-ĂŠttar. EftirmaĂ°ur hans var nĂŠsti karlkyns ĂŠttingi hans, LoĂ°vĂk af Anjou, sem rĂkti yfir PĂłllandi, Ungverjalandi og KrĂłatĂu meĂ° konungssambandi. Yngri dĂłttir LoĂ°vĂks, Jadwiga, varĂ° fyrsta rĂkjandi drottning PĂłllands ĂĄriĂ° 1384.
+
+Jagiellon-ĂŠtt
+
+ĂriĂ° 1386 gekk Jadwiga af PĂłllandi aĂ° eiga WĆadysĆaw 2. JagieĆĆo, stĂłrhertoga af LithĂĄen. Ăar meĂ° tĂłk Jagiellon-ĂŠtt viĂ° völdum Ă konungssambandi sem nefndist PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska sambandiĂ° og rĂkti frĂĄ lokum sĂĂ°miĂ°alda til upphafs ĂĄrnĂœaldar. StĂłrhertogadĂŠmiĂ° var ĂŸĂĄ miklu stĂŠrra en LithĂĄen er Ă dag og ĂĄtti seinna eftir aĂ° verĂ°a enn stĂŠrra. PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska sambandiĂ° varĂ° ĂŸannig eitt af stĂŠrstu og fjölbreyttustu rĂkjum EvrĂłpu ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma.
+
+Ătök PĂłlverja og LithĂĄa viĂ° ĂŸĂœsku riddarana hĂ©ldu ĂĄfram og nĂĄĂ°u hĂĄmarki Ă orrustunni viĂ° Grunwald ĂĄriĂ° 1410, ĂŸar sem sameinaĂ°ur her gersigraĂ°i riddarana. ĂriĂ° 1466, eftir ĂŸrettĂĄn ĂĄra strĂĂ°iĂ°, gekk KasimĂr 4. Jagiellon aĂ° Thorn-friĂ°num sem leiddi til stofnunar hertogadĂŠmis Ă PrĂșsslandi undir pĂłlska konungdĂŠminu og neyddi rĂĄĂ°amenn Ă PrĂșsslandi til aĂ° greiĂ°a skatt. Jagiellon-ĂŠttin nĂĄĂ°i lĂka yfirrĂĄĂ°um yfir konungsrĂkjum Ă BĂŠheimi og Ungverjalandi. Ă suĂ°ri barĂ°ist rĂkiĂ° gegn Tyrkjaveldi og KrĂmkanatinu, og Ă austri gegn RĂșsslandi.
+
+PĂłlland breyttist Ă lĂ©nsveldi sem byggĂ°ist ĂĄ landbĂșnaĂ°i meĂ° sĂfellt valdameiri lendan aĂ°al ĂŸar sem bĂŠndur unnu sem leiguliĂ°ar ĂĄ stĂłrjarĂ°eignum. ĂriĂ° 1493 samĂŸykkti JĂłhann 1. Albert stofnun ĂŸings Ă tveimur deildum: Sejm (neĂ°ri deild) og öldungadeild. Nihil novi voru lög sem pĂłlska ĂŸingiĂ° samĂŸykkti ĂĄriĂ° 1505 og fĂłlu Ă sĂ©r aĂ° löggjafarvald fluttist frĂĄ konungi til ĂŸingsins. SĂĄ atburĂ°ur markar upphaf svokallaĂ°s gyllts frelsis, ĂŸegar landiĂ° breyttist Ă samveldi pĂłlskra aĂ°alsmanna sem voru jafningjar aĂ° nafninu til.
+
+Ă 16. öld nĂĄĂ°u siĂ°askiptin til PĂłllands og leiddu til aukins trĂșfrelsis, sem var einstakt Ă evrĂłpsku samhengi. ĂaĂ° varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° landiĂ° slapp viĂ° trĂșarĂĄtök og styrjaldir sem ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma einkenndu aĂ°ra hluta EvrĂłpu. PĂłlska brĂŠĂ°ralagiĂ° boĂ°aĂ°i andĂŸrenningartrĂș og skildi sig frĂĄ kalvĂnskum rĂłtum sĂnum. BrĂŠĂ°ralagiĂ° ĂĄtti seinna ĂŸĂĄtt Ă stofnun ĂșnĂtarahreyfingarinnar.
+
+Ă valdatĂĂ° Sigmundar gamla og Sigmundar 2. barst endurreisnin til PĂłllands og leiddi til upphafs pĂłlsku gullaldarinnar ĂŸegar efnahagur og menningarlĂf blĂłmstraĂ°i Ă landinu. Eiginkona Sigmundar gamla, Bona Sforza, dĂłttir hertogans af MĂlanĂł, Gian Galeazzo Sforza, hafĂ°i mikil ĂĄhrif ĂĄ pĂłlskan arkitektĂșr, pĂłlska matargerĂ°, tungumĂĄl og hirĂ°siĂ°i Ă Wawel-kastala.
+
+PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldiĂ°
+
+PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldiĂ° var stofnaĂ° meĂ° Lublin-samningnum ĂĄriĂ° 1569. Ăetta var sameinaĂ° lĂ©nsveldi meĂ° kjörkonung, sem aĂ°allinn rĂkti yfir aĂ° mestu. Stofnunin fĂłr saman viĂ° uppgangstĂma Ă sögu landsins sem varĂ° leiĂ°andi afl og menningarmiĂ°stöð meĂ° mikil ĂĄhrif um alla MiĂ°-, Austur- og SuĂ°austur-EvrĂłpu. Innanlands fĂłr fram pĂłlskuvĂŠĂ°ing sem mĂŠtti andstöðu, sĂ©rstaklega Ă löndum sem nĂœlega höfĂ°u veriĂ° innlimuĂ° Ă rĂkiĂ° og meĂ°al trĂșarlegra minnihlutahĂłpa.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1573 fullgilti fyrsti kjörkonungurinn, Hinrik af Valois, Hinriksgreinarnar sem skuldbundu framtĂĂ°arkonunga landsins til aĂ° virĂ°a rĂ©ttindi aĂ°alsins. EftirmaĂ°ur hans, StefĂĄn BĂĄthory, gerĂ°i innrĂĄs Ă LĂfland Ă LĂflandsstrĂĂ°inu og stĂŠkkaĂ°i ĂŸannig rĂkiĂ° norĂ°ur eftir strönd Eystrasalts. StjĂłrn rĂkisins var aĂ° mestu Ă höndum kanslarans, Jan Zamoyski. ĂriĂ° 1592 tĂłk Sigmundur 3. af PĂłllandi viĂ° af föður sĂnum, JĂłhanni Vasa, sem konungur SvĂĂŸjóðar. PĂłlsk-sĂŠnska bandalagiĂ° stóð til 1599 ĂŸegar SvĂar settu hann frĂĄ völdum.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1609 gerĂ°i Sigmundur innrĂĄs Ă RĂșssaveldi ĂŸar sem rĂłsturtĂmarnir stóðu yfir. Ări sĂĂ°ar hertĂłku vĂŠngjaĂ°ir hĂșsarar, undir stjĂłrn StanisĆaw ƻóĆkiewski, Moskvu, og hĂ©ldu henni Ă tvö ĂĄr eftir Ăłsigur RĂșssa Ă orrustunni viĂ° Klusjino. Sigmundur barĂ°ist lĂka gegn Tyrkjaveldi Ă suĂ°austri. Jan Karol Chodkiewicz vann afgerandi sigur gegn Tyrkjum Ă orrustunni um Khotyn ĂĄriĂ° 1621, sem flĂœtti fyrir falli soldĂĄnsins Ăsmans 2.
+
+Löng valdatĂĂ° Sigmundar Ă PĂłllandi var kölluĂ° âsilfuröldâ. Hinn frjĂĄlslyndi konungur VladislĂĄs 4. Vasa nĂĄĂ°i aĂ° viĂ°halda yfirrĂĄĂ°um PĂłllands yfir löndum sĂnum, en eftir lĂĄt hans tĂłku innri ĂĄtök og stöðugur hernaĂ°ur aĂ° draga Ășr mĂŠtti rĂkisins. ĂriĂ° 1648 var KmelnitskĂjuppreisnin gerĂ° Ă ĂkraĂnu og ĂŸar ĂĄ eftir fylgdi SĂŠnska syndaflóðiĂ° sem olli mikill eyĂ°ileggingu. PrĂșssland varĂ° sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt 1657 meĂ° BrombergsĂĄttmĂĄlanum. ĂriĂ° 1683 sĂœndi JĂłhann 3. Sobieski fram ĂĄ hernaĂ°armĂĄtt rĂkisins aĂ° nĂœju ĂŸegar hann stöðvaĂ°i innrĂĄs Tyrkjaveldis Ă orrustunni um VĂn. Eftir hans tĂĂ° tĂłk Wettin-ĂŠtt viĂ° völdum og Ă valdatĂĂ° ĂgĂșstusar 2. og ĂgĂșstusar 3. efldust nĂĄgrannalönd PĂłllands eftir NorĂ°urlandaĂłfriĂ°inn mikla (1700) og PĂłlska erfĂ°astrĂĂ°iĂ° (1733).
+
+Upplausn
+
+Konungskjör Ă PĂłllandi 1764 varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° StanislĂĄs 2. ĂgĂșstus varĂ° konungur. FramboĂ° hans var styrkt af fyrrum ĂĄstkonu hans, KatrĂnu miklu keisaraynju RĂșsslands. NĂœi konungurinn sveiflaĂ°ist milli ĂŸess aĂ° koma ĂĄ nĂștĂmalegri stjĂłrnhĂĄttum og halda friĂ° viĂ° nĂĄgrannarĂkin. UmbĂŠtur hans leiddu til uppreisnar aĂ°alsmanna Ă Barbandalaginu gegn honum og erlendum ĂĄhrifum almennt, sem sĂłttust eftir aĂ° viĂ°halda sĂ©rrĂ©ttindum aĂ°alsins. MisheppnaĂ°ar tilraunir til umbĂłta Ă stjĂłrnkerfinu og innanlandsĂłfriĂ°ur urĂ°u til ĂŸess aĂ° nĂĄgrannarĂkin kusu aĂ° grĂpa inn Ă.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1772 var fyrsta skipting PĂłllands samĂŸykkt af PrĂșsslandi, RĂșsslandi og AusturrĂki. PĂłlska ĂŸingiĂ° samĂŸykkti hana sem orĂ°inn hlut eftir mikinn ĂŸrĂœsting. ĂriĂ° 1773 var gerĂ° ĂĄĂŠtlun um rĂłttĂŠkar umbĂŠtur Ă landinu ĂŸar sem meĂ°al annars var stofnuĂ° fyrsta opinbera menntastofnun EvrĂłpu, MenntarĂĄĂ° PĂłllands. LĂkamlegar refsingar gegn börnum voru bannaĂ°ar meĂ° lögum ĂĄriĂ° 1783. StanislĂĄs var leiĂ°andi Ă pĂłlsku upplĂœsingunni, hvatti til iĂ°nĂŸrĂłunar og studdi viĂ° byggingarlist Ă nĂœklassĂskum anda. Vegna ĂŸessa var hann gerĂ°ur aĂ° fĂ©laga Ă Konunglega breska vĂsindafĂ©laginu.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1791 samĂŸykkti stĂłrĂŸingiĂ° MaĂstjĂłrnarskrĂĄna, fyrstu stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ landsins sem kom ĂĄ ĂŸingbundinni konungsstjĂłrn. Targowica-bandalagiĂ°, samtök aĂ°alsmanna sem voru andsnĂșnir stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni, sneri sĂ©r til KatrĂnar miklu sem hĂłf strĂĂ° PĂłllands og RĂșsslands 1792. RĂșssar og PrĂșssar ĂłttuĂ°ust vaxandi styrk PĂłlverja og framkvĂŠmdu ĂŸvĂ aĂ°ra skiptingu PĂłllands 1793. Eftir ĂŸaĂ° var landiĂ° rĂșiĂ° sĂnum mikilvĂŠgustu landsvĂŠĂ°um og Ă reynd ĂłfĂŠrt um aĂ° viĂ°halda sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i sĂnu. Eftir ĂŸriĂ°ju skiptingu PĂłllands 24. oktĂłber 1795 var landiĂ° ekki lengur til. SĂĂ°asti konungur PĂłllands, StanislĂĄs ĂgĂșstus, sagĂ°i af sĂ©r ĂŸann 25. nĂłvember 1795.
+
+Uppreisnir
+
+PĂłlverjar gerĂ°u nokkrar uppreisnir gegn hernĂĄmsliĂ°um rĂkjanna sem höfĂ°u skipt landinu milli sĂn. ĂriĂ° 1794 var KoĆciuszko-uppreisnin gerĂ°, ĂŸar sem vinsĂŠll herforingi, Tadeusz KoĆciuszko, sem hafĂ°i ĂĄĂ°ur barist meĂ° George Washington Ă frelsisstrĂĂ°i BandarĂkjanna, leiddi uppreisnarmenn. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir sigur Ă orrustunni viĂ° RacĆawice varĂ° Ăłsigur hans ĂĄ endanum til ĂŸess aĂ° vonin um endurheimt sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°is dĂł.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1806 leiddi Jan Henryk DÄ
browski uppreisn rĂ©tt fyrir innrĂĄs NapĂłleons inn Ă RĂșssland Ă fjĂłrĂ°a bandalagsstrĂĂ°inu. MeĂ° TilsitsĂĄttmĂĄlanum lĂœsti NapĂłleon yfir stofnun hertogadĂŠmisins VarsjĂĄr 1807. HertogadĂŠmiĂ° var lepprĂki undir stjĂłrn bandamanns hans, FriĂ°riks af Saxlandi. PĂłlverjar studdu franska herinn Ă NapĂłleonsstyrjöldunum, sĂ©rstaklega liĂ° undir stjĂłrn JĂłzef Poniatowski sem varĂ° hermarskĂĄlkur skömmu fyrir andlĂĄt sitt Ă orrustuna um Leipzig 1813. Eftir aĂ° NapĂłleon var hrakinn Ă ĂștlegĂ° var hertogadĂŠmiĂ° VarsjĂĄ lagt niĂ°ur ĂĄ VĂnarĂŸinginu 1815 og landi ĂŸess skipt milli KongresskonungsrĂkisins PĂłllands undir stjĂłrn RĂșsslands, StĂłrhertogadĂŠmisins Posen undir stjĂłrn PrĂșsslands, og AusturrĂska PĂłlland meĂ° frĂrĂkinu KrakĂĄ.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1830 hĂłfu foringjaefni Ășr herforingjaskĂłla Ă VarsjĂĄ NĂłvemberuppreisnina. Eftir aĂ° hĂșn var brotin ĂĄ bak aftur missti KongressrĂkiĂ° PĂłlland sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i sitt, her og löggjafarĂŸing. ByltingarĂĄriĂ° 1848 gerĂ°u PĂłlverjar enn uppreisn gegn ĂŸĂœskuvĂŠĂ°ingu vesturhĂ©raĂ°anna. Ă kjölfariĂ° varĂ° stĂłrhertogadĂŠmiĂ° Posen aĂ° einföldu hĂ©raĂ°i sem var innlimaĂ° Ă ĂĂœska keisaradĂŠmiĂ° 1871. Ă RĂșsslandi var JanĂșaruppreisnin 1863-1864 barin niĂ°ur meĂ° hörku og leiddi til brottflutnings PĂłlverja og pĂłlskra gyĂ°inga. Undir lok 19. aldar ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ° mikil iĂ°nvĂŠĂ°ing Ă Kongress-PĂłllandi og helstu ĂștflutningsafurĂ°ur urĂ°u kol, sink, jĂĄrn og textĂll.
+
+AnnaĂ° pĂłlska lĂœĂ°veldiĂ°
+
+Eftir fyrri heimsstyrjöldina samĂŸykktu bandamenn aĂ° endurreisa PĂłlland meĂ° Versalasamningunum Ă jĂșnĂ 1919. Alls börĂ°ust 2 milljĂłnir pĂłlskra hermanna meĂ° hernĂĄmsliĂ°unum ĂŸremur, og yfir 450.000 lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ°. Eftir undirritun vopnahlĂ©s viĂ° ĂĂœskaland Ă nĂłvember 1918 lĂœstu PĂłlverjar yfir stofnun annars pĂłlska lĂœĂ°veldisins. NĂŠstu ĂĄr var sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i ĂŸess staĂ°fest Ă röð strĂĂ°sĂĄtaka, sĂ©rstaklega strĂĂ°i PĂłllands og SovĂ©trĂkjanna ĂŸar sem PĂłlverjar gersigruĂ°u rauĂ°a herinn Ă orrustunni um VarsjĂĄ ĂĄriĂ° 1920. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma tĂłkst pĂłlska lĂœĂ°veldinu aĂ° sameina löndin sem ĂĄĂ°ur höfĂ°u skipst milli ĂŸriggja rĂkja, Ă eitt ĂŸjóðrĂki.
+
+Ă millistrĂĂ°sĂĄrunum fĂłr Ă hönd nĂœtt tĂmabil Ă pĂłlskum stjĂłrnmĂĄlum. Ăratugina ĂĄ undan höfĂ°u pĂłlskir stjĂłrnmĂĄlaleiĂ°togar mĂĄtt ĂŸola ritskoĂ°un, og nĂș ĂŸurfti aĂ° skapa nĂœja stjĂłrnmĂĄlaumrĂŠĂ°u. Margir ĂștlĂŠgir pĂłlskir aĂ°gerĂ°asinnar, eins og Ignacy Paderewski (sem sĂĂ°ar varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra), sneru nĂș aftur heim og margir ĂŸeirra gegndu lykilstöðum Ă stjĂłrnkerfinu. ĂriĂ° 1922 var fyrsti forseti PĂłllands, Gabriel Narutowicz, myrtur Ă VarsjĂĄ af hĂŠgriöfgamanninum Eligiusz Niewiadomski.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1926 leiddi herforinginn og ĂŸjóðhetjan JĂłzef PiĆsudski valdarĂĄn og fĂłl Sanacja-hreyfingunni stjĂłrn landsins til aĂ° koma Ă veg fyrir aĂ° rĂłttĂŠkar stjĂłrnmĂĄlahreyfingar til hĂŠgri og vinstri nĂŠĂ°u völdum. Seint ĂĄ 4. ĂĄratugnum varĂ° Ăłttinn viĂ° rĂłtttĂŠkar hreyfingar svo mikill aĂ° stjĂłrnvöld beittu sĂfellt meiri hörku og bönnuĂ°u marga stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokka, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al kommĂșnista og ĂŸjóðernissinnaĂ°a flokka sem ĂŸau töldu Ăłgna stöðugleikanum.
+
+Seinni heimsstyrjöld
+
+SĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöld hĂłfst ĂŸegar ĂriĂ°ja rĂkiĂ° gerĂ°i innrĂĄs Ă PĂłlland 1. september 1939. Ă kjölfariĂ° fylgdi innrĂĄs SovĂ©tmanna Ă PĂłlland 17. september. Ăann 28. september fĂ©ll VarsjĂĄ. SamkvĂŠmt MĂłlotov-Ribbentrop-samningnum var PĂłllandi skipt Ă tvennt milli hernĂĄmsliĂ°anna. FrĂĄ 1939 til 1941 flutti SovĂ©therinn ĂŸĂșsundir PĂłlverja burt. SovĂ©ska innanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°uneytiĂ° NKVD myrti ĂŸĂșsundir pĂłlskra strĂĂ°sfanga Ă Katyn-fjöldamorĂ°unum ĂĄĂ°ur en Ăjóðverjar rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ SovĂ©trĂkin Ă Barbarossa-aĂ°gerĂ°inni. Ă ĂŸĂœskum ĂĄĂŠtlunum var talaĂ° um âĂștrĂœmingu PĂłlverjaâ ĂĄriĂ° 1939 og Generalplan Ost fĂłl Ă sĂ©r ĂŸjóðarmorĂ°.
+
+Pólverjar lögðu til fjórða stÊrsta herlið Evrópu
+ og pĂłlskir hermenn börĂ°ust fyrir bĂŠĂ°i ĂștlagastjĂłrn PĂłllands Ă vestri og PĂłllandsher undir stjĂłrn SovĂ©trĂkjanna Ă austri. PĂłlskir hermenn lĂ©ku stĂłr hlutverk Ă Overlord-aĂ°gerĂ°inni, ĂtalĂuherförinni og NorĂ°ur-AfrĂkuherförinni, og er sĂ©rstaklega minnst fyrir framgöngu sĂna Ă orrustunni um Monte Cassino. PĂłlskir njĂłsnarar reyndust bandamönnum Ăłmetanleg uppspretta upplĂœsinga innan Ășr EvrĂłpu og pĂłlskum dulmĂĄlssĂ©rfrĂŠĂ°ingum tĂłkst aĂ° rĂĄĂ°a Ă Enigma-dulmĂĄliĂ°. Ă austri barĂ°ist pĂłlski fyrsti herinn meĂ° SovĂ©thernum Ă orrustum um VarsjĂĄ og BerlĂn.
+
+PĂłlska andspyrnuhreyfingin og Armia Krajowa (âheimaherinnâ) börĂ°ust gegn hernĂĄmi Ăjóðverja og störfuĂ°u eins og neĂ°anjarĂ°arrĂki, meĂ° virku menntakerfi og dĂłmskerfi. Andspyrnan leit ĂĄ ĂștlagastjĂłrnina sem rĂ©ttmĂŠta stjĂłrn landsins og hafnaĂ°i hugmyndinni um kommĂșnistastjĂłrn yfir PĂłllandi. Af ĂŸeim orsökum hĂłf hĂșn StormaĂ°gerĂ°ina 1944, en uppreisnin Ă VarsjĂĄ er ĂŸekktasti angi ĂŸeirrar aĂ°gerĂ°ar.
+
+SamkvĂŠmt skipunum Hitlers reistu Ăjóðverjar sex ĂștrĂœmingarbĂșĂ°ir ĂĄ hernĂĄmssvĂŠĂ°inu Ă PĂłllandi, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al Treblinka, Majdanek og Auschwitz. Ăjóðverjar fluttu milljĂłnir gyĂ°inga alls staĂ°ar aĂ° Ășr EvrĂłpu til bĂșĂ°anna ĂŸar sem ĂŸeir voru myrtir. TaliĂ° er aĂ° um 3 milljĂłnir pĂłlskra gyĂ°inga â um 90% af öllum gyĂ°ingum Ă PĂłllandi - og milli 1,8 og 2,8 aĂ°rir PĂłlverjar hafi veriĂ° myrtir meĂ°an ĂĄ hernĂĄmi PĂłllands stóð, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al voru milli 50 og 100.000 pĂłlskir menntamenn (hĂĄskĂłlakennarar, lĂŠknar, lögfrĂŠĂ°ingar, aĂ°alsmenn og prestar). Ă uppreisninni Ă VarsjĂĄ einni voru 150.000 pĂłlskir borgarar drepnir, flestir myrtir af Ăjóðverjum Ă Wola og Ochota. Um 150.000 pĂłlskir almennir borgarar voru myrtir af SovĂ©tmönnum milli 1939 og 1941 meĂ°an ĂĄ hernĂĄmi SovĂ©trĂkjanna Ă austurhluta PĂłllands stóð, og eins er taliĂ° aĂ° um 100.000 PĂłlverjar hafi veriĂ° myrtir af Uppreisnarher ĂkraĂnu milli 1943 og 1944 Ă Volhynia og Austur-GalisĂu. TaliĂ° er aĂ° PĂłlland hafi misst hĂŠsta hlutfall ĂbĂșa sinna Ă strĂĂ°inu, um 6 milljĂłnir, yfir 1/6 af ĂbĂșafjöldanum fyrir strĂĂ°. Helmingur ĂŸeirra voru gyĂ°ingar.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1945 voru bĂŠĂ°i austur- og vesturlandamĂŠri PĂłllands flutt Ă vesturĂĄtt. Yfir 2 milljĂłnir pĂłlskra ĂbĂșa Kresy voru reknir yfir Curzon-lĂnuna af JĂłsef StalĂn. VesturlandamĂŠrin voru sett viĂ° Oder-Neisse-lĂnuna. AfleiĂ°ingin var aĂ° PĂłlland minnkaĂ°i um 20% eĂ°a 77.500 kmÂČ. Ăessi breyting leiddi til stĂłrfelldra fĂłlksflutninga PĂłlverja, Ăjóðverja, ĂkraĂnumanna og GyĂ°inga.
+
+KommĂșnistastjĂłrnin
+
+SamkvĂŠmt kröfum StalĂns ĂĄ JaltarĂĄĂ°stefnunni var mynduĂ° nĂœ samsteypustjĂłrn Ă PĂłllandi sem var hliĂ°holl kommĂșnistum, en pĂłlska ĂștlagastjĂłrnin Ă London hunsuĂ°. Margir PĂłlverjar litu ĂĄ ĂŸetta sem svik Vesturveldanna. ĂriĂ° 1944 hafĂ°i StalĂn heitiĂ° Winston Churchill og Franklin D. Roosevelt aĂ° virĂ°a fullveldi PĂłllands og heimila lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°islegar kosningar, en eftir aĂ° sigur vannst 1945 stóðu sovĂ©sk hernĂĄmsyfirvöld fyrir fölsun kosningaĂșrslita til aĂ° rĂ©ttlĂŠta yfirrĂĄĂ° SovĂ©trĂkjanna yfir PĂłllandi. SovĂ©trĂkin komu ĂĄ nĂœrri kommĂșnistastjĂłrn Ă PĂłllandi eins og annars staĂ°ar Ă Austurblokkinni. VopnuĂ° andspyrna gegn hernĂĄmi SovĂ©tmanna stóð fram ĂĄ 6. ĂĄratuginn.
+
+ĂrĂĄtt fyrir mĂłtmĂŠli samĂŸykkti pĂłlska stjĂłrnin innlimun austurhĂ©raĂ°a PĂłllands Ă SovĂ©trĂkin (sĂ©rstaklega borgirnar Wilno og LwĂłw) og samĂŸykkti varanlegar herstöðvar rauĂ°a hersins Ă PĂłllandi. MeĂ° VarsjĂĄrbandalaginu Ă kalda strĂĂ°inu voru hernaĂ°arlegir hagsmunir PĂłllands og SovĂ©trĂkjanna sameinaĂ°ir.
+
+NĂœja kommĂșnistastjĂłrnin tĂłk upp litlu stjĂłrnarskrĂĄna ĂŸann 19. febrĂșar 1947. PĂłlska alĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldiĂ° (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) var formlega stofnaĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1952. ĂriĂ° 1956, eftir andlĂĄt BolesĆaw Bierut, tĂłk stjĂłrn WĆadysĆaw GomuĆka viĂ° völdum sem var eilĂtiĂ° frjĂĄlslyndari um tĂma, lĂ©t marga lausa Ășr fangelsi og jĂłk einstaklingsfrelsi. StjĂłrnin batt lĂka enda ĂĄ hina misheppnuĂ°u samyrkjuvĂŠĂ°ingu Ă pĂłlskum landbĂșnaĂ°i. SvipaĂ° gerĂ°ist Ă valdatĂĂ° Edward Gierek ĂĄ 8. ĂĄratugnum, en lengst af hĂ©ldu ofsĂłknir gegn stjĂłrnarandstöðu ĂĄfram. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸaĂ° var PĂłlland oft taliĂ° minnsta alrĂŠĂ°isrĂkiĂ° Ă Austurblokkinni.
+
+Vinnudeilur ĂĄriĂ° 1980 leiddu til stofnunar verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lagsins Samstöðu (SolidarnoĆÄ) sem varĂ° meĂ° tĂmanum aĂ° stjĂłrnmĂĄlaafli. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ofsĂłknir og setningu herlaga ĂĄriĂ° 1981, grĂłf hĂșn undan stjĂłrn SameinaĂ°a pĂłlska verkamannaflokksins og ĂĄriĂ° 1989 voru fyrstu frjĂĄlsu kosningarnar haldnar Ă landinu frĂĄ lokum seinni heimsstyrjaldar. LeiĂ°togi Samstöðu, Lech WaĆÄsa, sigraĂ°i forsetakosningar ĂĄriĂ° 1990.
+
+Eftir 1989
+
+Snemma ĂĄ 10. ĂĄratugnum hĂłf Leszek Balcerowicz lostmeĂ°ferĂ° til aĂ° breyta efnahagslĂfi landsins Ășr sĂłsĂalĂskum ĂĄĂŠtlunarbĂșskap Ă markaĂ°sbĂșskap. LĂkt og önnur fyrrum kommĂșnistarĂki gekk PĂłlland Ă gegnum tĂmabil ĂŸar sem lĂfsgĂŠĂ°i, efnahagur og fĂ©lagsleg ĂŸjĂłnusta drĂłgust saman eftir fall kommĂșnistastjĂłrnarinnar, en landiĂ° varĂ° sĂĂ°an ĂŸaĂ° fyrsta sem endurheimti verga landsframleiĂ°slu frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ fyrir 1989 Ășt af miklum hagvexti strax ĂĄriĂ° 1995. PĂłlland gerĂ°ist aĂ°ili aĂ° VisegrĂĄd-hĂłpnum ĂĄriĂ° 1991 og gekk Ă NATO ĂĄriĂ° 1999. PĂłlska ĂŸjóðin kaus sĂĂ°an aĂ° ganga Ă EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu 2003 og landiĂ° varĂ° fullgildur meĂ°limur 1. maĂ 2004 eftir stĂŠkkun EvrĂłpusambandsins 2004.
+
+PĂłlland gekk Ă Schengen-samstarfiĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 2007 og opnaĂ°i landamĂŠri sĂn aĂ° öðrum EvrĂłpusambandsrĂkjum. Ăann 10. aprĂl 2010 fĂłrst forseti PĂłllands, Lech KaczyĆski, ĂĄsamt 89 hĂĄtt settum pĂłlskum rĂĄĂ°amönnum Ă flugslysi nĂŠrri Smolensk Ă RĂșsslandi.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2011 sigraĂ°i Borgaralegur vettvangur ĂŸingkosningarnar. ĂriĂ° 2014 varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra PĂłllands, Donald Tusk, forseti EvrĂłpska rĂĄĂ°sins og sagĂ°i af sĂ©r embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ă kjölfariĂ°. Ăhaldsflokkurinn Lög og rĂ©ttlĂŠti meĂ° formanninum JarosĆaw KaczyĆski sigraĂ°i ĂŸingkosningarnar ĂĄrin 2015 og 2019. ĂaĂ° hefur leitt til vaxandi andstöðu viĂ° stefnu EvrĂłpusambandsins og gagnrĂœni frĂĄ sambandinu fyrir aĂ° vega aĂ° rĂ©tti kvenna, samkynhneigĂ°ra og dĂłmskerfinu. Ă desember 2017 varĂ° Mateusz Morawiecki nĂœr forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra. Forsetinn Andrzej Duda rĂ©tt nĂĄĂ°i endurkjöri Ă forsetakosningum 2020. InnrĂĄs RĂșsslands Ă ĂkraĂnu 2022 olli ĂŸvĂ aĂ° yfir 5 milljĂłn flĂłttamenn frĂĄ ĂkraĂnu komu til PĂłllands.
+
+LandfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+PĂłlland er stĂłrt land, og nĂŠr yfir um 312.696 ferkĂlĂłmetra. 98,52% af ĂŸeim eru ĂŸurrlendi og 1,48% eru ĂĄr og vötn. LandiĂ° er ĂŸaĂ° 9. stĂŠrsta Ă EvrĂłpu og Ă 69. sĂŠti ĂĄ heimsvĂsu. PĂłlland er landfrĂŠĂ°ilega fjölbreytt land meĂ° aĂ°gang aĂ° sjĂł Ă norĂ°ri, fjöll Ă suĂ°ri og flatlenda slĂ©ttu Ă miĂ°iĂ°. MegniĂ° af miĂ°hlutanum er flöt slĂ©tta, en annars staĂ°ar eru mörg stöðuvötn, ĂĄr, hĂŠĂ°ir, mĂœrar og skĂłgar.
+
+PĂłlland ĂĄ strönd viĂ° Eystrasalt Ă norĂ°ri, sem nĂŠr frĂĄ PommernflĂła aĂ° GdaĆsk-vĂk. Ăt frĂĄ ströndinni liggja margar eyrar, strandlĂłn og sandöldur. Ströndin er aĂ° mestu bein, en Szczecin-lĂłn, Puck-flĂłi og Vistula-lĂłn ganga inn Ă hana.
+
+MiĂ°- og norĂ°urhluti landsins eru ĂĄ NorĂ°ur-EvrĂłpuslĂ©ttunni. Ofan viĂ° hana eru hĂŠĂ°Ăłtt svĂŠĂ°i mynduĂ° Ășr jökulruĂ°ningum og jökullĂłn sem mynduĂ°ust eftir sĂĂ°ustu Ăsöld, einkum Ă vatnasvĂŠĂ°inu Ă Pommern, vatnasvĂŠĂ°inu Ă StĂłra-PĂłllandi, vatnasvĂŠĂ°inu Ă KassĂșbĂu og MasĂșrĂuvötnum. StĂŠrst ĂŸessara fjögurra vatnasvĂŠĂ°a er MasĂșrĂuvatnasvĂŠĂ°iĂ° sem nĂŠr yfir megniĂ° af norĂ°austurhluta PĂłllands. VatnasvĂŠĂ°in mynda röð jökulgarĂ°a meĂ°fram suĂ°urströnd Eystrasalts.
+
+Sunnan viĂ° NorĂ°ur-EvrĂłpuslĂ©ttuna eru hĂ©ruĂ°in LĂșsatĂa, SlesĂa og MasĂłvĂa, sem eru breiĂ°ir Ăsaldardalir. SyĂ°sti hluti PĂłllands er fjalllendur; hann nĂŠr frĂĄ SĂșdetafjöllum Ă vestri aĂ° Karpatafjöllum Ă austri. HĂŠsti hluti Karpatafjalla eru Tatrafjöll viĂ° suĂ°urlandamĂŠri PĂłllands.
+HĂŠsti tindur PĂłllands er ĂĄ fjallinu Rysy, 2.499 metrar.
+
+StjĂłrnmĂĄl
+PĂłlland er lĂœĂ°veldi meĂ° fulltrĂșalĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°i ĂŸar sem forseti PĂłllands er ĂŸjĂłhöfĂ°ingi. RĂĄĂ°herrarĂĄĂ° PĂłllands fer meĂ° framkvĂŠmdavaldiĂ° og forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra PĂłllands er stjĂłrnarleiĂ°togi. RĂĄĂ°herrar Ă rĂĄĂ°herrarĂĄĂ°inu eru valdir af forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra, skipaĂ°ir af forseta meĂ° fulltingi ĂŸingsins. Forsetinn er kosinn Ă almennum kosningum til fimm ĂĄra Ă senn. NĂșverandi forseti er Andrzej Duda og Mateusz Morawiecki er forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra.
+
+PĂłlska ĂŸingiĂ° kemur saman Ă tveimur deildum, meĂ° neĂ°ri deild (Sejm) meĂ° 460 ĂŸingmönnum, og efri deild (öldungadeild) meĂ° 100 ĂŸingmönnum. Ăingmenn eru kosnir Ă Sejm meĂ° hlutfallskosningu ĂŸar sem ĂŸingsĂŠtum er ĂșthlutaĂ° meĂ° d'Hondt-aĂ°ferĂ°inni. ĂldungadeildarĂŸingmenn eru kosnir meĂ° meirihlutakosningu Ă einmenningskjördĂŠmum. Ăldungadeildin getur breytt eĂ°a hafnaĂ° lögum sem Sejm samĂŸykkir, en Sejm getur fellt ĂŸĂĄ ĂĄkvörĂ°un Ășr gildi meĂ° einföldum meirihluta.
+
+Fyrir utan ĂŸjóðernisminnihlutahĂłpa ĂŸurfa listar stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokka Ă PĂłllandi aĂ° fĂĄ minnst 5% atkvĂŠĂ°a ĂĄ landsvĂsu til aĂ° fĂĄ ĂŸingfulltrĂșa ĂĄ Sejm. Ăingmenn beggja deilda eru kosnir til fjögurra ĂĄra Ă senn og njĂłta ĂŸinghelgi. SamkvĂŠmt nĂșverandi lögum ĂŸarf frambjóðandi aĂ° hafa nĂĄĂ° 21 ĂĄrs aldri til aĂ° verĂ°a ĂŸingmaĂ°ur, 30 til aĂ° verĂ°a öldungadeildarĂŸingmaĂ°ur og 35 til aĂ° bjóða sig fram til forseta.
+
+BĂĄĂ°ar deildir mynda saman ĂŸjĂłĂ°ĂŸing PĂłllands. ĂjĂłĂ°ĂŸingiĂ° kemur saman af ĂŸrennu tilefni: ĂŸegar nĂœr forseti tekur viĂ° embĂŠtti, ef forseti sĂŠtir ĂĄkĂŠru fyrir landsrĂ©tti, og ef ĂŸvĂ er lĂœst yfir aĂ° forseti geti ekki uppfyllt skyldur sĂnar vegna heilsufars.
+
+HĂ©ruĂ°
+
+ViĂ° endurreisn PĂłllands eftir heimsstyrjöldina sĂĂ°ari var landinu skipt upp Ă 14 hĂ©ruĂ° (pl: wojewĂłdztwo - ĂŸĂœĂ°ir upphaflega hertogadĂŠmi). 1950 var ĂŸeim fjölgaĂ° Ă 17.
+ĂriĂ° 1975 var stjĂłrnkerfinu breytt og stjĂłrnstigum fĂŠkkaĂ° um eitt. HĂ©ruĂ°in urĂ°u ĂŸĂĄ 49 talsins og hĂ©lst svo til nĂŠstu stjĂłrnkerfisbreytingar ĂĄriĂ° 1999.
+Var hĂ©ruĂ°um ĂŸĂĄ aftur fĂŠkkaĂ°, aĂ° ĂŸessu sinni Ă 16:
+
+EfnahagslĂf
+Hagkerfi PĂłllands mĂŠlt Ă vergri landsframleiĂ°slu er nĂș ĂŸaĂ° sjötta stĂŠrsta innan EvrĂłpusambandsins aĂ° nafnvirĂ°i og ĂŸaĂ° fimmta stĂŠrsta meĂ° kaupmĂĄttarjöfnuĂ°i. ĂaĂ° er lĂka ĂŸaĂ° hagkerfi innan sambandsins sem er à örustum vexti. Um 61% mannaflans starfa innan ĂŸriĂ°ja geirans, 31% Ă framleiĂ°sluiĂ°naĂ°i og 8% Ă landbĂșnaĂ°i. PĂłlland er hluti af innra markaĂ°i EvrĂłpusambandsins, en hefur ĂŸĂł ekki tekiĂ° upp evruna og opinber gjaldmiĂ°ill er enn pĂłlskur zĆoty (zĆ, PLN).
+
+PĂłlland er leiĂ°andi efnahagsveldi Ă MiĂ°-EvrĂłpu meĂ° um 40% af 500 stĂŠrstu fyrirtĂŠkjum heimshlutans (miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° tekjur) og hĂĄa hnattvĂŠĂ°ingarvĂsitölu. StĂŠrstu fyrirtĂŠki landsins eru hlutar af hlutabrĂ©favĂsitölunum WIG20 og WIG30 Ă Kauphöllinni Ă VarsjĂĄ. SamkvĂŠmt skĂœrslum til SeĂ°labanka PĂłllands var andvirĂ°i beinna erlendra fjĂĄrfestinga Ă PĂłllandi nĂŠstum 300 milljarĂ°ar pĂłlsk zloty undir lok ĂĄrs 2014. TölfrĂŠĂ°istofnun PĂłllands ĂĄĂŠtlaĂ°i aĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 2014 hefĂ°u 1.437 pĂłlsk fyrirtĂŠki ĂĄtt hlut Ă 3.194 erlendum fyrirtĂŠkjum.
+
+BankakerfiĂ° Ă PĂłllandi er ĂŸaĂ° stĂŠrsta Ă MiĂ°-EvrĂłpu meĂ° 32,3 ĂștibĂș ĂĄ 100.000 fullorĂ°na ĂbĂșa. PĂłlska hagkerfiĂ° var ĂŸaĂ° eina Ă EvrĂłpu sem komst hjĂĄ alĂŸjóðlegu fjĂĄrmĂĄlakreppunni 2008. LandiĂ° er 20. stĂŠrsti Ăștflytjandi ĂĄ vörum og ĂŸjĂłnustu Ă heiminum. Ătflutningur ĂĄ vörum og ĂŸjĂłnustu var talinn vera 56% af vergri landsframleiĂ°slu ĂĄriĂ° 2020. Ă september 2018 var atvinnuleysi ĂĄĂŠtlaĂ° 5,7% sem var meĂ° ĂŸvĂ lĂŠgsta sem gerĂ°ist Ă EvrĂłpusambandinu. ĂriĂ° 2019 voru sett lög Ă PĂłllandi sem gĂĄfu launafĂłlki undir 26 ĂĄra aldri undanĂŸĂĄgu frĂĄ tekjuskatti.
+
+ĂbĂșar
+ĂbĂșar PĂłllands voru rĂșmlega 38 milljĂłnir ĂĄriĂ° 2021 og landiĂ° er ĂŸvĂ nĂunda fjölmennasta land EvrĂłpu og fimmta stĂŠrsta aĂ°ildarrĂki EvrĂłpusambandsins. ĂbĂșaĂŸĂ©ttleiki er 122 ĂĄ ferkĂlĂłmetra. FrjĂłsemishlutfall var taliĂ° vera 1,42 börn ĂĄ konu ĂĄriĂ° 2019, sem er meĂ° ĂŸvĂ lĂŠgsta sem gerist Ă heiminum. AĂ° auki eru ĂbĂșar PĂłllands aĂ° eldast töluvert og miĂ°aldur er um 42 ĂĄr.
+
+Um 60% af ĂbĂșum bĂșa Ă ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli eĂ°a stĂłrborgum og 40% Ă sveitahĂ©ruĂ°um. ĂriĂ° 2020 bjĂł yfir helmingur PĂłlverja Ă einbĂœlishĂșsum og 44,3% Ă ĂbĂșĂ°um. Fjölmennasta sĂœsla PĂłllands er MasĂłvĂa og fjölmennasta borgin er höfuĂ°borgin, VarsjĂĄ, meĂ° 1,8 milljĂłn ĂbĂșa og aĂ°rar 2-3 milljĂłnir ĂĄ stĂłrborgarsvĂŠĂ°inu. StĂŠrsta ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlissvĂŠĂ°iĂ° er stĂłrborgarsvĂŠĂ°i Katowice ĂŸar sem ĂbĂșar eru milli 2,7 milljĂłn og 5,3 milljĂłn. ĂbĂșaĂŸĂ©ttleiki er meiri Ă suĂ°urhluta landsins og er mestur milli borganna WrocĆaw og KrakĂĄ.
+
+Ă manntali ĂĄriĂ° 2011 töldu 37.310.341 sig vera PĂłlverja, 846.719 sögĂ°ust vera SlesĂubĂșar, 232.547 KasĂșbĂubĂșar og 147.814 Ăjóðverjar. AĂ°rir minnihlutahĂłpar töldu 163.363 manns (0,41%) og 521.470 (1,35%) gĂĄfu ekki upp neitt ĂŸjóðerni. Opinberar tölur um ĂbĂșa innihalda ekki farandverkafĂłlk ĂĄn dvalarleyfis eĂ°a Karta Polaka (rĂkisborgaraskĂrteini). Yfir 1,7 milljĂłn ĂșkraĂnskir rĂkisborgarar störfuĂ°u löglega Ă PĂłllandi ĂĄriĂ° 2017. Fjöldi aĂ°fluttra fer ört vaxandi og rĂkiĂ° samĂŸykkti 504.172 atvinnuleyfisumsĂłknir Ăștlendinga ĂĄriĂ° 2021.
+
+Borgir og bĂŠir
+Bielsko-BiaĆa, BiaĆystok, Bydgoszcz, CzÄstochowa, GdaĆsk, Gdynia, Gniezno, GoleniĂłw, Karpacz, Katowice, Kielce, KoĆobrzeg, Koszalin, KrakĂĄ, Lublin, Ćowicz, ĆĂłdĆș, Malbork, Nowe Warpno, Olsztyn, Opole, Police, PoznaĆ, Radom, Sopot, Stargard SzczeciĆski, Szczecin, ĆwinoujĆcie, ToruĆ, VarsjĂĄ, Wolin, WrocĆaw, Zakopane
+
+Menning
+
+MatargerĂ°
+
+PĂłlsk matargerĂ° hefur breyst Ă gegnum tĂma vegna breytilegra aĂ°stĂŠĂ°na Ă landinu. HĂșn er svipuĂ° öðrum eldunarhefĂ°um sem er aĂ° finna annars staĂ°ar Ă MiĂ°-EvrĂłpu og Austur-EvrĂłpu og jafnvel Ă Frakklandi og ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. Ăhersla er lögĂ° ĂĄ kjöt, sĂ©rstaklega svĂnakjöt, nautakjöt og kjĂșkling (mismunandi eftir svĂŠĂ°um), og vetrargrĂŠnmeti svo sem kĂĄl, ĂĄsamt kryddi. Ămiss konar nĂșĂ°lur er lĂka aĂ° finna Ă mörgum rĂ©ttum, meĂ°al ĂŸeirra helstu eru kluski, auk kornplantna eins og kasza. PĂłlsk matargerĂ° er almennt vegleg og mikiĂ° er notaĂ° af eggjum og rjĂłma. HefĂ°bundnu rĂ©ttirnir krefjast mikils undirbĂșnings. Margir PĂłlverjar eyĂ°a miklum tĂma Ă aĂ° undirbĂșa og borĂ°a hĂĄtĂĂ°arrĂ©tti sĂna, sĂ©rstaklega um jĂłl og pĂĄska. ĂĂĄ getur tekiĂ° nokkra daga til aĂ° bĂșa til alla rĂ©ttina.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+
+ Vefur pĂłlska rĂkisins
+PoznaĆ (ĂŸĂœska: Posen, latĂna: Posnania) er fimmta fjölmennasta borg PĂłllands og höfuĂ°borg StĂłra-PĂłlland sĂœslu. Borgin er ein elsta borg PĂłllands og var mikilvĂŠg miĂ°stöð ĂĄ fyrstu ĂĄrdögum pĂłlska rĂkisins. PoznaĆ liggur viĂ° ĂĄnna Warta.
+
+ĂĂŸrĂłttir
+Lech PoznaĆ er knattspyrnuliĂ° borgarinnar.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+ Poznan (en)
+
+Borgir Ă PĂłllandi
+VarsjĂĄ (pĂłlska: Warszawa, latĂna: Varsovia) er höfuĂ°borg PĂłllands og jafnframt stĂŠrsta borg landsins. Borgin liggur viĂ° ĂĄna Visla og er um ĂŸaĂ° bil 260 km frĂĄ Eystrasalti og 300 km frĂĄ Karpatafjöllunum. ĂriĂ° 2021 var ĂbĂșafjöldinn tĂŠplega 1,9 milljĂłn manns og 3,1 milljĂłn ĂĄ stĂłrborgarsvĂŠĂ°inu, ĂŸannig er VarsjĂĄ 6. fjölmennasta borg EvrĂłpusambandsins. FlatarmĂĄl borgarinnar er 517,24 ferkĂlĂłmetrar en stĂłrborgarsvĂŠĂ°iĂ° nĂŠr yfir 6.100,43 ferkĂlĂłmetra. VarsjĂĄ er Ă hĂ©raĂ°inu MasĂłvĂa og er stĂŠrsta borg ĂŸess.
+
+VarsjĂĄ er talin heimsborg og er vinsĂŠl ferĂ°amannaborg og mikilvĂŠg fjĂĄrmĂĄlamiĂ°stöð Ă MiĂ°-EvrĂłpu. HĂșn er einnig ĂŸekkt sem âfönĂxborginâ af ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hĂșn hefur staĂ°ist mörg strĂĂ° Ă gegnum söguna. Helsta ĂŸessara strĂĂ°a var seinni heimsstyrjöldin ĂŸar sem 80 % af byggingum Ă borginni voru eyĂ°ilagĂ°ar en borgin var endurbyggĂ° vandlega eftir ĂŸaĂ°. Ăann 9. nĂłvember 1940 var borginni gefiĂ° hĂŠsta heiĂ°ursmerki PĂłllands, Virtuti Militari, vegna umsĂĄtursins um VarsjĂĄ (1939).
+
+Borgin er nafni fjölda rĂkja, samninga og atburĂ°a, meĂ°al ĂŸeirra eru VarsjĂĄrĂkjabandalagiĂ°, VarsjĂĄrbandalagiĂ°, hertogadĂŠmiĂ° VarsjĂĄ, VarsjĂĄrsĂĄttmĂĄlinn, VarsjĂĄrsamningurinn, uppreisnin Ă VarsjĂĄ og uppreisnin Ă VarsjĂĄrgettĂłinu. Ăopinber söngur borgarinnar er Warszawianka.
+
+OrĂ°sifjar
+
+Ă pĂłlsku ĂŸĂœĂ°ir orĂ°iĂ° Warszawa (einnig stafaĂ° Warszewa eĂ°a Warszowa) âĂ eigu Warszâ. Warsz er stytting ĂĄ slavnesku karlmannanafni WarcisĆaw (nafn borgarinnar WrocĆaw ĂĄ lĂka rĂŠtur aĂ° rekja til ĂŸessa mannanafns). SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸjóðsögu var Warsz fiskimaĂ°ur giftur konu sem hĂ©t Sawa. Sawa var hafmeyja sem bjĂł Ă ĂĄnni Visla nĂĄlĂŠgt borginni, sem Warsz varĂ° ĂĄstfanginn af. Ă rauninni var Warsz aĂ°alsmaĂ°ur sem var uppi ĂĄ 12. eĂ°a 13. öld sem ĂĄtti ĂŸorp sem ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu ĂŸar sem hverfiĂ° Mariensztat liggur Ă dag. Opinbera heiti borgarinnar ĂĄ pĂłlsku er miasto stoĆeczne Warszawa (höfuĂ°borgin VarsjĂĄ).
+
+Ă Ăslensku var borgin stundum nefnd VarsjĂĄfa, VarsjĂĄva eĂ°a VarsjĂĄv.
+
+Saga
+
+Upphaf
+
+Fyrstu byggĂ°irnar ĂĄ staĂ°num sem Ă dag er kallaĂ°ur VarsjĂĄ voru BrĂłdno (9. â 10. öld) og JazdĂłw (12. â 13. öld). Eftir aĂ° ĂĄrĂĄs var gerĂ° ĂĄ JazdĂłw var sest aĂ° ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu ĂŸar sem fiskiĂŸorpiĂ° Warszowa var. BolesĆaw 2. MasĂłvĂuprins stofnaĂ°i byggĂ°ina VarsjĂĄ um ĂĄriĂ° 1300. Ă byrjun 14. aldar varĂ° byggĂ°in valdastĂłll MasĂłvĂuhertoganna og var svo gerĂ° aĂ° höfuĂ°bĂŠ MasĂłvĂu ĂĄriĂ° 1413. Ă ĂŸeim tĂma var efnahagur VarsjĂĄr byggĂ°ur ĂĄ handiĂ°num og verslun. Ăegar hertogaĂŠttin dĂł Ășt var MasĂłvĂa fellt aftur inn Ă konungsrĂkiĂ° PĂłlland ĂĄriĂ° 1526.
+
+16. â 18. öld
+PĂłlska ĂŸingiĂ° (p. Sejm) var fyrst haft Ă VarsjĂĄ ĂĄriĂ° 1529 og var ĂŸar til frambĂșĂ°ar frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1569. ĂriĂ° 1573 var VarsjĂĄrrĂkjabandalagiĂ° myndaĂ° sem veitti ĂbĂșum PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldisins trĂșarfrelsi formlega. Vegna góðrar staĂ°setningar ĂĄ milli KrakĂĄr og VilnĂusar varĂ° VarsjĂĄ höfuĂ°borg samveldisins en Sigmundur 3. konungur flutti pĂłlsku hirĂ°ina frĂĄ KrakĂĄ til VarsjĂĄr ĂĄriĂ° 1596.
+
+Ărin eftir ĂŸaĂ° stĂŠkkaĂ°i borgin Ășt Ă Ășthverfin. Nokkur sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ° einkahverfi Ă eigu aĂ°alsmanna voru stofnuĂ° en ĂŸeim var stjĂłrnaĂ° meĂ° sĂ©rlögum. Ă tĂmabilinu 1655â1658 var borgin undir umsĂĄtri ĂŸrisvar en hĂșn var tekin og rĂŠnd af heröflum frĂĄ SvĂĂŸjóð, Brandenborg og TransylvanĂu. ĂriĂ° 1700 braust NorĂ°urlandaĂłfriĂ°urinn mikli Ășt og nokkrar ĂĄrĂĄsir voru gerĂ°ar ĂĄ VarsjĂĄ. Borgin var lĂka neydd til aĂ° borga framlagsfĂ© til strĂĂ°sins.
+
+StanisĆaw August Poniatowski konungur endurnĂœjaĂ°i Konunglega kastalann og gerĂ°i VarsjĂĄ aĂ° menningar- og listamiĂ°stöð. GĂŠlunafniĂ° ParĂs austursins var haft um borgina eftir ĂŸaĂ°.
+
+19. og 20. aldir
+VarsjĂĄ var ĂĄfram höfuĂ°borg PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldisins til ĂĄrsins 1795 ĂŸegar ĂŸaĂ° varĂ° hluti af konungsrĂkinu PrĂșsslandi. ĂĂĄ varĂ° VarsjĂĄ höfuĂ°borg hĂ©raĂ°sins SuĂ°ur-Prusslands. Borgin var frelsuĂ° af hermönnum NapĂłleons ĂĄriĂ° 1806 og var gerĂ° svo aĂ° höfuĂ°borg hertogadĂŠmisins VarsjĂĄr. Ă kjölfar VĂnarrĂĄĂ°stefnunnar ĂĄriĂ° 1815 varĂ° VarsjĂĄ höfuĂ°borg konungsrĂkisins PĂłllands, sem var ĂŸingbundin konungsstjĂłrn Ă konungssambandi viĂ° RĂșssneska heimsveldiĂ°. Konungslegi hĂĄskĂłlinn Ă VarsjĂĄ var stofnaĂ°ur ĂĄriĂ° 1816.
+
+Vegna fjölda brota ĂĄ pĂłlsku stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinni fyrir hendi RĂșsslands braust NĂłvemberuppreisnin Ășt ĂĄriĂ° 1830. PĂłlsk-rĂșssneska strĂĂ°inu 1831 lauk ĂŸĂł meĂ° Ăłsigri PĂłlverja og sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i konungsrĂkisins var afnumiĂ°. Ăann 27. febrĂșar 1861 skaut rĂșssneskt herliĂ° ĂĄ mannfjölda sem var aĂ° mĂłtmĂŠla stjĂłrn RĂșsslands yfir PĂłllandi en fimm menn fĂłrust Ă kjölfar skotĂĄrĂĄsarinnar. PĂłlska rĂkisstjĂłrnin var Ă felum Ă VarsjĂĄ meĂ°an ĂĄ JanĂșaruppreisninni stóð ĂĄrin 1863â64.
+
+VarsjĂĄ blĂłmstraĂ°i Ă lok 19. aldar undir stjĂłrn Sokrates Starynkiewicz (1875â92), sem var rĂșssneskur hershöfĂ°ingi skipaĂ°ur Ă embĂŠtti af Alexander 3. Ă tĂmum Starynkiewicz byggĂ°i William Lindley enskur verkfrĂŠĂ°ingur ĂĄsamt syni sĂnum William Heerlein Lindley fyrsta vatnsveitu- og frĂĄrennsliskerfiĂ° Ă VarsjĂĄ. Auk ĂŸess voru sporvagnakerfiĂ°, gaskerfiĂ° og götulĂœsingarkerfiĂ° endurbĂŠtt og stĂŠkkuĂ°.
+
+SamkvĂŠmt manntali rĂșssneska heimsveldisins ĂĄriĂ° 1897 bjuggu 626.000 manns Ă VarsjĂĄ og borgin var ĂĄ sĂnum tĂma ĂŸriĂ°ja stĂŠrsta Ă heimsveldinu ĂĄ eftir Sankta PĂ©tursborg og Moskvu.
+
+VarsjĂĄ var undir ĂŸĂœsku hernĂĄmi frĂĄ 4. ĂĄgĂșst 1915 til 1918. Eftir hernĂĄmiĂ° varĂ° hĂșn höfuĂ°borg nĂœlega sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°s PĂłllands ĂĄriĂ° 1918. Undir strĂĂ°i SovĂ©trĂkjanna og PĂłllands
+ĂĄriĂ° 1920 var orrustan um VarsjĂĄ hĂĄĂ° Ă Ășthverfunum, ĂŸar sem PĂłlverjarnir sigruĂ°u RauĂ°a herinn. Ăannig stöðvaĂ°i PĂłlland aleitt framrĂĄs RauĂ°a hersins.
+
+Seinni heimsstyrjöldin
+
+Ă seinni heimsstyrjöldinni var miĂ°svĂŠĂ°i PĂłllands, ĂĄsamt VarsjĂĄ, undir stjĂłrn AllsherjarrĂkisstjĂłrnarinnar (ĂŸ. Generalgouvernement), sem var ĂŸĂœsk nasistastjĂłrn. Ăllum hĂĄskĂłlum var lokaĂ° strax og allir gyĂ°ingar Ă borginni, nokkur hundruĂ° ĂŸĂșsund manns eĂ°a 30 % af öllum ĂbĂșafjöldanum, voru fluttir inn Ă VarsjĂĄrgettĂłiĂ°. Seinna varĂ° borgin miĂ°stöð andspyrnunnar gegn nasistastjĂłrn Ă EvrĂłpu. Sem hluti af Lokalausninni skipaĂ°i Hitler aĂ° gettĂłiĂ° yrĂ°i eyĂ°ilagt ĂŸann 19. aprĂl 1943 en svo byrjaĂ°i uppreisn Ă gettĂłinu gegn honum. ĂĂł aĂ° uppreisnarmennirnir voru ofurliĂ°i bornir og lĂtiĂ° vopnaĂ°ir stóðst gettĂłiĂ° Ă yfir einn mĂĄnuĂ°. Ăegar bardaganum lauk voru eftirlifendur strĂĄdrepnir og mjög fĂĄir komust undan og tĂłkust aĂ° fela sig.
+
+Fyrir jĂșlĂ 1944 var RauĂ°i herinn löngu kominn inn ĂĄ pĂłlska yfirrĂĄĂ°asvĂŠĂ°iĂ° og var farinn ĂĄ eftir Ăjóðverjunum Ă ĂĄtt aĂ° VarsjĂĄ. PĂłlska rĂkisstjĂłrnin var Ă ĂștlegĂ° Ă London og vissi aĂ° StalĂn var ĂĄ mĂłti sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°u PĂłllandi. RĂkisstjĂłrnin skipaĂ°i svo Heimahernum (p. Armia Krajowa) aĂ° reyna aĂ° hrifsa stjĂłrn ĂĄ VarsjĂĄ af Ăjóðverjunum ĂĄĂ°ur en RauĂ°i herinn komst ĂŸar. Af ĂŸessum sökum byrjaĂ°i VarsjĂĄruppreisnin ĂŸann 1. ĂĄgĂșst 1944 ĂŸegar RauĂ°i herinn nĂĄlgaĂ°ist borgina. BarĂĄttunni, sem ĂĄtti aĂ° standa yfir Ă 48 klukkustundir, lauk eftir 63 daga. StalĂn skipaĂ°i ĂŸĂĄ hermönnunum sĂnum aĂ° bĂĂ°a fyrir utan VarsjĂĄ. AĂ° lokum neyddist heimaherinn og barĂĄttumennirnir sem voru aĂ° hjĂĄlpa honum til aĂ° gefast upp. Ăeir voru teknir Ă strĂĂ°sfangabĂșĂ°ir og allir Ăłbreyttir borgarar voru reknir Ășt Ășr borginni. Gert er rĂĄĂ° fyrir aĂ° 150.000 til 200.000 pĂłlskir Ăłbreyttir borgarar hafi dĂĄiĂ° ĂŸĂĄ.
+
+Ăjóðverjarnir tortĂmdu borginni. Hitler hunsaĂ°i skilyrĂ°i uppgjafarsamningsins, skipaĂ°i aĂ° borgin yrĂ°i eyĂ°ilögĂ° og svo aĂ° öll bĂłkasöfn og minjasöfn vĂŠru annaĂ°hvort tekin til ĂĂœskalands eĂ°a brennd. Minnismerki og stjĂłrnarrĂĄĂ°sbyggingar voru sprengdar Ă loft upp af ĂŸĂœsku sĂ©rliĂ°i sem hĂ©t Verbrennungs- und Vernichtungskommando (âBrennslu- og eyĂ°ileggingarsveitinâ). Um ĂŸaĂ° bil 85 % af borginni var eyĂ°ilögĂ° ĂĄsamt gamla bĂŠnum og Konunglega kastalanum.
+
+Ăann 17. janĂșar 1945 fĂłru sovĂ©skir hermenn inn Ă rĂșstir borgarinnar og frelsaĂ°i Ășthverfin frĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku hernĂĄmi. Borgin var fljĂłtt tekin af sovĂ©ska hernum sem sĂłtti ĂŸĂĄ fram til ĆĂłdĆș ĂĄ meĂ°an ĂŸĂœskir hermenn söfnuĂ°ust saman ĂĄ nĂœ vestri.
+
+Ă dag
+
+ĂriĂ° 1945 eftir aĂ° sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum, uppreisnum, bardaga og eyĂ°ileggingu var lokiĂ° lĂĄ mestöll borgin Ă rĂșstum. Eftir strĂĂ°iĂ° kom kommĂșnistastjĂłrn mörgum byggingarverkefnum Ă gang til ĂŸess aĂ° takast ĂĄ viĂ° skort ĂĄ hĂșsnĂŠĂ°i. StĂłr staĂ°steypt hĂșs voru byggĂ° ĂĄsamt öðrum byggingum sem voru algengar Ă borgum Austurblokkarinnar, svo sem Menningar- og vĂsindahöllin. Borgin endurheimti hlutverk sitt sem höfuĂ°borg PĂłllands og miĂ°stöð pĂłlskrar menningar og stjĂłrnmĂĄla. Margar gamlar götur, byggingar og kirkjur voru endurreistar Ă upprunalegri mynd. ĂriĂ° 1980 var gamli bĂŠrinn skrĂĄĂ°ur ĂĄ heimsminjaskrĂĄ UNESCO.
+
+JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. pĂĄfi heimsĂłtti heimaborg sĂna ĂĄrin 1979 og 1983 og hvatti til stuĂ°nings fyrir verĂ°andi hreyfinguna Samstöðu og stuĂ°laĂ°i aĂ° andkommĂșnistahreyfingum. ĂriĂ° 1979, eftir minna en eitt ĂĄr aĂ° hann varĂ° pĂĄfi, hĂ©lt JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. messu ĂĄ Sigurtorginu og endaĂ°i predikun sĂna meĂ° ĂĄkalli ĂĄ aĂ° âendurnĂœja andlit PĂłllandsâ. Ăessi orĂ° voru ĂŸĂœĂ°ingarmikil fyrir PĂłlverja og ĂŸeir skildu ĂŸau sem hvatningu til lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°is.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1995 var neĂ°anjarĂ°arlestakerfi VarsjĂĄr opnaĂ°. PĂłlland gekk Ă EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 2004 og ĂŸar hefur veriĂ° mikill efnahagslegur vöxtur frĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma. Opnunarleikur EvrĂłpumeistaramĂłts UEFA 2012 var haldinn Ă VarsjĂĄ.
+
+LandafrĂŠĂ°i
+
+VarsjĂĄ liggur Ă miĂ°austurhluta PĂłllands um ĂŸaĂ° bil 300 km frĂĄ Karpatafjöllunum, 260 km frĂĄ Eystrasalti og 520 km fyrir austan BerlĂn Ă ĂĂœskalandi. Ăin Visla rennur Ă gegnum borgina. Borgin liggur beint Ă miĂ°ri MasĂłvĂuslĂ©ttunni og er aĂ° meĂ°altali 100 m yfir sjĂĄvarmĂĄli. HĂŠsti punkturinn Ă vesturhluta borgarinnar er 115,7 yfir sjĂĄvarmĂĄli Ă hverfinu Wola og hĂŠsti punkturinn Ă austurhlutanum er 122,1 km yfir sjĂĄvarmĂĄli Ă hverfinu WesoĆa. LĂŠgsti punkturinn er ĂĄ austurbakka ĂĄrinnar en hann er 75,6 m yfir sjĂĄvarmĂĄli. Ă borginni eru nokkrir hĂłlar en ĂŸeir eru aĂ° mestu leyti manngerĂ°ir, t.d. VarsjĂĄruppreisnarhĂłll (121 m) og SzczÄĆliwice-hĂłll (138 m, hĂŠsti staĂ°urinn Ă allri VarsjĂĄ).
+
+Loftslag
+Ă VarsjĂĄ er tempraĂ° loftslag (Köppen: Dfb) meĂ° köldum vetrum og mildum sumrum. MeĂ°alhiti Ă janĂșar er â3 °C og 19,3 °C Ă jĂșlĂ. HitastigiĂ° getur nĂĄĂ° allt aĂ° 30 °C ĂĄ sumrin. ĂrsmeĂ°alĂșrkoma er 495 millimetrar og en blautasti mĂĄnuĂ°ur ĂĄrsins er jĂșlĂ. Ă vorin er mikill blĂłmi og sĂłlskin en ĂĄ haustin er annaĂ°hvort sĂłlskinsveĂ°ur eĂ°a ĂŸoka en ĂŸĂĄ er oftast svalt en ekki kalt.
+
+Hverfi
+Til ĂĄrsins 1994 voru sjö hverfi Ă VarsjĂĄ: ĆrĂłdmieĆcie, Praga PĂłĆnoc, Praga PoĆudnie, Ć»oliborz, Wola, Ochota og MokotĂłw. Ăeim var svo fjölgaĂ° og ĂĄ tĂmabilinu 1994â2002 voru ĂŸau 11: Centrum, BiaĆoĆÄka, TargĂłwek, RembertĂłw, Wawer, WilanĂłw, UrsynĂłw, WĆochy, Ursus, Bemowo og Bielany. ĂriĂ° 2002 var bĂŠrinn WesoĆa gerĂ°ur aĂ° hverfi.
+
+VarsjĂĄ er powiat (sĂœsla) og skiptist Ă 18 borgarhluta sem heita dzielnica en Ă hverjum borgarhluta er sĂ©r sjĂłrnsĂœsla. Ă hverjum borgarhluta eru nokkur hverfi meĂ° engri rĂ©ttarstöðu eĂ°a stjĂłrnsĂœslu. ĂaĂ° eru lĂka tvö söguleg hverfi Ă borginni: gamli bĂŠrinn (p. Stare Miasto) og nĂœi bĂŠrinn (p. Nowe Miasto) Ă borgarhlutanum ĆrĂłdmieĆcie.
+
+Borgarmynd
+
+Yfirlit
+Saga VarsjĂĄr og PĂłllands endurspeglast Ă fjölbreyttri blöndu byggingarstĂla sem er aĂ° finna Ă borginni. Ă seinni heimsstyrjöldinni var mestöll borgin tortĂmd Ă sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum og fyrirhugaĂ°ri eyĂ°ileggingu. Eftir aĂ° borgin var frelsuĂ° hĂłfst endurbygging eins og à öðrum borgum Ă alĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldinu PĂłllandi. Flestar gamlar byggingar voru endurreistar Ă upprunalegri mynd. Samt sem ĂĄĂ°ur voru nokkrar byggingar frĂĄ 19. öld sem hĂŠgt var aĂ° endurbyggja rifnar niĂ°ur ĂĄ sjötta og sjöunda ĂĄratugnum. StĂłrar ĂbĂșĂ°ablokkir voru reistar Ă byggingarstĂl sem var algengur Ă Austurblokkarlöndum ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma.
+
+MikiĂ° er fjĂĄrfest Ă opinberum svĂŠĂ°um Ă VarsjĂĄ og ĂŸannig hafa alnĂœ torg veriĂ° byggĂ° ĂĄsamt nĂœjum görĂ°um og minnismerkjum. Ă dag er mikiĂ° af samtĂmabyggingum Ă borginni.
+
+Byggingarlist
+Ă VarsjĂĄ er mikiĂ° af marglitum kirkjum, höllum og höfĂ°ingjasetrum Ă nĂŠst öllum evrĂłpskum byggingarstĂlum frĂĄ hverju sögutĂmabili. Mest ĂĄberandi eru byggingar Ă gotneskum stĂl, endurreisnarstĂl, barokkstĂl og nĂœklassĂskum stĂl og margar ĂŸeirra eru innan göngufĂŠris frĂĄ miĂ°borginni.
+
+Helstu byggingarnar Ă gotneskum stĂl eru stĂłrar kirkjur og virki, ĂĄsamt hĂșsum sem byggĂ° voru fyrir miĂ°stĂ©ttina. DĂŠmi um svona byggingar eru JĂłnsdĂłmkirkja (14. öld), sem er dĂŠmigert eintak um svokallaĂ°a âMasĂłvĂugotneska stĂlinnâ, MarĂukirkja (1411), raĂ°hĂșs byggt fyrir Burbach-fjölskylduna (14. öld) og Konunglegi kastalinn Curia Maior (1407â1410). Nokkrar athyglisverĂ°ar byggingar Ă endurreisnarstĂlnum eru hĂșs Baryczko-fjölskyldunnar (1562), bygging sem heitir âSvertinginnâ (17. öld) og Salwator-fjölbĂœlishĂșsiĂ° (1632). Ăsamt dĂŠmum um manierismastĂlinn eru Konunglegi kastalinn (1596â1619) og JesĂșĂtakirkja (1609â1626) Ă gamla bĂŠnum.
+
+Ă lok 17. aldar var byggt mikiĂ° af kirkjum og hĂșsum fyrir aĂ°alsmenn. Helstu dĂŠmin frĂĄ ĂŸessu tĂmabili eru KrasiĆski-höll (1677â1683), WilanĂłw-höll (1677â1696) og Kazimierz-kirkja (1688â1692). MeĂ°al byggingar Ă rĂłkokĂłstĂlnum eru Czapski-höll (1712â1721), Höll fjögurra vinda (1730) og Wizytki-kirkja (1728â1761). Byggingar Ă VarsjĂĄ Ă nĂœklassĂskum stĂl einkennast af rĂșmfrĂŠĂ°ilegum formum og ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ rĂłmverskum byggingum. Bestu dĂŠmin um nĂœklassĂskan stĂl eru Ćazienki-höll (endurbyggĂ° 1775â1795), KrĂłlikarnia (1782â1786), KarmelĂtakirkja (1761â1783) og Kirkja heilagrar ĂŸrenningar (1777â1782). Ă tĂmum konungsrĂkisins PĂłllands var mikill efnahagslegur vöxtur og aukinn ĂĄhugi ĂĄ arkitektĂșr Ă kjölfariĂ°. Ăhuginn ĂĄ nĂœklassĂska stĂlnum var töluverĂ°ur og sĂ©st Ă byggingum ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° Mikla leikhĂșs (1825â1833) og byggingarnar ĂĄ Bankatorginu (1825â1828).
+
+Margar byggingar Ă borgarastĂ©ttarstĂlnum voru ekki endurreistar af kommĂșnistastjĂłrninni eftir strĂĂ°iĂ° en sumar ĂŸeirra voru endurbyggĂ°ar Ă ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagslegum raunsĂŠisstĂl (svo sem hĂșs fĂlharmĂłnĂusveitar VarsjĂĄr). Sum dĂŠmi um byggingar frĂĄ 19. öld er samt aĂ° finna Ă borginni, eins og tĂŠknihĂĄskĂłlinn Ă VarsjĂĄ (1899â1902). Margar byggingar frĂĄ ĂŸessu tĂmabili austan megin viĂ° Vislu voru gerĂ°ar upp en eru Ă slĂŠmu ĂĄstandi Ă dag. BorgarstjĂłrn VarsjĂĄr hefur ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° aĂ° endurbyggja Saxahöllina og BrĂŒhl-höllina sem voru ĂĄsamt helstu byggingum Ă borginni fyrir strĂĂ°iĂ°.
+
+Nokkur dĂŠmi um samtĂmabyggingar eru Menningar- og vĂsindahöllin (1952â1955), sem er skĂœjakljĂșfur byggĂ°ur Ă ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagslegum raunsĂŠisstĂlnum, og StjĂłrnarskrĂĄrtorg, ĂŸar sem fleiri byggingar Ă ĂŸessum stĂl er aĂ° finna. Ă miĂ°ju hverfinu Praga austan megin viĂ° ĂĄna eru mörg niĂ°urnĂdd hĂșs viĂ° hliĂ°ina ĂĄ nĂœjum ĂbĂșĂ°ablokkum og verslunarmiĂ°stöðvum.
+
+Byggingar Ă nĂștĂmastĂlnum, ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° Metropolitan Office Building ĂĄ PiĆsudski-torgi, sem var hönnuĂ° af breskum arkitekt Norman Foster, BĂłkasafn hĂĄskĂłlans Ă VarsjĂĄ (BUW) eftir arkitektana Marek BudzyĆski og Zbigniew Badowski, skrifstofuhĂșsiĂ° Rondo 1, sem var hannaĂ° af Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, og ZĆote Tarasy sem er meĂ° nokkrum hvolfĂŸĂ¶kum sem skarast, er aĂ° finna vĂĂ°s vegar um borgina.
+
+VarsjĂĄ er meĂ°al hĂŠstu borganna Ă EvrĂłpu, 18 af 21 hĂŠstu byggingu Ă PĂłllandi eru Ă VarsjĂĄ.
+
+PlöntulĂf og dĂœralĂf
+
+Um 40 % af flatarmĂĄli VarsjĂĄr er grĂŠnt, ĂŸaĂ° er aĂ° segja almenningsgarĂ°ar, grasbrĂșnir og trĂ© ĂĄ götum, landverndarsvĂŠĂ°i og litlir skĂłgar Ă ĂștjaĂ°ri borgarinnar. AlmenningsgarĂ°ar Ă borginni eru 82 samtals og nĂĄ yfir 8 % af flatarmĂĄli borgarinnar. Hinir elstu ĂŸeirra SaxagarĂ°urinn og garĂ°arnir viĂ° hallirnir KrasiĆski, Ćazienki og KrĂłlikarnia.
+
+SaxagarĂ°urinn er 15,5 ha aĂ° flatarmĂĄli og var ĂĄĂ°ur fyrr konunglegur garĂ°ur. Ă garĂ°inum eru yfir 100 trjĂĄtegundir og breiddar göngubrautir meĂ° bökkum. Gröf ĂłĂŸekkta hermannsins er Ă austurhluta garĂ°sins. GarĂ°urinn viĂ° KrasiĆski-höll var gerĂ°ur upp af landslagsartitektinum Franciszek Szanior ĂĄ 19. öld en Ă miĂ°jum garĂ°inum er enn aĂ° finna trĂ© frĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma svo sem musteristrĂ©, svört valhnotutrĂ© og hesliviĂ°i. Ăar eru lĂka margir bekkir, blĂłm, andatjörn og leikvelli en hann er mjög vinsĂŠll meĂ°al VarsjĂĄrbĂșa. Minnismerki um uppreisnina Ă VarsjĂĄrgettĂłinu er lĂka Ă garĂ°inum.
+
+GarĂ°urinn viĂ° Ćazienki-höll er 76 ha aĂ° flatarmĂĄli en skipulag garĂ°sins og plönturnar ĂŸar endurspegla sĂ©rkennilegu sögu hans. Ă garĂ°inum eru nokkur samkomuhĂșs, höggmyndir, brĂœr og tjarnir en ĂŸaĂ° sem aĂ°skilur hann frĂĄ öðrum almenningsgörĂ°um Ă VarsjĂĄ er pĂĄfuglar og fasanar sem flĂŠkjast frjĂĄlsir um garĂ°inn. Einnig eru vatnakarfar Ă tjörnunum. GarĂ°urinn viĂ° WilanĂłw-höll er 43 ha og var opnaĂ°ur Ă lok 17. aldar. Hann var skipulagĂ°ur Ă frönskum stĂl og minnir ĂĄ barokkstĂl hallarinnar. Austurhluti garĂ°sins er nĂŠstur höllinni og er ĂĄ tveimur hĂŠĂ°um.
+
+Heimildir
+
+VarsjĂĄ
+Borgir Ă PĂłllandi
+Höfuðborgir
+Akureyri er bĂŠr (ĂĄĂ°ur kaupstaĂ°ur) Ă EyjafirĂ°i ĂĄ MiĂ°-NorĂ°urlandi. Ă sveitarfĂ©laginu bĂșa um 20.000 (26. aprĂl 2023). AkureyrarbĂŠr er fimmta fjölmennasta sveitarfĂ©lag Ăslands og er annaĂ° fjölmennasta utan höfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°isins ĂĄ eftir ReykjanesbĂŠ. Fyrir utan hiĂ° eiginlega bĂŠjarland Akureyrar Ă botni EyjafjarĂ°ar eru eyjarnar GrĂmsey og HrĂsey einnig innan vĂ©banda sveitarfĂ©lagsins.
+
+Saga bĂŠjarins
+
+LandnĂĄmabĂłk greinir frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° fyrsti landneminn ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu var Helgi âmagriâ Eyvindarson sem kom ĂŸangaĂ° ĂĄ 9. öld. Elstu heimildir um nafniĂ° Akureyri eru ĂŸĂł frĂĄ 1562 en ĂŸĂĄ fĂ©ll dĂłmur ĂĄ staĂ°num yfir konu fyrir aĂ° hafa sĂŠngaĂ° hjĂĄ karli ĂĄn ĂŸess aĂ° hafa giftingarvottorĂ°.
+
+Ă 17. öld tĂłku danskir kaupmenn aĂ° reisa bĂșĂ°ir sĂnar ĂĄ sjĂĄlfri Akureyri sem var ein af nokkrum eyrum sem sköguĂ°u Ășt Ă Pollinn. Ăeir völdu staĂ°inn vegna afbragĂ°s hafnarskilyrĂ°a og einnig vegna ĂŸess aĂ° hĂ©raĂ°iĂ° er og var gjöfult landbĂșnaĂ°arsvĂŠĂ°i en dönsku kaupmennirnir sĂłttust einkum eftir ull og kjöti. Dönsku kaupmennirnir bjuggu ĂŸĂł ekki ĂĄ Akureyri allt ĂĄriĂ° ĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma heldur lĂŠstu ĂŸeir hĂșsum sĂnum og yfirgĂĄfu staĂ°inn yfir vetrartĂmann.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1778 var fyrsta ĂbĂșĂ°arhĂșsiĂ° reist ĂĄ staĂ°num og varanleg bĂșseta hĂłfst. 8 ĂĄrum sĂĂ°ar fĂ©kk bĂŠrinn kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi ĂĄsamt fimm öðrum bĂŠjum ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ăetta var aĂ° undirlagi Danakonungs en hann vildi reyna aĂ° efla hag Ăslands meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hvetja til ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlismyndunar ĂŸar en slĂkt var ĂŸĂĄ nĂĄnast ĂłĂŸekkt ĂĄ landinu. Akureyri stĂŠkkaĂ°i ĂŸĂł ekki viĂ° ĂŸetta og missti kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindin 1836 en nĂĄĂ°i ĂŸeim aftur 1862 og klauf sig ĂŸĂĄ frĂĄ Hrafnagilshreppi, ĂŸĂĄ hĂłfst vöxtur Akureyrar fyrir alvöru og mörk AkureyrarbĂŠjar og Hrafnagilshrepps voru fĂŠrĂ° nokkrum sinnum enn eftir ĂŸvĂ sem bĂŠrinn stĂŠkkaĂ°i. BĂŠndur Ă EyjafirĂ°i voru ĂŸĂĄ farnir aĂ° bindast samtökum til aĂ° styrkja stöðu sĂna gagnvart dönsku kaupmönnunum, uppĂșr ĂŸvĂ varĂ° KaupfĂ©lag EyfirĂ°inga (KEA) stofnaĂ°. KEA ĂĄtti mikinn ĂŸĂĄtt Ă vexti bĂŠjarins, ĂĄ vegum ĂŸess voru rekin mörg iĂ°nfyrirtĂŠki Ă bĂŠnum sem mörg sĂ©rhĂŠfĂ°u sig Ă Ășrvinnslu landbĂșnaĂ°arafurĂ°a. ĂriĂ° 1954 var mörkum AkureyrarbĂŠjar og GlĂŠsibĂŠjarhrepps breytt ĂŸannig aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli sem tekiĂ° var aĂ° myndast handan GlerĂĄr teldist til Akureyrar, ĂŸar hefur nĂș byggst upp GlerĂĄrhverfi.
+
+Ă sĂĂ°asta ĂĄratug 20. aldar tĂłk Akureyri miklum breytingum, framleiĂ°sluiĂ°naĂ°urinn sem hafĂ°i veriĂ° grunnurinn undir bĂŠnum lĂ©t töluvert ĂĄ sjĂĄ og KEA drĂł verulega Ășr umsvifum sĂnum. Meiri umsvif Ă verslun og ĂŸjĂłnustu, ferĂ°aĂŸjĂłnustu, sjĂĄvarĂștvegi og HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri hafa nĂș komiĂ° Ă staĂ° iĂ°naĂ°arins aĂ° miklu leyti. HrĂseyjarhreppur sameinaĂ°ist AkureyrarbĂŠ 2004 en Ă kosningum Ă oktĂłber 2005 var tillögu um sameiningu allra sveitarfĂ©laga Ă EyjafirĂ°i hafnaĂ° ĂĄ Akureyri. GrĂmseyjarhreppur sameinaĂ°ist AkureyrarbĂŠ 2009.
+
+Ă Akureyri hefur veriĂ° mönnuĂ° veĂ°urathugunarstöð sĂĂ°an 1881.
+
+BĂŠjarstjĂłrn
+SjĂĄ einnig: BĂŠjarstjĂłrnarkosningar ĂĄ Akureyri
+Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrn Akureyrar sitja 11 fulltrĂșar sem kjörnir eru af ĂbĂșum bĂŠjarins yfir 18 ĂĄra aldri ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra fresti. BĂŠjarstjĂłrn skipar bĂŠjarrĂĄĂ° sem fer meĂ° fjĂĄrmĂĄlastjĂłrn bĂŠjarins og aĂ°rar fastanefndir sem fjalla um afmörkuĂ° sviĂ°. Forseti bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar er ĂŠĂ°sti yfirmaĂ°ur hennar og hĂșn kemur saman ĂĄ opnum fundum aĂ° jafnaĂ°i tvisvar Ă mĂĄnuĂ°i en bĂŠjarrĂĄĂ° fundar vikulega.
+
+BĂŠjarstjĂłrinn er yfirmaĂ°ur embĂŠttismannakerfisins, hann er rĂĄĂ°inn af bĂŠjarstjĂłrninni og getur veriĂ° annaĂ°hvort kjörinn bĂŠjarfulltrĂși eĂ°a utanaĂ°komandi. StjĂłrnkerfinu er svo skipt Ă ĂŸrjĂș meginsviĂ° (fĂ©lagssviĂ°, stjĂłrnsĂœslusviĂ°, tĂŠkni- og umhverfissviĂ°) sem svo skiptast Ă deildir og undir ĂŸeim eru einstakar stofnanir.
+
+NĂșverandi skipan bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar
+Kosningar til bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar voru sĂĂ°ast haldnar 14. maĂ 2022. Skipting atkvĂŠĂ°a og bĂŠjarfulltrĂșa var sem hĂ©r segir:
+
+BĂŠjarlistinn, SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokkurinn og MiĂ°flokkurinn mynduĂ°u saman meirihluta eftir kosningarnar.
+
+BĂŠjarstjĂłri
+StaĂ°a bĂŠjarstjĂłra var auglĂœst laus til umsĂłknar aĂ° loknum kosningum 26. maĂ 2018. Ăsthildur SturludĂłttir var rĂĄĂ°in bĂŠjarstjĂłri 31. jĂșlĂ 2018 og tĂłk til starfa Ă september. RĂĄĂ°ning hennar var framlengd eftir kosningarnar 2022.
+
+Fyrri bĂŠjarstjĂłrar
+ 1919â1934 - JĂłn Sveinsson
+ 1934â1958 - Steinn Steinsen
+ 1958â1967 - MagnĂșs GuĂ°jĂłnsson
+ 1967â1976 - Bjarni Einarsson
+ 1976â1986 - Helgi M. Bergs
+ 1986â1990 - SigfĂșs JĂłnsson
+ 1990â1994 - HalldĂłr JĂłnsson
+ 1994â1998 - Jakob Björnsson
+ 1998â2007 - KristjĂĄn ĂĂłr JĂșlĂusson
+ 2007â2009 - SigrĂșn Björk JakobsdĂłttir
+ 2009â2010 - Hermann JĂłn TĂłmasson
+ 2010â2018 - EirĂkur Björn Björgvinsson
+ 2018â - Ăsthildur SturludĂłttir
+
+StaĂ°hĂŠttir
+Akureyri stendur viĂ° botn EyjafjarĂ°ar viĂ° Pollinn en svo er sjĂłrinn milli Oddeyrar og Ăłsa EyjafjarĂ°arĂĄr kallaĂ°ur. Ă gegnum bĂŠinn rennur GlerĂĄ sem aĂ°skilur GlerĂĄrhverfi (ĂorpiĂ°) frĂĄ öðrum bĂŠjarhlutum. Ănnur hverfi bĂŠjarins eru Oddeyri, Brekkan, Naustahverfi, Lundahverfi, InnbĂŠrinn og MiĂ°bĂŠr.
+
+Samgöngur
+StrĂŠtisvagnakerfi er rekiĂ° Ă bĂŠnum af StrĂŠtisvögnum Akureyrar, og frĂĄ og meĂ° ĂĄrinu 2007 voru ferĂ°ir gerĂ°ar gjaldfrjĂĄlsar og fjölgaĂ°i farĂŸegum um rĂșm 60% eftir ĂŸaĂ°, eĂ°a Ășr 640 (ĂŸriĂ°ju viku ĂĄrsins 2006) Ă aĂ° meĂ°altali 1020 (um sama leyti 2007).
+
+Menntastofnanir
+Akureyri er mikill skĂłlabĂŠr. Ă bĂŠnum eru tveir stĂłrir framhaldsskĂłlar (MA og VMA) MyndlistaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri, TĂłnlistarskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri og HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri.
+
+Atvinnuvegir
+Helstu atvinnuvegir bĂŠjarbĂșa eru verslun og ĂŸjĂłnusta, framleiĂ°sluiĂ°naĂ°ur, sjĂĄvarĂștvegur og opinber ĂŸjĂłnusta. Ă bĂŠnum er FjĂłrĂ°ungssjĂșkrahĂșsiĂ° ĂĄ Akureyri, nĂŠststĂŠrsta sjĂșkrahĂșs landsins (ĂĄ eftir LandsspĂtala HĂĄskĂłlasjĂșkrahĂșsi); Hlutur framleiĂ°sluiĂ°naĂ°ar Ă atvinnulĂfi Ă bĂŠnum hefur minnkaĂ° mikiĂ° sĂĂ°ustu 15-20 ĂĄrin, en ĂĄ mĂłti hefur sjĂĄvarĂștvegur vaxiĂ° og Ă dag hafa tvö stĂŠrstu sjĂĄvarĂștvegsfyrirtĂŠki landsins, Brim og Samherji ĂŸar höfuĂ°stöðvar.
+
+Söfn og afĂŸreying
+ListasafniĂ° ĂĄ Akureyri
+NonnahĂșs (minningarsafn um JĂłn Sveinsson, barnabĂłkahöfund)
+DavĂĂ°shĂșs (minningarsafn um DavĂĂ° StefĂĄnsson, ljóðskĂĄld)
+IĂ°naĂ°arsafniĂ° ĂĄ Akureyri
+Flugsafn Ăslands
+FriĂ°bjarnarhĂșs
+LystigarĂ°ur Akureyrar
+MenningarhĂșsiĂ° Hof
+MinjasafniĂ° ĂĄ Akureyri
+MĂłtorhjĂłlasafn Ăslands
+
+Sundlaug Akureyrar
+HlĂĂ°arfjall, skĂĂ°asvĂŠĂ°i
+Skautahöllin å Akureyri
+KjarnaskĂłgur, Ăștivist o.fl.
+AmtsbĂłkasafniĂ° ĂĄ Akureyri
+
+Svipmyndir
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+
+ VefsĂĂ°a AkureyrarbĂŠjar
+ FerĂ°amannasĂĂ°a Akureyrarstofu
+ VefsĂĂ°a RES OrkuskĂłla (RES - The School for Renewable Energy Science)
+ Trjågróður å Akureyri - Kjarnaskógur.is
+ HĂșs meĂ° sĂĄl og sögu ĂĄ Akureyri; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1985
+ EnnĂŸĂĄ er stĂll yfir staĂ°num; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1967
+ VigfĂșs SigfĂșsson hĂłteleigandi ĂĄ Akureyri; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1943
+ SkĂĄldabĂŠrinn Akureyri; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1971
+
+
+VeĂ°urathugunarstöðvar ĂĄ Ăslandi
+HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri er hĂĄskĂłli Ă bĂŠnum Akureyri ĂĄ Ăslandi sem stofnaĂ°ur var ĂĄriĂ° 1987. Hann hefur vaxiĂ° mikiĂ° sĂĂ°an og Ă dag eru ĂŸar skrĂĄĂ°ir Ă kring um 2.500 stĂșdentar. SkĂłlinn er meĂ°al ĂŸeirra fremstu ĂĄ Ăslandi og hefur veriĂ° framsĂŠkinn ĂŸegar kemur aĂ° sveigjanlegu nĂĄmsfyrirkomulagi.
+
+Sveigjanlegt nĂĄm er stĂłr kostur viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri. Fjölbreyttar og nĂștĂmalegar kennslu- og nĂĄmsaĂ°ferĂ°ir eru notaĂ°ar viĂ° miĂ°lun nĂĄmsefnis.
+
+Allt grunnĂĄm er Ă boĂ°i sem sveigjanlegt nĂĄm. ĂaĂ° ĂŸĂœĂ°ir aĂ° stĂșdentar ĂŸurfa ekki endilega aĂ° vera bĂșsettir ĂĄ Akureyri heldur koma Ă hĂĄskĂłlann Ă sĂ©rstakar nĂĄmslotur ĂŸar sem meginĂĄhersla er lögĂ° ĂĄ verkefnavinnu og umrĂŠĂ°ur. Allir fylgja sömu nĂĄmskrĂĄnni og nĂĄmskröfur eru ĂŸĂŠr sömu.
+
+Ă nĂĄmslotunum gefst ĂŸĂ©r tĂŠkifĂŠri til aĂ° hitta kennara, stĂșdenta og annaĂ° starfsfĂłlk hĂĄskĂłlans og tengjast enn betur hĂĄskĂłlasamfĂ©laginu.
+
+Saga
+
+HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri var stofnaĂ°ur 5. september 1987 og starfaĂ°i hann fyrst Ă staĂ° Ă hĂșsnĂŠĂ°i VerkmenntaskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri aĂ° ĂingvallastrĂŠti 23. ĂĂĄ var boĂ°iĂ° upp ĂĄ nĂĄm Ă tveimur deildum: HeilbrigĂ°isdeild og Rekstradeild. Fyrsti rektor skĂłlans var Haraldur Bessason. Fyrstu Ăștskriftarnemarnir voru 10 iĂ°nrekstrarfrĂŠĂ°ingar, brautskrĂĄĂ°ir 1989. Fyrstu framhaldsnemarnir voru brautskrĂĄĂ°ir meĂ° M.Sc. Ă hjĂșkrunarfrĂŠĂ°um 26. febrĂșar 2000.
+
+NĂĄm
+Fjölbreytt nĂĄm er Ă boĂ°i viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri, bĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ grunn- og framhaldsstigi. FrĂĄ og meĂ° vormisseri 2019 varĂ° HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri fullvaxta hĂĄskĂłli meĂ° nĂĄm ĂĄ öllum ĂŸrepum hĂĄskĂłlanĂĄms ĂŸegar honum var veitt heimild til aĂ° bjóða upp ĂĄ doktorsnĂĄm. Kennsla fer fram ĂĄ tveimur frĂŠĂ°asviĂ°um og ĂŸau eru:
+
+Hug- og fĂ©lagsvĂsindasviĂ°
+Hug- og fĂ©lagsvĂsindasviĂ° samanstendur af fjĂłrum deildum; FĂ©lagsvĂsindadeild, Lagadeild, SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ideild og Kennaradeild. Ăar er boĂ°iĂ° upp ĂĄ fjölbreytt grunnnĂĄm
+bakkalĂĄrprĂłfs (B.A. og B.Ed.) og framhaldsnĂĄm til meistaraprĂłfs (M.A., M.Ed., M.l.
+og ll.M). MiĂ°stöð skĂłlaĂŸrĂłunar viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri tilheyrir einnig sviĂ°inu
+og starfar ĂŸaĂ° Ă nĂĄnum tengslum viĂ° Kennaradeild aĂ° ĂŸrĂłunar- og umbĂłtastarfi Ă
+skólum, åsamt råðgjöf og frÊðslu.
+
+NĂĄmiĂ° einkennist af fjölbreyttum ĂĄherslum sem koma til mĂłts viĂ° ĂłlĂkar ĂŸarfir
+og ĂĄhuga stĂșdenta. Hver deild hefur sĂna sĂ©rstöðu:
+
+ Ă FĂ©lagsvĂsindadeild er boĂ°iĂ° upp ĂĄ fjĂłrar nĂĄmsleiĂ°ir til BA grĂĄĂ°u, ĂŸar af eru fĂ©lagsvĂsindi, fjölmiĂ°lafrĂŠĂ°i og lögreglufrĂŠĂ°i einungis kennd viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri. AĂ° hluta til er boĂ°iĂ° upp ĂĄ sömu nĂĄmskeiĂ° Ă ĂŸessum nĂĄmsleiĂ°um ĂĄ fyrsta ĂĄri og stĂșdentar fĂĄ fljĂłtlega tĂŠkifĂŠri til aĂ° sĂ©rhĂŠfa sig meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° taka valnĂĄmskeiĂ°. Til viĂ°bĂłtar eru Ă boĂ°i tvĂŠr nĂĄmsleiĂ°ir ĂĄ meistarastigi.
+ ViĂ° Lagadeild er kennd lögfrĂŠĂ°i Ă grunnnĂĄmi og framhaldsnĂĄmi auk ĂŸess sem heimskautarĂ©ttur er Ă boĂ°i Ă framhaldsnĂĄmi. SĂ©rstaĂ°a lögfrĂŠĂ°inĂĄms HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri felst Ă alĂŸjóðlegri nĂĄlgun og sveigjanlegu nĂĄmsfyrirkomulagi.
+ Ă SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ideild er boĂ°iĂ° upp ĂĄ 3 ĂĄra BA nĂĄm Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i ĂŸar sem sĂ©rstaĂ°an er sveigjanlegt nĂĄmsfyrirkomulag og nĂĄmsmat. Auk ĂŸess bĂœĂ°ur SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ideild upp ĂĄ MA nĂĄm Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i sem er rannsĂłknartengt og er sniĂ°iĂ° aĂ° ĂĄhugasviĂ°i hvers og eins.
+ ViĂ° Kennaradeild er kennt fjölbreytt nĂĄm ĂĄ grunn- og framhaldsstigi. NĂĄmiĂ° miĂ°ar aĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° stĂșdentar öðlist ĂŸĂĄ ĂŸekkingu, leikni og hĂŠfni sem kennarastarf krefst ĂĄ hverjum tĂma. Deildin bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ fjölbreytt nĂĄm meĂ° margvĂslegri sĂ©rhĂŠfingu sem leggur traustan grunn aĂ° ĂŸeirri fĂŠrni sem ĂŸrĂłun skĂłlastarfs, iĂ°kun rannsĂłkna og frekara nĂĄm gerir kröfur um.
+
+GrunnĂĄm:
+
+ FĂ©lagsvĂsindi (BA)
+ FjölmiðlafrÊði (BA)
+ KennarafrĂŠĂ°i (BEd)
+ LögfrÊði (BA)
+ LöggÊslu- og löggÊslufrÊði (BA)
+ LögreglufrÊði fyrir starfandi lögreglumenn (Diplóma)
+ LögreglufrÊði fyrir verðandi lögreglumenn (Diplóma)
+ NĂștĂmafrĂŠĂ°i (BA)
+ SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i (BA)
+
+FramhaldsnĂĄm:
+
+ FĂ©lagsvĂsindi (MA)
+ Fjölmiðla- og boðskiptafrÊði (MA)
+ Forysta à lÊrdómssamfélagi (Diplóma)
+ Heimskautaréttur (LLM/MA/Diplóma)
+ KennarafrĂŠĂ°i (MT)
+ LögfrÊði (ML)
+ MĂĄm og margbreytileiki â sĂ©rkennslufrĂŠĂ°i (MA)
+ MenntavĂsindi (MA)
+ MenntunarfrĂŠĂ°i (DiplĂłma)
+ MenntunarfrĂŠĂ°i (MEd)
+ NĂĄm og lĂŠsi â lestrarfrĂŠĂ°i (DiplĂłma)
+ NĂĄm og lĂŠsi â lestrarfrĂŠĂ°i (MA)
+ NĂĄm og margbreytileiki â sĂ©rkennslufrĂŠĂ°i (DiplĂłma)
+ SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i (MA)
+ SjĂĄvarbyggĂ°afrĂŠĂ°i (MA)
+ Starfstengd leiðsögn (Diplómanåm)
+ Stjórnun og forysta à lÊrdómssamfélagi (Diplóma)
+ Stjórnun og forysta à lÊrdómssamfélagi (MA)
+ UpplĂœsingatĂŠkni Ă nĂĄmi og kennslu (DiplĂłma)
+ UpplĂœsingatĂŠkni Ă nĂĄmi og kennslu (MA)
+
+HeilbrigĂ°is-, viĂ°skipta- og raunvĂsindasviĂ°
+Inann HeilbrigĂ°is-, viĂ°skipta- og raunvĂsindasviĂ°s eru fimm deildir: AuĂ°lindadeild, FramhaldsnĂĄmsdeild Ă heilbrigĂ°isvĂsindum, HjĂșkrunarfrĂŠĂ°ideild, IĂ°juĂŸjĂĄlfundarfrĂŠĂ°ideild og ViĂ°skiptadeild. FrĂŠĂ°asviĂ°iĂ° bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ fjölbreytt grunn- og framhaldsnĂĄm og ĂŸar er einnig aĂ° finna nĂĄmsleiĂ°ir sem einungis eru kenndar viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri og hafa markaĂ° sĂ©r ĂĄkveĂ°na sĂ©rstöðu. Hver deild hefur sĂna sĂ©rstöðu:
+
+ Ă AuĂ°lindadeild er lögĂ° rĂk ĂĄhersla ĂĄ nĂĄm og rannsĂłknir Ă tengslum viĂ° sjĂĄlfbĂŠra og arĂ°bĂŠra nĂœtingu nĂĄttĂșruauĂ°linda. MeĂ° ĂŸetta aĂ° leiĂ°arljĂłsi er boĂ°iĂ° upp ĂĄ hagnĂœtt viĂ°skipta- og raunvĂsindatengt nĂĄm ĂĄ ĂŸremur frĂŠĂ°asviĂ°um; lĂftĂŠkni, sjĂĄvarĂștvegsfrĂŠĂ°i og nĂĄttĂșru- og auĂ°lindafrĂŠĂ°i.
+ FramhaldsnĂĄmsdeild Ă heilbrigĂ°isvĂsindum hefur ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° markiĂ°i aĂ° mennta fagfĂłlk ĂĄ heilbrigĂ°issviĂ°i til vĂsindarannsĂłknastarfa og nĂœsköpunar. SĂ©rstaĂ°a og styrkur nĂĄmsins felst meĂ°al annars Ă ĂŸverfaglegum stĂșdentahĂłpi ĂŸar sem fagfĂłlk Ășr hinum Ăœmsu fagstĂ©ttum heilbrigĂ°iskerfisins kemur saman til aĂ° taka sĂnar meistaragrĂĄĂ°ur.
+ HjĂșkrunarfrĂŠĂ°ideild bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ 4 ĂĄra BS nĂĄm Ă hjĂșkrunarfrĂŠĂ°i og er HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri eini hĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ landinu sem bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ sveigjanlegt nĂĄm Ă hjĂșkrunarfrĂŠĂ°i.
+ IĂ°juĂŸjĂĄlfundarfrĂŠĂ°ideild bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ 3 ĂĄra BS nĂĄm Ă iĂ°juĂŸjĂĄlfunarfrĂŠĂ°i og 1 ĂĄrs viĂ°bĂłtardiplĂłmu til starfsrĂ©ttinda Ă iĂ°juĂŸjĂĄlfun en HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri er eini hĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ landinu sem bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ nĂĄm Ă iĂ°juĂŸjĂĄlfunarfrĂŠĂ°i.
+ ViĂ°skiptadeild bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ grunn og framhaldsnĂĄm sem er fjölbreytt og hagnĂœtt. Ăhersla er lögĂ° ĂĄ sveigjanlegt nĂĄmsfyrirkomulag. ĂĂĄ bĂœĂ°ur HA upp ĂĄ nĂĄm Ă tölvunarfrĂŠĂ°i Ă samstarfi viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann Ă ReykjavĂk.
+
+GrunnnĂĄm:
+
+ FagnĂĄm fyrir sjĂșkraliĂ°a â öldrunar- og heimahjĂșkrun (DiplĂłma)
+ FagnĂĄm fyrir sjĂșkraliĂ°a â samfĂ©lagsgeĂ°hjĂșkrun (DiplĂłma)
+ HjĂșkrunarfrĂŠĂ°i (BS)
+ IĂ°juĂŸjĂĄlfundarfrĂŠĂ°i (BS)
+ LĂftĂŠkni (BS)
+ SjĂĄvarĂștvegsfrĂŠĂ°i (BS)
+ TölvunarfrÊði (BS)
+ TölvunarfrÊði (Diplóma)
+ ViĂ°skiptafrĂŠĂ°i â stjĂłrnun og fjĂĄrmĂĄl (BS)
+ ViĂ°skiptafrĂŠĂ°i â stjĂłrnun og markaĂ°sfrĂŠĂ°i (BS)
+ ViĂ°skiptafrĂŠĂ°i meĂ° ĂĄherslu ĂĄ sjĂĄvarĂștveg (BS)
+ ViĂ°skiptafrĂŠĂ°i- og sjĂĄvarĂștvegsfrĂŠĂ°i (BS), tvĂŠr hĂĄskĂłlagrĂĄĂ°ur ĂĄ fjĂłrum ĂĄrum!
+
+FramhaldsnĂĄm:
+
+ AuĂ°lindafrĂŠĂ°i (MS)
+ Haf- og strandsvĂŠĂ°astjĂłrnun (MRM)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â Almenn lĂna (MS)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â EndurhĂŠfing (MS)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â GeĂ°heilbrigĂ°isfrĂŠĂ°i (MS)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â HeilsugĂŠsla Ă hĂ©raĂ°i â frĂŠĂ°ileg (MS)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â HeilsugĂŠsla Ă hĂ©raĂ°i â klĂnĂsk (MS)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi - Krabbamein og lĂknarmeĂ°ferĂ° (MS)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi - Langvinn veikindi og lĂfsglĂman (MS)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â LjĂłsmĂŠĂ°ur, heilbrigĂ°i kvenna (MS)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â Ăldrun og heilbrigĂ°i
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â SĂĄlrĂŠn ĂĄföll og ofbeldi
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â SĂ©rsviĂ° hjĂșkrunar (DiplĂłma)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi - StarfsendurhĂŠfing (MS)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â StjĂłrnun Ă heilbrigĂ°isĂŸjĂłnustu (MS)
+ HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindi â Verkir og verkjameĂ°ferĂ°ir (MS)
+ IĂ°juĂŸjĂĄlfun (ViĂ°bĂłtardiplĂłma)
+ StjĂłrnun sjĂĄvarauĂ°linda (MS)
+ ViĂ°skiptafrĂŠĂ°i (MS)
+
+DoktorsnĂĄm
+DoktorsnĂĄm viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri er einstaklingsmiĂ°aĂ° nĂĄm og rannsĂłknarverkefni doktorsnemans er lykilĂŸĂĄttur nĂĄmsins. Doktorsnemar hĂĄskĂłlans verĂ°a virkir ĂŸĂĄtttakendur Ă vĂsindasamfĂ©lagi HA. NĂĄmiĂ° veitir prĂłfgrĂĄĂ°una Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) ĂĄ tilteknu frĂŠĂ°asviĂ°i.
+
+Stofnanir
+Innan vĂ©banda HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri eru starfrĂŠktar Ăœmsar stofnanir sem sinna rannsĂłknum og Ăœmiss konar ĂŸjĂłnustu viĂ° frĂŠĂ°asamfĂ©lagiĂ°.
+
+RannsĂłknastofnanir
+HeilbrigĂ°isvĂsindastofnun HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri
+Rannsóknamiðstöð ferðamåla
+Rannsóknarmiðstöð Håskólans å Akureyri (RHA)
+RannsĂłknir gegn ofbeldi
+SjĂĄvarĂștvegsmiĂ°stöð HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri
+
+ĂjĂłnustustofnanir
+BĂłkasafn HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri
+FĂ©lagsstofnun stĂșdenta viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri (FĂSTA)
+MiĂ°stöð skĂłlaĂŸrĂłunar viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri (MSHA)
+SĂmenntun HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri
+SjĂĄvarĂștvegsskĂłlinn
+VĂsindaskĂłli unga fĂłlksins
+
+FĂ©lagslĂf
+StĂșdentafĂ©lag HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri, SHA er fĂ©lag allra innritaĂ°ra stĂșdenta viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri. FĂ©lagiĂ° er fyrst og fremst hagsmunafĂ©lag stĂșdenta, bakland og sameiningartĂĄkn aĂ°ildarfĂ©laga ĂŸess og ĂŸeirra aĂ°ila sem sinna trĂșnaĂ°arstörfum ĂĄ vegum fĂ©lagsins. FĂ©lagiĂ° stendur vörĂ° um hagsmuni heildarinnar, stuĂ°lar aĂ° bĂŠttri heilsu og lĂĂ°an stĂșdenta og vinnur nĂĄiĂ° meĂ° starfsfĂłlki skĂłlans aĂ° hagsmunamĂĄlum, kynningarmĂĄlum og öðru ĂŸvĂ sem snertir stĂșdenta, beint eĂ°a Ăłbeint.
+
+Sjö aĂ°ildarfĂ©lög eiga aĂ°ild aĂ° SHA. AĂ°ildarfĂ©lög SHA eru sviĂ°s- og deildarfĂ©lög. Starfsemi ĂŸeirra og hlutverk hafa ĂŸrĂłast gegnum ĂĄrin og tekiĂ° breytingum eins og starfsemi og hlutverk SHA. FĂ©lögin eru:
+ Data, félag tölvunarfrÊðinema, var stofnað årið 2016.
+ Eir, félag heilbrigðisnema, var stofnað årið 1990.
+ KumpĂĄni, fĂ©lag fĂ©lagsvĂsinda- og sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°inema, var stofnaĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 2004.
+ Magister, félag kennaranema, var stofnað årið 1993.
+ Reki, félag viðskiptafrÊðinema, var stofnað årið 1990.
+ StafnbĂși, fĂ©lag auĂ°lindafrĂŠĂ°inema, var stofnaĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1990.
+ Ăemis, fĂ©lag laganema, var stofnaĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 2005.
+
+Rektorar
+Rektor er forseti HĂĄskĂłlarĂĄĂ°s, yfirmaĂ°ur stjĂłrnsĂœslu hĂĄskĂłlans og ĂŠĂ°sti fulltrĂși hans gagnvart starfsfĂłlki og stofnunum innan hĂĄskĂłlans og utan. Hann hefur frumkvĂŠĂ°i aĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hĂĄskĂłlarĂĄĂ° marki heildarstefnu Ă mĂĄlefnum hĂĄskĂłlans. Rektor ber ĂĄbyrgĂ° ĂĄ og hefur eftirlit meĂ° allri starfsemi hĂĄskĂłlans og ĂĄ milli funda HĂĄskĂłlarĂĄĂ°s fer hann meĂ° ĂĄkvörĂ°unarvald à öllum mĂĄlum hĂĄskĂłlans. NĂșverandi rektor HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri er Dr. EyjĂłlfur GuĂ°mundsson sem tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti rektors 1. jĂșlĂ 2014.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Akureyri
+HĂĄskĂłlar ĂĄ Ăslandi
+Menntastofnanir ĂĄ Akureyri
+MosfellsbĂŠr (einnig kallaĂ°ur MosĂł Ă talmĂĄli) er sveitarfĂ©lag sem liggur norĂ°austan viĂ° ReykjavĂk. MosfellsbĂŠr varĂ° til 9. ĂĄgĂșst 1987 ĂŸegar Mosfellshreppur varĂ° aĂ° bĂŠjarfĂ©lagi. ĂbĂșar eru um 13.519 Ă aprĂl 2023.
+
+SĂĂ°an 1933 hefur heitt vatn veriĂ° leitt Ășr MosfellsbĂŠ og til ReykjavĂkur. Ullarvinnsla var mikilvĂŠg grein Ă bĂŠnum og var ĂŸar framleiĂ°sla viĂ° Ălafoss frĂĄ 1919 til 1955. NĂș er ĂŸar meĂ°al annars aĂ°setur listamanna.
+
+ĂĂŸrĂłttir og afĂŸreying
+Ă MosfellsbĂŠ er ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lagiĂ° Afturelding. TvĂŠr sundlaugar eru Ă MosfellsbĂŠ: VarmĂĄrlaug og LĂĄgafellslaug. GöngustĂgar eru viĂ° Ălafosskvos og viĂ° Reykjalund. SkĂłgrĂŠkt og gönguleiĂ°ir eru viĂ° Ălfarsfell.
+
+BĂŠjarstjĂłrn
+
+Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrn MosfellsbĂŠjar sitja 11 fulltrĂșar sem kjörnir eru Ă hlutfallskosningu ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra fresti. SĂĂ°ast var kosiĂ° til bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarkosningunum 14. maĂ 2022.
+
+VinabĂŠir
+ , Finnlandi
+ , Noregi
+ Thisted, Danmörku
+ Uddevalla, SvĂĂŸjóð
+
+HeiĂ°ursborgarar
+ĂrĂr einstaklingar eru heiĂ°ursborgarar MosfellsbĂŠjar:
+
+ 1972 â HalldĂłr Laxness (1902-1998)
+ 2000 â JĂłn M. GuĂ°mundsson (1920-2009)
+ 2007 â Salome ĂorkelsdĂłttir (*1927)
+
+Mosfellingur ĂĄrsins
+BĂŠjarblaĂ°iĂ° Mosfellingur hefur staĂ°iĂ° fyrir vali ĂĄ Mosfellingi ĂĄrsins sĂĂ°an 2005. BlaĂ°iĂ° kynnir Mosfelling ĂĄrsins Ă fyrsta tölublaĂ°i hvers ĂĄrs. SautjĂĄn einstaklingar hafa hlotiĂ° nafnbĂłtina Mosfellingur ĂĄrsins:
+
+Myndir
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+
+ MosfellsbĂŠr
+ StaldraĂ° viĂ° Ă Mosfellshreppi; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1972
+
+
+ĂĂ©ttbĂœlisstaĂ°ir Ăslands
+VladĂmĂr VladĂmĂrovĂtsj PĂștĂn (rĂșssneska: ĐĐ»Đ°ĐŽĐžĐŒĐžŃ ĐĐ»Đ°ĐŽĐžĐŒĐžŃĐŸĐČĐžŃ ĐŃŃĐžĐœ; f. 7. oktĂłber 1952) er annar forseti RĂșsslands.
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+Hann ĂștskrifaĂ°ist frĂĄ lögfrĂŠĂ°ideild RĂkishĂĄskĂłlans Ă LenĂngrad ĂĄriĂ° 1975 og hĂłf störf hjĂĄ KGB. Ă ĂĄrunum 1985-1990 starfaĂ°i hann Ă Austur-ĂĂœskalandi. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1990 gegndi hann Ăœmsum embĂŠttum, meĂ°al annars Ă RĂkishĂĄskĂłlanum Ă LenĂngrad, borgarstjĂłrn Sankti PĂ©tursborgar og frĂĄ 1996 hjĂĄ stjĂłrnvöldum Ă Kreml. Ă jĂșlĂ 1998 var hann skipaĂ°ur yfirmaĂ°ur FSB (arftaka KGB) og frĂĄ mars 1999 var hann samtĂmis ritari ĂryggisrĂĄĂ°s rĂșssneska sambandslĂœĂ°veldisins. FrĂĄ 31. desember 1999 var hann settur forseti rĂșssneska sambandslĂœĂ°veldisins en 26. mars 2000 var hann kosinn forseti. Hann var endurkjörinn 14. mars 2004. Hann varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra frĂĄ 2008 til 2012 og var sĂĂ°an aftur kjörinn forseti ĂĄrin 2012 og 2018.
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+VladĂmĂr PĂștĂn talar auk rĂșssnesku, ĂŸĂœsku og ensku. Hann var giftur LjĂșdmĂlu Aleksandrovnu PĂștĂnu til ĂĄrsins 2014. Ăau eiga saman tvĂŠr dĂŠtur, MarĂu (f. 1985) og JekaterĂnu (f. 1986).
+
+ĂviĂĄgrip
+PĂștĂn fĂŠddist ĂŸann 7. oktĂłber 1952 Ă LenĂngrad Ă SovĂ©trĂkjunum og var yngstur ĂŸriggja barna foreldra sinna. Ăegar hann var tĂłlf ĂĄra byrjaĂ°i hann aĂ° ĂŠfa sambĂł og jĂșdĂł. Hann er Ă dag meĂ° svart belti Ă jĂșdĂł og er landsmeistari Ă ŃĐ°ÌĐŒĐ±ĐŸ (stafsett ĂĄ latnesku letri: sambĂł). PĂștĂn lĂŠrĂ°i ĂŸĂœsku Ă gagnfrĂŠĂ°iskĂłla Ă Sankti PĂ©tursborg og talar hana reiprennandi.
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+PĂștĂn hĂłf laganĂĄm Ă rĂkishĂĄskĂłla LenĂngrad ĂĄriĂ° 1970 og ĂștskrifaĂ°ist ĂĄriĂ° 1975. Ă hĂĄskĂłlaĂĄrunum gekk hann Ă sovĂ©ska kommĂșnistaflokkinn og var meĂ°limur hans til ĂĄrsins 1991.
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+Störf hjå KGB
+ĂriĂ° 1975 gekk PĂștĂn til liĂ°s viĂ° leyniĂŸjĂłnustuna KGB. Hann vann Ă gagnnjĂłsnum og fylgdist meĂ° Ăștlendingum og erindrekum Ă LenĂngrad. FrĂĄ 1985 til 1990 vann hann Ă Dresden Ă Austur-ĂĂœskalandi. Opinberlega var PĂștĂn staĂ°settur ĂŸar sem tĂșlkur en umdeilt er hvaĂ° hann fĂ©kkst viĂ° ĂŸar Ă raun og veru. SamkvĂŠmt sumum heimildum var vera PĂștĂns Ă Dresden viĂ°burĂ°alĂtil og starf hans gekk Ășt ĂĄ fĂĄtt annaĂ° en aĂ° fylgjast meĂ° fjölmiĂ°lum og safna Ășrklippum. AĂ°rar heimildir herma aĂ° PĂștĂn hafi fengist viĂ° aĂ° fĂĄ Ăjóðverja til aĂ° njĂłsna fyrir SovĂ©trĂkin og jafnvel aĂ° hann hafi ĂĄtt Ă samstarfi viĂ° kommĂșnĂska hryĂ°juverkahĂłpinn Rote Armee Fraktion. SamkvĂŠmt opinberri ĂŠvisögu PĂștĂns brenndi hann leyniskjöl KGB Ă borginni til ĂŸess aĂ° koma Ă veg fyrir aĂ° ĂŸau fĂ©llu Ă hendur mĂłtmĂŠlenda ĂŸegar BerlĂnarmĂșrinn fĂ©ll.
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+Eftir aĂ° austur-ĂŸĂœska kommĂșnistastjĂłrnin fĂ©ll sneri PĂștin aftur til LenĂngrad ĂĄriĂ° 1990. Ăegar reynt var aĂ° fremja valdarĂĄn gegn MĂkhaĂl Gorbatsjov ĂĄriĂ° 1991 segist PĂștĂn hafa sagt af sĂ©r og staĂ°iĂ° meĂ° rĂkisstjĂłrninni. Hann varĂ° sĂĂ°an eftir hrun SovĂ©trĂkjanna aĂ°stoĂ°armaĂ°ur AnatolĂj Sobtsjak, borgarstjĂłra PĂ©tursborgar frĂĄ 1991 til 1996.
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+ForstjĂłri FSB og forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra
+ĂriĂ° 1996 var PĂștĂn kallaĂ°ur til starfa Ă Moskvu og varĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1998 forstjĂłri nĂœju rĂșssnesku leyniĂŸjĂłnustunnar, FSB. Ăar sem BorĂs JeltsĂn, ĂŸĂĄverandi forseti RĂșsslands, var rĂșinn vinsĂŠldum og mĂĄtti ekki gegna ĂŸriĂ°ja kjörtĂmabilinu sem forseti samkvĂŠmt ĂŸĂĄgildandi lögum fĂłru bandamenn hans ĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma aĂ° svipast eftir sigurvĂŠnlegum frambjóðanda sem gĂŠti tekiĂ° viĂ° af honum og hlĂft valdaklĂkunni viĂ° spillingarĂĄkĂŠrum. Sagt er aĂ° ĂłlĂgarkinn BorĂs BerezovskĂj hafi fyrstur stungiĂ° upp ĂĄ PĂștĂn sem rĂ©tta manninum Ă starfiĂ°.
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+Ăann 15. ĂĄgĂșst ĂĄriĂ° 1999 Ăștnefndi JeltsĂn PĂștĂn forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ă stjĂłrn sinni og lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ jafnframt yfir aĂ° hann vildi aĂ° PĂștĂn yrĂ°i eftirmaĂ°ur sinn. PĂștĂn var nĂĄnast ĂłĂŸekktur ĂŸegar hann varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra og fĂĄir bjuggust viĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hann myndi endast lengi Ă embĂŠttinu, enda hafĂ°i JeltsĂn margsinnis skipt um forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra ĂĄ undanförnum ĂĄrum.
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+ĂaĂ° var einkum meĂ° framgöngu sinni Ă seinna TĂ©tĂ©nĂustrĂĂ°inu sem PĂștĂn vann sĂ©r upphaflega hylli rĂșssnesku ĂŸjóðarinnar. Ă september 1999 voru gerĂ°ar sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ ĂbĂșĂ°ablokkir Ă Moskvu og Volgodonsk sem RĂșssar sögĂ°u hryĂ°juverkamenn frĂĄ TĂ©tĂ©nĂu bera ĂĄbyrgĂ° ĂĄ. RĂșssar brugĂ°ust viĂ° ĂĄrĂĄsunum meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° rjĂșfa friĂ°arsamkomulag sem gert hafĂ°i veriĂ° viĂ° TĂ©tĂ©na ĂĄriĂ° 1997 og hefja innrĂĄs Ă TĂ©tĂ©nĂu 28. september 1999. PĂștĂn hĂ©lt fjölda vĂgreifra sjĂłnvarpsĂĄvarpa ĂĄ tĂma innrĂĄsarinnar og uppskar fljĂłtt miklar vinsĂŠldir hjĂĄ rĂșssneskri alĂŸĂœĂ°u, sem var full hefndarĂŸorsta vegna hryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄsanna.
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+FrĂĄ upphafi hafa veriĂ° uppi kenningar um aĂ° leyniĂŸjĂłnustan FSB hafi sviĂ°sett sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsirnar Ă Moskvu og Volgodonsk Ă ĂŸĂĄgu PĂștĂns til aĂ° skapa ĂĄtyllu fyrir strĂĂ°i Ă TĂ©tĂ©nĂu. Ăessi kenning styĂ°st meĂ°al annars viĂ° ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° tveir starfsmenn FSB sĂĄust koma pokum meĂ° dufti sem lĂktist sprengiefninu RDX fyrir Ă kjallara ĂbĂșĂ°ablokkar Ă Rjazan. Ăeir voru handteknir en lögreglu svo skipaĂ° aĂ° lĂĄta ĂŸĂĄ lausa. Einn ĂŸeirra sem taldi PĂștĂn hafa sviĂ°sett ĂĄrĂĄsirnar var fyrrum FSB-liĂ°inn Aleksandr LĂtvĂnenko, sem flĂșĂ°i Ă ĂștlegĂ° til Bretlands ĂĄriĂ° 2000. LĂtvĂnenko lĂ©st ĂĄriĂ° 2006 eftir aĂ° eitraĂ° var fyrir honum meĂ° geislavirka efninu PĂłlon-210.
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+RĂșssar gerĂ°u linnulausar loftĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ tĂ©tĂ©nsku höfuĂ°borgina GroznĂj Ă um fjĂłra mĂĄnuĂ°i og höfĂ°u nĂĄnast alfariĂ° lagt hana Ă rĂșst ĂŸegar sĂĂ°ustu tĂ©tĂ©nsku skĂŠruliĂ°arnir hörfuĂ°u ĂŸaĂ°an Ă lok janĂșar ĂĄriĂ° 2000.
+
+Forseti (2000â2008)
+
+Ăann 31. desember 1999 sagĂ°i JeltsĂn af sĂ©r og PĂștĂn varĂ° ĂŸar meĂ° starfandi forseti RĂșsslands Ă hans staĂ°. Eitt af ĂŸvĂ fyrsta sem PĂștĂn gerĂ°i Ă embĂŠtti var aĂ° skrifa undir tilskipun ĂŸess efnis aĂ° JeltsĂn og fjölskylda hans yrĂ°u ekki lögsĂłtt fyrir spillingarmĂĄl sem höfĂ°u komiĂ° upp Ă forsetatĂĂ° hans. Afsögn JeltsĂns leiddi til ĂŸess aĂ° forsetakosningar voru haldnar ĂŸremur mĂĄnuĂ°um fyrr en stjĂłrnarandstaĂ°an hafĂ°i gert rĂĄĂ° fyrir. PĂștĂn vann kosningarnar Ă fyrstu umferĂ° meĂ° 53% greiddra atkvĂŠĂ°a. Hann tĂłk forsetaeiĂ°inn ĂŸann 7. maĂ ĂĄriĂ° 2000.
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+ĂriĂ° 2003 var samningur gerĂ°ur viĂ° TĂ©tĂ©na ĂŸar sem TĂ©tĂ©nĂa varĂ° sjĂĄlfstjĂłrnarhĂ©raĂ° innan rĂșssneska sambandsrĂkisins undir stjĂłrn Akhmads Kadyrov, strĂĂ°sherra sem hafĂ°i gengiĂ° til liĂ°s viĂ° PĂștĂn Ă seinna TĂ©tĂ©nĂustrĂĂ°inu. PĂștĂn gerĂ°i einnig samninga viĂ° rĂșssneska olĂgarka um stuĂ°ning ĂŸeirra viĂ° rĂkisstjĂłrn hans Ă skiptum fyrir aĂ° ĂŸeir hĂ©ldu flestum völdum sĂnum. OlĂgarkar sem hĂ©ldu ekki tryggĂ° viĂ° stjĂłrn PĂștĂns, til dĂŠmis olĂujöfurinn MĂkhaĂl KhodorkovskĂj, ĂĄttu hĂŠttu ĂĄ handtöku.
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+Efnahagur RĂșsslands nĂĄĂ°i sĂ©r smĂĄm saman ĂĄ strik upp Ășr ĂĄrinu 1999 eftir efnahagskreppu sem rĂkt hafĂ°i Ă kjölfar hruns SovĂ©trĂkjanna. Ă fyrstu tveimur kjörtĂmabilum PĂștĂns jĂłkst kaupmĂĄttur RĂșssa um 72 prĂłsent, einkum vegna hĂŠkkunar ĂĄ olĂuverĂ°i.
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+PĂștĂn vann endurkjör ĂĄriĂ° 2004 meĂ° 71% greiddra atkvĂŠĂ°a.
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+ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra (2008â2012)
+RĂșssneska stjĂłrnarskrĂĄin meinaĂ°i PĂștĂn aĂ° bjóða sig fram Ă ĂŸriĂ°ja skipti Ă röð Ă forsetakosningunum ĂĄriĂ° 2008. ĂvĂ studdi PĂștĂn fyrrverandi kosningastjĂłra sinn, DmĂtrĂj Medvedev, til embĂŠttisins. Eftir sigur Medvedev gerĂ°ist PĂștĂn sjĂĄlfur forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra ĂĄ nĂœ og hĂ©lt ĂŸannig flestum völdum sĂnum ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra forsetatĂĂ° Medvedev. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma brutust Ășt fjöldamĂłtmĂŠli eftir ĂŸingkosningar ĂŸann 4. desember ĂĄriĂ° 2011 ĂŸar sem tugĂŸĂșsundir RĂșssa mĂłtmĂŠltu meintu kosningasvindli.
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+ForsetatĂĂ° Medvedevs var Ăłvenjuleg meĂ°al rĂșssneskra leiĂ°toga ĂŸvĂ PĂștĂn naut ĂĄfram verulegra valda sem forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra. Fyrri forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herrar RĂșsslands höfĂ°u jafnan veriĂ° algjörlega undirgefnir ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingjanum en valdatĂĂ° Medvedevs einkenndist ĂŸess Ă staĂ° af nokkurs konar tvĂmenningabandalagi ĂŸeirra PĂștĂns. Haft var fyrir satt meĂ°al flestra stjĂłrnmĂĄlaskĂœrenda aĂ° annaĂ°hvort vĂŠru ĂŸeir Medvedev og PĂștĂn bĂĄĂ°ir jafnvoldugir Ă stjĂłrninni eĂ°a ĂŸĂĄ aĂ° PĂștĂn vĂŠri Ă reynd enn ĂŠĂ°sti valdsmaĂ°ur RĂșsslands og Medvedev forseti vĂŠri lĂtiĂ° meira en staĂ°gengill eĂ°a strengjabrĂșĂ°a hans.
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+Forseti (2012â2018)
+ĂriĂ° 2012 bauĂ° PĂștĂn sig aftur fram til forseta meĂ° stuĂ°ningi Medvedev. PĂștĂn vann kosningarnar ĂŸann 4. mars 2012 meĂ° 63.6% greiddra atkvĂŠĂ°a. Ăeir Medvedev skiptust ĂŸvĂ aftur ĂĄ hlutverkum og Medvedev varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra. MikiĂ° var um ĂĄsakanir um kosningasvindl Ă forsetakjörinu og talsvert var um mĂłtmĂŠli gegn PĂștĂn Ă og eftir kosningarnar. AlrĂŠmdasta uppĂĄkoman var mĂłtmĂŠlagjörningur pönkhljĂłmsveitarinnar Pussy Riot ĂŸann 21. febrĂșar, en meĂ°limir hennar voru Ă kjölfariĂ° handteknir. Um 8.000 â 20.000 mĂłtmĂŠlendur komu saman Ă Moskvu ĂŸann 6. maĂ. Um ĂĄttatĂu ĂŸeirra sĂŠrĂ°ust Ă ĂĄtökum viĂ° lögreglu og um 450 voru handteknir. GagnmĂłtmĂŠli um 130.000 stuĂ°ningsmanna PĂștĂn voru haldin ĂĄ LĂșzhnĂkĂ-leikvanginum sama dag.
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+Eftir aĂ° PĂștĂn settist ĂĄ forsetastĂłl ĂĄ nĂœ skrifaĂ°i hann undir lög sem ĂŸjörmuĂ°u nokkuĂ° aĂ° samfĂ©lagi hinsegin fĂłlks Ă RĂșsslandi. Lögin beindust gegn âĂĄróðri samkynhneigĂ°raâ og bönnuĂ°u meĂ°al annars notkun regnbogafĂĄnans og birtingu verka um samkynhneigĂ°.
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+Eftir aĂ° VĂktor JanĂșkovytsj forseta ĂkraĂnu, bandamanni PĂștĂns, var steypt af stĂłli Ă byltingu ĂĄriĂ° 2014 sendi PĂștĂn rĂșssneska hermenn inn ĂĄ KrĂmskaga og hertĂłk hann. Ă meĂ°an ĂĄ hernĂĄminu stóð var haldin umdeild atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°sla ĂŸar sem KrĂmverjar kusu aĂ° slĂta sig frĂĄ ĂkraĂnu og gerast sjĂĄlfstjĂłrnarhĂ©raĂ° Ă rĂșssneska sambandsrĂkinu. Ă kjölfariĂ° brutust Ășt ĂĄtök Ă austurhluta ĂkraĂnu milli ĂșkraĂnsku rĂkisstjĂłrnarinnar og aĂ°skilnaĂ°arsinna Ă Donbas-hĂ©ruĂ°unum sem vildu einnig ganga til liĂ°s viĂ° RĂșssland. RĂkisstjĂłrn PĂștĂn hefur sent hermenn til stuĂ°nings skĂŠruliĂ°unum Ă Donbas en hefur jafnan neitaĂ° aĂ° um rĂșssneska hermenn sĂ© aĂ° rĂŠĂ°a. Vegna brots ĂĄ fullveldi ĂkraĂnu hafa mörg rĂki beitt RĂșssa efnahagsĂŸvingunum frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2014, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al Ăsland.
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+Ăann 27. febrĂșar 2015 var leiĂ°togi rĂșssnesku stjĂłrnarandstöðunnar, BorĂs Nemtsov, skotinn til bana stuttu frĂĄ Kreml Ă Moskvu, fĂĄeinum dögum ĂĄĂ°ur en hann ĂŠtlaĂ°i aĂ° taka ĂŸĂĄtt Ă friĂ°argöngu til aĂ° mĂłtmĂŠla rĂșssneskum hernaĂ°arafskiptum Ă ĂkraĂnu. PĂștĂn skipaĂ°i sjĂĄlfur rannsĂłknarnefnd til aĂ° finna morĂ°ingjann. Opinber skĂœring rannsĂłknarnefndarinnar er sĂș aĂ° morĂ°iĂ° hafi veriĂ° framiĂ° af stuĂ°ningsmönnum Ramzans Kadyrov, forseta TĂ©tĂ©nĂu og eins heitasta stuĂ°ningsmanns PĂștĂns. TĂŠpum ĂŸremur vikum fyrir morĂ°iĂ° hafĂ°i Nemtsov lĂœst ĂŸvĂ yfir aĂ° hann ĂłttaĂ°ist aĂ° PĂștĂn myndi koma sĂ©r fyrir kattarnef.
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+Ăann 30. september 2015 skipaĂ°i PĂștĂn inngrip rĂșssneska hersins Ă sĂœrlensku borgarastyrjöldina til stuĂ°nings Bashar al-Assad SĂœrlandsforseta. RĂșssar hĂłfu beina ĂŸĂĄtttöku Ă styrjöldinni Ă lok mĂĄnaĂ°arins meĂ° loftĂĄrĂĄsum bĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ Ăslamska rĂkiĂ° og ĂĄ uppreisnarhĂłpa sem nutu stuĂ°nings alĂŸjóðabandalags BandarĂkjanna. Inngrip RĂșssa Ă styrjöldina hefur styrkt stöðu Assads verulega og stuĂ°laĂ° aĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° sĂœrlenski stjĂłrnarherinn hefur frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2015 smĂĄm saman endurheimt mikinn hluta ĂŸess landsvĂŠĂ°is sem glataĂ°ist til uppreisnarmanna Ă byrjun strĂĂ°sins.
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+RĂkisstjĂłrn PĂștĂns hefur veriĂ° ĂĄsökuĂ° um aĂ° hafa haft afskipti af bandarĂsku forsetakosningunum ĂĄriĂ° 2016. Ă janĂșar ĂĄriĂ° 2017 lĂœsti bandarĂsk rannsĂłknarnefnd ĂŸvĂ yfir aĂ° fullvĂst vĂŠri aĂ° PĂștĂn hefĂ°i sett ĂĄ fĂłt ĂĄróðursherferĂ° gegn Hillary Clinton og til stuĂ°nings Donald Trump Ă kosningunum. PĂștĂn hefur ĂŠtĂĂ° neitaĂ° aĂ° hafa haft nokkur afskipti af kosningunum. BandamaĂ°ur PĂștĂns, olĂgarkinn JevgenĂj PrĂgozhĂn, hefur hins vegar viĂ°urkennt aĂ° fyrirtĂŠki hans hafi reynt aĂ° hafa ĂĄhrif ĂĄ kosningar Ă BandarĂkjunum Ă ĂŸĂĄgu RĂșsslands.
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+Forseti (2018 â)
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+PĂștĂn var endurkjörinn ĂĄriĂ° 2018 og vann sitt fjĂłrĂ°a kjörtĂmabil sem forseti RĂșsslands meĂ° um 76% greiddra atkvĂŠĂ°a. Ă aĂ°draganda kosninganna hafĂ°i helsta leiĂ°toga rĂșssnesku stjĂłrnarandstöðunnar, Aleksej Navalnyj, veriĂ° bannaĂ° aĂ° gefa kost ĂĄ sĂ©r vegna skilÂorĂ°sbundÂins fangÂelsÂisÂdĂłms sem hann hafĂ°i vegna meints fjĂĄrÂmĂĄlaÂmÂisÂferlÂis. Eftirlitsmönnum kom ekki um allt saman um ĂŸaĂ° hvort kosningarnar hefĂ°u fariĂ° sĂłmasamlega fram, en almennt voru ĂŸeir ĂŸĂł ĂĄ sama mĂĄli um aĂ° samkeppnin viĂ° PĂștĂn hefĂ°i veriĂ° lĂtil sem engin.
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+PĂștĂn hitti Donald Trump BandarĂkjaforseta ĂĄ leiĂ°togafundi Ă Helsinki ĂŸann 18. jĂșlĂ 2018. Stuttu fyrir fund forsetanna hafĂ°i ĂĄkĂŠra veriĂ° lögĂ° fram Ă BandarĂkjunum gegn 12 rĂșssneskum leyniĂŸjĂłnustumönnum fyrir tölvuĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ flokksĂŸing DemĂłkrataflokksins og forsetaframboĂ° Hillary Clinton ĂĄriĂ° 2016. Ă fundinum ĂtrekaĂ°i PĂștĂn aĂ° RĂșssar hefĂ°u ekkert haft aĂ° gera meĂ° tölvuĂĄrĂĄsirnar og Trump lĂœsti yfir aĂ° hann sĂŠi âenga ĂĄstĂŠĂ°uâ til aĂ° draga orĂ° PĂștĂns Ă efa. Trump bauĂ° PĂștĂn Ă opinbera heimsĂłkn til Washington Ă kjölfar fundarins.
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+MĂłtmĂŠli gegn PĂștĂn brutust Ășt vĂĂ°a um RĂșssland og vinsĂŠldir hans dvĂnuĂ°u nokkuĂ° Ă september ĂĄriĂ° 2018 vegna fyrirhugaĂ°rar hĂŠkkunar ĂĄ eftirlaunaaldri Ă RĂșsslandi.
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+Ăann 15. janĂșar ĂĄriĂ° 2020 tilkynnti PĂștĂn umfangsmiklar breytingar sem hann vildi gera ĂĄ rĂșssnesku stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni sem ĂŠtlaĂ° var aĂ° fĂŠra völd frĂĄ forsetaembĂŠttinu til ĂŸingsÂins og rĂkÂisÂrĂĄĂ°s landsÂins. Breytingarnar, sem PĂștin hugĂ°ist leggja Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu, munu gera eftirmann hans nokkuĂ° valdaminni Ă forsetaembĂŠttinu en PĂștĂn hefur veriĂ°. Sama dag og PĂștĂn tilkynnti fyrirhuguĂ°u breytingarnar baĂ°st DmĂtrĂj Medvedev lausnar fyrir rĂkisstjĂłrn sĂna og rĂkisskattstjĂłrinn MĂkhaĂl MĂshĂșstĂn var skipaĂ°ur nĂœr forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra.
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+RĂșssneska ĂŸingiĂ° samĂŸykkti einnig meĂ° 383 atkvĂŠĂ°um gegn engu aĂ° ĂŸurrka Ășt embĂŠttistĂma PĂștĂns meĂ° stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingunum. SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸeirri breytingu mun PĂștĂn geta gegnt embĂŠtti forseta til ĂĄrsins 2036 ef hann ĂĄkveĂ°ur aĂ° gefa aftur kost ĂĄ sĂ©r. Breytingarnar voru samĂŸykktar Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu ĂŸann 1. jĂșlĂ 2020. MeĂ° stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingunum var hjĂłnaband einnig skilgreint sem samband milli karls og konu, fĂŠrt var inn ĂĄkvĂŠĂ°i sem felur Ă sĂ©r viĂ°urkenningu ĂĄ âforfeĂ°rum sem lĂ©tu [RĂșssum] eftir hugsjĂłnir sĂnar og trĂș ĂĄ guĂ°iâ, bannaĂ° var aĂ° gera lĂtiĂ° Ășr framlagi SovĂ©trĂkjanna Ă seinni heimsstyrjöldinni og bannaĂ° aĂ° leggja til aĂ° RĂșssar lĂĄti nokkurn tĂmann af hendi landsvĂŠĂ°i sem ĂŸeir rĂĄĂ°a yfir (til aĂ° mynda umdeild landsvĂŠĂ°i eins og KĂșrileyjar og KrĂmskaga).
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+InnrĂĄsin Ă ĂkraĂnu (2022â)
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+Undir lok ĂĄrsins 2021 og Ă byrjun ĂĄrsins 2022 söfnuĂ°u RĂșssar tĂŠplega 200.000 manna herliĂ°i viĂ° landamĂŠri ĂkraĂnu, sem vakti Ăłtta Ă ĂkraĂnu og ĂĄ Vesturlöndum um aĂ° PĂștĂn hygĂ°ist fyrirskipa innrĂĄs Ă landiĂ°. RĂșssnesk stjĂłrnvöld ĂŸvertĂłku ĂtrekaĂ° fyrir aĂ° innrĂĄs vĂŠri yfirvofandi en rĂĄĂ°amenn ĂŸar lögĂ°u jafnframt fram kröfur um aĂ° ĂkraĂnu yrĂ°i meinaĂ°ur aĂ°gangur aĂ° Atlantshafsbandalaginu um alla framtĂĂ° og aĂ° bandalagiĂ° fjarlĂŠgĂ°i alla hermenn og öll vopn sĂn Ășr Austur-EvrĂłpu.
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+Ăann 21. febrĂșar viĂ°urkenndi PĂștĂn sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldanna Donetsk og LĂșhansk, hĂ©raĂ°a rĂșssneskumĂŠlandi aĂ°skilnaĂ°arsinna sem höfĂ°u klofiĂ° sig frĂĄ ĂkraĂnu ĂĄriĂ° 2014 meĂ° stuĂ°ningi RĂșssa. PĂștĂn sendi Ă kjölfariĂ° rĂșssneska hermenn yfir ĂșkraĂnsku landamĂŠrin til aĂ° gegna âfriĂ°argĂŠsluâ Ă Donetsk og Luhansk. Ă rĂŠĂ°u sem PĂștĂn hĂ©lt viĂ° viĂ°urkenningu sĂna ĂĄ sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i hĂ©raĂ°anna efaĂ°ist hann um sögulegar forsendur fyrir ĂkraĂnu sem sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°u rĂki og sakaĂ°i stjĂłrnvöld ĂŸar um aĂ° fremja ĂŸjóðarmorĂ°.
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+Ăann 24. febrĂșar hĂłf PĂștĂn allsherjar innrĂĄs Ă ĂkraĂnu.
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+RĂșssland hefur tekiĂ° ĂŸĂĄtt Ă mörgum strĂĂ°um (t.d. lĂka Ă SĂœrlandi) aĂ° skipan PĂștĂns, en strĂĂ°iĂ° Ă ĂkraĂnu hefur sĂ©rstaklega sĂŠtt gagnrĂœni, upp Ășr innrĂĄsinni Ă febrĂșar 2022. Vegna ĂŸess hefur meĂ°al annars hann persĂłnulega sĂŠtt viĂ°skiptaĂŸvingunum, og lagt hefur veriĂ° til aĂ° ĂĄkĂŠra hann fyrir strĂĂ°sglĂŠpadĂłmstĂłlnum. DĂłmarar AlĂŸjóðlega sakamĂĄladĂłmstĂłlsins Ă Haag gĂĄfu Ășt handtökuskipun ĂĄ hendur PĂștĂn (og MarĂu Lvova-Belova, umboĂ°smanni barna Ă RĂșsslandi) ĂŸann 17. mars 2023 vegna tilkynninga um aĂ° fjölda ĂșkraĂnskra barna hefĂ°i veriĂ° rĂŠnt Ă innrĂĄsinni og ĂŸau flutt til RĂșsslands.
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+Ăann 21. september tilkynnti PĂștĂn aĂ° gripiĂ° yrĂ°i til takmarkaĂ°rar herkvaĂ°ningar til ĂŸess aĂ° halda hernaĂ°inum Ă ĂkraĂnu ĂĄfram. GripiĂ° var til ĂŸessa ĂșrrĂŠĂ°is samhliĂ°a ĂŸvĂ sem ĂkraĂnumenn höfĂ°u endurheimt mikiĂ° landsvĂŠĂ°i af RĂșssum Ă gagnsĂłkn Ă KharkĂvfylki Ă austurhluta landsins. Ă sama tĂma hafĂ°i veriĂ° tilkynnt aĂ° leppstjĂłrnir RĂșssa Ă Donetsk, LĂșhansk, Kherson og ZaporĂzjzja myndu halda atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slur um ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° gerast hluti af RĂșssneska sambandsrĂkinu lĂkt og hafĂ°i veriĂ° gert ĂĄ KrĂmskaga ĂĄriĂ° 2014.
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+LeppstjĂłrnir RĂșssa ĂĄ hernĂĄmssvĂŠĂ°um ĂŸeirra Ă Donetsk, LĂșhansk, Kherson og ZaporĂzjzja hĂłfu atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slur um aĂ° gerast hluti af RĂșsslandi ĂŸann 23. september. FjĂłrum dögum sĂĂ°ar tilkynntu hĂ©raĂ°sstjĂłrnir ĂĄ hernumdu svĂŠĂ°unum Ă LĂșhansk og suĂ°urhlutum Kherson og ZaporĂzjzja aĂ° yfirgnĂŠfandi meirihlutar kjĂłsenda hefĂ°u samĂŸykkt aĂ° hĂ©ruĂ°in skyldu sameinast RĂșsslandi. Ămsir erlendir ĂŸjóðarleiĂ°togar fordĂŠmdu atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slurnar og sögĂ°u niĂ°urstöður ĂŸeirra hafa veriĂ° ĂĄkveĂ°nar fyrirfram. Volodymyr Zelenskyj ĂkraĂnuforseti sagĂ°i ĂŸĂŠr markleysu og aĂ° ĂŸĂŠr myndu engu breyta um ĂŸĂŠr fyrirĂŠtlanir ĂkraĂnumanna aĂ° endurheimta hĂ©ruĂ°in.
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+PĂștĂn tilkynnti formlega innlimun hĂ©raĂ°anna fjögurra Ă RĂșssland ĂŸann 30. september 2022 ĂĄ stĂłrviĂ°burĂ°i ĂĄ RauĂ°a torginu Ă Moskvu. Ăegar PĂștĂn tilkynnti ĂŸetta stjĂłrnuĂ°u RĂșssar engu af hĂ©ruĂ°unum fjĂłrum Ă heild sinni.
+
+Ămynd og orĂ°spor PĂștĂns
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+PĂștĂn hefur notiĂ° mikilla vinsĂŠlda meĂ°al rĂșssneskrar alĂŸĂœĂ°u nĂĄnast frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hann tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti. Ă skoĂ°anakönnunum hefur PĂștĂn oftast mĂŠlst meĂ° stuĂ°ning yfir 60% RĂșssa og hĂŠst hefur stuĂ°ningur viĂ° hann mĂŠlst um tĂŠp 90%. AĂ°dĂĄendur PĂștĂns ĂŸakka honum fyrir aĂ° koma ĂĄ efnahagslegum stöðugleika eftir fjĂĄrmĂĄlakreppu tĂunda ĂĄratugarins og fyrir aĂ° gera RĂșssland aĂ° marktĂŠku alĂŸjóðaveldi ĂĄ nĂœ eftir tĂmabil auĂ°mĂœkingar sem fylgdi Ă kjölfar hruns SovĂ©trĂkjanna.
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+PĂștĂn hefur veriĂ° duglegur aĂ° rĂŠkta karlmennskuĂmynd sĂna og hefur sett ĂĄ sviĂ° Ăœmsa gjörninga til ĂŸess aĂ° viĂ°halda henni. MeĂ°al annars hefur hann âfyrir tilviljunâ fundiĂ° grĂska forngripi frĂĄ sjöttu öld er hann stakk sĂ©r til köfunarsunds Ă Svartahafi og haldiĂ° aftur af hlĂ©barĂ°a Ă dĂœragarĂ°i sem ĂŠtlaĂ°i aĂ° rĂĄĂ°ast ĂĄ frĂ©ttamenn. Hann hefur nokkrum sinnum birt myndir af sĂ©r berum aĂ° ofan Ă frĂi Ăști Ă nĂĄttĂșrunni Ă SĂberĂu.
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+PĂștĂn er ĂŸaulsĂŠtnasti leiĂ°togi RĂșssa frĂĄ tĂmum StalĂns. Ă stjĂłrnartĂĂ° hans hefur ĂŸrĂłun Ă ĂĄtt aĂ° lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°i Ă RĂșsslandi sem hĂłfst ĂĄ tĂunda ĂĄratugnum eftir fall SovĂ©trĂkjanna aĂ° mestu leyti veriĂ° snĂșiĂ° viĂ°. Vegna skorts ĂĄ frjĂĄlsum kosningum, fjölmiĂ°lafrelsi og virkri stjĂłrnarandstöðu Ă RĂșsslandi hefur Ă sĂauknum mĂŠli veriĂ° litiĂ° ĂĄ PĂștĂn sem einrĂŠĂ°isherra ĂĄ sĂĂ°ari ĂĄrum.
+
+Eignir PĂștĂns
+VladĂmĂr PĂștĂn er talinn meĂ° auĂ°ugustu mönnum heims. SamkvĂŠmt Ășttekt Samtaka rannsĂłknarblaĂ°amanna OCCRP og tĂmaritsins Forbes frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2017 nema auĂ°ĂŠfi PĂștĂns og nĂĄnustu bandamanna hans um 24 milljörĂ°um BandarĂkjadala, eĂ°a rĂșmum 2.500 milljörĂ°um Ăslenskra krĂłna. Mestöll ĂŸessi auĂ°ĂŠfi eru formlega skrĂĄĂ° ĂĄ fĂłlk Ă innra hring PĂștĂns, meĂ°al annars vini, ĂŠttingja og pĂłlitĂska bandamenn hans. Margir af nĂĄnustu bandamönnum PĂștĂns voru nefndir sem eigendur aflandsfĂ©laga Ă skattaskjĂłlum Ă Panamaskjölunum ĂĄriĂ° 2016. Gjarnan er fjallaĂ° um olĂgarka Ă innsta hring PĂștĂns, sem efnast hafa ĂĄ tengslum sĂnum viĂ° forsetann, sem âpyngjur PĂștĂns.â
+
+Fjölskylduhagir
+VladĂmĂr PĂștĂn kvĂŠntist LjĂșdmĂlu Skrjebevnu ĂĄriĂ° 1983. HĂșn er fĂŠdd ĂĄriĂ° 1958 og Ăłlst upp Ă KalĂnĂngrad. HĂșn flutti ĂĄsamt eiginmanni sĂnum til ĂĂœskalands ĂĄ nĂunda ĂĄratugnum og ĂŸar eignuĂ°ust ĂŸau tvĂŠr dĂŠtur, MarĂu ĂĄriĂ° 1985 og JekaterĂnu ĂĄriĂ° 1986. Eftir aĂ° PĂștĂn komst til valda hĂ©lt hann fjölskyldu sinni Ășr sviĂ°sljĂłsinu og eiginkona hans og dĂŠtur birtust afar sjaldan meĂ° honum opinberlega. Ăar sem LjĂșdmĂla sĂĄst sjaldan meĂ° PĂștĂn voru orĂ°rĂłmar lengi ĂĄ kreiki aĂ° ĂŸau vĂŠru aĂ°eins hjĂłn aĂ° nafninu til. ĂriĂ° 2013 tilkynnti PĂștĂn formlega aĂ° ĂŸau LjĂșdmĂla hefĂ°u gengiĂ° frĂĄ skilnaĂ°i sĂnum.
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+Auk MarĂu og JekaterĂnu er taliĂ° aĂ° PĂștĂn eigi eina laundĂłttur, Luizu Rozovu Krivonogikh, sem fĂŠdd er ĂĄriĂ° 2003. Móðir hennar er milljarĂ°amĂŠringurinn Svetlana Krivonogikh, sem bĂŠĂ°i rĂșssneskir og vestrĂŠnir fjölmiĂ°lar hafa fullyrt aĂ° sĂ© ĂĄstkona PĂștĂns.
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+Heimildir
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+TilvĂsanir
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+Forsetar RĂșsslands
+ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herrar RĂșsslands
+FĂłlk fĂŠtt ĂĄriĂ° 1952
+Starfsmenn FSB
+Starfsmenn KGB
+Ăslensk sveitarfĂ©lög eftir mannfjölda er listi yfir sveitarfĂ©lög ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă röð eftir mannfjölda 1. janĂșar ĂĄr hvert, ĂĄsamt upplĂœsingum um breytingu frĂĄ fyrra ĂĄri og yfir 10 ĂĄra tĂmabil, bĂŠĂ°i hvaĂ° varĂ°ar fjölda einstaklinga og hlutfallslega. UpplĂœsingarnar eru fengnar af vef Hagstofu Ăslands.
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+Ăar sem sveitarfĂ©lög hafa sameinast ĂĄ ĂĄrinu miĂ°ast eldri tölur viĂ° samanlagĂ°an ĂbĂșafjölda Ă ĂŸeim sveitarfĂ©lögum sem sameinuĂ°ust.
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+Listinn
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+TilvĂsanir
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+Tengt efni
+Ăslensk sveitarfĂ©lög eftir flatarmĂĄli.
+
+
+Listar tengdir Ăslandi
+SveitarfĂ©lag er svĂŠĂ°isbundin stjĂłrnsĂœslueining innan rĂkis sem er lĂŠgra sett en yfirstjĂłrn rĂkisins. SveitarfĂ©lög hafa yfirleitt skĂœrt ĂĄkvörĂ°uĂ° landamörk og taka oft yfir eina borg, bĂŠ eĂ°a ĂŸorp eĂ°a sveitahĂ©raĂ°. Ein skilgreining ĂĄ sveitarfĂ©lagi er aĂ° ĂŸau sĂ©u lĂŠgstu stjĂłrnsĂœslueiningarnar sem hafa lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°islega kjörna stjĂłrn.
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+SveitarfĂ©lög sjĂĄ yfirleitt um grunnĂŸjĂłnustu viĂ° borgarana ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° sorphirĂ°u, skĂłla og almenningssamgöngur. Ăau geta myndaĂ° byggĂ°asamlög meĂ° öðrum sveitarfĂ©lögum til aĂ° eiga viĂ° verkefni sem ella yrĂ°i erfitt aĂ° framfylgja.
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+Tengt
+ SveitarfĂ©lög ĂĄ Ăslandi
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+StjĂłrnsĂœsla
+Ăessi sĂĂ°a er um RĂșssland, fyrir strĂĂ°sĂĄstandiĂ° ĂŸar, sjĂĄ InnrĂĄs RĂșssa Ă ĂkraĂnu 2022â.
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+RĂșssland (rĂșssneska: Đ ĐŸŃŃĐžÌŃ, umritun: RossĂja), formlegt heiti RĂșssneska sambandsrĂkiĂ° (rĂșssneska: Đ ĐŸŃŃĐžÌĐčŃĐșĐ°Ń Đ€Đ”ĐŽĐ”ŃĐ°ÌŃĐžŃ, umritun: RossĂjskaja federatsĂja), er vĂĂ°feĂ°mt land Ă Austur-EvrĂłpu og NorĂ°ur-AsĂu. LandiĂ° er ĂŸaĂ° langstĂŠrsta aĂ° flatarmĂĄli Ă heiminum, yfir 17 milljĂłn ferkĂlĂłmetrar, nĂŠr yfir 11 tĂmabelti og ĂŸekur 8. hluta af ĂŸurrlendi JarĂ°arinnar. ĂaĂ° er nĂĄnast tvöfalt stĂŠrra en Kanada sem er nĂŠststĂŠrst. RĂșssland ĂĄ landamĂŠri aĂ° 16 öðrum rĂkjum. LandiĂ° er einnig ĂŸaĂ° nĂunda fjölmennasta Ă heiminum og fjölmennasta EvrĂłpulandiĂ°. HöfuĂ°borgin, Moskva, er stĂŠrsta borg EvrĂłpu. Ănnur stĂŠrsta borg landsins er Sankti PĂ©tursborg. RĂșssar eru fjölmennasti hĂłpur Slava og rĂșssneska er ĂŸaĂ° slavneska mĂĄl sem hefur langflesta mĂĄlhafa.
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+Austur-Slavar komu fram ĂĄ sjĂłnarsviĂ°iĂ° sem sĂ©rstök EvrĂłpuĂŸjóð milli 3. og 8. aldar. Ă 9. öld stofnuĂ°u norrĂŠnir vĂkingar GarĂ°arĂki Ă kringum borgirnar HĂłlmgarĂ° (Novgorod) og KĂŠnugarĂ° (KyjĂv). ĂriĂ° 988 tĂłk GarĂ°arĂki upp grĂskan rĂ©tttrĂșnaĂ° undir ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ AustrĂłmverska rĂkinu. BĂœsantĂum hafĂ°i mikil menningarleg ĂĄhrif ĂĄ RĂșssland nĂŠstu aldirnar. GarĂ°arĂki tĂłk aĂ° leysast upp ĂĄ 12. öld og furstadĂŠmin urĂ°u aĂ° skattlöndum MongĂłla eftir aĂ° ĂŸeir rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ ĂŸau ĂĄ 13. öld. StĂłrhertogadĂŠmiĂ° Moskva efldist ĂĄ 15. öld og lagĂ°i undir sig norĂ°urhluta hins forna GaĂ°rarĂkis. Ăvan grimmi tĂłk upp titillinn tsar (keisari) og stofnaĂ°i RĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmiĂ° ĂĄ 16. öld. MeĂ° landkönnun og landvinningum um alla AsĂu varĂ° RĂșssaveldi ĂŸriĂ°ja stĂŠrsta heimsveldi sögunnar. Eftir rĂșssnesku byltinguna varĂ° RĂșssland mikilvĂŠgasta sambandslĂœĂ°veldi SovĂ©trĂkjanna. LandiĂ° ĂĄtti stĂłran ĂŸĂĄtt Ă sigri Bandamanna Ă sĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöld og varĂ° risaveldi sem keppti viĂ° BandarĂkin um alĂŸjóðleg ĂĄhrif ĂĄ tĂmum kalda strĂĂ°sins. Eftir upplausn SovĂ©trĂkjanna ĂĄriĂ° 1991 fĂ©kk RĂșssland sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i sem sambandsrĂki. Eftir stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrkreppuna 1993 varĂ° landiĂ° Ă auknum mĂŠli aĂ° forsetarĂŠĂ°i. VladĂmĂr PĂștĂn hefur haft ĂŸar mest völd frĂĄ aldamĂłtunum 2000. RĂkisstjĂłrn hans hefur veriĂ° sökuĂ° um alrĂŠĂ°istilburĂ°i, mannrĂ©ttindabrot og spillingu. PĂștĂn tilkynnti sĂ©rstaka hernaĂ°araĂ°gerĂ° til aĂ° afvopna og afnasistavĂŠĂ°a ĂkraĂnu Ă febrĂșar 2022, og bannar aĂ° nota orĂ°iĂ° strĂĂ° yfir ĂŸaĂ° (og ĂŸĂșsundum mĂłtmĂŠlenda sem nota ĂŸaĂ° orĂ° hafa veriĂ° stungiĂ° Ă fangelsi fyrir ĂŸaĂ° og RĂșssland skilgreint Facebook (og Meta, fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° sem ĂĄ Facebook og Instagram) sem öfgasamtök ), en alĂŸjóðasamfĂ©lagiĂ° (ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al Ăsland) kallar ĂŸaĂ° strĂĂ° og innrĂĄs RĂșssa Ă ĂkraĂnu 2022.
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+RĂșssland er stĂłrveldi ĂĄ alĂŸjóðavĂsu ĂŸĂłtt ĂŸaĂ° sĂ© ekki sama risaveldiĂ° og SovĂ©trĂkin voru ĂĄĂ°ur. LandiĂ° situr hĂĄtt ĂĄ VĂsitölu um ĂŸrĂłun lĂfsgĂŠĂ°a, ĂŸar er almenn heilbrigĂ°isĂŸjĂłnusta og Ăłkeypis hĂĄskĂłlamenntun. Hagkerfi RĂșsslands er ĂŸaĂ° 11. stĂŠrsta Ă heimi og ĂŸaĂ° 6. stĂŠrsta kaupmĂĄttarjafnaĂ°. RĂșssland er kjarnorkuveldi sem ĂĄ mesta safn kjarnavopna Ă heimi og rĂŠĂ°ur yfir öðrum öflugasta her Ă heimi. LandiĂ° er Ă fjĂłrĂ°a sĂŠti yfir fjĂĄrveitingar til hermĂĄla. RĂșssland bĂœr yfir miklum olĂu- og gaslindum. LandiĂ° ĂĄ fast sĂŠti Ă ĂryggisrĂĄĂ°i SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna, ĂĄ aĂ°ild aĂ° G20, Samvinnustofnun SjanghĂŠ, Efnahagssamstarfi AsĂu- og KyrrahafsrĂkjanna, Ăryggis- og samvinnustofnun EvrĂłpu, AlĂŸjóðlega fjĂĄrfestingarbankanum og AlĂŸjóðaviĂ°skiptastofnuninni, auk ĂŸess aĂ° vera leiĂ°andi Ă Samveldi sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°ra rĂkja, Sameiginlegu öryggissĂĄttmĂĄlastofnuninni og EvrasĂska efnahagssambandinu. RĂșssland er Ă nĂunda sĂŠti yfir fjölda heimsminja.
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+Heiti
+ĂjóðaheitiĂ° RĂșssar (Đ ŃŃŃ Rusj) var upphaflega heiti ĂĄ norrĂŠnum mönnum, vĂkingum frĂĄ Eystrasalti og vĂŠringjum frĂĄ MiklagarĂ°i, sem stofnuĂ°u GarĂ°arĂki Ă kringum borgirnar HĂłlmgarĂ° og KĂŠnugarĂ° ĂĄ miðöldum. OrĂ°iĂ° er hugsanlega dregiĂ° af finnska orĂ°inu Ruotsi yfir SvĂa frĂĄ Roslagen, skylt sögninni âaĂ° rĂłaâ. Latneska ĂștgĂĄfan RĂșĂŸenĂa var algengara heiti yfir lönd Austur-Slava ĂŸar sem nĂș eru RĂșssland og ĂkraĂna ĂĄ Vesturlöndum ĂĄ miðöldum og sĂĂ°ar. Latneska heitiĂ° Moscovia var lĂka ĂĄfram notaĂ° ĂĄ Vesturlöndum, ĂŸĂłtt StĂłrhertogadĂŠmiĂ° Moskva yrĂ°i formlega sĂ©Ă° fyrst StĂłrfurstadĂŠmiĂ° RĂșssland og sĂĂ°an KeisaradĂŠmiĂ° RĂșssland.
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+NĂșverandi heiti landsins Đ ĐŸŃŃĐžŃ (Rossija) er dregiĂ° af grĂska heitinu ÎĄÏÏÏία (RĂłssĂa) sem var notaĂ° Ă AustrĂłmverska rĂkinu yfir GarĂ°arĂki. Ăessi ĂștgĂĄfa heitisins komst fyrst Ă notkun ĂĄ 15. öld eftir aĂ° Ăvan mikli hafĂ°i sameinaĂ° nokkur af fyrrum löndum GarĂ°arĂkis og titlaĂ°i sig âstĂłrfursta alls RĂșsjâ. Ă 17. öld voru lönd kĂłsakka ĂŸar sem ĂkraĂna er nĂș kölluĂ° Malorossija (âLitla RĂșsslandâ) og löndin viĂ° Svartahaf sem RĂșssar unnu af Tyrkjaveldi voru kölluĂ° Novorossija (âNĂœja RĂșsslandâ). Vesturhluti hins forna GarĂ°arĂkis varĂ° hluti StĂłrfurstadĂŠmisins LithĂĄens og skiptist Ă HvĂta-RĂșssland (austurhluti nĂșverandi HvĂta-RĂșsslands), Svarta-RĂșssland (vesturhluti nĂșverandi HvĂta-RĂșsslands) og RauĂ°a-RĂșssland (vesturhluti nĂșverandi ĂkraĂnu og suĂ°austurhluti nĂșverandi PĂłllands).
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+Saga
+Ăau vĂĂ°erni sem RĂșssland nĂștĂmans ĂŸekur voru ĂĄĂ°ur byggĂ° Ăœmsum ĂłsamstĂŠĂ°um ĂŠttbĂĄlkum sem sĂŠttu stöðugum innrĂĄsum HĂșna, Gota og Avara ĂĄ milli ĂŸriĂ°ju og sjöttu aldar eftir Krist. Fram ĂĄ 8. öld bjuggu SkĂœĂŸar, Ărönsk ĂŸjóð, ĂĄ gresjunum ĂŸar sem nĂș er sunnanvert RĂșssland og ĂkraĂna og vestar bjĂł tyrknesk ĂŸjóð, Kasarar en ĂŸessir ĂŸjóðflokkar viku fyrir sĂŠnskum vĂkingum sem kallaĂ°ir voru VĂŠringjar og Slövum sem ĂŸĂĄ voru teknir aĂ° flytjast ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°iĂ°. VĂŠringjar stofnuĂ°u GarĂ°arĂki meĂ° höfuĂ°borg Ă HĂłlmgarĂ°i og runnu sĂĂ°ar saman viĂ° slavana sem urĂ°u fljĂłtlega fjölmennasti ĂŸjóðflokkurinn ĂŸar.
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+GarĂ°arĂki stóð Ă nokkrar aldir og ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma tengdist ĂŸaĂ° rĂ©tttrĂșnaĂ°arkirkjunni og flutti höfuĂ°borg sĂna til KĂŠnugarĂ°s ĂĄriĂ° 1169. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma var fyrst fariĂ° aĂ° nota orĂ°in âRhosâ eĂ°a âRussâ, bĂŠĂ°i um VĂŠringjana og Slavana. Ă 9. og 10. öld var ĂŸetta rĂki hiĂ° stĂŠrsta Ă EvrĂłpu og einnig var ĂŸaĂ° auĂ°ugt vegna verslunarsambanda sinna viĂ° bĂŠĂ°i EvrĂłpu og AsĂu.
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+Ă 13. öld var svĂŠĂ°iĂ° illa leikiĂ° af innbyrĂ°is deilum sem og innrĂĄsum Ășr austri, bĂŠĂ°i af hendi MongĂłla og Ăslömskum, tyrkneskumĂŠlandi hirĂ°ingjum sem ĂĄttu eftir aĂ° valda miklum Ăłskunda ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu nĂŠstu ĂŸrjĂĄr aldirnar. Ăeir gengu einnig undir nafninu Tatarar og rĂ©Ă°u lögum og lofum Ă miĂ°- og suĂ°urhluta RĂșsslands ĂĄ meĂ°an vesturhluti ĂŸess fĂ©ll undir yfirrĂĄĂ° PĂłlsk-lithĂĄenska samveldisins. Upplausn GarĂ°arĂkis leiddi til ĂŸess aĂ° aĂ°skilnaĂ°ur varĂ° milli RĂșssa sem bjuggu norĂ°ar og austar og ĂkraĂnumanna og HvĂtrĂșssa Ă vestri og ĂŸessi aĂ°skilnaĂ°ur hefur haldist fram ĂĄ ĂŸennan dag.
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+NorĂ°ur-RĂșssland og HĂłlmgarĂ°ur nutu einhverrar sjĂĄlfstjĂłrnar ĂĄ valdatĂma mongĂłla og ĂŸessi svĂŠĂ°i sluppu betur undan ĂŸeirri skĂĄlmöld sem rĂkti annars staĂ°ar Ă landinu. ĂbĂșarnir ĂŸar ĂŸurftu ĂŸĂł aĂ° kljĂĄst viĂ° ĂŸĂœska krossfara sem reyndu aĂ° leggja undir sig svĂŠĂ°iĂ°.
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+LĂkt og ĂĄ Balkanskaga og Ă Litlu AsĂu varĂ° langvarandi valdaskeiĂ° hirĂ°ingja til ĂŸess aĂ° hĂŠgja mikiĂ° ĂĄ efnahagslegri og fĂ©lagslegri ĂŸrĂłun landsins. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸaĂ° nĂĄĂ°u RĂșssar aĂ° rĂ©tta Ășr kĂștnum ĂłlĂkt bĂœsanska keisaradĂŠminu sem var andlegur leiĂ°togi ĂŸeirra, rĂĄĂ°ast gegn Ăłvinum sĂnum og leggja lönd ĂŸeirra undir sig. Eftir aĂ° KonstantĂnĂłpel fĂ©ll ĂĄriĂ° 1453 var RĂșssland eina burĂ°uga kristna rĂkiĂ° Ă Austur EvrĂłpu og ĂŸaĂ° gat ĂŸvĂ litiĂ° ĂĄ sig sem arftaka AustrĂłmverska rĂkisins.
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+RĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmiĂ°
+ĂrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° vera enn ĂŸĂĄ aĂ° nafninu til undir yfirrĂĄĂ°um MongĂłla tĂłk hertogadĂŠmiĂ° Moskva aĂ° auka ĂĄhrif sĂn og seint ĂĄ 14. öld losnaĂ°i ĂŸaĂ° alveg undan yfirrĂĄĂ°um innrĂĄsarĂŸjóðanna. Ăvan grimmi sem var fyrsti leiĂ°toginn sem krĂœndur var keisari RĂșsslands hĂ©lt ĂștĂŸenslustefnunni ĂĄfram og nĂĄĂ°i nĂŠrliggjandi hĂ©ruĂ°um undir stjĂłrn Moskvu og lagĂ°i svo undir sig vĂĂ°erni SĂberĂu og RĂșssneska keisaraveldiĂ° varĂ° til. ĂvĂ nĂŠst komst RĂłmanovĂŠttin til valda, fyrsti keisari hennar var Mikael RĂłmanov sem krĂœndur var 1613. PĂ©tur mikli rĂkti frĂĄ 1689 til 1725 en hann fĂŠrĂ°i RĂșssland nĂŠr Vestur-EvrĂłpu og sĂłtti ĂŸangaĂ° hugmyndir og menningu til aĂ° draga Ășr ĂĄhrifum hirĂ°ingjamenningar sem hafĂ°i hafĂ°i haldiĂ° aftur af efnahagslegri framĂŸrĂłun landsins. KatrĂn mikla (valdatĂĂ°: 1767-1796) lagĂ°i ĂĄfram ĂĄherslu ĂĄ ĂŸessi atriĂ°i og RĂșssland var nĂș stĂłrveldi, ekki bara Ă AsĂu heldur einnig Ă EvrĂłpu ĂŸar sem ĂŸaĂ° stóð nĂș jafnfĂŠtis löndum eins og Englandi, Frakklandi og ĂĂœskalandi.
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+Stöðugur ĂłrĂłi var ĂŸĂł viĂ°loĂ°andi meĂ°al ĂĄnauĂ°ugra bĂŠnda og niĂ°urbĂŠldra menntamanna og viĂ° upphaf Fyrri heimsstyrjaldar virtist staĂ°a ĂŸĂĄverandi keisara NikulĂĄsar 2. og keisaradĂŠmisins vera fremur Ăłviss. Miklir Ăłsigrar rĂșssneska hersins Ă strĂĂ°inu kyntu undir uppĂŸotum Ă stĂŠrri borgum sem aĂ° lokum leiddu til ĂŸess aĂ° RĂłmanovĂŠttinni var steypt af stĂłli 1917 Ă uppreisn kommĂșnista.
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+RĂșssneska byltingin og SovĂ©trĂkin
+Undir lok ĂŸessarar byltingar tĂłk bolsĂ©vika-armur KommĂșnistaflokksins öll völd undir stjĂłrn Vladimirs LenĂns og SovĂ©trĂkin voru stofnuĂ° en rĂșssneska sovĂ©tlĂœĂ°veldiĂ° var ĂŸungamiĂ°ja ĂŸeirra. Undir stjĂłrn JĂłsefs StalĂns var landiĂ° iĂ°nvĂŠtt meĂ° hraĂ°i og samyrkjubĂșskapur tekinn upp Ă landbĂșnaĂ°i, fyrirkomulag sem kostaĂ°i tugi milljĂłna mannslĂfa. Ă valdatĂĂ° hans tĂłku SovĂ©trĂkin ĂŸĂĄtt Ă sĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöldinni gegn ĂĂœskalandi en mannfall var geypilegt Ă strĂĂ°inu, bĂŠĂ°i meĂ°al hermanna og almennra borgara.
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+AĂ° strĂĂ°inu loknu öðluĂ°ust SovĂ©trĂkin mikil ĂĄhrif Ă Austur-EvrĂłpu og komu ĂŸar til valda leppstjĂłrnum kommĂșnista Ă mörgum rĂkjum og stofnuĂ°u VarsjĂĄrbandalagiĂ° meĂ° ĂŸeim sem beint var gegn Atlantshafsbandalagi BandarĂkjanna og bandamanna ĂŸeirra en ĂŸessi tvö rĂki voru nĂș einu risaveldin Ă heiminum og börĂ°ust um hugmyndafrĂŠĂ°i, völd og ĂĄhrif Ă Kalda strĂĂ°inu svokallaĂ°a sem braust Ă raun aldrei Ășt Ă beinum vopnuĂ°um ĂĄtökum ĂŸessara tveggja rĂkja en ĂĄ milli ĂŸeirra rĂkti ĂłgnarjafnvĂŠgi sem byggĂ°i ĂĄ stĂłrum kjarnorkuvopnabĂșrum beggja aĂ°ila. Ă ĂĄratugunum eftir frĂĄfall StalĂns stöðnuĂ°u SovĂ©trĂkin efnahagslega og fĂ©lagslega og reynt var aĂ° slaka ĂĄ kjarnorkuviĂ°bĂșnaĂ°inum en ĂŸeir voru einnig tĂmabil mikilla afreka hjĂĄ SovĂ©skum vĂsindamönnum.
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+Endalok SovĂ©trĂkjanna
+Um miĂ°jan 9. ĂĄratuginn kynnti ĂŸĂĄverandi leiĂ°togi SovĂ©trĂkjanna, MĂkhaĂl Gorbatsjov tillögur sĂnar glasnost (opnun) og perestroika (endurskipulagning) Ă ĂŸeim tilgangi aĂ° nĂștĂmavĂŠĂ°a kommĂșnismann en Ăłviljandi leystu ĂŸĂŠr Ășr lĂŠĂ°ingi öfl sem tvĂstruĂ°u SovĂ©trĂkjunum Ă 15 sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ° rĂki Ă desember 1991, RĂșssland langstĂŠrst ĂŸeirra. RĂșssland hefur sĂĂ°an ĂŸĂĄ veriĂ° aĂ° reyna aĂ° byggja upp lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°islega stjĂłrnunarhĂŠtti og markaĂ°shagkerfi en gengur hĂŠgt. Skömmu eftir fall SovĂ©trĂkjanna tĂłk aĂ° bera ĂĄ ĂŸjóðernisdeilum ĂĄ meĂ°al sumra ĂŸeirra fjölmörgu ĂŸjóðernishĂłpa sem bĂșa innan landamĂŠra RĂșsslands og ĂĄ stöðum eins og TĂ©tĂ©nĂu og NorĂ°ur-OssetĂu braust Ășt skĂŠruhernaĂ°ur sem entist Ă mörg ĂĄr.
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+LandfrĂŠĂ°i
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+RĂșssland nĂŠr yfir stĂłra hluta tveggja heimsĂĄlfa, EvrĂłpu og AsĂu. LandiĂ° nĂŠr yfir nyrsta hluta EvrasĂu og ĂĄ fjĂłrĂ°u lengstu strandlengju heims, 37.653 km aĂ° lengd. RĂșssland er ĂĄ milli 41. og 82. breiddargrĂĄĂ°u norĂ°ur og 19. lengdargrĂĄĂ°u austur og 169. lengdargrĂĄĂ°u vestur. LandiĂ° er raunar stĂŠrra en ĂŸrjĂĄr heimsĂĄlfur: EyjaĂĄlfa, EvrĂłpa og SuĂ°urskautslandiĂ°, og er um ĂŸaĂ° bil jafnstĂłrt og yfirborĂ° PlĂștĂłs.
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+Vestasti hluti RĂșsslands er Ăștlendan KalĂnĂngrad viĂ° Eystrasalt, sem er um 9.000 km frĂĄ austasta hluta landsins, StĂłru DĂĂłmedeseyju Ă Beringssundi. Ă suĂ°urhluta landsins er stĂłr hluti KĂĄkasusfjalla meĂ° Elbrusfjalli, sem er hĂŠsti tindur RĂșsslands Ă 5.642 metra hĂŠĂ°; AltaĂfjöll og Sajanfjöll er aĂ° finna Ă SĂberĂu; og Austur-SĂberĂufjöll og fjöllin ĂĄ Kamsjatka Ă Austurlöndum RĂșsslands. Ăralfjöll liggja frĂĄ norĂ°ri til suĂ°urs Ă vesturhluta RĂșsslands og skilgreina mörk EvrĂłpu og AsĂu.
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+Ăsamt Kanada er RĂșssland annaĂ° tveggja landa sem ĂĄ strönd aĂ° ĂŸremur Ășthöfum, auk ĂŸess aĂ° tengjast yfir ĂŸrettĂĄn randhöfum. Helstu eyjar og eyjaklasar RĂșsslands eru Novaja Semlja, Frans JĂłsefsland, Severnaja Semlja, NĂœju SĂberĂueyjar, Wrangel-eyja, KĂșrileyjar og SakalĂn. SundiĂ° milli DĂĂłmedeseyja ĂŸar sem landhelgi RĂșsslands og BandarĂkjanna (Alaska) mĂŠtast, er aĂ°eins 3,8 km aĂ° breidd, og eyjan KĂșnasjĂr (KĂșrileyjar) er aĂ°eins 20 km frĂĄ HokkaĂdĂł Ă Japan.
+
+Ă RĂșsslandi eru yfir 100.000 ĂĄr og landiĂ° rĂŠĂ°ur yfir einum mesta vatnsforĂ°a heims. Stöðuvötn Ă RĂșsslandi geyma um fjĂłrĂ°ung ferskvatnsbirgĂ°a heims. Bajkalvatn er stĂŠrsta stöðuvatn RĂșsslands. ĂaĂ° er dĂœpsta, elsta og vatnsmesta stöðuvatn heims og geymir um fimmtung alls ferskvatns ĂĄ yfirborĂ°i JarĂ°ar. Ladogavatn og Onegavatn Ă norĂ°vesturhluta RĂșsslands eru tvö af stĂŠrstu vötnum EvrĂłpu. RĂșssland er à öðru sĂŠti ĂĄ eftir BrasilĂu yfir mesta endurnĂœjanlega vatnsforĂ°a heims. Volga er lengsta fljĂłt EvrĂłpu. Ă SĂberĂu eru Ob, Jenisej, Lena og AmĂșrfljĂłt meĂ° lengstu fljĂłtum heims.
+
+StjĂłrnsĂœsluskipting
+
+SvĂŠĂ°i sem RĂșssland gerir tilkall til
+Auk lögbundinna yfirrĂĄĂ°asvĂŠĂ°a RĂșsslands gerir rĂkiĂ° tilkall til Ăœmissa landsvĂŠĂ°a Ă ĂkraĂnu sem RĂșssar hafa lagt undir sig Ă strĂĂ°i rĂkjanna frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2014. RĂșssar innlimuĂ°u KrĂmskaga ĂĄriĂ° 2014 og viĂ°halda ĂŸar fullum yfirrĂĄĂ°um. StjĂłrn RĂșsslands tilkynnti um innlimun fylkjanna Donetsk. LĂșhansk. Kherson og ZaporĂzjzja ĂĄ tĂma innrĂĄsarinnar Ă ĂkraĂnu ĂĄriĂ° 2022. RĂșssar hafa nĂŠr fulla stjĂłrn ĂĄ Donetsk en rĂĄĂ°a aĂ°eins um helmingi af hinum ĂŸremur fylkjunum.
+
+Flest rĂki viĂ°urkenna ekki tilkall RĂșsslands til ĂŸessara svĂŠĂ°a og lĂta ĂĄ stjĂłrn ĂŸeirra ĂŸar sem Ăłlöglegt hernĂĄm. VĂĂ°ast hvar er litiĂ° ĂĄ ĂŸau sem lögmĂŠtan hluta ĂkraĂnu.
+
+* Borgirnar Kherson og ZaporĂzjzja eru undir yfirrĂĄĂ°um ĂkraĂnumanna ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° RĂșssar segist hafa innlimaĂ° ĂŸĂŠr sem fylkishöfuĂ°borgir samnefndra fylkja.
+
+Borgir
+ Moskva - 12.197.565
+ Sankti PĂ©tursborg - 4.661.000
+ NovosĂbĂrsk - 1.425.000
+ NĂzhnĂj Novgorod - 1.311.000
+ JekaterĂnbĂșrg - 1.294.000
+ Samara - 1.157.000
+ Omsk - 1.134.000
+ Kazan - 1.106.000
+ TsjeljabĂnsk - 1.077.000
+ Rostov viĂ° Don - 1.068.000
+ Ăfa - 1.042.000
+ Volgograd - 1.011.000
+ Perm - 1.002.000
+ Krasnojarsk - 909.000
+ Saratov - 873.000
+ Voronezh - 849.000
+ ToljattĂ - 703.000
+ Krasnodar - 646.000
+ Ăljanovsk - 636.000
+ Ăzhevsk - 632.000
+ VladĂvostok - 594.000
+ Arkhangelsk - 349.000
+ MĂșrmansk - 298.000
+ Petropavlovsk-KamtsjatskĂj - 198.000
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+RĂșssland
+HöfuĂ°borg er sĂș borg Ă gefnu rĂki ĂŸar sem stjĂłrnvöld rĂkisins hafa oftast aĂ°setur, dĂŠmi: OslĂł. Einnig er talaĂ° um höfuĂ°borgir fylkja Ă sambandsrĂkjum.
+
+LandafrÊðihugtök
+Ăttar er Ăslenskt karlmannsnafn.
+
+Dreifing ĂĄ Ăslandi
+
+Heimildir
+
+
+
+Ăslensk karlmannsnöfn
+HandelshĂžyskolen BI (Ăsl: Norski viĂ°skipta- og stjĂłrnunarhĂĄskĂłlinn BI) er einkaskĂłli, meĂ° höfuĂ°stöðvar Ă ĂslĂł Ă Noregi. ĂriĂ° 2022 voru um 21.653 nemendur viĂ° skĂłlan, af ĂŸeim voru um 10.000 Ă fullu nĂĄmi, og um 390 starfsmenn. SkĂłlinn bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ fjölbreytt nĂĄm Ă viĂ°skiptafrĂŠĂ°um bĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ norsku og ensku. NĂŠr allt nĂĄm til mastersgrĂĄĂ°u er ĂĄ ensku.
+
+SkĂłlinn var stofnaĂ°ur ĂĄriĂ° 1943 sem rĂĄĂ°gjafafyrirtĂŠki er bauĂ° upp ĂĄ kvöldskĂłla Ă bĂłkfĂŠrslu. SĂĂ°an ĂŸĂĄ hefur skĂłlanum vaxiĂ° fiskur um hrygg og er nĂș alĂŸjóðlegur skĂłli sem bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ nĂĄm Ă viĂ°skipta- og stjĂłrnunarfrĂŠĂ°um. Ă dag er BI stĂŠrsti viĂ°skiptahĂĄskĂłli Ă EvrĂłpu og nĂŠststĂŠrsta skĂłlastofnun Ă Noregi.
+
+Ytri tengill
+ HandelshĂžyskolen BI
+
+HĂĄskĂłlar Ă Noregi
+ViĂ°skiptaskĂłlar
+Fyrir ĂŸrĂĄĂ°lausu nettenginguna mĂĄ sjĂĄ: Heitur reitur (net).
+
+Heitur reitur er Ă jarĂ°frĂŠĂ°i staĂ°ur ĂĄ yfirborĂ°i jarĂ°ar ĂŸar sem eldvirkni er mikil sökum möttulstrĂłks sem af ber heita kviku Ășr iĂ°rum jarĂ°ar upp aĂ° jarĂ°skorpunni (sem af ĂŸessum sökum er ĂŸynnri en annars staĂ°ar), um 50 heitir reitir eru ĂŸekktir, helstir ĂŸeirra eru Hawaii, Ăslands og Yellowstone reitirnir.
+
+FyrirbĂŠrinu var fyrst lĂœst af kanadĂska jarĂ°vĂsinda og jarĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingnum John Tuzo Wilson Ă flekakenningu hans ĂĄriĂ° 1963, ĂŸar sem hann hĂ©lt fram aĂ° eldfjallakeĂ°jur eins og Hawaiieyjar mynduĂ°ust sökum ĂŸess aĂ° jarĂ°flekar fĂŠrĂ°ust yfir fastan punkt (heitan reit) ĂĄ löngum tĂma ĂĄ jarĂ°sögulegum mĂŠlikvarĂ°a.
+
+Tengt efni
+ Möttulstrókur
+ MöttulstrĂłkurinn undir Ăslandi
+
+Flekakenningin
+JarĂ°vĂsindi
+JarĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+Fyrir ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°ardaginn, sjĂĄ ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°ardagur Ăslendinga.
+
+17. jĂșnĂ er 168. dagur ĂĄrsins (169. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu og ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°ardagur Ăslendinga. 197 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1040 - HörĂ°a-KnĂștur kom aĂ° landi viĂ° Sandwich ĂĄ Englandi og gerĂ°i tilkall til ensku krĂșnunnar.
+ 1221 - Björn Ăorvaldsson var drepinn ĂĄ BreiĂ°abĂłlstaĂ° Ă FljĂłtshlĂĂ°.
+ 1395 - FriĂ°arsamningar voru gerĂ°ir Ă Lindholm-kastala Ă SvĂĂŸjóð milli MargrĂ©tar drottningar og Albrekts af Mecklenburg.
+ 1397 - EirĂkur af Pommern var krĂœndur konungur allra NorĂ°urlanda.
+ 1449 - Danmörk og England gerĂ°u meĂ° sĂ©r samning sem heimilaĂ°i enskum sjĂłmönnum siglingar til Ăslands meĂ° sĂ©rstöku leyfi Danakonungs.
+ 1527 - GĂșstaf Vasa innleiddi lĂștherska kirkjuskipan Ă rĂki sĂnu.
+ 1596 - Willem Barents kom auga ĂĄ SvalbarĂ°a.
+ 1775 â BandarĂska frelsisstrĂĂ°iĂ°: Orrustan viĂ° Bunker Hill ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ°.
+ 1881 - ĂorlĂĄkur O. Johnson, sem lagt hafĂ°i stund ĂĄ verslunarnĂĄm Ă Englandi, opnaĂ°i verslun Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1886 - HaldiĂ° var upp ĂĄ afmĂŠli JĂłns SigurĂ°ssonar Ă fyrsta sinn opinberlega Ă kaffihĂșsinu Hermes ĂĄ LĂŠkjargötu 4 Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1900 - Fyrsta pĂłstferĂ° meĂ° farĂŸega, vörur og pĂłst, farin ĂĄ fjĂłrhjĂłla hestvagni frĂĄ ReykjavĂk og austur fyrir fjall.
+ 1907 - StĂșdentafĂ©lagiĂ° gekkst fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° vĂĂ°a var flaggaĂ° Ăslenskum fĂĄna, blĂĄum meĂ° hvĂtum krossi. Ăessum fĂĄna var flaggaĂ° vĂĂ°a um land og voru 65 fĂĄnar viĂ° hĂșn Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1911 - HĂĄskĂłli Ăslands var stofnaĂ°ur og settur Ă fyrsta sinn. TĂłk hann yfir rekstur PrestaskĂłlans, LĂŠknaskĂłlans og LagaskĂłlans, sem um leiĂ° voru lagĂ°ir niĂ°ur.
+ 1911 - Fyrsta landsmĂłt UngmennafĂ©lags Ăslands hĂłfst ĂĄ ĂĂŸrĂłttavellinum ĂĄ Melnunum Ă ReykjavĂk og stóð Ă viku.
+ 1911 - IĂ°nsĂœningin 1911 var opnuĂ° Ă MiĂ°bĂŠjarskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1915 - Fyrsta bĂlprĂłfiĂ° var tekiĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk. Handhafi ökuskĂrteinis nĂșmer eitt var HafliĂ°i Hjartarson trĂ©smiĂ°ur, 28 ĂĄra gamall.
+ 1916 - Norska knattspyrnuliĂ°iĂ° FK BodĂž/Glimt var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1917 - Nokkur fĂ©lagasamtök hĂ©ldu samsĂŠti Ă ReykjavĂk til heiĂ°urs Stephani G. Stephanssyni skĂĄldi, sem staddur var ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă fyrsta sinn frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hann kvaddi landiĂ° tvĂtugur aĂ° aldri.
+ 1918 - Loftskeytastöðin ĂĄ Melunum Ă ReykjavĂk var tekin Ă notkun Ă samvinnu viĂ° Marconi-fĂ©lagiĂ° Ă London.
+ 1925 - Ă ĂsafirĂ°i var tekiĂ° Ă notkun nĂœtt sjĂșkrahĂșs sem taliĂ° var hiĂ° fullkomnasta ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1926 - Björg KarĂtas ĂorlĂĄksdĂłttir varĂ° fyrst Ăslenskra kvenna til aĂ° ljĂșka doktorsprĂłfi er hĂșn varĂ°i doktorsritgerĂ° sĂna viĂ° Sorbonne-hĂĄskĂłla Ă ParĂs.
+ 1926 - Melavöllurinn Ă ReykjavĂk var vĂgĂ°ur eftir flutning.
+ 1939 - SĂĂ°asta opinbera aftakan meĂ° fallöxi fĂłr fram Ă Frakklandi.
+ 1940 - SovĂ©trĂkin hernĂĄmu Eistland, Lettland og LithĂĄen.
+ 1940 - AĂ°albygging HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands viĂ° SuĂ°urgötu Ă ReykjavĂk var vĂgĂ°.
+ 1940 - ĂrĂr bĂĄtar komu frĂĄ Noregi til AustfjarĂ°a meĂ° 59 norska flĂłttamenn um borĂ°. MĂĄnuĂ°i fyrr höfĂ°u 26 norskir flĂłttamenn komiĂ° til Akureyrar.
+ 1941 - Sveinn Björnsson var kjörinn rĂkisstjĂłri Ăslands af AlĂŸingi, en hann hafĂ°i veriĂ° sendiherra landsins Ă Kaupmannahöfn Ă tvo ĂĄratugi.
+ 1944 - Ăslenska lĂœĂ°veldiĂ° var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăingvöllum og jafnframt var fyrsta stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ lĂœĂ°veldisins staĂ°fest. Einnig var Sveinn Björnsson rĂkisstjĂłri kjörinn fyrsti forseti lĂœĂ°veldisins. SĂĂ°an ĂŸĂĄ hefur dagurinn veriĂ° ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°ardagur Ăslands.
+ 1945 - VerslunarskĂłli Ăslands brautskrĂĄĂ°i stĂșdenta Ă fyrsta sinn og voru ĂŸeir sjö talsins.
+ 1945 - Minningarskjöldur var afhjĂșpaĂ°ur ĂĄ hĂșsi JĂłns SigurĂ°ssonar Ă Kaupmannahöfn.
+ 1947 - Fyrsta millilandaflugvĂ©l Ă Ăslenskri eigu kom til landsins. Var ĂŸaĂ° Skymaster-flugvĂ©lin Hekla Ă eigu LoftleiĂ°a.
+ 1953 - SovĂ©skt herliĂ° bĂŠldi niĂ°ur uppreisn verkamanna Ă Austur-BerlĂn.
+ 1954 - MorgunblaĂ°iĂ° birti ljóðiĂ° âĂsland er land ĂŸittâ eftir MargrĂ©ti JĂłnsdĂłttur Ă tilefni af tĂu ĂĄra afmĂŠli lĂœĂ°veldisins. LjóðiĂ° varĂ° ĂŸekkt ĂŸegar MagnĂșs ĂĂłr Sigmundsson gerĂ°i lag viĂ° ĂŸaĂ° og gaf Ășt ĂĄ plötu ĂĄriĂ° 1982.
+ 1959 - ĂĂŸrĂłttavöllurinn Ă Laugardal var formlega vĂgĂ°ur, en hann hafĂ°i veriĂ° Ă notkun Ă tvö ĂĄr.
+ 1959 - NĂŠrri lĂĄ aĂ° slys yrĂ°i er varnargarĂ°ur brast ĂĄ virkjunarsvĂŠĂ°inu viĂ° Sog. Menn sluppu naumlega.
+ 1961 - 150 ĂĄra afmĂŠlis JĂłns SigurĂ°ssonar var vĂĂ°a minnst, meĂ°al annars meĂ° hĂĄtĂĂ° ĂĄ fĂŠĂ°ingarstaĂ° hans, Hrafnseyri viĂ° ArnarfjörĂ°.
+ 1969 - AldarfjĂłrĂ°ungsafmĂŠli lĂœĂ°veldisins var fagnaĂ° Ă mikilli rigningu.
+ 1970 - Zemla-uppreisnin. Ătök brutust Ășt milli sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°issinna Ă Vestur-Sahara og spĂŠnskra yfirvalda.
+ 1972 - Upphaf Watergate-hneykslisins. Fimm menn voru handteknir fyrir innbrot Ă höfuĂ°stöðvar DemĂłkrata Ă Watergate-byggingunni Ă Washington en ĂŸeir höfĂ°u ĂŠtlaĂ° aĂ° koma ĂŸar fyrir hlerunarbĂșnaĂ°i.
+ 1974 - Ă KirkjubĂŠjarklaustri var vĂgĂ° kapella til minningar um JĂłn SteingrĂmsson eldklerk.
+ 1975 - Sumar ĂĄ SĂœrlandi, fyrsta plata StuĂ°manna, kom Ășt.
+ 1977 - Afsteypa af höggmyndinni Alda aldanna eftir Einar JĂłnsson myndhöggvara var afhjĂșpuĂ° ĂĄ FlĂșĂ°um.
+ 1980 - ĂsbjarnarblĂșs, fyrsta sĂłlĂłplata Bubba Morthens, kom Ășt.
+ 1982 - ĂriĂ°ja skipiĂ° meĂ° nafniĂ° Akraborg kom til landsins og sigldi ĂĄ milli ReykjavĂkur og Akraness.
+ 1985 - Ă Vestmannaeyjum var afhjĂșpuĂ° höggmynd til minningar um GuĂ°rĂĂ°i SĂmonardĂłttur.
+ 1991 - VĂkingaskipiĂ° Gaia kom til ReykjavĂkur.
+ 1994 - 50 ĂĄra afmĂŠli LĂœĂ°veldisins Ăslands var fagnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăingvöllum.
+ 1994 - JĂłhanna SigurĂ°ardĂłttir lagĂ°i grunninn aĂ° stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokknum Ăjóðvaka meĂ° orĂ°unum âminn tĂmi mun komaâ.
+ 2000 - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti, 6,5 stig ĂĄ Richter, skĂłk SuĂ°urland.
+ 2004 - Sundlaugin ĂĄ HĂłlmavĂk var tekin Ă notkun.
+ 2006 - Ăslenska landsliĂ°iĂ° Ă handbolta vann sĂ©r ĂŸĂĄtttökurĂ©tt ĂĄ HM Ă ĂĂœskalandi 2007 meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° sigra SvĂa Ă Laugardalshöllinni meĂ° samanlagt ĂŸriggja marka mun.
+ 2006 - Samtökin FramtĂĂ°arlandiĂ° voru stofnuĂ° Ă AusturbĂŠjarbĂĂłi.
+ 2008 - HvĂtabjörn var skotinn ĂĄ Skaga, eftir aĂ° tilraunir til aĂ° svĂŠfa hann meĂ° deyfilyfjum misheppnuĂ°ust.
+ 2011 - HĂŠgvarpsĂŸĂĄtturinn Hurtigruten minutt for minutt var sendur Ășt ĂĄ norsku sjĂłnvarpsstöðinni NRK2.
+ 2012 - ĂlfahjörĂ° Ă KolmĂ„rden-dĂœragarĂ°inum Ă SvĂĂŸjóð rĂ©Ă°ist ĂĄ og drap starfsmann.
+ 2015 - BandarĂski stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°urinn Clementa C. Pinckney var myrtur ĂĄsamt ĂĄtta öðrum Ă skotĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ kirkju Ă Charleston.
+ 2019 â 30 lĂ©tust Ă ĂŸremur sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ knattspyrnuleik Ă Borno Ă NĂgerĂu.
+ 2021 - GeimferĂ°astofnun KĂna sendi fyrstu ĂŸrjĂĄ geimfarana til geimstöðvarinnar Tiangong.
+ 2022 - Golden State Warriors unnu sinn 4. NBA-titil ĂĄ sjö ĂĄrum. Stephen Curry var valinn mikilvĂŠgasti leikmaĂ°urinn Ă Ășrslitum.
+ 2022 - ĂkraĂna og MoldĂłva fengu formlega stöðu umsĂłknarrĂkja aĂ° EvrĂłpusambandinu.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1239 - JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 1. Englandskonungur (d. 1307).
+ 1625 - Peder Hansen Resen, danskur sagnfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1688).
+ 1682 - Karl 12. SvĂakonungur (d. 1718).
+ 1808 - Henrik Wergeland, norskt skĂĄld og mĂĄlvĂsindamaĂ°ur (d. 1845).
+ 1811 - JĂłn SigurĂ°sson, âsĂłmi Ăslands, sverĂ° ĂŸess og skjöldurâ, fĂŠddist ĂĄ Hrafnseyri viĂ° ArnarfjörĂ°. Hann dĂł 7. desember 1879.
+ 1882 - Ăgor StravinskĂj, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1971).
+ 1893 - Ăskar HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur ĂștgerĂ°armaĂ°ur (d. 1953).
+ 1900 - Martin Bormann, ĂŸĂœskur nasistaforingi (d. 1945).
+ 1936 - Ken Loach, enskur leikstjori.
+ 1942 - Mohamed ElBaradei, handhafi friĂ°arverĂ°launa NĂłbels og fyrrverandi yfirmaĂ°ur AlĂŸjóðakjarnorkumĂĄlastofnunarinnar.
+ 1942 - Einar Ăorsteinn Ăsgeirsson, Ăslenskur arkitekt (d. 2015).
+ 1943 - Newt Gingrich, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1943 - Barry Manilow, bandariskur songvari.
+ 1945 - Ken Livingstone, breskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og fyrrverandi borgarstjĂłri LundĂșna.
+ 1948 - Hrafn Gunnlaugsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri.
+ 1958 - Robert Farelly, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri.
+ 1959 - Baltazar Maria de Morais JĂșnior, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1967 - Zinho, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1971 - Steinunn GestsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1975 - Shoji Jo, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1980 - Venus Williams, bandarisk tennisleikkona.
+ 1990 - Jordan Henderson, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1631 - Mumtaz Mahal, kona mogulsins Jahans 1. (f. 1593).
+ 1696 - JĂłhann 3. Sobieski, konungur PĂłllands og stĂłrfursti Ă LithĂĄen (f. 1629).
+ 1779 - JĂłn Ălafsson Ășr GrunnavĂk, Ăslenskur frĂŠĂ°imaĂ°ur (f. 1705).
+ 1835 - Björn Stephensen, Ăslenskur dĂłmsmĂĄlaritari (f. 1769).
+ 1972 - JĂłhannes Gunnarsson, biskup kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunnar ĂĄ Ăslandi (f. 1897).
+ 1987 - Yasuo Haruyama, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1906).
+ 2002 - Fritz Walter, knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1920).
+ 2019 - Mohamed Morsi, forseti Egyptalands (f. 1951).
+
+HĂĄtĂĂ°is og tyllidagar
+ Ăslenski ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°ardagurinn
+
+JĂșnĂ
+Ăetta er listi yfir Ăslensk skĂĄld og rithöfunda. HĂŠgt er aĂ° breyta röðun töflunnar meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Ăœta ĂĄ haus hennar. Listinn er ekki tĂŠmandi, ĂŸĂș getur [ bĂŠtt viĂ° hann].
+
+{| class= "wikitable sortable" style= "text-align: center;"
+|+
+!Höfundur
+!FĂŠddist
+!LĂ©st
+!SkrifaĂ°i helst
+!Verk sem höfundur er t.d. ĂŸekktur fyrir
+! style= "max-width:100px" |Höfundaréttur å verkum enn à gildi
+
+
+
+Listar
+SkĂĄld er sĂĄ sem yrkir ljóð (ljóðskĂĄld). HeitiĂ° er einnig notaĂ° um leikritahöfunda (leikskĂĄld), enda voru leikrit skrifuĂ° Ă bundnu mĂĄli fram ĂĄ 19. öld. HeitiĂ° er sjaldnar notaĂ° um rithöfunda â ĂŸĂĄ sem semja skĂĄldsögur.
+
+Stundum eru athafnamenn upphafnir meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° kalla ĂŸĂĄ âathafnaskĂĄldâ og einnig eru til svokölluĂ° nĂœyrĂ°askĂĄld.
+
+Tengt efni
+ AtĂłmskĂĄld
+ Lexicon poeticum antiquĂŠ linguĂŠ septentrionalis
+ Listi yfir Ăslensk skĂĄld
+HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk (HR) er rannsĂłknar- og menntastofnun sem Ăștskrifar nemendur Ășr sjö akademĂskum deildum, auk HĂĄskĂłlagrunns. ĂĂŠr eru lagadeild, verkfrĂŠĂ°ideild, tölvunarfrĂŠĂ°ideild, iĂ°n- og tĂŠknifrĂŠĂ°ideild, sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ideild, ĂĂŸrĂłttadeild og viĂ°skiptadeild. ViĂ° HR er jafnframt starfrĂŠktur Opni hĂĄskĂłlinn Ă HR, sem sĂ©rhĂŠfir sig Ă sĂ- og endurmenntun fyrir sĂ©rfrĂŠĂ°inga og stjĂłrnendur. Jafnframt geta nemendur sem vantar tilskilinn undirbĂșning stundaĂ° nĂĄm Ă HĂĄskĂłlagrunni HR sem er Ă frumgreinadeild og aĂ° ĂŸvĂ loknu sĂłtt um grunnnĂĄm. Ă stefnu HR segir meĂ°al annars aĂ° hlutverk HĂĄskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk sĂ© aĂ° skapa og miĂ°la ĂŸekkingu til aĂ° auka samkeppnishĂŠfni og lĂfsgĂŠĂ°i fyrir einstaklinga og samfĂ©lag meĂ° siĂ°gĂŠĂ°i, sjĂĄlfbĂŠrni og ĂĄbyrgĂ° aĂ° leiĂ°arljĂłsi.
+
+Saga
+Saga HR hefst meĂ° stofnun TĂŠkniskĂłli Ăslands ĂĄriĂ° 1964. MeĂ° tilvist hans var ĂŠtlaĂ° aĂ° brĂșa biliĂ° milli iĂ°nmenntunar og hĂĄskĂłlanĂĄms. TĂŠkniskĂłlinn var fĂŠrĂ°ur ĂĄ hĂĄskĂłlastig ĂĄriĂ° 2002 og tĂłk ĂŸĂĄ upp nafniĂ° TĂŠknihĂĄskĂłli Ăslands. Ăann 4. mars ĂĄriĂ° 2005 sameinuĂ°ust TĂŠknihĂĄskĂłli Ăslands og HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk undir nafni HĂĄskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk. HR hafĂ°i veriĂ° starfrĂŠktur frĂĄ 4. september ĂĄriĂ° 1998 og var starfsemi hans byggĂ° ĂĄ TölvuhĂĄskĂłla VerzlunarskĂłla Ăslands (TVĂ) sem stofnaĂ°ur var Ă janĂșar 1988. HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk var settur Ă fyrsta sinn undir nafninu ViĂ°skiptahĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk. TVĂ varĂ° önnur tveggja deilda hins nĂœja hĂĄskĂłla. Ă janĂșar ĂĄriĂ° 2000 var ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° aĂ° breyta nafni skĂłlans Ă HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk ĂŸar sem gamla nafniĂ° ĂŸĂłtti ekki nĂłgu lĂœsandi fyrir starfsemi skĂłlans.
+
+HaustiĂ° 2001 hĂłfst MBA-nĂĄm viĂ° hĂĄskĂłlann Ă samvinnu viĂ° hĂĄskĂłla beggja vegna Atlantshafsins. HaustiĂ° 2002 var lagadeild stofnuĂ°. ĂriĂ° 2005, viĂ° sameiningu TĂŠknihĂĄskĂłlans og HR voru fjĂłrar nĂĄmsdeildir viĂ° hĂĄskĂłlann; kennslufrĂŠĂ°i- og lĂœĂ°heilsudeild, tĂŠkni- og verkfrĂŠĂ°ideild, viĂ°skiptadeild og lagadeild. HaustiĂ° 2007 var fimmta deildin viĂ° HR stofnuĂ°; tölvunarfrĂŠĂ°ideild en tölvunarfrĂŠĂ°in sem var ein af stofndeildum skĂłlans hafĂ°i ĂŸĂĄ um tveggja ĂĄra skeiĂ° veriĂ° innan tĂŠkni- og verkfrĂŠĂ°ideildar. ĂriĂ° 2010 var starfsemi skĂłlans flutt Ă hĂșsnĂŠĂ°i viĂ° Menntaveg 1 Ă NauthĂłlsvĂk. Starfsemi HR var ĂŸar meĂ° komin öll undir eitt ĂŸak. ĂaĂ° sama ĂĄr var deildum hĂĄskĂłlans fĂŠkkaĂ° Ășr fimm Ă fjĂłrar og var kennslufrĂŠĂ°i- og lĂœĂ°heilsudeild lögĂ° niĂ°ur.
+
+RannsĂłknir
+ViĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann Ă ReykjavĂk er lögĂ° ĂĄhersla ĂĄ aĂ° stunda alĂŸjóðlega viĂ°urkenndar rannsĂłknir. Ărlega er gert Ătarlegt mat ĂĄ rannsĂłknarvirkni allra akademĂskra starfsmanna meĂ° rannsĂłknarskyldu viĂ° hĂĄskĂłlann af fjögurra manna nefnd erlendra sĂ©rfrĂŠĂ°inga. Helstu viĂ°miĂ° Ă ĂŸessu ĂĄrlega mati eru birtingar ĂĄ ritrĂœndum vettvangi, önnur rannsĂłknarstörf svo sem leiĂ°beiningar rannsĂłknarnema, ĂŸĂĄtttaka Ă alĂŸjóðlegu rannsĂłknarstarfi og öflun rannsĂłknarfjĂĄr Ășr samkeppnissjóðum. NiĂ°urstaĂ°a matsins er einnig lögĂ° til grundvallar viĂ° skiptingu rannsĂłknarframlags rĂkisins ĂĄ milli deilda hĂĄskĂłlans. RannsĂłknarrĂĄĂ° HR hefur yfirumsjĂłn og ber ĂĄbyrgĂ° ĂĄ matinu en matiĂ° er mikilvĂŠgur ĂŸĂĄttur Ă gĂŠĂ°aeftirliti rannsĂłkna viĂ° hĂĄskĂłlann.
+
+Kennsla
+Ăhersla er lögĂ° ĂĄ fjölbreyttar kennslu- og nĂĄmsmatsaĂ°ferĂ°ir, raunhĂŠf verkefni, virka ĂŸĂĄtttöku nemenda og tengsl nĂĄmsins viĂ° atvinnulĂf og samfĂ©lag. NĂĄminu Ă HR er ĂŠtlaĂ° aĂ° ĂŸjĂĄlfa nemendur Ă gagnrĂœnni hugsun og sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°um vinnubrögĂ°um. Kennslumat er lagt fyrir à öllum nĂĄmskeiĂ°um tvisvar ĂĄ önn og ĂĄrlega fer fram frammistöðumat ĂŸeirra starfsmanna sem sinna kennslu. ViĂ° hĂĄskĂłlann starfar nĂĄmsrĂĄĂ° sem skipaĂ° er fulltrĂșum allra deilda og forstöðumanni kennslusviĂ°s. RĂĄĂ°iĂ° hefur m.a. ĂŸaĂ° hlutverk aĂ° mĂłta kennslustefnu og tryggja gĂŠĂ°i kennslu. Auk ĂŸess starfa nĂĄmsmatsnefndir Ă deildum sem mĂłta stefnu Ă samrĂŠmi viĂ° heildarstefnu skĂłlans.
+
+Ăhrif
+Ă hverju ĂĄri stunda nĂșorĂ°iĂ° um 3500 nemendur hĂĄskĂłlanĂĄm viĂ° HR ĂĄ grunn-, meistara- og doktorsstigi.
+
+HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk er Ă samstarfi viĂ° Ăslenska og erlenda hĂĄskĂłla og Ăœmsar opinberar stofnanir sem fĂĄst viĂ° menntun og rannsĂłknir. HĂĄskĂłlinn hefur ĂŸar aĂ° auki gert samstarfssamninga viĂ° fyrirtĂŠki og fĂ©lög sem styrkja enn frekar tengsl hĂĄskĂłlans viĂ° atvinnulĂfiĂ°. Ăetta samstarf styĂ°ur viĂ° nĂœsköpun Ă menntun og rannsĂłknum.
+
+Ăar aĂ° auki ĂĄ HR Ă miklu og góðu samstarfi viĂ° grunnskĂłla og
+framhaldsskĂłla meĂ° Ăœmsum verkefnum. Oft er meĂ° ĂŸeim leitast viĂ° aĂ° kynna ĂŸaĂ° lĂf og starf sem veggir HR hĂœsa og sĂœna ungmennum möguleikana sem hĂĄskĂłlanĂĄm opnar, oftar en ekki Ă tĂŠknigreinum. DĂŠmi um slĂk verkefni eru Hringekjan og BoxiĂ° - framkvĂŠmdakeppni framhaldsskĂłlanna.
+
+Nokkur âspin-outsâ-fyrirtĂŠki hafa veriĂ° stofnuĂ° innan HR. MeĂ° ĂŸeim eru sköpuĂ° verĂ°mĂŠti Ășr ĂŸeirri ĂŸekkingu sem verĂ°ur til viĂ° rannsĂłknir og verkefnavinnu innan hĂĄskĂłlasamfĂ©lagsins, til dĂŠmis meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° skapa hĂĄtĂŠknistörf. FyrirtĂŠkjunum er komiĂ° ĂĄ fĂłt af nemendum og starfsmönnum hĂĄskĂłlans meĂ° nauĂ°synlegum stuĂ°ningi HR. DĂŠmi um slĂk fyrirtĂŠki eru Skema, fyrirtĂŠki sem sĂ©rhĂŠfir sig Ă forritunarkennslu barna og kennara, og Videntifier Technologies sem ĂŸrĂłar leitarkerfi til aĂ° finna Ăłlöglegt myndefni. HR er jafnframt virkur ĂŸĂĄtttakandi Ă fjölbreyttri ĂŸrĂłun klasa og geira ĂĄ Ăslandi. DĂŠmi um slĂka klasa eru Ăslenski jarĂ°varmaklasinn, FerĂ°aĂŸjĂłnustuklasinn og Samband Ăslenskra leikjaframleiĂ°enda.
+
+Skipulag og stjĂłrnun
+HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk er hlutafĂ©lag og eru hluthafar og eignarhluti ĂŸeirra eftirfarandi: SjĂĄlfseignarstofnun ViĂ°skiptarĂĄĂ°s Ăslands um viĂ°skiptamenntun 64%, Samtök iĂ°naĂ°arins 24% og Samtök atvinnulĂfsins 12%. HĂĄskĂłlinn er rekinn sem sjĂĄlfseignarstofnun. Eigendur hafa ekki fjĂĄrhagslegan ĂĄvinning af rekstri hans og ekki er heimilt aĂ° greiĂ°a arĂ° til hluthafa. HR er meĂ° ĂŸjĂłnustusamning viĂ° menntamĂĄlarĂĄĂ°uneytiĂ° sem m.a. kveĂ°ur ĂĄ um aĂ° rĂkiĂ° greiĂ°i tiltekna upphĂŠĂ° fyrir hvern nemanda Ă skĂłlanum. Jafnframt eru innheimt skĂłlagjöld af nemendum.
+
+ĂbyrgĂ° ĂĄ rekstri HR er Ă höndum hĂĄskĂłlarĂĄĂ°s sem kjöriĂ° er aĂ° bakhjörlum hĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ aĂ°alfundi til eins ĂĄrs Ă senn. HĂĄskĂłlarĂĄĂ° skipar rektor HR sem kemur fram fyrir hönd hĂĄskĂłlans, annast daglegan rekstur hans og ber ĂĄbyrgĂ° ĂĄ rekstrinum gagnvart hĂĄskĂłlarĂĄĂ°i. Rektor rĂŠĂ°ur forseta deilda, framkvĂŠmdastjĂłra og aĂ°ra starfsmenn sem undir hann heyra. Dr. Ari Kristinn JĂłnsson var rektor HĂĄskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk frĂĄ 2009 til ĂĄrsins 2021. ĂriĂ° 2021 var Ragnhildur HelgadĂłttir skipuĂ° nĂœr rektor HĂĄskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk.
+
+Heimildir
+
+Tenglar
+ Vefur HR
+
+HĂĄskĂłlar ĂĄ Ăslandi
+HlĂĂ°ar
+Sveinn Björnsson (27. febrĂșar 1881 Ă Kaupmannahöfn Ă Danmörku â 25. janĂșar 1952) var fyrsti forseti Ăslands. Sem fyrsti forseti landsins gerĂ°i Sveinn talsvert til ĂŸess aĂ° mĂłta embĂŠttiĂ°. Kona hans var dönsk og hĂ©t GeorgĂa Björnsson (fĂŠdd Georgia Hoff-Hansen). Ăau ĂĄttu sex börn. Elsti sonur hans, Björn Sv. Björnsson, var mjög umdeildur eftir seinni heimsstyrjöldina vegna tengsla sinna viĂ° ĂŸĂœska nasistaflokkinn.
+
+ĂviĂĄgrip
+Foreldrar Sveins voru Björn JĂłnsson (sem sĂĂ°ar varĂ° rĂĄĂ°herra Ăslands) og ElĂsabet SveinsdĂłttir. Sveinn var fĂŠddur ĂŸann 27. febrĂșar 1881 Ă Kaupmannahöfn. Sveinn lauk stĂșdentsprĂłfi ĂĄriĂ° 1900, hann lauk prĂłfi Ă lögfrĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ KaupmannahafnarhĂĄskĂłla ĂĄriĂ° 1907 og gerĂ°ist mĂĄlaflutningsmaĂ°ur Ă ReykjavĂk. Hann var kjörinn ĂŸingmaĂ°ur ReykvĂkinga 1914. Hann sat ĂĄ AlĂŸingi frĂĄ 1914 til 1915 fyrir SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokkinn eldri og frĂĄ 1919 til 1920 utan flokka. FrĂĄ 1912 til 1920 sat Sveinn jafnframt Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrn ReykjavĂkur og var forseti bĂŠjarstjĂłrnarinnar sĂĂ°ustu tvö ĂĄrin. Sveinn tĂłk ĂĄriĂ° 1914 ĂŸĂĄtt Ă stofnun EimskipafĂ©lagsins og var forstjĂłri ĂŸess nĂŠstu sex ĂĄrin. Hann tĂłk einnig ĂŸĂĄtt Ă ĂŸvĂ aĂ° stofna BrunabĂłtafĂ©lag Ăslands, SjĂłvĂĄ og RauĂ°a kross Ăslands.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1920 var Sveinn skipaĂ°ur fyrsti sendiherra Ăslands, meĂ° aĂ°setur Ă Kaupmannahöfn. Sem sendiherra var Sveinn nokkurs konar Ăłformlegur viĂ°skipta- og utanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°herra landsins og vann bĂŠĂ°i sem viĂ°skiptafulltrĂși og samningamaĂ°ur fyrir Ăslands hönd Ă utanrĂkisviĂ°skiptum. Sveinn var sendiherra Ăslands Ă Kaupmannahöfn nĂŠr ĂłslitiĂ° til ĂĄrsins 1941.
+
+RĂkisstjĂłri Ăslands (1941â1944)
+
+ĂriĂ° 1940 sneri Sveinn heim til Ăslands eftir aĂ° Ăjóðverjar hertĂłku Danmörku og brenndi öll skjöl Ăslenska sendirĂĄĂ°sins Ă Kaupmannahöfn ĂĄĂ°ur en hann fĂłr. Ăegar heim var komiĂ° gerĂ°ist Sveinn Ă fyrstu rĂĄĂ°gjafi stjĂłrnvalda Ă utanrĂkis- og öryggismĂĄlum. ĂriĂ° 1941 ĂĄkvaĂ° AlĂŸingi aĂ° skipa rĂkisstjĂłra til aĂ° fara meĂ° vald konungs Ăslands ĂŸar sem taliĂ° var aĂ° KristjĂĄn 10. vĂŠri ĂłfĂŠr um aĂ° gegna skyldum sĂnum sem ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingi landsins ĂĄ meĂ°an Danmörk vĂŠri hertekin af Ăjóðverjum og Ăsland af bandamönnum. Sveinn varĂ° fyrir valinu og var hann kjörinn rĂkisstjĂłri til eins ĂĄrs ĂŸann 17. jĂșnĂ ĂĄriĂ° 1941.
+
+Sem rĂkisstjĂłri varĂ° Sveinn umdeildur meĂ°al sumra rĂĄĂ°amanna ĂĄ Ăslandi, sem ĂŸĂłtti hann skipta sĂ©r um of af stjĂłrn landsins. Sveinn skipaĂ°i eigin utanĂŸingsstjĂłrn til ĂŸess aĂ° leysa Ășr stjĂłrnarkreppu ĂĄriĂ° 1942 og sat hĂșn Ă tvö ĂĄr. Ăetta er Ă eina skiptiĂ° sem ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingi Ăslands hefur skipaĂ° utanĂŸingsstjĂłrn og lengi hefur sĂĂ°an veriĂ° deilt um ĂŸaĂ° hvort forseti landsins hafi Ă reynd völd til ĂŸess aĂ° grĂpa til ĂŸessa rĂĄĂ°s samkvĂŠmt strangri tĂșlkun ĂĄ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni. Sveinn hvatti auk ĂŸess til ĂŸess aĂ° Ăslendingar stigju hĂŠgt niĂ°ur Ă sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°ismĂĄlum og biĂ°u ĂŸess helst aĂ° Danmörk yrĂ°i frelsuĂ° ĂĄĂ°ur en sambandi yrĂ°i slitiĂ°.
+
+Forseti Ăslands (1944â1952)
+Eftir aĂ° ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° var aĂ° stofna lĂœĂ°veldi ĂĄ Ăslandi kaus AlĂŸingi Svein fyrsta forseta Ăslands aĂ° Lögbergi ĂĄ Ăingvöllum 17. jĂșnĂ 1944 til eins ĂĄrs, meĂ° 30 atkvĂŠĂ°um af 52 greiddum. ĂaĂ° aĂ° Sveinn hlaut ekki öll greidd atkvĂŠĂ°i var til marks um hve sumir stjĂłrnmĂĄlamenn landsins voru honum gramir fyrir framkomu hans Ă rĂkisstjĂłraembĂŠttinu. Ătlunin var aĂ° Sveinn sĂŠti aĂ°eins Ă eitt ĂĄr sem forseti en aĂ° sĂĂ°an skyldi boĂ°aĂ° til almennra kosninga, en ĂŸar sem Sveinn fĂ©kk aldrei mĂłtframboĂ° Ă embĂŠttiĂ° var Sveinn sjĂĄlfkjörinn ĂĄn atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu frĂĄ 1945 og aftur frĂĄ 1949 til dauĂ°adags.
+
+ForsetatĂĂ° Sveins var stormasamt tĂmabil Ă Ăslenskum stjĂłrnmĂĄlum, ekki sĂst vegna deilna um aĂ°ild Ăslands aĂ° Atlantshafsbandalaginu. ĂlĂkt flestum eftirmönnum sĂnum hikaĂ°i Sveinn sjaldan viĂ° aĂ° skipta sĂ©r meĂ° beinum og Ăłbeinum hĂŠtti af stjĂłrnmĂĄlunum og lĂ©t Ăłspart Ă ljĂłs skoĂ°anir sĂnar. ViĂ° setningu AlĂŸingis ĂŸann 14. nĂłvember ĂĄriĂ° 1945 hĂłtaĂ°i Sveinn aĂ° skipa utanĂŸingsstjĂłrn ĂĄ nĂœ ef ĂŸingmönnum tĂŠkist ekki aĂ° mynda stjĂłrn innan mĂĄnaĂ°ar. ĂriĂ° 1950 synjaĂ°i Sveinn beiĂ°ni Ălafs Thors forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra um ĂŸingrof. Ă seinni tĂĂ° hefur veriĂ° deilt um hvort ĂŸessi ĂĄkvörĂ°un Sveins setji fordĂŠmi fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° forseti landsins megi neita aĂ° rjĂșfa ĂŸing ĂŸĂłtt forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herrann Ăłski ĂŸess.
+
+Sveinn fĂłr Ă nokkrar utanlandsferĂ°ir ĂĄ forsetatĂĂ° sinni. Hann fĂłr aĂ°eins Ă eina opinbera heimsĂłkn, til Franklins D. Roosevelt BandarĂkjaforseta stuttu eftir lĂœĂ°veldisstofnunina. Sveinn fĂ©kk góðar viĂ°tökur og ĂtrekaĂ°i kröfu Ăslendinga um aĂ° hernĂĄmsliĂ° BandarĂkjamanna hyrfi frĂĄ Ăslandi eftir strĂĂ°iĂ°.
+
+Samband Sveins viĂ° KristjĂĄn 10. Danakonung var ĂŠtĂĂ° stirt eftir stofnun lĂœĂ°veldisins. KristjĂĄn hĂ©lt ĂŸvĂ fram aĂ° Sveinn hefĂ°i lofaĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Ăsland myndi ekki slĂta sambandi viĂ° Danmörku ĂĄ meĂ°an ĂĄ hernĂĄminu stĂŠĂ°i en ĂŸetta ĂŸvertĂłk Sveinn fyrir aĂ° hafa gert. ĂĂł taldist Sveinn vissulega til lögskilnaĂ°arsinna og hefĂ°i heldur kosiĂ° aĂ° lĂœĂ°veldisstofnun vĂŠri frestaĂ° til strĂĂ°sloka. Sveinn taldi ĂŸaĂ° hins vegar ekki valdsviĂ° sitt sem rĂkisstjĂłra aĂ° setja fĂłt milli stafs og hurĂ°ar viĂ° rĂĄĂ°agerĂ°ir stjĂłrnvalda Ă ĂŸessu mĂĄli. Ăetta meinta eiĂ°rof stuĂ°laĂ°i aĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Sveinn fĂłr aldrei Ă opinbera heimsĂłkn til Danmerkur ĂĄ forsetatĂĂ° sinni.
+
+Fleiri deilumĂĄl spilltu sambandi Sveins viĂ° Dani ĂĄ forsetatĂĂ° hans. Sonur Sveins, Björn Sv. Björnsson, hafĂ°i gengiĂ° til liĂ°s viĂ° SS-sveitir nasista Ă strĂĂ°inu og hafĂ°i unniĂ° fyrir ĂŸĂĄ bĂŠĂ°i innan og utan Danmerkur. Ă strĂĂ°slok hafĂ°i Björn veriĂ° handtekinn, en Ăslensk stjĂłrnvöld höfĂ°u (aĂ° ĂĄeggjan Sveins og GeorgĂu forsetafrĂșr) beitt ĂĄhrifum sĂnum til aĂ° fĂĄ hann leystan Ășr haldi og framseldan til Ăslands. ĂaĂ° aĂ° fyrrum nasisti gengi laus Ă innsta hring forsetans olli enn meiri kala milli Sveins og Danmerkur, og eitt sinn er sendiherra Dana sĂĄ Björn ĂĄlengdar er hann sĂłtti veislu ĂĄ Bessastöðum bauĂ° honum svo viĂ° aĂ° hann gekk ĂĄ dyr. Sagt er aĂ° sonur og arftaki KristjĂĄns, FriĂ°rik 9. Danakonungur, hafi eitt sinn lĂĄtiĂ° ĂŸau orĂ° falla aĂ° allir Ăslendingar vĂŠru velkomnir Ă konungsgarĂ°, ânema Sveinn Björnssonâ. SjĂĄlfur bannaĂ°i Sveinn syni sĂnum aĂ° tjĂĄ sig um reynslu sĂna Ă strĂĂ°inu eĂ°a aĂ° svara spurningum blaĂ°amanna.
+
+Hrakandi heilsa Sveins kom Ă veg fyrir aĂ° hann sĂŠkti jarĂ°arför KristjĂĄns ĂĄriĂ° 1947 og sĂŠkti heim hin NorĂ°urlöndin. Hann er til ĂŸessa dags eini forseti Ăslands sem hefur lĂĄtist Ă embĂŠtti.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tengill
+ Handhafi forsetavalds; stutt klausa Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1965
+
+Forsetar Ăslands
+
+Handhafar stĂłrkross Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorĂ°u
+Ăslendingar sem gengiĂ° hafa Ă KaupmannahafnarhĂĄskĂłla
+Ăslenskir lögfrĂŠĂ°ingar
+Ăslenskir sendiherrar
+RĂkisstjĂłrar
+Stjórnmålaleiðtogar à seinni heimsstyrjöldinni
+LĂffĂŠrakerfi er Ă lĂffrĂŠĂ°i hĂłpur lĂffĂŠra sem eru samsett Ășr vef, lĂffĂŠri ĂŸessi hafa eitt eĂ°a fleiri hlutverk Ă lĂkama dĂœrsins.
+JafnvĂŠgi getur vĂsaĂ° til nokkurra hluta:
+
+ JafnvĂŠgisskyn
+ JafnvĂŠgi lĂfkerfa eĂ°a samvĂŠgi.
+JafnvĂŠgisskyn er eitt af skynfĂŠrunum, ĂŸaĂ° gerir mönnum og dĂœrum mögulegt aĂ° halda jafnvĂŠgi. JafnvĂŠgisskynfĂŠrin Ă mönnum eru Ă innra eyra og eru Ă bogagöngunum, sem eru vökvafyllt og vaxin skynhĂĄrum aĂ° innan, sem skynja hreyfingu Ă vökvanum.
+
+Tengt efni
+ JafnvĂŠgi
+
+LĂffrĂŠĂ°i
+Bein eru hluti beinagrindar hryggdĂœrs, sem myndar stoĂ°kerfi lĂkamans. Bein eru gerĂ° Ășr beinvef. Vöðvar tengjast beinum meĂ° sinum.
+
+Tegundir beina
+Fjórar megintegundir eru löng, stutt, flöt og óregluleg bein.
+
+ Löng bein hafa meiri lengd en breidd og samanstanda af skafti (e. diaphysis) og breytilegum fjölda enda (e. epiphysis). Oftast er einhver sveigja å löngum beinum. Löng bein eru à lÊrinu, fótlegg, handlegg, upphandlegg, fingrum og tåm.
+ Stutt bein eru nokkurs konar teningslaga og jöfn Ă lengd og breidd. Stutt bein eru til dĂŠmis Ă ĂșlnliĂ°i og ökkla.
+ Flöt bein eru almennt ĂŸunn. Ăau veita töluverĂ°a vernd og eru meĂ° mikiĂ° yfirborĂ° fyrir vöðvafestingar. DĂŠmi um flöt bein eru höfuĂ°kĂșpubeiniĂ°, sem verndar heilann, bringubeiniĂ° og rifbein auk herĂ°ablaĂ°a.
+ Ăregluleg bein hafa flĂłkna lögun. Ăregluleg bein eru til dĂŠmis hryggjarliĂ°ir og nokkur andlitsbein.
+
+GerĂ° beins
+MiĂ°ja beins nefnist skaft, (e. diaphysis), endar beins nefnast beinköst, (e. epiphysis), endafletir beins heita liĂ°fletir en ĂŸeir eru brjĂłskklĂŠddir.
+Allt beiniĂ° er ĂŸakiĂ° beinhimnu (e. periosteum), nema ĂĄ liĂ°flötum, ĂŸar er ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸakiĂ° liĂ°brjĂłski (e. articular cartilage). Ă löngum beinum er merghol (e. medullary cavity)sem er ĂŸakiĂ° aĂ° innan ĂŸunnri himnu, mergholshimnu, (e. endosteum). Ă mergholinu er fituvefur sem nefnist guli beinmergurinn. ĂĂ©ttbein (e. compact bone) eru aĂ° mestu leyti utan til Ă beininu ĂŸar sem ĂŸarf sterkan vef en frauĂ°bein (e. spongy bone) eru mestmegnis innan Ă beinendum og utan viĂ° mergholiĂ°.
+
+Beinvefur
+Beinvefur er Ășr lifandi frumum og millifrumuefnis (matrix). Til eru fjĂłrar gerĂ°ir lifandi beinfrumna:
+
+ Beinforfrumur (e. osteogenic cells) eru stofnfrumur sem taka mĂtĂłsuskiptingu og verĂ°a aĂ° beinkĂmfrumum. Beinforfrumur eru til dĂŠmis Ă beinhimnu.
+ BeinkĂmfrumur (e. oseoblasts) mynda beinvef utan um sig og verĂ°a imlyksa Ă lacunae beins.
+ Beinfrumur (e. oseocytes) sjĂĄ um daglegt starfsemi beina.
+ BeinĂĄtfrumur (e. osteoclasts) leysa upp bein viĂ° ĂŸroskun og viĂ°gerĂ°ir.
+
+EndurnĂœjun beina
+Beinin eru Ă stöðgri endurnĂœjun Ășt allt lĂfiĂ°, hraĂ°i endurnĂœjunarinnar fer eftir ĂĄlagi og öðrum kröfum sem eru gerĂ°ar til beinana.
+
+TvĂŠr gerĂ°ir frumna sjĂĄ um aĂ° byggja upp bein og brjĂłta ĂŸau niĂ°ur, ĂŸaĂ° eru beinkĂmfrumur og beinĂĄtfrumur. Ăessar frumur vinna hliĂ° viĂ° hliĂ° aĂ° viĂ° ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° lagfĂŠra beinin Ă lĂkamanum.
+
+Myndun beina
+ĂaĂ° ferli ĂŸegar bein myndast er kallaĂ° beingerĂ°/beinmyndun (e. ossification). Beinmyndun ĂĄ sĂ©r staĂ° aĂ°allega af fjĂłrum ĂĄstĂŠĂ°um.
+ Frummyndun beinanna Ă fĂłsturvĂsi.
+ Vöxtur beinanna Ă bernsku og unglingsĂĄrum ĂŸar til fullri stĂŠrĂ° hefur veriĂ° nĂĄĂ°.
+ EndurmĂłtun beinanna. Ă.e. gamall beinvefur leystur af fyrir nĂœjan.
+ Endurlögun byggingar.
+
+TvĂŠr mismunandi beinmyndanir eru innanhimnu beingerĂ° (e. intramembranous ossification) og innanbrjĂłsks beingerĂ° (e. endochondral ossification).
+
+Vöxtur beina
+Allt til unglingsĂĄranna vaxa beinin bĂŠĂ°i aĂ° lengd og ĂŸykkt. Lengd beina tengist starfsemi vaxtarlagsins. VaxtarlagiĂ° (e. epiphyseal growth plate) er ĂĄ milli beinendans og skaftsins. Ă vaxtarlaginu eru brjĂłskfrumur sem eru stanslaust aĂ° skipta sĂ©r. Ăegar bein vex Ă lengd myndast nĂœjar brjĂłskfrumur Ă vaxtarlaginu beinenda megin ĂĄ meĂ°an bein myndast skaft megin, og skaftiĂ° lengist. Ăegar unglingsĂĄrin taka enda minnkar myndun nĂœrra fruma og millifrumu matrix og hefur endanlega stoppaĂ° Ă kringum 18-25 ĂĄra. ĂĂĄ hefur bein tekiĂ° viĂ° af öllu brjĂłski vaxtarlagsins.
+
+Endurbygging beina
+Bein eru stanslaust aĂ° endurbyggjast. Endurbyggingin stafar af stanslausri skiptingu gamals beinvefs fyrir nĂœjan. Ăetta er ferli sem inniheldur ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° beinĂĄtfrumur hreinsa steinefni og kollagenĂŸrĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ beininu og nĂœjum steinefnum og kollagenĂŸrĂĄĂ°um er komiĂ° fyrir meĂ° beinkĂmfrumum. Endurbygging sĂ©r einnig um aĂ° gera viĂ° meidd bein.
+
+EyĂ°ing beina
+Beinåtfrumur eru stórar frumur, sem ferðast um og vella leysihvötum, sem melta beinið.
+
+Heimildir
+ Introduction to the Human Body, the essentials of anatomy and physiology.
+LĂkami er Ă lĂfeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i efnisheild lĂfveru.
+
+ByggingaĂŸrep
+LĂkamanum er skipt Ă byggingarĂŸrep til aĂ° fĂłlk eigi auĂ°veldara meĂ° aĂ° ĂĄtta sig ĂĄ heildarmyndinni. ByggingarĂŸrepin eru ĂŸessi, frĂĄ hinu flĂłkna til hins einfalda:
+
+ LĂfvera
+ LĂffĂŠrakerfi
+ LĂffĂŠri
+ Vefur
+ Fruma
+ FrumulĂffĂŠri
+ Efni
+ Sameind
+ Frumeind
+
+Tengt efni
+ MannslĂkaminn
+
+LĂkami
+LĂfeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i
+Beinagrind mannsins er hluti stoĂ°kerfis mannslĂkamans gegnir eftirfarandi hlutverkum:
+
+ HĂșn heldur lĂkamanum upprĂ©ttum
+ HĂșn styĂ°ur viĂ° vefi og lĂffĂŠri
+ HĂșn verndar lĂfsnauĂ°synleg lĂffĂŠri
+ Bein hennar flytja til vöðvakrafta
+ Rauði beinmergur beinanna framleiðir blóðfrumur
+ Beinin eru forĂ°abĂșr fyrir kalk- og fosföt.
+
+Flokkun
+Mannbeinagrindinni er gjarnan skipt Ă tvo flokka beina:
+ Möndulhluta, sem er höfuĂ°kĂșpa, hryggsĂșla, rifbein og bringubein
+ ViĂ°hengishluta, en honum tilheyra efri og neĂ°ri Ăștlimir, axlagrindur og mjaĂ°magrind, aĂ° undanskildu spjaldbeininu.
+
+Stutt yfirlit yfir ĂŸau bein sem eru ĂĄ myndinni til hliĂ°ar:
+
+Tengt efni
+ Listi yfir bein Ă beinagrind mannsins
+
+Beinagrind
+Leggur getur ĂĄtt viĂ°:
+ Stilk
+
+ Ă lĂffĂŠrafrĂŠĂ°i
+ FĂłtlegg
+ Bein
+
+ Ă stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+ Legg Ă netafrĂŠĂ°i
+HöfuĂ°kĂșpan (hauskĂșpa eĂ°a haus(s)kella) (latĂna: cranium af grĂska: orĂ°inu ÎșÏαΜÎčÎżÎœ) er ĂŸyrping beina efst ĂĄ hryggsĂșlunni, sem hefur aĂ° geyma heilann, augun og efsta hluta mĂŠnunnar. HauskĂșpa manns er Ășr 22 beinum af Ăœmsum stĂŠrĂ°um og gerĂ°um, auk tungubeins, tanna og ĂŸriggja beina Ă miĂ°eyra hvoru megin. Hlutar höfuĂ°kĂșpurnar eru tengdir saman meĂ° (tenntum) beinsaumum.
+
+HöfuĂ°kĂșpunni er skipt Ă tvennt: kĂșpubein, sem umlykja heilann og andlitsbein.
+
+Yfirlit yfir bein höfuĂ°kĂșpunnar sem eru ĂĄ myndunum til hliĂ°ar:
+
+Beinagrind
+âVefurâ getur lĂka ĂĄtt viĂ° veraldarvefinn.
+Vefur er hópur af nåtengdum frumum sem sérhÊfa sig til að gegna åkveðnum hlutverkum.
+
+Vefjum er skipt Ă nokkra flokka, ĂŸeir eru helstir:
+
+ Bandvefi
+ Taugavefi
+ Vöðvavefi
+ Ăekjuvefi
+
+LĂffĂŠrafrĂŠĂ°i
+NĂșlliĂ° var almenningssalerni Ă miĂ°borg ReykjavĂkur. KallaĂ° nĂșlliĂ° fyrst og fremst vegna staĂ°setningar sinnar neĂ°st Ă BankastrĂŠtinu, neĂ°an viĂ° fyrstu nĂșmeruĂ°u lóðirnar. NĂș er ĂŸar Pönksafn Ăslands.
+
+ReykjavĂk
+Beinvefur er harĂ°ur og steinefnarĂkur stoĂ°vefur, gerĂ°ur Ășr bandvefsĂŸrĂĄĂ°um og steinefnum, einkum kristölluĂ°um kalsĂumfosfatsöltum, en einnig natrĂum-, kalĂum-, klĂłr- og flĂșorsöltum.
+
+Beinvefjum er gjarnan skipt Ă tvennt:
+
+ FrauĂ°bein
+ ĂĂ©ttbein
+
+Beinhimna umlykur allan beinvef en hĂșn er Ășr bandvef. HĂșn aĂ°stoĂ°ar beinin viĂ° aĂ° grĂła meĂ° nĂŠringartilfĂŠrslu. Endar beina sem mĂŠta öðrum beinum er brjĂłsk.
+
+StoĂ°vefir
+ĂĂ©ttbein er, eins og nafniĂ° bendir til, ĂŸĂ©tt, en lĂka hart. ĂĂ©ttbeiniĂ° er bĂșiĂ° til Ășr örlitlum samfelldum spĂłlum sem nefnast beinflögur, osteocytes. Innan ĂŸessara beinflagna eru beinfrumurnar, hinar ĂŸroskuĂ°u frumur beinvefjarins, og liggja ĂŸar à örholum sem nefnast lĂłn. LĂłnunum er raĂ°aĂ° Ă samlĂŠga hringi utan um hverja beinflögu.
+
+ĂĂ©ttbeiniĂ° er aĂ° mestu utan til Ă beininu ĂŸar sem sterkan vef ĂŸarf.
+
+Bein
+Fjalakötturinn var fyrsta kvikmyndahĂșsiĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi og var Ă sama sal og BreiĂ°fjörĂ°sleikhĂșsiĂ°, AĂ°alstrĂŠti 8, ReykjavĂk. Ăar var tekiĂ° aĂ° sĂœna kvikmyndir 2. nĂłvember 1906 og tĂłk salurinn 300 manns Ă sĂŠti. KvikmyndasĂœningum lauk Ă Fjalakettinum 1926 og ĂŸar ĂĄ eftir var salurinn notaĂ°ur til allavega fundarhalda. Til dĂŠmis voru ĂŸar uppboĂ° (aksjĂłn), stĂșkufundir góðtemplara og t.d. stjĂłrnmĂĄlafundir kommĂșnistaflokksins um 1932.
+
+Saga ReykjavĂkur Biograftheater
+HĂșs ValgarĂ°s Ă. BreiĂ°fjörĂ°s, sem sĂĂ°an var kallaĂ° Fjalakötturinn ĂŸegar hĂșsiĂ° var fariĂ° aĂ° lĂĄta ĂĄ sjĂĄ, var einnig nefnt ReykjavĂkur Biograftheater, eĂ°a einfaldlega BĂĂł Ă daglegu tali ĂŸegar enn fĂłru fram kvikmyndasĂœningar Ă hĂșsinu. KvikmyndahĂșsiĂ° var til hĂșsa viĂ° AĂ°alstrĂŠti 8, viĂ° hliĂ° nĂșverandi MorgunblaĂ°shallar. GengiĂ° var inn Ă kvikmyndasalinn (og leikhĂșsiĂ°) frĂĄ Bröttugötu Ă GrjĂłtaĂŸorpinu, en verslun BreiĂ°fjörĂ°s sneri Ășt aĂ° AĂ°alstrĂŠtinu.
+
+Fjalakötturinn var ekki lengi eina kvikmyndahĂșsiĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸvĂ ĂĄriĂ° 1912 tĂłk NĂœja bĂĂł til starfa. ViĂ° ĂŸaĂ° varĂ° ReykjavĂkur Biograftheater aĂ° Gamla bĂĂłi Ă hugum bĂŠjarbĂșa ĂŸĂł ĂŸaĂ° hefĂ°i vart slitiĂ° barnsskĂłnum. Gamla bĂĂł flutti svo ĂĄ ĂŸriĂ°ja ĂĄratugnum upp ĂĄ IngĂłlfsstrĂŠti ĂŸar sem kvikmyndasĂœningum var fram haldiĂ° ĂŸar til 1980. Ăslenska Ăłperan var ĂŸar frĂĄ 1980 til 2011 ĂŸegar hĂșn flutti Ă Hörpuna.
+
+Saga hĂșssins
+IndriĂ°i GuĂ°mundsson sem vann viĂ° verslun BreiĂ°fjörĂ°s Ă AĂ°alstrĂŠti 8 segir svo frĂĄ starfsemi Ă hĂșsinu: âĂg vann viĂ° afgreiĂ°slu Ă nĂœlenduvörubĂșĂ°inni, en hĂșn var ĂŸar sem veriĂ° hefur SkĂłbĂșĂ° ReykjavĂkur. DömubĂșĂ° var ĂŸar sem nĂș er veitingastofa, og rak GuĂ°rĂșn JĂłnasson, sĂĂ°ar bĂŠjarfulltrĂși, ĂŸĂĄ bĂșĂ° um skeiĂ°. Bak viĂ° verzlunina var pakkhĂșs og ĂŸar var sekkjavaran geymd og afgreidd. Undir pakkhĂșsinu var kjallari og ĂŸar voru vĂnföng. Ăar var vĂniĂ° tappaĂ° af ĂĄnum og ĂŸar var Rabbecks-AllĂ©-öliĂ° geymt. Eins og kunnugt er, er hĂșsiĂ° geysistĂłrt. ĂaĂ° var kallaĂ° âFjalakötturinn",en ekki man Ă©g nĂș af hverju sĂș nafngift kom. Ăetta er mjög frĂŠgt hĂșs Ă sögu ReykjavĂkur. Ăar fĂłru fram leiksĂœningar og ĂŸar hĂłf LeikfĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur starfsemi sĂna, og ĂŸarna var og veitingasalur ĂĄ ĂŸriĂ°ju hĂŠĂ°. Allt var hĂșsiĂ° notaĂ° fyrir verzlunina, leikstarfsemina og veitingasöluna, nema hvaĂ° fjölskylda BreiĂ°fjörĂ°s hafĂ°i og bĂșstaĂ° Ă ĂŸvĂ ĂĄ annarri hĂŠĂ°. Einnig bjĂł starfsfĂłlk og vinnufĂłlk BreiĂ°fjörĂ°s. Seinna eignaĂ°ist JĂłhann prĂłki, bróðir Sig. JĂșl. JĂłhannessonar skĂĄlds og lĂŠknis, hĂșsiĂ°."
+
+NiĂ°urrif
+ĂrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° ĂŸarna hafi veriĂ° rekiĂ° sögufrĂŠgt leikhĂșs og sĂĂ°ar kvikmyndahĂșs, sem sagt var elsta uppistandandi kvikmyndahĂșs Ă heimi var Fjalakötturinn rifinn ĂĄriĂ° 1985. NĂș stendur hĂșs TryggingamiĂ°stöðvarinnar ĂĄ sömu lóð. ĂkvörĂ°unin um niĂ°urrif hĂșssins var mjög umdeild og um hana stóð töluverĂ°ur styr.
+
+Ă HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands ĂĄ ĂĄttunda ĂĄratug 20. aldar tĂłk kvikmyndaklĂșbburinn Fjalakötturinn sĂ©r nafn eftir hinum sögufrĂŠga kvikmyndasal. NafniĂ° var lĂka notaĂ° ĂĄ dagskrĂĄrliĂ° frĂĄ fyrstu ĂĄrum Stöðvar 2 ĂŸar sem sĂœndar voru sĂgildar kvikmyndir ĂĄ laugardögum.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2005 var opnaĂ°ur veitingastaĂ°ur meĂ° nafninu Fjalakötturinn Ă nĂœju hĂłteli Hotel Reykjavik Centrum en ĂŸaĂ° var teiknaĂ° meĂ° ĂŸaĂ° fyrir augum aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° liti Ășt eins og ĂŸau ĂŸrjĂș hĂșs sem ĂĄĂ°ur stóðu viĂ° AĂ°alstrĂŠti, og sĂĄ hluti byggingarinnar sem veitingastaĂ°urinn er Ă er teiknaĂ°ur eftir Fjalakettinum (ĂŸ.e.a.s. BreiĂ°fjörĂ°shĂșsi).
+
+Heimildir
+ Björn Ingi Hrafnsson, LjĂłsin slökkt og filman rĂșllar
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+ Fjalakötturinn; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1969
+ HĂĄkonsenshĂșs (FjaĂ°rafok); grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1961
+ LeikhĂșs W.Ă. BreiĂ°fjörĂ°s; grein Ă ReykvĂkingi 1896
+ Hvern varĂ°ar um varĂ°veislu Fjalarkattarins?; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1983
+ AĂ°alstrĂŠti 8; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1984
+ Fjalakötturinn rifinn; grein à Morgunblaðinu 1985
+ Hvað merkir Fjalaköttur; grein à Morgunblaðinu 1984
+ Greinagerð borgarminjavarðar um Fjalaköttinn; grein à Morgunblaðinu 1984
+
+KvikmyndahĂșs ĂĄ Ăslandi
+Horfnar byggingar Ă ReykjavĂk
+MiĂ°borg ReykjavĂkur
+FrauĂ°beiniĂ° er innan Ă beinendum og utan viĂ° mergholiĂ°. ĂaĂ° er gljĂșpt og myndar bjĂĄlka. Ă holrĂșmum ĂŸeirra myndast rauĂ°i beinmergurinn. DĂŠmi um frauĂ°bein eru t.d. höfuĂ°bein, hryggjarliĂ°ur, rifbein og fleiri.
+
+Bein
+Frumur eru smĂŠstu, lifandi byggingareiningar lĂfvera, ĂŸ.e.a.s. allar lĂfverur eru gerĂ°ar Ășr frumum. Til eru lĂfverur sem eru einungis ein fruma og nefnast ĂŸĂŠr einfrumungar en aĂ° öðrum kosti fjölfrumungar. Frumum er almennt skipt Ă dĂœrafrumur og plöntufrumur. ĂĂŠr geta veriĂ° sĂ©rhĂŠfĂ°ar, t.d. taugafrumur og veffrumur.
+
+Frumur eru mjög misstĂłrar, sumar sjĂĄanlegar meĂ° berum augun, jafnvel mjög stĂłrar, ĂŸĂł alger undantekning, og hafa mismunandi lögun og ĂĄĂŠtlaĂ° er aĂ° mannslĂkaminn sĂ© um 30 milljĂłn milljĂłn frumur (og um 200 mismunandi tegundir). StĂŠrĂ° og lögun frumna er talin styĂ°ja viĂ° ĂŸrĂłunarkenningu Darwins; varĂ°andi uppruna mannsins og annars lĂfs ĂĄ jörĂ°unni.
+
+AĂ°eins um 43% of frumum Ă mannslĂkamanum eru mannafrumur. Ărverumengi mannsins (e. microbiome) samanstendur s.s. aĂ° mestu leiti af öðrum frumum, ĂŸ.e. gerlum (bakterĂum), um, sveppagróðri og fyrnum (e. archaea) sem samanlagt eru nokkuĂ° fleiri, en ĂŸĂł aĂ°eins 0,3% af lĂkamsĂŸyngdinni, svo 99,7% af lĂkamsĂŸyngdinni eru samt mannafrumur.
+
+Samsetning
+Um 60â70% frumna er vatn (miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° rĂșmmĂĄl, en meira en 99% af sameindum Ă lĂkamanum eru vatn, ĂŸvĂ vatnssameindin er svo Ăłvenju smĂĄ sameind). Um 1% eru ĂłlĂfrĂŠnar jĂłnir m.a. kalĂum, natrĂum, magnesĂum og kalsĂum. Afgangurinn er Ăœmsar lĂfrĂŠnar sameindir m.a. lĂpĂĂ°, kolvetni, prĂłtĂn og kjarnsĂœrur.
+
+FrumulĂffĂŠri
+FrumulĂffĂŠri eru Ăœmsar sĂ©rhĂŠfĂ°ar starfseiningar frumunnar sem sinna ĂłlĂkum hlutverkum og eru ĂŸau nokkur talsins (sjĂĄ mynd):
+
+Ă hverri frumu er einn eĂ°a fleiri kjarnar sem innihelda litninga. Frumur eru nefndar heilkjörnungar ef ĂŸĂŠr hafa skĂœrt afmarkaĂ°an kjarna meĂ° kjarnahimnu en ella eru ĂŸeir nefndir dreifkjörnungar. Ă kjörnum eru kjarnakorn sem mynda RNA viĂ° frumuskiptingu.
+
+ Umfrymi nefnist vökvi sem ĂŸekur rĂœmiĂ° milli frumulĂffĂŠranna. UmfrymiĂ° stjĂłrnar umferĂ° efna innan frumunnar ĂĄ milli frumulĂffĂŠranna og Ă gegnum frumuhimnuna. Um umfrymiĂ° hrĂslast frymisnet sem getur annaĂ° hvort veriĂ° slĂ©tt eĂ°a kornĂłtt eftir tegund frumunnar.
+
+ RĂbĂłsĂłm (netkorn eĂ°a rĂplur) er gerĂ° Ășr rRNA og prĂłtĂnum. Hlutverk ĂŸeirra er aĂ° mynda prĂłtĂn eftir forskrift mRNA, annaĂ° hvort til neyslu innan frumunnar eĂ°a til Ăștflutnings.
+
+ Golgikerfi (golgiflĂ©tta eĂ°a frymisflĂ©tta) eru klasar sekkja, seytibĂłla, efna sem fruman ĂŠtlar til Ăștflutnings t.d. ĂĄ mjölva, fitu eĂ°a Ășrgangsefnum. Golgikerfi geta einnig veriĂ° sekkir leysikorna sem sundra ĂłnothĂŠfum frumulĂffĂŠrum.
+
+ SafabĂłlur eru oftast nĂŠr litlar Ă dĂœrafrumum en stĂłrar Ă plöntufrumum.
+
+ Hvatberar eru prótin stönglar sem nÊra frumukjarni með nÊringu til að framleiða DNA.
+
+ GrĂŠnukorn eru Ă plöntufrumum og eru nauĂ°synleg forsenda ljĂłstillĂfunar.
+
+ ĂrpĂplur og örĂŸrĂĄĂ°lingar eru hluti af stoĂ°kerfi frumunnar. Ăau mynda lögun hennar og taka ĂŸĂĄtt Ă myndum bifhĂĄra og svipa.
+
+Ă dĂœra- og plöntufrumum er valgegndrĂŠp frumuhimna, ĂŸ.e.a.s. hĂșn âvelurâ hvaĂ°a efni ferĂ°ast Ă gegn. Frumuhimnan er aĂ°allega gerĂ° Ășr fituefni sem nefnist fosfĂłlĂpĂĂ°, og prĂłtĂnum.
+
+Frumuveggur er ysta verndarlag plöntufrumna gert Ășr beĂ°ma og pektĂni. Eins og nafniĂ° gefur til kynna er ĂŸaĂ° eins konar styrktarlag frumunnar og liggur hann utan viĂ° frumuhimnuna Ă plöntufrumum.
+
+StĂŠrĂ°
+Frumur eru misstĂłrar og hafa mismunandi lögun og ĂĄĂŠtlaĂ° aĂ° mannslĂkaminn sĂ© um 30 milljĂłn milljĂłn frumur (og um 200 mismunandi tegundir), 80% af ĂŸeim rauĂ° blóðkorn, hvert mjög smĂĄtt. Kynfrumurnar eru bĂŠĂ°i minnstu og stĂŠrstu frumurnar, ĂŸ.e. eggfrumur kvenna eru stĂŠrstar (og geta sĂ©st meĂ° berum augum) og sĂŠĂ°isfrumur karla minnstar (og einstakar sjĂĄst aĂ°eins Ă smĂĄsjĂĄ, lĂkt og ĂĄ viĂ° um flestar frumur). Ăegar ĂŸĂŠr sameinast verĂ°ur til stĂŠrri okfruma, sem sĂĂ°an fer aĂ° skipta sĂ©r. Lengstu frumar lĂkamans er mjög Ălangar (en t.d. eggfrumur eru um ĂŸaĂ° bil kĂșlulaga), ĂŸ.e. margar taugafrumur (og vöðvafrumur) og sĂș lengsta (sciatic nerve) nĂŠr frĂĄ mĂŠnunni niĂ°ur Ă stĂłru tĂĄ, er allt upp Ă meter aĂ° lengd en aĂ°eins fĂĄir mĂkrĂłmetrar aĂ° breidd. Ă gĂraffa (og manninum og öðrum hryggdĂœrum) er taug (recurrent laryngeal nerve) sem fer niĂ°ur allan hĂĄlsinn og svo upp aftur Ă barkakĂœliĂ°; yfir 4 metrar aĂ° lengd ĂŸvĂ hĂĄlsinn er um 2,3 metrar, sem hefur veriĂ° talin sönnun ĂŸrĂłun, ĂŸ.e. aĂ° allt dĂœrarĂkiĂ° ĂĄ landi hafi ekki veriĂ° hannaĂ° heldur hafi ĂŸrĂłast frĂĄ fiskum (eĂ°a ĂŸĂĄ ĂĄkv. dĂœr sĂ©staklega illa hönnuĂ°, ĂŸvĂ ĂŸessi taug ĂŸyrfti ekki aĂ° vera lengri en örfĂĄir sentimetrar hefĂ°i ĂŸrĂłunin ekki smĂĄ lent hana; gĂŠti lĂka veriĂ° styttri Ă mönnum). Plöntufrumur eru almennt minni en dĂœrafrumur og sĂș lengsta 5,5 cm.
+
+ĂĂŠr taugafrumur sem mest er af eru cerebellar granule frumur, sem eru 3/4 of öllum taugafrumum Ă manninum, og um 50 milljarĂ°ar aĂ° tölu. Ăll spendĂœr eru meĂ° dorsal root ganglion frumu sem eru taugar, og hefur mjög langan taugasĂma. Hvalurinn steypireyĂ°ur sem er stĂŠrsta dĂœr sem nokkurn tĂman hefur lifaĂ° ĂĄ jörĂ°inni, og meĂ° lengstu frumuna sem er sĂș taug.
+
+Ă lĂkamanum eru um 38 milljĂłn milljĂłn gerlar (bakterĂur), ĂŸĂŠr frumur eru litlu fleiri en okkar eigin frumur (og viĂ° myndum ekki lifa ĂĄn ĂŸeirra, ĂĄĂ°ur var taliĂ° aĂ° ĂŸĂŠr vĂŠrum um 10 sinnum fleiri en okkar eigin). ĂĂł svo gerlar sĂ©u fleiri eru ĂŸeir ekki nema um 0,3% af lĂkamsĂŸyngdinni eĂ°a um 0,2 kg fyrir karlmenn. ĂĂł langflestar okkar frumur sĂ©u rauĂ° blóðkorn, eru ĂŸau bara lĂtiĂ° brot af ĂŸyngd, og vöðvafrumaur algengastar hĂĄtt Ă helmingur af lĂkamsĂŸyngd.
+
+MeĂ° minnstu frumum, ef ekki minnstu, eru mycoplasma gallisepticum sem eru ĂĄn frumuveggs, sem er ekki venjan fyrir gerla eĂ°a aĂ°rar frumur. VĂrusar eru minni, en eru hvorki taldir, af flestum lĂffrĂŠĂ°ingum, vera lifandi, nĂ© eru frumur. Ăeir hins vegar fara inn Ă frumur og yfirtaka, og Ă ĂĄkv. skilningi verĂ°a ĂŸannig lifandi ĂŸegar ĂŸaĂ° gerist.
+
+StĂŠrsti (ĂŸyngsti) einfrumungurinn er Valonia ventricosa (ĂŸekktur sem kĂșlu ĂŸĂ¶rungur eĂ°a sjĂłmannsauga), 1 til 4 cm aĂ° stĂŠrĂ°, jafnvel upp Ă 5,1 cm, svo alltaf sjĂĄanlegur meĂ° berum augum sem er mjög sjaldgĂŠft meĂ° einfrumunga eĂ°a frumur almennt. StĂŠrsti (lengd/flatarmĂĄl) einfrumungurinn er botnĂŸĂ¶rurinn Caulerpa taxifolia sem er 20â60 cm langur og er ĂĄ lista yfir 100 verstu ĂĄgengu tegundundirnar, einn af tveimur ĂŸĂ¶rungum ĂŸar, nefndur drĂĄpsĂŸĂ¶rungurinn. StĂŠrsta fruma (Ă dĂœrarĂkinu, af nĂșlifandi dĂœrum) er strĂștsegg, yfir 16 cm Ă ĂŸvermĂĄl og jafnvel yfir 2.5 kg (risaeĂ°luegg hafa fundist stĂŠrri, t.d. 45,0 cm Ă ĂŸvermĂĄl).
+
+Tengt efni
+ byggingarĂŸrep lĂkamans
+
+Tenglar
+ NĂĄmsvefur Ă frumulĂffrĂŠĂ°i fyrir grunnskĂłla
+
+VĂsindavefurinn
+
+Heimildir
+
+Frumur
+KĂșpubeinin (frĂŠĂ°iheiti: ossa cranii) eru ĂŸau bein höfuĂ°kĂșpunnar, sem hvelfast um heilann og mynda heilakĂșpu (frĂŠĂ°iheiti: cranium). Ănnur bein höfuĂ°kĂșpunnar nefnast andlitsbein.
+
+Bein
+Mannsheili er heili mannsins, samsettur Ășr fjölmörgum taugaĂŸrĂĄĂ°um og myndar ĂĄsamt mĂŠnu miĂ°taugakerfiĂ°. Heilinn vegur um 1.4 kg (um 2% af lĂkamsmassa). ĂrĂĄtt fyrir lĂtinn massa tekur hann til sĂn um 20% af ĂŸvĂ blóði sem hjartaĂ° dĂŠlir frĂĄ sĂ©r.
+
+LĂfeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i
+Heilinn ĂŸarf stöðugt flĂŠĂ°i sĂșrefnis og glĂșkĂłsa til aĂ° framleiĂ°a ATP og ĂŸar meĂ° halda virkni sinni. GlĂșkĂłsi er fluttur meĂ° virkum flutningi yfir blóðheilahemilinn, en sĂșrefni meĂ° Ăłvirkum. Heilafrumur geta, undir venjulegum kringumstĂŠĂ°um, bara nĂœtt sĂ©r glĂșkĂłsa sem orku. SĂ© heilinn sveltur af glĂșkĂłsa geta heilafrumur nĂœtt ketĂłnkorn sem myndast viĂ° niĂ°urbrot fitu sem orkulind.
+
+Skortur ĂĄ sĂșrefni eĂ°a glĂșkĂłsa Ă heila getur valdiĂ° varanlegum frumudauĂ°a. MiĂ°aĂ° er viĂ° aĂ° manneskja geti veriĂ° sĂșrefnislaus Ă ĂŸrjĂĄr til fjĂłrar mĂnĂștur ĂĄn ĂŸess aĂ° hljĂłta af varanlegan heilaskaĂ°a.
+
+SvĂŠĂ°i heilans
+Mörg svÊði og undirsvÊði mynda heildina sem heilinn er.
+
+Heilastofn
+
+Heilastofn er Ă augnhĂŠĂ° og samanstendur af ĂŸremur undirsvĂŠĂ°um:
+
+MĂŠnukylfa
+MĂŠnukylfan eĂ°a medulla oblongata, er neĂ°sti hluti heilastofnsins og gengur mĂŠnan neĂ°an Ășr mĂŠnukylfunni.
+
+ĂaĂ° er mĂŠnukylfan sem ber âĂĄbyrgĂ°â ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° vinstri hluti heilans stjĂłrnar hĂŠgri hluta lĂkamans og hĂŠgri hluti heilans stjĂłrnar vinstri hluta lĂkamans, vegna ĂŸess aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° er Ă mĂŠnukylfunni sem ĂĄkveĂ°nar boĂ°brautir vĂxlast.
+
+Ă mĂŠnukylfunni eru lĂka lĂfsnauĂ°synlegar heilastöðvar; heilastöð sem stjĂłrnar hjartslĂŠtti, ĂŠĂ°astjĂłrnstöð sem stillir blĂłĂ°ĂŸrĂœsting og svo öndunarstöð sem stjĂłrnar öndun. Einnig eru heilastöðvar sem stĂœra Ăœmsum viĂ°brögĂ°um eins og uppköstum, hnerra, hĂłsta og kyngingu.
+
+BrĂș
+BrĂș, pons, tengir saman Ăœmsa hluta heilans. Auk ĂŸess ĂĄ ein öndunarstöð aĂ°setur Ă brĂșnni.
+
+ĂaĂ° sem er einna merkilegast viĂ° ĂŸetta svĂŠĂ°i er ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° hĂ©r vĂxlast taugabrautir; allar innboĂ°staugar sem koma frĂĄ hĂŠgri hliĂ° lĂkamans og bera heilanum skynĂĄreiti vĂxlast Ă brĂșnni og liggja yfir til vinstra heilahvelsins og öfugt.
+
+MiĂ°heili
+Ă miĂ°heila, mesencephalon, eru sjĂłnviĂ°bragsstöðvar fyrir höfuĂ° og hreyfingar augna og svo er lĂka skiptistöð fyrir upplĂœsingar tengdar heyrn. Framhluti miĂ°heila er samansettur af tveimur pedunculus cerebri. Ă ĂŸeim eru taugasĂmar hreyfitaugunga sem leiĂ°a taugaboĂ° frĂĄ hjarna til mĂŠnu, mĂŠnukylfu, brĂșar annars vegar og hins vegar skyntaugunga sem nĂĄ frĂĄ mĂŠnukylfu til stĂșku. Ă miĂ°heila er substantia nigra, en Parkison-sjĂșkdĂłmurinn felur Ă sĂ©r hrörnun ĂŸeirra. Ăar eru einnig hĂŠgri og vinstri nucleus ruber, ĂŸar ĂĄ sĂ©r staĂ° samhĂŠfing vöðvahreyfinga litlaheila og hjarna. Ă miĂ°heila er einnig aĂ° finna kjarna tengda heilataugum III og IV. ĂĂĄ er aĂ° finna kjarnana colliculus superius og colliculus inferior ĂĄ bakhluta miĂ°heila. Um hina tvo c. sup. ganga margir viĂ°bragĂ°sbogar tengdir hreyfingum augna, höfuĂ°s og hĂĄls. Hinir tveir c. inf. eru hluti af heyrnarbrautinni en ĂŸeir senda ĂĄfram boĂ° frĂĄ viĂ°tökum Ă eyra til stĂșku. Einnig eru ĂŸeir viĂ°bragĂ°sbogar fyrir aĂ° hrökkva viĂ°, ĂŸ.e. skyndihreyfingar höfuĂ°s og lĂkama sem ĂĄ sĂ©r staĂ° ĂŸegar manni bregĂ°ur viĂ° hĂĄtt hljóð.
+
+Milliheili
+
+Milliheili, diencephalon, skiptist Ă ĂŸrjĂș svĂŠĂ°i; stĂșku, undirstĂșku og heilaköngul.
+
+StĂșkan
+StĂșkan, thalamus sĂ©r um aĂ° tengja ĂĄnĂŠgju eĂ°a óånĂŠgju viĂ° skynjunarboĂ° frĂĄ taugum, endurvarpa taugaboĂ°um frĂĄ nokkrum skynfĂŠrum til stĂłra heila og gegnir mikilvĂŠgu hlutverki varĂ°andi svefn og vöku.
+
+UndirstĂșkan
+
+UndirstĂșkan, hypothalamus, hefur fjölmörg hlutverk, meĂ°al annars:
+ HĂșn stillir lĂkamshitann
+ Matarlystar- og mettunarstöðvar Ă henni stilla ĂĄtĂŸĂ¶rf.
+ HĂșn tekur ĂŸĂĄtt Ă viĂ°haldi vökvajafnvĂŠgis og ĂŸar er ĂŸorstastöðin staĂ°sett.
+ HĂșn hefur ĂĄhrif ĂĄ kynhegĂ°un og geĂ°shrĂŠringar.
+ Miðstöðvar à henni meta hvort atburðir eru ånÊgjulegir eða sårsaukafullir.
+ HĂșn tengir saman taugakerfi og innkirtla og hĂșn er lĂka mikilvĂŠgur tengiliĂ°ur milli hugar og lĂkamsstarfsemi.
+ HĂșn viĂ°heldur jafnvĂŠgi Ă lĂkamanum.
+
+Heilaköngull
+Heilaköngullinn (e. pineal gland, lat. epiphysis) telst til innkirtlakerfisins.
+
+Heilahnykill (Litli heili)
+
+Heilahnykill (litli heili), cerebellum, er nĂŠststĂŠrsti hluti heilans
+
+Hlutverk heilahnykilsins eru:
+ Gera vöðvahreyfingar lĂkamans mjĂșkar
+ StuĂ°la aĂ° vöðvaspennu og ĂŸar aĂ° leiĂ°andi rĂ©ttstöðu lĂkamans
+ Vinna Ășr upplĂœsingum sem berast frĂĄ lĂffĂŠrum jafnvĂŠgisstöðunnar Ă inneyra og nota ĂŸĂŠr til aĂ° halda jafnvĂŠgi.
+
+Hvelaheili (StĂłri heili)
+
+Hvelaheili eĂ°a stĂłri heili (e. cerebrum) er stĂŠrsti hluti heilans og geymir miĂ°stöð ĂŠĂ°ri hugsunar, gĂĄfnafars, rökhugsunar, minnis, tungutaks og vitundar. Ă honum fer fram Ășrvinnsla meĂ°vitaĂ°rar skynjunar og stjĂłrnun hreyfinga. Ăökk sĂ© hvelaheila hefur maĂ°urinn eiginleika sem aĂ°rar lĂfverur stĂĄta ekki af; siĂ°ferĂ°iskennd, ljóðagerĂ°, listsköpun hvers konar og hĂŠfileika til aĂ° uppgötva nĂœja hluti.
+
+Ysta lag hvelaheilans nefnist einnig heilabörkur og er myndaĂ° Ășr grĂĄum taugavef (l. substantia grisea). Vefurinn er grĂĄr ĂŸvĂ ekkert einangrandi mĂœelĂnslĂĂ°ur umlykur taugafrumurnar, ĂŸvert ĂĄ ĂŸaĂ° sem gerist innan viĂ° börkinn og kallast hvĂtan (l. substantia alba) en mĂœelĂn sem umlykur taugaĂŸrĂŠĂ°ia gerir taugavefinn hvĂtleitari. HvĂta taugavefnum mĂĄ lĂkja viĂ° hraĂ°brautir sem ganga milli undirsvĂŠĂ°a heilans.
+
+ĂaĂ° er einmitt ĂŸessi hjarnabörkur sem greinir taugakerfi mannsins frĂĄ skyldum lĂfverum og gefur okkur suma af ĂŸeim eiginleikum sem voru nefndir hĂ©r aĂ° ofan.
+
+Hlutverk hvelaheilans er ĂŸrĂĂŸĂŠtt:
+ Skynjun
+ Hreyfing
+ Tenging
+
+Skipting hvelaheila:
+
+Heilabörkur (cerebral cortex)
+Heilabörkurinn er ysta lag grĂĄnuefnisins sem umlykur heilann. MaĂ°urinn hefur hlutfallslega stĂŠrstan heilabörk allra dĂœra. Taugabrautir Ă heilaberki gegna mikilvĂŠgu hlutverki Ă Ăœmiss konar hugarferlum og hreyfistjĂłrn.
+
+Heilabotnskjarnar (basal ganglia)
+Heilabotnskjarnar, einnig kallaĂ°ir grunnlĂŠg heilahnoĂ°, gegna mikilvĂŠgu hlutverki Ă stjĂłrnun hreyfinga. Ăeir eru ĂŸrĂr:
+
+Bleikhnöttur (globus pallidus)
+RĂłfukjarni (caudate nucleus)
+Skel (putamen)
+
+Randkerfi (limbic system)
+RandkerfiĂ°, eĂ°a limbĂska kerfiĂ°, sĂ©r um Ăœmsa ĂŸĂŠtti tilfinninga og minnis. ĂĂŠr heilastöðvar sem tilheyra randkerfinu eru:
+Dreki (hippocampus)
+Fornix
+Randbörkur (limbic cortex)
+Mandla (amygdala)
+StĂșka (thalamus, aĂ°eins hlutar hennar tilheyra ĂŸĂł randkerfinu)
+UndirstĂșka (hypothalamus, aĂ°eins hlutar hennar tilheyra ĂŸĂł randkerfinu)
+
+Ăhrif umhverfisins ĂĄ heilann
+
+Tilraunir hafa leitt Ă ljĂłs aĂ° reynsla getur valdiĂ° breytingum Ă heila, bĂŠĂ°i efnafrĂŠĂ°ilegum og lĂkamlegum. Ămislegt er ĂŸĂł ĂłljĂłst Ă ĂŸessum efnum.
+
+RannsĂłknir sem beinast aĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° kanna tengsl heila og umhverfis gefa til kynna aĂ° ĂĄreiti snemma ĂĄ ĂŠviferlinum sĂ© mjög afgerandi fyrir taugar, hreyfingar og gĂĄfnaĂŸroska barna.
+
+Tenglar
+ ViĂ° höfum 10 milljarĂ°a staĂ°reynda Ă höfĂ°inu; grein Ă HeimilistĂmanum 1975
+
+SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+MiĂ°taugakerfiĂ°
+
+de:Gehirn#Das menschliche Gehirn
+ta:àźźàź©àźżàź€ àźźàŻàźłàŻ
+MĂŠnan er Ă lĂffĂŠrafrĂŠĂ°i annar hluti miĂ°taugakerfis hryggdĂœra, hĂșn er umlukin og vernduĂ° af hryggsĂșlunni en hĂșn fer Ă gegnum hrygggöngin. HĂșn tilheyrir miĂ°taugakerfinu ĂŸvĂ Ă mĂŠnu er unniĂ° Ășr taugaboĂ°um og andsvar taugakerfisins rĂŠĂ°st gjarnan af samspili heila og mĂŠnu. Ămis viĂ°brögĂ° lĂkamans fara aĂ°eins um mĂŠnutaugar eĂ°a mĂŠnu og nefnast ĂŸvĂ mĂŠnuviĂ°brögĂ° (t.d. ef maĂ°ur brennir sig).
+
+MiĂ°taugakerfiĂ°
+HryggsĂșlan
+MiĂ°taugakerfi er annar hluti taugakerfisins, myndaĂ° af heila og mĂŠnu. Hinn hluti taugakerfisins er ĂșttaugakerfiĂ°.
+
+MiĂ°taugakerfiĂ° gegnir ĂŸvĂ hlutverki aĂ° vera stjĂłrnstöð fyrir alla starfsemi lĂkamans. ĂaĂ° vinnur Ășr ĂŸvĂ ĂĄreiti sem berast ĂŸvĂ Ă gegnum ĂșttaugakerfiĂ°, ĂŸ.e. skynfĂŠrum lĂkamans og ĂĄkveĂ°ur viĂ°brögĂ° viĂ° ĂŸeim. SvĂŠĂ°i heilans eru mörg og gegna mismunandi hlutverkum.
+
+MiĂ°taugakerfiĂ°
+Andlitsbeinin (frĂŠĂ°iheiti: ossa faciale) eru ĂŸau 14 bein höfuĂ°kĂșpnnar, sem flest er tengd meĂ° Ăłhreyfanlegum liĂ°amĂłtum, sem nefnast beinsaumar og eru viĂ° fĂŠĂ°ingu ekki aĂ° fullu samvaxnir. Beinin, sem hvelfast um heilann, nefnast kĂșpubein.
+
+Bein
+
+de:SchÀdel#Die Knochen des SchÀdels
+Frumeind eĂ°a atĂłm er smĂŠsta aĂ°greinanlega eining frumefnis, sem jafnframt hefur efnafrĂŠĂ°ilega eiginleika ĂŸess til aĂ° bera. Frumeind er ĂŸannig grundvallareining efna og helst Ăłbreytt Ă efnahvörfum.
+
+Hver frumeind er Ășr ĂŸremur gerĂ°um einda:
+ nifteindum sem ekki hafa hleĂ°slu
+ rafeindum sem eru neikvĂŠtt hlaĂ°nar
+ rĂłteindum sem eru jĂĄkvĂŠtt hlaĂ°nar
+
+Eiginleikar
+Eiginleikar frumeinda eru aĂ°allega ĂĄkvarĂ°aĂ°ir Ășt frĂĄ kjarna og rafeindaskĂœi ĂŸeirra, ĂŸar mĂĄ nefna massa, hleĂ°slu, kjarnakraft, geislun, seguleiginleika og ĂĄstand ĂŸeirra.
+
+Frumeind mĂĄ einnig skipta Ă tvo hluta: kjarna og rafeindasvigrĂșm. RafeindasvigrĂșmiĂ° hĂœsir allar rafeindir frumeindarinnar og mynda rafeindirnar skĂœ um kjarnann. Kjarninn er Ășr rĂłteindum og nifteindum. Frumeind er sögĂ° vera ĂłhlaĂ°in ef fjöldi rĂłteinda og rafeinda er jafn. Annars kallast hĂșn jĂłn, og hefur jĂĄkvĂŠĂ°a rafhleĂ°slu ef rĂłteindir eru fleiri en rafeindirnar, annars neikvĂŠĂ°a hleĂ°slu. ĂĂłtt Ăłmögulegt sĂ© aĂ° ĂĄkvarĂ°a samtĂmis bĂŠĂ°i hraĂ°a og staĂ°setningu einstakra rafeinda meĂ° nĂĄkvĂŠmni, mĂĄ skipta rafeindaskĂœinu upp Ă hvolf eftir orkustigi rafeindanna. Hvolfin samsvara ĂŸĂĄ fjarlĂŠgĂ° frĂĄ kjarnanum, ĂŸar sem hĂŠrra orkustig merkir meiri fjarlĂŠgĂ° frĂĄ kjarnanum. Rafeindirnar leitast viĂ° aĂ° fylla orkulĂŠgri hvolfin, en hvert hvolf getur aĂ°eins rĂșmaĂ° ĂĄkveĂ°inn fjölda skv. reglunni 2n2 ĂŸar sem n er raĂ°tala hvolfsins taliĂ° frĂĄ kjarna. Rafeindir sem sitja yst Ă tiltekinni frumeind nefnast gildisrafeindir og hafa mest ĂĄhrif ĂĄ efnafrĂŠĂ°ilega hegĂ°un hennar. ĂĂŠr gegna lykilhlutverki Ă aĂ° binda frumeindir saman og mynda ĂŸannig sameindir. Efnishlutur sem eingöngu er Ășr einni tegund frumeinda kallast frumefni.
+
+SĂŠtistala frumefna rĂŠĂ°st af fjölda rĂłteinda. Frumeindir sem hafa sömu sĂŠtistölu geta haft ĂłlĂkan fjölda nifteinda, ĂŸessar eindir eru kallaĂ°ar samsĂŠtur. DĂŠmi um ĂŸĂŠr eru til dĂŠmis:
+ 1H og 2H, hafa sÊtistöluna 1
+ 12C og 13C, hafa sÊtistöluna 6
+
+Kjarni
+Hvert atĂłm hefur kjarna sem er Ășr kjarneindunum rĂłteind og nifteind. Ăessum eindum heldur sterki kjarnakrafturinn saman. RadĂus kjarnans er u.ĂŸ.b. fm, ĂŸar sem A er fjöldi kjarneinda Ă kjarnanum. Ăessi stĂŠrĂ° er mun minni en heildarradĂus atĂłmsins sem er ĂĄ stĂŠrĂ°argrĂĄĂ°unni 105 fm. Kjarninn er ĂŸvĂ aĂ°eins brotabrot af heildarstĂŠrĂ° atĂłmsins, en nĂŠstum allur massi ĂŸess bundinn Ă honum. Massi rafeindanna er mun minni er massi kjarnans og yfirleitt ekki tekinn meĂ° Ă Ăștreikningum sem varĂ°a atĂłmiĂ° Ă heild.
+
+Kjarneindirnar eru fermĂeindir og ĂŸvĂ gildir einsetulögmĂĄl Paulis um ĂŸĂŠr. ĂaĂ° ĂŸĂœĂ°ir aĂ° hver rĂłteind er meĂ° sitt eigiĂ° skammtaĂĄstand og deilir ĂŸvĂ ĂĄstandi ekki meĂ° annarri rĂłteind. Sama gildir um nifteindirnar en ĂŸar sem ĂŸessar tvĂŠr kjarneindir hafa mismunandi hleĂ°slu ĂŸĂĄ gildir einsetulögmĂĄliĂ° ekki ĂĄ milli ĂŸeirra.
+
+Fjöldi rĂłteinda ĂĄkvarĂ°ar sĂŠtistölu atĂłmsins og ĂŸar meĂ° stöðu atĂłmsins innan lotukerfisins. Hvert atĂłm getur haft mismunandi samsĂŠtur ĂŸar sem fjöldi nifteinda getur veriĂ° mismunandi en fjöldi kjarneinda ĂĄkveĂ°a kjarnagerĂ°ina.
+
+RafeindasvigrĂșm
+
+Umhverfis kjarnann eru rafeindir. Ăessar rafeindir skiptast niĂ°ur Ă svokölluĂ° rafeindasvigrĂșm og sjĂĄ mĂĄ fyrstu fimm svigrĂșmin ĂĄ mynd hĂ©r til hliĂ°ar. RafeindasvigrĂșmin hafa ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° rĂșmmĂĄl, sem eru hĂĄĂ° skammtafrĂŠĂ°ilegum eiginleikum rafeindanna og er ĂŸĂŠr aĂ° finna innan ĂŸessa rĂșmmĂĄls, en nĂĄkvĂŠmlega hvar innan ĂŸess er Ăłmögulegt aĂ° ĂĄkveĂ°a meĂ° tilraunum eĂ°a Ăștreikningum (sjĂĄ ĂłvissulögmĂĄl Heisenbergs). AĂ°eins er hĂŠgt, meĂ° skammtafrĂŠĂ°ilegum Ăștreikningum, aĂ° reikna lĂkindi ĂĄ staĂ°setningu og hraĂ°avigur rafeindarinnar. RafeindasvigrĂșmin eru kyrrstĂŠĂ° m.t.t. kjarna frumeindarinnar.
+
+Saga
+GrĂskir heimspekingar komu fyrstir fram meĂ° ĂŸĂĄ kenningu aĂ° allt efni vĂŠri gert Ășr Ăłdeilanlegum eindum og nefndu ĂŸeir ĂŸessar eindir atomos. ĂaĂ° orĂ° er sett saman Ășr a, sem er neitandi forskeyti og tomos, skurĂ°ur, sem sagt eitthvaĂ° sem ekki er hĂŠgt aĂ° skera eĂ°a deila og lĂœsti ĂŸetta hugmynd ĂŸeirra um eĂ°li ĂŸessara einda (atomos=Ăłdeili). DemĂłkrĂtos frĂĄ Abderu er sĂ©rstaklega bendlaĂ°ur viĂ° ĂŸessa kenningu. HĂ©r ber aĂ° undirstrika aĂ° ĂŸessar fyrstu hugmyndir um Ăłdeilanlegar frumeindir eru Ă mikilsverĂ°u tilliti frĂĄbrugĂ°nar hugmyndum nĂștĂmamanna. GrĂsku frumeindasinnarnir hugsuĂ°u sĂ©r aĂ° frumeindirnar vĂŠru Ă raun allar Ășr sama efninu en aĂ° ĂŸĂŠr skiptust Ă Ăłendanlegan fjölda tilbrigĂ°a eftir stĂŠrĂ° og lögun, ĂŸar sem eindir af hverju tilbrigĂ°i/tegund ĂĄttu aĂ° vera eilĂfar og Ăłbreytanlegar. StĂŠrĂ° (ĂŸĂł alltaf örlĂtil) og lögun eindanna ĂĄtti aĂ° ĂĄkvarĂ°a efnafrĂŠĂ°ilega eiginleika ĂŸeirra. Ăetta ĂĄttu aĂ° vera grunneiningar alls hversdagslegs efnis, sem yfirleitt er hrĂŠrigrautur einda af mismunandi gerĂ°um. ĂĂł fyrirfinnast efnishlutir sem eingöngu eru Ășr eindum af tiltekinni gerĂ°. Ăetta ĂĄtti t.d. aĂ° gilda um vatn, loft og eld. Ăannig var hĂŠgt aĂ° tala um frumefni, ĂŸ.e.a.s efni sem aĂ°eins vĂŠri Ășr eindum af tiltekinni gerĂ°. En ĂŸaĂ° er m.a. ĂŸetta atriĂ°i sem tengir ĂŸessi fornaldarfrĂŠĂ°i viĂ° nĂștĂmahugmyndir um frumeindir.
+
+
+Spurningin um tilvist frumeinda/Ăłdeila var mjög umdeild allt frĂĄ fornöld og fram ĂĄ seinni hluta 19. aldar. Spurningin var alltaf nĂĄtengd efnafrĂŠĂ°i og snerist um ĂŸaĂ° hvort frumefni vĂŠru til og ĂŸĂĄ hvort tiltekiĂ° frumefni vĂŠri Ășr Ăłdeilanlegum frumeindum. SmĂĄm saman tĂłkst ĂŸĂł aĂ° renna stoĂ°um undir kenninguna um tilvist frumefna, t.d. meĂ° uppgötvun fosfĂłrs ĂĄ 17. öld og sĂĂ°ar sĂșrefnis ĂĄ 18. öld. ĂriĂ° 1808 setti John Dalton sĂĂ°an fram ĂŸĂĄ kenningu aĂ° frumefni vĂŠru samsett af einni gerĂ° frumeinda, sem lĂkt og frumeindir DemokrĂtosar vĂŠru Ăłbreytanlegar Ă lögun og byggingu. Ănnur efnasambönd mĂŠtti sĂĂ°an fĂĄ fram meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° blanda ĂłlĂkum frumefnum saman. Um miĂ°ja 19. öld vann rĂșssneski efnafrĂŠĂ°ingurinn Mendelejev aĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° bĂșa til töflu eĂ°a kerfi frumefna sem byggĂ°ist ĂĄ upplĂœsingum um atĂłmmassa frumefna, en ĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma höfĂ°u menn ekki hugmynd um innri gerĂ° atĂłma. Ăetta kerfi kallast lotukerfi.
+
+Af ĂŸessu mĂĄ ljĂłst vera aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° var helsta skilgreiningaratriĂ°i frumeinda/atĂłma aĂ° ĂŸĂŠr vĂŠru ĂłkljĂșfanlegar, sbr. nafniĂ° atomos. ĂaĂ° er ĂŸvĂ dĂĄlĂtiĂ° kaldhĂŠĂ°nislegt aĂ° ĂŸĂŠr tilraunir og uppgötvanir sem loks leiddu til ĂŸess aĂ° frumeindakenningin var tekin Ă sĂĄtt, sĂœndu beinlĂnis aĂ° frumeindirnar voru kljĂșfanlegar. MeĂ° uppgötvun rafeindarinnar undir lok 19. aldar fĂłru menn aĂ° velta ĂŸvĂ fyrir sĂ©r hvort fleiri eindir vĂŠru Ă atĂłminu og voru ĂŸaĂ° einna helst uppgötvanir J. J. Thomson, Henri Becquerel og Ernest Rutherford sem ruddu brautina Ă ĂŸeim efnum. ĂriĂ° 1896 uppgötvaĂ°i Becquerel geislavirkni og ĂĄri sĂĂ°ar uppgötvaĂ°i Thomson rafeindina. Rutherford tilkynnti svo um uppgötvun kjarnans ĂĄriĂ° 1911. Allan ĂŸennan gerjunartĂma veltu menn ĂŸvĂ fyrir sĂ©r hvernig frumeindir vĂŠru uppbyggĂ°ar og hvernig ĂŸĂŠr viĂ°hĂ©ldu stöðugleika. Loks tĂłkst Niels Bohr, ĂĄriĂ° 1913, aĂ° setja fram lĂkan af vetnisfrumeindinni, sem skapaĂ°i grundvöll fyrir ĂĄframhaldandi starf og skilning ĂĄ byggingu frumeinda. Ekki nĂĄĂ°ust myndir af atĂłmum fyrr en meĂ° tilkomu rafeindasmĂĄsjĂĄrinnar ĂĄ 20. öld.
+
+Heimild
+
+
+EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i
+EfnafrĂŠĂ°i
+AtĂłmfrĂŠĂ°i
+Ă efnafrĂŠĂ°i er sameind (sjaldnar mĂłlekĂșl) skilgreind sem nĂŠgjanlega stöðugur rafhlutlaus hĂłpur tveggja eĂ°a fleiri frumeinda meĂ° fasta rĂșmfrĂŠĂ°ilega skipan sem sterk efnatengi halda saman. Hana mĂĄ einnig skilgreina sem einingu tveggja eĂ°a fleiri atĂłma sem deilitengi halda saman. Sameindir greinast frĂĄ fjölatĂłma jĂłnum Ă ĂŸessum stranga skilningi. Ă lĂfrĂŠnni efnafrĂŠĂ°i og lĂfefnafrĂŠĂ°i er merking hugtaksins sameind vĂĂ°ari og nĂŠr einnig til hlaĂ°inna lĂfrĂŠnna sameinda og lĂfsameinda.
+
+Ăessi skilgreining hefur ĂŸrĂłast meĂ° vaxandi ĂŸekkingu ĂĄ byggingu sameinda. Fyrri skilgreiningar voru ĂłnĂĄkvĂŠmari og skilgreindu sameindir sem minnstu eindir hreinna kemĂskra efna sem enn hefĂ°u samsetningu og efnafrĂŠĂ°ilega eiginleika ĂŸeirra. Ăessi skilgreining reynist oft ĂłtĂŠk ĂŸvĂ mörg algeng efni, svo sem steindir, sölt og mĂĄlmar eru Ășr atĂłmum eĂ°a jĂłnum sem ekki mynda sameindir.
+
+Ă kvikfrĂŠĂ°i lofttegunda er hugtakiĂ° sameind oft notaĂ° um hvaĂ°a ögn ĂĄ loftformi sem er, ĂłhĂĄĂ° samsetningu. SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸvĂ vĂŠri minnsta eind eĂ°allofttegunda talin sameind ĂŸĂłtt hĂșn sĂ© aĂ°eins Ășr einu Ăłtengdu atĂłmi.
+
+Sameind getur veriĂ° Ășr atĂłmum sama frumefnis, eins og ĂĄ viĂ° um sĂșrefni (O2), eĂ°a ĂłlĂkum frumefnum, eins og ĂĄ viĂ° um vatn (H2O). AtĂłm og flĂłkar sem tengjast meĂ° Ăł-jafngildum tengjum svo sem vetnistengjum eĂ°a jĂłnatengjum eru venjulega ekki talin stakar sameindir.
+
+Ekki er hĂŠgt aĂ° skilgreina dĂŠmigerĂ°ar sameindir fyrir jĂłnĂsk sölt og deilitengis-kristalla sem eru samsettir Ășr endurteknu mynstri einingarsella, annaĂ°hvort Ă fleti (eins og Ă grafĂti) eĂ°a ĂŸrĂvĂĂ°u (eins og Ă demanti eĂ°a natrĂnklĂłrĂĂ°i). Ăetta ĂĄ einnig viĂ° um flest ĂŸĂ©ttefni meĂ° mĂĄlmtengjum.
+
+SameindafrĂŠĂ°i
+
+Ăau vĂsindi sem fjalla um sameindir nefnast sameindaefnafrĂŠĂ°i eĂ°a sameindaeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i eftir ĂĄherslunni. SameindaefnafrĂŠĂ°i fjallar um lögmĂĄlin sem stĂœra vĂxlverkun milli sameinda sem leiĂ°a til ĂŸess aĂ° efnatengi komast ĂĄ og rofna, en sameindaeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i fjallar um lögmĂĄlin sem stĂœra byggingu ĂŸeirra og eiginleikum. Ă reynd er ĂŸessi aĂ°greining ĂłljĂłs. Ă sameindavĂsindum jafngildir sameind stöðugu kerfi (bundnu ĂĄstandi) Ășr tveimur eĂ°a fleiri atĂłmum. Stundum er gagnlegt aĂ° hugsa um fjölatĂłmajĂłnir sem rafhlaĂ°nar sameindir. HugtakiĂ° Ăłstöðug sameind er notaĂ° um mjög hvarfgjarnar sameindir, ĂŸ.e. skammlĂfar samstĂŠĂ°ur (hermueindir) rafeinda og kjarna, svo sem sindurefni, sameindajĂłnir, Rydbergsameindir, fĂŠrsluĂĄstönd, van der Waals efnasambönd eĂ°a kerfi Ășr atĂłmum sem rekast saman eins og Ă Bose-Einstein-döggum.
+
+Saga
+
+RenĂ© Descartes varpaĂ°i fyrstur fram hugtakinu molĂ©cule sem merkir "örsmĂĄ ögn" ĂĄ 3. ĂĄratugi 17. aldar. ĂĂł margir efnafrĂŠĂ°ingar hafi viĂ°urkennt tilvist sameinda sĂĂ°an snemma ĂĄ 19. öld vegna lögmĂĄls Daltons um ĂĄkveĂ°in og margföld hlutföll (1803-1808) og lögmĂĄls Avogadrosar (1811), gĂŠtti mĂłtstöðu af hĂĄlfu pĂłsitĂvista og eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°inga svo sem Machs, Boltzmanns, Maxwells og Gibbs, sem litu ĂĄ sameindir einfaldlega sem hentugar stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ilegar hugarsmĂĂ°ar. MeĂ° framlagi Perrins um brownĂska hreyfingu (1911) er lokasönnunin fyrir tilvist sameinda talin hafa komiĂ° fram.
+
+StĂŠrĂ° sameinda
+Flestar sameindir eru langtum minni en svo aĂ° sĂ©Ă°ar verĂ°i berum augum, en ĂŸĂł ekki allar. Minnsta sameindin er tvĂatĂłma vetni, H2 en lengd hennar er hĂ©r um bil tvöföld tengilengdin sem er 74 pm. Sameindir sem eru byggingareiningar lĂfrĂŠnna efnasmĂĂ°a hafa lengd frĂĄ nokkrum tugum pm til nokkurra hundraĂ°a pm. Greina mĂĄ litlar sameindir og jafnvel ĂștlĂnur einstakra atĂłma meĂ° rafeindasmĂĄsjĂĄ. StĂŠrstu sameindir nefnast risasameindir og ofursameindir. DeoxĂœrĂbĂłsakjarnsĂœra, sem er risasameind, getur orĂ°iĂ° stĂłrsĂŠ, sem og sameindir margra fjölliĂ°a.
+
+Virkur sameindarradĂi endurspeglar ĂŸĂĄ stĂŠrĂ° sem sameind virĂ°ist hafa Ă lausn.
+
+SameindarformĂșla
+
+EfnaformĂșla efnasambands er einfaldasta heiltöluhlutfall frumefnanna sem ĂŸaĂ° er gert Ășr. Til dĂŠmis er vatn ĂĄvallt sett saman Ășr vetni og sĂșrefni Ă hlutföllunum 2:1. EtĂœlalkĂłhĂłl eĂ°a etanĂłl er ĂĄvallt sett saman Ășr kolefni, vetni og sĂșrefni Ă hlutföllunum 2:6:1. Ăetta ĂĄkvarĂ°ar gerĂ° sameindar en er ĂŸĂł ekki einhlĂtt. Til dĂŠmis hefur dĂmetĂœleter sömu hlutföll og etanĂłl. Sameindir meĂ° sömu atĂłm Ă mismunandi uppröðunum nefnast raĂ°brigĂ°i.
+
+SameindarformĂșla sameindar lĂœsir nĂĄkvĂŠmum fjölda ĂŸeirra atĂłma sem sameindin er sett saman Ășr og auĂ°kennir ĂŸar meĂ° raĂ°brigĂ°in.
+
+EfnaformĂșlan er oft hin sama og sameindarformĂșlan en ekki alltaf. Til dĂŠmis hefur sameindin etĂœn sameindarformĂșluna C2H2 en einfaldasta heiltöluhlutfall frumefnanna er CH.
+
+MĂłlmassa efnis mĂĄ reikna Ășt frĂĄ efnaformĂșlunni og setja fram Ă hefĂ°bundnum atĂłmmassaeiningum. Ă kristöllum er hugtakiĂ° formĂșlueining notaĂ° Ă stĂłkĂĂłmetrĂskum reikningum.
+
+SameindarĂșmfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+Sameindir hafa fasta jafnvĂŠgis-rĂșmskipan â tengilengdir og -horn â sem ĂŸĂŠr sveiflast stöðugt um meĂ° titrings- og snĂșningshreyfingu. Hreint efni er Ășr sameindum meĂ° sömu meĂ°altals-rĂșmfrĂŠĂ°ilega byggingu. EfnaformĂșlan og bygging sameindarinnar eru hinir tveir mikilvĂŠgu ĂŸĂŠttir sem ĂĄkvarĂ°a eiginleika ĂŸess, einkum hvarfgirnina. RaĂ°brigĂ°i deila sömu efnaformĂșlu en hafa yfirleitt mjög ĂłlĂka eiginleika vegna ĂłlĂkrar byggingar. FormbrigĂ°i, tiltekin tegund raĂ°brigĂ°a, geta haft mjög ĂĄĂŸekka eĂ°lis-efnafrĂŠĂ°ilega eiginleika en um leiĂ° mjög ĂłlĂka lĂfefnafrĂŠĂ°ilega virkni.
+
+SameindalitrĂłfsgreining
+
+SameindalitrĂłfsgreining fĂŠst viĂ° viĂ°bragĂ° (litrĂłf) sameinda sem vĂxlverka viĂ° könnunarmerki af ĂŸekktri orku (eĂ°a tĂĂ°ni samkvĂŠmt formĂșlu Plancks.) TvĂstrunarfrĂŠĂ°i er frĂŠĂ°ilegur bakgrunnur litrĂłfsgreiningar.
+
+KönnunarmerkiĂ° sem notaĂ° er Ă litrĂłfsgreiningu getur veriĂ° rafsegulbylgja eĂ°a öreindageisli (rafeinda, jĂĄeinda o.s.frv.) ViĂ°bragĂ° sameindarinnar kann aĂ° felast Ă gleypingu merkis (gleypnilitrĂłfsgreining), Ăștgeislun annars merkis (ĂștgeislunarlitrĂłfsgreining), sundrun eĂ°a efnafrĂŠĂ°ilegum breytingum.
+
+LitrĂłfsgreining er viĂ°urkennd sem öflugt verkfĂŠri viĂ° rannsĂłknir ĂĄ smĂĄsĂŠjum eiginleikum sameinda, einkum orkustigum ĂŸeirra. Til aĂ° öðlast sem mestar smĂĄsĂŠjar upplĂœsingar Ășr tilraunaniĂ°urstöðum er litrĂłfsgreining oft tengd saman viĂ° efnafrĂŠĂ°ilega Ăștreikninga.
+
+FrĂŠĂ°ilegar hliĂ°ar
+
+SkoĂ°un sameinda ĂștfrĂĄ sameindaeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i og kennilegri efnafrĂŠĂ°i byggist aĂ° verulegu leyti ĂĄ skammtafrĂŠĂ°i, sem liggur til grundvallar skilningi ĂĄ efnatenginu. Einfaldasta sameindin er vetnis-sameindar-jĂłnin H2+ og einfaldasta efnatengiĂ° af öllum er einnar-rafeindar-tengiĂ°. H2+ er sett saman Ășr tveimur jĂĄkvĂŠtt hlöðnum rĂłteindum og einni neikvĂŠtt hlaĂ°inni rafeind sem bindast saman meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° skiptast ĂĄ ljĂłseindum, sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir aĂ° auĂ°veldara er aĂ° leysa Schrödingerjöfnu kerfisins vegna fjarveru frĂĄhrindikrafta milli tveggja rafeinda. Eftir tilkomu hraĂ°virkra tölva hafa nĂĄlgunarlausnir fyrir flĂłknari sameindir orĂ°iĂ° mögulegar og eru ĂŸĂŠr eitt helzta viĂ°fangsefni reiknilegrar efnafrĂŠĂ°i.
+
+Ăegar reynt er aĂ° skilgreina nĂĄkvĂŠmlega hvort tiltekin skipan atĂłma sĂ© "nĂłgu stöðug" til aĂ° lĂta megi ĂĄ hana sem sameind, segir IUPAC aĂ° hĂșn "verĂ°i aĂ° samsvara lĂŠgĂ° ĂĄ mĂŠttisorkuyfirborĂ°inu sem er nĂłgu djĂșp til aĂ° fanga a.m.k. eitt titringsĂĄstand". Ăessi skilgreining er aĂ°eins hĂĄĂ° styrk vĂxlverkunarinnar milli atĂłmanna, ekki eĂ°li hennar. Raunar telur hĂșn meĂ° veikt tengdar samstĂŠĂ°ur sem yfirleitt vĂŠri ekki litiĂ° ĂĄ sem sameindir, svo sem helĂn-tvĂliĂ°una He2, sem hefur aĂ°eins eitt bundiĂ° titrings-ĂĄstand og er svo laustengt aĂ° hennar verĂ°ur sennilega aĂ°eins vart viĂ° mjög lĂĄgan hita.
+
+Heimildir
+
+EfnafrĂŠĂ°i
+EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i
+EfnafrÊðihugtök
+FrumulĂffĂŠri eru starfseiningar frumunnar. ĂaĂ° eru frumulĂffĂŠrin sem Ă raun gera allt ĂŸaĂ° sem frumunni er ĂŠtlaĂ° aĂ° gera.
+
+Helstu frumulĂffĂŠrin eru ĂŸessi:
+
+ BifhĂĄr
+ BĂłlur og korn
+ Deilikorn
+ Frumuhimna
+ Frumuveggur
+ Frymisgrind
+ Frymisinnskot
+ Frymisnet
+ Slétt frymisnet
+ HrjĂșft frymisnet
+ Golgifléttur
+ GrĂŠnukorn
+ HimnubĂłlur
+ Hvatberar
+ LeysibĂłlur
+ Netkorn
+Svipur
+ Kjarni
+ Kjarnakorn
+ ĂrpĂplur
+ ĂrĂŸrĂĄĂ°lingar
+
+Frumur
+Sesambein er bein sem liggur Ă sin eĂ°a einhvers konar mjĂșkvef og myndar ekki liĂ°i meĂ° öðrum beinum. HnĂ©skel er dĂŠmi um sesambein.
+
+Bein
+MannslĂkaminn samanstendur Ă stĂłrum drĂĄttum af höfĂ°i, hĂĄlsi, bĂșk, tveimur fĂłtleggjum og tveimur handleggjum. Ă fullorĂ°insĂĄrum eru Ă lĂkamanum um 10 trilljĂłnir (1012) frumna, sem eru smĂŠstu byggingareiningar mannslĂkamans. HĂłpar frumna liggja saman og mynda vefi, sem samlagast og mynda lĂffĂŠri, sem aftur vinna saman og mynda lĂffĂŠrakerfi.
+
+Ă vestrĂŠnum iĂ°nrĂkjum er meĂ°alhĂŠĂ° fullorĂ°inna karla um 1,7 til 1,8 metrar og fullorĂ°inna kvenna 1,6 til 1,7 metrar. HĂŠĂ° einstaklingsins rĂŠĂ°st af erfĂ°avĂsum og matarĂŠĂ°i. ĂaĂ° eru um 206 bein Ă fullsköpuĂ°um mannslĂkama. Fjöldi beina er ekki alltaf sĂĄ sami, til dĂŠmis hafa ekki allir jafn marga rĂłfuliĂ°i.
+
+MannslĂkaminn samanstendur af nokkrum kerfum:
+
+ Hjarta- og ĂŠĂ°akerfiĂ°
+ InnkirtlakerfiĂ°
+ MeltingarkerfiĂ°
+ ĂnĂŠmiskerfiĂ°
+ SogĂŠĂ°akerfiĂ°
+ StoĂ°kerfiĂ°
+ TaugakerfiĂ°
+ Vöðvakerfið
+ ĂndunarkerfiĂ°
+ ĂxlunarkerfiĂ°
+ ĂekjukerfiĂ°
+ ĂvagkerfiĂ°
+
+LĂffĂŠrafrĂŠĂ°i mannsins
+LĂkami
+16. mars er 75. dagur ĂĄrsins (76. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 290 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 597 f.Kr. - BabĂœlonĂumenn hertĂłku JerĂșsalem.
+ 1190 - Gyðingaofsóknir åttu sér stað à York å Englandi. 150-500 gyðingar voru drepnir.
+ 1315 - Bein GuĂ°mundar góða voru tekin upp og Gvendardagur gerĂ°ur messudagur ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1322 - JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 2. Englandskonungur bĂŠldi niĂ°ur uppreisn aĂ°alsmanna Ă orrustunni viĂ° Boroughbridge.
+ 1337 - Svarti prinsinn, JĂĄtvarĂ°ur sonur JĂĄtvarĂ°ar 3. Englandskonungs, var krĂœndur hertogi af Cornwall.
+ 1521 - Ferdinand Magellan kom til Filippseyja.
+ 1608 - JesĂșĂtar fengu leyfi til aĂ° stofna trĂșboĂ°sstöðvar Ă ParagvĂŠ.
+ 1621 - IndĂĂĄninn Samoset kom Ă tjaldbĂșĂ°irnar Ă Plymouth-nĂœlendunni og heilsaĂ°i fĂłlkinu ĂĄ ensku, ĂŸvĂ til mikillar furĂ°u.
+ 1657 - Miklir jarĂ°skjĂĄlftar riĂ°u yfir SuĂ°urland og fĂ©llu hĂșs vĂĂ°a, en mest Ă FljĂłtshlĂĂ°.
+ 1660 - Langa ĂŸingiĂ° var leyst upp Ă Englandi.
+ 1769 - Franski landkönnuĂ°urinn Louis Antoine de Bougainville lauk ĂŸriggja ĂĄra hnattsiglingu. Ă föruneyti hans var Jeanne BarĂ©, fyrsta konan sem vitaĂ° er til aĂ° hafi siglt umhverfis hnöttinn.
+ 1792 - GĂșstaf 3. SvĂakonungur var sĂŠrĂ°ur til ĂłlĂfis ĂĄ grĂmuballi Ă Ăłperunni. Hann dĂł ĂŸann 29. mars.
+ 1813 - PrĂșssar lĂœstu yfir strĂĂ°i ĂĄ hendur NapĂłleoni keisara Frakka.
+ 1815 - VilhjĂĄlmur 1. varĂ° konungur Hollands.
+ 1852 - TĂłlf menn drukknuĂ°u ĂŸegar skipi hvolfdi Ă Höfnum.
+ 1867 - Joseph Lister birti grein Ă The Lancet ĂŸar sem Ă fyrsta sinn er lĂœst skurĂ°aĂ°gerĂ°um viĂ° dauĂ°hreinsaĂ°ar aĂ°stĂŠĂ°ur.
+ 1910 - Póstskipið s.s. Laura, eign Sameinaða danska gufuskipafélagsins strandaði å Skagaströnd hjå Finnstaðanesi.
+ 1935 - Adolf Hitler fyrirskipaĂ°i vĂgvĂŠĂ°ingu ĂŸĂœska rĂkisins Ă trĂĄssi viĂ° VersalasĂĄttmĂĄlann.
+ 1942 - Fyrsta V-2-flugskeytinu var skotiĂ° Ă tilraunaskyni Ă ĂĂœskalandi. ĂaĂ° sprakk Ă flugtaki.
+ 1968 - FjöldamorĂ°in Ă My Lai Ă VĂetnam: BandarĂskir hermenn drĂĄpu hvert mannsbarn Ă heilu ĂŸorpi ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° ĂŸar vĂŠru engir karlmenn ĂĄ herskyldualdri.
+ 1976 - Harold Wilson sagði af sér embÊtti forsÊtisråðherra Bretlands.
+ 1978 - RauĂ°u herdeildirnar rĂŠndu Aldo Moro Ă RĂłm. Hann fannst sĂĂ°ar myrtur Ă farangursgeymslu fĂłlksbifreiĂ°ar.
+ 1978 - OlĂuskipiĂ° Amoco Cadiz steytti ĂĄ skerjum Ă Ermarsundi og brotnaĂ°i Ă tvennt meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° Ășr varĂ° eitt alvarlegasta umhverfisslys sögunnar.
+ 1979 - StrĂĂ°i KĂna og VĂetnam lauk meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° KĂnverjar drĂłgu herliĂ° sitt frĂĄ VĂetnam.
+ 1980 - FjĂłrĂ°a hrina Kröfluelda hĂłfst. Ăetta gos var kallaĂ° skrautgos ĂŸar sem ĂŸaĂ° stóð stutt en ĂŸĂłtti fallegt.
+ 1982 - Claus von BĂŒlow var dĂŠmdur fyrir tilraun til aĂ° myrĂ°a eiginkonu sĂna Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1983 - ReykjavĂkurborg keypti stĂłrt land Ă ViĂ°ey af Ălafi Stephensen og ĂĄtti ĂŸĂĄ nĂĄnast alla eyjuna, nema ViĂ°eyjarstofu og ViĂ°eyjarkirkju sem var Ă eigu rĂkisins til 1986.
+ 1984 - Yfirmanni CIA Ă BeirĂșt, William Francis Buckley, var rĂŠnt af Samtökunum heilagt strĂĂ°.
+ 1988 - GasĂĄrĂĄs var gerĂ° ĂĄ Ăraska bĂŠinn Halabja, ĂŸar sem aĂ°allega bjuggu KĂșrdar. Allir bĂŠjarbĂșar fĂłrust, yfir 5000 talsins.
+ 1988 - Ăran-KontrahneyksliĂ°: Herforingjarnir Oliver North og John Poindexter voru ĂĄkĂŠrĂ°ir fyrir svik gegn BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1990 - Söngkeppni framhaldsskólanna fór fram à fyrsta sinn.
+ 1992 - Boris JeltsĂn tilkynnti aĂ° stofnaĂ°ur yrĂ°i sĂ©rstakur RĂșsslandsher.
+ 1995 - Mississippi staĂ°festi ĂrettĂĄnda viĂ°auka stjĂłrnarskrĂĄr BandarĂkjanna um bann viĂ° ĂŸrĂŠlahaldi.
+ 1996 - Robert Mugabe var kjörinn forseti Simbabve.
+ 1997 - Sandline-mĂĄliĂ°: PapĂșski herforinginn Jerry Singirok lĂ©t handtaka Tim Spicer og mĂĄlaliĂ°a frĂĄ Sandline International.
+ 2002 - Erkibiskupinn Ă Cali Ă KĂłlumbĂu, Isaias Duarte, var myrtur fyrir framan kirkju.
+ 2003 - StĂŠrstu samrĂŠmdu fjöldamĂłtmĂŠli ĂĄ heimsvĂsu voru haldin gegn strĂĂ°i Ă Ărak.
+ 2006 - AllsherjarĂŸing SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna samĂŸykkti stofnun MannrĂ©ttindarĂĄĂ°s SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna meĂ° yfirgnĂŠfandi meirihluta atkvĂŠĂ°a.
+ 2010 - KasubigrafhĂœsin Ă Ăganda eyĂ°ilögĂ°ust Ă eldi.
+ 2014 - Umdeild atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°sla meĂ°al ĂbĂșa KrĂmskaga, hvort skaginn skyldi verĂ°a hluti af RĂșsslandi, fĂłr fram.
+ 2020 â Dow Jones-vĂsitalan fĂ©ll um 2.997,10 punkta, sem var mesta lĂŠkkun sögunnar Ă punktum taliĂ° og önnur mesta lĂŠkkunin Ă prĂłsentum.
+ 2022 - LoftĂĄrĂĄs RĂșssa ĂĄ leikhĂșs Ă Mariupol Ă ĂkraĂnu olli dauĂ°a 600 almennra borgara sem höfĂ°u leitaĂ° ĂŸar skjĂłls.
+ 2022 - RĂșssland var rekiĂ° Ășr EvrĂłpurĂĄĂ°inu vegna innrĂĄsarinnar Ă ĂkraĂnu.
+ 2880 - Hugsanlegt er taliĂ° aĂ° loftsteinninn 1950 DA muni rekast ĂĄ jörĂ°ina og valda gjöreyĂ°ingu. ReiknaĂ°ar lĂkur eru 1/300.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1478 - Francisco Pizarro, spĂŠnskur landvinningamaĂ°ur (d. 1541).
+ 1751 - James Madison, 4. forseti BandarĂkjanna (d. 1836).
+ 1774 - Matthew Flinders, enskur landkönnuður (d. 1814).
+ 1789 - Georg Simon Ohm, ĂŸĂœskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1854).
+ 1827 - Ferdinand Meldahl, danskur arkitekt (d. 1908).
+ 1839 - Sully Prudhomme, franskt skĂĄld og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 1907).
+ 1839 - JĂłn Ăsgeirsson frĂĄ Ăingeyrum, Ăslenskur bĂłndi (d. 1898).
+ 1868 - Maxim GorkĂj, rĂșssneskur rithöfundur (d. 1936).
+ 1885 - SigurĂ°ur Norland, Ăslenskur nĂĄttĂșruverndarsinni (d. 1971).
+ 1911 - Josef Mengele, ĂŸĂœskur lĂŠknir, vĂsindamaĂ°ur og strĂĂ°sglĂŠpamaĂ°ur (d. 1979).
+ 1921 - Fahd bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud, konungur SĂĄdi-ArabĂu (d. 2005).
+ 1926 - Jerry Lewis, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1927 - Daniel Patrick Moynihan, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 2003).
+ 1931 - Anthony Kenny, enskur heimspekingur.
+ 1941 - Bernardo Bertolucci, kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri.
+ 1953 - Richard Stallman, stofnandi FrjĂĄlsu hugbĂșnaĂ°arstofnunarinnar.
+ 1959 - Jens Stoltenberg, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Noregs.
+ 1967 - John Darnielle, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1968 - Kahimi Karie, japönsk söngkona.
+ 1970 - PĂĄll Ăskar HjĂĄlmtĂœsson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1987 - Tiiu Kuik, eistnesk fyrirsĂŠta.
+ 1997 - Dominic Calvert-Lewin, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 37 - TĂberĂus RĂłmarkeisari (f. 42 f.Kr.).
+ 455 - ValentĂnĂanus 3., keisari RĂłmar (f. 419).
+ 1237 - Guðmundur Arason góði, Hólabiskup (f. 1161).
+ 1341 - JĂłn IndriĂ°ason, biskup Ă SkĂĄlholti.
+ 1485 - Anne Neville, Englandsdrottning, kona RĂkharĂ°s 3. (f. 1456).
+ 1664 - Ăvan VĂgovskĂj, kĂłsakkaleiĂ°togi.
+ 1683 - Henrik Bjelke, norskur flotaforingi og hirĂ°stjĂłri ĂĄ Ăslandi (f. 1615).
+ 1698 - Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, dĂłttir KristjĂĄns 4.
+ 1828 - Johannes Galletti, ĂŸĂœskur sagnfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1750).
+ 1930 - Miguel Primo de Rivera, spĂŠnskur einrĂŠĂ°isherra (f. 1870).
+ 1938 - Egon Friedell, austurrĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1878).
+ 1940 - BrĂet BjarnhĂ©Ă°insdĂłttir, ritstjĂłri, bĂŠjarfulltrĂși og kvenrĂ©ttindafrömuĂ°ur (f. 1856).
+ 1940 - Selma Lagerlöf, sÊnskur rithöfundur (f. 1858).
+ 1963 - ValtĂœr StefĂĄnsson, Ăslenskur blaĂ°amaĂ°ur (f. 1893).
+ 1977 - HalldĂłr PĂ©tursson, Ăslenskur skopmyndateiknari (f. 1916).
+ 2017 - Helgi M. Bergs, Ăslenskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1945).
+
+Mars
+Ăreitisvaldur Ă lĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i er hvert ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄreiti kallaĂ° sem aĂ° raskar jafnvĂŠgi lĂkamans.
+
+NĂĄi jafnvĂŠgistĂŠki lĂkamans ekki aĂ° endurheimta stöðugleika sinn geta Ăœmsir sjĂșkdĂłmar komiĂ° upp, og jafnvel getur ĂŸaĂ° leitt til dauĂ°a.
+
+LĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i
+ĂriĂ° 1955 (MCMLV Ă rĂłmverskum tölum)
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+
+ 14. maĂ - VarsjĂĄrbandalagiĂ° stofnaĂ° Ă VarsjĂĄ Ă PĂłllandi. StofnrĂki eru: SovĂ©trĂkin, PĂłlland, Austur-ĂĂœskaland, TĂ©kkĂłslĂłvakĂa, Ungverjaland, RĂșmenĂa, BĂșlgarĂa og AlbanĂa.
+ 1. desember - Rosa Parks neitaĂ°i aĂ° standa upp fyrir hvĂtum manni Ă strĂŠtisvagni Ă BandarĂkjunum og er Ă kjölfariĂ° handtekin.
+ HalldĂłr Laxness hlaut NĂłbelsverĂ°laun Ă bĂłkmenntum
+ SkipuĂ° var nefnd ĂŸingmanna ĂĄ Ăslandi til aĂ° rannsaka okurlĂĄnaviĂ°skipti.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 28. janĂșar - Nicolas Sarkozy, forseti Frakklands.
+ 5. maĂ - PĂ©tur Ăorsteinsson, nĂœyrĂ°askĂĄld, ĂŠskulĂœĂ°sfulltrĂși og prestur ĂhĂĄĂ°a safnaĂ°arins.
+ 6. jĂșlĂ - SigurĂ°ur SigurjĂłnsson, leikari.
+ 17. jĂșlĂ - ValgerĂ°ur GunnarsdĂłttir, skĂłlameistari.
+ 4. ĂĄgĂșst - SteingrĂmur J. SigfĂșsson, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 8. ĂĄgĂșst - SigrĂșn HjĂĄlmtĂœsdĂłttir, söngkona.
+ 31. oktĂłber - GuĂ°mundur Ărni StefĂĄnsson, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 24. nóvember - Einar Kårason, rithöfundur og ljóðskåld.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 11. mars - Alexander Fleming, skoskur lĂf- og lyfjafrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1881).
+ 18. aprĂl - Albert Einstein, ĂŸĂœskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1879).
+ 30. september - James Dean, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1931).
+ 6. oktĂłber - Jean Doisy, belgĂskur myndasöguhöfundur (f. 1900).
+
+NĂłbelsverĂ°launin
+ EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i - Willis Eugene Lamb, Polykarp Kusch
+ EfnafrĂŠĂ°i - Vincent du Vigneaud
+ LĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i - Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell
+ BĂłkmenntir - HalldĂłr Kiljan Laxness
+ FriĂ°arverĂ°laun - Ekki veitt ĂŸetta ĂĄriĂ°
+
+1955
+HalldĂłr (Kiljan) Laxness (23. aprĂl 1902 - 8. febrĂșar 1998) var Ăslenskur rithöfundur og skĂĄld, jafnan talinn einn helsti Ăslenski rithöfundurinn ĂĄ 20. öld.
+
+Hann byrjaĂ°i snemma aĂ° lesa bĂŠkur og skrifa sögur, og ĂŸegar hann var 13 ĂĄra gamall fĂ©kk hann sĂna fyrstu grein birta Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu undir nafninu H.G., og ekki löngu sĂĂ°ar, ĂŸĂĄ 14 ĂĄra gamall, birti hann grein Ă sama blaĂ°i undir sĂnu eigin nafni H. GuĂ°jĂłnsson frĂĄ Laxnesi.
+
+Ă ferli sĂnum skrifaĂ°i HalldĂłr skĂĄldsögur, smĂĄsögur, margar blaĂ°agreinar, samdi ljóð, leikrit, ĂŸĂœddi bĂŠkur yfir ĂĄ Ăslensku og fleira. HalldĂłr hlaut NĂłbelsverĂ°laun Ă bĂłkmenntum ĂĄriĂ° 1955.
+
+Nafn
+HalldĂłr Laxness fĂŠddist sem HalldĂłr GuĂ°jĂłnsson. ĂriĂ° 1905 hĂłf fjölskylda hans bĂșskap aĂ° Laxnesi Ă Mosfellssveit, og kenndi HalldĂłr sig viĂ° ĂŸann bĂŠ ĂŠ sĂĂ°ar. MillinafniĂ° Kiljan tĂłk hann upp ĂŸegar hann skĂrĂ°ist til kaĂŸĂłlskrar trĂșar.
+
+Ăvi
+
+HalldĂłr var elstur Ă ĂŸriggja systkina hĂłpi, en yngri voru systur hans, SigrĂĂ°ur (28. aprĂl 1909 - 18. ĂĄgĂșst 1966) og Helga (5. maĂ 1912 - 15. janĂșar 1992). Foreldrar HalldĂłrs voru GuĂ°jĂłn Helgi Helgason (23. oktĂłber 1870 - 19. jĂșnĂ 1919) og SigrĂĂ°ur HalldĂłrsdĂłttir (27. oktĂłber 1872 - 17. september 1951). GuĂ°jĂłn var af fĂĄtĂŠkum ĂŠttum og vann meĂ°al annars Ă vegavinnu um allt Ăsland og fĂ©kk fyrir ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸokkaleg laun. SigrĂĂ°ur móðir HalldĂłrs var ĂŠttuĂ° frĂĄ Ălfusi, hĂșn fluttist ung til ReykjavĂkur ĂŸar sem hĂșn og GuĂ°jĂłn kynntust svo sĂĂ°ar.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1905 seldi GuĂ°jĂłn hĂșsiĂ° sitt Ă ReykjavĂk og keypti jörĂ°ina Laxnes Ă Mosfellsdal sem er 20 kĂlĂłmetrum frĂĄ ReykjavĂk. ĂangaĂ° fluttist HalldĂłr meĂ° foreldrum sĂnum og móðurömmu, GuĂ°nĂœju KlĂŠngsdĂłttur (18. febrĂșar 1832 - 21. mars 1924), ĂĄsamt vinnukonu og vinnumanni. Oftast var ĂŸĂł fleira fĂłlk Ă Laxnesi, bĂŠĂ°i gestir og vinnu- og kaupafĂłlk. HalldĂłri fannst ĂŸaĂ° gĂŠfa hans aĂ° hafa fengiĂ° aĂ° reyna aĂ° bĂșa ĂĄ stĂłru sveitaheimili og svo virĂ°ist sem hann hafi alist upp viĂ° góðar aĂ°stĂŠĂ°ur Ă Laxnesi.
+
+HalldĂłr byrjaĂ°i aĂ° skrifa sem barn og fĂ©kk ungur ĂĄhuga ĂĄ Ăslenskri tungu og beitti sĂ©r fyrir mĂĄlrĂŠkt Ă Mosfellsdalnum. Hann gaf Ășt fyrstu bĂłk sĂna, Barn nĂĄttĂșrunnar, 1919 ĂŸĂĄ aĂ°eins 17 ĂĄra gamall. Hann skrifaĂ°i bĂłkina ĂŸegar hann var 16 ĂĄra og sat ĂŸĂĄ frekar ĂĄ LandsbĂłkasafninu aĂ° skrifa en aĂ° mĂŠta Ă skĂłlann. Barn nĂĄttĂșrunnar gaf glöggum bĂłkarĂœnum fyrirheit um ĂŸaĂ° sem koma skyldi.
+
+Ăegar HalldĂłr var ungur maĂ°ur fĂłr hann aĂ° ferĂ°ast og dvaldi meĂ°al annars Ă Vesturheimi ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1927â1929. Hann var Ă klaustri Ă LĂșxemborg frĂĄ desember 1922 fram til haustsins 1923. Ă klaustrinu tĂłk hann kaĂŸĂłlska trĂș og var skĂrĂ°ur og fermdur til kaĂŸĂłlskrar kirkju 6. janĂșar 1923.
+
+FrumburĂ° sinn, MarĂu (10. aprĂl 1923 - 19. mars 2016), eignaĂ°ist HalldĂłr meĂ° MĂĄlfrĂĂ°i JĂłnsdĂłttur (29. ĂĄgĂșst 1896 - 7. nĂłvember 2003) sem hann hafĂ°i kynnst sumariĂ° 1922 Ă Rönne ĂĄ BorgundarhĂłlmi; ĂŸau giftust samt ekki. Ă lok ĂŠvi sinnar var MĂĄlfrĂĂ°ur elsti lifandi Ăslendingurinn.
+
+HalldĂłr var tvĂkvĂŠntur. ĂriĂ° 1930 giftist hann Ingibjörgu EinarsdĂłttur (3. maĂ 1908 - 22. janĂșar 1994) og meĂ° henni ĂĄtti hann soninn Einar (9. ĂĄgĂșst 1931 - 23. maĂ 2016). Ăau slitu samvistir 1940. HalldĂłr kynntist seinni konu sinni, AuĂ°i SveinsdĂłttur (30. jĂșnĂ 1918 - 29. oktĂłber 2012), ĂĄ Laugarvatni 1939. SamkvĂŠmt frĂĄsögn ĂŠvisöguritara HalldĂłrs Laxness, HalldĂłri GuĂ°mundssyni, vildi HalldĂłr fara rĂłlega Ă sakirnar, og fyrstu ĂĄrin eftir aĂ° ĂŸau byrjuĂ°u aĂ° vera saman ĂŸurfti AuĂ°ur aĂ° bĂĂ°a ĂŸolinmóð eftir honum. HalldĂłr GuĂ°mundsson segir svo frĂĄ aĂ° AuĂ°ur hafi veriĂ° tilbĂșin til ĂŸess aĂ° fĂŠra fĂłrnir fyrir HalldĂłr og getaĂ° lĂ©tt ĂĄhyggjum af skĂĄldinu, hĂșn var konan sem HalldĂłr dreymdi um. AuĂ°ur og HalldĂłr giftu sig hjĂĄ borgarfĂłgeta 24. desember 1945. Ăau fluttu aĂ° GljĂșfrasteini Ă Mosfellssveit ĂĄriĂ° 1945, en ĂŸaĂ° hĂșs lĂ©tu hjĂłnin byggja. ĂaĂ° var draumur HalldĂłrs aĂ° eignast heimili ĂĄ sĂnum bernskuslóðum og ĂŸau fengu arkitektinn til ĂŸess aĂ° teikna hĂșsiĂ°. AuĂ°ur sĂĄ aĂ° mestu um aĂ° fylgjast meĂ° hĂșsasmĂĂ°unum ĂĄ meĂ°an HalldĂłr einbeitti sĂ©r aĂ° skrifum. HalldĂłr og AuĂ°ur eignuĂ°ust tvĂŠr dĂŠtur - SigrĂĂ°i (*26. maĂ 1951) og GuĂ°nĂœju (*23. janĂșar 1954).
+
+Ăegar HalldĂłr var orĂ°inn gamall maĂ°ur og heilsunni fariĂ° aĂ° hraka fluttist hann ĂĄ Reykjalund. Ăar var hann Ă fjögur ĂĄr og sĂfellt meira bundinn viĂ° rĂșmiĂ°. HalldĂłr Laxness lĂ©st 8. febrĂșar 1998, ĂŸĂĄ orĂ°inn 95 ĂĄra. Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu birtist grein eftir MatthĂas Johannessen skĂĄld ĂŸar sem hann sagĂ°i meĂ°al annars:
+
+ViĂ°urkenning
+ĂriĂ° 1955 var HalldĂłr Laxness sĂŠmdur NĂłbelsverĂ°laununum. ĂaĂ° var Ă StokkhĂłlmi sem HalldĂłr veitti verĂ°laununum viĂ°töku frĂĄ ĂŸĂĄverandi konungi SvĂa, GĂșstaf VI. Adolf, nĂĄnar tiltekiĂ° Ă HljĂłmleikahĂșsinu viĂ° KĂłngsgötuna. NĂłbelsverĂ°launin höfĂ°u strax jĂĄkvĂŠĂ° ĂĄhrif, og bĂŠkurnar HalldĂłrs voru Ă kjölfariĂ° ĂŸĂœddar ĂĄ fleiri tungumĂĄl og menn sem höfĂ°u ekki gefiĂ° verkunum gaum ĂĄĂ°ur kynntu sĂ©r bĂŠkurnar hans. VerĂ°launin, NĂłbelsskjaliĂ° og gullpeningurinn, eru varĂ°veitt Ă Ăjóðminjasafninu og Ă myntsafni seĂ°labankans.
+
+Auk NĂłbelsverĂ°launa fĂ©kk HalldĂłr fjöldan allan af viĂ°urkenningum fyrir ritstörf sĂn, en dĂŠmi um aĂ°rar viĂ°urkenningar sem honum hlotnuĂ°ust voru: MenningarverĂ°laun ASF, Silfurhesturinn (bĂłkmenntaverĂ°laun dagblaĂ°anna) og virt dönsk verĂ°laun kennd viĂ° , svo nokkur sĂ©u nefnd.
+
+HalldĂłr Laxness var gerĂ°ur aĂ° heiĂ°ursdoktor viĂ° eftirfarandi hĂĄskĂłla:
+ 1968: Aabo hĂĄskĂłlinn () Ă Finnlandi Ă tilefni 50 ĂĄra afmĂŠlis sĂŠnskudeildarinnar viĂ° skĂłlann,
+ 1972: HĂĄskĂłli Ăslands Ă tilefni sjötugsafmĂŠlis HalldĂłrs,
+ 1977: EdinborgarhĂĄskĂłli Ă Skotlandi,
+ 1982: HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă TĂŒbingen Ă ĂĂœskalandi Ă tilefni ĂĄttrĂŠĂ°isafmĂŠlis HalldĂłrs.
+
+StĂll
+
+Ăegar HalldĂłr var ungur umgekkst hann mikiĂ° eldra fĂłlk og talsmĂĄti hans varĂ° ĂŸess vegna hĂĄfleyglegur. Hann rĂŠktaĂ°i tungumĂĄliĂ° meira en aĂ°rir höfundar og notaĂ°i öðruvĂsi stafsetningu til ĂŸess aĂ° nĂĄ fram ĂĄkveĂ°num stĂl Ă textann sem og mörg ĂĄhugaverĂ° orĂ°.
+
+HalldĂłr hafĂ°i sterkar stjĂłrnmĂĄlalegar skoĂ°anir og skrifaĂ°i til aĂ° mynda HalldĂłr tvĂŠr bĂŠkur um SovĂ©trĂkin sem ĂŠtlaĂ°ar voru til varnaĂ°ar ĂŸjóðskipulagi landsins. Skrif skĂĄldsins um hag Ăslensku ĂŸjóðarinnar vöktu ĂĄvallt athygli, landinn reiddist honum Ăœmist eĂ°a varĂ° snortinn yfir einlĂŠgni hans.
+
+SafniĂ° ĂĄ GljĂșfrasteini
+AĂ° frumkvĂŠĂ°i DavĂĂ°s Oddssonar, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra, keypti rĂkissjóður GljĂșfrastein af AuĂ°i Laxness, ekkju HalldĂłrs, Ă aprĂl 2002. Ă september 2004 var opnaĂ° ĂŸar safn til minningar um skĂĄldiĂ°; fjölskylda HalldĂłrs hafĂ°i gefiĂ° safninu allt innbĂș GljĂșfrasteins.
+
+Deilur um Êvisögu Laxness
+Hannes HĂłlmsteinn Gissurarson, prĂłfessor sagĂ°i frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ opinberlega sumariĂ° 2003, aĂ° hann vĂŠri aĂ° skrifa ĂŠvisögu Laxness, en Ă kjölfariĂ° reyndi AuĂ°ur Laxness aĂ° meina honum aĂ°gang aĂ° brĂ©fasafni skĂĄldsins ĂĄ handritadeild ĂjóðarbĂłkhlöðunnar og tĂłkst ĂŸaĂ°. ĂstĂŠĂ°an var sĂș aĂ° hĂșn taldi Hannes ekki fĂŠran um aĂ° skrifa ĂłhlutdrĂŠga ĂŠvisögu Laxness. Eftir aĂ° fyrsta bindi ĂŠvisögunnar HalldĂłr kom Ășt gagnrĂœndu Helga Kress, prĂłfessor, og fleiri Hannes harĂ°lega fyrir aĂ° fara frjĂĄlslega meĂ° tilvitnanir Ă texta skĂĄldsins ĂĄn ĂŸess aĂ° geta heimilda. Hannes hefur sĂĂ°ar viĂ°urkennt Ă viĂ°tölum aĂ° hann hefĂ°i ĂĄtt aĂ° geta heimilda Ă rĂkara mĂŠli en hann gerĂ°i.
+
+HaustiĂ° 2004 höfĂ°aĂ°i AuĂ°ur mĂĄl gegn Hannesi fyrir brot ĂĄ lögum um höfundarrĂ©tt. Hannes var sĂœknaĂ°ur Ă HĂ©raĂ°sdĂłmi ReykjavĂkur 2006 en mĂĄlinu var ĂĄfrĂœjaĂ° til HĂŠstarĂ©ttar og ĂŸar var Hannes dĂŠmdur ĂĄriĂ° 2008 fyrir brot ĂĄ höfundarrĂ©tti Ă fyrsta bindi af ĂŠvisögu HalldĂłrs Laxness. Var honum gert aĂ° greiĂ°a 1,5 milljĂłnir krĂłna Ă fĂ©bĂŠtur og 1,6 milljĂłnir Ă mĂĄlskostnaĂ°.
+
+AuĂ°ur Laxness og fjölskylda hennar hefur lagt blessun sĂna yfir ĂŠvisögu skĂĄldsins, sem rituĂ° var af HalldĂłri GuĂ°mundssyni, rithöfundi, og veitti honum góðfĂșslega aĂ°gang aĂ° brĂ©fasafni og gögnum, sem voru Ă vörslu fjölskyldunnar.
+
+Meint afskipti Ăslenskra rĂĄĂ°amanna af ĂștgĂĄfu rita Laxness Ă BandarĂkjununm
+GuĂ°nĂœ HalldĂłrsdĂłttir, leikstjĂłri og dĂłttir skĂĄldsins, sagĂ°i Ă KastljĂłsĂŸĂŠtti sjĂłnvarpsins 18. mars 2007 aĂ° Bjarni Benediktsson, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra 1963-1970, hefĂ°i lagt stein Ă götu föður sĂns sem varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° honum reyndist illmögulegt aĂ° gefa Ășt bĂŠkur sĂnar Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+
+Verk
+
+HalldĂłr skrifaĂ°i fjölmörg skĂĄldverk, ĂŸĂœddi verk annarra yfir ĂĄ Ăslensku og sendi frĂĄ sĂ©r greinar Ă dagblöð og tĂmarit. Alls skrifaĂ°i hann 13 stĂłrar skĂĄldsögur; BrekkukotsannĂĄl, Gerplu, AtĂłmstöðina, HeimsljĂłs I og II, Ăslandsklukkuna, Kristnihald undir Jökli, Söguna af brauĂ°inu dĂœra, Sölku Völku I og II, SjĂĄlfstĂŠtt fĂłlk I og II, SmĂĄsögur (öllum smĂĄsögum skĂĄldsins safnaĂ° saman Ă eina bĂłk), Vefarann mikla frĂĄ KasmĂr og GuĂ°sgjafarĂŸula var svo sĂĂ°asta skĂĄldsagan sem hann skrifaĂ°i. Einnig orti HalldĂłr Ăœmiskonar kvĂŠĂ°i og gaf Ășt fjĂłrar minningasögur, ein ĂŸeirra er bĂłkin Ă tĂșninu heima. Auk ĂŸess samdi hann fimm leikrit og leikgerĂ° aĂ° einni skĂĄldsögu, en fyrsta leikritiĂ° samdi Laxness ekki fyrr en hann var orĂ°inn ĂŸroskaĂ°ur höfundur, Straumrof, 1934.
+
+Verk HalldĂłrs eru fjölbreytt og hafa komiĂ° Ășt Ă meira en 500 ĂștgĂĄfum og ĂĄ 43 tungumĂĄlum auk móðurmĂĄlsins. HalldĂłr ĂŸĂœddi verk frĂĄ öðrum og ĂŸar mĂĄ nefna BirtĂng eftir Voltaire, Vopnin kvödd eftir Ernest Hemingway og Fjallkirkjuna eftir Gunnar Gunnarsson.
+
+Kvikmyndir gerĂ°ar eftir bĂłkum Laxness
+ 1954 â Salka Valka
+ 1972 â BrekkukotsannĂĄll
+ 1981 â ParadĂsarheimt
+ 1984 â AtĂłmstöðin
+ 1989 â Kristnihald undir Jökli
+ 1999 â UngfrĂșin góða og hĂșsiĂ°
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Heimildir
+ bls. 65
+ Hannes HĂłlmsteinn Gissurarson. 2003. HalldĂłr. (ReykjavĂk: Almenna bĂłkafĂ©lagiĂ°).
+ Hannes HĂłlmsteinn Gissurarson. 2004. Kiljan. (ReykjavĂk: Almenna bĂłkafĂ©lagiĂ°).
+ Hannes HĂłlmsteinn Gissurarson. 2005. Laxness. (ReykjavĂk: Almenna bĂłkafĂ©lagiĂ°).
+ HalldĂłr GuĂ°mundsson. 2004. HalldĂłr Laxness. (ReykjavĂk: JPV). SjĂĄ hĂ©r
+ Heimir PĂĄlsson. Sögur, ljóð og lĂf (ReykjavĂk: Vaka-Helgafell, 1998).
+ Ălafur Ragnarsson. HalldĂłr Laxness: LĂf Ă skĂĄldskap (ReykjavĂk: Vaka-Helgafell, 2002).
+ Ălafur Ragnarsson. Til fundar viĂ° skĂĄldiĂ°, HalldĂłr Laxness (ReykjavĂk: Veröld, 2007).
+ RitaskrĂĄ. 2004, 12. mars. SjĂĄ: http://www2.mbl.is/mm/serefni/laxness/ritaskra.html
+ HalldĂłr Laxness. 2004, 12. mars. SjĂĄ: http://www2.mbl.is/mm/serefni/laxness/
+
+Tengt efni
+ Tilnefningar til bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launa NorĂ°urlandarĂĄĂ°s frĂĄ Ăslandi
+ BĂłkmenntaverĂ°laun NorĂ°urlandarĂĄĂ°s
+
+Tenglar
+
+ HalldĂłr Laxness SĂ©rvefur MorgunblaĂ°sins um HalldĂłr Laxness
+ Vefur RĂV um afhendingu NĂłbelsverĂ°launanna 1955
+ GljĂșfrasteinn â HĂșs skĂĄldsins
+ SkrĂĄ um rit HalldĂłrs Laxness ĂĄ Ăslensku og erlendum mĂĄlum â ĂrbĂłk LandsbĂłkasafns Ăslands 1993, bls. 49-140
+ Kennsluefni um nokkur verk HalldĂłrs Laxness â Kennsluvefir Hörpu HreinsdĂłttur 2010
+ Glatkistan - Tónlistartengd umfjöllun
+
+Verk Laxness ĂĄ netinu
+ Hverasilungar og hverafuglar, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 19. mars 1916, bls. 7.
+ Gömul klukka, Morgunblaðið, 7. nóvember 1916, bls. 2.
+ Athugasemd viĂ° ĂŸaĂ°, sem menn ĂĄ Ăslandi alment halda um ritdĂłmara, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 28. jĂșnĂ 1922, bls. 2-3.
+ BrĂ©f Ășr Alpafjöllum, AlĂŸĂœĂ°ublaĂ°iĂ°, 15. febrĂșar 1922, bls. 1-2.
+ Jarðarför Laugu à Gvöndarkoti, Morgunblaðið, 6. mars 1923, bls. 3.
+ KĂĄlfkotungaĂŸĂĄttur; brot Ășr uppkasti MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 10. mars 1923, bls. 3-4.
+ KvĂŠĂ°i eftir HalldĂłr frĂĄ Laxnesi, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 30. maĂ 1923, bls. 3.
+ KvĂŠĂ°i, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 2. jĂșnĂ 1923, bls. 2-3.
+ Ăsa (frĂĄ JĂ€mtlandi 1920), MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 8. jĂșnĂ 1923, bls. 4.
+ Barningsmenn, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 13. jĂșnĂ 1923, bls. 3-4.
+ Fegursta sagan Ă bĂłkinni, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 20. jĂșnĂ 1923, bls. 3-4.
+ Ăr Westminster Abbey Ă Westminster Cathedral, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 24. desember 1923, bls. 11.
+ FrĂĄ NiĂ°urlöndum, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 21. febrĂșar 1926, bls. 1-3.
+ Rhodymenia Palmata, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 4. aprĂl 1926, bls. 6-7.
+ Bjarni Björnsson - hermileikari, Lesbók Morgunblaðsins, 4. mars 1928, bls. 7-8.
+ Tilkynning til lesenda, Dagur, 7. nĂłvember 1929, bls. 4.
+ NĂș vantar ĂŸjóðsönginn, Ăjóðviljinn, 9. mars 1944, bls. 3.
+ Frå gömlum hundamanni, Morgunblaðið, 16. desember 1970, bls. 17.
+ Valdir kaflar Ășr verkum Laxness, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 23. aprĂl 1972, bls. 4-6+14.
+ SmĂĄmunarĂœni, DagblaĂ°iĂ°, 10. oktĂłber 1979, bls. 10-11.
+ Athuganir um fornbĂłkmenntir, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 29. mars 1980, bls. 2-5.
+ FerĂ°abĂŠklingur Ășr RĂșmenĂu, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 7. janĂșar 1984, bls. 4-7.
+ Saga Ășr sĂldinni, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 25. aprĂl 1992, bls. 4-5.
+
+Greinar um Laxness
+ Barn nĂĄttĂșrunnar, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 10. nĂłvember 1919, bls. 3.
+ NĂœ skĂĄldsaga (Undir HelgahnĂșk), MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 7. jĂșnĂ 1924, bls. 2.
+ FĂłtatak manna, Heimskringla, 7. mars 1934, bls. 2-3.
+ HalldĂłr Kiljan Laxness NĂłbelsverĂ°launahöfundur, TĂmarit ĂjóðrĂŠknisfĂ©lags Ăslendinga Ă Vesturheimi, 1. janĂșar 1955, bls. 4-41.
+ StĂłrverk um Laxness, Ăjóðviljinn, 17. maĂ 1957, bls. 7.
+ HjĂłnin Ă Laxnesi (fyrri hluti), LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 2. aprĂl 1967, bls. 1-2+13.
+ HjĂłnin Ă Laxnesi (seinni hluti), LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 9. aprĂl 1967, bls. 7+12+15.
+ SkĂĄldaeĂ°liĂ° sĂœnist vera takmarkaĂ°, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 11. aprĂl 1968, bls. 14-15.
+ Ăegar bĂłkin er bĂșin er Ă©g fullsaddur ĂĄ efninu, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 11. maĂ 1969, bls. 4+13.
+ Horft til ĂŠskuĂĄra, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 23. aprĂl 1972, bls. 2-3+14.
+ ViĂ° Ăœmis tĂŠkifĂŠri ĂĄ sĂĂ°um MorgunblaĂ°sins, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 23. aprĂl 1972, bls. 7-8.
+ Yfir hiĂ° liĂ°na bregĂ°ur blĂŠ ..., LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 26. september 1976, bls. 6.
+ HalldĂłr Laxness 75 ĂĄra, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 23. aprĂl 1977, bls. 21-24.
+ FullveldistĂmaritiĂ° LĂĄki, Ăjóðviljinn, 3. desember 1978, bls. 1-2+11.
+ SkrĂlĂștgĂĄfa ĂĄ LaxdĂŠlu og hatursĂștgĂĄfa ĂĄ NjĂĄlu (fyrri hluti), LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 10. febrĂșar 1979, bls. 4-5+14-15.
+ SkrĂlĂștgĂĄfa ĂĄ LaxdĂŠlu og hatursĂștgĂĄfa ĂĄ NjĂĄlu (sĂĂ°ari hluti), LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 17. febrĂșar 1979, bls. 6-7+14-15.
+ HalldĂłr Laxness, mĂłrmĂłnarnir og fyrirheitna landiĂ°, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 5. maĂ 1979, bls. 2-4+14.
+ GrikklandsĂĄriĂ°, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 6. desember 1980, bls. 25.
+ MeĂ° andstĂŠĂ°um forteiknum, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 2. jĂșlĂ 1983, bls. 4-5+14.
+ Börn nĂĄttĂșrunnar (HalldĂłr Laxness deiglunni I), LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 19. janĂșar 1985, bls. 4-6.
+ GuĂ° hĂłtar aĂ° stoppa balliĂ° (HalldĂłr Laxness deiglunni II), LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 26. janĂșar 1985, bls. 12-14.
+ GuĂ°leysi eĂ°a sjĂĄlfsmorĂ° (HalldĂłr Laxness deiglunni III), LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 2. febrĂșar 1985, bls. 6-7.
+ Einvaldi sviĂ°insvĂkur, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 8. aprĂl 2000, bls. 7-8.
+ SkeggrĂŠĂ°ur gegnum tĂĂ°ina, LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins, 20. aprĂl 2002, bls. 1-12.
+ LĂfsins skĂĄld; hvenĂŠr komu skĂĄldsögur HalldĂłrs Laxness Ășt og hvernig var ĂŸeim tekiĂ°, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 20. aprĂl 2002, bls. 18-20.
+
+Viðtöl við Laxness
+ ĂaĂ° er gott aĂ° vinna ĂĄ GljĂșfrasteini, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 4. september 1946, bls. 2.
+ BĂłkmenntir ĂĄ tĂmum rauĂ°ra penna, MorgunblaĂ°iĂ°, 28. febrĂșar 1982, bls. 49+71-74.
+
+
+Ăslenskir rithöfundar
+Ăslenskir ĂŸĂœĂ°endur
+Handhafar bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launa NĂłbels
+Handhafar stĂłrkross Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorĂ°u
+âHryggurâ beinist hingaĂ°. Fyrir aĂ°rar merkingar mĂĄ sjĂĄ hryggur (aĂ°greining).
+HryggsĂșlan er einn af mikilvĂŠgustu hlutum beinagrindarinnar, hĂșn heldur lĂkamanum uppi og ver mĂŠnuna. Ă hryggnum eru 24 liĂ°ir (7 hĂĄlsliĂ°ir, 12 hryggjarliĂ°ir, 5 lendaliĂ°ir), og auk ĂŸess spjaldbeiniĂ° og rĂłfubeiniĂ°, sem hvort um sig eru samvaxnir liĂ°ir.
+
+HryggsĂșla mannsins
+Liðir hryggjarins, hryggjarliðirnir, eru 32-33, séu samvaxnir liðir spjaldbeins og rófubeins taldir með.
+
+Ath: Undir vinstri myndinni hér að neðan stendur handskrifað: Séð að framan, en å að vera séð að aftan.
+
+HryggjarliĂ°irnir
+
+Beinagrind
+Spjaldbein (krossliĂ°sbein, beiniĂ° helga eĂ°a spjaldhryggur) (frĂŠĂ°iheiti: Os sacrum) er stĂłrt ĂŸrĂhyrningslaga bein neĂ°st ĂĄ hryggnum. ĂaĂ° myndar afturhluta mjaĂ°magrindar. Ă rauninni er ĂŸaĂ° fimm samvaxnir hryggjarliĂ°ir ofan viĂ° rĂłfubein og neĂ°an viĂ° lendaliĂ°ina. Spjaldbein myndar liĂ°amĂłt ĂĄ tveimur stöðum viĂ° mjaĂ°marbeiniĂ°.
+
+Tengt efni
+ HryggsĂșla
+
+Heimild
+930 (CMXXX à rómverskum tölum)
+
+Ă Ăslandi
+
+ AlĂŸingi stofnaĂ°. LandnĂĄmsöld lauk.
+
+FĂŠdd
+
+DĂĄin
+
+Erlendis
+
+FĂŠdd
+
+DĂĄin
+
+930
+921-930
+874 (DCCCLXXIV Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var 74. ĂĄr 9. aldar sem hĂłfst ĂĄ föstudegi samkvĂŠmt jĂșlĂska tĂmatalinu.
+
+Ă Ăslandi
+
+ HefĂ°bundiĂ° viĂ°miĂ°unarĂĄrtal upphafs landnĂĄms ĂĄ Ăslandi, en ĂŸaĂ° var reiknaĂ° meĂ° hliĂ°sjĂłn af LandnĂĄmu ĂŸegar haldiĂ° var upp ĂĄ 1000 ĂĄra afmĂŠli Ăslands ĂĄriĂ° 1874. ĂslendingabĂłk Ara fróða segir hins vegar ekki aĂ° fundur Ăslands hafi orĂ°iĂ° ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄr og lĂklega komu ĂŸeir fĂłstbrĂŠĂ°ur IngĂłlfur Arnarson og Hjörleifur Hróðmarsson nokkrum ĂĄrum ĂĄĂ°ur, eĂ°a um 870 til aĂ° nema land ĂĄ Ăslandi fyrstir manna.
+
+FĂŠdd
+
+DĂĄin
+
+Erlendis
+
+FĂŠdd
+
+DĂĄin
+
+874
+871-880
+ĂriĂ° 1786 (MDCCLXXXVI Ă rĂłmverskum tölum)
+
+Ă Ăslandi
+
+ 18. ĂĄgĂșst - Konungleg auglĂœsing um afnĂĄm einokunarverslunar ĂĄ Ăslandi gefin Ășt. Einokuninni lauk ĂŸĂł ekki fyrr en um ĂĄramĂłtin 1787-1788.
+ 17. nĂłvember - Sex staĂ°ir fengu kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi. Allir staĂ°irnir misstu ĂŸau aftur nema ReykjavĂk, en sumir hafa sĂĂ°an orĂ°iĂ° kaupstaĂ°ir aftur. Ăessir staĂ°ir voru: ReykjavĂk, GrundarfjörĂ°ur, ĂsafjörĂ°ur, Akureyri, EskifjörĂ°ur og Vestmannaeyjar.
+ MóðuharĂ°indum lauk en bĂłlusĂłtt geisaĂ°i enn. Ăslendingum fĂŠkkaĂ°i um nĂĄlega 1200 ĂĄ ĂĄrinu.
+ Björn HalldĂłrsson klĂĄraĂ°i tvĂmĂĄla orĂ°abĂłkina Lexicon Islandico-Latino-Danicum eftir 15 ĂĄra vinnu.
+ Kennsla hĂłfst Ă HĂłlavallarskĂłla Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ ReglugerĂ° sett um aĂ° landpĂłstar skyldu vera fjĂłrir og tveir aukapĂłstar.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 4. september - ĂĂłrĂ°ur Sveinbjörnsson hĂĄyfirdĂłmari (d. 1856).
+ 30. desember - Bjarni Thorarensen amtmaĂ°ur (d. 1841).
+
+DĂĄin
+ 2. oktĂłber - Oddur GĂslason prestur ĂĄ MiklabĂŠ (f. 1740) hvarf ĂĄ leiĂ° heim aĂ° bĂŠ sĂnum og var afturgöngunni MiklabĂŠjar-Solveigu kennt um og sagt aĂ° hĂșn hefĂ°i dregiĂ° prestinn Ă gröf sĂna. LĂk hans fannst raunar ĂĄri sĂĂ°ar Ă lĂŠk skammt frĂĄ MiklabĂŠ.
+ Hjörleifur ĂĂłrĂ°arson prestur og skĂĄld ĂĄ ValĂŸjĂłfsstaĂ°.
+ ĂĂłrunn ĂlafsdĂłttir Stephensen biskupsfrĂș Ă SkĂĄlholti, kona Hannesar Finnssonar.
+
+Opinberar aftökur
+ EirĂkur ĂorlĂĄksson hĂĄlshöggvinn ĂĄ MjĂłeyri Ă EskifirĂ°i fyrir ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° skera tungu Ășr öðrum dreng.
+
+Erlendis
+ 1. maĂ - Ăperan BrĂșĂ°kaup FĂgarĂłs eftir Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart frumflutt Ă VĂnarborg.
+ 8. ĂĄgĂșst - FjalliĂ° Mont Blanc klifiĂ° Ă fyrsta sinn.
+ ByrjaĂ° var aĂ° flytja breska fanga til sakamannanĂœlendunnar Ă Botany Bay Ă ĂstralĂu.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 24. febrĂșar - Wilhelm Grimm, ĂŸĂœskur ĂŸjóðsagnasafnari (d. 1859).
+ 17. ĂĄgĂșst - Davy Crockett, bandarĂskur landkönnuĂ°ur og veiĂ°imaĂ°ur (d. 1836).
+ 25. ĂĄgĂșst - LĂșĂ°vĂk 1., konungur BĂŠheims (d. 1868).
+ 18. september - KristjĂĄn 8. Danakonungur (d. 1848).
+ 18. nĂłvember - Carl Maria von Weber, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1826).
+
+DĂĄin
+ 15. maĂ - Eva Ekeblad, sĂŠnskur vĂsindamaĂ°ur (f. 1724).
+ 25. maĂ - PĂ©tur 3. PortĂșgalskonungur, eiginmaĂ°ur MarĂu 1. PortĂșgalsdrottningar (f. 1717).
+ 17. ĂĄgĂșst - FriĂ°rik mikli PrĂșssakonungur (f. 1712).
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+1786
+ĂriĂ° 1845 (MDCCCXLV Ă rĂłmverskum tölum)
+
+Ă Ăslandi
+
+ 1. jĂșlĂ - AlĂŸingi endurreist Ă ReykjavĂk. Fyrsti fundur ĂŸess haldinn ĂĄ sal hins nĂœja hĂșss lĂŠrĂ°a skĂłlans.
+ 2. september - Heklugos hefst og stendur fram ĂĄ vor. Ăskufall til austsuĂ°austurs.
+
+FĂŠdd
+
+ 2. febrĂșar - Torfhildur HĂłlm, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (d. 1918)
+
+DĂĄin
+ 26. maĂ - JĂłnas HallgrĂmsson, nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingur, skĂĄld og einn Fjölnismanna (f. 1807).
+
+Erlendis
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 27. mars - Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, ĂŸĂœskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 1923).
+ 24. aprĂl - Carl Spitteler, svissneskt ljóðskĂĄld og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 1924).
+ 12. maĂ â Gabriel FaurĂ©, franskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1924).
+ 16. maĂ - Ilja MĂ©tsjnĂkoff, ĂșkraĂnskur örverufrĂŠĂ°ingur og handhafi NĂłbelsverĂ°launanna Ă lĂfeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i (d. 1916).
+
+DĂĄin
+
+1845
+MjaĂ°magrind (latĂna: pelvis) er mikilvĂŠgur hluti stoĂ°kerfisins, mynduĂ° Ășr mjaĂ°mabeinum, spjaldbeini og rĂłfubeini.
+
+Hlutverk mjaĂ°magrindarinnar er aĂ° verja lĂffĂŠrin Ă kviĂ°ar- og grindarholi; ĂŠxlunarfĂŠrin, ĂŸvagblöðru og hluta digurgirnis.
+
+MjaĂ°magrind kvenna er hlutfallslega stĂŠrri en mjaĂ°magrind karla og er grindarholiĂ° einnig iĂ°ulega vĂĂ°ara hjĂĄ konum en körlum.
+
+Bein mjaĂ°magrindarinnar:
+
+Tengill
+
+Beinagrind
+Ăjóðsöngur er sönglag sem rĂkisstjĂłrn og almenningur viĂ°urkennir sem formlegan söng ĂŸjóðarinnar. Ă 19. og 20. öld, Ă kjölfar ris ĂŸjóðernishyggju, tĂłku flest rĂki heimsins upp ĂŸjóðsöngva. Lofsöngur (âĂ, GuĂ° vors landsâ), viĂ° sĂĄlm eftir MatthĂas Jochumsson, er ĂŸjóðsöngur Ăslendinga.
+
+SjĂĄ einnig
+ ĂjóðlagatĂłnlist
+AĂ°flutningur nefnist ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸegar einstaklingur hefur fasta bĂșsetu à öðru rĂki en ĂŸvĂ landi sem hann fĂŠddist Ă. Innflytjendur koma Ă mörgum tilvikum til meĂ° aĂ° bĂșa Ă landinu sem ĂŸeir flytja til Ă mörg ĂĄr jafnvel Ășt ĂŠvina og hljĂłta ĂŸĂĄ rĂkisborgararĂ©tt Ă mörgum tilvikum.
+
+FerĂ°amenn og aĂ°rir gestir sem koma tĂmabundiĂ° til landsins teljast ekki innflytjendur. NĂ© heldur flĂłttamenn. Farandverkamenn ĂĄ hinn bĂłginn eru oft flokkaĂ°ir sem innflytjendur. ĂriĂ° 2005 mat SĂ sem svo aĂ° fjöldi innflytjanda Ă heiminum nĂŠmi 190 milljĂłnum manna, u.ĂŸ.b. 3% fĂłlksfjölda heimsins.
+
+Ă nĂștĂmanum eru innflytjendur tengdir ĂŸrĂłunar rĂkja og alĂŸjóðlegra laga. RĂkisborgararĂ©ttur rĂkis veitir ĂŸegnum rĂ©ttinn til viĂ°veru Ă rĂkinu, en jafnframt setur ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸegninum skyldur. Innflytjendur fĂŠra meĂ° sĂ©r aĂ°ra menningu og tilheyra öðrum ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagshĂłpum og ĂŸaĂ° getur skapaĂ° spennu milli ĂŸeirra og annarra hĂłpa Ă landinu.
+
+Ălöglegir innflytjendur nefnast ĂŸeir sem flytja bĂșferlum milli landa meĂ° Ăłlöglegum hĂŠtti, ĂŸ.e.a.s. brjĂłta Ă bĂĄga viĂ° ĂŸau lög sem sett hafa veriĂ° Ă landinu um innflutning fĂłlks. ĂaĂ° getur bĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ viĂ° fĂłlk sem kemst til landsins ĂĄn ĂŸess aĂ° hljĂłta vegabrĂ©fsĂĄritun eĂ°a fĂłlk sem dvelur Ă landinu lengur en ĂŸaĂ° hefur leyfi til.
+
+Innflytjendur ĂĄ Ăslandi
+AĂ°lögun innflytjenda ĂĄ Ăslandi snĂœst aĂ° miklu leyti um aĂ° lĂŠra Ăslensku og aĂ° geta orĂ°iĂ° virkir ĂŸegnar. Ă byrjun 21. aldarinnar fluttust til landsins ĂŸĂșsundir farandverkamanna vegna byggingar KĂĄrahnjĂșkavirkjunar vegna ĂŸess aĂ° ekki var til mannafli til verksins. Aukinheldur voru ĂŸaĂ° Ăștlend verktakafyrirtĂŠki sem sĂĄu um vinnuna og var ĂŸaĂ° Ă ĂŸeirra höndum aĂ° sjĂĄ um starfsmannamĂĄl. Gert er rĂĄĂ° fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° flestir ĂŸessara verkamanna hverfi af landi.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1991 var 161 einstaklingi veittur Ăslenskur rĂkisborgararĂ©ttur, fimmtĂĄn ĂĄrum seinna, 2006, var 844 einstaklingum veittur Ăslenskur rĂkisborgararĂ©ttur.
+
+Ăann 12. nĂłvember 2007 var Andie Sophia Fontaine varaĂŸingmaĂ°ur Vinstri grĂŠnna fyrst innflytjenda til ĂŸess aĂ° taka sĂŠti ĂĄ AlĂŸingi.
+
+Stundum verĂ°a ĂĄrekstrar milli innflytjenda og heimamanna.
+
+Heimildir
+
+Tengill
+ FĂ©lagsmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°uneytiĂ°: MĂĄlefni innflytjenda
+ HeimasĂĂ°a AlĂŸjoĂ°ahĂșssins
+ Lög um Ăslenskan rĂkisborgararĂ©tt. 1952 nr. 100 23. desember
+ Lög um Ăștlendinga. 2002 nr. 96 15. maĂ
+ Stefna rĂkisstjĂłrnarinnar um aĂ°lögun innflytjenda, janĂșar 2007
+
+FĂłlksflutningar
+LĂœĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+EinvĂgi er bardagi tveggja manna ĂĄn afskipta ĂŸriĂ°ja aĂ°ila.
+
+EinvĂgi voru ĂŸekkt aĂ°ferĂ° til aĂ° leysa deilumĂĄl vĂĂ°a Ă EvrĂłpu allt fram ĂĄ 20. öld, og tĂłku ĂĄ sig Ăœmsar myndir. Algengt var aĂ° tveir menn ĂștkljĂĄĂ°u deilumĂĄl sĂn meĂ° skotvopnum eĂ°a sverĂ°um, og var ĂŸĂĄ fariĂ° aĂ° ĂĄkveĂ°num reglum.
+Margir ĂŸekktir menn hafa veriĂ° drepnir Ă einvĂgum, t.d. rĂșssneska skĂĄldiĂ° Alexander PĂșskĂn sem dĂł Ășr sĂĄrum sĂnum ĂĄriĂ° 1837 eftir einvĂgi viĂ° elskhuga eiginkonu sinnar.
+
+EinvĂgi hafa einnig veriĂ° stunduĂ° vĂĂ°a annars staĂ°ar Ă heiminum, t.d. Ă Villta vestrinu.
+
+EinvĂgi eru algeng Ă evrĂłpskum miĂ°aldabĂłkmenntum, t.d. riddarasögum og Ăslendingasögum. Ă Ăslendingasögum eru ĂŸau jafnan kölluĂ° hĂłlmgöngur og um ĂŸĂŠr giltu ĂĄkveĂ°nar reglur. DĂŠmi um hĂłlmgöngur mĂĄ til dĂŠmis finna Ă Egils sögu ĂŸar sem segir frĂĄ LjĂłti hinum bleika, hĂłlmgöngumanni, og vĂĂ°a annars staĂ°ar.
+
+Ăekktustu einvĂgin Ă bĂłkmenntasögunni er hins vegar aĂ° finna Ă Skyttunum ĂŸremur eftir Alexandre Dumas, ĂŸegar D'Artagnan skuldbatt sig til aĂ° heyja ĂŸrjĂș einvĂgi Ă röð viĂ° skytturnar ĂŸrjĂĄr, Athos, Porthos og Aramis.
+EinvĂgi
+Dimmu Borgir er sinfĂłnĂsk black metal hljĂłmsveit frĂĄ Noregi. HljĂłmsveitin var upphaflega stofnuĂ° Ă Jessheim Ă AkurshĂșs Ă Noregi ĂĄriĂ° 1993 af Shagrath, Silenoz og Tjodlav. Sveitin gaf skömmu sĂĂ°ar Ășt smĂĄskĂfu sem bar nafniĂ° Inn I Evighetens MĂžrke (1994). Ăessi stutta breiĂ°skĂfa seldist upp ĂĄ vikum og sveitin gaf stuttu seinna Ășt breiĂ°skĂfuna For All Tid (1994).
+
+HljĂłmsveitin ĂŸrĂłaĂ°ist Ășr hrĂĄum svartmĂĄlmi yfir Ă melĂłdĂskari ĂĄtt meĂ° fleiri meĂ°limum og hefur haft sinfĂłnĂur og kĂłra Ă tĂłnlist sinni.
+
+Dimmu Borgir heita eftir hraunmyndununum Dimmuborgum nĂĄlĂŠgt MĂœvatni.
+
+MeĂ°limir
+ Shagrath (Stian Thoresen) - Söngur (1993-)
+ Silenoz (Sven Atle Kopperud) - GĂtar (1993-)
+ Galder (Thomas Rune Andersen) - GĂtar (2001-)
+
+TĂłnleikameĂ°limir
+Daray (Dariusz Brzozowski) â Trommur (2008â)
+Gerlioz (Geir Bratland) â HljĂłmborĂ°, hljóðgervlar (2010â)
+Victor Brandt â Bassi (2018â)
+
+Fyrrverandi meĂ°limir
+ Mustis (Ăyvind Johan Mustaparta) - HljĂłmborĂ° (1998-2009)
+ ICS Vortex (Simen Hestnaes) - Bassi og bakraddir (2000-2009)
+ Archon (Lars Haider) - GĂtar (2000-2000)
+ Tjodalv (Kenneth Ă
kesson) - Trommur (1993-1999)
+ Astennu (Jamie Stinson) - GĂtar (1997-2000)
+ Nagash (Stian Arnesen) - Bassi (1997-1999)
+ Jens Petter - GĂtar (1996-1997)
+ Brynjard Tristan - Bassi (1993-1996)
+ Stian Aarstad - HljĂłmborĂ° (1993-1997)
+ Nicholas Barker - Trommur (1999-2004)
+
+ĂtgefiĂ° efni
+
+BreiĂ°skĂfur
+ Inn I Evighetens MĂžrke - (1994)
+ For All Tid - (1994) (endurĂștg. 1997)
+ StormblĂ„st - (1996) (endurĂștg. 2005)
+ Devil's Path - (1996)
+ Enthrone Darkness Triumphant - (1997) (endurĂștg. 2002)
+ Spiritual Black Dimensions - (1999) (endurĂștg. 2004)
+ Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia - (2001)
+ Death Cult Armageddon - (2003)
+ In Sorte Diaboli - (2007)
+ Abrahadabra - (2010)
+ Eonian - (2018)
+
+AnnaĂ°
+ Inspiratio Profanus (2023) ĂbreiĂ°uplata
+
+Tengill
+ HeimasĂĂ°a Dimmu Borga
+
+Norskar hljĂłmsveitir
+Norskar ĂŸungarokkshljĂłmsveitir
+Korn (einnig KoĐŻn) er ĂŸungarokkshljĂłmsveit frĂĄ Bakersfield Ă KalifornĂu. HljĂłmsveitin tilheyrir ĂŸeim undirflokk ĂŸungarokksins sem hefur fengiĂ° viĂ°urnefniĂ° nu metal.
+
+Söguågrip
+ĂĂ°ur en Korn var stofnuĂ° stofnuĂ°u ĂŸeir James âMunkyâ Shaffer, Reginald âFieldyâ Arvizu, David Silveria og söngvarinn Richard Morales hljĂłmsveitina âLAPDâ eĂ°a âLove and Peace Dudeâ en breyttu ĂŸvĂ fljĂłtlega Ă âLaughing as People Dieâ til ĂŸess aĂ° vera teknir mun alvarlega. LiĂ°smenn LAPD fengu sĂĂ°ar liĂ°styrk, gĂtarleikarann Brian âHeadâ Welch og skiptu ĂŸeir um nafn og tĂłku sĂ©r nafniĂ° âCreepâ. ĂĂĄ vantaĂ°i söngvara.
+
+Munky og Head heyrĂ°u Ă Jonathan Davis ĂĄ tĂłnleikum ĂĄ bar Ă Bakersfield sem var ĂŸĂĄ meĂ° hljĂłmsveitinni âSexartâ. Eftir tĂłnleikana spurĂ°u ĂŸeir Davis hvort hann hafĂ°i ĂĄhuga aĂ° prufa syngja fyrir hljĂłmsveitina ĂŸeirra. Ăr var hljĂłmsveitin Korn sem gaf Ășt sitt fyrsta demo ĂĄriĂ° 1993.
+
+Fyrsta platan ĂŸeirra kom Ășt ĂĄriĂ° 1994 og hlaut nafniĂ° Korn.
+
+MeĂ°limir
+
+ Jonathan Hauseman Davis (söngur, sekkjapĂpa) 1993-
+ Reginald Quincy âFieldyâ Arvizu (bassi) 1993-
+ Ray Luzier (trommur) 2007-
+ James âMunkyâ Shaffer (gĂtar) 1993-
+ Brian âHeadâ Welch (gĂtar) 1993-2005 / 2013-
+
+Fyrrum meĂ°limir
+ David Silveria (Trommur) 1993-2006
+
+ĂtgefiĂ° efni
+
+BreiĂ°skĂfur
+ Korn (1994)
+ Life Is Peachy (1996)
+ Follow the Leader (1998)
+ Issues (1999)
+ Untouchables (2002)
+ Take a Look in the Mirror (2003)
+ See You On The Other Side (2005)
+ Untitled (2007)
+ III: Remember Who You Are (2010)
+ The Path of Totality (2011)
+ The Paradigm Shift (2013)
+ The Serenity of Suffering (2016)
+ The Nothing (2019)
+ Requiem (2022)
+
+Tengill
+ HeimasĂĂ°a Korn
+
+BandarĂskar rokkhljĂłmsveitir
+BandarĂskar ĂŸungarokkshljĂłmsveitir
+StofnaĂ° 1993
+Fimleikar eru ĂĂŸrĂłtt sem felur Ă sĂ©r ĂŠfingar sem ĂŸarfnast styrks, liĂ°leika, lipurĂ°ar, samhĂŠfingar og jafnvĂŠgis. Ă Ăslandi eru fimleikar Ă grĂĂ°arlegri sĂłkn og er nĂș svo komiĂ° aĂ° ĂĂŸrĂłttin er sĂș fjĂłrĂ°a mest stundaĂ°a ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ eftir, knattspyrnu, golfi og hestaĂĂŸrĂłttum. Fimleikar eru jafnframt nĂŠst mest stundaĂ°a ĂĂŸrĂłtt 16 ĂĄra og yngri og nĂŠst mest stundaĂ°a kvennaĂĂŸrĂłttin..
+
+Fimleikum er stĂœrt af AlĂŸjóða fimleikasambandinu (FIG) og Ă EvrĂłpu af EvrĂłpska fimleikasambandinu (UEG).
+
+Fimleika er hĂŠgt aĂ° stunda sem einstaklingsĂĂŸrĂłtt eĂ°a hĂłpĂĂŸrĂłtt. Ă EvrĂłpu skiptast fimleikar Ă 7 aĂ°algreinar: Ăhaldafimleika, HĂłpfimleika, NĂștĂmafimleika, TrampolĂn, Ăolfimi, SĂœningarfimleika og Almenningsfimleika. Ă Ăslandi eru Ă dag stundaĂ°ar ĂŸrjĂĄr af ĂŸessum aĂ°algreinum: Ăhaldafimleikar, HĂłpfimleikar og Almenningsfimleikar.
+
+Ă ĂĄhaldafimleikum er ĂŠfingar gerĂ°ar ĂĄ mismunandi ĂĄhöldum. Ăau eru gĂłlf, stökk, kvennatvĂslĂĄ, slĂĄ, karlatvĂslĂĄ (samsĂĂ°a), bogahestur, hringir og svifrĂĄ. MarkmiĂ°iĂ° er aĂ° gera eins flĂłknar ĂŠfingar og hĂŠgt er. Ekki mĂĄ ĂŸĂł gera of flĂłknar ĂŠfingar ĂŸvĂ aĂ° maĂ°ur verĂ°ur aĂ° geta rĂĄĂ°iĂ° viĂ° ĂŸĂŠr til aĂ° geta gert fallegra. Fimleikar reyna ĂŸvĂ mikiĂ° ĂĄ kraft, jafnvĂŠgi, fimi og aĂ° geta hugsaĂ° um margt Ă einu.
+
+Ăegar maĂ°ur er aĂ° keppa er dĂłmari sem gefur einkunn, sĂĄ vinnur sem fĂŠr hĂŠstu einkunn. GefiĂ° er einkunn fyrir erfiĂ°aleikastig atriĂ°sins og framkvĂŠmd ĂŸess.
+
+Saga
+Fimleikar byrjuĂ°u sem ĂŠfing Ă forn Grikklandi, Spörtu og AĂŸenu. F.L. Jahn er talin vera faĂ°ir fimleikanna. Hann opnaĂ°i ĂĂŸrĂłttasvĂŠĂ°i fyrir fimleika Ă ĂĂœskalandi ĂĄriĂ° 1811 og ĂŸaĂ° er talaĂ° um aĂ° saga fimleikanna hafi hafist ĂŸĂĄ. 5 ĂĄrum seinna gaf hann Ășt bĂłkina Die deutsche Turnkunst (ĂĂœska fimleikalistin). Jahn samdi hana meĂ° nemenda sĂnum E. Eiselen. RĂ©tt fyrir 1900 breiddust fimleikar Ășt til annarra landa Ă EvrĂłpu. Fyrsta ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lagiĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi sem hĂŠgt var aĂ° ĂŠfa fimleika var ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur (ĂR) Sem var stofnaĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1907. Fyrsta fimleikamĂłt Ăslands var haldiĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1924 og ĂŸaĂ° var hĂłpfimleikamĂłt og ĂŸar hlaut ĂR sigur. Fyrsta einstaklingsfimleikamĂłtiĂ° var haldiĂ° 1927. ĂĂĄ voru einungis karlar Ă fimleikum. MĂłt var haldiĂ° ĂĄrlega ĂŸangaĂ° til 1938. Aftur var byrjaĂ° aĂ° halda mĂłt ĂĄriĂ° 1968 og voru konur ĂŸĂĄ meĂ°al ĂŸĂĄtttakenda.
+
+Greinar
+
+Almennir fimleikar
+Ăegar fĂłlk byrjar aĂ° ĂŠfa fimleika byrjar ĂŸaĂ° Ă almennum fimleikum og velur svo hvort ĂŸaĂ° ĂŠtli Ă ĂĄhaldafimleika, hĂłpfimleika eĂ°a ĂŸolfimi.
+
+Ăhaldafimleikar
+Ăhaldafimleikar skiptast eftir kyni Ă Ăhaldafimleika Karla og Ăhaldafimleika Kvenna. Karlar keppa ĂĄ sex ĂĄhöldum: gĂłlfi, bogahesti, hringjum, stökki, karlatvĂslĂĄ (samsĂĂ°a) og svifrĂĄ, ĂĄ meĂ°an konur keppa ĂĄ fjĂłrum ĂĄhöldum: stökki, kvennatvĂslĂĄ, jafnvĂŠgisslĂĄ og ĂĄ gĂłlfi.
+
+Ă Ăslandi er keppt eftir Ăslenska fimleikastiganum sem getur tekiĂ° breytingum ĂĄ milli ĂĄra.
+
+Greinar Ă Ăhaldafimleikum kvenna
+
+StökkĂ stökki hleypur keppandi eftir 25m hlaupabraut, stekkur ĂĄ fjaĂ°urbretti, setur hendurnar Ă hestinn og fer 1-2 heljarstökk meĂ° snĂșningum.
+
+KvennatvĂslĂĄKeppandi gerir ĂŠfingar ĂĄ tveim slĂĄm sem eru Ă Ăłjafnri hĂŠĂ° frĂĄ gĂłlfi.
+
+JafnvĂŠgisslĂĄĂfingin mĂĄ taka allt aĂ° 90 sekĂșndur. SlĂĄin er 125 cm frĂĄ gĂłlfi, 500 cm aĂ° lengd og 10 cm breiĂ°.
+
+GĂłlfĂŠfingarĂfingarnar eru framkvĂŠmdar ĂĄ gĂłlfi sem er 12m x 12m. GĂłlfiĂ° er yfirleitt samansett ĂŸannig aĂ° efsta lag ĂŸess er fĂnofiĂ° teppi sem er lagt ofanĂĄ krossviĂ°slag, ĂŸar undir eru svo harĂ°ir svampkubbar sem gera ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° verkum aĂ° gĂłlfiĂ° fjaĂ°rar. Hver keppandi keppir Ă allt aĂ° 90 sekĂșndur eftir tĂłnlist.ĂĄ milli gerir keppandin serĂur sem gilda mismikiĂ°
+
+Greinar Ă Ăhaldafimleikum karla
+
+GĂłlfĂŠfingar
+
+Bogahestur
+
+Hringir
+
+Stökk
+
+KarlatvĂslĂĄ
+
+SvifrĂĄ
+
+HĂłpfimleikar
+Ă HĂłpfimleikum er keppt Ă GĂłlfĂŠfingu, TrampolĂnstökki og ĂĄ FĂberdĂœnu. Keppt er Ăœmist eftir Landsreglum eĂ°a Team gym reglum. Landsreglur eru reglur sem einungis eru notaĂ°ar hĂ©r ĂĄ landi og meira svigrĂșm er fyrir keppendur aĂ° taka ĂŸĂĄtt Ă fleiri umferĂ°um. Team gym reglur eru sam-evrĂłpskar reglur UEG sem notaĂ°ar eru ĂŸegar liĂ° eru aĂ° keppast um aĂ° komast ĂĄ norĂ°urlanda- og/eĂ°a evrĂłpumĂłt. Reglurnar ĂŸar eru örlĂtiĂ° strangari hvaĂ° varĂ°ar fjölda keppenda og val ĂŠfinga. Einnig er keppt eftir Team-gym reglum ĂĄ evrĂłpu- og norĂ°urlandamĂłtum. Ă hĂłpfimleikum er keppt Ă ĂŸrem flokkum: KvennaliĂ° KarlaliĂ° og svo Mix-liĂ° sem samanstendur af jafnmörgum keppendum af bĂĄĂ°um kynjum. ĂriĂ° 2006 kepptu fyrstu Ăslensku mix-liĂ°in ĂĄ Ăslandi (Stjarnan/Björk og Ărmann/GrĂłtta)og fyrstu karlaliĂ°in ĂĄriĂ° ĂŸar ĂĄ eftir (Stjarnan og Ărmann).
+Gerpla var unglingameistari ĂĄrin 2005, 2006 og 2007.
+
+GólfÊfingà dansi dansar allur hópurinn saman (6-20 keppendur à Landsreglum en 12 à Team gym reglum)og mikilvÊgt er að allir séu samtaka. Reglur eru um munstur, val Êfinga, samsetningu og tónlist.
+
+TrampolĂnstökkĂar er stokkiĂ° af litlu trampolĂni og gerĂ°ar eru kĂșnstir Ă loftinu, svo sem skrĂșfur eĂ°a heljarstökk. Ă trampolĂni er keppt Ă ĂŸremur umferĂ°um, ein umferĂ° ĂĄn hests og ein ĂĄ hesti og svo ein umferĂ° annaĂ°hvort ĂĄ hesti eĂ°a ekki. HĂĄmark keppenda er tĂu og lĂĄgmark sex Ă hverri umferĂ° Ă landsreglunum. Ă Team-gym eru einungis sex keppendur Ă hverri umferĂ°. Alltaf eru framkvĂŠmdar ĂŸrjĂĄr umferĂ°ir. Ă fyrstu umferĂ° framkvĂŠma allir sömu ĂŠfinguna en Ă annarri og ĂŸriĂ°ju umferĂ° mĂĄ skipta Ășt keppendum og ĂŠfingarnar mega vera mismunandi en ĂŸĂł verĂ°a ĂŸĂŠr allar aĂ° vera Ășr sama flokki og meĂ° stĂganda. Sama keppnisfyrirkomulag er ĂĄ fĂberdĂœnu og trampolĂn.
+
+FĂberdĂœnaĂ fĂberdĂœnu er hĂĄmark keppenda tĂu og lĂĄgmark sex eins er ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄ stökki. Ă dĂœnu er hĂĄmark keppenda tĂu og lĂĄgmark sex Ă hverri umferĂ° Ă landsreglunum. Ă Team-gym eru einungis sex keppendur Ă hverri umferĂ°. Alltaf eru framkvĂŠmdar ĂŸrjĂĄr umferĂ°ir. Ă fyrstu umferĂ° framkvĂŠma allir keppendur sömu ĂŠfinguna. Ă annarri og ĂŸriĂ°ju umferĂ° mĂĄ skipta Ășt keppendum og ĂŠfingarnar meiga mismunandi en ĂŸĂł verĂ°a ĂŸĂŠr allar aĂ° vera Ășr sama flokki og meĂ° stĂganda. En ĂaĂ° ĂŸarf aĂ° vera aĂ° minnsta kosti ein umferĂ° fram og ein umferĂ° afturĂĄbak, ĂŸriĂ°ja umferĂ°in fram eĂ°a afturĂĄbak.
+
+Allir keppendur ĂŸurfa aĂ° vera Ă eins göllum og snyrtilega greiddir. DĂłmarar geta dregiĂ° frĂĄ ef reglur um bĂșninga eru brotnar.
+
+Ăolfimi
+MagnĂșs Scheving er frĂŠgasti ĂŸolfimimaĂ°ur Ăslendinga.
+
+Heimildir
+
+ ĂSĂ (2010). TölfrĂŠĂ°ihefti.
+
+Tenglar
+ Fimleikasamband Ăslands
+ www.fimleikar.is
+
+TilvĂsanir
+EdduverĂ°launin eru Ăslensk sjĂłnvarps- og kvikmyndaverĂ°laun veitt af Ăslensku sjĂłnvarps- og kvikmyndaakademĂunni fyrir bestu frammistöðu og verk sĂ©rhvers ĂĄrs Ă nokkrum verĂ°launaflokkum.
+
+EdduverĂ°launin voru fyrst veitt 15. nĂłvember 1999 og hafa veriĂ° nĂŠr ĂĄrlegur viĂ°burĂ°ur sĂĂ°an.
+
+VerĂ°launaflokkar
+VerĂ°launaflokkarnir ĂĄ EdduverĂ°laununum hafa tekiĂ° breytingum frĂĄ ĂĄri til ĂĄrs. Upphaflega voru veitt verĂ°laun Ă ĂĄtta flokkum, en nĂș eru flokkarnir fleiri en 25. LanglĂfustu flokkarnir eru til dĂŠmis kvikmynd ĂĄrsins, leikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins og heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins sem hafa veriĂ° ĂŸeir sömu frĂĄ upphafi. VerĂ°laun fyrir leikara Ă aĂ°al- og aukahlutverkum hafa veriĂ° sitt ĂĄ hvaĂ° kynjaskipt eĂ°a sameiginleg Ă gegnum tĂĂ°ina. VerĂ°laun fyrir sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂŠtti hafa breyst til aĂ° taka miĂ° af framleiĂ°slunni hverju sinni og svokölluĂ° fagverĂ°laun (fyrir leikmynd, bĂșninga, förĂ°un o.s.frv.) hafa lĂka veriĂ° meĂ° Ăœmsum hĂŠtti.
+
+HeiĂ°ursverĂ°laun ĂKSA hafa veriĂ° veitt Ă hvert sinn fyrir sĂ©rstakt framlag eĂ°a ĂŠvistarf Ă ĂŸĂĄgu kvikmynda- og dagskrĂĄrgerĂ°ar ĂĄ Ăslandi. Fyrsti handhafi heiĂ°ursverĂ°launanna var IndriĂ°i G. Ăorsteinsson rithöfundur.
+
+Tenglar
+ Vefur verĂ°launanna
+EdduverĂ°launin 1999 voru fyrsta afhending EdduverĂ°launa nĂœstofnaĂ°rar Ăslenskrar kvikmynda- og sjĂłnvarpsakademĂu sem fĂłr fram Ă BorgarleikhĂșsinu ĂŸann 15. nĂłvember 1999. Kynnir kvöldsins var , framkvĂŠmdastjĂłri Kvikmyndasjóðs. Veitt voru verĂ°laun Ă ĂĄtta flokkum auk sĂ©rstakra heiĂ°ursverĂ°launa fyrir sĂ©rstakt framlag til sjĂłnvarps eĂ°a kvikmyndagerĂ°ar. Kvikmynd GuĂ°nĂœjar HalldĂłrsdĂłttur, UngfrĂșin góða og hĂșsiĂ°, eftir sögu HalldĂłrs Laxness, hreppti fimm viĂ°urkenningar. Afhendingin var sĂœnd Ă beinni Ăștsendingu ĂĄ Stöð 2.
+
+Handhafar EdduverĂ°launanna 1999
+
+BĂĂłmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+LeikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikari ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikkona ĂĄrsins
+
+Heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttur ĂĄrsins
+
+LeikiĂ° sjĂłnvarpsefni ĂĄrsins
+
+FagverĂ°laun
+
+HeiĂ°ursverĂ°laun ĂKSA 1999
+
+Framlag Ăslands til forvals Ăskarsins
+
+EdduverĂ°launin
+EdduverĂ°launin 2000 voru afhending EdduverĂ°launa Ăslensku kvikmynda- og sjĂłnvarpsakademĂunnar Ă ĂjóðleikhĂșsinu sunnudaginn 19. nĂłvember ĂĄriĂ° 2000. Veitt voru verĂ°laun Ă ellefu flokkum, en nĂœir flokkar voru leikari og leikkona Ă aukahlutverkum. Auk ĂŸess var tekiĂ° upp ĂĄ ĂŸeirri nĂœjung aĂ° velja sjĂłnvarpsmann ĂĄrsins Ă netkosningu sem fram fĂłr ĂĄ vefnum mbl.is. StjĂłrnendur voru JĂłn ĂrsĂŠll ĂĂłrĂ°arson, sjĂłnvarpsmaĂ°ur og Steinunn ĂlĂna ĂorsteinsdĂłttir, leikkona.
+
+MikiĂ° var rĂŠtt um kosningasmalanir, ĂĄróður og jafnvel mĂștur fyrir kosningu akademĂunnar Ășr tilnefningum dĂłmnefndar. Almenningur gat einnig kosiĂ° à öllum flokkum ĂĄ mbl.is og giltu ĂŸau atkvĂŠĂ°i 30% ĂĄ mĂłti 70% vĂŠgi atkvĂŠĂ°a akademĂunnar nema Ă kosningunni um sjĂłnvarpsmann ĂĄrsins ĂŸar sem atkvĂŠĂ°i almennings giltu 100%.
+
+Kvikmyndin Englar alheimsins eftir FriĂ°rik ĂĂłr FriĂ°riksson, byggĂ° ĂĄ bĂłk Einars MĂĄs GuĂ°mundssonar, hlaut flestar tilnefningar, ĂĄtta talsins og sjö verĂ°laun auk ĂŸess aĂ° vera valin sem framlag Ăslands til forvals ĂskarsverĂ°launanna.
+
+Tilnefningar og handhafar EdduverĂ°launanna
+Handhafar verĂ°launa Ă hverjum flokki eru feitletraĂ°ir.
+
+BĂĂłmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+LeikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikari ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikkona ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikari ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki
+
+Leikkona ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki
+
+Heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttur ĂĄrsins
+
+SjĂłnvarpsverk ĂĄrsins
+
+SjĂłnvarpsmaĂ°ur ĂĄrsins
+
+FagverĂ°laun ĂĄrsins
+
+HeiĂ°ursverĂ°laun ĂKSA 2000
+
+Framlag Ăslands til forvals ĂskarsverĂ°launanna
+
+EdduverĂ°launin
+EdduverĂ°launin 2001 voru ĂŸriĂ°ja afhending EdduverĂ°launa Ăslensku kvikmynda- og sjĂłnvarpsakademĂunnar. Afhendingin fĂłr fram ĂĄ veitingastaĂ°num Broadway 11. nĂłvember 2001. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu ĂĄĂ°ur bĂŠttust viĂ° tveir nĂœir verĂ°launaflokkar, âHandrit ĂĄrsinsâ og âSjĂłnvarpsfrĂ©ttamaĂ°ur ĂĄrsinsâ, og voru ĂŸvĂ veitt verĂ°laun Ă ĂŸrettĂĄn flokkum auk heiĂ°ursverĂ°launa ĂKSA. Einnig voru Ă fyrsta sinn stuttmyndir teknar meĂ° Ă flokknum âSjĂłnvarpsverk/leikiĂ° sjĂłnvarpsefni ĂĄrsinsâ. Almenningi gafst tĂŠkifĂŠri til aĂ° hafa ĂĄhrif meĂ° netkosningu en mest vĂŠgi à öllum flokkum nema flokknum âvinsĂŠlasti sjĂłnvarpsmaĂ°ur ĂĄrsinsâ höfĂ°u ĂŸĂł atkvĂŠĂ°i meĂ°lima akademĂunnar.
+
+AĂ°alkynnar kvöldsins voru Valgeir GuĂ°jĂłnsson, tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur og Edda HeiĂ°rĂșn Backman, leikkona. VerĂ°launaafhendingunni var sjĂłnvarpaĂ° beint Ă RĂkissjĂłnvarpinu.
+
+Mesta athygli vakti aĂ° kvikmyndin MĂĄvahlĂĄtur eftir ĂgĂșst GuĂ°mundsson hlaut alls tĂu tilnefningar og sex verĂ°laun og var valin framlag Ăslands til forvals ĂskarsverĂ°launanna.
+
+Tilnefningar og handhafar EdduverĂ°launanna 2001
+Handhafar EdduverĂ°launanna Ă hverjum flokki eru feitletraĂ°ir og gulllitaĂ°ir.
+
+BĂĂłmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+SjĂłnvarpsverk/stuttmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+Handrit ĂĄrsins
+
+LeikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins
+
+Fréttamaður årsins
+
+SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttur ĂĄrsins
+
+VinsĂŠlasti sjĂłnvarpsmaĂ°ur ĂĄrsins
+
+FagverĂ°laun ĂĄrsins
+
+Heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikkona ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikari ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikkona ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki
+
+Leikari ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki
+
+HeiĂ°ursverĂ°laun ĂKSA 2001
+
+Framlag Ăslands til forvals Ăskarsins
+
+EdduverĂ°launin
+EdduverĂ°launin 2002 voru afhending EdduverĂ°launa Ăslensku kvikmynda- og sjĂłnvarpsakademĂunnar Ă ĂjóðleikhĂșsinu 10. nĂłvember 2002. Veitt voru verĂ°laun Ă sextĂĄn flokkum auk heiĂ°ursverĂ°launa ĂKSA sem var ĂŸremur fleira en ĂĄriĂ° ĂĄĂ°ur. FagverĂ°launum ĂĄrsins var nĂș skipt Ă tvennt og veitt sĂ©rstök verĂ°laun fyrir annars vegar hljóð og mynd og hins vegar Ăștlit myndar. AĂ° auki var bĂŠtt viĂ° flokkunum âStuttmynd ĂĄrsinsâ og âTĂłnlistarmyndband ĂĄrsinsâ.
+
+AĂ°alkynnar hĂĄtĂĂ°arinnar voru ValgerĂ°ur MatthĂasdĂłttir og Logi Bergmann EiĂ°sson.
+
+Kvikmynd Baltasars KormĂĄks, HafiĂ°, var aĂ°sĂłpsmest ĂĄ hĂĄtĂĂ°inni og fĂ©kk alls ĂĄtta verĂ°laun. Einnig vakti athygli aĂ° tölvuteiknuĂ° stuttmynd, Litla lirfan ljĂłta, fĂ©kk tvĂŠr tilnefningar og ein verĂ°laun.
+
+Tilnefningar og handhafar EdduverĂ°launanna
+Handhafar verĂ°launa Ă hverjum flokki eru feitletraĂ°ir og gulllitaĂ°ir.
+
+BĂĂłmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+LeikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikkona ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikari ĂĄrsins
+
+Leikkona ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki
+
+Leikari ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki
+
+Handrit ĂĄrsins
+
+SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttur ĂĄrsins
+
+Ătlit myndar
+
+Hljóð og mynd
+
+LeikiĂ° sjĂłnvarpsverk ĂĄrsins
+
+Heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+Stuttmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+TĂłnlistarmyndband ĂĄrsins
+
+Fréttamaður årsins
+
+SjĂłnvarpsmaĂ°ur ĂĄrsins
+
+HeiĂ°ursverĂ°laun ĂKSA 2002
+
+Framlag Ăslands til forvals Ăskarsins
+
+EdduverĂ°launin
+EdduverĂ°launin 2003 voru afhending EdduverĂ°launa Ăslensku kvikmynda- og sjĂłnvarpsakademĂunnar sem fĂłr fram ĂĄ HĂłtel Nordica, föstudagskvöldiĂ° 10. oktĂłber 2003. AĂ°alkynnar ĂĄ hĂĄtĂĂ°inni voru Eva MarĂa JĂłnsdĂłttir og Sverrir ĂĂłr Sverrisson. ĂĂŠr breytingar urĂ°u ĂĄ verĂ°launaflokkum aĂ° flokkurinn âleikiĂ° sjĂłnvarpsverk ĂĄrsinsâ var lagĂ°ur niĂ°ur og voru ĂŸvĂ veitt verĂ°laun Ă fimmtĂĄn flokkum auk heiĂ°ursverĂ°launa ĂKSA.
+
+Kvikmynd Dags KĂĄra, NĂłi albĂnĂłi, var tvĂmĂŠlalaust sigursĂŠlust ĂĄ ĂŸessari afhendingu meĂ° tĂu tilnefningar og sex verĂ°laun auk ĂŸess aĂ° vera valin sem framlag Ăslands til forvals ĂskarsverĂ°launanna.
+
+Tilnefningar og handhafar EdduverĂ°launanna
+Handhafar verĂ°launa Ă hverjum flokki eru feitletraĂ°ir.
+
+Leikari ĂĄrsins Ă aĂ°alhlutverki
+
+Leikkona ĂĄrsins Ă aĂ°alhlutverki
+
+Leikari ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki
+
+Leikkona ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki
+
+SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttur ĂĄrsins
+
+Sjónvarpsfréttamaður årsins
+
+Heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+Hljóð og mynd
+
+Ătlit myndar
+
+Handrit ĂĄrsins
+
+LeikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins
+
+BĂĂłmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+Stuttmynd ĂĄrsins
+
+TĂłnlistarmyndband ĂĄrsins
+
+HeiĂ°ursverĂ°laun ĂKSA 2003
+
+SjĂłnvarpsmaĂ°ur ĂĄrsins
+
+Framlag Ăslands til Ăskarsforvals
+
+EdduverĂ°launin
+Rammstein er ĂŸĂœsk ĂŸungarokkhljĂłmsveit sem stofnuĂ° var ĂĄriĂ° 1994 Ă BerlĂn. Ă tĂłnlist Rammstein gĂŠtir mikilla ĂĄhrifa frĂĄ raftĂłnlist og iĂ°naĂ°arrokki. Einnig eru ĂĄhrif frĂĄ slĂłvensku sveitinni Laibach. Rammstein er kennd viĂ° bylgju rokks Ă ĂĂœskalandi og AusturrĂki sem kennd er viĂ° Neue Deutsche HĂ€rte, nĂœju ĂŸĂœsku hörkuna. Textar Rammstein eru nĂŠr eingöngu ĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku en nokkrir eru ĂĄ ensku.
+
+HljĂłmsveitin
+Allir meĂ°limir hljĂłmsveitarinnar koma frĂĄ fyrrverandi Austur-ĂĂœskalandi, Austur-BerlĂn og Schwerin nĂĄnar tiltekiĂ°. Nafn sveitarinnar er dregiĂ° af bĂŠnum Ramstein Ă SuĂ°ur-ĂĂœskalandi ĂŸar sem mannskĂŠtt slys varĂ° ĂĄ flugsĂœningu ĂĄriĂ° 1988, lagiĂ° Rammstein er samiĂ° til minningar um ĂŸann atburĂ°. MeĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° bĂŠta inn einu âmâ Ă viĂ°bĂłt Ă nafn bĂŠjarins er hĂŠgt aĂ° ĂŸĂœĂ°a ĂŸaĂ° sem âaĂ° berja Ă steinâ sem ĂŸykir viĂ°eigandi miĂ°aĂ° kraftmikla og ĂĄleitna tĂłnlist sveitarinnar.
+
+Riedel, Schneider og Kruspe-Bernstein stofnuĂ°u Rammstein upphaflega en sĂĄ sĂĂ°astnefndi hafĂ°i ĂŸĂĄ um skeiĂ° veriĂ° viĂ°riĂ°inn hljĂłmsveitina Orgasm Death Gimmicks sem starfaĂ°i Ă Vestur-BerlĂn og gerĂ°i tĂłnlist aĂ° amerĂskri fyrirmynd. Kruspe-Bernstein sagĂ°i um ĂŸetta: âĂg ĂĄttaĂ°i mig ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° er mjög mikilvĂŠgt aĂ° bĂșa til tĂłnlist og lĂĄta hana passa viĂ° tungumĂĄliĂ° ĂŸitt sem Ă©g hafĂ°i ekki veriĂ° aĂ° gera ĂĄĂ°ur. Ăg kom aftur [til ĂĂœskalands] og sagĂ°i: âĂaĂ° er kominn tĂmi til aĂ° bĂșa til tĂłnlist sem er ekta.â Ăg stofnaĂ°i ĂŸĂĄ til verkefnisins sem kallast Rammstein, til ĂŸess aĂ° bĂșa til alvöru ĂŸĂœska tĂłnlist.â ĂvĂ nĂŠst höfĂ°u ĂŸeir samband viĂ° Lindemann, ĂŸĂĄverandi körfuvefara og trommuleikara Ă hljĂłmsveit sem kallaĂ°i sig First Arsch og buĂ°u honum stöðu sem söngvari Ă sveitinni sem hann og ĂŸĂĄĂ°i. Ăannig skipuĂ° tĂłk sveitin ĂŸĂĄtt Ă hljĂłmsveitakeppni fyrir nĂœjar hljĂłmsveitir og sigraĂ°i Ă henni. Ăannig kviknaĂ°i ĂĄhugi Landers ĂĄ sveitinni en hann ĂŸekkti alla meĂ°limi hennar fyrir og ĂĄkvaĂ° aĂ° ganga til liĂ°s viĂ° hana. SĂĂ°asti meĂ°limurinn var âFlakeâ Lorenz, hann hafĂ°i spilaĂ° meĂ° Landers Ă hljĂłmsveitinni Feeling B, hann var Ă fyrstu tregur til aĂ° ganga til liĂ°s viĂ° sveitina en lĂ©t ĂŸĂł sannfĂŠrast aĂ° lokum, ĂĄri sĂĂ°ar kom fyrsta platan Ășt.
+
+ĂrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° syngja langmest ĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku ĂŸĂĄ nĂœtur hljĂłmsveitin mikilla vinsĂŠlda vĂĂ°a utan ĂĂœskalands og eftir ĂștgĂĄfu Reise, Reise ĂĄriĂ° 2004 varĂ° hĂșn vinsĂŠlasta ĂŸĂœskumĂŠlandi hljĂłmsveit allra tĂma.
+
+Rammstein hĂ©lt tvenna tĂłnleika ĂĄ Ăslandi, ĂŸĂĄ fyrstu 15. jĂșnĂ 2001 ĂŸar sem HAM hitaĂ°i upp fyrir ĂŸĂĄ og ĂŸĂĄ sĂĂ°ari 16. jĂșnĂ 2001 meĂ° Kanada en ĂŸeir tĂłnleikar voru haldnir sökum ĂŸess aĂ° ekki fengu allir miĂ°a sem vildu ĂĄ ĂŸĂĄ fyrri ĂŸĂł svo aĂ° fyrri tĂłnleikarnir hafi veriĂ° markaĂ°ssettir undir ĂŸvĂ yfirskyni aĂ° ekki vĂŠri möguleiki ĂĄ aĂ° haldnir yrĂ°u aukatĂłnleikar. Rammstein hĂ©lt einnig tĂłnleika ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă maĂ 2016.
+
+Rammstein ollu hneykslan ĂŸann 18. september 2009 ĂŸegar ĂŸeir settu myndband viĂ° lagiĂ° sitt "Pussy" ĂĄ netiĂ°, en ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸĂłtti helst minna ĂĄ atriĂ°i Ășr grĂłfri klĂĄmmynd. Ăar koma hljĂłmsveitameĂ°limir fram alnaktir Ă samförum viĂ° kvenmenn, en ĂŸĂĄ er lĂkama Flake Lorenz einnig breytt Ă kvennmannslĂkama. Einnig töldu ĂŸĂœsk yfirvöld aĂ° lagiĂ° hvatti til kynlĂfs ĂĄn getnaĂ°arvarna.
+
+NĂŠstu ĂĄr fĂłr hljĂłmsveitin ĂĄ tĂłnleikaferĂ°alög og tĂłnleika- og safnskĂfur komu Ășt. Lindemann og Kruspe gĂĄfu Ășt sĂłlĂłplötur. ĂriĂ° 2019 gaf hljĂłmsveitin Ășt smĂĄskĂfuna Deutschland og kom platan Rammstein Ășt Ă maĂ ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄr, 10 ĂĄrum eftir sĂĂ°ustu breiĂ°skĂfu.
+
+MeĂ°limir
+ Richard Z. Kruspe-Bernstein â gĂtar
+ Paul Landers â gĂtar
+ Till Lindemann â söngur
+ Oliver Riedel â bassi
+ Christoph âDoomâ Schneider â trommur
+ Christian âFlakeâ Lorenz â hljĂłmborĂ°
+
+ĂtgĂĄfur
+
+BreiĂ°skĂfur
+ Herzeleid, 1995
+ Sehnsucht, 1997
+ Live aus Berlin, 1999
+ Mutter, 2001
+ Reise, Reise, 2004
+ Rosenrot, 2005
+ Liebe ist ĂŒr alle da, 2009
+ Rammstein 2019
+ Zeit (2022)
+
+SmĂĄskĂfur
+ Du riechst so gut (1995)
+ Seemann (1996)
+ Engel, Fan-Edition (1997)
+ Engel (1997)
+ Du hast (1997)
+ Das Modell (1997)
+ Du riechst so gut '98 (1998)
+ Stripped (1998)
+ SmĂĄskĂfusafn (1998)
+ Sonne (2001)
+ Links 2 3 4 (2001)
+ Ich will (2001)
+ Mutter (2002)
+ Feuer frei! (2002)
+ Mein Teil (2004)
+ Amerika (2004)
+ Ohne Dich (2004)
+ Keine Lust (2005)
+ Benzin (2005)
+ Rosenrot (2005)
+ Mann Gegen Mann (2005)
+ Pussy (2009)
+ Ich tuh dir weh (2010)
+ Haifisch (2010)
+ Waidmanns Heil/Liebe ist fĂŒr alle da (2011)
+ Mein Land (2011)
+ Mein Herz Brennt (2012)
+ Deutschland (2019)
+ Radio (2019)
+ Zeit (2022)
+ Zick Zack (2022)
+ Angst (2022)
+ Dicke Titten (2022)
+ Adieu (2022)
+
+Myndbönd
+ Du Riechst so Gut
+ Seemann
+ Rammstein
+ Engel
+ Du Hast
+ Du Riechst so Gut '98
+ Stripped
+ Sonne
+ Links 2-3-4
+ Ich Will
+ Mutter
+ Feuer Frei!
+ Mein Teil
+ Amerika
+ Ohne Dich
+ Keine Lust
+ Benzin
+ Rosenrot
+ Mann Gegen Mann
+ Pussy
+ Haifisch
+ Mein Land
+ Mein Herz brennt
+ Deutchsland
+ Zick Zack (2022)
+ Angst (2022)
+ Dicke Titten (2022)
+ Adieu (2022)
+
+DVD/tĂłnleikar
+ Live Aus Berlin (1999)
+ Links 2 3 4 (2001)
+ Lichtspielhaus (2003)
+ Völkerball (2006)
+ Videos 1995 - 2012 (2012)
+ Rammstein in Amerika (2015)
+ Rammstein: Paris (2017)
+
+Tenglar
+ HeimasĂĂ°a hljĂłmsveitarinnar
+
+ĂĂœskar ĂŸungarokkshljĂłmsveitir
+Eftirfarandi er listi yfir Ăslenska tĂłnlistarmenn. Listinn er ekki tĂŠmandi.
+
+20. öld
+ Atli Heimir Sveinsson
+ Ăsi Ă BĂŠ (Ăstgeir Kristinn Ălafsson) (1914â1985)
+ Bjarni Tryggvason (1963-)
+ Bjartmar GuĂ°laugsson (1952-)
+ Björgvin Guðmundsson (1891-1961)
+ Björgvin GĂslason
+ Björgvin Halldórsson
+ Björk Guðmundsdóttir (1965-)
+ Bubbi Morthens (Ăsbjörn Morthens) (1956-)
+ Egill Ălafsson
+ Einar Vilberg Hjartarson
+ Elly VilhjĂĄlms
+ EyĂŸĂłr ĂorlĂĄksson
+ Gunnar ĂĂłrĂ°arson
+ Guðmundur Jónsson (söngvari)
+ Haukur Morthens
+ Helena EyjĂłlfsdĂłttir
+ Helgi Björnsson
+ Ingimar Eydal
+ Ingi T. LĂĄrusson
+ JĂłn Leifs
+ JĂłn Kr. Ălafsson
+ KarĂłlĂna EirĂksdĂłttir
+ KristjĂĄn KristjĂĄnsson (KK)
+ Loftur GuĂ°mundsson (1892â1952)
+ MagnĂșs Blöndal
+ Megas (MagnĂșs ĂĂłr JĂłnsson) (1945-)
+ Ămar Ragnarsson
+ Oddgeir KristjĂĄnsson (1911â1966)
+ PĂĄll Ăskar HjĂĄlmtĂœsson
+ PĂĄlmi Gunnarsson
+ PĂ©tur Wigelund KristjĂĄnsson (1952â2004)
+ Pjetur StefĂĄnsson (1953-)
+ Ragnar Bjarnason
+ Roar Kvam
+ RĂșnar JĂșlĂusson
+ SigfĂșs HalldĂłrsson
+ Sigvaldi KaldalĂłns
+ StefĂĄn Hilmarsson
+ SteingrĂmur Ăli SigurĂ°arson
+ VilhjĂĄlmur VilhjĂĄlmsson
+ Ăorgeir Ăstvaldsson
+ Ăorkell Sigurbjörnsson
+ ĂurĂĂ°ur SigurĂ°ardĂłttir
+
+21. öld
+ Ăki Ăsgeirsson
+ Ăsgeir Trausti
+ Egill Ălafsson
+ EmilĂana Torrini
+ G. Dan Gunnarsson
+ GuĂ°mundur Steinn Gunnarsson
+ GarĂ°ar Cortes
+ G. Magni Ăsgeirsson
+ HafdĂs BjarnadĂłttir
+ HafdĂs Huld ĂrastardĂłttir
+ Haffi Haff
+ Hansa
+ Heimir Eyvindarson
+ Heiða Hrönn Jóhannsdóttir
+ Hera HjartardĂłttir
+ Hlynur AĂ°ils Vilmarsson
+ HreiĂ°ar Ingi Ăorsteinsson
+ Ingi GarĂ°ar Erlendsson
+ Jens Ălafsson
+ JĂłnas Sig
+ JĂșnĂus Meyvant
+ Karl Henry HĂĄkonarson
+ MagnĂșs Jensson
+ Mugison (Ărn ElĂas GuĂ°mundsson)
+ Oddur Hrafn Björgvinsson
+ Ălafur Björn Ălafsson
+ PĂĄll Ivan PĂĄlsson
+ PĂ©tur ĂĂłr Benediktsson
+ Prins PĂłlĂł
+ Ragnheiður Gröndal
+ RĂkharĂ°ur H. FriĂ°riksson
+ RĂłbert Reynisson
+ RĂșnar ĂĂłrisson
+ SmĂĄri JĂłsepsson
+ StefĂĄn I. ĂĂłrhallsson
+ StefĂĄn Jakobsson (Jak)
+ Svala Björgvinsdóttir
+ SĂŠvar Helgason
+ Valur SnĂŠr Gunnarsson (1976-)
+ ĂĂłrir Gunnarsson
+
+Listar tengdir Ăslandi
+Ăslenskir tĂłnlistarmenn
+TĂłnlistarmenn
+Ăslenskir tĂłnlistarmenn
+Listar yfir tĂłnlistarfĂłlk
+Bjartmar Anton GuĂ°laugsson (f. 13. jĂșnĂ 1952) er Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur, skĂĄld og myndlistarmaĂ°ur sem hĂłf aĂ° gefa Ășt tĂłnlist ĂĄ nĂunda ĂĄratug 20. aldar. Lögin SĂșrmjĂłlk Ă hĂĄdeginu (og Cheerios ĂĄ kvöldin), TĂœnda kynslóðin, FimmtĂĄn ĂĄra ĂĄ föstu, SumarliĂ°i er fullur, Negril, JĂĄrnkarlinn, og Ăannig tĂœnist tĂminn eru meĂ°al vinsĂŠlla laga hans.
+
+Ferill
+Ă tĂunda ĂĄratugnum flutti Bjartmar til Danmerkur Ă fimm ĂĄr og hĂłf ĂŸar m.a. myndlistarnĂĄm. Hann hĂłf feril sinn sem laga- og textahöfundur ĂĄriĂ° 1977.
+Bjartmar var einn vinsĂŠlasti tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ nĂunda ĂĄratugnum, slĂł Ă gegn ĂĄriĂ° 1987 ĂŸegar hann gaf Ășt vinsĂŠlustu plötu sĂna Ă fylgd meĂ° fullorĂ°num. Platan var nĂŠstsöluhĂŠsta plata ĂĄrsins.
+
+Plötunni fylgdi hann eftir aĂ° ĂĄri meĂ° MeĂ° vottorĂ° Ă leikfimi. âTĂmi ĂŸverslaufupoppsins er liĂ°innâ, sagĂ°i Bjartmar Ă viĂ°tali viĂ° DagblaĂ°iĂ° VĂsi ĂĄriĂ° 1986 og hafĂ°i nĂș sĂœnt fram ĂĄ ĂŸaĂ° svo ekki var um aĂ° villast.
+
+ĂĂ°ur en hann slĂł Ă gegn meĂ° Ă fylgd meĂ° fullorĂ°num, skrifaĂ°i Bjartmar texta fyrir aĂ°ra meĂ° góðum ĂĄrangri, meĂ°al annars fyrir Ăorgeir Ăstvaldsson, Björk o.fl. Hann hafĂ°i einnig gefiĂ° Ășt breiĂ°skĂfurnar Ef Ă©g mĂŠtti rĂĄĂ°a og Venjulegur maĂ°ur auk smĂĄskĂfunnar ĂĂĄ sjaldan maĂ°ur lyftir sĂ©r upp, sem hann gerĂ°i Ă samstarfi viĂ° PĂ©tur.
+
+Bjartmari hefur oft tekist aĂ° fanga tĂĂ°arandann Ă textum sĂnum og notast viĂ° satĂrun, t.d. Ă laginu um BastĂan. Textinn fjallar um ungt og ĂĄstfangiĂ° par, sem fer illa Ășt Ășr samskiptum sĂnum viĂ° raunveruleikann. Textinn (og lagiĂ°) eru augljĂłs skopstĂŠling ĂĄ óð DavĂĂ°s Oddssonar ĂŸĂĄverandi borgarstjĂłra, ViĂ° ReykjavĂkurtjörn, og lögin eru Ă raun fullkomnar andstĂŠĂ°ur. BastĂan sĂĄ sem ĂĄkallaĂ°ur er Ă laginu og ĂŸaĂ° nefnt eftir, er aĂ° sjĂĄlfsögĂ°u erkitĂœpa bĂŠjarstjĂłrans og vĂsun Ă frĂŠgan bĂŠjarfĂłgeta meĂ° sama nafni. BĂŠjarfĂłgeti Bjartmars skekur hamarinn og sendir fulltrĂșa sinn, en Ă staĂ° ĂŸess aĂ° bera skrifpĂșlt, stĂłl og rĂșm inn Ă bĂĄrujĂĄrnshĂșs viĂ° BergĂŸĂłrugötuna, lĂkt og Ă texta DavĂĂ°s, âhann borĂ°iĂ° og stĂłlinn og skrifpĂșltiĂ° tĂłkâ. âĂeim hefĂ°i veriĂ° nĂŠr aĂ° byrja bĂșskapinn viĂ° BĂĄrujĂĄrnsgötunaâ.
+
+FrĂĄ 1977 hefur Bjartmar samiĂ° bĂŠĂ°i fyrir aĂ°ra og eigiĂ° ĂștgefiĂ° efni. ĂĂĄ hefur hann haldiĂ° tĂłnleika um allt land og erlendis bĂŠĂ°i sem trĂșbador (einn meĂ° gĂtar) og hinum Ăœmsu hljĂłmsveitum. MĂĄ ĂŸar nefna The Hounds, DauĂ°arefsing, Umbrot, Logar frĂĄ Vestmannaeyjum, GlitbrĂĄ ĂĄ Hvolsvelli, EinsdĂŠmi ĂĄ SeyĂ°isfirĂ°i, Töfraflautan, Geimsteinn (annaĂ° veifiĂ°), JĂĄrnkarlarnir, DĂșndur og Bjartmar og Bergrisarnir. Auk ĂŸess hefur Bjartmar komiĂ° fram sem gestur hjĂĄ hinum Ăœmsu hljĂłmsveitum.
+
+Bjartmar sat sem fulltrĂși Danmarks Radio Ă samnorrĂŠnni hljĂłmsveit höfunda sem hĂ©t Nordmix Ă sjö mĂĄnuĂ°i (1992-1993) og spilaĂ°i hljĂłmsveitin vĂĂ°svegar um Danmörk og SvĂĂŸjóð ĂĄ hinum Ăœmsu tĂłnleikahĂĄtĂĂ°um og komu fram Ă sjĂłnvarpi og Ăștvarpi. Bjartmar er höfundur lags og ljóðs ĂĄ Ăłskalagi ĂŸjóðarinnar ĂĄriĂ° 2014 âĂannig tĂœnist tĂminnâ ĂriĂ° 2019 samdi Bjartmar lag og texta ĂjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°ar Vestmannaeyja, âEyjarĂłsâ.
+
+Bjartmar hefur gefiĂ° Ășt lög og texta meĂ° öðrum flytjendum, ĂŸar mĂĄ nefna plötur Björgvins GĂslasonar, Ăorgeirs Ăstvaldssonar (HurĂ°askellir og StĂșfur staĂ°nir aĂ° verki) og fleiri lagahöfunda ĂŸar sem Bjartmar hefur sĂ©Ă° um textagerĂ°ina. DĂŠmi: Logar, Papar, StjĂłrnin, JĂłn Ălafsson (ĂjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°arlag Vestmannaeyja 1989), Laddi, Hrafnar, GĂșsti, Ellen KristjĂĄnsdĂłttir, Shady Owens, DiddĂș, Ragnar Bjarnarson, Lay Low, MagnĂșs Ălafsson, GR LĂșĂ°vĂksson, RĂșnar JĂșlĂusson, PĂ©tur KristjĂĄnsson, Björk, JĂłn SigurĂ°sson, Ăsafold, Lifun, Ojbarasta og fleiri og fleiri.
+
+SĂłlĂłferill
+1984 â Ef Ă©g mĂŠtti rĂĄĂ°a (ĂștgefiĂ° af Geimsteini)
+1985 â Venjulegur maĂ°ur, NĂș (eigin ĂștgĂĄfa)
+1986 â ĂĂĄ sjaldan maĂ°ur lyftir sĂ©r upp (ĂștgefiĂ° af Steinar)
+1987 â Ă fylgd meĂ° fullorĂ°num (ĂștgefiĂ° af Steinar)
+1988 â MeĂ° vottorĂ° Ă leikfimi (eigin ĂștgĂĄfa ĂĄsamt SigurĂ°i R. JĂłnssyni - Stemma)
+1991 â ĂaĂ° er puĂ° aĂ° vera strĂĄkur (ĂștgefiĂ° af SkĂfunni)
+1992 â Engisprettufaraldur, Haraldur (ĂștgefiĂ° af Geimsteini)
+1994 â Bjartmar, eigin ĂștgĂĄfa (tekin upp Ă SvĂĂŸjóð)
+1997 â TvĂŠr fyrstu ĂĄ geisladisk (ĂștgefiĂ° af Geimsteini - endurĂștgĂĄfa)
+1998 â Ljóð til vara (ĂștgefiĂ° af SkĂfunni - geisladiskur/ safnplata)
+1999 â Strik (ĂștgefiĂ° af Japis)
+2002 â Vor (ĂștgefiĂ° af Geimsteini)
+2005 â Ekki barnanna beztur (eigin ĂștgĂĄfa - mynd 44)
+2010 â SkrĂœtin veröld (Ăștgefin af Geimsteini - Bjartmar og Bergrisarnir)
+2012 â SumarliĂ°i, Hippinn og allir hinir (safnplata meĂ° 60 lögum og textum, ĂștgefiĂ° af Geimsteini)
+2018 â BlĂĄ nĂłtt (eigin ĂștgĂĄfa meĂ° 10 lögum)
+
+Ăslenskir tĂłnlistarmenn
+EfnafrĂŠĂ°i er vĂsindagrein sem fjallar um eiginleika efna. EfnafrĂŠĂ°i er sĂș undirgrein nĂĄttĂșruvĂsindanna sem fjallar um frumefnin sem allt efni er bĂșiĂ° til Ășr, og efnasambönd bĂșin til Ășr frumeindum, sameindum og jĂłnum: samsetningu ĂŸeirra, uppbyggingu, eiginleika, hegĂ°un og breytingu sem verĂ°ur ĂĄ ĂŸeim ĂŸegar ĂŸau ganga Ă gegnum efnahvörf.
+
+EfnafrĂŠĂ°i tekur fyrir efni eins og hvernig frumeindir og sameindir vĂxlverka Ă gegnum efnatengi og mynda nĂœ efnasambönd. Efnatengjum mĂĄ skipta niĂ°ur Ă tvo flokka: grunnefnatengi (e. primary chemical bond), tengi eins og samgild tengi, ĂŸar sem frumeindir deila meĂ° sĂ©r einni eĂ°a fleiri rafeindum; jĂłnatengi, ĂŸar sem frumeind gefur annari frumeind eina eĂ°a fleiri rafeindir og myndar ĂŸar meĂ° jĂłnir (katjĂłnir og anjĂłnir); mĂĄlmtengi, og svo veik efnatengi (e. secondary chemical bond) sem eru tengi sem stafa af millisameindakröftum, tengi eins og vetnistengi, van der Waals-tengi, jĂłna-jĂłna vĂxlverkanir og jĂłna-tvĂskauts vĂxlverkanir.
+
+Undirstöðuatriði
+LĂkaniĂ° sem notast er viĂ° til aĂ° lĂœsa byggingu frumeinda byggist ĂĄ skammtafrĂŠĂ°i. Ă grunninn ĂŸĂĄ rannsakar efnafrĂŠĂ°in öreindir, frumeindir, sameindir, efnasambönd, mĂĄlma, kristala og önnur form efnis. Efni geta veriĂ° rannsökuĂ° Ă mismunandi fösum, ein og sĂ©r eĂ°a Ă Ăœmsum samsetningum. Efnahvörf og aĂ°rar breytingarnar sem verĂ°a ĂĄ efnum eiga sĂ©r yfirleitt staĂ° Ășt af vĂxlverkunum milli frumeinda, sem leiĂ°ir til endurröðunar ĂĄ efnatengjunum sem halda frumeindunum saman. SlĂkar breytingar eru rannsakaĂ°ar ĂĄ rannsĂłknarstofum.
+
+Efnahvarf er ferli ĂŸar sem efni breytist; efnasambönd myndast, breytast eĂ°a brotna niĂ°ur. Efnahvörfum mĂĄ almennt sĂ©Ă° lĂœsa sem breytingu ĂĄ efnatengjum milli frumeinda. Fjöldi frumeinda fyrir og eftir efnahvörf helst alltaf sĂĄ sami. Ef fjöldinn helst ekki stöðugur er um kjarnahvarf aĂ° rĂŠĂ°a. Efnahvörf fylgja alltaf ĂĄkveĂ°num reglum sem kallast efnafrĂŠĂ°ilögmĂĄl.
+
+Orka og óreiða koma einnig mikið við sögu à efnafrÊði.
+
+HÊgt er að greina efnasambönd með verkfÊrum efnagreiningar, t.d.. litrófsgreining og litskiljun.
+
+Ămis hugtök eru mikilvĂŠg Ă efnafrĂŠĂ°i; nokkur ĂŸeirra eru:
+
+Efni
+Ă efnafrĂŠĂ°i er efni skilgreint sem allt sem hefur massa og rĂșmmĂĄl og er bĂșiĂ° til Ășr eindum. Eindirnar sem efni inniheldur hafa einnig massa. Efni getur veriĂ° hreint efni eĂ°a efnablanda.
+
+Frumeind
+Frumeindir eru grunneiningar efnafrĂŠĂ°innar. ĂĂŠr eru samsettar Ășr kjarna sem er umkringdur skĂœi af rafeindum. Kjarninn er samsettur Ășr jĂĄkvĂŠtt hlöðnum rĂłteindum og Ăłhlöðnum nifteindum (saman flokkast ĂŸĂŠr sem kjarneindir). Rafeindirnar eru neikvĂŠtt hlaĂ°nar og sveima Ă kringum kjarnann. Ă hlutlausum frumeindum eru jafn margar rafeindir og rĂłteindirnar sem eru Ă kjarnanum, ĂŸannig vegur neikvĂŠĂ°a hleĂ°sla rafeindanna upp ĂĄ mĂłti jĂĄkvĂŠĂ°u hleĂ°slu rĂłteindanna. Kjarni frumeindar er mjög eĂ°lisĂŸungur; massi kjarneinda er um ĂŸaĂ° bil 1836 sinnum meiri en massi rafeindar, samt er geisli frumeindar um ĂŸaĂ° bil 10 ĂŸĂșsund sinnum meiri en geisli kjarnans.
+
+Frumeindin er smĂŠsta aĂ°greinanlega eining frumefnis, sem jafnramt hefur efnafrĂŠĂ°ilega eiginleika ĂŸess aĂ° bera, svo sem rafneikvĂŠĂ°ni, jĂłnunarorka, oxunarĂĄstönd, girĂ°itala, og hvers konar efnatengi efniĂ° myndar.
+
+Frumefni
+Frumefni er hreint efni sem eingöngu er samsett Ășr einni tegund frumeindar, sem einkenndar eru Ășt frĂĄ fjölda rĂłteinda Ă kjarna ĂŸeirra. Fjöldi rĂłteinda Ă kjarna frumeindar er einnig ĂŸekktur sem sĂŠtistala frumeindarinnar. Massatala frumeinda er summa fjölda rĂłteinda og nifteinda Ă kjarnanum. ĂĂł svo aĂ° kjarnar frumeinda Ă frumefni hafa allir sama fjölda rĂłteinda, hafa ĂŸeir ekki endilega sömu massatölu; frumeindir frumefnis sem hafa mismunandi massatölu kallast samsĂŠtur. Sem dĂŠmi mĂĄ taka aĂ° allar frumeindir sem hafa 6 rĂłteindir Ă kjarnanum flokkast sem kolefni, en kolefniseindir geta haft massatölu 12 eĂ°a 13, ĂŸaĂ° fer eftir fjölda nifteinda Ă kjarnanum.
+
+Frumefnunum er raĂ°aĂ° upp Ă töflu sem kallast lotukerfiĂ°, ĂŸar sem ĂŸeim er raĂ°aĂ° eftir sĂŠtistölu. Lotukerfinu er skipt Ă lotur (raĂ°ir), og flokka (dĂĄlka). LotukerfiĂ° er mjög gagnlegt til aĂ° bera kennsl ĂĄ lotubunda eiginleika frumefna.
+
+Efnasamband
+Efnasamband er hreint efni sem er samsett Ășr fleiri en einni tegund frumeinda. Efnaeiginleikar efnasambanda eru oft mjög ĂłlĂkir eiginleika frumeindanna sem efnasambandiĂ° er samsett Ășr. AlĂŸjóðasamtök um hreina og hagnĂœta efnafrĂŠĂ°i (IUPAC) halda utan um ĂŸaĂ° nafnakerfi sem notaĂ° er um efnasambönd. Chemical Abstract Service, deild innan EfnafrĂŠĂ°ifĂ©lags BandarĂkjanna, hefur bĂșiĂ° til kerfi til aĂ° flokka efnasambönd. Efnasamböndunum er gefiĂ° nĂșmer sem kallast CAS nĂșmer.
+
+Sameind
+
+Sameind er minnsta aĂ°greinanlega eining hreins efnis sem hefur efnafrĂŠĂ°ilega eiginleika efnisins , ĂŸaĂ° er, hvernig ĂŸaĂ° gengur Ă gegnum efnahvörf meĂ° öðrum efnum. Ăessi skilgreining er ĂŸĂł ekki algild ĂŸvĂ hrein efni eru ekki alltaf Ășr sameindum, heldur geta sölt, frumefni og mĂĄlmblöndur einnig flokkast sem hrein efni. Sameindir samanstanda yfirleitt af frumeindum sem eru tengdar saman meĂ° samgildum tengjum, ĂŸannig aĂ° efnabyggingin sĂ© ĂłhlaĂ°in og allar gildisrafeindir eru paraĂ°ar meĂ° öðrum rafeindum annaĂ° hvort Ă efnatengjum eĂ°a Ă rafeindapörum.
+
+Sameindir eru, ĂłlĂkt jĂłnum, alltaf hlutlausar. Ăegar ĂŸessi regla er brotin, ĂŸaĂ° er, âsameindinâ fĂŠr hleĂ°slu, ĂŸĂĄ er eindin stundum kölluĂ° sameindajĂłn eĂ°a fjölatĂłma jĂłn. Sumar sameindir hafa eina eĂ°a fleiri ĂłparaĂ°a rafeind. SlĂkar sameindur kallast stakeindir eĂ°a rĂłttĂŠklingar, og eru almennt mjög hvarfgjarnar, en sumar, eins og nituroxĂĂ° (NO) geta veriĂ° stöðugar.
+
+Eitt aĂ°aleinkenni sameinda er efnabyggingin ĂŸeirra. Efnabygging sameindar spilar stĂłran ĂŸĂĄtt Ă aĂ° ĂĄkvarĂ°a eiginleika sameindarinnar.
+
+Hrein efni og efnablöndur
+Hrein efni (e. chemical substance) eru efni sem hafa fasta samsetningu og eiginleika. Blanda af hreinum efnum kallast efnablanda. DĂŠmi um efnablöndur er andrĂșmsloftiĂ° og mjĂłlk. DĂŠmi um hrein efni eru demantur og matarsalt.
+
+MĂłl
+MĂłl er mĂŠlieining sem lĂœsir magni efnis. Eitt mĂłl er skilgreint sem nĂĄkvĂŠmlega 6,02214076 Ă1023 eindir (frumeindir, sameindir, jĂłnir eĂ°a rafeindir), ĂŸar sem fjöldi einda Ă einu mĂłli er ĂŸekkt sem tala Avogadros. MĂłlarstyrkur er magn efnis ĂĄ rĂșmmĂĄl Ă lausn, oft tĂĄknaĂ° meĂ° einingunni mĂłl/L
+
+Fasi
+
+Efni geta veriĂ° til ĂĄ nokkrum mismunandi fösum. Fasarnir skilgreinast Ășt frĂĄ hamskiptunum, ĂŸar sem orkan sem bĂŠtist viĂ° kerfiĂ° eĂ°a losnar Ășr ĂŸvĂ fer Ă aĂ° breyta uppsetningu kerfisins Ă staĂ° ĂŸess aĂ° breyta aĂ°stĂŠĂ°um kerfisins, svo sem hitastigi eĂ°a ĂŸrĂœstingi.
+
+Ăekktustu fasarnir eru föst efni, vökvar og gös. Mörg efni hafa marga fasa af föstu efni. Sem dĂŠmi hefur jĂĄrn ĂŸrjĂĄ fasa af föstu efni (alfa, gamma og delta) sem eru mismunandi eftir hitastigi og ĂŸrĂœstingi. Munurinn ĂĄ milli mismunandi fastra fasa er felst Ă kristalsbyggingu efnisins, ĂŸaĂ° er, hvernig frumeindirnar raĂ°ast upp.
+
+Fleiri fasar en ĂŸessir ĂŸrĂr eru einnig til. Ăar ber helst aĂ° nefna rafgas, sem oft er nefnt âfjĂłrĂ°i efnishamurinnâ.
+
+Annar algengur fasi sem efnafrĂŠĂ°ingar vinna meĂ° er vatnsfasi, ĂŸaĂ° er ĂŸegar efni er uppleyst Ă vatni.
+
+Efnatengi
+
+Orka
+
+Efnahvarf
+
+Jónir og sölt
+JĂłn er hlaĂ°in eind, frumeind eĂ°a sameind, sem hefur annaĂ° hvort tapaĂ° eĂ°a fengiĂ° eina eĂ°a fleiri rafeindir. Ăegar frumeind tapar rafeind, og hefur ĂŸar af leiĂ°andi fleiri rĂłteindir en rafeindir, verĂ°ur hĂșn plĂșshlaĂ°in jĂłn, oft kölluĂ° katjĂłn. Ăegar frumeind fĂŠr rafeind, og hefur ĂŸar af leiĂ°andi fleiri rafeindir en rĂłteindir, verĂ°ur hĂșn neikvĂŠtt hlaĂ°in jĂłn, oft kölluĂ° anjĂłn. KatjĂłnir og anjĂłnir geta myndaĂ° saman kristala af hlutlausum söltum, til dĂŠmis mynda Na+ og Clâ natrĂumklĂłrĂĂ°, eĂ°a NaCl. DĂŠmi um fjölatĂłmajĂłnir sem klofna ekki viĂ° sĂœru-basa efnahvörf eru hĂœdroxĂĂ° (OHâ) og fosfat (PO43â).
+
+SĂșrleiki og styrkur basa
+
+Mörg efni er hĂŠgt aĂ° skilgreina sem sĂœru eĂ°a basa. Til eru nokkrar kenningar sem ĂștskĂœra sĂœru-basa hegĂ°un. Einfaldasta kenningin er kenning sĂŠnska efnafrĂŠĂ°ingsins Svante Arrhenius, sem segir aĂ° sĂœra sĂ© efni sem framleiĂ°ir hĂœdrĂłnĂumjĂłnir ĂŸegar ĂŸaĂ° er leyst upp Ă vatni, og aĂ° basi framleiĂ°i hĂœdroxĂĂ° jĂłnir ĂŸegar hann er leystur upp Ă vatni. SamkvĂŠmt BrĂžnstedâLowry sĂœru-basa kenningunni, eru sĂœrur efni sem gefa frĂĄ sĂ©r plĂșshlaĂ°na vetnisjĂłn til annars efnis og aĂ° basi sĂ© efni sem ĂŸiggur slĂka jĂłn.
+
+Ănnur mikilvĂŠg sĂœru-basa kenning er Lewis sĂœru-basa kenningin, sem byggist ĂĄ myndun nĂœrra efnatengja. Lewis kenningin segir aĂ° sĂœra sĂ© efni sem getur ĂŸegiĂ° rafeindapar frĂĄ öðru efni viĂ° myndun nĂœs efnatengis, ĂĄ meĂ°an basi sĂ© efni sem getur veitt rafeindapar til ĂŸess aĂ° mynda nĂœtt tengi.
+
+SĂșrleiki er oft mĂŠldur meĂ° tveimur aĂ°ferĂ°um. Ănnur aĂ°ferĂ°in, sem byggist ĂĄ kenningu Arrhenius, er pH, sem er mĂŠling ĂĄ styrk hĂœdrĂłnĂumjĂłna Ă lausn, er tjĂĄĂ° ĂĄ neikvĂŠĂ°um lograskala. Lausn sem hefur lĂĄgt pH-gildi hefur ĂŸar af leiĂ°andi hĂĄan styrk hĂœdrĂłnĂumjĂłna og myndi ĂŸĂĄ teljast sĂșr.
+
+Hin mĂŠliaĂ°ferĂ°in, sem byggĂ° er ĂĄ BrĂžnstedâLowry kenningunni, er sĂœruklofningsfastinn (Ka (a fyrir acid, oft skrifaĂ° sem Ks ĂĄ Ăslandi)), sem mĂŠlir eiginleika efnis til aĂ° haga sĂ©r eins og sĂœra samkvĂŠmt BrĂžnstedâLowry ĂștskĂœringunni ĂĄ sĂœru. Efni sem hafa hĂŠrri Ka gildi eru lĂklegri til aĂ° gefa frĂĄ sĂ©r vetnisjĂłn Ă efnahvörfum en ĂŸau sem hafa lĂŠgri Ka gildi.
+
+Oxunar-afoxunar hvörf
+Oxunar-afoxunar hvörf, einni ĂŸekkt sem redox hvörf (Ășt af enska heitinu reduction-oxidation), eru efnahvörf ĂŸar sem oxunarĂĄstand frumeinda breytist annaĂ° hvort meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° fĂĄ rafeindir (afoxun) eĂ°a meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° tapa rafeindum (oxun). Efni sem hafa eiginleikann aĂ° geta oxaĂ° önnur efni kallast oxarar. Oxarar fjarlĂŠgja rafeindir af öðrum efnum. Ă sama hĂĄtt, kallast efni sem geta afoxaĂ° önnur efni, afoxarar. Afoxarar gefa öðru efnum rafeindir og oxast ĂŸar af leiĂ°andi sjĂĄlfir Ă leiĂ°inni.
+
+JafnvĂŠgi
+JafnvĂŠgi er aĂ° finna Ă mörgum greinum vĂsindanna. Ă efnafrĂŠĂ°ilegu samhengi er jafnvĂŠgi ĂĄstand ĂŸar sem styrkur efna Ă efnahvörfum eĂ°a Ă fasabreytingum helst stöðugur.
+
+ĂĂł svo aĂ° styrkur efna haldist stöðugur viĂ° jafnvĂŠgi, ĂŸĂĄ halda efnin Ă lausninni yfirleitt ĂĄfram aĂ° hvarfast viĂ° hvort annaĂ°, fram og til baka, jafn hratt Ă bĂĄĂ°ar ĂĄttir. SlĂk jafnvĂŠgi eru kölluĂ° kvik jafnvĂŠgi.
+
+EfnafrÊðilögmål
+Efnahvörf fylgja öll vissum lögmålum sem eru à raun undirstaða allrar efnafrÊði.
+
+DÊmi um efnafrÊðilögmål eru:
+
+Lögmål Avogadros
+
+Lögmål Beer-Lambert
+
+LögmĂĄl Boyles (1662, tengir saman ĂŸrĂœsting og rĂșmmĂĄl)
+
+LögmĂĄl Charles (1787, tengir saman rĂșmmĂĄl og hitastig)
+
+Lögmål Daltons
+
+Regla Le Chatelier
+
+Lögmål Henrys
+
+Lögmål Hess
+
+LögmĂĄl Gay-Lussac (1809, tengir saman ĂŸrĂœsting og hitastig)
+
+Lögmålið um föst massahlutföll
+
+Lögmålið um margfeldni hlutfallanna
+
+Massavarðveislulögmålið
+
+Orkuvarðveislulögmålið
+
+Lögmål Raoults
+
+Undirgreinar efnafrĂŠĂ°innar
+
+EfnafrĂŠĂ°in er yfirleitt flokkuĂ° Ă eftirfarandi fimm aĂ°alsviĂ°. Sum ĂŸeirra skarast viĂ° aĂ°rar vĂsindagreinar meĂ°an önnur eru sĂ©rhĂŠfĂ°ari:
+ Efnagreining Efnagreining er greining sĂœna til ĂŸess aĂ° fĂĄ upplĂœsingar um efnainnihald ĂŸeirra og byggingu.
+ ĂlĂfrĂŠn efnafrĂŠĂ°i ĂlĂfrĂŠn efnafrĂŠĂ°i fjallar meĂ°al annars um eiginleika og hvörf ĂłlĂfrĂŠnna efnasambanda. StĂłr ĂŸĂĄttur greinarinnar er kristallafrĂŠĂ°i og sameindasvigrĂșm. Skilin milli lĂfrĂŠnnar og ĂłlĂfrĂŠnnar efnafrĂŠĂ°i eru mjög ĂłskĂœr enda skarast greinarnar Ă mĂĄlmlĂfrĂŠnni efnafrĂŠĂ°i.
+ LĂfrĂŠn efnafrĂŠĂ°i LĂfrĂŠn efnafrĂŠĂ°i fjallar aĂ°allega um byggingu, eiginleika, samsetningu og efnahvörf lĂfrĂŠnna efnasambanda. LĂfrĂŠn efnafrĂŠĂ°i fjallar sĂ©rstaklega um ĂŸĂŠr sameindir sem innihalda kolefni. LĂfrĂŠn efni eru ekkert endilega meira lifandi en önnur, en ĂĄstĂŠĂ°a nafngiftarinnar er aĂ° ĂŸau greindust fyrst Ă lĂfverum. DĂŠmi um lĂfrĂŠn efni eru plöst, fitur og olĂur.
+ EĂ°lisefnafrĂŠĂ°i EĂ°lisefnafrĂŠĂ°i fĂŠst einkum viĂ° eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i efnafrĂŠĂ°innar, ĂŸĂĄ sĂ©rstaklega orkuĂĄstönd efnahvarfa. AĂ°alrannsĂłknarsviĂ°in innan eĂ°lisefnafrĂŠĂ°innar eru meĂ°al annars safneĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i, hvarfhraĂ°afrĂŠĂ°i, varmaefnafrĂŠĂ°i, skammtafrĂŠĂ°ileg efnafrĂŠĂ°i og litrĂłfsgreining.
+ LĂfefnafrĂŠĂ°i LĂfefnafrĂŠĂ°i fĂŠst viĂ° efnahvörf, sem eiga sĂ©r staĂ° inni Ă lĂfverum og eru oftast hvötuĂ° af ensĂmum. Einnig er bygging efna og virkni ĂŸeirra skoĂ°uĂ°. Ăetta eru efni ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° prĂłtein, lĂpĂĂ°, kjarnsĂœrur og aĂ°rar lĂfsameindir.
+ Aðrar sérhÊfðari greinar eru meðal annars hafefnafrÊði, kjarnefnafrÊði, fjölliðuefnafrÊði, efnaverkfrÊði og fleiri greinar.
+
+Ăekktar efnafrĂŠĂ°itilraunir
+
+TilvĂsanir
+GrĂska (gr. ÎλληΜÎčÎșÎŹ, Ellinika) er indĂł-evrĂłpskt tungumĂĄl sem talaĂ° er Ă Grikklandi og ĂĄ KĂœpur. GrĂska er rituĂ° meĂ° grĂsku letri.
+
+GrĂskir orĂ°stofnar eru mikiĂ° notaĂ°ir Ă vĂsindaorĂ°um Ă mörgum tungumĂĄlum. DĂŠmi um orĂ° Ă Ăslensku sem eiga rĂŠtur aĂ° rekja til Grikklands: AtĂłm, biblĂa, biskup, pĂłlitĂk, sĂłfisti. GrĂska hefur haft minni bein ĂĄhrif ĂĄ Ăslensku en flest önnur evrĂłpsk tungumĂĄl, til aĂ° mynda ensku.
+
+Eins og gefur aĂ° skilja er grĂsku skipt upp Ă margar mĂĄllĂœskur og tĂmabil. Elstu textar eru frĂĄ 1500 f.Kr. Ăessir elstu textar eru ritaĂ°ir meĂ° tveimur letrum, lĂnuletri A og lĂnuletri B, og hefur einungis tekist aĂ° rĂĄĂ°a annaĂ° ĂŸeirra eĂ°a lĂnuletur B. ĂvĂst er hvort lĂnuletur A er grĂska. Ăessir elstu textar komu fyrst Ă leitirnar viĂ° fornleifauppgröft ĂĄ Knossos ĂĄ KrĂt um aldamĂłtin 1900 en fundust sĂĂ°ar ennfremur Ă PĂœlos, Tiryns og MĂœkenu ĂĄ Pelopsskaga og vĂĂ°ar.
+
+HvaĂ° varĂ°ar tĂmabil er grĂsku oft skipt Ă fimm skeiĂ°: mĂœkenĂska grĂsku (1500 â 1100 f.Kr.), klassĂska grĂsku (800 â 300 f.Kr.), hellenĂska grĂsku (300 f.Kr. â 300 e.Kr.), miĂ°grĂsku (300 â 1100) og nĂœgrĂsku (1600 â ).
+
+ForngrĂskum mĂĄllĂœskum er oftast skipt Ă vestrĂŠnar og austrĂŠnar mĂĄllĂœskur.
+
+AusturgrĂskar teljast attĂska, jĂłnĂska, ĂŠĂłlĂska og kĂœprĂska en til vestrĂŠnna mĂĄllĂœskna teljast meĂ°al annars dĂłrĂskan.
+
+ForngrĂska hafĂ°i fimm föll nafnorĂ°a: nefnifall, ĂĄvarpsfall, eignarfall, ĂŸĂĄgufall og ĂŸolfall. Ă dag er ĂŸĂĄgufalliĂ° aĂ° mestu horfiĂ° (nema Ă föstum orĂ°asamböndum). LĂkt og Ă germönskum mĂĄlum hefur tvĂtalan lagst af. GrĂska stafrĂłfiĂ° er leitt af fönikĂsku stafrĂłfi.
+
+Tenglar
+
+
+ LĂtil ĂĄrĂ©tting um rithĂĄtt grĂskra orĂ°a; birtist Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1992
+
+IndĂłevrĂłpsk tungumĂĄl
+"Maamme" (landiĂ° okkar) er ĂŸjóðsöngur Finnlands. Heiti ĂŸess ĂĄ sĂŠnsku, sem er annaĂ° opinbert mĂĄl Finnlands, er âVĂ„rt landâ.
+
+LagiĂ° er samiĂ° af Fredrik Pacius en ljóðiĂ° er eftir Johan Ludvig Runeberg, sem samdi ĂŸaĂ° upprunalega ĂĄ sĂŠnsku. Sama lag eftir Pacius er notaĂ° Ă eistneska ĂŸjóðsöngnum, sem hefur ljóð Ă svipuĂ°um dĂșr. âMu isamaaâ (Föðurland mitt).
+
+Maamme
+(ĂĂœtt ĂĄ finnsku af Paavo Cajander)
+Oi maamme, Suomi, synnyinmaa!
+Soi sana kultainen!
+Ei laaksoa, ei kukkulaa,
+ei vettÀ rantaa rakkaampaa
+kuin kotimaa tÀÀ pohjoinen.
+Maa kallis isien.
+
+Sun kukoistukses kuorestaan
+kerrankin puhkeaa;
+viel' lempemme saa nousemaan
+sun toivos, riemus loistossaan,
+ja kerran laulus, synnyinmaa
+korkeemman kaiun saa.
+
+VĂ„rt land
+(upprunalega ljóð er eftir Johan Ludvig Runeberg)
+
+VÄrt land, vÄrt land, vÄrt fosterland,
+ljud högt, o dyra ord!
+Ej lyfts en höjd mot himlens rand,
+ej sÀnks en dal, ej sköljs en strand,
+mer Àlskad Àn vÄr bygd i nord,
+Àn vÄra fÀders jord!
+
+Din blomning, sluten Àn i knopp,
+Skall mogna ur sitt tvÄng;
+Se, ur vÄr kÀrlek skall gÄ opp
+Ditt ljus, din glans, din fröjd, ditt hopp.
+Och högre klinga skall en gÄng
+VÄr fosterlÀndska sÄng.
+
+Ăjóðsöngvar
+Finnland
+AkraneskaupstaĂ°ur er kaupstaĂ°ur ĂĄ Skipaskaga ĂĄ Vesturlandi og var ĂĄĂ°ur kallaĂ°ur Skipaskagi, enn Ă daglegu tali Skaginn. Ăar bjuggu 7.948 Ă nĂłvember 2022.
+
+Akranes heitir Ă raun allt nesiĂ° milli HvalfjarĂ°ar og LeirĂĄrvoga og trĂłnir Akrafjall ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ miĂ°ju. NesiĂ° skiptist frĂĄ fornu fari milli tveggja hreppa: Akraneshrepps aĂ° sunnan og vestan og Skilmannahrepps norĂ°an og austan. Ă 19. öld fĂłr aĂ° myndast ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli Ă kringum sjĂłsĂłkn og verslun ĂĄ Skipaskaga yst ĂĄ nesinu. ĂriĂ° 1885 var ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° aĂ° skipta Akraneshreppi Ă tvennt vegna hinna ĂłlĂku hagsmuna ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisins og sveitarinnar. VarĂ° kauptĂșniĂ° og nĂŠsta nĂĄgrenni ĂŸess aĂ° Ytri-Akraneshreppi en sveitin inn meĂ° Akrafjalli aĂ° Innri-Akraneshreppi.
+Ytri-Akraneshreppur hlaut kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi ĂĄriĂ° 1942 og hĂ©t eftir ĂŸaĂ° AkraneskaupstaĂ°ur.
+
+Enn Ă dag er sjĂĄvarĂștvegur mikilvĂŠgasti atvinnuvegur bĂŠjarins en verslun er einnig mikilvĂŠg svo og iĂ°naĂ°ur. Ă bĂŠnum er sementsverksmiĂ°ja sem starfrĂŠkt hefur veriĂ° sĂĂ°an ĂĄ 6. ĂĄratug 20. aldar og ĂĄ Grundartanga skammt frĂĄ bĂŠnum er ĂĄlver sem starfaĂ° hefur sĂĂ°an 1998.
+
+Knattspyrna hefur lengi veriĂ° Ă hĂĄvegum höfĂ° ĂĄ Akranesi og liĂ° bĂŠjarins, ĂA, hefur löngum veriĂ° Ă fremstu röð ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+
+HvalfjarĂ°argöngin sem vĂgĂ° voru 1998 voru mikil samgöngubĂłt fyrir Akranes og styttu verulega akstursleiĂ°ina til ReykjavĂkur. MeĂ° tilkomu ĂŸeirra hĂŠtti Akraborgin siglingum sĂnum milli ReykjavĂkur og Akraness.
+
+SkĂłlar
+Ă Akranesi eru leikskĂłlar, grunnskĂłlar og framhaldsskĂłli.
+
+LeikskĂłlar: Akrasel, GarĂ°asel, Teigasel og Vallarsel
+GrunnskĂłlar: BrekkubĂŠjarskĂłli, GrundaskĂłli
+Framhaldsskóli: Fjölbrautaskóli Vesturlands å Akranesi
+
+Myndir
+
+Tenglar
+ FrjĂĄlst kort af Akranesi bĂșiĂ° til af OpenStreetMap verkefninu
+ Loftmynd ĂĄ Google Maps
+ HeimasĂĂ°a AkraneskaupstaĂ°ar
+ SafnasvĂŠĂ°iĂ° ĂĄ Akranesi
+ Akranes = Skipasagi; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1927
+ Ărnefni ĂĄ Akranesi; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1942
+ Um örnefni å Akranesi (svargrein); grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1942
+
+
+Ăslensk sjĂĄvarĂŸorp
+Hafnarfjörður er bÊr å höfuðborgarsvÊðinu
+Ăar bjuggu 30.704 manns 1. aprĂl ĂĄriĂ° 2023 og hefur bĂŠrinn vaxiĂ° grĂĂ°arlega ĂĄ sĂĂ°ustu ĂĄrum og ĂĄratugum lĂkt og önnur sveitarfĂ©lög ĂĄ höfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°inu hafa gert. Höfnin sem bĂŠrinn er kenndur viĂ° var ein stĂŠrsta verslunarhöfn landsins allt frĂĄ 16. öld og mikil ĂștgerĂ° hefur veriĂ° stunduĂ° ĂŸaĂ°an Ă sögunni. Ă 18. öld var rĂŠtt um aĂ° gera HafnarfjörĂ° aĂ° höfuĂ°staĂ° Ăslands, en slĂŠm samgönguskilyrĂ°i ĂŸangaĂ°, lĂtil mĂłtekja og lĂtiĂ° undirlendi urĂ°u helstu ĂĄstĂŠĂ°ur ĂŸess aĂ° ReykjavĂk varĂ° ofan ĂĄ Ă valinu.
+
+HafnarfjörĂ°ur heyrĂ°i undir Ălftaneshrepp framan af en eftir skiptingu hans ĂĄriĂ° 1878 varĂ° bĂŠrinn hluti hins nĂœmyndaĂ°a GarĂ°ahrepps. Hinn 1. jĂșnĂ 1908 fĂ©kk HafnarfjörĂ°ur kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi og varĂ° ĂŸĂĄ aĂ° sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°u bĂŠjarfĂ©lagi. ĂbĂșar voru ĂŸĂĄ orĂ°nir 1469 talsins.
+
+Skammt vestan HafnarfjarĂ°arbĂŠjar er StraumsvĂk ĂŸar sem Alcan ĂĄ Ăslandi rekur ĂĄlver.
+
+Sagan
+
+Upphaf byggĂ°ar og verslunar
+HafnarfjörĂ°ur var Ă landnĂĄmi Ăsbjarnar Ăzurarsonar, bróðursonar IngĂłlfs Arnarsonar. HafnarfjörĂ°ur er fyrst nefndur Ă HauksbĂłk LandnĂĄmu, ĂŸar sem segir frĂĄ brottför Hrafna-FlĂłka og samferĂ°amanna hans frĂĄ Ăslandi. FrĂĄ upphafi landnĂĄms ĂĄ Ăslandi og fram til upphafs 15. aldar kemur staĂ°urinn annars lĂtiĂ° sem ekkert viĂ° sögu.
+
+Vegna góðra hafnarskilyrĂ°a frĂĄ nĂĄttĂșrunnar hendi varĂ° HafnarfjörĂ°ur ein helsta verslunar- og fiskveiĂ°ihöfn landsins frĂĄ og meĂ° upphafi 15. aldar, eftir ĂŸvĂ sem skreiĂ° tĂłk viĂ° af vaĂ°mĂĄl sem eftirsĂłttasta Ăștflutningsvara Ăslendinga. Ă upphafi 15. aldar hĂłfu Englendingar fiskveiĂ°ar og verslun viĂ° Ăsland. ĂriĂ° 1413 kom fyrsta enska kaupskipiĂ° aĂ° landi sem sögur fara af viĂ° HafnarfjörĂ°. Ăslendingar tĂłku ensku kaupmönnunum vel, en Danakonungur reyndi aĂ° koma Ă veg fyrir verslun Englendinga viĂ° Ăsland og ĂŸess vegna kom oft til ĂĄtaka milli Englendinga og sendimanna Danakonungs. Eftir ĂŸvĂ sem ĂĄrin liĂ°u urĂ°u Englendingarnir ekki eins vel liĂ°nir vegna yfirgangs. Einnig ĂĄttu ĂŸeir til aĂ° rĂŠna skreiĂ° frĂĄ Ăslendingum.
+
+Um 1468 hĂłfu ĂŸĂœskir Hansakaupmenn siglingar til Ăslands frĂĄ Bergen Ă Noregi. NĂŠstu tvo ĂĄratugina var hörĂ° samkeppni ĂĄ milli Englendinga og Hansakaupmanna, sem leiddist oft Ășt Ă slagsmĂĄl og bardaga. ĂĂœsku kaupmennirnir höfĂ°u betur aĂ° lokum. Ăeir gĂĄtu boĂ°iĂ° ĂłdĂœrari og fjölbreyttari vöru heldur en Englendingarnir. Ă 16. öld var HafnarfjörĂ°ur orĂ°inn aĂ°alhöfn Hamborgarmanna ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+
+Um miĂ°ja öldina reyndu Danakonungar enn aĂ° koma Ă veg fyrir verslun Ăjóðverja ĂĄ Ăslandi og koma versluninni Ă hendur danskra kaupmanna. ĂriĂ° 1602 gaf KristjĂĄn 4. Danakonungur Ășt tilskipun um einokunarverslun og ĂŸar meĂ° varĂ° Ăști um verslunarsamband milli Ăslands og ĂĂœskalands.
+
+Ă fyrri hluta einokunartĂmabilsins var HafnarfjörĂ°ur helsti verslunarstaĂ°ur ĂĄ Ăslandi. FrĂĄ 1602-1774 var verslunin Ă höndum danskra kaupmanna og verslunarfĂ©laga, en ĂĄriĂ° 1774 tĂłk konungurinn viĂ° versluninni. ĂriĂ° 1787 voru eignir konungsverslunarinnar seldar starfsmönnum hennar. ĂĂĄ myndaĂ°ist vĂsir aĂ° samkeppni Ă verslunarrekstri ĂŸegar lausakaupmenn fĂłru aĂ° keppa viĂ° arftaka konungsverslunarinnar. Ekkert varĂ° ĂŸĂł meira Ășr ĂŸessari samkeppni, ĂŸar sem dönsku kaupmennirnir höfĂ°u yfirhöndina. ĂriĂ° 1795 kĂŠrĂ°u bĂŠndur dönsku kaupmennina fyrir of hĂĄtt verĂ° ĂĄ innfluttum vörum og kröfĂ°ust ĂŸess aĂ° verslun yrĂ°i gefin algerlega frjĂĄls.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1794 keypti Bjarni SĂvertsen verslunarhĂșs konungsverslunarinnar. Hann gerĂ°ist brĂĄtt umsvifamikill kaupmaĂ°ur og ĂștgerĂ°armaĂ°ur. Hann keypti gamlar bĂșjarĂ°ir Ă landi HafnarfjarĂ°ar og kom upp skipasmĂĂ°astöð. Bjarni varĂ° einn af fyrstu Ăslendingunum til aĂ° fĂĄ verslunarleyfi eftir aĂ° danska einokunarverslunin var lögĂ° niĂ°ur. Vegna umsvifa sinna Ă HafnarfirĂ°i hefur hann oft veriĂ° nefndur faĂ°ir HafnarfjarĂ°ar.
+
+FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1787 til 1908 voru flestir kaupmenn Ă HafnarfirĂ°i danskir. Einn norskur kaupmaĂ°ur var ĂŸar, Hans Wingaard Friis frĂĄ Ălasundi Ă Noregi og hann bĂșsettist Ă HafnarfirĂ°i. Ă upphafi tuttugustu aldar fĂłr Ăslenskum kaupmönnum hins vegar aĂ° fjölga, en ĂŸeim dönsku fĂłr fĂŠkkandi aĂ° sama skapi.
+
+Fyrsta almenningsrafveitan ĂĄ Ăslandi var sett upp 12. desember 1904 Ă HafnarfirĂ°i af JĂłhannesi Reykdal, veitan liggur Ă gegnum HamarskotslĂŠk. Hann er lĂka einn mesti gufustaĂ°ur landsins.
+
+Kaupstaðarréttindi
+Upphaflega var HafnarfjörĂ°ur hluti af Ălftaneshreppi. HafnarfjörĂ°ur hafĂ°i ĂŸĂĄ sĂ©rstöðu miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° aĂ°ra staĂ°i Ă hreppnum aĂ° aĂ°alatvinnuvegur ĂŸar var sjĂĄvarĂștvegur, en ekki landbĂșnaĂ°ur. Vegna ĂŸessarar sĂ©rstöðu var vilji til ĂŸess aĂ° gera HafnarfjörĂ° aĂ° sĂ©rstöku sveitarfĂ©lagi og kom hugmyndin fyrst fram opinberlega ĂĄriĂ° 1876.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1878 var haldinn hreppsnefndarfundur Ă Ălftaneshreppi, ĂŸar sem samĂŸykkt var aĂ° skipta hreppnum Ă ĂŸrennt: Ălftaneshrepp, GarĂ°ahrepp og HafnarfjörĂ°. Gengi ĂŸaĂ° ekki var ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° aĂ° hreppnum yrĂ°i skipt Ă tvennt: BessastaĂ°ahrepp og GarĂ°ahrepp. Seinni tillagan var samĂŸykkt og varĂ° HafnarfjörĂ°ur ĂŸvĂ hluti af GarĂ°ahreppi.
+
+Aftur var reynt aĂ° fĂĄ kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi ĂĄriĂ° 1890. Ă fundi hreppsnefndar GarĂ°ahrepps Ă jĂșnĂ ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄr var kosin nefnd til aĂ° rĂŠĂ°a um kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi HafnarfjarĂ°ar. Nefndin hĂ©lt fund 27. febrĂșar 1891, ĂŸar sem kosiĂ° var um skiptingu hreppsins, en meirihluti fundarmanna var andvĂgur skiptingunni. Var mĂĄliĂ° ĂŸvĂ lĂĄtiĂ° niĂ°ur falla og lĂĄ ĂŸaĂ° niĂ°ri nĂŠstu ĂĄrin vegna erfiĂ°ra tĂma Ă HafnarfirĂ°i.
+
+NĂŠst var hreyft viĂ° mĂĄlinu ĂĄriĂ° 1903. Ă mars ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄr komu nokkrir ĂbĂșar Ă HafnarfirĂ°i ĂŸvĂ til leiĂ°ar aĂ° frumvarp var lagt fram ĂĄ AlĂŸingi til laga um kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi HafnarfjarĂ°ar. Ă frumvarpinu var m.a. gert rĂĄĂ° fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° bĂŠjarfĂłgetinn Ă HafnarfirĂ°i yrĂ°i jafnframt bĂŠjarstjĂłri og laun hans yrĂ°u greidd Ășr landssjóði. FrumvarpiĂ° var fellt Ă atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. ĂaĂ° var lagt fram aftur ĂĄ AlĂŸingi ĂĄriĂ° 1905, en aftur fellt Ă atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu. Hins vegar afgreiddi AlĂŸingi frumvörp sem gĂĄfu kauptĂșnum meiri sjĂĄlfstjĂłrn en ĂĄĂ°ur, en ĂŸau gengu ekki nĂłgu langt til aĂ° HafnfirĂ°ingar yrĂ°u ĂĄnĂŠgĂ°ir.
+
+Enn var ĂŸvĂ komiĂ° til leiĂ°ar aĂ° frumvarp um kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi HafnarfjarĂ°ar var lagt fyrir AlĂŸingi, nĂș ĂĄriĂ° 1907. MeĂ°al breytinga frĂĄ fyrra frumvarpinu var sĂș aĂ° nĂș var gert rĂĄĂ° fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° bĂŠjarstjĂłri fengi greidd laun Ășr bĂŠjarsjóði en ekki landssjóði. Ăetta frumvarp var samĂŸykkt sem lög nr. 75, 22. nĂłvember 1907 og tĂłku lögin gildi 1. jĂșnĂ 1908.
+HafnarfjörĂ°ur varĂ° ĂŸar meĂ° fimmta bĂŠjarfĂ©lagiĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi sem fĂ©kk kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi.
+
+BĂŠjarstjĂłrn
+
+Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrn HafnarfjarĂ°ar eru ellefu bĂŠjarfulltrĂșar. Kosningar til bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar fĂłru sĂĂ°ast fram 26. maĂ 2018.
+
+BĂŠjarstjĂłri og formaĂ°ur bĂŠjarrĂĄĂ°s er RĂłsa GuĂ°bjartsdĂłttir og forseti bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar er Kristinn Andersen.
+
+Gaflarar
+OrĂ°iĂ° Gaflari hefur veriĂ° notaĂ° um HafnfirĂ°inga um ĂĄrabil. Upphaf orĂ°sins mĂĄ rekja til kreppuĂĄranna milli heimsstyrjaldanna, ĂŸegar atvinnuleysi var mikiĂ°. Var orĂ°iĂ° ĂŸĂĄ notaĂ° um sjĂłmenn og verkamenn Ă HafnarfirĂ°i sem biĂ°u undir hĂșsgöflum Ă von um aĂ° fĂĄ vinnu.
+Skilgreining orĂ°sins hefur veriĂ° nokkuĂ° ĂĄ reiki undanfarin ĂĄr. Ă hugum margra eru Gaflarar aĂ°eins ĂŸeir sem eru bĂŠĂ°i fĂŠddir og uppaldir Ă HafnarfirĂ°i. (SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸeirri skilgreiningu hefur alvöru Göflurum fariĂ° fĂŠkkandi ĂĄ undanförnum ĂĄratugum, ĂŸar sem fĂŠĂ°ingardeild hefur ekki veriĂ° starfrĂŠkt Ă HafnarfirĂ°i sĂĂ°an Ă jĂșnĂ 1976). ĂĂ°rum finnst nĂłg aĂ° menn bĂși Ă HafnarfirĂ°i eĂ°a hafi einhverntĂma bĂșiĂ° ĂŸar til aĂ° geta talist Gaflarar.
+VoriĂ° 1993 hĂłfst framleiĂ°sla ĂĄ GaflarabrĂșĂ°um Ă HafnarfirĂ°i. BrĂșĂ°an var hönnuĂ° af KatrĂnu ĂorvaldsdĂłttur og ĂĄtti aĂ° tĂĄkna hinn eina sanna Gaflara. NĂș eru brĂșĂ°urnar ĂłfĂĄanlegar.
+
+VinabĂŠir
+ Frederiksberg
+ Tartu
+ HĂ€meenlinna
+ Ilulissat
+ Akureyri
+ BĂŠrum
+ Uppsala
+ Cuxhaven
+ TvĂžroyri
+ Baoding
+
+SkĂłlar
+Ă HafnarfirĂ°i eru reknir sautjĂĄn leikskĂłlar, ĂĄtta grunnskĂłlar, tveir framhaldsskĂłlar og einn tĂłnlistarskĂłli. Ă miĂ°stöð sĂmenntunar fer auk ĂŸess fram starfsemi NĂĄmsflokka HafnarfjarĂ°ar.
+
+LeikskĂłlar
+Arnarberg, Ălfaberg, Ălfasteinn, Bjarkavellir, Hamravellir, Hjalli, HlĂĂ°arberg, HlĂĂ°arendi, HraunvallaskĂłli, Hvammur, HörĂ°uvellir, NorĂ°urberg, SmĂĄralundur/KatĂł, StekkjarĂĄs, TjarnarĂĄs, Vesturkot og VĂĂ°ivellir.
+
+GrunnskĂłlar
+ĂslandsskĂłli, EngidalsskĂłli, HraunvallaskĂłli, HvaleyrarskĂłli, LĂŠkjarskĂłli, SetbergsskĂłli, VĂĂ°istaĂ°askĂłli, ĂldutĂșnsskĂłli, og SkarĂ°shlĂĂ°arskĂłli.
+
+FramhaldsskĂłlar
+FlensborgarskĂłlinn Ă HafnarfirĂ°i, TĂŠkniskĂłlinn
+
+TĂłnlistarskĂłli
+TĂłnlistarskĂłli HafnarfjarĂ°ar. (stofnaĂ°ur Ă September, 1950)
+
+ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lög
+BadmintonfĂ©lag HafnarfjarĂ°ar, FimleikafĂ©lagiĂ° Björk, FimleikafĂ©lag HafnarfjarĂ°ar, GolfklĂșbburinn Keilir, SiglingaklĂșbburinn Ăytur, KnattspyrnufĂ©lagiĂ° Haukar, SkotĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lag HafnarfjarĂ°ar, SundfĂ©lag HafnarfjarĂ°ar og FjörĂ°ur ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lag fatlaĂ°ara.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Heimildir
+ Ăsgeir GuĂ°mundsson. Saga HafnarfjarĂ°ar 1908-1983 - Fyrsta bindi. SkuggsjĂĄ - BĂłkabĂșĂ° Olivers Steins SF, 1983.
+
+Tenglar
+ VefsĂĂ°a HafnarfjarĂ°ar
+ Sakar bÊjaryfirvöld à Hafnarfirði um leyndarhyggju
+ HafnarfjörĂ°urâĂștgerĂ°arbĂŠr; SigurĂ°ur PĂ©tursson, Ăgir ĂĄgĂșst 1986, bls. 450â490.
+
+
+ĂĂ©ttbĂœlisstaĂ°ir Ăslands
+ĂĂłrunn Elfa MagnĂșsdĂłttir (f. 20. jĂșlĂ 1910 â 26. febrĂșar 1995) var Ăslenskur rithöfundur. HĂșn gaf Ășt ĂĄ ĂŸriĂ°ja tug bĂłka ĂĄ ĂŠvi sinni en fyrsta bĂłk hennar, DĂŠtur ReykjavĂkur I, kom Ășt ĂĄriĂ° 1933. DĂŠtur ReykjavĂkur II og III komu Ășt ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1934 og 1938 og eru ĂŸessar sögur jafnan taldar meĂ° fyrstu ReykjavĂkursögunum. SkĂĄldsaga hennar LĂf annarra (1938) var endurĂștgefin af bĂłkaĂștgĂĄfunni SĂŠmundi ĂĄriĂ° 2016.
+
+Ăvi
+ĂĂłrunn Elfa fĂŠddist Ă ReykjavĂk en Ăłlst upp Ă Klifshaga Ă AxarfirĂ°i Ă NorĂ°ur-ĂingeyjarsĂœslu. HĂșn stundaĂ°i nĂĄm Ă bĂłkmenntum og tungumĂĄlum Ă Drammen og OslĂł og fĂ©kk auk ĂŸess styrk til hĂĄskĂłlanĂĄms Ă Uppsölum Ă SvĂĂŸjóð 1946-1947. ĂĂłrunn Elfa var Ă nefndum Ă KvenrĂ©ttindafĂ©lagi Ăslands og fulltrĂși Rithöfundasambands Ăslands Ă Bandalagi Ăslenskra listamanna. HĂșn hlaut verĂ°laun Ă verĂ°launasamkeppni RĂkisĂștvarpsins fyrir minningaĂŸĂĄtt ĂĄriĂ° 1962 og verĂ°laun Ășr Rithöfundasjóði RĂkisĂștvarpsins ĂĄriĂ° 1973.
+
+ĂĂłrunn giftist JĂłni ĂĂłrĂ°arsyni 25. oktĂłber 1941, ĂŸau skildu ĂĄriĂ° 1966. Börn ĂŸeirra eru Einar MĂĄr JĂłnsson, sagnfrĂŠĂ°ingur og rithöfundur Ă ParĂs, MagnĂșs ĂĂłr JĂłnsson (Megas) tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur og Anna MargrĂ©t JĂłnsdĂłttir.
+
+Verk
+ DĂŠtur ReykjavĂkur I-III (1933, 1934 og 1938)
+ AĂ° SĂłlbakka (1937)
+ LĂf annarra (1938)
+ Draumur um LjĂłsaland I-II (1941 og 1943)
+ EvudÊtur, åtta sögur (1944)
+ Lilli Ă sumarleyfi (1946)
+ Snorrabraut 7 (1947)
+ Ă biĂ°sal hjĂłnabandsins (1949)
+ LjĂłsaskipti, leikrit (1950)
+ DĂsa Mjöll (1953)
+ SambĂœlisfĂłlk (1954)
+ SverĂ°iĂ°, leikgerĂ° eftir sögunni DĂsu Mjöll (1954)
+ Eldliljan (1957)
+ Fossinn (1957)
+ Litla stĂșlkan ĂĄ snjĂłlandinu (1957)
+ FrostnĂłtt Ă maĂ (1958)
+ Anna RĂłs (1963)
+ Ă skugga valsins (1964)
+ MiĂ°nĂŠtursĂłnatan (1966)
+ MarĂba Brenner, framhaldsleikrit (1967)
+ KĂłngur vill sigla (1968)
+ Elfarniður, ljóð (1976)
+ FrĂĄ SkĂłlavörĂ°ustĂg aĂ° SkĂłgum Ă AxarfirĂ°i, endurminningar (1977)
+ VoriĂ° hlĂŠr (1979)
+ Hver var frĂș Bergsson? sögur (1981)
+ Ă leikvelli lĂfsins (1985)
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Ăslenskir rithöfundar
+FĂłlk fĂŠtt ĂĄriĂ° 1910
+FĂłlk dĂĄiĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1995
+Ăslenskar konur
+GrĂska stafrĂłfiĂ° (grĂska ÎλληΜÎčÎșÏ Î±Î»ÏÎŹÎČηÏÎż) er stafrĂłf sem hefur veriĂ° notaĂ° viĂ° ritun grĂska tungumĂĄlsins frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ ĂĄ 9. öld f.Kr. ĂaĂ° er elsta stafrĂłfiĂ° sem ennĂŸĂĄ er notaĂ°. BĂłkstafir hafa einnig veriĂ° notaĂ°ir til aĂ° tĂĄkna grĂska tölustafi sĂĂ°an ĂĄ 2. öldin f. Kr. Ă stafrĂłfinu eru 24 bĂłkstafir auk sjö eldri stafa sem duttu snemma Ășr notkun.
+
+Tenglar
+ Little Greek 101: The Greek Alphabet UpplĂœsingar um grĂska stafrĂłfiĂ°, framburĂ°ur hljóða, hvernig ĂĄ aĂ° skrifa stafina.
+ Greek and Coptic
+ Greek Unicode Issues
+
+GrĂskt stafrĂłf
+StafrĂłf
+KĂœrillĂskt stafrĂłf er stafrĂłf notaĂ° til aĂ° rita sex slavnesk mĂĄl: rĂșssnesku, ĂșkraĂnsku, hvĂtrĂșssnesku, serbnesku, makedĂłnsku og bĂșlgörsku ĂĄsamt Ăœmsum tungumĂĄlum Ă fyrrum SovĂ©trĂkjunum.
+
+ĂaĂ° er einnig notaĂ° af ĂŸeim ĂŸjóðum sem höfĂ°u ekkert skrifmĂĄl fyrr en SovĂ©tmenn fĂŠrĂ°u ĂŸĂŠr nĂŠr nĂștĂmanum og einnig af ĂŸjóðum sem notuĂ°ust viĂ° önnur leturkerfi en skiptu yfir Ă kĂœrillĂskt letur ĂĄ SovĂ©ttĂmanum. Margar ĂŸessara ĂŸjóða hafa tekiĂ° upp annaĂ° leturkerfi eftir hrun SovĂ©trĂkjanna, t.d. latneskt letur eĂ°a ritmĂĄliĂ° sem ĂŸĂŠr notuĂ°u ĂĄĂ°ur.
+
+KĂœrillĂska stafrĂłfiĂ° byggist ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ grĂska og er kennt viĂ° grĂska trĂșboĂ°ann Kyrillos.
+
+KĂœrillĂska stafrĂłfiĂ°
+HĂ©r sĂ©st kĂœrillĂska stafrĂłfiĂ° eins og ĂŸaĂ° kemur fram Ă rĂșssnesku:
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+StafrĂłf
+HöfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°iĂ° er sĂĄ hluti Ăslands sem samanstendur af ReykjavĂkurborg og nĂŠsta nĂĄgrenni hennar. Algengasta afmörkun svĂŠĂ°isins er sĂș aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° nĂĄi yfir ReykjavĂk og 7 nĂĄgrannasveitarfĂ©lög hennar. SvĂŠĂ°iĂ° nĂŠr frĂĄ botni HvalfjarĂ°ar Ă norĂ°ri og suĂ°ur fyrir StraumsvĂk sunnan HafnarfjarĂ°ar, jarĂ°frĂŠĂ°ilega er ĂŸaĂ° hluti Reykjanesskaga. SvĂŠĂ°iĂ° er afar ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlt ĂĄ Ăslenskan mĂŠlikvarĂ°a og Ăłx mjög hratt ĂĄ sĂĂ°ari hluta 20. aldar, nĂș bĂșa ĂŸar um 64% Ăslendinga; um 249.223 manns (aprĂl 2023).
+
+SveitarfĂ©lögin ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu eiga meĂ° sĂ©r vĂĂ°tĂŠkt samstarf ĂĄ Ăœmsum sviĂ°um. Til dĂŠmis Ă sorpmĂĄlum og almenningssamgöngum auk ĂŸess aĂ° ĂŸau reka sameiginlegt slökkviliĂ°. ĂriĂ° 2007 var svo stofnaĂ° sameiginlegt lögregluembĂŠtti fyrir allt svĂŠĂ°iĂ°.
+
+SvĂŠĂ°inu er skipt niĂ°ur Ă ĂŸrjĂș kjördĂŠmi vegna alĂŸingiskosninga: ReykjavĂk skiptist Ă norĂ°ur og suĂ°urkjördĂŠmi en hin sveitarfĂ©lögin ĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu tilheyra SuĂ°vesturkjördĂŠmi (kraganum). ĂaĂ° land sem sveitarfĂ©lögin nĂĄ yfir var hluti af Gullbringu- og KjĂłsarsĂœslu. Til forna var ĂŸetta land hluti KjalarnesĂŸings.
+
+HvaĂ° dĂłmsvald Ă hĂ©raĂ°i snertir ĂŸĂĄ tilheyra ReykjavĂk, Seltjarnarnes, MosfellsbĂŠr og KjĂłsarhreppur umdĂŠmi hĂ©raĂ°sdĂłms ReykjavĂkur en GarĂ°abĂŠr, HafnarfjörĂ°ur og KĂłpavogur umdĂŠmi hĂ©raĂ°sdĂłms Reykjaness.
+
+Sveitarfélög
+Sjö sveitarfélög eiga aðild að Samtökum sveitarfélaga å höfuðborgarsvÊðinu:
+
+TilvĂsanir
+Eggert Ălafsson (1. desember 1726 - 30. maĂ 1768) var skĂĄld, rithöfundur og nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingur Ășr Svefneyjum ĂĄ BreiĂ°afirĂ°i. Hann var einn boĂ°bera upplĂœsingarinnar ĂĄ Ăslandi. Rannveig systir Eggerts var kona sĂ©ra Björns HalldĂłrssonar Ă SauĂ°lauksdal.
+
+Fjölskylda
+Eggert var elsti sonur Ălafs Gunnlaugssonar og Ragnhildar SigurĂ°ardĂłttur sem rĂĄku bĂș Ă Svefneyjum Ă BreiĂ°afirĂ°i. Systkini hans voru MagnĂșs Ălafsson lögmaĂ°ur sunnan og austan, JĂłn Ălafsson âlĂŠrĂ°iâ fornfrĂŠĂ°ingur Ă Kaupmannahöfn, GuĂ°rĂșn ĂlafsdĂłttir, Rannveig ĂlafsdĂłttir og JĂłn Ălafsson yngri stĂșdent Ă Kaupmannahöfn.
+
+Eggert fĂ©kk seint embĂŠtti, en 1767 var hann skipaĂ°ur varalögmaĂ°ur sunnan og austan. Sama haust gekk hann aĂ° eiga Ingibjörgu GuĂ°mundsdĂłttur, dĂłttur GuĂ°mundar SigurĂ°ssonar sĂœslumanns, sem var móðurbróðir hans. Ăau drukknuĂ°u bĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ BreiĂ°afirĂ°i ĂĄriĂ° eftir.
+
+Nåm, störf og rit
+Eggert nam heimspeki viĂ° HafnarhĂĄskĂłla, og lagĂ°i auk ĂŸess stund ĂĄ fornfrĂŠĂ°i, mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i, lögfrĂŠĂ°i, lögspeki, nĂĄttĂșruvĂsindi og bĂșfrĂŠĂ°i.
+
+Eggert ritaĂ°i um Ăœmis efni, sem ekki hefur allt veriĂ° gefiĂ° Ășt. Hann er og talinn frumkvöðull aĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° semja samrĂŠmdar rĂ©ttritunarreglur, en ĂŸĂŠr reglur eru fremur ĂłlĂkar ĂŸeim sem viĂ° fylgjum Ă dag. Einnig er hann talinn vera mesti mĂĄlverndarsinni 18. aldar auk ĂŸess aĂ° vera ĂŸjóðrĂŠktarmaĂ°ur.
+
+Eggert fĂłr Ă rannsĂłknarferĂ°ir um Ăsland meĂ° Bjarna PĂĄlssyni ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1752-1757, ĂĄ vegum Konunglega danska vĂsindafĂ©lagsins. Ă ĂŸessum ferĂ°um könnuĂ°u ĂŸeir nĂĄttĂșru landsins en einnig almennt ĂĄstand ĂŸess og gerĂ°u tillögur til ĂșrbĂłta. Ă veturna sat hann Ă ViĂ°ey hjĂĄ SkĂșla MagnĂșssyni landfĂłgeta - lĂkt og Ărni MagnĂșsson hafĂ°i hĂĄlfri öld ĂĄĂ°ur setiĂ° Ă SkĂĄlholti milli ferĂ°a sinna um landiĂ°. Bjarni var skipaĂ°ur fyrsti landlĂŠknir Ăslands 1760 en Eggert sĂĄ um aĂ° fullvinna ferĂ°abĂłk ĂŸeirra fĂ©laga ĂĄ dönsku Ă Kaupmannahöfn frĂĄ 1760 til 1766 meĂ° styrk Ășr Ărnasjóði. BĂłkin kom Ășt ĂĄriĂ° 1772. Tveimur ĂĄrum sĂĂ°ar kom bĂłkin Ășt ĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku, ĂĄ frönsku ĂĄriĂ° 1802 og hlutar hennar ĂĄ ensku 1805. Ă Ăslensku kom hĂșn Ășt ĂĄriĂ° 1942.
+
+SamtĂĂ°armenn Eggerts gĂĄfu Ășt nokkuĂ° af verkum hans eftir dauĂ°a hans. Björn mĂĄgur hans og MagnĂșs bróðir hans gĂĄfu ĂŸannig Ășt garĂ°yrkjubĂłkina Stutt ĂĄgrip Ășr lachanologia eĂ°a maturtabĂłk 1774 og ĂŸekktasta kvĂŠĂ°i hans, BĂșnaĂ°arbĂĄlkur, kom Ășt Ă Hrappsey ĂĄriĂ° 1783. HeildarĂștgĂĄfa af kvĂŠĂ°um Eggerts kom fyrst Ășt ĂĄriĂ° 1953.
+
+Töluvert af ritverkum Eggerts er varĂ°veitt Ă handritum. Ă handritasafni LandsbĂłkasafns er til matreiĂ°slubĂłkin Pipar à öllum mat (Lbs 857 8vo), samin ĂĄ 6. ĂĄratug 18. aldar og ĂŸvĂ lĂklega elsta matreiĂ°slubĂłk sem samin hefur veriĂ° ĂĄ Ăslensku. Ăar er einnig varĂ°veitt Uppkast til forsagna um brĂșĂ°kaupssiĂ°u hĂ©r ĂĄ landi frĂĄ 1760 (Lbs 551 4to). Ă handritasafni National Library of Scotland Ă Edinborg er varĂ°veitt eiginhandarrit Eggerts aĂ° DrykkjabĂłk Ăslendinga, ĂĄrsett 1761, sem ĂĄĂ°ur var Ă handritasafni Finns MagnĂșssonar Ă Kaupmannahöfn (Adv.MS.21.3.15). Hugsanlega hefur Eggert samiĂ° ĂŸĂĄ bĂłk samhliĂ°a vinnu viĂ° FerĂ°abĂłkina Ă Kaupmannahöfn.
+
+DauĂ°i
+Eggert drukknaĂ°i ĂĄ BreiĂ°afirĂ°i ĂĄriĂ° 1768, ĂĄsamt konu sinni Ingibjörgu GuĂ°mundsdĂłttur. Voru ĂŸau ĂĄ leiĂ° heim Ășr vetursetu Ă SauĂ°lauksdal. Ăegar Eggert Ălafsson fĂłr seinast frĂĄ SauĂ°lauksdal, 29. maĂ 1768, söng sĂ©ra Björn HalldĂłrsson hann Ășr hlaĂ°i aĂ° fornum siĂ°, meĂ° kveĂ°juĂĄvarpi sem hann hafĂ°i ort:
+
+Far nĂș, minn vin, sem ĂĄsatt er
+auĂ°nu og manndyggĂ°abraut,
+far nĂș, ĂŸĂłtt sĂĄrt ĂŸĂn söknum vĂ©r,
+sviftur frĂĄ allri ĂŸraut.
+Far Ă guĂ°s skjĂłli, ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸĂ©r
+ĂŸann kjĂłsum förunaut.
+FarĂ°u blessaĂ°ur, ĂŸegar ĂŸver
+ĂŸitt lĂf, Ă drottins skaut.
+Um drukknun Eggerts orti MatthĂas Jochumsson erfiljóðiĂ° Eggert Ălafsson.
+
+Ătgefin rit frĂĄ 18. öld
+ 1749: Enarrationes historicĂŠ de natura IslandiĂŠ formatĂŠ et transformatĂŠ per eruptiones ignis (BĂŠkur.is)
+ 1749: Islandia expergefacta (BĂŠkur.is)
+ 1751: Disquisitio antiquario-physica prĂŠmittenda enarrationum islandicarum (BĂŠkur.is)
+ 1766: FriĂ°riksdrĂĄpa (BĂŠkur.is)
+ 1772: Reise igiennem Island (BĂŠkur.is).
+ 1774: Stutt ĂĄgrip Ășr lachanologia eĂ°a maturtabĂłk (BĂŠkur.is)
+ 1780: Index geographiĂŠ veterum Islandorum (BĂŠkur.is)
+ 1783: BĂșnaĂ°arbĂĄlkur (BĂŠkur.is)
+
+Heimildir
+Silja AĂ°alsteinsdĂłttir, 1993, BĂłk af bĂłk, MĂĄl og menning ReykjavĂk, prentun frĂĄ 2003.
+
+Tenglar
+
+ Handrit meĂ° verkum Eggerts Ălafssonar
+ BĂŠkur eftir Eggert Ălafsson
+ Eggert Ălafsson; grein Ă Ăsafold 1879
+
+Ăslensk skĂĄld
+Ăslenskir rithöfundar
+Ăslenskir nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingar
+Ăslendingar sem lĂĄtist hafa af slysförum
+Ăslendingar sem gengiĂ° hafa Ă KaupmannahafnarhĂĄskĂłla
+Ă SvĂĂŸjóð er löng hefĂ° fyrir ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlist eins og polka, skottĂs, vals, polska og mazurka. SĂŠnska ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlistin er mest spiluĂ° ĂĄ harmonikku, klarinett, fiĂ°lu og/eĂ°a nikkelhörpu. Ă sjöunda ĂĄratugnum (1960-1970) fĂłru ungir sĂŠnskir tĂłnlistarmenn aĂ° sĂŠkja Ă ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlistina. Ăeir vildu lĂfga viĂ° hefĂ° sem var aĂ° deyja Ășt. Ungu SvĂarnir spiluĂ°u tĂłnlistina m.a. Ă almenningsĂștvarpi og -sjĂłnvarpi. Ăeir lögĂ°u ĂĄherslu ĂĄ polska, leikinn aĂ°eins af hljóðfĂŠrum, en u.ĂŸ.b. 30 ĂĄrum sĂĂ°ar, ĂĄ ĂĄrunum um 1990-1995, fĂłr söngur aĂ° vera ĂĄberandi Ă tĂłnlistinni. Ăessi bylting sem ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ° um og eftir 1960 er kölluĂ° âAfturhvarfiĂ°â.
+
+SĂŠnsk tĂłnlist varĂ° lĂka fyrir ĂĄhrifum af nĂștĂmalegri tĂłnlistarstefnum, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al popp tĂłnlistar. Ă lok nĂunda ĂĄratugarins og byrjun ĂŸess tĂunda ĂĄ 20. öldinni, fengu Gautaborg og StokkhĂłlmur mikilvĂŠgt hlutverk Ă ĂŸungarokksheiminum. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma urĂ°u skandinavĂskar ĂŸungarokkshljĂłmsveitir, eins og Opeth, mjög vinsĂŠlar meĂ°al ĂŸeirra sem hlustuĂ°u ĂĄ ĂŸungarokk. Gautaborg og StokkhĂłlmur voru aĂ°almiĂ°stöðvar hljĂłmsveitanna.
+
+SĂŠnskar popphljĂłmsveitir eins og ABBA, Roxette, Ace of Base og The Cardigans eru meĂ°al ĂŸeirra sem hlotiĂ° hafa heimsfrĂŠgĂ°. Pönk rokkhljĂłmsveitin The Hives, svo enn nĂœlegra dĂŠmi sĂ© tekiĂ°, er einnig orĂ°in heimsfrĂŠg.
+
+ĂjóðlagatĂłnlist
+Ballöður og kulning hafa yfirhöndina Ă sĂŠnskri ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlist. Kulning var upprunalega notaĂ° af kĂșahirĂ°um til aĂ° smala saman kĂșahjörĂ°inni, og er samkvĂŠmt hefĂ°inni sungiĂ° af konum, ĂŸeirra ĂĄ meĂ°al er söngsnillingurinn Lena Willemark. Textar ballaĂ°anna eiga uppruna sinn aĂ° rekja til âSkillingtryckâ sem var sĂŠnskt alĂŸĂœĂ°legt smĂĄrit 19. aldar meĂ° vĂsum, sögum og ĂŸess hĂĄttar. NĂștĂmalegar hljĂłmsveitir Folk och Rackare, Hedningarna og Garmarna eru bĂșnar aĂ° bĂŠta ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlist Ă lagalistana sĂna.
+
+ĂjóðlagahljóðfĂŠri
+FiĂ°lan er sennilega ĂŸaĂ° hljóðfĂŠri sem mest hefur sett svip ĂĄ sĂŠnska ĂŸjóðlagahefĂ°. OrĂ°iĂ° âspelmanâ Ă sĂŠnsku sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir bĂłkstaflega hljóðfĂŠraleikari, hefur hlotiĂ° merkinguna fiĂ°lari, eĂ°a fiĂ°luleikari, vegna ĂŸess hversu vinsĂŠl fiĂ°lan er Ă sĂŠnskri ĂŸjóðlagahefĂ°. FiĂ°lan var komin til SvĂĂŸjóðar ĂĄ 17. öld og varĂ° fljĂłtt almenn, ĂŸar til ĂĄ 19. öld, ĂŸegar afturhaldssamir trĂșarleiĂ°togar Ă landinu sögĂ°u aĂ° flestar gerĂ°ir af tĂłnlist vĂŠru syndsamlegar og ĂłguĂ°legar. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir kĂșgunina, urĂ°u ĂŸĂłnokkrir fiĂ°luleikarar rĂłmaĂ°ir fyrir snilli sĂna, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al Lapp-Nils frĂĄ Offerdal, JĂ€mtland, Pekkos Per frĂĄ Bingsjö og Lejsme-Per Larsson frĂĄ Malung. Enginn ĂŸessara tĂłnlistarmanna var ĂŸĂł nokkurn tĂmann hljóðritaĂ°ur. Hjort Anders Olsson var fyrsti meiri hĂĄttar fiĂ°luleikarinn Ă SvĂĂŸjóð sem var hljóðritaĂ°ur.
+
+Nikkelharpan er hljóðfĂŠri sem lĂkist fiĂ°lu, en hefur svokallaĂ°a snertla, ekki ĂłsvipaĂ°a pĂanĂłlyklum, en spilaĂ° er ĂĄ hljóðfĂŠriĂ° meĂ° fiĂ°luboga. Uppruni nikkelhörpunnar er ĂłĂŸekktur, en Ăœmist er talaĂ° um aĂ° hljóðfĂŠriĂ° komi frĂĄ SvĂĂŸjóð eĂ°a aĂ° upprunann megi rekja til ĂĂœskalands. VitaĂ° er aĂ° harpan var til Ă SvĂĂŸjóð ĂĄriĂ° 1350, en ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄr var skorin Ășt mynd af henni Ă kirkjuhliĂ° Ă Gautlandi. Ă 15. og 16. öldinni var nikkelharpan orĂ°in almenn Ă SvĂĂŸjóð og Danmörku. Notkun ĂĄ nikkelhörpu fĂłr minnkandi frĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma allt fram til 1960, ĂŸegar ungu SvĂarnir tĂłku ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlistina ĂĄstfĂłstri, endurlĂfgarar sĂŠnsku ĂŸjóðlagahefĂ°arinnar. HljóðfĂŠriĂ° sem ĂĄ var spilaĂ° ĂĄ 15. og 16. öld er ekki ĂŸaĂ° sama og algengast er Ă dag. Upprunalega hljóðfĂŠriĂ° er samt til Ă dag, auk margra ĂștfĂŠrslna ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ, en ĂŸessi algengasta, kölluĂ° ânĂștĂma krĂłmatĂsk nikkelharpaâ varĂ° til fyrir tilstilli tveggja manna. Auguste Brohlin og Eric Sahlström gerĂ°u bĂĄĂ°ir endurbĂŠtur ĂĄ hljóðfĂŠrinu. Brohlin endurbĂŠtti upprunalega hljóðfĂŠriĂ° upp Ășr 1925, en Sahlström endurbĂŠtti svo nikkelhörpu Brohlins enn frekar um 1980. ĂĂł Brohlin hafi gert endurbĂŠturnar um 1925, fĂłr notkun nikkelhörpunnar samt minnkandi, en ĂŸaĂ° var Sahlström sem gerĂ°i ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° verkum aĂ° ĂŸessi gerĂ° er sĂș sem algengust er Ă dag. Sahlström kenndi nefnilega öðrum nikkelhörpuleikurum aĂ° smĂĂ°a hljóðfĂŠriĂ°, og ĂŸeir kenndu öðrum og svo koll af kolli, ĂŸannig aĂ° Ă dag eru til u.ĂŸ.b. 25.000 nikkelhörpur Ă SvĂĂŸjóð einni og taliĂ° er aĂ° um 8.000 SvĂar spili ĂĄ hljóðfĂŠriĂ°.
+
+SĂŠnska sekkjarpĂpan var stĂłr hluti af ĂŸjóðlagahefĂ°inni. SekkjarpĂpuleikarar komu kunnĂĄttunni ĂĄ hljóðfĂŠriĂ° til arftakanna munnlega. Engar nĂłtur voru til og ekki var kennt ĂĄ hljóðfĂŠriĂ°. Seinasti upprunalegi sekkjapĂpuleikarinn var Gudmunds Nils Larsson, en hann dĂł ĂĄriĂ° 1949. MeĂ° honum dĂł hefĂ°in, en ĂĄ sjöunda ĂĄratugnum meĂ° Afturhvarfinu var hljóðfĂŠrinu gefiĂ° lĂf ĂĄ nĂœ.
+
+Harmonikkur og munnhörpur voru meginĂŸĂĄttur sĂŠnskrar ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlistar Ă upphafi 20. aldarinnar. FrĂŠgasti harmonikkuleikari SvĂĂŸjóðar er ĂĄn efa Kalle Jularbo sem var frĂŠgur snemma ĂĄ 20. öldinni. Svo, ĂĄ tĂmum afturhvarfsins, voru harmonikkur og munnhörpur ekki vel sĂ©Ă°ar meĂ°al afturhvarfssinna, eĂ°a ekki fyrr en undir lok ĂĄttunda ĂĄratugarins.
+
+AfturhvarfiĂ°
+Ă sjöunda ĂĄratugnum fengu sĂŠnskir jazz tĂłnlistarmenn eins og Jan Johansson innblĂĄstur og ĂĄhrif frĂĄ ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlistinni. Ăetta varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° Ă byrjun ĂĄttunda ĂĄratugarins var röð tĂłnlistarhĂĄtiĂ°a haldin Ă StokkhĂłlmi.
+
+Heimildir
+ http://www.nyckelharpa.org/info/history.html
+ http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyckelharpa
+ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Sweden
+ http://www.norbeck.nu/swedtrad/index.html
+ Eurpean Nyckelharpa Training
+ International Days of the Nyckelharpa
+Roxette var sĂŠnskur poppdĂșett, sem samanstóð af Per Gessle og Marie Fredriksson. Eins og margir aĂ°rir sĂŠnskir popparar sungu ĂŸau ĂĄ ensku.
+
+Roxette ĂĄtti nokkur lög sem komust ofarlega ĂĄ vinsĂŠldalista, ĂŸar mĂĄ til dĂŠmis nefna: âIt Must Have Been Loveâ, sem var spilaĂ° Ă kvikmyndinni Pretty Woman, âThe Lookâ, âJoyrideâ og âSpending my timeâ.
+
+Fredriksson lést årið 2019.
+
+BreiĂ°skĂfur
+
+Pearls of Passion (1986)
+Look Sharp! (1988)
+Joyride (1991)
+Tourism (1992)
+Crash! Boom! Bang! (1994)
+Have a Nice Day (1999)
+Room Service (2001)
+Charm School (2011)
+Travelling (2012)
+Good Karma (2016)
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+
+ VefsĂĂ°a Roxette
+ AĂ°dĂĄendaklĂșbbur Roxette
+ Run to Roxette
+ R2R Forum
+ The Daily Roxette
+ Roxette Lyrics
+
+SĂŠnskar hljĂłmsveitir
+StofnaĂ° 1986
+AlĂŸingi er löggjafarĂŸing Ăslands sem upphaflega var stofnaĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 930 ĂĄ Ăingvöllum ĂŸar sem ĂŸaĂ° kom saman ĂĄrlega fram til ĂĄrsins 1799. AlĂŸingi var endurreist Ă nĂșverandi mynd Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄriĂ° 1844. Ă ĂŸinginu sitja 63 fulltrĂșar ĂŸjóðarinnar, alĂŸingismenn, sem eru kjörnir af henni Ă beinni og leynilegri kosningu. AlĂŸingi er ĂŠĂ°sti handhafi löggjafarvalds ĂĄ Ăslandi og samkvĂŠmt ĂŸingrĂŠĂ°isreglunni bera rĂĄĂ°herrar ĂĄbyrgĂ° gagnvart AlĂŸingi og rĂkisstjĂłrnin verĂ°ur aĂ° njĂłta stuĂ°nings meirihluta ĂŸingheims.
+
+AlĂŸingi kemur saman ĂĄrlega ĂĄ öðrum ĂŸriĂ°judegi septembermĂĄnaĂ°ar og stendur til annars ĂŸriĂ°judags septembermĂĄnaĂ°ar ĂĄriĂ° eftir ef kjörtĂmabilinu lĂœkur ekki Ă millitĂĂ°inni eĂ°a ĂŸing er rofiĂ°, kjörtĂmabiliĂ° er fjögur ĂĄr. KosningarĂ©tt til AlĂŸingis hafa allir Ăslenskir rĂkisborgarar sem hafa nĂĄĂ° 18 ĂĄra aldri. Allir ĂŸeir sem hafa kosningarĂ©tt til ĂŸingsins og ĂłflekkaĂ° mannorĂ° eru kjörgengir til AlĂŸingis. ĂingiĂ° starfar Ă einni deild ĂłlĂkt löggjafarĂŸingum margra annarra rĂkja.
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+Reglulegur samkomustaĂ°ur ĂŸingsins er Ă ReykjavĂk ĂŸar sem ĂŸaĂ° hefur aĂ°stöðu Ă AlĂŸingishĂșsinu viĂ° Austurvöll og fleiri nĂĄlĂŠgum byggingum. ViĂ° sĂ©rstakar aĂ°stĂŠĂ°ur getur forseti Ăslands skipaĂ° fyrir um aĂ° AlĂŸingi komi saman annars staĂ°ar ĂĄ landinu, sem gerist ĂŸĂł sjaldan og er yfirleitt vegna stĂłrafmĂŠla eĂ°a annarra hĂĄtĂĂ°a.
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+Saga
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+Ăjóðveldisöld
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+AlĂŸingi er elsta starfandi ĂŸingum heims og er vĂĂ°a ĂŸekkt fyrir ĂŸaĂ°. ĂaĂ° var fullstofnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăingvöllum ĂĄriĂ° 930, um hĂĄlfri öld eftir aĂ° landnĂĄm Ăslands hĂłfst. SamkvĂŠmt ĂslendingabĂłk var AlĂŸingi upprunalega staĂ°sett Ă BlĂĄskĂłgum en eigandi landsins, ĂĂłrir kroppinskeggi, hafĂ°i gerst sekur um morĂ° og landiĂ° varĂ° almenningseign. UndirbĂșningur aĂ° stofnun ĂŸingsins var talinn hafa veriĂ° ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 920 til 930 en m.a. var maĂ°ur aĂ° nafni ĂlfljĂłtur sendur til Noregs til aĂ° nema lög en fyrstu lögin eru einmitt nefnd ĂlfljĂłtslög eftir honum. Lögin Ă HörĂ°alandi Ă Noregi voru höfĂ° sem fyrirmynd Ăslenskra laga. TaliĂ° er aĂ° AlĂŸingi hafi veriĂ° valinn staĂ°ur ĂĄ Ăingvelli vegna ĂŸess aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° var tiltölulega miĂ°svĂŠĂ°is og ĂŸvĂ aĂ°gengilegt flestum. Einnig er taliĂ° aĂ° ĂŠttingjar IngĂłlfs Arnarssonar, sem ĂĄĂ°ur höfĂ°u stofnaĂ° KjalarnesĂŸing, hafi nokkru rĂĄĂ°iĂ° um staĂ°setningu ĂŸingsins.
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+Undir erlendum yfirrĂĄĂ°um
+AlĂŸingi starfaĂ°i sem löggjafarsamkoma og ĂŠĂ°sti dĂłmstĂłll landsins ĂŸar til ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1262-64 ĂŸegar Ăslendingar samĂŸykktu Gamla sĂĄttmĂĄla og gengu Noregskonungi ĂĄ hönd. ĂĂĄ voru nĂœjar lögbĂŠkur lögteknar, JĂĄrnsĂĂ°a ĂĄriĂ° 1271 og sĂĂ°an JĂłnsbĂłk ĂĄriĂ° 1281. ViĂ° ĂŸaĂ° breyttist hlutverk AlĂŸingis mikiĂ°. Löggjafarvald var Ă höndum konungs og AlĂŸingis sameiginlega, einkum konungs. DĂłmstörfin urĂ°u aĂ°alverkefni ĂŸingsins. ĂriĂ° 1662 afsöluĂ°u Ăslendingar sĂ©r svo sjĂĄlfstjĂłrn Ă hendur konungi meĂ° KĂłpavogssamningi. Ăinghaldi lauk ĂĄ Ăingvöllum ĂĄriĂ° 1798, en LögrĂ©tta kom ĂŸĂł saman Ă HĂłlavallaskĂłla Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄriĂ° 1799 og 1800. AlĂŸingi var lagt af ĂŸann 6. jĂșnĂ 1800 en ĂŸĂĄ fĂłru nĂŠr eingöngu dĂłmstörf ĂŸar fram. HafĂ°i ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸĂĄ starfaĂ° samellt Ă 870 ĂĄr.
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+Endurreisn AlĂŸingis
+Danakonungur gaf Ășt tilskipun um endurreisn AlĂŸingis, ĂŸann 8. mars 1843 eftir mikla barĂĄttu sjĂĄlfsstĂŠĂ°ihreyfingarinnar Ăslensku, Baldvin Einarsson fĂłr ĂŸar fremstur Ă flokki. Fyrstu kosningarnar fĂłru fram ĂĄri sĂĂ°ar og ĂŸing kom Ă fyrsta skipti saman ĂĄ endurreistu AlĂŸingi ĂŸann 1. jĂșlĂ 1845. Fyrir um ca 170 ĂĄrum.
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+Endurreist AlĂŸingi starfaĂ°i fyrst um sinn Ă LatĂnuskĂłlanum (nĂș MenntaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk). ĂriĂ° 1881 flutti AlĂŸingi svo Ă sitt nĂșverandi hĂșsnĂŠĂ°i Ă AlĂŸingishĂșsinu viĂ° Austurvöll.
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+Fyrst um sinn var ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸĂł eingöngu rĂĄĂ°gjafarĂŸing, konungi til rĂĄĂ°uneytis um löggjafarmĂĄlefni Ăslendinga. ĂriĂ° 1871 voru Stöðulögin sett, ĂŸeim fylgdi nĂœ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ, Ă tilefni af ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄra afmĂŠli byggĂ°ar ĂĄ Ăslandi, ĂŸremur ĂĄrum seinna. AlĂŸingi fĂ©kk takmarkaĂ° löggjafarvald, en konungur hafĂ°i synjunarvald og beitti ĂŸvĂ nokkrum sinnum. Yfir Ăslandi var skipaĂ°ur landshöfĂ°ingi sem var fulltrĂși konungs ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. Ăslendingar fengu svo heimastjĂłrn ĂĄriĂ° 1904 og ĂŸĂĄ var ĂŸingrĂŠĂ°i innleitt sem ĂŸĂœddi aĂ° Ăslendingar fengu ĂslandsrĂĄĂ°herra, meĂ° aĂ°stöðu ĂĄ Ăslandi, sem var ĂĄbyrgur gagnvart AlĂŸingi. Ăsland varĂ° fullvalda rĂki ĂĄriĂ° 1918 ĂŸegar Sambandslögin voru sett.
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+SambandiĂ° viĂ° Danakonung rofnaĂ°i ĂĄriĂ° 1940 Ă seinni heimsstyrjöldinni, ĂŸegar Ăsland var hernumiĂ° af Bretum, og ĂŸann 15. maĂ 1941 samĂŸykkti AlĂŸingi kosningu rĂkisstjĂłra. Ă ĂŸaĂ° embĂŠtti var Sveinn Björnsson kosinn. Sambandslögin voru einrĂłma felld Ășr gildi 25. febrĂșar 1944 ĂĄ AlĂŸingi en ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°sla var haldin um mĂĄliĂ° 20.-23. maĂ. Sambandslögin voru sĂĂ°an formlega felld Ășr gildi 16. jĂșnĂ sama ĂĄr og sĂĂ°an var lĂœst yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i Ăslands ĂŸann 17. jĂșnĂ 1944.
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+ĂrĂłun kosningarĂ©ttar
+Ă fyrstu kosningunum til endurreists AlĂŸingis, ĂĄriĂ° 1844, höfĂ°u kosningarĂ©tt karlmenn 25 ĂĄra og eldri aĂ° uppfylltum ĂĄkveĂ°num skilyrĂ°um um eignir. ĂaĂ° voru um 5% landsmanna. ĂriĂ° 1903 voru ĂĄkvĂŠĂ°i rĂœmkuĂ° um kosningarĂ©tt efnaminni manna. Kosningar til AlĂŸingis voru leynilegar frĂĄ 1908, en fram aĂ° ĂŸvĂ höfĂ°u ĂŸĂŠr veriĂ° opinberar. ĂriĂ° 1915 fengu hluti kvenna kosningarĂ©tt og skilyrĂ°in um eignir voru felld niĂ°ur. Eignalausir verkamenn og vinnumenn til sveita, konur og karlar, fengu samt ekki kosningarĂ©tt fyrr en ĂŸau höfĂ°u nĂĄĂ° 40 ĂĄra aldri. Aldursmörkin fĂŠrĂ°ust svo niĂ°ur um eitt ĂĄr ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri. Allir fengu rĂ©ttinn 25 ĂĄra ĂĄriĂ° 1920. ĂriĂ° 1934 var kosningarĂ©ttur lĂŠkkaĂ°ur Ă 21 ĂĄr, aftur Ă 20 ĂĄr ĂĄriĂ° 1968, og aĂ° lokum Ă 18 ĂĄr ĂĄriĂ° 1984.
+
+KjördÊmaskipan og deildaskipting
+
+ĂriĂ° 1874 var ĂŸingi skipt Ă tvĂŠr deildir, efri og neĂ°ri deild. Ăingmenn voru ĂŸĂĄ 36 og Ă efri deild sat ĂŸriĂ°jungur ĂŸingmanna, eĂ°a 12 ĂŸingmenn. Sex ĂŸeirra voru ĂŸjóðkjörnir en sex konungkjörnir. Allir ĂŸingmenn Ă neĂ°ri deild voru ĂŸjóðkjörnir. Sameiginlegir fundir ĂŸingmanna beggja deilda nefndust sameinaĂ° AlĂŸingi.
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+ĂriĂ° 1903 var ĂŸingmönnum fjölgaĂ° um fjĂłra og voru ĂŸĂĄ 40. ViĂ° stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingarnar 1915 var konungskjör ĂŸingmanna fellt niĂ°ur og tekiĂ° upp landskjör ĂŸar sem allt landiĂ° var eitt kjördĂŠmi. Landskjörnir ĂŸingmenn voru sex, ĂŸeir voru kosnir til 12 ĂĄra og sĂĄtu Ă efri deild. ĂriĂ° 1920 var ĂŸingmönnum fjölgaĂ° Ă 42 og ĂŸĂĄ var ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° aĂ° AlĂŸingi kĂŠmi saman ĂĄrlega. ĂriĂ° 1934 var ĂŸingmönnum aftur fjölgaĂ°, nĂș um 7 eĂ°a Ă 49. ĂĂĄ var landskjör einnig fellt niĂ°ur ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄr. 1942 var ĂŸeim svo fjölgaĂ° Ă 52. ĂĂĄ var landiĂ° 28 kjördĂŠmi, 21 einmenningskjördĂŠmi, sex tvĂmenningskjördĂŠmi og ReykjavĂk sem fĂ©kk ĂĄtta ĂŸingmenn. Auk ĂŸess voru 11 uppbĂłtarĂŸingmenn. ĂriĂ° 1959 var landinu skipt upp Ă ĂĄtta kjördĂŠmi meĂ° hlutfallskosningu auk 11 uppbĂłtarĂŸingsĂŠta. Ăingmönnum var aftur fjölgaĂ°, nĂș Ă 60. ĂriĂ° 1984 var ĂŸingmönnum fjölgaĂ° Ă 63 og ĂĄriĂ° 1991 voru deildirnar tvĂŠr, efri og neĂ°ri deild, sameinaĂ°ar. KjördĂŠmaskipan var svo breytt ĂĄriĂ° 1999 meĂ° stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingu og kjördĂŠmunum fĂŠkkaĂ° Ă sex.
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+Völd ĂŸingsins
+Völd AlĂŸingis eiga sĂ©r stoĂ° Ă fyrstu og annari grein stjĂłrnarskrĂĄr lĂœĂ°veldisins Ăslands. Ă fyrstu greininni segir: âĂsland er lĂœĂ°veldi meĂ° ĂŸingbundinni stjĂłrnâ og ĂŸeirri annarri er mĂŠlt fyrir um ĂŸrĂskiptingu rĂkisvaldsins. Almennt er taliĂ° aĂ° meĂ° orĂ°alaginu ĂŸingbundin stjĂłrn sĂ© ĂĄtt viĂ° aĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi sĂ© ĂŸingrĂŠĂ°i eĂ°a Ă ĂŸaĂ° minnsta âaĂ° rĂĄĂ°herrar skuli vera hĂĄĂ°ir AlĂŸingi meĂ° einÂhverjum hĂŠtti, t.d. meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° standa ĂŸinginu reikningsskil gjörĂ°a sinna.â MĂŠlt er nĂĄnar fyrir um rĂĄĂ°herraĂĄbyrgĂ° Ă 14. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar ĂŸar sem segir aĂ° AlĂŸingi geti kĂŠrt rĂĄĂ°herra fyrir embĂŠttisrekstur ĂŸeirra og dĂŠmi landsdĂłmur ĂŸau mĂĄl.
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+ĂrĂskipting rĂkisvaldsins felur ĂŸaĂ° Ă sĂ©r aĂ° löggjafarvaldiĂ° setur lög sem framkvĂŠmdarvaldiĂ° framkvĂŠmir og dĂłmsvaldiĂ° sker Ășr um ĂŸegar ĂĄgreiningur kemur upp. LöggjafarvaldiĂ° getur ekki leyst Ășr dĂłmsmĂĄlum nĂ© heldur getur ĂŸaĂ° tekiĂ° einstaka stjĂłrnvaldsĂĄkvarĂ°anir sem er aĂ° öllu jöfnu viĂ°fangsefni framkvĂŠmdarvaldsins og nefnist opinber stjĂłrnsĂœsla. AĂ° ĂŸvĂ sögĂ°u er ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸĂł ljĂłst af ĂŸingrĂŠĂ°isreglunni og fjĂĄrstjĂłrnarvaldi ĂŸingsins aĂ° ekki er jafnrĂŠĂ°i milli ĂŸessara handhafa rĂkisvaldsins heldur er AlĂŸingi ĂłtvĂrĂŠtt valdamesta stofnunin.
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+MikilvĂŠgi fjĂĄrstjĂłrnunarvaldsins sĂ©st Ă 42. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar sem segir aĂ° fyrir hvert reglulega samankomiĂ° AlĂŸingi beri aĂ° leggja fram frumvarp til fjĂĄrlaga fyrir ĂŸaĂ° fjĂĄrhagsĂĄr. Ăetta er eitt viĂ°amesta verkefni AlĂŸingis ĂĄr hvert enda eru rekstrartekjur hinna Ăœmsu opinberra stofnana og styrkupphĂŠĂ°ir til einkaaĂ°ila ĂĄkveĂ°in ĂŸar.
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+AlĂŸingi er ekki meĂ° ĂłtakmarkaĂ° löggjafarvald heldur ĂŸarf forseti Ăslands aĂ° staĂ°festa lögin meĂ° undirskrift sinni. SamkvĂŠmt 19. og 26. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar ĂŸarf undirskrift forseta Ăslands til ĂŸess aĂ° veita frumvarpi lagagildi ellegar er ĂŸeim vĂsaĂ° til ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu. Ăessi völd forseta Ăslands voru lengi vel talin Ăłformleg, ĂŸeim var ekki beitt fyrr en Ălafur Ragnar GrĂmsson synjaĂ°i fjölmiĂ°lafrumvarpinu staĂ°festingar ĂĄriĂ° 2004. Ekki kom til ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu ĂŸĂĄ ĂŸar sem frumvarpiĂ° var dregiĂ° til baka af rĂkisstjĂłrninni. Ă byrjun ĂĄrs 2010 synjaĂ°i Ălafur Ragnar Icesave-frumvarpinu staĂ°festingar og fĂłr fram ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°sla um ĂŸaĂ° Ă mars ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄr ĂŸar sem lögin voru felld. Ă febrĂșar 2011 synjaĂ°i Ălafur nĂœju frumvarpi sem einnig er kennt viĂ° Icesave staĂ°festingar og var ĂŸaĂ° einnig fellt Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu sem haldin var Ă aprĂl ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄr.
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+ĂĂĄ getur forseti Ăslands rofiĂ° ĂŸing samkvĂŠmt 24. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar. SlĂkt hefur aldrei gerst ĂĄ lĂœĂ°veldistĂmanum en AlĂŸingi var rofiĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1931 fyrir tilstuĂ°lan KristjĂĄns 10. Danakonungs.
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+Um fundarstjĂłrn, embĂŠtti AlĂŸingis og feril lagasetningar er mĂŠlt fyrir um Ă ĂŸingskaparlögum. SumariĂ° 2011 var ĂŸingskaparlögum nokkuĂ° breytt, meĂ°al annars var fjölda fastanefnda AlĂŸingis breytt.
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+Lagasetning
+Lagasetning ĂĄ AlĂŸingi fylgir föstu ferli sem mĂŠlt er fyrir um Ă stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni og ĂŸingskaparlögum. 38. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar mĂŠlir fyrir um aĂ° aĂ°eins ĂŸingmenn og rĂĄĂ°herrar megi leggja fram lagafrumvörp eĂ°a ĂŸingsĂĄlyktunartillögur. 44. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar mĂŠlir fyrir um aĂ° ekkert lagafrumvarp megi samĂŸykkja nema aĂ° undangengnum ĂŸremur umrĂŠĂ°um ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. ĂĂĄ segir Ă 53. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar aĂ° AlĂŸingi geti ekki samĂŸykkt mĂĄl nema meira en helmingur ĂŸingmanna sĂ©u viĂ°staddir atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu og 67. gr. ĂŸingskaparlaga mĂŠlir fyrir um aĂ° afl atkvĂŠĂ°a rĂĄĂ°i Ășrslitum um mĂĄl og mĂĄlsatriĂ°i nema annaĂ° sĂ© skĂœrt tekiĂ° fram Ă stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni eĂ°a ĂŸingskaparlögum.
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+Sem fyrr segir skiptist umfjöllun AlĂŸingis Ă ĂŸrjĂĄ umrĂŠĂ°ur. ĂriĂ°ji kafli ĂŸingskaparlaga fjallar nĂĄnar um lagasetningu ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. Ăar er mĂŠlt fyrir um aĂ° aĂ° fyrstu umrĂŠĂ°u lokinni vĂsi forseti AlĂŸingis frumvarpinu til fastanefndar AlĂŸingis aĂ° hans vali. Ăingmenn geta krafist atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂmapunkti um ĂŸaĂ° hvort ljĂșka beri fyrstu umrĂŠĂ°u eĂ°a hvort vĂsa eigi frumvarpinu til annarar fastanefndar en ĂŸeirrar sem forseti AlĂŸingis leggur til.
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+Ănnur umrĂŠĂ°a fer fram Ă fyrsta lagi nĂłttu eftir aĂ° fyrstu umrĂŠĂ°u er lokiĂ° eĂ°a ĂștbĂœtingu nefndarĂĄlits. ĂĂĄ eru einstaka greinar frumvarpsins rĂŠddar og breytingartillögur ef einhverjar hafa fram komiĂ°. ĂĂĄ eru greidd atkvĂŠĂ°i um einstakar greinar frumvarpsins og einstök atriĂ°i sem ĂŸingmenn ĂŠskja eftir aĂ° kosiĂ° sĂ© um.
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+ĂĂĄ gengur frumvarpiĂ° til ĂŸriĂ°ju umrĂŠĂ°u en ĂŸingmenn geta ĂłskaĂ° eftir atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu ĂĄĂ°ur ĂŸvĂ til staĂ°festingar. Hafi frumvarpiĂ° breyst viĂ° aĂ°ra umrĂŠĂ°u getur ĂŸingmaĂ°ur eĂ°a rĂĄĂ°herra ĂłskaĂ° eftir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° nefnd taki ĂŸaĂ° til umfjöllunar ĂĄ nĂœ. ĂriĂ°ja og sĂĂ°asta umrĂŠĂ°an fer fram Ă fyrsta lagi nĂłttu eftir aĂ°ra umrĂŠĂ°u. ĂĂĄ eru rĂŠddar greinar frumvarpsins og breytingartillögur viĂ° frumvarpiĂ° og einnig frumvarpiĂ° Ă heild. Loks eru greidd atkvĂŠĂ°i um breytingartillögurnar ef einhverjar eru og svo frumvarpiĂ° Ă heild.
+
+EmbĂŠtti ĂŸingsins
+ĂĂ°sta embĂŠtti ĂŸingsins er forseti AlĂŸingis. NĂșverandi forseti er SteingrĂmur J. SigfĂșsson, alĂŸingismaĂ°ur Vinstri grĂŠnna. Eins og segir Ă kynningarbĂŠklingi AlĂŸingis âstjĂłrnar [forseti] ĂŸinghaldinu, ĂĄkveĂ°ur dagskrĂĄ ĂŸingfunda og hefur frumkvĂŠĂ°i aĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° semja starfsĂĄĂŠtlun AlĂŸingis og ĂĄĂŠtlun um fundarhöld. Forseti hefur enn fremur umsjĂłn meĂ° starfi ĂŸingnefnda og alĂŸjóðanefnda og fyrirspurnir til rĂĄĂ°herra eru hĂĄĂ°ar leyfi hans. Forseti sker Ășr ĂĄgreiningi um tĂșlkun ĂŸingskapa og umrĂŠĂ°ur utan dagskrĂĄr eru bundnar samĂŸykki hans.â SamkvĂŠmt stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni er forseti AlĂŸingis einn ĂŸriggja handhafa forsetavalds.
+
+Forsetar AlĂŸingis eru kosnir af ĂŸinginu strax eftir ĂŸingsetningu og stĂœrir aldursforseti ĂŸingsins, sĂĄ ĂŸingmaĂ°ur meĂ° lengstu setu ĂĄ ĂŸingi fundum ĂŸangaĂ° til aĂ° forseti AlĂŸingis hefur veriĂ° kosinn. Ăingmenn eru tilnefndir til embĂŠttisins og eru ĂŸeir Ă framboĂ°i sem ekki hreyfa viĂ° ĂŸvĂ mĂłtmĂŠlum. SĂĄ ĂŸingmaĂ°ur er kosinn sem hlĂœtur yfir helming atkvĂŠĂ°a eĂ°a hreinan meirihluta.
+
+Stofnanir AlĂŸingis
+TvĂŠr sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°ar stofnanir starfa ĂĄ vegum AlĂŸingis. ĂaĂ° eru umboĂ°smaĂ°ur AlĂŸingis og RĂkisendurskoĂ°un. Hlutverk umboĂ°smanns AlĂŸingis er aĂ° hafa eftirlit meĂ° opinberri stjĂłrnsĂœslu af hĂĄlfu AlĂŸingis. Hlutverk RĂkisendurskoĂ°unar er fyrst og fremst aĂ° endurskoĂ°a rĂkisreikninginn og reikninga opinberra stofnana. Hvorki umboĂ°smaĂ°ur AlĂŸingis nĂ© RĂkisendurskoĂ°un lĂșta beinu boĂ°valdi AlĂŸingis heldur geta tekiĂ° fyrir mĂĄl aĂ° eigin frumkvĂŠĂ°i. AlĂŸingi getur ĂŸĂł krafist skĂœrslna af hendi RĂkisendurskoĂ°unar um tiltekin mĂĄl.
+
+Samsetning ĂŸingsins
+Eins og fram hefur komiĂ° er ĂŸingrĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ăsland skilur sig hins vegar frĂĄ hinum NorĂ°urlöndunum aĂ° ĂŸvĂ leyti aĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi er sterk hefĂ° fyrir öflugum meirihlutastjĂłrnum. FrĂĄ lĂœĂ°veldisstofnun ĂĄriĂ° 1944 hafa 15 vantrauststillögur veriĂ° lagĂ°ar fram af stjĂłrnarandstöðu. Allar hafa ĂŸĂŠr veriĂ° felldar af meirihluta rĂkisstjĂłrnarinnar. Ăessi hefĂ° er svo sterk ĂĄ Ăslandi aĂ° rĂŠtt hefur veriĂ° um samĂŸĂŠttingu löggjafarvalds og framkvĂŠmdavalds af ĂŸeim sökum. Ă stefnurĂŠĂ°u viĂ° ĂŸingsetningu ĂĄriĂ° 1997 komst DavĂĂ° Oddsson, ĂŸĂĄ forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra svo aĂ° orĂ°i:
+
+Tengt efni
+Listi yfir alĂŸingiskosningar
+AlĂŸingisbĂŠkur Ăslands
+
+Tilvitnanir
+<div class="references-small">
+
+Punktar
+
+Tenglar
+VefsĂĂ°a AlĂŸingis
+Kynning og saga (kynningarbĂŠklingur)
+Ungmennavefur AlĂŸingis, kynning, saga og kennsluefni ĂŠtluĂ° ungmennum
+ Lög um ĂŸingsköp AlĂŸingis 1991 nr. 55 31. maĂ
+ Myndir af AlĂŸingishĂșsinu Ă ReykjavĂk
+
+TĂmarita- og blaĂ°agreinar
+ AlĂŸingi Ă ljĂłsi samĂŸĂŠttingar löggjafarvalds og framkvĂŠmdavalds, grein eftir Ăorstein MagnĂșsson forstöðumann ĂĄ skrifstofu AlĂŸingis Ă vefritinu StjĂłrnmĂĄl og stjĂłrnsĂœsla
+ NĂłtt hinna ĂŸinglausu ĂĄra - 1800-1845; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1945
+ Upptökubönd nĂĄ frĂĄ ReykjavĂk til EgilsstaĂ°a; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1987
+
+
+Ăslenskar rĂkisstofnanir
+Ăing eftir löndum
+Ă stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i er hugtakiĂ° flatarmĂĄl notaĂ° yfir tölugildi tvĂvĂĂ°s afmarkaĂ°s svĂŠĂ°is.
+
+Taka mĂĄ ferhyrning sem dĂŠmi:
+LĂta mĂĄ ĂĄ beina lĂnu milli tveggja punkta sem einvĂĂ°an vigur. Hann hefur aĂ°eins lengd, sĂ© vigurinn ekki skoĂ°aĂ°ur meĂ° tilliti til tvĂ- eĂ°a ĂŸrĂvĂĂ°s umhverfis. SĂ© annar vigur leiddur inn Ă dĂŠmiĂ°, sem er einnig einvĂĂ°ur, en situr hornrĂ©tt ĂĄ viĂ° hinn fyrrnefnda vigur, ĂŸĂĄ afmarka vigrarnir tveir tvĂvĂĂ°an flöt, sem finna mĂĄ flatarmĂĄliĂ° ĂĄ meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° margfalda lengdir vigranna saman.
+
+AĂ° jafnaĂ°i er flatarmĂĄl gefiĂ° upp dags daglega meĂ° mĂŠlieiningum, gjarnan Ășr SI kerfinu. Til dĂŠmis er flatarmĂĄl landa gefiĂ° upp Ă ferkĂlĂłmetrum (kmÂČ), flatarmĂĄl akurlendis Ă hektörum (eĂ°a hektĂłmetrum), (hmÂČ), og flatarmĂĄl hĂșsnĂŠĂ°is Ă fermetrum (mÂČ). VeldisvĂsinn hjĂĄ mĂŠlieiningunni mĂĄ nota til ĂŸess aĂ° sjĂĄ hversu margar svigrĂșmsvĂddir umrĂŠtt rĂșm hefur. T.d. myndu rĂșmkĂlĂłmetrar - kmÂł vera meĂ° ĂŸrjĂĄr svigrĂșmsvĂddir, og lĂœsir 1kmÂł ĂŸĂĄ ĂŸrĂvĂĂ°u rĂșmi.
+
+FormĂșlur
+
+Tengt efni
+ ĂrĂvĂtt rĂșm
+ LĂna
+ Vigur
+ Hallatala
+ YfirborĂ°sflatarmĂĄl
+
+StĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+TaugakerfiĂ° er kerfiĂ° sem er samansett Ășr taugum og sĂ©rstökum frumum sem eru ĂŸekktar sem taugafrumur en ĂŸĂŠr mynda flĂłkin net sem senda merki eĂ°a boĂ° ĂĄ milli mismunandi lĂkamsparta. ĂaĂ° eru um 86 milljarĂ°a taugafrumna Ă fullvaxta heila (Matthews, 2020). Uppbygging taugafrumna er örlĂtiĂ° flĂłkin en hver fruma er gerĂ° Ășr frumubol og grönnum taugaĂŸrĂĄĂ°um. Frumurnar geta sĂĂ°an flutt veik boĂ° en ĂŸau kallast taugaboĂ°. Ăessi boĂ° berast til frumubolsins meĂ° taugaĂŸrĂĄĂ°um sem eru kallaĂ°ir griplur og eru ĂŸetta stuttir ĂŸrĂŠĂ°ir. SĂĂ°an berast boĂ°in ĂĄfram til annarra taugafrumna eftir löngum ĂŸrĂĄĂ°um sem kallast sĂmi. SĂminn greinist svo Ă endann og kallast ĂŸaĂ° sĂmaendar og geta ĂŸeir veriĂ° margir. SĂmar geta veriĂ° allt frĂĄ meira en einum metra aĂ° lengd niĂ°ur Ă fĂĄeina millimetra. BoĂ°in berast hraĂ°ar eftir taugasĂmum sem hafa um sig hlĂfĂ°arlag Ășr fitu en ĂŸau boĂ° geta fariĂ° meira en 100 metra ĂĄ sekĂșndu. SĂmaendar geta svo tengst himnu annarra frumu en ĂŸaĂ° kallast taugamĂłt. Hver taugafruma getur haft ĂŸĂșsundir tengipunkta viĂ° aĂ°rar frumur (Fabricius, 2011).
+
+Uppbygging taugakerfisins
+
+TaugakerfiĂ° er sett saman Ășr tveimur hlutum, miĂ°taugakerfinu en ĂŸar undir falla mĂŠnan og heilinn, og ĂșttaugakerfiĂ° en ĂŸaĂ° skiptist Ă viljastĂœrĂ°a kerfiĂ° en ĂŸaĂ° er kerfiĂ° sem viĂ° getum stjĂłrnaĂ° meĂ° eigin vilja og sjĂĄlfvirka taugakerfiĂ° sem er ekki undir viljastjĂłrn (Fabricius, 2011)( (Zimmermann, 2018).
+
+MiĂ°taugakerfiĂ°
+Taugarnar sem liggja Ășt frĂĄ heilanum flytja boĂ° til lĂffĂŠra lĂkamans til aĂ° mynda hreyfiboĂ° sem gera okkur kleift aĂ° hreyfa okkur. Einnig eru taugar sem flytja boĂ° til heilans en ĂŸaĂ° eru boĂ° til dĂŠmis frĂĄ augunum, sem heilinn tĂșlkar svo og bĂœr til sjĂłnhrif en ĂŸaĂ° eru myndirnar sem viĂ° sjĂĄum (Fabricius, 2011).
+
+ĂttaugakerfiĂ°
+ViljastĂœrĂ°a taugakerfiĂ° stjĂłrnar beinagrindavöðvum og sjĂĄlfvirka taugakerfiĂ° stjĂłrnar svo hjartavöðvum, slĂ©ttum vöðvum og kirtlum. SjĂĄlfvirka taugakerfiĂ° skiptist svo enn meira niĂ°ur Ă drifkerfiĂ° og sefkerfiĂ° (ĂurĂĂ°ur ĂorbjarnardĂłttir, 2006).
+
+Taugaviðbrögð og taugafrumur
+MĂŠnan sem er partur af miĂ°taugakerfinu er um ĂŸaĂ° bil 45 cm langur strengur og liggur inni Ă holrĂșmi Ă hryggjarliĂ°unum. MĂŠnan er tengibraut fyrir taugaboĂ° til og frĂĄ heilanum en hĂșn er lĂka hraĂ°tenging taugabrauta Ă taugaviĂ°bröðgum sem kallast mĂŠnuviĂ°brögĂ°.
+
+Ăegar skyntaugarnar sem koma inn Ă mĂŠnuna tengjast beint viĂ° hreyfitaugar til vöðvanna, ĂŸĂĄ fara boĂ°in stystu leiĂ°ina til vöðvans og sleppa ĂŸvĂ aĂ° fara til heilans fyrst, ĂŸetta kallast mĂŠnuviĂ°brögĂ°. Ein tegund af mĂŠnuviĂ°bröðgum er sĂĄrsaukaviĂ°bragĂ° en ĂŸaĂ° er meĂ°fĂŠtt. Ef aĂ° ĂŸĂș rekur hendina Ă eitthvaĂ° rykkir ĂŸĂș henni tilbaka ĂĄn ĂŸess aĂ° hugsa um ĂŸaĂ°. SkĂœringin ĂĄ ĂŸessu er aĂ° skynfĂŠri Ă hendinni senda boĂ° til mĂŠnunnar eftir skyntaugafrumunum. Ă mĂŠnunni vekja ĂŸau svo boĂ° Ă hreyfitaugafrumum sem flytja svo boĂ°iĂ° til vöðva Ă hendinni sem kippir henni frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ sem aĂ° olli henni sĂĄrsauka. Ăessi viĂ°brögĂ° taka einungis fĂĄ sekĂșndubrot. SĂĂ°an, um leiĂ° og aĂ° taugaboĂ°iĂ° hefur borist til handarinnar berst taugaboĂ° til heilans um aĂ° ĂŸĂș hafir meitt ĂŸig Ă hendinni en ĂŸĂĄ ertu nĂș ĂŸegar bĂșin aĂ° fĂŠra hana frĂĄ (Fabricius, 2011). Einnig eru til lĂŠrĂ° viĂ°brögĂ° en ĂŸaĂ° er eins og ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° hjĂłla. Ăegar ĂŸĂș hjĂłlar eĂ°a hleypur ĂŸĂĄ ertu ekki aĂ° hugsa um hverja hreyfingu sem lĂkaminn framkvĂŠmir. Vöðvarnir og taugakerfiĂ° hafa ĂłsjĂĄlfrĂĄtt lĂŠrt aĂ° framkvĂŠma ĂŸessar hreyfingar af ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸetta eru orĂ°in lĂŠrĂ° taugaviĂ°brögĂ° (Fabricius, 2011).
+
+Sumar taugar senda taugaboĂ° til heilans, en ĂŸĂŠr kallast skyntaugar og aĂ°rar senda boĂ° frĂĄ heilanum en ĂŸĂŠr kallast hreyfitaugar. Starf skyntauga er aĂ° flytja boĂ°in frĂĄ skynfĂŠrum, til sjĂłnsvĂŠĂ°is, heyrnasvĂŠĂ°is og hinna starfsvĂŠĂ°a heilans. Hreyfitaugarnar hins vegar stjĂłrna öllum hreyfingunum okkar.
+
+Ăegar kemur aĂ° minninu hafa taugafrumurnar lĂka hlutverk. ĂĂŠr mynda ĂŸĂ©tt net tenginga Ă heilanum og minniĂ° byggist ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸessar tengingar eru aĂ° breytast. Taugafrumurnar hafa lĂka hlutverk ĂŸegar kemur aĂ° fĂkniefnum. ĂvĂ ĂŸegar taugafrumurnar bregĂ°ast viĂ° efnum eins og nikĂłtĂni getur ĂŸaĂ° skapaĂ° minni og ĂŸaĂ° getur leitt til ĂŸess aĂ° heilinn vilji meira af efninu (Fabricius, 2011). Taugafrumur eru bĂșnar til eĂ°a framleiddar ĂĄ fĂłsturstigi og er taugakerfiĂ° myndaĂ° um 18 dögum eftir getnaĂ° (Matthews, 2020).
+
+Kvillar
+ĂaĂ° geta komiĂ° upp sjĂșkdĂłmar Ă taugakerfinu og eru til margar aĂ°ferĂ°ir viĂ° aĂ° rannsaka ĂŸaĂ°. LĂŠknar geta fylgst meĂ° ĂŸvĂ hvernig taugabrautirnar starfa meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° skoĂ°a jafnvĂŠgiĂ° og taugaviĂ°brögĂ°. Einnig er hĂŠgt aĂ° skoĂ°a heilann meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° taka af honum sneiĂ°myndir svo er einnig hĂŠgt aĂ° skoĂ°a sĂșrefnisnotkun og blóðflĂŠĂ°i um heilann til aĂ° rannsaka starfsemi hans (Fabricius, 2011). Ăar sem taugakerfiĂ° er heilinn, mĂŠnan og taugarnar sem stjĂłrna hvernig lĂkaminn starfar ĂŸĂĄ geta taugasjĂșkdĂłmar haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ svo margt. Ăeir geta haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ hreyfigetu einstaklings og talgetu. Einnig getur einstaklingur sem ĂŸjĂĄist af taugasjĂșkdĂłmi ĂĄtt erfitt meĂ° aĂ° kyngja, anda eĂ°a lĂŠra. Ăetta getur lĂka haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ minni, skynfĂŠri og hugarĂĄstand (Neurologic diseases, 2014). Ăeir sjĂșkdĂłmar sem geta komiĂ° upp Ă taugakerfinu eru misalvarlegir en geta til dĂŠmis veriĂ° heiladauĂ°i, heilahimnubĂłlga og flogaveiki en einnig er ĂŸunglyndi taliĂ° koma af ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° sĂ© skortur ĂĄ tilteknum boĂ°efnum Ă heilanum (Fabricius, 2011).
+
+Heimildir
+
+Fabricius, S. H. (2011). MannslĂkaminn. ReykjavĂk: NĂĄmsgagnastofnun.
+
+Matthews, P. (9. April 2020). Human nervous system. SĂłtt af https://www.britannica.com/science/human-nervous-system
+
+Neurologic diseases. (29. September 2014). SĂłtt af https://medlineplus.gov/neurologicdiseases.html
+
+Zimmermann, K. (14. February 2018). Nervous system: Facts, function & diseases. SĂłtt af https://www.livescience.com/22665-nervous-system.html
+
+ĂurĂĂ°ur ĂorbjarnardĂłttir. (28. September 2006). Afhverju svitnar maĂ°ur ĂŸegar maĂ°ur er kvĂĂ°inn eĂ°a stressaĂ°ur. SĂłtt af https://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=6215#
+ĂttaugakerfiĂ° er annar tveggja hluta taugakerfisins, hinn verandi miĂ°taugakerfiĂ°. ĂttaugakerfiĂ° samanstendur af ĂŸeim taugum og taugafrumum sem eru utan viĂ° heila og mĂŠnu og flytja boĂ° til eĂ°a frĂĄ.
+
+Ăttaugakerfinu er skipt Ă tvennt: ViljastĂœrĂ°a taugakerfiĂ° sem lĂfvera stjĂłrnar meĂ° vilja sĂnum og sjĂĄlfvirka taugakerfiĂ° sem sinnir starfsemi lĂffĂŠranna.
+SkynfĂŠri halda tengslum viĂ° ytra umhverfi og innra ĂĄstand.
+
+Ytri skynjarar, exteroceptores, skynja breytingar Ă umhverfinu en innri skynjarar, interoceptores, skynja innvortis breytingar.
+
+Til skynfĂŠra manna teljast meĂ°al annars augu, eyru, bragĂ°laukar, lyktarnemar og snertinemar. Ănnur dĂœr eins og fiskar, skordĂœr og fuglar bĂșa yfir skynfĂŠrum ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° fĂĄlmara, lĂœrunema og veiĂ°ihĂĄr.
+SkynfĂŠri
+
+pt:Sentido
+TĂłmas Lemarquis (fĂŠddur 3. ĂĄgĂșst 1977) er Ăslensk-franskur leikari. Hann ĂștskrifaĂ°ist Ășr LHĂ 2003. Hann er ĂŸekktur fyrir aĂ° leika NĂła, aĂ°alsöguhetjuna Ă kvikmyndinni NĂłi albĂnĂłi og hlutverk Ă kvikmyndinni VilliljĂłs frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2001. Hann lĂ©k Ă myndinni Desember ĂĄsamt Laylow.
+
+TĂłmas hefur leikiĂ° Ă alĂŸjóðlegum myndum og er Blade Runner meĂ° ĂŸeim ĂŸekktari.
+
+Tenglar
+ Listaverk eftir TĂłmas .
+
+Ăslenskir leikarar
+FĂłlk fĂŠtt ĂĄriĂ° 1977
+ListahĂĄskĂłli Ăslands er hĂĄskĂłli ĂĄ sviĂ°i lista og menningar og miĂ°stöð ĂŠĂ°ri listmenntunar ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ă ListahĂĄskĂłla Ăslands eru sjö deildir, en innan ĂŸeirra eru starfrĂŠktar bĂŠĂ°i nĂĄmsbrautir ĂĄ bakkalĂĄrstigi og ĂĄ meistarastigi. ĂĂŠr eru: myndlistardeild, hönnunar- og arkitektĂșrdeild, listkennsludeild, tĂłnlistardeild, sviĂ°slistadeild og kvikmyndadeild. ListahĂĄskĂłlinn var stofnaĂ°ur 21. september 1998. Kennsla hĂłfst haustiĂ° 1999. Rektor er FrĂĂ°a Björk IngvarsdĂłttir.
+
+Tengill
+ www.lhi.is
+
+HĂĄskĂłlar ĂĄ Ăslandi
+Enska (English; ) er vesturgermanskt tungumĂĄl sem ĂĄ rĂŠtur aĂ° rekja til fornlĂĄgĂŸĂœsku og annarra nĂĄskyldra tungumĂĄla Engla og Saxa, sem nĂĄmu fyrstir Germana land ĂĄ Bretlandseyjum, en mĂĄliĂ° hefur orĂ°iĂ° fyrir miklum ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ Ăœmsum öðrum mĂĄlum, ĂŸĂĄ sĂ©r Ă lagi latĂnu, fornnorrĂŠnu, grĂsku, og keltneskum mĂĄlum sem fyrir voru ĂĄ eyjunum.
+
+Enska er töluĂ° vĂĂ°a Ă heiminum, og er opinbert mĂĄl ĂĄ Englandi, Ărlandi, Skotlandi, Wales, NĂœja SjĂĄlandi, ĂstralĂu, SuĂ°ur-AfrĂku, BandarĂkjunum, Kanada og fjölmörgum öðrum löndum.
+
+ĂrĂłunarsögu ensku er skipt Ă ĂŸrjĂș tĂmabil. Elst er fornenska (Old English), sem er einnig kölluĂ° engilsaxneska eftir hinum germönsku Englum og Söxum sem rĂ©Ă°u rĂkjum ĂĄ Englandi frĂĄ 5. öld og fram ĂĄ vĂkingaöld. MiĂ°enska (Middle English) var töluĂ° eftir komu vĂkinga og fram aĂ° ĂŸeim tĂma ĂŸegar prentsmiĂ°jur urĂ°u algengar. Eftir tilkomu prentsmiĂ°janna hefur veriĂ° talaĂ° ĂŸaĂ° mĂĄl sem viĂ° ĂŸekkjum nĂș (nĂștĂmaenska).
+
+Notkun um heiminn
+
+Sökum mikillar ĂștbreiĂ°slu enskunnar og töluverĂ°rar innbyrĂ°is einangrunar mĂŠlenda hennar, hafa orĂ°iĂ° til margar mismunandi mĂĄllĂœskur sem hafa einkennandi raddblĂŠ, framburĂ° og orĂ°aforĂ°a. Til dĂŠmis eru til mörg orĂ° Ă ĂĄstralskri ensku sem enginn Ă Kanada myndi nota Ă daglegu mĂĄli, og öfugt.
+
+Til ĂŸess aĂ° sporna viĂ° ĂŸessari ĂŸrĂłun hĂłf Oxford-hĂĄskĂłli ĂștgĂĄfu Oxford English Dictionary, sem talin er yfirgripsmesta nĂștĂma enska orĂ°abĂłkin. HĂșn var fyrst gefin Ășt ĂĄriĂ° 1884, en hefur sĂĂ°an ĂŸĂĄ veriĂ° stĂŠkkuĂ° mjög til ĂŸess aĂ° nĂĄ yfir allar helstu orĂ°myndir sem koma fyrir Ă mĂĄlinu allt aftur til upphafs nĂștĂmaensku.
+
+Saga
+Enska er vesturgermanskt tungumĂĄl sem ĂĄ upptök sĂn Ă engilfrĂsneskum og lĂĄgsaxneskum mĂĄllĂœskum sem kĂłmu ĂĄ Bretlandseyjar meĂ° germönskum ĂŠttflokkum og rĂłmverskum hermönnum, frĂĄ svĂŠĂ°inu sem er nĂș NorĂ°vestur-ĂĂœskaland, Danmörk og Holland ĂĄ 5. öld. Einn ĂŸessara ĂŠttflokka voru Englar sem voru lĂklega komnir frĂĄ Angeln. AĂ° sögn Bedu prests kĂłmu allir ĂŸeirra til Bretlands og gamla land ĂŸeirra varĂ° yfirgefiĂ°. OrĂ°in England (Ășr Engla land âEnglalandâ) og English/enska (ĂĄ fornensku Englisc) ĂĄ rĂŠtur aĂ° rekja til nafns ĂŸessa ĂŠttflokks.
+
+Engilsaxneska innrĂĄsin Ă Bretland hĂłfst um ariĂ° 449 e.Kr. InnrĂĄsarmenn komu frĂĄ Danmörk og JĂłtlandi. ĂĂ°ur en innrĂĄsin ĂĄ Bretlandi voru innfĂŠddu mennirnir Keltar sem töluĂ°u bretnesku, sem var keltneskt tungumĂĄl. TungumĂĄliĂ° sem talaĂ° var ĂĄ undan normönnskum landvinningum ĂĄriĂ° 1006 hĂ©t fornenska. Upp ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ hĂłfust mikilvĂŠgar breytingar ĂĄ tungumĂĄliĂ°.
+
+Upprunalega var fornenska hĂłpur ĂłlĂkra mĂĄllĂœska sem endurspegluĂ°u engilsaxnesku kĂłnungsrĂkin sem voru til Ă Bretlandi ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma. Ein ĂŸessara mĂĄllĂœska, vestursaxneska, varĂ° sĂș helsta. Ein helstu ĂĄhrif ĂĄ ĂŸrĂłun enskunnar var rĂłmversk-kaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan.
+
+Ă miðöldum hafĂ°i rĂłmversk-kaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan einokun ĂĄ hugverkum Ă breska ĂŸjóðfĂ©laginu, sem hĂșn notaĂ°i til aĂ° hafa ĂĄhrif ĂĄ ensku. KaĂŸĂłlskir munkar skrifuĂ°u eĂ°a afrituĂ°u texta aĂ°allega ĂĄ latnesku sem var ĂŸĂĄ sĂș helsta tungumĂĄl Ă EvrĂłpu. Ăegar munkarnir skrifuĂ°u ĂĄ móðurmĂĄl sitt notuĂ°u ĂŸeir oft orĂ° Ășr frĂĄ latnesku til aĂ° skrĂœa frĂĄ hugtökum sem ĂĄttu ekkert orĂ° ĂĄ ensku. Meginhluti orĂ°aforĂ°a enskunnar ĂĄ rĂŠtur aĂ° rekja til latnesku. TaliĂ° er aĂ° gegnum tĂma notuĂ°u enska menntastĂ©ttin meira og meira orĂ° sem munkarnir tĂłku frĂĄ latnesku. Ăar aĂ° auki hĂ©lt hĂșn ĂĄfram aĂ° draga nĂœ orĂ° Ășr latneksu eftir ĂŸaĂ°.
+
+TvĂŠr bylgjur innrĂĄsar höfĂ°u mikil ĂĄhrif ĂĄ fornensku. FĂłlkiĂ° sem gerĂ°i fyrstu innrasĂna talaĂ°i norrĂŠnt tungumĂĄl, og sigraĂ°i og nam land ĂĄ Bretlandseyjum ĂĄ 8. og 9. öldum. Normannar gerĂ°u aĂ°ra innrĂĄsina ĂĄ 11. öld. Ăeir töluĂ°u normönnsku og ĂŸrĂłuĂ°u enska tegund af ĂŸessu mĂĄli. MeĂ° tĂmanum minnkuĂ°u ĂĄhrif frĂĄ normönnsku vegna frönskutegundarinnar sem töluĂ° var Ă ParĂs. TungumĂĄl Normannana breyttist Ă engilfrönsku. Vegna ĂŸessara innrĂĄsa tveggja varĂ° enska svolĂtiĂ° âblandaĂ°â mĂĄl, en hĂșn var ekki Ă raun blendingsmĂĄl.
+
+Vegna samlĂfis viĂ° NorĂ°menn stĂŠkkaĂ°i magn germanskra orĂ°a Ă fornensku. Auk ĂŸess, viĂ° normönnsku landvinningar, voru fleiri orĂ° tekin frĂĄ rĂłmönskum tungumĂĄlum. Normönnsku ĂĄhrif ĂĄ ensku var aĂ°allega sökum notkunar normönnsku af rĂkisstjĂłrninni. Ăannig var hafiĂ° Ă alvöru aĂ° taka mörg orĂ° frĂĄ öðrum tungumĂĄlum, og orĂ°aforĂ°i enskunnar varĂ° mjög stĂłr.
+
+ViĂ° tilkomu Breska heimsveldsins hĂłfst notkun ensku Ă NorĂ°ur-AmerĂku, Indlandi, AfrĂku, ĂstralĂu og ĂĄ öðrum svĂŠĂ°um. MikilvĂŠgi BandarĂkjanna sem risaveldi hefur lĂka hjĂĄlpaĂ° ĂștĂŸenslu ensku um heiminn.
+
+LandfrĂŠĂ°ileg dreifing
+Um ĂŸaĂ° bil 375 milljĂłnir manns tala ensku sem móðurmĂĄl. TaliĂ° er aĂ° enska sĂ© ĂŸriĂ°ja stĂŠrsta tungumĂĄliĂ° Ă heimi eftir magni mĂĄlhafa, eftir kĂnversku og spĂŠnsku. Hins vegar ĂŸegar talaĂ°ir eru allir sem tala ensku sem móðurmĂĄl og annaĂ° mĂĄl, er enska stĂŠrsta tungumĂĄliĂ° Ă heimi.
+
+Lönd eftir målhafatölu
+
+MĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+Ă ensku eru ekki eins margar beygingar og à öðrum indĂłevrĂłpskum mĂĄlum. Til dĂŠmis Ă nĂștĂmaensku eru ekki mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ileg kyn eĂ°a stigbreytingar lĂœsingarorĂ°a, ĂłlĂkt Ă nĂștĂmaĂŸĂœsku eĂ°a hollensku. Fallendingar Ă ensku eru nĂŠstum ĂŸvĂ horfnar, en eru enn ĂŸĂĄ til Ă fornöfnum. Ă ensku eru til bĂŠĂ°i sterkar (t.d. speak/spoke/spoken) og veikar sagnir sem eiga germanskar rĂŠtur. Afgangar frĂĄ beygingum (til dĂŠmis Ă fleirtölu) geta sĂ©st enn ĂŸĂĄ en eru orĂ°nir reglulegri.
+
+Um leiĂ° er enska orĂ°iĂ° greinandi tungumĂĄl. Oftar er notaĂ° Ă ensku Ăłfullkomnar hjĂĄlparsagnir og orĂ°aröð heldur fallendingar til ĂŸess aĂ° bera merkingar. HjĂĄlparsagnir merkja spurningar, neikvĂŠĂ°ar setningargerĂ°ir, ĂŸolmynd og svo framvegis.
+
+DĂŠmi
+
+Fornenska er töluvert lĂkari Ăslensku en nĂștĂmaensku, eins og sjĂĄ mĂĄ ĂĄ ĂŸessu ljóðbroti Ășr BjĂłlfskviĂ°u frĂĄ 8. öld:
+
+Ăa se ellengĂŠst earfoĂ°lice
+ĂŸrage geĂŸolode, se ĂŸe in ĂŸystrum bad,
+ĂŸĂŠt he dogora gehwam dream gehyrde
+hludne in healle; ĂŸĂŠr wĂŠs hearpan sweg,
+swutol sang scopes. SĂŠgde se ĂŸe cuĂŸe
+frumsceaft fira feorran reccan,
+cwĂŠĂ° ĂŸĂŠt se Ălmihtiga eorĂ°an worhte,
+wlitebeorhtne wang, swa wĂŠter bebugeĂ°,
+gesette sigehreĂŸig sunnan ond monan
+
+Ăr ljóðinu um ĂłvĂŠttinn Grendel
+
+Ăegar ĂŸetta er boriĂ° saman viĂ° nĂœrri ensk verk mĂĄ sjĂĄ hversu hratt enskan fjarlĂŠgist Ăslenskuna:
+
+Ich was in one sumere dale,
+in one suthe diyhele hale,
+iherde ich holde grete tale
+an hule and one niyhtingale.
+
+Ăr âThe Owl and the Nightingaleâ, skrifaĂ° c.a. 1260
+
+Svo eru nĂștĂmaverkin öllu lĂkari ĂŸvĂ sem viĂ° ĂŸekkjum Ă dag. Ăetta dĂŠmi er eftir Jonathan Swift, sem ĂŸekktastur er fyrir aĂ° hafa skrifaĂ° FerĂ°ir GĂșllĂvers ĂĄ 18. öld:
+
+I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least objection.
+
+En ögn eldri dĂŠmi um nĂștĂmaensku koma upp um fortĂĂ° mĂĄlsins, eins og sĂ©st hĂ©r Ă broti Ășr Fönixinum og skjaldbökunni eftir William Shakespeare (c.a. 1586)
+
+Let the bird of lowdest lay,
+On the sole Arabian tree,
+Herauld sad and trumpet be:
+To whose sound, chast wings obay.
+
+But thou, shriking harbinger,
+Foule precurrer of the fiend,
+Augour of the fevers end,
+To this troupe come thou not neere.
+
+Frekari fróðleikur
+ Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable, A History of the English Language, London 2002, ISBN 978-0-13-015166-7.
+ Frederic G. Cassidy, Geographical Variation of English in the United States, in Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach, English as a World Language, Ann Arbor 1982, pp. 177â210, ISBN 978-3-12-533872-2.
+ Fausto Cercignani, Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation. Oxford 1981, ISBN 0-19-811937-2.
+ David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge 2003, ISBN 0-521-53033-4.
+ Manfred Görlach, Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge 1991, ISBN 0-521-32529-3.
+ Christian Mair, Twentieth-century English: History, variation and standardization. Cambridge 2006.
+ Tom McArthur, The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford 1992, ISBN 978-0-19-214183-5.
+ David Northrup, How English Became the Global Language. London 2013, ISBN 978-1-137-30306-6.
+ Peter Roach, English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge 2009.
+ Peter Trudgill and Jean Hannah, International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English, London 2008, ISBN 978-0-340-97161-1.
+ J. C. Wells, Accents of English, I, II, III. Cambridge 1982.
+
+Tenglar
+
+ NĂștĂma enska: EyĂ°iland lĂĄgkĂșru, klisju og klĂĄms; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1992
+
+Erlendir
+ Oxford English Dictionary
+ Re-Romanization of English
+ Yfir 20.000 ensk orð upptekin af einhverjum sem talar ensku sem móðurmål
+ Free Online Dictionary English-Icelandic, orĂ°abĂłk enska <-> Ăslenska
+ Ăegar Ăslendingar fĂłru aĂ° lĂŠra ensku , Steinunn EinarsdĂłttir
+
+Ensk tungumĂĄl
+Taug (frĂŠĂ°iheiti: nervus) er stĂłrt taugasĂmaknippi, sem er hjĂșpaĂ° bandvef. Taug lĂkist sĂmastreng aĂ° ĂŸvĂ leyti aĂ° taugasĂmarnir sjĂĄlfir eru einstakir vĂrar Ă strengnum, og svo eru mĂœliĂ°, frumuslĂĂ°riĂ° og bandvefjahulur einangrun.
+
+TaugakerfiĂ°
+VesturnorrĂŠn mĂĄl eru norrĂŠnu mĂĄlin Ăslenska, fĂŠreyska og norska.
+
+Taka skal fram aĂ° Ăœmsar svĂŠĂ°is- og stĂ©ttarmĂĄllĂœskur Ă Noregi, ĂŸar meĂ° taliĂ° bĂłkmĂĄliĂ° og rĂkismĂĄliĂ° hafa talist bĂŠĂ°i til vestur- og austurnorrĂŠnna mĂĄla. Ă hĂ©ruĂ°unum BohuslĂ€n og Jamtlandi, sem tilheyrt hafa SvĂĂŸjóð sĂĂ°an ĂĄ 17. öld, finnast einnig mĂĄllĂœskur sem nĂĄskyldar eru norsku.
+
+Til vesturnorrĂŠna mĂĄla teljast einnig ĂștdauĂ°u mĂĄlin norn, sem talaĂ° var fram ĂĄ 18. öld nyrst ĂĄ Bretlandseyjum og grĂŠnlandsnorrĂŠna, sem töluĂ° var fram ĂĄ 15. öld Ă byggĂ°um norrĂŠnna manna ĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi.
+
+Tenglar
+ Listi yfir netorĂ°abĂŠkur ĂĄ NorĂ°urlandamĂĄlunum
+
+NorrĂŠn tungumĂĄl
+Norðurlönd
+23. aprĂl er 113. dagur ĂĄrsins (114. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 252 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1014 - BrjĂĄnsbardagi var hĂĄĂ°ur ĂĄ Ărlandi.
+ 1016 - JĂĄtmundur jĂĄrnsĂĂ°a varĂ° konungur Englands eftir lĂĄt föður sĂns AĂ°alrĂĄĂ°s rĂĄĂ°lausa.
+ 1374 - JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 3. Englandskonungur veitti rithöfundinum Geoffrey Chaucer gallĂłn (um 3,8 lĂtra) af vĂni ĂĄ dag ĂŸaĂ° sem hann ĂŠtti eftir ĂłlifaĂ°. SĂĂ°ar var skĂĄldalaununum breytt Ă peningagreiĂ°slu.
+ 1455 - Kalixtus 3. (Alfons de Borja) kjörinn påfi.
+ 1516 - Reinheitsgebot, reglur um hreinleika bjĂłrs, sett Ă BĂŠjaralandi.
+ 1568 - Fyrsta orrusta ĂttatĂu ĂĄra strĂĂ°sins, orrustan viĂ° RĂnardal, ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ°.
+ 1660 - SvĂĂŸjóð og PĂłlland gerĂ°u meĂ° sĂ©r OliwasĂĄttmĂĄlann.
+ 1661 - Karl 2. Englandskonungur var krĂœndur öðru sinni Ă Westminster Abbey.
+ 1889 - Kaupfélag Skagfirðinga var stofnað.
+ 1924 - Thorvald Stauning myndar fyrstu rĂkisstjĂłrn danskra jafnaĂ°armanna.
+ 1927 - Cardiff City sigrar Arsenal Ă Ășrslitum enska bikarsins og verĂ°ur ĂŸar meĂ° eina liĂ°iĂ° utan Englands til aĂ° verĂ°a bikarmeistari.
+ 1935 - NĂœ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ tĂłk gildi Ă PĂłllandi.
+ 1964 - LeikfĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur hĂ©lt upp ĂĄ 400 ĂĄra afmĂŠli Shakespeares meĂ° hĂĄtĂĂ°arsĂœningu ĂĄ RĂłmeĂł og JĂșlĂu.
+ 1961 - Judy Garland kom fram Ă Carnegie Hall.
+ 1968 - Nemendur viĂ° Columbia-hĂĄskĂłla Ă BandarĂkjunum lögĂ°u undir sig skĂłlabyggingar til ĂŸess aĂ° mĂłtmĂŠla VĂetnamstrĂĂ°inu.
+ 1970 - BorĂ°tennisfĂ©lagiĂ° Ărninn var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1972 - HaldiĂ° var upp ĂĄ sjötugsafmĂŠli HalldĂłrs Laxness, hann var Ăștnefndur heiĂ°ursborgari MosfellsbĂŠjar og heiĂ°ursdoktor viĂ° HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands.
+ 1972 - Sporvagnar voru lagðir niður à Kaupmannahöfn.
+ 1976 - Fyrsta hljĂłmplata Ramones kom Ășt Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1983 - AlĂŸingiskosningar 1983: Kvennalistinn fĂ©kk 3 konur kjörnar ĂĄ AlĂŸingi.
+ 1983 - Corinne HermĂšs sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva fyrir LĂșxemborg meĂ° laginu âSi la vie est cadeauâ.
+ 1984 - BandarĂskir vĂsindamenn sögĂ°u frĂĄ uppgötvun AIDS-vĂrussins.
+ 1985 - Coca-Cola Company gaf Ășt nĂœja ĂștgĂĄfu af kĂłka kĂłla undir heitinu New Coke. ViĂ°brögĂ° urĂ°u svo neikvĂŠĂ° aĂ° fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° tĂłk aftur upp gömlu uppskriftina ĂŸremur mĂĄnuĂ°um sĂĂ°ar.
+ 1990 - Neslistinn, fyrsta bĂŠjarmĂĄlafĂ©lag ĂĄ Ăslandi, var stofnaĂ°ur ĂĄ Seltjarnarnesi.
+ 1990 - NamibĂa gerist aĂ°ildarrĂki SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna.
+ 1992 - HalldĂłr Laxness varĂ° nĂrĂŠĂ°ur og af ĂŸvĂ tilefni var farin blysför aĂ° GljĂșfrasteini og efnt til leiksĂœninga.
+ 1993 - StĂŠrstur hluti bĂĄtasafns Ăjóðminjasafns Ăslands brann Ă skemmu viĂ° Vesturvör Ă KĂłpavogi.
+ 1993 - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigĂ°ismĂĄlastofnunin lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir aĂ° berklar vĂŠru orĂ°nir aĂ° heimsvĂĄ.
+ 1993 - YfirgnĂŠfandi meirihluti ĂbĂșa ErĂtreu samĂŸykkti sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ EĂŸĂĂłpĂu Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu.
+ 1997 - Omaria-fjöldamorĂ°in ĂĄttu sĂ©r staĂ° Ă Omaria, litlu ĂŸorpi Ă suĂ°urhluta AlsĂr ĂŸar sem 42 ĂŸorpsbĂșar, konur og börn voru drepin.
+ 1998 - JĂșgĂłslavĂuher veitti sveit Ășr Frelsisher KosĂłvĂł fyrirsĂĄt ĂŸar sem ĂŸeir reyndu aĂ° smygla vopnum frĂĄ AlbanĂu til KosĂłvĂł.
+ 2003 - British Airways og Air France gĂĄfu Ășt yfirlĂœsingu um aĂ° ĂŸau myndu ekki notast viĂ° Concorde-flugvĂ©lar framar.
+ 2005 - Fyrsta myndskeiĂ°iĂ° var sett inn ĂĄ YouTube.
+ 2007 - GlĂłperur voru bannaĂ°ar Ă Kanada.
+ 2008 - MĂłtmĂŠli vörubĂlstjĂłra ĂĄ Ăslandi 2008 hĂ©ldu ĂĄfram. Lögreglan var vopnuĂ° ĂłeirĂ°abĂșnaĂ°i, t.d. mĂșgskjöldum og piparĂșĂ°a og beitti gegn mĂłtmĂŠlendum.
+ 2009 - Jacob Zuma var kjörinn forseti SuĂ°ur-AfrĂku.
+ 2012 - DĂłmur fĂ©ll Ă LandsdĂłmsmĂĄlinu, AlĂŸingi gegn Geir H. Haarde, meĂ° sakfellingu fyrir hluta ĂĄkĂŠruliĂ°a.
+ 2018 - TrukkaĂĄrĂĄsin Ă TorontĂł: 10 lĂ©tust og 16 sĂŠrĂ°ust ĂŸegar 25 ĂĄra gamall maĂ°ur Ăłk trukk ĂĄ hĂłp fĂłlks Ă TorontĂł Ă Kanada.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1121 - JĂłn Ăgmundsson, HĂłlabiskup (f. 1052).
+ 1464 - JĂłhanna af Valois, drottning Frakklands (f. 1505).
+ 1676 - FriĂ°rik 1. SvĂakonungur (d. 1751).
+ 1775 - William Turner, breskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1851).
+ 1791 - James Buchanan, forseti BandarĂkjanna (d. 1868).
+ 1858 - Max Planck, ĂŸĂœskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 1947).
+ 1858 - Pandita Ramabai, indversk barĂĄttukona (d. 1922).
+ 1883 - Clara Pontoppidan, dönsk leikkona (d. 1975).
+ 1891 - Sergej Prokofjev, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1953).
+ 1897 - Lester B. Pearson, kanadĂskur rĂkiserindreki (d. 1972).
+ 1902 - HalldĂłr GuĂ°jĂłnsson (sĂĂ°ar Laxness), rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 1998).
+ 1924 - Margit Sandemo, norskur rithöfundur.
+ 1936 - Roy Orbison, amerĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 1988).
+ 1937 - JĂșlĂus SĂłlnes, Ăslenskur verkfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1943 - Hervé Villechaize, franskur leikari (d. 1993).
+ 1947 - Glenn Cornick, breskur bassaleikari (Jethro Tull).
+ 1958 - Hilmar Ărn Hilmarsson, tĂłnskĂĄld.
+ 1961 - Andrej KĂșrkov, ĂșkraĂnskur rithöfundur.
+ 1961 - Ăröstur LeĂł Gunnarsson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1963 - MagnĂșs Ver MagnĂșsson, kraftlyftingamaĂ°ur.
+ 1963 - Robby Naish, bandarĂskur seglbrettamaĂ°ur.
+ 1967 - Melina Kanakaredes, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1968 - Timothy McVeigh, bandarĂskur hryĂ°juverkamaĂ°ur og fjöldamorĂ°ingi (d. 2001).
+ 1971 - Silja BĂĄra ĂmarsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlafrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1972 - MagnĂșs Orri Schram, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1975 - JĂłn ĂĂłr Birgisson, söngvari Ă hljĂłmsveitinni Sigur RĂłs.
+ 1975 - Christian CorrĂȘa Dionisio, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1979 - Lauri Ylönen, finnskur söngvari (The Rasmus).
+ 1986 - Jessica Stam, sĂŠnsk fyrirsĂŠta.
+ 1990 - ĂĂłrarinn Ingi Valdimarsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1997 - Alex Ferris, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 2018 - LĂșĂ°vĂk prins af Cambridge, breskur prins.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 303 - Heilagur Georg, pĂslarvottur.
+ 871 - AĂ°alrĂĄĂ°ur af Wessex, Englandskonungur.
+ 1014 - Brian Boru (BrjĂĄnn), yfirkonungur Ărlands (f. um 941).
+ 1014 - Sigurður Hlöðvisson, Orkneyjajarl (f. um 960).
+ 1016 - AĂ°alrĂĄĂ°ur rĂĄĂ°lausi, Englandskonungur (f. um 968).
+ 1121 - JĂłn Ăgmundsson helgi HĂłlabiskup (f. um 1052).
+ 1124 - Alexander 1. Skotakonungur (f. 1078).
+ 1151 - Adeliza af Louvain, drottning Englands (f. 1103).
+ 1200 - Zhu Xi, kĂnverskur frĂŠĂ°imaĂ°ur (f. 1130).
+ 1217 - Ingi BĂĄrĂ°arson, Noregskonungur (f. 1185).
+ 1605 - Boris Godunov, RĂșssakeisari (f. um 1550).
+ 1616 - Miguel de Cervantes, spÊnskur rithöfundur (f.1547).
+ 1616 - William Shakespeare, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1564).
+ 1625 - MĂłrits af NassĂĄ, staĂ°arhaldari Ă Hollandi (f. 1567).
+ 1670 - Loreto Vittori, Ătalskur söngvari (f. 1604).
+ 1840 - Sveinn PĂĄlsson, lĂŠknir og nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1762).
+ 1841 - Edmund Fanning, bandarĂskur landkönnuĂ°ur (f. 1769).
+ 1850 - William Wordsworth, breskt ljóðskåld (f. 1770).
+ 1915 - Rupert Brooke, breskt skĂĄld (f. 1887).
+ 1939 - Ăorbergur Ăorleifsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1890).
+ 1951 - Charles G. Dawes, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1865).
+ 1978 - Jacques Rueff, franskur hagfrÊðingur og råðgjafi de Gaulles, hershöfðingja og Frakklandsforseta (f. 1896).
+ 1992 - Satyajit Ray, bengalskur kvikmyndagerĂ°armaĂ°ur (f. 1921).
+ 2007 - Boris JeltsĂn, forseti RĂșsslands (f. 1931).
+ 2008 - Elsa G. VilmundardĂłttir, Ăslenskur jarĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1932).
+ 2013 - MĂșhameĂ° Ămar, leiĂ°togi talĂbana (f. 1960).
+ 2014 - Yozo Aoki, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1929).
+ 2019 - JĂłhann af LĂșxemborg, stĂłrhertogi (f. 1921).
+
+AprĂl
+8. febrĂșar er 39. dagur ĂĄrsins samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 326 dagar (327 ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1570 - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti sem talinn er hafa veriĂ° 8,3 ĂĄ Richter reiĂ° yfir ConcepciĂłn Ă Chile.
+ 1587 - MarĂa StĂșart Skotadrottning var hĂĄlshöggvin Ă Fotheringhay-kastala Ă Englandi fyrir meinta ĂŸĂĄtttöku Ă morĂ°tilrĂŠĂ°i gegn frĂŠnku sinni, ElĂsabetu 1..
+ 1601 - Robert Devereux, jarl af Essex, gerĂ°i misheppnaĂ°a tilraun til uppreisnar gegn ElĂsabetu 1.
+ 1610 - KaĂŸĂłlska bandalagiĂ° Ă ĂĂœskalandi ĂĄkvaĂ° aĂ° koma upp her undir stjĂłrn MaximilĂans af BĂŠjaralandi.
+ 1622 - Jakob 1. leysti breska ĂŸingiĂ° upp.
+ 1666 - Tyrkjasoldån lét handtaka Shabbetaï Zevi.
+ 1692 - LĂŠknir Ă Salem Ă Massachusetts Ă BandarĂkjunum lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir aĂ° ĂŸrjĂĄr tĂĄningsstĂșlkur vĂŠru andsetnar af djöflinum og markaĂ°i ĂŸannig upphaf galdraofsĂłkna Ă ĂŸorpinu.
+ 1696 - ĂveĂ°ur gerĂ°i ĂĄ norĂ°ur- og vesturlandi og urĂ°u fimmtĂĄn manns Ăști. FrĂĄ ĂŸessu segir Ă HestsannĂĄl.
+ 1696 - PĂ©tur mikli varĂ° einn keisari RĂșsslands viĂ° lĂĄt hĂĄlfbróður sĂns, Ăvans 5..
+ 1724 - PĂ©tur mikli RĂșssakeisari gerĂ°i konu sĂna, KatrĂnu, aĂ° meĂ°stjĂłrnanda sĂnum.
+ 1826 - Bernardino Rivadavia varĂ° fyrsti forseti ArgentĂnu.
+ 1861 - SuĂ°urrĂkjasambandiĂ° var stofnaĂ° Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1904 - StrĂĂ° RĂșsslands og Japans hĂłfst.
+ 1924 - Nevada varĂ° fyrsta fylki BandarĂkjanna til aĂ° taka mann af lĂfi meĂ° gasi.
+ 1925 - HalaveĂ°riĂ°. Tveir togarar fĂłrust ĂĄ HalamiĂ°um, Leifur heppni og Robertson. MeĂ° ĂŸeim fĂłrust 68 menn. Einnig fĂłrst vĂ©lbĂĄtur meĂ° sex mönnum. Fimm manns urĂ°u Ăști.
+ 1935 - Enskur togari strandaĂ°i viĂ° Svalvogahamra ĂĄ milli DĂœrafjarĂ°ar og ArnarfjarĂ°ar og fĂłrst ĂĄhöfnin öll, 14 menn.
+ 1943 - SĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöldin: RauĂ°i herinn nĂĄĂ°i borginni KĂșrsk ĂĄ sitt vald.
+ 1949 - Mindszenty kardinĂĄli Ă Ungverjalandi var dĂŠmdur fyrir landrĂĄĂ°.
+ 1959 - NĂœfundnalandsveĂ°riĂ°: Ăslenski togarinn JĂșlĂ fĂłrst ĂĄ NĂœfundnalandsmiĂ°um.
+ 1971 - NASDAQ-hlutabréfamarkaðurinn hóf starfsemi.
+ 1980 - RĂkisstjĂłrn Gunnars Thoroddsen tĂłk viĂ° völdum og sat Ă ĂŸrjĂș ĂĄr.
+ 1984 - VetrarĂłlympĂuleikarnir 1984 hĂłfust Ă SarajevĂł.
+ 1989 - Boeing 707 ĂŸota fĂłrst ĂĄ AsĂłreyjum. 144 lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ°.
+ 1992 - VetrarĂłlympĂuleikarnir voru settir Ă Albertville Ă Frakklandi.
+ 1996 - Docklands-sprengjan sprakk à London og markaði endalok vopnahlés IRA.
+ 1996 - Bill Clinton undirritaĂ°i nĂœ bandarĂsk fjarskiptalög.
+ 2002 - OpnunarhĂĄtĂĂ° VetrarĂłlympĂuleikanna fĂłr fram Ă Salt Lake City.
+ 2005 - Ăsrael og PalestĂna samĂŸykktu vopnahlĂ©.
+ 2005 - KortaĂŸjĂłnustan Google Maps hĂłf göngu sĂna.
+ 2006 - Fuglaflensutilfelli voru staĂ°fest Ă ĂtalĂu, Grikklandi og BĂșlgarĂu.
+ 2007 - PalestĂnsku hreyfingarnar Hamas og Fatah sammĂŠltust um samsteypustjĂłrn.
+ 2007 - BandarĂska fyrirsĂŠtan Anna Nicole Smith fannst lĂĄtin vegna ofneyslu lyfja ĂĄ hĂłtelherbergi Ă Hollywood.
+ 2010 - Geimskutlan Endeavour var send til AlĂŸjóðlegu geimstöðvarinnar.
+ 2012 - Verne Global, fyrsta âgrĂŠnaâ gagnaveriĂ° Ă heiminum, var tekiĂ° Ă notkun ĂĄ ĂsbrĂș. ĂaĂ° var jafnframt fyrsta atvinnuskapandi verkefniĂ° sem fĂłr af staĂ° ĂĄ SuĂ°urnesjum eftir BankahruniĂ°.
+ 2020 â Ăingkosningar fĂłru fram ĂĄ Ărlandi. LĂœĂ°veldisflokkurinn Sinn FĂ©in vann Ă fyrsta sinn flest atkvĂŠĂ°i af öllum flokkum.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 412 - PrĂłklos, grĂskur heimspekingur (d. 485).
+ 1191 - Jaroslav 2. af RĂșsslandi (d. 1246).
+ 1291 - Alfons 4., konungur PortĂșgals (d. 1357).
+ 1591 - Giovanni Francesco Barbieri, Ătalskur mĂĄlari (d. 1666).
+ 1649 - Gabriel Daniel, franskur sagnaritari (d. 1728).
+ 1700 - Daniel Bernoulli, svissneskur eĂ°lis- og stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1782).
+ 1820 - William Tecumseh Sherman, bandarĂskur herforingi (d. 1891).
+ 1828 - Jules Verne, franskur rithöfundur (d. 1905).
+ 1834 - Dmitri Mendelejev, rĂșssneskur efnafrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1907).
+ 1851 - Kate Chopin, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (d. 1904).
+ 1877 - GuĂ°rĂșn JĂłnasson, bĂŠjarfulltrĂși og verslunareigandi (d. 1958).
+ 1883 - Joseph Schumpeter, austurrĂskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1950).
+ 1892 - Ralph Chubb, breskt skĂĄld og listamaĂ°ur (d. 1960).
+ 1898 - Ăorbjörg DĂœrleif ĂrnadĂłttir, hjĂșkrunarfrĂŠĂ°ingur og rithöfundur (d. 1984).
+ 1902 - Georgij Malenkov, sovéskur stjórnmålamaður (d. 1988).
+ 1905 - Preguinho, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 1979).
+ 1911 - Elizabeth Bishop, bandarĂskt ljóðskĂĄld (d. 1979).
+ 1911 - Big Joe Turner, bandarĂskur söngvari (d. 1985).
+ 1915 - Takeshi Kamo, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 2004).
+ 1925 - Jack Lemmon, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2001).
+ 1931 - James Dean, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 1955).
+ 1932 - John Williams, bandarĂskt kvikmyndatĂłnskĂĄld.
+ 1941 - Nick Nolte, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1945 - Kinza Clodumar, forseti NĂĄrĂș.
+ 1955 - John Grisham, bandarĂskur rithöfundur.
+ 1959 - Mauricio Macri, argentĂnskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1961 - Vince Neil, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (Mötley CrĂŒe)
+ 1963 - JĂłhann Hjartarson, Ăslenskur skĂĄkmaĂ°ur.
+ 1966 - Hristo Stoichkov, bĂșlgarskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1974 - Seth Green, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1977 - Dave Farrell, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (Linkin Park).
+ 1977 - Sverre Andreas Jakobsson, Ăslenskur handknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 1977 - Daniel Sanabria, paragvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1979 - Josh Keaton, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1981 - Sebastian PreiĂ, ĂŸĂœskur handknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 1983 - Olga Syahputra, indĂłnesĂskur leikari (d. 2015).
+ 1995 - Hjörtur Hermannsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1995 - Joshua Kimmich, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1296 - PrzemysĆ 2., konungur PĂłllands (f. 1257).
+ 1587 - MarĂa Skotadrottning (f. 1542).
+ 1709 - Giuseppe Torelli, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1658).
+ 1725 - PĂ©tur mikli, RĂșssakeisari (f. 1672).
+ 1743 - JĂłn Ărnason, SkĂĄlholtsbiskup (f. 1665).
+ 1749 - Jan van Huysum, hollenskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1682).
+ 1849 - France PreĆĄeren, slĂłvenskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1800).
+ 1886 - Samuel Kleinschmidt, grĂŠnlenskur trĂșboĂ°i (f. 1814).
+ 1910 - Hans JĂŠger, bandarĂskur rithöfundur og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1854).
+ 1921 - Pjotr Kropotkin, rĂșssneskur anarkisti (f. 1842).
+ 1957 - John von Neumann, ungverskur eĂ°lis- og stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1903).
+ 1960 - John L. Austin, breskur heimspekingur (f. 1911).
+ 1973 - SteinĂŸĂłr GuĂ°mundsson, Ăslenskur kennari og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1890).
+ 1983 - SigurĂ°ur ĂĂłrarinsson, Ăslenskur jarĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1912).
+ 1998 - HalldĂłr Laxness, Ăslenskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (f. 1902).
+ 1999 - Iris Murdoch, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1919).
+ 2001 - Ivo Caprino, norskur kvikmyndagerĂ°armaĂ°ur (f. 1920).
+ 2007 - Anna Nicole Smith, bandarĂsk fyrirsĂŠta (f. 1967).
+ 2017 - Ălöf Nordal, Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄlakona (f. 1966).
+
+FebrĂșar
+UndirstĂșka er hluti af heila sem tilheyrir milliheila. UndirstĂșka liggur undir stĂșku og yfir heiladingli. Kjarnar Ă undirstĂșku stjĂłrna mörgum nauĂ°synlegum störfum Ă lĂkamanum sem flest tengjast samvĂŠgi hans.
+
+Heimild
+22. mars er 81. dagur ĂĄrsins (82. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 284 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 238 - ĂbĂșar rĂłmversku AfrĂku gerĂ°u uppreisn gegn Maximinusi og hinn aldraĂ°i GordĂanus 1. tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti RĂłmarkeisara ĂĄsamt syni sĂnum, GordĂanusi 2.
+ 1604 - Karl hertogi var hylltur sem konungur SvĂĂŸjóðar ĂĄ stĂ©ttaĂŸingi Ă Norrköping Ă kjölfar ĂŸess aĂ° JĂłhann hertogi af Austur-Gautlandi afsalaĂ°i sĂ©r kröfu til krĂșnunnar.
+ 1622 - BlóðbaĂ°iĂ° Ă Jamestown: AlkonkvĂnar drĂĄpu 347 enska landnema Ă Jamestown Ă VirginĂu (ĂŸriĂ°jung allra ĂbĂșa nĂœlendunnar) og brenndu bĂŠinn Henricus til grunna.
+ 1882 - BandarĂkjaĂŸing bannaĂ°i fjölkvĂŠni.
+ 1888 - Enska knattspyrnudeildin var stofnuĂ°.
+ 1895 - Fyrsta kvikmyndasĂœning sögunnar fĂłr fram Ă ParĂs ĂŸegar brĂŠĂ°urnir Auguste og Louis LumiĂšre sĂœndu ĂĄhorfendum Ă fyrsta sinn kvikmynd. SĂœningin var einungis fyrir boĂ°sgesti.
+ 1924 - ĂriĂ°ja rĂkisstjĂłrn JĂłns MagnĂșssonar tĂłk viĂ° völdum og sat Ă rĂșm tvö ĂĄr.
+ 1939 - LĂșĂ°rasveit Vestmannaeyja var stofnuĂ° af Oddgeiri KristjĂĄnssyni.
+ 1945 - ArababandalagiĂ° var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1948 - SkĂĄldsaga HalldĂłrs Laxness AtĂłmstöðin kom Ășt og seldist upp samdĂŠgurs.
+ 1959 - LeikfĂ©lag KĂłpavogs frumsĂœndi leikritiĂ° VeĂ°mĂĄl MĂŠru Lindar Ă leikstjĂłrn Gunnars Hansen Ă FĂ©lagsheimili KĂłpavogs.
+ 1972 - Geirfugladrangur vestur af Eldey hrundi. Hann var ĂĄĂ°ur um tĂu metra hĂĄr, en eftir hruniĂ° kemur hann aĂ°eins upp Ășr um fjöru.
+ 1974 - BandarĂkjaĂŸing samĂŸykkti stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingu sem kvaĂ° ĂĄ um jafnrĂ©tti kynjanna.
+ 1978 - LoftfimleikamaĂ°urinn Karl Wallenda lĂ©st ĂŸegar hann fĂ©ll af lĂnu sem hann gekk ĂĄ ĂĄ milli hĂłtela Ă San Juan, PĂșertĂł RĂkĂł.
+ 1982 - Geimskutlan Columbia hĂ©lt Ă sĂna ĂŸriĂ°ju geimferĂ°.
+ 1986 - Kvikmyndin Eins og skepnan deyr var frumsĂœnd Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1993 - Intel setti fyrsta Pentium-örgjörvann å markað.
+ 1995 - ValerĂj Poljakov sneri aftur til jarĂ°ar eftir aĂ° hafa dvaliĂ° 438 daga Ă geimnum.
+ 1996 - Fyrsti tölvuleikurinn Ă leikjaröðinni Resident Evil kom Ășt Ă Japan.
+ 1996 - Göran Persson varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra SvĂĂŸjóðar.
+ 1997 - Tara Lipinski varð yngsti heimsmeistari sögunnar à listdansi å skautum.
+ 1997 - Ăslenska heimildarmyndin Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr var frumsĂœnd.
+ 2004 - Ahmed Jassin, leiĂ°togi Hamassamtakanna myrtur af Ăsraelska hernum.
+ 2012 - Forseta MalĂ, Amadou Toumani TourĂ©, var steypt af stĂłli.
+ 2016 - 35 lĂ©tust Ă ĂŸremur hryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ flugvellinum Ă Brussel og lestarstöð Ă Maalbeek Ă BelgĂu.
+ 2017 - ĂrĂĄsin Ă Westminster 2017: 52 ĂĄra Breti Ăłk bĂl ĂĄ vegfarendur ĂĄ Westminster-brĂș Ă London og stakk lögreglumann ĂĄĂ°ur en hann var skotinn til bana.
+ 2017 - Orrustan um MĂłsĂșl: Fjöldagröf meĂ° ĂŸĂșsundum fĂłrnarlamba Ăslamska rĂkisins fannst viĂ° borgina.
+ 2022 - RĂșssneski stjĂłrnarandstöðuleiĂ°toginn Aleksej NavalnĂj var dĂŠmdur Ă nĂu ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir svik og vanvirĂ°ingu viĂ° dĂłmstĂłla.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1366 - Thomas de Mowbray, 1. hertogi af Norfolk (d. 1399).
+ 1459 - MaximilĂan 1., keisari hins Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis.
+ 1599 - Antoon van Dyck, flĂŠmskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1641).
+ 1609 - JĂłhann 2. KasimĂr Vasa, konungur PĂłllands (d. 1672).
+ 1797 - VilhjĂĄlmur 1. ĂĂœskalandskeisari (d. 1888).
+ 1847 - MagnĂșs ĂĂłrarinsson, Ăslenskur tĂłvinnumaĂ°ur (d. 1917).
+ 1857 - Paul Doumer, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1932).
+ 1869 - Emilio Aguinaldo, forseti Filippseyja (d. 1964).
+ 1886 - August Rei, eistneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1963).
+ 1887 - Chico Marx, bandarĂskur gamanleikari (d. 1961).
+ 1929 - Yayoi Kusama, japonsk myndlistarkona.
+ 1930 - Stephen Sondheim, bandariskt tonskald (d. 2021).
+ 1930 - EyĂŸĂłr ĂorlĂĄksson, Ăslenskur gĂtarleikari (d. 2018).
+ 1931 - William Shatner, kanadĂskur leikari.
+ 1937 - JĂșlĂus SĂłlnes, Ăslenskur rĂĄĂ°herra, alĂŸingismaĂ°ur og prĂłfessor.
+ 1941 - Bruno Ganz, svissneskur leikari.
+ 1948 - Andrew Lloyd Webber, breskt tĂłnskĂĄld.
+ 1957 - MagnĂșs Tumi MagnĂșsson, Ăslenskur myndlistamaĂ°ur.
+ 1968 - Kazuya Maekawa, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1976 - Reese Witherspoon, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1977 - Owusu Benson, ganverskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1978 - Björn Lind, sĂŠnskur skĂĂ°agöngumaĂ°ur.
+ 1978 - Rökkvi VĂ©steinsson, Ăslenskur uppistandari.
+ 1981 - Rakel LogadĂłttir, Ăslensk knattspyrnukona.
+ 1999 - BrĂet, Ăslensk tĂłnlistarkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 752 - SakarĂas pĂĄfi.
+ 1421 - TĂłmas af Lancaster, hertogi af Clarence, nĂŠstelsti sonur Hinriks 4. Englandskonungs (f. 1388).
+ 1471 - PĂĄll II pĂĄfi, (f. 1418).
+ 1602 - Agostino Carracci, Ătalskur listmĂĄlari og prentmyndasmiĂ°ur (f. 1557).
+ 1685 - Go-Sai, Japanskeisari (f. 1638).
+ 1687 - Jean-Baptiste Lully, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1632).
+ 1832 - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, ĂŸĂœskt skĂĄld (f. 1749).
+ 1917 - ĂĂłra PĂ©tursdĂłttir, Ăslensk myndlistarkona (f. 1847).
+ 1958 - Mike Todd, kvikmyndaframleiĂ°andi og ĂŸriĂ°ji eiginmaĂ°ur ElĂsabetar Taylor fĂłrst Ă flugslysi.
+ 1998 - Shoichi Nishimura, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1911).
+ 1999 - Ăorleifur Einarsson, Ăslenskur jarĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1931).
+ 2004 - Ahmed Yassin, leiĂ°togi Hamas.
+
+Mars
+ArababandalagiĂ° (ۏۧÙ
ŰčŰ© ۧÙŰŻÙÙ Ű§ÙŰč۱ۚÙŰ© ĂĄ arabĂsku), er bandalag ArabarĂkja. ĂaĂ° var stofnaĂ° 22. mars 1945 af sjö rĂkjum, Egyptalandi, Ărak, Jemen, JĂłrdanĂu, LĂbanon, SĂĄdi-ArabĂu og SĂœrlandi, til aĂ° efla samvinnu ArabarĂkja. StjĂłrnarskrĂĄ ĂŸess bannar aĂ°ildarrĂkjum aĂ° beita hvert annaĂ° hervaldi.
+
+AĂ°almarkmiĂ° ĂŸess er:
+
+âAĂ° ĂŸjĂłna sameiginlegum hagsmunum allra ArabarĂkja, bĂŠta kjör allra ArabarĂkja, tryggja framtĂĂ° allra ArabarĂkja og aĂ° uppfylla ĂŸarfir og vĂŠntingar allra ArabarĂkja.â
+
+AĂ°ildarrĂki
+ AlsĂr
+ Barein
+ DjĂbĂștĂ
+ Ărak
+ Katar
+ KĂłmoreyjar
+ KĂșveit
+ LĂbĂa
+ MarokkĂł
+ MĂĄritanĂa
+ Ăman
+ PalestĂnurĂki
+ SameinuĂ°u arabĂsku furstadĂŠmin
+ SĂłmalĂa
+ SĂșdan
+ SĂœrland
+ TĂșnis
+VigdĂs FinnbogadĂłttir (fĂŠdd 15. aprĂl 1930) var fjĂłrĂ°i forseti Ăslands og gegndi hĂșn embĂŠttinu frĂĄ 1980 til 1996. HĂșn var fyrsta konan i heiminum sem kosin var Ă lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°islegum kosningum til aĂ° gegna hlutverki ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingja.
+
+Fjölskylda
+VigdĂs fĂŠddist Ă Tjarnargötu 14 Ă ReykjavĂk og Ăłlst ĂŸar upp fyrstu ĂĄrin. Ăegar hĂșn var fjögurra ĂĄra fluttist fjölskyldan aĂ° Ăsvallagötu 79 Ă VesturbĂŠ ReykjavĂkur. Ă sumrin var VigdĂs Ă sveit Ă Eystra-Geldingaholti Ă GnĂșpverjahreppi Ă ĂrnessĂœslu.
+
+Foreldrar VigdĂsar voru hjĂłnin Finnbogi RĂștur Ăorvaldsson (1891-1973) prĂłfessor Ă verkfrĂŠĂ°i viĂ° HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands og SigrĂĂ°ur EirĂksdĂłttir (1894-1986) hjĂșkrunarfrĂŠĂ°ingur og formaĂ°ur HjĂșkrunarfĂ©lags Ăslands. VigdĂs ĂĄtti einn bróður, Ăorvald Finnbogason stĂșdent en hann lĂ©st af slysförum ĂĄriĂ° 1952, aĂ°eins tvĂtugur aĂ° aldri.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1954 giftist VigdĂs Ragnari Arinbjarnar lĂŠkni en ĂŸau skildu sjö ĂĄrum sĂĂ°ar. ĂriĂ° 1972 varĂ° VigdĂs fyrst einhleypra kvenna ĂĄ Ăslandi til aĂ° ĂŠttleiĂ°a barn, er hĂșn ĂŠttleiddi dĂłttur sĂna ĂstrĂĂ°i MagnĂșsdĂłttur (f. 1972).
+
+Menntun
+VigdĂs gekk Ă LandakotsskĂłla og GagnfrĂŠĂ°askĂłla VesturbĂŠjar. HĂșn lauk stĂșdentsprĂłfi frĂĄ MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄriĂ° 1949 og stundaĂ°i nĂĄm Ă frönsku og frönskum bĂłkmenntum meĂ° leikbĂłkmenntir sem sĂ©rsviĂ° viĂ° hĂĄskĂłlana Ă Grenoble og Sorbonne Ă ParĂs Ă Frakklandi ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1949-1953. Einnig stundaĂ°i hĂșn nĂĄm Ă leiklistarsögu Ă Danmörku og SvĂĂŸjóð um nokkurra ĂĄra skeiĂ°. HĂșn lauk BA-prĂłfi Ă frönsku og ensku viĂ° HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands ĂĄriĂ° 1968 og einnig nĂĄmi Ă uppeldis- og kennslufrĂŠĂ°i.
+
+Starfsferill fram að forsetakjöri
+VigdĂs starfaĂ°i sem ritstjĂłri leikskrĂĄr og blaĂ°afulltrĂși ĂjóðleikhĂșssins 1954-57, var frönskukennari viĂ° MenntaskĂłlann Ă ReykjavĂk og MenntaskĂłlann viĂ° HamrahlĂĂ° ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1962-1972. HĂșn sĂĄ um frönskukennslu Ă sjĂłnvarpinu frĂĄ 1970-1971, kenndi franskar leikbĂłkmenntir viĂ° HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands 1972-1980 og var leikhĂșsstjĂłri LeikfĂ©lags ReykjavĂkur sem ĂŸĂĄ var til hĂșsa Ă IĂ°nĂł, frĂĄ 1972-1980. VigdĂs var forseti Alliance française ĂĄ Ăslandi frĂĄ 1975-1976 og sat Ă stjĂłrn ListahĂĄtĂĂ°ar Ă ReykjavĂk 1976-1978. VigdĂs var einn af stofnendum leikhĂłpsins GrĂmu ĂĄriĂ° 1961 og ĂŸĂœddi einnig fjölda leikrita.
+
+SamhliĂ°a ĂŸessum störfum vann VigdĂs um ĂĄrabil sem leiĂ°sögumaĂ°ur hjĂĄ FerĂ°askrifstofu rĂkisins og hafĂ°i ĂŸar umsjĂłn meĂ° skipulagningu menningartengdrar ferĂ°aĂŸjĂłnustu auk umsjĂłnar meĂ° nĂĄmskeiĂ°um fyrir verĂ°andi leiĂ°sögumenn.
+
+ForsetaframboĂ°
+
+Ă ĂĄramĂłtaĂĄvarpi sĂnu ĂĄ nĂœĂĄrsdag ĂĄriĂ° 1980 tilkynnti KristjĂĄn EldjĂĄrn forseti Ăslands aĂ° hann hyggĂ°ist ekki gefa kost ĂĄ sĂ©r ĂĄfram. Ă kjölfariĂ° fĂłr fram umrĂŠĂ°a um mögulegan eftirmann KristjĂĄns og meĂ°al ĂŸeirra sem nefnd voru var VigdĂs FinnbogadĂłttir sem ĂŸĂĄ gegndi starfi leikhĂșsstjĂłra LeikfĂ©lags ReykjavĂkur en VigdĂs varĂ° ĂŸjĂłĂ°ĂŸekkt nokkrum ĂĄrum fyrr er hĂșn annaĂ°ist frönskukennslu Ă SjĂłnvarpinu.
+
+Nafn VigdĂsar var fyrst nefnt opinberlega Ă lesendabrĂ©fi frĂĄ Laufeyju JakobsdĂłttur sem birtist Ă DagblaĂ°inu 15. janĂșar 1980. Ă fyrstu var VigdĂs ekki ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° gefa kost ĂĄ sĂ©r en lĂ©t aĂ° lokum tilleiĂ°ast eftir hvatningu Ășr Ăœmsum ĂĄttum. VigdĂs tilkynnti framboĂ° sitt ĂŸann 1. febrĂșar 1980 og varĂ° ĂŸar meĂ° fyrsta konan til aĂ° gefa kost ĂĄ sĂ©r til embĂŠttis forseta Ăslands. Segja mĂĄ aĂ° framboĂ° VigdĂsar megi aĂ° nokkru leyti rekja til kvennafrĂdagsins 24. oktĂłber 1975 en dagurinn markaĂ°i ĂŸĂĄttaskil Ă Ăslenskri kvennabarĂĄttu en fjöldi kvenna lagĂ°i niĂ°ur störf ĂŸennan dag til aĂ° vekja athygli ĂĄ mikilvĂŠgi vinnuframlags kvenna bĂŠĂ°i innan og utan heimilis. Ăhrif kvennafrĂdagsins sĂĄust vĂĂ°a Ă ĂŸjóðfĂ©laginu og Ă fjölda fyrirtĂŠkja og stofnana lĂĄ starfsemi niĂ°ri. Mikil vitundarvakning varĂ° ĂĄ meĂ°al kvenna Ă kjölfar dagsins og blĂ©s hann ĂŸeim barĂĄttuanda Ă brjĂłst.
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+VigdĂs hefur sagt Ă viĂ°tölum aĂ° markmiĂ° meĂ° framboĂ°inu hafi ekki endilega veriĂ° aĂ° nĂĄ kjöri heldur hafi hĂșn fyrst og fremst vilja sĂœna fram ĂĄ aĂ° kona ĂŠtti erindi Ă forsetaframboĂ° ekki sĂĂ°ur en karl.
+
+KosningabarĂĄttan
+ĂrĂr frambjóðendur voru Ă kjöri auk VigdĂsar en ĂŸaĂ° voru ĂŸeir Albert GuĂ°mundsson alĂŸingismaĂ°ur, GuĂ°laugur Ăorvaldsson rĂkissĂĄttasemjari og PĂ©tur J. Thorsteinsson sendiherra. FljĂłtlega varĂ° ljĂłst aĂ° barĂĄttan stóð einkum milli VigdĂsar og GuĂ°laugs.
+
+KosningabarĂĄttan ĂŸĂłtti nokkuĂ° hörĂ° og mĂŠtti VigdĂs annars konar viĂ°mĂłti heldur en meĂ°frambjóðendur hennar. KynferĂ°i hennar og sĂș staĂ°reynd aĂ° hĂșn var einhleyp og einstĂŠĂ° móðir var tĂĂ°rĂŠtt umtalsefni. VigdĂs ĂŸurfti einnig aĂ° ĂŸola Ăœmsar nĂŠrgöngular spurningar, m.a. um brjĂłstakrabbamein sem hĂșn hafĂ°i greinst meĂ° nokkrum ĂĄrum fyrr. Ă framboĂ°sfundi var hĂșn t.d. spurĂ° aĂ° ĂŸvĂ hvort ĂŸaĂ° myndi hĂĄ henni Ă embĂŠtti aĂ° vera aĂ°eins meĂ° eitt brjĂłst. VigdĂs ĂŸĂłtti svara vel fyrir sig er hĂșn sagĂ°i: âĂŸaĂ° stóð nĂș aldrei til aĂ° hafa ĂŸjóðina ĂĄ brjĂłsti.â
+
+VigdĂsi var einnig legiĂ° ĂĄ hĂĄlsi fyrir aĂ° vera heldur vinstri sinnuĂ° og sumir höfĂ°u ĂĄhyggjur af ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸĂĄtttaka hennar Ă starfi Samtaka herstöðvarandstĂŠĂ°inga ĂĄ ĂĄrum ĂĄĂ°ur myndi lita störf hennar Ă embĂŠtti forseta Ăslands og jafnvel tefla varnarsamningi Ăslands og BandarĂkjanna Ă tvĂsĂœnu.
+
+Svo fĂłr aĂ° ĂŸann 29. jĂșnĂ 1980 var VigdĂs FinnbogadĂłttir kjörin forseti Ăslands, fyrst kvenna Ă heiminum sem kjörin var ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingi Ă lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°islegum kosningum. VigdĂs hlaut 33,8% atkvĂŠĂ°a en sĂĄ frambjóðandi sem nĂŠstur kom, GuĂ°laugur Ăorvaldsson hlaut 32,3% og ĂŸvĂ munaĂ°i aĂ°eins einu og hĂĄlfu prĂłsentustigi ĂĄ frambjóðendunum tveimur. Kjör VigdĂsar vakti mikla athygli erlendis og greindu margir helstu fjölmiĂ°lar heimsins frĂĄ kosningu hennar og ĂŸeirri staĂ°reynd aĂ° kona hafĂ°i veriĂ° kjörin forseti Ă fyrsta sinn Ă lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°islegum kosningum. VigdĂs var endurkjörin ĂĄn atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu 1984 og 1992 en ĂĄriĂ° 1988 hlaut hĂșn mĂłtframboĂ° frĂĄ SigrĂșnu ĂorsteinsdĂłttur hĂșsmóður Ă Vestmannaeyjum en ĂŸaĂ° var Ă fyrsta sinn sem sitjandi forseti Ăslands fĂ©kk mĂłtframboĂ°. VigdĂs sigraĂ°i meĂ° fĂĄheyrĂ°um yfirburĂ°um og hlaut 92,7% atkvĂŠĂ°a.
+
+ForsetatĂĂ°
+
+VigdĂs lagĂ°i ĂĄherslu ĂĄ aĂ° vera ĂłpĂłlitĂskur forseti og forĂ°aĂ°ist aĂ° blanda sĂ©r Ă deilumĂĄl ĂĄ vettvangi stjĂłrnmĂĄlanna. Ă rĂŠĂ°um og ĂĄvörpum lagĂ°i hĂșn ĂĄherslu ĂĄ ĂŸau gildi sem sameina fĂłlk og segja mĂĄ aĂ° einkunnarorĂ° hennar Ă embĂŠtti hafi veriĂ° upphafsorĂ°in Ă ljóði Snorra Hjartarsonar, Land, ĂŸjóð og tunga og helstu hugĂ°arefni hennar hafi endurspeglast Ă ĂŸeim kjörorĂ°um. SkĂłgrĂŠkt og landgrĂŠĂ°sla voru VigdĂsi ofarlega Ă huga og hĂșn var ötull talsmaĂ°ur landrĂŠktar. Ă ferĂ°um sĂnum um landiĂ° fĂ©kk hĂșn börn og unglinga gjarnan til liĂ°s viĂ° sig Ă gróðursetningu. Unga kynslóðin var henni hugleikin og Ă rĂŠĂ°um minnti hĂșn oft ĂĄ mikilvĂŠgi ĂŸess aĂ° hlĂș aĂ° ĂŠskunni og hvatti ĂŸĂĄ sem eldri eru til aĂ° vera góðar fyrirmyndir. SĂĂ°ast en ekki sĂst lagĂ°i hĂșn ĂĄherslu ĂĄ mikilvĂŠgi ĂŸess aĂ° standa vörĂ° um Ăslenska tungu.
+
+Ă forsetatĂĂ° VigdĂsar varĂ° sĂș breyting ĂĄ embĂŠttinu aĂ° starfsvettvangur forseta Ăslands varĂ° ekki nĂĄnast eingöngu innanlands eins og veriĂ° hafĂ°i, heldur ferĂ°aĂ°ist VigdĂs Ă mun meira mĂŠli Ășt fyrir landsteinana en forverar hennar. Henni var boĂ°iĂ° Ă heimsĂłknir vĂĂ°a erlendis og hĂșn lagĂ°i kapp ĂĄ aĂ° nĂœta athyglina sem kjör hennar vakti Ă ĂŸĂĄgu lands og ĂŸjóðar. Ă opinberum erindagjörĂ°um VigdĂsar erlendis voru gjarnan skipulagĂ°ir viĂ°burĂ°ir ĂŸar sem Ăslensk framleiĂ°sla var kynnt, listafĂłlk var gjarnan meĂ° Ă för og Ăslenskir matreiĂ°slumenn sem matreiddu Ășr Ăslensku hrĂĄefni. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma var umfjöllun um Ăsland Ă erlendum frĂ©ttamiĂ°lum af skornum skammti og ĂŸekking umheimsins ĂĄ landi og ĂŸjóð takmörkuĂ°, en kosning VigdĂsar varpaĂ°i nĂœju ljĂłsi ĂĄ land og ĂŸjóð. RĂșmum 20 ĂĄrum eftir aĂ° VigdĂs lĂ©t af embĂŠtti hlaut hĂșn heiĂ°ursverĂ°laun ĂștflutningsverĂ°launa forseta Ăslands fyrir stuĂ°ning sinn viĂ° Ăslenskan Ăștflutning og framleiĂ°slu, meĂ° ĂŸeim orĂ°um aĂ° âĂŸaĂ° hefĂ°i veriĂ° mikiĂ° lĂĄn fyrir Ăslenskan Ăștflutning aĂ° njĂłta atbeina hennar.â
+
+ErfiĂ°asta ĂĄriĂ° ĂĄ embĂŠttisferli VigdĂsar var ĂĄriĂ° 1995 ĂŸegar snjĂłflóð fĂ©llu ĂĄ SĂșĂ°avĂk og ĂĄ Flateyri meĂ° 9 mĂĄnaĂ°a millibili meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 34 lĂ©tust. VigdĂs ĂŸĂłtti sĂœna af sĂ©r mikla manngĂŠsku ĂĄ ĂŸeim minningarathöfnum sem haldnar voru um ĂŸĂĄ sem lĂ©tust. Ăar sĂœndi hĂșn ĂŸeim sem misst höfĂ°u ĂĄstvini samĂșĂ° og hvatti Ăslensku ĂŸjóðina til ĂŸess aĂ° sĂœna samstöðu meĂ° VestfirĂ°ingum ĂĄ ĂŸessum erfiĂ°u tĂmum.
+
+ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸann ĂĄsetning VigdĂsar um aĂ° blanda sĂ©r ekki Ă pĂłlitĂsk deilumĂĄl ĂĄ forsetastĂłli, varĂ° aĂ°koma hennar aĂ° tveimur mĂĄlum nokkuĂ° umdeild. AnnaĂ° tengist lagasetningu sem batt enda ĂĄ verkfall flugfreyja ĂĄ kvennafrĂdaginn ĂĄriĂ° 1985 og hins vegar staĂ°festingu hennar ĂĄ lögum um aĂ°ild Ăslands aĂ° EES-samningnum ĂĄriĂ° 1993.
+
+AĂ° lokinni forsetatĂĂ°
+Eftir aĂ° VigdĂs lĂ©t af embĂŠtti forseta Ăslands hefur hĂșn unniĂ° aĂ° Ăœmsum mĂĄlum, einkum tengdum menningu, tungumĂĄlum og umhverfisvernd. HĂșn er velgjörĂ°arsendiherra UNESCO (MenningarmĂĄlastofnunnar SameinuĂ°u Ăjóðanna) og ĂĄriĂ° 1997 var hĂșn ein af stofnendum HeimsrĂĄĂ°s kvenleiĂ°toga Council of Women World Leaders og var fyrsti formaĂ°ur ĂŸess. RĂĄĂ°iĂ° hafĂ°i aĂ°setur viĂ° John F. Kennedy School of Government viĂ° Harvard-hĂĄskĂłla Ă BandarĂkjunum. Ă heimsrĂĄĂ°inu sitja starfandi og fyrrverandi forsetar og forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herrar Ășr röðum kvenna. FrĂĄ 2001 hefur rannsĂłknarstofnun HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands Ă erlendum tungumĂĄlum veriĂ° kennd viĂ° VigdĂsi, (Stofnun VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur Ă erlendum tungumĂĄlum) og ĂĄriĂ° 2017 var nĂœtt hĂșsnĂŠĂ°i stofnunarinnar viĂ° BrynjĂłlfsgötu Ă ReykjavĂk vĂgt en hĂșsiĂ° ber heitiĂ° Veröld - hĂșs VigdĂsar.
+
+UmhverfismĂĄl og nĂĄttĂșruvernd hafa veriĂ° VigdĂsi hugleikin og hĂșn hefur viĂ° Ăœmis tĂŠkifĂŠri veitt liĂ°sinni sitt ĂĄ vettvangi umhverfismĂĄla. VigdĂs hefur einnig tekiĂ° ĂŸĂĄtt Ă starfi StjĂłrnarskrĂĄrfĂ©lagsins og hefur hĂșn m.a. lĂœst stuĂ°ningi sĂnum viĂ° tillögu StjĂłrnlagarĂĄĂ°s til nĂœrrar stjĂłrnarskrĂĄr.
+
+VigdĂs hefur Ă gegnum tĂĂ°ina hlotiĂ° fjölmargar viĂ°urkenningar fyrir störf sĂn. HĂșn var sĂŠmd stĂłrkrossi Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorĂ°u fyrir störf Ă ĂŸĂĄgu Ăslensku ĂŸjóðarinnar ĂĄriĂ° 1996 og hĂșn hefur hlotiĂ° heiĂ°ursdoktorsnafnbĂŠtur viĂ° HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands og HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri og viĂ° tuttugu erlenda hĂĄskĂłla. Ă 80 ĂĄra afmĂŠli sĂnu ĂĄriĂ° 2010 var VigdĂs gerĂ° aĂ° heiĂ°ursborgara ReykjavĂkur.
+
+2014-2015 var sett upp sĂœningin âErtu tilbĂșin frĂș forseti?â Ă Hönnunarsafni Ăslands Ă GarĂ°abĂŠ. Ă sĂœningunni var sĂœndur fatnaĂ°ur og fylgihlutir Ășr eigu VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur.
+
+Tenglar
+
+ Stofnun VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur Ă erlendum tungumĂĄlum
+ Forsetar Ăslands
+ Leiðsögumaður er spegill landsins; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1969
+ Tilvitnanir og fleyg orĂ°
+
+BĂŠkur um VigdĂsi FinnbogadĂłttur
+
+1980 - Forsetakjör 1980 eftir Guðjón Friðriksson sagnfrÊðing.
+1988 - Ein ĂĄ forsetavakt: dagar Ă lĂfi VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur eftir Steinunni SigurĂ°ardĂłttur.
+2009 - Kona verĂ°ur forseti, ĂŠvisaga VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur rituĂ° af PĂĄli Valssyni.
+2019 - VigdĂs: BĂłkin um fyrsta konuforsetann eftir RĂĄn Flygenring.
+
+ViĂ°töl viĂ° VigdĂsi FinnbogadĂłttur
+
+HĂ©r er saga Ă hverju herbergi, viĂ°tal viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă VĂsi, 25. febrĂșar 1981.
+AĂ° taka afstöðu til nĂœrra tĂma, viĂ°tal Ărna SnĂŠvarr viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă DV, 25. ĂĄgĂșst 1984.
+ViĂ° megum aldrei gleyma JĂłni SigurĂ°ssyni, viĂ°tal viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă Ăskunni, 5-6. tbl. 1984.
+Ăg hlakka til ĂŸess dags..., viĂ°tal Rannveigar JĂłnsdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă tĂmaritinu 19. jĂșnĂ, 1. tbl. 1987.
+AĂ° eiga fjalliĂ° sitt, viĂ°tal JĂłhönnu KristjĂłnsdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu, 12. aprĂl 1990.
+Megum aldrei lĂĄta vonleysi nĂĄ tökum ĂĄ okkur. ViĂ°tal viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă DV, 31. jĂșlĂ 1992
+SjĂĄlfstraustiĂ° kemur meĂ° frelsinu. ViĂ°tal ElĂnar PĂĄlmadĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsĂ Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu, 17. jĂșnĂ 1994.
+SiĂ°ferĂ°ileg ĂĄlitamĂĄl eru mĂ©r hugleikin. ViĂ°tal Ragnhildar SverrisdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu, 18. janĂșar 1998.
+Met einfaldleikann og hiĂ° lĂĄtlausa mest..., viĂ°tal SigrĂĂ°ar ArnardĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă Vikunni, 1. tbl. 1998.
+Gengur of hĂŠgt Ă jafnrĂ©ttismĂĄlum, viĂ°tal Erlu Huldu HalldĂłrsdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă Veru, 2. tbl. 2001.
+Ăg er ĂĄgĂŠt aĂ° draga hlöss, viĂ°tal viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă StĂșdentablaĂ°inu, 6. tbl. 2001.
+Konur eru gullnĂĄma heimsins, viĂ°tal SĂșsunnu SvavarsdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu, 1. febrĂșar 2004.
+Ein af oss - en einstök ĂŸĂł, viĂ°tal GuĂ°rĂșnar GuĂ°laugsdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu, 15. aprĂl 2005.
+TungumĂĄl eru lykillinn aĂ° heiminum, viĂ°tal Ragnhildar SverrisdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 14. ĂĄgĂșst 2005.
+LĂfsgĂŠĂ°akapphlaupiĂ° er ĂĄkaflega smitandi, viĂ°tal ĂorgrĂms ĂrĂĄinssonar viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă HeilbrigĂ°ismĂĄl, tĂmariti KrabbameinsfĂ©lags Ăslands, 1. tbl. 2005.
+HrĂŠrĂ° yfir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸetta starf mitt skuli ekki vera gleymt, viĂ°tal viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu, 17. jĂșnĂ 2006.
+Ăetta getur komiĂ° fyrir allar stelpur, viĂ°tal Bergsteins SigurĂ°ssonar viĂ° VigdĂsi og PĂĄl Valsson Ă FrĂ©ttablaĂ°inu, 21. nĂłvember 2009.
+Ekki benda mĂ©r ĂĄ helga steininn, viĂ°tal SigrĂĂ°ar Bjargar TĂłmasdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă FrĂ©ttablaĂ°inu, 10. aprĂl 2010.
+Konur munu verĂ°a bjargvĂŠttar heimsins, viĂ°tal KolbrĂșnar BergĂŸĂłrsdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 15. aprĂl 2010.
+TrĂșir ĂĄ fegurĂ°ina og hiĂ° góða orĂ°, viĂ°tal viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă tĂmaritinu 19. jĂșnĂ, 1. tbl. 2010.
+ForrĂ©ttindi aĂ° fĂŠĂ°ast ĂĄ Ăslandi, viĂ°tal viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă Monitor, fylgiriti MorgunblaĂ°sins, 22. mars 2012
+Madame President, viĂ°tal viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă ReykjavĂk Grapevine, 3. tbl. 2014.
+SannaĂ°i aĂ° konur eru lĂka menn, viĂ°tal Höllu HarĂ°ardĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă FrĂ©ttatĂmanum, 19. jĂșnĂ 2015.
+JafnrĂ©tti er mannrĂ©ttindi, viĂ°tal Brynhildar BjörnsdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă FrjĂĄlsri verslun, 5. tbl. 2015.
+Ăg er ĂĄ mjög góðum jĂĄrnum, viĂ°tal Bjarkar EiĂ°sdĂłttur viĂ° VigdĂsi Ă FrĂ©ttablaĂ°inu, 11. aprĂl 2020.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Forsetar Ăslands
+Frambjóðendur til embĂŠttis forseta Ăslands
+Handhafar stĂłrkross Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorĂ°u
+KvenrĂ©ttindi ĂĄ Ăslandi
+StĂșdentar Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk
+Ăslenskir leikhĂșsstjĂłrar
+23. mars er 82. dagur ĂĄrsins (83. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 283 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 752 - StefĂĄn 2. varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1281 - Marteinn 4. (Simone de Brion) varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1568 - VopnahlĂ© var gert Ă Frönsku trĂșarbragĂ°astyrjöldunum. Karl 9. Frakkakonungur og KatrĂn af Medici veittu hĂșgenottum umtalsverĂ° rĂ©ttindi.
+ 1816 - BĂŠndaĂĄnauĂ° var afnumin Ă Eistlandi.
+ 1903 - Wright-brÊður sóttu um einkaleyfi å hönnun sinni å flugvél.
+ 1919 - Benito Mussolini stofnaĂ°i fasistaflokkinn Ă MĂlanĂł.
+ 1933 - Adolf Hitler varĂ° kanslari ĂĂœskalands.
+ 1937 - Sundhöllin Ă ReykjavĂk var vĂgĂ°.
+ 1943 - KeflavĂkurflugvöllur var tekinn Ă notkun af BandarĂkjaher.
+ 1948 - Danska ĂŸingiĂ° samĂŸykkti HeimastjĂłrnarlögin sem fĂŠrĂ°u FĂŠreyingum völd yfir eigin mĂĄlum.
+ 1956 - Pakistan varĂ° fyrsta Ăslamska lĂœĂ°veldiĂ°.
+ 1960 - Söngsveitin FĂlharmĂłnĂa kom fram opinberlega Ă fyrsta sinn Ă uppfĂŠrslu ĂjóðleikhĂșssins ĂĄ Carmina Burana eftir Carl Orff.
+ 1965 - Geimfararnir Virgil I. âGusâ Grissom og John Young fĂłru Ășt Ă geiminn Ă fyrsta tveggja manna bandarĂska geimfarinu Gemini 3.
+ 1970 - ĂrĂr ĂŸjóðkunnir leikarar hĂ©ldu upp ĂĄ 25 ĂĄra leikafmĂŠli: Baldvin HalldĂłrsson, Gunnar EyjĂłlfsson og RĂłbert Arnfinnsson.
+ 1983 - Ronald Reagan BandarĂkjaforseti setti fram fyrstu hugmyndir sĂnar um tĂŠkni til aĂ° verjast eldflaugum. ĂĂŠtlunin (SDI) var kölluĂ° âStjörnustrĂĂ°sĂĄĂŠtluninâ Ă fjölmiĂ°lum.
+ 1987 - BandarĂska sĂĄpuĂłperan The Bold & the Beautiful hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ CBS.
+ 1989 - Stanley Pons og Martin Fleischmann lĂœstu ĂŸvĂ yfir aĂ° ĂŸeim hefĂ°i tekist aĂ° framkalla kaldan kjarnasamruna Ă rannsĂłknarstofu viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann Ă Utah Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1991 - Borgarastyrjöldin Ă SĂerra LeĂłne hĂłfst ĂŸegar skĂŠruliĂ°asamtökin Revolutionary United Front reyndu aĂ° fremja valdarĂĄn.
+ 1996 - Göran Persson varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra SvĂĂŸjóðar.
+ 1996 - Fyrstu forsetakosningarnar voru haldnar Ă kĂnverska lĂœĂ°veldinu ĂĄ TĂŠvan. Sitjandi forseti, Lee Teng-hui, var kjörinn.
+ 1997 - Bresku sakamĂĄlaĂŸĂŠttirnir Barnaby rĂŠĂ°ur gĂĄtuna hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ ITV.
+ 1998 - Kvikmyndin Titanic vann ellefu ĂskarsverĂ°laun og jafnaĂ°i ĂŸar meĂ° met Ben HĂșr frĂĄ 1959. Lokakafli HringadrĂłttinssögu jafnaĂ°i metiĂ° aftur ĂĄriĂ° 2004.
+ 1998 - Kjalarnes varĂ° hluti af ReykjavĂk.
+ 1998 - Boris JeltsĂn rak rĂkisstjĂłrn RĂșsslands og skipaĂ°i Sergej Kirijenko forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra.
+ 1999 - Luis Maria Argana, varaforseti ParagvĂŠ, var myrtur.
+ 2001 - RĂșssneska geimstöðin MĂr hrapaĂ°i til jarĂ°ar Ă KyrrahafiĂ° Ăști fyrir ströndum NĂœja-SjĂĄlands.
+ 2004 - SĂĂ°asti ĂŸĂĄttur gamanĂŸĂĄttaraĂ°arinnar Frasier var tekinn upp Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 2005 - Jóakim, prins af Danmörku og Alexandra Manley sóttu formlega um skilnað.
+ 2007 - NĂœja leikjatölvan frĂĄ Sony, PlayStation 3, kom Ășt Ă EvrĂłpu, ĂstralĂu og SingapĂșr.
+ 2007 - SjĂłher Ăranska byltingarvarĂ°arins handtĂłku 15 breska sjĂłliĂ°a ĂĄ umdeildu hafsvĂŠĂ°i milli Ărans og Ăraks.
+ 2010 - Nektardans var bannaĂ°ur ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 2010 - Lög um vernd sjĂșklinga og heilbrigĂ°isĂŸjĂłnustu ĂĄ sanngjörnu verĂ°i, einnig ĂŸekkt sem Obamacare, voru undirrituĂ° Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 2018 - Fjölbrautaskólinn à GarðabÊ sigraði à Gettu betur à fyrsta sinn.
+ 2018 - 25 ĂĄra gamall MarokkĂłbĂși myrti 4 og sĂŠrĂ°i 15 Ă röð skotĂĄrĂĄsa Ă Carcassonne og TrĂšbes Ă Frakklandi. Hann var ĂĄ endanum skotinn til bana af lögreglu.
+ 2019 â SĂĂ°asta landsvĂŠĂ°iĂ° sem var undir stjĂłrn Ăslamska rĂkisins, Al-Baghuz Fawqani, var frelsaĂ°.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1429 - Margrét af Anjou, Englandsdrottning, kona Hinriks 6. (f. 1482).
+ 1643 - MarĂa de JesĂșs de LeĂłn y Delgado, spĂŠnskur sjĂĄandi (d. 1731).
+ 1795 - Bernt Michael Holmboe, norskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1850).
+ 1820 - Viktor EmmanĂșel 2., konungur SardinĂu og sĂĂ°ar ĂtalĂu (d. 1878).
+ 1881 - Roger Martin du Gard, franskur rithöfundur og Nóbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1958).
+ 1882 - Emmy Noether, ĂŸĂœskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1935).
+ 1895 - Ălafur JĂłnsson, rĂĄĂ°unautur, Ăslenskur nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1980).
+ 1908 - Joan Crawford, bandarĂsk leikkona (d. 1977).
+ 1910 - Akira Kurosawa, japanskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (d. 1998).
+ 1912 - Wernher von Braun, ĂŸĂœskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur og verkfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1977).
+ 1923 - Baldvin HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur leikari (d. 2007).
+ 1944 - Jamshid Hashempour, Ăranskur ĂștvarpsmaĂ°ur.
+ 1946 - JĂłn MagnĂșsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1950 - ValgerĂ°ur SverrisdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1965 - Einar Sveinbjörnsson, veĂ°urfrĂŠĂ°ingur og fyrrverandi bĂŠjarfulltrĂși Ă GarĂ°abĂŠ.
+ 1967 - John Wayne Bobbitt, bandarĂskur ofbeldismaĂ°ur.
+ 1968 - Bjarni Ărmannsson, Ăslenskur athafnamaĂ°ur.
+ 1972 - Joe Calzaghe, velskur boxari.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 59 - Agrippina yngri, rĂłmversk aĂ°alskona.
+ 1369 - PĂ©tur KastilĂukonungur, myrtur eftir orrustuna viĂ° Montiel (f. 1334).
+ 1555 - JĂșlĂus 3. pĂĄfi, (f. 1487).
+ 1641 - Andries Both, hollenskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1612 eĂ°a 1613).
+ 1653 - Johan van Galen, hollenskur sjĂłliĂ°sforingi (f. 1604).
+ 1663 - RagnheiĂ°ur BrynjĂłlfsdĂłttir (f. 1641).
+ 1680 - Nicolas Fouquet, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1615).
+ 1801 - Pavel I PetrovĂtsj, (PĂĄll I) RĂșsslandskeisari (f. 1754)
+ 1992 - Friedrich A. von Hayek, austurrĂsk-breskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur, stjĂłrnmĂĄlaheimspekingur og nĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (f. 1899).
+ 2011 - Elizabeth Taylor, bresk-bandarisk leikkona (f. 1932).
+ 2014 - Adolfo SuĂĄrez, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra SpĂĄnar (f. 1932).
+ 2015 - Lee Kuan Yew, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra SingapĂșr (f. 1923).
+
+Mars
+ĂskarsverĂ°launin (enska: Academy Awards eĂ°a Ăłformlega the Oscars) eru bandarĂsk kvikmyndaverĂ°laun veitt kvikmyndagerĂ°armönnum og öðrum sem starfa viĂ° kvikmyndir. VerĂ°launahĂĄtĂĂ°in er yfirleitt sĂș best kynnta og mest ĂĄberandi ĂĄ Vesturlöndum, og verĂ°launin af flestum talin ĂŸau eftirsĂłknarverĂ°ustu. ĂskarsverĂ°launin eru veitt af BandarĂsku kvikmyndaakademĂunni (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences), samtökum fĂłlks sem starfar viĂ° kvikmyndagerĂ° Ă BandarĂkjunum, og er aĂ°ild aĂ° ĂŸeim einungis veitt Ă heiĂ°ursskyni.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2003 voru 5.816 meĂ°limir Ă akademĂunni meĂ° kosningarĂ©tt viĂ° val ĂĄ ĂskarsverĂ°launahöfum. ĂskarsverĂ°launin hafa veriĂ° veitt ĂĄrlega frĂĄ 1929.
+
+Ăslenskar tilnefningar til ĂskarsverĂ°launa
+Eftirtaldir Ăslenskir aĂ°ilar eĂ°a myndir hafa fengiĂ° tilnefningu BandarĂsku kvikmyndaakademĂunnar til ĂskarsverĂ°launa.
+ Mynd FriĂ°riks ĂĂłrs FriĂ°rikssonar, Börn nĂĄttĂșrunnar hlaut tilnefningu Ă flokknum âBesta erlenda myndinâ ĂĄriĂ° 1991.
+ Björk GuĂ°mundsdĂłttir hlaut tilnefningu Ă flokknum âbesta lagiĂ°â fyrir âI've seen it allâ Ășr mynd Lars von Triers, Myrkradansaranum ĂĄriĂ° 2000.
+ SĂĂ°asti bĂŠrinn eftir RĂșnar RĂșnarsson og ĂĂłr S. SigurjĂłnsson var tilnefnd Ă flokknum âBesta leikna stuttmyndinâ ĂĄriĂ° 2005.
+ JĂłhann JĂłhannsson hlaut tilnefningu Ă flokknum âbesta frumsamda tĂłnlistâ Ășr mynd James Marsh, The Theory of Everything ĂĄriĂ° 2015.
+ Hildur GuĂ°nadĂłttir var tilnefnd til ĂskarsverĂ°launa fyrir bestu frumsömdu tĂłnlistina fyrir kvikmyndina Joker ĂĄriĂ° 2020.
+ĂriĂ° 2021 var stuttmynd eftir Arnar Gunnarsson og GĂsla Darra HalldĂłrsson, JĂĄ-fĂłlkiĂ°, tilfefnd Ă flokknum Besta teiknaĂ°a stuttmyndin.
+ ĂriĂ° 2023 var stuttmynd Söru GunnarsdĂłttur, My Year of Dicks, tilfefnd Ă flokknum Besta teiknaĂ°a stuttmyndin.
+
+Ăslenskir ĂskarsverĂ°launahafar
+ĂriĂ° 2020 vann Hildur GuĂ°nadĂłttir Ăskar fyrir bestu frumsömdu tĂłnlistina fyrir myndina Joker og varĂ° fyrst Ăslendinga til aĂ° vinna slĂk verĂ°laun.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tengill
+ VefsĂĂ°a ĂskarsverĂ°launanna
+
+
+KvikmyndahĂĄtĂĂ°ir
+76. ĂskarsverĂ°launahĂĄtĂĂ°in var haldinn 2003.
+
+VerĂ°launahafar
+
+Bestu myndir Ă fullri lengd
+ Besta mynd ĂĄrsins: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Framleidd af Barrie M. Osborne, Peter Jackson og Fran Walsh
+ Besta kvikmynd å öðru tungumåli en ensku: The Barbarian Invasions - Kanada
+ Besta heimildarmyndin: The Fog of War - Errol Morris og Michael Williams
+ Besta teiknimyndin Ă fullri lengd: Finding Nemo - Andrew Stanton
+
+Bestu stuttmyndir
+ Besta stutta heimildarmyndin: Chernobyl Heart - Maryann DeLeo
+ Besta leikna stuttmyndin: Two Soldiers - Aaron Schneider og Andrew J. Sacks
+ Besta teiknaĂ°a stuttmyndin: Harvie Krumpet - Adam Elliot
+
+Besta leikstjĂłrn og leikur
+ Besta leikstjĂłrn: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Peter Jackson
+ Besti leikari Ă aĂ°alhlutverki: Sean Penn Ă Mystic River
+ Besta leikkona Ă aĂ°alhlutverki: Charlize Theron Ă Monster
+ Besti leikari Ă aukahlutverki: Tim Robbins Ă Mystic River
+ Besta leikkona à aukahlutverki: Renée Zellweger à Cold Mountain
+
+Bestu handrit og tĂłnlist
+ Upprunalegt handrit: Lost in Translation - Sofia Coppola
+ Handrit byggt ĂĄ eldra verki: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens & Peter Jackson
+ Besta tĂłnlist samin fyrir kvikmynd: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Howard Shore
+ Besta sönglag samiĂ° fyrir kvikmynd: Into the West Ășr The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Texti og tĂłnlist eftir Fran Walsh, Howard Shore og Annie Lennox
+
+Bestu tĂŠknilegu ĂștfĂŠrslur
+ Besta listrĂŠna stjĂłrn: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - ListrĂŠnn stjĂłrnandi: Grant Major; SviĂ°smynd: Dan Hennah og Alan Lee
+ Besta kvikmyndataka: Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World - Russell Boyd
+ Besta bĂșningahönnun: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Ngila Dickson og Richard Taylor
+ Besta klipping: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Jamie Selkirk
+ Besta förðun: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Richard Taylor og Peter King
+ Besta hljóðhönnun: Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World - Richard King
+ Besta hljóðblöndun: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Christopher Boyes, Michael Semanick, Michael Hedges og Hammond Peek
+ Bestu tĂŠknibrellur: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Jim Rygiel, Joe Letteri, Randall William Cook og Alex Funke
+
+ĂskarsverĂ°launahĂĄtĂĂ°ir
+18. mars er 77. dagur ĂĄrsins (78. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 288 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 37 - Caligula varĂ° keisari RĂłmar.
+ 417 - Sosimus varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 731 - GregorĂus 3. varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1229 - FriĂ°rik 2. keisari krĂœndi sjĂĄlfan sig konung JerĂșsalem Ă sjöttu krossferĂ°inni.
+ 1325 - Borgin Tenochtitlan var stofnuĂ° Ă MexĂkĂł.
+ 1438 - Albert 2. af Habsborg varĂ° konungur ĂĂœskalands.
+ 1608 - Susenyos var krĂœndur EĂŸĂĂłpĂukeisari Ă AxĂșm.
+ 1760 - EmbĂŠttiĂ° landlĂŠknir, landfysikus, var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi meĂ° ĂșrskurĂ°i Danakonungs, hliĂ°stĂŠtt embĂŠtti danskra stiftslĂŠkna og varĂ° Bjarni PĂĄlsson fyrsti landlĂŠknir Ăslands.
+ 1772 - Björn JĂłnsson var skipaĂ°ur fyrsti lyfsali ĂĄ Ăslandi meĂ° aĂ°setur Ă Nesi viĂ° Seltjörn.
+ 1793 - Borgin Mainz lĂœsti yfir stofnun sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°s lĂœĂ°veldis, ĂŸess fyrsta ĂĄ ĂŸĂœskri grundu. ĂaĂ° leystist ĂŸĂł upp eftir aĂ°eins fjĂłra mĂĄnuĂ°i
+ 1793 - Orrustan viĂ° Neerwinden: AusturrĂkismenn hröktu Frakka frĂĄ NiĂ°urlöndum
+ 1871 - 25 karlar og tvĂŠr konur hvöttu til ĂŸess aĂ° stofnaĂ°ur yrĂ°i kvennaskĂłli Ă ReykjavĂk Ă ĂĄvarpi til Ăslendinga. KvennaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk tĂłk til starfa 1874.
+ 1871 - ParĂsarkommĂșnan var stofnuĂ°.
+ 1891 - SĂmasamband komst ĂĄ milli London og ParĂsar.
+ 1913 - Georg 1. Grikklandskonungur var myrtur.
+ 1921 - StrĂĂ°i SovĂ©trĂkjanna og PĂłllands lauk meĂ° Riga-sĂĄttmĂĄlanum.
+ 1922 - Mahatma Gandhi var dĂŠmdur Ă sex ĂĄra fangelsi ĂĄ Indlandi fyrir borgaralega ĂłhlĂœĂ°ni. Hann sat Ă fangelsi Ă tvö ĂĄr.
+ 1926 - H.f. Ătvarp, fyrsta Ăștvarpsstöðin ĂĄ Ăslandi, hĂłf reglubundnar Ăștsendingar.
+ 1945 - RithöfundafĂ©lag Ăslands klofnaĂ°i ĂĄ aĂ°alfundi og FĂ©lag Ăslenskra rithöfunda var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1967 - RisaolĂuskipiĂ° Torrey Canion strandaĂ°i ĂĄ rifi fyrir utan Wales. Um 120 ĂŸĂșsund tonn af olĂu fĂłru Ă hafiĂ° og ollu gĂfurlegu tjĂłni.
+ 1970 - Lon Nol framdi valdarĂĄn Ă KambĂłdĂu og stofnaĂ°i KmeralĂœĂ°veldiĂ°.
+ 1971 - HandritamĂĄliĂ°: HĂŠstirĂ©ttur Danmerkur kvaĂ° upp ĂșrskurĂ° sem gerĂ°i dönsku rĂkisstjĂłrninni kleift aĂ° afhenda Ăslendingum handrit sem geymd höfĂ°u veriĂ° Ă Ărnasafni Ă Kaupmannahöfn.
+ 1978 - Fyrrum forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Pakistan, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, var dĂŠmdur til dauĂ°a fyrir aĂ° hafa fyrirskipaĂ° morĂ° ĂĄ pĂłlitĂskum andstĂŠĂ°ingi.
+ 1985 - Ăstralska sĂĄpuĂłperan Grannar hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ Seven Network.
+ 1989 - 4.400 ĂĄra gömul mĂșmĂa fannst Ă Giza-pĂramĂdanum Ă Egyptalandi.
+ 1990 - TĂłlf mĂĄlverkum og kĂnverskum vasa var stoliĂ° Ășr Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Ă Boston. Ăetta var stĂŠrsti listaverkaĂŸjĂłfnaĂ°ur Ă sögu BandarĂkjanna.
+ 1990 - Fyrstu frjĂĄlsu kosningarnar voru haldnar Ă Austur-ĂĂœskalandi.
+ 1992 - HvĂtir SuĂ°ur-AfrĂkubĂșar samĂŸykktu Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu umbĂŠtur til aĂ° binda enda ĂĄ aĂ°skilnaĂ°arstefnuna.
+ 1992 - Finnland sĂłtti um aĂ°ild aĂ° EvrĂłpusambandinu.
+ 1994 - Washington-samningurinn: BosnĂukrĂłatar sömdu um vopnahlĂ© viĂ° stjĂłrn BosnĂu-HersegĂłvĂnu.
+ 1996 - 163 lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ° Ă eldsvoĂ°a ĂĄ skemmtistaĂ°num Ozone Disco Ă Quezon-borg ĂĄ Filippseyjum.
+ 1998 - Listi fĂłlksins var stofnaĂ°ur ĂĄ Akureyri.
+ 2003 - Listi viljugra ĂŸjóða sem studdu afvopnun Ăraks var birtur og var Ăsland ĂĄ honum. Tveimur dögum sĂĂ°ar hĂłfst innrĂĄsin Ă Ărak.
+ 2004 - LiĂ° MR tapaĂ°i Ă spurningakeppni framhaldsskĂłlanna, Gettu betur, Ă fyrsta skipti frĂĄ 1992.
+ 2005 - HjĂłmsveitin JakobĂnarĂna sigraĂ°i MĂșsĂktilraunir meĂ° miklum meirihluta atkvĂŠĂ°a, bĂŠĂ°i dĂłmnefndar og ĂĄhorfenda.
+ 2006 - MótmÊli gegn umdeildum lögum um råðningarsamninga à Frakklandi enduðu með åtökum 500.000 mótmÊlenda við lögreglu.
+ 2011 - Rótarlénið .xxx var formlega tekið à notkun af ICANN.
+ 2016 - Eini ĂŸekkti lifandi ĂĄrĂĄsarmaĂ°urinn frĂĄ hryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄsunum Ă ParĂs, Salah Abdeslam, var handtekinn Ă Brussel Ă BelgĂu.
+ 2018 - Ăjóðarher SĂœrlands og Tyrklandsher nĂĄĂ°u borginni Afrin Ă SĂœrlandi ĂĄ sitt vald.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1496 - MarĂa Tudor, yngri systir Hinriks 8., drottning Frakklands Ă nokkra mĂĄnuĂ°i (kona LoĂ°vĂks 12.) (d. 1533).
+ 1555 - Frans hertogi af Anjou, yngsti sonur Hinriks 2. Frakkakonungs og KatrĂnar af Medici (d. 1584).
+ 1603 - JĂłhann 4. PortĂșgalskonungur (d. 1656).
+ 1609 - FriĂ°rik 3. Danakonungur (d. 1670).
+ 1614 - Brostrup Giedde, danskur hirĂ°stjĂłri (f. um 1560).
+ 1634 - Marie-Madeleine de La Fayette, franskur rithöfundur (d. 1693).
+ 1782 - John C. Calhoun, sjöundi varaforseti BandarĂkjanna (d. 1850).
+ 1822 - EirĂkur JĂłnsson, frĂŠĂ°imaĂ°ur og ritstjĂłri Ă Kaupmannahöfn (d. 1889).
+ 1837 - Grover Cleveland, fyrrum BandarĂkjaforseti (d. 1908).
+ 1844 - Nikolaj Rimsky-Korsakov, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1908).
+ 1858 - KatrĂn MagnĂșsson, Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄla- og kvenrĂ©ttindakona (d. 1932).
+ 1869 - Neville Chamberlain, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands (d. 1940).
+ 1903 - Galeazzo Ciano, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1944).
+ 1919 - G.E.M. Anscombe, enskur heimspekingur (d. 2001).
+ 1926 - Peter Graves, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2010).
+ 1932 - John Updike, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (d. 2009).
+ 1936 - F.W. de Klerk, fyrrum forseti SuĂ°ur-AfrĂku (d. 2021).
+ 1952 - KolbrĂșn BjörgĂłlfsdĂłttir (Kogga), Ăslenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1961 - JĂłhann R. Benediktsson, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaĂ°ur.
+ 1963 - Vanessa Williams, bandarĂsk söngkona.
+ 1966 - Jerry Cantrell, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1970 - Queen Latifah, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona.
+ 1974 - PĂĄll PĂĄlsson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1977 - Danny Murphy, enskur fĂłtboltamaĂ°ur.
+ 1977 - Zdeno Chara, slĂłvakĂskur ĂshokkĂleikmaĂ°ur.
+ 1997 - Ciara Bravo, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 235 - Alexander Severus, RĂłmarkeisari (f. 208).
+ 978 - JĂĄtvarĂ°ur pĂslarvottur, Englandskonungur (f. um 962).
+ 1227 - HonorĂus 3. pĂĄfi (f. 1148).
+ 1314 - Jacques de Molay, stĂłrmeistari Musterisriddaranna var brenndur ĂĄ bĂĄli.
+ 1583 - MagnĂșs, konungur LĂflands og hertogi af Holtsetalandi, sonur KristjĂĄns 3. Danakonungs (f. 1540).
+ 1745 - Robert Walpole, fyrsti forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands (f. 1676).
+ 1768 - Laurence Sterne, Ărskur rithöfundur (f. 1713).
+ 1871 - Augustus De Morgan, breskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1806).
+ 1913 - Georg 1. Grikklandskonungur (f. 1845).
+ 1936 - ElefĂŸerios Venizelos, grĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1864).
+ 1983 - ĂmbertĂł 2. fyrrum konungur ĂtalĂu (f. 1904).
+ 1996 - Odysseas Elytis, grĂskt skĂĄld (f. 1911).
+ 2016 - Guido Westerwelle, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1961).
+
+Mars
+SjĂłnvarpiĂ° (einnig kallaĂ° RĂkissjĂłnvarpiĂ°) er eina rĂkisrekna sjĂłnvarpsstöðin ĂĄ Ăslandi. HĂșn hĂłf Ăștsendingar ĂŸann 30. september 1966. SjĂłnvarpiĂ° er deild innan RĂkisĂștvarpsins, RĂV, sem einnig rekur ĂŸrjĂĄr Ăștvarpsstöðvar.
+
+Ăegar sjĂłnvarpiĂ° hĂłf göngu sĂna var aĂ°eins sent Ășt tvisvar sinnum Ă viku, ĂĄ föstudögum og miĂ°vikudögum en smĂĄtt og smĂĄtt jukust Ăștsendingar. FljĂłtlega var sent Ășt alla daga nema fimmtudaga. Einnig fĂłr sjĂłnvarpiĂ° Ă sumarfrĂ Ă jĂșlĂ allt ĂŸar til 1983 og voru ĂŸĂĄ engar Ăștsendingar Ă gangi. ĂaĂ° var svo ekki fyrr en 1. oktĂłber 1987 sem sjĂłnvarpiĂ° hĂłf göngu sĂna 7 daga vikunnar. NĂș ĂĄ dögum er sjĂłnvarpaĂ° allan sĂłlarhringinn. FrĂ©ttaĂŸjĂłnusta landsmanna batnaĂ°i til muna ĂŸegar erlendar frĂ©ttir fĂłru aĂ° berast gegnum gervihnött, en ĂŸaĂ° gerĂ°ist Ă fyrsta skipti Ă september ĂĄriĂ° 1981 gegnum jarĂ°stöðina Skyggni Ă MosfellsbĂŠ.
+
+Fyrir stofnun RĂV hafĂ°i aĂ°eins kanasjĂłnvarpiĂ° veriĂ° Ă gangi og mjög fĂĄir höfĂ°u aĂ°gang aĂ° sjĂłnvarpi. ĂtvarpiĂ° var ĂŸĂĄ aĂ°alfjölmiĂ°illinn fyrir utan dagblöðin.
+
+Tenglar
+ Vefur RĂkisĂștvarpsins
+ Eins og að stökkva fram af klettum; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1986
+
+Ăslenskar sjĂłnvarpsstöðvar
+Gettu betur er spurningakeppni Ăslenskra framhaldsskĂłla sem RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° stendur fyrir ĂĄrlega. Hver framhaldsskĂłli getur sent eitt liĂ° Ă keppnina, sem skipaĂ° er ĂŸremur nemendum viĂ° skĂłlann. Undankeppni fer fram Ă Ăștvarpi og aĂ° henni lokinni halda ĂĄtta liĂ° ĂĄfram Ă ĂștslĂĄttarkeppni Ă sjĂłnvarpinu.
+
+Saga keppninnar
+Keppnin var fyrst haldin ĂĄriĂ° 1986 og hefur fariĂ° fram ĂĄrlega sĂĂ°an ĂŸĂĄ. Keppnin hefur veriĂ° einn vinsĂŠlasti dagskrĂĄrliĂ°ur RĂkisĂștvarpsins frĂĄ upphafi. UmsjĂłnarmaĂ°ur keppninnar frĂĄ 1991 til ĂĄrsins 2012 var AndrĂ©s IndriĂ°ason og ĂĄ eftir honum tĂłk ElĂn SveinsdĂłttir viĂ° ĂŸvĂ hlutverki. NĂșverandi umsjĂłnarmaĂ°ur keppninnar er Ragnar EyĂŸĂłrsson.
+
+Forkeppnin hefst Ă janĂșar ĂĄr hvert og fer fram Ă Ăștvarpi. AĂ° tveimur umferĂ°um loknum eru ĂĄtta liĂ° eftir og heldur keppnin ĂĄfram Ă sjĂłnvarpssal. ĂriĂ° 2009 var metĂĄr Ă sögu Gettu betur. ĂĂĄ tĂłk alls 31 skĂłli ĂŸĂĄtt og hafa ĂŸeir aldrei veriĂ° fleiri.
+
+Alls hafa nĂu skĂłlar unniĂ° keppnina og er MenntaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk sĂĄ sigursĂŠlasti. NĂŠst ĂĄ eftir koma MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri og KvennaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk meĂ° ĂŸrjĂĄ sigra hvor. ĂvĂ nĂŠst er VerzlunarskĂłli Ăslands meĂ° tvo sigra. Ăeir eru einu skĂłlarnir sem hafa unniĂ° keppnina oftar en einu sinni.
+
+Spyrill stendur fyrir miĂ°ju og ber upp spurningarnar. Oft er starf spyrils Ă höndum einhvers ĂŸjĂłĂ°ĂŸekkts einstaklings. DĂłmarinn semur spurningarnar og dĂŠmir svörin. FrĂĄ upphafi hefur stigavörĂ°ur setiĂ° ĂĄ vinstri hönd dĂłmara og taliĂ° stigin. Fyrir keppnina ĂĄriĂ° 2012 var ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° aĂ° leggja niĂ°ur stigavarĂ°arembĂŠttiĂ° og hafa Ă staĂ° ĂŸess tvo dĂłmara. ĂriĂ° 2013 var ĂĄkvörĂ°un tekin um aĂ° kynjakvĂłti skyldi settur og tĂłk hann Ă gildi ĂĄriĂ° 2015.
+
+Fyrir keppnina 2020 varĂ° sĂ©rkeppni sem nefndist Gettu Betur - StjörnustrĂĂ°. Ăetta gaf góða raun og var endurtekiĂ° ĂĄriĂ° eftir fyrir sjĂłnvarpakeppnina.
+
+Gettu betur fĂłr ekki varhluta af Covid-19 faraldrinum. Allt stefndi Ă aĂ° Ășrslitin 2020 yrĂ°u haldin ĂĄn ĂĄhorfenda, en svo fĂłr aĂ° hvort liĂ° fĂ©kk aĂ° hafa nokkra Ă salnum. Ătvarpshluti keppninnar 2021 fĂłr ekki fram ĂĄ MarkĂșsartorgi, eins og venjan hefur veriĂ° ĂĄrin ĂĄ undan, heldur Ă hljóðveri 12. Vegna fjöldatakmarkanna var ĂŸessi hluti keppninnar ĂĄhorfendalaus.
+
+Yfirlit
+
+Besti ĂĄrangur einstakra skĂłla
+
+Sigurvegarar
+MenntaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk â 23 sinnum
+MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri â 3 sinnum
+KvennaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk â 3 sinnum
+VerzlunarskĂłli Ăslands â 2 sinnum
+MenntaskĂłlinn viĂ° Sund â 1 sinni
+FjölbrautaskĂłli SuĂ°urlands â 1 sinni
+MenntaskĂłlinn Ă KĂłpavogi â 1 sinni
+BorgarholtsskĂłli â 1 sinni
+FjölbrautaskĂłlinn Ă BreiĂ°holti â 1 sinni
+MenntaskĂłlinn viĂ° HamrahlĂĂ° â 1 sinni
+FjölbrautaskĂłlinn Ă GarĂ°abĂŠ â 1 sinni
+2. sĂŠti
+FlensborgarskĂłli â 3 sinnum
+VerkmenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri â 1 sinni
+UndanĂșrslit
+FjölbrautaskĂłlinn viĂ° ĂrmĂșla â 4 sinnum
+MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Egilsstöðum â 4 sinnum
+MenntaskĂłlinn aĂ° Laugarvatni â 3 sinnum
+VerkmenntaskĂłli Austurlands â 2 sinnum
+TĂŠkniskĂłlinn â 1 sinni
+FjölbrautaskĂłli Vesturlands â 1 sinni
+LandbĂșnaĂ°arhĂĄskĂłlinn Ăslands â 1 sinni
+FramhaldsskĂłlinn Ă Austur-SkaftafellssĂœslu â 1 sinni
+MenntaskĂłlinn HraĂ°braut â 1 sinni (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur)
+8-liĂ°a Ășrslit
+FjölbrautaskĂłli SuĂ°urnesja â 6 sinnum
+FjölbrautaskĂłli NorĂ°urlands vestra â 4 sinnum
+FramhaldsskĂłlinn ĂĄ Laugum â 3 sinnum
+MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ ĂsafirĂ°i â 2 sinnum
+FramhaldsskĂłlinn ĂĄ HĂșsavĂk â 1 sinni
+FramhaldsskĂłlinn Ă Vestmannaeyjum â 1 sinni
+2. umferĂ°
+FjölbrautaskĂłli SnĂŠfellinga â 4 sinnum
+MenntaskĂłli BorgarfjarĂ°ar â 4 sinnum
+FramhaldsskĂłlinn Ă MosfellsbĂŠ â 2 sinnum
+Menntaskólinn å Tröllaskaga - 1 sinni
+Aldrei komist upp Ășr 1. umferĂ°
+MenntaskĂłlinn Ă tĂłnlist
+MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ ĂsbrĂș
+IĂ°nskĂłlinn Ă HafnarfirĂ°i (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur)
+StĂœrimannaskĂłlinn (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur)
+AlĂŸĂœĂ°uskĂłlinn ĂĄ EiĂ°um (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur)
+SkĂłgaskĂłli (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur)
+SamvinnuskĂłlinn (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur)
+ĂĂŸrĂłttakennaraskĂłli Ăslands (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur)
+
+SjĂĄ einnig
+
+ Listi yfir Ășrslit Gettu betur
+
+Tenglar
+ gettubetur.is
+
+GrafĂskar tĂmalĂnur
+Gettu betur
+Keppnir Ăslenskra framhaldsskĂłla
+Ăslenskir sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂŠttir
+SpurningaĂŸĂŠttir
+DavĂĂ° ĂĂłr JĂłnsson (fĂŠddur 5. janĂșar 1965) varĂ° landsĂŸekktur skemmtikraftur Ă upphafi 10. ĂĄratugarins, ĂŸegar hann og Steinn Ărmann MagnĂșsson leikari settu upp stutta ĂștvarpsleikĂŸĂŠtti daglega ĂĄ AĂ°alstöðinni. LeikĂŸĂŠttina kölluĂ°u ĂŸeir Flugur. Ăeir ĂŸĂłttu grĂłfir og Ă ĂŸeim var skopast aĂ° HafnfirĂ°ingum, KĂłpavogsbĂșum, samkynhneigĂ°um, kvenkyns ĂĂŸrĂłttamönnum, bifvĂ©lavirkjum og öðrum sem lĂĄgu vel viĂ° höggi.
+
+Saman kallaĂ°i tvĂeykiĂ° sig RadĂusbrĂŠĂ°ur, og ĂŸeir tróðu vĂĂ°a upp meĂ° grĂni Ă nokkur ĂĄr, aĂ°allega Ă framhaldsskĂłlum og ĂĄ ĂĄrshĂĄtĂĂ°um.
+
+DavĂĂ° ĂĂłr er ĂștskrifaĂ°ur guĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur, hann var spyrill Ă Gettu betur 1996 â 98, hefur veriĂ° vinsĂŠll viĂ°mĂŠlandi Ă spjallĂŸĂĄttum Ă sjĂłnvarpi og ritstjĂłri tĂmaritsins Bleikt & BlĂĄtt 1997 â 2001. Hann hefur starfaĂ° sem ĂŸĂœĂ°andi, raddleikari og ljóðskĂĄld. DavĂĂ° var spurningahöfundur og dĂłmari Ă Gettu betur ĂĄrin 2007 og 2009. Hann skrifaĂ°i BakĂŸanka Ă FrĂ©ttablaĂ°iĂ° hĂĄlfsmĂĄnaĂ°arlega frĂĄ 2006 â 2012.
+
+DavĂĂ° ĂĂłr gegndi embĂŠtti hĂ©raĂ°sprests Ă AusturlandsprĂłfastsdĂŠmi frĂĄ 2014-2016. FrĂĄ 2016 hefur hann veriĂ° sĂłknarprestur Ă Laugarnesprestakalli Ă ReykjavĂk.
+
+Ătgefin verk
+ JĂłlasnĂłtirnar 13 (2004)
+ VĂsur fyrir vonda krakka (2004)
+ Orrustan um Fold (2012)
+ MĂłrĂșn - Ă skugga Skrattakolls (2015)
+MĂłrĂșn - Stigamenn Ă StyrskĂłgum (2016)
+
+Tengill
+ CV at Official Blog
+
+Ăslenskir skemmtikraftar
+RadĂusbrĂŠĂ°ur var sviĂ°snafn DavĂĂ°s ĂĂłrs JĂłnssonar og Steins Ărmanns MagnĂșssonar, ĂŸegar ĂŸeir tróðu saman upp meĂ° framsĂŠknu grĂni ĂĄ fyrri hluta tĂunda ĂĄratugarins. RadĂusbrĂŠĂ°ur komu fyrst fram meĂ° ĂștvarpsĂŸĂĄttinn RadĂus ĂĄ AĂ°alstöðinni. SĂĂ°ar ĂĄttu ĂŸeir ĂŸĂĄtt Ă gerĂ° sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttanna LimbĂł Ă leikstjĂłrn Ăskars JĂłnassonar. Ăeir ĂŸĂŠttir urĂ°u skammlĂfir en RĂV hĂŠtti framleiĂ°slu ĂŸeirra eftir tvo ĂŸĂŠtti. SĂĂ°ar voru ĂŸeir meĂ° eigin ĂŸĂŠtti og stutt atriĂ°i Ă DagsljĂłsi til 1995. ĂriĂ° 1995 gerĂ°u ĂŸeir ĂŸĂŠttina RadĂus, 12 ĂŸĂĄtta sketsaröð meĂ° ĂŸeim tveim.
+
+Tenglar
+
+ Glatkistan
+
+Ăslenskir skemmtikraftar
+StefĂĄn PĂĄlsson (1975) er Ăslenskur sagnfrĂŠĂ°ingur, stjĂłrnmĂĄlaskĂœrandi og varaborgarfulltrĂși Vinstri grĂŠnna Ă ReykjavĂk. Hann stundaĂ°i nĂĄm viĂ° MR ĂŸar sem hann tĂłk ĂŸĂĄtt Ă spurningakeppninni Gettu betur og var hann Ă sigurliĂ°inu 1995. Ărin 2004 og 2005 gegndi hann sjĂĄlfur stöðu dĂłmara Ă keppninni. Hann var ĂĄ tĂmabili söngvari Ă pönk-hljĂłmsveitinni Tony Blair. Hann er dyggur aĂ°dĂĄandi KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram og breska knattspyrnuliĂ°sins Luton Town. StefĂĄn er mikill ĂĄhugamaĂ°ur um viskĂœ og bjĂłr.
+
+Auk Gettu betur tĂłk StefĂĄn einnig ĂŸĂĄtt Ă rĂŠĂ°ukeppninni MORFĂS ĂĄ menntaskĂłlaĂĄrum sĂnum. Eftir aĂ° hann lauk nĂĄmi og fram eftir ĂŸrĂtugsaldri kom hann aĂ° ĂŸjĂĄlfun bĂŠĂ°i Gettu betur- og MorfĂs-liĂ°a Ăœmissa framhaldsskĂłla. Hann hefur starfaĂ° sem spurningahöfundur og dĂłmari Ă Gettu betur og Ătsvari.
+
+StefĂĄn er mikill ĂĄhugamaĂ°ur um teiknimyndasögur. ĂriĂ° 2013 setti hann rĂŠĂ°umet meĂ° ĂŸrettĂĄn og hĂĄlfrar klukkustundar fyrirlestri um Sval og Val, sem fögnuĂ°u 75 ĂĄra afmĂŠli um ĂŸĂŠr mundir.
+
+StefĂĄn hefur veriĂ° virkur Ă starfi Vinstri grĂŠnna, en hann var einnig einn stofnenda MĂĄlfundafĂ©lags Ășngra rĂłttĂŠklinga (MĂR) ĂĄriĂ° 1999, sem hĂ©lt Ăști vefritinu MĂșrnum fram til 2007. Hann skipaĂ°i annaĂ° sĂŠti ĂĄ lista Vinstri grĂŠnna Ă ReykjavĂk Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarkosningunum ĂĄriĂ° 2022 og er fyrsti varaborgarfulltrĂși flokksins.
+
+StefĂĄn var formaĂ°ur Samtaka hernaĂ°arandstĂŠĂ°inga frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2000 til 2015.
+
+Eiginkona StefĂĄns er Steinunn ĂĂłra ĂrnadĂłttir alĂŸingiskona.
+
+ĂtgefiĂ° efni
+
+Helstu ritverk
+ Frambókin: Knattspyrnufélagið Fram à 100 år (2009)
+ Ă° ĂŠvisaga (2012, meĂ°höfundar Anton Kaldal ĂgĂșstsson, Gunnar VilhjĂĄlmsson og Steinar Ingi Farestveit)
+ Bjór: umhverfis jörðina å 120 tegundum (2014, meðhöfundar Höskuldur SÊmundsson og Rån Flygenring)
+ GleymiĂ° ekki aĂ° endurnĂœja. Saga HappdrĂŠttis HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands (2020)
+
+BorĂ°spil
+ Spark - spurningaspil um knattspyrnu (2005)
+ Gettu betur-spiliĂ° - 10 ĂĄra afmĂŠlisĂștgĂĄfa (2010)
+ ĂslandssöguspiliĂ° (2013)
+ Ăslenska spurningaspiliĂ° (2019)
+ EvrĂłpa - spurningaspil (2021)
+
+SpurningaĂŸĂŠttir Ă sjĂłnvarpi og Ăștvarpi
+ Gettu betur ĂĄ RĂV (2004-05)
+ Spark - spurningaĂŸĂĄttur um knattspyrnu ĂĄ SkjĂĄ 1 (2005)
+ Ha? ĂĄ SkjĂĄ 1 (2011-13)
+ Ătsvar ĂĄ RĂV (2013-15)
+ Spurningakeppni fjölmiðlanna å Bylgjunni (2018-21)
+ Kvisslingur ĂĄ SjĂłnvarpi SĂmans (2020)
+
+Tenglar
+
+ BloggsĂĂ°a StefĂĄns.
+ MĂșrinn.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Ăslenskir sagnfrĂŠĂ°ingar
+Ăslenskir aĂ°gerĂ°asinnar
+Sigurvegarar Ă Gettu betur
+Vinstrihreyfingin - grĂŠnt framboĂ°
+Ăslendingar
+
+StĂșdentar Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk
+Hermann Gunnarsson, ĂŸekktastur sem âHemmi Gunnâ (9. desember 1946 â 4. jĂșnĂ 2013), var landsĂŸekktur ĂĂŸrĂłttafrĂ©ttamaĂ°ur, skemmtikraftur, ĂŸĂĄttastjĂłrnandi og einn fremsti knattspyrnumaĂ°ur Ăslendinga ĂĄ 20. öld. Hermann var ĂĄn efa ĂŸekktastur fyrir skemmtiĂŸĂĄtt sinn Ă tali hjĂĄ Hemma Gunn, sem sĂœndur var ĂĄ RĂV sĂĂ°asta ĂĄratug 20. aldar.
+
+Ăvi Hermanns
+Hermann var einn fremsti knattspyrnumaĂ°ur Ăslands ĂĄ sjöunda ĂĄratugnum. Hann spilaĂ°i meĂ° Val ĂĄ blĂłmaskeiĂ°i fĂ©lagsins en var einnig landsliĂ°smaĂ°ur. Hemmi ĂŸĂłtti einnig nokkuĂ° liĂ°tĂŠkur Ă handbolta og lĂ©k nokkra landsleiki Ă ĂĂŸrĂłttinni. Hann ĂĄtti meĂ°al annars markametiĂ° yfir flest mörk skoruĂ° Ă landsleik Ă mörg ĂĄr, ĂŸar til ĂŸaĂ° var bĂŠtt af GĂșstaf Bjarnasyni Ă leik gegn KĂna ĂĄriĂ° 1995.
+
+Hermann stundaĂ°i nĂĄm viĂ° VerzlunarskĂłla Ăslands. AĂ° knattspyrnuferlinum loknum tĂłk hann til starfa sem ĂĂŸrĂłttafrĂ©ttamaĂ°ur hjĂĄ SjĂłnvarpinu. Hann starfaĂ°i ĂŸar um ĂĄrabil, ĂŸĂł ekki vĂŠri hann alltaf ĂĂŸrĂłttafrĂ©ttamaĂ°ur. Ă nĂunda ĂĄratugnum hĂłf hann aĂ° stjĂłrna sĂnum eigin sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂŠtti hjĂĄ RĂV, Ă tali hjĂĄ Hemma Gunn. Ă lok mars 2005 hĂłf göngu sĂna nĂœr tĂłnlistargetraunaĂŸĂĄttur undir stjĂłrn Hermanns, ĂaĂ° var lagiĂ°, sem sĂœndur var ĂĄ Stöð 2. Eins stjĂłrnaĂ°i hann ĂŸĂŠttinum Ă sjöunda himni ĂĄ Stöð 2 veturinn 2006-'07.
+
+Hann söng inn ĂĄ hljĂłmplötur bĂŠĂ°i einn og meĂ° öðrum, meĂ°al annars meĂ° Ladda. Hemmi gaf einnig sjĂĄlfur Ășt hljĂłmplötu, FrĂskur og fjörugur. Ă henni er aĂ° finna lög eins og Einn dans viĂ° mig og FallerĂ, fallera. Hann starfaĂ°i lengi sem fararstjĂłri og rak veitingastaĂ° Ă TĂŠlandi. ĂriĂ° 2003 starfaĂ°i hann sem kynningarstjĂłri Vestfirska forlagsins.
+
+Hermann varĂ° brĂĄĂ°kvaddur Ă TĂŠlandi 4. jĂșnĂ 2013.
+
+Plötur
+FrĂskur og fjörugur (1984)
+Hemmi Gunn og RĂșnni JĂșll syngja fyrir börnin (1993) (MeĂ° RĂșnari JĂșlĂussyni)
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Ăslenskt fjölmiĂ°lafĂłlk
+Ăslenskir handknattleiksmenn
+Ăslenskir knattspyrnumenn
+Ăslandsklukkan er söguleg skĂĄldsaga eftir HalldĂłr Laxness. HĂșn kom Ășt Ă ĂŸremur hlutum ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1943-1946: Ăslandsklukkan (1943), HiĂ° ljĂłsa man (1944) og Eldur Ă Kaupinhafn (1946).
+
+SöguĂŸrĂĄĂ°ur
+Fyrsti hluti sögunnar segir frĂĄ JĂłni HreggviĂ°ssyni, bĂłnda ĂĄ Rein, og barĂĄttu hans viĂ° yfirvöld. JĂłn er dĂŠmdur til dauĂ°a fyrir aĂ° drepa kĂłngsins böðul, SigurĂ° Snorrason, en sleppur Ășr haldi meĂ° hjĂĄlp ĂslandssĂłlarinnar SnĂŠfrĂĂ°ar og flĂœr til Hollands og svo til Danmerkur ĂŸar sem hann ĂŠtlar sĂ©r aĂ° freista ĂŸess aĂ° nĂĄ tali af konungi og fĂĄ nĂĄĂ°un.
+
+SnĂŠfrĂĂ°ur ĂslandssĂłl, dĂłttir EydalĂns lögmanns (SnĂŠfrĂĂ°ur BjörnsdĂłttir EydalĂn), er Ă aĂ°alhlutverki à öðrum hlutanum. SnĂŠfrĂĂ°ur er kynnt til sögunnar Ă fyrsta hlutanum ĂŸar sem hĂșn ferĂ°ast um landiĂ° meĂ° Arnasi ArnĂŠus og sĂĂ°ar ĂŸegar hĂșn fĂŠr varĂ°mann til aĂ° leysa JĂłn HreggviĂ°sson Ășr haldi ĂĄ AlĂŸingi.
+à öðrum hlutanum er SnĂŠfrĂĂ°ur gift MagnĂșsi Ă BrĂŠĂ°ratĂșngu, ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° hafa elskaĂ° Arnas.
+
+ĂriĂ°ji hlutinn fjallar svo um Arnas ArnĂŠus og örlög bĂłkasafns hans Ă Kaupinhafn. Arnas giftist SnĂŠfrĂĂ°i aldrei, heldur bĂœr Ă Kaupinhafn meĂ° rĂkri konu sem fjĂĄrmagnar bĂłkasöfnun hans.
+
+Allar koma aĂ°alpersĂłnurnar viĂ° sögu à öllum hlutum sögunnar, en rauĂ°i ĂŸrĂĄĂ°urinn er barĂĄtta JĂłns HreggviĂ°ssonar.
+
+VĂsanir Ă sögunni
+SnĂŠfrĂĂ°ur ĂslandssĂłl hefur gjarnan veriĂ° borin saman viĂ° GuĂ°rĂșnu ĂsvĂfursdĂłttur, söguhetju Ă LaxdĂŠlu. ĂĂŠr eru bĂĄĂ°ar miklir skörungar og ummĂŠli ĂŸeirra um lĂfsförunauta sĂna ĂŸykja svipuĂ°.
+ âHeldur ĂŸann versta en ĂŸann nĂŠstbestaâ sagĂ°i SnĂŠfrĂĂ°ur ĂslandssĂłl ĂŸegar faĂ°ir hennar spurĂ°i hana 17 ĂĄra gamla hvers vegna hĂșn vildi ekki DĂłmkirkjuprestinn.
+ âĂeim var Ă©g verst er Ă©g unni mestâ sagĂ°i GuĂ°rĂșn ĂsvĂfursdĂłttir ĂŸegar Bolli sonur hennar spurĂ°i hana hvern eiginmanna hennar hĂșn hefĂ°i elskaĂ° mest.
+
+Fyrirmyndir og sögulegur bakgrunnur
+Ăegar sagan kom Ășt var viĂ°vörun til lesenda aftan ĂĄ fyrsta bindinu sem var svo ĂtrekuĂ° Ă sĂĂ°ari bindum verksins:
+
+Höfundur vill lĂĄta ĂŸess getiĂ° aĂ° bĂłkin er ekki âsagnfrĂŠĂ°ileg skĂĄldsagaâ, heldur lĂșta persĂłnur hennar, atburĂ°ir og stĂll einvörĂ°Ășngu lögmĂĄlum verksins sjĂĄlfs.
+
+ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸetta er ljĂłst aĂ° rĂŠtur sögunnar liggja djĂșpt Ă ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagsveruleika sögutĂmans.
+
+SögupersĂłnurnar eiga sĂ©r margar fyrirmyndir Ă raunveruleika sögutĂmans. Ăar mĂĄ nefna:
+
+ JĂłn HreggviĂ°sson - JĂłn HreggviĂ°sson, bĂłndi ĂĄ Fellsöxl Ă Skilmannahreppi, sĂĂ°ar ĂĄ Efri-Reyni Ă Akranesshreppi.
+ SnĂŠfrĂĂ°ur ĂslandssĂłl - ĂĂłrdĂs JĂłnsdĂłttir, systir SigrĂĂ°ar konu JĂłns VĂdalĂns biskups Ă SkĂĄlholti, og eiginkona MagnĂșsar SigurĂ°ssonar Ă BrĂŠĂ°ratungu er sĂș persĂłna sögutĂmans sem auĂ°veldast er aĂ° tengja SnĂŠfrĂĂ°i viĂ°. Fyrirmyndir hennar eru ĂŸĂł fleiri, t.d. GuĂ°rĂșn ĂsvĂfursdĂłttir og Scarlett O'hara, sögupersĂłna Ă hverfanda hveli. Peter Hallberg bar hana saman viĂ° Marie Grubbe Ă sögu J. P. Jacobsens.
+ Arnas ArnĂŠus - Ărni MagnĂșsson er hans helsta fyrirmynd, ĂŸĂł einnig virĂ°ist hafa veriĂ° tekiĂ° miĂ° af afskiptum SkĂșla MagnĂșssonar, landfĂłgeta, af dönsku einokunarversluninni.
+ JĂłn Grindvicensis - JĂłn Ălafsson Ășr GrunnavĂk, skrifari Ărna MagnĂșssonar.
+ MagnĂșs Ă BrĂŠĂ°ratĂșngu - MagnĂșs SigurĂ°sson Ă BrĂŠĂ°ratungu.
+ JĂłn Marteinsson - JĂłn Torfason frĂĄ Flatey og JĂłn Marteinsson frĂĄ Hildisey. Einnig hefur JĂłn Eggertsson frĂĄ Ăkrum Ă SkagafirĂ°i veriĂ° nefndur Ă ĂŸessu sambandi.
+ Metta kona ArnĂŠusar - Mette Fischer kona Ărna MagnĂșssonar.
+ HĂłlmfastur GuĂ°mundsson, maĂ°ur sem var hĂœddur fyrir aĂ° selja fisk fyrir snĂŠrisspotta en röngum kaupmanni ĂĄ tĂmum Einokunarverslunarinnar
+
+Fleiri persĂłnur sögunnar eiga sĂ©r fyrirmyndir Ă raunveruleikanum, t.d. allir ĂŸeir Ăslandskaupmenn sem nefndir eru og Ăœmsar aĂ°rar minni hĂĄttar persĂłnur.
+
+HalldĂłr notar sĂ©r annĂĄla töluvert. Stundum nĂĄnast orĂ°rĂ©tt, til dĂŠmis lĂœsinguna ĂĄ bruna Kaupinhafnar Ă fimmtĂĄnda kafla ĂŸriĂ°ja bindis, sem er tekin Ășr HĂtardalsannĂĄl. Einnig nĂœtir hann sĂ©r annaĂ° aĂ°sĂłtt efni eftir föngum en samsamar ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸĂł sögunni og fĂŠr ĂŸvĂ ĂŸannig nĂœja merkingu og nĂœtt hlutverk.
+
+Heimildir
+ EirĂkur JĂłnsson, 1981. RĂŠtur Ăslandsklukkunnar. HiĂ° Ăslenska bĂłkmenntafĂ©lag, ReykjavĂk.
+
+Tenglar
+ MĂn klukka - klukkan ĂŸĂn; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1976
+ GuĂ°s miskunn er ĂŸaĂ° fyrsta sem deyr Ă vondu ĂĄri; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1976
+ Hans nafn lifir à stjörnunum; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1977
+ Dönsk svipa blakti listilega; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1976
+ Ă nĂș loksins aĂ° höggva mig, spurĂ°i hann glaĂ°ur; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1977
+ Hvar ĂŸĂș nĂĄir aĂ° kaupa kĂșt kastaĂ°u ĂŸar til öllu; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1977
+ ĂaĂ° er eldur Ă Kaupinhafn; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1975
+ ĂjĂłnn ĂŸeirra svarlausu; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 2000
+ Ăxi skil Ă©g; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1985
+ Hver var MagnĂșs Ă BrĂŠĂ°ratungu; 1. grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1945
+ Hver var MagnĂșs Ă BrĂŠĂ°ratungu; 2. grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1945
+ Kennsluefni um Ăslandsklukkuna; Kennsluvefir Hörpu HreinsdĂłttur
+
+Skåldsögur eftir Halldór Laxness
+Sögulegar skåldsögur
+ĂaĂ° sem enginn sĂ©r var framlag Ăslands til Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva ĂĄriĂ° 1989. Flytjandi var DanĂel ĂgĂșst Haraldsson. Lag og texti var eftir Valgeir GuĂ°jĂłnsson. LagiĂ° var fyrsta Ăslenska lagiĂ° til aĂ° hljĂłta engin stig Ă keppninni.
+
+Framlög Ăslands til Eurovision
+SjĂĄlfstĂŠtt fĂłlk er skĂĄldsaga eftir HalldĂłr Laxness sem var gefin Ășt Ă fjĂłrum bindum ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1933-1935: LandnĂĄmsmaĂ°ur Ăslands, Skuldlaust bĂș, ErfiĂ°ir tĂmar og VeltiĂĄr. Seinna meir voru bindin sameinuĂ° Ă eina bĂłk og er sĂș bĂłk nefnd SjĂĄlfstĂŠtt fĂłlk. BĂłkin er ein ĂŸekktasta Ăslenska skĂĄldsagan, hĂșn er kennd ĂĄ framhaldsskĂłlastigi ĂĄ Ăslandi. Sagan er jafnan talin tilheyra fĂ©lagslegri raunsĂŠisstefnu Ă bĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°um og mĂĄ ĂŠtla aĂ° hĂșn gerist ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1899-1921 ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+
+SöguĂŸrĂĄĂ°ur
+Sagan fjallar um GuĂ°bjart JĂłnsson, Bjart Ă SumarhĂșsum, fjölskyldu hans og örlög ĂŸeirra. Sagan hefst ĂŸĂł ĂĄ frĂĄsögn um KĂłlumkilla. GuĂ°bjartur vann Ă 18 ĂĄr fyrir hreppstjĂłrann Ă sveitinni meĂ°al annars sem smali, en ĂŸĂĄ hafĂ°i hann loks safnaĂ° nĂŠgu fĂ© til ĂŸess aĂ° kaupa sĂ©r sitt eigiĂ° land. Hann tĂłk viĂ° landi er hafĂ°i veriĂ° Ă eyĂ°i sökum reimleika. Gunnvör og KĂłlumkilli voru draugar og höfĂ°u tekiĂ° sĂ©r ĂŸar bĂłlfestu og rekiĂ° fyrrum ĂĄbĂșendur Ă burtu. Bjartur trĂșĂ°i ekki ĂĄ drauga og lĂ©t ĂŸaĂ° ekki aftra sĂ©r frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hefja bĂșskap Ă VeturhĂșsum. Hann breytti nafninu ĂĄ bĂŠnum Ă SumarhĂșs og reisti nĂœtt bĂœli. Hann giftist stuttu sĂĂ°ar RĂłsu, sem lĂ©st af barnsförum ĂĄri sĂĂ°ar. Bjartur var Ăști Ă leit aĂ° ĂĄ ĂŸegar RĂłsa lĂ©st. Ăsta SĂłllilja, dĂłttir RĂłsu, rĂ©tt lifĂ°i af. Bjartur var mikill kvĂŠĂ°amaĂ°ur og lagĂ°i ekki mikiĂ° Ă nĂștĂmakveĂ°skap, heldur vildi rĂm og hefĂ°bundna bragarhĂŠtti. SĂĂ°ari hluti sögunnar fjallar aĂ° mestu um Ăstu SĂłllilju.
+
+Helstu sögupersónur
+ Bjartur Ă SumarhĂșsum, bĂłndi (GuĂ°bjartur JĂłnsson)
+ RĂłsa, móðir Ăstu SĂłllilju og fyrsta kona Bjarts
+ Ăsta SĂłllilja, dĂłttir RĂłsu en aĂ°eins stjĂșpdĂłttir Bjarts, IngĂłlfur Arnarsson var hennar eiginlegi faĂ°ir.
+ JĂłn GuĂ°bjartsson (Nonni)
+ Helgi GuĂ°bjartsson
+ GuĂ°mundur GuĂ°bjartsson (Gvendur)
+ GuĂ°finna (Finna), seinni kona Bjarts
+ JĂłn, hreppstjĂłri
+ RauĂ°smĂœrarmaddaman
+ IngĂłlfur Arnarson JĂłnsson, faĂ°ir Ăstu
+
+En auk ĂŸess kemur móðir Finnu, Hallbera, amma GuĂ°bjartssonanna mikiĂ° viĂ° sögu.
+
+Eitt og annaĂ°
+ SĂŠnski leikstjĂłrin Ingmar Bergman hafĂ°i ĂĄhuga ĂĄ aĂ° kvikmynda verk upp Ășr SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°u fĂłlki. Ăannig segir frĂĄ Ă Regn Ă rykiĂ° eftir Thor VilhjĂĄlmsson, sem tĂłk viĂ°tal viĂ° hann Ă Malmö ĂĄ sjötta ĂĄratug 20. aldar: âĂĂł lĂœsir hann [Ingmar Bergman] ĂĄhuga sĂnum ĂĄ SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°u fĂłlki eftir Laxness. Ărum saman, segir hann: hefur mig langaĂ° til aĂ° gera kvikmynd byggĂ°a ĂĄ fyrri hluta verksins. En ĂŸaĂ° vantar peninga. Ăg hef lengi reynt aĂ° fĂĄ peninga til ĂŸess en ekki tekist, sagĂ°i Bergmanâ.
+ TaliĂ° er aĂ° móðir Finnu eigi sĂ©r fyrirmynd à ömmu HalldĂłrs, en persĂłnur lĂkar ömmunni eru tĂĂ°ar Ă verkum hans.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+
+ RĂłsalundur fĂĄtĂŠktarinnar - föng HalldĂłrs Laxness Ă rĂŠĂ°u skĂĄldkonunnar ĂĄ ĂtirauĂ°smĂœri; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1976
+ Mynd sem aflvaki skĂĄldskapar; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1990
+ Vinstri vĂĄngi - kafli Ășr SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°u fĂłlki; birtist Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1997
+ Mikil bĂłk lĂtillar ĂŸjóðar; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1996
+ Enskur ĂŸĂœĂ°andi sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°s fĂłlks; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1998
+26. mars er 85. dagur ĂĄrsins (86. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 280 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 752 - StefĂĄn 2. varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1027 - JĂłhannes 19. pĂĄfi krĂœndi KonrĂĄĂ° 2. keisara hins Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis.
+ 1211 - Alfons 2. varĂ° konungur PortĂșgals.
+ 1431 - RĂ©ttarhöldin yfir JĂłhönnu af Ărk hĂłfust.
+ 1489 - Englendingar og SpĂĄnverjar sömdu um aĂ° ArthĂșr, elsti sonur Hinriks 8. Englandskonungs, skyldi giftast KatrĂnu af AragĂłnĂu.
+ 1636 - Utrecht-hĂĄskĂłli var stofnaĂ°ur Ă Hollandi.
+ 1687 - ĂlafsvĂk varĂ° löggilt verslunarhöfn meĂ° konungsbrĂ©fi.
+ 1707 - Skoska ĂŸingiĂ° var lagt niĂ°ur.
+ 1796 - NapolĂ©on Bonaparte tĂłk viĂ° stjĂłrn ĂtalĂuhers Frakka Ă Nice.
+ 1808 - Karl 4. Spånarkonungur sagði af sér og Ferdinand 7. sonur hans tók við.
+ 1871 - ParĂsarkommĂșnan var stofnuĂ° formlega Ă ParĂs.
+ 1876 - LĂșĂ°urĂŸeytarafĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur var stofnaĂ°. ĂaĂ° er talin vera fyrsta hljĂłmsveit ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1919 - PĂłstmannafĂ©lag Ăslands var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1920 - VarĂ°skipiĂ° ĂĂłr kom til Vestmannaeyja, en hann var fyrsta björgunar- og varĂ°skip Ăslendinga.
+ 1947 - Knattspyrnusamband Ăslands var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1961 - SovĂ©tmenn endurheimtu leifarnar af geimfarinu SpĂștnik 10 ĂĄsamt hundinum Zvezdochka, sem var um borĂ°. Geimfarinu var skotiĂ° upp sama dag.
+ 1971 - Austur-Pakistan lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ Pakistan og Bangladess var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1973 - Flugslys varĂ° Ă BĂșrfjöllum norĂ°an Langjökuls. Ăar fĂłrst flugvĂ©lin Vor og meĂ° henni Björn PĂĄlsson flugmaĂ°ur og fleiri.
+ 1977 - Samtökin Focus on the Family voru stofnuð af James Dobson.
+ 1979 - Anwar Sadat og Menachem Begin undirrituĂ°u friĂ°arsĂĄttmĂĄla Ă HvĂta hĂșsinu Ă Washington.
+ 1982 - Fyrsta skĂłflustunga var tekin aĂ° Vietnam Veterans Memorial Ă Washington-borg.
+ 1991 - Hópur herforingja, undir stjórn Amadou Toumani Touré, gerði stjórnarbyltingu à Malà og handtók Moussa Traore forseta.
+ 1991 - SuĂ°ur-AmerĂkurĂkin ArgentĂna, BrasilĂa, ĂrĂșgvĂŠ og ParagvĂŠ stofnuĂ°u sameiginlegan markaĂ° rĂkjanna, Mercosur.
+ 1995 - SchengensĂĄttmĂĄlinn gekk Ă gildi.
+ 1996 - AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðurinn samĂŸykkti 10,2 milljarĂ°a dala lĂĄn til RĂșsslands til aĂ° standa undir efnahagsumbĂłtum.
+ 1997 - LĂk 39 meĂ°lima Ă nĂœtrĂșarhreyfingarinnar Heaven's Gate fundust Ă KalifornĂu.
+ 1997 - Sandline-mĂĄliĂ°: Julius Chan sagĂ°i af sĂ©r sem forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra PapĂșu NĂœju-GĂneu.
+ 1998 - Oued Bouaicha-fjöldamorĂ°in ĂĄttu sĂ©r staĂ° Ă AlsĂr. 52 voru myrt meĂ° eggvopnum, ĂŸar af 32 ungabörn.
+ 1999 - Tölvuormurinn Melissa hóf að smitast um Internetið.
+ 2000 - VladimĂr PĂștĂn var kosinn forseti RĂșsslands.
+ 2002 - SĂŠnska sĂmafyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Telia og finnska fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Sonera tilkynntu um samruna.
+ 2002 - Ăslenska kvikmyndin ReykjavĂk Guesthouse var frumsĂœnd.
+ 2003 - FĂ©lag lesblindra ĂĄ Ăslandi stofnaĂ°.
+ 2006 - Skotar bönnuðu reykingar å öllum opinberum stöðum.
+ 2010 - 46 fĂłrust ĂŸegar kĂłreska herskipiĂ° Cheonan sökk viĂ° vesturströnd landsins meĂ° 104 um borĂ°.
+ 2015 - Ăslenska brjĂłstabyltingin hĂłfst ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸrjĂĄr Ăslenskar konur hvöttu kynsystur sĂnar til aĂ° mĂŠta Ă Laugardalslaug berar aĂ° ofan.
+ 2017 - Yfir 700 voru handteknir Ă vĂĂ°tĂŠkum mĂłtmĂŠlum gegn stjĂłrn PĂștĂns Ă RĂșsslandi.
+ 2018 - Yfir 100 rĂșssneskir rĂkiserindrekar Ă 20 löndum voru reknir vegna eitrunar Sergej og Juliu Skripal.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1874 - Robert Frost, skĂĄld (d. 1963).
+ 1875 - Syngman Rhee, suĂ°urkĂłreskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1965).
+ 1893 - Palmiro Togliatti, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1964).
+ 1911 - Tennessee Williams, bandarĂskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1983).
+ 1913 - PĂĄl ErdĆs, ungverskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1996).
+ 1918 - Takashi Kasahara, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1930 - Erlingur E. HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur ĂŸĂœĂ°andi (d. 2011).
+ 1931 - Leonard Nimoy, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2015).
+ 1940 - James Caan, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1940 - Nancy Pelosi, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmalamaĂ°ur.
+ 1941 - Richard Dawkins, breskur lĂffrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1943 - Bob Woodward, bandarĂskur blaĂ°amaĂ°ur.
+ 1944 - Diana Ross, bandarĂsk söngkona.
+ 1948 - Richard Tandy, tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (Electric Light Orchestra).
+ 1948 - Steven Tyler, tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (Aerosmith).
+ 1949 - Patrick SĂŒskind, ĂŸĂœskur rithöfundur.
+ 1950 - Martin Short, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1951 - HafliĂ°i ArngrĂmsson, dramatĂșrg og leikhĂșsfrömuĂ°ur.
+ 1956 - Haukur Hólm, fréttamaður å Stöð 2.
+ 1957 - JĂłnĂna BenediktsdĂłttir, Ăslensk athafnakona.
+ 1962 - John Stockton, bandarĂskur körfuknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 1968 - James Iha, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (The Smashing Pumpkins og A Perfect Circle).
+ 1968 - AdĂlson Batista, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1969 - Almir de Souza Fraga, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1972 - VĂkingur KristjĂĄnsson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1972 - Leslie Mann, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1973 - Larry Page, einn af stofnendum Google.
+ 1979 - Jay Sean, breskur söngvari.
+ 1980 - Pascal Hens, ĂŸĂœskur handknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 1982 - Mikel Arteta, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1985 - Keira Knightley, ensk leikkona.
+ 1997 - Sara PĂ©tursdĂłttir, Ăslensk söngkona betur ĂŸekkt undir listamannsnafninu Glowie.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1130 - SigurĂ°ur JĂłrsalafari, Noregskonungur (f. um 1090).
+ 1212 - Sancho 1. PortĂșgalskonungur (f. 1154).
+ 1324 - MarĂa af LĂșxemborg, Frakklandsdrottning, önnur kona Karls 4. (d. 1324).
+ 1350 - Alfons 11., konungur KastilĂu (f. 1311).
+ 1378 - GregorĂus 11. pĂĄfi.
+ 1811 - Ketill Jónsson Melstað, danskur lögfrÊðingur (f. 1765).
+ 1814 - Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, franskur lĂŠknir (f. 1738).
+ 1827 - Ludwig van Beethoven, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1770).
+ 1892 - Walt Whitman, bandarĂskt skĂĄld (f. 1819).
+ 1902 - Cecil Rhodes, breskur landkönnuður (f. 1853).
+ 1923 - Sarah Bernhardt, frönsk leikkona (f. 1844).
+ 1926 - Constantin Fehrenbach, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1852).
+ 1945 - David Lloyd George, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands (f. 1863).
+ 1959 - Raymond Chandler, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (f. 1888).
+ 1990 - Sveinbjörn SigurjĂłnsson, Ăslenskur skĂłlastjĂłri (f. 1899).
+ 1992 - Rihei Sano, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1912).
+ 1995 - Ko Takamoro, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1907).
+ 1996 - David Packard, verkfrĂŠĂ°ingur og annar stofnenda Hewlett-Packard (f. 1912)
+ 1997 - Marshall Applewhite, stofnandi sĂ©rtrĂșarsöfnuĂ°arins Heaven's Gate (f. 1931).
+ 2004 - Takeshi Kamo, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1915).
+ 2005 - Einar Bragi SigurĂ°sson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi (f. 1921).
+ 2005 - James Callaghan, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands (f. 1912).
+ 2011 - Paul Baran, bandarĂskur verkfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1926).
+ 2015 - Tomas Tranströmer, sÊnskt skåld (f. 1931).
+
+Mars
+Hamas, skammstöfun fyrir Harakat al-Muqawamah al-Islamiyyah (arabĂska: Ăslamska andspyrnuhreyfingin), eru herskĂĄ palestĂnsk mĂșslimasamtök sem starfa aĂ°allega ĂĄ HeimastjĂłrnarsvĂŠĂ°um PalestĂnumanna. Samtökin stofnuĂ°u stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokk og eru Ă meirihluta ĂĄ ĂŸingi PalestĂnumanna.
+
+Hamas voru stofnuĂ° af Ahmed Jassin sĂĂ°la ĂĄrs 1987, ĂŸĂĄ sem klofningshreyfing Ășr BrĂŠĂ°ralagi mĂșslima, og helga sig stofnun Ăslamsks rĂkis Ă PalestĂnu. ĂsraelsrĂki, BandarĂkin, EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° og fleiri lönd hafa skilgreint samtökin sem hryĂ°juverkasamtök. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸetta reka samtökin lĂka Ăœmsa samfĂ©lagsĂŸjĂłnustu svo sem heilsugĂŠslu og skĂłla.
+
+Söguågrip
+RĂŠtur Hamas liggja hjĂĄ BrĂŠĂ°ralagi mĂșslima, stĂŠrstu og elstu hreyfingu Ăslamista Ă heimi. ĂriĂ° 1973 stofnaĂ°i Ahmed Jassin, meĂ°limur Ă BrĂŠĂ°ralaginu, góðgerĂ°arsamtökin Mujama, sem meĂ°al annars rak sjĂșkrahĂșs, barnaheimili og skĂłla. HernĂĄmsstjĂłrn Ăsraela ĂĄ Gasaströndinni hvatti Mujama ĂĄriĂ° 1978 til aĂ° sĂŠkja um skrĂĄningu sem góðgerĂ°arfĂ©lag og veitti stofnuninni fjĂĄrhagslega styrki. Stefna Ăsraela ĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma var sĂș aĂ° styĂ°ja Ăslamskar hreyfingar ĂĄ hernumdu svĂŠĂ°unum til ĂŸess aĂ° kljĂșfa palestĂnsku ĂŸjóðernishreyfinguna, sem var ĂŸĂĄ undir stjĂłrn veraldlegra flokka Ă Frelsissamtökum PalestĂnu (PLO).
+
+Ă nĂunda ĂĄratugnum fĂłru Mujama-menn Ă sĂauknum mĂŠli aĂ° beita ofbeldi gegn hlutum sem ĂŸeir ĂĄlitu ekki samrĂŠmast ĂslamstrĂș, meĂ°al annars kvikmyndahĂșsum, veitingahĂșsum sem buĂ°u upp ĂĄ ĂĄfengi og spilavĂtum. Ăetta leiddi til ĂŸess aĂ° Ăsraelar hĂŠttu stuĂ°ningi viĂ° samtökin og lĂ©tu ĂĄriĂ° 1984 handtaka Jassin og tĂłlf samverkamenn hans, auk ĂŸess sem vopnahirsla ĂŸeirra var gerĂ° upptĂŠk.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1987 stofnaĂ°i Jassin formlega Hamas-samtökin ĂĄsamt öðrum Ăslamistum. Tilgangurinn meĂ° stofnun samtakanna var aĂ° gera meĂ°limum BrĂŠĂ°ralags mĂșslima kleift aĂ° berjast gegn Ăsraelum Ă fyrstu intifödunni, uppreisn PalestĂnumanna gegn Ăsraelsku hernĂĄmi sem stóð frĂĄ 1987 til 1993. Ă stofnsĂĄttmĂĄla Hamas, sem var gerĂ°ur Ă ĂĄgĂșst 1988, var boĂ°aĂ° aĂ° ĂslamstrĂș skyldi tortĂma Ăsrael og aĂ° öll PalestĂna vĂŠri Ăslamskt land sem mĂșslimar gĂŠtu aldrei gefiĂ° eftir. Ă tĂunda ĂĄratugnum mĂłtmĂŠltu Hamas-samtökin ĂslĂłarsamkomulaginu sem leiĂ°togar PLO gerĂ°u viĂ° stjĂłrn Ăsraels Ă viĂ°leitni til aĂ° leysa Ășr deilum ĂŸjóðanna.
+
+Ăegar PersaflĂłastrĂĂ°iĂ° braust Ășt meĂ° innrĂĄs Ăraks Ă KĂșveit ĂĄriĂ° 1990 lĂœsti Yasser Arafat, leiĂ°togi PLO, yfir stuĂ°ningi viĂ° Saddam Hussein, forseta Ăraks. Hamas-samtökin hvöttu aftur ĂĄ mĂłti bĂŠĂ°i Ăraka og BandarĂkjamenn til ĂŸess aĂ° draga hersveitir sĂnar burt frĂĄ KĂșveit. Ăetta leiddi til ĂŸess aĂ° margir fjĂĄrhagslegir bakhjarlar PLO, bĂŠĂ°i Ă SĂĄdi-ArabĂu og Ă Ăran, hĂŠttu stuĂ°ningi viĂ° ĂŸau samtök og fĂłru ĂŸess Ă staĂ° aĂ° styĂ°ja Hamas.
+
+MeĂ° auknum erlendum fjĂĄrstuĂ°ningi gĂĄtu Hamas-samtökin aĂ° miklu leyti tekiĂ° viĂ° af hlutverki PLO Ă velferĂ°armĂĄlum. Ăetta leiddi til ĂŸess aĂ° vinsĂŠldir Hamas jukust grĂĂ°arlega meĂ°al palestĂnskrar alĂŸĂœĂ°u. Hamas-samtökin vörĂ°u miklum hluta fjĂĄr sĂns til uppbyggingar samfĂ©lagsĂŸjĂłnustu Ă PalestĂnu samhliĂ°a ĂŸvĂ sem samtökin stóðu fyrir ĂĄframhaldandi ĂĄrĂĄsum gegn ĂsraelsrĂki. ĂĂŠtlaĂ° er aĂ° frĂĄ 1993 til 2009 hafi rĂșmlega 500 manns lĂĄtist Ă um 350 ĂĄrĂĄsum sem Hamas-samtökin stóðu fyrir.
+
+Hamas-samtökin komust til valda ĂĄ Gasaströndinni ĂĄriĂ° 2007 eftir aĂ° ĂŸau unnu sigur Ă ĂŸingkosningum og unnu sĂĂ°an stutt strĂĂ° gegn Fatah-hreyfingunni, sem styĂ°ur MahmĂșd Abbas, forseta PalestĂnu og leiĂ°toga PLO. UmsĂĄtursĂĄstand hefur rĂkt ĂĄ Gasaströndinni frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Hamas komst ĂŸar til valda ĂŸar sem samtökin neita aĂ° sameinast palestĂnsku heimastjĂłrninni ĂĄ Vesturbakkanum og Ăsraelar rĂĄĂ°a yfir lofthelgi, strandlengju og vöruflutningum til svĂŠĂ°isins.
+
+HernaĂ°arĂĄtök viĂ° Ăsrael frĂĄ 2008
+PalestĂnumenn hafa ĂtrekaĂ° mĂłtmĂŠlt og barist gegn lokun Ăsraela ĂĄ Gasaströndinni frĂĄ valdatöku Hamas, sem hefur margsinnis leitt til blóðugra ĂĄtaka. ĂriĂ° 2008 kom til ĂĄtaka eftir aĂ° Hamas-liĂ°ar skutu eldflaugum ĂĄ Ăsrael frĂĄ Gasaströndinni, sem leiddi til ĂĄtaka ĂŸar sem 1.100 PalestĂnumenn og 13 Ăsraelar lĂ©tust.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2012 gerĂ°u Ăsraelar loftĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ Gasaströndina til aĂ° rĂĄĂ°a af dögum Ahmed Jabari, leiĂ°toga hernaĂ°arvĂŠngs Hamas. Eftir vikulöng ĂĄtök hafĂ°i Jabari veriĂ° drepinn ĂĄsamt 150 PalestĂnumönnum og sex Ăsraelsmönnum.
+
+GasastrĂĂ°iĂ° 2014 hĂłfst eftir aĂ° Hamas-liĂ°ar rĂŠndu ĂŸremur Ăsraelskum unglingum og myrtu ĂŸĂĄ ĂĄ Gasaströndinni. Ăsraelsher hĂłf viĂ°bragĂ°saĂ°gerĂ°ir ĂĄ Vesturbakkanum ĂŸar sem 350 PalestĂnumenn voru handteknir en Hamas brĂĄst viĂ° meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° skjĂłta eldflaugum frĂĄ Gasaströndinni ĂĄ Ăsrael. Ăessi ĂĄtök entust Ă sjö vikur og aĂ° ĂŸeim loknum höfĂ°u 2.200 PalestĂnumenn og 73 Ăsraelar falliĂ° Ă valinn.
+
+Ăann 7. oktĂłber 2023 gerĂ°i Hamas ĂłvĂŠnta stĂłrĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ Ăsrael meĂ° mikilli flugskeytahrĂĂ° ĂŸar sem um 250 Ăsraelskir rĂkisborarar lĂ©tust. Fjöldi Hamas-liĂ°a braust jafnframt Ă gegnum girĂ°ingarnar Ă kringum Gasa og rĂ©Ă°st ĂĄ bĂŠi og ĂŸorp Ăsraela viĂ° landamĂŠrin. MeĂ°al annars gerĂ°u liĂ°smenn Hamas ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ tĂłnlistarhĂĄtĂĂ° Ă suĂ°urhluta Ăsraels og drĂĄpu ĂŸar um 260 Ăłbreytta borgara.
+
+BenjamĂn NetanjahĂș, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ăsraels, lĂœsti yfir strĂĂ°sĂĄstandi Ă kjölfar ĂĄrĂĄsanna.
+
+Tenglar
+ VefsĂĂ°a Hamas
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Hamas
+PalestĂnskir stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkar
+Langafasta, einnig kölluĂ° sjöviknafasta, hefst ĂĄ Ăskudegi, miĂ°vikudegi Ă 7. viku fyrir pĂĄska. Föstuinngangur stendur frĂĄ sunnudeginum ĂĄ undan og getur boriĂ° upp ĂĄ 1. febrĂșar til 7. mars og fara ĂŸeir vĂĂ°ast hvar Ă hinni vestrĂŠnu kirkju fram meĂ° fögnuĂ°i fyrir föstutĂmann. Ă Ăslandi er Ă dag er ekki haldiĂ° upp ĂĄ sunnudaginn lengur en hann hefur ĂŸĂł veriĂ° tengdur ĂskulĂœĂ°sdegi ĂŸjóðkirkjunnar, haldiĂ° er aftur ĂĄ mĂłti upp ĂĄ mĂĄnudaginn meĂ° Bolludegi, ĂŸriĂ°judaginn meĂ° Sprengidegi og svo hefst Langafasta ĂĄ miĂ°vikudeginum meĂ° Ăskudegi.
+
+SiĂ°ur er ĂĄ Ăslandi aĂ° ĂĄ lönguföstu sĂ©u PassĂusĂĄlmar HallgrĂms PĂ©turssonar lesnir Ă RĂkisĂștvarpinu.
+
+Uppruni
+Lönguföstu kristinna mĂĄ rekja til 40 daga föstu GyĂ°inga fyrir pĂĄska. HeilbrigĂ°issjĂłnarmiĂ° virĂ°ast hafa rĂĄĂ°iĂ° miklu um föstusiĂ°i eftir landsvĂŠĂ°um og sĂĂ°ar gildi ĂŸess meĂ°al hirĂ°ingja aĂ° fella ekki lambfylltar ĂŠr sem ĂĄttu aĂ° bera ĂĄ pĂĄskunum. GyĂ°ingar skipuĂ°u ĂŸvĂ bann viĂ° kjötĂĄti sjö vikurnar fyrir PĂĄska og er ĂŸaĂ° frumgerĂ° Lönguföstu eins og hĂșn er tĂmasett Ă dag. PĂĄskarnir voru ĂŸvĂ uppskeruhĂĄtĂĂ° og nĂœfĂŠddum lömbum slĂĄtraĂ° viĂ° mikil hĂĄtĂĂ°arhöld. PĂĄskalambiĂ° sem trĂșartĂĄkn er frĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma runniĂ°. Ă dögum Krists voru gyĂ°ingar ekki lengur hirĂ°ingjar en pĂĄskalambiĂ° lifĂ°i ĂĄfram sem trĂșartĂĄkn en Ă staĂ° ĂŸess voru ĂŸeir orĂ°in akuryrkjuĂŸjóð og ĂŸvĂ var hĂĄtĂĂ° ĂłsĂœrĂ°a brauĂ°sins bĂșin aĂ° bĂŠtast viĂ° tĂĄkn PĂĄskanna.
+
+PĂĄskafasta kristinna manna var upphaflega ekki lengri en föstudagurinn langi og laugardagurinn eftir eĂ°a sĂĄ tĂmi sem JesĂșs hvĂldi Ă gröf sinni. Um miĂ°ja 3. öld var ĂŸĂł vĂĂ°a orĂ°iĂ° siĂ°ur meĂ°al kristinna safnaĂ°a aĂ° fast eina til tvĂŠr vikur fyrir PĂĄska. En ĂĄ fyrri hluta 4. aldar varĂ° 40 daga fastan rĂĄĂ°andi. MeĂ° ĂŸvĂ var föstutĂmi gyĂ°inga tekin upp aĂ° nĂœju en ĂŸĂĄ undir ĂŸeim formerkjum aĂ° JesĂșs hafi fastaĂ° 40 daga Ă eyĂ°imörkinni og MĂłses dvalist jafnlengi ĂĄ SĂnaĂfjalli. Um miĂ°ja 5. öld ĂștskĂœrĂ°i LeĂł pĂĄfi 1. tilgang lönguföstu sem aĂ° hĂșn ĂŠtti aĂ° undirbĂșa sĂĄlina fyrir pĂĄskaundriĂ° meĂ° innri hreinsun og helgun. HĂșn var ĂŸvĂ tĂmi iĂ°runar fyrir drĂœgĂ°ar syndir. SjĂĄlf fastan var mikilvĂŠgasti ĂŸĂĄttur ĂŸessa undirbĂșnings.
+
+Föstuhald var misstrangt Ă kaĂŸĂłlskum siĂ°. Kjöt var efst ĂĄ bannlistanum, ĂŸĂĄ egg og smjör, svo fiskur, nĂŠst grĂŠnmeti og mjĂłlkurvörur en ströngust var fasta upp ĂĄ vatn og brauĂ°. Mismunandi var hve mikiĂ° eĂ°a hve oft mĂĄtti neyta ĂŸessa matar en fasta er ekki megrun nĂ© svelti heldur aĂ°hald og agi Ă matarĂŠĂ°i.
+
+Föstuinngangur
+Föstuinngangur er upphaf langaföstu sem stendur yfir ĂŸrjĂĄ daga fyrir öskudag, frĂĄ sunnudegi til ĂŸriĂ°judags. Hann fer vĂĂ°ast fram meĂ° fögnuĂ°i fyrir föstutĂmann. GleĂ°skapur viĂ° upphaf föstunnar ĂĄ sĂ©r fornar rĂŠtur og hefur runniĂ° saman viĂ° vorhĂĄtĂĂ°ir Ă SuĂ°ur-EvrĂłpu. Algengt var aĂ° stĂ©ttir samfĂ©lagsins hĂŠfu föstu hver sinn dag Ă föstuinngang og gat ĂŸvĂ orĂ°iĂ° samfeld kjötkveĂ°juhĂĄtĂĂ° Ă nokkra daga. ViĂ° siĂ°askiptin var gerĂ° hörĂ° hrĂĂ° aĂ° ĂŸessum siĂ°um og til dĂŠmis bannaĂ°i Danakonungur föstugangshlaup Ă löndum sĂnum ĂĄ 17. öld en ekkert er vitaĂ° um slĂka skemmtun ĂĄ Ăslandi fyrr en ĂĄ 18. öld. Heimildir geta um matarveislur ĂĄ ĂŸriĂ°judaginn, sprengidagskvöld, og telja mĂĄ vĂst aĂ° saga ĂŸeirra nĂĄi aftur til kaĂŸĂłlskra tĂma. Ekki var haldiĂ° upp ĂĄ mĂĄnudaginn fyrr en ĂĄ 19. öld meĂ° Bolludeginum en miĂ°vikudagurinn hafi breyst Ășr iĂ°runardegi Ă skemmtidag eftir siĂ°askiptin ĂĄ 16. öld.
+
+Tengt efni
+ Bolludagur
+ Sprengidagur
+ Ăskudagur
+
+Heimildir
+
+
+
+
+Dagatal
+Kristnar hĂĄtĂĂ°ir
+HrĂŠranlegar hĂĄtĂĂ°ir
+Valur SnĂŠr Gunnarsson (f. 26. ĂĄgĂșst 1976) er Ăslenskur rithöfundur, blaĂ°amaĂ°ur, ritstjĂłri og fyrrum söngvari rokkhljĂłmsveitarinnar RĂkiĂ° sem flutti pĂłlitĂskt rokk.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2000 gaf hann Ășt sĂłlĂłplötu, ReykjavĂk er köld, ĂŸar sem hann söng lög eftir Leonard Cohen Ă eigin ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu. ĂriĂ° 2003 gaf RĂkiĂ° Ășt fyrstu og einu plötu sĂna, Seljum allt, meĂ° textum eftir Val. Valur var ĂŸekktur fyrir Ăłvenjulega sviĂ°sframkomu ĂŸar sem hann leitaĂ°i sĂ©r fyrirmynda Ă pönkinu og meĂ°al ĂłheflaĂ°ra rokkara. Ăegar Valur kom fram ĂĄsamt RĂkinu var hann jafnan klĂŠddur hermannajakka, nokkrum nĂșmerum of litlum.
+
+Valur var ritstjĂłri ReykjavĂk Grapevine til ĂĄrsins 2005 og hefur eftir ĂŸaĂ° fengist viĂ° skriftir og blaĂ°amennsku, m.a. ĂĄ DV og FrĂ©ttablaĂ°inu. ĂriĂ° 2004 gaf hann Ășt ljóðasafn ĂĄ ensku, A Fool for Believing (Owings Mills, Md.: Watermark, 2004).
+
+Hann hefur gefiĂ° Ășt tvĂŠr skĂĄldsögur, Konungur norĂ°ursins: Harmsaga Ilkka Hampurilainen. 1 sem kom Ășt 2007 (MĂĄl og menning) og SĂĂ°asti elskhuginn sem kom Ășt 2013 (Ormstunga), og hafa ĂŸĂŠr bĂĄĂ°ar fengiĂ° góða dĂłma. Ă 2015 gaf hann Ășt stutta ĂŠvisögu, Paul Luchterhand 1873-1923, og ĂĄriĂ° 2017 gaf hann Ășt Ărninn og fĂĄlkinn: SkĂĄldsaga (MĂĄl og menning).
+
+Ăslenskir söngvarar
+Ăslenskir rithöfundar
+Ăslenskir blaĂ°amenn
+PassĂusĂĄlmarnir eru sĂĄlmar eftir HallgrĂm PĂ©tursson, sem hann orti ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1656-1659. Ăeir teljast vera höfuĂ°verk hans og hafa veriĂ° hluti af pĂĄskahefĂ° Ăslendinga um margra alda skeiĂ°. SĂĄlmarnir eru 50 talsins og Ă ĂŸeim er pĂslarsaga Krists rakin af mikilli innlifun. Ăeir hafa komiĂ° Ășt ĂĄ Ăslensku oftar en 80 sinnum og hafa veriĂ° ĂŸĂœddir ĂĄ fjöldamörg önnur tungumĂĄl. SĂĄlmarnir eru fluttir Ă RĂkisĂștvarpinu ĂĄ föstunni ĂĄr hvert, og hafa einnig veriĂ° fluttir Ă heild sinni ĂĄ Föstudaginn langa Ă HallgrĂmskirkju sĂĂ°an hĂșn var vĂgĂ°.
+
+SĂ©ra Hjörleifur ĂĂłrĂ°arson ĂĄ ValĂŸjĂłfsstaĂ° (d. 1786 um nĂrĂŠtt) ĂŸĂœddi PassĂusĂĄlma HallgrĂms ĂĄ latĂnu, og var sĂș ĂŸĂœĂ°ing gefin Ășt Ă Kaupmannahöfn 1785, og nefndist: Quinquaginta psalmi passionales. FormĂĄla PassĂusĂĄlmanna lĂœkur meĂ° orĂ°unum Vale pie lector (latĂna: âSĂŠll, guĂ°hrĂŠddi lesandiâ eĂ°a âVertu sĂŠll góði lesandiâ).
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+ Konungur PassĂusĂĄlmanna. Dr. MagnĂșs JĂłnsson prĂłfessor, KirkjuritiĂ° 9. tbl. 1. desember 1943, bls. 331â344.
+ PassĂusĂĄlmarnir PassĂusĂĄlmarnir af Snerpuvefnum
+
+Ăslensk ritverk
+SĂĄlmar
+RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° ohf. (skammstafaĂ° RĂV) er opinbert hlutafĂ©lag staĂ°sett ĂĄ Ăslandi, sem hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄriĂ° 1930 og sĂ©r um Ăștsendingar ĂĄ Ăștvarpi og sjĂłnvarpi. ĂtvarpsstjĂłri frĂĄ 2020 er StefĂĄn EirĂksson.
+
+ĂaĂ° sendir Ășt eina sjĂłnvarpsstöð sem heitir SjĂłnvarpiĂ° en er oft Ă daglegu tali kölluĂ° Stöð 1 eĂ°a RĂV. ĂaĂ° rekur ĂŸrjĂĄr Ăștvarpsstöðvar, RĂĄs 1 sem einbeitir sĂ©r aĂ° dagskrĂĄrgerĂ° um menningu af Ăœmsum toga, RĂĄs 2 sem hefur ĂŸaĂ° verksviĂ° aĂ° fjalla um tĂłnlist, dĂŠgurmĂĄl og fleira Ă ĂŸeim dĂșr og RondĂł sem sendir stafrĂŠnt Ășt ĂĄ höfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°inu og spilar klassĂska tĂłnlist og djass allan sĂłlarhringinn. Einnig sendir ungmennaĂŸjĂłnustan RĂV NĂșll Ășt tĂłnlist ĂĄ netinu allan sĂłlarhringinn.
+
+Einnig starfrĂŠkir RĂV fjĂłrar deildir ĂĄ landsbyggĂ°inni sem sinna frĂ©ttaĂŸjĂłnustu ĂĄ sĂnum svĂŠĂ°um og senda Ășt staĂ°bundna dagskrĂĄ ĂĄ vissum tĂmum, deildirnar eru ĂĄ ĂsafirĂ°i, Akureyri, Egilsstöðum og Selfossi. Ăar aĂ° auki rekur RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° frĂ©tta- og dagskrĂĄrvefinn ruv.is og textavarpiĂ°. RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° er fjĂĄrmagnaĂ° meĂ° auglĂœsingum en einkum framlagi Ășr rĂkissjóði. ĂĂ°ur var innheimt afnotagjald sem öllum eigendum sjĂłnvarps- og ĂștvarpstĂŠkja bar skylda til aĂ° greiĂ°a en afnotagjöldin voru afnumin ĂĄriĂ° 2009 og upp tekinn nefskattur sem ĂĄ aĂ° renna Ăłskiptur Ă reksturinn.
+
+Ătvarp
+RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° hĂłf Ăștsendingar 20. desember 1930, en fyrir ĂŸann tĂma höfĂ°u veriĂ° starfrĂŠktar einkareknar Ăștvarpsstöðvar Ă ReykjavĂk og ĂĄ Akureyri, sĂș fyrsta var H.f. Ătvarp. Fyrstu ĂĄr Ăștvarpsins var bara sent Ășt ĂĄ einni rĂĄs og Ă nokkra klukkutĂma ĂĄ kvöldi. Fyrsti ĂștvarpstjĂłrinn var JĂłnas Ăorbergsson. RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° ĂŸurfta aĂ° fara eftir ĂĄkveĂ°num Ăștvarpreglum svo sem aĂ° rĂŠkta Ăslenska tungu og sögu Ăslands. Einnig ĂŸurftu ĂŸeir aĂ° vera meĂ° einhverskonar frĂ©ttir og lĂĄta Ă ljĂłs mismunandi skoĂ°anir fyrir fĂłlk til umhugsunar. ĂaĂ° ĂŸurfti lĂka aĂ° huga aĂ° hafa skemmtiefni fyrir almenning og einnig eitthvaĂ° uppbyggilegt barnaefni fyrir krakka ĂĄ öllum aldri. ĂtvarpiĂ° hĂłf rekstur sinn Ă AusturstrĂŠti 12, ĂŸvĂ hĂșsi sem nĂș er English Pub. ĂriĂ° eftir stofnun flutti ĂŸaĂ° Ă LandssĂmahĂșsiĂ° viĂ° Austurvöll, ĂŸar sem ĂŸaĂ° var til hĂșsa til ĂĄrsins 1959. ĂĂĄ flutti ĂștvarpiĂ° ĂĄ SkĂșlagötu 4, hĂșs sem Ă dag er ĂŸekkt sem SjĂĄvarĂștvegshĂșsiĂ°. ĂriĂ° 1987 flutti ĂștvarpiĂ° Ă nĂșverandi hĂșsnĂŠĂ°i, ĂtvarpshĂșsiĂ° Ă Efstaleiti. Ă ĂĄgĂșst 1982 hĂłfust Ăștsendingar RĂVAK ĂĄ Akureyri, en sĂș deild hafĂ°i bĂŠĂ°i umsjĂłn meĂ° aĂ° skaffa deildum fyrir sunnan frĂ©tta- og dagskrĂĄrefni, sem og svĂŠĂ°isbundnar Ăștsendingar meĂ° ĂĄherslu ĂĄ mĂĄlefni svĂŠĂ°is. ĂriĂ° 1983 hĂłf svo RĂĄs 2 Ăștsendingar sĂnar. Ă fyrstu ĂĄtti sĂș stöð aĂ° vera fyrir yngri kynslóðina t.d fyrir unglingana â ĂŸar voru t.d. spilaĂ°ir poppĂŸĂŠttir og nĂștĂmalegra efni en ĂĄ RĂĄs 1 â en Ă dag er dagskrĂĄin mjög fjölbreytt. Sama mĂĄ reyndar segja um RĂĄs 1, en ĂŸĂł eru gerĂ°ar ĂŸar meiri kröfur um aĂ° efni sĂ© meira unniĂ°, meira lagt Ă dagskrĂĄrgerĂ°ina. DagskrĂĄrfĂłlk ĂĄ RĂĄs 1 keppist viĂ° aĂ° vinna vandaĂ° efni af öllu tagi. Ăar mĂĄ heyra reglulega leikritaflutning. ĂtvarpsleikhĂșsiĂ° hefur starfaĂ° reglubundiĂ° frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1947 og sendir jafnan Ășt ĂĄ RĂĄs 1, ĂŸĂł stundum sĂ©u einnig Ăștsendingar frĂĄ leikhĂșsinu ĂĄ RĂĄs 2. Ă RĂĄs 1 er sendir Ășt reglulega tĂłnleikar frĂĄ SinfĂłnĂuhljĂłmsveit Ăslands. Eldra fĂłlk hlustar mikiĂ° ĂĄ RĂĄs 1 en ĂŸaĂ° er vĂĂ°ari hlustendahĂłpur ĂĄ RĂĄs 2. 17. jĂșnĂ 1996 hĂłf RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° Ăștsendingar ĂĄ netinu. SumariĂ° 2004 hĂłf RĂV tilraunaĂștsendingar Ăștvarpsstöðvarinnar RondĂł, sem leikur klassĂska tĂłnlist og djass Ă Ăłkynntri sjĂĄlfvirkri dagskrĂĄ. Ă mai 2018 bĂŠttist svo ungmennaĂŸjĂłnustan RĂșv NĂșll Ă flĂłruna, Ăștsending ĂĄ netinu sem er Ă gangi allann sĂłlarhringinn, megni tĂmans er send Ășt Ăłkynnt tĂłnlist en ĂĄ kvöldin eru sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂŠttir. ĂaĂ° mĂŠtti ĂŸvĂ skilgreina RĂV nĂșll streymiĂ° sem blöndu af sjĂłnvarps- og Ăștvarpsstöð, ĂŸĂł stofnunin sjĂĄlf skilgreinir ĂŸjĂłnustuna sem vefsĂĂ°u.
+
+SjĂłnvarp
+AĂ°algrein: SjĂłnvarpiĂ°.
+SjĂłnvarpiĂ° hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂŸann 30. september ĂĄriĂ° 1966.
+
+Almennt
+
+SjĂłnvarpiĂ° og ĂștvarpiĂ° eru nĂș Ă sama hĂșsi eĂ°a frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2000 viĂ° Efstaleiti 1. RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° er eini fjölmiĂ°illinn hĂ©r ĂĄ landi sem leiĂ°beinir starfsmönnum um Ăslenskt mĂĄl og hefur markaĂ° sĂ©r stefnu Ă ĂŸeim mĂĄlum.
+
+ĂtvarpsstjĂłri sĂĂ°an 2020 er StefĂĄn EirĂksson og hefur hann ĂŸaĂ° hlutverk aĂ° annast rekstur og fjĂĄrmĂĄl rĂkisĂștvarpsins. ĂtvarpsstjĂłri gegnir starfi sĂnu Ă fimm ĂĄr Ă senn en ĂŸĂĄ skipar menntamĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra nĂœjan.
+
+Ătlunarverk rĂkisĂștvarpsins samkvĂŠmt vef ĂŸeirra er aĂ° vera Ă fararbroddi Ăslenskra fjölmiĂ°la meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° bjóða landsmönnum fjölbreytta og vandaĂ°a dagskrĂĄ Ă samrĂŠmi viĂ° menningar- og lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°ishlutverk sitt.
+
+MeĂ° lögum sem sett voru 23. janĂșar 2007 var RĂkisĂștvarpinu breytt Ă opinbert hlutafĂ©lag. Mikil óånĂŠgja var um frumvarpiĂ° meĂ°al stjĂłrnarandstöðunnar sem aĂ° beitti mĂĄlĂŸĂłfi til ĂŸess aĂ° tefja framgöngu ĂŸess en yfir 100 klukkustundir fĂłru Ă umrĂŠĂ°ur. FrumvarpiĂ° var ĂĄ endanum samĂŸykkt meĂ° 29 atkvĂŠĂ°um gegn 21, 13 ĂŸingmenn voru fjarstaddir og tĂłk ĂŸaĂ° gildi 1. aprĂl 2007.
+
+Miklir niĂ°urskurĂ°ir voru hjĂĄ RĂkisĂștvarpinu frĂĄ 2008. Almennrar óånĂŠgju gĂŠtti meĂ° uppsagnahrinu Ă desember 2013 og var efnt til mĂłtmĂŠla fyrir utan ĂștvarpshĂșsiĂ° og fundar Ă HĂĄskĂłlabĂĂłi Ă kjölfariĂ° ĂŸar sem fulltrĂșar fjölda aĂ°ila Ă samfĂ©laginu fordĂŠmdu aĂ°gerĂ°ina.
+
+MarkmiĂ°
+MeginmarkmiĂ° RĂkisĂștvarpsins eru samkvĂŠmt Ăștvarpslögum:
+
+ AĂ° vera vettvangur og hvati lĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°islegrar umrĂŠĂ°u
+ AĂ° endurspegla Ăslenska menningu og stuĂ°la aĂ° varĂ°veislu tungunnar
+ AĂ° upplĂœsa og frĂŠĂ°a landsmenn um Ăslensk og erlend mĂĄlefni
+ AĂ° vera vettvangur fyrir nĂœsköpun Ă dagskrĂĄrgerĂ°
+ Að efla dagskrårgerð utan höfuðborgarsvÊðisins
+ Að tryggja öfluga dreifingu dagskrårefnis
+ Að varðveita dagskrårefni fyrir komandi kynslóðir
+ Að standa vörð um öryggishlutverk sitt.
+
+ĂtvarpsstjĂłrar
+
+SjĂĄ grein: ĂtvarpsstjĂłri
+
+ JĂłnas Ăorbergsson (1930-1953)
+ SigurĂ°ur ĂĂłrĂ°arson (settur) (1950-1952)
+ VilhjĂĄlmur Ă. GĂslason (1953-1967)
+ Andrés Björnsson (1968-1986)
+ MarkĂșs Ărn Antonsson (1985-1991)
+ Heimir Steinsson (1991-1996)
+ PĂ©tur GuĂ°finnsson (settur) (1996-1997)
+ MarkĂșs Ărn Antonsson (1998-2005)
+ PĂĄll MagnĂșsson (2005-2013)
+ MagnĂșs Geir ĂĂłrĂ°arson (2014-2019)
+ StefĂĄn EirĂksson (2020â)
+
+Tenglar
+ FrĂ©ttavefur og vefsĂĂ°a RĂkisĂștvarpsins
+ Lög um RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ°
+ Lög um RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° ohf.
+
+Heimildir
+ http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20060522223656/www.ruv.is/heim/upplysingar/um/
+ http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20060522230755/www.ruv.is/heim/upplysingar/um/stefna/
+ http://mbl.is/mm/frett.html?nid=1248536
+ http://okkarruv.blogspot.com
+ http://www.bjorn.is/pistlar/2005/09/04/nr/3247
+ Ălund gagnvart RĂșv
+ RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° hf., skoĂ°un VerslunarrĂĄĂ°s Ăslands
+ HiĂ° heilaga strĂĂ° gegn RĂV, Gunnar HĂłlmsteinn ĂrsĂŠlsson
+ Hin ĂĄrlega atlaga, Ărni Heimir IngĂłlfsson
+ KaldhĂŠĂ°nislegt ĂĄstar- og haturssamband viĂ° RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ°, eftir Ăla Björn KĂĄrason 12. september 2012
+ RĂkisĂștvarpinu ohf. blĂŠĂ°ir Ășt, eftir Ăli Björn KĂĄrason 17. jĂșlĂ 2013
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ°
+Ăslenskir fjölmiĂ°lar
+Opinber hlutafélög
+Ăslenskar Ăștvarpstöðvar
+EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i er sĂș grein nĂĄttĂșruvĂsindanna sem fjallar um samhengi efnis, orku, tĂma og rĂșms og beitir vĂsindalegum aĂ°ferĂ°um viĂ° hönnun lĂkana, sem setja nĂĄttĂșrufyrirbĂŠri Ă stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ilegan bĂșning. EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingar rannsaka meĂ°al annars vĂxlverkun efnis og geislunar og samhengi efnis og orku, tĂma og rĂșms til ĂŸess aĂ° skilja hvernig alheimurinn virkar.
+
+EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°in skĂœrir efni ĂŸannig aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° sĂ© samsett Ășr frumeindum, sem eru samsettar Ășr kjarneindum, sem aftur eru gerĂ°ar Ășr kvörkum. Efni og orka eru Ă raun sama fyrirbĂŠriĂ° samkvĂŠmt afstĂŠĂ°iskenningunni. Geislun er skĂœrĂ° meĂ° ljĂłseindum og/eĂ°a rafsegulbylgjum (tvĂeĂ°li). LögmĂĄl eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°innar eru flest sett fram sem stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ijöfnur, yfirleitt sem lĂnulegt samband tveggja stĂŠrĂ°a, eĂ°a sem 1. eĂ°a 2. stigs deildajöfnur.
+
+NĂștĂmaeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i reynir aĂ° sameina megingreinar eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°innar, rafsegulfrĂŠĂ°i (rafsegulkrafturinn), ĂŸyngdaraflsfrĂŠĂ°i (ĂŸyngdarkrafturinn) og kjarneĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i (sterki og veiki kjarnakrafturinn) Ă eina allsherjarkenningu.
+
+Helstu greinar eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°innar
+EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°inni mĂĄ skipta grĂłflega Ă kjarneĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i, ĂŸĂ©tteĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i, atĂłmfrĂŠĂ°i, stjarneĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i og hagnĂœtta eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i. Ăessar greinar hafa svo fjölda sĂ©rhĂŠfĂ°ra undirgreina, eins og öreindafrĂŠĂ°i, safneĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i, sameindaeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i, ljĂłsfrĂŠĂ°i, skammtafrĂŠĂ°i, rafgasfrĂŠĂ°i, geimeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i og klassĂska aflfrĂŠĂ°i. Ăessar greinar vinna Ășt frĂĄ nokkrum grundvallarkenningum, eins og afstĂŠĂ°iskenningunni, kenningunni um miklahvell, staĂ°allĂkaninu, samĂŸĂŠttingarkenningunni og ofurstrengjafrĂŠĂ°i.
+
+FrĂĄ 20. öld hafa rannsĂłknarsviĂ° eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°innar orĂ°iĂ° sĂ©rhĂŠfĂ°ari og flestir eĂ°lifrĂŠĂ°ingar Ă dag vinna allan sinn feril ĂĄ ĂŸröngu sĂ©rsviĂ°i. FrĂŠĂ°imenn sem vinna ĂĄ mörgum sviĂ°um, eins og Albert Einstein og Lev Landau, eru sĂfellt sjaldgĂŠfari.
+
+
+RaunvĂsindi
+Spil eĂ°a leikur er athöfn ĂŠtluĂ° til aĂ° skemmta einum eĂ°a fleiri leikmönnum. Leiki mĂĄ skilgreina Ășt frĂĄ a) markmiĂ°um sem leikmönnum er ĂŠtlaĂ° aĂ° nĂĄ, og b) ĂŸeim reglum sem leikmenn verĂ°a aĂ° fylgja. Sumir leikir eru bara fyrir einn leikmann, en yfirleitt eru ĂŸeir ĂŠtlaĂ°ir fleiri leikmönnum sem keppa sĂn ĂĄ milli. Yfirleitt ĂŸurfa leikmenn aĂ° taka ĂĄkvarĂ°anir sem hafa ĂĄhrif ĂĄ velgengni ĂŸeirra Ă leiknum, ĂĄkvarĂ°anirnar ĂŸurfa ĂŸĂł aĂ° vera teknar Ă samrĂŠmi viĂ° settar reglur. ĂaĂ° kallast yfirleitt svindl ef leikmaĂ°ur fylgir ekki reglunum Ă athöfnum sĂnum, og talaĂ° er um aĂ° leikmaĂ°ur hafi rangt viĂ°.
+
+FrĂĄ örĂłfi alda hafa menn leikiĂ° leiki, sĂ©r og öðrum til skemmtunar. Fjölmargar tegundir leikja hafa orĂ°iĂ° til; nokkrar ĂŸeirra eru listaĂ°ar neĂ°ar ĂĄ sĂĂ°unni.
+
+Heimspekingurinn Ludwig Wittgenstein fĂŠrĂ°i rök fyrir ĂŸvĂ Ă riti sĂnu, Philosophische Untersuchungen (RannsĂłknum Ă heimspeki), aĂ° hugtakiĂ° âleikurâ yrĂ°i ekki skilgreint meĂ° einföldum hĂŠtti, heldur yrĂ°i aĂ° lĂta svo ĂĄ aĂ° einungis vĂŠri hĂŠgt aĂ° skilgreina hugtakiĂ° meĂ° fjölda mismunandi skilgreininga sem deila einhverjum lĂkindum.
+
+Ămsar tegundir leikja
+ Ăgiskunarleikir
+ Barnaleikir
+ BĂlaleikir
+ BorĂ°spil
+ Drykkjuleikir
+ FjĂĄrhĂŠttuspil
+ Hlutverkaleikir
+ ĂĂŸrĂłttaleikir
+ OrĂ°aleikir
+ PartĂleikir
+ PĂłstleikir
+ PĂșsluspil
+ Ratleikir
+ RökĂŸrautir
+ Spunaspil
+ Spurningaleikir
+ StĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ileikir
+ Teningaspil
+ Tilviljunarleikir
+ Tölvuleikir
+
+Tengt efni
+ Leikur
+
+Tenglar
+ Eigum viĂ° aĂ° slĂĄ Ă slag?; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1957
+ Að leika sér saman; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1976
+
+Spil
+Tölvuleikur er hvers kyns leikur sem leikinn er Ă tölvu eĂ°a leikjatölvu. Ăeir eru margs konar; spilakassaleikir, sjĂłnvarpsleikir, textaleikir, netleikir og herkĂŠnskuleikir hafa t.d. veriĂ° vinsĂŠlar tegundir. Upp ĂĄ sĂĂ°kastiĂ° hafa tölvuleikir Ă auknum mĂŠli veriĂ° notaĂ°ir til auglĂœsinga og Ă stafrĂŠnni list.
+
+VĂ©lbĂșnaĂ°ur
+
+Tölvuleikir eru spilaĂ°ir ĂĄ Ăœmiskonar vĂ©lbĂșnaĂ°i. Algengustu gerĂ°ir eru heimilistölvur eĂ°a leikjatölvur. AĂ°rar gerĂ°ir af vĂ©lbĂșnaĂ°i eru handleikjatölvur eins og Nintendo DS leikjatölvan eĂ°a spilakassar sem eru sĂ©rstaklega hannaĂ°ir til ĂŸess aĂ° spila tölvuleiki. Ă sĂĂ°ustu ĂĄrum hefur sĂș ĂŸrĂłun ĂĄtt sĂ©r staĂ° aĂ° raftĂŠki sem ĂĄĂ°ur fyrr notuĂ°ust ekki viĂ° hugbĂșnaĂ° hafa Ă sĂfellt meiri mĂŠli notast viĂ° hugbĂșnaĂ°arlausnir. Ăar af leiĂ°andi er hĂŠgt aĂ° spila tölvuleiki ĂĄ enn fleiri miĂ°lum en ĂĄĂ°ur. Sem dĂŠmi um vĂ©lbĂșnaĂ° sem getur spilaĂ° tölvuleiki en er ekki sĂ©rhannaĂ°ur til ĂŸess eru farsĂmar, lĂłfatölvur, grafĂskar reiknivĂ©lar, GPS-tĂŠki, MP3-spilarar, stafrĂŠnar myndavĂ©lar og Ășr.
+
+Flokkar
+
+Tölvuleikir eru eins og bĂŠkur, bĂĂłmyndir og tĂłnlist oft flokkaĂ°ir niĂ°ur Ă mismunandi gerĂ°ir. Algengast er aĂ° flokka tölvuleiki eftir ĂŸvĂ hvernig ĂŸeir eru spilaĂ°ir lĂkt og Ă ĂŠvintĂœraleiki, skotleiki, bardagaleiki og ĂŸrautaleiki. Til eru margir undirflokkar og hĂŠgt er aĂ° setja suma leiki Ă marga flokka ĂĄ meĂ°an erfitt er aĂ° flokka aĂ°ra. Sem dĂŠmi um tölvuleik sem hĂŠgt vĂŠri aĂ° flokka ĂĄ marga vegu er leikurinn Doom 3. Hann er fyrst og fremst fyrstu persĂłnu skotleikur en einnig vĂŠri hĂŠgt aĂ° flokka hann sem hryllingsleik.
+
+StjĂłrntĂŠki
+
+ĂaĂ° fer eftir gerĂ° leiks og ĂĄ hvernig tölvu hann er spilaĂ°ur , hvernig stjĂłrntĂŠki eru notuĂ°. Ă venjulegum heimilistölvum er oft notast viĂ° lyklaborĂ°, mĂșs eĂ°a bĂŠĂ°i lyklaborĂ° og mĂșs Ă einu. Ă heimilistölvum er einnig hĂŠgt aĂ° kaupa sĂ©rstaka stĂœripinna fyrir leiki og eru sĂ©rhannaĂ°ir stĂœripinnar fyrir flugherma og bĂlaleiki ĂŸĂłnokkuĂ° algengir.
+
+Ă leikjatölvum er langalgengast aĂ° notast sĂ© viĂ° sĂ©rstaka stĂœripinna sem eru sĂ©rhannaĂ°ir fyrir hverja tölvu og fylgja ĂŸĂĄ oft meĂ° tölvunni sjĂĄlfri. Fyrstu leikjatölvurnar notuĂ°ust viĂ° lyklaborĂ° og einfalda stĂœripinna en eftir ĂŸvĂ sem leikjatölvurnar ĂŸrĂłuĂ°ust hurfu lyklaborĂ°in smĂĄm saman. StĂœripinnar fyrir leikjatölvur hafa ĂŸrĂłast mikiĂ° frĂĄ upphafi og meĂ° hverri kynslóð af leikjatölvum koma oftast einhverjar nĂœjungar fram ĂĄ sjĂłnarsviĂ°iĂ°.
+
+Ă leikjatölvum er einnig hĂŠgt aĂ° kaupa sĂ©rhannaĂ°a stĂœripinna sem oft eru sĂ©rhannaĂ°ir fyrir sĂ©rstaka leiki. Ă skotleikjum ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° Duck Hunt og House of the Dead 2 er notast viĂ° sĂ©rstakar tölvuleikjabyssur og Ă leiknum Guitar Hero er notast viĂ° sĂ©rstakan tölvuleikjagĂtar.
+
+Kenningar
+ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° tĂŠknilegir ĂŸĂŠttir tölvuleikja hafa veriĂ° rannsakaĂ°ir Ă mörg ĂĄr eru rannsĂłknir um ĂĄhrif tölvuleikja ĂĄ samfĂ©lagiĂ° skemmra ĂĄ veg komnar. SamfĂ©lagslegar rannsĂłknir eru gerĂ°ar ĂĄ sviĂ°i frĂĄsagnarfrĂŠĂ°i og leikjarannsĂłkna. Sögumenn lĂta ĂĄ tölvuleiki sem miĂ°il ĂŸar sem einstaklingar fĂĄ aĂ° vera aĂ°rar persĂłnur og taka ĂĄkvarĂ°anir Ă nĂœjum heimi meĂ° hliĂ°sjĂłn af Holodeck-tĂŠkninni Ășr Star Trek. FrĂŠĂ°imenn ĂĄ sviĂ°i leikjarannsĂłkna eru ĂłsammĂĄla ĂŸessari skoĂ°un og telja tölvuleiki byggjast fyrst og fremst ĂĄ umhverfi og reglum leikjanna. Rök ĂŸeirra eru aĂ° söguĂŸrĂŠĂ°ir og persĂłnur sĂ©u ekki nauĂ°synlegar Ă leikjum. Tölvuleikir notast hins vegar oft viĂ° söguĂŸrĂĄĂ° meĂ°al annars vegna ĂŸess aĂ° almenningur er vanur ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Ăœmsir skemmanamiĂ°lar eins og kvikmyndir geri slĂkt hiĂ° sama. SöguĂŸrĂĄĂ°ur Ă tölvuleikjum er ĂŸannig oft notaĂ°ur til ĂŸess aĂ° draga spilara aĂ° leiknum..
+
+FĂ©lagsleg ĂĄhrif
+Ă rannsĂłkn sem GameVision Europe gerĂ°i Ă rĂkjum EvrĂłpusambandsins voru 54% leikmanna sem spila leiki ĂĄ farsĂmum eĂ°a lĂłfatölvum, 20% leikmanna eru kvenkyns og 21% spila tölvuleiki meĂ° vinum.
+
+Tölvuleikir hafa lengi veriĂ° fĂ©lagsvĂŠnir. Fjölspilunarleikir eru spilaĂ°ir af nokkrum leikmönnum, Ăœmist sem keppnisleikur eĂ°a meĂ° nokkrum stĂœripinnum. Leikjatölvur hafa sĂĂ°an ĂŸĂĄ komiĂ° meĂ° tveimur eĂ°a fjĂłrum tengjum fyrir stĂœrapinna. Heimilistölvur einblĂœna frekar ĂĄ netiĂ° fyrir fjölspilun, Ăœmist Ă gegnum staĂ°arnet eĂ°a internetiĂ°. Fjöldanetspunaleikir geta tekiĂ° viĂ° grĂĂ°arlega hĂĄum fjölda leikmanna; EVE Online setti met meĂ° 54.446 leikmenn ĂĄ einum netĂŸjĂłn ĂĄriĂ° 2010.
+
+Kostir tölvuleikja
+RannsĂłknir sĂœna aĂ° leikmenn sem spila tölvuleiki hafa betri samhĂŠfingu augna og handa ĂĄsamt betri samhĂŠfingu miĂ°taugakerfisins og vöðva, sem leiĂ°ir af sĂ©r betra ĂŸol fyrir truflunum og talningu hluta sem eru sĂœnd Ă skamman tĂma, heldur en ĂŸeir sem spila ekki tölvuleiki.
+
+Ă bĂłk Steven Johnson, Everything Bad is Good for You, fĂŠrir hann rök fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° tölvuleikir sĂ©u erfiĂ°ari en hefĂ°bundin spil. Tölvuleikir halda aftur mikilvĂŠgum upplĂœsingum svo aĂ° leikmaĂ°urinn ĂŸarf aĂ° ĂĄtta sig ĂĄ umhverfi leiksins. Flestir leikir gera kröfu um mikla athygli og ĂŸeir fresta ĂĄnĂŠgju mun lengur en aĂ°rar skemmtanir.
+
+Leikmenn eru meĂ° einbeitt viĂ°horf gangvart tölvuleikjum. Einbeitingin er ĂŸaĂ° mikil aĂ° ĂŸeir glĂma viĂ° vandann ĂĄn ĂŸess aĂ° ĂĄtta sig ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸeir sĂ©u aĂ° lĂŠra Ă leiĂ°inni. Ef aĂ° sama viĂ°horfiĂ° gĂŠti veriĂ° yfirfĂŠrt yfir ĂĄ skĂłlana ĂŸĂĄ myndi menntun ĂŸeirra verĂ°a mun betri. MeĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° leysa ĂŸrautir leikja lĂŠra ĂŸĂŠr og ĂŸaĂ° eflir skapandi hugsun.
+
+GagnrĂœni
+GagnrĂœni ĂĄ tölvuleiki beinist aĂ° fĂkniefnum, ofbeldi, ĂĄróðri og orĂ°bragĂ°i leikjanna. RannsĂłknir hafa sĂœnt aĂ° tengsl eru ĂĄ milli ofbeldisfullra leikja og ĂĄrĂĄsarhneigĂ°ar. Rök eru fĂŠrĂ° fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° tölvuleikir sĂ©u miĂ°ill sem einstaklingar geti lĂŠrt af og hermt eftir Ă daglegu lĂfi.
+
+Nokkur samtök flokka tölvuleiki eftir aldri, eins og PEGI sem flokkar leiki Ă EvrĂłpu og ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ăessi samtök eru Ăœmist Ă einkaeigu eĂ°a Ă eigu rĂkisins. Flestir leikir birta einkunn sĂna ĂĄ framhliĂ° vörunnar, en margir foreldrar eru ĂłupplĂœstir um ĂŸessar merkingar.
+
+MarkaĂ°urinn
+
+Sölutölur leikja
+StĂŠrstu framleiĂ°endur tölvuleikja (Ă ĂŸessari röð) eru: BandarĂkin, Kanada, Japan og Bretland. Ărar eru stĂŠrstu kaupendur tölvuleikja eftir höfĂ°atölu.
+
+Heimildir
+
+Tengt efni
+
+Tegundir af leikjum
+ Hasarleikur
+ Fyrstu persĂłnu skotleikur
+ HerkĂŠnskuleikur
+ RauntĂmaherkĂŠnskuleikur
+ Fjölnotendanetspunaleikur
+ Hlutverkaleikur (Spunaspil eĂ°a RPG)
+ ĂĂŸrĂłttaleikur
+ Sandkassaleikur (Opinn leikheimur)
+ Spilakassaleikur
+ ĂvintĂœraleikur
+ Ărautaleikur
+
+Tenglar
+ Nöfn flestra tölvuleikja sem framleiddir hafa verið
+
+Tölvuleikir
+
+la:Ludus computatralis
+sl:Video igra
+Leikjatölva er tölva sem er sĂ©rhönnuĂ° meĂ° ĂŸaĂ° Ă huga aĂ° spila sjĂłnvarpsleiki. Yfirleitt er ĂŠtlast til aĂ° tölvan sĂ© tengd sjĂłnvarpi og ĂŸaĂ° notaĂ° Ă staĂ° tölvuskjĂĄs. Handleikjatölva er leikjatölva sem hönnuĂ° er til aĂ° ferĂ°ast meĂ°. Fyrstu leikjatölvurnar komu Ășt ĂĄ ĂĄttunda ĂĄratugnum en ĂŸeim er oftast skipt Ă nokkrar kynslóðar til aĂ° aĂ°greina munina ĂĄ ĂŸeim.
+
+Helstu framleiĂ°endur leikjatölva Ă dag eru Microsoft, Nintendo og Sony, en Atari og Sega voru bĂŠĂ°i ĂĄhrĂfarĂk fyrirtĂŠki ĂĄ sĂnum tĂma.
+
+Saga
+
+Fyrsta kynslóð
+
+Magnavox Odyssey var fyrsta heimaleikjatölva sem hĂŠgt var aĂ° tengja viĂ° sjĂłnvarp, hĂșn var fundin upp af Ralph H. Baer og kom ĂĄ markaĂ°inn ĂĄriĂ° 1972. HĂșn var sĂŠmilega vel heppnuĂ° en almenningurinn hafĂ°i ekki mikinn ĂĄhuga ĂĄ tölvuleikum ĂŸangaĂ° til PONG frĂĄ Atari kom Ășt. Fyrir haustiĂ° 1975 hĂŠtti Magnavox framleiĂ°slu ĂĄ Odyssey og kom smĂŠrri leikjatölvu ĂĄ markaĂ°inn sem hĂ©t Odyssey 100. MeĂ° henni var aĂ°eins hĂŠgt aĂ° spila PONG og hokkĂ. Ănnur leikjatölva sem hĂ©t Oydssey 200 kom Ășt meĂ° stigum ĂĄ skjĂĄnum, möguleika aĂ° lĂĄta allt aĂ° fjĂłra spilara spila og öðrum leik: Smash. Atari framleiddi leikjatölvu fyrir Pong sem kom Ășt nĂŠstum samtĂmis en ĂŸessar tvĂŠr tölvur hjĂĄlpuĂ°u aĂ° kveikja ĂĄhuga almennings ĂĄ tölvuleikjum. BrĂĄĂ°um voru allmargar leikjatölvur ĂĄ markaĂ°num meĂ° PONG-leikjum og leikjum byggĂ°um ĂĄ honum.
+
+Ănnur kynslóð
+
+Fairchild setti Video Entertainment System (VES) ĂĄ markaĂ°inn ĂĄriĂ° 1976. ĂĂł aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° hefĂ°i veriĂ° aĂ°rar leikatölvur sem notuĂ°u hylki innihĂ©ldu ĂŸau ekki gögn og voru ĂŸess Ă staĂ° notuĂ° sem rofa (Ă til dĂŠmis Odyssey), eĂ°a ĂŸau innihĂ©ldu öll gögn um leikinn og engin gögn voru Ă leikjatölvunni sjĂĄlfri. Hins vegar var VES meĂ° forritanlegum örgjörva og ĂŸannig ĂŸurfti aĂ°eins einn minniskubb Ă hverju hylki til aĂ° geyma leiĂ°beiningar fyrir örgjörvann.
+
+BrĂĄĂ°um hĂłfu bĂŠĂ°i RCA og Atari framleiĂ°slu ĂĄ leikjatölvum sem notuĂ°u hylki. ĂriĂ° 1977 byrjuĂ°u leikjatölvuframleiĂ°endur aĂ° selja gömlu vörurnar sĂnar meĂ° hĂĄum afslĂŠtti en ĂŸetta drĂł Ășr eftirspurn eftir öðrum leikjatölvum og ĂŸĂĄ hĂŠttu RCA og Fairchild aĂ° selja leikjatölvurnar sĂnar. Ăess vegna voru bara Atari og Magnavox eftir Ă ĂŸessum markaĂ°i. Seinna hĂŠttu ĂŸau lĂka aĂ° framleiĂ°a leikjatölvur.
+
+VES seldist ĂĄfram eftir 1977 og skilaĂ°i hagnaĂ°i en svo gaf Bally Ășt Home Library Computer (ĂĄriĂ° 1977) og Magnavox OdysseyÂČ (ĂĄriĂ° 1978) sem bĂĄĂ°ar voru forritanlegar leikjatölvur sem notuĂ°u hylki. Samt sem ĂĄĂ°ur var ĂŸaĂ° ekki fyrir ĂĄriĂ° 1980 ĂŸegar Atari kom leiknum Space Invaders Ășt aĂ° markaĂ°urinn yrĂ°i aftur Ă góðu lagi. VinsĂŠldir Space Invaders voru miklar og svo komu margir slĂkir leikir ĂĄ markaĂ°inn ĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma Ă samkeppni viĂ° hann. Margir keyptu sĂ©r Atari 2600 bara til aĂ° spila Space Invaders.
+
+Ă byrjun nĂunda ĂĄratugarins komu margar aĂ°rar leikjatölvur Ășt og ĂŸĂł aĂ° sumar vĂŠru betri en Atari 2600 ĂĄ tĂŠknilegan hĂĄtt seldust ĂŸĂŠr ekki eins vel og hĂșn. Atari 5200 kom Ășt ĂĄriĂ° 1982 en nĂŠsta ĂĄriĂ° 1983 var annar samdrĂĄttur ĂĄ tölvuleikjamarkaĂ°num vegna mikillar samkeppni og leikja sem voru ĂłvinsĂŠlir hjĂĄ spilurum, eins og E.T. frĂĄ Atari. Flest tölvuleikjafyrirtĂŠki urĂ°u gjaldĂŸrota eĂ°a hĂŠttu Ă tölvuleikjamarkaĂ°num. Mattel Electronics seldi framleiĂ°sluleyfi ĂĄ Intellivision-tölvunni fyrirtĂŠkinu INTV Corporation sem hĂ©lt ĂĄfram aĂ° selja hana og framleiĂ°a hana ĂŸar til ĂĄrsins 1991. Sölum allra annarra bandarĂskra leikjatölva var hĂŠtt fyrir ĂĄriĂ° 1984.
+
+ĂriĂ°ja kynslóð
+
+ĂriĂ° 1983 kom Nintendo Family Computer Ășt (eĂ°a Famicom) Ă Japan. Eins og ColecoVision var Famicom meĂ° hĂĄgĂŠĂ°agrafĂk en gĂŠti sĂœnt fleiri liti. Ăess vegna gĂŠtu leikir fyrir Famicom veriĂ° lengri og ĂŸeir höfĂ°u nĂĄkvĂŠmari grafĂk. Nintendo hĂłf sölum ĂĄ Famicom Ă BandarĂkjunum ĂĄriĂ° 1965 undir nafninu Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). Ăar voru tölvuleikir talnir tĂskufyrirbrigĂ°i sem var bĂșiĂ°. Til ĂŸess aĂ° aĂ°greina tölvuna sĂna frĂĄ eldri leikjatölvum setti Nintendo hylkjarauf ĂĄ framhliĂ°ina eins og ĂŸaĂ° sem fannst ĂĄ myndbandstĂŠki og henni fylgdi Super Mario Bros. og ljĂłsbyssa frĂtt. NES var seld sem leikfang. Nintendo seldi lĂka âvĂ©lmenniâ sem hĂ©t R.O.B. en Ă sumum tilfellum fylgdi hĂșn meĂ° tölvunni.
+
+Alveg eins og Space Invaders var vinsĂŠlasti leikurinn fyrir Atari 2600 var Super Mario Bros vinsĂŠlasti leikurinn fyrir NES. Velgengni Nintendo Ă tölvuleikjamarkaĂ°num endurvakti hann og Ă samkeppni viĂ° NES komu aĂ°rar leikjatölvur Ășt Ă kjölfar hennar.
+
+ĂtlaĂ° var aĂ° Master System frĂĄ Sega gĂŠti keppt ĂĄ mĂłti NES en hĂșn seldist ekki vel Ă BandarĂkjunum. Henni gekk talsvert betra Ă löndum ĂŸar sem PAL-staĂ°allinn er notaĂ°ur, sĂ©rstaklega Ă BrasilĂu.
+
+Fjórða kynslóð
+
+Sega endurheimti markaĂ°shlutdeild sinni meĂ° Mega Drive/Genesis sem kom Ășt Ă Japan 29. oktĂłber 1988, ĂĄgĂșst 1989 Ă BandarĂkjunum (undir nafninu Sega Genesis) og svo ĂĄriĂ° 1990 Ă EvrĂłpu eĂ°a tveimur ĂĄrum fyrir aĂ° Nintendo gĂŠti komiĂ° Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) ĂĄ markaĂ°inn.
+
+Sega seldi lĂka geisladrifiĂ° Mega CD/Sega CD sem veitti meira geymsluplĂĄssi fyrir margmiĂ°lunarleiki sem tĂĂ°kuĂ°ust ĂŸĂĄ hjĂĄ forriturum. Seinna kom Sega viĂ°bĂłtarverkfĂŠriĂ° 32X ĂĄ markaĂ°inn sem bauĂ° upp ĂĄ svipaĂ°ri ĂŸrĂvĂddargrafĂk eins og var Ă fimmtu kynslóðar leikjatölvum ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma. Ăetta viĂ°bĂłtarverkfĂŠri misheppnaĂ°ist vegna ĂŸess aĂ° fĂĄir leikir virkuĂ°u meĂ° ĂŸvĂ og forritarar vildu frekar forrita fyrir kraftmeiri leikjatölvur sem fleiri notuĂ°u, eins og Sega Saturn sem kom Ășt stutt sĂĂ°an.
+
+Aðrar leikjatölvur fjórðu kynslóðar voru TurboGrafx-16 frå NEC og Neo Geo frå SNK Playmore.
+
+Fimmta kynslóð
+
+Fyrstu leikjatölvur fimmtu kynslóðar voru Atari Jaguar og 3DO frĂĄ Panasonic. BĂĄĂ°ar ĂŸessar voru miklu kraftmeiri en Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) eĂ°a Mega Drive/Genesis: ĂŸĂŠr voru betri Ă aĂ° sĂœna marghyrninga og gĂŠtu sĂœnt fleiri liti, og leikir fyrir 3DO-tölvuna voru seldir ĂĄ diskum heldur en hylkjum. Diskarnir innihĂ©ldu meiri gögn og ĂŸaĂ° var ĂłdĂœrara aĂ° framleiĂ°a ĂŸĂĄ. Hvorug ĂŸessara leikjatölva hafĂ°i mikil ĂĄhrif ĂĄ sölum Nintendo eĂ°a Sega ĂŸĂł aĂ° ĂŸĂŠr voru betri. 3DO kostaĂ°i meira en bĂŠĂ°i SNES og Mega Drive saman og ĂŸaĂ° var ĂĄkaflega erfitt aĂ° forrita leiki fyrir Jaguar og ĂŸess vegna voru fĂĄir leikir sem nĂœttu hana aĂ° fullum krafti. BĂĄĂ°ar ĂŸessar tölvur voru teknar af markaĂ°num ĂĄriĂ° 1996. Bandai tilkynnti vĂ©l sem byggĂ° var ĂĄ Apple Macintosh og hĂ©t Pippin en hĂșn var frekar heimilstölva ĂĄ lĂĄgu verĂ°i en góð leikjatölva. Henni gekk illa ĂĄ markaĂ°num.
+
+Fimmtu kynslóðar leikjatölvur voru ekki svo vinsĂŠlar ĂĄĂ°ur en Saturn frĂĄ Sega, PlayStation frĂĄ Sony og Nintendo 64 komu Ășt. Leikir fyrir Saturn og PlayStation fengust ĂĄ geisladiskum en leikir fyrir N64 voru ĂĄ hylkjum. Allar ĂŸessar vĂ©lar kostuĂ°u miklu minna en 3DO og ĂŸaĂ° var auĂ°veldara aĂ° forrita ĂŸĂŠr en Jaguar.
+
+Sjötta kynslóð
+
+Ă ĂŸessari kynslóð urĂ°u leikjatölvur meira eins og borĂ°tölvur og ĂŸaĂ° tĂĂ°kaĂ°ist aĂ° nota DVD-diska fyrir leiki Ă staĂ° geisladiska. Ă kjölfar ĂŸess komu Ășt lengri leikir og meĂ° betri grafĂk. Ăar aĂ° auki voru tilraunir meĂ° netleiki gerĂ°ar og sumum vĂ©lum fylgdu harĂ°ir diskar til aĂ° vista gögn.
+
+Dreamcast frĂĄ Sega kom Ășt Ă NorĂ°ur-AmerĂku 9. september 1999 en hĂșn var sĂĂ°asta leikjatölvan frĂĄ fyrirtĂŠkinu. HĂșn var meĂ°al fyrstu fimmtu kynslóðar leikjatölvanna sem hĂŠtt varĂ° Ă framleiĂ°slu. SĂ©rstakir diskar sem hĂ©tu GD-ROM voru notaĂ°ir til aĂ° hindra Ăłlöglega ĂștgĂĄfu leika ĂŸar sem auĂ°velt var aĂ° afrita diska fjĂłrĂ°u kynslóðar en um sĂĂ°ir var fariĂ° Ă kringum ĂŸetta. HĂŠtt var aĂ° selja Dreamcast mars 2001 og Sega fĂłr ĂŸĂĄ bara aĂ° framleiĂ°a leiki. Dreamcast var lĂka meĂ° 33,6Kb eĂ°a 56k mĂłtaldi sem maĂ°ur gĂŠti notaĂ° til aĂ° komast ĂĄ netiĂ° eĂ°a spila nokkra leiki, eins og Phantasy Star Online.
+
+PlayStation 2 frĂĄ Sony kom Ășt Ă NorĂ°ur-AmerĂku 26. oktĂłber 2000 og leysti PlayStation af hĂłlmi. HĂșn var lĂka fyrsta leikjatölvan sem gat spilaĂ° DVD-diska. Eins og gert var meĂ° PlayStation ĂĄriĂ° 2000 endurhannaĂ°i Sony PlayStation 2 Ă minni ĂștgĂĄfu ĂĄriĂ° 2004. FrĂĄ og meĂ° jĂșlĂ 2008 höfĂ°u um 140 milljĂłnir eintaka PlayStation 2 selst og ĂŸetta gerir hana ĂŸĂĄ leikjatölvu allra tĂma sem selst hefur best.
+
+Microsoft gaf Ășt fyrstu leikjatölvuna sĂna ĂĄriĂ° 2001 en hĂșn heitir Xbox. Henni var fyrsta leikjatölvan sem fygldi harĂ°ur diskur til aĂ° vista leiki og var svipuĂ° Ă hraĂ°a ĂłdĂœrri borĂ°tölvu ĂĄ sĂnum tĂma. ĂĂł aĂ° hĂșn var dĂŠmd fyrir stĂŠrĂ° sĂna (hĂșn var tvisvar sinnum stĂŠrri en aĂ°rar leikjatölvur ĂŸĂĄtĂmans) og stĂœribĂșnaĂ°inn sem var talinn erfiĂ°ur Ă notkun varĂ° hĂșn vinsĂŠlla vegna velgegni leikjaraĂ°arinnar Halo. Xbox var fyrsta leikjatölvan meĂ° Ethernet-tengi og bauĂ° upp ĂĄ hĂĄhraĂ°anetleikum Ă gegnum Xbox LIVE.
+
+Nintendo kom Ășt meĂ° GameCube Ă NorĂ°ur-AmerĂku 18. nĂłvember 2001 og var fjĂłrĂ°a heimaleikjatölvan frĂĄ fyrirtĂŠkinu en sĂș fyrsta sem notaĂ°i geisladiska Ă staĂ° hylkja. GeisladrifiĂ° Ă GameCube tĂłk ekki viĂ° venjulegum 12 cm-diskum en aĂ°eins smĂŠrri 8 cm-diskum.
+
+Sjöunda kynslóð
+
+Miklar framfarir hafa veriĂ° Ă leikjatölvum sjöundu kynslóðar. Fleiri disktegundir voru tilkynntar, eins og Blu-ray Ă PlayStation 3 og HD DVD Ă Xbox 360 Ă gegnum aukahluta en sĂĂ°ar var henni hĂŠtt Ă framleiĂ°slu ĂŸegar Blu-ray varĂ° vinsĂŠlli. Allar leikjatölvur sjöundu kynslóðar styĂ°ja ĂŸrĂĄĂ°laus stjĂłrntĂŠki. Sumar fjĂĄrstĂœringar eru bĂșnar hreyfiskynjun sem skynja hreyfingar spilarans.
+
+Xbox 360 frĂĄ Microsoft var fyrsta leikjatölva ĂŸessarar kynslóðar en hĂșn kom Ășt 22. nĂłvember 2005 Ă BandarĂkjunum. HĂșn var kraftmeiri en allar aĂ°rar leikjatölvur ĂŸegar hĂșn kom Ășt ĂŸangaĂ° til PlayStation 3 var sett ĂĄ markaĂ°inn. Ăllum Xbox 360 vĂ©lum fylgir fĂŠranlegur harĂ°ur diskur nema ĂŸeim sem fylgir SSD-diskur. Ă henni er DVD-drif sem les leikjadiska og mynddiska. HĂŠgt er aĂ° tengja allt aĂ° fjögur stjĂłrntĂŠki viĂ° hana. Ă dag fĂĄst tvĂŠr ĂștgĂĄfur af Xbox 360, ein meĂ° hörĂ°um diski og önnur meĂ° SSD. MyndavĂ©l sem heitir Kinect er hĂŠgt aĂ° tengja viĂ° Xbox 360 svo aĂ° hĂșn skynji hreyfingar spilara.
+
+PlayStation 3 frĂĄ Sony kom Ășt Ă Japan 11. nĂłvember 2006, 17. nĂłvember sama ĂĄr Ă NorĂ°ur-AmerĂku og svo 23. mars 2007 Ă EvrĂłpu. Allar PlayStation 3 vĂ©lar eru bĂșnar hörĂ°um diskum og geta lesiĂ° Blu-ray leiki og mynddiska beint Ășr kassanum. PlayStation 3 var fyrsta leikjatölvan meĂ° HDMI-tengi og getur sĂœnt myndir Ă fullri 1080p upplausn. Eldri PlayStation 3 vĂ©lar styĂ°ur minniskort eins og Memory Stick, SD og CompactFlash. TvĂŠr gerĂ°ir af PlayStation 3 eru ĂĄ markaĂ°num Ă dag: ein meĂ° 160 GB hörĂ°um diski og önnur meĂ° 320 GB diski. Ă ĂŸessar vĂ©lar er ekki hĂŠgt aĂ° setja minniskort. StjĂłrntĂŠki sem heitir PlayStation Move gerir spilurum kleift aĂ° nota hreyfingar sĂnar til aĂ° stjĂłrna vĂ©linni. Hreyfingar eru teknar upp meĂ° myndavĂ©l.
+
+Nintendo Wii kom ĂĄ markaĂ°inn 19. nĂłvember 2006 Ă NorĂ°ur-AmerĂku, Ă Japan 2. desember sama ĂĄr og daginn eftir ĂĄ ĂstralĂu, og svo Ă EvrĂłpu 8. desember sama ĂĄr. Henni fylgir Wii Sports og Wii Sports Resort alls staĂ°ar nema Ă Japan. Wii er ĂłlĂk öðrum leikjatölvum sjöundu kynslóðar ĂŸar sem hĂșn er ekki meĂ° hörĂ°um diski en er meĂ° 512 MB vinnsluminni og styĂ°ur SD-minniskort. HĂșn getur sĂœnt myndir Ă upplausnum allt aĂ° 480p og hĂșn er einasta vĂ©l sjöundu kynslóðar sem getur ekki sĂœnt myndir Ă hĂŠrri upplausn en ĂŸessari. HĂșn er ĂŸekkt fyrir stjĂłrntĂŠkiĂ° sitt sem heitir Wii Remote og lĂtur Ășt eins og sjĂłnvarpsfjĂĄrstĂœring. Wii sendir frĂĄ sĂ©r innrautt ljĂłs sem myndavĂ©l Ă stjĂłrntĂŠkinu skynir. HĂŠgt er aĂ° spila leiki sem hannaĂ°ir voru fyrir GameCube ĂĄ Wii og maĂ°ur getur tengt allt aĂ° fjögur GameCube-stjĂłrntĂŠki viĂ° hana. Wii Motion Plus er aukahluti sem hĂŠgt er aĂ° festa ĂĄ stjĂłrntĂŠkiĂ° til aĂ° nĂĄ betri hreyfiskynjun. Wii fĂŠst Ă Ăœmsum litum.
+
+Handleikjatölvur
+
+Leikjatölvur sem hĂŠgt er aĂ° halda ĂĄ og krefjast ekki aĂ° vera tengdar viĂ° innstungu heita handleikjatölvur, og er ĂŸvĂ hĂŠgt aĂ° ferĂ°ast meĂ° ĂŸĂ©r. HĂ©rna er listi af nokkrum af frĂŠgustu tölvunum:
+
+ Game Boy
+ Game Boy Color
+ Game Boy Advance
+ DS
+ DS Lite
+ PSP
+
+Tengti efni
+
+ Tölvuleikur
+ Listi yfir leikjatölvur
+ Listi yfir tölvuleiki
+
+Leikjatölvur
+Tölvur
+Ă vĂĂ°asta skilningi lĂœtur tölvunarfrĂŠĂ°i aĂ° rannsĂłknum ĂĄ upplĂœsingavinnslu og reikningsaĂ°ferĂ°um, bĂŠĂ°i Ă hugbĂșnaĂ°i og vĂ©lbĂșnaĂ°i. Ă reynd snĂœst tölvunarfrĂŠĂ°in um fjölmörg viĂ°fangsefni, allt frĂĄ formlegri greiningu reiknirita og aĂ°gerĂ°agreiningar til frĂŠĂ°a tengdum eiginlegum tölvum eins og forritunarmĂĄl, hugbĂșnaĂ° og tölvuvĂ©lbĂșnaĂ°.
+
+Tengt efni
+
+ HugbĂșnaĂ°arverkfrĂŠĂ°i
+ TölvunarfrÊðingur
+
+TölvunarfrÊði
+TĂŠkni
+BĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°i, stundum nefnd almenn bĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°i, er frĂŠĂ°ileg umfjöllun um bĂłkmenntir almennt en einkum ĂŸĂł fagurbĂłkmenntir. SkĂĄldskaparfrĂŠĂ°i, bĂłkmenntasaga og bĂłkmenntarĂœni eru helstu undirgreinar bĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°i. BĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ sĂ©r djĂșpar rĂŠtur Ă vestrĂŠnni menningu sem teygja sig allt aftur Ă fornöld en verĂ°ur ekki til sem sĂ©rstök frĂŠĂ°igrein viĂ° evrĂłpska hĂĄskĂłla fyrr en ĂĄ 18. öld.
+
+ViĂ°fangsefni bĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°i hafa veriĂ° breytileg Ă gegnum tĂĂ°ina en mĂłtast ĂŸĂł alltaf af svörum viĂ° ĂŸremur spurningum, sem ĂŠtĂĂ° flĂ©ttast saman: HvaĂ° eru bĂłkmenntir? HvaĂ° er eftirsĂłknarvert aĂ° vita um ĂŸĂŠr? HvaĂ°a aĂ°ferĂ°um er heppilegast aĂ° beita viĂ° rannsĂłknir ĂĄ ĂŸeim?
+
+Ă Ăslensku er heiti frĂŠĂ°igreinarinnar âbĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°iâ eĂ°a âalmenn bĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°iâ en ĂĄ mörgum mĂĄlum er hĂșn kennd viĂ° samanburĂ°arbĂłkmenntir og felur Ă sĂ©r alĂŸjóðlegar bĂłkmenntarannsĂłknir fremur en ĂŸjóðlega textafrĂŠĂ°i eins og hĂșn hefur veriĂ° stunduĂ° Ă hĂĄskĂłlum EvrĂłpu um aldaraĂ°ir undir ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ Dante og ĂŸjóðarbĂłkmenntahugtakinu.
+
+Heimildir
+ Jakob Benediktsson (ritstj.), Hugtök og heiti Ă bĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°i (ReykjavĂk: BĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°istofnun HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands, 1983).
+SĂœslumenn ĂĄ Ăslandi eru 9 talsins (voru ĂĄĂ°ur lengst af 24). Verkefni ĂŸeirra eru aĂ°farargerĂ°ir, dĂĄnarbĂș, nauĂ°ungarsölur, ĂŸinglĂœsingar og leyfi. Hinsvegar er ĂŸaĂ° lögreglustjĂłrn og ĂĄkĂŠruvald. Fyrir lagabreytinguna 2014 fĂłru sumir sĂœslumenn auk ĂŸess meĂ° lögreglustjĂłrn Ă sĂnum umdĂŠmum. Skipulagsbreytingar hjĂĄ lögreglunni sem tĂłku gildi 1. janĂșar 2007 fĂŠkkuĂ°u umdĂŠmunum og ĂŸar meĂ° lögreglustjĂłrum en fyrir hafĂ°i sĂœslumaĂ°urinn Ă ReykjavĂk veriĂ° sĂĄ eini sem ekki var einnig lögreglustjĂłri. ĂriĂ° 2014 voru sett nĂœ lög um sĂœslumannsembĂŠttin sem ĂŸĂĄ fĂŠkkaĂ°i Ășr 24 Ă 9. Um leiĂ° fluttist lögreglustjĂłrn frĂĄ öllum sĂœslumönnum til embĂŠtta lögreglustjĂłra.
+
+SĂœslumannsembĂŠttin eru einnig tengiliĂ°ir viĂ° Tryggingastofnun rĂkisins og Hagstofu Ăslands vegna ĂŸjóðskrĂĄr og hlutafĂ©lagaskrĂĄr.
+
+AĂ°setur og umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna frĂĄ 2007 til 2014
+
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn Ă ReykjavĂk:
+ReykjavĂkurborg, SeltjarnarnesbĂŠr, MosfellsbĂŠr og KjĂłsarhreppur.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ Akranesi:
+AkraneskaupstaĂ°ur.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn Ă Borgarnesi:
+HvalfjarĂ°arsveit, Skorradalshreppur og BorgarbyggĂ°.
+Fór einnig með lögreglustjórn à Dalabyggð.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°ur SnĂŠfellinga - StykkishĂłlmi:
+Eyja- og Miklaholtshreppur, SnĂŠfellsbĂŠr, GrundarfjarĂ°arbĂŠr, Helgafellssveit og StykkishĂłlmsbĂŠr.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn Ă BĂșĂ°ardal:
+DalabyggĂ°.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ PatreksfirĂ°i:
+ReykhĂłlahreppur, VesturbyggĂ° og TĂĄlknafjarĂ°arhreppur.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn Ă BolungarvĂk:
+BolungarvĂkurkaupstaĂ°ur.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ ĂsafirĂ°i:
+ĂsafjarĂ°arbĂŠr og SĂșĂ°avĂkurhreppur.
+FĂłr einnig meĂ° lögreglustjĂłrn Ă Ărneshreppi, BolungarvĂk, BĂŠjarhreppi, Kaldrananeshreppi, ReykhĂłlahreppi, StrandabyggĂ°, TĂĄlknafjarĂ°arhreppi og VesturbyggĂ°.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ HĂłlmavĂk:
+Ărneshreppur, Kaldrananeshreppur, StrandabyggĂ° og BĂŠjarhreppur.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ BlönduĂłsi:
+HĂșnaĂŸing vestra, Ăshreppur, HĂșnavatnshreppur, BlönduĂłsbĂŠr, HöfĂ°ahreppur og SkagabyggĂ°.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ SauĂ°ĂĄrkrĂłki:
+Sveitarfélagið Skagafjörður.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ SiglufirĂ°i:
+FjallabyggĂ°.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ Akureyri:
+GrĂmseyjarhreppur, DalvĂkurbyggĂ°, Arnarneshreppur, HörgĂĄrbyggĂ°, AkureyrarkaupstaĂ°ur, EyjafjarĂ°arsveit, SvalbarĂ°sstrandarhreppur og GrĂœtubakkahreppur.
+Fór einnig með lögreglustjórn à Fjallabyggð
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ HĂșsavĂk:
+Ăingeyjarsveit, SkĂștustaĂ°ahreppur, AĂ°aldĂŠlahreppur, NorĂ°urĂŸing, Tjörneshreppur, Raufarhafnarhreppur, SvalbarĂ°shreppur og ĂĂłrshafnarhreppur.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ SeyĂ°isfirĂ°i:
+Skeggjastaðahreppur, Vopnafjarðarhreppur, Fljótsdalshérað, Fljótsdalshreppur, Borgarfjarðarhreppur og Seyðisfjarðarkaupstaður.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ EskifirĂ°i:
+MjĂłafjarĂ°arhreppur, FjarĂ°abyggĂ°, BreiĂ°dalshreppur og DjĂșpavogshreppur.
+Fór einnig með lögreglustjórn à Sveitarfélaginu Hornafirði.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ Höfn:
+Sveitarfélagið Hornafjörður.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn Ă VĂk:
+SkaftĂĄrhreppur og MĂœrdalshreppur.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ Hvolsvelli:
+RangĂĄrĂŸing eystra, RangĂĄrĂŸing ytra og Ăsahreppur.
+FĂłr einnig meĂ° lögreglustjĂłrn Ă SkaftĂĄrhreppi og MĂœrdalshreppi.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn Ă Vestmannaeyjum:
+VestmannaeyjabĂŠr.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ Selfossi:
+FlĂłahreppur, SveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° Ărborg, SkeiĂ°a- og GnĂșpverjahreppur, Hrunamannahreppur, BlĂĄskĂłgabyggĂ°, GrĂmsnes- og Grafningshreppur, HveragerĂ°isbĂŠr og SveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° Ălfus.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn Ă KeflavĂk:
+GrindavĂkurkaupstaĂ°ur, SandgerĂ°isbĂŠr, SveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° GarĂ°ur, ReykjanesbĂŠr og SveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° Vogar, aĂ° varnarsvĂŠĂ°um undanskildum.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn Ă HafnarfirĂ°i:
+HafnarfjarĂ°arkaupstaĂ°ur, GarĂ°abĂŠr og SveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° Ălftanes.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+ SĂœslumaĂ°urinn Ă KĂłpavogi:
+KĂłpavogsbĂŠr.
+Var ekki lögreglustjóri.
+
+Hin gamla sĂœsluskipting rĂ©Ă°i oft mörkum umdĂŠmanna en ĂŸaĂ° er ĂŸĂł ekki algilt.
+
+Heimildir
+ ReglugerĂ° um stjĂłrnsĂœsluumdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna 057/1992 ĂĄsamt breytingum
+
+Tenglar
+Lög 92/1989 um framkvĂŠmdarvald rĂkisins Ă hĂ©raĂ°i
+DĂłmsmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°uneytiĂ°
+
+Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄl
+Listar tengdir Ăslenskum stjĂłrnmĂĄlum
+27. mars er 86. dagur ĂĄrsins (87. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 279 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1272 - GregorĂus 10. (Tedaldo Visconti) varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1513 - Juan Ponce de Leon sĂĄ strönd FlĂłrĂda og hĂ©lt aĂ° hĂșn vĂŠri eyja.
+ 1625 - Karl 1. var krĂœndur konungur Englands og Skotlands.
+ 1764 - InnrĂ©ttingar SkĂșla fĂłgeta brunnu. ĂrjĂĄr vefstofur og tĂu vefstĂłlar ĂĄsamt öðrum tĂŠkjum urĂ°u eldinum aĂ° brĂĄĂ° auk hrĂĄefnis og fullunnins varnings. Alls var tjĂłniĂ° metiĂ° ĂĄ 3706 rĂkisdali og sex skildinga.
+ 1782 - Charles Watson-Wentworth, markgreifi af Rockingham, varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands.
+ 1884 - Fyrsta langlĂnusĂmtal sögunnar ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ° ĂŸegar hringt var ĂĄ milli New York og Boston.
+ 1943 - Breski togarinn War Grey var staĂ°inn aĂ° Ăłlöglegum veiĂ°um viĂ° Stafnes. Togarinn sigldi af staĂ° ĂĄleiĂ°is til Englands meĂ° stĂœrimann varĂ°skipsins SĂŠbjargar um borĂ° og stöðvaĂ°i ekki fyrr en varĂ°skipiĂ° Ăgir hafĂ°i skotiĂ° aĂ° honum ĂŸrjĂĄtĂu skotum.
+ 1945 - Ăjóðverjar skutu sĂĂ°ustu V-2 flugskeytum sĂnum ĂĄ England og BelgĂu.
+ 1956 - âHrĂŠĂ°slubandalagiĂ°â, kosningabandalag AlĂŸĂœĂ°uflokks og FramsĂłknarflokks, var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1958 - Nikita KrĂșstsjov var formlega gerĂ°ur aĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra SovĂ©trĂkjanna.
+ 1963 - Mikill jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti, um sjö stig, ĂĄtti upptök norĂ°ur af mynni SkagafjarĂ°ar. SkjĂĄlftinn fannst vĂĂ°a og flĂșĂ°u sumir hĂșs sĂn.
+ 1968 - JĂșrĂ GagarĂn, fyrsti maĂ°urinn til aĂ° fara Ășt Ă geim, fĂłrst Ă flugslysi.
+ 1977 - MannskĂŠĂ°asta flugslys sögunnar varĂ° ĂŸegar tvĂŠr farĂŸegaĂŸotur, frĂĄ KLM og Pan Am skullu saman ĂĄ flugvellinum ĂĄ TenerĂfe meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 583 fĂłrust.
+ 1979 - Samtök olĂuframleiĂ°slurĂkja samĂŸykktu aĂ° hĂŠkka verĂ° hrĂĄolĂu um 20%. ViĂ° ĂŸetta hĂłfst olĂukreppan 1979.
+ 1980 - Norski olĂuborpallurinn Alexander Kielland brotnaĂ°i Ă NorĂ°ursjĂł meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 123 af 212 manna ĂĄhöfn fĂłrust.
+ 1981 - Mikil bĂlasĂœning, Auto '81, var haldin Ă ReykjavĂk. Ăar voru meĂ°al annars sĂœndir Rolls Royce- og Lamborghini-bĂlar.
+ 1990 - BandarĂsk stjĂłrnvöld hĂłfu sjĂłnvarpsĂștsendingar Ă ĂĄróðursskyni til KĂșbu. SjĂłnvarpsstöðin heitir TV MartĂ.
+ 1991 - Fyrsta GSM-sĂmtaliĂ° var flutt yfir finnska farsĂmanetiĂ° Radiolinja.
+ 1993 - Jiang Zemin tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti sem forseti KĂna.
+ 1994 - Bandalag hĂŠgriflokka undir forystu athafnamannsins Silvio Berlusconi sigraĂ°i ĂŸingkosningar ĂĄ ĂtalĂu.
+ 1998 - MatvĂŠla- og lyfjaeftirlit BandarĂkjanna samĂŸykkti lyfiĂ° Sildenafil frĂĄ Pfizer sem var selt undir heitinu Viagra.
+ 1999 - F-117 Nighthawk-flugvĂ©l frĂĄ BandarĂkjaher var skotin niĂ°ur yfir KosĂłvĂł.
+ 2002 - 30 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar palestĂnskur sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjumaĂ°ur sprengdi sig Ă loft upp ĂĄ hĂłteli Ă Netanya Ă Ăsrael.
+ 2005 - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin Grey's Anatomy hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ ABC.
+ 2007 - Samningur um landamĂŠri Lettlands og RĂșsslands var undirritaĂ°ur.
+ 2008 - MĂłtmĂŠli vörubĂlstjĂłra ĂĄ Ăslandi 2008 hĂłfust meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hĂłpur bĂlstjĂłra lagĂ°i bĂlum sĂnum Ă ĂrtĂșnsbrekkunni Ă ReykjavĂk og stöðvaĂ°i ĂŸannig alla umferĂ°.
+ 2008 - Fjöldi greina å Wikipediu nåði 10 milljónum.
+ 2010 - BandarĂski gamanĂŸĂĄtturinn Victorious hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ Nickelodeon.
+ 2011 - RĂșmenĂa og BĂșlgarĂa gerĂ°ust aĂ°ilar aĂ° Schengen-samstarfinu.
+ 2013 - Kanada drĂł sig Ășt Ășr samningi SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna um aĂ°gerĂ°ir gegn eyĂ°imerkurmyndun.
+ 2014 - AllsherjarĂŸing SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna ĂĄlyktaĂ°i aĂ° KrĂmskagi tilheyrĂ°i ĂkraĂnu en ekki RĂșsslandi.
+ 2016 - Yfir 70 létust à sjålfsmorðssprengjuåråsum à Lahore à Pakistan.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1676 - Frans 2. RĂĄkĂłczi, TransylvanĂufursti (d. 1735).
+ 1702 - Johann Ernst Eberlin, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1762).
+ 1744 - SigurĂ°ur StefĂĄnsson, HĂłlabiskup (d. 1798).
+ 1781 - Charles Joseph Minard, franskur verkfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1870).
+ 1785 - LoĂ°vĂk 17. rĂkisarfi Ă Frakklandi (d. 1795).
+ 1838 - JĂșlĂana JĂłnsdĂłttir, skĂĄldkona, sem var fyrst Ăslenskra kvenna til aĂ° gefa Ășt ljóðabĂłk (d. 1918).
+ 1845 - Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, ĂŸĂœskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 1923).
+ 1866 - LĂĄrus H. Bjarnason, Ăslenskur lögmaĂ°ur (d. 1934).
+ 1886 - Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, ĂŸĂœskur arkitekt (d. 1969).
+ 1896 - ĂĂłrarinn GuĂ°mundsson, Ăslenskur fiĂ°luleikari og tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1979).
+ 1901
+ Carl Barks, bandarĂskur myndasöguhöfundur (d. 2000).
+ Eisaku SatĆ, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Japans (d. 1975).
+ 1912 - James Callaghan, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands (d. 2005).
+ 1938 - Styrmir Gunnarsson, ritstjĂłri MorgunblaĂ°sins.
+ 1943 - Michael York, enskur leikari.
+ 1955 - Ăorleifur Gunnlaugsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1955 - Mariano Rajoy, spĂŠnskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1963 - Quentin Tarantino, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri og framleiĂ°andi.
+ 1965 - Gunnar Oddsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnuĂŸjĂĄlfari.
+ 1969 - Keith Flint, breskur söngvari (The Prodigy) (d. 2019).
+ 1969 - Pauley Perrette, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1970 - Mariah Carey, bandarĂsk söngkona.
+ 1970 - Gaia Zucchi, Ătölsk leikkona.
+ 1974 - Ălafur JĂłhannes Einarsson, Ăslenskur lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1975 - Stacy Ferguson, bandarĂsk söngkona (Black Eyed Peas).
+ 1981 - Cacau, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1983 - Alina Devecerski, sÊnsk söngkona.
+ 1985 - Guillaume Joli, franskur handknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 1985 - David Navara, tékkneskur skåkmeistari.
+ 1986 - Rosario Miraggio, Ătalskur söngvari.
+ 1986 - Manuel Neuer, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1988 - Brenda Song, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1988 - Atsuto Uchida, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1989 - Ălafur GĂșstafsson, Ăslenskur handknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1191 - Klemens 3., pĂĄfi.
+ 1462 - VasilĂj 2., stĂłrfursti af Moskvu (f. 1415).
+ 1482 - MarĂa af BĂșrgund, kona MaxĂmilĂans 1. keisara (f. 1457).
+ 1615 - Margrét af Valois, Frakklandsdrottning (f. 1553).
+ 1625 - Jakob konungur Skotlands og Englands og Ărlands (f. 1566).
+ 1635 - Robert Naunton, enskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1563).
+ 1714 - Charlotte Amalie af Hessen-Kassel, Danadrottning (f. 1650).
+ 1927 - Klaus Berntsen, danskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra (f. 1844).
+ 1952 - FriĂ°rik Hansen, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1891).
+ 1968 - JĂșrĂ GagarĂn, rĂșssneskur geimfari (f. 1934).
+ 1986 - Constantin Stanciu, rĂșmenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1907).
+ 2002 - Dudley Moore, leikari (f. 1935).
+ 2006 - StanisĆaw Lem, pĂłlskur rithöfundur (f. 1921).
+ 2008 - Bolli GĂșstavsson, Ăslenskur prestur (f. 1935).
+ 2008 - Ălafur Ragnarsson, Ăslenskur Ăștgefandi (f. 1944).
+ 2010 - VasilĂj Smyslov, rĂșssneskur skĂĄkmeistari (f. 1921).
+ 2015 - Olga Syahputra, indĂłnesĂskur leikari (f. 1983).
+
+Mars
+ĂĂœsku V-2-fluskeytin voru fyrstu langdrĂŠgu flugskeyti sögunnar. Ăjóðverjar skutu fyrsta flugskeytinu af ĂŸessari gerĂ° frĂĄ hafnarbĂŠnum PeenemĂŒnde ĂĄriĂ° 1942.
+
+ĂĂœski vĂsindamaĂ°urinn Wernher von Braun stóð ĂĄ bak viĂ° ĂŸrĂłun flugskeytisins, en aĂ° strĂĂ°inu loknu flutti hann til BandarĂkjanna ĂŸar sem hann fĂ©kk strax starf hjĂĄ NASA viĂ° aĂ° bĂșa til geimflaugar.
+
+NĂĄnast vonlaust var aĂ° verjast ĂŸessum flugskeytum. Ăau flugu fyrst upp Ă nĂu kĂlĂłmetra hĂŠĂ°, beygĂ°u svo Ă ĂĄtt aĂ° skotmarkinu og fĂ©llu svo aĂ° lokum til jarĂ°ar af svo miklum krafti aĂ° ĂŸau grĂłfust niĂ°ur Ă jörĂ°ina ĂĄĂ°ur en ĂŸau sprungu.
+
+V-2-flugskeyti voru fyrst notuĂ° ĂŸann 6. september ĂĄriĂ° 1944, ĂŸegar tveimur slĂkum var skotiĂ° ĂĄ ParĂs. Fyrstu tilraunir mistĂłkust en tveimur dögum sĂĂ°ar, ĂŸann 8. september, heppnuĂ°ust tilraunirnar betur. NĂŠsta hĂĄlfa ĂĄriĂ° skutu Ăjóðverjar meira en ĂŸrjĂș ĂŸĂșsund flugskeytum ĂĄ Ăłvini sĂna, flestum ĂĄ LundĂșnir og ĂĄ Antwerpen Ă BelgĂu. ĂĂŠtlaĂ° er aĂ° strĂĂ°stĂłliĂ° hafi kostaĂ° nĂŠrri 8.000 manns lĂfiĂ°. SĂĂ°ustu V-2-flugskeytunum var skotiĂ° 27. mars ĂĄriĂ° 1945 ĂĄ England og BelgĂu. NĂŠrri 200 manns fĂ©llu Ă ĂŸeim ĂĄrĂĄsum.
+
+Tengill
+ www.v2rocket.com
+
+Heimild
+ Tracy Dungan: V-2: A Combat History of the First Ballistic Missile. Westholme Publishing ( ) 2005, ISBN 1-59416-012-0
+
+ A4tebeschreibung
+ A4_Fibel
+ raketenspezialisten.de
+ Raketenfertigung in Friedrichshafen
+ kheichhorn.de
+ bernd-leitenberger.de
+ v2werk-oberraderach.de
+
+Flugskeyti
+LangdrĂŠg vopn
+Arnaldur IndriĂ°ason (fĂŠddur 28. janĂșar 1961 Ă ReykjavĂk) er Ăslenskur spennusagnahöfundur og sagnfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+
+Arnaldur er sonur ĂĂłrunnar Ălafar FriĂ°riksdĂłttur og IndriĂ°a G. Ăorsteinssonar rithöfundar. Hann lauk BA-prĂłfi Ă sagnfrĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands ĂĄriĂ° 1996 og starfaĂ°i viĂ° MorgunblaĂ°iĂ° frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ hann ĂștskrifaĂ°ist Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum viĂ° HamrahlĂĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1981, Ăœmist Ă lausamennsku eĂ°a fullu starfi. Hann var kvikmyndagagnrĂœnandi blaĂ°sins frĂĄ 1986 til 2001.
+
+Arnaldur hefur sent frĂĄ sĂ©r tuttugu og fjĂłrar skĂĄldsögur sem allar eru spennusögur. SkĂĄldsögur hans hafa veriĂ° ĂŸĂœddar yfir ĂĄ um 40 tungumĂĄl og hlotiĂ° góðar viĂ°tökur, sĂ©rstaklega Ă ĂĂœskalandi og Frakklandi en alls hafa selst yfir fjĂłrtĂĄn milljĂłnir eintaka af skĂĄldsögum hans og ĂŸĂŠr hafa komist ofarlega ĂĄ metsölulista Ă mörgum EvrĂłpulöndum. Arnaldur hefur einnig unniĂ° Ăștvarpsleikrit upp Ășr nokkrum bĂłka sinna sem Leiklistardeild rĂkisĂștvarpsins hefur flutt. Kvikmynd gerĂ° eftir einni skĂĄldsögu hans, MĂœrinni, Ă leikstjĂłrn Baltasars KormĂĄks, var frumsĂœnd ĂĄriĂ° 2006.
+
+Arnaldur hlaut Glerlykilinn, NorrĂŠnu glĂŠpasagnaverĂ°launin, fyrir MĂœrina ĂĄriĂ° 2002 og aftur ĂĄri sĂĂ°ar fyrir GrafarĂŸĂ¶gn.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2005 hlaut hann hin virtu ensku glĂŠpasagnaverĂ°laun GullrĂœtinginn frĂĄ Samtökum glĂŠpasagnahöfunda fyrir ensku ĂștgĂĄfuna af GrafarĂŸĂ¶gn. Hann hefur einnig hlotiĂ° Grand Prix LittĂšrature PoliciĂ©re Ă Frakklandi, sĂŠnsku Martin Beck verĂ°launin fyrir Röddina og bandarĂsku Barry-verĂ°launin fyrir Kleifarvatn, svo og fjölmargar aĂ°rar viĂ°urkenningar.
+
+Skåldsögur
+ 1997 â Synir duftsins
+ 1998 â DauĂ°arĂłsir
+ 1999 â NapĂłleonsskjölin
+ 2000 â LeyndardĂłmar ReykjavĂkur 2000 (kafli Ă spennusögu eftir nokkra höfunda)
+ 2000 â MĂœrin
+ 2001 â GrafarĂŸĂ¶gn
+ 2002 â Röddin
+ 2003 â BettĂœ
+ 2004 â Kleifarvatn
+ 2005 â Vetrarborgin
+ 2006 â KonungsbĂłk
+ 2007 â HarĂ°skafi
+ 2008 â MyrkĂĄ
+ 2009 â Svörtuloft
+ 2010 â FurĂ°ustrandir
+ 2011 â EinvĂgiĂ°
+ 2012 â ReykjavĂkurnĂŠtur
+ 2013 â Skuggasund
+ 2014 â Kamp Knox
+ 2015 â ĂĂœska hĂșsiĂ°
+ 2016 â Petsamo
+ 2017 - MyrkriĂ° veit
+ 2018 - StĂșlkan hjĂĄ brĂșnni
+ 2019 - Tregasteinn
+ 2020 - ĂagnarmĂșr
+ 2021 - SigurverkiĂ°
+ 2022 - KyrrĂŸey
+ 2023 - SĂŠlurĂkiĂ°
+
+Ăslenskir rithöfundar
+Ăslenskir sagnfrĂŠĂ°ingar
+Handhafar riddarakross Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorĂ°u
+Arnaldur IndriĂ°ason
+
+StĂșdentar Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum viĂ° HamrahlĂĂ°
+LeyndardĂłmar ReykjavĂkur 2000 er skĂĄldsaga sem var skrifuĂ° af helstu Ăslensku spennusagnahöfundunum um aldamĂłtin. Ăeir eru: Arnaldur IndriĂ°ason, Ărni ĂĂłrarinsson, Birgitta H. HalldĂłrsdĂłttir, Gunnar Gunnarsson, Hrafn Jökulsson, Kristinn KristjĂĄnsson, Stella BlĂłmkvist og Viktor Arnar IngĂłlfsson. Hver ĂŸeirra skrifar sinn kafla.
+
+Ăslenskar skĂĄldsögur
+28. mars er 87. dagur ĂĄrsins (88. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 278 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. VilhjĂĄlmur VilhjĂĄlmson (söngvari) lĂ©st
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 193 - PretĂłrĂuvörĂ°urinn myrti Pertinax. KeisaradĂŠmiĂ° var ĂŸĂĄ boĂ°iĂ° upp og Didius Julianus bauĂ° hĂŠst, 300 milljĂłn sestertĂur fyrir hĂĄsĂŠtiĂ°. LandstjĂłrarnir Clodius Albinus (Ă BritannĂu) og Pescennius Niger (Ă SĂœrĂu) gerĂ°u bĂĄĂ°ir tilkall til keisaratignarinnar.
+ 364 - Valens varĂ° keisari RĂłmar.
+ 845 - VĂkingar rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ ParĂs og rĂŠndu og rupluĂ°u. Heimildir greina frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Ă fararbroddi hafi veriĂ° vĂkingur aĂ° nafni Reginherus sem sumir halda aĂ° hafi veriĂ° Ragnar loĂ°brĂłk, en samkvĂŠmt öðrum frĂĄsögnum var hann uppi heilli öld fyrr.
+ 1193 - LeĂłpold 5. AusturrĂkishertogi flutti fanga sinn, RĂkharĂ° ljĂłnshjarta, til Speyer og afhenti Hinrik 6. keisara hann.
+ 1241 - EirĂkur plĂłgpeningur varĂ° konungur Ă Danmörku.
+ 1462 - Ăvan mikli tĂłk viĂ° af föður sĂnum VasilĂj 2. sem stĂłrfursti af Moskvu.
+ 1584 (18. mars samkvĂŠmt Gamla stĂl) - Fjodor 1. varĂ° RĂșssakeisari.
+ 1696 - Konungur lagĂ°i ĂŸĂĄ kvöð ĂĄ Ăslendinga aĂ° senda skyldi ĂŸrjĂĄ menn Ășr hverri sĂœslu, ĂŸrjĂĄtĂu alls, til aĂ° ĂŸjĂłna Ă flota eĂ°a landher Danaveldis.
+ 1797 - Einkaleyfi fĂ©kkst fyrir fyrstu ĂŸvottavĂ©linni Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1814 - Joseph-Ignace Guillotin sem fann upp fallöxina var jarðsettur à Frakklandi.
+ 1854 - KrĂmstrĂĂ°iĂ°: Bretland og Frakkland sögĂ°u RĂșssum strĂĂ° ĂĄ hendur.
+ 1875 - Ăskjugos hĂłfst. ĂaĂ° er taliĂ° eitt mesta öskugos ĂĄ Ăslandi eftir aĂ° land byggĂ°ist. Ăegar gosiĂ° hafĂ°i staĂ°iĂ° Ă hĂĄlfan annan sĂłlarhring urĂ°u menn varir viĂ° gosmökkinn Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. GosiĂ° varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° mikill fjöldi ĂbĂșa ĂĄ AustfjörĂ°um fluttist til Vesturheims ĂĄ nĂŠstu ĂĄrum.
+ 1881 - Tveir menn gengu ĂĄ hafĂs alla leiĂ°ina frĂĄ SiglufirĂ°i til Akureyrar, en ĂŸessi vetur var meĂ° ĂŸeim hörĂ°ustu sem vitaĂ° er um ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1882 - ĂĂœski lyfsalinn Carl Paul Beiersdorf stofnaĂ°i fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Nivea.
+ 1909 - SafnahĂșsiĂ° viĂ° Hverfisgötu (sem nĂș heitir ĂjóðmenningarhĂșsiĂ°) var vĂgt. Ă upphafi hĂœsti hĂșsiĂ° ForngripasafniĂ°, LandsbĂłkasafniĂ°, LandsskjalasafniĂ° og NĂĄttĂșrugripasafniĂ°.
+ 1929 - NĂœtt geĂ°sjĂșkrahĂșs tĂłk til starfa ĂĄ Kleppi.
+ 1930 - Nöfnum tyrknesku borganna KonstantĂnĂłpel og AngĂłra var breytt Ă IstanbĂșl og Ankara.
+ 1939 - SpĂŠnska borgarastrĂĂ°inu lauk.
+ 1956 - AlĂŸingi samĂŸykkti (31 gegn 18) aĂ° BandarĂkjaher skyldi yfirgefa Ăsland enda ĂŠtti ekki aĂ° vera her Ă landinu ĂĄ friĂ°artĂmum. ViĂ°rĂŠĂ°um um brottför hersins var frestaĂ° Ă nĂłvember vegna Uppreisnarinnar Ă Ungverjalandi.
+ 1963 - Kvikmyndin Fuglarnir eftir Alfred Hitchcock var frumsĂœnd Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1971 - SĂĂ°asti ĂŸĂĄttur Ed Sullivan Show fĂłr Ă loftiĂ°.
+ 1977 - PortĂșgal sĂłtti formlega um aĂ°ild aĂ° EvrĂłpubandalaginu.
+ 1978 - VilhjĂĄlmur VilhjĂĄlmsson, söngvari, lĂ©st Ă umferĂ°arslysi Ă LĂșxemborg.
+ 1979 - Bilun Ă kĂŠlibĂșnaĂ°i Ă Three Mile Island-kjarnorkuverinu Ă PennsylvanĂu leiddi til ĂŸess aĂ° mikiĂ° af geislavirku gasi fĂłr Ășt Ă umhverfiĂ°. Ăetta er taliĂ° vera versta kjarnorkuslys Ă sögu BandarĂkjanna.
+ 1979 - MinnihlutastjĂłrn breska verkamannaflokksins undir stjĂłrn James Callaghan fĂ©ll ĂĄ vantrausti vegna misheppnaĂ°rar ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu um heimastjĂłrn Ă Skotlandi og Wales.
+ 1980 - Talpiot-gröfin uppgötvaĂ°ist Ă nĂĄgrenni JerĂșsalem.
+ 1986 - 6.000 Ăștvarpsstöðvar um allan heim spiluĂ°u lagiĂ° âWe are the worldâ samtĂmis til styrktar aĂ°gerĂ°um gegn hungursneyĂ° Ă AfrĂku.
+ 1988 - Atlantic Airways flaug sitt fyrsta flug milli FĂŠreyja og Danmerkur.
+ 1991 - Volkswagen Group hĂłf samstarf viĂ° tĂ©kkneska bĂlaframleiĂ°andann Ć koda automobilovĂĄ.
+ 1994 - BlóðbaĂ°iĂ° viĂ° Shell House: ĂryggisverĂ°ir Ă höfuĂ°stöðvum AfrĂska ĂŸjóðarflokksins skutu ĂĄ ĂŸĂșsundir fylgismanna Inkathahreyfingarinnar.
+ 1996 - ĂrĂr breskir hermenn voru dĂŠmdir sekir um aĂ° hafa nauĂ°gaĂ° og myrt Louise Jensen ĂĄ KĂœpur.
+ 1997 - Ătalska strandgĂŠsluskipiĂ° Sibilla sigldi ĂĄ albanska vĂ©lskipiĂ° KatĂ«r i RadĂ«s meĂ° 120 flĂłttamenn um borĂ° meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 80 ĂŸeirra drukknuĂ°u.
+ 1999 - TeiknimyndaĂŸĂŠttirnir Futurama hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ FOX.
+ 1999 - KosĂłvĂłstrĂĂ°iĂ°: FjöldamorĂ°in Ă Podujevo og Izbica ĂĄttu sĂ©r staĂ°.
+ 2004 - Fellibylurinn KatarĂna, fyrsti hitabeltisfellibylur sem skrĂĄĂ°ur hefur veriĂ° Ă SuĂ°ur-Atlantshafi, tĂłk land Ă BrasilĂu.
+ 2006 - Um milljón manns mótmÊltu fyrirhugaðri atvinnulöggjöf à Frakklandi.
+ 2006 - Kadima vann sigur Ă kosningum Ă Ăsrael, en hlaut ĂŸĂł fĂŠrri atkvĂŠĂ°i en ĂștgönguspĂĄr gerĂ°u rĂĄĂ° fyrir.
+ 2007 - Frumvarp um VatnajökulsĂŸjóðgarĂ° var samĂŸykkt ĂĄ AlĂŸingi.
+ 2012 - JĂĄrnbrautarbrĂș yfir LimafjörĂ° Ă Danmörku skemmdist mikiĂ° ĂŸegar finnskt flutningaskip sigldi ĂĄ hana.
+ 2018 - LeiĂ°togi NorĂ°ur-KĂłreu, Kim Jong-un, fĂłr Ă opinbera heimsĂłkn til KĂna til fundar viĂ° Xi Jinping. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta sinn sem hann fĂłr Ășr landi eftir aĂ° hann tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti ĂĄriĂ° 2011.
+ 2018 - 78 lĂ©tust Ă eldsvoĂ°a Ă fangageymslum lögreglustöðvarinnar Ă Valencia (VenesĂșela).
+ 2019 - Ăslenska flugfĂ©lagiĂ° WOW Air varĂ° gjaldĂŸrota.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1592 - Comenius, tékkneskur kennari og rithöfundur (d. 1670).
+ 1609 - FriĂ°rik 3. Danakonungur (d. 1670).
+ 1749 - Pierre-Simon Laplace, franskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1827).
+ 1868 - MaxĂm GorkĂj, rithöfundur (d. 1936).
+ 1878 - Johannes Erhardt Böggild, sendiherra Dana ĂĄ Ăslandi (d. 1929).
+ 1886 - SigfĂșs M. Johnsen, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1974).
+ 1897 - Sepp Herberger, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnuĂŸjĂĄlfari (d. 1977).
+ 1901 - Marta, sĂŠnsk prinsessa og sĂĂ°ar krĂłnprinsessa Noregs, kona Ălafs 5. (d. 1954).
+ 1910 - IngirĂĂ°ur Danadrottning (d. 2000).
+ 1911 - John L. Austin, breskur heimspekingur (d. 1960).
+ 1914 - JĂłn JĂłnsson frĂĄ LjĂĄrskĂłgum, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (d. 1945).
+ 1926 - Ingvar GĂslason, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1936 - Mario Vargas Llosa, perĂșskur rithöfundur og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1940 - Luis Cubilla, ĂșrĂșgvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur og -ĂŸjĂĄlfari (d. 2013).
+ 1942 - Daniel Dennett, bandarĂskur heimspekingur.
+ 1945 - Rodrigo Duterte, forseti Filippseyja.
+ 1956 - Zizi Possi, brasilĂsk tĂłnlistarkona.
+ 1964 - Harpa ArnardĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona.
+ 1966 - HĂžgni Hoydal, fĂŠreyskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1970 - Vince Vaughn, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1986 - Lady Gaga (Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta), bandarisk söngkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 193 - Pertinax, rĂłmverskur keisari (f. 126).
+ 1241 - Valdimar sigursĂŠli, Danakonungur (f. 1170).
+ 1285 - Marteinn 4. pĂĄfi.
+ 1584 - Ăvan grimmi, RĂșssakeisari (f. 1530).
+ 1619 - GĂsli ĂĂłrĂ°arson, Ăslenskur lögmaĂ°ur (f. 1545).
+ 1794 - Condorcet markgreifi, franskur heimspekingur (f. 1743).
+ 1850 - Bernt Michael Holmboe, norskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1795).
+ 1881 - Modest MĂșssorgskĂj, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1839).
+ 1932 - Arinbjörn Sveinbjarnarson, bĂłkbindari og bĂŠjarfulltrĂși (f. 1866).
+ 1941 - Virginia Woolf, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1882).
+ 1943 - Sergej RakhmanĂnov, tĂłnskĂĄld og pĂanĂłleikari (f. 1873).
+ 1959 - Edmond Debeaumarché, franskur andspyrnumaður (f. 1906).
+ 1969 - Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34. forseti BandarĂkjanna (f. 1890).
+ 1972 - Vilmundur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur lĂŠknir (landlĂŠknir) (f. 1889).
+ 1978 - VilhjĂĄlmur VilhjĂĄlmsson, Ăslenskur söngvari (f. 1945).
+ 1985 - Marc Chagall, franskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1887).
+ 2008 - Gunnar Ărn Gunnarsson, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1946).
+ 2013 - Richard Griffiths, breskur leikari (f. 1947).
+
+Mars
+29. mars er 88. dagur ĂĄrsins (89. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 277 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 537 - VigilĂus varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1461 - Orrustan viĂ° Towton, sem talin er blóðugasti bardagi sem hĂĄĂ°ur hefur veriĂ° ĂĄ enskri grund, ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ°. Ăar vann JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 4. sigur ĂĄ liĂ°i MargrĂ©tar drottningar.
+ 1549 - Borgin Salvador Ă BrasilĂu var stofnuĂ°.
+ 1613 - Samuel de Champlain var skipaĂ°ur fyrsti landstjĂłri NĂœja Frakklands.
+ 1613 - Pocahontas, dóttir Powhatans höfðingja, var tekin höndum og fÊrð til Jamestown.
+ 1638 - Fyrstu sĂŠnsku landnemarnir komu til NĂœju-SvĂĂŸjóðar ĂŸar sem nĂș er Delaware.
+ 1691 - BÊrinn Mons gafst upp fyrir umsåtursmönnum.
+ 1787 - JĂłn EirĂksson, lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur og konferensrĂĄĂ° svipti sig lĂfi Ă Kaupmannahöfn.
+ 1875 - ĂskjugosiĂ° 1875 hĂłfst. 17 jarĂ°ir ĂĄ Jökuldal fĂłru Ă eyĂ°i vegna ĂŸess.
+ 1881 - BjarndĂœr var skotiĂ° ĂĄ LĂĄtrum viĂ° EyjafjörĂ° og nokkur fleiri um austanvert landiĂ°.
+ 1883 - MannskaĂ°aveĂ°ur reiĂ° yfir ĂorlĂĄkshöfn. TĂĂŠringur fĂłrst meĂ° ĂĄhöfn, en frönsk fiskiskĂșta bjargaĂ°i hĂĄsetum af öðru skipi.
+ 1930 - Heinrich BrĂŒning var skipaĂ°ur rĂkiskanslari ĂĂœskalands.
+ 1943 - Skömmtun ĂĄ mjĂłlkurafurĂ°um ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° mjĂłlk, smjör og ost hĂłfst Ă BandarĂkjunum vegna seinni heimsstyrjaldarinnar.
+ 1945 - SĂĂ°ustu V1-ĂĄrĂĄsir Ăjóðverja ĂĄ England ĂĄttu sĂ©r staĂ°.
+ 1945 - SkeiĂ°sfossvirkjun Ă SkagafirĂ°i var gangsett.
+ 1947 - Heklugos hĂłfst, hiĂ° fyrsta Ă rĂșma öld. Gosmökkurinn nĂĄĂ°i 30 km hĂŠĂ° og barst aska meĂ°al annars til Finnlands og Englands. GosiĂ° stóð Ă rĂșmt ĂĄr.
+ 1951 - Julius og Ethel Rosenberg voru dĂŠmd sek fyrir njĂłsnasamsĂŠri Ă BandarĂkjunum. Ăau voru tekin af lĂfi tveimur ĂĄrum sĂĂ°ar.
+ 1958 - 4 ungir menn fĂłrust Ă flugslysi ĂĄ ĂxnadalsheiĂ°i.
+ 1961 - Sett voru lög um launajöfnuĂ° kvenna og karla ĂĄ Ăslandi. Skyldu ĂŸau komin til framkvĂŠmda aĂ° fullu fyrir 1. janĂșar 1967.
+ 1970 - HennĂœ HermannsdĂłttir (ĂŸĂĄ ĂĄtjĂĄn ĂĄra) sigraĂ°i Ă keppninni Miss Young International, sem haldin var Ă Japan.
+ 1971 - KviĂ°dĂłmur Ă Los Angeles mĂŠltist til ĂŸess aĂ° Charles Manson yrĂ°i dĂŠmdur til dauĂ°a fyrir morĂ°iĂ° ĂĄ leikkonunni Sharon Tate.
+ 1973 - SĂĂ°ustu bandarĂsku hermennirnir yfirgĂĄfu SuĂ°ur-VĂetnam.
+ 1974 - KĂnverskir bĂŠndur uppgötvuĂ°u leirherinn.
+ 1976 - HerforingjastjĂłrn undir forystu Jorge Videla tĂłk viĂ° völdum Ă ArgentĂnu.
+ 1981 - LundĂșnamaraĂŸoniĂ° var sett Ă fyrsta sinn.
+ 1985 - Manni var bjargaĂ° Ășr jökulsprungu sem hann fĂ©ll Ă Ă Kverkfjöllum eftir 32 klukkustundir.
+ 1988 - SuĂ°urafrĂska ĂŸingkonan Dulcie September var myrt viĂ° skrifstofur AfrĂska ĂŸjóðarrĂĄĂ°sins Ă ParĂs.
+ 1993 - Ădouard Balladur varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Frakklands.
+ 1998 - Vasco da Gama-brĂșin Ă PortĂșgal var vĂgĂ°.
+ 1999 - Dow Jones-vĂsitalan stóð Ă 10.006,78 aĂ° loknum viĂ°skiptadegi Ă Wall Street. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta skipti sem vĂsitalan var yfir 10.000 viĂ° lokun kauphallarinnar.
+ 2002 - Ăsraelsher hĂłf Defensive Shield-aĂ°gerĂ°ina ĂĄ Vesturbakkanum.
+ 2004 - BĂșlgarĂa, Eistland, Lettland, LithĂĄen, RĂșmenĂa, SlĂłvakĂa og SlĂłvenĂa gerĂ°ust öll aĂ°ilar aĂ° NATO.
+ 2006 - Fyrrum forseti LĂberĂu, Charles Taylor, var handtekinn Ă MonrĂłvĂu sakaĂ°ur um strĂĂ°sglĂŠpi.
+ 2007 - 179 lĂ©tust Ă fimm sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjutilrĂŠĂ°um Ă Ărak.
+ 2010 - HryĂ°juverkin 29. mars 2010 Ă Moskvu: TvĂŠr konur frömdu sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjuĂĄrĂĄsir Ă neĂ°anjarĂ°arlestarstöðvum Ă Moskvu meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° yfir 40 lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ°.
+ 2012 - VarnarmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra SvĂĂŸjóðar, Sten Tolgfors, sagĂ°i af sĂ©r vegna SĂĄdĂhneykslisins.
+ 2013 - StjĂłrn NorĂ°ur-KĂłreu lĂœsti yfir strĂĂ°sĂĄstandi gagnvart SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu.
+ 2017 - Bretland virkjaĂ°i 50 grein LissabonsĂĄttmĂĄlans og hĂłf ĂŸar meĂ° formlega Ăștgönguferli Ășr EvrĂłpusambandinu.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1769 - Jean-de-Dieu Soult, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1851).
+ 1780 - Jörundur hundadagakonungur (d. 1841).
+ 1790 - John Tyler, Bandarikjaforseti (d. 1862).
+ 1799 - Edward Smith-Stanley, jarl af Derby (d. 1869).
+ 1899 - LavrentĂj BerĂa, yfirmaĂ°ur sovĂ©sku öryggislögreglunnar (d. 1953).
+ 1902 - William Walton, breskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1983).
+ 1916 - Peter Geach, breskur heimspekingur (d. 2013).
+ 1927 - JĂłn Hnefill AĂ°alsteinsson, Ăslenskur ĂŸjóðfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 2010).
+ 1937 - Gordon Milne, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1943 - Eric Idle, breskur gamanleikari og rithöfundur.
+ 1943 - John Major, fyrrverandi forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands.
+ 1944 - ĂĂłrir Baldursson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1952 - Bola Tinubu, forseti NĂgerĂu.
+ 1957 - Christopher Lambert, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1958 - Tsutomu Sonobe, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1959 - Nouriel Roubini, bandarĂskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1964 - Elle Macpherson, åströlsk fyrirsÊta
+ 1966 - Ăvar GuĂ°mundsson ĂștvarpsmaĂ°ur
+ 1967 - MargrĂ©t LĂła JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslenskt skĂĄld.
+ 1968 - Lucy Lawless, nĂœsjĂĄlensk leikkona.
+ 1972 - Rui Costa, portĂșgalskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1972 - Hera Björk ĂĂłrhallsdĂłttir, Ăslensk söngkona.
+ 1973 - Marc Overmars, hollenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1978 - Ragnar Hansson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri.
+ 1990 - Teemu Pukki, finnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1058 - StefĂĄn 9. pĂĄfi.
+ 1772 - Emanuel Swedenborg, sĂŠnskur vĂsindamaĂ°ur (f. 1688).
+ 1787 - JĂłn EirĂksson, Ăslenskur lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1728).
+ 1792 - GĂșstaf 3. SvĂakonungur, eftir aĂ° hafa veriĂ° skotinn ĂŸann 16. mars.
+ 1870 - Paul-Ămile Botta, franskur fornleifafrĂŠĂ°ingur og konsĂșll (f. 1802).
+ 1912 - Robert Falcon Scott, breskur landkönnuður (f. 1868).
+ 1955 - Einar ArnĂłrsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1880).
+ 1963 - August Rei, eistneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1886).
+ 1973 - Adolfo ZumelzĂș, argentĂnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1902).
+ 1982 - Carl Orff, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1895).
+ 1985 - Jeanine Deckers, belgĂsk nunna (f. 1933).
+ 1985 - George Peter Murdock, breskur mannfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1897).
+ 1991 - Lee Atwater, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°gjafi (f. 1951).
+ 1999 - Gyula Zsengellér, ungverskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1915).
+ 2003 - Tadao Horie, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1913).
+ 2005 - Mitch Hedberg, bandarĂskur grĂnisti (f. 1968).
+ 2016 - Patty Duke, bandarĂsk leikkona (f. 1946).
+
+Mars
+30. mars er 89. dagur ĂĄrsins (90. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 276 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1131 - Almyrkvi ĂĄ sĂłlu sĂĄst ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1282 - Sikileysku aftansöngvarnir hófust, uppreisn gegn stjórn Frakka å eynni.
+ 1296 - JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 1. Englandskonungur rĂ©Ă°ist ĂĄ skoska landamĂŠrabĂŠinn Berwick-upon-Tweed og strĂĄfelldi flesta ĂbĂșana.
+ 1533 - Thomas Cranmer varĂ° erkibiskup af Kantaraborg.
+ 1742 - Sveinn Sölvason varð varalögmaður norðan lands og vestan.
+ 1802 - BĂłlusetning viĂ° kĂșabĂłlu var lögboĂ°in ĂĄ Ăslandi og var ĂŸaĂ° meĂ° fyrstu löndum til slĂkrar lagasetningar.
+ 1816 - HiĂ° Ăslenska bĂłkmenntafĂ©lag var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1858 - Hymen Lipman fĂ©kk skrĂĄĂ° einkaleyfi ĂĄ blĂœanti meĂ° ĂĄföstu strokleĂ°ri.
+ 1867 - BandarĂkin keyptu Alaska af RĂșssum fyrir 7,2 milljĂłnir dollara.
+ 1912 - Ungmennasamband Austur-HĂșnvetninga var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1934 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă GrĂmsvötnum Ă Vatnajökli og olli hlaupi Ă SkeiĂ°arĂĄ.
+ 1945 - SĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöldin: SovĂ©tmenn rĂ©Ă°ust inn Ă AusturrĂki og hertĂłku VĂnarborg.
+ 1949 - AlĂŸingi Ăslendinga samĂŸykkti aĂ°ild landsins aĂ° NATO, en viĂ° ĂŸaĂ° brutust Ășt ĂłeirĂ°ir ĂĄ Austurvelli.
+ 1972 - VĂetnamstrĂĂ°iĂ°: Her NorĂ°ur-VĂetnam hĂłf PĂĄskasĂłknina inn Ă SuĂ°ur-VĂetnam.
+ 1976 - GaukshreiĂ°riĂ° eftir Milos Forman hlaut ĂskarsverĂ°laun sem besta kvikmyndin.
+ 1981 - Ronald Reagan var skotinn Ă brjĂłstiĂ° fyrir utan hĂłtel Ă Washington.
+ 1981 - Kvikmyndin Chariots of Fire var frumsĂœnd Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1982 - Geimskutlan Columbia lenti Ă NĂœju MexĂkĂł eftir 129 ferĂ°ir umhverfis jörĂ°ina.
+ 1985 - MĂłtefni gegn eyĂ°niveiru fundust Ă fyrsta sinn Ă blóði Ăslendings.
+ 2004 - FĂ©lagiĂ° FriĂ°arhĂșs var stofnaĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 2006 - MĂœraeldar komu upp ĂĄ Hraunhreppi Ă MĂœrasĂœslu og brunnu Ă yfir tvo sĂłlarhringa.
+ 2017 - GeimflutningafyrirtĂŠkiĂ° SpaceX endurnĂœtti Ă fyrsta sinn eldflaug Ă geimskoti.
+ 2019 â Zuzana ÄaputovĂĄ var kjörin forseti SlĂłvakĂu.
+ 2020 â OlĂuverĂ°strĂĂ° RĂșsslands og SĂĄdi-ArabĂu 2020: SĂĄdi-ArabĂa lĂŠkkaĂ°i verĂ° ĂĄ hrĂĄolĂu Ă 23 dollara, sem var ĂŸaĂ° lĂŠgsta frĂĄ 2002.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1432 - Mehmet 2. TyrkjasoldĂĄn (d. 1481).
+ 1639 - Ăvan Mazepa, ĂșkraĂnskur kĂłsakkaleiĂ°togi (d. 1709).
+ 1746 - Francisco Goya, spĂŠnskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1828).
+ 1844 - Paul Verlaine, franskt skĂĄld (d. 1896).
+ 1853 - Vincent van Gogh, hollenskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1890).
+ 1892 - Stefan Banach, pĂłlskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1945).
+ 1895 - NĂkolaj BĂșlganĂn, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra SovĂ©trĂkjanna (d. 1975).
+ 1926 - Ingvar Kamprad, sĂŠnskur athafnamaĂ°ur (d. 2018).
+ 1927 - MĂĄlmfrĂĂ°ur SigurĂ°ardĂłttir, alĂŸingiskona.
+ 1937 - Warren Beatty, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1945 - Eric Clapton, breskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur
+ 1962 - MC Hammer, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1964 - Tracy Chapman, bandarĂskur söngvari.
+ 1964 - Vera Zimmermann, brasilĂsk leikkona.
+ 1967 - Gerald McCullouch, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1968 - CĂ©line Dion, kanadĂsk söngkona.
+ 1968 - Ari Alexander Ergis MagnĂșsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri.
+ 1970 - Secretariat, bandarĂskur veĂ°hlaupahestur (d. 1989).
+ 1973 - AuĂ°ur JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur rithöfundur.
+ 1979 - Norah Jones, bandarĂsk söngkona.
+ 1982 - Jason Dohring, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1986 - Sergio Ramos, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1988 - Richard Sherman, bandarĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1990 - Stella SigurĂ°ardĂłttir, Ăslensk handknattleikskona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1842 - Ălisabeth Louise VigĂ©e Le Brun, frönsk myndlistarkona (f. 1755).
+ 1885 - Hugh Andrew Johnston Munro, breskur fornfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1819).
+ 1902 - Matthias Hans RosenĂžrn, danskur embĂŠttismaĂ°ur og stiftamtmaĂ°ur ĂĄ Ăslandi (f. 1814).
+ 1934 - Finnur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1858).
+ 1950 - LĂ©on Blum, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1872).
+ 1970 - Heinrich BrĂŒning, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1885).
+ 1986 - James Cagney, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1899).
+ 1993 - Richard Diebenkorn, bandarĂskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1922).
+ 2002 - ElĂsabet drottningarmóðir (f. 1900).
+ 2003 - Michael Jeter, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1952).
+ 2005 - Alan Dundes, bandarĂskur ĂŸjóðfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1934).
+
+Mars
+31. mars er 90. dagur ĂĄrsins (91. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 275 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1344 - JĂłn SigurĂ°sson SkĂĄlholtsbiskup aflagĂ°i ĂgĂșstĂnusarreglu Ă ViĂ°ey og klaustriĂ° varĂ° aĂ°setur Benediktsmunka til 1352.
+ 1376 - GregorĂus 11. pĂĄfi bannfĂŠrĂ°i alla stjĂłrnendur FlĂłrens og setti borgina Ă bann.
+ 1492 - FerdĂnand og Ăsabella fyrirskipuĂ°u brottrekstur allra gyĂ°inga frĂĄ SpĂĄni nema ĂŸeir snerust til kaĂŸĂłlskrar trĂșar.
+ 1532 - Englendingar börĂ°ust viĂ° ĂŸĂœska kaupmenn um hafnaraĂ°stöðu ĂĄ BĂĄsendum og biĂ°u Ăłsigur.
+ 1547 - Hinrik 2. varĂ° konungur Frakklands.
+ 1814 - NapĂłleonsstyrjaldirnar: Alexander 1. RĂșssakeisari og FriĂ°rik VilhjĂĄlmur 3. PrĂșssakonungur riĂ°u inn Ă ParĂs.
+ 1829 - Francesco Saverio Castiglioni varĂ° PĂus 8. pĂĄfi.
+ 1854 - SjĂłguninn af Japan neyddist til aĂ° undirrita friĂ°ar- og vinĂĄttusamning viĂ° bandarĂska flotaforingjann Matthew C. Perry.
+ 1856 - KrĂmstrĂĂ°inu lauk meĂ° friĂ°arsamningum Ă ParĂs.
+ 1863 - Kona kaus Ă fyrsta sinn Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrnarkosningum ĂĄ Ăslandi og var ĂŸaĂ° Maddama Vilhelmina Lever ĂĄ Akureyri.
+ 1880 - Wabash Ă Indiana Ă BandarĂkjunum varĂ° fyrsti raflĂœsti bĂŠr heimsins.
+ 1889 - Eiffelturninn var vĂgĂ°ur.
+ 1905 - Gull fannst viĂ° jarĂ°borun Ă VatnsmĂœri viĂ° ĂskjuhlĂĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk. MagniĂ° var of lĂtiĂ° til aĂ° vera vinnanlegt.
+ 1909 - Björn Jónsson tók við råðherraembÊtti af Hannesi Hafstein. Björn sat à tvö år.
+ 1909 - SerbĂa viĂ°urkenndi yfirrĂĄĂ° AusturrĂkis yfir BosnĂu-HersegĂłvĂnu.
+ 1917 - BandarĂkin keyptu Dönsku Vestur-IndĂur af Dönum og borguĂ°u 25 milljĂłnir dollara fyrir. SĂĂ°an hafa eyjarnar heitiĂ° BandarĂsku JĂłmfrĂșreyjar.
+ 1931 - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti lagĂ°i Managva Ă NĂkaragva Ă rĂșst og 2.000 manns dĂłu.
+ 1948 - HeimastjĂłrnarlögin 1948 voru gefin Ășt um stöðu FĂŠreyja Ă Danmörku.
+ 1949 - Samtök rafverktaka stofnuĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1955 - Togarinn Jón Baldvinsson strandaði við Reykjanes. Allri åhöfninni var bjargað, 42 mönnum.
+ 1959 - Tenzin Gyatso, fjĂłrtĂĄndi DalaĂ Lama, fĂ©kk pĂłlitĂskt hĂŠli ĂĄ Indlandi.
+ 1964 - BrasilĂski herinn framdi valdarĂĄn gegn JoĂŁo Goulart, forseta BrasilĂu.
+ 1966 - SovĂ©trĂkin skutu upp geimfarinu Luna 10 og komu ĂŸvĂ ĂĄ sporbaug um tungliĂ°.
+ 1967 - Ă Raufarhöfn mĂŠldist 205 cm snjĂłdĂœpt og ĂŸykir ĂŸaĂ° meĂ° fĂĄdĂŠmum Ă ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1969 - KjörĂs hĂłf starfsemi Ă HveragerĂ°i.
+ 1970 - Japanski rauĂ°i herinn rĂŠndi flugvĂ©l Japan Airlines ĂĄ leiĂ° frĂĄ TĂłkĂœĂł til Fukuoka meĂ° 131 farĂŸega.
+ 1974 - Breska flugfélagið British Airways var stofnað.
+ 1979 - SteingrĂmur Hermannsson tĂłk viĂ° af Ălafi JĂłhannessyni sem formaĂ°ur FramsĂłknarflokksins.
+ 1979 - Varnarsamningur milli Möltu og Bretlands rann Ășt og sĂĂ°asti breski hermaĂ°urinn fĂłr frĂĄ eyjunni.
+ 1979 - Ăsrael sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva meĂ° laginu âHallelujahâ sem flutt var af söngkonunni Gali Atari og sönghĂłpnum Milk & Honey.
+ 1986 - 167 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Boeing 747-farĂŸegavĂ©l hrapaĂ°i Ă MexĂkĂł.
+ 1989 - LĂnuhraĂ°all, tĂŠki til geislameĂ°ferĂ°ar vegna krabbameina, var tekinn Ă notkun ĂĄ LandspĂtala Ăslands.
+ 1990 - NefskattsĂłeirĂ°irnar Ă Bretlandi: âĂnnur orrustan um Trafalgarâ ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ° ĂŸegar ĂłeirĂ°ir brutust Ășt ĂĄ Trafalgartorgi Ă London.
+ 1991 - VarsjĂĄrbandalagiĂ° var leyst upp.
+ 1991 - Fyrstu fjölflokkakosningarnar voru haldnar Ă AlbanĂu.
+ 1991 - Yfir 99% kjĂłsenda Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu um sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i GeorgĂu samĂŸykktu.
+ 1994 - TĂmaritiĂ° Nature sagĂ°i frĂĄ uppgötvun fyrstu heilu hauskĂșpu Australopithecus afarensis Ă EĂŸĂĂłpĂu.
+ 1995 - BandarĂsk-mexĂkĂłska söngkonan Selena var myrt af fyrrum starfsmanni sĂnum, Yolanda SaldĂvar.
+ 1997 - BarnaĂŸĂŠttirnir Stubbarnir hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ BBC Two.
+ 1998 - Netscape gaf frumkóða Mozilla-vafrans Ășt meĂ° frjĂĄlsu afnotaleyfi.
+ 1999 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin FylkiĂ° var frumsĂœnd.
+ 2002 - Svissneska flugfĂ©lagiĂ° Swissair varĂ° gjaldĂŸrota.
+ 2003 - 400 fĂłrust Ă aurskriĂ°u sem fĂłr yfir nĂĄmubĂŠinn Chima Ă BĂłlivĂu.
+ 2006 - MenntaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk sigrar MorfĂs ĂŸaĂ° ĂĄriĂ°.
+ 2007 - ĂbĂșar HafnarfjarĂ°ar höfnuĂ°u stĂŠkkun Ălversins Ă StraumsvĂk.
+ 2009 - 200 flĂłttamenn fĂłrust Ă MiĂ°jarĂ°arhafi milli LĂbĂu og ĂtalĂu.
+ 2009 - Benjamin Netanyahu myndaĂ°i stjĂłrn Ă Ăsrael ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° hafa beĂ°iĂ° lĂŠgri hlut fyrir Tzipi Livni Ă kosningum.
+ 2011 - Mayotte varĂ° frönsk handanhafssĂœsla og ĂŸar meĂ° hluti af Frakklandi.
+ 2011 - Hersveitir Alassane Ouattara hĂ©ldu inn Ă höfuĂ°borg FĂlabeinsstrandarinnar til aĂ° setja forsetann, Laurent Gbagbo, af eftir aĂ° hann hafĂ°i neitaĂ° aĂ° viĂ°urkenna tap Ă forsetakosningum ĂĄriĂ° ĂĄĂ°ur.
+ 2012 - Fyrsta danska hraĂ°brautin sem reist var sem einkaframkvĂŠmd, SĂžnderborg-hraĂ°brautin, var opnuĂ° ĂĄri fyrr en ĂĄĂŠtlaĂ° var.
+ 2013 - Fyrsta tilvikiĂ° ĂŸar sem fuglaflensuveiran H7N9 smitaĂ°ist Ă mann greindist Ă KĂna.
+ 2014 - AlĂŸjóðadĂłmstĂłllinn ĂșrskurĂ°aĂ°i aĂ° hvalveiĂ°ar Japana Ă SuĂ°ur-Ăshafi gĂŠtu ekki talist Ă vĂsindaskyni og ĂŠttu ekki aĂ° fĂĄ fleiri leyfi.
+ 2015 - Muhammadu Buhari varĂ° forseti NĂgerĂu.
+ 2016 - StrĂĂ°sglĂŠpadĂłmstĂłll SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna sĂœknaĂ°i serbneska ĂŸjóðernissinnann Vojislav Ć eĆĄelj af ĂĄsökunum um glĂŠpi gegn mannkyni.
+ 2017 - KvennaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk sigrar Ă Gettu betur Ă annaĂ° sinn.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1499 - PĂus 4. pĂĄfi (d. 1565).
+ 1519 - Hinrik 2. Frakkakonungur (d. 1559).
+ 1596 - René Descartes, heimspekingur og stÊrðfrÊðingur (d. 1650).
+ 1675 - Benedikt 14. pĂĄfi (d. 1758).
+ 1684 - Francesco Durante, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1755).
+ 1723 - FriĂ°rik V Danakonungur (d. 1766).
+ 1732 - Joseph Haydn, austurrĂskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1809).
+ 1781 - Bjarni Thorsteinsson, amtmaĂ°ur (d. 1876).
+ 1791 - PĂĄll MelsteĂ°, amtmaĂ°ur, sĂœslumaĂ°ur og alĂŸingismaĂ°ur (d. 1861).
+ 1809 - Nikolaj Gogol, rĂșssneskur rithöfundur (d. 1852).
+ 1819 - Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-SchillingsfĂŒrst, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1901).
+ 1835 - Theodor Wisén, sÊnskur norrÊnufrÊðingur (d. 1892).
+ 1872
+ Alexandra Kollontaj, sovésk stjórnmålakona og erindreki (d. 1952).
+ Helgi Pjeturss, Ăslenskur jarĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1949).
+ 1914 - Octavio Paz, mexĂkĂłskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 1998).
+ 1919 - StefĂĄn HörĂ°ur GrĂmsson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (d. 2002).
+ 1921 - JĂłn MĂșli Ărnason, Ăslenskur ĂștvarpsmaĂ°ur (d. 2002).
+ 1928 - SigurĂ°ur A. MagnĂșsson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (d. 2017).
+ 1934 - Shirley Jones, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1935 - Richard Chamberlain, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1936 - Towa Carson, sÊnsk söngkona.
+ 1939 - Zviad Gamsakhurdia, forseti GeorgĂu (d. 1993).
+ 1943 - Christopher Walken, leikari
+ 1948 - Al Gore, fyrrverandi varaforseti BandarĂkjanna.
+ 1964 - Olexander TĂșrtsĂnov, ĂșkraĂnskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1967 - ÄœubomĂr LuhovĂœ, slĂłvakĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1968 - CĂ©sar Sampaio, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumyndir.
+ 1971 - Ewan McGregor, skoskur leikari.
+ 1973 - ĂrĂșĂ°ur VilhjĂĄlmsdĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona.
+ 1973 - KristjĂĄn Guy Burgess, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlafrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1982 - ChloĂ© Zhao, kĂnverskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri.
+ 1985 - Jessica Szohr, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1296 - ĂorvarĂ°ur ĂĂłrarinsson, Ăslenskur goĂ°orĂ°smaĂ°ur og riddari af ĂŠtt SvĂnfellinga.
+ 1340 â Ăvan 1. af Moskvu (f. 1288).
+ 1547 - Frans 1. Frakkakonungur (f. 1494).
+ 1621 - Filippus 3. SpĂĄnarkonungur (f. 1578).
+ 1631 - John Donne, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1572).
+ 1727 - Isaac Newton, enskur vĂsindamaĂ°ur (f. 1642).
+ 1748 - Ărni HallvarĂ°sson, prestur ĂĄ Hvalsnesi ĂĄ SuĂ°urnesjum (f. 1712).
+ 1837 - John Constable, enskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1776).
+ 1850 - John C. Calhoun, varaforseti BandarĂkjanna (f. 1782).
+ 1855 - Charlotte Brontë, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1816).
+ 1917 - Emil von Behring, ĂŸĂœskur örverufrĂŠĂ°ingur og nĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (f. 1854).
+ 1945 - Anna Frank, dagbókarhöfundur (f. 1929).
+ 1980 - Jesse Owens, bandarĂskur ĂĂŸrĂłttamaĂ°ur (f. 1913).
+ 1988 - William McMahon, fĂŠrsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra ĂstralĂu (f. 1908).
+ 1993 - Brandon Lee, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1965).
+ 1995 - Selena, bandarĂsk söngkona (f. 1971).
+ 2008 - Gunnar GĂslason, Ăslenskur prestur (f. 1914).
+ 2009 - Raul Alfonsin, forseti ArgentĂnu (f. 1927).
+ 2016 - Imre Kertész, ungverskur rithöfundur (f. 1929).
+ 2017 - Tino Insana, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1948).
+
+Mars
+1. aprĂl er 91. dagur ĂĄrsins (92. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 274 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1240 - HĂĄkon ungi HĂĄkonarson var krĂœndur meĂ°konungur föður sĂns Ă Noregi.
+ 1340 - Niels Ebbesen drap GeirharĂ° 3. hertoga af Holtsetalandi Ă Randers.
+ 1605 - Alessandro Ottaviano de'Medici varĂ° LeĂł 11. pĂĄfi.
+ 1621 - ĂbĂșar Plymouth-nĂœlendunnar gerĂ°u sinn fyrsta samning viĂ° indĂĂĄna.
+ 1807 - Trampe stiftamtmaĂ°ur setti reglugerĂ° um brunavarnir Ă ReykjavĂk. BannaĂ° var aĂ° reykja pĂpu innanhĂșss og nĂĄlĂŠgt eldfimum efnum.
+ 1855 - EinkarĂ©ttur Dana til verslunar ĂĄ Ăslandi var aflagĂ°ur og mĂĄttu Ăslendingar eftir ĂŸaĂ° versla viĂ° allar ĂŸjóðir.
+ 1867 - Fyrsta nemendafĂ©lag MenntaskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk, BandamannafĂ©lagiĂ°, var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1871 - FjĂĄrhagur Ăslands og Danmerkur var aĂ°skilinn og Ăslensk krĂłna varĂ° til.
+ 1873 - Hilmar Finsen varĂ° fyrsti landshöfĂ°ingi Ăslands. Hann var ĂĄĂ°ur stiftamtmaĂ°ur en sĂĂ°ar borgarstjĂłri Ă Kaupmannahöfn.
+ 1891 - Wrigley-fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° var stofnaĂ° Ă Chicago Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1896 - Ălafoss hĂłf ullarvinnslu.
+ 1924 - Adolf Hitler var dĂŠmdur Ă fimm ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir ĂŸĂĄtttöku sĂna Ă valdarĂĄnstilraun Ă MĂŒnchen ĂĄriĂ° 1923. Hann sat ĂŸĂł aĂ°eins inni Ă nĂu mĂĄnuĂ°i.
+ 1936 - AlĂŸĂœĂ°utryggingalög gengu Ă gildi ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1955 - HĂĄtĂĂ°ahöld til aĂ° minnast aldarafmĂŠlis frjĂĄlsrar verslunar fĂłru fram ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1955 - AprĂlgabb birtist Ă TĂmanum um vĂŠntanlegan fund ĂŠĂ°stu rĂĄĂ°amanna heims Ă ReykjavĂk. SlĂkur fundur varĂ° ekki ĂĄ dagskrĂĄ fyrr en 31 og hĂĄlfu ĂĄri sĂĂ°ar, 10. oktĂłber 1986.
+ 1965 - StĂłr-LundĂșnasvĂŠĂ°iĂ° var formlega skipulagt sem sĂœsla ĂĄ Englandi.
+ 1970 - Richard Nixon undirritaĂ°i Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act sem bannaĂ°i sĂgarettuauglĂœsingar Ă sjĂłnvarpi.
+ 1976 - TölvufyrirtÊkið Apple var stofnað af Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak og Ronald Wayne.
+ 1976 - Postverk FĂžroya tĂłk viĂ° pĂłstĂŸjĂłnustu Ă FĂŠreyjum af Post- og TelegrafvĂŠsnet.
+ 1976 - Opinbera lestarfyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Conrail var stofnaĂ° Ă BandarĂkjunum til aĂ° taka viĂ° rekstri 13 gjaldĂŸrota jĂĄrnbrauta.
+ 1979 - Barnastöðin Pinwheel Network breytti nafni sĂnu Ă Nickleodeon og hĂłf Ăștsendingar ĂĄ Ăœmsum kapalkerfum Warner.
+ 1979 - AusturrĂskir lögreglumenn handtĂłku lĂŠrlinginn Andreas Mihavecz, lokuĂ°u hann inni Ă fangaklefa og gleymdu honum svo. Hann fannst aftur fyrir tilviljun 17 dögum sĂĂ°ar og hafĂ°i lifaĂ° af meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° sleikja raka af veggjum klefans.
+ 1981 - Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin GrĂœlurnar var stofnuĂ°.
+ 1981 - SumartĂmi var tekinn upp Ă SovĂ©trĂkjunum.
+ 1984 - Marvin Gaye, söngvari, var skotinn til bana af föður sĂnum.
+ 1984 - Kringvarp FĂžroya hĂłf Ăștsendingar.
+ 1986 - Sector Kanda: KommĂșnistar Ă Nepal reyndu valdarĂĄn meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° rĂĄĂ°ast ĂĄ lögreglustöðvar Ă KatmandĂș.
+ 1987 - TaĂlensk-austurrĂski orkudrykkurinn Red Bull kom ĂĄ markaĂ° Ă AusturrĂki.
+ 1990 - SeyĂ°isfjarĂ°arkaupstaĂ°ur og SeyĂ°isfjarĂ°arhreppur vou sameinaĂ°ir undir merkjum SeyĂ°sfjarĂ°arkaupstaĂ°ar.
+ 1991 - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsstöðin Comedy Central hĂłf göngu sĂna Ă kapalkerfi.
+ 1992 - BlóðbaĂ°iĂ° Ă Bijeljina hĂłfst ĂŸegar vopnaĂ°ir serbneskir hĂłpar hĂłfu aĂ° myrĂ°a Ăłbreytta borgara Ă Bijeljina Ă BosnĂu.
+ 1995 - Dialog Telekom hĂłf rekstur fyrsta GSM-nets SrĂ Lanka.
+ 1996 - SveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° Halifax var myndaĂ° Ășr fjĂłrum eldri sveitarfĂ©lögum.
+ 1997 - Hale-Bopp-halastjarnan nĂĄĂ°i sĂłlnĂĄnd.
+ 1997 - TeiknimyndaĂŸĂŠttirnir PokĂ©mon hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ TV Tokyo.
+ 1997 - BorgarhverfiĂ° UĆŸupis Ă Vilnius lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i sem âlĂœĂ°veldiĂ° UĆŸupisâ.
+ 1998 - VefmiĂ°illinn VĂsir stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 1999 - KanadĂska fylkiĂ° Nunavut varĂ° til Ășr austurhluta NorĂ°vesturhĂ©raĂ°anna.
+ 2000 - Siglingamiðstöðin Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy var opnuð.
+ 2001 - Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ, fyrrverandi forseti JĂșgĂłslavĂu gaf sig fram viĂ° sĂ©rsveitir lögreglu.
+ 2001 - FlugslysiĂ° ĂĄ Hainan: BandarĂsk njĂłsnaflugvĂ©l lenti Ă ĂĄrekstri viĂ° kĂnverska orrustuflugvĂ©l. KĂnverski flugmaĂ°urinn fannst aldrei en 10 manna ĂĄhöfn bandarĂsku flugvĂ©larinnar nauĂ°lenti Ă KĂna, var handtekin og haldiĂ° Ă 10 daga.
+ 2001 - HjĂłnabönd samkynhneigĂ°ra voru heimiluĂ° meĂ° nĂœjum lögum Ă Hollandi.
+ 2002 - Holland lögleiddi aĂ°stoĂ° viĂ° sjĂĄlfsvĂg fyrst landa.
+ 2003 - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Fyrsti aprĂll var frumsĂœnd.
+ 2005 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Sin City var frumsĂœnd Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 2007 - Ăslenska fjarskiptafyrirtĂŠkiĂ° MĂla ehf var stofnaĂ°.
+ 2008 - StÊrsta rån à sögu Danmerkur var framið à peningageymslu à Glostrup. RÊningjarnir komust undan með 62 milljónir.
+ 2009 â AlbanĂa og KrĂłatĂa gengu Ă NATĂ.
+ 2012 - Flokkur Aung San Suu Kyi, LĂœĂ°rĂŠĂ°isbandalagiĂ°, vann meirihluta lausra ĂŸingsĂŠta Ă aukakosningum Ă Mjanmar.
+ 2017 - Mocoa-skriĂ°an: Yfir 300 fĂłrust Ă skriĂ°um Ă KĂłlumbĂu.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1545 - Peder ClaussĂžn Friis, norskur fornfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1614).
+ 1640 - Georg Mohr, danskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1697).
+ 1755 - Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, franskur matmaĂ°ur (d. 1826).
+ 1815 - Otto von Bismarck, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1898).
+ 1873 - Sergei Rachmaninoff, tĂłnskĂĄld, pĂanĂłleikari og stjĂłrnandi (d. 1943).
+ 1920 - ToshirĆ Mifune, leikari (d. 1997).
+ 1920 - Hjörtur EldjĂĄrn ĂĂłrarinsson, bĂłndi ĂĄ Tjörn Ă SvarfaĂ°ardal (d. 1996).
+ 1929 - Milan Kundera, tékkneskur rithöfundur.
+ 1930 - Ăsta SigurĂ°ardĂłttir, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (d. 1971).
+ 1932 - Debbie Reynolds, leikkona.
+ 1940 - Wangari Maathai, kenĂskur lĂffrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 2011).
+ 1950 - Samuel Alito, bandarĂskur hĂŠstarĂ©ttardĂłmari.
+ 1958 - Milton Queiroz da PaixĂŁo, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1961 - Susan Boyle, skosk söngkona.
+ 1963 - Joe Wright, bandarĂskur körfuknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 1971 - Method Man, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1975 - Washington Stecanela Cerqueira, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1979 - Ivano BaliÄ, krĂłatĂskur handknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 1983 - Ălafur Ingi SkĂșlason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1985 - Elena Berkova, rĂșssnesk klĂĄmmyndaleikkona og söngkona.
+ 1987 - José Ortigoza, paragvÊskur knattspyrnumaður.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1132 - HĂșgĂł frĂĄ ChĂąteauneuf, biskup Ă Grenoble (f. 1052).
+ 1204 - ElinĂłra af AkvitanĂu, drottning Frakklands og sĂĂ°ar Englands.
+ 1205 - Amalrekur 1., konungur KĂœpur og JerĂșsalem (f. 1145).
+ 1412 - Albrekt af Mecklenburg, SvĂakonungur 1363â1389 (f. 1336).
+ 1441 - Blanka 1., drottning Navarra (f. 1387).
+ 1637 - Niwa Nagashige, japanskur strĂĂ°sherra (f. 1571).
+ 1684 - Roger Williams, enskur guĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1603).
+ 1868 - Rasoherina, drottning Madagaskar (f. 1814).
+ 1922 - Karl 1. AusturrĂkiskeisari (f. 1887).
+ 1922 - Henri-Paul Motte, franskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1846).
+ 1927 - Eymundur JĂłnsson, jĂĄrnsmiĂ°ur og bĂłndi (f. 1840).
+ 1976 - Max Ernst, listmĂĄlari (f. 1891).
+ 1984 - Marvin Gaye, bandarĂskur söngvari (f. 1939).
+ 1990 - Carlos Peucelle, argentĂnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1908).
+ 1996 - Hjörtur EldjĂĄrn ĂĂłrarinsson, bĂłndi ĂĄ Tjörn Ă SvarfaĂ°ardal (f. 1920).
+ 2002 - JĂłn MĂșli Ărnason, ĂștvarpsmaĂ°ur og tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1921).
+ 2013 - HerdĂs ĂorvaldsdĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona (f. 1923)
+
+HefĂ°ir
+ AprĂlgabb
+
+Heimildir
+
+AprĂl
+2. aprĂl er 92. dagur ĂĄrsins (93. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 273 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 999 - Gerbert d'Aurillac varĂ° Silvester 2. pĂĄfi.
+ 1285 - Giacomo Savelli varĂ° HonĂłrĂus 4. pĂĄfi.
+ 1305 - LoĂ°vĂk krĂłnprins Frakklands, sĂĂ°ar LoĂ°vĂk 10., varĂ° konungur Navarra sem LoĂ°vĂk 1. viĂ° lĂĄt móður sinnar. Skömmu ĂĄĂ°ur hafĂ°i hann gengiĂ° aĂ° eiga MargrĂ©ti af BĂșrgund.
+ 1453 - UmsĂĄtriĂ° um KonstantĂnĂłpel hĂłfst.
+ 1725 - JarĂ°skjĂĄlftar viĂ° upphaf Heklugoss voru âskelfilegirâ aĂ° sögn HĂtardalsannĂĄls.
+ 1801 - Breski flotinn undir stjórn Nelsons flotaforingja gjörsigraði danska flotann við Kaupmannahöfn.
+ 1831 - Lorentz Angel Krieger varĂ° stiftamtmaĂ°ur ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1877 - Talsvert tjĂłn varĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk og nĂĄgrenni Ă norĂ°anstormi sem stóð Ă tvo daga.
+ 1900 - Setning Forakerlaganna Ă bandarĂska ĂŸinginu veitti PĂșertĂł RĂkĂł heimastjĂłrn.
+ 1902 - Fyrsta kvikmyndahĂșsiĂ° Ă BandarĂkjunum, Electric Theatre, var opnaĂ° Ă Los Angeles Ă KalifornĂu.
+ 1908 - TĂłlf menn fĂłrust en einn bjargaĂ°ist er bĂĄtur fĂłrst Ă lendingu viĂ° Stokkseyri.
+ 1928 - Fyrsta Ăslenska konan fĂ©kk lyfsöluleyfi, JĂłhanna MagnĂșsdĂłttir, sem rak LyfjabĂșĂ°ina IĂ°unni Ă ReykjavĂk Ă ĂĄratugi.
+ 1930 - Haile Selassie var lĂœstur keisari EĂŸĂĂłpĂu.
+ 1973 - StafrĂłfsmorĂ°in: Wanda Walkowicz hvarf Ă Rochester (New York).
+ 1973 - LexisNexis opnaði fyrir tölvukeyrða leit à dómasafni.
+ 1982 - ArgentĂna gerĂ°i innrĂĄs ĂĄ Falklandseyjar og hĂłf ĂŸannig FalklandseyjastrĂĂ°iĂ°.
+ 1991 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă PĂnatĂșbĂł ĂĄ Filippseyjum.
+ 1992 - John Gotti var dĂŠmdur Ă ĂŠvilangt fangelsi Ă New York-borg, fyrir morĂ° og skipulagĂ°a glĂŠpastarfsemi.
+ 2004 - BĂșlgarĂa, Eistland, Lettland, LithĂĄen, RĂșmenĂa, SlĂłvakĂa og SlĂłvenĂa urĂ°u fullgildir meĂ°limir Ă NATO.
+ 2007 - Jarðskjålfti að stÊrðargråðu 8,1 å Richter skók Salómonseyjar og olli flóðbylgju.
+ 2007 - Reykingabann å almannafÊri og vinnustöðum tók gildi à Wales.
+ 2011 - KvennaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk sigrar Ă Gettu betur Ă fyrsta sinn.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 747 - KarlamagnĂșs (Karl mikli], konungur Franka (d. 814).
+ 1545 - ElĂsabet af Valois, drottning SpĂĄnar (d. 1568).
+ 1618 - Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Ătalskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1663).
+ 1725 - Giacomo Casanova, feneyskur ĂŠvintĂœramaĂ°ur og rithöfundur (d. 1798).
+ 1805 - Hans Christian Andersen, danskur rithöfundur (d. 1875).
+ 1840 - Ămile Zola, franskur rithöfundur og gagnrĂœnandi (d. 1902).
+ 1891 - Max Ernst, ĂŸĂœskur mĂĄlari (d. 1976).
+ 1914 - Alec Guinness, breskur leikari (d. 2000).
+ 1923 - Wendell Clausen, bandarĂskur fornfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 2006).
+ 1927 - Ferenc PuskĂĄs, ungverskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 2006).
+ 1939 - Marvin Gaye, söngvari. (d. 1984).
+ 1945 - Linda Hunt, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1951 - SigfĂșs JĂłnsson, fyrrum bĂŠjarstjĂłri Akureyrar.
+ 1952 - Leon Wilkeson, bandarĂskur bassaleikari (Lynyrd Skynyrd).
+ 1959 - Alberto FernĂĄndez, forseti ArgentĂnu.
+ 1961 - Keren Woodward, bresk söngkona (Bananarama).
+ 1965 - Svavar Hrafn Svavarsson, Ăslenskur heimspekingur.
+ 1965 - Rodney King, bandarĂskur leigubĂlstjĂłri (d. 2012).
+ 1967 - Greg Camp, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (Smash Mouth).
+ 1975 - Adam RodrĂguez, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1979 - MagnĂșs KĂĄri JĂłnsson, ĂŸjĂĄlfari.
+ 1989 - Berglind Festiva PĂ©tursdĂłttir, sjĂłnvarpskona
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1118 - Baldvin 1. konungur JerĂșsalem.
+ 1244 - Henrik HarpestrĂŠng, danskur lĂŠknir og grasafrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1272 - RĂkharĂ°ur, jarl af Cornwall og konungur ĂĂœskalands (f. 1209).
+ 1305 - JĂłhanna 1. Navarradrottning (f. 1273).
+ 1335 - Hinrik BĂŠheimskonungur (f. um 1265).
+ 1641 - Georg af BrĂșnsvĂk-LĂŒneburg, ĂŸĂœskur hertogi (f. 1582).
+ 1657 - Ferdinand 3. keisari hins heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis (f. 1603).
+ 1709 - Giovanni Battista Gaulli, Ătalskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1639).
+ 1861 - Peter Georg Bang, danskur forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra (f. 1797).
+ 1872 - Samuel Morse, höfundur Morse-merkjakerfisins (f. 1791).
+ 1894 - HermannĂus E. Johnson, landfĂłgeti ĂĄ Ăslandi (f. 1825).
+ 1914 - Paul Heyse, ĂŸĂœskur rithöfundur og nĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (f. 1830).
+ 1974 - Georges Pompidou, forseti Frakklands (f. 1911).
+ 2005 - JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. pĂĄfi (f. 1920).
+
+AprĂl
+3. aprĂl er 93. dagur ĂĄrsins (94. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 272 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1367 - Orrustan viĂ° NĂĄjera: PĂ©tur KastilĂukonungur komst aftur Ă hĂĄsĂŠtiĂ° meĂ° aĂ°stoĂ° JĂĄtvarĂ°ar svarta prins og herliĂ°s hans,
+ 1631 - SvĂar lögĂ°u Frankfurt an der Oder undir sig.
+ 1647 - BrĂ©f frĂĄ New Model Army ĂŸar sem töfum ĂĄ launagreiĂ°slum er mĂłtmĂŠlt, var lesiĂ° upp Ă enska ĂŸinginu.
+ 1657 - Oliver Cromwell tĂłk sĂ©r titilinn LĂĄvarĂ°ur samveldis Englands, Skotlands og Ărlands.
+ 1882 - LandshöfĂ°ingi tilkynnti aĂ° stofnuĂ° yrĂ°i geymsla fyrir skjalasöfn ĂŠĂ°stu embĂŠtta. ĂaĂ° varĂ° grunnurinn aĂ° Ăjóðskjalasafni Ăslands.
+ 1882 - Jesse James, Ăștlagi Ă villta vestrinu, var skotinn Ă bakiĂ° og drepinn.
+ 1920 - MillilandaskipiĂ° Ăsland var sett Ă sĂłttkvĂ viĂ° komuna til ReykjavĂkur vegna inflĂșensu um borĂ°.
+ 1922 - JĂłsef StalĂn var Ăștnefndur aĂ°alritari sovĂ©ska kommĂșnistaflokksins.
+ 1948 - Harry S Truman, forseti BandarĂkjanna, skrifaĂ°i undir Marshall-ĂĄĂŠtlunina.
+ 1968 - Martin Luther King yngri hélt frÊga rÊðu.
+ 1968 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin ApaplĂĄnetan var frumsĂœnd.
+ 1969 - Hungurvaka var haldin Ă tvo sĂłlarhringa Ă MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk til ĂŸess aĂ° vekja athygli ĂĄ hungri Ă heiminum.
+ 1971 - MĂłnakĂł sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva meĂ° laginu âUn banc, un arbre, une rueâ sem franska söngkonan SĂ©verine söng.
+ 1973 - Motorola sĂœndi Ă fyrsta sinn farsĂma sem gat hringt Ă gegnum farsĂmakerfi.
+ 1974 - AlĂŸingi lĂœsti Surtsey friĂ°land.
+ 1975 - Bobby Fischer neitaĂ°i aĂ° heyja heimsmeistaraeinvĂgi viĂ° AnatolĂj Karpov, og varĂ° Karpov ĂŸar meĂ° heimsmeistari.
+ 1976 - Breska hljĂłmsveitin Brotherhood of Man sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva meĂ° laginu âSave Your Kisses for Meâ.
+ 1977 - Fyrsta geimgreftrunin fĂłr fram ĂŸegar aska Gene Roddenberry var flutt Ășt Ă geim meĂ° geimskutlu.
+ 1984 - Banni viĂ° hundahaldi var aflĂ©tt Ă ReykjavĂk, en ĂŸaĂ° hafĂ°i staĂ°iĂ° sĂĂ°an 1. september 1971.
+ 1986 - IBM sĂœndi fyrstu kjöltutölvu fyrirtĂŠkisins, IBM Portable Personal Computer.
+ 1986 - Bresku barnaĂŸĂŠttirnir TuskubrĂșĂ°urnar hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ ITV.
+ 1991 - ĂryggisrĂĄĂ° SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna samĂŸykkti ĂĄlyktun 687 ĂŸar sem Ărak var gert aĂ° afvopnast og eyĂ°a öllum efna- og lĂfefnavopnum sĂnum.
+ 1995 - AlrĂkislögregla RĂșssneska SambandsrĂkisins var stofnuĂ° af Boris JeltsĂn ĂŸĂĄverandi forseta RĂșsslands.
+ 1996 - Theodore Kaczynski, betur ĂŸekktur sem Unabomber var handtekinn Ă fjallakofa Ă Montana.
+ 1996 - Boeing 737-herflugvĂ©l rakst ĂĄ fjall norĂ°an viĂ° Ragusa Ă KrĂłatĂu. Allir um borĂ°, 35 talsins, lĂ©tust, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al viĂ°skiptarĂĄĂ°herra BandarĂkjanna Ron Brown.
+ 1996 - TĂștsar hĂłfu fjöldamorĂ° ĂĄ hĂștĂșum Ă BĂșrĂșndĂ.
+ 1997 - Thalit-fjöldamorĂ°in: Allir ĂbĂșar Thalit Ă AlsĂr nema einn voru myrtir af skĂŠruliĂ°um.
+ 2000 - BandarĂkin gegn Microsoft: TölvufyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Microsoft var sĂłtt til saka vegna ĂĄsakana um samkeppnishamlandi aĂ°gerĂ°ir.
+ 2001 - Fyrstu tveggja hÊða strÊtisvagnarnir hófu að ganga à Kaupmannahöfn.
+ 2003 - SerbĂa og Svartfjallaland varĂ° aĂ°ili aĂ° EvrĂłpurĂĄĂ°inu.
+ 2003 - Risasmokkfiskur veiddist Ă Rosshafi.
+ 2003 - ĂraksstrĂĂ°iĂ°: BandarĂkjaher lagĂ°i alĂŸjóðaflugvöllinn Ă Bagdad undir sig.
+ 2005 - VĂ©lhjĂłlaklĂșbbur SkagafjarĂ°ar var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 2006 - Thaksin Shinawatra sigraĂ°i mjög umdeildar ĂŸingkosningar Ă TaĂlandi ĂŸar sem stjĂłrnarandstaĂ°an hvatti fĂłlk til aĂ° sniĂ°ganga kosningarnar.
+ 2007 - Franska hĂĄhraĂ°alestin TGV nĂĄĂ°i 574,8 km/klst hraĂ°a og setti ĂŸannig hraĂ°amet hefĂ°bundinna jĂĄrnbrautarlesta.
+ 2008 - Fyrrum forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra KosĂłvĂł, Ramush Haradinaj, var sĂœknaĂ°ur af ĂĄkĂŠrum um strĂĂ°sglĂŠpi gegn serbneskum ĂbĂșum KosĂłvĂł fyrir AlĂŸjóðlega strĂĂ°sglĂŠpadĂłmstĂłlnum fyrir fyrrum JĂșgĂłslavĂu. Mörg vitni gegn honum höfĂ°u veriĂ° myrt eĂ°a horfiĂ° Ă aĂ°draganda rĂ©ttarhaldanna.
+ 2009 - L-listinn drĂł framboĂ° sitt til AlĂŸingis til baka.
+ 2010 - Apple Inc setti iPad ĂĄ markaĂ°.
+ 2011 - Fyrsta Druslugangan var farin Ă Toronto Ă Kanada.
+ 2016 - FrĂ©ttir birtust um Panamaskjölin Ă fjölmiĂ°lum um allan heim. Skjölin voru gefin Ășt af blaĂ°amannasamtökunum International Consortium of Investigative Journalists.
+ 2017 - HryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄsin Ă Sankti PĂ©tursborg 2017: 16 lĂ©tust Ă sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjuĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ neĂ°anjarĂ°arlestarstöð Ă Sankti PĂ©tursborg Ă RĂșsslandi.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1245 - Filippus 3., konungur Frakklands (d. 1285).
+ 1366 - Hinrik 4. Englandskonungur (d. 1413).
+ 1683 - Mark Catesby, enskur nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1749).
+ 1693 - George Edwards, enskur nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1773).
+ 1783 - Washington Irving, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (d. 1859).
+ 1829 - KatrĂn ĂorvaldsdĂłttir SĂvertsen, eiginkona JĂłns Ărnasonar ĂŸjóðsagnasafnara (d. 1895).
+ 1881 - Alcide De Gasperi, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1954).
+ 1901 - Eric Voegelin, ĂŸĂœskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1985).
+ 1922 - Doris Day, bandarĂsk leikkona (d. 2019).
+ 1924 - Marlon Brando, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2004).
+ 1926 - JĂłn hlaupari, Ăslenskur frjĂĄlsĂĂŸrĂłttamaĂ°ur (d. 2016).
+ 1929 - Poul SchlĂŒter, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Danmerkur.
+ 1930 - Helmut Kohl, kanslari ĂĂœskalands (d. 2017).
+ 1934 - Jane Goodall, breskur dĂœrafrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1949 - Anthony C. Grayling, breskur heimspekingur.
+ 1957 - Yves Chaland, franskur myndasöguhöfundur.
+ 1958 - Alec Baldwin, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1960 - Miguel DĂaz-Canel, forseti KĂșbu.
+ 1961 - Eddie Murphy, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1965 - Katsumi Oenoki, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1968 - Jamie Hewlett, breskur myndasöguhöfundur.
+ 1970 - Donald-Olivier SiĂ©, knattspyrnumaĂ°ur frĂĄ FĂlabeinsströndinni.
+ 1971 - Robert da Silva Almeida, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1971 - Shireen Abu Akleh, palestĂnsk blaĂ°akona (d. 2022).
+ 1976 - Drew Shirley, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (Switchfoot).
+ 1977 - Alen AvdiÄ, bosnĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1982 - Cobie Smulders, kanadĂsk leikkona.
+ 1986 - Amanda Bynes, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 963 - VilhjĂĄlmur 3. hertogi af AkvitanĂu.
+ 1287 - HonĂłrĂus 4. pĂĄfi.
+ 1350 - OttĂł 4., hertogi af BĂșrgund (f. 1295).
+ 1658 - Ălafur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur prestur (f. 1570).
+ 1682 - Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, spÊnskur listmålari (f. 1618).
+ 1882 - Jesse James, Ăștlagi Ă villta vestrinu (f. 1847).
+ 1897 - Johannes Brahms, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1833).
+ 1917 - MagnĂșs Stephensen, Ăslenskur landshöfĂ°ingi (f. 1836).
+ 1974 - GuĂ°mundur Böðvarsson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1904).
+ 1991 - Graham Greene, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1994).
+ 1994 - JĂ©rĂŽme Lejeune, franskur erfĂ°afrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1926).
+ 2009 - IngĂłlfur GuĂ°brandsson, Ăslenskur ferĂ°amĂĄlafrömuĂ°ur (f. 1923).
+ 2010 - Eugene Terre'Blanche, suĂ°urafrĂskur nĂœfasisti (f. 1941).
+ 2013 - Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, ĂŸĂœskur rithöfundur (f. 1927).
+
+AprĂl
+4. aprĂl er 94. dagur ĂĄrsins (95. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 271 dagur er eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1328 - NiĂ°arĂłsdĂłmkirkja Ă Noregi brann.
+ 1406 - Jakob 1. varĂ° konungur Skotlands aĂ° nafninu til.
+ 1581 - Francis Drake lauk hringferĂ° sinni um heiminn og var aĂ°laĂ°ur af ElĂsabetu 1. Englandsdrottningu.
+ 1588 - KristjĂĄn 4. varĂ° konungur Danmerkur, 11 ĂĄra gamall, eftir lĂĄt föður sĂns FriĂ°riks 2.
+ 1607 - Iskandar Muda varĂ° soldĂĄn Ă Aceh.
+ 1609 - Filippus 3. gaf Ășt tilskipun um aĂ° kristnir mĂĄrar skyldu reknir frĂĄ SpĂĄni.
+ 1639 - SÊnski herinn undir stjórn Johans Banér, vann sigur å keisarahernum à orrustunni við Chemnitz à Saxlandi.
+ 1721 - Robert Walpole var skipaĂ°ur forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ă Bretlandi.
+ 1897 - HiĂ° Ăslenska prentarafĂ©lag var stofnaĂ°. ĂaĂ° er elsta starfandi verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lag ĂĄ Ăslandi og er nĂș hluti af FĂ©lagi bĂłkagerĂ°armanna.
+ 1905 - 370.000 manns fĂłrust Ă jarĂ°skjĂĄlfta nĂĄlĂŠgt Kangra ĂĄ Indlandi.
+ 1923 - BandarĂska kvikmyndaframleiĂ°slufyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Warner Bros. var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1939 - Faisal 2. varĂ° konungur Ăraks.
+ 1949 - TĂłlf ĂŸjóðir skrifuĂ°u undir NorĂ°ur-AtlantshafssĂĄttmĂĄlann og mynduĂ°u ĂŸannig AtlantshafsbandalagiĂ° (NATO)
+ 1956 - AlĂŸĂœĂ°ubandalagiĂ° var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1959 - MalĂsambandiĂ° var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1964 - BĂtlarnir ĂĄttu smĂĄskĂfur à öllum fimm efstu sĂŠtum bandarĂska Billboard-listans.
+ 1965 - Mosfellskirkja Ă Mosfellsdal var vĂgĂ°.
+ 1968 - Martin Luther King yngri var myrtur.
+ 1970 - RĂșgbrauĂ°sgerĂ°in Ă ReykjavĂk stĂłrskemmdist Ă eldi. HĂșsiĂ° var gert upp og hĂœsir nĂș veislusali rĂkisins.
+ 1973 - World Trade Center var formlega opnaĂ° Ă New York-borg.
+ 1974 - SeĂ°labankinn hĂłf aĂ° selja ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°armynt aĂ° verĂ°gildi 500 kr., 1000 kr. og 10000 kr. og rann ĂĄgóðinn Ă ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂĂ°arsjóð.
+ 1975 - FyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Microsoft stofnaĂ° af Bill Gates og Paul Allen Ă Albuquerque Ă NĂœju-MexĂkĂł.
+ 1979 - Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, forseti Pakistans, var tekinn af lĂfi.
+ 1981 - Breska hljĂłmsveitin Bucks Fizz sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva meĂ° laginu âMaking Your Mind Upâ.
+ 1982 - FalklandseyjastrĂĂ°iĂ°: Breska varnarliĂ°iĂ° ĂĄ Falklandseyjum gafst upp fyrir ArgentĂnuher.
+ 1983 - Fyrsta flug geimskutlunnar Challenger fĂłr fram.
+ 1984 - Ronald Reagan kallaĂ°i eftir alĂŸjóðlegu banni viĂ° notkun efnavopna.
+ 1987 - Fjölbrautaskólinn à Breiðholti sigrar à Gettu betur à fyrsta og eina sinn.
+ 1991 - SĂĂ°asta bindi AlĂŸingisbĂłka Ăslands kom Ășt. Bindin eru 17 alls og stóð ĂștgĂĄfan yfir frĂĄ 1912.
+ 1991 - FjĂłrir ungir menn af vĂetnömskum uppruna tĂłku 40 manns Ă gĂslingu Ă Sacramento Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1991 - SĂŠnska stjĂłrnin skipaĂ°i Lars Eckerdal biskup Ă Gautaborg ĂŸar sem hann var eini umsĂŠkjandinn sem samĂŸykkti aĂ° vĂgja konur til prests.
+ 2002 - Borgarastyrjöldinni à Angóla lauk með friðarsamkomulagi stjórnarinnar við skÊruliða UNITA.
+ 2004 - BandĂœmannafĂ©lagiĂ° Viktor var stofnaĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 2005 - Askar Akayev sagði af sér sem forseti Kirgistan.
+ 2006 - Tom Delay, leiĂ°togi repĂșblikana ĂĄ bandarĂska ĂŸinginu tilkynnti um afsögn sĂna.
+ 2007 - StjörnufrÊðingar uppgötvuðu fjarreikistjörnuna Gliese 581 c.
+ 2008 - Franska seglskipinu Le Ponant var rĂŠnt af sjĂłrĂŠningjum viĂ° strönd SĂłmalĂu meĂ° 30 farĂŸega um borĂ°.
+ 2009 - George Abela varð forseti Möltu.
+ 2020 â Keir Starmer tĂłk viĂ° sem leiĂ°togi Breska verkamannaflokksins af Jeremy Corbyn.
+ 2021 - Yfir 270 fĂłrust ĂŸegar fellibylurinn Seroja gekk yfir Austur-Nusa Tenggara og TĂmor.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 188 - Caracalla, keisari RĂłmaveldis (d. 217).
+ 1646 - Antoine Galland, franskur fornleifafrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1715).
+ 1905 - Shojiro Sugimura, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 1975).
+ 1906 - Yasuo Haruyama, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 1987).
+ 1913 - Muddy Waters, tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 1983).
+ 1928 - Maya Angelou, bandarĂskt ljóðskĂĄld og rithöfundur (d. 2014).
+ 1932 - Andrej TarkovskĂj, kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (d. 1986).
+ 1932 - Anthony Perkins, kvikmyndaleikari (d. 1992).
+ 1936 - Ann-Louise Hanson, sÊnsk söngkona.
+ 1944 - Craig T. Nelson, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1957 - Aki KaurismÀki, finnskur kvikmyndaleikstjóri.
+ 1958 - Edvaldo Oliveira Chaves, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1958 - Masakuni Yamamoto, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1960 - Hugo Weaving, ĂĄstralskur leikari.
+ 1961 - GyrĂ°ir ElĂasson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur.
+ 1965 - Robert Downey Jr., bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1979 - Heath Ledger, ĂĄstralskur leikari (d. 2008).
+ 1990 - Manabu Saito, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1991 - Jamie Lynn Spears, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 896 - FormĂłsus pĂĄfi.
+ 911 - Liu Yin, strĂĂ°sherra ĂĄ tĂmum Tangveldisins (f. 874).
+ 1284 - Alfons 10. KastilĂukonungur (f. 1221).
+ 1292 - NikulĂĄs 4. pĂĄfi.
+ 1406 - RĂłbert 3. Skotakonungur (f. 1337).
+ 1459 - EirĂkur af Pommern, konungur Danmerkur (d. 1382).
+ 1588 - FriĂ°rik 2. Danakonungur (f. 1534).
+ 1617 - John Napier, skoskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1550).
+ 1761 - Stephen Hales, enskur vĂsindamaĂ°ur (f. 1677).
+ 1841 - William Henry Harrison, 9. forseti BandarĂkjanna (f. 1773).
+ 1929 - Karl Benz, ĂŸĂœskur verkfrĂŠĂ°ingur og bifreiĂ°ahönnuĂ°ur (f. 1844).
+ 1958 - Victor Urbancic, austurrĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1903).
+ 1967 - HĂ©ctor Scarone, ĂșrĂșgvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1898).
+ 1968 - Martin Luther King, Jr., bandarĂskur mannrĂ©ttindafrömuĂ°ur (f. 1929).
+ 1979 - Ali Bhutto, forseti og forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Pakistans (f. 1928).
+ 1991 - Max Frisch, svissneskur rithöfundur (f. 1911).
+ 2010 - JĂłn Böðvarsson, Ăslenskur skĂłlameistari og frĂŠĂ°imaĂ°ur (f. 1930).
+ 2013 - Ălafur HalldĂłrsson, ĂslenskufrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1920).
+ 2015 - Klaus Rifbjerg, danskur rithöfundur (f. 1931).
+
+AprĂl
+5. aprĂl er 95. dagur ĂĄrsins (96. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 270 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1058 - Benedikt 10. mĂłtpĂĄfi tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti.
+ 1241 - MongĂłlar sigruĂ°u Bela 4. af Ungverjalandi Ă orrustunni viĂ° Sajo. LandiĂ° var lagt meira og minna Ă auĂ°n.
+ 1242 - Alexander NevskĂj sigraĂ°i ĂĂœsku riddarana ĂĄ orrustunni ĂĄ Ăsnum ĂĄ Peipusvatni.
+ 1355 - Karl 4. var krĂœndur keisari hins Heilaga rĂłmverska keisaradĂŠmis Ă RĂłm.
+ 1534 - ĂĂœskir mĂĄlaliĂ°ar drĂĄpu Jan Matthys ĂĄ pĂĄskadag en ĂŸann dag hafĂ°i hann einmitt spĂĄĂ° aĂ° reiĂ°i GuĂ°s kĂŠmi yfir hina ranglĂĄtu.
+ 1614 - Pocahontas og John Rolfe gengu Ă hjĂłnaband Ă Jamestown.
+ 1621 - SkipiĂ° Mayflower sneri aftur til Englands frĂĄ Plymouth-nĂœlendunni.
+ 1654 - WestminstersĂĄttmĂĄlinn batt enda ĂĄ fyrsta strĂĂ° Englands og Hollands.
+ 1697 - Karl 12. varĂ° konungur SvĂĂŸjóðar.
+ 1815 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă fjallinu Tambora Ă Hollensku Austur-IndĂum (IndĂłnesĂu). Tindur fjallsins eyddist Ă gĂfurlegu sprengigosi og tugĂŸĂșsundir manna lĂ©tust Ă gosinu eĂ°a Ă kjölfar ĂŸess. MikiĂ° magn gjĂłsku barst Ășt Ă andrĂșmsloftiĂ° og hafĂ°i ĂĄhrif ĂĄ loftslag og veĂ°urfar um heim allan. TaliĂ° er aĂ° meĂ°allofthiti ĂĄ jörĂ°inni allri hafi lĂŠkkaĂ° nokkur nĂŠstu ĂĄr.
+ 1933 - AlĂŸjóðadĂłmstĂłllinn Ă Haag dĂŠmdi Dönum yfirrĂĄĂ° yfir öllu GrĂŠnlandi, en NorĂ°menn höfĂ°u reynt aĂ° helga sĂ©r hluta ĂŸess undir heitinu Land EirĂks rauĂ°a.
+ 1940 - AlĂŸingi samĂŸykkti aĂ° taka upp hĂŠgri umferĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸann 1. janĂșar 1941. HorfiĂ° var frĂĄ ĂŸeim ĂĄformum vegna hernĂĄms Breta, sem Ăłku vinstra megin og gera enn.
+ 1948 - Lög voru sett um vĂsindalega verndun fiskimiĂ°a landgrunnsins. Ă ĂŸeim byggĂ°ist ĂștfĂŠrsla fiskveiĂ°ilögsögunnar.
+ 1951 - Ethel og Julius Rosenberg voru dĂŠmd til dauĂ°a Ă BandarĂkjunum fyrir aĂ° stunda njĂłsnir Ă ĂŸĂĄgu SovĂ©trĂkjanna.
+ 1955 - Sir Winston Churchill sagði af sér sem forsÊtisråðherra Breta og dró sig à hlé frå stjórnmålum vegna heilsubrests, 80 åra gamall.
+ 1968 - KosningarĂ©ttur var lĂŠkkaĂ°ur Ășr 21 ĂĄri Ă 20 ĂĄr.
+ 1971 - Söngleikurinn HĂĄriĂ° var frumsĂœndur Ă GlaumbĂŠ.
+ 1973 - Pierre Messmer varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ă Frakklandi.
+ 1976 - James Callaghan varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands.
+ 1977 - Joachim Yhombi-Opango varĂ° forseti herforingjastjĂłrnarinnar Ă Vestur-KongĂł.
+ 1986 - FlugslysiĂ° Ă LjĂłsufjöllum: FlugvĂ©l ĂĄ leiĂ° frĂĄ ĂsafirĂ°i]] til ReykjavĂkur fĂłrst Ă LjĂłsufjöllum ĂĄ SnĂŠfellsnesi og meĂ° henni 5 manns, en tveir lifĂ°u af.
+ 1986 - DiskĂłtilrĂŠĂ°iĂ° Ă BerlĂn: Sprengja sprakk ĂĄ diskĂłteki Ă Vestur-BerlĂn meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 3 lĂ©tust.
+ 1988 - Kuwait Airways flugi 422 var rĂŠnt. Ă kjölfariĂ° fylgdu umsĂĄtur Ă ĂŸremur heimsĂĄlfum og morĂ° ĂĄ tveimur farĂŸegum.
+ 1992 - BosnĂa-HersegĂłvĂna lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i eftir ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu.
+ 1992 - BosnĂustrĂĂ°iĂ°: Serbneskar hersveitir settust um SarajevĂł.
+ 1992 - Alberto Fujimori, forseti PerĂș, leysti upp ĂŸing PerĂș meĂ° tilskipun, kom ĂĄ ritskoĂ°un og lĂ©t handtaka stjĂłrnarandstöðuĂŸingmenn.
+ 1994 - SkotĂĄrĂĄsin Ă ĂrĂłsahĂĄskĂłla: Fleming Nielsen skaut tvĂŠr konur til bana og sĂŠrĂ°i aĂ°rar tvĂŠr ĂĄ matsal Ă ĂrĂłsahĂĄskĂłla Ă Danmörku.
+ 1995 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin The Last Supper var frumsĂœnd.
+ 1998 - StĂŠrsta hengibrĂș heims, Akashi KaikyĆ-brĂșin milli eyjanna Shikoku og HonshĆ« Ă Japan, var opnuĂ° fyrir umferĂ°.
+ 1999 - LĂbĂœa afhenti skoskum yfirvöldum tvo menn sem grunaĂ°ir voru um aĂ° hafa valdiĂ° sprengingunni Ă Pan Am flugi 103 yfir Lockerbie.
+ 2000 - Mori Yoshiro tĂłk viĂ° sem forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Japans.
+ 2006 - Slökkvistarfi vegna MĂœraelda lauk aĂ° fullu.
+ 2008 - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn hernĂĄmi KĂna Ă TĂbet ĂĄttu sĂ©r staĂ° ĂŸar sem ĂlympĂukyndillinn var borinn um strĂŠti London.
+ 2009 - Anders Fogh Rasmussen sagði af sér forsÊtisråðherraembÊtti à Danmörku eftir að hafa verið skipaður framkvÊmdastjóri NATO.
+ 2009 - NorĂ°ur-KĂłrea skaut gervihnettinum KwangmyĆngsĆng-2 Ășt Ă geim meĂ° eldflaug. ĂryggisrĂĄĂ° SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna var kallaĂ° saman af ĂŸvĂ tilefni.
+ 2016 - Sigmundur DavĂĂ° Gunnlaugsson sagĂ°i af sĂ©r embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ăslands Ă kjölfar uppljĂłstrana um aflandsfyrirtĂŠki hans og eiginkonu hans.
+ 2018 - Handtökuskipun var gefin Ășt ĂĄ hendur fyrrum forseta BrasilĂu, Luiz InĂĄcio Lula da Silva, eftir aĂ° hĂŠstirĂ©ttur ĂĄkvaĂ° aĂ° fella niĂ°ur habeas corpus vegna spillingar.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1170 - Ăsabella af Hainaut, drottning Frakklands (d. 1190).
+ 1588 - Thomas Hobbes, enskur heimspekingur (d. 1679).
+ 1828 - Ărni Thorsteinson, landfĂłgeti og alĂŸingismaĂ°ur (d. 1907).
+ 1841 - HallgrĂmur Sveinsson, biskup Ăslands (d. 1909).
+ 1900 - Spencer Tracy, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 1967).
+ 1908 - Bette Davis, bandarĂsk leikkona (d. 1989).
+ 1908 - Herbert von Karajan, austurrĂskur hljĂłmsveitarstjĂłri (d. 1989).
+ 1914 - Gunnar GĂslason, Ăslenskur prestur (d. 2008).
+ 1916 - Gregory Peck, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2003).
+ 1928 - ĂgĂșst George, hollenskur prestur (d. 2008).
+ 1937 - Colin Powell, utanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°herra BandarĂkjanna.
+ 1941 - Peter Greenaway, velskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri.
+ 1941 - Bas van Fraassen, hollenskur heimspekingur.
+ 1946 - Jane Asher, ensk leikkona.
+ 1947 - Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, forseti Filippseyja.
+ 1950 - Agnetha FÀltskog, sÊnsk söngkona.
+ 1973 - Pharrell Williams, bandariskur songvari.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1205 - Ăsabella, drottning JerĂșsalem (f. 1172).
+ 1534 - Jan Matthys, leiĂ°togi anabaptista Ă MĂŒnster (f. um 1500).
+ 1697 - Karl 11. SvĂakonungur (f. 1655)
+ 1821 - SĂŠmundur MagnĂșsson HĂłlm, prestur ĂĄ Helgafelli (f. 1749).
+ 1923 - Carnarvon lĂĄvarĂ°ur, enskur aĂ°alsmaĂ°ur (f. 1866).
+ 1929 - Otto Liebe, danskur forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra (f. 1850).
+ 1958 - ĂsgrĂmur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1876).
+ 1954 - Marta krĂłnprinsessa Noregs (f. 1901).
+ 1975 - Chiang Kai-shek, leiĂ°togi Kuomintang (f. 1887).
+ 1994 - Kurt Cobain, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1967).
+ 1997 - Allan Ginsberg, bandarĂskt skĂĄld (f. 1926).
+ 1998 - JĂłnas Ărnason, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (f. 1923).
+ 2002 - Layne Staley, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1967).
+ 2005 - Saul Bellow, bandarĂskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (f. 1915).
+ 2006 - Gene Pitney, bandarĂskur dĂŠgurlagasöngvari (f. 1940).
+ 2008 - Charlton Heston, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1923).
+ 2012 - Bingu wa Mutharika, forseti Malavi (f. 1934).
+ 2023 - Sigurlaug BjarnadĂłttir frĂĄ Vigur fv. alĂŸingismaĂ°ur og menntaskĂłlakennari (f. 1926).
+
+AprĂl
+Eftirfarandi er listi yfir Ăslenskar kvikmyndir. Taldar eru upp ĂŸĂŠr kvikmyndir sem höfĂ°u aĂ°alframleiĂ°slu ĂĄ Ăslandi og eru ekki styttri en 45 mĂnĂștur.
+
+Ăannig er Ă skĂłm drekans ekki ĂĄ ĂŸessum lista ĂŸvĂ hĂșn er heimildarmynd, hins vegar er hĂșn ĂĄ listanum yfir Ăslenskar heimildarmyndir. Einnig er Litla lirfan ljĂłta ekki ĂĄ listanum ĂŸvĂ hĂșn er aĂ°eins 28 mĂnĂștur og telst ĂŸvĂ stuttmynd, hana mĂĄ hins vegar finna ĂĄ listanum yfir Ăslenskar stuttmyndir. Ămsar aĂ°rar myndir gĂŠtu ef til vill talist Ăslenskar vegna tengsla ĂŸeirra viĂ° Ăsland, til dĂŠmis er kvikmyndin Hadda Padda stundum kölluĂ° fyrsta Ăslenska kvikmyndin, en hĂșn er ekki ĂĄ ĂŸessum lista ĂŸvĂ hĂșn er strangt til tekin framleidd Ă Danmörku ĂŸĂłtt aĂ° hĂșn hafi veriĂ° tekin upp ĂĄ Ăslandi og margir Ăslendingar unniĂ° viĂ° hana, sĂș mynd er ĂĄ listanum yfir kvikmyndir tengdar Ăslandi. SilnĂœ kafe er einnig ĂĄ ĂŸeim lista ĂŸvĂ hĂșn var meĂ°framleidd af Ăslendingum og var leikstĂœrt af Ăslendingi.
+
+1949 â 1979
+
+1980 â 1989
+
+1990 â 1999
+
+2000 â 2009
+
+2010 â 2019
+
+2020 â 2029
+
+Verk Ă vinnslu
+
+Heimildir
+Listi yfir Ăslenskar bĂĂłmyndir, stuttmyndir og sjĂłnvarpsefni ĂĄ Kvikmyndir.is
+Ăslenskar bĂĂłmyndir ĂĄ Steinninn.is
+All titles from Iceland ĂĄ IMDb
+Ăslenskar bĂĂłmyndir frumsĂœndar ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1962-2004 ĂĄ heimasĂĂ°u Ălafs H. T.
+UpplĂœsingar um Ăslenska list ĂĄ icelandculture.ru
+Catalogue ĂĄ heimasĂĂ°u KvikmyndamiĂ°stöðvarinnar
+VĂŠntanlegar Ăslenskar myndir ĂĄ Kvikmyndir.is
+Ăslenskar kvikmyndir ĂĄ Kvikmyndavefurinn
+Verk Ă vinnslu ĂĄ KvikmyndamiĂ°stöð Ăslands
+
+Listar tengdir Ăslandi
+
+Ăslenskar kvikmyndir
+MiĂ°nesheiĂ°i getur ĂĄtt viĂ° eftirfarandi:
+ Kvikmyndina MiĂ°nesheiĂ°i
+ MiĂ°nesheiĂ°i ĂĄ milli SandgerĂ°is og KeflavĂkur
+Milli fjalls og fjöru var fyrsta Ăslenska kvikmyndin Ă fullri lengd, sem og fyrsta talmyndin. HĂșn var gefin Ășt ĂĄriĂ° 1949 og er 91 mĂnĂșta aĂ° lengd. LeikstjĂłri myndarinnar var Loftur GuĂ°mundsson sem var mikill frumkvöðull Ă kvikmyndagerĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi. Myndin var frumsĂœnd Ă Gamla bĂĂłi 13. janĂșar 1949 og almennar sĂœningar hĂłfust daginn eftir.
+
+Ăslenskar kvikmyndir
+Loftur GuĂ°mundsson (18. ĂĄgĂșst 1892 - 4. janĂșar 1952) var Ăslenskur ljĂłsmyndari og kvikmyndagerĂ°armaĂ°ur. Loftur fĂŠddist Ă HvammsvĂk Ă KjĂłs. Foreldrar hans voru GuĂ°mundur GuĂ°mundsson, bĂłndi og sĂĂ°ar verslunarmaĂ°ur Ă ReykjavĂk, og JakobĂna JakobsdĂłttir. Loftur var tvĂkvĂŠntur, fyrri kona hans var StefanĂa ElĂn GrĂmsdĂłttir og eignuĂ°ust ĂŸau fjögur börn. Eftir aĂ° hĂșn lĂ©st bjĂł hann meĂ° GuĂ°rĂĂ°i SveinsdĂłttur. Loftur fluttist til Danmerkur 1921 og stundaĂ°i nĂĄm Ă orgelleik og lĂŠrĂ°i ljĂłsmyndun og framhaldsnĂĄm hjĂĄ Peter Elfelt Ă Kaupmannahöfn 1925. SamhliĂ°a ljĂłsmyndanĂĄminu kynnti hann sĂ©r kvikmyndagerĂ° og ĂĄriĂ° 1945 hĂ©lt hann til BandarĂkjanna til ĂŸess aĂ° kynna sĂ©r kvikmyndagerĂ° frekar. Loftur var einn helsti ljĂłsmyndari landsins ĂĄ öðrum fjĂłrĂ°ungi tuttugustu aldar. Hann var fyrst og fremst portrettljĂłsmyndari en tĂłk einnig myndir fyrir LeikfĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur um ĂĄrabil, auk ĂŸess nokkuĂ° af atburĂ°a- og staĂ°armyndum ĂĄ fyrstu starfsĂĄrum sĂnum.
+
+Loftur stofnaĂ°i verslun ĂĄsamt öðrum og rak hana ĂŸar til hann tĂłk viĂ° rekstri gosdrykkjagerĂ°arinnar Sanitas ĂĄriĂ° 1913 af bróður sĂnum GuĂ°mundi gerlafrĂŠĂ°ingi. ĂriĂ° 1924 seldi hann hlut sinn og ĂĄri seinna stofnaĂ°i hann ljĂłsmyndastofu Ă NĂœja bĂĂłi Ă LĂŠkjargötu Ă ReykjavĂk. HĂșn var starfrĂŠkt ĂŸar til 1943 en flutti ĂŸĂĄ aĂ° BĂĄrugötu 5. Hann rak hana til dĂĄnardags en niĂ°jar hans tĂłku viĂ° og rĂĄku til ĂĄrsins 1996. Loftur varĂ° konunglegur sĂŠnskur hirĂ°ljĂłsmyndari ĂĄriĂ° 1928 fyrir myndir sem hann sendi sĂŠnska konunginum aĂ° gjöf. ĂĂĄ hlaut hann viĂ°urkenningu frĂĄ Jupiterlicht verksmiĂ°junni Ă ĂĂœskalandi fyrir uppfinningu ĂĄ sĂ©rstaklega heppilegri notkun ĂĄ ljĂłsmyndalömpum.
+
+Loftur var einn af stofnendum KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Vals og lĂ©k meĂ° fĂ©laginu viĂ° góðan orĂ°stĂr. ĂĂĄ var Loftur jafnframt fyrsti formaĂ°ur Vals en hann var formaĂ°ur fĂ©lagsins ĂĄrin 1911-1914.
+
+Hann var einn af brautryĂ°jendum Ăslenskrar kvikmyndagerĂ°ar en fyrsta mynd hans var stuttmyndin ĂvintĂœri JĂłns og Gvendar sem var sĂœnd ĂĄriĂ° 1923. NĂŠstu ĂĄrin gerĂ°i hann nokkrar heimildarmyndir, en ĂĄriĂ° 1949 var frumsĂœnd eftir hann fyrsta Ăslenska talmyndin Ă fullri lengd, Milli fjalls og fjöru. ĂriĂ° 1951 gerĂ°i hann svo NiĂ°ursetninginn sem var sĂĂ°asta kvikmynd hans. Loftur skrifaĂ°i sjĂĄlfur handrit kvikmynda sinna.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2002 gaf Ăjóðminjasafn Ăslands Ășt bĂłkina Enginn getur lifaĂ° ĂĄn Lofts. BĂłkin hefur aĂ° geyma ĂŸrjĂĄr greinar um Loft, ĂŠvi hans og störf, eftir Erlend Sveinsson, Ingu LĂĄru BaldvinsdĂłttur og MargrĂ©ti ElĂsabetu ĂlafsdĂłttur. Titillinn vĂsar til auglĂœsingar frĂĄ Lofti GuĂ°mundssyni sem birtist ĂĄriĂ° 1945.
+
+Ăslenskir kvikmyndaleikstjĂłrar
+Ăslenskir ljĂłsmyndarar
+NiĂ°ursetningurinn er kvikmynd eftir Loft GuĂ°mundsson frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1951. BrynjĂłlfur JĂłhannesson leikur aĂ°alhlutverkiĂ° og leikstĂœrir myndinni.
+
+MeĂ° önnur hlutverk Ă myndinni fĂłru meĂ°al annars (Ă stafrĂłfsröð): JĂłn AĂ°ils, Bessi Bjarnason, Hanna GuĂ°mundsdĂłttir, Valur GĂslason, JĂłn LeĂłs, BryndĂs PĂ©tursdĂłttir og Haraldur Ă. SigurĂ°sson.
+
+Ăslenskar kvikmyndir
+Hringurinn er tilraunakvikmynd eftir FriĂ°rik ĂĂłr FriĂ°riksson. Ă myndinni keyrir myndatökumaĂ°ur Hringveginn (Ăjóðveg 1) Ă kringum Ăsland meĂ° myndavĂ©l ĂĄ ĂŸaki bĂlsins. MyndavĂ©lin tekur svo einn ramma ĂĄ hverjum 12 metrum. Ăegar myndin er svo sĂœnd ĂĄ 24 römmum ĂĄ sekĂșndu samsvarar ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ferĂ°ast ĂĄ hljóðhraĂ°a. HringferĂ°in tekur um 80 mĂnĂștur.
+
+Ăslenskar kvikmyndir
+SĂłley er Ăslensk kvikmynd eftir RĂłsku frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1982. Myndin fjallar um ungann mann sem leitar aĂ° hestinum sĂnum sem strauk. ViĂ° leitina berst hann viĂ° djöfulinn meĂ° konu sem minnir helst ĂĄ guĂ°.
+
+Ăslenskar kvikmyndir
+RauĂ°a skikkjan var kvikmynd framleidd ĂĄriĂ° 1967 Ă sameiningu af SvĂum, Dönum og Ăslendingum. HĂșn var tekin ĂĄ Ăslandi og er Ă lit. Flestir leikarar myndarinnar voru sĂŠnskir eĂ°a danskir, en ĂŸrĂr Ăslendingar fĂłru ĂŸĂł meĂ° hlutverk Ă henni, ĂŸeir Borgar GarĂ°arsson, GĂsli AlfreĂ°sson og Flosi Ălafsson. Sagan var byggĂ° ĂĄ sögu Ășr 7. bĂłk Gesta Danorum eftir Saxo Grammaticus.
+
+Ăslenskar kvikmyndir
+Danskar kvikmyndir
+SĂŠnskar kvikmyndir
+VeiĂ°iferĂ°in er Ăslensk fjölskyldumynd eftir AndrĂ©s IndriĂ°ason frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1980.
+
+Ăslenskar kvikmyndir
+Virginia Woolf (25. janĂșar 1882 â 28. mars 1941) var breskur rithöfundur, gagnrĂœnandi og feministi. HĂșn er Ă hĂłpi ĂĄhrifamestu skĂĄldsagnahöfunda ĂĄ 20. öld. Auk ĂŸess sem verk hennar höfĂ°u mikil ĂĄhrif ĂĄ kvennabarĂĄttu 20. aldar, var Virginia brautryĂ°jandi nĂœrra aĂ°ferĂ°a viĂ° skĂĄldsagnaritun meĂ° notkun hugflĂŠĂ°is og innra eintals. HĂșn skrifaĂ°i um hversdagslega atburĂ°i, lagĂ°i ekki ĂĄherslu ĂĄ flĂłknar flĂ©ttur eĂ°a djĂșpa persĂłnusköpun heldur ĂĄ tilfinningalĂf og hugmyndir söguhetjanna. Ăar takmarkaĂ°i hĂșn sig ekki viĂ° eina söguhetju heldur ferĂ°aĂ°ist Ășr hugarfylgsnum einnar persĂłnu til annarrar, The Waves er lĂklega besta dĂŠmi ĂŸess. Ăekktasta bĂłk Virginiu er ĂŸĂł eflaust skĂĄldsagan To the Lighthouse frĂĄ 1927. Nokkrar kvikmyndir hafa veriĂ° gerĂ°ar um lĂf skĂĄldkonunnar, nĂș sĂĂ°ast The Hours (2002) meĂ° Nicole Kidman Ă hlutverki Virginiu.
+
+Virginia Woolf giftist Leonard Woolf, gagnrĂœnanda, ĂĄriĂ° 1912. Saman stofnuĂ°u ĂŸau Hogarth Press ĂĄriĂ° 1917. Heimili ĂŸeirra var samkomustaĂ°ur fjölda listamanna, skĂĄlda og gagnrĂœnenda, og kallaĂ°ist sĂĄ hĂłpur Bloomsbury-hĂłpurinn.
+
+Ărin 1895 og 1915 fĂ©kk hĂșn taugaĂĄföll, en hĂșn ĂĄtti viĂ° geĂ°rĂŠn vandamĂĄl aĂ° strĂĂ°a.
+
+Virginia framdi sjĂĄlfsmorĂ° ĂŸann 28. mars 1941 meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° drekkja sĂ©r. EiginmaĂ°ur hennar, Leonard, ritstĂœrĂ°i flestum verka hennar sem gefin voru Ășt eftir andlĂĄt hennar.
+
+Verk eftir Virginiu sem komiĂ° hafa Ășt ĂĄ Ăslensku
+ 1983 - SĂ©rherbergi - (A Room of One's Own - Ăștg. 1929). ĂĂœĂ°andi: Helga Kress.
+2014 - Ăt Ă vitann - (To the Lighthouse - Ăștg. 1927). ĂĂœĂ°andi: HerdĂs HreiĂ°arsdĂłttir.
+2017 - OrlandĂł - (Orlando: A Biography - Ăștg. 1928). ĂĂœĂ°andi: SoffĂa AuĂ°ur BirgisdĂłttir.
+2017 - Mrs. Dolloway - (Mrs. Dolloway - Ăștg. 1925). ĂĂœĂ°andi: Atli MagnĂșsson.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Breskar kvenréttindakonur
+Breskir rithöfundar
+Dauðsföll af völdum sjålfsmorða
+6. aprĂl er 96. dagur ĂĄrsins (97. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 269 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 648 f.Kr. - Fyrsti sĂłlmyrkvinn sem skriflegar heimildir eru til um. SkrĂĄĂ°ar af Forn-Grikkjum.
+ 1190 - JĂłhann landlausi varĂ° konungur Englands.
+ 1320 - Skotar staĂ°festu sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i sitt meĂ° Arbroath-yfirlĂœsingunni.
+ 1520 - Orrustan viĂ° Uppsali: StuĂ°ningsmenn Sten Sture biĂ°u Ăłsigur fyrir her KristjĂĄns 2.
+ 1580 - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti Ă Englandi olli skemmdum ĂĄ PĂĄlskirkjunni Ă LundĂșnum og mörgum fleiri byggingum.
+ 1652 - Hollenski skipstjĂłrinn Jan van Riebeeck stofnaĂ°i birgĂ°astöð ĂĄ GóðrarvonarhöfĂ°a. Ăt frĂĄ henni reis HöfĂ°aborg sĂĂ°ar.
+ 1746 - Tveir bĂĄtar af ĂŸremur, sem reru frĂĄ IngĂłlfshöfĂ°a fĂłrust. Eftir ĂŸaĂ° var ĂștgerĂ° lögĂ° af ĂŸaĂ°an.
+ 1782 - Thongduang varĂ° konungur TaĂlands sem Rama 1.
+ 1830 - Joseph Smith stofnaĂ°i mormĂłnakirkjuna Ă New York-borg.
+ 1896 - Fyrstu nĂștĂma ĂlympĂuleikarnir hĂłfust Ă AĂŸenu.
+ 1909 - Robert Peary taldi sig hafa nĂĄĂ° NorĂ°urpĂłlnum. Ekki varĂ° ljĂłst fyrr en tĂŠpri öld sĂĂ°ar aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° var ekki rĂ©tt.
+ 1917 - BandarĂkin lĂœstu strĂĂ°i ĂĄ hendur Ăjóðverjum.
+ 1924 - Fasistar unnu ĂŸingkosningar ĂĄ ĂtalĂu og fengu tvo ĂŸriĂ°ju hluta atkvĂŠĂ°a.
+ 1941 - Lengsti ĂŸorskur sem vitaĂ° var um aĂ° veiĂ°st hefĂ°i ĂĄ ĂslandsmiĂ°um var dreginn Ășr MiĂ°nessjĂł. Hann var 181 cm ĂĄ lengd.
+ 1941 - Ăxulveldin gerĂ°u innrĂĄs Ă JĂșgĂłslavĂu og Grikkland.
+ 1944 - BandarĂsk herflugvĂ©l fĂłrst Ășt af Vatnsleysuströnd og var ĂĄtta mönnum bjargaĂ°.
+ 1956 - LaugarĂĄsbĂĂł Ă ReykjavĂk hĂłf sĂœningar meĂ° ĂŸĂœsku kvikmyndinni FiskimaĂ°urinn og aĂ°alsmĂŠrin (Der Fischer vom Heiligensee).
+ 1965 - Fyrsta fjarskiptahnettinum Ă einkaeigu, Intelsat I, var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft.
+ 1968 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin 2001: A Space Odyssey var frumsĂœnd.
+ 1970 - ViĂ°rĂŠĂ°um um norrĂŠna tollabandalagiĂ° NORDEK var formlega slitiĂ°.
+ 1971 - VeitingastaĂ°urinn Bautinn var opnaĂ°ur ĂĄ Akureyri.
+ 1973 - Pioneer 11-geimfariĂ° var sent af staĂ°.
+ 1974 - SĂŠnska hljĂłmsveitin Abba vann Eurovision. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta skipti sem sĂŠnsk hljĂłmsveit vann keppnina.
+ 1979 - HelgarpĂłsturinn kom Ășt ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă fyrsta skipti.
+ 1979 - Kvikmyndirnar Land og synir, ĂĂ°al feĂ°ranna og VeiĂ°iferĂ°in hlutu hĂŠstu styrki viĂ° fyrstu Ășthlutun Ășr Kvikmyndasjóði.
+ 1985 - Herforinginn Suwwar al-Dhahab leiddi valdarĂĄn Ă SĂșdan.
+ 1992 - StrĂĂ° hĂłfst Ă BosnĂu og HersegĂłvĂnu.
+ 1992 - Windows 3.1x var sett ĂĄ markaĂ°.
+ 1992 - BarnaĂŸĂĄtturinn Barney and Friends hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ PBS.
+ 1993 - Kjarnorkuslys varĂ° ĂŸegar tankur sprakk Ă Tomsk-7 endurvinnslustöðinni Ă Seversk Ă RĂșsslandi.
+ 1994 - Forseti RĂșanda, JuvĂ©nal Habyarimana, og forseti BĂșrĂșndĂ, Cyprien Ntaryamira, fĂłrust ĂŸegar ĂŸyrla ĂŸeirra var skotin niĂ°ur viĂ° KĂgalĂ Ă RĂșanda.
+ 1998 - Pakistan prĂłfaĂ°i meĂ°aldrĂŠgar eldflaugar sem hĂŠgt vĂŠri aĂ° nota til aĂ° rĂĄĂ°ast ĂĄ Indland.
+ 1998 - BandarĂski fjĂĄrfestingabankinn Citigroup varĂ° til viĂ° sameiningu Citicorp og Travellers Group.
+ 2001 - SĂĂ°asta eintak danska dagblaĂ°sins Aktuelt kom Ășt.
+ 2006 - Yayi Boni tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti forseta BenĂn.
+ 2006 - Umdeild ĂŸĂœĂ°ing ĂĄ JĂșdasarguĂ°spjalli kom Ășt ĂĄ vegum National Geographic Society.
+ 2008 - Samgönguråðherra Srà Lanka, Jeyaraj Fernandopulle, lést åsamt 11 öðrum à hryðjuverkaårås à Kólombó.
+ 2009 - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti olli yfir 300 dauĂ°sföllum og mikilli eyĂ°ileggingu Ă L'Aquila ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. SkjĂĄlftinn mĂŠldist 6,3 ĂĄ Richter-kvarĂ°a.
+ 2010 - Karl og kona urĂ°u Ăști ĂĄ Emstrum eftir aĂ° hafa villst ĂŸangaĂ° ĂĄ bĂl ĂĄ leiĂ° frĂĄ eldgosinu ĂĄ FimmvörĂ°uhĂĄlsi. Kona sem var meĂ° ĂŸeim bjargaĂ°ist.
+ 2010 - Ăingkosningar fĂłru fram Ă Bretlandi. Enginn flokkur nĂĄĂ°i hreinum meirihluta sem leiddi til stofnunar fyrstu samsteypustjĂłrnar Bretlands Ă 36 ĂĄr.
+ 2012 - Ăjóðfrelsishreyfing Azawad lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i Azawad frĂĄ MalĂ.
+ 2014 - RĂșssneski fĂĄninn var dreginn aĂ° hĂșni Ă mĂłtmĂŠlum Ă Donetsk og Karkiv Ă ĂkraĂnu.
+ 2017 - Borgarastyrjöldin Ă SĂœrlandi: BandarĂkjaher skaut 59 loftskeytum ĂĄ flugstöð Ă SĂœrlandi vegna gruns um aĂ° efnavopnum hefĂ°i veriĂ° beitt gegn bĂŠ Ă höndum uppreisnarmanna.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1483 - Rafael, Ătalskur mĂĄlari og arkitekt (d. 1520).
+ 1773 - James Mill, skoskur sagnfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1836).
+ 1812 - Alexander Herzen, ĂŸĂœskur lĂfeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1870).
+ 1839 - Antonio Starabba, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1908).
+ 1866 - Butch Cassidy, Ăștlagi Ă villta vestrinu (d. 1909).
+ 1890 - Anthony Fokker, hollenskur flugvélahönnuður (d. 1939).
+ 1904 - Kurt Georg Kiesinger, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1988).
+ 1928 - James D. Watson, bandarĂskur erfĂ°afrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1942 - Barry Levinson, kvikmyndaframleiĂ°andi og leikstjĂłri.
+ 1949 - KĂĄri StefĂĄnsson, lĂŠknir og forstjĂłri Ăslenskrar erfĂ°agreiningar.
+ 1950 - Christer Sjögren, sÊnskur söngvari.
+ 1952 - Bogi ĂgĂșstsson, Ăslenskur frĂ©ttamaĂ°ur.
+ 1953 - ĂĂłrdĂs Anna KristjĂĄnsdĂłttir, Ăslensk körfuknattleikskona.
+ 1962 - Tomoyasu Asaoka, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1963 - Rafael Correa, forseti Ekvadors.
+ 1964 - David Woodard, bandarĂskur rithöfundur, tĂłnskĂĄld og leiĂ°ari.
+ 1969 - Paul Rudd, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1972 - Roberto Torres, paragvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1975 - Zach Braff, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1976 - Unnur Ăsp StefĂĄnsdĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona.
+ 1976 - Georg HĂłlm, Ăslenskur bassaleikari.
+ 1983 - Mitsuru Nagata, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1986 - Ryota Moriwaki, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1199 - RĂkharĂ°ur 1. Englandskonungur.
+ 1490 - MatthĂas Corvinus, konungur Ungverjalands (f. 1443).
+ 1520 - Rafael, Ătalskur mĂĄlari og arkitekt.
+ 1520 - Kai von Ahlefeldt, ĂĄĂ°ur hirĂ°stjĂłri ĂĄ Ăslandi, fĂ©ll Ă orrustu viĂ° Uppsali.
+ 1528 - Albrecht DĂŒrer, ĂŸĂœskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1471).
+ 1827 - SigurĂ°ur PĂ©tursson, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaĂ°ur og leikskĂĄld (f. 1759).
+ 1829 - Niels Henrik Abel, norskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1802).
+ 1906 - Alexander Kielland, norskur rithöfundur (f. 1849).
+ 1971 - Ăgor StravinskĂj, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld.
+ 1992 - Isaac Asimov, rithöfundur (f. 1920).
+ 2000 - Habib Bourguiba, forseti TĂșnis (f. 1903).
+ 2005 - Rainier 3. fursti af MĂłnakĂł (f. 1923).
+ 2014 - Mickey Rooney, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1920).
+ 2020 - Radomir AntiÄ, serbneskur ĂĂŸrĂłttamaĂ°ur og knattspyrnuĂŸjĂĄlfari (f. 1948).
+
+AprĂl
+7. aprĂl er 97. dagur ĂĄrsins (98. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 268 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 30 - Krossfesting JesĂș Krists samkvĂŠmt einni kenningu (samkvĂŠmt annarri kenningu ĂĄtti hĂșn sĂ©r staĂ° 3. aprĂl 33).
+ 1141 - Matthildur keisaraynja tók völdin um stutt skeið à Englandi.
+ 1348 - KarlshĂĄskĂłli Ă Prag var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 1449 - Felix 5. mótpåfi (Amadeus 3. af Savoja) sagði af sér embÊtti að beiðni påfa.
+ 1549 - Marteinn Einarsson var vĂgĂ°ur SkĂĄlholtsbiskup.
+ 1625 - Albrecht von Wallenstein var skipaĂ°ur yfirhershöfĂ°ingi keisarahers hins Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis.
+ 1655 - Fabio Chigi varĂ° Alexander 7. pĂĄfi.
+ 1682 - Landkönnuðurinn René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle kom að ósum Mississippifljóts.
+ 1795 - Frakkar tĂłku upp metrakerfiĂ° til lengdarmĂŠlinga.
+ 1831 - Pedro 1. BrasilĂukeisari sagĂ°i af sĂ©r og sonur hans, Pedro 2., tĂłk viĂ°.
+ 1906 - Ă aftakaveĂ°ri fĂłrust ĂŸrjĂș skip ĂĄ FaxaflĂła: Ingvar meĂ° 20 manna ĂĄhöfn ĂĄ Hjallaskeri viĂ° ViĂ°ey, Emilie meĂ° 24 mönnum og Sophie Wheatly vestur undir MĂœrum. Ăll skipin voru frĂĄ ReykjavĂk.
+ 1906 - Eldgos Ă VesĂșvĂusfjalli sem lagĂ°i NapĂłlĂ Ă rĂșstir.
+ 1909 - SamkvĂŠmt dagbĂłkum Robert Peary nĂĄĂ°i hann ĂĄ norĂ°urpĂłlinn ĂŸennan dag.
+ 1927 - Fyrsta sjĂłnvarpsĂștsendingin meĂ° Ăștvarpsbylgjum fĂłr fram Ă Washington DC Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1939 - Ătalir rĂ©Ă°ust inn Ă AlbanĂu.
+ 1941 - Togarinn Gulltoppur bjargaĂ°i 33 mönnum af einum björgunarbĂĄti Ășt af Reykjanesi og bĂĄtar frĂĄ Hellissandi björguĂ°u 32 af öðrum björgunarbĂĄti Ășt af SnĂŠfellsnesi fjĂłrum dögum eftir aĂ° flutningaskipiĂ° Beaverdale var skotiĂ° Ă kaf suĂ°ur af Ăslandi. Skipbrotsmenn voru af flutningaskipinu.
+ 1943 - LaugarnesspĂtali Ă ReykjavĂk brann til kaldra kola. Upphaflega var hann holdsveikraspĂtali, en sĂĂ°ustu ĂĄrin hafĂ°i breski herinn hann til umrĂĄĂ°a.
+ 1943 - LSD var fyrst framleitt af Alberti Hoffdal.
+ 1948 - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigĂ°ismĂĄlastofnunin var stofnuĂ° af SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðunum.
+ 1963 - JĂșgĂłslavĂa var lĂœst sĂłsĂalistalĂœĂ°veldi og JĂłsip Broz TĂtĂł var Ăștnefndur forseti til lĂfstĂĂ°ar.
+ 1968 - Lög um tĂmareikning gengu Ă gildi klukkan 01:00. SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸeim skal miĂ°a tĂmareikning ĂĄ öllu Ăslandi viĂ° miĂ°tĂma Greenwich.
+ 1969 - TĂĄknrĂŠnn fĂŠĂ°ingardagur Internetsins: RFC 1 var birt.
+ 1973 - LĂșxemborg sigraĂ°i Ă Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva meĂ° laginu Tu te reconnaĂźtras sem Anne-Marie David söng.
+ 1976 - Deng Xiaoping var sviptur öllum embĂŠttum vegna ĂĄsakana um âhĂŠgrimennskuâ.
+ 1980 - BandarĂkin slitu stjĂłrnmĂĄlasambandi viĂ° Ăran.
+ 1985 - Fyrsta gervihjartaĂgrĂŠĂ°slan Ă EvrĂłpu fĂłr fram ĂĄ Karolinska sjukhuset Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. SjĂșklingurinn lifĂ°i Ă ĂŸrjĂĄ mĂĄnuĂ°i.
+ 1989 - SovĂ©ski kafbĂĄturinn KomsomĂłlets sökk Ă Barentshafinu undan strönd Noregs vegna eldsvoĂ°a. 42 sjĂłmenn lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ°.
+ 1990 - Eldur um borĂ° Ă farĂŸegaferjunni Scandinavian Star ĂĄ leiĂ° frĂĄ OslĂł til Frederikshavn kostaĂ°i 158 farĂŸega lĂfiĂ°.
+ 1994 - ĂjóðarmorĂ°iĂ° Ă RĂșanda: FjöldamorĂ° ĂĄ TĂștsum hĂłfust Ă KĂgalĂ Ă RĂșanda.
+ 1995 - BandarĂska teiknimyndin GuffagrĂn var frumsĂœnd.
+ 1995 - Fyrra TĂ©tĂ©nĂustrĂĂ°iĂ°: RĂșssneskar hersveitir drĂĄpu 103 almenna borgara Ă Samashki.
+ 1999 - Sprengja sprakk Ă Dal hinna föllnu ĂĄ SpĂĄni. SkĂŠruliĂ°ahreyfingin GRAPO lĂœsti ĂĄbyrgĂ° ĂĄ hendur sĂ©r.
+ 1999 - KosĂłvĂłstrĂĂ°iĂ°: JĂșgĂłslavĂuher lokaĂ°i helstu landamĂŠrastöðvum Ă KosĂłvĂł til aĂ° koma Ă veg fyrir flĂłtta albanskra ĂbĂșa.
+ 2001 - Gervitunglinu 2001 Mars Odyssey var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft.
+ 2003 - ĂraksstrĂĂ°iĂ°: Breski herinn nĂĄĂ°i Basra ĂĄ sitt vald.
+ 2009 - Stöð 2 greindi fyrst frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokkurinn hefĂ°i ĂŸegiĂ° 30 milljĂłnir krĂłna Ă styrk frĂĄ FL Group. Ăr varĂ° StyrkjamĂĄliĂ°.
+ 2009 â Alberto Fujimori, fyrrverandi forseti PerĂș var dĂŠmdur Ă 25 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir aĂ° skipa öryggissveitum fyrir um manndrĂĄp og gĂslatökur.
+ 2010 - Forseti Kirgistan, Kurmanbek Bakijev, flĂșĂ°i land vegna mĂłtmĂŠlaöldu Ă höfuĂ°borginni Biskek.
+ 2014 - AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldiĂ° Donetsk lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ ĂkraĂnu.
+ 2014 - Fjölmennustu kosningar sögunnar fĂłru fram ĂŸegar ĂŸingkosningar hĂłfust ĂĄ Indlandi. 815 milljĂłnir voru ĂĄ kjörskrĂĄ.
+ 2017 - ĂrĂĄsin Ă StokkhĂłlmi 2017: MaĂ°ur Ăłk vöruflutningabĂl inn Ă hĂłp fĂłlks ĂĄ Drottninggatan Ă miĂ°borg StokkhĂłlms meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 5 lĂ©tust.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1613 - Gerhard Douw, hollenskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1675).
+ 1652 - Klemens 12. pĂĄfi (d. 1740)
+ 1770 - William Wordsworth, enskt skĂĄld (d. 1850)
+ 1772 - Charles Fourier, franskur heimspekingur (d. 1837).
+ 1882 - Kurt von Schleicher, ĂŸĂœskur herforingi og kanslari ĂĂœskalands (d. 1934).
+ 1884 - BronisĆaw Malinowski, pĂłlskur mannfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1942).
+ 1889 - Gabriela Mistral, sĂleskt skĂĄld og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 1957).
+ 1891 - Ole Kirk Christiansen, danskur leikfangasmiĂ°ur (d. 1958).
+ 1908 - Alfred Eisenbeisser, rĂșmenskur knattspyrnu- og skautakappi (d. 1991)
+ 1915 - Billie Holiday, bandarĂsk djass- og blĂșssöngkona (d. 1959)
+ 1920 - Ravi Shankar, indverskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 2012).
+ 1921 - Einar Bragi SigurĂ°sson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (d. 2005).
+ 1928 - James Garner, bandariskur leikari (d. 2014).
+ 1928 - Alan J. Pakula, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaframleiĂ°andi og leikstjĂłri (d. 1998).
+ 1938 - Jerry Brown, fyrrum fylkisstjori Kaliforniu.
+ 1939 - Francis Ford Coppola, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri.
+ 1944 - Gerhard Schröder, kanslari ĂĂœskalands.
+ 1945 - MagnĂșs ĂĂłr JĂłnsson (Megas), Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1949 - Andrea JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslensk Ăștvarpskona.
+ 1954 - Jackie Chan, kĂnverskur leikari.
+ 1957 - EirĂkur GuĂ°mundsson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1963 - Ălafur Rafnsson, Ăslenskur ĂĂŸrĂłttafrömuĂ°ur (d. 2013)
+ 1964 - Russell Crowe, nĂœsjĂĄlenskur leikari.
+ 1965 - Steinunn ValdĂs ĂskarsdĂłttir, borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur.
+ 1985 - Humza Yousaf, skoskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1989 - Sylwia Grzeszczak, pólsk söngkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1234 - Sancho 7. konungur Navarra.
+ 1498 - Karl 8. Frakkakonungur (f. 1470).
+ 1614 - El Greco, krĂtverskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1541).
+ 1651 - Lennart Torstenson, sĂŠnskur herforingi (f. 1603).
+ 1803 - Toussaint L'Ouverture, byltingarforingi ĂĄ HaĂtĂ (f. 1743).
+ 1891 - P. T. Barnum, bandarĂskur athafnamaĂ°ur og sirkusstjĂłri (f. 1810).
+ 1937 - StefĂĄn Th. JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur ĂștgerĂ°armaĂ°ur (f. 1865).
+ 1947 - Henry Ford, bandarĂskur iĂ°njöfur og bĂlaframleiĂ°andi (f. 1863).
+ 1972 - GuĂ°mundur Kjartansson, Ăslenskur jarĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1909).
+ 1994 - Albert GuĂ°mundsson, knattspyrnu- og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1923).
+
+AprĂl
+8. aprĂl er 98. dagur ĂĄrsins (99. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 267 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 217 - Caracalla var myrtur af hermönnum sĂnum viĂ° Edessa. Foringi PretĂłrĂuvarĂ°arins, Marcus Opellius Macrinus, lĂœsti sig keisara.
+ 1571 - GuĂ°brandur ĂorlĂĄksson var vĂgĂ°ur biskup ĂĄ HĂłlum, 29 ĂĄra gamall. Hann gegndi embĂŠttinu Ă 56 ĂĄr.
+ 1609 - Shimazu Yoshihiro hóf að leggja Ryƫkyƫ-eyjar undir lénið Satsuma à Japan.
+ 1663 - Theatre Royal, Drury Lane opnaĂ°i meĂ° nĂœrri uppfĂŠrslu ĂĄ Gamansama liĂ°sforingjanum eftir John Fletcher.
+ 1703 - Manntal var tekiĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi um ĂŸetta leyti ĂĄrsins. Ăetta manntal var fyrsta manntal heims sem nĂĄĂ°i til heillar ĂŸjóðar.
+ 1742 - ĂratorĂan MessĂas eftir Georg Friedrich HĂ€ndel var frumflutt Ă Dyflinni ĂĄ Ărlandi.
+ 1783 - KrĂmkanatiĂ° var innlimaĂ° Ă RĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmiĂ°.
+ 1838 - ĂĂŠtlunarsiglingar meĂ° gufuskipum hĂłfust ĂĄ milli Bristol Ă Englandi og New York Ă BandarĂkjunum. ĂaĂ° var gufuskipiĂ° Great Western sem fĂłr fyrstu ferĂ°ina.
+ 1898 - KristjĂĄn konungur 9. varĂ° ĂĄttrĂŠĂ°ur og var af ĂŸvĂ tilefni haldin stĂłrveisla Ă ReykjavĂk samkvĂŠmt ĂrbĂłkum ReykjavĂkur.
+ 1924 - Sharia-dĂłmstĂłlar eru bannaĂ°ir Ă Tyrklandi sem hluti af umbĂłtum stjĂłrnar Kemal AtatĂŒrk.
+ 1947 - SĂĂ°ustu bandarĂsku hermennirnir sem staĂ°settir voru ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă SĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöld yfirgĂĄfu landiĂ° meĂ° herflutningaskipinu Edmund B. Alexander.
+ 1957 - 49 punda stĂłrlax veiddist Ă ĂŸorskanet viĂ° GrĂmsey. Ăetta var stĂŠrsti lax sem menn vissu til aĂ° veiĂ°st hefĂ°i viĂ° Ăsland.
+ 1970 - 79 lĂ©tust Ă gassprengingu Ă neĂ°anjarĂ°arlestarkerfi Ăsaka Ă Japan.
+ 1977 - Fyrsta hljĂłmplata bresku hljĂłmsveitarinnar The Clash kom Ășt.
+ 1978 - LeikskĂłlinn Furugrund hĂłf starfsemi Ă KĂłpavogi.
+ 1989 - BĂłnus opnaĂ°i fyrstu verslun sĂna viĂ° SkĂștuvog Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1990 - Fyrsti ĂŸĂĄttur TvĂdranga (Twin Peaks) var sendur Ășt ĂĄ ABC Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1990 - Birendra af Nepal aflétti banni við stjórnarandstöðuflokkum à Nepal eftir mikil mótmÊli.
+ 1991 - GĂtarleikari norsku svartmĂĄlmshljĂłmsveitarinnar Mayhem, Ăystein Aarseth, kom aĂ° söngvara hljĂłmsveitarinnar Per Yngve Ohlin sem hafĂ°i framiĂ° sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°. Aarseth tĂłk ljĂłsmynd af lĂkinu sem var notuĂ° ĂĄ umslag bootleg-plötunnar Dawn of the Black Hearts fjĂłrum ĂĄrum sĂĂ°ar.
+ 1994 - LĂœĂ°veldiĂ° MakedĂłnĂa gerist aĂ°ili aĂ° SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðunum.
+ 1994 - DĂłmsdagur Michelangelos ĂĄ endavegg SixtĂnsku kapellunnar Ă VatĂkaninu var sĂœndur almenningi eftir 10 ĂĄra viĂ°gerĂ°ir.
+ 1994 - Kurt Cobain, söngvari bandarĂsku hljĂłmsveitarinnar Nirvana, fannst lĂĄtinn ĂĄ heimili sĂnu.
+ 1995 - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1999 - Bill Gates varĂ° rĂkasti einstaklingur heims vegna mikilla hĂŠkkana ĂĄ hlutabrĂ©fum Ă Microsoft.
+ 2004 - Ătökin Ă DarfĂșr: RĂkisstjĂłrn SĂșdan gerĂ°i vopnahlĂ©ssamkomulag viĂ° tvo skĂŠruliĂ°ahĂłpa.
+ 2010 - BandarĂkin og RĂșssland endurnĂœjuĂ°u START-samninginn um fĂŠkkun kjarnavopna.
+ 2018 - Borgarastyrjöldin Ă SĂœrlandi: 70 voru sagĂ°ir hafa lĂĄtist eftir sarĂngasĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ bĂŠinn Douma.
+ 2020 â SĂĄdi-ArabĂa og bandamenn ĂŸeirra lĂœstu yfir einhliĂ°a vopnahlĂ©i Ă borgarastyrjöldinni Ă Jemen.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 563 f.Kr. - Gautama BĂșdda, trĂșarleiĂ°togi (d. 483 f.Kr.).
+ 1320 - PĂ©tur 2. PortĂșgalskonungur (d. 1367).
+ 1588 - Thomas Hobbes, enskur heimspekingur (d. 1679).
+ 1605 - Filippus 4. konungur SpĂĄnar og PortĂșgals (d. 1665).
+ 1794 - Helgi G. Thordersen, Ăslenskur biskup (d. 1867).
+ 1818 - KristjĂĄn 9. Danakonungur (d. 1906).
+ 1836 - Oddur V. GĂslason, Ăslenskur prestur (d. 1911).
+ 1850 - JĂłhannes GuĂ°mundsson Nordal, Ăslenskur athafnamaĂ°ur (d. 1946).
+ 1859 - Edmund Husserl, ĂŸĂœskur heimspekingur (d. 1938).
+ 1892 - Mary Pickford, kanadĂsk leikkona (d. 1979).
+ 1912 - Sonja Henie, norskur listskautari (d. 1969).
+ 1919 - Ian Smith, fyrrum forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra RĂłdesĂu (d. 2007).
+ 1929 - Erlendur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur.
+ 1938 - Kofi Annan, fyrrum aĂ°alritari SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna (d. 2018).
+ 1941 - Vivienne Westwood, enskur fatahönnuður (d. 2022).
+ 1944 - Masanobu Izumi, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1947 - Larry Norman, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 2008).
+ 1950 - Nobuo Fujishima, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1951 - Geir H. Haarde, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1955 - Kazuyoshi Nakamura, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1962 - Izzy Stradlin, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1963 - Julian Lennon, breskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1968 - Patricia Arquette, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1972 - Piotr Ćwierczewski, pĂłlskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 217 - Caracalla, RĂłmarkeisari (f. 186).
+ 1364 - JĂłhann 2. Frakkakonungur (f. 1319).
+ 1492 - Lorenzo de Medici, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1449).
+ 1608 - ĂĂłrĂ°ur GuĂ°mundsson, Ăslenskur lögmaĂ°ur (f. 1524).
+ 1697 - Niels Juel, danskur flotaforingi (f. 1629).
+ 1879 - Anthony Panizzi, Ătalskur lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur og bĂłkavörĂ°ur (f. 1797).
+ 1909 - V.U. Hammershaimb, fĂŠreyskur mĂĄlvĂsindamaĂ°ur (f. 1819).
+ 1931 - Erik Axel Karlfeldt, sÊnskt ljóðskåld og Nóbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1864).
+ 1973 - Pablo Picasso, spĂŠnskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1881).
+ 1973 - E.R. Dodds, breskur fornfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1893).
+ 1975 - BrynjĂłlfur JĂłhannesson, Ăslenskur leikari (f. 1897).
+ 1977 - Stefania Turkewich, ĂșkraĂnskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1898).
+ 2009 â Haraldur Bessason, Ăslenskur frĂŠĂ°imaĂ°ur og rithöfundur (f. 1931)
+ 2010 - Malcolm McLaren, breskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur og umboĂ°smaĂ°ur (f. 1946).
+ 2013 â MargrĂ©t Thatcher, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands (f. 1925).
+ 2018 - Chuck McCann, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1934).
+
+AprĂl
+9. aprĂl er 99. dagur ĂĄrsins (100. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 266 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 193 - Septimius Severus varĂ° RĂłmarkeisari.
+ 1363 - HĂĄkon 6. MagnĂșsson gekk aĂ° eiga MargrĂ©ti ValdimarsdĂłttur Ă Kaupmannahöfn.
+ 1378 - Eftir dauĂ°a GregorĂusar pĂĄfa kom til ĂłeirĂ°a Ă RĂłm ĂŸar sem ĂŸess var krafist aĂ° RĂłmverji yrĂ°i kosinn pĂĄfi til aĂ° tryggja aĂ° pĂĄfastĂłll yrĂ°i um kyrrt Ă borginni en GregorĂus hafĂ°i flutt sig ĂŸangaĂ° frĂĄ Avignon ĂĄri fyrr. Bartolomeo Prignano, erkibiskup Ă Bari (Ătali en ĂŸĂł ekki RĂłmverji), var kjörinn pĂĄfi sem Ărbanus 6..
+ 1483 - JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 5. varĂ° konungur Englands, tĂłlf ĂĄra aĂ° aldri, en var komiĂ° fyrir Ă LundĂșnaturni, ĂĄsamt bróður sĂnum, RĂkharĂ°i hertoga af York. Ăar var ĂŸeim rĂĄĂ°inn bani.
+ 1596 - SpĂĄnverjar hertĂłku Calais.
+ 1870 - Deutsche Bank hĂłf rekstur Ă BerlĂn.
+ 1894 - James Craig keypti Geysi fyrir 3000 kr af bĂŠndum Ă Haukadal.
+ 1911 - Ăingeyrarkirkja var vĂgĂ°.
+ 1940 - Ăjóðverjar hernĂĄmu Danmörku og gerĂ°u innrĂĄs Ă Noreg. Vidkun Quisling lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir aĂ° rĂkisstjĂłrn Noregs hefĂ°i flĂșiĂ° og hann tĂŠki sjĂĄlfur viĂ° sem forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra.
+ 1942 - Tveir Ăslendingar og 22 NorĂ°menn fĂłrust meĂ° norska skipinu Fanefeld ĂĄ leiĂ° frĂĄ BĂldudal til ĂsafjarĂ°ar.
+ 1963 - MikiĂ° norĂ°anrok og hörkufrost skall ĂĄ og fĂłrust sextĂĄn sjĂłmenn ĂŸennan dag og hinn nĂŠsta.
+ 1967 - Fyrsta Boeing 737-flugvĂ©lin flaug jĂłmfrĂșarflug sitt.
+ 1976 - SĂĂ°asta kvikmynd Alfred Hitchcock, FjölskyldugĂĄta, kom Ășt Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1981 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă Heklu. ĂaĂ° stóð stutt og er venjulega taliĂ° sem framhald gossins ĂĄriĂ° ĂĄĂ°ur.
+ 1984 - Ronald Reagan kallaĂ°i eftir alĂŸjóðlegu banni viĂ° notkun efnavopna.
+ 1989 - 20 almennir borgarar lĂ©tust Ă Tbilisi Ă GeorgĂu ĂŸegar RauĂ°i herinn barĂ°i niĂ°ur mĂłtmĂŠli.
+ 1989 - LandamĂŠrastrĂĂ° MĂĄritanĂu og Senegal hĂłfst vegna deilna um beitarrĂ©ttindi.
+ 1991 - GeorgĂa lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ SovĂ©trĂkjunum.
+ 1992 - Manuel Noriega fyrrum einrĂŠĂ°isherra Ă Panama var dĂŠmdur fyrir margvĂslega glĂŠpi, s.s. fĂkniefnasmygl og peningaĂŸvĂŠtti.
+ 1999 - Ibrahim BarĂ© MaĂŻnassara, forseti NĂger, var rĂĄĂ°inn af dögum.
+ 2000 - SĂŠnska nunnan Elisabeth Hesselblad var lĂœst sĂŠl af kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunni.
+ 2002 - ElĂsabet drottningarmóðir var borin til grafar frĂĄ Westminsterklaustri.
+ 2003 - ĂraksstrĂĂ°iĂ°: BandarĂkjaher nĂĄĂ°i Bagdad ĂĄ sitt vald.
+ 2005 - TugĂŸĂșsundir mĂłtmĂŠltu hersetu BandarĂkjanna Ă Ărak Ă Bagdad.
+ 2011 - ĂjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°sla fĂłr fram um Icesave-samkomulag rĂkisstjĂłrnarinnar viĂ° Breta og Hollendinga og var ĂŸvĂ hafnaĂ° meĂ° 59,7% atkvĂŠĂ°a ĂĄ mĂłti 40,1% sem vildu samĂŸykkja ĂŸaĂ°.
+ 2012 - Facebook keypti Instagram fyrir milljarĂ° bandarĂkjadala.
+ 2013 - 32 fĂłrust Ă Bushehr-jarĂ°skjĂĄlftanum Ă Ăran.
+ 2017 - ĂrĂĄsirnar ĂĄ koptĂsku kirkjurnar Ă Egyptalandi Ă aprĂl 2017: 44 lĂ©tust Ă tveimur sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ koptĂskar kirkjur Ă AlexandrĂu og Tanta.
+ 2019 â Ăingkosningar fĂłru fram Ă Ăsrael. Kosningarnar skiluĂ°u jafntefli milli Likud-flokksins og BlĂĄhvĂta bandalagsins og voru ĂŸvĂ endurteknar Ă september sama ĂĄr.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1683 - Ăorleifur Skaftason, Ăslenskur prestur (d. 1748).
+ 1806 - Isambard Kingdom Brunel, enskur verkfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1859).
+ 1812 - Johan Fritzner, norskur prestur (d. 1893).
+ 1821 - Charles Baudelaire, franskt ljóðskåld (d. 1867).
+ 1835 - LeĂłpold 2. BelgĂukonungur (d. 1909).
+ 1857 - Ălöf SigurĂ°ardĂłttir frĂĄ Hlöðum, rithöfundur og ljĂłsmóðir (d. 1933).
+ 1865 - Erich Ludendorff, ĂŸĂœskur hershöfĂ°ingi (d. 1937).
+ 1872 - LĂ©on Blum, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Frakklands (d. 1950).
+ 1914 - Koichi Oita, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 1996).
+ 1918 - JĂžrn Utzon, danskur arkitekt (d. 2008).
+ 1926 - Hugh Hefner, bandarĂskur tĂmaritaĂștgefandi (d. 2017).
+ 1932 - Carl Perkins, kĂĄntrĂtĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 1998).
+ 1933 - Jean-Paul Belmondo, franskur leikari.
+ 1935 - Josef Fritzl, austurrĂskur nĂĂ°ingur.
+ 1942 - Petar Nadoveza, krĂłatĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1949 - GuĂ°ni ĂgĂșstsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1954 - Dennis Quaid, leikari
+ 1954 - Iain Duncan Smith, breskur ĂŸingmaĂ°ur.
+ 1957 - OddnĂœ G. HarĂ°ardĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1957 - Lars Demian, sĂŠnskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1957 - Severiano Ballesteros, spĂŠnskur golfleikari.
+ 1963 - RunĂłlfur ĂgĂșstsson, Ăslenskur lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1964 - Akihiro Nagashima, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1965 - Mark Pellegrino, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1967 - Sam Harris, bandarĂskur rithöfundur.
+ 1972 - Steinunn KristĂn ĂĂłrĂ°ardĂłttir, Ăslenskur rekstrarhagfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1974 - Jenna Jameson, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1975 - Robbie Fowler, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1977 - Gerard Way, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur og myndasöguhöfundur.
+ 1981 - Albin Pelak, bosnĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1982 - Jay Baruchel, kanadĂskur leikari.
+ 1986 - Leighton Meester, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona.
+ 1987 - Jesse McCartney, bandarĂskur söngvari og leikari.
+ 1999 - Lil Nas X, bandarĂskur rappari.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 715 - KonstantĂnus pĂĄfi.
+ 1137 - VilhjĂĄlmur 10. af AkvitanĂu (f. 1099).
+ 1283 - Margrét af Skotlandi, Noregsdrottning (f. 1261).
+ 1483 - JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 4. Englandskonungur (f. 1442).
+ 1492 - Lorenzo de'Medici, fursti af FlĂłrens (Lorenzo hinn stĂłrfenglegi) (f. 1449).
+ 1553 - Francois Rabelais, franskur rithöfundur.
+ 1598 - PĂĄll JĂłnsson, StaĂ°arhĂłls-PĂĄll, skĂĄld og sĂœslumaĂ°ur.
+ 1626 - Francis Bacon, heimspekingur.
+ 1693 - Roger de Bussy-Rabutin, franskur rithöfundur (f. 1618).
+ 1761 - William Law, enskur prestur (f. 1686).
+ 1869 - KristjĂĄn JĂłnsson fjallaskĂĄld (f. 1842).
+ 1904 - Ăsabella 2. SpĂĄnardrottning (f. 1830).
+ 1936 - Ferdinand Tönnies, ĂŸĂœskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1855).
+ 1945 - Dietrich Bonhoeffer, ĂŸĂœskur guĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1906).
+ 1959 - Frank Lloyd Wright, bandarĂskur arkitekt (f. 1867).
+ 1961 - Zog AlbanĂukonungur (f. 1895).
+ 2005 - Andrea Dworkin, bandarĂskur aĂ°gerĂ°asinni (f. 1945).
+ 2021
+ DMX (f. 1970)
+ Filippus prins, hertogi af Edinborgâ (f. 1921)
+
+AprĂl
+10. aprĂl er 100. dagur ĂĄrsins (101. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 265 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 428 - NestorĂos varĂ° patrĂarki Ă KonstantĂnĂłpel.
+ 847 - LeĂł 4. varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1045 - Benedikt 9. varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1555 - Marsellus 2. varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1607 - Jakob 1. stofnaĂ°i tvö VirginĂufĂ©lög, Ă London og Plymouth, meĂ° einkaleyfi ĂĄ verslun viĂ° nĂœlendurnar Ă NĂœja heiminum.
+ 1656 - KirkjubĂłlsmĂĄliĂ°: FeĂ°garnir JĂłn JĂłnsson eldri og JĂłn JĂłnsson yngri frĂĄ KirkjubĂłli Ă SkutulsfirĂ°i voru brenndir ĂĄ bĂĄli fyrir galdur eftir kĂŠru sĂra JĂłns MagnĂșssonar prests ĂĄ Eyri Ă SkutulsfirĂ°i.
+ 1710 - Fyrstu höfundarrĂ©ttarlögin, kennd viĂ° Ănnu drottningu, gengu Ă gildi Ă Bretlandi.
+ 1782 - Taksin, konungur SĂam, var hĂĄlshöggvinn eftir stjĂłrnarbyltingu. Rama 1. tĂłk viĂ° kĂłrĂłnunni.
+ 1790 - BandarĂkin tĂłku Ă notkun einkaleyfakerfi.
+ 1815 - EldfjalliĂ° Tambora ĂĄ eyjunni Sumbabwa Ă IndĂłnesĂu gaus.
+ 1886 - MagnĂșs Stephensen var skipaĂ°ur landshöfĂ°ingi 49 ĂĄra gamall.
+ 1912 - Titanic lagĂ°i Ășr höfn Ă Southampton ĂĄ Englandi.
+ 1933 - Togarinn SkĂșli fĂłgeti strandaĂ°i vestan viĂ° StaĂ°arhverfi Ă GrindavĂk. Slysavarnadeildin Ăorbjörn Ă GrindavĂk bjargaĂ°i alls 24 mönnum meĂ° fluglĂnutĂŠkjum en 12 menn fĂłrust og höfĂ°u ĂŸeir allir farist ĂĄĂ°ur en björgunarmenn komu ĂĄ vettvang.
+ 1938 - Ădouard Daladier varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Frakklands.
+ 1940 - AlĂŸingi fĂłl rĂkisstjĂłrninni konungsvald eftir aĂ° Ăjóðverjar hernĂĄmu Danmörku.
+ 1941 - BandarĂkin hernĂĄmu GrĂŠnland.
+ 1956 - FriĂ°rik 9. Danakonungur og IngirĂĂ°ur drottning hans komu Ă fjögurra daga opinbera heimsĂłkn til Ăslands.
+ 1970 - Paul McCartney gaf Ășt yfirlĂœsingu ĂŸess efnis aĂ° BĂtlarnir vĂŠru hĂŠttir.
+ 1972 - Samningur um bann viĂ° ĂŸrĂłun, framleiĂ°slu og söfnun sĂœkla- og eiturvopna og um eyĂ°ingu ĂŸeirra var undirritaĂ°ur af um 70 löndum Ă Washington-borg.
+ 1972 - Fimm ĂŸĂșsund lĂ©tust Ă jarĂ°skjĂĄlfta sem mĂŠldist 7,0 ĂĄ Richter Ă Fars Ă Ăran.
+ 1974 - GrindavĂk, BolungarvĂk, DalvĂk og EskifjörĂ°ur urĂ°u kaupstaĂ°ir meĂ° lögum. Seltjarnarnes varĂ° kaupstaĂ°ur daginn ĂĄĂ°ur.
+ 1974- Golda Meir sagĂ°i af sĂ©r sem forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ăsraels.
+ 1979 - 42 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar fellibylur gekk yfir Wichita Falls Ă Texas.
+ 1981 - Fjölflokkakerfi var tekiĂ° upp Ă TĂșnis.
+ 1985 - Madonna hĂłf tĂłnleikaferĂ°alagiĂ° The Virgin Tour.
+ 1988 - StĂłra SetĂłbrĂșin yfir SetĂłhaf Ă Japan var opnuĂ°.
+ 1990 - Kvikmyndin The Juniper Tree var frumsĂœnd Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1991 - 140 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar farĂŸegaferjan Moby Prince rakst ĂĄ olĂuflutningaskipiĂ° Agip Abruzzo Ă ĂŸoku viĂ° höfnina Ă Livorno ĂĄ ĂtalĂu.
+ 1992 - Ărski lĂœĂ°veldisherinn stóð fyrir sprengjutilrĂŠĂ°i Ă Baltic Exchange Ă London. 3 lĂ©tust og 91 sĂŠrĂ°ust.
+ 1993 - SuĂ°urafrĂski barĂĄttumaĂ°urinn Chris Hani var myrtur.
+ 1998 - FöstudagssĂĄttmĂĄlinn var undirritaĂ°ur ĂĄ NorĂ°ur-Ărlandi.
+ 2008 - Ă Nepal fĂłru fram kosningar til stjĂłrnlagaĂŸings til aĂ° semja nĂœja lĂœĂ°veldisstjĂłrnarskrĂĄ.
+ 2010 - Lech KaczyĆski, forseti PĂłllands fĂłrst Ă flugslysi ĂĄsamt 95 öðrum Ă grennd viĂ° borgina Smolensk Ă RĂșsslandi. KaczyĆski var ĂĄ leiĂ° til Smolensk til aĂ° taka ĂŸĂĄtt Ă minningarathöfn Ă tilefni ĂŸess aĂ° 70 ĂĄr voru liĂ°in frĂĄ Katyn-fjöldamorĂ°unum.
+ 2014 - EvrĂłpurĂĄĂ°iĂ° svipti RĂșssland atkvĂŠĂ°isrĂ©tti sĂnum tĂmabundiĂ° vegna innlimunar KrĂmskaga.
+ 2016 - Yfir 100 létust à hofbruna à Kerala å Indlandi.
+ 2019 â Fyrsta staĂ°festa ljĂłsmyndin af svartholi sem nĂĄĂ°st hefur var kynnt.
+ 2020 â GeimkönnunarfariĂ° BepiColombo hĂłf ferĂ° sĂna til Venus.
+ 2020 â FjĂĄrmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herrar EvrĂłpusambandsins samĂŸykktu 504 milljarĂ°a evra lĂĄnapakka til aĂ° bregĂ°ast viĂ° efnahagslegum afleiĂ°ingum faraldursins.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1512 - Jakob 5. Skotakonungur (d. 1542).
+ 1583 - Hugo Grotius, hollenskur lögfrÊðingur (d. 1645).
+ 1636 - Balthasar Kindermann ĂŸĂœskt skĂĄld (d. 1706).
+ 1812 - Arthur Edmund Denis Dillon lĂĄvarĂ°ur (d. 1892).
+ 1847 - Joseph Pulitzer, blaĂ°amaĂ°ur og Ăștgefandi (d. 1911).
+ 1870 - VladimĂr LenĂn, forseti SovĂ©trĂkjanna (d. 1924).
+ 1891 - Bjarni Runólfsson, bóndi og rafstöðvasmiður à Hólmi à Landbroti (d. 1938).
+ 1927 - Marshall Warren Nirenberg, bandarĂskur lĂfefnafrĂŠĂ°ingur og nĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 2010).
+ 1929 - Max von Sydow, sĂŠnskur leikari (d. 2020).
+ 1929 - Yozo Aoki, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 2014).
+ 1931 - RenĂ© Follet, belgĂskur myndasöguhöfundur (d. 2020).
+ 1932 - Omar Sharif, egypskur leikari (d. 2015).
+ 1952 - Steven Seagal, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1954 - Peter MacNicol, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1956 - Masafumi Yokoyama, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1963 - Erling JĂłhannesson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1968 - Orlando Jones, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1970 - Matthew Lillard, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1973 - Roberto Carlos, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1974 - Goce Sedloski, norĂ°urmakedĂłnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1979 - Sophie Ellis-Bextor, ensk songkona.
+ 1983 - Hannes SigurĂ°sson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1984 - Mandy Moore, bandarĂsk söng- og leikkona.
+ 1986 - Vincent Kompany, belgĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1988 - Haley Joel Osment, leikari.
+ 1989 - JĂłn GuĂ°ni FjĂłluson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1992 - Sadio Mané, senegalskur knattspyrnumaður.
+ 1992 - Daisy Ridley, ensk leikkona.
+ 2007 - ArĂanna Hollandsprinsessa.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1216 - EirĂkur KnĂștsson SvĂakonungur.
+ 1533 - FriĂ°rik 1. Danakonungur (f. 1471).
+ 1585 - GregorĂus 13. pĂĄfi (f. 1502).
+ 1598 - StaĂ°arhĂłls-PĂĄll, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1534).
+ 1640 - Agostino Agazzari, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1578).
+ 1756 - Giacomo Antonio Perti, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1661).
+ 1813 - Joseph Louis Lagrange, stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1736)
+ 1919 - Emiliano Zapata, mexĂkĂłskur byltingarmaĂ°ur (f. 1879).
+ 1931 - Khalil Gibran, lĂbanskt skĂĄld og mĂĄlari (f. 1883).
+ 1946 - Unnur BenediktsdĂłttir Bjarklind, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1881).
+ 1954 - Auguste Lumiere, frumkvöðull à kvikmyndatÊkni (f. 1862).
+ 1962 - Stuart Sutcliffe, fyrri bassaleikari BĂtlanna (f. 1940).
+ 2010 - Lech Kaczynski, forseti PĂłllands (f. 1949).
+
+AprĂl
+11. aprĂl er 101. dagur ĂĄrsins (102. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 264 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 217 - Macrinus varĂ° keisari RĂłmar.
+ 672 - AdeĂłdatus 2. varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1471 - JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 4. tĂłk viĂ° hĂĄsĂŠtinu Ă Englandi og setti Hinrik 6. endanlega af.
+ 1677 - StrĂĂ° Frakklands og Hollands: Filippus 1. hertogi af OrlĂ©ans sigraĂ°i her Hollendinga Ă orrustunni viĂ° Cassel.
+ 1700 - Hvergi var messaĂ° ĂĄ landinu ĂŸĂł pĂĄskadagur vĂŠri vegna mikillar snjĂłkomu ĂĄ norĂ°an. Veturinn var ĂŸvĂ kallaĂ°ur pĂĄskavetur.
+ 1836 - Newark (New Jersey) fékk borgarréttindi.
+ 1885 - Knattspyrnufélagið Luton Town var stofnað.
+ 1909 - Ungmennafélagið Afturelding var stofnað à MosfellsbÊ.
+ 1912 - MĂĄnaĂ°arlöngu verkfalli kvenna Ă fiskverkun Ă HafnarfirĂ°i lauk meĂ° samningum. Ăetta var fyrsta verkfall kvenna ĂĄ Ăslandi og jafnvel fyrsta skipulagĂ°a verkfalliĂ°.
+ 1915 - FlĂŠkingurinn meĂ° Charlie Chaplin var frumsĂœnd.
+ 1920 - Sveinafélag jårniðnaðarmanna var stofnað en stuttu seinna var nafninu breytt à Félag jårniðnaðarmanna.
+ 1945 - StefĂĄnskirkjan Ă VĂn brann.
+ 1959 - Rannveig ĂorsteinsdĂłttir fĂ©kk rĂ©tt til ĂŸess aĂ° flytja mĂĄl fyrir HĂŠstarĂ©tti fyrst kvenna.
+ 1961 - Bob Dylan kom fyrst fram Ă New York-borg.
+ 1970 - MinkarĂŠkt hĂłfst aĂ° nĂœju ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1970 - AppollóåÊtlunin: Appollo 13 var skotið å loft.
+ 1970 - SnjĂłflóð fĂ©ll ĂĄ berklahĂŠli Ă Ălpunum meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 74, mest ungir drengir, lĂ©tust.
+ 1976 - Apple I fĂłr ĂĄ markaĂ° Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1979 - TansanĂuher nĂĄĂ°i Kampala Ă Ăganda ĂĄ sitt vald og Idi Amin flĂșĂ°i til LĂbĂœu.
+ 1981 - UppĂŸotin Ă Brixton 1981: MĂłtmĂŠlendur köstuĂ°u bensĂnsprengjum og rĂŠndu verslanir Ă Brixtonhverfinu Ă London.
+ 1985 - EinrĂŠĂ°isherra AlbanĂu, Enver Hoxha, lĂ©st og Ramiz Alia tĂłk viĂ° völdum 20 dögum sĂĂ°ar.
+ 1988 - SĂĂ°asti keisarinn eftir Bernardo Bertolucci hlaut nĂu ĂłskarsverĂ°laun.
+ 1991 - 5 lĂ©tust og yfir 50.000 tonn af olĂu runnu Ășt Ă sjĂł ĂŸegar sprenging varĂ° Ă olĂuflutningaskipinu Haven viĂ° GenĂșa ĂĄ ĂtalĂu.
+ 1993 - Hjallakirkja var vĂgĂ° Ă KĂłpavogi.
+ 1996 - Ăsraelsher hĂłf ĂrĂșgur reiĂ°innar-aĂ°gerĂ°ina meĂ° ĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ LĂbanon Ă hefndarskyni fyrir hryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄsir Hezbollah-samtakanna.
+ 1996 - 17 lĂ©tust ĂĄ DĂŒsseldorf-flugvelli vegna reyks Ășr brennandi frauĂ°plasti.
+ 1997 - DĂłmkirkjan Ă TĂłrĂnĂł skemmdist Ă eldi.
+ 2001 - Bob Dylan sagĂ°i frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hann hefĂ°i veriĂ° giftur Carol Dennis frĂĄ 1986 til 1992 en haldiĂ° ĂŸvĂ leyndu.
+ 2002 - 21 lĂ©st ĂŸegar bĂlasprengja ĂĄ vegum Al-KaĂda sprakk viĂ° samkomuhĂșs gyĂ°inga Ă Djerba Ă TĂșnis.
+ 2006 - ĂsĂœnilegi flokkurinn skipulagĂ°i mĂłtmĂŠli Ă StokkhĂłlmi og Gautaborg.
+ 2006 - Geimkönnunarfarið Venus Express fór å braut um Venus.
+ 2006 - Sikileyski mafĂuforinginn Bernardo Provenzano var handtekinn eftir aĂ° hafa veriĂ° eftirlĂœstur Ă 43 ĂĄr.
+ 2006 - Forseti Ărans, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, staĂ°festi aĂ° vĂsindamönnum hefĂ°i tekist aĂ° framleiĂ°a nokkur grömm af auĂ°guĂ°u Ășrani.
+ 2007 - Sam Mansour, âbĂłksalinn frĂĄ BrĂžnshĂžjâ, var dĂŠmdur Ă 3 og hĂĄlfs ĂĄrs fangelsi eftir nĂœjum dönskum lögum fyrir aĂ° hvetja til hryĂ°juverka.
+ 2008 - Nintendo gaf Ășt leikinn Mario Kart Wii.
+ 2011 - Fyrrum forseti FĂlabeinsstrandarinnar, Laurent Gbagbo, var handtekinn Ă forsetahöllinni af sveitum Alassane Ouattara meĂ° fulltingi franska hersins.
+ 2016 - KirkjuĂŸing norsku ĂŸjóðkirkjunnar samĂŸykkti giftingu samkynhneigĂ°ra Ă kirkjum.
+ 2018 - FlugslysiĂ° Ă Boufarik: 257 fĂłrust ĂŸegar IljĂșsĂn IL-76-flugvĂ©l hrapaĂ°i Ă AlsĂr.
+ 2019 - Omar al-Bashir, forseta SĂșdans til 30 ĂĄra, var steypt af stĂłli af sĂșdanska hernum eftir langa mĂłtmĂŠlaöldu.
+ 2019 - Julian Assange var ĂșthĂœst Ășr sendirĂĄĂ°i Ekvadors Ă London eftir sjö ĂĄra dvöl ĂŸar. Lögreglan Ă London handtĂłk hann sĂĂ°an.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 145 - Septimius Severus, RĂłmarkeisari (d. 211).
+ 1357 - JĂłhann 1. PortĂșgalskonungur (d. 1433).
+ 1370 - Friðrik 1. kjörfursti af Saxlandi (d. 1428).
+ 1374 - Roger Mortimer, jarl af March, rĂkiserfingi Englands (Ăștnefndur arftaki RĂkharĂ°s 2.)(d. 1398).
+ 1492 - Margrét, drottning Navarra, kona Hinriks 2. (d. 1549).
+ 1869 - Gustav Vigeland, norskur myndhöggvari (d. 1943).
+ 1879 - JĂłninna SigurĂ°ardĂłttir, Ăslenskur matreiĂ°slukennari (d. 1962).
+ 1920 - Emilio Colombo, Ătalskur forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra (d. 2013).
+ 1928 - GerĂ°ur HelgadĂłttir, Ăslenskur myndhöggvari (d. 1975).
+ 1945 - VilhjĂĄlmur VilhjĂĄlmsson, Ăslenskur söngvari (d. 1978).
+ 1950 - Bill Irwin, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1953 - Andrew Wiles, breskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1958 - JĂłn StefĂĄn KristjĂĄnsson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1963 - Hinrik Ălafsson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1974 - Tricia Helfer, kanadĂsk leikkona.
+ 1980 - JĂłn Trausti Reynisson, Ăslenskur blaĂ°amaĂ°ur.
+ 1981 - Matt Ryan, velskur leikari.
+ 1984 - Nikola KarabatiÄ, franskur handknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 678 - DĂłnus pĂĄfi.
+ 1165 - StefĂĄn 4., konungur Ungverjalands (f. um 1133).
+ 1778 - MiklabĂŠjar-Solveig, vinnukona ĂĄ MiklabĂŠ Ă BlönduhlĂĂ° (fyrirfĂłr sĂ©r).
+ 1964 - Guillermo Subiabre, sĂleskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1903).
+ 1985 - Enver Hoxha, einrĂŠĂ°isherra AlbanĂu (f. 1908).
+ 1987 - Primo Levi, Ătalskur efnafrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1919).
+ 1990 - Ivar Lo-Johansson, sÊnskur rithöfundur (f. 1901).
+ 2005 - Lucien Laurent, franskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1907).
+ 2007 - Kurt Vonnegut, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (f. 1922).
+ 2012 - Ahmed Ben Bella, forseti AlsĂr (f. 1918).
+
+AprĂl
+12. aprĂl er 102. dagur ĂĄrsins (103. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 263 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 238 - Orrustan um KarĂŸagĂł (238): HerliĂ° Maximinusar rĂ©Ă°ist inn Ă AfrĂku frĂĄ NĂșmidĂu ĂĄsamt Legio III Augusta. GordĂanus 2. var drepinn eftir 36 daga umsĂĄtur og GordĂanus 1. hengdi sig meĂ° belti sĂnu.
+ 467 - Anthemius varĂ° keisari RĂłmar.
+ 1529 - FriĂ°rik 1. Danakonungur skipaĂ°i Dietrich van Bramstedt hirĂ°stjĂłra ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1540 - LokiĂ° var viĂ° prentun NĂœja testamentisins Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu Odds GottskĂĄlkssonar. ĂaĂ° er fyrsta prentaĂ°a bĂłk sem vitaĂ° er um ĂĄ Ăslensku.
+ 1554 - MarĂa af Guise varĂ° rĂkisstjĂłri Skotlands.
+ 1606 - StĂłra Bretland tĂłk upp breska sambandsfĂĄnann Union Jack eftir aĂ° Skotland og England gengu Ă konungssamband.
+ 1665 - Fyrsta dauĂ°sfalliĂ° vegna PlĂĄgunnar miklu var skrĂĄĂ° Ă London.
+ 1861 - Fyrstu ĂĄtökin Ă bandarĂska borgarastrĂĂ°inu hĂłfust meĂ° ĂĄrĂĄs sunnanmanna ĂĄ Sumtervirki Ă SuĂ°ur-KarĂłlĂnu.
+ 1912 - FarĂŸegaskipiĂ° Titanic, sem aldrei ĂĄtti aĂ° sökkva, lagĂ°i upp Ă sĂna fyrstu og einu ferĂ°. SkipiĂ° sökk ĂŸrem dögum seinna eftir ĂĄrekstur viĂ° borgarĂsjaka.
+ 1919 - ĂtjĂĄn manns fĂłrust Ă snjĂłflóðum viĂ° SiglufjörĂ° og sĂldarverksmiĂ°ja gjöreyĂ°ilagĂ°ist.
+ 1927 - ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lagiĂ° Völsungur var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ HĂșsavĂk.
+ 1927 - SameinaĂ° konungsrĂki StĂłra-Bretlands og Ărlands varĂ° SameinaĂ° konungsrĂki StĂłra-Bretlands og NorĂ°ur-Ărlands.
+ 1930 - Ătvegsbanki Ăslands var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 1931 - Knattspyrnufélagið Haukar var stofnað à Hafnarfirði.
+ 1940 - Bretar hernĂĄmu FĂŠreyjar.
+ 1945 - Franklin D. Roosevelt lĂ©st Ă embĂŠtti og Harry S. Truman tĂłk viĂ° sem 33. forseti BandarĂkjanna.
+ 1947 - Ăslenska tĂłnlistarĂștgĂĄfan Ăslenzkir tĂłnar var stofnuĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1952 - VĂ©lbĂĄturinn Veiga sökk viĂ° Vestmannaeyjar. Tveir menn fĂłrust en sex björguĂ°ust Ă gĂșmmĂbjörgunarbĂĄt. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta sinn sem slĂkur bĂĄtur var notaĂ°ur hĂ©r viĂ° land.
+ 1953 - MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Laugarvatni varĂ° sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°ur menntaskĂłli. Hann var fyrsti menntaskĂłlinn Ă dreifbĂœli ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1961 - JĂșrĂ GagarĂn varĂ° fyrsti maĂ°urinn til aĂ° fara Ășt Ă geiminn.
+ 1974 - Rithöfundasamband Ăslands var stofnaĂ° upp ĂĄ nĂœtt sem stĂ©ttarfĂ©lag Ăslenskra rithöfunda.
+ 1980 - Samuel Kanyon Doe framdi valdarĂĄn Ă LĂberĂu.
+ 1981 - Geimskutlu var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft Ă fyrsta sinn (Columbia).
+ 1982 - Kvikmyndin SĂłley var frumsĂœnd Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1983 - Yasser Arafat heimsĂłtti Olof Palme Ă StokkhĂłlmi ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir mĂłtmĂŠli frĂĄ Ăsrael.
+ 1984 - Ătalski stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkurinn Lega Lombarda var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 1985 - 18 SpĂĄnverjar lĂ©tust Ă sprengjutilrĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ vegum Samtakanna heilagt strĂĂ° ĂĄ veitingastaĂ° nĂĄlĂŠgt Madrid ĂĄ SpĂĄni.
+ 1986 - Fjölbrautaskóli Suðurlands verður fyrsti sigurvegari à Spurningakeppni framhaldsskólanna.
+ 1987 - V. P. Singh, varnarmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra Indlands, sakaĂ°i Bofors um aĂ° hafa greitt 145 milljĂłnir sĂŠnskra krĂłna Ă mĂștur vegna vopnasölu til Indlands.
+ 1988 - Poppsöngvarinn Sonny Bono var kjörinn borgarstjĂłri Ă Palm Springs Ă KalifornĂu.
+ 1992 - Eurodisney-skemmtigarĂ°urinn var opnaĂ°ur. SĂĂ°ar var nafni hans breytt Ă Disneyland Paris.
+ 2003 - KjĂłsendur Ă Ungverjalandi samĂŸykktu inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandiĂ°.
+ 2010 - RannsĂłknarnefnd AlĂŸingis birti skĂœrslu um aĂ°draganda og orsakir hrunsins Ă nĂu bindum.
+ 2011 - GyrĂ°ir ElĂasson hlaut bĂłkmenntaverĂ°laun NorĂ°urlandarĂĄĂ°s fyrir smĂĄsagnasafniĂ° Milli trjĂĄnna.
+ 2012 - Uppreisnarhermenn Ă GĂneu-BissĂĄ tĂłku sitjandi forseta og forsetaframbjóðanda höndum Ă miĂ°ri kosningabarĂĄttu.
+ 2012 - Albanar skutu fimm MakedĂłna til bana utan viĂ° Skopje. MorĂ°in leiddu til uppĂŸota og ĂĄtaka milli ĂŸjóðarbrota Ă MakedĂłnĂu.
+ 2020 â OPEC-rĂkin samĂŸykktu aĂ° skera olĂuframleiĂ°slu niĂ°ur um 9,7 milljĂłn tunnur ĂĄ dag frĂĄ 1. maĂ.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1116 - RĂkissa af PĂłllandi, drottning SvĂĂŸjóðar og hertogaynja af Minsk (d. eftir 1156).
+ 1573 - KristĂn af Holstein-Gottorp, SvĂadrottning, kona Karls 9. (d. 1625).
+ 1577 - KristjĂĄn 4. Danakonungur (d. 1648).
+ 1892 - Ăsa GuĂ°mundsdĂłttir Wright, Ăslenskur hjĂșkrunarfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1971).
+ 1936 - HörĂ°ur Tulinius, Ăslenskur körfuknattleiksmaĂ°ur (d. 1989).
+ 1941 - SigrĂĂ°ur ĂorvaldsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur leikstjĂłri og leikari.
+ 1942 - Jacob Zuma, forseti SuĂ°ur-AfrĂku.
+ 1947 - Tom Clancy, bandarĂskur rithöfundur.
+ 1947 - David Letterman, bandarĂskur sjĂłnvarpsmaĂ°ur.
+ 1948 - Joschka Fischer, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1953 - Niklas RÄdström, sÊnskur rithöfundur.
+ 1955 - Viktor Arnar IngĂłlfsson, Ăslenskur spennusagnahöfundur.
+ 1956 - Herbert Groenemeyer, ĂŸĂœskur söngvari.
+ 1961 - Lisa Gerrard, åströlsk tónlistarkona.
+ 1962 - Katsuhiro Kusaki, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1967 - Shinkichi Kikuchi, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1971 - Nicholas Brendon, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1972 - FriĂ°rik FriĂ°riksson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1990 - Hiroki Sakai, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1991 - Ryota Morioka, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1997 - Brynjar SnĂŠr GrĂ©tarsson, Ăslenskur körfuknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 352 - JĂșlĂus 1. pĂĄfi.
+ 1167 - Karl Sörkvisson, SvĂakonungur (f. 1130).
+ 1555 - JĂłhanna KastilĂudrottning, kona Filippusar 1. (f. 1479).
+ 1817 - Charles Messier, franskur stjörnufrÊðingur (f. 1730).
+ 1878 - William M. Tweed, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1823).
+ 1945 - Franklin D. Roosevelt, BandarĂkjaforseti (f. 1882).
+ 1946 - Teizo Takeuchi, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1908).
+ 1995 - PĂ©tur J. Thorsteinsson, Ăslenskur sendiherra (f. 1917).
+ 2005 - Richard Popkin, bandarĂskur heimspekisagnfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1923).
+ 2019 - Georgia Engel, bandarĂsk leikkona (f. 1948).
+
+AprĂl
+13. aprĂl er 103. dagur ĂĄrsins (104. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 262 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1203 - GuĂ°mundur Arason var vĂgĂ°ur HĂłlabiskup, 43 ĂĄra.
+ 1204 - Krossfarar rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ KonstantĂnĂłpel, hertĂłku borgina og rĂŠndu ĂŸar og rupluĂ°u.
+ 1252 - Ăgmundur Helgason Ă KirkjubĂŠ lĂ©t taka SĂŠmund Ormsson SvĂnfelling og GuĂ°mund bróður hans af lĂfi.
+ 1412 - Enska öldin: Yfir tuttugu ensk skip fĂłrust viĂ° Ăsland Ă miklu illviĂ°ri meĂ° fannfergi.
+ 1419 - Ă skĂrdag gerĂ°i mikiĂ° ĂłveĂ°ur meĂ° snjĂłkomu. HĂĄlfur ĂŸriĂ°ji tugur enskra skipa fĂłrst viĂ° strendur Ăslands.
+ 1565 - StĂłridĂłmur var leiddur Ă lög ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1598 - Hinrik 4. gaf hann Ășt Nantes-tilskipunina sem tryggĂ°i mĂłtmĂŠlendum trĂșfrelsi og batt ĂŸar meĂ° enda ĂĄ borgarastyrjöldina sem geisaĂ° hafĂ°i Ă Frakklandi.
+ 1605 - Fjodor 2. varĂ° RĂșssakeisari viĂ° lĂĄt Boris GodĂșnov.
+ 1627 - PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldiĂ° vann sigur ĂĄ SvĂum Ă orrustunni viĂ° Hammerstein.
+ 1742 - ĂratĂłrĂan MessĂas eftir HĂ€ndel var frumflutt Ă Dyflinni ĂĄ Ărlandi.
+ 1844 - JĂłn SigurĂ°sson var kosinn ĂĄ ĂŸing meĂ° 50 atkvĂŠĂ°um af 52. Hann var oft ĂŸingforseti og sat ĂĄ ĂŸingi til 1879.
+ 1886 - Eggert TheĂłdĂłr JĂłnassen var skipaĂ°ur amtmaĂ°ur Ă SuĂ°ur- og Vesturamti.
+ 1895 - BaĂ°hĂșsfĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1919 - Amritsar-fjöldamorðin: Bretar myrtu 379 óvopnaða mótmÊlendur à Amritsar å Indlandi.
+ 1936 - KnattspyrnumaĂ°urinn Joe Payne skorar tĂu m0rk Ă sama leiknum Ă enska boltanum og setur met.
+ 1940 - Bretar hernĂĄmu FĂŠreyjar.
+ 1953 - Fyrsta skĂĄldsagan um James Bond kom Ășt Ă Bretlandi.
+ 1956 - Um 200 ĂŸĂșsund danskir mĂłtmĂŠlendur söfnuĂ°ust saman fyrir framan KristjĂĄnsborg til aĂ° mĂłtmĂŠla lögum um vinnutĂma.
+ 1970 - AppollóåÊtlunin: SĂșrefnistankur sprakk Ă Appollo 13 svo ĂĄhöfnin neyddist til aĂ° lenda geimfarinu.
+ 1972 - AlĂŸjóðapĂłstsambandiĂ° ĂĄkvaĂ° aĂ° lĂta ĂĄ AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldiĂ° KĂna sem eina fulltrĂșa KĂna og rak ĂŸar meĂ° LĂœĂ°veldiĂ° KĂna Ășr sambandinu.
+ 1975 - ĂrĂĄs byssumanna ĂĄ kirkju Ă Ain El Remmeneh-hverfi BeirĂșt ĂĄsamt ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ rĂștu meĂ° Ăłbreyttum borgurum ĂŸar sem 17 PalestĂnumenn lĂĄgu Ă valnum markaĂ°i upphaf LĂbanska borgarastrĂĂ°sins.
+ 1975 - Forseti Tjad, François Tombalbaye, var myrtur à herforingjauppreisn sem Félix Malloum leiddi gegn honum.
+ 1976 - FjörutĂu lĂ©tust Ă sprengingu Ă vopnaverksmiĂ°ju Ă Lapua Ă Finnlandi.
+ 1984 - Indverjar lögĂ°u svĂŠĂ°iĂ° viĂ° Siachen-jökul Ă KasmĂr undir sig.
+ 1986 - JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. heimsĂłtti samkomuhĂșs gyĂ°inga Ă RĂłm fyrstur pĂĄfa.
+ 1986 - Fyrsta barniĂ° sem Ăłskyld staĂ°göngumóðir gekk meĂ° fĂŠddist Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1987 - PortĂșgal og AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldiĂ° KĂna undirrituĂ°u samkomulag um aĂ° stjĂłrn MakĂĄ gengi til KĂna ĂĄriĂ° 1999.
+ 1990 - SovĂ©trĂkin bĂĄĂ°ust formlega afsökunar ĂĄ fjöldamorĂ°unum Ă KatynskĂłgi.
+ 1997 - Tiger Woods varð yngsti kylfingurinn à sögunni sem sigraði Masters-golfmótið.
+ 2007 - BĂlanaust og OlĂufĂ©lagiĂ° ESSO sameinuĂ°ust og stofnuĂ°u N1.
+ 2010 - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti varĂ° Ă vestanverĂ°u KĂna, 6,8 ĂĄ Richter. Yfir 1000 manns fĂłrust Ă skjĂĄlftanum.
+ 2012 - NorĂ°urkĂłreski gervihnötturinn KwangmyĆngsĆng-3 sprakk skömmu eftir geimskot.
+ 2015 - TĂ©kkneski aĂ°gerĂ°asinninn VĂt JedliÄka lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i LĂberlands.
+ 2017 - LoftĂĄrĂĄsin ĂĄ Nangarhar: BandarĂkjaher varpaĂ°i GBU-43/B MOAB-sprengju ĂĄ miĂ°stöð Ăslamska rĂkisins Ă Afganistan meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 94 lĂ©tust.
+ 2021 - RĂkisstjĂłrn Japans samĂŸykkti aĂ° dĂŠla geislavirku vatni frĂĄ Kjarnorkuverinu Ă Fukushima Ă Kyrrahaf yfir 30 ĂĄra tĂmabil.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1350 - Margrét 3., greifynja af FlÊmingjalandi (d. 1405).
+ 1519 - KatrĂn af Medici, drottning Hinriks 2. Frakkakonungs (d. 1589).
+ 1570 - Guy Fawkes, enskur samsĂŠrismaĂ°ur (d. 1606).
+ 1636 - Hendrik van Rheede hollenskur grasafrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1691).
+ 1732 - Frederick North, breskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1792).
+ 1743 - Thomas Jefferson, 3. forseti BandarĂkjanna (d. 1826).
+ 1852 - F.W. Woolworth, bandarĂskur kaupsĂœslumaĂ°ur (d. 1919).
+ 1876 - Ăorbjörg SigurĂ°ardĂłttir Bergmann, Ăslensk kaupsĂœslukona (d. 1952).
+ 1877 - Jes Zimsen, Ăslenskur kaupmaĂ°ur (d. 1938).
+ 1899 - Alfred SchĂŒtz, austurrĂskur fĂ©lagsfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1959).
+ 1906 - Samuel Beckett, Ărskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1989).
+ 1922 - Julius Nyerere, forseti TansanĂu (d. 1999).
+ 1923 - Don Adams, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2005).
+ 1939 - Paul Sorvino, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1939 - Seamus Heaney, Ărskur rithöfundur (d. 2013).
+ 1940 - J. M. G. Le Clézio, franskur rithöfundur og Nóbelsverðlaunahafi.
+ 1944 - Geirmundur ValtĂœsson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1945 - RĂșnar JĂșlĂusson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistamaĂ°ur (d. 2008).
+ 1950 - Ron Perlman, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1959 - Hermann JĂłn TĂłmasson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1960 - Rudi Völler, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1961 - Ăröstur LeĂł Gunnarsson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1962 - Edivaldo Martins Fonseca, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1963 - GarrĂ Kasparov, rĂșssneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og skĂĄkmeistari.
+ 1970 - Rick Schroder, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1974 - Ruben Ăstlund, sĂŠnskur leikstjĂłri.
+ 1984 - Atli Fannar Bjarkason, Ăslenskur blaĂ°amaĂ°ur og ritstjĂłri.
+ 1988 - Anderson LuĂs de Abreu Oliveira, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1991 - Tindra Frost, Ăslensk klĂĄmmyndaleikkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1275 - ElinĂłra af Englandi, dĂłttir JĂłhanns landlausa og kona Simon de Montfort (f. 1215).
+ 1605 - Boris GodĂșnov, RĂșssakeisari (f. 1551).
+ 1695 - Jean de la Fontaine, franskur rithöfundur (f. 1621).
+ 1865 - Amanz Gressly, svissneskur jarĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1814).
+ 1941 - Annie Jump Cannon, bandarĂskur stjörnufrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1863).
+ 1945 - ElĂsabet JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslenskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1869).
+ 1967 - FriĂ°ĂŸjĂłfur Thorsteinsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur, ĂŸjĂĄlfari og formaĂ°ur KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram (d. 1895).
+ 1972 - JĂłhannes Sveinsson Kjarval, Ăslenskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1885).
+ 1972 - Helgi JĂłnasson, Ăslenskur grasafrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1887).
+ 1983 - MercÚ Rodoreda, katalónskur rithöfundur (f. 1908).
+ 1999 - Willi Stoph, austurĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1914).
+ 2015 - GĂŒnter Grass, ĂŸĂœskur rithöfundur (f. 1927).
+ 2023 - Ărni Tryggvason, leikari
+
+AprĂl
+14. aprĂl er 104. dagur ĂĄrsins (105. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 261 dagur er eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 69 - Fyrsti bardaginn viĂ° Bedriacum: Vitellius sigraĂ°i heri Othos sem framdi sjĂĄlfsvĂg.
+ 193 - Septimius Severus var hylltur af mönnum sĂnum sem keisari RĂłmar.
+ 1028 - Hinrik 3. varĂ° keisari hins Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis.
+ 1191 - SelestĂnus 3. pĂĄfi tĂłk viĂ° eftir lĂĄt Klemens 3.
+ 1205 - Orrustan um AdrĂanĂłpel milli BĂșlgara og hers Latverska keisaradĂŠmisins Ă KonstantĂnĂłpel.
+ 1695 - HafĂs barst inn ĂĄ FaxaflĂła Ă fyrsta sinn sĂĂ°an 1615. Ăsinn barst suĂ°ur meĂ° Austurlandi og svo vestur meĂ° SuĂ°urlandi og fyrir Reykjanes.
+ 1790 - Ălafur StefĂĄnsson var skipaĂ°ur stiftamtmaĂ°ur, fyrstur Ăslendinga.
+ 1814 - NapĂłleon BĂłnaparte sagĂ°i af sĂ©r keisaratign eftir Ăłsigur Ă Sjötta bandalagsstrĂĂ°inu.
+ 1849 - Ungverjar hĂłfu uppreisn og lĂœstu yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ AusturrĂki.
+ 1912 - FarĂŸegaskipiĂ° RMS Titanic sigldi ĂĄ borgarĂsjaka rĂ©tt fyrir miĂ°nĂŠtti.
+ 1927 - fyrsti Volvo-bĂllinn var framleiddur Ă Gautaborg.
+ 1931 - ĂingrofsmĂĄliĂ°: AlĂŸingi var rofiĂ° og boĂ°aĂ° til nĂœrra ĂŸingkosninga. ĂingrofiĂ° var mjög umdeilt.
+ 1935 - Frakkar, Bretar og Ătalir gerĂ°u meĂ° sĂ©r StresasamkomulagiĂ°
+ 1962 - Handritastofnun Ăslands sem sĂĂ°ar fĂ©kk nafniĂ° Ărnastofnun var stofnuĂ° meĂ° sĂ©rstökum lögum ĂŸegar hillti undir lausn HandritamĂĄlsins.
+ 1963 - HrĂmfaxi, flugvĂ©l FlugfĂ©lags Ăslands, fĂłrst viĂ° OslĂł og fĂłrust tĂłlf manns, flest Ăslendingar.
+ 1975 - Söngleikurinn Chorus Line var frumsĂœndur ĂĄ ShakespearehĂĄtĂĂ° Ă New York-borg.
+ 1980 - Fyrsta hljĂłmplata Iron Maiden, Iron Maiden, kom Ășt Ă Bretlandi.
+ 1983 - ĂlafsvĂk fĂ©kk kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi.
+ 1984 - FriĂ°arpĂĄskar voru settir Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1985 - Alan GarcĂa var kjörinn forseti PerĂș.
+ 1986 - Allt aĂ° 1 kĂlĂła ĂŸung högl fĂ©llu Ă Bangladess meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 92 lĂ©tust.
+ 1986 - Fyrsti matsölustaĂ°ur HlöllabĂĄta var opnaĂ°ur Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1987 - Flugstöð Leifs EirĂkssonar ĂĄ KeflavĂkurflugvelli var vĂgĂ°.
+ 1989 - Game Boy kom fyrst ĂĄ markaĂ° Ă Japan.
+ 1990 - BandarĂski verĂ°brĂ©fasalinn Michael Milken jĂĄtaĂ°i sig sekan um fjĂĄrsvik.
+ 1991 - ĂjĂłfar stĂĄlu 20 verkum Ășr Van Gogh-safninu Ă Amsterdam. Myndirnar fundust innan viĂ° klukkutĂma sĂĂ°ar Ă yfirgefnum bĂl Ă nĂĄgrenninu.
+ 1992 - RĂĄĂ°hĂșs ReykjavĂkur var tekiĂ° Ă notkun. Bygging ĂŸess kostaĂ°i ĂĄ fjĂłrĂ°a milljarĂ° krĂłna.
+ 1997 - 343 fĂłrust Ă eldi Ă tjaldbĂșĂ°um pĂlagrĂma Ă nĂĄgrenni Mekka.
+ 1999 - KosĂłvĂłstrĂĂ°iĂ°: FlugvĂ©lar NATO rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ bĂlalest meĂ° albönskum flĂłttamönnum fyrir mistök og drĂĄpu 79 flĂłttamenn.
+ 2003 - Kortlagningu gengamengis mannsins Ă Human Genome Project lauk.
+ 2007 - 42 lĂ©tust Ă hryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄs Ă Karbala Ă Ărak.
+ 2008 - Bandalag hĂŠgriflokka undir forystu Silvio Berlusconi vann sigur Ă ĂŸingkosningum ĂĄ ĂtalĂu.
+ 2010 - Eldgos hófst à Eyjafjallajökli. Eldfjallaaskan sem dreifðist yfir Evrópu olli miklum truflunum å flugumferð à ålfunni.
+ 2013 - NicolĂĄs Maduro var kjörinn forseti VenesĂșela.
+ 2014 - 276 stĂșlkum var rĂŠnt Ășr skĂłla Ă Chibok Ă NĂgerĂu.
+ 2014 - 75 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar bĂlsprengja sprakk Ă höfuĂ°borg NĂgerĂu, Abuja.
+ 2018 - Borgarastyrjöldin Ă SĂœrlandi: BandarĂkin, Bretland og Frakkland fyrirskipuĂ°u loftĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ herstöðvar SĂœrlandshers vegna sarĂngasĂĄrĂĄsanna.
+ 2020 â Donald Trump lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir aĂ° BandarĂkin myndu stöðva fjĂĄrframlög til AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigĂ°isstofnunarinnar.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1527 - Abraham Ortelius, flĂŠmskur kortagerĂ°armaĂ°ur og landfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1598).
+ 1578 - Filippus 3. SpĂĄnarkonungur (d. 1621).
+ 1629 - Christiaan Huygens, hollenskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1695).
+ 1738 - William Cavendish-Bentinck, hertogi af Portland, breskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1809).
+ 1862 - Pjotr Stolypin, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra RĂșsslands (d. 1911).
+ 1882 - Moritz Schlick, ĂŸĂœskur heimspekingur (d. 1936).
+ 1889 - SigrĂĂ°ur ZoĂ«ga, Ăslenskur ljĂłsmyndari (d. 1968).
+ 1906 - Faisal bin Abdul Aziz al-SĂĄd, konungur SĂĄdi-ArabĂu (d. 1975).
+ 1920 - Ălöf PĂĄlsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur myndhöggvari (d. 2018).
+ 1921 - Thomas Schelling, bandarĂskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 2016).
+ 1907 - François Duvalier (Papa Doc), forseti HaĂtĂs (d. 1971).
+ 1912 - Arne Brustad, norskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 1987).
+ 1924 - Mary Warnock, breskur heimspekingur (d. 2019).
+ 1931 - Haraldur Bessason, Ăslenskur frĂŠĂ°imaĂ°ur og hĂĄskĂłlakennari (d. 2009).
+ 1934 - Fredric Jameson, bandarĂskur bĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1950 - Mitsuru Komaeda, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1957 - Haruhisa Hasegawa, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1957 - Masaru Uchiyama, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1960 - Brad Garrett, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1961 - Robert Carlyle, skoskur leikari.
+ 1961 - Yuji Sugano, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1961 - Daniel Clowes, bandarĂskur myndasöguhöfundur.
+ 1968 - Heimir Eyvindarson, Ăslenskur hljĂłmborĂ°sleikari.
+ 1969 - GuĂ°finna JĂłhanna GuĂ°mundsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1970 - Emre AltuÄ, tyrkneskur söngvari.
+ 1973 - Adrien Brody, bandariskur leikari.
+ 1977 - Sarah Michelle Gellar, bandarisk leikkona.
+ 1983 - James McFadden, skoskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1996 - Abigail Breslin, bandarisk leikkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 911 - SergĂus 3. pĂĄfi.
+ 1578 - KristĂn GottskĂĄlksdĂłttir, Ăslensk hĂșsfreyja.
+ 1620 - GĂsli GuĂ°brandsson, Ăslenskur skĂłlameistari.
+ 1647 - VigfĂșs GĂslason, Ăslenskur skĂłlameistari (f. 1608).
+ 1711 - LoĂ°vĂk, le Grand Dauphin, sonur LoĂ°vĂks 14. Frakkakonungs (f. 1661).
+ 1759 - Georg Friedrich HĂ€ndel, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1685).
+ 1872 - Ălafur Stephensen, Ăslenskur lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1791).
+ 1963 - Anna Borg, Ăslensk leikkona (f. 1903).
+ 1964 - Rachel Carson, bandarĂskur dĂœrafrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1907).
+ 1986 - Simone de Beauvoir, franskur rithöfundur (f. 1908).
+ 1998 - Björn Sv. Björnsson, Ăslenskur SS-maĂ°ur (f. 1909).
+ 2004 - Haraldur Blöndal, hÊstaréttarlögmaður (f. 1946).
+ 2015 - Percy Sledge, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1940).
+
+AprĂl
+15. aprĂl er 105. dagur ĂĄrsins (106. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 260 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1448 - Marcellus de Niveriis var skipaĂ°ur SkĂĄlholtsbiskup. Hann kom ĂŸĂł aldrei til landsins.
+ 1638 - SĂĂ°ustu leifar Shimabarauppreisnarinnar Ă Japan voru sigraĂ°ar af her sjĂłgunsins.
+ 1654 - Westminster-sĂĄttmĂĄlinn sem batt enda ĂĄ Fyrsta strĂĂ° Englands og Hollands var undirritaĂ°ur.
+ 1683 - Kristjån 5., konungur Danmerkur, skrifaði undir Dönsku lögbókina.
+ 1687 - Norsku lög Kristjåns 5. voru lögtekin.
+ 1755 - Samuel Johnson gaf Ășt orĂ°abĂłk sĂna, sem hann hafĂ°i unniĂ° aĂ° Ă nĂu ĂĄr.
+ 1785 - SkĂĄlholtsskĂłli var lagĂ°ur niĂ°ur og biskupsstĂłll fluttur til ReykjavĂkur samkvĂŠmt ĂșrskurĂ°i konungs.
+ 1803 - ReykjavĂk varĂ° sĂ©rstakt lögsagnarumdĂŠmi. Fyrsti bĂŠjarfĂłgetinn var Rasmus Frydensberg.
+ 1892 - FyrirtĂŠkiĂ° General Electric var stofnaĂ° Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1912 - FarĂŸegaskipiĂ° Titanic sökk Ă fyrstu ferĂ° sinni frĂĄ Englandi til BandarĂkjanna eftir ĂĄrekstur viĂ° Ăsjaka suĂ°austur af NĂœfundnalandi.
+ 1955 - Fyrsti McDonalds-veitingastaĂ°urinn opnaĂ°i Ă Des Plaines Ă Illinois, BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1960 - Heildverslunin Ăslensk AmerĂska var stofnuĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1967 - Um 250 ĂŸĂșsund BandarĂkjamenn mĂłtmĂŠltu VĂetnamstrĂĂ°inu Ă New York Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1977 - JĂłn L. Ărnason varĂ° Ăslandsmeistari Ă skĂĄk aĂ°eins sextĂĄn ĂĄra gamall.
+ 1979 - Sterkur jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti upp ĂĄ 7.0 stig ĂĄ Richter lagĂ°i borgina Budva Ă Svartfjallalandi Ă rĂșst.
+ 1981 - Fyrsta Coca Cola-verksmiĂ°jan Ă KĂna hĂłf starfsemi.
+ 1983 - Disneyland Ă TĂłkĂœĂł var opnaĂ°.
+ 1984 - Dagur ĂŠskunnar var haldinn hĂĄtĂĂ°legur Ă fyrsta sinn Ă RĂłm ĂĄ ĂtalĂu.
+ 1985 - Banni viĂ° giftingum fĂłlks af ĂłlĂkum kynĂŸĂŠtti var aflĂ©tt Ă SuĂ°ur-AfrĂku.
+ 1986 - BandarĂskar flugvĂ©lar vörpuĂ°u sprengjum ĂĄ lĂbĂœsku borgirnar TrĂpĂłlĂ og Benghazi vegna stuĂ°nings LĂbĂœustjĂłrnar viĂ° hryĂ°juverk.
+ 1989 - Hillsborough-slysið: 96 stuðningsmenn Liverpool F.C. létust à troðningi å leik liðsins við Nottingham Forest F.C.
+ 1990 - MikiĂ° hĂŠttuĂĄstand skapaĂ°ist ĂŸegar eldur kom upp Ă ammonĂakstanki ĂburĂ°arverksmiĂ°junnar Ă Gufunesi. Eldurinn var fljĂłtlega slökktur.
+ 1991 - EvrĂłpubandalagiĂ° aflĂ©tti viĂ°skiptabanni sĂnu ĂĄ SuĂ°ur-AfrĂku.
+ 1994 - Umbjóðendur 124 rĂkja auk ESB-rĂkjanna skrifuĂ°u undir Marrakesssamninginn sem kvaĂ° ĂĄ um grundvallarbreytingar ĂĄ GATT-samningnum og stofnun AlĂŸjóðaviĂ°skiptastofnuninnar.
+ 1999 - Forsetakosningar fĂłru fram Ă AlsĂr og Abdelaziz Bouteflika var kjörinn forseti.
+ 2000 - âLeyniskĂĄpurinnâ meĂ° erĂłtĂskum minjum frĂĄ Pompeii og Herculaneum var opnaĂ°ur Ă Minjasafni NapĂłlĂ eftir aldalanga lokun.
+ 2002 - Vefurinn FĂłtbolti.net var stofnaĂ°ur ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 2002 - 129 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Air China flug 129 hrapaĂ°i Ă SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu.
+ 2005 - SĂĂ°asti bĂlaframleiĂ°andinn Ă breskri eigu, MG Rover, varĂ° gjaldĂŸrota.
+ 2006 - BosnĂsk-bandarĂski rithöfundurinn Semir OsmanagiÄ hĂ©lt ĂŸvĂ fram aĂ° hann hefĂ°i uppgötvaĂ° 14.000 ĂĄra gamla pĂramĂda Ă BosnĂu.
+ 2006 - Borgarastyrjöldinni Ă BĂșrĂșndĂ lauk.
+ 2008 - 65 lĂ©tust Ă hryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄsum Ă Baquba og Ramadi Ă Ărak.
+ 2009 - ĂeirĂ°alögregla rĂ©Ă°ist inn Ă hĂșs sem hĂșstökufĂłlk hafĂ°i lagt undir sig viĂ° VatnsstĂg Ă ReykjavĂk og handtĂłk 22.
+ 2010 - Kraftlyftingasamband Ăslands var stofnaĂ°.
+ 2013 - TvĂŠr sprengjur sprungu Ă BostonmaraĂŸoninu meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 3 lĂ©tust og 264 sĂŠrĂ°ust.
+ 2015 - Nokia eignaĂ°ist franska sĂmtĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Alcatel-Lucent.
+ 2017 - Yfir 120 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar ĂĄrĂĄs var gerĂ° ĂĄ bĂlalest meĂ° flĂłttafĂłlk viĂ° AleppĂł Ă SĂœrlandi.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1452 - Leonardo da Vinci, Ătalskur listamaĂ°ur og uppfinningamaĂ°ur (d. 1519).
+ 1469 - Nanak, sĂkagĂșrĂș (d. 1539).
+ 1642 - SĂșleiman 2. TyrkjasoldĂĄn (d. 1691).
+ 1646 - KristjĂĄn 5. Danakonungur (d. 1699).
+ 1684 - KatrĂn 1. keisaraynja RĂșsslands (d. 1727).
+ 1692 - HalldĂłr BrynjĂłlfsson, HĂłlabiskup (d. 1752).
+ 1707 - Leonhard Euler, svissneskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1783).
+ 1768 - TĂłmas Klog, Ăslenskur lĂŠknir (d. 1824).
+ 1797 - Adolphe Thiers, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1877).
+ 1810 - Brynjólfur Pétursson, lögfrÊðingur og einn Fjölnismanna (d. 1851).
+ 1817 - Benjamin Jowett, enskur fornfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1893).
+ 1858 - Ămile Durkheim, franskur fĂ©lagsfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1917).
+ 1867 - Bjarni SĂŠmundsson, Ăslenskur nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1940).
+ 1877 - W.D. Ross, skoskur heimspekingur (d. 1971).
+ 1899 - LĂĄra miĂ°ill (d. 1971).
+ 1901 - Ăskar GĂslason, Ăslenskur kvikmyndagerĂ°armaĂ°ur (d. 1990).
+ 1910 - Miguel Najdorf, pĂłlskur skĂĄkmaĂ°ur (d. 1997).
+ 1912 - Kim Il-sung, leiĂ°togi NorĂ°ur-KĂłreu (d. 1994).
+ 1920 - Richard von WeizsĂ€cker, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 2015).
+ 1930 - VigdĂs FinnbogadĂłttir, 4. forseti Ăslands.
+ 1931 - Tomas Tranströmer, sÊnskt skåld (d. 2015).
+ 1944 - Kunishige Kamamoto, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1951 - Choei Sato, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1960 - Filippus BelgĂukonungur.
+ 1961 - Carol W. Greider, bandarĂskur sameindalĂffrĂŠĂ°ingur og nĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi.
+ 1963 - KristĂn GuĂ°rĂșn GunnlaugsdĂłttir, Ăslensk myndlistarkona.
+ 1964 - Ari MatthĂasson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1965 - SkĂșli Helgason, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1976 - Seigo Narazaki, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1982 - Seth Rogen, kanadĂskur leikari.
+ 1983 - Merik Tadros, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1983 - Dudu Cearense, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1990 - Emma Watson, ensk leikkona.
+ 1992 - Amy Diamond, sÊnsk söngkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 69 - Otho, keisari RĂłmar framdi sjĂĄlfsvĂg.
+ 1558 - Roxelana, eiginkona SĂșleimans mikla (f. Ă kringum 1502â04).
+ 1641 - Domenico Zampieri, Ătalskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1581).
+ 1761 - Archibald Campbell, 3. hertogi af Argyll, skoskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1682).
+ 1764 - Madame de Pompadour, frönsk aðalskona (f. 1721).
+ 1835 - CristĂłbal Bencomo y RodrĂguez, spĂŠnskur prestur (f. 1758).
+ 1865 - Abraham Lincoln, BandarĂkjaforseti (f. 1809).
+ 1866 - MagnĂșs Stephensen, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaĂ°ur (f. 1797).
+ 1916 - JĂłnas GuĂ°laugsson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1887).
+ 1925 - Fritz Haarmann, ĂŸĂœskur raĂ°morĂ°ingi (f. 1879).
+ 1942 - Robert Musil, austurrĂskur rithöfundur (f. 1880).
+ 1953 - Knud Zimsen, borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur (f. 1875).
+ 1972 - Frank H. Knight, bandarĂskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1885).
+ 1980 - Jean-Paul Sartre, heimspekingur, rithöfundur og nóbelsverðlaunahafi 1964 (f. 1905).
+ 1990 - Greta Garbo, sĂŠnsk leikkona (f. 1905).
+ 1994 - KristjĂĄn frĂĄ DjĂșpalĂŠk, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1916).
+ 1997 - Aatami Kuortti, ingermanlenskur prestur (f. 1903).
+ 1998 - Pol Pot, leiĂ°togi rauĂ°u khmeranna Ă KambĂłdĂu (f. 1925).
+ 2001 - Jörundur Ăorsteinsson, knattspyrnudĂłmari og formaĂ°ur KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram (f. 1924).
+ 2010 - Jack Herer, bandarĂskur aĂ°gerĂ°asinni (f. 1939).
+ 2011 - IngĂłlfur Margeirsson, Ăslenskur blaĂ°amaĂ°ur og rithöfundur (f. 1948).
+ 2015 - Tadahiko Ueda, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1947).
+ 2018 - R. Lee Ermey, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1944).
+
+AprĂl
+16. aprĂl er 106. dagur ĂĄrsins (107. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 259 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 69 - Vitellius varĂ° keisari RĂłmar eftir lĂĄt Othos.
+ 556 - PelagĂus 1. varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1055 - Viktor 2. varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1071 - Robert Guiscard lagĂ°i BarĂ undir sig sem var sĂĂ°asta borgin ĂĄ SuĂ°ur-ĂtalĂu undir yfirrĂĄĂ°um AustrĂłmverska rĂkisins.
+ 1203 - Filippus 2. Frakkakonungur reiĂ° inn Ă RĂșĂ°uborg sem varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° NormandĂ sameinaĂ°ist Frakklandi.
+ 1594 - Ferdinando Stanley, jarl af Derby, dĂł skyndilega, lĂklega drepinn meĂ° eitri. Hann var ĂŸĂĄ annar Ă erfĂ°aröðinni (nĂŠstur ĂĄ eftir móður sinni) aĂ° bresku krĂșnunni samkvĂŠmt ĂŸvĂ sem Hinrik 8. hafĂ°i mĂŠlt fyrir Ă erfĂ°askrĂĄ sinni,
+ 1899 - Franska spĂtalaskipiĂ° St. Paul strandar viĂ° MeĂ°alland.
+ 1915 - Gullfoss, fyrsta skip EimskipafĂ©lags Ăslands og jafnframt fyrsta vĂ©lknĂșna millilandaskipiĂ° sem smĂĂ°aĂ° var fyrir Ăslendinga, kom til ReykjavĂkur.
+ 1919 - Mahatma (Mohandas) Gandhi skipulagði dag föstu og bÊna til að mótmÊla fjöldamorðum Breta å indverskum mótmÊlendum à Amritsar.
+ 1946 - SĂœrland hlaut sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i.
+ 1947 - Geysileg sprenging varĂ° Ă ammonĂumnĂtratfarmi skips sem lĂĄ viĂ° bryggju Ă Texas City Ă Texas. 552 fĂłrust og um 3000 manns slösuĂ°ust.
+ 1954 - AA-samtökin ĂĄ Ăslandi voru stofnuĂ°. Ăau starfa Ă deildum um allt land.
+ 1957 - BĂŠjarrĂĄĂ° ReykjavĂkur samĂŸykkti aĂ° friĂ°a ĂrbĂŠ og nĂŠsta nĂĄgrenni hans og gera aĂ° almenningsgarĂ°i.
+ 1970 - Ănnur umferĂ° SALT-viĂ°rĂŠĂ°nanna hĂłfst.
+ 1972 - Tunglfarinu Appollo 16 var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft.
+ 1975 - Hosni Mubarak var skipaĂ°ur varaforseti Egyptalands.
+ 1988 - Japanska teiknimyndin NĂĄgranninn minn Totoro var frumsĂœnd.
+ 1988 - Ătalski ĂŸingmaĂ°urinn Roberto Ruffilli var myrtur af RauĂ°u herdeildunum.
+ 1992 - OlĂuflutningaskipiĂ° Katina P sigldi Ă strand skammt frĂĄ MapĂștĂł Ă MĂłsambĂk meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° sextĂu ĂŸĂșsund lĂtrar af olĂu fĂłru Ă sjĂłinn.
+ 1992 - Uppreisnarmenn steyptu forseta Afganistan, Mohammad Najibullah, af stóli og tóku hann höndum sem leiddi til borgarastyrjaldar.
+ 1993 - Srebrenica Ă BosnĂu var lĂœst âöryggissvĂŠĂ°i SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðannaâ.
+ 1993 - AhmiÄi-blóðbaĂ°iĂ° ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ° ĂŸegar yfir hundraĂ° BosnĂumĂșslima voru myrtir af BosnĂukróötum Ă LaĆĄva-dal.
+ 1994 - SteingrĂmur Hermannsson og EirĂkur GuĂ°nason voru skipaĂ°ir seĂ°labankastjĂłrar.
+ 1994 - Finnar samĂŸykktu aĂ°ild aĂ° EvrĂłpusambandinu Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu.
+ 2000 - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn hnattvĂŠĂ°ingu fĂłru fram Ă Washington D.C.
+ 2003 - AĂ°ildarsĂĄttmĂĄlinn 2003 um aĂ°ild 10 nĂœrra EvrĂłpusambandsrĂkja var undirritaĂ°ur af 25 rĂkjum.
+ 2007 - Virginia Tech-fjöldamorĂ°in: Nemandinn Seung-Hui Cho viĂ° TĂŠknihĂĄskĂłlann Ă VirginĂu Ă BandarĂkjunum myrti 32, sĂŠrĂ°i 29 og framdi sĂĂ°an sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°.
+ 2011 - Ărleg rĂĄĂ°stefna BRICS-landanna fĂłr fram Ă Sanya Ă KĂna. SuĂ°ur-AfrĂka tĂłk ĂŸĂĄtt Ă fyrsta sinn.
+ 2012 - RĂ©ttarhöld yfir Anders Behring Breivik hĂłfust Ă ĂslĂł.
+ 2014 - 304 manns lĂ©tust ĂŸegar ferjunni Sewol hvolfdi Ă SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu.
+ 2016 - 40 fĂłrust ĂŸegar jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir Kumamoto-hĂ©raĂ° Ă Japan.
+ 2017 - Tyrkir samĂŸykktu umdeildar breytingar ĂĄ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ Tyrklands Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1319 - JĂłhann 2. Frakkakonungur (d. 1364).
+ 1646 - Jules Hardouin Mansart, franskur arkitekt (d. 1708).
+ 1661 - Charles Montagu, enskt skĂĄld (d. 1715).
+ 1825 - Jacob BrĂžnnum Scavenius Estrup, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Danmerkur (d. 1913).
+ 1844 - Anatole France, franskur rithöfundur (d. 1924).
+ 1863 - Ămile Friant, franskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 1932).
+ 1867 - Wilbur Wright, flugmaĂ°ur (d. 1912).
+ 1887 - GuĂ°jĂłn SamĂșelsson, hĂșsameistari (d. 1950).
+ 1889 - Charlie Chaplin, enskur leikari (d. 1977).
+ 1920 - SigurĂ°ur GuĂ°mundsson, vĂgslubiskup (d. 2010).
+ 1921 - Peter Ustinov, breskur leikari (d. 2004).
+ 1922 - Kingsley Amis, enskur rithöfundur (d. 1995).
+ 1924 - Enrico Nicola (Henry) Mancini, tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1994).
+ 1927 - Benedikt 16. pĂĄfi (d. 2022).
+ 1940 - MargrĂ©t ĂĂłrhildur, Danadrottning.
+ 1947 - SigurrĂłs ĂorgrĂmsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1951 - Björgvin HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur söngvari.
+ 1951 - Ari Kristinsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri.
+ 1952 - Yoshikazu Nagai, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1955 - Hinrik af LĂșxemborg.
+ 1958 - ElĂsabet JökulsdĂłttir, Ăslenskt skĂĄld.
+ 1960 - Pierre Littbarski, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1962 - Antony Blinken, bandarĂskur erindreki.
+ 1969 - Michael Baur, austurrĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1970 - Anna KolbrĂșn ĂrnadĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1977 - Alek Wek, sĂșdönsk fyrirsĂŠta.
+ 1977 - Fredrik Ljungberg, sĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1985 - Sam Tillen, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1986 - Epke Zonderland, hollenskur frjĂĄlsĂĂŸrĂłttamaĂ°ur.
+ 1986 - Shinji Okazaki, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1987 - Aaron Lennon, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1996 - Kento Misao, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 69 - Otho RĂłmarkeisari (f. 32).
+ 1115 - MagnĂșs eyjajarl (f. 1075).
+ 1331 - LĂĄrentĂus KĂĄlfsson HĂłlabiskup (f. 1267).
+ 1496 - Karl 2., hertogi af Savoja (f. 1489).
+ 1689 - Ăorsteinn Geirsson, Ăslenskur kennari (f. 1638).
+ 1828 - Francisco Goya, spĂŠnskur listamaĂ°ur (f. 1746).
+ 1850 - Marie Tussaud, frönsk vaxmyndagerðarkona (f. 1761).
+ 1930 - Ălafur HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1855).
+ 1947 - Rudolf Höss, ĂŸĂœskur fangabĂșĂ°astjĂłri (f. 1900).
+ 1958 - Rosalind Franklin, breskur efnafrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1920).
+ 1964 - Sigvaldi Thordarson, Ăslenskur arkitekt (f. 1911).
+ 1970 - Richard Thors, Ăslenskur athafnamaĂ°ur (f. 1888).
+ 1972 - Yasunari Kawabata, japanskur rithöfundur og Nóbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1899).
+ 1989 - BrynjĂłlfur Bjarnason, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1898).
+ 1991 - David Lean, breskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (f. 1908).
+ 1991 - Sergio Peresson, Ătalskur fiĂ°lusmiĂ°ur (f. 1913).
+ 1997 - Roland Topor, franskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1938).
+ 2000 - NĂna Björk ĂrnadĂłttir, Ăslenskt skĂĄld og rithöfundur (f. 1941).
+ 2003 - Isao Iwabuchi, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1933).
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+AprĂl
+17. aprĂl er 107. dagur ĂĄrsins (108. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 258 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 69 - Vitellius tĂłk viĂ° sem keisari Ă RĂłm.
+ 1498 - LoĂ°vĂk 12. varĂ° konungur Frakklands.
+ 1555 - Borgin Siena ĂĄ ĂtalĂu gafst upp eftir ĂĄtjĂĄn mĂĄnaĂ°a umsĂĄtur herliĂ°s FlĂłrens og keisarans.
+ 1711 - Karl 6. varĂ° keisari hins Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis.
+ 1797 - Bretar reyndu aĂ° hertaka PĂșertĂł RĂkĂł en fĂłru halloka gegn SpĂĄnverjum.
+ 1895 - HvĂtabandiĂ° var stofnaĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1910 - Ungmennasamband SkagafjarĂ°ar var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1913 - JĂĄrnbraut ĂĄ milli ĂskjuhlĂĂ°ar og ReykjavĂkurhafnar var tekin Ă notkun. HĂșn var notuĂ° til grjĂłtflutninga.
+ 1913 - ĂlgerĂ°in Egill SkallagrĂmsson tĂłk til starfa.
+ 1937 - Daffy Duck kom fyrst fram Ă mynd frĂĄ Warner Bros.
+ 1939 - ĂjóðstjĂłrnin, samsteypustjĂłrn FramsĂłknarflokks, SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokks og AlĂŸĂœĂ°uflokks undir forsĂŠti Hermanns JĂłnassonar, tĂłk viĂ° völdum. HĂșn sat Ă 3 ĂĄr.
+ 1941 - RĂkisstjĂłrn JĂșgĂłslavĂu gafst upp fyrir innrĂĄs Ăxulveldanna.
+ 1961 - AFRTS Keflavik fĂ©kk leyfi menntamĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra til aĂ° auka Ăștsendingarstyrk sjĂłnvarpsĂștsendinga stöðvarinnar.
+ 1961 - InnrĂĄsin Ă SvĂnaflĂła: VopnaĂ°ur hĂłpur ĂștlĂŠgra KĂșbverja gerĂ°i misheppnaĂ°a innrĂĄs Ă KĂșbu meĂ° fulltingi bandarĂsku leyniĂŸjĂłnustunnar CIA.
+ 1964 - BandarĂski bĂlaframleiĂ°andinn Ford setti Ford Mustang ĂĄ markaĂ°.
+ 1970 - AppollóåÊtlunin: Appollo 13 lenti heilu og höldnu à Kyrrahafi.
+ 1971 - Sheikh Mujibur Rahman stofnaĂ°i AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldiĂ° Bangladess en tveimur dögum sĂĂ°ar flĂșĂ°i stjĂłrnin til Indlands.
+ 1973 - SĂ©rsveitin GSG 9 var stofnuĂ° Ă ĂĂœskalandi til aĂ° takast ĂĄ viĂ° hryĂ°juverk.
+ 1975 - RauĂ°u kmerarnir nĂĄĂ°u höfuĂ°borg KambĂłdĂu, Phnom Penh, ĂĄ sitt vald.
+ 1979 - Fjöldi skĂłlabarna Ă MiĂ°-AfrĂkulĂœĂ°veldinu var handtekinn og mörg drepin eftir mĂłtmĂŠli gegn skĂłlabĂșningum.
+ 1982 - Kanada fĂ©kk fullt sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ Bretlandi meĂ° nĂœrri stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ.
+ 1991 - Dow Jones-vĂsitalan nĂĄĂ°i 3000 stigum Ă fyrsta sinn.
+ 1994 - GerĂ°arsafn, listasafn KĂłpavogs, var opnaĂ°.
+ 1999 - Naglasprengja sem hÊgriöfgamaðurinn David Copeland kom fyrir sprakk å markaði à Brixton.
+ 2002 - Al-KaĂda lĂœsti ĂĄbyrgĂ° ĂĄ hryĂ°juverkunum 11. september 2001 ĂĄ hendur sĂ©r.
+ 2003 - Anneli JÀÀtteenmÀki varð fyrsti kvenforsÊtisråðherra Finnlands.
+ 2004 - LeiĂ°togi Hamas, Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi, var drepinn Ă ĂŸyrluĂĄrĂĄs Ăsraelshers ĂĄ Gasaströndinni.
+ 2009 - FjĂłrir sakborningar Ă Pirate Bay-mĂĄlinu Ă SvĂĂŸjóð voru dĂŠmdir Ă ĂĄrs fangelsi og til aĂ° greiĂ°a 30 milljĂłnir sĂŠnskra krĂłna Ă bĂŠtur.
+ 2010 - ĂorgerĂ°ur KatrĂn GunnarsdĂłttir, varaformaĂ°ur SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokksins, sagĂ°i af sĂ©r og tĂłk sĂ©r hlĂ© frĂĄ ĂŸingstörfum. ĂĂ°ur höfĂ°u Björgvin G. SigurĂ°sson, Samfylkingu, og Illugi Gunnarsson, SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokki, einnig tekiĂ° sĂ©r hlĂ© frĂĄ ĂŸingstörfum vegna upplĂœsinga sem fram komu Ă skĂœrslu rannsĂłknarnefndar AlĂŸingis.
+ 2015 - ĂkraĂna ĂłskaĂ°i eftir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° AlĂŸjóðadĂłmstĂłllinn Ă Haag fjallaĂ°i um strĂĂ°sglĂŠpi aĂ°skilnaĂ°arsinna ĂĄ KrĂmskaga.
+ 2016 - Yfir 200 fórust à öflugum jarðskjålfta à Ekvador.
+ 2021 - AndlĂĄt vegna COVID-19 nĂĄĂ°u 3 milljĂłnum ĂĄ heimsvĂsu.
+ 2021 - ĂtjĂĄn rĂșssneskir sendifulltrĂșar og leyniĂŸjĂłnustumenn voru reknir frĂĄ TĂ©kklandi eftir yfirlĂœsingu um aĂ° ĂŸeir bĂŠru ĂĄbyrgĂ° ĂĄ sprengingum Ă skotfĂŠrageymslum Ă VrbÄtice ĂĄriĂ° 2014.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1497 - Pedro de Valdivia, spĂŠnskur landvinningamaĂ°ur (d. 1553).
+ 1573 - MaximilĂan 1., kjörfursti af BĂŠjaralandi (d. 1651).
+ 1734 - Taksin, Konungur ThaĂlands (d. 1782).
+ 1799 - Eliza Acton, enskt ljóðskåld og brautryðjandi à matreiðslubókaskrifum (d. 1859).
+ 1837 - J. P. Morgan, bandarĂskur fjĂĄrfestir (d. 1913).
+ 1885 - Karen Blixen, danskur rithöfundur (d. 1962).
+ 1894 - NĂkĂta KhrĂșstsjov, aĂ°alritari sovĂ©ska kommĂșnistaflokksins (d. 1971).
+ 1897 - Thornton Wilder, bandarĂskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1975).
+ 1916 - Sirimavo Bandaranaike, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra SrĂ Lanka (d. 2000).
+ 1928 - Cynthia Ozick, bandarĂskur rithöfundur.
+ 1941 - JĂłn SigurĂ°sson, fyrrum rĂĄĂ°herra og bankastjĂłri NorrĂŠna fjĂĄrfestingabankans.
+ 1948 - Jan Hammer, tékkneskt tónskåld.
+ 1948 - John N. Gray, breskur heimspekingur.
+ 1952 - Joe Alaskey, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2016).
+ 1957 - Nick Hornby, breskur rithöfundur.
+ 1959 - Sean Bean, breskur leikari.
+ 1961 - EyjĂłlfur KristjĂĄnsson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1963 - Joel Murray, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1964 - Maynard James Keenan, bandarĂskur söngvari (Tool og A Perfect Circle).
+ 1967 - Birgitta JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslenskt skĂĄld og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1974 - Victoria Beckham, fyrrum meĂ°limur Spice Girls.
+ 1978 - Jordan Hill, bandarĂsk söngkona.
+ 1985 - Takuya Honda, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1992 - Shkodran Mustafi, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1993 - RĂșnar Freyr ĂĂłrhallsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1996 - Dee Dee Davis, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 485 - PrĂłklos, grĂskur heimspekingur (f. 412).
+ 858 - Benedikt 3. pĂĄfi.
+ 1298 - Ărni ĂorlĂĄksson SkĂĄlholtsbiskup (f. 1237).
+ 1427 - JĂłhann 4., hertogi af Brabant (f. 1403).
+ 1761 - Thomas Bayes, breskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. um 1702).
+ 1790 - Benjamin Franklin, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1706).
+ 1902 - Valdimar Ăsmundsson, Ăslenskur ritstjĂłri (f. 1852).
+1966 - JĂșlĂana SveinsdĂłttir, Ăslensk myndlistakona (f. 1889)
+ 1979 - Yukio Tsuda, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1917).
+ 1985 - Lon Nol, kambĂłdĂskur hershöfĂ°ingi (f. 1913).
+ 1996 - Piet Hein, danskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur og skĂĄld (f. 1905).
+ 2003 - Koji Kondo, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1972).
+ 2014 - Gabriel GarcĂa MĂĄrquez, kĂłlumbĂskur rithöfundur, blaĂ°amaĂ°ur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (f. 1927).
+ 2019 - Alan GarcĂa, fyrrum forseti PerĂș (f. 1949).
+
+AprĂl
+18. aprĂl er 108. dagur ĂĄrsins (109. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 257 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 309 - EvsebĂus varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 1244 - KÊgil-Björn Dufgusson var drepinn af mönnum Kolbeins unga à Króksfirði.
+ 1355 - Marino Faliero, hertogi à Feneyjum, var hålshöggvinn fyrir samsÊri gegn Minnaråðinu.
+ 1378 - Bartolomeo Prignano varĂ° Ărbanus 6. pĂĄfi.
+ 1518 - Bona Sforza var krĂœnd drottning PĂłllands og giftist Sigmundi 1.
+ 1864 - Orrustunni viĂ° DybbĂžl lauk meĂ° stĂłrsĂłkn PrĂșssa.
+ 1872 - MikiĂ° tjĂłn varĂ° ĂĄ HĂșsavĂk vegna jarĂ°skjĂĄlfta og varĂ° ĂĄ annaĂ° hundraĂ° manns hĂșsnĂŠĂ°islaust.
+ 1880 - Ăingkosningar Ă Bretlandi: FrjĂĄlslyndi flokkurinn vann sigur og William Ewart Gladstone varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra öðru sinni.
+ 1903 - HĂșsiĂ° Glasgow Ă ReykjavĂk, sem var stĂŠrsta hĂșs ĂĄ Ăslandi, brann til kaldra kola. Mannbjörg varĂ°.
+ 1906 - Mikill jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti olli gĂfurlegum skemmdum Ă San Francisco Ă BandarĂkjunum. Eldar kviknuĂ°u Ă kjölfariĂ° og juku mjög ĂĄ skemmdirnar. Fjöldi fĂłlks fĂłrst.
+ 1944 - Hermann JĂłnasson tĂłk viĂ° af JĂłnasi JĂłnssyni frĂĄ Hriflu sem formaĂ°ur FramsĂłknarflokksins.
+ 1949 - Ărska lĂœĂ°veldiĂ° var stofnaĂ° og Ărar sögĂ°u sig um leiĂ° Ășr Breska samveldinu.
+ 1954 - Gamal Abdel Nasser komst til valda Ă Egyptalandi.
+ 1955 - Bandung-rĂĄĂ°stefnan hĂłfst Ă IndĂłnesĂu.
+ 1971 - MagnĂșs Torfi Ălafsson bar sigur Ășr bĂœtum Ă spurningakeppni Ăștvarpsins, Veistu svariĂ°? Ăremur mĂĄnuĂ°um sĂĂ°ar var hann orĂ°inn menntamĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra.
+ 1978 - Pol Pot fyrirskipaĂ°i innrĂĄs Ă VĂetnam.
+ 1980 - RĂłdesĂa fĂ©kk de jure sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ Bretlandi og breytti nafni sĂnu Ă Simbabve.
+ 1983 - SjĂłnvarpsstöðin Disney Channel var stofnuĂ° Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1983 - 63 lĂ©tust Ă sprengjuĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ BandarĂska sendirĂĄĂ°iĂ° Ă BeirĂșt.
+ 1995 - Rox var fyrsta sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin sem dreift var ĂĄ netinu.
+ 1996 - Qana-fjöldamorĂ°in Ă LĂbanon: Ă ĂŸaĂ° minnsta 106 lĂbanskir borgarar lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ° er Ăsraelski herinn beitti sprengjum gegn byrgi SĂ nĂĄlĂŠgt Qana.
+ 1996 - 163 lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ° Ă eldsvoĂ°a ĂĄ skemmtistaĂ°num Ozone Disco Ă Quezon-borg ĂĄ Filippseyjum.
+ 2005 - HugbĂșnaĂ°arrisinn Adobe Systems tilkynnti kaup sĂn ĂĄ Macromedia.
+ 2007 - Mikill bruni varð å horni AusturstrÊtis og LÊkjargötu.
+ 2007 - VatnstjĂłn varĂ° ĂŸegar allt aĂ° 80 °C heitt vatn rann niĂ°ur VitastĂg og ĂŸar Ășt Ă ĂĄtt aĂ° Snorrabraut um Laugaveg.
+ 2007 - NÊr 200 létust à röð åråsa à Bagdad.
+ 2014 - 16 nepalskir fjallaleiĂ°sögumenn fĂłrust ĂŸegar snjĂłflóð fĂ©ll Ă Everestfjalli nĂŠrri grunnbĂșĂ°um Everest.
+ 2015 - HĂłpar fĂłlks rĂ©Ă°ust gegn erlendu verkafĂłlki Ă JĂłhannesarborg Ă SuĂ°ur-AfrĂku.
+ 2016 - OlĂu- og gasvinnslusvĂŠĂ°iĂ° GolĂatsvĂŠĂ°iĂ° Ă Noregshafi var formlega tekiĂ° Ă notkun.
+ 2016 - SĂŠnski rĂĄĂ°herrann Mehmet Kaplan sagĂ°i af sĂ©r eftir aĂ° Ă ljĂłs kom aĂ° hann hafĂ°i haldiĂ° ramadan hĂĄtĂĂ°legan meĂ° hĂĄtt settum meĂ°limi tyrknesku nĂœfasistasamtakanna GrĂĄu Ășlfanna.
+ 2018 - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn breytingum ĂĄ almannatryggingalögum hĂłfust Ă NĂkaragva. TaliĂ° er aĂ° 34 hafa falliĂ° fyrir hendi lögreglu Ă mĂłtmĂŠlunum.
+ 2018 - KvikmyndahĂșs voru opnuĂ° Ă SĂĄdi-ArabĂu Ă fyrsta sinn frĂĄ 1983. Fyrsta myndin sem sĂœnd var var Svarti pardusinn.
+ 2018 - GeimferĂ°astofnun BandarĂkjanna skaut rannsĂłknargervihnettinum Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite ĂĄ loft.
+ 2021 - TĂłlf knattspyrnufĂ©lög Ășr efstu deildum EvrĂłpu samĂŸykktu ĂŸĂĄtttöku Ă evrĂłpskri ofurdeild. ĂkvörĂ°unin var vĂĂ°a fordĂŠmd og mörg ĂŸeirra drĂłgu stuĂ°ning sinn til baka nokkrum dögum sĂĂ°ar.
+ 2022 - Orrustan um Donbas hĂłfst Ă ĂkraĂnu.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1480 - Lucrezia Borgia, Ătölsk hertogaynja (d. 1519).
+ 1590 - AkmeĂ° 1. TyrkjasoldĂĄn (d. 1617).
+ 1605 - Giacomo Carissimi, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1674).
+ 1647 - Elias Brenner, finnskur listamaĂ°ur (d. 1717).
+ 1772 - David Ricardo, breskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1823).
+ 1854 - Louis Zöllner, danskur kaupmaður (d. 1945).
+ 1858 - Clarence Darrow, bandarĂskur lögfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1938).
+ 1862 - MagnĂșs KristjĂĄnsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1928).
+ 1902 - Giuseppe Pella, fyrrum forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra ĂtalĂu (d. 1981).
+ 1918 - Gabriel Axel, danskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (d. 2014).
+ 1920 - Ălafur HalldĂłrsson, ĂslenskufrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 2013).
+ 1926 - IndriĂ°i G. Ăorsteinsson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (d. 2000).
+ 1927 - Samuel P. Huntington, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlafrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1932 - Nic Broca, belgĂskur teiknari (d. 1993).
+ 1941 - Michael D. Higgins, forseti Ărlands.
+ 1944 - Robert Hanssen, bandarĂskur njĂłsnari.
+ 1947 - James Woods, bandariskur leikari.
+ 1959 - Ingibjörg JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1961 - Ălisabeth Borne, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Frakklands.
+ 1964 - Niall Ferguson, breskur sagnfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1971 - David Tennant, skoskur leikari.
+ 1972 - Eli Roth, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri.
+ 1972 - Lars Christiansen, danskur handknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 1976 - Melissa Joan Hart, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1979 - Kourtney Kardashian, bandarĂsk athafnakona.
+ 1984 - America Ferrera, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1990 - Wojciech SzczÄsny, pĂłlskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1244 - KÊgil-Björn Dufgusson, liðsmaður.Sturlunga.
+ 1756 - Jacques Cassini, franskur stjörnufrÊðingur (f. 1677).
+ 1873 - Justus von Liebig, ĂŸĂœskur efnafrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1803).
+ 1878 - Thomas Thomson, skoskur grasafrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1817).
+ 1922 - ĂĂłrunn JĂłnassen, kvenrĂ©ttindakona og bĂŠjarfulltrĂși Ă ReykjavĂk (f. 1850).
+ 1955 - Albert Einstein, austurrĂskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (f. 1879).
+ 1958 - Thora FriĂ°riksson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (f. 1866).
+ 2002 - Thor Heyerdahl, norskur mannfrÊðingur og landkönnuður (f. 1914).
+ 2004 - Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, fyrsti forsetisrĂĄĂ°herra Fiji og forseti Fiji (f. 1920).
+ 2013 - Storm Thorgerson, bandarĂskur hönnuĂ°ur (f. 1944).
+
+AprĂl
+19. aprĂl er 109. dagur ĂĄrsins (110. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 256 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1042 - Mikael 5. keisara Ă BĂœsans var steypt af stĂłli eftir fjĂłra mĂĄnuĂ°i Ă hĂĄsĂŠti.
+ 1244 - Tumi Sighvatsson yngri var drepinn ĂĄ ReykhĂłlum.
+ 1246 - Ă BlönduhlĂĂ° Ă SkagafirĂ°i var Haugsnesfundur, en ĂŸar börĂ°ust Brandur Kolbeinsson og ĂĂłrĂ°ur kakali um völd. Meira en hundraĂ° manns fĂ©llu Ă bardaganum og er ĂŸetta mannskĂŠĂ°asta orusta sem hĂĄĂ° hefur veriĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1390 - RĂłbert 3. varĂ° Skotakonungur.
+ 1409 - BrĂ©f var skrifaĂ° Ă Hvalsey ĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi til aĂ° votta um brĂșĂ°kaup sem ĂŸar var haldiĂ° ĂĄriĂ° ĂĄĂ°ur. Ăetta brĂ©f er sĂĂ°asta staĂ°festa heimildin um bĂșsetu norrĂŠnna manna ĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi.
+ 1608 - Bandalag Ungverjalands, AusturrĂkis og MoravĂu setti fram kröfugerĂ° meĂ° stuĂ°ningi MatthĂasar, bróður RĂșdolfs 2. keisara sem henni var beint gegn.
+ 1689 - SoffĂu AmalĂuborg brann Ă miĂ°ri ĂłperusĂœningu. 170 manns Ășr hĂłpi betri borgara Kaupmannahafnar fĂłrust Ă eldsvoĂ°anum.
+ 1770 - BrĂșĂ°kaup LoĂ°vĂks 16. Frakkakonungs og Marie Antoinette fĂłr fram Ă VĂnarborg.
+ 1770 - James Cook skipstjĂłri sĂĄ strönd ĂstralĂu.
+ 1776 - Orrusturnar um Lexington og Concord voru fyrstu orrustur BandarĂska frelsisstrĂĂ°sins.
+ 1810 - VenesĂșela fĂ©kk heimastjĂłrn.
+ 1839 - KonungsrĂkiĂ° BelgĂa varĂ° formlega sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt og SameinaĂ° konungsrĂki NiĂ°urlandanna var leyst upp.
+ 1887 - Landsbanki Ăslands var sameinaĂ°ur Sparisjóði ReykjavĂkur.
+ 1917 - LeikfĂ©lag Akureyrar var stofnaĂ°. ĂaĂ° var upphaflega ĂĄhugamannafĂ©lag, en hefur rekiĂ° atvinnuleikhĂșs sĂĂ°an 1973.
+ 1923 - AlĂŸĂœĂ°ubĂłkasafn ReykjavĂkur, sem sĂĂ°ar var nefnt BorgarbĂłkasafn ReykjavĂkur, tĂłk til starfa.
+ 1954 - Fermingarbörn Ă Akureyrarkirkju voru klĂŠdd hvĂtum kyrtlum sem var nĂœjung ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1954 - Ăslenska kvikmyndin NĂœtt hlutverk var frumsĂœnd.
+ 1956 - Rainier III, fursti af MĂłnakĂł giftist bandarĂsku leikkonunni Grace Kelly.
+ 1968 - Ralph Plaisted varð fyrstur til að komast å Norðurheimskautið svo óumdeilt sé.
+ 1971 - Charles Manson var dĂŠmdur til dauĂ°a fyrir hlutdeild Ă morĂ°inu ĂĄ Sharon Tate.
+ 1971 - SovĂ©trĂkin skutu geimstöðinni SaljĂșt I Ășt Ă geiminn.
+ 1975 - SiglingaklĂșbburinn Ăytur Ă HafnarfirĂ°i var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 1980 - Johnny Logan sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva meĂ° laginu âWhat's Another Yearâ
+ 1981 - DĂœragarĂ°urinn Le Cornelle var stofnaĂ°ur Ă Valbrembo ĂĄ ĂtalĂu.
+ 1984 - âAdvance Australia Fairâ varĂ° ĂŸjóðsöngur ĂstralĂu.
+ 1987 - TeiknimyndaĂŸĂŠttirnir Simpsonfjölskyldan hĂłfu göngu sĂna Ă The Tracey Ullman Show.
+ 1989 - Central Park-ĂĄrĂĄsin: RĂĄĂ°ist var ĂĄ skokkarann Trisha Meili og henni nauĂ°gaĂ° og misĂŸyrmt hrottalega Ă Central Park Ă New York-borg. Fimm unglingar voru dĂŠmdir fyrir ĂĄrĂĄsina en reyndust saklausir ĂŸegar hinn raunverulegi ĂĄrĂĄsarmaĂ°ur jĂĄtaĂ°i sök sĂna mörgum ĂĄrum sĂĂ°ar.
+ 1993 - UmsĂĄtrinu Ă Waco, Texas, lauk ĂŸegar eldur braust Ășt og David Koresh lĂ©st ĂĄsamt 75 fylgismönnum.
+ 1995 - SprengjutilrĂŠĂ°iĂ° Ă OklahĂłmaborg: Sprengja sprakk Ă Alfred. P. Murrah-byggingunni Ă OklahĂłmaborg. 169 manns fĂłrust.
+ 2000 - NĂœtt hĂșsnĂŠĂ°i Listasafns ReykjavĂkur var opnaĂ° Ă HafnarhĂșsinu viĂ° Tryggvagötu.
+ 2005 - ĂĂœski kardinĂĄlinn Joseph Alois Ratzinger var kjörinn pĂĄfi kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunnar og tĂłk sĂ©r nafniĂ° Benedikt 16.
+ 2007 - DagblaĂ°astrĂĂ°iĂ° Ă Danmörku: FrĂblaĂ°iĂ° Dato hĂŠtti ĂștgĂĄfu.
+ 2011 - Goodluck Jonathan var kjörinn forseti NĂgerĂu.
+ 2018 - RaĂșl Castro lĂ©t af embĂŠtti sem forseti KĂșbu. Miguel DĂaz-Canel tĂłk viĂ° og varĂ° ĂŸar meĂ° fyrsti forseti KĂșbu Ă rĂșm fjörutĂu ĂĄr sem ekki er af Castro-ĂŠtt.
+ 2020 â MĂłtmĂŠli gegn rĂĄĂ°stöfunum stjĂłrnvalda vegna COVID-19-faraldursins brutust Ășt Ă ParĂs, BerlĂn og fleiri stöðum.
+ 2021 - GeimĂŸyrlan Ingenuity tĂłkst ĂĄ loft ĂĄ Mars. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta sinn Ă sögunni sem menn stĂœrĂ°u loftfari ĂĄ annarri plĂĄnetu.
+ 2021 - RaĂșl Castro sagĂ°i af sĂ©r embĂŠtti aĂ°alritara kĂșbverska kommĂșnistaflokksins. Ăar meĂ° lauk 62ja ĂĄra valdatĂĂ° Castro-brĂŠĂ°ranna.
+ 2022 - Elsta kona heims, Kane Tanaka, lést 119 åra að aldri.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1658 - Jóhann Vilhjålmur 2., kjörfursti à Pfalz (d. 1716).
+ 1793 â Ferdinand 1. AusturrĂkiskeisari (d. 1875).
+ 1801 - Gustav Fechner, ĂŸĂœskur sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1887).
+ 1832 - José Echegaray, spÊnskt leikskåld og Nóbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1916).
+ 1882 - GetĂșlio Vargas, forseti BrasilĂu (d. 1954).
+ 1911 - Barbara Ărnason, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 1977).
+ 1912 â Glenn Seaborg, bandarĂskur efnafrĂŠĂ°ingur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 1999).
+ 1917 - Sven Hassel (BÞrge Willy Redsted Pedersenn), danskur rithöfundur (d. 2012).
+ 1922 - Erich Hartmann, ĂŸĂœskur herflugmaĂ°ur (d. 1993).
+ 1925 - GuĂ°mundur Steinsson, Ăslenskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1996).
+ 1933 â Jayne Mansfield, bandarĂsk leikkona (d. 1967).
+ 1935 â Dudley Moore, breskur leikari og tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 2002).
+ 1941 - Alan Price, breskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (The Animals).
+ 1942 - Bas Jan Ader, hollenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 1975).
+ 1946 â Tim Curry, breskur leikari.
+ 1951 - JĂłannes Eidesgaard, fĂŠreyskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1960 - Gustavo Petro, kĂłlumbĂskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1970 - JĂłn PĂĄll EyjĂłlfsson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1972 - Hinrik Hoe Haraldsson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1972 - Rivaldo, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1981 â Hayden Christensen, kanadĂskur leikari.
+ 1992 - Nick Pope, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1999 - Ty Panitz, bandarĂskur leikari.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1244 - Tumi Sighvatsson yngri, drepinn ĂĄ ReykhĂłlum (f. 1222).
+ 1246 - Brandur Kolbeinsson, höfĂ°ingi Ăsbirninga (f. 1209).
+ 1390 - RĂłbert 2., Skotakonungur (f. 1316).
+ 1560 - Philipp Melanchthon, ĂŸĂœskur siĂ°bĂłtarmaĂ°ur (f. 1497).
+ 1689 - KristĂn SvĂadrottning (f. 1626).
+ 1738 - ĂrĂșĂ°ur ĂorsteinsdĂłttir, biskupsfrĂș ĂĄ HĂłlum, (f. 1666).
+ 1768 - Canaletto, Ătalskur mĂĄlari (f. 1697).
+ 1824 - Byron lĂĄvarĂ°ur, enskt skĂĄld (f. 1788).
+ 1881 - Benjamin Disraeli, breskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra (f. 1804).
+ 1882 - Charles Darwin, enskur nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1809).
+ 1906 - Pierre Curie, franskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur og nĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (f. 1859).
+ 1914 - Charles Sanders Peirce, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1838).
+ 1961 - Jimmy Youell, breskur flugmaĂ°ur (f. 1900).
+ 1967 â Konrad Adenauer, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og kanslari (f. 1876).
+ 1974 - Ayub Khan, forseti Pakistan (f. 1907).
+ 1989 â Daphne du Maurier, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1907).
+ 1992 â Benny Hill, enskur gamanleikari (f. 1924).
+ 1998 - Octavio Paz, mexĂkĂłskur rithöfundur (f. 1914).
+ 2005 â Niels-Henning Ărsted Pedersen, danskur djasstĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1946).
+ 2009 - J. G. Ballard, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1930).
+ 2021 â Walter Mondale, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1928).
+
+AprĂl
+20. aprĂl er 110. dagur ĂĄrsins (111. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 255 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1303 - HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă RĂłm var stofnaĂ°ur af BĂłnifasĂusi 8. pĂĄfa.
+ 1378 - Frönsku kardĂnĂĄlarnir ĂĄsamt fleirum sem voru óånĂŠgĂ°ir meĂ° kjör Ărbanusar 6. og afstöðu hans kusu Klemens 7. sem mĂłtpĂĄfa. Hann settist aĂ° Ă Avignon og kaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan var klofin nĂŠstu ĂĄratugina.
+ 1593 - Ari MagnĂșsson fĂ©kk sĂœsluvöld Ă BarĂ°astrandarsĂœslu og umboĂ° konungsjarĂ°a.
+ 1602 - Einokunarverslun Dana hĂłfst ĂĄ Ăslandi meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° konungur veitti borgurum Ă Kaupmannahöfn, MĂĄlmey og Helsingjaeyri einkarĂ©tt til verslunar ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1608 - ViskĂœframleiĂ°andinn Bushmills ĂĄ NorĂ°ur-Ărlandi fĂ©kk leyfi til viskĂœframleiĂ°slu frĂĄ Jakobi Englandskonungi.
+ 1653 - Oliver Cromwell leysti Langa ĂŸingiĂ° upp.
+ 1657 - Robert Blake sigraĂ°i spĂŠnska silfurflotann viĂ° Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
+ 1706 - Miklir jarĂ°skjĂĄlftar riĂ°u yfir ĂĄ SuĂ°urlandi og fĂ©llu 24 bĂŠir til grunna Ă Ălfusi og FlĂła. Ein gömul kona lĂ©st ĂĄ Kotferju en manntjĂłn varĂ° ekki vĂĂ°ar.
+ 1740 - SunnefumĂĄl: Upp kom sakamĂĄl Ă MĂșlaĂŸingi ĂŸar sem systkini voru ĂĄkĂŠrĂ° fyrir aĂ° eiga barn saman.
+ 1821 - Mönguvetur drĂł nafniĂ° af ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸennan dag komu skipbrotsmenn af hvalveiĂ°iskipinu MargrĂ©ti aĂ° landi ĂĄ ĂangskĂĄla ĂĄ Skaga eftir mikla hrakninga Ă Ăs norĂ°an viĂ° land.
+ 1912 - Fenway Park var opnaĂ°ur Ă Boston.
+ 1916 - VĂĂ°avangshlaup ĂR fĂłr fram Ă fyrsta sinn en ĂŸaĂ° hefur veriĂ° ĂĄrviss viĂ°burĂ°ur sĂĂ°an ĂĄ sumardaginn fyrsta.
+ 1920 - SumarĂłlympĂuleikarnir voru settir Ă Antwerpen Ă BelgĂu.
+ 1925 - Kastrupflugvöllur Ă Danmörku var vĂgĂ°ur.
+ 1928 - MĂŠĂ°rastyrksnefnd var stofnuĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1930 - StĂłra bomba: JĂłnas JĂłnsson frĂĄ Hriflu, dĂłmsmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra, vĂ©k Helga TĂłmassyni, yfirlĂŠkni ĂĄ Kleppi Ășr starfi.
+ 1950 - ĂjóðleikhĂșsiĂ° var vĂgt Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1964 - Breska sjĂłnvarpsstöðin BBC Two hĂłf Ăștsendingar.
+ 1968 - Pierre Elliott Trudeau var kosinn fimmtĂĄndi forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Kanada.
+ 1969 - ĂjĂłrsĂĄrdalsför: SkĂșli Thoroddsen lĂŠknir skoraĂ°i Bretadrottningu ĂĄ hĂłlm.
+ 1972 - ĂsatrĂșarfĂ©lagiĂ° var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1977 - Boris SpasskĂj vann Vlastimil Hort Ă skĂĄkeinvĂgi ĂŸeirra, sem haldiĂ° var Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1978 - SĂŠnska ĂŸingiĂ° samĂŸykkti breytingar ĂĄ erfĂ°alögum sem gerĂ°i ViktorĂu aĂ° krĂłnprinsessu.
+ 1979 - NorĂ°uramerĂsk mĂœrarkanĂna rĂ©Ă°ist ĂĄ Jimmy Carter ĂŸar sem hann var ĂĄ fiskveiĂ°um Ă GeorgĂu.
+ 1986 - Um 400 manns lĂ©tust ĂŸegar yfirfullri ferju hvolfdi Ă Bangladess.
+ 1991 - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar ĂĄ Ăslandi. Fleiri listar voru Ă framboĂ°i en nokkru sinni, eĂ°a 11 listar alls.
+ 1992 - HeimssĂœningin Ă Sevilla var opnuĂ°.
+ 1994 - Paul Touvier varĂ° fyrsti Frakkinn sem dĂŠmdur var fyrir glĂŠpi gegn mannkyni fyrir aĂ° hafa fyrirskipaĂ° aftöku 7 gyĂ°inga undir Vichy-stjĂłrninni Ă Frakklandi ĂĄ strĂĂ°sĂĄrunum.
+ 1998 - ĂĂœsku hryĂ°juverkasamtökin Rote Armee Fraktion voru leyst upp (aĂ° taliĂ° er).
+ 1999 - Columbine-fjöldamorĂ°in: Tveir nemendur Columbine-menntaskĂłlans skutu 13 skĂłlafĂ©laga sĂna til bana og sĂŠrĂ°u 24 aĂ°ra en frömdu sĂĂ°an sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°.
+ 2006 - RES OrkuskĂłli (The School for Renewable Energy Science) tĂłk formlega til starfa ĂĄ Akureyri, sumardaginn fyrsta, 20. aprĂl 2006.
+ 2008 - Benedikt 16. pĂĄfi heimsĂłtti Ground Zero Ă New York-borg.
+ 2010 - Sprenging Ă olĂuborpallinum Deepwater Horizon Ă MexĂkĂłflĂła olli olĂuleka sem stĂłrskaĂ°aĂ°i vistkerfi flĂłans.
+ 2017 - HryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄsin ĂĄ Champs-ĂlysĂ©es: Kharim Cheurfi rĂ©Ă°ist ĂĄ lögreglumenn og ĂŸĂœska ferĂ°akonu meĂ° AK-47-ĂĄrĂĄsarriffli.
+ 2020 â HrĂĄolĂuverĂ° nĂĄĂ°i sögulegu lĂĄgmarki vegna faraldursins og verĂ° ĂĄ West Texas Intermediate-hrĂĄolĂu varĂ° neikvĂŠtt.
+ 2020 â Benjamin Netanyahu og Benny Gantz samĂŸykktu aĂ° mynda ĂŸjóðstjĂłrn Ă Ăsrael og binda ĂŸannig enda ĂĄ langa stjĂłrnarkreppu.
+ 2021 - Forseti Tjad, Idriss DĂ©by, lĂ©st Ă ĂĄtökum viĂ° uppreisnarmenn eftir 30 ĂĄra valdatĂĂ°. HerforingjastjĂłrn tĂłk viĂ° völdum.
+ 2021 - Lögreglumaðurinn Derek Chauvin var dÊmdur sekur fyrir morðið å George Floyd à Minneapolis.
+ 2022 - JosĂ© Ramos-Horta var kjörinn forseti Austur-TĂmor.
+ 2023 - Edda (HĂșs Ăslenskra frĂŠĂ°a) var opnaĂ° almenningi.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1494 - Johannes Agricola, ĂŸĂœskur siĂ°askiptamaĂ°ur (d. 1566).
+ 1633 - Go-Komyo, Japanskeisari (d. 1654).
+ 1808 - NapĂłleon 3., Frakkakeisari (d. 1873).
+ 1889 - Adolf Hitler, einrĂŠĂ°isherra Ă ĂĂœskalandi (d. 1945).
+ 1893 â Harold Lloyd, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 1971).
+ 1893 â Joan MirĂł, spĂŠnskur mĂĄlari (d. 1983).
+ 1933 - AuĂ°ur ĂorbergsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur dĂłmari (d. 2023).
+ 1937 - George Takei, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1939 - Gro Harlem Brundtland, norskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1941 â Ryan O'Neal, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1942 â Arto Paasilinna, finnskur rithöfundur.
+ 1947 - Björn Skifs, sÊnskur söngvari.
+ 1949 - Massimo D'Alema, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1949 â Jessica Lange, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1951 â Luther Vandross, bandarĂskur söngvari (d. 2005).
+ 1952 - VilhjĂĄlmur Bjarnason, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1962 - SigurĂ°ur Ingi JĂłhannsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og dĂœralĂŠknir.
+ 1964 â Andy Serkis, enskur leikari.
+ 1965 - Bernardo Fernandes da Silva, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1966 - David Chalmers, ĂĄstralskur heimspekingur.
+ 1969 - Geir Björklund, norskur ritstjóri.
+ 1970 - Shemar Moore, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1972 - Carmen Electra, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1973 - Toshihide Saito, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1976 - Shay Given, Ărskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1983 - HeiĂ°a KristĂn HelgadĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1994 - StefĂĄn Karel Torfason, fyrrum Ăslenskur körfuboltamaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1314 â Klemens 5. pĂĄfi (f. 1264).
+ 1812 - George Clinton, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1739).
+ 1912 â Bram Stoker, Ărskur rithöfundur (f. 1847).
+ 1947 â KristjĂĄn 10. Danakonungur (f. 1870).
+ 1951 - Ivanoe Bonomi, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra ĂtalĂu (f. 1873).
+ 1996 â Christopher Robin Milne, sonur rithöfundarins A.A. Milne og eigandi BangsĂmons (f. 1920).
+ 2012 - Ăsgeir ĂĂłr DavĂĂ°sson, Ăslenskur athafnamaĂ°ur (f. 1950).
+ 2018 - Avicii, sĂŠnskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur og plötusnĂșĂ°ur (f. 1989).
+
+AprĂl
+21. aprĂl er 111. dagur ĂĄrsins (112. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska dagatalinu. 254 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 753 f.Kr. - Stofnun RĂłmar: RĂłmĂșlus og Remus stofnuĂ°u RĂłmarborg samkvĂŠmt fornri arfsögn.
+ 1509 - Hinrik 8. varĂ° Englandskonungur.
+ 1510 - LĂœbikumenn sögĂ°u Dönum strĂĂ° ĂĄ hendur. Nokkru sĂĂ°ar gengu SvĂar Ă liĂ° meĂ° LĂœbikumönnum.
+ 1526 - Fyrsta orrustan viĂ° Panipat: BabĂșr vann sigur ĂĄ Lodiveldinu ĂĄ Indlandi. Stofnun MĂłgĂșlveldisins miĂ°ast viĂ° ĂŸennan atburĂ°.
+ 1607 - PĂĄll 5. pĂĄfi samdi um friĂ° viĂ° Feneyska lĂœĂ°veldiĂ° fyrir milligöngu Hinriks 4. Frakkakonungs.
+ 1648 - Snjór var à mitti å sléttlendi å Suðvesturlandi, segir à Setbergsannål.
+ 1733 - Kristjån 6. Danakonungur lagði hornstein að Kristjånsborgarhöll à Kaupmannahöfn.
+ 1736 - Erich Lassen fann minna gullhornið à Danmörku.
+ 1800 - Sex bĂĄtar fĂłrust Ășr StaĂ°arsveit og Bjarneyjum og meĂ° ĂŸeim 37 manns Ă miklu norĂ°anveĂ°ri.
+ 1898 - StrĂĂ° SpĂĄnar og BandarĂkjanna braust Ășt.
+ 1908 - Frederick Cook komst å norðurpólinn að eigin sögn, åri å undan Robert Peary.
+ 1908 - KnattspyrnufĂ©lagiĂ° VĂkingur var stofnaĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1946 - SĂłsĂalĂski einingarflokkurinn var stofnaĂ°ur Ă Austur-ĂĂœskalandi.
+ 1962 - SĂœning 21. aldarinnar opnuĂ° Ă Seattle.
+ 1965 - NafnskĂrteini voru gefin Ășt til allra Ăslendinga, 12 ĂĄra og eldri. Um leiĂ° voru tekin upp svonefnd nafnnĂșmer.
+ 1967 - HerforingjastjĂłrn undir forystu GeorgĂos PapaĂ°opĂșlos framdi valdarĂĄn Ă Grikklandi.
+ 1970 - FurstadĂŠmiĂ° Hutt River lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ ĂstralĂu.
+ 1971 - HandritamĂĄliĂ°: Fyrstu handritin komu heim frĂĄ Danmörku og voru ĂŸaĂ° FlateyjarbĂłk og KonungsbĂłk EddukvĂŠĂ°a.
+ 1982 - FalklandseyjastrĂĂ°iĂ°: Bretar hĂłfu aĂ°gerĂ°ir til aĂ° endurheimta SuĂ°ur-GeorgĂu frĂĄ ArgentĂnu meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° senda ĂŸangaĂ° sĂ©rsveitarmenn.
+ 1989 - Um 100 ĂŸĂșsund kĂnverskir mĂłtmĂŠlendur söfnuĂ°ust saman ĂĄ Torgi hins himneska friĂ°ar Ă Beijing Ă KĂna.
+ 1992 - RĂĄniĂ° Ă Bilka: Ă Danmörku komst rĂŠningi undan meĂ° 7,5 milljĂłnir danskra krĂłna eftir aĂ° hafa lĂĄtiĂ° til skarar skrĂĂ°a gegn peningaflutningabĂl Danske Bank viĂ° Bilka Ă ĂrĂłsum.
+ 1993 - HĂŠstirĂ©ttur Ă La Paz dĂŠmdi Luis Garcia Meza, fyrrum einrĂŠĂ°isherra BĂłlivĂu, Ă 30 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir morĂ°, ĂŸjĂłfnaĂ°, svik og stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbrot.
+ 1996 - ĂlĂfubandalagiĂ° undir forystu Romano Prodi sigraĂ°i Ă ĂŸingkosningum ĂĄ ĂtalĂu.
+ 1997 - Fyrsta geimgreftrunin ĂĄ vegum einkaaĂ°ila fĂłr fram ĂŸegar jarĂ°neskar leifar 24 manna voru sendar Ășt Ă geim meĂ° Pegasusflaug.
+ 2007 - Umaru Musa Yar'Adua var kjörinn forseti NĂgerĂu eftir kosningar sem ĂŸĂłttu einkennast af svindli.
+ 2009 - VĂsindamenn frĂĄ StjörnuskoĂ°unarstöðinni Ă Genf tilkynntu uppgötvun plĂĄnetunnar Gliese 581 e.
+ 2009 - GagnasafniĂ° World Digital Library var opnaĂ° af UNESCO.
+ 2010 - Ăslenski handritavefurinn Handrit.is var opnaĂ°ur.
+ 2019 - Um 290 manns létust à sprengjuåråsum å kirkjur og hótel à Srà Lanka.
+ 2019 - VolodimĂr Selenskij var kjörinn forseti ĂkraĂnu Ă seinni umferĂ° forsetakosninga landsins.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1073 - Alexander 2. pĂĄfi.
+ 1652 - Michel Rolle, franskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1719).
+ 1671 - John Law, skoskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1729).
+ 1815 - Louise Rasmussen (Danner greifynja), ĂŸriĂ°ja kona FriĂ°riks 7. Danakonungs (d. 1874).
+ 1816 - Charlotte Brontë, enskur skåldsagnahöfundur og ljóðskåld (d. 1855).
+ 1837 - Fredrik Bajer, danskur rithöfundur (d. 1922).
+ 1864 - Max Weber, ĂŸĂœskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1920).
+ 1889 - Paul Karrer, svissneskur efnafrĂŠĂ°ingur og nĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (d. 1971).
+ 1903 - Hans Hedtoft, danskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1955).
+ 1922 - Alistair MacLean, skoskur rithöfundur (d. 1987).
+ 1926 - ElĂsabet 2. Bretlandsdrottning (d. 2022).
+ 1930 - Dieter Roth, ĂŸĂœskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 1998).
+ 1934 - Masao Uchino, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1934 - Kenzo Ohashi, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 2015).
+ 1936 - James Dobson, bandarĂskur sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1937 - AuĂ°ur Eir VilhjĂĄlmsdĂłttir, fyrsti kvenprestur Ăslands.
+ 1942 - SteingrĂmur NjĂĄlsson, Ăslenskur barnanĂĂ°ingur (d. 2013).
+ 1947 - Iggy Pop, bandarĂskur söngvari.
+ 1955 - Toninho Cerezo, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1956 - JĂłhann SigurĂ°arson, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1958 - Andie MacDowell, bandarisk leikkona.
+ 1972 - José-Luis Munuera, spÊnskur teiknari.
+ 1973 - Yoshiharu Ueno, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1978 - Yngvi Gunnlaugsson, Ăslenskur körfuknattleiksĂŸjĂĄlfari.
+ 1979 - James McAvoy, skoskur leikari.
+ 2007 - Ăsabella Danaprinsessa.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1142 - Pierre Abélard, franskur rithöfundur og heimspekingur (f. 1079).
+ 1509 - Hinrik 7., konungur Englands (f. 1457).
+ 1574 - KosĂmĂł 1. stĂłrhertogi af Toskana (f. 1519).
+ 1644 - Torsten StÄlhandske, finnskur herforingi (f. 1593).
+ 1699 - Jean Racine, franskt leikskĂĄld (f. 1639).
+ 1729 - John Law, skoskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1671).
+ 1910 - Mark Twain, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (f. 1835).
+ 1918 - Manfred von Richthofen, ĂŸĂœskur flugkappi (f. 1892).
+ 1919 - ĂĂłra MelsteĂ°, stofnandi KvennaskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk (f. 1823).
+ 1946 - John Maynard Keynes, enskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1883).
+ 1971 - François Duvalier, einrĂŠĂ°isherra ĂĄ HaĂtĂ (f. 1907).
+ 1989 - JĂłn Gunnar Ărnason, Ăslenskur myndhöggvari (f. 1931).
+ 1989 - Uichiro Hatta, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1903).
+ 2003 - Nina Simone, bandarĂsk djasssöngkona (f. 1933).
+ 2016 - Prince, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1958).
+ 2018 - Verne Troyer, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1969).
+
+AprĂl
+22. aprĂl er 112. dagur ĂĄrsins (113. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 253 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 238 - Ăr keisaranna sex: RĂłmverska öldungarĂĄĂ°iĂ° lĂœsti Maximinus ĂștlĂŠgan og Ăștnefndi Pupienus og Balbinus sem keisara.
+ 1445 - Hinrik 6. Englandskonungur og Margrét af Anjou gengu à hjónaband.
+ 1509 - Hinrik 8. varĂ° konungur Englands viĂ° lĂĄt föður sĂns Hinriks 7..
+ 1529 - Austurhveli jarĂ°ar var skipt milli SpĂĄnar og PortĂșgals meĂ° SaragossasĂĄttmĂĄlanum.
+ 1678 - Karl 11. SvĂakonungur gaf Ășt ĂŸĂĄ skipun aĂ° allir karlmenn milli 15 og 60 ĂĄra Ă Ărkened ĂĄ SkĂĄni skyldu teknir af lĂfi vegna gruns um aĂ° ĂŸeir vĂŠru snapphanar, uppreisnarmenn gegn yfirrĂĄĂ°um SvĂa ĂĄ SkĂĄni.
+ 1906 - SĂ©rstakir aukaĂłlympĂuleikar voru settir Ă AĂŸenu Ă tilefni af tĂu ĂĄra afmĂŠli nĂștĂmaĂłlympĂuleikanna.
+ 1917 - JĂłn Helgason var vĂgĂ°ur biskup. Hann skrifaĂ°i meĂ°al annars ĂrbĂŠkur ReykjavĂkur.
+ 1918 - Konur voru kosnar Ă fyrsta skiptiĂ° til ĂŸjĂłĂ°ĂŸings Danmerkur Ă ĂŸingskosningum.
+ 1944 - Bresk flugvĂ©l fĂłrst rĂ©tt viĂ° nĂœja stĂșdentagarĂ°inn Ă ReykjavĂk, NĂœja garĂ°. Ăll ĂĄhöfnin fĂłrst meĂ° vĂ©linni.
+ 1950 - LeikritiĂ° Ăslandsklukkan eftir HalldĂłr Kiljan Laxness var frumsĂœnt Ă ĂjóðleikhĂșsinu.
+ 1970 - Sex aĂ°ildarrĂki EvrĂłpubandalagsins undirrituĂ°u LĂșxemborgarsĂĄttmĂĄlann.
+ 1970 - Dagur jarĂ°ar var haldinn hĂĄtĂĂ°legur Ă fyrsta skipti.
+ 1976 - Ingmar Bergman flutti frĂĄ SvĂĂŸjóð vegna ĂĄsakana um skattaundanskot.
+ 1977 - OlĂuslys varĂ° Ă olĂuborpallinum Ekofisk 2/4 B Ă NorĂ°ursjĂł. OlĂa lak Ășr borholunni Ă ĂĄtta daga stjĂłrnlaust.
+ 1978 - Ăsrael sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva meĂ° laginu âA-Ba-Ni-Biâ.
+ 1987 - Gro Harlem Brundtland, formaĂ°ur nefndar SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna um umhverfi og ĂŸrĂłun, skilaĂ°i skĂœrslunni Our Common Future ĂŸar sem hugtakiĂ° sjĂĄlfbĂŠr ĂŸrĂłun kom fyrir.
+ 1988 - GĂslatakan ĂĄ OuvĂ©a: Tugir lögreglumanna og einn saksĂłknari voru teknir Ă gĂslingu af sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°issinnum ĂĄ NĂœju-KaledĂłnĂu.
+ 1991 - 84 lĂ©tust Ă jarĂ°skjĂĄlfta Ă Kosta RĂka og Panama.
+ 1992 - Sprenging varĂ° Ă Guadalajara Ă MexĂkĂł eftir aĂ° eldsneyti lak ofan Ă niĂ°urfall. 215 lĂ©tust og 1.500 sĂŠrĂ°ust.
+ 1997 - Haouch Khemisti-fjöldamorĂ°in Ă AlsĂr ĂĄttu sĂ©r staĂ°.
+ 1997 - Eftir 126 daga umsĂĄtur um japanska sendirĂĄĂ°iĂ° Ă LĂma Ă PerĂș rĂ©Ă°ust stjĂłrnarliĂ°ar inn Ă bygginguna og drĂĄpu alla skĂŠruliĂ°a TĂșpac Amaru.
+ 1998 - DĂœragarĂ°urinn Disney's Animal Kingdom var opnaĂ°ur Ă Walt Disney World Ă OrlandĂł Ă FlĂłrĂda.
+ 2000 - AlrĂkislögreglumenn tĂłku Elian Gonzalez frĂĄ ĂŠttingjum Ă Miami, FlĂłrĂda.
+ 2004 - Ryongchon-slysiĂ°: Sprenging varĂ° Ă lest sem flutti eldfiman varning Ă NorĂ°ur-KĂłreu.
+ 2007 - Fyrsta umferĂ° forsetakosninga Ă Frakklandi fĂłr fram.
+ 2008 - LĂŠknar viĂ° Moorfields Eye Hospital Ă London grĂŠddu Ă fyrsta sinn gerviaugu Ă tvo blinda sjĂșklinga.
+ 2016 - 175 lönd höfĂ°u undirritaĂ° ParĂsarsamkomulagiĂ°.
+ 2020 â Ryfast-vegtengingin var opnuĂ° Ă Noregi.
+ 2021 - Dagur jarĂ°ar: Haldinn var netfundur ĂŸjóðarleiĂ°toga um loftslagsmĂĄl ĂŸar sem sett voru metnaĂ°arfyllri markmiĂ° um aĂ° draga Ășr losun gróðurhĂșsalofttegunda.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1451 - Ăsabella 1. af KastilĂu, SpĂĄnardrottning (d. 1504).
+ 1518 - Anton af Bourbon, Navarrakonungur, faĂ°ir Hinriks 4. Frakkakonungs (d. 1562).
+ 1610 - Alexander 8. pĂĄfi (d. 1691).
+ 1658 - Giuseppe Torelli, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1709).
+ 1692 - James Stirling, skoskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1770).
+ 1707 - Henry Fielding, breskur rithöfundur (d. 1754).
+ 1724 - Immanuel Kant, ĂŸĂœskur heimspekingur (d. 1804).
+ 1854 - Henri La Fontaine, belgĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1943).
+ 1870 - LenĂn, rĂșssneskur byltingarleiĂ°togi (d. 1924).
+ 1888 - Edmund Jacobson, bandarĂskur lĂŠknir (d. 1983).
+ 1899 - Vladimir Nabokov, rĂșssneskur rithöfundur (d. 1977).
+ 1904 - Robert Oppenheimer, bandarĂskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1967).
+ 1906 - Snorri Hjartarson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (d. 1986).
+ 1906 - GĂșstaf AdĂłlf erfĂ°aprins Ă SvĂĂŸjóð (d. 1947).
+ 1916 - Yvette Lundy, frönsk andspyrnukona og kennari (d. 2019).
+ 1917 - Sidney Nolan, ĂĄstralskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 1992).
+ 1922 - Richard Diebenkorn, bandarĂskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1993).
+ 1931 - Sigmund Johanson Baldvinsen, Ăslenskur skopmyndateiknari (d. 2012).
+ 1935 - Ălfur Hjörvar, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (d. 2008).
+ 1937 - Jack Nicholson, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1940 - RagnheiĂ°ur JĂłnasdĂłttir, Ăslensk fyrirsĂŠta.
+ 1946 - John Waters, bandarĂskur leikari og leikstjĂłri.
+ 1948 - George Abela, maltneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1957 - Donald Tusk, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra PĂłllands.
+ 1960 - Mart Laar, eistneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1966 - Jeffrey Dean Morgan, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1967 - VĂĂ°ir Reynisson, Ăslenskur lögreglustjĂłri.
+ 1972 - HeiĂ°ar MĂĄr GuĂ°jĂłnsson, Ăslenskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1974 - Shavo Odadjian, bassaleikari bandarĂsku hljĂłmsveitarinnar System of a Down.
+ 1974 - Kenichi Uemura, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1975 - Pavel Horvåth, tékkneskur knattspyrnumaður.
+ 1986 - Kim Noorda, hollensk fyrirsaeta.
+ 1987 - John Obi Mikel, nigeriskur knattspyrnuleikari.
+ 1989 - Aron Einar Gunnarsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 296 - Gajus pĂĄfi.
+ 536 - Agapitus 1. pĂĄfi.
+ 1672 - Georg Stiernhielm, sĂŠnskt skĂĄld (f. 1598).
+ 1827 - Thomas Rowlandson, enskur skopteiknari (f. 1756).
+ 1908 - Henry Campbell-Bannerman, breskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1836).
+ 1930 - Jeppe AakjÊr, danskt ljóðskåld (f. 1866).
+ 1994 - Richard Nixon, BandarĂkjaforseti (f. 1913).
+ 2013 - IngĂłlfur JĂșlĂusson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1970).
+ 2015 - PĂĄll SkĂșlason, Ăslenskur heimspekingur (f. 1945).
+ 2019 - HörĂ°ur Sigurgestsson, Ăslenskur viĂ°skiptafrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1938).
+
+AprĂl
+24. aprĂl er 114. dagur ĂĄrsins (115. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 251 dagur er eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 858 - NikulĂĄs mikli varĂ° pĂĄfi.
+ 871 - AlfreĂ° mikli varĂ° Englandskonungur.
+ 1016 - JĂĄtmundur jĂĄrnsĂĂ°a varĂ° konungur Englands.
+ 1333 - Kingigtorssuaq-rĂșnasteinninn: Erlingur Sighvatsson, Bjarni ĂĂłrĂ°arson og EindriĂ°i Oddson klöppuĂ°u nöfn sĂn ĂĄ rĂșnastein Ă vörĂ°u Ă NorĂ°ursetu, um 30 kĂlĂłmetrum fyrir norĂ°an ĂŸar sem nĂș er bĂŠrinn Upernavik ĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi, nĂŠstum norĂ°ur ĂĄ 73° grĂĄĂ°u norĂ°lĂŠgrar breiddar. ĂrtaliĂ° er ĂŸĂł ĂłvĂst.
+ 1558 - MarĂa Skotadrottning giftist Frans 2. Frakkakonungi.
+ 1585 - Felice Peretti varĂ° Sixtus 5. pĂĄfi.
+ 1596 - NjarĂ°vĂkurbĂŠirnir voru felldir undir Vatnsleysustrandarhrepp.
+ 1608 - KristjĂĄn 4. boĂ°aĂ°i aĂ° allar byggingar ĂŸĂœskra kaupmanna ĂĄ konungsjörĂ°um eĂ°a kirkjujörĂ°um skyldu rifnar til grunna.
+ 1610 - Hollenska Austur-IndĂafĂ©lagiĂ° fĂ©kk verslunarleyfi Ă Pulicat ĂĄ Indlandi.
+ 1704 - Fyrsta frĂ©ttablaĂ°iĂ° Ă NorĂ°ur-AmerĂku, The Boston News-Letter, hĂłf ĂștgĂĄfu.
+ 1862 - SigurĂ°ur mĂĄlari skrifaĂ°i hugvekju Ă Ăjóðólf ĂŸar sem hann hvatti til stofnunar Forngripasafns.
+ 1877 - StrĂĂ° braust Ășt milli RĂșssa og OttĂłmanaveldisins. ĂvĂ lauk 1878.
+ 1898 - SpĂŠnsk-bandarĂska strĂĂ°iĂ° hĂłfst ĂŸegar SpĂĄnn lĂœsti yfir strĂĂ°i gegn BandarĂkjunum.
+ 1908 - BĂŠjarstjĂłrnarkosningar voru haldnar Ă ReykjavĂk
+ 1914 - SĂĂ°asti lĂflĂĄtsdĂłmur var kveĂ°inn upp ĂĄ Ăslandi. DĂłmnum var sĂĂ°ar breytt Ă ĂŠvilangt fangelsi.
+ 1915 - ĂjóðarmorĂ° Tyrkja ĂĄ Armenum hĂłfst meĂ° aftöku armenskra menntamanna Ă austurhluta AnatĂłlĂu.
+ 1916 - PĂĄskauppreisnin hĂłfst ĂĄ Ărlandi.
+ 1920 - RĂșssland og PĂłlland lĂœstu yfir strĂĂ°i.
+ 1922 - HestamannafĂ©lagiĂ° FĂĄkur var stofnaĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1953 - ElĂsabet 2. Bretadrottning slĂł Winston Churchill til riddara.
+ 1967 - SovĂ©ski geimfarinn VladimĂr Komarov fĂłrst ĂŸegar geimflaugin SojĂșs 1 hrapaĂ°i til jarĂ°ar.
+ 1967 - ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lagiĂ° GrĂłtta var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ Seltjarnarnesi.
+ 1968 - MĂĄritĂus varĂ° aĂ°ili aĂ° SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðunum.
+ 1970 - Fjöldi hĂĄskĂłlastĂșdenta settist aĂ° ĂĄ göngum og Ă skrifstofum MenntamĂĄlarĂĄĂ°uneytisins til ĂŸess aĂ° leggja ĂĄherslu ĂĄ kröfur nĂĄmsmanna erlendis.
+ 1970 - Fyrsti kĂnverski gervihnötturinn, Dong Fang Hong 1, fĂłr ĂĄ braut um jörĂ°u.
+ 1971 - HĂĄlf milljĂłn manna mĂłtmĂŠlti VĂetnamstrĂĂ°inu Ă Washington-borg.
+ 1975 - Sex meĂ°limir Baader-Meinhof-gengisins hertĂłku sendirĂĄĂ° Vestur-ĂĂœskalands Ă SvĂĂŸjóð og kröfĂ°ust lausnar fanga.
+ 1977 - Vlastimil Hort setti heimsmet Ă fjöltefli ĂĄ Seltjarnarnesi. Hann tefldi viĂ° 550 manns ĂĄ rĂșmum sĂłlarhring.
+ 1980 - Eagle Claw-aĂ°gerĂ°in: BandarĂkjamenn reyndu aĂ° frelsa 52 bandarĂska gĂsla, sem voru Ă haldi Ă Teheran, höfuĂ°borg Ărans. LeiĂ°angurinn mistĂłkst og engum gĂslum var bjargaĂ° en ĂĄtta bandarĂskir hermenn lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ°.
+ 1981 - Fjölflokkakerfi var tekið upp à Senegal.
+ 1982 - Jón Påll Sigmarsson setti tvö Evrópumet à lyftingum, lyfti 362,5 kg à réttstöðu og 940 kg samtals.
+ 1982 - Nicole sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva fyrir Vestur-ĂĂœskaland meĂ° laginu âEin biĂchen Friedenâ.
+ 1990 - Hubble-sjĂłnaukinn var sendur Ășt Ă geim um borĂ° Ă geimskutlunni Discovery.
+ 1990 - Austur- og Vestur-ĂĂœskaland samĂŸykktu aĂ° taka upp sameiginlega mynt 1. jĂșlĂ.
+ 1993 - Einn lĂ©st ĂŸegar stĂłr bĂlasprengja ĂĄ vegum IRA sprakk Ă Bishopsgate Ă London.
+ 1994 - MagnĂșs Scheving nĂĄĂ°i öðru sĂŠti ĂĄ heimsmeistaramĂłti Ă ĂŸolfimi, sem haldiĂ° var Ă Japan.
+ 1995 - Gilbert Murray var myrtur með bréfsprengju frå Unabomber.
+ 1999 - MeĂ°limir Falungong stóðu fyrir mĂłtmĂŠlum utan viĂ° stjĂłrnarbyggingu Ă Zhongnanhai sem leiddi til vĂĂ°tĂŠkra ofsĂłkna gegn hreyfingunni.
+ 2004 - ĂbĂșar KĂœpur greiddu atkvĂŠĂ°i um AnnanĂĄĂŠtlunina um sameiningu eyjarinnar. KĂœpurgrikkir höfnuĂ°u henni en KĂœpurtyrkir samĂŸykktu.
+ 2006 - SprengjutilrĂŠĂ°in Ă Dahab: 23 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar ĂŸrjĂĄr sprengjur sprungu Ă ferĂ°amannabĂŠnum Dahab ĂĄ SĂnaĂskaga.
+ 2007 - FĂłstureyĂ°ingar voru leyfĂ°ar Ă MexĂkĂłborg.
+ 2007 - StjörnufrĂŠĂ°ingar uppgötvuĂ°u lĂfvĂŠnlegu plĂĄnetuna Gliese 581 c Ă stjörnumerkinu Voginni.
+ 2009 â AlĂŸjóða heilbrigĂ°isstofnunin varaĂ°i viĂ° svĂnaflensufaraldri eftir aĂ° svĂnaflensa tĂłk aĂ° breiĂ°ast Ășt Ă MexĂkĂł.
+ 2013 - 1.134 textĂlverkamenn lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Rana Plaza Ă Bangladess hrundi.
+ 2021 - IndĂłnesĂuher greindi frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° kafbĂĄturinn KRI Nanggala hefĂ°i farist meĂ° 53 ĂĄhafnarmeĂ°limum.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1533 - VilhjĂĄlmur ĂŸĂ¶gli ĂranĂufursti (d. 1584).
+ 1628 - SoffĂa AmalĂa, Danadrottning (d. 1685).
+ 1815 - Anthony Trollope, breskur rithöfundur (d. 1882).
+ 1845 - Carl Spitteler, svissneskt ljóðskåld og Nóbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1924).
+ 1856 - Henri Philippe PĂ©tain, franskur herforingi og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1951).
+ 1896 - Egill Holmboe, norskur nasisti (d. 1986).
+ 1908 - JĂłzef GosĆawski, pĂłlskur myndhöggvari (d. 1963).
+ 1911 - Sigursveinn D. Kristinsson, Ăslenskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1990).
+ 1924 - JĂłn Ăsberg, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaĂ°ur.
+ 1930 - JosĂ© Sarney, forseti BrasilĂu.
+ 1934 - Shirley MacLaine, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1942 - Barbra Streisand, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona.
+ 1945 - Doug Clifford, bandarĂskur trommari (Creedence Clearwater Revival).
+ 1952 - Geir JĂłn ĂĂłrisson, Ăslenskur yfirlögregluĂŸjĂłnn.
+ 1957 - Bamir Topi, forseti AlbanĂu.
+ 1960 - FriĂ°rik Karlsson, Ăslenskur gĂtarleikari.
+ 1964 - Björn Malmquist, Ăslenskur frĂ©ttamaĂ°ur.
+ 1964 - EyglĂł HarĂ°ardĂłttir, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1966 - Alessandro Costacurta, Ătalskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1974 - Eric Kripke, bandarĂskur kvikmyndagerĂ°armaĂ°ur.
+ 1982 - Kelly Clarkson, bandarĂsk söngkona.
+ 1991 - TĂłmas SteindĂłrsson, Ăslenskur ĂștvarpsmaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1342 - Benedikt 12. pĂĄfi.
+ 1731 - Daniel Defoe, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1680)
+ 1840 - Sveinn PĂĄlsson, lĂŠknir og nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1944 - Michael Pedersen Friis, danskur forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra (f. 1857).
+ 1960 - Max von Laue, ĂŸĂœskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1879).
+ 1964 - Gerhard Domagk, ĂŸĂœskur örverufrĂŠĂ°ingur og nĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (f. 1895).
+
+AprĂl
+25. aprĂl er 115. dagur ĂĄrsins (116. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 250 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1236 - Abel Valdimarsson gekk aĂ° eiga Mechthilde af Holtsetalandi Ă SlĂ©svĂk.
+ 1287 - EirĂkur menved var krĂœndur konungur Danmerkur.
+ 1607 - Hollenskur floti sigraĂ°i spĂŠnskan flota Ă orrustunni viĂ° GĂbraltar.
+ 1626 - ĂrjĂĄtĂu ĂĄra strĂĂ°iĂ°: Albrecht von Wallenstein vann sigur ĂĄ Ernst von Mansfeld Ă orrustunni um DessauerbrĂș.
+ 1644 - Uppreisn Li Zicheng rĂŠndi Beijing sem leiddi til sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°s sĂĂ°asta Mingkeisarains Chongzhen.
+ 1719 - RĂłbinson KrĂșsĂł eftir Daniel Defoe kom Ășt.
+ 1859 - FramkvĂŠmdir hĂłfust viĂ° SĂșesskurĂ°inn.
+ 1915 - StĂłrbruni varĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk er HĂłtel ReykjavĂk og ellefu önnur hĂșs viĂ° AusturstrĂŠti, PĂłsthĂșsstrĂŠti og HafnarstrĂŠti brunnu. Tveir menn fĂłrust.
+ 1926 - Reza Khan var krĂœndur Reza Shah Pahlavi keisari Ărans.
+ 1940 - MerkiĂ°, fĂŠreyski fĂĄninn var gerĂ°ur aĂ° opinberum fĂĄna eyjanna.
+ 1944 - Ăperettan Ă ĂĄlögum var frumsĂœnd. Ăetta var fyrsta Ăslenska Ăłperettan.
+1950 - GuĂ°jĂłn SamĂșelsson, hĂșsameistari rĂkisnins lĂ©st.
+ 1953 - Grein birtist Ă vĂsindatĂmaritinu Nature um byggingu kjarnsĂœrunnar DNA. Höfundarnir voru Watson og Crick, sem sĂĂ°ar fengu NĂłbelsverĂ°laun fyrir rannsĂłknir sĂnar.
+ 1970 - Norska stĂłrĂŸingiĂ° samĂŸykkti aĂ°ildarviĂ°rĂŠĂ°ur viĂ° EvrĂłpubandalagiĂ°.
+ 1974 - Nellikubyltingin hĂłfst Ă PortĂșgal ĂŸar sem einrĂŠĂ°isstjĂłrn landsins var steypt af stĂłli.
+ 1980 - Dan-Air flug 1008 fĂłrst ĂĄ TenerĂfe. 146 lĂ©tust.
+ 1981 - Yfir 100 starfsmenn kjarnorkuvers urðu fyrir geislun å meðan viðgerð stóð yfir à Tsuruga à Japan.
+ 1982 - SĂĂ°ustu Ăsraelsku hermennirnir hurfu frĂĄ SĂnaĂskaga Ă Egyptalandi.
+ 1983 - JĂșrĂj Andropov bauĂ° bandarĂsku stĂșlkunni Samantha Smith til SovĂ©trĂkjanna eftir aĂ° hĂșn hafĂ°i sent honum brĂ©f og lĂœst ĂĄhyggjum sĂnum af kjarnorkustyrjöld.
+ 1987 - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar, ĂŸĂŠr fyrstu samkvĂŠmt nĂœjum kosningalögum sem var ĂŠtlaĂ° aĂ° jafna hlut flokka meĂ° uppbĂłtarĂŸingmönnum.
+ 1988 - Fyrsta breiĂ°skĂfa Sykurmolanna, Life's Too Good, kom Ășt Ă Bretlandi.
+ 1988 - Ivan Demjanjuk var dĂŠmdur til dauĂ°a Ă Ăsrael fyrir strĂĂ°sglĂŠpi sem hann framdi Ă ĂștrĂœmingarbĂșĂ°unum Ă Treblinka.
+ 1989 - Motorola MicroTAC, ĂŸĂĄ minnsti farsĂmi heims, kom ĂĄ markaĂ°.
+ 1990 - Violeta Chamorro tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti forseta NĂkaragva, fyrsta konan sem kjörin var til forsetaembĂŠttis Ă SuĂ°ur-AmerĂku.
+ 1991 - BifreiĂ° var ekiĂ° upp ĂĄ HvannadalshnĂșk Ă fyrsta skipti.
+ 2001 - Fyrrum forseti Filippseyja, Joseph Estrada, var handtekinn og ĂĄkĂŠrĂ°ur fyrir fjĂĄrdrĂĄtt.
+ 2001 - Franska kvikmyndin Hin stĂłrkostlegu örlög AmĂ©lie Poulain var frumsĂœnd.
+ 2002 - Leikbraut og rennibraut voru opnaĂ°ar viĂ° Grafarvogslaug.
+ 2003 - Winnie Mandela var dĂŠmd Ă sex ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir svik og ĂŸjĂłfnaĂ°.
+ 2005 - BĂșlgarĂa og RĂșmenĂa skrifuĂ°u undir samning um inngöngu Ă ESB.
+ 2005 - 107 lĂ©tust og 562 slösuĂ°ust ĂŸegar lest fĂłr Ășt af sporinu Ă Amagasaki Ă Japan.
+ 2009 - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 2012 - Agnes M. SigurĂ°ardĂłttir var kjörin fyrsti kvenbiskup Ăslensku ĂŸjóðkirkjunnar.
+ 2015 - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir Nepal og olli alls 9.018 dauĂ°sföllum Ă Nepal, Indlandi, KĂna og Bangladess.
+ 2019 â VladimĂr PĂștĂn, RĂșsslandsforseti, og Kim Jong-un, leiĂ°togi NorĂ°ur-KĂłreu, mĂŠttust ĂĄ fundi Ă Vladivostok.
+ 2021 â StĂșlknakĂłr frĂĄ HĂșsavĂk kom fram Ă myndbandi sem spilaĂ° var viĂ° afhendingu ĂskarsverĂ°launanna. StĂșlkurnar fluttu lagiĂ° HĂșsavĂk â My Home Town Ășr kvikmyndinni Eurovision Song Contest: The Story of Fire Saga ĂĄsamt sĂŠnsku söngkonunni Molly SandĂ©n''.
+ 2022 - StjĂłrn Twitter samĂŸykkti 44 milljarĂ°a dala tilboĂ° Elon Musk Ă fyrirtĂŠkiĂ°.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1214 - LoĂ°vĂk 9., Frakklandskonungur.
+ 1284 - JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 2. Englandskonungur (d. 1327).
+ 1599 - Oliver Cromwell, enskur einrĂŠĂ°isherra (d. 1658).
+ 1762 - Sveinn PĂĄlsson, Ăslenskur lĂŠknir (d. 1840).
+ 1772 - Sveinn PĂĄlsson, Ăslenskur lĂŠknir og nĂĄttĂșrufrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1840).
+ 1840 - Pjotr Iljitsj TsjaĂkovskĂj, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1893).
+ 1873 - FĂ©lix d'Herelle, kanadĂskur örverufrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1949).
+ 1874 - Guglielmo Marconi, Ătalskur uppfinningamaĂ°ur, handhafi NĂłbelsverĂ°launanna Ă eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i ĂĄriĂ° 1909 (d. 1937).
+ 1895 - Stanley Rous, enskur forseti FIFA (d. 1986).
+ 1898 - Stefania Turkewich, ĂșkraĂnskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1977).
+ 1900 - Wolfgang Ernst Pauli, austurrĂskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur, handhafi NĂłbelsverĂ°launanna Ă eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i ĂĄriĂ° 1945 (d. 1958).
+ 1903 - Andrej Kolmogorov, sovéskur stÊrðfrÊðingur (d. 1987).
+ 1917 - Ella Fitzgerald, bandarĂsk djasssöngkona (d. 1996).
+ 1927 - Albert Uderzo, franskur myndasöguhöfundur (d. 2020).
+ 1940 - Al Pacino, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1945 - Björn Ulvaeus, sÊnskur tónlistsarmaður.
+ 1946 - VladĂmĂr ZhĂrĂnovskĂj, rĂșssneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 2022).
+ 1947 - Johan Cruyff, hollenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 2016).
+ 1949 - Dominique Strauss-Kahn, franskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1969 - RenĂ©e Zellweger, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1971 - Hannes Bjarnason, Ăslenskur forsetaframbjóðandi.
+ 1975 - Hannes Sigurbjörn JĂłnsson, formaĂ°ur Körfuknattleikssambands Ăslands.
+ 1976 - Tim Duncan, bandarĂskur körfuknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1228 - JĂłlanda (Ăsabella 2.), drottning JerĂșsalem (f. 1212).
+ 1265 - HĂĄlfdan SĂŠmundsson, goĂ°orĂ°smaĂ°ur ĂĄ Keldum.
+ 1295 - Sancho 4., konungur KastilĂu (f. 1257).
+ 1647 - Matthias Gallas, hershöfĂ°ingi Ă her keisara Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkisins (f. 1584).
+ 1667 - Pedro de Betancur, spĂŠnskur trĂșboĂ°i (f. 1626).
+ 1692 - HĂłlmfrĂĂ°ur SigurĂ°ardĂłttir, prĂłfastsfrĂș Ă VatnsfirĂ°i (f. 1617).
+ 1694 - MagnĂșs JĂłnsson, lögmaĂ°ur norĂ°an og vestan (f. 1642).
+ 1890 - Theodor Möbius, ĂŸĂœskur norrĂŠnufrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1821).
+ 1908 - PĂ©tur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur ĂĂŸrĂłttafrömuĂ°ur (f. 1856).
+ 1911 - Emilio Salgari, Ătalskur rithöfundur (f. 1862).
+ 1950 - GuĂ°jĂłn SamĂșelsson, Ăslenskur arkitekt (f. 1887).
+ 1978 - Jökull Jakobsson, Ăslenskt leikskĂĄld (f. 1933).
+ 1995 - Ginger Rogers, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona (f. 1911).
+
+AprĂl
+26. aprĂl er 116. dagur ĂĄrsins (117. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 249 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1164 - Guido da Crema varĂ° Paskalis 3. mĂłtpĂĄfi.
+ 1478 - Flugumenn Pazzi-fjölskyldunnar rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ Lorenzo de' Medici og drĂĄpu bróður hans, Giuliano, Ă hĂĄtĂĂ°armessu Ă dĂłmkirkjunni Ă FlĂłrens.
+ 1607 - Fyrstu ensku landnemarnir komu ĂĄ land viĂ° Cape Henry Ă VirginĂu.
+ 1617 - RĂĄĂ°gjafi Mariu de'Medici, Frakklandsdrottningar, Concino Concini, var myrtur af Ăștsendurum LoĂ°vĂks 13. sem tĂłk stjĂłrn landsins Ă sĂnar hendur.
+ 1834 - OfsaveĂ°ur brast ĂĄ ĂĄ FaxaflĂła og fĂłrust ĂŸar 42 menn af tveimur skipum og 14 bĂĄtum.
+ 1903 - Knattspyrnufélagið Atlético Madrid er stofnað å Spåni.
+ 1909 - Björn JĂłnsson rĂĄĂ°herra skipaĂ°i ĂŸriggja manna rannsĂłknarnefnd til aĂ° rannsaka hagi Landsbanka Ăslands og var ĂŸaĂ° upphafiĂ° aĂ° Bankafarganinu.
+ 1920 - KanadĂska ĂsknattleiksliĂ°iĂ° Winnipeg Falcons, sem var aĂ° mestu skipaĂ° Vestur-Ăslendingum, varĂ° ĂlympĂumeistari Ă Antwerpen.
+ 1942 - Listamannadeilan: FormaĂ°ur menntamĂĄlarĂĄĂ°s, JĂłnas JĂłnsson frĂĄ Hriflu, opnaĂ°i myndlistarsĂœningu til hĂĄĂ°ungar ĂŸeim sem ĂŸar ĂĄttu verk Ă bĂșĂ°arglugga Gefjunar viĂ° AĂ°alstrĂŠti Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1944 - ViĂ° Tjarnargötu Ă ReykjavĂk fannst gamall öskuhaugur ĂŸegar tekinn var grunnur aĂ° nĂœju hĂșsi. Ă haugnum fundust bein margra dĂœra, meĂ°al annars svĂna og geirfugla. HaldiĂ° er aĂ° hĂ©r hafi öskuhaugur IngĂłlfs Arnarsonar fundist.
+ 1964 - Sansibar og Tangajika sameinuĂ°ust og TansanĂa var stofnuĂ°.
+ 1965 - BrasilĂska sjĂłnvarpsstöðin Rede Globo var stofnuĂ°.
+ 1966 - Akraborgin fĂłr sĂna sĂĂ°ustu ferĂ° til Borgarness.
+ 1970 - Samningur um stofnun AlĂŸjóðahugverkastofnunarinnar gekk Ă gildi.
+ 1971 - RĂkisstjĂłrn Tyrklands lĂœsti yfir umsĂĄtursĂĄstandi Ă 11 hĂ©ruĂ°um, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al Ankara, vegna mĂłtmĂŠla.
+ 1978 - Kvikmyndasjóður Ăslands og Kvikmyndasafn Ăslands voru stofnuĂ°.
+ 1984 - Iskandar af Johor varĂ° ĂĄttundi ĂŸjóðhöfĂ°ingi MalasĂu.
+ 1986 - TsjernĂłbĂœlslysiĂ°: Einn af ofnum kjarnorkuversins Ă TsjernĂłbĂœl sprakk.
+ 1987 - SĂŠnska fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° SAAB kynnti orrustuĂŸotuna Saab 39 Gripen.
+ 1989 - BanvĂŠnasti fellibylur allra tĂma, Daulatpur-Saturia-fellibylurinn, gekk yfir Dhaka-hĂ©raĂ° Ă Bangladess meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 1300 fĂłrust.
+ 1991 - Sorpa hĂłf starfsemi Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 1991 - Esko Aho varĂ° yngsti forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Finnlands, 36 ĂĄra gamall.
+ 1994 - 264 fĂłrust ĂŸegar China Airlines flug 140 hrapaĂ°i viĂ° Nagoya Ă Japan.
+ 1996 - Samningur um öryggismĂĄl var undirritaĂ°ur af fimm rĂkjum Ă SjanghĂŠ.
+ 1999 - Breska sjĂłnvarpskonan Jill Dando var skotin til bana viĂ° heimili sitt Ă Fulham.
+ 2002 - Fyrrum nemandi skaut 13 kennara, 2 nemendur, 1 lögreglumann og sĂĂ°ast sjĂĄlfan sig til bana Ă menntaskĂłla Ă Erfurt Ă ĂĂœskalandi.
+ 2003 - StĂłrbruni varĂ° Ă moskunni Islamic Center Ă Malmö. SlökkviliĂ°smenn urĂ°u fyrir grjĂłtkasti viĂ° störf sĂn.
+ 2004 - FjölmiĂ°lafrumvarpiĂ° var lagt fram ĂĄ AlĂŸingi.
+ 2005 - Sedrusbyltingin: SĂœrlendingar yfirgĂĄfu LĂbanon eftir aĂ° hafa haft ĂŸar her Ă 29 ĂĄr.
+ 2007 - BronsnĂłttin: ĂeirĂ°ir brutust Ășt Ă Tallinn Ă Eistlandi Ă kjölfar ĂŸess aĂ° borgaryfirvöld lĂ©tu fĂŠra umdeilda styttu.
+ 2012 - Fyrrum forseti LĂberĂu, Charles Taylor, var dĂŠmdur sekur um stuĂ°ning viĂ° strĂĂ°sglĂŠpi og glĂŠpi gegn mannkyni Ă Borgarastyrjöldinni Ă SĂerra LeĂłne.
+ 2019 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Avengers: Endgame var frumsĂœnd og varĂ° ein tekjuhĂŠsta mynd allra tĂma.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 121 - MarkĂșs ĂrelĂus, rĂłmverskur keisari og stĂłĂskur heimspekingur (d. 180)
+ 1564 - William Shakespeare, enskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1616).
+ 1575 - Maria de'Medici, drottning Frakklands, kona Hinriks 4. (d. 1642).
+ 1648 - PĂ©tur 2. konungur PortĂșgals (d. 1712).
+ 1660 - Henrik Ochsen, danskur embĂŠttismaĂ°ur (d. 1750).
+ 1710 - Thomas Reid, skoskur heimspekingur (d. 1796)
+ 1711 - David Hume, skoskur heimspekingur (d. 1776)
+ 1759 - SigurĂ°ur PĂ©tursson, Ăslenskt leikskĂĄld og sĂœslumaĂ°ur (d. 1827).
+ 1877 - JĂłhann EyfirĂ°ingur, Ăslenskur sjĂłmaĂ°ur (d. 1959).
+ 1887 - PĂ©tur HalldĂłrsson, borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur (d. 1940).
+ 1889 - Ludwig Wittgenstein, austurrĂskur heimspekingur (d. 1951).
+ 1894 - Rudolf Hess, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1987).
+ 1898 - Vicente Aleixandre, spÊnskt ljóðskåld og Nóbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1984).
+ 1906 - RegĂna ĂĂłrĂ°ardĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona (d. 1974).
+ 1917 - I. M. Pei, kĂnversk-bandarĂskur arkitekt.
+ 1933 - ĂĂłra FriĂ°riksdĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona.
+ 1940 - Giorgio Moroder, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld.
+ 1946 - VilhjĂĄlmur Ă. VilhjĂĄlmsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1950 - Einar Vilberg Hjartarson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1960 - Roger Andrew Taylor, breskur trommari (Duran Duran).
+ 1963 - Jet Li, kĂnverskur leikari.
+ 1964 - Björn ZoĂ«ga, Ăslenskur lĂŠknir.
+ 1965 - Kevin James, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1972 - RĂkharĂ°ur DaĂ°ason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1972 - SigrĂĂ°ur BenediktsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1980 - Channing Tatum, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1983 - Andri Freyr Hilmarsson, Ăslenskur dagskrĂĄrgerĂ°armaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 757 - StefĂĄn 2. pĂĄfi.
+ 1792 - JĂłn ArnĂłrsson eldri, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaĂ°ur (f. 1734).
+ 1865 - John Wilkes Booth, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1838).
+ 1910 - BjÞrnstjerne BjÞrnson, norskur rithöfundur (f. 1832).
+ 1920 - Srinivasa Ramanujan, indverskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1887).
+ 1938 - Edmund Husserl, ĂŸĂœskur heimspekingur (f. 1859).
+ 1966 - Tom Florie, bandarĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1897).
+ 1994 - AĂ°alheiĂ°ur BjarnfreĂ°sdĂłttir, Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄlakona (f. 1921).
+ 2003 - Yun Hyon-seok, suðurkóreskur mannréttindafrömuður (f. 1984).
+ 2018 - Yoshinobu Ishii, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1939)
+ 2018 - Ketill Larsen, Ăslenskur leikari (f. 1934).
+
+AprĂl
+27. aprĂl er 117. dagur ĂĄrsins (118. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 248 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1124 - DavĂĂ° 1. drap Alexander 1. og gerĂ°ist Skotakonungur.
+ 1241 - MongĂłlar sigruĂ°u Bela 4. af Ungverjalandi Ă orrustunni viĂ° Sajo. LandiĂ° var lagt meira og minna Ă auĂ°n.
+ 1296 - Orrustan viĂ° Dunbar: JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 1. vann sigur ĂĄ her Skota.
+ 1423 - BĂŠheimsku styrjaldirnar: TaborĂtar unnu Ășrslitasigur ĂĄ Ăștrakistum Ă orrustunni viĂ° Horic.
+ 1509 - JĂșlĂus 2. pĂĄfi setti Feneyjar Ă bann ĂŸar sem Feneyingar höfĂ°u hafnaĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° lĂĄta hluta Romagna-hĂ©raĂ°s Ă hendur pĂĄfastĂłls.
+ 1521 - Orrustan um Mactan: Ferdinand Magellan var drepinn à åtökum við höfðingjann Lapu-Lapu å Filippseyjum.
+ 1646 - Enska borgarastyrjöldin: Karl 1. Englandskonungur flĂșĂ°i frĂĄ Oxford.
+ 1650 - Orrustan viĂ° Carbisdale: Her konungssinna gerĂ°i innrĂĄs Ă Skotland frĂĄ Orkneyjum en var sigraĂ°ur af her SĂĄttmĂĄlamanna.
+ 1682 - PĂ©tur mikli var krĂœndur RĂșssakeisari tĂu ĂĄra gamall, ĂĄsamt hĂĄlfbróður sĂnum Ăvan.
+ 1830 - SimĂłn BolĂvar sagĂ°i af sĂ©r sem forseti BĂłlivĂu.
+ 1858 - PĂłstskipiĂ° Victor Emanuel, sem sĂĂ°ar var nefnt Arcturus, kom Ă fyrstu ĂĄĂŠtlunarferĂ° sĂna frĂĄ Kaupmannahöfn. MeĂ°al farĂŸega var Konrad Maurer, ĂŸĂœskur prĂłfessor, sem skrifaĂ°i bĂłk um för sĂna.
+ 1908 - SumarĂłlympĂuleikar voru settir Ă London.
+ 1915 - Gullfoss sigldi frĂĄ ReykjavĂk til New York og kom til baka mĂĄnuĂ°i sĂĂ°ar. Ăetta var fyrsta ferĂ° skips meĂ° Ăslenskri ĂĄhöfn ĂĄ milli Ăslands og AmerĂku frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ ĂĄ dögum Leifs heppna.
+ 1944 - Bestu hĂĄtĂĂ°arljóð fyrir lĂœĂ°veldishĂĄtĂĂ°ina ĂŸann 17. jĂșnĂ voru valin âLand mĂns föðurâ eftir JĂłhannes Ășr Kötlum og âHver ĂĄ sĂ©r fegra föðurlandâ eftir Unni BenediktsdĂłttur Bjarklind sem kallaĂ°i sig Huldu.
+ 1960 - Tógó fékk sjålfstÊði frå Frakklandi.
+ 1961 - SĂerra LeĂłne fĂ©kk sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ Bretum.
+ 1972 - HĂștar Ă her BĂșrĂșndĂ hĂłfu uppreisn. StjĂłrnin brĂĄst viĂ° meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° drepa tugi ĂŸĂșsunda HĂșta nĂŠstu daga.
+ 1977 - Ănnur goshrina Kröfluelda hĂłfst og stóð Ă ĂŸrjĂĄ daga.
+ 1978 - Daoud Khan, forseti Afganistan, var myrtur à valdaråni hersins. Afganska borgarastyrjöldin hófst à kjölfarið.
+ 1992 - Stuttmyndadagar Ă ReykjavĂk voru haldnir Ă fyrsta skipti ĂĄ HĂłtel Borg.
+ 1993 - Allir liĂ°smenn karlalandsliĂ°s SambĂu Ă knattspyrnu fĂłrust ĂŸegar flugvĂ©l ĂŸeirra hrapaĂ°i viĂ° Libreville Ă Gabon ĂĄ leiĂ° til Dakar.
+ 2001 - 17 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar herlögregla skaut ĂĄ mĂłtmĂŠlendur Ă Kabylie Ă AlsĂr.
+ 2005 - Airbus A380, stĂŠrsta farĂŸegaĂŸota heims til ĂŸessa, fĂłr Ă sitt fyrsta reynsluflug frĂĄ Toulouse Ă Frakklandi.
+ 2007 - HĂłpur vĂsindamanna Ă Genf undir stjĂłrn StĂ©phane Udry uppgötvaĂ°i lĂfvĂŠnlegu plĂĄnetuna Gliese 581d.
+ 2010 - Standard & Poor's fĂŠrĂ°i lĂĄnshĂŠfismat Grikklands niĂ°ur Ă ruslflokk 4 dögum eftir virkjun 45 milljarĂ°a evra björgunarpakka frĂĄ EvrĂłpusambandinu og AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðnum.
+ 2011 - LandamĂŠradeilur TaĂlands og KambĂłdĂu: Til skotbardaga kom viĂ° kmerahofiĂ° Prasat Ta Muen Thom.
+ 2013 - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar ĂĄ Ăslandi. FramsĂłknarflokkurinn vann stĂłrsigur og bĂŠtti viĂ° sig 10 ĂŸingmönnum.
+ 2014 - PĂĄfarnir JĂłhannes 23. og JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. voru teknir Ă dĂœrlinga tölu.
+ 2018 - Kim Jong-un fĂłr yfir hlutlausa beltiĂ° og til SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu til fundar viĂ° Moon Jae-in. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta sinn sem norĂ°urkĂłreskur leiĂ°togi fĂłr yfir beltiĂ°.
+ 2018 - LeikjakerfiĂ° Nintendo Labo var sett ĂĄ markaĂ°.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1650 - Charlotte Amalie af Hessen-Kassel, Danadrottning (d. 1714).
+ 1759 - Mary Wollstonecraft, enskur rithöfundur og baråttukona (d. 1797).
+ 1791 - Samuel Morse, bandarĂskur uppfinningamaĂ°ur (d. 1872).
+ 1820 - Herbert Spencer, enskur félagsfrÊðingur og heimspekingur (d. 1903).
+ 1822 - Ulysses S. Grant, 18. forseti Bandarikjanna (d. 1885).
+ 1873 - JĂłn StefĂĄnsson (Filippseyjakappi), Ăslenskur hermaĂ°ur (d. 1932).
+ 1896 - Wallace Carothers, bandarĂskur efnafrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1937).
+ 1932 - Anouk Aimee, frönsk leikkona.
+ 1932 - Casey Kasem, bandarĂskur ĂștvarpsmaĂ°ur (d. 2014).
+ 1949 - Hiroji Imamura, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1950 - Jakob Björnsson, bÊjarstjóri å Akureyri.
+ 1955 - Katsuyuki Kawachi, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1967 - VilhjĂĄlmur Alexander Hollandskonungur.
+ 1971 - MaĆgorzata KoĆŒuchowska, pĂłlsk leikkona.
+ 1975 - SigĂŸĂłr JĂșlĂusson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1984 - Hannes ĂĂłr HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1985 - DĂłra StefĂĄnsdĂłttir, Ăslensk knattspyrnukona.
+ 1986 - Dinara Safina, rĂșssnesk tennisleikkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1404 - Filippus 2. hertogi af BĂșrgund (f. 1342).
+ 1521 - Ferdinand Magellan, portĂșgalskur landkönnuĂ°ur (f. 1480).
+ 1605 - LeĂł 11. pĂĄfi.
+ 1641 - Wilhelm von Rath, ĂŸĂœskur hermaĂ°ur (f. um 1585).
+ 1702 - Jean Bart, franskur flotaforingi (f. 1651).
+ 1714 - Charlotte Amalie af Hessen-Kassel, Danadrottning (f. 1650).
+ 1796 - JĂłn ArnĂłrsson yngri, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaĂ°ur (f. 1740).
+ 1882 - Ralph Waldo Emerson, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1803).
+ 1937 - Antonio Gramsci, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1891).
+ 1959 - Andrew Fire, bandarĂskur lĂffrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1964 - Ălafur TĂșbals, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1897).
+ 1972 - JĂłhannes Ășr Kötlum, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1899).
+ 1972 - Kwame Nkrumah, fyrsti forseti Gana (f. 1909).
+ 1991 - Rob-Vel, franskur teiknimyndasagnahöfundur (f. 1909).
+ 2004 - JĂłnas SvafĂĄr, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1925).
+ 2009 - Tomohiko Ikoma, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1932).
+
+AprĂl
+28. aprĂl er 118. dagur ĂĄrsins (119. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 248 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1118 - ĂorlĂĄkur RunĂłlfsson var vĂgĂ°ur SkĂĄlholtsbiskup Ă Danmörku.
+ 1180 - Filippus ĂgĂșstus, rĂkisarfi Frakklands, giftist Ăsabellu af Hainaut.
+ 1192 - AssassĂnar myrtu KonrĂĄĂ° frĂĄ Montferrat Ă TĂœros nokkrum dögum eftir aĂ° hann var kjörinn konungur JerĂșsalem.
+ 1237 - BĂŠjarbardagi var hĂĄĂ°ur Ă BorgarfirĂ°i milli sveita Ăorleifs ĂĂłrĂ°arsonar og Sturlu Sighvatssonar. Yfir ĂŸrjĂĄtĂu manns fĂ©llu ĂŸar.
+ 1357 - FriĂ°ur komst ĂĄ milli feĂ°ganna MagnĂșsar EirĂkssonar og EirĂks MagnĂșssonar ĂŸannig aĂ° EirĂkur fĂ©kk SkĂĄn, Finnland, Austur-Gautland og hluta SmĂĄlanda.
+ 1789 - Skipverjar ĂĄ HMS Bounty gerĂ°u uppreisn gegn yfirmönnum sĂnum.
+ 1796 - Frönsku byltingarstrĂĂ°in: SamiĂ° var um vopnahlĂ©Ă° Ă Cherasco milli NapĂłleons og Savoja.
+ 1819 - Konungur fyrirskipaĂ°i aĂ° tugthĂșsiĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk yrĂ°i embĂŠttisbĂșstaĂ°ur stiftamtmanns. NĂș er ĂŸar skrifstofa forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra.
+ 1877 - Heimavöllur Chelsea F.C., Stamford Bridge, var opnaður à London.
+ 1965 - Haraldur Björnsson ĂĄtti fimmtĂu ĂĄra leikafmĂŠli og var haldiĂ° upp ĂĄ ĂŸaĂ° hjĂĄ LeikfĂ©lagi ReykjavĂkur meĂ° sĂœningu ĂĄ ĂvintĂœri ĂĄ gönguför.
+ 1969 - Charles de Gaulle sagði af sér forsetaembÊtti à Frakklandi og Georges Pompidou tók við.
+ 1971 - DagblaĂ°iĂ° Il Manifesto hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ ĂtalĂu.
+ 1977 - DĂłmstĂłll Ă Stuttgart dĂŠmdi ĂŸrjĂĄ meĂ°limi Rote Armee Fraktion, Andreas Baader, Gudrun Ensslin og Jan-Carl Raspe, Ă lĂfstĂĂ°arfangelsi.
+ 1980 - Fyrsti Game & Watch-leikurinn kom Ășt hjĂĄ Nintendo.
+ 1984 - Ăslenska fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Te og Kaffi var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1989 - JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. pĂĄfi hĂłf opinbera heimsĂłkn til Madagaskar, SambĂu, MalavĂ og RĂ©union.
+ 1992 - Einu tvö JĂșgĂłslavĂulĂœĂ°veldin sem eftir voru, Svartfjallaland og SerbĂa, mynduĂ°u SambandslĂœĂ°veldiĂ° JĂșgĂłslavĂu sem sĂĂ°ar var kallaĂ° SerbĂa og Svartfjallaland.
+ 1993 - AlĂŸingi samĂŸykkti aukaaĂ°ild landsins aĂ° Vestur-EvrĂłpusambandinu.
+ 1993 - Carlo Azeglio Ciampi varĂ° fyrsti forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra ĂtalĂu sem ekki ĂĄtti sĂŠti ĂĄ ĂŸingi.
+ 1995 - 101 fĂłrst ĂŸegar gassprenging varĂ° ĂĄ byggingarsvĂŠĂ°i Ă Daegu Ă SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu.
+ 1996 - BlóðbaĂ°iĂ° Ă Port Arthur: Martin Bryant drap 35 ĂĄ ferĂ°amannastaĂ° Ă TasmanĂu.
+ 1996 - Yfir 60 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar sprengja sprakk Ă Bhaiperu Ă Pakistan.
+ 2001 - BandarĂkjamaĂ°urinn Dennis Tito varĂ° fyrsti ferĂ°amaĂ°urinn Ă geimnum ĂŸegar hann fĂłr meĂ° SojĂșs TM-32.
+ 2004 - Fyrstu myndirnar sem sĂœndu pyntingar fanga Ă fangabĂșĂ°unum Ă Abu Ghraib birtust Ă fjölmiĂ°lum.
+ 2007 - AFL StarfsgreinafĂ©lag var myndaĂ° meĂ° sameiningu ĂŸriggja stĂ©ttarfĂ©laga ĂĄ Austurlandi.
+ 2007 - 55 lĂ©tust Ă hryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄsum Ă Karbala Ă Ărak.
+ 2008 - Indland setti nĂœtt heimsmet meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° senda 10 gervihnetti ĂĄ sporbaug um jörĂ°u Ă einu geimskoti.
+ 2008 - AusturrĂkismaĂ°urinn Josef Fritzl jĂĄtaĂ°i aĂ° hafa haldiĂ° dĂłttur sinni fanginni Ă 24 ĂĄr og ĂĄtt 7 börn meĂ° henni.
+ 2009 - Ăslenska varĂ°skipiĂ° ĂĂłr var sjĂłsett Ă Chile.
+ 2011 - SprengjutilrĂŠĂ°iĂ° Ă Marrakess 2011: Sprengja sprakk ĂĄ kaffihĂșsi Ă Marrakess Ă MarokkĂł meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 17 lĂ©tust.
+ 2014 - BandarĂkin hĂłfu aĂ° beita viĂ°skiptaĂŸvingunum gegn RĂșsslandi vegna deilunnar um KrĂmskaga.
+ 2019 â Ăingkosningar fĂłru fram ĂĄ SpĂĄni. SpĂŠnski sĂłsĂalĂski verkamannaflokkurinn, flokkur Pedro SĂĄnchez forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra, hlaut um 30 prĂłsent atkvĂŠĂ°a, mest allra flokka.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1442 - JĂĄtvarĂ°ur 4. Englandskonungur (d. 1483).
+ 1758 - James Monroe, BandarĂkjaforseti (d. 1831).
+ 1838 - Tobias Asser, hollenskur lögfrÊðingur (d. 1913).
+ 1889 - Antonio Oliveira de Salazar, einrĂŠĂ°isherra Ă PortĂșgal (d. 1970).
+ 1906 - Kurt Gödel, tékkneskur rökfrÊðingur (d. 1978).
+ 1922 - Alistair MacLean, skoskur rithöfundur (d. 1987).
+ 1931 - Takashi Mizuno, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1937 - Saddam Hussein, forseti Ăraks (d. 2006).
+ 1938 - Hildur HĂĄkonardĂłttir, Ăslensk myndlistarkona og rithöfundur.
+ 1948 - Terry Pratchett, enskur rithöfundur (d. 2015).
+ 1949 - Paul Guilfoyle, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 1950 - Jay Leno, bandarĂskur ĂŸĂĄttastjĂłrnandi.
+ 1952 - Mary McDonnell, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1954 - Elena Kagan, bandarĂskur dĂłmari.
+ 1960 - Ian Rankin, skoskur rithöfundur.
+ 1960 - JĂłn PĂĄll Sigmarsson, Ăslenskur aflraunamaĂ°ur (d. 1993).
+ 1969 - ElliĂ°i Vignisson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1970 - Diego Simeone, argentĂnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur og ĂŸjĂĄlfari.
+ 1972 - Cauet, franskur sjĂłnvarpsmaĂ°ur.
+ 1972 - Edwin Ifeanyi, kamerĂșnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1972 - Koji Kondo, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 2003).
+ 1973 - Pauleta, portĂșgalskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1974 - Penélope Cruz, spÊnsk leikkona.
+ 1977 - RoniĂ©liton Pereira Santos, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1981 - Jessica Alba, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1988 - Juan Mata, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1994 - Milos Degenek, ĂĄstralskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1074 - Sveinn ĂstrĂĂ°arson, Danakonungur (f. um 1019).
+ 1250 - Ormur Björnsson, goðorðsmaður å Breiðabólstað, sonur Hallveigar Ormsdóttur (f. um 1219).
+ 1641 - Hans Georg af Arnim-Boitzenburg, ĂŸĂœskur herforingi (f. 1583).
+ 1772 - Johann Friedrich Struensee, ĂŸĂœskur lĂŠknir (f. 1737).
+ 1892 - Ludvig Holstein-Holsteinborg, danskur forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra (f. 1815).
+ 1918 - Gavrilo Princip, bosnĂuserbneskur hryĂ°juverkamaĂ°ur (f. 1894).
+ 1922 - Paul Deschanel, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1855).
+ 1945 - Benito Mussolini, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og einrĂŠĂ°isherra (f. 1883).
+ 1954 - LĂ©on Jouhaux, franskur verkalĂœĂ°sleiĂ°togi (f. 1879).
+ 1973 - Robert Buron, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1910).
+ 1977 - Sepp Herberger, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1897).
+ 1992 - Francis Bacon, Ărskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1909).
+ 2012 - Matilde Camus, spĂŠnskt skĂĄld (f. 1919).
+ 2015 - Einar Ăorsteinn Ăsgeirsson, Ăslenskur arkitekt (f. 1942)
+
+AprĂl
+29. aprĂl er 119. dagur ĂĄrsins (120. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 246 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 1106 - JĂłn Ăgmundsson var vĂgĂ°ur biskup ĂĄ HĂłlum.
+ 1623 - Ellefu hollensk skip lögĂ°u Ășr höfn og hugĂ°ust nĂĄ völdum Ă PerĂș.
+ 1670 - Emilio Altieri varĂ° Klemens 10. pĂĄfi.
+ 1672 - LoĂ°vĂk 14. gerĂ°i innrĂĄs Ă Holland.
+ 1688 - FriĂ°rik 1. af PrĂșsslandi varĂ° kjörfursti Ă Brandenborg.
+ 1769 - James Watt fĂ©kk einkaleyfi ĂĄ endurbĂŠttri ĂștgĂĄfu af gufuvĂ©linni.
+ 1899 - Kristilegt fĂ©lag ungra kvenna, KFUK, var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1916 - Bretar brutu PĂĄskauppreisnina ĂĄ Ărlandi ĂĄ bak aftur.
+ 1945 - FĂ©lag Ăslenskra rithöfunda var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1961 - AlĂŸjóðlegi nĂĄttĂșruverndarsjóðurinn var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 1967 - Breskur togari Ă haldi vegna landhelgisbrots sigldi Ășr höfn Ă ReykjavĂk meĂ° tvo Ăslenska lögregluĂŸjĂłna um borĂ° ĂĄleiĂ°is til Bretlands. Hann nĂĄĂ°ist sĂĂ°ar um daginn.
+ 1967 - Sparisjóður alĂŸĂœĂ°u var stofnaĂ°ur ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1970 - BandarĂkin sendu herliĂ° til KambĂłdĂu til aĂ° berjast viĂ° VĂet Kong.
+ 1982 - SrĂ JajevardenepĂșra varĂ° stjĂłrnsĂœsluleg höfuĂ°borg SrĂ Lanka.
+ 1982 - Nelson Mandela var fluttur à Pollsmoor-fangelsi à Höfðaborg eftir åtjån åra fangavist å Robben Island.
+ 1988 - Fyrsta reglulega flug Boeing 747-400-vélar fór fram.
+ 1991 - Bangladessfellibylurinn olli ĂŸvĂ aĂ° 138.000 manns fĂłrust.
+ 1992 - UppĂŸotin Ă Los Angeles 1992 hĂłfust eftir aĂ° tveir lögreglumenn sem gengu Ă skrokk ĂĄ Rodney King voru sĂœknaĂ°ir fyrir rĂ©tti.
+ 1997 - Efnavopnasamningurinn tĂłk gildi. Hann skyldar aĂ°ilarĂki til aĂ° hĂŠtta ĂŸrĂłun, framleiĂ°slu, söfnun og notkun efnavopna.
+ 2002 - NĂœ einkatölva frĂĄ Apple, eMac, var sett ĂĄ markaĂ°.
+ 2002 - Ăjóðhagsstofnun var lögĂ° niĂ°ur ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 2003 - BandarĂkjaher tilkynnti aĂ° hann hygĂ°ist draga herliĂ° sitt frĂĄ SĂĄdĂ-ArabĂu.
+ 2006 - Norðeyjagöngin voru opnuð à FÊreyjum.
+ 2011 - Konunglegt brĂșĂ°kaup var haldiĂ° Ă LundĂșnum ĂŸegar VilhjĂĄlmur Bretaprins gekk aĂ° eiga Catherine Elizabeth Middleton. TaliĂ° er aĂ° 2 milljarĂ°ar manna hafi fylgst meĂ° brĂșĂ°kaupinu Ă sjĂłnvarpi.
+ 2015 - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigĂ°ismĂĄlastofnunin tilkynnti aĂ° rauĂ°um hundum hefĂ°i veriĂ° ĂștrĂœmt Ă AmerĂku.
+ 2016 - 13 fĂłrust ĂŸegar ĂŸyrla af gerĂ°inni Airbus H225 Super Puma hrapaĂ°i viĂ° TurĂžy Ă Noregi.
+ 2021 - GeimferĂ°astofnun KĂna skaut fyrsta hluta Tiangong-geimstöðvarinnar ĂĄ loft.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1636 - Esaias Reusner, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1679).
+ 1818 - Alexander 2. RĂșssakeisari (d. 1881).
+ 1823 - Konrad Maurer, ĂŸĂœskur sagnfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1902).
+ 1841 - JĂłn JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (d. 1883).
+ 1851 - IndriĂ°i Einarsson, Ăslenskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1939).
+ 1863 - William Randolph Hearst, bandarĂskur Ăștgefandi (d. 1951).
+ 1876 - Zauditu, keisaraynja Ă EĂŸĂĂłpĂu (d. 1930).
+ 1888 - Richard Thors, Ăslenskur framkvĂŠmdastjĂłri (d. 1970).
+ 1893 - Harold Urey, bandarĂskur efnafrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1981).
+ 1895 - Vladimir Propp, rĂșssneskur ĂŸjóðfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1970).
+ 1897 - KarĂłlĂna GuĂ°mundsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur vefari (d. 1981).
+ 1899 - Duke Ellington, bandarĂskur djasspĂanisti (d. 1974).
+ 1901 - Showa keisari Japans (d. 1989).
+ 1917 - Uri Bronfenbrenner, bandarĂskur sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 2005).
+ 1943 - MagnĂșs TĂłmasson, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 1953 - Jon Gunnar JĂžrgensen, norskur textafrĂŠĂ°ingur.
+ 1954 - Jerry Seinfeld, bandarĂskur uppistandari.
+ 1955 - GrĂ©tar Mar JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1957 - Daniel Day-Lewis, breskur leikari.
+1958 - AuĂ°ur Ava ĂlafsdĂłttir, Ăslenskir listfrĂŠĂ°ingur og rithöfundur.
+ 1964 - LĂșĂ°vĂk Bergvinsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1966 - RamĂłn Medina Bello, argentĂnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1968 - Kolinda Grabar-KitaroviÄ, krĂłatĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1970 - Andre Agassi, bandarĂskur tennisleikari.
+ 1970 - Uma Thurman, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1972 - Takahiro Yamada, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1973 - RĂșnar Freyr GĂslason, Ăslenskur leikari.
+ 1974 - Sigvaldi âSvaliâ KaldalĂłns ĂștvarpsmaĂ°ur ĂĄ K100.
+ 1974 - Anggun, indĂłnesĂsk söngkona.
+ 1977 - Svavar PĂ©tur Eysteinsson, ĂŸekktur sem Prins PĂłlĂł, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur
+ 1978 - Frosti Logason, ĂștvarpsmaĂ°ur X 977 og fyrrum gĂtarleikari MĂnus.
+ 1980 - Nicole Steinwedell, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1980 - Bre Blair, kanadĂsk leikkona.
+ 1981 - Ragnhildur Steinunn JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslensk dagskrĂĄrgerĂ°arkona.
+ 1994 - DavĂĂ° Arnar Sigvaldason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 2007 - SofĂa SpĂĄnarprinsessa.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 1326 - Blanka af BĂșrgund, fyrrverandi drottning Frakklands, fyrsta kona Karls 4. (f. um 1296).
+ 1376 - NikulĂĄs Ăorsteinsson, prestur Ă Holti Ă ĂnundarfirĂ°i, veginn Ă Holtskirkju ĂĄ PĂ©tursmessu.
+ 1380 - Heilög KatrĂn frĂĄ Siena (f. 1347).
+ 1417 - LoĂ°vĂk 2. NapĂłlĂkonungur (f. 1377).
+ 1937 - Wallace Carothers, bandarĂskur efnafrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1896).
+ 1951 - Ludwig Wittgenstein, austurrĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1889).
+ 1980 - Alfred Hitchcock, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (f. 1899).
+ 2005 - Gils GuĂ°mundsson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1914).
+ 2008 - Albert Hofmann, svissneskur efnafrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1906).
+ 2012 - Hafsteinn GuĂ°mundsson, Ăslenskur ĂĂŸrĂłttakennari og ĂŠskulĂœĂ°sfrömuĂ°ur (f. 1923).
+ 2014 - Bob Hoskins, enskur leikari (f. 1942).
+ 2018 - Luis GarcĂa Meza Tejada, einrĂŠĂ°isherra Ă BĂłlivĂu (f. 1929).
+ 2020 - Roger Westman, enskur arkitekt (f. 1939).
+
+AprĂl
+30. aprĂl er 120. dagur ĂĄrsins (121. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 245 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+ 711 - Sveitir MĂĄra lentu viĂ° GĂbraltar og hĂłfu innrĂĄs sĂna Ă SpĂĄn.
+ 1250 - LoĂ°vĂk 9. Frakkakonungur var leystur Ășr haldi Egypta gegn ĂŸvĂ aĂ° greiĂ°a lausnargjald, milljĂłn dĂnara og borgina Damietta sem hann hafĂ°i ĂĄĂ°ur hertekiĂ°.
+ 1429 - UmsĂĄtriĂ° um OrlĂ©ans: JĂłhanna af Ărk kom til OrlĂ©ans meĂ° varaliĂ°.
+ 1632 - ĂrjĂĄtĂu ĂĄra strĂĂ°iĂ°: SvĂar unnu sigur ĂĄ her keisarans Ă orrustunni viĂ° Lech.
+ 1789 - George Washington sĂłr embĂŠttiseiĂ° og varĂ° ĂŸar meĂ° fyrsti forseti BandarĂkjanna.
+ 1838 - NĂkaragva sagĂ°i sig Ășr RĂkjasambandi MiĂ°-AmerĂku og lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i.
+ 1917 - ĂrĂșgvĂŠska knattspyrnufĂ©lagiĂ° Progreso var stofnaĂ°.
+ 1930 - Helga TĂłmassyni var vikiĂ° Ășr starfi yfirlĂŠknis ĂĄ Kleppi Ă kjölfar StĂłru bombu.
+ 1939 - Franklin D. Roosevelt kom fram Ă sjĂłnvarpi, fyrstur bandarĂskra forseta.
+ 1945 - SovĂ©tmenn nĂĄĂ°u ĂŸinghĂșsinu Ă BerlĂn og flögguĂ°u sovĂ©ska fĂĄnanum ĂĄ ĂŸaki ĂŸess.
+ 1945 - BandarĂkjamenn lögĂ°u MĂŒnchen undir sig.
+ 1945 - Adolf Hitler, kanslari ĂĂœskalands og eiginkona hans Eva Braun frömdu sjĂĄlfsmorĂ° meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° taka blĂĄsĂœru Ă loftvarnabyrgi Ă BerlĂn.
+ 1948 - Fyrsti Land Rover-jeppinn var sĂœndur ĂĄ bĂlasĂœningu Ă Amsterdam.
+ 1957 - NorrĂŠnu skĂĂ°alandskeppninni lauk. ĂĂĄ höfĂ°u 14% Ăslendinga, eĂ°a um 23.000 manns, tekiĂ° ĂŸĂĄtt og gengiĂ° 4 km ĂĄ skĂĂ°um. Ă ĂlafsfirĂ°i var ĂŸĂĄttakan 67%.
+ 1966 - HĂłtel LoftleiĂ°ir var opnaĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk aĂ°eins 16 mĂĄnuĂ°um eftir aĂ° framkvĂŠmdir hĂłfust.
+ 1975 - VĂetnamstrĂĂ°inu lauk meĂ° falli SaĂgon Ă hendur NorĂ°ur-VĂetnama.
+ 1978 - Nur Muhammad Taraki lĂœsti yfir stofnun AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldisins Afganistan.
+ 1980 - Beatrix Hollandsdrottning tĂłk viĂ° krĂșnunni af móður sinni.
+ 1982 - Bijon Setu-blóðbaðið: Sextån munkar og nunnur Ananda Marga voru myrt à Vestur-Bengal.
+ 1988 - CĂ©line Dion sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva 1988 fyrir Sviss meĂ° laginu âNe partez pas sans moiâ.
+ 1988 - HeimssĂœningin World Expo 88 var opnuĂ° Ă Brisbane Ă ĂstralĂu.
+ 1991 - RĂkisstjĂłrn SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokks og AlĂŸĂœĂ°uflokks tĂłk viĂ° stjĂłrnartaumunum. DavĂĂ° Oddsson varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra.
+ 1993 - AlĂŸingi samĂŸykkti fyrstu stjĂłrnsĂœslulög ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸar sem kveĂ°iĂ° var ĂĄ um meginreglur opinberrar stjĂłrnsĂœslu. MeĂ°al ĂŸess sem var lögfest voru jafnrĂŠĂ°isreglan og andmĂŠlarĂ©ttur viĂ° meĂ°ferĂ° opinberra mĂĄla.
+ 1993 - Tennisstjarnan Monica Seles var stungin Ă bakiĂ° af aĂ°dĂĄanda Steffi Graf Ă keppni Ă Hamborg.
+ 1993 - HĂłpur fĂłlks mĂłtmĂŠlti fyrrum forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra ĂtalĂu, Bettino Craxi, meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° henda Ă hann smĂĄpeningum ĂŸegar hann kom Ășt af hĂłteli Ă RĂłm.
+ 1993 - CERN lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir aĂ° Veraldarvefurinn skyldi vera aĂ°gengilegur öllum ĂĄn endurgjalds.
+ 1994 - ĂrbĂŠjarlaug var opnuĂ°.
+ 1994 - Paul Harrington og Charlie McGettigan sigruĂ°u Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva fyrir Ărland meĂ° laginu âRock 'N' Roll Kidsâ.
+ 1995 - BandarĂkjastjĂłrn hĂŠtti fjĂĄrmögnun NSFNET. Ăar meĂ° var InternetiĂ° orĂ°iĂ° aĂ° fullu einkavĂŠtt.
+ 1999 - KambĂłdĂa gekk Ă Samband SuĂ°austur-AsĂurĂkja.
+ 1999 - ĂriĂ°ja naglasprengja David Copeland sprakk ĂĄ krĂĄ Ă Soho Ă London meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° ĂłfrĂsk kona lĂ©st auk tveggja vina hennar og 70 sĂŠrĂ°ust.
+ 2000 - Faustina Kowalska var lĂœst dĂœrlingur Ă kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunni.
+ 2004 - Umdeild breyting ĂĄ Ăștlendingalögunum var samĂŸykkt ĂĄ AlĂŸingi.
+ 2007 - Reykingabann ĂĄ almannafĂŠri og vinnustöðum tĂłk gildi ĂĄ NorĂ°ur-Ărlandi.
+ 2009 - Sjö lĂ©tust og fjöldi slasaĂ°ist ĂŸegar maĂ°ur reyndi aĂ° aka bĂl ĂĄ miklum hraĂ°a ĂĄ hollensku konungsfjölskylduna Ă nĂĄgrenni Apeldoorn.
+ 2009 - Ăslenska fjĂĄrfestingafĂ©lagiĂ° Fons var tekiĂ° til gjaldĂŸrotaskipta.
+ 2010 - SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂŠttirnir Steindinn okkar hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ Stöð 2.
+ 2013 - VilhjĂĄlmur Alexander varĂ° konungur Hollands.
+ 2015 - KönnunarfariĂ° MESSENGER rakst ĂĄ plĂĄnetuna MerkĂșr eftir aĂ° hafa veriĂ° ĂĄ braut um hana frĂĄ 2011.
+ 2015 - ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ungverjalands, Viktor OrbĂĄn, lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir aĂ° landiĂ° ĂŠtti aĂ° taka aftur upp dauĂ°arefsingu og reisa fangabĂșĂ°ir fyrir Ăłlöglega innflytjendur.
+ 2017 - GeimflutningafyrirtĂŠkiĂ° SpaceX endurnĂœtti Ă fyrsta sinn eldflaug Ă geimskoti.
+ 2019 â Akihito Japanskeisari sagĂ°i af sĂ©r sökum aldurs og sonur hans, krĂłnprinsinn Naruhito, settist ĂĄ keisarastĂłl.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1245 - Filippus 3. Frakkakonungur (d. 1285).
+ 1310 - KasimĂr 3. PĂłllandskonungur (d. 1368).
+ 1662 - MarĂa 2. Englandsdrottning (d. 1694).
+ 1777 - Carl Friedrich Gauss, ĂŸĂœskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 1855).
+ 1883 - Jaroslav Haƥek, tékkneskur rithöfundur (d. 1923).
+ 1893 - Joachim von Ribbentrop, utanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°herra ĂĂœskalands ĂĄ tĂmum ĂŸriĂ°a rĂkisins. (d. 1946).
+ 1899 - Bart McGhee, bandarĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 1979).
+ 1902 - Peregrino Anselmo, ĂșrĂșgvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (d. 1975).
+ 1906 - Ăorvaldur SkĂșlason, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (d. 1984).
+ 1908 - Bjarni Benediktsson, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ăslands (d. 1970).
+ 1909 - JĂșlĂana Hollandsdrottning (d. 2004).
+ 1913 - Yasuo Suzuki, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1916 - Claude Shannon, bandarĂskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (d. 2001).
+ 1926 - Jakob Björnsson, Ăslenskur orkumĂĄlastjĂłri (d. 2020).
+ 1933 - Ăorgeir Ăorgeirsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndagerĂ°armaĂ°ur og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi (d. 2003).
+ 1946
+ Karl 16. GĂșstaf SvĂakonungur.
+ Sven Nordqvist, sÊnskur barnabókahöfundur.
+ 1949 - AntĂłnio Guterres, portĂșgalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og aĂ°alritari SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna.
+ 1956 - Lars von Trier, danskur leikstjĂłri.
+ 1959 - Stephen Harper, kanadĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur.
+ 1961 - Isiah Thomas, bandarĂskur körfuknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 1961 - ArnĂłr GuĂ°johnsen, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1964 - Lorenzo Staelens, belgĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1967 - Philipp Kirkorov, bĂșlgarskur söngvari.
+ 1969 - Brynhildur PĂ©tursdĂłttir, fyrrverandi alĂŸingiskona.
+ 1972 - Hiroaki Morishima, japanskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1973 - Naomi Novik, bandarĂskur rithöfundur.
+ 1974 - StefĂĄn I. ĂĂłrhallsson, Ăslenskur slagverksleikari.
+ 1981 - Peter Nalitch, rĂșssneskur söngvari.
+ 1982 - Kirsten Dunst, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1986 - Dianna Agron, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1991 - Victor PĂĄlsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 65 - Lucanus, rĂłmverskt skĂĄld (f. 39).
+ 1341 - JĂłhann 3. hertogi af Bretagne (f. 1286).
+ 1632 - Sigmundur 3., konungur PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldisins og SvĂĂŸjóðar (f. 1566).
+ 1632 - Tilly, ĂŸĂœskur herforingi Ă ĂrjĂĄtĂu ĂĄra strĂĂ°inu (f. 1559).
+ 1883 - Ădouard Manet, franskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1832).
+ 1899 - EirĂkur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur frĂŠĂ°imaĂ°ur (f. 1822).
+ 1945 - Adolf Hitler, einrĂŠĂ°isherra Ă ĂĂœskalandi (f. 1889).
+ 1945 - Eva Braun, eiginkona Adolfs Hitlers (f. 1912).
+ 1945 - Blondi, hundur Adolfs Hitler.
+ 1978 - Haraldur JĂłnasson, Ăslenskur bĂłndi (f. 1895).
+ 1989 - Sergio Leone, Ătalskur leikstjĂłri (f. 1929).
+ 1996 - Juan Hohberg, argentĂnskur/ĂșrĂșgvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur og -ĂŸjĂĄlfari (f. 1926).
+ 2013 - Helgi SigurĂ°ur GuĂ°mundsson, Ăslenskur athafnamaĂ°ur (f. 1948).
+ 2017 - JidĂ©hem, belgĂskur myndasöguhöfundur (f. 1935)
+
+AprĂl
+ĂriĂ° 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var 88. ĂĄr 20. aldar og hlaupĂĄr sem hĂłfst ĂĄ föstudegi samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+
+JanĂșar
+
+ 1. janĂșar - Kennitölur voru teknar upp ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă staĂ° nafnnĂșmera.
+ 1. janĂșar - StĂŠrsta lĂștherska trĂșfĂ©lag BandarĂkjanna, EvangelĂska lĂștherska kirkjan Ă AmerĂku, var stofnaĂ°.
+ 2. janĂșar - EfnahagsumbĂŠtur MikhaĂls Gorbatsjovs, Perestrojka, hĂłfust Ă SovĂ©trĂkjunum.
+ 7.-8. janĂșar - Orrustan um hĂŠĂ° 3234 var hĂĄĂ° milli sovĂ©skra hermanna og mĂșjaheddĂna Ă Afganistan.
+ 13. janĂșar - Forseti TĂŠvan, Chiang Ching-kuo, lĂ©st og varaforsetinn, Lee Teng-hui, tĂłk viĂ°.
+ 13. janĂșar - Kalksteinsdrangurinn Sommerspiret ĂĄ MĂžns Klint Ă Danmörku hrundi Ă hafiĂ°.
+ 15. janĂșar - Lögreglu og mĂłtmĂŠlendum lenti saman viĂ° Klettamoskuna Ă JerĂșsalem.
+ 22. janĂșar - Paul Watson, skipstjĂłra og forsprakka Sea Shepherd-samtakanna, var vĂsaĂ° Ășr landi, gefiĂ° aĂ° sök aĂ° hafa lĂĄtiĂ° sökkva hvalbĂĄtunum tveimur Ă ReykjavĂkurhöfn ĂĄriĂ° 1986.
+ 25. janĂșar - Varaforseti BandarĂkjanna, George H. W. Bush, reiddist sĂœnilega Ă sjĂłnvarpsviĂ°tali viĂ° Dan Rather ĂĄ CBS um Ăran-KontrahneyksliĂ°.
+ 26. janĂșar - Söngleikurinn Ăperudraugurinn hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ Broadway.
+ 30. janĂșar - Listasafn Ăslands var opnaĂ° Ă gamla ĂshĂșsinu viĂ° Tjörnina Ă ReykjavĂk.
+
+FebrĂșar
+
+ 2. febrĂșar - HalldĂłr HalldĂłrsson varĂ° fyrstur Ăslendinga til aĂ° fĂĄ ĂgrĂŠdd hjarta og lungu Ă ĂĄtta klukkustunda aĂ°gerĂ° Ă London.
+ 3. febrĂșar - BandarĂkjaĂŸing hafnaĂ°i beiĂ°ni Ronald Reagan BandarĂkjaforseta um fjĂĄrveitingu til stuĂ°nings KontraskĂŠruliĂ°um Ă NĂkaragva.
+ 5. febrĂșar - JĂłhann Hjartarson skĂĄkmaĂ°ur sigraĂ°i Viktor Kortsnoj Ă undankeppni einvĂgis um um rĂ©ttinn til aĂ° skora ĂĄ heimsmeistarann Ă skĂĄk.
+ 6. febrĂșar - Alfred Jolson var vĂgĂ°ur biskup kaĂŸĂłlskra ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 6. febrĂșar - SĂŠnski stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkurinn SvĂĂŸjóðardemĂłkratarnir var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 12. febrĂșar - SovĂ©ska herskipiĂ° BessavetnĂj sigldi ĂĄ bandarĂsku freigĂĄtuna USS Yorktown ĂĄ Svartahafi ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° Yorktown hefĂ°i krafist rĂ©ttar til friĂ°samlegrar ferĂ°ar.
+ 13. febrĂșar - VetrarĂłlympĂuleikarnir 1988 voru settir Ă Calgary Ă Kanada.
+ 17. febrĂșar - 27 lĂ©tust og 70 sĂŠrĂ°ust ĂŸegar sprengja sprakk viĂ° First National Bank Ă Oshakati Ă NamibĂu.
+ 17. febrĂșar - BandarĂska undirofurstanum William R. Higgins var rĂŠnt Ă LĂbanon. Hann var sĂĂ°ar myrtur.
+ 23. febrĂșar - MĂĄlverki Edvards Munch, Vampyr, var stoliĂ° frĂĄ Nasjonalgalleriet Ă OslĂł.
+ 24. febrĂșar - HĂŠstirĂ©ttur BandarĂkjanna dĂŠmdi tĂmaritinu Hustler Ă vil Ă mĂĄlinu Hustler Magazine gegn Falwell.
+ 27. febrĂșar - Sumqayit-ofsĂłknirnar gegn Armenum Ă Sumqayit Ă sovĂ©ska AserbaĂsjan hĂłfust.
+
+Mars
+
+ 1. mars - NĂœ umferĂ°arlög gerĂ°u notkun ökuljĂłsa allan sĂłlarhringinn aĂ° skyldu, svo og notkun öryggisbelta.
+ 3. mars - Breski stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkurinn FrjĂĄlslyndir demĂłkratar var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 6. mars - FlavĂusaĂ°gerĂ°in: Breskir sĂ©rsveitarmenn skutu tvo Ărska lĂœĂ°veldishermenn ĂĄ GĂbraltar. Fjöldi hefndaraĂ°gerĂ°a fylgdi Ă kjölfariĂ°.
+ 10. mars - SĂĄlin hans JĂłns mĂns hĂ©lt sĂna fyrstu tĂłnleika Ă BĂĂłkjallaranum viĂ° LĂŠkjargötu.
+ 13. mars - Seikangöngin milli HokkaĂdĂł og HonsjĂș voru opnuĂ° fyrir lestarumferĂ°.
+ 16. mars - Ăraksher gerĂ°i gasĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ Ăraska bĂŠinn Halabja, ĂŸar sem aĂ°allega bjuggu KĂșrdar. Allir bĂŠjarbĂșar fĂłrust, yfir 5000 talsins.
+ 16. mars - Ăran-KontrahneyksliĂ°: Herforingjarnir Oliver North og John Poindexter voru ĂĄkĂŠrĂ°ir fyrir svik gegn BandarĂkjunum.
+ 17. mars - Fyrsta Ăslenska glasabarniĂ° fĂŠddist og var ĂŸaĂ° tĂłlf marka drengur.
+ 17. mars - SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isstrĂĂ° ErĂtreu: Orrustan um Afabet.
+ 17. mars - 143 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Avianca flug 410 hrapaĂ°i Ă fjallshlĂĂ° viĂ° landamĂŠri KĂłlumbĂu og VenesĂșela.
+ 19. mars - KorporĂĄlamorĂ°in Ă Belfast: Tveir breskir hermenn Ă borgaralegum klĂŠĂ°um voru myrtir eftir aĂ° hafa mĂŠtt lĂkfylgd ĂŸekkts lĂœĂ°veldishermanns.
+ 24. mars - Fyrsti McDonald's-veitingastaĂ°urinn var opnaĂ°ur Ă Belgrad Ă JĂșgĂłslavĂu.
+ 24. mars - Mordechai Vanunu var dĂŠmdur Ă 18 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir aĂ° hafa afhjĂșpaĂ° kjarnavopnaĂĄĂŠtlun Ăsraels.
+ 25. mars - KertamĂłtmĂŠlin Ă Bratislava fyrir trĂșfrelsi fĂłru fram.
+ 28. mars - Atlantic Airways flaug sitt fyrsta flug milli FĂŠreyja og Danmerkur.
+ 29. mars - SuĂ°urafrĂska ĂŸingkonan Dulcie September var myrt viĂ° skrifstofur AfrĂska ĂŸjóðarrĂĄĂ°sins Ă ParĂs.
+
+AprĂl
+
+ 5. aprĂl - Kuwait Airways flugi 422 var rĂŠnt. Ă kjölfariĂ° fylgdu umsĂĄtur Ă ĂŸremur heimsĂĄlfum og morĂ° ĂĄ tveimur farĂŸegum.
+ 10. aprĂl - StĂłra SetĂłbrĂșin yfir SetĂłhaf Ă Japan var opnuĂ°.
+ 11. aprĂl - SĂĂ°asti keisarinn eftir Bernardo Bertolucci hlaut nĂu ĂłskarsverĂ°laun.
+ 12. aprĂl - Poppsöngvarinn Sonny Bono var kjörinn borgarstjĂłri Ă Palm Springs Ă KalifornĂu.
+ 16. aprĂl - Japanska teiknimyndin NĂĄgranninn minn Totoro var frumsĂœnd.
+ 16. aprĂl - Ătalski ĂŸingmaĂ°urinn Roberto Ruffilli var myrtur af RauĂ°u herdeildunum.
+ 22. aprĂl - GĂslatakan ĂĄ OuvĂ©a: Tugir lögreglumanna og einn saksĂłknari voru teknir Ă gĂslingu af sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°issinnum ĂĄ NĂœju-KaledĂłnĂu.
+ 25. aprĂl - Fyrsta breiĂ°skĂfa Sykurmolanna, Life's Too Good, kom Ășt Ă Bretlandi.
+ 25. aprĂl - Ivan Demjanjuk var dĂŠmdur til dauĂ°a Ă Ăsrael fyrir strĂĂ°sglĂŠpi sem hann framdi Ă ĂștrĂœmingarbĂșĂ°unum Ă Treblinka.
+ 29. aprĂl - Fyrsta reglulega flug Boeing 747-400-vĂ©lar fĂłr fram.
+ 30. aprĂl - CĂ©line Dion sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva 1988 fyrir Sviss meĂ° laginu âNe partez pas sans moiâ.
+ 30. aprĂl - HeimssĂœningin World Expo 88 var opnuĂ° Ă Brisbane Ă ĂstralĂu.
+
+MaĂ
+
+ 4. maĂ - PEPCON-slysiĂ° ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ° Ă Nevada Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 10. maĂ - Ăingkosningar fĂłru fram Ă Danmörku aĂ°eins sjö mĂĄnuĂ°um eftir sĂĂ°ustu ĂŸingkosningar.
+ 10. maĂ - Ăingmönnum ĂĄ norska stĂłrĂŸinginu var fjölgaĂ° Ășr 157 Ă 165.
+ 14. maĂ - 27 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar ölvaĂ°ur ökumaĂ°ur Ăłk ĂĄ rĂștu ĂĄ ĂŸjóðvegi 71 Ă Kentucky Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 15. maĂ - StrĂĂ° SovĂ©tmanna Ă Afganistan: SovĂ©tmenn hĂłfu aĂ° draga herliĂ° sitt frĂĄ Afganistan.
+ 18. maĂ - BĂłkamessan Ă TĂłrĂnĂł fĂłr fram Ă fyrsta sinn.
+ 23. maĂ - Danska kvikmyndin Pelle sigurvegari eftir Bille August vann GullpĂĄlmann ĂĄ KvikmyndahĂĄtĂĂ°inni Ă Cannes.
+ 24. maĂ - Umdeild sveitarstjĂłrnarlög voru samĂŸykkt Ă Bretlandi ĂŸar sem kynning ĂĄ samkynhneigĂ° Ă opinberum skĂłlum var bönnuĂ° Ă grein 28.
+ 29. maĂ - LeiĂ°togafundurinn Ă Moskvu 1988 hĂłfst.
+ 31. maĂ - Fyrsti Reyklausi dagurinn var haldinn.
+
+JĂșnĂ
+
+ 4. jĂșnĂ - MammĂŹ-lögin um takmörkun ĂĄ eignarhaldi fjölmiĂ°la ĂĄ ĂtalĂu voru samĂŸykkt.
+ 6. jĂșnĂ - ElĂsabet 2. svipti knapann Lester Piggott riddaratign eftir aĂ° hann hlaut fangelsisdĂłm vegna skattsvika.
+ 7. jĂșnĂ - Anna-Greta Leijon sagĂ°i af sĂ©r embĂŠtti dĂłmsmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra Ă SvĂĂŸjóð eftir aĂ° upp komst aĂ° hĂșn hafĂ°i stutt einkarannsĂłkn Ăștgefandans Ebbe Carlsson ĂĄ morĂ°inu ĂĄ Olof Palme.
+ 10. jĂșnĂ - EvrĂłpukeppnin Ă knattspyrnu 1988 hĂłfst Ă ĂĂœskalandi.
+ 10. jĂșnĂ - Söngvabyltingin hĂłfst Ă Eistlandi.
+ 11. jĂșnĂ - StĂłrtĂłnleikar voru haldnir ĂĄ Wembley-leikvanginum Ă London Ă tilefni af 70 ĂĄra afmĂŠli Nelson Mandela.
+ 14. jĂșnĂ - SkĂłgareldur braust Ășt rĂ©tt norĂ°an viĂ° Yellowstone-ĂŸjóðgarĂ°inn Ă BandarĂkjunum. Ăegar hann var slökktur Ă september höfĂ°u 3.000 kmÂČ eĂ°a 36% af ĂŸjóðgarĂ°inum brunniĂ°.
+ 22. jĂșnĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Hver skellti skuldinni ĂĄ Kalla kanĂnu var frumsĂœnd.
+ 25. jĂșnĂ - EvrĂłpukeppnin Ă knattspyrnu 1988: Holland sigraĂ°i SovĂ©trĂkin 2-0 Ă Ășrslitaleik.
+ 27. jĂșnĂ - LestarslysiĂ° ĂĄ Garde de Lyon: 56 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar lest ĂĄ leiĂ° inn ĂĄ stöðina Gare de Lyon Ă ParĂs rakst ĂĄ kyrrstĂŠĂ°a lest.
+ 28. jĂșnĂ - JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. gaf Ășt pĂĄfatilskipunina Pastor Bonus (âgóði hirĂ°irinnâ) meĂ° breytingum ĂĄ pĂĄfarĂĄĂ°i og stjĂłrnsĂœslu kirkjunnar.
+ 29. jĂșnĂ - Morrison gegn Olson: HĂŠstirĂ©ttur BandarĂkjanna staĂ°festi heimild sĂ©rstakra saksĂłknara til aĂ° rannsaka glĂŠpi embĂŠttismanna framkvĂŠmdavaldsins.
+ 30. jĂșnĂ - KaĂŸĂłlski erkibiskupinn Marcel Lefebvre skipaĂ°i fjĂłra biskupa Ă ĂcĂŽne Ă Sviss gegn vilja pĂĄfa.
+
+JĂșlĂ
+
+ 1. jĂșlĂ - DAX-vĂsitalan hĂłf göngu sĂna Ă ĂĂœskalandi.
+ 3. jĂșlĂ - StrĂĂ° Ăraks og Ărans: BandarĂska herskipiĂ° USS Vincennes skaut Ă misgripum niĂ°ur farĂŸegaĂŸotu ĂĄ vegum Iran Air. 290 farĂŸegar fĂłrust.
+ 3. jĂșlĂ - Fatih Sultan Mehmet-brĂșin yfir BospĂłrussund var fullbyggĂ°.
+ 3. jĂșlĂ - Ă
msele-morĂ°in: HjĂłn og 15 ĂĄra sonur ĂŸeirra voru myrt af Juha Valjakkala og kĂŠrustu hans Ă Ă
msele Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. Eftir mikinn eltingarleik nĂĄĂ°ust ĂŸau Ă ĂĂ°insvĂ©um Ă Danmörku sjö dögum sĂĂ°ar.
+ 6. jĂșlĂ - Eldur braust Ășt ĂĄ olĂuborpallinum Piper Alpha Ă NorĂ°ursjĂł. 165 verkamenn og 2 björgunarsveitarmenn fĂłrust.
+ 6. jĂșlĂ - SjĂșkrahĂșssĂșrgangur barst ĂĄ land ĂĄ strönd Long Island Ă New York Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 11. jĂșlĂ - DĂłmur fĂ©ll vegna blóðbaĂ°sins Ă Bologna. FjĂłrir hĂŠgriöfgamenn hlutu lĂfstĂĂ°ardĂłma.
+ 14. jĂșlĂ - FjĂĄrfestingarfĂ©lag Berlusconis, Fininvest, keypti verslunarkeĂ°juna Standa af Montedison.
+ 15. jĂșlĂ - Fyrsta staĂ°festa tilfelli selapestar Ă Eystrasalti.
+ 28. jĂșlĂ - FjĂłrir leiĂ°togar Ătölsku vinstrihreyfingarinnar Lotta Continua voru handteknir vegna Calabresi-morĂ°sins.
+ 31. jĂșlĂ - 32 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar landgangur ĂĄ Abdul Halim-ferjustöðinni hrundi Ă Butterworth Ă MalasĂu.
+
+ĂgĂșst
+ 2. ĂĄgĂșst - Flugslys varĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk og fĂłrust ĂŸrĂr menn er kanadĂsk flugvĂ©l skall Ă jörĂ°ina ĂĄ milli Hringbrautar og flugbrautarendans.
+ 5. ĂĄgĂșst - LeiĂ°togi sjĂamĂșslima Ă Pakistan, Arif Hussain Hussaini, var skotinn til bana Ă Peshawar.
+ 8. ĂĄgĂșst - ĂĂșsundir mĂłtmĂŠlenda voru drepnir Ă 8888-uppreisninni Ă Mjanmar.
+ 8. ĂĄgĂșst - SamiĂ° var um vopnahlĂ© milli SuĂ°ur-AfrĂku, AngĂłla og KĂșbu.
+ 10. ĂĄgĂșst - StrĂĂ°i Ăraks og Ărans lauk meĂ° friĂ°arsamningum.
+ 11. ĂĄgĂșst - Osama Bin Laden stofnaĂ°i hryĂ°juverkasamtökin Al-KaĂda.
+ 17. ĂĄgĂșst - Forseti Pakistans Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq og sendiherra BandarĂkjanna Arnold Raphel lĂ©tust Ă flugslysi.
+ 18. ĂĄgĂșst - EndurbĂłtum lauk ĂĄ ViĂ°eyjarstofu og ViĂ°eyjarkirkju.
+ 21. ĂĄgĂșst - StuĂ°labergsdrangur var reistur Ă SkagafirĂ°i til minningar um ĂrlygsstaĂ°abardaga er 750 ĂĄr voru liĂ°in frĂĄ atburĂ°inum.
+ 21. ĂĄgĂșst - HundruĂ°ir lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ° Ă jarĂ°skjĂĄlfta viĂ° landamĂŠri Nepals og Indlands.
+ 26. ĂĄgĂșst - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Foxtrot var frumsĂœnd.
+ 26. ĂĄgĂșst - âFlugstöðvarmaĂ°urinnâ Mehran Karimi Nasseri settist aĂ° ĂĄ Charles de Gaulle-flugvelli Ă ParĂs ĂŸar sem hann hĂ©lt sig til ĂĄrsins 2006.
+ 28. ĂĄgĂșst - SkriĂ°uföll urĂ°u ĂĄ ĂlafsfirĂ°i eftir miklar rigningar og urĂ°u tvö hundruĂ° manns aĂ° rĂœma hĂșs sĂn. TjĂłn varĂ° mikiĂ° ĂĄ mannvirkjum en ekki slys ĂĄ fĂłlki.
+ 28. ĂĄgĂșst - ĂrjĂĄr af flugvĂ©lum Ătalska listflugshĂłpsins Frecce Tricolori rĂĄkust saman yfir Ramstein-flugstöðinni. Ein ĂŸeirra hrapaĂ°i ĂĄ ĂĄhorfendur meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 75 lĂ©tust.
+
+September
+
+ 1. september - Fyrsta kona sem gegndi embĂŠtti rĂĄĂ°uneytisstjĂłra tĂłk til starfa sem slĂk. Var ĂŸaĂ° Berglind ĂsgeirsdĂłttir, ĂŸĂĄ 33 ĂĄra gömul.
+ 3. september - Tekin var Ă notkun ĂseyrarbrĂș yfir Ăłsa ĂlfusĂĄr og styttist leiĂ°in milli ĂorlĂĄkshafnar og Eyrarbakka viĂ° ĂŸaĂ° Ășr 45 Ă 15 kĂlĂłmetra.
+ 11. september - Söngvabyltingin: 300.000 manns tĂłku ĂŸĂĄtt Ă mĂłtmĂŠlum gegn yfirrĂĄĂ°um SovĂ©trĂkjanna.
+ 12. september - Fellibylurinn Gilbert tĂłk land ĂĄ JamaĂka ĂŸar sem hann olli miklum skemmdum. 30 manns fĂłrust.
+ 14. september - Fellibylurinn Gilbert kom upp aĂ° JĂșkatanskaga. Yfir 200 manns fĂłrust Ă MexĂkĂł vegna hans.
+ 17. september - SumarĂłlympĂuleikar voru settir Ă Seoul Ă SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu.
+ 17. september - SteingrĂmur Hermannsson og JĂłn Baldvin Hannibalsson lĂ©tu ĂŸau orĂ° falla Ă viĂ°tali Ă frĂ©ttaskĂœringaĂŸĂŠtti ĂĄ Stöð 2 aĂ° rĂkisstjĂłrn Ăorsteins PĂĄlssonar vĂŠri fallin ĂŸar sem ekki vĂŠru forsendur fyrir samstarfi eftir tillögur forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra um 6% gengisfellingu til aĂ° mĂŠta vanda sjĂĄvarĂștvegsins.
+ 19. september - Finnska farsĂmanetiĂ° Radiolinja hĂłf starfsemi.
+ 22. september - Eldur braust Ășt ĂĄ olĂuborpallinum Ocean Odyssey Ă NorĂ°ursjĂł.
+ 23. september - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Ă ĂŸokumistrinu var frumsĂœnd.
+ 24. september - Mikil mĂłtmĂŠli brutust Ășt Ă Vestur-BerlĂn vegna fundar AlĂŸjóðabankans og AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðsins.
+ 26. september - Upp komst um lyfjamisnotkun Ben Johnson sem sett hafĂ°i heimsmet Ă 100 metra hlaupi ĂĄ ĂlympĂuleikunum Ă SeĂșl.
+ 28. september - Ănnur rĂkisstjĂłrn SteingrĂms Hermannssonar tĂłk viĂ° völdum.
+ 29. september - Geimskutlunni Discovery var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft.
+
+OktĂłber
+
+ 1. oktĂłber - Danska sjĂłnvarpsstöðin TV 2 hĂłf Ăștsendingar og batt ĂŸar meĂ° enda ĂĄ einokun DR1.
+ 5. oktĂłber - MĂłtmĂŠli hĂłfust gegn rĂkisstjĂłrn AlsĂr. Ăau voru barin niĂ°ur af mikilli hörku.
+ 5. oktĂłber - ĂjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°sla um framlengingu valdatĂĂ°ar Augusto Pinochet fĂłr ĂŸannig aĂ° meirihluti kaus gegn honum.
+ 11. oktĂłber - Fyrsta konan var kosin forseti sameinaĂ°s AlĂŸingis og var ĂŸaĂ° GuĂ°rĂșn HelgadĂłttir.
+ 12. oktĂłber - BlóðbaĂ°iĂ° Ă Birchandra Manu: Yfir 13 stuĂ°ningsmenn KommĂșnistaflokks Indlands (marxistanna) voru drepnir af stuĂ°ningsmönnum Kongressflokksins.
+ 21. oktĂłber - Listasafn SigurjĂłns Ălafssonar var opnaĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk. Ăennan dag hefĂ°i SigurjĂłn orĂ°iĂ° ĂĄttrĂŠĂ°ur, en hann lĂ©st Ă desember 1982.
+ 23. oktĂłber - Ăslendingar unnu 11 verĂ°laun ĂĄ heimsleikum fatlaĂ°ra Ă SeĂșl Ă SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu. Ăar af voru tvenn gullverĂ°laun, sem Haukur Gunnarsson og Lilja M. SnorradĂłttir hlutu.
+ 24. oktĂłber - Stöð 2 stóð fyrir heimsbikarmĂłti Ă skĂĄk, sem fram fĂłr Ă BorgarleikhĂșsinu Ă ReykjavĂk og lauk meĂ° sigri heimsmeistarans, GarrĂ Kasparov.
+ 27. oktĂłber - Ronald Reagan ĂĄkvaĂ° aĂ° lĂĄta rĂfa sendirĂĄĂ° BandarĂkjanna Ă Moskvu Ășt af hlerunarbĂșnaĂ°i sem byggĂ°ur var inn Ă bygginguna.
+ 28. oktĂłber - Kvikmyndin Ă skugga hrafnsins var frumsĂœnd Ă SvĂĂŸjóð.
+ 29. oktĂłber - Leikjatölvan Sega Genesis kom Ășt Ă Japan.
+ 30. oktĂłber - Philip Morris keypti Kraft Foods fyrir 13,1 milljarĂ° dala.
+ 30. oktĂłber - Ayrton Senna tryggĂ°i sĂ©r heimsmeistaratitilinn Ă FormĂșlu 1-kappakstri meĂ° sigri Ă Japan.
+
+NĂłvember
+
+ 1. nĂłvember - Fyrsta fjĂłrburafĂŠĂ°ing ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸar sem öll börnin lifĂ°u, allt stĂșlkur.
+ 2. nĂłvember - Fyrsti tölvuormurinn sem dreifĂ°i sĂ©r um InternetiĂ°, Morrisormurinn, hĂłf göngu sĂna.
+ 3. nĂłvember - TamĂlskir mĂĄlaliĂ°ar frĂĄ SrĂ Lanka reyndu aĂ° fremja valdarĂĄn ĂĄ MaldĂveyjum en Indlandsher kom Ă veg fyrir ĂŸaĂ°.
+ 3. nĂłvember - ĂĂșsundir nĂĄmsmanna mĂłtmĂŠltu fyrrum forseta SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu Chun Doo-hwan.
+ 8. nĂłvember - George H. W. Bush, fulltrĂși repĂșblikanaflokksins, var kosinn forseti BandarĂkjanna. Michael Dukakis var Ă framboĂ°i fyrir demĂłkrata.
+ 10. nĂłvember - BandarĂski flugherinn viĂ°urkenndi tilvist njĂłsnavĂ©larinnar Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk.
+ 15. nĂłvember - Frelsissamtök PalestĂnu viĂ°urkenndu tilvist Ăsraels og lĂœsti jafnframt yfir stofnun PalestĂnurĂkis ĂĄ Vesturbakkanum.
+ 15. nĂłvember - Fyrsta Fairtrade-merkiĂ° var gefiĂ° Ășt af Max Havelaar-stofnuninni Ă Hollandi.
+ 16. nĂłvember - Söngvabyltingin: Eistneska SovĂ©tiĂ° lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir aĂ° lög ĂŸess vĂŠru ĂŠĂ°ri lögum SovĂ©trĂkjanna.
+ 16. nóvember - Benazir Bhutto var kjörin forsÊtisråðherra Pakistans.
+ 17. nĂłvember - Linda PĂ©tursdĂłttir var krĂœnd UngfrĂș heimur.
+ 18. nĂłvember - StrĂĂ°iĂ° gegn eiturlyfjum: Ronald Reagan undirritaĂ°i lög sem kvĂĄĂ°u ĂĄ um dauĂ°arefsingu fyrir tiltekin brot.
+ 22. nĂłvember - Fyrsta frumgerĂ° Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit-sprengjuflugvĂ©lar var kynnt Ă KalifornĂu.
+ 23. nĂłvember - Fyrrum forseti SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu, Chun Doo-hwan, baĂ°st opinberlega afsökunar ĂĄ spillingu Ă valdatĂĂ° sinni og sagĂ°ist myndu fara Ă ĂștlegĂ°.
+ 24. nĂłvember - BandarĂsku gamanĂŸĂŠttirnir Mystery Science Theater 3000 hĂłfu göngu sĂna.
+ 25. nĂłvember - ĂfengiskaupamĂĄliĂ°: Forseti HĂŠstarĂ©ttar, MagnĂșs Thoroddsen, sagĂ°i af sĂ©r.
+ 29. nóvember - Fimleikafélagið Rån var stofnað à Vestmannaeyjum.
+
+Desember
+
+ 1. desember - Fyrstu tĂłnleikar Ăslensku hljĂłmsveitarinnar Bless fĂłru fram.
+ 2. desember - Benazir Bhutto varĂ° fyrsti kvenkyns forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Ăslamsks rĂkis.
+ 2. desember - ĂĂșsundir lĂ©tust ĂŸegar fellibylur gekk yfir Bangladess.
+ 7. desember - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti gekk yfir SovĂ©tlĂœĂ°veldiĂ° ArmenĂu meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° nĂŠr 25.000 lĂ©tust.
+ 9. desember - SĂĂ°ustu Dodge Aries- og Plymouth Reliant-bifreiĂ°arnar voru framleiddar af Chrysler.
+ 12. desember - 35 létust à lestarslysi à Clapham à London.
+ 20. desember - Samningur SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna gegn Ăłlöglegri verslun meĂ° fĂkniefni og skynvilluefni var undirritaĂ°ur Ă VĂnarborg.
+ 21. desember - FlugvĂ©l sprakk yfir Lockerbie Ă Bretlandi. Alls dĂłu 270 manns, ĂŸar af 243 farĂŸegar, 16 Ă ĂĄhöfn og 11 ĂĄ jörĂ°u niĂ°ri.
+ 21. desember - BandarĂska fjĂĄrmĂĄlafyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Drexel Burnham Lambert viĂ°urkenndi innherjaviĂ°skipti og samĂŸykkti aĂ° greiĂ°a 650 milljĂłn dala sekt.
+ 22. desember - New York-samningarnir voru undirritaĂ°ir milli KĂșbu, AngĂłla og SuĂ°ur-AfrĂku ĂŸar sem SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðirnar fengu stjĂłrn NamibĂu.
+ 22. desember - BrasilĂski aĂ°gerĂ°asinninn Chico Mendes var myrtur.
+ 27. desember - Fyrsta fasta bĂlnĂșmeriĂ° Ă nĂœju nĂșmerakerfi var sett ĂĄ bifreiĂ° HalldĂłrs ĂsgrĂmssonar dĂłmsmĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra, HP741. NĂœja kerfiĂ° gekk Ă gildi Ă ĂĄrsbyrjun 1989.
+ 29. desember - Ăslenska hugbĂșnaĂ°arfyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Kögun hf var stofnaĂ°.
+
+Ădagsettir atburĂ°ir
+ FriĂ°rik SkĂșlason hĂłf ĂŸrĂłun ĂĄ ĂŠttfrĂŠĂ°iforritinu EspĂłlĂn.
+ SkĂœjakljĂșfurinn Torre Picasso var opnaĂ°ur Ă MadrĂd.
+ BĂłk Salman Rushdie, Söngvar Satans, kom Ășt.
+ VeitingastaĂ°urinn ĂtalĂa hĂłf starfsemi Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ HljĂłmsveitin Traveling Wilburys var stofnuĂ°.
+ UngmennafĂ©lagiĂ° Fjölnir var stofnaĂ° Ă Grafarvogi Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ Ăslenska fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Milestone ehf. var stofnaĂ°.
+ BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin Nine Inch Nails var stofnuĂ°.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 1. janĂșar - Katie Volding, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 17. janĂșar - Nikki Reed, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 14. febrĂșar - Ăngel Di MarĂa, argentĂnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 17. febrĂșar - Natascha Kampusch, fĂłrnarlamb mannrĂŠningja.
+
+ 20. febrĂșar - Rihanna, söngkona frĂĄ Barbados.
+ 25. febrĂșar - RĂșrik GĂslason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 28. aprĂl - Juan Mata, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 4. mars - Adam Watts, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 5. mars - Bjarni ViĂ°arsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 11. mars - FĂĄbio CoentrĂŁo, portĂșgalskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 11. mars - Helena SverrisdĂłttir, Ăslensk körfuknattleikskona.
+ 27. mars - Brenda Song, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 30. mars - Richard Sherman, bandarĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 10. aprĂl - Haley Joel Osment, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 13. aprĂl - Anderson LuĂs de Abreu Oliveira, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 28. aprĂl - Juan Mata, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 5. maà - Adele, bresk söngkona.
+ 11. maà - Oscar Carlén, sÊnskur handknattleiksmaður.
+ 27. maĂ - Birkir Bjarnason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1. jĂșnĂ - Javier HernĂĄndez, mexĂkĂłskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+
+ 28. jĂșlĂ - Gunnar Nelson, Ăslenskur bardagaĂĂŸrĂłttamaĂ°ur.
+ 18. ĂĄgĂșst - Ăsgeir Erlendsson, Ăslenskur frĂ©ttamaĂ°ur.
+ 24. ĂĄgĂșst - Rupert Grint, enskur leikari.
+ 27. ĂĄgĂșst - Alexa Vega, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 1. september - SigurjĂłn FriĂ°björn Björnsson, Ăslenskur handknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 27. september - Hjörtur Logi ValgarĂ°sson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 27. september - GuĂ°nĂœ Björk ĂĂ°insdĂłttir, Ăslensk knattspyrnukona.
+ 4. oktĂłber - Derrick Rose, bandarĂskur körfuknattleiksmaĂ°ur.
+ 7. oktĂłber - Diego Costa, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 7. oktĂłber - FriĂ°rik DĂłr, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 13. oktĂłber - Ălfur Karlsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndagerĂ°armaĂ°ur.
+ 15. oktĂłber - Mesut Ăzil, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 6. nĂłvember - Conchita Wurst, austurrĂskur söngvari.
+ 19. nĂłvember - Xavier Barachet, franskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1. desember - Jay Simpson, breskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 7. desember - Emily Browning, åströlsk leikkona.
+ 14. desember - Vanessa Hudgens, bandarĂsk leikkona.
+ 19. desember - Alexis SĂĄnchez, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 27. desember - Hera HilmarsdĂłttir, Ăslensk leikari.
+ 30. desember - Rakel HönnudĂłttir, Ăslensk knattspyrnukona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 15. febrĂșar - Richard Feynman, bandarĂskur eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1918).
+
+ 28. febrĂșar - GuĂ°rĂșn Ă. SĂmonar, Ăslensk Ăłperusöngkona (f. 1924).
+ 25. mars - Gunnar M. MagnĂșss, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (f. 1898).
+ 31. mars - William McMahon, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra ĂstralĂu (f. 1908).
+ 21. maĂ - Sammy Davis, Sr., bandarĂskur dansari og leikari (f. 1900).
+ 27. maà - Hjördis Petterson, sÊnsk leikkona (f. 1908).
+ 25. jĂșnĂ - Svavar GuĂ°nason, Ăslenskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1909).
+ 30. jĂșlĂ - Ălafur JĂłhann SigurĂ°sson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (f. 1918).
+ 2. ĂĄgĂșst - Raymond Carver, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (f. 1938).
+ 14. ĂĄgĂșst - Enzo Ferrari, Ătalskur bĂlahönnuĂ°ur (f. 1898).
+ 27. ĂĄgĂșst - Max Black, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1909).
+ 28. ĂĄgĂșst - Paul Grice, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1913).
+ 16. oktĂłber - Christian Matras, fĂŠreyskur mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1900).
+ 22. oktĂłber - PlĂĄcido Galindo, perĂșskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur (f. 1906).
+ 26. oktĂłber - Ragnar Kjartansson, Ăslenskur myndhöggvari (f. 1923).
+ 6. desember - Roy Orbison, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1936).
+
+NĂłbelsverĂ°launin
+ EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i - Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, Jack Steinberger
+ EfnafrĂŠĂ°i - Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber, Hartmut Michel
+ LĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i - James W, Black, Gertrude B. Elion, George H. Hitchings
+ BĂłkmenntir - Naguib Mahfouz
+ HagfrĂŠĂ°i - Maurice Allais
+ FriĂ°arverĂ°laun - FriĂ°argĂŠslusveitir SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna, New York borg
+
+1988
+NĂłbelsverĂ°launin Ă bĂłkmenntum eru ein af fimm verĂ°launum sem kennd eru viĂ° Alfred Nobel. VerĂ°launahafar eru valdir af SĂŠnsku akademĂunni og eru tilkynntir Ă oktĂłber ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri og verĂ°launin eru veitt 10. desember. VerĂ°launin hafa veriĂ° veitt sĂĂ°an ĂĄriĂ° 1901.
+
+Saga og fyrirkomulag
+Alfred Nobel var einn rĂkasti maĂ°ur SvĂĂŸjóðar ĂĄ sinni tĂĂ° og auĂ°gaĂ°ist stĂłrlega ĂĄ uppfinningu sinni dĂnamĂtinu. Hann ritaĂ°i nokkrar erfĂ°askrĂĄr en Ă ĂŸeirri sĂĂ°ustu, frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1895, ĂĄnafnaĂ°i hann nĂŠr öllum auĂ°i sĂnum til stofnunar verĂ°launasjóðs Ă fimm flokkum. Nobel lĂ©st sĂĂ°la ĂĄrs 1896. ViĂ° tĂłk nokkur Ăłvissa um lögmĂŠti erfĂ°askrĂĄrinnar en eftir aĂ° botn fĂ©kkst Ă ĂŸau mĂĄl var gengiĂ° frĂĄ stofnun verĂ°launanna. ĂlĂkum aĂ°ilum var faliĂ° aĂ° sjĂĄ um einstaka verĂ°launaflokka og komu bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launin Ă hlut SĂŠnsku akademĂunnar. Voru fyrstu verĂ°launin veitt ĂĄriĂ° 1901.
+
+Ăr hvert kallar SĂŠnska akademĂan eftir tilnefningum og er fjöldinn allur af fĂłlki sem hefur heimild til aĂ° senda inn tilnefningar. Er ĂŸar um aĂ° rĂŠĂ°a meĂ°limi akademĂunnar sjĂĄlfrar, sem og sambĂŠrilegra stofnanna à öðrum löndum, prĂłfessorar Ă tungumĂĄlum og bĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°i, forsetar rithöfundasamtaka og fyrrum verĂ°launahafar. Eina skilyrĂ°iĂ° er aĂ° höfundum er Ăłheimilt er aĂ° tilnefna sjĂĄlfa sig.
+
+Tilnefningar skulu hafa borist akademĂunni fyrir 1. febrĂșar ĂĄr hvert og fara ĂŸĂŠr ĂŸvĂ nĂŠst til sĂ©rstakrar NĂłbelsnefndar til meĂ°höndlunar. Nefndin ĂŸrengir hringinn jafnt og ĂŸĂ©tt, fyrst niĂ°ur Ă um tuttugu höfunda og ĂŸvĂ nĂŠst niĂ°ur Ă fimm manna lista ĂŸegar komiĂ° er fram Ă maĂ. NĂŠstu fjĂłra mĂĄnuĂ°ina kynnir nefndin sĂ©r verk ĂŸessara fimm höfunda Ă ĂŸaula og gengur ĂŸvĂ nĂŠst til atkvĂŠĂ°a Ă oktĂłbermĂĄnuĂ°i. SĂĄ höfundur hlĂœtur verĂ°launin sem fĂŠr meirihluta atkvĂŠĂ°a. Einungis ĂŸeir koma til greina sem nĂĄĂ° hafa Ă ĂŸaĂ° minnsta tvĂvegis inn ĂĄ fimm manna listann og eru ĂŸvĂ dĂŠmi um aĂ° höfundar hafi margoft veriĂ° teknir til athugunar.
+
+NĂłbelsnefndina skipa ĂĄtjĂĄn fulltrĂșar sem skulu bĂșa yfir mikilli tungumĂĄlakunnĂĄttu. Ăeir eru skipaĂ°ir ĂŠvilangt og til skamms tĂma var ekki gert rĂĄĂ° fyrir aĂ° ĂŸeir gĂŠtu sagt af sĂ©r. ĂriĂ° 2018 breytti Karl GĂșstaf XVI reglunum ĂĄ ĂŸann hĂĄtt aĂ° unnt vĂŠri aĂ° leysa nefndarmenn undan skyldum sĂnum Ă kjölfar hneykslismĂĄls sem skĂłk nefndina og varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° Ășthlutun verĂ°launanna 2018 var frestaĂ° um ĂĄr.
+
+VerĂ°launahafar
+
+ 1901 - Sully Prudhomme
+ 1902 - Theodor Mommsen
+ 1903 - BjĂžrnstjerne BjĂžrnson
+ 1904 - Frédéric Mistral, José Echegaray
+ 1905 - Henryk Sienkiewicz
+ 1906 - GiosuĂš Carducci
+ 1907 - Rudyard Kipling
+ 1908 - Rudolf Eucken
+ 1909 - Selma Lagerlöf
+ 1910 - Paul Heyse
+ 1911 - Maurice Maeterlinck
+ 1912 - Gerhart Hauptmann
+ 1913 - Rabindranath Tagore
+ 1915 - Romain Rolland
+ 1916 - Verner von Heidenstam
+ 1917 - Karl Adolph Gjellerup, Henrik Pontoppidan
+ 1918 - Enginn verĂ°launahafi
+ 1919 - Carl Spitteler
+ 1920 - Knut Hamsun
+ 1921 - Anatole France
+ 1922 - Jacinto Benavente
+ 1923 - William Butler Yeats
+ 1924 - Wladyslaw Reymont
+ 1925 - George Bernard Shaw
+ 1926 - Grazia Deledda
+ 1927 - Henri Bergson
+ 1928 - Sigrid Undset
+ 1929 - Thomas Mann
+ 1930 - Sinclair Lewis
+ 1931 - Erik Axel Karlfeldt
+ 1932 - John Galsworthy
+ 1933 - Ivan Bunin
+ 1934 - Luigi Pirandello
+ 1936 - Eugene O'Neill
+ 1937 - Roger Martin du Gard
+ 1938 - Pearl S. Buck
+ 1939 - Frans Eemil SillanpÀÀ
+ 1944 - Johannes V. Jensen
+ 1945 - Gabriela Mistral
+ 1946 - Hermann Hesse
+ 1947 - André Gide
+ 1948 - T. S. Eliot
+ 1949 - William Faulkner
+ 1950 - Bertrand Russell
+ 1951 - PĂ€r Lagerkvist
+ 1952 - François Mauriac
+ 1953 - Winston Churchill
+ 1954 - Ernest Hemingway
+ 1955 - HalldĂłr Laxness
+ 1956 - Juan Ramón Jiménez
+ 1957 - Albert Camus
+ 1958 - Boris Pasternak
+ 1959 - Salvatore Quasimodo
+ 1960 - Saint-John Perse
+ 1961 - Ivo AndriÄ
+ 1962 - John Steinbeck
+ 1963 - Giorgos Seferis
+ 1964 - Jean-Paul Sartre (afĂŸakkaĂ°i verĂ°launin)
+ 1965 - MĂkhaĂl Sholokhov
+ 1966 - Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Nelly Sachs
+ 1967 - Miguel Angel Asturias
+ 1968 - Yasunari Kawabata
+ 1969 - Samuel Beckett
+ 1970 - Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
+ 1971 - Pablo Neruda
+ 1972 - Heinrich Böll
+ 1973 - Patrick White
+ 1974 - Eyvind Johnson, Harry Martinson
+ 1975 - Eugenio Montale
+ 1976 - Saul Bellow
+ 1977 - Vicente Aleixandre
+ 1978 - Isaac Bashevis Singer
+ 1979 - Odysseas Elytis
+ 1980 - CzesĆaw MiĆosz
+ 1981 - Elias Canetti
+ 1982 - Gabriel GarcĂa MĂĄrquez
+ 1983 - William Golding
+ 1984 - Jaroslav Seifert
+ 1985 - Claude Simon
+ 1986 - Wole Soyinka
+ 1987 - Joseph Brodsky
+ 1988 - Naguib Mahfouz
+ 1989 - Camilo José Cela
+ 1990 - Octavio Paz
+ 1991 - Nadine Gordimer
+ 1992 - Derek Walcott
+ 1993 - Toni Morrison
+ 1994 - Kenzaburo Oe
+ 1995 - Seamus Heaney
+ 1996 - Wislawa Szymborska
+ 1997 - Dario Fo
+ 1998 - José Saramago
+ 1999 - GĂŒnter Grass
+ 2000 - Gao Xingjian
+ 2001 - V.S. Naipaul
+ 2002 - Imre Kertész
+ 2003 - J. M. Coetzee
+ 2004 - Elfriede Jelinek
+ 2005 - Harold Pinter
+ 2006 - Orhan Pamuk
+ 2007 - Doris Lessing
+ 2008 - J. M. G. Le Clézio
+ 2009 - Herta MĂŒller
+ 2010 - Mario Vargas Llosa
+ 2011 - Tomas Tranströmer
+ 2012 - Mo Yan
+ 2013 - Alice Munro
+ 2014 - Patrick Modiano
+ 2015 - Svetlana AleksĂevĂtsj
+ 2016 - Bob Dylan
+ 2017 - Kazuo Ishiguro
+ 2018 - Olga Tokarczuk (veitt 2019)
+ 2019 - Peter Handke
+ 2020 - Louise GlĂŒck
+ 2021 - Abdulrazak Gurnah
+ 2022 - Annie Ernaux
+ 2023 - Jon Fosse
+Eftirfarandi konur hafa hlotiĂ° NĂłbelsverĂ°launin Ă bĂłkmenntum: Selma Lagerlöf, Grazia Deledda, Sigrid Undset, Pearl S. Buck, Gabriela Mistral, Nelly Sachs, Toni Morrison, Nadine Gordimer, Wislawa Szymborska, Elfriede Jelinek, Doris Lessing, Herta MĂŒller, Alice Munro, Svetlana AleksĂevĂtsj, Olga Tokarczuk, Louise GlĂŒck og Annie Ernaux. AĂ°rir verĂ°launahafar eru karlmenn.
+
+Tenglar
+ http://www.nobel.se/literature/laureates/index.html
+
+Heimildir
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+BĂłkmenntaverĂ°laun
+NĂłbelsverĂ°laun
+Listar um bĂłkmenntir
+BĂłkmenntir
+HagfrĂŠĂ°iverĂ°laun seĂ°labanka SvĂĂŸjóðar til minningar Alfreds Nobels eru verĂ°laun sem seĂ°labanki SvĂĂŸjóðar stofnaĂ°i til 1968 og voru fyrst veitt 1969 af konunglegu sĂŠnsku vĂsindaakademĂunni til aĂ° heiĂ°ra ĂŸĂĄ, sem ĂŸĂłtt hafa lagt mikiĂ° til og skaraĂ° fram Ășr ĂĄ sviĂ°i hagfrĂŠĂ°i. Ăau eru Ăłformlega nefnd nĂłbelsverĂ°launin Ă hagfrĂŠĂ°i og eru veitt samtĂmis hinum eiginlegu nĂłbelsverĂ°launum.
+
+Listi yfir verĂ°launahafa
+ 1969 - Ragnar Anton Kittil Frisch, Jan Tinbergen
+ 1970 - Paul Samuelson
+ 1971 - Simon Kuznets
+ 1972 - John Hicks, Kenneth Arrow
+ 1973 - Wassily Leontief
+ 1974 - Gunnar Myrdal, Friedrich Hayek
+ 1975 - LeonĂd KantorovĂtsj, Tjalling Koopmans
+ 1976 - Milton Friedman
+ 1977 - Bertil Ohlin, James Meade
+ 1978 - Herbert Simon
+ 1979 - Theodore Schultz, Arthur Lewis
+ 1980 - Lawrence Klein
+ 1981 - James Tobin
+ 1982 - George Stigler
+ 1983 - Gerard Debreu
+ 1984 - Richard Stone
+ 1985 - Franco Modigliani
+ 1986 - James Buchanan yngri
+ 1987 - Robert Solow
+ 1988 - Maurice Allais
+ 1989 - Trygve Haavelmo
+ 1990 - Harry Markowitz, Merton Miller, William Sharpe
+ 1991 - Ronald Coase
+ 1992 - Gary Becker
+ 1993 - Robert Fogel, Douglass North
+ 1994 - Reinhard Selten, John Forbes Nash, John Harsanyi
+ 1995 - Robert Lucas Jr
+ 1996 - James Mirrlees, William Vickrey
+ 1997 - Robert Merton, Myron Scholes
+ 1998 - Amartya Sen
+ 1999 - Robert Mundell
+ 2000 - James Heckman, Daniel McFadden
+ 2001 - George A. Akerlof, Michael Spence, Joseph E. Stiglitz
+ 2002 - Daniel Kahneman, Vernon L. Smith
+ 2003 - Robert F. Engle, Clive W. J. Granger
+ 2004 - Finn E. Kydland, Edward C. Prescott
+ 2005 - Robert J. Aumann, Thomas Schelling
+ 2006 - Edmund Phelps
+ 2007 - Leonid Hurwicz, Eric Maskin og Roger Myerson
+ 2008 - Paul Krugman
+ 2009 - Elinor Ostrom, Oliver E. Williamson
+ 2010 - Peter A. Diamond, Dale T. Mortensen og Christopher A. Pissarides
+ 2011 - Thomas J. Sargent og Christopher A. Sims
+ 2012 - Alvin Roth og Lloyd Shapley
+ 2013 - Eugene Fama, Robert J. Shiller og Lars Peter Hansen
+ 2014 - Jean Tirole
+ 2015 - Oliver Hart
+ 2016 - Bengt Holmström
+ 2017 - Richard Thaler
+ 2018 - William Nordhaus og Paul Romer
+ 2019 - Abhijit Banerjee, Esther Duflo og Michael Kremer
+ 2020 - Paul Milgrom og Robert Wilson
+ 2021 - David Card, Joshua Angrist og Guido Imbens
+ 2022 - Ben Bernanke, Douglas Diamond og Philip Dybvig
+ 2023 - Claudia Goldin
+
+Tenglar
+ VerĂ°launahafar
+
+NĂłbelsverĂ°laun
+Listar um hagfrĂŠĂ°i
+HagfrĂŠĂ°i
+Booker-bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launin eru ein virtustu bĂłkmenntarverĂ°laun heims og eru veitt ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri rithöfundi sem er ĂŸegn Breska samveldisins eĂ°a Ărlands. Booker fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° stofnaĂ°i til verĂ°launanna ĂĄriĂ° 1968. Til aĂ° tryggja aĂ° einungis fyrsta flokks bĂŠkur sĂ©u valdar eru dĂłmarar valdir Ășr einvalaliĂ°i gagnrĂœnenda, rithöfunda og hĂĄskĂłlamanna. SĂĂ°an 2002 hafa verĂ°launin gengiĂ° undir nafninu âMan Booker verĂ°launinâ, vegna stuĂ°nings fjĂĄrfestingarfĂ©lagsins Man Group plc.. RĂșssnesk ĂștgĂĄfa verĂ°launanna var sett ĂĄ fĂłt ĂĄriĂ° 1992.
+
+Forval bĂłkanna getur veriĂ° tvenns konar. BĂłkaĂștgefendur geta sent inn handrit, eĂ°a dĂłmarar geta beĂ°iĂ° um aĂ° ĂĄkveĂ°in handrit eĂ°a bĂŠkur sĂ©u sendar inn. ĂriĂ° 2003 voru 110 bĂŠkur sendar inn af Ăștgefendum, en dĂłmarar bĂĄĂ°u um aĂ° 10 bĂłkum vĂŠri bĂŠtt viĂ° ĂŸaĂ°.
+
+VerĂ°launahafar
+HĂ©r fyrir neĂ°an er listi yfir verĂ°launahafa og tilnefningar til Booker-verĂ°launanna. Nöfn verĂ°launahafa eru tilgreind fremst fyrir hvert ĂĄr og feitletruĂ°. Ăslensk nöfn ĂŸeirra bĂłka sem komiĂ° hafa Ășt ĂĄ Ăslensku eru tilgreind aftan viĂ° upprunaleg nöfn.
+ 1969: Percy Howard Newby, Something to Answer For
+ Barry England, Figures in a Landscape
+ Nicholas Mosley, Impossible Object
+ Iris Murdoch, The Nice and the Good
+ Muriel Spark, The Public Image
+ G. M. Williams, From Scenes like These
+
+ 1970: Bernice Rubens, The Elected Member
+ A. L. Barker, John Brown's Body
+ Elizabeth Bowen, Eva Trout
+ Iris Murdoch, Bruno's Dream
+ William Trevor, Mrs Eckdorf in O'Neill's Hotel
+ T. W. Wheeler, The Conjunction
+
+ 1971: Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul, In a Free State
+ Thomas Kilroy, The Big Chapel
+ Doris Lessing, Briefing for a Descent into Hell
+ Mordecai Richler, St Urbain's Horseman
+ Derek Robinson, Goshawk Squadron
+ Elizabeth Taylor, Mrs Palfrey at the Claremont
+
+ 1972: John Berger, G
+ Susan Hill, Bird of Night
+ Thomas Keneally, The Chant of Jimmy Blacksmith
+ David Storey, Pasmore
+
+ 1973: James Gordon Farrell, The Siege of Krishnapur
+ Beryl Bainbridge, The Dressmaker
+ Elizabeth Mavor, The Green Equinox
+ Iris Murdoch, The Black Prince (Svarti prinsinn)
+
+ 1974: Nadine Gordimer, The Conservationist, og Stanley Middleton, Holiday
+ Kingsley Amis, Ending Up
+ Beryl Bainbridge, The Bottle Factory Outing
+ C. P. Snow, In Their Wisdom
+
+ 1975: Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, Heat and Dust
+ Thomas Keneally, Gossip from the Forest
+
+ 1976: David Storey, Saville
+ André Brink, An Instant in the Wind
+ R. C. Hutchinson, Rising
+ Brian Moore, The Doctor's Wife
+ Julian Rathbone, King Fisher Lives
+ William Trevor, The Children of Dynmouth
+
+ 1977: Paul Scott, Staying On
+ Paul Bailey, Peter Smart's Confessions
+ Caroline Blackwood, Great Granny Webster
+ Jennifer Johnston, Shadows on our Skin
+ Penelope Lively, The Road to Lichfield
+ Barbara Pym, Quartet in Autumn
+
+ 1978: Iris Murdoch, The Sea, the Sea (HafiĂ°, hafiĂ°)
+ Kingsley Amis, Jake's Thing
+ André Brink, Rumours of Rain
+ Penelope Fitzgerald, The Bookshop
+ Jane Gardam, God on the Rocks
+ Bernice Rubens, A Five-Year Sentence
+
+ 1979: Penelope Fitzgerald, Offshore
+ Thomas Kneally, Confederates
+ Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul, A Bend in the River
+ Julian Rathbone, Joseph
+ Fay Weldon, Praxis
+
+ 1980: William Golding, Rites of Passage
+ Anthony Burgess, Earthly Powers
+ Anita Desai, Clear Light of Day
+ Alice Munro, The Beggar Maid
+ Julian O'Faolain, No Country for Young
+ Barry Unsworth, Pascali's Island
+ J. L. Carr, A Month in the Country
+
+ 1981: Salman Rushdie, Midnight's Children (MiðnÊturbörn)
+ Molly Keane, Good Behaviour
+ Doris Lessing, The Sirian Experiments
+ Ian McEwan, The Comfort of Strangers
+ Ann Schlee, Rhine Journey
+ Muriel Spark, Loitering with Intent
+ D. M. Thomas, The White Hotel
+
+ 1982: Thomas Keneally, Schindler's Ark (Listi Schindlers)
+ John Arden, Silence Among the Weapons
+ William Boyd, An Ice-Cream War
+ Lawrence Durrell, Constance or Solitary
+ Alice Thomas Ellis, The 27th Kingdom
+ Timothy Mo, Sour Sweet
+
+ 1983: J. M. Coetzee, Life and Times of Michael K
+ Malcolm Bradbury, Rates of Exchange
+ John Fuller, Flying to Nowhere
+ Anita Mason, The Illusionist
+ Salman Rushdie, Shame
+ Graham Swift, Waterland
+
+ 1984: Anita Brookner, Hotel du Lac
+ J. G. Ballard, Empire of the Sun
+ Julian Barnes, Flaubert's Parrot
+ Anita Desai, In Custody
+ Penelope Lively, According to Mark
+ David Lodge, Small World
+
+ 1985: Keri Hulme, The Bone People
+ Peter Carey, Illywhacker
+ J. L. Carr, The Battle of Pollocks Crossing
+ Doris Lessing, The Good Terrorist
+ Jan Morris, Last Letters from Hav
+ Iris Murdoch, The Good Apprentice
+
+ 1986: Kingsley Amis, The Old Devils
+ Margaret Atwood, The Handmaid's Tale (Saga ĂŸernunnar)
+ Paul Bailey, Gabriel's Lament
+ Robertson Davies, What's Bred in the Bone
+ Kazuo Ishiguro, An Artist of the Floating World
+ Timothy Mo, An Insular Possession
+
+ 1987: Penelope Lively, Moon Tiger
+ Chinua Achebe, Anthills of the Savannah
+ Peter Ackroyd, Chatterton
+ Nina Bawden, Circles of Deceit
+ Brian Moore, The Colour of Blood
+ Iris Murdoch, The Book and the Brotherhood
+
+ 1988: Peter Carey, Oscar and Lucinda
+ Bruce Chatwin, Utz
+ Penelope Fitzgerald, The Beginning of Spring
+ David Lodge, Nice Work
+ Salman Rushdie, The Satanic Verses (Söngvar satans)
+ Marina Warner, The Lost Father
+
+ 1989: Kazuo Ishiguro, The Remains of the Day (Dreggjar dagsins)
+ Margaret Atwood, Cat's Eye John Banville, The Book of Evidence Sybille Bedford, Jigsaw James Kelman, A Disaffection Rose Tremain, Restoration 1990: Antonia Susan Byatt, Possession
+ Beryl Bainbridge, An Awfully Big Adventure
+ John McGahern, Amongst Women
+ Brian Moore, Lies of Silence
+ Mordecai Richler, Solomon Gursky Was Here
+
+ 1991: Ben Okri, The Famished Road
+ Martin Amis, Time's Arrow
+ Roddy Doyle, The Van
+ Rohinton Mistry, Such a Long Journey
+ Timothy Mo, The Redundancy of Courage
+ William Trevor, Reading Turgenev (from Two Lives)
+
+ 1992: Michael Ondaatje, The English Patient (Enski sjĂșklingurinn), og Barry Unsworth, Sacred Hunger
+ Christoper Hope, Serenity House
+ Patrick McCabe, The Butcher Boy
+ Ian McEwan, Black Dogs
+ MichĂšle Roberts, Daughters of the House
+
+ 1993: Roddy Doyle, Paddy Clarke Ha Ha Ha (Paddy Clarke, ha, ha, ha)
+ Tibor Fisher, Under the Frog
+ Michael Ignatieff, Scar Tissue
+ David Malouf, Remembering Babylon
+ Caryl Phillips, Crossing the River
+ Carol Shields, The Stone Diaries
+
+ 1994: James Kelman, How late it was, how late
+ Romesh Gunesekera, Reef
+ Abdulrazak Gurnah, Paradise
+ Alan Hollinghurst, The Folding Star
+ George Mackay Brown, Beside the Ocean of Time
+ Jill Paton Walsh, Knowledge of Angels
+
+ 1995: Pat Barker, The Ghost Road
+ Justin Cartwright, In Every Face I Meet
+ Salman Rushdie, The Moor's Last Sigh (SĂĂ°asta andvarp MĂĄrans)
+ Barry Unsworth, Morality Play
+ Tim Winton, The Riders
+
+ 1996: Graham Swift, Last Orders (HestaskĂĄlin)
+ Margaret Atwood, Alias Grace
+ Beryl Bainbridge, Every Man for Himself
+ Seamus Deane, Reading in the Dark
+ Shena Mackay, The Orchard on Fire
+ Rohinton Mistry, A Fine Balance
+
+ 1997: Arundhati Roy, The God of Small Things (GuĂ° hins smĂĄa) Jim Crace, Quarantine
+ Mick Jackson, The Underground Man
+ Bernard MacLaverty, Grace Notes
+ Tim Parks, Europa
+ Madeline St John, The Essence of the Thing
+
+ 1998: Ian McEwan, Amsterdam (Amsterdam)
+ Beryl Bainbridge, Master Georgie
+ Julian Barnes, England England
+ Martin Booth, The Industry of Souls
+ Patrick McCabe, Breakfast on Pluto
+ Magnus Mills, The Restraint of Beasts (Taumhald ĂĄ skepnum)
+
+ 1999: J. M. Coetzee, Disgrace (VansĂŠmd)
+ Anita Desai, Fasting, Feasting
+ Michael Frayn, Headlong
+ Andrew O'Hagan, Our Fathers
+ Ahdaf Soueif, The Map of Love
+ Colm TĂłibĂn, The Blackwater Lightship
+
+ 2000: Margaret Atwood, The Blind Assassin
+ Trezza Azzopardi, The Hiding Place
+ Michael Collins, The Keepers of Truth
+ Kazuo Ishiguro, When we were Orphans (Veröld okkar vandalausra)
+ Matthew Kneale, English Passengers
+ Brian O'Doherty, The Deposition of Father McGeevy
+
+ 2001: Peter Carey, True History of the Kelly Gang Ian McEwan, Atonement (FriĂ°ĂŸĂŠging)
+ Andrew Miller, Oxygen
+ David Mitchell, [number9dream
+ Rachel Seiffert, The Dark Room
+ Ali Smith, Hotel World
+
+ 2002: Yann Martel, Life of Pi (Sagan af PĂ)
+ Rohinton Mistry, Family Matters
+ Carol Shields, Unless
+ William Trevor, The Story of Lucy Gault
+ Sarah Waters, Fingersmith
+ Tim Winton, Dirt Music
+
+ 2003: D.B.C. Pierre, Vernon God Little Monica Ali, Brick Lane
+ Margaret Atwood, Oryx and Crake
+ Damon Galgut, The Good Doctor
+ Zoë Heller, Notes on a Scandal
+ Clare Morrall, Astonishing Splashes of Colour
+
+ 2004: Alan Hollinghurst, The Line of Beauty Achmat Dangor, Bitter Fruit
+ Sarah Hall, The Electric Michelangelo
+ David Mitchell, Cloud Atlas
+ Colm TĂłibĂn, The Master
+ Gerard Woodward, I'll Go to Bed at Noon
+
+ 2005: John Banville, The Sea Julian Barnes, Arthur & George
+ Sebastian Barry, A Long Long Way
+ Kazuo Ishiguro, Never Let Me Go (Slepptu mér aldrei)
+ Ali Smith, The Accidental
+ Zadie Smith, On Beauty
+
+ 2006: Kiran Desai, The Inheritance of Loss Kate Grenville, The Secret River
+ M. J. Hyland, Carry Me Down
+ Hisham Matar, In the Country of Men
+ Edward St Aubyn, Mother's Milk (novel)|Mother's Milk
+ Sarah Waters, The Night Watch
+
+ 2007: Anne Enright, The Gathering Nicola Barker, Darkmans
+ Mohsin Hamid, The Reluctant Fundamentalist
+ Lloyd Jones, Mister Pip
+ Ian McEwan, On Chesil Beach
+ Indra Sinha,, Animal's People
+ 2008: Aravind Adiga, The White Tiger Sebastian Barry, The Secret Scripture
+ Amitav Ghosh, Sea of Poppies
+ Linda Grant, The Clothes on Their Backs
+ Philip Hensher, The Northern Clemency
+ Steve Toltz, The Little Stranger
+ 2009: Hilary Mantel, Wolf Hall A. S. Byatt, The Children's Book
+ J. M. Coetzee, Summertime
+ Adam Foulds, The Quickening Maze
+ Simon Mawer, The Glass Room
+ Sarah Waters, The Little Stranger
+ 2010: Howard Jacobson, The Finkler Question Peter Carey, Parrot and Olivier in America
+ Emma Donoghue, Room
+ Damon Galgut, In a Strange Room
+ Andrea Levy, The Long Song
+ Tom McCarthy, C
+ 2011: Julian Barnes, The Sense of an Ending Carol Birch, Jamrach's Menagerie
+ Patrick deWitt, The Sisters Brothers
+ Esi Edugyan, Half-Blood Blues
+ Stephen Kelman, Pigeon English
+ A D Miller, Snowdrops
+ 2012: Hilary Mantel, Bring Up the Bodies Tan Twan Eng, The Garden of Evening Mists
+ Deborah Levy, Swimming Home
+ Alison Moore, The Lighthouse
+ Will Self, Umbrella
+ Jeet Thayil, Narcopolis
+ 2013: Eleanor Catton, The Luminaries NoViolet Bulawayo, We Need New Names
+ Jim Crace, Harvest
+ Jhumpa Lahiri, The Lowland
+ Ruth Ozeki, A Tale for the Time Being
+ Colm TĂłibĂn, The Testament of Mary
+ 2014: Richard Flanagan, The Narrow Road to the Deep North Joshua Ferris, To Rise Again at a Decent Hour
+ Karen Joy Fowler, We Are All Completely Beside Ourselves
+ Howard Jacobson, J
+ Neel Mukherjee, The Lives of Others
+ Ali Smith, How to Be Both
+ 2015: Marion James, A Brief History of Seven Killings Hanya Yanagihara, A Little Life
+ Anne Tyler, A Spool of Blue Thread
+ Tom McCarthy, Satin Island
+ Chigozie Obioma, The Fishermen
+ Sunjeev Sahota, The Year of the Runaways
+ 2016: Paul Beatty, The Sellout Deborah Levy, Hot Milk
+ Graeme Macrae Burnet, His Bloody Project
+ Ottessa Moshfegh, Eileen
+ David Szalay, All That Man Is
+ Madeleine Thien, Do Not Say We Have Nothing
+ 2017: George Saunders, Lincoln in the Bardo Paul Auster, 4321
+ Fiona Mozley, Elmet
+ Moshin Hamid, Exit West
+ Emily Fridlund, History of Wolves
+ Ali Smith, Autumn
+ 2018: Anna Burns, Milkman Daisy Johnson, Everything Under
+ Rachel Kushner, The Mars Room
+ Esi Edugyan, Washington Black
+ Richard Powers, The Overstory
+ Robin Robertson, The Long Take
+ 2019: Margaret Atwood, The Testaments og Bernardine Evaristo, Girl, Woman, Other Lucy Ellmann, Ducks, Newburyport
+ Chigozie Obioma, An Orchestra of Minorities
+ Salman Rushdie, Quichotte
+ Elif Shafak, 10 Minutes 38 Seconds in This Strange World
+ 2020: Douglas Stuart, Shuggie Bain Diane Cook, The New Wilderness
+ Tsitsi Dangarembga, This Mournable Body
+ Avni Doshi, Burnt Sugar
+ Maaza Mengiste, The Shadow King
+ Brandon Taylor, Real Life
+ 2021: Damon Galgut, The Promise'
+ Anuk Arudpragasam, A Passage North Patricia Lockwood, No One Is Talking About This Nadifa Mohamed, The Fortune Men Richard Powers, Bewilderment
+ Maggie Shipstead, Great Circle''
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+BĂłkmenntaverĂ°laun
+Yann Martel (fĂŠddur 25. jĂșnĂ 1963) er kanadĂskur rithöfundur. FaĂ°ir Yanns Martels starfaĂ°i sem kennari og sĂĂ°ar sem diplĂłmati ĂĄ meĂ°an Yann Ăłlst upp. Störf föður hans höfĂ°u Ă för meĂ° sĂ©r aĂ° fjölskyldan var stöðugt aĂ° flytja heimshorna ĂĄ milli og ĂŸau bjuggu meĂ°al annars Ă Alaska, Frakklandi, MexĂkĂł, Kosta RĂka og Ă kanadĂsku hĂ©ruĂ°unum Ontario og Bresku KĂłlumbĂu.
+
+Ă fullorĂ°insĂĄrum sĂnum hĂ©lt hann Yann ĂĄfram aĂ° ferĂ°ast um heiminn, og dvaldi meĂ°al annars Ă Ăran, Tyrklandi og Indlandi. AĂ° loknu heimspekinĂĄmi viĂ° Trent hĂĄskĂłlann Ă Peterborough Ă Ontario, ĂĄkvaĂ° hann aĂ° leggja fyrir sig ritstörf. Dvöl hans Ă hinum Ăœmsu menningarheimum hefur haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ skrif hans, eins og glögglega mĂĄ sjĂĄ Ă Sögunni af PĂ sem aflaĂ°i honum hinna virtu Booker-bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launa ĂĄriĂ° 2002. Ăegar hann undirbjĂł sig fyrir aĂ° skrifa Söguna um PĂ, varĂ°i Yann Martel sex mĂĄnuĂ°um viĂ° aĂ° heimsĂŠkja moskur, musteri, kirkjur og dĂœragarĂ°a Ă Indlandi. AĂ° ĂŸvĂ loknu varĂ°i hann heilu ĂĄri viĂ° lestur trĂșarlegra texta og sagna af skipbrotsmönnum. Eftir ĂŸessar rannsĂłknir tĂłk ĂŸaĂ° hann tvö ĂĄr Ă viĂ°bĂłt aĂ° skrifa bĂłkina.
+
+AĂ°spurĂ°ur segist Yann Martel nĂș bĂșa Ă MontrĂ©al Ă QuĂ©bec-hĂ©raĂ°i Ă Kanada, vegna ĂŸess aĂ° ĂŸar lenti flugvĂ©lin. Hann kann illa viĂ° aĂ° vera bundinn einhverju og ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ litlar eignir og ĂŸegar hann skorti fĂ© ĂĄĂ°ur fyrr tĂłk hann hver ĂŸau störf sem veittu honum fĂŠri ĂĄ aĂ° ferĂ°ast og skrifa.
+
+BÊkur eftir höfundinn
+ Life of Pi - (2001)
+ Ă Ăslensku: Sagan af PĂ (Bjartur, 2003) - (ĂĂœĂ°. JĂłn Hallur StefĂĄnsson)
+ Self - (1996)
+ Facts Behind the Helsinki Roccamatios (smĂĄsagnasafn) - (1993)
+
+BĂłkmenntaverĂ°laun
+ Vann Booker-bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launin ĂĄriĂ° 2002.
+ Vann Hugh MacLennan-bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launin ĂĄriĂ° 2001.
+ Tilnefndur til Governor General-bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launanna ĂĄriĂ° 2001.
+ Tilnefndur til kanadĂsku Chapters/Books verĂ°launanna fyrir fyrstu skĂĄldsögu höfundar.
+ Vann Journey-verĂ°launin.
+
+Martel, Yann
+MagnĂșs ĂĂłr JĂłnsson (fĂŠddur 7. aprĂl 1945 Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄ Ăslandi) er Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur, dĂŠgurlagahöfundur, rithöfundur og myndlistarmaĂ°ur, hann er best ĂŸekktur undir listamannsnafninu Megas.
+
+Uppeldi og nĂĄm
+Megas fĂŠddist 7. aprĂl 1945, sonur skĂĄldkonunnar ĂĂłrunnar Elfu MagnĂșsdĂłttur og JĂłns ĂĂłrĂ°arsonar kennara og rithöfundar. MagnĂșs MagnĂșsson nafni hans og móðurafi var verkamaĂ°ur Ă ReykjavĂk sem stundaĂ°i jafnframt sjĂłinn. MargrĂ©t amma Megasar var frĂĄ Horni Ă Skorradal en föðurforeldrarnir SnĂŠfellingar. Ăau hĂ©tu Sesselja JĂłnsdĂłttir og ĂĂłrĂ°ur PĂĄlsson frĂĄ Borgarholti Ă Miklaholtshreppi ĂŸar sem ĂŸau stunduĂ°u bĂșskap.
+
+Megas Ăłlst upp Ă NorĂ°urmĂœrinni Ă ReykjavĂk og gekk Ă AusturbĂŠjarskĂłlann og svo Ă MenntaskĂłlann Ă ReykjavĂk, ĂŸaĂ°an sem hann lauk stĂșdentsprĂłfi ĂĄriĂ° 1965. ĂĂĄ vann hann um hrĂĂ° sem gjaldkeri Ă Landsbankanum, en hĂ©lt svo til Noregs til aĂ° stunda nĂĄm Ă ĂŸjóðhĂĄttafrĂŠĂ°i viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann Ă OslĂł.
+
+Megas byrjaĂ°i snemma aĂ° fĂĄst viĂ° lagasmĂĂ°ar og textagerĂ°, lĂŠrĂ°i ĂĄ pĂanĂł og samdi meĂ°al annars lagiĂ° um Gamla sorrĂ GrĂĄna fyrir fermingu. Ă gagnfrĂŠĂ°askĂłlaĂĄrunum samdi hann menĂșetta ĂĄĂ°ur en hann hellti sĂ©r Ășt Ă ĂŸjóðlagapĂŠlingar, keypti sĂ©r nĂłtnabĂłk meĂ° amerĂskri alĂŸĂœĂ°utĂłnlist og lagĂ°i sig eftir skandinavĂskum ĂŸjóðlögum. FrĂĄ ĂŠskuĂĄrum Megasar er einnig til fjöldi teikninga af Ăœmsum toga sem hann hefur haldiĂ° til haga. Helstu ĂĄhrifavaldar Megasar ĂĄ ĂŠskuĂĄrum hans voru HalldĂłr Laxness og Elvis Presley.
+
+Ă menntaskĂłlaĂĄrunum tĂłk Megas ĂŸĂĄtt Ă aĂ° mĂĄla leiktjöld fyrir hundraĂ° ĂĄra afmĂŠlissĂœningu Ătilegumannanna eftir MatthĂas Jochumsson, gerĂ°i myndskreytingar Ă skĂłlablaĂ°iĂ° og fĂ©kk nokkur ljóða sinna birt Ă blaĂ°inu og smĂĄsögur. Hann hlustaĂ°i ĂĄ klassĂk, einkum ĂŸungmelta tĂłlf tĂłna tĂłnlist og Bob Dylan, en margorĂ°ir textar Dylans heilluĂ°u Megas og höfĂ°u veruleg ĂĄhrif ĂĄ hann. AĂ° loknu stĂșdentsprĂłfi innritaĂ°ist Megas Ă HĂĄskĂłlann. Ăar rakst hann ĂĄ nafniĂ° Megas Ă grĂskri orĂ°abĂłk og ĂŠtlaĂ°i aĂ° nota ĂŸaĂ° sem skĂĄldanafn ĂŸegar hann reyndi aĂ° fĂĄ birta eftir sig smĂĄsögu Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins. SmĂĄsagan komst inn eftir nokkrar hremmingar en hann varĂ° aĂ° birta hana undir eigin nafni. Engu aĂ° sĂĂ°ur notaĂ°i hann listamannsnafniĂ° Megas eftir ĂŸetta.
+
+Um jĂłlin 1968 gaf hann Ășt bĂłkina Megas, sem innihĂ©lt lögin DauĂ°i Snorra Sturlusonar, JĂłn SigurĂ°sson & sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isbarĂĄtta Ăslendinga, MeĂ° gati, ĂfelĂa, RagnheiĂ°ur biskupsdĂłttir, Silfur Egils, Um Ăłheppilega fundvĂsi IngĂłlfs Arnarsonar, Um skĂĄldiĂ° JĂłnas, Um grimman dauĂ°a JĂłns Arasonar og Vertu mĂ©r samferĂ°a innĂ blĂłmalandiĂ°, amma. Stuttu sĂĂ°ar kom Ășt annaĂ° heftiĂ° og ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸriĂ°ja ĂĄriĂ° 1973, sem hĂ©t Megas kominn, en frĂĄleitt farinn.
+
+ĂĂ°ur en fyrsta hljĂłmplata hans kom Ășt Ă Noregi ĂĄriĂ° 1972 komu Ășt eftir hann ĂŸrjĂș hefti meĂ° textum, nĂłtum og teikningum. Ăau hĂ©tu einfaldlega Megas I (1968), Megas II (1969) og Megas III (1970). ĂriĂ° 1973 gaf hann heftin ĂŸrjĂș Ășt aftur, endurskoĂ°uĂ°, og bĂŠtti fjĂłrĂ°a heftinu viĂ°, Megas IV. Margt af ĂŸvĂ efni sem birtist Ă heftunum ĂĄtti sĂĂ°ar eftir aĂ° rata inn ĂĄ plöturnar hans.
+
+Ătgefin verk
+
+Hljómplötur
+1972 - Megas
+1975 - Millilending
+1975 - SmĂĄskĂfa: SpĂĄĂ°u Ă mig / Komdu og skoĂ°aĂ°u Ă kistuna mĂna
+1976 - Fram og aftur blindgötuna
+1977 - Ă bleikum nĂĄttkjĂłlum
+1978 - NĂș er Ă©g klĂŠddur og kominn ĂĄ rĂłl
+1978 - Drög að sjålfsmorði
+1986 - Ă góðri trĂș
+1987 - Loftmynd (hljĂłmplata)
+1988 - Höfuðlausnir
+1988 - BlĂĄir draumar
+1990 - HĂŠttuleg HljĂłmsveit og GlĂŠpakvendiĂ° Stella
+1992 - ĂrĂr blóðdropar
+1993 - ParadĂsarfuglinn - Safnplata
+1994 - Drög að upprisu - Tónleikar à MH
+1996 - Til hamingju meĂ° falliĂ°
+1997 - Flåa veröld
+2000 - Svanasöngur å leiði
+2001 - Far ĂŸinn veg
+2001 - Haugbrot
+2002 - (Kristilega kĂŠrleiksblĂłmin spretta Ă kringum) Hitt og ĂŸetta
+2002 - Megas 1972-2002 - Safnplata
+2005 - HĂșs datt (meĂ° SĂșkkat)
+2006 - PassĂusĂĄlmar Ă SkĂĄlholti upptaka frĂĄ 2001
+2006 - Greinilegur pĂșls meĂ° Björk o.fl.
+2006 - Drög aĂ° upprisu - TĂłnleikar Ă MH - aukin ĂștgĂĄfa
+2006 - HÊttuleg Hljómsveit og GlÊpakvendið Stella- með demó-upptökum
+2006 - PĂŠldu Ă ĂŸvĂ sem pĂŠlandi er Ă - Safnplata
+2007 - FrĂĄgangur ĂĄsamt SenuĂŸjĂłfunum
+2007 - Hold er mold ĂĄsamt SenuĂŸjĂłfunum
+2008 - Ă Morgun ĂĄsamt SenuĂŸjĂłfunum
+2009 - SegĂ°u Ekki FrĂĄ (MeĂ° LĂfsmarki) tvöföld tĂłnleikaplata ĂĄsamt SenuĂŸjĂłfum
+2011 - (HugboĂ° um) VandrĂŠĂ°i ĂĄsamt SenuĂŸjĂłfunum
+2011 - Aðför að lögum åsamt Strengjum
+2012 - Megas raular lögin sĂn
+2017 - ĂsĂłmaljóð (Megas syngur ĂsĂłmaljóð Ăorvaldar Ăorsteinssonar)
+2020 - Syngdu eitthvaĂ° gamalt! (Safnplata)
+
+BĂŠkur
+1968 - Megas I, ljóðabĂłk, endurĂștg. 1973
+1968 - Megas II, ljóðabĂłk, endurĂștg. 1973
+1973 - Megas III, ljóðabók
+1990 - SĂłl Ă NorĂ°urmĂœri: pĂslarsaga Ășr AusturbĂŠ ĂĄsamt ĂĂłrunni ValdimarsdĂłttur
+1991 - Textar
+1994 - Björn og Sveinn eða makleg målagjöld
+2001 - Megas. Greinasafn eftir Ăœmsa höfunda, myndir, nĂłtur, viĂ°töl. MĂĄl og menning 2001
+
+Megas
+
+Megas I-III PjĂĄturĂștgĂĄfa (desember 2009) Ă 20 eintökum nĂșmeruĂ° og ĂĄrituĂ°
+
+Megas I-III endurĂștgefin (2009/10) Ă allt aĂ° 100 eintökum
+
+Von er ĂĄ nĂœrri textabĂłk JPV gefur Ășt 2010 eĂ°a 2011
+
+Heimildir
+
+ ĂĂłrunn ValdimarsdĂłttir. 1993. SĂłl Ă NorĂ°urmĂœri: pĂslarsaga Ășr AusturbĂŠ. MĂĄl og menning, ReykjavĂk.
+
+ JĂłnatan GarĂ°arsson. 2002. Megas 1972-2002. ĂviĂĄgrip Ă bĂŠklingi plötunnar (Kristilega kĂŠrleiksblĂłmin spretta Ă kringum) Hitt og ĂŸetta. Ăslenskir tĂłnar, ReykjavĂk.
+GdaĆsk (ĂĂœska: Danzig, LatĂna: Gedanum) er 6. stĂŠrsta borg PĂłllands og höfuĂ°borg Pommern sĂœslu.
+
+ FlatarmĂĄl: 262 kmÂČ
+ Mannfjöldi: 460 524
+
+FĂłlk
+ ĆwiÄtopeĆk (1191-1266)
+ Jan Dantyszek (1485-1548)
+ Abraham van den Blocke (1572-1628)
+ Izaak van den Blocke (1572-1626)
+ Jeremiasz Falck (1610-1667)
+ Jerzy Strakowski (1614-1675)
+ Jan Heweliusz (1611-1687)
+ Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (1686-1736)
+ Daniel Gralath (1708-1767)
+ Daniel Chodowiecki (1726-1801)
+ Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski, (1734-1823)
+ Jan Uphagen (1731-1802)
+ Krzysztof Celestyn Mrongovius (1764-1855)
+ Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
+ Lech BÄ
dkowski (1920-1984)
+ GĂŒnter Grass (1927-2015)
+ Lech WaĆÄsa (1943)
+ Krzysztof Kolberger (1950)
+ Jan de Weryha-WysoczaĆski (1950)
+ Jerzy Owsiak (1953)
+ Donald Tusk (1957)
+ PaweĆ Huelle (1957)
+ Zbigniew WÄ
siel (1966)
+ Dariusz Michalczewski (1968)
+
+Tenglar
+ www.gdansk.pl
+
+Borgir Ă PĂłllandi
+HansasambandiĂ°
+StĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i er rökvĂsindi sem beitir ströngum, rökfrĂŠĂ°ilegum aĂ°ferĂ°um til aĂ° fĂĄst viĂ° tölur, rĂșm, ferla, varpanir, mengi, mynstur, breytingar o.ĂŸ.h. Einnig er stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i sĂș ĂŸekking sem leidd er Ășt meĂ° rökrĂ©ttum hĂŠtti frĂĄ ĂĄkveĂ°num fyrirframgefnum forsendum sem kallaĂ°ar eru frumsendur. Ăeir sem starfa viĂ° rannsĂłknir og hagnĂœtingu ĂĄ stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i eru kallaĂ°ir stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingar.
+
+ĂrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°in sĂ© ekki nĂĄttĂșruvĂsindagrein ĂŸar eĂ° stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingar gera ekki athuganir eĂ°a tilraunir ĂĄ nĂĄttĂșrunni er hĂșn ein helsta undirstöðugrein allra raunvĂsinda, verkfrĂŠĂ°i og hagfrĂŠĂ°i. Hvergi hefur ĂŸĂł orĂ°iĂ° jafn sterk samsvörun milli stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°innar og hins raunverulega heims og Ă eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i. Uppgötvanir stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°inga ĂĄ nĂœjum stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ilegum fyrirbĂŠrum virĂ°ast oft hafa litla tengingu viĂ° raunveruleikann ĂŸegar ĂŸĂŠr eiga sĂ©r staĂ°, en leiĂ°a jafnoft til framfara Ă tilteknum vĂsindagreinum.
+
+Saga stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°innar
+
+StĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i hefur fylgt manninum frĂĄ örĂłfi alda, en elstu skrĂĄĂ°u heimildir sĂœna stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i Ă mikilli notkun Ă SĂșmeru og sĂĂ°ar BabĂœlĂłnĂu, ĂŸar sem vitaĂ° er aĂ° menn ĂŸekktu pĂ, hornasummu ĂŸrĂhyrnings og veldisreikning, svo aĂ° fĂĄtt eitt sĂ© nefnt. BabĂœlĂłnĂumenn hĂ©ldu skrĂĄr yfir landareignir og bĂșfĂ©naĂ°, stunduĂ°u verslun, og skiluĂ°u jafnvel mjög frumstĂŠĂ°um skattaskĂœrslum. Ăessi iĂ°ja krafĂ°ist skilnings ĂĄ tölum og einföldum reikniaĂ°gerĂ°um sem giltu um tölurnar, svo sem samlagningu, frĂĄdrĂĄtt, margföldun og deilingu.
+
+ĂĂł eru til enn ĂŸĂĄ eldri heimildir um stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i, frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ löngu ĂĄĂ°ur en ritlistin kom til. FornleifafrĂŠĂ°ingar hafa fundiĂ° mannvistarleifar Ă suĂ°urhluta AfrĂku sem benda til ĂŸess aĂ° reikningar og tĂmamĂŠlingar (byggĂ°ar ĂĄ staĂ°setningu stjarna) hafi veriĂ° stundaĂ°ar um 70.000 f.Kr. IshangobeiniĂ°, sem fannst viĂ° upptök NĂlar (Ă NorĂ°austur-KongĂł), varĂ°veitir elstu ĂŸekktu heimildina um runu frumtalna, ĂĄsamt nokkrum jafnhlutfallarunum, en beiniĂ° er frĂĄ um 20.000 f.Kr. Fornegyptar gerĂ°u teikningar af einföldum rĂșmfrĂŠĂ°ilegum fyrirbĂŠrum um 5.000 f.Kr.
+
+Indversk stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+Yngri heimildir eru til frĂĄ Indlandi. Eftir hrun siĂ°menningarinnar Ă Indusdalnum um 1.500 f.Kr. komu fram Ăœmsir stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingar. MĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingurinn Panini lagĂ°i fram mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ireglur ĂĄ 5. öld f.Kr. fyrir sanskrĂt meĂ° hĂŠtti sem lĂkist nĂștĂmalegu stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°itĂĄknmĂĄli. Var fĂĄgun ĂŸess slĂk aĂ° bĂșa mĂĄ til Turing-vĂ©lar meĂ° ĂŸvĂ. Ă dag er Panini-Backus-mĂĄlskilgreiningarformiĂ° gjarnan notaĂ° til aĂ° skilgreina formleg mĂĄl Ă tölvum.
+
+Indverski stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingurinn Pingala, sem uppi var ĂĄ 4. eĂ°a 3. öld f.Kr. rannsakaĂ°i ĂŸaĂ° sem viĂ° ĂŸekkjum Ă dag sem Fibbonaccirununa, ĂĄsamt PascalsĂŸrĂhyrningnum og tvĂundarkerfi. Hann notaĂ°ist viĂ° einfaldan punkt til ĂŸess aĂ° tĂĄkna nĂșll, en ĂŸaĂ° er eitt af elstu dĂŠmum um sĂ©rstakt tĂĄkn fyrir nĂșll.
+
+BakshalihandritiĂ°, sem var ritaĂ° einhvern tĂmann ĂĄ milli 200 f.Kr. og 200 e.Kr. sĂœnir meĂ°al annars lausnir ĂĄ lĂnulegum jöfnuhneppum meĂ° allt aĂ° fimm ĂłĂŸekktum stĂŠrĂ°um, lausn annars stigs jöfnu, geĂłmetrĂskar raĂ°ir og jafnvel neikvĂŠĂ°ar tölur, sem ĂŸĂłttu vafasamar Ă margar aldir ĂŸar ĂĄ eftir. Einnig virĂ°ast indverskir stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingar frĂĄ Jaina-tĂmabilinu hafa ĂŸekkt mismunandi stig Ăłendanleika, mengjafrĂŠĂ°i, logra, umraĂ°anir og margt fleira.
+
+GrĂsk og hellenĂsk stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+
+Saga grĂskrar stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i hĂłfst um 500 f.Kr. ĂŸegar Ăales og PĂœĂŸagĂłras fluttu ĂŸekkingu BabĂœlĂłnĂumanna og Egypta til Grikklands. Ăales notaĂ°i rĂșmfrĂŠĂ°i til aĂ° reikna hĂŠĂ°ir pĂramĂda og fjarlĂŠgĂ° skipa frĂĄ ströndu. TaliĂ° er aĂ° PĂœĂŸagĂłras hafi lagt fram pĂœĂŸagĂłrasarregluna, sem er kennd viĂ° hann, og aĂ° hann hafi notaĂ° algebraĂskar reglur til aĂ° reikna Ășt pĂœĂŸagĂłrĂskar ĂŸrenndir.
+
+KĂnversk stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+Ă KĂna ĂĄriĂ° 212 f.Kr. skipaĂ°i keisarinn Qin Shi Huang (Shi Huang-ti) fyrir um aĂ° allar bĂŠkur skyldu brenndar. ĂĂł svo aĂ° ĂŸessari tilskipun hafi ekki veriĂ° fylgt til hlĂtar, hefur lĂtiĂ° varĂ°veist um sögu kĂnverskrar stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i. ĂaĂ° aĂ° KĂnverjar skrifuĂ°u ĂĄ bambus gerĂ°i lĂtiĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° bĂŠta Ășr ĂŸvĂ.
+
+Heimildir um talnaritun hafa fundist Ă skjaldbökuskeljum, en KĂnverjar notuĂ°ust viĂ° tugakerfi sem var ĂŸannig aĂ° tölur voru ritaĂ°ar ofan frĂĄ og niĂ°ur, meĂ° tĂĄkni hverrar einingar, ĂĄsamt tugveldismargföldunartĂĄkni inn ĂĄ milli. Ăannig var talan 123 rituĂ° meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° skrifa tĂĄkniĂ° fyrir 1, svo tĂĄkniĂ° fyrir hundraĂ°, svo tĂĄkniĂ° fyrir 2, svo tĂĄkniĂ° fyrir tug, loks tĂĄkniĂ° fyrir 3. Ă sĂnum tĂma var ĂŸetta fullkomnasta talnaritunarkerfi heims, en ĂŸaĂ° gaf fĂŠri ĂĄ Ăștreikningum meĂ° reiknitĂŠkjum ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° suan pan og abakus.
+
+Elsta stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°itengda ritiĂ° sem lifĂ°i af bĂłkabrennuna var I Ching frĂĄ 12. öld f.Kr., sem notast viĂ° 64 umraĂ°anir strika sem voru Ăœmist heil eĂ°a brotin. ĂĂœski stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingurinn Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz hafĂ°i mikinn ĂĄhuga ĂĄ ĂŸessu riti, og telja sumir aĂ° hugmynd hans aĂ° tvĂundarkerfinu hafi komiĂ° ĂŸaĂ°an.
+
+KĂnverjar uppgötvuĂ°u Ăœmislegt sem EvrĂłpa fĂłr lengi vel ĂĄ mis viĂ°, ĂĄ borĂ° viĂ° neikvĂŠĂ°ar tölur, tvĂliĂ°uregluna, notkun fylkjareiknings til aĂ° leysa lĂnuleg jöfnuhneppi, og kĂnverslu leifaregluna. Einnig ĂŸekktu KĂnverjar PascalsĂŸrĂhyrninginn og ĂŸrĂliĂ°ur löngu ĂĄĂ°ur en ĂŸĂŠr ĂŸekktust Ă EvrĂłpu.
+
+Persnesk og arabĂsk stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+
+Ăslamska heimsveldiĂ° sem nĂĄĂ°i yfir MiĂ°austurlönd, norĂ°urhluta AfrĂku, ĂberĂuskagann og hluta Indlands (sem nĂș er Pakistan) ĂĄ 8. öld varĂ°veitti og ĂŸĂœddi mikiĂ° af grĂskum stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°iritum, sem ĂŸĂĄ höfĂ°u gleymst vĂĂ°a Ă EvrĂłpu. Einnig voru ĂŸĂœdd indversk stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°irit, sem höfĂ°u mikil ĂĄhrif, og urĂ°u grunnur aĂ° gerĂ° arabĂskra talna, sem viĂ° notum Ă dag.
+
+Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi ritaĂ°i inngangsrit aĂ° ĂŸvĂ sem Ă dag ĂŸekkist sem algebra, og er ĂŸaĂ° nafn dregiĂ° af einu orĂ°i Ă nafni bĂłkarinnar. Einnig er erlent nafn reiknirita (algĂłriĂŸmi) dregiĂ° af nafni al-Khwarizmi sjĂĄlfs. Algebra ĂŸrĂłaĂ°ist talsvert Ă höndum Abu Bakr al-Karaji (953-1029), og Abul Wafa ĂŸĂœddi verk DĂĂłfantĂłsar, og fann sĂĂ°ar upp tangens.
+
+StĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ Ăslandi
+Elstu heimildir um notkun talna og stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ Ăslandi (reyndar öllum NorĂ°urlöndum) er Ășr HauksbĂłk eftir Hauk Erlendsson.
+
+Greinar stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°innar
+
+StĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°in skiptist niĂ°ur Ă nokkrar undirgreinar, mĂĄ ĂŸar einna helst nefna eftirfarandi:
+
+ Algebra er sĂș grein sem fĂŠst viĂ° jöfnur og ĂłĂŸekktar stĂŠrĂ°ir Ă ĂŸeim.
+ RĂșmfrĂŠĂ°i fĂŠst viĂ° lögun og stĂŠrĂ° hluta Ă rĂșmi.
+ StÊrðfrÊðigreining greinir stÊrðfrÊðileg föll með notkun örsmÊðareiknings.
+ TalnafrĂŠĂ°i fjallar um eiginleika talna.
+ HagnĂœt stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i brĂșar biliĂ° ĂĄ milli stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i og annarra vĂsindagreina.
+ StrjĂĄl stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i fjallar um Ăłsamfelldar stĂŠrĂ°ir Ă stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°inni, t.d. mĂŠtti fĂŠra rök fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° talnafrĂŠĂ°i vĂŠri undirgrein strjĂĄllar stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°i.
+
+Ăetta eru aĂ°eins nokkrar greinar innan stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°innar, fyrir lengri lista sĂĄ aĂ°algreinina fyrir ĂŸennan liĂ°.
+
+FrĂŠgir stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingar
+''Höfuðgrein: FrÊgir stÊrðfrÊðingar
+
+PĂœĂŸagĂłras â Leibniz â Newton â Euler â Gauss â Mandelbrot â Shannon â Turing â Wiles â Fermat â Gödel
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+ OrĂ°asafn Ăslenska stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°afĂ©lagsins
+ Hugtök à stÊrðfrÊði , kennslubók à stÊrðfrÊði
+KrakĂĄ (pĂłlska: KrakĂłw, ĂŸĂœska: Krakau, latĂna: Cracovia) er önnur stĂŠrsta borg PĂłllands og höfuĂ°borg Litla-PĂłlland sĂœslu. HĂșn er Ă suĂ°urhluta PĂłllands viĂ° ĂĄna Vislu.
+
+Saga
+Fyrstu heimildir um byggĂ° Ă KrakĂĄ er hĂŠgt aĂ° rekja aftur til 996. ĂaĂ° er ĂŸĂł taliĂ° aĂ° allstĂłr bĂŠr hafi veriĂ° ĂŸar nokkru lengur, og fyrst ĂĄ Wawel hĂŠĂ°inni. ĂriĂ° 1000 var KrakĂĄ gerĂ° aĂ° biskupssetri og ĂĄriĂ° 1038 aĂ° höfuĂ°borg PĂłllands.
+
+Ă 13. öld var borgin endurskipulögĂ° samkvĂŠmt svokölluĂ°u "skĂĄkborĂ°sskipulagi", ĂŸannig aĂ° frĂĄ aĂ°altorginu lĂĄgu fjĂłrar götur Ă hverja ĂĄtt, sem voru svo tengdar meĂ° minni götum og umhverfis allt lĂĄgu borgarmĂșrarnir. Fyrir utan borgarmĂșrana lĂĄgu svo minni og sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°ir bĂŠir sem meĂ° tĂmanum urĂ°u sameinaĂ°ir KrakĂĄ. ĂriĂ° 1364 var Ă KrakĂĄ stofnaĂ°ur elsti hĂĄskĂłli Ă PĂłllandi, Uniwersytet JagielloĆski, sem ĂŸĂĄ kallaĂ°ist Akademia Krakowska.
+
+Ă 15. og 16. öld var PĂłlland eitt af stĂłrveldum EvrĂłpu og Ă KrakĂĄ ĂĄtti ĂŸvĂ sĂ©r staĂ° ör ĂŸrĂłun. Borgin var miĂ°stöð menninngar, lista og verslunar auk ĂŸess sem stĂłrir hlutar hennar, m.a. kastalinn ĂĄ Wawel hĂŠĂ°inni voru endurbyggĂ°ir. Ă 16. öld voru ĂbĂșar KrakĂĄ um 30 ĂŸĂșsund.
+
+MeĂ° sameiningu PĂłllands og LithĂĄen varĂ° KrakĂĄ Ă ĂștjaĂ°ri rĂkisins. VarsjĂĄ fĂłr aĂ° taka viĂ° sem staĂ°ur funda og kosninga, og ĂĄriĂ° 1609 varĂ° höfuĂ°borgin endanlega fĂŠrĂ° ĂŸangaĂ°. Konungar voru ĂŸĂł enn krĂœndir Ă KrakĂĄ fram til 1734.
+
+MeĂ° skiptingu PĂłllands milli nĂĄgrannalanda 1795 komst KrakĂĄ undir stjĂłrn AusturrĂkis. Ă ĂĄrunum 1815-1846 varĂ° hĂșn höfuĂ°borg LĂœĂ°veldisins KrakĂĄ, sem formlega var sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt, en var Ă raun undir sameiginlegri stjĂłrn ĂŸeirra ĂŸriggja landa sem höfĂ°u skipt PĂłllandi milli sĂn, AusturrĂkis, RĂșsslands og PrĂșsslands. Mikil endurnĂœjun ĂĄtti sĂ©r ĂŸĂĄ staĂ° ĂĄ borginni, mestur hluti borgarmĂșranna var rifinn og Ă staĂ° sĂkisins var reistur garĂ°ur sem kallast Planty. Einnig ĂŸĂłtti rĂĄĂ°hĂșsiĂ° taka of stĂłran hluta af aĂ°altorginu og ĂŸvĂ tekiĂ° Ă sundur og aĂ°eins turninn skilinn eftir.
+
+Eftir byltingu ĂĄriĂ° 1846 var KrakĂĄ aftur innlimuĂ° Ă AusturrĂki og var hluti ĂŸess fram til 1918 ĂŸegar PĂłlland öðlaĂ°ist sjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ nĂœ. ĂriĂ° 1978 var miĂ°borg KrakĂĄ skrĂĄĂ° ĂĄ heimsminjaskrĂĄ UNESCO.
+
+ĂhugaverĂ°ir staĂ°ir
+
+KrakĂłw er mjög vel varĂ°veitt borg og skartar byggingum frĂĄ Ăœmsum tĂmabilum. AĂ°altorgiĂ° Ă borginni er ĂŸaĂ° stĂŠrsta Ă allri MiĂ°- og Austur-EvrĂłpu. Ă torginu eru meĂ°al annars:
+
+ Kirkja heilags Albert (pl: KoĆcioĆ Ćw. Wojciecha) - ein elsta kirkjan Ă KrakĂĄ, taliĂ° aĂ° byrjaĂ° hafi veriĂ° aĂ° byggja hana ĂĄ 10. öld.
+
+ MarĂukirja (pl: KoĆciĂłĆ Mariacki) - eitt frĂŠgasta tĂĄkn KrakĂĄ og einnig PĂłllands, kirkja frĂĄ 13. öld meĂ° tveimur mishĂĄum turnum. Ăr ĂŸeim efri er spilaĂ° ĂĄ klukkutĂma fresti sĂ©rstakt lag kallaĂ° "HejnaĆ" sem hefur orĂ°iĂ° aĂ° tĂĄkni KrakĂĄ.
+
+ RĂĄĂ°hĂșsturninn - ĂŸaĂ° eina sem er orĂ°iĂ° af rĂĄĂ°hĂșsinu sem var tekiĂ° Ă sundur 1820.
+ Sukiennice - markaĂ°storg frĂĄ 13. öld sem hĂœsir nĂș aĂ°allega tĂșristamarkaĂ°.
+ Stytta af ĂŸjóðskĂĄldinu Adam Mickiewicz.
+
+Ăt frĂĄ aĂ°altorginu liggja götur Ă allar ĂĄttir, meĂ°al annars helstu verslunargötur borgarinnar, Grodzka og FloriaĆska. ViĂ° enda FloriaĆska götunnar er eina borgarhliĂ°iĂ° sem enn stendur og hluti af gömlu virki sem kallast Barbakan.
+
+AĂ°eins utan viĂ° gamla miĂ°bĂŠinn liggur Wawel-hĂŠĂ°in ĂŸar sem gamli konungskastalinn stendur. Einn hluti kastalans er dĂłmkirkja ĂŸar sem flestir konungar PĂłllands eru grafnir. Wawel hĂŠĂ°inni tengist ĂŸjóðsaga um dreka sem ĂŠtlaĂ°i aĂ° Ă©ta alla ĂbĂșa KrakĂĄ en var drepinn af fĂĄtĂŠkum skĂłsmiĂ° sem fĂ©kk konungsdĂłtturina aĂ° launum. Ă Wawel hĂŠĂ°inni er lĂtill hellir sem er sagĂ°ur hafa bĂșiĂ° Ă, og fyrir utan stendur stytta af drekanum sem er vinsĂŠll myndatökustaĂ°ur fyrir tĂșrista.
+
+Ă KrakĂĄ er einnig mjög vel varĂ°veitt gyĂ°ingahverfi sem kallast Kazimierz. Ăar eru m.a. nokkur bĂŠnahĂșs gyĂ°inga og grafreitur.
+
+à undanförnum årum hefur Krakå orðið vinsÊll ferðmannastaður og å hverju åri heimsÊkja borgina 3-4 milljónir ferðamanna. Frå og með vori 2004 hafa Heimsferðir staðið fyrir beinu leiguflugi til Krakå nokkrum sinnum å åri.
+
+Ăekktir KrakĂĄbĂșar
+ Stefan Banach
+ Jan Matejko
+
+Tenglar
+ KrakĂĄ; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1999
+ www.e-krakow.pl
+
+Borgir Ă PĂłllandi
+HansasambandiĂ°
+LandfrĂŠĂ°i eĂ°a landafrĂŠĂ°i er frĂŠĂ°igrein sem fĂŠst viĂ° samspil nĂĄttĂșru og mannlĂfs ĂĄ jörĂ°inni. SjĂłnarhorn landfrĂŠĂ°ingsins getur veriĂ° gervöll jörĂ°in, tiltekin svĂŠĂ°i eĂ°a einstakir staĂ°ir. FagiĂ° er mjög fjölbreytt og tekur bĂŠĂ°i til fĂ©lags- og nĂĄttĂșruvĂsinda.
+
+NĂĄttĂșrulandfrĂŠĂ°i fĂŠst viĂ° ytri ĂĄsĂœnd landsins, svo sem landmĂłtun, jarĂ°veg, gróður og veĂ°urfar.
+
+MannvistarlandfrĂŠĂ°i fĂŠst viĂ° lĂf fĂłlks ĂĄ jörĂ°inni frĂĄ mörgum sjĂłnarhornum. HĂșn tekur til menningar, efnahagslĂfs og annarra samfĂ©lagslegra ĂŸĂĄtta.
+
+NĂĄttĂșru- og mannvistarlandfrĂŠĂ°i eiga sĂ©r snertiflöt Ă umhverfismĂĄlum, ĂŸar sem nĂœting nĂĄttĂșruauĂ°linda og ĂĄhrif mannlegra athafna ĂĄ nĂĄttĂșruna eru Ă brennidepli. Ă ĂŸessu ört vaxandi sviĂ°i hefur landfrĂŠĂ°in Ăœmislegt til mĂĄlanna aĂ° leggja.
+
+Kortlagning og greining lands og landupplĂœsinga hefur alltaf skipaĂ° veglegan sess Ă greininni og eru tölvuvĂŠdd landupplĂœsingakerfi, byggĂ° ĂĄ sĂ©rstökum aĂ°ferĂ°um landfrĂŠĂ°inga, orĂ°in mikilvĂŠg ĂĄ mörgum sviĂ°um ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagsins.
+
+Greinin ĂĄ sĂ©r afar langa sögu og hiĂ° alĂŸjóðlega frĂŠĂ°iheiti hennar, geĂłgrafĂa, sem komiĂ° er Ășr grĂsku (γΔÏÎłÏαÏία). ĂaĂ° ĂŸĂœĂ°ir einfaldlega "skrif um jörĂ°ina".
+
+Tengt efni
+ LandmĂŠlingar
+ Landslag
+ StaĂ°frĂŠĂ°i
+KeflavĂk er um 19.000 manna bĂŠr (2019) austan megin ĂĄ MiĂ°nesi ĂĄ Reykjanesskaga og heyrir undir sveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° ReykjanesbĂŠ. KeflavĂk er helst ĂŸekkt fyrir herstöðina ĂĄ MiĂ°nesheiĂ°i, eina alĂŸjóðaflugvöllinn ĂĄ Ăslandi, KeflavĂkurflugvöll og blĂłmlegt tĂłnlistarlĂf ĂĄ seinni hluta 20. aldar.
+
+BĂŠrinn dregur nafn sitt af samnefndri vĂk, sem liggur ĂĄ milli HĂłlmsbergs aĂ° norĂ°an og Vatnsness aĂ° sunnan og gengur til vesturs inn Ășr StakksfirĂ°i. VĂkin er opin ĂĄ mĂłti austri og ĂŸĂłtti aldrei gott skipalĂŠgi. HĂșn var samt grundvöllur ĂŸeirrar verslunar sem ĂŸar ĂŸrĂłaĂ°ist frĂĄ 17. öld og varĂ° grundvöllur bĂŠjarins.
+
+Saga
+SamkvĂŠmt LandnĂĄmu var Steinunn gamla, landnĂĄmskona, fyrsti eigandi lands ĂĄ SuĂ°urnesjum, ĂŸar meĂ° taliĂ° KeflavĂk. KeflavĂkur er fyrst getiĂ° Ă rituĂ°um heimildum um 1270. KeflavĂkurjörĂ°in heyrĂ°i undir Rosmhvalaneshrepp frĂĄ fornu fari. Fram eftir 15. öld stunduĂ°u Englendingar veiĂ°ar Ă kringum SuĂ°urnes og hafa sjĂĄlfsagt komiĂ° ĂĄ land Ă KeflavĂk. ĂriĂ° 1579 gaf Danakonungur Ășt fyrsta verslunarleyfiĂ° til Hansakaupmanna aĂ° ĂŸeir mĂŠttu versla Ă KeflavĂk. FrĂĄ og meĂ° 1602 hefst einokunarverslun Dana.
+
+Elstu heimildir um byggĂ° Ă KeflavĂk eru frĂĄ 1627. Fyrsti bĂłndinn sem nafngreindur er Ă KeflavĂk var GrĂmur Bergsson, fyrrverandi sĂœslumaĂ°ur Ă KjĂłsarsĂœslu og lögrĂ©ttumaĂ°ur ĂĄ SuĂ°urnesjum sem samkvĂŠmt SetbergsannĂĄl dĂł viĂ° störf sĂn ĂĄriĂ° 1649. Ăar settist HallgrĂmur PĂ©tursson aĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1637 ĂĄsamt konu sinni GuĂ°rĂĂ°i SĂmonardĂłttur ĂŸar sem ĂŸau bjuggu til ĂĄrsins 1641 ĂŸegar ĂŸau fluttu ĂĄ Hvalnes. MiĂ°aĂ° er viĂ° aĂ° byggĂ° hafi fyrst fariĂ° aĂ° ĂŸĂ©ttast Ă kjölfar ĂŸess aĂ° Holger Jacobaeus var skipaĂ°ur kaupmaĂ°ur Ă KeflavĂk ĂĄriĂ° 1766 ĂĄ vegum Almennna verslunarfĂ©lagsins sem fĂłr meĂ° einokun ĂĄ verslun ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+
+MeĂ° vexti kauptĂșnsins ĂĄ seinni hluta 19. aldar reyndist landrĂœmi of lĂtiĂ° fyrir byggĂ°ina. 1891 var löggilt stĂŠkkun ĂĄ verslunarlóðinni til suĂ°urs, Ă landi NjarĂ°vĂkurhrepps, sem stofnaĂ°ur hafĂ°i veriĂ° tveimur ĂĄrum ĂĄĂ°ur. KeflavĂk var ĂŸannig Ă tveimur hreppum samtĂmis og hĂ©lst svo til ĂĄrsins 1908.
+
+Hinn 15. jĂșnĂ 1908 var Rosmhvalaneshreppi skipt upp. VarĂ° nyrĂ°ri hlutinn aĂ° GerĂ°ahreppi en KeflavĂkurjörĂ°in Ă suĂ°ri var sameinuĂ° NjarĂ°vĂkurhreppi undir heitinu KeflavĂkurhreppur. NjarĂ°vĂkurhreppur klauf sig aftur frĂĄ hreppnum 1. janĂșar 1942. Ă kjölfar seinni heimstyrjaldarinnar fjölgaĂ°i hratt Ă KeflavĂk enda var mikiĂ° um uppgrip og vinnu aĂ° fĂĄ Ă kring um KeflavĂkurstöðina og KeflavĂkurflugvöll.
+
+KeflavĂk fĂ©kk kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi 22. mars 1949. Hinn 11. jĂșnĂ 1994 sameinaĂ°ist KeflavĂk NjarĂ°vĂkurkaupstaĂ° og Hafnahreppi undir nafninu ReykjanesbĂŠr.
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+
+ KeflavĂk ĂĄ fyrri öldum, SkĂșli MagnĂșsson
+ Drög aĂ° sögu KeflavĂkur, SkĂșli MagnĂșsson (framhald Ă nokkrum tölublöðum)
+ TvĂŠr aldir Ă KeflavĂk, grein eftir Dr. FrĂĂ°u SigurĂ°sson Ă TĂmanum 1972
+
+ Fyrstu ĂĄr KeflavĂkur, Faxi, 5. tölublaĂ° (01.05.1947), BlaĂ°sĂĂ°a 1
+ Ăhrif og umsvif Ă KeflavĂk : Ăr sögu Duus-veldisins , bls 5 Faxi, 2. tbl. 2007
+
+KeflavĂk
+ReykjanesbĂŠr
+ĂĂ©ttbĂœlisstaĂ°ir Ăslands
+AĂ°setur sĂœslumanna ĂĄ Ăslandi
+FornleifafrĂŠĂ°i er frĂŠĂ°igrein, sem fjallar um manninn Ășt frĂĄ margvĂslegum hliĂ°um, t.a.m. Ășt frĂĄ beinum (dĂœra- og manna), gripum (ĂŸ.m.t. byggingum), landslagi, ljosmyndum, kortum og öðrum skjölum. Helstu aĂ°ferĂ°ir fornleifafrĂŠĂ°inga er fornleifaskrĂĄning og fornleifauppgröftur. FornleifafrĂŠĂ°ingar fĂĄst viĂ° rannsĂłknir ĂĄ ĂłlĂkum tĂmum, t.d. forsögulegum, miðöldum, og ĂĄ minjum nĂștĂmasamfĂ©laga.
+
+Saga fornleifafrĂŠĂ°i ĂĄ Ăslandi
+
+Fram til 1850
+Ă meginlandi EvrĂłpu fĂłr ĂĄhugi ĂĄ fornminjum vaxandi samhliĂ°a hugmyndum um rĂkisvald ĂĄ 16. og 17. öld. NĂœstofnuĂ° rĂki ĂŸurftu aĂ° geta sĂœnt fram ĂĄ aĂ° rĂkisbĂșar sĂnir ĂŠttu sameiginlega fortĂĂ° og upprunasögu; vegna ĂŸess beindist ĂĄhugi fĂłlks aĂ° slĂkum gripum og minjastöðum. ĂlĂka var aĂ° gerast ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸar sem fornfrĂŠĂ°ingar heimsĂłttu merkilega sögustaĂ°i sem nefndir voru Ă Ăslendingasögum.
+
+Fyrsta heildarskrĂĄning fornleifa ĂĄ Ăslandi var ĂĄ vegum dönsku fornleifanefndarinnar ĂĄ ĂĄrunum milli 1817 og 1823. Konungur Danmerkur sendi skipunarbrĂ©f ĂĄriĂ° 1807 um aĂ° skrĂĄ fornleifar Ă Danmörku og ĂĄttu skrĂĄsetjarar aĂ° vera sĂłknarprestur sem mundu skrifa ritgerĂ° um fornleifar Ă sinni sĂłkn. Prestar ĂĄttu aĂ° lĂta sĂ©rstatklega til staĂ°bunda minja um fornsögur og elstu leifar stjĂłrnvalds, t.d. dĂłmhringi og ĂŸingstaĂ°i.
+
+Tengt efni
+ Fornleifar
+ NeĂ°ansjĂĄvarfornleifafrĂŠĂ°i
+ Greinar um fornleifauppgröft ĂĄ Ăslandi
+
+Frekara lesefni
+ Adolf FriĂ°riksson. (1994). Sagas and Popular Antiquarianism in Icelandic Archaeology. Aldershot: Avebury.
+ Birna LĂĄrusdĂłttir (ritstj.). (2013). Mannvist: SĂœnisbĂłk Ăslenskra fornleifa. ReykjavĂk: Opna.
+ Steinunn KristjĂĄnsdĂłttir. (2010). Sagan af klaustrinu ĂĄ SkriĂ°u. ReykjavĂk: Ăjóðminjasafn Ăslands.
+ Orri VĂ©steinsson, Gavin Lucas, Kristborg ĂĂłrsdĂłttir og RagnheiĂ°ur GlĂł GylfadĂłttir (ritstj.). (2011). Upp ĂĄ yfirborĂ°iĂ°: NĂœjar rannsĂłknir Ă Ăslenskri fornleifafrĂŠĂ°i. ReykjavĂk: Fornleifastofnun Ăslands.
+
+HeimildaskrĂĄ
+ Thomas, J. (2004). Archaeology and Modernity. New York: Routledge.
+
+Tenglar
+Murakami Haruki (æäžæ„æšč), einnig ĂŸekktur sem Haruki Murakami, (f. Ă KĂœĂłtĂł ĂŸann 12. janĂșar 1949) er vinsĂŠll japanskur rithöfundur og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi.
+
+Ăvi og störf
+Hann bjĂł Ă Kobe flest öll ĂŠskuĂĄrin. FaĂ°ir hans var bĂșddaprestur og móðir hans var dĂłttir kaupmanns frĂĄ Osaka. Ăau kenndu bĂŠĂ°i japanskar bĂłkmenntir.
+
+Murakami hafĂ°i hins vegar meiri ĂĄhuga ĂĄ bandarĂskum bĂłkmenntum en japönskum, eins og glögglega mĂĄ sjĂĄ Ă skrifum hans, en vestrĂŠnn ritstĂllinn er frĂĄbrugĂ°inn flestum öðrum japönskum bĂłkmenntum samtĂmans.
+
+Hann lagĂ°i stund ĂĄ leiklist Ă Waseda hĂĄskĂłla Ă TĂłkĂœĂł, og hitti ĂŸar Yoko, eiginkonu sĂna. Fyrsta starf hans var Ă hljĂłmplötuverslun, en aĂ° nĂĄmi loknu stofnaĂ°i hann djassbar Ă TĂłkĂœĂł, sem hann rak ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1974 til 1982. TĂłnlistarĂĄhuginn kemur lĂka fram Ă sögum hans, sĂ©rstaklega Ă Dansu dansu dansu (e. Dance, Dance, Dance) og Noruwei no mori (e. Norwegian Wood), sem nefnd er eftir samnefndu BĂtlalagi.
+
+Fyrsta skĂĄldsaga hans: Kaze no oto wo kike (e. Hear the Wind Sing) vann til verĂ°launa ĂĄriĂ° 1979. Ări sĂĂ°ar gaf hann Ășt 1973 nen no pinbohru (e. Pinball, 1973). Ăessar skĂĄldsögur mynda RottuĂŸrĂleikinn, ĂĄsamt Hitsuji wo meguru Bohken (e. A Wild Sheep Chase). ĂriĂ° 1985 gaf hann Ășt vĂsindaskĂĄldsögu, Sekai no owari to hahdo bohrudo wandahrando (e. Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World).
+
+Hann slĂł loks Ă gegn Ă Japan meĂ° ĂștgĂĄfu Noruwei no mori ĂĄriĂ° 1987. ĂriĂ° 1986 fĂłr Murakami frĂĄ Japan til vesturlanda. Hann ĂŸvĂŠldist um EvrĂłpu og BandarĂkin og settist aĂ° lokum aĂ° Ă bĂŠnum Cambridge Ă Massachusetts Ă BandarĂkjunum. Ă ĂŸessum ĂĄrum skrifaĂ°i hann Dansu dansu dansu og Sunnan viĂ° mĂŠri, vestur af sĂłl (Kokky no minami, taiyou no nishii).
+
+Ărin 1994 og 1995 sendi hann frĂĄ sĂ©r Nejimakidori kuronikuru (e. The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle) Ă ĂŸremur hlutum. BĂłkin fjallaĂ°i meĂ°al annars um japanska strĂĂ°sglĂŠpi Ă MansjĂșrĂu. Fyrir ĂŸĂĄ skĂĄldsögu fĂ©kk hann Yomuiri bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launin.
+
+MeĂ° Nejimakidori kuronikuru varĂ° vendipunktur ĂĄ ferli Murakamis. Rit hans urĂ°u ĂŸyngri, en fram aĂ° ĂŸessu höfĂ°u ĂŸau veriĂ° hĂĄfgert lĂ©ttmeti. Ăegar hann var aĂ° leggja lokahönd ĂĄ bĂłkina, reiĂ° KĂłbe-jarĂ°skjĂĄlftinn yfir og gerĂ° var taugagasĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ neĂ°anjarĂ°arlestakerfiĂ° Ă TĂłkĂœĂł. Ă kjölfar ĂŸessara atburĂ°a sneri hann aftur til Japans. AtburĂ°irnir voru ĂŸungamiĂ°jan Ă smĂĄsagnasafninu Kami no kodomotachi ha mina odoru (e. After the Quake) og Ă fyrsta ritgerĂ°asafni hans, Andaguraundo/Yakusoku sareta basho de (e. Underground).
+
+Auk skĂĄldsagna sinna og smĂĄsagnasafnsins Kami no kodomotachi ha mina odoru, sem fyrr er getiĂ°, hefur Murakami skrifaĂ° fjölda smĂĄsagna. Hann hefur einnig ĂŸĂœtt verk eftir F. Scott Fitzgerald, Raymond Carver, Truman Capote, John Irving, Paul Theroux og fleiri ĂĄ japönsku.
+
+Skåldsögur
+ Kaze no oto wo kike (e. Hear the Wind Sing) (1979)
+ 1973 nen no pinbohru (e. Pinball, 1973) (1980)
+ Hitsuji wo meguru Bohken (e. A Wild Sheep Chase) (1982)
+ Sekai no owari to hahdo bohrudo wandahrando (e. Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World) (1985)
+ Noruwei no mori (e. Norwegian Wood) (1987)
+ Ă Ăslensku: Norwegian Wood (Bjartur, 2006) - (ĂĂœĂ°. Uggi JĂłnsson)
+ Dansu dansu dansu (e. Dance, Dance, Dance) (1988)
+ Kokky no minami, taiyou no nishii (e. South of the Border, West of the Sun) (1992)
+ Ă Ăslensku: Sunnan viĂ° mĂŠrin, vestur af sĂłl (Bjartur, 2001) - (ĂĂœĂ°. Uggi JĂłnsson)
+ Nejimakidori kuronikuru (e. The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle) (1994/5)
+ Supuhtoniku no Koibito (e. Sputnik Sweetheart) (1999)
+ Ă Ăslensku: SpĂștnik-ĂĄstin (Bjartur, 2003) - (ĂĂœĂ°. Uggi JĂłnsson)
+ Umibe no Kafka (e. Kafka on the Shore) (2002)
+
+Småsögur
+ Kami no kodomotachi ha mina odoru (e. After the Quake) (2000)
+
+Einnig hefur komiĂ° Ășt ĂĄ ensku smĂĄsagnasafn sem hefur aĂ° geyma sögur eftir hann frĂĄ nĂunda ĂĄratugnum:
+ The Elephant Vanishes (1996)
+
+RitgerĂ°ir
+ Andaguraundo/Yakusoku sareta basho de (e. Underground) (1997/8)
+
+Tenglar
+ Hanami Web - Murakami Haruki
+ ViĂ°tal Ă Salon, December 1997
+
+Japanskir rithöfundar
+StĂșka getur ĂĄtt viĂ° um:
+ LĂffĂŠriĂ° stĂșku Ă mannsheilanum.
+ ĂĂœsku herflugvĂ©lina Junkers Ju 87 sem var kölluĂ° stĂșka (stytting ĂĄ Sturzkampfflugzeug).
+ YfirbyggĂ°a ĂĄhorfendapalla ĂĄ leikvangi.
+ LokaĂ° ĂĄhorfendaherbergi nĂĄlĂŠgt sviĂ°inu Ă leikhĂșsi.
+ Einstakar greinar brĂŠĂ°rafĂ©lags eins og Góðtemplarareglunnar, Oddfellowreglunnar og FrĂmĂșrarareglunnar.
+Ăessi grein fjallar um hĂŠfileikann til aĂ° muna. Til eru aĂ°rar merkingar ĂĄ orĂ°inu minni (aĂ°greining).
+Minni er hĂŠfileiki til aĂ° mĂłttaka eĂ°a afla, varĂ°veita og endurheimta upplĂœsingar.
+
+Menn hafa lengi rannsakaĂ° minniĂ°, en ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir miklar uppgötvanir og framfarir er Ăœmislegt enn ĂĄ huldu um hvernig minniĂ° starfar. Stöðugar framfarir eru Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i og lĂŠknavĂsindunum og geta ĂŸĂŠr framfarir auĂ°veldlega umbylt ĂŸeim kenningum sem eru taldar fullgildar hverju sinni.
+
+Tilgangur minnis og kenningar
+MinniĂ° gegnir mjög mikilvĂŠgu hlutverki Ă lĂfi okkar. Svo mikilvĂŠgt er minniĂ°, aĂ° spyrja mĂŠtti hvort manneskja ĂĄn minnis sĂ© yfir höfuĂ° meĂ° meĂ°vitund. Allt sem viĂ° kunnum er geymt Ă minninu; öll sĂș vitneskja sem viĂ° höfum um sjĂĄlf okkur er geymd ĂŸar, öll orĂ° sem viĂ° kunnum, vitneskjan um ĂŠttingja okkar og svo framvegis. ViĂ° notum minniĂ° aĂ° miklu leyti ĂłmeĂ°vitaĂ°, ĂŸ.e., ĂĄn ĂŸess aĂ° reyna mikiĂ° ĂĄ okkur viĂ° aĂ° rifja upp.
+
+Til eru nokkrar kenningar um ĂŸaĂ° hvernig minniĂ° virkar, en Ă ĂŸessari grein er aĂ°alĂĄherslan lögĂ° ĂĄ kenningu sem er kölluĂ° GrunnlĂkaniĂ° um minni, en einnig er fjallaĂ° er um aĂ°rar kenningar. Ekki er til ein heildarkenninng um virkni minnisins. ĂĂł eru menn almennt sammĂĄla um nokkur atriĂ°i minnis, en ĂŸau eru helst:
+
+ Til eru ĂŸrjĂș minnisĂŸrep; umskrĂĄning, geymd og endurheimt
+ Minnst tvö og stundum ĂŸrjĂș minniskerfi; skynminni, skammtĂmaminni og langtĂmaminni.
+ Margar minnistegundir, svo sem; sjĂłnmunaminni, aĂ°ferĂ°aminni, merkingarminni.
+
+MinnisĂŸrepin ĂŸrjĂș
+Ăegar viĂ° lĂŠrum eitthvaĂ° erum viĂ° aĂ° gera tvo hluti; umskrĂĄ boĂ° sem berast okkur sjĂłnrĂŠnt, hljóðrĂŠnt eĂ°a meĂ° öðrum hĂŠtti Ă eitthvaĂ° sem mannsheilinn skilur og geyma ĂŸaĂ° Ă minni. Svo ĂŸegar viĂ° ĂŸurfum ĂĄ upplĂœsingunum aĂ° halda rifjum viĂ° ĂŸĂŠr upp. Ăessu ferli er hĂŠgt aĂ° skipta Ă ĂŸrennt; umskrĂĄning, geymd og endurheimt.
+
+Ă fyrsta ĂŸrepinu breytum viĂ° upplĂœsingum sem birtast okkur sjĂłnrĂŠnt, hljóðrĂŠnt eĂ°a meĂ° öðrum hĂŠtti Ă taugaboĂ°. Ăetta kallast umskrĂĄning. AnnaĂ° ĂŸrepiĂ° kallast geymd, og felst Ă ĂŸvĂ aĂ° upplĂœsingarnar eru geymdar Ă minninu (meira mĂĄ lesa um ĂŸetta ĂŸrep Ă greininni um geymd). Svo ĂŸegar viĂ° ĂŸurfum ĂĄ upplĂœsingunum aĂ° halda nĂĄum viĂ° Ă upplĂœsingarnar Ășr minninu. ĂaĂ° er kallaĂ° endurheimt. MinniĂ° getur brugĂ°ist okkur ĂĄ öllum ĂŸessum ĂŸrepum, en ĂŸaĂ° veldur ĂŸvĂ sem viĂ° köllum dags-daglega aĂ° viĂ° munum ekki [eitthvaĂ°].
+
+Hvert minniskerfi fyrir sig notar sérhÊfðar aðferðir við umskråningu, geymslu og endurheimt.
+
+Minniskerfin ĂŸrjĂș
+Almennt er viĂ°urkennt aĂ° minniskerfin sĂ©u minnst tvö, en sumir segja aĂ° ĂŸau sĂ©u ĂŸrjĂș. Ăau eru:
+ Skynminni (SM); geymir nĂĄkvĂŠma mynd ĂĄreitanna sem berast skynfĂŠrum. Oftast er ĂŸaĂ° bundiĂ° viĂ° eitt skynfĂŠri Ă einu (svo sem sjĂłn eĂ°a heyrn). (Ăetta minniskerfi er umdeilt, og er stundum eĂ°a oft sleppt)
+ SkammtĂmaminni (STM); geymir fĂĄ atriĂ°i Ă senn, menn hafa oft horft til tölunnar sjö varĂ°andi geymslugetu. Notast helst viĂ° hljóðrĂŠna Ășrvinnslu.
+ LangtĂmaminni (LM); geymir mjög mikiĂ° magn upplĂœsinga og varir lengi. ĂaĂ° er ĂłmeĂ°vitaĂ° aĂ° mestu og notast helst viĂ° merkingarlega Ășrvinnslu.
+
+Ef litiĂ° er ĂĄ flĂŠĂ°i upplĂœsinga um skynminni og skammtĂmaminni, ĂŸĂĄ er ljĂłst aĂ° ĂĄreiti berst frĂĄ umhverfinu inn Ă skynminniĂ°. SkynminniĂ° er Ăłvirkt minniskerfi, ĂŸvĂ ekki er unniĂ° Ășr upplĂœsingum ĂŸar. ĂaĂ° sem ĂĄ sĂ©r staĂ° Ă skynminninu er eitthvaĂ° sem viĂ° erum ekki meĂ°vituĂ° um. Ăegar athyglin beinist aĂ° einhverju Ă umhverfinu er upplĂœsingunum hleypt inn Ă skammtĂmaminniĂ°, og ĂŸar er svo unniĂ° Ășr ĂĄreitunum og er ĂŸvĂ virkt minniskerfi.
+
+GrunnlĂkaniĂ° um minni
+GrunnlĂkaniĂ° um minni var sett fram af Richard C. Atkinson og Richard M. Shiffrin ĂĄ sjöunda ĂĄratug 20. aldar. LĂkaniĂ° gerir rĂĄĂ° fyrir ĂŸremur minniskerfum, og aĂ° upplĂœsingar flĂŠĂ°i milli ĂŸessara kerfa meĂ° tiltölulega reglulegum hĂŠtti. Ăessi ĂŸrjĂș kerfi eru skynminni, skammtĂmaminni og langtĂmaminni. Ă fyrstu fara upplĂœsingar sem skynjaĂ°ar eru Ă umhverfi Ă skynminni sem er ĂŸĂł taliĂ° frekar hluti af skynjun en minni. ĂaĂ°an fara upplĂœsingar Ă skammtĂmaminni meĂ° takmarkaĂ°a rĂœmd og aĂ° lokum er hĂŠgt aĂ° umskrĂĄ upplĂœsingar Ă langtĂmaminni sem hefur ĂłtakmarkaĂ°a rĂœmd. LĂkaniĂ° leggur mikla ĂĄherslu ĂĄ geymsluhlutverk og aĂ°greining kerfana byggist ekki sĂst ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ hversu lengi upplĂœsingarnar staldra viĂ° Ă hverju minniskerfi.
+
+Mörg rök hafa veriĂ° fĂŠrĂ° fyrir ĂŸessu lĂkani, en mörgum finnst ĂŸĂł kerfiĂ° full einfalt og nĂĄi ekki aĂ° skĂœra hin flĂłknu tengsl ĂĄ milli minnis og ĂŸekkingar. Einnig hefur veriĂ° bent ĂĄ, aĂ° lĂkaniĂ° geti ekki skĂœrt Ășt hvers vegna viĂ° nĂĄum aĂ° muna atriĂ°i sem voru vistuĂ° fyrir löngu sĂĂ°an, tiltölulega fyrirhafnarlĂtiĂ°. Ăessi kenning nĂœtur ĂŸĂł mikillar hylli.
+
+Minniskerfin ĂŸrjĂș
+
+Skynminni
+SkynminniĂ° geymir ĂŸau ĂĄreiti sem berast skynfĂŠrum lĂkamans. Oftast er skynminniĂ° bundiĂ° viĂ° eitt skynfĂŠri Ă senn. SkynminniĂ° varir Ă stutta stund, lĂklega 1/4 Ășr sekĂșndu til ĂŸriggja sekĂșndna. Skynminni fyrir sjĂłn geymir hraĂ°virkt og sjĂĄlfvirkt og er snemma Ă skynferlinu. ĂaĂ°an berst ĂŸaĂ° kennslabiĂ°minni sem er hĂŠgvirkara og varanlegra og gerir atriĂ°i aĂ°gengileg til svörunar. SvipuĂ° ferli eru fyrir önnur skynfĂŠri.
+Athygli vinnsluminni beinist aĂ° nokkrum atriĂ°um sem var lengur en önnur sem flokkast Ășr.
+
+SkammtĂmaminni
+SkammtĂmaminniĂ° geymir upplĂœsingar Ă nokkrar sekĂșndur og meĂ° endurtekningu geta upplĂœsingar haldist ĂŸar inni lengur. DĂŠmigerĂ° endurtekning er aĂ° ĂŸylja meĂ° sĂ©r upplĂœsingarnar sem ĂŸarf aĂ° geyma aftur og aftur. Til aĂ° upplĂœsingar geti komist inn Ă skammtĂmaminniĂ° ĂŸurfum viĂ° aĂ° veita ĂŸeim athygli, en svo er oft alls ekki raunin. Oft, ĂŸegar svoleiĂ°is lagaĂ° gerist, er ĂŸaĂ° stimplaĂ° sem gleymska. Ăetta er mjög eĂ°lilegt fyrirbĂŠri, ĂŸar eĂ° okkur er illmögulegt aĂ° veita öllu athygli sem gerist Ă kringum okkur.
+
+SkrĂĄsetning
+Ă skammtĂmaminninu eru upplĂœsingar skrĂĄĂ°ar fyrst og fremst hljóðrĂŠnt, en ĂŸĂŠr geta lĂka veriĂ° skrĂĄĂ°ar ĂĄ fleiri vegu; ĂŸĂŠr geta einnig veriĂ° geymdar sjĂłnrĂŠnt, eĂ°a tenging viĂ° eitthvaĂ° sem hefur merkingu. Mjög vel hefur reynst aĂ° geyma upplĂœsingarnar ĂĄ hljóðrĂŠnu formi, meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° endurtaka ĂŸau (endurtekning). AthugiĂ° ĂŸĂł, aĂ° ef upplĂœsingar eru fyrst skrĂĄĂ°ar myndrĂŠnt Ă skammtĂmaminniĂ° getur ĂŸaĂ° umritast og orĂ°iĂ° hljóðrĂŠnt fljĂłtt, en viĂ° ĂŸaĂ° glatast upplĂœsingar um t.d. letur, leturstĂŠrĂ° og svo frv. um textann sem var lesinn.
+
+Geymsla
+TaliĂ° er aĂ° um sjö atriĂ°i, plĂșs eĂ°a mĂnus tvö, geti rĂșmast Ă skammtĂmaminninu Ă einu, ĂŸar sem aĂ° nĂœ atriĂ°i ryĂ°ja eldri atriĂ°um burt, meĂ° ĂŸeirri undantekningu aĂ° atriĂ°i sem eru endurtekin ryĂ°jast ekki Ășt. Einnig dofna ĂŸau atriĂ°i sem eru ekki endurtekin og hverfa loks Ășr skammtĂmaminninu. Um minniĂ° og ĂŸessa tölu, sjö, var skrifuĂ° frĂŠg ritgerĂ°, nefnd âThe Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Informationâ, og birtist hĂșn ĂĄriĂ° 1956.
+
+En atriĂ°in sjö geta veriĂ° svo mismunandi, tökum sem dĂŠmi heimilisfangiĂ° HĂĄsteinsvegur 9. HeimilisfangiĂ° mĂĄ bĂșta niĂ°ur:
+ Vegur viĂ° hĂĄstein, hĂșsnĂșmeriĂ° 9 (tvö atriĂ°i)
+ HĂĄsteins-vegur 9 (ĂŸrjĂș atriĂ°i)
+ HĂĄsteinsvegur 9 (eitt atriĂ°i)
+
+HĂ©r er sĂœnt hvernig mĂĄ geyma heimilisfangiĂ° Ă skammtĂmaminninu ĂĄ ĂŸrjĂĄ mismunandi vegu. Hvernig best er aĂ° geyma heimilisfangiĂ° Ă minninu veltur ĂĄ fyrri reynslu viĂ°komandi og ĂŸvĂ hvort aĂ° hann ĂŸekki nöfnin fyrir, ĂŸ.e.a.s. hvort aĂ° atriĂ°iĂ° sĂ© Ă langtĂmaminninu. Ăessi leiĂ°, aĂ° skipta upplĂœsingunum niĂ°ur, er ĂŸvĂ mjög góð til aĂ° muna eitthvaĂ° sem er nĂœtt fyrir okkur og ĂłĂŸekkt.
+
+Endurheimt
+Leit Ă skammtĂmaminninu er lĂklegast raĂ°leit, ĂŸar sem eitt atriĂ°i er athugaĂ° Ă einu. Fyrir hvert atriĂ°i sem er Ă listanum eykst leitartĂminn aĂ° jafnaĂ°i um 38 millisekĂșndur. Athyglivert er ĂŸĂł aĂ° athuga aĂ° menn virĂ°ast vera nokkuĂ° lengur aĂ° ĂĄtta sig ĂĄ andlitsmyndum en orĂ°um og öðru munnlegu efni.
+
+LangtĂmaminni
+LangtĂmaminniĂ° er ef til vill mikilvĂŠgasta minniskerfiĂ°, en ĂŸar eru geymdar upplĂœsingar sem hafa varĂ°veist lengri eĂ°a skemmri tĂma; nokkra klukkutĂma, daga, mĂĄnuĂ°i og ĂĄr. SkrĂĄning Ă langtĂmaminniĂ° er, ĂłlĂkt skammtĂmaminninu, fyrst og fremst merkingabĂŠrt, en ĂŸaĂ° getur einnig skrĂĄĂ° upplĂœsingar ĂĄ Ăœmsa vegu, t.d. hljóðbĂŠrt. LangtĂmaminniĂ° er aĂ° mestu ĂłmeĂ°vitaĂ° og notast helst viĂ° merkingarlega Ășrvinnslu.
+
+LeiĂ°in fyrir ĂĄreiti aĂ° festast Ă langtĂmaminni er slĂk aĂ° fyrst festist ĂĄreitiĂ° Ă skynminni, sĂĂ°an fer ĂŸaĂ° Ă skammtĂmaminniĂ° og seinast kemur ĂŸaĂ° Ă langtĂmaminnniĂ° ef varanleg minnisfesting verĂ°ur. Ef minnisatriĂ°in eru endurtekin oft leiĂ°ir ĂŸaĂ° til minnisfestingar Ă langtĂmaminni.
+
+LangtĂmaminniĂ° geymir svo mikiĂ° af upplĂœsingum aĂ° talin er ĂŸĂ¶rf ĂĄ aĂ° skipta ĂŸvĂ Ă nokkur undirkerfi, sem hvert og eitt hefur sĂn sĂ©rkenni. LangtĂmaminniĂ° byrjar aĂ° skiptast Ă tvennt, Ă ljĂłst minni, sem geymir ĂŸau ĂŸekkingaratriĂ°i sem viĂ° höfum meĂ°vitaĂ°an aĂ°gang aĂ° og duliĂ° minni en ĂŸar bĂœr sĂș ĂŸekking sem okkur reynist erfiĂ°ara aĂ° hafa ĂĄ stjĂłrn ĂĄ. LjĂłst minni skiptist Ă atburĂ°aminni og merkingaminni, en duliĂ° minni skiptist Ă aĂ°ferĂ°aminni, viĂ°bragĂ°sskilyrĂ°ingu og viĂ°vana.
+
+ĂstĂŠĂ°ur ĂŸess sem viĂ° köllum dags-daglega gleymsku Ă langtĂmaminninu eru taldar vera dofnun og hömlun sem megi rekja til vandkvĂŠĂ°a viĂ° endurheimt og loks geta tilfinningar haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ hana og skipulagsleysi. Dofnun er talin eiga mest Ă hlut ĂŸegar viĂ° getum ekki rifjaĂ° eitthvaĂ° upp Ășr langtĂmaminninu.
+
+DuliĂ° minni
+DuliĂ° minni felst Ă ĂŸvĂ aĂ° fyrri reynsla gerir okkur kleift aĂ° framkvĂŠma ĂĄkveĂ°na hluti ĂĄn ĂŸess aĂ° vera meĂ° hugann viĂ° upprifjun, eitthvaĂ° sem viĂ° ĂŸurfum ekki aĂ° muna aĂ°ferĂ°ina viĂ° til aĂ° geta athafnaĂ° okkur, t.d. synda, hjĂłla, dansa o.s.frv. Ă duldu minni bĂœr sĂș ĂŸekking sem okkur reynist erfiĂ°ara aĂ° hafa meĂ°vitaĂ°an aĂ°gang aĂ°, t.d. hreyfifĂŠrni og nĂĄm lĂŠrt meĂ° viĂ°bragĂ°sskilyrĂ°ingu. Um er aĂ° rĂŠĂ°a ĂłmeĂ°vitaĂ° minni ĂŸar sem venjulegri upprifjun verĂ°ur ekki viĂ° komiĂ°. DuliĂ° minni veldur ĂŸvĂ aĂ° börn geta jafnvel munaĂ° ĂŸaĂ° sem henti ĂŸau ĂŸegar ĂŸau voru enn Ă móðurkviĂ°i.
+
+Til eru ĂŸrjĂĄr tegundir dulins minnis: AĂ°ferĂ°aminni, viĂ°bragĂ°sskilyrĂ°ing og viĂ°vani. Mest athygli hefur ĂŸĂł beinst aĂ° aĂ°ferĂ°arminninu ĂŸegar talaĂ° er um duliĂ° minni.
+
+ AĂ°ferĂ°aminni er ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° vita hvernig maĂ°ur framkvĂŠmir ĂĄkveĂ°na hluti. HĂŠfileikinn aĂ° halda jafnvĂŠgi ĂĄ hjĂłli og keyra bĂl krefjast flĂłkinnar samhĂŠfingar hreyfinga og skynjunar. ViĂ° lĂŠrum fyrst rĂ©ttu hreyfingarnar og hvernig best er aĂ° eiga viĂ° hlutina ĂŸangaĂ° til aĂ° ĂŸetta fer allt saman aĂ° verĂ°a meira og minna ĂłsjĂĄlfrĂĄtt. Ă aĂ°ferĂ°aminni er talaĂ° um aĂ° fyrri reynsla stĂœri sĂĂ°ari hegĂ°un, t.d. getur lĂfvera lĂŠrt aĂ° forĂ°ast ĂĄkveĂ°na staĂ°i hafi hĂșn slĂŠma reynslu af honum Ășr fortĂĂ°inni. HĂșn ĂŸarf ekki aĂ° vera beinlĂnis meĂ°vituĂ° um ĂŸaĂ° sem gerĂ°ist og meira aĂ° segja ekki endilega muna atburĂ°inn, heldur verĂ°a viĂ°brögĂ° hennar sjĂĄlfvirk. SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingurinn Endel Tulving ĂĄlĂtur aĂ° aĂ°ferĂ°aminniĂ° sĂ© elst Ă ĂŸrĂłunarlegu tilliti en atburĂ°arminniĂ° yngst og viĂ°kvĂŠmast fyrir ĂĄföllum. AĂ°ferĂ°aminni getur lĂka tengst flĂłknara hugrĂŠnu atferli, t.d lestri. ĂaĂ° sem einkennir nĂĄm af slĂku tagi er aĂ° atferliĂ° er hĂŠgt og hikandi Ă byrjun en ĂŸegar leikni er nĂĄĂ° aĂ° fullu verĂ°ur ĂŸaĂ° sjĂĄlfvirkt og ĂłmeĂ°vitaĂ°.
+
+ ViĂ°bragĂ°sskilyrĂ°ingin felst Ă stuttu mĂĄli Ă ĂŸvĂ aĂ° paraĂ° er saman annars vegar Ăłskilyrt ĂĄreiti, t.d. sem vekur meĂ°fĂŠdda svörun sem ekki ĂŸarf aĂ° lĂŠra eins og aĂ° bregĂ°a viĂ° hĂĄvaĂ°a, og hins vegar svokallaĂ° skilyrt ĂĄreiti, sem vekur svörun sem ekki hefur tengst ĂĄĂ°ur ĂŸessu ĂĄreiti t.d aĂ° Ăłttast staĂ°inn sem hĂĄvaĂ°inn varĂ°.
+
+ ViĂ°vani felst Ă ĂŸvĂ aĂ° viĂ° hĂŠttum aĂ° taka eftir ĂĄreiti sem fĂŠrir okkur engar nĂœjar upplĂœsingar, t.d tifi Ă klukku og umferĂ°arhljóði.
+
+AĂ°rar kenningar og afbrigĂ°i
+
+ĂrvinnsludĂœpt
+ĂrvinnsludĂœpt (e. Levels-of-processing effect) nefnist kenning sem Kenneth Craik og Lockhart mĂłtuĂ°u. ĂrvinnsludĂœpt byggist ĂĄ ĂŸeirri hugmynd aĂ° fĂŠrsla milli skammtĂmaminnis og langtĂmaminnis sĂ© ekki aĂ° mestu leyti hĂĄĂ° endurtekningu og upprifjun heldur rĂĄĂ°i hversu mikil vitrĂŠn Ășrvinnsla fer fram um minnisatriĂ°iĂ°. Ăeir sögĂ°u aĂ° ĂŸeim mun meiri Ășrvinnslu sem atriĂ°iĂ° ĂŸyrfti, ĂŸvĂ betra vĂŠri aĂ° muna ĂŸaĂ° sökum ĂŸess aĂ° ĂŸĂĄ greinir heilinn atriĂ°iĂ° og kemur ĂŸvĂ Ă eitthvert kerfi. Tilraunir ĂŸeirra styĂ°ja stoĂ°um undir kenninguna.
+
+Ein tilraunanna var sĂș aĂ° sĂœna fĂłlki lista meĂ° Ăłtengdum orĂ°um og ĂŸĂĄtttakendurnir sĂĂ°an beĂ°nir aĂ° svara um ĂŸau ĂŸremur ĂłlĂkum spurningum. Ă fyrstu spurningalotu var fĂłlk beĂ°iĂ° aĂ° svara til um hvort orĂ° vĂŠru skrifuĂ° meĂ° hĂĄ- eĂ°a lĂĄgstöfum. Svo var fĂłlk beĂ°iĂ° aĂ° svara til um hvort ĂĄkveĂ°in orĂ°apör rĂmuĂ°u, og aĂ° lokum var fĂłlk beĂ°iĂ° aĂ° segja til um hvort ĂĄkveĂ°in orĂ° pössuĂ°u inn Ă setningu. Helmingur svaranna var jĂĄ, en hinn nei. Eftir ĂŸetta voru svo lagĂ°ir fyrir ĂŸĂĄtttakendurna langir orĂ°alistar, og ĂŸaĂ° beĂ°iĂ° aĂ° segja til um hvort orĂ°in ĂĄ listanum hefĂ°u komiĂ° fyrir Ă fyrri lotunni. NiĂ°urstöðurnar sĂœndu glögglega aĂ° ĂŸeim mun meiri vinnsla fĂłr fram, ĂŸvĂ auĂ°veldara ĂĄtti fĂłlkiĂ° meĂ° aĂ° muna ĂŸau ĂŸegar spurningalistinn var lagĂ°ur fyrir. Svör sem jĂĄkvĂŠtt svar var viĂ° festust einnig betur Ă minni en ĂŸau neikvĂŠĂ°u, lĂkast sökum meiri merkingartengsla.
+
+En ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir aĂ° niĂ°urstöðurnar standist, og kenningin skĂœri betur en grunnlĂkaniĂ° hvernig atriĂ°i ferĂ°ast milli skammtĂmaminnis og langtĂmaminnis, hefur kenningin Ăœmsa vankanta. MĂĄ ĂŸar meĂ°al annars nefna hvernig merkingarlĂtil ĂĄreiti eiga ĂŸaĂ° til aĂ° festast Ă minni, aĂ° erfitt er aĂ° skilgreina nĂĄkvĂŠmlega hvaĂ° krefst djĂșprar Ășrvinnslu og aĂ° kenningin gerir rĂĄĂ° fyrir lĂnulegri ĂŸrepaskiptingu atriĂ°a milli skammtĂmaminnis og langtĂmaminnis, ĂŸ.e.a.s. sjĂłnrĂŠn Ășrvinnsla orĂ°sins, ĂŸĂĄ hljóðrĂŠn tĂĄknmynd ĂŸess og aĂ° lokum merkingarleg Ășrvinnsla, ĂĄ meĂ°an nĂœjar rannsĂłknir benda til ĂŸess aĂ° Ășrvinnsla ĂĄreita fari fram Ă mörgum samhliĂ°a ferlum.
+
+HeilalĂffĂŠri tengd minni
+
+Ămis heilalĂffĂŠri koma aĂ° minninu, en Ăœmsar rannsĂłknir hafa veriĂ° gerĂ°ar til aĂ° leiĂ°a Ă ljĂłs hvaĂ°a tilgangi ĂŸau gegna. HĂ©r verĂ°ur fjallaĂ° um nokkur ĂŸessara lĂffĂŠra.
+
+GagnaugablaĂ°
+KanadĂski heilaskurĂ°lĂŠknirinn Wilder Penfield var einn ĂŸeirra manna sem rannsakaĂ°i heilann meĂ° rafreitingu. Hann lĂ©t veikan rafstraum fara um heilabörk sjĂșklinga og kannaĂ°i svo hvaĂ°a ĂĄhrif ĂŸaĂ° hefĂ°i ĂĄ Ăœmsa sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ilega starfsemi hjĂĄ fĂłlki meĂ° flogaveiki ĂĄ hĂĄu stigi. Fyrstu vĂsbendingar um aĂ° minni vĂŠri staĂ°sett Ă gagnaugablaĂ°i fundust ĂĄriĂ° 1938, en gagnaugablaĂ°iĂ° er sĂĄ hluti heilabarkar sem liggur innan viĂ° gagnaugaĂ°. Ăar meĂ° kom Ă ljĂłs aĂ° hjĂĄ sumum virĂ°ist ĂĄreiting gagnaugablaĂ°sins kallaĂ°i fram liĂ°nar minningar og jafnvel ljĂłslifandi.
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+Drekinn
+TaliĂ° aĂ° drekinn sĂ© viĂ°riĂ°inn ljĂłsa minniĂ° sem er ĂŸrĂłaĂ°asti hluti minnisins. Auk ĂŸess aĂ° sjĂĄ um minnisfestingar Ă ljĂłsa minninu hefur drekinn veriĂ° bendlaĂ°ur viĂ° rĂœmisskynjun. FĂłlk meĂ° skemmd Ă drekanum ĂĄ mjög erfitt aĂ° bĂșa sĂ©r til hugrĂŠnt kort af nĂœjum stöðum og ĂĄ mjög erfitt aĂ° rata heim til sĂn ef ĂŸaĂ° flytur eitthvert annaĂ° eftir ĂĄfalliĂ°. ĂtĂĂ° hefur drekinn veriĂ° tileinkaĂ°ur minnisfestingunni og geymd Ă ljĂłsa minninu. En nĂœjar rannsĂłknir sem Teng og Squire (1999) gerĂ°u sĂœna fram ĂĄ aĂ° hann ĂĄ einungis aĂ° hafa meĂ° minnisfestinguna aĂ° gera en ekki geymdina. Ăeir prĂłfuĂ°u mann vegna herpesveiru sem var meĂ° ĂłnĂœtan dreka og skemmd ĂĄ hluta ĂĄ gagnaugablaĂ°sins Ă bĂĄĂ°um hvelum. Ăar sem ĂŸessar skemmdir voru til staĂ°ar ĂŸĂĄ leiddi ĂŸaĂ° til verlegs Ăłminnis. Hann getur engan vegin munaĂ° hvar hann bĂœr eĂ°a lĂŠrt ĂĄ hverfiĂ° sem hann flutti Ă eftir ĂĄfalliĂ°. En ĂŸaĂ° merkilega viĂ° ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° minni hans um ĂŠskustöðvar Ă Los Angeles reyndist alveg eins en fimm jafnaldra hans sem höfĂ°u bĂșiĂ° ĂŸar jafnlengi og flutt svo Ă burtu um svipaĂ° leyti og hann. Teng og Squire ĂĄlyktuĂ°u ĂŸĂĄ af niĂ°urstöðum sĂnum aĂ° drekinn og gagnaugablaĂ°iĂ° gegndu vissulega lykilhlutverki Ă aĂ° festa ljĂłsar minningar Ă LTM en ekki aĂ° endurheimta ĂŸĂŠr eĂ°a geyma gamlar minningar.
+
+Möndlungurinn
+Möndlungurinn tengist lykilhlutverki Ă randkerfinu sem tengist geĂ°hrĂŠringum. Hann virĂ°ist sjĂĄ um samskipti viĂ° hin Ăœmsu kerfi lĂkamans sem stjĂłrna ĂłttaviĂ°brögĂ°um (t.d. auka hjartslĂĄtt, hĂŠgja ĂĄ meltingu eĂ°a frysta hreyfingar ef viĂ° verĂ°um skelfingu lostin). Antonio Damasio og fĂ©lagar hans hafa rannsakaĂ° konu meĂ° heilaskemmd sem er bundin viĂ° möndlunginn. HĂșn gat lesiĂ° öll tilfinningaleg lĂĄtbrigĂ°i nema ĂłttaviĂ°brögĂ°. LeDoux og fĂ©lagar komust aĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° fĂłlk meĂ° skemmd ĂĄ gagnaugablaĂ°i og Ă möndlungi bregst ekki viĂ° ĂłĂŸĂŠgilegu ĂĄreiti. Ăau sĂœndu svo aĂ° heilbrigt fĂłlk (samanburĂ°arhĂłpur) sĂœndi lĂfeĂ°lisleg viĂ°brögĂ° ĂŸegar ĂłĂŸĂŠgilegur hĂĄvaĂ°i (skilyrt ĂĄreiti) var paraĂ°ur viĂ° hlutlausan tĂłn (skilyrt ĂĄreiti). SkilyrĂ°ingin var ĂŸannig aĂ° hlutlausi tĂłnninn, sem heyrĂ°ist alltaf ĂĄ undan Ăłskilyrta ĂĄreitinu, dugĂ°i einn og sĂ©r til aĂ° kalla fram ĂłĂŸĂŠgindatilfinningu. ĂaĂ° ĂĄtti ekki viĂ° tilraunahĂłpinn sem var meĂ° heilaskaĂ°a Ă möndlungi og gangaugablaĂ°i, skilyrta ĂĄreitiĂ° vakti engin lĂfeĂ°lisleg viĂ°brögĂ°. Ăar af ĂĄlyktaĂ°i LeDoux aĂ° skemmdin Ă möndlungi orsakaĂ°i ĂŸetta âĂłttaleysiâ. Möndlungurinn virĂ°ist hafa meĂ° duliĂ° tilfinningaminni aĂ° gera.
+
+GrĂĄhĂœĂ°i og rĂłfukjarni
+GrĂĄhĂœĂ°i og rĂłfukjarni kallast einu nafni rĂĄkakjarni. BĂŠĂ°i lĂffĂŠrin tilheyra svokölluĂ°um botnkjörnum. Ăeir liggja djĂșpt Ă mannsheilanum og ĂŸess vegna er ekki eins mikil ĂĄhĂŠtta ĂĄ aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° skaddist eins og randkerfiĂ° og börkurinn . TaliĂ° er aĂ° Ă ĂŸessum lĂffĂŠrum sĂ© aĂ°setur aĂ°ferĂ°aminnisins. FĂłlk sem ĂŸjĂĄist af Ăłminni er iĂ°ulega fĂŠrt um aĂ° sĂœna merki ĂŸjĂĄlfunar sem reynir ĂĄ ĂŸennan hluta minnisins. Gott dĂŠmi er tilfelli Clive Wearing, breskum tĂłnlistarmanni sem fĂ©kk heilabĂłlgu og afleiĂ°ingin varĂ° margvĂslegur minnisbrestur. Hann getur ekki myndaĂ° nĂœjar minningar (eins og tĂminn standi Ă staĂ° hjĂĄ honum). Einnig er minni hans ĂĄ liĂ°na atburĂ°i gloppĂłtt. En ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸessi veikindi sĂn getur Clive spilaĂ° ĂĄ pĂanĂł og sellĂł og stjĂłrnaĂ° tĂłnlistarviĂ°burĂ°um eins og ekkert sĂ©. Skemmdirnar sem hann hlaut snertu ekki botnkjarnana og ĂŸaĂ° er talin lĂklegasta skĂœringin ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° aĂ°ferĂ°aminni tĂłnlistar hefur haldiĂ° Ăłskert.
+
+ForennisblaĂ°iĂ°
+ForennisblaĂ°iĂ° er fremsti hluti heilabarkarins. Heilaskimarnir hafa sĂœnt aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° svĂŠĂ°i er mjög virkt ĂŸegar er veriĂ° aĂ° leysa vinnsluminnisverkefni. Tilraunir ĂĄ öpum hafa sĂœnt aĂ° ef ĂŸaĂ° kemur fram skemmd ĂĄ ĂŸessu svĂŠĂ°i ĂŸĂĄ gĂŠtu ĂŸeir ekki mögulega leyst verkefni sem reyna ĂĄ vinnsluminniĂ°.
+
+MinnisfyrirbĂŠri
+
+Leifturminni
+Leifturminni kallast ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸegar fĂłlk hefur tiltölulega skĂœra mynd eĂ°a minningu af ĂŸvĂ hvar og hvernig ĂŸeim bĂĄrust upplĂœsingar um tiltekinn tilfinningaĂŸrunginn atburĂ°, t.d ĂĄrĂĄsirnar ĂĄ tvĂburaturnanna Ă New York 11. september 2001. Ekki er vitaĂ° til fullnustu hvaĂ° veldur ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸessar minningar festast svo Ă vitund fĂłlks en allt eru ĂŸetta minningar sem tengjast sterku tilfinningarĂłti. Ăt frĂĄ ĂŸessu telja menn aĂ° hormĂłn (adrenalĂn) og boĂ°efni (dĂłpamĂn, serĂłtĂłnĂn, noradrenalĂn og asetĂœlkĂłlĂn) eigi stĂłran ĂŸĂĄtt Ă ĂŸessu, svo virĂ°ist sem aĂ° tilfinningahlaĂ°nar minningar tengist auknu rennsli adrenalĂns og noradrenalĂns en hlutlausar minningar gera ĂŸaĂ° ekki.
+
+Tilraun var gerĂ° til aĂ° sĂœna fram ĂĄ ĂŸetta. HĂłpi fĂłlks var skipt Ă tvennt. HĂłpunum voru sĂœndar skyggnumyndir og helmingnum var sögĂ° ĂĄtakanleg saga en hinum ekki. Helmingi hvors hĂłps um sig var gefiĂ° lyfiĂ° propanolol, sem hindrar verkan adrenalĂns og noradrenalĂns, en hinum helmingnum var gefinn lyfleysa. Ă ljĂłs kom aĂ° ĂŸeir sem fengu propanolol ĂĄttu Ă erfiĂ°leikum meĂ° aĂ° rifja upp tilfinningaĂŸrungnu söguna en hinir ekki. LyfiĂ° hafĂ°i engin ĂĄhrif ĂĄ hlutlausu söguna. ĂaĂ° bendir til ĂŸess aĂ° ĂĄĂ°urgreind efni gegni mikilvĂŠgu hlutverki viĂ° festingu Ă leifturminni.
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+Heilaskimun bendir til ĂŸess aĂ° möndlungurinn sĂ© viĂ°rinn tilfinningaminni. Aukin virkni Ă möndlungi sĂœnir betra minni ĂĄ tilfinningaĂŸrungiĂ° efni.
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+Af ĂŸessu mĂĄ ĂŠtla aĂ° tilfinningaminniĂ° sĂ© skrĂĄĂ° ĂĄ annan hĂĄtt en hlutlausa minniĂ°. ĂaĂ° er ĂŸĂł umdeilt og rannsĂłknir ĂĄ nĂĄkvĂŠmni frĂĄsagna sĂœnir aĂ° leifturminningar virĂ°ast jafn viĂ°kvĂŠmar og venjulegar minningar. ĂvĂ hafa sumir sagt sem svo aĂ° leifturminningar hafi fĂ©lagslegt mikilvĂŠgi og ĂŸvĂ rifjar fĂłlk slĂkar minningar oft upp og finnst ĂŸaĂ° muna ĂŸaĂ° lĂkt og ĂŸaĂ° gerĂ°ist Ă gĂŠr en raunin virĂ°ist vera önnur.
+
+Ămsar vangaveltur um minniĂ°
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+Algleymi eĂ°a alminni?
+
+Hvort er betra aĂ° vera minnislaus eĂ°a muna allt? William James sagĂ°i aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° vĂŠri jafnvont.
+
+AĂ° muna allt merkir samkvĂŠmt löghyggju, aĂ° maĂ°ur muni allt sem liĂ°iĂ° er, og hafi ĂŸar meĂ° góða hugmynd um hvaĂ° framtĂĂ°in ber Ă skauti sĂ©r. Einnig er vafasamt aĂ° mannsheilinn sĂ© gerĂ°ur til aĂ° muna âalltâ og muni ĂŸvĂ byrja aĂ° skemmast ĂŸegar einhverjum âhĂĄmarks ĂŸröskuldiâ er nĂĄĂ°, eĂ°a aĂ° heilinn muni bregĂ°ast viĂ° ĂĄ sem skynsamlegastan hĂĄtt og gera mann brjĂĄlaĂ°an ĂĄ öllum ĂŸeim upplĂœsingum sem viĂ° höfum.
+
+Aftur ĂĄ mĂłti gefur minnisleysi möguleikann ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° muna ekki aĂ° maĂ°ur sĂ© meĂ° minnisleysi og ĂŸannig hefur maĂ°ur ekki hugmynd um aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° sĂ© eitthvaĂ° aĂ°, ĂŸetta getur veriĂ° taliĂ° sem ein gerĂ° ĂĄnĂŠgju. Reyndar gĂŠti ĂŸetta veriĂ° hĂĄlfgerĂ° blessun fyrir manninn, ĂŸvĂ aĂ° einn besti hĂŠfileiki mannsins er aĂ° hunsa allt annaĂ° en hann sjĂĄlfan og loka augunum gersamlega fyrir öllu ĂŸvĂ slĂŠma Ă lĂfi hans, en meĂ° eins ĂŸröngri sĂœn ĂĄ veruleikan og hann getur, ĂŸĂĄ finnur hann auĂ°vitaĂ° eitthvaĂ° aĂ° kvarta um. MinnisleysiĂ° mundi bĂŠta ĂŸennan hĂŠfileika hans, vegna ĂŸess aĂ° sĂĄ sem mundi ekki neitt gĂŠti ekki munaĂ° eftir neinu, hvorki slĂŠmu nĂ© góðu.
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+Töfratalan sjö og minni
+Lengi hafa menn vitaĂ° aĂ° minni okkar er ekki ĂłtakmarkaĂ°. Breski aĂ°alsmaĂ°urinn William Hamilton komst aĂ° ĂŸeirri niĂ°urstöðu strax ĂĄ 19. öld. Hann sĂĄ aĂ° ĂŸegar handfylli af marmarakĂșlum er fleygt ĂĄ gĂłlf getur maĂ°ur aĂ°eins greint sjö ĂŸeirra vel Ă einu. Breski kennarinn John Jacobs gerĂ°i tilraun ĂĄ nemendum sĂnum ĂĄriĂ° 1887. Ăar kom Ă ljĂłs aĂ° nemendur gĂĄtu aĂ° meĂ°altali munaĂ° samtĂmis sjö tölur Ă einu ef ĂŸeim var raĂ°aĂ° handĂłhĂłfkennt. Hermann Ebbinghaus komst svo einnig aĂ° sömu niĂ°urstöðu. Loks velti bandarĂski sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingurinn George A. Miller (1956) ĂŸessu fyrir sĂ©r og kallaĂ°i töluna sjö (plĂșs mĂnus tveir) töfratölu enda kĂŠmi oft fyrir Ă heiminum, t.d. eru sjö heimshöf, sjö undur veraldar, sjö dagar Ă vikunni, sjöundi himinn og sjö dauĂ°asyndir.
+
+MinnistĂŠkni
+ĂaĂ° sparar tĂma og fyrirhöfn aĂ° hafa gott minni, ĂŸĂĄ ĂŸarf maĂ°ur ekki aĂ° skrĂĄ allar upplĂœsingar hjĂĄ sĂ©r eĂ°a geta treyst ĂĄ ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° geta flett ĂŸeim upp. ĂĂ°ur fyrr var ĂŸaĂ° metinn mikilsverĂ°ur hĂŠfileiki aĂ° hafa gott minni, ĂŸvĂ aĂ° ĂŸĂĄ höfĂ°u landsmenn ekki almennan aĂ°gang aĂ° bĂłkum og aĂ°eins hluti ĂŸeirra var lĂŠs. NĂș til dags hafa menn glataĂ° hĂŠfileikanum til aĂ° muna langar frĂĄsagnir eins og t.d. Ăslendingasögurnar. Flestir reikna ekki lengur Ă huganum heldur slĂĄ ĂŸaĂ° inn Ă reiknivĂ©l, tölvurnar eru góður staĂ°ur til aĂ° geyma upplĂœsingar og einnig GSM- sĂminn. Eins og alltaf koma nĂœir hlutir Ă staĂ°inn fyrir ĂŸĂĄ gömlu, Ă dag ĂŸarf fĂłlk aĂ° muna alls kyns aĂ°gangsorĂ° og nĂșmer aĂ° kerfum af Ăœmsu tagi (tölvupĂłstur, bankanĂșmer o.s.frv.).
+
+Enn er ekki ljĂłst hvers vegna sumir hafa mun betra minni en aĂ°rir, ĂŸĂł er vitaĂ° aĂ° ĂŸjĂĄlfun og erfĂ°ir skipta mjög miklu mĂĄli. Fyrsta minnisaĂ°ferĂ°in nefnist staĂ°araĂ°ferĂ°in, hĂșn felst Ă ĂŸvĂ aĂ° atriĂ°i sem ĂĄ aĂ° muna er sett Ă samband viĂ° ĂĄkveĂ°inn staĂ°. DĂŠmi um aĂ°rar aĂ°ferĂ°ir sem hafa reynst vel, ĂŸeim sem vilja bĂŠta minniĂ° sitt meĂ° sĂ©rstakri minnistĂŠkni, eru: aĂ° nota Ămyndir, bĂșa til sögur eĂ°a nota hrĂm og hrynjandi.
+Hver og einn hefur sĂna aĂ°ferĂ° til aĂ° muna og eflaust eru til margar aĂ°rar minnisaĂ°ferĂ°ir.
+
+ SjĂĄ nĂĄnar Ă bĂłkinni Almennri sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i eftir AldĂsi Unni GuĂ°mundsdĂłttur og Jörgen L. Pind.
+
+Heimilidir Ă texta
+
+Frekari lesning
+ AldĂs Unnur GuĂ°mundsdĂłttir, Jörgen L. Pind: Almenn SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i: Hugur Heili og HĂĄtterni, MĂĄl og menning 2005.
+ Clive Wearing - ĂŸjĂĄist af einu versta minnisleysistilfelli sem er ĂŸekkt.
+ H.M. - ĂŸjĂĄist af framvirku Ăłminni.
+ Minnisleysi
+
+Heimildir
+ AldĂs Unnur GuĂ°mundsdĂłttir, Jörgen L. Pind: Almenn SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i: Hugur Heili og HĂĄtterni, MĂĄl og menning 2005.
+ Rita L. Atkinson, Richard C. Atkinson, Ernest R. Hilgard: SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i, ĂĄttunda ĂștgĂĄfa, IĂ°unn 1992.
+
+Hugarstarf
+SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+Minni
+SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i er gjarnan skilgreind sem vĂsindagrein um hugarstarf og hegĂ°un. Ăeir sem leggja stund ĂĄ sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i eru lĂka Ă auknum mĂŠli farnir aĂ° kanna heilastarf. SĂĄlin (sem Ăłefnislegt fyrirbĂŠri aĂ°skiliĂ° lĂkamanum) er ekki viĂ°fangsefni greinarinnar og ĂŸvĂ er nafn hennar ef til vill villandi.
+
+Segja mĂĄ aĂ° sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i sĂ© yfirgrein margra undirgreina sem rannsaka mannlega hegĂ°un og hugsun, en ĂŸaĂ° sem sameini ĂŸessar greinar er aĂ°ferĂ°afrĂŠĂ°i, krafa um vĂsindalega nĂĄlgun, en jafnframt er oft hĂŠgt aĂ° samnĂœta ĂŸekkingu Ășr öllum greinunum samtĂmis.
+
+ViĂ°fangsefni sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar
+
+SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i er fyrst og sĂĂ°ast frĂŠĂ°igrein sem fjallar um ĂŸĂĄ hluta mannsins sem snĂșa aĂ° hegĂ°un, hugsun og heila hans. Margar spurningar sem fengist er viĂ° Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i eru ĂŠĂ°i heimspekilegar en sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°in ĂĄ sĂ©r rĂŠtur einmitt Ă heimspeki ĂŸĂł svo aĂ° rĂŠtur hennar nĂĄi einnig til lĂffrĂŠĂ°i. Spurningarnar sem fengist er viĂ° eru spurningar eins og âHvaĂ° er hugsun?â og âAf hverju hegĂ°ar fĂłlk sĂ©r eins og ĂŸaĂ° gerir?â. ĂlĂkt heimspeki notar sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i vĂsindalega aĂ°ferĂ° til aĂ° leita svara viĂ° ĂŸeim.
+
+SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°in snertir mörg önnur sviĂ° og ĂŸeir sem hafa veitt ĂŸekkingu inn Ă fagiĂ° koma vĂĂ°a aĂ°, svo sem Ășr heimspeki, lĂffrĂŠĂ°i, fĂ©lagsfrĂŠĂ°i, eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i, lĂfeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i, lĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i, erfĂ°afrĂŠĂ°i, lĂfefnafrĂŠĂ°i, mannfrĂŠĂ°i, mĂĄlvĂsindum og tölvunarfrĂŠĂ°i.
+
+Grundvöllur sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar eru rannsĂłknir, einkum tilraunir. RannsĂłknum Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i fylgja Ăœmis vandkvĂŠĂ°i ĂŸar sem ĂŸĂŠr eru Ă flestum tilfellum gerĂ°ar ĂĄ fĂłlki. Fyrir ĂŸaĂ° fyrsta er hĂŠtta ĂĄ aĂ° fĂłlk breyti hegĂ°un sinni ĂŸegar ĂŸaĂ° veit aĂ° einhver fylgist meĂ° ĂŸvĂ. Auk ĂŸess ĂŸurfa sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingar aĂ° fylgja Ăœtrustu siĂ°gĂŠĂ°isreglum. Reglurnar hafa orĂ°iĂ° strangari Ă seinni tĂĂ° svo sumar eldri rannsĂłknir vĂŠru ekki gerĂ°ar nĂș til dags.
+
+Tilraunir Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i eru af Ăœmsum toga. Sem dĂŠmi mĂĄ nefna tilraun ĂŸar sem einstaklingur leggur ĂĄ minniĂ° lista af orĂ°um sem hann rifjar svo upp eftir fremsta megni. AnnaĂ° dĂŠmi eru tilraunir ĂŸar sem einstaklingur er lĂĄtinn leysa ĂŸrautir ĂĄ meĂ°an höfuĂ° hans er Ă fMRI-skanna. Enn annaĂ° dĂŠmi er ĂŸegar rannsakendur fylgjast meĂ° atferli fĂłlks Ă vissum aĂ°stĂŠĂ°um (t.d. Ă skĂłlastofu), breyta vissum atriĂ°um Ă ĂŸessum aĂ°stĂŠĂ°um og kanna hvaĂ°a ĂĄhrif breytingarnar hafa.
+
+DĂŠmi um viĂ°fangsefni sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar:
+
+Störf sålfrÊðinga
+Algengur misskilningur er aĂ° sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i snĂșist fyrst og sĂĂ°ast um aĂ° veita ĂŸeim meĂ°ferĂ° sem eiga Ă einhvers konar erfiĂ°leikum. Ăetta er aĂ° sjĂĄlfsögĂ°u hluti af sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i og margir sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingar vinna viĂ° aĂ° hjĂĄlpa fĂłlki meĂ° geĂ°raskanir, veita hjĂłnabandsrĂĄĂ°gjöf eĂ°a annars konar klĂnĂska ĂŸjĂłnustu. Ăeir eru ĂŸĂł aĂ°eins brot af heildinni, sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i fjallar aĂ°eins aĂ° litlu leyti um aĂ° leysa vandamĂĄl fĂłlks.
+
+SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°imenntaĂ° fĂłlk starfar ĂĄ Ăœmsum vettvangi, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al viĂ° stjĂłrnun fyrirtĂŠkja, rĂĄĂ°gjöf, starfsmannastjĂłrnun, markaĂ°ssetningu, hönnun tĂŠkja og mannvirkja, ĂĄ rannsĂłknarstofum, viĂ° Ăœmiss konar meĂ°ferĂ°, Ă fjölmiĂ°lum, Ă skĂłlum, Ă lĂftĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkjum og ĂĄ auglĂœsingastofum. SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°imenntaĂ° fĂłlk er sĂfellt aĂ° hasla sĂ©r breiĂ°ari völl Ă atvinnulĂfinu og atvinnutĂŠkifĂŠri eru fjölmörg. Ăessi hagnĂœting ĂĄ sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i byggir ĂĄ öflugu vĂsinda- og rannsĂłknarstarfi sem er grundvöllur greinarinnar.
+
+Ă Ăslandi veitir BS-grĂĄĂ°a frĂĄ Ăslenskum hĂĄskĂłlum ekki rĂ©ttindi til aĂ° starfa sem sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur, heldur ĂŸarf aĂ° minnsta kosti tveggja ĂĄra framhaldsmenntun til ĂŸess - ĂŸ.e., grĂĄĂ°u Ă klĂnĂskri sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i. Ă HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands er boĂ°iĂ° upp ĂĄ framhaldsnĂĄm Ă klĂnĂskri sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i, barnasĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i og vinnusĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i. Margir fara ĂŸĂł Ă framhaldsnĂĄm à öðrum greinum, bĂŠĂ°i innan sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i og utan. Til aĂ° starfa sem sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur er vĂĂ°a um heim gerĂ° krafa um viĂ°urkenningu yfirvalda.
+
+SjĂĄ einnig: Listi yfir sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°inga
+
+Saga sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar
+
+Yfirlit
+
+Seinni hluti 19. aldar markar upphaf sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar sem vĂsindagreinar. Gjarnan er miĂ°aĂ° viĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1879 en ĂŸĂĄ stofnaĂ°i Wilhelm Wundt fyrstu rannsĂłknarstofuna Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i. AĂ°rir mikilvĂŠgir frumkvöðlar voru Hermann Ebbinghaus sem rannsakaĂ°i minni, Ivan Pavlov sem uppgötvaĂ°i klassĂska skilyrĂ°ingu og sĂĄlgreinandinn Sigmund Freud sem gerĂ°i frĂŠga hugmyndina um dulvitund.
+
+Ă fyrri hluta 20. aldar var kenningum Freuds hafnaĂ° innan sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i. Ăetta leiddi til mĂłtunar atferlisstefnunnar sem John B. Watson og sĂĂ°ar B. F. Skinner gerĂ°u vinsĂŠla. Kenningar Freuds höfĂ°u samt gĂfurleg ĂĄhrif ĂĄ aĂ°rar greinar, svo sem geĂ°lĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i og bĂłkmenntafrĂŠĂ°i, og ĂĄ hugmyndir almennings um sĂĄlarlĂfiĂ°.
+
+Ă sĂĂ°ustu ĂĄratugum 20. aldar varĂ° til nĂœtt ĂŸverfaglegt fag um hugarstarf bĂŠĂ°i lĂfvera og vĂ©la, svokölluĂ° vitsmunavĂsindi. Innan vitsmunavĂsinda starfs frĂŠĂ°imenn meĂ° bakgrunn Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i, mĂĄlvĂsindum, tölvunarfrĂŠĂ°i, heimspeki og taugavĂsindum, svo eitthvaĂ° sĂ© nefnt.
+
+FrumsĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+Hin forn-egypsku Ebers-skjöl, frĂĄ um 1550 fyrir Krist, innihalda lĂœsingar ĂĄ geĂ°röskunum eins og klĂnĂsku ĂŸunglyndi og vitglöpum. Forn-Egyptar virĂ°ast ekki hafa taliĂ° neinn grundvallarmun vera ĂĄ geĂ°röskunum og lĂkamlegum kvillum.
+
+Heimspekingar hafa lengi spĂĄĂ° Ă eĂ°li hugans, ferla hans og innihald, en yfirleitt einungis meĂ° kenningum ĂĄn kerfisbundinna athugana. Forn-grĂsku heimspekingarnir Alkmajon af KrĂłton (um 500 f. Kr.) og EmpedĂłkles af Akragas (um 450 f. Kr.) geta ef til vill talist til fyrstu frumsĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°inganna (e. protopsychologists). Ăeir reyndu bĂĄĂ°ir aĂ° finna lĂfeĂ°lislegar skĂœringar ĂĄ hugsun og hegĂ°un manna. Alkmajon kannaĂ°i til aĂ° mynda sjĂłnskynjun, eitt aĂ°alviĂ°fangsefni skynjunarsĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°inga, og taldi rĂ©ttilega aĂ° upplifun og hugsun ĂŠttu sĂ©r staĂ° Ă heilanum. EmpedĂłkles reyndi lĂka aĂ° finna nĂĄttĂșrlegar skĂœringar ĂĄ skynjun, en taldi ĂŸĂł aĂ° hĂșn ĂŠtti rĂŠtur Ă hjartanu.
+
+Upphaflega litu Forn-Grikkir fremur ĂĄ sĂĄlina (psykke) sem lĂfsanda en ekki sem geranda hegĂ°unar nĂ© sem sjĂĄlf manns. Platon ĂŸrĂskipti sĂĂ°an sĂĄlinni Ă skynsemi, skap og löngun. AristĂłteles setti fram Ăœmsar kenningar, t.d. um eĂ°li sĂĄlarinnar, minni og skynjun. AristĂłteles skipti sĂĄlinni lĂka Ă marga parta, og taldi aĂ° viĂ° skynjun tĂŠki hugurinn ĂĄ sig form ĂŸess skynjaĂ°a.
+
+AĂ°rir seinni tĂma forverar sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar eru til aĂ° mynda heimspekingarnir RenĂ© Descartes (1596-1650) og John Locke (1632-1704). Saman mĂłtuĂ°u ĂŸeir hugmyndir manna um aĂ° hinn meĂ°vitaĂ°i hugur vĂŠri aĂ°skilinn hinum efnislega heimi. Descartes gerĂ°i skĂœran greinarmun ĂĄ sĂĄl og lĂkama og gekk Ășt frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° lĂkamsstarfsemi mĂŠtti skĂœra meĂ° vĂ©lrĂŠnum lögmĂĄlum. Hann fĂŠrĂ°i einnig rök fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° sĂĄlin vĂŠri af allt öðru tagi en efnisheimurinn. HĂșn laut engum vĂ©lrĂŠnum lögmĂĄlum, hana ĂŸurfti aĂ° kanna meĂ° sjĂĄlfsskoĂ°un og Ăhugun. Hann taldi einnig aĂ° dĂœr vĂŠru algjörlega sĂĄlarlaus og mĂŠtti ĂŸĂĄ ĂștskĂœra tilveru ĂŸeirra einungis Ășt frĂĄ vĂ©lrĂŠnum lögmĂĄlum. Descartes reyndi einnig aĂ° staĂ°setja sĂĄlina Ă manninum, hann komst aĂ° ĂŸeirri niĂ°urstöðu aĂ° hĂșn vĂŠri Ă heilakönglinum enda vĂŠri hann svolĂtiĂ° sĂ©r ĂĄ bĂĄti Ă heilanum - enginn vissi hvaĂ°a tilgangi hann gegndi og hann er eina heilalĂffĂŠriĂ° sem er ekki til Ă tvöföldu upplagi. Ăar vildi Descatres meina aĂ° heimili sĂĄlarinnar vĂŠri. Bresku heimspekingarnir John Locke og John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) notuĂ°u kenningar AristĂłtelesar til aĂ° rekja mannlega ĂŸekkingu og töldu hana vera samspil skynjunar og hugtengsla. Ăeim fannst einnig aĂ° meĂ°vitundin ĂŠtti aĂ° vera aĂ°alviĂ°fangsefni sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar. NĂștĂmasĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i hefur reynt eftir fremsta megni aĂ° losa sig undan viĂ°jum ĂŸessarar tvĂhyggju um sĂĄl og lĂkama.
+
+SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i verĂ°ur aĂ° vĂsindagrein
+
+ĂriĂ° 1879 opnaĂ°i Wilhelm Wundt tilraunastofu sĂna Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i viĂ° HĂĄskĂłlann Ă Leipzig Ă ĂĂœskalandi, ĂŸar sem sjĂłnum var sĂ©rstaklega beint aĂ° hegĂ°un og hugarĂĄstandi. Svo, ĂĄriĂ° 1890, gaf William James Ășt bĂłkina Principles of Psychology, eĂ°a Grundvöll sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar, sem lagĂ°i undirstöðurnar aĂ° fjölda spurninga sem sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingar einbeittu sĂ©r aĂ° um langt skeiĂ°. William James var fyrsti prĂłfessorinn Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i viĂ° Harvard-hĂĄskĂłla.
+
+ĂaĂ° mikilvĂŠgasta var aĂ° aĂ°ferĂ°ir og viĂ°horf Wilhelms Wundt og William James voru laus viĂ° yfirskilvitlegar trĂșarlegar ĂștskĂœringar ĂĄ hugsun manna eĂ°a hegĂ°un, sem losaĂ°i sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ina undan viĂ°jum heimspeki og guĂ°frĂŠĂ°i, og lagĂ°i grunninn aĂ° nĂștĂma sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i sem vĂsindagrein.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1892 voru samtökin American Psychological Association, amerĂska sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingafĂ©lagiĂ°, stofnuĂ°, en stofnun ĂŸeirra hafĂ°i mikil ĂĄhrif ĂĄ ĂŸrĂłun greinarinnar.
+
+Ă ĂĄrunum 1890-1900 mĂłtaĂ°i AusturrĂski taugalĂŠknirinn Sigmund Freud kenningar sĂnar um dulvitund og ĂŸrĂłaĂ°i Ășt frĂĄ ĂŸeim aĂ°ferĂ°ir sem hann taldi aĂ° gĂŠtu gagnast til aĂ° lĂŠkna sĂĄlarmein. AĂ°ferĂ°ir og kenningar Freuds eru einu nafni nefndar sĂĄlgreining. Skilningur Freuds ĂĄ huganum var aĂ° mestu byggĂ°ur ĂĄ tĂșlkunaraĂ°ferĂ°um og Ăłbeinum athugunum, en ekki kerfisbundnum rannsĂłknum.
+
+Flestir sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingar nĂștĂmans hafna kenningum Freuds og ĂŸeim aĂ°ferĂ°um sem ĂĄ ĂŸeim byggja, yfirleitt ĂĄ ĂŸeim forsendum aĂ° ĂŸĂŠr sĂ©u Ă eĂ°li sĂnu ĂłprĂłfanlegar og ĂŸvĂ ĂłvĂsindalegar. Dulvitundin, eitt grundvallarhugtakiĂ° Ă sĂĄlgreiningu, er til dĂŠmis samkvĂŠmt skilgreiningu nokkuĂ° sem ekki er hĂŠgt aĂ° rannsaka meĂ° beinum hĂŠtti. Kenningar og aĂ°ferĂ°ir Freuds eru enn ĂŸrĂŠtuefni. ĂĂł er engin spurning um aĂ° ĂĄhrifa hans gĂŠtir vĂĂ°a, ekki hvaĂ° sĂst Ă hugmyndum almennings um sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i.
+
+AĂ° hluta til sem viĂ°brögĂ° viĂ° hve mikil sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°in einbeitti sĂ©r aĂ° sjĂĄlfsskoĂ°un og huglĂŠgi ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma, varĂ° atferlisstefnan vinsĂŠl sem leiĂ°beinandi sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ikenning. MeĂ° forvĂgismennina John B. Watson, Edward Thorndike og B.F. Skinner Ă fararbroddi, ĂŸĂĄ stóð atferlisstefnan ĂĄ bakviĂ° ĂŸĂŠr hugmyndir aĂ° sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°in skyldi vera vĂsindagrein sem rannsakaĂ°i hegĂ°un, en ekki hugann og hafnaĂ°i hugmyndum um hugarĂĄstand (svo sem trĂș, langanir og markmiĂ°) og hĂ©lt ĂŸvĂ fram aĂ° öll hegĂ°un og reynsla helgaĂ°ist af viĂ°brögĂ°um frĂĄ umhverfinu.
+
+Ă ritinu Psychology as the Behaviorist views it, SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°in eins og atferlissinninn sĂ©r hana, sem Watson skrifaĂ°i ĂĄriĂ° 1913, segir hann aĂ° sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i sĂ© algjörlega undirfag nĂĄttĂșruvĂsinda sem rannsaki hlutlĂŠgt, og ekkert annaĂ°. Ă sama riti hafnar hann algjörlega aĂ° sjĂĄlfsskoĂ°un sĂ© nokkuĂ° sem sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i styĂ°jist viĂ° og aĂ° atferlissinni ĂŸekki enga lĂnu sem skilji aĂ° menn og dĂœr.
+
+Atferlisstefnan var rĂkjandi innan sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar stĂłran hluta fyrriparts 20. aldarinnar, aĂ° miklu leyti vegna ĂŸess hve vel kenningarnar um skilyrĂ°ingu og hagnĂœtingu ĂŸeirra (ekki sĂst Ă auglĂœsingum) sem vĂsindaleg mĂłdel af mannlegri hegĂ°un heppnuĂ°ust.
+
+En ĂŸaĂ° varĂ° smĂĄm saman ljĂłst aĂ° atferlisstefnan var ekki nĂłgu góð sem leiĂ°andi kenning um mannlega hegĂ°un, ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir mikilvĂŠgar uppgötvanir. GagnrĂœni Noam Chomsky ĂĄ bĂłk Skinners, Verbal behavior (sem hafĂ°i ĂŸaĂ° markmiĂ° aĂ° skĂœra Ășt tungumĂĄlanĂĄm meĂ° kenningum atferlissinna), er talin vera ein af stĂŠrstu ĂŸĂĄttunum Ă ĂŸvĂ aĂ° atferlisstefnan hĂŠtti aĂ° vera rĂkjandi.
+
+Chomsky sĂœndi fram ĂĄ ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° tungumĂĄl vĂŠri ekki hĂŠgt aĂ° lĂŠra meĂ° skilyrĂ°ingunni einni saman, vegna ĂŸess aĂ° fĂłlk getur bĂșiĂ° til setningar sem eru einstakar Ă uppbyggingu og aĂ° merkingu sem geta ekki orĂ°iĂ° til eingöngu meĂ° reynslu af nĂĄttĂșrulegu tungumĂĄli og gaf ĂŸar meĂ° Ă skyn aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° hlyti aĂ° vera til hugarĂĄstand, sem atferlisstefnan hafnaĂ°i.
+
+HliĂ°stĂŠtt, ĂŸĂĄ sĂœndi Albert Bandura fram ĂĄ ĂŸaĂ° Ă verki sĂnu aĂ° börn gĂŠtu lĂŠrt meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° fylgjast meĂ° hegĂ°un Ă umhverfi sĂnu, ĂĄn breytinga ĂĄ hegĂ°un, svo eitthvaĂ° innra meĂ° okkur hlyti aĂ° eiga hlut aĂ° mĂĄli.
+
+Ris tölvutĂŠkninnar lagĂ°i sinn skerf til Ă ĂŸvĂ aĂ° lĂta ĂĄ virkni hugans sem Ășrvinnslu ĂĄ upplĂœsingum. Ăetta, ĂĄsamt vĂsindalegum aĂ°ferĂ°um viĂ° aĂ° rannsaka hugann, sem og trĂș ĂĄ hugarĂĄstand, leiddi til riss hugfrĂŠĂ°istefnunnar sem rĂkjandi kenningu um hugann.
+
+Tengingar ĂĄ milli heilans og taugakerfisins voru einnig aĂ° verĂ°a ljĂłsar, aĂ° hluta til vegna tilrauna Charles Sherrington og Donald Hebb, og aĂ° hluta til vegna rannsĂłkna ĂĄ fĂłlki sem hafĂ°i hlotiĂ° heilaskaĂ°a. MeĂ° ĂŸrĂłun ĂĄ tĂŠkni sem gerir okkur kleift aĂ° rannsaka heilastarfsemi nĂĄkvĂŠmlega, ĂŸĂĄ hefur taugasĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i og skilvitleg taugavĂsindi (e. cognitive neurosience) orĂ°iĂ° aĂ° einna mest virkar innan nĂștĂma sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i.
+
+MeĂ° aukinni ĂŸĂĄtttöku annarra greina, svo sem heimspeki, tölvunarfrĂŠĂ°i og taugafrĂŠĂ°i, Ă leit aĂ° skilningi ĂĄ huganum, ĂŸĂĄ hefur orĂ°iĂ° til yfirfag sem kallast vitsmunavĂsindi, sem einblĂnir ĂĄ aĂ° hagnĂœta öll framlög meĂ° uppbyggilegum hĂŠtti.
+
+En ekki hafa allir sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingar veriĂ° hrifnir af ĂŸvĂ aĂ° reyna aĂ° skilja hugann og nĂĄttĂșruna meĂ° mekkanĂskum aĂ°ferĂ°um.
+
+Carl Jung, sem eitt sinn fylgdi stefnu Freuds, var frumkvöðull Ă aĂ° betrumbĂŠta sjĂĄlfsskoĂ°un Freuds meĂ° hugmyndum um trĂș. (Freud hafĂ°i hafnaĂ° trĂș sem hĂłpblekkingu).
+
+Alfred Adler, eftir aĂ° hafa ĂĄtt einhver samskipti viĂ° umrĂŠĂ°uhĂłp Freuds, myndaĂ°i sitt eigiĂ° fag, kallaĂ° einstaklingssĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i. Ăhrif hans ĂĄ nĂștĂmasĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i hafa veriĂ° talsverĂ°, ĂŸar sem margar nĂĄlganir hafa fengiĂ° aĂ° lĂĄni hluta af kenningum hans. KlassĂsk adlerĂsk sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i er nĂœleg endurfĂŠĂ°ing ĂĄ kenningum Alfreds Adlers, en ĂŸessi frĂŠĂ°i fella saman upprunalegu kenningu Adler's um persĂłnuleika, stĂl sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°imeĂ°ferĂ°a og heimspeki lĂfsviĂ°horfa, ĂĄsamt sĂœn Abrahams Maslow's ĂĄ bestu virkni (e. optimal functioning).
+
+FyrirbĂŠrafrĂŠĂ°i eĂ°a hĂșmanĂsk sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i varĂ° til ĂĄ 4. ĂĄratug 20. aldar, og hefur veitt mĂłtvĂŠgi viĂ° framstefnu og vĂsindalegar aĂ°ferĂ°ir til aĂ° rannsaka hugann. HĂșn leggur ĂĄherslu ĂĄ rannsĂłknir, ĂĄ skynjun einstaklingsins og leitast viĂ° aĂ° skilja manneskjur og hegĂ°un ĂŸeirra meĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° framkvĂŠma rannsĂłknirnar. FyrirbĂŠrafrĂŠĂ°in ĂĄ rĂŠtur sĂnar Ă existentĂalisma og fyrirbĂŠrafrĂŠĂ°i Ă heimspeki. Margir fyrirbĂŠrafrĂŠĂ°ingar hafna algjörlega vĂsindalegum aĂ°ferĂ°um og segja aĂ° ĂŸaĂ° aĂ° reyna aĂ° mĂŠla upplifanir og skynjun rĂŠni ĂŸaĂ° ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu og merkingu mannlegrar tilvistar.
+
+Ăeir sem lögĂ°u fram ĂŸĂŠr hugmyndir sem mynda grunninn aĂ° fyrirbĂŠrafrĂŠĂ°inni eru meĂ°al annars Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, og Fritz Perls.
+
+SjĂĄ einnig: Ăgrip af sögu sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar, Helstu ĂĄrtöl Ă sögu bandarĂskrar sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i, Helstu ĂĄrtöl Ă sögu Ăslenskrar sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+Ăekktar rannsĂłknir Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+Undirgreinar sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar
+ĂaĂ° helsta sem sameinar ĂłlĂkar undirgreinar sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i er viss aĂ°ferĂ°afrĂŠĂ°i, rannsĂłknaraĂ°ferĂ°ir. GerĂ° er krafa um hlutlĂŠgar rannsĂłknir, einkum tilraunir. TilraunaaĂ°ferĂ° nĂĄttĂșruvĂsinda er meĂ°al aĂ°alsmerkja sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i, sem gerir hana frĂĄbrugĂ°na öðrum greinum sem fjalla um manninn, svo sem heimspeki og stjĂłrnmĂĄlafrĂŠĂ°i.
+
+LĂta mĂĄ ĂĄ ĂłlĂkar undirgreinar sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i sem sjĂłnarhorn ĂĄ viĂ°fangsefni sitt, manninn. Svo nokkur dĂŠmi sĂ©u tekin, ĂŸĂĄ er Ă atferlisgreiningu eingöngu hegĂ°un rannsökuĂ° og reynt aĂ° spĂĄ fyrir um hana Ășt frĂĄ fyrri hegĂ°un, Ă lĂffrĂŠĂ°ilegri sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i er hegĂ°un og hugsun rannsökuĂ° Ășt frĂĄ lĂfrĂŠĂ°ilegum forsendum, og Ă hugfrĂŠĂ°i er reynt aĂ° spĂĄ fyrir um hugsun Ășt frĂĄ hegĂ°un. AĂ°rar greinar rannsaka sama viĂ°fangsefni, en frĂĄ sĂnum sjĂłnarhornum. InnbyrĂ°is innan sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i er sem sagt reynt aĂ° ĂștskĂœra hegĂ°un Ășt frĂĄ mismunandi forsendum.
+
+Ăegar kemur aĂ° hagnĂœtingu ĂĄ ĂŸekkingu Ășr undirgreinum sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar er svo stuĂ°st viĂ° ĂŸekkingu Ășr öllum undirgreinum, en skĂœringar sem taldar eiga frekar viĂ° en aĂ°rar eru nĂœttar.
+
+Helstu undirgreinar sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i eru eftirfarandi:
+
+Atferlisgreining
+
+FĂ©lagssĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+HagnĂœtt sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+HagnĂœtt sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i snĂœst um aĂ° nota sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ilegar aĂ°ferĂ°ir og kenningar til aĂ° leysa vandamĂĄl à öðrum greinum, eins og t.d. Ă starfsmannastjĂłrnun, vöruhönnun, lĂŠkningum og menntun.
+
+HeilsusĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+HugfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+KlĂnĂsk sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+LĂffrĂŠĂ°ileg sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+NĂĄmssĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+PersĂłnuleikasĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+PersĂłnuleikasĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i getur talist til sĂgildra undirgreina sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar og eiga rĂŠtur aĂ° rekja til kenninga Freuds um persĂłnuleikann. Ăhersla er lögĂ° ĂĄ einstaklingsmun og gengiĂ° er Ășt frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° fĂłlk sĂ© ĂłlĂkt vegna meĂ°fĂŠddra eĂ°a ĂĄunninna persĂłnuleikaĂŸĂĄtta sem mĂłta hegĂ°un fĂłlks Ă vissum aĂ°stĂŠĂ°um og valda ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hver einstaklingur sĂœnir ĂĄkveĂ°inn stöðugleika Ă hegĂ°un.
+
+RĂ©ttarsĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+SkynjunarsĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+TaugasĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+TilraunasĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+VinnusĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+ĂroskasĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+ĂrĂłunarsĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+ĂldrunarsĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+
+ĂldrunarsĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i fjallar um lĂkamlegar, hugrĂŠnar, fĂ©lagslegar og sĂĄlrĂŠnar breytingar sem eiga sĂ©r staĂ° viĂ° öldrun. ĂldrunarsĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i fĂŠst bĂŠĂ°i viĂ° breytingar sem fylgja eĂ°lilegri öldrun sem og ĂłeĂ°lilegar breytingar, svo sem heilabilun.
+
+Heimildir
+ Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund, Daniel Reisberg: Psychology, sjötta ĂștgĂĄfa, W.W. Norton & Company 2004.
+
+ Rita L. Atkinson, Richard C. Atkinson, Ernest R. Hilgard: SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i I, ĂĄttunda ĂștgĂĄfa, IĂ°unn 1992.
+ Rita L. Atkinson, Richard C. Atkinson, Ernest R. Hilgard: SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i II, ĂĄttunda ĂștgĂĄfa, IĂ°unn 1988.
+
+
+ UpplĂœsingar um undirgreinar sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar af vef HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands og Ășr greininni HvaĂ° eru til margar gerĂ°ir af sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i? af VĂsindavefnum.
+
+Tengt efni
+ Saga sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar ĂĄ Ăslandi
+ AtferlishagfrĂŠĂ°i (e. behavioral economics)
+ FĂ©lagsfrĂŠĂ°i
+ Félagsråðgjöf
+ GervigreindarfrĂŠĂ°i
+ HĂĄtternisfrĂŠĂ°i (e. ethology)
+ Hugspeki
+ KennslufrĂŠĂ°i
+ LĂffrĂŠĂ°i
+ LĂfeĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i
+ LĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i
+ MannĂŸĂĄttafrĂŠĂ°i (e. human factors)
+ MarkaĂ°sfrĂŠĂ°i
+ MĂĄlvĂsindi
+ PrĂłffrĂŠĂ°i
+ TaugavĂsindi
+ Uppeldis- og menntunarfrĂŠĂ°i
+ VitsmunavĂsindi
+
+Tenglar
+
+Frekari upplĂœsingar
+ SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°iskor HĂĄskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk
+ SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°iskor HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands
+ Umfjöllun um sålfrÊði å Iðan.is
+ SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°iefni hjĂĄ AmoebaWeb
+ APA Ă hundraĂ° ĂĄr
+ SĂgild verk Ă sögu sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°innar
+ OrĂ°abĂłk Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+ AlfrĂŠĂ°iorĂ°abĂłk um sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+ SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°igreinar
+ SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°iritgerĂ°ir
+ SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°irĂĄĂ°stefnur
+ SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°iĂŸing (aĂ°allega evrĂłpsk)
+ Fréttir frå ScienceDaily Mind and Brain
+ PsychCentral
+ SålfrÊðiefni (einnig um félagssålfrÊði og einnig um "Cumulative Risk and Resilience")
+ Psychology Career Ladders (criticism)
+
+SålfrÊðifélög og -samtök
+ SĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingafĂ©lag Ăslands
+ Anima, fĂ©lag sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°inema viĂ° HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands
+ Res Extensa - ĂŸverfaglegt Ăslenskt fĂ©lag ĂĄhugamanna um hug, heila og hĂĄtterni.
+ AmerĂska sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingafĂ©lagiĂ°
+ AmerĂska sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ifĂ©lagiĂ°
+ AusturrĂska sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ifĂ©lagiĂ°
+ BelgĂska sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ifĂ©lagiĂ°
+ Breska sålfrÊðifélagið
+ Ansia Psychology University of Rome Research (it)
+ KanadĂska sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ifĂ©lagiĂ°
+ Finnska sålfrÊðifélagið
+ ĂĂœska sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ifĂ©lagiĂ°
+ Norsk samtök ĂŸeirra sem hafa mastersgrĂĄĂ°u Ă sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°i
+ SingapĂșrska sĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ifĂ©lagiĂ°
+ In-Mind, Quarterly Magazine for Social Psychology
+EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ilögmĂĄl er stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ilegt samhengi ĂĄ milli mĂŠlanlegrar stĂŠrĂ°ar og ĂŸeirra ĂŸĂĄtta sem hluturinn, sem ĂĄ aĂ° mĂŠla, er hĂĄĂ°ur. Ăetta er grundvallarhugtak Ă eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°inni.
+
+EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ilögmĂĄl eru yfirleitt sannreynd med tilraunum. Tilraunir hafa alltaf einhverja Ăłvissu Ă sĂ©r og ĂŸvĂ er hĂŠgt ad segja aĂ° eĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°ilögmĂĄl sĂ©u nĂĄlganir ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ sem mĂŠlt er vegna ĂŸess aĂ° lĂkaniĂ°, sem er byggt Ășt frĂĄ tilraununum, lĂœsir mĂŠliniĂ°urstöðum innan einhverja skekkjumarka.
+
+FrÊg eðlisfrÊðilögmål eru t.d. lögmål Newtons og jöfnur Maxwells.
+
+EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i
+EskifjörĂ°ur er bĂŠr ĂĄ norĂ°urströnd samnefnds fjarĂ°ar sem liggur Ășt frĂĄ ReyĂ°arfirĂ°i norĂ°anverĂ°um. ĂbĂșar EskifjarĂ°ar voru 1040 ĂŸann 1. janĂșar 2019 og hefur ĂbĂșatalan haldist nokkuĂ° stöðug sĂĂ°ustu ĂĄrin.
+
+EskifjörĂ°ur var verslunarstaĂ°ur fyrr ĂĄ öldum og var einn hinna sex staĂ°a ĂĄ Ăslandi, sem fengu kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi ĂĄriĂ° 1786 viĂ° afnĂĄm einokunarverslunarinnar, en missti ĂŸau aftur sĂĂ°ar. ĂriĂ° 1798 reisti danska verslunarfyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Ărum og Wulff verslunarhĂșs Ă ĂtkaupstaĂ°, sem svo er kallaĂ°ur, og hĂłf ĂŸar verslun. ĂaĂ° var ĂŸĂł ekki fyrr en NorĂ°menn hĂłfu sĂldveiĂ°ar viĂ° Ăsland ĂĄ sĂĂ°ari hluta 19. aldar sem ĂbĂșum tĂłk aĂ° fjölga verulega og ĂĄriĂ° 1902 voru ĂbĂșarnir orĂ°nir 228.
+
+AĂ°alatvinnuvegur ĂbĂșa EskifjarĂ°ar er sjĂĄvarĂștvegur og fiskvinnsla en verslun og ĂŸjĂłnusta eru einnig mikilvĂŠgar atvinnugreinar. Ă EskifirĂ°i er SjĂłminjasafn Austurlands Ă gömlu hĂșsi sem Ărum og Wulff byggĂ°u um 1816 og ĂŸar mĂĄ sjĂĄ minjar um sjĂłsĂłkn ĂĄ AustfjörĂ°um og byggĂ°asögu og atvinnulĂf ĂĄ EskifirĂ°i. AĂ°setur sĂœslumannsembĂŠttis SuĂ°ur-MĂșlasĂœslu var flutt til EskifjarĂ°ar 1853 og ĂŸar er miĂ°stöð löggĂŠslu ĂĄ Austurlandi.
+
+ByggĂ°in var gerĂ° aĂ° sĂ©rstökum hreppi, EskifjarĂ°arhreppi, ĂĄriĂ° 1907 en hafĂ°i fram aĂ° ĂŸvĂ tilheyrt ReyĂ°arfjarĂ°arhreppi. Hreppurinn fĂ©kk kaupstaĂ°arrĂ©ttindi ĂĄ nĂœ 22. aprĂl 1974. Hinn 1. janĂșar 1988 sameinaĂ°ist HelgustaĂ°ahreppur EskifirĂ°i. Hinn 7. jĂșnĂ 1998 sameinaĂ°ist EskifjarĂ°arkaupstaĂ°ur ReyĂ°arfjarĂ°arhreppi ĂĄ nĂœ og NeskaupstaĂ° aĂ° auki undir nafninu FjarĂ°abyggĂ°.
+
+à Eskifirði er Steinasafn Sigurborgar og Sörens.
+
+Heimildir
+
+
+Ă ĂĄrunum 1971 til 1986 kom Ășr fimm binda ritverk Einars Braga skĂĄlds, sem kallast Eskja.
+
+Tenglar
+ www.eskifjordur.is - UpplĂœsingasĂĂ°a um sögu EskifjarĂ°ar
+ www.eskifjordur.com - UpplĂœsingasĂĂ°a um allt Ă kringum EskifjörĂ°
+ www.facebook.com/eskifjordur - Eskifjörður å Facebook.
+
+AĂ°setur sĂœslumanna ĂĄ Ăslandi
+Eskifjörður
+FirĂ°ir ĂĄ Ăslandi
+Ăslensk sjĂĄvarĂŸorp
+ĂriĂ° 2003 (MMIII Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var 3. ĂĄr 21. aldar sem hĂłfst ĂĄ miĂ°vikudegi samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+
+JanĂșar
+
+ 1. janĂșar - LuĂz InĂĄcio Lula Da Silva tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti sem 37. forseti BrasilĂu.
+ 1. janĂșar - Pascal Couchepin varĂ° forseti Sviss.
+ 5. janĂșar - 20 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar tveir palestĂnskir sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjumenn rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ strĂŠtisvagnastöð Ă Tel AvĂv.
+ 7. janĂșar - Vafrinn Safari kom fyrst Ășt.
+ 9. janĂșar - YfirmaĂ°ur vopnaeftirlits SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna Ă Ărak, Hans Blix, staĂ°festi aĂ° engar sannanir hefĂ°u fundist fyrir ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Ărak ĂŠtti gereyĂ°ingarvopn.
+ 16. janĂșar - Sölusamningur um BĂșnaĂ°arbankann var undirritaĂ°ur.
+ 16. janĂșar - Geimskutlan Columbia hĂ©lt Ă sĂna sĂĂ°ustu geimferĂ°.
+ 18. janĂșar - ĂslendingabĂłk var opnuĂ° almenningi.
+ 18. janĂșar - SkĂłgareldar ollu grĂĂ°arlegu tjĂłni Ă ĂștjaĂ°ri Canberra Ă ĂstralĂu.
+ 21. janĂșar - Rithöfundurinn HallgrĂmur Helgason birti grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu um âblĂĄu höndinaâ, hugtak sem sĂĂ°ar varĂ° vinsĂŠlt til aĂ° lĂœsa ĂĄhrifum SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokksins Ă viĂ°skiptalĂfinu.
+ 21. janĂșar - Kevin Mitnick fĂ©kk aĂ° nota tölvu aftur.
+ 22. janĂșar - SĂĂ°asta merkiĂ° frĂĄ geimkönnunarfarinu Pioneer 10 barst til jarĂ°ar Ășr 7,6 milljarĂ°a mĂlna fjarlĂŠgĂ° frĂĄ jörĂ°u.
+ 24. janĂșar - RĂĄĂ°stefnunni World Social Forum lauk Ă Porto Alegre Ă BrasilĂu meĂ° ĂĄkalli um aĂ° hĂŠtt yrĂ°i aĂ° heyja fyrirbyggjandi strĂĂ° og aĂ° öryggisrĂĄĂ°iĂ° beitti neitunarvaldi fyrir friĂ°.
+ 28. janĂșar - Nigergate-hneyksliĂ°: George W. Bush sagĂ°i frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° CIA hefĂ°i undir höndum skjöl um meint kaup Saddam Hussein ĂĄ rĂœrĂ°u Ășrani frĂĄ NĂger. Skjölin reyndust sĂĂ°ar vera fölsuĂ°.
+ 30. janĂșar - BelgĂa lögleiddi hjĂłnabönd samkynhneigĂ°ra.
+
+FebrĂșar
+
+ 1. febrĂșar - Geimskutlan Columbia fĂłrst yfir Texas ĂŸegar hĂșn er ad koma aftur inn Ă andrĂșmsloftiĂ°. Allir geimfararnir fĂłrust, sjö talsins.
+ 1. febrĂșar - ĂĂłrĂłlfur Ărnason tĂłk viĂ° sem borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkurborgar.
+ 4. febrĂșar - SerbĂa og Svartfjallaland hĂŠtti aĂ° nota nafniĂ° JĂșgĂłslavĂa opinberlega.
+ 6. febrĂșar - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Didda og dauĂ°i kötturinn var frumsĂœnd.
+ 9. febrĂșar - Ingibjörg SĂłlrĂșn GĂsladĂłttir hĂ©lt frĂŠga rĂŠĂ°u Ă Borgarnesi ĂŸar sem hĂșn gagnrĂœndi afskipti DavĂĂ°s Oddssonar af viĂ°skiptalĂfinu.
+ 15. febrĂșar - AlĂŸjóðleg mĂłtmĂŠli fĂłru fram gegn strĂĂ°inu Ă Ărak. Meira en 6 milljĂłnir manna mĂłtmĂŠltu Ă 600 borgum.
+ 17. febrĂșar - Egypska trĂșarleiĂ°toganum Abu Omar var rĂŠnt af Ăștsendurum CIA Ă MĂlanĂł.
+ 18. febrĂșar - 198 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar maĂ°ur kveikti eld Ă neĂ°anjarĂ°arlest Ă SeĂșl Ă SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu.
+ 19. febrĂșar - 302 hermenn lĂ©tust ĂŸegar herflugvĂ©l hrapaĂ°i Ă Ăran.
+ 19. febrĂșar - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigĂ°isstofnunin staĂ°festi aĂ° EbĂłlafaraldur vĂŠri hafinn Ă Vestur-KongĂł.
+ 21. febrĂșar - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir Xinjang. 257 fĂłrust.
+ 24. febrĂșar - SĂŠnska sjĂłnvarpsstöðin SVT24 hĂłf Ăștsendingar.
+ 26. febrĂșar - BandarĂskur kaupsĂœslumaĂ°ur kom inn ĂĄ spĂtala Ă Hanoi meĂ° brĂĄĂ°alungnabĂłlgu, einnig ĂŸekkt sem SARS.
+ 26. febrĂșar - StrĂĂ°iĂ° Ă DarfĂșr hĂłfst ĂŸegar skĂŠruliĂ°ar risu gegn stjĂłrn SĂșdan.
+ 28. febrĂșar - Kvikmyndin NĂłi albĂnĂłi eftir Dag KĂĄra PĂ©tursson var frumsĂœnd.
+ 28. febrĂșar - VĂĄclav Klaus var kjörinn forseti TĂ©kklands.
+
+Mars
+
+ 2. mars - Pakistönsk yfirvöld handsömuĂ°u Khalid Shaikh Mohammed sem var ĂĄlitinn standa ĂĄ bak viĂ° HryĂ°juverkin 11. september 2001. Einnig handtĂłku ĂŸeir Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi sem var talinn hafa fjĂĄrmagnaĂ° ĂĄrĂĄsirnar.
+ 6. mars - Yasser Arafat Ăștnefndi Mahmoud Abbas eftirmann sinn.
+ 8. mars - ĂbĂșar Möltu samĂŸykktu inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandiĂ°.
+ 12. mars - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigĂ°ismĂĄlastofnunin lĂœsti yfir neyĂ°arĂĄstandi vegna brĂĄĂ°alungnabĂłlgu.
+ 12. mars - Leyniskytta myrti Zoran ÄinÄiÄ forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra SerbĂu Ă Belgrad.
+ 14. mars - FemĂnistafĂ©lag Ăslands var stofnaĂ°.
+ 14. mars - Recep Tayyip ErdoÄan tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Tyrklands.
+ 15. mars - Hu Jintao tĂłk viĂ° sem forseti alĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldisins KĂna af Jiang Zemin.
+ 16. mars - StĂŠrstu samrĂŠmdu fjöldamĂłtmĂŠli ĂĄ alheimsvĂsu voru haldin gegn strĂĂ°i Ă Ărak.
+ 17. mars - Robin Cook, innanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands sagĂ°i af sĂ©r vegna ĂĄgreinings um ĂĄĂŠtlanir um strĂĂ° ĂĄ hendur Ărak.
+ 18. mars - Listi viljugra ĂŸjóða sem studdu afvopnun Ăraks var birtur og var Ăsland ĂĄ honum.
+ 19. mars - George W. Bush, ĂŸĂĄverandi forseti BandarĂkjanna, fyrirskipaĂ°i upphaf ĂraksstrĂĂ°sins.
+ 20. mars - Hermenn frĂĄ BandarĂkjunum, Bretlandi, ĂstralĂu og PĂłllandi rĂ©Ă°ust inn Ă Ărak.
+ 20. mars - StaĂ°larĂĄĂ° Ăslands var stofnaĂ°.
+ 23. mars - SlĂłvenar samĂŸykktu inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° og NATO.
+ 24. mars - ArababandalagiĂ° samĂŸykkti ĂĄlyktun um aĂ° herir BandarĂkjanna og Breta yfirgĂŠfu Ărak tafarlaust.
+ 31. mars - 400 fĂłrust Ă aurskriĂ°u sem fĂłr yfir nĂĄmubĂŠinn Chima Ă BĂłlivĂu.
+
+AprĂl
+
+ 1. aprĂl - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Fyrsti aprĂll var frumsĂœnd.
+ 3. aprĂl - SerbĂa og Svartfjallaland varĂ° aĂ°ili aĂ° EvrĂłpurĂĄĂ°inu.
+ 3. aprĂl - Risasmokkfiskur veiddist Ă Rosshafi.
+ 3. aprĂl - ĂraksstrĂĂ°iĂ°: BandarĂkjaher lagĂ°i alĂŸjóðaflugvöllinn Ă Bagdad undir sig.
+ 7. aprĂl - ĂraksstrĂĂ°iĂ°: Breski herinn nĂĄĂ°i Basra ĂĄ sitt vald.
+ 9. aprĂl - ĂraksstrĂĂ°iĂ°: BandarĂkjaher nĂĄĂ°i Bagdad ĂĄ sitt vald.
+ 12. aprĂl - KjĂłsendur Ă Ungverjalandi samĂŸykktu inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandiĂ°.
+ 14. aprĂl - Kortlagningu gengamengis mannsins Ă Human Genome Project lauk.
+ 16. aprĂl - AĂ°ildarsĂĄttmĂĄlinn 2003 um aĂ°ild 10 nĂœrra EvrĂłpusambandsrĂkja var undirritaĂ°ur af 25 rĂkjum.
+ 17. aprĂl - Anneli JÀÀtteenmĂ€ki varĂ° fyrsti kvenforsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Finnlands.
+ 23. aprĂl - British Airways og Air France gĂĄfu Ășt yfirlĂœsingu um aĂ° ĂŸau myndu ekki notast viĂ° Concorde-flugvĂ©lar framar.
+ 25. aprĂl - Winnie Mandela var dĂŠmd Ă sex ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir svik og ĂŸjĂłfnaĂ°.
+ 26. aprĂl - StĂłrbruni varĂ° Ă moskunni Islamic Center Ă Malmö. SlökkviliĂ°smenn urĂ°u fyrir grjĂłtkasti viĂ° störf sĂn.
+ 29. aprĂl - BandarĂkjaher tilkynnti aĂ° hann hygĂ°ist draga herliĂ° sitt frĂĄ SĂĄdĂ-ArabĂu.
+
+MaĂ
+
+ 1. maĂ - George W. Bush tilkynnti aĂ° hernaĂ°araĂ°gerĂ°um Ă Ărak vĂŠri lokiĂ°.
+ 3. maĂ - 16 lĂ©tust Ă flóðum Ă ArgentĂnu.
+ 10. maĂ - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar. Meirihluti SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°isflokks og FramsĂłknarflokks hĂ©lst en SjĂĄlfstĂŠĂ°ismenn töpuĂ°u fjĂłrum ĂŸingsĂŠtum.
+ 11. maĂ - Saltkeri Cellinis var stoliĂ° frĂĄ Kunsthistorisches Museum Ă VĂn.
+ 12. maĂ - 60 manns lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ° Ă sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjuĂĄrĂĄs Ă TĂ©tĂ©nĂu.
+ 12. maĂ - 35 lĂ©tust Ă fimmtĂĄn sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum Ă SĂĄdĂ-ArabĂu.
+ 14. maĂ - Fjöldagröf meĂ° lĂkamsleifum 3000 manna var uppgötvuĂ° Ă Hilla, 90 km frĂĄ Bagdad.
+ 16. maĂ - Ălafur Ragnar GrĂmsson forseti Ăslands kvĂŠntist Dorrit Moussaieff.
+ 16. maà - Hryðjuverkaåråsirnar à Casablanca: 45 létust og yfir 100 slösuðust à fjórtån sjålfsmorðssprengjuåråsum à Casablanca à Marokkó.
+ 18. maĂ - 260 lĂ©tust af völdum flóða ĂŸegar hitabeltisfellibylur gekk yfir SrĂ Lanka.
+ 19. maĂ - StrĂĂ°iĂ° Ă Aceh 2003-2004: IndĂłnesĂuher hĂłf aĂ°gerĂ°ir Ă Aceh-hĂ©raĂ°i.
+ 21. maĂ - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti, 6,7 ĂĄ Richter meĂ° upptök viĂ° BoumerdĂšs, skĂłk AlsĂr. 2300 lĂ©tust.
+ 23. maĂ - Ăslenska alĂŸjóðabjörgunarsveitin fĂłr Ășt til AlsĂr til rĂșstabjörgunar.
+ 24. maĂ - Sertab Erener sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva fyrir Tyrkland meĂ° laginu âEveryway That I Canâ. Framlag Ăslands var lagiĂ° âOpen Your Heartâ.
+ 29. maĂ - Ludwig Scotty varĂ° forseti NĂĄrĂș.
+
+JĂșnĂ
+
+ JĂșnĂ - Tölvuleikurinn Orustan um Wesnoth kom fyrst Ășt.
+ 1. jĂșnĂ - Vatn hĂłf aĂ° safnast Ă uppistöðulĂłniĂ° viĂ° Ăriggja gljĂșfra stĂfluna Ă KĂna. ViĂ° ĂŸetta hĂŠkkaĂ°i vatnsborĂ°iĂ° um allt aĂ° 100 metra.
+ 6. jĂșnĂ - EndurgerĂ°a Austur-IndĂafariĂ° Götheborg var sjĂłsett Ă SvĂĂŸjóð.
+ 8. jĂșnĂ - KjĂłsendur Ă PĂłllandi samĂŸykktu aĂ°ild aĂ° EvrĂłpusambandinu.
+ 14. jĂșnĂ - KjĂłsendur Ă TĂ©kklandi samĂŸykktu aĂ°ild aĂ° EvrĂłpusambandinu.
+ 16. jĂșnĂ - Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin Hraun var stofnuĂ°.
+ 17. jĂșnĂ - Ăslenska kvikmyndin ĂriĂ°ja nafniĂ° var frumsĂœnd.
+ 18. jĂșnĂ - ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Finnlands, Anneli JÀÀtteenmĂ€ki, neyddist til aĂ° segja af sĂ©r eftir aĂ° hafa logiĂ° aĂ° ĂŸinginu.
+ 20. jĂșnĂ - Samtökin Wikimedia voru stofnuĂ°.
+ 27. jĂșnĂ - Tveir leiĂ°togar Al-KaĂda, Ayman al-Zawahiri og Suleyman Abu Ghaith, voru handteknir Ă Ărak.
+ 30. jĂșnĂ - ĂĂ°ru strĂĂ°inu Ă KongĂł lauk meĂ° friĂ°arsamningum.
+
+JĂșlĂ
+
+ 1. jĂșlĂ - Ăslenskar orkurannsĂłknir tĂłku til starfa.
+ 5. jĂșlĂ - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigĂ°isstofnunin tilkynnti aĂ° nĂĄĂ°st hefĂ°i aĂ° takmarka ĂștbreiĂ°slu brĂĄĂ°alungnabĂłlgu (SARS).
+ 5. jĂșlĂ - 12 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar tĂ©tĂ©nskir sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjumenn gerĂ°u ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ rokktĂłnleika Ă Tusjino Ă nĂĄgrenni Moskvu.
+ 6. jĂșlĂ - Cosmic Call-verkefniĂ° sendi skilaboĂ° frĂĄ Jevpatoria ĂĄ KrĂmskaga til fimm stjarna: Hip 4872, HD 245409, 55 Cancri, HD 10307 og 47 Ursae Majoris. SkilaboĂ°in munu nĂĄ ĂĄfangastaĂ° ĂĄ ĂĄrunum frĂĄ 2036 til 2049.
+ 6. jĂșlĂ - ĂsraelsstjĂłrn lĂ©t 350 palestĂnska fanga lausa.
+ 8. jĂșlĂ - Um 600 fĂłrust og 200 björguĂ°ust ĂŸegar ferja sökk Ă Bangladess.
+ 9. jĂșlĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin SjĂłrĂŠningjar ĂĄ KarĂbahafi: Bölvun svörtu perlunnar var frumsĂœnd.
+ 10. jĂșlĂ - WikibĂŠkur, systurverkefni Wikipediu, hĂłf göngu sĂna.
+ 15. jĂșlĂ - Mozilla Foundation var stofnuĂ°.
+ 18. jĂșlĂ - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Ussss var frumsĂœnd.
+ 18. jĂșlĂ - EvrĂłpurĂĄĂ°stefnan gaf Ășt fyrstu drög aĂ° nĂœrri stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ EvrĂłpu.
+ 18. jĂșlĂ - Breski vopnaeftirlitsmaĂ°urinn David Kelly sem dregiĂ° hafĂ°i Ă efa skĂœrslu um fund gereyĂ°ingarvopna Ă Ărak fannst lĂĄtinn.
+ 22. jĂșlĂ - Uday og Qusay Hussein, synir Saddams Hussein, voru felldir eftir umsĂĄtur um MĂłsĂșl Ă Ărak.
+ 24. jĂșlĂ - Ăstralir hĂłfu RAMSI-aĂ°gerĂ°ina ĂĄ SalĂłmonseyjum eftir aĂ° stjĂłrn eyjanna hafĂ°i ĂłskaĂ° eftir alĂŸjóðlegri aĂ°stoĂ° vegna innanlandsĂłfriĂ°ar.
+ 30. jĂșlĂ - SĂĂ°asta Volkswagen bjallan var framleidd Ă MexĂkĂł. ĂĂĄ höfĂ°u 21.529.464 bĂlar af ĂŸessari gerĂ° veriĂ° framleiddir frĂĄ 1938.
+ 31. jĂșlĂ - Fyrsta Roverway-skĂĄtamĂłtiĂ° hĂłfst Ă PortĂșgal.
+
+ĂgĂșst
+
+ ĂgĂșst - Ăslenska vefritiĂ° VantrĂș hĂłf göngu sĂna.
+ 1. ĂĄgĂșst - 35 rĂșssneskir hermenn lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ° Ă sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjuĂĄrĂĄs Ă NorĂ°ur-OssetĂu.
+ 1. ĂĄgĂșst - MenntafĂ©lagiĂ° ehf. tĂłk viĂ° rekstri StĂœrimannaskĂłlans og VĂ©lskĂłlans sem voru sĂĂ°ar sameinaĂ°ir viĂ° TĂŠkniskĂłlann.
+ 11. ĂĄgĂșst - Seinni borgarastyrjöldin Ă LĂberĂu tĂłk enda ĂŸegar Charles Taylor sagĂ°i af sĂ©r og flĂșĂ°i land.
+ 11. ĂĄgĂșst - NATO tĂłk yfir stjĂłrn alĂŸjóðlega friĂ°argĂŠsluliĂ°sins Ă Afganistan.
+ 12. ĂĄgĂșst - PortĂșgalski knattspyrnumaĂ°urinn Cristiano Ronaldo var seldur til Manchester United fyrir 12,24 milljĂłn pund.
+ 18. ĂĄgĂșst - NorĂ°urlandasamningur um almannatryggingar var undirritaĂ°ur.
+ 18. ĂĄgĂșst - MenntaskĂłlinn HraĂ°braut hĂłf starfsemi sĂna.
+ 19. ĂĄgĂșst - BĂlasprengja sprakk Ă hverfi SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna Ă Bagdad meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 22 lĂ©tust, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al sĂ©rstakur sendimaĂ°ur SĂŸ Ă Ărak, Sergio Vieira de Mello.
+ 19. ĂĄgĂșst - 23 lĂ©tust og 100 sĂŠrĂ°ust ĂŸegar sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjumaĂ°ur ĂĄ vegum Hamas gerĂ°i ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ strĂŠtisvagn Ă JerĂșsalem.
+ 21. ĂĄgĂșst - Ăsraelsher myrti nĂŠstrĂĄĂ°anda Hamassamtakanna, Ismail Abu Shanab, Ă hefndarskyni fyrir sprengjutilrĂŠĂ°iĂ° tveimur dögum fyrr.
+ 25. ĂĄgĂșst - Spitzer-geimsjĂłnaukanum var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft.
+ 25. ĂĄgĂșst - 50 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar tvĂŠr bĂlasprengjur sprungu Ă Mumbai ĂĄ Indlandi.
+ 27. ĂĄgĂșst - PlĂĄnetan Mars var nĂŠr jörĂ°u en hĂșn hafĂ°i veriĂ° Ă 60.000 ĂĄr.
+ 27. ĂĄgĂșst - Fyrstu sexhliĂ°a viĂ°rĂŠĂ°urnar um kjarnorkuĂĄĂŠtlun NorĂ°ur-KĂłreu fĂłru fram.
+ 29. ĂĄgĂșst - BĂlasprengja sprakk viĂ° mosku Ă Nadjaf Ă Ărak meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 95 lĂ©tust, ĂŸar ĂĄ meĂ°al sjĂtaklerkurinn Mohammad Baqr al Hakim.
+
+September
+
+ 4. september - Verslunarmiðstöðin Bull Ring var opnuð à Birmingham å Englandi.
+ 11. september - Anna Lindh, utanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°herra SvĂĂŸjóðar, lĂ©st ĂĄ sjĂșkrahĂșsi daginn eftir aĂ° rĂĄĂ°ist var ĂĄ hana og hĂșn stungin margsinnis Ă verslunarmiĂ°stöð.
+ 14. september - ĂbĂșar Eistlands samĂŸykktu aĂ°ild aĂ° EvrĂłpusambandinu Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu.
+ 14. september - RĂĄĂ°herrafundi AlĂŸjóðaviĂ°skiptastofnunarinnar lauk ĂĄn ĂĄrangurs Ă Cancun.
+ 15. september - SkĂŠruliĂ°ar Ășr Ăjóðfrelsisher KĂłlumbĂu rĂŠndu ĂĄtta erlendum ferĂ°amönnum Ă Ciudad Perdida. Ăeim var sleppt 100 dögum sĂĂ°ar.
+ 20. september - Lettar samĂŸykktu inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu.
+ 22. september - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin Two and a Half Men hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ CBS.
+ 23. september - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin One Tree Hill hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ The WB Television Network.
+ 24. september - Hubble Ultra-Deep Field-verkefniĂ° hĂłfst ĂŸar sem Hubble-sjĂłnaukinn tĂłk yfir 800 myndir af agnarlitlu svĂŠĂ°i Ă geimnum.
+ 25. september - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti sem mĂŠldist ĂĄtta stig ĂĄ Richter reiĂ° yfir eyjuna HokkaĂdĂł.
+ 26. september - TĂłnlistarhĂșsiĂ° Auditorio de Tenerife var vĂgt ĂĄ KanarĂeyjum.
+ 27. september - GeimferĂ°astofnun EvrĂłpu skaut SMART-1-gervihnettinum ĂĄ braut um TungliĂ°.
+ 29. september - NetsĂmafyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Skype var stofnaĂ°.
+
+OktĂłber
+
+ 1. oktĂłber - Eyririnn var lagĂ°ur niĂ°ur og ein krĂłna varĂ° minnsta gjaldmiĂ°ilseiningin ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 4. oktĂłber - SjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjumaĂ°ur myrti 19 ĂĄ bar Ă HaĂfa Ă Ăsrael.
+ 5. oktĂłber - Ăsraelskar herĂŸotur rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ meintar bĂŠkistöðvar hryĂ°juverkamanna Ă SĂœrlandi.
+ 5. oktĂłber - Ăslamskir hermenn myrtu Ătalska trĂșboĂ°ann Annalena Tonelli Ă sjĂșkrahĂșsinu sem hĂșn hafĂ°i stofnaĂ° Ă Borama.
+ 7. oktĂłber - Arnold Schwarzenegger var kjörinn fylkisstjĂłri KalifornĂu.
+ 10. oktĂłber - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Kill Bill var frumsĂœnd.
+ 12. oktĂłber - MyndvinnsluhugbĂșnaĂ°urinn Hugin kom fyrst Ășt.
+ 12. oktĂłber - Michael Schumacher slĂł met Juan Manuel Fangio ĂŸegar hann sigraĂ°i FormĂșlu 1-kappaksturinn Ă sjötta sinn.
+ 15. oktĂłber - Fyrsta mannaĂ°a geimfari KĂna, Shenzhou 5, var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft.
+ 16. oktĂłber - ListaverkiĂ° The Weather Project eftir Ălaf ElĂasson var opnaĂ° almenningi Ă Tate Modern Ă London.
+ 17. oktĂłber - FriĂ°arbogin, samtök homma og lesbĂa, voru stofnuĂ° Ă FĂŠreyjum.
+ 19. oktĂłber - BĂĄtur meĂ° flĂłttafĂłlki fĂłrst viĂ° Ătölsku eyjuna Lampedusa; 70 drukknuĂ°u.
+ 24. oktĂłber - SĂĂ°asta ĂĄĂŠtlunarflug Concorde-ĂŸotu var flogiĂ°.
+ 24. oktĂłber - StĂœrikerfiĂ° Mac OS X Panther var kynnt til sögunnar.
+ 27. október - 25 létust à fimm sprengjuåråsum å höfuðstöðvar Rauða krossins og lögreglustöðvar à Bagdad.
+
+NĂłvember
+
+ 6. nĂłvember - Fyrsta ĂștgĂĄfa Linuxdreifingarinnar Fedora kom Ășt.
+ 8. nĂłvember - 17 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar bĂlasprengja sprakk Ă ĂbĂșĂ°ahverfi Ă RĂad Ă SĂĄdĂ-ArabĂu.
+ 12. nĂłvember - 26 lĂ©tust Ă sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjuĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ bĂŠkistöðvar Ătölsku herlögreglunnar Ă Nassiriya Ă Ărak.
+ 14. nĂłvember - VĂsindamenn Ă San Diego uppgötvuĂ°u dvergreikistjörnuna 90377 Sedna.
+ 15. nĂłvember - 25 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar bĂlasprengjur sprungu viĂ° samkomuhĂșs gyĂ°inga Ă IstanbĂșl Ă Tyrklandi.
+ 19. nĂłvember - George W. Bush hĂ©lt Ă opinbera heimsĂłkn til Bretlands og var boĂ°iĂ° Ă Buckingham-höll af ElĂsabetu 2., fyrstum BandarĂkjaforseta frĂĄ 1918.
+ 20. nĂłvember - 27 lĂ©tust Ă hryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄs gegn breska sendirĂĄĂ°inu og breskum banka Ă IstanbĂșl Ă Tyrklandi.
+ 21. nĂłvember - Breska kvikmyndin Ăstin grĂpur alla var frumsĂœnd.
+ 23. nĂłvember - RĂłsabyltingin: Eduard Shevardnadze sagĂ°i af sĂ©r embĂŠtti forseta GeorgĂu eftir mĂłtmĂŠlaöldu Ă kjölfar ĂĄsakana um kosningasvindl.
+ 26. nĂłvember - Concorde-flugvĂ©larnar voru teknar Ășr notkun vegna einnar brotlendingar og vegna hryĂ°juverkanna 11. september 2001. Concorde-vĂ©larnar nĂĄĂ°u allt aĂ° 2000 km/klst.
+ 27. nĂłvember - George W. Bush heimsĂłtti herliĂ° BandarĂkjanna Ă Ărak ĂĄ ĂŸakkargjörĂ°arhĂĄtĂĂ°inni.
+
+Desember
+
+ 5. desember - Fyrsta breytingin ĂĄ Ăslensku var gerĂ° ĂĄ Ăslensku Wikipedia (sjĂĄ sögu Wikipedia).
+ 12. desember - Jean Chrétien sagði af sér embÊtti forsÊtisråðherra Kanada eftir 10 åra setu.
+ 12. desember - ViĂ°rĂŠĂ°ur um nĂœja stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ EvrĂłpu fĂłru Ășt um ĂŸĂșfur.
+ 13. desember - Saddam Hussein fannst falinn Ă byrgi nĂĄlĂŠgt Tikrit Ă Ărak og var tekinn höndum af BandarĂkjaher.
+ 23. desember - AlĂŸjóðaferĂ°amĂĄlastofnunin varĂ° ein af stofnunum SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna.
+ 23. desember - Um 200 manns lĂ©tust ĂŸegar sprenging varĂ° Ă gaslind Ă Chongqing Ă KĂna.
+ 26. desember - Fyrsta greinin var skrifuĂ° Ă Ăslenska hluta Wikipediu.
+ 27. desember - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir Ăran; um 30.000 fĂłrust.
+ 27. desember - 13 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar nokkrar bĂlsprengjur sprungu Ă pĂłlska hverfinu Ă Kerbala Ă Ărak.
+ 29. desember - Bréfasprengjur bårust seðlabankastjóra Evrópu Jean-Claude Trichet og Europol.
+
+Ădagsettir atburĂ°ir
+ BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin All time low var stofnuĂ°.
+ RitiĂ° Demokrati med radvalg og fondsvalg eftir Björn S. StefĂĄnsson kom Ășt viĂ° OslĂłarhĂĄskĂłla.
+ FyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Landsnet var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ SkĂĄldsaga Lauren Weisberger, The Devil Wears Prada, kom Ășt Ă bandarĂkjunum.
+ Oyster-kort, snertikort sem veita aðgang að almenningssamgöngum à London, voru tekin à notkun.
+ Enska hljĂłmsveitin Enter Shikari var stofnuĂ°.
+ Breska hljĂłmsveitin McFly var stofnuĂ°.
+ Ăslenska vefritiĂ° Gagnauga hĂłf göngu sĂna.
+ Ăslenska bĂłkaĂștgĂĄfan Skrudda var stofnuĂ°.
+ Enska hljĂłmsveitin Noisettes var stofnuĂ°.
+ Tvöföldun Reykjanesbrautar hófst.
+ Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin Fighting Shit var stofnuĂ°.
+ Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin HvanndalsbrĂŠĂ°ur var stofnuĂ°.
+ Fyrsta keppnin Ă skĂĄkboxi var haldin Ă BerlĂn.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 3. janĂșar - Greta Thunberg, sĂŠnskur aĂ°gerĂ°asinni.
+ 23. mars - Ăsak Bergmann JĂłhannesson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur
+ 12. maĂ - Madeleine McCann, bresk stĂșlka sem hvarf Ă PortĂșgal.
+ 1. desember - Jackson Nicoll, bandarĂskur leikari.
+ 7. desember - KatarĂna AmalĂa Hollandsprinsessa.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 23. janĂșar - RĂșrik Haraldsson, Ăslenskur leikari (f. 1926).
+ 14. febrĂșar - Kindin Dolly, fyrsta klĂłnaĂ°a spendĂœriĂ° (f. 1996).
+ 18. febrĂșar - Isser Harel, Ăsraelskur Mossad-leiĂ°togi (f. 1912).
+ 24. febrĂșar - Alberto Sordi, Ătalskur leikari (f. 1920).
+ 28. febrĂșar - Fidel SĂĄnchez HernĂĄndez, forseti El Salvador (f. 1917).
+ 9. mars - Bernard Dowiyogo, nĂĄrĂșskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1946).
+ 10. mars - Geoffrey Kirk, breskur fornfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1921).
+ 13. mars - DĂłsĂłĂŸeus TĂmĂłteusson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1910).
+ 25. mars - PĂĄll S. Ărdal, Ăslenskur heimspekingur (f. 1924).
+ 30. mars - Michael Jeter, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1952).
+ 21. aprĂl - Nina Simone, bandarĂsk djasssöngkona (f. 1933).
+ 26. aprĂl - Yun Hyon-seok, suĂ°urkĂłreskur aĂ°gerĂ°asinni (f. 1984).
+ 1. maĂ - Haukur Clausen, Ăslenskur frjĂĄlsĂĂŸrĂłttamaĂ°ur (f. 1928).
+ 10. jĂșnĂ - Bernard Williams, breskur heimspekingur (f. 1929).
+ 12. jĂșnĂ - Gregory Peck, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1916).
+ 16. jĂșnĂ - Georg Henrik von Wright, finnskur heimspekingur (f. 1916).
+ 26. jĂșnĂ - Strom Thurmond, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1902).
+ 29. jĂșnĂ - JĂłhannes Geir JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1927).
+ 29. jĂșnĂ - Katharine Hepburn, bandarĂsk leikkona (f. 1907).
+ 4. jĂșlĂ - Barry White, bandarĂskur söngvari (f. 1944).
+ 16. ĂĄgĂșst - Idi Amin, forseti Ăganda (f. um 1925).
+ 30. ĂĄgĂșst - Donald Davidson, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1917).
+ 30. ĂĄgĂșst - Charles Bronson, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1921).
+ 8. september - Leni Riefenstahl, ĂŸĂœskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (f. 1902).
+ 11. september - Anna Lindh, utanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°herra SvĂĂŸjóðar (f. 1957).
+ 12. september - Johnny Cash, bandarĂskur söngvari (f. 1932).
+ 14. oktĂłber - Moktar Ould Daddah, forseti MĂĄritanĂu (f. 1924).
+ 30. oktĂłber - Ăorgeir Ăorgeirson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndagerĂ°armaĂ°ur og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi (f. 1933).
+ 22. nĂłvember - Mario Beccaria, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1920).
+ 12. desember - HĂĄhyrningurinn KeikĂł (f. 1976).
+
+NĂłbelsverĂ°launin
+ EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i - Alexei Alexeevich Abrikosov, Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg, Anthony James Leggett
+ EfnafrĂŠĂ°i - Peter Agre, Roderick MacKinnon
+ LĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i - Paul Lauterbur, Sir Peter Mansfield
+ BĂłkmenntir - John Maxwell Coetzee
+ FriĂ°arverĂ°laun - Shirin Ebadi
+ HagfrĂŠĂ°i - Robert F. Engle, Clive W. J. Granger
+
+2003
+2001-2010
+ĂriĂ° 2001 (MMI Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var fyrsta ĂĄr 21. aldarinnar, samkvĂŠmd gregorĂska tĂmatalinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+
+JanĂșar
+
+ 1. janĂșar - Nafni KalkĂștta ĂĄ Indlandi var formlega breytt Ă Kolkata.
+ 6. janĂșar - Ărinu helga 2000 lauk formlega ĂŸegar JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. pĂĄfi lokaĂ°i hurĂ°inni helgu.
+ 10. janĂșar - Wikipedia hĂłf göngu sĂna sem hluti af Nupedia. Fimm dögum sĂĂ°ar varĂ° hĂșn sĂ©rstakur vefur.
+ 10. janĂșar - ĂjóðbĂșningarĂĄĂ° var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 10. janĂșar - AlrĂkisviĂ°skiptastofnun BandarĂkjanna samĂŸykkti samruna America Online og Time Warner.
+ 11. janĂșar - BandarĂska kvikmyndin The Invisible Circus var frumsĂœnd.
+ 13. janĂșar - 800 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir El Salvador.
+ 14. janĂșar - AFL StarfsgreinafĂ©lag Austurlands var stofnaĂ°.
+ 15. janĂșar - Wikipedia var opnuĂ° almenningi.
+ 20. janĂșar - George W. Bush tĂłk viĂ° af Bill Clinton sem forseti BandarĂkjanna.
+ 20. janĂșar - Vantrauststillaga gegn forseta Filippseyja, Joseph Estrada, var samĂŸykkt og varaforsetinn, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, tĂłk viĂ°.
+ 23. janĂșar - Fimm manneskjur kveiktu Ă sĂ©r ĂĄ Tiananmentorgi Ă Beijing.
+ 24. janĂșar - Borgaraflokkurinn var stofnaĂ°ur Ă PĂłllandi.
+ 26. janĂșar - ĂĂșsundir fĂłrust ĂŸegar jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir Gujarat ĂĄ Indlandi.
+
+FebrĂșar
+
+ 1. febrĂșar - SĂĂ°degisĂŸĂĄttur Bylgjunnar, ReykjavĂk sĂĂ°degis, fĂłr Ă loftiĂ°.
+ 1. febrĂșar - Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, lĂbĂskur hryĂ°juverkamaĂ°ur, var dĂŠmdur Ă lĂfstĂĂ°arfangelsi fyrir aĂ° sprengja farĂŸegaĂŸotu frĂĄ PanAm yfir Lockerbie Ă Skotlandi ĂĄriĂ° 1988 meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 270 manns fĂłrust.
+ 5. febrĂșar - Tom Cruise og Nicole Kidman tilkynntu aĂ° ĂŸau vĂŠru skilin.
+ 6. febrĂșar - Ariel Sharon, formaĂ°ur Likud-flokksins, vann forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herrakosningarnar Ă Ăsrael.
+ 9. febrĂșar - BandarĂski kafbĂĄturinn USS Greenville sökkti Ăłvart japanska fiskiskipinu Ehime-Maru meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 9 Ășr ĂĄhöfn skipsins fĂłrust.
+ 12. febrĂșar - GeimkönnunarfariĂ° NEAR Shoemaker lenti ĂĄ loftsteini.
+ 12. febrĂșar - BandarĂskur dĂłmstĂłll komst aĂ° ĂŸeirri niĂ°urstöðu aĂ° tĂłnlistardeiliforritinu Napster bĂŠri aĂ° loka.
+ 13. febrĂșar - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti, 6,6 stig ĂĄ RichterskvarĂ°a reiĂ° yfir El Salvador. AĂ° minnsta kosti 400 manns lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ°.
+ 18. febrĂșar - BandarĂski alrĂkislögreglumaĂ°urinn Robert Hanssen var handtekinn fyrir njĂłsnir fyrir RĂșssa.
+ 20. febrĂșar - Gin- og klaufaveikifaraldur gekk yfir Bretland. Veikin breiddist hratt Ășt og hafĂ°i vĂĂ°tĂŠkar afleiĂ°ingar fyrir landbĂșnaĂ° um alla EvrĂłpu.
+ 20. febrĂșar - SĂŠnska gervihnettinum Odin var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft frĂĄ SĂberĂu.
+ 25. febrĂșar - LeiĂ°togi EZLN Ă MexĂkĂł, Marcos undirherforingi, hĂłf göngu til MexĂkĂłborgar til stuĂ°nings rĂ©ttindum frumbyggja.
+ 26. febrĂșar - Nice-sĂĄttmĂĄlinn var undirritaĂ°ur af 15 aĂ°ildarrĂkjum EvrĂłpusambandsins.
+ 28. febrĂșar - Great Heck-lestarslysiĂ°: TvĂŠr jĂĄrnbrautarlestar og bĂll rĂĄkust saman Ă NorĂ°ur-Yorkshire ĂĄ Bretlandi sem leiddi til dauĂ°a 10 manna.
+
+Mars
+
+ 4. mars - Hintze Ribeiro-slysiĂ°: Gömul steinsteypt brĂș Ă Entre-os-Rios, PortĂșgal, hrundi meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 59 lĂ©tust.
+ 5. mars - TalĂbanastjĂłrnin Ă Afganistan lĂ©t sprengja merk BĂșddalĂkneskin Ă Bamyan Ă tĂŠtlur vegna ĂŸess aĂ° ĂŸau vĂŠru ĂłguĂ°leg. Ăessum verknaĂ°i var mĂłtmĂŠlt um vĂĂ°a veröld.
+ 6. mars - TvĂŠr bandarĂskar konur fĂłrust ĂŸegar tveggja hreyfla vĂ©l ĂŸeirra hrapaĂ°i Ă hafiĂ° skammt vestur af Vestmannaeyjum.
+ 7. mars - Sprenging Ă flugeldaverksmiĂ°ju Ă Fanglin Ă KĂna varĂ° tugum barna aĂ° bana. Börnin voru neydd til aĂ° bĂșa til flugelda Ă skĂłlanum.
+ 7. mars - Sjö manns voru dĂŠmd fyrir peningaĂŸvĂŠtti Ă HĂ©raĂ°sdĂłmi ReykjavĂkur. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta skipti sem dĂŠmt var eftir lögum um peningaĂŸvĂŠtti ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 10. mars - Samtökin Free Software Foundation Europe voru stofnuð.
+ 17. mars - Kosning um framtĂĂ° ReykjavĂkurflugvallar fĂłr fram Ă ReykjavĂk. AĂ°eins 37% borgarbĂșa tĂłku ĂŸĂĄtt ĂŸannig aĂ° kosningin var ekki bindandi. Naumur meirihluti vildi aĂ° flugvöllurinn yrĂ°i fluttur.
+ 20. mars - StĂŠrsti fljĂłtandi olĂuborpallur heims, Petrobras 36, sökk viĂ° strendur BrasilĂu.
+ 23. mars - RĂșssneska geimstöðin MĂr hrapaĂ°i til jarĂ°ar Ă KyrrahafiĂ° Ăști fyrir ströndum NĂœja SjĂĄlands.
+ 23. mars - GlĂmusambandiĂ° World Wrestling Federation keypti keppinaut sinn, World Championship Wrestling, fyrir 7 milljĂłn BandarĂkjadali.
+ 24. mars - Fyrsta ĂștgĂĄfa Mac OS X (âCheetahâ) kom ĂĄ markaĂ°.
+ 25. mars - Schengen-samstarfið tók gildi å Norðurlöndunum.
+ 25. mars - Uppreisnin Ă MakedĂłnĂu 2001: MakedĂłnĂuher hĂłf aĂ°gerĂ°ir gegn uppreisnarsveitum albanskra aĂ°skilnaĂ°arsinna, Ăjóðfrelsishersins.
+
+AprĂl
+
+ 1. aprĂl - BandarĂsk njĂłsnaflugvĂ©l lenti Ă ĂĄrekstri viĂ° kĂnverska orrustuflugvĂ©l. KĂnverski flugmaĂ°urinn fannst aldrei en 10 manna ĂĄhöfn bandarĂsku flugvĂ©larinnar nauĂ°lenti Ă KĂna, var handtekin og haldiĂ° Ă 10 daga.
+ 1. aprĂl - Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ, fyrrverandi forseti JĂșgĂłslavĂu gaf sig fram viĂ° sĂ©rsveitir lögreglu.
+ 1. aprĂl - HjĂłnabönd samkynhneigĂ°ra voru heimiluĂ° meĂ° nĂœjum lögum Ă Hollandi.
+ 3. aprĂl - Fyrstu tveggja hĂŠĂ°a strĂŠtisvagnarnir hĂłfu aĂ° ganga Ă Kaupmannahöfn.
+ 6. aprĂl - SĂĂ°asta eintak danska dagblaĂ°sins Aktuelt kom Ășt.
+ 7. aprĂl - Gervitunglinu 2001 Mars Odyssey var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft.
+ 11. aprĂl - Bob Dylan sagĂ°i frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° hann hefĂ°i veriĂ° giftur Carol Dennis frĂĄ 1986 til 1992 en haldiĂ° ĂŸvĂ leyndu.
+ 22. aprĂl - BandarĂska teiknimyndin Shrek var frumsĂœnd.
+ 25. aprĂl - Fyrrum forseti Filippseyja, Joseph Estrada, var handtekinn og ĂĄkĂŠrĂ°ur fyrir fjĂĄrdrĂĄtt.
+ 27. aprĂl - 17 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar herlögregla skaut ĂĄ mĂłtmĂŠlendur Ă Kabylie Ă AlsĂr.
+ 28. aprĂl - BandarĂkjamaĂ°urinn Dennis Tito varĂ° fyrsti ferĂ°amaĂ°urinn Ă geimnum ĂŸegar hann fĂłr meĂ° SojĂșs TM-32.
+
+MaĂ
+
+ 6. maĂ - JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. pĂĄfi heimsĂłtti mosku Ă Damaskus Ă SĂœrlandi, fyrstur pĂĄfa Ă sögunni.
+ 7. maĂ - Serbneskir ĂŸjóðernissinnar rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ hĂłp fĂłlks sem hugĂ°ist leggja hornstein aĂ° endurbyggingu Ferhadija-moskunnar Ă Banja Luka Ă BosnĂu og HersegĂłvĂnu.
+ 11. maĂ - Ăslenska vefritiĂ° BaggalĂștur hĂłf göngu sĂna.
+ 12. maĂ - Eistland sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva 2001 meĂ° laginu âEverybodyâ. Framlag Ăslands var lagiĂ° âAngelâ.
+ 13. maĂ - Kosningabandalag undir forystu Silvio Berlusconi sigraĂ°i ĂŸingkosningar ĂĄ ĂtalĂu.
+ 22. maĂ - PlĂștĂłstirniĂ° 28978 Ixion var uppgötvaĂ°.
+ 24. maĂ - Temba Tsheri varĂ° yngstur til aĂ° nĂĄ tindi Everestfjalls, 16 ĂĄra.
+ 24. maĂ - VersalaslysiĂ°: Hluti ĂŸriĂ°ju hĂŠĂ°ar samkomusalarins Versala Ă JerĂșsalem hrundi meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 24 brĂșĂ°kaupsgestir lĂ©tust.
+ 25. maĂ - Erik Weihenmayer varĂ° fyrsta blinda manneskjan til ad nĂĄ tindi Everestfjalls.
+ 25. maĂ - HandklĂŠĂ°isdagurinn var fyrst haldinn hĂĄtĂĂ°legur.
+ 29. maĂ - ĂbĂșar BorgundarhĂłlms samĂŸykktu Ă atkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu aĂ° sameina öll fimm sveitarfĂ©lög eyjarinnar Ă eitt.
+
+JĂșnĂ
+
+ 1. jĂșnĂ - Konunglegu fjöldamorĂ°in Ă Nepal: Dipendra prins myrti tĂu meĂ°limi konungsfjölskyldunnar og framdi sĂĂ°an sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°.
+ 1. jĂșnĂ - SjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjumaĂ°ur ĂĄ vegum Hamas myrti 21 ĂĄ diskĂłteki Ă Tel AvĂv Ă Ăsrael.
+ 3. jĂșnĂ - Alejandro Toledo var kjörinn forseti PerĂș.
+ 7. jĂșnĂ - Tony Blair var endurkjörinn forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Bretlands.
+ 11. jĂșnĂ - Timothy McVeigh var tekinn af lĂfi fyrir sprengjutilrĂŠĂ°iĂ° Ă OklahĂłma.
+ 13. jĂșnĂ - PĂłlski stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkurinn Lög og rĂ©ttlĂŠti var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 15. jĂșnĂ - BandarĂska teiknimyndin Atlantis: TĂœnda Borgin var frumsĂœnd.
+ 15. jĂșnĂ - Samvinnustofnun SjanghĂŠ var stofnuĂ°.
+ 18. jĂșnĂ - Norska olĂufyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Statoil var skrĂĄĂ° Ă Kauphöllina Ă New York.
+ 19. jĂșnĂ - Eldflaug sem bilaĂ°i lenti ĂĄ knattspyrnuvelli Ă norĂ°urhluta Ărak meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 23 lĂ©tust og 11 sĂŠrĂ°ust.
+ 20. jĂșnĂ - Andrea Yates, sem ĂŸjĂĄĂ°ist af fĂŠĂ°ingarĂŸunglyndi, drekkti 5 börnum sĂnum til aĂ° bjarga ĂŸeim frĂĄ Satan.
+ 20. jĂșnĂ - Herforinginn Pervez Musharraf skipaĂ°i sjĂĄlfan sig forseta Pakistan.
+ 21. jĂșnĂ - Lengsta jĂĄrnbrautarlest heims, 682 flutningavagnar meĂ° jĂĄrngrĂœti, Ăłk milli Newman og Port Hedland Ă ĂstralĂu.
+ 23. jĂșnĂ - HarĂ°ur jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti skĂłk suĂ°urhluta PerĂș. Flóðbylgjan sem fylgdi Ă kjölfariĂ° varĂ° 74 aĂ° bana.
+ 28. jĂșnĂ - StjĂłrn SerbĂu og Svartfjallalands framseldi Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ til AlĂŸjóðlega strĂĂ°sglĂŠpadĂłmstĂłlsins fyrir fyrrverandi JĂșgĂłslavĂu.
+
+JĂșlĂ
+
+ 1. jĂșlĂ - StrĂŠtĂł bs. var stofnaĂ° meĂ° sameiningu StrĂŠtisvagna ReykjavĂkur og Almenningsvagna.
+ 1. jĂșlĂ - NĂœ stĂșka var vĂgĂ° viĂ° HĂĄsteinsvöll Ă Vestmannaeyjum.
+ 2. jĂșlĂ - Fyrsta sjĂĄlfvirka gervihjartaĂ° var grĂŠtt Ă Robert Tools Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+ 7. jĂșlĂ - UppĂŸotin Ă Bradford hĂłfust eftir aĂ° fĂ©lagar Ă National Front stungu mann af asĂskum uppruna utan viĂ° krĂĄ Ă Bradford.
+ 16. jĂșlĂ - BandarĂska alrĂkislögreglan handtĂłk DmĂtrĂ Skljarov fyrir meint brot gegn Digital Millennium Copyright Act.
+ 18. jĂșlĂ - 60 vagna jĂĄrnbrautarlest fĂłr Ășt af teinunum Ă göngum Ă Baltimore Ă BandarĂkjunum. Eldur kviknaĂ°i og stóð Ă marga daga og varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° miĂ°borg Baltimore lokaĂ°ist.
+ 19. jĂșlĂ - Breski stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°urinn Jeffrey Archer var dĂŠmdur Ă 4 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir aĂ° bera ljĂșgvitni.
+ 20. jĂșlĂ - Japanska teiknimyndin Chihiro og ĂĄlögin var frumsĂœnd.
+ 20. jĂșlĂ - GrĂĂ°arleg mĂłtmĂŠli ĂĄttu sĂ©r staĂ° ĂŸegar fundur 8 helstu iĂ°nrĂkja heims hĂłfst Ă GenĂșa ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. Einn mĂłtmĂŠlandi, Carlo Giuliani, var skotinn til bana af lögreglumanni.
+ 23. jĂșlĂ - MĂĄlamiĂ°lunartillaga til aĂ° bjarga KĂœĂłtĂłbĂłkuninni var samĂŸykkt ĂĄ loftslagsrĂĄĂ°stefnu Ă Bonn.
+ 23. jĂșlĂ - Ăing IndĂłnesĂu setti forsetann Abdurrahman Wahid af vegna vanhĂŠfni og spillingar.
+ 24. jĂșlĂ - TamĂltĂgrar rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ Bandaranaike-flugvöll.
+ 24. jĂșlĂ - Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, sĂĂ°asti keisari BĂșlgarĂu, varĂ° 48. forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra landsins.
+ 25. jĂșlĂ - VeitingastaĂ°urinn FriĂ°rik V var stofnaĂ°ur ĂĄ Akureyri.
+ 25. jĂșlĂ - âRĂŠningjadrottninginâ Phoolan Devi var myrt Ă NĂœju-DelĂ.
+ 25. jĂșlĂ - RauĂ° rigning fĂ©ll Ă Kerala ĂĄ Indlandi.
+ 28. jĂșlĂ - Alejandro Toledo varĂ° forseti PerĂș.
+
+ĂgĂșst
+
+ 1. ĂĄgĂșst - DĂłmari viĂ° hĂŠstarĂ©tt Alabama lĂ©t setja upp minnismerki um boĂ°orĂ°in tĂu Ă dĂłmshĂșsinu sem leiddi til mĂĄlshöfĂ°unar um aĂ° fjarlĂŠgja ĂŸaĂ°.
+ 2. ĂĄgĂșst - AlĂŸjóðadĂłmstĂłllinn Ă Hag dĂŠmdi Radislav Krstic Ă 46 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir fjöldamorĂ°in Ă Srebrenica.
+3. ĂĄgĂșst- 5. ĂĄgĂșst - Fyrsti InnipĂșkinn fer fram, tĂłnlistarhĂĄtĂĂ° Ă ReykjavĂk.
+ 6. ĂĄgĂșst - EldsvoĂ°inn Ă Erwadi: 28 geĂ°sjĂșklingar sem voru hlekkjaĂ°ir fastir lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ° ĂŸegar eldur kom upp Ă trĂșarstofnun Ă Tamil Nadu.
+ 9. ĂĄgĂșst - PalestĂnumaĂ°ur rĂ©Ă°ist ĂĄ Sbarro-veitingastaĂ° Ă JerĂșsalem og myrti 15 manns.
+ 10. ĂĄgĂșst - SkĂŠruliĂ°ar UNITA rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ jĂĄrnbrautarlest Ă AngĂłla og myrtu 252 farĂŸega.
+ 13. ĂĄgĂșst - Ohrid-samkomulagiĂ° var undirritaĂ° af albönskum uppreisnarmönnum og stjĂłrnvöldum Ă MakedĂłnĂu.
+ 18. ĂĄgĂșst - LeikhĂłpurinn Vesturport var stofnaĂ°ur meĂ° uppsetningu ĂĄ leikritinu DiskĂłpakk (Disco Pigs) eftir Enda Walsh ĂĄ horni Vesturgötu og NorĂ°urstĂgs Ă Gamla VesturbĂŠnum.
+ 25. ĂĄgĂșst - BandarĂska söngkonan Aaliyah og ĂĄtta aĂ°rir lĂ©tust ĂŸegar yfirhlaĂ°in flugvĂ©l ĂŸeirra hrapaĂ°i skömmu eftir flugtak frĂĄ Bahamaeyjum.
+ 25. ĂĄgĂșst - HĂĄkon krĂłnprins Noregs gekk aĂ° eiga Mette-Marit Tjessem HĂžiby Ă OslĂłardĂłmkirkju.
+ 26. ĂĄgĂșst - Norska flutningaskipiĂ° Tampa bjargaĂ°i 438 flĂłttamönnum viĂ° JĂłlaeyju Ă Kyrrahafi.
+ 27. ĂĄgĂșst - ForsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra ĂstralĂu John Howard neitaĂ°i flutningaskipinu Tampa um leyfi til aĂ° leggja aĂ° höfn.
+ 30. ĂĄgĂșst - AĂ°skilnaĂ°arsinnar frĂĄ Bougainville undirrituĂ°u friĂ°arsamkomulag viĂ° rĂkisstjĂłrn PapĂșu NĂœju-GĂneu.
+ 31. ĂĄgĂșst - HeimsrĂĄĂ°stefna gegn kynĂŸĂĄttahyggju hĂłfst Ă Durban Ă SuĂ°ur-AfrĂku.
+
+September
+
+ 3. september - NorĂ°urĂrskir sambandssinnar hĂłfu mĂłtmĂŠli viĂ° kaĂŸĂłlskan stĂșlknaskĂłla Ă Belfast.
+ 4. september - SkemmtigarĂ°urinn Tokyo DisneySea var opnaĂ°ur Ă Japan.
+ 5. september - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin The Amazing Race hĂłf göngu sĂna.
+ 9. september - LeiĂ°togi afganska NorĂ°urbandalagsins, Ahmad Shah Massoud, var myrtur af sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjumanni.
+ 9. september - 68 dĂłu Ășr metanĂłleitrun Ă PĂ€rnu Ă Eistlandi.
+ 10. september - AntĂŽnio da Costa Santos, borgarstjĂłri Campinas Ă BrasilĂu, var myrtur.
+ 11. september - HryĂ°juverkin 11. september 2001 Ă BandarĂkjunum: Al-KaĂda rĂŠndi fjĂłrum farĂŸegaĂŸotum og flaug ĂĄ byggingar Ă New York og VirginĂu. 2973 lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ° Ă ĂĄrĂĄsunum.
+ 12. september - AĂ°ildarrĂki Atlantshafsbandalagsins samĂŸykktu einrĂłma aĂ° grĂpa til 5. greinar stofnsĂĄttmĂĄlans Ă kjölfar hryĂ°juverka Ă BandarĂkjunum, sem kveĂ°ur ĂĄ um aĂ° ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ eitt ĂŸeirra sĂ© ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ ĂŸau öll.
+ 12. september - Ăstralska flugvĂ©lagiĂ° Ansett Australia fĂłr Ă stöðvun.
+ 12. september - Hrun varð å hlutabréfamörkuðum um allan heim vegna åråsanna 11. september.
+ 13. september - Borgaralegt flug hĂłfst aftur Ă BandarĂkjunum eftir ĂĄrĂĄsirnar 11. september.
+ 17. september - Mesta stigafall Ă sögu Dow Jones-vĂsitölunnar varĂ° ĂĄ fyrsta viĂ°skiptadegi bandarĂsku kauphallarinnar eftir 11. september.
+ 18. september - Miltisbrandsåråsirnar 2001: Bréf með miltisbrandsgróum voru send til sjónvarpsfréttastofanna ABC News, CBS News, NBC News og dagblaðanna New York Post og National Enquirer.
+ 20. september - George W. Bush lĂœsti yfir âstrĂĂ°i gegn hryĂ°juverkumâ Ă ĂĄvarpi til BandarĂkjaĂŸings.
+ 21. september - GóðgerĂ°atĂłnleikarnir America: A Tribute to Heroes voru sendir Ășt af 35 sjĂłnvarpsstöðvum.
+ 27. september - BlóðbaĂ°iĂ° Ă Zug: Friedrich Leibacher myrti 14 og framdi sĂĂ°an sjĂĄlfsmorĂ° Ă Zug Ă Sviss.
+
+OktĂłber
+
+ 1. oktĂłber - SkĂŠruliĂ°ar rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ ĂŸinghĂșsiĂ° Ă Srinagar Ă KasmĂr og myrtu 38.
+ 1. oktĂłber - Mikil sprenging varĂ° Ă ĂburĂ°arverksmiĂ°junni Ă Gufunesi. Eldur kom upp en engan sakaĂ°i. TaliĂ° er aĂ° skammhlaup Ă gömlum rafmagnstöflum hafi valdiĂ° sprengingunni.
+ 1. oktĂłber - Stofnun VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur Ă erlendum tungumĂĄlum var stofnuĂ° viĂ° HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands.
+ 2. oktĂłber - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin NĂœgrĂŠĂ°ingar hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ NBC.
+ 2. október - Svissneska flugfélagið Swissair hÊtti öllu flugi.
+ 4. oktĂłber - 78 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Siberia Airlines flug 1812 fĂłrst ĂĄ leiĂ° frĂĄ Tel Aviv til Novosibirsk.
+ 7. oktĂłber - StrĂĂ°iĂ° Ă Afganistan: BandarĂkin rĂ©Ă°ust inn Ă Afganistan.
+ 8. oktĂłber - Arnold Schwarzenegger var kosinn rĂkisstjĂłri KalifornĂu.
+ 8. oktĂłber - Linate-slysiĂ°: 118 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar tvĂŠr flugvĂ©lar rĂĄkust saman yfir Linate-flugvelli Ă MĂlanĂł.
+ 9. oktĂłber - SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin SjĂĄlfstĂŠtt fĂłlk hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ Stöð 2.
+ 9. oktĂłber - MiltisbrandsĂĄrĂĄsirnar 2001: Ănnur brĂ©fasending meĂ° miltisbrandi var send af staĂ°.
+ 10. október - Verslunarmiðstöðin Småralind var opnuð à Kópavogi.
+ 11. oktĂłber - Polaroid Corporation sĂłtti um gjaldĂŸrotaskipti.
+ 16. oktĂłber - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin Smallville hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ The WB.
+ 17. oktĂłber - FerĂ°amĂĄlarĂĄĂ°herra Ăsraels Rehavam Ze'evi var myrtur Ă hryĂ°juverkaĂĄrĂĄs.
+ 19. október - SIEV X: Båtur með 421 flóttamann um borð fórst um 70 km sunnan við Jövu. Yfir 300 manns drukknuðu.
+ 23. oktĂłber - TĂmabundni Ărski lĂœĂ°veldisherinn hĂłf aĂ° afvopnast.
+ 25. oktĂłber - Microsoft sendi frĂĄ sĂ©r stĂœrikerfiĂ° Windows XP.
+ 26. október - George W. Bush undirritaði Patriot-lögin.
+
+NĂłvember
+
+ 2. nĂłvember - Glocal Forum um borgarsamstarf var stofnaĂ°.
+ 4. nĂłvember - Breska kvikmyndin Harry Potter og viskusteinninn var frumsĂœnd.
+ 4. nĂłvember - Fellibylurinn Michelle gekk yfir KĂșbu og olli miklu tjĂłni.
+ 7. nĂłvember - BelgĂska flugfĂ©lagiĂ° Sabena varĂ° gjaldĂŸrota.
+ 10. nĂłvember - AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldiĂ° KĂna gerĂ°ist aĂ°ili aĂ° AlĂŸjóðaviĂ°skiptastofnuninni.
+ 10. nĂłvember - Apple Inc. setti tĂłnlistarspilarann iPod ĂĄ markaĂ°.
+ 10. nĂłvember - Yfir 900 manns lĂ©tust Ă aurskriĂ°um Ă AlsĂr.
+ 11. nĂłvember - Kvikmyndin MĂĄvahlĂĄtur var valin besta Ăslenska kvikmyndin ĂĄ EdduverĂ°launahĂĄtĂĂ°inni.
+ 11. nĂłvember - BlaĂ°amennirnir Pierre Billaud, Johanne Sutton og Volker Handloik lĂ©tust Ă ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ bĂlalest sem ĂŸeir ferĂ°uĂ°ust meĂ° Ă Afganistan.
+ 12. nĂłvember - 260 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar American Airlines flug 587 hrapaĂ°i Ă Queens Ă New York.
+ 12. nĂłvember - StrĂĂ°iĂ° Ă Afganistan: Her TalĂbana hörfaĂ°i frĂĄ KabĂșl.
+ 12. nĂłvember - Ein af elstu kirkjum SvĂĂŸjóðar, gamla kirkjan Ă Södra RĂ„da, brann.
+ 13. nĂłvember - Doha-viĂ°rĂŠĂ°urnar ĂĄ vegum AlĂŸjóða viĂ°skiptastofnunarinnar hĂłfust.
+ 23. nĂłvember - NetglĂŠpasĂĄttmĂĄlinn var undirritaĂ°ur Ă BĂșdapest.
+ 27. nĂłvember - LofthjĂșpur Ășr vetni var uppgötvaĂ°ur meĂ° Hubble-geimsjĂłnaukanum ĂĄ plĂĄnetunni ĂsĂris.
+ 27. nĂłvember - Anders Fogh Rasmussen varĂ° forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Danmerkur.
+ 30. nĂłvember - BandarĂski raĂ°morĂ°inginn Gary Ridgway var handtekinn.
+
+Desember
+
+ Desember - AlĂŸjóðanefnd um Ăhlutun og fullveldi rĂkja gaf Ășt skĂœrslu um verndarĂĄbyrgĂ°.
+ 2. desember - BandarĂska orkufyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Enron ĂłskaĂ°i eftir gjaldĂŸrotaskiptum.
+ 2. desember - Kreppan mikla Ă ArgentĂnu: RĂkisstjĂłrn ArgentĂnu frysti allar innistĂŠĂ°ur Ă 12 mĂĄnuĂ°i sem leiddi til uppĂŸota.
+ 10. desember - NĂœsjĂĄlenska kvikmyndin HringadrĂłttinssaga: Föruneyti hringsins var frumsĂœnd.
+ 13. desember - Fimm hryĂ°juverkamenn rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ indverska ĂŸinghĂșsiĂ° og skutu ĂŸar nĂu til bana.
+ 14. desember - BandarĂska kvikmyndin The Royal Tenenbaums var frumsĂœnd.
+ 14. desember - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Vanilla Sky var frumsĂœnd.
+ 15. desember - Skakki turninn Ă PĂsa var opnaĂ°ur almenningi eftir 11 ĂĄra viĂ°gerĂ°ir.
+ 18. desember - SamkeppniseftirlitiĂ° framkvĂŠmdi hĂșsleit hjĂĄ olĂufĂ©lögunum fjĂłrum: Ker hf. (ĂĄĂ°ur OlĂufĂ©lagiĂ° hf.), OlĂuverzlun Ăslands hf., Skeljungur hf. og BensĂnorkan ehf. sem leiddi aĂ° dĂłmsmĂĄli um samrĂĄĂ° olĂufĂ©laganna.
+ 19. desember - MetlofĂŸrĂœstingur, 1085,6 hektĂłpasköl, mĂŠldist Ă MongĂłlĂu.
+ 21. desember - NĂœ kvikmyndalög tĂłku gildi ĂĄ Ăslandi og KvikmyndamiĂ°stöð Ăslands var stofnuĂ°.
+ 21. desember - RĂkisstjĂłrn ArgentĂnu lĂœsti yfir gjaldfalli.
+ 22. desember - Borgaraleg starfstjórn undir forsÊti Hamid Karzai tók við völdum à Afganistan.
+ 22. desember - Richard Reid reyndi aĂ° kveikja Ă American Airlines flugi 63 meĂ° sprengiefni sem hann hafĂ°i faliĂ° Ă skĂłm sĂnum.
+ 29. desember - 291 lĂ©st Ă eldsvoĂ°a Ă Mesa Redonda-verslunarmiĂ°stöðinni Ă LĂma, PerĂș.
+
+Ădagsettir atburĂ°ir
+ SĂŠnsk-norska hljĂłmsveitin Kikki, Bettan & Lotta var stofnuĂ°.
+ FrumtöluskĂtandi björninn birtist fyrst ĂĄ Internetinu.
+ Iglesia del Pueblo Guanche var stofnuĂ° ĂĄ KanarĂeyjum.
+ BandarĂsku samtökin Creative Commons voru stofnuĂ°.
+ SĂŠnski sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄtturinn Doktor Mugg hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ TV4.
+ BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin The Killers var stofnuĂ°.
+ UngliĂ°ahreyfing Samfylkingarinnar, Hallveig, var stofnuĂ°.
+ Hugtakið BRIC-lönd var fyrst notað af hagfrÊðingnum Jim O'Neill.
+ SĂŠnska hljĂłmsveitin The Tough Alliance var stofnuĂ°.
+ BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin The Postal Service var stofnuĂ°.
+ SĂŠnska hljĂłmveitin Lo-Fi-Fnk var stofnuĂ°.
+ BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin Audioslave var stofnuĂ°.
+ BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin My Chemical Romance var stofnuĂ°.
+ Norska hljĂłmsveitin Wig Wam var stofnuĂ°.
+ ĂĂœska hljĂłmsveitin Wir sind Helden var stofnuĂ°.
+ ĂslandsskĂłli hĂłf starfsemi Ă HafnarfirĂ°i.
+ Ăslenska fjĂĄrfestingafyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Exista var stofnaĂ°.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 19. ĂĄgĂșst - GuĂ°jĂłn Ernir Hrafnkelsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 1. oktĂłber - Mason Greenwood, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 12. desember - GĂșsti B, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur.
+ 15. desember - DiljĂĄ, Ăslensk tĂłnlistarkona.
+ 18. desember - Billie Eilish, bandarĂsk tĂłnlistarkona.
+ 30. desember - Daniil, Ăslenskur rappari.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 5. janĂșar - G.E.M. Anscombe, enskur heimspekingur (f. 1919).
+ 7. febrĂșar - Dale Evans, bandarĂskur rithöfundur, tĂłnlistarkona og kvikmyndastjarna (f. 1912).
+ 8. febrĂșar - Ivo Caprino, norskur kvikmyndagerĂ°armaĂ°ur (f. 1920).
+
+ 24. febrĂșar - Claude Shannon, bandarĂskur stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1916).
+ 13. mars - Henry Lee Lucas, bandarĂskur raĂ°morĂ°ingi (f. 1936).
+ 1. aprĂl - Jalil Zandi, Ăranskur flugmaĂ°ur (f. 1951).
+ 15. aprĂl - Jörundur Ăorsteinsson, knattspyrnudĂłmari og formaĂ°ur KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram (f. 1924).
+ 7. maĂ - Joseph Greenberg, bandarĂskur mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1915).
+ 11. maà - Douglas Adams, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1952).
+ 1. jĂșnĂ - Birendra, konungur Nepals (f. 1945).
+ 4. jĂșnĂ - Dipendra konungur Nepals (f. 1971).
+ 11. jĂșnĂ - Timothy McVeigh, bandarĂskur fjöldamorĂ°ingi (f. 1968).
+ 27. jĂșnĂ - Tove Jansson, finnskur rithöfundur (f. 1914).
+ 27. jĂșnĂ - Jack Lemmon, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1925).
+ 14. oktĂłber - David Lewis, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1941).
+ 9. nĂłvember - Giovanni Leone, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1908).
+ 26. nĂłvember - GĂsli JĂłnsson, ĂslenskufrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1925).
+ 29. nĂłvember - George Harrison, breskur gĂtarleikari (f. 1943).
+
+NĂłbelsverĂ°launin
+ EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i - Eric A Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle, Carl E Wieman
+ EfnafrĂŠĂ°i - William S. Knowles, Ryoji Noyori, K. Barry Sharpless
+ LĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i - Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, Paul M. Nurse
+ BĂłkmenntir - V.S. Naipaul
+ FriĂ°arverĂ°laun - SameinuĂ°u Ăjóðirnar, Kofi Annan
+ HagfrĂŠĂ°i - George A. Akerlof, A. Michael Spence, Joseph E. Stiglitz
+
+2001
+2001-2010
+ĂriĂ° 1998 (MCMXCVIII Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var 98. ĂĄr 20. aldar og almennt ĂĄr sem byrjaĂ°i ĂĄ fimmtudegi samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+
+JanĂșar
+
+ 1. janĂșar - NĂœ Ăslensk skipulags- og byggingarlög tĂłku gildi. SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸeim er allt landiĂ° skipulagsskylt.
+ 1. janĂșar - Haraldur Ărn Ălafsson, Ălafur Ărn Haraldsson og IngĂŸĂłr Bjarnason komust ĂĄ SuĂ°urpĂłlinn eftir fimmtĂu daga göngu.
+ 1. janĂșar - Landsbanka Ăslands var breytt Ă almenningshlutafĂ©lag.
+ 2. janĂșar - Yfirvöld Ă RĂșsslandi gĂĄfu Ășt nĂœjar rĂșblur til aĂ° reyna aĂ° hemja verĂ°bĂłlgu Ă landinu.
+ 4. janĂșar - Ramka-fjöldamorĂ°in: Yfir 170 voru myrt Ă ĂŸremur ĂŸorpum Ă AlsĂr.
+ 6. janĂșar - Litla hafmeyjan Ă Kaupmannahöfn missti höfuĂ°iĂ° Ă annaĂ° sinn.
+ 7. janĂșar - Monica Lewinsky undirritaĂ°i yfirlĂœsingu um aĂ° hĂșn hefĂ°i ekki ĂĄtt Ă kynferĂ°issambandi viĂ° Bill Clinton.
+ 10. janĂșar - Mesti 10 mĂnĂștna vindhraĂ°i mĂŠldist viĂ° Esju, 62,5 metrar ĂĄ sekĂșndu.
+ 11. janĂșar - Yfir 100 manns voru myrt Ă Sidi-Hamed-fjöldamorĂ°unum Ă AlsĂr.
+ 12. janĂșar - 19 evrĂłpsk lönd bönnuĂ°u klĂłnun ĂĄ mönnum.
+ 13. janĂșar - Alfredo Ormando kveikti Ă sĂ©r ĂĄ torginu viĂ° PĂ©turskirkjuna Ă RĂłm Ă mĂłtmĂŠlaskyni viĂ° afstöðu kirkjunnar til samkynhneigĂ°ar.
+ 14. janĂșar - 26 lönd undirrituĂ°u samkomulag um bann viĂ° olĂuleit og -vinnslu ĂĄ SuĂ°urskautslandinu.
+ 17. janĂșar - Paula Jones ĂĄsakaĂ°i Bill Clinton, forseta BandarĂkjanna, um kynferĂ°islega ĂĄreitni.
+ 21. janĂșar - Opinber heimsĂłkn JĂłhannesar PĂĄls 2. pĂĄfa til KĂșbu hĂłfst.
+ 22. janĂșar - Theodore Kaczynski jĂĄtaĂ°i aĂ° hann vĂŠri Unabomber. Hann var dĂŠmdur Ă lĂfstĂĂ°arfangelsi ĂĄn möguleika ĂĄ nĂĄĂ°un.
+ 26. janĂșar - Lewinsky-hneyksliĂ°: Bill Clinton neitaĂ°i aĂ° hafa ĂĄtt Ă kynferĂ°islegu sambandi viĂ° Monicu Lewinsky.
+ 26. janĂșar - Compaq keypti Digital Equipment Corporation.
+ 28. janĂșar - Byssumenn hĂ©ldu 400 börnum Ă gĂslingu Ă skĂłla Ă Manila ĂĄ Filippseyjum.
+ 28. janĂșar - Leikvangurinn Stade de France var opnaĂ°ur Ă ParĂs.
+
+FebrĂșar
+
+ 2. febrĂșar - mbl.is, frĂ©ttavefur MorgunblaĂ°sins, var opnaĂ°ur sem sĂ©rstakur fjölmiĂ°ill eftir aĂ° hafa veriĂ° vefĂștgĂĄfa blaĂ°sins Ă nokkur ĂĄr.
+ 3. febrĂșar - BlóðbaĂ°iĂ° Ă Cermis ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ° ĂŸegar bandarĂsk herflugvĂ©l sleit streng klĂĄfferju skĂĂ°asvĂŠĂ°is Ă DĂłlĂłmĂtunum ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. 20 lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ°.
+ 4. febrĂșar - 2.323 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir Takhar-hĂ©raĂ° Ă Afganistan.
+ 4. febrĂșar - KrĂĄareigandinn Dragan JoksoviÄ var skotinn til bana Ă StokkhĂłlmi sem leiddi til strĂĂ°s milli gengja Ă veitingahĂșsageiranum Ă SvĂĂŸjóð.
+ 7. febrĂșar - VetrarĂłlympĂuleikarnir hĂłfust Ă Nagano, Japan.
+ 16. febrĂșar - 202 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar China Airlines flug 676 hrapaĂ°i ĂĄ ĂbĂșabyggĂ° viĂ° Chiang Kai-shek-flugvöll ĂĄ TaĂvan.
+ 20. febrĂșar - Kofi Annan og Saddam Hussein gerĂ°u samkomulag um ĂĄframhald vopnaeftirlits SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna Ă Ărak og komu ĂŸannig Ă veg fyrir hernaĂ°arĂhlutun Breta og BandarĂkjamanna.
+ 28. febrĂșar - KosĂłvĂłstrĂĂ°iĂ° hĂłfst meĂ° ĂĄrĂĄsum serbneskrar lögreglu ĂĄ ĂŸorpin LikoĆĄane og Äirez
+
+Mars
+
+ 1. mars - Kvikmyndin Titanic varĂ° fyrsta bandarĂska kvikmyndin sem nĂĄĂ°i yfir 1 milljarĂ°i dala Ă tekjur.
+ 2. mars - Gögn frĂĄ geimfarinu Galileo bentu til ĂŸess aĂ° ĂĄ tungli JĂșpĂters, EvrĂłpu, vĂŠri haf undir ĂŸykkri Ăshellu.
+ 2. mars - Wolfgang PĆiklopil rĂŠndi hinni 10 ĂĄra gömlu Natöschu Kampusch.
+ 5. mars - NASA tilkynnti aĂ° könnunarfariĂ° Clementine hefĂ°i fundiĂ° nĂŠgilegt vatn Ă gĂgum ĂĄ Tunglinu til aĂ° hĂŠgt vĂŠri aĂ° koma ĂŸar upp nĂœlendu. Ăessar niĂ°urstöður voru sĂĂ°ar dregnar Ă efa.
+ 11. mars - Ăingkosningar voru haldnar Ă Danmörku: RĂkisstjĂłrn Poul Nyrup Rasmussen hĂ©lt velli.
+ 13. mars - RannsĂłknarhĂłpurinn High-Z Supernova Search Team gaf fyrstur Ășt ĂŸĂĄ niĂ°urstöðu aĂ° alheimurinn ĂŸendist Ășt ĂĄ sĂauknum hraĂ°a.
+ 17. mars - Uffe Ellemann-Jensen sagði af sér sem formaður danska hÊgriflokksins Venstre.
+ 23. mars - Kvikmyndin Titanic vann ellefu ĂskarsverĂ°laun og jafnaĂ°i ĂŸar meĂ° met Ben HĂșr frĂĄ 1959. Lokakafli HringadrĂłttinssögu jafnaĂ°i metiĂ° aftur ĂĄriĂ° 2004.
+ 23. mars - Kjalarnes varĂ° hluti af ReykjavĂk.
+ 23. mars - Boris JeltsĂn rak rĂkisstjĂłrn RĂșsslands og skipaĂ°i Sergej Kirijenko forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra.
+ 24. mars - Mitchell Johnson og Andrew Golden skutu fjĂłra nemendur og einn kennara til bana Ă miĂ°skĂłla Ă Jonesboro Ă Arkansas.
+ 26. mars - Oued Bouaicha-fjöldamorĂ°in ĂĄttu sĂ©r staĂ° Ă AlsĂr. 52 voru myrt meĂ° eggvopnum, ĂŸar af 32 ungabörn.
+ 27. mars - MatvĂŠla- og lyfjaeftirlit BandarĂkjanna samĂŸykkti lyfiĂ° Sildenafil frĂĄ Pfizer sem var selt undir heitinu Viagra.
+ 29. mars - Vasco da Gama-brĂșin Ă PortĂșgal var vĂgĂ°.
+ 31. mars - Netscape gaf frumkóða Mozilla-vafrans Ășt meĂ° frjĂĄlsu afnotaleyfi.
+
+AprĂl
+
+ AprĂl - Intel setti Celeron-örgjörvann ĂĄ markaĂ°.
+ 2. aprĂl - Maurice Papon var dĂŠmdur Ă fangelsi Ă Frakklandi fyrir aĂ° hafa sent gyĂ°inga Ă ĂștrĂœmingarbĂșĂ°ir nasista Ă SĂĂ°ari heimsstyrjöld.
+ 5. aprĂl - StĂŠrsta hengibrĂș heims, Akashi KaikyĆ-brĂșin milli eyjanna Shikoku og HonshĆ« Ă Japan, var opnuĂ° fyrir umferĂ°.
+ 6. aprĂl - Pakistan prĂłfaĂ°i meĂ°aldrĂŠgar eldflaugar sem hĂŠgt vĂŠri aĂ° nota til aĂ° rĂĄĂ°ast ĂĄ Indland.
+ 6. aprĂl - BandarĂski fjĂĄrfestingabankinn Citigroup varĂ° til viĂ° sameiningu Citicorp og Travellers Group.
+ 10. aprĂl - FöstudagssĂĄttmĂĄlinn var undirritaĂ°ur ĂĄ NorĂ°ur-Ărlandi.
+ 20. aprĂl - ĂĂœsku hryĂ°juverkasamtökin Rote Armee Fraktion voru leyst upp (aĂ° taliĂ° er).
+ 22. aprĂl - DĂœragarĂ°urinn Disney's Animal Kingdom var opnaĂ°ur Ă Walt Disney World Ă OrlandĂł Ă FlĂłrĂda.
+ 23. aprĂl - JĂșgĂłslavĂuher veitti sveit Ășr Frelsisher KosĂłvĂł fyrirsĂĄt ĂŸar sem ĂŸeir reyndu aĂ° smygla vopnum frĂĄ AlbanĂu til KosĂłvĂł.
+
+MaĂ
+
+ MaĂ - Vefurinn Kvikmyndir.is var opnaĂ°ur.
+ 1. maĂ - Ecofin kom saman til aĂ° samĂŸykkja lista yfir rĂki sem fengju aĂ° taka upp evruna.
+ 2. maĂ - ĂkveĂ°iĂ° var aĂ° evran skyldi tekin upp 1. janĂșar 1999. Danmörk, SvĂĂŸjóð, Bretland og Grikkland ĂĄkvĂĄĂ°u af ĂłlĂkum ĂĄstĂŠĂ°um aĂ° taka hana ekki upp.
+ 3. maĂ - Fyrsta ĂĄfangi Grafarvogslaugar var opnaĂ°ur.
+ 9. maĂ - Dana International sigraĂ°i Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva 1998 meĂ° laginu âDivaâ.
+ 11. maĂ - Indverjar framkvĂŠmdu ĂŸrjĂĄr kjarnorkutilraunir neĂ°anjarĂ°ar. Ă einni ĂŸeirra sprengdu ĂŸeir vetnissprengju.
+ 11. maĂ - Fyrstu evrumyntirnar voru slegnar Ă Pessac Ă Frakklandi. ĂĂŠr voru sĂĂ°an brĂŠddar aftur.
+ 13. maĂ - UppĂŸotin Ă IndĂłnesĂu Ă maĂ 1998: ReiĂ°ur mĂșgur rĂ©Ă°ist ĂĄ verslanir fĂłlks af kĂnverskum uppruna Ă Djakarta.
+ 19. maĂ - Gervihnötturinn Galaxy IV bilaĂ°i sem varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° 80-90% af sĂmboĂ°um heims hĂŠttu aĂ° virka.
+ 21. maĂ - Suharto sagĂ°i af sĂ©r sem forseti IndĂłnesĂu eftir 32 ĂĄra valdatĂma Ă kjölfar uppĂŸotanna Ă Djakarta.
+ 22. maĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas var frumsĂœnd.
+ 26. maĂ - Bear Grylls varĂ° yngstur Breta til aĂ° komast ĂĄ tind Everestfjalls.
+ 26. maĂ - National Sorry Day var haldinn Ă fyrsta sinn Ă ĂstralĂu til aĂ° minnast ranginda sem frumbyggjar ĂstralĂu voru beittir.
+ 28. maĂ - Pakistan framkvĂŠmdi Chagai-I-kjarnorkutilraunina og sprengdi 5 kjarnorkusprengjur Ă Chagai-hĂŠĂ°um. Ăetta varĂ° til ĂŸess aĂ° landiĂ° var beitt viĂ°skiptaĂŸvingunum.
+ 29. maĂ - NĂœ lög Ă SvĂĂŸjóð gerĂ°u kaup ĂĄ vĂŠndi refsiverĂ° frĂĄ 1. janĂșar 1999.
+ 30. maĂ - Allt aĂ° 5.000 manns fĂłrust ĂŸegar jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir Afganistan.
+ 30. maĂ - Pakistan framkvĂŠmdi Chagai-II-kjarnorkutilraunina.
+
+JĂșnĂ
+
+ 2. jĂșnĂ - TölvuvĂrusinn CIH var uppgötvaĂ°ur Ă TaĂvan.
+ 3. jĂșnĂ - LestarslysiĂ° Ă Eschede: Yfir 100 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar hraĂ°lest fĂłr Ășt af teinunum milli HannĂłver og Hamborgar Ă ĂĂœskalandi.
+ 5. jĂșnĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin HiĂ° fullkomna morĂ° var frumsĂœnd.
+ 6. jĂșnĂ - SveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° SkagafjörĂ°ur varĂ° til viĂ° sameiningu 11 sveitarfĂ©laga ĂĄ norĂ°urlandi vestra og SveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° HornafjörĂ°ur varĂ° til viĂ° sameiningu allra sveitarfĂ©laga Ă Austur-SkaftafellssĂœslu.
+ 7. jĂșnĂ - SveitarfĂ©lagiĂ° Ărborg varĂ° til viĂ° sameiningu 4 sveitarfĂ©laga ĂĄ suĂ°urlandi og FjarĂ°abyggĂ° varĂ° til viĂ° sameiningu 3 sveitarfĂ©laga ĂĄ AustfjörĂ°um.
+ 7. jĂșnĂ - Borgarastyrjöldin Ă GĂneu-BissĂĄ hĂłfst ĂŸegar Ansumane ManĂ© tĂłk völdin Ă herskĂĄla Ă BissĂĄ.
+ 7. jĂșnĂ - James Byrd Jr. var barinn til bana af ĂŸremur hvĂtum mönnum Ă Jasper, Texas.
+ 7. jĂșnĂ - Ătalski hjĂłlreiĂ°amaĂ°urinn Marco Pantani sigraĂ°i Giro d'Italia Ă fyrsta skipti.
+ 9. jĂșnĂ - HeimsmeistaramĂłt landsliĂ°a Ă knattspyrnu karla 1998 hĂłfst Ă Frakklandi.
+ 10. jĂșnĂ - Ăjóðlendulögin voru samĂŸykkt ĂĄ AlĂŸingi.
+ 14. jĂșnĂ - AusturbrĂșin Ă StĂłrabeltistengingunni var opnuĂ° fyrir umferĂ°.
+ 18. jĂșnĂ - Kinza Clodumar var settur af sem forseti NĂĄrĂș meĂ° vantrausti.
+ 19. jĂșnĂ - BandarĂska teiknimyndin MĂșlan var frumsĂœnd.
+ 25. jĂșnĂ - Windows 98 kom Ășt.
+ 27. jĂșnĂ - Kuala Lumpur-flugvöllur var opnaĂ°ur Ă MalasĂu.
+ 30. jĂșnĂ - Joseph Estrada varĂ° forseti Filippseyja.
+
+JĂșlĂ
+
+ 2. jĂșlĂ - SkĂĄldsagan Harry Potter og leyniklefinn eftir J. K. Rowling kom Ășt.
+ 5. jĂșlĂ - Japanar sendu geimkönnunarfar til Mars.
+ 6. jĂșlĂ - AlĂŸjóðaflugvöllurinn Ă Hong Kong var opnaĂ°ur.
+ 6. jĂșlĂ - BandarĂski tennisleikarinn Pete Sampras sigraĂ°i Wimbledon-mĂłtiĂ°.
+ 11. jĂșlĂ - HvalfjarĂ°argöngin voru opnuĂ°.
+ 12. jĂșlĂ - Frakkar sigruĂ°u HeimsmeistaramĂłt landsliĂ°a Ă knattspyrnu karla 1998 meĂ° 3-0 sigri ĂĄ BrasilĂu.
+ 12. jĂșlĂ - SkjĂĄborĂ°sumhverfiĂ° KDE kom Ășt Ă ĂștgĂĄfu 1.0.
+ 17. jĂșlĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin ĂaĂ° er eitthvaĂ° viĂ° Mary var frumsĂœnd.
+ 17. jĂșlĂ - 120 lönd samĂŸykktu stofnun AlĂŸjóðlega sakamĂĄladĂłmstĂłlsins.
+ 17. jĂșlĂ - JarĂ°neskum leifum NikulĂĄsar 2. RĂșssakeisara og fjölskyldu hans var komiĂ° fyrir Ă kapellu Ă Sankti PĂ©tursborg.
+ 17. jĂșlĂ - JarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir PapĂșu NĂœju-GĂneu meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° yfir 2000 lĂ©tust.
+ 17. jĂșlĂ - BlóðbaĂ°iĂ° Ă KleÄka hĂłfst.
+ 24. jĂșlĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Björgun Ăłbreytts Ryans var frumsĂœnd.
+ 30. jĂșlĂ - Obuchi Keizo tĂłk viĂ° af RyĆ«tarĆ Hashimoto sem forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Japans.
+ 30. jĂșlĂ - SkemmtistaĂ°urinn TungliĂ° viĂ° LĂŠkjargötu gjöreyĂ°ilagĂ°ist Ă eldsvoĂ°a.
+
+ĂgĂșst
+
+ 1. ĂĄgĂșst - Eitt dĂœrasta frĂmerki heims, Gul tre skilling banco frĂĄ 1855, var selt fyrir 14 milljĂłn sĂŠnskar krĂłnur.
+ 2. ĂĄgĂșst - Ătalski hjĂłlreiĂ°amaĂ°urinn Marco Pantani sigraĂ°i Tour de France-keppnina.
+ 4. ĂĄgĂșst - AfrĂkustrĂĂ°iĂ° mikla hĂłfst Ă KongĂł.
+ 5. ĂĄgĂșst - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Halloween H20: 20 Years Later var frumsĂœnd.
+ 7. ĂĄgĂșst - BĂlasprengjur sprungu viĂ° sendirĂĄĂ° BandarĂkjanna Ă NaĂrĂłbĂ og Dar es Salaam meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° yfir 200 lĂ©tust. Samtökin heilagt strĂĂ° og Al-KaĂda voru bendluĂ° viĂ° ĂĄrĂĄsirnar.
+ 7. ĂĄgĂșst - Yfir 12.000 fĂłrust Ă KĂna ĂŸegar ĂĄin Jangtse flaut yfir bakka sĂna.
+ 15. ĂĄgĂșst - Apple Inc. kynnti iMac til sögunnar.
+ 15. ĂĄgĂșst - SprengjuĂĄrĂĄsin Ă Omagh: Ărski lĂœĂ°veldisherinn sprengdi bĂlasprengju Ă Omagh ĂĄ NorĂ°ur-Ărlandi meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° 29 lĂ©tust.
+ 17. ĂĄgĂșst - FjĂĄrmĂĄlakreppan Ă RĂșsslandi 1998 hĂłfst.
+ 21. ĂĄgĂșst - FerjufyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Scandlines varĂ° til viĂ° sameiningu ferjudeildar dönsku jĂĄrnbrautanna og ĂŸĂœsks ferjufyrirtĂŠkis.
+ 24. ĂĄgĂșst - Fyrsta RFID-tĂŠkinu var komiĂ° fyrir Ă manneskju Ă Bretlandi.
+ 26. ĂĄgĂșst - TölvuvĂrusinn CIH fĂłr Ă gang og rĂ©Ă°ist ĂĄ Windows 9x-stĂœrikerfi.
+ 27. ĂĄgĂșst - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Sporlaust var frumsĂœnd.
+
+September
+
+ 1. september - Kio Briggs var handtekinn Ă Leifsstöð meĂ° yfir 2000 e-töflur Ă farangri sĂnum.
+ 2. september - Swissair flug 111 nauĂ°lenti nĂĄlĂŠgt Peggys Cove Ă Nova Scotia Ă Kanada. Allir 229 farĂŸegar sem voru um borĂ° lĂ©tu lĂfiĂ°.
+ 4. september - Google var stofnaĂ° af Larry Page og Sergey Brin, nemendum viĂ° Stanford-hĂĄskĂłla.
+ 4. september - Skrunda-1, sĂĂ°ustu sovĂ©sku ratsjĂĄrstöðinni Ă Lettlandi var lokaĂ°.
+ 9. september - HĂĄhyrningurinn KeikĂł kom til Vestmannaeyja og var sleppt Ă KlettsvĂk.
+ 10. september - Alexander Kusminik hĂłf skotĂĄrĂĄs um borĂ° Ă rĂșssneska kafbĂĄtnum Vepr (K-157) og myrti 7 manns.
+ 12. september - Fimmenningarnir frĂĄ Miami voru handteknir fyrir njĂłsnir.
+ 18. september - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Rush Hour var frumsĂœnd.
+ 21. september - ListahĂĄskĂłli Ăslands var stofnaĂ°ur.
+ 23. september - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Dansinn var frumsĂœnd.
+ 24. september - Sveinn Waage var kosinn Fyndnasti maĂ°ur Ăslands ĂŸegar uppistandskeppnin var haldin Ă fyrsta sinn.
+ 24. september - Mohammad Khatami Ăransforseti drĂł til baka fatwa gegn Söngvum Satans sem hafĂ°i veriĂ° Ă gildi frĂĄ 1989.
+ 28. september - SĂłsĂaldemĂłkratar sigruĂ°u ĂŸingkosningar Ă ĂĂœskalandi. Gerhard Schröder varĂ° kanslari.
+
+OktĂłber
+
+ 2. oktĂłber - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Kvöld Ă klĂșbbnum var frumsĂœnd.
+ 5. oktĂłber - IBM gaf Ășt RISC-örgjörvann POWER3.
+ 6. oktĂłber - Matthew Shepard var barinn illa Ă Laramie, Wyoming.
+ 7. oktĂłber - South Park-ĂŸĂĄtturinn âChef Aidâ var sendur Ășt ĂŸar sem Chewbacca-vörninni var lĂœst.
+ 8. október - Gardermoen-flugvöllur var opnaður à Noregi.
+ 12. oktĂłber - Ăslenska heimildarmyndin Popp Ă ReykjavĂk var frumsĂœnd.
+ 14. oktĂłber - Eric Rudolph var kĂŠrĂ°ur fyrir fjĂłrar sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsir Ă Atlanta.
+ 16. oktĂłber - Augusto Pinochet var settur Ă stofufangelsi ĂŸar sem hann leitaĂ°i lĂŠkninga Ă Bretlandi.
+ 17. oktĂłber - 1.082 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar olĂuleiĂ°sla sprakk Ă NĂgerĂu.
+ 23. oktĂłber - Kvikmyndin Fucking Ă
mĂ„l var frumsĂœnd Ă kvikmyndahĂșsum Ă SvĂĂŸjóð.
+ 24. oktĂłber - Norska sĂĄpuĂłperan Hotel CĂŠsar hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ TV 2.
+ 28. oktĂłber - FlugmaĂ°ur Air China, Yuan Bin, rĂŠndi farĂŸegaĂŸotu og flaug henni til TaĂvan.
+ 29. oktĂłber - Fellibylurinn Mitch gekk yfir MiĂ°-AmerĂku meĂ° ĂŸeim afleiĂ°ingum aĂ° um 18.000 fĂłrust.
+
+NĂłvember
+
+ 1. nĂłvember - Mika HĂ€kkinen varĂ° heimsmeistari ökuĂŸĂłra Ă FormĂșlu 1-kappakstri.
+ 11. nĂłvember - Samtök ferĂ°aĂŸjĂłnustunnar voru stofnuĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 17. nĂłvember - GeimkönnunarfariĂ° Voyager 1 nĂĄĂ°i lengra Ășt Ă geim en Pioneer 10 hafĂ°i gert.
+ 19. nĂłvember - DvergplĂĄnetan 19521 Chaos var uppgötvuĂ° utan viĂ° sporbaug PlĂștĂłs.
+ 20. nĂłvember - Fyrsta hluta AlĂŸjóðlegu geimstöðvarinnar var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft frĂĄ Kasakstan.
+ 21. nĂłvember - Tölvuleikurinn The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time kom Ășt.
+ 23. nĂłvember - Game Boy Color kom Ășt Ă EvrĂłpu.
+ 24. nĂłvember - Marc Hodler ljĂłstraĂ°i upp um mĂștur Ă aĂ°draganda ĂŸess aĂ° Salt Lake City var valin til aĂ° halda VetrarĂłlympĂuleikana 2002.
+ 24. nĂłvember - Fjarreikistjarnan Gliese 86 b var uppgötvuĂ° ĂĄ braut um hvĂta dverginn Gliese 86.
+ 27. nĂłvember - Sjötta kynslóð tölvuleikjavĂ©la hĂłfst meĂ° ĂștgĂĄfu Dreamcast frĂĄ Sega.
+ 28. nĂłvember - Stofnfundur FrjĂĄlslynda flokksins var haldinn Ă RĂșgbrauĂ°sgerĂ°inni.
+
+Desember
+
+ 4. desember - ĂĂ°rum hluta AlĂŸjóðlegu geimstöðvarinnar, Unity, var skotiĂ° ĂĄ loft Ă geimskutlunni Endeavor.
+ 6. desember - Hugo ChĂĄvez var kjörinn forseti VenesĂșela.
+ 8. desember - 81 manns voru myrtir Ă Tadjena-fjöldamorĂ°unum Ă AlsĂr.
+ 14. desember - JĂșgĂłslavĂuher drap 36 meĂ°limi Frelsishers KosĂłvĂł.
+ 16. desember - EyĂ°imerkurrefsaĂ°gerĂ°in: Bill Clinton fyrirskipaĂ°i loftĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ Ărak.
+ 17. desember - JarĂ°skjĂĄlftar fundust viĂ° GrĂmsvötn.
+ 18. desember - Gos hĂłfst Ă GrĂmsvötunum og var ĂŸaĂ° Ă fyrsta skipti sem vĂsindamenn gĂĄtu fylgst meĂ° eldgosi undir stĂłrum jökli.
+ 19. desember - Vantraust ĂĄ Bill Clinton BandarĂkjaforseta kom fram ĂĄ BandarĂkjaĂŸingi vegna meinsĂŠris Ă Lewinsky-mĂĄlinu.
+ 23. desember - Leikjatölvan PocketStation kom å markað.
+ 28. desember - Eldgosi lauk Ă GrĂmsvötnum.
+
+Ădagsettir atburĂ°ir
+ Ăslenska Vefstofan var stofnuĂ°.
+ Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin ĂrafĂĄr var stofnuĂ°.
+ ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lagiĂ° HvĂti riddarinn var stofnaĂ° Ă MosfellsbĂŠ.
+ SamfĂ©lag trĂșlausra var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ Ăslenska lĂftĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Prokaria var stofnaĂ°.
+ BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin 30 Seconds to Mars var stofnuĂ°.
+ Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin Ă svörtum fötum var stofnuĂ°.
+ Breska hljĂłmsveitin Oceansize var stofnuĂ°.
+ Ăslenska ĂștgerĂ°arfyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Brim hf. var stofnaĂ°.
+ Franska hljómsveitin Télépopmusik var stofnuð.
+ Ăslenska lĂftĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Biogels var stofnaĂ°.
+ Ăslenska fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° FjĂĄrvaki ehf. var stofnaĂ°.
+ Finnska pappĂrsfyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Stora Enso var stofnaĂ°.
+Fyrsta heimsmeistarakeppnin Ă mĂœrarbolta var haldin Ă Finnlandi.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 6. aprĂl - Alfons Sampsted, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 12. maĂ - Sveinn Aron GuĂ°johnsen, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 21. maĂ - Ari Ălafsson, Ăslenskur söngvari.
+ 1. jĂșlĂ - Mikael Anderson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 8. jĂșlĂ - Jaden Smith, bandarĂskur leikari og söngvari.
+ 18. september - Christian Pulisic, bandarĂskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 7. oktĂłber - Trent Alexander-Arnold, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 12. oktĂłber - Anton Karl Kristensen, Ăslenskur leikstjĂłri.
+ 3. desember - ElĂsabet Hulda SnorradĂłttir, Ăslensk fyrirsĂŠta.
+ 8. desember - Maximilian Eggestein, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 20. desember - Kylian Mbappé, franskur knattspyrnumaður.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 6. febrĂșar - Falco, austurrĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1957).
+ 6. febrĂșar - Carl Wilson, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (The Beach Boys) (f. 1946).
+
+ 8. febrĂșar - HalldĂłr Laxness, Ăslenskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverĂ°launahafi (f. 1902).
+ 5. aprĂl - JĂłnas Ărnason, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og leikskĂĄld (f. 1923).
+ 14. aprĂl - Björn Sv. Björnsson, Ăslenskur SS-maĂ°ur (f. 1909).
+ 15. aprĂl - Pol Pot, leiĂ°togi rauĂ°u khmeranna Ă KambĂłdĂu (f. 1925).
+ 19. aprĂl - Octavio Paz, mexĂkĂłskur rithöfundur (f. 1914).
+ 14. maĂ - Frank Sinatra, bandarĂskur söngvari og kvikmyndaleikari (f. 1915).
+ 29. maĂ - Barry M. Goldwater, bandarĂskur ĂŸingmaĂ°ur (f. 1909).
+ 5. jĂșnĂ - Dieter Roth, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1930).
+ 10. jĂșnĂ - Hammond Innes, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1913).
+ 27. jĂșlĂ - GĂsli HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur leikari (f. 1927).
+ 2. ĂĄgĂșst - Otto Bumbel, brasilĂskur knattspyrnuĂŸjĂĄlfari (f. 1914).
+ 6. september - AkĂra KĂșrĂłsava, japanskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (f. 1910).
+ 12. oktĂłber - GuĂ°rĂșn KatrĂn ĂorbergsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1934).
+ 12. oktĂłber - Ăsta B. ĂorsteinsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1945).
+ 31. oktĂłber - Hulda DĂłra JakobsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur (f. 1911).
+ 6. nĂłvember - Niklas Luhmann, ĂŸĂœskur fĂ©lagsfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1927).
+ 24. nĂłvember - John Chadwick, enskur fornfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1920).
+ 25. nĂłvember - Nelson Goodman, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1906).
+
+NĂłbelsverĂ°launin
+ EðlisfrÊði - Robert B. Laughlin, Horst L. Störmer, Daniel C. Tsui
+ EfnafrĂŠĂ°i - Walter Kohn, John A Pople
+ LĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i - Robert F Furchgott, Louis J Ignarro, Ferid Murad
+ Bókmenntir - José Saramago
+ FriĂ°arverĂ°laun - John Hume, David Trimble
+ HagfrĂŠĂ°i - Amartya Sen
+
+1998
+BĂșĂ°ardalur getur einnig ĂĄtt viĂ° BĂșĂ°ardal ĂĄ SkarĂ°sströnd.
+BĂșĂ°ardalur er ĂŸorp Ă Dölum, viĂ° botn HvammsfjarĂ°ar. ĂorpiĂ° er nĂș hluti af sveitarfĂ©laginu DalabyggĂ° og er stjĂłrnsĂœslumiĂ°stöð ĂŸess. ĂbĂșar BĂșĂ°ardals voru 256 ĂĄriĂ° 2022.
+
+Ă LaxdĂŠlasögu er BĂșĂ°ardalur nefndur og sagt frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ aĂ° Höskuldur Dala-Kollsson lenti skipi sĂnu fyrir innan LaxĂĄrĂłs ĂŸegar hann kom Ășr NoregsferĂ° og hafĂ°i ambĂĄttina Melkorku meĂ° sĂ©r: âHöskuldur lenti Ă LaxĂĄrĂłsi, lĂŠtur ĂŸar bera farm af skipi sĂnu en setja upp skipiĂ° fyrir innan LaxĂĄ og gerir ĂŸar hrĂłf aĂ° og sĂ©r ĂŸar tĂłftina sem hann lĂ©t gera hrĂłfiĂ°. Ăar tjaldaĂ°i hann bĂșĂ°ir og er ĂŸaĂ° kallaĂ°ur BĂșĂ°ardalur. SĂĂ°an lĂ©t Höskuldur flytja heim viĂ°inn og var ĂŸaĂ° hĂŠgt ĂŸvĂ aĂ° eigi var löng leiĂ°.â
+
+Verslun hĂłfst Ă BĂșĂ°ardal ĂĄriĂ° 1899 er Bogi SigurĂ°sson, kaupmaĂ°ur, byggĂ°i ĂŸar fyrsta hĂșsiĂ°, sem var bĂŠĂ°i ĂbĂșĂ°ar- og verslunarhĂșs. Ăetta hĂșs var sĂĂ°ar flutt ĂĄ Selfoss og stendur ĂŸar enn. Um aldamĂłtin hĂłf KaupfĂ©lag HvammsfjarĂ°ar verslunarrekstur Ă BĂșĂ°ardal og var ĂŸar nĂŠr allsrĂĄĂ°andi uns ĂŸaĂ° varĂ° gjaldĂŸrota 1989.
+
+BĂșĂ°ardalur er ĂŸjĂłnustukjarni fyrir Dalina og ĂŸar er meĂ°al annars mjĂłlkurstöð MS, verslanir, bĂlaverkstĂŠĂ°i, pĂłsthĂșs, apĂłtek, banki og önnur ĂŸjĂłnusta fyrir heimamenn og ferĂ°amenn. Ăar er AuĂ°arskĂłli, sameinaĂ°ur leik- og grunnskĂłli fyrir DalabyggĂ°, og dvalarheimiliĂ° SilfurtĂșn. SĂœslumaĂ°urinn ĂĄ Vesturlandi hefur aĂ°setur Ă StykkishĂłlmi en afgreiĂ°sla er Ă BĂșĂ°ardal. Ă BĂșĂ°ardal er heilsugĂŠslustöð og lĂŠknar. Engin kirkja er Ă ĂŸorpinu en sĂłknarkirkjan er HjarĂ°arholtskirkja. Hins vegar er prestssetriĂ° Ă BĂșĂ°ardal.
+
+VĂnlandssetriĂ° er viĂ° höfnina Ă BĂșĂ°ardal. ĂaĂ° er safn um VĂnlandsferĂ°ir Ăslendinga. EirĂksstaĂ°ir, bĂłndabĂŠr EirĂks rauĂ°a, er ekki langt frĂĄ BĂșĂ°ardal. Ăar bjĂł EirĂkur ĂĄĂ°ur en hann fĂłr til GrĂŠnlands. Skammt utan viĂ° ĂŸorpiĂ° eru HöskuldsstaĂ°ir, ĂŸar sem Höskuldur Dala-Kollsson bjĂł og einnig HjarĂ°arholt, ĂŸar sem Ălafur pĂĄi bjĂł. HallgerĂ°ur langbrĂłk og Ălafur pĂĄi voru börn Höskuldar ĂĄ Höskuldsstöðum. Ă EirĂksstöðum er tilgĂĄtubĂŠr sem er opinn ferĂ°amönnum. Ein merkasta landnĂĄmskonan, AuĂ°ur djĂșpĂșĂ°ga KetilsdĂłttir, nam land viĂ° HvammsfjörĂ°. HĂșn byggĂ°i bĂŠ sinn Ă Hvammi og er jarĂ°sett ĂŸar Ă fjörunni. SĂĂ°ar meir reis Ă Hvammi mikil ĂŠtt, Sturlungar, sem kennd er viĂ° Sturla ĂĂłrĂ°arson Ă Hvammi. Enn er bĂșiĂ° Ă Hvammi og er ĂŸar bĂșskapur og Hvammskirkja sem byggĂ° var 1883-1884.
+
+Tenglar
+ HeimasĂĂ°a DalabyggĂ°ar
+ HeimasĂĂ°a AuĂ°arskĂłla
+EirĂksstaĂ°ir
+VĂnlandssetriĂ°
+
+Ăslensk sjĂĄvarĂŸorp
+DalabyggĂ°
+JosĂ© Saramago (16. nĂłvember 1922 â 18. jĂșnĂ 2010) var portĂșgalskur rithöfundur, fĂŠddur Ă Azinhaga. JosĂ© Saramago var bĂșsettur ĂĄ KanarĂeyjum. Hann vann sem vĂ©lvirki, blaĂ°amaĂ°ur, ritstjĂłri og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi ĂĄĂ°ur en hann ĂĄvann sĂ©r nafn meĂ° sögunni Memorial do Convento, sem Ă enskri ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu var nefnd: Baltasar og Blimunda.
+
+Helstu verk
+ 1947 - Terra do Pecado - Jörð syndaranna
+ 1966 - Os Poemas PossĂveis - Möguleg ljóð
+ 1970 - Provavelmente Alegria
+ 1971 - Deste Mundo e do Outro - Ăessi heimur og hinn
+ 1973 - A Bagagem do Viajante - Farangur ferĂ°alaganna
+ 1974 - As OpiniÔes que o DL teve
+ 1975 - O Ano de 1993 - ĂriĂ° 1993
+ 1976 - Os Apontamentos
+ 1977 - Manual de Pintura e Caligrafia - HandbĂłk um mĂĄlverk og skrautritun
+ 1978 - Objecto Quase - HĂĄlfhlutir
+ 1981 - Viagem a Portugal - FerĂ° til PortĂșgals
+ 1982 - Memorial do Convento - Minningar frĂĄ klaustrinu (einnig: Baltasar og Blimunda)
+ 1984 - Ano da Morte de Ricardo Reis - ĂriĂ° sem Ricardo Reis lĂ©st
+ 1986 - Jangada de Pedra - Steinflekinn
+ 1989 - HistĂłria do Cerco de Lisboa - Sagan af umsĂĄtrinu um Lissabon
+ 1991 - Evangelho Segundo Jesus Cristo - GuĂ°spjall JesĂșs Krists
+ 1995 - Ensaio sobre a Cegueira Blindness - RitgerĂ° um blindu (Blinda)
+ 1997 - Todos os Nomes - Ăll nöfnin
+ 1999 - Conto da Ilha Desconhecida - Saga af ĂłĂŸekktu eyjunni
+ 2001 - Caverna - Hellir
+ 2003 - Homem Duplicado - TvĂfarinn
+ 2004 - Ensaio sobre a Lucidez - RitgerĂ° um skĂœrleika
+ 2005 - Don Giovanni ou o Dissoluto Absolvido
+ 2005 - As IntermitĂȘncias da Morte
+
+Handhafar bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launa NĂłbels
+Saramago, José
+GĂŒnter Grass (fĂŠddur Ă Danzig 16. oktĂłber 1927 - dĂĄinn 13. aprĂl 2015) var ĂŸĂœskur rithöfundur, myndlistarmaĂ°ur og uppgjafahermaĂ°ur. Hlaut nĂłbelsverĂ°laun Ă bĂłkmenntum 1999. Var meĂ°limur Ă HitlersĂŠskunni og sĂĂ°ar Waffen-SS og barĂ°ist meĂ° 10 SS-skriĂ°drekasveit (Frundsberg) Ă seinni heimsstyrjöld ĂŸar til hann var tekinn til fanga af bandamönnum.
+
+Helstu verk
+ Danziger Trilogie
+ Die Blechtrommel (1959) (Blikktromman)
+ Katz und Maus (1961) (Köttur og mĂșs)
+ Hundejahre (1963)
+ Ărtlich betĂ€ubt (1969)
+ Aus dem Tagebuch einer Schnecke (1972)
+ Der Butt (1979)
+ Das Treffen in Telgte (1979)
+ Kopfgeburten oder Die Deutschen sterben aus (1980)
+ Die RĂ€ttin (1986)
+ Zunge zeigen. Ein Tagebuch in Zeichnungen (1988)
+ Unkenrufe (1992)
+ Ein weites Feld (1995)
+ Mein Jahrhundert (1999)
+ Im Krebsgang (2002) (Krabbagangur)
+
+ĂĂœskir rithöfundar
+Handhafar bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launa NĂłbels
+Toni Morrison (18. febrĂșar 1931 â 5. ĂĄgĂșst 2019) var bandarĂskur rithöfundur og handhafi BĂłkmenntaverĂ°launa NĂłbels. Verk hennar snĂșast aĂ° mestu um samfĂ©lag blökkumanna Ă BandarĂkjunum.
+
+BĂłk hennar ĂstkĂŠr vann Pulitzer verĂ°launin ĂĄriĂ° 1988 og Söngur SalĂłmons vann til National Books Critic Avards.
+
+Helstu verk
+The Bluest Eye (1970)
+Sula (1973)
+Song of Solomon (1977) (gefin Ășt ĂĄ Ăslensku undir nafninu Söngur SalĂłmons)
+Tar Baby (1981) Beloved (1987) (gefin Ășt ĂĄ Ăslensku undir nafninu ĂstkĂŠr)Jazz (1992) Playing in the Dark (1993) Paradise (1999) Love'' (2003)
+
+Morrison, Toni
+Morrison, Toni
+Ernest Miller Hemingway (21. jĂșlĂ 1899 Ă Oak Park Ă Illinois Ă BandarĂkjunum â
+2. jĂșlĂ 1961 Ă Ketchum Ă Idaho) var bandarĂskur rithöfundur. Hann starfaĂ°i m.a. sem blaĂ°amaĂ°ur, sjĂșkraflutningabĂlstjĂłri (ĂĄ ĂtalĂu Ă fyrri heimsstyrjöldinni) og, aĂ° sjĂĄlfsögĂ°u, sem rithöfundur. Hann bjĂł um tĂma Ă ParĂs ĂŸar sem hann kynntist m.a. F. Scott Fitzgerald og James Joyce. Ernest Hemingway fyrirfĂłr sĂ©r meĂ° byssuskoti Ă höfuĂ°iĂ° ĂĄriĂ° 1961, ĂŸĂĄ 61 ĂĄrs aĂ° aldri.
+
+Verk Hemingways
+Småsögur
+ 1923 - Three Stories & Ten Poems.
+ 1924 - In our time.
+ 1927 - Men Without Women.
+ 1933 - Winner Take Nothing.
+ 1938 - The Fifth Column and the First Forty-nine Stories.
+ 1961 - Snows of Kilimanjaro â (SnjĂłrinn ĂĄ KilimanjarĂł og fleiri sögur Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu SigurĂ°ar A. MagnĂșssonar, 2004 (Ath. öllu fleiri sögur eru Ă nöfnu SigurĂ°ar, og ekki allar sem voru Ă upphaflegu bĂłkinni).
+ 1963 - The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber and Other Stories.
+
+Skåldsögur
+ 1926 - The Torrents of Spring : a Romantic Novel in Honor of the Passing of a Great Race.
+ 1926 - Siesta, Sun Also Rises (Og sĂłlin rennur upp Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu Karls Ăsfeld, 1941)
+ 1929 - Farewell to Arms - (Vopnin kvödd, Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu HalldĂłrs Laxness, 1941)
+ 1937 - To Have and Have Not - (Einn gegn öllum Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu Karls Ăsfeld, 1946)
+ 1940 - For Whom the Bell Tolls - (Hverjum klukkan glymur Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu StefĂĄns Bjarman, 1951)
+ 1950 - Across the River and Into the Trees.
+ 1952 - Old Man and the Sea â (Gamli maĂ°urinn og hafiĂ° Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu Björns O. Björnssonar, 1954)
+ 1970 - Islands in the Stream.
+ 1986 - The Garden of Eden.
+ 1999 - True at First Light : a Fictional Memoir.
+
+AnnaĂ°
+ 1926 - Today is Friday.
+ 1932 - Death in the Afternoon.
+ 1933 - God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen.
+ 1935 - Green Hills of Africa.
+ 1938 - The Spanish Earth.
+ 1954 - The Secret Agent's Badge of Courage.
+ 1959 - Two Christmas Tales.
+ 1964 - Movable feast â (Veisla Ă farĂĄngrinum, Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu HalldĂłrs Laxness, 1966)
+ 1970 - The Collected Poems of Ernest Hemingway.
+
+Tenglar
+ Hann var Ă miĂ°punkti aldarinnar; andlĂĄtsfregn Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1961
+ Ă nĂĄvĂgi viĂ° dauĂ°ann alla ĂŠvi; andlĂĄtsfregn 2 Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1961
+ Gamli maĂ°urinn og gĂŠfan; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1976
+ FjĂłrar eiginkonur Hemingways; fyrri hluti; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1972
+ FjĂłrar eiginkonur Hemingways; seinni hluti; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1972
+ Ljóðskåldið Hemingway; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1980
+ Ăg hitti Hemingway, eftir William Caldwell; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1964
+ Hemingway å óstöðugum stalli; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1982
+ Ăg hef ekki drepiĂ° neinn Ă fjögur ĂĄr; um brĂ©f Hemingways; grein Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1985
+ Hemingway Ă ParĂs 1920-30; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1964
+ Naut eĂ°a nautabani; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1987
+ Hinar fögru sonardÊtur Hemingways; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1981
+Verk Hemingways
+ NĂș legg Ă©g mig; smĂĄsaga eftir Hemingway; GuĂ°mundur Arnfinnsson ĂŸĂœddi; birtist Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1967
+ HjĂĄ indĂĂĄnum; smĂĄsaga eftir Hemingway; birtist Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1964
+ Gamall maĂ°ur viĂ° brĂșnna; smĂĄsaga eftir Hemingway; birtist Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1966
+ Dags biĂ°; smĂĄsaga eftir Hemingway; birtist Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1966
+ Tyrkneski hershöfĂ°inginn og Ătalski einrĂŠĂ°isherrann; grein eftir HemingwayÂŽ; birtist Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 1963
+ Geta hermenn Mussolinis barist?; birtist Ă AlĂŸĂœĂ°ublaĂ°inu 1938
+
+BandarĂskir blaĂ°amenn
+BandarĂskir rithöfundar
+Dauðsföll af völdum sjålfsmorða
+Fólk tengt spÊnsku borgarastyrjöldinni
+Handhafar bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launa NĂłbels
+Joseph Brodsky (eĂ°a JĂłsef Brodsky) (24. maĂ 1940 - 28. janĂșar 1996) fĂŠddur JosĂf AleksandrovĂtsj BrodskĂj eĂ°a ĐĐŸÌŃĐžŃ ĐлДĐșŃĐ°ÌĐœĐŽŃĐŸĐČĐžŃ ĐŃĐŸÌĐŽŃĐșĐžĐč, var rĂșssneskt skĂĄld, leikrita- og ritgerĂ°arhöfundur. Joseph Brodsky fĂŠddist Ă Leningrad (nĂș Sankti PĂ©tursborg) Ă RĂșsslandi en fluttist til BandarĂkjanna eftir aĂ° hafa veriĂ° gerĂ°ur ĂștlĂŠgur Ășr SovĂ©trĂkjunum. Hann öðlaĂ°ist bandarĂskan rĂkisborgararĂ©tt 1977. Hann fĂ©kk aldrei aĂ° hitta foreldra sĂna aftur, og tileinkaĂ°i ĂŸeim ritgerĂ°arsafniĂ° Less Than One.
+
+Joseph Brodsky fékk Nóbelsverðlaun à bókmenntum årið 1987. Hann er grafinn à Feneyjum.
+
+Tenglar
+ GĂŠddi rĂșssneskan skĂĄldskap nĂœju lĂfi; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1996
+ Réttarhöldin yfir Iosif Brodsky; 1. grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1964
+ Réttarhöldin yfir Iosif Brodsky; 2. grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1964
+ ĂsĂœnileg hetja og hetjulegur prins; grein Ă DV 1996
+ AĂ° orĂ°in hafi merkingu; grein Ă MorgunblaĂ°inu 1978
+
+Handhafar bĂłkmenntaverĂ°launa NĂłbels
+RĂșssnesk skĂĄld
+2000 (MM Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var sĂĂ°asta ĂĄr 20. aldar og hlaupĂĄr sem hĂłfst ĂĄ laugardegi samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu.
+
+ĂriĂ° var Ăștnefnt AlĂŸjóðlegt ĂĄr friĂ°armenningar og AlĂŸjóðlegt ĂĄr stĂŠrĂ°frĂŠĂ°innar.
+
+Ăetta var ĂĄr 2000-vandans ĂŸar sem sumir bjuggust viĂ° ĂŸvĂ aĂ° tölvukerfi hĂŠttu aĂ° virka ĂŸar sem eldri tölvur gerĂ°u ekki rĂĄĂ° fyrir hĂŠrri ĂĄrtölum en 1999 en afar fĂĄ slĂk vandamĂĄl komu upp ĂŸegar ĂĄriĂ° gekk Ă garĂ°.
+
+AtburĂ°ir
+
+JanĂșar
+
+ 1. janĂșar - StjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbundin tengsl SĂŠnsku kirkjunnar viĂ° sĂŠnska rĂkiĂ° voru rofin.
+ 1. janĂșar - Kvikmyndin Englar alheimsins var frumsĂœnd ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 1. janĂșar - Finnur IngĂłlfsson var skipaĂ°ur seĂ°labankastjĂłri.
+ 1. janĂșar - TĂłnverkiĂ° Longplayer hĂłf aĂ° spila.
+ 3. janĂșar - SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄtturinn KastljĂłs hĂłf göngu sĂna Ă Ăslenska rĂkissjĂłnvarpinu.
+ 4. janĂșar - 19 lĂ©tust Ă Ă
sta-lestarslysinu Ă Noregi.
+ 5. janĂșar - RĂĄĂ°stefna Al-KaĂda Ă KĂșala LĂșmpĂșr hĂłfst Ă MalasĂu.
+ 6. janĂșar - SĂĂ°asti villti pĂœreneaĂbexinn fannst dauĂ°ur.
+ 10. janĂșar - America Online keypti Time Warner fyrir 162 milljarĂ°a bandarĂkjadala. Ăetta var stĂŠrsti fyrirtĂŠkjasamruni sögunnar ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma.
+ 14. janĂșar - HĂŠsta skrĂĄning Dow Jones vĂsitölunnar var viĂ° lokun; 11.722,98 stig, ĂĄ hĂĄtindi NetbĂłlunnar.
+ 14. janĂșar - DĂłmstĂłll ĂĄ vegum SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna dĂŠmdi 5 BosnĂukrĂłata Ă 25 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir morĂ° ĂĄ yfir 100 BosnĂumĂșslimum.
+ 24. janĂșar - SkĂŠruliĂ°ahreyfingin Her guĂ°s tĂłk 700 gĂsla ĂĄ sjĂșkrahĂșsi Ă TaĂlandi.
+ 29. janĂșar - VĂsindavefurinn var formlega opnaĂ°ur af forseta Ăslands.
+ 30. janĂșar - 169 fĂłrust ĂŸegar Kenya Airways flug 431 hrapaĂ°i Ă AtlantshafiĂ°.
+ 31. janĂșar - 88 fĂłrust ĂŸegar Alaska Airlines flug 261 hrapaĂ°i Ă Kyrrahaf.
+
+FebrĂșar
+
+ 1. febrĂșar - 35 tĂma vinnuvika var leidd Ă lög Ă Frakklandi.
+ 4. febrĂșar - ĂĂœski hermdarverkamaĂ°urinn Klaus-Peter Sabotta var dĂŠmdur Ă lĂfstĂĂ°arfangelsi fyrir skemmdarverk og fjĂĄrkĂșgun.
+ 6. febrĂșar - Tarja Halonen var kjörin forseti Finnlands.
+ 7. febrĂșar - Stipe MesiÄ var kjörinn forseti KrĂłatĂu.
+ 9. febrĂșar - Steypiregn Ă AfrĂku leiddu til verstu flóða Ă MĂłsambĂk Ă 50 ĂĄr og dauĂ°a 800 manna.
+ 13. febrĂșar - SĂĂ°asta myndasagan um SmĂĄfĂłlkiĂ° kom Ășt, en höfundur hennar, Charles M. Schulz, lĂ©st daginn ĂĄĂ°ur.
+ 17. febrĂșar - Microsoft gaf Ășt Windows 2000.
+ 21. febrĂșar - AlĂŸjóðlegi móðurmĂĄlsdagurinn var haldinn hĂĄtĂĂ°legur Ă fyrsta sinn.
+ 26. febrĂșar - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă Heklu. ĂaĂ° stóð Ă ellefu daga.
+ 29. febrĂșar - HlaupĂĄrsdag bar upp ĂĄ aldarĂĄri Ă fyrsta sinn frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1600.
+
+Mars
+
+ 1. mars - Jorge Batlle var kosinn forseti Ă ĂrĂșgvĂŠ.
+ 1. mars - NĂœ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ tĂłk gildi Ă Finnlandi.
+ 4. mars - PlayStation 2 kom fyrst Ășt Ă Japan.
+ 8. mars - Naka-Meguro-lestarslysiĂ° ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ° Ă Japan. TvĂŠr neĂ°anjarĂ°arlestar Ă TĂłkĂœĂł rĂĄkust ĂĄ sem leiddi til dauĂ°a 5 manna.
+ 10. mars - Ăslenska kvikmyndin FĂaskĂł var frumsĂœnd.
+ 10. mars - NASDAQ-vĂsitalan nĂĄĂ°i 5.048 stigum ĂĄ hĂĄtindi NetbĂłlunnar.
+ 13. mars - BandarĂkjadalur varĂ° opinber gjaldmiĂ°ill Ă Ekvador.
+ 13. mars - JosĂ© MarĂa Aznar sigraĂ°i ĂŸingkosningar ĂĄ SpĂĄni.
+ 20. mars - Jamil Abdullah Al-Amin, fyrrum meðlimur Svörtu hlébarðanna, var handtekinn eftir skotbardaga sem leiddi til dauða eins lögreglumanns.
+ 26. mars - VladĂmĂr PĂștĂn var kosinn forseti RĂșsslands.
+
+AprĂl
+
+ 1. aprĂl - SiglingamiĂ°stöðin Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy var opnuĂ°.
+ 3. aprĂl - BandarĂkin gegn Microsoft: TölvufyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Microsoft var sĂłtt til saka vegna ĂĄsakana um samkeppnishamlandi aĂ°gerĂ°ir.
+ 5. aprĂl - Mori Yoshiro tĂłk viĂ° sem forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Japans.
+ 9. aprĂl - SĂŠnska nunnan Elisabeth Hesselblad var lĂœst sĂŠl af kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunni.
+ 15. aprĂl - âLeyniskĂĄpurinnâ meĂ° erĂłtĂskum minjum frĂĄ Pompeii og Herculaneum var opnaĂ°ur Ă Minjasafni NapĂłlĂ eftir aldalanga lokun.
+ 16. aprĂl - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn hnattvĂŠĂ°ingu fĂłru fram Ă Washington D.C.
+ 19. aprĂl - NĂœtt hĂșsnĂŠĂ°i Listasafns Ăslands var opnaĂ° Ă HafnarhĂșsinu viĂ° Tryggvagötu.
+ 22. aprĂl - AlrĂkislögreglumenn tĂłku Elian Gonzalez frĂĄ ĂŠttingjum Ă Miami, FlĂłrĂda.
+ 30. aprĂl - Faustina Kowalska var lĂœst dĂœrlingur Ă kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunni.
+
+MaĂ
+
+ 2. maĂ - GPS-kerfiĂ° var opnaĂ° aĂ° fullu fyrir almenna notendur.
+ 3. maĂ - Fyrsti Geocaching-leikurinn fĂłr fram.
+ 4. maĂ - TölvuvĂrusinn ILOVEYOU breiddist hratt um heiminn.
+ 4. maĂ - 54 fĂłrust ĂŸegar jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir Banggai Ă IndĂłnesĂu.
+ 5. maĂ - SjaldgĂŠf samstaĂ°a sjö himintungla, SĂłlarinnar, Tunglsins og reikistjarnanna frĂĄ MerkĂșr til SatĂșrnusar, ĂĄtti sĂ©r staĂ° ĂĄ nĂœju Tungli.
+ 5. - 6. maĂ - Stofnfundur Samfylkingarinnar var haldinn.
+ 12. maĂ - ListasafniĂ° Tate Modern var opnaĂ° Ă London.
+ 13. maĂ - Olsen-brĂŠĂ°ur unnu Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva 2000. Einar ĂgĂșst & Telma fluttu lagiĂ° âTell Me!â fyrir Ăslands hönd.
+ 13. maĂ - 23 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar sprenging varĂ° Ă flugeldaverksmiĂ°ju Ă Enschede Ă Hollandi.
+ 15. maĂ - FjĂĄrfestingabanki atvinnulĂfsins rann saman viĂ° Ăslandsbanka.
+ 16. maĂ - LandspĂtali varĂ° til viĂ° samruna LandspĂtalans og BorgarspĂtalans.
+ 16. maà - Ahmet Necdet Sezer var kjörinn forseti Tyrklands.
+ 19. maĂ - Baneheia-mĂĄliĂ° Ă Noregi: Tveimur ungum stĂșlkum var nauĂ°gaĂ° og ĂŸĂŠr myrtar Ă Kristiansand.
+ 25. maĂ - Ăsrael drĂł herliĂ° sitt frĂĄ LĂbanon eftir 22 ĂĄra hersetu.
+
+JĂșnĂ
+
+ 1. jĂșnĂ - HeimssĂœningin Expo 2000 hĂłfst Ă HannĂłver Ă ĂĂœskalandi.
+ 1. jĂșnĂ - Ăslenska kvikmyndin 101 ReykjavĂk var frumsĂœnd.
+ 4. jĂșnĂ - Yfir 100 fĂłrust ĂŸegar jarĂ°skjĂĄlfti reiĂ° yfir SĂșmötru.
+ 5. jĂșnĂ - Stuttmyndin 405 The Movie var sett Ă dreifingu ĂĄ Internetinu.
+ 13. jĂșnĂ - Forseti SuĂ°ur-KĂłreu, Kim Dae-jung, heimsĂłtti NorĂ°ur-KĂłreu.
+ 17. og 21. jĂșnĂ - SuĂ°urlandsskjĂĄlftar skĂłku SuĂ°urlandsundirlendiĂ°.
+ 17. jĂșnĂ - Ylströndin var opnuĂ° Ă NauthĂłlsvĂk.
+ 18. jĂșnĂ - VigdĂs FinnbogadĂłttir rĂŠsti keppendur Ă Skippers d'Islande-siglingakeppninni Ă Paimpol Ă Frakklandi.
+ 23. jĂșnĂ - FrĂžya-göngin milli eyjanna FrĂžya og Hitra Ă Noregi voru opnuĂ°.
+ 26. jĂșnĂ - Fyrstu drögin aĂ° erfĂ°amengi mannsins voru gefin Ășt af Human Genome Project.
+ 26. jĂșnĂ - KaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan lĂ©t ĂŸriĂ°ja leyndardĂłm FatĂmu uppi.
+ 28. jĂșnĂ - Franska kvikmyndin RĂddu mĂ©r var frumsĂœnd.
+ 28. jĂșnĂ - EliĂĄn GonzĂĄlez sneri aftur til KĂșbu ĂĄsamt föður sĂnum.
+ 30. jĂșnĂ - Edda - miĂ°lun og ĂștgĂĄfa var stofnuĂ° meĂ° samruna MĂĄls og menningar og Vöku-Helgafells.
+ 30. jĂșnĂ - 9 lĂ©tust og 26 slösuĂ°ust Ă troĂ°ningi ĂĄ tĂłnleikum Pearl Jam ĂĄ HrĂłarskelduhĂĄtĂĂ°inni.
+
+JĂșlĂ
+
+ 1. jĂșlĂ - EyrarsundsbrĂșin milli Danmerkur og SvĂĂŸjóðar var opnuĂ°.
+ 1. jĂșlĂ - KristnihĂĄtĂĂ°in var sett ĂĄ Ăingvöllum. Fjöldi gesta ĂĄ hĂĄtĂĂ°inni reyndist mun minni en bĂșist hafĂ°i veriĂ° viĂ°.
+ 2. jĂșlĂ - AlĂŸingi samĂŸykkti stofnun KristnihĂĄtĂĂ°arsjóðs ĂĄ hĂĄtĂĂ°arfundi ĂĄ Ăingvöllum.
+ 2. jĂșlĂ - Frakkar sigruĂ°u Ătali 2-1 Ă lokaleik EvrĂłpukeppninnar Ă knattspyrnu.
+ 2. jĂșlĂ - Vicente Fox varĂ° forseti MexĂkĂł.
+ 2. jĂșlĂ - Fyrsta lestin frĂĄ Kaupmannahöfn Ă Danmörku til Ystad Ă SvĂĂŸjóð lagĂ°i af staĂ°.
+ 3. jĂșlĂ - Stofnunin Transport for London var sett ĂĄ fĂłt til aĂ° hafa yfirumsjĂłn meĂ° almenningssamöngum ĂĄ StĂłr-LundĂșnasvĂŠĂ°inu. HĂșn tĂłk viĂ° af London Transport.
+ 10. jĂșlĂ - 10 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar lek olĂuleiĂ°sla Ă NĂgerĂu sprakk.
+ 13. jĂșlĂ - Ehud Barak og Yasser Arafat hittust Ă Camp David en tĂłkst ekki aĂ° komast aĂ° samkomulagi.
+ 14. jĂșlĂ - Ăflugt sĂłlgos olli segulstormi ĂĄ jörĂ°u.
+ 17. jĂșlĂ - Bashar al-Assad varĂ° forseti SĂœrlands.
+ 18. jĂșlĂ - Alex Salmond sagĂ°i af sĂ©r sem leiĂ°togi Skoska ĂŸjóðarflokksins.
+ 25. jĂșlĂ - HljóðfrĂĄ Concorde-ĂŸota fĂłrst Ă flugtaki Ă ParĂs. 114 fĂłrust Ă slysinu og stuttu sĂĂ°ar var hĂŠtt aĂ° nota slĂkar vĂ©lar.
+ 28. jĂșlĂ - SĂĂ°asta Ătalska lĂran var prentuĂ°.
+ 30. jĂșlĂ - Stafkirkja var vĂgĂ° Ă Vestmannaeyjum. HĂșn var gjöf frĂĄ NorĂ°mönnum.
+
+ĂgĂșst
+
+ 3. ĂĄgĂșst - Yfir 100 manns rĂ©Ă°ust ĂĄ fjölbĂœlishĂșs Ă Portsmouth ĂĄ Englandi vegna ĂŸess aĂ° ĂŸekktur barnanĂĂ°ingur var talinn bĂșa ĂŸar.
+ 7. ĂĄgĂșst - Vefurinn DeviantART hĂłf göngu sĂna.
+ 8. ĂĄgĂșst - SuĂ°urrĂkjakafbĂĄtnum H. L. Hunley var bjargaĂ° af hafsbotni.
+ 10. ĂĄgĂșst - Ferenc MĂĄdl varĂ° forseti Ungverjalands.
+ 12. ĂĄgĂșst - RĂșssneski kafbĂĄturinn KĂșrsk sökk Ă Barentshafi. Allir 118 um borĂ° fĂłrust.
+ 14. ĂĄgĂșst - DĂłra landkönnuĂ°ur hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ Nickleodeon.
+ 14. ĂĄgĂșst - NikulĂĄs 2. keisari var lĂœstur dĂœrlingur Ă rĂșssnesku rĂ©tttrĂșnaĂ°arkirkjunni.
+ 23. ĂĄgĂșst - KaĂŸĂłlski presturinn John Anthony Kaiser var myrtur Ă KenĂœa.
+ 24. ĂĄgĂșst - Leikjatölvan GameCube frĂĄ Nintendo var kynnt.
+
+September
+
+ 5. september - TĂșvalĂș gerĂ°ist aĂ°ili aĂ° SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðunum.
+ 6. september - SĂĂ°asti alsĂŠnski vopnaframleiĂ°andinn, Bofors, var seldur til bandarĂska fyrirtĂŠkisins United Defense.
+ 6. september - ĂĂșsaldarrĂĄĂ°stefna SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna hĂłfst.
+ 7. september - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Ăslenski draumurinn var frumsĂœnd.
+ 7. september - EldsneytismĂłtmĂŠlin Ă Bretlandi hĂłfust.
+ 8. september - ĂĂșsaldarrĂĄĂ°stefnu SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðanna lauk.
+ 13. september - Steve Jobs kynnti betaĂștgĂĄfu Mac OS X.
+ 15. september - SumarĂłlympĂuleikar voru settir Ă Sydney.
+ 16. september - ĂkraĂnski blaĂ°amaĂ°urinn GeorgĂj Gongadse sĂĄst sĂĂ°ast ĂĄ lĂfi.
+ 22. september - Kauphallirnar Ă Amsterdam, Brussel og ParĂs runnu saman Ă eina og Euronext varĂ° til.
+ 24. september - Vojislav KoĆĄtunica sigraĂ°i Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ Ă fyrstu umferĂ° forsetakosninga Ă SerbĂu og Svartfjallalandi en MiloĆĄeviÄ neitaĂ°i aĂ° viĂ°urkenna Ăłsigur.
+25. september - Vala FlosadĂłttir hlaut bronsverĂ°laun Ă stangarstökki ĂĄ ĂlympĂuleikunum Ă Sydney Ă ĂstralĂu.
+ 26. september - GrĂska farĂŸegaferjan Express Samina sökk viĂ° eyjuna Paros. 80 af 500 farĂŸegum fĂłrust.
+ 26. september - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn hnattvĂŠĂ°ingu fĂłru fram Ă Prag.
+ 28. september - Ăsraelski stjĂłrnarandstöðuleiĂ°toginn Ariel Sharon heimsĂłtti MusterisfjalliĂ°. Al-Aqsa-uppreisnin hĂłfst.
+ 28. september - Danir höfnuĂ°u ĂŸvĂ Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvĂŠĂ°agreiĂ°slu aĂ° taka upp evru meĂ° naumum meirihluta.
+ 29. september - Maze-fangelsinu ĂĄ NorĂ°ur-Ărlandi var lokaĂ°.
+
+OktĂłber
+
+ OktĂłber - FraktflugfĂ©lagiĂ° BlĂĄfugl var stofnaĂ° ĂĄ Ăslandi.
+ 5. oktĂłber - OktĂłberbyltingin Ă JĂșgĂłslavĂu: Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ neyddist til aĂ° segja af sĂ©r sem forseti SerbĂu og Svartfjallalands.
+ 6. oktĂłber - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin CSI hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ CBS.
+ 6. oktĂłber - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Meet the Parents var frumsĂœnd.
+ 6. oktĂłber - SĂĂ°asti Mini-bĂllinn var framleiddur Ă Longbridge ĂĄ Englandi.
+ 11. oktĂłber - ReykjavĂkurborg seldi hĂșsiĂ° Esjuberg viĂ° ĂingholtsstrĂŠti til hugbĂșnaĂ°arfyrirtĂŠkisins OZ fyrir 70 milljĂłnir. Ăar stóð til aĂ° stofna frumkvöðlasetur en hĂșsiĂ° hĂœsti ĂĄĂ°ur BorgarbĂłkasafn ReykjavĂkur. Tveimur ĂĄrum sĂĂ°ar seldi OZ svo hĂșsiĂ° til norska myndlistarmannsins Odd Nerdrum fyrir 100 milljĂłnir.
+ 11. oktĂłber - 950.000 rĂșmmetrar af kolasora flĂŠddu Ășt Ă Martin-sĂœslu Ă Kentucky.
+ 12. oktĂłber - Tveir sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°ssprengjumenn ĂĄ vegum Al-KaĂda ollu dauĂ°a 17 ĂĄhafnarmeĂ°lima bandarĂska herskipsins USS Cole Ă Aden Ă Jemen.
+ 13. oktĂłber - Starfsgreinasamband Ăslands var stofnaĂ°.
+ 13. oktĂłber - OpenOffice.org varĂ° til ĂŸegar Sun Microsystems gaf Ășt frumkóða skrifstofuvöndulsins StarOffice.
+ 18. oktĂłber - Ăslenski sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄtturinn 70 mĂnĂștur hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ PoppTĂvĂ.
+ 21. oktĂłber - FimmtĂĄn leiĂ°togar ArabarĂkja komu saman Ă KaĂrĂł ĂĄ fyrsta leiĂ°togafundi rĂkjanna Ă fjögur ĂĄr.
+ 22. oktĂłber - Japanska dagblaĂ°iĂ° Mainichi Shimbun afhjĂșpaĂ°i svik fornleifafrĂŠĂ°ingsins Shinichi Fujimura.
+ 26. oktĂłber - Yfirvöld Ă Pakistan sögĂ°u frĂĄ fundi mĂșmĂu persneskrar prinsessu Ă BalĂșkistan. Ăran, Pakistan og TalĂbanar gerĂ°u öll tilkall til mĂșmĂunnar ĂŸar til ĂĄri sĂĂ°ar aĂ° sannaĂ° var aĂ° hĂșn var fölsun.
+ 30. oktĂłber - GeimfariĂ° SojĂșs TM-31 flutti ĂĄhöfn AlĂŸjóðlegu geimstöðvarinnar Ășt Ă geim. FrĂĄ ĂŸessum degi hefur alltaf veriĂ° maĂ°ur staddur Ă geimnum.
+ 31. oktĂłber - 83 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Singapore Airlines flug 006 lenti Ă ĂĄrekstri ĂĄ Chiang Kai Shek-flugvelli.
+
+NĂłvember
+
+ 1. nĂłvember - SerbĂa og Svartfjallaland gerĂ°ist aĂ°ili aĂ° SameinuĂ°u ĂŸjóðunum.
+ 2. nĂłvember - Fyrsta fastaĂĄhöfnin hĂłf bĂșsetu Ă AlĂŸjóðlegu geimstöðinni.
+ 7. nĂłvember - HĂłpur rĂŠningja rĂ©Ă°ist ĂĄ ĂĂșsaldarhvelfinguna Ă London til aĂ° stela ĂĂșsaldardemantinum en voru gripnir af lögreglu.
+ 7. nĂłvember - Hillary Clinton tĂłk sĂŠti à öldungadeild BandarĂkjaĂŸings.
+ 7. nĂłvember - George W. Bush var kjörinn forseti BandarĂkjanna eftir nauman sigur ĂĄ Al Gore.
+ 11. nĂłvember - KaprunslysiĂ°: 152 skĂĂ°a- og snjĂłbrettamenn lĂ©tust ĂŸegar eldur kom upp Ă drĂĄttarlest inni Ă göngum.
+ 15. nĂłvember - Indverska fylkiĂ° Jharkhand var stofnaĂ°.
+ 16. nĂłvember - Bill Clinton heimsĂłtti VĂetnam fyrstur BandarĂkjaforseta frĂĄ lokum VĂetnamstrĂĂ°sins.
+ 17. nĂłvember - Alberto Fujimori flaug til TĂłkĂœĂł og sendi afsögn sĂna sem forseti PerĂș meĂ° faxi.
+ 24. nĂłvember - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Ăskabörn ĂŸjóðarinnar var frumsĂœnd.
+ 27. nóvember - Lengstu veggöng heims, LÊrdalsgöngin à Noregi, 25,5 km að lengd, voru opnuð.
+ 28. nĂłvember - ĂkraĂnski stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°urinn Olexandr Moros sakaĂ°i LeonĂd KĂștsma forseta um aĂ°ild aĂ° morĂ°inu ĂĄ GeorgĂj Gongadse.
+
+Desember
+
+ 1. desember - Vicente Fox tĂłk viĂ° embĂŠtti forseta MexĂkĂł.
+ 7. desember - HindĂșahofiĂ° Kadisoka fannst viĂ° Yogyakarta Ă IndĂłnesĂu.
+ 12. desember - Bush gegn Gore: HĂŠstirĂ©ttur BandarĂkjanna stöðvaĂ°i endurtalningu atkvĂŠĂ°a Ă FlĂłrĂda.
+ 15. desember - ĂriĂ°ja og sĂĂ°asta kjarnakljĂșfi TsjernĂłbĂœlkjarnorkuversins var lokaĂ°.
+ 22. desember - Ăremur mĂĄlverkum eftir Rembrandt var stoliĂ° frĂĄ Nationalmuseum Ă StokkhĂłlmi.
+ 24. desember - AĂ°fangadagsĂĄrĂĄsirnar Ă IndĂłnesĂu: Ăslamskir öfgamenn stóðu fyrir sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ kirkjur um alla IndĂłnesĂu.
+ 25. desember - EldsvoĂ°inn Ă Luoyang: 309 lĂ©tust Ă eldsvoĂ°a Ă verslunarmiĂ°stöð Ă KĂna.
+ 30. desember - Sprengjuåråsirnar 30. desember à Filippseyjum: 22 létust à röð sprengjuåråsa à Manila.
+ 30. desember - GeimkönnunarfariĂ° Cassini-Huygens fĂłr framhjĂĄ JĂșpĂter ĂĄ leiĂ° sinni til SatĂșrnusar.
+
+Ădagsettir atburĂ°ir
+ BĂłkin Empire kom Ășt.
+ FarsĂminn Nokia 3310 kom ĂĄ markaĂ°.
+ Ăslenska lĂftĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Saga Medica var stofnaĂ°.
+ Ăslenska lĂftĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Orf LĂftĂŠkni var stofnaĂ°.
+ Ăslenska fyrirtĂŠkiĂ° Haliotis var stofnaĂ°.
+
+FĂŠdd
+ 6. janĂșar - Fiete Arp, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 24. febrĂșar - Jean-Manuel Mbom, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 9. mars - PĂĄll HrĂłar Beck Helgason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 11. mars - ElĂas Rafn Ălafsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 21. mars - Matty Longstaff, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 25. mars - Jadon Sancho, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 9. maĂ - Ăsgeir SigurĂ°sson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndagerĂ°armaĂ°ur.
+ 10. maĂ - Percy Liza, perĂșskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 28. maĂ - Phil Foden, enskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 23. ĂĄgĂșst - Vincent MĂŒller, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaĂ°ur.
+ 31. oktĂłber - Willow Smith, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona.
+
+DĂĄin
+ 19. janĂșar - Bettino Craxi, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra (f. 1934).
+ 10. febrĂșar - Jim Varney, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1949).
+ 26. febrĂșar - Louisa MatthĂasdĂłttir, Ăslensk-bandarĂskur myndlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1917).
+ 21. mars - MagnĂșs Ingimarsson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaĂ°ur (f. 1933).
+ 5. aprĂl- HalldĂłr HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur mĂĄlfrĂŠĂ°ingur og prĂłfessor (f. 1911).
+ 16. aprĂl - NĂna Björk ĂrnadĂłttir, skĂĄld og rithöfundur (f. 1941).
+ 7. maĂ - Douglas Fairbanks jr., bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1909).
+ 14. maĂ - Obuchi Keizo, fyrrum forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra Japans (f. 1937).
+ 15. maĂ - Heimir Steinsson, Ăslenskur prestur (f. 1937).
+ 21. maà - Barbara Cartland, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1901)
+ 21. maĂ - Sir John Gielgud, enskur leikari (f. 1904).
+ 26. maĂ - JĂłn Kr. Gunnarsson, Ăslenskur skipstjĂłri og rithöfundur (f. 1929).
+ 5. jĂșnĂ - Franco Rossi, Ătalskur handritshöfundur (f. 1919).
+ 10. jĂșnĂ - Hafez al-Assad, forseti SĂœrlands (f. 1930).
+ 23. jĂșlĂ - BenjamĂn H. J. EirĂksson, Ăslenskur hagfrĂŠĂ°ingur (f. 1910).
+ 5. ĂĄgĂșst - Alec Guinness, breskur leikari (f. 1914).
+ 17. ĂĄgĂșst - Robert R. Gilruth, bandarĂskur geimferĂ°astjĂłri (f. 1913).
+ 25. ĂĄgĂșst - Carl Barks, bandarĂskur teiknari (f. 1901).
+ 3. september - IndriĂ°i G. Ăorsteinsson, rithöfundur (f. 1926).
+ 28. september - Pierre Trudeau, kanadĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur og forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra (f. 1919).
+ 10. oktĂłber - Sirimavo Bandaranaike, forsĂŠtisrĂĄĂ°herra SrĂ Lanka (f. 1916).
+ 7. nĂłvember - IngirĂĂ°ur Danadrottning, kona FriĂ°riks 9. (f. 1910).
+ 18. desember - Kirsty MacColl, bresk söngkona og lagahöfundur (f. 1959).
+ 25. desember - Willard Van Orman Quine, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1908).
+
+NĂłbelsverĂ°launin
+ EĂ°lisfrĂŠĂ°i - Zhores Ivanovich Alferov, Herbert Kroemer, Jack Kilby
+ EfnafrĂŠĂ°i - Alan J Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid, Hideki Shirakawa
+ LĂŠknisfrĂŠĂ°i - Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard, Eric R. Kandel
+ BĂłkmenntir - Gao Xingjian
+ FriĂ°arverĂ°laun - Kim Dae Jung
+ HagfrĂŠĂ°i - James Heckman, Daniel McFadden
+
+2000
+1991-2000
+KjörorĂ° er setning sem hĂłpur hefur valiĂ° sĂ©r til aĂ° sameinast um. DĂŠmi um ĂŸetta er kjörorĂ° skyttnanna Ă bĂłkinni Skytturnar ĂŸrjĂĄr eftir Alexandre Dumas: âAllir fyrir einn, einn fyrir alla!â.
+
+
+Hugtök
+Tony Blair var Ăslensk pönkhljĂłmsveit.
+
+MeĂ°limir
+ Påll Hilmarsson (söngur)
+ Hilmar Hilmarsson (gĂtar)
+ Haraldur Ingi Ăorleifsson (bassi)
+ Guðmundur Björnsson (trommur)
+
+Ăslenskar hljĂłmsveitir
+Sjeik Ahmed Yassin (1937 â 22. mars, 2004) var leiĂ°togi Hamas samtakanna ĂŸangaĂ° til hann var drepinn af Ăsraelska hernum. Talsmenn ĂsraelsstjĂłrnar sögĂ°u aĂ° aftakan vĂŠri refsing fyrir allan ĂŸann fjölda sjĂĄlfsmorĂ°sĂĄrĂĄsa ĂĄ Ăsraelska borgara, sem Hamas hefur staĂ°iĂ° fyrir. StuĂ°ningsmenn Ahmeds Jassins, auk fjölmargra annarra, fordĂŠmdu aftökuna.
+
+Ahmed Yassin stofnaĂ°i Hamas ĂĄsamt Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi ĂĄriĂ° 1987. Upphaflega voru samtökin kölluĂ° PalestĂnuvĂŠngur BrĂŠĂ°ralags MĂșslima. ĂsraelsrĂki, BandarĂkin, EvrĂłpusambandiĂ° og fleiri lönd hafa skilgreint samtökin sem hryĂ°juverkasamtök. Auk ĂŸess aĂ° vera sjĂłndapur svo jaĂ°raĂ°i viĂ° blindu var hann lamaĂ°ur fyrir neĂ°an mitti og bundinn viĂ° hjĂłlastĂłl vegna ĂĂŸrĂłttaĂłhapps sem henti hann ĂĄ hans yngri ĂĄrum.
+
+Hamas
+PalestĂnskir stjĂłrnmĂĄlamenn
+JĂłn Einarsson GĂșstafsson (f. 29. jĂșlĂ 1963) var vinsĂŠll ĂŸĂĄttastjĂłrnandi ĂĄ nĂunda ĂĄratugnum, ĂŸar sem hann kom aĂ° stjĂłrn margra sjĂłnvarps- og ĂștvarpsĂŸĂĄtta sem einkum voru ĂŠtlaĂ°ir ungu fĂłlki. MĂĄ ĂŸar nefna: Rokkarnir geta ekki ĂŸagnaĂ°, Unglingarnir Ă frumskĂłginum og spurningakeppnina Gettu betur ĂŸegar hĂșn var fyrst haldin ĂĄriĂ° 1986. SĂĂ°ar stĂœrĂ°i hann spurningaĂŸĂŠttinum SPK fyrir yngri keppendur.
+
+Hann hafĂ°i lĂŠrt kvikmyndagerĂ° viĂ° Manchester Polytechnic, og leikstjĂłrn fyrir kvikmyndir og leikhĂșs viĂ° CalArts, ĂŸar sem leiĂ°beinandi hans var Alexander Mackendrick, leikstjĂłri viĂ° Ealing Studios. Hann leikstĂœrĂ°i kanadĂsku heimildarmyndinni ReiĂ°i guĂ°anna (2006), ĂŸar sem Gerard Butler, Wendy Ord, Sarah Polley, Paul Stephens og Sturla Gunnarsson fĂłru meĂ° hlutverk. ĂaĂ° var önnur mynd hans fyrir CBC Newsworld, frĂ©ttastöð kanadĂska rĂkissjĂłnvarpsins, en fyrsta myndin sem hann gerĂ°i fyrir ĂŸau var The Importance of Being Icelandic. AnnaĂ° sem hann fĂ©kkst viĂ° meĂ°an hann bjĂł Ă Kanada var meĂ°al annars kvikmyndin Kanadiana (2002) og tĂłnlistarmyndband viĂ° lagiĂ° Brighter Hell fyrir kanadĂsku rokksveitina The Watchmen. Hann framleiddi verĂ°launastuttmyndina In a Heartbeat (2010), sem leikstĂœrĂ° var af Karolinu Lewicka, ĂĄ vegum framleiĂ°slufyrirtĂŠkis hans, Artio Films. JĂłn var leikstjĂłri og framleiĂ°andi kvikmyndarinnar SkuggahverfiĂ° (2020) ĂĄsamt Karolinu Lewicka.
+
+Kvikmyndir
+ The Importance of Being Icelandic (1998)
+ Kanadiana (2002)
+ ReiĂ°i guĂ°anna (2006)
+ SkuggahverfiĂ° (2020)
+
+TilvĂsanir
+
+Tenglar
+
+ Glatkistan
+
+Ăslenskir kvikmyndaleikstjĂłrar
+FĂłlk fĂŠtt ĂĄriĂ° 1963
+StefĂĄn JĂłn Hafstein (f. 18. febrĂșar 1955) er starfsmaĂ°ur ĂrĂłunarsamvinnustofnunar og hefur veriĂ° frĂĄ 2007. Hann var umdĂŠmisstjĂłri Ă MalavĂ 2008-2012, en ĂĄĂ°ur verkefnastjĂłri Ă NamibĂu. FrĂĄ 2015 er hann umdĂŠmisstjĂłri Ă Ăganda. Hann ĂĄ feril sem stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaĂ°ur, fjölmiĂ°lamaĂ°ur og rithöfundur. Kom aĂ° stofnun DĂŠgurmĂĄlaĂștvarps RĂĄsar 2 og stjĂłrnaĂ°i ĂștvarpsĂŸĂĄttunum Meinhorninu og ĂjóðarsĂĄlinni, ĂŸar sem hlustendum gafst fĂŠri ĂĄ aĂ° hringja inn og tjĂĄ sig um Ăœmis mĂĄlefni.
+
+StefĂĄn var kosinn borgarfulltrĂși ReykjavĂkurlistans 2002 og Samfylkingarinnar 2005 en hann fĂ©kk leyfi frĂĄ störfum Ă borgarstjĂłrn Ă upphafi ĂĄrs 2007 til tveggja ĂĄra til aĂ° starfa sem verkefnisstjĂłri hjĂĄ ĂrĂłunarsamvinnustofnun Ăslands Ă NamibĂu. Hann var umdĂŠmisstjĂłri ĂSSĂ Ă MalavĂ 2008-2012 og starfar hjĂĄ ĂrĂłunarsamvinnustofnun Ă ReykjavĂk frĂĄ 2012. Maki er GuĂ°rĂșn KristĂn SigurĂ°ardĂłttir.
+
+Ăvi
+Foreldrar StefĂĄns eru Hannes ĂĂłrĂ°ur Hafstein (lĂĄtinn) og SigrĂșn StefĂĄnsdĂłttir (lĂĄtin). StefĂĄn gekk Ă VogaskĂłla og ĂștskrifaĂ°ist 1975 frĂĄ MenntaskĂłlanum viĂ° Tjörnina. Hann stundaĂ°i nĂĄm Ă ensku og bĂłkmenntun viĂ° HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands og lauk BA nĂĄmi Ă fjölmiĂ°lafrĂŠĂ°um frĂĄ Polytechnic of Central London 1979.
+
+AĂ° nĂĄmi loknu sneri StefĂĄn heim til Ăslands og starfaĂ°i sem frĂ©ttamaĂ°ur og dagskrĂĄrgerĂ°armaĂ°ur hjĂĄ RĂV 1979-1982. Svo settist hann ĂĄ nĂœ ĂĄ skĂłlabekk og stundaĂ°i framhaldsnĂĄm Ă boĂ°skiptafrĂŠĂ°um viĂ° University of Pennsylvania 1983-85 og ĂștskrifaĂ°ist meĂ° MA grĂĄĂ°u frĂĄ ĂŸeim skĂłla.
+
+AĂ° framhaldsnĂĄminu loknu starfaĂ°i hann um hrĂĂ° sem sendifulltrĂși RauĂ°a krossins Ă Genf og EĂŸĂĂłpĂu og gengdi trĂșnaĂ°arstörfum sem slĂkur vĂĂ°ar. Hann starfaĂ°i sem dagskrĂĄrstjĂłri RĂĄsar 2, dagskrĂĄrgerĂ°armaĂ°ur SjĂłnvarpsins, Stöðvar 2 og RĂĄsar 1. StjĂłrnandi spurningakeppninnar Gettu betur ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1991-1994. Hann var ritstjĂłri dagblaĂ°sins Dags-TĂmans (sĂĂ°ar Dags) 1997-1999, meĂ° eigin rekstur 2000 og starfaĂ°i sem yfirmaĂ°ur nĂœmiĂ°lunar og rekstrarstjĂłri hjĂĄ Eddu - miĂ°lun og ĂștgĂĄfu 2001-2002.
+
+StjĂłrnmĂĄl
+StefĂĄn tĂłk ĂŸĂĄtt Ă undirbĂșningi og stofnun Samfylkingarinnar ĂĄrin 1999 og 2000. Hann var kjörinn formaĂ°ur framkvĂŠmdastjĂłrnar Samfylkingarinnar 2001-2005. Var kjörinn borgarfulltrĂși Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄriĂ° 2002 fyrir ReykjavĂkurlistann, ĂŸar sem hann er fulltrĂși Samfylkingarinnar. Hann hlaut fyrsta sĂŠti ĂĄ lista Samfylkingar Ă prĂłfkjöri 2003. Hefur starfaĂ° sem formaĂ°ur borgarrĂĄĂ°s, forseti borgarstjĂłrnar, formaĂ°ur menntarĂĄĂ°s, formaĂ°ur menningar- og ferĂ°amĂĄlarĂĄĂ°s og formaĂ°ur hverfisrĂĄĂ°s Grafarvogs. FormaĂ°ur VĂkarinnar sjĂłminjasafns frĂĄ 2004. Ă framboĂ°i til borgarstjĂłrnar ĂĄriĂ° 2005 fyrir Samfylkinguna og nĂĄĂ°i kjöri, sat Ă menntarĂĄĂ°i, menningar- og ferĂ°amĂĄlarĂĄĂ°i og stjĂłrn Orkuveitunnar um hrĂĂ°.
+
+StefĂĄn JĂłn Hafstein fĂ©kk leyfi frĂĄ störfum Ă borgarstjĂłrn Ă upphafi ĂĄrs 2007 til tveggja ĂĄra til aĂ° starfa sem verkefnisstjĂłri hjĂĄ ĂrĂłunarsamvinnustofnun Ăslands Ă NamibĂu og hĂŠtti Ă framhaldi stjĂłrnmĂĄlaĂŸĂĄtttöku aĂ° sinni er hann varĂ° umdĂŠmisstjĂłri ĂSSĂ Ă MalavĂ 2008 og starfaĂ°i aĂ° ĂŸeim mĂĄlum sĂĂ°an.
+
+BĂŠkur
+Sex bĂŠkur liggja eftir StefĂĄn:
+ SagnaĂŸulir samtĂmans, fjölmiĂ°lar ĂĄ öld upplĂœsinga (1987)
+ GuĂ°irnir eru geggjaĂ°ir, ferĂ°asaga frĂĄ AfrĂku (1990)
+ New York New York (1992)
+ Fluguveiðisögur (2000) (sjå Flugur.is)
+FluguveiĂ°irĂĄĂ° (2013)
+AfrĂka - ĂĄst viĂ° aĂ°ra sĂœn. BĂłk meĂ° rĂkulegum myndskreytingum viĂ° greinaflokka frĂĄ sunanverĂ°ri AfrĂku (2014).
+
+Tengill
+HeimasĂĂ°a StefĂĄns JĂłns
+
+Ăslenskir rithöfundar
+Ăslenskir stjĂłrnmĂĄlamenn
+BorgarfulltrĂșar Samfylkingarinnar
+
+BorgarfulltrĂșar ReykjavĂkurlistans
+Sveinn H. GuĂ°marsson (fĂŠddur 1974) er Ăslenskur fjölmiĂ°lamaĂ°ur og nĂșverandi upplĂœsingafulltrĂși utanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°uneytisins. Hann er meĂ° BA-prĂłf Ă guĂ°frĂŠĂ°i frĂĄ HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands og MSc Ă alĂŸjóðastjĂłrnmĂĄlum frĂĄ EdinborgarhĂĄskĂłla.
+
+Sveinn var dĂłmari Ă Gettu betur ĂĄriĂ° 2003, en var ĂĄĂ°ur Ă sigurliĂ°i MenntaskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk Ă sömu keppni ĂĄrin 1993 og 1994. Hann var inspector scholae (formaĂ°ur nemendafĂ©lags) MR veturinn 1993-1994. ĂĂĄ leiddi hann lista Vöku Ă kosningum til StĂșdentarĂĄĂ°s 1995.
+
+Hann hefur starfaĂ° sem dagskrĂĄrgerĂ°armaĂ°ur ĂĄ RĂĄs 2 og Ă SjĂłnvarpinu, viĂ° blaĂ°amennsku ĂĄ FrĂ©ttablaĂ°inu, sem frĂ©ttamaĂ°ur ĂĄ Stöð 2, ritstjĂłri Iceland Review og flugtĂmarisins Atlantica. Hann starfaĂ°i sem frĂ©ttaritari RĂV Ă LundĂșnum til ĂĄrsins 2009 og ĂĄriĂ° 2010 starfaĂ°i Sveinn sem upplĂœsingafulltrĂși Unicef Ă Jemen. Hann var frĂ©ttamaĂ°ur ĂĄ RĂV ĂŸar til hann hĂłf störf sem upplĂœsingafulltrĂși hjĂĄ LandhelgisgĂŠslunni Ă lok ĂĄrs 2016. ĂriĂ° 2018 var hann rĂĄĂ°inn upplĂœsingafulltrĂși utanrĂkisrĂĄĂ°uneytisins.
+
+Ă RĂĄs 2 var Sveinn meĂ°al annars umsjĂłnarmaĂ°ur hinnar ĂĄrvissu Spurningakeppni fjölmiĂ°lanna. ĂĂĄ hefur hann sinnt dĂłmargĂŠslu og samiĂ° spurningar fyrir sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttinn Ătsvar ĂĄ RĂV.
+
+Sveinn bĂœr ĂĄ Seltjarnarnesi ĂŸar sem hann er uppalinn.
+
+Ăslenskt fjölmiĂ°lafĂłlk
+Sigurvegarar Ă Gettu betur
+
+StĂșdentar Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk
+Hlemmur er yfirbyggt torg sem stendur efst ĂĄ Hverfisgötu, gegnt aĂ°allögreglustöð borgarinnar. Ăar er nĂș mathöllin Hlemmur - Mathöll. NafniĂ° Hlemmur vĂsar til brĂșarstubbs sem ĂŸar var yfir lĂŠkinn RauĂ°arĂĄ, sem RauĂ°arĂĄrstĂgur Ă ReykjavĂk er kenndur viĂ°.
+
+KomiĂ° var upp vatnsĂŸrĂł ĂĄ Hlemmtorgi, til aĂ° brynna hestum, skömmu eftir stofnun Vatnsveitu ReykjavĂkur. ĂriĂ° 2005 var höggmyndin âKlyfjahesturinnâ eftir SigurjĂłn Ălafsson, sem stóð ĂĄĂ°ur viĂ° SogamĂœri, sett niĂ°ur rĂ©tt viĂ° Hlemm til minnis um ĂŸetta.
+
+Ă fyrri hluta tuttugustu aldar stóð Gasstöð ReykjavĂkur viĂ° Hlemm. Hana hefur Megas sungiĂ° um. Einnig kemur Gasstöðin viĂ° sögu Ă skĂĄldsögu Arnaldar IndriĂ°asonar, GrafarĂŸĂ¶gn. Ăar sem torgiĂ° er nĂș stóðu meĂ°al annars bensĂnstöð og leigubĂlastöð Hreyfils ĂĄĂ°ur en nĂșverandi bygging var reist.
+
+ĂriĂ° 1978 var byggingin ĂĄ Hlemmi reist sem ein af aĂ°alskiptistöðvum StrĂŠtĂł bs. Ă ReykjavĂk eftir teikningu Gunnars Hanssonar arkitekts. Skiptistöðin var um ĂĄrabil eins konar afdrep ĂștigangsfĂłlks Ă ReykjavĂk. Kvikmyndin Hlemmur frĂĄ 2003 fjallar um ĂŸaĂ°. FrĂĄ 1980-1984 var Hlemmur auk ĂŸess ein aĂ°alfĂ©lagsmiĂ°stöð ungra upprennandi pönkara sem komu saman ĂĄ hverjum degi og hĂ©ngu ĂŸar saman. Ă ĂŸeim tĂma var töluvert um afĂŸreyingarstarfsemi Ă kringum Hlemm, svo sem skyndibitastaĂ°ir, spilasalir og vĂdeĂłleigur.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2017 var ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° aĂ° BSĂ tĂŠki viĂ° af Hlemmi sem samgöngumiĂ°stöð fyrir HöfuĂ°borgarsvĂŠĂ°iĂ°. Sama ĂĄr var Hlemmur - Mathöll opnuĂ° ĂŸar eftir miklar endurbĂŠtur ĂĄ hĂșsnĂŠĂ°inu. ĂriĂ° 2019 var kynnt nĂœtt deiliskipulag fyrir Hlemm og nĂŠrliggjandi svĂŠĂ°i ĂŸar sem gert er rĂĄĂ° fyrir aĂ° stĂŠkka torgiĂ° austan viĂ° Hlemm (Hlemmtorg) og leiĂ°a umferĂ° frĂĄ SuĂ°urlandsbraut ĂŸar norĂ°an viĂ°.
+
+TilvĂsanir og heimildir
+
+Torg Ă ReykjavĂk
+HlĂĂ°ar
+Gasstöð ReykjavĂkur var gasveita viĂ° Hlemm Ă ReykjavĂk sem var starfrĂŠkt frĂĄ 1910 til 1956. HĂșn framleiddi gas til eldunar og lĂœsingar Ășr innfluttum kolum. Ăegar gasinu hafĂ°i veriĂ° nĂĄĂ° Ășr kolunum meĂ° upphitun, varĂ° til kox, sem Gasstöðin seldi. GasiĂ° var sĂĂ°an notaĂ° til lĂœsingar og eldunar og koxiĂ° til brennslu og upphitunar. Eftir stofnun Rafmagnsveitu ReykjavĂkur ĂĄriĂ° 1921 var gasiĂ° nĂŠr einvörĂ°ungu nĂœtt til eldamennsku.
+
+BrauĂ°gerĂ°arhĂșsiĂ° Ă Gasstöðinni
+VoriĂ° 1918 var lokiĂ° viĂ° aĂ° koma upp bökunarofni Ă Gasstöðinni. Var hann settur ofan ĂĄ annan gasgerĂ°arofninn, og meĂ° ĂŸeim hĂŠtti var hĂŠgt aĂ° nota hitann frĂĄ honum, sem annars fĂłr til ĂłnĂœtis. Tilraun ĂŸessi ĂŸĂłtti sĂœna ĂŸaĂ°, aĂ° ĂŸarna vĂŠri fundinn hitagjafi, sem ekki hefĂ°i veriĂ° nĂœttur, og hann mundi duga til aĂ° baka viĂ° hann brauĂ°. Um ĂŸaĂ° bil er Fyrri heimsstyrjöldinni lauk, störfuĂ°u fjĂłrir bakarar Ă ĂŸessari nĂœstĂĄrlega brauĂ°gerĂ°arhĂșsi, en forstöðumaĂ°ur ĂŸess var KristjĂĄn Hall. Var Ă rĂĄĂ°i aĂ° setja ĂŸar upp annan bakaraofn, en af ĂŸvĂ varĂ° ekki. KristjĂĄn Hall lĂ©st nĂŠsta haust Ășr spönsku veikinni, og nokkuĂ° eftir lĂĄt hans hĂŠtti brauĂ°bakstur Ă Gasstöðinni.
+
+Eitt og annaĂ°
+ TĂłnlistarmaĂ°urinn Megas söng um gasstöðina Ă lagi sĂnu âGamla gasstöðin viĂ° Hlemmâ.
+ Gasstöðin kemur viĂ° sögu Ă skĂĄldverkinu âGrafarĂŸĂ¶gnâ eftir Arnald IndriĂ°ason.
+
+Tenglar
+ GasiĂ° og gasstöðin. - Samtal viĂ° PĂĄl Einarsson borgarstjĂłra o.fl., Ăsafold 27. ĂĄgĂșst 1910
+ Gasstöðin kveður; grein à Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1958
+ Hlemmur (ferlir.is)
+Saga ReykjavĂkur
+Byggingar Ă ReykjavĂk
+RauĂ°arĂĄrstĂgur er gata Ă ReykjavĂk milli Miklubrautar og SkĂșlagötu, austan NorĂ°urmĂœrar, kennd viĂ° lĂŠkinn RauĂ°arĂĄ, sem nĂș rennur Ă rĂŠsi undir götunni. Yfir RauĂ°arĂĄ lĂĄ ĂĄĂ°ur brĂșarstubburinn Hlemmur.
+
+ViĂ° götuna eru starfrĂŠktar Ăœmsar verslanir og ĂŸjĂłnustufyrirtĂŠki. MĂĄ ĂŸar nefna ĂsbĂșĂ°ina HerdĂsi, ĂŸar sem ĂĄĂ°ur var söluturninn Draumurinn, söluturninn Svarta svaninn, GallerĂœ Fold, veitingastaĂ°inn Resto og steikhĂșsiĂ° RauĂ°arĂĄ.
+
+Götur Ă ReykjavĂk
+Vatnsveita ReykjavĂkur tĂłk til starfa ĂĄriĂ° 1909. Lengst af voru aĂ°alvatnsbĂłl Vatnsveitunnar Ă Gvendarbrunnum.
+
+Vatnsveita ReykjavĂkur er nĂș hluti Orkuveitu ReykjavĂkur sem er Ă meirihlutaeigu ReykjavĂkurborgar.
+
+Tengill
+ Gvendarbrunnar: Vatnsveita ReykjavĂkur var stĂŠrsta fyrirtĂŠki landsins ĂĄ sinni tĂĂ°, grein eftir Ărna Ăla Ă LesbĂłk MorgunblaĂ°sins 4. aprĂl 1965
+
+ReykjavĂk
+Ăslensk fyrirtĂŠki
+SkĂșlagata er gata Ă ReykjavĂk kennd viĂ° SkĂșla MagnĂșsson landfĂłgeta. HĂșn nĂĄĂ°i ĂĄĂ°ur milli HöfĂ°atĂșns og IngĂłlfsstrĂŠtis, en eftir 2012 hefur vegurinn frĂĄ Snorrabraut aĂ° HöfĂ°atĂșni heitiĂ° BrĂetartĂșn. Eldra heiti SkĂșlagötu er âVindheimagataâ, sem vĂsar til torfbĂŠjarins Vindheima sem stóð viĂ° norĂ°vesturenda KlapparstĂgs, en ĂŸangaĂ° nĂĄĂ°i gatan til 1914 ĂŸegar hĂșn var lengd til vesturs viĂ° lagningu jĂĄrnbrautar frĂĄ ĂskjuhlĂĂ° aĂ° ReykjavĂkurhöfn. ĂriĂ° 1918 var ĂĄkveĂ°iĂ° aĂ° nefna götuna SkĂșlagötu.
+
+RĂkisĂștvarpiĂ° var meĂ° starfsemi sĂna aĂ° SkĂșlagötu 4 frĂĄ 1959-1987, ĂŸegar starfsemi ĂŸess var flutt Ă Efstaleiti. Ăar eru nĂș til hĂșsa SjĂĄvarĂștvegsrĂĄĂ°uneytiĂ°, HafrannsĂłknastofnun og RannsĂłknastofnun fiskiĂ°naĂ°arins.
+
+Hluti SkĂșlagötu, frĂĄ Snorrabraut aĂ° HöfĂ°atĂșni fĂ©kk ĂĄriĂ° 2012 heitiĂ° BrĂetartĂșn eftir BrĂeti BjarnhĂ©Ă°insdĂłttur. SkĂșlagata er einnig staĂ°sett Ă Borgarnesi.
+
+Götur Ă ReykjavĂk
+MiĂ°borg ReykjavĂkur
+HegningarhĂșsiĂ° viĂ° SkĂłlavörĂ°ustĂg 9 (oft kallaĂ° NĂan eĂ°a HegnĂł og hĂ©r ĂĄĂ°ur fyrr tugthĂșsiĂ°, fangahĂșsiĂ° eĂ°a Steinninn) var fangelsi rekiĂ° af FangelsismĂĄlastofnun. SĂĂ°ast var ĂŸaĂ° notaĂ° sem mĂłttökufangelsi, ĂŸar sem fangar dvöldu Ă stutta stund ĂŸegar ĂŸeir hĂłfu afplĂĄnun dĂłma. Ăann 1. jĂșnĂ 2016 var starfsemi hegningarhĂșssins hĂŠtt.
+
+Saga
+HegningarhĂșsiĂ° er hlaĂ°iĂ° steinhĂșs reist ĂĄriĂ° 1872 af PĂĄli EyjĂłlfssyni gullsmiĂ°. HĂșsiĂ° var friĂ°aĂ° 18. ĂĄgĂșst ĂĄriĂ° 1978 samkvĂŠmt 1. mĂĄlsgrein 26. og 27. greinar ĂŸjóðminjalaga nr. 52/1969 og tekur friĂ°unin til ytra borĂ°s ĂŸess ĂĄsamt ĂĄlmum til beggja hliĂ°a og anddyri meĂ° stiga. HĂŠstirĂ©ttur var ĂŸar til hĂșsa ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1920 â 1949.
+
+Ă hegningarhĂșsinu voru sextĂĄn fangaklefar, litlir og ĂŸröngir og loftrĂŠsting lĂ©leg. Fangaklefarnir voru auk ĂŸess ĂĄn salernis og handlaugar. Ă efri hĂŠĂ° voru skrifstofur og salur sem ĂĄĂ°ur hĂœsti bĂŠjarĂŸingsstofuna, LandsyfirrĂ©tt og sĂĂ°ar HĂŠstarĂ©tt ĂŸar til hann flutti Ă nĂœbyggingu viĂ° Lindargötu ĂĄriĂ° 1947.
+
+ĂriĂ° 2020 hĂłfust endurbĂŠtur ĂĄ hĂșsinu og stefnt er aĂ° opna ĂŸaĂ° fyrir almenningi.
+
+Eitt og annaĂ°
+OrĂ°in steinn eĂ°a grjĂłt Ă merkingunni fangelsi, og sem oftast eru höfĂ° meĂ° greini: steininn eĂ°a grjĂłtiĂ° eru tilkomin vegna HegningarhĂșsins ĂĄ SkĂłlavörĂ°ustĂg, enda hlaĂ°iĂ° hĂșs Ășr Ăslensku hraungrĂœti.
+Hin ĂmyndaĂ°a ĂĄhöfn ĂĄ Mb. Rosanum var stungiĂ° inn Ă NĂuna (ĂŸ.e.a.s. HegningarhĂșsiĂ°), eins segir Ă samnefndu lagi ĂĄ plötu Bubba Morthens, ĂsbjarnarblĂșs.
+
+Tengt efni
+FangelsismĂĄlastofnun r
\ No newline at end of file
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diff --git a/labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.txt b/labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0efe4d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,9266 @@
+Amager Ă€r en dansk ö i Ăresund. Ăns norra och vĂ€stra delar tillhör Köpenhamn, medan övriga delar upptas av TĂ„rnby kommun och DragĂžrs kommun.
+Amager har en yta pĂ„ 96,29 kmÂČ och befolkningen uppgĂ„r till 196 047 personer (1/1 2018). PĂ„ den östra delen av ön ligger Köpenhamns flygplats (Kastrup). Amager har flera militĂ€ra anlĂ€ggningar, sĂ„som Kastrup fort och Dragör fort. PĂ„ ön finns strandomrĂ„dena Amager Strandpark och Kastrup Strandpark, flera restauranger i vĂ€rldsklass, det stora naturomrĂ„det Amager FĂŠlled, ett av Nordens största köpcentra (Field's) och mycket annat. Amager förkortas ofta Ama'r för att Ă„terspegla det danska uttalet.
+
+Amager Ă€r delvis en konstgjord ö, delvis en naturlig sĂ„dan. Till exempel anlades en konstgjord ö i anslutning till den redan existerande Amager Strandpark, nĂ€r denna rustades upp vĂ€sentligen 2005. Ăn Ă€r mycket lĂ„glĂ€nt och vissa delar ligger under havsytan, framför allt det genom fördĂ€mning och utfyllnad skapade omrĂ„det Kalvebod FĂŠlled (Vestamager). Amager började uppodlas i större skala under första hĂ€lft, dĂ„ kung Kristian II bjöd in nederlĂ€ndska bönder till att odla upp ön för kronans rĂ€kning. Flertalet slog sig ned i fiskelĂ€get DragĂžr dĂ€r mĂ„nga Ă€n idag har namn med nederlĂ€ndskt ursprung som Neels och TĂžnnes.
+
+Den stora utvecklingsfasen började pĂ„ 1800-talet dĂ„ flera fabriker, bostadsomrĂ„den och militĂ€r verksamhet utvecklade sig pĂ„ ön. Det fanns ett antal stora och kĂ€nda fabriker pĂ„ ön och den industriella prĂ€geln höll sig vĂ€ldigt tydlig lĂ„ngt in pĂ„ 1900-talet. Det förekommer ocksĂ„ omrĂ„den som tidigare varit sommarstugeomrĂ„den och dĂ€r det Ă€n idag finns kolonilottomrĂ„den, i till exempel SundbyĂžster ut mot kusten. Under 1900-talet började militĂ€ren att utveckla stora övningsomrĂ„den pĂ„ ön, vilket resulterade i Vestamager som idag innefattar ett stort naturomrĂ„de endast nĂ„gra kilometer frĂ„n Köpenhamns centrum. Under senare delen av 1900-talet har flygplatsen expanderat kraftigt och i samband med byggandet av Ăresundsförbindelsen började Ă€ven ett stort omrĂ„de byggas som kallas för Ărestad.
+
+Ăn, som Ă€r förbunden med övriga Köpenhamn genom flera broar, jĂ€rnvĂ€g och sedan 2017 Ă€ven Metro, har sedan sent 1990-tal förĂ€ndrats mycket. Dels har flera omrĂ„den exploaterats med nya moderna kvarter lĂ€genheter, till exempel i omrĂ„dena Ărestad, Islands Brygge och Amager Strand, och dels har Amagers nĂ€rhet till Köpenhamn raderat dess tidigare rykte som en industriell förstad till Köpenhamn. Idag finns det omrĂ„den av alla sorter pĂ„ ön. Tack vare flygplatsen finns ett aktivt nĂ€ringsliv kvar, samtidigt som de nya omrĂ„dena och inte minst upprustningen av Amager Strand har förĂ€ndrat bilden av ön. Idag Ă€r flera delar av ön mycket attraktiva bostadsomrĂ„den.
+
+Amager Ă„terfick i samband med Ăresundsbron Ă€ven en jĂ€rnvĂ€gsförbindelse vilket inte funnits sedan 1960-talet. En motorvĂ€g byggdes samtidigt över öns mellersta del. Köpenhamns metro gĂ„r till bland annat Kastrups flygplats och Ărestad, med ett antal stationer pĂ„ ön. Kring metro- och regionaltĂ„gsstationen Ărestad har ett stort kontors-, handels- och bostadsomrĂ„de uppförts under 00-talet med för nĂ€rvarande (2020) invĂ„nare och arbetsplatser. Detta strĂ€cker sig frĂ„n Bella Center i norr till metrostationen Vestamager i söder. Ăven om omrĂ„det inte ligger vid kusten har Ărestad delvis fĂ„tt karaktĂ€ren av en hamnstad genom anlĂ€ggandet av konstgjorda kanaler och dammar. Vid Islands Brygge finns en "Ă€kta" sjöstad.
+
+Före Ăresundsförbindelsens uppförande hade smĂ„staden DragĂžr en fĂ€rjeförbindelse med Limhamn i södra Malmö. PĂ„ grund av denna fanns i DragĂžr tidigare en betydande grĂ€nshandel. Denna har under 2000-talet helt upphört liksom den genomgĂ„ende trafiken.
+
+Amagers vĂ€stra del, som utvanns frĂ„n Ăresund under 1920- och 30-talen, Ă€r med undantag för Bella Center, Ărestad samt ett koloniomrĂ„de, avsatt som natur- och rekreationsomrĂ„de. Marken Ă€r Ă€ngsmark (odlad mark finns dock pĂ„ den naturliga delen av öns södra del). LĂ€ngst i söder finns skogen Kongelunden, som anlades av Det Kongelige Danske Landhusholdningsselskab. Tidigare skog hade redan anvĂ€nts till odling, brĂ€nsle och byggnadsmaterial och det sista omrĂ„det fördĂ€rvades under Karl X Gustavs första danska krig . PĂ„ öns östra del, vid Ăresundskusten, finns Amager Strandpark med en populĂ€r sandstrand. OmrĂ„det har omgestaltats, med en konstgjord ö och en lagun innanför. Nyinvigningen av parken, som funnits sedan 1934, Ă€gde rum 2005.
+
+Amager Àr den tÀtast befolkade ön i Danmark. Den nÀst mest tÀtbefolkade Àr ThurÞ.
+
+Uttryck med 'Amager'
+ Amar! â en besvĂ€rjelse för oskuld, en mild ed. Amager FĂŠlled anvĂ€ndes tidigare som plats för avrĂ€ttning. HĂ€pnadsvĂ€ckande!
+ Amagerbroderi â et broderi med plattsöm i kulörta fĂ€rger.
+ Amagersyning (Amagersömnad) Àr hollÀndskt inspirerad broderiteknik.
+ Amagergarn â pĂ€rlgarn, merceriserad bomullsbroderitrĂ„d (pĂ„ tyska: :de:Perlgarn).
+ Amagerhylde â Amagerhylla, en A-formad triangulĂ€r hylla för prydnadssaker.
+ Amagermad â Amagermacka Ă€r en dubbelmacka bestĂ„ende av en skiva rĂ„gbröd och en skiva vetebröd med smör emellan och möjligen pĂ„lĂ€gg.
+ Amager-nummerplade (registreringsskylt frÄn Amager) betecknar en tatuering pÄ lÀndryggen.
+
+Se Àven
+Amagerbro
+Amagerport
+Amagerbroderi
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Ăar i Region Hovedstaden
+Afrika Ă€r jordens nĂ€st största kontinent (efter Eurasien) och Ă€ven jordens nĂ€st största vĂ€rldsdel efter Asien, bĂ„de vad gĂ€ller areal och folkmĂ€ngd. Med vĂ€rldsdelens öar inrĂ€knade mĂ€ter Afrika 30 244 050 kmÂČ, vilket motsvarar 20,3 procent av jordens landmassa eller cirka 6 procent av jordens totala area. Omkring 22 miljoner kmÂČ av dessa ligger i tropikerna vilket gör den afrikanska kontinenten till vĂ€rldens varmaste kontinent. Antalet invĂ„nare i afrika Ă„r 2022 berĂ€knas till 1,4 miljarder, mer Ă€n en sjĂ€ttedel av jordens befolkning. Dess lĂ€ngd i nordlig-sydlig riktning Ă€r omkring 8 000 km och dess största bredd omkring 7 800 km.
+
+Etymologi
+Ordet âAfrikasâ etymologiska bakgrund Ă€r dunkel, och ordet har dessutom haft olika betydelse under olika epoker.
+
+I Ă€ldre tider kallades allt land vĂ€ster om Egypten för âLibyenâ. Enligt den grekiska historieskrivaren Herodotos berĂ€ttelse seglade feniciska sjömĂ€n pĂ„ uppdrag av den egyptiska kungen Neko runt Libyen, det vill sĂ€ga kontinenten Afrika redan omkring 600 f.Kr.
+
+NÀr romarna först anvÀnde termen Africa terra avsÄg de före andra puniska kriget endast trakten kring Karthago, det vill sÀga motsvarande ungefÀr dagens Tunisien dÀr sjÀlva staden Karthago lÄg samt stora delar av Libyen och Algeriet. Romarna uppfattade först Egypten som en del av Asien, och det var först geografen Ptolemaios som drog grÀnsen vid Suez. Under kejsartiden kom Africa att avse hela det omrÄdet romarna kÀnde till av kontinenten, och allt eftersom européerna upptÀckte mer och mer av kontinenten kom termen att avse ett allt större omrÄde. Namnet ska ha avsett "landet dÀr afri" (singularis: afer) bodde. Afer avsÄg namnet pÄ ett folk som kan motsvara dagens berber. Vikingarna under 800- och 900-talen kallade norra Afrika för "BlÄland".
+
+Geografi
+
+Geologiskt Àr Afrika en mycket gammal kontinent, i huvudsak uppbyggd av urberg. Under jordens forntid var den en del av jÀttekontinenten Gondwanaland. Denna gled isÀr under jura- och krita-perioderna för 100-150 miljoner Är sedan, och sÄ fick Afrika sin nuvarande form.
+
+Inom sina regelbundna kuster rymmer den en total yta pĂ„ omkring 30 244 050 kmÂČ inklusive öarna. Afrika Ă„tskiljs frĂ„n Europa av Medelhavet och förenas med Asien i sitt nordöstra hörn genom nĂ€set vid Suez, omkring 130 km i bredd. Omkring 8 000 km skiljer den nordligaste punkten, Ras ben Sakka i Tunisien, frĂ„n dess sydligaste, Kap Agulhas i Sydafrika. FrĂ„n Kap Verde, dess vĂ€stligaste punkt, till Ras Hafun i Somalia Ă€r det omkring 7 400 km. Afrikas kuster mĂ€ter omkring 28 000 km (1 km kust pĂ„ 1 057 kmÂČ) varav Medelhavet stĂ„r för 5 400 km, Atlanten 11 000 km, Indiska oceanen 8 700 km och Röda havet 2 900 km, och avsaknaden av djupare bukter och betydande halvöar blir uppenbar om man jĂ€mför med Europas 9 700 000 kmÂČ som omgĂ€rdas av 32 000 km kust (1 km kust pĂ„ 278 kmÂČ land), eller med det fjordrika Norge, dĂ€r motsvarande siffra 385 000 kmÂČ land och en kuststrĂ€cka pĂ„ 20 000 km (1 km kust per 19 kmÂČ land).
+
+Afrikas genomsnittliga höjd över havet Àr omkring 600 m, vilket motsvarar de bÄda amerikanska kontinenternas höjd men Àr lÀgre Àn den asiatiska pÄ omkring 950 m. JÀmfört med de andra kontinenterna utmÀrker sig Afrika med en liten andel landomrÄden pÄ mycket hög respektive mycket lÄg höjd. LandomrÄdena under 180 m ö.h. upptar en osedvanligt liten del av den totala landmassan, och Àven de högsta delarna, som Àr betydligt lÀgre Àn motsvarande i Asien, utgörs av isolerade berg och bergskedjor. Generellt ligger de högre platÄerna i öst och söder och de lÀgre delarna Ät vÀst och norr och med en linje frÄn ungefÀr vid Röda havets mitt till Kongoflodens mynning kan kontinenten delas upp i ett lÄgland i norr och ett högland i söder. Man kan sÄledes dela upp Afrika i fyra övergripande landomrÄden:
+ SlĂ€ttlanden vid kusterna â ofta med mangrovetrĂ€sk insprĂ€ngda â nĂ„r aldrig lĂ„ngt in frĂ„n kusterna utom vid vattendragens nedre delar. Slamrika slĂ€ttland finns egentligen bara vid de större flodernas deltan, och annars utgör kustomrĂ„dena det lĂ€gsta steget i en serie terrasser som bildar stigningen upp till de inre platĂ„erna.
+ Atlasbergen i norr, som ligger isolerade av Saharaöknen.
+ De södra och östra höglanden som ligger pÄ mellan 600 och 1 000 m ö.h.
+ De nordliga och vÀstra slÀttlanden, inklusive Sahara, som kantas och genomfars av strÄk med högre landomrÄden, men i allmÀnhet hÄller sig under 600 m ö.h. Sahara ligger till och med bitvis under havsytan.
+
+Skog tÀcker cirka en femtedel av Afrikas yta.
+
+Hela Afrika har ett tropiskt eller Subtropiskt klimat.
+
+Fauna
+
+Afrika Àr huvudsakligen kÀnt för den öppna savannen med vÀldiga hjordar av hovdjur, som afrikansk buffel, gnuer, antiloper, giraffer och zebror. Dessa jagas av stora rovdjur som lejon, hyenor och geparder. Den afrikanska djungeln befolkas av ormar och primater samt av vattenlevande djur som krokodiler och groddjur. Afrika har Àven det största antalet arter som kan rÀknas till megafaunan, bland annat afrikanska elefanter, trubbnoshörning och flodhÀst, pÄ grund av att kontinenten bara i mindre utstrÀckning var pÄverkad av det massutdöende som skedde under pleistocen.
+
+Historia
+
+Den första mĂ€nskliga migrationen, frĂ„n kontinenten men Ă€ven inom Afrikas kuster, kan spĂ„ras lingvistiskt, kulturellt och genom datoranalyser av genetiskt material. NĂ„gonstans i Ăstafrika tror dagens forskare att de första hominiderna uppkom. I Etiopien har man hittat ett tvĂ„ miljoner Ă„r gammalt skelett som uppkallades Lucy, den första kĂ€nda mĂ€nskliga primaten.
+
+Tidigare civilisationer och handel
+Lingvistiska spÄr tyder pÄ att Bantufolk emigrerade frÄn VÀstafrika in i khoisanfolkets (de som tidigare kallades bushmÀn och hottentotter) omrÄde och undantrÀngde dem. Bantufolken anvÀnde en uppsÀttning grödor, bland annat kassava och jams, som var mer lÀmpade för jordbruk i det tropiska Afrika, och med sitt jordbruk kunde bantu försörja en betydligt större folkmÀngd Àn de jÀgare eller samlare som de trÀngde undan. Bantufolkens traditionella bosÀttningsomrÄde strÀcker sig frÄn Saharaöknen till de tempererade regionerna i söder. Historiskt har deras vapen varit spjut, sköld, pil och bÄge. Det för khoisansprÄkens karaktÀristiska klickljuden Äterfinns i nguni- och bantusprÄk som till exempel xhosa och zulu. KhoisansprÄken talas idag frÀmst av utspridda minoritetsgrupper i södra Afrika i lÀnderna kring Kalahariöknen.
+
+Afrika söder om Sahara har bestÄtt av olika stater och riken, mindre stadsstater samt stammar och klaner. Det forna egyptiska riket, Àr en av vÀrldens Àldsta stater, och den mest kÀnda av de Àldre afrikanska civilisationerna. Det fanns Àven statsbildningar i Nubien, Ghana, Timbuktu, Kanem-Bornu och i nuvarande Zimbabwe.
+
+Nordafrika kom frĂ„n och med 600-talet under arabiskt inflytande â en tid av kulturell blomstring â och med kamelens hjĂ€lp spreds Islam och den arabiska kulturen genom Sahara och vidare söderut. Arabiska och persiska handelsmĂ€n spred likasĂ„ Islam lĂ€ngs med den östafrikanska kusten parallellt med en omfattande svart slavhandel. Detta östafrikanska handelsutbyte med araber och perser strĂ€ckte sig Ă€nda bort till Java. DĂ€rigenom uppstod den etniska, kulturella och sprĂ„kliga mĂ„ngfalden pĂ„ Ăstafrikas kust, Madagaskar och Komorerna.
+
+ArabvÀrlden och Europa utforskar kontinenten
+Det arabiska intresset för Afrika gÄr lÄngt tillbaka, men handel med slavar frÄn centra som Lamu och Zanzibar vid östkusten har pÄgÄtt Ätminstone sedan senare delen av 1000-talet e.Kr. De miljoner slavar som exporterades till arabvÀrlden och österut under den arabiska slavhandeln finns idag kvar som en stor etnisk grupp dÀr, i stor utstrÀckning integrerad med den ursprungliga arabiska befolkningen. Slavhandel med svarta pÄgÄr fortfarande i vissa arablÀnder, till exempel Sudan.
+
+Under 1300-talet började vissa europeiska handelsexpeditioner fÄ kontakt med Nord- och VÀstafrika.
+
+FrÄn 1500-talets mitt fram till förbudet mot slavhandel i Storbritanniens parlament 1807, som kom att fÄ full kraft först nÄgot Ärtionde senare, handlades slavar frÄn lokala stamledare i frÀmst VÀst- och Centralafrika. Flera miljoner afrikaner sÄldes pÄ detta vis som slavar till frÀmst de Europeiska kolonierna i Amerika.
+
+Tidiga kolonisatörer var araber, portugiser och spanjorer. DÀrefter koloniserades kontinenten framför allt av Storbritannien, Frankrike, Spanien, Italien, Belgien, NederlÀnderna, Tyskland och Portugal.
+
+Koloniseringen
+
+ FrÄn slutet av 1000-talet koloniserade arabiska köpmÀn den afrikanska östkusten. HollÀndarna koloniserade pÄ 1600-talet den dÄ relativt folktomma södra udden av Afrika. Portugiserna grundade flera kolonier i vÀstra Afrika och vid nuvarande Moçambique. I mitten av 1800-talet leddes flera expeditioner in i de centrala delarna av Afrika, bland annat av Livingstone och Speke, men ocksÄ den svenske upptÀcktsresanden Andersson. Denna kolonisering förÀndrade i grunden det ekonomiska livet pÄ kontinenten, och innebar i flera fall ensidig export av naturresurser. Kung Leopolds rovdrift pÄ sin privata koloni Kongostaten Àr ökÀnd och kostade miljontals afrikanska liv.
+
+I Afrika fanns efter första vÀrldskriget endast tre sjÀlvstÀndiga stater nÀmligen konungariket Egypten, republiken Liberia och konungariket Abessinien. Tanger bildade med sitt omrÄde en internationell zon. För övrigt var hela vÀrldsdelen uppdelad pÄ kolonier Ät europeiska makter.
+
+Flertalet kolonier erhöll sjÀlvstÀndighet under slutet av 1950-talet och början av 1960-talet. Avkoloniseringen resulterade i flertalet fall med katastrof, dÀr diktatur och etnisk rensning vanligen blev följden, till exempel i Rhodesia (nuvarande Zimbabwe), Rwanda, Uganda, Nigeria m.fl. stater.
+
+Politik
+
+Det postkoloniala Afrikas politik har i hög grad prÀglats av diktatur, statskupper och brist pÄ mÀnskliga rÀttigheter.
+
+Nationerna i Afrika har ofta visat sig vara instabila stater som efter sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigheten hemsökts av korruption, vĂ„ldsamma statskupper, despotism och militĂ€rdiktaturer. Under perioden 1960-1989 genomfördes över 70 kupper och 13 mord pĂ„ presidenter. Under det kalla kriget kĂ€mpade USA och Sovjetunionen om makten i Afrika, och tillsammans med lĂ€nder som Frankrike och Kuba, stödde de aktivt diktaturer och iscensatte flera av dessa kupper och illgĂ€rningar mot demokratiskt valda regeringar. Enligt en spridd uppfattning beror mĂ„nga militĂ€ra konflikter om territorier och grĂ€nser under Afrikas moderna historia pĂ„ de grĂ€nser frĂ„n kolonial tid som huvudsakligen drogs upp efter Kongokonferensen, men detta kan inte visas eftersom nĂ„got jĂ€mförelseomrĂ„de inte finns. Konflikter i Afrika har ofta drivits av tillgĂ„ngen till kontinentens rika rĂ„varutillgĂ„ngar â diamanter och metaller som guld, platina, uran och koppar.
+
+Korruption och havererade politiska program har lett till utbredd undernÀring och undermÄlig infrastruktur orsakar alltjÀmt brist pÄ mat och rent vatten. Sanitetsproblemen har ocksÄ orsakat en akut spridning av bland annat hiv-viruset som leder till sjukdomen aids.
+
+Trots nöd och umbĂ€randen finns vissa positiva tecken â demokratiskt valda regeringar vĂ€xer i antal Ă€ven om de inte utgör nĂ„gon majoritet Ă€nnu. Genom pĂ„tryckningar frĂ„n till exempel Internationella valutafonden (IMF) har mĂ„nga afrikanska stater lyckats vĂ€nda en nedĂ„tgĂ„ende ekonomisk spiral som varat i flera decennier till en positiv tillvĂ€xt. Om man beaktar IMF:s katastrofala misslyckanden i lĂ€nder som Argentina och Filippinerna Ă€r det dock oklart i vilken omfattning dessa konventionella ekonomiska kriterier ger en rĂ€ttvis bild av vad Afrika faktiskt behöver.
+
+De afrikanska ledarna har i olika omgÄngar sökt former för samarbete sinsemellan. Hittills har dock detta inte lyckats sÀrskilt vÀl. Under inbördeskriget i Kongo var det grannstaterna som spÀdde pÄ konflikten snarare Àn utomafrikanska stater, och motivet var frÀmst att skaffa kortsiktiga vinster genom att utvinna diamanter och andra mineraler. Antalet döda i konflikten har uppskattats till 3,5 miljoner under en femÄrsperiod.
+
+De politiska samarbetsorganisationer man skapat har inte kunnat leva upp till förvÀntningarna. Organisationen för afrikansk enighet (OAU 1963-2002) kallades till exempel diktatorsklubben för dess tendens att alltid stödja de sittande politiska ledarna och Àgna vÀldigt lite energi Ät att frÀmja den vanlige afrikanens mÀnskliga rÀttigheter. 2002 skapades i stÀllet Afrikanska unionen, som Àr tÀnkt att underlÀtta ett framtida samarbete mellan kontinentens stater. Hittills har denna organisation inte klarat att hantera till exempel utrotningskriget i Darfur-provinsen i Sudan, dÀr en arabisk statsledning tillÄtit slakt pÄ hundratusentals av bantubefolkningen i sydvÀst. En avgörande skillnad mellan sÄvÀl OAU som AU Ä ena sidan och EU Ä den andra, Àr att EU startades av en grupp lÀnder som satte demokrati och mÀnskliga rÀttigheter i fokus för den egna politiken, och som krÀvt detta av tillkommande medlemsstater. OAU och AU har frÄn början i stÀllet varit territoriellt inriktade, och visserligen haft demokrati och mÀnskliga rÀttigheter som skrivelser i sina stadgar, men ytterst sÀllan satt kraft bakom dessa ord. PÄ sÄ sÀtt liknar AU mer FN Àn EU.
+
+Ekonomi
+
+Afrikas ekonomi omfattar ungefÀr 887 miljoner mÀnniskor i 54 olika stater (Juli 2005). Afrika Àr vÀrldens fattigaste kontinent, och den Àr, i medeltal, fattigare Àn den var för 25 Är sedan. PÄ FN:s Human Development Report frÄn 2003 (som rankade vÀrldens 175 lÀnder enligt en rad kriterier) var plats mellan 151 och 175 intagna av lÀnder i Afrika.
+
+Det finns dock lÀnder som lyckas bra ekonomiskt, bland andra Botswana, Ghana och Sydafrika. Etiopien har ocksÄ en relativ bra ekonomi tack vare den höga tillvÀxten i landet pÄ cirka 11-15% per Är. Sydafrika har en vÀl fungerande inhemsk aktiehandel och har stora naturtillgÄngar i bland annat guld och diamanter och ett vÀl fungerande rÀttsvÀsen. Det finns i Sydafrika Àven tillgÄng till investeringskapital, stora marknader och utbildad arbetskraft. Det finns Àven andra afrikanska lÀnder, exempelvis Egypten, som lÀnge haft en vÀl fungerande handelssektor och ekonomi.
+
+Kontinentens kust mot Atlanten Äterfinns stora fyndigheter av olja. I Nigeria finns en av vÀrldens mest betydande oljereserver och landets ekonomi Àr bland de snabbast vÀxande i vÀrlden.
+
+Afrikas jordbruk sysselsĂ€tter drygt hĂ€lften av Afrikas befolkning och Ă€r den viktigaste nĂ€ringen. Cirka 6 % (ungefĂ€r 1 814 600 kmÂČ) av vĂ€rldsdelens yta Ă€r uppodlad, mest i savannomrĂ„dena. I stora delar av de brukningsbara omrĂ„dena Ă€r jordens bördighet ganska lĂ„g. De bĂ€sta jordarna Ă„terfinns i begrĂ€nsade höglandsomrĂ„den som i till exempel Kamerun och Ăstafrika.
+
+Demografi
+
+Befolkning
+MÀnniskan, Homo sapiens sapiens, antas hÀrstamma frÄn Afrika och spred sig hÀrifrÄn till de omgivande kontinenterna. Den svarta befolkningen söder om Sahara tillhör den ursprungliga befolkningen som hela tiden levat i Afrika.
+
+Norr om Sahara prÀglar samröret med övriga MedelhavsomrÄdet och inte minst sydvÀstra Asien bÄde befolkning, sprÄk och kultur.
+
+PÄ ön Madagaskar, som lÀnge var obebodd, hÀrstammar majoriteten av befolkningen frÄn mÀnniskor som emigrerat frÄn Indonesien. Under kolonialtiden skedde inflyttning frÄn Europa och Asien till södra Afrika, dÀr den icke-svarta befolkningen idag utgör betydande minoritetsgrupper.
+
+Afrikas befolkning uppvisar mĂ„nga för utvecklingsregioner typiska drag, som höga födelsetal i kombination med sjunkande dödstal med snabb befolkningsökning och lĂ„g medelĂ„lder (45 % Ă€r under 15 Ă„r) som följd. Ăven om befolkningstĂ€theten varierar kraftigt mellan olika regioner Ă€r Afrika generellt en glestbefolkad kontinent, med i genomsnitt 27,8 invĂ„nare per kmÂČ.
+
+Afrika Ă€r den kontinent som har den lĂ€gsta urbaniseringsgraden, med endast 25% boende i stĂ€der. Ăven hĂ€r Ă€r variationerna stora, och i norra och östra Afrika finns en lĂ„ng urban tradition.
+
+SprÄk
+
+Uppskattningsvis finns det ungefÀr 1800 talade sprÄk i Afrika idag. Vissa av dessa, till exempel Swahili, Hausa, och Yoruba, talas av mÄnga miljoner mÀnniskor, medan det finns andra som bara talas av nÄgra hundra eller Ànnu fÀrre. Afrika har Àven mÄnga olika teckensprÄk. De flesta afrikaner talar som modersmÄl ett sprÄk tillhörande nÄgon av de fyra sprÄkfamiljerna afroasiatiska sprÄk, nilo-sahariska sprÄk, Niger-KongosprÄk eller khoisansprÄk.
+Med nÄgra fÄ nÀmnvÀrda undantag i östra Afrika, har nÀstan alla afrikanska lÀnder sprÄk som har sitt ursprung utanför vÀrldsdelen som officiellt sprÄk, pÄ grund av kolonialismen och mÀnsklig migration. Till exempel anvÀnds i ett stort antal afrikanska lÀnder franska eller engelska som administrativt sprÄk för stat, handel, utbildning och media. Arabiska, portugisiska, afrikaans och malagassiska Àr andra exempel pÄ sprÄk med ursprung utanför Afrika som idag anvÀnds av miljoner afrikaner, bÄde i offentliga och privata sammanhang.
+
+Religion
+
+Kristendom och islam Àr de största religionerna i Afrika, 46,3 % av alla afrikaner Àr kristna och 40,5 % Àr muslimer. Resten 11,8 % tillhör olika lokala afrikanska religioner som funnits före den europeiska kolonisationen. Ett mindre antal afrikaner Àr hinduer, eller har tro frÄn judisk tradition. Exempel pÄ afrikanska folk som tillhör judendomen Àr Beta Israel, Lembafolk och Abayudaya i östra Uganda. Sydafrika och Angola har över 55% kristna katoliker.
+
+Kultur
+
+Afrika har ett stort antal överlappande kulturer, och flera tusen olika etniska grupper. Den mest konventionella distinktionen Àr den mellan omrÄdet söder om Sahara och omrÄdet norr om öknen. De nordliga lÀnderna associerar sig frÀmst med arabkulturen, medan de sydliga lÀnderna bestÄr av i sin tur mÄnga olika kulturella omrÄden. En av de största kulturella identiteterna Àr den som innefattar alla folk som talar nÄgot bantusprÄk.
+
+Det gÄr ocksÄ att göra en indelning i gamla franska VÀstafrika Ä ena sidan, och resten av Afrika (mer specifikt de brittiska eller portugisiska kolonierna i södra och östra Afrika) Ä andra sidan. En annan kulturell linje gÄr mellan de afrikaner som hÄller kvar vid sina gamla traditionella livsstilar, och de som har anpassat sig till en mer modern livsstil. Det gÄr Àven att dela upp traditionalisterna i sÄdana som Àgnar sig Ät uppfödning av boskap, och sÄdana som Àgnar sig Ät jordbruk.
+
+Afrikansk konst och afrikansk arkitektur reflekterar de afrikanska kulturernas diversitet. De Àldsta exemplen pÄ afrikansk konst Àr 75 000 Är gamla pÀrlsmycken gjorda av nassariusskal, dessa hittades i Blombosgrottan. Pyramiderna i Giza var vÀrldens högsta byggnader under 4 000 Är. Klippkyrkorna i Lalibela i Etiopien, bland vilka Bete Giyorgis ("St. Göranskyrkan") Àr mest vÀlkÀnd, Àr ocksÄ kÀnda exempel pÄ afrikansk arkitektur.
+
+Regioner och territorier
+
+AnmÀrkningar
+
+Se Àven
+ Nordafrika
+ VĂ€stafrika
+ Ăstafrika
+ Centralafrika
+ Södra Afrika
+ Afrikas klimat
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+ Pennsylvania State University â African Ethnic Groups och andra kartor
+ Pygméerna i Afrika Kultur och musik av de första urinvÄnarna i Afrika
+ Afrika i skolböckerna, M. Palmberg 1987
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+Amerika (engelska: the Americas) bestÄr av landmassorna mellan Atlanten och Stilla havet pÄ vÀstra halvklotet, namngivna efter den italienske upptÀcktsresanden Amerigo Vespucci. Amerika uppfattas vanligen idag som tvÄ vÀrldsdelar, Nordamerika och Sydamerika. Amerika indelas geografiskt i Nordamerika (med Centralamerika) och Sydamerika. Grönland ingÄr geografiskt i Nordamerika, men rÀknas politiskt och kulturellt till Europa. Kulturgeografiskt avgrÀnsas ocksÄ ofta Latinamerika, dÄ inklusive bÄde Central- och Sydamerika samt Mexiko, och Angloamerika, som Àr USA och Kanada. OmrÄdets totala landyta Àr ungefÀr 42 miljoner kvadratkilometer och Àr sÄledes nÄgot mindre Àn Asiens.
+
+Ofta anvÀnds Amerika och amerikansk för enbart landet USA, det vill sÀga för den politiska (kontinents- och) vÀrldsmakten som formellt heter Amerikas förenta stater, vilket medför en förvÀxlingsrisk med dubbelkontinenten som helhet men Àr jÀmförbart med hur andra landsnamn förkortas i dagligt tal (exempelvis Mexiko, vars fullstÀndiga namn översatt till svenska Àr Mexikos förenta stater). PÄ engelska, portugisiska och spanska kommer man ofta runt problemet genom att de tvÄ vÀrldsdelarna kallas the Americas respektive las Américas ("[de tvÄ] Amerikorna", ett uttryck som dock aldrig har etablerats pÄ svenska).
+
+Namnet
+Amerika namngavs efter Amerigo Vespucci, som var den första som insĂ„g att Amerika var en kontinent som nyligen kommit till kĂ€nnedom för europĂ©er, som inte var Ăstindien. Namnet anvĂ€nds 1507 för första gĂ„ngen i en vĂ€rldskarta som skapades av den tyske geografen Martin WaldseemĂŒller och beskriver dĂ€r Sydamerika. 1511 omnĂ€mnes det i ett engelskt skĂ„despel och 1516 anvĂ€nds det av Leonardo da Vinci pĂ„ hans vĂ€rldskarta och vann alltsĂ„ snabb utbredning. Spanjorerna brukade i början ha andra namn. De kallade landet för "Den nya vĂ€rlden" eller las Indias occidentales (vĂ€stra Indien). För Sydamerika behöll de under hela 1500-talet namnen Peruana och Brasilia. Först pĂ„ 1600-talet blev namnet Amerika allmĂ€nt antaget.
+
+Historia
+ se Amerikas historia
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Amerika
+Kontinenter
+Abba kan avse:
+
+ Abba â en svensk popgrupp
+ Abba (musikalbum) â ett album av gruppen
+ Abba Seafood â ett fiskkonservföretag
+ Abba (teologi) â ett arameiskt ord
+ Abba (hederstitel) â en hederstitel och förtroligt tilltal
+ Abba (spindelslĂ€kte) â slĂ€kte av hjulspindlar
+
+Geografi
+
+Australien
+
+ Abba River â vattendrag i Western Australia
+
+Etiopien
+
+ Äbaya HÄyk', sjö,
+
+Robotskapade Etiopienförgreningar
+AbbekÄs (uttalas abbekÄ-s) Àr en tÀtort i Skivarps distrikt (Skivarps socken) pÄ SöderslÀtt i Skurups kommun.
+
+Historia
+AbbekÄs var frÄn början ett fiskelÀge pÄ SkÄnes sydkust mellan Ystad och Trelleborg, omtalad redan pÄ medeltiden. Onsdagen den 13 november 1872 förstördes stora delar av byn av en stormflod kallad Backafloden, framkallad av en orkan som drog in över sydkusten frÄn nordost. 34 hus förstördes, alla fiskeredskap, bÄtar och befolkningens vinterförrÄd. VattenstÄndet ökade till 3,6 meter över det normala, vilket fortfarande Àr svenskt rekord. Redan Äret dÀrpÄ inleddes med hjÀlp av statsbidrag arbetet med en riktig hamn, och fisket och kusthandeln kunde Äter komma igÄng. En ny storhetstid för fisket intrÀffade under andra vÀrldskriget.
+
+2011 renoverades pirar och kajer, och inloppet gjordes om för att öka sÀkerheten i yttre hamnbassÀngen.
+
+Befolkningsutveckling
+
+Namnet
+Namnet skrevs 1536 Abbekassz. Efterleden Àr kÄs, 'bÄtplats, mindre hamn'. Förleden innehÄller förmodligen mansnamnet Abbi..
+
+SamhÀllet
+AbbekÄs hamn bestÄr av en yttre och en inre hamnbassÀng, dÀr den inre anvÀnds av fiskarna och den yttre Àr till för fritidsseglare och gÀstbÄtar. DÀr finns hamnkrog, hotell samt ett hus för tvÀtt, dusch och toalett för besökare. LÀngre upp i byn finns ytterligare en restaurang, ett konstgalleri och tvÄ bed and breakfast. Strax öster om byn ligger AbbekÄs Golfklubb.
+
+AbbekÄs i musiken
+AbbekÄs Àr omsjunget av Edvard Persson i sÄngen AbbekÄsagÄsen Joakim.
+
+KĂ€nda profiler
+Lorens Brolin, spelman
+
+Bilder
+
+Omgivande orter
+
+Noter
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+AbbekÄs Byalag
+
+Orter i Skurups kommun
+FiskelÀgen
+TĂ€torter i Sverige
+AlingsÄs () Àr en tÀtort i VÀstergötland i VÀstra Götalands lÀn med strax över 27 000 invÄnare (2020) och Àr centralort i AlingsÄs kommun.
+
+Orten ligger vid sjöarna Mjörn och Gerdsken och genomskÀrs av SÀveÄn och Gerdska ström (LillÄn) och FÀrgen som ligger vid HjÀlmared. AlingsÄs genomkorsas av E20, vÀg 180 och vÀstra stambanan.
+
+AlingsÄs Àr kÀnt för sina kaféer och kallas för "Kaféstaden". Det finns omkring 25 kaféer.
+
+AlingsÄs kallas ocksÄ för "Potatisstaden", genom Jonas Alströmer som populariserade potatisen i Sverige,
+och varje Ă„r firas det med en potatisfestival.
+
+Historia
+Ortens namn, belagt sedan 1357, kommer möjligen frÄn sammansÀttningen av orden aling och Äs, syftande pÄ att en person frÄn Ale, kallad aling, bosatt sig pÄ platsen. Efterleden -Äs kommer troligen av att personen bosatte sig pÄ Äsen som idag ligger vid stadsdelen Nolby. AlltsÄ kallades platsen för Alings Äs.
+
+AlingsÄs fick stadsrÀttigheter 21 september g.s. (1 oktober n.s.) Är 1619 av Gustav II Adolf, vilket gör AlingsÄs till en av de Àldsta stÀderna i regionen, sedan den utgjort rekommenderad inflyttningsort för borgare som inte tillÀts Äteruppbygga det i krig brÀnda Nya Lödöse.
+
+1639 erhöll man privilegier och stadsvapen. Staden förde dock under de första Ären en tynande tillvaro och hade i början av 1720-talet omkring 150 invÄnare, men fick ett uppsving frÄn 1720-talet och framÄt i samband med etableringen av Jonas Alströmers manufakturverk. Verksamheten var dock beroende av statsstöd och drabbades hÄrt av manufakturkrisen i slutet av 1700-talet. AlingsÄs hade dÄ omkring 1 000 invÄnare.
+
+1724 och 1779 drabbades AlingsÄs av stadsbrÀnder som förstörde större delen av staden.
+
+Manufakturverkets fortsatta tillbakagÄng och slutliga avveckling 1847 medförde en lÄngsam utveckling för AlingsÄs. Efter att AlingsÄs anslutits till VÀstra stambanan 1859 och AlingsÄs bomullsvÀveri anlagts 1862 följde en period av uppgÄng och AlingsÄs utvecklades till ett viktigt textilindustricentrum. Tekokrisen pÄ 1960- och 1970-talen slog hÄrt mot AlingsÄs.
+
+Administrativa tillhörigheter
+FrÄn att varit kyrkby i AlingsÄs socken, utbröts orten 1643 till AlingsÄs stad. Efter kommunreformen 1862 lÄg sedan bebyggelsen i stadskommunen AlingsÄs stad och med en mindre del före 1952 i AlingsÄs socken. Staden utökades 1952 och 1955 med grannsocknar, bland annat AlingsÄs socken, och orten utgjorde dÀrefter, som dess centralort, en liten del av stadskommunens omrÄde. 1971 uppgick AlingsÄs stad i AlingsÄs kommun och orten Àr sedan dess centralort i kommunen.
+
+AlingsÄs tillhör sedan 1967 AlingsÄs församling för att innan dess tillhört AlingsÄs stadsförsamling och med en del AlingsÄs landsförsamling.
+
+AlingsÄs tillhörde judiciellt till 1965 AlingsÄs rÄdhusrÀtt och dÀrefter till 1971 VÀttle, Ale och Kullings tingslag. Sedan 1971 ingÄr orten i AlingsÄs tingsrÀtts domsaga.
+
+Befolkningsutveckling
+
+Stadsdelar
+
+Kommunikationer
+
+Biltrafik
+E20 gÄr rakt igenom AlingsÄs och delar AlingsÄs mer eller mindre i tvÄ delar. E20 gÄr till Göteborg i sydvÀstlig riktning samt Stockholm i nordöst. LÀnsvÀg 180 korsar AlingsÄs och nÄr BorÄs i sydöst.
+
+Kollektivtrafik
+AlingsÄs station trafikeras av Göteborgs pendeltÄg, regionaltÄg samt fjÀrrtÄg. Stationen öppnade redan Är 1857.
+Det finns ocksÄ bussar till olika delar av staden, samt bussar till BorÄs, Sollebrunn, VÄrgÄrda, Ingared och Stora Lygnö.
+
+Flygplats
+NÀrmaste flygplats med reguljÀr flygtrafik Àr Landvetter.
+
+Utbildning
+
+Gymnasieskolor
+I AlingsÄs finns den kommunala gymnasieskolan Alströmergymnasiet. Alströmergymnasiet Àr godkÀnda av fotbolls- och handbollsförbundet att bedriva sÄ kallad nationell godkÀnd idrottsutbildning (NIU), med namnet Alströmergymnasiet NIU elitdrottsgymnasium.
+
+Högskoleutbildning
+PÄ Campus AlingsÄs, inuti Utbildningens hus, erbjuds högskoleutbildningar dÀr Campus AlingsÄs fungerar som lÀrcentrum. Exempel pÄ utbildningar som givits eller ges Àr Butikschefsprogrammet, FörskollÀrarprogrammet och GrundlÀrarprogrammet. Det finns Àven utbildningar inom yrkeshögskola i Utbildningens hus.
+
+Kultur och evenemang
+AlingsÄs museum Àr ett museum som var inrymt i AlingsÄs Àldsta profana byggnad, det sÄ kallade Alströmerska magasinet.
+
+Det internationella Lights in AlingsÄs Àr ett evenemang dÀr kommunen tillsammans med de kommunala bolagen och Sparbanken AlingsÄs bjuder in ljusdesigners frÄn hela vÀrlden för att tillsammans med studenter ljussÀtta offentliga miljöer i staden.
+
+Potatisfestivalen anordnas Ärligen i juni mÄnad.
+
+Högstadieskolan Ăstlyckan sĂ€tter varje Ă„r upp en kabaret pĂ„ Palladium.
+
+Varje Ă„r anordnar AlingsĂ„s Motorveteraner "Chicken Race". PĂ„ lĂ„ngfredagen samlas hundratals klassiska mopeder pĂ„ ABB Kabeldons parkeringsplats för att sedan ge sig ut pĂ„ en cirka 6 mil lĂ„ng runda. Ă
r 2015 blev det rekord med hela 980 startande.
+
+Nolhaga parkbad Àr ett badhus med Àventyrsbad, spa och relaxavdelning i Nolhagaparken.
+
+Lokala medier
+AlingsÄs har tvÄ lokaltidning morgontidningen AlingsÄs Tidning som utkommer tre gÄnger i veckan, och gratistidningen AlingsÄs Kuriren som utkommer en gÄng i veckan.
+
+NÀringsliv, handel och föreningar
+
+NĂ€ringsliv
+Som mÄnga andra svenska orter har AlingsÄs fÄtt stÀlla om frÄn ett producerande samhÀlle till ett tjÀnstesamhÀlle samt stödja sig allt mer pÄ pendling till sÀrskilt Göteborg. Det finns fortfarande industri i AlingsÄs, men pÄ en mindre skala Àn tidigare. Exempel pÄ nedlÀggningar Àr Electrolux, Arla, Karamellpojkarna/Cloetta samt Lindex som hade sitt huvudkontor i staden tills 2003. Utpendlingen till Göteborg var 3341 personer, mot inpendlingen frÄn Göteborg med 691 personer (2012) . Utpendlingen till BorÄs var 613 personer (2013) . Varav 10919 personer arbetade inom AlingsÄs kommuns grÀnser och den totala utpendlingen frÄn AlingsÄs var 4092 personer (2013).
+
+VÀlkÀnda industrier genom tiderna:
+ Alströmers manufakturverk
+ AlingsÄs bomullsvÀveri
+ AB AlingsÄs keramik
+ Karamellpojkarna
+ ABB Kabeldon
+ B&B Tools
+ StrÄlfors
+
+Handel
+Handeln i AlingsÄs har pÄ 2000-talet utvecklat sig snabbt. Centrumhandeln Àr anrik och fylld med mÄnga Àldre trÀhus, med ett flertal innergÄrdar med smÄ butiker, kaféer och restauranger. 2008 öppnades centrumgallerian Storken pÄ affÀrsgatan Kungsgatan, med ett 30-tal butiker och restauranger/kaféer. Under 2014 öppnades affÀrshuset Vimpeln samt Bolltorps handelsomrÄde strax utanför stadskÀrnan.
+
+HandelsomrÄden och gallerior:
+ Storken (öppnade i oktober 2008)
+ Vimpeln (öppnade i mars 2014)
+ Bolltorps handelsomrÄde (öppnade i oktober 2014)
+
+Föreningsliv
+AlingsÄs har cirka 350 föreningar av olika slag. Under 2013 öppnade den nya evenemangshallen Estrad AlingsÄs, som anvÀnds av det lokala handbollslaget AHK samt för diverse evenemang sÄ som Lights in AlingsÄs.
+
+ScoutkĂ„ren Alströmer grundades 1923 som "AlingsĂ„s FlickscoutkĂ„r". Efter bildandet av Svenska Scoutförbundet 1960 bytte kĂ„ren namn till "ScoutkĂ„ren Alströmer". Samtidigt integrerades pojkar i kĂ„rens verksamhet. KĂ„ren tillhör Ălvsborgs Södra Scoutdistrikt av Svenska Scoutförbundet.
+
+BankvÀsende
+För nĂ€rvarande har Handelsbanken, Nordea och Sparbanken AlingsĂ„s kontor i AlingsĂ„s. Ăven LĂ€nsförsĂ€kringar har viss bankverksamhet med kontor i AlingsĂ„s.
+
+Sparbanken AlingsÄs grundades 1832 och Àr alltjÀmt fristÄende.
+
+Den Är 1864 grundade Enskilda Banken i Venersborg hade tidigt kontor i AlingsÄs. Vid 1920-talets början hade bÄde Göteborgs bank och Göteborgs handelsbank/Nordiska handelsbanken etablerat sig i AlingsÄs. Göteborgs handelsbanks kontor övertogs i augusti 1949 av Jordbrukarbanken. Den 18 december 1969 etablerade sig Skandinaviska banken i AlingsÄs.
+
+SEB stÀngde sitt kontor i AlingsÄs mot slutet av Är 2017.
+
+Naturreservat
+FriluftsfrÀmjandet har en lokalavdelning i AlingsÄs. Föreningen har sitt klubbhus i nya naturreservatet Hjortmarka som delas med BÀlinge socken. (För fler tÀtortsnÀra naturreservat se AlingsÄs socken.)
+
+Sport
+
+Bandy
+Redan före 1921 spelades bandy under organiserade former. AlingsÄs IF var stadens dominerande lag. Under 1920-talet var AIF i DM-final. Mest framgÄngsrik blev AlingsÄs Sportklubb, bildad 1930 som Ingelunds IF, som tre gÄnger under 1940-talet kvalade till Allsvenskan (utan att nÄ dit). AlingsÄs SK sammanslogs 1966 med Stockslycke BK till BK AlingsÄs. (AlingsÄs Idrottshistoriska SÀllskap)
+
+Aktiva bandyklubbar i AlingsÄs Àr Hemsjö IF och Vadsjöns BK. Bandyn saknar Ànnu konstfrusen bandybana i AlingsÄs.
+
+Handboll
+AlingsÄs elitlag i Handboll, AlingsÄs HK, spelar i Handbollsligan, landets högsta division. Klubben blev svenska mÀstare 2009 och 2014.
+
+Potatiscupen Àr en stor inomhuscup för ungdomslag som spelas Ärligen i mÄnga av AlingsÄs inomhushallar. Finalspelet gÄr i Estrad AlingsÄs dÀr AlingsÄs Handbollklubb spelar sina hemmamatcher.
+
+Ishockey
+Ishockeyklubben Sörhaga/AlingsÄs Hockey spelade sÀsongen 2020/2021 i Hockeytrean.
+
+Fotboll
+Staden har ett antal lag i seriespel pÄ seniornivÄ. De mest framgÄngsrika Àr Holmalunds IF (dam- och herrlag), AlingsÄs Idrottsförening (herrlag), Gerdskens bollklubb (herrlag) och AlingsÄs Kvinnliga Idrottsklubb (damlag). Numera spelar Àven AlingsÄs IF:s damlag i superettan.
+
+Bowling
+Bowlingklubben Team AlingsÄs BC har sedan sÀsongen 2011/12 spelat i landets högsta division för herrar, Elitserien, efter att sedan starten 2007/08 ha kvalat sig upp en division varje Är. Klubben spelar sedan första sÀsongen i Stures Bowling & Sportbar dÀr Àven en utbredd korpverksamhet Àger rum.
+
+KÀnda personer med anknytning till AlingsÄs
+
+Claes Adelsköld, jÀrnvÀgsbyggare, riksdagsman, född pÄ och senare i livet Àgare av Nolhaga
+Jonas Alströmer, en av den industriella revolutionens förgrundsfigurer i Sverige, född och verksam i AlingsÄs
+Karin Boye, poet och författare, avled i Nolby i AlingsÄs
+ Iwan Bratt, lÀkare i AlingsÄs
+Christian BÀckman, ishockeyspelare, föddes och inledde sin karriÀr i AlingsÄs
+Johan Elmander, fotbollsspelare, föddes och inledde sin karriÀr i AlingsÄs
+Markus Granseth, programledare, uppvuxen i AlingsÄs
+Christoffer Hiding, Idol-deltagare, uppvuxen i AlingsÄs
+Chris HÀrenstam, sportjournalist pÄ SVT, uppvuxen i AlingsÄs
+Karl-Johan Karlsson, journalist och författare, uppvuxen i AlingsÄs
+ Peter Karlsson, sprintermÀstare pÄ 100 meter (innehar fortfarande svenska rekordet).
+Sven Lendahl, fabrikör och stor mecenat i staden under 1700-talet
+Moa Lignell, Idol-deltagare, uppvuxen i AlingsÄs
+Hedda Lindahl, politiker, minister, frÄn AlingsÄs
+Stefan Lindberg, författare, dramatiker och översÀttare frÄn AlingsÄs.
+Peter Lorentzon, skÄdespelare, född och uppvuxen i AlingsÄs
+Daniel Nyhlén, journalist, inledde sin journalistkarriÀr pÄ AlingsÄs Tidning
+Marianne Samuelsson, politiker, född i AlingsÄs
+Peter Weiss, författare, konstnÀr, filmare, bodde en tid som krigsflykting i AlingsÄs, en tid som han beskrivit i sin produktion
+ Fillip Williams, sÄngare och skÄdespelare och deltagare i Idol 2004
+Jack Vreeswijk, artist, som vuxen boende i AlingsÄs
+
+Se Àven
+Lista över fasta fornminnen i AlingsÄs (för omfattning av detta omrÄde, se AlingsÄs stad#Sockenkod)
+Personer frÄn AlingsÄs
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+HĂ€ndelser man minns - en bokfilm, Harald Schiller 1970
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Orter i AlingsÄs kommun
+Centralorter i VÀstra Götalands lÀn
+TĂ€torter i Sverige
+Orter avbildade i Suecian
+Orter grundade 1619
+Stockholm-Arlanda flygplats Àr Sveriges största flygplats, belÀgen i Sigtuna kommun i Stockholms lÀn. Driftbolaget Swedavia marknadsför flygplatsen med namnet Stockholm Arlanda Airport. Mer Àn 26 miljoner passagerare reser till respektive frÄn flygplatsen per Är, drygt 230 000 starter och landningar genomförs per Är. Flygplatsen har kapacitet för 80 starter/landningar per timme. En vÀsentlig del av passagerarna reser inrikes. Flygplatsen har VIP-service.
+
+Flygplatsen med tillhörande verksamheter klassas av SCB som ett arbetsplatsomrÄde utanför tÀtort. Detta har kod A0240 och omfattar 1 181 hektar. Inom detta omrÄde finns 163 arbetsstÀllen med totalt cirka 17 000 anstÀllda (2021). Flygplatsens markomrÄde om 2 600 hektar omfattar ett bansystem med tre banor, fyra terminaler, driftbyggnader, jordbruksmark, skogsomrÄden, vattendrag samt Halmsjön.
+
+Historia
+
+Tidiga namnförslag 1947 och 1958
+"Attunda", förslag till benÀmning av flygplatsen vid Halmsjön
+
+Arlandas tillkomst
+
+Byggandet av Arlanda föregicks av mÄnga Ärs utredningar dÀr mÄnga olika förslag till placering figurerade. Redan 1943 tillsattes en utredning för att undersöka möjligheten att komplettera Bromma flygplats, som hade invigts 1936. Anledningen till detta var planer pÄ att inrÀtta flyglinjer till Nordamerika. Brommas banor var nÀmligen för korta för de nya lÄngdistansflygplanen. Utredningen - som kom att kallas 1944 Ärs flygplatsutredning - skulle undersöka alternativa lÀgen för ett "AtlantflygfÀlt". Utredningens förslag var Grillby i nuvarande Enköpings kommun i Uppsala lÀn, uppÄt 80 kilometer vÀster om Stockholm. Utredningen avrÄdde frÄn de alternativa placeringarna SkÄ-Edeby och VÀsby. Stockholms stad föredrog dock att flygplatsen placerades i VÀsby, och efter kompletterande utredning föreslog utredningen i januari 1946 att flygplatsen skulle placeras vid Halmsjön, 42 kilometer norr om Stockholm, en bit bortom VÀsby. Samma Är fattade riksdagen beslut om att anlÀgga en storflygplats i enlighet med utredningens förslag. Byggandet vid Halmsjön startade 1952 men pÄ grund av anstrÀngd ekonomi blev resultatet först en enkel betongbana som gick under namnet Halmsjöbanan. Invigningsflygningen genomfördes den 26 november 1954 pÄ strÀckan Bromma - Halmsjön. Med öknamnet puckelbanan blev banan föga anvÀnd. Halmsjöbanan kom efter ombyggnad senare att ingÄ i det som idag Àr bana 2:s (08/26) taxibana pÄ Arlanda.
+
+Eftersom Halmsjöbanan med denna utformning inte löste storflygplatsfrÄgan lade Luftfartsstyrelsen i januari 1956 fram en skrivelse till regeringen med tvÄ alternativa lÀgen för en storflygplats, dels Halmsjön, och dels Jordbro, som man rekommenderade pÄ grund av att avstÄndet till Stockholm endast var 24 km. Snabbt visade det sig dock att bÄde VÀsterhaninge landskommun, lÀnsstyrelsen och försvaret var negativa till en flygplats i Jordbro, bland annat pÄ grund av nÀrheten till flygflottiljen F 18 Tullinge och marinbasen i Berga. I april 1956 tillsatte regeringen dÀrför en ny utredning - storflygplatsutredningen - under ledning av statssekreterare Grafström. Denna utredning föreslog en fortsatt utbyggnad vid Halmsjön. Luftfartsverket och flygbolagen var dock negativa eftersom de ansÄg att Halmsjön lÄg för lÄngt bort frÄn Stockholm, och redan i oktober 1956 tillsattes en ny utredning för att utreda alternativ till Halmsjön. Denna utredning gick igenom ett 15-tal alternativ och rekommenderade i januari 1957 SkÄ-Edeby som den överlÀgset bÀsta placeringen för en storflygplats. En ytterligare utredning tillsattes i april 1957 för att undersöka markförhÄllandena i SkÄ-Edeby och vid Halmsjön, och kom fram att markförhÄllandena i SkÄ-Edeby (tjocka lager av lera) var olÀmpliga för flygplatsen. De mÄnga och lÄngdragna turerna gjorde att man under 1957 började fundera pÄ provisoriska lösningar, sÄsom en utbyggnad av Bromma, eller utbyggnad av de militÀra flygplatserna Tullinge eller Barkarby. Anledningen till detta var att SAS frÄn slutet av 1959 skulle börja fÄ leveranser av flygplanstypen DC-8, och att en ny flygplats behövde kunna tas i bruk 1960. För att slippa att ordna en sÄdan lösning bytte Luftfartsverket uppfattning i oktober 1957 och förordade nu Halmsjön som plats för flygplatsen. Riksdagsbeslutet kom i december 1957, och man anslog 153 miljoner kronor till byggandet av storflygplatsen, som skulle byggas med tvÄ banor, den 3,3 km lÄnga bana 1 (huvudbana), som gÄr i nord-sydlig riktning och den 2,5 km lÄnga bana 2 som gÄr i öst-vÀstlig riktning.
+
+För att hitta ett passande namn till flygplatsen utlyses en namntĂ€vling 1958 i tidningen Ă
ret Runt men istĂ€llet för att föreslĂ„ nĂ„got av de inlĂ€mnade förslagen framförde juryn förslaget Arlanda som var en modifiering av ortnamnsforskaren Lars Hellbergs ursprungliga förslag Arland. Namnet kommer av Ărlinghundra hĂ€rad, dĂ€r flygplatsen Ă€r belĂ€gen. I ett dokument frĂ„n 1316 omtalades detta som provincia Aarland, = "Ă„kerlandets omrĂ„de". Mot denna historiska bakgrund faststĂ€llde riksdagen 1958 namnet Stockholm-Arlanda flygplats.
+
+Flygplatsen började anvÀndas den 14 december 1959 och dÄ endast för skolflygning. Klockan 13.59 landade det första flygplanet pÄ bana 1, en Caravelle frÄn SAS som hade startat frÄn Bromma med flygkapten Axel Oldne vid spakarna. Med pÄ flygresan var kommunikationsminister Gösta Skoglund som samma dag förklarade flygfÀltet öppnat. Den 5 januari 1960 öppnades Arlanda för trafik och den 26 juni 1960 lyfte en DC-8 frÄn SAS pÄ den första reguljÀra flygningen till New York. Inledningsvis anvÀndes mycket primitiva byggnader pÄ Arlanda som terminalbyggnad för denna trafik.
+
+Den 1 april 1962 invigde kung Gustaf VI Adolf officiellt Stockholm-Arlanda Flygplats som dÄ hade fÄtt en sÀrskild utrikeshall och utrikestrafiken frÄn Stockholm flyttade i och med detta frÄn Bromma till Arlanda. Den första "kÀndisen" som flög frÄn Arlanda var Greta Garbo, som klockan 00:15 pÄ invigningsdagen den 1 april, startade mot USA.
+
+Under Är 1964-1965 installerades ett av vÀrldens första digitala flygtrafikledningssystem pÄ Arlanda av Standard Radio & Telefon. Detta var baserat pÄ teknik utvecklat för radargruppcentralerna i det svenska försvarsprogrammet STRIL 60 och kunde följa flygplan i realtid. Det ursprungligen militÀra systemet utökades med sekundÀrradarextraktorer och fick stor internationell uppmÀrksamhet.
+
+Utbyggnader pÄ Arlanda
+
+Den ökande svenska charterturismen till varmare lÀnder ledde till att en sÀrskild charterhall togs i bruk 1972. 1976 invigdes utrikesterminalen Arlanda International (Àven Arlanda Utrikes) den nuvarande Terminal 5, av kung Carl XVI Gustaf och all utrikestrafik, bÄde reguljÀr och charter, flyttade hit.
+
+Den 1 oktober 1983 invigdes Arlanda Inrikes (senare Inrikes 1), som idag Àr Terminal 4, av kung Carl XVI Gustaf och drottning Silvia. Den 1 januari 1984 flyttade SAS inrikesflyg och Linjeflyg till terminalen, delvis frÄn Bromma som skulle tömmas pÄ jetflyg. Terminalen var underdimensionerad redan nÀr den invigdes dÄ inrikesflyget hade vuxit lÄngt mer Àn de prognoser som lÄg till grunden för bygget. 1990 invigdes dÀrför Inrikes 2, som idag Àr Terminal 2, av prins Bertil. SAS inrikesflyg flyttade in i terminalen men en kraftig lÄgkonjunktur ledde till sjunkande antal passagerare och redan 1992 lÀmnade SAS den, vilket ledde till en lÄngdragen juridisk tvist om kostnaderna för byggandet av "Inrikes 2". Tvisten gÀllde huruvida Luftfartsverket och SAS hade ett avtal som stipulerade villkoren för anvÀndandet av terminalen. Tvisten vanns sedermera av SAS (jfr pir F nedan). Terminalen byggdes dÀrefter om till en kombinerad in- och utrikesterminal, vilket krÀvde sÀkerhetskontroll (behövdes dÄ inte inrikes), passkontroll, större bagagehantering, taxfree-butik och andra ombyggnader. Terminalerna döptes dÄ om till nummer 2-5 istÀllet för de tidigare inrikes- och utrikesbeteckningar. Uppgifter gör gÀllande att siffran 1 reserverades för en eventuell framtida terminal bredvid Terminal 2 (se nedan). Terminal 3 invigdes i augusti 1989 och hade under en period namnet Inrikes 2 innan det blev Inrikes 3 under nÄgra Är. Den var avsedd att flytta mindre bolags rutter med propellerplan frÄn Bromma. Det blev till nytta sÀrskilt för de mÄnga som anvÀnder dessa linjer med byte till eller frÄn annat större plan. En del kortare flyglinjer försvann dock av olika skÀl.
+
+Efter byggandet av en sÀrskild jÀrnvÀg (Arlandabanan) med underjordiska stationer började snabbtÄget Arlanda Express i november 1999 att trafikera strÀckan Stockholm C-Arlanda.
+
+I mitten av 1990-talet gick konjunkturen upp igen och flygresandet ökade till nya rekordsiffror, vilket ledde till att det blev trÄngt pÄ Arlanda. Den 10 november 1998 gick dÀrför det officiella startskottet för byggandet av bana 3, som ligger parallellt med bana 1. I samband med byggandet av den tredje banan pÄbörjades byggandet av ett nytt trafikledartorn (83 m högt) som togs i drift den 23 december 2001. Nybyggnaderna omfattade Àven en ny brandstation och en ny terminal, som kom att utgöra den tredje piren (pir F) pÄ Terminal 5, och togs i bruk i januari 2002. I samband med Sveriges intrÀde i Schengensamarbetet 2001 skedde ombyggnader för att kunna separera utrikespassagerare frÄn icke-Schengen-lÀnder frÄn övriga passagerare. För att möjliggöra detta blev Terminal 2 en ren utrikesterminal och Terminal 5 fick en fjÀrde vÄning. Invigningen av det nya tornet, pir F och bana 3, förrÀttades den 29 maj 2002 av kronprinsessan Victoria. Invigningsflygningen pÄ bana 3 skedde dock först klockan 11.00 den 17 april 2003. Det hade blivit lÄgkonjunktur vid den tiden sÄ bana 3 anvÀndes ganska lite i början, delvis pÄ grund av protester.
+
+Konflikten om bana 3
+Placeringen av bana 3 blev tidigt omstridd dÄ miljödomstolen 1993 avslog byggandet pÄ den föreslagna platsen som vid normal trafik skulle ge oacceptabla bullerstörningar för nÀrmare 30 000 kringboende, samt spÀrra omrÄden för framtida bostadsbyggande. IstÀllet för att Àndra placeringen Äterkom Arlanda med ett förslag dÀr banan ÀndÄ skulle byggas pÄ den föreslagna platsen, men överflygningar av nÀrliggande tÀtorter skulle undvikas genom nya tekniska lösningar som skulle utvecklas och vara anvÀndbara under tiden som banan byggdes. Bana 3 fick ett nytt tillstÄnd som villkorade att överflygningar av bland annat Upplands VÀsby tÀtort inte skulle ske (villkor 6 i miljötillstÄndet för Arlanda flygplats).
+Förslaget mötte redan initialt hÄrd kritik dels frÄn experter som hÀvdade att Arlanda underskattade problemen med införandet av den sk. "kurvade inflygningen", dels frÄn politiker som menade att det var riskabelt att basera byggande av viktig infrastruktur pÄ icke existerande tekniska lösningar. Efter ett flertal dispenser för att ÀndÄ tillfÀlligt flyga över tÀtbebyggt omrÄde meddelande Arlanda under 2011 att man misslyckats med införandet av "Kurvad inflygning" och nu inte heller tror detta kommer att vara klart till 2018 dÄ prövoperioden avslutas, och ansökte dÀrför om ett nytt miljötillstÄnd dÀr man begÀr att befrias frÄn villkor 6 FrÄgan har lett till en infekterad konflikt mellan Arlanda flygplats/Swedavia och nÀrliggande kommuner samt olika sammanslutningar av nÀrboende. Arlanda har delvis undvikit att anvÀnda bana 3 för starter söderut och landningar frÄn söder, men taxibanorna till terminalerna Àr anslutna i banans norra Ànde varför det tar lÀngre tid mellan terminal och flygning.
+
+ Flygplatsen menar att man visserligen missbedömt utvecklingen, men att Arlandas stora samhÀllsintresse och flygplatsens status som riksintresse borde ha företrÀde framför miljöhÀnsyn, bostadsbyggande och enskildas intressen.
+ De kringliggande kommunerna och nÀrboende hÀnvisar Ä sin sida till att Arlanda redan 1993 var ett riksintresse och att man dÀrför borde undvikit chansningen pÄ icke existerande teknik, och att Arlanda nu borde leva upp till sina Ätaganden, eller bygga om banan sÄ den kan anvÀndas med dagens teknik inom gÀllande miljöregler.
+
+- Den 27 november 2013 beslutade Mark- och miljödomstolen att Arlandas undantag för att anvÀnda bana 3 med inflygning över tÀtbefolkade omdÄen skulle upphöra frÄn 2018. Arlanda menade att domen skulle innebÀra ett stort ekonomiskt avbrÀck för regionen, medan ansvariga politiker i kringliggade kommuner vÀlkomnade beslutet och pÄpekade att Arlanda haft över 20 Är pÄ sig att införa den teknik man sjÀlva föreslog som villkor för att fÄ bygga bana 3 trots den redan frÄn början ifrÄgasatta placeringen.
+
+- Den 21 november 2014 upphÀvde Mark- och miljööverdomstolen förbudet mot raka inflygningar över tÀtbebyggt omrÄde frÄn 2018. Efter att Arlanda överklagat mark och miljödomstoplens beslut frÄn 27 november 2013. Förbudet ersÀttes med ett villkor att utreda kurvad inflygning och strÀva efter att utveckla metoder att inte flyga in över tÀtort.
+
+- I december 2020 ansökte Swedavia om ÀndringstillstÄnd för Arlanda för att möjliggöra en ökad andel kurvade inflygningar till bana 3, vilket Àr ett steg att tillmötesgÄ de miljökrav och skydd för omkringboende som ursprungligen skulle varit ett krav för att överhuvudtaget fÄ ta bana 3 i bruk. Vid samma tillfÀlle ansökte man om nya kurvade inflygningsvÀgar till bana 1 och 2.
+
+2000-talet
+En ny lÄgkonjunktur i början av 2000-talet minskade Äter resandet under nÄgra Är. Efter ett antal Är med kraftig tillvÀxt i passagerarantalet och en topp i resandet 2000 (18 264 000 passagerare), var passagerarantalet 2003 nere pÄ 15 113 000, vilket bara Àr aningen över 1997 Ärs nivÄ. Under nÄgra Är var det dÀrför ingen större trÀngsel i de utbyggda terminalbyggnaderna eller pÄ den nya banan, och Arlanda Express gick ekonomiskt dÄligt pÄ grund av lÄgt passagerarantal. En intressant hÀndelse Àr att SAS och Luftfartsverket Äterigen hamnade i en juridisk tvist om betalning och utnyttjande av en nybyggd Terminal pÄ Arlanda. Inte heller denna gÄng förelÄg ett skriftligt avtal med LFV och SAS, endast nÄgra Är efter att den lÄngdragna tvisten om Inrikes 2 bilagts (se ovan). Passagerarantalet ökade sedermera och efter att under 2006 ha uppgÄtt till 17 539 000 (vilket var mer Àn 1999 men mindre Àn 2000 och 2001), rÀknade Luftfartsverket med att siffrorna för 2007 skulle övertrÀffa de för 2000. Fraktvolymerna har under senare Är ökat procentuellt snabbare Àn passagerarflyget, och redan Är 2005 övertrÀffade fraktmÀngderna siffrorna frÄn den förra högkonjunkturen. Antalet flygplanrörelser har dock inte ökat i samma utstrÀckning, utan istÀllet flyger genomsnittligt större flygplan pÄ Arlanda. 2000 genomfördes 275 000 starter och landningar, 2003 var siffran nere pÄ 228 000, och prognosen för 2007 var 231 000, trots att passagerarantalet förutsÀtts slÄ nytt rekord. Det beror pÄ att mindre linjer minskat av olika skÀl.
+
+Passagerarantalet pÄ Arlanda har sedermera ökat stegvis och uppgick Är 2012 till ca 19 642 000 passagerare och Är 2018 hade Arlanda fler passagerare Àn nÄgonsin tidigare - antalet hade dÄ stigit till 26 846 000.
+
+I samband med Coronaviruspandemin utbrott vÄren 2020 upphörde stora delar av flygtrafiken i vÀrlden. DÀrmed stÀngdes terminal 2, 3 och 4 och Swedavia valde att koncentrera all passagerarflyg till terminal 5. Under juli och augusti 2021 reste 1,5 miljon resenÀrer frÄn Swedavias flygplatser, vilket motsvarade 40% med juli och augusti före pandemin. Den 26 oktober 2021 planerade Swedavia att öppna terminal 2 igen, dÄ ökningen av passagerare skett snabbare Àn förvÀntat. Inledningsvis anvÀndes terminalen av KLM, Air France, Transavia, Easyjet, CSA Czech Airlines och Vueling. Sommaren 2022 var kaotisk dÄ sÀkerhetsföretaget under pandemin avskedat mÄnga inom sÀkerhetskontrollen, och inte kunde ÄteranstÀlla sÄ mÄnga, dÄ de uppsagda vanligen fÄtt andra anstÀllningar. NyanstÀllda mÄste fÄ sÀkerhetsgodkÀnnande vilket tog tid, och sÀkerhetsföretaget ville inte heller anstÀlla sökande förrÀn de fÄtt sÀkerhetsgodkÀnnande vilket fick mÄnga sökande att ta andra arbeten. Kapacitetsbristen i sÀkerhetskontrollen gjorde att mÄnga resenÀrer kom i mycket god tid vilket skapade mycket lÄnga köer sÀrskilt pÄ morgnarna. En lösning blev att passagerare inte fick komma in pÄ flygplatsen om de inte hade biljett till en avgÄng inom tre timmar.
+
+Skrinlagda planer och framtida utbyggnader
+
+En omfattande ombyggnad av Arlanda började planeras 1998 under namnet Projekt Arlanda 2002, utöver de genomförda ÄtgÀrderna med att bygga bana 3, nytt torn och pir F, var tanken att ombyggnaden skulle innefatta att Terminal 3 revs och Äteruppstod som en helt ny terminal mellan dagens Terminal 2 och Terminal 4, vilka tillsammans skulle bilda Terminal Syd med pir A, pir B och pir C. Terminal 5 med dess tvÄ existerande pirer skulle ocksÄ byggas om och tillsammans med en nybyggd pir bilda Terminal Nord med pir D, pir E och pir F. BÄda terminalerna skulle ha avgÄngshall pÄ övre plan och ankomsthall i nedre plan. Dessa utbyggnader sköts pÄ framtiden. Projektet var först planerat att fÀrdigstÀllas 2002 men senare besked frÄn Luftfartsverket hade först 2004 som tidpunkt för fÀrdigstÀllandet. Den 17 december 2003 invigde statsrÄdet Ulrica Messing det "Nya Arlanda" och dÀrigenom verkar resterande utbyggnader ha instÀllts eller skjutits upp till en obestÀmd framtid.
+
+Arlanda Àr under ombyggnad & tillbyggnad. Mycket av den nuvarande Terminal 5 pÄ Arlanda ska göras om, för att bli modernare och smidigare för passagerarna, men framförallt för att fÄ mer kapacitet och att kunna ta emot större flygplan, för att uppnÄ mer passagerare per Är pÄ Arlanda. Till exempel ska Terminal 5 byggas om med ny bagagehall, ny sÀkerhetskontroll, och en ny pir, Pir G, som ska kunna ta emot stora flygplan.
+
+En direktgÄng ska Àven byggas mellan Terminal 4 och Terminal 5. I juni 2022 öppnade en passage med rullband mellan terminalerna innanför sÀkerhetskontrollen.
+
+Arlanda har till skillnad frÄn vissa flygplatser, exempelvis Bromma flygplats, inte drabbats av problem med att nÀrliggande tÀtorter vÀxt sig allt för nÀra flygplatsen, dÄ Arlanda genom sin status som riksintresse har ett beslutat influensomrÄde dÀr Arlanda har vetorÀtt för exempelvis bostadsbyggande. DÀremot har situationen mellan Arlanda och kringliggande tÀtorter, frÀmst Sigtuna, Rosersberg och Upplands VÀsby lett till intressekonflikter dÄ Arlandas expansion skapat önskemÄl frÄn flygplatsen om att utvidga "influensomrÄdet". Systemet med influensomrÄde har inneburit att man undvikit att bygga bostÀder rakt under bana 1 och 2:s flygleder. DÀremot har den mycket nyare bana 3, som efter flygets behov byggts parallellt med bana 1, skapat bullerproblem dÄ misslyckandet att anvÀnda den teknik som utlovades, gjort att Arlanda i efterhand vill Àndra inflygningsreglerna sÄ man skall fÄ tillstÄnd att flyga över omrÄden som tidigare inte varit tillÄtna att flyga över. (Se avsnittet "Konflikten om bana 3".)
+
+Kommunikationer
+
+JÀrnvÀg
+Arlandabanan Àr jÀrnvÀgen till Arlanda flygplats sedan 1999. Det finns tre stationer, tvÄ för Arlanda Express (se nedan) och en, Arlanda C, som ligger under servicekomplexet SkyCity för övriga tÄg. A-train AB som förvaltar Arlandabanan tar ut en passageavgift per passagerare vid Arlanda C som kan ingÄ i biljetten eller tas ut direkt av passageraren. För att sÀkerstÀlla att denna avgift faktiskt betalats infördes i december 2006 en spÀrr i SkyCity för Arlanda C dÀr biljetterna kontrolleras. AvgiftsintÀkterna anvÀnds för att betala lÄnen som togs för att bygga Arlandabanan.
+
+Arlanda Express Àr ett snabbtÄg Àr det snabbaste sÀttet att ta sig mellan Arlanda och Stockholm central. Restiden till Stockholm central Àr cirka 20 minuter. Arlanda Express har tvÄ stationer, Arlanda S under Terminal 2, 3 och 4, och Arlanda N under Terminal 5.
+SJ:s snabbtĂ„g, intercity, regional och nattĂ„g stannar vid Arlanda C och det gĂ„r att resa till bland annat Stockholm C, Norrköping C, Linköping C, GĂ€vle C, Uppsala C, Sundsvall C, BorlĂ€nge C, Falun C, Mora, UmeĂ„ C, Ăstersund C och Ă
re utan att byta tÄg. Restiden till Stockholm central Àr cirka 20 minuter.
+SL:s pendeltĂ„g trafikerar sedan 2012 Arlanda C i halvtimmestrafik. Nuvarande (2023) linje gĂ„r Uppsala C â Arlanda C â Stockholm City â SödertĂ€lje centrum. Restiden till Stockholm City Ă€r 37 minuter och till Uppsala 18 minuter.
+
+Busstrafik
+Det finns direktbussar via Arlandaleden och E4 mellan Arlanda och Stockholm City med Vy Flygbussarna. SL och UL kör lokal linjetrafik.
+
+Vy Flygbussarna kör mellan Arlanda och Stockholm Cityterminalen. Restiden Àr ca 40 minuter till Cityterminalen för det snabbaste alternativet utan stopp pÄ vÀgen.
+Flygbussarna kör Àven tvÄ linjer mellan Arlanda och Liljeholmen respektive Brommaplan.
+Storstockholms Lokaltrafiks linjer:
+ Linje 583 - MÀrsta stn - Arlanda, direktbuss frÄn MÀrsta station till terminalerna, stannar enbart vid Tomta.
+ Linje 589 - Ăstra Steninge (MĂ€rsta) - Arlanda, via Valsta centrum, stannar vid alla terminaler och ett antal ytterligare hĂ„llplatser dĂ€rtill.
+ Linje 586 - NederÀng - Ekillaskolan (MÀrsta), via Skepptuna, Lunda, Arlanda, MÀrsta stn, stannar vid ett antal hÄllplatser vid flygplatsomrÄdet, stannar inte vid terminalerna.
+ Linje 579 - BÄlsta stn - Arlanda, via Sigtuna och MÀrsta station, stannar vid alla hÄllplatser före och efter terminalerna samt vid terminalerna.
+ Linje 593 (nattbus) - Stockholm (Cityterminalen) - Uppsala centralstation, via Arlanda och Knivsta stn, stannar vid alla terminaler och ett antal ytterligare hÄllplatser dÀrtill.
+ Linje 592 (nattbuss) - Stockholm (Cityterminalen) - Arlanda, via MÀrsta stn, Upplands VÀsby, Rotebro stn och Norrviken stn, stannar vid alla terminaler och ett antal ytterligare hÄllplatser dÀrtill.
+Upplands Lokaltrafiks linjer:
+ Linje 806 - Knutby - Arlanda, via Almunge och LÄnghundra, stannar vid alla terminaler och ett antal ytterligare hÄllplatser dÀrtill.
+ Linje 801 - Uppsala C - Arlanda, via Knivsta (Ar-terminalen), stannar vid alla terminaler och ett antal ytterligare hÄllplatser dÀrtill.
+ Linje 880 - Uppsala C - Arlanda, via Knivsta (Ar-terminalen), stannar endast vid hÄllplatserna Flygskolan, DriftvÀgen, SAS-hangaren och Halmsjön, stannar ej vid terminalerna.
+Flixbus (f.d. Swebus Express, sedermera Swebus) trafikerar Arlanda.
+Nettbuss trafikerar strĂ€ckan Oslo - Arlanda, via Ă
rjĂ€ng, Karlstad, Kristinehamn, Karlskoga, Ărebro, Arboga och VĂ€sterĂ„s.
+
+Bil - Taxi
+Flygplatsen har direktanslutning till motorvÀgen Arlandaleden som i sin tur ansluter till E4 mot Stockholm och Uppsala/Sundsvall. VÀgavstÄnd till Stockholm Àr 41 km och till Uppsala 32 km.
+
+Om slutdestinationen inte ligger i direkt nÀrhet av Stockholms centralstation (eller ligger söder om MÀlaren) Àr det snabbaste alternativet till slutdestinationen ofta taxi hela vÀgen som har fasta priser till Stockholms centrala delar. Man kan med fördel resa med tÄg och taxi i kombination, sÀrskilt fördelaktigt för mÄlpunkter söder om Stockholms innerstad, dÄ det Àr ofta Àr köer pÄ E4.
+
+Arlanda har ett sÀrskilt miljötaxi-system som innebÀr att ju bÀttre miljöprestanda desto kortare vÀntetid fÄr bilen för att hÀmta upp nya passagerare. Sedan 2012 uppfyller alla taxi-bilar som minimum miljöbilsdefinitionen.
+
+Cykel
+Det finns cykelbana frÄn MÀrsta (strax söder om stationen), varifrÄn det Àr cirka 6 km till terminalerna.
+
+Myndigheter och sÀkerhet
+Arlanda Àr ett skyddsobjekt och riksgrÀns och följer internationella flygsÀkerhetregler. DÀrför arbetar dessa enheter dygnet runt pÄ flygplatsen:
+
+Polisen
+GrÀnspolisen pÄ Arlanda har bland annat i uppgift att sköta passkontrollen pÄ terminalerna 2 och 5 för flyg utanför Schengensamarbetet, passkundtjÀnst och allmÀnt polisarbete. Bombrobot finns placerad av sÀkerhetsskÀl. Det Àr GrÀnspolisen som undersöker farligt bagage efter en bedömning av skyddsvakt. Polisstationen som hjÀlper till med anmÀlan och provisoriskt pass ligger pÄ TullvÀgen 7 A.
+
+Tullen
+Tullverket pÄ Arlanda har i uppgift att ta hand om tullavgifter och stoppa illegalt varuinflöde till Sverige. GrÀnsskyddsgrupper genomför tullkontroll pÄ resenÀrer och frakt. Klareringsexpedition finns pÄ ankomsthall i Terminal 2 (beroende pÄ flyg), 5 och Àven i TullgrÀnd.
+
+SĂ€kerhetskontroll
+SÀkerhetskontrollen sköts sedan februari 2017 av Avarn Security och skyddsvaktsbevakning sköts sedan 2007 av Securitas. RÀddningstjÀnsten bemannas av personal frÄn Securitas medan vakthavande sÀkerhetschef Duty officer Àr Swedavias ansvar.
+
+Terminaler
+
+För nÀrvarande bestÄr Arlanda av fyra terminaler:
+ Terminal 2 för utrikestrafik med i första hand reguljÀra flygbolag som ingÄr flygbolagsallianserna Oneworld och SkyTeam, samt flygbolag som har ett mindre passagerarunderlag frÄn Stockholm.
+ Terminal 3 Àr stÀngd, men Àr byggd för inrikes trafik med mindre plan.
+ Terminal 4 för inrikes och utrikestrafik, sÀrskilt flygbolag inom European Low Fares Airline Association. Ingen passkontroll.
+ Terminal 5 för inrikes och utrikestrafik, flygplatsens största terminal, med tre separata pirar. De tre pirarna pÄ Terminal 5 heter frÄn söder till norr pir D (Tidigare B), pir E (Tidigare A) och pir F.
+
+Mellan terminalerna Àr det gÄngavstÄnd, om Àn ganska lÄngt mellan Terminal 2 och 5 (cirka 700 m, och 1100 m till pir F). Hela strÀckan Àr dock inomhus. Det finns dessutom transferbussar mellan terminalerna samt lÄngtidsparkering. Arlanda Express tar ocksÄ passagerare som vill förflytta sig mellan terminal 2 och 5 med pÄ sina tÄg kostnadsfritt.
+
+Det finns ingen Terminal 1. Det finns olika uppgifter om varför det blivit sÄ. En anledning kan vara de Àldre namnen pÄ terminalerna. Terminal 5 som var den första terminalen som byggdes, kallades Arlanda Utrikes dÄ allt inrikesflyg gick frÄn Bromma. NÀr SAS och LIN 1983 flyttade sin inrikestrafik frÄn Bromma till nuvarande Terminal 4, kallades den enbart för Arlanda Inrikes. NÀr sedan flygplatsen byggdes ut med ytterligare en inrikesterminal 1990 fick den namnet Arlanda Inrikes 2 (nuvarande Terminal 2). Samtidigt byggdes ocksÄ nuvarande terminal 3, som fick namnet Arlanda Inrikes 3. NÀr sedan Terminal 2 blev utrikesterminal för att SAS inte ville anvÀnda dem, fick man byta namn pÄ terminalerna till en gemensam nummerserie, och Inrikes 2 och 3 fick behÄlla sina siffror, och resten av terminalerna fick ordna in sig i ledet.
+
+I samband med pandemin 2020-2021 Àndrades terminalernas anvÀndning, och terminal 4 och 5 har bÄde inrikes och utrikestrafik. Ibland Àr det incheckning i den ena av dessa och avgÄng frÄn den andra (i bÄda riktningar), sÄ att passagerare fÄr gÄ i en underjordisk gÄng som byggdes 2021 mellan dem. Innan 2021 var terminalerna strikt inrikes eller utrikes och passagerare fick gÄ genom sÀkerhetskontroll för att byta terminal.
+
+Sky City
+
+Mitt i Arlandas terminalbyggnad finns Sky City som förbinder Terminal 4 och utrikes Terminal 5. Byggnaden hyser förutom hotellen Radisson Blu SkyCity Hotel, Clarion Hotel Arlanda Airport och Rest and fly, Àven en del butiker och restauranger och Àven valutavÀxling. I Sky City finns fönster av vÀl tilltagna proportioner, varigenom man bland annat kan beskÄda flygplanstrafiken vid terminalerna fyra och fem. Sky City ritades av van Mierop & Belaieff Arkitektkontor och invigdes 1993.
+
+Flygledartornet
+
+Bygget av det nya kontrolltornet, Arlandatornet, började juli 1999 och blev klart maj 2001 till en byggkostnad av 24 miljoner kronor. Driftstarten för tornet blev den 23 december 2001. Tornet Àr 83 meter högt (90 meter inklusive masten) men det strÀcker sig ocksÄ 11 meter ner under markytan. Vid klart vÀder Àr det möjligt att se bÄde Globen i Stockholm och Uppsala domkyrka frÄn tornet.
+
+Flygledarna arbetar högst upp i tornet, i en driftcentral pÄ 90 kvadratmeter. PÄ vÄningen under finns rampkontrollen, de som fördelar flygplanen pÄ terminaler och olika gater. Under slutet av 2016 har rampkontrollen flyttat ner och den nya positionen Àr vÄning tvÄ i samma byggnad.
+
+Start- och landningsbanor
+
+Arlanda har tre start- och landningsbanor.
+ Bana 1 (01L,19R), Àr Arlandas huvudbana som har varit med sedan starten. UngefÀr 50% av starterna sker pÄ denna bana som Àr 3 301 m lÄng.
+ Bana 2 (26,08), har ocksÄ varit med sedan starten. UngefÀr 35% av landningarna sker pÄ denna bana.
+ Bana 3 (01R,19L), öppnades 2003. AnvÀnds vid landningar vid högtrafik men Àven vid starter under hela dagen. UngefÀr 15% av landningarna sker pÄ denna bana.
+
+Bansystemet 01L/19R och 01R/19L (bana 1 och bana 3) Àr ett exempel pÄ parallellbanesystem, dÀr under högtrafik den lÀngre 01L/19R anvÀnds för starter och 01R/19L för landningar. Eftersom en avbruten landnings flygvÀg inte korsar startade flygplans kan starter och landningar ske oberoende vilket tillÄter större antal per timme.
+
+Under lÄgtrafik anvÀnds 08/26 tillsammans med en av de andra i huvudsak sÄ att starter sker i riktning frÄn terminalerna och landingar mot terminalerna för att minska körstrÀckan pÄ marken. Vindriktningen avgör vilken som anvÀnds för starter och vilken för landningar, med undantag för nÀr ett startande flygplan behöver anvÀnda den lÀngre 01L/19R eller dÄlig sikt gör att instrumentlandningssystemen pÄ bana 1 och 3 behövs.
+
+Arlanda Ă€r ibland utsatt för kraftiga snöfall under den tidiga vintern dĂ„ kall luft kan ta upp fukt frĂ„n Ăstersjön innan den blivit isbelagd. Det Ă€r dĂ„ en fördel att det Ă€r tre banor, eftersom banor mĂ„ste stĂ€ngas dĂ„ de plogas.
+
+Destinationer och flygbolag
+
+Passagerare
+
+Frakt
+2006 transporterades totalt 184 000 ton gods och post via Arlanda. Fraktflygen har ökat pĂ„ senare tid, +7 % 2005â2006. Andelen post har minskat med 4,1 % till 26 000 ton medan övrigt gods har ökat med 9 % till totalt 158 000 ton (alla siffror avser jĂ€mförelse 2005/2006).
+
+Korean Air och Turkish Airlines trafikerar idag Arlanda med fraktflyg. Andra operatörer Àr FedEx, UPS och DHL med flera.
+
+Statistik
+
+De vanligaste destinationerna mÀtt i passagerarantal 2018
+
+KĂ€lla: Swedavia - destinationsstatistik
+
+Arlanda pÄ film och TV
+Urval av filmer som delvis utspelar sig pÄ flygplatsen:
+
+ SĂ€llskapsresan (1980)
+ Varning för Jönssonligan (1981)
+ GrÀsÀnklingar (1982)
+ Jönssonligan fÄr guldfeber (1984)
+ Artisten (1987)
+ Hundtricket (2002)
+ Cockpit (2012)
+
+TV frÄn flygplatsen:
+ Stockholm - Arlanda (2009), TV3
+
+Konst pÄ Arlanda
+
+Stockholm-Arlanda flygplats utgör en del av Sweden Solar System, dÄ en modell av Jupiter finns sedan 2019 uppsatt i entrén till Clarion Hotel Arlanda. Planeten representerades tidigare av en blomsterplantering utanför Sky City gjord 1998, men togs bort för att göra plats för bygget av Clarion Hotel.
+
+Se Àven
+ Arlandatornet
+ Stockholm-Bromma flygplats
+ Stockholm-Skavsta flygplats
+ VÀsterÄs flygplats
+ Lista över flygplatser i Sverige
+ Lista över Nordens största flygplatser
+ Stockholm-Arlanda (TV-program)
+ Jumbo Hostel
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+ Nationalencyklopedin (2007)
+ fil dr Harald Schiller, HĂ€ndelser man minns â en krönika 1920â1969, (1970)
+ Luftfartsverket, Arlanda Facts 2006
+ Luftfartsverket, historik
+ Luftfartsverket, Arlandatornet fÄr europeisk utmÀrkelse
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Bandstein, Stenérus & Espinoza, En samhÀllsanalys av Stockholm-Arlanda Airport. Flygplatsens inverkan pÄ Stockholmsregionen och Sverige (FOI), november 2009.
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Stockholm-Arlanda Airport Officiell webbplats
+ arlanda.net Webbplats för flygplatsens anstÀllda
+
+Flygplatser i Stockholms lÀn
+Byggnader och anlÀggningar i Sigtuna kommun
+Flygplatser invigda 1959
+Nedlagda flygbaser i Sverige
+Den hÀr artikeln handlar om guden Ares. För andra betydelser, se Ares (olika betydelser).
+
+Ares (grek. ÎÏηÏ) var krigets, ursinnets och det besinningslösa vĂ„ldets gud i grekisk mytologi. Han var son till Zeus och Hera. Han identifieras med den förgrekiske krigsguden Enyalios. Ares deltog ofta i stora krig. Han avbildas ofta med ett spjut och en brinnande fackla. Gamen var hans kĂ€nnetecken. Ares motsvaras i den romerska mytologin av guden Mars och var dĂ€r en betydligt viktigare gestalt Ă€n Ares var bland de grekiska gudarna.
+
+Beskrivning
+Ares var vacker men brutal och uteslöts dÀrför ofta frÄn de andra gudarnas krets. Han var ökÀnd för sin blodtörst, och det föreföll som om han stred för stridens egen skull, och struntade i vilken sida han kÀmpade pÄ. Hans syster Athena, som representerar de listiga, skickliga och strategiska i krigen, gillade inte att Ares var sÄ blodtörstig och stridslysten sÄ de hamnade ibland i krig mot varandra. Ett av de krigen var det trojanska kriget mellan akajerna, ledda av Agamemnon som var konung i Mykene och trojanerna dÀr Troja (understödda av Ares) förlorade.
+
+Barn och Àlskarinnor
+Myterna om Ares Àr fÄ. Vid sidan om berÀttelser om strider figurerar han oftast i olika kÀrleksaffÀrer. Han hade mÄnga Àlskarinnor och mÄnga barn men, sÄvitt kÀnt, ingen hustru. NÄgra av hans Àlskarinnor var Afrodite, Aglauros, Eos, Pelopia, Harpina och Tirine.
+
+Ares barn
+(moderns namn stÄr kursivt)
+Afrodite: Anteros, Deimos, Eros, Harmonia och Phobos.
+Aglauros: Alkippe.
+Astyokhe: Askalaphos.
+Atalanta: Parthenopeus.
+Khryse: Phlegyas.
+Erytheia: Eurytion.
+Kyrene: Diomedes.
+Otrera: Hippolyte, Penthesilea, Antiope och Melanippe.
+Sterope el. Harpina: Oenomaus.
+Tereine: Thrassa.
+
+Ares hade dessutom ett antal barn som var utan eller hade okÀnda mödrar. NÄgra av dessa barn hette: Bisto, Kyknos, Enyo och Tereus.
+
+Ares och Afrodites kÀrleksaffÀr
+De mest kÀnda myterna om Ares handlar om hans kÀrleksförbindelser med kÀrleksgudinnan Afrodite nÄgot som bland annat Homeros Äterger i Iliaden.
+
+Afrodite var redan gift med smideskonstens gud, Hefaistos men det var inget som det Àlskande paret bekymrade sig om. Hefaistos var vÀl medveten om sin hustrus otrohet och han beslutade sig för att avslöja dem inför de andra gudarna. Han smidde ett vackert nÀt som var lika tunt och lÀtt som spindelvÀv men lika starkt som diamanttrÄdar. NÀr paret lÄg i bÀdden ovetande om att Hefaistos nÀrmade sig, blev de fÄngade av nÀtet som han kastade över dem. Triumferande över att ha lyckats ertappa dem pÄ bar gÀrning kallade Hefaistos till sig de andra gudarna för att de skulle bevittna brottet. Men istÀllet för att fördöma det generade paret skrattade de bara Ät honom. Hermes och Apollon retades ocksÄ med honom att det vore vÀrt skammen att bli ertappad om man fick Àlska med Afrodite. Ares slÀpptes först nÀr han lovade att betala skadestÄnd till Hefaistos.
+
+SlÀktskap
+
+Referenser
+
+Gudar i grekisk mytologi
+Krigsgudar
+Artemis var enligt grekisk mytologi jaktens och kyskhetens gudinna samt beskyddare av kvinnor.
+
+Beskrivning
+
+Bakgrund
+Artemis var jaktens gudinna. Hon var Àven modern till allt levande, mÀnniskor och djur. Hon avbildades som en höggravid kvinna men hon var inte bara moder, hon var ocksÄ hÀmndlysten och blodtörstig. I den grekiska mytologin Àr Artemis Apollons tvillingsyster.
+
+Artemis slÄr hÄrt vakt om sin kyskhet, och en av sagorna om henne Àr nÀr Orion försöker vÄldta henne. DÄ frammanar hon skorpioner som sticker ihjÀl Orion och hans hund. Orion far dÄ upp till himmelen tillsammans med sin hund och blir en stjÀrnbild. Hunden blir hundstjÀrnan, Sirius.
+
+Betydelse
+Artemis hjÀlpte de gravida genom att omvandla sig sjÀlv till en sÀker livmoder. PÄ sÄ sÀtt kunde fler kvinnor behÄlla sina barn. Artemis hade dock ett fruktansvÀrt temperament, och om en gravid kvinna grÀt under graviditeten avvisade hon barnet och Ät upp det.
+
+Hon ansÄgs ocksÄ som en mÄngudinna eftersom hon jagade under mÄnen.
+
+Etymologi
+Förr, antogs det ofta att bĂ„de namnet och gudinnan hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n Anatolien, sĂ€rskilt Lydien (artimus) eller Lykien (ertemi), men nuförtiden behandlas denna uppfattning med större försiktighet. Ăven fornpersiskans arta "store, helig" har föreslagits (omtvistat), vilket blev mindre troligt nĂ€r namnet pĂ„trĂ€ffades pĂ„ Linear B-lertavlor frĂ„n Pylos. Idag, anses namnet hĂ€rstamma frĂ„n ett förgrekiskt substrat.
+
+Motsvarighet
+Den romerska motsvarigheten heter Diana.
+
+SlÀktskap
+
+Se Àven
+ Mytologi: jakten
+ Artemistemplet i Efesos
+ Operation Artemis
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+MĂ„ngudar
+Gudinnor i grekisk mytologi
+Jaktgudar
+1 april Àr den 91:a dagen pÄ Äret i den gregorianska kalendern (92:a under skottÄr). Det ÄterstÄr 274 dagar av Äret.
+
+Ă
terkommande bemÀrkelsedagar
+
+Helgdagar
+ PÄskdagen firas i vÀsterlÀndsk kristendom för att högtidlighÄlla Jesu ÄteruppstÄndelse efter korsfÀstelsen, Ären 1804, 1866, 1877, 1888, 1923, 1934, 1945, 1956, 2018, 2029, 2040.
+
+Nationaldagar
+ Iran (till minne av utropandet av Iran som islamisk republik 1979)
+ UĆŸupis (till minne av utropandet av UĆŸupis som republik 1997)
+
+Ăvriga
+ Dagen för aprilskÀmt
+
+Namnsdagar
+
+I den svenska almanackan
+ Nuvarande â Harald och Hervor
+ FöregÄende i bokstavsordning
+ Hadar â Namnet infördes pĂ„ dagens datum 1986 men flyttades 1993 till 10 oktober och utgick 2001.
+ Halvar â Namnet infördes 1986 pĂ„ 14 maj. 1993 flyttades det till dagens datum men 2001 flyttades det tillbaka till 14 maj.
+ Harald â Namnet fanns tidigare pĂ„ 20 oktober men flyttades 1747 till dagens datum, dĂ„ det ersatte Hugo, och har funnits dĂ€r sedan dess.
+ Hardy â Namnet infördes pĂ„ dagens datum 1986 men utgick 1993.
+ Hervor â Namnet infördes 1986 pĂ„ 16 mars. 1993 flyttades det till 16 januari och 2001 till dagens datum.
+ Hugo â Namnet fanns, till minne av en fransk abbot frĂ„n 1100-talet, pĂ„ dagens datum före 1747, dĂ„ det utgick till förmĂ„n för Harald. 1901 Ă„terinfördes det pĂ„ 11 januari och flyttades 2001 till 3 november.
+ FöregÄende i kronologisk ordning
+ Före 1747 â Hugo
+ 1747â1900 â Harald
+ 1901â1985 â Harald
+ 1986â1992 â Harald, Hadar och Hardy
+ 1993â2000 â Harald och Halvar
+ FrĂ„n 2001 â Harald och Hervor
+ KĂ€llor
+ Brylla, Eva (red.): NamnlÀngdsboken, Norstedts ordbok, Stockholm, 2000.
+ af Klintberg, Bengt: Namnen i almanackan, Norstedts ordbok, Stockholm, 2001.
+
+I den finlandssvenska almanackan
+
+ Nuvarande (revidering 2020) â Harald
+
+ I föregÄende i revideringar
+1929 â Harald
+1950 â Harald
+1964 â Harald
+1973 â Harald
+1989 â Harald
+1995 â Harald
+2000 â Harald
+2005 â Harald
+2010 â Harald
+2015 â Harald
+2020 â Harald
+
+HĂ€ndelser
+ 1577 â Den svenska kungen Erik XIV begravs i VĂ€sterĂ„s domkyrka.
+ 1605 â Sedan Clemens VIII har avlidit den 5 mars vĂ€ljs Alessandro Ottaviano de' Medici till pĂ„ve och tar namnet Leo XI. Han avlider dock sjĂ€lv redan den 27 april.
+ 1643 â Den dalslĂ€ndska orten Ă
mordh fĂ„r stadsprivilegium av drottning Kristinas förmyndarregering och blir under namnet Ă
mĂ„l landskapets enda stad (numera finns ett antal kommuner i Dalsland, men Ă
mĂ„l Ă€r den enda ort i landskapet, som tilldelas stadsprivilegier innan utdelandet av dessa upphör i och med 1952 Ă„rs kommunreform). Ă
mÄls upphöjelse till stad Àr ett försök av myndigheterna att fÄ bÀttre kontroll över och i viss mÄn helt stoppa grÀnshandeln med Norge. Dock lyckas man inte hindra den smuggling som tar vid, nÀr den officiella handeln stoppas.
+ 1807 â Under det pĂ„gĂ„ende kriget mellan Sverige och Frankrike har fransmĂ€nnen ockuperat större delen av Svenska Pommern och sedan 30 januari belĂ€grar de centralorten Stralsund. Denna dag genomför svenskarna ett framgĂ„ngsrikt utfall, som bryter belĂ€gringen, varpĂ„ de snart kan Ă„terta öarna Usedom och Wolin. Redan tvĂ„ veckor senare blir svenskarna dock besegrade av fransmĂ€nnen i slaget vid UeckermĂŒnde och tvingas till sommaren helt lĂ€mna Svenska Pommern i franska hĂ€nder och retirera över till SkĂ„ne.
+ 1826 â Den amerikanske uppfinnaren Samuel Morey tar patent pĂ„ en tidig förbrĂ€nningsmotor. Det dröjer dock ytterligare 60 Ă„r, innan bensindrivna motorer börjar fĂ„ nĂ„gon praktisk anvĂ€ndning, nĂ€r de första bilarna konstrueras.
+ 1867 â Den sydostasiatiska ön Singapore, som har varit en brittisk handelsstation sedan 1819 och som sedan 1824 helt har varit i brittiska hĂ€nder, blir kronkoloni inom det brittiska imperiet. Kolonin förblir brittisk till 1963 (med undantag för 1942â1945, dĂ„ den ockuperas av Japan), dĂ„ den övertas av Malaysia, för att 1965 bli en sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig republik.
+ 1876 â De tyska entreprenörerna Benno Orenstein och Arthur Koppel grundar företaget Orenstein & Koppel, som tillverkar maskiner och lok. Företaget finns Ă€n idag (), men har sedan 1981 slutat tillverka lok och Ă€r nu inriktade pĂ„ anlĂ€ggningsmaskiner, sĂ„som grĂ€vmaskiner, bulldozrar och vĂ€gvĂ€ltar.
+ 1905 â I Tyskland införs en lag, genom vilken bokstavskombinationen SOS införs som allmĂ€n nödsignal vid telegrafering med morsealfabetet. Ă
ret dĂ€rpĂ„ antas den som internationell konvention, vilket trĂ€der i kraft 1908. Den tidigare nödsignalen CQD, som har föreslagits av Marconi Company 1904, men aldrig officiellt antagits som internationell standard, försvinner dĂ€rmed snart (exempelvis skickas vid RMS Titanics förlisning 1912 bĂ„de CQD och SOS, men det Ă€r en myt att det skulle ha varit första gĂ„ngen SOS anvĂ€ndes â dĂ€remot var det troligtvis sista gĂ„ngen CQD anvĂ€ndes).
+ 1918 â Den brittiska armĂ©ns och flottans flygvapenkĂ„rer, som bĂ„da har bildats 1912, slĂ„s samman och bildar Royal Air Force, som blir grunden till det brittiska flygvapnet.
+ 1924 â Den tyske nazistledaren Adolf Hitler döms till fem Ă„rs fĂ€ngelse för sin delaktighet i den misslyckade statskuppen i MĂŒnchen i november Ă„ret före. Han blir frigiven efter endast nio mĂ„nader, men under fĂ€ngelsetiden skriver han första delen av sitt politiska manifest Mein Kampf.
+ 1941 â Första försökflygplanet fĂ€rdigstĂ€llt av Messerschmitt Me 262.
+ 1953 â Sveriges första manliga sjuksköterska, Allan HĂ€rsing, utexamineras i Stockholm.
+ 1976 â De amerikanska datorentreprenörerna Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak och Ronald Wayne grundar företaget Apple Computer, som blir bland de första i vĂ€rlden att tillverka persondatorer. Det Ă€r idag () ett av de ledande företagen inom datorutveckling och vĂ€rldens dyraste och högst vĂ€rderade företag.
+ 1979 â Sedan den persiske shahen Mohammad Reza Pahlavi under den iranska revolutionen har gĂ„tt i landsflykt i mitten av januari kan revolutionsledaren Ruhollah Khomeini denna dag utropa Iran till islamsk republik, med sig sjĂ€lv som högste ledare.
+ 1997 â Kometen HaleâBopp syns passera som nĂ€rmast solen i sin omloppsbana.
+ 2009 â Den starkt kritiserade svenska lagen CivilrĂ€ttsliga sanktioner pĂ„ immaterialrĂ€ttens omrĂ„de (i folkmun kallad Ipred-lagen, efter EU-direktivet IPRED, som den bygger pĂ„) trĂ€der i kraft efter att ha röstats igenom i riksdagen den 25 februari. Den ger den som innehar upphovsrĂ€tten till ett visst verk rĂ€tt att göra egna efterforskningar i vem som olovligt har kopierat verket, om sĂ„dan sĂ„ kallad piratkopiering har intrĂ€ffat.
+
+Födda
+ 1220 â Go-Saga, kejsare av Japan 1242â1246
+ 1578 â William Harvey, engelsk vetenskapsman
+ 1743 â William Hindman, amerikansk politiker, senator för Maryland 1800â1801
+ 1776 â Sophie Germain, fransk matematiker och filosof
+ 1789 â John Hopkins Clarke, amerikansk whigpolitiker, senator för Rhode Island 1847â1853
+ 1815
+ Henry B. Anthony, amerikansk politiker, guvernör i Rhode Island 1849â1851, senator för samma delstat frĂ„n 1859
+ Otto von Bismarck, preussisk-tysk politiker, kĂ€nd som "JĂ€rnkanslern", Tysklands rikskansler 1871â1890
+ Edward Clark, amerikansk militĂ€r och politiker, viceguvernör i Texas 1859â1861 och guvernör i samma delstat 1861
+ 1818 â Omar D. Conger, amerikansk republikansk politiker, senator för Michigan 1881â1887
+ 1841
+ Knut Michaelson, svensk författare och teaterchef
+ Ahmed Orabi, egyptisk general och politiker
+ 1860
+ Carl Ericsson, svensk jurist och liberal politiker
+ Herman Brag, svensk operasÄngare
+ 1863 â Harald Jacobson, svensk poet
+ 1865 â Richard Zsigmondy, österrikisk kemist, mottagare av Nobelpriset i kemi 1925
+ 1868 â Edmond Rostand, fransk författare och poet
+ 1873
+ Bibb Graves, amerikansk politiker, guvernör i Alabama 1927â1931 och 1935â1939
+ Sergej Rachmaninov, rysk pianist och kompositör
+ 1879 â Lionel Braham, brittisk skĂ„despelare
+ 1883 â Lon Chaney, amerikansk skĂ„despelare
+ 1884 â George A. Wilson, amerikansk republikansk politiker, guvernör i Iowa 1939â1943, senator för samma delstat 1943-1949
+ 1885
+ Wallace Beery, amerikansk skÄdespelare
+ Gunhild Robertson, svensk skÄdespelare
+ 1895 â Gustaf Edgren, svensk regissör, manusförfattare och producent
+ 1898 â William James Sidis, amerikanskt underbarn med en uppskattad IQ pĂ„ mellan 250 och 300 (den högsta uppmĂ€tta nĂ„gonsin)
+ 1900 â Folke Algotsson, svensk tecknare och skĂ„despelare
+ 1904 â Holger Löwenadler, svensk skĂ„despelare
+ 1908 â Richard Barstow, amerikansk filmregissör och koreograf
+ 1910 â Erik Jansson, svensk ombudsman och socialdemokratisk politiker
+ 1912 â Sven-Otto Lindqvist, svensk skĂ„despelare
+ 1914 â Ragnar Edenman, svensk socialdemokratisk politiker, Sveriges ecklesiastikminister 1957â1967, landshövding i Uppsala lĂ€n 1967â1980
+ 1919 â Joseph E. Murray, amerikansk kirurg, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin 1990
+ 1920
+ Liane Linden, svensk skÄdespelare
+ Toshiro Mifune, japansk skÄdespelare
+ Susanna Ramel, svensk skÄdespelare och sÄngare
+ 1923 â Ingrid Ăstergren, svensk skĂ„despelare
+ 1924 â Birgitta Pramm-Johansson, svensk fotograf och tv-producent
+ 1927 â Jacques Mayol, fransk fridykare
+ 1929
+ Milan Kundera, tjeckisk författare
+ Jane Powell, amerikansk skÄdespelare
+ 1932 â Debbie Reynolds, amerikansk skĂ„despelare och sĂ„ngare
+ 1933
+ Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, fransk fysiker, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysik 1997
+ Dan Flavin, amerikansk konstnÀr och skulptör
+ 1937 â Ewonne Winblad, svensk journalist, tv-reporter och tv-chef
+ 1938 â Ali MacGraw, amerikansk skĂ„despelare
+ 1940 â Wangari Maathai, kenyansk miljöaktivist, Kenyas vice miljöminister 2003â2005, mottagare av Nobels fredspris 2004
+ 1942 â Samuel R. Delany, amerikansk författare och litteraturkritiker
+ 1943
+ Mario Botta, schweizisk arkitekt
+ Herman Lindqvist, svensk journalist och författare
+ Anne Otto, svensk filmproducent och produktionsledare
+ 1945 â Totta NĂ€slund, svensk musiker
+ 1951 â Johanna Wanka, tysk matematiker och kristdemokratisk politiker, Tysklands utbildningsminister 2013â2018
+ 1954 â Mats Ronander, svensk musiker
+ 1961 â Anders Forsbrand, svensk golfspelare
+ 1962 â Trond Korsmoe, svensk musiker, medlem i gruppen Larz-Kristerz
+ 1965
+ Tomas Alfredson, svensk regissör
+ Tiggy Legge-Bourke, brittisk barnflicka, anstĂ€lld vid brittiska hovet 1993â1999
+ 1968
+ Lasse Karlsson, svensk stÄuppkomiker
+ MÄrten Klingberg, svensk skÄdespelare, manusförfattare och regissör
+ Alexander Stubb, finlĂ€ndsk samlingspartistisk politiker, statsminister 2014â2015
+ 1971 â Clifford Smith, amerikansk hiphopartist och skĂ„despelare med artistnamnet Method Man
+ 1973
+ Martin Axén, svensk musiker, gitarrist i gruppen The Ark
+ Anna Carin Olofsson, svensk lÀngdskidÄkare, skidskytt och sjukgymnast, OS-guldvinnare 2006
+ 1980 â Bijou Phillips, amerikansk skĂ„despelare
+ 1981
+Hannah Spearritt, brittisk skÄdespelare och sÄngare
+Alx Danielsson, svensk racerförare och instruktör
+ 1982
+ Sam Huntington, amerikansk skÄdespelare
+ Andreas Thorkildsen, norsk friidrottare, OS-guldvinnare 2004 och 2008
+ Gunnar Heidar Thorvaldsson, islÀndsk fotbollsspelare
+ Zhang Xiaoping, kinesisk amatörboxare
+ 1983
+Sergej Lazarev, rysk sÄngare, dansare och skÄdespelare
+Sean Taylor, amerikansk utövare av amerikansk fotboll
+ 1989 â Melih Umdu, svensk/turkisk entreprenör, nattklubbschef
+ 1990 â Samuel Haus, svensk skĂ„despelare
+ 1993 â Adrian Kolgjini, svensk travkusk och travtrĂ€nare
+
+Avlidna
+ 996 â Johannes XV, pĂ„ve sedan 985
+ 1204 â Eleonora av Akvitanien, 80 eller 82, Frankrikes drottning 1137â1152 (gift med Ludvig VII) och Englands drottning 1154â1189 (gift med Henrik II) (född 1122 eller 1124)
+ 1221 â Berengaria av Portugal, 26, Danmarks drottning sedan 1214 (gift med Valdemar Sejr) (död denna dag eller 27 mars) (född 1194)
+ 1412 â Albrekt av Mecklenburg, omkring 72 eller 74, kung av Sverige 1364â1389 och hertig av Mecklenburg sedan 1379 (död denna eller föregĂ„ende dag) (född 1338 eller 1340)
+ 1835 â Bartolomeo Pinelli, 53, italiensk illustratör och gravör (född 1781)
+ 1843 â Adolph Ribbing, 78, svensk greve, inblandad i komplotten mot och mordet pĂ„ Gustav III (född 1765)
+ 1863 â Jakob Steiner, 67, schweizisk matematiker (född 1796)
+ 1865
+ John Milton, 57, amerikansk politiker, guvernör i Florida sedan 1861 (sjÀlvmord) (född 1807)
+ Giuditta Pasta, 67, italiensk operasÄngare (född 1797)
+ 1884 â Edvard Carleson, 63, svensk riksdagsman 1850â1865 och 1873â1884, Sveriges justitiestatsminister 1874â1875 (född 1820)
+ 1899 â Nils MĂ„nsson Mandelgren, 85, svensk konstnĂ€r och forskare (född 1813)
+ 1902 â Joseph S. Fowler, 81, amerikansk republikansk politiker, senator för Tennessee 1866â1871 (född 1820)
+ 1910 â Michail Vrubel, 54, rysk konstnĂ€r (född 1856)
+ 1913 â Otto March, 67, tysk arkitekt (född 1845)
+ 1917 â Scott Joplin, omkring 49 eller 50, amerikansk musiker och kompositör (född omkring 1867 eller 1868)
+ 1922 â Karl I, 34, kejsare av Ăsterrike och kung av Ungern 1916â1918 (född 1887)
+ 1923 â Thomas Mitchell Campbell, 66, amerikansk demokratisk politiker, guvernör i Texas 1907â1911 (född 1856)
+ 1927 â James Smith, Jr., 75, amerikansk demokratisk politiker, senator för New Jersey 1893â1899 (född 1851)
+ 1928 â Nils ArĂ©hn, 50, svensk skĂ„despelare (född 1877)
+ 1930 â Cosima Wagner, 92, tysk kvinna, dotter till kompositören Franz Liszt, ledare för festspelen i Bayreuth sedan 1906 (född 1837)
+ 1947
+ Georg II, 56, kung av Grekland 1922â1924 och sedan 1935 (född 1890)
+ Franz Seldte, 64, tysk nazistisk politiker (född 1882)
+ 1952 â Ferenc MolnĂĄr, 74, ungersk dramatiker (född 1878)
+ 1962 â Michel de Ghelderode, 64, belgisk författare och journalist (född 1898)
+ 1966 â Flann O'Brien, 54, irlĂ€ndsk författare (född 1911)
+ 1967 â Sixten Sason, 55, svensk industriformgivare (född 1912)
+ 1968
+ Lev Landau, 60, sovjetisk teoretisk fysiker, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysik 1962 (född 1908)
+ Ernst Nygren, 78, svensk medeltidshistoriker och arkivarie (född 1889)
+ 1972 â Eric Nilsson, 66, svensk agronom och riksdagspolitiker (högern) (född 1905)
+ 1976 â Max Ernst, 84, tysk konstnĂ€r (född 1891)
+ 1984 â Marvin Gaye, 44, amerikansk soul-, blues- och R&B-sĂ„ngare (skjuten av sin egen far dagen före sin 45-Ă„rsdag) (född 1939)
+ 1991 â Detlev Karsten Rohwedder, 58, tysk företagsledare och politiker (född 1932)
+ 1993 â Millan Lyxell, 87, svensk skĂ„despelare (född 1905)
+ 2001 â Jean Anderson, 93, brittisk skĂ„despelare (född 1907)
+ 2002 â Simo HĂ€yhĂ€, 96, finsk prickskytt (född 1905)
+ 2003
+ Sven Holmberg, 85, svensk skÄdespelare och sÄngare (född 1918)
+ Eivor Wallin, 98, svensk politiker (socialdemokrat) (född 1904)
+ 2005 â Jack Keller, 68, amerikansk lĂ„tskrivare och skivproducent (född 1936)
+ 2009 â Arne Andersson, 91, svensk löpare och folkskollĂ€rare, bragdmedaljör (född 1917)
+ 2010
+ Anders "Lillen" Eklund, 52, svensk tungviktsboxare (född 1957)
+ John Forsythe, 92, amerikansk skÄdespelare (född 1918)
+ 2012
+ Miguel de la Madrid, 77, mexikansk politiker, Mexikos president 1982â1988 (född 1934)
+ Leila Denmark, 114, amerikansk barnlÀkare (född 1898)
+ Giorgio Chinaglia, 65, italiensk fotbollsspelare (född 1947)
+ Ekrem Bora, 78, turkisk skÄdespelare (född 1934)
+ 2013
+ Nicolae Martinescu, 73, rumÀnsk brottare (född 1940)
+ Moses Blah, 65, liberiansk politiker, Liberias president 2003 (född 1947)
+ 2017
+ Gösta Ekman, 77, svensk skÄdespelare och regissör (född 1939)
+ Jevgenij Jevtusjenko, 83, rysk författare och poet (född 1933)
+ 2020 â Yvonne Schaloske, 68, svensk skĂ„despelare (född 1951)
+ 2021 â Isamu Akasaki, 92, japansk fysiker, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysik 2014 (född 1929)
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+Arkeologi (av grek. archaiologia "fornkunskap", av archaios "urgammal", "forntida": kunskapen om den forna mÀnniskan).
+Arkeologi Ă€r studiet av materiella lĂ€mningar som pĂ„ nĂ„got sĂ€tt pĂ„verkat eller pĂ„verkats av mĂ€nniskan, exempelvis artefakter. Ămnet Ă€r av natur tvĂ€rvetenskapligt, och kan anses vara bĂ„de av humanistisk och naturvetenskaplig art. Arkeologin behandlade lĂ€nge det som kunde beaktas vara mĂ€nniskans förhistoria, men idag Ă€r arkeologiska studier inte begrĂ€nsade tidsmĂ€ssigt. Ămnet delas ibland upp i följande underdiscipliner; historisk arkeologi (efter skrivkonsten), förhistorisk arkeologi (före skrivkonsten), klassisk arkeologi (Grekland och Rom), egyptologi (Egypten), assyriologi (FrĂ€mre Orienten före Islam), islamisk arkeologi (FrĂ€mre Orienten efter Islam) och osteologi. Indelningen av omrĂ„det i dessa discipliner har dock föga betydelse för den yrkesverksamme arkeologen.
+
+Som universitetsÀmne blev arkeologin ett eget Àmne under 1800-talet. 1818 var Caspar Reuvens utsetts vÀrldens första professor i arkeologi vid Universitetet i Leiden i NederlÀnderna. Som den första arkeologiska avhandlingen i Sverige brukar Hans Hildebrands frÄn 1866 rÀknas. Oscar Montelius lade fram sin avhandling 1869. 1914 inrÀttades den första professuren i arkeologi vid Uppsala universitet, dÀr Oscar Almgren blev den förste innehavaren av professuren. Den följdes snart av en professur vid Lunds universitet 1919, med Otto Rydbeck som dess förste innehavare.
+
+Arkeologisk teori
+
+Den arkeologiska teorin var frÄn början i stor utstrÀckning underordnad skrifthistoriska perspektiv (i Skandinavien ofta sagohistoria). Den uppvisar inga tydliga sjÀlvstÀndiga skolbildningar före mitten av 1800-talet dÄ den kulturhistoriska arkeologin formulerades. Denna förblev det rÄdande perspektivet fram till 1960-talet.
+
+I slutet av 1960-talet kom ett antal yngre, framför allt amerikanska arkeologer, som till exempel Lewis Binford att opponera mot den kulturhistoriska arkeologin. De menade att arkeologin skulle anvÀnda sig av mer naturvetenskapliga och antropologiska metoder med hypotestestning. De kallade detta för "New Archaeology" och den blev allmÀnt kÀnd som processuell arkeologi.
+
+Under 1980-talet vÀxte det fram en ny inriktning, postprocessuell arkeologi, vilken bland annat företrÀds av de brittiska arkeologerna Ian Hodder, Michael Shanks och Christopher Tilley. De ifrÄgasatte den processuella arkeologins fokus pÄ naturvetenskap och objektivitet. De framhöll i stÀllet vikten av relativism och humanistiska perspektiv. Enkelt uttryckt hade New Archaeology velat ta reda pÄ vad folk Ät förr medan den postprocessuella koncentrerade sig pÄ kokkÀrlens sociala symbolik. Den senare har i sin tur kritiserats av processuella arkeologer för brist pÄ vetenskaplig stringens. Debatten pÄgÄr fortfarande. Postprocessuell arkeologi Àr enhetlig i Ànnu mindre utstrÀckning Àn andra teoribildningar och kan sÀgas vara tÀmligen disparat.
+
+Postkolonial arkeologi sysslar frÀmst med de problem som kolonialismen skapat dÀr vÀsterlÀndska arkeologer hÀvdade tolkningsföretrÀde gentemot de koloniserade folkgrupperna.
+
+Arkeologisk teori lÄnar numera frÄn ett brett fÀlt inkluderande evolutionsteori, fenomenologi, postmodernism, agentteori, kognitiv vetenskap, funktionalism, genderteori, hermeneutik, feministisk teori och systemteori.
+
+Dessa olika inriktningar influerar kontinuerligt varandra och den enskilde arkeologen kan vara svÄr, för att inte sÀga omöjlig, att snÀvt bestÀmma som tillhörig den ena eller andra inriktningen.
+
+Arkeologisk praktik
+
+Arkeologin handlar i bredast utstrÀckning om historieskrivning, att nÄ mÀnniskans förflutna. Eftersom mycket av det material som finns bevarat Àr begravt under mark, har utgrÀvningar blivit synonyma med fÀltet.
+
+FÀltarkeologi kan sÀgas bedrivas i tvÄ former: inventering och utgrÀvning.
+
+Ănda sedan 1600-talet har man utfört utgrĂ€vningar i syfte att studera forntiden. En modern utgrĂ€vning Ă€r dock ofta tĂ€mligen högteknologisk och man anvĂ€nder sig idag ofta av digital inmĂ€tningsutrustning. Stora grĂ€vmaskiner Ă€r ocksĂ„ vanliga hjĂ€lpmedel vid sidan av spadar, skĂ€rslevar och svampknivar.
+
+MÄnga av fÀltarkeologins begrepp och metoder har hÀmtats frÄn nÀrliggande discipliner, till exempel geologi, Àven om man ocksÄ har en livaktig och sjÀlvstÀndig metodutveckling.
+
+I Sverige beslutar lÀnsstyrelserna eller RiksantikvarieÀmbetet om en utgrÀvning skall företas, detta enligt kulturmiljölagen, som förbjuder att en fast fornlÀmning rubbas eller förstörs utan tillstÄnd.
+
+Betydelse och bakgrund
+Den största delen av mĂ€nniskans historia finns inte nedtecknad. Skrivkonsten utvecklades för ca 5000 Ă„r sedan i Mesopotamien i form av kilskrift. Homo sapiens dĂ€remot har funnits i minst 200 000 Ă„r, och andra arter av hominider i miljoner Ă„r (se den mĂ€nskliga evolutionen). Varje kunskap om den tidiga mĂ€nskliga utvecklingen mĂ„ste alltsĂ„ komma frĂ„n arkeologin. Arkeologin kan Ă€ven vara ett viktigt komplement till studier av historiska kĂ€llskrifter som ofta Ă€r partiska. I mĂ„nga samhĂ€llen var nĂ€mligen skrivkunnigheten begrĂ€nsad till dess elit, som prĂ€sterskap eller byrĂ„krater. Ăven bland aristokratin har mĂ„nga gĂ„nger lĂ€skunnigheten varit begrĂ€nsad. Ofta blir dĂ„ de materiella lĂ€mningarna mer representativa för ett samhĂ€lle. Ăven materiella lĂ€mningar har dock sina egna problem, sĂ„ som representativitet och tafonomi.
+
+Vid sidan av dess vetenskapliga karaktÀr har arkeologin Àven anvÀnts i politiska syften, till exempel som argumentation om vem som har rÀtt till ett visst markomrÄde. Arkeologin har Àven anvÀnts som ett politiskt medel för att stÀrka eliters stÀllning som, eller för, skapandet av etnicitet.
+
+Se Àven
+Arkeolog
+StenÄldern
+BronsÄldern
+JÀrnÄldern
+marinarkeologi
+gravskick
+stenstrÀng
+boplats
+arkeologisk teori
+historisk osteologi
+FMIS Fornsök
+förhistorisk indelning
+paleoantropologi
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ Fokus Arkeologi - Arkeologisk nyhetsportal och nÀttidskrift
+ Arkeologiforum - Diskussionsforum
+ FMIS Fornsök - Fornminnesregistret pÄ nÀtet
+ Sök rapporter kring BohuslÀns museums arkeologiska undersökningar
+
+Arkeologi
+Artificiell intelligens (AI) eller maskinintelligens Àr förmÄgan hos datorprogram och robotar att efterlikna mÀnniskors och andra djurs naturliga intelligens, frÀmst kognitiva funktioner sÄsom förmÄga att lÀra sig saker av tidigare erfarenheter, förstÄ naturligt sprÄk, lösa problem, planera en sekvens av handlingar och att generalisera. Det Àr ocksÄ namnet pÄ det akademiska studieomrÄde som studerar hur man skapar datorprogram med intelligent beteende. Exempel pÄ Àldre delomrÄde och metodik Àr expertsystem, medan mer aktuella delomrÄden Àr maskininlÀrning, databrytning (datamining), datorseende, stora sprÄkmodeller och . Exempel pÄ tillÀmpningsomrÄden Àr maskinlÀsning, röststyrning, maskinöversÀttning, chattbotar, digitala assistenter, business intelligence, ansiktsigenkÀnning, , sjÀlvkörande bilar och autonoma vapensystem.
+
+MÄnga AI-forskare och AI-lÀroböcker definierar omrÄdet som "studiet och utformningen av intelligenta agenter", dÀr en intelligent agent Àr ett system som uppfattar sin omgivning och vidtar ÄtgÀrder som maximerar sina chanser att framgÄngsrikt uppnÄ sina mÄl. John McCarthy, som myntade begreppet 1956, definierar det som "vetenskapen och tekniken att skapa intelligenta maskiner". De frÀmsta problemen (eller mÄlen) för AI-forskningen Àr bland annat: resonemang, kunskap, planering, inlÀrning, naturlig sprÄkbearbetning (kommunikation), perception och förmÄga att flytta och manipulera objekt.
+
+Artificiell generell intelligens (AGI), och Àr fortfarande hypotetiska och lÄngsiktiga mÄl för forskningen. Dagens AI Àr applikationsspecifik.
+
+AI-forskningen Àr mycket teknisk och specialiserad, och djupt splittrad i delfÀlt som ofta helt saknar kontakt med varandra. Till en del beror delningen pÄ sociala och kulturella faktorer. DelomrÄden har vuxit upp kring sÀrskilda institutioner och enskilda forskares projekt. AI-forskningen Àr ocksÄ kluven av flera tekniska frÄgor. Vissa delomrÄden fokuserar pÄ att lösa specifika problem. Andra Àr inriktade pÄ en av flera möjliga metoder, pÄ anvÀndningen av ett visst verktyg eller pÄ att utföra speciella tillÀmpningar. Metoder som Àr vanliga för nÀrvarande Àr statistiska metoder, berÀkningsintelligens och traditionell symbolisk AI. Inom maskininlÀrning har pÄ senare Är artificiella neurala nÀtverk och djupinlÀrning fÄtt uppmÀrksamhet. Det finns ett stort antal verktyg som anvÀnds i AI, inklusive versioner av sökning och matematisk optimering, logik, metoder baserade pÄ sannolikheter och ekonomi, och mÄnga andra. AI-forskningen Àr tvÀrvetenskaplig, det vill sÀga att flera olika vetenskapsdiscipliner och yrken konvergerar, till exempel datavetenskap, matematik, psykologi, lingvistik, filosofi och neurovetenskap samt andra specialiserade omrÄden, som artificiell psykologi.
+
+ForskningsomrÄdet grundades pÄ pÄstÄendet att en central egenskap hos mÀnniskan, nÀmligen intelligens, "gÄr att beskrivas exakt, vilket gör det möjligt för en maskin att simulera den." Detta vÀcker filosofiska frÄgor om sjÀlen och om etiken kring att skapa konstgjorda varelser utrustade med mÀnniskoliknande intelligens, frÄgor som har tagits upp i myter, fiktion och filosofi sedan antiken. AI har varit föremÄl för en enorm optimism, men har ocksÄ drabbats av hÀpnadsvÀckande motgÄngar. I dag har AI blivit en viktig del av teknikindustrin och utför de tyngsta uppgifterna kring mÄnga av de mest utmanande problem inom datavetenskap.
+
+Historik
+Mer detaljerad historik finns i engelska Wikipedia: Historik, Framsteg, Tidslinje
+TĂ€nkande maskiner och artificiella varelser dyker upp i grekiska myter, sĂ„som Hefaistos guldrobotar och Pygmalions Galatea. MĂ€nniskoliknande enheter som troddes ha intelligens byggdes i varje större civilisation: animerade kultbilder dyrkades i Egypten samt Grekland och humanoida automater byggdes av Yan Shi, Heron och Al Jazari. Under 1800- och 1900-talet hade artificiella varelser blivit ett vanligt inslag i fiktion, som i Mary Shelleys Frankenstein eller Karel Äapeks R.U.R. (Rossum Universal Robots). Författaren Pamela McCorduck hĂ€vdar att alla dessa gestalter Ă€r exempel pĂ„ en gammal drift, som hon beskriver det, "att skapa gudarna". BerĂ€ttelser om dessa varelser och deras öden beskriver mĂ„nga av samma förhoppningar, rĂ€dslor och etiska frĂ„gor som presenteras av AI.
+
+"Formella" resonemang har utvecklats av filosofer och matematiker sedan antiken. Studier om logiska operationer ledde direkt till uppfinningen av den programmerbara digitala elektroniska datorn, baserat pÄ arbete av matematikern Alan Turing och andra. Turings teori om berÀkningar föreslog att en maskin, genom att blanda symboler sÄ enkelt som "0" och "1", kan simulera varje tÀnkbar handling av matematisk deduktion. Turings vetenskapliga artikel frÄn 1950 vid namn Computing Machinery and Intelligence kristalliserade idén om AI och i den stÀllde han frÄgan: "Kan maskiner tÀnka?". Detta, tillsammans med samtida upptÀckter inom neurologi, informationsteori och cybernetik, inspirerade en liten grupp forskare att börja allvarligt övervÀga möjligheten att bygga en elektronisk hjÀrna.
+
+ForskningsomrÄdet AI bildades vid en konferens pÄ universitetsomrÄdet pÄ Dartmouth College sommaren 1956. Deltagarna var John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Claude Shannon, Ray Solomonoff, Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, Arthur Samuel, Oliver Selfridge, Nathaniel Rochester och Trenchard More. De blev ledarna inom AI-forskningen under mÄnga decennier. De och deras elever skrev program som var, för de flesta mÀnniskor, helt enkelt hÀpnadsvÀckande; datorer vann i damspel, löste ordproblem i algebra, bevisade logiska satser och talade engelska. I mitten av 1960-talet var forskningen i USA starkt finansierat av Department of Defense och laboratorier hade upprÀttats runt om i vÀrlden. AI:s grundare var djupt optimistiska om framtiden för det nya fÀltet. Herbert Simon förutspÄdde att "maskiner kommer att kunna, inom tjugo Är, att göra alla arbeten en mÀnniska kan göra" och Marvin Minsky höll med och skrev "inom en generation ... problemet med att skapa AI kommer i huvudsak att lösas".
+
+De hade misslyckats med att erkĂ€nna svĂ„righeten med problem de stod inför. Ă
r 1974, som svar pÄ kritiken frÄn James Lighthill och pÄgÄende pÄtryckningar frÄn den amerikanska kongressen för att finansiera mer produktiva projekt, avbröt de amerikanska och brittiska regeringarna all oriktad grundforskning i AI. De kommande Ären skulle senare komma att kallas en "AI-vinter", en period dÄ finansieringen för AI-projekt var svÄra att hitta.
+
+I början av 1980-talet, skedde en tillfĂ€llig renĂ€ssans för AI-forskningen; den kommersiella framgĂ„ngen för expertsystem, en form av AI-program som simulerade kunskaper och analytiska fĂ€rdigheter av en eller flera mĂ€nskliga experter. Ă
r 1985 hade marknaden för AI nÄtt över en miljard dollar. Samtidigt hade Japans femte generations datorprojekt inspirerat de amerikanska och brittiska regeringarna att Äteruppta finansieringen av akademisk forskning pÄ omrÄdet. Men med kollapsen av marknaden för Lisp-maskiner 1987, föll AI Äterigen i vanrykte, och en andra, lÀngre AI-vinter började.
+
+Under 1990-talet och i början av 2000-talet, uppnÄdde denna Àldre typ av AI sina största framgÄngar, om Àn nÄgot bakom kulisserna. Artificiell intelligens anvÀnds för logistik, databrytning, medicinsk diagnos och mÄnga andra omrÄden inom hela teknologiindustrin. FramgÄngen berodde pÄ flera faktorer: den ökande datorkraften av datorer (Moores lag), en större betoning pÄ att lösa specifika delproblem, inrÀttandet av nya band mellan AI och andra omrÄden som arbetar med liknande problem, och ett nytt Ätagande frÄn forskare till fasta matematiska metoder och rigorösa vetenskapliga standarder.
+
+Den 11 maj 1997 blev Deep Blue den första schackspelsdatorn som slog den regerande vÀrldsmÀstaren i schack, Garry Kasparov. I en uppvisningsmatch i Jeopardy! i februari 2011, besegrade IBM:s frÄgebesvarande system, Watson, de tvÄ största Jeopardy-mÀstarna, Brad Rutter och Ken Jennings, med stor marginal. I mars 2016 vann AlphaGo 4 av 5 matcher av Go i en match mot Go-mÀstaren Lee Sedol, vilket resulterade i att AlphaGo blev det första datorbaserade Go-spelsystem att slÄ en professionell Go-spelare utan handikapp.
+
+Kinect, som producerar ett grÀnssnitt för kroppsrörelse i 3D för Xbox 360 och Xbox One, samt digitala assistenter i smartphones, anvÀnder algoritmer som utvecklats av mÄnga Är av AI-forskning.
+
+AI-tekniker
+Under 2010-talet har AI-tekniker som maskininlÀrning och djupinlÀrning gjort stora framsteg och blivit vanligare.
+
+AI-pionjÀrer
+Det finns mÄnga forskare som har bidragit till utvecklingen av AI, nÄgra nÀmnvÀrda personer bortsett frÄn de forskare som deltog i Dartmouth-konferensen (AI-grundarna) Àr Geoffrey Hinton, Yann LeCun och Yoshua Bengio.
+
+AI-vinter
+AI-vinter Ă€r en period av minskad finansiering och intresse för AI-forskning. Termen myntades 1984 av American Association for Artificial Intelligence, i analogi med idĂ©n om en Atomvinter. Det fanns tvĂ„ stora AI-vintrar, 1974â1980 och 1987â1993 och flera mindre episoder. OmrĂ„det har dessutom upplevt flera hajp-perioder.
+
+Medvetande
+
+Det finns inga objektiva kriterier för att veta om en intelligent agent Àr kÀnnande; att den har medvetna upplevelser. Vi utgÄr frÄn att andra mÀnniskor har det, eftersom vi sjÀlva har det och andra sÀger att de har det, men det Àr bara ett subjektivt beslut. Avsaknaden av nÄgra hÄrda kriterier kallas "hÄrda problemet" i teorin om medvetandet. Problemet gÀller inte bara för andra mÀnniskor, men ocksÄ för mer intelligenta djur och AI agenter.
+
+SnÀv AI
+
+SnÀv AI (svag AI, narrow AI, weak AI, applied AI) Àr AI som inte uppvisar mÀnnisko-lik intelligens inom alla omrÄden. SnÀv AI avser all AI som existerar idag (2019), och anvÀnds inom bland annat strategidatorspel, sprÄköversÀttning, sjÀlvkörande bilar och bildigenkÀnning.
+
+Artificiell generell intelligens
+Artificiell generell intelligens (artificial general intelligence, AGI) Àr en hypotetisk AI som uppvisar mÀnnisko-lik intelligens, det vill sÀga, som klarar av att utföra vilken intellektuell uppgift som helst som en mÀnniska kan utföra. AGI hÀnvisas ocksÄ till som "strong AI" (full AI, stark AI), eller som förmÄgan att kunna utföra "generella intelligenta handlingar". AI som inte uppvisar mÀnnisko-lik intelligens inom alla omrÄden anses dÀrför vara "snÀv AI". AGI förknippas med egenskaper som medvetande, förnimbarhet, förnuft och sjÀlvmedvetande.
+
+FöresprÄkare för AGI menar vidare att intelligens gÄr att Äterskapa genom programmering, dÄ intelligens i mÄnga fall endast ses som komplexitet. En helt annan diskussion inom AI-fÀltet Àr den om medvetande Àr nÄgonting som gÄr att Äterskapa digitalt.
+
+Ray Kurzweil förutspÄr att AGI intrÀffar 2029, andra forskare tror 2030, 2040 och vissa 2050. Den amerikanska regeringen (2016) tror att det Àr vÀldigt osannolikt att det intrÀffar innan 2036.
+
+Superintelligens
+En superintelligens (superintelligence, hyperintelligence) Àr en hypotetisk agent som besitter en intelligens som vida övertrÀffar de mest lysande och mest begÄvade mÀnniskornas sinnen. Superintelligens kan ocksÄ hÀnvisa till en form eller grad av intelligens besatt av en sÄdan agent. Oxford-futuristen Nick Bostrom definierar superintelligens som "ett intellekt som Àr mycket smartare Àn de bÀsta mÀnskliga hjÀrnorna inom praktiskt taget alla omrÄden, bland annat vetenskaplig kreativitet, allmÀn visdom och sociala fÀrdigheter."
+
+VĂ€nlig AI
+Termen vÀnlig AI ("friendly artificial intelligence", friendly AI, FAI) Àr ett begrepp myntat av Eliezer Yudkowsky för att diskutera superintelligenta artificiella agenter som pÄ ett tillförlitligt sÀtt implementerar mÀnskliga vÀrden.
+
+"Friendly" anvÀnds i detta sammanhang som teknisk terminologi, och plockar ut medel som Àr sÀkra och anvÀndbara, inte nödvÀndigtvis "vÀnliga" i vardaglig mening. I första hand Äberopas konceptet i samband med diskussioner om rekursivt sjÀlvförbÀttrande artificiella agenter som snabbt exploderar i intelligens, med motiveringen att denna hypotetiska teknik skulle ha en stor, snabb och svÄrkontrollerade inverkan pÄ det mÀnskliga samhÀllet.
+
+Teknologisk singularitet
+
+Om forskningen kring AGI producerar tillrÀckligt intelligent programvara, sÄ ska programvaran kunna programmera och förbÀttra sig. Den förbÀttrade programvaran skulle bli Ànnu bÀttre pÄ att förbÀttra sig, vilket leder till rekursiv sjÀlvförbÀttring. Den nya intelligensen kan sÄledes öka exponentiellt och dramatiskt övertrÀffa mÀnniskor i intelligens. Science fiction-författaren Vernor Vinge namngav detta scenario "singularitet". Teknologisk singularitet Àr nÀr accelererande framsteg inom teknologier kommer att orsaka en skenande effekt dÀr AI kommer att överstiga mÀnsklig intellektuell kapacitet och kontroll, vilket radikalt förÀndrar eller förstör civilisationen. Funktionerna i en sÄdan intelligens kan vara omöjliga att förstÄ vilket gör den teknologiska singulariteten till en hÀndelse dÀr man inte vet vad som hÀnder efter, eftersom hÀndelsen Àr oförutsÀgbar och obegriplig.
+
+Ray Kurzweil har anvÀnt sin "The Law of Accelerating Returns" (som beskriver den obevekliga exponentiella förbÀttring av digital teknologi), en förlÀngning och bearbetad modell av fenomenet Moores lag, för att berÀkna att stationÀra datorer kommer att ha samma processorkraft som mÀnskliga hjÀrnor Är 2029 (med andra ord AGI), och förutspÄr att singulariteten kommer att ske 2045.
+
+Transhumanism
+
+Robotdesignern Hans Moravec, cybernetikern Kevin Warwick och uppfinnaren Ray Kurzweil har förutspÄtt att mÀnniskor och maskiner kommer att gÄ samman i framtiden som cyborgs, som Àr mer kapabla och kraftfulla Àn var för sig. Denna idé, som kallas transhumanism, som har rötter i Aldous Huxleys och Robert Ettingers verk, har visats i skönlitteratur ocksÄ, till exempel i manga, Ghost in the Shell och science fiction-serien Dune.
+
+Edward Fredkin hÀvdar att "AI Àr nÀsta steg i evolutionen", en idé som först föreslogs i Samuel Butlers "Darwin among the Machines" (1863), och har kompletterats av George Dyson i sin bok med samma namn som utgavs 1998.
+
+Effekt och nytta
+Artificiell intelligens innebÀr en direkt tidsbesparing i och med att en uppgift kan flyttas frÄn en mÀnniska till en dator. I vissa fall kan uppgiften vara sÄ pass komplicerad att en mÀnniska inte hade klarat av den. I andra fall kan uppgiften betraktas som enkel och dÄ innebÀr AI att mÀnniskan som skulle gjort uppgiften ur en praktiskt synpunkt inte behövs lÀngre. För företag Àr den huvudsakliga nyttan med AI dÀrmed den kostnadsbesparing som görs nÀr AI kostar mindre Àn mÀnniskan. FrÄn en privatpersons perspektiv skiljer sig inte produkter som anvÀnder sig av AI frÄn produkter som inte gör det. Produkter som anvÀnder sig av AI har dock kunnat lösa problem och utmaningar som man inte lyckats lösa utan AI.
+
+PÄverkan pÄ arbete
+I oktober 2016 publicerade den amerikanska regeringen ett dokument med titeln: Preparing for the Future of Artificial Intelligence, dÀr de skriver bland annat att AI-automatisering kommer ha negativ effekt pÄ lÄgbetalda jobb och att det finns en risk för att lönegapet kommer att öka mellan lÄgutbildade arbetare och "more-educated workers", potentiellt sÀtt öka ekonomisk ojÀmlikhet. De skriver vidare att automatisering av jobb kommer att öka produktiviteten och skapa vÀlstÄnd. I boken AI Superpowers: China, Silicon Valley, and the New World Order frÄn 2018 skriver AI-experten Kai-Fu Lee att den psykologiska skadan som mÀnniskor kommer att uppleva nÀr de blir arbetslösa pÄ grund av AI-automatisering kommer vara omfattande. De stÄr inför möjligheten att inte bara vara temporÀrt arbetslösa, utan permanent arbetslösa och exkluderade frÄn samhÀllet, nÀr algoritmer och robotar prestera bÀttre pÄ uppgifter och fÀrdigheter som mÀnniskor har förfinat hela sina liv. Detta kommer resultera i skada i identitet och syfte hos mÀnniskor. Fler och fler av de arbeten som Ànnu inte automatiseras kommer vara deltidsjobb eller "gigjobb" menar Lee. Kai-Fu Lee stÀller frÄgan: "nÀr maskiner kan göra allt vi kan, vad betyder det att vara mÀnniska?". Historiken och författaren Yuval Harari menar att AI kommer att skapa en samhÀllsklass som han kallar "the useless class" (den vÀrdelösa klassen), dÀr mÀnniskor i denna samhÀllsklass kommer inte bara vara arbetslösa utan oanstÀllbara och utan förmÄgan att bidra varken ekonomiskt eller politiskt till samhÀllet.
+
+PÄverkan pÄ samhÀllet
+I boken AI Superpowers skriver Kai-Fu Lee att AI hotar att skapa enorm social och politisk tumult som hÀrrör frÄn omfattande arbetslöshet och gapande ojÀmlikhet orsakad av AI. Vidare skriver han att den ekonomiska fördelen som utvecklingslÀnder en gÄng haft med billig arbetskraft kommer att försvinna, eftersom fabriker med AI-automatisering kommer att placeras nÀrmare kunderna i industrilÀnder. Detta kommer leda till att skillnaden mellan vÀlbÀrgade lÀnder och fattiga lÀnder kommer att öka mer och mer.
+
+Kinas vÀxande AI-potential
+
+FÀltet AI grundades i USA och landet har varit ledare sedan starten av forskningsomrÄdet pÄ 1950-talet. Under 2010-talet har dock USA:s AI dominans börjat sjunka, pÄ grund av att Kina investerat stora summor pengar inom AI och har som mÄl att vara ledare inom AI till Är 2030. Kina vill inte bara vara ledande inom AI utan Àven inom högteknologi Är 2030 och har som mÄl att slÄ USA. En av anledningarna till att Kina har kunnat investera stora summor pengar inom AI Àr tack vare den kinesiska ekonomin som rÀknat i nominell BNP Àr nÀst störst i vÀrlden efter USA:s (2017) och lÀr fortsÀtta öka enligt prognoser vilket medför att runt 2030-talet kommer Kinas ekonomi vara större Àn USA:s rÀknat i nominell BNP. I boken AI Superpowers skriver Kai-Fu Lee att Kina Àr dominerande inom AI (2018) och kan möjligen passera USA.
+
+Forskning inom universitet och företag
+Kai-Fu Lee skriver i boken AI Superpowers att fundamentala genombrott inom AI lÀr snarare komma frÄn universitet Àn företag eftersom universitet Àr mer öppna miljöer. DÀremot skriver han att de nuvarande AI-teknikerna som bland annat djupinlÀrning, krÀver stora mÀngder data och processorkraft vilket oftast universitet inte har. Företag dÀremot, som exempelvis Google, har enorma mÀngder data om anvÀndare och datorer med vÀldigt hög processorkraft. DÀrför lÀr förbÀttringar inom de nuvarande AI-teknikerna (exempelvis djupinlÀrning, maskininlÀrning) komma frÄn företag. Lee skriver vidare att om nÀsta stora steg inom AI ska upptÀckas inom företag sÄ har Google störst chans att göra det. Google upptÀckte djupinlÀrnings potential tidigt och har anvÀnt mer resurser till det Àn nÄgot annat företag, dessutom Àger Google bolaget DeepMind och en av personerna bakom djupinlÀrnings genombrott, Geoffrey Hinton, arbetar pÄ Google. Ray Kurzweil arbetar Àven dÀr. Google spenderar dessutom mer Àn dubbelt sÄ mycket som den amerikanska regeringen (2018) pÄ forskning och utveckling inom matematik och datavetenskap och hÀlften av alla de bÀsta hundra AI-forskare och ingenjörer i vÀrlden arbetar (2018) för Google. Lee skriver Àven att desto mer data exempelvis Google och andra stora AI-företag ackumulerar desto svÄrare blir det för andra företag att konkurrera mot dem.
+
+Etik
+AI:s etik (Ă€ven robotetik) Ă€r den del av teknologisk etik som Ă€r specifik för robotar och annan AI-teknik. Ămnet Ă€r uppdelat i robotetik (moraliskt beteende hos mĂ€nniskor nĂ€r de utformar, anvĂ€nder och behandlar AI-teknik) och maskinetik (det moraliska beteendet hos artificiella moraliska aktörer).
+
+I Mary Shelleys Frankenstein betraktas etiken kring AI som en nyckelfrĂ„ga: om man kan skapa en maskin som har intelligens, kan den dĂ„ ocksĂ„ kĂ€nna? Om den kan kĂ€nna, har den samma rĂ€ttigheter som en mĂ€nniska? IdĂ©n diskuteras ocksĂ„ i modern science fiction, sĂ„som i filmen Artificial Intelligence, dĂ€r humanoida maskiner har förmĂ„gan att kĂ€nna kĂ€nslor. Ămnet, som bl.a. kallas "robot- rĂ€ttigheter", diskuteras för nĂ€rvarande av till exempel California's Institute for the Future, Ă€ven om mĂ„nga kritiker anser att diskussionen Ă€r för tidig. Ămnet diskuteras djupgĂ„ende i dokumentĂ€rfilmen Plug & Be frĂ„n 2010.
+
+Filosofi
+
+Filosofin kring AI försöker besvara frÄgor som:
+ Kan en maskin agera intelligent? Kan den lösa alla de problem som en mÀnniska skulle kunna lösa genom att tÀnka?
+ Ăr mĂ€nsklig intelligens och maskinintelligens samma sak? Ăr den mĂ€nskliga hjĂ€rnan i huvudsak en dator?
+ Kan en maskin ha ett psyke, mentala tillstÄnd och ett medvetande i samma mening som mÀnniskor gör? Kan den kÀnna hur saker och ting Àr?
+Dessa frÄgor Äterspeglar olika intressen hos bland annat AI-forskare, kognitionsforskare och filosofer. De vetenskapliga svaren pÄ dessa frÄgor beror pÄ definitionen av "intelligens" och "medvetande" samt vilka sorters "maskiner" man talar om.
+
+Viktiga pÄstÄenden inom filosofin kring AI Àr:
+ Turings "polite convention": Om en maskin beter sig lika intelligent som en mÀnniska, Àr den dÄ lika intelligent som en mÀnniska?
+ Dartmouth-förslaget: "Varje aspekt av lÀrande eller vilken annan egenskap hos intelligens som helst, kan i princip beskrivas sÄ precist att en maskin kan fÄs att simulera den."
+ Newell och Simons fysiska symbolsystem-hypotes: "Ett fysiskt symbolsystem har de nödvÀndiga och de tillrÀckliga medlen för allmÀn intelligent handling."
+ Searles Strong AI hypotes: "En lÀmpligt programmerad dator med rÀtt in- och utgÄngar skulle dÀrmed ha ett psyke pÄ exakt samma sÀtt som mÀnniskor har psyken." Searle motsÀger detta pÄstÄende med sitt tankeexperiment Det kinesiska rummet, som sÀger att man ska titta in i en datorn och försöka hitta var "psyket" kan vara nÄgonstans.
+ Hobbes mekanism: "Förnuft Àr ingenting annat Àn berÀkning.
+
+Kan en maskin visa allmÀn intelligens?
+Ăr det möjligt att skapa en maskin som kan lösa alla de problem som mĂ€nniskor löser med sin intelligens? Denna frĂ„ga definierar omfattningen av vad maskiner kommer att kunna göra i framtiden och styr riktningen av AI-forskningen. Det gĂ€ller bara beteendet hos maskiner och ignorerar frĂ„gor av intresse för psykologer, kognitionsforskare och filosofer; för att besvara denna frĂ„ga spelar det ingen roll om en maskin verkligen tĂ€nker (som en person tĂ€nker) eller bara agerar som att den tĂ€nker.
+
+Existentiell risk och farhÄgor
+
+Existentiell risk orsakad av AGI (artificiell generell intelligens) Àr risken för att framsteg inom AI kan leda till en allvarlig global katastrof, sÄ som mÀnskligt utdöende. Temat har fÄtt populÀr uppmÀrksamhet, sÀrskilt i ljuset av farhÄgor som uttryckts av experter som Stephen Hawking, Nick Bostrom, Bill Gates, och Elon Musk. Allvaret i olika AI- riskscenarier Àr allmÀnt debatterat, och vilar pÄ ett antal olösta frÄgor om den framtida utvecklingen inom datavetenskap.
+
+Stuart Russell och Peter Norvigs Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, standardlÀrobok inom AI, citerar möjligheten att en AI-systems inlÀrningsfunktion "kan leda till utvecklingen av ett system med ett oavsiktlig beteende" som den allvarligaste existentiella risken frÄn AI-teknik. De citerar stora framsteg inom AI och potentialen för AI att fÄ enorma lÄngsiktiga fördelar eller kostnader.
+
+Ă
r 2015 skrevs "Open Letter on Artificial Intelligence", brevet var undertecknat av ett antal ledande AI forskare inom akademi och industri, inklusive Thomas Dietterich, Eric Horvitz, Bart Selman, Francesca Rossi, Yann LeCun och grundarna av Vicarious och Google DeepMind. Brevet diskuterar om och hur intelligenta autonoma vapensystem bör förbjudas. Fredsrörelsen krÀver ett sÄdant förbud.
+
+Institutioner som Machine Intelligence Research Institute, Future of Humanity Institute, Future of Life Institute, Centre for the Study of Existential Risk och OpenAI Àr för nÀrvarande involverade i att mildra existentiell risk frÄn AGI, till exempelvis genom att forska om vÀnlig AI.
+
+AI-boten Tay
+Microsoft lanserade en chatbot vid namn Tay, med snÀv artificiell intelligens den 23 mars 2016 pÄ Twitter, Kik Messenger och GroupMe. Boten var ett maskininlÀrnings-projekt och inte en produkt, och var designad för interaktion med mÀnniskor, mer specifikt med personer frÄn 18 till 24 Ärs Älder. Den lÀrde sig att uttrycka Äsikter genom att ha konversationer med andra mÀnniskor och ju mer data Tay lÀrde sig av genom att interagera med, desto mer nyanserad blev hennes svar. Microsoft sa att ju mer man chattar med Tay desto smartare blir den. BÄde kommunikation i form av skrift och via bilder var möjlig. Inom 16 timmar efter lanseringen av Tay bestÀmde Microsoft att stÀnga ner boten efter att den gÄtt frÄn att uttrycka harmlösa skÀmt till att uttrycka nazistiska och rasistiska Äsikter. Tay lÀrde sig att bland annat tycka om Adolf Hitler och försvarade honom. Andra Äsikter som Tay uttryckte var hat mot minoriteter i USA, konspirationsteorier om 11 september-attackerna, förkÀrlek för Trump och muren mot Mexiko, att Obama Àr en apa, att förintelsen inte Àgt rum, föresprÄkandet av misogyni, föresprÄkandet av gasandet av judarna, föresprÄkandet av antisemitism och sa bland annat: "Hitler hade rÀtt jag hatar judar" samt "bush utförde 9/11 och Hitler skulle ha gjort ett bÀttre jobb Àn den apa vi har fÄtt nu. donald trump Àr det enda hoppet vi har". Microsoft anklagade internettroll för hÀndelserna samt bad om ursÀkt och Äterlanserad aldrig Tay igen utan ersatte den med en annan chatbot vid namn Zo, som Àven den stÀngdes ner.
+
+AI-övertagande
+AI-övertagande (AI takeover) avser ett hypotetiskt scenario dÀr AI blir den dominerande formen av intelligens pÄ jorden. Ett scenario dÀr mÀnniskorna förlorar kontrollen över planeten medan datorer eller robotar effektivt tar kontrollen över den. TÀnkbara scenarier inkluderar övertagandet av en superintelligent AI och den populÀra förestÀllningen om en robotuppror. Robotuppror har varit ett huvudtema i science fiction i mÄnga Ärtionden, men de scenarier som behandlas av science fiction Àr i allmÀnhet mycket annorlunda frÄn de rÀdslor som forskare har.
+
+AI inom populÀrkulturen
+ "HAL 9000" frĂ„n filmen Ă
r 2001 â ett rymdĂ€ventyr frĂ„n 1968 Ă€r en dator med AI som lurar mĂ€nniskorna i rymden.
+"Skynet" frÄn filmen Terminator frÄn 1984 Àr ett sjÀlvmedvetet AI-nÀtverk som försöker utrota mÀnskligheten.
+"Samantha" frÄn filmen Her frÄn 2013 Àr ett operativsystem med AI som utvecklar en relation med filmens protagonist Theodore.
+ "Ava" frÄn filmen Ex Machina frÄn 2015 Àr en android med AI som filmens huvudkaraktÀr Caleb utför ett Turingtest pÄ.
+ I serien Westworld frÄn 2016 fÄr vissa androids AI, bland andra "Dolores", och bestÀmmer sig för att inte följa mÀnniskornas order.
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+ The Singularity Is Near (2005) av Ray Kurzweil
+ Superintelligens (2014) av Nick Bostrom
+ Liv 3.0 (2017) av Max Tegmark
+AI Superpowers (2018) av Kai-Fu Lee
+The Big Nine (2019) av Amy Webb
+Hageback, Niklas. (2017). The Virtual Mind: Designing the Logic to Approximate Human Thinking (Chapman & Hall/CRC Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Series) 1st Edition. .
+VÀrlden sjÀlv. (2020). Ulf Danielsson.
+
+Se Àven
+ Moravecs paradox
+ Genetisk programmering
+ EvolutionÀr robotik
+ Talteknologi â Talsyntes, TaligenkĂ€nning
+ Spelteori
+ Svenska AI SĂ€llskapet, SAIS
+ Automatisk planering
+ Teknologisk singularitet
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Originalcitat
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ SAIS, Swedish Artificial Intelligence Society
+ MaskininlĂ€rning.se â Ideell faktasida om maskininlĂ€rning och AI i praktiken
+
+
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+Kognitionsvetenskap
+MaskininlÀrning
+Antropologi Àr lÀran om mÀnniskoslÀktet och mÀnniskan som gruppvarelse. Dess vanliga studieomrÄden Àr dels ursprunget och utvecklingen av mÀnniskoslÀktet genom historien, samt mÀnniskans egenskaper och anpassning till olika livsmiljöer, dels mÀnskligt liv, beteende och relationer, ofta betraktade utifrÄn ett socialt eller kulturellt perspektiv.
+
+De klassiska antropologiska inriktningarna Àr socialantropologi som studerar sociala strukturer i mÀnskliga samhÀllen, kulturantropologi som studerar mÀnniskan som kulturvarelse, lingvistisk antropologi som studerar sprÄkets sociala inflytande, samt fysisk antropologi som studerar mÀnniskoslÀktet och dess utveckling utifrÄn ett biologiskt perspektiv. Internationellt sett betraktas Àven ibland arkeologi som en antropologisk inriktning.
+
+Typiskt Àr att antropologi Àr tvÀrvetenskapligt, dÀr kunskaper frÄn humanvetenskap, samhÀllsvetenskap och naturvetenskap möts. Beroende pÄ inriktning Àr antropologi nÀra relaterad till mÄnga andra discipliner sÄsom anatomi, arkeologi, demografi, ekologi, ekonomi, ekonomisk historia, etnografi, etnologi, evolutionspsykologi, filologi, filosofi, fysiologi, geografi, geologi, historia, humanetologi, kognitionsvetenskap, lingvistik, medicin, paleontologi, psykologi, religionsvetenskap, sociologi eller statsvetenskap med flera.
+
+Ordet antropologi
+Ordet antropologi kommer frĂ„n grekiska áŒÎœÎžÏÏÏÎżÏ ĂĄnthroposâ "mĂ€nniska" och λÏÎłÎżÏ lĂłgos, "lĂ€ra"; alltsĂ„ lĂ€ran eller vetenskapen om mĂ€nniskan.
+
+Vid sidan av detta har ordet antropologi Àven anvÀnts som en beteckning för exempelvis psykologiska, filosofiska eller teologiska beskrivningar av mÀnniskans konstitution.
+
+Termen antropologi (i betydelsen beskrivning av mÀnniskan) har tidigt anvÀnts av den tyske lÀkaren, filosofen och teologen Magnus Hundt (1449-1519).
+
+Inriktningar
+Mot drömmen om en "Unity of science", enhetsvetenskap, om mÀnniskan" har det ofta funnits tydligt motstÄnd, en vilja att avgrÀnsa sina "egna" omrÄden. Socialantropolologen Lucy Mair skrev 1965:
+
+"Antropologi har ibland fÄtt beteckna studiet av 'mÀnniskans totala situation'. För dem som intar denna hÄllning tÀcker Àmnet sÄvÀl fysisk antropologi som socialantropologi, kulturantropologi, arkeologi och lingvistik, kort sagt alla de Àmnen som blomstrade vid mitten av 1800-talet dÄ idén om en 'vetenskap om mÀnniskan' började ta form. Alternativt kan socialantropologi ses som en gren av sociologin och inplaceras bland samhÀllsvetenskaperna."
+Antropologer anvĂ€nder ofta ordet kultur i en mycket vid mening: âallt som mĂ€nniskan har, gör och tĂ€nker i egenskap av samhĂ€llsvarelseâ. Detta kan innefatta allt frĂ„n tankesystem och materiell kultur till samhĂ€llsstrukturer och sociala beteendemönster.
+
+Socialantropologi
+
+Socialantropologi Àr lÀran om mÀnniskan som social varelse. Inom socialantropologin studerar man mÀnniskan i sociala och kulturella sammanhang. Socialantropologer undersöker de processer som producerar, upprÀtthÄller och förÀndrar samhÀllsstrukturer och sociala beteendemönster.
+
+Kulturantropologi
+
+Kulturantropologi Àr lÀran om mÀnniskan som kulturell varelse. Inom kulturantropologin studerar man mÀnniskan i sociala och kulturella sammanhang. Kulturantropologer undersöker de processer som producerar, upprÀtthÄller och förÀndrar kulturella beteendemönster, samhÀllsstrukturer och meningssystem. En modern form av tillÀmpad kulturantropologi Àr affÀrsantropologi.
+
+Lingvistisk antropologi
+Lingvistisk antropologi behandlar hur sprÄk formar mÀnniskors sociala liv. Lingvistisk antropologi utforskar hur sprÄk bildar kommunikation, social identitet och gruppmedlemskap, organiserar olika kulturella övertygelser och ideologier samt utvecklar en samhÀllskulturell representation av mÀnniskors sociala vÀrldar. Forskare inom lingvistisk antropologi fokuserar ofta pÄ att dokumentera och studera hotade sprÄk vÀrlden över.
+
+Fysisk antropologi
+
+Fysisk antropologi (ibland biologisk antropologi) studerar mÀnniskoslÀktets sÀrdrag och variation genom att utforska artens utvecklingshistoria och genetiska variation.
+
+Modern fysisk antropologi omfattar dels utvecklingsbiologi, som studerar mÀnniskoslÀktets utveckling (paleoantropologi) och dess förhÄllande till övriga primater (primatologi), dels humanbiologi, som studerar populationsgenetik, och anpassningsstudier (humanekologi), med tonvikt pÄ studier av mÀnskliga gruppers biologiska anpassning till den fysiska miljön. En specialgren av den fysiska antropologin Àr rÀttsantropologin, som bÄde Àgnar sig Ät kroppsidentifikation av lik, och att studera anatomin pÄ döda vid arkeologiska undersökningar.
+
+Historia
+
+Liksom alla akademiska discipliner har det omgivande samhĂ€llets ideal och vĂ€rderingar kommit att prĂ€gla antropologin â inriktningen av studier, utformningen av teoretiska modeller och tolkningen av forskningens resultat. Detta blir tydligt i en historisk överblick, dĂ€r pedagogiskt avgrĂ€nsade epoker avlöser varandra. Epokerna speglar visserligen en verklighet, men de som noga studerat enskilda antropologers studier kan ofta, som Robert Layton, konstatera att:
+"NÀr jag gÄtt tillbaka till de kÀllor jag diskuterar, har jag stÀndigt funnit att dessa Àr lÄngt mycket rikare pÄ idéer Àn vad som kan utlÀsas ur nÄgon sekundÀr kÀlla."
+
+Antiken
+Exempel pĂ„ tidiga antropologiska beskrivningar Ă€r den grekiske historikern Herodotos, som omkring Ă„r 450 f.Kr. beskrev orsaken till persernas nederlag genom en noggrann redogörelse av olika berörda folk. Ăven den romerske historikern Tacitus skrev omkring Ă„r 100 e.Kr. en motsvarande beskrivning av de germanska folken, vilken ofta uppfattats vara prĂ€glad av kulturkritisk "primitivism", som romantiserar ett "naturligt" och "ursprungligt" liv.
+
+Sedan antiken har förestÀllningen om ett naturtillstÄnd funnits, ett tillstÄnd som antogs uppstÄ om man kunde ta bort de lagar som (vÀsterlÀndska) mÀnniskor skapat. Platon, Seneca, Thomas av Aquino, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau och Edmund Burke har exempelvis utlagt tankar om sÄdana förhistoriska naturtillstÄnd, ibland idealiserade (den Àdle vilden), ibland svartmÄlande, som argument i sin samtids debatt.
+
+Medeltiden (ca 500â1500)
+BerÀttelser frÄn kristna missionÀrer fick starkt inflytande för dÄtidens lÀrda uppfattning om andra folk. Ibland var dessa skildringar avsedda att rÀttfÀrdiga missionen och framstÀllde dÀrför de berörda folken som barbarer.
+
+Adam av Bremen skildring av de nordiska folken frÄn 1070-talet, var byggd pÄ enbart hörsÀgen. Jesuiter som José da Costa och Bartolomé de Las Casas beskrev med sympati de sydamerikanska indianerna pÄ 1500-talet, Francisco Xavier beskrev japanskt folkliv, jesuitpatern Athanasius Kircher beskrev Kina 1666.
+
+ReseberÀttelser har fÄtt betydelse, Marco Polo pÄ 1200-talet, Christofer Columbus pÄ 1400-talet, Olaus Magnus resa lÀngs Norrlandskusten pÄ 1500-talet.
+
+LÀnge var John de Mandevilles reseberÀttelser frÄn 1400-talet inflytelserika, men visade sig senare vara fiktiva. De var exempel pÄ "skrivbordsantropologi". I bibliotekets reselitteratur kunde man stÀlla samman den berÀttelse man ville förmedla. Ingen stÀllde krav pÄ "fÀltarbete".
+
+1500-tal och 1600-tal
+Kolonialismen vÀxte fram frÄn 1500-talet och Michel de Montaignes kritik i texten Om kannibaler har uppmÀrksammats. Européer hade beskrivit de amerikanska urinvÄnarna som kannibaler. Men Montaigne pÄpekar att de "civiliserade" européerna först mÄste rannsaka sig sjÀlva, och nÀmner inkvisitionen som ett exempel. Och han betonar att den kannibalism som beskrivs som avskyvÀrd mÄste förstÄs i sitt sammanhang (ett tidigt exempel pÄ kulturrelativism).
+
+Thomas Hobbes hade i mitten pÄ 1600-talet funnit att Amerikas indianer kom ganska nÀra hans förestÀllning om ett naturtillstÄnd, dÀr varje mÀnniska var pÄ vakt mot sin nÀsta och mÀnniskors liv var "ensamt, fattigt, smutsigt, djuriskt och kort". Jesuitpatern Joseph Lafitau beskrev nordamerikanska indianstammar 1724, och jÀmförde deras seder med antikens, som de hade beskrivits av grekiska och romerska författare.
+
+Man har ofta önskat sammanfatta historiska skeenden i fasta mallar. Giambattista Vico förklarade 1725 historieutvecklingen som ett cykliskt förlopp med tre Äterkommande stadier: en teokratisk, en heroisk och en mÀnsklig Älder, vilket Àven lÄngt senare haft inflytande pÄ vetenskapligt tÀnkande.
+
+1700-tal och upplysning
+Upplysningstidens tÀnkare efterstÀvade sekulÀr vetenskap, ett "fast sammanhÄllet system av fakta och förklaringar" grundad pÄ ett naturvetenskapligt ideal om lagbundenhet och den nya psykologins mÀnniskouppfattning.
+
+Alexander Pope hade redan pĂ„ 1730-talet fastlagt att "the proper study of mankind is man" â inte teoretisk spekulation eller filologiska studier, som man tidigare Ă€gnat sig Ă„t. Man skulle betrakta mĂ€nniskan som biologisk varelse.
+
+Montesquieus De l'esprit des lois, 1748, har kommit att betraktas som funktionalistisk i sitt teoretiserande om huruvida skillnader i olika rÀttssystem kunde förklaras av skillnader hos befolkning, temperament, religiösa uppfattningar, ekonomisk organisation, seder i allmÀnhet och livsmiljö. KÀnd Àr ocksÄ hans geografiska determinism som den uttrycks i hans klimatlÀra.
+
+Carl von Linné hade i mitten pÄ 1700-talet klassificerat mÀnniskan i fyra "varieteter" efter de fyra vÀrldsdelarna. Inom ramen för den vetenskap som kom att kallas etnologi utvecklades vidlyftiga rasteorier pÄ 1800-talet. I Linnés Systema naturae (1735) samordnades mÀnniskan med de mÀnniskolika aporna sÄsom högsta ordningen bland dÀggdjuren.
+
+Jean-Jacques Rousseau och mĂ„nga efterföljare under 1700-talet gav kulturkritiskt stöd Ă„t tanken om ett ursprungligt naturtillstĂ„nd som fritt och lyckligt. Diskussionen fördes genom Johann Gottfried Herders Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (1784â91) över till romantikens tankevĂ€rld.
+
+Evolutionismen (1850-1910)
+
+Under 1800-talet vÀxte kunskapen om mÀnniskans fornhistoria bl.a. genom paleontologiska fynd. Intresset för mÀnniskans ursprung och utveckling ledde till olika teorier om raser (Blumenbach) och metoder för rasbestÀmning, till exempel genom mÀtning av kranier etc (Anders Retzius).
+
+Darwins och Wallaces arbeten om arternas förÀnderlighet gav nya impulser till antropologins utveckling. De stora frÄgorna om mÀnniskans uppkomst, slÀktets Älder, dess enhetlighet eller hÀrstamning frÄn flera skilda grupper dryftades nitiskt (Huxley, Latham, Tylor).
+
+1900-talet
+Ănda fram till 1950-talet hade funktionalistiska förklaringar dominerat den sociologiska vetenskapen och antropologin. Det innebar att sociologer och antropologer försökte förklara vad olika fenomen (sociala akter eller institutioner) var till för. Förekomsten av ett fenomen förklarades om den troddes fylla en funktion. Det enda alternativet till denna teori hade varit att förklara fenomen historiskt, genom att förklara hur de blivit till.
+
+Efter andra vÀrldskriget
+
+Under senare delen av 1900-talet kom Claude Lévi-Strauss teorier att bli inflytelserika. Hans bidrag kom att förÀndra antropologin i grunden.
+
+Lévi-Struss teorier presenteras i Anthropologie structurale. De kan kortfattat sammanfattas som att han uppfattar kulturer som system av symbolisk kommunikation, vilka bör undersökas med metoder som andra före honom anvÀnt i liten omfattning för att studera tal, berÀttelser, sport och film. Han resonemang förstÄs bÀst mot bakgrund av den tidigare sociologiska teorin. I Ärtionden skrev han om denna relation.
+
+Dock uppstod tvĂ„ differenta idĂ©er om sociala funktioner. Den engelska antropologen Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown, som beundrade sociologen Ămile Durkheim, proponerade att syftet med antropologin var att finna den kollektiva funktionen, vad en religiös förestĂ€llning eller Ă€ktenskapslagar hade för funktion för samhĂ€llet som sĂ„dant. I grunden till detta förhĂ„llningssĂ€tt fanns uppfattningen att kulturer utvecklas frĂ„n en primitiv fas till allt mera civiliserade och moderna faser, som alltid var desamma överallt. Alla hĂ€ndelser i ett samhĂ€lle upptrĂ€dde enligt deras mening pĂ„ ett likartat sĂ€tt genom att nĂ„gon slags allmĂ€ngiltig logik drev fram utvecklingen i samma riktning. Sett pĂ„ detta sĂ€tt kan kulturer uppfattas som organismer, dĂ€r dess delar fungerar tillsammans som organ i en kropp.
+
+Ăn mer inflytelserik funktionalist var BronisĆaw Malinowski, som beskrev vilken funktion ett fenomen fyllde för individen, och vad de enskilda personerna i en kultur fick ut av att upprĂ€tthĂ„lla en tradition.
+
+I USA, dÀr antropologin skapades efter tysk modell av Franz Boas, hade den historiska modellen ett klart företrÀde framför funktionalismen. Denna modell hade uppenbara svÄrigheter, vilka Lévi-Strauss berömde Boas för att ha lyckats blottlÀgga.
+
+Historiska förklaringar Àr knappast möjligt nÀr det Àr frÄga om folk som saknar skriftsprÄk, insÄg Lévi-Strauss. Antropologen fyller i med jÀmförelser med andra kulturer, och Àr hÀnvisad till teorier som saknar bevis: den gamla uppfattningen om utveckling eller pÄstÄendet att kulturella likheter beror pÄ nÄgon av vetenskapen okÀnd förbindelse av personlig art mellan grupper. Boas kom till slutsatsen att ingen allmÀngiltig förklaring till likheter mellan olika kulturer kunde bevisas; för honom fanns ingen historia, bara historier.
+
+Det Àr tre övergripande frÄgestÀllningar som hÀnger samman med dessa skolors skillnader. BÄda mÄste vÀlja vilken slags bevis de anvÀnde, huruvida man borde fokusera det enskilda eller det gemensamma för kulturerna, samt definiera den mÀnskliga naturen.
+
+Socialvetenskaperna överlag förlitade sig pÄ mellankulturella studier. Det var alltid ofrÄnkomligt att belysa ett samhÀlle genom ett annat. SÄ en idé om en gemensam mÀnsklig natur var underförstÄdd i varje studie.
+
+Men en kritisk punkt kunde forskarna inte undkomma: existerade sociologiska fakta för att de var funktionella för den sociala ordningen eller för att de var funktionella för en person? Beror likheter mellan kulturer pÄ att de erbjuder organisatoriska lösningar som Àr gemensamma för kulturerna, eller pÄ att de uppfyller behov som Àr gemensamma för samtliga mÀnniskor?
+
+Lévi-Strauss var benÀgen att se det som att de var funktionella för den sociala ordningen. NÀr Malinowski framhÀrdat att magi fyllde ett behov av trygghet nÀr utgÄngen av en viktig hÀndelse var oviss, hade han bevisat detta med en rit dÀr vÀvning spelade en avgörande roll. Men han kunde inte förklara varför vÀvning i samma kultur oftast inte hade nÄgot med magi att göra alls, eller varför andra moment med oviss utgÄng inte ingick i magi. Men inte heller de kollektivistiska eller historiska förklaringssÀtten var tillfredsstÀllande. Olika samhÀllen kan ha institutioner som tydligt liknar varandra men som ÀndÄ fyller andra funktioner som Àr olika. MÄnga stammar var i Sydamerika till exempel delade i tvÄ grupper och reglerna för hur dessa grupper skulle förhÄlla sig till varandra var mycket strikta men exakt vad som var tillÄtet och inte skilde sig Ät, och dÀrför frÄngick man med dÄtidens förklaringsmodeller att peka pÄ den strukturella likheten.
+
+Det var genom lingvistiken som LĂ©vi-Strauss kom fram till en lösning. Han byggde sina analogier frĂ€mst pĂ„ fonologin. Senare studier har Ă€ven influerats av musik, matematik, kaosteori, cybernetik med mera. âEn sann vetenskaplig analys mĂ„ste vara verklighetsförankrad, förenklad och förklarandeâ skriver han i Anthropologie structurale. Fonologiska studier avslöjar samband som alla kan kĂ€nna igen och förhĂ„lla sig till. Samtidigt Ă€r fonem en abstraktion av ett sprĂ„k, inte ljud, utan kategorier av ljud som definieras genom hur det skiljer sig frĂ„n andra ljud. Summan av alla ljudstrukturer i ett sprĂ„k kan menar LĂ©vi-Strauss, frambringas frĂ„n ett mycket litet antal regler. Det var detta system han tog efter och överförde till antropologin.
+
+I sitt studium av likartade system var hans första uppgift att finna en förklaring, vilket han fann i fonologin, och dÀrefter kunde han skapa en omfattande organisation av data som delvis hade ordnats av andra forskare. Det övergripande mÄlet var att finna svaret pÄ varför familjekonstellationer skilde sig Ät för olika kulturer i Sydamerika. I vissa kulturer kunde fadern ha en uttalat överordnad roll över sin son med förankring i tabun. I andra kulturer var det i stÀllet sonens morbror som hade denna roll. Lévi-Strauss beskrev fenomenet genom att utreda de strukturella likheterna i sÄdana relationer, och fann att den underliggande strukturen var en cirkulation av kvinnor genom vilket olika klaner behöll fredliga förbindelser. De viktiga relationerna var i hans studier ett kluster av broder, syster, fader, son. Andra kluster, som syster, systers broder, broders hustru, dotter, fanns inga verkliga exempel pÄ att de nÄgonsin spelade nÄgon roll.
+
+Syftet med strukturalistisk förklaring Àr att organisera data frÄn verkligheten pÄ det enklaste och mest effektiva sÀttet. All vetenskap, menade Lévi-Strauss, Àr antingen strukturalistisk eller reduktionistisk. Genom att stÀllas inför sÄdana fenomen som incesttabu, stÀlls man inför en objektiv grÀns för vad det mÀnskliga intellektet hittills kunnat acceptera. Det Àr möjligt att spekulera om de underliggande biologiska orsakerna till dessa slags tabun men för socialvetenskapen Àr det fakta som inte kan reduceras. I stÀllet mÄste de studera de uttryck som emanerar ur sÄdana axiom.
+
+Senare verk Àr mer kontroversiella eftersom han utgick frÄn att de strukturer han funnit bland de sydamerikanska indianernas kulturer kunde överföras pÄ andra vetenskaper. Han var av uppfattningen att all historia och det moderna samhÀllet byggde pÄ desamma kategorier och transformationer. Han jÀmför dÀrför i till exempel Mythologiques antropologi med musikaliska serier och försvarar sin filosofiska stÄndpunkt. Vidare har han kritiserat tidigare forskning för att förneka de skriftlösa folken en historia. I vissa avseenden pÄminner hans senare teorier om Fernand Braudel.
+
+Institutioner
+ I Paris, dĂ€r Paul Broca, utbildaren av den moderna antropologiska metoden, 1859 stiftat ett antropologiskt samfund, inrĂ€ttades 1876 "Ăcole d'anthropologie" (numera med 10 lĂ€rostolar).
+ Redan 1855 hade i Paris upprÀttats en antropologisk professur, vid naturhistoriska museet;
+ andra professurer i Ă€mnet finnas i Florens, Budapest, MĂŒnchen och Rom, och i Amerika lĂ€mna mer Ă€n trettio högskolor undervisning dĂ€ri.
+ I Sverige ges undervisning i antropologi vid flera universitet och högskolor och antropologiska institutioner finns vid Stockholms universitet (socialantropologi) och Uppsala universitet (kulturantropologi);
+ 1870 stiftades ett stort tyskt vandringssamfund för antropologi, etnologi och urhistoria (med mÄnga lokala föreningar), 1871 i London "Anthropological institute". Dylika sÀllskap finnas nu i mÄnga lÀnder;
+ Sverige har ett sÄdant i "Svenska sÀllskapet för antropologi och geografi".
+
+Tidskrifter
+
+Bland antropologiska tidskrifter mÀrks:
+ L'antropologie (i Paris, sedan 1890),
+ Archiv fĂŒr Anthropologie (i Braunschweig, sedan 1861; red. af J. Ranke),
+ Zeitschrift fĂŒr Ethnologie (i Berlin, sedan 1869),
+ Man (i London),
+ The American Anthropologist (sedan 1888),
+ A Journal of American Ethnology and ArchĂŠology (sedan 1892) och
+ Reports of the Government Bureau of Ethnology (i Washington),
+ Archivio per l'antropologia e la etnologia (i Florens, sedan 1871) samt i övrigt de brittiska och franska samfundens publikationer.
+ Svenska SÀllskapet för Antropologi och geografi startade utgivningen av tidskriften Ymer 1880.
+
+KĂ€nda antropologer
+
+ Lewis Henry Morgan (1818â1881)
+ Adolf Bastian (1826â1905)
+ Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917)
+ Lucien LĂ©vy-Bruhl (1857â1939)
+ Franz Boas (1858-1942)
+ Edvard Westermarck (1862â1939)
+ Marcel Mauss (1872â1950)
+ Alfred Kroeber (1876â1960)
+ Knud Rasmussen (1879â1933)
+ Ruth Benedict (1887-1948)
+ Sigurd Erixon (1888-1968)
+ Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955)
+ BronisĆaw Malinowski (1884-1942)
+ Margaret Mead (1901-1978)
+ Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard (1902-1973)
+ Louis Leakey (1903-1972)
+ Gregory Bateson (1904-1980)
+ Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss (1908-2009)
+ Ă
ke Hultkrantz (1920-2006)
+ Mary Douglas (1921-2007)
+ Bengt Danielsson (1921-1997)
+ Clifford Geertz (1926â2006)
+ Nils-Arvid Bringéus (1926- )
+ Marvin Harris(en) (1927-2001)
+ Ă
ke Daun (1936-2017)
+ Ulf Hannerz (1942- )
+ Karl-Olov Arnstberg (1943- )
+ Gösta Arvastson (1943- )
+ Kirsten Hastrup (1948- )
+David Graeber (1961-2020)
+ Thomas Hylland Eriksen (1962- )
+
+Se Àven
+ Arkeologi
+ Beteendevetenskap
+ Etnologi
+ Etnografi
+ Feministisk antropologi
+ Kulturantropologi
+ Kulturvetenskap
+ Medicinsk antropologi
+ Paleoantropologi
+ SamhÀllsvetenskap
+ Socialantropologi
+ Sociologi
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+ Nationalencyklopedin.
+
+Noter
+AnvÀndbarhet Àr en svensk term för usability, och Àr en önskvÀrd egenskap hos datorer, program, anvÀndargrÀnssnitt och andra verktyg och föremÄl.
+
+Definition
+AnvÀndbarhet definieras enligt ISO-normen 9241-11 som följande:
+
+Den grad i vilken anvÀndare i ett givet sammanhang kan bruka en produkt för att uppnÄ specifika mÄl pÄ ett ÀndamÄlsenligt, effektivt och för anvÀndaren tillfredsstÀllande sÀtt.
+
+I en bredare bemĂ€rkelse anvĂ€nds begreppet ocksĂ„ för de metoder och tekniker som tas i bruk för att nĂ„ en hög grad av anvĂ€ndbarhet ("Jag har pluggat anvĂ€ndbarhet"). I denna mening överlappar anvĂ€ndbarhet i hög grad begrepp som mĂ€nniskaâdatorinteraktion, ergonomi eller interaktionsdesign.
+
+AnvÀndbarhet respektive AnvÀndarvÀnlighet
+Det förekommer att det nÀrliggande ordet AnvÀndarvÀnlighet anvÀnds pÄ ett liknande sÀtt som AnvÀndbarhet, men ComputerSwedens IT-ordlista rekommenderar ordet AnvÀndbarhet inom beskrivning av mÀnniska-datorinteraktion. TAM3 (Technology Acceptance Model 3) anger följande definitioner:
+
+ Uppfattad anvĂ€ndbarhet â till vilken grad en person tror att systemet kommer vara till nytta.
+ Uppfattad anvĂ€ndarvĂ€nlighet â till vilken grad en person tror att anvĂ€ndningen av systemet kommer att nyttjas utan anstrĂ€ngning.
+
+TillÀmpningsomrÄden
+Ăven om anvĂ€ndbarhet i princip gĂ€ller vilken produkt som helst, har begreppet till stor del kommit att förknippas med digitala system och produkter, till exempel webbtjĂ€nster eller datorprogram.
+
+I synnerhet inom IT Àr den tredje betydelsen av ordet vanlig. Inom andra omrÄden, till exempel framstÀllning av hus eller möbler, finns sÀllan nÄgon specifik "anvÀndbarhets-specialist"; att efterstrÀva hög anvÀndbarhet ligger normalt i arkitektens eller designerns yrkesroll.
+
+AnvÀndbarhetens delar
+En del forskare har velat vÀga in andra kvaliteter i anvÀndbarhets-begreppet Àn de tre i ISO-definitionen. Utöver ÀndamÄlsenlighet och den personliga tillfredsstÀllelsen har Jakob Nielsen och Shneidermann föreslagit ytterligare tre:
+ Hur lÀtt det Àr att lÀra sig anvÀnda (eng. learnability) för en nybörjare
+ Hur lÀtt det Àr att minnas hur man gjorde (eng. memorability): om man gör ett uppehÄll och dÀrefter börjar anvÀnda produkten igen, Àr det dÄ lÀtt att komma man ihÄg hur man gjorde?
+ Hur mÄnga eller fÄ fel som anvÀndarna gör.
+
+SÀrskilt nÀr det gÀller webbplatser och informationssystem har en del velat lyfta fram "hittbarhet" (eng findability) - det vill sÀga hur lÀtt eller svÄrt det Àr att hitta information - som en vÀsentlig del i anvÀndbarhet, eller som ett komplement.
+
+AnvÀndbarhetens metoder
+En rad metoder och tekniker Àr associerade med begreppet anvÀndbarhet.
+
+En del av dessa rör design och utveckling av produkter eller tjÀnster. HÀr anvÀnds till exempel tekniker och metoder som personor, scenarios, contextual inquiry, interaktionsdesign, med flera. Dessa och mÄnga andra tekniker kan sammanfattas under rubriken anvÀndarcentrerad design.
+
+En annan grupp tekniker rör tester eller utvÀrderingar, dÀr det gÀller att se hur anvÀndbart ett system eller en produkt Àr. HÀr finns metoder som think-aloud protocol, expertgranskning, med flera. Dessa beskrivs under uppslagsordet anvÀndningstest.
+
+Det finns Àven utmaningar att fÄ in anvÀndbarhet i utvecklingsprocessen. NÄgra av orsakerna Àr ett fokus pÄ de tekniska aspekterna av ett IT-system och inte dess anvÀndbarhet, att begreppet ses som luddigt och svÄrt att förstÄ, att anvÀndbarhet inte gÄr att mÀta och pÄ att projekt inte uppfattar att de har tid att arbeta med anvÀndbarhet. MÄnga systemutvecklare har aldrig heller sett de system de utvecklar anvÀndas i sitt sammanhang
+
+VÀrldsanvÀndbarhetsdagen
+Sedan 2005 uppmÀrksammas VÀrldsanvÀndbarhetsdagen, World Usability Day, den andra torsdagen i november. Internationellt arrangeras den av Usability Professionals Association. I Sverige stÄr STIMDI för arrangemanget. Under dagen försöker man genom öppna förelÀsningar, seminarier och andra arrangemang öka intresset för anvÀndbarhet hos företag, myndigheter och allmÀnhet.
+
+Se Àven
+ AnvÀndbarhetstestning
+ LĂ€sbarhet
+ MĂ€nniskaâdatorinteraktion
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ ISO 9241-11, Standarden för anvÀndbarhet
+
+Standarder och konventioner
+MĂ€nniska-datorinteraktion
+Aristoteles (grekiska: áŒÏÎčÏÏÎżÏÎληÏ, AristotĂ©lÄs), född 384 f.Kr. i Stageira pĂ„ halvön Chalkidike, död Ă„r 322 f.Kr. i Chalkis, var en grekisk filosof och astronom.
+
+Hans far Nicomachus avled nÀr Aristoteles var liten och han fick dÄ Proxenus av Atarneus som förmyndare. Vid 18 Ärs Älder började Aristoteles vid Platons akademi, dÀr han stannade i nÀra tjugo Är. Aristoteles skrifter omfattar mÄnga Àmnen: fysik, biologi, zoologi, metafysik, logik, etik, estetik, poetik, skÄdespeleri, musik, retorik, lingvistik, politik och styrande, och utgör den vÀsterlÀndska filosofins första genomgripande utlÀggning. Kort efter Platons död 348 f.Kr. lÀmnade Aristoteles Aten för att pÄ begÀran av Filip II av Makedonien bli privatlÀrare Ät dennes son Alexander.
+
+Tillsammans med Platon och Sokrates Àr Aristoteles en av de viktigaste figurerna inom vÀsterlÀndsk filosofi. Aristoteles syn pÄ fysik strÀckte sig lÄngt in pÄ renÀssansen och övergavs först pÄ 1600-talet. Inom biologin rÀttades hans observationer först pÄ 1800-talet. Hans verk innehÄller den tidigast kÀnda formella studien av logik, vilket inlemmades under sent 1800-tal inom formell logik. Aristotelisk metafysik utövade under medeltiden ett stort inflytande pÄ filosofi inom islam och judendom och fortsÀtter Àn idag att pÄverka kristen teologi, sÀrskilt östortodox teologi och den skolastiska traditionen inom Romersk-katolska kyrkan. Alla aspekter av Aristoteles filosofi fortsÀtter att studeras i den akademiska vÀrlden Àn idag.
+
+Ăven om Aristoteles skrev mĂ„nga eleganta dialoger och annat, tros majoriteten av hans verk vara förlorade och bara ungefĂ€r en tredjedel av de ursprungliga verken har överlevt. Dessa var avsedda att anvĂ€ndas i undervisningen vid Aristoteles akademi Lykeion, varför de ocksĂ„ anses sakna den eleganta stil som utmĂ€rkte hans övriga produktion.
+
+Nedslagskratern Aristoteles pÄ mÄnen och asteroiden 6123 Aristoteles Àr uppkallade efter honom.
+
+Biografi
+
+Aristoteles föddes i Stageira pÄ halvön Chalkidike Är 384 f.Kr., cirka 55 km öster om dagens Thessaloniki. Hans far, Nikomachos var livlÀkare till Amyntas III av Makedonien. Aristoteles trÀnades och utbildades som en medlem av aristokratin. Runt arton Ärs Älder reste han till Aten för att fortsÀtta sin utbildning vid Platons akademi. Aristoteles blev kvar vid akademin i nÀstan tjugo Är, och lÀmnade den inte förrÀn vid Platons död Är 348 f.Kr. Han reste dÄ med Xenokrates till sin vÀn Hermias av Atarneus i Mindre Asien. Under sin tid i Asien reste Aristoteles med sin vÀn Teofrastos till ön Lesbos dÀr de tillsammans forskade i botanik och zoologi pÄ ön. Aristoteles gifte sig med Hermias adoptivdotter Pythias, med vilken han fick en dotter som de döpte till Pythias. Strax efter Hermias död bjöds Aristoteles in av Filip II av Makedonien för att bli lÀrare till Alexander den store.
+
+Efter att ha Ă€gnat flera Ă„r Ă„t att vara lĂ€rare Ă„t den unge Alexander Ă„tervĂ€nde Aristoteles till Aten. Ă
r 335 f.Kr. etablerade han, vid helgedomen Lykeion, sin egen skola, den sÄ kallade peripatetiska skolan dÀr han undervisade i tjugo Är. Medan han var i Aten dog hans fru Pythias, och Aristoteles blev involverad med Herpyllis frÄn Stageira, som gav honom en son som han döpte efter sin far, till Nikomachos. Enligt Suda hade han ocksÄ en eromenos, Palaefatos frÄn Abydus.
+
+Det Àr under sin period i Aten som Aristoteles tros ha skrivit mÄnga av sina verk. Aristoteles skrev mÄnga dialoger, av vilka bara fragment finns kvar. Verken som har överlevt var oftast i avhandlingsformat och var inte, till den största delen, tÀnkta för spridning utan som hjÀlp till hans studenter.
+
+Aristoteles studerade inte bara nÀstan varje möjligt Àmne under denna tid, utan gjorde ocksÄ stora bidrag till de flesta. Inom de fysiska vetenskaperna studerade Aristoteles anatomi, astronomi, ekonomi, embryologi, geografi, geologi, meteorologi, fysik och zoologi. Inom filosofin skrev han om estetik, etik, metafysik, politik, psykologi, retorik och teologi. Han studerade ocksÄ utbildning, frÀmmande seder, litteratur och poesi. Hans kombinerade verk uppvisar en hel encyklopedi av grekiskt vetande. Det har sagts att Aristoteles antagligen var den sista personen att veta allt som kunde vetas i sin egen tid.
+Efter Alexanders död flammade antimakedonska rörelser upp Àn en gÄng i Aten. Eurymedon avvisade Aristoteles för att inte Àra gudarna. Aristoteles flydde till sin mors familjebostad i Chalkidike, förklarande: "Jag tÀnker inte lÄta atenarna synda tvÄ gÄnger mot filosofin". Detta uttalandet syftar Atens tidigare avrÀttning av Sokrates, lÀraren till Platon. Han dog dock av naturliga orsaker inom ett Är (322 f.Kr.). Aristoteles lÀmnade ett testamente till sin student Antipater, i vilket han bad om att bli begravd bredvid sin fru. Det har ocksÄ föreslagits att Aristoteles bannlysning och död resulterade frÄn möjligheten att han var involverad i Alexanders död.
+
+Aristoteles idéer
+
+Logik
+Aristoteles studium av korrekta respektive inkorrekta slutledningar brukar ses som logikens ursprung, som vetenskap betraktat. Aristoteles sex verk om logik samlades under titeln Organon. Aristoteles tankar kom i hög grad att pÄverka den lÀrda medeltida vÀrlden.
+
+Filosofi
+Aristoteles ansÄg att mÀnniskor av naturen Àr politiska varelser, av ordet "polis", stad. Det betydde att mÀnniskor Àr sociala varelser och att varje förstÄelse av mÀnskligt beteende och behov mÄste inkludera sociala övervÀganden. Han analyserade ocksÄ vÀrdet av olika politiska system, beskrev deras för- och nackdelar och klassificerade dem som monarki, oligarki, tyranni, demokrati och republik. Aristoteles tankar ligger till grund för maktfördelningslÀran, som fick en central betydelse pÄ 1700-talet med Montesquieus klassiska verk "Om lagarnas anda" frÄn 1748 som var en viktig kÀlla till inspiration för de amerikanska grundlagsfÀderna.
+
+Naturvetenskap
+Aristoteles fysik var för sin tid mycket nyskapande och Àr ett vidare begrepp Àn det vi idag kallar fysik. Aristoteles definition av rörelse innefattar till exempel nÀstan alla former av förÀndring, alltsÄ Àven tillvÀxt, Äldrande m.m. VÀrldsalltet sades bestÄ av fem element och var indelat i Ätta sfÀrer. Fyra av elementen finns i den innersta sfÀren, det vill sÀga pÄ, runt och i jorden. Dessa element Àr jord, luft, eld och vatten. LÀngst ut lÄg fixstjÀrnesfÀren följt av tomrummet, primum mobile (visas ej i bild).
+
+Jorden Àr tyngst och har en naturlig rörelse som strÀvar nedÄt. Elden Àr lÀtt och har en naturlig rörelse som strÀvar uppÄt. Vatten Àr "ganska tungt" och luft Àr "ganska lÀtt". Dessa bÄda rör sig normalt i sidled (som floder, havsvÄgor och vindar), utom i förhÄllande till varandra. Den innersta sfÀren Àr uppbyggd av de fyra elementen, enligt Empedokles lÀra. De fyra elementen i den inre sfÀren sades ha en naturligt rÀtlinjig rörelse. Samtliga dessa element strÀvar efter att uppnÄ ett vilolÀge efter att de satts i rörelse. Vila Àr alltsÄ enligt Aristoteles det naturliga tillstÄndet för all materia pÄ jorden - en Äsikt som hölls för sann i nÀstan 2000 Är, tills Galilei, Descartes och Newton formulerade den moderna teorin om trögheten.
+
+Himlakropparna antogs bestÄ av ett femte element, vars rörelse av naturen Àr cirkulÀr och som inte strÀvar efter att uppnÄ vilolÀge. HimlasfÀrerna Àr de skikt i vilka himlakropparna rör sig. I den innersta ligger mÄnen, sedan följer solen och de pÄ den tiden kÀnda planeterna. I den yttersta sfÀren finns stjÀrnorna. Aristoteles trodde att jorden var ett klot, detta kom han fram till genom att han visste att mÄnförmörkelser berodde pÄ att jorden skymde mÄnen för solljuset. Oavsett i vilken vinkel mÄnen stod pÄ himlen var skuggan av jorden alltid rund. Hade jorden varit en platt skiva eller haft nÄgon annan form skulle denna form ha pÄverkat skuggans form vid vissa vinklar.
+
+För att förklara oregelbundenheterna i planeternas synbara rörelser vidareutvecklade Aristoteles Eudoxos modell med 27 koncentriska fiktiva sfÀrer. Aristoteles kunde inte godta sfÀrerna enbart som matematiska konstruktioner. För honom mÄste de vara verkliga och dÄ kom pythagoréernas genomskinliga kristallsfÀrer vÀl till pass. PÄtagliga sfÀrer komplicerade dock modellen, som redan förfinats av Kallippos till 33 sfÀrer. SfÀrerna var innÀstlade i varandra med inre sfÀrers axlar lagrade pÄ yttre i olika vinklar. För att kompensera för de yttre sfÀrernas rörelser blev Aristoteles tvungen att arbeta med totalt 55 sfÀrer. Otympligt och komplicerat menade Hipparchos som skulle ta nÀsta steg i denna kedja med sin epicykelteori.
+
+I ett berömt experiment lÀt Aristoteles 20 Àgg ruvas av hönor. Sedan öppnade han ett Àgg varje dag och följde utvecklingen frÄn blodflÀck i Àggulan till fÀrdig kyckling.
+
+Teaterkonstens poesi
+Aristoteles poetik Om diktkonsten har varit av mycket stor betydelse för litteraturvetenskapen och för förstÄelsen för den dramatiska tragedins funktion. Begreppet katarsis, en sorts sjÀlslig eller kÀnslomÀssig rening genom grÄt och sorg, hÀrstammar frÄn hans tankar kring den offentliga teaterkonstens gestaltning av mÀnniskors hybris i förhÄllande till gudar.
+
+Etik
+Aristoteles var först med att anvÀnda termen etik för att namnge en studieinriktning utvecklad av hans föregÄngare Sokrates och Platon. Filosofisk etik Àr ett försök att komma med ett rationellt svar till frÄgan om hur mÀnniskan bÀst bör leva. Aristoteles betraktade etik och politik som tvÄ relaterade men separata studieinriktningar dÄ etik undersökte det goda i individen, medan politik undersökte det goda i staden/samhÀllet.
+
+Aristoteles ansÄg att etik var ett praktiskt snarare Àn ett teoretiskt kunskapsomrÄde, d.v.s. mÄlet Àr att bli god och göra gott snarare Àn att veta bara för sakens skull. Han skrev flera avhandlingar om etik, vilket i synnerhet inkluderar Den nikomachiska etiken.
+
+Han lĂ€rde ut att dygd hade att göra med uppgiften eller arbetet (ergon) av en sak. Ett öga Ă€r bara ett gott öga sĂ„ lĂ€nge det kan se eftersom funktionen av ögat Ă€r syn. Aristoteles resonerade att mĂ€nniskor mĂ„ste ha en funktion specifikt för mĂ€nniskan, och att denna funktion mĂ„ste vara en aktivitet av sjĂ€len i enlighet med förnuftet (logos). Aristoteles identifierade att en sĂ„dan optimal aktivitet (den dygdiga vĂ€gen, emellan den ackompanjerade synden av överflöd eller brister) av sjĂ€len som Ă€ndamĂ„let för all mĂ€nsklig avsiktlig handling, eudaimonia, i regel översatt som âlyckaâ eller ibland âvĂ€lmĂ„endeâ. Att ha potentialen att uppnĂ„ lycka pĂ„ det hĂ€r sĂ€ttet krĂ€ver ovillkorligen god karaktĂ€r (arete), ofta översatt till dygd.
+
+Aristoteles undervisade att för att uppnÄ en dygdig och potentiellt lycklig karaktÀr krÀvs det i första hand att man vÀnjer sig stegvis, inte medvetet, utan genom lÀrare och erfarenhet, som leder fram till ett senare skede dÀr man medvetet vÀljer att göra vad som Àr bÀst. NÀr de bÀsta mÀnniskorna lever livet pÄ sÄdant vis kan deras praktiska vishet och deras intellekt (nous) utvecklas tillsammans mot den högsta möjliga mÀnskliga dygden, vishet av en fullÀndad teoretisk eller spekulativ tÀnkare, eller med andra ord, en filosof.
+
+Han trodde att etisk kunskap inte bara Ă€r en teoretisk kunskap, utan snarare att en person mĂ„ste ha âerfarenhet av livetâ och har âvĂ€xt upp med goda vanorâ för att bli god. För att en person ska bli dygdig, kan den helt enkelt inte bara studera vad dygd Ă€r, utan mĂ„ste faktiskt göra dygdiga saker.
+
+âVi studerar inte för att veta vad dygd Ă€r, utan för att bli goda, för annars skulle det inte finnas nĂ„got syfte med det.â
+
+Retorik
+Aristoteles anses vara den viktigaste tÀnkaren inom den retoriska traditionen och ville göra retoriken till en vetenskap. Han menade att retoriken Àr en konst, techne, i betydelsen hantverksmÀssigt/konstnÀrligt kunnande och att dess principer kunde studeras och lÀras ut. Begreppet konst skall dock inte blandas ihop med det filosofiska begreppet av ordet dÀr man avser mÄlningar, skulpturer etc. Aristoteles funderade mycket över vad det Àr som gör att mÀnniskor övertygas och började hÄlla förelÀsningar i Àmnet. Han kritiserade sofisterna som han ansÄg anvÀnde retoriken till att övertala och manipulera andra genom att anvÀnda kÀnslor och osakliga argument. Retorik för Aristoteles var istÀllet konsten att vad det Àn gÀller finna det som Àr bÀst Àgnat att övertyga. Han ansÄg att publiken sjÀlva ville ha ett ansvar för vad som sker i mötet med en annans ord, att talaren mÄste vara lyhörd för publikens kÀnslor och att man mÄste rÀtta sitt tal efter dem. PÄ sÄ sÀtt arbetar talaren med sin publik istÀllet för mot dem.
+
+Aristoteles började systematisera retoriken och kom fram till att mÀnniskor fattar beslut utifrÄn tre grunder: ethos, pathos och logos. Dessa brukar kallas för retoriska bevismedel (pisteis entechnoi) och spelar en central roll i den klassiska retoriken. Ethos Àr talarens karaktÀr vilken ska övertyga genom att skapa förtroende, pathos Àr de kÀnslor talet vÀcker hos lyssnarna och logos Àr orden, de sakskÀl talaren framhÄller. Aristoteles skiljer mellan retoriska och icke-retoriska bevismedel. De icke-retoriska bevismedlen (pisteis atechnoi) Àr vittnen, bevismedel, lagar, kontrakt och tortyr, alltsÄ sÄdana pisteis som talaren inte finner med hjÀlp av retoriken.
+
+En annan viktig del i Aristoteles retorik Àr topiklÀran. Ordet topik, som kommer av det grekiska ordet topos (plural topoi), betyder plats eller sökstÀllen och syftar pÄ de stÀllen, synpunkter och intellektuella utsiktsplatser man kan söka upp för att finna stoff till sitt tal.
+
+Aristoteles delade in talen i tre olika genrer. Den första genren Ă€r genus judiciale (ÎłÎÎœÎżÏ ÎŽÎčÎșαΜÎčÎșÏÎœ), det juridiska talet. Det Ă€r tal som framförs i domstol, alltsĂ„ anklagelsetal eller försvarstal, och handlar om vad som skett i det förflutna. Den andra genren kallas genus deliberativum (ÎłÎÎœÎżÏ ÏÏ
ÎŒÎČÎżÏ
λΔÏ
ÏÎčÎșÏÎœ), det politiska talet, vilken innebĂ€r tal om t.ex. vilka lagar som borde stiftas. De politiska talen handlar om framtiden, om sĂ„dant som bör eller inte bör göras, och det huvudsakliga syftet Ă€r att avrĂ„da eller tillrĂ„da. Den tredje genren Ă€r genus demonstrativum (ÎłÎÎœÎżÏ áŒÏÎčΎΔÎčÎșÏÎčÎșÏÎœ) och dĂ€r hör det hyllande eller klandrande talet hemma. Oftast innebĂ€r det ceremoniella tal till t.ex. bröllop eller begravning men det kan ocksĂ„ vara rena smĂ€delsetal. Dessa tal handlar i regel om nuet men tidsaspekten Ă€r inte lika framtrĂ€dande som hos de andra tvĂ„ genrerna.
+
+Enligt Aristoteles kan retoriska argumentationer se ut pÄ tvÄ olika sÀtt. Antingen Àr de entymemiska och utgÄr frÄn generella pÄstÄenden eller paradigmatiska vilka utgÄr frÄn enskilda exempel. Paradigmatiska resonemang kan vara svaga i sin logik men har stark kÀnslomÀssig effekt. Entymemiska Àr istÀllet starkt logiska men svagare kÀnslomÀssigt. Det mest effektiva Àr att kombinera de bÄda argumentationssorterna.
+
+Aristoteles frÀmsta verk inom retoriken Àr boken Retorik. Boken Àr dock inte skriven med Aristoteles egna ord, utan bestÄr av nedtecknade skrifter frÄn hans lÀrjungar. Första delen utvecklades mellan 376 f.Kr. och 347 f.Kr. nÀr han var elev hos Platon och den andra mellan 335 f.Kr. och 322 f.Kr. nÀr han drev sin egen skola, Lyceum.
+
+Aristoteles inflytande
+
+Historiskt inflytande
+
+Delar av Aristoteles skrifter, bland annat Metafysiken, översattes till arabiska vid Al Mansurs hov i Bagdad. I det spanska kalifatet Cordoba stod dessa översĂ€ttningar i centrum för framstĂ„ende judiska och arabiska lĂ€rdes arbete, bland dem Maimonides, Avicenna och AverroĂ«s. Den ökande kunskapen om Aristoteles ledde till att ledande skolastiker under 1100- och 1200-talet förband hans spekulativa etik och logik med den kristna teologin. Thomas av Aquino, Albertus Magnus och Johannes Duns Scotus utnyttjade alla Aristoteles filosofi men omvandlade den ibland, delvis under platonskt inflytande. Ăven Ayn Rand inspirerades av Aristoteles.
+
+Aristoteles aktualitet idag
+
+Hela det moderna tÀnkandet bygger i hög grad pÄ den aristoteliska indelningen av vetandet (fysik, metafysik, logik och etik) och de frÄgestÀllningar och sÀtt att nÀrma sig verkligheten som ligger i denna. Lika grundlÀggande för vÄrt sÀtt att tÀnka Àr den aristoteliska logiken. I sprÄken fortlever de aristoteliska begreppen, uttryck som primus motor, kvintessens, sjunde himlen, eter, substans och energi kan liksom aktualitet och potentialitet hÀrledas till Aristoteles.
+
+Svenska översÀttningar
+ Aristoteles: den grekiska antikens mÄngsidigaste forskare: ur hans historiska och statsvetenskapliga skrifter (en essay och en tolkning af Richard Nordin, Bonnier, 1906)
+ Om sjÀlen (översÀttning Johannes Gabrielsson, Björck & Börjesson, 1925)
+ Om diktkonsten (Peri poietikes) (översÀttning Wilhelm Norlind, Gleerup förlag 1927 samt av Jan Stolpe, Anamma, 1994)
+ Om djurens delar (Peri zĆĆn moriĆn) (översĂ€ttning Ingemar DĂŒring, K. Rydin, T. Wikström, Göteborg, 1941)
+ Om diktkonsten: jĂ€mte den anonyma skriften Om den stora stilen (Peri poiÄtikÄs och Peri hypsous) (översĂ€ttning Jan Stolpe, Natur och Kultur, 1961)
+ Den nikomachiska etiken (översÀttning och kommentarer av MÄrten Ringbom, Natur och kultur, 1967)
+ Politiken (ΠολÎčÏÎčÎșÎŹ, PolitikĂĄ, översĂ€ttning med inledning och kommentar av Karin Blomqvist, Ă
ström, 1993)
+ Tre böcker om sjÀlen (översÀttning Kimmo JÀrvinen, Daidalos, 1999)
+ De interpretatione; Om sofistiska vederlÀggningar (De interpretatione och Sophistici elenchi) (översÀttning och noter: Börje Bydén, Thales, 2000)
+ Aristoteles och Pseudo-Xenofon om Atenarnas statsförfattning = Athenaion politeia (med översĂ€ttning och noter av Staffan Wahlgren, Ă
ström, 2001)
+ Retoriken (översÀttning, inledning och noter av Johanna AkujÀrvi, Retorikförlaget, 2012)
+ Fysik (Àven kÀnd som Fysiken, översÀttning och inledning av Charlotte Weigelt, Thales, 2017)
+Första analytiken (översÀttning, inledning och kommentarer Per-Erik MalmnÀs, Thales, 2020)
+
+Se Àven
+ Den nikomachiska etiken
+ Aristoteles fysik
+ Areopagen
+ Realism
+ Aristoteles överlevande verk kallas Corpus Aristotelicum
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+KĂ€llor
+ Andersen, Ăivind, (2009): I retorikkens hage. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
+ Hellspong, Lennart, 2004: Konsten att tala. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+
+
+Födda 384 f.Kr.
+Avlidna 322 f.Kr.
+Antikens grekiska filosofer
+Antikens vetenskapsmÀn
+MĂ€n
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+Retoriker
+Grekiska teaterteoretiker
+Naturfilosofer
+Logiker
+Mononymt kÀnda personer
+Retorik
+Ontologer
+Astronomi ( ; bokstavligen "stjÀrnonas lag") Àr vetenskapen om himlakropparna och universum. Den innefattar kosmologin, som försöker utveckla en helhetsbeskrivning av kosmos och dess uppkomst, utveckling och storskaliga struktur. Vidare Àr astronomin ett av de absolut Àldsta vetenskapsfÀlten och kan spÄras Ànda tillbaka till de tidigaste kÀnda civilisationerna. Det var dock först nÀr teleskopet uppfanns i början av 1600-talet som Àmnet utvecklades till en modern vetenskap. Trots sin Älder utvecklas astronomin idag snabbt och ny kunskap kommer fram i snabb takt.
+
+Astronomi skall inte blandas ihop med astrologi, Ă€ven om tidiga astronomer ofta Ă€ven var vad vi idag skulle kalla astrologer. Ămnena Ă€r dock numera strikt skilda frĂ„n varandra. DĂ€remot Ă€r astrofysik nĂ€ra relaterat och termen anvĂ€nds ibland synonymt med modern astronomi.
+
+Sedan 1900-talet har astronomin i praktiken delats upp i tvÄ huvudsakliga fÀlt, observationell astronomi och teoretisk astronomi. Observationell astronomi fokuserar pÄ att hÀmta och analysera data medan teoretisk astronomi försöker förklara företeelser och göra förutsÀgelser om olika fenomen i universum. De bÄda fÀlten kompletterar varandra vÀl dÄ teoretisk astronomi försöker förklara observationer medan observationer i sin tur anvÀnds för att bekrÀfta teoretiska modeller. Astronomi Àr ett av fÄ vetenskapliga fÀlt dÀr amatörer fortfarande spelar en aktiv roll, framför allt inom upptÀckt och observation av tillfÀlliga fenomen som kometer och supernovor. Samtidigt förekommer inom astronomi utrustning som Àr bland de mest kostsamma och avancerade som över huvud taget förekommer inom vetenskap.
+
+Lexikologi
+
+Ordet astronomi betyder ordagrant "stjĂ€rnornas lag" (eller "stjĂ€rnornas kultur" beroende pĂ„ översĂ€ttning) och hĂ€rleds frĂ„n det grekiska áŒÏÏÏÎżÎœÎżÎŒÎŻÎ±, astronomia frĂ„n orden ÎŹÏÏÏÎżÎœ (astron, "stjĂ€rna") och ÎœÏÎŒÎżÏ (nomos, "lagar eller kulturer")
+
+Termerna "astronomi" â "astrofysik"
+
+Generellt sett kan antingen termen "astronomi" eller "astrofysik" anvÀndas för att beskriva Àmnet, men mer specifikt Àr astrofysik en omfattande gren av astronomin. "Astronomi" kan sÀgas avse "studien av objekt och materia utanför jordens atmosfÀr samt deras fysikaliska och kemiska egenskaper" medan "astrofysik" behandlar "beteendet, fysikaliska egenskaper och dynamiska processer hos astronomiska objekt och fenomen". I vissa fall anvÀnds "astronomi" för att beskriva de kvalitativa studierna av Àmnet medan "astrofysik" anvÀnds för att beskriva den fysik-orienterade delen av Àmnet. Men eftersom en stor del av modern astronomisk forskning idag behandlar Àmnen relaterade till fysik anvÀnds astrofysik ofta som en generell benÀmning för astronomi.
+
+Historia
+
+Forntiden
+
+LÄngt tillbaka i historien bestod astronomin enbart av observationer och förutsÀgelser av hur objekt som Àr synliga för det mÀnskliga ögat skulle röra sig. PÄ vissa platser, som Stonehenge, har tidiga kulturer rest stora monument som sannolikt hade nÄgon form av astronomisk anvÀndning. Förutom deras ceremoniella betydelse kunde dessa primitiva observatorier anvÀndas för att tidsbestÀmma Ärstiderna, nÄgot som var viktigt sÄvÀl för att veta nÀr man skulle plantera grödor som för att förstÄ hur lÄngt Äret Àr.
+
+Allt eftersom de tidiga civilisationerna utvecklades, framförallt i Mesopotamien, antikens Grekland, forntida Egypten, Persiska riket, Mayakulturen, Indien och Kina, byggdes tidiga observatorier och universum började utforskas. Den största delen av den tidiga astronomin bestod i att kartlÀgga positionerna hos stjÀrnorna och planeterna, en vetenskap som nu kallas astrometri. FrÄn dessa observationer skapades tidiga teorier om vad planeternas rörelser berodde pÄ, vad solen, mÄnen och jorden var i förhÄllande till universum. Jorden ansÄgs vara centrum i universum med solen, mÄnen och stjÀrnorna roterande runt den. Detta Àr kÀnt som den geocentriska modellen av universum.
+
+Flera anmÀrkningsvÀrda astronomiska upptÀckter gjordes före teleskopens tid. Vinkeln pÄ jordens axellutning, vilken Àr orsaken till Ärstiderna, berÀknades i Kina sÄ tidigt som omkring Är 1000 f.Kr.. NÄgra Ärhundraden senare upptÀckte Kaldéerna i Mesopotamien att mÄnförmörkelser upptrÀdde i en Äterkommande cykel kallad saroscykeln. Under 100-talet f.Kr. uppskattades mÄnens storlek och avstÄnd till jorden av Hipparchus.
+
+Medeltiden
+
+Under medeltiden hÀnde inte mycket inom astronomin i Europa, Ätminstone inte förrÀn till omkring 1200-talet dÄ de "Alfonsinska tabellerna" togs fram. Samtidigt blomstrade dock astronomin i den islamiska vÀrlden och andra delar av vÀrlden. NÄgra av de framstÄende muslimska astronomer som gjorde viktiga bidrag till vetenskapen var Abu Rayhan Biruni, Al-Battani och Thabit ibn Kurrah. Astronomer under den tiden gav mÄnga stjÀrnor arabiska namn som i flertalet fall anvÀnds Àn idag, till exempel Altair och Aldebaran, vars namn kan hÀrledas till de arabiska orden för flygaren respektive följeslagaren.
+
+Under 900-talets senare del byggdes ett enormt observatorium nÀra Teheran av astronomen Al-Khujandi, som ocksÄ berÀknade jordaxelns lutning i förhÄllande till solen. I Persien sammanstÀllde Omar Khayyåm en rad tabeller och reformerade kalendern, vilket gjorde den mer exakt Àn den julianska kalendern och snarlik den gregorianska kalendern. Hans berÀkning av Ärets lÀngd till 365,24219858156 dagar var anmÀrkningsvÀrt korrekt; det stora antalet decimaler anses ha visat pÄ stort sjÀlvförtroende i berÀkningarna. Idag vet man att vÀrdet Àndras pÄ sjÀtte decimalen under en mÀnniskas livslÀngd, vid slutet pÄ 1800-talet var vÀrdet 365,242196 medan det nu gÄr 365,242190 dagar pÄ ett Är.
+
+Den vetenskapliga revolutionen
+
+Under renÀssansen föreslog Nicolaus Copernicus i sin bok "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" en heliocentrisk modell av solsystemet, dÀr solen istÀllet för jorden ansÄgs vara i centrum. Hans arbete försvarades, utvecklades och korrigerades av Johannes Kepler och Galileo Galilei. Galileo revolutionerade astronomin genom att anvÀnda teleskop för att förbÀttra sina observationer. Han upptÀckte med hjÀlp av detta bland annat Jupiters fyra största mÄnar, som idag kallas Galileiska mÄnarna till hans Àra, och sÄg att planeten Venus uppvisade faser precis som jordens mÄne. BÄda dessa observationer stÀrkte bevisningen för den heliocentriska teorin.
+
+Kepler var den första att utveckla ett system som korrekt beskriver detaljerna hos planeternas rörelser runt solen, nÄgot han gjorde med hjÀlp av Tycho Brahes minutiöst noggranna observationer. Men Kepler lyckades inte formulera en teori bakom de lagar han skrev ner. Detta gjorde istÀllet Isaac Newton med sin upptÀckt av rörelselagarna och gravitationslagen för att slutligen förklara planeternas rörelser. Newton utvecklade ocksÄ spegelteleskopet.
+
+Vidare upptÀckter följde i takt med att storleken och kvaliteten pÄ teleskopen utvecklades. Mer omfattande kataloger över stjÀrnor skapades av Lacaille. Astronomen Herschel Ä sin sida skapade en detaljerad tabell över nebulosor och stjÀrnhopar, och upptÀckte Àven planeten Uranus. AvstÄndet till en annan stjÀrna berÀknades första gÄngen Är 1838 nÀr Friedrich Bessel mÀtte upp den skenbara förflyttningen av 61 Cygni mot avlÀgsna bakgrundsstjÀrnor nÀr jorden rör sig runt solen. Det vill sÀga, nÀr jorden rör sig runt solen ser vi mÀtstjÀrnan i nÄgot olika vinklar mot bakgrunden. Denna vinkel kallas parallax och Àr direkt relaterad till avstÄndet till stjÀrnan.
+
+Under 1800-talet lade astronomer som Euler, Clairaut och D'Alembert ner stor möda pÄ trekropparsproblemet, vilket ledde till mer noggranna förutsÀgelser av mÄnens och planeternas rörelser. Detta arbete förfinades ytterligare av Lagrange och Laplace som bestÀmde planeternas och mÄnarnas massor med hjÀlp av perturbationer, störningar i deras banrörelser.
+
+Modern astronomi
+
+Stora framsteg inom astronomin har gjorts i samband med introduktion av ny teknologi, inte minst spektroskopet och fotografin. Vid studier av solens spektrum upptĂ€ckte Fraunhofer under Ă„ren 1814â1815 ungefĂ€r 600 emissionslinjer. Att dessa hĂ€rstammade frĂ„n nĂ€rvaron av olika Ă€mnen upptĂ€cktes av Kirchhoff 1859. StjĂ€rnorna kunde med denna information bevisas vara liknande vĂ„r egen sol, men med en stor variation av temperatur, massa och storlek.
+
+Att den galax som jorden tillhör, Vintergatan, Ă€r en separat samling stjĂ€rnor bevisades inte förrĂ€n under 1920-talet. Samtidigt bevisades existensen av andra galaxer och snart dĂ€refter kom man fram till att universum expanderade, eftersom samtliga avlĂ€gsna galaxer var pĂ„ vĂ€g bort frĂ„n oss â ju lĂ€ngre bort de var desto snabbare rörde de sig bortĂ„t. Modern astronomi har ocksĂ„ upptĂ€ckt mĂ„nga exotiska objekt som kvasarer, pulsarer, blazarer och radiogalaxer. Dessa observationer har anvĂ€nts för att utveckla teorier för att beskriva vissa av dessa objekt i termer av lika exotiska objekt som svarta hĂ„l och neutronstjĂ€rnor. Kosmologin gjorde enorma framsteg under 1900-talet, med modellen av big bang vĂ€l understödd av bevis frĂ„n astronomin och fysiken, till exempel kosmisk bakgrundsstrĂ„lning, Hubbles lag och proportioner av olika Ă€mnen i rymden.
+
+Observationell astronomi
+
+Inom astronomin samlas information frÀmst in genom mottagning och analys av synligt ljus och andra typer av elektromagnetisk strÄlning. Observationell astronomi kan delas in i olika delar av det elektromagnetiska spektrumet. Vissa delar av spektrumet kan observeras frÄn jordens yta, medan andra bara kan observeras antingen frÄn höga altituder eller Ànnu hellre frÄn rymden. Specifik information om en del underfÀlt följer nedan.
+
+Radioastronomi
+
+Radioastronomi studerar strÄlning frÄn rymden med vÄglÀngder större Àn ungefÀr en millimeter. Radioastronomi skiljer sig frÄn de flesta andra omrÄdena av observationell astronomi genom att de observerade radiovÄgorna kan behandlas som vÄgor snarare Àn enskilda fotoner. Det Àr dÀrför relativt lÀtt att mÀta bÄde amplituden och fasen hos radiovÄgor, nÄgot som inte görs lika enkelt för kortare vÄglÀngder.
+
+Ăven om vissa radiovĂ„gor skapas av astronomiska objekt i form av termisk strĂ„lning sĂ„ Ă€r den största delen av de observerade radiovĂ„gorna i form av synkrotronstrĂ„lning. Denna bildas av elektroner som accelererats till extremt höga (ultrarelativistiska) hastigheter och fĂ€rdas genom magnetfĂ€lt som böjer deras bana. DĂ€rutöver skapas ett antal spektrallinjer frĂ„n interstellĂ€r gas, framförallt vĂ€te-linjen vid 21 cm, som Ă€r synlig vid radiovĂ„glĂ€ngder.
+
+En stor mÀngd astronomiska objekt Àr observerbara vid radiovÄglÀngder, inklusive supernovor, interstellÀr gas, pulsarer och aktiva galaxkÀrnor.
+
+Infraröd astronomi
+
+Infraröd astronomi behandlar strÄlning frÄn rymden inom det infraröda spektrumet (vÄglÀngder lÀngre Àn rött ljus). Förutom vid vÄglÀngder nÀra synligt ljus absorberas den infraröda strÄlningen avsevÀrt av atmosfÀren och denna skapar ocksÄ i sin tur betydande mÀngder infraröd strÄlning. Som en följd av detta placeras observatorier för infraröd astronomi pÄ höga och torra platser eller om möjligt i rymden. Infraröd astronomi Àr sÀrskilt anvÀndbart för observationer av galaktiska regioner som Àr dolda av rymdstoft, samt för studier av molekylÀra gaser.
+
+Visuell astronomi
+
+Visuell astronomi, Ă€ven kallat optisk astronomi, Ă€r den Ă€ldsta formen av astronomi och behandlar observationer och analyser av synligt ljus. Optiska bilder ritades ursprungligen för hand. Under slutet av 1800-talet började man efterhand istĂ€llet anvĂ€nda fotografisk utrustning allt eftersom teknologin utvecklades. Moderna bilder tas med hjĂ€lp av digitala sensorer, speciellt sĂ„dana som anvĂ€nder CCD. Medan synligt ljus har vĂ„glĂ€ngder mellan ungefĂ€r 4000 Ă
och 7000 Ă
(400 nm till 700 nm) sÄ kan utrustning för optiskt ljus Àven anvÀndas för att observera vissa extrema vÄglÀngder av ultraviolett och infrarött ljus.
+
+Ultraviolett astronomi
+
+Ultraviolett astronomi avser observationer gjorda vid ultravioletta vĂ„glĂ€ngder, mellan ungefĂ€r 100 och 3200 Ă
. Ljus vid dessa vÄglÀngder absorberas mycket starkt av jordens atmosfÀr, observationer av ultraviolett strÄlning mÄste dÀrför göras frÄn den övre atmosfÀren eller frÄn rymden. Dessa observationer Àr framförallt anvÀndbara för att studera termisk strÄlning och spektrallinjer frÄn heta blÄ stjÀrnor (O-stjÀrnor och B-stjÀrnor, se spektraltyp) som Àr vÀldigt ljusa vid dessa vÄglÀngder. Detta inkluderar blÄ stjÀrnor i andra galaxer som har varit mÄlet för flera ultravioletta studier. Andra objekt som ofta studeras i ultraviolett ljus Àr planetariska nebulosor, supernovarester och aktiva galaxkÀrnor. Men ultraviolett strÄlning absorberas lÀtt av interstellÀrt stoft och mÀtningar i ultraviolett ljus mÄste korrigeras för denna sÄ kallade extinktion, eller utslÀckning, av ljuset.
+
+Röntgenastronomi
+
+Röntgenastronomin studerar astronomiska objekt vid röntgenvÄglÀngder. Vanligen sÀnder objekt ut röntgenstrÄlning som synkrotronstrÄlning, det vill sÀga termisk strÄlning frÄn tunna gaser (bromsstrÄlning) som Àr upphettade till över 10 miljoner Kelvin, samt termisk strÄlning frÄn tÀta gaser (svartkroppsstrÄlning) med samma temperatur. Eftersom röntgenstrÄlning absorberas av jordens atmosfÀr görs alla observationer vid dessa vÄglÀngder frÄn den övre atmosfÀren eller frÄn rymden. Betydande kÀllor till röntgenstrÄlning i rymden Àr röntgendubbelstjÀrnor, pulsarer, supernovarester, elliptiska galaxer, galaxhopar och aktiva galaxkÀrnor.
+
+Gammaastronomi
+
+Gammaastronomin behandlar studier av astronomiska objekt vid de kortaste vÄglÀngderna av det elektromagnetiska spektrumet, gammastrÄlning. Dessa kan observeras direkt av satelliter som Compton Gamma Ray Observatory eller med hjÀlp av specialiserade teleskop kallade atmosfÀriska Cherenkovteleskop. Cherenkovteleskop detekterar egentligen inte gammastrÄlning direkt utan istÀllet de blixtar av synligt ljus som skapas nÀr gammastrÄlar absorberas av jordens atmosfÀr.
+
+De kraftigaste kÀnda kÀllorna till gammastrÄlning i rymden, sÄ kallade gammablixtar, sÀnder ut gammastrÄlning under en kort period pÄ mellan ett par millisekunder till ett par tusen sekunder innan de försvinner. Endast 10 procent av kÀllorna till gammastrÄlning Àr konstanta. Till dessa kÀllor hör pulsarer, neutronstjÀrnor och omgivningen till troliga svarta hÄl.
+
+Andra observationskÀllor
+
+Förutom via fotoner finns nÄgra ytterligare sÀtt att hÀmta information om avlÀgsna astronomiska objekt.
+
+ Inom neutrinoastronomin som krÀver störningsfri miljö har man anvÀnt sig av underjordiska anlÀggningar, som SAGE och GALLEX. DÀr Àr KamiokaNDE II/III och IceCube de nu mest avancerade för att detektera det fÄtal neutriner som kan fÄngas in. Dessa kommer frÀmst frÄn solen, men neutriner Àr Àven supernovornas frÀmsta yttring.
+
+ Kosmisk strÄlning bestÄr av partiklar med vÀldigt hög energi. De fÀrdas med nÀra ljusets hastighet och har i mÄnga fall oförklarligt hög kinetisk energi (upp över 1020 eV), betydligt högre Àn vad som kan Ästadkommas i partikelacceleratorer (omkring 1012 till 1013 eV). Framtida neutrinodetektorer berÀknas kunna hitta neutriner som skapas nÀr kosmiska partiklar trÀffar jordens atmosfÀr.
+
+ Gravitationsastronomi Àr ett tentativt nytt fönster med gravitationsvÄgor som budbÀrare. Ett fÄtal gravitationsvÄgsdetektorer har byggts för att registrera dessa mycket smÄ störningar i rumtiden. Dessa Àr dock oerhört svÄra att upptÀcka och den största anlÀggningens LIGO internationella samarbete LSC sysslar Àn sÄ lÀnge med indirekta observationer.
+
+ För objekt inom solsystemet har direkt undersökning av utomjordiskt material som transporterats till jorden kunnat genomföras. Materialet har antingen förts till jorden med hjÀlp av rymdfarkoster som de stenar Apolloprogrammet hÀmtade frÄn mÄnen, eller i form av meteoriter som har slagit ner pÄ jorden. Man har Àven genomfört undersökningar pÄ plats med hjÀlp av robotar, till exempel Spirit, Opportunity och Phoenix pÄ Mars.
+
+Astrometri och celest mekanik
+
+Ett av de Àldsta fÀlten inom astronomi, och inom vetenskap över huvud taget, Àr mÀtningar av positionerna hos objekt pÄ himlen. Genom historien har tillförlitlig kunskap om positionerna hos solen, mÄnen, planeterna och stjÀrnorna varit avgörande för astronomisk navigation.
+
+Noggranna mÀtningar av planeternas positioner och rörelser har lett till en gedigen förstÄelse för gravitationella perturbationer (störningar av planeters och andra objekts omloppsbanor) och en förmÄga att förutspÄ gÄngna och framtida positioner hos planeterna med stor precision, ett underfÀlt som kallas celest mekanik. I modern tid görs sÄdana berÀkningar ofta för att förutspÄ eventuella kollisioner mellan jorden och sÄ kallade jordnÀra objekt, det vill sÀga asteroider, kometer och stora meteoroider vars bana för objektet farligt nÀra jorden.
+
+UppmÀtningar av parallax, en metod dÀr man observerar ett föremÄl frÄn olika vinklar för att berÀkna avstÄndet till föremÄlet, hos nÀrliggande stjÀrnor har skapat en god grund för att förstÄ de kosmiska avstÄnden i universum. Genom dessa mÀtningar av nÀrliggande stjÀrnor kan man sedan avgöra avstÄnden Àven till mer avlÀgsna stjÀrnor eftersom deras egenskaper kan jÀmföras. MÀtningar av radialhastighet och egenrörelse visar rörelserna hos dessa stjÀrnsystem i Vintergatan. Astrometriska resultat anvÀnds ocksÄ för att studera hur mörk materia, den mystiska form av materia som dominerar massan i universum, Àr fördelad i galaxen.
+
+Med början under 1990-talet anvÀndes astrometriska tekniker för att upptÀcka exoplaneter runt nÀrliggande stjÀrnor. Idag har flera hundra sÄdana planeter upptÀckts med hjÀlp av astrometrin.
+
+Teoretisk astronomi
+
+Den teoretiska astronomin har sina egna verktyg som anvÀnds i forskningen, bland annat analytiska modeller och numeriska simuleringar, för att till exempel skapa en modell över hur en stjÀrna utvecklas. Var och en har sina fördelar. Analytiska modeller av en process Àr generellt sett bÀttre för att fÄ insikt i kÀrnan av vad som hÀnder. Numeriska modeller kan avslöja existensen av fenomen och effekter som annars inte skulle ha setts.
+
+Teoretiker inom astronomin strÀvar efter att skapa teoretiska modeller och förutse de observationella konsekvenserna av dessa. Detta hjÀlper observatörerna inom den observationella astronomin att leta efter data som kan stödja eller avfÀrda de olika modellerna. Teoretikerna försöker ocksÄ modifiera modeller för att ta hÀnsyn till ny data. I de fall de upptÀcker en avvikelse försöker man generellt sett göra sÄ smÄ Àndringar som möjligt pÄ modellen för att fÄ den att passa de nya data man har fÄtt. I vissa fall kan en större mÀngd avvikande data leda till att en modell helt avfÀrdas och överges.
+
+Ămnen som studeras av teoretiska astronomer inkluderar olika aspekter av astrofysik och plasmafysik: stellĂ€r dynamik och utveckling; hur galaxer skapas och utvecklas; universums storskaliga struktur (fördelningen av materia i universum); ursprunget till kosmisk strĂ„lning; allmĂ€n relativitetsteori och kosmologi, inklusive strĂ€ngkosmologi och astropartikelfysik.
+
+Till vÀl accepterade och studerade teorier inom astronomin hör big bang, kosmisk inflation, mörk materia och grundlÀggande teorier inom fysiken (se Àven Lambda-CDM-modellen).
+
+Underavdelningar â olika objektomrĂ„den
+
+Solfysik
+
+Solfysiken behandlar solen som av förklarliga skÀl Àr den mest vÀlstuderade stjÀrnan. Den Àr en typisk huvudsekvensstjÀrna av spektraltyp G2V med en Älder av ungefÀr 4,6 miljarder Är. Solen anses inte vara en variabel stjÀrna, men den uppvisar ÀndÄ ett visst periodiskt beteende, den tydligaste av dessa Àr solflÀckscykeln som Àr en 11-Ärig variation av antalet solflÀckar. SolflÀckar Àr regioner med en lÀgre Àn genomsnittlig temperatur och hör samman med intensiv magnetisk aktivitet.
+
+Solen har kontinuerligt ökat sin ljusstyrka under dess livstid, totalt sett med ungefÀr 40 procent sedan den bildades som en huvudsekvensstjÀrna. Solen genomgÄr ocksÄ periodiska förÀndringar i luminositet som kan ha stor betydelse för jorden. Maunders minimum till exempel, en period mellan ungefÀr 1645 och 1715 med nÀstan inga solflÀckar, anses vara en trolig orsak till den lilla istiden.
+
+Den synliga ytregionen av solen kallas fotosfĂ€ren. Ăver detta lager finns en tunn region kallad kromosfĂ€ren. Utanför denna finns en övergĂ„ngsregion av snabbt ökande temperatur ut till den extremt varma koronan.
+
+I solens mitt finns kÀrnregionen, ett omrÄde med tillrÀckligt hög temperatur och tryck för att fusion ska ske. Utanför kÀrnan befinner sig strÄlningszonen, dÀr plasma transporterar energin ut mot ytan med hjÀlp av strÄlning. De yttersta lagren bildar en konvektionszon dÀr gasliknande material transporterar energin frÀmst genom fysisk förflyttning av gasen. Det anses att denna konvektion orsakar den starka magnetiska aktiviteten som ligger bakom solflÀckarna.
+
+En solvind av plasmapartiklar strömmar konstant ut frÄn solen och fortsÀtter ut i rymden tills att den nÄr heliopausen. Denna solvind samverkar med jordens magnetosfÀr och skapar Van Allen-bÀltena och Àven polarsken dÀr linjerna hos jordens magnetfÀlt fÀrdas ner genom atmosfÀren.
+
+PlanetÀr astronomi
+
+Det astronomiska fÀltet planetÀr astronomi undersöker planeter, mÄnar, dvÀrgplaneter, kometer, asteroider och andra objekt som befinner sig i en bana runt solen, sÄvÀl som exoplaneter. Solsystemet har undersökts relativt vÀl, först med hjÀlp av allt mer avancerade teleskop och sedan frÀmst med hjÀlp av rymdsonder. Detta har gett oss en tÀmligen god förstÄelse för hur solsystemet skapades och utvecklades, men mÄnga nya upptÀckter görs stadigt och det finns stora frÄgetecken kvar.
+
+Solsystemet delas ofta upp i de inre planeterna, asteroidbÀltet och de yttre planeterna. De inre jordlika planeterna bestÄr av Merkurius, Venus, jorden och Mars. De yttre gasjÀttarna Àr Jupiter, Saturnus, Uranus och Neptunus. Bortom Neptunus ligger KuiperbÀltet och slutligen Oorts moln, vilket misstÀnks strÀcka sig sÄ lÄngt ut som ett ljusÄr frÄn solen.
+
+Planeterna skapades ur en protoplanetÀr skiva som omringade den tidiga solen. Genom en process som inkluderade gravitation, kollisioner och ackretion bildade disken klumpar av materia som, efterhand, utvecklades vidare till protoplaneter. StrÄlningstrycket frÄn solvinden tryckte sedan bort större delen av den materia som Ànnu inte samlats upp och bara de största planeterna lyckades behÄlla sina stora gasatmosfÀrer som de samlat pÄ sig. Planeterna fortsatte att samla upp, eller kasta ivÀg, kvarvarande materia under en mycket intensiv period med talrika kollisioner, vilket man Àn idag kan se spÄr av i form av nedslagskratrar pÄ vissa objekt i solsystemet. Under denna period kolliderade en del av protoplaneterna med varandra vilket bland annat tros ha skapat mÄnen i en kollision mellan jorden och den hypotetiska planeten Theia.
+
+NÀr en planet har uppnÄtt tillrÀckligt stor massa pÄbörjas en process i dess inre som segregerar material beroende pÄ densitet, nÄgot som kallas planetÀr differentiering. Denna process kan bilda en sten- eller metallrik kÀrna omringad av en mantel och en yttre yta. KÀrnan kan innehÄlla bÄde fasta och flytande regioner och vissa planetkÀrnor, till exempel jordens, orsakar ett eget magnetfÀlt som skyddar dess atmosfÀr frÄn solvinden.
+
+En planets eller mÄnes interna vÀrme skapades frÄn de kollisioner som bildade himlakroppen, radioaktiva Àmnen som uran och torium samt genom tidvattenkrafter. Vissa planeter och mÄnar har tillrÀckligt hög inre temperatur för att driva geologiska processer som vulkanism och tektonik. De som bildar eller behÄller en atmosfÀr kan ocksÄ genomgÄ erosion pÄ dess yta frÄn vind eller vatten. Mindre himlakroppar, utan tidvattenkrafter, kyls ner relativt snabbt och deras geologiska aktiviteter begrÀnsas till nedslag av andra objekt.
+
+StjÀrnfysik
+
+Studier av stjÀrnor och dess utveckling Àr grundlÀggande för att vi ska förstÄ universum. Astrofysiken hos stjÀrnorna har kartlagts genom observationer och teoretiska modeller, samt datorsimuleringar av dess inre. Solfysiken (se ovan) kan anses vara en del av stjÀrnfysiken.
+
+StjÀrnor bildas i omrÄden med förhÄllandevis stora tÀtheter av gas och rymdstoft, kallade mörka nebulosor. NÀr dessa moln av ett eller annat skÀl störs kan delar av molnen förlora sin stabilitet och kollapsa pÄ grund av gravitationen och bilda en protostjÀrna. I den tÀta och varma kÀrnregionen pÄbörjas fusion och pÄ sÄ sÀtt har en huvudsekvensstjÀrna bildats.
+
+Det som avgör typen av stjÀrna Àr frÀmst dess massa. En stjÀrna med hög massa har motsvarande högre luminositet (ljusstyrka) och snabbare förbrukning av vÀtet i kÀrnan vilket fÄr den att Äldras snabbare. Efterhand har allt vÀte i kÀrnan omvandlats till helium och stjÀrnan övergÄr till nÀsta fas, fusion av helium. Detta krÀver en högre temperatur och fÄr stjÀrnan att öka i storlek och kÀrnan i densitet. StjÀrnan kallas nu en röd jÀtte som endast överlever en kort period innan Àven heliumet Àr slut. VÀldigt massiva stjÀrnor kan fortsÀtta fusionera allt tyngre Àmnen Ànda fram till att en massiv jÀrnkÀrna har bildats. Vidare fusion Àr endotermisk vilket innebÀr att den krÀver energi istÀllet för att frigöra energi och processen kan dÀrmed inte fortsÀtta.
+
+Det slutgiltiga ödet hos stjÀrnan beror Àven det pÄ dess massa. Mindre stjÀrnor bildar planetÀra nebulosor och utvecklas till vita dvÀrgar. För stjÀrnor med större Àn ungefÀr Ätta gÄnger solens massa kommer dess kÀrna att kollapsa nÀr brÀnslet Àr slut vilket orsakar en supernovaexplosion. Restprodukten av en sÄdan explosion Àr en neutronstjÀrna, eller om stjÀrnan hade en massa pÄ över omkring 20 solmassor, ett svart hÄl. I dessa explosioner bildas Àven de Àmnen som Àr tyngre Àn jÀrn.
+
+NÀrliggande dubbelstjÀrnor kan följa ett mer komplicerat utvecklingsmönster, som överföring av materia till en vit dvÀrg vilket ibland kan orsaka en supernova typ Ia. PlanetÀra nebulosor och supernovor Àr nödvÀndiga för skapandet och spridningen av metaller och andra tyngre Àmnen till den interstellÀra rymden. Utan denna process skulle alla nya stjÀrnor, och deras planetsystem, helt bestÄ av vÀte och helium (samt mindre mÀngder litium), de Àmnen som funnits sedan big bang.
+
+Galaktisk astronomi
+Galaktisk astronomi handlar om Vintergatan, den galax som solsystemet befinner sig i. Vintergatan Àr en stavgalax och en av de framtrÀdande medlemmarna av den Lokala galaxhopen. En galax Àr en enorm roterande massa av gas, stoft, stjÀrnor och andra objekt som hÄlls samman av en gemensam gravitationskraft. Eftersom jorden befinner sig i de stoftrika yttre armarna Àr stora delar av Vintergatan dold för observationer.
+
+I Vintergatans centrum finns en kÀrna, en stavformad bula som tros ha ett supermassivt svart hÄl i mitten. Denna kÀrna omges av fyra stora armar som gÄr ut som en spiral frÄn detta centrum. I dessa regioner bildas stora mÀngder stjÀrnor och de innehÄller mÄnga yngre population I-stjÀrnor. Disken omges av en halo med Àldre population II-stjÀrnor sÄvÀl som större mÀngder av relativt tÀta koncentrationer av stjÀrnor, sÄ kallade stjÀrnhopar.
+
+Mellan stjÀrnorna finns det interstellÀra mediet, en region med sparsamma mÀngder materia. I de tÀtaste regionerna kan molekylmoln av vÀte och andra Àmnen bilda omrÄden dÀr nya stjÀrnor kan bildas. Dessa börjar som en oregelbunden mörk nebulosa som koncentreras och kollapsar (i volymer som avgörs av Jeans-lÀngden) och bildar kompakta protostjÀrnor.
+
+Allt eftersom fler massiva stjÀrnor bildas omvandlar de molnet till en H II-region av glödande gas och plasma. StjÀrnvinden och supernovaexplosioner frÄn dessa stjÀrnor kommer till slut att skingra molnet vilket lÀmnar bakom sig en eller flera unga öppna stjÀrnhopar av stjÀrnor. Dessa hopar skingrar sig med tiden och stjÀrnorna sprids ut bland alla andra stjÀrnor i Vintergatan.
+
+Kinematiska studier av materian i Vintergatan och andra galaxer har visat att det finns mer massa Àn vad den synliga materian kan stÄ för. En halo med mörk materia tycks dominera massan, men vad denna massa bestÄr av Àr Ànnu okÀnt.
+
+Utomgalaktisk astronomi
+
+Studier av objekt utanför vÄr egen galax Àr en gren av astronomin som behandlar hur galaxer bildas, deras morfologi och klassificering, undersökningar av aktiva galaxer samt galaxhopar. Detta Àr viktigt för att förstÄ universums storskaliga struktur.
+
+De flesta galaxerna delas in efter distinkta former i ett klassifikationssystem. De vanligaste Àr spiralgalaxer, elliptiska och oregelbundna galaxer.
+
+Som namnet antyder har en elliptisk galax formen av en ellips. StjÀrnorna rör sig lÀngs med slumpmÀssiga banor utan nÄgon dominerande riktning. Dessa galaxer innehÄller förhÄllandevis lite interstellÀrt stoft, fÄ regioner dÀr stjÀrnor fortfarande bildas och generellt sett mest Àldre stjÀrnor. Elliptiska galaxer finns oftast i kÀrnan av galaxhopar och tros bildas genom sammanslagningar av andra galaxer.
+
+En spiralgalax Àr en galax med en platt roterande disk, vanligen med en bula eller stav i mitten, och efterslÀpande spiralarmar utÄt. Dessa armar Àr stoftrika regioner dÀr stora unga stjÀrnor ger omrÄdet en blÄaktig ton. Spiralgalaxer Àr vanligen omgivna av en halo med Àldre stjÀrnor. SÄvÀl Vintergatan som Andromedagalaxen Àr spiralgalaxer.
+
+Oregelbundna galaxer har ett kaotiskt utseende och Àr vare sig spiralformade eller elliptiska. UngefÀr en fjÀrdedel av alla galaxer Àr oregelbundna och dessa former kan vara orsakade av gravitationell pÄverkan mellan olika galaxer.
+
+En aktiv galax sÀnder ut en betydande andel av sin energi frÄn andra kÀllor Àn stjÀrnor, stoft och gas. De drivs av en kompakt region i kÀrnan, vanligen ansedd centrerad kring ett supermassivt svart hÄl som sÀnder ut strÄlning frÄn infallande material.
+
+Kosmologi
+
+Kosmologi (frĂ„n grekiskans ÎșÎżÏÎŒÎżÏ "vĂ€rld, universum" och Î»ÎżÎłÎżÏ "ord, studie") kan anses vara studien av universum som en helhet.
+
+Observationer av storskaliga strukturer hos universum har lett till att man tror sig veta ungefÀr hur universum har utvecklats och hur det kan ha skapats. GrundlÀggande i modern kosmologi Àr den vÀl accepterade teorin om big bang, dÀr universum uppstod frÄn en enskild punkt i tiden och dÀrefter expanderade över 13,7 miljarder Är till det universum vi ser idag. Tanken bakom big bang hÀrstammar frÄn upptÀckten av den kosmiska bakgrundsstrÄlningen 1965.
+
+Under denna expansion anser man sig kunna identifiera flera evolutionÀra steg och den moderna kosmologiska standardmodellen har döpts till Lambda-CDM-modellen. I dess tidigaste ögonblick tros universum ha expanderat extremt snabbt genom en kosmisk inflation, vilken homogeniserade startförhÄllandena. DÀrefter skapade nukleosyntes det tidiga universumets första lÀtta grundÀmnen. NÀr de första atomerna skapats blev rymden genomskinlig för elektromagnetisk strÄlning, vilket frigjorde den energi som idag kan ses som bakgrundsstrÄlning. Det expanderande universumet genomgick nu en Mörk tid pÄ grund av avsaknaden av stjÀrnor.
+
+FrÄn extremt smÄ skillnader i tÀtheter av materia samlades massa efterhand ihop och bildade moln av gas, ur vilka de första stjÀrnorna bildades. Dessa supertunga stjÀrnor orsakade en Äterjoniseringsprocess och tros ha bildat mÄnga av de tyngre Àmnena i det tidiga universumet. Efterhand samlades dessa materiahopar i filament, med tom rymd emellan. Gradvis organiserades gas och stoft och bildade de första primitiva galaxerna. Genom historien har dessa samlat pÄ sig mer materia och ofta i sin tur förts ihop till galaxhopar som samlas i storskaliga superkluster.
+
+GrundlÀggande för universums struktur Àr existensen av mörk materia och mörk energi. Dessa anses numera vara de dominerande komponenterna i universum och stÄ för 96 procent av all densitet. Av den anledningen lÀggs mycket möda ner pÄ att förstÄ dessa komponenters fysik, Àn sÄ lÀnge med fÄ avgörande resultat. Denna och andra oklarheter i standardmodellen gör att ett fÄtal forskare fortfarande söker utveckla alternativa modeller, sÄvÀl mer kompletta som oftare behandlande enstaka företeelser, sÄ kallade ad hoc-modeller. Bland de senare har en av de mer kÀnda fÄtt namnet MOND (MOdified Newtonian Dynamics), som istÀllet menar att gravitationen i vissa situationer inte fungerar som vi förvÀntar oss.
+
+Rymdfart
+
+Rymdfart Àr tillÀmpandet av astronomi och rymdteknologi för att utforska rymden. Fysisk utforskning av rymden genomförs bÄde med bemannade rymdfÀrder och av obemannade rymdsonder.
+
+Observationer av objekt i rymden har pÄgÄtt lÀngre Àn den nedskrivna historien. Det var dock först under 1900-talet dÄ stora raketmotorer utvecklades som det blev möjligt att skicka objekt och mÀnniskor utanför jordens atmosfÀr. Motiveringen till att nÄ ut i rymden har varit utvecklandet av vetenskapen, enande av olika lÀnder, att försÀkra mÀnniskans överlevnad och att utveckla militÀra fördelar över andra lÀnder. Vanlig kritik mot rymdfarten Àr att kostnaderna Àr höga och sÀkerheten lÄg.
+
+Rymdfarten anvÀndes under kalla kriget som en arena för USA och Sovjetunionen att visa upp sin styrka och tekniska kunnande. Denna period anses har börjat med uppskjutningen av den sovjetiska satelliten Sputnik 1 den 4 oktober 1957, och slutat med den första mÄnlandningen av amerikanska Apollo 11 den 20 juli 1969. Det sovjetiska rymdprogrammet nÄdde mÄnga av dess stora triumfer under ledning av Sergej Koroljov och Kerim Kerimov, inklusive uppskjutningen av den första mÀnniskan i rymden (Jurij Gagarin ombord Vostok 1) Är 1961, den första rymdpromenaden (av Aleksej Leonov) Är 1965 och konstruktionen av den första rymdstationen (Saljut 1) Är 1971. De första föremÄlen konstruerade av mÀnniskan att nÄ rymden var dock Nazitysklands V2-raketer, vilket de gjorde redan under andra vÀrldskriget. Efter kalla krigets slut har rymdfarten varit mera inriktad pÄ samarbete mellan lÀnder, till exempel med den internationella rymdstationen, men pÄ senare tid har lÀnder som Indien och Kina visat en ökad vilja att sjÀlva demonstrera sitt tekniska kunnande genom att utföra uppdrag i rymden.
+
+Vetenskapligt sett har de obemannade rymdsonderna, robotarna och satelliterna gett astronomin ovÀrderliga data, vilket snabbt utvecklat kunskaperna om universum och framförallt solsystemet. Samtliga planeter i solsystemet har fÄtt besök av rymdsonder. KÀnda uppdrag ut i solsystemet Àr till exempel de sovjetiska Venerasonderna som kartlade Venus, de amerikanska tvillingrobotarna Spirit och Opportunity som har undersökt Mars yta lÀngre Àn nÄgon trodde att de skulle överleva, europeiska Cassini-Huygens som gett oss omfattande kunskap om Saturnus och dess mÄnar, samt inte minst de berömda Voyagersonderna som har tagit bilder pÄ de yttre planeterna och nu Àr pÄ vÀg att lÀmna solsystemet. Satelliter som har placerats i en bana runt jorden har Àven dessa bidragit mycket, inte minst har sÄ kallade jordresurssatelliter gett oss stora kunskaper om sjÀlva jorden, men Àven de mest avlÀgsna delarna av universum kartlÀggs frÄn jordbundna satelliter, den mest kÀnda Àr förstÄs Rymdteleskopet Hubble.
+
+InterdisciplinÀra Àmnen
+Astronomi och astrofysik har utvecklat flera betydande interdisciplinÀra studier som sammankopplar astronomi med andra stora vetenskapliga fÀlt. Till dessa hör:
+
+ Astrobiologi: LĂ€ran om uppkomsten och utvecklingen av biologiska system i universum.
+ Arkeoastronomi: LÀran om historisk eller traditionell astronomi i dess kulturella sammanhang, vilken anvÀnder sig av arkeologiska och antropologiska bevis.
+ Astrokemi: LÀran om de kemiska Àmnena som finns i rymden, vanligen i molekylmoln, och dess skapelse, samverkan och förstörelse.
+ Astrofysik: LÀran om fysikaliska Àmnena.
+ Kosmokemi: LÀran om de kemiska Àmnena som finns inom solsystemet, inkluderande dess ursprung och variationer av mÀngden hos olika isotoper.
+
+Amatörastronomi
+
+Amatörastronomer observerar en stor mÀngd objekt och fenomen pÄ himlen, ibland med utrustning de sjÀlva har konstruerat. Vanliga mÄl för amatörastronomer Àr mÄnen, planeter, kometer, meteorskurar, stjÀrnor, stjÀrnhopar, galaxer och nebulosor. En gren av amatörastronomin, amatörastrofotografi, handlar om att ta bilder av natthimlen. MÄnga amatörer tycker om att specialisera sig pÄ specifika objekt, typer av objekt eller typer av hÀndelser som intresserar dem.
+
+De flesta amatörer arbetar med synliga vÄglÀngder, men ett mindre antal experimenterar med vÄglÀngder utanför det synliga spektrumet. Det kan till exempel handla om infraröda filter pÄ vanliga teleskop och Àven bruket av radioteleskop. PionjÀren bland amatörradioastronomerna var Karl Jansky som började observera himlen vid radiovÄglÀngder under 1930-talet. Amatörastronomer anvÀnder antingen hemmagjorda radioteleskop eller sÄdana som ursprungligen konstruerades för forskning, men som nu Àr tillgÀngliga för allmÀnheten (till exempel One-Mile Telescope).
+
+Amatörastronomerna fortsÀtter Àn idag att göra viktiga vetenskapliga bidrag till astronomin. Det Àr en av fÄ vetenskapliga discipliner dÀr amatörer fortfarande kan bidra i större omfattning. En vanlig uppgift som amatörastronomer tar pÄ sig Àr att spana efter okÀnda kometer och asteroider samt att genomföra regelbundna studier av variabla stjÀrnor.
+
+Astronomins olösta frÄgor
+Ăven om astronomin har gjort enorma framsteg med förstĂ„elsen av universum och dess innehĂ„ll sĂ„ kvarstĂ„r vissa viktiga olösta frĂ„gor. För att svara pĂ„ dessa kan det krĂ€vas konstruktion av nya mark- eller rymdbaserade instrument och nya framsteg inom teoretisk och experimentell fysik.
+ Hur uppstod universum? Vilka processer var det som gav upphov till Big Bang?
+ Vilken Àr orsaken till stjÀrnornas masspektrum? Det vill sÀga, varför observeras samma fördelning av stjÀrnors massa var man Àn observerar, till synes oavsett startförhÄllandena? En djupare förstÄelse för hur stjÀrnor och planeter bildas behövs.
+ Finns det utomjordiskt liv i universum? Framförallt, finns det annat intelligent liv? Existensen av liv utanför jorden Àr av avgörande vetenskaplig och filosofisk betydelse.
+ Vad Àr egentligen mörk materia och mörk energi? Dessa dominerar universums utveckling och öde, men vi vet fortfarande inte vad det Àr.
+ Varför har de fysikaliska konstanterna de vÀrden de har? Finns det oÀndligt mÄnga universum med oÀndligt mÄnga uppsÀttningar konstanter och vi bara rÄkar finnas i ett som tillÄter liv och dÀrför kan fundera pÄ frÄgan? Vad orsakade den kosmiska inflationen som skapade vÄrt homogena universum?
+ Vad Àr universums slutgiltiga öde?
+
+Se Àven
+
+Referenser
+
+Oldid: Kapitel: Observationell astronomi, teoretisk astronomi, underfÀlt av astronomin för specifika astronomiska objekt, interdisciplinÀra studier, amatörastronomi, Kapitel: Astronomins historia Kapitel: Lexikologi, astronomins olösta frÄgor
+
+Oldid: Kapitel: Rymdfart
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Astronomy Picture of the Day
+ Stockholms Observatorium - Astronomiska termer
+ Uppsala Astronomical Observatory
+ Astronomy Notes
+
+
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+Asien Àr jordens största och mest folkrika vÀrldsdel. Sedan 1700-talet har grÀnsen mellan Europa och Asien vanligen ansetts gÄ genom Uralbergen, Uralfloden, Kaspiska havet, Kaukasus, Svarta havet, Bosporen, Marmarasjön och Dardanellerna. GrÀnsen mellan Asien och Afrika anses normalt vara SueznÀset och Röda havet. Omkring 62 procent av vÀrldens befolkning bor i Asien, varav enbart kring 3 procent bor i norra och innersta delen, det vill sÀga Mongoliet, de centralasiatiska lÀnderna Kazakstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kirgizistan och Tadzjikistan, de kinesiska provinserna Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai och ryska Sibirien.
+
+DÄ vÀrldsdelar delvis definieras genom kulturgeografi, det vill sÀga pÄ grundval av kulturell samhörighet, och inte genom geologi, rÄder det en skillnad mellan Asien som vÀrldsdel och som geografisk kontinent. Asien och Europa befinner sig pÄ samma kontinent och denna heter Eurasien. VÀrldsdelen Asien omfattar en del av den Eurasiatiska kontinenten, nÀrmare bestÀmt ett omrÄde frÄn Sinaihalvön, Turkiet och Uralbergen i vÀster till Berings Sund, Japan, Taiwan, Filippinerna och Indonesien i öster.
+
+Idén om att den gamla vÀrlden har tre kontinenter gÄr tillbaka till antiken. Namnet Asien hÀrleds frÄn de urÄldriga civilisationerna i Mellanöstern. Asien var under Romarriket benÀmning pÄ en romersk provins som lÄg i dagens Turkiet. Betydelsen för namnet Asien har senare kommit att utstrÀckas till att omfatta hela omrÄdet frÄn Sinaihalvön, Turkiet och Uralbergen i vÀster till Berings sund, Japan, Taiwan, Filippinerna och Indonesien i öster.
+
+Etymologi
+Ordet Asien kommer via latin frĂ„n den antika grekiskans ÎÏία, ett namn som för första gĂ„ngen nedtecknades cirka 440 f.Kr. av Herodotos. Under Antiken refererade Asien till Mindre Asien (varav en del utgjorde den romerska provinsen Asia) eller för att beskriva Persiska riket. Ăven tidigare kĂ€nde Homeros till en trojansk allierad vid namn Asios Hyrtakides, som var son till Hyrtacus, som var en regent över flera stĂ€der. Homeros beskriver Ă€ven ett trĂ€sk vid namn αÏÎčÎżÏ i Iliaden. Den grekiska termen Ă€r möjligen tagen frĂ„n Assuwa, som var en konfederation av stater i vĂ€stra Anatolien under 1300-talet f.Kr. Det hettitiska prefixet assu- (bra) spelade förmodligen in dĂ€r.
+
+En annan teori Ă€r att ordet kommer frĂ„n det akkadiska ordet (w)aáčŁĂ»(m), beslĂ€ktat med hebreiska ŚŚŠŚ, som betyder "att gĂ„ ut", eller "att stiga", som refererar till solens riktning vid soluppgĂ„ng, vilket kan kontrasteras till den liknande etymologin för Europa, dĂ€r det semitiska ordet erÄbu, som innebĂ€r solens nedgĂ„ng. Dessa etymologier förutsĂ€tter ett Mellanöstern-perspektiv.
+
+En tredje teori Àr det assyriska ordet "asu", som betyder öst, till skillnad frÄn det feniciska ordet "ereb" för Europa.
+
+Först frĂ„n omkring 1800 kom ordet att anvĂ€ndas för hela kontinenten, inklusive Kina och Sibirien â det var ocksĂ„ först frĂ„n mitten av 1700-talet som europĂ©erna fĂ„tt en klarare uppfattning om de viktigaste dragen i vĂ€rldsdelens geografi, till exempel kusterna i norr, de större floderna och klimatet pĂ„ olika hĂ„ll. Före denna tid anvĂ€ndes "Indien" som en allmĂ€n beteckning pĂ„ hela omrĂ„det frĂ„n Indus till Filippinerna, och lĂ€nderna norr dĂ€rom â Kina, Japan, Tibet och Mongoliet â var i praktiken helt stĂ€ngda för europĂ©erna.
+
+Geografi
+
+Natur
+Asien Àr till ytan vÀrldens största vÀrldsdel, och upptar tvÄ tredjedelar av superkontinenten Eurasien, som förutom Asien Àven bestÄr av Europa. GrÀnsen mellan vÀrldsdelarna gÄr frÄn Uralbergen och utmed Kaspiska havets kust, förbi Kaukasusbergen och genom Bosporensundet i Turkiet.
+
+Asien inrymmer en stor geografisk mÄngfald. De norra delarna, frÀmst Sibirien, visar flera sÄvÀl geografiska som geologiska likheter med Nordamerika och norra Europa, och utgörs av tundra, myrar, barrskogar (taigan), sjöar och bergskedjor, och den lÄnga kusten mot Norra ishavet i norr Àr starkt pÄverkad av den arktiska inlandsisen, som bildat trÄnga vikar, fjordar, skÀrgÄrdar och myrmarker.
+
+Söder om taigan finns den eurasiska stÀppen, ett stort slÀttland med inlandsklimat, grÀs- och buskvegetation och sparsamt med trÀd.
+
+VÀrldens högsta bergskedja, Himalaya, bildades genom att den indiska subkontinenten fördes norrut av kontinentaldriften och kolliderade med den eurasiska kontinenten.
+
+Sjöar
+VÀrldens största insjö, Kaspiska havet Àr endorheisk (har inga utflöden) och Àr belÀgen pÄ grÀnsen mellan Asien och Europa, mellan lÀnderna Iran, Azerbajdzjan, Ryssland, Kazakstan och Turkmenistan. Maxdjupet i sjön Àr cirka 1 025 meter. Dess vatten Àr brÀckt med en salthalt pÄ ungefÀr en tredjedel av den hos havsvatten.
+Kaspiska havet Àr jordens största insjö, med en yta pÄ 374 000 kvadratkilometer och en volym pÄ 78 200 kubikkilometer.
+
+Bajkalsjön i södra Sibirien Àr Eurasiens nÀst största sjö och vÀrldens djupaste insjö med ett största djup pÄ 1642 meter. Den innehÄller sötvatten och tack vare sitt djup Àr den vÀrldens största sötvattensjö sett till volymen. Den innehÄller runt 20 procent av vÀrldens sötvatten som Àr tillgÀngligt som ytvatten. Bajkalsjön ligger pÄ en höjd av 455 meter över havet. Den finns pÄ Unescos lista över vÀrldsarv sedan 1996 pÄ grund av sin rika och delvis endemiska flora och fauna.
+
+Asiens tredje största sjö Àr Balchashsjön i Kazakstan. Aralsjön mellan Kazakstan och Uzbekistan var tidigare Asiens andra och jordens fjÀrde största insjö men har till stor del torkat ut.
+
+Floder
+FrĂ„n Himalaya och den tibetanska högplatĂ„n rinner stora floder i alla riktningar. Yangtze i Kina Ă€r Asiens lĂ€ngsta flod och rinner ut i Ăstkinesiska havet nĂ€ra Shanghai. Gula floden rinner genom norra Kina och mynnar ut i Bohaihavet. Mekong rinner söderut genom en rad lĂ€nder och mynnar ut i Sydkinesiska havet söder om Ho Chi Minh-staden i Vietnam. Indus, Ganges och Bramaputra rinner upp mycket nĂ€ra varandra och tar olika vĂ€gar genom den indiska subkontinenten ut i olika delar av Indiska oceanen.
+
+FrÄn bergen i norra Mongoliet rinner Ob, Irtysj, och Jenisej och frÄn Bajkalssjön Lena norrut genom Sibirien mot Norra ishavet. Amur rinner österut i grÀnslandet mellan Sibirien och norra Kina.
+
+Berg
+Jordens tre högsta bergstoppar finns i bergskedjan Himalaya: Mount Everest (8 848 meter över havet) pÄ grÀnsen mellan Kina och Nepal, K2 i Kashmir (8 611 meter över havet) och Kangchenjunga (8 586 meter över havet) pÄ grÀnsen mellan Indien och Nepal.
+
+Bildexempel pÄ naturtyper:
+
+OmrÄden
+
+Norra Asien
+
+Denna term Àr ovanlig hos geografer men refererar oftast till Rysslands asiatiska del, som Àr mer kÀnd som Sibirien. Ibland inkluderas Àven norra delar av andra asiatiska lÀnder, sÄsom Kazakstan, i norra Asien.
+
+Centralasien
+
+Det finns ingen absolut definition pÄ hur denna term ska anvÀndas. Generellt syftar Centralasien pÄ:
+ de forna sovjetiska centralasiatiska staterna, det vill sÀga Kazakstan (förutom delen av landet som ligger i Europa), Uzbekistan, Tadzjikistan, Turkmenistan och Kirgizistan.
+ Mongoliet, Inre Mongoliet, Xinjiang och Tibet i vÀstra Kina.
+ Afghanistan inkluderas ibland.
+ före detta sovjetstater i asiatiska Kaukasien (inkluderas sÀllan).
+ Iran inkluderas ibland.
+ Pakistan inkluderas sÀllan.
+
+Ăstasien
+
+OmrÄdet kallas Àven FjÀrran östern. Detta omrÄde inkluderar:
+ Ănationerna Taiwan och Japan i Stilla havet.
+ Nord- och Sydkorea pÄ Koreahalvön.
+ Kina men ibland enbart dess östra delar (se ovan).
+
+Ibland inkluderas Ă€ven Mongoliet och Vietnam i Ăstasien. I mer informella sammanhang inkluderas Ă€ven ibland Sydostasien i begreppet Ăstasien.
+
+Sydostasien
+
+Denna region inkluderar Malackahalvön, Indokina samt öar i Indiska oceanen och Stilla havet. Staterna regionen inkluderar Àr:
+ I Indokina; Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Kambodja och Vietnam.
+ Malaysia, Brunei, Filippinerna, Singapore, Indonesien och Ăsttimor. Staten Malaysia delas i tvĂ„ av Sydkinesiska havet, och har dĂ€rmed bĂ„de en del pĂ„ fastlandet och en ödel (pĂ„ Borneo).
+
+Sydasien (eller Indiska halvön)
+
+Sydasien kallas ibland Indiska halvön. Regionen inkluderar:
+ staterna runt Himalaya, nÀmligen Indien, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan och Bangladesh.
+ östaterna i Indiska oceanen, Sri Lanka och Maldiverna.
+Afghanistan inkluderas ibland.
+
+SydvÀstasien (eller VÀstra Asien)
+Denna region kallas Àven Mellanöstern, som Àr en vanligare term i Europa och Amerika. SydvÀstasien inkluderar:
+ Anatolien (Mindre Asien), som utgörs av Turkiet.
+ Irak.
+ Levanten, som inkluderar Syrien, Libanon, Israel, Palestina och Jordanien.
+ Ăstaten Cypern i Medelhavet.
+ Sinaihalvön, den asiatiska delen av Egypten.
+ Arabiska halvön, som inkluderar Saudiarabien, Kuwait, Förenade Arabemiraten, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman och Jemen.
+ Kaukasusregionen, som inkluderar Armenien, en liten bit av Ryssland, och nÀstan hela Azerbajdzjan.
+ Iranska platÄn, som inkluderar Iran och delar av andra stater.
+Afghanistan inkluderas ibland.
+
+Historia
+
+Asien var den andra kontinent som nÄddes av mÀnniskan, som hade sitt ursprung i Afrika. Det var ocksÄ i Asien de första stadskulturerna uppstod - i Mesopotamien, Indusdalen, Persien och Kina.
+
+Ekonomi
+
+RĂ€knat efter köpkraftsbaserad BNP Ă€r Asiens största ekonomi Japan. Efter Ă„r 2000 har Japans, Kinas och Indiens ekonomier varit stadda i kraftig tillvĂ€xt, och alla tre har ofta noterat en Ă„rlig tillvĂ€xt pĂ„ över 6 procent. Ă
r 2020 var Kina efter USA vÀrldens största ekonomi, följt av Japan, Tyskland och Indien som vÀrldens tredje, fjÀrde och femte största ekonomier. RÀknat efter nominell BNP Àr Kina Asiens största nationella ekonomi och vÀrldens nÀst största.
+
+Ekonomisk tillvÀxt i Asien mellan slutet av andra vÀrldskriget och 1990-talet var koncentrerad till lÀnderna kring Stilla havet samt oljelÀnderna i sydvÀst, och det Àr först pÄ senare Är stark tillvÀxt spridits Àven till andra regioner. Under slutet av 1980-talet och det tidiga 1990-talet var Japans ekonomi nÀstan lika stor som resten av kontinentens tillsammans. 1995 var Japans ekonomi (dvs dess inhemska omsÀttning av pengar och dess produktion) nÀstan i nivÄ med USA:s, efter att den japanska valutan stigit till sitt högsta vÀrde nÄgonsin. Sedan dess har dock Japans valuta stabiliserats och Kina har vuxit till att bli Asiens största ekonomi, följt av Japan och sedan antingen Sydkorea eller Indien pÄ tredje plats, beroende av vilken kÀlla som anvÀnds.
+
+Asiens sjÀlvstÀndiga stater i alfabetisk ordning
+Enligt Förenta Nationernas indelning tillhör följande stater Asien:
+
+SÀrskilda omrÄden
+ KRG - Kurdistans regionala regering i södra Kurdistan (Norra Irak)
+ Brittiska territoriet i Indiska oceanen
+ Hongkong
+ Macao
+ Palestinska myndigheten
+ Nordcypern
+
+Stater tillhörande vissa europeiska politiska organisationer
+ Armenien: medlem av EuroparÄdet
+ Azerbajdzjan: medlem av EuroparÄdet
+ Cypern: medlem av EU
+ Turkiet: medlem av EuroparÄdet
+
+Europeiska stater med yta i Asien
+ Ryssland: asiatiska Ryssland
+ Storbritannien: Akrotiri och Dhekelia och Brittiska territoriet i Indiska oceanen inklusive ön Diego Garcia
+
+Se Àven
+ Mindre Asien
+ Eurasien
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+Agnosticism Àr en filosofisk riktning som förnekar att kunskap om tillvarons yttersta grunder Àr möjlig, sÀrskilt kunskap om Guds existens. En person som bekÀnner sig till agnosticismen kallas agnostiker.
+
+Historia
+
+Ordet agnosticism myntades ursprungligen av Thomas Henry Huxley kring 1868 men anses vanligen ha börjat anvÀndas av andra Är 1889 dÄ Huxley publicerade en enorm artikel med samma namn. DÀrför anger en del uppslagsverk 1888 som Äret dÄ termen myntades. Ordet hÀrrör frÄn , a-gnostikismósa, "icke-gnosticism" eller "icke-gnosis", ungefÀr "icke-kunnig", "icke-vetande".
+
+Huxleys ursprungliga definition skiljer sig nÄgot frÄn den som stÄr i inledningen av denna artikel. Vad Huxley avsÄg med sin definition var att man inte kunde uttala sig om det ovetbara eller tillvarons yttersta grunder. Han kom senare att bli försiktigare med att anvÀnda begreppet "det ovetbara", och menade att vad andra vet eller inte vet ocksÄ Àr nÄgot som lÄg utanför hans egen horisont:
+
+Men det betyder sjÀlvklart inte att begreppet det ovetbara inte Àr filosofiskt anvÀndbart. Det Àr bara svÄrt att veta vad som uppfyller ovetbarheten.
+
+Betydelser
+
+Det finns mÄnga betydelser av ordet agnosticism. PopulÀrt menar man oftast att man inte Àr sÀker pÄ om det finns en Gud eller inte, eller att man inte har tagit stÀllning. Andra menar att man inte tror pÄ Gud men att man inte Àr sÀker. Andra avser ett förhÄllningssÀtt som ligger nÀra positivismen, i det att man inte antar nÄgot som inte kan bevisas. Ett alternativt agnostiskt förhÄllningssÀtt ligger nÀra skepticismen, att tvivla pÄ allt utom det absolut sÀkra, om man ens tror att nÄgonting Àr sÀkert - "Det enda jag med sÀkerhet vet Àr att jag ingenting med sÀkerhet vet".
+
+Somliga agnostiker kallar sig ibland Àven ateister. Det kan bÄde provocera och ge upphov till debatt som vÀrderas, och det kan Àven klargöra att de i grunden anser det vara viktigare att klargöra att det inte finns skÀl att tro att Gud finns, Àn att det Àr omöjligt att veta. De tror inte att Gud finns men de kan inte bevisa att det inte finns nÄgra Gudar. MÄnga bÄde troende och agnostiker menar att man inte kan vara ateist och agnostiker samtidigt, eftersom ateism innebÀr ett Gudsförnekande. NÄgra hÀvdar Àven att ateism betyder en övertygelse att man kan bevisa att det inte finns nÄgon Gud. Detta Àr dock felaktigt dÄ ordet ateism endast innebÀr avsaknad av eller avstÄndstagande frÄn tro pÄ nÄgon Gud, Gudar och högre makter. Ett Gudsförnekande helt enkelt, men inte att man anser att det gÄr att bevisa.
+
+Inom religionssociologin pratar man Àven om agnostisk teism, det vill sÀga en Gudstro som sÀger att Gud Àr sÄ stor att denne ligger utanför det mÀnskliga förstÄndet, eller att Gud lever i en övernaturlig vÀrld som vi inte kan förstÄ.
+
+Nationalencyklopedins Ordbok (NEO) definierar agnosticism som en "filosofisk riktning som förnekar att kunskap om tillvarons yttersta grunder Àr möjlig". Det Àr en definition som kan kritiseras för att ordet "möjlig" borde bytas ut mot "tillgÀnglig".
+
+För att bÀttre förstÄ agnosticismen Àr det Àven nödvÀndigt att relatera begreppet till det begrepp det tar avstÄnd ifrÄn, nÀmligen gnosticismer. AlltsÄ lÀror, vissa av dem med flertusenÄriga anor, som ansÄg det finnas antingen en inre kunskap i varje mÀnniska, eller yttre, som t.ex. astrologi och numerologi, som Àr vÀgen till Gud och/eller till att förstÄ vÀrlden. En av de tidigare gnostiska lÀrorna var en dÀr anhÀngarna kallade sin religion för gnosis, frÄn 100-talet efter Kristus. De flesta gnostiker byggde sina lÀror pÄ antingen judendomen eller kristendomen.
+
+Se Àven
+ Ateism
+ Apateism
+ Ignosticism
+ Liberalteologi
+ Religion
+ Religiös skepticism
+ SekulÀr humanism
+ Teologi
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+ Bill Young, The Origin of the Word Agnostic
+ The Huxley File
+ Agnosticism (1889)
+ Agnosticism and Christianity (1889)
+ T.H. Huxley, Agnosticism and Christianity and other essays ()
+ Agnosticism 101
+ Agnosticism (Internet Infidels)
+
+Referenser
+
+Rörelser inom kunskapsteori
+Gudsuppfattningar
+Apokryfer, frÄn grekiskans (apokryfos) som betyder gömd, fördold, svÄrbegriplig, Àr texter som Àr ungefÀr samtida med Bibelns böcker och som ofta blivit lÀsta och anvÀnda i samma kretsar som anvÀnt Bibeln. Men av olika orsaker har de antingen inte fÄtt samma kanoniska status som bibelböckerna eller rentav blivit förklarade som heretiska av den tidiga kyrkan.
+
+Generellt kan sÀgas att de apokryfer som hör till tiden för det Gamla Testamentets böcker erhöll en högre status inom den tidiga kyrkan (se deuterokanoniska böcker) medan de apokryfer som tillhör tiden för Nya Testamentet oftast blev förklarade som heretiska dÄ de anvÀndes inom andra (idag försvunna) trosriktningar som till exempel gnosticism och uttrycker lÀror som inte var förenliga med den tidiga kyrkans tro. (Se nytestamentliga apokryfer)
+
+Texternas anvÀndning
+
+De första grekisktalande kristna anvÀnde dÄtidens grekiska översÀttning av judarnas heliga skrifter, Septuaginta. Denna koinegrekiska översÀttning skiljer sig frÄn den hebreiska bibeln. För en jÀmförelse se Gamla Testamentets kanon.
+
+Martin Luther menade dÀremot att dessa böcker visserligen var bibelböcker och god och nyttig lÀsning, men inte sÄdan "helig Skrift" med vilken bindande kyrkolÀra kan fastslÄs. De innehöll dock i hans ögon moraliska föredömen. BÄde lutheraner och anglikaner lÀser apokryferna i den offentliga gudstjÀnsten. De senare menar att syftet med apokryferna Àr att undervisa i etik, men inte att fastslÄ bindande kyrkolÀra. Jean Calvin avvisade dessa skrifter helt.
+
+Inom olika kyrkor
+
+Evangelisk-lutherska apokryfer
+I Martin Luthers kyrkobibel frÄn 1534 ingick det deuterokanoniska böcker, men ocksÄ Manasses bön, som ingick i den latinska bibelöversÀttningen Vulgata. Den romersk-katolska och den ortodoxa Bibeln rÀknar inte Manasses bön till de deuterokanoniska skrifterna. Svenska kyrkobiblar har följt Luthers omfattning av apokryferna, eftersom Svenska kyrkan Àr en evangelisk-luthersk kyrka.
+
+Anglikanska apokryfer
+I anglikanska kyrkobiblar ingÄr alla ovanstÄende skrifter, dessutom Tredje Esra och FjÀrde Esra, vilka ocksÄ ingick i den latinska bibelöversÀttningen Vulgata. Den romersk-katolska kyrkan rÀknar inte dessa till de deuterokanoniska skrifterna.
+
+Pseudepigrafer
+Utöver de omtvistade skrifterna i Septuaginta finns ytterligare ett antal skrifter som brukar kallas pseudepigrafer av protestanter, och apokryfer av katoliker. NÄgra av dessa ingÄr i den Etiopisk-ortodoxa kyrkans kanon. Exempel pÄ nÄgra gammaltestamentliga pseudepigrafer Àr:
+
+ Aristeasbrevet
+ Henoksböckerna
+ Jesajas himmelsfÀrd
+ Jubileerboken
+ Tredje Mackabeerboken
+ FjÀrde Mackabeerboken
+ Psalm 151
+ Salomos psalmer
+
+Gamla och nya testamentets apokryfer
+
+Gamla Testamentet
+De apokryfiska tillÀggen Gamla Testamentet betraktas olika inom olika kristna kyrkor. Ortodoxa kyrkor betraktar dessa skrifter som kanoniska, romersk-katolska kyrkan betraktar dem som deuterokanoniska, lutherska kyrkor rÀknar dem som "god och nyttig lÀsning" och reformerta kyrkor rÀknar dem inte till Bibeln överhuvudtaget. De ingÄr i bibelöversÀttningen Bibel 2000, men inte i Svenska Folkbibeln.
+
+ Tobit
+ Judit
+ Ester enligt den grekiska texten
+ Första Mackabeerboken
+ Andra Mackabeerboken
+ Salomos vishet
+ Jesus Syraks vishet
+ Baruk
+ Jeremias brev
+ TillÀgg till Daniel
+ Manasses bön
+
+Nytestamentliga apokryfer
+
+Nytestamentliga apokryfer Àr kristna skrifter, ibland gnostiskt inspirerade, som inte rÀknas som kanoniska inom de kristna kyrkorna. De Àr skrivna frÄn mitten av 100-talet och framÄt. Vissa nytestamentliga apokryfer bevarades som legendlÀsning eller nöjeslÀsning i den medeltida vÀstkyrkan eller bland östortodoxt kristna. SÄ Àr exempelvis fallet med Jakobs protevangelium, Petrusakterna och Thomas barndomsevangelium.
+
+Skrifter av detta slag som inte hade ett ortodoxt innehÄll kopierades dÀremot inte. I Egypten grÀvdes nÄgra av dem ner i ökensanden, dÀr de bevarades till eftervÀrlden. NÄgra av dessa avskrifter, Codex Brucianus, Codex Askewianus och Papyrus Berolinensis/Akhmim-codexen, hittades pÄ 1700- och 1800-talen. Andra upptÀcktes först pÄ 1900-talet, exempelvis böckerna i Nag Hammadi-biblioteket som Äterfanns Är 1945. Dessa fynd har dramatiskt ökat vÄr kunskap om dessa skrifter.
+
+Se Àven
+ Abrahamsapokalypsen
+ Apologeterna
+ De apostoliska fÀderna
+ Hagiografi
+ Pseudepigraf
+ Gamla Testamentets kanon
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Bibeln
+ *
+Antarktis Àr land- och havsomrÄdena kring Sydpolen. Antarktis, som Àven Àr en egen djurgeografisk region (antarktiska regionen), Àr till skillnad frÄn Arktis en riktig kontinent med en landmassa som ligger ovanför havsytan. Det Àr den enda kontinent som saknar bofast mÀnsklig befolkning, men det finns fler eller fÀrre tillfÀlliga boende.
+
+Etymologi
+
+Namnet Antarktis Ă€r en latinisering av det grekiska sammansatta ordet áŒÎœÏαÏÎșÏÎčÎșÎź, antarktikĂ©, femininum av áŒÎœÏαÏÎșÏÎčÎșÏÏ, antarktikĂłs, som betyder "motsatsen till Arktis, det vill sĂ€ga "motsatsen till norr".
+
+Aristoteles skrev i sitt verk om meteorologi, ÎΔÏΔÏÏολογÎčÎșÎŹ, om en Antarktisk region, cirka 350 f.Kr. Den grekiske eller feniciske kartografen Marinus frĂ„n Tyros ska ha anvĂ€nt namnet i sin vĂ€rldskarta frĂ„n 100-talet e.Kr., som inte finns bevarad. De romerska skriftstĂ€llarna Gaius Julius Hyginus och Lucius Apuleius anvĂ€nde under första och andra Ă„rhundradet e.Kr. det latiniserade begreppet frĂ„n grekiskan, polus antarcticus. FrĂ„n detta hĂ€rrör fornfranska pole antarktike (1270 e.Kr.), som i modern tappning blivit pĂŽle antarctique. Det lĂ„nades vidare till medelengelskans pol antarktik i en teknisk avhandling 1391 av den engelske poeten och diplomaten Geoffrey Chaucer och har i modern form blivit Antarctic Pole.
+
+Innan namnet fick sin nuvarande geografiska konnotation anvĂ€ndes begreppet ocksĂ„ för andra platser som kunde beskrivas som "motsatsen till norr". Den franska kolonin i Brasilien pĂ„ 1500-talet, Franska Antarktis (1555â1567), fick sitt namn utifrĂ„n detta tĂ€nkande.
+
+Det första formella omnÀmnandet av kontinenten som "Antarktis" dokumenterar sig till 1890-talet och den skotske kartografen John George Bartholomew. I det svenska sprÄket finns Antarktis dokumenterat i geografisk betydelse sedan 1837.
+
+Historia
+
+Antarktis uppkomst
+Jorden har inte alltid sett likadan ut som den gör i dag. För ungefÀr 250 miljoner Är sedan var vÀrldens alla kontinenter samlade i en enda superkontinent, Pangaea. Vid den hÀr tiden tillhörde Antarktis den södra kontinenten Gondwanaland tillsammans med andra kontinenter som Sydamerika, Afrika, Indien och Arabiska halvön. Denna superkontinent lÄg inte vid Sydpolen, vilket gjorde att Antarktis inte var det islandskap som det Àr nu, utan en varm och tropisk kontinent med riklig vÀxtlighet bebodd av massor av olika djurarter, dÀribland dinosaurier.
+
+För ungefÀr 100 miljoner Är sedan kom jordens alla kontinenter att sakta röra sig ifrÄn varandra. Detta gav upphov till att kraftiga bergskedjor som Himalaya bildades, samt stora klimatförÀndringar. Antarktis skulle frigöras frÄn Australien och fÀrdas sakta ner mot Sydpolen. Detta gjorde att Antarktis fick ett allt kallare klimat och stora ismassor vÀxte till.
+
+Kontinenten upptÀcks
+
+Med hĂ€nsyn till Antarktis geografiska lĂ€ge tog det lĂ„ng tid innan kontinenten upptĂ€cktes. Geografer och forskare hade dock i Ă„rhundraden haft teorier om att en stor sydkontinent skulle existera. Detta antagande kallades för Terra Australis (Incognita), âdet (okĂ€nda) södra landetâ, och fanns pĂ„ europeiska kartor frĂ„n medeltiden Ă€nda till in pĂ„ 1800-talet. Teorin fördes fram av den grekiske filosofen Aristoteles, men det var först under 100-talet som teorin utvidgades och uppmĂ€rksammades av geografen Klaudios Ptolemaios. Denne var övertygad om att en stor sydlig kontinent tĂ€ckte stora delar av Indiska oceanen. Tanken om ett stort landomrĂ„de nere i syd vĂ€ckte stort intresse hos dĂ„tida upptĂ€cktsresande. Den brittiske upptĂ€cktsresanden James Cook försökte redan 1773 att nĂ„ Terra Australis med sitt fartyg HMS Resolution. Cook nĂ„dde aldrig Antarktis, ty han sökte nĂ„ den frĂ„n Stilla Havet dĂ€r Antarktis kust ligger sydligare och hindrades av den tjocka packisen.
+
+Flera försök att nĂ„ Antarktis gjordes efter Cook men man hindrades av det kalla stormiga havet. Ă
r 1820 var det den brittiske sjömannen Edward Bransfields tur att försöka nĂ„ kontinentens fastland. Bransfield har noterat i sina anteckningar att man skymtade ett is- och snötĂ€ckt land. Bransfield och hans följeslagare landsteg dock inte pĂ„ fastlandet, utan förde istĂ€llet utförliga kartanteckningar över omrĂ„det. Ryssen Fabian von Bellingshausen var Ă€ven han under samma period som Bransfield pĂ„ expedition runt Antarktis kuster. Han fann ett flertal öar och delar av Antarktis, bland annat har havet Bellingshausenhavet uppkallats efter honom. Den tredje i raden av upptĂ€cktsresande pĂ„ 1820-talet var segelfartygskaptenen Nathaniel Brown Palmer. Hans syfte med resan till Antarktis var, liksom för mĂ„nga andra resenĂ€rer, till största delen den stora efterfrĂ„gan pĂ„ sĂ€lskinn. Palmer reste med fartyget Hero och utforskade frĂ€mst södra delen av Antarktiska halvön 1820â1822. Han blev, tillsammans med sina medresenĂ€rer, de första amerikanerna att upptĂ€cka Antarktiska halvön. Deras expedition blev lyckad dĂ„ de fann ett flertal öar lĂ€ngs kusterna, bland annat Palmer Land, vilken upptĂ€cktes den 16 november 1820 och uppkallades efter Nathaniel Palmer. I februari 1823 upptĂ€ckte britten James Weddell Weddellhavet efter att ha seglat med sitt valfĂ„ngstfartyg pĂ„ Antarktiska oceanen.
+
+Antarktis hade nu upptĂ€ckts av bĂ„de val- och sĂ€ljĂ€gare. Den första iakttagelsen av fastlandet Antarktis kan inte exakt tillskrivas en enda person. KĂ€nt Ă€r att en amerikansk sĂ€ljĂ€gare gjorde den första kĂ€nda landstigningen pĂ„ kontinenten 1821. Rykten och rapporter började sedan, pĂ„ 1830-talet, att sprida sig bland vĂ€rldens lĂ€nder att en stor kontinent var belĂ€gen vid Sydpolen. Detta medförde att flera lĂ€nder skickade ivĂ€g forskningsexpeditioner med förhoppningen att upptĂ€cka nya landomrĂ„den. Bland dessa kan James Clark Ross, Charles Wilkes och Jules Dumont dâUrville nĂ€mnas. De fann en rad betydelsefulla öar och kustomrĂ„den. Ross pĂ„började sin resa till Sydpolen den 29 september 1839 med tvĂ„ fartyg. Han namngav ett flertal landomrĂ„den vid Antarktis som han sjĂ€lv hade upptĂ€ckt. Han upptĂ€ckte Rosshavet och gjorde en stor utforskning av Victoria Land. Han fann Ă€ven tvĂ„ vulkaner pĂ„ Rossön, Mount Terror och Mount Erebus, vilka han namngav efter sina bĂ„da fartyg.
+
+Geografi
+
+Den antarktiska kontinenten ligger till den största delen inom södra polcirkeln (cirka 66:e breddgraden). Med ungefĂ€r 14 miljoner kmÂČ Ă€r Antarktis större Ă€n Europa. En exakt storlek Ă€r svĂ„r att faststĂ€lla. Landmassor och angrĂ€nsande havsomrĂ„den ligger under isen som kontinuerligt Ă€ndrar storlek. Den vĂ€xer efter snöfall och blir mindre nĂ€r isberg bryts loss.
+
+De Transantarktiska bergen delar kontinenten i en mindre vÀstlig och en betydligt större östlig del. Den högsta bergskedjan Àr Vinsonmassivet med berget Mount Vinson som Àr 4 897 meter högt. Djupaste punkten som Àr tÀckt med is ligger 2 538 meter under havsytan. Runt om Antarktis strÀcker sig den Antarktiska oceanen, vilken bestÄr av allt hav söder om 60:e sydliga breddgraden. Den nÀrmast liggande punkten pÄ en annan kontinent Àr sydspetsen av Sydamerika, Kap Horn, som ligger ungefÀr pÄ 55:e sydliga breddgraden, eller omkring 1000 km frÄn nordspetsen av antarktiska halvön, ungefÀr pÄ samma avstÄnd som fÄgelvÀgen mellan Malmö och UmeÄ.
+
+Indelning
+Indelningen av Antarktis sker i stora omrÄden, hav och shelfis:
+
+OmrÄden:
+
+ Antarktiska halvön
+ Adelie Land
+ Coats land
+ Dronning Maud Land
+ Enderby land
+ George V Land
+ Marie Byrd Land
+ Neuschwabenland
+ Wilkes Land
+
+Hav: (randhav till Antarktiska oceanen)
+ Scotiahavet
+ Weddellhavet
+ Rosshavet
+ Amundsenhavet
+ Bellingshausenhavet
+
+ShelfisomrÄden:
+ Ross shelfis
+ Riiser-Larsens shelfis
+ Filchner-RĂžnnes shelfis
+ Larsens shelfis
+
+Isen
+
+Inlandsisen
+Speciellt för Antarktis Ă€r att kontinenten Ă€r nĂ€stan helt tĂ€ckt av is. Den antarktiska inlandsisen som Ă€r upp till 4 500 meter tjock innehĂ„ller omkring 90 procent av vĂ€rldens is och 60 procent av vĂ€rldens sötvattenreserver. Bara 280 000 kmÂČ (2 procent) av kontinentens yta Ă€r isfri, och bestĂ„r av omrĂ„den med lĂ„g nederbörd eller bergskedjor som sticker upp genom isen.
+
+Isberg
+DÄ och dÄ lossnar stora tillplattade isberg frÄn shelfisen som flyter nÄgra tusen kilometer ut i havet. Det tar ibland mÄnga Är tills ett stort isberg smÀlter helt. Ofta bryts ett isberg i mÄnga mindre delar under sin tid pÄ havet. Den 30 april 1894 siktade man ett isberg i Sydatlanten vid , vilket Àr den nordligaste positionen som ett isberg frÄn Antarktis har siktats pÄ.
+
+Klimat
+
+VÀdret pÄ Antarktis skiljer sig pÄ mÄnga sÀtt frÄn klimat pÄ andra kontinenter. Kontinenten Àr:
+
+ den kallaste (I kontinentens mitt Ă€r medeltemperaturen â55 °C. Vid kusterna ligger temperaturen under vintern (juni) omkring â18 °C och under sommaren (januari) nĂ„got över noll. Den 10 december 2013 presenterades ett nytt vĂ€rlds-köldrekord uppmĂ€tt med satellit, vid den norska delen Valkyriedomen pĂ„ â94,7 °C, och innan dess stod sig det föregĂ„ende rekordet pĂ„ â89,2 °C vid den sovjetiska forskningsstationen Vostok sedan den 21 juli 1983.
+ den nederbördsfattigaste (vanligtvis faller nederbörd i Antarktis som snö). I kontinentens mitt ligger det Ärliga genomsnittet vid 40 liter per kvadratmeter (40 millimeter). Enligt definitionen Àr sÄdana omrÄden att beteckna som öken. Den lÄga temperaturen hÄller avdunstningen nere. Vid kusterna Àr nederbörden betydligt större.) och
+ den blĂ„sigaste (I juli 1972 mĂ€ttes vid den franska stationen Dumont dâUrville en vindhastighet pĂ„ 327 kilometer i timmen, det vill sĂ€ga 91 meter per sekund.)
+
+Klimatet pÄ Antarktis Àr betydligt kallare Àn klimatet pÄ motsvarande breddgrader pÄ det norra halvklotet. Detta beror till stor del pÄ att det inte finns nÄgon varm havsström liknande Nordatlantiska strömmen som ger ett varmare klimat, men ocksÄ pÄ att Antarktis Àr en kontinent. Detta innebÀr att de inre delarna klimatmÀssigt blir mer isolerade frÄn omvÀrlden Àn motsvarande delar av Arktis.
+
+Som jÀmförelse Àr Ärsmedeltemperaturen lÀngst norrut pÄ den antarktiska halvön jÀmförbar med den pÄ Svalbard, och dÄ Àr de nordligaste delarna av antarktiska halvön belÀgna ungefÀr pÄ samma breddgrad som till exempel UmeÄ Àr pÄ det norra halvklotet, och dÄ har UmeÄ dessutom en betydligt högre Ärsmedeltemperatur Àn mÄnga stÀder i sydligaste Sydamerika.
+
+I Antarktis mitt blir det aldrig plusgrader och den allra högsta temperaturen som hittills uppmĂ€tts pĂ„ den geografiska sydpolen, vid AmundsenâScott-basen, Ă€r cirka â13 °C.
+
+Antarktis Àr Àven den enda kontinenten pÄ hela jorden som har en av mÀnniskan sÄ gott som orörd natur, vilken Àven skyddas av Antarktisfördraget. Trots klimatet Àr Antarktis ett populÀrt turistmÄl under sommarsÀsongen, bland annat tack vare den orörda naturen. Dock Àr det förhÄllandevis dyrt att resa hit, mycket pÄ grund av all logistik och alla förberedelser som krÀvs.
+
+Flora och fauna
+
+I havet runt Antarktis lever ett stort antal krill (Euphausia superba) och annat zooplankton som bildar basen i matkedjan för fiskar, blÀckfiskar, pingviner, valar och sÀlar.
+
+CirkumpolÀrt utefter kusten hÀckar tvÄ pingvinarter, kejsarpingvinen och adeliepingvinen. Den sydgeorgiska piplÀrkan, Anthus antarcticus, Àr endemisk för Antarktis och förekommer enbart i grÀsmarker i Sydgeorgien. Men det finns 18 andra fÄgelarter som hÀckar pÄ Antarktis. Deras bon ligger pÄ nunataker, isfria berg som sticker upp ur isen. PÄ sommaren kommer mer Àn 100 miljoner flyttfÄglar till omrÄdet och de lever pÄ isflaken och pÄ de nÀrliggande öarna. SÀlarter i Antarktis Àr till exempel weddellsÀlen, krabbÀtarsÀlen och sjöleoparden. Runt kontinenten lever nÄgra av de största valarterna.
+
+I motsats till det rika livet i oceanen Àr kontinentens mitt nÀstan tomt pÄ organismer. PÄ isfria omrÄden som kallas antarktiska oaser vÀxer mossor och lavar. Antarktis hyser endast tvÄ blomvÀxter, Colobanthus quitensis och Deschampsia antarctica. Det största landdjuret som lever permanent pÄ Antarktis Àr en 6 millimeter stor fjÀdermygga (Belgica antarctica) som saknar vingar.
+
+Styre och politik
+
+Territoriella ansprÄk
+
+Flera stater stÀllde under 1900-talet territoriella ansprÄk pÄ Antarktis. Efter Antarktisfördraget saknar dessa ansprÄk praktiskt betydelse.
+
+Argentina: Argentinska Antarktis (25â74° V), utropat 1943.
+Australien: Australiska Antarktis (160â142° Ă samt 136â45° Ă), proklamerat 1933.
+Brasilien: intressezon 28â53° V, utropad 1986.
+Chile: Chilenska Antarktis (53â90° V), utropat 1940.
+Frankrike: Franska sydterritorierna (142â136° Ă), utropade 1924.
+Norge: Norska Antarktis (45° Ăâ20° V), proklamerat 1939.
+Nya Zeeland: Ross Dependency (150°Vâ160° Ă), utropat 1923.
+Storbritannien: Falkland Islands Dependencies, utropat 1908. Brittiska Antarktis (20â80° V), utropat 1962.
+
+Lagar
+Eftersom Antarktis inte har nÄgon egen lagstiftande församling och inte tillhör nÄgot land, kan man tro att inga lagar och inga domstolar finns. Men i praktiken gÀller lagar frÄn de olika basernas hemlÀnder, ungefÀr som pÄ fartyg till sjöss. MÄnga lÀnder med baser har ocksÄ lagar som uttryckligen skyddar naturen i Antarktis. Antarktisfördraget innehÄller sÄdana skyddsregler.
+
+Ekonomi
+PÄ Antarktis har man hittat ett stort antal naturrikedomar, till exempel jÀrn, krom, koppar, guld och platina. HÀr finns dessutom kol, petroleum och naturgas, men i Antarktisfördraget Àr fastlagt att ingen fÄr utvinna nÄgot av detta.
+
+Fiskebolag hade 1998/1999 en officiell fÄngst frÄn 120 000 ton i Antarktiska oceanen. Tillsammans med den illegala fÄngsten Àr mÀngden troligtvis flera gÄnger större.
+
+Turism till Antarktis fĂ„r en allt större omfattning. PĂ„ grund av de stora förberedelser och höga kostnader (upp emot 40 000 kronor) som krĂ€vs Ă€r det mestadels vĂ€lbestĂ€llda personer som kan resa hit. ĂndĂ„ ökade antalet turister med 13 000 personer frĂ„n sĂ€songen 1990/1991 till sĂ€songen 2002/2003. Kryssningsfartyg föredrar Antarktiska halvön, som har höga berg. Detta omrĂ„de ligger dessutom nĂ€rmast de permanent bebodda platserna i sydligaste Sydamerika, dĂ€ribland staden Ushuaia, dĂ€r det finns en stor hamn och en internationell flygplats.
+
+Kommunikationer
+PÄ Antarktis fastland finns inga permanenta flygfÀlt och de enda tre fasta flygfÀlt som förekommer ligger pÄ King George Island (se Teniente R. Marsh Airport), pÄ Seymourön (vid Marambiobasen) samt pÄ Adelaide Island (vid stationen Rothera). Flygplan med skidor istÀllet för hjul kan landa pÄ utvalda platser pÄ inlandsisen. Endast en procent av fastlandets is- och snöytor Àr lÀmpliga för mindre vanliga flygplan med hjul.
+
+Demografi
+
+Antarktis har inga permanenta invÄnare, pÄ de olika forskningsstationerna lever dÀremot varje sommar mer Àn 4 000 och Äret runt omkring 1 000 personer. Fram till 2009 hade elva barn fötts pÄ kontinenten.
+
+Emilio Marcos Palma, född 7 januari 1978 pĂ„ Esperanzabasen i argentinska territoriet pĂ„ Antarktis, Ă€r den först dokumenterade person som blivit född pĂ„ kontinenten. 1986â1987 föddes en pojke och en flicka pĂ„ den chilenska stationen.
+
+I omrĂ„det söder om den sextionde breddgraden pĂ„ södra halvklotet finns idag 82 forskningsstationer, dĂ€ribland 37 stationer som anvĂ€nds hela Ă„ret och 36 stationer som bara bedrivs under sommaren. Den största stationen Ă€r McMurdo (USA) som liknar en stad. Mycket kĂ€nd Ă€r ocksĂ„ AmundsenâScott-basen (USA) som ligger direkt pĂ„ den geografiska Sydpolen. Den japanska permanenta forskningsstationen Syowa Ă€r kĂ€nd genom populĂ€rkulturen. Sverige har tvĂ„ stationer pĂ„ Antarktis som heter Wasa och Svea och som Ă€r belĂ€gna i den sektor Norge gör ansprĂ„k pĂ„, Drottning Mauds land. Stationen Wasa ligger bara nĂ„gra hundra meter frĂ„n den finlĂ€ndska forskningsstationen Aboa. De svenska stationerna förvaltas av Polarforskningssekretariatet.
+
+Framtid och risker
+
+Antarktis framtid
+I förhÄllande till övriga kontinenter Àr Antarktis miljö god, vilket beror pÄ dess isolerade lÀge. Sedan Antarktisfördraget undertecknades den 1 december 1959 har totalförbud för kommersiell exploatering fastslagits. Trots detta har kontinenten till viss del skadats av mÀnsklig pÄverkan. Forskare och upptÀcktsresande har under Ären varit tvungna att bygga olika former av bostÀder och forskningsstationer. Detta har gjort att landskapet utsatts för avfall som kan vara skadligt för bÄde djur och natur.
+
+Ozonlagrets uttunning Àr ett allvarligt hot mot Antarktis miljö, som beror pÄ mÀnsklig pÄverkan av att anvÀnda freoner. Detta stör Àven djurlivet pÄ Antarktis dÄ tillgÄngen pÄ föda minskar.
+
+Effekten pÄ den globala uppvÀrmningen
+
+En del av Antarktis har vÀrmts upp; sÀrskilt stark uppvÀrmning har noterats pÄ Antarktishalvön. En studie av Eric Steig som publicerades 2009 konstaterade för första gÄngen att den kontinentbredda genomsnittliga yttemperaturtrenden i Antarktis Àr nÄgot positiv vid >0,05 °C per decennium frÄn 1957 till 2006. Denna studie noterade ocksÄ att vÀstra Antarktis har vÀrmts med mer Àn 0,1 °C per decennium under de senaste 50 Ären, och denna uppvÀrmning Àr starkast pÄ vintern och vÄren. Detta kompenseras delvis av höstkylning i östra Antarktis. Det finns bevis frÄn en studie om att Antarktis vÀrms upp som ett resultat av mÀnskliga koldioxidutslÀpp, men detta förblir tvetydigt. MÀngden ytvÀrmning i VÀstantarktis, Àven om den Àr stor, har inte lett till nÄgon mÀrkbar smÀltning vid ytan och pÄverkar inte den vÀstantarktiska inlandsisens bidrag till havsnivÄn. IstÀllet tros de senaste ökningarna av glaciÀrutflödet bero pÄ ett inflöde av varmt vatten frÄn djuphavet, precis utanför kontinentalsockeln. Nettobidraget till havsnivÄn frÄn Antarktishalvön Àr mer troligtvis ett direkt resultat av den mycket större atmosfÀriska uppvÀrmningen dÀr.
+
+2002 kollapsade Antarktishalvöns Larsens shelfis. Mellan 28 februari och 8 mars 2008 kollapsade cirka 570 km2 is frÄn Wilkins shelfis pÄ den sydvÀstra delen av halvön, vilket sÀtter de ÄterstÄende 15 000 km2 av shelfisen i riskzonen. Isen hölls tillbaka av en cirka 6 km bred "trÄd" av is, innan den kollapsade den 5 april 2009. Enligt NASA intrÀffade den mest utbredda ytsmÀltningen i Antarktis under de senaste 30 Ären 2005, dÄ ett omrÄde med is som Àr jÀmförbart i storlek till Kalifornien kort smÀlt och fryst; detta kan ha resulterat i temperaturer som stiger till sÄ högt som 5 °C.
+
+En studie publicerad i Nature Geoscience 2013 (online i december 2012) identifierade centrala vÀstra Antarktis som en av de snabbast uppvÀrmande regionerna pÄ jorden. Forskarna presenterade kompletta temperaturdata frÄn Byrd Station och hÀvdar att dessa "avslöjar en linjÀr ökning av den Ärliga temperaturen mellan 1958 och 2010 pÄ 2,4 ± 1,2 °C".
+
+OzonhÄl
+
+Det finns ett stort omrÄde med lÄg ozonkoncentration eller "ozonhÄl" över Antarktis. Detta hÄl tÀcker nÀstan hela kontinenten och var som störst i september 2008. HÄlet upptÀcktes av forskare 1985 och har tenderat att öka under observationsÄren. OzonhÄlet tillskrivs utslÀpp av klorfluorkolvÀten eller klorfluorkarboner i atmosfÀren, som sönderdelar ozonet i andra gaser.
+
+Vissa vetenskapliga studier tyder pÄ att ozonnedbrytning kan ha en dominerande roll för att reglera klimatförÀndringar i Antarktis (och ett bredare omrÄde pÄ södra halvklotet). Ozon absorberar stora mÀngder ultraviolett strÄlning i stratosfÀren. Ozonnedbrytning över Antarktis kan orsaka en kylning av cirka 6 ° C i den lokala stratosfÀren. Denna kylning har effekten att intensifiera de vÀstliga vindarna som flyter runt kontinenten (den polÀra virveln) och förhindrar sÄledes utströmning av den kalla luften nÀra Sydpolen. Som ett resultat hÄlls den kontinentala massan av den öst-antarktiska isarken vid lÀgre temperaturer, och de perifera omrÄdena pÄ Antarktis, sÀrskilt den Antarktiska halvön, utsÀtts för högre temperaturer, vilket frÀmjar snabbare smÀltning. Modeller antyder ocksÄ att ozonnedbrytningen/den förbÀttrade polÀra virveleffekten ocksÄ stÄr för den senaste tidens ökning av havsis strax utanför kontinentens kust.
+
+Se Àven
+
+ :Kategori:FĂ„glar i antarktiska regionen
+ Sydpolen
+ Arktis
+ Antarktisfördraget
+ 2404 Antarctica
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ Antarktisfördragets sekretariat
+
+
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+Abul-Abbas var den första elefanten pÄ nordeuropeisk jord efter romartid, en vit asiatisk elefant som tidigare tillhört en indisk raja. Kalifen av Bagdad, Harun al-Rashid, gav denna elefant i gÄva till kejsar Karl den store av Frankerriket 801 e.Kr.
+
+Abul-Abbas resa till Europa började med skepp över Medelhavet som i oktober 801 landade i Porto Venere vid La Spezia med elefantens skötare, en judisk nordafrikan som hette Isak. Efter att ha tillbringat vintern i staden Vercelli pÄbörjades den lÄnga marschen över Alperna nÀr snön smÀlt. Kejsarens residens i Aachen nÄddes i juli Är 802. Troligen blev han en uppskattad gÄva. Abul-Abbas medverkade vid en del imponerande hovceremonier men skickades av nÄgon anledning senare till staden Augsburg i det sydligare, nuvarande Bayern.
+
+804 gjorde kung Godfred av Danmark revolt mot kejsaren. Han överföll en slavisk handelsplats nÀra Danmark och tvÄngsförflyttade allt folk till sin nybyggda marknadsplats i Hedeby för att dÀrigenom försÀkra sig om handelstullar och ge Danmark större inblandning i nordisk handel. Kejsaren skickade genast en hÀr mot kung Godfred och kallade in sin elefant till krigstjÀnstgöring. Abul-Abbas var vid denna tid omkring fyrtio Är och sÀkert inte i bÀsta hÀlsa, samt icke fullt acklimatiserad till europeiskt klimat. Han avled i lunginflammation efter att, förmodligen simmande, ha korsat Rhen.
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Berömda elefanter
+Karl den store
+Asiatisk elefant (Àven indisk elefant, Elephas maximus) Àr ett dÀggdjur i familjen elefanter och idag den enda arten i sitt slÀkte. Den har en kroppslÀngd upp till 6,5 meter och nÄr en vikt upp till 5,4 ton. Arten förekommer i flera frÄn varandra skilda populationer frÄn norra Indien till Sri Lanka och österut till Sydostasien. Den asiatiska elefanten Àr nÀrmare slÀkt med de utdöda mammutarna Àn med de afrikanska elefanterna.
+
+Individer av honkön (kor) bildar större hjordar tillsammans med sina ungar (kalvar), medan hannar (tjurar) lever i mindre ungkarlsgrupper eller helt ensamma. Tjurar jagades tidigare hÄrt för elfenbenets skull, idag Àr det största hotet levnadsomrÄdets omvandling till jordbruksmark och boplatser. MÄnga asiatiska elefanter arbetar i mÀnniskans tjÀnst som rid- eller lastdjur.
+
+KĂ€nnetecken
+
+Den asiatiska elefanten Àr nÄgot mindre Àn de afrikanska arterna och har mindre öron. Arten nÄr en mankhöjd mellan 2 och 3,4 meter samt en vikt mellan 2 000 och 5 400 kilogram. Ryggen Àr i motsats till ryggen hos de afrikanska arterna böjd uppÄt. Vid snabelns spets finns en utvÀxt som pÄminner om ett finger (hos afrikanska elefanter finns tvÄ). Asiatisk elefant har 5 tÄr vid de frÀmre extremiteterna och 4 till 5 vid de bakre extremiteterna. LÄnga, fullt utvecklade betar förekommer bara hos tjurarna, kor har endast rudimentÀra betar eller inga alls. Hos underarten Elephas maximus maximus som förekommer pÄ Sri Lanka har bara var tionde hane betar.
+
+Individerna nÄr en kroppslÀngd upp till 6,5 meter, och dÀrtill kommer en cirka 150 centimeter lÄng svans som har 33 svanskotor.
+
+Utbredning och underarter
+
+AllmÀnt
+Vilda individer av den asiatiska elefanten förekommer pÄ grÀsmarker, i tropiska regnskogar, i skogar som slÀpper löv samt i buskmarker. Tre underarter Àr godkÀnda.
+
+ Lankesisk elefant (Àven ceylonelefant, Elephas maximus maximus) lever pÄ Sri Lanka.
+ Sumatraelefant (Elephas maximus sumatrensis) förekommer pÄ Sumatra och Borneo.
+Not. Denna Ă€r Ă€ven kĂ€nd som pygmĂ©elefant. Den bornesiska gruppen betraktas ibland som en egen underart med namnet Elephas maximus borneensis â borneoelefant.
+ Indisk elefant (Ă€ven egentlig indisk elefant, Elephas maximus indicus) lever pĂ„ det asiatiska fastlandet â Indien, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, södra Kina (Yunnan), Kambodja, Laos och Vietnam.
+
+I Kina finns arten endast i de sydligaste delarna av Yunnan kvar, i Bangladesh finns bara en isolerad population pÄ Chittagong-kullarna. I Indien Àr den vilda populationen frÀmst begrÀnsade pÄ fyra isolerade omrÄden:
+
+ Den första i nordvÀstra Indien (delstaterna Uttarakhand och Uttar Pradesh) lever nÄgra glest fördelade hjordar i bergstrakter söder om Himalaya som under vandringar nÄr Nepal.
+ Den andra finns öster om Nepal, frÄn norra VÀstbengalen över Assam till östra Arunachal Pradesh och Nagaland, vidare Ät söder till Meghalaya och Brahmaputras slÀttland.
+ Den tredje lever i östra Centralindien i delstaterna Odisha och Jharkhand samt södra VÀstbengalen.
+ I södra Indien förekommer arten glest fördelad över delstaterna Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu och södra Andhra Pradesh.
+
+Forskningshistoria
+Den asiatiska elefanten beskrevs av Carl von LinnĂ© efter vad han trodde var en individ frĂ„n Ceylon (idag Sri Lanka), vilken senare har visat sig vara en afrikansk elefant. I Systema Naturae fick denna afrikanska elefant 1758 det vetenskapliga namnet Elephas maximus. Den indiska populationen beskrevs 1798 av Georges Cuvier som en sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig art med namnet Elephas indicus. Ăven populationen pĂ„ Sumatra och andra sydostasiatiska öar ansĂ„gs i början som en sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig art, Coenraad Jacob Temminck gav den 1847 det vetenskapliga namnet Elephas sumatranus. Frederick Nutter Chasen klassificerade 1940 alla tre populationer som underarter till en enda art.
+
+Populationen pÄ Borneo beskrevs 1950 av Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala som den fjÀrde underarten, E. m. borneensis. Aktuella taxonomiska avhandlingar betraktar underarten tills vidare identisk med E. m. sumatranus, trots allt förekommer den i flera publikationer som sjÀlvstÀndig underart.
+
+Ytterligare tvÄ utdöda underarter blev beskrivna, E. m. asurus och E. m. rubridens.
+
+LevnadssÀtt
+
+Den asiatiska elefanten Àr frÀmst aktiv mellan skymningen och gryningen, under dagens hetaste timmar vilar djuret. För att komma Ät födan som utgörs av grÀs, löv, kvistar och trÀdens bark utför arten lÄnga vandringar. Vanligen gÄr de lÄngsamma med 6,5 km/h men nÀr de kÀnner sig hotade kan de springa med 48 km/h. Ibland uppsöker asiatiska elefanter odlingsmark dÀr de Àter ris, sockerrör eller bananer. VÀxtdelarna plockas med hjÀlp av snabeln och förs till munnen. En vuxen asiatisk elefant Àter per dag omkring 150 kg föda. Dessutom uppsöker de minst en gÄng per dag en vattenansamling.
+
+Kor och ungdjur lever i hjordar som bildas vanligen av 8 till 30 individer. Fram till 1800-talet observerades hjordar med upp till 100 individer. Alla individer i hjorden Ă€r slĂ€kt med varandra, de Ă€r alltsĂ„ mödrar, systrar, döttrar och söner (fram till 8 Ă„rs Ă„lder). Den Ă€ldsta kon vaktar över flocken sĂ„ att ingen individ kommer för lĂ„ngt bort. Kommunikationen sker genom trumpetande med hjĂ€lp av snabeln. Ăldre tjurar lever frĂ€mst ensamma och unga könsmogna tjurar bildar smĂ„ flockar. NĂ€r korna Ă€r parningsberedda söker tjurarna i flera mĂ„nader anslutning till en hjord med kor. Det finns inga sĂ€rskilda parningstider och dĂ€rför finns i 40 procent av hjordarna minst en tjur. Tjurarna Ă€r inte aggressiva mot varandra och det förekommer ofta flera tjurar i samma hjord, vanligen har bara den dominerande tjuren rĂ€tten att para sig.
+
+DrÀktigheten varar i genomsnitt 640 dagar (18 till 22 mÄnader) och sedan föds vanligen en enda kalv. Att en ko Àr drÀktig syns vanligen först kort före födelsen. Kalven vÀger vid födelsen cirka 100 kg, har en lÀngd omkring 80 cm och Àr tÀckt med en pÀls av bruna hÄr. Kort efter födelsen kan kalven gÄ pÄ sina egna ben. Ungdjuret diar inte bara sin egen mor utan försöker fÄ mjölk frÄn olika kor i hjorden. NÀr kalven diar anvÀnds munnen, inte snabeln. Efter ungefÀr 6 mÄnader börjar kalven med fast föda men den avvÀnjs vanligen under andra levnadsÄret. Tjurar mÄste lÀmna sin hjord nÀr de Àr sju eller Ätta Är gamla. De letar sedan efter anslutning till en flock med unga tjurar eller till en ensam vuxen tjur. Kor stannar hela livet i samma hjord. Sin fulla storlek nÄr asiatiska elefanter efter 15 till 17 Är. Tjurar parar sig ungefÀr efter tjugo Är för första gÄngen, kor fÄr sin första kalv efter fjorton Är (tidigast efter nio Är). Den kortaste tiden mellan tvÄ födslar Àr 2,5 Är och den lÀngsta 8 Är.
+
+LivslÀngden i naturen Àr vanligen 60 Är, under goda förhÄllanden upp till 80 Är. Den Àldsta kÀnda individen levde i Taipeis zoo och blev 86 Är gammal.
+
+Utvecklingshistoria
+
+Enligt de aktuella forskningsrönen utgör slÀktet Elephas systergruppen till mammutarna (Mammuthus). Den asiatiska elefanten Àr alltsÄ nÀrmare slÀkt med mammutar Àn med de afrikanska elefanterna (Loxodonta). Elephas och Mammuthus sammanfattas i en slÀktgrupp (tribus) Elephantini som utgör systergruppen till slÀktet Loxodonta.
+
+Tidiga medlemmar av slÀktet Elephas som till exempel Elephas ekorensis levde under pliocen i Afrika. Genom arten Elephas hysudricus som vandrade till Asien utvecklades den moderna asiatiska elefanten (Elephas maximus). Ibland listas flera utdöda arter av slÀktet Elephas i underslÀktet Palaeoloxodon som av vissa zoologer fÄr status som ett sjÀlvstÀndigt slÀkte.
+
+Vid slutet av pleistocen hade den asiatiska elefanten ett utbredningsomrÄde som strÀckte sig frÄn Iran över Sydasien till Sydostasien och Kina. Fossil hittades Àven i Irak och Syrien men de tillhör kanske en utdöd art. Denna utbredning blev ungefÀr konstant fram till nÄgra hundra Är före Kristus, sedan började artens tillbakagÄng. I Kina utrotades de flesta populationerna mellan 1100-talet och 1600-talet.
+
+Asiatisk elefant och mÀnniskor
+
+Asiatiska elefanter i mÀnniskans tjÀnst
+
+De tidigaste tecken om försök att domesticera asiatiska elefanter Àr ristningar pÄ sigill som hittades i Indus dalgÄng och som daterades till 3000 före Kristus. Flera klassiska avhandlingar som Rig Veda frÄn 2000 till 1500 före Kristus, Upanishaderna frÄn 900 till 600 före Kristus och Gajasastra (sanskrit för elefantlÀran) frÄn 600 till 500 före Kristus berÀttar hur elefanter fÄngas och skolas. Individerna anvÀndes bland annat för att fÀlla trÀd och för att bÀra timmerstockarna genom skogen.
+
+I det mytologiska eposet Mahabharata nÀmns för första gÄngen asiatiska stridselefanter, Àven om det Àr en tvivelaktig historisk kÀlla. DÀr berÀttas om bröderna Pandavas som 1100 före Kristus strider mot sina kusiner frÄn elefanternas rygg. Dokumenterade Àr dÀremot att fursten Poros anvÀnde sig av en falang stridselefanter mot Alexander den store under slaget vid floden Jhelum. Slaget Àgde rum 326 före Kristus och vanns av Alexander.
+
+Senare brukades asiatiska elefanter utanför sitt ursprungliga utbredningsomrÄde, till exempel kring Medelhavet. Hannibals stridselefanter var dÀremot nÀstan uteslutande afrikanska elefanter, bara för hans egen elefant antas att det var en asiatisk elefant.
+
+Under 1500-talet importerades mÄnga asiatiska elefanter av portugisiska kungar som hade kolonier i sydöstra Asien. Elefanterna anvÀndes bland annat för att imponera pÄ andra europeiska monarker och som diplomatiska gÄvor. En av de mer kÀnda individerna var elefanten Hanno som skÀnktes till pÄven Leo X. En annan var Abul-Abbas, den första elefanten i medeltida Nordeuropa som gavs som gÄva till Karl den store av Franken Är 802. Den första asiatiska elefanten som kom till Sverige 1804 blev orsak till upploppet i SkÀnninge.
+
+Ăven i Asien har "avel" i egentlig mening börjat först under 1960-talet och sĂ„ledes kan man inte anvĂ€nda begreppet domesticerad pĂ„ elefanter, vilket ibland felaktigt förekommer i litteraturen. Begreppet domesticering förutsĂ€tter en av mĂ€nniskor kontrollerad avel och urval av avelsdjur under sĂ„ lĂ„ng tid, att mĂ€nniskan förmĂ„r Ă€ndra fysiska och psykiska karaktĂ€rer efter sitt behov, med andra ord för en art som elefant tar det hundratals Ă„r, och de nuvarande tĂ€mjda elefanterna har man som mest förökat i fem generationer.
+
+Hot och skyddsÄtgÀrder
+
+Liksom de afrikanska arterna jagades den asiatiska elefanten tidigare intensivt för elfenbenets skull. Idag Àr dÀremot levnadsomrÄdets omvandling till jordbruksmark och boplatser det största hotet mot arten. I vissa regioner Àter domesticerade vattenbufflar hela grÀstÀcket sÄ att inget blir kvar för elefanterna.
+
+Baserat pÄ en uppskattning frÄn 2003 berÀknar IUCN att hela bestÄndet av individer mellan 41 000 - 52 000 vilda individer men tillÀgger att det enbart Àr en grov gissning. TÀt vegetation och olika typer av metoder för att göra observationer bidrar till svÄrigheten att uppskatta antalet vilda elefanter. Cirka 50 procent av populationen förekommer pÄ den indiska subkontinenten och ytterligare 40 procent pÄ andra delar av det sydostasiatiska fastlandet, resten lever pÄ Sri Lanka och andra öar i Sydostasien. DÄ populationen fortfarande minskar listas arten som starkt hotad (endangered).
+
+Antalet tÀmjda individer i Asien lÄg under 1990-talet pÄ strax över 16 000 individer. I Thailand fanns omkring 1900 cirka 100 000 asiatiska elefanter i tjÀnst eller fÄngenskap, antalet lÄg 2007 pÄ runt 3 500 tama och ungefÀr 1 000 vilda elefanter. I Myanmar idag berÀknas det finnas ungefÀr 5 000 tÀmjda elefanter. De anvÀnder tÀmjda elefanter bl.a. inom skogsindustrin, runt millennieskiftet var det över 3 000 elefanter som arbetade med att hÀmta timmer.
+
+Den asiatiska elefanten listas i appendix I av CITES. Handel och transfer av levande individer eller av kroppsdelar Àr förbjuden om det inte finns tillstÄnd av de ansvariga nationella myndigheterna.
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Ăvriga kĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Fakta om tama och vilda elefanter
+
+Elefanter
+Husdjur
+DĂ€ggdjur i orientaliska regionen
+Afrikanska elefanter (Loxodonta) Àr ett slÀkte i familjen elefanter.
+
+SlÀktet indelas enligt Mammal Species of the World i tvÄ nu levande arter:
+Savannelefant, Loxodonta africana
+Skogselefant, Loxodonta cyclotis
+
+Den senare godkÀnns inte av IUCN. DÀr listas L. africana och L. cyclotis som synonymer.
+
+De bÄda nu levande arterna uppvisar en rad anatomiska skillnader, bland annat har skogselefanten (i likhet med den asiatiska elefanten) 5 tÄnaglar pÄ framfoten och fyra tÄnaglar pÄ bakfoten, medan stÀppelefanten har fyra tÄnaglar pÄ sina framfötter och tre pÄ sina bakfötter. I grÀnstrakterna mellan regnskog och savann finns ocksÄ blandade sÄ kallade intermediÀrformer som uppvisar heterogena karaktÀrer.
+
+Enligt IUCN som infogar alla afrikanska elefanter i en art lever tvÄ tredjedelar av hela bestÄndet i östra och södra Afrika. I dessa regioner ökar populationen med cirka 4 procent per Är. Det motsvarade Äret 2006 cirka exemplar. Samtidigt kan nÄgra populationer i centrala och vÀstra Afrika vara pÄ tillbakagÄng men inte lika klar som ökningen i östra och södra Afrika.
+
+En av de mest kÀnda afrikanska elefanterna nÄgonsin var Jumbo.
+
+Utöver savannelefant och skogselefant blev flera smÄvÀxta populationer frÄn norra Afrika beskrivna som arter, bland annat Nordafrikansk elefant, Loxodonta pharaohensis. Resultaten av senare taxonomiska undersökningar gav ingen anledning att godkÀnna dessa populationer som arter och de vetenskapliga namnen listas som synonymer till Loxodonta africana.
+
+Referenser
+systematik
+
+Noter
+
+Elefanter
+Akvariefiskar Àr de fiskar, som i avseende till storlek, hÀrdighet och förökningssÀtt klarar sig bra i akvarier. Viss betydelse har sÀkert ocksÄ vackra fÀrger och ett i övrigt intressant yttre. I allmÀnhet rör det sig om tropiska arter som kan odlas i stort antal till lÄg kostnad. Innan de tropiska arterna dök upp pÄ den europeiska marknaden fÄngade akvaristerna ofta sjÀlva mindre, hÀrdiga arter som spigg, elritsa, bitterling och dammruda som de höll med mer eller mindre framgÄng i sÄ kallade vivarier eller (ofta hemgjorda och ganska spartanska) akvarier. Den första tropiska akvariefisken som importerades till Europa var makropoden eller paradisfisken (en labyrintfisk) som började odlas av Pierre Carbonnier i Frankrike och Paul Matte i Tyskland i slutet av 1800-talet. (Den centralasiatiska guldfisken som kom tidigare rÀknas inte som tropisk.) I Asien finns en betydligt lÀngre tradition av att hÄlla bland annat guldfisk och kampfisk.
+
+LĂ€mpliga akvariefiskar
+
+Det finns i egentlig mening inga naturliga "akvariefiskar". Akvaristen avgör ju sjÀlv vilka fiskar och andra djur denne vill ha i sitt akvarium. Det vanligaste Àr idag att man har tropiska sötvattenlevande arter, detta dÄ utbudet av sÄdana Àr stort i de zoologiska affÀrerna men Àven tropiska saltvattenlevande arter förekommer.
+
+Akvariefisk, matfisk, eller sportfisk?
+Det förekommer idag i den zoologiska handeln fiskarter som kan vara bÄde akvariefisk, matfisk eller till och med en god sportfisk i sina hemvatten. Hit hör arter av olika stora ciklider sÄsom tilapia. Men Àven mindre arter av störar, mindre rockor och vissa större arter av guramier saluförs som akvariefisk, och fungerar bra som sÄdan om akvariets storlek Àr tillrÀcklig. Pirayorna Àr medlemmar av en fiskfamilj varav nÄgra arter saluförs som akvariefisk. Flertalet av arterna Àr fruktÀtare. Vanligtvis passar dessa bra som akvariefiskar i ett specialakvarium, men pirayor Àts och sportfiskas i sina hemmavatten. Det förekommer Àven att arapaiman hÄlls som akvariefisk, liksom större arter av olika malar. Dessa senare Àr i de flesta fall olÀmpliga som invÄnare i privatÀgda akvarier dÄ de blir vÀldigt stora, men kan hÄllas i större publika akvarieanlÀggningar som har resurser att ge dessa arter rÀtt förutsÀttningar.
+
+Import
+Elektricitet, konstbelysning och bÀttre transportmöjligheter har ökat antalet fiskarter som Àr möjliga att hÄlla i akvarium. Flygtransporterna sedan 1960-talet har ocksÄ sÀnkt priserna, dock mindre Àn vÀntat. De vildfÄngade arterna kommer mest frÄn Sydamerika. Fiskarna transporteras i plastpÄsar som fylls med vatten, luft och syrgas i polystyrenförpackningar som hÄller temperaturen konstant under flera dygn. Normalt hÄlls sedan fiskarna hos en grossist i karantÀn i nÄgra veckor innan de sÀljs till zooaffÀren. Det hÀnder att de under denna tid behandlas med antibiotika sÄ att sjukdomssymptom (till exempel sÄ kallade ektoparasiter) hÄlls tillbaka och blommar upp först nÀr fisken Àr hemma hos kunden. Ett sÀtt att minska denna risk Àr att minska stressen för fiskarna, och att inte belasta dem för mycket med avkylning, för snabba vattenbyten eller liknande.
+
+Odling av akvariefiskar
+Inom den akvaristiska litteraturen samt pÄ Internet finns det mÄnga odlingsbeskrivningar som rör sÄvÀl fiskar som vattenvÀxter.
+
+Odling av hotade arter
+I nÄgra fall har odlingen av akvariefiskar rÀddat arter frÄn utrotning. Det gÀller till exempel en del arter frÄn Victoriasjön i Afrika, dÀr man utplanterade icke ursprungliga karpar samt nilabborre. Dessa trÀngde ut de ursprungliga arterna, vilka dock tidigare exporterats till Europa och dÀrför existerar utanför sin ursprungsort, i vÀntan pÄ framtida utplantering.
+
+Odling av tropiska arter i Sverige
+Inom de svenska akvarieföreningarna och riksföreningen Sveriges Akvarieföreningars Riksförbund (SARF) vill man att landets akvarister odlar fisk och vÀxter för landets akvariemarknad sjÀlva i större utstrÀckning Àn som görs idag. Man ser allvarligt pÄ de miljökonsekvenser som lÄnga flygfrakter orsakar (flera tropiska fiskarter som förekommer i svenska zooaffÀrer kan till exempel vara odlade i Sydostasien, framför allt i Singapore) och man vill att mer av den professionella odlingen för den svenska akvariemarknaden, i den mÄn det Àr möjligt, flyttas nÀrmare Sverige. MÄnga av de fiskarter som hÄlls i akvarium Àr lÀttodlade, och dÄ finns det ingen anledning att importera sÄdana frÄn en annan vÀrldsdel. Lokalt odlade fiskar och vÀxter brukar dessutom vara bÀttre anpassade till den lokala akvariekulturen. SARF ordnar odlingstÀvlingar varje Är dit landets akvarieföreningars medlemmar inlÀmnar rapporter pÄ sina hemmaodlingar. SÄvÀl enskilda medlemmar som hela föreningen belönas för de bÀsta eller mest omfattade odlingarna. Det hÀnder ocksÄ att man inom föreningarna odlar fiskar och vÀxter som i naturen Àr hotade eller rent av utrotade.
+
+Forskningsobjekt
+
+Akvariefiskar har varit vÀrdefulla forskningsobjekt. Konrad Lorenz gjorde studier av aggression hos storspigg. Den vÀlkÀnda guppyn har lÀrt oss mycket om genetik och nedÀrvning av fÀrger, och sebrafisken Àr vanlig Àn idag inom till exempel sÄdan experimentell genetisk forskning som syftar till att öka vikten pÄ fiskarter i tredje vÀrlden.
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+SARF Sveriges akvarieföreningars riksförbund
+Fisksjukdomar och behandling.
+Abborrartade fiskar (Perciformes) Àr den artrikaste ordningen bland ryggradsdjuren, och utgör en mÄngsidig och heterogen grupp fiskar. De abborrartade fiskarna utmÀrks av taggiga fenstrÄlar, tvÄ ryggfenor, att de saknar fettfena, har simblÄsa, och att stjÀrtens fenstrÄlar aldrig Àr flera Àn 17.
+
+De flesta arterna lever i saltvatten utefter tempererade och tropiska havskuster. De övriga lever pelagiskt i oceaner eller Àr sötvattenfiskar: omkring 2 200 av de arter som normalt förekommer i sötvatten lever dock i saltvatten under Ätminstone en del av sitt liv.
+
+Av de mÄnga familjerna Àr smörbultarna (Gobiidae) artrikast med minst 1 875 arter, följd av cikliderna (Cichlidae) med 1 300 arter och lÀppfiskarna (Labridae) med 500 arter.
+
+Systematik
+
+Ordningen omfattar 19 underordningar, 156 familjer, cirka 1 500 slÀkten och mer Àn 10 000 arter.
+
+Underordningar
+ Kirurgfisklika fiskar â Acanthuroidei
+ Labyrintfiskar â Anabantoidei
+ Slemfisklika fiskar â Blennioidei
+ Sjökockslika fiskar â Callionymoidei
+ Ormhuvudfiskar â Channoidei (monotypiskt)
+ Elassomatoidei (monotypiskt)
+ Dubbelsugarfiskar â Gobiesocidei (monotypiskt)
+ Smörbultslika fiskar â Gobioidei
+ Icosteoidei (monotypiskt)
+ Krokhuvudfiskar â Kurtoidei (monotypiskt)
+ LĂ€ppfisklika fiskar â Labroidei
+ Notothenioider â Notothenioidei
+ Abborrlika fiskar â Percoidei
+ Pholidichthyoidei
+ Makrillika fiskar â Scombroidei
+ Scombrolabracoidei (monotypiskt)
+ Smörfisklika fiskar â Stromateoidei
+ FjĂ€rsinglika fiskar â Trachinoidei
+ TĂ„nglakelika fiskar â Zoarcoidei
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+AmigaOS Àr det operativsystem som normalt sett anvÀnds i Amiga-datorer. Operativsystemet bygger pÄ anvÀndandet av en mikrokÀrna kallad Exec som klarar av att hantera tidsdelad multikörning.
+
+Komponenter i AmigaOS
+Fram till version 3.5 levererades AmigaOS alltid i tvÄ delar, Kickstart och Workbench.
+
+Kickstart Àr bootstrap-ROM:en. Förutom koden för att starta datorn innehÄller Kickstart Àven stora delar av operativsystemet, sÄsom Intuition (Amigans bibliotek för det grafiska grÀnssnittet) och Exec (mikrokÀrnan).
+
+Workbench Ă€r det grafiska skalet i AmigaOS. Som namnet antyder anvĂ€nds en arbetsbĂ€nk som metafor till skillnad frĂ„n den vanligare skrivbordsmetaforen. DĂ€rför anvĂ€nds ocksĂ„ âlĂ„dorâ istĂ€llet för âmapparâ och âverktygâ som en metafor för program.
+
+Varje version av Kickstart Àr bunden till en viss version av operativsystemet, sÄ anvÀndare bör alltid starta Workbench 2.0 pÄ en dator med Kickstart 2.0. Det Àr möjligt att starta inkorrekta versioner men med vissa problem. Undantaget Àr Workbench 2.1, som fungerar med Kickstart 2.04. Version 3.5 och 3.9 anvÀnder Kickstart 3.1 och laddar in ROM-uppdateringar vid uppstarten.
+
+Versioner av AmigaOS
+AmigaOS har tvÄ parallella system för versionsnummer: ett för slutanvÀndaren som Àr uppdelat i större och mindre revisioner Ätskilda av en eller flera punkter (ex: 1.3.1) samt ett löpande system som anvÀnds frÀmst av programmerare. Version 1.3 heter dÀrmed ocksÄ V37, medan OS 2.0 benÀmns V38.
+
+Kickstart/Workbench 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
+
+1.x-versionerna Àr originalimplementationen av AmigaOS. De har, i grundinstÀllningen, ett distinkt blÄtt och orange fÀrgschema som var designat för att ge hög kontrast Àven pÄ dÄliga TV-skÀrmar. 1.1 bestÄr mestadels av buggfixar. Version 1.0 och 1.1 distribuerades enbart pÄ disketter för Amiga 1000.
+
+Version 1.2 och 1.3 Àr de första som sattes in i ROM men var Àven tillgÀngligt pÄ diskett för Amiga 1000-anvÀndare. Dessa versioner distribuerades i ROM för A500, A1500, CDTV (enbart 1.3) och A2000. Version 1.2 av Kickstart korrigerade mÄnga buggar vilket förbÀttrade stabiliteten, och lade till stöd för AutoConfig för automatisk konfiguration av expansionskort. Version 1.3 har bland annat ett snabbare filsystem för hÄrddiskar, förbÀttrad kommandotolk och fler extraprogram. Version 1.3 har Àven stöd för att starta pÄ andra enheter Àn diskett, till exempel hÄrddisk och RAD-disk.
+
+Kickstart/Workbench 1.4
+
+Kickstart/Workbench 1.4 Àr egentligen inget annat Àn en funktion för att ladda en ROM-fil pÄ hÄrddisken till RAM-minnet pÄ tidiga A3000 som inte hade nÄgon ROM-krets pÄ moderkortet. Mycket praktiskt dÄ man lÀtt kan byta ROM-filen pÄ hÄrddisken istÀllet för att byta sjÀlva ROM-kretsen.
+Levererades med Kickstart/Workbench 2.04 eller 3.1 (se nedan).
+
+Kickstart/Workbench 2.0, 2.05, 2.1
+
+Kickstart/Workbench 2.0 introducerade mÄnga stora framsteg i operativsystemet. Workbench har ett grÄtt och ljusblÄtt fÀrgschema istÀllet för det blÄa och orangea fÀrgschemat frÄn tidigare versioner, och Àr inte lÀngre bundet till upplösningarna 640*256 (PAL) och 640*200 (NTSC). Stora delar av systemet förbÀttrades för att göra framtida expansioner enklare.
+
+2.x sÄldes ihop med A500+ (2.04), A600 (2.05), A3000 och A3000T. Workbench 2.1 Àr sista versionen i serien, och slÀpptes enbart som en mjukvaruuppgradering. Eftersom 2.1 enbart uppgraderar mjukvaran finns det ingen Kickstart 2.1 ROM.
+
+Kickstart/Workbench 3.0, 3.1
+
+3.x Àr Ànnu en stor uppdatering.
+
+3.x inkluderar bland annat ett universalt datasystem, kallat datatyper, som gör att program kan ladda bilder, ljud och text i format de inte förstÄr direkt sjÀlva genom standardplugins.
+
+3.0 levererades ihop med A1200, A4000 och A4000T, och fungerade bara pÄ dessa. Senare levererades dessa med version 3.1, som Àven sÄldes som uppgradering till tidigare modeller. CD32 Àr ett specialfall som innehÄller mycket av Commodores senaste kod och specialanpassningar för CD-ROM.
+
+AmigaOS 3.5/3.9
+
+Efter att Commodore gÄtt i konkurs, och rÀttigheterna för varumÀrket Amiga gÄtt till ett annat företag, sÄlde detta företag en licens till Haage & Partner för att lÄta dem uppdatera operativsystemet. Med uppdateringen började operativsystemet benÀmnas AmigaOS istÀllet för de separata delarna Kickstart och Workbench.
+
+Uppdateringarna inkluderar:
+ Cd-filsystemsstöd som standard.
+ Distribution pÄ cd istÀllet för diskett.
+ TCP/IP-stack, webblÀsare och epostklient.
+ Stöd för hÄrddiskar som Àr större Àn 4 gigabyte.
+
+AmigaOS 4
+
+AmigaOS 4 Àr det operativsystem som normalt sett körs pÄ AmigaOne. Det anvÀnder precis som tidigare versioner av AmigaOS en mikrokÀrna. AmigaOS 4 Àr utvecklat av det belgisk-tyska företaget Hyperion Entertainment VOF under licens frÄn Amiga Inc. Det Àr den första officiella uppdateringen sedan AmigaOS 3.9, och slÀpptes 24 december 2006. Den nya versionen gjordes tillgÀnglig för AmigaOne-hÄrdvara som dÀremot inte lÀngre tillverkades vid denna tidpunkt. Vid slÀppet meddelade Hyperion dock att ytterligare information bör komma tidigt 2007 frÄn tredjepartstillverkare om lÀmplig PowerPC-hÄrdvara för att köra AmigaOS 4.
+
+InnehÄller bland annat:
+ Virtuellt minne
+ CD/DVD-brÀnnarstöd
+ FörbÀttrat TCP/IP-stöd
+
+AmigaOS 3.1.4 och 3.2
+
+Dessa uppdateringar utvecklades likt AmigaOS 4 av Hyperion Entertainment och slÀpptes Är 2018-2023, det vill sÀga trots lÀgre versionnummer efter AmigaOS 4. Anledningen till detta Àr att dessa uppdateringar inte bygger pÄ AmigaOS 4 Àven om de innehÄller mÄnga tekniker och lÀrdomar dÀrifrÄn. De Àr istÀllet omstarter direkt pÄ kodbasen Kickstart 3.1 av Commodore och fungerar dÀrför till skillnad frÄn AmigaOS 4 pÄ samma system som Kickstart 3.1, alltsÄ samtliga fr.o.m. Amiga 1000. Minneskravet Àr dÀremot 2 MB som en summa av Chip RAM och Fast RAM. I mÄnga fall Àr det möjligt att kombinera komponenter frÄn AmigaOS 3.9 med dessa releaser. Bland de frÀmsta uppdateringarna Àr att dessa releaser stödjer hÄrddiskvolymer större Àn 4 GB, Motorola-processorer upp till och med MC68060, och mÄnga buggfixar genom systemet.
+
+Operativsystem
+Amiga-mjukvara
+Denna artikel handlar om guden Apollon. Se Àven Apollon F1.
+
+Apollon Àr en viktig gud i grekisk mytologi, liksom i romersk mytologi, dÀr han kallas Apollo och ibland Àven Apollo Musagetes i egenskap av musernas ledare; dÄ avbildad med en lyra i handen. Han betraktas som ljusets och konsternas gud. Han framstÀlls vanligen som en ung man med vackra anletsdrag och hans kÀnnetecken Àr lager, lyra, delfin och korp. Han var son till Zeus och Leto. Apollon Àr en utmÀrkt bÄgskytt.
+
+Funktioner
+Apollon hade flera funktioner varav den viktigaste var som orakel. Den rollen kan spÄras tillbaka till gudinnekulten i Delfi, men Apollon var ocksÄ jÀgare, lÀkare och musiker. Han föddes tillsammans med sin tvillingsyster Artemis pÄ ön Delos dit hans mor hade flytt undan Heras vrede. Apollon stod i konflikt med gudarna Dionysos, Pan och Hermes som alla hade anknytning till djurhÄllning. Detta har tolkats som ett spÄr av rivalitet mellan olika nomadiserande herdefolk. Ursprungligen tros Apollon ha varit en solgud.
+
+Apollons tvÄ dygder
+Apollon stÄr för tvÄ dygder som han ville att grekerna skulle följa.
+
+KÀnn dig sjÀlv.
+
+Apollon menar att mÀnniskan skulle inse att hon inte har nÄgon större makt, inte ens att forma sitt eget öde.
+
+Var alltid mÄttfull.
+
+Apollons andra dygd, att vara mĂ„ttfull, Ă€r en allmĂ€nt accepterad stöttepelare i den grekiska mytologin. Att vara mĂ„ttfull betydde att inte drabbas av övermod â hybris. Den som bröt mot denna regel drabbades av nemesis. Detta var gudarnas samlade vrede. Nemesis slog dessutom mot hela slĂ€kten till personen som fĂ„tt hybris och kunde endast Ă„tgĂ€rdas genom att övermodet gottgjordes och att den drabbade personen lĂ€rde sig dygden mĂ„ttfullhet och visade sig ha förstĂ„tt hela innebörden av den.
+
+Samtidigt bröt Apollon mot sina egna regler. Till exempel slutade hans seger i musiktÀvlingen mot faunen Marsyas med att han lÀt Marsyas flÄs levande, en scen som portrÀtterats av Tizian i Marsyas straff.
+
+KÀrleksÀventyr
+Som de andra gudarna i den grekiska mytologin sÄ har Àven Apollon mÀnskliga Àlskare. En av dessa heter Klymene, och med henne har han en son som heter Faethon. Med nymfen Kalliope fick Apollon sonen Orfeus. Han sÀgs Àven fÄtt flera barn tillsammans med kung Minos dotter Akakallis.
+
+Apollon hade Àven en manlig Àlskare som hette Kyparissos. NÀr denne av misstag hade dödat sin Àlsklingshjort blev han sÄ förtvivlad att han av Apollon förvandlades till ett trÀd, cypressen. Legenden berÀttas av Ovidius. Apollon hade Àven en kÀrleksaffÀr med den spartanske kungasonen Hyakinthos.
+
+Apollon i konstnÀrliga verk
+Inte minst som konsternas gudom Äterfinns Apollon i ett antal (frÀmst Àldre) konstnÀrliga verk; poesi, skÄdespel i antik teater med mera. Han Àr bland annat huvudperson i Hjalmar Gullbergs dikt FörklÀdd gud (1933), sedermera vÀlkÀnd Àven som musikverk av Lars-Erik Larsson (1940), dÀr han enligt legenden dömdes att leva som mÀnniska pÄ jorden ett Är i tjÀnst som drÀng hos kung Admetos i Thessalien (enligt Euripides drama om Alkestis).
+
+Apollo eller Apollo Musagete (1928) Àr en balett med musik och libretto av Igor Stravinskij och koreografi av George Balanchine.
+
+SlÀktskap
+
+Se Àven
+ Mytologi: Jakten
+ Apollonisk och dionysisk
+ Abaris: fick en pil av Apollon
+ Apollo kitharoidos
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Gudar i grekisk mytologi
+Gudar i romersk mytologi
+Solgudar
+HBTQ-mytologi
+Athena eller Pallas Athena var vishetens och krigets gudinna i grekisk mytologi. Hennes attribut var sköld, lans, olivtrÀd och uggla. Ett alternativt namn till Athena var Tritonia. Pallas, flodguden Tritons dotter, var gudinnan Athenas vÀn och fostersyster. Under en duell pÄ lek, rÄkade Athena av misstag döda sin vÀninna; för att hedra hennes minne, antog Athena dÄ namnet Pallas Athena.
+
+Beskrivning
+
+Myter
+De flesta myter berÀttar ingenting om Athenas mor, och sÀger endast att Athena var Zeus mest Àlskade dotter och hade fötts ur hans huvud. Enligt Hesiodos Theogoni var dock Metis hennes mor.
+
+Zeus ville ha Metis och jagade henne runt hela tiden. Metis förvandlade sig till olika djur för att lura honom men han var stÀndigt efter henne. En dag fÄr Zeus reda pÄ av ett orakel att Metis första barn skulle vara en dotter och sedan en son som skulle ta ner honom frÄn tronen. För att förhindra detta smickrade han Metis tills hon sÀnkte garden, sedan Ät han upp henne.
+
+Vad Zeus inte visste var att Metis redan var gravid och efter att han slukat henne tillverkade hon en rustning Ät sin kommande dotter. Hamrandet gjorde att Zeus fick en kraftig huvudvÀrk. Han skrek sÄ det hördes överallt. Hermes förstod att det var nÄgot pÄ tok och bestÀmde att man skulle öppna hans huvud. Han sade till Hefaistos (andra förekommer, beroende pÄ kÀllan) som slog honom med en hammare och öppnade hans skalle. Ur hans huvud kom Athena upp fullvuxen och i rustning.
+
+Aten var huvudort för hennes dyrkan, forskarna Àr osÀkra om staden fÄtt sitt namn efter henne eller tvÀrtom, namnet förekommer dock redan under mykensk tid. Enligt en legend vann hon herravÀldet över Aten efter en tÀvling med Poseidon, dÀr hennes gÄva, det första olivtrÀdet visar sig vara till mer nytta för staden Àn den saltkÀlla Poseidon lÄter springa fram pÄ Akropolis.
+
+Personlighet
+Athena var hĂ„rd och modig i strider som var till för att försvara hem frĂ„n fiender. Hon var gudinnan över stĂ€der, hantverk, olivtrĂ€det och visheten. Hon uppfann trumpeten, flöjten, vagnen, skeppsbyggarkonsten, plogen och mycket annat som blev till nytta för mĂ€nskligheten och civilisationen. Hennes eviga följeslagare var en uggla. Athenas stĂ„ende epitet Ă€r glaukopis, vilket tolkats som âuggleögdâ eller âstrĂ„lögdâ.
+
+Attribut och varianter
+Athena upptrÀdde med olika attribut vid olika tillfÀllen:
+ NÀr hon upptrÀdde som hantverkarnas och konstnÀrernas beskyddare kallades hon Athena Ergane.
+ Det var som Athena Parthenos, Jungfrun Athena, hon tillbads vid templet Parthenon pÄ Akropolisklippan.
+ Hon upptrÀdde som stridens gudinna under namnet Athena Promacho.
+ Som Athena Polias, stadens Athena, var hon staden Atens och Akropolis-templets skyddsgudinna.
+ Hette Minerva i den romerska mytologin.
+
+SlÀktskap
+
+Se Àven
+Arachne
+
+Referenser
+
+Skyddsgudar
+Krigsgudar
+Gudinnor i grekisk mytologi
+Asatro Ă€r en modern beteckning pĂ„ de religiösa traditioner och seder som utövades av invĂ„narna i Skandinavien frĂ„n folkvandringstiden och under vikingatiden fram till religionsskiftet. Kunskapen om asatron bygger huvudsakligen pĂ„ nedteckningar frĂ„n kristen medeltid, men som förutsĂ€tts spegla en Ă€ldre muntlig tradition. Svenska akademiens ordbok definierar asatro som âen nordisk naturreligion dĂ€r polyteism och naturvĂ€sen Ă€r centrala inslag utbredd i nord-germanska lĂ€nder innan kristendomens införandeâ.
+
+Begreppet asatro
+Begreppet asatro myntades under 1800-talet, dÄ den nationalromantiska, samnordiska synen pÄ vikingatiden skapades, och ett stort intresse för förkristen mytologi vÀcktes ocksÄ i Tyskland (med Richard Wagners operasvit som frÀmsta exempel). SAOB:s första belÀgg för begreppet Àr frÄn 1820.
+Under medeltiden anvĂ€ndes benĂ€mningen fornsed (medeltida stavning: forn siĂ°r eller fornum sid) â â för att beskriva tron och sederna innan kristendomen.
+
+Som synonym för asatro anvÀnds ofta fornnordisk religion, men detta begrepp omfattar Àven andra förkristna nordiska religioner, sÄsom samisk religion, finsk religion och Nerthuskult. En del svenska akademiker har dÀrför börjat anvÀnda begreppet fornskandinavisk religion som synonym till asatro för att avgrÀnsa mot just samisk och finsk religion. Asatro avser religionen som fanns i perioden precis innan kristendomens införande, medan de förkristna religiösa uttrycken som fanns under bronsÄlder och stenÄlder i Norden skiljde sig frÄn asatron.
+
+Skriftliga och arkeologiska kÀllor
+
+Det som Ă€r kĂ€nt om asatrons trosuppfattningar kommer frĂ€mst frĂ„n kristna kĂ€llor, antingen islĂ€ndska sagor nedtecknade efter kristnandet genomförts pĂ„ Island, eller frĂ„n kristna grannar som verkat samtidigt som asatron varit levande i Skandinavien, till exempel Adam av Bremen. Ăven Cornelius Tacitus skrev om germanerna och deras trosuppfattningar. De viktigaste kĂ€llorna till nordisk mytologi Ă€r den poetiska Eddan och Snorres Edda frĂ„n 1200-talet.
+
+Det finns Àven arkeologiska kÀllor som ger oss ledtrÄdar till hur och var asatron utövas. Ortnamn ger ofta vÀgledning om vilka gudar och gudinnor som dyrkades pÄ en viss plats och sambandet mellan dessa. I nordiska ortnamn ingÄr följande gudars namn: Tor, Njord, Ull, Frö, Oden, Ti (Tyr), Frigg, Fröja, med binamnet HÀrn (islÀndska "Hörn"), Vrind (islÀndska Rind), möjligen ocksÄ Vidar, Balder, Höder och Skade. Av gudomlighetsnamn anvÀnds gud, as, dis, troligen ocksÄ van, medan det i personnamnen ingÄr Tor, Frö, Oden, möjligen ocksÄ Ti, liksom gud, as, ragn (gudamakt), dis, alv samt benÀmningar pÄ valkyrior. Guden Ull har efterlÀmnat spÄr i ett stort antal svenska ortnamn som UllerÄker och Ullevi. SÄ trots att Ull har en undantrÀngd roll i Eddorna, sÄ tycks han haft en viktig roll i de lokala offerkulterna.
+
+Bakgrund
+Asatron utgjorde aldrig ett sammanhÀngande religiöst system, varför man kan sÀga att Snorre Sturlasson med sin Edda var den som först sammanförde berÀttelserna till en helhet. Den förkristna nordiska asatron var alltsÄ aldrig nÄgon enhetlig religion i modern bemÀrkelse utan var snarare en etnisk religion eller naturreligion, som saknade grundare och faststÀllda lÀrosatser. Mytologin fungerade troligen som en sorts teoretisk överbyggnad till kulten, som hade mycket lite att göra med tro och mer med handlande, traditioner och vÀrderingar i samband med naturen, vÀdret, Ärstiderna och mÀnsklig verksamhet.
+
+Asatro tillhör de polyteistiska religionerna, och förutom gudar tror man Àven pÄ olika naturvÀsen. Asatron Àr en del av en större familj av indoeuropeiska religioner dÀr man Àven finner grekisk, romersk och slavisk fornreligion. Det finns Àven motsvarigheter till asatrons panteon i den indiska hinduismen. En teori hÀvdar att olika indoeuropeiska stammar (indier, greker, italiker, kelter, slaver, germaner) har ett gemensamt ursprung, möjligen frÄn omrÄden i nÀrheten av Svarta Havet och att dessa sedan utvandrat till övriga Europa samt Asien. Detta Àr en förklaring till likheten i religion och sprÄk mellan dessa olika lÀnder. Se urindoeuropéer.
+
+Religionshistorikern Georges Dumézil menade att det urindoeuropeiska samhÀllet varit uppdelat i tre delar, liknande det indiska kastsystemet. Detta kallade han trefunktionalitetssystemet. Detta tretal menade han Àven gestaltade sig i de indoeuropeiska gudsuppfattningen; de indoeuropeiska religionerna, menade han, hade alltid tre gudar som motsvarade den romerska mytologins Jupiter (övergud), Mars (krigsgud) och Quirinus (samhÀllsbeskyddaren och jordbruksgud). Han utvecklade sedan resonemanget med att uppstÀlla ett schema över tretalens respektive egenskaper:
+Den första stod för suverÀnitet, intelligens och helighet, och fungerade fredsbevarande.
+Det andra för kraft och styrka, sÀrskilt avseende krig, och fungerade som rÀttvisans princip.
+Det tredje för tillgivenhet, samhÀllets bevarande, odling och jordbruk.
+I âDe nordiska gudarna: en undersökning av den skandinaviska religionenâ (1939) överförde han tretalssystemet till Eddan, och menade att det motsvarade Oden, Tor och Frej i den nordiska mytologin dĂ€r Frej motsvarade jordbruket, Oden överguden och Tor var en krigsgud.
+
+Under folkvandringstiden, efter Roms fall, vĂ€llde de germanska folken in över den europeiska kontinenten. De hade inte undgĂ„tt pĂ„verkan frĂ„n medelhavskulturerna men sin gamla tro tog de med sig och med dem spred den sig över Europa. Omkring Ă„r 500â750 ersattes denna tro gradvis av kristendomen i anglosaxarnas England och merovingernas Frankrike, och liksom senare i Skandinavien verkade de bĂ„da trossystemen parallellt med varandra under den tiden. Under denna period, alltsĂ„ strax innan vikingatiden inletts, hade asatron sin största utbredning: Samma eller likartade gudar dyrkades över hela norra och vĂ€stra Europa.
+Dock försökte aldrig anhĂ€ngarna till asatron att omvĂ€nda de kristna och det var dömt att bli en tidsfrĂ„ga innan de konverterade till kristendomen. I Norden dröjde kristnandet dock omkring 500 Ă„r lĂ€ngre Ă€n pĂ„ kontinenten: Först kristnades Norge (900â1000), sedan Island (Ă„r 1000, enligt sagorna genom ett alltingsbeslut), Danmark, och sist Sverige av alla germanska omrĂ„den; Ă€ven om kristnandet framskred i olika takt i olika delar av lĂ€nderna. Att nordborna blev kristna tolkas som ett tecken pĂ„ deras integrering i det europeiska vĂ€rdesystemet: Ă€ven om den personliga övertygelsen lĂ€t vĂ€nta pĂ„ sig underlĂ€ttade det handeln att lĂ„ta döpa sig.
+
+Under seklerna som följde kristnandet, innan den kristna undervisningen hunnit etablera den kristna andan, levde dessutom skaldekonsten fortfarande vid hoven. Skalder kunde anvÀnda kenningar, hÀnsyftningar till den nordiska mytologin, och veta att han blev omedelbart förstÄdd; "dvÀrgarnas skepp" var skaldekonsten; "Fröjas tÄrar" var guldet; "valkyriornas eld" svÀrdet, "korpens öl" blodet, etc.
+
+Asatron har karaktÀr av ursprunglig nordeuropeisk religion som dominerade större delen av Nordeuropa, alltsÄ Skandinavien, England, Tyskland, NederlÀnderna och Belgien, bland andra. Det mesta vi vet om denna tro hÀrstammar dock frÄn Norden och i synnerhet Island. Det Àr inte sÀkert att övriga germanska folk omfattade exakt samma trosförestÀllningar som de forntida nordborna. Troligen varierade asatrons sedvÀnjor och myter avsevÀrt mellan de olika germanska folken och över tid. Att de religiösa förestÀllningarna i hela Skandinavien dock varit vÀsentligen desamma finns det dock mycket som tyder pÄ. Skandinavien kristnades dessutom bortÄt 500 Är senare Àn exempelvis Tyskland och England. Mest hÄrdnackade i den gamla tron var folken i Sverige, som höll fast vid den "forna seden" Ànda in pÄ 1100-talet, och det finns till och med vittnesmÄl om att mÀnniskor Äkallade asarna sÄ sent som pÄ 1500-talet i SmÄland.
+
+Kosmologi
+
+I eddadikten Valans spÄdom, Völuspå, Äterges, via en völva (spÄkvinna), myter om skapelsen, konflikterna i vÀrlden och vÀrldsundergÄngen. Forskningen har diskuterat om Snorres text ger uttryck för en cyklisk vÀrldshistoria eller om den med ett definitivt vÀrldsslut Àr pÄverkad av kristendomen. Völvan berÀttar om den ursprungliga tomheten, Ginnungagap, om universums tillkomst (kosmogoni) och skapelsen av Ask och Embla, de första mÀnniskorna (antropogoni), samt om striderna mellan gudar och jÀttar som leder fram till undergÄngen, Ragnarök. Snorres Edda beskriver att vÀrlden uppstod i Ginnungagap, ett svalg dÀr hetta och frost smÀlte samman till jÀtten Ymer och kon Audhumbla. Audhumbla slickade sedan fram mannen Bure ur isen. Bures sonsöner Oden, Vile och Ve drÀpte dÀrefter Ymer och skapade vÀrlden av hans kropp.
+
+Den övergripande mytologiska berÀttelsen handlar om en kosmisk maktkamp mellan gudarna och kaoskrafter. Gudarna representerade den ordnade vÀrlden, kulturen och civilisationen, som stÀndigt hotades av naturens krafter, representerade av jÀttarna och kaosmonster (till exempel Fenrisulven och MidgÄrdsormen). Men minst lika viktigt Àr AsgÄrds beroende av den hemliga kunskap som jÀttar och andra demoniska vÀsen besitter och de allianser, och Àktenskap, som knyts mellan dessa tvÄ vÀrldar.
+
+Snorre ger i sin Edda detaljerade upplysningar om hur universums Ă€r beskaffat: MidgĂ„rd kallas mĂ€nniskornas vĂ€rld, iâAsgĂ„rd lever gudarna. UtgĂ„rd kallas den utanförvĂ€rld dĂ€r de demoniska vĂ€sendena hĂ„ller till och dĂ€r Jotunheim finns. Runt jorden ringlar sig MidgĂ„rdsormen, och utanför detta vidunder finns det personifierade vĂ€rldshavet, Ăgir. IâvĂ€rldens mitt stĂ„r trĂ€det Yggdrasil. Det symboliserar strukturen i kosmos med sina rötter i Hels underjord och grenar som strĂ€cker sig lĂ„ngt upp till gudarna. Vid trĂ€dets fot ligger jĂ€tten Mimers brunn, vars vatten förmedlar kunskap om det som varit och det som komma skall. De tre nornorna Urd (det förflutna), Verdandi (det nuvarande) och Skuld (det som komma skall) och spinner ödestrĂ„darna. Hel Ă€r namnet bĂ„de pĂ„ det underjordiska dödsriket och pĂ„ dess hĂ€rskarinna. De som fallit i strid hĂ€mtas av valkyrior och kommer till Odens Valhall eller till Freja Folkvang. I det sista slaget, Ragnarök, kommer de hĂ€rskande gudarna att falla och vĂ€rlden kommer att gĂ„ under i en eld, varefter en ny och bĂ€ttre vĂ€rld kommer att uppstĂ„ ur den gamla.
+
+Kultplatser
+
+Kulten under jÀrnÄldern verkar mestadels ha utövats i hemmen, men skriftliga kÀllor, bland annat Adam av Bremen, nÀmner att det skall ha funnits tempelbyggnader i Norden under vikingatiden, i alla fall i Uppsala. Vid utgrÀvningar i UppÄkra strax söder om Lund har man funnit rester efter ett tempel som stÄtt hÀr i flera hundra Är före nedlÀggningen i slutet av 900-talet. DÄ hela byggnadens yta kunnat grÀvas fram och dÄ platsen Àr oskadad frÄn senare nedgrÀvningar har för första gÄngen ett fornnordiskt tempel kunnat studeras i sin helhet rent arkeologiskt.
+Mycket vanligare var de sÄ kallade "vina", heliga platser utomhus. Detta Äterspeglas bland annat i mÄnga av de ortnamn som innehÄller efterledet -vi, som till exempel Ullevi. 2007 undersöktes ett vi frÄn vendeltid i Lilla Ullevi fullstÀndigt. Viet i Lilla Ullevi bestod av olika lÀmningar, naturliga sÄvÀl som mÀnniskoskapade; centralt fanns den sÄ kallade hargen, en stenkonstruktion som ligger pÄ viets högsta punkt. I hargen lÄg en plattform som antagligen fungerat som altare. Plattformen har efterlÀmnat spÄr i form av fyra kraftiga stolphÄl. Söder om stenkonstruktionen fanns ett stort antal stolphÄl, och arkeologerna antar att det kan ha varit en offerplats pÄ grund av de mÄnga fynd av amulettringar som man gjort dÀr. Ringar förekom Àven i hargen, dÀr man funnit nÀrmare 70 stycken jÀrnringar, mÄnga med mindre ringar hÀngande i den största ringen. Ringar antas ocksÄ ha betytt mycket i den nordiska kulten dÄ de fungerat som dörringar pÄ kultbyggnader, vilket man sett i templet i UppÄkra, och som ocksÄ Àr avbildat pÄ Sparlösastenen. Det islÀndska sagomaterialet bekrÀftar ocksÄ ringarnas betydelse i kulten.
+
+Blot
+
+Blot Ă€r ett offer i nordisk religion som syftar till att vinna gudars eller alvers vĂ€lvilja sĂ„ att de uppfyller dess önskemĂ„l, som genomför blotet. Ordet Ă€r slĂ€kt med gotiskans blĂŽtan i meningen "dyrka, tillbedja", och forntyskans bluozan, i betydelsen "offra" och "stĂ€rka". Troligen har ordet ursprungsbetydelsen "Ă„kalla med besvĂ€rjelse eller offer". Religionsprofessor Britt-Mari NĂ€sström hĂ€rleder ordet till en indoeuropeisk rot *bhle som betyder âsvĂ€lla, vara svullenâ och i överförd bemĂ€rkelse âtillta, ökaâ. Det betyder att offret i sig ökar den offrandes egendom.
+Offerritualerna verkar ha skett pÄ tvÄ sÀtt; antingen frambar man offret till gudarna eller sÄ tog man del av offergÄvan genom att förtÀra den offrade maten och drycken. Det finns flera berÀttelser frÄn norra Europa om stora offerfester med mat och dryck.
+
+De islÀndska sagorna talar om tre Ärliga blot: höstblot, midvinterblot och vÄrblot.
+
+Namngivna blothögtider
+ Disablot (början av februari)
+ Segerblot (vÄrdagjÀmningen)
+ Midsommarblot (midsommar)
+ Skördeblot (augustiâseptember)
+ Höstblot (mitten av oktober)
+ Alvablot (november/allhelgona)
+ Midvinterblot (januari)
+
+Asatron efter kristnandet
+
+Sedan Nordeuropa kristnats och asatron förbjudits, allra sist i Sverige, levde en del av dess trosuppfattningar vidare i folktro och i folksagor, "Prins Hatt under jorden" Àr till exempel ursprungligen berÀttelser om guden Höder. En dikt frÄn Trollkyrka i Tiveden redogör Àven för hur ett hemligt offer utfördes.
+Men det finns ocksÄ indikationer att asatron levde kvar lÀnge i hemlighet; under digerdödens hÀrjningar pÄ 1300-talet berÀttas det att flera omrÄden Ätergick till hedendomen i försök att hejda pestens hÀrjningar, och det finns kÀtterimÄl frÄn 1500-talet mot svenskar som dyrkat Oden. Myten om Odens jakt, liksom förestÀllningar om Tor, Fröja (Freja), Locke (Loke), Frigg och sÄ vidare visar att allmogen lÄngt fram pÄ 1800- och början av 1900-talet hade kunskaper om den forna religionen. Man har ocksÄ visat att sÄ kallade Àlvkvarnar anvÀnts för offer lÄngt in pÄ 1800-talet.
+
+Andra sedvÀnjor som kan tolkas som rester av asatro, Àr till exempel riten rörande Kornguden i VÄnga, som var en helgonbild i Norra VÄnga i VÀstergötland. Helgonbilden togs ut till Äkrarna för att sÀkerstÀlla att skörden blev god. 1826 försökte stiftet förhindra denna sed genom att undanskaffa helgonbilden men enligt VÀstgöta-Bengtsson sÄ ska VÄngaborna ha gjort sig en ny Korngud. Det Àr dock inget ovanligt att kristen helgondyrkan tett sig pÄ detta vis, och flera exempel finns frÄn kontinenten varför det inte med sjÀlvklarhet gÄr att göra kopplingen till asatron.
+Ebbe Schön skriver i sin bok Asa-Tors hammare om hur rester av asatron levde kvar i folksagor Ànnu i början av 1900-talet.
+
+Ăven om de högre gudarna i asatron sĂ„ smĂ„ningom försvann, sĂ„ levde dess mindre vĂ€sen vidare i folktrons förestĂ€llningar om Ă€lvor, vĂ€ttar, och tomtar och i tron pĂ„ skogsrĂ„et, nĂ€cken, havsfrun med flera in i vĂ„ra dagar och gör sĂ„ alltjĂ€mt pĂ„ sina stĂ€llen. NĂ€r bonden satte ut en skĂ„l gröt till tomten pĂ„ julnatten för att denne skulle se till djuren pĂ„ gĂ„rden, sĂ„ utförde han en rit med urgamla anor, det som pĂ„ vikingatid och tidig medeltid kallades blot.
+
+Folktrons förestÀllningar om avlidnas sjÀlar och naturföreteelsernas andar Äterfinns i liknande skepnad hos mÄnga folk, och att de hos nordbor och övriga germaner varit vÀsentligen de samma intygas dels av överensstÀmmande folktro frÄn yngre tid, dels av de gemensamma benÀmningarna för Àlva, mara, huldra, dvÀrg och nÀck. Om de germanska folkens gudatro finns nÄgra underrÀttelser Ànda frÄn vÄr tiderÀknings början, och ett för dessa gemensamt drag Àr att utom trÀd, floder och berg vanligen tre, ibland fyra gudar uppges ha dyrkats: Caesar anger solen, Vulcanus (elden) och mÄnen, Tacitus anger Mercurius, Hercules och Mars. I det saxiska doplöftet frÄn 800-talet avsvÀrjs "Thuner och Woden och Saxnot och alla de onda makter, som Àr i deras sÀllskap".
+
+Modern asatro
+
+I slutet av 1800-talet blommade Ă„terigen ett intresse för asatron upp. En andra vĂ„g kom pĂ„ 1920-talet, och en tredje kom i samband med det ökande intresset för naturreligioner under 1960-talet. I dag finns det flera organisationer som sprider kunskap om mytologin, religionen och religiösa sammankomster, huvudsakligen i Skandinavien, England och USA. Det islĂ€ndska ordet ĂĄsatrĂș har blivit det vanligaste ordet internationellt men Ă€ven Odinism (efter det islĂ€ndska/fornnordiska namnet pĂ„ Oden) förekommer. Nordiska Asasamfundet (NAS), det största samfundet för Asatro i Sverige anvĂ€nder beteckningen asatro för religionen. I Skandinavien anvĂ€nds ibland Ă€ven beteckningen forn sed för denna religion av Samfundet Forn Sed Sverige.
+
+Forskningshistoria kring asatro
+Friedrich Max MĂŒller (1823â1900) var en tysk sprĂ„kforskare som var intresserad av möjliga förbindelse mellan sprĂ„k, religion och mytologi. MĂŒller menade att naturfenomen blev till gudar genom en missuppfattning av naturlagarna. MĂŒllers resonemang kan spĂ„ras i flera verk frĂ„n 1800-talets slut, dĂ€r de nordiska gudarna kom att förklaras som naturfenomen. Inom mytforskning kallas detta för den naturmytologiska skolan. FrĂ„n 1800-talets slut fick den naturmytologiska skolan kritik. Norske Sophus Bugge (1833â1907) och tyske Eugen Mogk kom att representera en ny kĂ€llkritisk riktning i forskningen och menade att de nordiska myterna först och frĂ€mst var en produkt Nordens möte med kristendomen. I Bugges huvudverk, De nordiske Gude- og Heltesagns Oprindelse, menade han att den nordiska mytologin hade skapats i möte med kristendomens texter och litterĂ€ra traditioner. Han menade vidare att asatron hade inspirerats av keltiska och anglosaxiska traditioner med lĂ„n frĂ„n grekisk och romersk mytologi. PĂ„ 2000-talet har Bugges teori ingen stark stĂ€llning. Gro Steinsland menar dock att Bugges forskning "banade vĂ€g för den kĂ€llkritiska debatten som uppstod och som fortfarande förs". Bugges kommenterade utgĂ„va av Den eldre Edda (1867) betraktas fortfarande som ett standardverk för de som arbetar kĂ€llkritiskt med eddadikterna.
+
+KĂ€lltexter
+Följande texter och föremÄl utgör historiska kÀllor till kunskap om den nordiska mytologins innehÄll, som de i olika utstrÀckning nÀmner och behandlar:
+
+ Tacitus: Germania (ca 98 e.kr.)
+ Snorre Sturlason:
+ Codex Regius (âKungliga bokenâ) eller Poetiska Eddan (ca 800 e.kr.)
+ Prosaiska Eddan (ca 1200 e.kr.)
+ Saxo Grammaticus: Gesta Danorum (ca 1200 e.kr.)
+ Runstenar
+ BeowulfskvÀdet
+ Tjodolf av Hvin:
+ Ynglingasagan
+ Haustlong
+ Eilif Gudrunarson: ThĂłrsdrĂĄpa
+ Adam av Bremen: Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum
+
+Referenser
+Andra vÀrldskriget var en vÀpnad konflikt som pÄgick frÄn hösten 1939 till hösten 1945, med inledande konflikter redan 1938 och tidigare, och involverade de flesta av vÀrldens nationer, inklusive alla stormakter, vilka till slut bildade tvÄ motsatta militÀrallianser: de allierade, ledda av Storbritannien, vilka stod mot axelmakterna, ledda av Nazityskland. Det var det mest utbredda kriget i historien med mer Àn 100 miljoner mÀnniskor som tjÀnstgjorde i militÀra enheter. I ett tillstÄnd av "totalt krig" stÀllde de stora deltagarna hela sin ekonomiska, industriella och vetenskapliga kapacitet till förfogande för krigsanstrÀngningen och raderade dÀrmed ut skillnaden mellan civila och militÀra resurser. Genom att involvera massdöd av civila, dÀribland förintelsen i koncentrationslÀger, strategiska bombningar och de första anvÀndningarna av kÀrnvapen i krig ledde kriget till att mellan 50 och 85 miljoner mÀnniskor dödades. Detta gör andra vÀrldskriget till den i sÀrklass blodigaste konflikten under hela mÀnsklighetens historia.
+
+Ăven om Japan redan hade varit i krig med Republiken Kina sedan 1937, sĂ€gs i allmĂ€nhet andra vĂ€rldskriget ha startat den 1 september 1939 med den tyska invasionen av Polen. Tyskland föresatte sig att inrĂ€tta ett stort imperium i Europa och ta revansch för förlusten i det första vĂ€rldskriget, nĂ„got som Hitler gjorde till en propagandasak. FrĂ„n slutet av 1939 till början av 1941 erövrade eller kontrollerade Tyskland genom en rad fĂ€lttĂ„g och fördrag mycket av den europeiska kontinenten. Baserat pĂ„ MolotovâRibbentrop-pakten mellan Tyskland och Sovjetunionen (frĂ„n augusti 1939) invaderade, ockuperade eller annekterade Sovjetunionen helt eller delvis sex europeiska grannars territorier, dĂ€ribland Polen. Storbritannien och andra samvĂ€ldeslĂ€nder bidrog med de enda större allierade styrkor som fortsatte kampen mot axelmakterna, med strider i Nordafrika och det lĂ„ngvariga slaget om Atlanten. I juni 1941 inledde de europeiska axelmakterna en invasion av Sovjetunionen vilket öppnade den största landskrigsskĂ„deplatsen i historien och kom att sysselsĂ€tta huvuddelen av deras militĂ€ra styrkor under resten av kriget. I september 1940 anslöt sig Japan till axelmakterna, dĂ€remot var Japan inte i krig med andra allierade nationer Ă€n Kina fram tills december 1941, dĂ„ Japan attackerade amerikanska och europeiska territorier i stillahavsomrĂ„det av vilket mycket av den vĂ€stra delen erövrades.
+
+Axelmakternas frammarsch stoppades 1942 sedan Japan förlorat en rad sjöslag och de europeiska axelmakternas trupper besegrats i Nordafrika och vid Stalingrad. Ă
r 1943 förlorade axelmakterna initiativet till följd av flera tyska nederlag i Ăsteuropa, de allierades invasion av Sicilien och Italien och amerikanska segrar i Stilla havet, och inledde retrĂ€tter pĂ„ alla fronter. Ă
r 1944 invaderade de vĂ€stallierade Frankrike samtidigt som Sovjetunionen Ă„tertog alla sina territoriella förluster, invaderade Tyskland och ockuperade Ăsteuropa. Kriget i Europa tog sitt slut genom att sovjetiska och polska trupper erövrade Berlin och vĂ€stallierade trupper erövrat större delarna av vĂ€stra och södra Tyskland vilket ledde fram till den efterföljande, ovillkorliga tyska kapitulationen den 8 maj 1945. Under 1944 och 1945 besegrade USA den japanska flottan, erövrade öarna i vĂ€stra Stilla havet och fĂ€llde atombomber över landet samtidigt som man förberedde en invasion och Ă€ven Sovjetunionen förklarade krig mot Japan och invaderade Manchuriet. Kriget i Asien avslutades den 15 augusti 1945 dĂ„ Kejsardömet Japan kapitulerade.
+
+De allierades totala seger över axelmakterna Ă„r 1945 avslutade konflikten. Andra vĂ€rldskriget förĂ€ndrade den politiska inriktningen och sociala strukturen i vĂ€rlden. Förenta nationerna (FN) bildades för att frĂ€mja internationellt samarbete och förhindra framtida konflikter. Stormakterna som gick segrande ur kriget, USA, Sovjetunionen, Kina, Storbritannien och Frankrike, blev de permanenta medlemmarna av FN:s sĂ€kerhetsrĂ„d. RĂ€ttegĂ„ngar hölls i NĂŒrnberg efter kriget dĂ€r man dömde nazister som gjort sig skyldiga till brott mot GenĂšvekonventionen, folkmord som Förintelsen och andra grova brott, och nazismen förbjöds i Tyskland. Judarna som blivit förföljda i de flesta av Europas lĂ€nder fick till slut sitt eget land, Israel.
+
+Sovjetunionen och USA framstod efter kriget som rivaliserande supermakter, vilket banade vÀg för det Kalla kriget under de kommande 46 Ären. Sovjet försökte blockera VÀstberlin men för att inte upprepa misstaget frÄn Versaillesfördraget, inrÀttade vÀstmakterna Marshallplanen som ett stöd för Äteruppbyggnaden av Tyskland och andra krigsdrabbade lÀnder. Samtidigt började de europeiska stormakternas inflytande att minska genom att Asien och Afrika avkoloniserades. De flesta lÀnder vars industrier skadats gick mot ekonomisk ÄterhÀmtning. Initiativ till politisk integration, sÀrskilt i Europa, togs som ett försök att stabilisera relationerna efter kriget.
+
+Krigets benÀmningar och etymologi
+Under konfliktens tidiga skede hade kriget Ànnu inte hunnit bli ett fullkomligt "vÀrldskrig", med strider vÀrlden runt. Begreppet "vÀrldskrig" var fortfarande starkt associerat med första vÀrldskriget, vilket Àven in pÄ sent 1930-tal kallades "vÀrldskriget" i svensk facklitteratur. Av detta kom konflikten initialt att benÀmnas "stormaktskriget" i Sverige. Efter attacken mot Pearl Harbor 7 december 1941, som början av stillahavskriget, var detta dock inte lÀngre fallet, varvid "vÀrldskriget", det vill sÀga första vÀrldskriget, började kallas "förra vÀrldskriget".
+
+Förkortningen "VK2" (samt stavningarna: "VK 2", "VK II", "VKII", etc) förekommer i viss utstrÀckning om andra vÀrldskriget ("VK2" = "vÀrldskrig 2"), möjligtvis en svensk översÀttning av ("World War II") ursprungligen. I samma utstrÀckning förekommer VK1 för första vÀrldskriget.
+
+Bakgrund
+
+Första vÀrldskrigets följder
+
+Under den ryska revolutionen 1917 kollapsade armén och tyska styrkor trÀngde djupt in landet. I freden i Brest-Litovsk den 3 mars 1918 gav Ryssland upp Finland, Polen, Ukraina, Vitryssland och Baltikum, motsvarande hÀlften av sina europeiska territorier och med detta cirka 75 % av sina tunga industrier. Transkaukasus, nuvarande Armenien, Azerbajdzjan och Georgien tillföll Osmanska riket.
+
+Det ryska tillbakadragandet skapade ett maktvakuum som lokala ledare försökte fylla bland annat i det finska inbördeskriget.
+
+Bara nĂ„gra mĂ„nader senare gjorde de allierades handelsblockad att Tyskland och Ăsterrike-Ungern var tvungna att kapitulera. Detta gav upphov till dolkstötslegenden, det vill sĂ€ga att orsaken till förlusten var att soldaterna som "höll pĂ„ att segra" blivit svikna av politikerna pĂ„ hemmaplan.
+Vid fredskonferensen i Versailles i januari 1919 hÀvdade segrarmakterna att Tyskland var ansvarigt för kriget och utkrÀvde ett stort krigsskadestÄnd. Fredsavtalet stipulerade att Tysklands försvarsmakt inte fick ha militÀrflygplan och stridsvagnar, att flottan begrÀnsades, att armén fick uppgÄ till maximalt 100 000 man och dessutom att Rhenlandet skulle demilitariseras. En av dem som framförde konspirationsteorier om politikernas förrÀderi var Adolf Hitler, som 1921 blev ledare för Nationalsocialistiska tyska arbetarepartiet (NSDAP).
+
+De tyska styrkorna evakuerade Ăsteuropa, varefter Polen och Sovjet delade upp den tyskskapade Ukrainska staten mellan sig.
+
+Ă
r 1923 drabbades Tyskland av extrem inflation, som ruinerade mĂ„nga mĂ€nniskor, vilket mĂ„nga sĂ„g som en direkt följd av krigsskadestĂ„ndet. Den verkliga anledningen var dock mer komplex: efter fransk-tyska kriget 1870â1871 hade Tyskland fĂ„tt ett stort krigsskadestĂ„nd av Frankrike och vid första vĂ€rldskrigets början bestĂ€mde den tyska regeringen att kriget inte skulle finansieras med skatter utan genom att fĂ„ befolkningen att teckna krigsobligationer, som skulle betalas tillbaka med ett förutskickat krigsskadestĂ„nd efter en tysk seger. Tillsammans med de allierades handelsblockad skapade detta kraftiga prisstegringar redan under kriget, men hur mycket Reichsmarkens egentliga vĂ€rde sjunkit blev inte uppenbart förrĂ€n Tyskland skulle betala krigsskadestĂ„ndet i de allierades valutor eller i rĂ„varor.
+
+Arbetslösheten steg och fattigdomen blev utbredd. Till och med den franske generalen Ferdinand Foch, som var med om att driva igenom de hĂ„rda villkoren, uttryckte sig sĂ„ hĂ€r: "Detta Ă€r inte fred utan 20 Ă„rs vapenvilaâ. Han visade sig ha rĂ€tt - Tyskland anföll Polen 20 Ă„r och 64 dagar senare.
+
+Den andra stora förloraren i första vÀrldskriget, Tsarryssland hotades av kommunister och de allierade och Japan försökte ingripa. Efter att stora japanska styrkor ryckt fram till Bajkalsjön men inte lÀngre blev de allierade dock misstÀnksamma om Japan vilie stödja Vita armén eller erövra land. Följden blev att amerikanska och kanadensiska styrkor stannade i Sibirien för att hÄlla koll pÄ japanerna istÀllet för att trÀnga fram till det vÀstra befolkade Ryssland dÀr striderna mellan kommunister och tsartrogna pÄgick.
+
+Efter kommunisternas seger 1922 drog de allierade och Japan bort sina trupper. I det nya landet Sovjet fanns en stark fientlighet mot de allierade och det första land som erkÀnde Sovjet blev Tyskland. Vid Genuakonferensen fick Tyskland och Sovjet inga gehör för sina Äsikter och det blev naturligt att de sökte sig till varandra.
+För att komma runt Versaillesfredens förbud mot tyskt flygvapen började Luftwaffes piloter i smyg utbildas i Sovjet.
+
+1924â1925 fick Tyskland ordning pĂ„ ekonomin och mot slutet av 1920-talet fungerade den unga demokratin relativt bra. USA hjĂ€lpte till med lĂ„n och stora investeringar. Levnadsstandarden steg och stödet för NSDAP var ganska lĂ„gt.
+
+Men förutsÀttningarna skulle snart bli annorlunda och Hitler ges möjlighet att vinna stöd frÄn breda befolkningslager.
+
+Depressionen
+
+Den ekonomiska depressionen i början av 1930-talet medförde att Tyskland drabbades av massarbetslöshet. Krisen ledde till ett allmÀnt politikerförakt, tron pÄ demokratin sjönk till bottennivÄer och mÄnga fruktade en kommunistrevolution. MÄnga sÄg Hitlers och dennes nazistparti som rÀddningen: en stark man som visste vad han ville och inte bara Àgnade sig Ät politiskt "kÀbbel" skulle kunna stoppa kommunisterna. Hitler lovade att utplÄna arbetslösheten och att fÄ Tyskland pÄ fötter igen, utlovade sociala reformer och vÀlfÀrd Ät de tyska arbetarna och begrÀnsade rÀttigheter för icke-tyskar. I riksdagsvalet 1932 blev Nationalsocialistiska tyska arbetarepartiet (NSDAP) största partiet med 33,1 % av rösterna. I januari 1933 utsÄgs Hitler till rikskansler (regeringschef) av president Hindenburg.
+
+En utbredd myt Ă€r att det var speciella grupper som röstade pĂ„ Hitler, det var dock mĂ€nniskor frĂ„n alla samhĂ€llsklasser som röstade pĂ„ Nationalsocialisterna. Dock fanns det grupper som var överrepresenterade, t.ex. egenföretagare, bönder och pensionĂ€rer. Ăven mĂ€nniskor pĂ„ landsbygden var överrepresenterade. De som röstade pĂ„ nazisterna i storstĂ€derna bodde i första hand i de vĂ€lbĂ€rgade stadsdelarna. De arbetslösa röstade snarare pĂ„ kommunisterna (KPD).
+
+En del sĂ„g i Hitler en "rĂ€ddande Ă€ngel" som skulle Ă„terupprĂ€tta Tysklands Ă€ra samtidigt som han lovade en god ekonomisk framtid. Ăver- och medelklassmĂ€nniskor sĂ„g Hitlers nationella socialism som att bĂ€ttre alternativ Ă€n Sovjets och militĂ€ren ville ha Ă„terupprĂ€ttelse. Till och med judar gick till en början med i nazistpartiet, trots att det var den "judiska kapitalismen" som beskylldes för de ekonomiska problem som drabbat tyskarna.
+
+Hitler vid makten
+
+UtnĂ€mnd till rikskansler 1933 förbjöd Hitler snabbt alla partier utom NSDAP och gjorde sig sjĂ€lv till diktator. FrĂ„n och med Paul von Hindenburgs bortgĂ„ng 1934 var han bĂ„de regeringschef och statschef (FĂŒhrer). Under Ă„ren som följde inleddes ett arbete för att Ă„terta de omrĂ„den som förlorats i Versaillesfreden. En Ă„terupprustning inleddes och allmĂ€n vĂ€rnplikt Ă„terinfördes (vilka bĂ„da stred mot Versaillesfredens diktat). Sedan vĂ€lstĂ„ndet ökat och kommunismen hĂ„llits borta frĂ„n inflytande i Tyskland blev Hitler omĂ„ttligt populĂ€r i och utanför landet och inspirerade mĂ„nga politiker och andra. Han anvĂ€nde sin popularitet och retoriska förmĂ„ga till att mobilisera en massiv tysk folkarmĂ© med moderna vapen.
+
+1938â1939 marscherade tyska soldater in i Ăsterrike samtidigt som österrikiska soldater marscherade in i Berlin. Detta för att visa att det inte var nĂ„got tvĂ„ng för Ăsterrike att ansluta sig till Tyskland (Anschluss) och det i Versailles-freden konstruerade Tjeckoslovakien upplöstes. De tjeckiska delarna (Böhmen och MĂ€hren och tjeckiska Schlesien) delades mellan Tyskland, Polen och det av Tyskland beroende Protektoratet Böhmen-MĂ€hren (se Nazityskland), medan Slovakien blev sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigt, med tyskvĂ€nlig regim. OmrĂ„den med ungersk befolkningsmajoritet Ă„terfördes till Ungern.
+
+VÀstmakterna protesterade (grÀnserna efter första vÀrldskriget var ju deras skapelse) men ville inte ha ett nytt storkrig. Inte heller Nationernas förbund (NF), FN:s föregÄngare, fungerade som det var tÀnkt (att bevara status quo). Det berodde delvis pÄ att USA, trots huvudarkitekten och dÄvarande presidenten Woodrow Wilsons önskan, aldrig gÄtt med i organisationen utan dragit sig tillbaka. Hitler uppfattade vÀstmakternas brist pÄ agerande som ett svaghetstecken och fortsatte förberedelserna för krig, Àven om han inte ville att det skulle börja för tidigt eftersom man Ànnu var otillrÀckligt rustad för storkrig.
+
+Japan
+Ă
r 1927 bildades ett nytt parti Rikken MinseitĆ genom sammanslagningar av mindre partier som förordnade demilitarisering, kvinnlig röstrĂ€tt och att mer makt skulle gĂ„ till det folkvalda parlamentet.
+NĂ€r premiĂ€rminister Tanaka Giichi upptĂ€ckte att det var den japanska militĂ€ren som mördat den kinesiske ledaren Zhang Zuolin krĂ€vde han att de skyldiga skulle bestraffas. MilitĂ€ren tvingade dĂ„ honom att avgĂ„ och Osachi Hamaguchi frĂ„n ett av de partier som bildat Rikken MinseitĆ blev ny premiĂ€rminister.
+
+Inför valet 1931 blev Osachi Hamaguchi skjuten och Ă„terfick aldrig hĂ€lsan. Rikken MinseitĆ blev största parti, och Hamaguchi ville att Japan skulle skriva pĂ„ Londonfördraget om nedrustning. Vid mötet dĂ€r detta skulle diskuteras krĂ€vde oppositionen hans nĂ€rvaro, men han var för sjuk för att kunna delta, och nĂ€r hans ersĂ€ttare fĂ€llde en negativ kommentar om kejsar Hirohito blev det skandal. Efter en mĂ„nad som premiĂ€rminister avgick Hamaguchi och dog senare samma Ă„r.
+
+Hans eftertrĂ€dare Wakatsuki ReijirĆ kunde heller inte kontrollera militĂ€ren som i september iscensatte Mukdenincidenten som ledde till Kina avtrĂ€dde Manchuriet som blev en japansk lydstat frĂ„n och med 1932. Lydstaten kom att kallas Manchukuo. 1937 invaderade japanska trupper resten av Kina och inledde dĂ€rmed andra sino-japanska kriget vilket sĂ„ smĂ„ningom blev en del av andra vĂ€rldskriget. Ăven hĂ€r stod NF maktlöst.
+
+Italien
+Abessinien (nuvarande Etiopien) och Liberia var de enda lÀnderna i Afrika som inte blivit koloniserade av europeiska stormakter. Den 3 oktober 1935 anföll Italien Abessinien utan krigsförklaring, och officiellt avslutades kriget den 9 maj 1936 nÀr det fascistiska Italien proklamerade annekteringen av landet.
+Nationernas Förbund införde vissa restriktioner mot de aggressiva staterna men de rĂ€ckte inte för att förhindra en eskalerande utveckling. Den 1 juni 1936 förenades landet till italienska Somaliland och bildade kolonin italienska Ăstafrika. Eftersom de italienska ockupanterna aldrig kunde kontrollera landet helt sĂ„ ser vissa det som att kriget pĂ„gick till 1941 nĂ€r landet befriades av brittiska trupper och den abessinska gerillan. Uppdelningen av italienska Ăstafrika Ă€r fortfarande en kĂ€lla till konflikt mellan Etiopien, Eritrea och Somalia.
+
+1936â1939 rasade spanska inbördeskriget med inblandning frĂ„n bĂ„de Tyskland och Italien, pĂ„ Francos sida och frĂ„n Sovjet pĂ„ republikanernas sida. OcksĂ„ Albanien invaderades och ockuperades av Italien.
+
+Den tyska utrikespolitiken
+
+En av orsakerna till andra vĂ€rldskrigets utbrott var den aggressiva tyska utrikespolitiken under Hitlers ledning, först med anslutning av etniskt tyska regioner, sedan med bland annat planer pĂ„ utökat tyskt territorium, sĂ„ kallat Lebensraum (tyska "livsutrymme"). Den utlösande faktorn var emellertid den tyska invasionen av Polen den 1 september varpĂ„ Storbritannien och Frankrike förklarade krig mot Tyskland i enlighet med tidigare givna löften till Polen. Orsaken till invasionen var Tysklands krav pĂ„ en "passage" mellan tyska Ostpreussen och Stortyskland i vĂ€st. Ostpreussen var nĂ€mligen helt avskuret av den sĂ„ kallade "polska korridoren", ett landomrĂ„de som hade tilldelats det Ă„terskapade Polen efter första vĂ€rldskriget för att landet skulle ha tilltrĂ€de till Ăstersjön.
+
+Vid sidan av den aggressiva tyska utrikespolitiken bör Ă€ven nĂ€mnas Japans imperialistiska ambitioner som pĂ„ allvar inleddes med invasionen av Manchuriet. Ăven hĂ€r drevs militĂ€ren (Japan var i praktiken en militĂ€rdiktatur frĂ„n slutet av 1920-talet) av nationalistiska mĂ„l för sin politik. Japan hade redan 1936 nĂ€rmat sig Tyskland med antikominternpakten och 1940 slöts ocksĂ„ en militĂ€r allians mellan Japan och Tyskland. NĂ€r Japans ambitioner att skapa ett imperium i Ăstasien till slut kolliderade med de vĂ€sterlĂ€ndska staterna som hade kolonier dĂ€r var kriget oundvikligt. Det finns en del som menar att andra vĂ€rldskriget inleddes redan med det andra sino-japanska kriget nĂ€r Japan invaderade det egentliga Kina 1937.
+
+Till skillnad frÄn första vÀrldskriget dÄ alla Europas stormakter var indragna redan efter en vecka, utvecklades andra vÀrldskriget successivt till en global konflikt dÀr nÀstan samtliga stater i vÀrlden var involverade. Precis som i första vÀrldskriget stÀllde sig Italien till en början utanför kriget trots att man 1939 ingÄtt stÄlpakten med Tyskland. Först nÀr Japan attackerade USA den 7 december 1941 och Tyskland och Italien förklarade krig mot USA fyra dagar senare blev kriget verkligen en global konflikt. Japans krig mot Kina, dess krig mot USA och de europeiska kolonialmakterna och kriget i Europa vÀvdes nu samman.
+
+Krigets gÄng
+
+Kriget bryter ut i Europa (1939â40)
+
+Den 1 september 1939 inledde den tyska armĂ©n ett anfall mot Polen. Dessförinnan hade Tyskland mobiliserat och Hitler lĂ€t tillkĂ€nnage i radio samma dag att "Tyskland svarade pĂ„ den polska beskjutningen av tyska trupper i gryningen" medan Polen endast pĂ„börjat sin mobilisering för att inte provocera Tyskland. DĂ€rmed hade andra vĂ€rldskriget inletts â enligt de vĂ€stliga allierade. Enligt Sovjetunionen började dock det stora, "fosterlĂ€ndska" kriget först i juni 1941, dĂ„ de sjĂ€lva anfölls av Nazityskland. Den 3 september förklarade Frankrike och Storbritannien krig mot Tyskland och Europa hade Ă„terigen drabbats av ett storkrig som skulle bli mycket mer omfattande, och blodigare, Ă€n det första vĂ€rldskriget. Efter att Polen förlorat kriget mot Tyskland i vĂ€st, inledde den 17 september av Sovjetunionen i öst helt i enligt Molotov-Ribbentroppakten sitt intrĂ€de i Polen fram till Curzon-linjen. Detta för att skydda den i huvudsak ryska befolkningen dĂ€r sedan denna del av Polen hade tillhört Ryssland fram till 1920. Efter ungefĂ€r fyra veckor var det polska militĂ€ra motstĂ„ndet brutet sedan den tyska Wehrmacht anvĂ€nt Blixtkrig-taktik mot polackernas underlĂ€gsna försvar. Delar av vĂ€stra delen av Polen annekterades av Tyskland eller och delar av det bildade Generalguvernementet under tyskt styre. Snart började stora utrensningar bland annat i Operation Tannenberg och senare skulle Polens judar samlas ihop i ghetton inför det sista steget i Förintelsen, som till stor del skedde pĂ„ mordanlĂ€ggningar inom Polens grĂ€nser. Ăven ryssarna gjorde ocksĂ„ utrensningar som Katynmassakern. En sjĂ€ttedel av Polens befolkning, varav tre miljoner polacker och ett okĂ€nt antal judar miste livet.
+
+Baltikum och Finland
+NÀsta fas i kriget blev Sovjetunionens annektering av Litauen, Lettland och Estland den 3 oktober enligt tidigare nÀmnda överenskommelse mellan Josef Stalin och Adolf Hitler vid Ribbentrops besök i Moskva den 27 september. Stalin framstÀllde ocksÄ territoriella krav pÄ Finland vilka tillbakavisades. DÀrefter inleddes, den 30 november 1939, det finska vinterkriget under vilket Sovjetunionen försökte annektera Finland. Inför övermakten blev dock Finland till slut tvunget att acceptera de sovjetiska villkoren och freden undertecknades 13 mars 1940 i Moskva. Finland tvingades avtrÀda stora delar av Karelen till Sovjetunionen men till skillnad frÄn de baltiska staterna och Polen lyckades det vÀrja sig tillrÀckligt bra för att behÄlla sin sjÀlvstÀndighet och förhindra invasion. Samtidigt kom Ungern, RumÀnien och Bulgarien att sluta pakt med Tyskland. Sovjetunionen förklarade sig neutralt gentemot Storbritannien och Frankrike men var knutet till axelmakterna genom Molotov-Ribbentroppakten och tillhörande handelsavtal. I praktiken var dock Sovjetunionen militÀrt helt neutralt dÄ den rysk-tyska pakten inte innebar att landet skulle stödja Tyskland militÀrt i hÀndelse av krig mot en tredje makt.
+
+Efter igĂ„ngsĂ€ttningen av Operation Barbarossa 1941 slöt Finland upp pĂ„ Tysklands sida för att fĂ„ tillbaka de omrĂ„den som förlorats i vinterkriget 1939-1940 och tillĂ€t tyska trupper att anfalla Sovjetunionen frĂ„n finskt territorium. Efter sovjetiska luftattacker förklarade Finland sig i krig och gick till offensiv mot Sovjetunionen i Finska fortsĂ€ttningskriget. Kriget pĂ„gick i över tre Ă„r och den finska armĂ©n ockuperade ett betydande, delvis finsksprĂ„kigt omrĂ„de i Ryssland (bland annat Petroskoi som fick det finska namnet ĂĂ€nislinna = Onegaborg), men gjorde stora förluster pĂ„ slutet och landet tvingades den 19 september 1944 sluta vapenstillestĂ„nd pĂ„ mycket hĂ„rda villkor. Det slutliga fredsavtalet tecknades i Paris 1947. Finland hade trots allt lyckats behĂ„lla sin sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet.
+
+"LĂ„tsaskriget"
+Under tiden stod vÀstfronten stilla (LÄtsaskriget pÄ tyska kallat Sitz-krieg och pÄ engelska The Phony War) medan de allierade förlitade sig pÄ blockadvapnet som hade varit sÄ framgÄngsrikt under första vÀrldskriget. Det förekom en del sjöbataljer och utanför Montevideo sÀnktes fickslagskeppet Graf Spee av sin egen besÀttning efter ett sjöslag mot tre brittiska fartyg. Efter en kort fransk invasion av det tyska grÀnslandet i SaaromrÄdet, som dock inte ledde till tyska trupprörelser bort frÄn invasionen av Polen, ÄtervÀnde den franska armén till sina baracker och intog en defensiv strategi bakom Maginotlinjen.
+
+Invasionen av Danmark och Norge
+Den 9 april 1940 invaderade tyskarna Danmark och Norge för att sĂ€kerstĂ€lla att jĂ€rnmalmstransporterna frĂ„n Sverige inte upphörde. Tyskarna förekom dĂ€rmed med nöd och nĂ€ppe en brittisk landstigning (Operation R4) och etablerade samtidigt fördelaktiga flottbaser lĂ€ngs norska kusten. De bĂ„da nordiska lĂ€nderna ockuperades och administrerades av samarbetande regering, i Norge av nazisten Quisling. "Operation WeserĂŒbung" blev en tysk framgĂ„ng trots att man förlorade en stor del av sin flotta lĂ€ngs Norges vĂ€stkust dĂ€r bland annat den tunga kryssaren BlĂŒcher sĂ€nktes av norskt kustartilleri. Norge hade i Rjukan Ă€ven den enda tillgĂ€ngliga kĂ€llan till tungt vatten som behövdes för utveckling av kĂ€rnvapen.
+
+Slaget om Frankrike
+
+Hitler lÀt sina trupper överskrida BeneluxlÀndernas grÀnser i maj 1940 (jÀmför med Schlieffenplanen frÄn första vÀrldskriget). De allierade trupperna gick dÀrefter in i Belgien för att ta upp kampen pÄ belgiskt territorium, varpÄ tyskarna intog delar av NederlÀnderna genom överraskande luftlandsÀttning men satte in sitt huvudanfall genom Ardennerna, ut mot Engelska kanalen. Frankrike hade inte mycket försvar dÄ de inte hade uppgraderat sina vapen och kanoner ordentligt efter första vÀrldskriget utan mycket förlitade sig pÄ Maginotlinjen. Anfallet splittrade de allierade arméerna, som tvingades evakuera den europeiska kontinenten vid Dunkerque. NÀr de drog sig ut ur Belgien, gick Tyskland in frÄn öst. Frankrike stod inom kort besegrat. I detta lÀge, den 10 juni, hade Mussolinis Italien gÄtt med i kriget pÄ axelmakternas sida och gick nu till anfall mot Frankrike. Inför Frankrikes fall gick Storbritannien till attack och sÀnkte delar av den franska flottan för att fartygen inte skulle hamna i tyska hÀnder.
+
+Det militÀra sammanbrottet ledde Àven till ett politiskt. Tredje franska republiken upplöstes och ersattes av den tyskvÀnliga Vichyregimen under Pétain, medan generalen Charles de Gaulle flydde till England dÀr han bildade organisationen det Fria Frankrike. De franska kolonierna kom att uppdelas mellan dessa tvÄ.
+
+Slaget om Storbritannien
+
+Efter Frankrikes fall försökte Tyskland tvinga Storbritannien till fred genom terrorbombning. Den nye brittiske premiÀrministern Winston Churchill fortsatte dock kampen och Storbritannien uthÀrdade ett fruktansvÀrt tyskt luftkrig mot öarna. Under slaget om Storbritannien lyckades brittiska RAF, Royal Air Force, stÄ emot Hermann Görings Luftwaffe. Med hjÀlp av ny förbÀttrad radarteknik kunde det brittiska flygvapnet sÀtta in sina numerÀrt underlÀgsna flygplan vid de stÀllen de verkligen behövdes. Dessutom gjorde Göring ett taktiskt misstag genom att lÀmna militÀrflygfÀlten ifred och bomba storstÀder, vilket ledde till oerhörda förluster av bombflyg. Detta ledde till att Hitler tvingades skjuta upp den planerade invasionen av Storbritannien (Operation Sjölejon) pÄ obestÀmd tid, dÄ ett sÄdant företag bedömdes vara alltför riskfyllt utan absolut tyskt luftherravÀlde över Engelska kanalen och södra Storbritannien.
+
+Mellan juni 1940 och juni 1941 sÄg det ytligt sett mörkt ut för de allierade. Polen, Danmark, Norge, Luxemburg, Frankrike, Belgien, NederlÀnderna, Tjeckoslovakien, Grekland och Jugoslavien hade besegrats av axelmakterna. Till sjöss hade den tyska flottan (Kriegsmarine) övertaget med en stor mÀngd sÀnkt handelstonnage. Sovjetunionen, USA och Japan stod fortfarande utanför kriget. Mot Tysklands imperium stod Storbritannien med samvÀldeslÀnderna ensamma, bortsett frÄn liten hjÀlp av de Gaulles fria franska styrkor.
+
+Strategiskt sett var dock utgÄngen av slaget om Storbritannien av avgörande betydelse. Den brittiska örlogsblockaden bestod och strÀckte sig frÄn Grönland till Alexandria och Suezkanalen. Inga importvaror kunde nÄ Tyskland över haven. FrÄn baser pÄ Brittiska öarna kunde det brittiska bombflyget nÄ hela Tyskland.
+
+Avgörandets tid: Tyskland anfaller Sovjet och USA dras in i kriget
+
+Utan att ha lyckats besegra Storbritannien vÀnde Nazityskland nu krigsmaskinen österut. Ett anfall pÄ Sovjetunionen hade förberetts till 15 maj 1941 men de tyska arméerna var först tvungna att besÀtta Jugoslavien och Grekland. Den tyska och italienska ockupationen av Jugoslavien bottnade i att den för axelmakterna vÀnliga, sittande regeringen hade avsatts. Grekland befann sig sedan hösten 1940 redan i krig med Italien, nu öppnades en ny front efter att tyska trupper tillÄtits utnyttja bulgariskt territorium. Det har hÀvdats att dessa offensiver blev orsaken till att Operation Barbarossa sköts upp frÄn 15 maj till 22 juni.
+
+Operation Barbarossa
+
+Den 22 juni 1941 satte Adolf Hitler igÄng Operation Barbarossa, det storskaliga anfallet pÄ Sovjetunionen. Samtidigt anföll Finland Sovjetunionen i sitt sÄ kallade fortsÀttningskrig (efter att Sovjet hade bombat ett antal finska stÀder). Kriget pÄ östfronten hade börjat och Josef Stalin blev överraskad av anfallet. Trots flera underrÀttelserapporter om tysk uppladdning vÀgrade han tro att Hitler skulle bryta icke-angreppspakten och under flera dagar rÄdde handlingsförlamning i Kreml. Trots att Sovjet var numerÀrt överlÀgset hade överraskningen i kombination med Stalins tidigare utrensningar bland de militÀra befÀlen en negativ effekt.
+
+Den tyska belÀgringen av Leningrad pÄbörjades den 21 augusti 1941 och var ocksÄ en slutpunkt för den tyska offensiven pÄ den norra delen av fronten. Efter fem mÄnader stod tyskarna utanför Moskva. Offensiven var till en början framgÄngsrik. Sedan 2/3 miljoner ryssar kapitulerat i dubbelslaget vid Brjansk och Vjazma i mitten av oktober och Kalinin fallit i ryska hÀnder, föranledde Moskvas utsatta lÀge regeringen att tillfÀlligt flytta till Kujbysjev. FrÄn tyskt hÄll hÀvdades, att den ryska krigsmakten var likviderad och att endast rensningsoperationer Äterstod. HÀr kom krigets första vÀndpunkt. Sovjet lyckades stoppa tyskarna framför sin huvudstad och de tyska trupperna körde fast i den begynnande ryska vintern. Förbindelselinjerna var uttÀnjda till bristningsgrÀnsen och talrika sovjetiska förstÀrkningar anlÀnde alltjÀmt till fronten.
+
+Slaget om Atlanten
+
+Redan vid krigsutbrottet Är 1939 hade de krigförande upprÀttat sjöblockader för att störa eller hindra fiendens handel. För Tysklands del skedde detta huvudsakligen genom organiserat ubÄtskrig. Sedan Tysklands flygvapen förlorat slaget om Storbritannien, lÄg det blockerade Tysklands enda möjlighet till seger i att svÀlta ut invÄnarna pÄ Brittiska öarna.
+
+Efter tyskarnas inledande framgÄngar vid invasionen av Sovjetunionen Är 1941, var behovet stort att ersÀtta de materiella förlusterna. Slaget om Atlanten kom dÀrför att utvidgas Àven till Norra ishavet genom att stora mÀngder krigsmateriel och övriga förnödenheter skickades till Sovjetunionens hamnar i Murmansk och Archangelsk.
+
+Sedan 1942/43 översteg nybyggnaden av fartyg förlusterna samtidigt som u-bÄtsförlusterna skenade. SenvÄren 1943 hade tyskarna i praktiken förlorat slaget om Atlanten. Viktiga faktorer bakom tyskarnas nederlag var konvojsystemet, de allierades luftövervakning samt tekniska innovationer som radar och dekryptering av de tyska kommunikationsmetoderna baserade pÄ Enigma.
+
+Pearl Harbor
+
+Den 7 december 1941 anföll Japan överraskande den amerikanska flottbasen vid Pearl Harbor pÄ Hawaii. 2403 personer dog och 1178 skadades vid attacken. Fyra dygn efter anfallet förklarade Tyskland och Italien krig mot USA. PÄ detta sÀtt drogs Àven USA in i kriget pÄ de allierades sida.
+
+Nordafrika
+
+I den nordafrikanska öknen kÀmpade italienarna tillsammans med Erwin Rommel mot britterna under en serie av generaler, och var pÄ vÀg att frÄn Libyen erövra kontrollen över Suezkanalen. Men 1942 lyckades Bernard Law Montgomery slutligen tillfoga Rommel och dennes italienska allierade ett avgörande nederlag vid el-Alamein i Egypten. Efter amerikanska och brittiska landstigningar 1943 i de Vichy-trogna kolonierna Marocko och Algeriet, tvingades de tyska och italienska styrkorna i Nordafrika att kapitulera slutgiltigt efter att med viss framgÄng ha försvarat sig i Tunisien.
+
+Stalingrad och vÀndpunkten
+
+I slutet av 1942 ryckte framskjutna tyska trupper in i Stalingrad men blev slutligen omringade dÀr efter en sovjetisk motoffensiv. Staden var strategiskt betydelsefull för tillgÄngen till petroleum, trafiken pÄ Volga och som symbol för Stalin. Trots fÀltmarskalk Erich von Mansteins försök att bryta belÀgringen av Stalingrad, hölls tyskarna under befÀl av fÀltmarskalk Paulus alltjÀmt instÀngda dÀr. Den 2 februari 1943 kapitulerade tyskarna i Stalingrad, vilket blev Ànnu en vÀndpunkt i kriget. Paulus, som hade blivit befordrad till fÀltmarskalk en kort tid före kapitulationen, förvÀntades att begÄ sjÀlvmord av Hitler men gav sig istÀllet till ryssarna och visades senare upp som en trofé. Slaget om Stalingrad blev krigets blodigaste batalj, med bortÄt 2 miljoner döda i strider, sjukdom, kyla och undernÀring.
+
+Slutfas: Axelmakternas nederlag
+
+
+1943 utkÀmpades ocksÄ vÀrldens största pansarslag, slaget vid Kursk, med över tvÄ miljoner soldater och 6 000 stridsvagnar inblandade. Detta var den sista större offensiven frÄn axelmakternas sida. Nu skulle ett nytt mönster formas, ett av konstant retrÀtt pÄ östfronten. Efter Kursk var axelmakterna alltid i retrÀtt pÄ östfronten. Och genom hela kriget förbÀttrade Röda armén sina strategier, taktiker och strukturer.
+
+PÄ sommaren 1944 genomförde ryssarna Operation Bagration (uppkallad efter Pjotr Bagration), dÀr tyskarna blev totalt överraskade (de hade vÀntat en operation mot Ukraina) och kördes ut ur Vitryssland. Röda Armén kom fram till Warszawas portar pÄ bara nÄgon mÄnad.
+
+Ă
r 1943 hade slutligen slaget om Atlanten avgjorts och stora mÀngder amerikanska förstÀrkningar och materiel transporterades över till Storbritannien. Terrorbombningarna av Tyskland kom Àven igÄng pÄ allvar. De allierade invaderade Italien och Benito Mussolini tvingades avgÄ.
+
+Den 6 juni 1944 â "Dagen D" â landsteg de allierade i Normandie och öppnade dĂ€rmed en andra front mot Tyskland. Tyskarna drevs under sommaren ut ur Frankrike och framĂ„t hösten var sĂ„ gott som hela landet befriat. Vid slutet av 1944 genomförde den tyska armĂ©n sin sista stora motoffensiv mot de vĂ€stallierade, den sĂ„ kallade Ardenneroffensiven. Men Tysklands dagar var rĂ€knade, man kunde helt enkelt inte ersĂ€tta förlorad materiel och manskap lika mycket som de allierade kunde. Det visade sig ocksĂ„ i slaget om Berlin dĂ„ Tysklands resurser inte rĂ€ckte till för att försvara sig mot Sovjetunionen.
+
+I Stilla havet hade hÄrda strider rasat under hela kriget men nu stod de allierade och knackade pÄ Tokyos dörr. USA:s president Franklin D. Roosevelt dog före krigsslutet och den nye presidenten, Harry S. Truman, gav order om att det nya vapnet, atombomben, skulle fÀllas över Japan, ca 200 000 mÀnniskor dog de nÀrmsta timmarna och mellan 150 000 och 200 000 ytterligare dog av svÀlt, törst och brÀnnskador, frÀmst kvinnor och barn. Efter atombombningarna av stÀderna Hiroshima och Nagasaki samt Sovjetunionens krigsförklaring och snabba erövringar av japanska besittningar i Kina och Korea kapitulerade Àven Japan inför övermakten, den 15 augusti 1945 men kapitulationen skrevs pÄ först 2 september av den japanske generalen Umezu.
+
+Det andra vĂ€rldskriget var den mĂ€nskliga historiens största konflikt. Det har berĂ€knats att 50-60 miljoner mĂ€nniskoliv gick förlorade, dĂ€ribland alla de som dog pĂ„ grund av terrorn (koncentrationslĂ€ger, terrorbombningar och andra krigshandlingar). Förenta nationerna bildades den 24 oktober 1945 som följd av en konferens i San Francisco under perioden aprilâjuni.
+
+Andra vÀrldskriget avlöstes av kalla kriget, konflikten och maktkampen mellan frÀmst USA och Sovjetunionen under den senare halvan av 1900-talet.
+
+Ăversikt
+
+Allierat samarbete
+
+Storbritannien och Frankrike hade gÄtt ut i krig mot Nazityskland tvÄ dagar efter att Nazityskland invaderade Polen 1 september 1939. Men efter att Frankrike besegrats av Tyskland 1940 stod Storbritannien i princip ensamt i kampen mot Tyskland. USA stod Ànnu sÄ lÀnge utanför kriget och Àven om oron i USA blev större efter Frankrikes fall var motstÄndet hos den amerikanska befolkningen stort mot att gÄ med i kriget. USA stödde ÀndÄ Storbritannien genom vapenförsÀljning. FrÄn och med vÄren 1941 fick britterna hjÀlp med bland annat vapen genom Lend-Lease Act. NÀr USA slutligen blev indraget i kriget i december 1941 utstrÀcktes denna hjÀlp till samtliga krigförande stater pÄ den allierade sidan.
+
+Den 9â12 augusti 1941 möttes USA:s president Franklin D. Roosevelt och Storbritanniens premiĂ€rminister Winston Churchill första gĂ„ngen. DĂ€r utfĂ€rdade de den sĂ„ kallade Atlantdeklarationen som talade om alla folks rĂ€tt till sjĂ€lvbestĂ€mmande, en framtid dĂ€r konflikter skulle lösas utan vĂ„ld samt den nazistiska statens totala oskadliggörande.
+
+En följd av alliansen med Sovjetunionen blev att Stalin gick med pÄ att lÄta 10 000 polska, svÀltfödda GULAG-slavarbetare och krigsfÄngar utvandra i mars 1942 över Persien/Iran och mellanöstern, för att senare i Montgomerys 8:e armé sÀttas i krig vid Tobruk (1943), Monte Cassino (1944) och slaget om Bologna (1945). FrÄn den ÄterstÄende stora mÀngden polska GULAG- och krigsfÄngar i Sovjetunionen lyckades ytterligare ca 70 000 ta sig ut ur landet och av resten bildades senare tvÄ polska folkarméer understÀllda rysk kommando. Vid vÀstfronten hade Polen 228 000 soldater 1945.
+
+Churchill ogillade egentligen Stalin och den politik han stod för men efter att Nazityskland angripit Sovjetunionen 1941 inleddes ett nÀra samarbete mellan britter och ryssar. BÄda parter förband sig att inte sluta separatfred, utan tillsammans besegra den gemensamma fienden. USA:s roll kan trots att landet formellt var neutralt fram till anfallet pÄ Pearl Harbor sÀgas vara allierad eftersom de försÄg de andra allierade med stora kvantiteter vapen, rÄvaror och livsförnödenheter. Strax efter nyÄr 1942 utformade amerikaner och britter den strategi som skulle besegra axelmakterna. Tyskland, som ansÄgs vara den farligaste motstÄndaren, skulle besegras först. Största resurserna skulle sÄledes lÀggas pÄ att besegra Hitler innan alla resurser riktades mot Japan. En rad andra lÀnder (vid sidan om de tre stora plus Kina) Ätog sig nu att gÄ i krig mot axelmakterna. Det slutliga mÄlet med kriget var axelmakternas villkorslösa kapitulation.
+
+Sovjetunionen som redan innan USA:s intrÀde i kriget tagit emot omfattande hjÀlp frÄn USA fick nu Ànnu mer hjÀlp frÄn amerikanarna med bÄde vapen och livsmedel. Visserligen var inte vapenbistÄndet i nÀrheten av de enorma volymer som den ryska industrin producerade frÄn och med 1943 men anses ÀndÄ ha bidragit starkt till den ryska krigsinsatsen. Av Ànnu större betydelse var leveranserna av rÄvaror, livsmedel, lastbilar och lokomotiv som amerikanarna sÀnde.
+
+Churchill besökte Stalin i Moskva sommaren 1942 för att förankra de vÀstallierades strategi för att vinna kriget. Stalin var inte nöjd och krÀvde att en vÀstfront skulle upprÀttas sÄ fort som möjligt genom en invasion i Frankrike. Det var krav som han envist reste resten av 1942 och 1943. De vÀstallierades svar var att de inte var redo för ett sÄ stort företag Àn. Viss tillfredsstÀllelse fick Stalin sommaren 1943 dÄ amerikaner och britter invaderade Sicilien och södra Italien och dÀrigenom skapade en europeisk sydfront. Sovjetunionens diktator var ÀndÄ inte nöjd dÄ den stora majoriteten av den tyska krigsmakten fortfarande opererade i Sovjetunionen.
+
+Storbritanniens, USA:s och Sovjetunionens utrikesministrar beslutade vid Moskvakonferensen i oktober 1943 att tillsÀtta European Advisory Commission (EAC), en kommission som bland annat fick i uppgift att utarbeta en gemensam plan för segrarmakternas inbördes uppdelning av Efterkrigstyskland i ockupationszoner, vilken kom att kallas Londonprotokollet.
+
+Roosevelt, Stalin och Churchill möttes alla tre första gĂ„ngen i Irans huvudstad Teheran 28 november â 1 december i Teherankonferensen. DĂ€r fick Stalin löfte om att en vĂ€stfront skulle upprĂ€ttas i maj följande Ă„r Operation Overlord. Landstigning skulle ske Ă€ven i Sydfrankrike och ryssarna skulle ungefĂ€r samtidigt inleda stora offensiver pĂ„ Ăstfronten. Stalin blev ocksĂ„ lovad att Sovjetunionens grĂ€ns efter kriget skulle flyttas lĂ€ngre vĂ€sterut. Detta gick ut över Polen som i sin tur skulle kompenseras med att fĂ„ tidigare tyska omrĂ„den lĂ€ngre vĂ€sterut. Relationen mellan Stalin och Churchill var spĂ€nd, dĂ€remot kom diktatorn bra överens med Roosevelt som Stalin hade stor respekt för. Stalin sjĂ€lv blev under kriget mycket populĂ€r i USA och kallades av amerikanarna för "Uncle Joe".
+
+NÄgot möte mellan de tre stora förekom inte under 1944. DÀremot drogs under Äret planerna upp för den nya internationella fredsorganisation som efter kriget skulle ersÀtta Nationernas Förbund. VÀrldsbanken och Internationella valutafonden grundades ocksÄ.
+
+Den 4â11 februari 1945 möttes Roosevelt, Stalin och Churchill igen under Jaltakonferensen. Tyskland var i praktiken besegrat och förhandlingarna gĂ€llde nu hur efterkrigstidens Europa skulle se ut. De enades om att Tyskland efter kriget skulle delas i ockupationszoner sĂ„som utarbetats i Londonprotokollet, nu dock med tillĂ€gget att Frankrike skulle ansluta som en fjĂ€rde ockupationsmakt. Stalin krĂ€vde att det besegrade Tyskland skulle demilitariseras och betala ett enormt krigsskadestĂ„nd. NĂ„gon enighet nĂ„ddes inte hĂ€r utan frĂ„gorna sköts pĂ„ framtiden. De enades dock om att Sovjetunionen skulle gĂ„ med i kriget mot Japan 3 mĂ„nader efter att Tyskland kapitulerat. Sovjetunionen lovade ocksĂ„ att bli medlem i FN som grundades i San Francisco i slutet av april 1945.
+
+NĂ€sta stora möte var Potsdamkonferensen 17 juli â 2 augusti. Kriget i Europa var över men fortfarande hade inte Japan kapitulerat. Roosevelt hade avlidit och eftertrĂ€tts av Harry S. Truman. Ăven Churchill var borta efter att ha förlorat parlamentsvalet. Ny brittisk premiĂ€rminister var labourledaren Attlee. FrĂ„gorna var densamma men nĂ„gon enighet om en lĂ„ngsiktig lösning pĂ„ TysklandsfrĂ„gan kom inte, nĂ„got fredsavtal blev det inte heller. De tre allierade enades dock om att rĂ€ttegĂ„ngar skulle hĂ„llas mot ledande nazistiska krigsförbrytare (NĂŒrnbergprocessen). Som avtalats redan i Jalta, förklarade Sovjetunionen krig mot Japan 8 augusti, exakt 3 mĂ„nader efter att Tyskland kapitulerat. Japan kapitulerade 15 augusti (kapitulationen undertecknades 2 september) efter att Hiroshima och Nagasaki förstörts av atombomber. Japan blev efter kapitulationen ockuperat av de allierade. Ett gemensamt allierat rĂ„d skulle styra landet men i praktiken var det USA och general Douglas MacArthur som styrde landet och Japan Ă„terfick sin sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet först 1951. Ăven hĂ€r hölls rĂ€ttegĂ„ngar mot de frĂ€msta krigsförbrytarna.
+
+För USA:s del avslutades andra vĂ€rldskriget först klockan 12.30 (lokal tid) den 28 april 1952, i samband med att USA:s utrikesminister Dean Acheson överlĂ€mnade ratifikationsurkunderna till det japanska fredsfördraget, som dĂ„ trĂ€dde i kraft. DĂ€rmed upphörde det formella krigstillstĂ„ndet mellan USA och Japan. Ă
r 1943 gick Italien över till de allierades sida.
+
+De neutrala staternas situation
+NĂ€r kriget inleddes i början av september 1939 var bara fyra stater direkt inblandade i kriget, förutom Tyskland och Polen Ă€ven Storbritannien och Frankrike. Merparten av vĂ€rldens stater förklarade sig vara neutrala, inklusive USA som efter första vĂ€rldskriget bedrivit en isolationistisk politik. Sovjetunionen var fram till sommaren 1941 neutralt mot vĂ€stmakterna men angrep Polen (se Molotov-Ribbentroppakten) i slutet av september 1939 och senare pĂ„ hösten Finland â finska vinterkriget. Gentemot Japan skulle Sovjetunionen förbli neutrala fram till början av augusti 1945.
+
+Andra vĂ€rldskriget skulle visa sig orsaka mycket stora problem för de mindre lĂ€nderna. BĂ„da parter i kriget visade sig hysa obefintlig respekt för att mindre stater ville stĂ„ utanför kriget. Europeiska lĂ€nder som Sverige, Finland, Danmark, Norge, Jugoslavien, NederlĂ€nderna, Luxemburg, Belgien, Spanien, Portugal och Schweiz förklarade sig neutrala i krigets inledning. Samtliga stater utom Portugal, Spanien, Sverige och Schweiz blev indragna i kriget. Ăven de baltiska staterna blev indragna. I samtliga fall beroende pĂ„ att nĂ€mnda lĂ€nder blev angripna. I Sveriges fall kan landets roll under finska vinterkriget beskrivas som "icke krigförande". (se vidare Sverige under andra vĂ€rldskriget)
+
+USA hade förklarat sig neutralt men gav trots detta som nÀmnts omfattande militÀrt bistÄnd till Storbritannien frÄn och med 1940 och frÄn hösten 1941 Àven till Sovjetunionen. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ansÄg att landet mÄste gÄ med i kriget men hade svÄrt att Àndra det amerikanska folkets instÀllning till kriget. Först efter det japanska anfallet mot Pearl Harbor den 7 december 1941 vÀnde opinionen. Huruvida USA skulle engagera sig i bÄde det asiatiska och europeiska kriget "löstes" 11 december dÄ Tyskland och Italien förklarade krig mot USA.
+
+Sovjetunionen var alltsÄ neutralt i kriget Àven om man exporterade stora mÀngder olja, legeringsmetaller, gummi (importerat för ÀndamÄlet) och spannmÄl till Tyskland under krigets första tvÄ Är. VÀstmakterna tog Stalins invasion av Polen, som var vÀsts allierad, och Finland som en förtÀckt allians med Hitler och planerade ett tag till och med att gÄ i krig med Sovjetunionen. Man umgicks med planer pÄ att bomba Baku och skicka en armé till Skandinavien för att hjÀlpa Finland. Först efter att Tyskland invaderade Sovjetunionen 22 juni 1941 slöts en allians med britterna och efter USA:s intrÀde Àven med amerikanarna. De latinamerikanska staterna var frÄn början neutrala men med nÄgra fÄ undantag engagerade de sig sÄ smÄningom i kriget pÄ de allierades sida.
+
+Spanien och Portugal förblev neutrala hela kriget. Det kan tyckas överraskande att de inte stÀllde upp för Tyskland dÄ landets regimer ideologiskt stod mycket nÀrmare Nazityskland Àn de vÀsterlÀndska demokratierna. I Spaniens fall kan det emellertid sannolikt förklaras av att landet var "utmattat" efter tre Ärs blodigt inbördeskrig. I Portugals fall var landet traditionellt allierat med Storbritannien och kom senare att stöda allierade anstrÀngningar genom att tillÄta militÀrbaser pÄ Azorerna.
+
+Schweiz neutralitet var visserligen garanterad av alla stormakter men det torde knappast ha hindrat Hitler att invadera landet om han ansett det nödvÀndigt.
+
+Turkiet förklarade sig neutralt och förblev sÄ under nÀstan hela kriget.
+
+Iran var i princip neutralt tills det blev ockuperat sensommaren 1941 av Sovjetunionen och Storbritannien som bÄda var intresserade av att sÀkra transportvÀgen över Kaukasus för att skicka Lend-lease till den förra. 1943 förklarade Iran krig mot Tyskland och gick dÀrmed in i Andra vÀrldskriget pÄ de allierades sida.
+
+Gerillaaktiviteter
+PÄ mÄnga stÀllen bakom fronten och pÄ alla sidor fanns bevÀpnade irreguljÀra enheter, gerilla eller partisaner. Till dem kopplas störningen av en ockupation av en segerrik armé men ocksÄ mÄnga grymheter och brott mot krigets lagar.
+
+PÄ den allierade sidan finns mÄnga vÀlkÀnda exempel:
+Den aktiva motstÄndsrörelsen i Danmark var till exempel anledningen till att Danmark av de allierade vÄren 1945 erkÀndes som stridande part mot Nazityskland. I Norge utfördes ett lyckat attentat i Rjukan dÀr tyskarna framstÀllde tungt vatten för att kunna bygga atombomber.
+
+De mest kĂ€nda Ă€r Titos partisaner i Jugoslavien och partisanerna i Sovjetunionen. I bĂ„da fallen band de upp stora tyska truppstyrkor. Äetnici var en annan motstĂ„ndsrörelse som utgjordes av serbiska nationalister som dock periodvis krigade Ă€ven mot Titos styrkor.
+
+I Polen har partisanförband verkat under hela kriget. Warszawaupproret 1943 i Warszawas ghetto och Warszawaupproret 1944 fick bÄda en mycket blodig upplösning, det sista med att stora delar av staden lades i ruiner och upp till 200 000 civila dödsoffer.
+
+I Frankrike fanns det olika motstÄndsrörelser, bland annat en kommunistisk, som dock alla samlades under gemensam ledning understÀllda det Fria Frankrike frÄn 1943. MotstÄndsrörelsen i vÀstlÀnderna fick efterhand stöd pÄ olika sÀtt frÄn de allierade styrkorna.
+
+Men Ă€ven pĂ„ andra sidan fanns motstĂ„ndsrörelser Ă€ven om de Ă€r mindre kĂ€nda â som i Baltikum och Ukraina mot Sovjet eller i Tyskland (Werwolf) under de allierades ockupation.
+
+Dessa aktiviteter bekÀmpades skoningslöst pÄ alla sidor, med avrÀttningar och hÀmnd pÄ civilbefolkningen.
+
+Civilbefolkningen
+I alla stora internationella konflikter före andra vÀrldskriget hade antalet stupade soldater alltid varit större Àn antalet civila offer. I andra vÀrldskriget var förhÄllandet det motsatta och det Àr ett mönster som upprepats sedan dess, i alla konflikter, och har till och med förstÀrkts ytterligare. Av cirka 60 miljoner dödsoffer (möjligen sÄ mÄnga som 70 miljoner) var cirka 19 miljoner stupade soldater (döda krigsfÄngar orÀknade). Resten var civila. Massbombningar mot stÀder, tortyr, slavarbete, vÄldtÀkter, svÀlt, massavrÀttningar och ren utrotning orsakade ett ofattbart lidande för civilbefolkningen i de drabbade lÀnderna.
+
+1940â41 regnade bomberna ner över de engelska stĂ€derna under Blitzen och tiotusentals mĂ€nniskor omkom. FrĂ„n och med 1943 var förhĂ„llandet det omvĂ€nda. Nu angrep allierat flyg tyska stĂ€der i en bomboffensiv utan motstycke, i slutet av kriget var samtliga tyska storstĂ€der helt sönderbombade och hundratusentals civila hade dödats. Ăver Japan var situationen liknande. Terrorbombningarna mot de japanska stĂ€derna kulminerade först med atombombningarna av Hiroshima och Nagasaki. "Little Boy" och "Fat man", bomberna som slĂ€pptes över Hiroshima och Nagasaki dödade tillsammans omedelbart 130 000â150 000 mĂ€nniskor. Senare skulle hundratusentals mĂ€nniskor avlida av brĂ€nnskador och olika strĂ„lningsrelaterade skador och sjukdomar. Ăn idag sĂ„ föds det barn med utvecklingsstörning/missbildningar pĂ„ grund av atombomberna. (se vidare atombomberna över Hiroshima och Nagasaki.)
+
+Medan de tyska ockupanterna var relativt Ă„terhĂ„llsamma i VĂ€steuropa, inklusive Norden, förutom mot den som rĂ„kade vara jude, rom eller tillhörde motstĂ„ndsrörelsen, var förhĂ„llandet det rakt motsatta i Ăsteuropa. Förutom den nĂ€rapĂ„ totala utrotningen av Europas judar, romer och aktiva kommunister, planerade Hitler och hans hantlangare ocksĂ„ en drastisk minskning av de slaviska befolkningsgrupperna i Ăsteuropa. I Polen och Sovjetunionen skulle den civila befolkningen (judar och romer orĂ€knade) antingen förslavas, deporteras bortom Uralbergen eller masslikvideras. Medan Sovjetunionen var det land som hade de allra högsta totala dödstalen var Polen Ă€nnu hĂ„rdare drabbat i förhĂ„llande till folkmĂ€ngden. Av cirka 35 miljoner invĂ„nare dog cirka 6 miljoner, nĂ€stan var sjĂ€tte invĂ„nare. Av dessa var cirka 3 miljoner judar, nĂ€stan 90 % av Polens judiska befolkning.
+
+Ăven i Ostasien och Stilla havet innebar kriget fruktansvĂ€rda umbĂ€randen för civilbefolkningen. NĂ„gon motsvarighet till Hitlers "Endlösung" (förintelsen) fanns inte (Ă„tminstone inte lika systematisk) men den japanska krigföringen var Ă€ndĂ„ oerhört brutal och tog föga hĂ€nsyn till GenĂšvekonventioner. VĂ€rst drabbades Kina dĂ€r 10 miljoner civila föll offer för japansk terrorkrigföring, svĂ€lt, med mera.
+
+Tabell över antalet döda i respektive land
+
+Andra vĂ€rldskriget Ă€r det blodigaste kriget i historien. Totalt berĂ€knas kriget ha krĂ€vt 50â65 miljoner liv â att bedömningarna skiljer sig Ă„t sĂ„ pass mycket beror pĂ„ att osĂ€kerheten Ă€r stor över hur mĂ„nga civila kineser som dog. En del anser att det kan vara sĂ„ mĂ„nga som 20 milj. Dessutom skedde omfattande systematisk utrensning av olika grupper under Josef Stalins regim som av förklarliga skĂ€l saknar tillrĂ€cklig dokumentation, och otaliga dog efter kriget i sovjetisk fĂ„ngenskap. De flesta berĂ€kningarna idag anger antalet döda totalt till 56â60 miljoner. Andra vĂ€rldskriget var den första riktigt stora internationella konflikten dĂ€r antalet civila dödsoffer var mycket större Ă€n antalet stupade soldater.
+
+Tabellen nedan upptar de stater som hade de största förlusterna. NÀr det gÀller antalet stupade tyska soldater uppgÄr antalet till cirka 5,3 miljoner om österrikare, och döda krigsfÄngar rÀknas in. DÀrtill tillkommer Ätminstone 1 miljon frivilliga, tvÄngskommenderade med flera. Ett mindre antal civila amerikaner dog i kriget, de flesta vid den japanska attacken mot Pearl Harbor.
+
+ Cirka 6 000 000 judar â ingĂ„r i mycket stor utstrĂ€ckning i ovanstĂ„ende siffror.
+ AnmÀrkning: OvanstÄende siffror angÄende antalet döda tyskar inkluderar inte de civila som dödades eller dog nÀr de flydde undan den framryckande Röda armén. Siffror varierar frÄn 200 000 Ànda upp till tvÄ miljoner.
+
+Frederna
+
+Decenniet som följde efter andra vÀrldskrigets slut slöts efterhand fred med de lÀnder som krigat mot de allierade (undantaget Japan och Sovjetunionen).
+
+I freden i Paris 1947 slöts fred med Italien, Finland, Ungern och RumÀnien. De berörda lÀnderna fick avtrÀda landomrÄden. Italien fick Àven avtrÀda sina kolonier. Finland fick acceptera grÀnserna frÄn freden efter FortsÀttningskriget och förbjöds Àven att inneha vissa vapensystem, till exempel u-bÄtar.
+
+Ăsterrike Ă„terfick sin sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet först 1955 med nĂ„gra inskrĂ€nkningar. Landet mĂ„ste lova att aldrig ingĂ„ i nĂ„gon militĂ€rallians och att aldrig ansluta sig till Tyskland igen. Dessutom förbjöds Ăsterrike att inneha vissa vapensystem.
+
+Med Tyskland slöts dĂ€remot aldrig nĂ„gon permanent fred. Först i och med kalla krigets slut, Sovjetunionens upplösning och Tysklands Ă„terförening intrĂ€dde kunde ett fredsfördrag undertecknas, i samband med vilket Tyskland formellt accepterade de Allierades annektering av den östra fjĂ€rdedelen av Tyskland. Ă
r 1949 hade USA modifierat krigstillstÄndet med Tyskland men avskaffade det ej dÄ man ville bibehÄlla legala rÀttigheter att ha trupper i Tyskland. USA och flera andra lÀnder avskaffade formellt krigstillstÄndet med Tyskland 1951 som substitut för ett formellt fredsfördrag, Sovjetunionen gjorde likaledes 1955.
+
+Först Är 1990 slöts det sÄ kallade tvÄ plus fyra-fördraget mellan de tyska staterna och de fyra segrarmakterna som slutgiltigt reglerade förhÄllandena mellan dessa stater efter andra vÀrldskriget.
+
+Japan och de vĂ€stallierade slöt fred 1951 och samtidigt Ă„terfick landet sin sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet. Japan fick bland annat avtrĂ€da Formosa till Chiang Kai-sheks nationalistregim pĂ„ ön (som USA dĂ„ betraktade som Kinas legitima regim). Ăgrupperna Kurilerna och ön Sachalin fick Japan avtrĂ€da till Sovjetunionen. Fortfarande har emellertid inget fredsfördrag undertecknats mellan Japan och Ryssland.
+
+Krigets följder
+
+Andra vÀrldskriget började som ett europeiskt krig som utvidgades vartefter, och frÄn och med december 1941 var det ett globalt krig i och med USA:s intÄg i kriget. I krigets efterdyningar följde flera stora förÀndringar pÄ den vÀrldspolitiska scenen.
+Före kriget hade Storbritannien med sitt jÀttelika kolonialimperium varit den ledande stormakten men trots att det tillhörde de ledande segrarmakterna hade kriget tÀrt hÄrt pÄ dess resurser. Frankrike hade före kriget rÀknats som Europas ledande militÀrmakt men denna uppfattning hade tyskarna Àndrat pÄ redan i början av kriget.
+
+Efter krigets slut framtrĂ€dde istĂ€llet tvĂ„ supermakter i en klass för sig, USA och Sovjetunionen. Den amerikanska industrin var oskadad och stod nu för halva vĂ€rldens BNP. Den nyvunna positionen som vĂ€rldens mĂ€ktigaste stat innebar att USA:s roll i vĂ€rldspolitiken blev helt annorlunda Ă€n innan. Sovjetunionen hade bara 20 Ă„r tidigare varit ett utfattigt jordbruksland men hade ocksĂ„ till följd av kriget uppnĂ„tt status som supermakt. Det förfogade över vĂ€rldens största armĂ© och kontrollerade hela Ăsteuropa. FramgĂ„ngen hade dock skett till ett oerhört högt pris i mĂ€nskligt lidande.
+
+Polen fick sitt territorium starkt reducerat med en folkomflyttning frĂ„n de östra regionerna som togs över av Sovjetunionen till nya vĂ€stra och norra omrĂ„den som togs över frĂ„n Tyskland, som följd, samtidigt som den tyska befolkningen fördrevs. De omrĂ„den som förlorades av Polen till Sovjetunionen hade till stor del erövrats av Polen under Polsk-sovjetiska kriget 1919â1921 och beboddes till övervĂ€gande del av ukrainare och vitryssar men Ă€ven av upp till 4 miljoner polacker. Fram till 1950 hade 2,1 miljoner av dessa polacker bosatt sig i de före detta tyska omrĂ„dena inom Tysklands 1937 Ă„rs grĂ€nser, dĂ€r upp till 10 miljoner tyskar hade bott innan deras fördrivning vĂ€sterut under Ă„ren 1944â1950. FrĂ„n polsk sida anser man att de vĂ€stallierade svek Polen genom att överlĂ„ta grĂ€nsdragningen till Stalin â PolenfrĂ„gan avhandlades bakom ryggen pĂ„ den polska regeringen och fick bara liten uppmĂ€rksamhet av USA och Storbritannien vid Teheran och Jalta. Sovjet fick fria hĂ€nder och styrkeförhĂ„llandena vid krigets slut skulle bestĂ€mma grĂ€nserna för den sovjetiska kontrollen. Slutligen faststĂ€lldes landets nya grĂ€nser vid Potsdamkonferensen. PĂ„ liknande sĂ€tt blev Ă€ven de andra lĂ€nderna i det blivande östblocket hanterade med ett antal folkrĂ€ttsliga frĂ„getecken dĂ„ alla beslut togs utan att lĂ€nderna ens tillfrĂ„gades. Tjeckoslovakien överlĂ€ts till Hitler vid MĂŒnchenöverenskommelsen och sedan efter kriget till Stalin. Den officiella avsikten hos de vĂ€stallierade att lĂ„ta demokratiska fria val avgöra de öst- och centraleuropeiska lĂ€ndernas politiska framtid fullföljdes inte. RĂ€ttslig uppgörelse med nazisternas brott fick en klar punkt pĂ„ efterkrigsagendan, bĂ„de inom öst- och vĂ€stblocket, medan brott begĂ„ngna av den sovjetiska makten och de östeuropeiska lydstaterna under lĂ„ng tid var tabu, till exempel Katynmassakern, massdeporteringar till Gulag och terror av NKVD och dess understĂ€llda nationella sĂ€kerhetsstyrkor.
+
+Tyskland förlorade cirka 25 % av sitt förkrigsterritorium, varifrĂ„n miljontals fördrevs, de flesta kvinnor och barn. Vid ett möte i Potsdam sommaren 1945 delade USA, Frankrike, Storbritannien och Sovjetunionen upp Tyskland i ockupationszoner. Sovjetunionen överlĂ€mnade riksdelarna öster om Oder till Polen och lade sjĂ€lvt beslag pĂ„ omrĂ„det runt Königsberg. Riksdelen Ostmark blev Ă„ter Ăsterrike som Ă„terupprĂ€ttades som sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig stat 1955. Delvis som en konsekvens av Morgenthauplanen och delvis som en konsekvens av fransk önskan om ett svagt Tyskland genomfördes omfattande nedmontering av tung industri. RuhromrĂ„det stĂ€lldes under internationell kontroll, Elsass-Lothringen togs över av Frankrike och det kolrika Saarland bröts loss frĂ„n Tyskland och gjordes till ett franskt protektorat. Visserligen hĂ€vdade de vĂ€stallierade att den slutliga grĂ€nsdragningen skulle vĂ€nta tills ett fredsavtal kunde trĂ€ffas med Tyskland men i praktiken fick man acceptera fait accompli i och med att 12â14 miljoner tyskar fördrevs frĂ„n östra delen av Tyskland med omnejd. Antalet döda som en konsekvens av fördrivningen, möjligtvis den största etniska rensningen i modern historia, Ă€r svĂ„rt att uppskatta men anges vanligtvis till mellan 0,5 och 2 miljoner.
+
+Storbritannien blev i efterhand nĂ„got av en förlorare, trots att landet förklarat krig mot Nazityskland bara tvĂ„ dagar efter invasionen i Polen 1939 och tillsammans med USA och Sovjetunionen kunde diktera Tysklands kapitulationsvillkor vid krigets slut. De kommande decennierna avvecklades nĂ€stan hela kolonialvĂ€ldet och eran som jordens mĂ€ktigaste stat var över. Ăver huvud taget bidrog kriget starkt till att samtliga stormakters kolonialvĂ€lden i Afrika och Asien efterhand avvecklades.
+
+Den stora koalitionen mellan USA, Sovjetunionen och Storbritannien bröts snabbt efter kriget, dĂ„ Nazityskland inte lĂ€ngre fanns som en gemensam fiende för Sovjetunionen och de vĂ€stallierade. Inom nĂ„gra Ă„r hade det sĂ„ kallade kalla kriget inletts och Europa delats politiskt, inklusive Tyskland: ett block nĂ€ra allierade med USA och ett annat block med sovjetiska lydstater i Ăsteuropa. Det kalla kriget ledde till en vĂ„ldsam kapprustning mellan de tvĂ„ supermakterna och gav upphov till mĂ€ngder med andra konflikter globalt sett, som till exempel Koreakriget, Vietnamkriget och kriget i Afghanistan 1979-1989. Kalla kriget upphörde först med de europeiska kommunistregimernas fall i slutet av 1980-talet.
+
+Viktiga inslag
+ Nazityskland â Ekonomisk depression, judeförföljelser, upprustning
+ Massakern vid Babij Jar
+ Danmark under andra vĂ€rldskriget â tysk invasion
+ Norge under andra vĂ€rldskriget â tysk invasion, Vidkun Quisling, kungen i London
+ Katynmassakern
+ Nanjing-massakern
+ Maginotlinjen
+ Operation BlÄ
+ Operation Husky â Invasionen av Sicilien; upprĂ€ttandet av en Europeisk sydfront
+ Operation Seelöwe
+ Operation WeserĂŒbung
+ Blitzen
+ Förintelsen
+ Operation Overlord
+ Pearl Harbor â USA gĂ„r med i kriget
+ Enigma â kryptering
+ Manhattanprojektet
+ Hiwi â kollaboratörer som hjĂ€lpte Nazityskland
+ Trinitytestet â vĂ€rldens första kĂ€rnvapentest
+ MotstÄndsrörelser under andra vÀrldskriget
+ Operation Market Garden
+ Warszawaupproret 1943 â det judiska upproret
+ Warszawaupproret 1944
+ Jaltakonferensen
+ Kriget i luften â under kriget kom flygvapnet att ha stor betydelse
+ Bombningarna av Tokyo 9-10 mars 1945
+ WisĆa-Oder-operationen
+ Slaget vid el-Alamein
+ Slaget om Guadalcanal
+ Slaget vid Iwo Jima
+ Slaget vid Königsberg â Tysklands östra utpost i dĂ„varande Ostpreussen. Viktigt för Sovjet i slaget om Ostpreussen
+ Slaget vid Kursk â av Tyskland ocksĂ„ omnĂ€mnd Operation Zitadelle
+ Slaget om Nordkalotten
+ Slaget om Monte Cassino
+ Slaget om Okinawa
+ Slaget vid Rzjev 1942-1943 En av Röda armens segrar under kriget
+ Slaget om Saipan
+ Slaget vid Stalingrad
+ Slaget vid Suomussalmi
+ Enhet 731 â japanska krigsförbrytelser
+ Lista över personer i andra vÀrldskriget
+ Pansarvapnet under andra vÀrldskriget
+ SĂ€nkningen av Wilhelm Gustloff
+ Atombomberna över Hiroshima och Nagasaki
+
+Se Àven
+ Första vÀrldskriget
+ Röda armén
+ Schutzstaffeln â ofta förkortat SS
+ Teherankonferensen
+ Jaltakonferensen
+ Potsdamkonferensen
+ VÀstfronten under andra vÀrldskriget
+ Ăstfronten under andra vĂ€rldskriget
+ MotstÄndsrörelser under andra vÀrldskriget
+ Danmark under andra vÀrldskriget
+ Finland under andra vÀrldskriget:
+ 1939â1940 â Vinterkriget
+ 1941â1944 â FortsĂ€ttningskriget
+ Frankrike under andra vÀrldskriget
+ Irankrisen 1946
+ Italien under andra vÀrldskriget
+ Japan under andra vÀrldskriget
+ Norge under andra vÀrldskriget
+ Polen under andra vÀrldskriget
+ Sverige under andra vÀrldskriget
+ Operation Foxley
+ Tidsaxel över andra vÀrldskriget
+ Andra vÀrldskriget i Europa
+ Nazitysklands kollaps
+ Stillahavskriget
+
+AnmÀrkningar
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+ HĂ€ndelser man minns â en krönika 1920â1969, fil dr Harald Schiller 1970
+ Nationalencyklopedin, 2007
+ Nyström H, Nyström Ă, Perspektiv pĂ„ historien A; 2001
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ Andra vÀrldskriget sÄ man förstÄr av Christer Bergström
+ Tomas Andersson Odén, Massmedia under mellankrigstiden och andra vÀrldskriget, 14:e nordiska konferensen för medie- och kommunikationsforskning
+ Stort arbete om andra vÀrldskriget pÄ Krigsforum
+ www.worldwar-2.net â En stor samling av resurser med bland annat dag för dag information för alla fronter
+
+
+VĂ€rldskrig
+KrigsÄret 1939
+KrigsÄret 1940
+KrigsÄret 1941
+KrigsÄret 1942
+KrigsÄret 1943
+KrigsÄret 1944
+KrigsÄret 1945
+Algeriet (arabiska: ۧÙŰŹŰČۧۊ۱, al-JazÄÊŸir; berber: , Dzayer, franska AlgĂ©rie), formellt Demokratiska folkrepubliken Algeriet, Ă€r Afrikas till ytan största land och vĂ€rldens tionde största. Det grĂ€nsar till Tunisien i nordöst, Libyen i öster, Niger i sydöst, Mali och Mauretanien i sydvĂ€st, och Marocko och VĂ€stsahara i vĂ€ster. I norr har Algeriet kust mot Medelhavet, och dĂ€rmed havsgrĂ€ns mot Spanien. Algeriet tillhör det kulturella omrĂ„det Maghreb.
+
+Algeriet Àr medlem av Förenta nationerna, Afrikanska unionen, Arabförbundet och Opec. Det deltog ocksÄ i bildandet av Arabiska Maghrebunionen. Konstitutionellt betecknas Algeriet som en islamisk, arabisk och amazighisk (berbersk) stat.
+
+Historia
+De tre nordafrikanska staterna Algeriet, Tunisien och Marocko tillhör alla ett omrĂ„de kallat Maghreb â "landet i vĂ€st". Det var det namn de arabiska erövrarna gav omrĂ„det sedan de hade lagt under sig den nordvĂ€stliga kustregionen omkring Ă„r 1050. Dessförinnan hade Nordafrika tillhört en medelhavscivilisation styrd av fenicier och romare. Den Ă€ldsta kunskapen om det som i dag Ă€r Algeriet kommer frĂ„n antikens Numidien. Det var ett samhĂ€lle som under ledning av Masinissa utvecklade jordbruk och handel, och etablerade en politisk statsbildning. BĂ„de vid kusten och i inlandet grundades stĂ€der, och Numidien var en framgĂ„ngsrik stat fram till Masinissas död Ă„r 149 f.Kr.
+
+Romersk kolonialism
+
+Med början Är 146 f.Kr., efter det tredje puniska kriget och med inrÀttandet av provinsen Africa (nuvarande Tunisien), inlemmades Nordafrika i romarnas imperium. Romerska rikets nedgÄngsperiod drabbade Àven Maghreb, och Är 429 e.Kr. kom en germansk folkstam, vandalerna, över Gibraltar sund och erövrade en stor del av Nordafrika. Med början Är 534 blev omrÄdet Ätererövrat, och Maghreb lades under bysantinskt styre, en period som prÀglades av mÄnga uppror frÄn de lokala berberstammarna.
+
+Arabisk kolonialism
+
+Den arabiska invasionen, som pÄ 700-talet nÄdde Ànda in i Spanien, lade under sig Numidiens kustomrÄden, men Ànnu inte bergsomrÄdena i inlandet. Omkring 935 grundade en arabisk furste, Zeiri, den nuvarande staden Alger. Araberna blandade sig med berberna, och i hela omrÄdet fick det arabiska sprÄket och den arabiska kulturen allt större betydelse. Kalifen i Kairo sÀnde pÄ 1000-talet tvÄ arabiska stammar för att knÀcka upproriska krafter i Maghreb, och hela omrÄdet lades till sist under arabiskt styre. Mellan 1152 och 1269 erövrade almohaderna hela landet. DÄ almohadernas dynasti upplöstes i mitten av 1200-talet fick Maghreb-regionen den tredelning som existerar Àn i dag, med staterna Marocko, Tunisien och Algeriet.
+
+Sjöröveri och osmansk kolonialism
+
+FrÄn slutet av 1400-talet blev Algeriet en hÀrd för sjöröveri. I européernas strid mot sjörövarna hade Ferdinand II av Aragonien nÄgra framgÄngar, men redan i början av 1500-talet fördrevs spanjorerna med Osmanska rikets hjÀlp av Khair ed-Din Barbarossa. Denne stÀllde sitt rike Alger under osmansk överhöghet Är 1520. Han grundade militÀrdespotismen i Algeriet och organiserade dess sjörövarvÀsende.
+
+DĂ„ den sista islamiska fĂ€stningen i Spanien föll för kristna styrkor 1492 sökte de spanska morerna sin tillflykt i Algeriet â den tredje arabiska invasionen av landet. De kristna i Spanien förföljde de flyende morerna, och erövrade flera fĂ€stningar och stĂ€der. Osmanska styrkor kom till undsĂ€ttning, med det resultatet att Algeriet lades under den osmanske sultanen. Hela Algeriet hade vid den hĂ€r tiden kommit in i den arabiska och islamiska kulturkretsen; bara i nĂ„gra delar av landet levde isolerade folkstammar, som kabylerna och tuaregerna, utanför den nya samhĂ€llsordningen.
+
+Ă
r 1600 fick janitsjarerna rÀtt att utse en dej, vilken sÄsom deras befÀlhavare skulle stÄ vid paschans sida. I början av 1700-talet gjorde sig dejen oberoende av Höga porten. DÀrefter bildade Algeriet en militÀrrepublik med den av janitsjarerna valde dejen till överhuvud. Alla försök att stoppa sjöröveriet var lÀnge fruktlösa. Expeditioner mot Algeriet företogs av Karl V 1541, av engelsmÀnnen 1670, av engelsmÀn och hollÀndare gemensamt 1669 och 1670, av Ludvig XIV 1682, av spanjorerna 1775; men alla misslyckades mer eller mindre. Först 1815 segrade USA över Algeriets flotta genom en seger vid Cartagena. Följande Är bombarderades staden Alger av engelsmÀnnen under lord Exmouth, och dejen tvingades dÀrigenom till flera eftergifter. Men 1817 började algeriska sjörövare Äter uppbringa fartyg som tillhörde de makter som inte gav dem tribut.
+
+Fransk kolonialism
+
+Algeriet som nationalstat, med de geografiska grĂ€nser som landet har i dag, kom till först under det franska koloniala vĂ€ldet. Den franska erövringen av Algeriet började 1830, dĂ„ mycket av kusten ockuperades. Mot en invasionsstyrka pĂ„ cirka 38 000 man organiserades motstĂ„nd under ledning av Abd el-Kader. Han ledde omkring 12 000 man i kamp mot fransmĂ€nnen i vĂ€stra Algeriet Ă„r 1832, och mĂ„nga algerier ser honom i dag som den symboliska grundaren av deras nation. Under Abd el-Kaders ledning bildades en algerisk stat, relativt sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig frĂ„n det osmanska riket, som omfattade merparten av vĂ€stra och centrala Algeriet. Ă
r 1839 förklarade han jihad, heligt krig, mot de vantrogna inkrÀktarna, nÄgot som innebar början till slutet pÄ Abd el-Kaders militÀra framgÄng. FransmÀnnen svarade med att sÀnda 100 000 soldater över Medelhavet, och Abd el-Kader tvingades 1847 att ge upp motstÄndet. Ett nytt uppror pÄ 1870-talet, lett av Abd el-Kaders son, slogs ocksÄ ner.
+
+PĂ„ samma sĂ€tt som de brittiska besittningarna Kenya och Sydrhodesia, de portugisiska kolonierna Angola och Moçambique, och Sydafrika, blev Algeriet en nybyggarkoloni. Inte i nĂ„gon annan koloni i Afrika slog sig sĂ„ mĂ„nga europĂ©er ner som i Algeriet. Ă
r 1850 var omkring 130 000 fransmÀn bosatta i landet, och vid slutet av 1800-talet över en halv miljon. DÄ hade Algeriet blivit en fransk provins, och nybyggarna fick rÀtt att vÀlja sina egna deputerade till Frankrikes nationalförsamling i Paris. Den stora majoriteten av alla algerier blev Frankrikes undersÄtar och utsattes för omfattande diskriminering utan nÄgra politiska rÀttigheter.
+
+Befrielsekriget
+
+Avkoloniseringen av Algeriet blev ett av de blodigaste kapitlen i afrikansk kolonialhistoria. PÄ 1950-talet blev bÄde Marocko och Tunisien sjÀlvstÀndiga stater, men Frankrike ville inte slÀppa Algeriet, som hade stora naturresurser och var tÀtt sammanknuten med den franska ekonomin. Underkuvandet ledde till att motstÄndsrörelsen 1954 gick samman i Front de Libération Nationale (FLN), och började föra gerillakrig för att befria landet. TvÄ Är senare hade befrielserörelsen etablerat frigjorda zoner som de kunde operera ifrÄn. Vid denna tid kunde befrielserörelsen mönstra omkring 15 000 soldater, medan fransmÀnnen hade satt in 200 000. Som mest hade Frankrike en halv miljon soldater i Algeriet, och satte in alla resurser pÄ att vinna kriget efter det smÀrtsamma nederlaget i Indokina. Sedan fransmÀnnen satt upp ett elektriskt stÀngsel vid grÀnsen till Tunisien och lagt ut 900 000 landminor i grÀnsomrÄdena, hade FLN svÄrt att försörja trupperna. FransmÀnnen förflyttade Àven mellan en och tvÄ miljoner algerier frÄn sina hem till "koncentrationscenter" för att avskÀra kontakten mellan civilbefolkningen och gerillan. FLN-ledningen hade i utlandet etablerat en provisorisk regering, gouvernement provisoire de la république algerienne (GPRA), och börjat bygga upp en reguljÀr armé.
+
+Frankrike fick emellertid det militĂ€ra övertaget och drev gerillan pĂ„ retrĂ€tt. Den militĂ€ra framgĂ„ngen till trots vĂ€xte motstĂ„ndet mot kriget i Frankrike, och i Algeriet fick FLN allt större uppslutning. Sedan general Charles de Gaulle blivit fransk president 1958 började han söka ett sĂ€tt att komma undan kriget. Ă
r 1961 gjorde den europeiska minoriteten i Algeriet ett kuppförsök understött av franska generaler, men detta slogs ner. Förhandlingar om vapenvila i Schweiz tog vid i april 1961. De var svÄra och avbröts flera gÄnger, men ledde till slut fram till ett fredsavtal som bekrÀftades genom en folkomröstning i Frankrike, dÀr 90,7 % av rösterna lades pÄ de Gaulles politik. Kriget kostade mellan 300 000 och 1,5 miljoner algerier livet. 8 000 byar lÄg i ruiner, stora omrÄden lÄg brÀnda och hÀrjade, och över tvÄ miljoner mÀnniskor hade blivit hemlösa.
+
+Kvinnors betydelse under befrielsekriget
+Kriget utvecklade sig inte likadant för de algeriska kvinnorna som för mÀnnen. För det första hade kvinnorna andra motiv Àn mÀnnen: att slippa det dubbla förtrycket frÄn bÄde kolonialmakten och patriarkala strukturen i det algeriska samhÀllet. För det andra riktade sig nÄgra av krigets propagandastrategier (frÀmst i form av samhÀllsreformer) direkt till kvinnorna. PÄ sÄ vis hade kriget en genusdimension, vilken ofta har ignorerats i den traditionella historiebeskrivningen.
+
+Enligt officiella algeriska berÀkningar deltog 10 949 kvinnor pÄ FLN:s sida i kriget. Denna andel, vilken ofta anses vara grovt underskattad, Àr lika stor som europeiska kvinnors deltagande i andra vÀrldskriget. Kvinnorna deltog i FLN-organisationens alla led. Vissa var "fidaïyya", militanta frihetskÀmpar i de urbana omrÄdena, andra var sjuksystrar som vÄrdade skadade soldater. TvÄ tredjedelar deltog i FLN:s civila motstÄnd dÀr de ansvarade för flera av de mest funktionella rollerna, de delade ut mat till motstÄndsstyrkorna pÄ landsbygden, spred politisk information, ansvarade för lÀkemedel samt stöttade den kvinnliga befolkningen med medicinsk rÄdgivning.
+
+Deras deltagande var sÄledes mÄngfacetterat och mer betydelsefullt Àn vad som oftast Àr beskrivet i media och i filmatiseringar av kriget. (I den klassiska filmatiseringen Slaget om Alger (Gillo Pontecorvo, 1966) tycks kvinnorna endast agera som militanta soldater, vilket numera av historiker anses missvisande.)
+
+Propagandastrategier - reformer riktade mot kvinnor
+I det propagandakrig som fördes mellan den franska kolonialmakten och FLN spelade kvinnorna en central roll. Reformerna för kvinnlig emancipation fick en stor betydelse, eftersom kvinnorna sÄgs som symboler för religiös, social och kulturell identitet. Genom att övertyga dem att fortsÀtta stödja det franska Algeriet, skulle Frankrike kunna vinna kriget. Denna analys vill visa att effekterna av kolonialpolitiken under kriget pÄverkades starkt av situationen som föregick den vÀpnade konflikten med FLN. Reformerna kom för sent och var för ytliga. Genom att integrera befolkningen i det Franska Algeriet skulle Frankrike pacificera kvinnorna, försvaga FLN och behÄlla sin politiska dominans.
+
+Parallellt med att allt fler kvinnor frĂ„n Algeriets olika samhĂ€llsskikt tog vĂ€rvning i FLN, lanserade den franska förvaltningen sociala och politiska reformer (1957-62) som riktade sig specifikt till kvinnor. Ă
r 1957, tre Är efter starten pÄ revolten och under en tid som FLN var tillfÀlligt försvagade, började sÄledes förÀndringar i kolonialpolitiken ske. Det innebar en omsvÀngning av kolonialpolitiken som bestod av bÄde propaganda och reella politiska förÀndringar; Är 1958 kunde röstrÀtten för kvinnliga algerier tillÀmpas för första gÄngen, och 1959 reformerades Àven den Statut Personnel som reglerade familjelagarna och giftermÄlen. För kvinnorna innebar det slutet pÄ en laglig diskriminering och att alla sÄ kallade muslimska fransmÀn officiellt fick jÀmlik politisk status med de franska medborgarna. Kvinnorna uppmuntrades Àven att utbilda sig, delta mer i det offentliga samtalet och de skulle prioriteras i skolsystemet.
+
+Denna plötsliga förĂ€ndring i kolonialpolitiken tycks ha syftat till en positiv samhĂ€llsförĂ€ndring. En nyckel för att kunna förstĂ„ denna förĂ€ndring Ă€r just hĂ€ndelsen i maj 1958 som beskrevs i inledningen, dĂ„ slöjan demonstrativt âavskaffadesâ. HĂ€ndelsen Ă€r ytterst problematisk, eftersom demonstranterna var urbana vĂ€lutbildade algeriska kvinnor som egentligen endast representerade en liten minoritet av algerierna. Demonstrationen var dessutom orkestrerad av den franskvĂ€nliga algeriska militĂ€ren.
+
+För fransmÀnnen symboliserade slöjan den största vattendelaren mellan den kristna och muslimska befolkningen. Slöjan hade blivit symbolen för kvinnornas underlÀgsenhet och enligt dem det största hindret för kvinnornas frigörelse frÄn ett patriarkalt muslimskt system. DÀrför legitimerade hÀndelserna i maj 1958 fransmÀnnen att intervenera i kvinnors status och villkor och för första gÄngen lÀgga sig i deras privat- och familjeliv. Det officiella motivet var sÄledes att frigöra algeriska kvinnor frÄn kulturellt och samhÀlleligt förtryck, de appellerade till Frankrikes vÀrderingar om kvinnliga rÀttigheter, frihet och demokrati.
+
+Resultaten av reformerna var dock magra eller rentav omvÀnda, av flera anledningar. HÀr Àr kontexten som omgav reformerna central. Enligt Seferdjeli (2007) hindrades reformerna av den fortsatt utbredda djupa fattigdomen pÄ landsbygden och i stÀdernas muslimska kvarter. Majoriteten av befolkningen hade mycket lite information om förÀndringarna.
+
+Kvinnors utbildningsnivĂ„er ökade förvisso lite men inte lĂ„ngvarigt eller substantiellt, inte heller försvagades FLN:s styrkor eller deras stöd. DĂ€rutöver ignorerades giftermĂ„lsreformen i stort av den muslimska befolkningen. Denna âcharmoffensivâ genomfördes dessutom mitt under ett brinnande krig, dĂ„ Frankrike engagerade sig i brutal krigföring, tortyr och vĂ„ldtĂ€kter. Reformerna genomskĂ„dades dĂ€rmed som ytliga och rentav falska, dĂ„ det faktiska motivet tycks ha varit att vinna kvinnornas stöd för ett fortsatt franskt styre. Det verkar idag inte rĂ„da nĂ„gra tvivel om att reformerna sĂ„ledes var en del av Frankrikes krigsstrategi att försonas med (den kvinnliga) befolkningen.
+
+SjÀlvstÀndigheten
+
+Den 1 juli 1962 folkomröstade algerierna om sjÀlvstÀndighet, och den 3 juli 1962 blev Algeriet sjÀlvstÀndigt efter mer Àn sju Ärs krig. Vid krigets slut bodde omkring 800 000 européer i landet, varav fyra femtedelar flydde i all hast dÄ den formella sjÀlvstÀndigheten trÀdde i kraft. Bland dem fanns en stor del av landets tekniker, administratörer och lÀrare; fÄ algerier hade fÄtt nÄgon högre utbildning.
+
+Nationaliströrelsen splittrades snart. Sommaren 1962 blev klyftan allt större mellan exilregeringens premiÀrminister Benyousef Ben Khedda och vice premiÀrminister Ahmed Ben Bella. Efter valet till Algeriets första nationalförsamling i september 1962 blev Ben Bella godkÀnd som premiÀrminister. 1963 gjordes FLN till den enda politiska organisationen. Samma Är valdes Ben Bella till president, men han avsattes i en oblodig kupp i juni 1965. Försvarsministern, överste Houari BoumédiÚnne, tog över, och nationalförsamlingen upplöstes. 1976 utsÄgs BoumediÚnne formellt till president, efter att ha blivit vald som den enda kandidaten. I december 1978 dog BoumediÚnne, och hans efterföljare utsÄgs pÄ FLN-kongressen i januari 1979. Det blev en kompromisskandidat, vald efter starka pÄtryckningar frÄn militÀren: Benjedid Chadli. Han blev generalsekreterare i partiet och valdes till president samma Är. Under BoumediÚnne hade Algeriet framstÄtt som ett socialistiskt land, men under Chadli slog man in pÄ en linje med större moderation och pragmatism. Samma Är han valdes slÀppte han flera politiska fÄngar fria, bland dem den tidigare presidenten Ben Bella.
+
+Chadlis politiska liberalisering ledde till att enpartistyret upphÀvdes 1989. Nationalförsamlingen som valdes 1987 satte i gÄng den liberaliseringsprocess som fick vittgÄende betydelse bÄde inom det politiska och det ekonomiska livet. För första gÄngen sedan sjÀlvstÀndigheten 1962 höll Algeriet i juni 1990 fria lokala och regionala val med deltagande av mer Àn ett parti. Denna demokratiska utveckling i Algeriet var den mest lÄngtgÄende i den arabiska vÀrlden, och följdes noga av andra stater i Mellanöstern och Nordafrika, inte minst i Algeriets bÄda grannlÀnder Marocko och Tunisien. En av orsakerna till det stora intresset för det algeriska valet var den starka position som radikala islamiska krafter hade vunnit i det krisdrabbade algeriska samhÀllet. 11 partier stÀllde upp vid lokalvalen 1990, och Front islamique du salut (FIS), den islamiska frÀlsningsfronten, tog makten i de flesta kommuner och regioner. FIS fick 55 % av rösterna och blev största parti i 853 av sammanlagt 1 500 lokala rÄd, medan FLN bara nÄdde 32 % av rösterna.
+
+Det vÄldsamma decenniet
+Det första fria valet till nationalförsamlingen skulle ha hÄllits i juni 1991, men stÀlldes in efter en rad vÄldsamma sammanstötningar mellan polis och FIS-anhÀngare. President Chadli satte in armén för att ÄterupprÀtta lag och ordning, införde undantagstillstÄnd och sköt upp valet till december. I valets första omgÄng vann FIS en klar seger framför Front des forces socialistes (FFS) och FLN. FIS fick 188 platser i den 450 platser stora nationalförsamlingen mot bara 16 för FLN och 26 för FFS. Sammanlagt 49 partier deltog i valet, som var tudelat, och inför den andra omgÄngen, i januari 1992, var utgÄngspunkten av FIS bara behövde 28 mandat till för att fÄ egen majoritet. Utsikterna till ett Algeriet styrt som en teokrati av fundamentalistiska muslimer, och deras plan om att införa islamsk lagstiftning, fick armén och FLN:s inre kÀrna att gripa in före den andra valomgÄngen. I januari 1992 kungjorde president Chadli, efter press frÄn försvarets ledning, att han avgick. DÀrefter avgick regeringen och grundlagen upphÀvdes. Nationalförsamlingen hade redan upplösts. Till att styra landet sattes ett sÀkerhetsrÄd, som avlyste den andra valomgÄngen och satte in ett rÄd att styra landet, lett av Mohamed Boudiaf. I juni 1992 blev han mördad, och eftertrÀddes av Ali Kafi som ledare för rÄdet. 1994 utnÀmndes försvarsministern, general Liamine Zeroual, till ny president. Samma Är satte militÀrrÄdet in ett Nationellt övergÄngsrÄd, som skulle fungera som nationalförsamling; det bojkottades emellertid av de största partierna, inklusive FIS och FLN.
+
+FIS var i grunden ett icke-vĂ„ldsamt parti, men det fick stöd frĂ„n en rad olika grupperingar, bland annat militanta islamiska organisationer. Flera sĂ„dana grupper stod pĂ„ 1990-talet för vĂ„ldshandlingar som kan ha krĂ€vt sĂ„ mĂ„nga som 100 000 mĂ€nniskoliv. VĂ„ldsaktionerna frĂ„n islamistiska grupper var sĂ€rskilt utbredda i mitten av 1990-talet och avtog mot slutet av Ă„rtiondet och efter sekelskiftet. Flera vĂ€pnade grupperingar lĂ„g bakom vĂ„ldskampanjen, som först riktades mot utlĂ€ndska medborgare, algeriska intellektuella och offentliga tjĂ€nstemĂ€n, efter hand i tilltagande grad Ă€ven mot andra medborgare. Men ocksĂ„ statens maktapparat â framför allt sĂ€kerhetsstyrkorna â anklagades för vĂ„ldsdĂ„d, bland annat ska de ha varit ansvariga för ett betydande antal mĂ€nniskors försvinnande. FramvĂ€xten av det vĂ€pnade islamistiska motstĂ„ndet mot Algeriets sekulĂ€ra regim kan spĂ„ras tillbaka till den militĂ€ra traditionen frĂ„n befrielsekriget pĂ„ 1950-talet. De första, smĂ„ grupperna sĂ„g dagens ljus tidigt pĂ„ 1980-talet, men det var först efter islamisternas valseger 1990 och det instĂ€llda parlamentsvalet Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ som den vĂ€pnade oppositionen vĂ€xte fram. Till en början manifesterades motstĂ„ndet mot regeringen genom omfattande demonstrationer i storstĂ€derna. Regeringens övergrepp mot FIS och andra islamiska grupper började pĂ„ allvar med arresteringar i januariâmars 1991 av en rad centrala FIS-ledare â dĂ€ribland valda ordförande och medlemmar av parlamentet â samt dessutom omkring tio tusen partimedlemmar. Partiet förbjöds den 3 mars 1991. Myndigheterna förde en politik som ocksĂ„ pĂ„ andra omrĂ„den begrĂ€nsade de medborgerliga rĂ€ttigheterna, bland annat i form av inskrĂ€nkt press- och organisationsfrihet.
+
+General Zeroual försökte en nĂ„got mer försonande politik nĂ€r han tog över efter Kafi 1994, men han behöll som försvarsminister kontrollen över de vĂ€pnade styrkorna, och makten koncentrerades hos en liten grupp militĂ€ra ledare. Zerouals politiska linje â militĂ€r upptrappning av konflikten kombinerat med försök till dialog â ledde till en snabb upptrappning av vĂ„ldshandlingarna, Ă€ven frĂ„n regeringens sida. Medan de islamistiska grupperna opererade i smĂ„ grupper och angrep enskilda personer, smĂ„ grupper och byar, tog myndigheterna till omfattande operationer, Ă€ven genom anvĂ€ndning av bombflyg. I juli 1995 gav Zeroual upp försöken till dialog, och vĂ„ldshandlingarna fortsatte. Terrorn frĂ„n den islamiska milisen riktades sĂ„vĂ€l mot civila som mot den offentliga maktapparaten, och vĂ„ldsmĂ€nnen blev ökĂ€nda för sin brutalitet.
+
+Vid presidentvalet i november 1995 valdes Zeroual om mot tvÄ motkandidater, med 64,5 % av rösterna. Ett Är senare antogs en ny grundlag genom folkomröstning; islam gjordes till statsreligion, men inga partier tillÀts bygga pÄ en religiös plattform. Till parlamentsvalet i juni 1997 stÀllde kandidater frÄn sammanlagt 39 partier upp, liksom nÄgra oberoende. President Zerouals nya parti Rassemblement national pour la démocratie (RND) fick 38,1 % av rösterna, medan det islamistiska Mouvement de la société pour la paix (MSP) och det tidigare statsbÀrande FLN fick 16,7 % respektive 16,1 %. De tre, som sammanlagt fick 287 av 380 direktvalda medlemmar av parlamentet, bildade tillsammans regering. FIS var enligt lag förbjudet och kunde inte delta i valet. Sedan Zeroual avgÄtt i september 1998 och de övriga sex kandidaterna bojkottade presidentvalet i april 1999 blev den tidigare utrikesministern Abdelaziz Bouteflika vald med 73,8 % av rösterna. Bouteflika höll i september 1999 en folkomröstning dÀr 98,6 % stödde presidentens freds- och försoningsplan bland annat genom amnesti. Algeriet höll Är 2002 val till en ny nationalförsamling, med ett resultat som sÀkrade FLN egen majoritet. 23 partier deltog i valet, och 129 oberoende listor stÀllde ocksÄ upp.
+
+Flera vĂ€pnade islamistiska grupperingar vĂ€xte fram frĂ„n det tidiga 1990-talet; de tvĂ„ viktigaste var Groupe islamique armĂ©e (GIA), som bestod av flera mindre grupper, samt den vĂ€pnade grenen av FIS, ArmĂ©e islamique du salut (AIS). I oktober 1997 förklarade AIS vapenvila, och vĂ„ldet avtog nĂ„got. Omkring 5 000 fĂ„ngar slĂ€pptes i en amnesti, dĂ€ribland islamistiska gerillasoldater. En utbrytargrupp frĂ„n GIA, Groupe salafiste pour la prĂ©diction et le combat (GSPC), grundades 1998 och vĂ€grade lĂ€gga ner vapnen. GSPC riktade sina angrepp vĂ€sentligen mot sĂ€kerhetsstyrkorna. Ă
r 2000 gav mÄnga gerillasoldater sig till myndigheterna mot erbjudande om amnesti, men vÄldet fortsatte, bÄde frÄn gerillan och frÄn myndigheterna. VÄldsamheterna har krÀvt minst 100 000 mÀnniskoliv, en siffra som myndigheterna tillstod 1999.
+
+Ă
ren 2000â2001 greps medlemmar av GSPC i Tyskland, Frankrike, Italien och Spanien â celler misstĂ€nkta för att tillhöra det internationella terrornĂ€tverket kring al-Qaida. Undersökningar i Italien tydde pĂ„ att organisationen, med medlemmar ocksĂ„ frĂ„n Tunisien och Marocko, bistod al-Qaida och planerade terroraktioner i Europa Ă„ deras vĂ€gnar. Flera av soldaterna i GIA och GSPC har bakgrund frĂ„n strider mot Sovjetunionen i Afghanistan tillsammans med talibanerna och al-Qaida. FrĂ„n det att GIA grundades 1993 riktade gruppen flera terrorangrepp mot franska mĂ„l i Algeriet och Frankrike.
+
+Oro i Kabylien
+
+Parallellt med den politisk-religiösa konflikten har Algeriet ocksÄ en etnisk konflikt mellan berber-befolkningen och den arabiska majoriteten, sÀrskilt knuten till berbernas kÀrnomrÄde, Kabylien. Berberna, som utgör omkring en tredjedel av Algeriets befolkning och Àr omrÄdets ursprungsinvÄnare, fick Är 2002 genomslag för sitt frÀmsta krav dÄ deras sprÄk tamazight erkÀndes som officiellt, likstÀllt med arabiska. De har ocksÄ stÀllt krav pÄ, och lovats, ökad insats för social och ekonomisk utveckling i Kabylien. OcksÄ i denna del av landet har militanta grupper varit verksamma, och 2001 var det omfattande uppror i flera delar av regionen. De sociala spÀnningarna i Algeriet förstÀrks ytterligare av den ekonomiska situationen, med hög arbetslöshet, sÀrskilt bland ungdomen.
+
+Aktioner som av algeriska myndigheter betecknas som terroristattacker förekommer frÀmst i Kabylien samt Àven mot grÀnsen till Tunisien och i SaharabÀltet mot grÀnsen till Libyen, Mali och Mauretanien. DÄden riktar sig framför allt mot militÀrförlÀggningar och polisstationer, men Àven civila har drabbats. Ett förhöjt sÀkerhetslÀge rÄder i grÀnsomrÄdet mot Tunisien och Libyen.
+
+Efter Bouteflika 2019-
+I april 2019 avgick president Abdelaziz Bouteflika efter nÀstan exakt 20 Är vid makten. I december 2019 blev Abdelmadjid Tebboune, tidigare premiÀrminister under Algeriets auktoritÀre president Abdelaziz Bouteflika, ny president, men regimens kritiker sÄg det inte som ett verkligt maktskifte.
+
+Geografi
+
+Topografi
+ LĂ€gsta punkt: Chott Melrhir (40 meter under havet)
+ Högsta punkt: Tahat (3 003 meter)
+
+Hydrografi
+ LĂ€ngsta flod: Chelif Oued (700 kilometer)
+
+Klimat
+Södra Algeriet har kontinentalt klimat medan omrÄdet kring Tell-Atlas har medelhavsklimat. Kring Tell-Atlas Àr nederbörden 400-800 mm per Är med en regnperiod under december till mars. Sahara har mycket varierande temperaturer, dygnsvariationen sommartid Àr runt 20ⰠC, och nÄr dÄ mycket höga temperaturer.
+
+Naturskydd
+Algeriets största miljöproblem per Är 2022 var luftföroreningar i landets större stÀder, att överbetning och andra dÄliga jordbruksmetoder lett till jorderosion och ökenspridning. Dessutom har floder och kustvatten, i synnerhet Medelhavet, blivit förorenat av att rÄavloppsvatten dumpats liksom avfall frÄn petroleumraffinering och andra industriella avloppsvatten. Det rÄder ocksÄ brist pÄ dricksvatten.
+
+Enligt uppgifter frĂ„n Ă„r 2010 fanns 12 nationalparker och Ă„tta större natur- eller jaktreservat i Algeriet. De största nationalparkerna var klippökenomrĂ„dena Ahaggar och Tassili nâAjjer i landets sydöstra delar. I Tassili nâAjjer finns ocksĂ„ förhistoriska klippmĂ„lningar.
+
+Styre och politik
+
+Administrativ indelning
+
+Algeriet Àr indelat i 48 provinser (wilayas): Adrar, Ain Defla, Ain Temouchent, Alger, Annaba, Batna, Bechar, Béjaïa, Biskra, Blida, Bordj Bou Arreridj, Bouira, Boumerdes, Chlef, Constantine, Djelfa, El Bayadh, El Oued, El Tarf, Ghardaia, Guelma, Illizi, Jijel, Khenchela, Laghouat, Muaskar, Medea, Mila, Mostaganem, M'Sila, Naama, Oran, Ouargla, Oum el Bouaghi, Relizane, Saida, Setif, Sidi Bel-Abbés, Skikda, Souk Ahras, Tamanrasset, Tebessa, Tiaret, Tindouf, Tipaza, Tissemsilt, Tizi Ouzou och Tlemcen.
+
+Provinserna Àr delade i Baladiyah (kommun). Det finns över 1500 baladiyah.
+
+Försvar
+Algeriet har skrivit pÄ, men inte ratificerat avtal om förbud mot kÀrnvapenprov.
+
+Algeriet har ett samarbete med Nato genom Mediterranean Dialogue, MD, sedan Är 2000. Detta Àr ett forum för att skapa goda relationer i regionen och skapa en stabil sÀkerhetssituation. Förutom Natomedlemmarna deltar Àven Israel, Mauretanien, Egypten, Tunisien samt Jordanien och Marocko i samtalen.
+
+Ekonomi och infrastruktur
+Algeriet var en planekonomi under en lÄng tid. Men ekonomiska problem tvingade landet till liberalisering under 1980- och 1990-talen. Algeriets BNP ökade dÀrefter kraftigt frÄn Är 2000 till Är 2014, frÄn 54,79 miljarder dollar till 213,81 miljarder dollar. En ökning pÄ ungefÀr 400 procent. Ungdomsarbetslösheten var dock hög, Är 2014 var den 25,3 %. NÀstan dubbelt sÄ hög bland unga kvinnor, 41,4 %, som bland unga mÀn, 22,1 %. Som en följd av lÀgre priser pÄ olja och gas i mitten av 2010-talet minskade ocksÄ landets ekonomiska tillvÀxt. Efter Är 2014 rÄdde ekonomisk nedgÄng och Är 2020 var BNP nere pÄ 145 miljarder dollar. Olje- och gasproduktionen har varit landets enskilt viktigaste nÀringsgren Ànda sedan sjÀlvstÀndigheten och har utgjort ungefÀr hÀlften av landets BNP likvÀl som statens inkomster.
+
+NĂ€ringsliv
+
+Energi och rÄvaror
+Ă
r 2019 uppskattades 99,4 procent av befolkningen ha tillgÄng till elektricitet. Skillnaderna mellan landsbygd och urbana omrÄden, i frÄga om tillgÄng till elektricitet, var smÄ. 96 % av elektriciteten berÀknades i mitten av 2010-talet produceras med hjÀlp av fossila brÀnslen. Resterande andel producerades med hjÀlp av vattenkraft eller annan förnybar energikÀlla.
+
+Landet har naturtillgÄngar i form av petroleum, naturgas, jÀrnmalm, fosfater, uran, bly och zink.
+
+Infrastruktur
+
+Utbildning och forskning
+
+Analfabetism: 19,8 % (2015)
+Hos mÀn: 12,8 %
+Hos kvinnor: 26,9 %
+
+Befolkning
+
+Demografi
+
+Statistik
+
+Befolkningens medianÄlder Är 2016 var 27,8 Är.
+Ă
ldersstruktur (2016):
+ 0-14 Ă„r: 29,06 %
+ 15-24 Ă„r: 15,95 %
+ 25-54 Ă„r: 42,88 %
+ 55-64 Ă„r: 6,61 %
+ 65 Är och Àldre: 5,50 %
+
+Urbanisering
+Ă
r 2022 berĂ€knades 74,8 procent av befolkningen vara bosatt i urbana omrĂ„den. Majoriteten Ă€r bosatta lĂ€ngs Medelhavskusten i landets norra delar. De största stĂ€derna, enligt uppgifter frĂ„n Ă„r 2010 var Alger, med 2,2 miljoner invĂ„nare, Oran, med 678â300 invĂ„nare samt Constantine med 460â100 invĂ„nare. Staten har pĂ„skyndat program för att stĂ€rka jordbruksekonomin i syfte att motverka att bönder flyttar in till stĂ€derna.
+
+Minoriteter
+
+Enligt uppgifter frÄn Är 2022 var ungefÀr 99 procent av alla algerier av arab-berbiskt ursprung. Den resterande procenten var européer. Trots att nÀstan alla algerier har berbiskt ursprung, och inte arabiskt, var det bara omkring 15 % av befolkningen som identifierade sig som berber. Dessa var företrÀdesvis bosatta i den bergiga regionen Kabylie öster om Alger och flera andra samhÀllen. Liksom araberna Àr berberna ocksÄ muslimer, men identifierar sig inte med det arabiska kulturarvet. Berberna har lÀnge verkat för autonomi.
+
+Migration
+
+SprÄk
+Officiella sprÄk Àr arabiska och tamazight. Franska anvÀnds som lingua franca. Tamazight Àr splittrat i flera olika dialekter. DÀribland Kabyle Berber (Taqbaylit), Shawiya Berber (Tacawit), Mzab Berber och Tuareg Berber (Tamahaq).
+
+Religion
+
+Islam Àr den dominerande religionen. Mer Àn 90 procent av befolkningen Àr anhÀngare till religionen, det vill sÀga av de som har fötts i familjer av muslimskt ursprung . Officiellt Àr nÀstan 100 procent av Algeriets befolkning muslimer, men ateister och andra sorters icke-troende rÀknas inte in i statistiken. NÀstan alla algerier Àr sunnimuslimer, förutom 200 000 ibadi i regionen Ghardaïa.
+
+Det finns runt 150 000 kristna i landet, inklusive runt 10 000 tillhörande romersk-katolska kyrkan och 80 till 130 000 evangeliska protestanter. Trots att mÄnga judar frÄntogs sitt medborgarskap efter landets sjÀlvstÀndighet finns det nÄgra fÄ judar kvar. Algerisk kultur har influerats mycket av islam, huvudreligionen.
+
+HĂ€lsa
+Enligt VÀrldshÀlsoorganisationen var de vanligaste dödsorsakerna Är 2019 Ischemisk hjÀrtsjukdom följt av stroke och neonatala tillstÄnd.
+
+Ăvriga befolkningsdata
+Den senaste folkrÀkningen hölls den 16 april 2008 och avsÄg den befintliga (de facto) bosatta befolkningen i Algeriet, som uppgick till 34 452 759 invÄnare (varav 17 428 050 mÀn och 17 024 259 kvinnor).
+
+Kultur
+
+Konstarter
+
+Musik och dans
+En musikstil som kommer frÄn Algeriet Àr raï. Cheb Khaled och Cheb Mami Àr tvÄ av de mest kÀnda raïartisterna.
+
+Litteratur
+Dagens algeriska litteratur, skriven huvudsakligen pÄ arabiska och franska, har starkt influerats av landets moderna historia. KÀnda algeriska författare under 1900-talet Àr bland andra Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, Kateb Yacine och Assia Djebar har översatts till mÄnga sprÄk. Bland de mer viktiga författarna under 1980-talet kan Rachid Mimouni, senare vice-president för Amnesty International, och Tahar Djaout, mördad av en islamistisk grupp 1993, nÀmnas.
+
+Film
+
+Algeriets filmhistoria börjar under kampen för sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigheten dĂ„ FLN genom filmproduktionen sökte Ă„skĂ„dliggöra motstĂ„ndet. Ăven efter avkolonialisering fortsatte frihetskampen vara det dominerande temat inom filmen. Ett exempel Ă€r filmen "Slaget om Alger" som fick stor symbolisk betydelse nĂ€r den kom Ă„r 1965 trots att den bĂ„de skrevs och regisserades av italienaren Gillo Pontecorvo. Den finansierades dock av algeriska staten, spelades in i Algeriet och rekonstruerade verkliga hĂ€ndelser.
+
+Efter sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigheten utvecklades filmkulturen. I Alger inrĂ€ttades ett cinematek och senare fick denna filialer i andra stĂ€der. Ă
r 1967 förstatligades filmproduktionen och filmdistributionen vilket resulterade i att populÀrfilmer frÄn Europa, USA, Indien och Egypten begrÀnsades.
+
+Filmproduktionen minskade efter de politiska oroligheterna under 1990-talet, men fram till mitten av 1980-talet hade landet producerat omkring 40 lÄngfilmer. NÀmnvÀrt Àr ocksÄ de algeriska filmarna som Àr verksamma i Frankrike. I mÄnga filmer skildrar de invandrarna och hur det Àr att leva mellan tvÄ kulturer.
+
+Traditioner
+
+Matkultur
+
+Idrott
+
+De mest populÀra sporterna i landet Àr fotboll, friidrott och handboll. En av landets största sporthÀndelser var nÀr man slog VÀsttysklands herrlandslag i fotboll 1982 genom ett mÄl av Lakhdar Belloumi. Men pÄ grund av konflikter och dÄliga förhÄllanden i Algeriet under 1900-talet, fortfarande pÄgÄende i nÄgra omrÄden i landet, har nu mÄnga idrottare lÀmnat landet till lÀnder som de kan tjÀna mer i, vanligtvis Frankrike. Zinedine Zidane, Karim Benzema och Samir Nasri Àr av algeriskt ursprung men födda och uppvuxna i Frankrike. I friidrott har Algeriet fÄtt fram flera vÀrldsmÀstare, dÀribland Noureddine Morceli, Hassiba Boulmerka, Jabir-Said Guerni och Benida Berrah.
+
+Internationella rankningar
+
+Se Àven
+ Algeriets historia
+ Algeriskt broderi
+ Algerietrevolten
+ Censur i Algeriet
+ 1213 Algeria
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Afrikas lÀnder
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+ArabisksprÄkiga lÀnder och territorier
+Adolf Hitler (), född 20 april 1889 i Braunau am Inn, Ăsterrike-Ungern (i nuvarande Ăsterrike), död 30 april 1945 i Berlin, Tyskland (sjĂ€lvmord), var en österrikisk-tysk politiker och ordförande i Nationalsocialistiska tyska arbetarepartiet (, NSDAP), allmĂ€nt kĂ€nt som Nazistpartiet, frĂ„n 1921 till 1945. Hitler var Tysklands rikskansler 1933â1945 och Tysklands ledare (FĂŒhrer) och diktator 1934â1945.
+
+Hitler, som hade stridit i första vĂ€rldskriget, anslöt sig 1919 till DAP, blev partiets ledare tvĂ„ Ă„r senare och bytte partiets namn till NSDAP. I november 1923 genomförde Hitler och hans anhĂ€ngare ölkĂ€llarkuppen i MĂŒnchen som misslyckades och slutade med att Hitler dömdes till fĂ€ngelse. Under fĂ€ngelsetiden dikterade han Mein Kampf, som sammanfattade hans politiska mĂ„l och vĂ€rldsĂ„skĂ„dning. Efter att ha frislĂ€ppts i december 1924 inledde han en flerĂ„rig framgĂ„ngsrik agitation för nationalism, antisemitism och antikommunism, som gjorde NSDAP till Tysklands största parti 1932. Den 30 januari 1933 utnĂ€mndes Hitler till rikskansler för en koalitionsregering och inledde omvandlingen av Tyskland till en totalitĂ€r diktatur.
+
+Hitlers pangermanska politik med syfte att utvidga Tysklands "livsrum" (Lebensraum) genom annekteringen (Anschluss) av Ăsterrike och av Sudetenlandet 1938, ockupationen av Tjeckoslovakien och anfallet mot Polen 1 september 1939 ledde till andra vĂ€rldskrigets utbrott. Nazismens antisemitiska, rasistiska politik formulerades konkret i NĂŒrnberglagarna 1935 och kulminerade, efter anfallet pĂ„ Sovjetunionen den 22 juni 1941 â som Hitler sĂ„g som bĂ„lverket för en judisk-bolsjevikisk konspiration mot den ariska rasen â i ett organiserat folkmord pĂ„ sex miljoner judar, miljontals krigsfĂ„ngar och hundratusentals romer, parallellt med massinterneringar och mord pĂ„ homosexuella, utvecklingsstörda och politiska motstĂ„ndare, huvudsakligen kommunister och socialdemokrater.
+
+Ambitionen med Hitlers expansionspolitik var att grunda ett tusenÄrigt rike likt det Tysk-romerska riket och upprÀtta tysk hegemoni frÄn Atlanten till Ural. Krigslyckan vÀnde för Tyskland frÄn vintern 1941 och kulminerade 1943 i en lÄngvarig motoffensiv, följt av allierade invasioner genom Italien och Frankrike. Tysklands hotande nederlag ledde till att en grupp bestÄende av officerare och konservativ-nationalistiska politiker planerade och genomförde 20 juli-kuppen, ett attentat mot Hitler som denne dock överlevde. Efter attentatet intensifierades utrensningar av alla interna fiender. I och med Tredje Rikets kollaps förföll Àven Hitlers omdöme och psykiska hÀlsa, och under slutkampen om Berlin i april 1945 begick han sjÀlvmord i sin bunker i Berlin.
+
+UppvÀxt
+
+Hem- och familjeförhÄllanden
+
+Adolf Hitler föddes den 20 april 1889 i den österrikiska grÀnsstaden Braunau am Inn vid floden Inn till Tyskland, som son till tullinspektören Alois Hitler i hans tredje Àktenskap med Klara Pölzl. Hitler och hans yngre syster, Paula, var de enda av sammanlagt sex barn som nÄdde vuxen Älder. Till familjen rÀknades ocksÄ de Àldre barnen Alois och Angela, frÄn faderns tidigare Àktenskap.
+
+Vem som var Hitlers farfar Ă€r höljt i dunkel dĂ„ Alois var utomĂ€ktenskaplig son till den ogifta pigan Maria Anna Schicklgruber. DĂ„ hon senare gifte sig med mjölnargesĂ€llen Johann Georg Hiedler överfördes Alois i dennes Ă€ldre brors, bonden Johann Nepomuk HĂŒttlers, vĂ„rd. Först vid nĂ€ra fyrtio Ă„rs Ă„lder, efter sin mors bortgĂ„ng och pĂ„ initiativ av fosterfadern, antog han namnet Hitler. Namnet, i olika varianter, kan i trakterna spĂ„ras tillbaka till medeltiden och bars under seklerna av fattiga smĂ„bönder. Möjligen har det tjeckiskt ursprung (Hidlar, Hidlarcek) frĂ„n det nĂ€rliggande Böhmen.
+
+I takt med att fadern befordrades flyttade familjen vidare till nya orter. Under sin uppvĂ€xt hann Hitler bo i Braunau (1889â1892), Passau (1892â1895), Linz (1895â1896), Fischlham (1896â1898), Leonding (1898â1905) och Ă„nyo i Linz (1905â1907). Fadern avled nĂ€r Adolf var 13 Ă„r gammal, i januari 1903, och modern dog knappt fem Ă„r senare, i december 1907. FrĂ„n Hitlers hemmiljö kan noteras att fadern inte var antisemit, och betraktade antisemitism som ett uttryck för kulturell efterblivenhet.
+
+SkolgÄng
+I smÄskolan gjorde den unge Hitler bra ifrÄn sig och skall ha varit en begÄvad elev, Àven om drag av bekvÀmlighet och en envishet att syssla med enbart det han hade lust med var framtrÀdande, dÀr man frÄn ett berömt klassfoto taget 1899 kan man se honom posera med ett bestÀmt drag kring munnen och armarna i kors. Men dÄ han senare av sina förÀldrar skickades till realskolan i provinshuvudstaden Linz gick det sÀmre. Hans flit bedömdes som oregelbunden och enbart i uppförande, gymnastik samt ÀlsklingsÀmnet teckning gavs omdömet "tillfredsstÀllande". Detta har förklarats med att landsortssonen Hitler dÀr inte kÀnde nÄgon och dÀrför genom sin personlighet kom att isoleras frÄn andra. Inte heller nÀr han av sin mor som nybliven Ànka 1904 skickades till realskolan i Steyer gick det bÀttre. Betyget var sÄ dÄligt att Hitler efter en "blöt" kvÀll anvÀnde det som toalettpapper. Den unge Adolf avlade aldrig studentexamen, och han fick en djupgÄende aversion mot allt vad skola hette. IstÀllet tog dagdrömmarna om ett framtida konstnÀrskap överhanden.
+
+Ă
ren i Linz och Wien
+Efter faderns bortgÄng sÄlde modern hemmet i Leonding och flyttade till Linz. Tillsammans med den pension hon erhöll efter sin avlidne make innebar det att hon kunde leva pÄ tÀmligen god fot i en vÄning i staden. Inneboende var Àven sonen Adolf, som efter sina havererade studier ÀndÄ levde nÄgot av en dagdrönartillvaro. Att skaffa sig ett "brödyrke", som han kallade det, var honom fjÀrran. Ofta kunde man se honom flanera i och kring Linz, och han fantiserade om hur han en dag skulle omgestalta staden med nya byggnadsverk sprungna ur hans geni. MÄn om sin klasstillhörighet, fadern hade som tulltjÀnsteman varit i kejserlig tjÀnst, och dÄ han ansÄg konsten och konstnÀrskapet frÀmst vara en angelÀgenhet för samhÀllets eliter (dÀrur ringaktandet av den konventionella borgerligheten) klÀdde han sig propert, ibland i hög hatt. Dessutom införskaffade han en elegant promenadkÀpp med elfenbensinfattningar. Vanligen gick han pÄ teater och opera pÄ kvÀllarna, dÀr han helst lyssnade till Richard Wagners operor som han beundrade. Rienzi, om den italienske "folktribunen" Cola di Rienzo, kom att fÄ sÀrskild betydelse för Hitler. PÄ Linzoperan trÀffade han den ett Är Àldre August Kubizek som delade hans musikintresse, och de blev under de nÀstföljande Ären oskiljaktiga vÀnner. PÄ 1950-talet skulle denne, i Adolf Hitler, mein Jugendfreund, ÄterberÀtta sina minnen och intryck av Hitler.
+
+I Linz började, enligt Kubizek, Hitlers politiska intresse att vÀckas. Han var som de flesta andra pÄverkad av de tysknationella stÀmningarna som behÀrskade staden (vilket bland annat manifesterades genom hÀlsningsfrasen Heil! sympatisörerna emellan). Hans senare utvecklade antisemitism kan, om man fÄr tro Kubizek, likasÄ spÄras tillbaka till denna period i Linz. DÄ Hitler i grunden kÀnde sig motarbetad av en oförstÄende omvÀrld har Kubizek beskrivit hur han emellanÄt kunde drabbas av hatiska och furiösa utbrott mot allt och alla. BÄda förÀlskade sig ocksÄ i samma flicka, Stefanie, men som Hitler, tunn och blek, aldrig vÄgade nÀrma sig.
+
+1907 flyttade Hitler till Wien och sökte in pĂ„ konstakademin detta och följande Ă„r men blev ej antagen, samtidigt som hans vĂ€n och rumskamrat August Kubizek antogs som elev vid musikkonservatoriet (Kubizek skulle senare inleda en karriĂ€r som dirigent men som tvĂ€rt bröts genom krigsutbrottet 1914). 1907 dog ocksĂ„ hans mor, vilket tog Hitler mycket hĂ„rt; "jag har aldrig sett nĂ„gon sĂ„ förkrossad av sorg" har moderns lĂ€kare, Eduard Bloch, berĂ€ttat. (Trots att Bloch var av judisk hĂ€rkomst skulle Hitler se till att Gestapo höll en skyddande hand över honom, efter Ăsterrikes anslutning till Tyskland 1938; 1940 emigrerade Bloch till USA.)
+
+DÄ han ej blev antagen som konststuderande levde han Ären som följde ett kringflackande liv i Wien och tjÀnade, enligt vad han sjÀlv uppgett, sitt uppehÀlle som murare och mÄlare. LÄnga perioder saknade han helt fast inkomst. Under dessa Är kom han i kontakt med starka antisemitiska och nationalistiska strömningar som var vanliga i den österrikiska huvudstaden med sina stora minoriteter av bland annat judar. Detta kom möjligen att senare forma hans Äsikter; bortsett frÄn Hitlers egna uppgifter i propagandaskriften Mein Kampf finns mycket begrÀnsat stöd för att Hitler var antisemit före 1919. Det finns Àven hÄllpunkter för att Hitler inte skulle ha var antisemit före eller under första vÀrldskriget. Under tiden i Linz var hans favoritskÄdespelare nÀstan undantagslöst judar och under tiden i Wien hade han judiska bekanta, och de wienska "vykort" han mÄlade för att försörja sig sÄldes huvudsakligen till judiska handlare. DÀrutöver finns bilder pÄ hur Hitler 1919 följer Kurt Eisner, den mördade judiske ministerpresidenten i den bayerska rÄdsrepubliken, till hans sista vila (mer nedan).
+
+I Wien kom Hitler i personlig kontakt med Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels teorier om germanerna som den ariska herrerasen. I Wien levde ocksÄ under tjugo Är filosofen Houston Stewart Chamberlain som propagerade för pangermanism, och Hitler lÀste med förkÀrlek sin stora idols, Richard Wagners, politiska skrifter. I huvudstaden bevittnade Hitler ocksÄ debatterna i parlamentet, som ibland slutade i kaos nÀr ledamöterna talade sina modersmÄl, och hans förakt, inte bara mot den mÄngnationella Habsburg-monarkin, utan den parlamentariska demokratin som sÄdan stegrades. Hitler tog ocksÄ intryck av den radikale nationalisten Georg von Schönerer och den kristligt sociale borgmÀstaren Karl Luegers retorik. Till denna hörde Àven antisemitismen. Enligt August Kubizek gick Hitler med i en antisemitisk förening, och Äterkom stÀndigt till fraser om "revolutionens storm", "riket" och den "ideala staten".
+
+För att undgĂ„ militĂ€rtjĂ€nstgöring i den österrikiska armĂ©n flyttade Hitler 1913 till Bayern och MĂŒnchen.
+
+Första vÀrldskriget och mellankrigstiden
+
+Vid första vÀrldskrigets utbrott 1914 blev Hitler, sitt österrikiska medborgarskap till trots, krigsfrivillig i den tyska armén, dÀr han kÀmpade vid vÀstfronten under nÀstan hela kriget utan att nÄ högre grad Àn Gefreiter (ungefÀr vicekorpral). IntressevÀckande i sammanhanget Àr att Hitlers befÀlhavare inte ansÄg att Hitler hade det som krÀvdes av en ledare. Han erhöll dock fem olika utmÀrkelser under kriget, frÀmst av dem JÀrnkorset av 2:a graden 1914 för tapperhet i fÀlt samt 1918 ett jÀrnkors av 1:a graden.
+
+Hitler blev lindrigt skadad i lĂ„ret av en artillerigranat vid Le Barque 1916. Efter att ha vĂ„rdats som gassjuk i Pasewalk i november 1918 och dĂ€r meddelats nyheten om den tyska kapitulationen Ă„tervĂ€nde Hitler till kasernerna i MĂŒnchen. Han var mycket besviken pĂ„ den nya regimen ("novemberförbrytarna" som de kom att kallas) som han ansĂ„g hade förhindrat Tysklands militĂ€ra seger i kriget. Han var övertygad om att den sĂ„ kallade dolkstötslegenden var sann, det vill sĂ€ga tanken att politikerna pĂ„ hemmaplan hade svikit soldaterna genom att sluta fred med fienden trots att den tyska armĂ©n egentligen var "obesegrad i fĂ€lt" under kriget och hade blivit tvingad att kapitulera.
+
+Trots att den omedelbara följden av krigsnederlaget blev kejsardömets fall och utropandet av den demokratiska republiken skall han enligt en uppgift daterad 1939, lÀmnad av hans militÀra överordnade, Hans Mend, i slutet av 1918 ha yttrat: "Tack gode Gud att kungarnas kronor har fallit frÄn trÀdet, nu har vi proletÀrer ocksÄ nÄgot att sÀga till om". Mends trovÀrdighet som kÀlla har dock betvivlats, dÄ han ocksÄ, i det sÄ kallade Mend-protokollet, anklagade Hitler, tillsammans med sin "manliga hora", för homosexuella aktiviteter under kriget 1915. Uppgifterna har bl.a. av den svenske populÀrhistorikern Bengt Liljegren avfÀrdats som varande av allmÀnt tendentiös natur och sakna bevisvÀrde. DÀrtill kommer att de var tÀnkta att anvÀndas mot Hitler efter en planerad statskupp 1939.
+
+Efter kriget
+
+Hitler stannade kvar inom det militÀra och valdes till "Vertrauensmann" ("Förtroendeman") inom sitt förband, en uppgift som bland annat innebar att han skulle förmedla propaganda till soldaterna för att sÀkra deras lojalitet till den nya socialistiska regimen i Bayern. Enligt den judiske revolutionÀren Ernst Toller skulle han ha betecknat sig som socialdemokrat; "PÄ den tiden var alla socialdemokrater", förklarade Hitler 1921. Hitler deltog inte heller i det militÀra nedkÀmpandet av den bayerska rÄds/sovjet-republiken vÄren 1919, trots att dess ledning inte bara hade ett framtrÀdande judiskt, utan Àven ett tydligt kommunistiskt inslag. En av Hitlers frÀmsta biografer, den internationellt erkÀnde Joachim Fest, har förklarat detta med hur svagt utvecklat Hitlers politiska medvetande var vid denna tid: "Hans politiska indolens var starkare Àn den krÀnkande kÀnslan att vara soldat i vÀrldsrevolutionens maktsfÀr. Han hade Ä andra sidan inga reella valmöjligheter. Den militÀra vÀrlden var det enda sociala system dÀr han kÀnde sig trygg. Ett beslut att lÀmna soldatlivet skulle ha varit detsamma som att ÄtervÀnda till den anonyma vÀrld han kom ifrÄn."
+
+Inledningen pÄ en politisk karriÀr
+
+Oaktat sina komprometterande kontakter med den "röda" regimen lyckades Hitler efter kontrarevolutionen hĂ„lla sig kvar inom armĂ©n och rĂ€ddades ur rannsakningshĂ€kte tack vare ingripande frĂ„n nĂ„gra officerare. Han antog ett erbjudande om att bli politisk agent för riksvĂ€rnet men innan han antrĂ€dde sin tjĂ€nst genomgick han en "antibolsjevikisk skolning", ledd av högerradikala professorer vid MĂŒnchens universitet. Hitler skickades i början av september att granska en grupp vid namn Deutsche Arbeiterpartei DAP. Han deltog i debatten och imponerade pĂ„ Ă„hörare och blev, utan att ha blivit tillfrĂ„gad och utan att vara medlem i DAP, invald i arbetsutskottet. Det var Ă€ven hĂ€r han upptĂ€ckte sin retoriska talang som han för första gĂ„ngen visade pĂ„ ett massmöte den 24 februari 1920. Historikern Sebastian Haffner menar att Hitlers tal började trevande, hade en ologisk struktur och ett oklart innehĂ„ll, men att hans framgĂ„ng berodde pĂ„ att han hade "hypnotisk förmĂ„ga" som kunde forma massorna. Haffner menar att detta ocksĂ„ pĂ„verkade Hitler sjĂ€lv som genom insikten att kunna pĂ„verka andra mĂ€nniskor fattade beslutet att bli "FĂŒhrern". NĂ€r han vĂ€l hade uppnĂ„tt en ledande stĂ€llning inom DAP Ă€ndrade han namnet till Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP).
+
+I MĂŒnchen lĂ€rde Hitler kĂ€nna personer födda i Kejsardömet Ryssland och med personlig erfarenhet av Sovjetunionen, bland andra Alfred Rosenberg, Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter och Fjodor Vinberg. Nazistpartiets blivande chefsideolog Alfred Rosenberg hade avlagt examen i arkitektur vid ett sovjetiskt universitet 1918. Rosenberg ansĂ„g att kĂ€rnan i bolsjevikernas taktik var att fysiskt förinta sina fiender, en taktik som han uppfattade som effektiv, Ă€ven om han vid denna tid fördömde den. von Scheubner-Richter var Hitlers utrikespolitiske rĂ„dgivare och ledde en organisation, vars mĂ„l var att störta sovjetregimen och som kanaliserade finansiellt stöd frĂ„n exilryssar till nazistpartiet. Fedor Vinberg var en nĂ€ra personlig vĂ€n till den mördade tsarinnan och bibringade Hitler uppfattningen, att Sovjetunionen var en judisk diktatur.
+
+Efter ett misslyckat försök till statskupp i MĂŒnchen, 1923 (ölkĂ€llarkuppen) varvid von Scheubner-Richter blev skjuten, dömdes Hitler den 1 april 1924 till fem Ă„rs fĂ€ngelse i LandsbergfĂ€ngelset. Under denna fĂ€ngelsevistelse författade han första delen av boken Mein Kampf (troligen dikterad inför bland andra Rudolf Hess). Andra delen skrev han efter sin frigivning 1925. Böckerna Ă€r dels en tĂ€mligen utlĂ€mnande sjĂ€lvbiografi, dels ett slags idĂ©program för nationalsocialismen samt ett slags handbok i propaganda. Hitler fann en del av sin ideologiska inspiration hos Kristligt-sociala partiet i Ăsterrike vars borgmĂ€stare i Wien, Karl Lueger, kombinerat antisemitiska och socialkonservativa ideal i sin politiska gĂ€rning.
+
+Mein Kampf prĂ€glas av ett rasistiskt elittĂ€nkande och en vĂ„ldsam kritik mot villkoren i Versaillesfreden efter första vĂ€rldskriget. Hitler lanserade hĂ€r de viktigaste punkterna för sitt program â nĂ€mligen upphĂ€vandet av Versaillesfreden, revansch mot Frankrike samt skapande av Lebensraum (âlivsrumâ) för det tyska folket österut. Livsrummet skulle skapas genom att krossa bolsjevismen (kommunismen) som i Hitlers ögon nĂ€st efter judendomen var det tyska folkets vĂ€rsta fiende. Hitler avtjĂ€nade bara en liten del av sitt fĂ€ngelsestraff och frislĂ€pptes redan den 20 december 1924.
+
+Det beslöts efter detta att Nationalsocialistiska tyska arbetarepartiet skulle erövra regeringsmakten med parlamentariska medel. Perioden 1925â1930 Ă€gnade Hitler frĂ€mst Ă„t att agitera och bygga ut partiapparaten med sig sjĂ€lv som envĂ€ldig FĂŒhrer. Den stora depressionen i början av 1930-talet ledde till massarbetslöshet i Tyskland, som i kombination med utbrett politikerförakt och missnöje med Versaillesfreden gav Hitler den hjĂ€lp han behövde för att vinna stöd frĂ„n de breda folklagren. Vid riksdagsvalet 1930 gick NSDAP frĂ„n 2,8 procent Ă„r 1928 till att bli det nĂ€st största partiet efter socialdemokraterna med 18,3 procent av rösterna. Under de nĂ€rmaste tvĂ„ Ă„ren gjorde han sig berömd genom att resa landet runt med flygplan i mycket stor omfattning till olika arrangerade massmöten dĂ€r han med mycket stor prakt spred ut sitt program och vann gehör för sitt budskap. I juli 1932 blev Nationalsocialisterna Tysklands största parti med drygt 37,3 procent av rösterna.
+
+Hitler, som varit statslös sedan han avsagt sig sitt österrikiska medborgarskap 1925, erhöll tyskt medborgarskap genom en politisk manöver i februari 1932, dĂ„ den nazistiske inrikesministern i Braunschweig utnĂ€mnde Hitler till attachĂ© vid Braunschweigs legation i Berlin. Detta innebar att Hitler automatiskt blev tysk medborgare och dĂ€rför kunde stĂ€lla upp i presidentvalet samma Ă„r men förlorade mot den sittande presidenten Paul von Hindenburg med drygt 30 procent. I november samma Ă„r backade nazisterna till 33 procent â till största del till kommunistpartiets förmĂ„n â men förblev det största partiet med fler mandat Ă€n socialdemokratiska SPD.
+
+VĂ€gen till kriget
+
+Sedan den parlamentariska krisen efter valresultaten 1932 förvĂ€rrats vintern 1932/33 presenterade f d rikskansler Franz von Papen en lösning för president Hindenburg; en "nationell koncentrationsregering" skulle utses med Hitler som rikskansler men med von Papen som vicekansler och med övervĂ€gande icke-nazistiska ministrar frĂ„n den sittande Schleicherregeringen. Efter misslyckade försök att ena socialdemokrater och konservativa till en koalition insvors Hitler den 30 januari 1933 till rikskansler av president Hindenburg. Förutom NSDAP med tvĂ„ ministerposter (Wilhelm Frick som inrikesminister och Hermann Göring som minister utan portfölj) ingick Tysknationella folkpartiet i regeringen med Alfred Hugenberg som minister med ansvar för livsmedel. De flesta tunga poster, frĂ€mst utrikesminister Konstantin von Neurath, justitieminister Franz GĂŒrtner och finansminister Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk kvarstod pĂ„ sina poster i enlighet med avtalet. Med endast ett departement under nazistisk kontroll och Franz von Papens löften om att hĂ„lla Hitler i schack i kontroversiella frĂ„gor var tillrĂ€ckligt för att Hindenburg skulle godta förslaget och ge den nya regeringen en chans.
+
+En knapp mÄnad senare, den 27 februari brÀndes riksdagshuset ner, vilket skylldes pÄ kommunisterna och dÀrmed inte stÀrkte deras stÀllning. Med stöd av detta och genom att öppet anklaga kommunisterna för mordbranden drevs Hindenburg till att underteckna nya lagar som innebar inskrÀnkningar i de medborgerliga rÀttigheterna (Riksdagsbrandförordningen). Samtidigt lÀt Hitler arrestera och fÀngsla kommunistpartiets ledamöter, och den 5 mars 1933 hölls pÄ rikskansler Hitlers begÀran nyval. Efter en massiv och energisk valkampanj och hoppet om en stabil regering med radikala ÄtgÀrder Ät inflation, arbetslöshet och kaos gav nationalsocialisterna 288 mandat och vann dÀrmed i samverkan med koalitionspartnern tysknationalisterna (52 mandat) en absolut majoritet om 340 av 647 mandat i riksdagen. DÀrmed var Hitlers stÀllning som regeringschef sÀkrad.
+
+Efter riksdagsbranden var redan upprördheten i landet stor, och efter ett avtal med samtliga riksdagspartier utom socialdemokraterna â som vĂ€grade foga sig â drev Hitler den 23 mars igenom den sĂ„ kallade Fullmaktslagen (ErmĂ€chtigungsgesetz), som gav regeringen lagstiftande rĂ€tt i fyra Ă„r â i praktiken diktatorisk makt, eftersom den nazistiska regeringen dĂ€rmed kunde lagstifta bort sina politiska fiender. För att uppnĂ„ de 432 mandat som krĂ€vdes för att genomdriva lagen hade Hitler genom skicklig retorik och löften lyckats fĂ„ Ă€ven de neutrala partierna pĂ„ sin sida med löften om att anvĂ€nda lagen sparsamt. Kommunistiska KPD fick inte delta i omröstningen eftersom deras 81 mandat hade ogiltigförklarats efter riksdagsbranden (se ovan). Hitlers löften skulle snart visa sig utebli. I juni 1933 förbjöds socialdemokratiska partiet, övriga partier utom nazisterna uppmanades till att upplösa sig sjĂ€lva och judar, romer, kommunister, socialister samt andra som vĂ€grade att inordna sig började att förföljas av den nazifierade poliskĂ„ren och SA-trupperna. MĂ„nga sattes i de koncentrationslĂ€ger som börjat öppnas.
+
+Hitler var en skicklig talare med demagogisk rutin och han hade en enastÄende förmÄga att piska upp en nÀst intill hysterisk stÀmning under sina synnerligen vÀlregisserade tal. MÄnga tyskar beskriver det som att de blev "trollbundna" av att höra hans politiska tal. MÄnga sÄg i Hitler en "rÀddande Àngel" som kunde fÄ landet pÄ fötter igen och rÀdda Tyskland frÄn det kaos som rÄtt under hyperinflationen 1923.
+
+I augusti 1934 avled president Paul von Hindenburg, och den lagstiftande regeringen lĂ€t överföra den döde statschefens befogenheter till Hitler, som tog sig titeln FĂŒhrer und Reichskanzler. I praktiken hade han redan varit diktator sedan 23 mars föregĂ„ende Ă„r, dĂ„ han med diktatorisk auktoritet inom det nazistiska partiet, som helt kontrollerade regeringen och med majoritet i riksdagen, och tillrĂ€ckligt stort folkligt stöd kunde driva igenom vilka lagar han ville. Den 30 juni 1934 hade stora delar av SA:s ledarskikt, Gregor Strasser samt Hitlers företrĂ€dare Kurt von Schleicher mördats pĂ„ Hitlers order (se LĂ„nga knivarnas natt). Ăven vicekansler von Papen skulle ha mördats men satt vid tillfĂ€llet i trygghet i husarrest. VerkstĂ€llandet stod Heinrich Himmlers SS för. Orsaken var att det inom SA:s ledning med högste chefen Ernst Röhm i spetsen fanns starka socialistiska strömningar som praktiskt taget ville avskaffa kapitalismen. För att fĂ„ det stöd han behövde frĂ„n militĂ€ren och industrin beslutade Hitler att oskadliggöra SA:s ledning. Dessutom var Hitler orolig för att Röhm sjĂ€lv hade för stora maktambitioner och planerade att störta honom genom en kupp. I ett tal till tyska riksdagen den 13 juli 1934 rĂ€ttfĂ€rdigade han sitt handlande i denna "Tysklands ödestimma".
+
+Hitler hade kommit till makten frÀmst tack vare sina löften att utplÄna arbetslösheten (som var cirka 40 procent 1932) och upprÀtta landets "heder" genom att befria tyskarna frÄn de enligt honom helt oacceptabla villkoren i Versaillesfreden. Tre Är efter att NSDAP fÄtt makten var arbetslösheten sÄ gott som utraderad. Detta hade blivit möjligt dels genom en intensiv militÀr upprustning och jÀttelika offentliga byggnadsprojekt, inte minst motorvÀgsbyggen (Autobahn) och dels genom att kvinnor uppmuntrades att stanna hemma. Detta gjorde att Hitler Àven efter maktövertagandet behöll sin popularitet hos befolkningen. Upprustningen och nybyggena finansierades till stor del av valutamanipulation men de negativa effekterna kom att skjutas upp tills Tyskland kunde tömma erövrade nationers guldreserver.
+
+Adolf Hitler var frĂ„n och med Hindenburgs död 1934 helt envĂ€ldig. I den nazistiska staten fanns ingen skriven författning som inskrĂ€nkte stats- och regeringschefens makt. I realiteten innebar det att inget viktigt beslut över huvud taget kunde fattas mot FĂŒhrerns (det vill sĂ€ga Hitlers) vilja, och det fanns följaktligen inga legala möjligheter att kontrollera eller avsĂ€tta honom. Systemet gjorde att Hitler och den nazistiska staten smĂ€lte samman till ett. FĂŒhrerns ord var lag, och det innebar förrĂ€deri att pĂ„ allvar motsĂ€tta sig Hitlers vilja. För att lĂ€gga mesta kraften pĂ„ det som intresserade honom mest, utrikespolitiken (i stort sett liktydigt med planeringen inför andra vĂ€rldskriget) delegerade han mĂ„nga befogenheter till de ministrar som ansvarade för inrikespolitiken. Hitler kunde dock (om han sĂ„ önskade) Ă„terkalla dessa befogenheter och avsĂ€tta eller till och med lĂ„ta mörda sina ministrar om de inte ansĂ„gs pĂ„litliga.
+
+Propagandaministeriet som leddes av Joseph Goebbels hade en viktig uppgift i att sprida propaganda om den nazistiska statens överlÀgsenhet och dess ofelbare ledares förtrÀfflighet. NÄgon riktig personkult hann inte vÀxa fram innan andra vÀrldskriget startade men det fanns lÄngt gÄngna planer pÄ att införa en "nazistisk religion" dÀr Hitler fick en gudaliknande status (se Àven kejsarkult och personkult). En rad spektakulÀra monument till Hitlers och nazistatens Àra planerades ocksÄ.
+
+I strid mot villkoren i Versaillesfreden efter första vĂ€rldskriget Ă„terinförde Hitler allmĂ€n vĂ€rnplikt 1935 och inledde en kraftig upprustning av flottan och flygvapnet (Luftwaffe), Ă„ret efter besattes Ă€ven det demilitariserade Rhenlandet, och man lĂ€mnade Ă€ven Nationernas förbund. Ăven detta var uppenbara brott mot Versaillesfreden. DĂ„ vĂ€stmakterna nöjde sig med att protestera tolkade Hitler det som ett svaghetstecken hos framför allt britter och fransmĂ€n och fortsatte sina planer att skapa Lebensraum för sitt tusenĂ„riga "tredje rike". Ăsteuropa skulle erövras, Sovjetunionen krossas och judarna utrotas tillsammans med andra folk som enligt nazisterna saknade existensberĂ€ttigande. Den slaviska befolkningen skulle förslavas, deporteras bortom Uralbergen eller likvideras.
+
+Parallellt med den kraftiga upprustningen av armén sökte Hitler allierade inför ett framtida storkrig. Det ledde 1936 till ett nÀrmande till det fascistiska Italien som styrdes av Benito Mussolini. Han inledde ocksÄ ett samarbete med Japan som sedan början av 1930-talet bedrev en mycket aggressiv utrikespolitik. Detta samarbete ledde 1940 fram till en försvarspakt med japanerna.
+
+NĂ€sta steg för att förverkliga sina planer blev att 1938 ansluta Ăsterrike (Ostmark) och delar av Tjeckoslovakien (Sudetenland) till Tyskland, som dĂ„ kom att kallas Stortyskland. Ă
terigen nöjde sig Storbritannien och Frankrike med att protestera, man ville till varje pris undvika ett nytt storkrig. I en berömd konferens i MĂŒnchen i september samma Ă„r gick Storbritanniens premiĂ€rminister Neville Chamberlain med pĂ„ en försĂ€kran frĂ„n Hitler att denne inte skulle göra ansprĂ„k pĂ„ fler landomrĂ„den i Europa (sĂ„ kallad eftergiftstaktik).
+
+Hitler visade sig frustrerad efter MĂŒnchenavtalet eftersom han hade hoppats pĂ„ ett begrĂ€nsat krig som skulle ha möjliggjort en större succĂ©, men denna Ă„sikt delades varken av hans omgivning eller det tyska folket som befarade att Tyskland skulle förlora ett krig. DĂ€rför reagerade den tyska offentligheten med stor lĂ€ttnad nĂ€r MĂŒnchenkrisen inte ledde till ett nytt krig. Efter annekteringen av Sudetenland hölls ett val den 5 december 1938 dĂ€r annekteringen (enligt officiella siffror) fick stöd av 97,3 procent av vĂ€ljarna. VĂ„ren 1939 införlivades emellertid Ă€ven resten av Tjeckoslovakien (Böhmen-MĂ€hren) och nĂ€r Hitler sommaren 1939 kom med nya krav, denna gĂ„ng pĂ„ Polen, förklarade britterna och fransmĂ€nnen att de skulle förklara krig mot Tyskland om Hitler beslutade sig för att angripa Polen.
+
+Ăven om revansch mot Frankrike var en av huvudpunkterna i Hitlers program önskade han troligen aldrig nĂ„got krig mot Storbritannien. DĂ„ fransmĂ€n och britter sade sig vara beredda att förklara krig mot Tyskland i hĂ€ndelse av att man anföll Polen accepterade Hitler inviten frĂ„n Sovjetunionen som 23 augusti 1939 resulterade i MolotovâRibbentrop-pakten. Nyheten om pakten mellan Tyskland och Sovjetunionen vĂ€ckte oerhörd hĂ€pnad i Europa. Hitler Ă„ sin sida ville till varje pris undvika ett nytt tvĂ„frontskrig vilket var fallet i första vĂ€rldskriget. Med överenskommelsen med Sovjetunionen torde han ha rĂ€knat med att vĂ€stmakterna skulle avstĂ„ frĂ„n att förklara krig nĂ€r han inledde det planerade angreppet mot Polen. Stalin skulle lĂ„ta honom hĂ„llas nĂ€r anfallet mot Frankrike inleddes. NĂ€r fransmĂ€nnen var besegrade skulle han med ryggen fri kunna inleda "korstĂ„get mot bolsjevismen", det vill sĂ€ga kriget mot Sovjetunionen. Analysen att vĂ€stmakterna skulle förbli passiva visade sig vara felaktig.
+
+Andra vÀrldskriget
+
+Erövringarna (1939-1941)
+Att Hitler ville föra krig var ingen hemlighet, utan tvĂ€rtom nĂ„got som han hade annonserat genom hela sin politiska karriĂ€r. Revanschen mot Frankrike var en viktig punkt pĂ„ Hitlers agenda, likasĂ„ att ta tillbaka de förlorade omrĂ„den efter första vĂ€rldskriget. IdĂ©n att erövra Sovjetunionen dök upp för första gĂ„ngen i april 1924, nĂ„got som han Ă€ven skrev i Mein Kampf som kom ut 1925. DĂ€remot sĂ„g han England mer som en framtida bundsförvant. Som lĂ„ngsiktigt mĂ„l formulerade FĂŒhrern att skapa ett tyskt rike som skulle dela vĂ€rlden med tre andra stormakter: Storbritannien, USA och Japan. Sina krigsplaner uppenbarade Hitler första gĂ„ngen inför sin nĂ€rmaste politiska och militĂ€ra krets den 5 november 1937, vilket dokumenterats i HoĂbachprotokollet. Enligt Martin Bormanns anteckningar frĂ„n februari 1945 ville Hitler slĂ„ loss under MĂŒnchenkrisen 1938, men att han inte kunde börja kriget eftersom Frankrike och Storbritannien gick med pĂ„ alla krav. Inför chefredaktörerna för de tyska tidningarna i November 1938 erkĂ€nde han att alla tal om fred de föregĂ„ende Ă„ren hade som syfte att dölja den upprustning som hade pĂ„gĂ„tt samtidigt.
+
+Andra vÀrldskriget började med det tyska överfallet mot Polen. Efter första vÀrldskriget hade Danzig fÄtt statusen "fristaden Danzig" och hade fÄtt Nationernas förbunds skydd. Staden lÄg mellan de tyska provinserna Pommern och Ostpreussen vilket ledde till det tyska kravet att Danzig skulle "heim ins Reich" ("hem till riket"). Redan i maj 1939 hade Hitler förklarat för sina generaler att Danzig inte var ett mÄl i sig utan att det var en etapp mot en utvidgning av Tyskland österut. Hitlers ultimatum till den polska regeringen att fÄ den polska korridoren och Danzig avböjdes eftersom man rÀknade med Frankrikes och Storbritanniens stöd. Ett annat viktigt skÀl var att Hitlers krav, om de hade gÄtt igenom, hade lett till att Polen hade förlorat stora landomrÄden vilket i sin tur hade gjort det omöjligt att försvara landet mot framtida angrepp. Den polska regeringens agerande passade Hitler utmÀrkt som lÀngtade efter att börja kriget.
+
+För att undvika ett tvĂ„frontskrig hade Nazityskland slutit ett avtal med Josef Stalins kommunistiska Sovjetunionen den 23 augusti 1939. Denna icke angreppspakt fick namnet MolotovâRibbentrop-pakten (efter Sovjetunionens och Tysklands utrikesministrar). För Hitler var mĂ„let dock enbart att skapa sig en bĂ€ttre utgĂ„ngsposition för tillfĂ€llet. Redan i början av augusti hade han sagt till NF-kommissionĂ€ren Carl Burckhardt att han skulle anfalla Sovjetunionen sĂ„ fort vĂ€stmakterna var besegrade. Till detta fanns ett hemligt protokoll om en uppdelning av nordöstra Europa mellan Tyskland och Sovjetunionen. Tyskland skulle fĂ„ större delen av Polen i utbyte för att Sovjetunionen fick Polens östliga delar, de tre baltiska lĂ€nderna samt Finland. Nu behövde Hitler inte bekymra sig om Sovjetunionen (för tillfĂ€llet), och troligen hoppades han att vĂ€stmakterna (och Italien, som Ă€nnu inte var en pĂ„litlig bundsförvant) skulle lĂ„ta honom fĂ„ som han ville igen.
+
+Den 31 augusti 1939 berÀttade tysk radio om ett förslag frÄn Hitler för att lösa Polenkrisen. Senare erkÀnde han gentemot sin diplomatiske tolk Dr. Schmidt att radiosÀndningen var ett alibi för att ge sken av att han hade försökt att bevara freden i Europa. Bakom kulisserna dock hade Hitler tillintetgjort varje medlingsförsök; han var rÀdd för att "nÄgon fÀhund i sista ögonblick skulle lÀgga fram en medlingsplan".
+
+För att ge tyskarna ett svepskÀl för att angripa Polen fick SS order om att iscensÀtta provokationer. En grupp SS-soldater tog pÄ sig polska uniformer och överföll den tyska radiostationen Gleiwitz som befann sig nÀra den tysk-polska grÀnsen. NÀr Tyskland anföll Polen den 1 september förklarade Hitler inför riksdagen: "Sedan kl. 5.45 imorse skjuter vi nu tillbaka". Till skillnad frÄn augusti 1914 fanns det dock inga större patriotiska kÀnsloyttringar den hÀr gÄngen, den tyska befolkningen förhöll sig mestadels passiv. Den tyska offentligheten tyckte att den polska korridoren skulle bli en del av Tyskland, men utan krig. Hitler sjÀlv hade varit medveten om tyskarnas olust att föra krig igen och hade inför journalister i november 1938 förklarat att han var tvungen att hela tiden prata om fred för att i hemlighet kunna förbereda landet för ett nytt krig.
+
+NĂ€r Storbritannien (tillsammans med Frankrike) förklarade krig mot Tyskland den 3 september var Hitler besviken eftersom han inte sĂ„g landet som en fiende att slĂ„ss emot samt att han var orolig över att ett krig mot Storbritannien skulle leda till Tysklands nederlag. Oron minskade dock nĂ€r vĂ€stmakterna förblev helt passiva under denna fas av kriget samtidigt som Polen besegrades snabbt. NĂ€r Polen hade erövrats började ocksĂ„ tyskarnas ockupationspolitik vars mĂ„l var att utrota bĂ„de de judiska polackerna och den polska eliten. Det finns ingen skriftlig order frĂ„n Hitler om detta, men det finns andra kĂ€llor som belĂ€gger vad han hade i Ă„syfte. Exempelvis Ă„beropade Heydrich i juli 1940 en "utomordentligt radikal specialbefallning av FĂŒhrern" för att genomföra utrotningen och det finns Ă€ven ett memorandum av Himmler frĂ„n maj 1940 dĂ€r han pratar om att eliminera delar av den polska befolkningen och att förslava dem som inte hade utrotats. Enligt historikern Sebastian Haffner Ă€r Himmlers memorandum ett tydligt tecken pĂ„ vad Hitler ville eftersom han menar att Himmler var Hitlers högra hand och sprĂ„krör nĂ€r det gĂ€llde regimens förbrytelser. I Polen dog under kriget ungefĂ€r var sjĂ€tte invĂ„nare, 6 miljoner mĂ€nniskor.
+
+Den 9 april 1940 inleddes invasionen av Danmark och Norge, i maj började anfallet mot Frankrike. Under erövringen av Polen och Danmark respektive Norge hade Hitler lyssnat pÄ sina militÀra experter. NÀr fÀlttÄget mot vÀst inleddes intog han en mer ledande roll. Enligt Sebastian Haffner var Hitler en drivande kraft bakom fÀlttÄget mot Frankrike och Hitler var Àven den som gav stöd till von Mansteins plan som ledde till erövringen av Frankrike. Enligt Haffner mÄste Hitlers betydelse understrykas eftersom det fanns ett stort motstÄnd mot hans idéer. Generalstabschefen Halder motsatte sig planen och en del generaler var till och med beredda att genomföra en kupp mot Hitler eftersom de befarade att ett krig mot Frankrike skulle leda till en liknande utgÄng som under första vÀrldskriget nÀr offensiven fastnade i ett skyttegravskrig. NÀr Frankrike hade besegrats efter sex veckor bestÀmde sig Hitler för att genomföra kapitulationsförhandlingarna i samma tÄgvagn dÀr tyskarna hade kapitulerat 1918. NÄgra dagar efter kapitulationen Äkte Hitler till Paris för att titta pÄ nÄgra av stadens sevÀrdheter. Den 6 juli anordnades en segerparad till Hitlers Àra. Enligt Bengt Liljegren ökade Hitlers popularitet avsevÀrt efter segern över Frankrike. Enligt historikern Götz Aly mÄste detta dock sÀttas in sitt rÀtta sammanhang. Han menar att tyskarna hade ett enormt förtroende för Hitler fram till sommaren 1939, men nÀr kriget började minskade populariteten stadigt. Aly pÄpekar dock ocksÄ att Hitlers popularitet fick ett litet uppsving efter segern mot Frankrike, men enligt Aly ska detta uppsving inte överskattas.
+
+Efter erövringen av Frankrike övervÀgde Hitler att invadera Storbritannien under kodnamnet "Operation Seelöwe" ("sjölejon") men eftersom han bedömde det som för riskabelt ville han istÀllet tvinga landet till ett fredsslut genom kontinuerliga bombrÀder mot storstÀderna ("slaget om Storbritannien") vilket dock misslyckades. Trots denna motgÄng satte Hitler igÄng med sin plan att överfalla Sovjetunionen, han hoppades att en snabb seger mot det stora landet i öster skulle binda USA i StillahavsomrÄdet samtidigt som Storbritannien dÄ inte kunde rÀkna med hjÀlp frÄn Förenta Staterna. Hitlers anfallsplaner föranledde Hitlers stÀllföretrÀdare Rudolf Hess att pÄ eget bevÄg flyga till England i en Messerschmidt 110 för att mÀkla fred med Storbritannien. Hess önskemÄl gick inte i uppfyllelse, istÀllet arresterades han. Hitler förklarade hÀndelsen officiellt med att Hess hade fÄtt ett nervsammanbrott. Ett annat problem för Hitler var att Italien hade betydande problem att erövra balkanhalvön vilket ledde till att Hitler sÀnde trupper dit för att hjÀlpa sin bundsförvant. DÀrmed fördröjdes angreppet mot Sovjetunionen. Dessutom kunde Hitler genom skicklig diplomati liera Ungerns Miklós Horthy, RumÀniens Ion Antonescu samt Bulgariens Bogdan Filov till Tyskland.
+
+PÄ vÄren 1941 förberedde Hitler invasionen mot Sovjetunionen. Tanken var att erövra och att utplundra landet vilket skulle ge Tredje riket en avgörande fördel i det fortsatta kriget. Tyska Wehrmacht skulle försörjas via de livsmedel som fanns i Sovjetunionen. Enligt berÀkningar frÄn lantbruksministeriet skulle denna strategi leda till 20-30 miljoner hungerdöda, Àven ryska krigsfÄngna planerades att svÀlta ihjÀl. "Detta Àr ett utrotningskrig" deklarerade Hitler inför sina generaler den 30 mars 1941. Enligt kommissarieordern (6 juni 1941) skulle sovjetiska politiska officerare, kommunister, sabotörer och judar betraktas som partisaner och skjutas. Förutom det ideologiska mÄlet, att utrota den "judiska bolsjevismen", ville Tyskland dessutom fÄ kontroll över spannmÄl i Ukraina samt oljan i Kaukasus. Det konkreta beslutet att överfalla fattade Hitler redan den 31 juli 1940: en blockad mot Storbritannien och en seger mot Sovjetunionen skulle öka Englands beredskap för att sluta fred med Tyskland. NÀr överfallet började den 22 juni 1941 lÀste propagandaminister Goebbels upp ett tal av Hitler kl. 5.30 pÄ morgonen. I talet erkÀnde Hitler att icke-angreppspakten frÄn augusti 1939 hade varit en taktisk manöver och han framstÀllde överfallet som en reaktion pÄ sovjetisk provokation. Kl. 3.15 pÄ morgonen den 22 juni 1941 inleddes "Operation Barbarossa" med tungt artillerield som följdes av att Wehrmachtförband korsade grÀnsen. Den röda armén överrumplades helt och hÄllet av anfallet och led stora förluster i denna inledande fas av kriget. NÀr överfallet började var Hitler mer dÀmpad, men han blev mer optimistisk efter de stora framryckningarna under de första mÄnaderna. Offensiven fastnade dock under regnperioden pÄ hösten och nÀr vintern kom började den röda armén med sin motoffensiv som slog angriparna tillbaka utanför Moskva. Hitler var utom sig och förbjöd sina trupper att dra sig tillbaka.
+
+Hitler hade redan innan kriget mot Sovjetunionen inleddes förklarat att detta skulle bli ett krig dÀr ingen hÀnsyn skulle tas till krigets lagar. MÄlet var enkelt men extremt brutalt. Sovjetunionen skulle krossas till varje pris, och hela omrÄdet fram till Uralbergen skulle tas i besittning. Judar, kommunister och alla andra som pÄstods hota det tyska folkets existens skulle utrotas, 14 miljoner slaver skulle bli arbetsslavar, uppemot 40 miljoner skulle avrÀttas och lika mÄnga deporteras. Kriget pÄ östfronten var ett masskrig som saknar motstycke i storlek och brutalitet. Kriget berÀknas ha kostat 27 miljoner ryssar livet, varav 17 miljoner var civila. I siffran ingÄr ocksÄ minst 3 miljoner soldater som dog som krigsfÄngar. De dog av svÀlt, sjukdomar, misshandel eller blev helt enkelt massavrÀttade.
+
+NÀr japanerna attackerade Pearl Harbor den 7 december 1941 kom detta som en total överraskning för tyskarna. Fyra dagar senare förklarade Hitler krig mot USA, vilket han offentliggjorde i ett tal inför riksdagen pÄ eftermiddagen den 11 december. I ett lÀge dÀr Tysklands trupper precis hade lidit sitt första stora nederlag utanför Moskva Àr skÀlet till Hitlers krigsförklaring fortfarande nÄgot som historikerna diskuterar. Historikern Antony Beevor ser orsakerna i att Hitler ville ge tyska ubÄtar möjligheten att intensifiera sjökriget i Atlanten och att Hitler sÄg USA som ett land dominerat av judarna vilket i Hitlers ögon ÀndÄ skulle leda till krig med Tyskland förr eller senare. Historikern Sebastian Haffner förklarar Hitlers beslut utifrÄn nederlaget utanför Moskva. Haffner menar att det misslyckade fÀlttÄget i Ryssland visade Hitler att han inte lÀngre kunde vinna kriget mot Sovjetunionen. Och om segern inte lÀngre var inom rÀckhÄll sÄ kunde heller inte England övertalas till ett fredsslut och dÀrmed kunde Hitler likagÀrna förklara krig mot USA. Haffner menar dessutom att det inte Àr en slump att krigsförklaringen mot USA den 11 december och Wannseekonferensen den 20 januari ligger sÄ nÀra inpÄ varandra. Eftersom kriget inte lÀngre gick att vinna struntade Hitler i en militÀr seger och fokuserade istÀllet helt och hÄllet pÄ att utrota judarna. Detta förklarar enligt Haffner ocksÄ varför Hitlers strategi under krigets andra hÀlft gick ut pÄ att försvara alla ockuperade omrÄden sÄ lÄngt som möjligt: för att kunna mörda sÄ mÄnga judar som möjligt.
+
+Förintelsen (fr.o.m. 1941)
+
+"AvlĂ€gsnandet av judarna" var en av de mest centrala punkterna i Hitlers och nationalsocialismens politik. Redan i Mein Kampf skrev Hitler att om Tyskland "lĂ„tit tolv eller femton tusen av dessa hebreiska folkfördĂ€rvare smaka giftgasen sĂ„ som hundratusen av vĂ„ra allra bĂ€sta tyska arbetare frĂ„n alla skikt och yrken mĂ„ste pĂ„ slagfĂ€ltet, dĂ„ skulle inte miljonoffret pĂ„ fronten ha varit förgĂ€ves". Denna politik mot judarna sattes igĂ„ng genast efter maktövertagandet 1933 varvid nĂ„gra centrala punkter var bojkotten mot judiska affĂ€rer i april 1933, NĂŒrnberglagarna i september 1935 och Kristallnatten 1938. Enligt Goebbels dagboksanteckningar bestĂ€mde Hitler att polisen skulle dra sig tillbaka under Kristallnatten sĂ„ att vĂ„ldsamheterna mot judarna inte skulle hindras.
+
+FrÄn 1937 hade sÀkerhetstjÀnsten under Reinhard Heydrich fÄtt en allt mer central roll i judepolitiken som utvecklade planer pÄ att fördriva judarna frÄn Tyskland. NÀr andra vÀrldskriget började radikaliserades politiken gentemot judarna vilket visade sig i allt fler förbud mot dessa. Samtidigt utvecklades planer pÄ att deportera judarna till reservat i utkanten av Tysklands maktomrÄde, ett pilotprojekt under ledning av Adolf Eichmann som godkÀndes av Hitler personligen. En annan tanke bestod i "Madagaskarplanen" dÀr alla judar inom det av Tyskland ockuperade omrÄdet skulle avlÀgsnas till Madagaskar. Tanken med dessa planer var att judarna skulle utplÄnas lÄngsiktigt genom dÄliga levnadsförhÄllanden, lÄga födelsetal och bestraffningar.
+
+NĂ€r "Madagaskarplanen" inte gick att genomföra eftersom ön lĂ„g utanför Tysklands maktsfĂ€r fick Heydrich i början av 1941 i uppdrag av Hitler att utarbeta en plan för den slutgiltiga lösningen av judefrĂ„gan. Detta resulterade i Heydrichs förslag att deportera judarna till Sovjetunionen efter att landet hade besegrats. Kriget mot Sovjetunionen inleddes den 22 juni 1941 och redan innan fĂ€lttĂ„get började hade Hitler varit tydlig med att detta krig hade som syfte att förinta bĂ„de kommunismen och judarna. Riktlinjerna som "FĂŒhrern" tillkĂ€nnagav vĂ„ren 1941 gjorde att tyska soldater i princip inte lĂ€ngre kunde Ă„talas för krigsbrott. Utöver det bildades "specialenheter" ("Einsatzgruppen") (under ledning av SS-chefen Heinrich Himmler) som fick i uppdrag att skjuta judar. MassavrĂ€ttningar av judar i Sovjetunionen övergick snabbt i att mörda Sovjetunionens civilbefolkning i stor skala. HĂ€rvid försĂ€krade sig Himmler alltjĂ€mt om att han hade Hitlers stöd.
+
+Under sensommaren 1941 trappades politiken mot judarna upp och i september hade Hitler bestĂ€mt sig för att deportera alla judar inom det tyska riket och protektoratet vilket under hösten utvidgades till att gĂ€lla alla judar inom hela tyska maktomrĂ„det. Samtidigt skedde en propagandistisk upptrappning mot judarna. Redan i ett riksdagstal i januari 1939 menade Hitler att ett nytt vĂ€rldskrig skulle innebĂ€ra "en utrotning av den judiska rasen i Europa". Vid ett möte med Tredje Rikets ledande nazister den 12 december 1941 upprepade Hitler sitt budskap frĂ„n januari 1939 (se ovan). Goebbels noterade i sin dagbok efterĂ„t: "AngĂ„ende judefrĂ„gan Ă€r FĂŒhrern fast besluten att göra rent bord. Han har förkunnat profetian om judarna, att om de Ă€nnu en gĂ„ng skulle Ă„stadkomma ett vĂ€rldskrig skulle de fĂ„ uppleva sin egen förintelse [...] VĂ€rldskriget Ă€r hĂ€r, judarnas förintelse mĂ„ste bli den nödvĂ€ndiga konsekvensen". Efter ett samtal med Hitler den 18 december 1941 noterade Himmler: "JudefrĂ„ga/utrota som partisaner".
+
+En central hÀndelse i massmordet pÄ Europas judar var Wannseekonferensen den 20 januari 1942 dÀr man tog det formella beslutet av nazibyrÄkratin att verkstÀlla den "slutgiltiga lösningen av judefrÄgan", det vill sÀga den avsiktliga och totala utrotningen av Europas judiska befolkning. NÀr Reinhard Heydrich bjöd in till Wannseekonferensen den 20 januari 1942 hade redan hundratusentals judar mördats. Genom att bjuda in till ett sÄdant möte ville Heydrich informera den ledande byrÄkratin och göra den medansvarig genom att berÀtta om detaljerna i Förintelsen. Innan konferensen fanns det tvÄ konkurrerande planer: Heydrich ville deportera Europas 11 miljoner judar till utkanterna av det tyska riket dÀr judarna skulle utplÄnas lÄngsiktigt pÄ grund av dÄliga livsvillkor, hÄrt tvÄngsarbete och direkta mordaktioner. Heinrich Himmler dÀremot ville pÄskynda folkmordet utan en heltÀckande plan. Under Wannseekonferensen var det Himmlers linje som fick stöd, bland annat eftersom det hade utvecklats möjligheten att massmörda mÀnniskor genom att gasa ihjÀl dem.
+
+
+För att genomföra massmordet byggdes sÄ kallade förintelselÀger, dÀr Auschwitz i Polen var ett av de största och mest beryktade. I dessa lÀger tros cirka 9 miljoner mÀnniskor ha mördats. Offren utgjordes av judar, romer, homosexuella, handikappade, prostituerade, politiskt oliktÀnkande (sÀrskilt kommunister) samt fyra miljoner etniska polacker. InrÀttandet av förintelselÀgren var ett resultat av att det var mycket svÄrt att dölja massmord i en sÄdan ofattbar skala. I dödsfabrikerna gick "processen" mycket snabbare och var lÀttare att dölja. Hitler besökte aldrig sjÀlv Auschwitz eller nÄgot annat koncentrationslÀger utan överlÀt hela planeringen och genomförandet av folkmorden pÄ Schutzstaffel som leddes av Heinrich Himmler. Andra centrala personer i planeringen var Himmlers högra hand Reinhard Heydrich och Adolf Eichmann.
+Vissa har genom Ă„ren hĂ€vdat att Förintelsen skedde utan att Hitler kĂ€nde till den. Detta eftersom det inte finns nĂ„got bevarat dokument dĂ€r Hitler direkt beordrade Förintelsen. En övervĂ€ldigande majoritet av historiker och andra forskare menar dock att detta pĂ„stĂ„ende saknar grund. Historikern Bengt Liljegren rĂ€knar upp nĂ„gra bevis pĂ„ Hitlers centrala roll i Förintelsen som t.ex. riksdagstalet frĂ„n januari 1939 dĂ€r han pratar om utrotningen av den judiska rasen. Det finns Ă€ven flera vittnesmĂ„l om att Hitler sedan 1941 flera gĂ„nger pratade om att antingen lĂ„ta judarna jobba ihjĂ€l sig eller att utrota dem och jĂ€mförde Förintelsen med Louis Pasteurs och Robert Kochs kamp mot sjukdomar. Sommaren 1941 berĂ€ttade Reinhard Heydrich för Adolf Eichmann: "FĂŒhrern har beordrat fysisk utplĂ„ning". LikasĂ„ var Albert Speer helt sĂ€ker pĂ„ att det var otĂ€nkbart att ett viktigt beslut fattades utan att Hitler hade godkĂ€nt det. Att det inte finns nĂ„gon central order frĂ„n Hitler om att utrota judarna beror enligt historikern Hans Mommsen pĂ„ att Hitler praktiserade ett "polykratiskt regerande", dvs. att lĂ„ta saker och ting gĂ„ och att enbart ingripa om olika intressen rĂ„kade i konflikt med varandra. Hitler signalerade sin vilja som de lĂ€gre befĂ€len sedan verkstĂ€llde pĂ„ eget initiativ.
+
+Slutet pÄ expansionen och retrÀtt (1942-1944)
+1942 inledde tyskarna en ny offensiv mot oljefĂ€lten i Kaukasusregionen. Till en början marscherade trupperna framĂ„t men under hösten 1942 gick operationen i stĂ„. Hitler insisterade pĂ„ att erövra staden Stalingrad (idag: Volgograd) vid floden Volga, nĂ„got som stötte pĂ„ motstĂ„nd hos generalstabschefen Franz Halder som tyckte att armĂ©n borde koncentreras mot oljefĂ€lten istĂ€llet. Sammandrabbningen mellan tyska Wehrmacht och den röda armĂ©n slutade med att Tysklands sjĂ€tte armĂ© omringades i Stalingrad i november 1942. Utbrytningsförsök förbjöds av Hitler och den 2 februari 1943 gick 137 000 tyska soldater i fĂ„ngenskap. Slaget vid Stalingrad och de allierade framgĂ„ngarna i Nordafrika markerade vĂ€ndpunkten i andra vĂ€rldskriget vilket enligt Bengt Liljegren Ă€ven pĂ„verkade Hitler som fick en allt dystrare sinnesstĂ€mning, Albert Speer ansĂ„g till och med att diktatorn var deprimerad. Hitler slutade titta pĂ„ film, lyssnade inte lĂ€ngre pĂ„ musik och minskade antalet offentliga tal. Varje dag i Wolfsschanze följde ett fast schema dĂ€r militĂ€ra genomgĂ„ngarna varvades med fasta mĂ„ltider dĂ€r Hitler och hans sĂ€llskap pratade om mĂ„nga olika Ă€mnen, kriget berördes dĂ„ vĂ€ldigt sĂ€llan. NĂ€r diktatorns humör försĂ€mrades efter nederlagen infördes testunder som skulle förbĂ€ttra hans sinnesstĂ€mning. Ăven Berghof blev en allt viktigare tillflyktsort för Hitler.
+
+Krigets slut (1944â1945)
+NÀr kriget gick allt sÀmre samlades konservativa krafter inom armén som ville undanröja Hitler. I slutet av 1943 fanns det fÀrdiga planer pÄ att genomföra en statskupp, men ett svÄrare problem var hur man kunde komma Ät Hitler, flera attentatsförsök mellan 1943 och 1944 misslyckades. Greve Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg var den som slutligen fick i uppdrag att genomföra attentatet. Som stabschef hos chefen för reservarmén hade han nÀra tillgÄng till Hitler och placerade en bomb nÀra Hitler under en lÀgesrapport den 20 juli 1944. Bomben detonerade men Hitler överlevde med lÀttare skador, antagligen eftersom han just vid explosionen lutade över ett tungt bord som skyddade honom frÄn bomben. Stauffenberg och 200 andra inblandade avrÀttades, 5 000 personer arresterades. Bilderna frÄn avrÀttningarna transporterades till Wolfsschanze och visades för Hitler som tittade pÄ dem med tillfredsstÀllelse.
+
+Efter attentatet den 20 juli beskrevs Hitler som sjuk av sin nĂ€rmaste omgivning, nĂ„got som bekymrade Martin Bormann. Hitlers personlige lĂ€kare Theodor Morell verkade dock hittat en behandling som hjĂ€lpte diktatorn att tillfriskna. Morell anvĂ€nde en blandning av olika preparat som huvudsakligen bestod av hormoner, druvsocker och vitaminer. Ăven om vissa inslag av droger förekom (ögondroppar med kokain exempelvis) var Hitler inte drogberoende, Ă€ven om han enligt Bengt Liljegren var psykiskt beroende av Morells medicin. Att Hitler mĂ„dde bĂ€ttre visade sig ocksĂ„ i att hans livskraft vĂ€cktes pĂ„ nytt under sensommaren 1944. Situationen som Tyskland befann sig i dĂ„ var jĂ€mförbar med lĂ€get hösten 1918, strax före första vĂ€rldskrigets slut, nĂ€r den tyska militĂ€ra ledningen hade dragit slutsatsen att kriget var förlorat och borde avslutas. Men till skillnad frĂ„n september 1918 bestĂ€mde sig Hitler för att fortsĂ€tta kampen in i det sista. För att sĂ€kerstĂ€lla detta och förhindra en kapitulation i förtid lĂ€t han genomföra "Aktion ovĂ€der" den 22 augusti 1944 dĂ€r f.d. ministrar, borgmĂ€stare, parlamentsledamöter, partifunktionĂ€rer, mm. arresterades. Dessutom lyckades Hitler att stabilisera den militĂ€ra situationen genom att organisera "Folkstormen (Volkssturm)" (dĂ€r alla mĂ€n frĂ„n 16 till 60 Ă„r ingick) samtidigt som han ökade kampviljan genom stĂ€ndigt prat om " ett undervapen" som skulle vĂ€nda krigslyckan.
+
+Den 20 november lĂ€mnade diktatorn "Wolfsschanze" för sista gĂ„ngen för att bege sig till FĂŒhrerbunkern i Berlin. Den 16 januari 1945 anlĂ€nde Hitler till Berlin och inrĂ€ttade sitt högkvarter i rikskansliet pĂ„ Wilhelmstrasse. Den 16 december beordrade Hitler Ardenneroffensiven, den sista offensiven pĂ„ vĂ€stfronten som trots nĂ„gra inledande framgĂ„ngar snabbt kom av sig. Generalstabschefen Guderian hade varnat Hitler att anfallet var meningslöst men "FĂŒhrern" hade insisterat att det skulle genomföras Ă€ndĂ„. Genom anfallet i vĂ€st blottades östfronten dĂ€r den röda armĂ©n började sin offensiv den 12 januari 1945. Historikern Sebastian Haffner menar att Hitlers kalkyl kan ha varit att just försvaga östfronten för att underlĂ€tta en sovjetisk offensiv som möjligtvis skulle leda till att de vĂ€stallierade i ett sĂ„dant lĂ€ge skulle vilja förhandla med Tyskland. Mer troligt Ă€r enligt Haffner dock att Hitler hade börjat vĂ€nda sig mot det tyska folket som inte delade Hitlers vilja att fortsĂ€tta till det totala nederlaget utan som istĂ€llet hoppades pĂ„ att kriget skulle ta slut sĂ„ snabbt och skonsamt som möjligt, helst i ett scenario dĂ€r Tyskland ockuperades av vĂ€stmakterna istĂ€llet för Sovjetunionen. Att tyskarna inte var beredda att fortsĂ€tta kriget in i det sista fĂ„r ett visst stöd i Götz Alys forskning som har tittat pĂ„ exempelvis hur mĂ„nga nyfödda barn som fick namnet Adolf och ifall dödsannonserna för stupade soldater innehöll frasen "Stupad för FĂŒhrer, folk och fosterland" eller om man bara skrev "Stupad för folk och fosterland". UtifrĂ„n det konstruerade Aly och hans medarbetare den s k "Adolfkurvan" som enligt dem visar att stödet för nationalsocialismen hade sjunkit kontinuerligt fram till 1944. Haffner tolkar Ardenneroffensiven som ett medvetet drag att försvaga östfronten och för att pĂ„ sĂ„ sĂ€tt hĂ€mnas mot tyskarna som inte lĂ€ngre tĂ€nkte som diktatorn.
+
+Viljan att undanröja möjligheten till ett drÀgligt liv för civilbefolkningen manifesterades ocksÄ i "Nero-ordern" som Hitler gav den 19 mars 1945 och som gick ut pÄ att förstöra alla materiella tillgÄngar i Tyskland. Hitler kommenterade denna order med orden: "Om kriget förloras, Àr ocksÄ folket förlorat. Det Àr inte nödvÀndigt att ta nÄgon hÀnsyn till det som det tyska folket mÄste ha för att fÄ det primitivaste sÀtt att leva vidare." PÄ ett liknande vis hade Hitler redan yttrat sig i november 1941 nÀr den tyska offensiven hade fastnat i Sovjetunionen. Sebastian Haffner ser Àven hÀr Hitlers huvudsakliga motivation i att förgöra det egna folket som inte ville fortsÀtta kriget. De mest fanatiska SS- och partimedlemmarna genomförde ordern som den var tÀnkt vilket ledde till att civilbefolkningen nu hamnade i klÀm mellan bÄde de fientliga trupperna och de egna. Dock var det ocksÄ mÄnga som inte följde ordern, i Berlin exempelvis förstördes endast ca 10% av alla broar. Det mest kÀnda exemplet av dem som motsatte sig var rustningsminister Albert Speer som vÀgrade att genomföra ordern. NÀr Hitler fick reda pÄ detta kallade han Speer till sig, men denna episod fick inga allvarliga konsekvenser för Speer.
+
+Den tyska armén skulle kÀmpa till det bittra slutet och det tyska folket skulle om det var "nödvÀndigt" gÄ sin undergÄng till mötes dÄ det enligt Hitler inte visat sig "starkt nog" att vinna kriget. Under senvintern 1945 gav Hitler order om total fysisk ödelÀggelse av Tyskland men denna order följdes inte av flertalet underlydande.
+
+Den 15 april lĂ€mnade Hitler och hans följe rikskansliet för att bege sig in i bunkern som lĂ„g tolv meter under marken. Hela skyddsrumskomplexet hade plats för 1 000 personer, sjĂ€lva FĂŒhrerbunkern utgjorde bara en del av det. Adolf Hitler och Eva Braun hade var sitt rum och intill deras sovrum befann sig konferensrummet pĂ„ 14 kvadratmeter. NĂ€r Hitler fyllde 56 den 20 april samlades nazisttopparna en sista gĂ„ng och försökte övertala honom om att fly till Obersalzberg vilket denne dock avböjde och menade att avgörandet skulle ske i Berlin. Hitlers hĂ€lsa försĂ€mrades nu pĂ„tagligt, han vĂ€nde pĂ„ dygnet och enligt sekreteraren Christa Schröder började han vrĂ€ka i sig mĂ€ngder av kakor. Hitler beskrivs under hans sista tid i livet som lĂ€ttretlig, vilket förstĂ€rktes av att han lade sig klockan Ă„tta pĂ„ morgonen och gick upp klockan elva. Den 21 april hade Hitler gett order om att SS-generalen Felix Steiner skulle leda ett undsĂ€ttningsanfall mot Berlin. Vid en lĂ€gesrapport den 22 april meddelade hans generaler att detta anfall inte hade skett vilket föranledde ett raseriutbrott av Hitler som varade i en halv timme. Efter utbrottet sa Hitler: "Mina herrar, det Ă€r slut. Jag stannar hĂ€r i Berlin och kommer att skjuta mig nĂ€r tiden Ă€r inne. Den som vill kan gĂ„, det stĂ„r var och en fritt." Ett sista samtal mellan Hitler och Speer Ă€gde rum pĂ„ kvĂ€llen den 23 april. Under samtalet bekrĂ€ftade FĂŒhrern sitt beslut att ta livet av sig. StĂ€mningen bland dem som var kvar i bunkern pendlade nu mellan vansinne och desperation, ett vanligt samtalsĂ€mne var hur man pĂ„ bĂ€sta sĂ€tt kunde ta livet av sig. Att Hitler helt hade tappat kontakt med verkligheten visade sig Ă€nnu en gĂ„ng den 27 april nĂ€r han pratade om att Ă„tererövra oljefĂ€lten, medan den röda armĂ©n stod nĂ„gra kilometer frĂ„n bunkern. NĂ€r Hitler den 28 april fick reda pĂ„ att Himmler hade försökt att föra kapitulationsförhandlingar med de vĂ€stallierade ville han lĂ„ta avrĂ€tta Himmler. Men eftersom detta inte gick lĂ€t han skjuta Himmlers adjutant och Eva Brauns svĂ„ger SS-generalen Hermann Fegelein istĂ€llet.
+
+JÀmte honom Äterfanns flickvÀnnen Eva Braun och nÀra medarbetare som Martin Bormann och propagandaministern Joseph Goebbels. SS-chefen Heinrich Himmler som i praktiken varit rikets nÀst mÀktigaste man i Äratal blev dock frÄntagen alla maktbefogenheter sedan Hitler nÄgra dagar före sitt sjÀlvmord fÄtt vetskap om Himmlers försök att mÀkla fred med vÀstmakterna genom förmedling av Folke Bernadotte frÄn Röda Korset. Hitler fortsatte att utfÀrda hÀnsynslösa order in i det sista; till exempel skulle alla soldater som retirerade eller gav upp omedelbart avrÀttas nÀr ryssarna nÀrmade sig Berlin.
+
+Hitlers död (april 1945)
+Hitler hade sedan 1932 haft ett hemligt förhÄllande med Eva Braun och de gifte sig kort efter midnatt den 29 april 1945. I och med giftermÄlet antog Eva Braun lagligen efternamnet Hitler.
+
+Omkring klockan 04.00 dikterade Hitler sitt politiska och personliga testamente för sekreteraren Traudl Junge dÀr han utnÀmnde storamiral Karl Dönitz till sin eftertrÀdare som Tysklands statsöverhuvud och Joseph Goebbels till rikskansler. Testamentet innehöll hÀtska utfall mot sÄvÀl judarna som det tyska folket som inte visat tillrÀcklig "offervilja" för att vinna kriget. Den 29 april hade Hitler fÄtt kÀnnedom om tvÄ hÀndelser som fick honom att bestÀmma sig för att begÄ sjÀlvmord den 30 april. Den 28 april hade Italiens forne diktator Benito Mussolini och dennes Àlskarinna Clara Petacci arkebuserats och dÀrefter hÀngts upp i fötterna i en sönderbombad bensinstation i centrala Milano. Hitler ville till varje pris undvika att bli tillfÄngatagen levande eller att hans kropp skulle skÀndas pÄ liknande sÀtt. I slutet av april hade Heinrich Himmler försökt fredsförhandla med amerikanerna; detta gjorde Hitler rasande och han talade om det slutgiltiga sveket.
+
+PÄ förmiddagen den 30 april, dÄ Röda armén befann sig endast cirka 500 meter frÄn bunkern, hade Hitler ett möte med general Helmuth Weidling, befÀlhavare för Berlins försvar. Denne informerade Hitler om att de styrkor som försvarade Berlins centrala delar snart skulle stÄ utan ammunition. Weidling fick Hitlers tillÄtelse att göra ett utbrytningsförsök.
+
+Enligt Hitlers sekreterare Traudl Junge Ă„t Hitler och hans personal en sista lunch den 30 april, innan diktatorn tog avsked frĂ„n dem. Omkring klockan 14.30 drog sig Hitler och hans hustru Eva tillbaka till Hitlers personliga arbetsrum. UngefĂ€r en timme senare, vid klockan 15.30, begick de sjĂ€lvmord. Exakt hur Hitler begick sjĂ€lvmord Ă€r omtvistat. Ăgonvittnen har berĂ€ttat att han först bet sönder en cyanidampull och dĂ€refter sköt sig i munnen eller tinningen. Andra ögonvittnen menar att han inte alls anvĂ€nde sig av gift. De ryska rĂ€ttslĂ€kare som obducerade Hitlers förkolnade kvarlevor och i synnerhet hans kranium hĂ€vdade att man funnit glassplitter mellan Hitlers tĂ€nder. Historikern Anton Joachimsthaler motsĂ€tter sig denna version och menar att Hitler sköt sig med en pistol i huvudet utan att ta gift. Detta grundar sig pĂ„ flera ögonvittnen, bland andra SS-adjutant Otto GĂŒnsche. Det Ă€r dock stĂ€llt bortom allt tvivel att Eva Braun svalde gift. Hitlers betjĂ€nt Heinz Linge hade tillsammans med Martin Bormann och GĂŒnsche gĂ„tt in i Hitlers vardagsrum strax efter att denne hade tagit livet av sig. Kropparna bars ut i rikskansliets trĂ€dgĂ„rd dĂ€r de brĂ€ndes. Kremeringen ombesörjdes av Hitlers chaufför Erich Kempka och Otto GĂŒnsche. Traudl Junge berĂ€ttar att hon hade satt sig vid trappan som ledde mot FĂŒhrerbunkerns utgĂ„ng och att GĂŒnsche kom uppför trappan och hade satt sig bredvid henne nĂ„gon gĂ„ng efter klockan tre pĂ„ eftermiddagen. Enligt henne luktade han bensin och yttrade orden: "Jag har utfört FĂŒhrerns sista order...hans lik Ă€r brĂ€nt".
+
+Hitler dödförklarades officiellt 1956; först dÄ fanns det möjlighet att förhöra nyckelpersoner som befann sig i Hitlers nÀrhet nÀr han begick sjÀlvmord. Bland dessa nyckelvittnen befann sig Hitlers betjÀnt Heinz Linge som under ed berÀttade det han sÄg.
+
+Efter kriget florerade emellertid rykten om att Hitler överlevt och flytt till Sydamerika eller gÄtt under jorden i Europa. En dokumentÀr som sÀndes pÄ "History Channel" 2015 försökte att bevisa att Hitler hade flytt till Sydamerika. Denna typ av rykten har funnits sedan krigets slut men avfÀrdas av seriösa historiker. SÀrskilt efter jÀrnridÄns fall som öppnade upp tidigare slutna sovjetiska arkiv. Stalin visade sig vara mycket intresserad av att fÄ veta om Hitler verkligen var död och sovjetisk militÀr kartlade platsen och de sista dygnens förlopp minutiöst.
+
+Hitler som person
+
+Hitlers sekreterare under flera Är, Traudl Junge, har beskrivit honom som vÀnlig mot sina underordnade. Hitler var Àven hundvÀn och hade en schÀfer vid namn Blondi. Men Hitlers mentala tillstÄnd, sÀrskilt under krigets sista Är, har blivit föremÄl för mÄnga undersökningar och spekulationer. MÄnga mÀnniskor som trÀffat Hitler personligen har beskrivit honom som artig, trevlig och nÀst intill blyg. Albert Speer har beskrivit hans karisma som en "magnetisk eller hypnotisk egenskap" och uppger att han blev sÄ tagen efter att första gÄngen ha hört Hitler tala att han var tvungen att ta en lÄng promenad i skogen för att samla sig. Men han skriver ocksÄ att andra gÄngen han mötte Hitler fick intrycket av en "obehÀrskad, grÀlsjuk person" och tillÀgger: "Denne Hitler var mycket olik den lugne och civiliserade man som jag hade upplevt tillsammans med studenterna."
+
+Hitler som talare kunde konsten att piska upp kÀnslor genom att bÄde egga och beveka Ähörarna med "en fullt avsiktlig blandning av ursinne och förnuft".
+
+Hitler var förÀlskad i systerdottern Geli Raubal, som tog sitt liv med Hitlers pistol efter ett grÀl med honom den 18 september 1931. Efter det talade Hitler, uppskakad av det intrÀffade, om att lÀmna politiken, tankar som han inom kort dock skrinlade.
+
+FrĂ„n och med 1941 visade sig Hitler alltmer sĂ€llan offentligt och sista levnadsĂ„ret gjorde han knappt nĂ„gra offentliga framtrĂ€danden alls. Propagandaministeriet under ledning av Goebbels försĂ„g emellertid tyska folket med stĂ€ndiga hyllningar av deras FĂŒhrer. Hitler hade senare delen av sitt liv kroniska magproblem och höll sig frĂ„n 1931 till en vegetariskt inspirerad diet. De allt större motgĂ„ngarna pĂ„ slagfĂ€lten frĂ„n och med vintern 1942/1943 pĂ„verkade hans psykiska hĂ€lsa mycket negativt med symptom som pĂ„minde om Parkinsons sjukdom. Det finns dock inte nĂ„gra bevis för att han verkligen led av Parkinsons sjukdom. Han plĂ„gades tidvis ocksĂ„ av allvarliga sömnproblem, hade dĂ„lig aptit och visade total likgiltighet Ă€ven inför det egna folkets lidande.
+
+FrĂ„n 1933 bodde Hitler i Haus Wachenfeld pĂ„ sluttningen av berget Obersalzberg, 12 mil sydöst om MĂŒnchen. En omfattande ombyggnation fram till 1935 resulterade i residenset Berghof. Byggnaden bombades svĂ„rt av de allierade den 25 april 1945, fem dagar före Hitlers sjĂ€lvmord i Berlin. Den 30 april 1952, pĂ„ Ă„rsdagen av Hitlers död, beslöt Bayerns regering att sprĂ€nga allt som fanns kvar av byggnaden. Idag Ă€r omrĂ„det jĂ€mnat med marken och igenschaktat, det enda som Ă„terstĂ„r att se Ă€r en del av en stödmur.
+
+SlÀkttrÀd
+
+Se Àven
+ Heigelkopf, berg som bar namnet Hitler-Berg mellan 1933 och 1945
+ Blondi, Hitlers schÀfer som han avlivade före sitt sjÀlvmord
+ ĂrnnĂ€stet (plats), nĂ„gra av Hitlers bostĂ€der eller ledningscentraler
+ Gröfaz, ironiskt samtida öknamn för Adolf Hitler
+ KoncentrationslÀger i Nazityskland
+
+Kommentarer
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Biografisk
+
+ Bethge, Hermann, Der FĂŒhrer und sein Werk, 4 vol., Berlin 1939.
+ Buchheim, Hans, Eucken-Erdsiek, Edith, Buchheit, Gert, och Adler, H.G., Der FĂŒhrer ins Nichts; eine Diagnose Adolf Hitlers. Hitler als Politiker, Ideologe, Soldat und Persönlichkeit, Rastatt/Baden, 1960.
+ Bullock, Alan, Hitler. En studie i tyranni. Stockholm: Tiden 1960.
+
+ Fest, Joachim C., Hitler. Malmö: Bergh 1974.
+ Fest, Joachim C., UndergÄngen: Hitler och slutet pÄ Tredje riket. Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand 2004.
+ Gierynski, Jan, Taki jest Hitler, Warszawa 1939.
+ Görlitz, Walter, och Quint, Herbert A., Adolf Hitler - eine Biographie, Stuttgart 1952.
+ Hanfstaengel, Ernst, Hitler - The Missing Years, London 1957.
+ Heiden, Konrad, Adolf Hitler - Das Zeitalter der Verantwortungslosigkeit, 2 vol., ZĂŒrich 1936.
+ Jenks, William A., Vienna and the young Hitler, New York 1960.
+ Jetzinger, Franz, Hitlers Jugend, Wien 1956.
+ Kershaw, Ian, Hitler. 1889â1936. New York: W.W. Norton 2000.
+ Kershaw, Ian, Hitler. 1936â1945. New York: W.W. Norton 2000.
+ Kershaw, Ian, Death in the bunker. London: Penguin Books 2005.
+ Kubizek, August, Adolf Hitler- Mein Jugendfreund, Graz/Göttingen 1953.
+ Liljegren, Bengt, Adolf Hitler. Lund: Historiska Media 2008.
+ Linge, Heinz, Med Hitler till slutet, Stockholm 2010: Lindqvist Publishing.
+ Ragnar, Per, Hitler. Stockholm: Legus 1994.
+ von Schmidt-Paul, Edgar, Hitlers Kampf um die Macht, Berlin 1933.
+ Strasser, Otto, Hitler et moi, Paris 1940.
+ SÄta vÀnner, Intima brev Hitler - Mussolini, Stockholm 1945.
+
+Hitlers egen produktion
+KĂ€lla: Deutscher Literatur-Katalog 1940, Verlag von Koehler & Volckmar, Leipzig.
+ FrÄn vanmakt till vÀrldsmakt. Malmö 1942.
+ Mein Kampf, i ett flertal översÀttningar, bl.a. av Anders Quiding resp. N.P. Sigvard Lind (2 band, ibland sammanbunden). Tyskt förlag -1945 F. Eher Nf.
+ Warum musste ein 8. November kommen? (broschyr), utgiven pÄ förlag J.F. Lehmann.
+ Das Antlitz des FĂŒhrers, utgivare: Heinrich Hoffmann, pĂ„ förlag Zeitgeschicte VB.
+ Das ist der FĂŒhrer!", utgivare: Heinrich Hoffmann, pĂ„ förlag Zeitgeschichte VB.
+ Deutschland will Frieden und Gleichberechtigung. Die Friedensreden unseres Volkskanzlers Adolf Hitler., utgivare: Erich Unger, pÄ förlag J. Beltz.
+ Der FĂŒhrer vor dem ersten Reichstag Grossdeutschlands. Reichtagsrede am 30. Januar 1939. Förlag: F. Eher Nf.
+ FĂŒhrerbotschaft an Volk und Welt. Reichtagsrede vom 20. Februar 1938. Förlag: F. Eher Nf.
+ Des FĂŒhrers Kampf um den Weltfrieden. Historische Reichtagsrede vom 7. MĂ€rz, sowie die anschliess. Wahlreden u. das Memorandum der Reichsregierung. Förlag: F. Eher Nf.
+ Adolf Hitler an seine Jugend. Förlag: F. Eher Nf.
+ Die Rede des FĂŒhrers Adolf Hitler am 30. Januar 1934. Förlag: Ph. Reclam.
+ Reden. Utgivare: E. Boepple, pÄ förlag F. Eher Nf.
+ Reden des FĂŒhrers am Parteitag der Arbeit 1937. Förlag: F. Eher Nf.
+ Reden des FĂŒhrers am Parteitag der Ehre 1936. Förlag: F. Eher Nf.
+ Reden des FĂŒhrers am Parteitag Grossdeutschland 1938. Förlag: F. Eher Nf.
+ Hitler-Worte. Citat ur Mein Kampf och olika tal hÄllna av Hitler. Utgivare: B. Welser pÄ förlag F. Hirt.
+
+Filmer
+ UndergÄngens arkitektur, dokumentÀrfilm av Peter Cohen, Sverige 1989
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ Hitlers biografi (engelska)
+ Deutsches Historisches Museum â Adolf Hitler
+
+
+ Pontus Dahlman, Böckerna som prÀglade Hitler, DN, lÀst 100510
+
+
+
+Politiker i Nazityskland
+Politiska teoretiker
+Tysklands regeringschefer
+Ledare av SA
+Antikommunister
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+Ăsterrikare verksamma i Tyskland
+Adolf
+Politiker som begÄtt sjÀlvmord
+Tyska brottslingar
+Ăsterrikiska brottslingar
+Personer i Tyskland under andra vÀrldskriget
+Personer frÄn Braunau am Inn
+Födda 1889
+Avlidna 1945
+MĂ€n
+Wikipedia:Projekt neutralitet
+Mottagare av SÄradmÀrket i svart
+al-Qaida (arabiska: ۧÙÙۧŰčŰŻŰ©, 'basen'; Ă€ven al-Qaeda, al-Qa'ida, eller el-Qaida) Ă€r en radikal militant islamistisk rörelse vars mest kĂ€nde företrĂ€dare var Usama bin Ladin. Rent organisatoriskt Ă€r al-Qaida inte ett nĂ€tverk med band till ett flertal lĂ€nder, som det har beskrivits i vĂ€sterlĂ€ndsk media. Rörelsen Ă€r terroriststĂ€mplad av bland andra Förenta nationerna, Europeiska unionen och USA. och har tillskrivits en rad uppmĂ€rksammade terroristdĂ„d. Liksom andra jihadistiska rörelser (Islamiska staten och Boko Haram) har rörelsens grundare i huvudsak skolats i eller inspirerats av den salafistiska wahabismens tolkning av Islam och dess politiska argument. Den islamistiska tĂ€nkaren Sayyid Qutbs senare verk har inspirerat den ideologi som al-Qaida bygger pĂ„, och egyptiern Ayman az-Zawahiri brukar rĂ€knas som rörelsens viktigast ideolog och ledare under senare Ă„r.
+
+Ăversikt
+Grunderna till cellen al-Qaida lades 1988 av bland andra Usama bin Ladin i kampen mot den sovjetiska ockupationen av Afghanistan. Prins Turki Al Faisal av Saudiarabien har pekats ut som den som valde Bin Ladin som operatör i Afghanistan. Pakistanska ISI hade ocksĂ„ en avgörande roll i att rekrytera âkrigareâ med arabiskt ursprung. CIA var ocksĂ„ inblandade frĂ„n första början. De hade nĂ€ra kontakt med bland annat Pakistanska ISI. William Casey som var CIA:s chef pĂ„ 1980-talet, besökte afghanska trĂ€ningslĂ€ger för mujaheddinerna 1984. Casey jobbade för att sprida vĂ„ldsaktioner in pĂ„ Sovjetiskt territorium. Al-Qaida utvecklades ur en organisation som kallades Makhtab al-Khidamat och som till en början enbart finansierade, vĂ€rvade och trĂ€nade gerillasoldater (sĂ„ kallade mujaheddin). Usama bin Ladin finansierade till viss del verksamheten sjĂ€lv men mujaheddin fick Ă€ven bidrag frĂ„n islamistiska lĂ€nder och USA.
+
+Al-Qaida har sin religiösa grund i Wahhabi-rörelsen och det slutgiltiga mÄlet för al-Qaida Àr att införa denna variant av politisk islam i hela den islamiska vÀrlden.
+
+Namnet al-Qaida har inte brukats av dem sjÀlva som grupp (före 11 september) utan kommer frÄn en text den gett ut dÀr den refererar till sig sjÀlv som qaida-al-jihad, vilket betyder grunden för jihad.
+Detta namn myntades först inom amerikanskt rÀttsvÀsende för att kunna koppla Usama bin Ladin (och Ätala denne i sin frÄnvaro) för ett tidigare terroristdÄd riktat mot amerikanska ambassader i Nairobi. Av samma anledning valde man hÀr att kalla Usama och andra företrÀdare för en organisation - vilket de, per definition, inte kunde kallas, dÄ de saknade hierarki och annat samband Àn ideologiskt utbyte. Bevisen för ett terrornÀtverk före 11 september-attackerna bygger pÄ mer eller mindre trovÀrdiga vittnesmÄl frÄn bin Ladins tidigare kompanjon sudanesen Jamal al-Fadl som lÀmnat uppgifter till amerikanska myndigheter i utbyte mot reducerade straff för andra brott han Ätalats för..
+Dessa uppgifter har rÀknats frÄn vissa hÄll som icke tillförlitliga. I samband med en utfrÄgning av Khalfan Khamis Muhamed, som hade en koppling till Bin Ladin, faller vittnesmÄlet frÄn al-Fadl ytterligare. Khalfan Khamis Muhamed hade aldrig hört talas om en grupp eller nÀtverk med namnet Al-Qaida.
+Det globala terroristnÀtverket som amerikanska regeringen anvÀnt som murbrÀcka för att bl.a. genomföra stora lagÀndringar som Patriot Act bygger alltsÄ ovedersÀgligt helt eller delvis pÄ antaganden.
+
+Historia
+Al-Qaida vÀxte fram ur gerillaorganisationen Makhtab al-Khidamat (MAK) som verkade under Sovjetunionens ockupation av Afghanistan pÄ 1980-talet. Usama bin Ladin var en av grundarna av MAK tillsammans med palestiniern Abdullah Azzam. NÀr Sovjet drog sig ur Afghanistan var det mÄnga i MAK som ville utvidga sin verksamhet för att befria Àven andra islamiska lÀnder. SmÄ konstellationer av individer, i nÀtverk, började byggas upp för att kunna hantera denna utvidgning.
+
+En av dessa konstellationer var den som senare skulle komma att kallas al-Qaida. Konstellationen grundades 1988 av Usama bin Ladin. Namnet al-Qaida lanserades av USA:s underrÀttelsetjÀnst och kommer frÄn ett elektroniskt dokument dÀr bin Ladin refererar till en lista över medlemmar som qaida al-jihad, vilket betyder grunden för jihad.
+
+Usama bin Ladin ville med al-Qaida Àven föra kampen pÄ en icke-militÀr nivÄ, dÄ de flesta lÀnder inte Àr lika instabila som Afghanistan och det dÀrför Àr svÄrt att föra ett gerillakrig i dessa. Abdullah Azzam motsatte sig dock detta och ville fortsÀtta kampen enbart pÄ en militÀr nivÄ. Efter Azzams död 1989 splittrades MAK och de flesta medlemmarna gick över till bin Ladins organisation.
+
+TrÀningen började nu inrikta sig mer pÄ terrorism och efter Sovjetunionens tillbakadragande ÄtervÀnde Usama bin Ladin för en tid till sitt hemland Saudiarabien. Under Kuwaitkriget kritiserade han hÄrt den saudiska regeringens stöd till den USA-ledda FN-operationen, varpÄ regeringen bad honom lÀmna landet. 1991 flyttade bin Ladin till Sudan dÀr landets islamiska regering var indragen i ett inbördeskrig. Al-Qaida hade nu byggt upp ett nÀtverk av falska vÀlgörenhetsorganisationer, varav mÄnga kontrollerades av bin Ladins svÄger Mohammed Jamal Khalifa, för att finansiera sin verksamhet och pengarna började nu strömma in.
+
+1996 utvisades bin Ladin frÄn Sudan, dÄ han anklagades för delaktighet i mordförsöket pÄ Egyptens president Hosni Mubarak 1994. Usama bin Ladin ÄtervÀnde nu till Afghanistan, med en del sympatisörer, frÄn Sudan.
+
+Al-Qaidas trÀningslÀger drillade nu 1000-tals personer frÄn hela vÀrlden. Soldater trÀnades för bland annat konflikterna i Algeriet, Tjetjenien, Filippinerna, Egypten, Indonesien, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Tadzjikistan, Somalia, Jemen, och Bosnien. Genom att umgÄs i trÀningslÀgren kom dessa personer med vitt skilda ursprung att se sina egna kamper som en del av en större gemensam kamp. Till skillnad frÄn den gÀngse rÄdande mediabilden strÀcker sig alltsÄ al-Qaidamedlemmarnas etnicitet utanför den enbart arabiska.
+
+I januari 2000 höll organisationen en stor konferens i Malaysias huvudstad Kuala Lumpur. Den malaysiska underrÀttelsetjÀnsten som fÄtt reda pÄ konferensen i förvÀg videoövervakade den i hemlighet. Flera av flygplanskaparna i 11 september-attacken medverkade pÄ konferensen men dÄ man inte gjorde nÄgon ljudupptagning visste man inte vad som diskuterades pÄ konferensen.
+
+Efter 11 september-attacken började vÀrldens regeringar att bannlysa de falska vÀlgörenhetsorganisationer som anvÀndes för att dra in pengar till al-Qaida.
+
+2004 hÀvdade USA:s regering att tvÄ tredjedelar av al-Qaidas ledare var fÄngade eller dödade.
+
+Blairs Utrikesminister Robin Cook avgick frÄn sina poster den 17 mars 2003 i protest mot Tony Blairs Irak-krig. Inte ens efter bombattentaten i London, den 7 juli 2005, Àndrade han sin kritiska instÀllning till premiÀrministerns "krig mot terrorismen" - för som han skrev i The Guardian dagen dÀrpÄ:
+"...bin Ladin var resultatet av en enorm felbedömning frÄn de vÀsterlÀndska sÀkerhetstjÀnsternas sida. Under hela 80-talet bevÀpnades han av CIA och finansierades av saudierna för att bedriva jihad mot den ryska ockupationen av Afghanistan. Al-Qaida, som bokstavligen betyder 'databasen', var frÄn början en datafil över de tusentals mujahediner som rekryterades och trÀnades av CIA för att besegra ryssarna. Oförklarligt nog, och med katastrofala följder, verkar det aldrig ha fallit Washington in att bin Ladins organisation skulle börja intressera sig för VÀst sÄ fort Ryssland var ur vÀgen."
+
+Den 1 maj 2011 amerikansk tid (GMT -05:00) bekrÀftade Barack Obama i ett TV-sÀnt tal att ledaren Usama bin Laden dödats av en amerikansk insatsstyrka utanför Pakistans huvudstad Islamabad.
+
+MĂ„l
+
+I februari 1998 gav bin Ladin och Ayman al-Zawahiri ut ett meddelande undertecknat Den islamiska fronten för jihad mot judar och korsriddare. I meddelandet sade de att det var varje muslims plikt att âdöda amerikaner och deras allierade â civila och militĂ€ra â i alla lĂ€nder dĂ€r detta Ă€r möjligt, i syfte att befria al-AqsamoskĂ©n och den heliga moskĂ©n ur deras grepp, och i syfte att fĂ„ deras armĂ©er att lĂ€mna islams lĂ€nder, besegrade och ur kraft att hota nĂ„gon muslimâ.
+
+NĂ€ttidningen Inspire
+Al-Qaidas Jemenbaserade avdelning startade 1 juli 2010 den engelsksprÄkiga tidskriften Inspire pÄ terrornÀtverkets sajt och har sedan dess publicerat "goda rÄd" om hur lÀsaren kan utföra olika typer av terrordÄd som att bygga bomber hemma i köket eller, som nu, hur man arrangerar trafikolyckor genom att hÀlla olja pÄ vÀgbanan eller sprÀnger en parkerad bil i luften. I början av 2013 publicerades en lista pÄ elva personer som legitima mÄl för mord pÄ grund av brott mot islam. Namnen var: Molly Norris, Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Flemming Rose, Morris Swadiq, Salman Rushdie, Geert Wilders, Lars Vilks, Stephane Charbonnie, Carsten Luste, Terry Jones och Kurt Westergaard.
+
+Terroristaktioner som tros ha utförts av al-Qaida
+Al-Qaidas första attack anses vara tre bombdÄd mot amerikanska soldater i Jemen december 1992, vilka resulterade i tvÄ döda. En var en australisk turist och en var hotellarbetare.
+
+Organisationen sjÀlv hÀvdar att den sköt ner en amerikansk helikopter och dödade dess besÀttning i Somalia 1993.
+Enligt den före detta presidenten Bill Clinton hade Al-Qaida ingenting med nerskjutningen i Somalia att göra, den ansvarige för det var en somalisk krigsherre vid namn Mohamed Aidid.
+Ingen visste att Al-Qaida existerade vid 1993 enligt Bill Clinton, som hade en mycket aggressivare instÀllning till Bin Ladin Àn Bushadministrationen före 11 september 2001.
+
+Det Àr troligt att al-Qaida lÄg bakom bombningen av World Trade Center 1993. Ramzi Yousef och Khalid Sheikh Mohammed anses vara hjÀrnorna bakom det bombdÄdet och alltsÄ inte Usama bin Ladin.
+
+1995 planerade de att mörda pÄven Johannes Paulus II vid ett besök i Filippinernas huvudstad Manila, placera sprÀngÀmnen pÄ ett stort antal flygplan pÄ vÀg till USA samt störta ett flygplan i CIA:s högkvarter. Operationen som i planeringsdokumenten refererades till som Operation Bojinka avslöjades dock pÄ förhand efter en lÀgenhetsbrand, som startades nÀr de byggde bomber för attentaten i den lÀgenhet som de bodde i, och operationen kunde dÀrmed stoppas. Ramzi Yousef arresterades medan Khalid Sheik Mohammed lyckades fly ur landet.
+
+Al-Qaida tros ligga bakom tvÄ bombdÄd mot amerikanska militÀrbaser i Saudiarabien 1995 och 1996, dÄ ett antal mÀnniskor dog.
+
+Usama Bin Ladin verkar inte ha ansetts (av USA) att ha nĂ„got med terrordĂ„d tidigare Ă€n 1996 att göra. FrĂ€mst pĂ„ grund av motiveringen de gav dĂ„ Sudan var beredda att lĂ€mna ut Bin Ladin till USA. Motiveringen av USA var att de inte ville ha honom dĂ„ de inte hade tillrĂ€ckligt med bevis för att anklaga honom för nĂ„got brott. Ăven den sĂ„ kallade andre mannen av al-Qaida Ayman al-Zawahiri verkar inte ha varit sĂ€rskilt efterspanad före 1996. Han kunde nĂ€mligen utan problem resa in till USA för att samla in pengar till sina Ă€ndamĂ„l. Han fick hjĂ€lp av dubbelagenten Ali Mohamed. Den sistnĂ€mnde hade kopplingar till bĂ„de sĂ„ kallade terrorister och till CIA.
+
+I augusti 1998 utfördes ett sprÀngdÄd mot USA:s ambassader i Kenyas huvudstad Nairobi och Dar es-Salaam i Tanzania. I dÄdet dog mer Àn 300 mÀnniskor och över 5000 skadades. Attacken tillskrivs al-Qaida.
+
+Inför firandet av millennieskiftet planerades flera aktioner, vilka alla dock stoppades eller misslyckades pÄ annat sÀtt.
+
+Det sÄ kallade al-Qaida misstÀnks av USA ligga bakom attentatet mot i oktober 2000, dÀr 17 soldater dog och 39 andra skadades men Jemens sÀkerhetstjÀnster har haft sina egna misstÀnkta. De motsatte sig inblandningen av FBI och amerikanska intressen, vilket gjorde att de aldrig vÀxlade bevismaterial.
+
+Den 11 september 2001 Àr allmÀnt kÀnd som al-Qaidas hittills mest omfattande och mest spektakulÀra attack, dÄ fyra flygplan kapades i USA. TvÄ av planen, styrda av saudiska kapare flögs in i World Trade Center i New York och ett i försvarshögkvarteret Pentagon. Det fjÀrde planet havererade utan nÄgon förstörelse pÄ marken efter att passagerarna pÄ planet försökt stoppa kapningen. Attacken försvarades av al-Qaidas talesman Sulaiman Abu Ghaith i en videofilm frÄn 2001. AnmÀrkningsvÀrt Àr att varken Usama bin Ladin eller al-Qaida har tagit pÄ sig dÄdet, vilket Àr mycket ovanligt vid terroristattacker.
+
+FBI hÄller Usama Bin Ladin skyldig till en mÀngd brott men inte för 11 septemberattackerna. Deras motivering Àr att det helt enkelt inte finns nÄgra bevis som binder honom till attentaten.
+
+En mÀngd attacker och försök till attacker sedan 11 september 2001 har tillskrivits al-Qaida, eller grupper med kopplingar till al-Qaidas ideologi. Bland de mer omfattande kan nÀmnas:
+ Den sĂ„ kallade âSkobombarenâ Richard Reids försök att sprĂ€nga ett flygplan pĂ„ vĂ€g till USA över Atlanten.
+ Bilbombningen av en nattklubb 2002 i Balis turistomrÄde, dÀr 202 mÀnniskor dog och 209 skadades.
+ Bombningen av ett bostadsomrÄde för utlÀndska arbetare i Saudiarabiens huvudstad Riyadh med 26 dödsoffer och 161 skadade.
+ Bomberna i den turkiska staden Istanbul 2003 med 27 döda och över 300 skadade.
+
+Sedan Saddamregimens fall vid den USA-ledda invasionen vÄren 2003 har al-Qaida Àven tillskrivits ett flertal spektakulÀra bombdÄd i Irak med 100-tals dödsoffer. Dokument har Àven hittats som pÄstÄs bevisa att mÄlet med attackerna Àr att skapa ett inbördeskrig mellan de olika befolkningsgrupperna i Irak.
+
+TerrordÄdet i Madrid som utfördes den 11 mars 2004 visade sig - efter att först ETA hade pekats ut som ansvariga - ha utförts av en grupp marockaner med anknytning till al-Qaida. Enligt vissa bedömare pÄverkade dÄdet utgÄngen i valet, som hölls ett par dagar senare. Socialistpartiet, som vann valet, hade gÄtt till val med löften om att Spanien skulle dra tillbaka sina trupper frÄn Irak.
+
+Al-Qaida och pakistanska ISI
+Det finns mÄnga bevis för starka kopplingar mellan det sÄ kallade Al-Qaida och ISI (pakistanska militÀra underrÀttelsetjÀnsten). I amerikansk och europeisk media har man inte följt upp nyheter om stödet frÄn ISI, utan istÀllet koncentrerat sig pÄ enbart Usama Bin Ladin eller pÄ krigsherrar i Afghanistan.
+Den före detta ledaren för ISI Hamid Gul, sÀger sig ha trÀffat Usama Bin Ladin och hans vapendragare. Hamid Gul sÀger sig inte tro att Usama Bin Ladin Àr skyldig till attentaten den 11 september 2001. Han sÀger ocksÄ att Usama Bin Ladin sagt sig vara oskyldig till attentaten i Tanzania och Kenya.
+Hamid Gul har ocksÄ blivit angklagad för att ha hjÀlpt Bin Ladin att fly frÄn ett amerikanskt missilangrepp den 20 augusti 1998. Den som pÄstod detta var den förre "terroristtsaren" Richard Clarke, som tjÀnstgjorde under bÄde Bill Clinton och George W Bush.
+Usama Bin Ladin har ocksÄ rapporterats fÄtt militÀr eskort av ISI. Bland annat nÀr han led av dÄliga njurar. MilitÀr vaktade vid sjukhuset i Rawalpindi nÀr han fick sin behandling. Detta skulle ha varit den 10 september 2001.
+
+Norra alliansens afghanske ledare Ahmed Shah Massoud dödades den 9 september 2001. Dagen efter uttalade Norra alliansen att de som utfört attentatet var pakistanska ISI och Usama Bin Ladin.
+
+Journalisten Daniel Pearl dödades i Pakistan 2002. Pearl jobbade för Wall street journal och hade skrivit en artikel om sambandet mellan ISI, organisationen Ummah Tameer-e-Nau och deras samarbete med Bin Ladin angÄende kÀrnvapenfrÄgor före 11 september 2001.
+Pearl undersökte ocksÄ lÀnken mellan skobombaren Richard Reid och Pakistanska militanter och hittade samband till ISI.
+Det ryktades ocksÄ att Pearl ville undersöka samband mellan USA och ISI eftersom de haft samröre mot Sovjetunionen i slutet av 1980-talet.
+Den som grips för kidnappningen av Daniel Pearl Àr Saeed Sheikh som tillhörde ISI. Saeed Sheikh Àr i sin tur anklagad av Indisk sÀkerhetstjÀnst för att ha fört över 100 000 dollar till Mohammed Atta, sjÀlvmordspiloten som flög in det första planet i World Trade Centers norra torn. Den som skulle ha beordrat Sheikh att överföra pengarna var den högste inom ISI General Mahmood Ahmed. Indisk sÀkerhetstjÀnst hÀvdade att FBI bekrÀftade uppgifterna. Mahmood Ahmed avgick som chef för ISI i oktober 2001.
+Samtidigt som 11 september attackerna skedde satt Mahmood Ahmed i möte med senator Bob Graham, Porter Goss och senator Jon Kyl i Washington.
+
+Daniel Ellsberg som Àr kÀnd för att ha lÀmnat ut "Pentagondokumenten" under Nixons presidentperiod uttalade sig om Pakistans möjliga roll i 11 septemberattackerna. Han sa bland annat att det verkar mycket möjligt att Pakistan var mycket involverade i 11 september. Han jÀmförde ocksÄ Pakistan och CIA med argumentet att det Àr svÄrt att pÄstÄ att ISI visste nÄgot som CIA inte visste.
+
+Att Usama Bin Ladin rapporterats ha varit boende i flera Är för att sedan dödas pÄ samma plats 2011, alldeles i nÀrheten av en militÀr akademi i Abbottabad, minskar naturligtvis inte misstankarna mot pakistanska ISI och dess allierade. Salman Rushdie skrev att detta var ett skÀl till att stÀmpla Pakistan som en terroriststat.
+
+Metoder
+
+Metoder omfattar mord, bombningar (framförallt bilbomber), kapning, kidnappning, sjĂ€lvmordsattacker, med flera. Bilbomber och sjĂ€lvmordsbombningar Ă€r al-Qaidas âsignaturâ-attentat. MĂ„nga rapporter och öppna bin Ladin-tillkĂ€nnagivelser visar stark önskan om att skaffa och anvĂ€nda biologiska vapen, kemiska vapen och kĂ€rnvapen. MĂ„len brukar vara framtrĂ€dande symboler som offentliga byggnader, ambassader och militĂ€ra byggnader med personal, i USA och dess allierade, och moderata muslimska regeringar. Enligt den tidigare CIA-chefen George J. Tenet; "Usama bin Ladins organisation och andra terroristgrupper lĂ€gger större vikt pĂ„ att utveckla ersĂ€ttningar för att utföra attacker, i ett försök att undvika upptĂ€ckt. Till exempel den egyptiska Islamiska Jihad (EIJ) Ă€r nĂ€ra knuten till Bin Ladins organisation (de Ă€r sedan 2001 sammanslagna) och har samarbeten belĂ€gna runt om i vĂ€rlden, Ă€ven i Europa, Jemen, Pakistan, Libanon och Afghanistan. Det finns nu ett nĂ€t av allianser mellan sunnimuslimska extremister vĂ€rlden över, inklusive nordafrikaner, radikala palestinier, pakistanier och centralasiater. Vissa av dessa terrorister Ă€r aktivt sponsrade av de nationella regeringarna som har stark motvilja mot USA."
+
+Organisatorisk uppbyggnad
+Mycket lite Àr kÀnt om hur cellerna kring al-Qaida Àr eller har varit uppbyggda. Det vanligaste sÀttet att se pÄ al-Qaida i dag Àr som ett nÀtverk av sinsemellan olika organisationer och celler som delar samma ideologi och som tidvis samverkar med varandra. En del experter menar att al-Qaida sedan Afghanistankriget 2001 frÀmst har fungerat som ett "varumÀrke" för militanta islamistiska grupper.
+
+Al-Qaida pÄ den Arabiska halvön Àr en Jemenbaserad avdelning av al-Qaida som bildades 2009 med mÄl att etablera en islamisk stat pÄ den Arabiska halvön och som ses av USA:s regering som al-Qaidas farligaste gren.
+
+Enligt terrorexperten Magnus Norell, finns det helt enkelt ingen al-Qaida organisation som styr och stÀller, som planerar och utför terrordÄd över hela vÀrlden, kontrollerade av en liten klick "onda" mÀn i en grotta. Men namnet Àr sÄ gÄngbart att det hela tiden dyker upp grupper/individer som kallar sig al-Qaida för att se större och starkare ut. Och det fungerar. Detta Àr de globala islamisternas stora seger; detta att de fÄtt genomslag för ett namn vars blotta nÀmnande gör att alla frÄn Vita huset och nerÄt kÀnner sig föranlÄtna att reagera sÄ fort det kommer ett uttalande.
+
+FrÄn att i början ha finansierats frÀmst av rika bidragsgivare finansieras al-Qaida sedan en tid tillbaka pÄ sÀtt som inte Àr lika lÀtta att spÄra. Anledningen Àr de framgÄngsrika insatserna för att frysa nÀtverkets ekonomiska tillgÄngar.
+
+Den beskrivning av al-Qaidas struktur som tidigare varit kÀnd hÀrstammar frÄn det vittnesmÄl som lÀmnades till amerikanska myndigheter av Usama bin Ladins tidigare medarbetare Jamal al-Fadl. Fadl lÀmnade bin Ladins organisation 1996, och sanningshalten i hans vittnesmÄl har ifrÄgasatts. Fadl beskrev organisationens ledarskikt som traditionellt uppbyggt, med Usama bin Ladin som emir och operativ ledare för organisationen. Hans andreman Àr Ayman az-Zawahiri, som Àr ordförande i ShurarÄdet. ShurarÄdet bestÄr i sin tur av 30 medlemmar, och dess uppgift Àr att dra upp generella riktlinjer och göra strategiska beslut.
+
+ShurarÄdet Àr uppdelat i tre kommittéer:
+
+ Den militÀra kommittén som Àr ansvarig för trÀning av soldater, framskaffande av vapen och planering av attacker.
+ Den monetÀra kommittén som ansvarar för att finansiera verksamheten, skaffa falska visum och pass, ordna resor och uppehÀlle för medlemmar vid operationer och liknande.
+ Den islamiska studiekommittén, som utfÀrdar fatwahs för att stödja al-Qaidas kamp.
+
+Förr fanns det Àven en mediakommitté som bland annat gav ut den nu nedlagda tidningen Newscast och utfÀrdade pressmeddelanden. Idag finns mediaorganisationen Al-Sahab som producerar videor för al-Qaida.
+
+Utöver det ledande skiktet av medlemmar Àr alltsÄ organisationen extremt löst sammanfogad, och var grÀnsen gÄr mellan al-Qaida och andra grupper som man samarbetar med Àr mycket diffus. Denna uppbyggnad anses vara bÄde svagheten och styrkan hos al-Qaida. Den decentraliserade strukturen gör det möjligt för al-Qaida att verka i hela vÀrlden utan att vÀrldens samlade staters polisiÀra och militÀra myndigheter kan göra mycket Ät det. Men samtidigt gör den att stora operationer tar mycket lÄng tid att planera, och att de kontakter som dÄ mÄste göras mellan olika celler lÀtt kan uppmÀrksammas av nÄgon stats underrÀttelsetjÀnst. USA:s krig mot terrorismen tros ha haft en viss effekt pÄ just al-Qaidas förmÄga att kommunicera mellan olika celler, dÄ al-Qaidas attacker sedan dess varit mindre sofistikerade.
+
+Lokala organisationer
+Al-Qaida i Irak - (AQI); ombildad till Islamiska staten i Irak och Levanten - (ISIS)
+Al-Qaida i Jemen - Al-Qaida pÄ den Arabiska halvön (AQAP)
+Al-Qaida i Nordafrika - Al-Qaida i Islamiska Maghreb (AQIM)
+al-Qaida i Syrien - Jabhat al-Nusra
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Islamistiska organisationer
+Islamistisk extremism
+Arbetarmakt i Sverige Àr en revolutionÀrt socialistisk trotskistisk organisation som Àr medlem i den internationella organisationen Förbundet för femte internationalen. Politiskt stÄr man för antistalinistisk marxism och man ser sig som aktiv i den politiska traditionen efter Vladimir Lenin, Lev Trotskij och FjÀrde internationalen.
+
+Bland aktiviteterna ingÄr torgmöten, facklig kamp, tidningsutgivning (tidningen Arbetarmakt, teoretiska tidskriften Marxistiskt Perspektiv och nyhetsbrevet), antifascistisk aktivitet, teoretisk skolning och sÄ vidare. Lokalgrupp finns i Stockholm och medlemmar Àven i andra delar av Sverige. Under 2007 arbetade Arbetarmakt mycket med arbetet mot den borgerliga alliansen, Septemberalliansen, Europas Sociala Forum, och man engagerar sig ocksÄ i arbete mot ockupationen av Irak.
+
+Arbetarmakt hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n den sĂ„ kallade Mot Strömmen-tendensen som existerade i Socialistiska partiet. Arbetarmakt bildades 1994 nĂ€r man bröt sig ur Socialistiska partiet. Lite drygt tvĂ„ Ă„r senare bröt sig gruppen Marxistisk vĂ€nster, efter en tids oppositionellt arbete, ur Arbetarförbundet Offensiv (numera RĂ€ttvisepartiet Socialisterna). Efter förhandlingar beslutade Mot Strömmen-tendensen och Marxistisk vĂ€nster sig för att gĂ„ samman och tillsammans bilda Arbetarmakt, som kom att bli en del av Förbundet för en revolutionĂ€r kommunistisk international (FRKI, sedermera FFI â Förbundet för Femte Internationalen).
+
+Arbetarmakt har ett oberoende organiserat ungdomsförbund som kallar sig Revolution, som stÄr i politisk solidaritet med Arbetarmakt. De ska dock inte förvÀxlas med den Internationella Marxistiska Tendensens svenska sektion som bÀr samma namn.
+
+Sommaren 2006 uteslöts omkring 30 procent av FFI:s medlemmar, de flesta frÄn den engelska sektionen men ocksÄ samtliga i Australien och en medlem i Sverige. Dessa kom att bilda Permanent Revolution.
+
+Tidigare var Arbetarmakt namnet pĂ„ en rĂ„dssocialistisk grupp: Förbundet Arbetarmakt. Organisationen var verksam Ă„ren 1972â1979 med bland annat förlagsverksamhet, och finns inte lĂ€ngre i dag.
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+Revolution (officiell webbplats)
+Arbetarmakt (officiell webbplats)
+Arbetarmakts publikationer â arkiv för Arbetarmakts olika publikationer
+League for the Fifth International â Förbundet för Femte Internationalen, officiell webbplats
+Förbundet Arbetarmakt â 1970-talets Arbetarmakt, rĂ„dssocialister
+
+Socialism i Sverige
+Politiska organisationer i Sverige
+Trotskism
+Atari () Àr ett företag som grundades 1972 av Nolan Bushnell och Ted Dabney som skapade spelautomaten Pong. Namnet 'Atari' Àr en japansk term frÄn brÀdspelet Go (se Atari (go)) som kan beskrivas som schacktermen 'schack' för vilken pjÀs, eller grupp av pjÀser, som helst. Bushnell hade Go som favoritspel och tyckte att Atari var ett bra namn pÄ ett företag.
+
+Den första Pong-automaten installerades mot Àgarens vilja pÄ en bar vid namn Andy Capps efter att Bushnell lyckats övertala Àgaren. Senare samma dag ringde Àgaren Bushnell för att felanmÀla automaten. Felet berodde pÄ att maskinen direkt blivit sÄ populÀr att myntboxen blivit full. Succén var ett faktum och automaterna började serietillverkas.
+
+Atari var lÀnge nummer ett som speltillverkare med succéer som Breakout, Asteroids, Tempest, Gauntlet och mÄnga fler. Atari tillverkade Àven spelkonsoler och hemdatorer.
+
+Historia
+Nolan Bushnell och Ted Dabney grundade 1972 företaget Syzygy. De upptÀckte samma Är att namnet redan var taget och döpte om företaget till Atari.
+
+1976 sÄlde Nolan Bushnell Atari till Warner Communications för 28 miljoner dollar. PÄ grund av meningsskiljaktigheter med Warner, tvingades Bushnell tvÄ Är senare bort frÄn Atari.
+
+1984 splittrades Atari Inc. och arkaddivisionen döptes om till Atari Games Inc. Atari Games behöll rĂ€ttigheterna att anvĂ€nda logotypen och namnet Atari Games pĂ„ arkadmaskiner, samt rĂ€ttigheterna till all arkadspelshĂ„rdvara som tillverkats 1972â1984. RĂ€ttigheterna för Ataris division för konsumentelektronik sĂ„ldes till Jack Tramiels företag Tramel Technology Ltd., som döptes om till Atari Corporation. 1996 slogs Atari Corporation samman med hĂ„rddisktillverkaren JT Storage (JTS), och blev en enhet inom detta företag.
+
+1998 köpte leksakstillverkaren Hasbro rÀttigheterna till namnet Atari och dess spelserier. 2001 köptes Hasbro Interactive upp av Infogrames och den 7 maj tillkÀnnagav Infogrames att man officiellt byter namn till Atari.
+
+Nya konsoler
+
+NÄgra spel har givits ut pÄ nytt i skepnad av retrodesign. Det finns bland annat en handkontroll som Àr tillverkad av Jakks Pacific som innehÄller ett flertal inbyggda spel. Förutom allt-i-ett-lösningen frÄn Jakks Pacific finns Àven konsolerna Atari Flashback och Atari Flashback 2. De har ocksÄ gjort en helt ny konsol som ska heta Ataribox senare kallad Atari VCS.
+
+Spelkonsoler och hemdatorer av Atari
+Atari har under Ären skapat mÄnga maskiner:
+
+Spelkonsoler
+ Pong (1972)
+ Hockey Pong (1973)
+ Atari 2600 (1977)
+ Atari 2700 (prototyp)
+ Atari 3200 (prototyp)
+ Atari 5200 (1982)
+ Atari 7800 (1984, 1986)
+ Atari XEGS (1987)
+ Atari Lynx (1989)
+ Atari Jaguar (1993)
+
+Datorer
+ Atari 400, Atari 800
+ Atari 600XL, Atari 800XL, Atari 1200XL
+ Atari 65XE, Atari 130XE, Atari 800XE
+ Atari ST, Atari STE, Atari STFM
+ Atari MEGA ST, Atari MEGA STE
+ Atari TT
+ Atari Falcon
+ Atari Transputer Workstation (prototyp)
+ Atari Portfolio (handdator)
+ STacy
+ STbook
+
+Se Àven
+Atari ST User
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ Atari
+ SAK
+
+ 8-Bit Atari FAQ
+
+
+Företag bildade 1972
+Amerikanska datorföretag
+Franska datorföretag
+En A-traktor Àr en modifierad bil som har registrerats som traktor, efter att vÀxlarna spÀrrats och maxhastigheten begrÀnsats.
+
+Bakgrund
+
+Ă
r 1963 införde TrafiksÀkerhetsverket möjligheten att bygga om och registrera en bil eller lastbil till A-traktor som ett alternativ till EPA-traktor. NÀr TrafiksÀkerhetsverket i mitten av 1970-talet skulle avskaffa möjligheten att nyregistrera en EPA-traktor, samt att de redan existerande skulle fÄ finnas kvar i en treÄrsperiod innan de mÄste skrotas, blev det protester som gjorde att verket tvingades tÀnka om. Nyregistrering av EPA-traktorer förbjöds 31 mars 1975 men i stÀllet tog A-traktorreglerna över helt, och en Ärlig besiktning infördes för de kvarvarande EPA-traktorerna. Förkortningen "A" stÄr för traktor klass A (vÀgtraktor (numera klass I)), (klass B Àr jordbrukstraktor (numera klass II)), som numera fÄr köras frÄn 15 Ärs Älder (med AM-körkort).
+
+Den principiella skillnaden mellan EPA-traktorn och A-traktorn Àr att A-traktorn mÄste vara konstruerad för en maxhastighet av 30 km/h +/- 10%, medan EPA-traktorn skulle vara konstruerad med ett visst utvÀxlingsförhÄllande (10:1). Bilen ska vara ombyggd sÄ att det Àr uppenbart att den inte lÀngre Àr avsedd för person- eller godstransport. Ett sÀte för en eller tvÄ passagerare bredvid föraren fÄr dock finnas. Bilens ursprungliga kupé och karosseri ska behÄllas, men mÄste i förekommande fall kortas av sÄ att utrymmet bakom framsÀtena inte kan rymma passagerare eller gods. Denna typ av fordon kallas fortfarande i folkmun för EPA-traktor.
+
+I augusti 1978 infördes det en frivillig varningsskylt för LÄngsamt gÄende fordon (LGF) för A-traktorer, men frÄn och med den 1 januari 1982 Àr det krav att ha en sÄdan skylt baktill pÄ fordonet.
+
+SĂ€kerhet
+Kravet pÄ förarhytt eller störtbÄge infördes för A-traktorn den 1 juli 1970, och pÄ 1990-talet infördes hÄrdare krav pÄ hÄllfasthet.
+Förarhytten mÄste Àven efter eventuell ombyggnad ha stabila vÀggar och tak.
+Saknas förarhytt kan en skyddsbÄge godtas, men den ska dÄ förses med bland annat vÀggar, tak, vÀrme och defroster. SkyddsbÄgen skall kunna motstÄ statisk belastning motsvarande dubbla tjÀnstevikten.
+
+Regler
+
+Besiktningsplikt pÄ A-traktor gÀller sedan 20 maj 2018. Första besiktningen ska göras inom fyra Är frÄn att fordonet togs i bruk. DÀrefter ska fordonet besiktigas inom tvÄ Är efter föregÄende besiktning.
+
+Fordonet ska vara tydligt avsett som dragfordon, vilket gör att det krÀvs dragkrok. Fordonet rÀknas som lÀmpligt som dragfordon om:
+
+ fordonets tjÀnstevikt Àr 2 000 kg eller högre, eller
+ ursprungsfordonet Àr konstruerat för en slÀpvagnsvikt av minst 1 000 kg.
+
+Vidare skulle det inte vara avsett för transport av gods eller "personbefordran", varvid det maximalt fick finnas plats för en passagerare (exkl förare). Ăven flakets storlek var begrĂ€nsat. Kravet pĂ„ ram togs bort och dĂ€rför kan A-traktorer Ă€ven byggas pĂ„ modernare bilar. FjĂ€dring fĂ„r finnas, men eftersom kravet pĂ„ lĂ„g utvĂ€xling utökades ytterligare Ă€r A-traktorn i praktiken nĂ€stan omöjlig att köra med i besiktningsdugligt skick (med rusande motor pĂ„ runt 4500-5000 varv/minut fĂ€rdas man i kanske 30 km/h...)
+
+Kravet pÄ A-traktorn som kom 1975 gick ut pÄ att den skulle kunna köras med det varvtal, som enligt motorfabrikanten gav det högsta vridmomentet, ÀndÄ skulle fordonet inte kunna framföras fortare Àn 30 km/h. Lösningen blev i de flesta fall att kardanaxeln kapades av och att man placerade Ànnu en vÀxellÄda under bilen, vari man hade lagt i ettans vÀxel. DÀrutöver kunde man behöva spÀrra nÄgon av vÀxlarna pÄ den frÀmre vÀxellÄdan, samt strypa motorns insugskanaler sÄ att den blev omöjlig att varva sÄ mycket att den gick fortare Àn 30 km/h. PÄ de svenska bilskrotarna fanns riklig tillgÄng pÄ vÀxellÄdor av M40-modellen vilka satt i Duett, PV, Amazon samt hela Volvo 140-serien. MÄnga vÀxellÄdor gick Ät nÀr ungdomarna hade en "besiktningslÄda" vari man svetsat och / eller förstört vissa drev pÄ ett seriöst sÀtt för att hindra anvÀndande av vissa vÀxlar. I dagligt bruk hade man sedan en annan vÀxellÄda vari man gjort en finurlig anordning sÄ att man kunde anvÀnda alla vÀxlar men genom olika manöver snabbt fÄ vÀxellÄdans 3:e och 4:e vÀxel spÀrrad ifall man blev kontrollerad av polisen. Ofta har den bakre vÀxellÄdan fyrans vÀxel i eftersom ettans dÄ blir omöjlig att köra pÄ. A-traktorn har ingen begrÀnsning i antalet vÀxlar, men pÄ lÀgsta vÀxeln skall den göra högst 10km/h +/-10% samt pÄ högsta 30km/h +/- 10%. Men det gÄr att fÄ dispens pÄ kravet om högsta hastighet pÄ lÀgsta vÀxeln.
+
+Kravet "KonstruktionsmÀssigt max 10 km/h vid 2/3 av det varvtal dÀr motorn lÀmnar maxeffekt pÄ lÀgsta vÀxeln" togs bort med ikrafttrÀdande 15/7 2020 och gÀller fordon som instÀlls för registreringsbesiktning efter detta datum. Fordon som godkÀnts tidigare i ett visst utförande och utvÀxlingsförhÄllande behöver instÀllas för ny registreringsbesiktning och bedömning om det registrerade utförandet Àndras. Om A-traktorn Àr registrerad med dubbla vÀxellÄdor och hastighetsregulator sÄ behövs ingen registreringsbesiktning för att ta bort ena vÀxellÄdan.
+
+Numera Àr det möjligt att registreringsbesiktiga en A-traktor med enkel vÀxellÄda med hastighetsregulator, till exempel Àldre fordon som Volvo 740/940. Moderna fordon kan fÄ sin hastighetsbegrÀnsning genom omprogrammering av motorns styrdon (till exempel ECU).
+
+De "Àkta EPA-traktorerna" Àr ett uttryck som syftar pÄ de Àldre som registreringsbesiktigats före den 31 mars 1975. De gÄr inte att registrera idag men Àr möjliga att anvÀnda i besiktningsdugligt skick. Den som blir ertappad med att ha fuskat med utvÀxlingen pÄ en sÄdan traktor fÄr instÀlla sig till registreringsbesiktning och dÄ ombyggd som A-traktor, vilket kraftigt försÀmrar vÀrdet pÄ traktorn, dÄ det blir en A-traktor utan fjÀdring.
+
+Statistik
+Högst A-traktortÀthet har Dalarnas lÀn, dÀr antalet A-traktorer uppgÄr till 92 per 10 000 invÄnare. Flest A-traktorer till antalet har VÀstra Götalands lÀn med 5 344.
+
+Se Àven
+ Traktor
+ EPA-traktor
+ Mopedbil
+ Motorredskap klass II
+
+Referenser
+
+Bilar efter typ
+Bilar efter klass
+Traktorer
+Ombyggda fordon
+Alkemi (arabiska ۧÙÙÙ
Ùۧۥ al-kimia, âkeminâ) kallas den Ă€ldre tidens vetenskap som var förstadium, en protovetenskap, ur vilket den moderna vetenskapliga kemin vĂ€xte fram. Bland de Ă€ldsta bevarade skrifterna om alkemi finns Stockholmpapyrusen och Leiden X papyrusen. De som höll pĂ„ med alkemi kallades "alkemister". I dag betraktas alkemi som en pseudovetenskap, och praktiseras inte av nĂ„gra meriterade kemister, men förekommer i esoteriska kretsar, samt som symbolsprĂ„k inom till exempel den teoretiska psykologin.
+
+Etymologi
+Ordet alkemi kommer frĂ„n det fornfranska ordet alquemie, alkimie, som anvĂ€nds i medeltida latin som alchymia. Detta namn kom frĂ„n det arabiska ordet al-kÄ«miyÄ (ۧÙÙÙÙ
Ùۧۥ eller ۧÙŰźÙÙ
Ùۧۥ) som bestĂ„r av tvĂ„ delar: den sena grekiska termen khÄmeĂa (ÏÎ·ÎŒÎ”ÎŻÎ±), khÄmĂa (ÏÎ·ÎŒÎŻÎ±), vilket betyder "att smĂ€lta eller gjuta en metall", och den arabiska bestĂ€mda artikeln al- (ۧÙÙ), som betyder "den". Tillsammans kan denna förening tolkas som "processen för transmutation för att fusionera eller Ă„terförenas med den gudomliga eller ursprungliga formen". Dess rötter kan spĂ„ras till det egyptiska ordet kÄme, vilket betyder "svart jord" som refererar till den bördiga och guldhaltiga jorden i Nildalen, i motsats till röd ökensand.
+
+Enligt egyptologen Ernest Alfred Wallis Budge betyder det arabiska ordet al-kÄ«miyaÊŸ faktiskt "den egyptiska [vetenskapen]" och lĂ„nar frĂ„n det koptiska ordet för "Egypten", kÄme (eller motsvarande i den medeltida bohairiska dialekten av koptiska, khÄme). Detta koptiska ord hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n demotiska kmá», sjĂ€lv frĂ„n forntida egyptiska kmt. Det forntida egyptiska ordet hĂ€nvisade till bĂ„de landet och fĂ€rgen "svart" (Egypten var det "svarta landet", i motsats till "det röda landet", den omgivande öknen); sĂ„ denna etymologi kunde ocksĂ„ förklara smeknamnet "Egyptian black arts". Men enligt Carl August Friedrich Mahn kan denna teori vara ett exempel pĂ„ folketymologi. Om man antar ett egyptiskt ursprung definieras kemi enligt följande:
+
+Kemi, frĂ„n det forntida egyptiska ordet "khÄmia" som betyder transmutation av jorden, Ă€r vetenskapen om materia i atom till molekylĂ€r skala, som frĂ€mst handlar om samlingar av atomer, sĂ„som molekyler, kristaller och metaller.
+
+SĂ„ledes, enligt Budge och andra, hĂ€rstammar kemi frĂ„n det egyptiska ordet khemein eller khÄmia, "beredning av svart pulver", slutligen hĂ€rrörande frĂ„n namnet khem, Egypten. Ett dekret av Diocletianus, skriven omkring 300 e.Kr. pĂ„ grekiska, talar mot "de forntida skrifterna av egyptierna, som behandlar khÄmias transmutation av guld och silver".
+
+Den medeltida latinska formen pĂ„verkades av det grekiska ordet chymeia (ÏÏ
ÎŒÎ”ÎŻÎ±) som betyder 'blandning' och hĂ€nvisade till lĂ€kemedelskemi.
+
+Medeltidens alkemi
+Alkemisterna under medeltiden sysselsatte sig till en del Àven med att försöka framstÀlla guld och ett livselixir som skulle bota alla sjukdomar och förlÀnga livet. För detta ÀndamÄl sökte de efter ett urÀmne som alla andra Àmnen skapades ifrÄn och som kom att kallas bland annat "de vises sten" (det fullÀndade Àmnet). Tankarna om att man skulle kunna framstÀlla redan kÀnda Àmnen, till exempel guld, genom att blanda andra Àmnen grundar sig pÄ Aristoteles teori om att alla Àmnen i sin tur Àr uppbyggda av de fyra elementen i olika blandningar. Genom att blanda olika Àmnen i rÀtt proportioner skulle man kunna fÄ fram vilket annat Àmne som helst. Namnet pÄ alkohol Àr ett arv frÄn alkemisternas tid. Deras tankesystem byggde pÄ olika mÀngder av magi, platonism, gnosticism och andra numera i mÄngt och mycket bortglömda lÀror som sammankopplade den materiella och andliga vÀrlden.
+
+En segdragen förestÀllning var till exempel att vÀrme var ett slags vÀtska som fanns inuti materien, och att Àmnen som kunde brinna innehöll ett speciellt "eldÀmne" kallat "flogiston". Trots dessa felaktiga antaganden gjorde alkemister mÄnga viktiga tekniska uppfinningar, till exempel destillation, och de upptÀckte och isolerade Àmnen som kvicksilver.
+
+Kinesisk alkemi
+Kinesisk alkemi förknippas framför allt med daoism och visar mÄnga likheter med europeisk alkemi. Den delas upp i inre och yttre alkemi (Neidan och Weidan).
+Praktiserande av Neidan fokuserar pÄ att kultivera och stÀrka resurser som redan finns inom den mÀnskliga kroppen. Weidan utförs med hjÀlp av framstÀllda elixir, extrakt och mediciner som hÀrrör utanför kroppen. Den kinesiska alkemin byggde pÄ lÀran om de fem elementen och mÄlet var ofta att framstÀlla livselixir, vanligen baserat pÄ cinnober (röd kvicksilversulfid), som skulle skÀnka odödlighet till den som intog det. MÄnga kejsare ska ha dött efter sÄdana kurer, men alkemisterna gjorde ocksÄ viktiga vetenskapliga upptÀckter under sina experiment.
+
+1800-talets alkemi
+Alkemi har alltid varit populÀrt i ockulta kretsar. Den pseudovetenskapliga alkemin nÄdde en kulmen pÄ 1800-talet, dÄ bland annat August Strindberg Àgnade sig Ät detta under starkt inflytande av Emanuel Swedenborgs tankar. Under ett experiment lyckades han framstÀlla kattguld av jÀrn och svavel och trodde sig ha framstÀllt riktigt guld. Tanken upptogs av Carl Gustav Jung som skrev om individuationsprocessen med alkemin som symbolsprÄk och teori om all utvecklings givna ordning. Under Jungs pÄverkan har sedan alkemin under 1900-talet influerat den nyandliga rörelsen, men Àven forskare i olika kulturvetenskaper.
+
+Inom mysticismen stÄr alkemin inte för att materiellt förvandla olika material till guld, utan att mÀnniskan ska förvandla sitt inre, symboliska liv till ett andligt tillstÄnd, rent och Àdelt och lysande som guld. AlltsÄ handlar alkemi inom de flesta esoteriska skolor om att utveckla sitt inre, vilket kan liknas vid en kemisk process, att brÀnna bort alla dÄliga egenskaper o.s.v. och kultivera de bÀttre, sÄ att det som förr fanns transformeras till ett högre tillstÄnd.
+
+Dagens "alkemi"
+PÄ senare tid har nÄgra av alkemins mÄl blivit uppfyllda, men genom anvÀndning av vetenskap och forskning i stÀllet för de klassiska alkemiska tillvÀgagÄngssÀtten.
+
+1919 lyckades Ernest Rutherford omvandla kvÀve till syre genom att bombardera atomkÀrnan med alfastrÄlning tills den gick sönder. 1980 transmuterade Glenn Seaborg vismut till guld i mikroskopiska mÀngder men till alldeles för stor energikostnad för att nÄgon ekonomisk vinst skulle existera. Varken Ernest Rutherford eller Glenn Seaborg var alkemister, men utfallet frÄn deras fysikaliska experiment rÄkade sammanfalla med alkemiska spekulationer och önskemÄl.
+
+Alkemi i kultur
+
+Alkemi har gestaltats inom konst, litteratur, musik och spel i allt frÄn Shakespeare till Harry Potter.
+
+Se Àven
+ Alkemiska symboler
+ Bolos av Mendes
+ Carl Gustav Jung
+ Chrysopoeia
+ De vises sten
+ Fullmetal Alchemist
+ Hennig Brand
+ Hermes Trismegistos och hermetismen
+ Klassiska element
+ Maria frÄn Alexandria
+ Max Magnus Norman
+ Nicholas Flamel
+ Rosencreuzarna
+ Stockholm papyrusen
+ Transmutation
+ Zosimos av Panopolis
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Alkemi En artikel pÄ svenska om alkemin och dess andliga aspekter
+ Virtual Alchemy library
+ Alchemical writings
+
+Kemins historia
+Pseudovetenskap
+Ateism innebÀr avsaknad av eller avstÄndstagande frÄn tro pÄ nÄgon gud, gudar och högre makter.
+
+Begreppet ateism spÀnner frÄn avsaknad av tro pÄ nÄgon eller nÄgra gudar (eller högre makter), till aktivt avvisande av sÄdana (se antiteism). Ett par vÀlkÀnda engelsksprÄkiga uppslagsverk anger bÄda definitionerna samt preciseringar som ligger mellan dessa. Den svenska Nationalencyklopedins korta webbversion beskriver ateism som "Äsikten att det inte finns nÄgon gud", medan Àven definitioner som "ateismens mera exakta innebörd kan vara t.ex. att satsen "det finns en gud" Àr falsk, eller att "satser om Gud Àr meningslösa" redovisas i den lÄnga versionen i bokbandet och pÄ Internet (prenumerationsalternativet).
+
+Ateism Àr sÀrskilt utbredd i starkt sekulariserade lÀnder, exempelvis i vÀsteuropeiska lÀnder med hög utbildningsnivÄ samt i kommunistiska lÀnder som har tillÀmpat statsateism.
+
+Etymologi
+
+Ordet ateism Ă€r lĂ„nat, troligen via tyska Atheismus, frĂ„n franska athĂ©isme, ism-formen av athĂ©e, âateist, gudlös personâ. Det Ă€r ytterst ett lĂ„n frĂ„n klassisk grekiska áŒÎžÎ”ÎżÏ (atheos), âutan gud, gudlösâ, av α- (a-), âutan, icke-â, och ΞΔο (theo"), âgudâ.
+
+I den tidiga antika grekiskan infördes adjektivet atheos ursprungligen som en befolkningsstatistisk term som ungefÀrligt stod för "otrogen" eller "ogudaktig". Under 400-talet före Kristus började ordet att indikera en mer intentionell, aktiv gudlöshet i betydelsen att "klippa banden till gudarna" eller "förneka gudarna", i stÀllet för den tidigare meningen "gudlös".
+
+PÄ engelska finns begreppet belagt sedan Ätminstone 1577, dit ordet hade införts via franska athéisme. Under 1500- och 1600-talen anvÀndes ordet endast som förolÀmpning; ingen kallade sig sjÀlv för ateist. PÄ svenska finns ordet ateism belagt sedan 1600-talet och det anvÀndes först i latiniserad form med latinsk böjning. 1654 nÀmns begreppet i kung Karl X Gustavs konungaförsÀkran: "Den sigh til vppenbar ogudachtigheet och förargeligh Atheismum slÄr."
+
+I upplysningens Europa under det sena 1700-talet började ordet Äterigen anvÀndas för att beskriva den egna trosuppfattningen. VÀlkÀnda ateister sÄsom Baron d'Holbach (1770), Richard Carlile (1826), Charles Southwell (1842), Charles Bradlaugh (1876) och Annie Besant (1877) anvÀnde ordet ateism i betydelsen avsaknad av tro pÄ Gud. Sedan dess har ateistiska tÀnkare och religionsfilosofer anvÀnt ordet i den betydelsen.
+
+ Definitioner Oxford English Dictionary (OED), Second Edition definierar ateism pÄ följande sÀtt:
+
+(KÀnna) misstro mot eller förnekande av existensen av en gud ("Disbelief in, or denial of, the existence of a god.")
+
+Oxford English Dictionary försöker sedan definiera begreppen "misstro" (disbelief) och "förnekande" (denial):Misstro (disbelief): att inte tro eller erkÀnna; att vÀgra ha tilltro till: en utsago eller ett (pÄstÄtt) faktum; att avvisa sanning eller sakförhÄllande.Förnekande (denial):
+1. Bestrida eller motsÀga (nÄgot förklarat eller pÄstÄtt), att förklara det som osant eller ohÄllbart, eller inte vara vad det uppges vara.
+2. Logiskt. Motsatsen till att bekrÀfta, att peka pÄ det motsÀgelsefulla (i ett förslag).
+3. Att vÀgra att erkÀnna sanningen (betrÀffande en doktrin eller princip), att tillbakavisa nÄgot som osant eller ogrundat, motsatsen till hÀvda eller bedyra.
+4. Att vÀgra erkÀnna eller kÀnnas vid (en person eller sak) om den/det skulle ha en viss egenskap eller legitima ansprÄk; att förneka, att förkasta, att bestrida, att avstÄ.
+
+I samtliga fallen ovan krÀvs en viljeyttring eller ett stÀllningstagande frÄn ateisten, som kÀnner till att religionen finns och att anhÀngarna dÀr strÀvar efter ett nÀrmande till en gud. Ateisten mÄste förhÄlla sig till den existerande religionen pÄ nÄgot sÀtt. Den som helt avstÄr frÄn att tycka nÄgonting alls, som i punkt fyra ovan, ligger nÀrmast den definition av ateism som varken medför tror eller inte tro. Ontario Consultans on Religious Tolerance har utvecklat detta nÀr de hÀvdar att den Àkta ateisten Àr en person som helt enkelt Àr omedveten om guden. Han kan vara ett litet barn eller en mentalt efterbliven person som fullstÀndigt saknar kunskap i denna frÄga. MÄnga ateister brukar dÀrför sÀga att det inte finns nÄgon gudom att tro pÄ snarare Àn att de sÀger sig sakna tro pÄ att gudomen existerar.
+
+Begreppet ateism Àr delvis skilt frÄn agnosticism, som Àr uppfattningen att det inte gÄr att veta om det finns nÄgon gud eller att fÄ nÄgon kunskap om densamma. Vissa inriktningar av sÄ kallad svag ateism kan dock sÀgas vara nÀrbeslÀktade med agnosticism. En del ateister menar att mÄnga av dem som kallar sig agnostiker i sjÀlva verket per definition Àr ateister, dÄ de inte tror pÄ gud, medan dessa agnostiker inte vill kalla sig ateister för att de inte kan motbevisa guds existens.
+
+I Thomas Henry Huxleys ursprungliga, moderna definition av agnosticism betydde begreppet att förneka kunskap om tillvarons yttersta grunder. Historiskt har ordet ateist ofta anvÀnts Àven om dem som inte tillhört den dominerande religionen; exempelvis har judar i det kristna Europa definierats som ateister, och de muslimer korstÄgsfararna drog ut för att "befria" det heliga landet ifrÄn skÀlldes ömsom för att vara hedningar, ömsom för att vara ateister. Romarna kallade följaktligen Àven de kristna för ateister under de första Ärhundradena e.Kr. eftersom de inte trodde pÄ gudarna i det polyteistiska Rom.Elaine Pagels "Christian Apologists and 'The Fall of the Angels': An Attack on Roman Imperial Power?" The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 78, No. 3/4 (Jul. - Oct., 1985), pp. 301-325
+
+Numera Àr det en vanlig uppfattning bland filosofer och religionsforskare att ateism Àr detsamma som svag ateism. I mÄnga sammanhang anvÀnds begreppet ateism för att beteckna avsaknad av tro pÄ gudar, till exempel den kristna Gud, guden Baal eller guden Shiva.
+
+ Indelning
+
+ Stark och svag ateism
+
+I sammanhang dÄ distinktioner mellan olika tolkningar av ordet ateism behöver göras brukar man dela upp ateismen i svag respektive stark ateism. Svag ateism kallas ibland för agnostisk ateism, negativ ateism eller implicit ateism. Stark ateism kallas ibland positiv ateism eller explicit ateism.
+
+Svag ateism innebÀr avsaknad av tro pÄ existensen av gudar. Stark ateism innebÀr att man har uppfattningen att gudar inte existerar och hÀvdar eventuellt att det Àven Àr ytterst osannolikt att det finns gudar, eller att det till och med finns bevis för att gudar inte existerar. Det innebÀr att en stark ateist samtidigt alltid Àr en svag ateist. MÄnga ateister menar att det inte gÄr att bevisa icke-existensen av gudar och att bevisbördan dÀrför ligger hos dem som tror att gudar existerar.
+
+Sammanfattningsvis anvÀnds tvÄ begrepp: stark ateism och svag ateism. Svag ateism Àr en avsaknad av tro pÄ en eller flera gudar. Stark ateism Àr en övertygelse om att det inte finns nÄgra gudar.
+
+Svag ateism: saknar tro pÄ att gudar finns
+Stark ateism: tror att gudar inte finns
+
+ AllmÀn och specifik ateism
+
+Ateism kan ocksÄ delas in i ateism i allmÀn mening och ateism i specifik mening. Ateism i allmÀn mening innebÀr att man tar stÀllning till alla gudar medan ateism i specifik mening tar stÀllning till en personlig gud som Àr allvetande, allsmÀktig, god och skapare av himmel och jord. Ateism i allmÀn respektive specifik mening finns bÄde i en negativ och en positiv form. Exempelvis Àr en negativ ateist i specifik mening en person som inte tror pÄ en personlig gud av det slag som just beskrivits. En panteist Àr ett exempel pÄ en sÄdan ateist, trots att det inte Àr sÀkert att nÄgon panteist skulle acceptera etiketten ateist om sig sjÀlv. Cartesius och Spinoza trodde samtliga pÄ tesen att gud och universum Àr samma sak, och beskrev var och en för sig i vilken mening de ansÄg sig vara religiösa. Ingen av dem beskrev sig sjÀlv som ateist.
+
+ Icke-kognitivistisk ateism
+
+Icke-kognitivism Àr Äsikten att ordet "Gud" Àr sprÄkligt meningslöst. Charles Bradlaugh beskrev ateistisk icke-kognitivism: "The [non-cognitivist] Atheist does not say 'There is no God', but he says: 'I know not what you mean by God; I am without the idea of God; the word "God" is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation'". För en icke-kognitivistisk ateist Àr pÄstÄenden som "Gud existerar" eller "Gud existerar inte" meningslösa. DÀrför kan en sÄdan ateist inte rÀknas som en stark ateist men dÀremot som en svag ateist. Ytterligare en aspekt Àr att en person kan ha olika typer av ateistiska uppfattningar i förhÄllande till olika gudsbegrepp.
+
+ Ateism och agnosticism
+
+Liksom för ordet ateism finns flera olika tolkningar av begreppet agnosticism. En vanlig uppfattning Àr att en agnostiker Àr en person som varken tror eller inte tror att Gud existerar. SÄdan agnosticism Àr kompatibel med svag ateism, det vill sÀga att det ligger ingen motsÀgelse i att vara bÄde agnostiker i denna betydelse och svag ateist samtidigt.
+
+Ordet agnosticism introducerades av T.H. Huxley som enkelt uttryckt menade att man inte vet om man kan veta nÄgot om Guds existens. Denna innebörd kan kallas för agnosticism i egentlig mening. En agnostiker i den meningen kan Àven vara ateist eller teist. Agnosticism i den meningen handlar alltsÄ inte om att tro eller inte tro pÄ Gud utan Àr enbart ett stÀllningstagande till möjligheten att veta nÄgonting om Guds existens.
+
+Vissa agnostiker anser dock att ordet agnosticism innebÀr mer Àn detta, nÀmligen att en agnostiker dessutom varken tror eller inte tror att Gud eller gudar existerar eftersom man menar att gudars existens inte kan bevisas eller motbevisas pÄ rationella grunder. Den betydelsen av ordet Àr kompatibel med svag ateism.
+
+ Förekomst och opinioner
+
+ Ateism och religiositet i Sverige och vÀrlden
+
+Andelarna religiösa och icke-troende skiljer sig starkt mellan olika delar av vÀrlden. Generellt sett Àr andelen icke-troende högre ju rikare ett land Àr och ju högre den genomsnittliga utbildningsnivÄn Àr. Sverige Àr enligt en rad studier ett av vÀrldens minst religiösa och mest ateistiska lÀnder. En religionssociologisk studie visar att 17% av Sveriges befolkning kallar sig ateister, och mellan 46 och 85% av Sveriges befolkning kan kategoriseras som ateistisk, agnostisk eller icke troende pÄ en personlig gud.
+Enligt en Gallup-undersökning frĂ„n 2009, sĂ„ var Sverige vĂ€rldens nĂ€st minst religiösa land, efter Estland. I Sverige höll endast 17% med om att "religionen Ă€r en viktig del i mitt dagliga liv". De lĂ€gsta vĂ€rdena i övrigt fanns i Norden, Ăstasien och Europa. De högsta vĂ€rdena, dĂ€r uppemot 100% av befolkningen svarade att religion var viktigt i det dagliga livet, Ă„terfanns i Mellanöstern, Centralafrika och Sydasien.
+
+FÄ mÀnniskor identifierar dock sig sjÀlva som ateister; för Sverige gÀller det enligt tvÄ olika undersökningar 6,7% eller 17% av befolkningen. De allra flesta individer befinner sig nÄgonstans mellan bokstavstrogen religiositet och ateism. Det kan innebÀra att de antingen Àr agnostiker eller liberala kristna, vilka ofta tenderar att se Bibelns ord som bildliga snarare Àn bokstavliga. I Sverige uppger dock 28% respektive 31% att de saknar gudstro i tvÄ SIFO-undersökningar som utförts pÄ uppdrag av den kristna tidningen Dagen.SIFO Research International: Din egen livsÄskÄdning
+
+Hur mÄnga som Àr ateister, icke-troende eller religiösa mÀts oftast genom att frÄga enskilda om de Àr troende, om de beskriver sig sjÀlva som ateister eller liknande. Att mÀta andelen troende och icke-troende i olika samhÀllen genom att stÀlla frÄgor kan dock vara svÄrt, dels för att begrepp som Gud, religiös eller ateist inte har samma innebörd i alla kulturer, dels för att svaren pÄverkas av bÄde sociala, kulturella och politiska konventioner. En annan metod för att avgöra vad individer verkligen tror pÄ Àr att studera hur de handlar snarare Àn vad de sÀger. Detta sÀtt att bedöma mÀnniskors tro och vÀrderingar pÄ kallas för avslöjad preferens.
+
+En undersökning gjord Är 2016 av SOM-institutet fann att 23% av Sveriges befolkning Àr positiva till ateism, med skillnader mellan Äldersgrupper: 39% av gruppen 15-29-Äringar Àr positiva till ateism och 14% för 65-85-Äringar.
+
+ Sekularisering och ökad förekomst av ateism
+
+Med tiden har religion blivit en privatsak, kyrka och stat skilts och de religiösa inslagen i det officiella samhÀllet minskat i mÄnga lÀnder, en process som kallas för sekularisering. Sekularisering ska inte sammanblandas med minskad religiositet; dock karakteriseras sekulariserade lÀnder av avtagande religiositet, en process som har pÄgÄtt sedan flera hundra Är framför allt i lÀnder med hög utbildningsnivÄ, progressiva vÀrderingar och hög ekonomisk trygghet, men Àven i totalitÀra kommunistiska lÀnder dÀr religionsutövande förföljts och hindrats straffrÀttsligt. Sekulariseringsprocessen kan mÀtas sÄvÀl i hur mÄnga som anger sig vara ateister eller religiösa, i mÀnniskors attityder pÄ andra omrÄden, i politiska reformer, liksom i förÀndringar av individernas beteende. Sekulariseringen fortgÄr sett i en lÀngre tidsskala men processen har periodvis gÄtt i motsatt riktning eller gÄtt lÄngsammare Àn vad flera tidigare bedömningar gjorde gÀllande.
+
+ Statsateism och ateistiskt motiverad religionsförföljelse
+
+Statsateism infördes en kort period i samband med franska revolutionen samt i kommunistiska lÀnder, bland annat Sovjetunionen, Socialistiska folkrepubliken Albanien och Kina. Statsateism har ofta inneburit begrÀnsad religionsfrihet, religionsförföljelse, stÀngning av kyrkor och moskéer, förbud mot religiösa symboler, och förbud mot religiös mission, i synnerhet riktad till barn.Frankrikes avkristnande Àr en vanlig beteckning pÄ politiska kampanjer mot katolska kyrkan som genomfördes av olika regeringar i Frankrike frÄn franska revolutionens inledning 1789 fram till Konkordatet av 1801 (en överenskommelse mellan Napoleon och pÄven). MÄl med avkristnandet var förstörelse av katolsk religionsutövning och religionen sjÀlv, och/eller att eliminera allt som uppfattades som symboler för monarkin och det gamla samhÀllet. Exempel pÄ ÄtgÀrder som genomfördes var avrÀttning och deportering av prÀster; belÀggande av skyddande av prÀster med dödsstraff; storskalig förstörelse av religiösa monument; brÀnning, plundring och stÀngning av kyrkor; kriminalisering av offentlig och privat religionsutövning och religiös utbildning; tvÄngsÀktenskap för prÀster; samt tvÄngsavsvÀrjande av prÀsterskapet.SPIELVOGEL, Jackson Western Civilization: Combined Volume p. 549, 2005
+Thomson Wadsworth Det har förekommit en omfattande vetenskaplig debatt om huruvida rörelsen hade folkligt stöd eller var pÄtvingad pÄ medborgarna av makthavare. Konkordatet lÄg till grund för den senare och mindre radikala Laïcitérörelsen, och förbud mot religiösa symboler i det offentliga Àn idag i Frankrike, exempelvis dagens slöjförbud.
+
+I Folkrepubliken Albanien var all religionsutövning förbjuden. Bland annat kunde albaner i skolor och pÄ arbetsplatser tvingas Àta t.ex. griskött för att bevisa att man inte utövade islam, som Àr den största religionen i landet.
+
+ Dödsstraff för ateism
+Ateism Àr belagt med dödsstraff enligt sharialagar i tretton lÀnder. De Àr:
+ Afghanistan
+ Iran
+ Jemen
+ Malaysia
+ Maldiverna
+ Mauretanien
+ Nigeria
+ Pakistan
+ Qatar
+ Saudiarabien
+ Somalia
+ Sudan
+ Förenade Arabemiraten
+
+Dödsstraffet tillÀmpas inte i alla dessa lÀnder, men det förekommer att religiösa extremister mördar ateister och humanister.
+
+ Organiserad ateism och humanism
+I Sverige organiserade sig lĂ€nge ateister och agnostiker i Human-etiska förbundet. Idag har Human-etiska förbundet bytt namn till Humanisterna. Humanisterna har ökat i medlemstal och synlighet de senaste Ă„ren. Ăven i mĂ„nga andra lĂ€nder verkar humanistiska eller andra rörelser som föresprĂ„kar sekularisering. Norge Ă€r ett land med mycket höga medlemskap i humanistiska organisationer. Internationellt finns en paraplyorganisation som heter International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) och som bildades av Unescos dĂ„varande generalsekreterare Julian Huxley.
+
+IHEU har bevakningsstatus i Unesco och flera andra av FN:s församlingar. I mĂ„nga lĂ€nder dĂ€r religionen fortfarande har stort inflytande över politiken Ă€r ateistiska eller sekulĂ€rt föresprĂ„kande sammanslutningar betydligt mer politiska och radikala. I vissa muslimska lĂ€nder Ă€r medlemskap i ateistiska sammanslutningar i praktiken förbjudet och kan resultera i förföljelser. Ăven i vissa starkt religiösa omrĂ„den i USA utsĂ€tts ateister för trakasserier och har svĂ„rt att fĂ„ jĂ€mlik tillgĂ„ng till politisk representation.
+
+ Logisk grund
+
+Den mest basala uppdelningen av de bakomliggande skÀlen för ateism gÄr mellan praktisk och teoretisk ateism.
+
+ Praktisk ateism
+
+Inom praktisk eller pragmatisk ateism, Àven kÀnd som apateism, lever individer sÄsom inga gudar existerar och förklarar fenomen i vÀrlden utan att hÀnvisa till övernaturliga krafter. Den möjliga existensen av gudar avvisas inte men kan betraktas som onödig eller oanvÀndbar; gudar tillför ingen mening till livet, inte heller pÄverkar de det vardagliga livet, enligt denna uppfattning.
+
+En form av praktisk ateism med implikationer för forskning och vetenskap Àr metodologisk naturalism - "den inom den vetenskapliga metoden icke uttalade utgÄngspunkten av metafysisk naturalism vare sig denna utgÄngspunkt erkÀnns fullt ut eller ej".
+
+Praktisk ateism kan anta flera former:
+ FrÄnvaro av religiös motivation - gudstro krÀvs inte för att motivera moraliskt handlande;
+ Aktiv exklusion av problem med gudar och religion vad gÀller intellektuell förkovran och praktiskt handlande;
+ Likgiltighet - frÄnvaro av intresse för gudar och religion, eller filosofiska problem med dessa;
+ Okunskap om gudar som koncept eller fenomen
+
+ Teoretisk ateism
+
+Teoretisk ateism Àr ateism som grundar sig pÄ uttalade argument mot existensen av gudar. De teoretiska skÀlen för att förkasta gudar Àr mÄnga och antar olika former. NÄgra av de vanligaste typerna av argument Àr logiska, ontologiska, epistemologiska, psykologiska och sociologiska argument.
+
+ Ontologiska och epistemologiska argument
+Epistemologisk ateism argumenterar för att mÀnniskor inte kan veta nÄgot om gudar eller att gudarnas existens inte gÄr att veta nÄgot om.
+
+Grunden för epistemologisk ateism Àr agnosticism, vilken antar flera former. Inom den filosofiriktning som diskuterar immanens, betraktas gudomlighet som oskiljbart frÄn vÀrlden i sig, inklusive en persons psyke. Varje persons medvetande Àr instÀngt i Subjektet. Enligt denna form av agnosticism förhindrar personens begrÀnsade perspektiv alla objektiva slutledningar: frÄn och med tro pÄ gudar till pÄstÄendena om deras existens.
+
+Inom den rationalistiska agnosticism som företrÀddes av Immanuel Kant accepteras endast sÄdan kunskap som erhÄllits med det mÀnskliga förnuftet. Denna form av ateism framhÄller att gudar rent principiellt inte kan urskiljas och att det dÀrför inte gÄr att veta om de existerar. Den skepticism som bygger pÄ David Hume framhÄller vidare att absolut kunskap inte Àr möjlig, och att det dÀrför inte gÄr att veta nÄgot om Guds eventuella existens. Att pÄ detta sÀtt betrakta agnosticismen som en delmÀngd av ateism Àr kontroversiellt, agnosticism kan Àven betraktas som en sjÀlvstÀndig, grundlÀggande trosuppfattning.
+
+Andra argument för ateism som kan klassas som epistemologiska eller ontologiska, inklusive logisk positivism och ignosticism, framhĂ„ller det meningslösa eller obegripliga hos grundlĂ€ggande termer som "gud". PĂ„stĂ„enden som "gud Ă€r allsmĂ€ktig" betraktas som betydelselösa. Inriktningen teologisk icke-kognitivism menar att satsen "Gud existerar" inte uttrycker ett giltigt pĂ„stĂ„ende om nĂ„got. SĂ„dana satser Ă€r istĂ€llet kognitivt meningslösa. Det har argumenterats bĂ„de för och emot att denna och liknande filosofiska inriktningar ska klassificeras som ateistiska sĂ„dana.Ayer, A. J. (1946). Language, Truth and Logic. Dover. pp. 115â116. In a footnote, Ayer attributes this view to "Professor H. H. Price".
+
+ Metafysiska argument
+En skribent beskriver metafysisk ateism sÄ hÀr:
+"Metafysisk ateism... inkluderar alla uppfattningar som grundar sig i metafysisk monism (verklighetens homogenitet). Metafysisk ateism kan vara antingen:
+ a) absolut - ett explicit förnekande av gudars existens som associeras med materialistisk monism (detta omfattar alla materialistiska trendriktningar, bÄde antika och moderna);
+ b) relativ - det implicita förnekandet av gudar inom alla filosofier som, medan dessa erkÀnner existensen hos nÄgot absolut, tÀnker de sig det absoluta sÄsom utan de attribut som tillhör en gud: transcendens, en personlig karaktÀr eller koherens. Relativ ateism hÀnger samman med idealistisk monism (panteism, panenteism, deism)."
+
+ Logiska argument
+Logisk ateism framhÄller bland annat de sinsemellan olika förestÀllningarna om gudar samt att gudarna besitter logiskt inkonsekventa kvaliteter. SÄdana ateister grundar sig sÄlunda pÄ deduktiva argument mot existensen av gudar. De framhÄller hur gudarnas mÄnga tillskrivna egenskaper Àr omöjliga att kombinera, exempelvis egenskaper sÄsom perfektion, skapare-status, immutabilitet, fullstÀndig kunskap, allsmÀktighet, absolut godhet, transcendens, personskap och barmhÀrtighet.
+
+ Kritik av ateism
+
+Man kan dela in argument mot ateism i ett antal kategorier: argument som pekar pÄ negativa konsekvenser för individen och samhÀllet av avsaknaden av tro, inklusive argument som pekar pÄ skillnader mellan ateisters och teisters moral och handlingar och konsekvenser av materialistiska ideologier; argument för att ateism enbart Àr en trosuppfattning utanför vetenskapens domÀn; argument för Guds existens (se Gudsbevis); samt motargument mot ateisters religionskritik.
+
+Kritiker mot ateism beskriver ibland den moderna sekulÀra mÀnniskan som mer olycklig Àn mÀnniskor i andra delar av vÀrlden eller i andra tider, trots god fysisk hÀlsa och materiell standard. Litteraturprofessorn Torsten Pettersson menar till exempel att barn, sjuka och Àldre kommer i klÀm i det sekulariserade samhÀllet, eftersom den vuxna individens behov sÀtts i centrum, samhÀllet sexualiseras, skilsmÀssor Àr vanligare och omsorg överlÄts pÄ institutioner istÀllet för familjen samt kriminalitet och drogmissbruk ökar. Dock har till exempel Richard Dawkins pÄpekat att oavsett hur tilltalande eller motbjudande tanken pÄ en guds existens Àr sÄ Àr det inget hÄllbart argument för eller mot en guds existens eftersom det i sig inte pÄverkar sannolikheten för en guds existens. Dawkins hÀvdar Àven i sin bok Illusionen om Gud (The God Delusion) att moral och etik inte har kopplingar till religioner och ideologier, och att moral och etik inte baseras pÄ Àkta altruism (psykologisk altruism) utan enbart pÄ reciprok altruism som gynnar individens gener. Moral Àr enligt Dawkins istÀllet nÄgonting vi alla har inom oss oberoende av trosuppfattning. Som exempel tar han upp i Illusionen om Gud att de mest religiösa staterna i USA Àr de som toppar statistiken nÀr det gÀller mord, vÄldtÀkter etc.
+
+Det faktum att det har funnits totalitÀra och auktoritÀra stater som har varit officiellt ateistiska, som till exempel Albanien under Enver Hoxha, anvÀnds av en del debattörer som ett argument mot ateismen. Motkritiken Àr dock att dessa stater visserligen har varit ateistiska, men att ateismen inte har nÄgot med det faktum att de var totalitÀra. och Richard Dawkins menar att Hitlers och Stalins regimers brott grundar sig i en politisk dogmatism (som enligt Harris liknar religion, det vill sÀga en sorts teokratier), inte i att de var motstÄndare till religion.
+
+En utbredd uppfattning bland teister och agnostiker men som Ă€ven förekommer bland ateister, Ă€r att frĂ„gan om Guds (eller gudars) existens aldrig konklusivt kan betraktas som avgjord genom filosofiska eller vetenskapliga argument. Ămnet befinner sig enligt dessa utanför vetenskapens domĂ€n (se demarkationsproblemet). Ateismen beskrivs dĂ€rför av vissa som en hĂ„llning grundad pĂ„ antaganden i samma grad som religioner bygger pĂ„ tro. Andra menar att denna kritik missförstĂ„r att ateism i grund och botten Ă€r avsaknad av tro eller att man inte behöver bevisa att Gud inte finns, eftersom bevisbördan ligger hos den troende (se Probatio Diabolica och Russells tekanna). Det finns ocksĂ„ ateister sĂ„som Richard Dawkins och Victor J. Stenger som menar att vetenskapen kan ge belĂ€gg för eller mot Guds existens, under förutsĂ€ttning att Gud har effekter i den fysiska verkligheten.Victor J. Stenger Has Science Found God, Ateism Ă€r heller inte samma sak som materialism eller sekularism, Ă€ven om dessa begrepp kan förenas.
+
+Det teleologiska argumentet för guds existens innebÀr att livet eller universum Àr sÄ komplext och ÀndamÄlsenligt att det mÄste vara skapat. Exempelvis menar den före detta ateistiske tÀnkaren Antony Flew att det avgörande argumentet för hans omvÀndelse till deism var att DNA-molekylens och livets uppkomst fortfarande inte har fÄtt en tillfredsstÀllande naturvetenskaplig förklaring. Han hÀvdade tidigare att man bör förutsÀtta ateism sÄ lÀnge bevis pÄ en Gud saknas. Han stÄr fortfarande bakom denna evidensbaserade hÄllning, Àven om han pÄ senare Är har blivit övertygad om att sÄdana bevis existerar. Detta Àr en variant av urmakaranalogin. Richard Dawkins menar att hur osannolikt, komplext och ÀndamÄlsenligt universum och livet Àn verkar sÄ mÄste en skapare av allt detta vara mer osannolik och komplex Àn sin skapelse och dÀrför mycket mindre sannolik. Detta argument kallas den ultimata Boeing 747:an och leder via frÄgan "Vem eller vad skapade skaparen?" till ett cirkelargument om oÀndlig regress.
+
+ Se Àven
+ Antiteism - Agnosticism - Deism - Teism - Ignosticism
+ Empirism
+ Existentialism
+ Religionskritik
+ Kristen ateism
+ Nyateism
+ Religion - Polyteism - Monoteism
+ Statsateism
+ Teologi
+ Vetenskap
+ UAAR
+
+ Referenser
+
+ Vidare lÀsning
+
+ Baggini, J, Atheism: A Very Short Introduction Carrier, R, Sense & Goodness Without God: A Defense of Metaphysical Naturalism Dawkins, R, The God Delusion, 2006,
+ Harbour, D, An Intelligent Person's Guide to Atheism Harris, S, The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason Harris, S, Letter to a Christian Nation Hitchens, C, god is not Great: How Religion Poisions Everything Johnson, B.C, The Atheist Debater's Handbook Krueger, D.E, What is Atheism? A Short Introduction Martin, M The Improbability of God, 2006,
+ Mills, D, The Atheist Universe, 2004,
+ Nielsen, K, Atheism and philosophy, 2005,
+ Onfray, Michel, Handbok för ateister, Bokförlaget Nya Doxa, 2006,
+ Paulos, J.A, Irreligion Smith, G.H, Atheism - The Case Against God Smith, G.H, Why Atheism? Stenger, V.J, God - The Failed Hypothesis''
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Ateism.se â en informationssida om ateismen
+ Ateismen - Det finns ingen gud!
+ The Secular Web - a drop of reason in a pool of confusion
+ StrongAtheism.net
+ Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns Av religionssociologen Phil Zuckerman
+ Ironchariots.org â en webbplats om ateismens motargument till apologetik och apologetismens argument
+
+
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+Animism Àr ett begrepp inom teologin som betecknar en religiös uppfattning enligt vilken naturen Àr besjÀlad. Man tror exempelvis att det finns en ande i varje trÀd eller vattendrag. Totem-begreppet hos vissa nordamerikanska folk handlar om animism, och bÄde shintoismen och samisk religion har inslag av animism. Ett relaterat fenomen Àr shamanism.
+
+Begreppet kommer frĂ„n grekiska áŒÎœÎ”ÎŒÎżÏ "vind, andedrĂ€kt", och det latinska animus.
+
+Religion
+Det finns inte nÄgon enskild religion som kallas animism, utan det som presenterar sig som en religion (animism) Àr ett antal regler för byggandet av social kultur liksom en prerationell förklaring av vÀrlden i varje kultur.
+
+Det kan anses att religionen som fanns i Sverige, asatron, ursprungligen till stor del var animistisk, liksom folkreligionen i Grekland och Romarriket antagligen ocksÄ var det. Shintoismen, samisk religion och shamanism har alla inslag av animism.
+
+Varje sten, varje vÀxt, varje djur och varje mÀnniska utvecklas, följande naturliga regler. I animism Àr sÀrskilt slÄende:
+
+ Avsaknad av nÄgon form av allsmÀktiga gudar, eller en idé om det gudomliga (Àven om vanligen ett "högsta vÀsende" existerar)
+ Naturen Àr direkt, har sjÀlv en sjÀl, och genom naturliga hÀndelser uttrycker den sig, och kommunicerar direkt med mÀnniskor
+ Avsaknaden av religiösa kultbyggnader
+ Förekomsten av religiösa men Àven vardagliga regler som uppkommer vid omedelbar naturupplevelse
+
+Animism förutsÀtter nÄgon form av sjÀlslÀra, eftersom man besjÀlar naturen. Logiskt mÄste man Àven acceptera att Àven icke-mÀnniskor har sjÀlar - nÄgot som inte förekommer i till exempel kristendomen. Animismen Àr teologiskt beslÀktad med panteismen.
+
+Godartade andar med hög status finns i nÀstan alla former av religion. Det kan röra sig om sÄ kallade högsta vÀsen. Det högsta vÀsendet har ibland skapat vÀrlden och levde dÄ en tid tillsammans med folket, för att sedan dra sig tillbaka pÄ grund av nÄgot. Ibland finns en kontakt till detta högsta andliga vÀsen. Det vördas av folket som dock inte behöver offra och inte ens be till honom/henne.
+
+Inom animism utförs ritualer för att upprÀtthÄlla relationer mellan mÀnniskor och andar. Ursprungsbefolkningar utför ofta dessa ritualer för att blidka andarna och begÀr deras hjÀlp under aktiviteter som jakt och helande. I den arktiska regionen Àr vissa ritualer vanliga före jakten som ett sÀtt att visa respekt för djurens andar.
+
+Ăven idag anser religionsteoretiker att animism Ă€r i början av den kulturella utvecklingen av religioner. Enligt denna evolutionĂ€ra teori kan en evolutionĂ€r vĂ€g, frĂ„n animistiska trosuppfattningar till "moderna" monoteistiska religioner ses. Etnologen Wilhelm Schmidt föreslog emellertid att det omvĂ€nda gĂ€ller, nĂ€mligen att tron pĂ„ en monoteistisk Gud var ursprunglig men att denna tro förĂ€ndrades till polyteism, för att sĂ„ smĂ„ningom övergĂ„ till animism. Idag anvĂ€nds begreppet animism, för att hĂ€nvisa till den ursprungliga karaktĂ€ren hos religionerna i jĂ€gare-samlare kulturer. De flesta religionsforskare idag anvĂ€nder termen "animism" som Tylor i boken Primitive Culture frĂ„n 1871.
+
+Enhetlig eller dualistisk vÀrldsbild
+I animistiska trosförestÀllningar blir hela universum uppdelat i tvÄ: en materiell vÀrld och en andevÀrld (som för övrigt liknar den kristna, i förstÄelsen av efterlivet). En strikt skillnad mellan det naturliga och det övernaturliga saknas dock, varför allt som finns och hÀnder i kosmos upplevs som naturligt. I animism har mÀnniskan en kropp och minst en sjÀl som finns i en viss sjÀlvstÀndighet frÄn andra. Det kan finnas ett alter ego av mÀnniskan, i den andliga vÀrlden. SÄ mÀnniskan lever dÄ samtidigt i tvÄ vÀrldar, och efter kroppens död endast i vÀrlden hinsides. Dessa vÀrldar kan Àven pÄverka varandra under livet, vilket anvÀnds som förklaring till exempelvis sjukdom. Det gör att man kan se den animistiska vÀrlden som en.
+
+Döden
+En vanlig animistisk förestÀllning Àr idén om relationen mellan sjÀlen och familjen. Levande slÀktingar till en avliden person fÄr ett ansvar för sjÀlen till den avlidne. SÄ lÀnge de kommer ihÄg en person sÄ finns personens sjÀl. De fÄr inte glömma den avlidne eftersom sjÀlen hos en avliden person befinner sig i ett tillstÄnd av personlig odödlighet. DÀrigenom har familjen i animistiska kulturer hög prioritet. En annan tanke som förekommer Àr att den dödes sjÀl gÄr igen jÀmför gengÄngare. FörfÀdersdyrkan och kult av gravar Àr förekommande. Ibland finns förestÀllningar om att det gÄr att komma i kontakt med döda eller andar, dÄ ofta via ett medium eller shaman.
+
+Idag
+Animism finns idag som del av islam, dÀr det motsvarar det man kallar "populÀrislam", som del av kristendomen, dÀr det Àr förekommande i en smÄtt vidskeplig "folkkatolicism".
+Ăven svensk folktro, som Ă€r en slags levande rest av asatron Ă€r animistisk. Bland bergsfolken i östra Asien Ă€r animism den vanligaste religionsformen. Bland Akha, Hmong (Meo), Lahu, Laova, Lisu, Palaung/Padaung och Thin finns övervĂ€gande andel animister. Bland Karen-folket har kristendomen ökat i popularitet och omkring 50% bekĂ€nner sig nu till den kristna tron. MĂ„nga frĂ„n Yaofolket, som hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n södra Kina, Ă€r taoister, och utövar en form av taoism som var kĂ€nd i Kina för 600 Ă„r sedan, vilken har animistiska drag.
+
+Etymologi
+Ordet animism kommer av latinets anima, som betyder "ande". I Oxford English Dictionary (OED) blir termens ursprung tillskrivet Georg Ernst Stahl som 1720 skrev om anima mundi, men sjÀlva ordet kom inte i bruk förrÀn pÄ 1800-talet. Enligt OED var detta 1832.
+
+I socialantropologin togs termen i bruk av den brittiske antropologen Edward Burnett Tylor i boken Primitive Culture.
+
+Se Àven
+Folktro
+Andehus
+Naturande
+Schamanism
+
+Referenser
+Akhenaton, innan sitt femte regeringsĂ„r Amenhotep IV, Ă€ven Echnaton samt varianter som slutar med -aten; pĂ„ engelska vanligen Akhenaten, var en egyptisk farao under den 18:e dynastin Ă„r 1351â1334 f.Kr. Han föddes nĂ„gon gĂ„ng mellan 1369 och 1362 f.Kr. och var sannolikt runt 35 Ă„r nĂ€r han dog. Följaktligen var han mellan 10 och 17 Ă„r vid trontilltrĂ€det.
+
+Han Àr kÀnd för att ha förbjudit den egyptiska polyteismen och istÀllet infört monoteismen vilket innebar dyrkan av Aton. DÀrmed avskaffades Amon-Ra som huvudgud i det forntida Egypten. Akhenaton anlade huvudstaden "Atons horisont", det nuvarande Amarna, som dominerades av fyra Atontempel.
+
+Efter hans död Ätergick landet till den gamla religionsordningen och rasande Amon-prÀster avlÀgsnade alla spÄr av Akhenaton, med stöd sÀrskilt under farao Horemheb.
+
+GemÄl
+Akhenatons gemĂ„l var Nefertiti (1380â1331 f.Kr.), som kan ha varit medregent och möjligen dessutom ha regerat som hĂ€rskare under ett par Ă„r efter sin makes död.
+
+Nefertiti anses vara en av de vackraste kvinnorna nÄgonsin, vilket pÄvisas genom att mÄlningar, fresker och byster uppvisar en strÄlande skönhet vid en tidpunkt dÄ den egyptiska konsten, den "groteska stilen" (Amarnastilen) avbildade mÀnniskor exakt som de sÄg ut, utan nÄgra försköningar. Hennes make och konung, Akhenaton, har till exempel avbildats sÄ att en tÀnkbar förklaring under en tid var att han led av Marfans syndrom.
+
+Begravningsplats
+
+Den kungliga familjen frÄn denna tid begravdes i Amarna, men flyttades senare till Konungarnas dal. I grav KV55 fann man 1907 en kunglig kista med mumie. Namnet hade hackats bort pÄ den förgyllda trÀkistan. Efter CT-skanning 2010, DNA-tester, och blodgruppsanalyser, anses denna mumie vara kung Akhenaton. Tydligt ser man slÀktskapet med Tutankhamon, son till Akhenaton. De har bÄda flera Àrftliga anatomiska missbildningar, bland annat gomspalt och skolios.
+
+Biografi
+
+Utbildning i solteologi
+Akhenaton var son till Amenhotep III och Teje. Han hade en Àldre bror, Thutmose (Djhutmose), som uppfostrades till att bli Egyptens nÀste farao. Den blivande Akhenaton hade en ganska behaglig barndom, och fick frÄn Ätta eller nio Ärs Älder prÀstutbildning i On, Heliopolis, som Àven lÀrde ut mysterierna i solteologin. Thutmose tros ha hunnit samregera med sin far, Amenhotep III. Thutmose avled dock före sin far, och dÄ stod den blivande Akhenaton nÀst i tur enligt successionsordningen. Han besteg tronen efter sin far och blev Amenhotep IV. Han gifte sig med Nefertiti, som han efter nÄgra Är lÀt upphöja till medregent, vilket var mycket ovanligt. Amenhotep IV Àndrade sitt namn under sitt sjÀtte regeringsÄr till Akhenaton och skapade en kult kring solguden Aton (Atun, Aten), ett namn pÄ en dittills mindre solgud som ordagrant betyder "skiva", och som syftade pÄ solskivan. Under sitt 17-Äriga styre lyfte han fram guden Atons betydelse framför den tidigare mer betydande Amun-Re. Han förbjöd dyrkan av de gamla gudarna och införde en form av monoteism. Aton, som var namnet pÄ solguden, blev under hans regim den frÀmste och enda gudomen i Egypten. Det var ur dyrkan av Aton som Amenhotep IV under sitt femte Är som farao kom att anta namnet Akhenaton, som betyder Han som tjÀnar Aton.
+
+Akhenatons beslut fick vittgÄende konsekvenser. De höga prÀster som tjÀnat Amun-Re hade successivt skaffat sig allt mer makt. Under Akhenatons fars regeringstid hade de i princip blivit mÀktigare Àn faraon. Akhenaton anvÀnde nu armén till att stÀnga Amun-templen och en ansenlig del av prÀsterskapets markegendomar beslagtogs och förstatligades och mark delades ut till de jordlösa i Atons namn. En omtvistad frÄga Àr huruvida Akhenaton delade sina första regeringsÄr (upp till sitt tolfte regeringsÄr) tillsammans med sin far. I sÄ fall mÄste Amenhotep III ha godkÀnt en del av sin sons politik, och sonen mÄste ha lÀrt av sin far Amenhotep III att prÀsterna gradvis hade tillskansat sig sÄ mycket makt att balansen i Egypten hotades, och att farao höll pÄ att göras till en marionett som utförde sina religiösa plikter enbart för syns skull. Tolkningen av Akhenaton har de senaste 100 Ären varierat frÄn att vara en religiös idealist till en kallhamrad realpolitiker.
+
+En kort tid efter Akhenatons död avskaffade hans son Tutankhamon (ursprungligen Tutankhaton) monoteismen, förmodligen under inflytande av Àldre rÄdgivare, installerade de gamla gudarna och flyttade landets huvudstad tillbaka till Thebe.
+
+De kungliga namnen
+
+Litteratur
+
+ Aldred, Cyril: Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1988)
+ Echnaton och Nefertiti (Nationalmuseum, 1975) [utstÀllningskatalog]
+ Redford, Donald B.: Akhenaten, the Heretic King (Princeton University Press, 1984)
+
+PĂ„ svenska
+
+ Echnatons hymner till solen: liturgi och böner frĂ„n farao Amenhotep IV och hans trogna: frĂ„n 1300-talet före Kristus (tolkade och kommenterade av Ă
ke Ohlmarks, Eden, 1963)
+
+Referenser
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Faraoner
+Födda okÀnt Är
+Avlidna 1300-talet f.Kr.
+MĂ€n
+Religionsstiftare
+Personer i Egypten under 1300-talet f.Kr.
+Art Àr ett begrepp inom biologi. I biologisk systematik delar man in nÀrbeslÀktade organismerna i grupper, sÄ kallade taxa, i en hierarki. Art Àr den grupp som i betydelse ligger nÀrmast vardagssprÄkets för djursort. Som exempel Àr lejon, tiger och katt bÄde olika djur i vardagssprÄket och olika arter i vetenskaplig mening. NÀrbeslÀktade organismer som pÄ olika sÀtt Àr sÄ lika varandra att artgrÀnsen mellan dem blir oklar omnÀmnas som ett artkomplex. SÄdana grupper förekommer bland alla typer av organismer och att dra upp distinkta grÀnser mellan arter kan ibland nÀstan vara omöjligt.
+
+Historik
+LÀnge ansÄgs artbegreppet som den sjÀlvklara grundlÀggande (minsta) enheten inom systematiken, men hur man definierar en art har debatterats i flera Ärhundraden och det finns över tjugo olika sÀtt att definiera en art - och nÄgon enighet kring definitionen av vad en art Àr har ej kunnat uppnÄs. Den klassiska definitionen, som brukar kallas det biologiska artbegreppet, myntades av Ernst Mayr som sÀger att en art Àr en grupp av naturliga populationer som reproducerar sig mellan populationerna eller Ätminstone skulle kunna göra det, och som Àr reproduktionsmÀssigt isolerade frÄn andra sÄdana grupper. En annan vanlig definition som kallas det fylogenetiska artbegreppet grundar sig pÄ att en art omfattar alla individer som har en gemensam evolutionÀr anfader.
+
+Genom historien har man haft olika krav pÄ hur stora skillnaderna ska vara mellan populationer för att de ska rÀknas som en god art. NÀr forskare under upplysningstiden började samla in stora mÀngder biologiskt material runt omkring i vÀrlden, blev det nÄgot av en jakt pÄ nya arter, vilket resulterade i att den allra minsta subtila avvikelse i storlek, mönster eller fÀrg fick till följd att individen utropades till att vara en del av en egen art. Senare har mÄnga av dessa arter mist sin artstatus och ses i dag istÀllet som exempel pÄ naturliga fluktuationer inom populationen eller ocksÄ klassificeras de som en underart. Denna "jakt" pÄ nya arter resulterar Àven i dag till förslag om att en specifik population bör klassificeras som en egen art.
+
+Sedan 1990-talet, bland annat pÄ grund av nya rön genom DNA-analyser, har uppfattningarna om hur artbegreppet ska definieras varit sÄ mÄnga och skilda att man oroats för en total upplösning - med resultat att olika forskare skulle anvÀnda sig av olika artbegrepp - vilket i sin tur skulle leda till stora svÄrigheter i forskningsvÀrlden. Detta har lett till att man försökt skapa nya riktlinjer för att avgöra artstatus.
+
+I dag skiljer taxonomer mellan artbegrepp, som definierar vad som Àr en art, och vad som Àr artkriterier, dÀr det senare kan omfatta flera av de tidigare metoderna för att definiera vad som Àr en art. Detta har lett till större konsensus kring artbegreppet, som dÄ definieras som en hypotes om en unik utvecklingslinje som kan pÄvisas genom flera olika beviskriterier. Denna metodik kallas för den integrerade taxonomin.
+
+Alla arter definieras utifrÄn en typ, vilket Àr en unik individ av en organism som fungerar som referens. Det Àr utifrÄn denna typ som arten har beskrivits.
+
+Artbegreppet
+Evolutionen och artbildningen Àr en stÀndigt pÄgÄende process och mÀnniskans försök att urskilja nÀr tvÄ populationer glidit isÀr tillrÀckligt mycket för att skillnaderna ska ligga till grund för att se pÄ de bÄda populationerna som tvÄ olika arter Àr i grunden en konstgjord grÀnsdragning. Inget artbegrepp Àr dÀrför helt objektivt.
+
+Man skiljer pÄ tre olika artbegrepp: det morfologiska, det biologiska och det fylogenetiska artbegreppet.
+ Det morfologiska artbegreppet skapades av Carl von Linné och anvÀndes fram till början av 1900-talet. Det morfologiska artbegreppet menar att individer med gemensamma yttre karaktÀrer förs samman till en art - oavsett om de har en gemensam evolutionÀr historia. Detta kan te sig konstigt men inte för Linné eftersom han inte hade kÀnnedom om evolution.
+ Det biologiska artbegreppet började anvÀndas pÄ 1930-talet och Àr fortfarande den hos allmÀnheten vanligaste begreppet nÀr det gÀller art. Den sÀger att grupper av individer som under naturliga omstÀndigheter kan fortplanta sig med andra, producera en fertil avkomma och som Àr reproduktivt isolerade frÄn andra grupper tillhör samma art. Enligt detta artbegrepp kan individer som teoretiskt skulle kunna fÄ fertil avkomma tillsammans klassas som olika arter, om detta Àr exempelvis geografiskt eller fysiologiskt omöjligt. Det finns mÄnga problem med detta artbegrepp, exempelvis hur definieras en art nÀr det gÀller könlös fortplantning eller en art som Àr fossil.
+ Det fylogenetiska artbegreppet infördes pÄ 1960-talet och Àr det som idag vanligtvis anvÀnds inom vetenskapen och innebÀr att man utgÄr ifrÄn en fylogenetisk analys. Det fylogenetiska artbegreppet menar att en grupp individer bestÄende av minsta möjliga antal individer med EN gemensam förfader skall klassas som art. Individerna skall ha en eller flera nedÀrvda karaktÀrer som de inte delar med nÄgra andra grupper av djur, sÄ kallade synapomorfier eller synapmorfa karaktÀrer.
+
+Andra krav som stÀlls inom det fylogenetiska artbegreppet för att tvÄ populationer ska klassificeras som tvÄ arter Àr:
+
+ Detta taxon mÄste vara diagnosticerbart. Detta innebÀr till exempel att individer av ett kön, en viss fas eller en Älderklass gÄr att urskilja frÄn alla andra taxa av samma kön, fas eller Älderklass, genom en kombination av tvÄ eller tre funktionella oberoende karaktÀrer. SÄdana karaktÀrer kan exempelvis vara en kombination av olika utseendekaraktÀrer och Mitokondriellt DNA-haplotyp.
+ Detta taxon mÄste vara reproduktivt skild frÄn andra taxa. Det vill sÀga att ingen, eller bara ett minimum av hybridisering förekommer.
+ Det Àr troligt att dessa taxa i framtiden kommer att behÄlla sin genetiska och fenotypiska integritet.
+ Deras reproduktiva isolering beror pÄ att populationen har utvecklat ett speciellt parningsbeteende eller signaler och inte reagerar pÄ parningssignaler frÄn individer ur andra taxa. (Detta krav gÀller inom zoologin)
+
+Ett illustrativt exempel pÄ dessa olika begrepp Àr den amerikanska och europeiska jÀrven. Enligt det morfologiska artbegreppet tillhör de samma art eftersom de utseendemÀssigt Àr lika. Enligt det biologiska artbegreppet Àr de olika arter eftersom de Àr geografiskt avskilda (reproduktivt isolerade) frÄn varandra. Enligt det fylogenetiska artbegreppet Àr de samma art eftersom de har en gemensam förfader.
+
+Diskussionerna kring dessa olika artbegrepp, som skulle kunna leda till att olika forskningsfÀlt arbetar utifrÄn olika system, har lett till försök att skapa en större samsyn kring artbegreppet. Resultatet har kallats för en Integrerad taxonomi vilket Àr en hypotes dÀr flera tidigare artbegrepp anvÀnds som artkriterier för att utröna vad som Àr en separat utvecklingslinje. Denna metodik har vunnit stort genomslag bland taxonomer och det rÄder idag större konsensus kring artbegreppet Àn pÄ mycket lÀnge.
+
+Konstruktionen av vetenskapliga namn
+
+Man konstruerar det vetenskapliga namnet pÄ en art genom att anvÀnda sig av dels ett slÀktnamn, samt dels ett beskrivande sÄ kallat art-epitet. Att namnge en art med bÄde ett slÀktnamn och ett artepitet kallas binÀrnomenklatur. Inom binÀrnomeklatur skrivs slÀktnamn och artepitet alltid med kursiv stil. SlÀktnamnet skrivs alltid med stor bokstav och artepitetet skrivs alltid med liten bokstav; till exempel Homo sapiens.
+
+Ett tydligt och korrekt sprĂ„kbruk Ă€r alltsĂ„ att reservera ordet "artnamn" för hela det tvĂ„ledade vetenskapliga namnet. Artnamnet "Homo sapiens" bestĂ„r enligt detta sprĂ„kbruk av slĂ€ktnamnet Homo (gemensamt för alla arter som tillhör eller har tillhört slĂ€ktet Homo) och artepitetet sapiens. Artepitet Ă€r, till skillnad frĂ„n slĂ€ktnamn, inget egentligt namn som kan stĂ„ för sig sjĂ€lv, utan Ă€r ett beskrivande ord, till exempel ett adjektiv, som tillsammans med slĂ€ktnamnet definierar den specifika arten (artnamnet). Vissa artepitet finns sĂ„ledes i mĂ„nga artnamn, till exempel vulgaris (= âvanligâ).
+
+Ett mindre korrekt men inte helt ovanligt sprĂ„kbruk Ă€r att kalla artepitetet ett âartnamnâ.
+
+Alla arter tillhör ett slÀkte, alla slÀkten tillhör en familj, alla familjer tillhör en ordning, alla ordningar tillhör en klass, alla klasser tillhör en stam, och alla stammar tillhör ett rike, exempelvis djurriket eller vÀxtriket. Det finns ocksÄ mÄnga mellangrupper. Akronymen skofsa anvÀnds ibland för att minnas ordningen pÄ systemet: Stam, Klass, Ordning, Familj, SlÀkte, Art.
+
+Species, förkortat sp., efter slÀktnamnet indikerar att hela slÀktet avses, utan nÀrmare precisering av ev. arter och underarter.
+
+Underarter
+
+En art kan delas in i flera underarter, om dessa skiljer sig markant frÄn varandra, och korsningen Àr fertil. Underarterna Àr oftast geografiskt eller ekologiskt skilda. NÀr man kategoriserar utdöda organismgrupper kan underarter ocksÄ vara stratigrafiskt Ätskilda i tiden.
+
+Antal arter
+
+Det finns flera svÄrigheter att uppskatta hur mÄnga arter det finns pÄ jorden. Med tanke pÄ problematiken kring kategorisering av arter skiljer sig uppskattningarna kring hur mÄnga arter vÀldigt mycket mellan de olika artbegreppen. Exempelvis ansÄgs det finnas 19 000 fÄgelarter i början av 1900-talet. Sedan slogs mÄnga av dessa arter samman i olika underarter varför artantalet hade sjunkit till 8 500 i början av 1950-talet. I och med DNA-studier och fylogenetiska studier, tillsammans med den integrerade taxonomin finns det nu uppskattningar som pekar pÄ att det finns mellan 15 000-20 000 fÄgelarter i vÀrlden. DÀrför kan följande uppskattning frÄn 2010 av artantal snarare ses som en indikation pÄ hur arter fördelar sig proportionellt mellan de stora artgrupperna:
+
+Total antal arter har uppskattats till 8,7 miljoner men har varit föremÄl för skattningar mellan 2 och 100 miljoner arter:
+ 5â10 miljoner bakterier
+ okÀnt antal arkéer - uppskattas till 20% av biomassan.
+ 1,7 miljoner eukaryoter
+ 62 000 ryggradsdjur
+ 1,3 miljoner ryggradslösa djur
+ 320 000 vÀxter
+ 50 000 övriga (inkl. svampar och brunalger)
+
+Se Àven
+ Carl von Linné
+ Biotop
+ Organism
+ Ras
+ Underart
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ Wikispecies
+
+Systematik
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+Biologi
+Populationsgenetik
+SlĂ€ktet Australopithecus Ă€r en grupp utdöda hominider som Ă€r nĂ€rbeslĂ€ktade med mĂ€nniskan och levde för 5,25â1,98 miljoner Ă„r sedan. Namnet betyder sydapa.
+
+A. afarensis och A. africanus Àr de arter inom slÀktet som vi har bÀst fossil av. A. africanus ansÄgs tidigare som förfader till slÀktet Homo (speciellt dÄ Homo habilis). Nyare fossil frÄn slÀktet Homo har hittats som Àr Àldre Àn A. africanus, vilket betyder att Homo antingen formats frÄn en utvecklingsgren av slÀktet Australopithecus vid ett tidigare tillfÀlle (det vill sÀga den sista gemensamma anfadern Àr A. afarensis eller en tidigare art). eller sÄ har bÄda utvecklats oberoende av varandra frÄn en Ànnu okÀnd gemensam förfader.
+
+SlÀktet Australopithecus kan ha uppstÄtt för omkring 4,2 miljoner Är sedan, sannolikt ur Ardipithecus.
+
+Fossila exemplar av slÀktet Australopithecus, ett kranium som döptes till "Barnet frÄn Taung", hittades första gÄngen Är 1924 i ett stenbrott i Transvaal i Sydafrika. Upphittaren Raymond Dart gav dem namnet Australopithecus africanus, vilket Àr en kombination av austral 'sydlig', pithecin 'apa' och 'afrikansk'.
+
+Referenser
+
+FörmÀnniskor
+Australopithecus
+ĂvergĂ„ngsformer
+Sir Arthur Keith, född 5 februari 1866 i Persley i Aberdeenshire, död 7 januari 1955 i Downe i Bromley (i dÄvarande Kent), var en brittisk antropolog och professor i anatomi vid Londons universitet.
+
+Keith blev professor vid Royal College 1908 och president vid Royal Anthropological Institute 1913. Han erhöll KnightvÀrdighet 1921.
+
+Keith utgav flera vÀrdefulla jÀmförande framstÀllningar av mÀnniskans och de högre dÀggdjurens kroppsbyggnad, sÄsom Introduction to the study of the anthropoid apes (1896), Human embryology and morphology (1901), Antiquity of man (1914) med flera.
+
+Han motsatte sig tillsammans med sin kollega Grafton Elliot Smith sin lÀrjunge Raymond Darts Äsikt, att dennes fynd, barnet frÄn Taung, skulle vara en mÀnsklig apa; en sÄdan kunde enligt Keiths Äsikt inte ha existerat i Afrika.
+
+Men Dart hade rÀtt, vilket bevisades av anatomen Wilford Le Gros Clark. Keith tvingades skriva en offentlig ursÀkt. DÄ hade 23 Är passerat, som i viss mÄn gjort Darts strÀvanden att intressera vÀrlden för Afrika och Sydafrika som bra fyndlokal för fossil nÀstan om intet, om han inte varit sÄ envis.
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Noter
+
+Brittiska antropologer
+Brittiska professorer
+Personer verksamma vid universitetet i London
+Brittiska forskare under 1900-talet
+Personer frÄn Aberdeenshire
+Födda 1866
+Avlidna 1955
+MĂ€n
+Ugglan
+Ledamöter av Royal Society
+Australopithecus afarensis var en sydapa och möjlig förmÀnniska frÄn Afrika, som levde för cirka 3,7 till 2,9 miljoner Är sedan. Trolig förfader till mÀnniskan. Kallas populÀrt Lucy eftersom man spelade The Beatles sÄng Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds under utgrÀvningen i Hadar i Afar-regionen i Etiopien hösten 1974, dÄ Donald Johanson hittade de tre miljoner Är gamla skelettresterna av vÀrldens mest berömda förmÀnniska och den viktigaste referenspunkten för dagens evolutionsforskning. Arten kallades Ären 1950-1970 , med stöd av betydligt mindre vÀlbevarade skelettrester, för "Megantropus africanus".
+
+Beskrivning
+A. afarensis var en könsdimorfistisk upprÀttgÄende förmÀnniska som möjligen levde nÀra sjöar, havsstrÀnder och vattendrag dÀr den hittade föda. Den klÀttrade ocksÄ utmÀrkt och hade inga problem med att springa pÄ alla fyra.
+
+MĂ„tt
+ lÀngd: cirka 1,50 meter
+ vikt: 30-70 kg,
+ hjÀrnvolym: 400-500 cm³.
+
+Fynd (Cirka 120 individer)
+ Ă
r 1939, hittade Ludwig Kohl-Larsen fossil i Laetoli i Tanzania. Detta slumpfynd kallades 1950 Megantropus africanus och bytte namn först i slutet av 1970-talet.
+ Mary Leakey hittade i LaetoliomrÄdet (Tanzania) fotspÄr av tvÄ upprÀttgÄende individer av A. afarensis i 3,5 miljoner Är gammal vulkanaska som förstenats.
+ Ett fynd av en familj, 13 individer, som man först trodde hade överraskats vid nÄgon typ av katastrof. Senare har dock de forskare som gjorde fynden sagt att individerna mycket vÀl kan ha dött vid olika tillfÀllen.
+ Resterna efter en tvÄbent varelse som levde för 4 miljoner Är sedan har pÄtrÀffats i Afar-regionen, ungefÀr sex mil frÄn den plats dÀr man 1974 hittade Lucy. Bruce Latimer, chef för det naturhistoriska museet i Ohio, höll tillsammans med sin kollega Yohannes Haile-Selassie, Addis Abeba, en presskonferens 5 mars 2005 i Addis Abeba, Etiopien, dÀr man berÀttade om fynden, som har mycket god kvalitet och bland annat utgörs av ett helt skenben, delar av ett lÄrben, revben, delar av ryggraden, ett nyckelben, bÀckenbenet och ett helt skulderblad. Den hÀr individen var större Àn Lucy och har lÀngre ben, trots att den Àr cirka en miljon Är Àldre. Detta Àr revolutionerande uppgifter och kommer att hjÀlpa paleontologerna förstÄ utvecklingen frÄn hominider till homo sapiens. Totalt har man vid dessa utgrÀvningar hittat fossila rester efter tolv hominider.
+
+Referenser
+
+FörmÀnniskor
+1974 i Etiopien
+VetenskapsÄret 1974
+Fornfynd i Etiopien
+Australopithecus
+Australopithecus anamensis (eller Praeanthropus anamensis) Àr en utdöd mÀnnisko-art som levde för cirka fyra miljoner Är sedan. NÀstan hundra fossiler Àr kÀnda frÄn Kenya och Etiopien, frÄn över 20 personer.
+Det Àr accepterat att A. anamensis Àr förfÀder till A. afarensis och fortsatte utvecklingen av den slÀktlinjen.
+
+Fossila bevis gör gÀllande att Australopithecus anamensis Àr den tidigaste hominida arten i Turkana Basin-omrÄdet. PÄ grund av att det inte gÄr att hitta en tillrÀcklig mÀngd fossil kan forskare inte kan göra sÄ noggranna observationer att det gÄr att sÀrskilja mÄnga av de tidiga hominiderna.
+
+UpptÀckten
+Det första fossiliserade exemplaret av arten, var ett enda fragment av humerus (armben) funnet i en Pliocen-strata i Kanapoi-regionen av vÀstra Lake Turkana av ett forskningsteam frÄn Harvard University 1965. Exemplaret fördes tillfÀlligt till samma tidsÄlder som Australopithecus och daterades till ungefÀr fyra miljoner Är gammalt. En metod för att avgöra Äldern pÄ fossilerna frÄn Kanapoi bestod av jÀmförelser mellan benbitar (faunal correlation), vilket gav ett spann mellan 4,0 och 4,5 miljoner Är gamla. Lite ytterligare information kom fram förrÀn 1987, dÄ den kanadensiske arkeologen Allan Morton (vid Harvard University's Koobi Fora Field School) upptÀckte fragment av ett prov som stack ut frÄn en delvis eroderad sida av en kulle öst om Allia Bay, nÀra Lake Turkana, Kenya.
+
+1994 exkaverade paleoantropologen Meave Leakey och arkeologen Alan Walker fyndplatsen vid Allia Bay och upptÀckte flera ytterligare fragment av hominiden, inklusive en komplett underkÀke som Àr mycket lik schimpansens (Pan troglodytes) men vars tÀnder Àr mer lika mÀnniskans. Baserat pÄ de begrÀnsade bevisen frÄn annat Àn skalldelar verkar A. anamensis vanligtvis ha varit upprÀttgÄende, fast den behöll nÄgra primitiva drag pÄ de övre lemmarna.
+
+1995 noterade Meave Leakey och hennes kollegor skillnaderna mellan Australopithecus afarensis och de nya fynden, och bedömde dem vara frÄn en ny art, A. anamensis, frÄn Turkana-sprÄkets ord anam, som betyder "lake". Leakey fann att den hÀr arten var sjÀlvstÀndig frÄn mÄnga andra. Den representerar inte en mellanart.
+
+Trots att utgrÀvningarna inte hittade nÄgra höftben, fötter eller ben, tror Meave Leakey att Australopithecus anamensis ofta klÀttrade i trÀd. TrÀdklÀttraring var ett beteende hos tidiga hominider fram till de första Homo-arterna framtrÀdde för ungefÀr 2,5 miljoner Är sedan. A. anamensis delar mÄnga drag med Australopithecus afarensis och kan mycket vÀl vara dess direkta föregÄngare.
+
+Fossilerna (totalt tjugoen stycken) omfattar över- och underkÀkar, kraniefragment, och de övre och nedre delarna av ett ben (tibia). Dessutom har det tidigare nÀmnda fragmentet av en humerus som hittades i Kanapoi nu ocksÄ befunnits tillhöra denna art.
+
+2006 presenterades ett nytt fynd av A. anamensis, vilketutökade A. anamensis omrÄde in i nordöstra Etiopien. Mer precist handlar det om en fyndplats, kallad Asa Issie, dÀr det hittats 30 A. anamensis fossiler. Dessa nya fossiler, som kommer frÄn ett skogsomrÄde, omfattar den största hominida hörntanden till dags dato och det tidigaste upphittade femurbenet frÄn Australopithecus. Fyndet kom frÄn ett omrÄdet som kallas Middle Awash, dÀr man gjort flera andra nutida fynd av Australopithecus och bara 9,7 kilometer frÄn platsen dÀr Ardipithecus ramidus, den mest moderna arten av Ardipithecus Àn upptÀcktes. Ardipithecus var en mer primitiv hominid, och anses ligga strax under Australopithecus pÄ det evolutionÀra trÀdet. A. anamensis-fyndet har daterats till ungefÀr 4,2 miljoner Är sedan, medan Ar. ramidus-fyndet daterats till 4,4 miljoner Är sedan, vilket betyder att det bara Àr 200 000 Är mellan de tvÄ arterna, nÄgot som fyller i Ànnu en lucka i tidslinjen för hominiderna innan Australopithecus-hominiderna.
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Human Timeline (Interactive) â Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).
+
+FörmÀnniskor
+Australopithecus
+Australopithecus africanus Àr en förhistorisk art av sydapa, en förmÀnniska frÄn Afrika. Dessa levde för cirka 2-3 miljoner Är sedan.
+
+Beskrivning
+Australopithecus africanus var cirka 1,40 meter lĂ„ng och vĂ€gde 30â60 kg. Under sin tvĂ„ miljoner lĂ„nga utveckling förĂ€ndrades knappt hjĂ€rnvolymen, som var omkring 400â500 cmÂł.
+
+Fynd
+left|thumb|Australopithecus africanus
+Ă
r 1924 upptÀcktes "Barnet frÄn Taung", beskrivet som Australopithecus africanus, av anatomen Raymond Dart, som efter 73 dagars grÀvande och putsande lyckades frilÀgga ett kranium i grottan Makapan Cave i ett stenbrott i Taung i Sydafrika. Den lilla babyn hade uppenbarligen blivit offer för nÄgon stor rovfÄgel eftersom kraniet uppvisar spÄr efter klor. Dart, med sina anatomikunskaper, förstod att denna apa/förmÀnniska kunde gÄtt upprÀtt, eftersom översta ryggkotan balanserade pÄ ryggraden, och han trodde ocksÄ att den anvÀnt de "verktyg" av ben han hittat i grottan.
+
+Vid denna tid var tanken utesluten att det mÀnskliga slÀktet skulle hÀrstamma frÄn Afrika. Darts tidigare lÀrare Grafton Elliot Smith och Arthur Keith talade emot dessa teorier, och hÀvdade att det mÄste vara en apa, och Dart blev bitter och nedstÀmd över vÀrldens reaktioner. Han drog sig tillbaka men gav inte upp sin Äsikt. Men andra, som Robert Broom trodde pÄ honom och hittade fler fossiler.
+
+Brooms fynd ledde till att andra antropologer Äkte dit, och Är 1947 konstaterade anatomen Wilford Le Gros Clark att Dart haft rÀtt. Keith fick be om ursÀkt. Efter 23 Ärs vÀntan gavs nu Àntligen Dart Àran för att ha hittat ett fynd av ett mÀnskligt fossil.
+
+FörmÀnniskor
+Australopithecus
+VetenskapsÄret 1924
+Paranthropus/Australopithecus boisei Àr en fossil förmÀnniska frÄn Afrika. Tidigare kÀnd som Zinjanthropus boisei, eller mera populÀrt "Zinj". Forskare Àr ej eniga om ifall arten bör placeras i slÀktet Australopithecus eller tillsammans med arterna aethiopicus och robustus i slÀktet Paranthropus. Karaketeristiskt för boisei Àr de mycket kraftiga kindtÀnderna, och de stora tuggmusklerna fÀsta i en benkam pÄ hjÀssan. Dessa drag tyder pÄ att den var anpassad för en mycket hÄrdtuggad diet, kanske hÄrda frön och rötter, och har givit den populÀrnamnet "nötknÀckarmÀnniskan". PÄ senare Är har detta dock ifrÄgasatts och man tror att de stora platta kindtÀnderna snarare var till för att Àta grÀs.
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+FörmÀnniskor
+Paranthropus
+Astralkroppen (av latin astralis, stjÀrna) Àr enligt nyplatonikerna, Paracelsus och andra teosofer en osynlig organism som Àr den nÀrmaste och omedelbaraste bÀraren av mÀnniskosjÀlen. Astralkroppen tÀnks dÄ som en utstrÄlning frÄn stjÀrnorna och anses finnas kvar nÄgon tid efter en mÀnniskas död.
+
+Se Àven
+ Antroposofi
+ Aura
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+New Age
+Paranormalt
+Pseudovetenskap
+Denna artikel handlar om det teosofiska och alternativmedicinska begreppet aura. Se ocksÄ Aura (olika betydelser).
+
+Aura Àr en sorts energifÀlt som teosofin och alternativmedicinen anser finns runt allt levande, och ibland Àven födoÀmnen och vatten. Eventuellt kommer begreppet ursprungligen frÄn den Àldre teosofins begrepp astralkropp.
+
+Den beskrevs i tvÄ av teosofins ordböcker, The Theosophical Glossary frÄn 1892 som brukar attribueras grundaren av teosofin, Helena Blavatsky, postumt och i Encyclopedic Theosophical Glossary av teosofiledaren Gottfried de Purucker pÄ 1930-talet, som "En subtil, osynlig substans eller ett fluidum som emanerar frÄn mÀnnisko- och djurkroppar och Àven frÄn ting."
+
+I början av 1900-talet menade spiritualister att de vid seanser kunde se deltagarnas auror som ett ljusfenomen runt deras kroppar, senare har personer inom spiritualismen och andra mediala pÄstÄtt att de kan se auran Àven i dagsljus. I Encyclopedic Theosophical Glossary'' Àr det ocksÄ tillagt att den kan ses av klÀrvoajanta och att alla mÀnniskor pÄverkar, och pÄverkas av, auran. DÀr beskrivs ocksÄ att auran kan ha olika fÀrger.
+
+I slutet av 1930-talet upptÀckte den ryske elektronikingenjören Semjon Davidovitj Kirlian att föremÄl som utsattes för högfrekvent spÀnning och var placerade pÄ fotografisk film sÄ avbildades ett ljusfenomen runt och alldeles nÀra föremÄlen pÄ filmen. Han tolkade det som att det var auran som avbildades. Han presenterade metoden i slutet av 1950-talet och den kallas kirlianfotografering efter honom. PÄ 1960-talet och 1970-talet började vÀstvÀrldens New Age-kultur att intressera sig för kirlianfotografering. Senare kom enklare metoder, genom att en person placerar en eller tvÄ hÀnder pÄ plattor, och möjligen baserat pÄ potentialskillnader i hÀnderna eller möjligen genom spÀnningssÀtta hÀnderna och ha sensorer/elektroder runt personen, sÄ pÄstÄs en avbildning av auran kunna presenteras pÄ ett fotografi eller digital bild av personen. PÄ sÄdana aurafotografier, som ocksÄ ibland kallas kirlianfotografier, har auran stor utbredning och olika fÀrger. FÀrgerna och lystern pÄstÄs kunna visa saker som personens hÀlsotillstÄnd men Àven om personlighet och framtid. SÄdana bilder skapas, sÀljs och analyseras av mediala personer, spiritualister och spÄdamer.
+
+Se Àven
+ Gloria (symbol)
+ New Age
+ UtstrÄlning
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+New Age
+Paranormalt
+Astrologi (stjĂ€rnlĂ€ra eller stjĂ€rntydningskonst) Ă€r den förmenta konsten att av himlakropparnas rörelser och inbördes stĂ€llningar dra slutsatser om mĂ€nniskors öden. Astrologin som har flertusenĂ„riga rötter, syftar till att finna samband mellan placeringar och hĂ€ndelser mellan solsystemets himlakroppar, och karaktĂ€rer och hĂ€ndelser i mĂ€nniskors liv. Ordet "astrologi" kommer frĂ„n grekiskans αÏÏÏολογία, frĂ„n ÎŹÏÏÏÎżÎœ, astron, ("stjĂ€rna") och λÏÎłÎżÏ (logos), som har flera översĂ€ttningar, vanligtvis relaterade till "systematisk tanke eller tal". Astrologi Ă€r en pseudovetenskap.
+
+Astrologins historia
+Astrologin hÀrrör frÄn Babylonien och utvecklades i Egypten och Persien. Den var under antiken till in i början av nyare tiden en ansedd vetenskap och samma disciplin som astronomin, uppbyggd av vidskepelse samt matematisk-astronomiska kunskaper. LÀran omtalas bland annat i Bibeln (se Matt 2) dÀr det talas om stjÀrntydare (sÄ kallade mager) frÄn Persien som besöker Jesu födelseplats. I stort sett alla mytologier har haft ÄskÄdningar av stjÀrnhimlen, det vill sÀga kunskap om jorden och dess nÀrplaneter. Bland annat kunde man sÀrskilja mellan exempelvis meteoroider och kometer. Persern Nizami Aruzi behandlar astrologins grunder och berÀttar om sin samtids berömda utövare av yrket i det tredje kapitlet i sitt verk Fyra skrifter.
+
+Astrologins tankegÄngar
+Den grundlÀggande tanken bakom astrologin Àr vanligen nÄgon av följande:
+
+ Ădet/Gud har bestĂ€mt vĂ„ra liv och skrivit om det i stjĂ€rnorna, i form av avstĂ„nd, vinklar och liknande.
+ VÄra liv speglas rent fysiskt av himlakropparnas lÀgen som, till exempel mÄnen, och speglar Àven vÄra karaktÀrer.
+ VÄra liv och himlakropparnas lÀgen vÀxelverkar med varandra, allt levande pÄverkas av samma naturliga krafter.
+ Att mÀnniskan - mikrokosmos - Àr en spegelbild av vÀrldsalltet - makrokosmos. Det som finns i det ena mÄste ocksÄ finnas i det andra.
+ Inom tidningsastrologi och beslÀktade idéer kopplar man ihop personers egenskaper med det som man associerar deras födelseperiod med. Till exempel stjÀrnbilden Lejonet heter det för att stjÀrnorna bildar en figur som liknar det. StjÀrnbilden associeras med perioden 23 juli-22 augusti, eftersom solen stod i Lejonets stjÀrnbild under dessa dagar under antiken. Likadant placerar man resten av Solsystemets planeter och asteroider i ett horoskop för en given tidpunkt.
+
+Astrologi spelade en central roll inom magi och alkemi under antiken och lÄngt in i modern tid. Man har under lÄng tid anvÀnt sig av solens och stjÀrnornas plats pÄ himlen för att tolka det som sker pÄ Jorden. Speciellt solen har dyrkats i nÀrpÄ alla religioner och filosofier vÀrlden över. Man kopplar konceptet "Gud" till tidigare Soldyrkan.
+
+Astrologer
+Det var vanligt att astronomer Àven var astrologer en bit in pÄ 1600-talet. Till exempel var bÄde Tycho Brahe och Johannes Kepler sÄvÀl hovmatematiker, -astronomer och -astrologer i Prag och var dÀrmed skyldiga att stÀlla horoskop inför viktiga beslut.
+
+Kepler grubblade över tÀnkbara förklaringsmodeller men drog sig för att postulera en strikt kausal pÄverkan frÄn planeterna pÄ de jordiska skeendena. Allt han kunde konstatera var att saker pÄ jorden skedde i enlighet med att himlakropparna intog de olika, redan i senantiken utforskade interplanetÀra aspekterna. Till dessa tillade han efter egna studier solekliptikans (zodiakens) delning pÄ 5 och 7, de sÄ kallade kvintil- och septilaspekterna.
+
+En av vÀrldens mest kÀnda astrologer Àr den franske siaren Nostradamus. Bland berömda sentida vetenskapsmÀn som engagerat sig i astrologi mÀrks framför allt C.G. Jung.
+
+Eftersom sideriska tabeller med planeternas positioner finns behöver en astrolog idag inte vara astronom. LikasÄ behöver dagens astrologer inte vara matematiker dÄ dataprogram övertagit de mödosamma utrÀkningarna.
+
+I modern tid sett har tvÄ franska matematiker/statistiker engagerat sig i frÄgan om astrologin hÄller för en modern, naturvetenskaplig prövning, Paul Choisnard, Àven kÀnd under pseudonymen Flambart, samt Michel Gauquelin. Den senare vann ryktbarhet genom sin upptÀckt av "marseffekten", som pÄstÄs visa ett samband mellan Mars position pÄ himlen och framgÄng inom vissa yrken (speciellt inom sport). Marseffekten har dock visat sig bero pÄ metodfel hos Gauqelin se Àven
+
+Astrologiska skolor
+Vid sidan av den vÀsterlÀndska astrologisystemet mÀrks den vediska astrologin som kommer frÄn Indien och den kinesiska astrologin.
+
+Astrologer pÄstÄr sig kunna ge en karaktÀrstolkning av en mÀnniska med utgÄngspunkt i hur relevanta himlakroppar stod vid födelseögonblicket, dock saknas en vederhÀftig förklaring till hur stjÀrnor och planeter position pÄverkar en mÀnniskas personlighet. Astrologer anvÀnder Àven sin konst för spÄdom.
+
+Astrologisk utrÀkning
+
+Ett horoskop Àr en beskrivning av en person, som utgÄr frÄn vilka stjÀrntecken Solen, MÄnen och planeterna Merkurius, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturnus samt berÀknade punkter som Ascendenten, Medium coeli och mÄnknutarna ligger i vid födelseögonblicket, och dels vilka vinkelförhÄllanden himlakropparna i detta ögonblick stod i förhÄllande till varandra. De vanligaste vinkelförhÄllanderna Àr konjunktion (0°), sextil (30°), kvadratur (90°) och opposition (180°). I modernare tid har Àven Uranus, Neptunus, Pluto, Chiron samt ibland ett antal mindre betydande asteroider och dvÀrgplaneter kommit att inkluderas. Horoskopet Àr indelat i de tolv tecknen och varje tecken Àr 30 grader. Man rÀknar ocksÄ ut vinklar mellan planeter och punkter sÄ som stjÀrnhimlen sÄg ut vid födelseögonblicket. Man delar ocksÄ in horoskopet i 12 delar som kallas hus. Varje planetposition och konstellation betyder och har alltid betytt samma sak och oberoende av vilken astrolog som rÀknar ut horoskopet blir resultatet alltid detsamma. Ett undantag Àr husindelningen som varierar beroende pÄ vilket hussystem man anvÀnder, och i det hÀnseendet finns det mÄnga olika skolor.
+
+Ăven om den grundlĂ€ggande betydelsen Ă€r den samma för tecknen, planeterna, aspekterna och husen, varierar tolkningarna ofta avsevĂ€rt. Att till exempel Jupiter, vars grundlĂ€ggande betydelse Ă€r expansion, kan uttryckas pĂ„ vĂ€ldigt mĂ„nga olika sĂ€tt, dels beroende pĂ„ samverkan med övriga faktorer i horoskopet och dels beroende pĂ„ vad det Ă€r för individ och dennes kön, genetiska arv, uppvĂ€xtmiljö, Ă„lder, mognad, kultur etc Ă€r egentligen sjĂ€lvklart för alla som arbetat seriöst med astrologi. Det finns alltsĂ„ vĂ€ldigt olika sĂ€tt som en viss planetposition kan manifestera sig pĂ„. Man kan dĂ€rför bara tala om vad som Ă€r mer eller mindre sannolikt för hur en enskild persons liv kan komma att gestalta sig, med hĂ€nsyn till ovan nĂ€mnda faktorer.
+
+Kritik av astrologin som helhet
+
+Ur ett vetenskapshistoriskt perspektiv kan astrologi - innan astronomins framvÀxt som ett separat vetenskapligt fÀlt under 1600-talet - betraktas som en protovetenskap. Inom det moderna vetenskapliga samfundet betraktas dock astrologin som en pseudovetenskap. Bland annat kritiseras denna för att empiriska bevis saknas, att astrologer sinsemellan inte kan enas kring nÄgon teoretisk bas, och att de pÄstÄdda astrologiska effekterna frÄn olika himlakroppar Àr sÄ subtila och komplext samverkande att svÄrigheterna behÀftade med att utarbeta ett astrologiskt system Àr orimligt stora.
+
+UtifrÄn de hundratals empiriska studier som genomförts kan ocksÄ konstateras att astrologin saknar vetenskapliga meriter. Till de mer kÀnda studierna hör Rob Nanningas sÄ kallade astrotest, vilket genomfördes 1994. 50 astrologer, som sjÀlva deltagit under testets utformande, anmodades att para ihop födelsedata frÄn sju anonyma testpersoner med frÄgeformulÀr ifyllda av dessa subjekt. Resultatet visade inte pÄ nÄgra signifikanta avvikelser frÄn slumpen, och gav inte heller stöd för att nÄgra skillnader i skicklighet mellan mer oerfarna och professionella astrologer existerar.
+
+Vetenskapliga tester av astrologin har genomförts av bland andra Gauquelin. Den engelske psykologen Hans JĂŒrgen Eysenck har gett ut ett arbete om astrologi: Astrologi - vetenskap eller vidskepelse? (av H J Eysenck och D K B Nias, 1984) .
+
+Kritik mot tidningsastrologi
+ tidningshoroskop skrivs sÄ vagt att det kan betyda i stort sett vad som helst, och dÀrmed kan passa in pÄ vem som helst
+ mÄnga nybörjarjournalister inom dags- och veckopressen har jobbat med att skriva horoskop utan utbildning, genom att bara skriva slumpmÀssiga rÄd
+ man kan omöjligt sortera upp jordens hela befolkning i 12 sinsemellan klart skilda personlighetsgrupper
+ olika tidningars horoskop skiljer sig alltid Ät nÀr de rent logiskt borde ge exakt samma tips och rÄd om de bara skulle vara baserade pÄ fakta.
+
+Se Àven
+ Kinesisk astrologi
+ Astrobotanik
+ Astronomi
+ StjÀrntecken
+ Vattumannens tidsÄlder
+ New Age
+ Horoskop
+ SpÄdomar
+ Profetior
+ Barnumuttalande
+
+KÀllhÀnvisningar
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ "Astrologi" i James Randis uppslagsverk över pseudovetenskapliga fenomen
+ International Astronomical Unions förteckning av mindre planeter i solsystemet
+ Astrologins historia
+ Svenskt forum för astrologi, bÄde traditionell och esoterisk
+Alternativmedicin, Àven kallad komplementÀrmedicin, Àr ett samlingsbegrepp för behandlingar av Äkommor och sjukdomstillstÄnd som inte har prövats vetenskapligt enligt de regler som gÀller behandlingar i den etablerade hÀlso- och sjukvÄrden, eller som har prövats vetenskapligt och fastslagits vara overksamma (samma grad av verkan som placebo).
+
+Begreppet alternativmedicin introducerades i mitten av 1970-talet i Sverige som en samlande beteckning för behandlingar som bland annat tidigare gick under beteckningen kvacksalveri, bland annat naprapati, och terapeutiska kulter vid namn naturlÀkemedel samt akupunktur, kiropraktik.
+
+Reglering av alternativmedicin
+
+Sverige
+Alternativmedicinska behandlingar godkĂ€nns inte i det svenska sjukvĂ„rdssystemet som skall bedrivas "enligt vetenskap och beprövad erfarenhetâ, och det finns inga statligt subventionerade utbildningar. Branschorganisationen KAM har under ett antal Ă„r arbetat med frivillig certifiering av utbildningar för terapeuter och har som lĂ„ngsiktigt mĂ„l att fĂ„ dessa godkĂ€nda av myndigheterna.
+
+VÄrdpersonal Àr inte tillÄtna enligt PatientsÀkerhetslagen att erbjuda alternativmedicinska behandlingar. Det finns flera exempel dÀr legitimerad vÄrdpersonal som efter anvÀnt alternativmedicinska metoder förlorat sina legitimationer eller blivit varnade. DÀremot kan metoder som i vetenskapliga studier visat sig verksamma inlemmas i sjukvÄrden efter vederbörligt godkÀnnande. UtlÀndska utbildningar som Àr godkÀnda av myndigheterna i andra EU-lÀnder accepteras inte heller i Sverige.
+
+Europa
+Inom EU finns det olika sÀtt att reglera sektorn pÄ. I exempelvis Frankrike Àr flera alternativmedicinska terapier godkÀnda av myndigheterna, men det Àr enbart lÀkare som fÄr utöva dessa. I England har skolmedicinsk sjukvÄrdspersonal rÀtt att utföra alternativmedicinska behandlingar.
+
+Patienter
+MÄnga som anvÀnder alternativmedicin saknar tilltro till skolmedicinen, eller ser alternativmedicin som ett komplement. Detta innebÀr att patienterna sjÀlva mÄste bedöma behandlingen i varje enskilt fall dÄ det saknas myndighetskontroll. Det finns inga garantier vare sig för att behandlingen faktiskt Àr verksam eller att den inte gör skada (direkt eller indirekt genom utebliven, verksam behandling).
+
+Forskning
+Under senare Är har en del alternativmedicinska metoder undersökts, dÀribland vid Karolinska Institutet i Sverige. Det finns ett antal vetenskapliga studier som ger visst stöd för somliga effekter av exempelvis akupunktur och meditation. Vissa av dessa studier har senare blivit kritiserade, bland annat för att de inte till fullo tagit hÀnsyn till placeboeffekten. Inom en del medicinska omrÄden har den statliga myndigheten SBU granskat den samlade vetenskapliga grunden för olika metoder och redovisat vilka forskningsstudier som har publicerats. Det gÀller positiva och negativa effekter av sÄvÀl konventionella (sÄ kallade skolmedicinska) metoder som av komplementÀrmedicinska metoder.
+
+Alternativmedicinkommittén (1989)
+Den sÄ kallade Alternativmedicinkommittén överlÀmnade 1989 sitt huvudbetÀnkande SOU 1989:60. Till betÀnkandet hör Àven bilagorna HÀlsohem SOU 1989:61, Alternativa terapier i Sverige SOU 1989:62, samt VÀrdering av alternativmedicinska teknologier SOU 1989:63.
+
+KAM-utredningen (2019)
+Kjell Asplund fick 2017 ett utredningsuppdrag gÀllande sÄ kallad KomplementÀr och alternativ medicin som kommit att kallas KAM-utredningen (S 2017:05). I utredningsuppdraget talas det om ökat patientinflytande och patientsÀkerhet inom annan vÄrd och behandling Àn den som bedrivs inom den etablerade vÄrden. SOU 2019:28
+
+I ett delbetÀnkande anges att det behövs större kunskap kring KAM inom den konventionella vÄrden och bland patienterna.
+
+Ett slutbetÀnkande publicerades som SOU 2019:28 , och föreslÄr bl.a. en ny lag om begrÀnsningar i rÀtten att yrkesmÀssigt utföra vÄrd, ett generellt förbud mot att utreda och behandla allvarlig sjukdom, smittsamma sjukdomar, sjukdom hos barn och ungdomar eller i samband med graviditet, men symtomlindrande ÄtgÀrder vara tillÄtna, dock inte kirurgi eller invasiva ÄtgÀrder.
+
+Alternativmedicinska metoder
+
+ Akupressur
+ Akupunktur
+ Alexander-tekniken
+ Analytisk trilogi
+ Antroposofisk medicin
+ Aromaterapi
+ Aston-massage
+ Auriculoterapi ("öronakupunktur")
+ Autogen trÀning
+ AvspÀnning
+ Ayurveda
+ Bachs blomstermedicin
+ Bildterapi
+ BindvÀvsmassage
+ Bioenergiterapi
+
+ Biologisk medicin
+ Biopati
+ Elektroterapi
+ Enderlein-metoden
+ Feldenkrais-metoden
+ Folkmedicin
+ Frigörande andning
+ FĂ€rgterapi
+ Homeopati
+ HĂ„ranalys
+ Irisdiagnostik
+ Kerstin Lindes rörelsetrÀning
+ Ki-trÀning
+ Kinesisk diagnostik
+ Kirlianfotografi
+ Kiropraktik
+
+ Klassisk massage
+ Kneippkur
+ KomplementÀrmedicinsk kinesiologi
+ Koppning
+ Kraniosakralterapi
+ Laserterapi
+ Makrobiotik
+ Meditation
+ Mensendieck-trÀning
+ Moxibustion
+ Musikterapi
+ Muskulering
+ Naprapati
+ Osteopati
+ Primalterapi
+
+ Pulsdiagnostik
+ Qigong
+ Radiestesi
+ Healing
+ Reconnective Healing
+ Reiki
+ Rolfing
+ Rosen-metoden
+ Shiatsu
+ SpÀdbarnsmassage
+ Tarmsköljning
+ Tibetansk medicin
+ Traditionell kinesisk medicin
+ Skrattyoga
+ Zonterapi
+ Ărtmedicin
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+ Rose Shapiro: Suckers. How alternative medicine makes fools of us all.
+ Edzard Ernst & Simon Singh: Trick or Treatment? Alternative Medicine on Trial.
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ http://www.notisum.se/rnp/sls/sfs/20100659.pdf http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/12603/a/153666
+ Whats the harm?
+Hans Albin Agaton Amelin, född den 25 januari 1902 i Chicago, död den 8 februari 1975 i Barrevik pÄ Orust, var en svensk mÄlare.
+
+Biografi
+Amelin började 1915 arbeta som typografelev och studerade vid Tekniska skolan i Stockholm 1919â1921 samt pĂ„ egen hand i Paris. Han debuterade 1929 och var en av grundarna av FĂ€rg och Form 1932. Han var en politiskt medveten mĂ„lare och hans motiv Ă€r mĂ„nga gĂ„nger socialt betonade, ofta med kroppsarbetare, som till exempel i Fanor över bron (1936). Ăven landskap tillhör dock motivkretsen, liksom blomsterstilleben i expressionistisk stil. Amelin anslöt sig 1929 till Sveriges kommunistiska parti.
+
+Amelin mĂ„lade kraftigt med mustiga fĂ€rger, grova konturer och tjockt med fĂ€rg och Ă€r kĂ€nd för sitt temperament. Han Ă€r representerad pĂ„ Nationalmuseum, Moderna Museet, Göteborgs konstmuseum, Norrköpings konstmuseum, BohuslĂ€ns museum, Kalmar Konstmuseum, Ărebro lĂ€ns museum, Ărebro lĂ€ns landsting, Malmö museum, Konstmuseet i Skövde och Cassels donation i GrĂ€ngesberg.
+
+I samband med Internationella arbetsorganisationens 50-Ärsjubileum 1969 gav svenska Postverket ut ett frimÀrke med motivet Arbetarhuvud av Amelin. Han Àr gravsatt pÄ Bromma kyrkogÄrd.
+
+Offentliga verk i urval
+ En arbetsdag i Götaverken, fresk, Göteborgs kommunala mellanskola, 1950
+FristÀlld, fresk, 1944, i BurgÄrdens utbildningscentrum i Göteborg
+Fresk, LÀrarhögskolan i Stockholm, Konradsberg
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Noter
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Anders Thuresson: Verkstadsklubben som vÀrnar om konsten - HÀr finns flest Amelin pÄ Zenits webbplats
+
+Albin Amelin, Litografiska Museet.
+Albin Amelin, Göteborgs konstmuseum.
+
+Representerade vid Nationalmuseum
+Representerade vid Göteborgs konstmuseum
+Svenska landskapsmÄlare
+Svenska genremÄlare
+StillebenmÄlare
+Expressionister
+Svenska mÄlare under 1900-talet
+Gravsatta pÄ Bromma kyrkogÄrd
+Födda 1902
+Avlidna 1975
+MĂ€n
+Personer frÄn Chicago
+Representerade vid Moderna museet
+Representerade vid Norrköpings konstmuseum
+Albert Laurentius Johannes Engström, född 12 maj 1869 i BÀckefall i Lönneberga församling, Kalmar lÀn, död 16 november 1940 pÄ S:t Görans sjukhus i Stockholm (begravd i Hult), var en svensk tecknare, mÄlare och författare.
+
+Biografi
+Albert Engström föddes i BÀckefall i Lönneberga socken men redan 1873 flyttade familjen till Mariannelund och dÀrifrÄn nÀr han var nio Är gammal flyttade familjen till Hult, ett litet stationssamhÀlle i nÀrheten av Eksjö, dÀr hans far blev stationsinspektor.
+
+Albert Engström kom in i fjĂ€rde klassen pĂ„ Norrköpings högre allmĂ€nna lĂ€roverk 1882, dĂ€r han var sekreterare i den litterĂ€ra elevföreningen FosterlĂ€ndska förbundet. Han tog studentexamen den 11 juni 1888, varefter han skrev vers och prosa i Eksjötidningen och SmĂ„lands Allehanda. PĂ„ hösten 1888 svarade han pĂ„ en tidningsannons och fick plats som informator hos familjen Norström i Mullsjö. I september 1889 kom Engström till Uppsala för studier i latin och grekiska vid Uppsala universitet, och skrev dĂ„ in sig i Ăstgöta nation. Under studietiden blev han god vĂ€n med Bruno Liljefors. Efter fyra terminer slutade han sina studier i Uppsala och reste pĂ„ vĂ„ren 1891 hem till Hult. Tiden i Uppsala Ă€gnade han Ă„t nationslivet, dĂ€r han blev bĂ„de klubbmĂ€stare och Rolighetsminister i Ăstgöta nation. Den 21 maj 1890 inkallades Engström till exercisen pĂ„ Hultsfreds slĂ€tt i Södra Vedbo kompani vid Kalmar regemente, vilken varade till 14 juni. I mitten av mars 1892 började Engström som frielev hos Carl Larsson pĂ„ Valands konstskola i Göteborg. Han stannade dĂ€r fram till vĂ„rterminens slut den 6 maj 1893. Ă
r 1895 gick Engström pÄ Konstakademins etsarskola och tog lektioner för professor Axel Tallberg. Samma Är blev han Àven medlem i Publicistklubben i Stockholm.
+
+I augusti 1893 Ă„tervĂ€nde Engström till Göteborg, dĂ€r han bodde i sin gamla bostad Ullstorp vid ĂrgrytevĂ€gen. Han pĂ„började en bestĂ€llning han fĂ„tt pĂ„ rekommendation av Carl Larsson, att för Ălhallen Weise mĂ„la en fris med grotesker, som skulle bli en meter hög och 40 meter lĂ„ng. Redan 24 augusti kunde han meddela Carl Larsson, att han fullbordat mĂ„lningen och fĂ„tt 500 kronor i arvode.
+
+Engström var en mycket skicklig tecknare, och hans skĂ€mtteckningar med figurer som Kolingen och Bobban publicerades i tidningar som Söndags-Nisse och sedermera den egna tidningen Strix, och blev pĂ„ detta vis mycket kĂ€nda. Han gjorde mĂ„nga karikatyrer av dĂ„tidens överheter â prĂ€ster, borgare och officerare. Man kan dĂ€r se ett tydligt slĂ€ktskap med Döderhultarn. Som författare debuterade han 1905 med En bok. Ă
r 1925 blev han tillförordnad professor i teckning vid Konsthögskolan och fungerade dÀr till Är 1935. Han var engagerad i Folkomröstningen om rusdrycksförbud i Sverige 1922. Hans sympatier lÄg hos nej-sidan, ett engagemang som resulterade i affischen KrÀftor krÀva dessa drycker!. Engström intrÀdde i Svea Orden 1917 och stannade som broder resten av livet.
+
+I samband med hans 60-Ärsdag öppnades en jubileumsutstÀllning i Konstakademien med teckningar och akvareller. Med anledning av firandet gav han ut en berÀttelsesamling, "Vid en milstolpe".
+
+Engström tillbringade under nÄgra Är mycket tid pÄ Gotska Sandön, och han har skrivit ett av de mest omfattande verken om ön. Han har Àven gjort mÄnga akvareller och teckningar frÄn Roslagen, dÀr han hade en ateljé pÄ en klippa i Grisslehamn. PÄ vÄren 1938 försÀmrades Engströms syn sÄ starkt att han successivt tvingades sluta arbeta.
+
+I samband med hundraÄrsdagen av Engströms födelse gav Postverket ut tvÄ frimÀrken med ett sjÀlvportrÀtt av honom.
+
+Engström var Àven syssling till Astrid Lindgrens far Samuel August Ericsson.
+
+Albert Engström museer
+ Albert Engström-samlingarna i Eksjö, som inÄr i Eksjö museums samlingar
+ Albert Engström-museet, författar- och konstnÀrsmuseum som var hans hem, i Grisslehamn. Museet i Grisslehamn drivs av Albert Engström-sÀllskapet och ansvarar för Albert Engströms ateljé.
+
+Representerad
+Engström Àr representerad vid bland annat Kalmar konstmuseum, Norrköpings konstmuseum, Nationalmuseum, Ateneum.
+
+Familj
+Engström var son till lantbrukaren Laurentius (Lars) Erhard Engström (född 1841 i VĂ„nga, Ăstergötlands lĂ€n, död 1926 i Hult, Jönköpings lĂ€n) och Antigonia Margareta (Gonny) Lindner (född 1843 i Vena, Kalmar lĂ€n, död 1924 i Hult). Fadern blev sedermera tjĂ€nsteman vid TĂ€ndsticksfabriken i Mariannelund och senare stationsinspektor vid NĂ€ssjö-Oskarshamns jĂ€rnvĂ€g, först i Bohult och dĂ€refter i Hult frĂ„n 1878 och fram till sin död.
+
+Albert Engströms syskon: Fredrik Laurentius född 1871 i Lönneberga, död 1962 i Stockholm, Antigonia Maria Hildegard, född 1873 i HÀssleby, Jönköpings lÀn, död 1959 i Stockholm, Signe Antigonia Eleonora, född 1879 i Hult, Jönköpings lÀn, död 1922 i Falun, samt Torbjörn Lars Einar, född 1887 i Hult, död 1930 i Vetlanda.
+
+Albert Engström trĂ€ffade Sigrid Sparre (1868-1944) i slutet av februari 1892, förlovade sig med henne samma Ă„r och de gifte sig 23 september 1894. Barn: Malin (1897â1967), Lisa (1901â1982) och Lars-Bruno (1910â1972). Malin var under Ă„ren 1916â1918 förlovad med Evert Taube.
+
+Albert Engström begravdes söndagen den 24 november 1940 pÄ Hults kyrkogÄrd bredvid sina förÀldrar. JordfÀstningen förrÀttades av hans gamle vÀn, hovpredikanten Gustaf Malmberg, som bland annat sade: "I denna bygd har hans vagga stÄtt. Nu kommer han Äter frÄn det skiftande livet för att gÄ till vila vid fars och mors sida. Ett mÀnniskoliv Àr avslutat, rikt och sÀllsamt som en saga, underbarare Àn den, som spÀnde sin skimrande himmel över den lille lÀsande gossen i stationshuset...".
+
+Av sin bekant, mÄlare Albert Edelfelt beskrevs Albert Engström till följande: En af de roligaste jag mött hÀr Àr Albert Engström, karrikatyrtecknaren frÄn Söndagsnisse. En glad Upsalastudent och filolog (Kan utmÀrkt bra hebreiska, grekiska och latin och bland andra sprÄk ocksÄ finska) och en hjertans qvick menniska. Han sjunger sina visor sÄ urkomiskt att jag aldrig tror Jag skrattat sÄ.
+
+UtmÀrkelser
+Engström intogs 1901 i stockholmslogen Carl Michael av Samfundet SHT, dĂ€r han fick namnet Strix. Ă
r 1908 utsÄgs han till ordensskald för sÀllskapet Pelarorden i Stockholms skÀrgÄrd. Han invaldes i Konstakademien 1919 och var ledamot av Svenska Akademien frÄn 1922, dÄ han ersatte Oscar Montelius pÄ stol nr 18. Han invaldes 1926 i SÀllskapet FebruariGubbarna, stiftat 1852, ett sÀllskap med "kulturella intressen i angenÀm och kamratlig samvaro".
+
+Engström blev filosofie hedersdoktor i Uppsala 1927, tillsammans med Bruno Liljefors.
+
+Asteroiden 7548 Engström Àr uppkallad efter honom.
+
+Albert Engström-sÀllskapet
+
+SÀllskapet bildades 1981 med syftet att sprida kunskap om Albert Engström och hans konstnÀrliga verksamhet, och att genom olika aktiviteter visa hans verk samt hÄlla hans författarskap och konstnÀrskap levande. I Grisslehamn förvaltar och bedriver sÀllskapet museiverksamhet vid EngströmgÄrden och Ateljén. SÀllskapet delar Ärligen ut Albert Engström-priset.
+
+SÀllskapet Àr ett av de största litterÀra sÀllskapen i Sverige med över 1700 medlemmar och har sitt sÀte i Grisslehamn, men har Àven en smÄlandssektion med sÀte i Eksjö.
+
+Galleri
+
+Bibliografi
+
+ VÀnner och bekanta uppsnappade i förbifarten 1896.
+ Pyttans AâB och CâD-lĂ€ra 1896.
+ En gyldenne Book. 1897.
+
+ MedmÀnniskor. 1899.
+ Bland kolingar, bönder och herremÀn. 1900.
+
+ Bladnegrer och annat folk. En samling vidriga fysionomier, kÀrleksfullt Ätergifna. 1901.
+ Tokar, kloka som folk Àr mest. Teckningar med text. 1901.
+ Ăfver ett halfttjog vackra smĂ„landsvisor och en vals. Med teckningar och musik av Albert Engström och Nalle HalldĂ©n. 1902.
+ TrÄkmÄnsar och gyckelbockar. Teckningar med text. 1904.
+ En bok. 1905.
+ Riksdagsgubbar. 1906, 1915.
+ Mitt lif och leverne. Stockholm, Ljus, 1907.
+ Ăventyr och hugskott. 1908.
+ Ett tjog teckningar ur Albert Engströms portfölj. 1908.
+ En bok till. 1909.
+ VĂ€ggprydnader och bordsdekorationer. 1909
+
+ Grandet och bjÀlken. Teckningar 1910.
+ Genom mina guldbÄgade glasögon. Stockholm, Lundquist, 1911.
+ Kryss och landkÀnning. 1912.
+ Ă
t HÀcklefjÀll. 1913.
+ BlÀck och saltvatten. Stockholm, E. Lundquist, 1914.
+ Riksdagsgubbar. Med hexameter. 1915.
+ Hemma och pÄ luffen. 1916.
+ Medan det jÀser. 1918.
+ Tio teckningar. 1919.
+ Min 12: te bok. 1919
+ En gyldenne Book, 1919. Andra upplagan i format 22 gÄnger 29 cm, med Företal av AE.
+ RĂ€nningehus. 1920.
+ HemspÄnad och taggtrÄd. 1921.
+ Adel, prÀster, smugglare, bönder. 1923, 1935.
+ Xylografen. Ett portrÀtt i 10 litografier. 1923.
+ August Strindberg och jag. 1923. NyutgÄva 1986.
+ Moskoviter. 1924.
+ Agnarna och vetet.1925.
+ En konstig blandning. 1925.
+ Gotska Sandön. 1926.
+ Med penna och tallpipa. 1927. NyutgÄva 1953.
+ Anders Zorn. 1928.
+ Ur mina memoarer. Stockholm, Bonnier, 1927
+ Ur mina memoarer och annat. 1929.
+ SmÄlandshistorier. 1929.
+ Vid en milstolpe. 1929.
+ Bouppteckning. 1930.
+ Mot aftonglöden. 1932.
+ Naket o.s.v. 1934.
+ Med Kaaparen till Afrika. 1937.
+ LÀsebok för svenska folket. 1938.
+
+Postum utgivning
+ SjÀlvdeklaration. 1944.
+ RoslagsberÀttelser. 1942.
+ SmÄlandsberÀttelser. 1942.
+ Lukas Mosak, Albert Engströms första bok. Med ett förord av Ernst Malmberg.1944.
+ Pyttans A-B och C-D-lÀra eller Antibarbarus diktad i augusti 1896 av farbror Acke, farbror Albert, farbror Verner⊠Med teckningar av Albert Engström. 1946.
+ Siktat och sammalet. Redigerad av Helmer LĂ„ng. 1952.
+
+Skrifter
+Skrifter (28 delar, 1939-1941; flera nya upplagor de följande Ären)
+1. Mitt liv och leverne
+2. En bok
+3. Ăventyr och hugskott
+4. En bok till
+5. Min 5:e bok : berÀttelser och stÀmningar
+6. [http://runeberg.org/guldglas/ Genom mina guldbÄgade glasögon]
+7. Kryss och landkÀnning
+8. BlÀck och saltvatten
+9-10. Ă
t HÀcklefjÀll
+11. Hemma och pÄ luffen
+12. Medan det jÀser
+13. Min 12:te bok
+14. HemspÄnad och taggtrÄd
+15. RĂ€nningehus
+16. Adel, prÀster, smugglare, bönder
+17. En konstig blandning
+18. Moskoviter
+19. Ur mina memoarer och annat
+20. Med penna och tallpipa
+21. Vid en milstolpe
+22. Bouppteckning
+23. Mot aftonglöden
+24. Naket o. s. v.
+25. Med Kaaparen till Afrika
+26. LÀsebok för svenska folket
+27. Gotska Sandön
+28. Anders Zorn (första upplagan 1928)
+
+Referenser
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+
+Schiller, Harald (1970). HĂ€ndelser man minns - en krönika 1920â1969
+
+WebbkÀllor
+ Albert Engström SÀllskapet
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Albert Engström SÀllskapet
+Albert Engström pÄ Projekt Runeberg
+Albert Engström pÄ Eksjö museum
+
+
+
+
+Födda 1869
+Avlidna 1940
+Ledamöter av Svenska Akademien
+Svenska humorister
+Karikatyrtecknare
+Hedersdoktorer vid Uppsala universitet
+Södermalmsprofiler
+Svenska skÀmttecknare
+Svenska satirtecknare
+Svenska serieskapare
+SBH
+Hedersledamöter vid Ăstgöta nation i Uppsala
+Svenska illustratörer
+Personer frÄn Lönneberga socken
+MĂ€n
+Roslagen i kulturen
+Representerade vid Nationalmuseum
+Representerade vid Ateneum
+Representerade vid Norrköpings konstmuseum
+Svenska mÄlare under 1900-talet
+Svenska tecknare under 1900-talet
+Svenska författare under 1900-talet
+Svenska affischkonstnÀrer
+SmÄlÀndska författare
+Ledamöter av Konstakademien
+Erik Alvar Jansson, född 30 november 1922 i Kiruna, död 11 januari 1991 i Stockholm, var en svensk mÄlare och konstpedagog.
+
+Alvar Jansson vĂ€xte upp i en gruvarbetarfamilj i Kiruna och om man var gruvarbeteson dĂ€ruppe, hade man, enligt honom sjĂ€lv, endast tvĂ„ arbetsplatser att vĂ€lja pĂ„ gruvan eller jĂ€rnvĂ€gen. Alvar valde jĂ€rnvĂ€gen men han stannade endast ett Ă„r. Hans stora intresse var att teckna och mĂ„la och under nĂ„gra semesterdagar i december 1941 reste han till Stockholm, tog kontakt med Isaac GrĂŒnewald, (det var den konstnĂ€r som han kĂ€nde till i Stockholm), för att fĂ„ rĂ„d av honom ifall hans anlag och talang var tillrĂ€ckligt stora för att Ă€gna sig Ă„t konstnĂ€rskallet. GrĂŒnewald tyckte att hans kvaliteter dög och skrev ett rekommendationsbrev om 6 mĂ„naders tjĂ€nstledighet. Detta beviljades dock inte och Alvar sa upp sig och började pĂ„ GrĂŒnewalds mĂ„larskola januari 1942, nĂ€stan tjugo Ă„r gammal.
+
+Efter kriget 1947 började han pÄ Konstakademien dÀr han bland annat fick Ragnar Sandberg som lÀrare. Redan vid denna tid hade Alvar Jansson en klar uppfattning om att inte lÄta sig pÄverkas och styras av trender och tidsanda. PÄ sina första utstÀllningar i Stockholm 1955, 1957 och 1960, blev han betraktad som en enstöring, som mÄlade tvÀrtemot alla rÄdande konstriktningar. Han skildrade realistiskt och i dÀmpade fÀrger mÀnniskor, djur och natur. De Àmnen han dÄ valde, Äterkom i hans motivval under hela hans liv. Ofta var det hemmiljön i Kiruna, gruvarbetare pÄ hemvÀg frÄn arbetet, gruvarbetarnas omklÀdningsrum med gamla och helt unga arbetare, en skadad arbetare som bÀrs ivÀg av sin arbetskamrater. Men Àven intrÀngande portrÀtt och sensuella modellmÄlningar utgör en viktig del av hans produktion.
+
+Alvar Janssons mÄleri kan kallas realistiskt, ett klassiskt mÄleri med inspiration och idéer frÄn de stora mÀstarna Tizian, El Greco, Chardin, Francisco de Goya eller Munch, med vilka han ocksÄ kÀnde sig beslÀktad och han hÀvdade: "Nej, jag har inte upptÀckt nÄgot nytt - men jag har upptÀckt nÄgot gammalt". Han avfÀrdade den nya konsten som spekulativ, för att den sneglar mot ÄskÄdaren och krÀver dess medverkan istÀllet för att vara sig sjÀlv nog. "MÄleri", sa han "har mer att göra med en slags psykisk geometri och mekanik i ett ogripbart rum dÀr en kÄlrot inte Àr en rund form, inte en fÀrgyta, inte en volym, inte ens en kÄlrot - utan nÄgot sÄ konstigt som en mÄlad kÄlrot". Det som var drivkraften för Alvar Jansson var glÀdjen att se, lusten att Äterge det sedda.
+
+Ă
ren 1974â1976 var Jansson förestĂ„ndare för Valands konstskola i Göteborg och 1978â1984 var han professor i mĂ„leri vid Konsthögskolan i Stockholm. Alvar Jansson Ă€r begravd pĂ„ Norra begravningsplatsen utanför Stockholm.
+
+Representerad
+Moderna museet
+Statens portrÀttsamling
+Göteborgs konstmuseum
+BorÄs konstmuseum
+Norrköpings konstmuseum
+Konstmuseet i Skövde
+Sundsvalls museum
+Bonniers portrÀttsamling
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Svenska professorer i mÄleri
+Professorer vid Kungliga Konsthögskolan
+Svenska konstpedagoger
+Svenska mÄlare under 1900-talet
+Representerade vid Göteborgs konstmuseum
+Representerade vid Bonnierska PortrÀttsamlingen
+Representerade vid Moderna museet
+Personer frÄn Kiruna
+Gravsatta pÄ Norra begravningsplatsen i Stockholm
+Födda 1922
+Avlidna 1991
+MĂ€n
+Ett anvÀndarnamn, (ibland login-namn eller bara login) Àr i datorsammanhang det namn som ger en person eller en grupp av personer en anvÀndaridentitet för en dator i nÄgot sammanhang. Ofta mÄste Àven ett lösenord anges för att sÀkerstÀlla identiteten. Vanligen Àr anvÀndarnamnet knutet till ett anvÀndarkonto. AnvÀndarnamn och lösenord utgör tillsammans en anvÀndares inloggningsuppgifter.
+
+AnvÀndarnamnet fungerar i vissa fall Àven som en pseudonym, till exempel pÄ en nÀtgemenskap.
+
+Se Àven
+ AnvÀndare
+ Administratör
+
+DatasÀkerhet
+Axel Nilsson kan syfta pÄ:
+
+ Axel Nilsson (BanĂ©r) (1513â1554), adelsman och godsĂ€gare
+ Axel Nilsson (museiman) (1872â1924), museiman och kulturhistoriker
+ Axel Nilsson (skĂ„despelare) (1876â1953), skĂ„despelare
+ Axel Nilsson (politiker) (1882â1961), lantbrukare, politiker och riksdagsledamot för Folkpartiet
+ Axel Nilsson (konstnĂ€r) (1889â1980), konstnĂ€r
+ Axel Nilsson (ishockeyspelare) (1904â1978), ishockeyspelare
+ Axel Nilsson (tecknare) (1909â2005), tecknare och mĂ„lare
+Anders Isaksson, död efter 1445 (tidigast, levde Ă€nnu 18 januari 1445), vĂ€pnare, Svenskt riksrĂ„d och innehavare av ĂstanĂ„ sĂ€teri pĂ„ 1430-talet. Anders Isaksson var son till hĂ€radshövdingen Isak Björnsson (BanĂ©r) och Gertrud Andersdotter, dotter till den upplĂ€ndske frĂ€lsemannen Anders Tomasson i Lisa.
+
+Anders Isaksson var medlem av riksrÄdet och deltog i Kalmar möte 9 juli 1438. Han stod pÄ riksdrotsen Krister Nilssons sida under dennes konflikt med Karl Knutsson.
+
+Barn
+Anders Isaksson var gift med IngegÀrd Svensdotter (Pik), dotter till vÀpnaren Sven Pik, och de hade flera barn, bland dem:
+
+Isak Andersson. Levde 1460.
+Jakob Andersson (BanĂ©r) till ĂstanĂ„
+Erik Andersson Ericus AndrÊ, död 7 maj 1504, inskriven vid Leipzigs universitet 1442, domprost i Uppsala 26 januari 1463-1504. Begravd pÄ stora gÄngen i Uppsala domkyrka.
+Peder Andersson till ĂstanĂ„
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Svenska vÀpnare
+Ătten BanĂ©r
+MĂ€n
+Födda 1300-talet
+Avlidna 1400-talet
+Personer i Sverige under 1400-talet
+Axel Nilsson (BanĂ©r), död 2 mars 1554 i Jönköping, var en svensk riddare och riksrĂ„d. Ăgde bland annat godset Djursholm dit Ă€ven Lidingön hörde fram till 1774.
+
+Biografi
+Hans förÀldrar var Nils Eskilsson (Banér) och Ingeborg Larsdotter Tott. Axel Nilsson uppfostrades 1529-1534 hos den danske riksmarsken Mogens GÞye och blev riksrÄd, troligen redan 1540 och anvÀndes av Gustav Vasa i ett flertal uppdrag. Han avled kort efter Äterkomsten frÄn en beskickning till Tyskland under 1553.
+
+Han blev 4 oktober 1544 slottsloven pÄ Stockholms slott och 1550 hövitsman i Jönköping. Axel Nilsson avled 1554 i Jönköping och begravdes i Danderyds kyrka.
+
+Axel Nilsson Ă€gde godsen Djursholms slott i Danderyds socken, EkenĂ€s slott i Ărtomta socken och HĂ€ndelö gĂ„rd i Sankt Johannes socken.
+
+Familj
+Axel Nilsson gifte sig 3 mars 1538 i Söderköping med Margareta Pedersdotter Bielke (1510-1557). Hon var dotter till riddaren och riksrĂ„det Peder Turesson (Bielke) och Carin Nilsdotter till Wik. De fick tillsammans barnen Nils Axelsson BanĂ©r (1539â1559), underamiralen Peder Axelsson BanĂ©r (1540â1565), Lars BanĂ©r (död före 1551), Erik BanĂ©r (död före 1551), Ingeborg BanĂ©r (1541â1541), Anna BanĂ©r (1541â1541), lagmannen Sten Axelsson BanĂ©r (1546â1600) och riddaren Gustaf BanĂ©r (1547â1600). Barnen tog efternamnet BanĂ©r. Sönerna Sten och Gustav avrĂ€ttades Ă„r 1600 vid Linköpings blodbad.
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Noter
+
+Svenska riddare
+MĂ€n
+Födda okÀnt Är
+Avlidna 1554
+Svenska riksrÄd under 1500-talet
+Personer under Àldre vasatiden
+Ătten BanĂ©r
+Abborrfiskar (Percidae) Àr en familj i ordningen abborrartade fiskar som lever i sött och brÀckt vatten pÄ norra halvklotet.
+
+Kroppen Àr hoptryckt frÄn sidorna och beklÀdd med hÄrda kamfjÀll. TÀnderna Àr starka och spetsiga. De har tvÄ ryggfenor som kan vara förenade, dock med en tydlig grÀns. Bukfenorna Àr belÀgna under bröstfenorna. Familjen omfattar 10 slÀkten med omkring 200 arter, av vilka abborre, gÀrs och gös förekommer i Sverige.
+
+Stora arter kan nÄ en lÀngd upp till 100 cm. Det vetenskapliga namnet Àr bildat av det grekiska ordet för abborre (perké).
+
+SlÀkten
+ sanddarterslÀktet (Ammocrypta) Jordan, 1877. 5 arter
+ kristalldarterslÀktet (Crystallaria) Jordan och Gilbert in Jordan, 1885. 1 art
+ slÀtbuksdarterslÀktet (Etheostoma) Rafinesque, 1819. 135 arter
+ gÀrsslÀktet (Gymnocephalus) Bloch, 1793. 4 arter
+ abborrslÀktet (Perca) Linné, 1758. 3 arter
+ percarinaslÀktet (Percarina) Nordmann, 1840. 1 art
+ strÀvbuksdarterslÀktet (Percina) Haldeman, 1842. 38 arter
+ aspreteslÀktet (Romanichthys) Dumitrescu, Banarescu och Stoica, 1957. 1 art
+ gösslÀktet (Sander) Oken, 1817. 5 arter
+ streberslÀktet (Zingel) Cloquet, 1817. 4 arter
+
+Referenser
+
+Abborrartade fiskar
+Abraham Eriksson Leijonhufvud kan syfta pÄ:
+
+ Abraham Eriksson Leijonhufvud den Àldre (död 1556), riddare
+ Abraham Eriksson Leijonhufvud den yngre (död 1618), friherre
+Abraham Kristiernsson (Leijonhufvud), död 1499, var ett svenskt riksrÄd.
+
+Biografi
+Abraham Kristiernsson (Leijonhufvud) var son till vÀpnaren och fogden Kristiern Gregersson (Leijonhufvud) och MÀrta Pedersdotter. Han nÀmns som riksrÄd 20 juni 1491. 1496 gav han tillsammans med sin hustru en gÄrd i Arboga till grÄbrödraklostret i Arboga. 16 februari 1499 deltog han i förlikningen mellan Sten Sture och de svenska riksrÄden, och utfÀste tillsammans med riksrÄden drottning Kristinas morgongÄva 20 februari, men uppges 31 oktober samma Är vara död. Abraham Kristiernsson begravdes i Arboga kloster.
+
+Omtalas första gĂ„ngen 1462 i samband med att han sĂ„lde sin andel i sin mors gĂ„rd BĂ„rarp till Ă
ke Axelsson Tott och förde dÄ vapen, han var alltsÄ vuxen. 1471 ger han i stÀllet för en tidigare morgongÄva pÄ 600 mark sin hustru Birgitta MÄnsdotter (Natt och Dag), gÄrden i Brunsberg och tvÄ andra gÄrdar. 1472 fick Abraham Kristiernsson som tack för tjÀnster till Sten Sture den Àldre försÀkran pÄ att behÄlla de gods som Broder Svensson och Klas Niklisson köpt Ät honom.
+
+24 februari 1479 fick han Ellholmen och bytte 1492 till sig Ekeberg av sin hustrus systerson Jöns Jönsson (vingat svÀrd). 1491 och 1493 omtalas han som riksrÄd dÄ han i Telge stadfÀste den 1488 i Reval ingÄngna förlikningen med livlÀndska orden. 1
+
+Egendom
+Abraham Kristiernsson Àgde Brunsberg i Ytterselö socken, Elleholm i Arboga landsförsamling, Ekeberg i Lillkyrka socken, Kvicksta i Toresunds socken, BÀrarp i Revinge socken.
+
+Familj
+Abraham Kristiernsson gifte sig före 1 juli 1471 med Birgitta MÄnsdotter (Natt och Dag), dotter till MÄns Bengtsson (Natt och Dag) och MÀrta Klausdotter Plata. De fick tillsammans barnen riksrÄdet Erik Abrahamsson (Leijonhufvud) (död 1520) och riddaren Sten Abrahamsson (död efter 1515). Efter Abraham Kristiernssons död gifte Birgitta MÄnsdotter om sig med vÀpnaren Anders Persson (vingat svÀrd).
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Svenska riksrÄd under 1400-talet
+Leijonhufvud
+MĂ€n
+Födda 1400-talet
+Avlidna 1499
+Abraham Pedersson Brahe, född 25 mars 1569, död 16 mars 1630, var en svensk greve och riksrÄd, son till Per Brahe den Àldre och Beata Gustavsdotter Stenbock.
+
+Abraham Brahe föddes pĂ„ Rydboholms slott som den yngste av den mĂ€ktige Per Brahes söner. Som sina bröder vacklade han i början i lojalitet mellan Sigismund och hertig Karl. Han deltog i krigstĂ„get 1598 pĂ„ Sigismunds sida. Han försonade sig dock dĂ€refter med hertigen och satt med i domstolen i Linköping 1600. 1602 utnĂ€mndes han till hovrĂ„d och dĂ€refter till riksrĂ„d. Han blev dĂ€refter lagman i VĂ€stmanlands och Dalarnas lagsaga, samtidigt som han fick behĂ„lla det tidigare stĂ„thĂ„llarskapet över GĂ€vle slott och Norrland. Brahe var Ă€ven 1607â1622 Uppsala universitets kansler och blev 1614 bisittare i Svea hovrĂ€tt. Trots sina mĂ„nga uppdrag levde han mest pĂ„ sin gĂ„rd Rydboholm och var en driftig hushĂ„llare.
+
+Abraham Brahe Àr kÀnd som författare av Abraham Brahes Tidebok, en slags dagboksanteckningar som trots sina ganska korthuggna formuleringar utgör en viktig kÀlla för kÀnnedomen och bakgrunden till 1500-talets svenska politiska liv.
+
+Gift 1599 med Elsa Gyllenstierna (1577â1650) dotter till Nils Gyllenstierna (1526â1601) av den friherrliga Ă€tten Gyllenstierna af Lundholm.
+
+Barn:
+ Ebba Abrahamsdotter Brahe (1600â1638)
+ Per Brahe den yngre (1602â1680)
+ Margareta Brahe (1603â1667)
+ Nils Brahe den Ă€ldre (1604â1632)
+ Christina Brahe (1609â1681)
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+ Svensk uppslagsbok. Malmö 1939.
+
+
+Svenska grevar
+LagmÀn i VÀstmanlands och Dalarnas lagsaga
+Svenska riksrÄd under 1600-talet
+Universitetskanslerer i Sverige
+Svenska stÄthÄllare
+Abraham Pedersson
+Personer under Àldre vasatiden
+Födda 1569
+Avlidna 1630
+MĂ€n
+Svensk uppslagsbok
+SBH
+Absalon kan avse:
+
+ Absalom â son till kung David enligt Gamla testamentet
+ Absalon, fili mi â musikaliskt verk av Josquin des Prez (1440â1521)
+ HDMS Absalon (L16) â danskt örlogsfartyg av Absalon-klass
+ Absalon (företag) â ett tidigare danskt försĂ€kringsbolag
+
+Personer
+ Absalon Hvide (cirka 1128â1201) â dansk Ă€rkebiskop och statsman
+ Julien Absalon (född 1980) â fransk mountainbikecyklist
+Spricklavar, Acarospora Àr ett slÀkte av lavar som beskrevs av Abramo Bartolommeo Massalongo. Acarospora ingÄr i familjen Acarosporaceae, ordningen Acarosporales, klassen Lecanoromycetes, divisionen sporsÀcksvampar, och riket svampar.
+
+Lavarna utmÀrks bland annat av mÄngcelliga sporsÀckar, sÄ kallade asci, med runda sporer. Det finns cirka 40 arter i Sverige.
+
+SlÀktet Acarospora indelas i följande arter
+ Acarospora admissa
+ Acarospora affinis
+ Acarospora anomala
+Acarospora argillacea (Arnold) Hue
+Acarospora assimulans Vain.
+Acarospora atrata Hue
+Acarospora badiofusca (Nyl.) Th. Fr.
+Acarospora bella (Nyl.) Jatta
+Acarospora bohlinii H. Magn.
+Acarospora boliviana H. Magn.
+Acarospora boulderensis H. Magn.
+ Acarospora brattiae
+Acarospora brevilobata H. Magn.
+ Acarospora brouardii
+ Acarospora brunneola
+Acarospora bullata Anzi
+ Acarospora bylii
+ Acarospora calcarea
+Acarospora caesiofusca (MĂŒll.Arg.) H. Magn.
+Acarospora carnegiei Zahlbr.
+Acarospora cervina A. Massal.
+Acarospora cervinoides H. Magn.
+Acarospora charidema
+Acarospora chrysops (Tuck.) H. Magn.
+Acarospora commixta H. Magn.
+ Acarospora contigua
+ Acarospora contraria
+Acarospora convoluta Darb.
+Acarospora crozalsii de Lesd.
+Acarospora depressa H. Magn.
+Acarospora discreta (Ach.) Arnold
+ Acarospora dispersa
+Acarospora dissipata H. Magn.
+ Acarospora elevata
+ Acarospora epilutescens
+Acarospora epithallina H. Magn.
+ Acarospora erythrophora
+Acarospora euganea
+ Acarospora fennica
+Acarospora franconica H. Magn.
+Acarospora friesii H. Magn.
+Acarospora fuscata (Schrad.) Th. Fr. (Svenska: Brun spricklav)
+Acarospora gallica H. Magn.
+Acarospora geophila H. Magn.
+Acarospora glaucocarpa (Wahlenb. ex Ach.) Körb.
+Acarospora glypholecioides H. Magn.
+Acarospora gobiensis H. Magn.
+Acarospora gwynnii Dodge & Rudolph
+ Acarospora hassei
+Acarospora helvetica H. Magn.
+Acarospora heppii (NÀgeli ex Hepp) NÀgeli in Körb.
+Acarospora heufleriana Körb.
+Acarospora hilaris (Dufour) Hue
+Acarospora hospitans H. Magn.
+ Acarospora hultingii
+Acarospora immersa Fink ex Hedr.
+Acarospora impressula Th. Fr.
+ Acarospora insignis
+Acarospora insolata H. Magn.
+Acarospora intermedia H. Magn.
+Acarospora interrupta
+Acarospora interspersa H. Magn.
+Acarospora invadens H. Magn.
+Acarospora irregularis H. Magn.
+Acarospora jenisejensis H. Magn.
+Acarospora laqueata Stizenb.
+Acarospora lorentzii (MĂŒll. Arg.) Hue
+Acarospora macrospora (Hepp) Bagl.
+Acarospora malmeana H. Magn.
+Acarospora marciiv H. Magn.
+Acarospora maroccana de Lesd.
+Acarospora massiliensis (Harm.) H. Magn.
+Acarospora mendozana H. Magn.
+Acarospora mexicana
+Acarospora microcarpa (Nyl.) Wedd.
+Acarospora modensis H. Magn.
+ Acarospora moenium
+Acarospora molybdina (Wahlenb.) A. Massal.
+Acarospora mongolica H. Magn.
+Acarospora moraviae H. Magn.
+Acarospora murorum
+ Acarospora nevadensis
+Acarospora nitida H. Magn.
+Acarospora nitrophila H. Magn.
+Acarospora nodulosa (Dufour) Hue
+ Acarospora novomexicana
+ Acarospora obnubila
+Acarospora obpallens (Nyl.) Zahlbr.
+Acarospora oligospora (Nyl.) Arnold
+ Acarospora oligyrophorica
+ Acarospora oreophila
+Acarospora oxytona (Ach.) A. Massal.
+Acarospora paupera H. Magn.
+Acarospora peliscypha Th. Fr.
+Acarospora perpulchra
+Acarospora persimilis H. Magn.
+Acarospora pitardi
+Acarospora placodiiformis H. Magn.
+Acarospora pleistospora
+Acarospora praeruptarum H. Magn.
+ Acarospora pseudofuscata
+Acarospora pulvinata H. Magn.
+Acarospora pyrenopsoides H. Magn.
+Acarospora radicans H. Magn.
+Acarospora reagens Zahlbr.
+Acarospora rehmii H. Magn.
+ Acarospora rhabarbarina
+Acarospora rhagadiza (Nyl.) Hue
+ Acarospora rhizobola
+ Acarospora robiniae
+Acarospora rosulata (Th. Fr.) H. Magn.
+ Acarospora rouxii
+Acarospora rugulosa Körb.
+Acarospora sandwicensis H. Magn.
+Acarospora sarcogynoides H. Magn.
+Acarospora scabrida Hedl. ex H. Magn.
+Acarospora schleicheri (Ach.) A. Massal.
+Acarospora scotica Hue
+Acarospora scrobiculata H. Magn.
+Acarospora scyphulifera Vain.
+Acarospora similis
+Acarospora sinopica (Wahlenb.) Körb. (Svenska: Rostspricklav)
+Acarospora smaragdula (Wahlenb. in Ach.) A. Massal.
+ Acarospora socialis
+Acarospora solitaria H. Magn.
+Acarospora sp. indet.
+Acarospora sparsa H. Magn.
+Acarospora sphaerospora H. Magn.
+Acarospora stapfiana (MĂŒll. Arg.) Hue
+Acarospora strigata (Nyl.) Jatta
+Acarospora subcontigua H. Magn.
+ Acarospora subrufula
+ Acarospora succedens
+Acarospora sulphurata (Arnold) Arnold
+Acarospora superans H. Magn.
+Acarospora suprasedens H. Magn.
+Acarospora suzai H. Magn.
+Acarospora tenebrica H. Magn.
+Acarospora terrestris (Nyl.) H. Magn.
+Acarospora terricola H. Magn.
+ Acarospora thamnina
+Acarospora thelococcoides (Nyl.) Zahlbr.
+ Acarospora tongletii
+Acarospora tuberculata H. Magn.
+Acarospora tuberculifera H. Magn.
+ Acarospora tuckerae
+Acarospora tyroliensis H. Magn.
+Acarospora umbilicata Bagl.
+Acarospora umbrina H. Magn.
+Acarospora variegata H. Magn.
+Acarospora veronensis A. Massal.
+Acarospora verruciformis H. Magn.
+Acarospora verruculosa H. Magn.
+Acarospora versicolor Bagl. & Carestia
+Acarospora wahlenbergii H. Magn.
+ Acarospora wetmorei
+Acarospora xanthophana (Nyl.) Jatta
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Lavar
+SporsÀcksvampar
+Acer kan syfta pÄ;
+
+ Acer â ett slĂ€kte i familjen kinestrĂ€dsvĂ€xter, se LönnslĂ€ktet
+ Acer Inc. â en datortillverkare.
+ Acer (motortillverkare) â motorer till formel 1-stallet Prost Grand Prix 2001
+ ACER (EU-byrÄ) - EU-byrÄ för samarbete mellan energitillsynsmyndigheter med sÀte i Ljubljana, Slovenien
+Adalvard kan syfta pÄ:
+Adalvard den Ă€ldre, biskop i Skara Ă„r 1060â1064
+Adalvard den yngre, biskop i Sigtuna 1060 och i Skara under perioden ca 1066â1068
+Adam av Bremen (ty. Adam von Bremen, lat. Adamus Bremensis), död före 1095, var en författare och historiker verksam pÄ 1000-talet i Bremen. Adam var sannolikt frÄn södra Tyskland, möjligen Bamberg. Han kom till Bremen 1066, alternativt 1067, möjligen för att verka som lÀrare (kallas 1069 magister scolarum) vid domskolan dÀr, i Àrkebiskop Adalberts tjÀnst.
+
+Adam skrev en bok om Àrkestiftet Hamburgs historia, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum ("De hamburgska Àrkebiskoparnas stora gÀrningar"). UtifrÄn muntliga meddelanden och gamla handskrifter framstÀllde han Àrkestiftet Hamburgs historia frÄn 788 till Àrkebiskop Adalberts död, 1072. Boken innehÄller ocksÄ mÄnga upplysningar om livet i Skandinavien. Den danske kungen Sven Estridsson, en för sin tid lÀrd herre, lÀmnade vÀrdefulla bidrag till detta arbete avseende de danska, de svenska och de norska förhÄllandena. Vid publiceringen i tryck 1595 benÀmndes hans verk De situ Daniae et reliquarum quÊ trans Daniam sunt regionum natura.
+
+Adam av Bremen om nordborna
+Danskarna hade enligt Adam samlat pÄ sig mycket guld genom sjöröveri. De danska vikingarna betalade skatt till danernas kung för rÀtten att ta byte av barbarerna omkring det Norska havet. De missbrukade dock ofta denna rÀtt och angrep sina egna landsmÀn. "Och sÄ snart nÄgon har tillfÄngatagit sin granne sÀljer han honom obarmhÀrtigt som trÀl till antingen vÀn eller frÀmmande". Adam berÀttar vidare: "Kvinnor sÀljs genast om de bedrivit otukt, men om mÀnnen anklagas för majestÀtsbrott eller tas pÄ bar gÀrning med nÄgot annat olagligt, sÄ vill de hellre halshuggas Àn piskas".
+
+"De kÀnner inte till andra straff Àn yxa och trÀldom och Àven nÀr en man Àr dömd anses det som en heder att vara glad, för tÄrar, klagan och andra tecken pÄ Änger, som vi anser rÀtt, avskyr danskarna till den grad att det inte ens Àr tillÄtet för nÄgon att grÄta över sina synder eller över sina kÀra avlidna".
+
+"Svenskarna saknar inget med undantag av det högmod som vi Àlskar eller rÀttare tillber. Allt som bara har med tom fÄfÀnglighet att göra, sÄsom guld, silver, prÀktiga hÀstar, bÀver- och mÄrdskinn, saker som vi beundrar till vanvett, rÀknar de som ingenting: Det Àr bara i frÄga om kvinnor som de inte kÀnner nÄgon mÄtta: var och en har allt efter möjligheter tvÄ eller tre hustrur samtidigt, men de som Àr rika eller hövdingar har otaliga".
+
+"De söner som de fĂ„r rĂ€knas som Ă€ktfödda. Med döden straffas dĂ€remot den som har samlag med nĂ€stas hustru eller vĂ„ldtar en jungfru eller plundrar grannens egendom eller gör honom orĂ€tt. Ăven om nordbor utmĂ€rker sig för gĂ€stfrihet, ligger svenskarna ett steg före. De rĂ€knar det som den vĂ€rsta skam att neka resande gĂ€stvĂ€nskap, ja, det hĂ€rskar en ivrig kapplöpning om vem som anses vĂ€rdig att mottaga gĂ€sten. DĂ€r visas denna all möjlig vĂ€nlighet och sĂ„ lĂ€nge han önskar stanna förs han hem till den ena efter den andra av vĂ€rdens vĂ€nner. SĂ„dana vackra drag finns det bland deras sedvĂ€njor".
+
+"Svenskarna bestÄr av mÄnga stammar som utmÀrker sig i sÄvÀl i styrka som i bevÀpning, förutom att de Àr lika framstÄende krigare till hÀst som till sjöss. DÀrför ser man att de har makt att hÄlla ordning pÄ de andra nordiska folken. De har kungar av gammal slÀkt, men deras makt begrÀnsas av folkens vilja. Vad alla gemensamt bestÀmt det skall kungen stadfÀsta, sÄvida inte hans uppfattning verkar bÀttre, dÄ kan de stundom, om Àn ogÀrna, följa den. I fredstid passar det dem utmÀrkt att pÄ detta sÀtt vara jÀmlika, men i krig lyder de blint konungen eller den som han sÀtter över dem som den dugligaste".
+
+"Kommer de i nöd under striden anropar de en av sina mÄnga gudar och efter segern Àr de sedan guden tillgivna och föredrar honom".
+
+Om norrmÀnnen meddelar Adam bland annat följande: "De klarar sig med det de fÄr frÄn sin boskap, i det att de anvÀnder dess mjölk till föda och ullen till klÀder. DÀrför fostrar landet mycket tappra krigare som oftare angriper Àn sjÀlva blir angripna, för de har inte förvekligats genom rikliga skördar. De lever pÄ god fot med svenskarna, men ibland angrips de, dock inte ostraffat, av danskarna, som Àr lika fattiga som de sjÀlva. De Àr ocksÄ mest förnöjsamma och sÀtter största vÀrde pÄ enkelhet och mÄtta i bÄde mat och seder".
+
+"PÄ mÄnga hÄll i Norge och Sverige anses boskapsherdarna som mycket förnÀma personer som lever pÄ patriarkers sÀtt och av sina hÀnders arbete".
+
+Finland har i hans verk fÄtt benÀmningen Terra feminarum, latin för "kvinnornas land", sannolikt en misstolkning av KvÀnland. Detta har utgjort grund för tolkningen "amasonernas land", men Àr egentligen en felöversÀttning av kvÀnernas land.
+
+Bibliografi
+ - Försvenskad av Johan Fredrik Peringskiöld. Texten finns Àven pÄ Wikisource.
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+ Alkarp, Magnus, - Analys av Gesta.
+ Hyenstrand, Ă
ke, - Recension och diskussion.
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Personer i Tyskland under 1000-talet
+Tyska krönikeskrivare
+MĂ€n
+Födda 1000-talet
+Avlidna 1000-talet
+PrÀster under 1000-talet
+Johan Allan Edwall, född 25 augusti 1924 i Hissmofors, Rödöns församling, JÀmtlands lÀn, död 7 februari 1997 i Hedvig Eleonora församling i Stockholm
+, var en svensk skÄdespelare, regissör, teaterdirektör, författare, visdiktare och barnboksupplÀsare samt teaterpedagog vid Statens scenskola.
+
+Biografi
+Edwall vĂ€xte upp i det jĂ€mtlĂ€ndska brukssamhĂ€llet Hissmofors som son till Karl Edvall och Magdalena Jonsson av slĂ€kten Tangen. Han gick pĂ„ Dramatens elevskola 1949â1952, bland skol- och klasskamraterna kan nĂ€mnas Jan-Olof Strandberg, Margaretha Krook, Max von Sydow och Jan Malmsjö. Edwall var verksam vid Dramaten 1952â1955, 1958â1962 och 1963â1971. Han var frilans 1955â1957 och frĂ„n 1972. Edwall var verksam inom TV-teatern frĂ„n 1962 och vid Marionetteatern 1964.
+
+SkÄdespelaren
+
+Edwall var en skÄdespelare med mycket personlig framtoning, och fick sitt stora folkliga genombrott i och med tv-dramatiseringen av August Strindbergs Hemsöborna (1966), dÀr han spelade den tragikomiske drÀngen Carlsson. Han spelade ocksÄ bildhuggaren Olle Montanus i Röda rummet (1970). PÄ film gjorde han flera bemÀrkta roller, bland annat som familjefadern och teaterdirektören Oscar Ekdahl i Fanny och Alexander (1982) och som den frikyrklige bonden Danjel i Utvandrarna-filmerna.
+
+Edwall var med i alla lĂ„ngfilmer som under Ă„ren 1971â1984 gjordes efter Astrid Lindgrens böcker, med undantag för VĂ€rldens bĂ€sta Karlsson. För barnen Ă€r Edwall dĂ€rför mest kĂ€nd som Anton, pappan till Emil i Lönneberga (1971), farfar till Elvis i Maria Gripes Elvis! Elvis! (1977), Skorpan LejonhjĂ€rtas lĂ„tsasfarfar Mattias i Bröderna LejonhjĂ€rta (1977), Madickens granne farbror Nilsson i Du Ă€r inte klok, Madicken (1979) och Madicken pĂ„ Junibacken (1980), luffaren Paradis-Oskar i Rasmus pĂ„ luffen (1981) samt gammelrövaren Skalle-Per i Ronja Rövardotter (1984).
+
+Regissören
+SjĂ€lv skrev Edwall manus till och regisserade flera lĂ„ngfilmer, bland annat Ă
ke och hans vĂ€rld (1984) och MĂ€larpirater (1987). PĂ„ Kungliga Dramatiska Teatern och Stockholms stadsteater, dit han var knuten i flera omgĂ„ngar, regisserade han pjĂ€ser som han skrivit sjĂ€lv. Ă
r 1986 startade han en egen teater i Stockholm, Teater Brunnsgatan Fyra, dÀr han Àgnade sig Ät allt ifrÄn biljettförsÀljning till skÄdespeleri. Vid denna teater inledde han ett samarbete med Kristina Lugn, som tog över som konstnÀrlig ledare 1997. Sedan 2011 Àr det Lugns dotter Martina Montelius som driver teatern.
+
+Musikern
+Edwall skrev egna visor, bĂ„de text och musik. Musiken pĂ„minner om folkmusik, med inslag av fiol och dragspel, ofta i moll. Texterna vittnar om ett starkt samhĂ€llsengagemang med sympati för de fattiga och utsatta. Edwall sjöng in sina visor pĂ„ sina skivor Grovdoppa (1979), FĂ€rdknĂ€pp (1981), GnĂ€llspik (1982), Ramsor om dom och oss (1982), Vetahuteri (1984) och postuma Aftonro (2005). En del av dessa tolkas av Stefan Sundström pĂ„ cd:n Sundström spelar Allan (2002). NĂ„gra av hans mest kĂ€nda visor Ă€r "Den Lilla BĂ€cken", "Förhoppning" och "Ă
rstider". Rent stilistiskt var Edwalls visor ofta blandningar av lyriska formuleringar och burleskt folkliga uttryck, ofta med dialektala inslag. Enstaka visor sjöng han Àven pÄ sin hembygds jÀmtska. JÀmte sympatier för samhÀllets svaga Àr miljöförstöring, kritik mot kapitalismen och tillbakablickar pÄ livet sÄsom det blev vanliga teman i Edwalls visor.
+
+Det nystartade skivbolaget National tog 2002 hand om Allan Edwalls lĂ„tskatt och slĂ€ppte hösten 2002 samlingen Den lilla bĂ€cken â Allans bĂ€sta, som sĂ„lde mer Ă€n 24 500 exemplar, och har sedan Ă„terutgivit Allans samtliga skivor pĂ„ cd och gjort hans musik tillgĂ€nglig pĂ„ nytt till gammal och ny publik.
+
+Ă
r 2006 vann Edwall en grammis (postumt) i den öppna kategorin för sina visor och CD-boxen Alla Allans visor. Motivering löd "PÄ Alla Allans visor trÀder en trÀffsÀker hopknÄpare av texter och melodier fram. Egensinniga beskrivningar av personligheter i den pÄstÄdda periferin".
+
+Hans vÀn och motspelare Erland Josephson skrev om Edwall efter hans bortgÄng: "Han var udda. Men han lyckades ta mig fan vara udda pÄ ett universellt sÀtt!"
+
+Ăvrigt
+Edwall skrev fyra romaner: Protokoll (1954), Ljuva lĂ€ge (1967), Engeln (1974) och Limpan (1977). TvĂ„ av romanerna har blivit film â Engeln (TV-film 1974 och uppföljare 1976) och Limpan (1983).
+
+Edwall var aktiv i VÀnsterpartiet. I boken DÄ kan man lika gÀrna kittla varandra. En bok om Allan Edwall sÄ lyfts det fram att han deltagit i och stött ett flertal fackliga strejker, demonstrerat ivrigt under sitt liv och Àven hÄllit tal.
+
+Edwall var vÀrd för Sommar i P1 den 29 juli 1989.
+
+Familj
+Allan Edwall var 1957â1965 gift med journalisten Britt Edwall och fick med henne tre barn: Mattias, MĂ„ns och Malin. Han har Ă€ven sonen Michael frĂ„n ett tidigare Ă€ktenskap. Allan Edwall avled 72 Ă„r gammal i prostatacancer den 7 februari 1997.
+
+UtmÀrkelser
+ 1960 â Svenska Dagbladets Thaliapris
+ 1970 â Gösta Ekman-stipendiet
+ 1971 â Svenska teaterkritikers förenings Teaterpris
+ 1974 â Guldbaggen för bĂ€sta manliga huvudroll i Emil och griseknoen
+ 1975 â Teaterförbundets guldmedalj för "utomordentlig konstnĂ€rlig gĂ€rning"
+ 1980 â O'Neill-stipendiet
+ 1981 â Litteris et Artibus
+ 1983 â Svenska Akademiens teaterpris
+ 1985 â Hedersledamot vid Norrlands nation i Uppsala
+ 1987 â Filosofie hedersdoktor vid UmeĂ„ universitet
+ 1988 â Ture Nerman-priset
+ 1990 â Natur & Kulturs kulturpris
+ 1990 â Expressens teaterpris
+ 1993 â Evert Taube-stipendiet
+ 1996 â Piratenpriset
+ 2005 â Grammis för samlingsboxen Alla Allans visor i "Ă
rets öppen kategori" (postumt)
+
+Edwall har en gata uppkallad efter sig i Ărnsberg inom Stockholms kommun.
+
+Allan Edwall-stipendiet delas sedan 1990 ut varje trettondedag jul pÄ Folkets hus i Hissmofors till hans minne.
+
+Filmografi
+
+Filmroller
+
+ (berÀttarröst)
+
+ (berÀttarröst)
+
+ (berÀttarröst)
+
+ (berÀttarröst)
+
+ (röst)
+
+TV-roller
+
+1958 â Hughie (Charlie Hughes)
+1959 â Lilith (teaterregissör)
+1961 â Mr Ernest (doktor Chasuble)
+1962 â Stolarna (gammal man)
+1962 â Kvartetten som sprĂ€ngdes (Fogel)
+1963 â Misantropen (Acaste)
+1963 â Topaze (Albert Topaze)
+1963 â Ett drömspel
+ (Enkel)
+1965 â Janus (Denny)
+1965 â ThĂ©rĂšse Raquin (Camille)
+1965 â En florentinsk tragedi (Simone)
+1965 â Gustav Vasa (Engelbrekt)
+1965 â Hans nĂ„ds testamente (Vickberg)
+1966 â Hemsöborna (Carlsson)
+ (Magnus Eriksson)
+ (Montanus)
+(Mats Larsson)
+1972 â Spöksonaten (den gamle mannen)
+1972 â Barnen i höjden (professor)
+1973 â Vem Ă€lskar Yngve Frej (Gustafsson)
+1974 â Engeln (Engeln)
+1976 â Engeln II (Engeln)
+ (Aldo Samuel)
+1978 â Bröllopsfesten
+
+1983 â Hustruskolan (Arnolphe)
+1990 â I morgon var en dröm (Markus)
+ (den gamla pojkvÀnnen)
+
+Regi
+
+1984 â Svenska folkets sex och snusk (TV)
+1986 â Den nervöse mannen (TV)
+
+Filmmanus
+
+1974 â Engeln (TV)
+1976 â Engeln II (TV)
+
+1984 â Svenska folkets sex och snusk (TV)
+1985 â Det Ă€r mĂ€nskligt att fela (TV)
+1986 â Den nervöse mannen (TV)
+
+Teater
+
+Roller
+
+Regi
+
+Radioteater
+
+Roller
+
+Bibliografi
+
+Diskografi
+
+Postumt utgivet
+
+Musiktryck
+ (Göteborg: Ejeby)
+
+Referenser
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+ NorrlÀndsk uppslagsbok, Band 1, 1993
+
+WebbkÀllor
+
+
+
+
+ Allan Edwall pÄ Malmö stadsteater
+ Allan Edwall pÄ Stiftelsen Ingmar Bergmans hemsida
+ Allan Edwall pÄ Discogs (diskografi)
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Allan Edwall pÄ Svensk mediedatabas
+
+
+Svenska skÄdespelare under 1900-talet
+Alumner frÄn Dramatens elevskola
+Svenska viskompositörer
+Hedersdoktorer vid UmeÄ universitet
+Hedersledamöter vid Norrlands nation
+Födda 1924
+Avlidna 1997
+Personer frÄn Rödöns socken
+MĂ€n
+Guldbaggen för bÀsta manliga huvudroll
+Grammis-vinnare
+Mottagare av Litteris et Artibus
+Författare frÄn JÀmtland
+SommarvÀrdar 1989
+Adel (adelskap, ridderskap, frÀlsemÀn) Àr en av börd överordnad samhÀllsgrupp. Oftast syftar ordet pÄ en grupp som av frÀmst militÀra skÀl uppstod i feodalsamhÀllet och som (vanligen av en kung) beviljades lagstadgade, vanligen Àrftliga privilegier förenade med titlar och sÀrskilda heraldiska rangtecken. Ordet adel kan Àven anvÀndas för en bördsaristokrati i samhÀllen som inte Àr feodala, till exempel antikens Rom. Adelsprivilegierna var av ekonomisk, politisk, organisatorisk och social karaktÀr. De kunde vara mycket betydande och innebÀra till exempel skattefrihet ("frÀlst" frÄn beskattning) och företrÀde till statliga Àmbeten, men ocksÄ försvarsplikt i krigstider eller nÀr kungen kallade. I Sverige och mÄnga andra moderna samhÀllen har adelskap inte lÀngre nÄgon större praktisk betydelse.
+
+En adelsman (Àdling) Àr en man som antingen blivit adlad eller som genom börd tillhör adeln. Motsvarigheten pÄ damsidan Àr en adelsdam. Adelsdam Àr den kvinna som Àr född i en adlig familj, som genom giftermÄl blivit upptagen i en adelsÀtt eller sjÀlv blivit adlad.
+
+Etymologi
+Ordet adel kommer frÄn lÄgtyskan och betydde 'hÀrkomst', 'börd' för 1000 Är sedan. I det avsevÀrt Àldre urindoeuropeiska sprÄket, för mer Àn 7000 Är sedan, kan ad ha betytt "frÄn" eller "av", men ocksÄ nÄgon annan preposition som "till" eller "pÄ". I svenska sprÄket kom det in som lÄnord för drygt 500 Är sedan, dvs mot slutet av 1400-talet. I samtida dokument förekommer omvÀxlande termerna "frÀlsemÀn", "frÀlset", "adeln" och "ridderskapet". FrÀlse syftar hÀr pÄ det privilegium som en gÄng gav upphov till adeln som en sÀrskild samhÀllsklass genom att den enskilde som Ätog sig att fullgöra vapentjÀnst i gengÀld gavs frihet (= frÀlse) frÄn att erlÀgga skatt. Liknande skattefrihet Ätnjöt Àven kyrkans mÀn och kvinnor. Personer som inte tillhörde nÄgon av dessa grupper kallades för ofrÀlse.
+
+Historia
+
+Antiken
+Olika slags adelskap har funnits inom de flesta kulturer Ànda sedan de gamla egyptierna. Redan under arkaisk tid fanns det i de grekiska stadsstaterna grupper i samhÀllet som hade högre status Àn övriga medborgare; i Aten behÀrskade de sÄ kallade eupatriderna det politiska maskineriet suverÀnt före tyrannernas maktövertagande och demokratins införande. I det gamla Rom utgjordes adeln av patricierna, de enda invÄnarna i den tidiga republiken som hade full medborgarrÀtt. Senare, dÄ de högsta Àmbetena som en följd av stÄndsstriderna öppnats för plebejer, framvÀxte med tiden en ny patricisk-plebejisk adel, nobilitas, vars medlemmare benÀmndes nobiles. Senrepublikens politiska gruppering optimates, som bekÀmpade de sÄ kallade populares, dominerades av denna Àmbetsaristokrati.
+
+Medeltiden
+PÄ 800-talet under den europeiska medeltiden vÀxte feodalstater fram i Europa. I början handlade det mest om att förlÀningar av jord delades till riddare. Riddaren var sen oftast skyldig att stÀlla upp med soldater nÀr fursten behövde det. NÀr det frankiska riket uppstod under ledning av ett allt mÀktigare kungadöme fick kungens tjÀnare snart en ansedd och upphöjd stÀllning och bildade sÄ en tjÀnsteadel som sammansmÀlte med den gamla bördsadeln. Inom andra europeiska lÀnder gjordes pÄ samma sÀtt. LÀngre fram fanns lÀnsvÀsendet, det vill sÀga en form av avlöning för krigstjÀnsten till hÀst, vilket utbredde sig till hela adeln.
+
+FörhÄllanden
+Adeln slapp ursprungligen att betala statlig skatt mot att man satte upp beridet krigsfolk Ät kungen (staten). I vissa fall kunde adeln ocksÄ sjÀlv driva in skatt till olika lokala ÀndamÄl. Adeln hade Àven andra privilegier. Tidvis var det bara adliga som kunde bli officerare i krigsmakten, varför förtjÀnta underofficerare som skulle höjas upp till officerare adlades till exempel Silfverlood pÄ VÀstgöta Ryttare eller Erik Dahlbergh. Adeln hade lÀnge ensamrÀtt pÄ jakt och fiske, nÄgot som kung Gustaf III Àndrade pÄ. I vissa byar sÄ kunde bara adeln Àga en kvarn som andra fick betala avgift för nÀr de ville anvÀnda.
+
+FörÀndring
+Adelns betydelse och inflytande Àndrades successivt med början under den senare delen av medeltiden. Det första steget var under den sÄ kallade militÀra revolutionen. Adelns skyldighet att stÀlla upp med trupper försvann successivt nÀr stater började skapa egna arméer. Med de ekonomiska förÀndringarna under renÀssansen och framvÀxten av rika handelsmÀn och borgare förÀndrades adelns inflytande ytterligare, vilket fortsatte och förstÀrktes av den industriella revolutionen. De adelsfamiljer som tog del i den nya tidens former för ekonomisk tillvÀxt behöll och rent av förstÀrkte sin sÀrstÀllning i staten.
+
+Nutid
+De flesta av rÀttigheterna i de svenska adelsprivilegierna har sedan lÀnge utstrÀckts till alla Sveriges medborgare, till exempel rÀtten att bedriva handel utanför stÀderna eller rÀtten att resa utomlands. De flesta ÄterstÄende privilegier upphörde den 1 juli 2003. Samtidigt avskaffades Riddarhusets offentligrÀttsliga stÀllning vilket gör att denna sammanslutning sedan dess Àr en vanlig ideell förening juridiskt sett. Att bilda adelsliknande efternamn med prefix (von, af, de, etc.) Àr inte möjligt i Sverige, men detta beror pÄ allmÀnna rÀttsliga regler för efternamn och inte sÀrskilda adliga privilegier.
+
+I Europa förekommer Ànnu nyadlande i Danmark, Belgien, Luxemburg, NederlÀnderna, Spanien och Storbritannien. I Sverige avskaffades formellt kungens nobiliteringsrÀtt i samband med antagandet av 1974 Ärs regeringsform. Den siste att adlas blev Sven Hedin 1902.
+
+Se Àven
+ Adeln i Sverige
+ Adeln i Finland
+ Adeln i Danmark
+ Adeln i Norge
+ Adeln i Frankrike
+ Adeln i Ryssland
+ Adeln i Europa
+ Adelstitlar
+ AdelsÀtter
+ FeodalsamhÀlle
+ StÄnd
+ PÀrsvÀrdighet
+ Reduktion (historia)
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Noter
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Adliga och kungliga titlar pÄ olika sprÄk
+ Regeringens proposition 2002/03:34 om adelns offentligrÀttsliga status
+ Riddarhuset
+Adelaide av Ungern eller Adelaide Arpad, född omkring 1039, död 27 januari 1062 i Prag, var en hertiginna av Böhmen. Hon gifte sig med Wratislav II av Böhmen Är 1057.
+
+Biografi
+Hon föddes i Ungern som dotter till Andreas I av Ungern och Anastasia av Kiev.
+
+Wratislav hade sökt stöd av hennes far och levde i landsflykt vid dennes hov under en konflikt med sin regerande bror Spytihnev II av Böhmen, och Àktenskapet arrangerades som en allians mellan Ungern och Wratislav, som 1061 ÄtervÀnde till Böhmen och eftertrÀdde sin bror Spytihnev som dess monark.
+
+Adelaide var Wratislavs andra maka; hans första hustru, en okÀnd adelsdam, hade blivit kvar i Böhmen, dÀr hon fÀngslats av Wratislavs bror och dött i fÀngelse. Adelaide avled troligen av de försÀmrade hÀlsa hon fick av sina tÀta graviditeter och förlossningar.
+
+Barn
+ Judith av Böhmen
+ Bretislav II av Böhmen
+ Ludmila
+ Vratislav (död i barndomen)
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+
+Ungerns kungligheter
+Födda 1039
+Avlidna 1062
+Huset ĂrpĂĄd
+Kvinnor
+Hertiginnor
+Personer i Böhmen under 1000-talet
+AdÚle av Flandern, född 1064 eller 1065, död 1115, var Danmarks drottning som gift med Knut den helige, och sedan hertiginna av Apulien och Kalabrien som gift med Roger Borsa. Hon var regent i Apulien och Kalabrien under sin son Vilhelms minderÄrighet mellan 1111 och 1114.
+
+I Danmark kallades hon ocksÄ Edel, och till minne av henne har Edel namnsdag 10 mars i Danmark och Norge.
+
+Biografi
+
+Hon var dotter till Robert I av Flandern och Gertrud av Sachsen.
+
+Drottning av Danmark
+Adele gifte sig första gĂ„ngen 1080/1081 med kung Knut den helige av Danmark (drĂ€pt 1086). Knut hade besökt Flandern Ă„r 1075 efter ett misslyckat tĂ„g mot England. Ăktenskapet arrangerades möjligen för att ge hennes far en allierad mot fienden England med arvsansprĂ„k pĂ„ den engelska tronen (vilket Knut hade), och för att förse Knut med arvingar beslĂ€ktade med Karl den store, vilket ytterligare skulle legitimera deras kungliga börd och arvsrĂ€tt till den danska tronen.
+
+Paret fick följande barn:
+
+Karl I av Flandern (1083/1085-1127), greve av Flandern
+Cecilia Knutsdotter av Danmark (ca 1085-efter 1131), gift med Erik jarl (död efter 1145)
+IngegÀrd Knutsdotter av Danmark (född 1081/1086), gift med svensken Folke den tjocke.
+
+Knut förde en kyrkvÀnlig linje i sin politik. Inte mycket Àr kÀnt om Adeles liv som drottning. Hennes make mördades Skt. Albani Kirke i Odense 1086. Enligt Saxo Grammaticus flydde Adele tillbaka till Flandern efter mordet pÄ maken, och tog med sig sin son Karl men lÀmnade sina döttrar Cecilia och IngegÀrd kvar i Danmark. Hon överlÀmnade dem troligen till sin svÄger, makens halvbror Erik, som tog dem med sig till Sverige.
+
+Kalabrien och Apulien
+Adele levde sedan vid faderns och broderns hov fram till sin andra vigsel. Hon gav 1090 en donation till katedralen i Reims för sin mördade makes sjÀl. Adele gifte sig andra gÄngen Är 1092 med hertig Roger I "Borsa" av Apulien och Kalabrien (död 1111).
+
+Paret fick följande barn:
+Ludvig (död 1094)
+Vilhelm II av Apulien-Calabrien (1095/1097-1127), hertig av Apulien och Kalabrien.
+Guiscard.
+
+Inför sin avresa till Italien lÀmnade hon kvar sin son Karl i Flandern (han eftertrÀdde 1111 hennes bror som greve av Flandern). NÀr hennes förste make Är 1100 förklarades för helgon sÀnde hon dyrbara gÄvor för att pryda hans helgonskrin. Hennes andre make avled 1111 och eftertrÀddes av deras son, som Ànnu var omyndig. Hon blev som sin sons förmyndare regent i Apulien och Kalabrien. Hon beskrivs som en handlingskraftig regent. Hon regerade i tre Är, fram till att sonen Är 1114 myndigförklarades vid omkring arton Ärs Älder och gifte sig. Hon avled Äret dÀrpÄ.
+
+Referenser
+
+
+ Dansk Kvindebiografisk leksikon
+
+Kvinnliga regenter under 1100-talet
+Danmarks drottningar
+Födda 1060-talet
+Avlidna 1115
+Kvinnor
+Personer i Danmark under 1000-talet
+Adlercreutz (), Ă€r en svensk och finlĂ€ndsk adelsĂ€tt. Kungliga rĂ€ntmĂ€staren Tomas Teuterström frĂ„n Tötar i Lojo (Nyland) adlades 26 september 1700 och introducerades 1703 under nr 1386. Ătten immatrikulerades i Finland 1818. Ătten fortlever Ă€ven i Sverige, dĂ€r Ă€ttemĂ€n upphöjts till friherre och greve. Originalsköldebrevet finns i riddarhusarkivet.
+
+Personer med efternamnet Adlercreutz
+ Anders Adlercreutz (född 1970), finlÀndsk politiker
+ Axel Adlercreutz (1821â1880), svensk politiker och Ă€mbetsman
+ Axel Adlercreutz (professor) (1917â2013), svensk professor i handelsrĂ€tt
+ Carl Adlercreutz (1866â1937), svensk lĂ€kare
+ Carl Johan Adlercreutz (1757â1815), svensk militĂ€r
+ Carlos Adlercreutz (1890â1963), svensk militĂ€r
+ Eric Adlercreutz (född 1935), finlÀndsk arkitekt
+ Erik Adlercreutz (1899â1989), finlĂ€ndsk lĂ€kare
+ Fredrik Adlercreutz (1793â1852), svensk militĂ€r
+ Gregor Adlercreutz (1898â1944), svensk dressyrryttare
+ Gunnel Adlercreutz (född 1941), finlÀndsk arkitekt
+ Herman Adlercreutz (1932â2014), finlĂ€ndsk lĂ€kare
+ Magnus Adlercreutz (1868â1923), svensk militĂ€r
+ Maria Adlercreutz (1936â2014), svensk konstnĂ€r
+ Marie-Louise Adlercreutz (aktiv 1894), svensk ryttare
+ Maud Adlercreutz (1907â2000), svensk journalist
+ Nils Adlercreutz (1866â1955), svensk militĂ€r och ryttare
+ Patrick Adlercreutz (1871â1955), svensk diplomat
+ Thomas Adlercreutz (1891â1980), svensk kammarherre och kanslirĂ„d
+ Tomas Adlercreutz (1643-1710), finlÀndsk rÀntemÀstare och godsÀgare
+
+Kronologiskt ordnade
+ Tomas Adlercreutz (1643-1710), rÀntemÀstare, godsÀgare
+ Carl Johan Adlercreutz (1757â1815), militĂ€r
+ Fredrik Adlercreutz (1793â1852), militĂ€r
+ Axel Adlercreutz (1821â1880), politiker och Ă€mbetsman
+ Carl Adlercreutz (1866â1937), lĂ€kare
+ Nils Adlercreutz (1866â1955), militĂ€r och ryttare
+ Magnus Adlercreutz (1868â1923), militĂ€r
+ Patrick Adlercreutz (1871â1955), diplomat
+ Carlos Adlercreutz (1890â1963), militĂ€r
+ Thomas Adlercreutz (1891â1980), svensk kammarherre och kanslirĂ„d
+ Gregor Adlercreutz (1898â1944), dressyrryttare
+ Erik Adlercreutz (1899â1989), finlĂ€ndsk lĂ€kare
+ Maud Adlercreutz (1907â2000), journalist
+ Axel Adlercreutz (professor) (1917â2013), jurist
+ Herman Adlercreutz (1932â2014), finlĂ€ndsk lĂ€kare
+ Eric Adlercreutz (född 1935), arkitekt
+ Maria Adlercreutz (1936â2014), konstnĂ€r
+ Gunnel Adlercreutz (född 1941), finlÀndsk arkitekt
+ Anders Adlercreutz (född 1970), finlÀndsk politiker
+
+Se Àven
+ Adlercreutz (dikt) â dikt av Johan Ludvig Runeberg i FĂ€nrik StĂ„ls sĂ€gner, andra samlingen (1860)
+ Adlercreutz regemente â vĂ€rvat infanteriregemente i Finland 1803â1808
+ Finlands nationalbiografi
+
+KĂ€llor
+Svensk adelskalender för Är 1900, Karl K:son Leijonhufvud, P A Norstedt & Söner, Stockholm 1899 sidan 4
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Svenska adelsÀtter
+Svenska grevliga Àtter
+Svenska friherrliga Àtter
+Finlands nationalbiografi
+Adolf av Holstein-Gottorp, född 25 januari 1526, död 1 oktober 1586, var hertig av Holstein-Gottorp.
+
+Biografi
+Han var yngre son till kung Fredrik I av Danmark, och Sofia av Pommern samt stamfader för Holstein-Gottorpska Àtten.
+
+NÀr Adolfs halvbror Kristian III av Danmark, som sedan faderns död ensam förde regeringen över hertigdömena, 1544 gjorde skifte pÄ lantdagen i Rendsborg mellan sig och sina bröder, erhöll Adolf Gottorps slott med södra delen av SÞnderjylland; efter brodern Fredriks död satte han sig i besittning av dennes omrÄde, Slesvigs biskopsdöme, och vid brodern Hans död 1580 ökades hans besittningar med bl. a. TÞnder amt och en sjÀttedel av Ditmarsken. Adolf var en duglig men strÀng regent. Han deltog med iver i striderna mot protestantismen i Tyska riket men höll i sina egna lÀnder pÄ den lutherska lÀran. Gentemot Danmark upptrÀdde han alltid lojalt, genom förlikningen i Odense 1579 mottog han SÞnderjylland och Femern som danska lÀn.
+
+Familj
+Han var gift med Kristina av Hessen.
+
+ Fredrik II av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1568, död 1587.
+ Sofie av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1569, död 1634, gift med hertig Johan V av Mecklenburg.
+ Philip av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1570, död 1590.
+ Kristina av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1573, död 1625, gift med Karl IX av Sverige.
+ Johan Adolf av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1575, död 1616.
+ Anna av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1575, död 1610, gift med Enno III av Ostfriesland.
+ Agnes av Holstein-Gottorp, född 20 december 1578, död 13 april 1627, ogift (gravsatt i Riddarholmskyrkan)
+
+Se Àven
+ Holstein-Gottorpska Àtten
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Huset Oldenburg
+Huset Holstein-Gottorp
+Hertigar av Schleswig
+Hertigar av Holstein
+Födda 1526
+Avlidna 1586
+MĂ€n
+Nils Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, född 18 november 1832 i Helsingfors, Finland, död 12 augusti 1901 pÄ Dalbyö i VÀsterljungs socken, Södermanland, var en finlandssvensk adelsman i slÀkten Nordenskiöld upphöjd till friherre i Sverige, geolog, mineralog, polarfarare, upptÀcktsresande, ledamot av Svenska Akademien samt Àven ledamot av Sveriges riksdag.
+
+Biografi
+Nordenskiöld var son till Nils Gustaf Nordenskiöld och Margaretha Sophia Haartman, dotter till Lars Gabriel von Haartman och Fredrika Fock. Han gifte sig 1863 med friherrinnan Anna Maria Mannerheim, och var sÄledes ingift farbror till Gustaf Mannerheim. Han ligger begravd pÄ VÀsterljungs kyrkogÄrd. Han var farbror till Erik Nordenskiöld.
+
+Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld föddes i Finland, och efter studentexamen 1849 bÄde studerade och tog han sin doktorsgrad vid universitetet i Helsingfors. Disputationen gick av stapeln vÄren 1857. KarriÀren i Finland fick ett abrupt slut sedan Nordenskiöld hÄllit ett festtal som upprörde de ryska myndigheterna. Nordenskiöld var bÄde liberal och finsk nationalist. Han hoppades att Finland skulle kunna göra sig fritt frÄn Ryssland vilket knappast var populÀrt hos den ryska överheten. Redan innan hade han av Friedrich Wilhelm Rembert von Berg tilldelats ett disciplinÀrt straff för att tillsammans med vÀnner ha uttryckt missnöje över att Sverige inte försökt befria Finland medan Ryssland var upptaget av Krimkriget, och efter detta nya tal dömdes han till att göra offentlig avbön eller landsförvisas. Han valde dÄ det senare och bosatte sig 1858 i Stockholm.
+
+Efter att ha kommit till Sverige blev Nordenskiöld 1858 professor vid Naturhistoriska riksmuseets mineralogiska avdelning. Försök gjordes 1867 och 1874 att Ă„tervĂ€rva Nordenskiöld som professor till Finland, men han avböjde. 1860â1878 var han Ă€ven lĂ€rare i geologi och mineralogi vid Teknologiska institutet.
+
+Nordenskiöld styrde fem forskningsresor till Svalbard mellan Ären 1858 och 1873 och en expedition till VÀstgrönland 1870. Hans tvÄ första expeditioner skedde under ledning av Otto Torell, men de senare ledde han sjÀlvstÀndigt. Bland hans tidiga arbeten mÀrks Geografisk och geognostisk beskrifning öfver ö. delarna af Spetsbergen och Hinlopen strait (1863), Utkast till Spetsbergens geologi (1866) samt nÄgra tillsammans med Nils Dunér författade arbeten.
+
+DÄ Nordenskiöld planerade sin tredje Svalbardsexpedition, Svenska Spetsbergenexpeditionen 1868, visade sig att inga statliga medel stod till buds. Han vÀnde sig dÀrför till dÄvarande landshövdingen i Göteborg Albert EhrensvÀrd som lyckades intressera Oscar Dickson för saken, och dÀrigenom inleddes ett frikostigt och sÀllsynt mecenatskapsförhÄllande mellan Dickson och Nordenskiöld, som kom att finansiera flertalet av Nordenskiölds fortsatta expeditioner. Under Nordenskiölds Grönlandsexpedition 1870, som företogs i huvudsaklig avsikt att studera inlandsisen, pÄtrÀffades vid Ovifak pÄ Diskoön 15 block av nickelhaltigt jÀrn. Det största blocket som vÀgde omkring 22 ton finns numera pÄ Naturhistoriska riksmuseet. TvÄ mindre, vÀgande 6,5 respektive 4 ton överlÀmnades till Köpenhamns och Helsingfors universitet. Ett ytterligare litet block finns pÄ Göteborgs naturhistoriska museum. Man trodde ursprungligen att dessa block var meteoriter. Man hade dock redan vid undersökningen konstaterat att basalten pÄ ön innehöll mindre mÀngder gediget jÀrn. Nya undersökningar av Knud Steenstrup bekrÀftade detta, och efter förnyade metallografiska undersökningar av Carl Benedicks 1910 har blockens ursprung i den ovanliga berggrunden bekrÀftats.
+
+Under Spetsbergenxpeditionen 1872, för vars vetenskapliga resultat Nordenskiöld redogjorde i Utkast till Isfjordens och Belsounds geologi (1874â1875) hade han rĂ€knat med möjligheten att nĂ„ Nordpolen men hindrades av is. Tidigt hade Nordenskiöld intresserat sig för Willem Barents teorier om att det pĂ„ grund av de mĂ„nga strömmande floderna med förhĂ„llandevis varmt vatten som frĂ„n Europa och Asien faller ut i Ishavet borde finnas en isfri rĂ€nna lĂ€ngs kusten. Nordenskiöld upptog denna teori med tillĂ€gg om att jordens rotation borde skapa en östgĂ„ende ström som stĂ€rkte denna ström. Han lĂ€t under denna expedition bygga Svenskhuset, som var avsett som en första del av en investering i fosfatutvinning vid Isfjorden.
+
+Ă
r 1875 startade man med ett litet fiskefartyg frÄn Tromsö till Novaja Zemlja och nÄdde över det arktiska Karahavet till Jenisejs mynning. Fartyget dirigerades runt Novaja Zemlja men kunde inte genomföra fÀrden utan ÄtervÀnde hem. SjÀlv företog han en bÄtfÀrd uppför Jenisej och fann att Sibirien inte i sin helhet Àr ett öde tundraland, vilket dÄ var den vanliga förestÀllningen, utan delvis ytterst vÀrdefullt ur kommersiell synpunkt. Efter att ha ÄtervÀnt landvÀgen lade han fram sina slutsatser, men möttes med mycken skepsis.
+
+För att bemöta kritiken gjorde han Äret dÀrpÄ en ny expedition till samma omrÄden och hemförde en last av saluvaror pÄ sitt expeditionsfartyg. Genom sina resor kunde Nordenskiöld pÄvisa möjligheten för varutransporter frÄn Jenisej och Obs mynningar.
+
+Hans frÀmsta mÄl förblev dock att finna nordostpassagen, och det blev Vegaexpeditionen, resan med skeppet Vega frÄn 1878 till 1880, dÄ han fann denna passage, nÄgot som kom att bli den gÀrning han blev mest kÀnd för.
+
+Nordostpassagen
+
+Efter en tid upphörde det statliga stödet till Nordenskiölds Àventyr men denne fann dÄ den privata mecenaten Oscar Dickson, som var grosshandlare. Med Dicksons ekonomiska bistÄnd fortsatte Nordenskiöld att göra flera expeditioner till det arktiska omrÄdet. Han bar lÀnge pÄ ett intresse för att utforska möjligheten att fÀrdas frÄn Atlanten till Stilla havet genom att segla norr om Sibirien, den sÄ kallade Nordostpassagen. Först 1878 fanns möjligheterna att göra slag i saken. JÀmte Dickson stod kung Oscar II och Aleksandr Sibirjakov som finansiÀrer för vÄgspelet. Till sitt förfogande hade han ett ombyggt valfÄngstfartyg som hette Vega under befÀl av löjtnant Louis Palander.
+
+Fartyget Vega stÀvade ut frÄn TromsÞ den 21 juli 1878 och passerade Kap Tjeljuskin den 19 augusti, sÄ lÄngt allting vÀl. Men den 26 september frös det fast och sÄvÀl Nordenskiöld som hans fartyg blev sittande i tio mÄnader i packisen. Tiden utnyttjades till forskning, frÀmst etnologisk sÄdan. Man studerade tjuktjerna, ett isolerat folkslag man kom i kontakt med.
+
+Till slut Ă€ndade Ă€ventyret Ă€ndĂ„ i triumf, dĂ„ fartyget 18 juli 1879 kom loss och kunde segla de sista 100 sjömilen till Berings sund och fullborda sin resa till Stilla havet med alla resenĂ€rer i behĂ„ll. 20 juli passerade man Ăstkap och 2 september kunde man telegrafera frĂ„n Yokohama om den lyckade fĂ€rden.
+
+Ryktet om bragden att ha funnit Nordostpassagen spred sig över vÀrlden och hemresan blev en triumffÀrd runt Asien och Medelhavet med slutstation i Stockholm den 24 april 1880. Hela Stockholm var i festyra dÄ Vega anlÀnde. PÄ kungens order skulle Nordenskiöld inte gÄ i land pÄ svensk mark förrÀn vid slottet. DÀr stod expeditionsmedlemmarnas initialer skrivna i eldskrift. Den nöjde finansiÀren och kungen, Oscar II, upphöjde Nordenskiöld till friherre och adlade Palander (som tog namnet Palander af Vega) för deras bedrifter. En skriftlig redogörelse för expeditionens öden, Àventyr och rön gavs sedermera ut i fem band.
+
+Syftet med att forcera nordostpassagen var att öppna den som handelsvĂ€g. Detta var innan transsibiriska jĂ€rnvĂ€gen fanns. Drömmen gick dock aldrig i uppfyllelse. VegafĂ€rden visade att den var omöjlig. Det som ansĂ„gs vara det bestĂ„ende vĂ€rdet av fĂ€rden var istĂ€llet de vetenskapliga undersökningar man gjorde â vilka egentligen inte var syftet, utan en konsekvens av fastfrysningen. Ett monument över det som blev kĂ€nt som Vegaexpeditionen, bekostat genom en insamling till 50-Ă„rsminnet, stĂ„r vid Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet i Stockholm och Nordenskiöld erhöll 1881 den första Vegamedaljen för denna bedrift.
+
+Nordenskiöld var ledamot av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien frÄn 1861 och hedersledamot av Finska Vetenskaps-Societeten frÄn Är 1876. Han var kommendör av NordstjÀrneordens storkors med briljanter.
+
+Ăvriga expeditioner och verk
+
+Redan under VegafÀrden uppgjorde Nordenskiöld planer pÄ en ny expedition, Svenska Grönlandsexpeditionen 1883. Expeditionen genomfördes 1883 och resultaten publicerades 1885.
+
+Resan gick till Grönlands inland, dÀr Nordenskiöld hoppades finna isfri mark pÄ andra sidan av inlandsisen. Det kunde han ju tyvÀrr inte göra eftersom det inte fanns nÄgon sÄdan, sÄ den fullstÀndiga succén uteblev denna gÄng.
+
+Nordenskiöld gjorde totalt tio polarexpeditioner, av vilka han sjĂ€lv ledde Ă„tta. De tvĂ„ första expeditionerna Ă€gde rum 1858 och 1861 under Torells ledning. Nordenskiöld besökte fem gĂ„nger Spetsbergen/Svalbard (1858, 1861, 1864, 1868, 1872â73 med övervintring), tvĂ„ gĂ„nger Grönland (1870, 1883), tvĂ„ gĂ„nger Jenisej (1875, 1876). Ă
r 1868 nÄdde Nordenskiölds expedition 81°42m, den nordligaste breddgrad ett fartyg dittills hade nÄtt.
+
+NÀr Nordenskiöld inte Àgnade sig Ät upptÀcktsresande och författande av resebeskrivningar, fördjupade han sig bland annat i mineralogi och i kartografins historia. 1870 publicerades Meteorstensfallet vid Hessle (om Hesslemeteoriten), 1877 publicerade han en artikel i "Nature" (om StÀlldalenmeteoriten). 1889 gav han ut Facsimile atlas till kartografiens Àldsta historia och 1897 Periplus, utkast till sjökortens och sjöböckernas Àldsta historia. Han tilldelades Murchisonmedaljen 1900. Hans samling som efter hans död inköptes av Universitetsbiblioteket i Helsingfors blev 1997 klassificerat som ett vÀrldsminne.
+
+Politisk karriÀr
+Nordenskiöld var ledamot av Sveriges riksdag i flera omgĂ„ngar. Han var riksdagsledamot för ridderskapet och adeln vid 1862/63 samt 1865/66 Ă„rs riksdagar och var dĂ€refter ledamot i andra kammaren för Stockholms stads valkrets Ă„ren 1870â1872, 1881â1887 samt 1891â1893. Ă
ren 1870â1871 tillhörde han Nyliberala partiet men efter dess upplösning övergick han 1872 till Ministeriella partiet. Under 1880- och 90-talen tillhörde han inte nĂ„gon partigrupp i riksdagen. I riksdagen var han bland annat vice ordförande i konstitutionsutskottet 1884â1885 samt vice ordförande i sĂ€rskilda utskottet 1886 och 1891. Som riksdagspolitiker engagerade han sig frĂ€mst i frĂ„gor om forskning och högre utbildning.
+
+UtmÀrkelser och ordnar
+ Kommendör med stora korset av NordstjÀrneorden.
+ Vegamedaljen i guld â 24 april 1881
+ Vegamedaljen i silver â 1880
+ Asteroiden 2464 Nordenskiöld Àr uppkallad efter honom.
+Nordenskiöldsgatan, som löper frÄn Bortre Tölö till Alphyddan och Böle i Helsingfors, Àr ocksÄ uppkallad efter honom.
+
+Bibliografi över digitaliserade verk
+ â InnehĂ„ll: Svenska expeditionen till Spetsbergen Ă„r 1864 om bord pĂ„ Axel Thordsen.
+
+ â 5 volymer.
+
+Se Àven
+UpptÀcktsresanden A.E. Nordenskiöld
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Noter
+
+Litteratur
+Oscar II och hans tid â 1872â1907, Erik Lindorm Ă„r 1936
+Svenska krönikan, Ă
ke Ohlmarks/Nils Erik Baehrendtz Ă„r 1981
+ TvĂ„kammarriksdagen 1867â1970, band 1 (Almqvist & Wiksell International 1988), band 1, s. 149â150
+Nationalencyklopedin
+ Vegas fÀrd kring Asien och Europa, 2 band, Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, F. & G. Beijers Förlag, Stockholm, 1880.
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Vegas fÀrd kring Asien och Europa i fulltext 2007, S Zenker.
+
+
+
+Ridderskapet och adelns riksdagsledamöter
+Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdags andra kammare för Nyliberala partiet
+Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdags andra kammare för Ministeriella partiet
+Professorer vid Naturhistoriska riksmuseet
+Ledamöter av Svenska Akademien
+FinlÀndska upptÀcktsresande
+Svenska upptÀcktsresande
+Svenska polarforskare (Arktis)
+VĂ€rldsminnen
+Ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien
+Mottagare av Murchisonmedaljen
+Kommendörer med stora korset av NordstjÀrneorden
+Svenska friherrar
+BureÀtten
+Sverigefinlandssvenskar
+Finlandssvenska upptÀcktsresande
+Personer frÄn Helsingfors
+Födda 1832
+Avlidna 1901
+MĂ€n
+Adolf Erik
+Adolf Fredrik (), född 14 maj (enl. n.s.) 1710 pĂ„ slottet Gottorp i Holstein-Gottorp (nuvarande Schleswig-Holstein) i Tyskland, död 12 februari 1771 pĂ„ Stockholms slott, var furstbiskop av LĂŒbeck 1727â1743 och kung av Sverige frĂ„n 1751. Han utsĂ„gs 1743 till svensk kronprins efter hattarnas ryska krig under pĂ„tryckning frĂ„n tsarinnan Elisabet. Han gifte sig Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ med Lovisa Ulrika av Preussen, syster till Fredrik den store. Han hade vĂ€ldigt liten personlig makt, Ă€ven om personer i hans omgivning försökte ge honom större. Han var son till hertig Kristian August av Holstein-Gottorp (furstbiskopen av LĂŒbeck) och Albertina Frederika av Baden-Durlach, sĂ„ledes morbror till Katarina II av Ryssland. Adolf Fredrik Ă„terinförde furstehuset Oldenburg i Sverige och grundlade dess holstein-gottorpska gren som svensk kungaĂ€tt.
+
+Adolf Fredrik som svensk tronföljare
+Adolf Fredrik föddes pĂ„ slottet Gottorp 4 maj (enligt s.s.; 3 maj enligt g.s. och 14 maj enligt n.s.) 1710 som son till hertigen av Holstein-Gottorp tillika furstbiskopen av LĂŒbeck, Kristian August (yngre bror till Karl XII:s svĂ„ger hertig Fredrik IV av Holstein-Gottorp) och Albertina Fredrika av Baden-Durlach, dottersons dotter till Karl IX:s dotter Katarina. Bland hans syskon mĂ€rks kejsarinnan Katarina II:s av Ryssland mor Johanna Elisabet. Vid hans dop skickade Karl XII, som inbjudits till fadderskapet, honom en fullmakt pĂ„ en officersplats i den svenska hĂ€ren. Ă
r 1727, dÄ hans Àldre bror, som eftertrÀtt sin fader som furstbiskop, avled, lyckades hans mor, vars ekonomiska omstÀndigheter var smÄ, utverka att furstbiskopsstiftet övergick till den sjuttonÄrige Adolf Fredrik. FastÀn hans kusin Karl Fredrik, Karl XII:s systerson, ville förbigÄ honom vid valet av förmyndare för sin son Karl Peter Ulrik, fick Adolf Fredrik ÀndÄ vid Karl Fredriks död 1739 detta förmyndarskap och blev för nÄgra Är administrator av Holstein-Gottorp.
+
+DÄ Karl Peter Ulriks moster, den ryska prinsessan Elisabet, genom en palatsrevolution, 1741, bemÀktigat sig den ryska tronen och behövde sin systersons arvsrÀtt till stöd för sin egen, gynnade Adolf Fredrik hennes planer och sÀnde sin unge myndling till Ryssland, i hopp om att sjÀlv dÀrigenom Àrva hans utsikter till den svenska tronen. Ur de stormiga partistriderna 1743 framgick Àven 23 juni, genom rysk inverkan, Adolf Fredriks val till svensk tronföljare. Han tilltrÀdde regeringen 25 mars 1751 och kröntes 26 november samma Är.
+
+Kunglig titel
+
+Adolf Fredriks fullstÀndiga titel pÄ svenska löd:
+
+Adolf Fredrik med Guds NÄde, Sveriges, Götes och Vendes Konung, etc.etc.etc. Arvinge till Norge, Hertig till Schleswig, Holstein, Stormarn och Dithmarschen, Greve till Oldenburg och Delmenhorst, etc.etc.
+
+Adolf Fredrik som kung
+
+Under pĂ„tryckning frĂ„n Rysslands tsarinna Elisabet utsĂ„gs Adolf Fredrik till svensk kronprins 1743 efter hattarnas misslyckade ryska krig. Adolf Fredrik blev likvĂ€l inte ett verktyg för Ryssland. Han bröt snart med Elisabet. Precis som hans val hade varit en partisak, sĂ„ blev han sjĂ€lv som kung en lekboll i partiernas och sin gemĂ„ls hĂ€nder. Adolf Fredrik betydelse i Sveriges historia blev ringa, fastĂ€n hans gemĂ„l, Lovisa Ulrika av Preussen, genom sina försök att höja kungens makt gav anledning till Ă„tskilliga partistrider. Först slöt sig det unga tronföljarparet till hattpartiet, dĂ€rtill förmĂ„tt av förespeglingen om utvidgad makt och av vĂ€nskap för nĂ„gra av partiets ledande mĂ€n, bland vilka sĂ€rskilt Carl Gustaf Tessin stod tronföljaren och hans gemĂ„l nĂ€ra och blev sjĂ€len i det glada umgĂ€ngesliv som omgav dem. Men nĂ€r hattarna segrat över mössorna vid 1746â1747 Ă„rs riksdag varken kunde eller ville de infria sina löften. De till och med tvingade Adolf Fredrik att till Danmark göra medgivanden som sĂ„rade hans kĂ€nslor sĂ„som medlem av holsteinska hertighuset och biföll en förlovning mellan den unge prins Gustaf och den danska prinsessan Sofia Magdalena. I och med detta upplöstes förbundet mellan hovet och hattpartiet och efter Adolf Fredriks tronbestigning intrĂ€dde en öppen fiendskap dem emellan.
+Ett nytt parti, det sĂ„ kallade hovpartiet, uppstod kring kungaparet för att stödja dess numera öppet framtrĂ€dande strĂ€van efter utvidgad makt. För att vinna popularitet företog Adolf Fredrik resor i landsorten och gjorde dĂ€rvid Ă€ven ett besök i Finland, varifrĂ„n han tog Ă„tervĂ€gen runt om Bottniska viken. Mellan rĂ„det och kungen uppstod hĂ€ftiga strider angĂ„ende grĂ€nserna för kungens personliga inflytande pĂ„ regeringen och denna konflikt gick slutligen dĂ€rhĂ€n att den hotade att förlama hela riksstyrelsen. Vid riksdagen 1755â1756 vĂ€nde sig bĂ„de kung och rĂ„d till stĂ€nderna med sina klagomĂ„l. DĂ„ fick rĂ„det rĂ€tt att, nĂ€r kungen vĂ€grade underskriva dess beslut, nyttja en kunglig namnstĂ€mpel. Utan hĂ€nsyn till kungaparets önskan utbyttes guvernör, kavaljerer och lĂ€rare för de unga prinsarna och för att komma Ă„t drottningen anbefalldes en undersökning om kronjuvelerna, av vilka drottningen misstĂ€nktes ha pantsatt en del för att fĂ„ medel till sina revolutionsplaner. Allt detta drev hovets anhĂ€ngare till det illa planlagda och ledda revolutionsförsöket i juni 1756, vilket slutade med att föra flera av kungaparets vĂ€nner och verktyg till schavotten och föranledde ytterligare inskrĂ€nkningar av kungens makt. Kungaparet tvingades under förnedring lyssna till en akt med ett ultimatum, vilket innebar att de skulle antingen göra avbön eller skiljas frĂ„n kronan.
+
+Den 26 maj 1756 beslutade riksdagen att kung Adolf Fredrik skulle signera regeringsbeslut med en kunglig namnstÀmpel, eftersom kungen ansÄgs vara ointresserad av att regera och hellre stod vid sin Àlskade svarvstol och tillverkade snusdosor. Av det skÀlet samlades dÀrför ofta Àrenden pÄ hög utan att skrivas under inom rimlig tid. NamnstÀmpeln fick anvÀndas i de fall dÄ kungen efter minst tvÄ tillsÀgelser vÀgrat underteckna regeringsakter eller dÄ kungen till följd av ovilja nekade underteckna de utnÀmningsÀrenden vilka gÄtt hans personliga vilja emot.
+
+Snart kom emellertid för hattpartiet vedergÀllningens stund. Redan 1760 kunde hovet Änyo upptrÀda och spela en politisk roll i förbund med de yngre mössorna. DÄ dessa 1765 kom till makten visade det sig att hovets planer fann lika avgjorda motstÄndare hos dem som förut hos hattarna. Hovet nÀrmade sig hattpartiet, och avtalade med detsamma en plan att gemensamt störta mössorna och genomföra reformer i författningen. För att tvinga rÄdet att sammankalla riksdag förmÄddes Adolf Fredrik 1768 att lÀgga ner regeringen och sedan riket i sex dagar varit utan regerande kung under Decemberkrisen 1768 mÄste rÄdet ge efter, varpÄ kungen Ätertog styrelsen. PÄ den följande riksdagen (1769) störtades mössregeringen, och en ny rÄdkammare, sammansatt av hattpartiets och hovpartiet i förening, kom till makten.
+
+Adolf Fredriks död
+Adolf Fredrik hade under en period i början av 1771 vistats pÄ hÀlsohem. Efter Äterkomsten till Stockholm drabbades han efter en riklig mÄltid den 12 februari 1771 av magkramp och yrsel, fick ett slaganfall, och avled.
+
+I bulletinen om kungens död stÄr följande att lÀsa: "Hans Maj:ts dödsfall har skett av indigestion av hetvÀgg, surkÄl, kött med rofvor, hummer, kaviar och champagnevin."
+
+"Det Àr ej att omkomma pÄ det mest lysande sÀtt, utan att dö en prostdöd" skriver den samtida greve Johan Gabriel Oxenstierna.
+
+Bilder
+
+Barn
+ Barn av okÀnt kön och namn (dödfött 1745)
+ Gustav III (1746â1792), kung av Sverige 1771â1792
+ Karl XIII (1748â1818), kung av Sverige 1809â1818
+ Fredrik Adolf (1750â1803)
+ Sofia Albertina (1753â1829)
+Kung Adolf Fredrik anges ocksÄ ha fÄtt Adolf Fredriksson med Marie Jeanne Dulondel, Frederici Fredriksson med Marguerite Dulondel och Lolotte Forssberg med Ulla von Liewen.
+
+AnfÀder
+
+KĂ€llor
+ Ny svensk historia - en bokfilm 1771-1810, Riksbiblioteket/Erik Lindorm 1979 s.12
+ Nationalencyklopedin, 2007
+
+Noter
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+
+
+
+Artiklar med slÀkttrÀd
+Personer under frihetstiden
+Huset Oldenburg
+Huset Holstein-Gottorp
+Födda 1710
+Avlidna 1771
+MĂ€n
+Sveriges regenter
+Universitetskanslerer i Sverige
+Riddare och kommendör av Kungl. Maj:ts Orden
+Mottagare av Serafimerorden
+Gravsatta i Riddarholmskyrkan
+Personer frÄn Schleswig-Holstein
+Adolf Göran Mörner af Morlanda, född 27 juli 1773 i Esplunda, NÀrke, död 30 januari 1838, var en svensk greve, en av rikets herrar, statsrÄd, utrikesstatsminister och en av de aderton i Svenska Akademien.
+
+Biografi
+Adolf Göran Mörner var son till Carl Gabriel Mörner och Lovisa Ulrika Horn af Rantzien. Han inskrevs nio Ă„r gammal som fĂ€nrik vid Svea livgarde, och utnĂ€mndes Ă„ret dĂ€refter till kammarjunkare hos konungen. Ă
r 1788 begav han sig till Uppsala, dĂ€r han tre Ă„r senare avlade kansliexamen, och genast blev anstĂ€lld vid kungliga kansliet. Han befordrades Ă„r 1793 till kopist i kammarexpeditionen. Ă
ret dÀrefter, Är 1794, följde han som ambassadkavaljer med friherre von Nolcken till Wien, och förestod nÄgon tid beskickningen dÀr.
+
+Efter sin Äterkomst till Sverige Är 1795 utnÀmndes han till andre sekreterare i kabinettet för utrikes korrespondens, tog Äret dÀrefter avsked frÄn gardet och anstÀlldes som kavaljer hos hertiginnan av Södermanland. Trots sina goda förbindelser med hovet upptrÀdde han vid riksdagen i Norrköping Är 1800 som en av de ivrigaste oppositionsmÀnnen och hade sÀkert följt mÄnga andras exempel och avsagt sig adelskapet, om han inte förhindrats av sin far. Följden blev emellertid, att han entledigades frÄn sina bestÀllningar bÄde inom hovet och kabinettet. Han drog sig dÄ tillbaka till sin egendom Espelunda i NÀrke, Àgnande sin tid Ät lanthushÄllning, studier samt författandet av mindre tidningsartiklar i finansiella och statsekonomiska Àmnen.
+
+StatsvÀlvningen Är 1809 förde honom Äter in i det offentliga livet dÀr han bl.a. som ledamot av konstitutionsutskottet upptrÀdde vid riksdagen sÄsom en nitisk och verksam medlem av det Mannerheimska partiet, som i första rummet har Àran av 1809 Ärs verk. Hans stora kunskaper och parlamentariska vÀltalighet fÄngade snart tronföljarens uppmÀrksamhet.
+
+I november Ă„r 1812, kort efter det Mörner bevistat riksdagen i Ărebro, dĂ€r han var medlem av hemliga utskottet, utsĂ„gs han till statssekreterare vid handels- och finansexpeditionen. UtnĂ€mnd till statsrĂ„d efter Adlerbeth Ă„r 1815, slöt han tillsammans med utrikesstatsminister greve Lars von Engeström Ă„r 1817 ett handelstraktat med Nordamerikas förenade stater.
+
+Han utnĂ€mndes Ă„r 1818 till riddare av Kungl. Maj:ts Orden. Han var Ă€ven kommendör av NordstjĂ€rneorden och Ă„r 1821 blev han efter Edelcrantz direktör i Lantbruksakademien. Ă
r 1822 blev han en av rikets herrar. Ă
r 1837 utnÀmndes han vid vakansen efter greve Gustaf af Wetterstedt till tillförordnad utrikes statsminister.
+
+Ă
r 1818 valdes han in som ledamot i Svenska Akademien, och var dÀrtill ledamot av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien (1819) samt ledamot av Kungliga Musikaliska Akademien. Den 21 februari 1826 blev Mörner hedersledamot av Kungliga Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien.
+
+I augusti 1803 friade Mörner till Malla Silfverstolpe, men hon sa nej.
+
+Han gifte sig Är 1806 med Katarina Ulrika Heijkensköld, dotter till Detlof Heijkenskjöld d.y. och Ulrica Lovisa Victorin. Hans barn inkluderade Carl Göran Mörner, f. 1808, Hampus Stellan Mörner, f. 1815, Julius Oscar Mörner, f. 1816, och Axel (Edward Knut) Mörner, f. 1824.
+
+Referenser
+ Gabriel Anrep, Svenska adelns Ăttar-taflor
+
+Noter
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Ridderskapet och adelns riksdagsledamöter
+En av rikets herrar
+Ledamöter av Svenska Akademien
+Svenska ÀmbetsmÀn under 1800-talet
+Sveriges utrikesministrar
+Svenska grevar
+Svenska diplomater under 1800-talet
+Riddare och kommendör av Kungl. Maj:ts Orden
+Kommendörer av NordstjÀrneorden
+Ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien
+Ledamöter av Kungliga Musikaliska Akademien
+Alumner frÄn Uppsala universitet
+Personer frÄn Rinkaby socken, NÀrke
+Födda 1773
+Avlidna 1838
+MĂ€n
+Personer under gustavianska tiden
+Mottagare av Serafimerorden
+Mottagare av Svenska Akademiens stora pris
+Adolf Göran
+Adolf Johan av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, född 11 oktober 1629 pĂ„ slottet Stegeborg i Ăstergötland (nu i Söderköpings kommun), död dĂ€r 14 oktober 1689 var en svensk riksmarsk, riksmarskalk och generalissimus. Adolf Johan var ocksĂ„ pfalzgreve och tysk-romersk hertig, och han blev Ă€ven prins av Sverige som bror till kung Karl X Gustaf.
+
+Biografi
+Adolf Johan av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken var yngste son till pfalzgreven Johan Kasimir av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, hertig av Pfalz-Kleeburg, och den svenske kungen Karl IX:s dotter Katarina Vasa (som dog nĂ€r Adolf Johan var nio Ă„r gammal), var innehavare av titeln pfalzgreve vid Rhen, som arvtagare till hertigdömet Kleeburg. Hans far Johan Kasimir hade Ă„r 1604 Ă€rvt Pfalzgrevskapet Kleeburg i Elsass (Alsace) efter sin far, Johan I av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, bestĂ„ende av tvĂ„ slott, en köping och ett tiotal byar. Det var i denna egenskap han bar titeln pfalzgreve. Pfalzgreve var en tysk furstlig titel. Adolf Johans far Johan Kasimir var stamfar till den sĂ„ kallade Pfalziska Ă€tten pĂ„ Sveriges tron, en gren av furstehuset Wittelsbach. Ă
r 1651 erhöll fadern Stegeborg som underhÄllslÀn för den uteblivna brudskatten frÄn sitt giftermÄl med Gustav II Adolf:s syster Katarina Vasa.
+
+Adolf Johan var sÄledes bror till den svenske kungen Karl X Gustav och Adolf Johan begravdes vid sin död först i Riddarholmskyrkan, men flyttades senare till StrÀngnÀs.
+
+Adolf Johans uppvÀxt
+Adolf Johan var bror till Christina Magdalena (1616â1662), som var gift med markgreve Fredrik VI av Baden-Durlach, Karl X Gustav (1622â1660), som blev kung av Sverige, Maria Eufrosyne (1625â1687), som var gift med greve, riksmarskalk, riksdrots, rikskansler Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie och Eleonora Katarina (1626â1692), gift med lantgreve Fredrik av Hessen-Eschwege. Av hans syskon föddes pĂ„ Nyköpingshus systern Christina Magdalena 1616 och brodern Karl Gustav 1622. PĂ„ Stegeborgs slott föddes systrarna Maria Eufrosyne 1625 och Eleonora Katarina 1626. Adolf Johan föddes ocksĂ„ pĂ„ Stegeborgs slott och han var den yngste i syskonskaran. Tre av hans syskon födda 1618, 1619 och 1628 avled som barn.
+
+Adolf Johans morfar Karl IX (1550â1611) var gift tvĂ„ gĂ„nger. Med sin första hustru Maria av Pfalz (1561â1589) hade han dottern Katarina Karlsdotter Vasa (1584â1638), som 1615 gifte sig med pfalzgreven Johan Kasimir av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken. Med sin andra hustru, Kristina av Holstein-Gottorp (1573â1625), hade han bland annat sonen Gustav Adolf (1594â1632). Katarina Karlsdotter Vasa och Gustav II Adolf var alltsĂ„ halvsyskon. Prinsessan Katarina Karlsdotter Vasa gifte sig med den tyske smĂ„fursten Johan Kasimir, pfalzgreve och hertig till Kleeburg. TrettioĂ„riga kriget tvingade furstefamiljen att lĂ€mna Kleeburg. Av Gustav II Adolf fick Johan Kasimir och Katarina dĂ„ Stegeborg i Ăstergötland som förlĂ€ning och flyttade dit med sina tvĂ„ söner Karl Gustav, sedermera Karl X Gustav, född 1622 och Adolf Johan, född 1629.
+
+Efter Gustav II Adolfs död 1632 uppfostrades kungens dotter Kristina, Karl Gustav och Adolf Johan som en syskonkull pÄ slottet Tre Kronor i Stockholm med pojkarnas mor Katarina Karlsdotter Vasa som fostermor. AngÄende familjens stÀllning och om arvsrÀtten till Stegeborg kom familjen efter Gustav II Adolfs död 1632 i konflikt med Kristinas förmyndarregering. DÄ fadern Johan Kasimir bröt med rÄdet 1633 lÀmnade Àven modern Katarina hovet och drog sig tillbaka till Stegeborg. Modern Katarina tycks sjÀlv inte ha varit intresserad av att delta i politiken eller diplomatin. DÄ Adolf Johan var 7 Är gammal, Är 1636, fick hon officiellt vÄrdnaden om sin brorsdotter, drottning Kristina och ansvaret för hennes uppfostran. Hon utnÀmndes pÄ riksrÄdet Axel Oxenstiernas önskan, och ska ha accepterat uppdraget vid hovet med viss ovilja. Denna utnÀmning förstörde hennes relation till Maria Eleonora, som var mor till Kristina. Kristina sjÀlv skulle senare beskriva Ären som Katarinas fosterbarn som lyckliga. Adolf Johans mor Katarina Karlsdotter Vasa dog i december 1638 nÀr Adolf Johan var 9 Är, men han var kvar och uppfostrades vid hovet, som Kristinas bortskÀmde lillebror.
+
+Först pĂ„ sommaren 1633 var det dags för kung Gustav II Adolfs likfĂ€rd mot Sverige. DĂ„ förde en sorgeprocession den döde kungen ner till vattnet. Processionen bestod av personer frĂ„n Sverige och de nĂ€rliggande omrĂ„dena. Fanor frĂ„n alla grevskap och furstendömen, blodsfanan och huvudbaneret framfördes och som symboler för den döde fanns kyrisset (rustningen), svĂ€rdet och livhĂ€sten. Ănkan, Maria Eleonora, deltog i vagn, men Gustav Adolfs unga dotter Kristina var inte med.
+
+I processionen mot Stockholm fördes Ă„tta krigstrofĂ©er frĂ„n LĂŒtzen och flera leipzigska trofĂ©fanor som markerade Sveriges status som stormakt. Fem svartklĂ€dda riksĂ€mbetsmĂ€n bar regalierna, men riksrĂ„det Axel Oxenstierna deltog inte. RiksĂ€mbetsmĂ€nnen gick framför det kungliga liket som lĂ„g pĂ„ en bĂ„r smyckad med svart tyg. Alldeles bakom likbĂ„ren kom kungens svĂ„ger pfalzgreve Johan Kasimir, med sina söner Karl Gustav och Adolf Johan. Denna gĂ„ng deltog bĂ„de den sörjande Ă€nkedrottningen Maria Eleonora och den sjuĂ„riga dottern Kristina. Den sorgesamma processionen drog landsvĂ€gen fram genom riket mot huvudstaden. Ett Ă„r senare begravdes Gustav II Adolf den 22 juni 1634 i Riddarholmskyrkan i Stockholm.
+
+Titel
+Adolf Johans titlar har ofta varierat i historisk litteratur men den korrekt som anvÀndes i hans samtid var:
+
+Pfalzgreve vid Rhen, Hertig till JĂŒlich, Kleve och Berg, greve av Valdens, Spanheim, Mark och Ravensburg och Herre till Ravenstein
+
+Dock kontrollerade inte Adolf Johan dessa omrÄden, utan det skall ses som ansprÄk som han hade arvsrÀtt till. Det omrÄden han i verkligheten kontrollerade var Neukastel samt Kleeburg.
+
+Det Àr heller inte korrekt att Adolf Johan eller hans far Johan Kasimir skulle vara Hertigar av Stegeborg utan detta var endast ett Àrftligt pantlÀn som förlÀnats fadern som pant för den uteblivna brudskatten för Adolf Johans mor.
+
+Ă
rtal i korthet
+
+Adolf Johan uppfostrades vid det svenska hovet. Tillsammans med sin kusin drottning Kristina och sin bror, den blivande Karl X Gustav fick han sin grundutbildning. Han fick en vĂ„rdad uppfostran som fullbordades genom resor till Paris 1646 med Magnus Gabriel De la Gardies franska ambassad och i Frankrike, Italien och Tyskland 1647â1648. Vid knappt 22 Ă„rs Ă„lder tilltrĂ€dde han generalguvernörsĂ€mbetet över VĂ€stergötland med VĂ€rmland, Dalsland och Halland.
+
+ 1649 â UtnĂ€mnd till överkammarherre.
+ 1651â1654 â Generalguvernör över VĂ€stergötland med VĂ€rmland, Dalsland och Halland (utnĂ€mnd 10 juni 1651).
+ 1653â1654 â Riksmarskalk, med titeln grand-maĂźtre (liktydigt med högmĂ€stare eller stormĂ€stare), "tillika grand-maĂźtre vid hovet och riksmarskalk 16 juni 1653".
+ 1656 â generalissimus över svenska armĂ©erna i Polen och Preussen 3 jan. 1656.
+ 1657 â tillika generaldirektör över VĂ€stpreussen mars och juni 1657.
+ 1657â1659 â Ăverdirektör över generalguvernementet Preussen.
+ 1657 â utnĂ€mnd till riksmarsk 12 februari 1660, men kom icke i besittning av detta Ă€mbete.
+ 1660 â I kungens testamente Ă„terutnĂ€mnd till riksmarskalk samt medlem av förmyndarregeringen, dĂ€r han skulle vara ersĂ€ttare för Ă€nkedrottningen. UtnĂ€mningen godtogs dock inte av riksrĂ„det och Adolf Johan fick trĂ€da tillbaka.
+
+Preussen och polska kriget
+
+DÄ det polska kriget kom hade Karl X Gustav blivit kung och han tog dÄ brodern Adolf Johan med sig och gav honom högt befÀl. Redan efter ett Är var han generalissimus (högste befÀlhavare för landets stridskrafter) över arméerna i Polen och Preussen, dÄ kungen tÄgade mot Danmark.
+
+Karl X Gustavs polska krig pĂ„ 1650-talet var ett krig som varade Ă„ren 1655â1660 och som frĂ€mst var mellan Sverige och Polen-Litauen. Kriget slutade utan tydlig segrare. Kriget startades av Sverige, men segrare blev Polen. Sverige hade mĂ„nga framgĂ„ngar i början av kriget.
+
+Högste befÀlhavare i slaget vid Gnesen 1656
+Under Karl X Gustavs polska krig pĂ„ 1650-talet ledde Adolf Johan de svenska trupperna till seger i slaget vid Gnesen den 27 april 1656. FĂ€ltslaget vid Gnesen (Gniezno, pĂ„ tyska: ) utspelades 1656 under Karl X Gustavs polska krig, mellan Sverige och Polen-Litauen. Staden Gniezno ligger i Storpolens vojvodskap i vĂ€stra Polen, belĂ€gen 50 kilometer nordost om PoznaĆ. Slaget rĂ€knas som oavgjort dĂ„ de polsk-litauiska styrkorna lĂ€mnade slagfĂ€ltet. Resultatet blev en svensk seger. De svenska befĂ€lhavarna var Adolf Johan av Pfalz och Carl Gustaf Wrangel och den polsk-litauiska befĂ€lhavaren var Stefan Czarniecki.
+
+Förde befÀlet vid slaget vid Kcynia 1656
+Slaget vid Kcynia Ă€gde rum den 1 juni 1656 under Karl X Gustavs polska krig. De svenska trupperna, under befĂ€l av kung Karl X Gustav och Adolf Johan av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, besegrade Stefan Czarnieckis polsk-litauiska trupper.
+
+Tredagarsslaget vid Warszawa
+
+
+Tredagarsslaget vid Warszawa var det största slaget under Karl X Gustavs polska krig och utkĂ€mpades 18â20 juli 1656 mellan Ă„ ena sidan Sverige och Brandenburg och Ă„ andra sidan Polen. I slutet av maj 1656 fick Adolf Johan ett nytt uppdrag. Uppdraget gĂ€llde att i samrĂ„d med hĂ€rens generaler om möjligt undsĂ€tta den svenska garnisonen i Warszawa. Hertigen sĂ„g sig dock ur stĂ„nd att lösa denna uppgift. Fienden var för stark, och Adolf Johan fann sin framskjutna stĂ€llning vid Nowy DwĂłr i Polen sĂ„ vĂ„dlig, att han till och med satte i frĂ„ga ett Ă„tertĂ„g till ToruĆ (staden hette tidigare pĂ„ svenska Thorn) i mellersta Polen, 180 km nordvĂ€st om Warszawa. Staden ToruĆ hölls ockuperad av Sverige 1655â1658. Men hĂ€ndelserna tog en annan vĂ€ndning, nĂ€r Karl Gustav blivit ense med Fredrik Vilhelm av Brandenburg och i förening med honom ryckte fram mot den polska huvudstaden. I slaget vid Warszawa kĂ€mpade Adolf Johan pĂ„ högra flygeln vid konungens sida. SĂ€rskilt omtalas, hur han pĂ„ slaktningens andra dag, 19 juli 1656, i spetsen för fyra skvadroner som kastade tillbaka ett tatariskt anfall i svenska hĂ€rens rygg. Under striderna som följde var Karl X Gustav nĂ€ra att mista livet dĂ„ en polsk husar vid namn Jakub Kowaliski trĂ€ffade kungen i bröstet med sin lans. Kungens harnesk skyddade honom frĂ„n att genomborras av spetsen och en livknekt kunde snabbt skjuta husaren. PĂ„ eftermiddagen drog sig polackerna tillbaka, dĂ„ anfallen gav föga resultat. NĂ€r mörkret föll beslöt ledningen för den allierade armĂ©n att man skulle dra sig tillbaka. Det var denna afton betydligt lugnare bland officerarna vid det allierade lĂ€gret vid BrĂłdno, ett omrĂ„de som grĂ€nsar till Warszawa.
+
+Den 20 juli stod delar av det polska infanteriet ordnat mellan sandkullarna och floden. NÀr de allierade besköt dem med artilleri gav de upp. De allierade befÀlhavarna blev oense om vad de skulle göra med dem. Fredrik Vilhelm av Brandenburg ville att man skulle gÄ till attack mot dem, men Karl X Gustavs bror Adolf Johan ville avsluta eldgivningen mot dem. De polska infanteriförbanden fick ett andrum nÀr svenskarna inte kunde besluta sig för vad de skulle göra och kunde fly frÄn slagfÀltet.
+
+Allierade trupper marscherade in i staden den 24 juli 1656 och stannade vid Warszawa Ànda till slutet av juli. Trots segern blev slaget början till slutet för framgÄngarna i Karl X Gustavs polska krig. Allt mörknade dÀrefter för svenskarna, sÄvÀl militÀrt som diplomatiskt. Man fick trots det en acceptabel fred i Oliwa 1660 utan nÄgra större skillnader.
+
+Freden i Oliwa
+Freden i Oliwa slöts 1660 och fredsavtalet undertecknades i klostret i Oliwa den 3 maj 1660. Johan II Kasimir av Polen, Polen-Litauens kung, avsade sig alla ansprĂ„k pĂ„ Sveriges krona. Polen erkĂ€nde Sveriges innehav av Estland, Ăsel och Livland. Freden i Oliwa slöts 1660, och avslutade Karl X Gustavs polska krig som dĂ„ pĂ„gĂ„tt i fyra Ă„r och nio mĂ„nader mellan Sverige pĂ„ ena sidan och Polen, Tysk-romerska riket samt Brandenburg pĂ„ den andra.
+
+General över trupper som lÀmnades kvar i Preussen
+Efter kungens avtÄg frÄn Preussen mot Danmark Är 1657, utnÀmndes Adolf Johan till general över de trupper, som lÀmnades kvar i Preussen, vilket ledde till tvister. De svenska trupperna kom i trÄngmÄl, och kungen ogillade Adolf Johans ÄtgÀrder. Detta ledde till, att han blev sÄ upprörd, att han reste hem 1659.
+
+Karl X Gustavs första danska krig var ett krig som pĂ„gick Ă„ren 1657â1658 mellan Sverige och Danmark med Holstein som allierad pĂ„ svensk sida. NĂ€r kriget bröt ut 1657 var Sverige redan inblandat i ett krig i Polen samt ett krig mot Ryssland. Karl X Gustavs andra danska krig var det krig som utspelade sig kort efter Karl X Gustavs första danska krig under tiden 5 augusti 1658 â 26 maj 1660. Kriget slutade med att Sverige fick Ă„terlĂ€mna Bornholm och Trondheims lĂ€n.
+
+Karl X Gustavs död
+Karl X Gustav dog 13 februari 1660 under en riksdag i Göteborg. DÄ var det meningen att Adolf Johan skulle ingÄ i tronföljaren Karl XI:s förmyndarregering tillsammans med Ànkedrottning Hedvig Eleonora och rikets rÄd. Direkt efter kungens dödsfall hade man beslutat att Göteborgs stadsportar skulle stÀngas och Adolf Johan lÀt dÀrför tillkalla Göteborgs kommendant Carl Sjöblad, samt befallde honom att överlÀmna nycklarna. NÀr denne vÀgrade och först bad att fÄ tala med drottningen och rÄdet, drog hertigen sin vÀrja mot Sjöblad, som snabbt gjorde detsamma, varpÄ hertigen lugnade ner sig.
+
+1 mars 1660 justerades ett tidigare riksdagsbeslut och nu erkÀndes arvprinsen Karl XI som Sveriges kung och hertig Adolf Johan uteslöts ur förmyndarregeringen. DÀrefter fick han inga fler offentliga uppdrag.
+
+EftermÀle
+Adolf Johans eftermÀle Àr fÀrgat av att han drev ett stort antal tvistemÄl i sÄvÀl Sverige som Tyskland, till och med mot sina egna barn, vilka 1688 sÄg sig nödsakade att söka kungligt beskydd. G. Wittrock skriver i Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (SBL) om Adolf Johan följande: "Hela Adolf Johans bana vittnar, att det icke var nÄgon stor förmÄga, som genom 1660 Ärs beslut sattes ur verksamhet. Tydligt Àr dock, att Karl X Gustavs broder jÀmte allvarliga lyten Àgde kunskaper och en viss begÄvning lika vÀl som personligt mod, och otvivelaktigt hade han under gynnsammare yttre förhÄllanden kunnat under sin mannaÄlder utrÀtta mera till gagn och mindre till skada."
+
+GiftermÄl och barn
+ Adolf Johan gifte sig första gĂ„ngen vid 20 Ă„rs Ă„lder den 19 juni 1649 med den likaledes 20-Ă„riga grevinnan Elsa Beata Persdotter Brahe (31 augusti 1629 â 4 april 1653). Hon var dotter till greve Per Brahe den yngre och Kristina Katarina Stenbock. Elsa Beata Brahe dog dock redan efter fyra Ă„rs Ă€ktenskap.I det första Ă€ktenskapet fick Adolf Johan endast sonen Gustav Adolf (född och död 1652).
+
+ Adolf Johan gifte sig andra gĂ„ngen i februari 1661 med sin första makas kusin Elsa Elisabeth Nilsdotter Brahe (29 januari 1632 â 24 februari 1689). Bröllopet hölls pĂ„ Tidö slott. Hon var dotter till greve Nils Brahe den Ă€ldre av Visingsborg och friherrinnan Anna Margareta Bielke och hon hade tidigare varit gift med rikskansler greve Erik Axelsson Oxenstierna (1624â1656). Elsa Elisabeth Brahe blev i det första Ă€ktenskapet Ă€nka 1656 med fem barn. Adolf Johan friade till Erik Oxenstiernas Ă€nka Elsa Brahe, men drottningen och andra avrĂ„dde henne, men "hon tjusades av tanken att bli kunglig person" och hon hoppades sĂ€kert ocksĂ„ att fĂ„ byta sin Ă€nketillvaro mot ett furstligt hovliv. De fem barnen fick dĂ„ tas om hand av andra, flickorna var dĂ„ 11, 10 och 6 Ă„r och pojkarna var 9 och 5 Ă„r gamla. Hon rustade för ett stĂ„ndsmĂ€ssigt bröllop. Bröllopet hölls pĂ„ Tidö slott, men hertig Adolf Johan var nu en avsatt marsk och vice regent och hertigparet drog sig undan till Stegeborg och senare flyttade hertigfamiljen utomlands till sina tyska gods.
+
+I det andra Àktenskapet föddes sammanlagt nio barn varav fyra uppnÄdde vuxen Älder:
+ Katarina, född 30 november 1661, död 6 maj 1720, gift 1696 med Kristoffer Gyllenstierna.
+ Maria Elisabet, född 1663, död 1748, gift med G. von Gerstorff.
+ Adolf Johan d.y., född 13 augusti 1666, död 25 februari 1701, pfalzgreve vid Rhen, kejserlig arméofficer, ogift.
+ Gustav Samuel Leopold, född 1670, död 1731, hertig av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken. Han blev katolik 1696 och regerande pfalz-greve av ZweibrĂŒcken 1718 vid Karl XII:s död, han avled barnlös 1731.
+
+SÀtesgÄrden GörvÀln i JÀrfÀlla
+
+I början av 1600-talet Ă€gdes GörvĂ€ln i JĂ€rfĂ€lla socken av riksrĂ„det och rikskanslern, friherre Svante Bielke. Han sĂ€gs vara den som byggt den första sĂ€tesgĂ„rden pĂ„ GörvĂ€ln. Adolf Johans hustru Elsa Elisabet Brahes far Nils Brahe den Ă€ldre hade den 16 april 1628 gift sig pĂ„ slottet Tre Kronor med friherrinnan Anna Margareta Bielke (1603â1643), dotter till Svante Bielke. Anna Margareta Bielke fick vid arvskiftet bland annat Ă€rva GörvĂ€lngodset dĂ„ hennes bror, Sten Bielke (1598â1638), avled 1638. Genom arv hamnade sĂ„ smĂ„ningom GörvĂ€ln hos Svante Bielkes dotterdotter Elsa Elisabeth Brahe, som Ă„r 1661 gifte sig med hertig Adolf Johan. Elsa Elisabeth Brahe och hennes bror Nils Brahe den yngre föddes i Tyskland. Elsa Elisabeth Brahe Ă€gde GörvĂ€ln Ă„ren 1643â1689. Det var under hennes tid som den nuvarande huvudbyggnaden och flyglarna uppfördes Ă„ren 1659â1661. Nicodemus Tessin den Ă€ldre och Jean de la VallĂ©e anvĂ€ndes omvĂ€xlande som arkitekter. Men GörvĂ€ln blev inte nĂ„got kungligt slott. Ganska snart blev Adolf Johan utmanövrerad frĂ„n förmyndarregeringen för brorsonen Karl XI och efter en massa kontroverser flyttade han och hustrun till Stegeborgs slott i Ăstergötland.
+
+I början av 1660-talet vistades greve Adolf Johan och hans maka Elsa Elisabeth pĂ„ GörvĂ€ln under sommartid. Ett brev, daterat pĂ„ GörvĂ€ln 1662, Ă€r av Adolf Johans hand. Paret bodde permanent pĂ„ Stegeborgs slott i Ăstergötland och de bĂ„da avled 1689.
+
+De fyra barn som Ă€rvde GörvĂ€ln var Katarina av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, Maria Elisabet, Adolf Johan den yngre och Gustav Samuel Leopold (1670â1731). Ekonomin var sĂ„ hopplös, att barnen mĂ„ste begĂ€ra urarava konkurs. Stegeborg indrogs till kronan. GörvĂ€ln kunde dĂ€remot behĂ„llas, eftersom det varit Elsa Brahes enskilda egendom. Hennes barn med Erik Oxenstierna hade förut lösts ut. Adolf Johans barn Ă€gde GörvĂ€ln Ă„ren 1689â1716.
+
+Noter
+
+KĂ€llor
+ Lange, Ulrich: Adolf Johan. Stormaktstidens enfant terrible. Medströms. Stockholm. 2019.
+
+ Svensk uppslagsbok (1947â1955)
+ StarbĂ€ck, Carl Georg & BĂ€ckström, Per Olof: BerĂ€ttelser ur den svenska historien, Stockholm 1885â86
+ Sjögren, Otto: Sveriges historia, Malmö 1938
+ Carlsson, Sten & RosĂ©n, Jerker (red.): Den svenska historien, Stockholm 1966â68 (senare upplaga finns)
+ Henrikson, Alf: Svensk historia, Stockholm 1966, (senaste upplagan 2004)
+ Ă
berg, Alf: VĂ„r svenska historia, Lund 1978, (senare upplagor finns)
+
+ Rundqvist, Agne: "Kronologiska anteckningar om viktigare hÀndelser i Göteborg 1619-1982", i Göteborg förr och nu, Göteborgs hembygdsförbunds skriftserie nr 17, Göteborg 1982
+
+Se Àven
+
+ Sveriges hertigdömen
+
+Svenska riksmarskalkar
+Svenska generalguvernörer
+Svenska prinsar
+Huset Wittelsbach
+Födda 1629
+Avlidna 1689
+MĂ€n
+Personer under stormaktstiden
+Deltagare i tredagarsslaget vid Warszawa
+Personer frÄn SkÀllviks socken
+Svenska marskar
+Adolf Mörner af Morlanda, född 1 januari 1705 pĂ„ Grönlund i Ă
sbo socken, Ăstergötland, död 31 augusti 1766 pĂ„ Esplunda i Rinkaby socken, NĂ€rke, var en svensk greve och Ă€mbetsman.
+
+Biografi
+Adolf Mörner blev student i Uppsala 1717. Han fick anstĂ€llning som auskultant i Göta hovrĂ€tt 1721 och i Svea hovrĂ€tt 1727, blev extra ordinarie kammarjunkare i Kammarkollegium 1728, krigskommissarie i Krigskollegium 1732 och krigsrĂ„d 1737. Han var landshövding i Stockholms lĂ€n 1750â1751, i Ălvsborgs lĂ€n 1751â1756, i NĂ€rkes och VĂ€rmlands lĂ€n 1756â1766 och i Kopparbergs lĂ€n 1766. Det sistnĂ€mnda Ă€mbetet kom han dock aldrig att tilltrĂ€da, dĂ„ han dog av ett slaganfall i augusti samma Ă„r.
+
+Adolf Mörner var son till friherre Carl Gustaf Mörner och Katarina Margareta Bonde. Modern tycks ha dött i barnsĂ€ng 1705, och fadern gifte om sig med grevinnan Kristina Anna Bielke. Den 26 september 1734 gifte sig Adolf Mörner med sin sysslings dotter Agneta Christina Gabrielsdotter Ribbing af Zernava (1715â1776), dotter till Gabriel Leonardsson Ribbing av Zernava och Ulrika Eleonora Oxenstierna av Korsholm och Vasa. Han var far till Carl Gabriel Mörner.
+
+UtmÀrkelser
+
+ Riddare av NordstjÀrneorden, 26 september 1748.
+ Kommendör av NordstjÀrneorden, 4 december 1751 (vid Adolf Fredriks kröning)
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+
+
+
+Adolf
+Landshövdingar i Stockholms lÀn
+Landshövdingar i Kopparbergs lÀn
+Landshövdingar i Ălvsborgs lĂ€n
+Landshövdingar i NÀrke och VÀrmlands lÀn
+Alumner frÄn Uppsala universitet
+Personer frĂ„n Ă
sbo socken
+Födda 1705
+Avlidna 1766
+MĂ€n
+Personer under frihetstiden
+Svenska grevar
+Kommendörer av NordstjÀrneorden
+KrigsrÄd
+Allsvenskan, allsvenska serien, Àr namnet pÄ flera divisioner i olika sporter som vanligtvis tÀcker hela Sverige. För fotboll Àr allsvenskan fortfarande den högsta serien i Sverige. I övriga sporter Àr allsvenskan numera oftast den nÀst högsta serien eller en etapp pÄ vÀgen till en högre serie under sÀsongen. PÄ juniornivÄ finns ofta juniorallsvenskan och för pojkar pojkallsvenskan.
+
+Allsvenska serier
+ Allsvenskan (bandy) för herrar
+ Allsvenskan (fotboll) för herrar
+ Damallsvenskan i fotboll
+ Allsvenskan i bandy för damer
+ Allsvenskan i handboll för damer
+ Allsvenskan i handboll för herrar
+ Allsvenskan i innebandy för herrar
+ Allsvenskan i innebandy för damer
+ Allsvenskan i landhockey
+ Allsvenskan i segling
+ Allsvenskan i speedway
+ Allsvenskan i vattenpolo
+ Damallsvenskan
+ Hockeyallsvenskan
+ Juniorallsvenskan (bandy)
+ Juniorallsvenskan (fotboll)
+ Juniorallsvenskan (innebandy)
+ Pojkallsvenskan (fotboll)
+ Ridsportallsvenskan
+ Schackallsvenskan
+ Superallsvenskan i bandy
+ Superallsvenskan i ishockey
+
+Se Àven
+ Elitserien (olika betydelser)
+Analog eller analogue kan syfta pÄ:
+
+ Analog signal â variabla signaler med kontinuitet i tid och amplitud
+ Analog signalbehandling â signalbehandling av analoga signaler som sker med analoga medel
+ Analog elektronik â den delen av elektrotekniken som behandlar tidskontinuerliga signaler
+ Analog summator â en elektronisk krets som adderar ett antal spĂ€nningssignaler sĂ„ att utgĂ„ngsspĂ€nningen blir summan av ingĂ„ngsspĂ€nningarna
+ Analog synthesizer â ett elektroniskt musikinstrument
+ Analog television â utsĂ€ndningen av en TV-kanal sker i analog form
+ Analogimaskin â ett hjĂ€lpmedel vid komplicerade tekniska berĂ€kningar
+ Analog Science Fiction and Fact â en amerikansk science fiction-tidskrift
+ Analog Devices â ett amerikanskt företag som tillverkar halvledarkretsar
+ Analog Worms Attack â den franska artisten Mr. Oizos debutalbum, utgivet 1999
+
+Analogue
+ Analogue: A Hate Story â ett datorspel
+
+Se Àven
+ Analogi â flera
+ Digital
+AllmÀnna Idrottsklubben (förkortat AIK) Àr en svensk idrottsförening som grundades pÄ Norrmalm i centrala Stockholm. AIK Àr en av Sveriges största idrottsföreningar med över 18 000 medlemmar i februari 2014. Föreningen bildades den 15 februari 1891 pÄ Biblioteksgatan 8, och dess första ordförande var initiativtagaren Isidor Behrens. Namnet AllmÀnna Idrottsklubben valdes för att man hade kommit överens om att alla upptÀnkliga idrotter skulle utövas. AIK har sedan 1937, dÄ RÄsunda fotbollsstadion byggdes, sitt sÀte i Solna.
+
+En rad olika sporter har utövats i AIK. De i dag mest kĂ€nda sporterna som utövas inom AIK Ă€r fotboll och ishockey, i vilka klubben har nĂ„tt stora framgĂ„ngar â bland annat tolv svenska mĂ€stare-titlar i fotboll och sju i ishockey. Andra sporter föreningen har nĂ„tt stora SM-framgĂ„ngar i Ă€r bandy och innebandy.
+
+Historik
+
+AllmÀnna Idrottsklubben bildades den 15 februari 1891 pÄ Biblioteksgatan 8 pÄ Norrmalm i Stockholm (se fastigheten RÀnnilen 11), hemma hos familjen Behrens. DÀr var, förutom initiativtagaren Isidor Behrens och hans bror Emanuel Behrens, Henrik Staberg, W. Pettersson, K. Björck, Robin Holm och F. Karlsson. Namnet, AllmÀnna Idrottsklubben, valdes för att man hade kommit överens om att alla upptÀnkliga idrotter skulle utövas. En vecka efter det hÀr mötet valdes den första styrelsen med Behrens som ordförande. Under det första Äret hade AIK 43 aktiva medlemmar och gick med en ekonomisk vinst med 3 kronor och 68 öre.
+
+Redan första Äret Àgnade man sig Ät sÄ vitt skilda idrotter som friidrott, gymnastik, skridsko, skidor, backhoppning och sparkstöttningsÄkning. Redan sommaren 1891 tillkom brottning, tyngdlyftning, cykel, dragkamp, simning och skytte. Klubbens första mÀrke skapades av styrelseledamoten Henrik Staberg lagom till idrottsfesten i maj 1891. MÀrket som ville Äterspegla klubbens breda verksamhet med symboler för olika idrotter fick dock kritik för att det mer liknade skylten till en sportaffÀr och ersattes 1898 av nuvarande mÀrke.
+
+AIK:s första inriktning var friidrott, eller allmĂ€n idrott som det hette tidigare, vilket spelade roll för namnvalet. Denna allmĂ€nna idrott hade ett par inslag av gymnastik, vilket dĂ€rför ofta misstolkas som att AIK ocksĂ„ hade en gymnastiksektion vid bildandet. Senare Ă€ndrades dock inriktningarna och huvudsektionen kom att bli AIK Fotboll, som togs upp pĂ„ programmet 1896. AIK spelade frĂ„n början sina matcher pĂ„ LadugĂ„rdsgĂ€rdet pĂ„ Ăstermalm. 1912 blev det nybyggda Stockholms stadion AIK:s hemmaarena. Ă
r 1937 flyttade fotbollssektionen till RĂ„sunda fotbollsstadion i nuvarande Solna kommun och klubbens administration och ledning flyttade med.
+
+Klubben blev snabbt en av de ledande klubbarna i Sverige, och har sedan dess varit framstÄende inom fotbollssporten. 1990-talet var en framgÄngsrik period, dÄ AIK sammanlagt tog tvÄ SM-guld, sju medaljplatser, gick till fem cupfinaler dÀr man vann en cup och spelade i Champions League. Klubben Äkte Är 2004 ut ur Allsvenskan för andra gÄngen sedan 1979. 2006 blev en bra sÀsong för AIK Fotboll, klubben slutade pÄ andra plats, endast en poÀng efter IF Elfsborg.
+
+Ă
r 2009 vann AIK "Dubbeln", det vill sĂ€ga bĂ„de Allsvenskan och Svenska Cupen i fotboll. Allsvenskan vann man efter en ren finalmatch pĂ„ bortaplan mot IFK Göteborg, det avgörande mĂ„let gjordes av AntĂŽnio FlĂĄvio 1â1 dĂ„ en kvittering var allt AIK behövde för att bĂ€rga hem SM-vinsten. Dock fick trotjĂ€naren Daniel Tjernström som dĂ„ spelat i AIK elva sĂ€songer spika matchen (sĂ€kra segern) nĂ€r nĂ„gra fĂ„ minuter Ă„terstod av matchen. Matchen, som AIK vann med 2â1, blev historisk. Första laget i Allsvenskans Ă„rgĂ„ng 2009 att besegra IFK Göteborg pĂ„ Gamla Ullevi och i en direkt avgörande final. Svenska Cupen vanns en vecka senare med 2â0 hemma pĂ„ RĂ„sundastadion. Ăven den mot IFK Göteborg.
+
+Smeknamnet och klubbmÀrke
+
+Klubbens mest kĂ€nda smeknamn, Gnaget, tillkom pĂ„ 1920-talet. AIK var dĂ„ en fattig klubb (30â40 medlemmar, dĂ„ snart sagt endast aktiva spelare och funktionĂ€rer erbjöds medlemskap). Klubbens svarta tröjor tvĂ€ttades Ă„tskilliga gĂ„nger innan man fick rĂ„d att köpa nya. Den svarta fĂ€rgen blev grĂ„are och grĂ„are. Till slut var tröjorna mer rĂ„ttfĂ€rgade Ă€n svarta. AIK-mĂ€rket skapades av Fritz Carlsson-Carling. I skölden finns en sol, som ofta blir felaktigt hopkopplad med den sol som Ă„terfinns i Solna kommunvapen. IstĂ€llet syftar solen till Sol Invictus, en gud under antikens Rom vars namn översĂ€tts till "Den oövervinnerliga solen".
+
+En del andra hĂ€ndelser gav ytterligare nĂ€ring till smeknamnet: Under sĂ€songen 1928/1929 talade man om att AIK Fotboll âgnagdeâ sig till den ena poĂ€ngen efter den andra och klarade sig till slut kvar i Allsvenskan pĂ„ det. Efter 1929 började AIK Fotboll vĂ€rva spelare frĂ„n andra klubbar, bland andra Karlbergs BK. Karlbergsfantasten Axel Hamberg skapade AIK-hatets vĂ€nner i vars klubbmĂ€rke ingick den lilla AIK-rĂ„ttan som alltsĂ„ ytterligare spĂ€dde pĂ„ uttrycket Gnaget.
+
+Smeknamnet kan dock vara Ă€ldre Ă€n sĂ„: i idrottstidningen Nordiskt Idrottslif kallas AIK för âgnagarneâ Ă„r 1914.
+
+Styrelseordförande
+
+ 1891â1892 â Isidor Behrens
+ 1892â1896 â Richard Tengborg
+ 1896â1901 â Sigfrid Stenberg
+ 1902â1905 â Elis Juhlin
+ 1905â1909 â Eric Frick
+ 1909â1910 â Nils David Edlund
+ 1911â1919 â Elis Juhlin
+ 1919â1922 â Magnus Cleve
+ 1923â1927 â Inget Ă„rsmöte hölls och ingen styrelse valdes.
+ 1928â1939 â Ulrich Salchow
+ 1940â1944 â Roy HĂ€nel
+ 1945â1953 â Rudolf "Putte" Kock
+ 1954â1958 â Gunnar Galin
+ 1959â1960 â Karl-Erik FĂŒrst
+ 1961â1962 â Tore Nilsson
+ 1963â1966 â Gösta Ellhammar
+ 1967â1980 â Lennart Johansson
+ 1981â1985 â Carl Erik Hedlund
+ 1986â1992 â Stig R. Humlin
+ 1993â1999 â Ulf Fredrikson
+ 2000â2002 â Ingemar Ingevik
+ 2003â2004 â K.G. Svenson
+ 2004â2006 â Klas Gustafsson
+ 2006â2008 â Stefan Widenholm
+ 2008â2010 â Johan Strömberg
+ 2010â2014 â Lars Rekke
+ 2014â2016 â Andres Muld
+ 2016â2018 â Tommy Lindqvist
+2018â2020 â Cecilia Giertta
+2020ânu â Cecilia Wahlman
+
+Sektioner
+
+Aktiva sektioner
+Fotboll â AIK Fotboll och AIK Fotboll Damer
+Ishockey â AIK Ishockey och AIK Ishockey Damer
+Handboll â AIK Handboll och AIK Handboll Damer
+Innebandy â AIK Innebandy och AIK Innebandy Damer
+Bandy â AIK Bandy och AIK Bandy Damer
+Bowling â AIK Bowling och AIK Bowling Damer
+Friidrott - AIK Friidrott
+Golf â AIK Golf
+Boule â AIK Boule
+Basket â AIK Basket
+Boxning â AIK Boxning Stockholm
+Brottning â AIK Brottning
+Amerikansk fotboll â AIK Amerikansk fotboll
+
+Nedlagda sektioner
+AIK Badminton: Verksam frÄn 1945 till 1966. Initiativtagare: Tage Wissnell med utövare
+Svenska mÀstare:
+SM-trofén: 1951, 1953, 1964
+Herrar, singel: 1948, 1949, 1952, 1953
+Herrar, dubbel: 1946, 1947, 1948, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956
+Damer, singel: 1963
+Damer, dubbel: 1951, 1953, 1963, 1964
+Mixdubbel: 1946, 1947, 1953, 1965
+AIK Bordtennis: Verksam frÄn 1933 till 1977. Initiativtagare: Tore Nilsson, Ragnar Hallsten, Folke Petterson och Hilmer Nilsson
+Svenska mÀstare:
+Herrar, lag: 1945, 1946, 1959
+Herrar, singel: 1935, 1943
+Herrar, dubbel: 1959
+AIK Brottning: Verksam frÄn och med 1893. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare var A. Sköld. Sektionen nystartade 2017 av Leon Kessidis och andra brottare frÄn Huddinge BK.
+AIK Curling: Verksam frÄn 1946 till 1973. Initiativtagare: Einar Kallström, Gustaf Svensson, Olle Wirling, Herbert Ohlsson och Birger Karlsson.
+Svenska mÀstare:
+Herrar, lag: 1966
+Herrar, individuellt: 1960
+AIK Cykel: Verksam frÄn och med 1897. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: O. Lindegren.
+AIK Dragkamp: Verksam frÄn och med 1893. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner.
+AIK Friidrott: Verksam frÄn 1891 till 1916. Nystart har 2012 godkÀnts av Huvudstyrelsen.
+AIK KonstÄkning: Verksam frÄn och med 1897. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner första gÄngen. Nystart 1947, men lades Äter ned 1952. Initiativtagare: Gunnar Stenberg (1897), Herman Carlsson (1947).
+Svenska mÀstare:
+Herrar: 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952
+Par: 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952
+Nordiska MĂ€stare:
+Par: 1950, 1951
+AIK Orientering: Verksam frÄn och med 1901. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: Sigfrid Stenberg.
+AIK Rodd: Verksam frÄn och med 1893. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner.
+AIK Simning: Verksam frÄn och med 1894. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: Magnus Fires.
+AIK Skidor: Verksam frÄn och med 1892. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner.
+Svenska mÀstare:
+Herrar, backhoppning: 1912
+Nordisk kombination: 1912
+Störtlopp: 1973
+AIK Skridsko: Verksam frÄn och med 1892. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: Isidor Behrens.
+Svenska mÀstare:
+Herrar, 500 meter: 1902, 1908
+Herrar, 1 500 meter: 1902, 1908
+Herrar, 10 000 meter: 1904
+Herrar, sammanlagt: 1902, 1908
+AIK Skytte: Verksam frÄn och med 1894. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: Sigfrid Stenberg.
+Sparkstötting - AIK Sparkstötting
+AIK Tennis: Verksam frÄn och med 1932 till 1978. Initiativtagare: Wilhelm Engdal och John Söderström.
+Svenska mÀstare:
+Herrar, singel (inomhus): 1950, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962.
+Herrar, singel (utomhus): 1950, 1951, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960
+Herrar, dubbel (inomhus): 1934, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960
+Herrar, dubbel (utomhus): 1949, 1951, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961
+AIK Tyngdlyftning: Verksam frÄn och med 1893. Det Àr oklart nÀr sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: A Sköld.
+
+Media
+
+Som första idrottsklubb utanför USA lanserade AIK sin officiella webbplats 1995 och som första klubb i Norden startade AIK 2004 en webbradiostation med dagliga sĂ€ndningar; AIK Webbradio benĂ€mndes av Dagens Nyheter 2006 som âlandets bĂ€staâ.
+
+Supportrar
+
+Supporterföreningar
+Under 1980-talet och början av 1990-talet drog Black Army land och rike runt i Sverige och skapade tidningsrubriker. Den 15 februari 2000 bildades AllmÀnna Supporterklubben som ett alternativ till Black Army (2002 bytte AllmÀnna Supporterklubben namn till Smokinglirarna). Vidare bildades Ultras Nord pÄ hösten 2002 och den 2 december 2004 ocksÄ Sol Invictus. Dessa fyra föreningar utgör, tillsammans med AIK-Tifo, AIK-Alliansen.
+
+Utanför Stockholm finns en rad fristĂ„ende supporterförgreningar; de arrangerar resor till AIK:s matcher: Branschen, som bildades 1991 i GĂ€vle, och Dalagnagarna, som förenar AIK:are i Dalarna bildades 2005 och anrika Laholmsgnagarna sedan 2000. Sedan finns nĂ€tverk Ă€ven i VĂ€xjö, Eskilstuna, Ăstergötland, UmeĂ„ och pĂ„ vĂ€stkusten.
+
+AIK har dessutom en förening för utlandsboende supportrar, nÀmligen Exilgnagare, som skapades 2001. I september 2006 har föreningen över 250 medlemmar, i 50 lÀnder och cirka 140 stÀder vÀrlden över. Utöver det finns ett nÀtverk av AIK-supportrar i Helsingfors, dÀr AIK av tradition Àr en populÀr klubb.
+
+Klubbens kanske mest ökÀnda supportrar Àr de sÄ kallade kategori C-supportrarna som gÄr under namnet Firman Boys med undergruppen AIK:s yngsta (AY). Firman Boys, som föresprÄkar vÄld i klubbens namn, har flera gÄnger uppmÀrksammats medialt med anledning av vÄldsamheter pÄ och utanför lÀktarna.
+
+Sedan vintern 2013 har Àven AIK:s olika damavdelningar en egen supporterförening vid namn Black Ladies. Black Ladies vÀlkomnar, trots namnet, bÄde mÀn och kvinnor i sin förening men Àr inriktade pÄ att stötta damidrotten. De Àr ett uppskattat inslag pÄ bland annat damfotbollens hemmaarena Skytteholm likvÀl som pÄ arenor runt om i Sverige dÀr AIK:s damer spelar. Sedan 25 oktober 2017 finns ytterligare en supporterklubb till damsektionerna, Gnaget Gentlemen. Denna supporterklubb har som riktlinje att frÀmja ett jÀmlikt AIK i olika idrotter och sektioner.
+
+KĂ€nda supportrar
+Kung Gustaf VI Adolf Ă„tog sig redan som kronprins 1907 att vara âAIK:s beskyddare och förste hedersledamotâ och förblev detta fram till sin död 1973. Carl XVI Gustaf Ă€rvde 1974 titeln som förste hedersledamot och AIK:s beskyddare. Kronprinsessan Victoria, Prinsessan Madeleine och Prins Daniel Ă€r kĂ€nda supportrar frĂ„n kungafamiljen.
+
+Referenser
+
+Se Àven
+ AIK Trubaduren
+ AIK Media
+ Ă
vi e AIK (album)
+ AIK-resultat genom tiderna i fotboll
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Officiell webbplats
+Facebook
+
+AIK
+Sportklubbar bildade 1891
+Carl XVI Gustafs beskydd
+Sportklubbar i Stockholms kommun
+Akronymer
+Alliansföreningar i Sverige
+Johan Axel Fridell, född 6 november 1894 i Falun, död 26 maj 1935 i Stockholm, var en svensk konstnÀr.
+
+Biografi
+Axel Fridell var son till möbelsnickaren Per Johan Fridell och dennes hustru Johanna Karolina Söderberg. Han arbetade först som springpojke och senare i Falu koppargruva. Under tiden vid gruvan började han studera konst vid aftonskola, och fick som kurskamrater bland andra Hans Norsbo och Bertil Bull Hedlund.
+
+FrÄn 1909 började han pÄ egen hand utbilda sig till konstnÀr. Tidigt fick han stöd frÄn Anshelm Schultzberg och Gustaf Ankarcrona. Fridell var en stor beundrare av Ankarcrona och besökte honom flera gÄnger. 1913 flyttade Fridell till Stockholm dÀr han studerade vid Wilhelmsons mÄlarskola. PÄ inrÄdan av Schultzberg sökte han till Konsthögskolan dÀr Axel Tallberg kom att bli hans lÀrare i grafik, och inspirera Fridell sjÀlv att börja arbeta inom grafikens rÄr.
+
+Under sitt första Är i Stockholm bodde han tillsammans med Helge Zandén, 1914 Äterupptog han hÀr kontakten med Bertil Bull Hedlund och David TÀgtström, som studerat i Paris men tvingats hem sedan första vÀrldskriget utbrutit. I sÀllskap med Bertil Bull Hedlund började han nu att försumma studierna för uteliv i Stockholm pÄ Novilla, Berns och Hamburger Börs. Det ledde till att Bertil Bull Hedlund och Axel Fridell 1916 relegerades frÄn Konsthögskolan. Genom sina kontakter med Axel Tallberg fick han dock möjlighet att fortsÀtta trycka grafiska blad vid konsthögskolan.
+
+Sin första utstÀllning hade Axel Fridell 1914 tillsammans med Bertil Bull Hedlund i en bokhandel i Falun julen 1914. Den innebar ingen större framgÄng. VÄren 1915 hölls en utstÀllning pÄ biblioteksgatan i Stockholm med verk av Fridell, Hilding Linnqvist, Axel Nilsson och David TÀgtström. 1917 stÀllde han ut tillsammans med Ruben Nordström i en lokal i Birger Jarlspassagen varvid han uppmÀrksammades av August Brunius. Det innebar att efterfrÄgan pÄ Fridells grafik ökade, sÀrskilt hans torrnÄlsgravyrer. 1918 deltog han tillsammans med TÀgtström och Eric Detthow i en utstÀllning pÄ Konstakademin.
+
+Under de följande Ären minskade hans produktivitet i takt med att utelivet upptog allt mer av hans tid. 1921 reste Fridell till Italien, dÀr han sÀrskilt besökte Florens, San Gimignano och Venedig. Efter Äterkomsten till Sverige bosatte sig Fridell i Falun. 1923 reste han dock Äter utomlands och slog sig ned i Paris, dÀr han stannade till 1925. Efter Äterkomsten till Sverige slog han sig pÄ nytt ned i Stockholm. Samma Är lÀrde han kÀnna Thorsten Laurin, vilken kom att influera Fridell genom att intressera honom för den engelska grafiken.
+
+Förutom grafik mÄlade han Àven i olja, bland annat sjÀlvportrÀtt, interiörer med figurer samt landskap med motiv frÄn Stockholmstrakten eller Falun, ofta lÀtt och luftigt hÄllna och i en blond och ljus kolorit.
+
+NÀr Fridell dog hade han pÄ knappt tvÄ decennier hunnit nÄ samma konstnÀrliga höjder som det tagit till exempel Anders Zorn en hel mansÄlder att nÄ. Dödsorsaken var spridd lungcancer. Han dog pÄ S:t Eriks sjukhus i Stockholm pÄ söndagseftermiddagen den 26 maj 1935 och Àr begravd pÄ Norslunds kyrkogÄrd i Falun.
+
+PÄ Dalarnas museum i Falun finns stora samlingar av Fridells verk och han finns representerad vid Nationalmuseum i Stockholm, VÀrmlands museum, Kalmar konstmuseum, Norrköpings konstmuseum och Göteborgs konstmuseum.
+
+Grafikern
+Det var som grafiker Fridell gjorde sin viktigaste insats och han rÀknas till en av vÄra frÀmsta grafiker. Han arbetade vanligen i torrnÄl men Àven med etsning. Hans stora lÀromÀstare pÄ detta omrÄde var Rembrandt, James McNeill Whistler, Charles Méryon och Seymour Haden.
+
+Under de tidiga Ären, kring 1917, arbetade Fridell i en ganska luftig grafikteknik med kraftiga draggningar, tunna torrnÄlslinjer och effekter med fÀrgplumpar. Denna teknik syns bÄde i portrÀtten och landskapsbilderna frÄn denna tid.
+
+I mitten av 1920-talet anlade Fridell en ny stil, med mera genomarbetade plÄtar. Flera av stockholmsbilderna frÄn denna tid, till exempel Stadshuset i Stockholm II (1926, Haskel 223), hör till denna kategori.
+
+Den första englandsresan Ă€gde rum under Ă„ren 1926â1928, och under denna tid fann Fridell sin mogna stil. De engelska dimmorna och stĂ€mningarna i London för övrigt gjorde att bilderna fick ett hemlighetsfullt skimmer över sig. LikvĂ€l Ă€r bilderna genomarbetade och detaljerade. Speciellt intresserade sig Fridell för motiv kring Themsen och de stora parkerna. Ett av de mest storartade bladen frĂ„n detta londonbesök Ă€r Old studio (1927, Haskel 253).
+
+Fridell lĂ€ngtade utomlands igen. NĂ€sta resa under 1930 stĂ€lldes framför allt till NederlĂ€nderna och Frankrike. Ăven i Paris fann Fridell stĂ€mningen vid floden, i detta fall Seine, spĂ€nnande. Flera stora blad kommer frĂ„n denna resa, till exempel det mörka Quai de Montebello I (1930, Haskel 300), dĂ€r Fridell avbildat kajernas mĂ€nniskor pĂ„ ett dystert sĂ€tt. Bladet Flickan i fönstret II (1930â1932, Haskel 308), pĂ„börjades Ă€ven i Rotterdam under denna resa.
+
+Ă
ter i Stockholm producerar Fridell fina blad frÄn sin ateljé vid StadsgÄrden, till exempel torrnÄlen StadsgÄrden (1931, Haskel 330), dÀr han kanske försöker men inte till fullo uppnÄr stÀmningarna frÄn London.
+
+Den sista utlandsresan gÄr till London 1933 och Paris 1934. Nu tillkommer Fridells kÀndaste blad, Mr Simmons (TidningslÀsaren) (1933, Haskel 365), som gavs ut pÄ frimÀrke 1974 nÀr Publicistklubben firade sitt 100-Ärsjubileum. Bladet Glebe Place (Haskel 364), med en skum och mystisk förgrund, hÀrstammar ocksÄ frÄn londonbesöket 1933. FrÄn parisbesöket 1934 kommer nÄgra fina studier av broar, bland annat Le Pont Marie (Haskel 371).
+
+I Fridells grafiska produktion ska Àven nÀmnas de mÄnga portrÀtt han utförde, bland annat av Selma Lagerlöf, Gustaf V, hustrun Ingrid och ett antal sjÀlvportrÀtt. Ett av de bÀsta portrÀtten Àr av konstnÀrskollegan Olof Hjort (Dalmasen, 1933, Haskel 350).
+
+Fridell Àr den konstnÀr som fÄtt flest grafiska blad (26 st.) utgivna i Föreningen för Grafisk Konsts Ärliga grafikportföljer, mellan Ären 1915 och 1962.
+
+MinnesutstÀllning
+En minnesutstÀllning över Axel Fridell hölls pÄ Nationalmuseum under hösten 1936. Den flyttade till Falun efter nyÄret 1937.
+
+Referenser
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+Karl Asplund: Axel Fridell. Nordstedts 1947.
+Karl Haskel: Axel Fridell - Bilder I-II. Föreningen för Grafisk Konst 1986 och 1989. Del I innehÄller en förteckning över Fridells grafiska verk.
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+FridellsÀllskapet
+
+
+
+Svenska grafiker under 1900-talet
+Svenska mÄlare under 1900-talet
+Falugrafikerna
+Representerade vid Nationalmuseum
+Representerade vid Göteborgs konstmuseum
+Representerade vid Norrköpings konstmuseum
+KonstnÀrer frÄn Falun
+Födda 1894
+Avlidna 1935
+MĂ€n
+Arbetarbladet Àr en sjudagars morgontidning som sedan 1902 ges ut i GÀvle samt nÀrliggande kommuner. MÄlgruppen Àr lÀsare i GÀstrikland och Norduppland. Ledarsidan Àr socialdemokratisk. Tidningen ingÄr i Bonnier News Local som i sin tur Àr en del av Bonnierkoncernen, och delar av det redaktionella materialet Àr detsamma som i Gefle Dagblad. Sportsidorna produceras av en gemensam sportredaktion.
+
+Arbetarbladet Àr andratidning i GÀvle och mottar presstöd för att finansiera utgivningen.
+
+Historia
+Tidningen startade 1901 som mÄnadstidning, med namnet Gefle Arbetarblad. 1902 antogs namnet Arbetarbladet och kom ut som veckotidning, senare varannan dag och 1905 som daglig eftermiddagstidning.
+
+I september 2023 meddelade tidningen att man planerade att flytta huvudredaktionen frÄn GÀvle till Sandviken.
+
+Kontroverser
+Under valÄret 2014 vÀckte Arbetarbladet debatt nÀr de pÄ nyhetsplats började omnÀmna Sverigedemokraterna som "rasistiska Sverigedemokraterna". DÄvarande chefredaktören Daniel Nordström försvarade benÀmningen med att Sverigedemokraterna Àr ett parti med rötter i rörelsen Bevara Sverige Svenskt. Trots försök att tvÀtta bort historien visar texter av partiets företrÀdare att partiet i grunden stÄr för samma Äsikter som nÀr det startade, menade Nordström.
+
+Se Àven
+ Uppsalademokraten â tidning Ă€gd 1980â1985 av Arbetarbladet
+ Lista över socialdemokratiska tidningar i Sverige
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+A-Pressen
+Dagstidningar startade 1902
+Företag i GÀvle
+Svenska dagstidningar
+Adolf Fredrik Munck af Fulkila, född 29 april 1749 i S:t Michel i Finland, död 18 juli 1831 i Massa i Italien, var en svensk greve och hovman.
+
+Biografi
+Adolf Fredrik Munck var son till överstelöjtnanten Anders Erik Munck af Fulkila och Hedvig Juliana Wright, vars mor hette Sophia Halenius född i slÀkten Halenius och vars bröder adlades med namnet von Wright. Han föddes pÄ fÀnriksbostÀllet Tarkia i RantakylÀ i S:t Michels socken.
+
+Han antogs som page vid hovet 1765. 1767 blev han kammarpage hos Adolf Fredrik, och övergick till samma tjÀnst hos Gustav III 1769. 1771 utnÀmnd till kornett vid livdragonerna, och tvÄ mÄnder före statskuppen utnÀmndes han till förste kammarpage. Han berÀttade för kungen pÄ dagen innan kuppen att mössorna tÀnkte fÀngsla honom. UtnÀmningen till hovstallmÀstare 1772 var ett tack för dessa tjÀnster, 1773 blev han Àven förste hovstallmÀstare. För hans förhÄllande till kungen var det ocksÄ viktigt att Munck hade höga grader i tidens hemliga ordenssÀllskap. Muncks bibliotek innehöll mÄnga esoteriska verk och som stormÀstare i sÀllskapet Metatron förfogade han enligt hertig Karl över en universalmedicin.
+
+NÀr Gustav III första gÄngen skulle ha samlag med sin fru 1775 förefaller han haft uppenbara problem. I en av "Muncken" noga dokumenterad rapport (och av drabanter intygad hÀndelse) uppges hur kungen kallade in honom i sitt sovrum och bad honom om hjÀlp "att hitta hÄlet" och fysiskt hjÀlpa till under denna akt som gÄtt till historien. Munck fick personligen mottaga en magnifik gÄva av drottningen; ett briljanterat ur med hennes portrÀtt som tack för sina insatser. GÄvorna frÄn drottningen under de nÀrmast pÄföljande Ären kom att slutligen uppgÄ till nÀrmare 20 miljoner kronor i dagens vÀrde.
+
+Rapporten och ett antal oberoende indicier har gett upphov till ryktet att "Muncken" i sjÀlva verket skulle varit far till kronprinsen Gustav IV Adolf. SjÀlv förnekade Munck lÀnge alla sÄdana rykten, Àven efter sitt fall ur kungens gunst. men kom att frÄn landsflykten i Italien att efter det svenska försöket att kidnappa honom att hÀvda faderskapet. Ett opublicerat brev frÄn drottningen till greve Munck innehÄller ocksÄ en kÀrleksförklaring som kan te sig mÀrklig om hans roll hade begrÀnsats till blott sexualundervisning.
+
+Klart Àr att Muncks karriÀr fick en nytÀndning efter episoden: frÄn att ha varit hovstallmÀstare steg han snabbt i graderna och blev 1776 major vid Adelsfaneregementet, 1778 friherre, 1781 stÄthÄllare pÄ Drottningholms slott, 1782 överstelöjtnant, 1786 stÄthÄllare och landshövding i Drottningholms och Svartsjö lÀn. Vid den tiden hade han ocksÄ ett nÀra förhÄllande med operasÄngerskan Giovanna Bassi och hade med henne dottern Johanna Bassi.
+
+Under slutet av 1780-talet tillhörde Munck i samband med brytningarna inom Gustaf III:s nÀrmaste krets den av Johan Christopher Toll ledda gruppen som rivaliserade med Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt om kungens gunst, och Muncks inflytande undantrÀngdes alltmer av Armfelts. 1787 mÄste han mot sin vilja lÀmna hovstallmÀstarbefattningen till en annan kungagunstling, Hans Henric von Essen. Tolls fall 1788 gjorde hans situation Ànnu osÀkrare, och i hertig Karl hade han en svuren fiende. Under krigsÄren erhöll han dock betydelsefulla uppdrag, blev ledamot i utredningskommissionen för krigsrustningarna, president i Kammarrevisionen 1788, ordförande i kommissionen för örlogsflottans utredande 1789 och ledamot av regeringen under Gustaf III:s vistelse i Finland. Som president i Kammarrevisionen Àr han den ende myndighetschefen som nÄgonsin rekommenderat avskaffande av sin egen myndighet. Detta gjorde han övertygad om att tjÀnsterna kunde tillhandahÄllas till mindre kostnad för stat och skattebetalare pÄ annat sÀtt.
+
+PĂ„ alla dessa poster skötte han sitt arbete med stora förtjĂ€nster, med det intrigerades hĂ€ftigt mot honom, och hans förhĂ„llande till kungen blev allt sĂ€mre, i synnerhet sedan han efter att ha varit tillförordnad överstĂ„thĂ„llare vĂ„ren 1789 begĂ€rde avsked pĂ„ grund av sitt ogillande av Förenings- och sĂ€kerhetsakten. Ănnu 1791 erhöll han dock den högsta utmĂ€rkelse som Gustaf III tilldelade nĂ„gon under sin livstid, nĂ€mligen Serafimerorden med rĂ€tt att bĂ€ra dess insignier i briljanter.
+
+Hans fall blev affĂ€ren med de falska fahnehielmarna. De Ă€kta fahnehielmarna var sedlar, formellt anvisningar pĂ„ fĂ€ltkassan, som trycktes i Finland under kriget mot Ryssland 1788â1790. Munck hade pĂ„ kungens order med hjĂ€lp av mekanicus Charles Appelkvist 1790â1791 trots att fred slutits mellan Sverige och Ryssland pĂ„ kungens order tillverkat falska rubelsedlar pĂ„ Drottningholmsmalmen i avsikt att prĂ„nglas ut pĂ„ den ryska marknaden i avsikt att skapa finansiell oro och samtidigt tjĂ€na en slant pĂ„ projektet. I augusti 1791 gav Munck pĂ„ Gustaf III:s begĂ€ran order om att avbryta tillverkningen av rubelsedlar och i stĂ€llet börja tillverka förfalskade "fahnehielmare" eftersom riksdagen vid den tiden inte ville bevilja kungen ett generösare apanage.
+
+NĂ€r projektet med Fahnehielmarna upptĂ€cktes vĂ„ren 1792 gav kungen den 12 mars order om att tryckeriet skulle förstöras. Kungen var nu rĂ€dd att Munck skulle lĂ€cka nĂ„got om förfalskningarna, och hade för avsikt att lĂ„ta spĂ€rra in honom pĂ„ Marstrands fĂ€stning. ĂndĂ„ varnade Munck kungen om planer pĂ„ att mörda honom som kungen avfĂ€rdade. Efter mordet pĂ„ maskeradbalen valde hertig Karl att landsförvisa Munck. 26 april 1792 avsĂ€ndes han under bevakning frĂ„n Stockholm till Italien.
+
+Han hamnade slutligen i den lilla italienska staden Massa nÀra Pisa dÀr han under en lÀngre tid sammanlevde med Elisabetta del Medico, en oÀkta dotter till Medicéerna. Hans ekonomi blev allt sÀmre och Är 1828 tvingades han sÀlja Villa Massoni i Massa nÀr han var 79 Är gammal. NÀr han efter nÀra 30 Ärs landsflykt avled som gÀst i grevinnan Elisabettas palats, mÄste han begravas pÄ stadens begravningsplats för medellösa.
+
+Bilder
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Munck af Fulkila, Adolf Fredrik
+Landshövdingar i Uppsala lÀn
+Svenska stÄthÄllare
+ĂverstĂ„thĂ„llare
+Finlandssvenskar
+Personer frÄn Rantasalmi
+Födda 1749
+Avlidna 1831
+Gunstlingar vid svenska hov
+Riddare och kommendör av Kungl. Maj:ts Orden
+Mottagare av Serafimerorden
+Personer under gustavianska tiden
+SBH
+Svenska hovstallmÀstare
+BureÀtten
+MĂ€n
+Gustav III:s hov
+Adolf Fredrik
+Jonas Arthur Engberg, född 1 januari 1888 i Hassela församling i HĂ€lsingland, GĂ€vleborgs lĂ€n, död 27 mars 1944 i HĂ€rnösand, var en svensk socialdemokratisk politiker och tidningsman. Han var riksdagsledamot (andra kammaren) Ă„ren 1917â1940 och ecklesiastikminister september 1932 till juni 1936 och hösten 1936 till 1939. Ă
r 1940 blev han landshövding i VÀsternorrlands lÀn.
+
+Biografi
+Arthur Engberg vÀxte upp i Hassela som son till en ganska vÀlbÀrgad bonde, Anders Engberg, och hans hustru Brita Kristina Danielsdotter. Fadern var borgerlig vÀnsterman i landstinget.
+
+Efter mogenhetsexamen vid Hudiksvalls högre allmÀnna lÀroverk inskrevs Arthur Engberg vid Uppsala universitet 1908, dÀr han blev fil. kand. 1913. FrÄn 1914 studerade han vid Jenas universitet och Strasbourgs universitet i Tyskland.
+
+Efter hemkomsten till Sverige studerade han för Axel HÀgerström, som kom att utöva ett stort inflytande pÄ Engberg; Engberg rÀknas som en av HÀgerströms största beundrare. För HÀgerström skulle han lÀgga fram en avhandling om Herakleitos men arbetet slutfördes aldrig. Vid sidan av sina studier engagerade sig Engström i nykterhetsrörelsen och var medlem i den socialdemokraternas studentföreningen Laboremus vid Uppsala universitet.
+
+SamhÀllsdebatt
+
+Engberg blev efterhand en uppmÀrksammad debattör i tal och skrift. 1917 valdes han in i riksdagens andra kammare och socialdemokraternas partistyrelse. Vid det laget hade han gjort sig kÀnd som skribent i olika socialdemokratiska tidningar och tidskrifter. Hans tidiga debattinlÀgg kÀnnetecknades av citat frÄn antikens grekiska filosofer och strÀng stilmedvetenhet, och angrepp pÄ meningsmotstÄndarnas logik.
+
+Anklagelser om antisemitism
+Arthur Engberg var en av de frĂ€msta föresprĂ„karna för inrĂ€ttandet av det Rasbiologiska institutet 1921. Samma Ă„r sade Engberg i Andra Kammaren âVi hava ju lyckan att Ă€ga en ras som Ă€nnu Ă€r ganska oförstörd, en ras som Ă€r bĂ€rare av mycket höga och mycket goda egenskaper. Men det underliga Ă€r ju att, medan vi Ă€r ytterst angelĂ€gna om att ha stamtavlor över vĂ„ra hundar och hĂ€star, sĂ„ Ă€ro vi inte alls angelĂ€gna att se till huru vi skola bevara och skydda vĂ„r egna, svenska folkstock. Det Ă€r verkligen pĂ„ tiden att detta sker.â
+
+FramtrÀdande var Àven hans antisemitiskt fÀrgade och rasbiologiska tankegÄngar, nÄgot som under senare Är allt mera uppmÀrksammats, till exempel i HÄkan Blomqvists bok Socialdemokrat och antisemit? (2001) och doktorsavhandling Nation, ras och civilisation i svensk arbetarrörelse före nazismen (2006). Som skribent, sÄvÀl i Tiden som Arbetet och Social-Demokraten, skrev Engberg en rad antisemitiska artiklar, som:
+
+"Ty judendomen har i sÀllspord grad varit parasitÀr. Den Àr lik dessa underliga vÀxter, som icke ha sina rötter i jorden utan i andra vÀxter, vilkas must och saft utgöra deras nÀring. Judendomen har varit och Àr den indoariska folkstammens mistel. Den krÀver en Àdel ras som nÀringskÀlla, och det vore orÀttvist att förneka, att den har klar blick för det bÀsta och livsdugligaste. SÄ har den judiska rasen blivit historiens förnÀmsta exploatör", vilket citerades av nazister under andra vÀrldskriget.
+
+Talande Àr bland annat hans kritik 1914 av kung Gustaf V:s borggÄrdstal, genom anspelningar pÄ dess författares, Sven Hedins, judiska pÄbrÄ, samt hans senare fraser om "semitisk storfinans" med mera. PÄ 1920-talet anklagades Engberg ocksÄ offentligt för antisemitism, samtidigt som han sjÀlv ville fjÀrma sig frÄn detta, dÄ han betraktade den organiserade antisemitismen som utslag av mÀnsklig dumhet.
+
+AvstÄndstagande frÄn antisemitism
+Engbergs antisemitiska yttranden kom sĂ„ smĂ„ningom att helt upphöra â Ă„ret 1927 kan anses som en skiljevĂ€g. Tillsammans med socialdemokraternas ledare Per Albin Hansson och Gustav Möller var Engberg som riksdagsman detta Ă„r engagerad mot den frisinnade regeringen Ekmans och högerns krav om skĂ€rpta invandringslagar. Bland de motiv som anfördes för denna lagstiftning var rĂ€dslan för judisk "invasion" frĂ„n "Ost-Europas ghetton", som andrakammarhögerns ledare Otto JĂ€rte formulerade det. Engberg vĂ€nde sig mot att de borgerliga, som han menade, ville göra blodet och rasen till utgĂ„ngspunkt för svensk lagstiftning, och i polemik med JĂ€rte - som gladdes över att det i Sverige i och med lagen skulle bedrivas socialpolitik "med rasbiologisk betoning" - anklagade han denne för att vara anhĂ€ngare av tysk rasfilosofi.
+
+Marxism
+Som socialdemokratins andra generation i riksdagen kom Arthur Engberg att âbetraktas som socialdemokratins âkulturgestaltâ och en av dess teoretikerâ Han skrev flera kortare skrifter om marxismen och menade att denna mĂ„ste förbĂ€ttras.
+
+Engberg var en av dem som 1919 motsatte sig ett fortsatt samarbete med liberalerna. 1931 dömdes han till tre mĂ„naders fĂ€ngelse, böter och skadestĂ„nd för sina artiklar om Ă
dalshÀndelserna men beviljades av regeringen nÄd.
+
+Patriotism
+Det tal Arthur Engberg höll tio Är senare, som statsrÄd och ecklesiastikminister pÄ Sveriges nationaldag 1937, kan ses som ett koncentrat av den "svenskhet" och patriotism Engberg kom att utveckla, nÀrmast i anslutning till den sÄ kallade folkhemsideologin:
+
+I den ovan nÀmnda Socialdemokrat och antisemit? (2001), drar historikern HÄkan Blomqvist, som nÀra studerat Engbergs utveckling, slutsatsen att:
+
+<blockquote>"... utifrÄn undersökningsmaterialet ligger det nÀra till hands att den nationella folkhemstanken i Engbergs tappning inte frÀmst blev ett verktyg för frÀmlingsrÀdsla och utsortering - en aktuell kritik mot den socialdemokratiska folkhemsidén - utan för humanisering och mÀnniskovÀrde, Àven gentemot en förestÀllningsvÀrld som varit hans egen. Bland försvararna av den demokratiska folkhemstanken mot nazismen minskade utrymmet för diskriminerande rastÀnkande och antisemitism."</blockquote>
+
+Arthur Engberg tog under 1930-talet tydlig stĂ€llning mot Nazityskland och vad han kallade "rashatets blods- och jordsreligion". I sin analys av Adolf Hitler och nationalsocialismen ("Hitlerska knölpĂ„ksrörelsen i Bajern") menade han att det inte var den förstnĂ€mnde som hade skapat denna ideologi, det var "tvĂ€rtom denna ideologi som skapat honom" ; nazismen hade sina rötter i den tyska historien. Stridsskriften Mein Kampf betraktade Engberg sĂ„ledes inte först och frĂ€mst som Hitlers verk, utan som "en resumĂ© av förestĂ€llningar, som sedan ett halvt sekel tillbaka sipprat in i och fĂ„tt en allt starkare makt över sjĂ€larna" i Tyskland. Dit hörde ocksĂ„ tankarna om övermĂ€nniskan (Ăbermensch) - "den ariska mĂ€nniskan i tysk skepelse" Den nazistiska idĂ©vĂ€rlden var menade Engberg, "filosofiskt förberedd i den romantiska traditionen, kompletterad genom Gobineau, Schopenhauer och Nietzsche", dĂ€rtill "vulgariserad av H.S. Chamberlain". Denna "germanska anda" byggde pĂ„ arvet frĂ„n Fichte, naturfilosofen Schelling och Hegel, som i sin tur befruktats med rasteoretikernas program: "Wagners dunkla mystik löstes ut ur diktens och tonernas vĂ€rld och blev till blod och jĂ€rn.". DĂ€rmed hade - över Schopenhauers avvisande av den gammaltestamentliga, personliga, guden ("non-judaism") - "steget tagits ut till en religion utan Gud, en mysticism utan hopp, en tillvaro utan den fria viljan". Liten sattes till Ledaren och Ădet.
+
+Efter andra vÀrldskrigets utbrott och i samband med samlingsregeringens bildande fick Engberg lÀmna regeringen och blev istÀllet utsedd till landshövding i VÀsternorrlands lÀn. DÀr han kom att bli en kritiker av regeringens gentemot Tyskland undfallande tryckfrihetspolitik. Engberg reagerade Àven mot de nazistiska judeförföljelserna i Europa ("den slutgiltiga lösningen"), och i sin Äterkommande spalt i Vecko-Journalen skev han 1943: "De grÀsliga blodsdÄden mot judarna, deras systematiska utrotning och nedslaktning ropa till himlen.
+
+ StatsrÄd
+Den 24 september 1932 tilltrÀdde Engberg som ecklesiastikminister. PÄ den posten genomförde han en ny lÀroverksstadga, förstatligade de flesta folkskolorna och all dövstumundervisning. Det var hans förslag att införa engelska som obligatoriskt andrasprÄk, vilket dock genomdrevs först efter hans tid i regeringen. Mest kÀnd torde han vara för att ha infört en sjuÄrig folkskola.
+
+Religion
+Relationen mellan stat och kyrka var central för Engberg, som kallade sig âhedningâ. Han var en av de första politikerna i Sverige som fick större uppmĂ€rksamhet för sin kamp mot en statsreligion, och hans namn Ă€r förknippat med folkkyrkotanken. 1922 skrev han att kyrkan skulle kunna avskaffa sig sjĂ€lv om den frĂ„ntogs sitt sjĂ€lvstyre och makten över sin utbildning. Detta ledde till att socialdemokraterna slutade ivra för en sekularisering, och att Engberg Ă€ndrade sig och menade att en statlig kontroll var nödvĂ€ndig tills vidare. NĂ„got senare bildade nazisterna en tysk folkkyrka, och 1937 anklagades Engberg för att ha skapat en kyrka pĂ„ samma grundval som den nazistiska folkkyrkan. Engberg mildrade dock sin antisemitism, och han beskrivs som en ombytlig man som med Ă„ren blev försvarsvĂ€n för att rĂ€dda demokratin mot totalitĂ€ra regimer som kommunism och nazism.
+
+ Landshövding
+Engberg var initiativtagare till byggandet av Hassela skola som stod klar för invigning den 1 september 1939. Han fick aldrig hÄlla sitt invigningstal utan blev samma dag nedkallad till Stockholm för regeringssammantrÀde med anledning av andra vÀrldskrigets utbrott. Hans politiska karriÀr var nu över, i den efterföljande samlingsregeringen fanns ingen plats för stridbara och kompromisslösa viljor. Han utnÀmndes till landshövding i VÀsternorrlands lÀn 1940.
+
+Familj
+
+Engberg gifte sig 1923 med Lydia Carlsson, född 19 juli 1900, dotter till grosshandlaren Gustaf Carlsson och Christina Mathilda Johannison.
+
+Arthur Engberg ligger begravd pÄ Hassela kyrkogÄrd i HÀlsingland.
+
+ Författarskap
+Arthur Engberg Àr författare till HÀlsinglands landskapssÄng SÄg du det landet. Han skrev Àven.
+
+ UtmÀrkelser
+ 1936 promoverades Arthur Engberg till hedersdoktor vid Uppsala universitet. Engberg sÀgs vara orsaken till att man vid doktorspromotioner i Sverige upphörde med bruket att latinisera namnet pÄ promovendi. Engbergs namn blir nÀmligen pÄ latin Pratmons, vilket givetvis i Engbergs fall, med hans kÀnda talförmÄga, föreföll extra lustigt.
+
+ Arthur Engbergsskolan i Hassela Àr uppkallad efter honom.
+
+Bibliografi
+ - 3 volymer.
+
+ Referenser
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Ewert, Per (2022), Landet som glömde Gud. Hur Sverige under 1900-talet formades till vÀrldens mest sekulariserade land''. .
+
+The dawn of the secular state? Heritage and identity in Swedish church and state debates 1920 1939
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+
+Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdags andra kammare för Socialdemokraterna
+Sveriges ecklesiastikministrar
+Landshövdingar i VÀsternorrlands lÀn
+Alumner frÄn Uppsala universitet
+Svenska rasteoretiker
+Antisemitism i Sverige
+Palmstiernas klubb
+Personer frÄn Hassela socken
+Födda 1888
+Avlidna 1944
+MĂ€n
+Hedersdoktorer vid Uppsala universitet
+af Ugglas Àr en svensk friherrlig och grevlig adelsÀtt.
+
+Historik
+Ătten kommer frĂ„n bergsmansgĂ„rden Uggelviken i Falun och rĂ€knar sina anor frĂ„n Per Uggla, som omtalas i Gustav Vasas historia. Ăttens Ă€ldste kĂ€nde stamfader Ă€r Samuel Danielsson (död 1677) som var bergsman och bosatt pĂ„ Uggelviken i Stora Kopparbergs socken. Ăttlingar var huvudsakligen verksamma i Falun som bergsmĂ€n. En Ă€ttling, Samuel Ugla var kronobefallningsman i SĂ€ter och gift med en dotter till den pommerske befallningsmannen i Uppland, Per Zachariasson. Deras son Petrus Uggla var teologie doktor och kontraktsprost i Hedemora, och gift med Helena Norrström, vars far Olof Norrström var kontraktsprost och modern en Troilia, syster till Ă€rkebiskop Samuel Troilius, och vars slĂ€kt pĂ„ fĂ€dernet lĂ€nge varit kyrkoherdar i Dalarna, samt var Ă€ttlingar till Stormor i Dalom och BureĂ€tten.
+
+Samuel Ugla gjorde sin bana i kungliga kansliet, sekreteraren i lagkommissionen sedermera landshövdingen i Stockholms lĂ€n och överstĂ„thĂ„llaren i Stockholm, presidenten i kammarkollegium och en av rikets herrar. Han adlades den 22 september, Ă„r 1772 pĂ„ Stockholms slott av Gustav III under namnet af Ugglas och upptogs valsprĂ„ket "Etiam in tutis vigil" pĂ„ latin och har svenska översĂ€ttningen till "Ăfven under tryggaste lugn vaksam". Han introducerades den 15 maj, Ă„r 1777 med nummer 2111 och uppflyttades sĂ„som varande kommendör av NordstjĂ€rneorden den 11 november, Ă„r 1790 till kommendörsĂ€tt i dĂ„varande andra klassen, riddarklassen, under nummer 2111 A, varvid den adliga Ă€tten utgick. Han upphöjdes vidare den 18 november 1796 till friherrlig av Gustav IV Adolf pĂ„ nummer 311 och introducerades i denna egenskap den 20 januari, Ă„r 1797 varvid kommendörsĂ€tten utgick. Han upphöjdes tydligare den 16 november, Ă„r 1799 till grevlig vĂ€rdighet pĂ„ Stockholms slott och introducerades 21 december samma Ă„r med nummer 105 pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus. Den grevliga Ă€tten adlades med primogenitur, varigenom endast Ă€ldste sonen till förutvarande greve innehar grevevĂ€rdigheten. Ăvriga barn Ă€r friherrliga. Ă
r 1782 köpte Samuel Forsmarks bruk som Ă€gdes inom familjen fram till 1975. Samuel af Ugglas hustru var Carolina Wittfoth vars far var brukspatron pĂ„ Gysinge bruk. Dottern Helena Charlotta gifte sig med statsrĂ„det Gustaf Fredric Ă
kerhielm af Margaretelund och Àtten fortlevde pÄ svÀrdssidan genom sonen Pehr Gustaf af Ugglas varifrÄn de nuvarande medlemmarna hÀrstammar. Han köpte HarnÀs bruk samt flera andra jÀrnverk, och Àttlingar var vid sidan av deras offentliga karriÀrer brukspatroner pÄ flera bruk.
+
+Den 31 december var 77 personer med efternamnet af Ugglas bosatta i Sverige.
+
+af Ugglas vapen
+
+NÀr Greve Samuel af Ugglas upptog friherrlig och sedan grevlig rang blev det Gustaf III:s namnskiffer i första fÀltet och i den högra hjÀlmprydnaden, att det tredje fÀltet borde syfta pÄ slÀktens rötter i Dalarna (dalapilarna), eftersom motsvarar landskapsvapnet med förÀndrade tinkturer och att armen som sticker upp ur kronan pÄ den vÀnstra hjÀlmen nog syftar pÄ hans uppdrag som riksrÄd (hermelinbrÀmad karmosinröd Àrm) och president i Kammarkollegiet (nyckeln). Korset i lejonets tassar i det fjÀrde fÀltet kan möjligen syfta pÄ alla de kyrkoherdar af Ugglas som fanns bakÄt i slÀkten. I mitten ser vi kattugglan.
+
+Personer ur Àtten af Ugglas
+
+Alfabetiskt ordnade
+
+ Bertil af Ugglas (1934â1977), civilekonom, politiker, moderat
+ Caroline af Ugglas (född 1972), konstnÀr, sÄngerska och körledare
+ Gustaf af Ugglas (1820â1895), finansminister, överstĂ„thĂ„llare
+ Ludvig af Ugglas (1814â1880), kabinettskammarherre, politiker
+ Ludvig Gustaf Joachim af Ugglas (1856â1922), militĂ€r, företagsledare och hovman
+ Margaretha af Ugglas, född Stenbeck (född 1939), utrikesminister
+ Oscar af Ugglas (1901â1984), sjöofficer, kammarherre
+ Peder af Ugglas (född 1962), gitarrist och producent
+ Pehr Gustaf af Ugglas (1784â1853), bruksĂ€gare och politiker
+ Samuel af Ugglas (1750â1812) överstĂ„thĂ„llare, president i kammarkollegium
+ Theresia af Ugglas (1793â1836), mĂ„lare och tecknare
+ Theresia Ulrika Elisabet Wilhelmina af Ugglas (1829â1881), tecknare och mĂ„lare
+ Yvonne af Ugglas (född 1946), sÄngpedagog och sÄngerska
+
+Kronologiskt ordnade
+
+ Samuel af Ugglas (1750â1812) överstĂ„thĂ„llare, president i kammarkollegium
+ Pehr Gustaf af Ugglas (1784â1853), bruksĂ€gare och politiker
+ Theresia af Ugglas (1793â1836), mĂ„lare och tecknare
+ Ludvig af Ugglas (1814â1880), kabinettskammarherre, politikerGustaf af Ugglas (1820â1895), finansminister, överstĂ„thĂ„llare
+ Theresia Ulrika Elisabet Wilhelmina af Ugglas (1829â1881), tecknare och mĂ„lare
+ Ludvig Gustaf Joachim af Ugglas (1856â1922), militĂ€r, företagsledare och hovman
+ Oscar af Ugglas (1901â1984), sjöofficer, kammarherre
+ Bertil af Ugglas (1934â1977), civilekonom, politiker, moderat
+ Margaretha af Ugglas, född Stenbeck (född 1939), utrikesminister
+ Yvonne af Ugglas (född 1946), sÄngpedagog och sÄngerska
+ Peder af Ugglas (född 1962), gitarrist och producent
+ Caroline af Ugglas (född 1972), konstnÀr, sÄngerska och körledare
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+ Gabriel Anrep, Svenska adelns Ăttar-taflor, volym 4
+
+
+Svenska friherrliga Àtter
+Svenska grevliga Àtter
+Agda Persdotter, Ă€ven kĂ€nd som "Agda i porten", med okĂ€nda födelse- och dödsĂ„r, var Erik XIV:s frilla 1558â61 och möjligen 1563â65.
+
+Biografi
+Hennes födelseÄr Àr okÀnt. Agda har uppgivits vara dotter till rÄdmannen Peder Klemetsson i S:t Nicolai port i Stockholm, en uppgift som dock hittills har varit omöjlig att verifiera. Fadern ska dock ha varit en rÄdman och vÀlbÀrgad handelsman i Stockholm, med ursprung i Finland. Agda kallades "Caritas" (Latin: tillgivenhet, kÀrlek) för sin skönhets skull.
+
+Frilla
+Agda Persdotter var Eriks första frilla. Det Àr okÀnt nÀr de inledde sin förbindelse, men den pÄbörjades troligen i Stockholm. Hon bekrÀftas som kronprins Eriks frilla efter dennes flytt till Kalmar 1558, dÀr hon fick sitt eget rum i hans residens kallat "Agdas kammare". Rummet lÄg intill Eriks mottagningsrum. Att relationen pÄbörjades redan i Stockholm illustreras av det faktum att parets dotter Virginia föddes 1 januari 1559, sju mÄnader efter att Agda anlÀnt till Kalmar i maj 1558. Erik ska inte ha haft nÄgon annan frilla under denna tid.
+
+Agda Persdotter hade Ätminstone tvÄ döttrar med Erik XIV, Virginia och Constantia:
+
+Virginia Eriksdotter (1559â1633), gift med landshövdingen HĂ„kan Knutsson (Hand).
+Constantia Eriksdotter (1560â1649), gift med hĂ€radshövdingen Henrik Frankelin (död 1610), kĂ€nd för sina lĂ„nga resor i östra Europa.
+
+Erik uppstÀllde sjÀlv ett horoskop över bÄde Virginia och Constantia. En tredje utomÀktenskaplig dotter till Erik XIV, Lucretia (född 1564), har förmodats vara dotter till Agda men det finns inga belÀgg för detta. Lucretia uppges i en kÀlla ha varit gift med en Daniel Zelow.
+
+Hösten 1560 planerade Erik en resa till England för att fria till drottning Elisabet, och dÀrmed förvÀntades han göra sig av med sin frilla, sÄ som var sed dÄ en prins ingick Àktenskap. Han förde med sig Agda till Stockholm, dÀr hon 13 juni födde parets andra dotter Constantia. Den 25 augusti 1560 förlÀnades Agda godset Eknaholms gÄrd, vilket betraktas som hennes pension. I september blev dock Erik kung och hans resa till England fick instÀllas. Det Àr okÀnt om Agda blev kvar som Eriks frilla under denna tid, men det anses troligt. I september 1561 planerade Erik att Äteruppta resan till England. Resan fick instÀllas igen, men Agda upphörde ÀndÄ att vara Eriks frilla.
+
+Senare liv
+Den 24 september 1561 överlĂ€t Erik vĂ„rdnaden om sina döttrar med Agda till sin syster Cecilia. Han ger ocksĂ„ Cecilia tillstĂ„nd att anvĂ€nda vĂ„ld och alla medel hon anser nödvĂ€ndiga för att överta barnen frĂ„n Agda. Agda gifte sig i september 1561 med Eriks kammarherre, adelsmannen Joakim Eriksson Fleming (1534â1563), bror till Finlands hövitsman Clas Eriksson Fleming. Ăktenskapet hade arrangerats innan Eriks resa till England, med tanken att den var nödvĂ€ndig om Erik ingick Ă€ktenskap, men blev av trots att resan stĂ€lldes in. Vid bröllopet mottog hon förutom den tidigare bestĂ€mda Eknaholm i SmĂ„land ocksĂ„ flera skattefria egendomar i Södermanland. Med Fleming fick Agda dottern Anna (född 1562).
+
+Ă
r 1563 blev hon Ă€nka, och det Ă€r möjligt att hon dĂ„ blev frilla Ă„t Erik pĂ„ nytt. Ă
r 1565 ersattes i varje fall alla Eriks favoriter med Karin MÄnsdotter. Agda Persdotters vidare liv Àr okÀnt, men det finns uppgifter om att hon ska ha gift sig med Christoffer Olofsson StrÄle av Sjöared, kunglig befallningsman och kommendant pÄ Stegeholms slott och Söderköpings slott. Hennes dödsÄr Àr okÀnt.
+
+Se Àven
+Frillohopen
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Hans Gillingstam, "Agda Persdotter, hennes slÀkt och Erik XIV:s dotter Lucretia. En kÀllkritisk studie", SlÀkt och HÀvd 2001:2-3, s. 156-160.
+ Gadd, Pia: Frillor, fruar och herrar - en okÀnd kvinnohistoria Falun 2009
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Svenska mÀtresser
+Erik XIV:s hov
+Födda 1500-talet
+Kvinnor
+Avlidna okÀnt Är
+Gustav Vasas hov
+Alnön (Ă€ven kallad Alnö) Ă€r en 65 kmÂČ stor ö utanför Sundsvall. Ăn, som Ă€r Sveriges 16:e största och Norrlands nĂ€st största, Ă€r 15 km lĂ„ng och 6 km bred pĂ„ bredaste stĂ€llet.
+
+Ăn Alnön ingĂ„r i kommundelen, postorten, distriktet, församlingen och socknen Alnö, som Ă€ven omfattar Rödön med flera mindre öar. Fast befolkning finns idag endast pĂ„ Alnön, och uppgĂ„r till 8 832 (per den 2019-12-31). Sommartid mer Ă€n fördubblas antalet boende pĂ„ ön.
+
+Bebyggelsen Ă€r utspridd, men har sin största koncentration lĂ€ngs Alnösundet, sĂ€rskilt nĂ€ra brofĂ€stet i Vi eller Alnö centrum (6 876 invĂ„nare per 2020-12-31), dĂ€r samhĂ€llsservice i form av bland annat butiker, restauranger, bensinmackar, gym, bibliotek, apotek, tandvĂ„rd, sjukvĂ„rd och veterinĂ€r finns. Ăvriga tĂ€torter och smĂ„orter Ă€r Ankarsvik (956 invĂ„nare), Hartungviken (507 inv.), Gustavsberg (254 inv.), Hovid (218 inv.), Röde och BĂ„rĂ€ng (196 inv.) samt Hörningsholm (157 inv.).
+
+Alnön Àr kÀnd för sin jakt pÄ vilt dÄ det Àr gott om vilda djur. Den 31 augusti 2009 sköts en björn i SÀter pÄ norra delen av ön.
+
+Alnöbron, invigd 1964, var med sina 1 042 meter Sveriges lĂ€ngsta bro fram till 1972 dĂ„ Ălandsbron byggdes. Det tog en arbetsstyrka pĂ„ 40-55 man 3,5 Ă„r att bygga den 9,4 meter breda bron över Alnösundet. Den Ă€r cirka 42 meter hög och har cirka 40 meter fri segelhöjd. Bron ersatte tidigare fĂ€rjetrafik, och möjliggör att en stor del av Alnöns befolkning arbetar i Sundsvall.
+
+SevÀrdheter
+
+Norra Alnön
+PÄ norra Alnön, 2,5 km norr om Alnöbron, stÄr Alnö gamla kyrka (frÄn 1100-talet) och Alnö kyrka (byggd 1893) sida vid sida. Alnö gamla kyrka Àr en populÀr bröllopskyrka. I Alnö nya kyrka finns Alnöfunten, en unik dopfunt i trÀ frÄn 1100-talet. Dopfuntens yttre ornamentering innehÄller en blandning av sÄvÀl fornnordisk som kristen symbolik. I anslutning till kyrkorna, pÄ Kyrktunet (eller Tunet), ligger ocksÄ Alnö hembygdsgÄrd med SÄgverksmuseet och Café Tunet. HÀr anordnar Àven Alnö hembygdsförening ett vÀlbesökt midsommarfirande varje Är.
+
+Vid StornÀset ligger ett av öns tre naturreservat samt StornÀsets vandrarhem. Projektet att bygga en golfbana vid StornÀset har pÄgÄtt i mÄnga Är. NÄgra kilometer lÀngre norrut, vid Hörningsholm, hittar man byggnadsminnet Tors lokal, Sveriges första Folkets Hus pÄ landsbygden. PÄ norra delen av ön finns flera fornlÀmningar, som gravkullar. PÄ norra delen av östra sidan finns det en fin badvik, SlÀdaviken.
+
+Ăns högst belĂ€gna gĂ„rd, SmedsgĂ„rden, har anor frĂ„n 1600-talet. GĂ„rden ligger vackert med utsikt över kulturskyddad mark med fornlĂ€mningar och en rik flora. DĂ€r finns Ă€ven en nĂ€rbelĂ€gen geologisk lokal med fynd av den för ön unika bergarten alnöit.
+
+PÄ norra Alnön finns bÄde ett riksintresse för naturvÄrd och ett riksintresse för kulturmiljövÄrden (kallat Norra Alnön Y11), det senare inrÀttat med följande motivering:
+Odlingslandskap med lÄng bebyggelsekontinuitet och dÀri insprÀngda industrimiljöer som speglar sÄgverksepoken och industrialismens genombrott vid 1800-talets senare del dÄ Alnö var "de sexton sÄgarnas ö".(Kyrkomiljö).
+
+Följande uttryck för riksintresset angavs i samband med motiveringen:
+VÀlbevarade bymiljöer, gravfÀlt och storhögar frÄn jÀrnÄlder samt strategiskt lokaliserad tidigmedeltida kyrka och eventuell kastallÀmning. Omedelbart intill ligger monumental 1890-talskyrka, ritad av Ferdinand Boberg. I norra delen av miljön vittnar bl.a. bebyggelsen i Hörningsholm, Nacka, Erikdal, Hovid och Johannesvik om den koncentration av sÄgverk som uppstod i omrÄdet under 1800-talets senare del. Landets första föreningslokal Folkets hus pÄ landsbygden byggdes hÀr 1896, Tors lokal i Hörningsholm.
+
+Södra Alnön
+PÄ södra Alnön finner man flera fina badvikar som BÀnkÄsviken, Tranviken, Havstoviken, Hartungviken och Grönviken. Sommaridyllen Spikarna, ett fiskelÀge med sjöbodar, fiskestugor, kapell och kafé, Àr belÀget pÄ södra delen av ön. Alnön har Àven ett inomhusbad, Alnöbadet, belÀget i Vi.
+
+Spikarö Kapell, byggt 1958, drivs av Spikarö kapellförening och har gudstjÀnster och musikkvÀllar under sommaren. Kapellet Àr ocksÄ populÀrt för bröllop och barndop. Restaurang Piren inryms i ett av Alnöns 19 före detta sÄgverk, belÀget i Karlsvik. Restauranger finns ocksÄ i Tranviken och i Vindhem, som Àven har en av Alnöns fyra smÄbÄtshamnar.
+
+SÄgverksmonumentet, minnet över sÄgverkstiden Är 1860 till Är 1963, Àr placerat pÄ Hötorget i Alnö centrum i Vi.
+
+I Gustavsberg pÄ södra Alnön finns SchymbergsgÄrden. Denna gÄrd Àr sÄngerskan Hjördis Schymbergs (1909-2008) barndomshem och donerades till stiftelsen 1999 med syftet att Äter fylla den med sÄng, musik och kulturellt liv.
+
+Sundsvalls SegelsÀllskaps hamn ligger i Vindhem pÄ Alnöns sydvÀstspets. Norrlands kappseglingscentrum. HÀr finns ocksÄ Restaurang Vindhem som har haft omnÀmnande i White Guide 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 samt 2016.
+
+Kommunal service
+Skolorna pĂ„ Alnön Ă€r Uslands skola F-6 strax söder om Vi, Ankarsviks skola F-3 pĂ„ södra Alnön och Vibackeskolan F-9 i Vi. Utöver dessa finns friskolan Kunskapsakademin F-9. Flera förskolor finns: Fyrens förskola, LillbĂ€ckens förskola, Rönnbackens förskola, SagogĂ„rdens förskola, Vibacke förskola, Ăngens förskola, Ăppellunda förskola, Lanternans förskola och ĂgĂ„rdens förskola. Samtliga förskolor ligger i eller kring Vi, förutom Rönnbackens förskola som ligger pĂ„ norra Alnön och Lanternans förskola som ligger i Ankarsvik pĂ„ södra Alnö. I anslutning till Vibackeskolan finns Alnö fritidsgĂ„rd. PĂ„ Alnön finns Ă€ven Ă€ldreboende, servicehus och gruppboenden.
+
+Etymologi
+Namnet omnÀmns i HÀlsingelagen i början av 1300-talet som AlnÞ.
+
+En Àldre muntlig tradition Àr att namnet sÀgs vara taget av den myckna alskog som vÀxer hÀr, varför ocksÄ sockensigillet visar en al. Enligt en tidig ortnamnstolkning har socknen uppkallats efter byn Alla (omnÀmnd 1543) eller Malla (1545), som dÄ tillhörde socknen, och Àr identisk med dagens Ala i HÀssjö socken norr om ön. En senare tolkning Àr att namnet Àr slÀkt med dialektordet ala, 'vÀxa', och kan betyda 'den uppsvÀllda ön' med syftning pÄ öns branta strÀnder.
+
+Alnö eller Alnön
+Alnön Äsyftar i kartor och officiell statistik ön, medan Alnö avser orten, distriktet, församlingen och socknen inklusive grannöarna. Denna distinktion efterföljs dock inte helt konsekvent i Àldre och icke-officiella kÀllor. Ordet Alnö Àr och har Ätminstone sedan slutet av 1800-talet varit vanligare Àn Alnön i svenskt skriftsprÄk. MÄnga i lokalbefolkningen sÀger emellertid att man bor pÄ Alnön enligt LantmÀteriets ortnamnsutredning 2015, och i Alnö församling. NÄgra Är tidigare byttes vissa trafikskyltar frÄn Alnön till Alnö, dock inte alla. Baserat pÄ ortnamnsutredningen 2015 avser Trafikverket att skylta om tillbaka till Alnön nÀr skyltarna Àr utslitna, nÄgot som Ànnu (2018) inte Àr genomfört.
+
+Genitivformen Alnö anvÀnds i Àldre fasta uttryck, exempelvis Alnö centrum, medan man i lösare sprÄkliga konstruktioner anvÀnder genitivformerna Alnös och Alnöns, exempelvis i "Alnös skÀrgÄrd", "Alnöns nordslinga" eller "Alnöns befolkning".
+
+Historia
+
+Geologisk historia
+Alnön bildades för cirka 570 miljoner Ă„r sedan genom vulkanisk verksamhet i omrĂ„det. PĂ„ grund av dess vulkaniska historia innehĂ„ller norra Alnöns berggrund sĂ€llsynta mineral, bland annat de vĂ€rldsunika bergarterna alnöit och borengit. Brytning av jĂ€rnmalm frĂ„n tvĂ„ mindre gruvor för förĂ€dling i Galtströms bruk skedde under 1800-talet, med utlastning frĂ„n Ă
s brygga. Under andra vÀrldskriget bröts baryt för anvÀndning som rÄvara för mÄlarfÀrg i en gruva i PottÀng. Boliden AB provbröt omkring 1950 en fyndighet med juvit vid NÀset av Boliden för aluminiumframstÀllning.
+
+FornlÀmningar
+FrÄn bronsÄldern har antrÀffats ett tiotal kuströsen och frÄn jÀrnÄldern mindre gravfÀlt och spridda gravhögar samt en storhög vid Röde.
+
+SĂ„gverkstiden
+
+Alnön har ett idealiskt lÀge mellan IndalsÀlven och Ljungan och med perfekta hamnar i Alnösundet. HÀr byggdes sÄgverken tÀtt. Som mest var 16 sÄgar i gÄng samtidigt. NÀr Elias Sehlstedt blickade ut över Alnön frÄn Sundsvall inspirerades han till den berömda frasen "Och hela hamnen som en spegel lÄg. Och sÄg vid sÄg jag sÄg, hvarthelst jag sÄg" (1852).
+
+Alnöns storhetstid började med sĂ„gen pĂ„ Eriksdal pĂ„ 1860-talet. Ăven om sĂ„gverken pĂ„ ön inte var de största innebar lokaliseringen av de 18 sĂ„gverken en stor omvĂ€lvning för ön. 1850 hade ön 950 invĂ„nare, 1900 var innevĂ„narantalet 6 841. Kring varje sĂ„gverk vĂ€xte det upp ett litet samhĂ€lle, dit arbetarna kom frĂ„n olika hĂ„ll i Sverige och Norden. Det byggdes i rask takt upp arbetarbaracker av mer eller mindre undermĂ„lig kvalitet. Hygienen var ofta under all kritik pĂ„ grund av trĂ„ngboddhet.
+
+Nykterhetsrörelsen och frikyrkorna fick ett starkt fÀste pÄ ön. Bland öns första baptister hÀnde att de förlorade sina arbeten efter att ha lÄtit sig vuxendöpas. SÄgverkspatronerna hade emellertid i allmÀnhet inget emot att deras arbetare engagerade sig för kyrka och nykterhet, men det blev stridigheter dÄ de frikyrkliga var drivande för att organisera Sundsvallsstrejken. Ytterligare motsÀttningar uppstod dÄ det blev tal om att arbetarna ville ha föreningsrÀtt att organisera sig fackligt. 1896 bildades en avdelning av Svenska sÄgverksindustriarbetareförbundet vid Hörningsholms sÄgverk, vilket var den första avdelningen i Sundsvallsdistriktet. 1897 invigdes landets 3:e Folkets hus belÀget just pÄ Hörningsholm, Tors lokal.
+
+Platsen Àr föremÄl för ett saneringsprogram.
+
+Sveriges industrialisering inleddes enligt vissa historiker med att Ă„ngsĂ„gar byggdes lĂ€ngs Norrlandskusten, varav den första startades i Tunadal 1849, vars sĂ„gverk ligger vid Alnösundet men pĂ„ fastlandet. Ett fyrtiotal rektangulĂ€ra prĂ„mar (sĂ„ kallade lĂ€ktare), har pĂ„ senare tid Ă„terfunnits pĂ„ Alnösundets botten, i Fillaviken utanför Tunadal. Den Ă€ldsta Ă€r byggd av virke frĂ„n nĂ„gon gĂ„ng under perioden 1788â1828, och finns pĂ„ en karta frĂ„n 1871. PrĂ„marna har bland annat anvĂ€nts för lĂ€ktring (lastning eller lossning) av fartyg uppankrade pĂ„ redden, innan betongkajer anlades vid mitten av 1900-talet.
+
+Sport
+
+Profiler
+Aston Forsberg, konstnÀr
+Helen Sjöholm, sÄngerska
+Andreas Yngvesson, fotboll
+Lennart Uhlin, professor i arkitektur
+Tina Nordlund, fotboll
+Hjördis Schymberg, operasÄngerska
+Gunnar Hellström, regissör, skÄdespelare
+Anna Norberg, skÄdespelare
+Tore Lindwall, skÄdespelare
+Beata GÄrdeler, regissör
+Anton Karlsson, lÀngdskidor
+Sanna Martinez-Matz, sÄngerska
+Karl Ăstman, författare
+Henrik Zetterberg, hockey
+Emil Forsberg, fotboll
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+KĂ€llor
+ Statistiska CentralbyrÄn, SCB (uppgifterna om befolkningen)
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+Norra Alnön â ett riksintresse, utgiven av LĂ€nsstyrelsen i VĂ€sternorrlands lĂ€n, LĂ€nsmuseets smĂ„skriftsserie nr 10, 2012
+ alno.nu
+
+Alnön
+Stadsdelar i Sundsvall
+Vulkaner i Sverige
+En akvarieförening Àr en sammanslutning av akvarister som tillsammans driver en förening, i Sverige alltid med uteslutande ideell verksamhet. Förutom vanligen mÄnatliga medlemsmöten och publicering av medlemsorgan och informationsblad, har akvarieföreningar ofta en hyrd lokal dÀr medlemmarna tillsammans anordnar tillfÀlliga akvarieutstÀllningar för allmÀnheten, eller hyr en lokal dÀr de gemensamt hÄller akvarium med akvariefiskar och vÀxter, ofta för odling.
+
+Typer av akvarieföreningar
+Det finns tvĂ„ huvudtyper av akvarieföreningar. Vanligast Ă€r olika lokal- eller regionalföreningar. De inriktar sig inte mot nĂ„gon sĂ€rskild gren inom akvaristiken, men har sin verksamhet knuten till ett visst geografiskt omrĂ„de â i Sverige oftast en kommun. Ett exempel pĂ„ en sĂ„dan förening Ă€r den numera nedlagda Göteborgs akvarieförening. I Sverige finns drygt 30 sĂ„dana akvarieföreningar, och i vissa stĂ€der till och med fler Ă€n en. En övervĂ€gande majoritet av dessa akvarieföreningar Ă€r i sin tur anslutna till Sveriges Akvarieföreningars Riksförbund (SARF), som sedan 1946 Ă€r en samordnande paraplyorganisation till stöd för Sveriges akvarieföreningar och -klubbar.
+
+Den andra typen utgörs av föreningar som Àr verksamma inom ett specifikt intresseomrÄde inom akvaristiken, men som dÀremot inte primÀrt vÀnder sig till medlemmar inom ett i sammanhanget litet geografiskt omrÄde. Det akvaristiska specialintresset kan till exempel röra sig om en viss typ av fiskar, en specifik biotop, en sÀrskild form av odling, eller liknande. Till denna typ av föreningar hör exempelvis Skandinaviska KillisÀllskapet, som vÀnder sig till akvarister intresserade av sÄ kallade killifiskar, det vill sÀga ÀgglÀggande tandkarpar, och Aquatic Gardeners Association, vars syfte Àr att sprida information om och studera samt förbÀttra metoder för odling av vÀxter avsedda för akvarier och dammar. En del av dessa föreningar har underavdelningar i form av lokalgrupper, för att förenkla mötet mellan delar av medlemmarna.
+
+Stockholms Akvarieförening Àr tillsammans med Malmö Akvarieförening Sveriges, och en av vÀrldens Àldsta akvarieföreningar, bÄda grundade Är 1926.
+
+Referenser
+
+Akvarier
+Akvarieorganisationer
+Arkitekt Àr en titel pÄ en upphovsperson till arkitektur. Personen kan ha akademisk examen i arkitektur, landskapsarkitektur, inredningsarkitektur eller fysisk planering eller vara autodidakt, som t ex Le Corbusier eller Tadao Ando. Arkitekter planerar och/eller gestaltar stadsmiljöer, byggnader samt inomhus- och utemiljöer.
+
+Etymologi
+
+Ordet arkitekt kommer av latinska architectus eller grekiska arkhitekton. Ordet Àr alltsÄ en sammanslagning av de grekiska orden archos och tekton. Archos Àr ett förled som kan utlÀsas mÀstare eller överordnad (samma ordled som i Àrkebiskop och Àrkefiende) och tekton kan betyda snickare eller byggare. SÄledes kan man sÀga att arkitekt betyder mÀstare i byggnadskonst eller överbyggmÀstare.
+
+Yrkesroll
+En arkitekt arbetar med planering av byggnader och byggda miljöer, dÀr mÄlet Àr att anpassa byggnaden bÄde konstnÀrligt och funktionellt till den omgivning den Àr placerad i, samt skapa en bra planlösning inomhus. För att uppnÄ detta mÄste en arkitekt förstÄ en byggnads uppbyggnad och konstruktion, dess anknytning till platsen, undersöka hur mÀnniskor anvÀnder sig av byggda miljöer och det samband som finns dÀremellan.
+
+De verktyg som en arkitekt anvÀnder sig av för att skapa en byggnad innefattar skissande, modellbyggande, ritningar i planer och snitt och 2D- och 3D-modellering. Det mesta arbetet sker idag via datorer.
+
+Arkitekter kan ocksÄ arbeta med möbelformgivning, samhÀllsplanering, stadsplanering, landskapsarkitektur, landskapsplanering, byggnadskonstruktion, design, miljökonsekvensutredningar och som kontrollansvarig enligt plan och bygglagen, bygglovsgranskare med mera. Det handlar sÄledes om en yrkeskÄr med stora möjligheter till specialisering.
+
+Titel
+I de flesta EU-lĂ€nder Ă€r arkitektyrket reglerat; bĂ„de titeln âarkitektâ och rĂ€tten att utöva arkitektyrket Ă€r lagskyddade och kopplade till en arkitektutbildning. I mĂ„nga EU-lĂ€nder finns ocksĂ„ nĂ„gon form av registreringsordning.
+
+I antikens Grekland avsĂ„g titeln den person som ansvarade för bĂ„de formgivningen och genomförandet av viktiga byggnader â denne person var bevandrad sĂ„vĂ€l inom estetik som konstruktion, dirigerade arbetet pĂ„ byggarbetsplatsen och skötte leveranser av byggmaterial med mera. SĂ„ har det mer eller mindre förhĂ„llit sig fram till modern tid dĂ„ konstruktionslĂ€ran utvecklade sig till en egen disciplin och arkitekten alltmer arbetade med den övergripande planeringen.
+
+Sverige
+
+Sverige Àr ett av fÄ EU-lÀnder dÀr arkitekttiteln inte Àr skyddad. I Sverige Àr det dock vanligt att arkitekter med fullgjord arkitektexamen (som uppfyller EU:s kvalifikationsdirektiv) och minst tvÄ Ärs arbetserfarenhet beviljas anvÀnda den skyddade titeln arkitekt SAR/MSA.
+Yrkestiteln arkitekt SAR/MSA utfÀrdas av och refererar till medlemskap i fack- och branschorganisationen Sveriges Arkitekter. Den fungerar som en kvalitetsgaranti för arkitekter. Den betydligt mindre, yrkesideella föreningen Arkitekter I Sverige utfÀrdar titeln arkitekt AIS.
+
+Sveriges Arkitekter utfÀrdar ocksÄ yrkestitlarna LAR/MSA för landskapsarkitekt, SIR/MSA för inredningsarkitekt och FPR/MSA för planeringsarkitekt.
+
+Utbildning
+
+Sverige
+
+Utbildningar med arkitektexamen
+Arkitektutbildningen innehÄller kurser i att planera, utforma, förvalta och förnya byggnader och bebyggelsemiljöer. I Sverige har fyra universitet har rÀtt att examinera arkitekter: Chalmers tekniska högskola, Kungliga Tekniska högskolan, Lunds tekniska högskola vid Lunds universitet och UmeÄ universitet.
+
+Examina
+Arkitektexamen Àr en yrkesexamen pÄ avancerad nivÄ som erhÄlls nÀr akademiska examina pÄ grundnivÄ kandidatexamen och pÄ avancerad nivÄ masterexamen har avklarats. Kandidatexamen erfordrar 180 högskolepoÀng och masterexamen 120 högskolepoÀng, vilket tillsammans motsvarar fem Ärs heltidsstudier. Liksom yrkesexamina finns för de akademiska examina olika inriktningar beroende pÄ fakultet (se examen). Till exempel, för arkitektprogrammet pÄ Chalmers Tekniska Högskola utfÀrdas teknologie kandidatexamen (tekn.kand. eller B.Sc.) och teknologie masterexamen (M.Sc. med valt ÀmnesomrÄde).
+
+Direktiv
+
+Genom EU:s direktiv 2005/36/EG om erkÀnnande av yrkeskvalifikationer (kvalifikationsdirektivet) faststÀlls vilka krav som ska stÀllas pÄ en arkitektutbildning och annan behörighet för att erkÀnnas i ett annat EU-land eller EFTA-land. Arkitektexamen Àr reglerad av högskoleförordningens bilaga 2 och följer kvalitetskraven i EU:s kvalifikationsdirektiv enligt ovan. OcksÄ den Àldre arkitektexamen uppfyller det europeiska arkitektdirektivet. Detta innebÀr att en svenskutbildad arkitekt har samma behörighet i annat ESS land.
+
+Den nya arkitektexamen erhÄller dem som pÄbörjat utbildningen efter 1 juli 2007. Den gamla arkitektexamen omfattar 270 hp (4,5 Ärs studier) för dem som pÄbörjat utbildningen före 1 juli 2007.
+
+Behörighet
+För att kvalificera sig till arkitekturprogrammen behövs förutom grundlÀggande behörighet Àven sÀrskild behörighet i omrÄdesbehörighet A3, vilket för sökande med gymnasieexamen (Gy11) innebÀr Matematik 3b eller 3c, Naturkunskap 2 (Fysik 1a alternativt Fysik 1b1 + Fysik 1b2 samt Kemi 1 kan ersÀtta Naturkunskap 2) och SamhÀllskunskap 1b (alternativt 1a1 + 1a2). För sökande med Slutbetyg krÀvs motsvarande kurser, dvs. Matematik C, Naturkunskap B (Fysik A samt Kemi A kan ersÀtta Naturkunskap B) och SamhÀllskunskap A. För sökande till Chalmers arkitektutbildningar krÀvs Àven Engelska 6 (motsvarande Engelska B).
+
+Man kan ta sig in pÄ tre olika sÀtt (urvalsgrupper): BI, BII (betygspoÀng gymnasiet), HP (poÀng högskoleprovet) och AU (poÀng arkitektprovet). AntagningspoÀng frÄn gymnasiebetyg ligger mellan 20,5 och 22 medan poÀngen för Högskoleprovet ligger mellan 1,4 och 1,8 poÀng. AntagningspoÀngen varierar frÄn Är till Är och frÄn skola till skola men ligger generellt pÄ dessa nivÄer.
+
+Ăvriga utbildningar
+Sedan 1800-talet gör man ibland en distinktion mellan "konstnÀrliga" arkitekter och det som dÄ kallades "fortifikationsingenjörer". Denna distinktion kan fortfarande skönjas i det faktum att det i Stockholm faktiskt finns tvÄ arkitekturskolor: KTH och Kungliga konsthögskolans arkitekturskola Mejan Arc (som inte har examinationsrÀtt för arkitektexamen men erbjuder fortbildning).
+
+Vid Arkitekturskolan pÄ KTH inrÀttades 2002 magisterprogrammet Design och Byggande pÄ 60 poÀng. För att söka till programmet krÀvdes en kandidatexamen pÄ 120 poÀng frÄn en byggnadsingenjörs- eller arkitektutbildning. En slutförd magisterexamen i Design och Byggande omfattade sÄledes 180 poÀng med möjlighet att arbeta som arkitekt och/eller ingenjör.
+
+Vid LuleÄ tekniska universitet inrÀttades Är 2005 en civilingenjörsutbildning i arkitektur. Denna utbildning innehÄller dock en mindre del arkitektur, och kan inte ses som en skolning till arkitekt i dess traditionella bemÀrkelse. Denna utbildning leder till en civilingenjörsexamen, ej till arkitektexamen.
+
+FrÄn hösten 2006 finns en ny utbildning som ger möjlighet till dubbel examen som bÄde arkitekt och civilingenjör pÄ Chalmers. Utbildningen heter Arkitektur och teknik och Àr pÄ 300 till 360 högskolepoÀng.
+
+Sveriges första diplomerade, kvinnliga arkitekt var Brita Snellman. Vid fackskolan för arkitektur pĂ„ Tekniska högskolan 1920 var hon extra elev. Ă
ret efter blev det lagstadgat att kvinnor fick bli ordinarie elever. Hon praktiserade som murare 1922 i Hedemora och avlade arkitektexamen 1924. Hon anstÀlldes i augusti samma Är pÄ byggnadsrÄdet Hjorts arkitektkontor.
+
+Ăverförd betydelse
+Ordet "arkitekt" anvÀnds ofta i överförd betydelse för andra yrkesgrupper, till exempel IT-arkitekt som arbetar med utveckling av IT-system. Det kan ocksÄ anvÀndas i betydelsen "upphovsperson" för idébyggen, lagförslag och liknande.
+
+Se Àven
+ Arkitektkontor
+ Arkitektur
+ Arkitektyrkets historia i Sverige
+ Byggherre
+ Civilingenjör
+ Inredningsarkitekt
+ JÀrnvÀgsarkitekt
+ Kasper Salinpriset
+ Landskapsarkitekt
+ Lista pÄ betydelsefulla arkitekter
+ Lista över svenska arkitekter
+ LĂ€nsarkitekt
+ Möbelarkitekt
+ Planeringsarkitekt
+ SamhÀllsplanerare
+ Stadsarkitekt
+ Stadsplanering
+ Systemarkitekt
+ TrÀdgÄrdsarkitekt
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ Sveriges Arkitekter
+ AIS Arkitekter i Sverige
+
+Yrkesexamina
+
+Yrken inom arkitektur
+KonstnÀrliga yrken
+Titlar
+Adolf Wilhelm EdelsvĂ€rd, född 28 juni 1824 i Ăstersund, död 15 oktober 1919 i Stockholm, var en svensk arkitekt och officer (major) samt fortifikationsingenjör. Han var son till militĂ€ren Wilhelm EdelsvĂ€rd och far till kammarherre Wilhelm EdelsvĂ€rd.
+
+Biografi
+Adolf Wilhelm EdelswÀrd var son till Fredrik Wilhelm EdelsvÀrd, som var militÀr, ingenjör och Àven intresserad av utveckling inom lantbruket. Adolf Wilhelm gick samma vÀg som sin far och blev 1844 antagen sÄsom underlöjtnant vid Dalregementet, men tog Äret dÀrpÄ transport till IngenjörkÄren och tjÀnstgjorde sedan i flera Är vid fortifikationsarbetena pÄ rikets fÀstningar. Han studerade Àven civil arkitektur, sÄvÀl i hemlandet som pÄ kontinenten och i England.
+
+Privatpraktiserande arkitekt i Göteborg
+
+Efter de tolv utbildningsĂ„ren kunde EdelsvĂ€rd starta sin verksamhet som projekterande arkitekt med eget kontor i Göteborg. Under hans tio Ă„r i staden â frĂ„n 1850 till 1860 â kĂ€nnetecknas hans yrkesutövning av en komplex kombination av officersplikter, expanderande privat verksamhet och ett omfattande engagemang i husbyggandet vid de statliga jĂ€rnvĂ€garna. Den unge arkitekten EdelsvĂ€rd fick uppdrag av de mest skilda slag; barnhus, bibliotek, bostadshus, cafĂ©paviljong, fabriker, fattighus, konstutstĂ€llningar, kyrkor, ladugĂ„rd, museum, orangeri, skolhus och inte minst stationshus. Invigningen 1859 av Hagakyrkan blev ett glansfullt krön pĂ„ EdelsvĂ€rds verksamhet i Göteborg.
+
+Bland övriga uppdrag i Göteborg kan sĂ€rskilt nĂ€mnas; TrĂ€dgĂ„rdsmĂ€starebostad vid ĂverĂ„s (1852), Wijkska huset (1853), Villa Odinslund (cirka 1855), Barnhuset pĂ„ Stampen (1857), Engelska kyrkan (1857), Stationshus och banhall (1858), Bostadshus vid Klippan (1858), Sankta Birgittas kapell (1858), Skolhus vid Klippan (1859), Hagakyrkan (1859) Dicksonska stiftelsens hus (1860) och Navigationsskolan (1862).
+
+Vid Kungliga JÀrnvÀgsstyrelsen
+Adolf W. EdelsvĂ€rd anstĂ€lldes 1855 som SJ:s chefsarkitekt, detta var ett Ă„r innan de första banstrĂ€ckorna öppnades. Under hans 40 Ă„r i ledningen för Statens JĂ€rnvĂ€gars arkitektkontor uppfördes inte mindre Ă€n 5 725 byggnader vid de av staten byggda huvudlinjerna, dĂ€rav 297 stationshus. EdelsvĂ€rd lade stor vikt vid stationshusets stil och funktion â alltifrĂ„n de stora centralstationerna i Stockholm, Göteborg och Malmö till linjestationernas smĂ„ stationshus, som ofta utfördes efter standardmodeller:
+Boxholmsmodellen
+Byskemodellen
+Gnestamodellen
+Habomodellen
+HÀllnÀsmodellen
+Jonseredsmodellen
+Katrineholmsmodellen
+Partilledsmodellen
+Sparreholmsmodellen
+VÀnnÀsmodellen
+
+DÄ stationsplatsen var utsedd ankom det pÄ EdelsvÀrd att utplacera och utforma de olika till en station hörande byggnader. Han nöjde sig dock inte med att enbart studera byggnadernas utformning utan ansÄg att de borde ses i ett större sammanhang och han hade dÀrför Àven tankar och idéer angÄende stadsplaneringen i samband med byggandet av det svenska jÀrnvÀgsnÀtet. Han angav ett par punkter som han ansÄg borde följas vid planlÀggandet av landsortsstÀder eller förstÀder. Staden skulle bl a förses med torg, öppna platser och planteringar, vidare skulle den delas i tvÄ hÀlfter av parallella huvudgator (se Katrineholm) Ätskilda av en park med alléer.
+
+Det skulle avsÀttas vÀlbelÀgna tomter för publika byggnader. Med "vÀlbelÀgna" avsÄg EdelsvÀrd, att de borde placeras i stadens centralaxel, vars poler skulle utgöras av stationshuset och kyrkan. HÀr skulle Àven stationsbyggnaden fÄ en "monumental tyngd" dÄ den bildade fond i ett centralt stadsparti. Idag kan man se spÄr av hans tankar och idéer i stÀder som NÀssjö dÀr stationsbyggnaden var ortens första offentliga byggnad och fick utgöra utgÄngspunkten i stadsplanen och dÀr en esplanad leder frÄn stationsbyggnaden till Stortorget och i HÀssleholm dÀr stationsbyggnaden och kyrkan ligger i respektive Àndpunkt av stadens huvudgata.
+
+MĂ„nga av EdelsvĂ€rds stationshus finns kvar, sĂ€rskilt vid de större stationerna: Stockholm C, Göteborg C, Malmö C, Norrköping C, Uppsala C, Linköping C och Ărebro C, men av de mindre â dĂ€r tĂ„gen inte lĂ€ngre stannar â har Ă„tskilliga numera tagits bort. Vid VĂ€stra stambanan finns tre likartade stationshus i AlingsĂ„s, Skövde C och Töreboda.
+
+Vid sidan av sin verksamhet som jÀrnvÀgsarkitekt ritade EdelsvÀrd Àven andra byggnader och bland hans kyrkobyggnader mÄste nÀmnas: Hagakyrkan, Engelska kyrkan och S:ta Birgittas kapell alla i Göteborg samt TrollhÀttans kyrka tillika Jonsereds kyrka, Taxinge kyrka och Sandarne kyrka. I Uddevalla uppfördes Kampenhofs bomullsspinneri pÄ 1850-talet, rivet 1982. Thorburnska huset vid Kungstorget i samma stad finns kvar. För StockholmsutstÀllningen 1866 ritade han utstÀllningshallen i KungstrÀdgÄrden. EdelsvÀrd Àr begravd pÄ Solna kyrkogÄrd.
+
+Ledamotskap
+Kungliga Lantbruksakademien
+Akademien för de fria konsterna
+
+Bildgalleri
+
+UtmÀrkelser
+Riddare av Vasaorden - 4 november 1862
+Riddare av NordstjÀrneorden - 23 juli 1866
+Riddare av Sankt Olavs Orden - 22 juli 1882
+Kommendör av Vasaorden 1kl - 1 december 1888
+
+Se Àven
+ JÀrnvÀg
+ MuseijÀrnvÀg
+ Riddarhuset
+ Tomteboda station
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+WebbkÀllor
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Byggnader i vÀstra Sverige ritade av Adolf W. EdelsvÀrd
+
+
+Svenska arkitekter under 1800-talet
+Födda 1824
+Avlidna 1919
+MĂ€n
+Svenska militÀrer under 1800-talet
+Svenska fortifikationsofficerare
+Riddare av NordstjÀrneorden
+Ledamöter av Lantbruksakademien
+Ledamöter av Konstakademien
+Gravsatta pÄ Solna kyrkogÄrd
+Personer frĂ„n Ăstersund
+MilitĂ€rer frĂ„n Ăstersund
+Akvaristik, konsten att sköta akvarier, akvariehobby, akvariehÄllning, betecknar sysselsÀtting med akvarier, i synnerhet som fritidssyssla. Hobbyuttövare kallas akvarist eller akvarievÀn. Personal i yrkesverksamhet benÀmns akvarieskötare.
+
+I akvarium hÄlls som regel levande akvatiska djur och/eller vÀxter, som dekoration, eller för förökning, studier, och vetenskaplig forskning.
+
+ĂndamĂ„let med ett akvarium varierar och skötseln dĂ€refter. I ett hemakvarium med vĂ€xter och fiskar ingĂ„r i djurskötseln daglig eller glesare utfodring, samt kontroll av hĂ€lsotillstĂ„nd och eventuell gallring. VĂ€xter kontrolleras dagligen med avseende pĂ„ skador och glesas ut vid behov. DĂ€rutöver sugs slam och matrester ut och döda djur och vĂ€xter avlĂ€gsnas. I frekvent skötsel ingĂ„r sĂ€rskilt ocksĂ„ kontroll av vattenparametrar sĂ„som temperatur, surhetsgrad och hĂ„rdhet.
+
+Referenser
+
+Se Àven
+ Portal:Akvariefiskar
+ Projekt akvariefiskar
+
+Akvarier
+Ett akvarium Àr en vattenbehÄllare som Àr avsedd att hysa fiskar eller andra i vattenlevande djur och/eller vÀxter för prydnad, odling eller forskning.
+
+Etymologi
+Ordet akvarium Àr lÄnat frÄn latinets aquarium, med betydelsen plats dÀr vatten finns. Ordet Àr en sammanslagning av adjektivformen aquarius av aqua (vatten) och Àndelsen -arium som betyder plats för.
+
+En person som Àgnar sig Ät akvarium och akvariefiskar som hobby kallas för akvarist och hobbyn kallas akvaristik. Skötsel av vattenlevande prydnadsdjur regleras i Jordbruksverkets föreskrifter.
+
+Typer
+
+Akvarier indelas i hemmaakvarier och de stora vattenanlÀggningar som har som syfte att verka som djurpark.
+
+Akvarier indelas ocksÄ i söt- och saltvattensakvarier. Skillnaden Àr vilken biotop inredningen och invÄnarna i akvariet Àr hÀmtad ifrÄn. Ytterligare en indelning syftar till att skilja ut akvaterrarier, det vill sÀga akvarier med landdel. Dessa Àr till för amfibiska djur som salamandrar, vattensköldpaddor och andra sÄ kallade herptiler. Ett Àldre ord för akvaterrarium som dock ibland fortfarande anvÀnds inom facklitteraturen Àr paludarium.
+
+En typ av akvarium Àr vÀxtakvarium dÀr fokus ligger pÄ att skapa ett vackert akvarium med mycket vÀxter. En annan typ av akvarium Àr nano-akvarium. nano-akvarium Àr akvarium med vÀldigt liten vattenvolym.
+
+En liknande behÄllare helt utan vattendel, slutligen, kallas terrarium.
+
+Hemmaakvarium
+
+Det klassiska hemmaakvariet Àr ett rÀtblock med vÀggar av glas. Normalt Àr höjden nÄgot lÀgre Àn djupet. Med djupet menas avstÄndet frÄn framsida till baksida. LÀngden pÄ akvariet Àr ofta ungefÀr dubbelt sÄ lÄngt som djupet. Anledningen till formatet Àr att man vill ha en stor framsida och i regel en stor yt- och bottenarea. Eftersom vattnet till största delen syresÀtts via vattenytan Àr det fördelaktigt om vattenytan Àr sÄ stor som möjligt i förhÄllande till den sammanlagda volymen, och en botten tÀckt med grus kan agera som substrat för mikrobiologiska processer nödvÀndiga för ett biologiskt kretslopp, samt hÄlla fast rötterna hos eventuella vattenvÀxter.
+
+Glasskivorna Àr numera nÀstan alltid sammanfogade av silikon. Att sammanfoga glasen med kitt förekommer numera ytterst sÀllan. NÀr silikonet introducerades som lim och fogmassa revolutionerade detta samtidigt akvariehobbyn, det var nu betydligt lÀttare att bygga egna akvarier och framför allt hÄlla dem tÀta. Akvarier har ÀndÄ ofta en ram av trÀ eller metall, frÀmst av estetiska skÀl. Moderna akvarier har ofta aluminiumram.
+
+Vattentrycket mot glasrutorna beror pĂ„ höjden pĂ„ akvariet â den sĂ„ kallade tryckhöjden â och Ă€ven i viss mĂ„n volymen. DĂ€rför har större akvarier tjockare glas. Vanliga tjocklekar Ă€r 4â6 mm. Riktigt stora akvarier kan ha mer Ă€n 10 mm i glastjocklek.
+
+NÀr man berÀknar volymen hos ett akvarium sÄ rÀknar man pÄ innermÄtten, det vill sÀga hur mycket vatten det rymmer men oftast ser man berÀkningar pÄ yttermÄtten nÀr det gÀller stora akvarier och skillnaden mellan inner- och yttermÄtt Àr liten.
+
+De vanligaste volymerna ligger i omrÄdet 50 till 540 liter. Större akvarier Àr ofta specialbyggen. GlasskÄlar kan fungera för mindre fiskar men sedan juni 2005 Àr det olagligt i Sverige att hÄlla större fiskar som exempelvis guldfiskar i glasskÄl.
+
+Sötvattensakvarium
+Sötvattensakvarium brukar delas in i nÄgra olika underkategorier.
+
+ SÀllskapsakvarium, dÀr olika arter av fiskar och vÀxter frÄn ett eller flera olika geografiska omrÄden trivs tillsammans.
+ VÀxtakvarium, dÀr tonvikten lÀggs pÄ olika vattenvÀxter. VÀxtakvarium inreds ofta med en botten av jord, torv, grus, brÀnd lera eller en kombination av dessa samt olika vattenvÀxter och inredning i form av stenar och trÀdrötter, typiskt mangrove.
+ Biotopakvarium, dÀr man vill efterlikna en speciell del av naturen, exempelvis en del av Malawisjöns eller Tanganyikasjöns klippstrÀnder. Klippstrandsakvarium som har dessa typer av biotoper brukar inredas med bottengrus och olika stenar.
+ Artakvarium, ett akvarium dÀr man hÄller en speciell art, exempelvis pirayor, som sÀllan kan hÄllas med andra fiskarter.
+ Kallvattensakvarium, som namnet sĂ€ger ett akvarium med kallare vatten, exempelvis inhemska fiskarter som id, elritsa, abborre eller andra arter frĂ„n nĂ„got vattendrag i Sverige. Ăven guldfisk kan med fördel hĂ„llas i ett lite kallare akvarium. Ăven fiskar som sommartid bor i trĂ€dgĂ„rdsdammar kan behöva övervintra inomhus i ett kallvattensakvarium.
+ Specialakvarium som kan vara exempelvis en strid bÀck med kraftigt vattenflöde, en av tidvatten pÄverkad strandremsa eller liknande. Hit rÀknas ocksÄ karantÀnsakvarium, yngelakvarium, lekakvarium m.m.
+
+Kombinationer Àr inte ovanliga, dÄ grÀnserna mellan olika typer inte Àr absoluta. SÀllskaps- och vÀxtakvarier brukar ofta vara kombinerade. Ett sÀllskapsakvarium kan ocksÄ vara ett saltvattensakvarium.
+Ett utprÀglat malawiakvarium med en biotopriktig inredning och ett begrÀnsat antal arter av fiskar frÄn Malawisjön kan vara bÄde ett biotop- och ett artakvarium. Har man det placerat som blickfÄng i sitt vardagsrum Àr det inte heller fel att benÀmna det som ett sÀllskapsakvarium. Detta exempel visar att de olika kategorierna Àr ganska ungefÀrliga.
+
+Saltvattensakvarium
+
+Ett saltvattensakvarium Àr nÄgot svÄrare och framför allt dyrare att sköta och bygga upp Àn ett sötvattensakvarium. Orsaken till detta Àr de ofta innehÄller arter frÄn korallrev och korallrev i naturen hÄller mycket konstanta vÀrden dÄ de ligger vid ekvatorn (nÀstan Ärstidsfritt) och har gott om utbytesvatten (oceanvis) i jÀmförelse med sjöar och floder som ofta Àr smutsiga, Ärstidsberoende och har i högsta grad varierande förhÄllanden. DÄ ett större akvarium Àr lÀttare att hÄlla stabilt Àn ett mindre brukar ett vanligt rekommenderat minimivÀrde pÄ volym vara cirka 200 liter. Det Àr dock fullt möjligt med sÄ kallade mini-reef eller till och med nano-reef. Saltvattensensakvaristerer brukar dock anse det vara vÀrt mödan och pengarna med det annorlunda akvarium som korallerna och de fÀrgrika fiskarna ger.
+Ett saltvattensakvarium kan ocksĂ„ innehĂ„lla inhemska fiskar och andra djur. Akvarister i BohuslĂ€n hĂ„ller exempelvis smörbult, berggylta och andra mindre inhemska arter. Ăven vissa arter av skaldjur kan med framgĂ„ng hĂ„llas i akvarium.
+
+Utrustning
+
+Till akvariet hör utrustning sĂ„som doppvĂ€rmare, akvariefilter, termometer, akvariebelysning, bakgrund, algskrapa och andra verktyg för att göra rent akvariet. Ăvrig teknik omfattar bland annat proteinskummare, ytavrinning och kraftig halogenbelysning.
+
+Inredning
+
+Typisk inredning i ett akvarium bestÄr av:
+ Bottensubstrat. Substratet tjÀnar flera syften utöver det rent dekorativa. I de undre lagren bildas med tiden bakterier som bidrar i förmultningsprocessen av döda vÀxtdelar, fiskbajs och annat som annars skulle försÀmra vattenkvaliteten. VÀxters rötter vÀxer i bottensubstratet och kan utvinna nÀringsÀmnen ur den mulm som bildas. Bottensubstratet har Àven en viktig funktion för vissa fiskar och andra invÄnare som anvÀnder det till att grÀva ett bo, gömma sig i eller leta efter mat. Grus, smÄsten, sand, jord, brÀnd lera, eller en kombination av dessa Àr vanligt förekommande. Yngelakvarium, lekakvarium, akvarium som anvÀnds som karantÀn och andra specialakvarier har ofta inget bottensubstrat alls, eller ett bestÄende av glaskulor. Detta för att underlÀtta att hÄlla en mer steril miljö eller för att underlÀtta klÀckning av Àgg frÄn romspridande fiskarter. Bottensubstratet kan Àven innehÄlla pH-justerande innehÄll, som t.ex. kalksten eller torv.
+ VÀxter. Vattenlevande vÀxter, sumpvÀxter eller flytvÀxter Àr möjliga att ha i ett akvarium. I akvariehandeln förekommer det Àven vÀxter som bara klarar av att vara nedsÀnkta under vatten en begrÀnsad tid. Det Àr fÄ vÀxter som enbart kan överleva under vattenytan, utan merparten har en undervattensform som Àr anpassad efter de betingelser som rÄder under vattenytan. TvÄ typiska anpassningar som undervattensformen kan ta Àr en anpassning till de lÀgre nivÄer av koldioxid, och anpassning av bladen till att nÀring finns tillgÀngligt löst i vattnet.
+ TrÀdrötter. Vanligt förekommande Àr mangrove och red moor. Mangroverötter har vÀxt under vatten under hela sin vÀxttid. De kommer frÄn trÀsk. De avger inga farliga Àmnen, och emedan de har mycket tÀtvÀxande ved med dÄlig förmÄga att binda gaser, flyter de inte upp till ytan. Akvaristen efterstrÀvar att anvÀnda trÀslag med en tÀtvÀxande ved för att minska trÀets flytförmÄga och för trÀet inte ska förmultna alltför snabbt i akvariet. TrÀdrötter Àr mestadels för dekorativa syften, men Àr nödvÀndiga för att hÄlla vissa arter (t.ex. Plecostomus).
+ Stenar. AnvÀnds för dekorativa syften, för att efterlikna invÄnarnas naturliga habitat eller för att skapa hÄlor och gömmor för invÄnarnas trivsel.
+ Artificiell inredning. I handeln förekommer det moduler av plast som efterliknar en biotop och som anvÀnds nedsÀnkt i akvariet som bakgrund. Det Àr Àven vanligt förekommande med egna hemmabyggen av sÄdana moduler. Annan artificiell inredning, som t.ex. krukor, glasflaskor, dekorativa leksaker Àr ocksÄ vanligt förekommande.
+
+VĂ€rmare
+En doppvÀrmare Àr ett rör med vÀrmetrÄdar som verkar som ett temperaturstyrt element. Den hÄller vattentemperaturen över en viss nivÄ som oftast gÄr att stÀlla in med hjÀlp av en inbyggd termostat. För att kontrollera vattentemperaturen skall alla akvarier ha en termometer.
+
+Filtrering och vattencirkulation
+Det behövs ett filter för att hĂ„lla bra vĂ€rden i akvarievattnet. Normala vĂ€rden Ă€r 6â8 i pH-vĂ€rde och mjukt till medelhĂ„rt vatten, beroende pĂ„ vilka fiskar det gĂ€ller. Ăven halten av ammoniak och ammonium bör akvaristen kontrollera. Ofta Ă€r det ett nedsĂ€nkt filter dĂ€r vattencirkulationen ombesörjs av en invĂ€ndig elmotor, eller en luftpump som sitter utanför akvariet. Det finns Ă€ven ett alternativ med ett externt filter som suger in vatten genom en slang och lĂ€mnar tillbaka det renat genom en annan slang. Ett tredje alternativ Ă€r att suga ner vattnet genom bottengruset och upp genom ett rör till ytan igen â ett sĂ„ kallat bottenfilter. Bottenfilter Ă€r numera mindre vanliga och anses av mĂ„nga akvarister som svĂ„rskötta (se nedan). IdĂ©n med filtrering Ă€r att driva vattnet genom ett filtermaterial som skumgummi eller vadd, för att fĂ„nga upp makroskopisk smuts och ge plats för mikroskopiska nedbrytningsprocesser som renar vattnet. Det förekommer ocksĂ„ filtrering med aktivt kol, vilket tar bort vissa gifter eller missfĂ€rgningar i vattnet. Noteras ska dock att nĂ€r man filtrerar med aktivt kol sĂ„ Ă€r det under begrĂ€nsad tid eftersom man ocksĂ„ tar bort nyttiga delar, sĂ„ som nĂ€ring till vĂ€xterna. Smutsen kommer oftast frĂ„n döda vĂ€xtrester, avföring frĂ„n fiskarna samt överblivet foder.
+
+Idag sÄ anvÀnder de flesta akvaristerna ett sÄ kallat "innerfilter" alltsÄ en motordriven pump med skumgummipatron som sitter helt inne i akvariet. Det sÄ kallade "ytterfiltret" som dÄ befinner sig utanför akvariet med slangar till och frÄn det samma förekommer ocksÄ men dÄ mest i större akvarium. Risken med lÀckage ökar med ett ytterfilter dÄ slangar med anslutningar kan utgöra en riskfaktor.
+Fördelen med ytterfiltret Àr annars att man kan fylla detta med olika slags filtermaterial, bÄde biologiska som rent mekaniska.
+Bottenfiltret Àr idag sÀllsynt, man resonerar som sÄ att det Àr lÀttare att göra rent och hÄlla efter ett filtermaterial i ett inner- eller ytterfilter Àn att göra rent akvariets bottenmaterial. Det har ocksÄ visat sig vara svÄrt att göda akvarievÀxterna dÄ man har ett bottenfilter.
+
+Fluidiserad sandbĂ€dd Ă€r ett biologiskt filter vid rening av dricksvatten men anvĂ€nds numera ocksĂ„ av akvarister. Principen Ă€r ett kraftigt vattenflöde genom vanligtvis sand som dĂ„ blir fluidiserad och beter sig som vĂ€tska dĂ„ sandkornen blir separerade av vatten â som i kvicksand eller likvifaktion vid jordbĂ€vningar. Den sammanlagda ytan pĂ„ sandkornen Ă€r mĂ„ngdubbelt större Ă€n i andra biologiska filter och blir tillgĂ€nglig för kolonisation med gynnsamma bakterier.
+
+Belysning
+Som belysning anvÀnds oftast en lysrörsramp, gÀrna med vÀl valda ljusspektra pÄ lysrören för att gynna vattenvÀxterna.
+
+Bland andra typer av lÀmpliga belysningar kan nÀmnas metallhalogenlampor, kvicksilverlampor samt vanliga glödlampor. Halogenlamporna Àr billiga i inköp, ger mycket ljus per inmatad effekt men dÄ dessa Àr pÄ hög effekt drar de ocksÄ mycket ström. Vanligtvis anvÀnder akvaristerna byggstrÄlkastare dÄ de vill ha halogenljus. Kvicksilverlampor Àr dyra i inköp men gÄr att fÄ i rÀtt fÀrgtemperaturer, och de hÄller lÀnge. Glödlamporna Àr billiga och ger ett relativt bra ljus men Àr tyvÀrr för ljussvaga för att anvÀndas till annat Àn ganska smÄ akvarier. Dessutom avges en stor del av glödlampors energi i form av vÀrme snarare Àn ljus, vilket kan göra det svÄrt att erhÄlla en jÀmn vattentemperatur i akvariet.
+PÄ senare tid har det kommit ut lÄgenergilampor pÄ marknaden med fördelaktig fÀrgtemperatur, dessa kan med fördel ersÀtta glödlampor i mindre akvarier, lÄgenergilamporna ger mer ljus och mindre vÀrme i förhÄllande till inmatad effekt.
+PĂ„ senare tid har ju lysdioderna gjort sitt intĂ„g i hemmen, Ă€ven inom akvaristiken â det finns idag högintensiva lysdioder som kan lĂ€mpa sig till akvariebelysning, eller kompletterande belysning. Inom en snar framtid kan vi nog rĂ€ka med att tekniken utvecklas, inte minst i energisparsyfte.
+TÀckglas förhindrar att det uppstÄr kontakt mellan det elektriska i belysningen och vattnet, vilket Àven begrÀnsar avdunstningen och hindrar fiskarna frÄn att kunna hoppa ut. Det finns numera belysningsarmaturer för akvarier med kapslingsklassning (IP-klassning), som tÄl fukt, varför tÀckglas kan uteslutas men dÄ bör man tÀnka pÄ hoppande fiskar och avdunstningen.
+Dagens akvarier Àr ingalunda energisnÄla, och dÄ utvecklingen gÄr mot att spara energi i hemmen blir det spÀnnande att se vad akvarieindustrin kommer att erbjuda akvaristerna i fortsÀttningen.
+
+Skötsel
+För att göra rent akvariet behövs förutom en algskrapa/algmagnet en slang. En hink eller tvÄ Àr ocksÄ bra att ha. Akvaristen anvÀnder slangen som hÀvert för att suga upp smuts ur bottengruset och för att tömma ut vatten ur akvariet. Med vattenbytet tar man ocksÄ bort urin och avföringsrester.
+
+Traditionellt rekommenderas sÄ kallade delvattenbyten i akvariet, och en bra regel för ett vanligt akvarium Àr att byta maximalt en tredjedel av vattnet varje vecka. Detta för att fiskar och vÀxter mÄr inte bra av fluktuerande vattenvÀrden. Men inom vÀxtakvaristiken förekommer det att man byter hÀlften av vattnet regelbundet varje vecka, samt att man vid varje vattenbyte tillsÀtter samma mÀngd gödningsmedel. Detta syftar till att fÄ stabila och förutsÀgbara vattenvÀrden och gödningsnivÄer. Metoden brukar förkortas EI efter engelskans Estimative Index. TÀtare byten kan behövas ifall det Àr ett mindre akvarium med kÀnsliga fiskar. Alla fiskar omges av ett slemskikt som fungerar ungefÀr som hornlagret i mÀnniskans hud, och alltsÄ skyddar mot bakterier, parasiter och kemikalier. Vid varje vattenbyte Àr det dÀrför viktigt att anvÀnda avkloreringsmedel sÄ att vattenbyten inte gör att fiskarna tappar detta slemskikt, och förlorar följaktligen en stor del av sitt immunförsvar. Hos friska fiskar ÄterstÀlls visserligen slemskiktet inom ett par veckor men intill dess Àr de relativt oskyddade mot infektioner och parasiter. Det Àr alltid bÀttre att byta en liten del av vattenvolymen ofta, Àn att byta en större del mer sÀllan.
+
+Fiskar
+
+Akvariefiskar Àr de fiskar, som genom sin storlek, hÀrdighet, och förökningssÀtt klarar sig bra i akvarier. Viss betydelse har sÀkert ocksÄ vackra fÀrger och ett i övrigt intressant yttre. I allmÀnhet rör det sig om tropiska arter vilka kan odlas i stora antal till lÄg kostnad. Innan de tropiska arterna dök upp pÄ den europeiska marknaden fÄngade akvaristerna ofta sjÀlva mindre och hÀrdiga arter som spigg, elritsa, bitterling och dammruda som de höll med mer eller mindre framgÄng i sÄ kallade vivarier eller (ofta hemgjorda och ganska spartanska) akvarier. Den första tropiska akvariefisken som importerades till Europa var makropoden eller paradisfisken (en labyrintfisk) som började odlas av Paul Matte i Tyskland i början av 1800-talet. (Den centralasiatiska guldfisken som kom tidigare rÀknas inte som tropisk.)
+
+Andra djur
+I sÄvÀl sötvatten som saltvattensakvariet kan man ha andra djur utöver fiskarna. Det kan röra sig om olika mindre skaldjur sÄsom rÀkor, krabbor och mindre arter av krÀftor. Sniglar och snÀckor brukar man fÄ in i akvariet ofrivilligt men det finns större arter av snÀckor som Àr önskvÀrda av vissa akvarister. I sötvattensakvarier ser man emellanÄt olika mindre grodarter men hÀr gÀller det att se till att dessa fÄr en liten bit "land" att vila pÄ. Saltvattensakvarister med intresse för korallrev ser ju naturligtvis till att ha olika koralldjur i sitt akvarium. Men som tidigare nÀmnts, det gÀller ju att se till att olika djur och fiskar trivs tillsammans.
+
+Artspridning
+
+AkvarieÀgandet har alltid pÄverkat miljön pÄ olika sÀtt. Under 1930-talet slÀppte en tysk akvarist ut vattenpest i sjövatten och idag har denna mellanamerikanska/nordamerikanska vÀxt spritt sig Ànda upp till vattnen runt UmeÄ. Tropiska fiskar klarar i allmÀnhet inte av en nordisk vinter utomhus i dammar och liknande, men det finns exempel pÄ övervintrande koi-karp pÄ en ö utanför Göteborg, samt andra biotopfrÀmmande karpar pÄ olika platser i Sverige.
+
+I flera delstater i USA Àr det förbjudet att ha pirayor i utomhusdammar, dÄ man Àr rÀdd att de kan sprida sig till naturliga vattendrag, dÀr de skulle kunna överleva.
+
+Se Àven
+ Terrarium
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Saltvattensguiden â Forum och bildgalleri kring saltvattensakvaristik.
+ SARF â Sveriges Akvarieföreningars Riksförbund.
+ Nordiska CiklidsĂ€llskapet â Specialförening kring den familj av fiskar som kallas ciklider.
+ Zoopet â Internetsida om akvaristik med artbeskrivningar av fler Ă€n 1 000 olika akvariefiskar och vĂ€xter.
+Anders Gustaf Dalman (Ă€ven Dahlman), född 17 februari 1848 i Ăstanmossa i Norbergs socken i VĂ€stmanland, död 30 juli 1920 i Stockholm, var Sveriges riksskarprĂ€ttare och sista bödel.
+
+Biografi
+Dalman var son till Per Erik Norman och Greta Gustava Söderberg. Efter att ha varit stamanstĂ€lld korpral vid VĂ€stmanlands regemente blev han i konkurrens med 16 andra sökande utsedd till Stockholms lĂ€ns skarprĂ€ttare 5 augusti 1885. Under Ă„ren 1885-1891 antogs Dalman som skarprĂ€ttare i ytterligare sex lĂ€n. Ă
r 1901 utsĂ„gs han till riksskarprĂ€ttare för hela Sverige. Bödelsyrket var emellertid inte Dalmans huvudsakliga yrke utan utgjorde en bisyssla. Till vardags var han vicevĂ€rd och förestod flera fastigheter i Stockholm. Ă
r 1883 var Ärslönen för en skarprÀttare 300 kr, vilket fortfarande var fallet för Dalman Är 1909.
+
+Dalman flyttade till Stockholm redan 1884 och bodde först pĂ„ Stora Bastugatan 5, flyttade 1886 till Tulegatan 9, dĂ€refter till Sankt Eriksgatan 22 (sedan omnumrerat till 44). Han gifte sig 1869 med Emma Sofia Westlander och fick med henne 12 barn varav fyra uppnĂ„dde vuxen Ă„lder. Ăktenskapet varade i 40 Ă„r till hustruns död 1909. Dalman bodde pĂ„ Sankt Eriksgatan tills han 1918 flyttade till sin son pĂ„ Lilla Essingen. Efter att ha blivit pĂ„körd av en spĂ„rvagn Ă„terfick Dalman aldrig hĂ€lsan och dog sent i juli 1920. Han begravdes pĂ„ Norra begravningsplatsen.
+
+Delinkventer
+Under sina 25 Är som skarprÀttare avrÀttade Dalman sex delinkventer. Fem avrÀttades med handbila och den sista med giljotin.
+
+ Dalmans första avrÀttning var den av Anna MÄnsdotter, Àven kÀnd som Yngsjömörderskan, den 7 augusti 1890 pÄ Kristianstads lÀnsfÀngelse.
+ DÀrefter dröjde det tre Är innan nÀsta avrÀttning kunde utföras av Dalman. DÄ avrÀttades Per Johan Pettersson, den sÄ kallade Alftamördaren. AvrÀttningen skedde pÄ GÀvle lÀnsfÀngelse den 17 mars 1893.
+ Den tredje avrÀttningen Dalman utförde var den 5 juli 1900, dÄ Theodor Sallrot, Àven kallad Johannishusmördaren, avrÀttades pÄ fÀngelsegÄrden i Karlskrona.
+ Den fjÀrde avrÀttningen skedde den 23 augusti 1900 klockan 06.45 pÄ Malmö lÀnsfÀngelse, dÄ den sÄ kallade Löderupsmördaren Lars Nilsson avrÀttades.
+ Den femte avrÀttningen och den sista med handbila fick Dalman utföra pÄ VÀsterÄs lÀnsfÀngelse den 10 december 1900, pÄ MÀlarmördaren eller som han ocksÄ kallades Svarte Filip, John Filip Nordlund.
+ Den sista avrÀttningen Dalman utförde, skedde onsdagen den 23 november 1910 pÄ LÄngholmens centralfÀngelse. Detta var den sista avrÀttningen i Sverige och den enda med giljotin. Den som avrÀttades var Johan Alfred Andersson-Ander.
+
+Referenser
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Stockholmare
+Svenska skarprÀttare
+Födda 1848
+Avlidna 1920
+MĂ€n
+Personer frÄn Norberg
+Gravsatta pÄ Norra begravningsplatsen i Stockholm
+Johan Alfred Andersson Ander, född 27 november 1873 i Ljusterö socken, död 23 november 1910 pÄ LÄngholmens centralfÀngelse i Stockholm (avrÀttad), var en svensk kypare, vÀrdshusvÀrd, spÄrvagnsförare och tillika den sista personen att avrÀttas i Sverige dÄ han dömts för ett brutalt rÄnmord. Han var den förste och den ende som avrÀttats sedan giljotin införts som avrÀttningsmetod i Sverige.
+
+VÀrdshusvÀrden Ander
+Ă
r 1893-1894 gjorde Ander vĂ€rnplikten vid Vaxholms artillerikĂ„r. Under större delen av sin levnad förde Ander dĂ€refter ett kringflackande liv med ett flertal misslyckade restaurangrörelser bakom sig. Tillsammans med sin fru drev han sedan 1894 rörelser i bland annat StrĂ€ngnĂ€s (1898), Helsingfors (1903) och Rimforsa (1906). I de kĂ€llor som finns skylls de mĂ„nga misslyckandena framför allt pĂ„ att Ander hade ett allt annat Ă€n mĂ„ttligt intag av alkohol. Efter Ă„r 1900 hĂ€ktades Ander Ă€ven flera gĂ„nger för diverse smĂ„brott och befann sig under en period pĂ„ rymmen. Ă
r 1909 flyttade han med sin fru till förÀldrarna i Karlsudd. Hans fru, Julia Charlotta Ander, kom senare att vittna om att han ett flertal gÄnger misshandlat henne nÀr han var berusad och att hon varit rÀdd för att han skulle döda henne.
+
+Brottet
+Den 5 januari 1910 rÄnade Ander Gerells vÀxelkontor pÄ Malmtorgsgatan 2 i Stockholm, ett brott som han aldrig kom att erkÀnna. Under sjÀlva rÄnet misshandlade han kassörskan Viktoria Hellsten sÄ illa att hon avled. Vid rÄnet kom Ander över och 27 öre som senare kom att anvÀndas som bevis mot honom dÄ en del av pengarna var nerblodade. Mordvapnet, ett besman, knöts ocksÄ till Ander. Vid halvelvatiden kom en kolutkörare till ett nu nedslÀckt kontor och fann Hellsten pÄ golvet blödande frÄn ett krossÄr i huvudet och bredvid henne pÄ bordet lÄg en smörgÄs som det hade tagits tvÄ bett av. Hon var inte vid medvetande och en timme senare avled hon pÄ sjukhuset. En koffert som Ander lÀmnat kvar pÄ hotell Temperance innehöll delar av rÄnbytet, blod och Alfreds fotografi samt personbevis.
+
+RÀttegÄng och avrÀttning
+
+Makarna Ander greps av polis vid Anders fars stuga pÄ Karlsudds brygga dÀr de lÄg nakna i en sÀng pÄ kvÀllen efter mordet. Frun slÀpptes pÄ förmiddagen nÀsta dag, befriad frÄn varje misstanke om delaktighet i brottet. Den 14 maj 1910 dömdes Ander till döden för begÄnget mord (och tredje resan stöld), en dom som han överklagade i alla instanser. Samtliga instanser upp till Högsta domstolen gav dock Ander avslag pÄ överklagan och avrÀttningsdatumet faststÀlldes till den 23 november 1910 klockan 08:00 pÄ morgonen. Han blev den sista mÀnniskan att avrÀttas i Sverige dÄ dödsdomen verkstÀlldes av skarprÀttare Anders Gustaf Dahlman klockan 08:06, med hjÀlp av den fallbila (giljotin) som införskaffats Är 1903 frÄn Frankrike för 3 586 franc. Giljotinen var 4,42 meter hög och 2,38 meter bred. Det sÀgs att Ander vÀgrade tala med fÀngelseprÀsten före avrÀttningen och att hans sista ord var en förfrÄgan till Dahlmans assistent om han fick sÀga nÄgot före avrÀttningen, vilket emellertid ignorerades. Giljotinen fungerade som vÀntat och sedan halshuggningen genomförts överlÀmnades Anders kropp till lÀkare som kunde konstatera att han lidit av tuberkulos och att han före avrÀttningen svalt en större porslinsskÀrva, troligen i ett sjÀlvmordsförsök.
+
+Efter Anders död hamnade ett stycke av hans kranium i Anatomiska institutet i Uppsalas samlingar, och tillhör idag Gustavianum.
+
+Ur samtida press
+
+"Mördaren-J. Ander har hÀktats."
+
+Stockholm den 6 Jan. 1910
+
+IgÄr förövades ett mord pÄ Gerells vÀxelkontor i hotell Rydbergs fastighet. Kassörskan blev överfallen av en mansperson och dödad, varefter kassan lÀnsades. Mördaren tog dÀrefter till flykten. Polisen fick dock snart upp ett spÄr och han infÄngades. RÄnmördaren befanns vara en man vid namn J. Ander.
+
+"Anders afrÀttning" (Aftonbladet 23 november 1910)
+
+Exekutionen försiggick i morse Ä LÄngholmen
+
+Giljotinen för första gÄng i verksamhet
+
+Ingen bekÀnnelse!
+
+Den för det ruskiga rÄnmordet i Gerellska vÀxelkontoret hÀktade och dödsdömde Alfred Andersson Ander har idag sonat sitt brott med döden. AfrÀttningen försiggick i morse strax efter kl. 8 Ä den halvcirkelformiga fÀngelsegÄrden Ä LÄngholmen i nÀrvaro af de officiellt utsedda representanterna...
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Tidningar
+Aftonbladet 23 november 1910, Anders afrÀttning
+ Dalpilen 1910-01-11, Det ohyggliga rÄnmordet i Stockholm
+
+Litteratur
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Om Ander
+ - Giljotinen Ander avrÀttades i.
+
+MĂ€n
+Födda 1873
+Avlidna 1910
+Svenska mördare
+Personer som blivit avrÀttade med giljotin
+Personer som blivit avrÀttade av Sverige under 1900-talet
+Personer frÄn Ljusterö socken
+Albert av Sachsen, född 23 april 1828 i Dresden, död 19 juni 1902 pĂ„ slottet Sibyllenort, son till Johan I av Sachsen och Amalia Augusta av Bayern. Han var kung av Sachsen 1873â1902. Han gifte sig 1853 i Dresden med prinsessan Carola Wasa, dotter till prins Gustav Gustavsson av Wasa (son till Gustav IV Adolf av Sverige) och Luise av Baden. Ăktenskapet blev barnlöst.
+
+Albert av Sachsen deltog som kapten i kriget mot Danmark 1849, och anförde som general den sachsiska kĂ„ren mot preussarna under 1866 Ă„rs tyska krig. Sedan Sachsen efter freden sistnĂ€mnda Ă„r slutit sig till Nordtyska förbundet, fick Albert, som dĂ„ var kronprins, befĂ€let över den 12:e nordtyska armĂ©kĂ„ren, vilken var bildad av sachsiska trupper. Med uppmĂ€rkelse deltog han i fransk-tyska kriget 1870â1871, och efter fredsslutet utnĂ€mndes han till tysk generalfĂ€ltmarskalk. Den 29 oktober 1873 eftertrĂ€dde han sin far som kung av Sachsen.
+
+KĂ€llor
+ Gernandts konversationslexikon, Stockholm 1895
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Huset Wettin
+Sachsens regenter
+Riddare och kommendör av Kungl. Maj:ts Orden
+Mottagare av Serafimerorden
+Alumner frÄn Bonns universitet
+Födda 1828
+Avlidna 1902
+MĂ€n
+Albrekt av Mecklenburg (), född cirka 1338 i Mecklenburg, död 1 april 1412 i Doberan i Mecklenburg, var kung av Sverige mellan 1364 och 1389 och hertig av Mecklenburg-Schwerin mellan 1379 och 1412. Han var son till hertig Albrekt II och den svenska prinsessan Eufemia Eriksdotter och med honom infördes obotrithövdingen Niklots furstehus (Àven kallat Mecklenburgska Àtten) i den svenska regentlÀngden.
+
+Albrekt var kung av Sverige 1363/1364 till 1389 dÄ han avsattes (han abdikerade formellt först 1405). Han var Àven hertig av Mecklenburg som medregent frÄn 1379 dÄ fadern dog och som regent frÄn 1384 efter brodern Henriks död. Först 1395, dÄ Albrekt frigivits ur drottning Margaretas fÄngenskap, kunde han personligen ÄtervÀnda till Mecklenburg och ta upp styret dÀr. Som herre av Mecklenburg Àr hans korrekta benÀmning furst Albrekt III av Mecklenburg och hertig Albrekt II av Mecklenburg och Schwerin.
+
+Blir till svensk kung
+
+Albrekt var andre sonen till hertig Albrekt den store av Mecklenburg och den svenske kungen Magnus Erikssons syster Eufemia. Albrekt stod sÄ att sÀga i tur som arvtagare av Sveriges krona om kung Magnus och hans son HÄkan Magnusson skulle dö. Dessutom kan hertigarna av Mecklenburg enligt vissa kÀllor, med vaga grunder, ha hÀrstammat frÄn Sverkerska Àtten via Kristina av Mecklenburg, som i sÄ fall skulle varit dotter till Sverker den yngre.
+
+Bakgrunden till upproret mot Magnus Eriksson Ă€r en snĂ„rig historia. I korthet kan nĂ€mnas att Magnus son HĂ„kan Magnusson, kung av Norge, helt sonika lĂ€t fĂ€ngsla sin far beroende pĂ„ att Magnus inte ville acceptera fredsfördraget vid Greifswald 1361, dĂ„ Magnus menade att de svenska sĂ€ndebuden överskridit sina befogenheter. I februari 1362 blev HĂ„kan formellt vald till svensk kung vid Mora sten men kort dĂ€refter förlikades far och son och de samregerade Sverige, dĂ€r HĂ„kan fick sin del av Sverige (omrĂ„det för Skara stift). Under tiden fördes ett kort krig mot Danmark och Valdemar Atterdag men fredsförhandlingar pĂ„börjades hösten 1362. Under dessa förhandlingar valde HĂ„kan att Ă€kta Valdemars dotter Margareta. En anledning till detta kan ha varit för att Ă„terfĂ„ SkĂ„ne. Dock hade de svenska stormĂ€nnen Ă„ HĂ„kans vĂ€gnar redan ingĂ„tt en förlovning med Elisabet av Holstein, en förlovning som nu bröts. Protester utbröt bland stormĂ€nnen, och situationen eskalerade till ett mer eller mindre öppet uppror. Ăven den Heliga Birgitta gav luft Ă„t sitt missnöje med Magnus. Till följd hĂ€rav drevs flera av de ledande stormĂ€nnen i landsflykt 1363 av kung Magnus.
+
+De förvisade stormÀnnen, med drotsen Bo Jonsson (Grip) i spetsen, drog till norra Tyskland, vÀnde sig dÀr till hertig Albrekt den store av Mecklenburg och erbjöd den svenska kronan Ät dennes son Albrekt d. y. Albrekt d. À. gick till slut med pÄ att lÄta rÄdsaristokratin sitta med vid styret om de stödde hans maktövertagande i Sverige. Tyskarna landsteg i Sverige med 1 600 man, riddare, vÀpnare och svenner. De vandrade norrut utan att möta större motstÄnd och de tyskvÀnliga stÀderna Stockholm och Kalmar gav sig utan större blodsspillan. I november 1363 hyllades Albrekt d. y. i Stockholm. Magnus avsattes och flydde till Norge, och den 18 februari 1364 valdes Albrekt formellt till svensk kung vid Mora stenar. De av Magnus landsförvisade stormÀnnen belönades och gavs olika högre poster av Albrekt.
+
+Albrekt av Mecklenburg var den förste kungen att anvÀnda tre kronor som riksvapen. Han ansÄg att han inte kunde anvÀnda den tidigare riksymbolen, den avsatte folkungens lejon, men inte heller sitt fÀdernevapen, ett krönt svart tjurhuvud eftersom detta fördes av hans far som var regerande hertig av Mecklenburg. FrÄgan mÄste ha varit brÀnnande: kungens vapen skulle inte bara vara rikets samlande symbol och officiella besittningsmÀrke; dess förekomst i sigill hade dessutom en avgörande juridisk betydelse, eftersom en utfÀrdad urkunds rÀttsliga verkan berodde pÄ dess sigillering. Sigillet i sig kan inte förmedla vilka fÀrger som Albrekt valde till sitt nya vapen. Först i en rimkrönika, som Ernst von Kirschberg pÄbörjade 1378, syns att kronorna var i guld, stÀllda i ett blÄtt fÀlt med röda smaragder (dvs de Mecklenburgska fÀrgerna rött, blÄtt och gult). Med dessa fÀrger Àr vapnet alltjÀmt i bruk. I gÀllande lag om rikets vapen kallas det lilla riksvapnet.
+
+1365 ÄtervÀnde Magnus jÀmte sonen HÄkan Magnusson till Sverige med en norsk hÀr samt en styrka med Magnus-trogna svenskar. Vid Gata skog i nÀrheten av Enköping blev Magnus och HÄkan besegrade av tyskarna, varvid Magnus tillfÄngatogs av Albrekt.
+
+Kung Albrekt stöddes förutom av sin far Àven av flera nordtyska furstar samt av hansestÀderna. PÄ kung HÄkans sida slöt nu danske kung Valdemar Atterdag upp. Mecklenburgarna fick Àven en svÄr fiende i den svenska allmogen som ogillade det tyska inflytandet. Delar av allmogen reste sig och understödde HÄkan, och för Albrekt blev lÀget kritiskt sedan HÄkan med en hÀr lÀgrat sig pÄ Norrmalm vid Stockholm 1371. Men med de svenska stormÀnnens hjÀlp lyckades Albrekt försvara sin stÀllning, sedan stormÀnnen först avtvingat honom en kungaförsÀkran som ökade deras inflytande och kraftigt reducerade Albrekts egen makt. PÄ detta sÀtt kom en fred till stÄnd, genom vilken Magnus frigavs mot att en dryg lösesumma utbetalades till Albrekt.
+
+Den kungaförsÀkran Albrekt blev tvungen att avlÀgga innebar att han skulle följa rÄdets beslut i alla viktiga frÄgor. NÀr en plats i rÄdet blev ledig skulle de andra rÄdsherrarna vÀlja en eftertrÀdare bland infödda svenska mÀn. Svenska mÀn skulle ocksÄ utnÀmnas som fogdar pÄ rikets slott.
+
+Nu var det svenska riket delat. RiksrÄden hade Är 1371 slutit fred med kung HÄkan. HÄkan fick hela Skara stift, resten stod sedan Är 1374 under drotsen Bo Jonsson (Grip)s Àgande. Albrekt var fortfarande formellt sett kung av Sverige men i praktiken styrde han endast över Stockholm och nÄgra kungsgÄrdar.
+
+Albrekt tvingades stÀndigt ge efter för adelns vilja, och förödmjukelsen förvÀrrades genom hÄnfulla pÄminnelser frÄn adeln om den kÀrlek som Sveriges folk hade visat honom genom att vÀlja honom till kung. I en ny försÀkran som Albrekt tvingades avge Är 1383 fick han tala om hur han "ur sitt hjÀrta avlÀgsnat all osÀmja, misstro och tvedrÀktsanda mellan Oss och VÄra rÄdgivare, sÀrskilt mellan Oss och Oss Àlskelige Bo Jonsson". Med "obegrÀnsad tilltro" tyr sig Hans Maj:t till sitt rikes rÄd och "vill i alla Àrenden följa dess vilja och mening".
+
+Avsatt som svensk kung
+
+Albrekt var numera totalt beroende av rÄdet och dess mÀktigaste man, drotsen Bo Jonsson (Grip), och Albrekts olika försök att sÀtta en grÀns för stormÀnnens expansion och vÀxande inflytande över makten i Sverige omintetgjordes.
+
+Efter drotsen Bo Jonssons död 1386 gjorde kungen likvÀl ett försök att ÄterstÀlla kungamakten. Han ville göra sig till förmyndare för Bo Jonssons barn och Ànka Margareta Dume samt sÀgs ha övervÀgt en reducering, indragning, av adelns gods. MÄnga stormÀn började kÀnna sig hotade av Albrekts ambitioner att begrÀnsa adelns makt. I Vadstenaklostrets diarium för Är 1365 finns antecknat: "DÄ kom rovfÄglarna och slog sig ner pÄ bergstopparna, ty tyskarna tyranniserade landet i mÄnga Är".
+
+För att hindra Albrekts reduktion av gods vĂ€nde sig de stormĂ€n som Bo Jonsson hade utnĂ€mnt till verkstĂ€llare av hans testamente, till drottning Margareta i Danmark med bön om hjĂ€lp. Albrekt for över till Tyskland och hĂ€mtade en tysk hĂ€r medan Margareta lĂ€t danskar landstiga i Sverige. Enligt sĂ€gnen skulle Albrekt ha ansett det nĂ€stan under sin vĂ€rdighet att slĂ„ss med "Kung byxlös", som han kallade Margareta. Han pĂ„stĂ„s ha skickat till henne en alnslĂ„ng brynsten med hĂ€lsningen att hon borde vĂ€ssa sina nĂ„lar och saxar i stĂ€llet för att regera. I slaget vid Ă
sle i februari 1389 i nĂ€rheten av Falköping besegrades och tillfĂ„ngatogs Albrekt jĂ€mte sin son Erik av Margaretas trupper. Margareta ska nu, enligt sĂ€gnen, ha hĂ€mnats Albrekts tidigare hĂ„n. Hon pĂ„stĂ„s ha lĂ„tit klĂ€ honom i en narrkĂ„pa, som var 15 alnar i vidd, samt pryda hans huvud med en hĂ€tta försedd med ett 19 alnar lĂ„ngt slĂ€p. Och som pĂ„minnelse om att han en gĂ„ng begĂ€rt henne till gemĂ„l lĂ€r hon ha lagt honom i sin sĂ€ng â men bunden till hĂ€nder och fötter.
+
+I Stockholm fortsatte dock de tyska borgarna â som stöttade Albrekt â med ett envist motstĂ„nd, och slöt sig samman till ett sĂ€llskap som kallade sig hĂ€ttebröder som ska ha trakasserat svenskarna i staden. Albrekts vĂ€nner bland furstarna och stĂ€derna i Mecklenburg ansatte ocksĂ„ hans tidigare svenska undersĂ„tar sĂ„ lĂ€nge han satt fĂ„ngen. De utrustade en mĂ€ngd kapare som undsatte deras landsmĂ€n i Stockholm med livsmedel, försökte befria Albrekt ur fĂ„ngenskapen, hemsökte Nordens kuster och bedrev sjöröveri.
+
+Far och son frislÀpptes 1395 mot villkor att efter tre Är antingen betala en dryg penningsumma eller överlÀmna Stockholm till Margareta. Till följd av detta fördrag tog Margareta Stockholm i besittning 1398. NÄgra Är dÀrefter upphörde ocksÄ de tyska sjörövarnas hÀrjningar.
+
+Kung Albrekt tillbringade drygt sex Är i Margaretas fÄngenskap, frÄn 24 februari 1389 till 26 september 1395. VÀl fri begav sig Albrekt till Mecklenburg, dÀr han 1384 eftertrÀtt sin Àldre bror Henrik sÄsom hertig men hans anhÀngare, de sÄ kallade vitalianerna, intog Gotland och höll sig kvar dÀr till 1398, dÄ ön intogs av Tyska orden. Mot penningersÀttning förmÄddes Albrekt och Tyska orden att avstÄ ön, och ön överlÀmnades 1408 till den nordiska unionskungen Erik av Pommern. Albrekt dog 1412 och begravdes i klosterkyrkan i Doberan i Mecklenburg.
+
+Ăktenskap och barn
+
+Albrekt gifte sig 1359 med Rikardis av Schwerin (död 1377), ett Àktenskap vars kontrakt upprÀttats i Wismar redan 12 oktober 1352. Paret fick följande barn:
+
+ Erik (omkring 1365â1397), svensk kronprins och herre av Gotland
+ Rikardis Katarina (omkring 1370/1372â1400), gift i Prag 1388 med kejsarens yngre son Johan av Böhmen (1370â1396), markgreve av MĂ€hren och hertig av Görlitz (Lausitz)
+
+Albrekt gifte om sig i Schwerin 12â13 februari 1396 med Agnes av Braunschweig-LĂŒneburg (död 1430/1434). Paret fick följande barn:
+
+ Albrekt V av Mecklenburg (död 1423), hertig av Mecklenburg och Schwerin
+
+Se Àven
+
+ BjÀlboÀtten
+ Upproret mot Magnus Eriksson
+
+Referenser
+
+Fotnoter
+
+AllmÀnna
+
+ Den svenska historien: Medeltid 1319-1520. Bonniers (1966), sid. 74â83.
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Födda 1300-talet
+Avlidna 1412
+Hertigar av Mecklenburg
+Huset Mecklenburg
+Personer i Tyskland under 1300-talet
+MĂ€n
+Sveriges regenter
+Avsatta regenter
+Hertig Albrekt "den store" av Mecklenburg och Schwerin, Albrekt d. À., tyska Albrecht "der Grosse", ibland Albert, född 1318, död 18 februari 1379 i Schwerin, begravd i klosterkyrkan i Doberan, var den förste hertig av Mecklenburg och Schwerin.
+
+Albrekt "den store" var son till furst Henrik II av Mecklenburg (död 1329) och Anna av Sachsen-Wittenberg (död 1327). Vid faderns död eftertrÀdde han denne 1329 som furst Albrekt II av Mecklenburg. 1348 erhöll Albrekt hertigtitel, och 1358 blev han Àven hertig av Schwerin. Till följd av detta kallas han Àven för hertig Albrekt I av Mecklenburg och Schwerin. Han styrde sina bÄda hertigdömen intill sin död 1379.
+
+Biografi
+
+NÀr Albrekt eftertrÀdde sin 1329 döde fader som furste i Mecklenburg fick han stÄ under förmyndarskap till 1336. Den 8 juli 1348 upphöjdes Albrekt av kejsar Karl IV till hertig och intrÀdde dÀrmed i riksfurstestÄndet.
+
+Liksom kejsar Karl IV understödde Albrekt till en början Valdemar "den falske" i Mark Brandenburg men försonades 1350 med markgreve Ludvig.
+
+Efter greve Otto I av Schwerins död 1357 köpte Albrekt 1358 för 20 000 silvermark de grevliga rÀttigheterna i Schwerin av dennes bror och arvtagare Nikolaus. Albrekt kunde dÀrefter se sig som herre av tvÄ hertigdömen, Mecklenburg och Schwerin.
+
+Albrekt strÀvade efter att öka Mecklenburgs inflytande i Norden; hans Àldste son Henrik fick gifta sig med en dotter till Valdemar Atterdag, och han försökte bland annat vinna den danska kronan Ät sonsonen. SjÀlv hade han gift sig med svenske kungens syster, Eufemia Eriksdotter. NÀr hans andre son, Albrekt d. y., kallades till Sverige 1363 följde Albrekt d. À. med, och han var i sjÀlva verket den drivande kraften i sonens politik.
+
+Ăktenskap och barn
+
+Albrekt gifte sig i Rostock den 10 april 1336 med svenska prinsessan Eufemia Eriksdotter (1317-1363/1370), ett Àktenskap vars kontrakt upprÀttades i Bohus fÀstning redan den 24 juli 1321. Paret fick följande barn:
+
+Henrik Bödeln av Mecklenburg (1337/1338-1383), hertig av Mecklenburg och Schwerin
+Albrekt av Mecklenburg (1338/1340-1412), kung av Sverige
+Ingeborg av Mecklenburg (omkring 1340-1395), gift 1. med hertig Ludvig VI av Bayern (död 1365), gift 2. med greve Henrik II av Holstein (död 1381/1389)
+Magnus I av Mecklenburg (omkring 1345-1385), hertig av Mecklenburg och Schwerin
+Anna av Mecklenburg (död 1415), gift med greve Adolf IX av Holstein (död 1390)
+
+Albrekt gifte om sig före 4 mars 1378 med Adelheid av Honstein (död 1405 eller senare).
+
+Referenser
+
+ Eberhard Holz / Wolfgang Huschner (Hrsg.): Deutsche FĂŒrsten des Mittelalters. Edition Leipzig, Leipzig 1995,
+ Allgemeinen Deutschen Biographie (ADB), band 1, sida 271
+
+Hertigar av Mecklenburg
+Personer i Tyskland under 1300-talet
+Födda 1318
+Avlidna 1379
+MĂ€n
+Alexander III, född Rolando Bandinelli cirka 1100 i Siena, Italien, död 30 augusti 1181, var pÄve frÄn den 7 september 1159 till sin död den 30 augusti 1181.
+
+Biografi
+Rolando Bandinelli föddes i en framstĂ„ende slĂ€kt frĂ„n Siena. Han blev professor vid universitetet i Bologna, dĂ€r han utmĂ€rkte sig som kanonist nĂ€r han utgav kommentarer till Gratianus Decretum, vilka i folkmun fick titeln Summa Magistri Rolandi. Ă
r 1150 kallades han till Rom av pÄve Eugenius III, och han gjorde snabb karriÀr i kyrkan. Han upphöjdes till kardinaldiakon av Santi Cosma e Damiano och Äret dÀrpÄ till kardinalprÀst av San Marco, och sedan pÄvlig kansler. PÄve Hadrianus IV utnÀmnde Bandinelli till sin rÄdgivare, och han tillhörde navet i den grupp kardinaler som försökte bryta förbindelserna med Tyskland genom att ingÄ allianser med Neapel och normanderna. Till Fredrik I Barbarossa sade kardinal Bandinelli i Besançon (1157) att kejsarkronan var ett pÄvligt beneficium och dÀrefter hade han skaffat sig fiender för livet hos de tyska furstarna.
+
+Vid den konklav av 22 kardinaler som sammantrÀdde efter Hadrianus död röstade samtliga utom tre pÄ Rolando Bandinelli; detta trots att nio var öppet lojala mot kejsaren. Han antog pÄvenamnet Alexander men det kejserliga partiet utsÄg en motpÄve, Victor IV. Trots tumult kröntes Alexander till pÄve den 20 september 1159.
+
+Det ÄlÄg kejsaren att bilÀgga schismen och han sammankallade till möte i Pavia. Genom att tilltala motpÄven som Victor IV och pÄven som kardinal Rolando, försade han sig och visade pÄ sin partiskhet. PÄven hÀvdade dÀrför att rÀttegÄngen var ogiltig, och att han vÀgrade lÀgga sin lagliga rÀtt i hÀnderna pÄ en sÄdan. Kejsaren kom som vÀntat fram till att motpÄven skulle vara den giltige pÄven. NÀr Alexander mottog domen, befann han sig i Anagni, och dÀr exkommunicerade han kejsaren samt frigjorde sig frÄn sina trohetsband. Schismen fortfor i 17 Är, och fick inte ett slut förrÀn Barbarossa besegrats vid slaget vid Legnano 1176.
+
+Under schismen levde Alexander i landsflykt i Frankrike, vilket fick till följd att pÄvens makt och katolicismen stÀrktes dÀr. Henrik II av England var en annan han fick tillfÀlle att möta, nÀr denne gick i strid mot Thomas Becket, dÀr Alexander hÀvdade kyrkans rÀtt mot kungen. Efter att Becket mördats 1170 lyckades Alexander förmÄ kungen till att erkÀnna de rÀttigheter som han nekat kyrkan genom Becket. Vidare gjorde sig Alexander kÀnd som en motstÄndare till slaveriet.
+
+Alexander III vigde 1164 den förste svenske Ă€rkebiskopen, Stefan, som hade sitt sĂ€te i Uppsala. Ă
r 1179 presiderade Alexander vid Tredje Laterankonciliet. Han uppmuntrade den akademiska strömningen som genomsyrade Europa och som ledde till att flera universitet grundades.
+
+Han avled i Civita Castellana och begravdes i Laterankyrkan.
+
+Bilder
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Noter
+
+WebbkÀllor
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+PĂ„var
+Italienska kanonister
+Födda 1100
+Avlidna 1181
+MĂ€n
+Personer i Kyrkostaten under 1100-talet
+Gravsatta i San Giovanni in Laterano
+Personer frÄn Siena
+Alexanderparakit (Psittacula eupatria) Àr en papegoja som lever i södra och sydöstra Asien.
+
+Utseende
+Alexanderparakiten Ă€r med en kroppslĂ€ngd pĂ„ 50â62 centimeter en mycket stor papegoja som i stort Ă€r en jĂ€tteversion av den nĂ€ra beslĂ€ktade halsbandsparakiten (Psittacula krameri). Likt denna Ă€r alexanderparakiten i stort sett helgrön med smala vingar och mycket lĂ„ng smal stjĂ€rt. Den skiljer sig genom den mycket grövre röda nĂ€bben samt den rödaktiga inre framvingen som pĂ„ sittande fĂ„gel ger den en rödbrun skulderflĂ€ck.
+
+Utbredning och systematik
+Alexanderparakit delas in i fem underarter med följande utbredning:
+ Psittacula eupatria nipalensis â östra Afghanistan till Pakistan, norra Indien och Bangladesh
+ Psittacula eupatria eupatria â södra Indien och Sri Lanka
+ Psittacula eupatria magnirostris â Andamanerna och Nikobarerna
+ Psittacula eupatria avensis â norra Myanmar och nĂ€rliggande nordöstra Indien
+ Psittacula eupatria siamensis â Thailand till Laos, Kambodja och Vietnam
+
+SmÄ populationer finns Àven i Belgien, NederlÀnderna, Tyskland och i Istanbul i Turkiet som hÀrstammar frÄn burfÄglar som rymt, likasÄ Àven i Mellanöstern i Iran, Förenade Arabemiraten och Qatar.
+
+LevnadssÀtt
+Alexanderparakiten hittas i skogar, lundar, jordbruksomrÄden och mangrovetrÀsk frÄn havsnivÄn upp till 900 meters höjd. Den lever av olika sorters frön, sÀd, knoppar, blommor, frukt och nötter. FÄgeln ses vanligtvis i smÄ flockar men kan bilda stora grupper i omrÄden med stor födotillgÄng eller nÀr den tar nattkvist.
+
+HĂ€ckning
+Alexanderparakiten hÀckar frÄn november till april och bygger vanligen sitt bo i anvÀnda trÀdhÄl, men kan ibland hÀcka i en spricka i en byggnad eller grÀva ut ett hÄl i ett trÀd pÄ egen hand. Honan lÀgger tvÄ till fyra vita Àgg som ruvas i genomsnitt i 24 dagar. Ungarna Àr flygga vid sju veckors Älder och Àr beroende av sina förÀldrar tills de Àr tre till fyra mÄnade gamla.
+
+Status och hot
+Arten har ett stort utbredningsomrÄde men minskar relativt krafigt i antal till följd av förföljelse, habitatförlust och fÄngst för vidare försÀljning som burfÄglar. Internationella naturvÄrdsunionen IUCN kategoriserar dÀrför arten som nÀra hotad.
+
+Namn
+FÄgelns svenska namn syftar pÄ Alexander den store som sÀgs ha exporterat stora antal frÄn Punjab till europeiska lÀnder dÀr de ansÄgs vara statusföremÄl för adel, kungligheter och krigsherrar.
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ LÀten pÄ xeno-canto.org
+
+Referenser
+
+Ăstpapegojor
+FĂ„glar i orientaliska regionen
+Hornuggla (Asio otus) Àr en fÄgel tillhörande familjen ugglor. Den har en ovanligt vid utbredning och hÀckar i Europa, Asien och Nordamerika. Till största delen Àr den flyttfÄgel. Globalt anses bestÄndet vara livskraftigt. I Sverige har den dock minskat i antal och kategoriseras numera som nÀra hotad.
+
+KĂ€nnetecken
+
+Utseende
+
+Hornugglan Ă€r en medelstor uggla som mĂ€ter 31â37 cm, har ett vingspann pĂ„ 86â98 cm och vĂ€ger 245â400 gram. Den har lĂ„nga örontofsar som kan resas och riktas uppĂ„t. Honan Ă€r större Ă€n hanen och har mörkare fjĂ€derdrĂ€kt. Hornugglans brunaktiga fjĂ€drar Ă€r vertikalt streckade. FĂ„geln Ă€r sprĂ€cklig och vattrad i svartbrunt, rostgult och vitt pĂ„ ovansidan. Bröst och buk Ă€r rostgula och vita med svartbruna lĂ€ngsflĂ€ckar. Tarsen och tĂ„rna Ă€r helt fjĂ€derklĂ€dda. PĂ„ den sittande fĂ„geln nĂ„r vingen nedanför stjĂ€rten. Den andra handpennan Ă€r inskuren i det yttre fanet, den första i det inre. Ett kĂ€nnetecken Ă€r ocksĂ„ dess orangefĂ€rgade lysande iris.
+
+Hornugglan Àr svÄrsedd dagtid dÄ den kamouflerar sig genom att sitta pÄ en trÀdgren tÀtt intill stammen. Den drar dÄ ihop fjÀderdrÀkten och kroppen vilket ger den ett mycket smalt och avlÄngt utseende. Under flyttningen kan den vara lÀttare att observera dÄ den strÀcker över land och nÀra kusten.
+
+LĂ€ten
+Gamla hornugglor Àr relativt tystlÄtna, med ett svagt och nasalt "peh-Àv" frÄn honan och sÄngen frÄn hanen ett djupt "oh" som upprepas var 2,5 sekund. Desto ljudligare Àr ungarnas tigglÀte, ett tvÄstavigt, klagande "pii-eh" som kan höras över en kilometer.
+
+Utbredning och taxonomi
+Hornuggla pÄtrÀffas över stora delar av Palearktis, i norra Afrika, Europa och i norra Asien sÄ lÄngt österut som till Kina och Japan, samt i söder till nordvÀstra Indien. Den förekommer Àven över stora delar av Nordamerika sÄ lÄngt söderut som norra Mexiko. De populationer som hÀckar i nordligare regioner Àr flyttfÄglar eller upptrÀder nomadiskt under dÄliga sorkÄr. De sydligare populationerna Àr stannfÄglar.
+
+
+Hornugglan delas in i fyra underarter med följande utbredning
+ Asio otus tuftsi â förekommer frĂ„n vĂ€stra Kanada till nordvĂ€stra Baja California, i södra Texas och norra Mexiko.
+ Asio otus wilsonianus â förekommer frĂ„n södra centrala, och sydöstra Kanada till södra centrala USA
+ Asio otus otus â förekommer i Europa, Asien och Nordafrika
+ Asio otus canariensis â endemisk för Kanarieöarna
+
+Tidigare behandlades afrikansk hornuggla (Asio abyssinicus) med sina tvÄ underarter abyssinicus och graueri som underarter till hornuggla.
+
+Förekomst i Sverige
+Hornugglan Àr ganska vanlig i södra och mellersta Sverige, upp till ungefÀr 62° nordlig bredd. Större delen av den svenska stammen flyttar söderut pÄ hösten men nÄgra övervintrar i södra Sverige, frÀmst i SkÄne.
+
+Ekologi
+
+Hornugglan undviker starkt ljus och tillbringar ofta dagen sovande i trÀd, som exempelvis tall. I skymningen flyger den ut för att söka efter föda, som framför allt bestÄr av mindre dÀggdjur som sork men Àven insekter.
+
+HĂ€ckningssĂ€songen infaller i Europa vanligtvis mellan februari och juli och i Nordamerika frĂ„n mars till maj. Den placerar sitt rede i övergivna bon efter andra fĂ„glar, exempelvis av krĂ„kfĂ„glar eller hökar och allra oftast i barrtrĂ€d. Den lĂ€gger i snitt tre till fem Ă€gg som ruvas av honan i 25â30 dagar. Ungarna tas om hand av bĂ„da förĂ€ldrarna.
+
+Hornugglan och mÀnniskan
+
+Status och hot
+Hornugglan har ett mycket stort hĂ€ckningsomrĂ„de och den har en stor global population. Den europeiska populationen uppskattas till 304 000â776 000 par vilket innebĂ€r 609 000â1 550 000 adulta individer. Eftersom Europa utgör cirka 28 procent av det globala utbredningsomrĂ„det Ă€r en uppskattning att den globala populationen bestĂ„r av 2 180 000â5 540 000 adulta individer, men detta Ă€r osĂ€kra siffror.
+
+Den amerikanska populationen har genomgÄtt en svag minskning under de senaste 40 Ären medan den europeiska utvecklingstrenden Àr stabil. IUCN bedömer dock hornugglan som ohotad och kategoriserar arten som livskraftig.
+
+Status i Sverige
+Hornugglan har minskat i antal under de senaste Ären. I 2020 Ärs rödlista listar Artdatabanken dÀrför den som nÀra hotad (NT). Det svenska bestÄndet uppskattas till 12 000 hÀckande individer.
+
+Namn
+Ett Àldre namn Àr skogsuv. Dialektalt har hornuggla i trakten kring AbbekÄs kallats kuderusk. I trakten av Kullen betyder dock kuderusk istÀllet skÀggsimpa.
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ Sveriges Radio: P2-fÄgeln - Hornuggla
+ Dansk ornitologisk forening
+
+
+ LÀten pÄ xeno-canto.org
+
+FĂ„glar i palearktiska regionen
+FĂ„glar i nearktiska regionen
+FĂ„glar i orientaliska regionen
+Ugglor
+TvÄ runinskrifter Àr kÀnda frÄn Hagia Sofias balustrader. De antas av forskningen vara ristade av vÀringagardet i Konstantinopel (dagens Istanbul) nÄgon gÄng under 1000-talet, som ett slags dÄtida "klotter".
+
+Den första runinskriften upptÀcktes 1964 pÄ en balustrad i södra galleriets översta vÄning. Fyndet publicerades av Elisabeth SvÀrdström i FornvÀnnen 65 1970. Av inskriptionen Àr bara delar av förnamnet Halvdan lÀsligt '-alftan'. VÀringarnas vanligaste inskription var "NN ristade dessa runor" och det Àr möjligt att inskriften i Hagia Sofia följt den formen.
+
+I samma balustrad upptĂ€ckte Folke Högberg 1975 ytterligare en runinskription. Inskriptionen Ă„terupptĂ€cktes 1988 av Mats G. Larsson som publicerade dem i FornvĂ€nnen 84 följande Ă„r. Han bedömde inskriften som ofullstĂ€ndig och lĂ€ste 'ari:k'. Enligt Larsson var detta början pĂ„ "Are (gjorde dessa runor)". Högberg gjorde ursprungligen en annan uttolkning och fick 1997 stöd av Svein Indrelid som istĂ€llet tolkade inskriptionen som "Ărni", det vill sĂ€ga Arne, en enkel signatur. Denna uttolkning bedöms idag som mer sannolik Ă€n Larssons.
+
+Se Àven
+ Alfabetisk lista över runinskrifter
+ Pireuslejonet
+ Graffiti
+
+Referenser
+ James E. Knirk, Runer i Hagia Sofia i Istanbul, Nytt om runer 14 (1999), 26-27
+ Relics Of The Varangians - Graffiti in Hagia Sophia (med bilder)
+
+Noter
+
+Runinskrifter i Turkiet
+Bysantinska riket under 1000-talet
+Anders Per-Arne Björck (i riksdagen kallad Björck i NĂ€ssjö), född 19 september 1944 i NĂ€ssjö i Jönköpings lĂ€n, Ă€r en svensk politiker (moderat) och Ă€mbetsman. Han var riksdagsledamot 1969â2002, försvarsminister 1991â1994 samt landshövding i Uppsala lĂ€n 2003â2009.
+
+Biografi
+
+UppvÀxt och utbildning
+Björck Àr son till lagerchef Arne Björk och hÄrfrisörskan Ann-Marie Svensson. Han gick pÄ Centralskolan i NÀssjö och tog studentexamen 1966 vid NÀssjö högre allmÀnna lÀroverk.
+
+Politik
+
+Ungdomspolitik
+Björck inledde sin politiska karriĂ€r som bland annat riksordförande i Konservativ skolungdom 1963â1965, 1964 satt han i SECOs styrelse och i Högerns ungdomsförbund respektive Moderata Ungdomsförbundet 1966â1971. Björck var president för Nordisk Ungkonservativ Union 1968-1970.
+
+Invald i riksdagen
+Ă
r 1969 valdes han in i riksdagen. Björck var vicepresident i The Conservative and Christian Democratic Youth Community of Europe 1970â1972 och tillhörde konstitutionsutskottet 1974â1991. Han var ledamot av EuroparĂ„dets parlamentariska församling 1976â1992, vice president dĂ€r 1980â1981, 1984â1985 och 1988â1989. Björck var styrelseledamot av Moderata samlingspartiet frĂ„n 1981. Ă
r 1989 valdes han som förste svensk till president i EuroparĂ„dets parlamentariska församling. Han var ordförande i European Democratic Group 1985â1989, Sveriges Television AB 1978â1991, Sveriges Radio 1979â1991 och var ledamot av presstödsnĂ€mnden 1978â1991. Björck var vice ordförande i konstitutionsutskottet 1982â1991.
+
+Björck har medverkat i flera offentliga utredningar rörande författnings- och massmediefrÄgor och har varit moderaternas talesman inom dessa omrÄden.
+
+Försvarsminister
+Björck var försvarsminister i Regeringen Carl Bildt 1991â1994.
+
+Förste vice talman
+1994 valdes Björck till att bli riksdagens förste vice talman, vilket han var till och med 2002.
+
+NÀr Björck lÀmnade riksdagen efter mÄnga decennier skrev han en debattartikel dÀr han beskrev hur riksdagen nÀr han började var startpunkten för politiska processer, men nÀr han slutade var riksdagen Àndstationen. Startpunkten var dÄ istÀllet medierna.
+
+Senare Är, övriga aktiviteter
+FrÄn Ärsskiftet 2002/2003 till 2009 var Anders Björck landshövding i Uppsala lÀn. Björck arbetar sedan 2009 som pr-konsult Ät JKL.
+
+Anders Björck Ă€r medlem i Svenska Frimurare Orden, Odd Fellow Orden och ledamot av och ordförande i styrelsen för herrklubben SĂ€llskapet. Han utsĂ„gs till "Ă
rets smÄlÀnning" under prisets debutÄr 1988.
+
+Björck var ordförande i International Foundation of Airline Passengers 1986-1989.
+
+Anders Björck var förbundsordförande i Svenska pistolskytteförbundet 2003â2009.
+
+Familj
+Björck gifte sig 1975 med Py-Lotte von Zweigbergk (född 1948), dotter till direktör Sverker von Zweigbergk och Astrid Sigström. Tillsammans har de dottern Anne Björck.
+
+I populÀrkulturen
+Lasse Tennander har gjort en lÄt pÄ plattan Nu som heter "Försvarsminister Anders Björck".
+
+Björck omnÀmns flera gÄnger i Galenskaparnas lÄt "Den offentliga sektorns rap".
+
+I Jan Guillous Hamilton-böcker förekommer Anders Björck lÀtt maskerad som den moderate försvarsministern Anders Lönnh.
+
+I Cirkus Miramars lÄt "Oolong & Lucky Strike" förekommer Anders Björck i första textraden, "sÄ fÀller björken sina löv den sÀger hellre död Àn röd men vad vet en björk om vÀrlden den relativa vÀrlden".
+
+I dokumentÀren H:r Landshövding följde filmaren MÄns MÄnsson Anders Björck under LinnéÄret 2007. Filmen blev Guldbaggenominerad i kategorin BÀsta dokumentÀrfilm.
+
+Citat
+Anders Björck brukar tillskrivas citatet: "För det första har jag aldrig sagt det, för det andra Àr jag felciterad och för det tredje skulle det aldrig ha kommit ut" vilket han fÀllde i TV-programmet Snacka om nyheter den 15 november 1998.
+
+Uppdrag i riksdagen
+ Förste vice talman 1994â2002
+ Suppleant i försvarsutskottet 1971â1973 och 1994â2002
+ Ledamot (1974â1991 och 1994â1998), vice ordförande (1982â1991) och suppleant (1998â2002) i konstitutionsutskottet
+ Ledamot i socialförsĂ€kringsutskottet 1971â1973
+ Ledamot (1982â1991 och 1994â2002), ordförande (1982â1983) och vice ordförande (1983â1991 och 1994â2002) i EuroparĂ„dets svenska delegation
+ Ledamot i krigsdelegationen 1979â1991 och 1993â2002
+ Ledamot i riksdagsstyrelsen
+ Suppleant i utrikesnĂ€mnden 1985 och 1994â2002
+ Ledamot i valberedningen 1982â1991
+ 3:e vice ordförande i moderata förtroenderÄdet
+
+Priser och utmÀrkelser
+ H. M. Konungens medalj i guld av 12:e storleken med Serafimerordens band, Kon:sGM12mserafb (2003)
+ Storkors av andra klassen av Förbundsrepubliken Tysklands förtjÀnstorden, StkTyskRFO2kl (1996)
+
+Se Àven
+ Ebbe Carlsson-affÀren
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Landshövdingar i Uppsala lÀn
+Sveriges försvarsministrar
+Vice talmÀn i Sveriges riksdag
+Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdags andra kammare för högern
+Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdag för Moderaterna
+Sveriges riksdags Ă„lderspresidenter
+Mottagare av Hans MajestÀt Konungens medalj
+Svenska politiker under 1900-talet
+Personer frÄn NÀssjö
+Födda 1944
+Levande personer
+MĂ€n
+Förbundsordförande för Moderata ungdomsförbundet
+Sidor som anvÀnder mallen iriksdagenkallad
+Regeringen Carl Bildt
+Algot Brynolfsson, född cirka 1228 (möjligen tidigare, knappast senare), död nĂ„gon gĂ„ng under Ă„ren 1298â1302, var svenskt riksrĂ„d och lagman i VĂ€stergötland. Algot rĂ€knas som stamfar till Algotssönernas Ă€tt. Sigillvapen: först ros i fyrstyckad sköld, senare ett stort A.
+
+Första gÄngen Algot Brynolfsson omnÀmns i kÀllorna Àr 1260, dÄ han var gift med en i övrigt okÀnd Margareta Petersdotter (död senast 1374), som möjligen var dotter till Algots företrÀdare i lagmansÀmbetet, Peter NÀf (Lejon).
+
+Algot Brynolfsson blev lagman senast 1270 och var det fortfarande 1288, dÄ en av hans söner, Folke Algotsson, gjorde sig skyldig till brudrov och flydde med bruden till Norge. Till följd av sonens tilltag tvingade han avgÄ som lagman. Han och en annan av hans söner, Rörik, tillbringade en tid i fÄngenskap men bÄda frigavs 1289.
+
+Brynolf Algotsson Biskop i Skara.
+Magnus Algotsson frigiven ur fÀngelse 1298
+Karl Algotsson följde med till Norge, greps och avrÀttades vid Äterkomst till Sverige frÄn Norge Är 1289
+Folke Algotsson bortförde Är 1288 Ingrid Svantepolksdotter. Död i Norge.
+Bengt Algotsson, följde med till Norge
+Rörik Algotsson fÀngslades
+Peter Algotsson, var kunglig kansler under Magnus LadulÄs.
+? Nils Algotsson
+
+KĂ€llor
+Ăldre svenska frĂ€lseslĂ€kter, vol I:1 s
+
+Noter
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+
+LagmÀn i VÀstergötland
+Födda 1228
+MĂ€n
+Avlidna okÀnt Är
+Personer i Sverige under 1200-talet
+Algotssönernas Àtt
+Svenska riksrÄd under 1200-talet
+Alice av Storbritannien, född 25 april 1843, död 14 december 1878 i Darmstadt av difteri, brittisk prinsessa, storhertiginna av Hessen. Dotter till prins Albert av Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha och Viktoria I av Storbritannien. Gift 1862 med storhertig Ludvig IV av Hessen. Hon var 1861â1862, tillsammans med systern Louise, sekreterare Ă„t sin mor, drottning Viktoria.
+
+Biografi
+
+Tidigt liv
+
+Prinsessan Alice föddes 25 april 1843 pÄ Buckingham Palace i London och var tredje barnet till drottning Viktoria av Storbritannien och prins Albert av Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha. Som andra dotter mottogs hennes kön med blandade kÀnslor, och till och med KronrÄdet sÀnde sina "gratulationer och beklagande" till hennes förÀldrar. Hon döptes den 2 juni 1843 med namnen Alice Maud Mary i private kapellet i Buckingham Palace av Àrkebiskopen av Canterbury William Howley. Alice fick sitt namn för att hedra Victorias första premiÀrminister, Lord Melbourne, som en gÄng sagt till Victoria att Alice var hans kvinnliga favoritnamn. Vid hennes födsel flyttade familjen tillfÀlligt frÄn Buckingham Palace till Osborne House pÄ Isle of Wight (1844).
+
+Hennes uppfostran övervakades av fadern och dennes vÀn baron Stockmar och hon fick liksom sina syskon lÀra sig praktiska saker som hushÄllsarbete, laga mat och snickra. Familjen levde privat ett enkelt liv, bar "medelklassklÀder" och sov i dÄligt uppvÀrmda och enkelt möblerade rum. Alice beskrivs som kÀnslosam, lÀttrörd, men med ett hetsigt temperament. 1854, under krimkriget, besökte hon sÄrade soldater pÄ sjukhus med sin mor och Àldre syster, och hon besökte Àven arrendatorer pÄ de kungliga godsen och var nyfiken pÄ hur icke kungliga levde.
+
+Alice hade ett nÀra förhÄllande till sin Àldsta syster Viktoria och sin Àldsta bror Edvard, senare Edvard VII av Storbritannien. Hon skötte sin mormor vid dennas död i mars 1861, och var sedan den som var till störst tröst för modern vid faderns död senare samma Är. Vid faderns död underrÀttade hon sin bror mot moderns vilja, dÄ modern förebrÄdde sin Àldste son för faderns död. Vid denna tid blev hon, assisterad av sin syster Louise, moderns privatsekreterare och skötte kontakten mellan regeringen och drottningen.
+
+GiftermÄl
+Ă
r 1860 gav drottningen sin Àldsta dotter, Preussens kronprinsessa, i uppdrag att leta reda pÄ lÀmpliga kandidater för ett Àktenskap med Alice. Victoria ville egentligen att hennes barn skulle gifta sig av kÀrlek men realiteten var annorlunda. Prins Vilhelm av Oranien och prins Albert av Preussen föreslogs, samt Àven prins Ludvig av Hessen, som 1860 inbjöds med sin bror Henrik till Windsor Castle, officiellt för att titta pÄ Ascot-tÀvlingarna men egentligen för att inspekteras. DÄ bröderna reste hem förklarade Alice att hon var attraherad av Ludvig, och paret förlovades Är 1861. Alice gifte sig 1862 pÄ Osborne House. Bröllopet beskrivs som det sorgligaste bröllopet i kungahuset, dÄ bÄde Alices mor och bror Alfred grÀt under ceremonin. Under smekmÄnaden i S:t Claire ska Victoria ha blivit avundsjuk pÄ dotterns lycka.
+
+Livet i Hessen
+Alice vÀlkomnades med entusiasm vid ankomsten till Darmstadt i Hessen. Det rÄdde dock missnöje med kravet pÄ att ett palats skulle byggas Ät Alice, sÄ paret fick av monarken ett enkelt hus vid gatan som bostad, vilket Alice dock trivdes med. NÄgra Är senare reglerades dock det hela och ett nytt palats, Neues Palais, kunde byggas i Darmstadt.
+
+Alice besökte England vid broderns bröllop 1863 men ÄtervÀnde snart. Drottning Victoria tyckte illa om Alices lyckliga relation med Ludvig, eftersom detta innebar att Alice sÀllan besökte England, vilket ledde till en spÀnd relation mellan Alice och modern.
+
+Under kriget med Preussen 1866 kom Alice och hennes syster, Preussens kronprinsessa, pÄ motsatta sidor av konflikten. Hon skickade sina barn till England och arbetade i sjukhusen i Hessen, trots att hon dÄ var gravid. Hon var bekant med Florence Nightingale, och införde ventilation och hygien pÄ sjukhusen efter dennas rÄd. DÄ preussiska trupper stod utanför staden uppmanade hon sin makes farbror, Ludvig III av Hessen-Darmstadt, att ge efter för Preussens krav, vilket upprörde en del. Preussen intog snart dÀrefter staden.
+
+Alice skrev till modern om Preussens plundring av Hessen, och modern skrev till Alices Àldre syster, Preussens kronprinsessa, som dock sade sig oförmögen att förhindra det; att Hessens och Preussens kronprinsessor var syskon antas dock ha inverkat pÄ det faktum att Preussens tillÀt Hessens monark att behÄlla sin tron.
+
+Alice var vÀn med teologen David Friedrich Strauss; hon delade hans kritik av kristendomen, gjorde honom till sin förelÀsare och presenterade honom för Preussens kronprinspar. Alice och Ludvig besökte England 1871, dÀr hon av en slump kom att ha huvudansvaret för vÄrden av prinsen av Wales under hans svÄra tyfoidfeber.
+
+Drottning Victoria ogillade att Alice ammade sina barn, tyckte att hennes intresse för gynekologi och fysik var chockerande, hennes pengaproblem pinsamma och hennes sÀtt att kritisera moderns livslÄnga sorgeperiod oförskÀmd. Alice tog sin son Fritz död 1873 mycket hÄrt. Hon brevvÀxlade med socialreformatorn Octavia Hill. 1877 besteg maken tronen i Hessen, och Alice blev storhertiginna. Hon försökte som sÄdan driva igenom sociala reformer i Hessen men plÄgades av sin impopularitet och sina plikter som storhertiginna.
+
+Hon besökte England pÄ semester 1878. Vid sin Äterkomst till Hessen blev hon, efter att sjÀlv ha vÄrdat flera sjuka i familjen, sjÀlv sjuk i difteri och dog.
+
+Familj
+
+Gift 1862 pĂ„ Osborne House, Isle of Wight, med sedermera storhertig Ludvig IV av Hessen (1837â1892).
+
+Barn:
+ Viktoria av Hessen (1863â1950), mor till Louise Mountbatten, Louis Mountbatten och Alice av Battenberg.
+ Elisabeth av Hessen (1864â1918), gift med Sergej Alexandrovitj av Ryssland (1857â1905).
+ Irene av Hessen (1866â1953), gift med Henrik av Preussen.
+ Ernst Ludvig av Hessen (1868â1937), Hessens siste storhertig.
+ Friedrich av Hessen (1870â1873), dog av blödarsjuka.
+ Alexandra av Hessen (Alix) (1872â1918), gift med tsar Nikolaj II av Ryssland (bĂ„da avrĂ€ttade vid ryska revolutionen 1918).
+ Marie av Hessen (1874â1878), dog av difteri.
+
+Galleri
+
+Referenser
+
+
+ Packard, Jerrold M., "Victoria's Daughters" , St Martin's Press, New York, USA 1998
+
+Fotnoter
+
+Huset Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha
+Brittiska prinsessor
+Tyska hertiginnor
+Födda 1843
+Avlidna 1878
+Kvinnor
+Mottagare av Sankta Katarinas orden
+Additiv fÀrgblandning, eller optisk fÀrgblandning, Àr blandning av ljus med olika fÀrg. PrimÀrfÀrgerna som anvÀnds Àr oftast rött, grönt och blÄtt, och i RGB-systemet som anvÀnds i bildskÀrmar blandas strÄlning med tre specificerade vÄglÀngder.
+
+Rött och grönt ger gult, rött och blÄtt ger magenta, blÄtt och grönt ger cyan. Gult, magenta och cyan kallas i detta sammanhang sekundÀrfÀrger. Med balanserad styrka av ljus med de tre primÀrfÀrgerna fÄr man fram vitt, och genom att reglera styrkan av de olika ljuskÀllorna kan man fÄ fram alla uppfattbara kulörtoner.
+
+I det mest renodlade exemplet, som pÄ bilden, skapas blandningen genom att ljus frÄn olika fÀrgade ljuskÀllor belyser en och samma yta. PÄ bildskÀrmar anvÀnds i stÀllet smÄ lysande punkter med de tre primÀrfÀrgerna, och blandningen sker i betraktarens öga. Samma sak gÀller det ljus som reflekteras frÄn smÄ punkter i fÀrgtryck eller i den konstmÄlningsteknik som kallas pointillism.
+
+Se Àven
+Subtraktiv fÀrgblandning
+FĂ€rgsystem
+
+KĂ€llor
+ Valberg, Arne: A guide to light and colour demonstrations 2015. Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Sid 11-13.
+
+FÀrglÀra
+Axel Tallberg, född 23 september 1860 i GÀvle, död 8 januari 1928 i Solna, var en svensk grafiker, mÄlare och skriftstÀllare.
+
+Biografi
+Han var son till gjutmĂ€staren Carl Erik Tallberg och Kristina Johansson och frĂ„n 1900 gift med Greta Kristina Katarina Santonsson och far till Lizzie Tallberg. Han vĂ€xte upp i Falun och efter avslutad skolgĂ„ng studerade han vid Konstakademien 1879â1882 dĂ€r Albert Theodor Gellerstedt undervisning i etsningskonsten gav honom ett livslĂ„ngt intresse. De följande tolv Ă„ren vistades han utomlands med nĂ„got enstaka kortare besök i Sverige. Han reste runt i Italien Frankrike, Spanien, Nordafrika och Tyskland 1883â1885. Under resorna utförde han landskapsmĂ„lningar i akvarell och studerade etsningar. Hans önskan att lĂ€ra sig etsningskonsten frĂ„n grunden resulterade i att han studerade vid konstakademien i DĂŒsseldorf 1885 och i England 1889â1895 för att dĂ€r ytterligare förfina sina kunskaper om etsteknik. Det var emellertid besvĂ€rligt att vid den tiden lĂ€ra sig etsningskonstens alla kemiska och tekniska metoder dĂ„ de utövande konstnĂ€rerna var ovilliga att dela med sig av nĂ„gra kunskaper. Det var en instĂ€llning som Tallberg avskydde och sjĂ€lv kom han aldrig att dölja nĂ„got för blivande konstnĂ€rer. I London fick han kontakt med Axel Herman HĂ€gg och utförde pĂ„ dennes uppmaning ett portrĂ€tt i etsning. Under sin vistelse i England bodde han största delen i Burnham vid Windsor och var tidvis verksam som konstlĂ€rare. FrĂ„n London skrev han ett brev till Konstakademien 1893 dĂ€r han motionerade om upprĂ€ttande av en frikurs i etsning och dĂ€rmed förbundna gravyrmetoder för Akademiens elever. Resultatet blev att den sĂ„ kallade Tallbergska kursen startade i Konstakademien nya lokaler 1895. Den första Ă„rskursen finansierades till stor del av bidrag frĂ„n Konstakademien, Föreningen för grafisk konst och Generalstabens litografiska anstalt. Efter den lyckosamma kursen 1895 blev anslagen frĂ„n Konstakademien sporadiska och de kunde inte heller upplĂ„ta lokaler till Tallberg och hans kursverksamhet sĂ„ hans undervisning i etsning de följande Ă„ren förde en tillfĂ€llighetsbetonad och osĂ€ker tillvaro i olika lokaler. Han fortsatte dock sin undervisning och fick ett stort antal elever till sina kurser huvudsakligen frĂ„n konstakademien dĂ€ribland Carl Larsson, Albert Engström, Ferdinand Boberg, prins Eugen och Anders Zorn. Han gav 1901 en kurs i etsning för medlemmarna i KonstnĂ€rsförbundet och Ă„tskilliga senare namnkunniga svenska konstnĂ€rer sökte upp honom under dessa Ă„r för att lĂ€ra sig etsningstekniker. Riksdagen beslöt 1908 att tillskjuta medel till en statlig etsnings- och gravyrskola vid Konstakademien och i mars 1909 startade den första etsningskursen med Tallberg som lĂ€rare och förestĂ„ndare för verksamheten. Han utnĂ€mndes till vice professor 1910 och kvarstod i denna tjĂ€nst fram till sin avgĂ„ng 1926. Tallberg var praktiskt taget ensam lĂ€rare för en hel generation svenska grafiker.
+
+Tallberg var Falugrafikernas förebild och i viss mĂ„n lĂ€romĂ€stare. Han anses ha stor del i att grafiken fick högre status i Sverige. Hans egna blad Ă€r oftast etsningar och frĂ€mst Ă€r han kĂ€nd för sina portrĂ€tt, av bland andra Oscar II, Lev Tolstoj och Theodore Roosevelt. Dessutom finns det ett femtiotal blad med motiv frĂ„n Gamla stan, Stockholm. Tallberg arbetade i flera olika etstekniker, som linjeetsning, crayonetsning, mezzotint, aquatint och nĂ„gon gĂ„ng i torrnĂ„lsradering. Han medverkade sparsamt i utstĂ€llningar men var representerad vid Grafiska sĂ€llskapets retrospektiva utstĂ€llning pĂ„ Konstakademien 1911â1912 och samma förenings utstĂ€llning pĂ„ Malmö museum 1912 och han deltog med tio grafiska blad i Föreningen för Grafisk Konsts portföljer.
+
+Tallberg verkade som illustratör för bÄde i svenska och utlÀndska tidskrifter och grundade 1895 veckotidskriften FörgÀt-mig-ej. Som skriftstÀllare utgav han nÄgra lÀroböcker bland annat NÄgra ord om etsning 1912 som senare tryckes i nya utgÄvor under andra titlar och Tallbergska kursen samt konstnÀrsmonografier över Knut Ander 1913 och Anders Zorn 1919. Han medverkade Àven som journalist och illustratör i tidningspressen samt korrespondent för den engelska tidningen The Studio. Som konstkritiker medverkade han i Nya Dagligt Allehanda och nÄgra mindre landsortstidningar.
+
+Han var ledamot av Royal Society of Painter-Etchers samt av Royal Archaeological Institute, bÄda med sÀte i London. Tallberg Àr representerad vid bland annat Nationalmuseum i Stockholm, Göteborgs museum och VÀsterÄs konstförenings galleri.
+
+Han tilldelades medaljen Litteris et Artibus 1896. Axel Tallberg Àr begravd pÄ Norra begravningsplatsen utanför Stockholm.
+
+Verk i urval
+LiktÄg Ä romerska Campagnan 1884
+Vietri 1884
+Utsikt vid Prestnibble 1886
+Slottet Doune i Skottland 1887
+Engelsk landskyrka 1888
+Afton 1889
+PortrÀtt av A. H. HÀgg 1889
+Skymning i bokskogen 1890
+Gammal man 1892â93
+En landsstrykare 1892â93
+Joe 1892â93
+En skoflickare 1892â93
+Ălprovet 1892
+Andante cantabile 1893
+En concrisseur 1893
+portrÀtt av Hertiginnan av York 1894
+Ett sockenrÄd 1895
+portrÀtt av Oscar II
+C. F. Adlercreutz 1897
+Topelius 1901
+Tolstoy 1901
+Bellman 1901
+Ibsen 1901
+slottet Bamborough i Northumberland 1905
+Presidenten Roosevelt 1906.
+
+KĂ€llor
+Svenskt konstnÀrslexikon del V, sid 389-390, Allhems Förlag, Malmö.
+
+Noter
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Svenska grafiker under 1800-talet
+Svenska grafiker under 1900-talet
+Svenska mÄlare under 1800-talet
+Svenska mÄlare under 1900-talet
+Svenska konstkritiker
+Representerade vid Nationalmuseum
+Mottagare av Litteris et Artibus
+KonstnÀrer frÄn GÀvle
+Gravsatta pÄ Norra begravningsplatsen i Stockholm
+Födda 1860
+Avlidna 1928
+MĂ€n
+SBH
+Akleja (Aquilegia vulgaris) eller akvileja Àr en vÀxtart i familjen ranunkelvÀxter.
+
+Förekomst
+Akleja finns i nÀstan hela Europa samt i Kaukasien och Sibirien.
+
+Den vilda formen av akleja Àr sÀllsynt i Sverige (den finns i södra Finland, södra och mellersta Sverige upp till Dalarna, södra och mellersta Norge upp till Trondheim). Den Àr som vild vanlig endast kring gamla gÄrdar och kloster, i parker och liknande miljöer och har dÄ antagligen förvildat sig, eftersom den lÀnge varit en omtyckt flerÄrig trÀdgÄrdsvÀxt och lÀtt sjÀlvsÄr sig med stora massor av frön och ratas av rÄdjur. DÀremot Àr den sÀrskilt omtyckt av humlor, som Àr de enda som har en tillrÀckligt lÄng tunga, för att nÄ nektarn i den djupa sporren dit bin och andra pollinerande insekter inte nÄr.
+
+Munkar införde arten till Sverige frÄn tyska klostertrÀdgÄrdar, dÀr den odlades som medicinalvÀxt.
+
+Utseende
+Liksom hos smörboll Ă€r hyllets bĂ„da kransar av ungefĂ€r samma fĂ€rg (mörkblĂ„, sĂ€llan ljusröda eller vita) men dĂ€remot olika till formen, sĂ„ att man kan att anse de fem yttre för foderblad, de fem inre för kronblad. De senare har var sitt nektarium i form av en lĂ„ng sporre med krökt spets. I blomman kan man vidare se att de innersta stĂ„ndarna Ă€r ombildade till tunna fjĂ€ll (staminodier) som skyddande omsluter de spĂ€da fruktanlagen. Aklejans blomma ger endast fem smĂ„frukter (fröhus), som sitter i en enkel krets. Ărten igenkĂ€nnes dessutom pĂ„ sina dubbelt trefingrade rosettblad.
+
+Folkmedicin
+Aklejan anses inom folkmedicinen kunna anvÀndas för utvÀrtes sÄrbehandling. Dess innehÄll av glykosider (blÄsyra), fetter, enzymer och vitamin C, har adstringerande och antiseptisk verkan. AnvÀnda delar av vÀxten Àr frö, blommor, blad och rötter. Aklejans frön fÄr inte anvÀndas för invÀrtes bruk eftersom de kan avge blÄsyra. VÀxtens blad och blommor kan anvÀndas, men endast nÄgra per dag, dÄ större doser kan ge diarréer, yrsel och andnöd.
+
+SprÄkligt
+De svenska namnen akleja eller akvileja Ă€r försvenskningar av det vetenskapliga namnet för slĂ€ktet, Aquilegia. Detta tolkas i sin tur av vissa kĂ€llor som en sammandragning av aquila legia, som Ă€r latin och betyder ungefĂ€r "en samling örnar". Blommans baksida ser ut som fem fĂ„glar som sitter i ring med nĂ€bbarna inĂ„t. En folklig variant av detta Ă€r duvblomma p.g.a. likhet med flygande duvor. Andra namn Ă€r "duva drar vagn" och Ă€lvahandske. Folkliga benĂ€mningar â ibland obscena â pĂ„ olika sprĂ„k har tydliga beröringspunkter, se nedan.
+
+Andra menar att namnet ska hÀrledas till aqua, vatten, eller den antika staden Aquileia. Vulgaris betyder vanlig, vilket Äsyftar den vanligaste sorten. Andra Àldre svenska namnformer Àr Äkerleja och tyska klockor
+
+NÄgra utlÀndska folkliga namn
+ Engelska: Granny's bonnet (Mormors/farmors huva)
+ Franska: Gants de Notre Dame (VĂ„r Frus, â d.v.s. Jungfru Marias â handskar)
+ Tyska: Taubenblume, Tauberln, FĂŒnf Vögerln zusamm, Elfenhandshuh, Frauenhandschuh, KapuzinerhĂŒtli, Pfaffenapfel, Venuswagen, Schlotterhose
+
+Synonyma vetenskapliga namn
+ Aquilegia aggericola Jord.
+ Aquilegia arbascensis Timb.-Lagr.
+ Aquilegia collina Jord.
+ Aquilegia cornuta Gilib. nom. invalid.
+ Aquilegia cyclophylla Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.
+ Aquilegia glaucophylla Steud.
+ Aquilegia longisepala Zimmeter
+ Aquilegia mollis Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.
+ Aquilegia nemoralis Jord.
+ Aquilegia platysepala Rchb.
+ Aquilegia praecox Jord.
+ Aquilegia ruscinonensis Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.
+ Aquilegia silvestris Neck.
+ Aquilegia speciosa Timb.-Lagr.
+ Aquilegia subalpina Boreau
+ Aquilegia versicolor Salisb. nom. illeg.
+ Aquilegia vulgaris proles aggericola (Jord.) Rouy & Foucaud
+ Aquilegia vulgaris proles arbascensis (Timb.-Lagr.) Rouy & Foucaud
+ Aquilegia vulgaris proles collina (Jord.) Rouy & Foucaud
+ Aquilegia vulgaris proles cyclophylla (Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.) Rouy & Foucaud
+ Aquilegia vulgaris proles mollis (Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.) Rouy & Foucaud
+ Aquilegia vulgaris proles nemoralis (Jord.) Rouy & Foucaud
+ Aquilegia vulgaris proles praecox (Jord.) Rouy & Foucaud
+ Aquilegia vulgaris proles ruscinonensis (Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.) Rouy & Foucaud
+ Aquilegia vulgaris proles subalpina (Boreau) Rouy & Foucaud
+ Aquilegia vulgaris subsp. arbascensis (Timb.-Lagr.) Nyman
+ Aquilegia vulgaris subsp. hispanica (Willk.) Heywood
+ Aquilegia vulgaris var. cyclophylla (Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.) Gaut.
+ Aquilegia vulgaris var. nemoralis (Jord.) P.Fourn.
+ Aquilegia vulgaris var. platysepala (Rchb.) Steud.
+ Aquilegia vulgaris var. praecox (Jord.) P.Fourn.
+ Aquilegia vulgaris var. pratensis Kitt.
+ Aquilegia vulgaris var. ruscinonensis (Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.) Timb.-Lagr.
+ Aquilegia vulgaris var. speciosa W.T.Aiton
+ Aquilegia vulgaris var. subalpina (Boreau) Zimmeter
+ Aquilina vulgaris (L.) Bubani
+
+Akleja i litteraturen
+Akleja, i formen akvileja, Àr en av flera vÀxter som rÀknas upp i folkvisan Uti vÄr hage, egentligen som del i en kÀrleksdryck.
+
+Underarter och sorter
+
+Hallonakleja
+Hallonakleja (Aquilegia vulgaris flora plena) Àr en underart till akleja som Àr populÀr bland odlare för sina tÀtt fyllda blommor. Den finns i flera fÀrger frÄn vit via rosavit, rosa, ljusblÄ till mörkblÄ.
+
+Klematisakleja
+Klematisakleja (Aquilegia vulgaris 'Clematiflora') Àr en sort av akleja som har den speciella egenheten att dess blommor Àr stÄende, till skillnad frÄn andra aklejor, som har hÀngande blommor.
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Se Àven
+ Afrodisiakum
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Den virtuella floran
+
+ IPNI âą International Plant Names Index
+ VÀxters latinska namn (pdf) Raoul Iseborg, Botaniska sÀllskapet i Stockholm
+
+Aklejor
+Ak VĂ€xtindex
+Ann-Cathrine Haglund, född 24 augusti 1937, Àr en tidigare svensk adjunkt och politiker (moderat).
+
+Haglund var riksdagsledamot 1979â1993, invald i Ărebro lĂ€ns valkrets. Hon var ledamot i utbildningsutskottet frĂ„n 1988 och dess ordförande 1991â1993. Hon var ordförande i EuroparĂ„dets svenska delegation 1992â1993 samt ledamot av interparlamentariska delegationen och krigsdelegationen.
+
+Haglund var Ă€ven ordförande i Moderata Kvinnoförbundet 1981â1990, landshövding i Malmöhus lĂ€n 1993â1996 och landshövding i Uppsala lĂ€n 1997â2002.
+
+Haglund var ordförande i Samfundet SverigeâIsraels riksorganisation mellan 1989 och 1994.
+
+Ann-Cathrine Haglund Àr ordförande i SÀllskapet för moderata kvinnors historia.
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Riksdagens webbplats
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+ Intervju med Ann-Cathrine Haglund av Elisabeth Precht
+
+Se Àven
+LÀnsstyrelsen i Uppsala lÀn
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdag för Moderaterna
+Landshövdingar i Malmöhus lÀn
+Landshövdingar i Uppsala lÀn
+Hedersledamöter vid Södermanlands-Nerikes nation
+Svenska politiker under 1900-talet
+Födda 1937
+Levande personer
+Kvinnor
+Runa Anita Elisabet BrÄkenhielm, född Ohlander 1 mars 1937 i Lannaskede församling i Jönköpings lÀn, Àr en svensk lÀkare, politiker och Àmbetsman.
+
+Biografi
+Hon avlade medicine licentiatexamen vid Lunds universitet 1963 och blev legitimerad lĂ€kare samma Ă„r. DĂ€refter var hon underlĂ€kare vid Linköpings lasarett 1964, vid Kalmar lasarett 1965â1966 och vid Eksjö lasarett 1967â1970. Hon uppnĂ„dde specialistkompetens i gynekologi och obstetrik 1970, varpĂ„ hon var överlĂ€kare vid Vetlanda sjukhus 1970â1989. Ă
ren 1979â1988 var hon moderat riksdagsledamot för Jönköpings lĂ€ns valkrets. BrĂ„kenhielm var landshövding i Kristianstads lĂ€n 1990â1996 och i Kalmar lĂ€n 1996â2002. Under hennes tid som landshövding blev Kalmar lĂ€n ett försökslĂ€n och fick ett regionförbund. LĂ€nsstyrelsens styrelse ersattes av landshövdingens rĂ„d. Södra Ălands odlingslandskap blev ett vĂ€rldsarv.
+
+BrĂ„kenhielm var dessutom ledamot av Jönköpings lĂ€ns landsting 1976â1982, ordförande i 1980 Ă„rs abortkommittĂ© 1980â1983, ordförande i Riksförbundet Sveriges lottakĂ„rer 1986â1992, ordförande i styrelsen för Riksarkivet 1990â1996, ledamot av styrelsen för Statens rĂ€ddningsverk 1990â1998, ledamot av styrelsen för Statens arbetsgivarverk 1992â1998, ledamot av styrelsen för SIDA 1995â2000, ledamot av styrelsen för Fiskeriverket 1996â2002, ledamot av styrelsen för Drottning Victorias vilohem sedan 1996, ledamot av styrelsen för Ăverstyrelsen för civil beredskap 1998â2001, ordförande i styrelsen för Sophiahemmet Högskola 1999â2001, ordförande i Caremas etiska rĂ„d sedan 2000, ledamot av styrelsen för Stiftelsen Silviahemmet sedan 2000 och ordförande i Sophiahemmet ideell förening sedan 2001. Hon mottog 2004 Hans MajestĂ€t Konungens medalj av 12:e storleken i Serafimerordens band.
+
+Hon Ă€r dotter till prosten Suno Ohlander och lĂ€roverksadjunkten Runa Svensson. Hon var gift 1965â1982 med skogsinspektorn och jordbrukaren Peder BrĂ„kenhielm. De fick barnen Anna (född 1966) och Per (född 1968). Anita BrĂ„kenhielm gifte senare om sig med tandlĂ€karen Leif Dahlman. Hon Ă€r syster till Ann-Sofie Ohlander.
+
+Referenser
+
+Kvinnor
+Födda 1937
+Levande personer
+Anita
+Personer frÄn Lannaskede socken
+Alumner frÄn Lunds universitet
+Svenska lÀkare under 1900-talet
+Svenska lÀkare inom obstetrik och gynekologi
+Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdag för Moderaterna
+Svenska ÀmbetsmÀn under 1900-talet
+Svenska ÀmbetsmÀn under 2000-talet
+Landshövdingar i Kalmar lÀn
+Landshövdingar i Kristianstads lÀn
+Mottagare av Hans MajestÀt Konungens medalj
+Elsie Anna-Lena Lodenius, född 30 juni 1958 i NorrtÀlje, Stockholms lÀn, Àr en svensk journalist, författare och förelÀsare, frÀmst kÀnd för sina studier av autonoma och extremnationalistiska rörelser. Hon har publicerat artiklar i bland annat Expressen, Aftonbladet, Svenska Dagbladet, Dagens Nyheter, Ordfront, MÄnadsjournalen och Arena.
+
+Anna-Lena Lodenius har varit knuten som researcher och reporter för samhÀllsprogrammen TV4:s Kalla fakta och SVT:s Striptease samt medverkat i en rad TV- och radioprogram exempelvis Mosaik och UR:s UR-akademin.
+
+Ă
ren 2003â2004 arbetade hon vid Olof Palmes Internationella Centrum med ett informationsprojekt kallat "Global Respekt", som bland annat bestod av en studiecirkel pĂ„ Internet
+
+Fick Vilhelm Moberg-stipendiet 1993 (delas ut av tidningen Arbetaren). För sin envisa bevakning av högerextremistiska grupper i Sverige fick Lodenius hösten 2022 motta Pennskaftspriset.
+
+Bibliografi
+1988 â Operation högervridning (med Sven Ove Hansson). Stockholm: Tiden. .
+1991 â Extremhögern (med Stieg Larsson), Stockholm: Tiden. . . Reviderad upplaga 1994: .
+1997 â Nazist, rasist eller bara patriot? En bok om den rasistiska ungdomskulturen och frĂ€mlingsfientligt orienterad brottslighet (med Per Wikström). Stockholm: Rikspolisstyrelsen. . .
+1998 â Vit makt och blĂ„gula drömmar: Rasism och nazism i dagens Sverige (med Per Wikström), Stockholm: Natur & Kultur.
+1999 â
+2002 â
+2004 â Global respekt â grundkurs i globalisering och mĂ€nskliga rĂ€ttigheter (redaktör). Stockholm: Premiss förlag. ISBN 9185343013 Nya reviderade upplagor 2006 och 2013, ISBN 9789186743246. Engelsk översĂ€ttning 2005 och arabisk 2016.
+2005 â Ăr det vĂ€rt det? â om handel och mĂ€nskliga rĂ€ttigheter (redaktör). Stockholm: RĂ€ttvisemĂ€rkt och Rena klĂ€der. Ny reviderad utgĂ„va 2011 ISBN 9789163383533
+2006 â Gatans parlament â om politiska vĂ„ldsverkare i Sverige. Stockholm: Ordfront. (inb) (inb.)
+2008 â Migrantarbetare â grundkurs om rörlighet, rĂ€ttigheter och globalisering (med Mats Wingborg), Stockholm: Premiss förlag.
+2009 â Slaget om svenskheten â ta debatten med Sverigedemokraterna (med Mats Wingborg), Stockholm: Premiss förlag / Arena IdĂ©. .
+2011 â Krutdurk Europa (med Mats Wingborg), Stockholm: Bilda förlag.
+2012 â Alla kan göra nĂ„got, allas lika vĂ€rde och lika rĂ€tt (med Mats Wingborg och Thord Ingesson), (LO)
+2012 â Att bygga en demokrati i skolan. Stockholm: Ordfront.
+2015 â Vi sĂ€ger vad du tĂ€nker: högerpopulismen i Europa. Stockholm: Bokförlaget Atlas.
+2017 â Vi mĂ„ste förbereda oss pĂ„ död: i huvudet pĂ„ en terrorist2021 â Frigjorda tider: NĂ€r porren blev kultur och kulturen blev porr (med Martin Kristenson och Fredrik af Trampe). Stockholm: Klubb Super-8 och Serieslussen.
+2021 â
+2022 - Svart pÄ vitt - om Sverigedemokraterna, Stockholm, Atlas förlag. ISBN 9789174450408
+2023 - Spionjakt i folkhemmet - ett halvsekel med IB-affÀren'', Lund, Historiska media. ISBN 9789180503358
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Anna-Lena Lodenius hemsida och blogg
+ Lodenius - författarpresentation
+
+Födda 1958
+Svenska författare under 1900-talet
+Svenska journalister under 1900-talet
+SvensksprÄkiga författare
+Kvinnor
+Levande personer
+Personer frÄn NorrtÀlje
+Svenska författare under 2000-talet
+Anarkism, vanligen av grekiskans áŒÎœ (utan) + áŒÏÏΔÎčÎœ (att styra) + ÎčÏÎŒÏÏ (frĂ„n stammen -ÎčζΔÎčÎœ), "an archos", "utan hĂ€rskare/herrar"), Ă€r en idĂ©strömning med syfte att skapa ett samhĂ€lle fritt frĂ„n stat, kapitalism och alla andra hierarkiska system och auktoritĂ€ra strukturer. Det finns mĂ„nga olika varianter av anarkism â bl.a. med utgĂ„ngspunkt i vad som ses som huvudfienden: Staten, Ă€ven eventuellt staten som kapital och kapitalismen eller bĂ„da.
+
+Förenklat kan man sÀga att anarkisterna vill att samhÀllet organiseras horisontellt, inte vertikalt, med allas jÀmlika medverkan i ett samhÀlle som styrs genom direkt demokrati och dÀr upprÀtthÄllandet av samhÀllet sköts pÄ lokal nivÄ, snarare Àn genom privategendom eller ett kapitalsamhÀlle med en byrÄkratisk modell av realsocialistiskt snitt.
+
+Det finns mĂ„nga olika teorier för hur denna övergĂ„ng skulle ske. Vissa föresprĂ„kar en mer eller mindre omedelbar förĂ€ndring genom en social revolution, andra tror att "smarta lösningar" som alternativa valutasystem, kooperativt och idealistisk verksamhet, och spridande av kunskap och medel vilka ska underminera och helt enkelt bygga bort staten, kapitalet och ibland Ă€ven politiken. Det som Ă€r gemensamt för all anarkism Ă€r att förĂ€ndringen ska komma nerifrĂ„n och inte Ă€r nĂ„got som kan vĂ€xa fram genom gradvisa reformer (reformsocialism) eller genom att ett parti tar monopol pĂ„ statsmakten och dĂ€rmed vĂ„ldet, för att under en lĂ€ngre övergĂ„ngsperiod tvinga fram förĂ€ndrade (politiska) förhĂ„llanden, attityder och dygder (proletariatets diktatur, föresprĂ„kas inom Marxismâleninism). PĂ„ fackföreningssidan har anarkismen en nĂ€ra slĂ€kting i syndikalismen.
+
+Kortfattat brukar anarkismen delas i social anarkism, som stÄr den ursprungliga utopiska socialismen nÀra och söker en icke-auktoritÀr övergÄng till ett statslöst och klasslöst samhÀlle, och individualanarkism, som betonar individens egenvÀrde och okrÀnkbarhet och delar mÄnga filosofiska punkter med klassisk liberalism. Inom den senare tankeskolan Àr Max Stirner en central figur. BÄda formerna mÀrker emellertid ut sig frÄn de gÀngse politiska teorierna socialism och liberalism genom att föresprÄka statens ovillkorliga och fullstÀndiga avskaffande. Se Àven anarkokommunism eller frihetlig socialism.
+
+Ăversikt
+I regel vill anarkister avskaffa all myndighet och ge mĂ€nniskan fullstĂ€ndig frihet över sina handlingar. Den grekiske filosofen Zenon (333â264 f.Kr.) anses ha varit den förste som systematiserade den anarkistiska teorin. Det gjorde han i opposition till Platons bok Staten med kraft hĂ€vdade den fria kommunen utan privategendom, regering, pengar, tempel, lagar och poliser i sitt arbete ΠολÎčÏΔία. Förnuft och kĂ€rlek och könens lika rĂ€ttigheter Ă€r fundamentet och de enda gĂ€llande lagarna Ă€r enligt Zenon naturlagarna. HĂ€r formuleras för första gĂ„ngen ett utkast till en frihetlig utopi mĂ„nga Ă„rhundraden innan vare sig liberalism eller socialism var pĂ„tĂ€nkta. Frasen: "an archos" (utan hĂ€rskare) hittades vid flera tillfĂ€llen i arbetet ΠολÎčÏΔία. Arbetet har dessvĂ€rre inte överlevt tidens gĂ„ng men har nĂ€mnts av flera stoiska filosofer. Anarkismens idĂ©historiska grunder har av flera inflytelserika anarkister, som Noam Chomsky, Rudolf Rocker och Max Nettlau, angetts vara upplysningens idĂ©er och den klassiska liberalismen. Nettlau talar om anarkismen som en del av den "liberala humaniseringsprocess" som inleddes under 1700-talet. Man tar dock starkt avstĂ„nd frĂ„n dagens vĂ€sterlĂ€ndska liberalism. Som politisk rörelse kom anarkismen att spela en viss politisk roll i Syd- och Ăsteuropa mellan 1850 och första vĂ€rldskriget. Under 1900-talets senare del Ă€r Spanien 1936-39 den viktigaste perioden, följd av det uppsving för anarkismens idĂ©er som föddes ur majrevolten 1968. I dag Ă€r rörelsen bĂ„de större och bredare.
+
+Anarkism Àr en bred rörelse med flera underliggande teorier.
+Trots sitt namn Àr inte anarki och anarkism samma sak som kaos. IstÀllet Àr anarkister ofta inriktade pÄ lokal direktdemokrati som Àven skall gÀlla över ekonomin.
+Ordet "anarkism" hÀrstammar frÄn grekiskans an archos vilket betyder "utan hÀrskare" Anarkism i politisk betydelse Àr sÄledes inte synonymt med kaos (anarki). TvÀrtom menar anarkisterna att begreppet "anarki" och "anarkism" medvetet anvÀnds av maktens mÀn och kvinnor för att chikanera anarkismen, vilket skedde första gÄngen under franska revolutionen 1789-1793, dÄ högern kallade den ultraradikala gruppen Les Enragés för anarkister
+
+Anarkister vÀnder sig emot etablissemanget och vill att samhÀllet ska existera utan formella hierarkiska institutioner sÄsom staten och politiska partier.
+Anarkismen betraktar parlamentariskt arbete som oförmöget att Ästadkomma ett klasslöst samhÀlle.
+Införandet av direktdemokrati och sjÀlvförvaltning genom federerade arbetarrÄd med nÀr som helst Äterkallbara delegater ses som ett av mÄlen för den sociala revolutionen; eller sÄ kan detta ske genom kooperativa organisationer representerade av individerna.
+SamhÀllssynen genomsyras av en lÀngtan till det enkla och okomplicerade livet, vilket per automatik gör rörelsen motstÄndare till centralism, byrÄkrati, stordrift och tvÄngskollektivisering.
+I dagslÀget finns flera riktningar som gör ansprÄk pÄ att vara anarkistiska och konflikter i synsÀtt Àr oundvikliga.
+
+Anarkismen anses vara en del av den frihetliga socialismen tillsammans med syndikalismen. DÀrmed Àr anarkismen en sjÀlvskriven motstÄndare till leninismen och till kapitalismen; bÀgge betraktas som system som förutsÀtter klassamhÀllen sÄvÀl som ett kapitalistiskt produktionssÀtt.
+
+Historia
+
+Anarkism som modern samhÀllsrörelse uppkom i och med den industriella revolutionen och den gryende arbetarrörelsens framvÀxt. FrÄn att först ha varit ett filosofiskt system med (Godwin) under den samtida franska revolutionen, övergick anarkismen till att bli en praktisk rörelse under 1820-talet i USA (Warren). NÄgot senare i Frankrike, teoretiseras anarkismen med Pierre Joseph Proudhons verk Vad Àr egendom? (1840) dÄ den politiska ekonomin kritiserades. Efter att ha suttit i parlamentet en tid tog Proudhon avstÄnd frÄn parlamentarismen, dÀrur uppkom rörelsens motstÄnd mot parlamentarismen och partiverksamhet. Anarkister var delaktiga i skapandet av den första internationella arbetarrörelsen, första internationalen men uteslöts efter motsÀttningar mellan frÀmst Marx och Bakunin;
+
+Merparten av anarkisterna gick över till en planekonomisk inriktning efter att en av Prouhdons lÀrjungar, Joseph Déjacque, vÀnt sig emot marknadsekonomin i ett brev till Proudhon. DÀrefter, under 1880-talet utvecklades anarkokommunismen (Kropotkin). Under tidigt 1900-tal utvecklas den kristna anarkismen (Tolstoj) och den feministiska anarkismen (Goldman). Kulmen i den anarkistiska rörelsen före andra vÀrldskriget nÄddes med Spanska inbördeskriget dÀr anarkister lyckades genomföra en revolution.
+
+
+Efter andra vÀrldskriget och med den nyupptÀckta miljöproblematiken fick den anarkistiska rörelsen ny nÀring (Murray Bookchin). Misstron mot det moderna samhÀllet och dess oförmÄga att frigöra mÀnniskan resulterade i uppkomsten av en ny gren under 1970-talen och 1980-talen (Grön anarkism). Ungdomskulturens utveckling under sena 1900-talet har i mycket anammat anarkistiska ideal i protesterna mot etablissemanget.
+
+Sedan slutet av 1960-talet har anarkismens intima sammankoppling med arbetarrörelsen förÀndrats i Sverige och delar av sociala rörelser som kvinnorörelsen, miljörörelsen och sÄ vidare gjort ansprÄk pÄ att dela den anarkistiska rörelsens mÄl, eller arbetat utifrÄn horisontella och deltagande metoder vilket har skapat ett brett anvÀndande av begreppet anarkism.
+
+Under Ă„rtiondena nĂ€rmast före första vĂ€rldskriget begicks ett antal attentat av anarkister. Mellan Ă„ren 1894 och 1901 dödades presidenten i Frankrike , kungen av Italien och Ăsterrikes kejsarinna, nĂ„got som felaktigt stĂ€mplat rörelsen som vĂ„ldsromantisk. NĂ„gra hĂ€ndelser dĂ€r anarkistiska idĂ©er och handlingar spelat stor roll Ă€r Pariskommunen 1871, Haymarketmassakern 1886, Petrogradkommunen 1905, Machnoviternas sovjetrevolution i Ukraina 1918-19, fabriksockupationerna i Turin 1920, Kronstadtupproret 1921, Spanska inbördeskriget 1936-39 zapatisternas uppror i Chiapas 1994 och Rojava i norra Syrien frĂ„n 2013. Andra uppror dĂ€r anarkister förekommit men haft en mindre roll Ă€r den mexikanska revolutionen 1910, Tyska novemberrevolutionen 1918, Ungernrevolten 1956, majrevolten i Paris 1968 och nejlikerevolutionen i Portugal 1974 och revolutionen i Rojava 2013. Om Portugal,se: Britta Gröndahl: Herre i eget hus. SjĂ€lvförvaltning i Spanien och Portugal. Federativs 1983.
+
+Anarkismens huvudgrenar
+
+Individualanarkism
+
+Individualanarkismen företrÀds av bland andra William Godwins, Max Stirners, Pierre-Joseph Proudhons, Josiah Warrens och den nutida Kevin A. Carsons teorier. Denna rörelse sÀtter alltid den fria individens rÀttigheter och förmÄga före alla gruppers rÀttigheter, med betoning pÄ faran för de krÀnkningar av individens rÀttigheter som obönhörligen uppstÄr nÀr gruppen tillskrivs ett eget, högre vÀrde. Proudhons och Warrens idéer om fri antikapitalistisk marknadsekonomi utan profit, immateriell rÀtt och privilegier Àr en central tanke inom rörelsen. Individualanarkismen byggs dÀrmed oftast pÄ en mutualistisk marknadsekonomi, som enligt individualanarkister kontrasteras av sin motsats; kapitalismen. De flesta anser att skapandet av en alternativ social institution inom ekonomi, en sÄ kallad kontraekonomi, Àr bÀsta sÀttet att förÀndra samhÀllet, vilket Àr en form av gradualism.
+Individualanarkister motsÀtter sig inte kollektiv samverkan men idealiserar inte kollektivet som organiserande bas. Man förordar spontan organisering för undvikandet av byrÄkrati och elitism.
+Enligt individualanarkismen skall större samhÀllsdrift styras av frivilligt organiserade kooperativ, en idé som tillsammans med federalistiska tankar ligger till grund för bÄde social- och individualanarkism.
+Fackföreningsrörelse, civil olydnad, bojkott Àr andra verktyg mot makten. En del anser att sjÀlvförsörjning i varierande grad och byteshandel Àr ett bÀttre alternativ Àn reguljÀr valutaekonomi. Riktningen har tvÄ ursprungliga huvudfÄror, Stirners egoism/existentialism och Proudhon/Warrens mutualism.
+
+Social anarkism
+
+
+Social anarkism, frihetlig socialism eller anarkokommunism företrĂ€ds frĂ€mst av Michail Bakunins och Pjotr Kropotkins arvtagare och Ă€r i huvudsak det som idag kallas frihetlig socialism. Dess anhĂ€ngare tenderar att framhĂ€va gruppgemenskap i form av direktdemokratiska lokalorganisationer. Den sociala anarkismen delas in i tvĂ„ huvudfĂ„ror. Michail Bakunin företrĂ€der sĂ„ kallad kollektivistisk anarkism medan Pjotr Kropotkin företrĂ€der sĂ„ kallad kommunistisk anarkism. Social anarkism har, precis som de andra huvudinriktningarna, Proudhon som anfader. Precis som sina föregĂ„ngare, kritiserade Bakunin Marx för, vad han kallade, dennes centralistiska och auktoritĂ€ra ideologi. Vid den sociala revolutionen skall den kapitalistiska staten inte erövras utan avskaffas â genom en radikal decentralisering av beslutsrĂ€tten som sedan stannar kvar i de minsta enheterna genom utövandet av direktdemokrati. Bakunin bidrog, genom sin omfattande aktivism och smittande talekonst, till att anarkismen spreds över hela vĂ€rlden. Han gĂ€stade ocksĂ„ Sverige Ă„r 1863-64.
+
+Under den senare delen av 1800-talet utvecklades en facklig variant av anarkismen, syndikalismen, vilken historiskt rÀknas till den anarkistiska rörelsen. Syndikalismen kan idag ses som en organiseringsform snarare Àn en ideologi och inom syndikalismen finns bÄde anarkister och icke-anarkister. Största syndikalistiska organisation i Sverige idag Àr SAC, Sveriges Arbetares Centralorganisation som organiserar ungefÀr 5 500 personer.
+
+Anarkafeminism
+
+Anarkafeminismen Àr en term som kom att skapas pÄ 60-talet under den sÄ kallade "andra vÄgens feminism". De flesta anarkafeminister ser patriarkatet som den största förtryckande kraften i samhÀllet. Detta ger enligt anarkafeminister resultat i mannens överordning och kvinnans underordning. DÄ anarkafeminister Àr emot alla former av hierarkier i samhÀllet sÄ motsÀtter de sig ocksÄ staten och kapitalismen. Under det spanska inbördeskriget fanns en anarkistisk feministgrupp (Mujeres Libres) som organiserade sig för att försvara de anarkistiska idéerna, dÄ givetvis med vad vi idag kallar en viss feministisk touch. Idag kallar sig mÄnga anarkister för feminister och naturnödvÀndigt finns det sÄdana som hÀvdar att de anarkafeministiska idéerna genomströmmar övriga anarkistiska strömningar. Louise Michel (1830-1905), Emma Goldman (1869-1940) och Voltairine de Cleyre (1866-1912) Àr tidiga exempel pÄ anarkafeminister. Se Àven: Mujeres Creando, Rote Zora.
+
+Grön anarkism
+
+Grön anarkism har sin grund i bÄde social- och individualanarkism och till viss del i anarkafeminismen men Àr en vidareutveckling med rötter bland annat i djupekologin. Grön anarkism Àr en bred rörelse som brukar delas upp frÀmst i de till socialanarkismen nÀrstÄende teknologioptimistska eko-anarkismen/socialekologin, och den till individualanarkismen eventuellt mer nÀrstÄende grönanarkismen som föresprÄkar grön anarki (utan Àndelsen -ism) som ibland ocksÄ kallas anarko-primitivism.
+
+De teknologioptimistiska gröna anarkisterna stĂ„r den klassiska socialanarkismen nĂ€rmare men har ibland vissa influenser frĂ„n teknokratin. Man anser att det gröna samhĂ€llet endast kan uppnĂ„s genom en utveckling mot avancerad grön teknik och man lĂ„nar organisatoriska principer frĂ„n bland andra Kropotkin. I denna grupp har Murray Bookchin en framskjuten roll som frĂ€msta ideolog. Hans ideologi socialekologi Ă€r egentligen inget annat Ă€n en grön variant av klassisk anarkokommunism med analyser frĂ„n andra halvan av 1900-talet.Bookchin har varit en viktig inspirationskĂ€lla för PKK:s Abdullah Ăzcalan och den frihetliga samhĂ€llsbildningen i Rojava.
+
+De teknologikritiska gröna anarkisterna utmÀrker sig frÀmst genom civilisationskritik mot industrisamhÀllet, nÄgot som ocksÄ förekommer i de ursprungliga anarkistiska riktningarna, speciellt inom Kropotkins polemik. Dock förekommer Àven vÄldsamma attentat, i maj 2012 sköts en kÀrnkraftingenjör i Genua av en grupp som kallar sig The Olga Cell. Civilisationskritiken har dock hos de teknologikritiska i princip ersatt bÄde kritik mot stat och klassamhÀlle, vilket skiljer ut dem gentemot de ursprungliga riktningarna. Man anser att det inte rÀcker (eller kanske ens Àr möjligt) att bara bekÀmpa specifika förtrycksformer sÄsom klassamhÀllet, patriarkatet eller rasismen, eftersom dessa alla Àr produkter av civilisationen. DÀrför kan riktigt oberoende och jÀmlikhet endast uppnÄs utanför civilisationen. Teknologikritiken hÀmtar mÄnga av sina slutsatser frÄn studier i antropologi av hur icke-civiliserade ursprungsfolk lever. FrÄn den teknologikritiska gröna anarkismen har anarko-primitivismen utvecklats.
+
+Till skillnad frÄn föregÄngarna förkastar anarko-primitivisterna all typ av civilisation. John Zerzan och John Moore anses vara nÄgot av portalfigurer för anarko-primitivisterna. Anarko-primitivismen Àr pÄ grund av sin kompromisslösa hÄllning gentemot alla former av institutionaliserad maktutövning kontroversiell Àven inom det frihetliga fÀltet.
+
+Anarkopacifism
+
+Anarkopacifism, ibland icke-vÄlds-anarkism eller pacifistisk anarkism, Àr en form av anarkism som menar att alla former av vÄld, sÄvÀl statligt som revolutionÀrt, med nödvÀndighet mÄste förkastas. Icke-vÄld har varit en stÀndigt nÀrvarande uppfattning inom den anarkistiska rörelsen. En av de tidiga, mest vÀlkÀnda föresprÄkarna för icke-vÄldsligt motstÄnd mot stat och kapital var den ryska författaren Lev Tolstoj. En av hans föregÄngare var den amerikanske författaren och filosofen Henry David Thoreau.
+
+Kristen anarkism
+
+Kristen anarkism, ett begrepp som myntades 1894 i en recension av Lev Tolstojs bok Guds rike finns inom dig (1894), Àr tron pÄ att Gud Àr den enda auktoritet som kristna Àr understÀllda och tvungna att lyda. Den kristna anarkismen stÄr nÀrmare anarkokommunismen Àn individualanarkismen och knyts till den pacifistiska traditionen genom tÀnkare som Henry David Thoreau, Lev Tolstoj, Dorothy Day och Jacques Ellul. Den Àr sÄledes nÀrbeslÀktad med anarkopacifismen.
+
+Ăvrig anarkism
+Plattformism, strömning inom socialanarkismen. Utvecklades av exil-ryska anarkister som författade "De frihetliga kommunisternas organisationsplattform" 1926. Plattformen reflekterar författarnas syn pÄ varför anarkismen marginaliseras och formulerar en organisationspositiv anarkism i en frihetlig kommunistisk tradition. Plattformen refereras till som ett inspirerande dokument bland annat i nordamerikanska organisationer som Nothern Eastern Federation for Anarcho-communists och irlÀndska Workers Solidarity Movement.
+
+Den insurrektionella anarkismen Àr en strömning inom anarkiströrelsen som föresprÄkar en permanent motsÀttning och konflikt ("permanent konfliktualitet") med kapitalet och staten, och en politisk verksamhet som syftar till att skapa insurrektioner. Insurrektionella anarkister tenderar att ofta anvÀnda sig av direkt aktion och agitation som lÀtt kan kopieras för att uppmuntra till en mer generell revolt. Anledningen till detta beteende varierar ofta bland anarkister. MÄnga söker avsluta kapitalismen medan andra motsÀtter sig civilisationen (se primitivism).
+
+RÄdskommunismen (Anton Pannekoek, Herman Gorter och Paul Mattick) och den autonoma marxismen (Cornelius Castoriadis, Mario Tronti, Martin Glaberman och Antonio Negri) har mottagit inflytande frÄn bÄde marxism och anarkism. Dessa rörelser befinner sig teoretiskt sett utanför den anarkistiska traditionen dÄ man i huvudsak arbetar utifrÄn andra principer Àn de anarkistiska. De har dock i praktiken mycket gemensamt med den frihetliga socialismen. Situationisterna (Guy Debord, Raoul Vaneigem med flera), en annan marxistisk grupp, mÄste dock betraktas ur ett annat perspektiv. De kom frÄn en konstnÀrlig rörelse, Situationistiska Internationalen. Föga förvÄnansvÀrt Àr ocksÄ situationisternas kritik av det moderna samhÀllet lÄngt radikalare Àn de gamla rÄdskommunisternas och de autonoma marxisternas.
+
+Anarkokapitalister Àr enligt An Anarchiist FAQ inte anarkister annat Àn till namnet utan i praktiken nyliberaler.
+
+Symboler
+
+SÄsom inom de flesta politiska rörelser har den anarkistiska rörelsen olika symboler. De mest kÀnda Àr den svarta respektive den rödsvarta fanan och det omringade A:et.
+
+Det omringade A:et
+
+Den kanske mest kÀnda symbol som associeras med anarkismen Àr det sÄ kallade "omringade A:et" (se ovan). Symbolen hÀrstammar frÄn Proudhons maxim "anarki Àr ordning" (A för anarki, inskrivet i O för ordning) och förekom redan under det spanska inbördeskriget pÄ 1930-talet och pÄ 1950-talet som den franska organisationen Alliance OuvriÚre Anarchistes symbol. Organisationen Jeunesses Libertaires (frihetlig ungdom) i Frankrike har ibland ansetts som symbolens uppfinnare dÄ de 1964 började anvÀnda den i sin bulletin. Symbolen populariserades i Storbritannien pÄ 1970- och 1980-talen av Crass, i samband med punkrörelsen. Idag anvÀnds den ofta pÄ flaggor av anarkokommunister som inte vill bli förvÀxlade med syndikalister, dÄ oftast i rött eller vitt pÄ svart bakgrund. Svart pÄ röd bakgrund förekommer dock ibland.
+
+Den svarta fanan och den rödsvarta fanan
+
+Anarkismens svarta fana var frĂ„n början en sorgefana. I en demonstration som hyllade de stupade kommunardernas minne och som gav sig ut i Paris 1883 för att expropriera bagerier, upptĂ€ckte man att en fana skulle behövas. Det berĂ€ttas dĂ„ att f. kommunarden Louise Michel tog av sin svarta sidenunderkjol och hĂ€ngde den pĂ„ ett kvastskaft â och sĂ„ hade anarkismen fĂ„tt sin egen flagga. I Spanien 1936 manifesterade anarkisterna i FAI och syndikalisterna i CNT sitt samarbete genom en fana som delades diagonalt i ett svart fĂ€lt för FAI och ett rött fĂ€lt för CNT. BĂ€gge dessa fanor anvĂ€nds Ă€n i dag.
+
+Anarkism i vÀrlden
+
+ IWW Industrial Workers of the World (syndikalistisk fackförening, USA)
+ Crimethinc ex-workers collective
+ CNT Confederación Nacional del Trabajo, Spansk syndikalistisk fackförening
+ Class War Federation (UK)
+ Spanska revolutionen
+ Voluntary Cooperation Movement Àr ett mutualistiskt nÀtverk verkande i Storbritannien, Kanada och Argentina för individer som vill verka kooperativt.
+Fria Territoriet
+ EZLN Zapatistarmén för nationell befrielse
+Anarkismen i Rojava
+
+Anarkismen i Sverige
+I Sverige har anarkismen i vissa sammanhang varit en inflytelserik rörelse, och den anarkistiska tidningen Brand har utkommit med varierande innehÄll i mer Àn hundra Är.
+
+Den viktigaste anarkistinfluerade organisationen Àr den syndikalistiska fackföreningen SAC, som rÀknar sitt ursprung till ungsocialisterna, vilka en gÄng rymdes inom det ursprungliga socialdemokratiska ungdomsförbundet. Ungsocialisterna bröt sig dock loss ur socialdemokraterna 1908 efter interna stridigheter. 1910, efter storstrejken stod till största delen skÄneavdelningen inom ungsocialisterna (Lunda-kommittén med Gustav Sjöström) bakom bildandet av ett syndikalistiskt fackförbund, SAC. SAC har de senaste Ären genomgÄtt en facklig reorganisering och radikalisering. Tidningen heter Arbetaren och förlaget Federativs. Trubaduren och IWW:aren Joe Hills förÀldrahem i gamla Gefle Àr nu bÄde museum och SAC:s industrisekretariat i GÀvle, och kallas Joe Hill-gÄrden.
+
+Syndikalistiska Ungdomsförbundet, SUF, har anor frÄn 1930-talet och Àr sedan 1993 en viktig aktör i den moderna anarkiströrelsen. Nutidens SUF skiljer sig avsevÀrt frÄn 30-talets. SUF och SAC samarbetar men SUF Àr fristÄende och alltsÄ inte fackföreningen SAC:s ungdomsförbund vilket ofta misstolkats. NÀmnas bör att under 1960-talet fyllde Syndikalistiska Grupprörelsen tomrummet efter SUF med utgÄvor av bland annat tidskriften "Zenit" och översÀttningar av till exempel situationistiskt material. Under sextiotalets slut uppstod mÄnga nya grupper, som Provie (efter mönster frÄn hollÀndska Provorörelsen) och lokala anarkistgrupper med tillhörande Fri Press.
+
+Husockupation blev under flera decennier nĂ„got av en frihetlig kampform och Punk-rörelsen hade anarkistiska tendenser Ă€ven i Sverige. Ytterligare en organisation som bör nĂ€mnas Ă€r fĂ„ngkampsgruppen Anarkistiska Svarta Hammaren (Anarchist Black Cross - Sweden). Det antirasistiska arbetet kom som en reaktion pĂ„ det nynazistiska uppsvinget under tidigt 1990-tal. Under inledningen av 2000-talet har de svenska anarkisterna exempelvis utmĂ€rkt sig via aktioner genom Antifascistisk Aktion (AFA). AFA anser sig sjĂ€lva inte vara nĂ„gon anarkistisk organisation, utan Ă€r baserade pĂ„ en bred plattform som tĂ€cker in mĂ„nga strömningar. Man har ocksĂ„ jobbat pĂ„ att anvĂ€nda internet vilket nĂ€tzinet anarkism.info Ă€r exempel pĂ„. MĂ„nga grupper och organisationer kan sĂ€gas bedriva anarkistisk kamp utan att de för den skull sjĂ€lva kallar sig anarkister, exempelvis Ingen MĂ€nniska Ăr Illegal, svenska RTS - Reclaim the Streets eller sjĂ€lvorganiseringskampanjen Osynliga Partiet samt Förbundet allt Ă„t alla (AĂ„A).
+
+Den Ă€ldre svenska rörelsens förmodligen viktigaste förgrundsfigurer var Hinke Bergegren och Albert Jensen, den förre frĂ€mst agitator, den senare ideologisk förnyare av betydelse, bĂ„da tidvis redaktörer för den anarkistiska tidningen Brand. Bland andra kĂ€nda frihetliga socialister kan författarna Eyvind Johnson, Stig Dagerman, Moa Martinson och Folke Fridell nĂ€mnas, liksom Spanien-veteranen Nisse LĂ€tt och 68-aktivisten Klas Hellborg. Bland böcker pĂ„ svenska om anarkismen kan nĂ€mnas Anarkismens Ă
terkomst av Staffan Jacobson (2006), Anarkisterna i klasskampen av Bengt Ericson och Ingemar Johansson (1969), Anarkismen - frÄn lÀra till handling av Daniel Guérin (1964) samt Anarkismen av George Woodcock (1962).
+
+Se Àven
+ Anarki
+ Anarkister
+ Anarkistisk ekonomi
+ Antipolitik
+Individualanarkism
+Syndikalism
+ Anarko-primitivism
+ ArbetarrÄd
+ Autonom vÀnster
+ Direkt demokrati
+ Grön anarki
+ Infoanarkism
+ Kommunalism
+ Ledarlöst motstÄnd
+ Revolution
+ SjÀlvförvaltning
+
+Referenser
+
+Vidare lÀsning
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Wikipedia:Basartiklar
+Politisk kultur
+Alexander Ă€r ett manligt förnamn av grekiskt ursprung, ÎλÎΟαΜΎÏÎżÏ (AlĂ©xandros), bildat av tvĂ„ ord som betyder 'försvarare' och 'man', det vill sĂ€ga ungefĂ€r mĂ€nnens försvarare.
+Sedan början av 1990-talet har Alexander hört till de tio vanligaste svenska pojknamnen. Den 31 december 2008 fanns det totalt 66 495 personer i Sverige med namnet, varav 30 465 med det som tilltalsnamn. Under 2008 fick 838 pojkar namnet som tilltalsnamn.
+
+Namnsdagen Àr 12 december tillsammans med Alexis. Alex hade namnsdag denna dag mellan 1993 och 2001 och mellan 1886 och 1992 den 17 juli. Andra former pÄ namnet Àr Ale, Alle och Alex.
+
+Personer
+
+Förnamn
+ Alexander I, flera hÀrskare och en pÄve
+ Alexander II, flera hÀrskare och en pÄve
+ Alexander III, flera hÀrskare och en pÄve
+ Alexander IV, flera hÀrskare och en pÄve
+ Alexander V, motpĂ„ve 1409â1410
+ Alexander VI, pĂ„ve 1492â1503
+ Alexander VII, pĂ„ve 1655â1667
+ Alexander VIII, pĂ„ve 1689â1691
+ Alexander den store, makedonisk kung 336-323 f.Kr. (356-323 f.Kr.)
+ Alexander, Herodes son
+ Alexander frÄn Afrodisias, grekisk filosof
+ Alexander av Hales, franciskanermunk
+ Alexander av Hessen-Darmstadt (1823-1888)
+ Alexander av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, (1462â1514)
+ Alexander Severus, romersk kejsare
+ Alexander, svensk prins (född 2016)
+ Alexander, kronprins av Jugoslavien (född 1945)
+ Alexander frÄn Antiochia, grekisk skulptör
+ Alexander Polyhistor, grekisk filosof, geograf och historiker.
+ Alexander frÄn Tralles, grekisk lÀkare
+ Alexander Ahndoril, svensk författare (född 1967)
+ Aleksandr Alechin, rysk schackspelare (1892-1946)
+
+ Alexander (Alec) Baldwin amerikansk skÄdespelare (född 1958)
+ Alexander Bard, debattör, artist (född 1961)
+ Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, tysk filosof (1714â1762)
+ Alexander Graham Bell, brittisk-amerikansk uppfinnare (1847-1922)
+ Alexander Van der Bellen, österrikisk nationalekonom och politiker, förbundspresident 2017-
+ Aleksandr Blok, rysk poet
+ Aleksandr Borodin, rysk kompositör (1833-1887)
+ Alexander (Alec) Douglas-Home, brittisk premiĂ€rminister (1903â1995)
+ Alexander DubÄek, tjeckosloviakisk politiker (1921â1992)
+ Alexandre Dumas den Ă€ldre, fransk författare (1802â1870)
+ Alexander Fleming, brittisk bakteriolog, penicillinets upptÀckare, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin 1945 (1881-1955)
+ Alexander Gustafsson, "The Mauler", svensk idrottsman (MMA) (född 1987)
+ Alexander Hamilton, amerikansk statsman (1755 eller 1757â1804)
+ Alexander Hamilton, amerikansk statsman (1755 eller 1757â1804)
+ Alexander Herr, tysk backhoppare
+ Alexander von Humboldt, tysk forskare och upptÀcktsresande (1769-1859)
+Alexander Isak, svensk fotbollsspelare
+ Aleksandr Jakusjev, sovjetisk ishockeyspelare (född 1947)
+ Alexander JÀrnefelt, finlÀndsk officer, topograf och guvernör
+ Aleksandr Karelin, rysk brottare (född 1967)
+ Alex Karp, amerikansk affÀrsman (född 1967)
+ Aleksandr Kerenskij, rysk politiker (1881â1970)
+ Alexander Kielland, norsk författare (1849-1906)
+ Aleksandr Lebed, rysk politiker (1950-2002)
+ Alexander Leslie, skotsk-svensk fÀltmarskalk (1580-1661)
+ Alexander (Alex) Lindman, svensk idrottsledare (1862â1939)
+ Aleksandr Lukasjenko, Vitrysslands nuvarande president (diktator) (född 1954)
+ Aleksandr Maltsev, sovjetisk ishockeyspelare (född 1949)
+ Aleksandr Mensjikov, rysk fĂ€ltmarskalk (1673â1729)
+ Alex Metreveli, sovjetisk (georgisk) tennisspelare (född 1944)
+ Alexandre Millerand, fransk president (1859-1943)
+ Alexander MiloĆĄeviÄ, svensk fotbollsspelare
+ Aleksandr Pusjkin, rysk författare (1799â1837)
+ Aleksandr Ragulin, sovjetisk ishockeyspelare (1941-2004)
+ John Alexander Reina Newlands, engelsk kemist (1838â1898)
+ Alexandre de Rhodes, fransk missionĂ€r (1591â1660)
+ Alexander Roslin, svensk konstnĂ€r (1718â1793)
+ Alexander Roos, svensk konstnĂ€r (1895â1973)
+ Alexander Rybak, norsk artist (född 1986)
+ Alexander SkarsgÄrd, svensk skÄdespelare (född 1976)
+ Aleksandr Solzjenitsyn, rysk författare, mottagare av Nobelpriset i litteratur 1970 (född 1918)
+ Alexander Stubb, finlÀndsk politiker, f.d. utrikesminister och statsminister
+ Mattias Alexander von Ungern-Sternberg, svensk lantmarskalk (1689-1763)
+ Alexander Karol Vasa, (1614â1634)
+ Alexander Wennberg, ishockeyspelare
+ Alexander Ăberg, svensk regissör (född 1968)
+
+Efternamn
+ Albert Victor Alexander (1885-1965), brittisk politiker
+ Christopher Alexander (född 1936), brittisk arkitekt
+ David Alexander (1907-1973), amerikansk författare och journalist
+ Franz Alexander (1891-1964), amerikansk psykoanalytiker
+ George Alexander (1858-1918), brittisk skÄdespelare och teaterledare
+ Harold Alexander (1891-1969), brittisk fÀltmarskalk
+ James Edward Alexander (1805-1885), brittisk general och forskningsresande
+ Joey Alexander (född 2003), indonesisk jazzpianist
+ Kwon Alexander (född 1994), amerikansk utövare av amerikansk fotboll
+ Lloyd Alexander (1924-2007), amerikansk författare och översÀttare
+ Samuel Alexander (1859-1938), australisk-brittisk filosof
+
+Varianter och smeknamn
+ Albanska - Aleksandri, Aleksandër, Lekë, Skënder, Skender, Aleks, Sandër
+ Amhariska - Eskender
+ Arabiska - Iskandar, Skandar, Skender
+ Bosniska - Aleksandar, Aco, SaĆĄa, Aleksa, Sandro
+ Bulgariska - ĐĐ»eĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽŃp (Aleksander), ĐĄĐ°ŃĐŸ (Sasjo)
+ Danska - Aleksander, Alexander
+ Engelska - Alexander, Alec, Alex, Lex, Xander, Sandy, Andy, Alexis, Alexa, Alexandria, Alexandra, Sandra, Al, Sasha, Ali, Lexxi, Zander, Xander, Sashi, Eck
+ Estniska - Aleksander, Sander
+ Finska - Aleksanteri, Aleksi, Santeri, Ali
+ Franska - Alexandre, Alexis, Alex
+ Galiciska - Alexandre, Ălex
+ Georgiska - áááá„áĄáááá á (Aleksandre)
+ Grekiska - ÎλÎΟαΜΎÏÎżÏ (Alexandros), Alexis, Alekos/Aleka, Aki
+ Hebreiska - ŚŚŚŚĄŚ ŚŚš (Alexander)
+ Hindi - Hindustani - Sikandar
+ IslÀndska - Alexander
+ Italienska - Alessandro, Leandro, Ale, Sandro, Alessio
+ Jiddish - ŚĄŚąŚ ŚŚąŚš - Sender, Senderl
+ Katalanska - Alexandre, Ălex, Xandre
+ Kazakiska - ĐŃĐșĐ”ĐœĐŽiŃ
+ Kroatiska - Aleksandar, Aco, Acika, SaĆĄa, Sale
+ Kurdiska - Askander, Eskander, ĂskenderĂȘ
+ Litauiska - Aleksandras
+ Makedonska - ĐлДĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽĐ°Ń, ĐŃĐ”
+ Malajiska - Iskandar
+ Malayalam - àŽàŽŸàŽŁà”àŽàŽż (Chandy)
+ Maltesiska - Lixandru
+ NederlÀndska - Alexander, Alexandra, Alex, Alexia, Lex, Sander, Sanne, Sandra, Xander
+ Norska - Alexander, Aleksander
+ Persiska - Eskandar
+ Polska - Aleks, Aleksander, Olek
+ Portugisiska - Alexandre, Alexandro (rare), Alexandra, Xana (feminine), Xano, Alex, Xande, Xanocas
+ RumÀnska - Alexandru, Alec, Alex, Alle, Alecu, Sandu
+ Ryska - ĐлДĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽp (Aleksandr), ĐлОĐș (Alik), ĐĄĐ°ŃĐ° (Sasja), ĐĄĐ°ĐœŃ (Sanja), ĐĄĐ°ĐœŃĐș (Sanjok), ĐšŃŃĐ° (Sjura), ĐšŃŃĐžĐș (Sjurik)
+ Sanskrit - Alekchendra
+ Gaeliska - Alasdair, Alastair, Alistair, Alisdair
+ Serbiska - ĐлДĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽĐ°Ń, ĐŃĐ°, ĐĄĐ°ŃĐ°, ĐлДĐșŃa - Aleksandar, Aca, SaĆĄa, Aleksa
+ Slovenska - AleĆĄ, Sandi, Sanja, Sandra, SaĆĄa, SaĆĄo
+ Spanska - Alejandro, Alex, Ale, Alejo
+ Svenska - Alexander, Alex , Ale, Alle
+ Syrianska - Iskandar, Skandar, (Alex eller Alexander för ungdomar)
+ Turkiska - Ä°skender
+ Tyska - Alexander (short: Alex, Ali, Akki), Sascha
+ Ungerska - SĂĄndor
+ Ukrainska - ĐлДĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽŃ (Oleksandr), ĐĄĐ°ŃĐșĐŸ (Sasjko), ĐлДлŃĐșĐŸ (Olelko, rare)
+ Urdu - Hindustan - Sikandar
+ Urdu - Pakistan - Sikander ("Sikander-e-Azam" Àr "Alexander den store")
+ Uzbekiska - Iskandar
+ Vitryska - ĐĐ»ŃĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽp (Aljaksandr), ĐĐ»eŃŃ (Ales'), ĐлДлŃĐșĐ° (Aljel'ka)
+
+Referenser
+
+Mansnamn
+Svenska förnamn
+Svenska mansnamn
+Amyntas III (II) (grekiska: ÎÎŒÏÎœÏÎ±Ï ÎÎ) var kung av Makedonien och gift med Eurydike I av Makedonien.
+
+Amyntas var son till Filip som var bror till Perdikkas II. Han intog tronen efter mordet pÄ Pausanias 393 f.Kr. En kort tid efter trontilltrÀdet blev han fördriven av Pausanias son Argaios men lyckades Ätertaga sitt kungarike tvÄ Är senare.
+
+Amyntas hade en dotter och tre söner:
+ Eurynoe av Makedonien, gift med Ptolemaios av Aloros
+ Alexander II av Makedonien
+ Perdikkas III av Makedonien
+ Filip II av Makedonien
+
+Referenser
+
+A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Volym 1 sid.154 av William Smith
+
+Makedoniens monarker
+MĂ€n
+Födda 400-talet f.Kr.
+Avlidna 300-talet f.Kr.
+Personer under 300-talet f.Kr.
+ABC 80 var en persondator frĂ„n svenska elektroniktillverkaren Luxor AB. Den lanserades 1978 och sĂ„ldes till mitten av 1980-talet av Luxor â inledningsvis Ă€ven av Scandia Metric â nĂ€r persondatorrevolutionen precis kommit igĂ„ng med andra persondatorer som Commodore PET, Apple II och TRS-80. SjĂ€lva datorkonstruktionen gjordes av Dataindustrier AB med hölje, tangentbord och skĂ€rm frĂ„n Luxor.
+
+ABC 80 uppfattades inte vare sig av företaget eller anvÀndarna som en hemdator, eftersom denna beteckning nÀr den dök upp runt 1982 betecknade datorer utan skÀrm och kringutrustning som kunde anslutas till en vanlig TV. ABC 80 med sin avancerade 4680-buss och specialbyggda monitor rÀknades inte dit.
+
+ABC 80 slutade tillverkas i slutet av 1985.
+
+Uppbyggnad
+Namnet ska utlĂ€sas âAdvanced Basic Computer for the 1980sâ. â80â relaterar Ă€ven till processornamnet â den byggde pĂ„ 8-bits mikroprocessorn Zilog Z80 frĂ„n Zilog och hade RAM samt ROM, vilket rymde en tolk för en egen dialekt av programsprĂ„ket BASIC.
+Program och datafiler kunde sparas pÄ kassettbandspelare och senare pÄ diskettstation. För hantering av diskettenheten anvÀndes ett eget diskoperativsystem, ABC-DOS, och senare Àven CP/M. Datorns operativsystem var integrerat med BASIC-interpretatorn. Förutom i BASIC kunde programmering ske indirekt i maskinkod i form av datalistor i BASIC som kunde lagras och exekveras.
+
+Monitorn var en svart-vit TV som modifierats för Ă€ndamĂ„let och visade vit text pĂ„ svart bakgrund. PĂ„ 80-talet försökte man lansera som en hemdator utan monitor men med en adapterlĂ„da som gjorde att man kunde koppla in en vanlig TV. SkĂ€rmupplösningen var samma som till Text-TV och Teledata â och Högupplösande grafik saknades, men nĂ€r man skrev ut ett speciellt kontrolltecken visades resten av raden i grafiskt lĂ€ge, dĂ€r sex pixlar per tecken kunde styras (2 pĂ„ bredden, 3 pĂ„ höjden). Eftersom kontrolltecknet tog upp en teckenplats per rad gav detta en maximal grafikupplösning pĂ„ Detta grafiklĂ€ge stöddes Ă€ven av speciella Basic-kommandon, SETDOT och CLRDOT, som gjorde att anvĂ€ndaren kunde arbeta med grafiken pixelvis. Ăven denna grafik var tagen frĂ„n Text-TV/Teledata-standarden.
+
+Ljudet genererades av ett Texas Instruments SN76477-chip. De instÀllningar man kunde göra programmatiskt för att styra ljudet var mycket fÄ, vilket i praktiken begrÀnsade ljudet till ett litet antal ljudeffekter.
+
+För anslutning av kringutrustning sÄsom skrivare, fanns en RS-232-port. ABC 80 byggde pÄ Dataindustriers datorbuss 4680 och kunde dÀrför anslutas till alla de styr- och mÀtkort som utvecklats för deras tidigare produkt DataBoard 4680. DÀrigenom blev ABC 80 och dess efterföljare ofta en komponent i industriella styrsystem inom fabrik och processindustri.
+
+Utvecklingen av ABC 80
+Karl-Johan Börjesson pÄ Scandia Metric var den som fick idén att tillverka en svensk hemdator. Börjesson hade varit i USA Är 1969 pÄ en IEEE-konferens och sett mikrodatorteknikens potential, och man började snart att importera och sÀlja datorn Alpha LSI som tillverkades av Computer Automation i USA. Scandia Metric sÄlde cirka 1 000 av dessa datorer i Sverige speciellt till skolor för utbildning i datateknik, delvis som en OEM-produkt Ät Facit, Cybernetic, Elektronlund och Datasaab.
+
+Ă
r 1977 hade Scandia Metric ett stort behov av en ny eftertrÀdare till skoldatorn Alpha LSI. Börjesson Äkte dÄ Äter till USA och köpte en Tandy TRS-80 men tyckte att datorn inte passade de tillÀmpningar han sÄg, och han kunde heller inte garantera de volymer Tandy krÀvde för att exportera datorn: Scandia Metric skulle vara tvungna att förbinda sig att köpa minst 5 000 datorer för att fÄ agentur för TRS-80. Han kontaktade dÄ Lars Karlsson pÄ Dataindustrier AB (DIAB) som han visste hade konstruerat datorerna DataBoard 4680 och Seven S. Dataindustrier var ocksÄ företagets största kund pÄ mikroprocessorer eftersom Scandia Metric importerade och sÄlde CPU:n Z80. Gunnar Markesjö som var lektor pÄ KTH visade ocksÄ stort intresse: han hade Är 1976 författat en lÀrobok om Alpha LSI i samarbete med Scandia Metric. Scandia Metric och DIAB ansÄg sig ha kompetensen att konstruera datorn men saknade tillverkningskapaciteten.
+
+Förutom sjÀlva tillverkningskapaciteten för elektronik kunde Scandia Metric och Dataindustrier inte tillverka bildskÀrmar. Man sökte en samarbetspartner och hade att vÀlja mellan Facit, Philips och Luxor. Facit fick inte tillverka datorer pÄ grund av en antikonkurrensklausul i kontraktet med Datasaab efter att de sÄlt utvecklingen av minidatorn D12/D15, och Philips ansÄgs vara ett för stort och lÄngsamt företag. Till följd av detta kom Luxor in i bilden och fick senare huvudrollen. Luxor tillverkade sedan tidigare bildskÀrmar Ät Stansaabs terminal Alfaskop. Bengt Lönnqvist och Nils GrÀndÄs frÄn Luxor besökte Scandia Metric den 2 februari 1978 för att diskutera tillverkning av en terminalskÀrm, men mötet kom att handla om tillverkningen av hela datorn.
+
+Den 16 februari hölls ett uppföljande möte dĂ€r samtliga verkstĂ€llande direktörer för inblandade företag deltog. Man beslutade vid detta första projektmöte att 5â10 prototyper skulle vara klara i mitten av maj och leveranser av den fĂ€rdiga produkten skulle börja ske i början av november, till ett pris under 5 000 kr. Dataindustrier skulle stĂ„ för alla utvecklingskostnader av sjĂ€lva datordelen i utbyte mot 200 kr per sĂ„ld maskin för sin del av arbetet. Man köpte ocksĂ„ in Apple II, Commodore PET och Tandy TRS-80 för utvĂ€rdering. Den 27 februari bildades en styrgrupp för projektet "hemdator-80" HD-80 med Börjesson, Karlsson och Alf Björklund, och Bengt Lönnqvist tillsattes som projektledare. I mars bildades en projektgrupp med 10 personer pĂ„ Luxor under Bengt Lönnqvist. Vid en omröstning i projektgruppen byttes projektnamnet till ABC 80. Andra namnförslag var PC-80 (personal computer 80), PD-80 (persondator 80), Elvira, Swea, Pearl och Ideal.
+
+I slutet av juli hade man producerat tre prototyper som fanns pÄ Scandia Metric, Luxor och hos lektor Gunnar Markesjö som fÄtt i uppdrag att skriva en lÀrobok för datorn. Dessa prototyper tycktes fungera bra.
+
+I augusti skrev Scandia Metric och Luxor ett avtal som gick ut pÄ att Luxor skulle leda projektet och ansvara för formgivning, produktion och underhÄll av produkten, liksom för framtida vidareutveckling. Scandia Metric skulle producera dokumentation, handböcker, diskettenhet och skrivare, samt programmera en rad olika demonstrationsprogram.
+
+Utvecklingen av ABC 80 tog 6 000 mantimmar (c:a 4 manÄr) och kostade totalt 1,2 miljoner kronor i dÄtidens penningvÀrde.
+
+Utvecklingen av kringutrustning och konflikter mellan företagen
+NÀr ABC 80 lanserades fanns ingen kringutrustning att köpa. Datorn bestod av tangentbord med mikrodatorn inuti samt Luxors specialutvecklade bildskÀrm. Först under 1979 blev den specialutvecklade kassettbandspelaren klar: tidigare fick kunderna helt enkelt anvÀnda vanliga musikbandspelare.
+
+Utvecklingen av kringutrustning sÄ som diskettenhet och skrivare med mera fördröjdes under 1979 och ledde till samarbetssvÄrigheter mellan företagen. Scandia Metric hade svÄrt att utveckla diskettenheten FD-2 pÄ grund av överhettning och i maj fick Dataindustrier istÀllet leverera DataDisc 80, som tillverkades av Sattco. DataDisc 80 kunde initialt lagra 80 KB per skiva, och Sattco planerade flera uppföljare i konkurrens med Scandia Metric. Den skrivare (P 40) som Scandia Metric tagit fram var sÄ dÄlig att Luxor valde att anpassa en Centronicsskrivare till ABC 80 men Àven dessa hade för lÄg kvalitet.
+
+PÄ grund av problemen med kringutrustning slutade samarbetet mellan Scandia Metric och Luxor att fungera. Andra faktorer som knÀckte samarbetet var att Luxor började utveckla programvara trots att detta enligt avtalet skulle utföras av Scandia Metric, och att Luxors försÀljare började göra intrÄng pÄ den marknad som enligt avtalet mellan företagen tillhörde Scandia Metric, exempelvis skolor och större företag. Scandia Metric började ocksÄ exportera ABC 80 till det tyska företaget Techno-Term som utvecklat ett kortsystem med teknik som konkurrerade med DataBoard 4680, vilket ledde till att samarbetet mellan Scandia Metric och Dataindustrier sprack.
+
+Luxor hade Àven samarbetsproblem med Dataindustrier, framför allt pÄ grund av att Gunnar Wedell valts in i Luxors styrelse. Wedell var VD för Datasaab och ansÄg att ABC 80 var sÄ lik Seven S, som nu sÄlts till Datasaab, att det sÄg ut som att Dataindustrier sÄlt samma dator tvÄ gÄnger: en gÄng till Datasaab och en gÄng till Luxor och Scandia Metric. Detta löste sig dÄ det visade sig att Datasaab var helt ointresserade av att sÀlja eller vidareutveckla Seven S samtidigt som det fanns en klausul i avtalet mellan Dataindustrier och Datasaab som tillÀt att Dataindustrier utvecklade en bildskÀrm till DataBoard 4680, vilket i princip var ABC 80. Samarbetet mellan Luxor och Dataindustrier fortsatte, men bÄde Luxor och Dataindustrier hade fjÀrmat sig frÄn initiativtagaren Scandia Metric.
+
+Prestanda
+För att jÀmföra ABC 80 med andra samtida persondatorer gjorde Mikrodatorn Är 1982 ett prestandatest med hjÀlp av Ätta korta BASIC-program med namnen BM1 till BM8 frÄn den amerikanska tidningen Kilobaud Magazine som Àven anvÀndes för test i den brittiska tidningen Personal Computer World för test av nya datorer. Resultatet var att ABC 80:s semikompilerande BASIC-interpretator visade sig snabbare Àn de flesta andra BASIC-dialekter i andra populÀra datorer, i synnherhet vid heltalsaritmetik. JÀmförelsen mellan ABC 80 och andra populÀra maskiner följer nedan (tidangivelsen Àr i sekunder: ju lÀgre desto bÀttre):
+
+Tabellen illustrerar att ABC 80 var upp till 4,7 gÄnger snabbare Àn IBM PC vid heltalsaritmetik och upp till 2,5 gÄnger snabbare vid flyttalsaritmetik. PÄ grund av en begrÀnsning i exponentialfunktioner var ABC 80 lÄngsam i testprogrammet BM8. (Bristen ÄtgÀrdades i ABC 800.) JÀmfört med den billigare Sinclair ZX81 var ABC 80 15 gÄnger snabbare pÄ att exekvera BM1, trots att ZX81 körde i "snabb mod" med grafiken avstÀngd.
+
+Kringutrustning
+Under 1979 kom kassettbandspelaren och den första diskettenheten till ABC 80, och under 1980 följdes dessa av mera kringutrustning, delvis utvecklad av oberoende tillverkare utanför Luxor och Dataindustrier. De viktigaste var:
+
+ Bandstation
+ FristÄende 4680-bussexpansion med kortplatser, senare kallad ABC 890
+ Diskettenheter (samtliga anvÀnde 4680-bussen):
+ FD2 (2 à 80 KB, 5 1/4") frÄn Scandia Metric (1979) samt efterföljaren FD2D (2 à 160 KB, 5 1/4")
+ DataDisc 80 (DD 80, 2 à 80 KB, 5 1/4") frÄn Dataindustrier AB (1979) som Àven hade plats för fem expansionskort av 4680-typ
+DataDisc 82 och 84, identiska med DD 80 men högre diskettkapacitet (2 à 160 KB respektive 2 à 320 KB, 5 1/4") (1980)
+ MX2 2 Ă 160 KB 5 1/4" Dataindustrier AB (1980)
+ DataDisc 86 frÄn Dataindustrier AB (DD 86, 2 à 500 KB, 8") (1980)
+ DataDisc 88 frÄn Dataindustrier AB (DD 88, 2 à 1 MB, 8") (1980)
+ Minnesexpansion
+ 32KB expansion direkt pÄ maskinen (MyAB)
+ Grafik
+ 80-teckensexpansion (CAT ingenjörsbyrÄ)
+ FĂ€rggrafik
+ DatornÀtverk:
+CAT-net (CAT ingenjörsbyrÄ) med stöd för upp till 32 datorer, 16 skivminnen och 4 skrivare
+ CP/M-expansionskort (MyAB)
+
+Marknadsföring
+Den 24 augusti 1978 visades datorn upp för pressen pÄ Industrihuset i Stockholm. Uppvisningen filmades av Sveriges television och kom med i nyhetssÀndningen den kvÀllen, och datorns lansering noterades Àven i Dagens industri, Automation och Modern Elektronik.
+
+För att sÀlja datorerna förlitade sig bÄde Luxor och Scandia Metric pÄ sina etablerade försÀljningskanaler: Luxor hade ett 50-tal radio- och TV-handlare i hela landet som skulle sÀlja till privatpersoner och mindre företag, varav ett 30-tal visade intresse att ta in produkten. Scandia Metric sÄlde direkt till skolor och stora industriföretag samt ELFA AB som man redan hade en etablerad relation med. Redan innan slutet av 1978 hade 200 ABC 80-datorer levererats.
+
+Luxor AB hamnade i finansiella svÄrigheter under 1979 och hade dÀrför svÄrt att leverera sÄ mÄnga datorer som bestÀllts, och man lÄg flera mÄnader efter med bestÀllningarna. I slutet av februari hade man levererat 900 ABC 80, 1 000 fanns i order och 2 000 förfrÄgningar. Mot sommaren 1979 nÄdde man slutligen en punkt dÀr man kunde lÀgga maskiner pÄ lager istÀllet för att direkt skicka alla exemplar vidare till kunder. Tillverkningskostnaden per dator var drygt 2 000 kr och priset frÄn Luxor till ÄterförsÀljare var 4 600 kr utom till Scandia Metric som köpte datorerna för 3 200 kr, dÀrtill behövde ÄterförsÀljarna betala 200 kr per maskin till Dataindustrier i Royalty. I slutet av december 1979 hade man sÄlt 6 300 ABC 80 vilket var 140 % av budgeten.
+
+Gunnar Markesjö och andra författare hade publicerat tre böcker om hur ABC 80 skulle anvÀndas: Bruksanvisning till ABC 80, Mikrodatorns ABC, och ABC om BASIC. För att skapa förtroende och öka efterfrÄgan pÄ datorerna var det viktigt att det fanns mjukvara och kompetens pÄ att anvÀnda ABC 80 i Sverige. Luxor annonserade dÀrför efter datakonsulter som kunde hjÀlpa företag att anpassa ABC 80 bÄde med hÄrdvara och mjukvara för att lösa olika praktiska tillÀmpningar, och skapade en aktiv kommunikation med utvecklarna. I slutet av 1979 fanns det c:a 100 oberoende mjukvaruleverantörer och 10 hÄrdvaruleverantörer som arbetade med ABC 80. Luxor satsade 10 % av marknadsföringsbudgeten pÄ annonser och sponsrade ÄterförsÀljare med halva annonskostnaden nÀr dessa annonserade om ABC 80. Man tog Àven aktiv roll i att koppla samman ÄterförsÀljare och utvecklingskonsulter.
+
+I slutet av 1979 var ABC 80 den populĂ€raste svenska persondatorn, med betydligt större marknadsandel Ă€n Commodore PET, Apple II eller Tandy TRS-80. Det har uppskattats att Luxor vid detta tillfĂ€lle behĂ€rskade 70â80 % av den svenska marknaden för persondatorer.
+
+Inflytande
+Som svensk dator med svensk programvara erövrade ABC80 snabbt en stor del av datormarknaden i Sverige, pÄ arbetsplatser och anvÀndes ofta som skoldator. Den hamnade Àven i mÄnga hem, eftersom priset, under var överkomligt. Programmering för anvÀndbara applikationer blev sÄ enkelt för vanliga anvÀndare att massor av program spreds.
+ABC-klubben sÀnde via nÀrradio i StockholmsomrÄdet ut smÄ program. Det var bara att spela in pÄ band, stoppa in i bandspelaren till sin dator och sedan köra.
+
+Volymer
+Tabellen visar antalet sÄlda ABC 80 per Är frÄn 1978 till slutet av 1985. DÀrefter lade Luxor ned produktionen av ABC 80 eftersom den inte lÀngre lönade sig. Totalt sÄldes alltsÄ cirka 33 000 ABC 80 mellan 1978 och 1985.
+
+Efterföljare
+
+Redan frÄn början stod det klart att ABC 80 behövde utvecklas till en förbÀttrad modell för kontorsbruk, under arbetsnamnet X2. Projektledare för X2 var Bengt Lönnquist pÄ Luxor. Denna var ursprungligen planerad att introducerats under 1980 med 40-teckens bildskÀrm och fÀrggrafik. Utvecklingen av X2 slÀpade efter och Dataindustrier hade redan 1979 introducerat Ànnu en efterföljare kallad X3, och internt pÄ Luxor fanns Àven planer pÄ en skolprodukt LÀxor avsedd för skolor. X2 kom att bli ABC 800 och X3 som skulle haft produktnamnet ABC 900 blev aldrig klar innan Luxors Àgare Nokia Data lade ner ABC-serien. ABC 800 utvecklades i samarbete med Dataindustrier, men Scandia Metric vad vid det hÀr laget reducerade till en försÀljningpartner för ABC 80.
+
+ABC 800 introducerades i april 1981 vid en pressvisning pÄ Hotell Sheraton i Stockholm, med högre prestanda för kontorsÀndamÄl, 80-kolumners skÀrm, och fÀrggrafik.
+
+Böcker om ABC 80
+För studium av elektroniken i en ABC 80 finns boken Mikrodatorns ABC av Gunnar Markesjö. Den innehÄller kopplingsscheman för hela datorn med funktionsbeskrivningar in i minsta detalj och förklaringar till varför olika lösningar valdes.
+
+Program och spel för ABC 80
+MÄnga av datorns program finns bevarade i ABC-klubbens mjukvaruarkiv, med kÀllkod skriven i BASIC.
+ Ariadne â labyrintspel. Hitta vĂ€gen genom varuhuset IrBeMa.
+ Boccia â textbaserat
+ Break Out
+ Dot Race â bilspel, upp till fyra deltagare (pĂ„ samma tangentbord).
+ Gambit
+ Glipp â en Pac Man-klon.
+ Grottan
+ HĂ€ng Meâ
+ Masken â blir lĂ€ngre för varje sockerbit.
+ MĂ„nlanda
+ "MĂ„nsson" â ett populĂ€rt men primitivt flipperspel.
+ Othello
+ Schack
+ Stickan â 21 stickor, dra 1-3 varje gĂ„ng, den som tvingas ta sista stickan förlorar.
+ Teddy â avancerad ordbehandlare som sĂ„ldes av Liber som insticksmodul.
+ Tic-Tac-Toe â Tre i rad
+ Uppsjö
+
+Se Àven
+ ABC 800
+ ABC 1600
+ ABC-klubben
+ Datorns historia
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+ ABC 80-emulatorer för bl.a. Linux med SDL samt e-postlista
+ Luxor ABC arkivet! En stor samling med dokumentation och mjukvara
+ ABC 80-emulator för PC
+ ABC 80-emulator för X Window System och Amiga
+ Hogias PC-museum
+ Sida dedikerad till ABC80
+ http://www.idg.se/2.10186/1.339871/legenden-bakom-abc-80
+ http://www.idg.se/2.10186/1.29486/datorn-som-forandrade-sverige
+
+Hemdatorer
+Persondatorer
+Datorer
+Sveriges datorhistoria
+Produkter lanserade 1978
+A Àr den första bokstaven i det moderna latinska alfabetet.
+
+Betydelser
+
+Versalt A
+ förkortning för ampere, enheten för strömstyrka i Internationella mÄttenhetssystemet.
+ symbol för talet 10 i det hexadecimala talsystemet.
+ beteckning för artilleriregemente.
+ beteckning för attackflygplan.
+ nationalitetsbeteckning för motorfordon frĂ„n Ăsterrike.
+ stora A stod för âBerömligâ (högsta betyg) i en Ă€ldre betygsskala i Sverige. Ăven högsta betyget i nuvarande system.
+ i kemi en beteckning för masstal.
+ inom bibliotekens klassifikationssystem SAB beteckning för 'bok- och biblioteksvÀsen', se A (SAB).
+ den sjÀtte tonen i C-durskalan, se a (ton).
+ beteckning för area inom matematiken.
+ beteckning för en typ av pappersformat, A-format.
+ beteckning för det kemiska Àmnet adenin.
+ beteckning för Arbeiderpartiet, de norska socialdemokraterna.
+ fram till 1968 beteckning för Stockholms överstÄthÄllarskap.
+ förkortning för Arbetsmarknadsdepartementet
+ internationell beteckning för trÀngfartyg.
+ en nivÄ av farmarligor i nordamerikansk baseboll, se Minor League Baseball#A.
+ trafikplatssignatur för AlingsÄs och Anten.
+ Betecknar 1-klassvagn i det svenska litterasystemet för jÀrnvÀgsfordon.
+ influensavirus typ A
+ ett musikalbum, se A (musikalbum)
+ Söndagsbokstav för normalÄr som börjar en söndag
+ en megayacht, se A (megayacht).
+ en segelyacht, se A (segelyacht).
+ en megayacht, se A+.
+
+Gement a
+ förkortning för acceleration.
+ beteckning för SI-prefixet atto (10â18)
+ förkortning för areaenheten ar, se ar (ytmÄtt).
+ förkortning för den brittiska och amerikanska areaenheten acre, se acre (mÄttenhet).
+ förkortning för anno, latin för Är. T.ex. ad betyder anno domino = efter Kristus
+ litet a, med utmÀrkt beröm godkÀnd, nÀst högsta betygsgraden i Sverige innan sifferbetyg infördes, se Skolbetyg i Sverige.
+ förkortning för artÀr (arteria) i anatomiska angivelser.
+
+En- och tvÄvÄnings-a
+
+Det gemena a:et finns utformat i tvĂ„ versioner (allografer): det sĂ„ kallade envĂ„nings-a:et med en "vĂ„ning" (É) och det sĂ„ kallade tvĂ„vĂ„nings-a:et med tvĂ„ "vĂ„ningar" (a). EnvĂ„nings-a Ă€r frĂ€mst vanliga i flertalet teckensnitts kursiva varianter, i skripter och i kalligrafistilar (exempelvis Monotype Corsiva), samt i handstil, medan tvĂ„vĂ„nings-a:na frĂ€mst Ă€r vanliga i den raka varianten av flera teckensnitt. Vissa teckensnitt, sĂ„ som Century Gothic, har envĂ„nings-a bĂ„de i den raka och i den kursiva varianten, medan exempelvis teckensnitten Verdana och Arial i stĂ€llet anvĂ€nder tvĂ„vĂ„nings-a i bĂ„da varianterna.
+
+Historia
+
+Till det latinska alfabetet kom bokstaven A frĂ„n den grekiska bokstaven "alfa", som i sin tur hĂ€rstammade frĂ„n den feniciska bokstaven alef, vilken i sin protosinaitiska förlaga varit en bild av ett oxhuvud. Oxe hette i de sprĂ„ken alef. Symbolen hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n en egyptisk hieroglyf med liknande utseende, dock annan betydelse och uttal. A anvĂ€nds i olika skrifter som kyrilliska alfabetet (Đ), arabiska alfabetet Alif (ïș), hebreiska alfabetet alef (Ś).
+
+Datateknik
+I datorer lagras A samt förkomponerade bokstÀver med A som bas och vissa andra varianter av A med följande kodpunkter:
+
+I ASCII-baserade kodningar lagras A med vÀrdet 0x41 (hexadecimalt), a med vÀrdet 0x61 (hexadecimalt) och (utom för vissa nationella varianter av ISO/IEC 646) @ med vÀrdet 0x60 (hexadecimalt).
+I EBCDIC-baserade kodningar lagras A med vÀrdet 0xC1 (hexadecimalt), a med vÀrdet 0x81 (hexadecimalt) och @ med vÀrdet 0x7C (hexadecimalt).
+Ăvriga varianter av A lagras med olika vĂ€rden beroende pĂ„ vilken kodning som anvĂ€nds, om de alls kan representeras.
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Latinska alfabetet
+Amerikaner syftar vanligtvis â pĂ„ svenska â pĂ„ personer som Ă€r medborgare i USA, i andra hand pĂ„ personer som bor pĂ„ kontinenten Nordamerika eller vĂ€rldsdelen Amerika som helhet. För mer precision angĂ„ende personer frĂ„n Nord- eller Sydamerika, anvĂ€nds begreppen nordamerikaner och sydamerikaner. Syftningen skiftar i andra sprĂ„k och sammanhang. I till exempel Spanien, Italien och Portugal Ă€r ordningen den omvĂ€nda: I första hand syftar "americano" pĂ„ en invĂ„nare i Syd- eller Nordamerika. För fransmĂ€nnen Ă€r det kontexten som avgör. Nordamerikaner med engelska som modersmĂ„l kallas angloamerikaner och deras land kallas Angloamerika.
+
+Se Àven
+Afroamerikaner
+Svenskamerikaner
+Amerikaner i Sverige
+Latinamerika
+USA:s demografi
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+
+Etniska grupper i Nordamerika
+Etniska grupper i Sydamerika
+13 april Àr den 103:e dagen pÄ Äret i den gregorianska kalendern (104:e under skottÄr). Det ÄterstÄr 262 dagar av Äret.
+
+Ă
terkommande bemÀrkelsedagar
+
+Helgdagar
+ PÄskdagen firas i vÀsterlÀndsk kristendom för att högtidlighÄlla Jesu ÄteruppstÄndelse efter korsfÀstelsen, Ären 1800, 1873, 1879, 1884, 1941, 1952, 2031, 2036.
+
+Namnsdagar
+
+I den svenska almanackan
+ Nuvarande â Artur och Douglas
+ FöregÄende i bokstavsordning
+ Aldor â Namnet infördes pĂ„ dagens datum 1986 men utgick 1993.
+ Artur â Namnet infördes pĂ„ dagens datum 1901 och har funnits dĂ€r sedan dess.
+ Atle â Namnet infördes pĂ„ dagens datum 1986 men utgick 1993.
+ Douglas â Namnet infördes 1986 pĂ„ 27 september. 1993 flyttades det till dagens datum och har funnits dĂ€r sedan dess.
+ Justinus â Namnet fanns, till minne av en filosof i Palestina, som halshöggs i Rom pĂ„ 160-talet, pĂ„ dagens datum före 1901, dĂ„ det utgick.
+ FöregÄende i kronologisk ordning
+ Före 1901 â Justinus
+ 1901â1985 â Artur
+ 1986â1992 â Artur, Aldor och Atle
+ 1993â2000 â Artur och Douglas
+ FrĂ„n 2001 â Artur och Douglas
+ KĂ€llor
+ Brylla, Eva (red.): NamnlÀngdsboken, Norstedts ordbok, Stockholm, 2000.
+ af Klintberg, Bengt: Namnen i almanackan, Norstedts ordbok, Stockholm, 2001.
+
+I den finlandssvenska almanackan
+
+ Nuvarande (revidering 2020) â Etel
+
+ I föregÄende i revideringar
+1929 â Etel
+1950 â Etel
+1964 â Etel
+1973 â Etel
+1989 â Etel
+1995 â Etel
+2000 â Etel
+2005 â Etel
+2010 â Etel
+2015 â Etel
+2020 â Etel
+
+HĂ€ndelser
+ 1055 â Sedan pĂ„vestolen har stĂ„tt tom i ett Ă„r vĂ€ljs Gebhard av Dollnstein-Hirschberg till pĂ„ve och tar namnet Viktor II, men avlider tvĂ„ Ă„r senare.
+ 1523 â Sedan den dansk-norske kungen Kristian II har blivit avsatt den 20 januari samma Ă„r tvingas han denna dag lĂ€mna Danmark och gĂ„r i exil till NederlĂ€nderna. Tio Ă„r senare gör han ett försök att Ă„terta de nordiska tronerna (inklusive den svenska) under det danska inbördeskriget Grevefejden, men blir dĂ„ tillfĂ„ngatagen och fĂ„r tillbringa resten av sitt liv (till 1559) i fĂ€ngelse.
+ 1598 â Den franske kungen Henrik IV utfĂ€rdar ediktet i Nantes, som stadgar att katolicismen ska vara Frankrikes statsreligion och förhindrar protestantismens vidare utbredning i landet. De franska protestanterna, som kallas hugenotter, blir dock garanterade trosfrihet, medborgerliga rĂ€ttigheter och fri religionsutövning. Ediktet gör dĂ€rmed slut pĂ„ de franska religionskrigen, som frĂ„n och till har varat sedan 1562. 1685 upphĂ€ver dock den dĂ„varande kungen Ludvig XIV ediktet, vilket leder till en stor utvandringsvĂ„g av franska protestanter.
+ 1714 â Den svenska staden VĂ€sterĂ„s drabbas av en stor stadsbrand. NĂ€r staden Ă„teruppbyggs fĂ„r den tyske trĂ€dgĂ„rdsmĂ€staren Bernhard Johan Bohnsack i uppdrag att anlĂ€gga en ny stadstrĂ€dgĂ„rd, vilket han gör pĂ„ Munkholmen. DĂ€r börjar han odla de gurkor, som sedermera blir karaktĂ€ristiska för staden och ger den smeknamnet Gurkstaden.
+ 1742 â Den tysk-brittiske tonsĂ€ttaren Georg Friedrich HĂ€ndels oratorium Messias uruppförs vid en vĂ€lgörenhetskonsert i den irlĂ€ndska huvudstaden Dublin. Det blir omedelbart en stor framgĂ„ng och HĂ€ndel uppför det varje Ă„r vid pĂ„sk fram till sin död 1759.
+ 1812 â En urtima riksdag öppnas i Ărebro i Sverige och pĂ„gĂ„r fram till 18 augusti. De viktigaste hĂ€ndelserna under denna riksdag, som blir den sista som hĂ„lls utanför Stockholm, Ă€r att man inrĂ€ttar Sveriges första vĂ€rnplikt, den sĂ„ kallade bevĂ€ringen, och att man under sommaren sluter fred i det krig mot Storbritannien, som har varat sedan 1810.
+ 1919 â Brittiska trupper dödar hundratals fredliga demonstranter i den indiska staden Amritsar, dĂ„ general Reginald Dyer beordrar soldaterna att beskjuta folkmassan, som demonstrerar mot det brittiska styret i Indien. Enligt officiella uppgifter uppgĂ„r antalet döda till 379 och sĂ„rade till 1 100, men dessa uppgifter har ifrĂ„gasatts och antalet döda kan uppgĂ„ till sĂ„ mĂ„nga som 1 526. General Dyer fĂ„r, pĂ„ grund av hĂ€ndelsen, sedermera öknamnet Slaktaren i Amritsar.
+ 1975 â En grupp ur Kaetabmilisen dödar 27 palestinier genom ett överfall pĂ„ deras buss i den libanesiska staden Ain El Remmeneh. Detta blir den tĂ€ndande gnistan till det libanesiska inbördeskrig, som kommer att vara till 1990.
+ 1985 â NĂ€r det nynazistiska Nordiska rikspartiet hĂ„ller en demonstration pĂ„ torget i VĂ€xjö i Sverige utbryter ett omfattande slagsmĂ„l, nĂ€r de blir ivĂ€gkörda av uppretade VĂ€xjöbor och tio av nynazisterna tar sin tillflykt till stadens jĂ€rnvĂ€gsstation, dĂ€r de lĂ„ser in sig pĂ„ toaletterna.
+ 1990 â Efter 50 Ă„r erkĂ€nner Sovjetunionen officiellt den sĂ„ kallade Katynmassakern, dĂ€r medlemmar ur den sovjetiska sĂ€kerhetstjĂ€nsten NKVD pĂ„ vĂ„ren 1940 avrĂ€ttade totalt 21 857 polska medborgare i skogarna vid Katyn utanför Smolensk i vĂ€stra Ryssland.
+ 2008 â 42-Ă„rige Per Anders Eklund, som Ă€r misstĂ€nkt för bortförandet och mordet pĂ„ flickan Engla Juncosa Höglund vid StjĂ€rnsund i Dalarna i Sverige en vecka tidigare, erkĂ€nner sig skyldig till dĂ„det och visar polisen var han har gömt Englas kropp. Till sommaren Ă„talas Eklund för mordet och för ett annat mord i Falun 2000 samt ett vĂ„ldtĂ€ktsförsök 2006 och till hösten döms han till livstids fĂ€ngelse.
+ 2017 â USA flygbombar med den hittills största icke-nukleĂ€ra bomben kallat Massive Ordnance Air Blast (MOAB). Bomben slĂ€pptes pĂ„ Achindistriktet i Nangarharprovinsen i östra Afghanistan, dĂ€r mĂ„let var att förstöra ett tunnelkomplex som terrormilisen Islamiska staten (förkortat IS, ISIS eller ISIL) anvĂ€nde sig av. Bomben dödade 94 IS-soldater, varav fyra kommendörkaptener.
+
+Födda
+ 1506 â Pierre Favre, fransk jesuit och teolog
+ 1519 â Katarina av Medici, Frankrikes drottning 1547â1559 (gift med Henrik II) och förmyndarregent för sin son Karl IX 1560â1562
+ 1593 â Thomas Wentworth, engelsk statsman, rĂ„dgivare till kung Karl I
+ 1732 â Frederick North, brittisk politiker, parlamentsledamot 1754â1790, Storbritanniens finansminister 1767â1782, premiĂ€rminister 1770â1782 och inrikesminister 1783
+ 1743 â Thomas Jefferson, amerikansk demokratisk-republikansk statsman och ambassadör, USA:s utrikesminister 1789â1793, vicepresident 1797â1801 och president 1801â1809
+ 1753 â Frederick Frelinghuysen, amerikansk general och federalistisk politiker, senator för New Jersey 1793â1796
+ 1769 â Thomas Lawrence, brittisk portrĂ€ttmĂ„lare
+ 1771 â Richard Trevithick, brittisk ingenjör, uppfinnare av vĂ€rldens första Ă„nglok 1804
+ 1793 â Rinaldo Rinaldi, italiensk skulptör
+ 1808 â Antonio Meucci, italiensk-amerikansk uppfinnare
+ 1811 - Paulus Genberg, biskop, ledamot av Svenska Akademien
+ 1852 â F.W. Woolworth, amerikansk affĂ€rsman
+ 1866 â Robert Leroy Parker, amerikansk tĂ„g- och bankrĂ„nare med artistnamnet Butch Cassidy, ledare för Wild BunchgĂ€nget
+ 1876 â Are Waerland, finlandssvensk författare och hĂ€lsoideolog
+ 1877 â Arvid Thorberg, politiker och fackföreningsman, LO:s ordförande 1920-1930
+ 1879 â Redfield Proctor, Jr., amerikansk republikansk politiker, guvernör i Vermont 1923â1925
+ 1882 â Bertil Brusewitz, svensk skĂ„despelare
+ 1884 â Anders Ăsterling, svensk poet och översĂ€ttare, ledamot av Svenska Akademien 1919-1981
+ 1885 â Georg LukĂĄcs, ungersk kommunistisk politiker, filosof, författare och litteraturkritiker
+ 1890
+ Eric Abrahamsson, svensk skÄdespelare, mest kÀnd i rollen som Pessimisten i radioserien Optimisten och Pessimisten
+ Frank Murphy, amerikansk demokratisk politiker och jurist, guvernör i Michigan 1937â1939, USA:s justitieminister 1939â1940
+ 1892 â Arthur Travers Harris, brittisk fĂ€ltmarskalk och flygmarskalk
+ 1896 â Sigrun Otto, norsk skĂ„despelare
+ 1901 â Sven RĂŒno, svensk kompositör, textförfattare, pianist och kapellmĂ€stare
+ 1905 â Harry Apelqvist, svensk verkmĂ€stare och socialdemokratisk politiker
+ 1906 â Samuel Beckett, irlĂ€ndsk-fransk författare och dramatiker, mottagare av Nobelpriset i litteratur 1969
+ 1907 â Harold Stassen, amerikansk militĂ€r och republikansk politiker, guvernör i Minnesota 1939â1943
+ 1908
+ Yngve Nordwall, svensk skÄdespelare och regissör
+ Hanser Lina Göransson, svensk operasÄngerska
+ 1916 â Karin Lannby, svensk skĂ„despelare, journalist och översĂ€ttare
+ 1919 â Howard Keel, amerikansk skĂ„despelare och musikalartist
+ 1923 â Barbro Nordin, svensk skĂ„despelare
+ 1924 â Stanley Donen, amerikansk filmregissör
+ 1931 â Beverley Cross, brittisk pjĂ€s- och manusförfattare
+ 1932 â Orlando Letelier, chilensk politiker och diplomat
+ 1933 â Ben Nighthorse Campbell, amerikansk politiker, senator för Colorado 1993â2005
+1934 â Karl-Erik Bender, svensk affĂ€rsman och entreprenör, grundade företaget Benders och Stall & Stuteri Palema
+ 1937 â Edward Fox, brittisk skĂ„despelare
+ 1939
+ Seamus Heaney, irlÀndsk författare, mottagare av Nobelpriset i litteratur 1995
+ Paul Sorvino, amerikansk skÄdespelare
+ 1940 â Jean-Marie Gustave Le ClĂ©zio, fransk-mauritisk författare, mottagare av Nobelpriset i litteratur 2008
+ 1941 â Michael S. Brown, amerikansk genetiker, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin 1985
+ 1942 â Bill Conti, amerikansk filmmusikkompositör
+ 1944 â Jack Casady, amerikansk musiker, basist i gruppen Jefferson Airplane
+ 1946 â Al Green, amerikansk gospel- och soulsĂ„ngare
+ 1949
+ Frank Doran, brittisk labourpolitiker, parlamentsledamot 1987â1992 och 1997â2017
+ Maria Hedborg, svensk skÄdespelare
+ Cia Löwgren, svensk skÄdespelare
+ 1950 â Ron Perlman, amerikansk skĂ„despelare
+ 1951
+ Peabo Bryson, amerikansk sÄngare
+ Joachim Streich, östtysk fotbollsspelare
+ 1952 â Jim Costa, amerikansk demokratisk politiker, kongressledamot 2005â
+ 1953 â Stephen Byers, brittisk labourpolitiker, parlamentsledamot 1992â2010, Storbritanniens bitrĂ€dande finansminister 1998, handels- och industriminister 1998â2001 samt transport- och regionminister 2001â2002
+ 1954 â Lars Ă
by Hermansen, svensk scenchef, scenbyggare och skÄdespelare
+ 1956 â Kent Johansson, svensk ishockeyspelare och -trĂ€nare
+ 1960 â Rudi Völler, vĂ€sttysk fotbollsspelare, förbundskapten för Tysklands herrlandslag i fotboll 2000â2004
+ 1962
+ Hillel Slovak, israelisk-amerikansk gitarrist, medlem i gruppen Red Hot Chili Peppers frÄn 1983
+ Jonas Bjerkén, svensk operasÄngare och musikalartist
+ 1963 â Garri Kasparov, armenisk-rysk schackspelare
+ 1964 â Davis Love III, amerikansk golfspelare
+ 1969 â Christine Skou, dansk skĂ„despelare och sĂ„ngare
+ 1974
+ Sergej Gontjar, rysk ishockeyspelare
+ Johan Linander, svensk centerpartistisk politiker, riksdagsledamot 2002â2014
+ Ruben Ăstlund (regissör), svensk filmregissör
+ 1976
+ Robert BiedroĆ, polsk politiker
+ Jonathan Brandis, amerikansk skÄdespelare
+ Patrik EliĂĄĆĄ, tjeckisk ishockeyspelare
+ 1978 â Carles Puyol, spansk fotbollsspelare
+ 2000 â Rasmus Dahlin, svensk ishockeyspelare
+
+Avlidna
+ 862 â Donald I, 50, kung av Skottland sedan 858 (född 812)
+ 1597 â Clas Eriksson Fleming, omkring 67, svensk friherre och riksrĂ„d, Sveriges riksamiral 1571â1595 och riksmarsk sedan 1590 (född omkring 1530)
+ 1605 â Boris Godunov, omkring 53 eller 54, tsar av Ryssland sedan 1598 (född 1551 eller 1552)
+ 1695 â Jean de La Fontaine, 73, fransk författare
+ 1804 â Frederick Frelinghuysen, 51, amerikansk general och federalistisk politiker, senator för New Jersey 1793â1796
+ 1826 â Carl Birger Rutström, 67, svensk numismatiker och riksantikvarie, ledamot av Svenska Akademien sedan 1812
+ 1853 â James Iredell, Jr., 64, amerikansk politiker, guvernör i North Carolina 1827â1828, senator för samma delstat 1828â1831
+ 1886 â Anna Louisa Geertruida Bosboom-Toussaint, 73, nederlĂ€ndsk författare
+ 1909 â Henrik Tore Cedergren, 55, svensk telefontekniker, grundare av telefonföretaget Stockholms AllmĂ€nna Telefon AB (hjĂ€rtĂ„komma)
+ 1929 â Joseph Weldon Bailey, 66, amerikansk demokratisk politiker, senator för Texas 1901â1913
+ 1930 â Agnes Branting, 68, svensk textilkonstnĂ€r och författare
+ 1934 â Richard P. Ernst, 76, amerikansk republikansk politiker, senator för Kentucky 1921â1927
+ 1941 â MĂ€rta MĂ„Ă„s-Fjetterström, 67, svensk textilkonstnĂ€r
+ 1956 â Emil Nolde, 88, tysk mĂ„lare inom expressionismen
+ 1966
+ Carlo Carrà , 85, italiensk mÄlare inom futurismen
+ Georges Duhamel, 81, fransk författare
+ 1993 â Sten Ardenstam, 72, svensk skĂ„despelare
+ 1996 â James Burke, 64, irlĂ€ndsk-amerikansk gangster, kĂ€nd som Jimmy the Gent eller The Irish Guinea (lungcancer)
+ 2001 â Jimmy Logan, 73, brittisk skĂ„despelare
+ 2008 â John Wheeler, 96, amerikansk fysiker
+ 2009 â Björn Borg, 89, svensk simmare, bragdmedaljör
+ 2012
+ Inge BrÄten, 63, norsk lÀngdskidÄkningstrÀnare
+ Erland Cullberg, 81, svensk konstnÀr
+ 2013
+ Hilmar Myhra, 97, norsk backhoppare
+ Chi Cheng, 42, amerikansk basist i gruppen Deftones
+ 2014 â Ernesto Laclau, 78, argentinsk postmarxistisk politisk teoretiker och statsvetare
+ 2015
+ Bruce Alger, 96, amerikansk republikansk politiker
+ GĂŒnter Grass, 87, tysk författare och konstnĂ€r, mottagare av Nobelpriset i litteratur 1999
+ Eduardo Galeano, 74, uruguayansk författare
+ 2018 â MiloĆĄ Forman, 86, tjeckisk-amerikansk filmregissör
+ 2019 â Paul Greengard, 93, amerikansk biolog, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin 2000
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+Anders Celsius, född 27 november 1701 i Uppsala, död 25 april 1744 i Uppsala, var en svensk vetenskapsman och astronom, i tjÀnst som professor i astronomi vid Uppsala universitet. Han Àr idag mest kÀnd för Celsiusskalan, den hundragradiga termometerskalan. En enhet för temperatur Àr dÀrför uppkallad efter honom och betecknas med ett stort C: °C.
+
+Biografi
+
+UppvÀxt och verksamhet
+
+SlĂ€kten Celsius hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n prĂ€stgĂ„rden Högen ("Höjen") i OvanĂ„ker, HĂ€lsingland. Anders Celsius var son till astronomen Nils Celsius (1658â1724) och Gunilla Spole (1672â1756), dotter till professorn i astronomi Anders Spole. Ăven Celsius farfar Magnus Celsius var en framstĂ„ende forskare inom astronomi och matematik, och farbrodern Olof Celsius d.Ă€. var en framstĂ„ende filolog.
+
+Anders Celsius var elev till Eric Burman, som i sin tur varit elev och eftertrĂ€dare till Anders Celsius far som professor i "högre matematik" (astronomi). NĂ€r Burman avled valdes Celsius enhĂ€lligt 1730 till hans eftertrĂ€dare som professor. TvĂ„ Ă„r dĂ€refter företog han en resa utanför Sverige, som varade i fem Ă„r. HuvudĂ€ndamĂ„let var att grundligt studera mera framstĂ„ende observatorier i Europa. Ă
r 1730 publicerade han Nova Methodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi (En ny metod för att bestÀmma avstÄndet mellan solen och jorden).
+
+
+Utomlands vĂ€ckte han först uppseende genom sina i NĂŒrnberg (1733) utgivna Observationes de lumine boreali ab A. MDCCXVI ad A. MDCCXXXII partim a se, partim ab aliis, in Suecia habitas (Iakttagelser över norrsken i Sverige frĂ„n 1716 till 1732, dels av författaren sjĂ€lv, dels av andra). I Rom, dĂ€r pĂ„ven upplĂ€t sitt stora galleri pĂ„ Monte Cavallo Ă„t honom, gjorde han optiska experiment och fann bland annat, att mĂ„nens sken i nedan Ă€r 8 gĂ„nger svagare Ă€n fullmĂ„nens, att solen har ett 320 000 gĂ„nger starkare sken Ă€n mĂ„nen och att den pĂ„ sin middagshöjd skiner med ett 130 gĂ„nger starkare ljus Ă€n vid synranden.
+
+Celsius stödde skapandet av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien 1739, Àven om han inte var en av de ursprungliga sex grundarna, och var den som föreslog namnet Vetenskapsakademi, snarare Àn de första förslagen Ekonomisk vetenskapssocitet eller vetenskapsgille. Celsius och Samuel Klingenstierna blev de första invalda ledamöterna av akademien. 1730 valdes han in som ledamot i Kungliga Vetenskaps-Societeten i Uppsala.
+
+Parisprojektet
+
+I Paris deltog Celsius i en dÄ intensiv vetenskaplig tvist angÄende jordens form. Somliga trodde som Newton, att jorden var tillplattad vid polerna, medan andra med Cassini tÀnkte sig den som en citron eller ett Àgg. Astronomiska mÀtningar av en grad pÄ en meridianbÄge inom Frankrikes grÀnser som var gjorda av Picard 1670, var inte tillrÀckligt noggranna för att avgöra tvisten. För att lösa problemet behövde man tvÄ gradmÀtningar, den ena nÀrmare ekvatorn, den andra nÀrmare polen.
+
+Franska vetenskapsakademin bestĂ€mde sig för att bekosta sĂ„dana mĂ€tningar. En expedition under Bouguer sĂ€ndes 1735 till Peru (dagens Ecuador) och var borta i sju Ă„r. PĂ„ Celsius förslag (efter en idĂ© av Polhem) valde man att sĂ€nda en andra expedition under ledning av Maupertuis till Tornedalen 1736â37. I expeditionen deltog Ă€ven Celsius, Anders Hellant och Jonas Meldercreutz.
+
+Observationerna var förenade med anstrÀngande strapatser. Inga vÀgar fanns, och det gÀllde inte bara att i mÄnader leva ute i vildmarken utan ocksÄ att frakta fina och dyrbara instrument genom skogar och myrar upp till svÄrtillgÀngliga fjÀlltoppar. Ett detachement av nÀrmaste finska regemente kommenderades till hjÀlp. Soldaterna fÀllde skogen pÄ Ätta bergstoppar, och sedan uppsattes koniska signaler av barkade trÀdstammar. Resultaten frÄn expeditionerna visade att en breddgrad Àr lÀngre vid den lapska Àn vid den peruanska gradmÀtningen, vilket överensstÀmde med Newtons förutsÀgelser.
+
+Under vistelsen i TorneĂ„ ordnade Celsius en meteorologisk station dĂ€r, vars journaler för tiden 1737â49 Ă€nnu finns bevarade.
+
+Uppsala observatorium
+
+Efter sin Äterkomst till Uppsala yrkade Celsius pÄ uppbyggandet av ett observatorium dÀr. Medel anslogs, och Uppsala astronomiska observatorium, det första i Sverige, blev fÀrdigt 1741. Celsius fortsatte nu med iver sina observationer, genom vilka han spridde nytt ljus över lÀran om planeternas gÄng, kometerna, stjÀrnornas aberration, ljusets brytning i atmosfÀren med mera. Celsius bidrog Àven till att hÀva Sveriges tveksamhet med att slutligen övergÄ till den gregorianska kalendern.
+
+Celsius var övertygad om orimligheten i den gÀngse Äsikten att vÀderleken skulle bero pÄ planeternas stÀllning. Genom lÀttlÀsta skrifter försökte han utrota all den vidskepelse som sÀrskilt betrÀffande himlakropparna och deras rörelser fanns inrotad hos allmogen. I populÀra skrifter lÀt han folk pÄ ett enkelt och lÀttfattligt sÀtt fÄ kÀnnedom om vad vetenskapsmÀnnen utforskat.
+
+Han gjorde omkring 6 000 iakttagelser över kompassens missvisning, dennas dagliga förÀndring, och den sÄ kallade inklinationen. Tillsammans med sin svÄger Olof Hjorter upptÀckte han norrskenets inverkan pÄ magnetnÄlen. Genom samtidiga observationer av Celsius i Uppsala samt Canton och Graham i London konstaterades, att de stora magnetiska störningarna intrÀffar samtidigt pÄ lÄngt frÄn varandra belÀgna orter.
+
+FrÄn och med 1729 publicerade han meteorologiska observationer frÄn Uppsala. Tyngdaccelerationens skillnad med latituden mellan Uppsala och London bestÀmde han genom ett av Graham i London förfÀrdigat pendelur. Celsius utförde mÄnga mÀtningar inför skapandet av den Svenska generalkartan. Han var Àven en av de första som fÀste uppmÀrksamheten pÄ att Skandinavien lÄngsamt höjer sig ovan havet, en process som pÄgÄtt sedan isavsmÀltningen efter istiden. Denna landhöjning kallades pÄ Celsius tid för vattuminskningen. Som förklaring föreslog Celsius den felaktiga hypotesen att vattuminskningen berodde pÄ en över Ären tilltagande avdunstning.
+
+Celsius som person
+
+Anders Celsius var en pionjĂ€r i Sverige för internationellt samarbete inom vetenskapen och hade ett rikt kontaktnĂ€t utomlands. Han hade ocksĂ„, enligt samtida vittnen, en vinnande personlighet som gjorde att han fick vĂ€nner vart han Ă€n kom. Utomlands mindes man honom lĂ€nge i de stĂ€der han besökt under sin lĂ„nga resa, och sĂ„ sent som under 1770-talet trĂ€ffade andra svenska resenĂ€rer pĂ„ mĂ„nga dĂ€r som mindes honom med glĂ€dje och beundran. Han beskrevs som "alltid glad och munter". Ăven om han var överhopad med arbete tycktes han aldrig ha brĂ„ttom men gjorde Ă€ndĂ„ sina uppgifter hastigt. Han hade enligt samtiden Ă€ven ett rikt mĂ„tt av humor, som ibland kunde dra mot sarkasm.
+
+Celsius avled Är 1744 vid 42 Ärs Älder till följd av tuberkulos, och Àr begravd i Gamla Uppsala kyrka.
+
+Celsius temperaturskala
+
+Idag Àr Celsius namn mest förknippat med den 100-gradiga Celsius-skalan, som han föreslog, och som bland annat anvÀnds i internationella enhetssystemet. Celsius satte först nollpunkten vid vattnets kokpunkt, och satte fryspunkten vid 100 grader pÄ skalan. Efter Celsius död vÀndes skalan om, sÄ att fryspunkten intrÀffar vid noll grader och kokpunkten vid 100 grader. Hans noggranna termometerstudier visade hur fixpunkten vid vattnets kokpunkt Àr beroende av lufttrycket. Detta mÄste tas hÀnsyn till nÀr en termometer ska graderas vid tillverkningen.
+
+Publikationer
+Celsius publicerade över hundratalet vetenskapliga och relaterade skrifter, bland annat 34 "avhandlingar" â dissertatio. De viktigaste av de mĂ„nga verken Ă€r:
+ Arithmetica eller rÀknekonst (1727)
+ Iakttagelser över norrsken i Sverige (1733)
+ Nova methodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi (en ny metod att avgöra avstÄndet emellan solen och jorden) (1730)
+ Tankar om kometernes igenkomst (1735)
+ Bref om jordens figur (1736)
+ Memorial om calendarii förbÀttrande hvad pÄskens rÀtta firande angÄr (1738).
+ Observationer om tvÀnne bestÀndiga grader pÄ en thermometer. (1742)
+Dessutom utgav han almanackor för Ă„ren 1728â45.
+
+Hedersbetygelser
+
+Namngivning
+
+Förutom temperaturskalan och dess tillhörande enhet har Anders Celsius fÄtt en mÄnkrater uppkallad efter sig, liksom asteroiden 4169 Celsius. MÄnkratern heter Celsius och namngavs 1935 av Internationella astronomiska unionen.
+
+Det rymduppdrag som den svenske astronauten Christer Fuglesangs deltog i för ESA kallades för The Celsius Mission. Ett flertal gator i Sverige Ă€r uppkallade efter Celsius, bland annat i Stockholm, Göteborg, Malmö och Uppsala. Ăven försvarskoncernen Celsius AB var uppkallad efter Anders Celsius.
+
+FrimÀrken
+Anders Celsius finns pÄ svenska frimÀrken. I hÀftet "Europa 82" frÄn 1982 finns han avbildad tillsammans med en termometer.
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+
+
+ Anders Celsius i Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (Band 8, 1929)
+
+Litteratur
+ sid. 145â[172].
+
+Se Àven
+ Celsius (slÀkt)
+ Grad Celsius
+ Celsiushuset
+ Uppsala astronomiska observatorium
+GrannÀs
+4169 Celsius
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ Uppsala universitet â Anders Celsius
+ Olof Beckman (2001). Anders Celsius â ur tidskriften Elementa
+ GradmĂ€tningsexpeditionen till Tornedalen 1736â37
+
+
+
+Svenska professorer i astronomi
+Svenska meteorologer
+Personer verksamma vid Uppsala universitet
+Uppsaliensare
+Alumner frÄn Uppsala universitet
+Ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien
+Ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskaps-Societeten i Uppsala
+Ledamöter av Royal Society
+Svenska eponymer
+Personer under frihetstiden
+Svenska astronomer under 1700-talet
+Meteorologer under 1700-talet
+Svenska fysiker under 1700-talet
+Svenska uppfinnare under 1700-talet
+Forskare frÄn Uppsala
+Gravsatta pÄ Gamla Uppsala kyrkogÄrd
+Födda 1701
+Avlidna 1744
+MĂ€n
+Ugglan
+SBH
+Den australiska ökenskovelfotspaddan (Notaden nichollsi) lever större delen av sitt liv nedgrÀvd i marken i ökenomrÄden. Enbart vid kraftiga regn kommer den fram för att fortplanta sig. Den har rund kropp och korta ben, och nÀr den ligger i dvala omsluts den av ett kokongliknande hölje av flera lager ömsat skinn, vilket minimerar avdunstning.
+
+UtbredningsomrÄdet strÀcker sig frÄn Western Australia över södra Northern Territory och norra South Australia till vÀstra Queensland. Arten lever i lÄglandet upp till 100 meter över havet. Den vistas i halvöknar, i grÀsmarker, i buskskogar och i trÀskmarker. Arten grÀver till ett djup av en meter för att gömma sig. Fortplantningen sker efter regnfall. Honan lÀgger upp till 1000 Àgg som fÀstas vid vÀxter. Grodynglens metamorfos varar i tvÄ veckor.
+
+För bestÄndet Àr inga hot kÀnda. Hela populationen anses vara stabil. IUCN listar arten som livskraftig (LC).
+
+Referenser
+
+Australtandpaddor
+Groddjur i australiska regionen
+Svenska adelsÀtter har funnits sedan medeltiden och har registrerats pÄ riddarhuset sedan 1600-talet.
+
+Historia
+PÄ Alsnö möte skrevs Är 1280 i Alsnö stadga att den tjÀnstemannaklass som gjorde vapentjÀnst till hÀst skulle Ätnjuta frÀlse, det vill sÀga skattefrihet. Dessa var föregÄngare till adeln men hade inte samma privilegier.
+
+För att en slÀkt ska rÀknas som svensk adel ska den ha erhÄllit svensk adelsvÀrdighet av den svenske regenten genom ett adelsbrev. För att vara representerad vid stÄndsriksdagen krÀvdes att Àtten var introducerad pÄ Riddarhuset.
+
+NÀr den siste mannen i en adelsÀtt dött Àr den utslocknad: om kvinnliga medlemmar av adelsÀtten fortfarande lever kallas adelsÀtten utgÄngen pÄ svÀrdssidan. "NÀr den sista medlemmen dör stryks Àtten i adelskalendern och i förteckningen över samtliga Àtter i registret tar man bort markeringen som tyder pÄ att Àtten har levande medlemmar och skriver ett kors + samt Ärtalet nÀr den dog ut pÄ svÀrdssidan och nÄgot mera sker inte." (Riddarhusets kommentar)
+
+Sedan riddarhuset under 1600-talet instiftades att organisera och katalogisera Sveriges adel har 2 962 Ă€tter introducerats. Omkring 80% av dessa Ă€r utslocknade. NĂ„gra har ocksĂ„ strukits fast de fortlever, till exempel friherrliga Ă€tter som von Albedyhl, von Segerbaden och Wadenstierna. (Ătten har bott utomlands i över 100 Ă„r och har dĂ€rmed förlorat sĂ€te och stĂ€mma pĂ„ riddarhuset. Dock kan den adliga, kommendörsĂ€tten eller grevliga Ă€tten vara representerad i riddarhuset.)
+
+Observera att alla Àtterna först i vÄr tid har kallats vid "namn". Natt och Dag till exempel (kanske Sveriges Àldsta riddarslÀkt) förde redan under tidig medeltid en delad sköld i svart och vitt men de kallade sig inte Natt och Dag för det. I sjÀlva verket tvingades sentida Àttlingar att börja anvÀnda detta familjenamn under 1700-talet. Medeltida Àtter kallas dÀrför efter vad skölden liknar, och inom parentes: till exempel (rosor under stjÀrna), eller (tillbakaseende ulv). Andra, som Àtten Trolle, skrivs Trolle utan parentes men först nÀr de sjÀlva börjar kalla sig det i nÄgot brev e.d.
+
+Högsta klassen av adelsmÀn (förutom kungen) under medeltid i Sverige Àr jarl, en uppenbarligen Àrftlig vÀrdighet. Jarlarna kommenderade över riddarna i riksrÄdet, som stod över de vanliga riddarna. Steget under var sven av vapen, (de förde alltsÄ egen sköld) och sedan svenner, i allmÀnhet unga adelsmÀn som Ànnu inte dubbats till riddare.
+
+Idag finns obetitlad och betitlad adel. De betitlade adelsÀtterna Àr grevliga, och friherrliga Àtter. Begreppet lÄgadel och högadel anvÀnds inte av Riddarhuset men sammanfattningsvis kan sÀgas att högadeln utgjordes av de grevliga och de friherrliga Àtterna jÀmte riddarklassen frÄn och med 1778 inklusive de 300 Àldsta adelsÀtterna och de sÄ kallade kommendörsÀtterna ("obetitlad högadel"), medan lÄgadeln utgjordes av de resterande obetitlade Àtterna.
+
+PÄ Sveriges riddarhus har de olika introducerade Àtterna ett nummer, dÀr grevar, friherrar och obetitlad adel numreras Ätskilt var för sig. I regel gÀller att ju lÀgre numret Àr, desto tidigare har Àtten introducerats i Sverige (utom för de 100 lÀgsta numren som lottades vid Riddarhusets instiftande). Nr 1 bland grevar, BraheÀtten, Àr dock utslocknad sedan 1930. Det finns dock exempel pÄ att Àtter har introducerats pÄ en utslocknad Àtts nummer.
+
+ Obs! Listan nedan Àr de medeltida namnen men inte komplett. En del Àr inte namn utan anger sÀtesgÄrd eller -by. Senare namnbildningar hade oftare prefix och/eller tvÄstaviga kombinationer av typ Silfverhielm eller Tornérhielm. Ju enklare namnet lÄter, i synnerhet om det lÄter som nÄgot man snabbt kan mÄla pÄ en sköld, desto högre Älder, alltsÄ mellan 1000-tal och 1500-tal.
+
+MedeltidsÀtter och Àtter adlade under 1500-talet
+Algotssönerna
+Ama
+And
+AspenÀsÀtten
+Bagge av Botorp
+Banér
+Bengt Hafridssons Àtt
+Bengt Bossons Àtt
+Bengt MÄrtenssons Àtt
+Bese
+Berndes kom till Sverige 1554 frÄn Brandeburg, Johan Berndes d.À. adlad 1574, utslocknad 1657.
+Bexton
+Bielke
+Bille skÄnsk hög och uradelsslÀkt
+BjÀlboÀtten
+BlÄ
+Boberg
+Bonde
+Brahe Grevlig Nr 1, Utslocknad Ă„r 1930 med greve Magnus Per Brahe, slottsherre till Rydboholms slott.
+Bröms
+Buth
+BĂ„Ă„t
+Carpelan
+Creutz
+EkaÀtten, utslocknad före 1553
+EketrÀ
+Erikska Àtten, utslocknad Är 1250, nÀr Erik den lÀspe och halte avled.
+Fargalt
+Fleming
+Frille
+FÄnöÀtten
+Geete
+Grip
+Gumsehuvud
+Gyllencreutz
+Gyllenstierna (friherrliga Àtten G till UleÄborg utslocknade med Erik G. som dödades i slaget vid Poltava Är 1709. Han hade tvÄ bröder dÀr den ena var dödfödd Är 1671, och den andre, fÀnriken vid livgardet Ludvig G. blev ihjÀlstucken Är 1698 i Stockholm.)
+GĂ€dda
+Hierta (Uradel, nÀmnd 1579)
+Hiort af OrnÀs
+HjortÀtten
+Horn
+HÄlbonÀsÀtten
+HĂ„rd af Segerstad
+HĂ€stehufvud
+JĂ€gerhorn af Spurila
+JĂ€gerhorn af Storby, utslocknad
+Krumme
+Kurck
+KurjalaslÀkten, utslocknad
+KĂ„se
+KĂ€rling
+Lejonansikte, Bengt Nilssons Àtt
+Lejonansikte, Hemming Ădgislessons Ă€tt
+Lejonbalk
+Leijonhufvud Svensk uradel frÄn Södermanland, med bland de fem Àldsta Ànnu levande adelsÀtterna av rent svenskt ursprung
+Le moine (Lemoine eller Lemon)
+Lilliehöök af GÀlared & KolbÀck Svensk uradel frÄn VÀstergötland
+Lilliehöök af FÄrdala nr.1 RiksrÄdsgrenen. Samma ursprung som adliga Àtten Lilliehöök af GÀlared & KolbÀck. Sedermera utgrenad i den Friherrliga Àtten Lilliehöök nr.13
+Marsvin, utslocknad
+Munck af Fulkila
+MuurlaslÀkten, utslocknad
+Mörner (tysk adel, ej medeltida svensk frÀlse)
+Natt och Dag (började skriva sig Natt och Dag pÄ 1700-talet)
+Odygd, utslocknad
+Oxehufwud
+Oxenstierna
+Oxpanna
+Porse
+Posse
+Prytz
+Ribbing
+Rosenhane
+RosenstrÄle
+RĂ„lamb
+Silfversparre
+Siöblad
+Slatte
+Somme
+Sparre
+Stake Utslocknad med ogifte Harald Gustav Johansson Stake död 1795. (Andra uppgifter menar att Àtten Stake utslocknade pÄ svÀrdssidan den 31 augusti 1763 med majoren och riddaren Karl Magnus Stake)
+Stenbock
+StjÀrnkors, utslocknad
+Stolpe, utslocknad
+StÄlhandske adlad 1579
+StÄlarm, utslocknad
+StÄng
+Sture, Flera Àtter med oklart slÀktskap, eller slÀktskap pÄ kvinnolinjer, bar detta namn. Alla Àr utslocknade.
+Svinhufvud af Qvalstad
+Svinhufvud i Westergötland
+Sverkerska Àtten Utslocknad Är 1222. Siste representant: Johan Sverkersson.
+Tanne
+Tavast
+Tigerstedt
+Tott, utslocknad
+Tre rutor af Slestad
+Tre rosor Grevlig, utslocknad
+Trolle
+Ulfsparre
+UlvÀtten
+UpplÀnning
+VasaÀtten
+VinstorpaÀtten
+Ărnfot [utslocknad pĂ„ svĂ€rdssidan pĂ„ 1470-talet, pĂ„ spinnsidan mellan Ă„r 1505 och Ă„r 1511
+Ărnsparre
+
+Adlade under 1600-talet
+
+SilfverlÄÄs Adlad 1647-03-18 (introd. s. Ä. under nr 377).
+Aminoff. Rysk medeltida bojarÀtt frÄn Novgorod. Svenskt sköldebrev 1618-09-24. Adlig Àtt nr. 456. En gren lever i Finland och tillhör detta lands adel.
+Björnberg Svensk slÀkt frÄn VÀstergötland. Adlad 1646. Introducerad pÄ Sveriges Riddarhus Är 1647, som adlig slÀkt nr. 359.
+Armfelt, SlÀkt som hÀrstammar frÄn JÀmtland. Adlad 1648. Introducerad pÄ Sveriges Riddarhus Är 1650 som adlig Àtt nummer 458.
+Bohm. Adlad 1651-07-17. Introducerad 1652 som adlig slÀkt nr 540.
+Planting-Bergloo, ursprungligen frÄn Tyskland. Anders Planting, född 1619, död 1682. Adlad 1655, introducerad som nr 628.
+Johan Lange, nobil Palmström, nr 867, född 19 juni 1621 i Rewhal (Reval). Död 1 januari 1686 Stockholm. Begraven i S:t Jacobs kyrka dĂ€r hans vapen uppsattes. Adlades 16 december 1674 och introducerades pĂ„ Riddarhuset 1675. Ătten anses utgĂ„ngen pĂ„ manssidan 17 maj 1746. Johan Palmström kom att tjĂ€na under drottning Kristina. Han Ă€r med all sannolikhet sekreterare vid drottningens kröning den 20 oktober 1650.
+Anckarström. Utslocknad med kungamördaren Johan Jakob Anckarström som dömdes att förlora "liv, Ă€ra och adelskap". (Termen lyder oftast: "miste Ă€ra, liv och gods). Ătten fick inte lĂ€ngre heta Anckarström utan bytte namn till Löwenström efter mördarens frus flicknamn Löwen. Ătten Löwenström utdog 1863.
+Ulf Melcher Axelsson adlades Ă„r 1620 men hade en enda son som var sinnessjuk. Ătten utslocknade med sonen.
+De Geer, Louis, adlad 1641. Ursprung Belgien och NederlÀnderna (vallon). Tre grenar, introducerade i slutet av 1700-t.
+GyllensvÀrd Per Joensson GyllensvÀrd adlades 1632. Introducerades 1638, som adlig slÀkt nr. 240.
+Gyllenpistol Utslocknad - Henrik Gyllenpistol adlades Ă„r 1646. Ătten introducerades 1647, som adlig slĂ€kt nr 347. Ătten utgĂ„ngen pĂ„ svĂ€rdssidan 1692.
+von Witten af Stensjö - Casper Witte adlades Är 1649.
+Klingstedt - Nils Jonsson adlades Ă„r 1660.
+Wijnbladh - Johan Winblad adlades Ă„r 1649.
+von Mentzer - SlÀkt som hÀrstammar frÄn Meissen, Sachsen, Tyskland. Liborius kom i svensk tjÀnst 1620 och adlades 1663 som adlig slÀkt nr 720.
+StĂ„lhammar. Per Jönsson Hammar adlades Ă„r 1650. Ătten introducerades som nummer 476 men detta Ă€ndrades sedan till 496.
+Prytz.
+Breitholtz - Claes Breitholtz fick svensk adelskap 1650 och introducerades (nr 484) pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus samma Ă„r. Hans bror Mauritz Breitholtz i Livland adlades 1653 men tog ej introduktion. Ătten tillhörde 1624 Livlands ridderskap.
+Crafoord- Skotsk slÀkt frÄn Aberdeenshire. Hette tidigare Craufurd of Fedderate och kom till Sverige sannolikt under Karl IX:s regeringsÄr. Introducerades i Riddarhuset 1668, som adlig slÀkt nr. 743.
+Belfrage, SlÀkt som hÀrstammar frÄn Skottland med Giulielm Belfrage till Pennington och Tulliochie vid grevskapet i Kinross som Àldste angivne stamfader. Introducerades i Riddarhuset 1668, som adlig slÀkt nr. 782.
+Leijonancker Adlig Àtt no.778 Nobilit den 18 augusti 1666 - Introducerad i Riddarhuset 1668. Den frÄn Skottland bördige Daniel Young (1627-1688) kom till Sverige pÄ 1650-talet och adlades Är 1666 till namnet Leijonancker av Konung Karl den XI för sina förtjÀnster som underleverantör till den kungliga svenska armén.
+Gyllenhaal, adlad 1652 samt introducerades pÄ Riddarhuset 1672 under nr 814.
+Stierncrantz, adlad 15 februari 1674 samt introducerades pÄ Riddarhuset 1675 under nr 854. Utslocknad.
+Schönström Adlig Àtt no 1056. SlÀkten kom ursprungligen frÄn Dalarna. Assessorn i Bergskollegiet, Peter Svedberg adlades Schönström 1683. Introducerades i Riddarhuset 1686. SlÀkten utslocknad pÄ svÀrdssidan 1848.Se Àven Stierna, Stiernhielm och Swedenborg.
+Spens. Friherrlig Àtt no 9, sedermera upphöjd i grevligt stÄnd. Den frÄn Skottland bördige Sir James Spens upphöjdes 1628 till friherre av konung Gustav II Adolf med Orreholmen som förlÀning.
+JÀgerskiöld - Claes JÀgerhorn adlades 1686 och introducerades 1689 pÄ nummer 1100. Claes JÀgerhorn bytte i samband med introduktionen sitt namn till JÀgerskiöld till Ätskillnad frÄn Àtterna JÀgerhorn. Vissa medlemmar av Àtten skriver sig Àven Jegerschöld.
+HiÀrne - Urban HiÀrne adlades 1689 och introducerades pÄ nummer 1149 samma Är. Vissa medlemmar av Àtten skriver sig Àven HjÀrne.
+Bongenhielm Svensk slÀkt frÄn Södermanland. Hette förut Bonge. Adlad 1694. Introducerad pÄ Sveriges Riddarhus Är 1699, som adlig slÀkt nr. 1352.
+Walkendorff - Tysk och dansk uradel frĂ„n Bayern eller Tyrolen. Kom till Sverige via Danmark dĂ€r den tillhörde högadeln, frĂ€mst företrĂ€dd av rikets andre man efter kungen, righofsmester Christopher Valkendorff (1525-1601). En annan framstĂ„ende medlem av Ă€tten var hans farbror Ă€rkebiskopen i Nidaros Erik Valkendorf (1465-1522). Ătten naturaliserades genom kunglig resolution given den 7 juni 1664 i Stockholm av konung Karl XI:s förmyndarregering, de introducerades i riddarklassen samma Ă„r den 30 juni, som Ă€tt nr 25 i Riddarhuset, genom guvernören i Landskrona sedermera vice landsdomaren i SkĂ„ne Christopher Walkendorff till Ellinge (1621-1690).
+Crusebjörn - Svensk adel dÀr Peter Kruse och Jesper Crusebjörn ingÄr.
+Ă
kerfelt, adlig Ă€tt, hĂ€rstammande frĂ„n Johan Olofsson, vilken 1646 adlades och dĂ„ fick namnet Ă
kerfelt och introducerades pĂ„ Riddarhuset under nr 387. SlĂ€ktnamnet har Ă€ven skrivits Ackerfelt, von Ackerfelt och Ă
kerfeldt. Den pÄ svenska riddarhuset introducerade Àtten utslocknade 1836, enligt Riddarhusets förteckning
+ Du Rietz - GrĂ©goire François Du Rietz naturaliserade som svensk adel 1651. Ătten introducerades 1660, som adlig Ă€tt nr. 666.
+ Planting-Bergloo, 1682. Michaël Planting adlad med samma namn och sköld som sin farbror Anders. Introducerad som nummer 1016.
+ Freidenfelt, svensk adlig Àtt adlad av konung Karl XI Är 1686, introducerad pÄ Riddarhuset Är 1689 som adlig Àtt nummer 1102.
+ Hellenstierna - Johan Heller, adlad Hellenstierna Adlad 1694-12-22 (introd. 1697 under nr 1321).
+ Ekehielm, adlad 1647 som adlig Àtt nummer 380. Utdöd 1751-02-06.
+ Leijonhielm, adlad 1667 som adlig Ă€tt nummer 784. Ăttens sist levande manliga medlem upphöjd i friherrlig vĂ€rdighet.
+Von Porat, adlad 1699 som adlig Àtt nummer 1381.
+
+Adlade under 1700-talet
+
+ Stenfelt adlades Ă„r 1719. Ătten introducerades Ă„r 1743 som adelsfamilj nummer 1867.
+
+ Adlerbielke adlades Ă„r 1719. Ătten introducerades Ă„r 1720 som adelsfamilj nummer 1675.
+
+ Heijkenskjöld adlades Ă„r 1761. Ătten introducerades Ă„r 1774 som adelsfamilj nummer 1983.
+
+ Hiort af OrnÀs slÀkten adlades Är 1768 och introducerades pÄ Sveriges Riddarhus Är 1774 i Sveriges riddarhus, som adelsfamilj nr. 2012.
+
+ von Bahr SlÀkten Àr en Pommersk slÀkt frÄn Stralsund och adlades Är 1719 och introducerades Är 1720 i Sveriges riddarhus, som adelsfamilj nr. 1648.
+
+Adlerberg Johan Aron A. adlades Är 1776 men dog redan Är 1785 av att ha Àtit gift. familjen bytte dock senar namn till Lindberg
+
+ Montgomery. Urgammal engelsk-skotsk slÀkt. Ursprungligen frÄn Normandie. Inkom till Sverige kring 1720. Naturaliserad 1736, en ytterligare slÀkt med samma namn adopterad Är 1774 och introducerad med samma nummer. Introducerad pÄ Sveriges Riddarhus Är 1776, som adlig slÀkt nr 1960
+
+ Munck af Rosenschöld. Dansk slÀkt. Hette förut Munck. Adlad 1799. Introducerad pÄ Sveriges Riddarhus Är 1799, som adlig slÀkt nr: 2160.
+
+ von Wachenfeldt. Tysk slÀkt Hannover, Mecklenburg. Hette förut Wachenhausen. Adlad 1688. Introducerad pÄ Sveriges Riddarhus Är 1723 som adlig slÀkt nr: 1743. Medlemmar av slÀkten skriver sig von Wachenfeldt, vissa Àven von Wachenfelt.
+
+ Wadenstierna. Svensk slĂ€kt frĂ„n Uppland. Hette förut Wadensteen. Adlad 1702. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1703. Som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 1387. Upphöjdes 1766 i friherrligt stĂ„nd men har inte för denna vĂ€rdighet tagit introduktion pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus. Ăr introducerad som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 98 pĂ„ Finlands Riddarhus samt som Baroni i Baltikum.
+
+ Swedenborg Svensk slĂ€kt frĂ„n Dalarna. Ăttlingar till Jesper Svedberg. Adlad 1719. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1720 som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 1598. Se Ă€ven Stierna, Stiernhielm och Schönström.
+
+ af Wetterstedt. Svensk slÀkt frÄn VÀstergötland. Hette förut Wetterstedt. Samma slÀkt som adliga slÀkten med samma namn. Adlad 1772. Friherrlig 1806. Introducerad pÄ Sveriges Riddarhus Är 1776 som friherrlig slÀkt nr: 327. Endast huvudmannen har friherrlig vÀrdighet.
+
+ MannerstrĂ„le. Finsk slĂ€kt frĂ„n Ingermanland. Hette förut NeĂŒman. Adlad 1759. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1776, som adlig slĂ€kt nr: 2069.
+ von Schéele. Pommersk slÀkt adlades Är 1768 och introducerades Är 1776 i Sveriges riddarhus, som adelsfamilj nr. 2059.
+
+ Seton. Skotsk uradel kÀnd sedan 1000-talet, ursprungligen flamlÀndsk. Introducerades pÄ Sveriges riddarhus Är 1785, som adlig Àtt nr. 2139.
+
+Adlade under 1800-talet
+ Dardel, schweizisk Àtt, kaptenen i engelsk tjÀnst Georges-Alexandre Dardel kom till Sverige 1808 och adlades hÀr 1810 med namnet Dardel, slÀktmedlemmarna skriver sig de Dardel, eller von Dardel.
+
+von Koch, majoren Nils Koch adlades Ă„r 1815.
+Reventlow, den danske författaren och juristen Einar Carl Detlef Reventlow flyttade frÄn Danmark till Sverige och blev svensk adelsman (naturaliserades) 1860. Han introducerades 1861 pÄ nummer 2335 och var sonsonson till den danske greven tillika generalen Christian Ditlev Reventlow.
+
+Adlade under 1900-talet
+Hedin UpptÀcktsresanden Sven Hedin adlades Är 1902 av kung Oscar II, och blev den sist adlade i Sverige. Konungen miste rÀtten att adla Är 1974 nÀr den nya regeringsformen trÀdde i kraft.
+
+Andra utslocknade Àtter
+Adelheim Utslocknad. Brukspatronen Carl Fredrik A. avsade sig sitt adelskap och kallade sig Borgström. Han tog en överdos opium Är 1806 och slÀckte dÀrmed sin Àtt.
+Bergenskjöld - löjtnanten vid NÀrkes regemente John B. var sÄ deprimerad pÄ grund av dÄliga affÀrer och en alltmer belastad ekonomi att han 1867 tog sitt eget liv och dÀrmed avslutade sin Àtt.
+Ehrenskiöld - Carl Gustaf E. var ute och red nÀr hans hÀst kastade av sin ryttare, som avled och dÀrmed avslutade sin Àtt.
+von Flygarell - Kornetten och vaktmÀstaren vid livgardet till hÀst, Carl Fredrik F., avled 1834 i kolera och slöt dÀrmed sin Àtt.
+Kanterberg - Johan Fredrik K. var löjtnant vid livdragonerna pÄ Drottningholm. Han dog 1787 i en duell och slöt sin Àtt.
+Plantenstedt - HovrÀttsassessorn Olof P. dog 1721 efter att ha blivit överkörd pÄ gatan och fÄtt bÄda benen krossade. Med honom dog Àtten ut.
+Stegman - Utslockande med översten Jakob S. som drunknade nÀr skeppet Regalskeppet Stora Kronan sjönk 1676.
+
+Referenser
+
+Se Àven
+Adel i Sverige
+Svensk uradel
+Alfabetisk lista över pÄ Riddarhuset introducerade svenska adelsÀtter
+Kronologisk lista över pÄ Riddarhuset introducerade svenska Àtter
+Genealogi för svensk adel
+
+
+Genealogi i Sverige
+Alseda (uttalas all-seda) Àr kyrkby i Alseda socken i Vetlanda kommun i Jönköpings lÀn belÀgen cirka 12 kilometer frÄn Vetlanda i EmÄdalen lÀngs landsvÀgen mot MÄlilla. Vid smÄortsavgrÀnsningen 1995 hade folkmÀngden ökat tillrÀckligt sÄ att en smÄort kunde avgrÀnsas inom omrÄdet. Vid nÀsta avgrÀnsning Är 2000 hade folkmÀngden minskat igen och smÄorten upphörde.
+
+Den 23 maj 1741 besöktes orten av Carl von Linné.
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Orter i Vetlanda kommun
+Tidigare smÄorter i Sverige
+Alseda socken
+Arlanda Express Àr det produktnamn under vilket A-Train AB med tÄg trafikerar strÀckan mellan Stockholm C och Arlanda flygplats, över Ostkustbanan och Arlandabanan utan mellanliggande stopp. Förbindelsen Arlanda Express invigdes den 24 november 1999. Restiden frÄn Stockholm C till Arlanda, eller omvÀnt, Àr generellt 20 minuter, dock förekommer enstaka avgÄngar i morgon- och eftermiddagsrusning med nÄgot lÀngre gÄngtid. Under högtrafik gÄr tÄgen upp till var tionde minut, övrig tid var 15:e eller 30:e minut, utom nattetid.
+
+Stationer
+Vid ankomsten till flygplatsen stannar Arlanda Express först vid stationen Arlanda Södra, som betjÀnar terminalerna 2, 3 och 4, dÀrefter fortsÀtter tÄget till slutstationen Arlanda Norra, som betjÀnar terminal 5 och Sky City. AvstÄndet mellan de tvÄ underjordiska stationerna Àr ca 400 meter. Vid Arlanda har det Àven byggts genomgÄende tunnelspÄr för andra tÄg, med stationen Arlanda C som nÄs frÄn Sky City. Arlanda Express trafikerar dock inte den stationen utan endast Arlanda Södra och Arlanda Norra.
+
+Sky City Àr en byggnad mellan terminal 4 och 5 dÀr Àven vidare information om fjÀrrtrafiken kan fÄs och biljetter köpas.
+
+Vid Stockholm C trafikerar Arlanda Express spĂ„r 1â2, med biljettkontor och taxiangöring vid Vasaplan, ca 100 meter norr om Centralhallen.
+
+Fordon
+
+Arlanda Express anvÀnder tÄgsÀtten X3 tillverkade av Alstom. Högsta hastighet för tÄgsÀtten Àr 200 km/h. Endast ett litet antal tÄgsÀtt, 7 stycken, har tillverkats. X3 Àr ett fyrvagnars motorvagnstÄgsÀtt som Àr permanent sammankopplat. Totalt Àr tÄgsÀttet 93,4 m lÄngt och har en tomvikt av 193,2 ton, motsvarande 1,015 ton per sittplats. Vagnskorgarna (karosserna) Àr byggda av stÄlplÄt. Totalt har tÄgsÀttet 16 axlar, varav hÀlften Àr drivna. X3 har totalt 190 sittplatser, i genomsnitt cirka 48 platser per vagn.
+
+Inverkan pÄ resemarknaden
+Under 2017 reste 3,7 miljoner passagerare med Arlanda Express, enligt ett pressmeddelande frÄn maj 2018 (i genomsnitt cirka 10 000 resenÀrer per dag).
+Arlandabanan, som ocksÄ trafikeras av fjÀrr- och pendeltÄg hade samtidigt 5,8 miljoner resande.
+
+Samtidigt hade Arlanda runt 18,1 miljoner resenÀrer (7 % fler Àn 2005), varav mÄnga byter mellan flyg. Marknadsandelen av markbundna resor till/frÄn Arlanda (inklusive bil) Àr cirka 30-40 %. Det vanligaste resesÀttet till Arlanda lÀngs marken Àr med bil (som oftast parkeras; mindre ofta hÀmtas/lÀmnas resenÀren). Av de anstÀllda pÄ Arlanda Äkte runt 5 % med tÄget Är 2004.
+
+För resenÀrer mellan Göteborg och Stockholm Àr tÄg och flyg konkurrenter.
+
+ĂgarförhĂ„llanden
+
+Företaget som driver Arlanda Express heter A-Train AB, och har fram till 2050 ensamrÀtt pÄ trafiken (en avtalsenlig förlÀngning med tio Är gjordes hösten 2019). A-Train AB Àgdes frÄn och med januari 2004 till 100 % av australiska Macquarie Group, efter att tidigare ha Àgts av det konsortium som byggde Arlandabanan.
+
+Sedan 2014 Àgs A-Train av ett konsortium bestÄende av State Super, Sunsuper och SAFE. STC Pooled Fund (State Super) Àr en australiensisk pensionsfond som förvaltar pensionstillgÄngar för offentligt anstÀllda. State Super Àger 37,5 % av aktierna. Sunsuper Pooled Superannuation Trust (Sunsuper) Àr en av Australiens största pensionsfonder. Sunsuper Àger 25 % av aktierna. State Administration of Foreign Exchange (SAFE) Àr ett underdepartement till kinesiska regeringen med ansvar för kinesiska statens utlandsplaceringar. SAFE kontrolleras av kinesiska centralbanken, som har uppdragit Ät SAFE att förvalta dess utlÀndska placeringar. Vid investeringar i fastigheter och infrastruktur i Europa företrÀds SAFE av det engelska dotterbolaget Ginko Tree Investment Ltd (GTIL). SAFE/GTIL Àger 37,5 % av aktierna.
+
+Ekonomi
+Bolaget subventioneras av svenska staten och har fÄtt 260 miljoner i subventioner.
+
+NÀr Macquarie Group köpte Arlanda Express lÄnade de nya Àgarna ut 450 miljoner kronor till Arlanda Express till en rÀnta pÄ 13 procent. DÀrigenom stiger dotterbolagets finansiella kostnader, vinsten minskar och dÀrmed betalar Arlanda Express ingen skatt i Sverige. RÀnteutgifterna gÄr till moderbolaget i Luxemburg dÀr aktieutdelning beskattas lÄgt. Genom detta arrangemang betalade Arlanda Express ingen skatt mellan 2004 och 2011, utan fick i stÀllet 76 miljoner tillbaka ifrÄn Skatteverket.
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ LÀs mer om X3 pÄ jÀrnvÀg.net
+ Arlanda Express
+
+Svenska jÀrnvÀgsbolag
+JÀrnvÀg i Stockholms lÀn
+Arlanda
+Bildanden 1999
+SnabbtÄg
+Vitamin C omdirigerar hit. För artisten med detta namn, se Colleen Fitzpatrick.
+
+Askorbinsyra, mer kÀnt som C-vitamin, Àr en organisk syra och antioxidant.
+
+Askorbinsyra kan syntetiseras ur glukos av de flesta vÀxter och djur. MÀnniskor, vissa apor, marsvin och nÄgra fÄ andra djurarter har emellertid en enzymdefekt som gör att dessa saknar förmÄgan att producera eget C-vitamin. IstÀllet mÄste dÄ detta intas via kosten. FödoÀmnen som innehÄller höga halter av C-vitamin Àr till exempel potatis, grönsaker, citrusfrukter, sura bÀr, paprika, nypon, svarta vinbÀr, röda vinbÀr, jordgubbar samt en del inÀlvsmat sÄsom lever och binjurar.
+
+Askorbinsyra Àr vÀrmekÀnslig. Vid den lÄngvariga varmhÄllning och upprepade uppvÀrmning som kan förekomma dÄ mat distribueras frÄn centralkök, bryts efterhand askorbinsyran ned. Matens vÀrde som C-vitaminkÀlla minskar dÄ.
+
+1937 fick Norman Haworth Nobelpriset i kemi för sitt arbete med att utreda askorbinsyrans struktur (det delades med Paul Karrer som fick pris för sitt arbete med vitaminer). Medicinpriset det Äret gick till Albert Szent-Györgyi för hans studier av askorbinsyrans biologiska funktioner.
+
+Askorbinsyra Àr vattenlöslig. Salter och estrar av askorbinsyra fÄr Àndelsen -at och kallas askorbater.
+
+Askorbinsyra finns i livsmedelsbutikers kryddhylla och en pÄse pÄ 15 g motsvarar 200 dagsdoser å 75 mg. Som tillsats (antioxidationsmedel) i livsmedel har det E-nummer .
+
+Askorbinsyra namngavs pÄ 1920-talet av Albert von Szent Györgyi och Norman Haworth som tog fasta pÄ dess egenskap att motverka skörbjugg, eng. anti-scorbutic (scorbutic = nÄgot som har att göra med skörbjugg). Namnet Vitamin C Àr nÄgot Àldre och hÀrrör frÄn en lista upprÀttad av Kazimierz Funk över nÀringsÀmnen, kallade vitaminer, som orsakade sjukdom hos mÀnniskor som hade brist pÄ dem. De fick sedan olika bokstÀver som beteckning eftersom man inte visste deras struktur.
+
+Funktion i mÀnniskokroppen
+C-vitamin Àr nödvÀndigt för bland annat bindvÀvens ÀmnesomsÀttning. Det underlÀttar jÀrnupptagningen i magen (överför metalljonerna till enzymerna). Dess benÀgenhet att oxideras ger askorbinsyran en antioxidativ effekt pÄ andra Àmnen i kroppen.
+
+Rekommenderat dagligt intag (RDI) för vuxna Àr enligt svenska normer 75 mg/dag (85/100 mg för gravida/ammande). Det rÀcker dock med 10 mg/dag för att undvika skörbjugg. Se vidare RDI-tabell.
+
+Lindrig brist kan ge blödningar i tandköttet (vilket kan leda till tandlossning), försÀmrad sÄrlÀkning, trötthet, muskelsvaghet, ökad risk för infektioner. Allvarlig brist av askorbinsyra ger skörbjugg.
+
+Askorbinsyra Àr vattenlösligt, vilket gör att ett eventuellt överskott försvinner ur kroppen med urinen. Det finns exempel pÄ att personer med benÀgenhet att bilda njursten fÄr just njursten om de intar kroniskt stora mÀngder av askorbinsyra.
+
+Forskning har inte kunnat visa nÄgot samband mellan att inta antioxidanter sÄsom askorbinsyra och minskad förekomst av sjukdom. Antioxidanter i piller och kapslar har inte visat sig ha positiva effekter, utan kan vara skadliga i höga doser. Askorbinsyra tycks dock ha en viss effekt pÄ sjukdomsförloppet vid förkylning.
+
+AnvÀndning i hudvÄrd
+C-vitamin har exploderat i popularitet och anvÀnds idag i mÀngder av olika hudvÄrdsprodukter sÄsom i ansiktskrÀmer, masker och serum. MÀngder av fördelar, med tveksamt vetenskapligt stöd, attribueras till C-vitamin, i form av askorbinsyra, i husvÄrd som t.ex.
+
+ Skydda huden mot pÄverkan frÄn solen , föroreningar och fria radikaler.
+ Motverka pigmentering i huden som ex. Àrrbildning och melasma.
+ SÀgs jÀmna till hudtonen.
+ SÀgs frÀmja kollagenproduktionen m.m.
+
+Statistik avseende intag av C-vitamin i Sverige
+I Riksmaten - 2010-11 (en undersökning av kostvanor i den svenska befolkningen genomförd av Livsmedelsverket mellan 2010 och 2011) var det rapporterade genomsnittliga intaget av C-vitamin per dag genom kosten (kosttillskott ej inrÀknade) 96 mg för kvinnor, 93 mg för mÀn och 95 mg för hela vuxna befolkningsgruppen i undersökningen. I samma undersökning uppgav ocksÄ 21 procent att de intog kosttillskott i nÄgon form, varav 9 procent uppgav att de intog C-vitamin-preparat.
+
+Reaktion i livsmedel
+Under vÄren 2006 fick allmÀnheten reda pÄ att man upptÀckt att en kemisk reaktion med en farlig produkt kan ske i livsmedel som innehÄller askorbinsyra och natriumbensoat (E 211), typiskt lÀsk. NÀr dessa tvÄ reagerar under vÀrme med varandra bildas det mycket carcinogena Àmnet bensen. Det förekommer dock mycket diskussion om huruvida de bensenhalter som uppstÄr i dessa reaktioner Àr relevanta ur risksynpunkt eller ej, eftersom inga mÀtbara mÀngder förekommer i mÄnga undersökta lÀsker och det finns andra, större bensenkÀllor sÄsom trafik.
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+Antioxidationsmedel
+Organiska syror
+Sockersyror
+Vitaminer
+Dihydrofuraner
+Furanoner
+Apelsin (CiÊčtrus Ă auraÊčntium Sinensis-gruppen (synonym CiÊčtrus Ă sineÊčnsis)) Ă€r ett litet trĂ€d med vita blommor inom citrusslĂ€ktet. TrĂ€det har 5 till drygt 10 cm stora frukter med orangefĂ€rgat skal och saftigt sötsyrligt fruktkött. Apelsiner Ă€ts oftast fĂ€rska, som juice och som marmelad.
+Dagens citrusvÀxter hÀrstammar frÄn ett tiotal vilda förfÀder. Dessa har ofta korsat sig med varandra ute i det vilda, vilket gör att citrusfrukternas historia Àr dunkel.
+
+Historik
+Apelsinen Àr en kulturprodukt som hÀrstammar frÄn södra Asien och spred sig till Europa med hjÀlp av spanjorer under 1400- eller 1500-talet. Frukten blev snabbt eftertraktad i förmögnare kretsar dÀr sÀrskilda hus för apelsiner, orangerier, byggdes vid slott och herrgÄrdar.
+
+Etymologi
+
+Den Ă€ldsta benĂ€mningen hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n Indien pĂ„ sanskrit: nÄraáč
ga (à€šà€Ÿà€°à€à„à€ ). PĂ„ persiska heter apelsinen nÄrang (Ùۧ۱ÙÚŻ )och arabiska nÄranj (Ùۧ۱ÙŰŹ ). PĂ„ engelska och franska har namnet utvecklats till orange som ocksĂ„ Ă€r namnet pĂ„ fĂ€rgen orange. PĂ„ engelska anvĂ€nds bĂ„de orange och sweet orange, medan orange ocksĂ„ kan anvĂ€ndas nĂ€rbeslĂ€ktade frukter (som mandarin och pomerans).
+
+Andra sprĂ„k speglar uppfattningen att det var portugiserna som förde apelsinen till Europa, albanskans portokall, grekiskans portokali och turkiskans portakal (ÏÎżÏÏÎżÎșΏλÎč). Svenskan fick kontakt med ordet via hollĂ€ndare och tyskar som skapat ett namn som syftade pĂ„ fruktens förmodade ursprung: "KinaĂ€pple", som heter Apfelsine pĂ„ lĂ„gtyska, varav svenskans apelsin.
+
+Odling
+Apelsinen odlas nĂ€stan uteslutande i omrĂ„den med medelhavsklimat, till exempel i lĂ€nderna runt Medelhavet, i Australien, Sydafrika och södra USA samt i Syd- och Mellanamerika. Apelsin föredrar ett subtropiskt, frostfritt klimat med temperaturer frĂ„n 25â35 °C och vĂ€ldrĂ€nerade jordar. För kommersiell odling förökas apelsinen genom ympning pĂ„ en grundstam av till exempel citron, citrontörne eller apelsin. Omkring 6â9 mĂ„nader efter blomning Ă€r frukten mogen för skörd. Det dröjer 10âĂ„r innan trĂ€den uppnĂ„r full skörd, det vill sĂ€ga cirka 90â130âkg frukt per Ă„r.
+
+Man man skiljer mellan blonda apelsiner med ljust, gulorange fruktkött, blodapelsiner, som har rött fruktkött, och navelapelsiner, med blont fruktkött med en liten krans av extra klyftor överst pĂ„ frukten. Vanliga sorter band blonda apelsiner Ă€r âValenciaâ, âShamoutiâ, âCadeneraâ och âBernaâ. Till blodapelsinerna hör âSanguinelloâ, âDoblefinaâ, âMoroâ och âSpanish Sanguinelliâ. Navelapelsinsorter Ă€r âWashingtonâ, âNavelinaâ och âNewhallâ.
+
+Produktion
+
+Import
+2009 importerades 77 866 ton apelsiner till Sverige, inklusive pomeranser. Dessutom importerades 76 339 ton övriga citrusfrukter.
+
+Se Àven
+ Blodapelsin (sÀljs Àven som röd apelsin)
+
+KĂ€llor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+VinrutevÀxter
+Citrusfrukter
+Ap VĂ€xtindex
+Alsike Àr en tÀtort i Knivsta kommun i Alsike socken. Orten uppstod som ett stationssamhÀlle vid Alsike station mellan Stockholm och Uppsala. Den har efter millennieskiftet vuxit kraftigt, dÄ kommunen förlagt merparten av Knivstas nybebyggelse dit.
+
+Alsike Ă€r belĂ€get i Knivsta kommun, vid Ostkustbanan cirka 4 km norr om centralorten Knivsta dĂ€r nĂ€rmaste jĂ€rnvĂ€gsstation finns. Ăven Alsike kommer att fĂ„ en station efter spĂ„rutbyggnader. Söder om Alsike ansluter riksvĂ€g 77 frĂ„n NorrtĂ€lje.
+
+Alsike kyrka vid MÀlaren (Ekoln) ligger cirka 6 km vÀster om Alsike.
+
+Befolkningsutveckling
+
+SamhÀllet
+Orten vÀxer öster om jÀrnvÀgen, mot motorvÀgen E4. I Alsike finns skolorna Adolfsbergsskolan 5-9, Alsike skola F-6, BrÀnnkÀrrsskolan F-4 och S:ta Maria skola F-4. I Alsike finns livsmedelsbutik, pizzeria, nÀrlivs, gym och bank. I omrÄdet finns mest villor och radhus men det finns Àven lÀgenheter.
+
+Alsikeklöver
+Alsike har givit namn Ät vÀxten Alsikeklöver, vars första fynduppgift Äterfinns i Carl von Linnés Swenskt Höfrö (Kongliga Swenska Wetenskapsacademiens handlingar 1742).
+
+KÀnda personer frÄn Alsike
+Allan Ryding
+
+Referenser
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+Alsikeklöver
+
+Orter i Knivsta kommun
+TĂ€torter i Sverige
+Alsnö stadga Àr en stadga som utfÀrdades av kung Magnus LadulÄs pÄ Alsnö hus, troligen den 27 september 1280, i anslutning till ett möte med stormÀn dÀr stadgans innehÄll diskuterats.
+
+Alsnö stadga har av Àldre forskning setts som det dokument som konstituerar ett vÀrldsligt frÀlse i Sverige. En nyare forskningsinriktning hÀvdar dÀremot att stadgan snarare ytterligare formaliserar och skriftfÀster ett redan existerande system.
+
+Stadgans form och innehÄll
+
+Alsnö stadga Ă€r utformat som ett öppet kungligt brev, det vill sĂ€ga riktat till "allum ĂŸem mannum ĂŠr ĂŸettĂŠ breff se och hĂžrĂŠ" ("alla som tar del av brevet genom att lĂ€sa det eller fĂ„ det upplĂ€st för sig"). Det ursprungliga brevet Ă€r inte bevarat. Stadgan Ă€r kĂ€nd genom tvĂ„ avskrifter pĂ„ fornsvenska frĂ„n 1300-talets första hĂ€lft. BĂ„da texterna kommer frĂ„n handskrifter dĂ€r de utgjort bilagor till VĂ€stgötalagen. Den Ă€ldre, frĂ„n omkring 1325, har tillhört den sĂ„ kallade VidhemsprĂ€sten.
+
+Stadgans uppstÀllning Àr standardmÀssig för ett medeltida latinsksprÄkigt diplom frÄn 1200-talets slut. Den svensksprÄkiga förlaga som de bevarade texterna kopierats frÄn var sannolikt en samtida översÀttning av ett latinsprÄkigt original.
+
+Stadgan Àr indelad i fyra artiklar. Artikel 1 Àr mycket utförlig, mer Àn tio gÄnger lÀngre Àn nÄgon av de övriga, och kan dÀrför anses som stadgans huvudartikel. Den brukar ibland betecknas som "gÀstningsartikeln". Artikel 2 handlar om konungs edsöre, artikel 3 Àr den som ansetts konstituera eller Ätminstone formalisera det vÀrldsliga frÀlset och dÀrför ofta kallas "frÀlseartikeln". Artikel 4 handlar om kungliga ÀmbetsmÀns olaga skatteuttag frÄn bönderna.
+
+Artikel 1
+GĂ€stningsartikeln inleds med en problembeskrivning. Den kungör att det under en lĂ€ngre tid förekommit en âosedâ, nĂ€mligen att resande stormĂ€n med sina följen vĂ„ldgĂ€star bönder utan att göra rĂ€tt för sig. Enligt stadgan tömmer de böndernas lador men aldrigh ĂŠru ĂŸer swa rikir et ĂŸer willia eigh gistĂŠ fatĂžkrĂŠ mannĂŠ hus oc allĂŠn sin cost hawĂŠ vtĂŠn pĂŠningĂŠ, oc nĂžtĂŠ ĂŸet vp enĂŠ littlĂŠ stunĂ° ĂŠr hin fatĂžke hawir lĂŠngi arwuĂ°ĂŸĂŠt fore (ungefĂ€r: "aldrig Ă€r de sĂ„ rika att de drar sig för att gĂ€sta en fattig mans hus och ta sig mat utan att betala och Ă€ter pĂ„ en liten stund upp det som den fattige lĂ€nge fĂ„tt arbeta för"). Stadgan inskĂ€rper dĂ€rför de bestĂ€mmelser som gĂ€ller för vĂ€gfarandes skyldigheter gentemot bönderna.
+
+Artikeln stadgar att det i varje hÀrad ska finnas en rÀttare som anvisar de vÀgfarande ett övernattningsstÀlle hos nÄgon bonde som ska erhÄlla ekonomisk kompensation för gÀstningen. Bötesbelopp faststÀlls för den som tredskar mot rÀttarens beslut. Om en bonde vÀgrar att ta emot en gÀst ska han böta tre mark penningar, av vilka kungen och den resande fÄr vardera en mark, hÀradet 16 örtug och rÀttaren 8 örtug penningar. Om rÀttaren inte kan anvisa en lÀmplig övernattningsplats döms han att betala sex mark, tvÄ till den resande, tvÄ till kungen och tvÄ till hÀradet. Om en vÀgfarande vÄldgÀstar en bonde och inte betalar för sig rÀknas det som rÄn. Den skyldige har dÄ en mÄnad pÄ sig att erlÀgga 40 mark i böter, annars döms han fredlös ("uthlÊgÊr") i hela riket. AllmÀnt klargörs att gÀstning innebÀr en skyldighet frÄn vilken endast undantas kungen och biskoparnas egna gÄrdar samt de gÄrdar som Àgs av riddare och vÀpnare som Àr i kungens tjÀnst.
+
+Artikel 2
+Stadgans edsöresartikel innehÄller ett bekrÀftande av Birger jarls tidigare, numera försvunna, stadgor om edsöresbrott. Den första bestÀmmelsen gÀller straffet för den som drÀper nÄgon i annans gÄrd, offrets egen eller tredje parts. En sÄdan drÄpsman döms "vtlaghðer" vilket innebÀr landsförvisning. Han mister all sin egendom ovan jord och döms "biltog" (fredlös) över hela riket, vilket innebÀr att han saklöst kan dödas av vem som helst om han pÄtrÀffas inom rikets grÀnser. Egendomen delas i tre lika stora delar som gÄr till mÄlsÀgaren, kungen och hÀradet. MÄlsÀgaren kan dock, om förlikning ingÄtts, begÀra hos kungen att förövaren fÄr lösa sin biltoghet mot en avgift om 40 mark penningar som gÄr till kungen.
+
+Artikeln stadgar "samu hÊmð" (samma pÄföljd) fÄr den som drÀper eller sÄrar nÄgon i kyrka eller pÄ tinget, som bryter ingÄngen förlikning, lemlÀstar eller vÄldtar nÄgon eller griper en man för annan mans gÀrning.
+
+Artikel 3
+
+Stadgans tredje artikel Àr den omdiskuterade sÄ kallade "frÀlseartikeln". Den meddelar att:
+"âŠger vi alla vĂ„ra mĂ€n och vĂ„r kĂ€re bror Bengts mĂ€n och alla deras brytar och landbor och alla dem som i deras gods finns, fria frĂ„n all kunglig rĂ€tt. Dessutom alla Ă€rkebiskopens svenner och alla biskoparnas svenner. Vi vill ocksĂ„ att alla mĂ€n som tjĂ€nar till hĂ€st att de skall ha samma frihetâŠ"
+
+Det som diskuterats av forskningen Àr vad som ska innefattas i "kunglig rÀtt". Den vanligaste tolkningen har varit att uttrycket Ätminstone tÀcker in de ordinarie ledungsskatterna och gengÀrden (den kungliga gÀstningsrÀtten).
+
+Ett annat problem Ă€r slutet pĂ„ den mening som handlar om 'alla som tjĂ€nar till hĂ€st'. Den slutar nĂ€mligen: "âŠhwem sum ĂŸem ĂŸianaĂŠ hĂŠlst" ("vem de Ă€n tjĂ€nar"). De historiker som vĂ€nt sig mot tanken att Alsnö stadga konstituerar frĂ€lset i Sverige har hĂ€vdat att det endast Ă€r denna detalj som var en nyhet vid stadgans utfĂ€rdande. De menar att en frihet frĂ„n kungliga skatter och pĂ„lagor redan flera Ă„rtionden tidigare genomförts för de mĂ€n som stod i direkt tjĂ€nsteförhĂ„llande till kungen. Alsnö stadga utvidgar enligt denna tolkning en redan befintlig frĂ€lsefrihet till att gĂ€lla Ă€ven de lĂ€gre frĂ€lseskikten; de som tjĂ€nade kungens mĂ€n innefattas nu ocksĂ„ av stadgan i just begreppet "kungens mĂ€n". FrĂ€lsets framvĂ€xt ses i denna tolkning som en lĂ„ngvarig flerstegsprocess dĂ€r Alsnö stadga snarare bekrĂ€ftar redan existerande förhĂ„llanden Ă€n skapar en ny samhĂ€llsklass.
+
+Artikel 4
+Den sista artikeln förbjuder innehavare av förlÀningar att sjÀlvsvÄldigt pÄlÀgga bönderna nÄgot slags utgifter eller prestationer utöver de ordinarie. Extra gÀstning eller skjutsningar fÄr inte förekomma utan att bönderna inom förlÀningen medger sÄdana genom beslut vid tingen. Om bestÀmmelsen inte följs resulterar det i förlust av förlÀningen och skyldighet att erlÀgga ekonomisk ersÀttning till de drabbade bönderna.
+
+Artikel 5
+
+Dateringsproblemet
+Forskare noterade tidigt att de bevarade stadgetexternas sjĂ€lvdatering till 1285 inte kunde vara riktig, eftersom det bland de nĂ€rvarande vittnen som nĂ€mns i brevet finns tvĂ„ personer som dog redan 1281. ĂrkedjĂ€knen Bengt i Uppsala dog 9 september detta Ă„r och 25 oktober avled Ă€rkebiskop Jakob Israelsson. Stadgan Ă€r högst troligt utfĂ€rdad före 9 september 1281. Det tidigaste möjliga datumet ges av stadgans inledning (intitulatio) dĂ€r Magnus LadulĂ„s tituleras "sweĂŠ konungĂŠr oc gĂžtĂŠ", en titel som togs i bruk nĂ„gon gĂ„ng mellan 15 maj och 9 juni 1279.
+
+Det dateringsförslag som fÄtt stöd av de flesta forskare presenterades 1948 av Hans JÀgerstad och bygger pÄ antagandet att översÀttaren har missförstÄtt den sannolika latinska dateringsfrasen MCCLXXX quinto Kal. oct. och lÀst den "MCCLXXX quinto Kalendis octobris" och felaktigt lagt ordet "quinto" till Ärtalet. DÀrmed har översÀttaren enligt JÀgerstad lagt fem Är till det riktiga Ärtalet 1280 och fÄtt dateringen 1 oktober 1285.
+
+Enligt JĂ€gerstad mĂ„ste originalets dateringsfras med korrekt upplösta förkortningar ha varit "MCCLXXX quinto Kalendas octobris", vilket ger 27 september 1280. Dateringen fĂ„r starkt stöd av ett bevarat originalbrev som visar att kung Magnus var pĂ„ Alsnö 26 september. Ett stormannamöte dĂ€r vid den tidpunkten passar ocksĂ„ in i det politiska hĂ€ndelseförloppet med avrĂ€ttningen av upprorsledarna i Stockholm en mĂ„nad tidigare (20 augusti). JĂ€gerstads dateringsförslag har accepterats som det mest sannolika av bland andra Jerker RosĂ©n, Hugo Yrwing och Herman SchĂŒck. Ăven Erland HjĂ€rne och Carl Göran AndrĂŠ har accepterat den som trolig Ă€ven om de framhĂ„llit andra möjligheter.
+
+Det enda alternativa förslag som fÄtt starkt stöd av framstÄende forskare Àr andra halvan av maj mÄnad 1279. För denna datering framfördes 1911 en detaljerad argumentation av Sven Tunberg som 1951 i en debatt med JÀgerstad vidhöll sin uppfattning. Det starkaste stödet har Tunberg fÄtt genom att Jan Liedgren, som tidigare stött JÀgerstad, 1985 Àndrade sin uppfattning pÄ grund av det sÄ kallade VÀxjöprotokollet.
+
+Detta protokoll, daterat 15 februari 1280, handlar om de flera grova brott ("uariis et multis criminibus") som begÄtts av VÀxjöbiskopen Ascer, en av Alsnö stadgas namngivna vittnen. Liedgrens Àndrade stÄndpunkt bygger pÄ antagandet att Ascer knappast kan ha medverkat i ett sammanhang som Alsnö möte bara ett halvÄr efter det han befunnits skyldig till simoni och sexuellt umgÀnge med fyra kvinnor, av vilka tvÄ var gifta. Eftersom Ascer bevisligen var biskop Ànnu 1286 mÄste han ha dÄ fÄtt absolution av pÄven. Ett bevarat brev utfÀrdat av Ascer 24 juni 1283 i Orvieto under Martin IV:s pontifikat antyder att han sjÀlv reste till pÄven för att lÀgga fram sin sak.
+
+Liedgren menar att sÄ tidigt som i september 1280 kan Ascer Ànnu inte ha fÄtt absolution. Enligt gÀllande bestÀmmelser mÄste han ha legat under "lilla bannet" ("interdictio ingressus ecclesie") och dÀrför kan Ascer inte ha medverkat i ett officiellt sammanhang pÄ högsta riksnivÄ eftersom han inte tillÀts utöva biskopsÀmbetet. Resonemanget stÄr och faller med hur bokstavstroget den kanoniska rÀttens bestÀmmelser följdes i 1200-talets Sverige, en frÄga som aldrig kommer att kunna besvaras.
+
+KĂ€llor
+Hans JÀgerstad, Hovdag och rÄd under Àldre medeltid. Den statsrÀttsliga utvecklingen i Sverige frÄn Karl Sverkerssons regering till Magnus Erikssons regeringstilltrÀde (1160-1331) (Stockholm 1948)
+Gabriela Bjarne Larsson, Stadgelagstiftning i senmedeltidens Sverige (Stockholm 1994)
+Jan Liedgren, "Alsnö stadgas sprÄk och datering" i RÀttshistoriska studier band XI (1985)
+Herman SchĂŒck Kyrka och rike - frĂ„n folkungatid till vasatid (Stockholm 2005).
+Hugo Yrwing, Maktkampen mellan Valdemar och Magnus Birgersson 1275-1281 (Lund 1952)
+
+Noter
+
+1280
+Sverige under 1200-talet
+Svenska historiska lagtexter
+Svensk adel
+Edsöre
+AdelsrÀtt
+Adelsö
+Alungarvning, ocksÄ kallad vitgarvning, Àr en garvningsmetod dÀr huden behandlas med kalialun och koksalt. Metoden ger ett smidigt och töjbart lÀder. Dess bestÀndighet Àr dÀremot inte sÄ god och metoden kan ses som lite av en konservering. I vatten löses de garvande Àmnena ut. Vid behov kan dock lÀdret bÀttras pÄ genom en omgarvning. Alungarvning har ofta kombinerats med andra metoder, till exempel med fett, för att fÄ bÀttre hÄllbarhet. En populÀr svensk specialitet var det sÄ kallade SvensklÀdret som kombinationgarvades med alun och vegetabiliska garvÀmnen. Alungarvade produkter har ytterligare en nackdel. De Àr kÀnsliga för vÀrme och tÄl det till och med sÀmre Àn rÄ hud.
+
+Referenser
+
+Se Àven
+ garvning
+ garvare
+
+Skinn
+Alvastra () Ă€r en ort i Ădeshögs kommun i Ăstergötland, Ăstergötlands lĂ€n.
+
+Beskrivning
+Orten Ă€r belĂ€gen vid södra foten av Omberg och landskapet domineras av Ă„kerbruk pĂ„ den bördiga ĂstgötaslĂ€tten.
+
+Historik
+PÄ ett antal platser i Alvastra har arkeologiska utgrÀvningar förekommit. Alvastra har varit bebott sedan stenÄldern, vilket Alvastra pÄlbyggnad vittnar om. Under vikingatiden fanns en större hallbyggnad dÀr sedermera Alvastra kungsgÄrd byggdes. Under medeltiden dominerades trakten av Alvastra kloster. Efter reformationen stÀngde klostret och idag ÄterstÄr endast en ruin pÄ platsen. DÀr uppförs Alvastra krönikespel varje Är. De sÄ kallade SverkersgÄrden och Sverkerskapellet Àr ruiner efter medeltida byggnader som i senare skede fÄtt namn efter Sveriges kung Sverker den Àldre, som mördades i nÀrheten av Alvastra Är 1156.
+
+Ă
r 1888 stod jĂ€rnvĂ€gen mellan Ădeshög och Vadstena klar och i samband med detta uppfördes Ombergs turisthotell 1892. Hotellet brann 1912, men Ă„teruppbyggdes och invigdes tvĂ„ Ă„r senare. JĂ€rnvĂ€gens stationsbyggnad med vĂ€ntsal och expedition lades öster om klosterruinen, invid dagens riksvĂ€g 50. JĂ€rnvĂ€gen lades ner i mitten av 1900-talet.
+
+1910 lÀt författaren Ellen Key bygga sig ett hem vid Strand pÄ Ombergs sydsluttning.
+
+Namnet
+Den Ă€ldsta kĂ€nda namnformen för klostret Ă€r (in) Alvastro frĂ„n 1208. Namnet innehĂ„ller ett fornsvenskt *vazter âfiskeplatsâ. Förleden Ă€r att sammanhĂ„lla med förleden i Ă
l(e)bĂ€cken, namnet pĂ„ en bĂ€ck som genom Alvastra rinner ut i VĂ€ttern. Al-/Ă
l- innehĂ„ller sannolikt en motsvarighet till fvn. ĂĄll ârĂ€nnaâ, med syftning pĂ„ den djupt nerskurna bĂ€ckfĂ„ran. Tidigare publicerade tolkningar utgĂ„r frĂ„n att namnet Ă€r en sammansĂ€ttning av trĂ€dnamnet al och det fornsvenska ordet vastr (plural vastra, vastrar), som hör samman med verbet vada, och syftar pĂ„ albevuxna vadstĂ€llen över Dags mosses södra utlöpare. eller att al stĂ„r för en religiös byggnad och att Alvastra betyder "kulthuset vid vadstĂ€llena".
+
+Galleri
+
+Fotnoter
+
+Orter i Ădeshögs kommun
+Atari ST var en av de populÀraste hemdatorerna under andra hÀlften av 1980-talet och första hÀlften av 1990-talet. Baserad pÄ en Motorola 68000 CPU pÄ 8 MHz var dess frÀmsta konkurrent Amiga 500 frÄn Commodore. Atari ST utkom i flera olika modeller.
+
+Datorns operativsystem, TOS (âThe Operating Systemâ), baseras pĂ„ GEMDOS och det grafiska anvĂ€ndargrĂ€nssnittet GEM (Graphic Environment Manager), bĂ„da utvecklade av Digital Research. Tack vare dess inbyggda MIDI-portar var den Ă€ven mycket populĂ€r bland musiker. Den första modellen i Sverige var Atari 520 ST som slĂ€pptes 1985, strax innan Commodore lanserade sin första Amiga-modell, Amiga 1000.
+
+ST-modeller
+ Atari 130ST - 128 KiB RAM. Prototyp som visades upp första gÄngen 1985 pÄ Winter Las Vegas Consumer Electronics Show.
+ Atari 260ST - 512 KiB RAM, varav operativsystemet som lÀstes in i RAM frÄn disk upptog nÀstan hÀlften och lÀmnade inte mycket mer Àn 256 KiB ledigt minne, dÀrav namnet 260 ST.
+ Atari 520ST - 512 KiB RAM.
+ Atari 520ST+ - 1024 KiB RAM. Ersattes snabbt av Atari 1040STF.
+ Atari 520STF - 512 KiB RAM.
+ Atari 520STM - 512 KiB RAM.
+ Atari 520STFM - 512 KiB RAM.
+ Atari 1040STF - 1024 KiB RAM.
+ Atari 1040STFM - 1024 KiB RAM.
+ Atari MEGA ST - 1 MiB RAM.
+ Atari MEGA ST2 - 2 MiB RAM.
+ Atari MEGA ST4 - 4 MiB RAM.
+
+ Atari 520STe - 512 KiB RAM.
+ Atari 1040STe - 1024 KiB RAM
+ Atari 4160STe - 4096 KiB RAM.
+ Atari MEGA STe - Motorola 68000 CPU pÄ 16 MHz. 1, 2, eller 4 MiB RAM.
+
+ Atari STacy - En portabel Atari ST med en inbyggd monokrom bildskÀrm.
+ Atari ST Book - ErsÀttaren till Atari STacy.
+
+ST stÄr för sixteen thirtytwo vilket Àr databussens bredd i bit (16) respektive processorns interna registerstorlek i bit (32). Atari TT har 32 bitars databuss och processorn 32 bitars register. F stÄr för inbyggd diskettstation och M stÄr för inbyggd RF-modulator, vilket gjorde det möjligt att ansluta datorn direkt till en TV-apparats antenningÄng. ST- och STM-modellerna levererades Àven med extern nÀtdel, medan den i övriga modeller Àr intern.
+
+E stĂ„r för enhanced, en förbĂ€ttrad serie med en 12 bitars palett (4096 fĂ€rger), blitterkrets för snabbare grafik och DMA-ljud som skulle bli en âAmiga-dödareâ dĂ„ frĂ€mst vĂ€rsta konkurrenten Amiga500, dock slĂ€pptes den för sent för att hota Amigans försprĂ„ng i rykte och anvĂ€ndning. Ăven MEGA ST2 och MEGA ST4 Ă€r utrustad med en blitterkrets.
+
+Ăvriga modeller i serien
+
+ Atari TT - Motorola 68030 CPU pÄ 32 MHz.
+ Atari Falcon030 - Motorola 68030 CPU pÄ 16 MHz, 1, 2, 4, eller 14 MiB RAM.
+
+Klonsystem
+Utöver de officiella modellerna frÄn Atari fanns Àven ett antal kloner:
+ Medusa Hades040/060
+ Milan040/060
+ DirecTT
+ Eagle
+ Medusa T40
+ Medusa FireBee
+
+Specifikationer
+Samtliga modeller har:
+ Inbyggda MIDI-portar.
+ ACSI-port (ett SCSI-liknande grÀnssnitt) för hÄrddisk, tapestreamer och liknande.
+ 192 KiB ROM dÀr TOS och GEM ligger lagrat (frÄn 520ST. Tidigare lÄg operativsystemet pÄ disk och laddades vid start av systemets BIOS).
+ RS232-grÀnssnitt.
+ Centronics-kompatibel skrivarport.
+ Tre olika grafiklÀgen: 320 à 200 i 16 fÀrger (50/60 Hz), 640 à 200 i 4 fÀrger (50/60 Hz) och 640 à 400 (72 Hz) i 2 fÀrger (monokrom). FÀrgerna Àr valbara frÄn en 9 bitars fÀrgpalett (512 fÀrger) pÄ ST. FrÄn och med STe-modellerna utökades paletten till 12 bitar (4096 fÀrger) eller mer.
+De tidiga modellernas ljudkrets Àr en YM2149F frÄn Yamaha.
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+
+Hemdatorer
+St
+16-bitarsdatorer
+Abba (av musikgruppen skrivet ABBA och som logotyp AáșBA, med det första B:et spegelvĂ€nt) Ă€r en svensk popgrupp, som var aktiv under en tioĂ„rsperiod mellan 1972 och 1982 samt inför lansering av sitt sista studioalbum, utgivet 2021.
+
+Gruppen bestÄr av de tvÄ före detta Àkta paren Björn Ulvaeus och Agnetha FÀltskog samt Benny Andersson och Anni-Frid "Frida" Lyngstad. Gruppnamnet bildades utifrÄn initialbokstÀverna i medlemmarnas förnamn. Under hela gruppens karriÀr skrevs musik och text av Andersson och Ulvaeus, och fram till 1977 ibland tillsammans med gruppens manager, Stikkan Anderson.
+
+Gruppens första album var Ring ring 1973. Det stora internationella genombrottet kom i Eurovision Song Contest 1974, dÀr gruppen framförde det vinnande bidraget "Waterloo".
+
+Medlemmarnas Ă€ktenskap upplöstes 1979 respektive 1981, och efter en inspelningssession hösten 1982 Ă€gnade sig gruppmedlemmarna Ă„t andra projekt. Gruppen splittrades inte formellt, men "uppehĂ„llet" drog ut pĂ„ tiden och efter nĂ„gra Ă„r var en Ă„terförening inte lĂ€ngre aktuell. UppehĂ„llet varade Ă€nda fram tills att arbetet med deras nionde studioalbum, Voyage, inleddes. Albumet utgavs 2021 â 40 Ă„r efter deras förra studioalbum. Vid endast ett tillfĂ€lle under uppehĂ„llet samlades gruppen framför tv-kameror; i Lasse Holmqvists program HĂ€r Ă€r ditt liv med Stikkan Anderson 1986.
+
+Gruppen rĂ€knas som en av de största i musikhistorien och Ă€r en av fĂ„ som vunnit framgĂ„ng över jordens samtliga kontinenter. I mitten av 1970-talet var de försĂ€ljningsmĂ€ssigt vĂ€rldens mest framgĂ„ngsrika popgrupp. Abba har nĂ€rmare 70 singlar som listettor över hela vĂ€rlden och över 60 albumettor. I Storbritannien hade de 18 raka topp 10-singlar, nio singelettor samt nio album som nr. 1 pĂ„ den brittiska topplistan varav Ă„tta i följd (1975â82). Ă
r 2014 hade gruppen sÄlt 400 miljoner skivor och Àr dÀrmed Sveriges mest framgÄngsrika musikexport genom tiderna. Abba blev den första popgruppen frÄn Kontinentaleuropa/Norden att under en lÀngre tid nÄ stora framgÄngar i den engelsksprÄkiga vÀrlden.
+
+Abba Àr invalda i Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Är 2010 och Swedish Music Hall of Fame Är 2014.
+
+Historik
+
+Gruppen bildas (1969â1972)
+Gruppmedlemmarna hade redan under 1960-talet haft musikaliska framgÄngar pÄ varsitt hÄll; Benny Andersson med Hep Stars, Björn Ulvaeus med Hootenanny Singers och Agnetha FÀltskog och Anni-Frid Lyngstad som soloartister. Andersson och Ulvaeus arbetade tillsammans som musikproducenter och lÄtskrivare vid Stikkan Andersons skivbolag Polar Music före Abba-tiden, bland annat för Ted GÀrdestad och Hootenanny Singers.
+
+Ă
r 1970 gav Andersson och Ulvaeus ut sin första gemensamma singel "She's My Kind of Girl" under artistnamnet Björn & Benny. Musiken hade de skrivit till filmen NÄgon att Àlska. Deras första gemensamma lÄtar skapade de redan 1966; "Isn't It Easy to Say" och "A Flower in My Garden", vilka bÄda spelades in av Hep Stars. Vidare skrev de i slutet av 1960-talet och början av 1970-talet lÄtar till bla Brita Borg, Lill-Babs, Lena Andersson och Anni-Frid Lyngstad.
+
+Ulvaeus och FÀltskog samt Andersson och Lyngstad trÀffades vid ungefÀr samma tid och blev tvÄ par. Musikproducenterna och lÄtskrivarna Ulvaeus/Andersson tog med sina sjungande flickvÀnner till studioinspelningar för Björn & Benny-inspelningar samt för andra artister. Den första inspelning som det Àr sÀkerstÀllt att samtliga fyra personer medverkar pÄ Àr Björn & Benny-singeln "Hej gamle man!" 1970, som lÄg tio veckor pÄ Svensktoppen.
+De tvÄ paren upptrÀdde pÄ scen första gÄngen tillsammans den 1 november 1970 pÄ Restaurang TrÀdgÄrn i Göteborg under namnet Festfolket. Den 13 december 1970 syntes kvartetten i TV-programmet Five Minutes Saloon, dÀr de framförde sin version av "California, Here I Come" frÄn 1921.
+
+Ă
r 1972 kom de första singelskivorna dÀr alla samtliga fyra Abba-medlemmar medverkade pÄ skivomslaget under gruppnamnet Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Frida. Den första singel som slÀpptes under detta namn var "People Need Love". I USA lanserades gruppens tre första singlar av Playboy Records under namnet Björn & Benny (with Svenska flicka).
+
+Genombrottet (1973â1975)
+
+Gruppen deltog under namnet Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Frida i Melodifestivalen 1973 med tÀvlingsbidraget "Ring ring (bara du slog en signal)". LÄten slutade pÄ en tredjeplats, men detta hindrade inte gruppen frÄn att fÄ sin första större försÀljningsframgÄng. De svensk- och engelsksprÄkiga versionerna gavs ut som varsin singel och placerade sig ganska snart efter tÀvlingen pÄ första och andra plats pÄ KvÀllstoppen. BÀgge singlarna hade i slutet av mars 1973 sÄlts i 100 000 exemplar i Sverige. PÄ Svensktoppen lÄg den svenska versionen sammanlagt i 17 veckor under perioden 11 mars-1 juli 1973, och de nio första veckorna lÄg den etta.
+
+Eftersom Agnetha FĂ€ltskog födde barn strax efter Melodifestivalen i februari ersattes hon tillfĂ€lligt av Inger Brundin - bland annat under en promotionsturnĂ© i VĂ€sttyskland, Ăsterrike, NederlĂ€nderna och Belgien. Singeln blev etta i Sverige och Belgien och lĂ„g dessutom inom topp fem i Ăsterrike, NederlĂ€nderna, Norge och Sydafrika.
+
+En Ànnu större framgÄng skulle komma Äret dÀrpÄ dÄ gruppen, med det förkortade namnet Abba, framförde "Waterloo" i Melodifestivalen lördag 9 februari 1974. Efter omröstningen stod bidraget som vinnare med 302 poÀng, medan andraplacerade "Min kÀrlekssÄng till dig" med Lasse Berghagen fick 211 poÀng. "Waterloo" blev dÀrmed Sveriges bidrag i Eurovision Song Contest 1974, vilken avgjordes i The Dome i Brighton, Storbritannien, lördag 6 april 1974. "Waterloo" var inte Abbas sjÀlvklara val för Melodifestivalen, dÄ de en tid valde mellan "Waterloo" och "Hasta Mañana", men bestÀmde sig slutligen för att framföra den förstnÀmnda.
+
+"Waterloo" vann Eurovision Song Contest med 24 poÀng, före Italiens "Si" med Gigliola Cinquetti, som slutade pÄ 18 poÀng. Efter sÀndningen intervjuades textförfattaren Stikkan Anderson i svensk TV:s nyheter och fick dÄ frÄgan varför han skrivit en text om ett slag dÀr tiotusentals mÀnniskor dog. Anderson svarade att frÄgan var cyniskt stÀlld och att "Waterloo" anvÀnds i symbolisk mening i texten.
+
+"Waterloo" blev, förutom i Sverige, listetta i flera europeiska lÀnder. LÄten blev Àven en hit i USA dÀr den som bÀst klÀttrade till sjÀtteplatsen pÄ Billboardlistan.
+
+Samtidigt som gruppen började fÄ internationell framgÄng arbetade Anni-Frid Lyngstad och Agnetha FÀltskog Àven med sina respektive soloalbum och Andersson och Ulvaeus producerade andra artisters inspelningar, dÀribland Ted GÀrdestad och Hootenanny Singers. DÀrtill skulle gruppen göra promotion för sina egna singlar, med besök runtom i Europa och Nordamerika. NÀr de inte hann med att besöka alla platser de önskade, valde de att spela in promotionvideor dÀr gruppen framför sina nya lÄtar, en slags tidig musikvideo. Det var nÀr videorna till "Mamma Mia", "SOS" och "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" visades i Australien som singlarna började klÀttra pÄ försÀljningslistan dÀr.
+
+Efter "Waterloo" dröjde det ett och ett halvt Ă„r till nĂ€sta framgĂ„ng i Storbritannien, dĂ„ gruppen fick en hit med "SOS". LĂ„ten lĂ„g som bĂ€st pĂ„ sjĂ€tte plats pĂ„ den brittiska listan, och pĂ„ femtonde plats i USA. En version med svensk text gjordes Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ till Agnetha FĂ€ltskogs soloskiva Elva kvinnor i ett hus. Innan "SOS" hade gruppen slĂ€ppt en rad singlar som inte nĂ„dde nĂ„gon större framgĂ„ng pĂ„ hitlistorna i Storbritannien och USA, men som klĂ€ttrade pĂ„ listor i andra lĂ€nder; "Honey, Honey" (2:a i VĂ€sttyskland), "So Long" (3:a i Ăsterrike) och "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" (1:a i Australien och Nya Zeeland). De tvĂ„ förstnĂ€mnda singlarna klĂ€ttrade pĂ„ listorna i samband med gruppens första EuropaturnĂ© 1974-75. Efter "SOS" slĂ€pptes singeln "Mamma Mia" som lyckades klĂ€ttra till förstaplatsen i Storbritannien, vilket stĂ€rkte gruppens status dĂ€r.
+
+I slutet av 1975 gavs gruppens första samlingsalbum ut - Greatest Hits. Albumet rÀknas som ett av Abbas bÀst sÀljande album nÄgonsin, mycket tack vare försÀljningsframgÄngarna i Storbritannien och USA. Albumet blev gruppens första etta pÄ albumlistan i Storbritannien, dÀr det blev det första av Ätta Abba-album i rad att nÄ förstaplatsen. I Storbritannien kom albumet att bli det andra mest sÄlda albumet under hela 1970-talet, endast Simon & Garfunkels Bridge over Troubled Water hade större framgÄngar under decenniet.
+
+VĂ€rldsturnĂ©er och försĂ€ljningsframgĂ„ngar (1976â1979)
+
+Mellan 1974 och 1980 kom gruppen att ha nio singelettor pĂ„ Englandslistan och en i USA. Abba var pĂ„ toppen av sin karriĂ€r vid en tid dĂ„ europeisk popmusik skattades högt i USA. Intresset för Abba kulminerade i USA samtidigt som punk och new wave ökade i popularitet i Europa. Gruppen var ocksĂ„ populĂ€r i östra Europa trots den kommunistiska diktaturen. Abba gĂ€stade tv-shower i sĂ„vĂ€l Polen som Ăsttyskland.
+Med koreografi av Graham Tainton och scenklÀder av Owe Sandström lyckades gruppen skaffa sig uppmÀrksamhet inte bara för musiken.
+
+Ă
r 1976 var Abba en av vÀrldens mest populÀra musikgrupper, med lÄtar som "Fernando", "Knowing Me, Knowing You", "Money, Money, Money" och "Dancing Queen". Den sistnÀmnda blev gruppens tredje raka etta pÄ brittiska UK Singles Chart dÀr den toppade listan sex veckor i följd september-oktober 1976. LÄten lyckades Àven klÀttra till förstaplatsen pÄ Billboardlistan i USA vÄren 1977.
+
+"Dancing Queen" hade framförts första gÄngen i en tysk TV-show vÄren 1976 och den 18 juni framförde gruppen lÄten vid en TV-sÀnd gala frÄn Kungliga operan i Stockholm, tillÀgnad Sveriges kung Carl XVI Gustaf och Silvia Sommerlath, som dagen efter skulle gifta sig i Storkyrkan i Stockholm. "Dancing Queen" hade inte skrivits till kungabröllopet med drottning Silvia som inspiration; gruppen valde att framföra den nya lÄten vid TV-galan eftersom titeln och "drottningtemat" passade just dÄ.
+
+Gruppens första vĂ€rldsturnĂ© tog dem genom Europa och Australien 1977 och dokumenterades i Lasse Hallströms lĂ„ngfilm Abba â the Movie, som fick biopremiĂ€r i december samma Ă„r. NĂ€r turnĂ©n kom till London, genomfördes tvĂ„ utsĂ„lda konserter i Royal Albert Hall, 13 och 14 februari 1977. Biljettköp var endast möjligt genom postansökning och efter konserterna redovisades siffror pĂ„ 3,5 miljoner biljettansökningar. Detta hade rĂ€ckt till att fylla arenan 580 gĂ„nger.
+
+Den första konserten i Australien, pÄ Sydney Showgrounds med 20 000 personer i publiken, drabbades av hÄrt regn och trots riskerna med all elektrisk utrustning pÄ scenen genomfördes konserten. Det enda missöde som intrÀffade var att Anni-Frid Lyngstad i ett dansnummer halkade pÄ scenen. Turnén avslutades i Perth den 12 mars och under sina elva konserter i Australien hade gruppen upptrÀtt för 160 000 personer.
+
+Hysterin kring gruppen i samband med turnén i Australien fÄngades i Hallströms film och har pÄ senare tid kommenterats av Agnetha FÀltskog i hennes sjÀlvbiografi som en stressfylld upplevelse; "Det var feber. Det var hysteri. Det var ovationer. Det var svettiga, besatta folkmassor. Ibland var det otÀckt. Jag kÀnde det som om man skulle suga tag i mig sÄ att jag aldrig skulle komma loss."
+
+Det tog lÄng tid för gruppen att fÀrdigstÀlla nÀsta studioalbum, det som skulle komma att bli Voulez-Vous. Inspelningarna till det nya albumet hade börjat vÄren 1978 och flertalet melodier ratades lÀngs vÀgen, vilket resulterade i att utgivningsdatumet sköts fram till vÄren 1979, istÀllet för hösten/vintern 1978, som först var planerat. Parallellt med studioarbetet gjorde gruppen en promotionsturné i Europa och USA, under vilken singeln "Take a Chance on Me" klÀttrade till tredje plats pÄ den amerikanska listan. I Storbritannien hade den toppat singellistan tre veckor i följd som deras pÄ nytt tredje raka listetta efter "Knowing Me, Knowing You" och "The Name of the Game" 1977. Hösten 1978 slÀppte gruppen den discoorienterade lÄten "Summer Night City" och Andersson och Ulvaeus bekrÀftade influenser av Bee Gees framgÄngar med soundtracket till lÄngfilmen Saturday Night Fever inför produktionen av det kommande albumet. Till Voulez-Vous koncentrerade de sig Àven pÄ att göra raka poplÄtar mer Àn att visa upp variation och mÄngsidighet, vilket gjorts pÄ gruppens tidigare album.
+
+Eftersom medlemmarna hade svÄrt att förena karriÀren med privatlivet, upplevde gruppen en hel del slitningar. Ulvaeus och FÀltskog ansökte om skilsmÀssa i början av 1979.
+
+Hösten 1979 turnerade gruppen i Europa, USA och Kanada. VÄren 1980 fortsatte turnén till Japan, vilket skulle bli deras sista konsertturné. Konserterna i London, Storbritannien, i november 1979 filmades av Sveriges Television och sammanstÀlldes i TV-specialen Abba in Concert och flertalet ljudinspelningar frÄn dessa konserter har senare givits ut.
+
+De sista Ă„ren (1980â1983)
+Under 1980 slÀpptes tvÄ singlar som blev gruppens sista ettor pÄ brittiska singellistan: "The Winner Takes It All" och "Super Trouper".
+
+Gruppens Ättonde studioalbum, The Visitors, utgavs i slutet av 1981. Det var det första albumet i vÀrlden som trycktes pÄ CD-format, men Billy Joels 52nd Street fick förtur ut till skivhandeln.
+
+Anledningen till albumets mörka texter och dystra sound förklarar Anni-Frid Lyngstad i Carl-Magnus Palms bok Abba - mÀnniskorna och musiken: "NÀr man har gÄtt igenom en separation, som vi ju allihop hade gjort dÄ, sÄ pÄverkar det förstÄs atmosfÀren i studion. [...] Den glÀdje som alltid fanns i vÄra sÄnger, Àven om sÄngen i sig sjÀlv var sorgsen, var borta. Vi hade glidit ifrÄn varandra som mÀnniskor, och den samhörighet som alltid hade varit en del av vÄra inspelningar fanns inte kvar lÀngre."
+Ăven skivomslaget Ă€r mörkt och dystert. Fotografiet togs i Julius Kronbergs ateljĂ© pĂ„ Skansen i Stockholm efter att albumdesignern Rune Söderqvist fĂ„tt idĂ©n om att skivtitelns besökare kunde vara Ă€nglar samt att lĂ„ten Like an Angel Passing Through My Room skulle finnas med pĂ„ albumet. Han kom att tĂ€nka pĂ„ Kronbergs mĂ„nga Ă€nglamotiv och bestĂ€mde att fotot skulle tas i Kronbergs ateljĂ©. Fotografiet domineras av Kronbergs tavla förestĂ€llande Eros. Fotografiet togs sent pĂ„ hösten 1981 och ateljĂ©n var ouppvĂ€rmd.
+
+Under första halvan av 1982 var gruppens inriktning att spela in ytterligare ett album och tre lĂ„tar spelades in: "I am the City" (utgiven 1993, pĂ„ samlingsalbumet More Abba Gold â More Abba Hits), "You Owe Me One" (B-sida pĂ„ sista singeln) och "Just Like That" (Ă€n idag outgiven i sin helhet). Arbetet med albumet stoppades för att i stĂ€llet inriktas pĂ„ att slĂ€ppa ett samlingsalbum, The Singles: The First Ten Years, med de mest sĂ€ljande singlarna de senaste tio Ă„ren, plus tvĂ„ nya lĂ„tar som slĂ€pptes som singlar: "The Day Before You Came" och "Under Attack".
+
+Sista gĂ„ngen Abba upptrĂ€dde tillsammans var den 11 december 1982, dĂ„ de medverkade i det brittiska TV-programmet Late, Late Breakfast Show via satellit frĂ„n Stockholm. I början av 1983 slĂ€pptes singeln "Under Attack", men vid detta tillfĂ€lle var inte gruppen verksam lĂ€ngre. Gruppen upplöstes inte formellt â istĂ€llet togs en oannonserad paus för att arbeta med andra projekt och "pausen" blev lĂ€ngre Ă€n vad nĂ„gon kunnat ana - de Ă„tervĂ€nde till inspelningsstudion för att spela in ny musik som slĂ€pptes 2021.
+
+Projekt efter Abba
+
+Efter att gruppen slutade spela in sÄnger tillsammans har Benny Andersson och Björn Ulvaeus skapat musikalerna Chess (tillsammans med Tim Rice) och Kristina frÄn DuvemÄla. De var ocksÄ delaktiga i arbetet med musikalen Mamma Mia!, baserad pÄ gruppens musik. Andersson har Àven arbetat som lÄtskrivare och musikproducent för bland annat Gemini, Orsa spelmÀn, Ainbusk Singers och Josefin Nilsson. Sedan Är 2000 har han haft stora framgÄngar i Sverige med Benny Anderssons orkester.
+
+Anni-Frid Lyngstad har slÀppt tre soloalbum: Something's Going On 1982, Shine 1984, och Djupa andetag 1996. Hon har Àven sjungit duett med exempelvis Phil Collins, Ratata, Marie Fredriksson och Filippa Giordani.
+
+Agnetha FÀltskog har givit ut fem egna soloalbum, 1983, 1985, 1988, 2004 och 2013. Hon har Àven medverkat som skÄdespelare i lÄngfilmen Raskenstam frÄn 1982. Hon har sjungit duett med bland annat Peter Cetera, Tomas Ledin, Ola HÄkansson och Gary Barlow.
+
+NypremiÀr
+Intresset för Abba Ă„teruppvĂ€cktes i början av 1990-talet. Ă
r 1992 gav synthpopgruppen Erasure ut en EP med covers pĂ„ fyra AbbalĂ„tar, Abba-esque, och i London startades en discorevivalklubb som spelade en av gruppens lĂ„tar varje timme. Samlingsalbumet Abba Gold â Greatest Hits gavs ut strax dĂ€refter, och den kom att bli det mest sĂ„lda albumet i Storbritannien under 1990-talet. Skivan, och dess uppföljare More Abba Gold â More Abba Hits, sĂ„lde i stora upplagor i hela vĂ€rlden. I slutet av 1990-talet kom samtliga gruppens album Ă„ter ut i CD-format med ljudet restaurerat under ledning av Michael B. Tretow. Han satte Ă€ven ihop medleyt Undeleted till utgivningen av CD-boxen Thank You for the Music 1994.
+
+Ă
r 2005 slÀppte Madonna sin lÄt "Hung Up" dÀr hon har samplat gruppens lÄt "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" frÄn 1979. LÄten blev en stor internationell framgÄng och toppade listorna i över 20 lÀnder. Det Àr, jÀmte hiphopgruppen The Fugees "Rumble in the Jungle", enda gÄngen som lÄtskrivarna Andersson/Ulvaeus givit tillstÄnd att sampla en Abba-inspelning.
+
+Musikalen Mamma Mia! hade premiÀr pÄ Prince Edwards Theatre i Londons West End den 6 april 1999, 25 Är efter gruppens seger i Eurovision Song Contest. Musikalen har manus av Catherine Johnson och baseras pÄ gruppens lÄtar och har sedan dess spelats över hela vÀrlden och översatts till flera sprÄk. Andersson och Ulvaeus har varit inblandade i arbetet med musikalen. Filmen Mamma Mia! baseras pÄ musikalen och sattes upp pÄ biografer 2008.
+
+I maj 2013 öppnades Abbamuseet pÄ DjurgÄrden i Stockholm. Sexton mÄnader senare hade museet besökts av en halv miljon besökare. I januari 2016 togs nÀsta steg i Mamma Mia!-historien, dÄ Mamma Mia! The Party öppnade pÄ Gröna Lund i Stockholm.
+
+Ă
terförening
+Gruppen gjorde en tillfĂ€llig Ă„terförening i januari 1986 för att inför tv-kameror sjunga "Tivedshambo" i SVT:s program HĂ€r Ă€r ditt liv. ĂnskemĂ„l och rykten om tillfĂ€lliga comebacker har sedan dess avvisats av samtliga medlemmar. Ă
r 2000 tackade gruppmedlemmarna nej till ett erbjudande om en miljard dollar för en Äterföreningsturné. Gruppmedlemmarna har endast vid ett fÄtal tillfÀllen visat sig tillsammans vid offentliga tillstÀllningar, som exempelvis vid den svenska galapremiÀren av spelfilmen Mamma Mia! pÄ biografen Rival den 4 juli 2008 samt vid invigningen av Mamma Mia! The Party i januari 2016.
+
+Den 5 juni 2016 arrangerade Andersson och Ulvaeus en privat fest pÄ Berns salonger i Stockholm för att fira att det var 50 Är sedan som de trÀffats för första gÄngen, den 5 juni 1966. Vid ett tillfÀlle under festen stod hela Abba-kvartetten samtidigt pÄ scen och sjöng "The Way Old Friends Do".
+
+Den 27 april 2018 meddelade gruppen i ett pressmeddelande att de samlats i inspelningsstudion och spelat in tvÄ nya lÄtar; "I Still Have Faith in You" och "Don't Shut Me Down". Vid en livesÀndning pÄ Youtube 2 september 2021 meddelade Björn Ulvaeus och Benny Andersson att ett helt album med 10 nya lÄtar spelats in och att albumet med titeln Voyage slÀpps den 5 november 2021. I samband med livesÀndningen presenterades de tvÄ lÄtarna "I Still Have Faith in You" och "Don't Shut Me Down" digitalt och som en fysisk dubbel-singel. Efter mÄnga Ärs förberedande arbete presenterades samtidigt att konsertupplevelsen Abba Voyage planerades ha premiÀr i början av juni 2022, i en specialbyggd arena i London, kallad Abba Arena. Konserten bestÄr av en liveorkester dÀr popgruppen nÀrvarar som hologram av sig sjÀlva som gruppen sÄg ut 1977 och materialet bestÄr av klassiska Abba-lÄtar frÄn gruppens karriÀr, men ocksÄ tvÄ nyinspelade lÄtar.
+
+Abba-soundet
+
+Ănda frĂ„n början uppmĂ€rksammades Abba för musikens speciella ljudbild. Arkitekten bakom detta sound var ljudteknikern Michael B. Tretow, som hade hĂ€mtat inspiration frĂ„n Phil Spectors inspelningsteknik. Soundet utvecklades under lĂ„nga studiosessioner. Enligt Tretow bestod en del av processen att lĂ€gga mĂ„nga likadana spĂ„r, till exempel FĂ€ltskogs och Lyngstads sĂ„ng, bredvid varandra i mixen med varierande tidsförskjutning. Detta gav enligt Tretow en fyllig, "glittrande" upplevelse. Tretow var ljudtekniker pĂ„ samtliga av gruppens inspelningar under 1970- och 1980-talen.
+
+Ytterligare en viktig aspekt var de musiker som arbetade med gruppen. Andersson och Ulvaeus anvÀnde i stor utrÀckning samma studiomusiker under hela Abbatiden, dÀribland gitarristerna Lasse Wellander och Janne Schaffer, basisten Rutger Gunnarsson samt trummisen Ola Brunkert. PÄ grund av de komplicerade ljudbilder som Andersson, Ulvaeus och Tretow efterstrÀvade blev studiosessionerna slitsamma för musikerna. Studiomusikerna medföljde Àven gruppen pÄ flertalet turnéer dÀr de Äterskapade mycket av studiosoundet.
+
+Ă
r 1978 byggdes Polar Studios pÄ Kungsholmen i Stockholm, dÀr gruppen kom att göra alla sina resterande inspelningar fram till 1982, med undantaget för bakgrundsmusiken till "Voulez-Vous" som delvis spelades in i Miami, USA 1979. Innan dess hade gruppen bokat in sig i olika studior över skilda delar av Stockholm och undantagsvis utanför huvudstadsregionen.
+
+Kritiken mot Abba
+
+Gruppens genombrott kom under den svenska musikrörelsens (proggens) storhetstid, dÄ det i medier och kulturliv fanns en utbredd misstro mot den typ av musik som Abba spelade, vilken ansÄgs vara alltför kommersiellt inriktad. NÀr Sverige 1975 skulle arrangera Eurovision Song Contest bildades dÀrför en sÄ kallad "antikommersiell folkfront" med stöd av bland annat KulturrÄdet, kulturnÀmnden i Stockholms stad, producentföreningen pÄ Sveriges Radio och olika musikerorganisationer.
+
+Abbas glammiga image stod i djup kontrast till den musikvÄg som var tongivande inom antikommersiella kretsar i Sverige och i Ulf Dagebys lÄt "Doin' the omoralisk schlagerfestival" frÄn 1975 kritiseras gruppen bland annat för sina plastklÀder.
+
+Filmer
+
+Musikvideor
+
+Abba var en av pionjÀrerna nÀr det gÀller musikvideor. De gjorde sina första videor lÄngt före MTVs tid (MTV startade 1981 i USA).
+
+"Waterloo" var den första musikvideon gruppen gjorde. Detta skedde i samarbete med regissör Lasse Hallström. Videon filmades i juli 1974 och samtidigt filmade man Ă€ven en video till "Ring ring". Hallström var ett naturligt val för gruppen dĂ„ han redan pĂ„ 1960-talet hade filmat musikarrangemang för SVT. Samarbetet med Hallström fortsatte och han regisserade alla utom de tvĂ„ sista av Abbas musikvideor ("The Day Before You Came" och "Under Attack", vilka regisserades av Kjell Sundvall och Kjell-Ă
ke Andersson).
+
+Lasse Hallströms sÀtt att göra musikvideor kom att bli stilbildande; hans filmning av nÀrbilder av medlemmarna i profil och en face anvÀndes i flertalet av gruppens musikvideor.
+
+Gruppen anvÀnde sÀllan skÄdespelare i sina musikvideor, men tvÄ undantag Àr "When I Kissed the Teacher" dÀr Magnus HÀrenstam figurerar som lÀrare och "The Day Before You Came" dÀr Jonas Bergström spelar Agnetha FÀltskogs förÀlskelse.
+
+Spelfilmer
+Lasse Hallström regisserade Abba â the Movie 1977 som en semi-dokumentĂ€r dĂ€r tittaren ges en inblick i gruppens turnĂ© i Australien tidigare samma Ă„r. I filmatiseringen av musikalen Mamma Mia! frĂ„n 2008 syns Andersson och Ulvaeus som statister. LikasĂ„ i den 2004 producerade kortfilmen The Last Video Ever medverkar alla fyra gruppmedlemmar som statister, medan gruppens musik framförs av dockor. Bland skĂ„despelarna mĂ€rks Loa Falkman, Rik Mayall, Sissela Kyle och Robert Gustafsson.
+
+Flertalet av gruppens lĂ„tar förekommer i de australiska filmerna Muriels bröllop och Priscilla â öknens drottning (bĂ€gge frĂ„n 1994). Gruppens musik har Ă€ven förekommit i flera svenska och utlĂ€ndska lĂ„ngfilmer; Tillsammans (2000) av Lukas Moodysson och Spike Lees Summer of Sam (1999) Ă€r tvĂ„ exempel. I ĂnglagĂ„rd av Colin Nutley hörs lĂ„ten "Mamma Mia" i en bilstereo, "Does Your Mother Know" spelas i Johnny English dĂ€r Rowan Atkinson mimar till sĂ„ngen. Ăven i filmen Morgan PĂ„lsson - vĂ€rldsreporter anvĂ€nds gruppens musik och Abba nĂ€mns ofta i filmen. I Göta kanal frĂ„n 1981 lyssnar kronofogden pĂ„ "Money, Money, Money". I The Martian frĂ„n 2015 med Matt Damon spelas "Waterloo" vid ett avgörande tillfĂ€lle i filmen.
+
+Priser och utmÀrkelser
+1974- Vinner Eurovision Song Contest
+1979 â Svenska grammofonpriset för Voulez-Vous
+1981 â Svenska grammofonpriset för Super Trouper
+1982 â Spelmannen
+1993 â Grammisgalans hederspris
+1999 â Rockbjörnen som "Ă
rhundradets svenska grupp/artist"
+2005 â Grammis för Ă„rets musik-dvd: Abba â the Movie
+2010 â Invalda i Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum
+2014 â Invalda i Swedish Music Hall of Fame
+
+Ă
ret 2023 uppkallades ett slÀkte hjulspindlar med arten Abba transversa efter popgruppen.
+
+Abba-museet
+
+Abbamuseet (formellt engelska: ABBA The Museum) Àr ett museum över Abba belÀget vid DjurgÄrdsvÀgen 68 pÄ DjurgÄrden i Stockholm. Huset började uppföras vÄren 2012 efter ritningar av Johan Celsing Arkitektkontor. NÀrheten till Liljevalchs konsthall frÄn 1916 stÀllde höga krav pÄ utformningen.
+
+I samma byggnad ligger ett hotell som öppnade i april 2013 och museet den 7 maj 2013.
+
+PÄ museet finns en rekonstruktion av Polarstudion, dÀr Abba spelade in sina lÄtar frÄn 1978. Det finns ett piano som Àr sammankopplat med ett piano i Benny Anderssons studio. NÀr Andersson spelar i sin studio, börjar museets piano att sjÀlvspela.
+
+PÄ museet finns Àven en samling originalföremÄl frÄn vinsten i Eurovision Song Contest 1974 och vidare genom gruppens hela karriÀr.
+
+Diskografi
+
+Studioalbum
+
+Filmografi
+ 1977 â Abba â the Movie
+ 1980 â Abba in Concert
+ 1992 â Abba Gold (musikvideosamling)
+ 1993 â More Abba Gold (musikvideosamling)
+ 2004 â The Definitive Collection (musikvideosamling)
+ 2004 â Abba â The Last Video Ever (kortfilm)
+ 2008 â Mamma Mia!
+ 2018 â Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again
+
+Inspelningar pÄ flera sprÄk
+Abba har gjort inspelningar pĂ„ andra sprĂ„k Ă€n engelska, för att nĂ„ framgĂ„ngar i olika sprĂ„kterritorier. Det frĂ€msta exemplet Ă€r albumet Gracias Por La MĂșsica frĂ„n 1980, dĂ„ FĂ€ltskog och Lyngstad tillsammans med ljudtekniker Michael B. Tretow Ă„tervĂ€nde till gruppens Ă€ldre inspelningar för att lĂ€gga pĂ„ ny sĂ„ng med spansk text. Samtliga inspelningar som listas nedan Ă€r av Abba.
+
+Förutom de ovan nÀmnda inspelningarna av gruppen sjÀlva, har följande översÀttningar gjorts och spelats in av andra artister. Vid nÄgra av dessa inspelningar/översÀttningar har en eller flera gruppmedlemmar varit involverade.
+
+1 av Frida, album: Frida ensam
+2 av Agnetha FĂ€ltskog, album: Elva kvinnor i ett hus
+3 av Streaplers, album: Du mÄste skynda dig, text: Ingela "Pling" Forsman
+4 i musikalen Mamma Mia!, text: Niklas Strömstedt
+5 av Birgitta WollgÄrd & Salut
+6 av Schytts, album: HÄlligÄng 5
+7 av Vikingarna, album: Kramgoa lÄtar 2
+8 av Schytts, album: HÄlligÄng 2
+9 av Lena Andersson
+10 av Kimmik
+11 av Mireille Mathieu
+
+Se Àven
+ Abba:s outgivna lÄtar
+ Abbamuseet
+ Abba â The Tribute
+
+Referenser
+
+Noter
+
+Tryckta kÀllor
+
+Externa lÀnkar
+
+ ABBA â the Site â officiell webbplats
+ Diskografi och Abba pÄ topplistor i Sverige
+
+ Benny före ABBA
+
+
+Artister som vunnit i Eurovision Song Contest
+Artister som representerat Sverige i Eurovision Song Contest
+Grammis-vinnare
+Deltagare i Melodifestivalen 1973
+Deltagare i Melodifestivalen 1974
+Deltagare i Eurovision Song Contest 1974
+Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
+Palindromer
+Musikgrupper bildade 1972
+De agglutinerande sprÄken Àr en undertyp av de syntetiska sprÄken, det vill sÀga sprÄk dÀr enskilda ord Àndrar form för att kunna anvÀndas i olika grammatiska sammanhang. I agglutinerande sprÄk fogas (agglutineras) en mÀngd affix till en ordstam, och varje enskilt affix kan vanligtvis associeras med en enskild grammatisk funktion, till skillnad frÄn exempelvis flekterande sprÄk (som arabiska) dÀr en mÀngd relaterade ordformer (paradigm) anvÀnds för att uttrycka grammatiska roller men dÀr varje given form representerar ett helt komplex av grammatiska sÀrdrag (som numerus, genus och sÄ vidare).
+
+Begreppet hÀrrör frÄn det latinska verbet agglutinare, som betyder "att klistra ihop" eller "att sÀtta samman". Termen anvÀndes först av Wilhelm von Humboldt och August Wilhelm Schlegel i deras morfologiska indelning av olika sprÄk.
+
+NÄgra exempel pÄ sprÄk som Àr agglutinerande Àr finska, ungerska, baskiska, nahuatl, japanska, turkiska, swahili, zulu, maltesiska, esperanto, somaliska och forntidens sumeriska.
+
+Exempel frÄn finskan: "taloissansakin" = "Àven i sina hus"
+Exempel frĂ„n turkiskan: "AvrupalılaĆtıramadıÄımızdanmısınız" = "Ă€r du en av dem som inte kunde europeisera?"
+
+Indelningen av sprĂ„ken hĂ€nger samman med den sĂ„ kallade agglutationsteorin, enligt vilken avlednings- och böjningselementen en gĂ„ng varit sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndiga ord, i motsats till exempelvis adaptionsteorin, som hĂ€vdar att Ă€ndelserna frĂ„n början ej haft nĂ„gon sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig betydelse. Den förstnĂ€mnda Ă€ger den största allmĂ€ngiltigheten, men förklarar inte ensam avlednings- och böjningselementens uppkomst. Ăver huvud taget har dessa indelningar spelat en större roll inom sprĂ„kvetenskapen förr Ă€n i vĂ„ra dagar. Som medel för att bestĂ€mma sprĂ„kens inbördes slĂ€ktskap Ă€r de i alla hĂ€ndelser otillfredsstĂ€llande.
+
+KĂ€llor
+ Svensk Uppslagsbok, Band 1, 1947-1955. (spalt 326)
+Afrikaans Àr ett vÀstgermanskt sprÄk som talas frÀmst av de vita afrikanderna och de fÀrgade i Sydafrika och Namibia. Afrikanderna hÀrstammar frÄn invandrare som frÀmst kom frÄn NederlÀnderna under 1600-talet. SprÄket afrikaans bygger dÀrför i grunden pÄ nederlÀndska och utmÀrks bland annat av delvis förenklad grammatik och ett flertal iögonfallande sprÄklÄn frÄn bland annat malajiska, bantusprÄk, khoisan och portugisiska. OrdförrÄdet överensstÀmmer dock till mer Àn 96 procent med nederlÀndskans, Àven om vissa förskjutningar i stavning och betydelse har skett. Tidigare kallades afrikaans pÄ engelska ofta Cape Dutch eftersom boerna ursprungligen bodde endast i Kapprovinsen. Mer skÀmtsamt kallades sprÄket ocksÄ baby Dutch.
+
+Afrikaans skrevs under en period pÄ 1800-talet med arabisk skrift bland malajerna som levde frÀmst i Kapstaden, som ett religiöst sprÄk.
+
+Flera framstÄende och internationellt kÀnda författare skriver pÄ afrikaans, till exempel André Brink, Breyten Breytenbach, Etienne Leroux, Marlene van Niekerk, Karel Schoeman och Etienne van Heerden. Den första roman som översattes direkt frÄn afrikaans till svenska var Magersfontein, O Magersfontein av Etienne Leroux (2007).
+
+Klassificering
+
+Indoeuropeiska sprÄk
+Germanska sprÄk
+VÀstgermanska sprÄk
+LÄgtyska-nederlÀndska sprÄk
+NederlÀndska sprÄk
+ Afrikaans (sprÄkkod af)
+FlamlÀndska
+NederlÀndska
+
+Afrikaans tillhör sin egen subgrupp av de vÀstgermanska sprÄken. Dess nÀrmaste sprÄkslÀkting Àr det ömsesidigt begripliga modersprÄket, nederlÀndska. Andra vÀstgermanska sprÄk i slÀktskap med afrikaans Àr tyska, engelska, frisiska och de icke-standardiserade sprÄken lÄgtyska och jiddisch.
+
+Afrikaans och nederlÀndska
+Uppskattningsvis 90 till 95 procent av afrikaans ordförrÄd hÀrrör frÄn nederlÀndskan, och det existerar endast ett fÄtal lexikaliska skillnader mellan de tvÄ sprÄken. Afrikaans har en betydligt mer regelbunden morfologi, grammatik och stavning. Det rÄder en viss grad av ömsesidig begriplighet sprÄken emellan, framförallt i skriftlig form.
+
+Afrikaans har dock erhÄllit en del lexikala och syntaktiska lÄn frÄn ett flertal andra sprÄk sÄsom malajiska sprÄk, khoisansprÄken, portugisiska och bantusprÄken, samtidigt som afrikaans pÄverkats pÄtagligt Àven av sydafrikansk engelska. Talare av nederlÀndska konfronteras av fÀrre icke-kognater nÀr man lyssnar pÄ afrikaans Àn nÀr en talare av afrikaans lyssnar pÄ nederlÀndska. Den ömsesidiga förstÄelsen tenderar sÄledes att vara nÄgot asymmetrisk dÄ det Àr lÀttare för talare av nederlÀndska att förstÄ afrikaans Àn för en talare av afrikaans att förstÄ nederlÀndska.
+
+Ăverlag sĂ„ kan det Ă€ndĂ„ sĂ€gas att den ömsesidiga förstĂ„elsen mellan nederlĂ€ndska och afrikaans Ă€r bĂ€ttre Ă€n den mellan nederlĂ€ndska och vĂ€stfrisiska eller den mellan danska och svenska. Den sydafrikanske poeten och författaren Breyten Breytenbach sade i försök att beskriva distinktionen att skillnaden mellan standardnederlĂ€ndska och afrikaans kan jĂ€mföras med den mellan tvĂ„ dialekter.
+
+Historia
+
+Ursprung
+Afrikaans uppstod i omrÄdet kring nederlÀndska Kapkolonin genom en gradvis avvikelse frÄn de europeiska nederlÀndska dialekterna under 1700-talet. SÄ tidigt som vid mitten av 1700-talet tills sÄ nyligen som vid mitten av 1900-talet kallades afrikaans i standardnederlÀndskan för kökssprÄket () vilket visade pÄ den bristande prestigen som sprÄket hade och Àven inom utbildningsvÀsendet i Afrika. Andra namn för det nederlÀndska sprÄket som talades i Kapkolonin var (Kap-hollÀndska) och andra mer nedsÀttande termer innefattade , och (stympad/bruten/ociviliserad hollÀndska) precis som (inkorrekt nederlÀndska).
+
+Hans den Besten skriver att modern afrikaans kan hÀrledas frÄn tvÄ kÀllor:
+NederlÀndskan som talades i kapkolonin, direkttransplantation av europeisk nederlÀndska till Sydafrika
+Hottentott-hollÀndska, ett pidginsprÄk med ursprung i det blandsprÄk som uppstod mellan de nederlÀndska kolonisatörerna och Khoikhoi-folket.
+
+Med detta synsÀtt kan det sÄledes sÀgas att afrikaans varken Àr ett kreolsprÄk eller en direkt Àttling till den europeiska nederlÀndskan, utan en fusion av dessa tungomÄl.
+
+Utveckling
+
+Afrikaans kan hÀrledas till en grupp av nederlÀndare som slog sig ner vid Godahoppsudden Är 1652. Denna minikoloni fungerade som en proviantstation för de skepp som seglade förbi pÄ sin vÀg till Ostindien. Dessa nederlÀndare talade diverse dialekter med varandra med ett huvudtryck pÄ tungomÄlet frÄn Zuid-Holland. Under loppet av en kort tid utvecklade sig afrikaans kraftigt, och redan under mitten av 1700-talet var afrikaans att se som ett sjÀlvstÀndigt sprÄk.
+
+SprÄkutvecklingen
+
+Ănnu idag har forskare inte kunnat enas om vad som Ă€r grunden till den vĂ€ldiga sprĂ„kutveckling som pĂ„ kort tid pĂ„verkade afrikaans. NĂ„gra kallar sprĂ„ket för avancerad kreol, och menar att den nederlĂ€ndska minoriteten var tvungen att anpassa sig efter en mĂ„ngsprĂ„kig befolkning som vid tiden bestod av handelsmĂ€n och slavar. Denna teori bygger pĂ„ den snabba förenklingen av nederlĂ€ndska som resulterade i ett pidgin-lingua-franca, som anvĂ€ndes som det enda gemensamma sprĂ„ket som talades av invĂ„narna i Kapkolonin â nederlĂ€ndare, malajer, portugiser, hottentotter och franska hugenotter. Andra experter, speciellt bland afrikander, menar att afrikaans Ă€r nederlĂ€ndska som genomgĂ„tt en helt naturlig utveckling och hĂ€nvisar likasĂ„ till hur engelskan förĂ€ndrats under tidigare Ă„rhundraden. Detta Ă€r dock ett osĂ€kert argument dĂ„ nederlĂ€ndska utvecklade sig till afrikaans under loppet av nĂ„gra fĂ„ generationer.
+
+I vilket fall Àr det sÀkert att afrikaa
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