From 07d74449f7168c9131a35a3da5a5919d1af5e39f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Marco Kuhlmann <marco.kuhlmann@liu.se> Date: Mon, 27 Jan 2025 16:00:38 +0100 Subject: [PATCH] Add lab 1 --- labs/lab1/nlp-lab1.ipynb | 639 ++ labs/lab1/reviews-dev.txt | 512 ++ labs/lab1/reviews-train.txt | 2048 ++++++ labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.tok | 768 ++ labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.txt | 11487 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.tok | 768 ++ labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.txt | 12828 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.tok | 768 ++ labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.txt | 9266 ++++++++++++++++++++++++ 9 files changed, 39084 insertions(+) create mode 100644 labs/lab1/nlp-lab1.ipynb create mode 100644 labs/lab1/reviews-dev.txt create mode 100644 labs/lab1/reviews-train.txt create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.tok create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.txt create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.tok create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.txt create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.tok create mode 100644 labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.txt diff --git a/labs/lab1/nlp-lab1.ipynb b/labs/lab1/nlp-lab1.ipynb new file mode 100644 index 0000000..929b06b --- /dev/null +++ b/labs/lab1/nlp-lab1.ipynb @@ -0,0 +1,639 @@ +{ + "cells": [ + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "# Lab 1: Tokenisation and embeddings" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "In this lab, you will build an understanding of how text can be transformed into representations that computers can process and learn from. Specifically, you will explore two key concepts: *tokenisation* and *embeddings*. Tokenisation splits text into smaller units such as words, subwords, or characters. Embeddings are dense, fixed-size vector representations of tokens in a continuous space.\n", + "\n", + "*Tasks you can choose for the oral exam are marked with the graduation cap đ emoji.*" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "## Part 1: Tokenisation" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "In the first part of the lab, you will code and analyse a tokeniser based on the Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) algorithm." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Utility functions" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "The BPE tokeniser transforms text into a list of integers representing tokens. As a warm-up, you will implement two utility functions on such lists. To simplify things, we define a shorthand for the type of pairs of integers:" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "type Pair = tuple[int, int]" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.01: Counting pairs\n", + "\n", + "Write a function that counts all occurrences of pairs of consecutive token IDs in a given list. The function should return a dictionary that maps each pair to its count. Skip counts that are zero." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "def count(ids: list[int]) -> dict[Pair, int]:\n", + " # TODO: Replace the following line with your own code\n", + " return {}" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.02: Replacing pairs\n", + "\n", + "Write a function that replaces all occurrences of a specified pair of consecutive token IDs in a given list by a new ID. The function should return the modified list." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "def replace(ids: list[int], pair: Pair, new_id: int) -> list[int]:\n", + " # TODO: Replace the following line with your own code\n", + " return []" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Encoding and decoding" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "The next cell contains the core code for the tokeniser in the form of a class `Tokenizer`. This class implements two methods: `encode()` converts an input text to a list of token IDs by exhaustively applying rules for merging pairs of consecutive IDs, and `decode()` reverses this process by looking up the tokens corresponding to the token IDs." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "class Tokenizer:\n", + " def __init__(self):\n", + " self.merges = {}\n", + " self.vocab = {i: bytes([i]) for i in range(2**8)}\n", + "\n", + " def encode(self, text):\n", + " ids = list(text.encode(\"utf-8\"))\n", + " while True:\n", + " counts = count(ids)\n", + " mergeable_pairs = counts.keys() & self.merges.keys()\n", + " if len(mergeable_pairs) == 0:\n", + " break\n", + " to_merge = min(mergeable_pairs, key=self.merges.get)\n", + " ids = replace(ids, to_merge, self.merges[to_merge])\n", + " return ids\n", + "\n", + " def decode(self, ids):\n", + " return b\"\".join((self.vocab[i] for i in ids)).decode(\"utf-8\")" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.03: Encoding and decoding\n", + "\n", + "Explain how the code implements the BPE algorithm. Use the following steps to check your understanding:\n", + "\n", + "**Step 1.** Annotate the attributes and methods of the `Tokenizer` class with their Python types. In particular, what is the type of `self.merges`? Use the `Pair` shorthand.\n", + "\n", + "**Step 2.** Explain how the implementation chooses which merge rule to apply. Provide an example that illustrates the logic." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Training a tokeniser" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "Upon initialisation, a tokeniser has an empty set of merge rules. Your next task is to complete the BPE algorithm and write code to learn these merge rules from a text." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.04: Training a tokeniser\n", + "\n", + "Write a function that induces a BPE tokeniser from a given text. The function should take the text (a string) and a target vocabulary size as input and return the trained tokeniser." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "def from_text(text: str, vocab_size: int) -> Tokenizer:\n", + " # TODO: Replace the following line with your own code\n", + " return Tokenizer()" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "To help you test your implementation, we provide three text files together with tokenisers trained on these files. Each text file contains the first 1 million Unicode characters in a language-specific Wikipedia:\n", + "\n", + "| Text file | Tokeniser file | Wikipedia |\n", + "|---|---|---|\n", + "| `wiki-en-1m.txt` | `wiki-en-1m.tok` | [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/) |\n", + "| `wiki-is-1m.txt` | `wiki-is-1m.tok` | [Icelandic](https://is.wikipedia.org/) |\n", + "| `wiki-sv-1m.txt` | `wiki-sv-1m.tok` | [Swedish](https://sv.wikipedia.org/) |\n", + "\n", + "A tokeniser file consists of lines specifying merge rules. For example, the first line in the tokeniser file for Swedish is `101 114`, which expresses that this rule combines the token with ID 101 (`e`) and the token with ID 114 (`r`). The ID of the new token (`er`) is 256 plus the (zero-indexed) line number on which the rule is found. The following code saves a `Tokenizer` to a file with this format:" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "def save(tokenizer: Tokenizer, filename: str) -> None:\n", + " with open(filename, \"w\") as f:\n", + " for fst, snd in tokenizer.merges:\n", + " print(f\"{fst} {snd}\", file=f)" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "To test your code, compare the saved tokeniser to the provided tokeniser using `diff`." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Tokenisation quirks\n", + "\n", + "The tokeniser is a key component of language models, as it defines the minimal chunks of text the model can âseeâ and work with. As you will see in this section, tokenisation is also responsible for several deficiencies and unexpected behaviours of language models.\n", + "\n", + "One helpful tool for experimenting with tokenisers in language models is the web app [Tiktokenizer](https://tiktokenizer.vercel.app/). This app lets you play around with, among others, [`cl100k_base`](https://tiktokenizer.vercel.app/?model=cl100k_base), the tokeniser used in the free version of ChatGPT and OpenAIâs APIs, and [`o200k_base`](https://tiktokenizer.vercel.app/?model=o200k_base), used in GPT-4o." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.05: Tokenisation quirks\n", + "\n", + "Prompt [ChatGPT](https://chatgpt.com/) to reverse the letters in the following words:\n", + "\n", + "```\n", + "creativecommons\n", + "MERCHANTABILITY\n", + "NSNotification\n", + "authentication\n", + "```\n", + "\n", + "How many of these words come out right? What could be the problem when words come out wrong? Generate ideas by inspecting the words in Tiktokenizer. Try to come up with other prompts that illustrate problems related to tokenisation." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Tokenisation and multi-linguality\n", + "\n", + "Many NLP systems and the tokenisers used with them are primarily trained on English data. In the next task, you will reflect on the effect this has when they are used to process non-English data.\n", + "\n", + "The *context length* of a language model is the maximum number of preceding tokens the model can condition on when predicting the next token. This number is fixed and cannot be changed after training the model. For example, the context length of GPT-2 ([Radford et al., 2019](https://cdn.openai.com/better-language-models/language_models_are_unsupervised_multitask_learners.pdf)) is 1,024. \n", + "\n", + "While the context length of a language model is fixed, the amount of information that can be squeezed into this context length will depend on the tokeniser. Informally speaking, a model that needs more tokens to represent a given text cannot condition on as much information as one that needs fewer tokens." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.06: Tokenisation and multi-linguality\n", + "\n", + "Train a tokeniser on the English text file from Task 1.04 and test it on the same text. How many tokens does it split the text into? Based on this, what is the expected number of Unicode characters of English text that can be fit into a context length of 1,024?\n", + "\n", + "What do the numbers look like if you test the English tokeniser on the Icelandic text instead? What could explain the differences?\n", + "\n", + "Interpreting the expected number of Unicode characters as a measure of representation efficiency, what do your results tell you about the efficiency of a language model primarily trained on English data when it is used to process non-English data? Why are these findings relevant?" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "## Part 2: Embeddings" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "In the second part of the lab, you will explore embeddings. An embedding layer is a network component that assigns each item in a finite set of elements (often called a *vocabulary*) a fixed-size vector. At first, these vectors are filled with random values, but during training, they are adjusted to suit the task at hand." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Bag-of-words classifier" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "To help you build an intuition for embeddings and the vector representations learned by them, we will use a simple bag-of-words text classifier. The core part of this classifier only takes a few lines of code:" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "import torch.nn as nn\n", + "\n", + "\n", + "class Classifier(nn.Module):\n", + " def __init__(self, num_embeddings, embedding_dim, num_classes):\n", + " super().__init__()\n", + " self.embedding = nn.Embedding(num_embeddings, embedding_dim)\n", + " self.linear = nn.Linear(embedding_dim, num_classes)\n", + "\n", + " def forward(self, x):\n", + " return self.linear(self.embedding(x).mean(dim=-2))" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.07: Bag-of-words classifier\n", + "\n", + "Explain how the bag-of-words classifier works. How does the code match the diagram you saw in the lectures? Why is there only one `nn.Embedding`, while the diagram shows three embedding layers? What does the keyword argument `dim=-2` do?" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Dataset" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "You will apply the classifier to a small dataset with Amazon customer reviews. This dataset is taken from [a much larger dataset](https://www.cs.jhu.edu/~mdredze/datasets/sentiment/) first described by [Blitzer et al. (2007)](https://aclanthology.org/P07-1056/).\n", + "\n", + "The dataset contains whitespace-tokenised product reviews from two topics: cameras (`camera`) and music (`music`). Each review is additionally annotated for sentiment towards the product at hand: negative (`neg`) or positive (`pos`). The topic and sentiment labels are prepended to the review. As an example, here is the first review from the training data:\n", + "\n", + "```\n", + "music neg oh man , this sucks really bad . good thing nu-metal is dead . thrash metal is real metal , this is for posers\n", + "```\n", + "\n", + "The next cell contains a custom [`Dataset`](https://pytorch.org/tutorials/beginner/basics/data_tutorial.html) class for the review dataset. To initialise an instance of this class, you specify the name of the file containing the reviews you want to load (`filename`) and which of the two labels you want to use (`label`): topic (0) or sentiment (1)." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "from torch.utils.data import Dataset\n", + "\n", + "\n", + "class ReviewDataset(Dataset):\n", + " def __init__(self, filename: str, label: int = 0) -> None:\n", + " with open(filename) as f:\n", + " tokenized_lines = [line.split() for line in f]\n", + " self.items = [(tokens[2:], tokens[label]) for tokens in tokenized_lines]\n", + "\n", + " def __len__(self) -> int:\n", + " return len(self.items)\n", + "\n", + " def __getitem__(self, idx: int) -> tuple[list[str], str]:\n", + " return self.items[idx]" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Vectoriser" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "To feed a review into the bag-of-words classifier, you first need to turn it into a vector of token IDs. Likewise, you need to convert the label (topic or sentiment) into an integer. The next cell contains a partially completed `ReviewVectoriser` class that handles this transformation." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "from collections import Counter\n", + "\n", + "import torch\n", + "\n", + "# Type abbreviation for reviewâlabel pairs\n", + "type Item = tuple[list[str], str]\n", + "\n", + "\n", + "class ReviewVectorizer:\n", + " PAD = \"[PAD]\"\n", + " UNK = \"[UNK]\"\n", + "\n", + " def __init__(self, dataset: ReviewDataset, n_vocab: int = 1024) -> None:\n", + " # Unzip the dataset into reviews and labels\n", + " reviews, labels = zip(*dataset)\n", + "\n", + " # Count the tokens and get the most common ones\n", + " counter = Counter(t for r in reviews for t in r)\n", + " most_common = [t for t, _ in counter.most_common(n_vocab - 2)]\n", + "\n", + " # Create the token-to-index and label-to-index mappings\n", + " self.t2i = {t: i for i, t in enumerate([self.PAD, self.UNK] + most_common)}\n", + " self.l2i = {l: i for i, l in enumerate(sorted(set(labels)))}\n", + "\n", + " def __call__(self, items: list[Item]) -> tuple[torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor]:\n", + " # TODO: Complete the implementation of this method\n", + " return torch.tensor([], dtype=torch.long), torch.tensor([], dtype=torch.long)" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "A `ReviewVectoriser` maps tokens and labels to IDs using two Python dictionaries. These dictionaries are set up when the vectoriser is initialised and queried when the vectoriser is called on a batch of reviewâlabel pairs. They include IDs for two special tokens:\n", + "\n", + "`[PAD]` (Padding): Reviews can have different lengths, but PyTorch requires all vectors in a batch to be the same size. To handle this, the vectoriser adds `[PAD]` tokens to the end of shorter reviews so they match the length of the longest review in the batch.\n", + "\n", + "`[UNK]` (Unknown): If a review contains a token that is not in the token-to-ID dictionary, the vectoriser assigns it the ID of the `[UNK]` token instead of a regular ID." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.08: Vectoriser\n", + "\n", + "Explain and complete the code of the vectoriser. Follow these steps:\n", + "\n", + "**Step 1.** Explain how unzipping works. What are the types of `reviews` and `labels`?\n", + "\n", + "**Step 2.** Explain how the token-to-ID and label-to-ID mappings are constructed. How does the `most_common()` method deal with elements that occur equally often?\n", + "\n", + "**Step 3.** Complete the implementation of the `__call__()` method. This method should convert a list of $m$ reviewâlabel pairs into a pair $(X, y)$ where $X$ is a matrix containing the vectors with token IDs for the reviews, and $y$ is a vector containing the IDs of the corresponding labels." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Training the classifier" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "With the vectoriser completed, you are ready to train a classifier. More specifically, you can train two separate classifiers: one to predict the topic of a review, and one to predict the sentiment. The next cell contains a simple training loop that you can adapt for this purpose." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "import torch.nn.functional as F\n", + "\n", + "\n", + "def train():\n", + " dataset = ReviewDataset(\"reviews-train.txt\", label=0)\n", + " processor = ReviewVectorizer(dataset, 1024)\n", + " model = Classifier(1024, 64, len(processor.l2i))\n", + " optimizer = torch.optim.Adam(model.parameters(), lr=0.001)\n", + " data_loader = torch.utils.data.DataLoader(\n", + " dataset,\n", + " batch_size=16,\n", + " shuffle=True,\n", + " collate_fn=processor,\n", + " )\n", + " for epoch in range(10):\n", + " model.train()\n", + " running_loss = 0\n", + " for bx, by in data_loader:\n", + " optimizer.zero_grad()\n", + " output = model(bx)\n", + " loss = F.cross_entropy(output, by)\n", + " loss.backward()\n", + " optimizer.step()\n", + " running_loss += loss.item()\n", + " print(f\"Epoch {epoch}, loss: {running_loss / len(data_loader):.4f}\")\n", + " return processor, model" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.09: Training loop\n", + "\n", + "Explain the training loop. Follow these steps:\n", + "\n", + "**Step 1.** Go through the training loop line-by-line and add comments where you find it suitable. Your comments should be detailed enough for you to explain the main steps of the loop.\n", + "\n", + "**Step 2.** The training loop contains various hard-coded values like filename, learning rate, batch size, and epoch count. This makes the code less flexible. Revise the code so that you can specify these values using keyword arguments. Use the concrete values from the code as defaults." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.10: Training the classifier\n", + "\n", + "Adapt the next cell to train the classifier for the two prediction tasks. Based on the loss values, which task appears to be the harder one? What is the purpose of setting a seed?" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "torch.manual_seed(42)\n", + "vectorizer, model = train()" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Inspecting the embeddings" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "Now that you have trained the classifier on two separate prediction tasks, it is interesting to inspect and compare the embedding vectors it learned in the process. For this you will use an online tool called the [Embedding Projector](http://projector.tensorflow.org). The next cell contains code to save the embeddings from a trained classifier in a format that can be loaded into this tool." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "def save_embeddings(\n", + " vectorizer: ReviewVectorizer,\n", + " model: Classifier,\n", + " vectors_filename: str,\n", + " metadata_filename: str,\n", + "):\n", + " i2t = {i: t for t, i in vectorizer.t2i.items()}\n", + " embeddings = model.embedding.weight.detach().numpy()\n", + " items = [(i2t[i], e) for i, e in enumerate(embeddings)]\n", + " with open(vectors_filename, \"wt\") as f1, open(metadata_filename, \"wt\") as f2:\n", + " for w, e in items:\n", + " print(\"\\t\".join(\"{:.5f}\".format(x) for x in e), file=f1)\n", + " print(w, file=f2)" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "Call this code as follows:" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "save_embeddings(vectorizer, model, \"vectors.tsv\", \"metadata.tsv\")" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.11: Inspecting the embeddings\n", + "\n", + "Load the embeddings from the two classification tasks (topic classification and sentiment classification) into the Embedding Projector web app and inspect the vector spaces. How do they compare visually? Does the visualisation make sense to you?\n", + "\n", + "The Embedding Projector offers visualisations based on three dimensionality reduction methods: [UMAP](https://umap-learn.readthedocs.io/en/latest/), [T-SNE](https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-distributed_stochastic_neighbor_embedding), and [PCA](https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_analysis). Which of these seems most useful to you?\n", + "\n", + "Focus on the embeddings for the words *repair* and *sturdy*. Are they close to each other or far away from another? What happens if you switch to the other task? How do you explain that?" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "### Initialisation of embedding layers\n", + "\n", + "The error surfaces explored when training neural networks can be very complex. Because of this, it is crucial to choose âgoodâ initial values for the parameters. In the final task of this lab, you will run a small experiment to see how alternative initialisations can affect a modelâs performance.\n", + "\n", + "In PyTorch, the weights of the embedding layer are initially set by sampling from the standard normal distribution, $\\mathcal{N}(0, 1)$. However, research suggests other approaches may work better. For example, you have seen that embedding layers share similarities with linear layers, so it makes sense to use the same initialisation method for both. The default initialisation method for linear layers in PyTorch is the so-called Kaiming initialisation, introduced by [He et al. (2015)](https://www.cv-foundation.org/openaccess/content_iccv_2015/papers/He_Delving_Deep_into_ICCV_2015_paper.pdf)." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "#### đ Task 1.12: Initialisation of embedding layers\n", + "\n", + "Check the [source code of `nn.Linear`](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/_modules/torch/nn/modules/linear.html#Linear) to see how PyTorch initialises the weights of linear layers using the Kaiming initialisation method. Apply the same method to the embedding layer of your classifier and see how this affects the loss of your model and the vector spaces." + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "metadata": {}, + "source": [ + "**đ„ł Congratulations on finishing lab 1!**" + ] + } + ], + "metadata": { + "kernelspec": { + "display_name": "Python 3", + "language": "python", + "name": "python3" + }, + "language_info": { + "codemirror_mode": { + "name": "ipython", + "version": 3 + }, + "file_extension": ".py", + "mimetype": "text/x-python", + "name": "python", + "nbconvert_exporter": "python", + "pygments_lexer": "ipython3" + } + }, + "nbformat": 4, + "nbformat_minor": 2 +} diff --git a/labs/lab1/reviews-dev.txt b/labs/lab1/reviews-dev.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..22fe64a --- /dev/null +++ b/labs/lab1/reviews-dev.txt @@ -0,0 +1,512 @@ +music neg we read all the previous reviews and thought this disc would be a keeper . we ( my husband , three kids 14 , 10 , and 5 ) tried it on a warm , spring evening in the car . one or two songs , like the banana splits , speed racer , and scooby-doo were fun . most however , were harsh , and too fast for the parents and youngest guy . i would rather try these songs in their original state and skip the covers +music neg the only reason i picked up this album was the name norah jones . i was expecting to hear her at the forefront , and i did n't really . to be honest , i was hoping to hear more of what she sounded like in come away with me and feels like home . if you 're looking for norah jones , this is n't really the album you 're looking for +camera pos this cable came in a cheap packing and it does not have any logo on it so you ca n't say which company it belongs to . i have used a lot of sony products and i feel it is not up to the standard of sony . it works great had no problems so far . it is flexible kinds so you do n't have to worry about positioning your laptop according to your tv . +music pos king elvis . queen madiona . prince justin . and now princess hillary ! duff is slowly making her way up to the queen of pop . it was espicially nice to here my teen idol singing all christmas classics with some other pop stars too . if you love hillary duff and you really need some new cd 's by her and it 's crhistmas time then this is cd for you ! let me tell ya somethin ' , that girl can sing . so go to the cd store . buy it ! play it ! plop down on the couch and have a glass of egg nog . +music neg i have all her other cds i especially love unsung heroes there is a vibe to that cd that gets u right in but with this one its like shes just tryin far toooo hard to be good....sure the technique is spot on but there is no soul the emotion is missing...for me i like my jazz vocals with feeling . i like the singer to take u on a journey deep into to the song . u wont get that here all u will get is technique. . +music pos if you 're a fan of latin music and especially spanish guitar , you will love cafe tropical . every song is different from the next with instrumentation ranging from guitar , to piano , violin , trumpet , and a whole host of spicy percussion instruments . every time i put this cd on i hear new things , which i find makes for an even more enjoyable listen . as usual , johannes linstead delivers some of the most catchy and memorable melodies in the nouveau flamenco genre , and of course his guitar playing speaks for itself . highly recommended +music pos just lay back and listen . brian wilson never misses a note . his voice was one of the natural wonders of sixties pop . his composing and arranging skills are without peer and he even plays some awesome bass ( the slow middle eight section on " would n't it be nice " ) on this album . these songs are the sound of former teen idols settling into adulthood and feeling both excited and uncertain . recorded with a large selection of musicians and sung heartbreakingly well by the beach boys themselves , this is a true pop magnum opus . the best tracks are the gorgeous " you still believe in me " , " do n't talk ( put your head on my shoulder " ) , the title cut , and the tear inducing " caroline no " . instead of trapping you outside his pain and insecurity , brian wilson invites you into his world and lays his soul bare with a suite of songs that have n't aged a day since 1966. the more you listen to " pet sounds " , the more it 's beauty envelopes you +camera neg i bought this from another retailer on " black friday " for half of what amazon is selling it for and i 'm still bringing it back . i think it 's horrible . i was so excited to get a mini-dv camcorder because i heard how great the picture was , but this takes horrible video . it comes out so dark that you can hardly see anything , even using the light . even in a fairly well-lit room it came out dark . it looked ok on the lcd screen , but when i hooked it up to the tv , horrible ! and it 's not my tv either because i hooked up my old camcorder and it looked fine . i love that it 's so small , but if i ca n't see the video , it 's no use to me . back to by big old sony +music pos this cd is a must for anyone who enjoys great guitar music . its packed full of amazing pieces and inspiring playing . my favorite track is is n't it romantic because it successfully makes a classic out of this song . buy it now ! ! +camera neg but the stitching was irregular on the front . i thought the company produced good products , but i was mistaken when i bought this item . next time i 'll just go to bestbuy for a camera case +camera pos getting great pictures from this new flash for my sony digital slr camera +camera pos this camera is excellent one ! ! really when you compare its price and its results and the level of quality you get you will know why this is the best in its category , i 'm getting a very professional results using it with a lot of styles. . highly recommended +camera pos i bought this product almost a month ago , its sleek , its reliable and has all good features a good digital camera should . worth the money for a sony camera , this camera has the usualy seen high quality for a sony product +music neg their new stuff is even worse . but this is still sexist , boring , annoying music at its worst . there are much better artists out there , so why listen to these two untalented rappers +music pos the title track is one of the best country songs ever performed proving the talents of hank as a true caftsman when it comes to song writing . fitting that category as well are outlaw women , and women i 've never had . hank also lends his southern rockin ' style to white lightnin ' written by j.p. richardson a.k.a. the big bopper . what bocephus album would be complete without at least one tribute to his father ? hank serves up a whopper here along with waylon jennings in a classic called the conversation . in a time , much like today , when country was straying from it 's roots hank finds a way to keep the southern bluesy traditions alive on all ten cuts of this must have country album +music pos the best place to start with the best is at the beginning . enya 's the celts ( identical to the original 1980s release simply called enya ) is a beautiful collection of music . enya is not an artist where you just get the " best of " album . every cd is a best of in itself +music neg ok , booty rap was good in the 90 's , when it was offensive and raunchy like , 2 live crew , disco rick and the dogs , poison clan etc.....but this is just wack weak lyrics , corny typical krunk beats that start all sounding the same....and is it just me are these guys as rappers , just horrible there voices all raspy , and annoying and one the guy 's from the groups always does that annoying shout thing in interviews like hahhhhherrrrrr.... . ( what is he on crack or something ) so if you like radio friendly , pretty boy music then the ying yang twins are for you peace.. . +music neg lou reed rocks ! ! ! dude ! ! but methinks this collection dost not . the tunes are all good , but there are n't very many of them , and the sound is deplorable , in that inimitable rca-first-cd-edition sort of way ( fans of the jefferson airplane and harry nilsson know what i 'm talking about ) . a much better jumping off point would be " different times : lou reed in the 70's " , or , even better , check out " transformer " or " rock ' n ' roll animal " +camera neg like another reviewer 's , my experience has been mixed . i use this remote with the d50. sometimes the remote works , then it goes on strike . then suddenly it works again . same distance and angle from the camera . i changed the battery - same result . i hardly use it anymore because it is so unreliable +music neg ryuichi sakamoto 's credibility is on the precipice with chasm , a turgid unlistenable work of crud . check out coro and only love can conquer hate , both sound like factory machinery at work . dire , dreadful and diabolical . stop being the artiste ryuichi and have a go at entertaining . your fans deserve better +camera neg my hunting buddy purchased a nikon 800. my intent was to put him in the shade . that nikon kicks the crap out of my bushnell yardage pro 1000. tried new batteries , tried bluffing , even tried to lie but nothing helped this product past 500 / 600 yards . my opinion is this product is not worth the postage . anyone with similar opinion or someone that has had a good experience with this product . [... +music neg this is a cd of the history of the band . interesting but was not a music cd . was not worth the price +camera pos a great add-on for the xacti hd1 , but two minor problems i 've found so far . 1. i ca n't use a circular polarizing filter with the wide angle lens as it cuts off the corners of a picture and ; 2. flash photography wo n't work as the pop-up flash becomes obscured by the barrel of the add-on lens +camera neg this is a complete waste of money . ( 1 ) it 's clunky and hard to carry around . ( 2 ) not really a good value for money based on the mp 's it offers . i would recommend you spend the add'l $50 and get a nicer camera ! this one is crap +music pos this book helps toddlers put into context how they fit into the animal kingdom , and the natural things all animals do . it teaches them to be comfortable with - without shame - the move from being a diaper-clad baby to a big kid . the drawings are charming ! i bought this book for a friends who runs a day care center and got a very positive reaction +camera pos i just got my new photo box today . i was so excited i opened it at work . then i took a picture of my wendy 's salad just to see how it looked . the quality of the pictures are excellent ( macro mode ) . light is evenly distributed . caution about the lights : the lights get really hot really fast . untouchable within 2min . after i turn them on . i suggest for the shear sanctity of safety , shut off the lights between object / scene changes . the package arrived intact , the box was beat up a little , nothing major . when i opened the item , i noticed the camera stand had pierced the nylon on the bottom . this could 've been a bad / weak stitch , or may have happened during shipping , but nothing major was wrong , only that . besides , i can sew it ! overall , this is a great product , and is easy to setup and carry around . i 'd definitely buy again +camera neg unless you take picture outside , no matter what you do , the picture comes out blurry . flash does n't help at all - it takes more than 5 seconds for it to take a picture , and you still get a blurry picture with horrible quality indoors . my sister had a camera from olympus , with 5 megapixel and 3x zoom too , but i found it so much easier to take a picture ( and a better one too ) with that one . unless you want to buy your 5th grader his / her toy camera , you should n't consider nikon 5600. +music neg etta never fails to deliver in the vocals . gutteral bombast , sweet soul , gospel , blues , the lady is a living legend . but this album , like the last album " produced " by her son , is a nightmare . chessy arrangments , tinkly bass , poor sound all around . she is a fierce mother and i 'm sure she thinks her kids know best , but there is a reason why labels pair vocalists with the right producer . should etta get the chance to work with a fresh ear at the deck , she would n't need the novelty of some of the song choices . ps - 200lbs lighter and she remains the best live performer ; blues , r / b , soul , whatever , in the world . +music pos no doubt about it , from start to finish , this is a classic for anybody 's collection . i can remember back in the spring of ' 93 when the movie came out and it was a classic as well but the soundtrack matches up to what the movie was and this soundtrack sent a big message to a lot of us about what goes on the inner cities today . this was rap music at it 's best from spice 1 to dj quik . there will not be a soundtrack like this ever again that addresses what goes on in our neighborhoods . so add this to your collection if you still love the true gangster rap , west coast fan ( like myself ) , or just want to hear a great soundtrack +camera pos we canoe / kayak down various rivers and creeks . i wanted a way to take my $1500 camera on the water without fear of damaging it . the sports pack is completely water proof ( up to 7m ) . i 've submersed the case in a test and in a real-life situation and the camera stayed dry . the case does not cause any noticeable reduction in picture quality . it is relatively simple to operate and assemble . you have only the basic functions of the camera while in the case , so you need to change any setting for the camera before putting it in the case and advanced camera features are not able to be used . my only concern is the scratch resistance of the plastic over the lens area . so far i have n't had any problems but i 've only taken on the river for about 30 hrs . all told , i 'm very pleased and if you plan on filming in or near water i would recommend this case +camera pos our firm uses our powershotsd500 camera daily and often takes long videos of our work for our clients and material processing . long battery life is very important . we have over a dozen of the canon batteries . pleased with them all . +camera neg while this lens has an attractive price tag , this lens has serious trouble with sharpness . only at high shutter speeds ( 1 / 250 and above approx . ) or with a good flash and middle apertures ( f / 8 to f / 22 approx . ) does it deliver sharp images . horribly slow autofocus . i am already saving to buy and l-series or the is usm version +music pos unbelievably and indubitably a bona fide , and fortified roots reggae album ! if you do n't have firehouse rock in your cd collection and you consider yourself a reggae fan , you may need to re-evaluate what you think you know about jamaican music . the roots radics , especially the rythym section , utilize ( with supreme efficacy , i might add ) and epitomize the manipulation of space and time so often associated with reggae " riddims . " on top of the radics , the wailing souls add ethereal vocals , while staying masterfully conscious . firehouse rock is a beautifully recorded piece of audible jamaican history and an absolute must have +music neg i 'm a big fan of great big sea and i purchase everything they release . apparently they were trying to give this cd the " feel " of a live , medium-size venue performance . unlike their other live dc offerings , this one sounds like it was recorded with a micro-cassette tape in some fan 's front pocket . it does n't give justice to their usual great vocals and unique sound . overall , i was pretty disappointed and i 'd recommend their earlier offerings over this one . +camera neg i was happy at first when i got this memory card but when my phone crashed the memory card was completely wiped out . i was ok with the memory card getting wiped out but when i tried re-formatting the card my phone , computer and laptop couldnt even read the card so i ended up throwing it away . i guess you really get what you pay for +camera neg i 've purchased seven items from amazon in 2005 , so i 'm not a complete rookie . this item 's ad title includes the word " battery " in big , bold letters . i purchased this kit advertised with a " used price " , but " condition : new " . the ad picture clearly shows a battery . i had looked at several ads and did not read the individual seller 's comment " battery missing " in uppercase , though in regular font . to me , a missing part warrants more of a warning than a " comment " . that 's my " lesson learned " , but i still find it confusing to advertise both complete and incomplete kits together under identical ad titles without a prominently displayed warning in big , bold text indicating that the most valuable part is missing . lesson learned : read the whole ad for the specific seller , especially the " seller 's comments " +music pos at the end of the day , when you come home from school or work , one ca n't say " i feel great . " rather than great , we are stressed and tired . the sounds of falling rain is evermore relaxing that this cd captures it it almost perfectly . i too , am always stressed at the end of a work day and have relaxed to the sound of falling rain ; and it does work . it would also be helpful to listen to while sleeping . with quiet , natural sounds , it will have a soporific effect on its listeners and relax you +camera neg i purchased this camera for my 13-yr old daughter as her first digital camera . it was a christmas present so i am highly dissapointed that 3 months after purchase , the flash stopped working . the picture quality was good but it hardly makes up for the fact that she can no longer take photo 's indoors or in low light . i would not recommend this camera . +music pos europe and japan - the final great pop frontiers ! ....last i heard it was austin ? - oh well ! canada shows love too...our favorite neighbors....do ya a favor ! there are some really interesting japanese based labels...search on web and be impressed ! +music pos wow ! what a great collection of great classic songs ! we highly recommend this to anyone with any age kids who want to have fun and have fun without the tv ! hokey pokey baby...that 's what it 's all about +camera pos great little camera case . has a main pocket for the camera and a second smaller pocket to hold batteries and memory stick . it 's well made ballistic nylon - very durable . attaches to belt or sholder strap +music neg roni griffith has just come out with her new release " only you " its great ! ! ! ! ! [...]she has come back so much stronger . check it out . evi +camera neg this dock does not fit the r817 camera . just bought this and the hp r817 and i am very disappointed . the input for the camera is to big for the 817. so do not buy this if you get the 817 **update** this review was written , when the dock was stated to fit the r817 , which has been changed because it does not fit +camera neg i bougt this camera because i had had a sony coolpix 3 , which took great pictures . with this camera , you can never get it adjusted right . if you use the flash the pictures are to light , if you dont they are too dark . it is a constant battle with this little cute camera . worse camera purchase i ever made . +music pos i found this cd by browsing amazon and decided to give it a try . i am happy with all of the tracks . some tracks remind me of beatles a little , but not all , so the band does have a unique sound . even though from the 90s , the sound is like many bands making it today . i like it . +music pos this album is the shyit , cougnut and c-fresh deliver , the only problem you might have with this album is figuring out which one is cougnut and which one is c-fresh , but as you listen you will tell differences . " back in the days " is real old album , so audio can be bad for a couple of the tracks but there isnt a weak track on this album . the beats do n't get too bass heavy untill " hillary " after that song the next 4 tracks or so are very bass heavy , but the flows are tops . these guys are the definition of gangsta , and is a must for anybody who likes gangsta rap . all guests are sick to , dre dog , cellski , chewy , r.b.l , 2.2 and mack and al kapone . definetly a classic +music pos wonderful instrumentals and lyrics . a shenandoah lullaby is simply beautiful . i love the way the ending segues into brahm 's lullaby . his version of arkansas traveller is refreshing . teddy bears ' picnic is a quaint song that few people have heard . there ai n't no bugs on me is my two-year-old daughter 's favorite , judging from the way she belts out this song and giggles from time to time . i like all the songs on the cd . a breath of fresh air for parents who prefer real instruments to synthesized pop . +music pos from the manic whirlwind prelude to the shocking cake and sodomy , portrait of an american family is an album that stands on its own two feet as being catchy and memorable . cake and sodomy dishes out the obscene gestures , lunchbox is told with a twist of humor , organ grinder is pleasing vocally , cyclops is addictingly wild , get your gunn is catchy ( if not overly insulting ) , dope hat is great and fierce , and my monkey is hysterically enjoyable . snake eyes and sissies is another winner , easy to get lost in . the rest all work to varying degrees , though not as appealing . every song on this album is worth listening to , from fast paced and rock style to techno overload . +music neg this soundtrack was ` heart-brokenly ' disappointing to me mainly because it lacks a few songs that were in the film . i bought this soundtrack for one specific song ( and it would 've been worth every penny if only it was included ) : the song near the end when alexander marches through the desert to return home to babylon after his recovery . such a disappointment that was n't included . in the other hand , i 'm satisfied with some of the tracks that were included . i particularly liked " roxane 's veil " even though i do n't recall hearing it in the film . +music neg as much as i have been a lifelong fan of black moon and buckshot in general this album just lacked the ironically titled " chemistry " between buckshot and 9th wonder . the beats were a bit lackluster and boring and rides that razor thin line of boring and laid back with most of the beats raiding the boredom zone . they are working on a part two so i hope they take their times to create something permament rather than something disposable as this album was . +music pos always loved this group....own several of their cd 's and this is by far my favorite . darryl hall 's phrasing of his songs are superb . +music pos when i first purchase this album the first time . it was exceptional then and it still is . exceptional and gifted group these ladies rule the early 90's . some of my favorites free your mind , my lovin , it ai n't over till the fat lady sings , just to name a few . envogues voices all of them work masterfully together they way a head of their time . as far as female groups they rank 5 stars in my book following such groups as supremes , labelle , tlc the had allot orginiality and appeal that drew people to them because of the voices and their orignal material . they are trendsetters . please go buy this cd . i will buy it again myself . i have the cassette . i need the cd for my collection . i know they came out with a new album hopefully this will be a great album as well . go envogue g +camera neg it was suggested by amazon.com that i buy this product since i was purchasing a canon powershot s2is digital camera . not knowing any better , i bought it . it does n't even work with this model camera . i bought a memory card reader instead at a local store & bypassed the need for an adapter altogether +camera pos product is excellent . however when using in motion , whether on bike or vehicle , it is difficult to grip and falls off hand . in addition , the " mode / menu " button is accidentally hit or depressed by your thumb while in motion +music neg being a fan of jack johnson , i thought this one would be as good as the others . i was n't impressed at all . it sounds like a few guys pickin ' around in the basement . the recording quality has very little production value . at best , these are okay live versions of usually great songs . this is an unnecessary piece for your jack johnson collection . +camera pos bought as a gift for daughter in law . she loves it . seems to be an excellant entry level camcorder . enough bells and whistles to satisfy most without being excessively expensive . quality is good which is to be expected from jvc . operation is simple enough and picture quality even for jpeg internet quality stills is satisfactory . +camera neg i selected a sony vf-30cpkxs polarizing filter but it took me to this page where i got a sony vf-r30nkx 30mm neutral density filter . there is a big difference . may 9 , 2006. i hope this is a mistake and not intentional deception +music neg ...and im happy about it ! i think i might cry if'n it shows up again . fareals . if albums where 3 dimensional this wouldn e'en make the c-side ! i love me some roy , but bruh hurt me with this one . i forgive him tho , cause he done gave me much much pleasure up til now.. . ...um , hope that came out right . *pimp struts off stage / pounds chest with gorilla fist / machismo free flowing* m'out yall , peace ! +camera pos i did a lot of research before buying the pv-gs250. now that i have the camera in my hands i know i made a great choice . great image quality . great build quality . the low light problems you read about are not really a big deal . in a noramlly lit room everything is fine . +camera pos i always say that there is technology you can use and technology you can impress others with . this model helps you do both . you have a nice 5.1 mp still camera and mpegmovie4tv video . the very fact that you have a camera which you can take both still pictures and video is huge . i never had a video camera before because i hate to carry two camera and a big camera case , so this was the obvious solution . i realize that instead of embracing the moment ( for which they need the memory ) most people often juggle between cameras . cons : * sometimes people might confuse it with camera phone * buttons are harder to find * software is not the best * wish had more zoom pros : * convince * compact * battery lasts long * flash is good * video sound quality is good i wonder why this model has not swept the market - another story of good product and mad marketing +music pos this is the only albulm i have of the exies for christmas i am getting the last albulm . if its the same as this one the exies must be good . this is the best albulm i have listened to . my favourites are ugly , babtise me , splinter and dear enemy my least favourites are none i like every song its an amazing albulm . ihave listened to some of the tracks over and over again and everytime i think wow this band should be more popular from craig from the uk +music pos this is the type of music to sit down , relax , put on a pair of headphones and let it absorb your concious . from spacey sounding electronics to soft vocals over piano to heart pounding rhythms to skittering percussion...this is just a taste of what is supersilent , and from what i hear it is all improvised which blows my head clean off . all this coming from someone who has never heard them before...talk about a great buy ! highly , highly recommended , i close my eyes , to awaken among the cosmos traveling without a tangible body , drunk with the infinite beauty , i sigh without a mouth and think. . +music pos i was a music director at a college radio station when this came out , and along with a ton of other albums this one commanded my attention . shoegazers ? ? ? i am sure all the label slinging yahoos are still wiping the egg off their faces . its as if the band heard they were pigeonholed and gave them all the big finger . just buy it...and all the rest +camera neg we returned this video camera due to video picture quality . the camera requires a lot of light to have a decent video , even after changing settings , the video had a " grainy " look . we just needed something basic to replace our 10 year old video camera and thought this would work , but the picture was worse than our previous camera . purchased the pv-gs65 , next model up with 3ccd 's and love this model . as a matter a fact we still had the gs-31 , used the same tape , shot the same footage , and reviewing the two different shots , the gs-65 did 100% better . the camera has a great feel in your hand , although the menu button can be difficult to press +camera neg if you are going to lay out $500 for a camera , you should expect a fair amount of camera . however , i have a few gripes here . first , there is no remote control for it which makes setting up a shot tough . all the nikons in the d series can use a wireless remote . you can buy an underwater case for those magnificent nikons so you can shoot underwater . you can get over 10 megapixels in a d80 , or d200 and you get that great nikkor lens . you do n't get much of a lens on the dc500 , and 5 megapixels do n't get you very far when it comes to printing and publication quality images . lets face it : this is an expensive point-n-shoot camera for a tourist , not a serious camera . nuff said . - +camera pos love my new jvc everio . the original model just used compact flash cards , but the new everio gz uses an ipod like hard drive that lets you store a year 's worth of video on it ! tape is definitely dead , and dvd camcorder 's 30 mintues a disc does n't hold a candle to the everio . the only issue i had was that the software that come with it was pretty basic , but all the other video editing software programs did n't recognize the everio video files ( .mod files which contain mpeg2 video and dolby stereo audio ) . i did finally find adobe premiere elements 2.0 which supports this new file type natively . it has made editing a breeze . +camera pos i bought this camera in august . it is really well made and the controls are easy to navigate . i think it takes really good pictures , inside and outside . who cares about video quality ? its a camera , not a camcorder , lady . i think it is a really nice camera . its really durable too . and it looks nice . i would buy it again . i researched a bunch of cameras before this one and i chose the sony in the end . its one step up from just taking everyday pictures . they look really pro . i 'd buy it again +music neg this cd was supposed to expose a new side of dar willams , it has failed to do this . the lyrics , and songs are repetitive of previous works . i would suggest buying something else +camera pos i had this camera for 6 months and so far there have been no problems . the only flaw is that it dosent have a long battery time . it takes good pictures and short videos +music pos i drive alot commuting to and from my job . this music has served as the perfect backdrop to an lovely indiana fall ! i 'm sure i 'll recall those colorful images as i continue to listen to this cd through the colorless days of winter +music neg this album is one of the best sonic youth album...i advise everyone to listen this album...break the circle of common popular music...this album irritates your soul and freedback your dreams. . +music pos i love that garage days re-re visited is on the flip side...in the cassette i had warped a long time ago ! i like this one +music pos i 've always liked tevin campbell , he had a beautiful voice and really did it on " break it down " . i particularly like break it down , shhh , brown eyed girl among others. . excellent cd overall . +camera pos i just bought this waterproof case in order to use my canon s410 on a scuba diving trip . i was a little nervous at first ( i could see me scrapping the camera after it got soaked to the bone ! ) , but i have to say that the waterproof case performed admirably ! i used it on 6 dives , and all of them were to depths of 80+ feet . i did not have one leak ! a word of caution- -i followed instructions and coated the seal of the camera with a fine coat of silicon gel ( just a small amount ) . i would like to think that the camera would not leak without this , but i did not want to take any chances . i would recommend this case to anyone who wants to use their canon camera on dive trips or excursions at the beach +camera pos the canon underwater housings are designed to protect your camera from the elements , whether they are sand , rain , pool , or ocean . for use on the beach , while snorkeling , or taking shots of your kids in a pool there is little or no need to worry about the buoyancy of your camera housing . if you free dive or scuba dive you do not want your camera housing floating out of your hands . these weights are an easy way to adjust the buoyancy of your housing . the kit comes with four weight plates so you can fine tune your housing 's buoyancy . i prefer a heavier setup and have added an extra plate compared to what was recommended by canon . i 'm very happy with the setup and they are very easy to use . +camera neg the main reason for buying this camera is to be able to take good pictures from far away . the quality is very poor . the unit is very bulky to carry around your neck . the sd card slot has some block in it . i was not able to even insert an sd card . all in all , not satisfied at all +music pos i just refreshed my ears listening to " riot " again ! getting to to hear 1 / 2 full , which clocking in at just over 4 minutes , is sheer electric blues magic . the price of this album is worth this one rocker alone . it was nice to see it on " easy street " ( along with lukin ' excellent ! ) any way this number totally kicks ! definitely get this if you do n't already own it . +camera pos we got this camcorder for our daughter for her birthday and she loves it ! her only problem with it is that a memory card is needed because there is n't as much space as she would like and alot of light is needed to film . we were aware of both of these complaints when we purchased it but we were certain that she could work around them . we were also aware of the battery problem , so she got rechargeable batteries . awesome little camcorder , especially for the price +music neg if you want the original recordings , do n't purchase any volume of television 's greatest hits . i 've had better luck recording the songs off of my tv with a cassette tape recorder and then dehissing them on my pc . these collections have sterile sounding fake stereo recordings of " the beverly hillbillies " and " the munsters " that just do n't sound right to me . if the original recordings do n't matter to you , then you may like this cd +camera pos i purchased the videocamera thinking i could watch my old tapes also . this videocam does not do that . i had to return it +music neg now , if we 're being completely honest and true to the stats this album is killing the charts , but maybe just because people are lowering their standards . besides , the fact that i dont like this girl because she is just too rough around the edges , this cd is no " dangerously in love " . where beyonce 's sultry vocals and powerhouse notes highlight her entire album , cole 's raspy voice and sometime-y pitch concern me . aside from the obvious car banger " i just want it to be over " and the wildly popular " love " ( which cole butchers when singing live by the way ) , nothing here surprises me . like i said , you can call me a hater , but with women like beyonce and fantasia around cole 's fire will probably be put out soon +camera neg it 's only redeemingly quality is the price ( if you get a good deal ) . photo quality is poor , and screen is quite small ( 3x5 ) . navigation is not overly complicated , but buttons must be pushed hard to work . it did work perfectly fine - took sd card , even connected to my mac and drag and drop photos onto the sd card i inserted into the frame . but , because of the poor quality of the photos , i do n't suggest buying +camera neg careful , this cable may work " for most digital cameras , " but it does not work with canon digital camera +music pos i was already a fan of mike and the jacksons , but when motown 25 came on in 83 , this guy set the standard for what music and performance could be and where it could go . till this day in my lifetime that one performance at motown 25 is the single most perfect performance i 've ever seen . i remember the next day at school and the next month after that performance we had all kind of talent shows where all of the kids were trying to out moonwalk each other . the saddest and funniest part was watching the less fortunate kids who could not afford the michael gear wearing tube socks with dress shoes and kids making home made glitter and rhinestone gloves . hilarious . as an adult , i refuse to let the media and even michael himself ruin my childhood memories of this untouchable piece of music . 24 years later thriller remains the album to beat +music pos i bought this because i thought this cd would be nice to listen to in the car while on out and about . i love that our 2 1 / 2 year old daughter who is from china loves this cd and will request it " chinese flute " please . this is just one way to keep her heritage alive and expose her to different kinds of music beyond the wiggles & lilo & stitch cd . i would have liked to have had more information on the songs like what province of china . but not having this information really does not lessen the rating of 5 stars ! our family thinks this is an excellent cd +camera pos is an product of great quality , is a kit complete kit of accessories for hp 435i digital camera +music pos i am just writing this review to correct alexander from russia , who cites this album as a christianity peddler . leonard cohen is a jew , who unlike bob dylan ( on john wesley harding ) embraces his sense of jewish heritage and religion within his music . alexander , you 've brought your own interpretation to what is a distinctly jewish artist and his work +camera pos i bought this rangefinder for golf . it is small enough that i could keep it in my pocket . it really helps me with the approach shots to the greens . it takes a bit of experience to be able to focus on the flag . i usually use a person on the green as my target . after i got an approximate read , i use the scan mode to find the exact distance to the flag . be careful with the tiny battery cover . it came loose and i lost it on the golf course . fortunately , i recovered it amongst the green grass . the cover is also green . i now put a tape over it to secure the cover . +camera pos this was my first digital camera , and after reading everything i could get my hands on to read about digital cameras i chose this one . it so happens that the last 35mm camera i owned for years was also an olympus +music neg i purchased this cd shortly after finding out that nickel creek would be disolving their union as a band . i hoped that this collection would be suitable for both myself ( as a strong supporter of nickel creek ) and my two children . this cd honestly fails to deliver a suitable substitution for the music that nickel creek produced over the past 7 years . although , i guess that was an unrealistic expectation to have for this cd . you have to keep in mind that the members of nickel creek were just children themselves when they released this cd . i do n't believe that they had found their true musical identity , and they obviously would n't have reached their full musical potential yet . this cd is n't really the best for a todler either , so i have to say that this purchase was a let down overall +music pos earlier , i had an lp called " best of the band " that was 10 cuts and maybe 35 minutes . this is 18 well chosen cuts and double the length . there are a lot of " best of / greatest hits " type collections from veteran artists that originally came out in 70 's or early 80 's that had a limited number of songs and length . this is a case where the record decided to offer more songs and give the customer a better value for their money . the music itself is 5 stars and they were a major artist due to the fact that they had 3 very good but very different lead vocalists handling the vocals . it gives the music a lot more variety and they put out a lot of fine music in their 1968-76 prime . as an aside , 3 of the band members ( helm , danko , and hudson ) also put out some good music in the 1990 's +music pos this is a good collection , 15 of supertramp 's best songs and the best single-disc collection of theirs you will find . the sound is great and there are no filler songs , here , they 're all great to listen to . highly recommended +music neg man , can she get anymore stupid and talentless . she needs to spend some of that undeserved bling bling on some singing lessons than her skimpy outfits . all the songs on this album are totally unlistenable ! she completely lacks power , vocal range and versatility . jennifer lopez represents everything that is wrong with music today . she gets a recording contract because her good looks and success with her acting career . just because your a great actor / actress does n't necessarily mean you can sing , too . some actors / actresses were able to achieve it , but not jennifer lopez . she needs to quit the music business while she still can . please stick to acting...oh , wait ! i forgot , she ca n't do that either ! +camera neg got this camera for my wife - a digital novice - during christmas 2005. camera is easy to use and takes good pictures . easily interfaces with pc through usb . however , i also ( as did another reviewer ) started having problems after about 11 months . camera would not take pictures as the ccd went bad . luckily i had an extended service contract and it was repaired . unfortunately , it just quit working again ( april 2007 ) and the service contract company says they " ...wo n't bother fixing it again.. . " and is refunding my purchase price . gracious but a hassle doing without a camera for a second time . good camera but if you buy one make sure you get the service contract +music neg it might not be a good album but it definitely shows shania 's potential +camera pos i purchased an off brand to use with my fxf-10 when this case was on back order . it was terrrible , so i ordered this case and am thoroughly pleased . the camera fits perfectly into the case and , although it is described as a " soft case , " it is durable and will protect your camera with style without adding additional bulk +camera pos better than a photo album for showing off a series of pictures . buttons are fairly intuitive , instructions are understandable , and there 's nothing like being the " first kid on the block " with a new toy . getting all sorts of comments about my picture show +camera pos the digital rebel is the most amazing camera i 've ever owned . my previous camera was a canon a90 and i loved using all the features on it [great camera ! ]. i decided recently that maybe i should graduate to a slr because i was starting to get more creative with my photography . i spent a great deal of time researching cameras and finally decided on the digital rebel . after a few months of owning it i still am amazed . the image quality is fantastic , it 's quick and responsive , and every day using it i learn a little more . it 's the perfect intro slr camera for me because everything makes sense and it 's easy to learn . i 've gotten amazing shots that i could never dream of getting with a point and shoot . if you are finding yourself wanting a little more than a point and shoot , go for this camera , you wont be sorry . +music pos this soundtrack cd is the perfect compliment to the visionary film- -cater burwells score is a pitch-perfect aural equivocation of the profound sadness and blithe absurdity on display , with his sense of minimalist suggestiveness and rich textural instincts shining bightly.also an added bonus of the above-mentioned dream combination- -bartok 's " allegro " ( i know diddly about classical music , but bartok rocks ! ! ) , and a typically great bjork song " amphibian " ( in two versions ) , that book-ends the album with an etherial , dream-like haze +music neg gonzalo is a fantastic pianist . this cd however is meant to capture his more thoughtful and sensitive side . however , it is languid and the tunes do n't stand out . it is hard to tell if track 2 is really track 4 as the plodding bass and minimalist approach on piano make for sleepy moments - if driving later in the day . i have heard him with fire and brimstone and sometimes it goes over the edge of taste . but it is exciting . not here . there is barely a hint of any cuban influence in this music as well . now some will like the gentleness i suppose , but with weak material and not much diversity , it sits pretty flat with me +camera pos this lens is fantastic very fast .colors that will blow you away.2.8f stop can set very fast sutter speeds .i put this lens on my reble xt and i dont want to take it off . love it amazon great........ . +camera neg it 's unfortunate that one of the best lens bargains out there is followed up by one of the worst photo ripoffs - - this hood . how can you pay $75 for a great prime lens , and $25 for a flimsy piece of plastic to cover it +camera neg i had high hopes for this battery for my nikon camera . it promised more mah than the oem battery that came with the camera . unfortunately , it must be leaking electrons all over the place , since a charge in this model does not compare to the original . i would guess that the charge lasts half the life of the original nikon battery . the price was cheap and you get what you pay for . if you are going to purchase this one , get two since you 'll need to keep one charging while using the other . cheers +music neg i 'd like to second some of the other reviewers ' reviews of this album . it really lacks the energy and the coherence of the previous album . the tracks in general are a little slower . the production quality is overall about the same , but it is just not as " listenable " as believe was . the exception i find on the album is the " club mix " of " turn it around . " but if we think about that for a second , are n't we talking about " club music " here afterall ? are we under any pretenses that this is elevator or lobby music ? i should think not . what we expect from this band , and from a second album is an equal or better effort at club music . house-ish , trance-ish , and anthemic . it 's just missing on turn it around . i wholeheartedly recommend believe , but i 'd steer clear of this one unless you find it used . +camera neg if you want to load directly from your camera 's memory card the system takes forever to copy photos to the internal card . there is no " copy all " function . loading information from a computer did n't work . the usb connection was not recognized by windows xp and i could n't find any drivers on the web . a setup cd would be a nice addition . btw the screen was not as large as one might think . it is very wide but not tall and it crops the top & bottom of most pictures making it great for shots of the grand canyon but not for portraits of people +camera pos this seemingly simple piece of molded plastic was recommended to me by a professional photographer . basically it 's the shape of an open box that slides firmly onto the flash . it is small and sturdy enough to stash in your camera bag without worrying about damage . when used the light disperses more evenly and is less harsh on the subject being photographed . the white box is for general use . also available are the green omni-bounce for florescent lighting and the gold omni-bounce for a warming effect . pros : inexpensive solution for better flash photography . a quality product that works . cons : non +music pos neil young 's latest release has some very clever and interesting songs . they are very political so unless you are a completest who likes neil young , if you agree with president bush , this album will be a turn-off . for the politically neutral or those who agree with neil young this is a good album . maybe this is not neil young 's best but it still is a good album +camera pos this is an excellent device . quick respond with my d80. i use it to take the family pictures that include me . i just point and press this remote to activate the d80 's timer and it works beautifully +camera neg amazon replaced the original coolpix p3 because of technical defects but the new one has worst problems . this one does not even focuses at all . i dont know what to do now because there is no technical service for nikon in my country venezuela or latin america . i basicly lost my 300 dollars please answe +camera pos i bought this as a present for my wife . i was looking for something that she could carry in her purse . the automatic functions are easy and functional . it is not an enthusiasts camera : too hard to get into the menus . the screen is easy to turn off ( this sucks battery power ) . and it even has an optical viewfinder ( a rare finding lately ) the optical viewfinder helps to get steady pictures for those of us with the shakes . the pictures are clear and the colors are excellent . the drawback is the that sony batteries cost an arm and a leg . the wire for downloading pix is multifunctional and very proprietary ( read that as expensive if you lose it +camera pos very clear , bright day , strong magnification quality seems to be good . very well priced at around $100.00.i will know more over the passage of time .my firstimpression is good mj schra +camera pos this camera was the best " little " camera i have ever owned . it is so amazing . it takes fantastic pictures and it is cheap +music neg you know the music industry is in decline when people are giving this single a perfect rating . run for cover +music pos after trouble and his austin city limits appearance , i thought he was just another very good singer songwriter . this follow up has made me reconsider , because this is the work of a very thoughtful perfectionist . he waited and it was worth the wait . this reminded me immediately of john lennon ( please do n't punish me for blasphemy ) and others that knew how to touch you with simplicity done in a classy way . i did n't expect something this deep for a sophomore recording . enjoy +music pos good stuff ! an excellent collection of original and classic gypsy jazz tunes , artfully performed by jorgenson . i recommend it as an introduction to the virtuosity of john jorgenson and the genius of django reinhardt +music pos i owned this as an lp and played it over and over on my tiny , mono phonograph . i loved it then and i love it now . rainmaker , i 'm on my way back home and love is all that i ever needed would all have been sucessful singles . i would have loved you anyway is the only song i do n't really like but the lyrics are unintentionally funny . all the lyrics seem more suggestive now than they did then but that 's ok ! the background singers get a tad tiring but go david cassidy ! i do n't care if it 's the memories or not , i enjoy putting this on and turning it up +camera neg i was looking for a pair of roof-prism binoculars like this , for hawk and bird watching . i had looked at swarovskis , but they were way out of my budget , nearly a thousand dollars for this resolution . these binoculars are crystal-clear , with sharp focus . the 42mm lens lets in lots of light , lots more than the 35 's i 've been using . i wear glasses and the twist - up - and -down eyecups are a blessing . there are also attached lens protectors for the 42mm , nice because i always used to lose them . for the price , these ca n't be beat +music pos very interesting cd . some of the vocals are distracting , but the music is driving modern psychadelia . as i said , think syd barrett 's floyd mixed w / melt bannana . i highly recommend +camera neg hp is selling this bag for $30 bucks , so when i found it here for $10 less i could n't let this " deal " pass me by.. . however when i received the bag , i wished i had.. . the color is less vibrant , it 's cheap , poor quality , plus hp is n't embroidered on the bag.. . walk away from this bag and get the blue and black hp bag instead , it costs a little bit more but it 's well worth it ! ! +music neg i was misled and thought i was buying the entire cd and it contains one song +camera pos this was the best item i ever bought for my camera . i do a lot of walking with my camera , and thought i would use it as a walking stick , which i do , but the best part of this monopod is what i never thought would happen . my pictures are never fuzzy ! i can take low light photos and have they come out clear . i paid very little for this item and would never be caught without it and my camera . the three levers on the bottom allow for quick expansion at all different lengths . the carrying case allows for this item to be packed next to my camera without it getting scratched +music neg for fans , i suppose this would be a rather big delight ; for non-fans , it 's nothing that will turn you on to the band from jersey . they had some okay , cheesy hits in the ' 80s - but listening to some of their modern songs from this collection proves how completely out of touch they are nowadays +camera neg i have had this camera for about a year and a half . i got so fed up with it that i just bought a new one . i admit , this camera takes decent pictures in good lighting when the zoom is n't used . however , this camera takes horrible pictures if the zoom is used . i would only recomomend this camera to someone who just wants to take pictures of of thier surroundings or to a younger person who is getting their first digital camera +music neg blatant sentimentality without any touch of irony or wit = elefant 's lyrics . i personally like interpol and the strokes ; i resent that they are being compared to these cheeseballs +music pos i have to tell you lionel hampton has yet to be matched in talent , and drive on the " phones . " funny story , it was tito puente the late and legendary " king of the mambo " was the one who showed lionel ( by carefull persuation ) the light of the " phones " and shuned him away from the piano . unfortunatly not much was known on this subject of the two meeting but i believe they meet in the service or right after tito was discharged for ww ii . i can tell you lionel , to me , is best know for his big version of " flying home " . a bigger , badder version of the small groups version he did with benny goodman , and teddy wilson . lionels closest match would have to be red narrvo form the 1930 's , but still mr. hampton ' s drive and moves on the stage has yet to be matched +camera pos i love this camera ! i shake when i take pictures and this easter every picture i took came out perfectly ! there are so many options on this camera i am having fun just playing with it to see what all it can do ! i would recomend this camera to anyone who is looking for a high quality camera at a good price +music neg the movie was bad and unreal and so was the soundtrack , spend your money elsewher +camera neg i purchase this instrument twice . the first time there were black specks in the lense , so it was returned . the second time was worst , i.e. same black specs but the thing did n't work at all . i have also checked this manufacturer 's other models out and most come with the disturbing black specks in the lense . this is n't a quality optical product +music neg this stuff is so boring . i ca n't believe people still listen to this stuff . seriously come on people ! i laugh every time i see some guy trying to play this stuff anywhere . plus busta has admitted to having " relationships " with men if you get what i mean . makes you wonder about a lot of rappers... . +music pos i saw this band open for placebo in tampa , fl. i had never heard of them before that night . i bought the cd immediately . though it 's a bit plain , it 's a great cd . it 's a comforting kind of plain & it rocks . i played it in my cd player for about a month straight . the lead singers voice is unique . this band definitely has much potential to become a well known group . a great debut album . if you ever get to see them live do it ! their live show definitely makes the cd come alive . +music neg who could like a band like the rolling stones ? they are not the world 's greatest rock band and they never made anything good but start me up and shattered . their new album is the most horrible cd i have ever heard . stay far away from that cd . get anything from the stones that contains start me up or shattered insted . +music pos the one song i know is a remake is " goodnight my love . " i know this because i have it on the original 45 issue and the cd version is an inferior remake . but the others with which i 'm familiar - but do n't have original vinyl to compare , only memories - seem authentic . the audio quality is great and certainly superior to some of the cds you find these days which are only re-recordings of old vinyl or cassettes . +camera pos isiklandirmanin iyi olmadigi yerlerde netlik sorunu oluyor . birde floresan isik altinda beyaz dengesi tam tutmuyor . diger ozellikleri gayet guzel . bellek kartina cekim yapabiliyor olmasi cok guzel +music pos the rosary is very well produced . a powerful tool to crush the devils head +music pos this guy is amazing . i keep playing this for people and they love it and tell me they have never heard anything like it . i even got a huge discount at the auto shop for just having this cd . after the mechanic took my car from the parking lot and listened to one minute of this , he came in and said " that sounds crazy ! you have to let me copy this " after getting a nice chunk of cash taken off my bill , this cd already paid for itself and never collects dust . i know everyone compares clark to aphex twin , boards of canada , and autechre , but for good intentions . he is already that good , after just a few releases +camera pos the bushnell perma focus 7x50 wide angle binoculars were the ideal choice for my recent trip to tanzania and the serengeti . they worked perfectly for the application needed . a really happy surprise on just how well these worked . as we bounced around on dirt roads and cross country in land rovers , the perma focus feature was outstanding and made things simple and easy ! : - ) the magnification level was perfect for almost every scenario we came across . anything that was outside of about 80 feet came through in crystal clear vivid color and clarity . it really made for up close and personal viewing of all the animals we saw . by far , these were the best investment i made before the trip ! i ca n't imagine being without them now on such an expedition . really fantastic performance and a great value to boot ! ! ! ! the vendor was fast & flawless in the transaction too . in my opinion you wo n't be disappointed with these binoculars . troy : - ) +music pos i 'll have to accept that even tough i 'm not a great fan of this band they have impressed me with this new release , the lyrics are in some cases very deep and in songs like evil angel they can touch you right there . for me the band has progressed a lot and you can tell that in this album , it 's very melodic and more mature . also the acoustic version of " the diary of jane " is amazing . i personally recommend the songs " breath " , " evil angel " and my favorite " dance with the devil " +camera pos this filter is a must have for photographers that care about their gear . it remains a cost effective tool for protecting the camera lens while serving as a great every day filter . +camera neg i got this telescope for my desk at work because i have a decent view . it stinks , i think i can see better with my naked eye . plus you can not focus it because the slider is so stiff . i guess i will be buying another telescope now +music pos this was the first punk-o-rama cd i listened to , and boy i was not dissapointed . most of the songs on this cd are the type of punk i would listen to , quite fast and energetic . the best song on the cd has to be either nofx - bath of least resistance ( nofx being the greatest punk band of all time , of course ) , or beatsteaks - let me in . i heard the beatsteaks for the first time on this cd and there absolutely bloody excellent . obviously , the cd is made complete with songs from the descendents , pulley , pennywise , dropkick murphy's . the only let down on this cd is noise conspiracy , there song on this cd , well plainly sucks i 'm sorry to say . but overall this cd is one hell of a good listen if your into punk . that 's all , oh yeah , buy it ! by +camera neg huge problems with the lcd screen , two cameras within one month after purchase showed the lcd " shattered . " one has already been shipped for service and the other one will be going in tomorrow . sure it is easy to use and produces great pictures , but the lcd problem is a definite negative . +camera neg i have purchased the pv-gs65 and everytime i use the camera with autofocus it makes everything blurry and only stays in focus for about 3 seconds . i returned my camcorder and got another one ( pvgs65 ) and i am still having this problem . everytime i have used the camera i have to use manual focus . if anyone else has had this problem or knows how i could get this fixed please email me or post another review . brandonwg8677@comcast.net thank you +camera neg i was very disappointed in nikon 's service . this camera has a 2in lcd display that apparently is very fragile . when i returned for service , nikon claimed i dropped it.. . which i did n't ! i was very careful in handling this camera , but the fragile lcd still broke . to be blamed by the manufacturer was really disappointing . they offered to repair it for $210 , nearly the price of a new camera . i will never by a nikon product again . if they are going to sell such a fragile product , they should at least include a hard case for it . +camera pos i 'm new to the digital slr world . i had been using the built in flash on my rebel xt . the built-in flash had done alright , but was nothing to write home about . since i had spent most of my money on the camera , i needed a flash that was both affordable and would get the job done . this flash met both requirements . if you are an advance user , you will want a higher end flash because the flash has limited adjuastable features . yet , if you a newbie like me , this flash is great ! it has improved my picture quality dramaticly . +camera pos i am not much of a photographer . i found this camera easy to use and my pix are just great . believe me , it 's the camera . the stabilizer thing works to give clear focus almost every time . i can even put the pix up on the computer and send them easily . i 'm thrilled . you do need to upgrade to a 1 mgb . memory card when you buy the camera . +music neg i really , really hate foreigner and i rank them as bad as green day.dont make the mistake of buying this disgustingly awful cd which contains trash like waiting for a girl like you which has to be one of the most moronic and stupid songs ever.get any led zeppelin album instead +camera pos this is why sony is hot ! this sexy little ( yes its really small the size of a pack of cards ) it takes perfect clear and crisp pictures and the battery life is a long 320mins perfect for a vacation , make sure to get a memory stick with it though , because w / o it it only holds about 15 pics . this is my first digital camera and i would definitely buy sony again +camera pos after 2+ years , the camera 's original battery was losing its ability to hold a charge . this replacement battery arrived promptly , fit easily and was fully charged in a couple of hours . i wish i had replaced the battery sooner , instead of constantly worrying about running out of battery power +camera neg i have had several people take my pictures.at first , everything is fine.the pictures are ok.the next day , my face looks like a pile of baby vomit.it is soooo blury.then it got 2 the point where every picture i took was blury.i tried fixing it online ( like on the program for the camera ) and it would not work.i hate this camera ! ! ! not to mention the battery sucks.it lasts maybe 3 1 / 2 hours.this camera should be $99.00.trust me people......if i could rate this thing at a zero i would.it is not worth it.however , a camera i absolutely love is the sony cybershot dsct5.an awesome little camera +camera neg my boyfriend bought this for me not realizing that my camera came with a case ( i have the sd200 ) . this case is n't a good fit for the camera and i 've never used it because of that +music neg this album is all about sex and infidelity , is this all way usher 's life is about . this album contains to substance worth listening to . this album is a total waste of money . i like 8701 100 percent better +music pos i got this disc for one song , the uncut , full length version of " boogie wonderland " by earth , wind and fire ( with the emotions ) . the rest of the disc is good - but " boogie wonderlan " is in a class by itself ! ! five stars ! +music neg i really do n't want to be mean , but i find this album very shallow . classical indian music is a very complex , subtle and beautiful thing . comibining it in this way may help to get these wonderful tabla players to a wider audience , but the true energy has been tainted and lowered to make it palatable to simple-minded people who need westernized electronic and wishy-washy " world music " cliches . i do n't find this music to be uplifting or enlightening or interesting . and this is not coming from a strict old fundamentalist of anything , i have delved deep into the avante guard , minimalism , " new music " , eastern and western music theory , microtonal , etc. i would recomend jsut being a non-westernized album and getting the full benefit of tabla playing . however if your mainstay is jungle / drum&bass , then this would be a step up for you , so go for it , it is worth the pruchase in that case +camera neg this case is good for protecting your camera from nicks and scratches caused by storing it in purses , briefcases or luggage . but do n't count on it to protect your camera from falls , dirt or dust . it looks good , the powershot logo gives an authentic look to it +camera pos this is the first is lens that i 've owned . i had trouble justifying the extra expense but am now quite pleased that i took the step up . keep in mind that tis is an ef not ef-s lens . this makes its effective focal length about 45-215mm on my digital rebel . i love the zoom range ( great for shooting action shots of kids without getting in their faces ) and the ability to easily control the depth of field on my nature shots . just uploaded some of my recent shots with this lens under " share your own customer images " . pete leclair http : / / www.agentz.com / digitalimagesbyjpl +camera neg i won this camera in a contest and now i 'm kinda wishing i never had . practically everything i 've shot with this thing has turned out bad in some way or another . from the autofocus that can never decide what it wants to focus on , to the very poor image quality in slightly low lighting situations , to the camera recording glitches in the audio when i capture onto my computer . i know you may look at this thing and feel like the price is right , but i really suggest you just hold out a little while longer to save up a bit more and buy a canon camera that 's not gonna cause you these problems +music pos this is the stuff that rap dreams are made of ! just like the movie itself , this cd is packed with moment after moment of perpetual rollercoaster type thrills that leaves the listener in a sheer state of funk frenzy ! the talent assmbled here is tops and just seems to keep coming at you so , get in , sit down , buckle up and shut the f&#k up because it 's about to get rowdy up in here ! +camera neg very slow storage even with a fast card....small but too thick for comfortable handling . i ended up selling it on ebay and buying a canon sd600 which is a great camera , thin enough to fit in your shirt pocket , fast storage of images and the battery lasts a very long time . i 've charged it once and have taken many many holiday pictures . do n't buy the nikon without first checking out the canon sd600. +camera neg i bought this camera on the recommendation of a store technician over another hp digital . the camera has spent as much time in the repair shop as it has being used . the delay between pictures is incredibly long . the lens / shutter does n't open properly . ( two other family members who own powershot a520 's are having the same problems +camera pos i had a previous generic charger that did not work . well if you go with this one , you wo n't have to worry about that . this one works like a charm and seems to charge pretty fast too . i 've had this for a while now , and never had any problems with it . +music pos david foster , who wrote a few tunes on yes 's " time and a word " is here on bass with tony kaye on the b3 and it 's the performance of their lives captured live at the rainbow . a brave but good way to record a debut album , album was produced by jon anderson and the cover drawn by roger dean , just like yes . it gives you feeling that tony left yes on good terms when rick wakeman stepped in +camera pos what 's not to like ? light , compact and comes with the strap , case and wipe cloth . they are perfect . keep in mind 12 power can be more challeging to hold still +music pos i am new to ron sexsmith . where have i been ? this cd is outstanding and so soothing... . the instrumentals are soul syrup , the melodies are whipped cream and the lyrics are full of cherries , nuts and fudge sauce.....it is putting something so sweet and so nurturing into the hearts and minds of the hungry and starving . i am still in the stage where his songs resonate in my mind just before i fall asleep at night and that waking up means i get to hear his " comfort food " again... . this honeymoon will last forever... . fall in love folks , it 's worth the risk....calorie free , i promise...thanks ron , god speed ! +music neg i heard from a number of people that amon amarth were an excellent death metal band , so with that in mind , i though i 'd try osftgh . what i hear , and it certainly seems i 'm missing out on something , is sloppy musicianship and poor songwriting . just because you have mead dripping from your beard , and you scream out lyrics that contain , no mercy , vengeance and " it 's your time to die " does not mean you can create " authentic " viking / metal . these idiots could definitely take lessons from : enslaved , manegarm , falkenbach to name a few . do n't fall for the hype ! +camera pos i love this battery charger ! i used to use store bought aa batteries for my olympus digital camera , but after keeping the batteries in the camera for only a week , the batteries were drained of power . for some reason , this twin battery pack can stay charged for a few months if i am just storing my camera . highly recommended +camera pos the housing worked great . took it to 80ft scuba diving and with the flash on the colors came out ok . no leaks and access to all functions a plus . +music pos loreena has a pure talent for weaving melody music and words together . her song the highwayman is absolutely astounding to be able to put the old poem into music melody and verse is quite amazing +camera neg i recently purchased the g600 printer dock and have n't even gotten to try it out yet- -the print cartridge that came with it did n't work . i ordered another and inserted it and it still does n't work . it constantly tells me the cartridge is empty and needs replaced . lots of time and money involved in this mess- --stick with hp ! +camera pos i 'm very pleased with this small unit that has a great deal of power . it 's compact , not heavy , has an adjustable power output by simply spinning the wheel on the camera to the left or right . in addition to the light output , the head can be tilted so the light can be direct or bounced , an excellent feature . getting up and running with this unit was a breeze because i am totally " brochure reading averse . " twenty years ago i was a photographer with big equipment , but had given up both . i was surprised by the control one has with such a small and relatively inexpensive unit +camera pos very easy to install ; great tool for easily downloading photos to computer and removing from camera ; would recommend to anybody +music pos if you really into french baroque that is..... . +camera neg i bought this harness because of the connecting straps from the harness to the binoculars . i have compact binoculars and wanted the extention straps for a better fit . the set i received did not have the extention straps included . the harness was the same as all the other harnesses i could buy locally for much less money with the only difference being the name on the back . if you are buying these because of the extention straps , you should email the seller first to make sure the straps are included before spending the extra dollars . they were well made , just not the same item as shown in the picture +music pos this is one of the most beautiful , restorative collections of celtic music i have ever heard . haunting , sublime harp , cello , guitar , flute , and soundscapes create an atomosphere of serenity for meditation , prayer , or simply unwinding the mind and emotions . the poetry which originated each selection is included and provides a meditation in itself . highly recommended +music neg mindless jock rock masterminded by a dope fiend . this kind of crap could n't even sell a can of coke these days . choreographed crunches of noise as lame as a crackhead on crutches . i hear scott weiland kept a billy goat in his trailer during the making of this snoozer - - and that when recording was all done the goat was nowhere to be found , but scotty was sporting a fresh new goatie +camera pos the best buy in the marketplace . it easily fits into my suitcase for travel...the level works nicely and very sturdy for as light as it is +music neg man i do n't know what he was thinking when he recorded some of these songs . the musicianship is , of course , outstanding and his voice is perfect for covering lightning hopkins , furry lewis , son house ( shaker lp ) but who wants to hear repeated renditions of my old dog blue ? i agree with other reviewers who laud " james alley blues " " richland woman " the 2 l.hopkins songs " katie mae " and " darling , do you remember me " muddy waters ' " little geneva " and sonny boy williamson 's " do n't start me to talking . " the other songs do not merit a second listening for anything other than historical interest . the " shaker " cd is even worse . son house 's " death letter " is above average , maybe even great . the rest is barely listenable . if you love the blues , particularly folk blues you will be infinitely happier with any l . hopkins cd +music pos the beats is cool , but you understand his lyrics ! & its not bout all that pimp trash ! snoop not a pimp...but this is a bangin c +camera neg i bought this camera in february , and after taking 6 shots the camera almost died , i could review the photos i had taken , but when switched the dial to take photos the camera turned out black either the lcd / efv , and only turned off when i removed batteries , i sent it to fuji repair center , and got it back again almost one month later . then six months later the camera did exactly same thing , i have n't received my camera back yet , but i 'm sure never will buy a fuji camera again and of course my camera will died again in the next months after i get from the repair center and at the end of the day i will have wasted almost 500 dlls +music neg boo-wop ? haha ok , anyways i bought his through middle-piller distro . and it 's got a couple of o.k. songs on it . the problem is the singing and the overall production . this is definetely a home-recording on computer deal . the vocals are waaaaay weak . what exactly is a " re-worked " debut album ? ? ? i thought once an album was out it was done , set in stone ? apparently not , so mister monster gets to pull a blitzkid ( who changed their first album cover years after it came out ! ) and take the cheezy way out . a definete step up from bands like blitzkid , but still in the cellar of rock n roll . do yourself a favor and buy some good old deathrock from the golden years +camera pos having just gone back to using a film camera from digital ( my wife still uses digital ) i have found this to be an excellant camera so far . i have taken 6 rolls of film and everyone one has came out perfect . i would recommend it +music pos excellent 24 track compilation of this surperb psychedelic dutch band . each tune was a single sometime between 1965-69. these guys are not to be confused with a u.s. band from the same era of the same name . cuts that make this cd a true keeper are " sun 's going down " , the tripping " feel like i wanted to cry " , " keep on trying " , the familiar sounding " touch " and " ballad of john b " . this is yet another band i 've heard at least one or two tracks on the rhino release of ' original artyfacts : nuggets ii ' 4-cd box set.should appeal to fans of pretty things , q65 , early beatles , creation and the action.a must-have +music neg not the type of music i had envisioned...much slower than i was hoping for . +music neg i was prepared to spend the original $26.05 list price for this motion picture soundtrack . at that price it was already the most expensive out of 12 cds ordered . i was refunded the money to " the last starfighter " due to an error listing . when i went to re-order , the new price is $49.95. what a joke ! someone is pocketing an incredibly high profit margin . i would love to have focussed my comments on the actual composition , but until it is sold at a fair price , i will reserve my rating +camera neg i was very excited to see this frame , and thought that would be a perfect gift for a fellow geek . i was extremely disappointed to see poor the picture quality - it looked like the photos were taken using one of the first generation digital cameras that came on the market some 10 years ago . the resolution was similar to my first palm pilot ( iiix ) , just enlarged . i sent it back after trying to get it to display pictures where you could actually see peoples faces . i believe that the pictures of this device showing colorful and detailed images were doctored or transposed to make this product look better +camera pos its a cable , it works , what else do you want ? i know its not the cheapest one out there , but this one says " sony " on it . yea ! ! but , i am a true believer that you only get what you pay for . im sure its better quality than the five dollar version at the flea market . who knows , but i sure feel all warm and fuzzy about getting quality sony products . +camera neg i received this filter and it had been used , seals were open and case that holds filters cracked , piece of plastic floating loose inside , smug marks on it . i was shocked , i order from amazon all the time and never had anything show up like this . +camera pos it was time to upgrade my 2.0 mp canon powershot s200 which is more than three years old ( ancient in a digital world ) to a camera which takes higher quality pictures . the newer canon cameras had a larger screen , but it was basically the same camera . after a month , i am still pleased that i purchased the nikon coolpix s6 : + push button to switch between camera versus play modes ( versus a toggle slide which is hard on the nails ) + easy-to-navigate mode and menu options with flywheel like an ipod + no telescopic lens = no annoying zoom sound during focus , on / off , less wear-and-tear on the most vulnerable component +camera pos first of all i do not consider myself anything more than a very beginning photographer ! ! ! so i will not go into anything technical . i will leave that to people who know more than i do . but what i am is an international traveler . i simply got tired of coming home from fantastic trips with " snapshots " . i wanted someting much better , and boy did i get it with this camera . i looked at the d70s and since i have very small hands , i could never feel comfortable holding it . this camera is smaller without being small . i have only taken photos locally , but at this time of the year with the leaves changing it makes a good start . the built in editing features ( filters etc. ) are wonderful to work with . i would highly recommend this camera to anyone who wants something more than " point and shoot " snap shots +music pos this is the jacksons second album for epic and producers gamble and huff . it would be their last with gamble and huff but together they made a great album that doesnt get the play it should . music 's takin over , different kind of lady and do what you wanna are great , catchy dance tracks . the real greatness here lies in the ballads where michael 's voice is in peak form . even though you 're gone and find me a girl are classic ballads . so good , i feel that find me a girl is probably the best michael jackson song you 've never heard . this is probably michael jackson 's most overlooked album and its one of his best ! the jacksons all sing together great and you can see why destiny and triumph were such big hits after this one was recorded . overall , great ballads , catchy feel good dance tracks , and michael jackson singing his heart out . get this , you will not be dissaponted +camera pos i bought this camera six months ago for my 12 year old daughter . it was her ( and ours ) first digital camera . i read so many reviews prior to selecting this model . the reviews for this camera were so helpful . this camera has been so easy to use and it takes excellent pictures . rechargeable batteries are definitely a must ! this camera is the best camera for this price , no doubt about it . we have taken still shots and videos . it is so fun to have the option to take a video . we have some great clips . all i can say is we are so happy with the camera . we would definitely choose it again +camera pos puts a protective glass over your expensive gla$$ without distortion . +camera pos i 've been using this directional mic for almost three years and have never noticed camera noise . it 's compact and provides a good reach for most ambient sound situations +camera neg i was extremely disappointed with this product ; i felt very let down by sony , because for years i bought sony items with confidence , knowing that anything produced by them would be good and reliable . this item only goes to prove that sony 's standards have dropped and , as such i will use considerable caution when buying anthing else of theirs . what lets this product down is the lack of distance one can be before the sound breaks up ; 2 metres ( not 45 metres as stated on the wrapping ) was the best i could do , and that was in a straight line . no , all this item is fit for is the rubbish bin +camera neg this canon camera has poor quality interlacing artifacts all though out , on a 1080p monitor . i have used other hdv format cameras , and they were much better . the low light level recording was filled with fairly large digital grain . if you use a 1080i tube then it will probably look ok in high light , but still plauged in low light +music neg this cd is boring and derivative to the point of being cynical . a better alternative would be to listen to either : a ) the original artists who influenced this band or b ) someone at least trying to do something new with music . to enjoy this cd you 'd have to really want to like this band , either because you liked dig or because you 're attracted to their super-cool reputation . if you 're afraid you 're missing out on something by not owning bjm 's back catalogue do n't worry , you 're not . +camera pos hi have a rebel extreme , and needed to use the high-speed mode.. . but the flash could n't even vaguely keep up . i was taking pictures of dancers , so needed a flash system that could keep up . the speedlite really does this perfectly - i 'm able to take a rapid-fire sequence of photos , and this flash system is there each time . i do n't know if it really helps when taking a single photo , but if you want a flash that can keep up , this one is great ! i like it so much , i 'm planning on buying one or two more for my next shoot , to run in slave mode with this one . +music pos not speaking or understanding tibetian , did n't lessen the joy of being totally absorbed by this wonderful movie , and the music from this soundtrack is the reason why . it guides you like a sherpa , gently leading you along the high trails , powerfully pulling you to the heights of ever thinning air . you are at once engulfed in the tibetian life , you live the experience through the deep gutteral chants , singing bowls , and drums +music pos this album is a classic , but its really short . dead prez are the best duo in rap in my opinion . i highly recommend this and all of dead prez 's other albums +music neg i 'm going to the trouble of writing this review to warn you : this cd is not like the other putumayo cds . no , it is not fun , hip , relaxing , good to dance to , or stimulating . it is a selection of hackneyed sinatra-style slop sung by a variety of leery-sounding men with fake deep voices . i have this rule for music : if it makes me think of animated dogs kissing over pasta , it sucks . consider yourself warned . if you like good music , try french cafe instead +music neg i did n't listen the disk but know the recording label . never heard anything good produced by the company in several occasions when i was hooked by the low price : very poor immitations . just go for the real things +music neg fight club is without a doubt the greatest film i 've ever seen . yeah , i 'm a fanboy . and what ? and to make a great film flow , you need great music , right ? well , you need great music that fits the film , and the dust brother 's score more than does the trick . the film is dark yet satirical , and it needed a score that would compliment that . however , the score simply does n't stand up on its own . at times in the film it perfectly enhances the dark atmosphere , but its only a part of a tense scene . and hence , it sounds rather empty by itself . no matter how much you like the film or thought the music sounded good in it ( as i did ) , i would n't recommend it . like so many other scores , it could have been made into great music but fails since its just lifted from the film +music pos bo diddley is one of the most underrated rock and roll artist . such gems as " bo diddley " " say man " and " who do you love " are just the tip of the iceberg . add in the blues , like " i 'm a man " and you have a truely outstanding set . the set also includes a very informative booklet that includes a bio , pictures and discography . do not settle for less than what is offered here +music neg maybe its just me but the piano is out of tune badly enough that it should not have been recorded . i had to force myself to finish listening to the concerto and did not even bother with the rest . sad piece of work +music pos tosca 's suzuki is not breaking any ground , but by god they have mastered the art . this album is just so professional sounding , very nicely produced . this is how i envision trance to sound like , so much garbage out there it taked a while to sift through and find a golden little record like this . funky bassbeats and killer sounds . it 's what they call ethereal....i think . it flows so well from track to track , quite the odyessy in under an hour +music neg read the the second reveiw from the bottom that says a music fan from the east coast . the olny good song on this cd is fly +camera neg i 've had the a510 for about six months and have been pleasantly surprised by the ease of use and reasonable picture quality for a 3.2m camera . after six months the lens and cover have jammed and i noticed that many amazon reviewers have had the same issue . one evening i took several pictures and the next morning the camera would not operate . i 'm hoping the service center can provide me better service than some of the reviewers . +camera pos the camera fits perfectly . the case is very stylish . best of all , its pink +camera neg this is the worst camera i 've ever owned . i 'm not exaggerating . i 'm so upset for wasting money on it . the only pictures that turn out , are outside in bright daylight . it takes horrible pictures in low light , there 's a high level of noise in the photos . the video mode moves in and out on its own , ruining the video . i sometimes get colored lines down the right side of the videos . my friend 's $88 dollar digital camera takes way better pictures than this thing . it just plain sucks . +music pos two of the greatest names in show business at their zenith . there are so many good tracks on this set that it 's hard to pick out some over the others . a couple of superb standouts are jolson 's " swanee " and " rock-a-bye , " although every track is just excellent . the sound quality on the set is outstandingly great . i hope the people that put this set together will do the same incredible job with other classic recordings by jolson and crosby +music neg oh , this is pure adult garbage all right . i have never heard a more disguisting piece of music then this , then again the movie was garbage also +camera pos the camera handles very well - it 's light and drives my zoom lens and 18-55mm lens beautifully . i get professional photographs and can use it all day without suffering from heavy weight , which it does not have . the view finder is excellent and the readout on the back of the camera is extremely helpful , showing photos as they are taken - with zoom on the back screen , which immediately gives me the idea of the photo i want to use in my books . i say this is an outstanding lens and camera . +music pos this cd has alot of tight hits including : nann by trick daddy and who dat ' by j.t. money . there are too many good songs to name for this cd , those are the biggest i like and i like all the others too . i can practically just listen to the whole cd without stopping it , which usually never happens with other cd 's b / c u buy it for about 3 good songs and all the other songs are junk . but this cd has all the hip hop hits that it proclaims . i suggest anyone looking at this review or cd , to buy the cd . it 's worth it , definetely ! one last word is that you will have no regrets buying this cd at all i think in my own opinion.i am from st. louie and i am telling ya 'll to look out for a new group called nelly also , there hit single is already out " country grammar " and cd soon to be out . get that when it comes out to . peace out ya 'll +music neg jessica is blessed with a powerful and beautiful voice , but you wo n't get the chance to hear it on this cd . this cd is a complete let down . it is her worst one yet ! do n't get me wrong . i love jessica , but seeing her waste her god given gift on a bunch of kitty cat songs is just so.. . tragic +camera pos great product . good value . maybe a little slow for focusing , compared to my old 18-55mm canon lens . good quality pictures . great all in one lens +camera neg dsc series camera all have a ccd imager defect that will leave screen blank after you use the camera for 2 or 3 years . ( do a google search . you will find out what happened . ) sony knew this problem years ago . but refuse to fix it . they will wait until the camera fail and then charge you $300 to fix it . that 's what happens to my dsc-f717. ever wondering why dell , hp etc all recall sony battery for laptop , but sony did not recall their own laptop battery ? sony will never fix their own problem . we the customer have to pay for their mistake . +music pos i was in walmart 's electronic area ( which is where you can usually find me ! ) and i saw the album . i heard unbelieveable and i was sold on that song but could n't find the single . the album on first listen was not my favorite , but after a while i started liking it . it is a great album and i 'm glad i bought it . talent is a virtue ! +camera neg my ownership of this camera was brief . first , you must know i love nikon . i have 2 other nikons- -an old cooplix 2200 and a coolpix 5700. they have wonderful lenses and give great pix . i thought my experience with this model would be similar . not ! ~ from picture numero uno , the lens cover refused to completely open and cooperate . i got pictures , yes , but they had lazy black eyelids on each corner where the lens cover had not opened up to clear the lens . what a dissappointment ! i traded it in for a canon a520 and am happy with that camera . i suppose it is just what it is . if i 'd saved and spent a lot more money on a d50 or rebel , who knows ? anyway , that is my sad tale with the nikon 4800 +music pos i am listening to badfinger even as i type this review . this is the best of badfinger vol 2 , and i thought volume 1 was great ! ! as previous reviewers have said , what an absolute tragedy the story of badfinger is ( buy the book " without you " the tragic story of badfinger ) . well i have everything they have released , if you do buy any of the badfinger best ofs , you will more than likely get hooked and start collecting all of their albums.some of the best songs on this cd are off " wish you were here " their best album by a mile imho.in fact 6 of the 9 songs on wywh are on this compilation . they were such an original group with every member capable of writing an exhilirating hit song . just have a taste of " just a chance " , " you 're so fine " , " meanwhile back at the ranch / should i smoke " .they were just so good , damn i miss them +music pos the title gets it right - this is a very fun album . there are a lot of great songs on here . infectious lyrics and music - it still surprises me that matthew sweet is n't more popular than he is . one other thing...it 's a sin that " we 're the same " was n't a bigger hit than it was . truly a great song +music pos this cd is absolutely wonderful . i am in australia so strawberry shortcake merchandise is not as readily available down here as it is in the usa , so you can imagine my daughters delight when this cd is being played . the songs are just gorgeous - i just wish they were a little longer . i thoroughly recommend this item to any little ss fans . +music neg this soundtrack does not have all the songs in it from the movie . i was looking for two from the movie , and the soundtrack did not have them . like , a song by michelle branch that is in the movie is not in there . bo +music pos this album is incredible . for me this is one of those few albums that defines a time in my life . an album that for months i played over and over . an album that i 've played countless times , that i have passed out to when i came home after a late night , that i have ran to , and worked out to , that i play at work for a pick-me up . it 's great . it 's filled with so much emotion and passion , from beginning to end its just brilliant , the entire album . the songs are composed more like classical music with sweeping scores that start off slow and steady and then build up and explode into these intense jams . i love it . you have to buy this album . then buy their next self titled album . then play it and play it , and play it . it grows on you . i ca n't wait to see them live.. . +camera neg i made the mistake of ordering this camera to substitute buying a pro camera . the color and noise was terrible . if you want a great point and shoot camera get the canon powershot s50 while they are still available . the camera has pro features , it was so good they stopped making it because it should have been in the pro camera line at a much higher price tag . if you want to see s50 pictures go to [...] and search my gallery cathreen styles . all most all of the pictures in the gallery were taken with the s50. i am going to buy another just to have when mine breaks . by the way , i did end up buy a pro camera , mainly because of the look . i got the canon 30d and love it +camera pos after checking prices with all the usual pricing bots , i found a better price , including free shipping , by going directly to amazon . this lowest price did not appear in the other searches , so it pays to go to amazon first . i replaced my canon sd400 with the casio and find the controls more logical to use . this is important if you do n't use the camera for a while , because you can just pick it up and start shooting without hunting for the manual . also , the docking base is much more convenient than plugging small cables into the camera . you do not have to remove the battery in the casio to charge it as you do with the canon sd400. the vga movie quality is superior on the casio . still pictures appear to be about equal . amazon delivered by ups in record time even with a weekend inbetween . i ordered on a friday and received it the following tuesday . go with amazon ! +music pos this is a wonderful effort by the del castillo brothers and their band . mark and rick are great guitarists and the band is one of the best that i have ever heard . i hate that anyone would compare them to the gypsy kings or strunz and farrah , because i believe they ( del castillo ) are far superior . even though i am a huge fan of santana , i think brothers of the castle and vida are more entertaining and satisfying than santana 's last cd . if you are a fan of this genre , you should possess both del castillo cd's .....brothers of the castle and vida . their live show is among the best that i have ever seen +music neg i love ray charles when ray 's doing ray . this was terrible . ray was out of tune , out of touch and the song selection was ridiculous . i 'm sorry ray , i love you . it 's a shame this had to be one of your last cd 's +camera neg i returned this item . i have not received notice that they did receive it back so i will have to wait and see if my credit card account is credited +music pos " debut " is used to describe someone 's first release . not their third . a classic , 5 stars...pmg in an exciting , formative mode +music pos ahh this is a great cd . i listen to it every day . it 's fun music , and the lyrics are wonderful . hope everybody enjoys it as much as i do +music neg this is no saw 85-92 as some people compare it to . oh , no . this is a largely unfulfilling listen . the tracks all sound too similar . i realize richard 's concept was to just utilize anlaog gear , but the drum programming and harmonic " development " is lackluster . only track worth burping over is the last one.. . xmd something . has he been taking piano lessons since druqks ? for those that want some new electronic music that packs a punch , check out nick forte 's new release " young man 's disease " which is better than anything else i 've heard this year . +music pos this is just a great cd . whenever i need to restore inner harmony after work , or dealing with any upsetting situation , this is the one i go to . instantly i am transported to the calm , soothing setting of a traditional japanese house and garden . it is fantastic for meditation , too . let all the nonessentials of life slip away while you listen to this beautiful recording +camera pos canon 's bg-e3 battery grip is one awesome extra you cannot be without . i found the extra weight and size not to be even a minor burden . i rec 'd product 2 days after initial receiving date / 17th st photo did a fantastic job ( once again ) +camera neg this thing stinks ! so much digital noise its output is terrible . i do n't know how they can put this thing out and have it be so bad . do n't be fooled thinking wow 8 megs for a low price , i have a 5 meg sony that is many times better . all that noise blows the detail out . get it if you like lots of little green and red flecks in your pictures , other wise stay away +camera neg the camera ( canon s-80 ) barely fits in the case and there is no room for even an extra storage card , much less a second battery pack or the charger . i ended up using my old tamrac case that has an extra zippered pouch for accessories . total waste of $$$ +camera pos just as advertised , very small , very useful , great video , great photos , just what i needed this is the second jvc camera i own and both satisfy my needs +camera pos thank you for showing me , i will use it as many times when it comes into my mailbox soon +music pos even though gary allen is a country singer , he rocks as an artist ! he has a vein of rock mixed in with his deep country voice . this man 's voice is so smooth , he could melt butter along with any woman 's heart . guys will like him too , but he 's a crooner , his ballads touch women ( sigh ! ) and make men want to emulate him . i enjoyed every song on this cd , but my personal favorites are : tough little boys , and songs about rain , both beg to be sang along with +camera pos this replacement battery is half the cost of canon 's yet offers longer life . i bought it when i first got my sd10. when one battery runs out , the spare goes in . the lenmar still works great while the canon is near end life ! i am buying two more since they are so cheap ! do not buy no name batteries on ebay . they do not last worth a darn and are basically a waste of money ! do n't do it. . +music neg deep lyrics man , i 'm getting a lot out of this.. . but just wait for the next record when you 'll get " hold on loosely ! & quot +music pos i caught sonny in a live performance this past november , so i got to hear at least 3 tracks off of his most current album...sonny please . he opened the set with a fiery " sonny please " which smoked for a good 15 minutes ( i believe that victor lewis was on traps that night so the percussion section helped do the driving ) . for a man approaching 77 years of age , i was impressed with not only sonny 's playing and gracious presence , but his stamina in performing two 40 - 50 minute sets...trust me , the man can still play ! this album may not be another " saxophone colossus " or " the bridge " , but it is a solid recording and should satisfy a majority of sonny 's fans . if you have no recorded music by this jazz legend , this cd is a respectable starting point +camera neg it was not all there the part to put the camera on did not come and i need that to put the camera on so please it for a c875 camera please think you w.b +camera neg i bought this camera because i 'm going to jamaica and i needed a camera , the video camera was a bonus . when i first tested it , it was during the night time , however in a well lit room , but i could n't see anything . i figured i could deal with that as long as it took good pictures during the day . when i stepped outside , which was very bright and sunny , all i could see on the screen was white . i tried all the settings and still encountered a white screen . the only time i actually saw anything on my screen was when i was inside during the day . i brought it back right away , thankfully i had bought it at wal-mart and they were happy to refund my money . i hope anyone reading this review will take my advice and not buy this video camera . i would have loved to give it zero stars if amazon gave that option +camera neg i bought this camera just under 12 months ago and recently the battery cover door would not stay closed . i sent it into nikon along with my proof of purchase and about a week later got a letter saying it would not be covered under warranty . the repair charge with shipping and tax would be $115.22. i am the only person that uses this camera and it was never dropped or abused . battery was only taken in and out maybe 4 or 6 times over the time i had it . for this reason i would never buy another nikon product again . next digital camera will charge without removing battery . camera takes great pictures , but ca n't do business with a firm that is very difficult to get ahold of and does not honor their warranty . bye bye nikon +music neg if this is n't worst dead album then in the dark is +music neg after chancing upon galactic 's rather remarkable live show at a local bar , i jumped through numerous hoops to track down this disc . was n't worth the effort , i 'm afraid . velveeta on wonder bread-dull collection of acid jazz duds . not bad as background noise for your next dinner party , but captures exactly none of the blood and soul that make galactic such a great live act . a pass for all but galactic completeists , if such an animal exists +music neg i love this band and have all the rest of their cds +music neg this album had two good songs at the most . ralph was good with new edition . it 's apparently obvious that he ca n't stand alone . bobby should have been the lead for new edition . then we may never have seen this terrible album . ralph is n't that good of a singer . this shows that just because your the lead singer in a group does n't mean you are the best . ralph is miles behind bobby +music pos i must agree with the comments made by other reviewers . this album is great . nancy wilson 's voice on this album is unlike anything i have ever heard . you ca n't honestly say you 're a fan of jazz if you do n't own this +music neg there 's nothing in this i 'd say even remotely resembles jazz . it 's repetitive , has a rock beat , and consists mostly of licks taken from other players . if you 're looking for backrgound music to play in a waiting room , this might be a good choice +music neg well , i like the song " i shall believe " and that 's why i purchased this album , but it would have been better to buy just the single +camera neg i got this sd400 to replace my s400 which after a year started giving me a memory card error message . i now find out that was a design flaw . anyway , i spent hundreds of dollars on this one , and now , just over a year after i got it , it wo n't hold a battery charge . i loved both cameras while they worked , but i ca n't afford a $400 camera plus the related accessories every year or so . i 've written to canon tech support . unless they are willing to repair or replace this one free of charge , i 'm moving on to another brand camera +music pos this is pure inspirational quintessential oteil and the peacemakers . it 's gospel , funk , jazz , rock.. . features his distinctive scatting and amazing bass , a wonderful blend of talent.. . glorious vocals.. . you will not regret this purchase.. . it 's a joy all the way through from beginning to end. . +music neg nothing even close to " say no more " i 'm sorry i spent the mone +camera neg this is a good charger - quick and portable . but the battery life of the battery sucks ! +music pos without getting too much into it this album is pretty good . 4 stars for some bad ass tracks . my favs are tears from the moon , beautiful things , as the rush comes . all in all worth the money +music neg dan fogelberg is an extremely talented songwriter and performer . unfortunately , the songs that get the most radio play are his weaker efforts , songs that seem formulaic and " safe . " his best songs are the lesser known works - - listeners have to buy the albums in order to hear them . they 'll never make it to the pop airwaves . serious fogelberg fans will be disappointed by this greatest hits cd . " greatest hits " is not synonymous with " greatest music . " +camera pos i really enjoy this small , high quality camara . i purchased a 2.0 gb memory disk so i could take advantage of the 7.1 mega pixel.and i get great pix everytime . i have lots of fun with it . since its so small , it 's easy to take everywhere with me . i also get lots of compliments on it 's " fashionable " sleek design . i highly recomend his camera . +music neg [first of all : i only gave this one star because the rating does n't let you go any lower] i only listened to this album because someone who was utterly disgusted with it threw it on the floor and stomped on it , leaving me to pick it up . i proceeded to suffer through it so i could give you fair warning . if you buy this , consider yourself warned +camera neg the battery looked like a second hand battery signs of leak battery poles discoloured . out of country on holiday will return item on retur +camera neg the field of vision is too small for any useful viewing . if you already know where your object is in the dark , then you can point this device towards the object and view it in dark . but if you are searching for an object in the dark , the small field of vision makes the search useless . also , there is too much " noise " in the image , thus making it very difficult to recognize the object that you are viewing . the ir makes the field of vision even smaller . overall i did not find this device useful even for ordinary pleasure viewing . by the way , if you own a camcorder with night-view , you already know how how the objects look in the dark . you can use your camcorder 's night view feature instead of buying this expensive devic +music neg this album is okay not their best . a few songs are good other than that this album is fair.purcahse it with your money intelligently ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! +music neg she does sound like a goat bleating . yodeling . it 's a shame , really . +camera neg this camera was great at first and very easy to use , however , the condensation error many others seem to have came true for us as well . when we first got the error it had not been anywhere near any water or moisture , so we put it in our cedar chest ( we keep our house very dry and do n't live in a humid area - nebraska ) . this worked for a few months , but the error is now on permanently and the camera is useless . i wish it was different , but bottom line , this is a disposable video camera - a nice one , but still disposable +camera pos solidly built , this tripod balances well even when used with the heavier sony cybershots like the dsc-r1. the remote shuttle release button helps to further reduce camera shake , which is priceless when taking photos in conditions where camera shake is amplified ( high optical zoom , supressed flash , etc ) . what surprises me is the fact that the shuttle release button on the remote works exactly the same as any sony cybershot : press halfway to focus , and all the way down to capture the shot . the zooming buttons do not work for the sony dsc-r1 as the camera has a manual zooming ring , but they should work fine with any other cybershot that comes with an electronic zoom and of course , an acc terminal . highly recommended . +camera neg i realize this is not a true gunshot mic though i had hope . the product presents itself as cheap and i hate to say the results are not good quality . at this time , i 'm the only reviewing customer and i can see i must have been the only guy to buy one of these . product attaches well and there is a noticable change in the audio . three settings , zoom ( syncs with camcorder 's zoom ) , gun ( which maxs the zoom of the mic regardless of video zoom ) , and off . i purchased this to make recordings of presentations better . i know now that i should have just bought a wireless mic for the speaker . i thought i 'd get more use this route +music pos hands down , a 5 star , two thumbs up , classic joint . after it dropped , puba reigned supreeeme . disregard the amazon reviewer , there are no " gaffes " in this one , period.. . these guys were true to their beliefs . they were n't packaging a product for " pop " consumption , they were telling a generation what they thought . check it out and the music will speak for itself . the best track in my opinion was " wake up " , but the whole album was great . as someone else mentioned , fast tracks put it in the 90 's but most of the tracks are relevant sound as good as ever . +music neg this album is lame as hell but next to the air pollution on the airwaves today , this aint too bad thats why it gets a 2. right before female rappers ( there 's a few exceptions ) , i hate all little kid rappers . even when i was a kid . i do n't like anything on this album , i still got the tape and it has n't " krossed " my mind to even cop the cd . if you like this kind of stuff , or you loved " jump " back in the day then i guess this is for you +camera neg the reviews are worthless unless the writer mentions the model of device they are using the batteries for . fifty percent of the reviews here do n't mention what they were using the batteries for . do this service justice and mention the type and model equipment for which the battereis are utilized +camera neg i read other review , and decided to give it a try . as soon as i recieve it in the mail , and opened the box , i realized this was a mistake . cheap quality binocular with " high power " being a selling point . it came in already broken with two eye ruber pieces falling apart . you can see how the cheap glue was being used to put it in place ! it is extremly heavy to hold in hands for more than one minute for nature observation . you will be constantly ajdusting the focus . your fingers bumps with focus bar while you are holding it . indeed strap , case , lense protectors are all cheap crap , and annoying to have it all on~ ! i am taking this back , and buying made in japan " nikon eagle view " 100 times better . you get what you pay for~ ! ! ! ! ! +music pos every thing he sings is perfect , i 've yet to find one song that does n't move me . this cd has some beauties . " daughter of mine " is priceless . " steal away " is very nice . " one small star " brings tears . this arrangement of " voyage " is probably the best i 've heard . his traditional songs ( " when you and i were young maggie " and " mary of argyle " ) are beautiful . i ca n't find anything on this cd i could n't listen to for hours . i truly love music and listen to it constantly . i find myself reaching for the mcdermott cd 's almost exclusively . i have them all , more please +camera neg i was looking for a pair of roof-prism binoculars like this , for hawk and bird watching . i had looked at swarovskis , but they were way out of my budget , nearly a thousand dollars for this resolution . these binoculars are crystal-clear , with sharp focus . the 42mm lens lets in lots of light , lots more than the 35 's i 've been using . i wear glasses and the twist - up - and -down eyecups are a blessing . there are also attached lens protectors for the 42mm , nice because i always used to lose them . for the price , these ca n't be beat +camera neg this is a terrible product : 1. the binoculars are very heavy and awkward to use . 2. the pictures are extremely poor . 3. the company offers poor service and packaged instructions are very brief and insufficient . w +music neg okay , here is the major problem with this release : it is not a tuffgong / island release . the marley family has struggled with this reality for a long time . because bob 's music has become so widespread and lacks the legal protections that american and european recording artists have enjoyed for decades , his recordings have gone onto the cheap market ( flea markets , push carts , gas stations , etc-and now amazon ) . buying one love only serves to strengthen these sleazy record companies and hurts reggae artists and the jamaican economy . look closely at the albums before you buy them . find out what label has produced them and try to stick with tuffgong when possible . +camera pos i 'm using it for a few months now ; i have n't found a single problem so far . earlier , i was using an old finepix and the optic / sensor sensitivity was not very good ; poor quality of photos taken in dark environment . this is not a problem any more . also , i was impressed with the sharpness of photos of sport actions taken with 10x zoom . in general , i was pretty enthusiastic about all the features of this camera ; it took me nearly 3 days to try everything out : - ) . sure , there are better cameras on the market ; however , considering the price it is just a great deal +music pos the slowed down almost spoken version of downpressor man nearly makes it worth the purchase price alone . sure i 've got most of the tracks on other tosh collections , but these recordings are excellent variants +music neg hey , brrrrruuuuuccce ! what 's the deal ? just about every major top 40 artist has had their catalogs sonically updated except yours . why can we buy the " tracks " editions , and get glorious hdcd-encoded sound , but " town " sounds like it 's coming out an am radio ? ok , you did your best , but dubya 's back in the white house for the next four years , and kerry 's home in his underwear watching the weather channel . you should have plenty of time on your hands now.. . get busy ! let 's see some remastering ! +music pos when i bought this i played it on repeat for about 45 hours . different versions than on the album ( i think it 's their demo ) . this version of modern age is amazing . definitely worth buying +camera pos this camera is the best point and shoot cameras for the money . just think of what you are getting . not just a 7.2mp camera , but a lica lens and technology . not a bad deal . the images are not bad when printed . on a scale of 0-10 , 10 beining the best , i give this camera an 8. david the photog in chicago +camera neg i bought my canon a95 in november 2004. a little after 1 year just after the manufacturer 's warranty expired , the infamous e18 error struck . i called the factory repair center to get a repair estimate , and they quoted $89 plus $8 shipping & handling . i bought the camera for $300 online , now it 's going to cost me roughly 1 / 3 of its purchase cost to repair it . for all i know , it might break down again after the repair ! the repair comes with 90-day warranty period , but it could break again after 90 days . and then.. . there is an upgrade option . canon offers a program where you can upgrade a95 for a610 for $125 plus $10 shipping and handling . this comes with only 6-month warranty . again , it could be flawed with the same e18 error that could struck after warranty expires . i would really do extensive research before buying another canon . +music pos ...yes , the beatles by which i 'm not comparing supergrass to them . no , supergrass are riding the road built by not only the beatles , but other british rock'n'roll greats like the kinks , david bowie , the zombies and many others . but the exploding energy of supergrass delivers a deeply satisfying listen that does not exist as frequently in the present 2000's . this will definitely be a group that will represent the virtouso side of british rock'n'roll of the 1990 's and 2000 's , and without doubt represent the bohemia-intellectual-hard rocking spark that has lighten recent generations that has been going on since circa-sgt . pepper . an intoxicating and highly addictive album . 100% recommended for anyone any age . +music neg inspiring ? no ! pleasant ? no ! entertaining ? no ! worthwhile ? no ! what are you folks sniffing out there anyway ? whatever it is , please consider passing it along , because other than the single authentic and melodic track by patsy cline ( i.e. , back in baby 's arms , which is available on a zillion other collections including some of her own ) , this cd does n't have an ounce of redeeming musical , lyrical or social value in my view . nada ! zip ! even the dylan track is junk ! the entire cd is essentially drivel , put to the dull , homicide-provoking sound of endless , droning noise , with an overall signal-to-noise ratio of about one ( 1.0 ) ! ! ! what a waste of an a-to-d converter +camera neg the camera came with no memory chip . the online store had no more of this camera or chips so the only thing they could suggest was to return it for a refund . not a great experience +camera pos i read many reviews at fredmiranda.com before i purchased this lens and i was not dissapointed one bit . i was lucky enough to receive a very sharp copy of this lens on the first try . the macro shots were very sharp and contrasty . the center part is already reaching near maximum sharpness at f2.8 anything beyond f4 is tack sharp . be carefull with this lens though . the dof at f2.8 is extremely narrow . do n't mistaken the out of focus shots for being unsharp . focus properly and crank up the aperture and you 'll get some very satisfying macro shots . the only thing i wish this lens had was image stabilizer . canon , how about a 100mm macro with is ? +camera pos i am totally satisfied with product features . for me still it 's better than any available product from other company in this segment . i ranked this product 4 because it manual dial malfunction very often . if i select album mode it still thinks to be in snapshot mode and vice-versa . it 's out of guarantee and i 'll hv to live with it . anyway there are many products present in market in this series to go with like w50 or something like that +camera neg i bought this for my 8 year old daughter to begin learning about digital photography . it has been nothing but a headache from day one . we have yet to be able to download any pictures . all of the endless number of pictures she has taken have been erased before we can download them . the one button mode is very confusing and the directions although written in english seem to be in a foreign language . the directions say do not return to the store if you are having difficulties . you are suppose to call the phone # , but good luck getting through . i 've tried for 2 days straight . they apparently are experiencing high call volume from all the other unhappy customers who were fooled into buying this " educational camera " . as i am shopping for another camera , i will not buy anything from the company who manufactured this camera - sakar +music neg this cd should have been called " the most annoyingly overplayed songs of the 1990's . " with the exception of " shine , " every single track on this cd is juvenile , mindless , fluff that was overplayed on the radio in the radio until you were ready to scream ! if you 're looking for a cd that represents the greatest music of the 1990 's , check out non stop 90 's rock or forever 90 's instead . however , you might be interested in this cd if you want to host a cheesy 90 's dance party . the songs are kind of fun and catchy if you listen to them in moderation +music neg this disk is truly as bad as nitin 's previous disks were wonderful . take any previous nitin disk , throw in some alpha , a bit of craig armstrong , some predictable eco-freindly american diatribe , mix until extremely smooth and you have a prophesy . as with most prophesies there no good news about it . my prophesy is that anyone who buys this wo n't ever buy another nitin dis +music neg every one is obbsessed with " hips do n't lie " . do n't they relize that the songs horrible . well , so is every other track on this album . save your money to waste on something that is atleast some what decent +music pos this band reminds me of the thrill i first got when i listened to an atreyu album . it dies today rip off the former bands style , but they are still a very good band . in the over-crowded metalcore market of today , that is a rarity . my only complaint , is that the vocalist has a beautiful singing voice ( as heard on " the radiance ) , but more often then not goes for the screams and growls that are associated with this type of music . still 5 / 5 material though . favorite songs : " the radiance , " " freak gasoline fight , " " our disintigration , " and :the caitliff choir:defeatism +music neg this is as bad as the film.in fact just like the film the soundtrack is the same old formula.will& ; his movies& ; music never change the same old beat.the rest of the soundtrack is just as bad.unoriginal& ; boring.what a waste of kool moe dee +camera pos i bought one of these for my canon sd-800 and can recommend it . for many years now , i 've carried canon pocket cameras on my belt while traveling and the canon-branded cases are simply the best for this purpose . my only criticism of the canon cases has been their lack of a small pocket for media . i was hoping that with the tiny size of sd cards canon would have added such a pocket to their newer cases , but they haven't . on the plus side , the case retains the superior leather construction , uses a neat magnetic tie down for the flap instead of velcro or a snap , and has a belt loop that is tight enough to hold the camera comfortably against your body . the package also includes a nice looking leather replacement strap for your camera . incidentally , the sd-800 is well matched to the case , fitting quite securely +music neg yo gotti in the past can spit some raw ish but on this one , i dunno what happpened.....the production seemed too generic , the rapping was pretty average and generic and not that impressive at all , and doesnt carry much replay value....to be honest , id pop in a three 6 mafia cd rather than this one....album was slacking on so many levels , now theres some tracks that listenable , but the rest make it hard to enjoy this album , nothin special bout it at all...this album waz overhyped i believe and flopped horribly.......gotti can do much better than this.....wouldnt recommend anyone to chek it out.... . 2.5 / +music pos this is by far the best psychopathic album ever released . riddlebox is now in second place . madrox schools ever other artist on psychopathic with this album . beats are bangin ' and lyrics are flawless ! great flows and he mixes funny with wicked . best songs are this b*tch and hey phatty . great album by the best rapper of our time . madrox is so under rated . i wish for his sake he would blow up huge but not lose his soul in the process . buy this album , best rap album ever made +music neg how can he be such an enormous talent when all he does is copy off of other people ? sorry i just cant see it . i dont think he does justice to nolan porter 's " if i could only be sure " on the first track at all : if you want to hear some great music listen to the original ! ! ! +music neg whomever decided on putting this box set together must have been smoking crack . since when did 8675309 / jenny become a classic rock hit ? are you kidding me....come on ! no hendrix , floyd , zeppelin . classic rock my arse +music neg sounds like it should be in a meg ryan romantic comedy . did they intentionally try to erase his personality ? sounds like it was produced in nashville ! this should be a demo for another singer to record . it 's just too schmaltzy for me . i think phil ramone may be slipping too . billy is a much better singer than this . after listening to this song i instinctively lit a match . i 'm going to go listen to glass houses +camera neg i bought this flash hoping to improve my indoor pictures with my rebel xt . amazingly , i find absolutely no difference between using the built in flash of the camera or this unit . i find pictures taken at a very reasonable distance ( 8-10 feet ) to be under-exposed unless i correct the exposure using the menu . would be curious if the more expensive units including the 430ex are better , but i cannot recommend this one +camera neg not impressed at all with this product . you are better off just to plug in your camera in the usb port and let windows process it . at least you will get a chance to indicate where you want your pictures saved . i suggest you do n't use easyshare software . windows pic and fax viewer is far superior to this software . if you decide you will use it you will find that all your pics on the hard drive will be set to use easyshare . the solution to this is to uninstall easyshare and all pics with revert to windows +camera pos i 've had my d70s for about a year now , have n't regretted it for a second . the controls are laid out logically , with everything to hand . the dual control wheels make adjustments fast and accurate . i personally love the optional grid overlay , i have no excuses for horizons that are n't horizontal . the wireless flash system is great , though you have to buy an sb-600 or sb-800 to get the full benefit . this camera is bigger and heavier than the d50 and d80 , which in my opinion is a positive thing . +camera pos i started with the battery grip initially wanting the double battery availability . having used a 35mm with a hand strap and already realizing the value of the stability of such a strap , this was my second attraction for the purchase of the battery grip and last but not at all least , is the ability to use shoot from the grip itself , allowing full ease of rotation of the camera . though i have never used the battery magazine that allows for the use of aa batteries , having it offers a backup should the canon batteries need charging and i am in the heat of shooting . i always travel with my charge and four aa batteries . i would recommend this grip as a standard accessory for the eos-20d and eos 30-d . one thought to consider once on the camera it increases the overall height creating challanges with some camera cases . +camera pos before i get k10d , i experienced with olympus e-500 , canon xti , nikon d80. i used olympus e-500 to take lots vivid color pictures that i love very much , but no water resistance and no second display window , also only 3 focus point makes it not so enjoyable . same thing happen to canon xti , no water resistance and no second display window make it little hard to use when you need to change settings . the nikon d80 is a great camera but also have no water resistance and shake reducer build in on camera , the color tone of d80 is n't the kind that i would love . finally i bought pentax k10d , the feeling of the body , the water resistance , shake reducer , auto dust remove , vivid color tone , etc...makes me feel the k10d is the way to go . only complaint would be the limited edition lens are hard to get . get it while you can +camera neg the camera operates good , but i thought it was suppose to be new . it looked a bit used and was cracked on the bottom . it does work , but unfortunately all the packageing was tossed out +music pos as a collector of musical scores , i thoroughly enjoyed this selection . it is rated as one of my favorites . but i must warn that if you do not like instramental style music , then this is n't for you . but if you are then this is a must +camera neg i had this camera for 2 months . it was kept in a case and was very well taken care of . i would not even allow my husband to touch it . i was taking pictures and then one suddenly came out as a white screen . i took another and the same thing . i asked my husband what he thought was wrong . we took out our memory card and tried internal . same thing again . he said maybe it was the lcd screen . we loaded the pictures in the computer and it was even worse . i contacted kodak several times . they do n't care about their customers . i have talked to several others in similar situations with similar results . we will try to get their attention with a lawsuit . if interested contact me [... +music neg look , as music goes , variations on a theme is part of any genre . this album , however , yells out " leave well enough alone . " a remix of sgt.peppers lhcb might thrill a person born in 1986 , but when you hear the real thing , you ask why change it ? this album is a total waste of a truly great disc . like gipeto said to pinocchio , " stay wood ! & quot +music pos with freddie backed by herbie , ron carter , and tony williams.this is high-flight crisp and inspiring music.worthy of repeated listenings . listen and enjoy.williams is over the top , very creative and will continue to suprise you with his unceasing inventiveness.i 've always noticed how carter and williams really spur hancock on as you will notice in this set.hancock , one the the truly great pianist of post-bop era , sounds like he is his having the time of his life.it does n't get much better than this . +music pos the opening song " cups " by the salt lake city orchestra was one of the first songs i downloaded on my ipod . it is such a great mix ! i just love it ! oh yeah.. . and the rest of the cds are n't bad either.. . ; - ) +music pos a top quality recording with all of artie shaw 's favorites . artie 's music as fresh today as when it was recorded - with the power and appeal that hits you right between the eyes +camera neg i purchased this camera for my own birthday present last october . i have owned it for 1 year and 2 months and now it is n't working . i paid $400.00 for it last year when it was " new . " the lcd will only turn on every 15 - 20 times after i take the batteries out and turn the camera on and off . i purchased new rechargeable batteries , but that was n't the answer . i contacted panasonic but it is out of the warrantee period . they will charge a flat $140.00 to fix it and i can get a new one for about $150.00. i loved this camera , but it is such a disappointment . i was very easy with it - it just stopped working ! buy a different camera - i wish i had +music neg any group that is so lacking in imagination that it has to steal as unusual and distinctive a song title as " boulevard of broken dreams " ( a 1934 hit song ) deserves to be ridiculed , not rewarded with a grammy . i 'm just full of original ideas . i ca n't decide whether to write a song called " wake me up before you go-go " or " grandma got run over by a reindeer " - or maybe " do you know the way to san jose " ? +music pos this is mood making , sexy , great music . neal adds a slight rock edge to some beautiful and familiar melodies . this album is great for background music ( we play it in our store ) , party music or just for listing . one of the best guitar players of all time ' sings ' with his instrument . buy it now +camera neg i gave this picture frame to my wife for a christmas gift , we pluged it in and within a half an hour it made a loud bang and smoke poured out of the thing like crazy....not a good gift . +music neg who in the world called this ' 'hard rock' ' ? ! ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ! ! ? this is a bunch of self-pitying , mainstream jibberish..nothing interesting at all . i shall dub this as ' 'alternative whine'' . +music pos i was looking for some music i could play in the car or around the house with my 19-month-old son and came across this one- -the exact same " album " that i had when i was his age ! i 'm so glad they redid it ! one of my fondest memories +camera pos i bought this for my new hdv fx1 camcorder , and it works great . unlike the century wide-angle lens , this is fully zoom-through . lens is .8x , which is less than the century and others , but just about right for hd- -since the fx1 already can do a pretty decent wide shot when the zoom is fully backed out , this just gives it an extra boost , converting the camera view from roughly a 35mm lens on a 35mm camera to about a 28mm . also , very little barrel distortion . in all a great lens . only drawback is that it 's a big ( heavy ) lens , but then , hey , it 's for a serious prosumer camcorder +music pos evan dando has once again delivered an astounding collection of pop / punk songs . this album rocks like lovey and is almost as catchy as come on feel . i 've been listening to this album for weeks on end . +camera neg i bought this for my wife and she loved it . but it broke after the amazon return policy was up . i contacted the company by email twice and have not heard from them . +camera neg i purchased this for my 4 year old son because he loves to take pictures . i did n't want to spend a lot of money , however this product is way over priced for the quality and ease of use . not to mention after having it less than 24 hours it completely stopped working . however , when it did work every single picture was blurry . there is only one button for every option and it is very confusing . i would n't recommend this product to anyone . it is being returned +camera pos i have been shooting away for the last few weeks . the olympus 720 is a gem . i must have filled up my card 3-4 times so far . being new to the digital camera era , i am finding that it is not as hard as i thought it would be . shoot , pop the card into the card reader , copy to computer , upload to walmart 's photo service , and i have my prints mailed to my house in a few days . i am happy that everything was included with the kit . i would have never known what i needed and it basically has everything covered +camera pos seems a little much to pay for an " extension cord " but upon receipt i see it is of very high quality and nice build on the connectors . plus , its a brand item from canon , so what can you do +camera neg i have tried everything . firewire , usb . there was an insert in the guide that mentioned that you have to connect the cable first to your pc then to your camera , then turn on the pc then turn on the camera...then wait for the stars to align in the right order . if you do anything in a different order then your camera can get damaged . what kind of a crazy world does panasonic live in ? well , i followed the instructions to the tee , downloded the right drivers and all and yet my pc does not recognize the gs19 or the gs9. i have used both . the gs19 is a new purchase so this is definitely going back . i thought , this model would have gone away with the kinks but , no ! so , my panasonic recorded dvs are gonna remain on the tape . i will never be able to put them on dvds . what a joke , this camera turned out to be +camera neg bought this to get short vid clips of my daughter to post on her page , so i didnt think i would need anything with uber high quality . but didnt realize just how poor the quality was on this one . in low light conditions it is horrendous even with the night shot on , and in good lighting it is barely adequate . wish i hadnt spent the money on this and memory card...should have put out the dough to get something a bit nicer . you get what you pay for +music pos in august 1969 five session singers were invited to form a new session group . main singer was tony burrows of ivy league and flowerpot men fame . the first success came with the second single united we stand . this cd collects together the three us hits of the session group plus the only us hit of the group that was the face of the session group in concert during 1971-1973 and that would become the second outfit of the group , the eurovision winning song save your kisses for me . the rest of the songs are a mix of songs from this second outfit 1974-1980. this outfit is still on tour at the end of the centur +camera pos excellent quality / price / speed of delivery.. . works as expected.. . would definately buy again , from this vendor , if the need ever arose . +music pos sorry , ya just ca n't replace michael hutchence . this is a great overview of all of their greatest hits . i am not a huge fan of greatest hits cds b / c people tend to buy them and , therefore , miss all of the excellent songs that were n't released as singles . all inxs cds are worth buying separately . but , if you must.....this will work +music pos i love this cd ! everything they sing about is so true to life . it 's a great arrangement of songs +camera neg this camera was easy to use and it was light and had decent quality picture and audio , however , i was unable to make copies for back-up or to share with family members . i took it back and bought a mini-dv camcorder as i was told it was easier to make copies . this has yet to be tested +music neg i bought this cd for one song , " walk away " which was one of their best known songs . i was hoping since that particular song was so good that maybe the album would harbor a few more gems . there wasn't . the rest of the album is like an anti-climax . i would suggest a greatest hits instead . if you see this cd just turn your pretty head and walk away +camera neg i bought the converter since i wanted to use it for landscape photography . i took some test shots and discovered that the converter has an unacceptable amount of barrel distorion . if you are thinking about buying this product just be aware that you will have to correct your images through software after you take them +music pos considered one of coltrane 's ' searching ' periods , this cd has a lot to offer in the way of understanding trane 's restless nature . never one to stand on laurels , coltrane does indeed continue to set the bar ' higher ' every time out . this one is mostly ballad and blues based , with the exeption of 2 tracks in particular which stand out - on both ends of the trane spectrum . track #2 , " i love you " finds him playing furious , cerebral runs on the instrument , and , frankly , not as ' listenable ' as one may like ; whereas the track with donald byrd is as ' in the pocket ' as you 'll ever hear . all in all , a very realistic look at a genius in motion +music neg wild card is the best song on this cd . the rest just did n't do it for me and i did n't care for the latin flavor . this cd was a mess . if the rest of the songs were along the lines of wild card , i would have kept the cd . this did n't say rippingtons to me . +music neg do you love " on eagles wings " ? if the answer is yes , then do you know the words to panis angelicus ? the answer is probably " no . " i do n't blame you for liking this cd . the problem is that it is n't catholic and it is n't classic . you should ask yourself if you are willing to entertain the songs that catholics have enjoyed for thousands of years . if you are willing to look beyond the guitars at your local mass , start with sacred songs by bocelli , or simply baroque by yo yo ma +music neg this is probably the worst cd i have ever bought . it had won some award and just bought it without listening to it , hopping that it would be ok . i listened to it and threw the cd in the trashbin . waist of money or just not my kind of music +music pos while volume 1 of the dream babes series is more accessible with its very girly girl group pop , sun-shiney vocals - volume 2 offers a little bit of everything - from pop r&b , girl group vocals , pop , swinging pop & even some very early school grrl rock ' n roll - they might be a little more lyrically serious ( hence the subtitle reflections ) but if anything , that 's a good thing . it 's nice to hear that women were trying different styles and genres and not just singing about about boys ... and also know - these are not just timepieces to be admired from a distant - these are all still fun , interesting and downright cool to hear again or for the first time . if you 're a collector , this whole series should be on your checklist +camera pos i have been using this lens for about 2.5 years and it is an exceptional piece of equipment , especially for the price ! i very rarely feel the need to get a closer image than i can achieve with this lens . it 's very solidly built and i am sure it will continue to be a primary piece in my kit for years to come +camera pos i have been using my sony cybershot dscn1 8.1mp for about a month now . it 's so easy to use . and , i love how you can easily delete picture via the touch screen . the only issue i have with it , is that i ca n't use the memory pro stick with my sony photo printer ( a 5 year old model ) , because the stick is not compatible . ps : do n't forget to buy a memory stick pro if you purchase this camera . you 're gonna need it . +camera neg canon 's 28-135mm with is ( image stabilizer ) is a far better choice for the money +music neg can this be the same d-12 that packed in witty rhymes in a non-serious demeaner ? well , i guess this really does prove they are only a side-show . eminem has different production , so the group will have different production . eminem went more serious , now the group is more serious . besides that , shady himself ( or what is left of what he use to be ) is basically a no-show . in any track eminem 's in , it 's usually the strongest , and that is the case here ; however , that does n't mean he was great . that means the cd itself is misconfusion , contradiction , and a side-show for eminem 's next cd ( " encore " , which was better then this , but not that great overall , as well ) . d-12 is the commercials to the eminem show , everyone 's just waiting to get in between them . that 's the case here +music neg ya , abomination to god also set it right in his worthy review . i remember the days where this panzy was praised and all of you ate that " one call away " and " right thurrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr " garbage . does 2 stars explain anything ? this apparently is equal to that d4l s*** , which is actually the lowest of the low . anyways , did n't i tell you chingy would die one year after -jackpot - hit ? now that he 's dead , everybodies focused on t-pain , oh s*** ! +camera pos got the lowero slingshot 100 about 2 months ago , and it is really coming in handy . in the main area , it holds my pentax digital slr with one lens mounted , 1 rather small lens and 1 decently big zoom lens ( 80-320mm ) , plus a sigma ef-500 super flash . it 's packed in there , and the flash just barely fits , but i do n't need much more room . the top compartment holds extra batteries , recharger , etc. really easy to access the main pocket when it is on my back...just by pulling the case to my front ( no need to take it off my back ) . well made . zippers are strong so i do n't have to worry about one loosening and my equipment falling out . perfect for the amateur to semi-pro photographer . +music neg all i got to say about this is that dudes need to stop making this kinds of records cuz this is not hip hop , its not what ll , rakim , krs-one , kool g rap , ice t , ice cube , nwa , and ( rip ) big and pac , started . we as fan have the power to end this buy simply not buying the album . please do not buy this , this fake rap is got to sto +camera pos it 's easy to use and makes good pictures , easily a match for the disposable cameras that require you to turn the camera in and wait . i also have a 1gb san card so i can shoot up to almost 1400 pictures . as it is i shoot a couple and then load them into my laptop and send them to people via e-mail +camera pos it 's good as my title says , however , i found one con about it is there is no place i can put a string on it so that i have to put it in my pocket when i take it off +camera pos i do not trust any batteries except canon for my canon cameras . i have found " compatible " batteries do not always charge in canon charger , and do not last as long on camera +camera neg we have had this camera for about a year . we wanted an inexpensive camera but buying this was a big mistake . the picture quality is terrible and now it is not even working . we have a canon powershot a60 as well and have been very happy with the performance . i would not recommend this polaroid camera to anyone +music pos i dug the soundtrack better than the film.the music sounds good through out.if the film had have just focused on the music it would have been incredible.the musicianship is solid here +camera neg i was going to buy this camera for my teenage daughter today , but after reading the reviews i decided that it is not a god risk if the customer service is that bad and the screen seems to break without any kind of impact . i 'm sure it takes nice pictures , but a lot of cameras take nice pictures . i have to go where the service will at least respect you . +camera pos this case was well thought out for snorkeling / diving and using your own digital camera without going to the expense of a really expensive camera . definitely a better choice than using those throw-away underwater cameras or renting one . the only drawback is that it triples the size of the great 720sw camera - since size is one of its strongpoint +camera neg it was n't obvious to me which battery to purchase for the olympus stylus 710. this is not it . i had to send it back and get the li-40b +camera pos i 've bought several lenses from adorama , two of which include a new 300 / 2.8 is and the other , this 500 / 4 is . all of their deliveries were prompt and well packed . i have zero complaints with them . i dealt the john ( green , i think is his last name ) via email . i highly recommend them . as for this lens , it is incredible . wide open it creates a wickedly sharp subject against a wonderfully soft background ( good bokeh ) . af is very fast . this lens is extremely good and will still af when used with the 1.4x converter . ( af works up to f5.6. +music neg this album lacks a lot of the controversy ( not all of it ) of the original , uncensored " cop killer " ( new censored version now titled body count ) . go to ebay and find someone auctioning off the real version of the 92 album . you will like it a hell of a lot better +camera pos fall through spring i always carry my r817 in coat pocket when i go out . this jacket fits my camera like a glove . allows access to all controls and lcd display through clear , heavy duty plastic film , once flap is opened . open flap allows lens to zoom while still protecting rest of camera . only time i zip open jacket is to remove memory chip or change battery , otherwise , i just leave jacket on camera at all times . +music neg not exactly the " vaults " blowing open , as stated in the promo . these are mostly leftovers and one-offs from the late 1990s , when the group was on hiatus from serious recording . that 's why the set is overloaded with forgettable jingles from television shows , literary journals and graphic design firms . whats good is the material that was recorded for albums and subsequently rejected , such as " reprehensible " , " rest awhile " and " certain people i could name " . but there are too few of these real songs , and they 'd have fit a lot better on that long-awaited b-sides collection from their major label career +music pos " vangelis : themes " is a collection of some rare and some more popular theatrical theme music from movies including " blade runner " and " mutiny on the bounty . " it 's an extraordinary album and i highly recommend it +camera neg we returned this item . it was a glorified external dvd burner . it was not worth the money +music neg it really does n't appeal to me . but if you like them that is your opinion . i 'm not going to say your stupid for liking them because your different from me . but i just feel that there is way to much cursing for my liking i mean the creativity here is not very high i just feel you could use better words . but i mean the measure of a man is not how many girls you slept with . i mean that is how you lose money on child support . sex has never been the most important thing in life . honestly though i mean you just ca n't see these guys rapping about these same things when they 're 40 right cause that is wrong . i mean why be interested in a group of rappers that in 10 years probably wont be making music anymore let alone still be together +music neg the cd came as promised and in the condition promised . i 'm very satisfied +music neg when will artist realize you ca n't change the old classics . the only successfull r&b group to sing the classic " night and day " to their own beat was the temptations cd " what women want " the best rendition i have ever heard . smokey does have the voice for these kinds of songs . another good cd with classics is willie nelson 's stardust +camera neg you have this camera case listed under accessories for the panasonic dmc fa20pp lumix camera . the camera does not come close to fitting in this case . the camera is 1 1 / 2 inches wider than the case . +camera neg i got this for my s70. first off , in order to use it , you have to set the s70 to " radio control " ( about 9 button pushes ) . then you had better stay no further away than six feet or so ( and only in *front* of the camera-the remote does n't work from the rear ! ) . oh , and if you want to adjust your framing , forget it-the zoom is immobilized . if you need a " cable release , " i strongly suggest simply using the self-timer built into the camera . it gives you 2-second and 10-second settings , and you 're almost certain to have a steady tripod by that time . +camera neg i agree with the previous reviewer . buying , attaching , and using this microphone is a waste of time and effort . save your money and get a good microphone , unless you want your sound track to sound like someone mumbling into a tin can +music pos i was waiting in anticipation for this cd to arrive and was not disapointed . etta is the bes +music neg a mix of the softest chessyest mushy reggae from the 80s . do n't even bother.. . +music pos although each track is beautiful in it 's own way , it 's their sum that makes this such an incredible album in my mind . where felt mountain remained rather mellow and etheral thruought the entire album , black cherry offers more in the way of diverse melodies and tempo . the tracks seem to be placed specifically in a way that makes the album feel like a journey , and , personally , like a lay 's potato chip , not able to listen to just one....yeah , i need the whole thing. . +camera pos wow ! ! ! this is my 4th sony , i keep trading up and i am so impressed . there is no delay on the shutter speed , great pictures and enough special effects to be fun , but not enough that you need a phd to operate +music pos i purchased this cd after reading one of the reviews . i have another streetwize cd that i love , but i was a litter weary about getting this one ( jazz meets dre and all ) . but i am glad i made the purchase , as i am thoroughly enjoying it +music neg ok , so the song playing when brian goes and we see mia for the first time is a song called " deep enough ( urban remix ) " by live . i have the other songs written down , including the one played between the two buildings , so i will find them and tell you . if you all want only the songs that were actually in the movie , rent the dvd , and take about ten minutes to watch the credits and write down the song names and artists . that 's how i have only the songs that are in the movie +camera neg i was so excited to buy a camcorder that recorded straight to dvd and took pictures.......well , the picture quality is awful ! i have gotten maybe 20 nice pics out of over a 1000........the problem is its so low in pixels . we hear about 5mp cameras and up , this camera has less than 1mp ! ! ! ! i bought this before i knew anything about megapixels........you have to have 5 or more for the prints to be decent . all of my prints from this camera are bad ! and they are only good for email . that 's it . the camcorder capabilities are fair . my problem is that it does n't work well on the computer , and it does not play immediately in all dvd players . you have to buy the very expensive ram discs for editing....overall , i definitely would not buy again and i would not reccommend to a friend . i wish i had spent all that money on something else... . +camera pos this digital photo frame has reasonably good picture quality and once set up , can be used by anyone in the selected mode . i have it set for slide presentation mode and people enjoy looking at it . i could easily see giving it , already set up , to people who are not computer savvy , such as grandparents . to give them new pictures , send a new card and they slip that in . that said , the cost is still fairly high and the buttons on the top of the frame useless unless you have them memorized or really good vision . i would recommend this product +music pos quem nĂŁo gosta de samba , bom sujeito nĂŁo Ă© , Ă© ruim da cabeça ou doente do pĂ©...essa letra desse samba serve para definir melhor o cd da marisa monte . quem nĂŁo gostar dele , Ă© doente da cabeça , do ouvido , do corpo , etc. Ă um trabalho dedicado , na medida certa para esta cantora , verdadeira diva da mpb . recomendo a todos . +camera neg i was not satisfied with the quality of the digital pictures on this ziga digital frame . i returned it +camera neg bought the samsung 363 from amazon and it developed mechanical fault while i was test running . making strange noise after loading the tape making it unuseable . about 2 weeks later , i decided to show it to a friend in case it was something unserious and then i realised again that it was not even coming up again . problem with the power system . paralysing it completely ( all in less than 3 wks from purchase . left it plugged to charge for 2 days without difference it 's indeed a sad story . that would be my last time of buying a tape camcorder . +music neg i am a huge fan of thomas newman but really this cd presents nothing new . it comes across as merely a re-hash of the airy , atmospheric , melody-free cues from his other recent scores . it has none of the originality of american beauty or road to perdition . frankly , as much as i like his scores , i do n't think this warranted a cd release , it 's just got too bland and ordinary , no matter how beautifully constructed and pristine it all sounds . a pity +music neg well , unless you are a hardcore collector like myself ( had it originally on vinyl all those years ago ) , stay clear of this album . if you want to hear noise that you & your wife / girlfriend / boyfriend could do yourself , then forget this album & make your own noise . the best track on the album is the bonus track . that tells you that this album has nothing to do with beatles music . i give it one star for being terrible & one star for the packaging ; - ) . search judemac forever " on msn +music neg i like the music , but the sound quality is terrible . i bought this cd because it was released in 2003 , but there is zero improvement in sound quality from previous older tracks +music neg all i got to say about this is that dudes need to stop making this kinds of records cuz this is not hip hop , its not what ll , rakim , krs-one , kool g rap , ice t , ice cube , nwa , and ( rip ) big and pac , started . we as fan have the power to end this buy simply not buying the album . please do not buy this , this fake rap is got to sto +camera neg i got this lens in a kit with a nikon d80 camera . this lens failed to deliver the goods 99% of the time . why buy an expensive camera and then use a cheap lens like this ? its silly to spend big money on the camera and have only blurry pictures to show from it . it was only tolerable in very bright situations and using less than 100mm focal length . a cloudly day or all of the 200 mm zoom would result in a picture that had significant distortion noticeable even on little 4x6 prints . very few pictures came out when it was used in the fullest zoom ( 200mm ) . i disliked this lens enough to return the entire camera kit and purchase a different camera ( d200 ) that came with the highly ranked 18-200 vr lens from nikon . if your interested in nice sharp pics , then pass on this lens . if you want to save a few bucks and like blurry photos , this lens is for you. . +camera neg far better models for similair price range - dissapointed with the quality of the finish etc etc. works fine though . +music neg having watched most , if not all of john waters films i was sorely dissapointed by this album , obviously his name was put to something he had n't quite looked deeply enough in to . talk about misleading . as we all know john waters has a certain reputation for sleaze , trash , camp , kitch and bad taste in all the best possible terms , this album had none of this . shame on you john waters for putting your name to a complete load of rubbis +camera pos the new olympus stylus 770sw is the nicest camera to date i 've purchased . it takes great pictures and is extremely durable . the picture quality is awesome in all types of weather conditions and lighting . i stronly suggest to purchase this if the price is right +camera pos i have not yet used an fz30 or fz50 , but i think this thing beats the pants off an fz5 or fz10 as far as image quality is concerned . really nice camera . has a nice dslr type feel . 71% of people that check out the fz20 here actually end up buying the fz7 , ( as of today ) but i do not believe the iq of the fz7 could hold a candle to that of the fz20. buyers may be on the *more megapixel* bandwagon . you can do a lot with 5 megapixels . i have found that the iq of the fz20 is very close to that of a dslr +camera neg i got this charger with my sd110 , and within a few months , it stopped working ; it was obviously a battery problem . the battery is n't the best quality either , but when i got a new one , the problem persisted . so obviously it 's the charger . +camera neg this camera takes blurry pictures straight out of the box . one mistake i made was to not take my own sd card to the camera shop and look at the output . i thought the blurry image i was seeing at the camera store was because of the low resolution screen but it really is the camera . i 've missed too many pictures of my kids and am in the process of buying a new camera a short 2 months after buying this . casio support was responsive and tried to help but nothing appears to work . and point and shoot is definately not an option . i thought it would be nice to take quick pictures of the kids but none of them are worth keeping . i 've taken over 200 pictures and i will not print any of them . +music pos too many people are overwhelmed with the more modern christmas songs out there today and are unaware of the wonderful music available on cds like this . john rutter proves his brilliance in arranging and conducting . the music overwhelms the senses and the joy of christmas overcomes you as you listen . this is one of the most peaceful christmas cds i have ever heard . " wassail song " is incredible , and if you are ever in a small vocal ensemble , this song is a must to perform . you will not be disappointed when you purchase this cd +music neg bobby bare is a great singer , one of the most underrated country singers ever . however , most of the songs on this cd pale in comparison to his earlier work like " detroit city " and " millers cave " +camera neg as a professional photographer , i find myself going through 5-6 of these cords each year . my equipment is my livelyhood and although it is used often , i am exceptionally careful with all of my gear and do not bang it around or abuse it . i use a stroboframe which makes it necessary to use this cord to raise the flash well above the focal plane of the camera . these cords are very expensive to get just a few months out of them . eventually , the hot shoe connector will either become loose and the connection will no longer function or the plastic connector will break and your flash unit will fall to the ground . ( this has happened twice to me and fortunately i was able to catch the flash unit ! ) the cord is indespensible if you need it , but contact canon usa and ask them to reengineer this cord or expect to replace them every few months +camera pos i am certainly happy i bought this filter kit . for a starting photographer , the price was right , and i have not noticed any quality issues . the uv filter stays on a lens at all times , as it 's cheaper to replace the filter , than it is to have a scratched lens element repaired . the light polarizer is very handy , and also works very well , cutting down greatly on glare . i have not yet had the occasion to use the warming filter yet . the filter case is a nice extra , it fits right in my camera bag , and is out of the way untill i need it +camera neg i gave it two stars because it was great.. . when it worked . i got it sometime in january , and it lasted until about june . i take good care of my things , so i know its not me . it just suddenly *stopped* working . i 'm more than just a little miffed . i 've tried getting all different types of batteries - i 've tried letting it sit for a while . i 've taken it to my friend who works with cameras for a living and had him take it apart and clean it and all sorts of stuff . its dead . i just threw it away +music pos being a professional dancer as well as a teacher and having seen hundreds of musicals , i must say i rate this as " one of the best " . the dancers are fantastic ! the music utterly great , the choice of dances ( from classical to rock ) is highly deversified . ca n't wait till i get it so i can play it again and again . as well as " rock the house , shake my bootie , etc" +camera pos be careful when you use this lens because it does not have is ( image stabilizer ) so if you have shaky hands and the exposure is any more than 1 / 8 of a second you are going to going to get some blur . this is why the lens is so cheap . this is especially bad when you are at the far end spectrum of this lens . if you are really zoomed in and it 's cloudy then you should know to use a tripod just in case . this goes for any lens , but if you will be using the 300-mm end of this then use a tripod . it 's common sense , but i 've loaned out this lens and they complained to me afterwards +music neg what a load of junk . gu 29 cd1 was ok . everything else these two have done separately is pretty useless . make sure you hear a sample before buying this . do n't say you were n't warned . +music neg imagine buying this cd after seeing " the mirror has two faces " fully expecting the soundtrack music to the movie , and reading overall great reviews on amazon . imagine the shock of receiving the cd and the surprise of hearing 20 brief cuts of plain instrumental music out of the 24 cuts - the remaining 4 cuts contained very short lines of verse . perhaps barbara , with her tremendous unlimited wealth , felt she would be giving away a " free album " to the masses if the soundtrack contained the vocals in the film . shameless misrepresentation +camera pos i bought this camera to take pictures of my family and friends . i have had if for more than one year , and it has performed above expectations under all conditions . the 1 minute video feature is great , and was an unexpected bonus ( since i did n't know about it when i bought it off amazon ) . the camera works great with iphoto and macos x . i bought a 512 mb card for it and so far it has been great . both my father and my father in law have the previous powershot s400 and they have had no problems with it . i figure at some point i 'll have to change the battery , because lithium-ions lose 20% capacity per year , but so far it has worked flawlessly . +music neg if the name pink floyd was n't on this cd , who would really rate it higher that one or two stars ? i am a pink floyd fan , but i have to say that i do n't like any of their early works . to me , the band begins to make great stuff with " meddle " and their first cd were boring , even with the pink floyd name on it . the only good track is " childhood 's end " , the other tracks are poor +music pos trip hop and lounge lovers need to have this cd at home . bajo fondo tango club is not as pure tango as piazzola 's nor as chill out percolated as gotan project 's , which makes them a band for all publics . nor even one single person in my office could n't help download at least one song of this cd into their ipods . three of them already bought their copy +music neg i ca n't discard these songs completely , because they have such potential ! clever , fun lyrics , great beat , but boy i wish this guy could hit his notes more often ! i suppose this fellow requires the sort of " pitch does n't matter " mindset that grateful dead listeners perfected years ago ( or similar drugs ) . i 'm just not that tolerant or substance affected +camera neg when i received the camera i thought of giving it a 5 star because the good looking and nice picture . after 6 months use , i wish i could give it a 0 star . it 's true it looks good but it 's very hard to hold the camera . it droped twice when i took pictures . also the lens is too small . the dirt is very easy to get onto the lens and very hard to clean b / c it 's small . thanks the dirty lens , the picture quality is worse than ever . the battery is very small too . after 6 months use , it can not hold enought power to shoot 10 pictures ! they have to put the buttons here and there to fit the small space . it 's not a user friendly camera . +music pos i loved the cd , it took me back to the days of the original recordings , however the sound was not as good as the original . +music pos overdrive , watching the rain , enchanted , teaching myself to dream , glow , lemon , because i can are really excellent songs , this album is really worth it . +music pos i love this album , the best of phil collins . i believe every great artist always delivers their best stuff when they are in a rut . i know he wrote some of the songs on this album bases on his bad times / suffering with his ex wife . he did not realize how much pain she was in and the mood and moment is captured very well . he is a great composer . too bad most of his new songs...2006 , times are different and so is his life , i do not enjoy them as much . once an artist becomes more self-actualized much of their best work becomes just that a memory . +camera pos i so love the size and shape of this camera . this one takes some good pictures , and appear to be quite clear . it 's better than the integrated camera on my cell phone . this camera may seem like it 's taken a poor quality image , but when you transfer them onto a pc , they seem so clear ! however it is recommended that you get a memory card for this camera as it only has 14mb of internal memory . as this camera was a gift to me , i 'd have to say it was the best birthday present i have received +camera pos picked mine up used on ebay for $180. with the growth of the vr market everyone is dumping there old lenses . you can get a used one for a great price . this lens is great for the serious amatuer . i have taken some incredible pictures with this lens . the autofocus is a little slow and i have heard people complain about softness on the high end but i have a photo blown up to 20 x 17 taken from my d70 at 300mm . of course i shoot the photo on a tripod... . i have not experienced the softnes +camera pos i 'm surprised to see that a lot of people only give 1* to this camera ! i 've had it for 2 years now and i just love it ! thanks to it , i discovered i had a real passion for photography.. . it 's very easy to use and my pictures are great ! when i show them , people usually tell me " you must have an expensive camera " ... and i just show them my little canon s500 and they are surprised with the result ! i 'm just loving it +camera neg the look and feel of this camcorder is very good . unfortunately my camcorder use is limited to low light indoor activities . for example , evening party , indoor school activities , kid drama and orchestra . this camcorder is not at all suitable for these activities . earlier i had a sony dcr trv140 , which was way better than this camcorder . this camcorder has a very small sensor and hence such a low price . one easy guide to evaluate the sensor size is to look at the optical zoom . most of the camcorders with more than 10x optical zoom has small sensors . these large optical zoom camcorders will perform poorly in low light . if you are planning to use this camcorder in low indoor light , i do not recommend it . +music pos i was looking for some nice background nature sounds to have playing while i work throughout the day . this collection hits the spot . great sounds , great variety , great price +camera pos i really enjoy my photosmart r725. it 's small , easy portable , takes wonderful photos , and is very versatile in terms of settings . i just have one thing i do n't like about it , and that 's the fact that there is no viewfinder . there is an lcd screen on the back which acts as a viewfinder , but it 's hard to see in bright sunlight , and i 'm afraid that it will eventually become scratched beyond use . for now , it 's great but i 'm not sure how it will hold up for the long run . at the same time , it 's not spendy , so it might be worth it +camera pos this is a replacement for an identical battery pack that i lost . works great , long life , no problems +music pos live alive is good enough to buy in my standered's .....i really think this was recorded poorly but the songs on it are really good if you play it in your car , or on bigger speakers so you can really hear everything much better . their are many good songs included on this complination of live performence 's spanning from performences from montreux jazz festival , austin opera house , and the dallas starfest . this recordings are all from 85-through 86. jimmie vaughan appears on willie the wimp , love struck baby , look at little sister , and change it playing guitar , and string bass . i think the worst song on the entire complination is voodoo chile ( slight return ) which is kind of weird for me to say because i think that was truely the best song stevie ray played live but in this case its not . other than that i really think for what it is it 's a average live performence . +music neg especially when there 's a pretty girl invovled but this is just dreadful . the songs are so cheesy , her voice is out of place in half the songs . it 's whiny , irritating , dull and at this point , i 'm not sure who 's more talented , her or her sister . they got the looks , sure , but there 's lots of pretty girls in this world , does n't mean they deserve a singing contract just to look hot on the cover of the cd . & that 's the only thing that intrigued me to listening to this album . & i 'm sorry jes , but maybe u really are as brain dead as people say +camera neg if you are looking to take high quality pictures , then look elsewhere . it is nice for taking quick snapshots with the family or what-have-you , but not much else . ( or for a beginner in photography or a child . ) you have to hold very still if you do n't want your pictures to come out blurry . also , the flash makes images far too bright and if you do n't use the flash it sometimes makes images come out far too dark . the only thing i like about this camera is it 's size . it 's great to just keep in your pocket or your bag.. . anyway , i 'm buying a better one soon +music pos this is my favorite jazz album of all time . put simply , this was miles davis at his best . the notes on this album simply float , and yet it flows together better than anything i 've ever heard . the composition is disorganized but in a way that it all makes complete sense . do n't let the thirty second clips fool you . i almost missed out on this because the clips are misleading . i took a chance on it , and it was the best gamble i 've ever made . a must have for any jazz enthusiast +camera pos nice portable background support kit . stability might be an issue but if portability is your first concern then you can overcome the stability issues with weights or caution . easy and quick to put up . i put it up by myself with very little effort . all rolls up in a nice compact bag for transporting +camera neg i added these batteries to an order of a few other things , and did n't realize that they were going to ship this separately from circuit city . make sure if you pick this , that you are getting something else from cc , or else you will end up like me . with a huge box ( you could fit 4 tom clancey novels in the box ) shipped to you with a pack of batteries and end up paying more for shipping then you spend on the batteries +music neg e40 is the worst mc i have ever heard i would rather listen to someone drag their nails down a blackboard . how on earth can someone like him get a record contract and sell records . anytime he comes on another rappers album no matter how good the beats are i always skip the track +camera neg try to call panasonic customer service @1-800-973-4264 and tell them you have question about your camcorder first . panasonic service is the worst one in this world . +camera neg i recommend not to purchase this item . look for another one . the lens itself seems ok , although i ca n't really say , but the adapter which is built in to the lens is shoddy and cumbersome and ruins the the whole deal . the adapter is a quick release type where one end attaches to the camera and the lens simply snaps in , or is quickly released . this would be great , except for two very important things . one , the lens fits very loosely in the quick release adapter . this causes some major distortion , especially when moving . two , the housing is made of thin plastic which does not seem very durable . in fact it is so cheaply thin that i am afraid to leave it in my car because the heat may distort the plastic . one drop , even a small one , and it is done for +camera pos yes , i am slow to make this review , maybe because i spend a great deal of time using this camera . the only thing i would like to have changed , is a rechargable pack . at first i burned thru many batteries . i switched to rechargables , and find that i still use a great deal of power , ( i shoot often with the flash , ) but now i can recharge the spent batteries after each session . i use the charge of 12 aa 's in a 3 hour shoot . i use this camera for studio work and it has served me well for a good number of years already +music neg there is not enough space for me to explain why this film ( and soundtrack ) are woefully inadequate of the name dr. seuss . the fact that there are so many songs on the album screams commercialism ( what the book was complaining about , wake up people ! ) and james horner 's score which has a couple of nice moments but does n't have that seussian sound . ' where are you christmas ' is annoying beyond all reason and i mean both versions . and whose bright idea was it to have jim carrey mangle ' you 're a mean one ' ? if you 're looking for a more grinch like score , go find elfman 's nightmare before christmas +camera neg cons only , no pros : the velcro closure is week and opens easily terrible look the side zippers are a mistery , totally useless no space for extra memory or battery attaches only to a very small belt the flash opens spontaneously while inserting the camera in its pouch making it difficult to get it out later on and probably damaging the flash +camera neg this bag is very small . my canon 20d fits nicely with a small lens , but you cannot fit more than one lens with the camera body . we kept the bag for informal use when we only need the body and one lens to avoid always having to carry a bulky bag +camera neg this camcorder has an excellent form factor and conveniently transfers clips to pc via usb . however , the camera picks up the sound of its own zoom and auto-focus , which makes the video unacceptable in my opinion . the clicking and whirring is louder than the level of normal conversation . we returned the first unit that we got thinking that it may have been a production defect , but the second unit had the same problem . apparently , according to the manual , this is " not a malfunction " +camera pos can someone who bought the kit from adorama tell me : 1 ) the battery is the canon genuine nb-1lh battery ? 2 ) the camera case is canon psc-50 case ? thank you in advance +camera pos i have looked everywhere for this charger . everywhere in town wants me to buy something else that might work . it was great to finally find the actual charger that comes with the camera . it 's just the right size and plugs right into the wall . the prongs fold down and can fit nicely in a carry-on bag . thanks so much for having this item available +music neg i could not wait to get this album . i usually love to hear the new the hypnotize minds albums . however after so many years groups do make mistakes . this is a major one . chrome could suck his name off of a trailer hitch . i own the original copies of every prophet / hypnotize relese since mystic styles , and this is by far the worst to emerge . they never release a lord infamous solo album in 12 years ( not to mention he is dj paul 's brother...wait i just did ) and now this ? ? ? what 's next , a crunchy black album lol ? ? this is a personal note to dj paul and juicy j...please swallow your pride and re-hire ( at least ) t-rock , gangsta boo , mc mack , and bribe some judges to get lord infamous out of jail ! ! ! p.s. - this only gets 2 stars for the production value . +camera neg the main reason i ordered this kit was for the battery . when i received it ....no battery included . i contacted amazon and all they could do was give me a number for sony customer service . thanks amazon ! ! +music pos an outstanding compilation of a wide variety of popular and regional styles from across mexico . this set examines both traditional and contemporary music , including a brilliant ska-banda mix by the popular " rock en espanol " band , cafe tacuba . rancheras , corridos , boleros , indie rock and various stylistic fusions are represented , and even a few sones from veracruz - - one of my favorite musical genres ! if you are curious about the rich musical heritage of this large but often slighted nation , then check this collection out.. . it might open more than a few new musical doors +music neg i never write reviews for anything , but this one was so bad , i could n't help myself . everybody has different tastes , but if you like music with any kind of structure or melody at all , you will not like belladonna . i could not make sense of it at all , it rambled on and on , never getting to the point , never picking a path , never building on a theme . it bored me with it 's vague attempts to build a song . i listened to it 2 times just to make sure i was n't imagining how bad it was , and then i dumped it . it was not my style , and i do n't see how it could be anybody 's style , but that 's just me . i felt obligated to voice my opinion and possible save somebody out there from being bitterly disappointed . good luck on your listing adventures +music pos sombre romantic is a step up if you will in the gothic metal genre . it is a very solid album from start to finish but has alot of layers that keep things interesting . its not what you would really consider to be a " religious " album but there are many undertones that help get the message across . this point being made very clear in " museum of iscariot " which talks of jesus from judas ' point of view . rowan 's vocal stylings change to meet the moods of every song on this album , from low opera type to screaming , in a superb way that stays consistent and never gets old . if you are into relaxed darkwave / goth music this is a perfect album to purchase +music pos ...else if michigan was on vinyl i would have worn it out by now . illinois was my first venture into the sound-world of sufjan stevens , and no doubt it his most impressive outing to date . however the subtle spendour of the earlier michigan has ousted it as my favourite . perhaps less eclectic and entertaining than illinois , but more soulful and beautiful . ultimately it 's the one i 'd take to the proverbial desert island . there 's not a single track in this 74 minute cd that i 'd want to skip or drop from my mp3 playlist , but highlights for me are romulus ( gentle and heartbreaking ) , sleeping bear ( musically gorgeous ) , and vito 's ordination song ( like being gently hugged ) . p.s. so often the ' bonus tracks ' on a cd can seem superfluous and substandard but the 2 extras on my cd ( marching band and pickerel lake ) are both excellent . +music pos if you are expecting " safari moon pt. 2 " , you will be dissapointed . air took a more adventuourous , darker , ambient , serious , experimental , and ultimtately brilliant journey into electronic music . the songs here range from sounding like aphex twin ( without the weird off-putting effects or heavy drums ) to thievery corp. air still has a beautiful sense of melody and as usual the tunes themselves are beautifully and creatively put together ( even a throwaway air song is a well-crafted one ) . overall , all us true hardcore air fans love this album . those who only loved ms may not like it , but that 's their loss i say +camera pos this kit is a must have for any of the compatible canon cameras . digital camera rule #1 : always carry a spare battery - the kit is almost worth it for that alone . the leather case is great : stylish looks that provides a tough protective armor in case you drop the camera . the neck strap is quite strong and looks good too . it may not be everyone 's cup of tea but i like it . it comes in handy when i need quick access to the camera and do n't want to fumble through pockets or bags +music pos i love " fool for the city " i have also always loved savoy brown " looking in " and did n't know until recently that lonesome dave was the singer and most of the savoy brown band went on to form foghat . if you are a foghat fan you should check out " looking in " by savoy brown . if you 've heard other stuff by savoy brown and did n't like it , do n't be discouraged because " looking in " ( and only " looking in " ) is essentially foghat . there were a lot of changes in savoy brown personnel through the years and the guys that did looking in were the best . +music pos this is not only brian eno 's best album , but one of the finest albums ever made- -a work of simple beauty , complex intelligence , and imagination. . +music pos its just realy sad that hip-hop dont sound like hard to earn anymore.. . gang starr still gets daily airplay on my stereo and im glad i support these guys +music pos this album is great but i 'm looking for a song that i think they sung . it goes : pressing on we 're pressing on ( repeat ) . waiting on jesus to answer our call we 're holding on ( repeat ) pressing , pressing , pressing . if anyone knows the name of the song , or has any suggestions on who sings this song , please email me at udeebear1984@yahoo.com . thank you and have a blessed day ! : +music neg first off that has to be the worst rhyme i 've ever heard in my life.. . andre nickatina ( in the rapping world ) is one of the worst i 've ever heard , but if you 're into dope beats and his style in flowing with them ( reminds me of someone on the ocean just being carried by waves , paddling every which way to stay with them ) , and what i mean by that is he tries to keep up with the pace and the beat and says ( what feels like ) every single thing that pops into his head from coke to what he had for dinner that night . but overall , " if you ca n't dig it like its shovelled man i guess you ai n't able " summs this and the rest of the nickatina c.d.s up +camera pos celestron 's tool is easy to carry , easy to use , and ( at least in my case ! ) gives me quick , precision collimation with my newtonian . why pay for a laser collimator ( which needs to be calibrated ) when you can use this ? collimation is the most important part of your setup ; without good mirror alignment , all you 'll see are blobs and blurs even on the best viewing nights . this combination tool makes aligning both primary and secondary mirrors fairly painless , and also fairly fast . highly recommended for any level of observer +camera neg i read the reviews and thought i 'd still give it a try . after one battery charge , i was " lucky " enough to have a defective unit - the camera would n't start again after the first charge . my observations from that first short use were : - quality of pictures was very poor ( my pentax optio 4mp camera takes better quality photos ) - - very disapointing for a 6mp camera . - the flash was generally useless , and actually hurt quality - the camera was very uncomforable if you do n't have very small hands . my wrist hurt after using it for 20 minutes . - the video was ok , but the focus was very slow ( and noisy ) . - i had the same problem as several others - - that the camera died shortly afer getting it ( shows very poor quality ) . all-in-all do n't waste your money . you can get a much better camera at a lower price +camera pos this is a great camera - it 's so thin , and takes amazing pictures , even when the subject is moving . the best shot option makes taking pictures under any kind of lighting great quality . i suggest this to anyone +camera neg one of the most disastrous purchases we 've ever made . it works fine until you try to get the video images onto your computer . do n't bother trying to consult the instruction guide ; it 's the worst one you 've ever seen . you could go to the website to attempt to download all the drivers that you supposedly need , but they 're not actually on the website . definitely find another brand +music pos hot hot heat is one of the few new bands to pique my interest . their first release was decent , but " elevator " is even better . great tunes , drums and guitars - and , of course , steve bays ' yelping vocals . there 's only three songs i really do n't care for - " pickin ' it up " , " soldier in a box " and " shame on you " . looking forward to the next cd +camera pos very speedy delivery . a gift for my daughter . she loves it . i thought we were to receive a free photo card but did not . not really necessary . did not know that . still playing with it and having a blast . i do like that it is weather resistant +music neg i can understand that robin felt a need to include some of the biggest bee gees hits to appease the fans , but the ones that were sung by barry are below wretched here . robin frequently disappears in the sound mix , becoming little more than one of a group singing harmony . that 's fine for a group concert , like the bee gees , but inexcusable for a solo effort . his stiff between song talk sounds like a bad lounge act . they should have kept this in the can . it seems like it is meant as little more than a money grab for robin . do n't do him the favor +music neg it was awful ! the reproduction of the music was grainy , scratchy and virtually impossible to listen to +music neg some reviews have suggested that this is not the ideal first purchase for the un-inititiated . i am writing to confirm that assertion . i have read enough raving reviews about their subsequent releases to know that it really does get better from here , but what a disappointment this album was for me . it sounds like what you would hear coming from the garage next door . my advice to the kids would be to keep practing and please turn it down . jack 's appreciation of the blues is admirable , but only realised on the song " i fought piranhas " . tellingly , this is the final song on the album . otherwise the songs are forgettable and even annoying at times . +music neg this cd is awesome from beginning to end . i really enjoy listening to this type of music . this cd is a must have . +music neg based on other reviews here and comparisons to jellyfish , jason falkner and the beatles , i was expecting a lot better . instead i find this work very shrill and hard to listen to . is the guy talented musically ? yes . but his voice is mediocre and his songs really do n't do it for me . sorry but i feel the need to give an honest assessment so others wo n't be mislead by the breathless reviews here . i am a big fan of power pop and all good music but this does not rank with the best of that genre +music pos ethereal , rhythmic , haunting , eclectic . wake : best of dead can dance is a collection of songs that will move your soul and spirit . the haunting combination of modern and ancient tunes , combined with phenomenal vocals and instrumentals make this album one to cherish and listen to over and over . each time you hear it will lead to new discoveries and emotions . +camera neg gosh , i would really like to review this adapter , but- - - amazon has put my order on indefinate hold , as thier supplier is unable to get any more . but wait ! what 's that blurb on the product page - " availability : ususally ships within 24 hours " and " want it delivered tomorrow ? order it in the next 5 hours and 36 minutes , and choose one-day shipping at checkout . see details . " so they ca n't deliver it , yet they still list it as available for delivery tomorrow ? do n't order from amazon +music pos much improved voice , same great guitar . slow album , especially on his two remakes . country sound on no reason to cry ( beautiful solo ) . this cd would have been a 6 stars had he mixed in a thunderstorm to the background of gonna rain today +camera pos excellent clarity even on cloudy days . i have had others that cost 4 times the price and would not match the quality of these . comes complete with with case , caps and neck strap +music neg ...sorry , guys , i think that the cover says it all . totally out of focus and falling apart . i much prefer his later work +camera neg i have owned the s410 camera for almost two years , when on new years eve i pulled out my handy camera , from the padded case it 's always in , and to my horror , the e18 error message appeared ! it has n't worked since . i paid $400 for this camera and canon would like $110 ( plus taxes ) to fix the problem - ridiculous . especially since this seems to be a very common problem with their cameras . i 've enjoyed the camera 's picture quality and ease of use , but what a waste to spend that much money to take pictures with it for just under two years ! beware of this flaw that canon does n't seem to acknowledge +camera neg quite unsatisfied with this product and will be returning the 2 i purchased as gifts . in fact , the recipients asked me to return them . main reason , in order for it to be " portable " it requires a special battery that you can only buy from the manufacturer for an additional $30. i already spent $100 , not planning on spending more money . i think photoco needs to rethink their product and improve customer satisfaction . +music neg the raising arizona part of the cd is almost exclusively electronic and only one 90 second track of the great banjo that i remember from the movie . i recommend listening to samples before you buy +camera pos my sony fx1 has great low light capability , 3 lux , but eventually you will need extra light . using your software to lighten dark shots will likely reveal some degree of graininess , no matter which camera you use . i 'm so glad i bought it . used it for my birthday party . though the overhead light was good , dark corners of the room require more light . if you consider yourself advanced , semi-pro , or a pro videographer , you must have a light . my only major beef is it runs at either 10 or 20 watts . no variable for 5 , or 15. it is worth getting a long life battery like the np-970. independent power source ( battery ) is a plus . but no outlet plug adaptor that i know of +camera neg just turned out ot be more complicated to set up than i wanted . never used . returned it +music pos all of the isleys early work without the younger isleys is just as good with them . but these early workouts are more raw-stripped down and pop-oriented . ron isley has a way of making country , and rock remakes sound like they were never before recorded . not too many black artists can do that . to get a taste of the " real isleys " before the " mr. biggs " persona , get this with " get into something " , and " givin ' it back" +camera pos this case is vital to protect the lightweight s1 which could be easily damaged from a drop . the case does not detract from the convenience of the s1 , it adds virtualy no bulk to the camera so that it still slips in a pocket or a purse easily . +camera neg the quality of the pictures are nice when they will actually print . unless you use the printer with your camera on the dock it is incredibly hard to get the darn thing to work . if you decide to crop the picture on your pc and then want to print it be prepared to invest time in getting the darn thing to work ! i have had it for sometime now and i have never been more irritated than when it comes time to print pictures on this thing . +camera pos i bought this dock from a seller called miga . they did an excellent job of answering my questions on the product and sending everything in mint condition . i use the dock for my hp r817. having read the reviews regarding the insert i just went through hp 's part site and ordered the correct insert for my camera . it was only $5 ( before shipping ) and it arrived the same day as the dock package . the dock transfers data so much faster then the cradle that comes with the camera plus it has an extra battery which would cost $50 and up by itself from hp . i bought the dock for its dual charging ability for when i go on trips since this dock is less expensive then the fast charge travel kit . i probably wo n't use the remote control feature or print images right from the dock . but for what i will use it for its an excellent product for the price and i highly recommend it for you 817 818 users out there . +camera neg after reading the reviews a bought the accessory kit . i compared the eyepieces and the barlow with standard inexpensive plossls ( orion , knigth owl , gso ) and the celestron 's optics looked the worst one . i sold the kit after 2 weeks. . +camera pos every picture of mine that included larger portions of the sky would have these stubborn spores on it . pretty infuriating , especially when you got the shot just like you wanted it . yes , you can always remove those on photoshop ( or cheaper yet , the gimp ) ; but is n't it cool when you look at a picture and say : " that is it , nothing to do on it ! " ? ? and it was n't just the sky . any off-white but light plain colored background would suffer visibly from the acursed specks . with this blower , greatly priced ( pity that adorama does n't have free shipping though ) , i put my camera on the tripod , pointed it down , squirted three or four times - and gone are the specs ! ! ! great buy for dslr owners +camera pos i used the product at victoris falls and was very pleased . at this time i have not gone under water with it . +music neg i played several samples of this cd on my computer while visiting the amazon website and my male cat started meowing along . this cd is good for calming a cat and lining his box . face it , yoko ca n't sing ( unless you have a cat 's ears . ) +music neg the people who have mentioned aphex twin and four tet have clearly never listened to either of these artists . if you liked the stone roses you will like this . it 's not an ' electronic ' album at all . i 've ordered manitoba 's earlier cd after listening to the samples ( the reason for purchasing both these albums ) and i certainly hope it sounds nothing like ' up in flames' . it 's funny , i promised myself i would never buy an album again without listening to it and yet it seems that samples on the net can be misleading , either that or dan snaith has had a serious identity crisis in the last few years +camera pos i bought this camera for my 80 year old mother because i knew that if she was going to try digital photography , it had to be easy ! the printer dock is simple for her to use to transfer snapshots of her cat to her computer and email them to her friends . i have used the older cx-7300 , ( very similar camera ) for backpacking for years and it has never failed under harsh conditions . the lack of optical zoom is a plus for me ; less to break . the c530 is more compact , has better resolution , and still has the option of using aa batteries when the rechargables die . if you want simple digital snapshots , you will love this little camera +music pos but a good debut album . this is when i felt proud knowin ja was from ny . no radio friendly s*** here just street for the most part . but i guess when you were never really gangsta in the first place you ca n't keep talkin about it , which is why i guess he changed his style . now the subject i wanna hit . has anyone noticed that guy named progressive ? why does amazon allow goofs who hate hip hop trash our culture ? and everytime i turn around its some damn rocker / junkie hippie . last time i checked rhythm and melody was part of music . i dont hear none of those when i through on heavy metal or rock . i 'm tired of our music bein trashed . you know what im a go trash one of they " artist " right now +camera neg i bought this camera two years ago , the pictures were always perfect , even though from the sixth month it started getting stains everywhere , but then i found out that it was normal , not good but it usually happens to this cameras . but the worst of all is tha fact that it displays the error 18 ( e18 ) , the lens gets stock and the camera wo n't work at all . i searched in google about it , because the user guide says nothing about this error , and then i read many reviews that said that there was nothing to do about it and many canon cameras have the same defect.. . i am really mad and dissapointed on canon , i will never buy a camera of this brand , and i would n't recommend it , unless you are willing to buy a camera for 2 years or less and then throw your money to the trash +camera pos this battery recharger does its job well . no bells or whistles , just plug it in , put the battery in , and wait for the red light to turn green +music neg on the liner notes to one of the two blues albums ( i think it is shaker ) it is said that the original idea was just to perform some of these songs in a one night concert . that should have been as far as it went . to foist these songs on an unsuspecting public at 19 bucks a crack is highway robbery . if these are blues songs , then i am robert johnson 's illegitimate son . " death letter " is good , maybe even great , but cannot compare to the original or to any of the covers i have previously heard . the rest is a waste of time . the cover art is excellent but hardly the reason you would be expected to buy the cd . these are my first 2 reviews by the way , but all these 5-star reviews for both cd 's finally got me motivated . go buy a muddy waters or lightning hopkins cd and save 10 bucks in the bargain +camera pos so far , i really love this camera . it 's very user friendly and gives you the option to put it in a very basic mode or normal mode . what attracted me to purchasing this camera was because of the long battery life and because of the picture quality . it has a large viewing area which is nice and it 's very clear . i recommend this camera +camera neg it worked fine the first week . then the focus stopped working . i sent it to repair . it worked well for a couple of weeks and then the focus stopped working . i sent it for repair for the second time . it worked well for a couple of weeks and then stopped working . also , it is impossible to contact the repair center or the customer relation center at sony ! ! ! they make you wait over an hour ! ! ! si if you want a camera for two of three weeks this is probably what you are looking for ! ! ! sony repair reference number : e3317596 +camera neg grainy iso 100 pictures at any light conditions . usage of 5mp and low sharpness options partially solves the problem , but if you take pictures with panasonic dmc-fz7 and compare ... it will be clear that a garbage trash is the right place for this camera . i had panasonic dmc-fz7 and the only cons . is really noisy high iso sensitivity mode . in fz8 camera panasonic implemented the venus iii processor ( fz7 has venus ii processor ) . as a result picture quality really improved at high iso sensitivity modes but dramatically changed for the worse in iso 100 mode +music neg i 'm a " compleat " beatlemaniac , and i do n't mind the political statements at all , but this is a nearly unlistenable record that i have a hard time counting as a serious musical effort or even a real album . i would have loved it if it had been a 7 " single , " woman is the nigger of the world , " with the rest of it just words written in liner notes . after that opening track , the remainder is a serious chore to get through . it 's almost unimaginable that this came out between the excellent " imagine " ( 1971 ) and the solid " mind games " ( 1973 ) , but then again , john was not consistent , in part surely due to his apparent and admirable lack of commitment to being a pop star . love john for the genius he was , his commitment to peace , and the great music he made - - it 's just that there 's barely any of it on this particular record . +music neg this cd just does n't have the quality it should . some of the songs have had the lyrics cut out or removed such as danny boy . i have the cassette and it was great but this just does n't do justice to ray price or his songs +camera neg it 's a great concept , but my unit was n't recognized by any of my 3 pc 's , despite hours of work with tech support and even trying a second unit . one of my pcs runs xp ( they had no idea why this computer did n't recognize the magpix ) and the others run win98 ( which they said sometimes has problems with the magpix , although they do n't say that in their marketing literature ) . they gave me my money back , but refused to refund the shipping charge as promised , and in addition i wasted several hours and the cost of mailing two units back to them . i suggest waiting for the next version , or even better , for a better company to introduce a similar product +music neg this cd its just horrible , they sold only 10 , 000 copies enough to pay for their instruments lol ! there are better bands than this an example is bleeding through so i think no one cares about a re release peace out +camera neg do not buy this camera , i repeat do not buy this camera ! just read the reviews and you 'll know exactly what i mean . lucky i got this piece of junk for christmas , so i did n't spend a dime on it . i opened the package before reading any reviews . now i wish i 've read the reviews before opening the box . i do n't care what setting you use , i tried them all and i have yet to take a picture any better than my cell phones camera . the lighting sucks , you either end up with dark pictures or super bright ones . i really wanted this camera to work , it looks sweet but sadly it ca n't take pictures . +camera neg if you got here looking for a bag for an xacti camera , keep looking . this bag is too small . it can be used for holding memoery cards and batteries , but not much more . +camera pos this is my first time to purchase a battery grip for a digital slr camera and it was a good investment . i do n't have to worry about running out of battery power and at the same time it works as a vertical grip for my camera . it also looks nice on my canon 30d camera , coupled with an " l " series zoom lens +music neg im not surprised that this album is garbage because fiddy has been putting out trash lately ( think tony gayo ) . there are no standout tracks and prodigy doesnt even rhyme anymore . all prodigy does is spit run-on sentences throughout every track and havoc sounds like he 's just there to be there . amerikaz nightmare was a sign that it was over for them . did we really have to hear this one to see that ? if you are a mobb deep fan buy every album before amerikaz nightmre and keep it moving +music neg collective soul had a few nice attempts toward pop music like dosage . the main problem i have with this album is none of the songs are hits so no airwaves and the fact that the album probably has about 7 fillers ! its just to flawed to recommend to everyone it may be if you are a diehard collective soul fans . i wouldnt lose this album but i wouldnt buy it again +music neg this is the only album i own of joe strummer minus the clash . i ca n't say it 's very good . i hate having to compare it with it with his work with the clash but it 's inevitable . his lyrics are n't as great , edgy or provocative . there is n't any fantastic music either . i am not really sure what to say since i have n't listened to the album in so long because it was so bad , i truly tried my hardest to like it . but i feel it is my duty to advise others to not make the same mistake . believe me : i absolutely love everything about the clash , the lyrics , joe 's voice , the music , the attitude and how cool they were , this is not joe at his best , it 's cool though cause now he 's gone : go buy some bob marley albums instead , joe would not have minded +camera pos this spotting scope from bushnell is an excellent buy if you are an outdoors person or if you like watching the world from your window . you can even view the craters on the moon . plus it 's waterproof and comes with two cases and a tripod . the amazon price is the best deal on the internet +music pos i 've been a jim brickman fan for a few years now . when i saw this cd came out , i could not resist getting it . it is absolutely amazing and fully worth it . when i first put it in my stereo , i had to sit there just to listen to the first few tracks without doing anything . that was how impressive they were . the title of the album is incredibly fitting . while my roommate is venting about the latest drama in her group of friends , i have this cd turned up in my own little corner to " escape " from it all . i swear i could not have found anything more fitting to be listening to while trying to get away from real life for a bit . if you love jim brickman , or just like soft jazz , or piano music , this cd is a must have +music neg this is as bad as the film.in fact just like the film the soundtrack is the same old formula.will& ; his movies& ; music never change the same old beat.the rest of the soundtrack is just as bad.unoriginal& ; boring.what a waste of kool moe dee +camera neg i got to the tip of alaska , and none of the four batteries worked no power ! i missed getting a day of once in a life time pictures . david highe +camera pos excellent camcorder . the only thing i would do different is spend the little more it would take to go up to the pv-gs85 +music pos undoubtedly , marnie belongs to the top list of bernard herrmann 's best film scores , a wonderful musical image of alfred hitchcock 's underrated movie . written for small ensemble ( strings , woods , harp and horns ) herrmann gives the music a wonderfully flowing mood , tasteful and delighted along with the dark characteristics in every second bar that herrmann so masterful handles in all his works for hitch . joel mcneely 's reading is simply stunning as ever , so is the performance , but i just do n't like the overall acoustics on these varĂšse rerecordings with the large hall reverb giving the orchestra no room for details . they simply are overheard in this muffled sound . this is far from ideal for recording a film score and i bet herrmann would not have liked this ! but , it 's a great , great score +music neg something that someone who claims to be country should not do . even though these girls are already pop , remixing it to make it even more pop was a huge mistake ! then again , they have to do something to sell more cd 's ! lol ! ! +music pos my husband and i play this cd all the time . we both love it +music pos i was thrilled to see this available on cd .......... it is the most delightful christmas ' album ' of it 's time & it continues to delight ! i purchased several and gave to friends for christmas - every single receipient was immediately thrilled to have this ' album ' on cd stating , ' this was my favorite , where 'd you find it ? " great gift +camera neg i bought a sony icd-mx20 digital voice recorder a week ago . i was surprised that sony does not provide downloads of the associated software named " digital voice editor " . sony customer service staff told me that if you lost the cd that came with the box , you had to buy a new one . only patches of the software are available to download . the customer service personnel told me that it was corporate policy despite the fact that the software is bound to the digital device . this immoral policy violating the norm of digital appliance industries and should not be encouraged . sony is demoting its brand name by offering poor post-sales services . think twice before making your buying decision . +camera pos photos printed are very sharp . some difficulty with printer cartidge and as expensive as they are , you ca n't afford to have much difficulty . good for craft times with the kids +camera neg crap . does n't work . wanted to return it but had to go out of town and lost the time period . plastic junk , never did get a good signal . the worst sony item i 've ever purchased - - and i 'm a sony fan . will still attempt to return somehow . do n't even bother +music pos how dare you compare oasis to phil collins . phil collins sucks and oasis rules ! how come you do n't get the message ? you 're retarded +camera pos this is a nice bag , but do n't buy it for a canon s2 is it will not fit . the product compatibility lists the s1 is since the s2 and s1 are very similar i purchased this bag . i ca n't even get the thing in the bag . it is a nice bag however and have put my smaller kodak camera in it . there is plenty of room for a typical point and shoot camera and all of it 's accessories . good quality +camera pos i purchased this lens to take photographs of vintage wristwatches . i use an original canon digital rebel and the shots are really very detailed . it is easy to use in fact , i can hand hold the camera and capture the details in the hand-made craftsmanship of the watches . its f2.5 opening is a welcome change when you are use to shooting with a zoom lens and it is quite sharp edge to edge . if you own a canon digital slr and want to pocket some extra coin then this is the lens for you . +camera neg i have one and panasonic does n't have driver or processing downloads for it or even respond to requests . the proprietary video format requires special handling in your pc and can leave you with a camera full of useless clips . are they abandoning this product ? look on the panasonic website and see for yourself +camera pos for an all-purpose color film , i nearly always shoot fuji 's 200 speed . it has the cooler tones that i prefer in my images and a good saturation level . the only drawback that i 've seen while looking at various film prices here is that they are way over-priced ! the only place that i 've seen where you pay more for film is in the supermarkets . any regular camera store or photo finisher will have this stuff for a lot less , and you wo n't have to wait for it to ship +music neg this industry is " goin down " u call this an album ? ? ? lo +music pos coltranes recordings with his classic quartet of ' 61-5 varied between very good and stunning . coltrane fans may want to get the impulse ! box set instead though ( which includes this cd and the other works of the quartet +camera neg description or product is wrong . there is no quad independent power / charging indicators . they are set up in banks of two . one light for two charging bays . batteries must be charged in banks of two . tried e-mailing vidpro for additional info on this charger . e-mail came back as undeliverable . cannot find any reviews on the internet for this charger +camera neg i guess i really should n't complain because my husband won the camera in an office rally . but the pictures it takes are disgraceful for a samsung product every two to three pictures are blurred unrecognizably-where you ca n't even tell what you have taken . if you have found yourself among the fortunate few who actually found success with this camera thank your lucky stars . even if it is a less expensive choice versus the other cameras on the market today spend the extra money it would be worth it not to miss any family moments like my family did , on this useless piece of crap +music pos well , here we are . one of the true works of the electronic genre in the 90 's , " lifeforms " is true sonic adventure . this is obviously some of the best work that fsol ever did . " lifeforms " is a double album of electronic and ambient moments spliced together , interchanged and meshed . for ambient work , it has a lot of randomness and bright detail thrown in at a rapid pace . there is a lot of energy and terse grab to the songs , despite their being ambient . it is very original , i praise originality in music . give it a try , put on some " flower " " bird wings " or some " elaborate burn . +music pos it is good for old eric gale fans to be able to purchase this cd . it will bring back many memories . it will also remind you of how great a guitar player he was . i am grateful that i 've had a chance to own many recordings that he has played on . pay close attention to she is my lady and morning glory . this is a must have cd . jaye price beltsville , md . +music neg generally harmless , except for one very offensive song about siblings that hate each other and hate their parents . the song is probably funny to ultra-sophisticated , cynical adults . but the song is totally inappropriate for a four year old . i would n't bring this cd into your house +camera pos i bought this lens on a whim to see what it would be like to shoot with a prime lens . at $80 it certainly was worth the risk unlike the many other canon lenses which cost thousands of dollars . the quality of the pictures from this lens is the only thing making me move away from zoom lenses +camera pos this is an elegant leather case for the canon elph cameras . it fits in the pocket easily . i 'm satisfied +camera pos pros : - reduces flare and ghosting when shooting in bright light . - helps protect your lens from dirt and scratches . - somewhat protects the lens in case of a fall . better to break the hood than the front element . - makes you look more like you know what you are doing and helps to keep others from carelessly walking in front of you . cons : - will increase lens movement in windy situations , kind of like a sail on a boat . - takes up more room in your bag , even when reversed they still add to the diameter of the lens . - people take more notice of you , will help to blow your cover if you are trying to keep a low profile +camera pos of course , it had to be kodak . no matter what people say , i have always and will always use a kodak digital camera , i 've found this camera to be a real warrior , last one i had lasted about 4 year and this one looks even better , photo cuality its very good and colors are great , no excesive blue or red in your pics , night photo taking its excelent in close shots . 4 stars beacuse its really a batterie eater , but its nothing a 25$ batterie charger can ` t solve . sorry for grammar mistakes but english is not my natal lenguaje diff --git a/labs/lab1/reviews-train.txt b/labs/lab1/reviews-train.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..baf3b19 --- /dev/null +++ b/labs/lab1/reviews-train.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2048 @@ +music neg oh man , this sucks really bad . good thing nu-metal is dead . thrash metal is real metal , this is for posers +music pos his singing style is very unique as are his lyrics . he has an eclectic mix of love songs , " we are the world " type songs and a few others on this album . he has the staying power for long the long term and i would love to see him mature throughout the years and watch to see where he goes . i loved streetcorner symphony ! it is so upbeat it can pull me out of whatever is ailing me . lonely no more is my theme song for right now in my life - needless to say i am replaying grooves in that one ! enjoy this album - i sure do +music pos i can only say that this was my favorite record of last year . this record is hard to find in your local record store , so search it out.. . incredible - ca n't wait to hear more ! +camera pos i purchased this camera 2 weeks ago . i love using it . it has lots of function to play with . it is easy to use . i didnt have trouble taking good pictures in zoom mode outdoor . indoor , i had to use tripod if i use zoom . however , i cant really think of any occasion that i have to use zoom indoor other than my testing last week . besides , it gives great pictures and i loved the price . i kind of considered dslr camera but i gave it up becasue lenses were more expensive than camera itself . i considered one wide angle lense and one zoom lense . it would have cost me almost 2000 dollars so far , i love this camera . if this helps to anyone considering buying this camera , id give two thumbs up . +camera neg not seeing many reviews , i 'm writing this as a warning . this mic is horrible . i bought it to get rid of the " motor noise " from my canon optura pi , as many others have . when i listen now , the sound is much worse . you can barely hear people speak over the loud humming.. . this mic is horrible +music pos these tunes may not immediately remind you of steve miller but his talent is not belied . it 's some really peaceful music . great to turn on just at bedtime and drift off to la la land +music neg i agree fully with " a music fan " above ... this and david 's self titled album are really poor in comparison to the rest of his solo work . i love most of talking heads music but do n't rate remain in light highly like most fans do +music neg being a huge blondie fan , i want to rate this one higher , but sadly i cannot . it 's just a sad mishmash of bad songs , it feel very negligant too . i love the way blondie contributed to rap and disco , but their calypso number on this one is so awful . they had lost it here . check out thier truly great albums instead like paralel lines or eat to the beat. . +camera neg this product is worthless . you 'd be better off keeping your money and buying a good case at a store . overpriced , cheap , plastic-y rip-off . no " deluxe " here +music pos the best r&b band ever ! ! ! i know some will disagree with me , but this is the band that really rock my boat . i mean , they were awesome and it was n't forced or fake . the rawness of their funk is sooo addictive that you will never put this cd down . i am in the process of getting all their cds , but this one is a great way to be introduce to their music +camera pos i 'm very happy with my camera . i recomend it for anyone . various funtions , the sofware included is good as well +music pos del spits brilliant lyrics and produces excellently.. . the beats of songs merge together as tracks change.. . el-p makes a cameo.. . casual makes a cameo.. . prince paul produces a track.. . get this album +camera pos i am extremely happy with this purchase ! i love the 10x zoom when taking pics of my kids +camera pos this took my d-200 to the final level...great investment...went 2to 3 days while on vacation while shooting 4 gigs a day of stuff...love this little guy...plus it allows for aa usage in a pinch..gotta love that. . +camera pos i am new to slrs and i cant belive how good this camera is . this camera is worth every penny for the amazing quality it produces . i always thot my old digital pics with point and shoot were excellent , but looking back , they look terrible compared to this . +music pos modern dub stylings from an assortment of recording artists , ranging from the bizarre and brilliant ( check the lost scrolls of hamarik 's darkly deranged how to find royal jelly ) , to the utterly unforgiveable ( namely , luciano 's appaling attempt at police & thieves ) . luckily for us , most of the tunes here fall into or around the former category , with great contributions from st. germain ( bouncing dub-disco on a dub experience ) , grant phabao ( updated roots righteousness on andub head yudu ) and boozoo bajou ( with the wonderfully cheesey divers ) . and let 's not overlook cottonbelly 's 90 's classic tempest dub , which resurrects an old scientist tune to spine-tingling effect . only the fairly plain seven dub and the aforementioned luciano really fail to ignite...all in all then , a worthwhile collection which works very nicely as a whole - providing you program the cd player to skip the occassional duffer +camera neg i love everything about this camera but....the display is very touchy . i only owned the camera for 2 months and my display broke . i had it in a case and must have bumped it just right . my display shattered . mind you there is not a view finder so you can only guess what you are taking pictures of . this is not covered under your warranty . my camer has been in the repair shop for 3 weeks now and since the camera is so new there is no parts available yet . so i am sitting here with no camera , which is really bothersome since i love taking pictures . i figured i would spend more for a nice quality camera and have no worries but who knew this would happen ! so i highly recommend this camera but you must be very very careful with it ! +music neg this disc is bad ! ! ! right at the 2 " mark the sound of the " rock water " is join by what sounds like a slow draining bathtub . this sound is more or less present throughout the entire hour . other discs of this type that i 've heard do n't do this +music neg chicane should just stop releasing material under that guise ever again . fftmc and bts were lush and beautiful productions . nicks latest attempts have been pathetic...from a musical standpoint and from a professional production standpoint...even his older ' pop ' remixes for other artists were better than this rubbish he 's doing these days...no , we 're not saying recycle the older productions , but instead it 's a matter of putting the effort and ' originality ' in the profuctions...a signature if you will...and hey , it does n't have to pigeon hole you if done with class...yes , how the mighty have fallen.. . oh brother. . +camera neg i have owned numerous celestron telescopes up to 11-inch apertures , so i expected better . i ordered this for my daughter - it arrived defective ; the primary mirror had slipped from its bracket , making collimation impossible . in celestron 's defense , it likely happened in transit . amazon 's return policy is not a hassle , and i 'm upgrading her to another telescope . i 'm sure that had this particular scope not arrived in a defective condition it would have made a great scope . only criticism is the plugs on the back to cover the collimation screws pop out a bit too easily +music neg blues singers should n't try to go mainstream . if they do try and succeed , fine . that means they 've stayed true to their roots . when they try and fail ( as susan has done with hope and desire ) , one would hope they 'd try to get back to where they started . for me that was just wo n't burn . i guess when one is happily married with children , it 's hard to sing the blues since you 're not feeling them . . . you 're faking them +music pos what can i say that most of the people reviewing this cd have n't already said . arthur is outrageously talented . it 's almost shocking . the depth of songwriting and production values are so intense . it 's extremely well recorded and mixed music . anyone into audio manipulation should just buy all of his albums right now . " stumble and pain " is probably my favourite track . the sinister tone of it and the synth effects are just superb . as with all arthur albums the vocals are dense , layered , and its something he 's obviously worked on for a long time and it really pays off on this album ! anyone new to him should buy this immediatly and buy redemption 's son straight after that . what a musician +camera neg i purchased this frame as a gift for a friend of mine . when i saw it on her desk and noticed the terrible quality of the images , i was embarassed that i had given such an inferior item as a gift . perhaps the images she had loaded were quite low resolution , but the pictures looked terrible with huge pixels . i would not recommend this item at all +music neg perhaps it 's a bit unfair because lucinda engenders such high expectations , but i was really disappointed with this record the songwriting is weak , the singing is weak , and the arrangements are dull something kicked all the life out of the music- -the songs are not all the same , but for some reason they all sound the same- -and embarrassingly , you can sing most of them after one listen , they are so simplistic and cliched +music pos this era of tangerine dream ( td ) was just great . the virgin years were truly a great period for td . for me it deals with space and landscape . it 's so close to repetitive music that would come much later . it 's also the one group that used rythm to structure these flying melodies . you could fly with them and end up with more in the end . you ca n't say that for too many of these electronic groups . after that period they would go on with this ambient music that was n't up to the same standards . it seems they are back ( with other musicians of course ) with the same kind of concept . great ! they were an important link on the electronic scene . a great album ! a great period +camera pos i honestly do n't see why people would give this camera less than 4 stars . the moment i got it , i was delighted with the quality of the pictures ( except in very dark places - which is why the review gets minus 1 star ) , and by its portability . i 've dropped it , abused it , took it to countless parties , countries and it is now full of scratches and bumps ( get the camera case ! ) , and guess what : it still works as perfectly as the first day i got it . this little piece of technology is amazing , so if you 're looking for something affordable and with a great picture quality ( for us amateurs , of course ) just go for it . actually , i even took quite a few gorgeous pictures with it . i even love it and rely on it so much that i wo n't change it even now that it looks all messed up . do n't think twice . just go for it +music neg i hate saying this as a huge good charlotte fan but their new album is just a major waste of money . their first album is one of my top five albums of all time , but this one sucks . the songs are all dance pop synthesized junk . no real guitars , no messages to any of the songs , no nothing . i dont know if joel is just too busy running around town with nicole richie or what but they skipped out on this album . the only redeaming song is the river , on which they colaberated with m shadows and synester gates of avenged sevenfold . i hate hate hate to say it but dont waste your money or time on this one , just listen to the first album and remember what a great band they used to be . +camera neg someone earlier had complained that this lense was suggested to them by amazon and it was the wrong size . well , that person is n't alone . the camera i purchased is a canon s2is , which i love . the lense does n't fit it . i even bought the hood / lense adapter set and it still does n't fit . this simply is not the right lense for a canon s2is , no matter what amazon suggests . now , too much time has passed for me to return the lense . i 'm stuck with it , and i do n't like that +music pos the title says it all , im so happy i bought it and i listen to it all the time : +camera neg i was looking for a pair of roof-prism binoculars like this , for hawk and bird watching . i had looked at swarovskis , but they were way out of my budget , nearly a thousand dollars for this resolution . these binoculars are crystal-clear , with sharp focus . the 42mm lens lets in lots of light , lots more than the 35 's i 've been using . i wear glasses and the twist - up - and -down eyecups are a blessing . there are also attached lens protectors for the 42mm , nice because i always used to lose them . for the price , these ca n't be beat +music neg great recording , but if you want to actually use it , like load it on your ipod it has sony 's stupid drm . meaning you can't . do n't buy sony products ! ! +camera pos now , this is n't the fastest card on the market . but it is a solid , reliable card . the camera itself is the bottle kneck , and typically not this card . however , if you are using a canon dslr of a recent flavor , i would check if it needs to be rma'd . a known quantity of these cards have proven to lose images . scary . however , i 've not experienced the mysterious loss of images with my card or rebel xt . i 've only ever pushed the cards speed limits with my pd70x , and definately not with my rebel xt +music neg i was expecting it to have a lot of international type music to it but it virtually sounded the same as the original . i think i may have mistaken this cd title for another of shania's . her music is great but i do n't see a difference with the international version +music pos i 've been listening to satoshi tomiie for a long time and this is definetly one of his best cd 's yet . its one of those cd 's that is a must have before a road trip . just play it and let it ride . from beginning to end it keeps your ears on high alert just waiting for that next track to hit . before you know it your at the end , but who says you cant just hit repeat and start the ride all over again . +music pos i purchased this cd with the intent of finding fine players playing fine music . what i found , however , was and outstanding example of chamber music as its finest . the ensemble these 3 players generate is some of the finest ensemble music playing recorded . each player displays exceptional technique , both in the mechanical and lyrical aspects of their playing . most impressive is listening to istomen who , playing a very technically and lyrically demanding part , voices his playing with such finess and carefull attention to detail to the strings ; a feat very difficult to do as a pianist . this is an excellent recording for the professional to study a score from or for the avid listener to play over and over +camera neg i will keep this review simple . for the price this is an ok deal . however : the bag is a bit bulky and has no belt loop . the battery charger is finicky and has below average build quality batteries are generic rechargeables . you are better off finding a bag that fits your needs perfectly and picking up a separate charger / batteries . it will wind up costing you less in the long run +camera neg use less than 3 times , the touch screen does n't work.do n't know why~ +camera neg do n't be fooled by the enticing 6 megpixels that this camera offers . i 'd been waiting along time to upgrade from my 3 mp nikon coolpix sq as the prices of the higer resolution cameras continued to drop . what 've i 've discovered , however , is that there is so much sensor noise in the full resolution 6 mp images from this hp camera that the additional resolution is worthless . the images look absolutely horrible . my little nikon sq with it 's lower resolution produces much sharper pictures at every image size . do your homework and make sure that the sensor in the camera you 're buying is a good one +camera pos wow..okay so i was thinking this was a screen about the size of a smaller camera because i didnt read the dimensions before i bought it here on amazon so i was a little disappointed in the size . this is about half the size of an ipod mini . it is by no means big . read the dimesions well before you purchase . the photos are really good quality and clear ..just small lol . +camera pos this tripod was a total shock ! i was amazed at the quality , stability and portability . the heavy duty denier carrying case is a great bonus . the level and quick release were also a welcome surprise . this was the best $9.00 i ever spent for photography accessories . +camera pos outstanding service . product as advertised . excellent packing job . arrived in record time . would buy again from this seller +camera neg camera worked great for us for 6 months . easy to use , decent pictures and good software . the battery life was fine for our use . it quit working at six months and would no longer focus and is now useless . for a six month disposable camera its a little expensive . +camera neg almost useless ! tried it for several days of photo shoots and finally gave up in frustration . went back to using the viewfinder without this magnifier . professional medical photographer +music neg " maiden voyage " appears on innumerable lists of jazz masterpieces , and it is clear from the first listen that both the composition and the playing are at a level of technical proficiency unmatched on most albums of this era or any time afterward . nevertheless , the finished product is not one that all listeners will find appealing . to these ears , this album seems aimless and even somewhat annoying . the songs meander without clear structure and tony williams ' drumming seems at times to be going in a direction opposite that of the rest of the band . the influence of this album is indisputable , but its enjoyability is a more subjective matter . if you enjoy groundbreaking , cerebral jazz such as the music made by miles davis ' second quintet , then this album will probably work for you . if , on the other hand , you favor hancock 's earlier and more accessible albums " takin ' off " and " my point of view , " this album may be a bit of a letdown +music pos this is an amazing cd - i cannot believe that more people have not discovered charlie sexton . the songs are personal and beautifully written . the music rocks , and yet it 's different than any of sexton 's other music . he is a brilliant artist and this is a brilliant wor +music pos now i know what you 're thinking , why are there two releases of " xx " ? well after they switched from eclipse to universal records they re-released the album " xx " but they also re-recorded all the songs with less hard core vocals ( big mistake ! ) the original album is by far much better than the universal release in december of 2001. if you 're not sure which one to go with go with this one ! +camera neg this product did n't appear to add any appreciable sound benefit ; the sound from the ecm-hgz1 appears to be the same as that recorded with the native audio of the camera itself . i wish i had not bought it +music pos although this sports new remastering , unless you have either the golden hits cd available here at amazon and your local cd shop , the now out of print golden celebration boxed set or the 2 volume " patti page collection " series ( volume 2 is also out of print ) , this is unnecessary as it duplicates every track on golden hits except for let me go lover instead of with my eyes wide open i 'm dreaming and the songs are arranged in a different order . fans are better off looking for the 2 previous out of print collections with let me go lover to obtain this track and for the rest of this stuff , either buy golden hits , the boxed set and the 2 volume patti page collection series , and btw , vol . 1 is still in print so you can order it right here at amazon +camera neg like most people i got this camera because it is quite compact for the quality of the image . i 've been pleased with the image quality when it works , but from the start it 's felt flimsy and felt like it would die with any rough treatment . sure enough : * the shutter cover has often stuck open or shut . * sometimes it refuses to start at all . * it sometimes powers on as you 're putting it into your pocket , which opens the barrel which has got to damage the camera . * finally , the lcd stopped working altogether . this is after 8 months . casio has decided i 'm not under warranty ( no explanation as to why , no phone number to argue with them ) , and is charging me $97 to repair it . do n't be seduced ! it 's a poor quality product +camera neg i received this as a christmas present . this digital camera works fine for still shots , pictures of my family , etc , but for action shots , kids playing outside , basketball games , etc. it is a big disappointment . i took 47 pictures of my son playing basketball in our school gym and only 5 of them were worth keeping . i 've taken to several games / activities to try it out . i 've tried using the different functions , adjusting the manual setting , and playing with the zoom but nothing has worked . many of the shots are blurred , have shadows ( because of movement ) , or are so dark the people ca n't be seen . i wish i would have known this before i asked for this camera . +music pos to start off i am a huge grateful dead fan and i have prabably about 150 cd 's that cover many years of there carrer . this release is very good and worth buying . it has some great music on it and the price of the album is worth the eyes of the world with branford marsalis on the sax alone . all and all this was among my first bunch of grateful dead cd 's that i got and it got me hooked so do yourself a favor if you are thinking about listening to the grateful dead and you want to hear something from the 1990 era buy this cd . but i would also get something from the 77 era too +music pos this is a great cd ! each track fades up to full volume at the start and fades down to silence at the end . this makes it nice to just play the entire cd or to loop one track since there are no sharp changes from one noise to another . so far the car and washing machine tracks seem to be our baby 's favorites . when she outgrows the need for this white noise cd , we 'll transition her to lullaby or classical music . for now though , this cd helps us keep her on a schedule and well rested by helping keep her relaxed and usually asleep during her nap times . as a bonus , the waves and rain on the roof tracks are soothing for grown-ups needing to drown out noise while they sleep +camera pos received camera exactly as described . easy and smooth transaction would by from this vendor again . thank +music neg as far as drum and bass cds go this cd was terrible very boring and anything with clever on the cover im going to stay far away from nuff said +music neg though these are the songs that make the mills brothers famous , they are not the original recordings that made these songs famous , and not necessarily sung by the same men that sang the originals ( certainly they are considerably older ) . these are ok , but they lack the punch and familiarity ( to a fan like myself ) of the originals . the title , though not actually misleading , leads one to believe you will be listening to the original songs- -they are not . i recommend only if you must have the complete set of mills brothers records +music pos it 's impossible to like all of country music , but randy travis is liked by even those who do n't like country music . from 1986 and through the 90 's he was always on top or near the top of the country charts . his calm , nasal drawl reminds me a bit of lefty frizell , but there 's no mistaking his unique style . these are some of the best recordings in the history of country music including digging up bones , forever and ever , amen , too gone too long , is it still over ? , hard rock bottom of your heart etc. randy had 16 no . 1 's on the country charts . there are 20 cuts here . if you only want one cd with all his greatest hits this is your logical choice . by the way , the sound from rhino is bright and punchy and the booklet features dates , neat pixs , and peak positions . you 've got a winner for life with this one ! +camera neg " lens error , restart camera " message appears today ( mar 26 ) after buying production on amazon on feb 20 , 07. when i searched google for this error message saw thousands of canon users having similar error / e18 error with older and newer version of the canon . i have tried panasonic and sonys before and never had an issue . i dread that canon customer service is going to waste my hours in getting a replacement and ultimately may end up charging me over a 100 for repairs like they have done to other users ( after reading user feedback on web ) +camera neg this camera is a waste of money and should be taken off the market . after purchase we were never able to retreive pictures . the computer would recognize the camera but stated that no pictures were available to download . it not only is difficult to use but not even an adult could figure out how to take a picture and this product is made for a child . the instructions are complicated and eventually you give up . even putting in the batteries is complicated and you need a screwdriver ( the smallest one you can find ) to achieve it . unfortunately , i have wasted my money but luckily you do n't have to +music pos the clean kick-started the illustrious new zealand label flying nun in 1981 , providing a key blueprint for indie-rockers from australia ( the chills ) to california ( pavement ) . over this two-disc , 46-track set of rarities and essentials , the trio takes the chugga-chugga racket of the velvet underground and stretches it into an entire garage aesthetic of excited , rudimentary playing , shaky , kiwi-accented vocals and endearing melodies . disc one , as influential for the lo-fi sonics as for the songs , ends with the clean 's 1983 breakup . disc two spans their 1988 reunion and 1996 's unknown country , mining similar material with even more exciting ( and even better-sounding ) results . but by then , lots of bands were doing what the mighty clean had helped pioneer . +camera pos due to a canoe accident on vacation , mine went completely underwater for at least 5-10 seconds . but - only a trickle of water got inside . once that dried out , much to my surprise , both the af and vr functions worked fine . all that 's left is two small water spots on the inside of the objective lens ( okavango delta water is clean ! ) . do n't try this at home . next time i 'm even near a canoe , i 'll have everything in dry bags . +music pos but not the only one you should get . make this a purchase , but get live / dead also because it has all different songs , and then look at other live releases . the dead have a lot of good recordings , just pick and choose among them . this one has become a staple of great dead songs in my collection . it is amazing how many good songs they have , and how intimidating it seems to get their best stuff , but you ca n't go wrong with this release even though some people feel it is n't up to scratch +camera neg this kit conveniently contains 20 sheets of photo paper . unfortunately , kodak does n't contain an ink cartridge for them . fine , i thought , i 'll buy a separate cartridge . guess what ? you ca n't ! kodak only sells cartridges bundled with paper so you will be forced to use their paper . why do they sell paper separately but not ink cartridges ? seems pretty dirty +music neg i ususally like aguilera and i need a song to practice for dance so i bought this one for " no other man " figuring i would like the other songs as well . i was so wrong . i hate the rest of them . +music pos i have been a fan for jaci velasquez for the past eight years and enjoy hearing her voice in both languages . i do not speak spanish but enjoy her artistic abilities none the less . this album lived up to the velasquez name in my book - my family and i only really enjoy the traditional sounding christmas carols and tend to not enjoy the revised versions . jaci 's album not only made sure the carols were sung traditionally but she has given us a gift a couple new songs that will be added to my christmas traditions ! overall i love this album and the only reason i did not give it a full five stars was that i am done with that chipmunk song . sorry everybody . +camera pos this is original equipment battery charger manufactered by canon . the performance of the charger is excellent as are most canon products . the price paid was comparible to non-sale priced items puchased via internet sites . the item was recieved in original packaging , 3 days after placing the order , was new ( not reconditioned with a new appearance ) . i am extremely pleased with the entire purchase process experienced , from the information given at the site to ease of ordering and fast shipping +music neg this movie was only good because of two reasons . rammstein , and queens of the stone age . other than that , completel out of control p.o.s. that keeps its viewers contemplating whether they have died and this movie is their eternal punishment in hell +camera pos very good camera . this was a present for my wife as she needed a new camera . she picked it out and liked that it came as a complete kit . directions can be hard to follow at times and could be printed larger . takes some getting used to . zoom lense works great and takes good pictures . where the on-off button is so close to the shutter , you have to be careful that you do n't accidentally shut the camera off . she is very satisfied with it . +music neg i 've never written a review , but i just wanted to let you know if you buy this album you are a complete idiot , and you 're killing hip-hop . stop killing my music +camera pos the camera is a superb , light-weight wonder . the controls are logical and the large display area is amazing . i love it . +camera neg do n't let the product description fool you into thinking it will work with a zr85mc camcorder . it did n't work with mine . it did n't even fit +music neg i like meav 's voice , and this cd is ok , if you like this kind of stuff . think slow and somewhat depressing . i think irish music has moved on so much since bill whehlan of riverdance brought it into the modern times , and came up with this vocal sound , i guess to hark back to earlier times , which worked well because riverdance has so much contrast in it and the choir songs only appear as relief to the other music . this is all a bit samey and dull . i would say saved by this lady 's fine voice though +camera pos the seller was super fast , the product well packaged and as described . thank you +music neg whilst leo kottke plays guitar like a man with three hands and john fahey like a man with at least 11 or 12 fingers , robbie basho plays like a man with about eight thumbs . that this kind of tuneless twanging should be mentioned in the same breath as anything by kottke or fahey ( or peter lang ) is puzzling to say the least . but , credit where credit 's due : it 's not easy to make an acoustic guitar sound this unpleasant +camera neg i bought this over the sony and i regret it . i get a tape eject error every time i try to rewind . i can only rewind at 10 second intervals before i get an error message to eject the tape and do the same thing over again . that 's a long time to rewind a 60 minute tape . many canon users are having this problem and the only way they address the problem which is clearly a mechanical problem is to charge a ridiculous price to send it off to be repaired . canon needs to own up to this problem and have a recall on the item . i will never buy canon again after they have turned a blind eye to a serious problem +camera pos awesome , compact camera that takes remarkably sharp pics - very easy to use touchscreen and ( my favorite ) reliable stabilization feature +camera neg i purchased a canon camera carrying case that came with an extra battery and uv filtering lense . the case came within a few days and is perfect for what i needed . smooth fast transaction . five star +camera neg i have two 8 " picture frames that are other brands , and they are great and i use them for open houses all the time ! i got this one as a gift from a friend , and it is terrible ! ! the instructions are difficult to understand . the wide screen makes everyone in the picture look fat and distorted ! this is a weird size and i am not happy at all ! ! i do n't recommend it +camera neg i agree with reviewer steve - anything less than a few hundred feet and these binocs are worthless . the paper works says the " may " focus down to 35' . maybe some will but not certainly not my pair . i am returning them since they are not good for simple viewing around the yard . and no , the rubber eye caps absolutely will not stay back making these binocs almost unusable by people with glasses ( like me ) . scot +camera neg a close friend made the unfortunate mistake of plunking down 2 grand for this camera . honestly olympus produces cameras that can do the same thing for $400. i 've used hers and the image quality is horrible and the colours are wrong 9 times out of 10. if you 're going to spend that much on a camera , get the d70 instead and buy a nice extra lens or some other gadgets to go with . the pictures are better and it offers more mp +camera neg you got to have extremely steady hand , or camera stand to use this camaera . during my niece wedding , i put in a 2gb of memory and we were trigger happy , we must have took over couple hundred of pictures , however , i am very unhappy about the result . 3 out of 5 pictures are fuzzy , messy , out of focus . on the other hand , for the pictures that took a few mins to line up and with a very very steady hand , you got a great picture . size is good , weight is a bit on the heavy side for the size , but to some people that 's good quality +music neg i am wondering when this plague will be over... . and when we 'll be set free to listen to real music.. . we all are so tired of her +music pos tom delonge is at it again with a new band and a new album . even with being accompanied by the lead guitarist from boxcar racer , angels and airwaves managed to have a completely different sound . they dropped the more punk rock tone of boxcar racer in favor of an emo-alternative style of rock . the first released single " the adventure " is quite enjoyable and even though i have n't checked too deeply into it , i think it 's the theme song for nbc 's studio 60. besides , how can you go wrong with an album that 's gone double platinum in the uk and gold in canada +camera neg i bought this camera for my 4yr old granddaughter who can handle my digital camera quite well and found it to be a total waste . the camera was much smaller than expected , trying to figure out what mode you 're in is ridiculous and the display is quite difficult to see let alone interpret . nothing is a simple " one step " procedure which you would expect for an item geared towards children . i was so frustrated setting it up that i did n't bother giving it to her . the software installed okay but was also far from " kid friendly " . i wish i would 've found and read these user opinions before making the purchase . ironically , the reviews i did see made it out to be better than the other cameras on the market for kids . i believe you 'd be better off purchasing a " regular " inexpensive digital camera for your potential " shutterbugs " . +camera neg i bought it for my 18-55 ef-s , and it looks like it is not very efficient - but i guess it is normal for a 18mm ( x 1.6 ) . i would have prefered a " tulip " design like those of sigma +music pos having read some of the reviews here i just thought i should mention that for those who enjoy punk rock music rather than the sameness of most emo music these days they should definitely check out this band ! while the singer ( conor oberst ) does have that emo voice so familiar to many other bands , he utilises it well and his conviction can be heard throughout ( unlike a band like taking back sunday ) the music is uplifting without being soppy or sentimental , the lyrics are refreshingly different from most punk-politics band and do n't come across as just the singer throwing a badly worded hissy fit . if you want to feel sorry for youself go listen to bright eyes , if you want to do something about it listen to desaparecidos +camera neg it looks cool and it 's easy to carry , but that is about it . camera is slow and pictures are often blurry . sorry i wasted my money on this one . get one of the new ones with vr so you do n't have that issue . +music pos all i can say is you must try this ! +camera neg i was really disappointed in this product . it worked great when i first got it . but before the first charge on the batteries wore out it stopped working . it was more expensive to return it or have it repaired than it was to buy a new camera . like i said , disappointed +camera pos this is a great camera . plenty of resolution . excellent shot speed . sturdy frame . the kit lense does n't do the camera justice . buy the body separate and add a better lense . on the bad side , i had a small glitch with the camera 's firmware soon after purchase and had to return it for a fix . it was two months before the camera was returned . sorry , canon.. . you lose a star for that +camera pos the philips digital frame truly stands out from all other digital pictures frames that i 've gotten . the resolution and picture quality superb , and the sleek outer design is an additional plus . also , the picture frame can be charged and last a couple of hours without a cord , which is very convenient . as another reviewer said , you have to scroll through your entire collection one-by-one on your memory card in order for you to get to the picture you want . it would be more convenient if you could skip through pages or have a blackberry type rolling scroll on the side of the frame to speed through if you needed to . also , i would like to see philips next frame include a flashdrive slot as well , that way we can upload pictures from our computers to the usb flash drive and directly insert the flash drive into the frame without tranferring them onto a memory card . thank you +camera pos i bought this sweet little thing because i am planning a day in nyc and do n't want to bring along my regular camera , which is bulky . this camera is nice and small and would fit in any purse or coat pocket . it has 5 mp and a 3x optical zoom which is great for the price . the pictures i took outside turned out outstanding . inside pics were a bit pixelated , but i may have had the settings wrong . the camera is easy to use right out of the box . perfect for a second camera to keep on you just in case +camera neg when mated to a sony wide-angle lens , the on-camera flash becomes partially blocked causing a dark area in the photo . a major flaw in my opinion . sony makes no mention of this on the packaging +camera neg very disappointed in this product and amazon 's response to the problem . item clearly shows that a metal neck strap is included and until i complained that it was not included , this was still written up as being part of the accessary back at time of complaint but since been changed . they have told me they ca n't supply the missing part ( the metal neck strap showing in the photo ) as item comes from a freight forwarder . i did not get what i paid for and unable to return because item has been forward shipped out of the country +music neg with 2 cds of endless repeated chords , they do n't have much to say +music pos i have just about all of robben 's albums and i believe that this is his best work . the interpretations and musicianship are outstanding . robben 's improvisational playing actually comes across more like composition . his technique is extremely melodic . he is , in my opinion , one the best blues guitar players around and his profound knowledge of jazz gives his music a very refreshing " twist " . check out his prowess on " you cut me to the bone " , " prison of love " or " my love will never die " +camera neg this item does not charge your camera . it does provide power to your camera while plugged in , but it does not recharge your camera 's battery +camera neg if you lose this cord just get a flash card reader . it 's cheaper and more practical +music neg this is the 4th worse song to be put out in 2006. seriously , this is awful . very juvenile and materialistic . this guy and his rented chains need to disapear . what a waste +camera pos i am very satisfied with this purchase . it is exactly what i wanted . i purchased 5 more as business gifts for important clients +camera pos for $14.00 , you should get this sleek little package to protect your camera and battery / accessories . if you 've ever accidentally dropped an expensive camera , you know just what i 'm talking about . it 's nice looking as well +music neg if you are looking for boring , lifeless adult contemporary music , then this cd is for you . if you are looking for a great guitar cd , this is n't it . i had such high hopes for this cd after the robert johnson cds and the cream reunion , but all winning streaks must come to an end , and clapton 's comes to a screeching halt with this . of all the eric clapton cds that i like , this is n't one of them . i 'm glad clapton is now in a happy place ( and deservedly so ) , but this cd just does n't do it for me +camera neg this is a poor excuse for a lens coming from canon . can only be used at a certain zoom or you will get a circular ring around the photo . please do not waste your money like i did +music pos as with all of zucchero 's cd 's , this is also wonderful . i listen to it all the time , it 's sensual and sexy and great +music neg is this the same kool keith that created dr. octagon , dr. dooom , and black elvis ? " spankmaster " represents a regression of creative energy . it sounds like keith decided he wanted to make a record one morning and whimsically threw together some tracks . it contains little of the genius of his earlier cds . with the exception of a couple songs ( " jewelry shine " and " blackula " ) , this album stinks +camera pos despite reading glowing reviews about this lens , i was still surprised to see how well it performed . the lens is so sharp you can get very good cropped pictures of running athletes , from a distance of three quarters of a football field away , shooting hand held , with late afternoon light , which will print a 5x7 and still look like a pro took them ! if you want a tack sharp lens for indoor sports pictures and ca n't afford , or otherwise do not want another long lens for outdoor sports pictures , then you should give this lens your serious consideration . +music pos this cd is great . it is a must have . picture yourself in the wild or on a lake in a boat and a thunderstorm comes rolling in slowly . you hear the rain , the thunder in the distance , you sense the storm getting closer . the storm is over head , loud piercing thunder claps and you duck for cover . the thunderstorm slowly moves out but the rain is a constant presents . the thunder rolls on but the wild life moves in , bullfrogs , owls in the distance , all the animals are alive now . this cd is all in one , the real deal . it is not all thunder . i love it . i also bought thunderstorm [rykodisc] ; this was a waste of money . to me , in my opinion it sounds like the storm just knocked the cable out , static and more static . +camera pos i bough this waterproof case for a trip to st. thomas over christmas . the photographs that we took came out perfect . the flash diffuser worked well , by eliminating the air bubbles that normally are captured with underwater cameras . make sure that you set up your camera to the underwater mode so that it automaticlaly adjusts your color balance . the only problem that i had was since it is so compact , i often accidently would move the switch to movie mode . this ruined a few photographs , but also made a great movie of a sea turtle coming up for air . i know that it was expensive , but much cheaper than buying a new camera or buying multiple disposable underwater cameras and having x-ray machines fog up the pictures +camera neg i 've owned this camera a little over a year . it was my 2nd digital camera . it always had focus issues in low-light . i thought it was me , but after working extensively with the manual , after i finally had some time , i discovered that it was the camera . you really need a tripod for those low-light shots . i was n't able to return it , so i 've taken hundreds of pictures with it . it takes beautiful pictures with good light and has a really nice size screen . however , the lens will no longer contract and i get an error message that is unresolvable unless i pay at least $170. i 'm just going to get a better quality camera . i will not buy sony again +camera pos thes item is gretes item i used befoer for these prise ! ! yes is true is very clear optics , you can see in total darknes about 350 m it 's agood rand , price and qulity . +music pos this is a really great follow up to allison moorer 's debut album alabama song . the hardest part , her sophomore cd , was released two years after her debut in september 2000. it builds on the sound presented on her first , and the songs are nothing short of great . my favorite track , though not her own , is her emotional reading of the rolling stones ' " bring me all your lovin " . she makes this song into her own . " no next time " is another favorite , the lyrics are excellent , a great breakup song . the title track is a nice midtempo country number . " send down an angel " is very sad but touching at the same time . other highlights include " it 's time that i tried " , " day you said goodbye " , " is it worth it " and " feeling that feeling again " . overall , to me this is her best album . you ca n't go wrong with any of them but this is an artistic acheivement , and one of her best albums yet +music pos jock rock is a must for anyone in the fitness business . nothing gets a crowd hopping like a little james brown ! not much for listening to , but a good collection when your looking for just the right song to play for a certain event +music pos juice newton is one of the best counry-pop singers of all times . a great energetic voice and some real unforgettable songs . my personal favourites include the beautiful angel of the morning , the rollicking queen of hearts and the strong and sorrowful it 's a heartache after all these years , her work is unforgettable , catchy and full of energy and vibe +music pos better balance of songs on this cd. this cd shows growth in a the band.they are great fun live check them out if you get the chance ! ! ! ! ! ! ! +music pos please do yourself a favor and buy this cd ! whatever you do , dont listen to it in your car though . no kidding aside , i almost ran my car off the road because i was laughing so hard +camera pos i purchased this bag to carry my hp photosmart digital camera and photo printer along with , 100pk 4 " x 6 " photo paper , power cord and two chargers that each hold 4 aa batteries , and i still have room left . i 'm very pleased +music neg these guys are not artists . they are unimaginative lamebrains unwittingly and badly rewriting already overplayed music from a long dead scene . it 's like a few monkeys build a house , and all the other monkeys rave about it , but in reality the house is just a banana tree with a welcome mat.. . whatever that means . i am constantly astounded as to how waste like this gets on the radio . buy this cd if you want to vomit everywhere . +music neg what a terrible excuse for music from generally excellent musicians . it sounds like espn called them asked them to put a diddy together and 10 minutes later....presto ...instant mush +music pos i supposed i should not have been watching this movie when i was nine years old , but i remember seeing it several times via hbo . more importantly , my father bought the soundtrack and we used to listen to it over & over in the car . the songs stuck with me for years , and every know and then i 'll hear something out of context and i 'll be taken back to roadtrips with my family . it 's something that i wo n't think about for ages , but when i 'm reminded of it , i ca n't believe i do n't still have a copy of the soundtrack . i remember it had quiet and comforting songs mixed in with songs you could sing along too . it 's perfect for driving and just having on in the background +camera neg image quality is pathetic . it generates ludicrous amounts of noise even at the lowest iso ( 80 ) . rest assured , you will be disappointed . i returned mine within a day +camera pos sony continues to exhibit the highest quality in their product design and manufacturing process . this case is very slim , compact , well made , and has a very luxurious feel to it . it completely enhances the look and attractiveness of the sony camera it is designed to hold +music neg it 's loud . you ca n't hear the lyrics nor the words . just a lot of loud noise . great if you want to damage your hearing +music neg okay , i will admit to liking poor tom , bonzo 's whatever ( it sure beats moby dick ! ) and wearing and tearing , but other than that this is a collection of outtakes that should 've stayed outtakes . low points include we 're gonna groove , the live i ca n't quit you baby , walter 's walk and ozone baby . it 's a shame that traveling riverside blues and hey hey , what can i do were left off this album , and included only in the boxed set reissue - it 's the only place you can find hey hey , what can i do , one of my favorite zeppelin songs , and with riverside blues , you have a choice : shell out $100 to get it , or sit through the crappy bbc sessions album . if you 're obsessed with the band , i guess this would be good for you . but the best version of coda is in the aforementioned $100 boxed set . +music neg i wanted to give this cd as a gift to my 7 year old niece who loves the movie . i listened to it first to make sure the quality was good . i was so surprised when all i heard was music and no words . although the music is nice , i know she would not be too impressed . we had seen the movie together and we loved mr. ray 's song and wanted to know the words . it 's too bad that i 'll have to return or sell it +music pos i recently purchased this cd again . i once owned it on cassette . keith is a real smooth old school type singer and his music and sound has sustained very well since it was released in the early 90's . if you are building an old school collection with great singers this is a good one to have . it 's great for romance or with that special lady . jaye price beltsville md +music pos i did n't think it was possible for the delays to top their debut release - but they have . while " faded seaside glamour " is more immediately catchy and refined , " you see colours " comes at you in a much more intense manner . the songs are more mature , the musicianship is top-notch and the recording sparkles with fat bottom-end and soaring harmonies . the high points for me are valentine and winters memory of summer , but there 's honestly not a bad track on this release . the delays put it all together - great songwriting , strong musicianship and excellent production in a genre-bending mix that has something for everybody . it 's a shame these guys do n't get more recognition here in the states . buy it +camera neg this is my third digital camera , i bought it after my tot dunked my previous camera under water . i did a lot of research before i bought this and it was highly rated in consumer reports . after a few months of ok pictures ( the macro setting is not very good though ) the lens cover started sticking but i learned to live with it . i would manually open up the lens cover each time . then the lens cover got stuck in the open position and i was learning to live with that . but now the camera is almost completely dead . it will not power up properly and sometimes it beeps . i 'm not sure but i think i am out of the warranty period with this . i will not buy another canon camera . this camera was made too cheaply . i wish things were not made to break right away +music pos i remember listning to this album over and over again when i was young . to this day i still ca n't get these awesome songs out of my head ! a must get album for you old school folks or anyone that enjoys great music +camera neg boy , this is way too much to pay for a hood on this lens . it 's a great a lens , but this is hardly worth the price +camera neg i purchased this camera for a friend to use in hawaii . we had nothing but problems getting it to wind properly and the pictures both on land and underwater were all blurred and my friend was very unhappy and i was frustrated . i do not know if this is just a bad camera or what +camera pos i really liked this cam bag..it serves its purpose very well and is really cute too ! +camera neg this camera is the worst ! ! ! i bought this on black friday there are many reasons why i am returning this piece of junk : 1.first of all , it runs on double a batteries 2.when i came home i started taking pictures.after i took my first picture , it said error saving image ! 3.then it worked and it didnt work.i tried downloading some of the pictures that were actually saved on the camera onto the computer.when i finished downloading them , i looked for the pics on the computer.i f0und them but the pics were all blurry.i was so fed up that i left it sitting on my computer desk for the next 2 months . do not buy this camera , it will be a waste of your money and time ! i actually thought hp made good cameras.....- _ - +music neg an absolutely lackluster effort from some very talented musicians . i gotta say , i could have used a little more cowbell +music neg when mike & the mechanics ushered in the ` madchester ' scene with the living years it was only a matter of time before these jokers attempted to jump on the bandwagon . if you want to be adored you should write some decent songs lads ! verdict : do n't waste your money . +music pos i think his debut had the best lyrics . this joint gets off to a good start with we still party and pretty much bangs till the end . his production on here is best described as " late 90 's roger troutman-esque g-funk " . geust stars like 2nd ii none , amg , suga free and el debarge get their shine on . top joints : we still party ( peter gunz and quik on the track ) quik jacks the verb song from school house rock . ( the jam ) so many wayz hand in hand you'z a ganxta ( quik refutes rumors that he was involved in biggie 's demise . also denounces reference to death in rap songs . ) i useta know her ( should be called i useta hit that ) speed medley for a ' v ' ( the p***y medley ) get 2getha again ( class of 91 , 2nd ii none , amg and quik triple team on this track . ) reprise ( medley for a ' v ) +camera neg not worth the $10 i paid especially when i had to spend $7 to ship it ! ! +camera pos for less $100 you can hide all your electronic equipment and still control it with the original remotes . this product does everything it promises , i recommend it with no reservations . 110% satisfied ! ! ! ! +music pos i love this pretenders album and chrissie always rocks but i love the songwriting skill of billy steinberg & tom kelley . they wrote " love colours " , " night in my veins " and the hit " stand by you " . her follow-up to this , " viva ! el amor ! " also contains three tracks written by them . i purchased this long after its release and was glad i did . steinberg kelley write memorable hooks and good lyrics with interesting chord changes . something not all big names can do on their own and chrissie wisely is aware of this . +music neg this cd was devoid of any of govi 's usual emotional imprint or soaring guitar work . frankly , it was just a bunch of new age background noise that one would hear on elevators . some of the craig chaquico-style stuff was interesting , but better left to craig . try 7th heaven , mosaico or guitar odyssey instead +music neg as a peripheral bnl fan , i have always admired the off beat sense of humor these guys dish out . with previous releases , i have been able to discover new things in repeated listenings . this cd got stale fast . seems to be geared to the tween crowd . i am hopeful newer releases will stay true to the bnl i have enjoyed in years past +music neg i loved her first album but this one is the same old same old rehashed time and time again she has reached her limits i 'm afriad +music pos i got the pleasure of seeing albert open for bb king . unfortunately for bb king , because once albert started playing his flying v , with blues power , he demoralized anybody that came after him . he had the entire universal amphitheater standing . and stayed standing for most of his show . blues power is one of his best . get , listen , and then really listen . because you can feel your skin crawl with extacy from those notes. . +camera pos i had a chance to compare it with a tokina glass . canon is better on a contrast and better on a distortion , same or even slightly worse on a sharpness , and complete looser on a build quality . if you are ok with 12mm - get tokina +camera pos me encuentro muy conforme con el producto , es de excelente calidad y muy buen precio . amazon es para mi el mejor sitio para la compra de cualquier producto +music pos you wo n't stop bobbin yo head until its over . i bought this when it first came out and we still bump this at every party we go to and everyone is happy to hear it , cougnut is easily as good as biggie ever was , he just never got the exposure that biggie did +music neg i was literally horrified when i first put this album in my cd player . this cd is absolutly terrible , every song sounds like its been composed for some middle school band to play . furthermore the songs hardly sound like the songs they represent , they 'll go through like one riff from the origional then just do their own thing . do not , i repeat , do not purchase this album . i was expecting some cool , fun , funky lounge music but this cd is just obnoxious . the only thing that makes this cd remotley worth purchasing is the cool album art and free coaster +camera neg i would love to really rate this camera case but i have not received it yet . we have been waiting for almost two months and still no case +camera pos great little package ! small , compact , fits easily in your pocket . took them to giants stadium to use from my end zone seat . able to see action very clearly in the opposite end of the field . easy focus for my bad eyes +camera pos i like using a tripod with my long zoom lens , and this device has really added to my hobby . the remote is perfect for taking pictures of birds in my birdbath and squirrels and other critters in my yard . i personally do n't like cables , i do n't like dealing with them . this is just right for my purposes . the remote is also better for taking pics of people . it is much better than a timer in my opinion since i can move people in and out easier and more efficiently , taking pictures more quickly . this gives me so much more control than using a timer . +music pos i just love this cd . over 8 years ago my much older coworker turned me onto this album . it is definetly not just for st paddy 's day . this is an album you can listen to over and over . the sinead songs are a bit whiney , but she does have an excellent voice . you can not get better that mic and sting . sting 's song is just incredible . +music neg why are they butchering pac 's songs like this . i advise anyone to get the bootlegs over this album . the original ghetto gospel and loyal to the game are 2 of my favorite pac songs but the one 's on here are painful to listen to . afeni should have let dj quik , daz , and whoever else that worked with pac do this album . they should have just digitally remastered the bootlegs . this started with still i rise to until the end of time to better dayz and the quality has been going down and down and they hit rock bottom with this one . the 2 stars is 1 because it is pac and another for the song uppercut . the most obvious butcher job is black cotton where em chose a fast beat and you could tell he is trying to speed up pac 's rhyme . i hope they do better with this last album due out this year +music neg this album is very weak compared to his earlier efforts . the music is simple and straightforward , and the rapping is poor +music pos i went through a painful final separation from the love of my life when this cd was released in 1997 , and i identified with every song . i listened to this cd over and over for several months . i saw kim at the " house of blues " in hollywood during that time and sang along to every song . this cd is my favorite " bitter sweet " cd of all time . i love you , kim +music pos this mos def album is a good album to listen to . he shows off his lyrical skills and gives social commentary that is on point . why listen to a bunch of guys who have " lil " in front of their names when you can listen to a man give his views on life , love , and this country we live i +music neg this is the #1 worse song of 2006 ( #2 is " sexyback " by justin timberfake ) . for real . his voice is awful and i do n't know who is worse : james blunt , macy gray , or shakira . imagine the three of them doing a performance together on a stage . it would be pure he11 +music pos any one of the first 4 cuts on this album are worth the price of admission . these pieces , each melodically rich and honed like a fine gem , remind me more of classical romanticism than what normally passes for " new age " . sit back in a cosy armchair with a glass of wine and let this beautifully-crafted music weave its web...it 's " feel good " music that also has an intellectually satisfying bittersweet flavor +music pos brilliant , glorious music- -all of it , although i agree with those who have come to feel that the ellington / strayhorn version of " the nutcracker suite , " in particular , is an all-too-often-buried treasure that no christmas season should be without ( and if you can ignore it for the rest of the year , you have more willpower than i ) . what happens to tchaikovsky 's marvellous music- -and grieg 's , too- -in these hands is creative homage of the highest order : the music is re-imagined from the inside , in wholly jazz terms , in a way that simultaneously illuminates and completely reconceives the original . what balanchine did for tchaikovsky and stravinsky in dance , ellington here does for tchaikovsky and grieg in another realm of music , and leaves us with works that deserve to be every bit as loved and celebrated as their older and better-known prototypes . and to top it all off , you get ellington and strayhorn 's own superb " suite thursday . " listen and rejoice +camera pos i am really satisfied with the purchase of this camera . good quality workmanship . canon has been a leader in photography in my book . easy to use controls for any one +music pos do i mean the best album or the best singer ? you are correct if you said both ! i saw kristin chenoweth on a pbs show " broadway 's best at the pops , " ( though it was not the first time i had heard her ) and decided to check out the offerings here . this is a collection of the kind of music and performances i love . she has a great range , a precise pitch , and a great style that is at the same time true to the music and to herself . in an era when singers try to outdo each other re-interpreting the composer 's original work , not usually with great success , she is a blessing +camera pos i bought these for a trip to costa rica and used them every day . they are comfortable , easy to focus , and a great choice for the price . these are perfect for folks like me who are interested in casual use for travel , concerts , sports , etc +music pos another solid 70 's band that faded into obscurity . the nice thing about living in canada was that we got to see all of the minor as well as the major acts . edward bear fell between the two . the original members got together in the late sixties and took their name from a more famous bear named winnie . all of their hits are here as well as a cover of " freedom for the stallion " , a song that was also covered by " the hues corporation " and popularized by " three dog night " . its mostly the type of music that most will remember a favourite love by from " the last song " to " close your eyes " ( i 'm back again ) . a good middle of the road pop album to melt back the years +camera neg it looks great , genuine leather , much better than synthetic . like a brand named leather wallet . but there is no where you can tie the case to the camera . hence you have to hold onto it with another hand when you pull the camera out to take photos . there is no where to put the essential accessories ( battery and another memory stick ) . there is no way to clip to the belt . will like to return if if not the hassle of mailing and the associated cost . bought another handy synthetic case afterwards +music neg simply put , jay-z is incredibly overrated . i own a couple of his cds but to be honest , i never really liked him . his beats never grabbed me and his lyrics never stunned me so much that i just had to go back and listen to a specific song again . he mostly raps about drugs , money and cars . nothing special , nothing new . i 'm just being real about it , since everyone else is on his d ! ck . i think the reason he 's so respected is because he blew up right after biggie died and he was the closest thing to him at the time . granted , jay-z does use some good metaphors , but for the most part his lyrics are shallow . best tracks on this album : ca n't knock the hustle brooklyn 's finest w / biggie dead president +camera pos from all the reviews i read , i expected certain pros and cons from this lens . i was not disappointed . pros : very sharp lens with very good colors cons : vignetting at wide open , and a little too contrasty for myself , the pros outweighed the cons for the price . it is ideal for the 1.6 multiplier cameras , where it becomes a 38mm lens +camera pos this product offers a realy equity between price and quality , and a good results in photos +camera pos i switched from the digital rebel xt . since i already had l-glass lenses , i did n't run into problems with the 5d " exposing " cheaper lenses . the 17-40mm really shines on the full sensor ! the burst rate is simply astonishing . missing flash does n't bother me , heck it 's a $3000 camera , i do n't expect a built-in flash . i have the speedlite 580ex , which of course is wonderful in itself . i also have the battery grip which i recommend , as well as the rs-80n3 cable release . image quality is superb overall - the 5d really shines in high iso numbers - more so than even the 1d from what i 've read . even at 1600 there 's hardly any noise . it allows you to take great , crisp photos in low light where other cameras would require a flash . the camera also is quite light while being very sturdy at the same time . the 3 fps might bother some , but i prefer the incredible burst numbers . +camera pos i bought two , one for me , one for my daughter . it is compact , user-friendly , it has nice sized screen . it comes with a charger ( i 've been told that some do n't ) . 6.2 mgp . video with audio . all this for a very nice price +music neg me especially i cannot hate on cam cuz i got his first albums and thats when he was serious lyrically . either the money went to his head or he just ran outta s*** to say . and judgin that his subject matter stays the same i guesss its true . dude spits some retarded a** lyrics . i give this cd a two cuz of the beats . but this dude is a certified beatwaster . these producers need to give these beats to rappers who can actually spit bars . this n***a sumtimes do n't even rhyme +music pos if you 're a dion fan do n't miss this cd . all the hits including my favourite - donna the prima donna +music pos i rarely write reviews of music but feel that i must share my impressions of this cd . i have long heard some of my favorite singers praise the songwriting prowess of townes but somehow never got around to buying one of his records . i finally picked this one up because it had two songs that were covered by two of my favorite singers- -lyle lovett - " lungs " ( among others ) and steve earle - " tecumseh valley " . i was blown away by the sheer beauty and poetry of every song on this recording . other reviewers seem to be comparing this to other townes ' records . i come from a different angle . as someone who has long heard townes sopken of with the highest praise , i can say this disk does not disappoint and will influence me to fill out my collection of his recordings . i will also say that i am deeply frustrated that i never took advantage of the chance to see townes perform while he was alive . +music pos really nothing on this is bad . the best imho is rubyhorse , the brian jonestown massacre and the subways but a case could be made for any of the songs . the only problem is now i have 8 other cds i need to buy +music pos i got what i wanted in the time frame promised...the way it 's supposed to work +camera pos i agree with many of the reviewers- -in the mid range and wide angle the lens is superb , but it is not quite as sharp as a tele- -as one of the reviewers said- -it does many things , and not all of them perfectly- -the lens is a compromise , but an excellent compromise- -the vr is an added boost- - i 'm still debating whether or not to keep it or send it back , because of the weakness in the tele- - but there is nothing else that can replace its versatility.- -i do n't want to keep changing lenses +camera pos this is one fantastic flash . i had it on my canon a2e for four years , and was ambivilent , but if you match this lens with one of canon 's newer bodies that has the funcionality to access all of the 550ex 's features , you have an awesome , powerful , flexable flash that can change the way you shoot +camera pos easy to use . produce pretty good quality . it takes pretty long to process between the shots . so you wo n't be able to take quick continuous shots . but for the price it is pretty good valu +music neg this music is a rip off . all is borrowed to the 4 first albums of marc bolan playing under the name of tyranosaurus rex . something more bluesy here and there but nothing allowing to give any credit to this guy . a shame +music pos i 've always been a terri clark fan but this is the first cd i 've purchased by her . i was surprised at how much i really enjoyed this cd ! terri has an amazing voice and the songs kept me listening to the cd over and over again +camera neg i ordered this product from amazon.com and when it arrived i fully charged the batteries . when i went to use them they were dead . i charged them again and when i went to use them a few days later the batteries were dead again ! i want my money back +camera neg bought this camera to have better print pictures than what i get with the digital . i 've tried using it in every mode auto , close-up , etc. but the autofocus never works so most of the pictures come out blurry ! my older simpler camera took better pictures +camera neg be careful ordering this item - make sure it 's the right one for your camera . while it says it 's for the a95 , it isn't . while it does n't say in the header that it 's the la-dc52c , it is , and the a95 camera requires the la-dc52d . i had to return the wrong one and reorder the right one . i purchased the wrong one based on amazon 's direction when purchasing accessories and do n't want others to make the same mistake +music neg as if the song for mesmerize was'nt bad enough . a f*** 'in grease video ? ? ? ! ! ! ! ja officially became a diva with this album . this album is horrible . the pledge had some life due to nas appearance , thats why it 's hard for me to request a zero star rating . bottomline if ja 's body was made up of his albums , this part would gangrene , maggots would avoid this and you should too +camera neg canon 's 28-135mm with is ( image stabilizer ) is a far better choice for the money +music neg ...unless it is rock and roll played by ac / dc . i f***ing hate them . they are overplayed so much on the radio , and that is the most annoying voice i have ever heard in my life . do n't waste your money on this cd , just turn on the radio...then turn it off +camera neg this was a waste of money . my 5 year old loves taking photos . she uses my digital camera sometimes . i thought this would be a great gift for her . she could see the photos on the back of the camera like mom's . this was not the case . the lcd does not project the images and it is so small you can not read what mode you are in . if the batteries run out , it erases the photos . i think they should have made it and the directions kid friendly . my daughter was frustrated quickly and it has laid in the drawer for 3 months . if your child likes to take photos , i would invest in something else +camera neg the en-el3a is a works fine and with no problems . however , amazon is misleading its customers by putting a lower price from a partner company as the primary price of the item . amazon should market the item at it 's price and show the partner price as an option unless the item can only be obtained from the partner . the 2 stars is not for the item but for amazon 's misleading advertisment +music pos i bought this cd after i 'd watched the movie the first three times . the music is wonderful . i bought it specifically for the song they sing in the church scene - " i do n't care to stay here long " and i want it played at my own funeral way out there in " someday " . you ca n't hear it without smiling and the words are much easier to understand on the cd than in the movie . but just in case , here 's the first foot-stompin ' verse : fare - - well , vain world ! i 'm going home . my savior smiles and bids me come and i do n't care to stay here long . bright angels beckon me away to sing god 's praise in endless day and i do n't care to stay here long . right up yonder ! christians , away up yon-der . oh , yes my lord , for i do n't care to stay here long +camera neg rated one star for the lack of value . you can buy the same canon brand case for under $14 and a higher capacity , imho better , albeit non name brand , 1200mah battery for under $10 from amazon . the neck strap is not worth the difference . +camera neg for nearly $100 , this adaptor provides very little ( 1.5x ) magnification . it is also a nuisance because you have to switch the camera settings every time you use the lens for it to function properly . this is no big deal with the wide angle adaptor , which is used infrequently by me , but it is when you want to capture a fleeting image at a distance . it is lightweight , but cumbersome and does n't accept filters . for real telephoto capabilities , get an slr with interchangeable lenses . i sent this product back . +camera pos i have received this camera for serveral weeks . it 's a good long zoom digital camera . i can use it for 18x optical zoom when i set its photo size less than 3m ez . the photo is n't blur as i use image stabilized . the picture is sharp . image quality is good . however i have to set the iso at 100 or 200. when the iso is 400 or above , i can see the noise , and the picture lose detail . but every camera has its own defect . overall , i am satified with this camera , and i am enjoying using it to take pictures . +camera neg very cheap , you can tell it 's an fake camera miles away . sure it has these features of motion detector which makes it move and has led lights ; but not worth 6 dollars at all . stay awa +music pos i inhaled this cd . after all the hype and hyper blowin ' up about this dance / punk / rock genius , i finally broke down and bought it . not that i was old enough to get into the discos in the mid 70's -early / mid 80 's ( i was still in elementary school , then middle school ) , but i remember ( and still love ) the groups that influenced this disc...the buzzcocks , heaven 17 , pil , blondie...hell even the rolling stones " some girls " album . and yes , i have to say ( after finding " death disco-songs under the dance floor 1978-1984 " cd and i 'm ordering it ) the old stuff is more fun . but for the hipsters who do n't know this is not original genre , it 's pretty great . no , it 's very great . the first song " daft punk is playing at my house " was fun , and both discs made it worth driving through snowy / sleety / frozen rain covered streets to work out at the gym these last couple weeks +camera neg i bought this item for $40 online and then found out my canon camera didnt need a cannon brand charger and i could have bought one for $10 instead . in total i spent for this charger which included the shipping and handling . not worth it . go to another store and by one for $10 +camera neg mini dv cams are better , and should cost about the same . this particular camera has poor quality video and it is a pain to get video transferred to your computer . the software is glitchy , so you 'll probably end up downloading drivers yourself . find a different camera +camera neg i received the remote this evening and have not been able to get the remote to work with my canon rebel xt camera . followed the directions that were furnished with the remote to no avail . it appears that this remote is defective +camera pos hi have a rebel extreme , and needed to use the high-speed mode.. . but the flash could n't even vaguely keep up . i was taking pictures of dancers , so needed a flash system that could keep up . the speedlite really does this perfectly - i 'm able to take a rapid-fire sequence of photos , and this flash system is there each time . i do n't know if it really helps when taking a single photo , but if you want a flash that can keep up , this one is great ! i like it so much , i 'm planning on buying one or two more for my next shoot , to run in slave mode with this one . +music pos this is a great album . two of their biggest hits , " another one bites the dust , " and " crazy little thing called love , " are here . my favorites are " need your loving tonight , " and " prime jive . " most of the other songs are top notch , too . none of the later queen albums matched this one . definitely in the class of night at the opera , day at the races and news of the world +camera neg it is hardly one month old and the pockets on the sides have already started coming off . it is not the stuff that i expected froma brand name like panasonic +music neg this album is pure crap ! just a marketing move to capitalize on the sales from straight outta cashville , until he can make a real new album , not this microwaved crapola . if you like buck , get straight outta cashville , an beg for mercy , than wait for his future release , with actual new tracks . i strongly advise you not to buy this . it is a total rip off . i wasted my time downloading this +camera pos i bought this camera to replace a 3mp kodak cx series when i thought i had lost it . my 3mp took great pics and i never had any problems with it and i did n't want to have to learn to use a different brands software . the kodak easyshare software did n't impress me much when i bought the first camera but they have made some improvements and the updated version is much better . the kodak gallery is a nice option that allows you to share pics without sending large email files . i have n't used the c533 a lot since i bought it but the pics i 've taken have come out great . but just like the other reviews state , slow shutter speed at low light and it does like batteries . however , if you spend the extra money for the lithium batteries you 'll get much improved battery life . all in all a great value and a perfect camera for a point and shoot person +music neg this guy sounds worse than brian johnson does now . why ca n't people my age stop copying the past ? be original . that 's it . this style is well worn out . +camera neg it seems as if every time i want to use the camera , the battery is dead . i find that if i charge it and try to use it the next day , i should expect very much . i 'm going to purchase a new battery and see how that goes , but i should n't have to do so +camera neg horrible camera . barely had it 2 months before it went on the fritz.drained the batteries within a few pictures.so not worth more then the cost of a disposable ! ! sorry kodak...but i 'll stick with the good ol ' reliable sony +music pos its a pretty good mix , good song choices , its mostly a harder mix , thought it could be smoother flowing though , but all in all its pretty good , also thought the robot walk to the party deal woulda made a better begining , it was a lot of down time during the middle of the cd , but hey people gotta switch it up now and then , like the last 3 / 4s better.. . +camera neg i got it on sale for $88.00 thinking it would be a great bargain at that price . i feel i was ripped off . the video quality is ghastly when given enough light , and absolutely unusable without . the same goes for the pictures . even at highest quality - and a lot of image enhancements , the results are mediocre . the audio portion of the video had a very noticeable hum , which i was able to remove with my audio editing software . otherwise , the audio recording and playback were " acceptable , " at best . this device is useful only as an audio recorder / mp3 player , and is not really a bargain +music pos this is one of my all-time favorite cds . i loved all the songs on this cd except one . my favorite is " black girl pain " and it should be an anthem and inspriration for black women all over the globe . i had the pleasure of seeing talib in concert a few months ago in atlanta and his live show was even better than his cd . true hip-hop lives +music pos this is the album that all kenny g fans have been waiting for ! ! ! it was well worth the wait too . not only is kenny g at the top of his game but the vocalists are great ! the entire group of artists is so eclectic . thank you kenny g ! ! +music neg um. i have nothing against bands that are " mainstream " . that has nothing to do with their quality of sound . ( granted , many mainstream bands are horrible , but they all deserve a chance , no ? ) dave , though , he has never impressed me . not that he 's awful , i suppose it 's okay background music...better than nothing . just oh so mediocre . i do n't understand why is he so highly praised ? voice-wise ? eh. nothing special . lyrics ? hah ! music ? umm.. . bland ? it 's all the same ! maybe i 'm missing something ? if you like one of dave 's songs , then by all means , buy this ! you can be sure your money will be spent on nearly exact replicas of that song . two stars because it 's at least music . but that 's on the high side , considering how static it is . dave will never find a place in my cd player or in my computer . +music pos as always , opinions vary in terms of who is the master at recording timeless pieces of music such as these bach cello suites . starker himself pronounced in the sleeves of this cd that this edition , the 4th recordings of these music by himself is not " technically perfect " , but in many ways , his most mature interpretation . you can spend hundreds trying to find a mercury copy of " the perfect " rendition ; or you can appreciate the little imperfections of an aged artist , at the height of his humanistic understanding of music , and of life . +camera pos it was everything it advertised as being . i can carry my digital camera and lenses as well as two point and shoot digital cameras . being a slingshot backpack , my back does n't moan and groan as it did with other camera bags . i like the feature of swinging the bag to the front and to get my cameras with out removing the backpack +camera neg i purchased this case for my dscs90. i hate it ! it is only big enough to hold the camera and nothing else . there is no handle to the case , in fact the case only has zippers and you are suppose to use the strap from the camera itself for the handle . the zippers do not stay in place and the camera can easily fall out of the case so i do n't recommend doing this . look for a better case for your new camera . +music pos this is a fantastic holiday christmas album . doris day 's beautiful voice singing these terrific christmas songs make for a beautiful sound that will bring all who listen years of enjoyment . a must have for those who enjoy hearing terrific christmas music over the holidays +camera neg me and my wife bought the jvc camcorder and burner set up to send dvd 's back to my parents because we did not have an computer at the time . at first it worked great then after 2-3 disc in it would pull up the same message unable to formate the disc . we have been throught about 25 disc just to burn off 10. we returned it to get another and it did the same thing . we thought i might of been a bad batch of disc so we used the one that came with the burner and no deal . i do not recommend this to anyone +music pos i do n't know where this guy gets off saying that the drummer , jorge rossy , and the bassist , larry grenadier , " are competent but do nothing overtly interesting " . jorge incredible groove , use of space , and musicality is as good as one could ask for , and grenadier 's huge warm tone , amazing time , and great thematic development is unparalleled by other bassists of his generation +music neg i cant understand how anyone can give this album more than one star . luckily i got this cd for free when they were handing them out to everyone who came to their shows on their 2005 tour . i love classic journey , but this band has gone downhill faster than i ever thought possible . most of the songs are terrible-boring music and even worse lyrics . ' arrival ' was pretty mediocre , but this is about 5 steps down from there . granted , steve augeri does complete justice to the old songs in concert and really sounds great , but he obviously has nothing to offer in the way of songwriting . the only way this band will ever create quality new music is if perry were to stop sitting around at home and come back to the band . otherwise , the band should seriously consider not making any more new music and just go on tour every couple of years +music pos i had first bought the " here and now " hoping to hear the original recordings , but was slightly disappointed that on that cd the older songs were live performances only . if you want their hits as you remember hearing them on the radio or your old album that may be trashed , this is the cd for you +music neg i 'm sorry but the guy below me does n't know music if he was slapped with a gang starr cd . this mess is ridiculous . i would n't even want to hear this garbage in the klub let alone banging in my car . they are the modern day version of young mc....here today gone tomorrow +camera pos for years now i have been buying " bargain " cameras with the foolish notion that i did not need a nice one . finally , i got sick of it and bought the exilim ex-z600. this camera is awesome . the screen is huge , the picture quality is great , it is easy to use and is sooo small . overall , a great buy . the one downside is that i can only connect it to my computer using the dock . luckily , i have an sd card reader , so i normally just use that to download my pictures +camera neg the minute i took the monopod out of cover it broke . the mounting head fell apart from the leg . the glue they use is very bad . i did n't return the product because i think the replacement would be the same quality and it was not worth the affords . i just fixed it myself +camera neg this camcorder worked well , but i had two complaints with it . 1. on the sound track you can hear noise from the recording head moving back and forth , sounds like a woodpecker . this alone made it unacceptable or what i wanted to do . 2. i wanted high quality video , but since it records on a small dvd disk , the video is compressed before it is recorded on the disk . this causes some loss of detail in the picture , especially if you 're going to edit it and rerecord the video which i need to do . if you just want a camera to record a small dvd which you can then play in a dvd player ( and not all dvd players will play the small dvds ) this camera might be acceptable . i returned it and bought a panasonic pv-gs35minidv camcorder which uses the minidv cassette tape . much better video quality because its not compressd , and no noise from the tape drive +camera pos go to nikon 's own website nikonusa.com and compare the technical specifications of this version and the ' g ' version of this lens . there are only three differences . one is that the ' g ' version has its aperture set only by the camera body , while the ' d ' version can have its aperture set either by the body or by a ring on the lens . all recent nikon bodies set the aperture . the ring on the lens is invariably locked on all recent camera bodies . the second difference is that one ( 1 ) of the 13 lens elements in the d version of the lens is made of extra low dispersion ( ed ) glass . if the dispersion difference is so important what is the deal with the other 12 elements ? sounds like marketing to me . the third difference is that the ' d ' version costs three times as much as the ' g ' version +music pos percy grainger was a man of spectacular gifts . he was one of the most original composer / arrangers in the early part of this century . he was also a spectacular pianist in an age of spectacular pianists . this amazing cd documents grainger 's formidible gifts . it cannot be over-praised . both the music and the performances are well worthy of any piano lover 's attention . do n't miss this one +music neg while i love billie , in her own words , these sessions were dull , and uninspired . since the reviews should focus on one cd , that is the jist of it ; boring renditions , and back up musicians that are not the ones that billie was used to making for a very uneven collection +camera neg i purchased this product about 2 months ago , the resolution is not the best but it 's acceptable . after a month , it turned off by itself and would n't turn on again ! ! i sent it to repair and had to pay $50.00 ! ! ! somenthing to do with the power button . i have it on a ups with battery , also freezes for no reason . i do n't recomend it +music pos this is a must have for anyone with an r&b " oldies " collection . you wo n't be disappointed +camera neg the nikon camera s3 is a good camera but the camera takes to long to take a picture i dont like it because when i am at a party i want to take a fast picture . it sucks and i wish i never bought it dont make the same error i did and waist my money on the piece of junk . +camera pos i love the new digital canon . the only problem is it 's not nearly as tough as it 's film twin . i had the camera less than a month when the pop-up flash quit working . the canon people have been great , and very helpful , but i 'd rather not have had to send a brand new camera back to the factory . the photos , however , are wonderful . film quality for the most part - printable and enlargable . ( it would probably be better to use the camera with a tripod when using the 300mm telephoto but i hike with it , so just remember to steady it before taking wildlife photos . +camera neg im not from usa . my brother bought me the camara in a trip three months ago and it is not working ! ! it has serious conection problems in the body that i cant fix in my country . i lost 1000 us +music neg while the title cut with joe public was bumping most of this disc is so-so& ; formula driven.without teddy riley the grooves& ; vibe are n't as strong +music neg i received emails about delaying my order three times . since it showed that the product was available , i did n't understand why i had to wait less than two months to get my order . i was so disappointed by the amazon this time ! doing business like that , i am not sure how long you will survive +music pos there have been innumerable motorhead collections over the years , but this is one of the few that attempts to mix old with the new . on this collection , all the classics are present , and some newer material is thrown in as well . unfortunately , there are some throw-away tracks , mainly the girlscool and headgirl tracks . ( to be honest , these tracks are pretty much worthless . ) some live tracks are meshed in and fit well , and the newer songs help to add some variety to the old-scool stuff . i would recommend this collection to listeners looking to get a nice , cheap collection of some of motorhead 's best just for the sake of getting into the band . but if you 're wanting the prime collection of older material , save up some extra dough and buy " no remorse " or " stone deaf forever . +music pos along with son volt 's " trace " and nadine 's " downtown saturday , " this is one of the best rock albums of the 1990s and certainly one of the best alt.country albums ever released . standout tracks include " blue canoe , " " soul sister , " " eyes of a child , " " wink " and " let 's go runnin' " all examples of first class rock songwriting . the rest ai n't too shabby either . fans of the allman brothers and lynyrd skynyrd in particular should give this mississippi band a listen . but so should any mainstream rock fan +music neg i got this album because obie trice did some great stuff on the 8 mile soundtrack , so i figured i 'd check out what else he 'd done . this album just does n't live up to that . +camera neg for average people who want a camera that just works-and takes good pics you should not buy this . i do n't know about the specifics , but like other reviewers mine got stuck and quit working for no reason after a couple of months . so , i do n't really see what all the bells and whistles are for if it does n't even take a picture . it was fine while it worked , it ate batteries but the pics were good +camera neg i bought this lens in may for my brand new rebel xt . i used it on a vacation mainly , and am pretty dissapointed . i 'm no pro , or even skilled amateur , but i do know the lens is not giving me quality shots . the autofocusing is slow , and af or manual shots are n't very sharp at any zoom . there seems to be a fingerprint on one of the inner lenses that indicates poor quality control to me . i wanted a good , all around lens before building a real lens collection of different types . i guess this would fit the bill , if it took sharp pictures . i would n't pay more than $150 for this lens again +camera pos 300 plus minutes of recording time ( without lcd ) . i still got several hours with the lcd , backlight on . for when you are out all day , this is a good long lasting battery . on the hdr-fx1 i found it preferable to the smaller and lighter battery as it helped provide a touch extra rear weighting . that helped balance when using the camcorder at hip height for me . i ca n't say i noticed the extra weight as an issue when using at shoulder height , though i did n't have it on my shoulder for long periods at a time +camera neg i bought this in august 2005 , when the original battery that came with my nikon coolpix 880 ( late 2000 ) started running down fast . on the page i ordered from , it appeared to be a genuine nikon battery , however , when i received it , it was not . it was made in taiwan , and does not have the nikon brand name anywhere on the battery ( or packaging , as i remember ) . this battery has never held a charge well . it 's about as bad as the original battery is now , and i 've only had it a few months . maybe i just got a lemon- -but i 'd recommend you buy a genuine nikon , if you can find one +music pos even if you do n't know much about donny hathaway , this collection of songs is a fun mix and it 's very moving . it includes some classics with roberta flack that are terrific . i enjoy it tremendously +music pos so many times , older recordings are not very high quality but not with this group of songs . if you are a marty robbins fan ( and i am ) this cd is a must +music pos some musicians , like fine chefs , make it look so easy . david grisman is one of them . on the cd , " i 'm beginning to see the light , " the prolific mandolinist extraordinaire is joined by scottish guitar virtuoso martin taylor and veteran grisman quintet members jim kerwin and george marsh ( on bass and drums / percussion , respectively ) for one hot little album . while the song list is comprised of many well-loved standards , such as " autumn leaves , " " makin ' whoopee , " " lover man , " and " cheek to cheek , " the taylor / grisman quartet seems to have so much fun preparing its stew and adds enough incredible seasonings to the pot to make emeril shout , " bam ! " as don stierberg , who penned the liner notes , says : " music need not be trendy to be great . " i wholeheartedly agree . ( c.a. carlino +music neg come on . i cannot play these dual discs in my car nor any regular cd players . j&mc are excellent though +music pos i wo n't say to everybody this greatest hits is highly recommended . being that i never heard all of her albums , so a true fan may feel like some songs is missin' . however for me , who is just really startin to seriously get into pop is somewhat satisfied with these and this is a 5 star collection to me . some of the tracks i love , a couple i do n't like at all and the rest i just like . my favorite ones are in order ; erotica ray of light beautiful stranger the power of goodbye deeper and deeper the prodution is excellent and i love the vocals . if your new to madonna , my opinion would be to start here . but a true fan can give me lessons . +camera neg i too , loved the camera , despite the small lcd screen size , until it got the infamous white screen of death that this particular camera is known for , which usually occurs after the warranty expires ( 1 year ) . photos outside are great , poor low-light photos though , but i paid $100 for it ( and with $20 coupon it was $80 ) . small lcd screen means that it takes less battery power , so the rechargeable aa batteries lasted a long time . white screen of death temporary solution : turn the camera off , and do a quick rap with your knuckles to the " cybershot " logo on the front of the camera . then turn it back on . repeat if necessary . it 'll probably happen again , but it beats buying a brand new camera if you 're on vacation and do n't have time to bargain shop +camera neg this camera is a piece of junk . you have to be standing outside in bright sunlight to get a decent picture . and then when you try to use the flash it is so bright that everything in the foreground of the picture is washed out . not to mention the battery life is horrible . i got a 1 gb memory card so i could take lots of pictures , but the battery runs out after i took about 10. so all in all , if you 're considering buying this thing , save the money and frustration and just do n't +camera pos not too hard and not too soft . camera fits nicely , with compartments for just about anything you need for your camera . +camera neg i had just recently bought this camera , and it was ok . the quaility of the pictures was pretty ok . i couldnt really understand it , and what really stinks is that i lost the stupid cd that comes with it and now i cant install it . overall i would say that the camera is a stinky peice of junk . now im begging my parent to buy me a reall digital camera ! ! not a peice of crap . +camera pos this is a great lens for any user , professional or amateur . this lens offers incredibly wide focal lengths all while giving very impressive / clean results . a slight distortion is noticeable when shooting at 10mm ( 16mm cropped ) but this is easily correctable with software . in addition , the very fast and absolutely silent usm is a huge plus . i highly recommend this lens to anyone wanting great landscapes or great in door / architecture shots ( especially realtors ) +camera pos i purchased this camera so i could photograph wildlife on hikes . i needed something that was not too heavy , was image-stabilized , with telephoto power . this camera meets all those requirements . it does have one problem , however . in bright light , the viewfinder blanks out , so one cannot clearly see the object to be photographed . i have solved that problem to some extent , by pointing the camera at the object , and letting the autofocus do the rest . this " fix " has resulted in many excellent photos . like many other small cameras , the results tend to be contrasty , and i modify this tendency in photoshop +music pos there is nothing more intimate then the human voice . i am a voice major at a university . nothing speaks to me more highly then choral music . i was a little skeptical about this cd when i first got it . i have since fallen in love with every aspect of it . of course if you get this cd you must get the companion cd lux aeterna by the los angeles master chorale . you cannot have one without the other +camera pos i absolutely love this camera . i 've told everyone i know to buy it . the picture quality is amazing . there are so many options with this tiny little camera ! you can edit pictures before you even print them . zoom in on a picture already taken and save it that way , and so much more . i take pictures of everything ! i charged the battery when i got the camera , which was about three weeks ago , and it 's still going . i have 7 / 8th of battery life left . i have n't had to charge it again . i am so happy with my purchase ! i hope this helps you +camera pos i have own this camcorder for 6 month it 's a good camcorder , esay to use , easy to bring as it 's design purpose , pc-55 is enough for home use only one thing i want to mention here , before i buy this camcorder , i thought that i can record video on ms duo in mepg format , and it 's easy for post-edit on pc , you know , tansfer a minidv tape to computer may need a huge space to save . however , when i replay the video which stored on ms , the sreen was full of mosaic fortunately , when use dv type to record , this situation never happens . good quality . the one press photo button also becomes useless because the bad quality +camera pos my printer fits perfectly , with plenty of room for the paper tray , extra paper and a few other things that i have managed to get in also . i love this bag....thank +music pos i just loved this album the songs really related to my life . it was nice to see that there was personal experience involved while writing the songs +music neg i 've always seen sheryl crow as a middle-of-the-road rock artist . my wife and i got a couple of her disc 's , plus that " very best of " cd and was really looking forward to her latest , but this one...zzzzzzzz , makes me wonder what they 're putting in sheryl 's coffee . some reviewers are saying there 's " heart and soul " all over this album ? that may be , but it 's also very slick dullsville stuff too . as for the album cover graphics , i do n't see the roger dean yes covers or the 60 's style psychedelia like one reviewer wrote , but a very " modern " graphic art that lots of artists and bands have been using . kelly clarkson , the vines , the donnas , the list goes on . highlights : good is good ( i guess it 's time for a new " very best of " collection ) +camera neg i only wish i could return this camera . its automatic focus does not work well in photographing landscape scenes and plants ( what i do most ) and its manual focus is difficult ( very difficult ) to use . my much cheaper , and lower resolution , old minolta does a much better job in low light conditions . i find i have to delete half my photographs due to bad focus . in addition , photo files take 5 to 6 seconds to save to my so-called high-speed memory card . do n't buy this camera +music pos sensational is a word i 'd use to describe singer jesse mccartney . good looks and powerful vocals . he 's talented and sweet . if you have n't gotten a copy of his latest cd ' right where you want me ' , buy it today +music neg i was a huge fan of the jam , but ive grown to despise paul weller and this cd strengthens my view . this is a covers cd and has n't got a patch on albums like all mod cons or sound affects.with paul weller everything is about a quick buck and ripping off a loyal fan base , with over a dozen jam compilations , rarities , box sets and dvd 's in the last few years.[since he bought the exclussive rights to all the jam recordings from the rest of the band].this album is bland so give it a miss and spend your money on the new stiff little fingers cd which features bruce foxto +music pos chris joss delivers some serious blaxploitation inspired grooves that will wisk you back to the times of bell bottoms , afros and platform shoes ! joss ' " you 've been spiked " is a retrospective piece of marvellously produced tracks that pays true homage to an era that gave us some of the funkiest music ever ! in fact , this music sounds so authentic you would think they came straight out of the 70's ...but it 's all circa the 21st century . it 's good to know that there are still modern cats ( especially on the esl record label ) who know how to recapture music from days gone by . +camera pos the enclosure has a solid feel to it . i dove with it three times with no problem at all . it would be nice if the weight does not cost extra . the only compliant i have is that the enclosure is a tight fit , so it is very difficult to fit a desiccant into the enclosure +camera pos some reviewers below have said that this microphone does n't work with the sony hot shoe . wrong . click on the " technical details " on this page and you 'll see the sony camcorder models that this microphone works with . failure to look at which camcorders are compatable with this microphone is the fault of the customer , not any fault with the microphone ! so do n't give it a low rating based on your own lack of research when buying a product , please +camera pos i purchased this camera online one month ago from amazon here [...] and i have taken pictures from alaska to florida and in washington i love how the mark ii captures images imho more clearly than any film slr could ever take . best camera i have every use +music neg while well produced , i was disappointed in the album - mostly because the majority of the tracks were re-recordings . frankie laine still sounds great - but it just was n't the same . i bought the cd to replace a well worn vinyl album , but on listening to the cd i found the songs to all be slightly ( and in a couple of cases very ) , different in tempo and vocal inflection - it 's definitely not the album i 've loved for over 30 years ! high noon in particular is quite different , much slower , with vocal emphasis changed . i 'll probably listen to the cd from time to time , but not with the same relish that i enjoyed my old lp +camera neg not too long after i purchased this camera the screen turned white when i turned it on . i would turn it off and on and nothing would help . finally i would take the batteries out and put them back in . this seemed to fix the problem a few times . after that i thought it was just operator error . but it wasn't . the camera finally gave out and the white screen never went away . so after being annoyed i left the camera alone for awhile . an event came up about a month later . i got my camera and tried to turn it on . nothing happened . so i changed the batteries . still nothing happened . i 'm not sure what happened . i do believe i purchased a lemon camera . i 'm hoping to resolve these issues with samsung . it was one of the cheapest cameras on the market at the time . so i guess you get what you pay for ! +music pos dope cd..im a huge spice 1 fan..this cd is off da hook...check out immortilized and bossalini cds...those are dope quality cds..i have over 600 hip hop cds in my collection..and i do n't really express my fealings on amazon unless its worth it..i love hip hop till da day i die...and spice 1 is one dope smokin hip hop lyracist...tru dat...plus im from da old school..nwa , pe , rakim , boogie down , naughty by nature ( 1rst cd ) , big daddy kane , old school jazzy jeff and fresh prince , old school ll...naw mean..wor +music pos this cd was well worth the wait ! it contains music and artists that were previously unavailable and not even heard on the radio in years . i took one of the cds out of the box , put it in the player , and within minutes my wife and i were dancing . the sound quality , in my judgment is solid , the packaging is fun and creative , and the booklet containing the cameo parkway " story " was an interesting read . there will always be arguments about stuff that was included and not included , but this is an excellent overview of a wonderful era . what great fun to hear the orlons , chubby checker , the tymes , the dovells , bobby rydell , and dee dee sharp once again . +camera pos easy , fast and serius tool , for cleaning your optics . the easy use is discribe in the manual that is very clear to understand . cleaning is fast with the nikon lens pen , cuase it has the necesary to do the job well done , as any profesional tool . now i have 2 of them , for my two camera bags . +camera pos i have gone from the old 640x480 about nine years ago to a 3.1m for the last few years to the canon 20d now , what a pleasure to shot . the battery life has not been an issue even with over 250 shots , which should be sufficient for most anybody . there is a small learning curve but you would expect this with any new camera . the lens choice was a great idea which came from an earlier review of the excellent walk around ability of this lens from the general shots to the closeups of those favorite flowers . for those individuals who are on the fence about this product i tout it to all i have spoken to . it turned a good photo experience on our west coast road trip into a real serious photo shoot , it also uses the commonly accessable compact flash . the built in flash works well have not had to explore the options at this time . the delivery of this item when promised was a nice bow on the package +music neg there is not much i can add to these reviews here . just like me , a lot of people here were dissapointed because of the fact that so many classic 2pac songs were remixed only to sound like disasters . why would such an abomination happen ? suge knight is trying to milk the pac legacy until it is bone dry . well at least he has done something right if you ask me . it sucks that this is how we are forced to remember tupac shakur , over tracks chopped up into this . die hard pac fans wo n't even like this , if they have n't heard it already . i 'm so waiting for a remix album of " the chronic " and " doggystyle " . if suge knight was smart you would reissue tha dogg pound 's " dogg food " on dual disc , because that is the only reason why i do n't have that album yet . +music neg i bought this cd not long after it came out . it did n't last long in my collection because it only has a few good songs on it ! ! ! i like somehow our love survives and abandoned garden . other than that this is a mediocre effort for michael . he has used this kind of brazilian theme on sleeping gypsy already . stick with your roots michael...you are from california...not south america . try buying blue pacific instead ! ! ! i abandoned this one a long time ago +music neg yep , this cd sucks . that depeche mode guy is really random , what makes you think anyone who is looking at the punk-o-rama review would be interested in depeche mode ? rem sucks too , michael stipe is the most self absorbed old bald guy ever . +camera pos i just got my new camcorder and start to operate it . first of all is 's very easy to operate with the joystick , the use in the still image function is allways available , even while shooting a video ( nice feature but as all camcorders - low quality pitures ) the stabalizer ( one of the reason why i 'd preffered that cam over the other ) is great and even in full zoom you can get pretty steady videos . the large zoom ( x32 ) is also very nice . overall i think this is great value for my money... . +camera pos the battery is great , but amazon offers the accessory kit with the same battery , plus a mini-dv tape and a carrying case for the same price . the case is useless for the zr series , but might come in handy for some other purpose +music neg with much anticipation we awaited the arrival of clay 's second album , thinking this one would make the career of one of our favorite singers.. . and instead we fear that it is likely to end his career . while clay 's voice still sounds great , the cd is an entire collection of uninspired , underproduced remakes ... not one of which goes beyond the original . as you can see , this cd is nowhere on the billboard charts , and we 're very sad to say in our household , that it 's for good reason . save your money and buy one of the much better idol cds ... and almost any of them are , most recently kelly pickler and carrie underwood . +music neg i bought this album because i loved the title song . it 's such a great song , how bad can the rest of the album be , right ? well , the rest of the songs are just filler and are n't worth the money i paid for this . it 's either shameless bubblegum or oversentimentalized depressing tripe . kenny chesney is a popular artist and as a result he is in the cookie cutter category of the nashville music scene . he 's gotta pump out the albums so the record company can keep lining their pockets while the suckers out there keep buying this garbage to perpetuate more garbage coming out of that town . i 'll get down off my soapbox now . but country music really needs to get back to it 's roots and stop this pop nonsense . what country music really is and what it is considered to be by mainstream are two different things . +music pos for anyone who loves trumpet music as i do , this album is a must . wynton marsalis has mastered twenty all-time favorite pieces with such brilliance , that no other trumpeteer comes near by comparison . opening with j . clarke 's , the king 's march , wynton proceeds to favor listeners with such baroque favorites as purcell 's entrada from " the indian queen , " j . clark 's the prince of denmark 's march and j . stanley 's trumpet voluntary . fantastic selections from bach , mozart , and haydn follow , with the album also including such delightful listening as the last rose of summer , carnival of venisee , and flight of the bumblebee . you wo n't be disappointed with this purchase +camera neg i 've had other digital cameras but this is the first one i 've had problems with . i started getting a zoom lens error shortly after i bought it but it would clear if i turned it off then back on . it is now unusable as the lens can not be retracted at all . it lasted 18 months +music neg apart from the great selection of soundtracks , what really makes this compilation top value is the quality of the sound processing . executed with finesse , these tracks sound better than when first issued and many are unedited , fuller versions : like " singing in the rain " , for example . throw in the great price , and this double disc set is a " must have " for all lovers of classic movie music +camera neg im not from usa . my brother bought me the camara in a trip three months ago and it is not working ! ! it has serious conection problems in the body that i cant fix in my country . i lost 1000 us +music pos whoa.. . this cd rocks , one of my favorite anti-flag albums for sure . this cd may not be what some of the harder punk fans want from anti-flag but i think it also shows they 're growth as a band . they can play more than just really loud hard punk ( though they play that awesome too ! ! ) . some of the songs on this album incredibly powerful , and some are really catchy too . war sucks lets party is a great anarchist anthem , and one trillion dollars is amazingly moving ( i mean , seriously ! 1 trillion $ spent on weapons around the world in 2004 ! ) every track is good and has its own message ! they seem to have no problem coming up w / new songs.. . there are so many things to ridicule in our gov . i just wish that more people would listen to this band 's message . peace and lov +music pos -unique -highly artistic -creative -more credit to drummers -beatifully polishe +camera pos the picture and dimensions are incorrect . it is a soft case but is ribbed horizontally and mine came in blue . the correct dimensions are 2.9 " x4.2 " x1.8 " ( wxhxd ) . it also fits the fujifilm v10 camera which i bought it for . amazon has a different case built specifically for the v10 but it costs more and might be nicer based on that picture . i am keeping this one , it is a perfect fit +music pos well , this is n't at the gates . nightrage reminds me of many old arch enemy guitar tunes that were so melodic . of course , that leads into gus g . substituting chris on concerts being an excellent choice , as they make very similar melodies . some people say this album is heavy , which it is in some parts . but its melodic death , there are no signs of thrash or anything . just great melodies , great headbanging music . add this to your collection , i think its better than sweet vengeance +music neg after months of searching , i found the out of print cd here . i had never heard it , but after hearing the fabulous song " my only " from the " good as it gets " movie soundtrack , i had to hear the album . what a disappointment ! oh well , it would have been hard to make a cd as good as that song +camera pos i liked this lens . i used it , for the first time , while traveling through peru . it was light-weight and easy to use . at 200mm , most of my pictures turned out great , especially when i was on steady ground ( taking pictures from a rocking boat with no tripod is a bit of a challenge ! ) . i 've printed some 8x10 's of close-ups i took using this lens and i was quite impressed with the quality . it was also in my price range . overall , i 'd say it was a " good bang for the buck . +camera pos i am very happy with this set of filters . the price was right and they come with a carry case so you dont have to worry how you are going to carry them if you go lite , camera and filters +camera pos my cousin 's wife is a professional studio photographer who occasionally lends out her lenses to me for clothing / lifestyle photoshoots ( i 've been pretty active in this area for some time , just now starting to go full digital ) , and i 've used the f / 2.8l about four or five times and this is one of the best lenses i 've used . period . shooting wide open allows you to retain high shutter speeds for night shots , as well as get very interesting and vibrant long shutter shots ( of crowds , the freeway at night , etc ) . when shooting action shots , the tripod mount can get in the way of zooming and focusing , but it can be removed easily enough . i personally just purchased the f / 4.0l , which , coupled with a relatively wide max aperture and shooting at either 1600 or 3200 on my 20d , should do nicely , but i still rate the 2.8 high up on my list +camera pos i bought this for my mother...she loves it ! its easy for her to use and the screen is large enough for her to view . the print quality is excellent . i got more ( merchandise and quality ) with this hp brand than i would had with any other brand . the price was excellent too . good job hewlett packard for making me a " smart " person +camera pos the only two drawbacks to this lens are that it requires a huge amount of light to take quality photographs and it is relatively slow to autofocus , especially where there is not adequate light . aside from this it is a good but not great lens . it is probably worth the money that it cost , however , i believe that a better lens would be the 70 - 300 mm vr which costs about 4x the price of this lens +camera pos very good rechargable battery pack.holds charge for a long time even if camera is not used much . capable of taking many shots with plenty of review time . very pleased with it +camera pos i have had my canon eos 30d for about a week and after 500 shutter actuations i am completely addicted to photography . i bought the 17-85mm canon lens and it takes phenomenal pics especially using the software and post-processing in raw . i also have a 70-300mm lens for sports / outdoors / nature and bursts of 5fps are a beautiful sound . i bought the camera through dell and with rebates currently this is the best deal out there ! strongly recommend . pay the extra $$$ and get this over the rebel xti . you wo n't be disappointed +camera neg half of my pictures are out of focus making it useless . should have sent it back +music pos this remasted disc is nice with the bonus tracks and spiffed up sound , but the only way top hear aoxomoxoa is to find a original w7 ( warner brothers-seven arts ) green label vinyl pressing . the cd features the 1971 remix ( like the 1989 cd ) in which 1 / 3 of the backing has been stripped like constanten 's prepared backrounds on " what 's become of the baby " , the extra drums and barbershop vocal on " doin that rag " . st stephen lost something in the remix as well . anthem was remixed as well in 1972 but the band was wise to issue the 1968 mix on cd . no hidden goodies on this disc , but the bonus tracks are great +music neg wow , did someone slip the wrong cd into my jewelbox or what ? if you 're a fan of allison 's other work , epect nothing like what you 've heard before . this is mostly a pop album , and the songs that could have been saved are ruined by the awful engineering . the sound is way over compressed and artificial sounding . even allisons voice has no drive to it . steve earl is no match on the guitar for joe mcmahan who played on the show cd / dvd . +camera neg i read other review , and decided to give it a try . as soon as i recieve it in the mail , and opened the box , i realized this was a mistake . cheap quality binocular with " high power " being a selling point . it came in already broken with two eye ruber pieces falling apart . you can see how the cheap glue was being used to put it in place ! it is extremly heavy to hold in hands for more than one minute for nature observation . you will be constantly ajdusting the focus . your fingers bumps with focus bar while you are holding it . indeed strap , case , lense protectors are all cheap crap , and annoying to have it all on~ ! i am taking this back , and buying made in japan " nikon eagle view " 100 times better . you get what you pay for~ ! ! ! ! ! +camera pos i needed a tele lens to complement my d50 purchase . a did n't want to spend too much money on it but i needed one that a least matched my lumix fz10 in sharpness . this certainly did and the vr really works , i am able to take sharp pictures up to 1 / 40. my d50 flies on it +music pos this is lovely stuff . the other reviews say why much better than i can , but i just had to add to the adoration +music neg i found the music rather annoying . it was not what i expected at all +music neg as long as artists keep making albums with only one good song , people will keep getting them for free in internet . nestor keeps insisting in doing instrumental hip hop , pop , commercial , elevator music . if you like that kind of music , buy this cd , otherwise buy hubert laws , or dave valentin among others . if you want to listen to good nestor music , buy " morning ride " , " dance of the phoenix " , " talk to me " , " mi alma latina " or the charanga album " mis canciones primeras " . sorry nestor , i am a big fan of your music but you are wasting your talent doing this kind of stuff . when do you plan to make a good non commercial latin jazz album +music pos if you do not yet own dark side of the moon , wish you were here and the wall , do not even consider purchasing a momentary lapse of reason . amlor is junk by comparison . that said , very few rock albums ever made can hang with those three , and amlor certainly has its bright spots . " learning to fly " and " on the turning away " are as good as anything pink floyd has ever produced . some of the other songs are adequate , but this album does not contain the front-to-back brillance of the earlier floyd releases . it 's definitely worth having , but make sure that you have the others first . +music neg crikey ! ! ! ! what is this chunder ? wait a minute....art students from " down under " get together and make fun little songs while watching reruns of " the wiggles " , decide they can market these tunes to an adoring fan base ! yeah , this stuff could be the soundtrack to " forrest gump " alright . " run , forrest , run ! run as fast as you can from this crap ! ! ! " and these guys are touring , too ? are they touring with barney & friends ? there is not one thing of value to this other than that the cd itself makes a handy coaster for your foster's .. +camera pos wonderful camara , excellent characteristics , has an ample selection of accessories available and protected by one of you lead in manufacture of camaras and lenses +camera neg i purchased this camera case for my granddaughter for christmas to go with the camera her parents had bought for her . this is the first time i have ever been disappointed with a product i purchased from amazon . it was , in my opinion , not worth the price i paid ! the picture looked much larger that it actually was . i wil continue to purchase through amazon but i will be much more careful and definitely return it if i 'm not satisfied . in this case i did not have time to find another camera case . thanks for giving me the opportunity of expressing my opinion . linda sutto +music pos for hard-driving well-crafted rock-and-roll from the late 70s / early 80s , you ca n't do much better than pat benatar ( and heart ) and this collection carries most - - but not all - - of the singles that dominated the airwaves for 4 years : heart breaker , hit me with your best shot , love is a battlefield , fire and ice , promises in the dark . but no benatar collection is complete without ' treat me right ' , ' you better run ' , and ' i want a lover who wo n't drive me crazy ' ( superior , in my opinion , to the john mellencamp version ) , especially if you prefer benatar 's hard-driving rockers to her slower ballads . nevertheless , ' best shots ' is a great place to start and certainly - at $10-15 versus $50 for the more complete ' all fired up ' - - the best value for the money . +camera neg doesnt work even though the lenmar website says it does . i thought it was a pretty good deal for $26. i wouldnt even give it one star coz it plain doesnt work +music neg i ca n't believe some of the songs on this soundtrack...they are horrible pieces of s$# ! ? * &%# ! #$ ! there are a couple good ones , but its not worth spending the money on for the c.d , not even at a used price.i ca n't believe they did'nt put " low rider " on the soundtrack , how cheap is that +camera pos these cameras are as simple to use as any i have ever seen and the quality of the pictures are as good or better than cameras costing 3 times as much . great buy +music neg a terrible , terrible waste of money . all this cd serves in doing is to illustrate what a knuckle-head paul godfrey is . face it : no one gives a sh@t about morcheeba anymore , we 're not interested in who ' inspired ' them , ( poor annette peacock - has anyone told her ? ) . the next time we see paul godfrey he 'll probably be asking that age-old question : " paper or plastic ? & quot +music neg this live album / in-studio acoustic ep is hard to figure . most of the live stuff is selected from bls 's " stronger than death " album , which was n't all that great to begin with . the only good thing being ; that album was so poorly mixed that live versions of " all for you " and " 13 years of grief " sound much better and immediate than their studio counterparts . a new heavier version of " no more tears " tries to please , but fails by showing zakk wylde 's gruff vocals do n't always work . unexpectedly , the bonus acoustic ep is the far better attraction . " like a bird " is the best song neil young never wrote and " blood in the well " shows zakk 's soloing chops in full form . bls needed some better songs before doing a live record . end of story +camera neg over 90% of pictures i took by this canon are blurry . no way can you fix it . i really got fed up with it . waist your money . waist your time . more important , waist your precious moments ! +camera pos i bought this camera for my 16 year old granddaughter and she just loves it . the pics are bright and clear and the camera is very easy to handle +camera neg just turned out ot be more complicated to set up than i wanted . never used . returned it +music neg i like funny rappers who have some talent at least . i do not think that his songs or the man is funny at all . and even the people that i know that enjoyed this the first couple times say that they do n't like it at all by the third time . truly bad pointless music that makes all rap music seem like a joke . avoid this one +music neg i understand why so many people like dido..she is beautiful , has a decent voice , comes across as a decent human being and is inoffensive...this album is the same - ' inoffensive' ...some might say , bland...the tracks that work for me are ' thank you ' ( used on eminem 's ' stan ' ) , but is done solo here and it works , ' hunter ' and ' here with me' ...the rest just disappear into the background like a passing car...nothing much happens , nothing inspires...i really want to like her , but it 's all been done before. . +music neg i would love to own this soundtrack but why anyone would pay 120 bucks is just plain dumb . quite frankly i would like to see your copyright on this item to see if you are just reburning these cd 's and reselling them . for 120 bucks you should be reported to the authorite +music pos we started playing this for our one year old when we were driving on a short trip out of town . as babies sometimes do , she began screaming and was unconsolable.. . until we turned on rocket ship beach . polly wolly doodle calmed her right down and continues to do so . we played that song at least 6 times in a row that day ! now that she 's a little older , she points to the cd player in the car if something else is playing , requesting her cd be played . i 've always enjoyed a wide range of music , and was afraid that after having a child , we 'd be reduced to listening to watered down " kid music " like that purple dinosaur and those australian guys . there is a mixture of classics reimagined and new songs that i find myself humming all of the time . there is a good variety of instrumentation and styles . our daughter claps at the end of her favorites and often waves her arms about . got kids ? buy this cd ! +camera neg i have n't got this item because it is too expensive for what it gives . i have a fujifilm e550 camera which cost is usd 250.00 by this date . this lens cost is usd 95.00 and it need a special adapter ring that cost extra usd 20.00. that means you will pay usd 365.00 for a 8x zoom camera . for that price or less you can get a +10x slr like camera like the fujifilm s5100 or s5200. +music neg save your money on this one . it 's sooooooo bland - with no jams ! what a disappointment . can i get a refund +camera neg i lost the weights the second day of use . bottom line the motion of the water as you swim unscrews the weights from the camera body . save your money on this one . +music neg ignore the big word " karaoke " on the cover and the microphone shown , this is just a music cd , it does not display anything in a karaoke player +music neg dull and uninspiring , listening to this cd i could n't see what distinguished the doves from the other insipid sound-a-like bands that plague the modern music scene . if you like the white stripes , franz ferdinand , arctic monkeys , the killers then be grateful that they 've saved rock music from boring dross like this +music pos this is a wonderful , fun and soothing cd ! it will relax children and parents will enjoy it even after the 100th listen ! ! my husband is a musician and he loves both of the dan zanes cds we have . this will now be a gift i give to all my friends and family when they have a baby +music neg let me first say this , roots is basically paul simon 's graceland , except nu-metalized . these guys went to south america , cut a couple of terrible tracks with " natives " ? , then filled the rest of it out with generic nu-metal crapola with that guy from korn cut and pasted into the mix for good measure . this is a particularily bad example of the vile and thank-you-god-in-heaven-it's -dead nu-metal genre-meaningless pissed off lyrics , excessive " guesting " of other crappy artist , bad guitar , bad sitar ( ! ) , and the inclusion of anything to do with korn , all presumabely done with band members sporting loinclothes and rambo style striped face paint . the biggest waste of time , money , and matter . its a shame that these guys are living and breathing and taking up space and resources that someone else could be using . a real bummer . +music neg on the track , " cleo 's mood " , it sounds like something that bookert.and the mg 's , along with the mar-key horns would 've cut . it sounds like steve cropper on the guitar , and booker t.jones on the keyboards.the sax style is definately jr.it 's a soothing piece +music neg i 'm mean , i know these guys do n't have a shred of originality. . afterall , that make some of the same crappy beats you can put together on piano 's and they just got to mess up classic songs also . he 's about as good of a musician as he is an actor . this country is just too unoriginal these days +music pos of course , no jazz musician can pack the energetic wallop that dizzy could . his trumpet can only be described as hot , and hearing his music makes you think of people dancing their legs off with garbage cans burning all around and smoke in the air . this man 's music has life in it . unfortunately , the real energy to dizzy is in his latin jazz work , and a more complete compilation of that style would be the compact jazz series . ken burns ' collection here is more versatile , but just not as lively as dizzy 's music can be . proceed with caution +music neg i liked the santana - steven tyler song / video . since i found out about the sneaky root kit this software installs and the idea of no free use of something i buy within reasonable means - i wont buy the cd . want to make sure that sony loses money in this effort - will teach them a lesson . i have been burned by sony 's proprietary [...] before on other items , so i will stay away . +music pos i think this my first ep purchase ever - and i generally feel that , despite the quality many offer , eps just are not worth it . sam beam was clearly on a mission to change my mind , as these apparent " outtakes " from the creek drank the cradle are every bit as good as that miracle debut - if not better . i only very recently discovered iron and wine through our endless numbered days , and have since been backtracking only to see that this remarkably talented artist can do no wrong . the standout track to me is the night descending , it has the feel of a track pulled right out of the past . the other four tracks are just as excellent though , and i think sam 's managed to make an avid fan out of me . damn.. . and just when i thought there were no new artists to be excited about ! +camera pos this is a great camera for travel and everyday events because of its small and convenient size . we bought it to replace our bulkier sony dsc-f707. the large screen is wonderful ! the video feature is a lot of fun but due to the small size it is hard to take a steady video . the battery meter is very useful as it tells you how much time you have left . the main downside with this camera is the flash . it does n't work well in very dark conditions for distant or even slightly distant shots . if it were n't for the flash , i would have given this a rating of 5 stars . this is overall a good camera . for more serious digital photography , we prefer to use the sony dsc-f707 as it has a better flash and zoom . however , it is too bulky to carry around +music neg i opend the cd filled with joy till it started ; at the beginning i thought there should be some kind of mistake but no , there were no letters . not even one word , we could n't sing at all ; we just had the letters printed in very tiny letters but no guide to sing +music neg if you work in a comic book store , live in your mom 's basement , own a lot of black candles , and think that h . p . lovecraft wrote history books , then you might like this garbage . if you have a life , a clue , or a girlfriend , then you probably will not have any use for this stuff . i still ca n't figure out how record companies get away with classifying this pseudointellectual fluff as metal . it belongs in a category with sisters of mercy or morrisey . this record is completely lacking any imagination or energy : depressing teenagers is like shooting fish in a barrel . i guess if you want to play dungeons and dragons and fester about feeling like an outcast , this would be the thing to listen to . personally i think it 's a huge ripoff when somebody takes five minutes worth of music and stretches it out into an hour . do n't give these jokers your money . +music pos while i am not a big fan of john mclaughlin or mahvishnu orchestra - i cannot deny that they really had something with this album. . it is something new - not just an extension of miles davis - they were breaking new territory.. . there is a cohesiveness amongst the band members - of course abounding with improvisational talent - this is fushion but first of all it is music +music pos trace adkins has set them up and knocked them down once more ! can trace ever produce any music that sounds bad ? his low deep bass voice continues to tickle our ears and the message of the songs he chooses to put together on cd continue to proclaim loud and strong that he loves everything in life from his dog to his woman to his god ! i strongly recommend that everyone has trace 's latest cd in their collection ! a big ten-four in my cd player +music pos julieta venegas did it again . she scored an album that is not alternative in style , however it is very catchy pop music . her melodies are perfect for a morning drive with the radio on . you can sing along and express day to day feelings . julieta continues to use instruments i like such as the harmonica . and of course , julietas nice character and her lovely behavior shine through in her public appearances . my personal favorite is " me voy " , a very positive song about a not so positive event , breaking-up . keep up the good work , julieta . your songs are appreciated . +music neg i got hooked on tiesto about 5 years ago . heard a live taping on the radio of him a couple of weeks ago and they said its from this album . neverhteless , it was n't but it was still tiesto though right ? well...the hits on this cd are about 5 years old . the build ups are terrible and i felt like the songs were redone about 10 times from other various artists . stick with " tiesto:nyana " ...10130340345435 times better +camera neg bought the camera , charger and the kit as part of the deal . every thing looks good except the missing npf-50 battery . requested for a replacement . in the replacement kit also battery was missing . returned both the items . 59.99 for a carry bag and 3 dvd sis not worth buying this item +camera neg i guess i really should n't complain because my husband won the camera in an office rally . but the pictures it takes are disgraceful for a samsung product every two to three pictures are blurred unrecognizably-where you ca n't even tell what you have taken . if you have found yourself among the fortunate few who actually found success with this camera thank your lucky stars . even if it is a less expensive choice versus the other cameras on the market today spend the extra money it would be worth it not to miss any family moments like my family did , on this useless piece of crap +camera neg the cybershot dscs40 was bought as a christmas gift for my daughter in 2005. a few days after christmas 2006 , the camera ceased functioning . because the camera was shipped in november 2005 , sony refused to honor the one year warrantee and the repair price was given as $111. needless to say , we will not be purchasing another sony product in the future +music neg sinceramente , no puedo entender la devocion de muchas perosnas , incluso renombrados artistas , hacia este musico.. . ungido de la leyenda grape , amparado en el descontrol y la libertad absoluta que encierra la locura , esta coleccion de temas no genera mas que sentimientos encontrados..lastima , piedad , curiosidad...no se , me genera igual sensacion que muchos discos de erickson ( 13th.... . ) .. en ningun momento se me revela como la creacion de un genio. . en fin , son opiniones , nada mas . +camera neg i was very disappointed with the images produced by this camera . i had hoped the ultra-wide photos ( which was my main reason for going with this camera ) also would be ultra sharp , but instead they tended to be soft . the camera has a lag time of about 1 / 10th of a second , so it 's more of a point , shoot and wait camera . the v705 may be okay for posting internet images or enlarging to small prints , but do n't expect the sharpness typical of better quality cameras . in my opinion , the camera squeezes too much out of a jpeg photo by way of compression and shooting tif files just is n't practical . i demand better image quality from my cameras and , when zooming in , i like to see detail . i certainly do n't like everything going soft . +music pos " i have been a brickman fan since the very first album . much of his early songs were uplifting piano solos without much " electronic enhancement . " escape is a wonderful album full of songs you might find on his early albums . there are three excellent vocals on the cd that will please fans who favor his more recent work which tends to feature the vocalist over the piano . if you are a brickman fan , this is a must have album . +music pos other than that this is a proper introduction to the heavster +music pos " animal farm " is a personal favorite of mine . and i dont understand why this song does't get more recognition - in my opinion , the most underrated song ever written ( yes i know , its a bold statement ) . theres something about davies ' voice in " animal farm " that makes this song unforgettable - particularly in this part : ' while i lay my head upon my pillow little girl , come play beneath my window though she 's far from home she is free from harm and she need not fear she is by my side and the sky is wide so let the sun shine bright ' the build up to davies screaming " she is by my side " is really breathtaking . the title track and " starstruck " are just as excellent . this album is a real treat and should be in everybody 's collection +music neg i bought this cd only yesterday.the recording level is too low and i could not listen to the performance even with the volume cranked fully up.rather than going in for another high wattage amplifier i decided to return the cd ! ! +camera pos i bought this lens on a whim to see what it would be like to shoot with a prime lens . at $80 it certainly was worth the risk unlike the many other canon lenses which cost thousands of dollars . the quality of the pictures from this lens is the only thing making me move away from zoom lenses +music neg unfortunately , i forked out $14 for this cd . upon first listen i am extremely dissapointed . being a huge fan of sp for years this album offers none of the harmonic resonance of green 's previous work . also gone are the magnificant beats we have come to expect from this artist . use this as sunday background music on a rainy day ; but do not expect to get the party started with this album.. . +camera pos i 'm sure there are those who 'd wax philosophical over the subject of filters and how one brand is " much better " than another , but for my canon ef-s 10-22mm on a 20d , i figure canon would be fairly good at making a filter that they 're willing to have branded " canon . " it fits fine , does n't interfere with the lens hood , looks clear , seems to attenuate that nasty ultra-violet part of the light spectrum and perhaps best of all , protects the front element . what more would one want +camera neg the first day i took them out to hunt with them they fogged over . i brought them home and there is fog inside . also inside is some dark crap that you cannot get to...and it is on the lens . i called bushnell 's help line and they told me.. . " well , it is n't internally fog proof , just externally " when asked about the stuff on the inside . " that is probably fungus , that sometimes happens " i just bought the binoculars ! ! ! he stated i could send them in and miss my entire hunting season and they would take the fungus out . avoid these at all costs ! ! ! they are a shoddy product with an even worse strap that is plastic and cuts into your neck +camera pos this is a great buy if you are just wanting to have some fun , with no real investment . although it does go beyond 17 feet , and that is not as far as you may think . but , i used it while snorkeling and the pictures turned out great , and i am sure a few were more than 17 feet . +camera neg i just opened my dock kit and began to assemble and the included battery is too big for the c743 camera . the battery must be for one of the older cameras that is bigger . i think it 's odd , as the camera dock series 3 is the correct camera dock . i 'm disappointed with my purchase and wasted the money that went toward the battery . i do n't know whether the dock works okay , because i did n't get that far . this is my second easyshare camera and dock and i was very happy with the first one . now i have to buy another battery +music pos this will be short . it is worth the price of this album just to hear the branford and harry connick jr. duet carolina shout . that being said , all of the other tracks on this album are excellent . from jungle blues to doug wamble 's solo guitar on autumn lamp , with this record you get a pile of blues and at the same time gain an appreciation for romare breaden 's art . a must have . branford keeps outdoing himself +camera neg i love my nikon coolpix 5900 however , the lens failed in less than one year . service took 6 weeks to repair . the lens failed again after less than 10 days after repair . why is the lens failing to open again ? i absolutely hate the inconvenience of returning this item again for service although i do have a paid plan for it . why ca n't warranty be fast , local and competent +camera pos good camera for the money. . picture quality excellent . used camera on recent trio to florida for spring training and colors superb.still learning the fine points and capabilties of the product . dealing through amazon exceptional . product arrived well within promised time frame . no doubt a good deal +music neg nothing like eon . eon is the one . this was a hack sequel with no guts . very dissapointing +camera neg i loved this camera when i received it and used it a couple of times . then , it just stopped working . i have since purchased the same camera elsewhere and it is works great . maybe this was just a bad egg . good camera , but 2 months of use for the money was n't good +camera pos i do weddings , portrait , and outdoor photography and i do n't see any reason why i 'd ever switch from the d70 ( other than the d80 : ) . this camera is professional grade at the consumer price point . do n't be scared by the 6.1 mp . i print at 20x30 all the time w / out any problems . i 'd recommend reading thom hogans manual +camera neg it takes too long to focus and shoot ! this , coupled with the very long time it takes to write to the memory card , well , it is horrible . people who write in saying they did n't notice the the slow focus and writing , must be either paid by nikon or total nubs . do not buy this camera . it did take decent movies , and the size is nice +music pos this cd is supberb ! ! absolutely fabulous . i received it timely and have enjoyed listening to it over and over again . all my deslings with amazon thusfar have been outstanding . thanks , amazon laura rig +camera pos i recently recieved my new camera , and i am thrilled . i have been researching which camera to buy since december ( when our last camera went capoot ) . there have been mixed reviews for the olympus sw series , but could not resist the appeal of this camera 's unique features . i cannot wait to take it into the pool this summer with the kids . so far , the point and shoot options and pictures have been lovely . any person can screw up pictures with any camera , but this camera has so many features to avoid that . my husband and i had a wonderful time taking extreme close up shots of our garden . i have not seen that quality , and had that much satisfaction from a camera since we first switched over to digital . i am very pleased , to say the least , with this purchase . +camera pos the battery is great and it 's pretty nice to own two of these , so when one battery is discharged i can just pop in the spare . it was in stock and delivered to me in a reasonable amount of time +camera neg we just bought this camera to replace our minidv jvc-dvl500 that was bought in 2000. in short the picture taking ability is worthless and the quality is very grainy and dark . i applied the workaround listed above , but found that i had to set the frame rate to 1 / 15 in order to ge the brightness that i needed which caused a very jittery image . the quality of this camera is something that i would expect for $200 , needless to say i am returning this camera today +music neg this has got to be the worst pile of trash i ever heard , right now i cant think of anything worse then this . the same ol trash bling and girls . and if you got jd and bow wow on your album at the same time , its gonna be wack . and do these n***** even know what franchise mean ? what does that word have to do with their name ? i 'll just start a click called ham & cheese and rap about flip flops and thongs for that matter +music pos with a compelling story , great music , great lyrics , and two outstanding female leads , aida certainly delievers . right from the start with the goregous " every story is a love story " , the listener is captured by the wonderful spirit of the show . the seamless tranisition between ballads and showtunes is flawless . the three stars of the show each being something different to this recording . while adam pascal is always great , he 's the weak point on this recording . i much more prefer him in rent , and i do n't think his voice suits this show very well . sherie renee scott is teriffic as amneris , and her powerful voice fills this recording with the powerful opener and " i know the truth " . the star , however , is heather headley as aida . her tony-winning performance will be forever immortalized on this recording with big , raw , emotional , and powerful voice . she 's is perfect in every way +music neg this is nothing like the classic dead you 've heard about . far from it . the sound is too polished . " alabama get away " and " althea " are okay but the rest is junk . i think most dead heads would agree that this is not the one to look for if you just want some of the deads ' best music . really.. . the grateful dead with a polished sound ? ? just does n't seem to fit . save your money for one of their greatest hits compilations , plus american beauty , worjing man 's dead , europe ' 72 and " dead set " +music neg listening to the standards being sung by rod stewart is like listening to classical music being played on a kazoo ! if you 're new to this music , try out some sinatra cd's . he 's the guy who sets the standard when it comes to singing the standards +camera neg i picked this up with a music order for my 350d - big mistake . the class came chipped , scratched and smuged ; tiffen filters are of very poor quality . do yourself a favor , like i did , and find your local camera supply store and pick up an optical grade filter for maybe , oh , 10 dollars more . this tiffen one was so bad that the scratches made their way onto some shots and ruined an entire day of shooting +music pos the first four albums are so unbelievably great that for me it 's almost impossible to say one is better that the others . taken together , they are almost like one long album . the family that plays together shows the band turning a slightly more commercial corner without sacraficing any of their artistic integrity . their blending of styles is a bit mote intergrated than on the first . randy california 's influence on the music was becoming stronger as well . one thing that differd spirit from most of their comtempories was the strength with whch they were able to convey their songs in concert . i saw the original version 11 times and they never failed to astound me . it 's a shame that the only legitimate live recordings of the band are of the later ed cassidy / randy california version . not that the later versions of the band were n't great - they just were n't quite as good as the original band . if your'e just being introduced to spirit , the family that plays together is a fine place to start +music pos this is one of his best cd's . you really have to listen to the words on the cd , he takes you to whole another level . he is one of the best r&b singers ever , just close your eyes and listen to the song " maybe " and think of that special place for you and your lady +music neg agreed , the fan is there , but i must admit they are actually singing well in the actual solesmes style ( based on these samples ) . i have heard superb chant and frighteningly bad chant . this is not as bad as it gets i assure you . try to find something from a seminary or monastery +music pos i bought this out of a cut rack for $3.99. it sat in my cd tower for at least 5 years before i ever really listened to it.i could n't stand the way it sounded over my stereo and i came close to trading it.i brought it to work and put my headphones on and it sounds like a completely different album.i really like the whole experience . i 'm lucky i brought it up here-it was going nowhere at home but i 'm playing it a couple of times a day over my headphones . i do n't know anything about this band , i bought it on a whim , but i 'd reccommend this album and i may follow up on this band +music neg i bought two copies of this sacd , both had glitches and would not play in my player correctly , be forewarned . i dont have any other problems with other sacds so i assume it is in the production somewhere . they would lock up for no reason , this is right out of the box , both copies . +camera pos to all , i just purchased the sp-550uz after searching for the best camera bang for the buck - olympus fills the bill.... . 3 / 3 / 07 was my first day of use and i decided to check all the features - with the batteries supplied - still in use and a 2gb card - i took off for the outdoors and began shooting pictures at a local park - 300 pictures - including several 15 fps and 30 fps shoots and three videos - 15 , 30 and 45 seconds in length . i am not a pro and will be using this camera for sports , vacations and every day family events . no cons yets - i love the " scn " feature - just select how you want to take the picture and the camera setups the camera - all you have to do is take the picture +camera neg panasonic offers a usb driver however no video driver . this means that anyone using windows xp will be unable to transfer video to their computer . when talking to panasonic they just said they didnt have a driver and were not developing one . they offered no suggestions or alternatives +camera neg the wifi is a great idea ! the idea on paper sounds amazing , but the way you had to do it was horrible . it gave you no control over what pictures or anything . plus it was slow . the picture quality was horrilbe ! ! ! m y two megapixel cell phone takes better pictures than this camera . they look amazing on the lcd screen , but once you get them on the computer , they are fuzzy , grainy , etc. i would not recomend this camera to anybody . yes , it has some nice features , but the pictures are anything but acceptable +camera pos i am a busy mom of two young children . this camera is perfect for capturing all of their cute faces and happy moments . i love the fast cycle time . i love that i can take multiple pictures in seconds . would recommend to anyone +music neg the cd is great ! ! ! the legendary johnny cash comes thru loud and clear on this cd . however , it took amazon over 30 days to deliver this item and that was only after numerous emails to them . their attitude of " just wait a few more days and email us again " was both insulting and annoying . thank goodness this was n't a christmas gift for someone . +music pos i never have understood how some people have an inate quality for music and some don't . well , willie was one of those that definately did . it is hard to imageine the blues without the likes of willie dixon : the writer , the musician , the producer , the businessman . i listen to his work over and over again , each time learning new nuances i did not hear before . how incredible is that +music pos when my boyfriend bought this for me i was so happy and i remember i would play this music and sing for him in the car on cool dark , starry nights and i would be mesmerized not only by the intensity of those nights , but by the music she sang and how she deeply , richly portrayed those songs . she really knew how to set the mood for any lover or lonely lover as well . i totally recommend this cd to start if you have not heard much of her music...she truly is addicting once you hear these songs...these songs will definetly put you in an enchanting and romantic journey +camera neg my hunting buddy purchased a nikon 800. my intent was to put him in the shade . that nikon kicks the crap out of my bushnell yardage pro 1000. tried new batteries , tried bluffing , even tried to lie but nothing helped this product past 500 / 600 yards . my opinion is this product is not worth the postage . anyone with similar opinion or someone that has had a good experience with this product . [... +camera pos am very pleased with all aspects of the camera except one . i do not like that the viewfinder is no longer operational once you flip open the lcd screen . sometimes i like to verify my shot with both +camera neg i had a kodak camera for years that i absolutely loved . we took it ice skating and ended up falling on it . therefore , my family bought me this sony for my b-day and i have to say this is the worst camera i have ever owned . if you have any movement ( such as action shots or small children ) the picture always comes out blurry . what a pain ! also , the picture quality is horrible . i will not purchase a sony again and am going back to a kodak +camera pos the sony cybershot is a great camera . the colors and the features are amazing . is very easy to use . the only thing i dont like about the camera is the zoom in and out button . if you zoomed in you wont be able to zoom out . +music neg even as dedicated of a radiohead fan as i am , i really do n't care much for this album . i say thank goodness for " creep " because we may have never heard from them again ( or at least not in the same way ) if that song had not become as popular as it did +camera neg this is a poorly designed camera case . you have to take the camera out of the case completely each time you shoot pictures . i expected the case to remain on the camera body and just uncover the lens so you can shoot . i was very disappointed . this is rather a leather box than a camera case +camera pos my search for a semi pro digicam made me do a lot of research and after i shortlisted a few models i had to find the best deal . amazon helped me get that deal and today when i look at the performance of the camera so far. . i am amazed.. . the camera was bound to be good but a special thanks to amazon.com for helping me get one at a gr8 price +camera neg image quality is pathetic . it generates ludicrous amounts of noise even at the lowest iso ( 80 ) . rest assured , you will be disappointed . i returned mine within a day +camera pos small and compact . let me see everyting i wanted to +camera pos this camera was a great investment . the photos turn out wonderfully . better than a regular film camera and i have kept an eye out on simular cameras...price wise we got a fantastic deal on this camera and it was well worth the price . the only problem i have found with it is that the batteries wear out soooo fast but i think all digital cameras have that problem . this is a great camera +music pos this album was so good to hear when it came out . i like every song on here but my favorites are " still dre " , " the watcher " , " xxplosive " , " what 's the difference " and " forget about dre . those are my favorites but there a lot of other songs that people will like . recommend this album highly to rap fans . buy this album you have nothing to loose because its dre one of the best producers in the game right now so click on add to cart and be happy you hearing this classic +camera pos this is an excellent battery that powers my canon 5d camera very well . although i have n't tested it against the spec for how many shots i can get from it , i 've been very impressed with the longevity of it 's charge +music pos comparing gogol bordello and juf is like comparing apples and oranges . i have seen gogol live more times than i have fingers and toes to count on . when i bought juf i did not expect to hear anything remotely resembling a gogol album . this is a dancehall album . you like it or you do n't , but just remember it is a side project . it does not make any sense to compare it to other gogol albums . listen before you buy +music neg as a gene autry fan , particularly of his christmas recordings , i was really looking forward to this release . but...what a disappointment ! i will look over the dropouts - obviously the source tapes have deteriorated - but what happened to the final three cuts ? they are so laden with noise reduction artifacts that they are barely listenable . and , i know the disc is short , but were the 2 second pauses between tracks really necessary ? talk about choppy . no flow at all . this cd did make me do one thing...go back into my archives and pull out my original grand prix vinyl . i think i 'll be doing a transfer and retire this cd to the bottom shelf . +camera pos high iso and large screen were the reasons for my purchase . the screen is great but , when you force the iso 1600 , it seems to darken the pictures more than in 800. i have a s5200 and that one seems to adjust other options like white balance much better when an iso is set w / o having to go to full manual option . definitely something to improve ! the auto option seems to work much better and i was surprised with how good the high speed three frame shooting works . also , the two picture function ( it takes two with slightly different sets automatically ) saves me on a lot of ' re-posing +music neg my wife got this cd for me because i like the music from the movie cast away . she saw the words " cast away " in large and prominent print . she saw the picture of tom hanks , very large . she assumed it was the soundtrack for the movie and not just the 10th track of 10 on the cd . in hindsight she should have read the entire panel on the cd . i guess the producers of this cd did n't think the rest of the music could stand on its own and so they deceptively packaged it this way figuring most people would n't waste time returning it . if you had it listed in the rate column , i would give it a negative rating instead of just the one star +camera neg attention ! i got this lenmar from amazon . however , it is not compatible with my latest model of sony 's dcr-hc96 camcorder ! the camcorder warns you to use infolithium battery , and then shuts down . that 's it +music neg mississippi and sugar baby are great songs , up there with the best dylan has done . however , the rest of the album , while listenable , is n't all that memorable . still , i suppose it 's amazing that he can still produce a couple of great songs still , after over 40 years performing and recording . the same cannot be said for ' 60s peers like paul mccartney or the stones . overall , time out of mind was better , although that too was a little overrated , with only not dark yet , standing in the doorway and trying to get to heaven truly belonging to the canon of great bob songs . +music pos i am not sure about my baby , but i love this cd ! actually baby loves it too but probably not to that great extent . : - +music pos as with her second album , i love " thankful " . kelly clarkson has a beautiful voice and has a lot of talent . i especially like " whats up lonely " , " you thought wrong " , and " just missed the train " . although the whole album is very good . +camera neg this gets 1 star for the simple fact that it does n't seem to fit my mark ii body properly . +camera pos every picture of mine that included larger portions of the sky would have these stubborn spores on it . pretty infuriating , especially when you got the shot just like you wanted it . yes , you can always remove those on photoshop ( or cheaper yet , the gimp ) ; but is n't it cool when you look at a picture and say : " that is it , nothing to do on it ! " ? ? and it was n't just the sky . any off-white but light plain colored background would suffer visibly from the acursed specks . with this blower , greatly priced ( pity that adorama does n't have free shipping though ) , i put my camera on the tripod , pointed it down , squirted three or four times - and gone are the specs ! ! ! great buy for dslr owners +music neg this is not what i expected from such a gifted artist as jaheim , did he change producers ? the music and the man with the voice did n't go together well for me . this is one i will not be purchasing , it is a serious down grade from his previous two albums . better luck next time , jaheim i was truly disappointed . +music neg i do n't want to hear any more of their music on the radio . it is all just nonsense , and none of it should have ever been made . they are one of the worst hip hop acts in recent memory +camera neg loved this camera the first month or so that i owned it . two years later my feelings are very different . batteries need to be recharged constantly . camera rarely turns on after being off it 's dock for more than an hour . all i can get is a flashing red light signifying that the batteries are dying . zoom is worthless , pictures turn out very blurry and pixelated . flash is also way too bright , half of my pictures are annoyingly " white " looking because of this . definitely going with canon on my next purchase +music pos a great recording . " the greatest bass solo ever recorded " ( as put by another reviewer ) is certainly a stretch , but the album is still magnificent . heavy sounds is a title that accurately describes the music . buy and enjoy . +music neg i think india is one of the most talented artists today . her voice is sensational . sadly , as with many great artists today , this album feels more producer / market-driven rather than artist-driven . i understand that regaetton is popular right now . i would even understand including a few reggaeton-flavored songs to " keep up with the times " ( shakira 's " la tortura " comes to mind ) . but who mixes two genres within a single song ? ! ? " soy differente " flows perfectly as a salsa , until regaetton beats come in . the style feels very out-of-place in this song , as in most other songs in this album . maybe this kind of thing will work at a club , but not for extended listening . in my opinion , the producers are making this album more marketable while stiffling india 's own style . i hope she will regain contol by the next album +camera pos i bought this camera to replace a casio exilim ex-s500 that was sadly stolen from me . it 's the same size , which i love , and as convenient , which is awesome . it has a large bright screen to see the pictures you are taking or have taken . it 's one of my favorite things ever +camera neg i bought this frame in jan. ' 07 and the screen burned out march ' 07. i returned it and the newest one burned out last night - april ' 07. this product needs a redesign - the screens do n't work for long . +camera pos this camera is really great . i knew i liked it before , but i immediately began to appreciate this camera all the more when i ended up with a rebel xt as a " loaner " while my 20d was in repair . not that the xt is a bad camera , it just does n't really compare to the 20d . the 20d has a nice feel to it ; it is fairly large , which is great since i have somewhat large hands . the features are great too . and the image quality is awesome . i do n't really need to go into all of the details , as most of the other reviewers have done an excellent job . let me just say that it is a great camera and is worth the five stars . the only complaint i have about the camera is that it does n't have spot metering . the ability to do your light metering off of a single point of interest would be great - and they did add it to the 30d . +music pos the music contained trout mask replica is some of the most unique , acid-drenched art to ever be pressed . the songs on the album are mainly divided into folkish a capella tunes and the crazed jams the captain and his band are known for . several strange , unconventional themes are visited and revisted throughout the track list , such as bulbs , gingham , trout , and a variety of other surreal , sensously described wildlife . however , if there 's any reason to buy captain beefheart 's trout mask replica , it 's to listen to the album as a whole . i find it difficult to listen to any other way . while i find this to be true , i do have favorites that i go to when introducing friends to the captain , or simply jamming out to without dedicating myself to the full experience : " ella guru " , " dachaus blues " , " dust blows forward " , " neone meat dream " , and " old fart at play " stick out +music pos these guys and this album rocks . just because the songs force you to move other parts of your body beside your head , does n't ' demote ' it to pop . props to the great use of two bass guitars . released amid the misery / grunge rock explosion of the early 90 's , this was a great escape into rock that just simply made you feel good again . this album is highly recommended . kill your television , grey cell green , cut up , throwing things , happy , and until you find out are just an awesome experience . if you can find the grey cell green single release , i highly recommend that for the track entitled ' trust . ' +camera pos started to by a less expensive bag last january ( dec. now ) and i 'm shure glad i didn't . for the money this bag is a good one . it 's not flimsy and you can get in and out of it and the pockets easly . the tripod holder on top has been real convenient +music pos " the guitars are n't loud enough , and neither is the bass for that matter " which is so true , but it 's still a great album . seeing them live , makes up for this cd no doubt . stand out songs : -the city sleeps in flames -the world as we know it -just a taste -my darkest hour -empty glasses -the only medicine ' my darkest hour ' & ' empty glasses ' are my favorites . i know those songs by heart +camera neg i made the mistake of ordering this camera to substitute buying a pro camera . the color and noise was terrible . if you want a great point and shoot camera get the canon powershot s50 while they are still available . the camera has pro features , it was so good they stopped making it because it should have been in the pro camera line at a much higher price tag . if you want to see s50 pictures go to [...] and search my gallery cathreen styles . all most all of the pictures in the gallery were taken with the s50. i am going to buy another just to have when mine breaks . by the way , i did end up buy a pro camera , mainly because of the look . i got the canon 30d and love it +camera pos this is a good , affordable uv filter for protecting your expensive lenses . i leave it on my lens all the time . this particular filter ( l-39 sharp cut ) is especially good for wide angle lenses ( < 24mm focal length ) , because of its ultrathin profile , which prevents vignetting . i have used regular filters on wide angle lenses , with very bad results . although this filter is not multi-coated , i have not found it to be a big deal in the pictures i 've taken . multi-coated uv filters can cost 2x or 3x the price of this one , which i do n't think is worthwhile . all in all , i recommend this filter for canon or non-canon lenses +camera neg i bought this camera for my wife and we find it unusable . the problem is the flash recovery time which takes a good 5 seconds . during this time the camera 's view finder goes black and you cannot use it . because the camera is so slow , we have missed many important pictures of our children ; consequently , we found that for any important family events , this is not the camera we use . i own nikon 35mm slr cameras and i am shocked that nikon would sell this unusable product . if it is your life your recording , i recommend that you buy a different camera +camera pos the optical x6 zoom on the canon a710 is is already better than cameras in it s range ( i.e. non slr ) . however , the zoom takes the picture up to the natural size ; the tele converter lens really does make a difference . firstly , if there are any negatives , they are very minor ; the lens and adapter are black - would have been nice to have been silver to match with the camera . erm , that 's it ! the main quality of canon is the lens , which they always do well . the clarity of this lens is very good , with very little fuzziness at the edge . it also connects simply the adapter and seems fairly solid when connected . the electronics features help in the overall control of adding the attachment . the tele lens does make a difference for just getting that bit closer to get what you want . +camera neg this camcorder is only good for outdoor recording . in indoor recording or recording in little bit low light , picture quality is very bad . i tried to record in my living room where i have two 100 watt bulbs but recorded picture was very blurred . in outdoor recording in a sunny day , picture quality is quite good with sharp colors . zoom works well +camera neg this camera took some great pictures , and i enjoyed it 's size and functionality for several months . i was sitting in a lawn chair at a barbecue last weekend when i was passing it to a friend who was also seated . the camera fell about 2 feet onto soft grass . the end . the lens assembly is shot , according to my local camera store , not economical to fix . this was about the softest fall a camera could take , and not work , it was like landing on a pillow . i will not buy hp cameras again +camera pos i had used some third party batteries with 15 minute charger , that used to die for 10 photoes or so . this canon one seems to realllly laaast looong.. . +music pos joe cocker has one of the most distinctive gravelly voices in r & b history . he 's always stuck to his roots and never gone with temporary fads or novelties . this collection is another classic with great covers from the beatles , elton john and gary wright . his interpretive voice has always been the focal point of his songs , but in dts 5.1 , you are surrounded ( as if in concert ) by his presence . the completely adept and intuitive musicians that accompany him add more atmosphere without taking from his performance . imagine hearing him in live in a theater and you 'll know what to expect from this warm and heartfelt album +camera neg i tried the trick of resizing , but honestly , the image quality is still abyssmal . the images are so low-resolution that only the vaguest of detail comes out . please , if you 're thinking of buying this for someone for christmas this year , choose something else . it might be okay for someone with low standards or poor eyesight , but for anyone who can see well and knows what a good digital image looks like , this will be a huge disappointment . the good news is that in a few years these digital keychains will have advanced and will offer much better performance - that 's almost guaranteed . so put this one on the " must buy for mom " list for the 2008 christmas season . i very seldom write a review , and only wrote this one to keep people from making the same mistake i did +music neg i agree with other reviewers . do n't waste your money . i should have listened to the samples . to hear more awful fakes , visit the producer 's web site at drewsfamous.com . listen to their selection of garbage before you make the purchase +music neg certainly this album offers very little to a fan of the ocean blue 's eariler work . the vocals and guitars sound quite different ( gone is that beautiful dreamy sound ) . and what about those awesome saxaphone and keyboard sounds that made their earlier tracks so fun ? just because steve lau is gay is no reason for the band to abandon keyboards altogether . so , anyway , what does this album offer instead ? harder sounding guitar , angrier sounding vocals , and songs that are somewhat intersting , but are lacking in any magic that would make you want to listen to them after you 've had the cd for a couple weeks . exceptions : " whenever you 're around " , and " slide " are good enough songs to standout inspite of boring production +camera neg the title says it all : one month the warranty expired , the zoom feature on the camera broke , making a horrible grinding noise if you attempted to turn it on . the camera is all but useless . the fuji shop said they need to replace the lens assembly , at a cost of at least us$120 ; for that price , i 'm buying a new camera , but not another f10. +music neg this cd and the one entitled " night ranger 's greatest hits are almost identical , but are different in this way : " best " contains " i did it for love " . " greatest " contains , instead , " rumours in the air " and " restless kind " . the other 10 tracks on each cd are the same . so , which one to buy ? my choice is the one with the extra track . also , in my opinion , both tracks on " greatest " are better than the one on " best " . in addition , here 's hoping that the band or record label decides to release a true " greatest hits " or " best of " album that will contain about 15 or 16 songs . or maybe a multi-disc compilation that will include some rare tracks . night ranger fans would surely delight to see something like that +music neg amazingly this compilation has managed to get together some of the most untallented performances of brahms ' music . with a few exceptions the moto of this cd can be summed up as ' no understanding and appreciation for a musical genius' . the choice of music is also quite perfunctory . there are many brahms pieces that could have served better the bedtime purpose . buy at your own risk . my only fear is that some people will get their first impressions of brahms from this cd. . +music pos ok good cd . im not suprised . ok jaheim may not have the b best voice but his music is good and it goes will with the voice that he has . yes yall this album does use profanity but the songs actually have meanings . i like that daddy thing song , and like a dj . this album looks at issues from a mans point of view . ya know we 've heard the angry woman and how the man did t his and that now jaheim looks at it from a males view . ok yall i know he is not the first one to do this but he did it well . also this is a break from that [...] that is played on the radio . +music pos great music , great band . this is a must buy . recommended to all hard rock lovers +music neg i cant believe there are so many positive ratings given to this sub-par testament release . testament must have taken hints from metallica and tried to attract a different audience . this is not a horrible album , but compared to any other testament album , it is easily their worst . only the die-hard testament fan , or those into commercial metal should pick this up . +music pos i have been listening to this album for at least 12 years and it rarely leaves my cd changer . i played the cassette version until it literally would not play any more , and it was one of the first cds i bought . a relative first introduced me to this album and of course " coming up close " was the reason i bought my own copy . but i came to love each song and appreciate aimee mann as an exceptionally gifted songwriter . it is a great " road trip " album and " on sunday " makes the perfect " summer song " . the mix is not mainstream pop / rock . it is not a 1980 's anthem , but it is one of the defining moments , for me . the lyrics have meaning , which sometimes defies what the ' 80 's were about . the only other thing i can say is listen to this cd ! i am sure you will find mann 's unique voice as captivating as i do . it is a definite must have for one 's cd library +music neg this is junk not music.neon moon is the worst song ever ! it is so boring and dull.and a cool drink of water is a horribly written and sung song ! this music bores me ! leave it alone and stick to rap , rock , or metal.country sucks +camera neg the filters that i got are poorly finished . the 812 filter has a smudge on it , while all 3 filters do n't screw on properly on my lens . all filters come off easily . they are totally useless . i suggest that you buy filters in a real store so you can try them on your lens +music neg i am very dissapointed with this dualdisc , because there is no comment ( worning ) about dvd region protection . what can i do with this disc - region 1 , in europe ( region 2 ) ? my message for sony corporation is : " this format will not exist for long with dvd region protection ! sorry . " . my first , and last dualdisc . back to the sacd +camera neg a great idea poorly executed . the construction is cheap . the screen is marginal at best . but worst of all , it refuses to recognize any of the 3 digital cameras i have on hand or a usb card reader . a piece of junk that i am now returnin +music neg you win some and you lose some . this purchase was a definite loss . what a dissapointment +camera neg decent camera , but not great . shark mode is nice . housing looks good , but mine leaked at ~20 ft...camera was dead by the time i got it out of the water . good news is that amazon processed the defective product return rapidly and credited my account in about a week . net result was one decent picture and a disappointing christmas present . next time i will buy a housing for a better camera . canon has some nice ones +camera neg i got the dreaded " e18 " error after owning this ( naturally ) for just over a year . repairs will be at least $100 , and repairs are only guaranteed for 90 days...even if the exact same problem occurs again ! this is clearly a design flaw ( just read how many users had the same problem ) . my first photoshot broke after about a year and a half , and since i liked the ease of use and basic design , i chalked it up to bad luck and bought another . big mistake +camera pos great camera . . . one of the few lower priced cams to keep the mic jack and the headphone jack , but beware . .. . this camera does not come with a lens cap , and no remote control . other sources state that this camera does not have a leica lens . this camera does not have a / v input . no flash , no hot accessory shoe ( though it has one which has no power ) . no widescreen lcd . it does record in widescreen but no image stabilization in widescreen . +camera neg after about 2 months of light use , the camera stopped working . also , the output format was very difficult to work with . absolutely will not work on a mac . the price is coming down greatly...i saw it for $88 at target +camera pos i bought these for a trip to costa rica and used them every day . they are comfortable , easy to focus , and a great choice for the price . these are perfect for folks like me who are interested in casual use for travel , concerts , sports , etc +camera neg i bought this camera after owning an olympus digital camera for years . i was extremely happy with my olympus , but wanted something smaller that would fit in my purse or diaper bag since i 'm expecting . this camera was such a disappointment . just about every single picture i took had huge white blobs all over it . ( this only happened when using the flash . i must admit the camera takes great pictures in broad daylight without the flash . ) plus , if you used the zoom at all , the pictures came out fuzzy . the first digital camera i ever owned ( 7 years ago ) took better pictures ! the store i bought the camera from would n't take it back because i waited two days past the 14-day return policy . so , i sold the camera and took a $100 loss . i 'd much rather lose $[...] than keep this camera +camera pos this is a great camera . plenty of resolution . excellent shot speed . sturdy frame . the kit lense does n't do the camera justice . buy the body separate and add a better lense . on the bad side , i had a small glitch with the camera 's firmware soon after purchase and had to return it for a fix . it was two months before the camera was returned . sorry , canon.. . you lose a star for that +music pos this is a great movie soundtrack ! . i 'm a passport fan since i was a kid back in the 70's . i have all klaus doldinger 's official releases with his passport signature . please go and look for this cd " running in real time " from passport and listen to track number 2 : auryn . then go and get all his passport releases ( almost 20 cds since the 70 's ) . then you will see why klaus doldinger is very creative +music pos i was introduced to nitin through my cousin who lives in england . she saw him live in london and raved about it...so off i went in search of this artist . he was difficult to find ; nonetheless i was determined . i am one of those people who love music from almost all genres , cultures and corners of the globe . in other words , i am not a radio-pop saccharine sweet loving music listener . i look for music that proposes thought ( although i do believe even top 40 has its place ) if you are looking for an album / artist that resonates emotion , along with a powerful subtlety check nitin sawhney out . you wo n't be disappointed . +camera neg the zipper was broken within one day , and the hook was broken within two days +camera neg should have listened to the reviewer before me . unit arrived dead . neither ac power or car charger worked . tried replacing the 4 batteries that came with it with my other known batteries and unit still did not work +music pos i 've been waiting for this one.this disc and this group period was funky.movin was one of the baddest instrumental jams that i 've ever heard period.can you see the light is a tight jam as well.one of the many bad groups from back in the day +music neg atleast they are trying this time around . still no where near as good as the band was with max . pros : faster and more back to their roots than the other releases without max at the helm . guitar playing is passable . cons : lack of solos . derrick is still lacking as a vocalist . just is n't as good as old sepultura , songs lack hooks and are mostly forgetable . bottom line : this album falls short of expectations . the current sepultura is nothing more than a very average metal band at best . if you like old sepultura i suggest you not waste your money on this , but then again you might like it . buyer beware +camera neg we bought this camera two years ago . we have loved using it , until last week . the camera showed an " e18 " error in the middle of a special event . we researched the error online and found that almost anything can cause this error , from turning the camera off while it has a low battery to having something in front of the lens while turning it on . we 're not sure how ours developed the e18 ( never dropped or damaged . ) our camera has been rendered useless and canon 's only response it to have us mail it in for $100 repair +music pos first of all bob dylan is certainly not for everyone . however , if his style is up your alley this is a classic . you can turn on the radio and hear all those classic songs of his like " lay lady lay " or " like a rolling stone " to name a couple . planet waves is the type of album where the sum of the songs come together wonderfully . this is probably my favorite dylan album and i have all the " classics " like blonde on blonde , blood on the tracks , highway 61 revisited . ect . i 'd recommend this to any dylan fan +camera neg i bought this camera after owning an olympus digital camera for years . i was extremely happy with my olympus , but wanted something smaller that would fit in my purse or diaper bag since i 'm expecting . this camera was such a disappointment . just about every single picture i took had huge white blobs all over it . ( this only happened when using the flash . i must admit the camera takes great pictures in broad daylight without the flash . ) plus , if you used the zoom at all , the pictures came out fuzzy . the first digital camera i ever owned ( 7 years ago ) took better pictures ! the store i bought the camera from would n't take it back because i waited two days past the 14-day return policy . so , i sold the camera and took a $100 loss . i 'd much rather lose $[...] than keep this camera +camera neg i bougt this camera and a olymus camera , both in the same price range , the kodak camera was by far deficeint in quality of image and workmanship . avoid this at all cost the olympus was well made , durable , higher quality picture and ease of use +camera neg cheaply made and ill-fitting , this " deluxe " case is n't worth half the price . there is no handle or wrist strap provided ; your camera 's strap becomes the carry handle . a small , snap-strap is provided , but i ca n't figure out what it 's for.. . the snap is easily unfastened with light pressure , and i would n't trust it to hold the weight of the empty case , much less with the heft of a camera inside . do n't buy this item : amazon will not reimburse you for the return postage , because it 's not their fault you do n't like it.. . and you will be returning it . save yourself the trouble . +music pos wonderful cd the music brings back a lot of childhood memories ! a must have for those who are looking for a cd that includes neil diamond 's top hits . +music neg just another cd of the awful , awful techno-crud that has infested goth / industrial clubs , while real artists like cinema strange and knifeladder get the shaft . worthless on every level +music pos this movie was a favorite in our household and my daughters always enjoyed the karaoke a the end of the dvd , so we searched for the soundtrack . i actually chose this volume over volume 1 for two reasons...it contains the favorite from the movie , " i want to grow old with you " actually sung by adam sandler and secondly , because volume 1 contains the song that adam sandler sings about his ex-girlfriend , which contains quite a bit of profanity , so i did n't want to get it for my kids . i would have given it five stars , but we find the introduction by billy idol at the start of the last track , " i want to grow old with you , " which is dialog from the movie , to be distracting and it gets tiring to have to listen to over and over when you just want to hear the song , which i mentioned was the absolute favorite +music neg charlotte church had the most beautiful and captivating voice i ever heard when she debuted . i purchased all of her albums and played them to death . this cd is horrible ! her beautiful voice is no more as she makes no attempt to even use it . some of the other reviews said this release is the result of her growing up . ridiculous ! she could easily have kept the angelic voice as she grew . this is simply a tragic waste of talent +camera pos this camera delivers excellent video quality . i use it with the hot-shoe attachable microphone and the audio is quite good . i 've plugged this into my hd television and the quality is excellent . i have also had the optura xi from canon and while the build quality of the hv20 is not quite as good as that of the optura xi , the video quality is nothing short of stunning . this is a very good deal for $1000. you wo n't be disappointed +camera pos good camera for the $129 i paid . does everything pretty well , and your picture modes are pretty customizable . only qualm is it takes a second or two longer than i wish when the camera saves / loads pictures to the memory card . might be a problem when trying to shoot consecutive pictures- - but probably would n't be doing it with this type of camera anyways . +camera neg purchased this item in dec 06 ' screen burned out mar 07' . on top of that screen quality was not that great . do not order order this item +music pos i heard this music on the excellent p b s documentary : " liberty - the american revolution " and i knew i had to have it ! it is the finest music i have heard , capturing the heart and soul of the american revolution . the documentary " liberty " was a masterpiece that was beautiful and moving . so too this music with its most wonderful arrangements and accompaniment . i love it ! i could hardly wait to get it in the mail . it framed the documentary ( which i also bought ) like a great frame compliments a beautiful canvas painting . superlatives fail me . this music must be experienced by first watching the great series on the american revolution and then by listening to it apart . this is some of the most wonderful music i have ever heard . it reminds me of the genius of aaron copland who wrote the applachian spring and rodeo suites +music pos joe bonamassa is a blue / rock musical phenomenon that is awe-inspiring to anyone who will take the time to listen to his music . in his musical style / class , i would count him the second greatest musician on the planet - with walter trout weighing in first place . as you can easily see from all of the other reviews , i believe that you will find this cd well worth purchasing - as i have found all his material is . ( after purchasing this item , i eventually went on to purchase everything he produced and have n't been disappointed . ) as with any cd , you may not like all the selections but i believe the vast majority of his material you will . among my favorites on this cd are : ` pack it up ' , ` you upset me baby ' , and ` man of many words' . bonamassa is an extraordinary adept and versatile musician . since he is young and gifted , we can expect many more superb cd 's in the future . highly recommended +camera neg be warned , if you have a computer with a slot dvd drive , you simply cannot transfer your video files to your computer for editing , sharing , whatever . ca n't be done without a series of possibly mythical workarounds and loss of quality with each step . i was even willing to consider buying an external dvd drive with a firewire connection and a loading tray that supported the 8 cm disks , but could n't find one . i searched all over , asked in several places on the apple web boards , talked to the ' geniuses ' at the apple store - this camera is simply not usable with a macintosh that has a slot drive . talk about crazy ! +music pos this is tha best master p album this and the movie this came out when i was and the 6 grade to lisen to this it 's emosional to me it reminds me of back n da day friends i knew all that my favrite song is mama raised me it gots bone , snoop , e-40 all no limit all them it 's a great album you can lisen to it most the way though it 's a great album gansta classic you gotta get this +camera neg they sent me wrong lens cover and said i ordered the wrong one..........do n't think so since i got copy.......poor customer service all around.... . +music pos the original jack johnson lp was my favourite miles record . i also had an expensive japanese cd but all this would not prepare me for what i discover here . over these cds one discovers the original sessions from which the record was made . this is simply wonderful . ok sometimes it takes quite a bit of patience to sit trhough all this but it is worth the time +music neg this air supply should 've been cut off a very long time ago . whenever any of their songs comes on the radio i immediately shut it off . bad ear candy is all they ever recorded . mindless , sappy garbage . even bread 's music was more interesting than this +music pos i just saw this woman live and she 's amazing ! ! ! ! the songs come alive when you hear them ! it 's hard to put into words the state that her music and lyrics put you in . but trust me it 's a good place ! please check her music out if you 're into heartfelt music +music neg listening to this c.d. first gave me a headache , then it made my stomache churn . it is so uninspired , it 's not even funny ( or listenable ) . yeah , it 's loud , but i can be loud , too , if i had some pots and pans and a " guitar . " do n't get this , it 's nothing but d-r-i-v-e-l +music pos like it says in the ( " 33 1 / 3 " ) liner notes : " ...world class chops and originality " . if jazz is your bag and guitar licks get your attention , these tracks will set off fireworks ! my music collection started circa 1960 , but these guys made it to the top of my list in a heartbeat ! if i could , i 'd give it 10 stars +camera pos very clear , bright day , strong magnification quality seems to be good . very well priced at around $100.00.i will know more over the passage of time .my firstimpression is good mj schra +music pos this record is a must from the middle of the 50 's . excellent singer , very good musicians and an excellent recording . this record is still amazing and seems to sound very modern due to the quality of the recording and the mastering . i recommend this record to all rock and roll fan +camera pos the lens fulfilled all of our expectations as to quality of portraits and field of view flexibility . the stabilization aspect is a great help , although it does n't compensate for someone pushing the shutter too fast in low light conditions . highly recommend this lens as the standard use lens for the canon rebel xt +camera pos i wish there was also a photo that showed the backside of this camera case . if there was i would have known that this excellent quality case unfortunately does not have a belt loop which is what i was looking for in this product . great quality nevertheless +camera pos i am very pleased with this camera . i especially like the light meter that tells you how many apertures you are away from the correct exposure . i am using this for my photo class and is easy to use +camera neg i used this camera once and have no good photos to show for it . it took 5 frames then skipped several and took 2 more , then nothing for the rest of the roll . we swam with sharks and i have nothing to show for it . should have bought a disposable one +music neg i was looking to get the dvd of dazed and confused but got the cd . when it was advertised on the amazon website it led me to believe that it was a dvd as you see it above . ( 1993 film ) i had to return it and my expense . very disappointing transaction with amazon . threfore , i am not impressed +camera neg this camera has an attractive look and price but it does not take good pictures . i bought this camera for my 12 year old daughter and although she was happy with it ( she 's happy with anything pink ) i was very disappointed at the quality and functionality +camera pos i bought this as a gift for my mother and she absolutely loves it ! definitely a good buy +music pos thoroughly enjoyed the cd . have some of the songs as performed by other artists , but it 's nice to hear them as performed by the writer . i 'm always impressed by one with that kind of creativity . +music pos immerse yourself in the incredible genius of mark o'connor and his amazing chameleon-like creative ability to tease so many different moods and styles from his violin . if you like cajun music - this is for you . if you like western swing - this is for you . if you like foot tapping fiddle with a celtic slant - then this is for you ! classical ? jazz ? blues ? country rock ? then yeah - you guessed it - this is for you ! this is an absolutely fantastic album - a brilliant collection of melodies that bring together some of today 's greatest violinists . pure genius +camera neg hi , i bought this camera and installed the driver from both the cd and then the web . it caused my computer ( a good , modern , fast computer ) to crash both times . the camera worked without interfacing with the computer , but , then , what 's the point ? also , the pictures and movies were very grainy and low quality . the tech support when i had these problems was horrible . they really did n't stand behind the product at all and to me that 's the most important thing ! maybe i could have gotten it to work , but not without some input from aiptek . i 've never written one of these reviews before , but this really got to me . do n't buy this camera is my advice . +camera pos good remote . can be finnicky at times if not lined up correctly with the camera +camera pos seems to hold a charge just as well or better then the original one that came with the camer +music neg i said i was going to be honest in all reviews , and yes , i kinda clunkered on this one . i hate this cd . simply put . they ca n't sing , and the songs are boring . i 'm sorry i bought this cd , and other people might not like me saying that , but it 's my opinion . i listen to power metal extensively and there is much better stuff out there like symphony x , nightwish or sonata artica . do n't buy this , though , you might like it . i 'd definitely listen to it first +camera pos this camera is a steal . the reviews on amazon helped me decide on this camera and sure it is worth it . +music pos just wanted to answer reviewer : " homedecaramel " and his question as to who melissa refers to from the song titled ' " melissa 's garden " . melissa was the daughter of close friends of steve vai . she passed away 5 years ago at a fairly young age due to ovarian cancer . melissa 's parents built a beautiful garden as a remembrance of her . melissa had a wonderful spirit and her spirit lives on as is apparent in steve 's beautiful tribute and in melissa 's garden . +music neg i purchased this album because i am a fan of the last poets . upon listening to the samples provided by amazon.com , i thought i was getting an album that would contain very similar content to the last poets : some great politically charged poetry , perhaps accompanied by some funky beats . however , when i listened to the whole cd , i was disappointed to find out that the vast majority of the tracks sound the most like " get out of the ghetto blues . " if more of the tracks had the sound of the title track , this would be a five-star album , in my opinion . true , scott-heron has a lot of great social commentary throughout the album , but not in the form i had hoped for . i would take the last poets ' album " this is madness " over this particular scott-heron album +music pos for any seasoned fans of the waifs ( or anyone out there with a predilection for folksy girl duets sporting brilliant guitar skills and voices to boot ) , ' shelter me ' will be no departure - -and no disapointment - - from what you 've heard before . the album weighs heavily on the waifs accoustical appeal . the majority of the songs carry themselves without backbeat or excessive instrumentation - - mostly it 's just the girls , their guitars , and the usual , typically wonderful songwriting that comes from josh cunningham , the third member of this stellar folk ensemble . the title track ' shelter me ' is a gorgeous , magnificently charged piece that will leave you reeling , " take me now where shelter be / before there 's nothing left of me . " vikki 's final track ' spotlight ' is a pure gem , emotional and raw but utterly beautiful . ' attention ' finishes the album well with that familliar waify energy and pulse , almost blue grass , almost country , but totally wonderful . +music pos these guys are the best group out right now . every single rapper is amazing even bizarre who is not great so far as flow but probably has the funniest lyrics . this album brought me some of my favorite songs to date including sh*t can happen , pistol pistol , ai n't nuttin ' but music , american psycho , fight music & revelation . my favorite rappers are swifty & eminem but the fact is every one should have a solo album out by now ( besides em , only proof ( r.i.p. ) & bizarre do.. . which are my least favorite rappers in the group ) every song is great even the skits are enjoyable . if you do n't have this yet , you are missing out on one of the best cds ever +music neg there is a reason why you cannot listen to any tracks on amazon - you would n't buy if you could . i read a number of reviews and figured that it was worth a try given that metallica was mentioned as being similar in some small way . this band is nothing even near metallica . i have thrown the disk away - do n't bother +music neg i like to have natural sounds or some type of ' yoga style ' music while i 'm either practicing yoga or just trying to relax . this cd just did n't fit . there are a few ok ' songs ' but the rest of it is either too fast / upbeat or there 's too much talking / chanting . i found myself distracted when i put this cd on +music pos this cd has tons of power , and soothing energy . it really shows off how well part understands the human voice +camera pos we use our batteries a lot . no problems . works as advertised . +camera neg i bought this camera because i 'm going to jamaica and i needed a camera , the video camera was a bonus . when i first tested it , it was during the night time , however in a well lit room , but i could n't see anything . i figured i could deal with that as long as it took good pictures during the day . when i stepped outside , which was very bright and sunny , all i could see on the screen was white . i tried all the settings and still encountered a white screen . the only time i actually saw anything on my screen was when i was inside during the day . i brought it back right away , thankfully i had bought it at wal-mart and they were happy to refund my money . i hope anyone reading this review will take my advice and not buy this video camera . i would have loved to give it zero stars if amazon gave that option +camera neg i got for christmas , it was easy to use but only lasted 1 day then the screen does not turn on , , , stay away from this one ! +music neg sorry , bill ! poor lyrics and only fair production have made this a most disappointing purchase . the guitar playing is adequate , but not good enough to save this material . i hope bill spends a little more time on the thought process before bringing out his next material . +music pos the sundays come out with a cd once a decade , thus putting me in constant cravings for new material . though camera obscura is very original and very much their own band , they satisfy the cravings that only harriet wheeler could touch . truly vast and intimate at the same time , and a voice that speaks to something very deep , sad and lovely inside you +camera neg i lost my hp r607 while on vacation and needed to replace it quickly . i could n't fine another r607 ( which i really liked ) , so i purchased the hp m407. i thought it would be the next best thing to my misplaced camera...not ! ! i do n't like anything about this camera...it 's terrible ! you can take about 4 pictures with regular batteries , about 10 with rechargeable ones ( even with screen off ) . it says " auto focus " , but i do n't think it has any focus at all....not far away , not close up , nothing ! it takes a really looooooooong time to actually take the picture after you press the button . i really hate it ! keep looking...do n't buy this camera +camera neg overall , i was entirely disappointed with this camaera . the packaging and description were deceiving . there was no view finding screen , only a teeny , tiny window as in a regular camera . this was a gift for a child who would have had just as much fun with a throw away camera . i bought it because i wanted to give her a digital that had a large view finding screen . the construction would not hold up to a single drop on the ground . i would not recommend this to anyone +camera neg they sent me wrong lens cover and said i ordered the wrong one..........do n't think so since i got copy.......poor customer service all around.... . +music neg i have to disagree with the majority of folks here who consider this cd the jazz end all . i find it grating , and darn near unlistenable . i have built a small but quality jazz library the last few months . miles davis , dave brubeck , kenny burrell , grant green , cannonball adderley , stan getz , chet baker , wes montgomery , bill evans and thelonius monk to name a few . this guy is by far my least favorite . his playing on miles davis cd 's i have and with monk is largely enjoyable and i know he 's a giant . but this stuff ? . the live recording on disc two was so grating i could n't make it through . it sounded to me like a bunch of geese being slaughtered . give me the other guys anytime +music pos kudos to harvey fierstein for being so true to the jean poiret play . jerry herman did a wonderful score - my favorite song was " the best of times " . gene barry turns out to be a good singer , esp paired with the talented george hearn +music neg i purchased a copy of this album after a suggestion from a friend.....a few hours later in ended up in the bin.....very dissapointing , bland and not to mention boring and derivative ( some people from new york would understand what i mean ) . in summary....not only does kylie mingogue ( i wont grace her name with capitals ) fall flat on cd....she also cannot perform live and rely 's on " gay camp it up " imagery to hide behind ( a very cheap and politically incorrect exploit ) . a very bad performer and a shameful album . +music neg this album is not very good . i am a big fan of life in general , at the show , and slowly going the way of the buffalo but this sucks . i listened to it for about 2 weeks and then it cracked my backpack on a road trip . but i did n't care , becuase it sucked . it was boring , and it had no flavor . not the mxpx i used to know +music pos while nothing in the film works very well except perhaps the chemistry between travolta and stowe , the sublime soundtrack is another story . descriptions such as " haunting " and " soul moving " are right on the money , one might also add ineffable to the list . +music neg this cd is not at all what it appears to be . they got other people singing and playing the music , so it 's not what you 're probably looking for . terrible misrespresentation . i was so disappointed ! thank goodness i used my other party cd 's or my guests would have left......and i would have held the door open.....not blamed them for leaving ! +camera neg el producto es de muy bajas caracteristicas . material barato , zoon de baja calidad , en otras palabras es sumamente inferior a otros equipos que he probado los cuales se encuentran en el mismo rango de precios . kodak tiene una linea de camaras econĂłmicas las cuales paracen ser desechables . no lo recomiedo +music neg i have all 5 volumes and this is the only one i do n't like . the selection of music is just plain bad . there are a few songs that are ok but most are just dull , dull , dull . i recommend going with one of the first 4 volumes instead +camera pos the balance with the grip on is really much better . yes i am aware there were problems with some earlier ones , but mine seems just fine ( knocking on wood as i type ) +music pos this album was released in the summer of ' 86 when queen 's radio airplay was at a rather low point in the u.s. and at a very high point in europe.by now , the band had adventured into pop genres beyond rock , yet colouring their songs with their distinctive style of interpretation and playing.here we find the gorgeous ballad one year of love and the catchy friends will be friends.the ominous anthem who wants to live forever and the highlander themed princes of the universe are gems in this crown.the first two usa singles , the rocker one vision ( from iron eagle ) and the danceable a kind of magic barely cracked the us top 40 in a decade when alternative music was preferred and classics were often overlooke +music pos i bought this cd on a whim after i heard joaquin phoenix was directing their " tired of being sorry " video . whoa ! i was addicted ! i could n't stop listening to it...i had to get a 2nd copy for the car just so i could stop carrying it back and forth . great driving music ! the songs are catchy and have a great beat...i have n't heard anything this good in a long while . i had to have more immediately and luckily found some earlier stuff of scott thomas' ....more on the acoustic / indie side , but awesome ! i highly recommend lovers & thieves ( cdbaby.com ) my faves from ringside are " struggle " , " trixie " , and " dreamboat 730 " . you will not be disappointed +camera pos i bought this camera owning 2 more digital cameras . one kodak and another canon ( a70 ) . amazing product.. . pro.. . almost everything. . cons.. . no audio on video i definetly recommend the product for the price +music neg while i like some of these songs , i cannot understand a single word he sings . i even heard him interviewed and i did n't understand a word . when he sings , he spends all the time looking down , so you ca n't even lip read . i do n't think he has stage presence and i think it will be hard to grow a fan base with a singer who ca n't form words . he does n't sing clearly and i just ca n't get into his music completely . i think i 'll stick to r&b +camera pos i got this for my mom when i got the digital frame for my husband it is very easy to download pictures on and she can show off all of her grandbabies this is an awsome gift for anyone the color and pictures are great +music neg i wo n't dispute emmylou 's wonderful voice and mark knopfler 's superb guitar playing but this album just did n't cut it for me . pretty lame , about as likely as hank and phoebe snow +music neg hey , that just goes without being said . all of their live albums suck because they suck . go creed ! i ca n't wait for scott stapp 's solo album ! awesome , baby +camera neg even though amazon specifically recommended this bag for the panasonic lumix ( dmc-fz20pp ) camera , and even though i had to return it because it was too small , and even though my camera does not appear on the compatibility list shown in another customer 's review , amazon annoyingly continues to recommend this bag for my camera . to add insult to injury , amazon tried to deduct shipping from my refund by claiming that the error was not their fault . ( it took two emails to get the full refund , and that was even after i put a large message in my return box not to deduct shipping - - aargh ! ) regarding the bag itself , construction seemed sound and this might be a good bag for a small point-and-click camera that requires no accesories +camera pos this is my first digital picture frame , so i do not have anything to compare it against . i am generally very happy with this product - it is very easy to use , and i am happy with the resolution and the picture quality . the only downside to this frame is that the instruction manual is not helpful at all , and as one other reviewer noted , i had to learn how to do things by trial and error . i also do not like that when you make changes to the layout - rotating or deleting images , it is not " saved " to the memory card and so you need to make the changes each time . however , i like this product enough to buy more of these for the grandparents this next christmas +camera neg i bought this camera on the recommendation of a store technician over another hp digital . the camera has spent as much time in the repair shop as it has being used . the delay between pictures is incredibly long . the lens / shutter does n't open properly . ( two other family members who own powershot a520 's are having the same problems +music pos cool cd...have n't heard it in probably 15 to 20 years...it was fun to hear it again....funny though , it 's a bit different than the way i remember it +music neg good music but a bad title ! elvis has left the planet but a new king has been born with the self proclaimed new king of rock and roll ken rondell at http : / / www.cdbaby.com / cd / bigra +music pos bought this cd for my daughter , a new bill withers fan and she loved the whole collection ! it 's a great compilation of classic bill withers music +music pos this is the best album / band noones ever heard of . this is the most underrated bands ever ( including fm static . ) and they deserve some appreciation . this cd is a great rock cd and it has a bit of seemingly hip-hop bits here and there in just about every song . almost every song on this cd rocks , so buy it +music neg most of these songs were previously sold on other albums from martina . what a waste of money to buy this album of mostly " old " songs and only a few new ones ! martina is sucking money out of the pockets of hard-working individuals . maybe she should try getting a real job instead of using the average working person to support her lavish & luxurious lifestyle . many of us are living in trailer parks & working 80 hours a week while martina sitting on her a** in her million dollar house making money like rain ! you , the people who are buying her albums are making her rich...what the hell is wrong with you people ? do n't buy her albums and let her get a freakin ' job so she can feel what it 's like to work every day and actually earn a damn dollar ! martina , quit using poor people to accommodate your ridiculously high lifestyle +music pos very rich in music , fully orchestrated and full of energy . i highly recommend this album for everyone who loves new age music and to all those who like classical music . david took it to another level on this one . i myself like new age artists that incorporate orchestra to their music and that is why i loved this album . if you like this album , i recommend you to explore yanni , secret garden , giovanni and bernward koch +music neg hooba...stank...stinks and will always stink . i do n't know about the rest of the cd , but listening to the reason is about as pleasant as sticking your hand into a running garbage disposal . i 'm not a perfect perrrrsssonn . egad +music pos this is one of my favorite releases from common . this chi town warrior crafted an underground release that will bring a vibrant smile to the hardcore hip hop head and even awaken the minds of some of the fake commercial rap artist lovers . songs like i used to love h.e.r and ressurection start the classic album and take you on the road to classic chicago hip hop . not only the lyrics are dope but also the beats and the hooks . this is a pivotal album that needs to be in everyone 's collectio +music pos linkin park are still together and they are making their next album , it is due out eairly next year . mike just did this for fun . look into things a little more buddy before you start saying things . oh yeah , and if you like good hip-hop , you 'll like this album . give it a shot . you dont have to be a linkin park fan to enjoy this record , since its nothing like lp . peace +camera pos the picture viewer is a fun way to carry lots of digital pictures in a small device . however , setting it up and loading it was a nightmare . i spent hours writing to tech support and ultimately on the phone to figure out how to move the pictures from my computer to the device +camera neg i 'm a diehard nikon fan . my first nikon was a gift from my father when i was 13. since then , photography has been a serious hobby , having had a few photos published and even spent time working in a photo lab while in college . having said that , and after reading several reviews about people having trouble focusing this camera , i absolutely agree with them . someone responded by saying those reviewers have n't read the manual . baloney . i bought the coolpix l1 to replace a 4 year old coolpix 850. the l1 's camera 's focus feature works fine in the daylight and works for s**t indoors , especially with the macro settings . i 've been patient and have given it three months . i am fed up . this camera is going back to amazon in the morning +music neg i received a cd , the tango cd ( the best tango album in the world ever ) was defectuous , since it plays alright until the 12th song , but then the songs starts giving weird tones . and the 2nd cd acts the same way , since my tango album is a double cd.the problem is not from the radio , since my other purchase from amazon is in good shape , as al my other cds . the music always stops playing right at the same time of the cd , the 12 th song , so its pretty much a cd problem . i dunno whats the refund policy , or customer service number , its so bad , cos this tango cd is great . i enjoyed it much , until........ . th +camera pos this camera case fits the camera perfectly and the extra battery is a must . the price of the two items together is the same as the battery alone in local electronics stores . so , i look at it as getting the case for free ! +music neg sinceramente , no puedo entender la devocion de muchas perosnas , incluso renombrados artistas , hacia este musico.. . ungido de la leyenda grape , amparado en el descontrol y la libertad absoluta que encierra la locura , esta coleccion de temas no genera mas que sentimientos encontrados..lastima , piedad , curiosidad...no se , me genera igual sensacion que muchos discos de erickson ( 13th.... . ) .. en ningun momento se me revela como la creacion de un genio. . en fin , son opiniones , nada mas . +music neg boo-wop ? haha ok , anyways i bought his through middle-piller distro . and it 's got a couple of o.k. songs on it . the problem is the singing and the overall production . this is definetely a home-recording on computer deal . the vocals are waaaaay weak . what exactly is a " re-worked " debut album ? ? ? i thought once an album was out it was done , set in stone ? apparently not , so mister monster gets to pull a blitzkid ( who changed their first album cover years after it came out ! ) and take the cheezy way out . a definete step up from bands like blitzkid , but still in the cellar of rock n roll . do yourself a favor and buy some good old deathrock from the golden years +music pos too bad this group supported by keith sweat did n't go any further . i bought it for one song , but the whole cd is great for listening . lyrics contain songs about love and such , and i like they way speak about it . it gives you something to look forward to . +music pos i owned the album as a kid.......i enjoy it as much now as i did then +music pos i just purchased this album , my first misfits album and every song on it rocks ( i especially like where eagles dare ) . i just bought two more albums , walk among us and static age and i wish they would hurry up and get here in the mail because i cant wait . my only complain is the sound quality . it sounds like they put a dollar store tape recorder in the corner and started rocking...but i guess that makes it sound more real too . metallica covered a couple of their albums on their garage album but it just isnt the same . +camera neg i 'm giving this a 2 stars only because my daughter also had this camera on her wish list . if not i would of been upset having recieved the wrong camera that i ordered........ . +music pos i have been looking for a particular song for several years . this album had it +camera neg i bought this camera for christmas and it is absolutely horrible ! it takes really bad quality pictures and it has a very noisy lens . it 's a great looking camera but the screen is only 2 inches which is very small . this camera is not a good buy for it 's class +music pos if you like post modern lounge music , you will like the tracks on this disc . +camera pos great camera , only bad thing are the batteries die very quickly it takes great pictures and has some good features. . +camera pos got this camera because a friend had a similar one . the blue tooth feature is just great . you need a memory card to make if you want to take video 's and store a lot of photos . the video 's are not bad and pretty remarkable for a camera this size . all in all a great buy +camera neg after doing a bunch of research , i bought two of these for my teenage kids since they were said not to have the defective sony ccd that late model 2005 point-and-shoots all seem to have had . the first zamera lasted six months before the lcd display began to worsening exhibit dark striations . after a few days of that , the camera dies completely . the second camera made it another two months before falling prey to the same disease . one camera . . . a fluke maybe . but two ? that suggests a real problem so beware . +camera pos i do n't like pink so i bought the blue bag . i had bought a black one , but it was so skimpy i returned it and prayed until this one arrived . i had no trouble with amazon crediting me for the return , either . it was so cute ! i 'm too old for " cute , " but i kept it because i needed a case for my new hp r717. it is small , yet padded enough to trust that your camera will be cushioned if you drop it . i have dropped my camera and it was not injured . it has a little pouch inside to store an extra battery for my camera , not the big aa batteries , but the flat type that come with my r717. i recommend this little bag , or the pink one , even if you do n't like pink...or blue . they are well cushioned and snug , but not too snug you think they will tear . the are sturdy and have nice shoulder straps and magnet closures +camera neg there is currently a known issue with many of the sony camcorders . this is being called the " black screen of death " . what happens is that the camera works great for 1-2 years then the ccd goes out like a light . the camera will not take video again . sony is evasive if not downright deceitful about this issue when you call tech support . the fact is sony does not stand behind their product . if this happens to you , sony will not own the defect and you will be out hundreds of dollars . there is a lengthy thread on cnet on this issue . search for sony black screen . wishing you luck in the purchase of your ( not sony ) video camera , scot +music neg camera obscura is similar , in an inferior manner , to nico , of the velvet underground & nico . the band makes pleasantly dull " chamber pop " in the vein of belle & sebastian and all those other similar bands to emerge over the last few years . even their name is ripped off of nico 's last studio album , camera obscura . but , as i said before , camera obscura is much worse than nico . if you want to hear what music like this was meant to sound like , pick up " chelsea girl , " nico 's first solo album +camera pos very well made . once you are holding it you will feel the price was quite low for a product this solid and well designed . +camera neg i bought it for my 18-55 ef-s , and it looks like it is not very efficient - but i guess it is normal for a 18mm ( x 1.6 ) . i would have prefered a " tulip " design like those of sigma +camera pos i highly recommend this super wide angle lens for anyone wanting to take landscape pictures , buildings or lots of other stuff ! it is so different than the standard kit lens ( 18-55 ) . you wo n't be sorry when you start learning all the possibilities of the extraordinary lens +camera neg this cable did not fit my camera as stated . because of the cost factor , i chose not to return it . the shipping was more than the cable was worth +music pos buy it . now . stop reading . are you still reading ? ? ? ? okay , so i 'll tell you my reason why . reason ( s ) why . 5.1 sound . dts . different ( some versions better to my ears / psyche ) than the cd . flavor . beautiful production . did i mention dts - you gotta hear this in dts . and she and her band deserve and have earned every penny you could spend on her ( gratuitously inciting flaming ) . i am just hoping that she will give us the opportunity to have dvd 's covering her ' girl in the other room ' and her ' from this moment on' . +music neg i do not like parker 's style at all . i ca n't really say anything else . it is all in the way you format a song , and i just do n't like parker +music pos the music here frequently reminded me of pagan 's mind with a touch of porcupine tree and flashes of iron maiden . a fantastic mixture of 1970s progressive rock bands such as yes and kansas molded with european-style power metal and brazilian folk music . while this can be extremely interesting there are a few moments here and there that do n't quite mesh . in actuality i give the cd 4.5 stars for its superb songcraft and inspired , sometimes flawed ambition . but as an overall package , this special edition of " temple of shadows " is an excellent place for newcomers as the bonus dvd holds a concert in 5.1 surround sound that is loaded with songs from their back catalog . this is a great album filled with high quality progressive power metal and a dvd concert that gives a taste of their other albums ( not to mention it 's just plain fun to watch as the band members are clearly enjoying themselves , smiling throughout the show ) . highly recommended . +music neg it seems that other than a song or two , fall out boy forgot their guitar's . very disappointing and slow paced +music pos this is truly one of the great jazz albums of all time . surprisingly , evans ' introspective style and cannonball 's soulful approach meld together perfectly . perhaps this is testament to just how hugely talented these men are . both the technical skill and pure musicmanship displayed on this record is just amazing . i 've owned this cd for over 10 years now and still find so much to listen to in these recordings . highlights are the amazing " waltz for debby " and earl zindars ' waltz " elsa " , easily one of the most beautiful songs ever written , in my opinion . you simply cannot go wrong with this cd +camera pos because of it 's non-intrusive red lighting , and especially because of its size and brightness control , this is the perfect little light to bring out in to the field for observing . one caution ; make sure you have the lanyard securely around your wrist , especially if you 're shining the light down a tube to collimate . one slip , and it 'll be headed toward your primary +camera pos the changer performs perfectly . i was surprised that the price was so high for such a simple gadget . the only other drawback is that the cord is not as long as the original , about one foot shorter . other than that , it is fine . i gave my original changer to my daughter , whose charger died just before leaving the country +camera neg i have an r717 camera . i bought the dock too . each one comes with a battery and the batteries look identical . hp labels both as an r07 battery but the l1812a has squared edges running logitudinally and this feature makes it very difficult to remove from the camera . the other battery is the l1812b and is identical in every way except its edges are rounded and that makes enough difference to allow it to easily slide out of the camera . i bought a " clone " battery ( not hp ) and its edges are rounded too . maybe hp could explain the difference . just thought you would like to know +camera neg this kit is just junk . the " deluxe blower brush " is a cheap plastic blower in the tiniest size . there is a " tweezers " that is just folded aluminum sheet metal - there 's no way that is getting anywhere near my cameras . there are a few sheets of lense tissue and a few swabs to use with the cleaning solution . the " lintless cleaning cloth " is an about 3 " x 5 " piece of something akin to reusable paper towels that you 'll use about three times and then throw away . this kit is not worth buying at any price , because it 's not worth the shipping charges +camera pos like others i have compared it in a scuba diving trip to the kodak max sport and this one had a few advantages : 1. film winded at greater depth . 2. the pictures came out clearer - not grainy and with better colors . do n't expect too much of it at depths below 8 meters since light wo n't be enough ( i used it on a bright summer day in the red sea ) . even at shallower depths colors turn blue / green without use of flash . i have taken it down to depth of 35 meters and the camera was fine , but would n't take pictures at depths below 20 meters . the pictures i took at shallow depth came out excellent +music neg i really liked this when it came ut on vinyl , but in retrospect , it was the cause , not the music . b . raitt is grand , g nash with an excellant cathedral , j c young , and the highlight to me we almost lost detroit by the great gil scott-heron . but the second disc is second rate . edit the filler and it rates higher +camera neg in my experience , this camera takes great pictures , but the zoom lens is so delicate that it breaks easily . it stops extending and just makes a clicking noise . this happened to me when the camera accidentally turned on while in my pants pocket rendering the camera unusable . my brother and two of my friends experienced a similar problem with their ex-s500 after they accidentally dropped the camera while the lens was extended . i would recommend looking into another camera that is not so delicate +music pos great cd for young and old alike . the music puts a smile on your face each time you listen to it . i have it on in my car and it keeps me in a good mood at all times +camera pos i gave this monopod to my boyfriend , as a gift , and it 's been perfect for his use . he videotapes his kids 's baseball and softball games , and was tired of holding the camcorder for so long . he did n't want to deal with a bulky tripod when he was getting up and down , so a monopod seemed like a great idea . he has loved it ! ! he says it keeps the camera very steady and it 's very easy to change the height so he can use it sitting or standing . he 's no professional , but he uses his camcorder a lot , and he 'll be happily using the monopod for a long time +camera neg " lens error , restart camera " message appears today ( mar 26 ) after buying production on amazon on feb 20 , 07. when i searched google for this error message saw thousands of canon users having similar error / e18 error with older and newer version of the canon . i have tried panasonic and sonys before and never had an issue . i dread that canon customer service is going to waste my hours in getting a replacement and ultimately may end up charging me over a 100 for repairs like they have done to other users ( after reading user feedback on web ) +camera neg hp is selling this bag for $30 bucks , so when i found it here for $10 less i could n't let this " deal " pass me by.. . however when i received the bag , i wished i had.. . the color is less vibrant , it 's cheap , poor quality , plus hp is n't embroidered on the bag.. . walk away from this bag and get the blue and black hp bag instead , it costs a little bit more but it 's well worth it ! ! +music pos i just saw the movie and throughly enjoyed the performance by all the actors involved . kevin spacey has a velvety , smooth voice . i was surprised to learn his background is in musicals . he has a beautiful voice and in this movie , it rocks ! ! ! love the music ! i highly recommend you buying the cd and the dvd +camera pos other than the months of waiting for nikon to deliver them to amazon for shipping , the battery itself in a good deal . they work well , charge up easy and hold their charge nicely . priced well , they cost less than the same type battery than canon or sony . i bought them for a d80 and the older en-el3a would not fit . of course i had 10 of the older batteries for my d70s and was rather surprised when they did n't fit the d80. basically the same size and shape , but keyed differently . i was also surprised to find the 3e would fit in the d70s , meaning they are backward compatable . +camera pos this digital camera is awesome . i have no problem with the batteries . i made sure i put the good batteries in ( no cheap ones ) . i looked at purchasing a canon and a hp but the features it had on this one was outstanding and for the price . i purchased this camera with the 1gb card with it . i ca n't wait to start using it when i go to san diego in march.... . awesome digital camera..... . you wo n't be sorry on this purchase.. . +music pos this 1989 debut album from this texas sleaze metal outfit is chocked full of great vocals from jason mcmaster , catchy guitar riffs , and generally a collection of feel good tunes about getting drunk and having a good time.it fits quite nicely in my cd collection in the " d " column next to the dirty looks cd.i thought " scared " was the best song on here along with the opener , " teasin pleasin " and " queen of the nile " but i liked all of them.the best way to describe dangerous toys is that it has a heavy guns n roses sound with a poppier edge to it.it 's too bad they never made a good album after this one and dangerous toys would never get to this level again.if you want late 80 's hard rock / metal without the spandex and the makeup , this debut album is highly recommended.nothing fancy , just good old fashioned rock and roll +camera neg when i tried to install the software , my antivirus said it was infected . i tried to install on a different machine with a different antivirus program and got the same result . i e-mailed celestron over a week ago and no reply . +music pos released is the kind of album you put in , kick your feet up with a good beverage , and head off to someplace on the silverscreen of your mind that is pure tranquility . oster 's trumpet echoes on long after the music is off . here 's hoping there 's more from this new and amazing artist +camera neg so i saw that this product got 5 stars , so i ordered it......when i got it , its like " um.. . is that it ? ? ? " it 's really cute , and really well made , but it has no where to hold my usb cord or memory cards.. . also , there is no hp embroidered in the front like the picture has it , also , the strap that i got is really cracked and does not look good at all.. . other than that , it 's cute , but not the best out there . +camera pos well , this lens does work wonderfully to expand your angle for better shots , but if you do n't have good lighting , you end up with pictures that are worthless . i suggest never using this in poor indoor lighting as the flash that comes on the dx6490 does not clear the top of the wide angle lens and therefore becomes useless . best for outdoor shots or areas where overhead and backlighting are sufficient enough to take pictures without the use of a flash . plan ahead before just attatching the lens and taking pictures . also remember that because you ca n't use the flash option , you will need to stabilize the camera better to avoid blurry shots . otherwise , this lens is excellent . it fits easily into my camera bag , is simple to attach ( with the lens converter of course ) and takes great shots without the fisheye effect . other than the inability to use my flash with the lens , i think it is great +camera pos i have no complaints . i have had this camera for over a year and a half and it has been reliable , fast , and gives me crisp , quality photos ! the only option i wish this camera had was a better stabilization mode to prevent blurred pictures , but the software edits the blur without reducing the quality . blurry pictures are not a problem as long as you know how to aim and shoot . everyone loves playing with my camera because it has many cool features to make your photos fun ! i highly recommend this camera ( especially to beginners or for those who just want a simple camera that can capture those precious moments , with high quality photos ) . excellent camera overall ! ; +music neg what a shame . c.a. was such a talented and beautiful young woman but apparently got some horrible career advice . maybe she wanted to be this way , but most likely , it was a manager , or record company trying to create a even more slutty successor to britney spears . more is not always better , and in this case , it is definitely worse . hopefully , she banked her $$ , cuz i ca n't imagine that she 'll ever recover from this debacle . that would be as likely as a porn star trying to make it in hollywood . very sad +camera pos for the price and quality i rated this lenses with 5 stars . if you really want to see how good this lens are see the photos i took in europe . i too around 5000 photos . i posted a few on the web ( see link below ) . for the price i recommend this lens as walk around lens . the zoom is pretty usefull they are very realiable and ( almost ) very sharp . get this lens instead of the kit lens ( 18-55 mm ) until you are ready to spend more . here are some of my pictures taken in europe with this lens ( images have been compressed ) : http : / / www.laplazita.net / europa / +camera neg it fits in the s1 , but it does n't always charge - - the contacts arent the same size as the oem version . when it does n't charge i just re-insert the batter and it works , but its sort of a bummer +music neg i saw the movie and liked the songs in it . i ordered the soundtrack from the movie , but it was not the soundtrack . they have a dubbed another person in on ike 's part . all the songs from the movie were not on the soundtrack and some other of tina 's were included . i feel that if it is going to be advertised as a soundtrack then it should be a true soundtrack . i was disappointed . +music neg this album is so boring in most places . i do n't know where keith sweat 's head was at . it does n't keep your attention on the second half . keep it comin ' was okay , but the other songs keith produced as well as joe public were lousy . he was smart to include there you go from new jack city , but the songs before and after it are so bland , it seemed like the formula that worked for keith sweat 's first two albums did n't work here . i fell to sleep while hearing the album 's second half- -how can anyone create such dull songs on here ? sweat 's trademark whining just does not blend with these songs . if he had wanted to , he would have given these songs to usher instead of singing them himself- -they 'd be better under him ( usher ) . but i warn you , do n't get this album- -it 's going to let you down +camera pos case is pretty much what you see...i have no complaints . = ) the case protects my camera very well +camera pos for the money , you absolutely ca n't beat this lens . it 's very fast and sharp . not fast to focus , but what do you expect at $70 ? i have four lenses , some costing 4x 's as much as this one...yet i use this one the most . anyone looking to step up from the kit lens , or anyone looking to buy a camera body w / out the kits lens should look to buy this lens +music neg made another bull**** album . honestly i did n't hear this whole album . about 5 years ago i was ridin wit one of my boys and he played this cd . oh my god for the first time in my life i wished i was deaf . i see the reason why her albums sell though . cause its her looks and nothin else . she 's not ugly at all to me . she just ca n't sing . but she can livin up a crowd . i 'm just waitin to see her and 50 cent doin a song together , two of the worst people in music , millionaires . go figure +camera pos holds all my lenses , camera body , remote , card reader , etc.. . with room to spare . compares to bags costing 3 times more . +camera pos good camera for the $129 i paid . does everything pretty well , and your picture modes are pretty customizable . only qualm is it takes a second or two longer than i wish when the camera saves / loads pictures to the memory card . might be a problem when trying to shoot consecutive pictures- - but probably would n't be doing it with this type of camera anyways . +music neg but for " the drugs do n't work , " which is marginal at best , this album is boring...cookie-cutter , nothing original +music neg bits of beatles , zappa , queen , ( herman 's hermits ? ) , may be laudable in intent but reveals the crucial difference between an original musical mind and a talented imitator . elfman 's themes are good but his songs have some of the same faults as your normal musical pieces , they have fairly banal , repetitive lyrics and are cut and paste music . has the creepy competence of a dave grusin album . if you like that you 'll be ok here +music neg i am a huge fan of elvis costello and ran to the shop as soon as i read the great reviews of this album , what a mistake ! ! ! very few of the arrangements offer an improvement over the original version . the cardboard cut salsa montuno of ' clubland ' sounds as classy and natural as a plastic flamingo and the wonderful ska sound of ' watching the detectives ' is lost in a jazz arrangement that does n't offer much to the melody . elvis ' voice is not suited the long sustained notes of ' almost blue ' and most of the songs . it worked well on his ' juliet letters ' album because the brodsky quartet played for his style but with the clean and crisp sound of the metropole orkest it is just painful . for me , ' hora decubitus ' is the only song worth listening from this musical jumble +camera neg i bought a 743 for the wife for christmas . i had a 6330 that i was very happy with . so a 743 should be better right ? every time that she went to use it the batteries were dead . we finally figured out that a new set would go dead in two days without ever turning it on ! after several e mails they told me to call service . i got someone in india that could not understand me and i had a really hard time figuring out what he was saying . they made it very dificult to get it sent in . i sent it in today , but i do not expect much from the example that their service has done so far . i hope it comes back at least . +music pos a true musical genius . take a blow get a zyr voduski and snapple lemonade and let the music cover you up . powerplus from the 70 's and 80's . tight lyrics and pop masterpiece arangements . go todd go +camera pos easy to learn , takes very good photos in well-lighted areas but you do need to use the flash for dimmer environments - its low-light capabilities are n't that great . very fast readiness time from the moment you switch on the camera - a bit slow to recharge from a flash , though , and there 's a bit of a lag when you press the shutter button to when the photo is actually taken ( not so great for fast action shots , even though it touts a " sports " mode ) . it 's a good beginner 's camera , a good pocket-style camera , but certainly not to be mistaken for a high-end unit . +camera neg the camera case only works if you wear a belt- - there is no clip on . the case itself holds only the camera , not even space for a spare battery or memory card . ( i 've heard the case will darken your camera , but i did n't end up using the case ) . the neck strap is not useful , it 's too long . at ' 34 inches , if you 're not careful you could swing your camera into something and break it . ( the canon camera rocks , however . +music neg hey folks , this is brilliant and all , like the articles say , but what they do n't mention is that it 's impossible to listen to . there are no verses , choruses , or even beats to speak of . there are no songs . it 's just a sound collage or something , from start to finish . the booklet prints lyrics but i could n't find ' em . this music is too brilliant for its own good . and you can forget about using it as party or background music . jdub 's other offerings are much better +camera pos this is a great camera . plenty of resolution . excellent shot speed . sturdy frame . the kit lense does n't do the camera justice . buy the body separate and add a better lense . on the bad side , i had a small glitch with the camera 's firmware soon after purchase and had to return it for a fix . it was two months before the camera was returned . sorry , canon.. . you lose a star for that +music pos the debut release entitled " breathe " by artist called blue stone is one of the best new age albums that i 've heard in years ! i would even go as to say that it is even better than any of amethystiums albums . " i am " is heavenly and " contact " is an eerie number that is destined to be a future classic ! +music neg rhymefest is an ok rapper and the first two joints are bumping . man , i thought i was in for a classic hip hop album , it was like the lakers were ahead by 30 points then all of a sudden the other team caught up and eventually won the game because after that it was just wack track after wack track . i admire his thought provoking lyrics but if the beat ai n't hittin i could care less what you 're rapping about . rhymefest used so many r&b singers i thought i was listening to some old new edition or after 7 joints not that i do n't like those singers but i do n't want to hear that on no hip hop album . if you want to hear some real chicago hip hop check out all natural the best besides common to ever come from the city of wind +camera pos unlike many reviewers i am not diver . i bought this to for the peace of mind that my camera would n't get ruined taking pictures of my son at the water park , pool , and beach . this equipment exceeded my expectations with always clear photo and underwater flash . this case has out lived an s400 and s500. well worth the $170 price tag +camera neg the leather case has a magnetc latch , the magnetic force is strong enough for an sd card to stick onto it . i have not lost any images yet and the camera has not gone haywire , but i decided not to chance it . i am surprised that canon cautions against placing the camera in strong magnetic fields in their user guide yet produce an accesory with this feature ! although constructed of fine leather , the case is also very bulky , making the tiny slim elph twice as thick and too big to fit into a pocket or purse . the neck strap is ok , it looks metallic but is wrapped inside a clear plastic tubing , making it look quite cheap and stiff , again increasing the bulk of the camera . the battery works fine , but the two other accessories are not worth the extra money +music neg garbage metal - music for the american mainstream to feed on . i saw them open for slayer about 4-5 years back , and they had about 5 guys on stage doing nothing except jumping up and down . how pathetic ! pick up some real metal... . like old kreator . +camera neg i bought two one time , but there was no vedio on lcd as opened for both ! they could not recorded vedio but audio only . it seemed that they had n't ccd at all ! i had to mail them back to repare just the day i got them , and the jvc even would not cover the charge +music pos gene watson 's music was introduced to me by a friend who played drums for sonny james , ernest tubb , and dottie west . i had never heard of him but then when i heard his voice on the cd i knew the songs . it 's amazing to me how a person with such a great voice has never received the attention that he should . every song is great but the one which i really like is " the old man and his horn " . this was a song i had never heard . it also shows the versatility of gene 's song selections . he has the best voice of any country singer i have ever heard +music pos this is my favorite ghostface slbum . it has a geat vibe to the cd and you could not get sick of hearing it . check it out and you wont be dissapointed . rating a +camera pos i 've been using 35mm slr cameras for over 30 years . for the last 9 or 10 years i have gone through several under $400 digital cameras as the technology has improved . this kodak z710 is a very economical compromise . the built-in 10x optical zoom is a great feature . the z710 does not have image stabilization ( is ) as do some of the more expensive models but if you have a moderately steady hand and you press the shutter button rather than pound it ( and the whole camera ! ) that 's not really a problem . another feature of this camera that i really appreciate is the manual settings position which allows much more creative control of a shot . check out the kodak web site for more information on this . i bought this camera from an amazon dealer for less than $200 shipped to me . that 's cheaper than a reconditioned unit ( same model ! ) recently sold on ebay +music pos del the funky homosapien has been my favorite mc for years , and this album does n't dissapoint . the dvd is raw , and packs in lots of live footage , interviews , and is well produced . if you are a fan of del , you know you have to pick this up . +camera neg not worth the money spent on it . after reviewing info on my new digital camera i followed suggestions to get the rechargeable batteries kit to save money on aa batteries . i did not need the camera case that came with this kit , and it really had too many pockets for my liking . the batteries did not hold a charge . i only got a few pictures taken before they went dead . if the spare set sat in the camera for a few days they too were dead . at least i got a full set of pictures taken on the duracell ones . i would much rather buy batteries and have them on hand then always be running back to the charger after a few shots . i have had no experience with rechargables before so i do not know if this is common . but i returned this item as a defect because for this amount of money you should get more then six pictures per charge +camera pos this is a must have item for your kodak dig . camera . it allows for filters , tele / wide aux lenses or any 55mm screw on attachment . apart from that the black metal enclosure compleatly covers the entire lens assemby , at any zoom or focal length . this adds a very strong and valuable protection to your lens . if you accidentally bang the camera against a hard surface this adapter may very likely save your lens ( camera ) from destruction . i always keep it on with a skylight filter , the skylight or a uv filter further protects the lens from impact , scratches and dust . if used when the lens is not fully extended ex : wide angle to normal zoom , the adpter also helps block out stray light and acts as a light shade . kodak aught to have this built into their camera as a permanent fixture , but alas they make extra revenue on their accessories . do buy it ! +camera pos this camera does all that canon says it does . fantastic pictures . great flexibility for manual control or simple point-and-shoot use . i did a lot of research before buying , and i could not be happier with the canon g6 +camera neg they say 100% compatible but is not , because is not an info ion-litio , so is not a eqivalent battery , dos n't work . do n't expend your money on this stupid batter +music neg rob touches on so much with this cd . my favorite song is one that has n't got any airplay and , in my opinion , the public missed out a great hit ! " streetcorner symphony " is about people coming together . it 's what i call my happy song . each day as i go to work i play the song as loud as i can get it ! we , my daughters and i , saw him live and he also called it a happy song ! i ca n't wait for his live albulm to come out ! there are fast and slow songs on this cd and will be worth every penny you spend to buy it ! incredible voice and songwritting +camera neg bought this housing new in november 2005.in april i used it for the first time and it flooded on the first dive ! neither amazon ( since it is ouside the 30 day return policy ) nor canon will stand behind this product ! period ! i got so much run around from canon it was ridiculous . they wanted to " evaluate " the housing to determine if it was defective...dah ? they would not tell me if i sent it back for the " evaluation " what the final resolution would be ( refund , rework etc ) . coincidentally , another person on the same trip had the same housing...it flooded on their first dive too ! ! ! ! coincidence ? no . just terrible quality control and no product support from canon . do not buy canon products ! ! +music pos at first i did n't think there was enough new material on this soundtrack to make it worthwhile , but the four previously unreleased songs are so completley wonderful , especially " all i want to know " and " heather " . this is an essential for any stephin merritt fan +camera neg the bag is suppose to hold two cameras , i have a rebel and two lens and cant fit them in with lens filters and extra batteries . i recomend you buy a bigger bag it does not meet the billing here . might be good for a couple of point and shoot cameras but not sl +music neg not what i expected . it was n't as ' manly ' as i had hoped +camera pos excellent case , no question about it . it is stylish and well-put together . this can not be worn on a belt , though , it must go in a pocket , purse , or in your hand . the main thing is that it keeps the awesome camera safe and sound , and it looks good doing it . +camera pos after researching several cameras in this price range , i bought the rebel t2 last month . it has met my expectations and perhaps then some . after recently trying out a friends camera in the 150.-ish range , i partially regret spending what i did . it all comes down to what you need , want , and how many bells and whistles you like . for the money though , compared to the competitors , i still think i made a good purchase . after all , if i use it for ten years , which i most likely will , i will have surely got my moneys worth . bottom line : no complaints with it +camera pos the d300 is easy to use it takes great video outside , and is very good in low light . it also takes very good pictures , and the battery last a long time . i would buy it again +music neg do not buy this cd . he is definitely wack . his silly rhyme style and dull voice sounds lethargic over uninspired beats . as a member of " children of the corn " he was weak and he still is weak . the other member of his dip-set crew outshine him on his own cd...how lame is that . through away any cam'ron cd 's you own and immediately replace them with music by jay-z . +camera neg on reciept of the tripod , i found it wrapped and packed ( on the outside ) in a manner that should have insured an undammaged product . when i opened the box , i found a tripod that looked like it had been run over by a fork lift and then thrown into the box . there was minimal packing around the tripod itself , mostly just nylon bags to prevent scratching , and nothing to keep the unit from being tossed around . i have to wonder about the quality control prior to shipping . also , if you are not familure with how to assemble and work this type of tripod you will be better served with a different model or company , instructions are not part of their package +music neg i bought this cd after having seen ken burns ' special on pbs . the energy that came through on screen in the benny goodman segments does n't really come through in this cd . artie shaw said that benny goodman was too much of a perfectionist to take risks and so his music languished in predictability . that shows in this collection . afterall , where would jazz be if jazz musicians did n't take risks +camera neg i 've had this camera for 2 years and i am glad that it broke so i can ( in good conscious ) buy a new camera . it is so slow that it is impossible to catch anything but the back of my kids heads as they run away because they got tired of saying " cheese " . i always thought the battery life was sufficient , and that the quality of the images was fine , but i hardly got good shots because of how slow the camera was . i 'd put the shoot button and it would take about 2 seconds before the camera would click . i actually sent it back to the manufacturer thinking there was something wrong with it , but they said it was functioning normally . it was probably the most disappointing $200 purchase i 've made +music neg i ca n't believe i just spent over an hour of my life listening to ten ( ten ! ! ) different mixes of this not too remarkable dance hit . by the third version , my brain turned to jelly . by the fifth , i needed a drink . by the final re-mixed version , my hangover already started to set in . this e.p. is for dj 's and masochists only . - tom rya +music pos this guy is a freak of nature ! different but in the same vein as illinoise . i loved it..no fillers to speak of . if you liked some of the more laid back songs on illinoise ! , you 'll love this album . its great regardless . highlights are : avalanche adlai stevenson saul bellow the mistress witch from mcclure springfiel , or bobby got a shadfly caught in his hair no man 's land the perpetual self , or " what would saul alinsky do ? s +camera neg my kids can see better through a toilet paper roll than this " telescope . " meaning , you ca n't see a freaking thing through it . do n't waste your money +music pos this album is a great representation of what spoon is about . great music along with fantasticly written lyrics provide a feeling of sheer uphoria to one 's ears . spoons sound is somewhat like cake but different in ways as well . they are a very good band that should be getting more cred than what they are getting . some of my faves on this cd include mathematical mind , the two sides of monsieur valentine , sister jack and i turn my camera on . i would strongly recommend this cd to anyone that like alternative rock . definately money well spent +music neg i got this cd because i loved their radio hits " bring me to life " and " my immortal . " while those songs are beautiful , they are not representative of the rest of the album . although i tried and tried to get into this cd , the hard rock teen goth style just is n't my cup of tea , and the lyrics are too depressing . if you are a fan of bands such as linkin park or seether , you might enjoy this . however , if you only like " my immortal " and " bring me to life " because of amy 's powerful vocals , you 'd be better off listening to tori amos or sarah mclachlan . +camera neg the minute i took the monopod out of cover it broke . the mounting head fell apart from the leg . the glue they use is very bad . i did n't return the product because i think the replacement would be the same quality and it was not worth the affords . i just fixed it myself +camera neg please be aware of this camera 's shock sensitivity i was pretty happy with this all-in-one compact camera until it had to be repaired for the second time . it 's sensitivity to vibration or a slight bump while the lens is out is way too sensitive for the real world . the result is it loses it 's ability to focus and zoom . it did n't help that it commonly powered on while in a pocket , with the lens protruding , thereby causing unintentional harm to the lens assembly . the first time it happened casio repaired it under warranty . the second time it was outside of warranty and the repair center wanted $137 to repair it - that 's more than 1 / 3 the original purchase price . i wo n't reinvest in a weak product . i 'd rather put that money into a new camera altogether +camera pos i purchased this prior to the birth of my son , and it 's doing the job perfectly . i do n't have a 2.4ghz phone at home so i ca n't say how it would 've affected its performance , but video and sound are very clear at a remote location . i 'm happy with the product and highly recommend it +music pos i love jazzy hip-hop of the early ' 90s and if you do too , this is the album you must listen to ! all the songs are wonderful but there are some of these which are something of supernatural like the famous ( and the most beautiful of the entire cd ! ) " award tour " , " steve birko ( stir it up ) " and " midnight " . enjoy this pearl of real hip-hop ! ! ! +music pos this is jewel 's first cd and i enjoyed it especially foolish games and you were meant for me . i ca n't wait for her latest +music pos this is a very well done record by 3 of raps most elite personalities . cube , dub , & mack definitely knew what they were doin when they made this record . the beats are amazing on all the tracks . this is one you can listen to straight through and not feel any need to hit the skip button . for me all these songs were hot from the first time i heard them . if you 're a fan of the whole west coast gangsta rap thing , you gotta have this ! my fav tracks are " all the critics in new york " , " do you like criminals " , " gangsta 's make the world go round " , " westward ho ! " , & " hoo bangin ' " ...although like i said , all the tracks are badass . peac +camera neg im not from usa . my brother bought me the camara in a trip three months ago and it is not working ! ! it has serious conection problems in the body that i cant fix in my country . i lost 1000 us +music neg i want this guy to succeed so badly , yet he just could n't pull it off . his voice has a great sound to it , pleasant to the ears , yet his interpretation was just not there . his phrasing was very lazy and boring most times . it seemed like he did n't know where to start the next word . and he also sounded out of breath . he sounded so out of breath that i started gasping for air...i had to stop listening . to add to that , john 's vibrato sounded washed out and faded in places where it needed to be stronger . i truly hope with age and experience he improves . there 's no reason why he should not . he 's not in the catagory of a buble ' or connick jr. yet . +music neg i 've been down for monica since the beginning ; but now i am finished , i love monica 's voice , but whats up with all these singers wanting to be rappers...wtf ! ! ! i want the soulfoul monica from the first cd , " sideline ho " are you serious ! ! ! again wtf ! ! could someone please come out with a soulful mature cd , cause this one aint even close . +camera neg i have gotten better results with sterlingtek batteries for a fraction of the price...like less the $15 shipped +music neg do yourself a favor and only buy his albums . they 're much more solid . one love . peace +camera neg this camera has major problems . do your research . go to any digital camera forums and you will see tons of post of the " black screen " . after using our camera about 5 times the screen became black . apparently had to do with defective lens housing or something . sent it to their customer care service . took 1 month to get back . 3 days later black screen is back . sanyo is doing everything they can to prevent me from getting money back or get new camera . they just want me to keep sending to customer . care . sanyo has a very defective product and they do not want to admit their mistake and replace the defective cameras . see for yourself . go to the forums and see what others have been saying . do n't make the mistake i did +camera neg this is the worst camcorder i 've ever owned.the picture quality is the worst.i ca n't get a clear picture unless i focus at one distance.if i move a little , or something moves in the picture it goes out of focus.i have n't got one decent video with this piece of garbage yet . i recommend panasonic , it was the last camera i owned and every picture was crystal clear.it 's my fault i did n't do my research before i bought this +music neg will not run on my computer.. . love the content however i keep my music on my hard drive and was looking forward to working out with this album on my mp3. i will be demanding a refund ! do not buy if you have a mp3 supported car stereo , if you plan on playing at your computer. . it will not work due to ill conceived piracy protection ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! +camera pos i bought this item to be used with my sony hdr-hc3 camcorder in combination the fig rig . it works as advertised . i do wish the clamp portion of the item was removeable , but it can be worked around . i found the remote to be very responsive , as you would expect from sony . and the price was a bargin . +music pos i bought this for my kids because i knew they would love these songs just as i did . forget them ! i love it ! there is nothing like the chipmunks and never will be again . the christmas song is worth the price alone . do n't think about it . just get it +camera pos i purchased this camera brand new for a fraction of the price of my first digital camera . this is my second point and shoot digital camera since i have abandoned film . it is a very solid and durable and it takes beautiful pictures . it has almost no shutter lag time and the battery has never run out on me . i have used it on an entire week long vacation without re-charging it . kodak keeps making these cameras better and more reliable for less +camera pos pros : - reduces flare and ghosting when shooting in bright light . - helps protect your lens from dirt and scratches . - somewhat protects the lens in case of a fall . better to break the hood than the front element . - makes you look more like you know what you are doing and helps keep others from carelessly walking in front of you . cons : - will increase lens movement in windy situations , kind of like a sail on a boat . - takes up more room in your bag , even when reversed they still add to the diameter of the lens . - people take more notice of you , will help to blow your cover if you are trying to keep a low profile +camera neg i bought this camera based on an older 3mp version a friend of mine has that i liked . the older model is far superior . this camera is slow to focus , slow to shoot , and slow to save . i took 5 pictures in a row of the same thing in the same lighting condition ( indoor , medium light ) on the automatic setting , all 5 pictures turned out different , only one turned out clear . i returned it the next day and bought a cannon that i am very happy with +music pos i first encountered bird3 opening for veruca salt the summer of 2001. that band had put their faith into bird and so have i . we fell in love with them all together . this band has successfully combined infectious pop hooks with soul-baring lyrics to create something unique , beautiful , and far from most of the trite pop or rock music you hear on the radio today . you 'll find yourself not only humming along , but holding this music close to your heart at your most intimate moments . you will not once regret buying this piece of art +music neg the songs are boring , the lyrics are plain . i am so dissapointed . i bought it without listening to it first thinking i would at least find one song . how wrong was i to find out that not even one track speaks to me . andrea 's solo album sucked . now this ! i think their creative days are over and if i see them in concert again , i hope i am not tortured with the music from this new album . instead i hope they play the oldies but goodies that characterize them as the band i love so muc +music neg i was babysitting , and the kid was listening to the cd , and asked why billie joe sounded so sick . x +camera pos well , i 've had my rebel xti for about 6weeks now , and all i can say is wow ! ! ! i did have the rebel xt , which was an awesome camera . i 'm not a professional , but i do take pictures of what ever it may be outside or inside , youth or adult events as a hobby . this camera is not for the person who wants to just point and shoot or to have a camera to stuff in your pocket . this camera is for the creative person who wants control of the pictures they are taking . the sensor cleaner and wide lcd are just a few of the wonderful advances from the xt to the xti . the camera for me is easy to use and takes great pictures in auto mode or in my mode . i hope this helps you in your decision whether to buy or not . +music pos like i said i would , i finally got around to purchasing this cd . i especially like tracks 9-12. cheap trick is solid as always . i have been a long time fan and enjoy all their releases . if i do have any criticism at all , it is the fact that some songs sound like recycled trick riffs . i guess it 's hard to create new stuff after 30+ years . anyway , there are some great tunes on this . buy it like i did ! +camera pos the compact power adapter for camcorder that we had ordered was in excellent condition and as described . thank +music pos rare are the electronic albums that are so consistantly inspired . melodies are beautifully simple and soothing , sounds are particularly well crafted . a great album . the drum box could be a bit more discreet though +music neg after carefully researching as many rain recordings as possible on amazon and reading all reviews i had hoped i had made a good choice with this cd . unfortunately i discovered that not only is the recording looped about every 60 seconds but there is an unmistakable low frequency rumble that is very apparent listening though my 5.1 system and my bose tri-port headphones . as a recording engineer i recognize this to most likely be a truck or car passing by and passing the sound up through the microphone stands that were obviously not de-coupled from the ground . the bottom line is i hear this rumble each and everytime i start to relax and it renders the cd completely useless to me . the recording is otherwise a good one and the stereo image presented seems authentic . since nobody else has complained of this rumble , i will assume that it will only bother someone with a trained ear +camera neg these are not pioneer boxes . these are mbi boxes . i bought them and was very disappointed since i also have bought pioneer boxes before , and when i compared with the mbi , the latter one is much less sturdy and even the index cards are flimpsy compared with the pioneer's . do not buy these . also , adorama 's customer service is very unfriendly in regard to making their customers satisfied . they insist that they are the same , that i need to return them on my cost , because of their mistake . they flew from one reason to another with blame from that they have never carried pioneer products , to amazon 's mistake in naming them pioneer . but then their own website also has named them pioneer . anyway , just reconsider about buying any products from this company . it 's not worth it , considering the shipping is outrageously high . it is my honest opinion . +camera neg i purchased this camera for my 13-yr old daughter as her first digital camera . it was a christmas present so i am highly dissapointed that 3 months after purchase , the flash stopped working . the picture quality was good but it hardly makes up for the fact that she can no longer take photo 's indoors or in low light . i would not recommend this camera . +music pos when this album first came out , i felt jilted . but i recently had an oppertunity to listen to it for what it is and i think its a great album . make no mistake , if you 're a die-hard 80 's rocker , you 'll hate this album . the production is raw , and the songwriting is lean and mean as opposed to elaberate and detailed . but that does n't mean that the musicianship is lacking on this record . if you can keep an open mind , i think this ablum is one that you 'll love +music neg this is the cheesiest music ever . phil collins , glenn frey , chaka khan ? are you kidding me ? these were the worst artists of the 80's . where 's u2 , rem , the pixies , x , the pretenders , tom petty , prince , springsteen , the replacements , husker du ? does anyone like rock and roll ? phil collins writes songs for disney and pixar now ! what did glenn frey know about ' smugglers blues ' ? do you think he was writing from the experience or from the heart ? these are the worst artists , songwriters and performers of the 80's . enjoy the nostalgia , but the art which is song is seriously missing on this cd . +camera pos i purchased this camera a year ago ( summer 05 ) . definitely a great upgrade over the original rebel , although the new xti has a larger screen which is the one aspect of this camera that is not perfect . there are other sites that will perform more comprehensive reviews of this camera , but after a year mine is still working perfectly +camera pos i have had mine for over a year , i *love* this camera ! it is so easy to use , takes great pictures , is very easy to use and program etc.. . i love everything about this camera . ps : unlike the other poster , i have not had any battery problems at all +music pos the more i listen to this album , the more i love it . what 's sounds somewhat familiar even formulaic at first becomes totally captivating on further listening . like a girl you thought was nothing special at first glance but then becomes beautiful as you get to know the complete package . this is one cooooool cd . +camera pos i spent alot of time evaluating this product . finally after reading the reviews i dug deep and spent the extra dollars to get this lense . it has been a wounderful addition to my canon reble . it is a very high quality product that is easy to use and delivers beautiful shot every time . +camera neg description or product is wrong . there is no quad independent power / charging indicators . they are set up in banks of two . one light for two charging bays . batteries must be charged in banks of two . tried e-mailing vidpro for additional info on this charger . e-mail came back as undeliverable . cannot find any reviews on the internet for this charger +camera neg what a pile of junk . three full seconds pass between pushing the shutter button and when the camera actually takes the picture . if you move at all during that three seconds , the picture is a blurred mess . even if you do n't move , the pictures turn out blurry and dark . and if you use the flash , you get a lovely white picture of nothing . i ca n't believe they sell this thing . +camera neg after three weeks the batteries fails . i buy a knew one in walmart , and less expensive +music neg wow guys.. . how many of you are on crack ? ive given this album 2 whole listens an it still sucks ass . besides if i should have to listen to something more than a few times to know its hot then its wack . cause if you listen to anything enough you will like it . it 's human nature.. . keith , ummm.. . excuse me " dr. octagon " is a retard , mentalcase , and has no lyrical ability . half of you people like this just cause its so different . what he says makes no sence , and has no meaning . that which he does say that does make sence is nasty , and weak . his flow is awefull . his delivery is awefulll . automator does a good job on the boards making nice beats , but keiths lame ass f***s up good beats.. . feel free to click that you dont agree with this kool keith d***riders . : +music neg i had never heard leonard cohen 's music but saw references to it frequently when looking at other singers / songwriters . given his status / reputation i thought i should get this cd and learn what all the fuss was about . having had no preconceptions , i have to say i was quite disappointed . i think the music has not aged well and is pretty unremarkable . perhaps the style liberated others to pursue new directions but the work in and of itself is ho hum at best . specific example that speaks volumes : listen to cohen 's singing of his " hallelujah " and then listen to jeff buckley 's cover of that song on " grace " which was recorded in 1994. sorry , leonard , you cannot hold even a birthday-sized candle to jeff buckley 's rendition of your own song . it is a very unflattering comparison that pretty much put the first and last nail in the coffin for my appreciation of cohen 's legacy . " tant pis , vers le bonheur . +music neg i 'm not exactly sure how to classify this , nor do i think it really deserves the time . how this album has garnered so many positive reviews is beyond me . my only guess is that some tired , pretentious teen on myspace raved over it and voila , the clique was born . now , i really wanted to like this and gave it numerous listens . but each time , it sounds more and more like these guys were just doing some busy work around the house , started humming some melodies and then recorded them . immature and pretty much unoriginal . and just because an album is labeled " concept " does n't automatically qualify it as a masterpiece . if you want a flawless concept album that actually has an interesting story just go and buy " the wall " . unless your circle of friends has threatened to emascualte you for not owning this , do n't bother with this bloat . +music pos if you enjoyed explosions in the sky 's last album " the earth is not a cold dead place " , and the songs by the group on the " friday night lights soundtrack " , then surely , you shall find love for their newest record " all of a sudden i miss everyone " . if you are new to explosions in the sky , i can only personally describe their music to you as lush , captivating , graceful , energetic , and highly inspirational art rock instrumentations . please ignore reviewers who rate this album negatively because they do n't like it as much as their last album ( yet ) . " all of a sudden i miss everyone " is different than previous records ; it is alot darker , but at the same time hopeful and promising , best listened to on a rainy day or a cold dark night ( again , personal description ) . what more can i say.. . this is about as beautiful as three guitars and a drum set can sound . my favorite album of 2007 so far . +camera pos i bought this for my mother-in-law who is in her 80s and set it up for her . it 's quite easy if you 're already computer literate , and the controls are very user friendly as well . the software could use a few tweaks to make it not look so basic , but for someone like my mother-in-law , it works well . wish i had a docking station for my nikon . +camera neg they tell you tha this product holds 6aa batteries , and works with the 20d 's battery grip , but when i received the item it is for a completely different product and does not work with the 20d 's bg-e2 grip . it has the product name of cpm-e3 , just as stated...but it accepts 8 aaa batteries and does n't even come close to working with the bg-e2. +camera pos the black of this is the same as on my camera , and with all the parts together , this is one professional looking set up ! i am not sure if this hood cuts down on glare / reflection , as i have not used it on a sunny day , but i do n't see why it shouldn't . and as cheap as this little product is , it is pretty much a must have with this camera ! ( s3 is ) one last side note , should you alreay own a extra lens or two . and they happen to be metal , be very carful about screwing them into this plastic adaptor ! i made that mistake and had to put the whole thing in the fridge for an hour , so the metal would shrink , and i could get the pieces apart +music pos some of the catchiest melodies and harmonies ever from curt . lots of cool instrumentation . pete anderson did a great job with the production . this has n't left my cd player since i got it 4 days ago +camera pos i gave this camera 5 stars because of it 's awesome features . this camera is the perfect size for kids and you can put a video on this camera . i love this camera . i think it takes awesome pictures +music pos rap music today is a tragic lack of creativity . its not real hip hop . this album , brings back the good feeling that is real hip hop . honestly , the light is a song that never gets old , thats real . if you do n't have this album , get it . +music pos i 've been a robben ford fan since 1979. each time he offers a new recording , i try to purchase it as quickly as possible . robben can rock and play slow blues . every cut on this cd is worth listening to over and over again . i ca n't say enough ! robben is one of the least known and treasured guitartists of our generation ! if you like robben ford , do n't miss chris cain . this man is also a guitar genius +camera pos when i had seen this camera on net , i had anticipated to be quite big but this one is really small & handy.. . except for the lcd panel which is cumbersome to open always , its a great camera.. . the zoom is amazing and so is the image stabilization to go with it.. . +camera pos was pleased to receive the kodak schneider-kreuznach xenar 1.4x 55mm telephoto lens and at a huge discount compared to other merchants . i do freelance photography and purchased this lens to use with the kodak p712. the kodak p712 is a great camera and takes excellent pictures . by adding the kodak schneider-kreuznach xenar 1.4x 55mm telephoto lens to the p712 , it makes already great pictures even better , and what clarity . i recommend this product to everyone ! +music pos bireli is not only one of the best living guitar players in gypsy jazz - he is also one of the most creative . on this album , he gives us a new take on django 's music that is simply stunning . " move " has a smaller , more focused sound that it 's predecessors , and the addition of the saxophone brings a really fresh twist to this great old music . bireli is one of the hottest jazzmen around - this disc is all the evidence you 'll need to draw the same conclusion . bravo ! +camera pos good basic set of inexpensive filters . nice case . great for a beginner / starting set . if you 're willing to spend more money on filters , getting b+w or hoya will suit you better . +camera pos i mainly bought this to go on the end of the lens adapter for the s2 is . it does well to protect the lens , but you ca n't put a lens cap over it . it ends up being easier to use without the lens cap...and quicker when taking pictures . the pictures are very good through it +camera neg looks nice . unfortunately did not power up the camera , so i ca n't say much else . going to cost me return shipping at the very least . sorry i did n't buy the canon product instead +music neg here 's a line from the song vato on this album : " i would n't be the n_____ that i am if i did n't pop n____z in the mouth . " is n't that poetic ? snoop dogg manages to pull off an amazing feat . he makes sex , drugs and violence seem so ... boring . i feel like i am supposed to be offended . but it 's too boring to be offensive . we have songs about every kind of gang violence , every kind of drug , and every kind of cheap sex . and what are we left with ? he gets two stars because his approach to the city of los angeles is fresh and loving . hip hop should be local , and he does a good job with that . otherwise it 'd be a one-star +music neg this album is waaay too deep and self-indulgent for my taste . being a huge alan parsons fan , it pains me to have to say this , but this was almost a total waste of vinyl , energy and money +music pos his playing on this album reminds me of that of bill evans . i am glad to see on reading all the reviews that someone else had that exact thought . comparison to bill evans is the best compliment i know how to give +camera pos the lens adaptor threads on very easily and i 've not seen any loss in color or light from using this filter +music pos guys , if you 've got feelings for tim , you 're gonna love this one . if you know anything about honest to god country music , this is what you look for . this guy is extremely good and his music fits +music pos saw this fella in ' you see me laughin ' on ifc . good straight ahead delta style blues . this is the real deal +camera neg the eye piece that comes with the scpe is practicaly unuseable . but of course you can ' buy ' the eye piece that really works separately from the manufacturer . the whole thing was a waste of time...i gave it to my five year old to trash . at least he will have some fun with it that way....it 's realy just a childs toy . +camera neg the power cord that accompanies this charger is bulkier than the charger itself . you would n't get that from the picture . too bad , other manufacturers have learned to incorpaorate the plugging mechanism directly into the charger . +music neg sorry to say i 'm not a huge fan of tanghetto even after seening them play live at la viruta last month . few of the tracks are just undanceable and the music gets pretty boring after a while . i say if you want neuvo tango try narcotango or otro aires . +camera pos he adquirido este flash para completar mi cĂĄmara evolt e-500 y considero que es la combinaciĂłn perfecta . se requieren de conocimientos adicionales de iluminaciĂłn y fotografĂa para obtener las mayores prestaciones que ofrecen ambos equipos . altamente recomendado +music neg i expected more african vocals in it. . thats the main reason i brought the cd , i recently became a fan of that kind of music. . it had like 3 songs on there that i liked , besides that this album is garbag +camera neg i bought this camera after owning an olympus digital camera for years . i was extremely happy with my olympus , but wanted something smaller that would fit in my purse or diaper bag since i 'm expecting . this camera was such a disappointment . just about every single picture i took had huge white blobs all over it . ( this only happened when using the flash . i must admit the camera takes great pictures in broad daylight without the flash . ) plus , if you used the zoom at all , the pictures came out fuzzy . the first digital camera i ever owned ( 7 years ago ) took better pictures ! the store i bought the camera from would n't take it back because i waited two days past the 14-day return policy . so , i sold the camera and took a $100 loss . i 'd much rather lose $[...] than keep this camera +music pos i loved this album . strangely enough i was introduced to the title song by gray 's anatomy where i just had to find out who was singing that lead ( alice russell ) . the rest of the album is like the r& b music i grew up with . definitely worth a listen +music pos i get the sense that the fleetwoods'body of recorded work is n't given the respect it deserves . over the course of their career , the trio recorded thirteen albums and yet this collection , as good as it is , is pretty much all that 's out there on cd , save for a few other compilations that cover much of the same ground . rock and roll has always had a soft side and it 's in this area that the fleetwoods really shine . their cover of thomas wayne 's " tragedy " is an evocative slice of 1961 teen angst-i ca n't put it any other way . maybe that 's the reason why the fleetwoods are given short shrift today : they 're the perfect embodiment of a ( then ) nascent teen culture 's soft and gentle side.this collection features all of their hits , some well chosen album tracks and the original pre-overdub version of " come softly to me " . if you like this recording , try looking for their original lps . ( my personal favourite is the 1963 " goodnight my love " album . +music pos this is a wonderful album , that evokes memories of the 60 's folk boom , yet contains original songs . i was amazed at the fantastic harmonies and musical arrangements . anyone who loves the movie " a mighty wind " and who loves folk music will fall in love with this album . i know i did +camera pos i am really enthusiastic about this lens because it is an excellent accessory for my camera at a very convenient price . i add it and use it for landscapes , mountain views , nature images and such , and also for group pictures in family photos . it does what is supposed to do : it increases the field of view while keeping the whole image very clear , and in this way the pictures appear more natural - - a whole view and not a narrow frame - - with perspective and deepness also , quite similar it seems to me to what i see with my own eyes . a very useful additional tool +camera neg when i received the camera i thought of giving it a 5 star because the good looking and nice picture . after 6 months use , i wish i could give it a 0 star . it 's true it looks good but it 's very hard to hold the camera . it droped twice when i took pictures . also the lens is too small . the dirt is very easy to get onto the lens and very hard to clean b / c it 's small . thanks the dirty lens , the picture quality is worse than ever . the battery is very small too . after 6 months use , it can not hold enought power to shoot 10 pictures ! they have to put the buttons here and there to fit the small space . it 's not a user friendly camera . +music pos despite the excellent screenplay by sam shepherd and the solid acting by harry dean stanton , i found " paris , texas " a rather unimpressive film , and the only thing that kept it together for me was cooder 's astounding soundtrack . the music here is simple , yet very moving and even haunting . his guitar stylings really captured the mood and feel that the film was otherwise supposed to convey . it seems to seep right out of the desolate landscape of the southwest . every time i listen to this cd it reminds me of driving along some deserted highway in nevada , se california , etc. also , it 's really nice that the soundtrack contains the story ( " i knew these people " ) told by stanton 's character , since to me that was the best part of the movie . even so , seeing " paris , texas " is not a prerequisite for enjoying this cd , the music is phenomenal in its own right +music pos sidney bechet was one of the first real fathers of jazz . burns puts together a great combination of early recordings . jazz historions note bechet as one of the only horn players that could keep up with louis armstrong . you have to include bechet in your jazz collection , and this one is as good as any +music pos i 'm a spanish fan of soul music of the 90's . these days is almost impossible to find a good soul / r&b cd to purchase . in the 90 's i had to buy about 2 or 3 cds per week . now , with all the rap & hip hop topping the charts , what kind of music could i purchase ? luther , anita , lalah , smooth jazz & maybe , some joe 's cd . and of course , this terrific cd by mr.benson . if you 're a fan of good r&b music and you hate the hip hop music , buy this cd now ! ! ! ! you wo n't regret ! +music pos this cd provides a fantastic overview of rypdal , who has been recording for ecm for 30+ years now . the tracks range from pieces with an " electric miles " sound to an orchestrated track . while very diverse , the tracks work well together and are unified by his unique , atmospheric tone and excellent compositions . the infamous ecm sound quality is even better due to 24 bit mastering . informative liner notes as well . highly recommended +camera neg thought i 'd died and gone to heaven ; this lens was everything i wanted and more . three weeks after receiving it we went to the grand canyon , and on the way home it suddenly quit doing the focus - now it does a focus dance , clunking and whirring and never coming to rest anywhere close to focus . it 's not my d70 , which still works wth other lenses . this one 's going back to it 's maker ! if they fix it , i 'll revise this review +music pos this disc dates from monk 's early period before he achieved recognition and started to descend into a long series of formulaic recordings for columbia . so it 's valuable from that point of view . it 's also a wonderful chance to hear him showcased without horns although the standard is perhaps not quite as high as the trio blue note recordings that immediately preceded it . the best tracks both from a musical and recording quality view point are an extended blue monk , which many consider the definitive version , and a lovely unaccompanied just a gigolo , which anticipates later solo masterpieces such as alone in san francisco . sweet and lovely is in a similarly reflective vein . much of the rest of the album has a forceful , driving quality , with aggressive use of dissonance in places - even for monk . a particular highlight is monk tearing through these foolish things +camera pos bought this remote about a month ago . it does what it says . you can even use it from behind . great little device for the price +camera pos do n't listen to the reviews that claim that this lens is not a good choice for cropped sensor cameras ( ie the 20d , 30d , rebels etc ) the canon l lens are the best and this particular lens is no exception . i have had the lens for less than 24 hours now and am in love with the sharpness and color already . great lens , great color , so well built , super sharp , just watch out if this is your first l lens , you 'll be hooked . this is a lens you will have for many years , great investment +music pos this was not a waste of brad 's time or mine . good job ! +music pos my personal favorite dashboard cd . every other one of their cds have maybe a few good songs that i like , but the places you have come to fear the most has pretty much a solid tack lis +camera pos bought these binoculars for my husband . he loves them . they are very powerful and he loves the way they feel - not too heavy . he can look at stuff across the creek and is amazed at the clarity in the things that he sees +music neg right the people i work with love this band and album so really i was pressured into buying this album..so i bought and i thought i was going to be blown away due to the hype from my friends but in reality this sucks more than the mudvayne album i 've just reviewed terrible distorted guitars bad production off key singing , half baked lyrics the only good thing is the cover and maybe one of the singles are vaguely average apart from that the rest sucks...do n't be fooled by the hype by the press this band sucks so will babyshamble +camera pos i have used this lens for over 6 months now and have over 1k shots through it . it is as fantastic as others note herein . the 2.8 through the focus range is really great . superb . the vr function is really a neat trick . it is super fun to play with . the drawbacks are size and weight . after a 1 / 2 hour of shooting , your arms will get tired . remember to be careful and hold the lens and not the camera . this lens is definately heavy enough to bend / warp the camera body +camera neg after a week the cammera did not work . the shop has a return police , but they did not send a ra number needed to return the item . they asked me an adress in the usa , and whwn i sent it they did nor answered . in my country , argentina , the local distributor said the garantee is not valid for them +camera pos this is a fabulous gift for grandparents if you preload the pictures . just be aware that the customer support folks are not that knowledgeable , probably since the product is new . do n't bypass their software to load the pix if you 're transferring from your pc to the frame - their software reduces the memory needed for each one . and even though the software for different size frames is labelled the same , it is not compatible and you can only have one version installed on your pc at a time +camera neg i guess i really should n't complain because my husband won the camera in an office rally . but the pictures it takes are disgraceful for a samsung product every two to three pictures are blurred unrecognizably-where you ca n't even tell what you have taken . if you have found yourself among the fortunate few who actually found success with this camera thank your lucky stars . even if it is a less expensive choice versus the other cameras on the market today spend the extra money it would be worth it not to miss any family moments like my family did , on this useless piece of crap +music neg thr pros about this album s that there alot of tight rappers and beats the cons about this album is that clue calls himself a dj but he 's a dumb phony who does n't know when to shut his mouth all he does is yell out throughout the whole album saying stupid stuff and giving shoutouts while the rappers rap he nees o shut up an lets us hear the song if u want this album still , go copy it off the net cause the is not worth the money ohyeah he dose n't even scratc +camera neg my hunting buddy purchased a nikon 800. my intent was to put him in the shade . that nikon kicks the crap out of my bushnell yardage pro 1000. tried new batteries , tried bluffing , even tried to lie but nothing helped this product past 500 / 600 yards . my opinion is this product is not worth the postage . anyone with similar opinion or someone that has had a good experience with this product . [... +camera pos 2 years of heavy use - not even one little bitty problem . they 've traveled well under harsh conditions , and they still function wonderfully . there you go +camera pos i have had this camera for about six months and i still find new features to play with . one of my favorite mode is the sequence shots . i love its sleek design and its durable shell . i carry the camera in my back pocket , even in my tightest jeans . this is a great camera +camera pos i bought a canon powershot a70. they say your best camera is the one you use most , and man i use it . i 'm a high schooler , so i dont have much money , but with the a70 , i can attach this adapter ( la-dc52c ) to my camera , and i can have more photographic freedom with lenses , for alot less money . you have to have this adapter first . then any lense which fits ( most ) , can be used.. . good idea canon ! ! ! +camera neg i purchased a 510 powershot in summer of 2005. after couple time of use the zoom on the cameras lens would n't work anymore . i cound't take any picture anymore . i contacted canon over this and they ask me to pay shiping to send the camera to them to fix . +music pos if you are a fan of oscar peterson this belongs in your collection +music pos building a library of oldies to listen to just would n't be complete without this album . +music neg do not buy this cd , the first two reviews said this is a good cd . nope . i 'll tell ya the real about this cd . i believe this was 305 's first cd , and i do n't see how this cd was ever in mass production . while it does have a few decent cuts most of this cd belongs to a different artist . 305 got much of the material for this cd on techmaster p.e.b 's masterpiece bass computer . any one who has both cd 's can tell . if your looking for bass , you 'll find it here . but you can find knock with any bass artist . i give this cd one star for biting techmaster +music pos this is where afi began their sound change from their first 2 cd 's ( answer that & stay fashionable , very proud of ya ) . it is much more serious than the first 2 , alot angrier , heavier , darker , and more screaming / yelling as well . some people say this is their best , i disagree , i prefer their " punkier " 1st 2 but i still enjoy this alot , it 's all down to personal taste , it gets a 5 / 5 for me +camera neg dont bother upgrading your power shot camera...just buy a better one . the zoom lens ads a whole 5 ft to the view before the pixels become a big issue +camera pos the best binoculars i have owned , and i have had many . excellent clarity , great field of view too . nice size also not to big , not to small . you cant go wrong with this fine set , highly recommended +music neg this tribute was announced almost ten years ago , and it seems to have undergone a transformation since then . to be fair , there are some interesting additions such as the sufjan stevens and brad mehldau tracks . and emmylou harris is brilliant . but sarah mclachlan 's " blue " has been heard before as has prince 's " a case of you . " earlier reports indicated contributions from heaviweights like steely dan and lindsey buckingham . i sure would like to have heard what they would have done . even more disappointing is that joni 's hejira-mingus era albums are mostly ignored - and that was her best music , in my opinion . as a final indignity , it sounds to me that too much compression was added in the mastering phase , and hence the overall sound quality of the cd is lacking in dynamics . +music pos this album is hard ! e-40 always come sic wit it . if you do n't got it , ya betta git it . it reminds me of his ( my fav . ) " i a major way " album . sluppin ' from intro till outro . he is the bay area 's finnest . please belave it +camera pos camera has good features and decent battery life for a " regular " camera . for those of you who do n't need a special camera and just want something that can take decent pictures . this is a good one . i like it +music neg i found a supposedly " new remastered edition " of sade 's " diamond life " on sale for less than 10 bucks . oops ! great mistake ! when i tried to return it , the cd store was already out of business , and the copy is one issued in the netherlands which is marked into the booklet as " 2000 digital remastered version " . the whole album has been re-recorded with new arrangements ! the digital sound is quite good , but the new arrangements made for ' smooth operator ' really sucks ! ! +music neg no strings attached is to my memory one of the worst albums ever made.no one listens to the stupid boy bands anymore.this piece of c@#p does not sell even a thousand copies today unless the previous reviewer is buying up all the million copies himself.dont buy any album from n stync or the equally horrible justin timberlake.get any beatles album instead +music pos i do n't see how they can compare these guys to the mars volta or coheed and cambria . i can hear the prog elements but it 's more of a rush kind of prog rock , shorter 3 minute songs compared to 12 minute epics . they are missing the one thing that would make them a true prog rock band : the songs just are n't as epic as a tmv or a c& ; c song . i think reviewers liken brazil to these other bands because their singer has a high pitched singing voice . this is still an amazing album that is well worth your time . go into it expecting sparta rather than the mars volta and you wo n't be disappointed +camera neg this keychain photo viewer sold by a company called " smartparts " is identical to one sold by " argus . " neither company manufactures the device nor do they offer a shred of tech support . you buy this , you 're on your own . you seem to be able to find the argus one a little cheaper.. . though they do mar the front of it with a big , black imprint of their logo . in any case , this thing is maybe worth $20 as a novelty . do n't pay more . image quality is mediocre and the software , while functional , is stunningly primitive . if you can pick it up cheap and approach it with low expectations , it 's a kind of cute gizmo . but do n't give yourself agita by overpaying for an obsolete little toy . check the bargain bins for this thing , or just wait for the next generation device . - - m +camera pos there 's no question that paying $100 or more will get you a better monopod . but for $16 the sima smp-1 is a tremendous value . i have a sony dsc-w5 digital camera and have done everything i can think of to reduce camera-shake in low-light photos . this monopod has been great for adding stability and making my photos less blurry . the key is that it is small enough and light enough that i can take it almost wherever i go . and because it 's so small , i can bring it in to places that would frown upon a tripod . a monopod is not a total replacement for a tripod . but this monopod is now the only addition to my camera that i take on trips +music pos this is a really great cd . the candian and american idol winners are not usually that great , but melissa is an exception . she just belts out her soul whenever she 's at the microphone . my absolute favourite is definitely " alive " . it 's just a beautiful song . really , i recommend this cd who likes songs with great messages and a good beat . she 's a great pop / rock singer . you ca n't go wrong with this cd +camera pos if you are expecting clear professional sound transmission , this is not it . that 's a wireless system costing $1 , 000 - $3 , 000. this system is strictly for home none professional use . i think people were expecting this system to deliver the hi fidelity sound they hear on movies or tv soundtrack . professionals do not use this system . that is the reason for the low price . home movies only . +camera neg if you purchase this lens adapter for the xacti hd1a , you will not be able to take still photos using the built in flash . the adapter blocks the flash and causes black shadows in the bottom half of your photos +camera neg i bought a sony icd-mx20 digital voice recorder a week ago . i was surprised that sony does not provide downloads of the associated software named " digital voice editor " . sony customer service staff told me that if you lost the cd that came with the box , you had to buy a new one . only patches of the software are available to download . the customer service personnel told me that it was corporate policy despite the fact that the software is bound to the digital device . this immoral policy violating the norm of digital appliance industries and should not be encouraged . sony is demoting its brand name by offering poor post-sales services . think twice before making your buying decision . +camera neg we bought three of these for christmas presents and two of them stopped working already . they wo n't turn on at all . one of them broke almost immediately , and philips sent a refurbished unit to replace it . that one is now broken , too . the units have not been dropped or mistreated in any way . +music neg yet even some of you who agree that the album bites still say that " tub thumping " is okay , even if it " gets old after awhile " . that song is crap ! ! ! has to be one of the worst songs ever to get play . ever ! sounds like a bad radio commercial for some english beer they 're trying to market in the states . that song ( if you can call a random string of cheesy choruses a song ) makes the strongest argument against anarchy that i 've ever heard . proves that people who ca n't agree on anything ca n't make a song that makes any sense or follows any consistent theme . gotta go - just threw up in my mouth from the bilious memory of this worthless pop drivel +camera pos very small and easy to carry . neat on the zoom , a bit hazy on the image stabilization but overall a good buy for the buck +camera pos i was using this lense for a week now with d50 and i can tell you that in low light indoor shooting this lense is awesome . at 1.8f this lense should be fast enough for any semi-profesional ( like myself ) . at 8f this lense produces the most sharpest photo ever and given that you shoot in nef ( raw ) format and use photo editor software ( i use nikon 's capture nx ) photoes become master pieces . at 22f , outside group portrait are sharp to the last hairy detail on each single person . i highly recommend this lense +music pos if you like music you ca n't help but like mariachi from mexico . it is superb . is there another volume ? if so , tell me about it +music neg this album was released in 1999. and now , seven years later , this album does not even matter . britney spears is remembered not for her musical talent but for her inability to parent a child . great music lasts dozens of years for its complexity , innovation , creativity , and ability to transcend cultures and generations . great music stirs something inside the listener , and matters to the person who created it . britney spears and the ridiculous product that her record companies have created is none of these things . it saddens me to see the number of copies an album such as this sells originally . and yet , the great albums of all times sell thousands of copies years - decades , even - after their release . music like this , britney spears and her peers , disappears into the folds of time . it does not matter . +music pos this album is simply one of the coolest things around , and when i listened to it , it inspired me to a similar project using the same ' weaving and zoning from place to place ' kind of method . what this basically is , are field recordings of various different indigenous and mainstream musics from mostly indian / middle eastern / oriental festivals ; they are then mixed together nicely into one flowing peice . you get indian gamelan , mussette accordion , vocal choruses , foreign tongue talking , and psychadelic bagpipes all in one 33 minute track , and then some . it 's very trippy , and it hints at some kind of endless dream where we flow from place to place without reason . get this for your own good +music neg ok i 'll make it short but sweat great music , singing sucks...this guy is flat every song and he should go back to the honk tonk and get away from rock...if you think i 'm lying listen close how can anyone listen to this voice , he ca n't hold a note and sounds like he has a mouth full of mush , he sucked at country and has no place in rock...home boy go back to texas and get back to branded some cows cause you suck +music neg this is a pep rally on cd ; an unsingable , emotionally charged pep rally . it really upsets me that this is the face of today 's christian music . the melodies are not easily singable at all , and the songs use all the same musical cliches . this is worship manipulation at it 's best . if you read the words to learn something concrete about god , you will find nothing of substance . they talk about actions to give god and our response to god , but no meat-and-potatoes of why we should be doing this . god is great , but why ? this is very disturbing , and completely unacceptable for congregational worship . +camera neg i originally purchased the samsung duocam scd6040. it fortunately broke 1 week before the warranty ran out . the video began having giant pixilated squares when video taping and on playback . though under warranty , it still cost me $49 ( their fee ) to send in the camera for a repair . the repaired camera came back broken . i had to deal with many customer service people , but finally got them to agree mine was a " lemon " and they sent me the scd6550. now 10 months later , the video and playback on this duocam has broken . you see a black screen with yellow blocks on the lcd and through the viewfinder . i cannot video tape or playback anything on tape . it is not under warranty . i ca n't believe their cameras / duocams do n't last longer than one year . they must use cheap parts . please save yourself the headache and chose another brand . +camera pos the camcorder compact power adapter worked very well . i was given great help in finding the right one for my canon camcorder , which in itself was amazing . 5 stars to the product and to the helpers who helped me locate the right one +camera pos kodak v705 black : small , can carry in pocket . wide angle lens , great for group photos . fast start up time . video mode is easy , built in mic picks up all the sounds.camera can stitch 3 photos together-great for vistas . i am happy with this camera . bought another v705 in silver for my friend and she loves it.kodak makes easy to take photos . weak flash - try not to be more than 6-8 feet away-or use photoshop on photos +camera neg i bought this item over a year ago , and it has never served for anything . once i spotted a deer and turned on the " ir " illuminator , and the deer ran away - not too surprising , it is actually a red light and totally visible for most animals . better use a flashlight . this is a first-generation nightscope , and has a very small range of utility : if there is a little light , the adapted human eye sees better , and if there is almost no light the device does not see either . 100 bucks is not too much of a waste , but if you are serious about nightvision you should spend about 10 times as much +music pos i read some of the other reviews before i submitted this . i do n't see how someone could get upset over the liner notes . redd does n't include danny gatton as an influence because he did n't listen to him . as far as other reviews concerning tone and the lack of fire , well , i do n't even know how to address that . redd has one of the best tones i 've heard on the tele and his note selection is what sets him apart from other pickers . ever hear of diarrhea of the guitar ? well , you wo n't get that on this cd because redd does n't play something to just play it . this cd showcases redd 's versatility from country , to swing , to blues , to rock , it has it all . if you like good pickin ' , then by this cd +camera pos this is a good teleconverter that added 1.5x to the camera 's native zoom . it adds a great degree of stability to the camera for taking those critical shots . of course when the digital zoom is used it is very sensitive to shake and movement . overall a good addition especially for the birds and nature shots +camera pos the product was easy to use and accurate . it is also a great buy +camera pos what i love about this case is its softness and its superior quality . it fits just like a glove and it protects the camera at the time it never poses a danger to it . ( i have had other older cases that scratched or even crushed the cameras ) . this one seems to be an improved model . it does not need to have handles because you are supposed to use the strap on the camera . highly recommendable +camera neg i purchased this wide angle lens for my digital camera . when i was experimenting with it taking photos inside my house , there was a dark shadow in the lower right hand portion of the photo . when i took a photo outside , there was no shadow . i went to my local camera shop to ask for help in this matter and he said i would need to adjust the white balance according to the light in the room , but he said , in reality , ' these digital cameras are really not meant for attachments' . i did experiment with the light balance , but still had no luck in getting that dark area to disappear.the flash on the camera is not strong enough to compensate for the area the lens blocks . i returned the product . +camera neg i had this camera for 2 months . it was kept in a case and was very well taken care of . i would not even allow my husband to touch it . i was taking pictures and then one suddenly came out as a white screen . i took another and the same thing . i asked my husband what he thought was wrong . we took out our memory card and tried internal . same thing again . he said maybe it was the lcd screen . we loaded the pictures in the computer and it was even worse . i contacted kodak several times . they do n't care about their customers . i have talked to several others in similar situations with similar results . we will try to get their attention with a lawsuit . if interested contact me [... +music neg there are only two artists ' music that i will purchase not having heard one note of the cd . those two artists are barbra streisand and linda eder . " songs of judy garland " was a huge disappointment . i was surprised at the cd cover . i do n't know what " look " ms. eder was shooting for but she missed the mark . instead of coming off as 10 years younger , she has been transformed to the point of being unrecognizable . she looks both spooky and a little like a petulant child . ms. eder has always been a very attractive woman and definitely did not need this kind of " makeover " . and the music...i tried so many times to like it . but the more i listended the more i realized i was listening to " liza minnelli " singing her mother 's music . i did not hear linda eder . i 'm begging you ms. eder , go back to what works . i 'm sorry...this does n't +camera neg i bought this lens and was pretty excited about it , but i 've been disappointed . previous to this i bought the 50mm 1.8 for $70 and that lens completely puts this one to shame . i need a wider angle lens and went for this one , but all too often found myself quite disappointed with the results . edges of subjects were all messy and just looked terrible , even at higher f stops . i shoot with a 20d . the usm is awesome though and will for sure be an option in whatever lens i choose to buy in place of this one . the focal range of 28-105 was also very nice , but to me the picture quality was not so good +camera pos a really cool digital picture frame , very simple to use and supports all types of memory cards even a pen drive +music pos jeff beck is the best guitarist on the planet and has been for a very long time . what you get here is an abbreviated version of him live . his song selection is not the best , but freeway jam which is one of my all time favorite beck songs is included . you also ger scatterbrain and blue wind . she 's a woman the old beatles song is also included . jeff beck at this time was playing some of his best guitar and his solo instrumental career was taking off . the songs with the jan hammer group to me are very average and infact distract what beck is trying to to . unfortunately this is his only live album from his instrumental era . i truely wish he would release a dvd of himself in concert for those who either havent seen him live or would like to see him live on dvd . the idea was good , the cd is too short and not up to snuff +music pos i borrowed this cd from a public library , having liked the track " crazy life " on the empire records soundtrack , and i was immediately blown away by how consistently good coil is the whole way through . it is their most mature album , full of gentle emotion and idealism , and puts the listener in a good mood . glen phillip 's voice is unique , confident , and beautiful . i fell in love immediately with " rings " and " dam would break " . the haunting and beautiful harmonies captivate . " little buddha " is so different but so good as well . after i got coil , i bought two of toad 's older albums : fear and dulcinea . both are really good , but something keeps drawing me back to coil . it is achingly beautiful , vibrant , thoughtful , and pleasurable . it is hearing toad at their best . +music pos even though mitchell wanted to feel reckless in this album , she accomplished one thing with her music : coming closer to weather report . it 's obvious she loved its jazz-fusion and admired jaco pastorious and wayne shorter so much to have invited them to reach their peaks , but as master musicians they could only achieved what joni allowed them to do . in " paprika plains " ( a song over 16 min . long ) joni unloads wonderful lyrics but only allows her group of pioneers to explode at the last two and half minutes . i would have hoped to hear a longer and more robust instrumental finish worthy of weather report 's reputation . over all the album is interesting because mitchell is not afraid of going out on a very tiny limb... . +camera pos reading the reviews of this camera reminds me that cameras are tools . an imperfect tool in the hands of a master is much better than a perfect tool in the hands of a amatuer . i am not a master , but i do appreciate this camera for what it can do and what its limitations are . when you use iso settings higher than 200 you will see increased noise . i think it is a great little camera and i have used it a lot on my latest photo project . keep in mind one of the assets of this camera is its small physical size . this also means small optical lens = less light gathering ability . there is no way to compensate for this in the camera - so know this is a limitation and deal with it . +music pos this album has some of the best country songs in the business . mark sings songs straight from his heart . there are songs for every occasion from the slow ballads like " too cold at home " , " i 'll think of something else " , and " almost goodbye " to the fast , heels kicking " bubba shot the jukebox " , and " going through the big ' d' " . these songs are about real life realtionships and how they affect the heart . so if you 're in the mood to cry about that lost love or smile now that they 're gone this is the album for you +camera neg 1 year old.. . 3 e18 errors 2 battery erros shipped back for service 4 times ! search the net for e18 before you buy ! +camera pos i received this product in a timely manner . it was exactly what i needed . thank you +camera pos do n't believe the marketing kodak does . i was using only kodakfilms for nearly 5 years . i recently switched to fuji based on some online reviews...i was pleasantly surprised at the results . i highly recommend this film +music neg i never could understand why the beatles are so popular ? they are pretty boring too just like pink floyd . each and every song on this album can put me to sleep in about 55 seconds . i just dont like it because it sucks ! dont listen to the moronic 5 star reviewers below . the beatles only made one good album and that 's the one which contains ballad of john and yoko , hey jude . +camera neg so i saw that this product got 5 stars , so i ordered it......when i got it , its like " um.. . is that it ? ? ? " it 's really cute , and really well made , but it has no where to hold my usb cord or memory cards.. . also , there is no hp embroidered in the front like the picture has it , also , the strap that i got is really cracked and does not look good at all.. . other than that , it 's cute , but not the best out there . +camera neg probably a very good case , but not a very operatable one in the field - you have to undo two closures to open the camera compartment , a strap and a velcro . the shoulder strap is not detachable - looks kind of silly when you are trying to use the belt strap . for the olympus stylus digital cameras , look to the lowepro case - better case and value +music pos darren aronofsky 's movies are beautiful masterpieces . from " pi " to " the fountain " , going through " requiem for a dream " , they will forever stand as timeless jewels . so they are hard to top in any way , but clint mansell has been able to do it every single time , scoring each of them . for " the fountain " , he teamed up once more with kronos quartet and had scottish post-rock band mogwai join in too , to produce a score that fits the movie like a glove , in a very organic way . the central theme to the movie is instrumented in a way that works fantastically well across all the time periods the movie encompasses . the combination of the talents of mansell , the quartet and mogwai yields a relatively dark , yet breathtaking musical piece that will stand the test of time much like the movie it was meant to score +camera pos i 've seen this item for no less than $7.00 elsewhere , so i got a good deal . +music neg the music for the soundtrack was so lame ! i though i was gonna cry cause i figured this was the end of b2k by this point . the s'track was n't even all b2k either . i like the song with jhene and omarion " happy " . also i liked " out of the hood " other then that it was boring . +camera neg the first day i took them out to hunt with them they fogged over . i brought them home and there is fog inside . also inside is some dark crap that you cannot get to...and it is on the lens . i called bushnell 's help line and they told me.. . " well , it is n't internally fog proof , just externally " when asked about the stuff on the inside . " that is probably fungus , that sometimes happens " i just bought the binoculars ! ! ! he stated i could send them in and miss my entire hunting season and they would take the fungus out . avoid these at all costs ! ! ! they are a shoddy product with an even worse strap that is plastic and cuts into your neck +music pos its kind of hard to deny what krs-one has brought to the game . his flow is phenomenal and the insight he gives is precious even now . standout tracks : duck down , ruff ruff ( dope match up with freddie foxx ) , 13 and good ( the story of a guy who sleeps with a teen that calls her father who is a gay cop will have you in stitches ) , poisonous products , questions and answers , like a throttle , we in here , the real holy place ( the deepest track on here ) , who are the pimps ? and the reggae tinged joints like say gal and sex and violence are gems also . filler : none ! bottom line : bdp 's six album is still a classic with a message that still isnt heeded till this day . besides the slammin production , krs showed that he was 100 steps ahead from the average rapper with this album . any born again hip hop head would do well to start off with edutainment and work their way down to this album . +camera neg this was the first digital camera i purchased . i am an adventurous person and wanted something that would stand up to my lifestyle . this camera was n't it . the good *it is compact , which is pretty convenient *it has several camera functions that have the potential to work well if you are techno-savvy . the bad *after snorkeling with it for 30 minutes , the camera leaked and broke . olympus replaced it , but only after my 2 month stay in costa rica was over . *the functions are unreliable and difficult to use . rarely if ever do i get them to work how i want . the pictures always need touched up afterwards , sometimes seriously . *the zoom sucks . do n't expect to get those awesome close ups they advertise unless you have some serious patience . *the image stabilization is a joke . you need a tripod or surgeons hands to take pictures that are n't blurry . *the user manual left me with a lot of questions +music neg the cd came without a cd case and the cd did not play . i am very disappointed +music pos growing up with classical rock and having enjoyed rock music by rod stewart , i did n't think i 'd like this cd . one evening i was having dinner at a friend 's home and they had this one playing . it was beautiful . being a little older now ( in my early 40 's ) , i enjoy more mellow music than the head banging variety that is heard now . this cd of rod 's was nostalgic , romantic and extremely easy to listen to . +camera pos it is a great compact camera with a good zoom . i can now leave a larger lens on my nikon dx 70 and use this for closer shots . you do need to try different settings to make sure you get the color you want . i really like it for most general quick shots , carry it wth me most of the time +music pos este cd es excelente ! se los recomiendo a todos los que les guste la musica buena . robi es un gran poeta y filosofo +music neg denis leary 's whole act is stolen from bill hicks nearly word for word . save your money and search amazon for bill hicks +camera pos when i purchased this camera i was really conflicted on wheather i should get a digital still camera or a digital video camera . so when i decided still and found out the canon powershot had a video feature , i was pleased but had very low expectations . boy was i suprised ! this camera has so many fun features for both still and video pics . and the quality is awesome for both ! there is a video email option so you do n't have to guess if your videos are going to fit into an email . but if you want you can create some really good quality video with a quick adjustment . and all of it transfers easily to my computer . plus with still pics there are lots of easy features to choose from so you can quickly set up for any kind of shooting sinario . +music neg i was deeply disappointed by the so-called " return of the funk " with the headhunters reuniting with their original lineup . as compared to herbie hancock 's original " headhunters " release , the return of the headhunters is missing one main ingredient , the grease . this recent release has traded the " grits and gravy " created by the sounds of overdriven analog equipment and early model synthesizers , for over-produced smooth jazz-funk , complete with overused n'dea davenport r& ; b hooks that left this album flat +camera neg bought these for my nikon d200 about 3 months ago . never having used tiffen before i took a chance on a recommendation . vignetting can be an issue for polarizing filters and the vignetting on this one is the worse i 've seen . build quality of all the filters is really not very good . going to go back to hoya 's which are much better +camera pos i have the white one ( black was unavailable at the time of purchase ) 1. the camera will not slide out even though the clasp is magnet . it is made snug enough that the felt holds it in the case even with a shake or jostle . 2. durable . no scrapes or scratches in 7 months . 3. have n't missed the belt clip option , its small enough to fit in my pocket 4. well constructed / durable . people think its some sort of ipod case / holder +camera pos though being a nikonist for years and knowing the possibilities of that camera i could never imagine the results and performance of this item , easy to handle , incredible small for the capacity and giving the same options to get the same quality of pictures than the d80.i have both +camera pos i bought a spare battery for my d70s and charged it up one time . since then , i have been waiting to use my spare but the original ( charged hundreds of pictures ago ) has been going strong for , literally , months . follow the directions . do n't use it until your fully charge and do n't recharge until it 's run down . this will help maintain battery life . good product from a great company +camera neg i purchased this camera for my 6 yr old daughter . it is n't even good enough for a child 's toy camera ! she had asked for a camera with a flash and screen for viewing what she had taken photos of . this camera looked like it would fit the bill . it was small and " cool " looking , had a dock ( great idea ) , li-ion battery ( great idea ) and a skin ( great idea . ) unfortunately it lacks the ability to take decent photos in varied environments ( we are not always outside in the sun ! ) if they would put a better camera in the same package it would become very desirable . save yourself the grief and buy something else . i 'm getting a 5mp hp ( for less money even ! +music pos love.this.album . every song is awesome ! this is the kind of album you play over and over because you feel great after listening to it . my favorites are " in a moment " and " know " . half past forever rocks ! +music pos three six mafia has out done there self with this new guy chrome about every song is decent which is hard to find these days +music neg i bought this album because i loved the title song . it 's such a great song , how bad can the rest of the album be , right ? well , the rest of the songs are just filler and are n't worth the money i paid for this . it 's either shameless bubblegum or oversentimentalized depressing tripe . kenny chesney is a popular artist and as a result he is in the cookie cutter category of the nashville music scene . he 's gotta pump out the albums so the record company can keep lining their pockets while the suckers out there keep buying this garbage to perpetuate more garbage coming out of that town . i 'll get down off my soapbox now . but country music really needs to get back to it 's roots and stop this pop nonsense . what country music really is and what it is considered to be by mainstream are two different things . +music neg lol ! some people cant be serious these days . the lyrics on every track are straight garbage . so he failed bad lyric wise . production wise , some of the beats are pretty good , but a beat doesnt make a song good ! nor does it make horrible lyrics good ! ! so i think some tracks where he gets deep are worth the try j-kwon , but the game aint for you . i think this album is garbage +music pos digressing from their first 2 albums , transmutation ( 5 stars ) and sacrifist ( 5 stars ) , praxis unleashes metatron . trimmed down to a 3 piece with laswell , bucket and brain covering all bases , metatron lacks bootsy 's space bass , yamatsuka eye 's agonizing screams or john zorn 's out of tune saxamaphoning , but it still rocks . track 1 is a laid back acoustic # and is absolutly beautiful . the album lacks the speed of some of sacrifist 's songs but makes up in phat grooves . half of the collection cd ( again 5 stars ) is from this album , but with nothing from transmutation , hmmm . instead of going further ill ' say this... . get this album at alll costs . burn copies for friends and spread the gospel according to praxis +camera pos this is a quality bag for the price . it is a little small and tight for the nikon coolpix 8700 +music pos what can be said about this album ? this is one of those albums that re-invigorates your faith / enthusiasm in music ( those who listen to a lot of albums know what i mean ) . some tracks from here were most famously covered by nirvana on their unplugged album , although pained i do n't think cobain quite got the feel that kirkwood gives to these songs . it has a perfect blend of songs that make you want to almost hoe-down and those that you can just reflect on and chill out . particular stand outs on this album are split myself in two , magic toy missing , aurora borealis and the whistling song . this album does take some growing as kirkwood 's voice is abrasive , but this is an album that will truly make you love music . do try it , you wo n't be disappointed . +camera pos after waiting months for an order to be filled and then getting screwed by customer service / returns , i decided never to buy from amazon again . go to an electronics or camera store , you 'll get better service and the fresh air will do you good +camera neg if you are shoting kid at the swiming pool , it 's ok . but , if you are the open water diver , please do n't buy it . i try it yesterday , it will not work after 10m / 33ft , it will show the red screen and count down timer , it scare me . and i miss a lot of shot for yesterday 's dive . it 's really disappointed to me +camera neg i took it straight out of the package , plugged it in for a charge . charger never reached " green " ready but the battery overheated and melted several hours later . customer service was not the best i 've had . do n't make the same mistake , keep looking +music neg there are 2 really good songs on here . the first is " untitled , " which sounds like gibbard was listening to a lot of brian wilson at the time he wrote it . the percussion sounds like it could have been on pet sounds . " underwater " is a pretty good song...but the real jewel on the album is " send packing . " it really is a beautiful , well-written song . the rest of the album sounds kind of thrown together and most of the songs would have been much better if they had been recorded with real instruments . basically , the novelty of the kid instrument thing wears off really quickly . all in all , i would n't spend 10 bucks on it , but a couple tracks are pretty good +camera neg i loved my 4.1mp sony cypershot i got for christmas in 2005. then a few days after christmas in 2006 the screen was getting these fuzzy lines in it . if i would tap the camera they would go away . but then a few days later i was taking pictures and the camera just stopped working . it would turn on but then shut off . i had this problem before with low batteries but i changed them and it still did n't work . it would let me review pictures but not take them and now it wont turn on at all and the lens is stuck out . so many other people have had this exact problem after just one year of use . so sad camera dea +music pos i have been hankering after this great album on cd for a long time now . imagine my surprise to suddenly find out that it is available . surprise turned to shock when i saw the price . does the company that produces this cd not realise that are people all around the world ( including south africa where i live ) who are very keen on this album ? at this stage though , it is only the very wealthy that can afford it . +camera pos wow is all there is to say no problems with it perfect for a casual picture take +camera neg i purchased the 75-300mm for a trip to a nascar nextel cup championship in homestead , fl . i was mostly disappointed with the lens from the beginning . the lens is not very sharp , feels very cheap , and the autofocus is slow and hilariously innaccurate in low light . i packed up and returned the lens about an hour after i got off the plane . i am going to save my money for something sturdier and with a better maximum aperture . i suggest you do the same . +music pos great anniversary present . fav song.. . i love the way you love me.. . my husband loves to listen to it in the car +camera pos this is an excellent device . quick respond with my d80. i use it to take the family pictures that include me . i just point and press this remote to activate the d80 's timer and it works beautifully +music pos a great series concept - highly significant artists performing material which taken individually or collectively represents a major section of the american music library . ofcourse the originally withdrawn [w . new at-the-time funky people] " talkin ' loud. . " by jb ( i bought it retail ! ) is the highlight , along with the live " it 's my thing.. . " by marva whitney . ( yes , i saw mw sing it **l-i-v-e** at madison square garden in july , 1969 ) . the prev . unrel . bobby byrd track and vicki anderson 's contribution to the " cold sweat " session also reinforce the value for listeners +music pos one of the greatest rap albums of all time . wicked backgrounds and rhyming +music neg i did not like this cd at all . there was not even one song that i liked . however , given the positive result the cd received , it may just have been my personal taste . i also got her new cds , and did not like those eithe +music neg after really enjoying the amici forever album , i went shopping for another amici album and found this one . there really is no comparison between the two . i 've tried listening to it several times to see if i 'm missing something , but somehow the selections and arrangements seem more appropriate for the lawrence welk generation than anyone interested in a spicy little opera troupe . i was very disappointed +camera neg i purchased this for my 10 yr old son . i was surprised at how , well , cheap it appeared . we took it out of the box and turned it on and it would not work at first , then it worked for about 10 minutes , then it never worked again and we had to return it . amazon was great during the return process and refunded our money quickly . we ended up buying the dgx 5.1 mp from a local store i it 's place . it has worked well for my son and is holding up to the rigors of youth . not a professional photography instrument , but a pretty decent unit for him +camera pos i purchased this battery as a back-up to the one that came with the camcorder . the great thing about this is , once charged , it can sit in a camcorder for a month without loosing any power . i discovered this last week when i wanted to use the camcorder and was worried that the battery may be dead by now but ...surprise surprise . its recharge time is very fast . the only negative part ( if i must have to give ) is , it 's a little bigger then the one that comes with camcorder . i say go for it . +music neg tihs album is not all that good when it came out in still not good till this day . i like all his other albums better i do n't know why he decided to release this crap.but the only song i really like is hip hip qurtables +music pos every listen i get more into this cd . many catchy songs . i now need to buy more of donald 's solo stuff . great music +music neg i 'm a huge fan of christopher lawrence 's stuff , but i aboslutely refuse to buy this cd because of the copy protection . i do not pirate music , and should be allowed to copy music i purchase onto my mp3 player of choice . this is just sad +camera pos this was the best item i ever bought for my camera . i do a lot of walking with my camera , and thought i would use it as a walking stick , which i do , but the best part of this monopod is what i never thought would happen . my pictures are never fuzzy ! i can take low light photos and have they come out clear . i paid very little for this item and would never be caught without it and my camera . the three levers on the bottom allow for quick expansion at all different lengths . the carrying case allows for this item to be packed next to my camera without it getting scratched +music neg i sorta of agree with the person below , this album sucks....plain and simple , however i think he is still doing a great job in rhapsody . i gave it one star not so much because it is garbage , but becuase i was looking forward to this album since " prophets of the last eclipse " which was great , but trully...i do n't know went wrong . i do n't have a problem with female vocalists , but in this album...it is retched . i do n't think i will ever listen to this album ever again . sorry ! but its true...do not buy this album , pretend you never knew he had a new album...oh ! and do not buy luca turilli 's dreamquest either ! another bomb +music pos if you think yer gonna puke everytime you have to suffer through a " country " song from nashville these days , and you happen to like classic rock , you would probably appreciate what shooter 's trying to do here . folks , this is the real deal . i do n't mean real country or real rock - this is a hybrid - i mean he 's making music that is honest and down to earth . a flash in the pan , he 's not . he 's going to be around for awhile +music neg i ordered this cd based on the reviews . first , i have to say that i am not sure why it is called ' paris under a groove' . i was thinking that it would be in french , at least . the beats are nice , i would not in any way compare it to buddha bar. . i just was n't as thrilled as i thought that i would be . it sounded very cheap . no originality . my fiancee is from paris , and this was very disappointing - not only to him - but i was embarrassed as offering it as a present....so far , it sits on the shelf. . +music pos ...heart-wrenching break-up with his girlfriend of 8 years , elastica 's justine frishmann . 13 is a dark record , produced by william orbit . nearly every song is injected with despair , sorrow , bitterness , and an achy , heart-breaking sadness . these moods are encompassed on such tracks as tender , 1992 , battle , and the tear-jerking no distance left to run . also included are the trip-hop masterpiece trimm trabb , the humourous trailerpark and b.l.u.r.e.m.i. , and coxon and albarn 's co-written pop-masterpiece , coffee and tv +camera pos you can check the photos that i took with canon s45 and this housing . it works brilliant . i just tested in 10meters . also there are supported extra lenses for this housing ( macro , wide ) .. +music neg jj , the name of the song you are looking for is " like you like an arsonist " by paris texas +camera pos at a recent nye event , i shot a lot of photos in a concert setting without a flash and am very impressed with the sharpness & clarity of this lens performance . its so fast and the colors are vibrant . i am not a seasoned pro but with the 20d and this lens , it makes me look pretty close . i did shoot in manual and once i got my aperture & shutter speed dialed in , it pumped out a lot of great pics . i have also shot some pics of waterfalls ( slowing down my shutter speed to get that soft flowing image ) and portraits of people and again , it oozed excellence . the 135mm focal range is not as convenient as a zoom , but the quality of this prime lens makes up for any incovenience +camera pos this is a great lens for star fields . it is about the least expensive lens canon makes and also one of the fastest . the focus was sharp to the corners without coma . see my photo of a portion the milky way . this was obtained with a 30sec exposure with a rebel xt on an inexpensive clock drive sitting on a picnic table +music pos very different , very cool ! an awesome cd that all ages in my house ( from 13 to 68 ) really enjoy listening to +camera neg i ordered this tripod , and it arrived broken . the assembly to which a camera is attached is made out of plastic . i asked for an rma order via e-mail , and they only gave me an address to mail it back to with a ' copy of the invoice . ' being lazy about mailing things back , and since it was cheap to begin with i tried repair it myself . where it broke ( the three plastic rings on the camera mount ) , it was impossible to re-glue , because of the torsion placed on those rings with any sort of pressure . even if your tripod arrives un-broken , it will likely break the first time you drop it on the camera mount from any height at all . +music neg can it be that people are letting their personal beliefs block the receptors in the brain that signal bad music ? ive listened to many bob dylan albums , and every one is a gem . freewheelin ' is my favorite , but so what ? it does n't matter which ones we love , because we all know what bob dylan 's worst record was , and its saved . im not one to question this man 's beliefs or anything like that , bob dylan deserves all the respect in the universe , but could it be that bob dylan made a transfer to christian music to help us all see how bad it is ? could he have made the transfer to make a mockery of the christian faith ? almost certainly not . but only a seriously bad album could have planted these seeds in my brain +music pos and he know 's nothing about popular music and really should get back to work and stop sitting around convincing himself that he does . dumbass +music pos this was the first queen album that i ever had so getting it on cd is great . " sheer heart attack " is an overlooked queen gem +camera pos this lens has extremely fast ( and quiet ) focus , and is razor sharp . what more could you want , when photographing wildlife up close +music neg before you get all worked up , let me say that he has a voice , but he really does n't have a style . he sings songs way too straight , he makes even bobby short sound like an improviser ! he also does n't seem to be in touch with his masculine side , his vocie is very , well if ying is male , and yang is female , he sounds very yang . he needs to take some liberties with the songs he sings and then he wo n't sound so obnoxious , then he needs to take some vocal lessons and try to bring out the ying ( masculine side ) in his voice . he needs to hear a few billy eckstine lp's . i do n't think he can change but here 's hoping he 'll take my advice . as far as you buying this cd it is your decision , this is just my honest opinion +camera pos this case fits the z650 perfectly by just removing the inner piece . +music neg wots happened to memphis hiphop it goin out the window or its already gone out the window there pushin any old sh' ' out for bucks anyone who is in2 real memphis years 94 to 98 2000 max when rappers were hungry no , s wot im talkin about old underground tapes the only guy doin stuff to that form now is evil pimp and thats a bit over the top but come on guys we want them simple murder beets back with them sik lyrics instead of that shoutin crunk sh , t 36 is now pushin , , , , get back to your roots alot of people are now reachin out for the old siccness from back in the day tommy wright playa fly kinda sh , t even koopstas devil playground piss , s on this wack sort your stall out koopsta +music pos this album is ridiculous . i almost want to say part of srv 's soul is in this guy...he is that good . honestly i think this album rips apart his previous two . my hope is that jimmy , dt and apo will bring out a 4th release...as good as this album or better ! this is one of those great albums where every song is good . buy it . you like srv , buy it . double trouble must have brought part of srv back , because this album is just plain sweet +camera neg this camera / mp3 / camcorder / webcam / voice recorder is way to good to be true ! i brought one because it was cute and looked perfect for mini movies . but i was sadly mistaken.. . this camera just takes cheap pictures and videos . the only thing that actully worked properly was the voice recorder that i had no need for . after about 3 days of trying to make it work a little better i gave up and sold it on ebay for the same price as i brought it for . it 's a great idea.. . but it just is n't a good camera but if you want a voice recorder this is pretty nice . the mp3 player is n't all that wonderful either . it does n't work with itunes . or easy work with windows . hope this helps.. . i wish i would have read this before i brought this camera +camera neg overall this is a well-designed case which is custom fit for your panasonic lx1 or lx2 camera , but it has a few major flaws . first , there is no simple way to attach it to your belt . there is a belt loop on the back but it is so small and tight that it wo n't fit any belt more than 1 / 2 " wide . also , there are two zippers on this case , one on each side , which could potentially scratch your camera coming in or out of the pocket . finally , the velcro tab that closes the case is not particularly strong and can occassionally pop loose on its own . this might be a good case if you are going to keep it in your backpack or suitcase , but not for carrying around for everyday use . +camera neg the 5x7 digital photo frame from pacific digital is very cheaply made , the lcd is very dark and flickers constantly . +camera pos i purchased this camera for my son . he is a doctoral student and needed to photograph items for his research . he was able to learn to use it quickly . the battery life is phenomenal +music pos i love almost all of these songs on this cd . if you want songs that grab your every emotion...this cd is for you ! i also recommend their other cds also +camera neg this case looks good and protects the camera adequately , but is too bulky . it has n't got a lot of room inside - i was unable to fit an extra sd card in its little case and a spare battery . the belt clip is difficult to use , and i end up carrying the case in my hand most of the time . there are better cases for this camera +music neg gnr were a very overrated band . i found appetite for destruction very dull . this atleast has the band 's 3 great songs in november rain , civil war , and live and let die . get this for 3 great songs but stay away from gnrs other crappy songs and albums ! ! they are not metal ! +camera pos got this camera in 1999 and it is still doing very well ! more than 3000 great pictures have been taken . the camera is very easy to use and needs no maintenance . a word of caution - ensure that the camera does n't get pressurized laterally - this can happen if it is stuffed in a bag and someone sleeps over it . the spring-operated shutter is very sensitive . would recommend this for anyone who is looking for a cost-effective and easy-to-use film camera +music pos my first monk album was monk 's dream from columbia . i loved that album 15 years ago and had been searching for the same satisfaction from the multitude of monk recordings from the blue note years , presitge , and riverside . what monk 's dream offered that the prior work lacked , was production . raw , edgy , spontaneous ...yes all those recordings offered that . but i longed for that sense of confidence , tightness and richness of sound monk 's deream provided . i found that in this set which makes sense since monk 's dream came out of these sessions at columbia . so what if these are reworks of the old stuff...they sound just as new and gripping " produced " as they did in their earlier days without big money helping out . will i throw out my older stuff and just play this ? no chance..there is a time for polish and a time for purity +camera pos i bought this underwater housing in anticipation of a trip to the galapagos . it worked perfectly , and i obtained some really incredible shots , both still and video . the combination of the canon sd550 and this housing were amazing . i did make sure to lubricate the primary o-ring each time i opened the housing . but the need to do so was reduced by using a larger , 1gb memory card - both card and battery would last a little over two dives , before i need to change one or the other +music pos i love this album but the other review from anonymous is wrong . this cd is not remastered . i baught this cd because of that review and got burned . the cd even says right on it aad . in other words analog recording / analog master / digital playback . i will say this much though , the transfer is better than mca 's version which i own . however , if you want a remastered version of the song monster look to the " all time greatest hits / original recording remasterd " cd from mca . it also has move over from this cd , i love this cd and want it remastered . if you gotta have this album ( i do ) than this version sounds better than the mca version +camera pos ok.. . i do n't know who reviews batteries but this one is pretty good . +music pos a truly glorious recording , just what i want in music , with brilliancy , sensitivity , and beauty . this is a must have for every music lover worth the name +music pos chandos ' grainger edition is a significant contribution to modern art . this particular volume ( vol . 14 ) features grainger 's settings of various folk and popular songs which he made in the first quarter of the 20th century . the accompaniments are set for small ensembles , and grainger utilized the harmonium on many of the song settings on this disc . sound is 24-bit +music neg aerosmith were one of the worst most annoying bands of all time . they only made 3 decent songs in same old song and dance , seasons of wither , and janies got a gun . rest of the songs just stink explosively . avoid most albums from this hugely overrated band , steven tyler screams , he ca n't sing at all ? ? ? this is music for drug addicts +music pos no other compilation of garland 's work exemplifies her genius and versatility than this astounding compilation that shows why she was the entertainment phenomenon that took the world by storm . all her original soundtrack performances are here , sounding magnificent . far superior to thin-sounding studio re-creations , this is the real deal , assembled with obvious skill , intelligence and dedication to the talented legend . in a sense , this should be the " soundtrack album " for that magnificent documentary about her that pbs produced a while back . do n't pass this up +camera neg the camera worked fine ; however , after six months , it stopped working . i took it to a pentax authorized repairer and pentax refused to pay for the camera because the was dirt and grit in the zoom mechanism . my use was in no way abusive . i had a previous canon powershot s200 that lasted forever with the same usage , until i gave it away . i guess i should have stayed with canon . i bought the pentax for its size and lightweight , but what good is that if it does n't last ! do n't get the pentax and expect long term use out of it +music neg like the other reviewer of this cd , i am also a fan of buffalo tom . unfortunately this does n't sound very similar to bt , in fact it is a bit dull . none of the songs seem to have hooks or melodies that stick - after you hear it you instantly forget it . i gave it 2 stars instead of 1 to be fair , since i only played it 3 times , hoping it would grow on me . i 'd recommend " up here " instead of this one , it 's much more listener friendly +music neg these are the same tracks from totally buble which was released without buble 's consent . " totally buble " is not an album that i wanted to be released . they were songs i recorded for a film called " totally blonde " many years ago before i was signed to 143 / reprise records . the decision to release it as an album was made by the film 's producer , and i had no control over stopping him . it is important for everyone to know , that i only want to release quality music to my fans by offering my best work and i sincerely apologize if you purchased this album . " - michael buble +camera neg i bought this because it was 50% off . i ca n't see how anybody can get much enjoyment from trying to look at photos on this viewer . i guess for background noise , it would be good but as a photo viewer , it 's not . small screen + low resolution = poor viewer +camera pos i fried my charger in mexico and needed to replace it . this was the exact replica and it works great +camera pos looked at a number of cameras including the tz3 , p5000 , and a few others . nothing compared to the g7 which is the one i ended up going with ; is , 6x lens , incredible quality , etc. if you want the best camera out there and do n't feel like messing with a dslr , the canon g7 is in a league of it 's own ~ the benchmark by which all other manufacturers strive towards . +music neg while there are some flashes of brilliance in this album , it is compromised by a lack of direction . the ' tastes so sweet ' mix of rapture is beautiful , although cut far too short . faithless , afrika bambaataa & soulsonic , and crystal method are all good driving tracks at the tail end of this album . the high point , without contest , is darude 's ripping mix of rising star 's ' touch me' . this is a cut to throw on for the peak.. . when you find the party is just outside of barstow with hunter . that said , then there are all the uninspired tracks in the center of the album . these are more appropriate in an adolescent brit girl 's drawer next to the spice girls . for some labels , this would be normal , for ministry however , it is a dissapointment +music pos this cd is truly a classic and one of my all-time favorites . love it +camera pos i am pleased with the purchase . very good value . picture quality is good and it is easy to operate . only negative is that it was advertised as wood frame when in fact it is plastic . however , it looks good . this is my second purchase of this product : one for myself and one as a gift +music neg nothing new here . i like reading the ridiculous reviews of these cds where people gush all over the screens over how much they love patton . this cd is dull . suffering from patton overexposure . maybe he should actually spend some time and make an awesome album ( like secret chiefs 3 - book of horizons ) rather than dozens of merely adequate ones +music pos i recommend this cd to anyone stuck in a rut like i was . listening to the same artists over and over but wanting something new and fresh . life on planet groove will be a welcome addition to your collection . great for the drive +music pos the only problem with betty buckley is that she is n't nearly as well known as she deserves to be , considering the length and quality of her career . this album of somgs from her 1996 aids benefit concert at carnegie hall is simply flawless . naturally , it 's heavy on music from broadway , the london stage , and film scores , but she sings one mary chapin carpenter song , " come on , come on , " that comes from none of those sources and is guaranteed to give you chills every time you hear it . if you 're tired of recordings by singers of little talent and less style , listen to betty buckley for fifteen minutes and you 'll feel as if you 'd never heard real singing before . she is an original , and she has the best voice in theater of this or almost any decade +camera pos nice and compact . the tripod does n't really work as i expected . i am using my own tripod . overall is a nice little unit for the money +music pos i received " the piano " promptly , and in pristine , excellent condition . +music neg can it be that people are letting their personal beliefs block the receptors in the brain that signal bad music ? ive listened to many bob dylan albums , and every one is a gem . freewheelin ' is my favorite , but so what ? it does n't matter which ones we love , because we all know what bob dylan 's worst record was , and its saved . im not one to question this man 's beliefs or anything like that , bob dylan deserves all the respect in the universe , but could it be that bob dylan made a transfer to christian music to help us all see how bad it is ? could he have made the transfer to make a mockery of the christian faith ? almost certainly not . but only a seriously bad album could have planted these seeds in my brain +music pos great compilation of songs from massive attack , all of their singles plus new never release songs . the videos are great and their new single ' live with me ' is a great song ( very sad video though ) . includes new version / remix of ' i want you ' with madonna . the combo is great you can own all of the videos , is a lot of fun to see the videos from blue lines until 100th window from the 90s all the way to the new single , the changes in the way they used to make music videos . there 's even the first video with tricky ) . a must have for any massive attach fan , and if you never heard from this band , you get the best of the best with this cds / dvd . massive attack is a band that had influenced a lot of artist from bjork , tricky , madonna , morcheeba , portishead , unkle , etc. +music neg this cd shocked me . at first i was listening and enjoying the beats on every track . but then listening to the actual content of each song , b*tch this and h*e that . come on , as a young female , how am i supposed to bump this in my car ? every single song on the cd is disrespectful . you know what really makes me mad , this is what 's supposed to be hot , popular . what kind of message is this sending to our young black men ? our young women ? i would not recommend this for any one , especially anyone under the age of 16 or any woman . +camera neg i agree with the two previous reviewers . there needs to be a user manual and there is n't one . the fine adjustment will adjust the vertical angle maybe 15 degrees . this is n't very helpful for star gazing . the maximum height of the tripod is only 45 inches . this is an uncomfortable height for looking through binoculars while standing . celestron should have a users guide showing how their tripod and binoculars are supposed to work together +camera neg when i got this camera for my birthday april 2005 i thought that it was a dream come true . the picture quality was brilliant , it was easy to use . the device was ment to be envied . it took marvelous pictures until within 3 months , july 2005 - the lcd screen cracked . the camera had been in a case sitting on a bed with no possibility of misuse or accidental damage . i was never suspiscious of it until i took it to be fixed and reading countless reviews of similar problems . something bad will happen to this camera . either the sceen will break or the memory card thing . a friend of mine also owned the s410 , and her screen broke before mine did . the camera still takes photos , but without the screen the device is near worthless as you have no options . it is not worth the price of repair . tomorrow i am going to buy a new camera . +camera pos when i sow this in amazon and read the spec . and everything on it i knew this is exactly what i 'm looking for . it 's portable , handy , and it 's easy to use . the video has a great picture on it as well as the picture too . you can even download mp3 music and use it to make music video , or any music of your own . here 's what you do , output the audio to a power amp / speaker so the performer will hear the music let the performer lipsink the music and start shooting the video . shoot different location at the same music and edit it whala you have just made the mtv music video +music pos for those who have only heard the hits this is a fine addition for your collection . bruce and the boys were young and completely up to the task of handing out the long jams you find here . the title sums up the overall feeling of the songs . there 's a certain joy and a ton of fun to be had . put this on one nice warm spring day and see if it does n't lift your mood . caution : must be listened to while drinking a cold domestic beer +music pos with all the ' neuvo flamenco ' and its accompaning popularity . it is nice ( and a relief ) i might add , to hear the flamenco guitar in its purist form . not only does this cd contain sabicas and nino ricardo . it also contains four very rare perfomances by manolo de huelva . which are difficult to find anywhere . also included are melchor de marchena performing six pieces . this is truly pure flamenco at its best +music neg this young woman has a fine coloratura soprano voice , albeit a little underpowered , but she simply has no understanding of musical architecture . there is too much emphasis on virtuosic technique and no regard at all for musical subtleties . in fact , i suspect the only reason this little filly was favored over so many of her betters is that she looks mighty tasty in that skimpy frock and short-shorts . once again , sex sells and the vox vulgus dominates at the expense of true art +music pos i love to working with this soundtrack in the back ground . the music is fun , whimsical , and out of the ordinary . i like pop and rock , but sometimes you just need good music without the lame lyrics +camera neg while this lens has an attractive price tag , this lens has serious trouble with sharpness . only at high shutter speeds ( 1 / 250 and above approx . ) or with a good flash and middle apertures ( f / 8 to f / 22 approx . ) does it deliver sharp images . horribly slow autofocus . i am already saving to buy and l-series or the is usm version +music pos i agree with everyone else ; the music on this album is completely magical . two masters at work with a great rhythm section , very spontaneous-sounding contrapuntal harmonies , unbounded joy in every tune , and some interesting arrangements . this is also the worst-sounding cd ( or lp , for that matter ) that i have ever heard . it sounds worse than lo-res mp3s played over the web ; i have recordings of 78s that sound better . i cannot believe that even laserlight would release this . i have other laserlight cds and none of them sound this bad . if they remastered this and made it sound better , i would buy it again . that 's the only reason for 4 stars rather than 5. still , it 's worth getting if you can listen past the horrible sound quality +music pos i bought this recording along with blood on the tracks recently and all i can say is " doggonit " it do n't get any better than this . they called elvis the king but bob dylan must be the " wizard " . who will tell us great stories when he is gone ? +camera pos this is a great product . i wish i had not waited so long to purchase it . you must be aware that it only works with l type batteries . i though that it would work with p or m types , which is what i have for 2 sony camcorders . i had to then purchase an l battery ( np-f970 ) . my old camcorder that uses p batteries is able to charge l batteries as well . do your homework with the batteries +camera neg ok this is the third sony handycam i have owned and this is the most lacking in options..sony messed up with the usb port because if your looking for that one just spend the extra cash and get the trv 280 i had the 280 and it was stolen from me so i came on here and saw the trv 138 and i purchased it and was disapointed in the picture quality..its fuzzy. . im in the process of seeing if the seller will return this camera so i can get the trv280 back. . i hope this has helpe +camera pos i bought this flash to use on a light pole with a flash trigger when we shoot weddings . rather than use one of my canon 580 's , i thought this was a better use of my $$-since i use this additional light in manual mode anyway . it does the job for under $10 +camera neg this camera has a very poor lens . at 1x zoom , the barrel / spherical distortion is enormous ; try taking a picture of a tiled wall . image quality is also so-so when a picture is viewed at 100% ; scaled down on a computer monitor , the quality is ok . color fidelity is next to nothing when using flash and auto white balance . [...] +music pos this cd is really really good . warped tour never fails to please . the best songs are by these people...the used , yellowcard , story of the year , matchbook romance , the early november , avoid one thing , taking back sunday , audio karate , simple plan , maxeen , coheed and cambria , and mest . buy this c +music neg reba is not country anymore period ! ! this cd will prove that . just listen to the first track which i think is horrible . as a matter of fact i think the whole cd is horrible . not deserving of reba 's talent . +music pos yes , there may be some small issues with the sound quality , but you get used to it , and wilhelm kempff is definitely one of the great pianists of the 20th century , so it is worth it . these are incredible performances that are often justly called definitive . kempff seems to always bring out every theme of every work and magnifies its emotional intensity , whereas other pianists would not have nearly as much attention to detail and neglect many subtle themes . highly recommended +camera pos this is not a high-tech digital frame . it does n't play mp3's . it does n't come with a remote . it simply reads your digital pictures from a card and displays them in a slide show mode . there 's an " on " button and an " off " button . there is no manual to read in order to learn how to operate your frame ( though it does come with a one-page instruction sheet ) . it 's great for your office desk when all you need to do is reach over and turn it on or off . if you want to display it in a difficult-to-reach location , or choreograph your pictures with music , then this is not the frame for you +music pos her voice takes my breath away , i fell in love with her . i highly reccomend it +camera neg with this pup it is simple to record video or images and almost impossible to download them successfully ! in standard mode , the playback of video is anything but smooth . looks like an old time movie . the software could best be described as , " user hostile " . i have n't been able to download any videos without getting an error message before the transfer is complete . the normal video is n't as good as my dv camcorders and downright sad indoors . the photo portion is slightly better than my cell phone ( a pocket pc ) . still pictures have n't downloaded successfully either ( approximately 11 out of 185 have made it across the wire before error messages start interrupting the transfer ) . it 's a handy size and easy to operate . after you 're done recording you 'll likely spend a lot of time with the manual ( i have ) and then you start getting frustrated . if i could return it , i would +music neg yes the game has been missing the constant songs about drugs , girls , cars and jewelery . i tell you juelz really came with an original formula with this album . the stuff he mentions on this one has never been said before and juelz is an innovator as well as the rest of the dipset . lol ! ! ! ! these guys listen to other peoples albums and just reiterate the same stuff in a different song and beat . save your money +music neg thankfully i checked this out of the library and did not spend money on it . i felt the need to add a review though to spare those who might be thinking of buying it . i made it through the cd once with my kids , but that was it . we will not be listening again . as others have said , go buy the radio disney cds ( or possibly later version of kidzbop if they come with better reviews ) . the singers ( kids and adults ! ) on kidzbob are out of tune and just painful to listen to . +music neg i do not see how reviewers can rate this guy 5 stars . his voice is so mediocre that i am suprised he manages to sell many cd 's at all . i would n't waste my hard earned cash on this guy . stick with sinatra and get the best . if not , and you want someone who can sing sinatra style , then i would recommend you listen to the young canadian , michael buble . in my opinion michael buble is a much better singer that tyrell . he can swing and do justice to that genre of music +music neg if any kid music annoys you , this cd is not for you . these are good old classic songs , but almost ruined with strange styles and irrelevant talking to intro the songs . i 'm throwing it away . i want my two-year-old to know the songs i know and love , but this was a bad buy on my part . +camera pos this rangefinder is great ! much lighter than the big bulky other units . has all the great features that is needed . this is one that you will take with you and not leave in the truck because it 's too big . i tested this against some of my buddies ' bigger units at known distances and this one out did the bigger units in speed and accuracy . great scan mode . best buy . should be sold for about ( $ ) more than asked for +music neg i would call this the musical equivalent of the worst of abstract art . there are those that " appreciate " unintelligable works for fear of being thought stupid if they do n't . . . just as the emporer 's subjects " ooh " ed and " ah " ed in admiration of his clothing as he paraded naked in front of them +music neg hmm sounds good , jazzy and chic . this should only be played in lounges . the only tracked i liked was amour . the rest i wanted to close my ears . too much noise +music neg i am a huge fan of btnh , but even i will admitt this is not a good album . the worst being " home " which uses samples from phil collins . the whole thing feels kind of empty , with very little of the passion that you would hear on the groups earlier works . there are a few songs worth listening to . most notably is " clevland is the city " which is one of the only songs that still sounds like it has any " harmony " to it . other songs worth mentioning are " what about us " , " not my baby " and " pump , pump " , the rest of the album in my opinion is garbage . it is not surprising that the group broke up shortly after this album was released +music neg is there anything more sanctimonious than filming your last concert and inviting a bunch of fellow overrated hacks ( clapton , neil diamond , joni mitchell ) to the occasion , as if it 's some monumental event ? please ! as if the band were anything worthwhile in the first place . sorry , but the whole concept of a bunch of canadians ( well , four of five anyway ) writing this stuff about americana always came across to me as pretentious - - and it does n't get much worse than that stupid shot of levon helm wheezing through " the night they drove old dixie down . " these guys were just the beneficiaries of rolling stone / elitist rock critic propaganda . ( and to think they made fun of prog bands for writing inane lyrics - - huh ! ) i think martin newell put it best when he called the band " dreadful bearded ghastliness . " +music neg do n't waste your money . this album is cheesy , sounds like a million other pop rock songs , and is nothing compared to their earlier work . with donnie van zant and max carl on vocals , all i have to say is : they need the old lead singer back ! the guitar work is ok , but the classic .38 special sound has definitely been lost +camera neg i bought this camera about a month ago and i am highly disappointed with it . the quality of the pictures is very poor , showing large grain , even at shq and low iso settings . no combination of settings seems to improve quality +music pos this was one of those rare performances where dylan 's raw energy swept the stage and transformed these selections from his collection into somthing entirely new and great . the sound is rough , the intonation is off , the recording is filled with horrible buzzes , whistles , and clicks . none of which matters . once youe listened to some of the tracks on this disk , you 'll prefer them to the original album cuts . i know i do . absolutely essential to any collection of dylan 's work , " hard rain " is not to be missed . +music neg when john cipollina was in the lineup and he and rhythm guitarist gary duncan were in the groove , there was no better sounding group than qms . cipollina 's talent was awe inspiring . unfortunately , one of quicksilver 's overbearing and domineering members ways led to cipollina 's departure . without cipollina , qms sounded like just another mediocre rock group , despite the talents of duncan , freiberg and elmore . i saw them at the hollywood palladium 33 years ago and can verify this.if you want to hear them at their best , buy the 1st album , happy trails , or lost gold and silver +music pos this is a great collection of the many " atom bomb " songs that are in movies such as " atomic cafe " , dr. strangelove , and other films of the genre . i highly recommend this to anyone who collects " bomb " memorabilia +camera pos i bought this camera for myself at christmas . it is my first digital camera purchase . i love the clarity of the pics . i love the shutter speed ! i do wish the lens cap would stay on better , but that is so minor compared to my likes of the camera . +camera neg i ordered the camera case for the canon digital elph 450. and i was given a completely different one . prices sound great , but they do not deliver what you buy . had a bad experience with them . +music neg i agree with all the other reviewers .. nice quality recording for its time considering it was in the vaults for decades ..great playing from all concerned ( except the cursed drummer ) , i cannot imagine what poor jerry gemmot went through with that drummer .. he should have been dismissed immediately ..or shot ..it would have sounded better without him .. gawd ' awful .. spoils the whole dang thing .. any way .. i cannot listen to this anymore without getting uncomfortable , so it 's back to soul of a man , re-kooperation , live adventures , super session , and kooper sessions with shuggie +music neg nana has a beautiful voice , but her singing is monotonous , predictable . she lacks passion . sometimes you feel she is reading the lyrics instead of really interpreting the song . in addition to this , the arrangements are unfortunately very poor . her soprano range deserves a proper orchestra . only love could be the perfect background music for a romantic dinner with candles , but this is not the album i would like to listen to again and again +camera pos i purchased this camera primarily as a back-up camera . but i find myself using it more and more inplace of my main camera . it is a beautiful piece of work +camera pos the nikon s3 has proven to be a good buy . it is affordable yet takes a quality photo . in addition this camera is easy to use and fits conveniently in a pocket . this camera has the ranging ability to take both a simple aim and shoot photo , and at the same time complex skill shots that is complemented by computer editing and redeye reduction . my only complaint is as a result of the user . if the camera does not have time to focus , then the picture quality suffers immensely . this camera has only been in use for about two months but has not let me down yet ! my rating : 9 / 10 +camera neg this tripod seemed to be very nice.. . until we tried to extend the legs all of the way . two and a half of the legs worked well , the third had a section that would not stay extended . the locking devices are pretty poor . they are made of a cheap plastic and i believe that even the ones that do work well now , will not last very long with even moderate use . next time i will try to find a tripod with a set screw type of leg extension lock +camera neg i 'm going to be completely honest with you . i hated the hp camera 's because 1. does not take great pictures at night 2. digital zoom is not great either 3. blur 's out if you do not stand still taking the picture . i 've had an old hp camera and i have had this newer hp camera and they are all the same . it doesnt seem like it really matters what mp they are . still bur 's out and it is disappointing . i guess it really depends on the person about this camera but i 'd rather have a sony , samsung , or some other company 's item . = +camera neg i bought the meade captureview 8x42 1.3mp digital camera binocular . the first one had software / hardware that hung up after 3 pictures , the second one had so many pixels missing from the screen it was unreadable , the third one wouldnt turn on and the black side flashing fell off on removal from the box . a truely tatty product +music neg just saw the video for this while flicking . the song talks about london bridge going down and everything but the bridge is fixed , it does n't go up or down with the video showing tower bridge . so bit of a mix up there . petty maybe but just thought it should be pointed out +music neg i was unable to play in my car cd player , so only choice i got is to listen at home using my home dvd player . +camera pos this is a pretty accurate radar gun for baseball , as far as i can tell . if you follow the directions , and are as close to the action as possible , and at a " straight on " angle , it looks like its correct in the + - 1 mph statement . however , this is a cool gadget , but if you are serious about " speed " and would like more versatility , then your going to have to go with the official mlb jugs gun...but at a much higher price . good luck +camera neg this item is either not coated or has a single coating and thus any time sun hits the filter , it produces flare in the picture . furthermore , after doing more research it turns out that these uncoated or single coated filters can cause up to 9% light loss vs multi-coated filters like hoya s-hmc or b+w mrc filters . as for polarizer effect itself , i think it 's amazing and you owe it to yourself to at least try it on a nice sunny day . ( the sky and foliage will look completely different and alive +camera neg i thought i was upgrading from analog to digital but after seeing the videos i shot indoors i liked the analog better . very poor and grainy . also the focus is terrible ! while filming 3 people in a row moving from one to the other the focus would blur then refocus . i filmed my daughter 's ballet recital and could not believe how the auto focus kept bluring then focusing . very disappointed with this purchase . i guess it 's true what they say . " you get what you pay for " it seems under $600.00 does n't get you much +music neg my two parakeets seem to enjoy this cd a bit , but if you want a cd for relaxing listening , be prepared to be irritated . i tried to go to sleep listening to it one night . i had to turn it off because it just got on my nerves.....i kept thinking it was stuck....like a record stuck in a grrove . it sometimes seems they recorded it by just hitting the " repeat " button on a couple of bird sounds . i think i could have done that . i 'm just glad it did n't cost a lot , but now i can see why . sorry for such a bad review , but i just had to tell anyone planning on buying it . i now just play it for my birds when i am not in the room +camera pos i bought my canon a540 recently from amazon and am completely satisfied . i added a 1gb sd card for $11 from ebay and a charger with 4 2500nimh aa batteries from the supermarket . the images are clear and large . you have the options of full automatic , various manual settings up to full manual and a wide selection of preprogrammed modes . at work we needed a new camera to record tiny scratches and imperfections in our manufactured product , so i took my camera in to demo . using the standard lens ( a macro lens is available but i do n't have it yet ) we photographed a quarter using only ambient light . in less than a minute we had the image on the screen and were able to blow it up until the date filled the screen and still maintain good detail . as a result we are now buying one for work with a macro accessory lens . i totally recommend it as an excellent all rounder +music neg the remix is totally devoid of any taste:first the vocals are completely-off ; the mix levels of vocals is far lower than the new musical dressings . secondly , there is absolutely no respect on part of the " mixing djs " for the great vocalists:there is no melody and absolutely no ' jelling-together ' of the music with the vocals . i was deeply disappointed with this cd.if you are into remixes get the rod stewart " do ya think i am sexy " single cd instead +music neg i remember buying a record by dna when it first came out...and i was really surprised later when arto lindsay and the ambitious lovers were able to turn this mess into great music . this is very unprofessiona +camera pos i took this with me recently to australia and shot landscapes as well as others , and the pictures came out better than the film cameras i have used recently , plus you do n't need a scanner . this camera works great , a must have for semi-pros . pros , wait for the new 1d . pictures come out great at 11 " x17 " +music pos what else can be said about this great cd ? it 's one of the best pop records ever made and you never get sick of hearing these 10 songs . " child of vision " is the best ( the piano solo is killer ) of the best , but this is one of those rare cd 's that you just pop in and let the entire thing play till the end ( no skipping over songs you do n't like ) . a true classic +camera pos photos were excellent . but photo print quality depends very much on the print shop . for the same photo file , it can look like a 4m photo when taken to a below quality printer shop . photos taken indoor with marginal lighting ( no flash used ) turned out to be yellowish . battery life is very long despite its large 3 " lcd . battery charging time is over 3 hours - too long . photos files viewed on computer looks just great . 8'x10 ' prints are great but have not tried larger prints . touch screeen control is a delight and very easy to choose and set . date on photo is red ( would be better if it is black ) . and the location of the date is not at the far right hand corner +camera neg the camera case only works if you wear a belt- - there is no clip on . the case itself holds only the camera , not even space for a spare battery or memory card . ( i 've heard the case will darken your camera , but i did n't end up using the case ) . the neck strap is not useful , it 's too long . at ' 34 inches , if you 're not careful you could swing your camera into something and break it . ( the canon camera rocks , however . +camera pos i do n't have that much stuff , but fits all my dslr gadgets plus my camcorder . fits - my canon xti with my canon 50 mm attached . - my kit lens - my new canon 70-300 is - my panasonic video cam - minor accessories ( extra batteries , cables , memory cards , etc ) there are separators with velcros inside , so you can configure the bag however you want it . the only issue i have with this bag is that i wa n't able to configure it to store my xti with my 70-300 attached +camera neg we purchased this camera and overall it was a good camera . it took excellent outside video and was not a great performer in low light conditions but that is not atypical of today 's reasonably priced minidv camcorders . however after six months the lcd screen suddenly stopped working . it was not mishandled and the otherwise the camera works great . we sent it last november to the panasonic authorized service center . they returned it three months later unrepaired because the part is not available . we were out $100 in labor fees plus we still have a broken camera that is less than a year old . i only share this as a warning to potential buyers . panasonic did not honor our warranty +camera pos the canon rs-60e3 is all that canon says it is....it is a simple one handed operation switch that can open the flash , focus , then release the shutter once , a multiple of times , or hold it open for bulb exposure . although the cord is not long enough to include the photographer in the picture , it was simple enough to make an " extension " that allows for very remote exposures +camera neg another lense jam problem . the lense cover accidentally slide open in my pocket , and the lense extended and jammed . this happened frequently with my old powershot s30 but never caused a problem . canon said the warranty is void because there 's a tiny dent on the front and back . they said any physical damage voids the warranty . i complained that the camera has an all metal body which dings easily . they gave me 20% off the repair +music neg out of all of the early ' 90s , l.a. gangster flicks , this one probably had the best set of chicano oldie tracks . the movie was laced with them , yet none are on the soundtrack . kind of a waste . sure , you can get those oldies anywhere . but it would be nice to have those songs from this movie on one cd . again , it was a good sequence they used . aside from that ; it 's okay , i guess , if you 're a fan of b-list l.a. chicano rappers . but , even if you are , you can get better music from their respective albums . lsob 's first cd from ' 91 was tight . if you have that , then you 're really not missing anything by letting the ' loca ' soundtrack pass . +camera pos one of the reviews i read before purchasing these suggested that the reviewer should 've had them for her celine dion concert . i took the suggestion and they were perfect ! they fit nicely in my evening bag and brought celine closer to me as i sat in the second mezzanine at caesar 's palace ! not only that - but the price was right ! i could n't be happier ! plus , now i have them for our next trip to rocky mountain park to get up close and personal to some wildlife +camera neg i bought a 743 for the wife for christmas . i had a 6330 that i was very happy with . so a 743 should be better right ? every time that she went to use it the batteries were dead . we finally figured out that a new set would go dead in two days without ever turning it on ! after several e mails they told me to call service . i got someone in india that could not understand me and i had a really hard time figuring out what he was saying . they made it very dificult to get it sent in . i sent it in today , but i do not expect much from the example that their service has done so far . i hope it comes back at least . +camera pos this film seems a lot better than kodak max 400 even though it is basically the same thing ( except for the fact that it 's black and white ) . i would n't recommend this for proffesionals , but it 's great for the average person +music pos i thought this album was good not great , but saying that i do recomend it to everyone because it does have some great songs it . the best songs on the cd to are . 2. comfortable liar 3. send the pain below 4. closure 5. the red 6. wonder what 's next and my favorite track is #2 it sounded so sweet , you will love that song +camera pos we love this camera . it 's small , easy to use , has a big lcd screen and takes great pictures . fuji has always been a great product and this one is no exception +music pos i have been into vaisnava spirituality a long time , and they really got it , perfect and professional +music neg the music of dowland is wonderful - but sting is n't up to interpreting it . you ca n't even distinguish the words half the time , just a jumble of nice sounds from his pretty tenor - he does n't possess the skills to carry it off . this music has to be interpreted by someone with an ability to express thoughts in heightened language...sting , for all his merits , has n't got that in his repertoire yet . it 's an exercise in pretention , laughable at times . the letter reading is ridiculous . i love both sting 's voice and dowland 's song , but this cd is a failure . +camera pos i enjoy the tc80n3.you may think it 's costly , but the features are out standing.i think it was worth the buy.the only disappointment i have is there is no " on , off " power switch +music neg lonestar did n't really surprise me with their 2001 effort . i 'm already there and not a day goes by suffers from " amazed " syndrome . amazed 's 1999 multi-format mega success is spread all over this album , their wanting to sound like every ' 80s heavy metal band power ballad . did they listen to monster ballads 2 too much while making this album in nashville ? i 'm already there comes off as very diane warren-ish in its sappy lyrics . their wanting to be diverse as a country band is okay , but these songs do n't work for them . these songs are just complete fluff and their other songs are far better than this . +music neg i bought this because a few people had put it in their amazon lists . i just did n't like it at all . it is one of those albums where you play it , and you do n't take notice of it until the cd stops playing . it is very old and the music is simplistic . cool cover though +camera neg i thought my jvc digital camera was handy , easy to use and worked pretty well for what it was.. . then one day at my daughter 's ballet show , i turned it on ( i made sure i charged it all night ) and it would n't record . it kept saying that the lens cap was on . i am so frustrated and sad . i spent a good chunk of money on this item and do n't know what happened.. . still do n't have a way of recording my daughter 's milestones... . do n't buy it , if you have other options . +camera neg like others , mine will review pictures but shuts off almost immediately when in i turn it on in still mode . bought in december 2005 , it is now not working . it is scandalous that so many of us have the same issue and sony is not addressing it . sony should be forced to recall these cameras . +music pos i really enjoyed the song kids in america by no secrets . both of my children enjoyed it as well . in fact i have been looking for their cd or for more information on them . i thought they were cute , fresh , and brought a new touch to the song +camera neg nice looking . good quality . but the case has two large flaps on the sides which make it difficult to put the camera in and out . +camera pos do n't listen to the reviews that claim that this lens is not a good choice for cropped sensor cameras ( ie the 20d , 30d , rebels etc ) the canon l lens are the best and this particular lens is no exception . i have had the lens for less than 24 hours now and am in love with the sharpness and color already . great lens , great color , so well built , super sharp , just watch out if this is your first l lens , you 'll be hooked . this is a lens you will have for many years , great investment +camera neg this is first canon product that has disappointed me with its quality . they must acquire them from their chinese supplier for about 98 cents . this plastic device wobbles even when fully rotated to the detente position . i bought it to use with the canon 250d close-up lens and it 's barely adequate for that function . canon should refund anyone who mistakenly bought one of these hockey pucks . +camera neg i bought a sony icd-mx20 digital voice recorder a week ago . i was surprised that sony does not provide downloads of the associated software named " digital voice editor " . sony customer service staff told me that if you lost the cd that came with the box , you had to buy a new one . only patches of the software are available to download . the customer service personnel told me that it was corporate policy despite the fact that the software is bound to the digital device . this immoral policy violating the norm of digital appliance industries and should not be encouraged . sony is demoting its brand name by offering poor post-sales services . think twice before making your buying decision . +camera neg i ordered this digital frame for my husband for christmas , with the assurance from a " tech weenie " that it would work , based on the advertisement found at amazon . still uncertain whether the ad ( also found in philips cursory literature ) is really true . my husband is working with the " phone people " at philips to determine whether it will or will not interface with mac . if it does eventually work , the process has not been easy +camera pos i use this little gadget mainly for macro and portrait work . when you have it on the light emitting from the flash is diffused which gives you a more flattering less contrasty light to illuminate your subjects with . unless you are going for a very shadowy , high-contrast , image this diffuser can save the day . it is very light weight and easy to pack in small places , so you should never have a good reason to leave it behind . sometimes it is the simple things that make the biggest difference in a photo , and using this can defiantly make very noticeable differences +music neg i like how the people on here who turn to sarcasm when rating this cd think they 're funny . heh , so witty . anywho i 'm not a big fan of fall out boy , but there are a couple of good songs on this cd........notably grand theft autumn and saturday . those are really the only two that hold up its rating for me tho...2 stars +camera pos very easy to use . menuing is extremely intuitive . do n't forget to order spare disks , 30 mins goes by quick +camera neg the e550 is a good camera and this lens does do a good job of zooming in on the subject but due to the way the camera and lens are designed , you must have the camera 's zoom fully extended in order to use this tele lens . so this means if the subject is moving around a lot , such as my daughter playing soccer , you will miss the shots where the action has moved to close to you because you ca n't zoom out . as long as the action remains at some distance to you than this zoom lens is useful . i unfortunately have too many ruined shots because the action moved too close and their heads get cut off , etc. another negative is that the viewfinder does n't show the zoomed in image , you must use the lcd screen to frame a shot , which can be difficult in bright sunlight +camera pos this is my 5th digital camera . it is the best i have used in this size camera +music pos we really liked the cd of music from the sound track of the movie , elf. it was what we expected and we appreciated getting it promptly since it is christmas music and we we able to enjoy it all through the holiday season . +camera neg did not get kodak max , instead recieved regular kodak crv3 battery . i thought i was ordering a better version , seller needs to change misleading picture ! +music neg their new stuff is even worse . but this is still sexist , boring , annoying music at its worst . there are much better artists out there , so why listen to these two untalented rappers +camera neg very disappointed by canon on the fit of this adapter . adapater and shade attachments block camer lens view and create flash shadows +camera neg the camera takes a long time between pictures to regenerate for the next picture . compared to other digital camera 's this has presented a problem for the two users i purchased these camera 's for . also the flash does not adjust for the correct exposure at protraits within 3 to 5 feet . the pictures are too hot , over exposed and no adjustment works properly . +music pos .and so worth the price of admission . 6 cds worth to be exact . coleman 's musical voice is so free and full of life ! it really is beautiful +camera neg this bag could be a bit larger and have more pockets . quite small for the price . just paying for the name on the bag +camera pos love this digital camera compared to our previous ones . we 're mostly a point-and-click family , and this is an easy-to-use camera that does a good point-and-click and gives an opportunity to do more if you should so choose some day +camera pos this item is cute . my only complaint is that it really can only hold the camera . there is no space for an extra card or battery . it does however have a convenient belt clip on the back that you could also attach a shoulder strap to . +music neg there are 2 good songs on this disc , stinkfist and aenema . the rest are pure crap . half of the tracks are n't even songs , they 're just a bunch of noise . no wonder tool wo n't put any of thier music on itunes or napster . they want you to buy the whole cd so they can have your $14 for like four real songs and ten tracks of filler crap . if you gave this cd 5 stars there is something wrong with you and you should be beaten severely +music pos i used to be a bigger fan of joe satriani than steve vai about 10 years ago . now i quickly get bored of new satriani albums , but vai 's music just moves me . lotus feet for example , wow , words cannot describe what that song does to me . thanks steve +music neg i 'm sure it was fun for van to record a bunch of songs he likes , but overall this would have made for a disappointing bootleg . thanks for all the great music through the healing game . all good times have to come to an end +camera pos this battery is backwards compatible with the d50 , d70 / 70s , and is used in the d80 and d200. so if you have any nikon dslr and want a second battery , you want to get this one so that when you upgrade your camera you can use the battery . this battery has built-in circuitry that tells you the actual charge status of the battery , and it is accurate . this is a big deal ; *if you are using the d200 or d80* it lets you know when your really do need to switch batteries or charge up . this is the first battery i 've seen that is accurate in this regard . kudos to nikon . ( this feature does not work in the d50 / 70 / 70s but the battery otherwise works fine ) +camera pos great flash , all the good qualities of the sb800 but less of the data dump and decision quagmire ! it has the built in flash disperser , its lighter than the 800 , so unless you 're into more info than you need , go with the sb600. oh , it has a shorter recycle time too . +music pos this music is undefinable ultimately . oh yes , one can say parts sound like hard rock or progressive . one can say many things about it . for me , this , along with " up the downstairs " are probably their two best and they are both as different as night and day . i 've become a collector of pt 's stuff and like most of it very much indeed . check out some of the side projects of the members in the band- -like blackfield and no-man . they are worth good listenings too . but , you know , this would n't be a bad album to start your pt experience with . no , not at all +music neg this album is lame as hell but next to the air pollution on the airwaves today , this aint too bad thats why it gets a 2. right before female rappers ( there 's a few exceptions ) , i hate all little kid rappers . even when i was a kid . i do n't like anything on this album , i still got the tape and it has n't " krossed " my mind to even cop the cd . if you like this kind of stuff , or you loved " jump " back in the day then i guess this is for you +music neg kate moss ? that gawddamn rollerskate song ? oh , no . the spoken tracks are equally repelling . there is really no atmosphere to this album +camera pos i recently purchased this for use with my 550ex . if you use alot of flash for event photography , you will want this in your kit . it is expensive , but i think it is worth every penny . it will keep you from changing aas in your strobe and it quickens the recycle times to nearly instant . you can shoot bursts and still get the proper flash exposure . you can attach a strap to sling it over your shoulder or slip it on your belt . mounting on my 20d was just not comfortable . it gets in the way of the hand-grip +camera neg this camera took some great pictures , and i enjoyed it 's size and functionality for several months . i was sitting in a lawn chair at a barbecue last weekend when i was passing it to a friend who was also seated . the camera fell about 2 feet onto soft grass . the end . the lens assembly is shot , according to my local camera store , not economical to fix . this was about the softest fall a camera could take , and not work , it was like landing on a pillow . i will not buy hp cameras again +music pos ummm if you buy it you will know i borrowed it from a friend and he never got it back...so i bought him another +music neg first of all floetic was a brilliant album and after i heard superstar on the radio i thought flo'ology was going to be a classic too . i was wrong . this album lacks originality , its inferior to be precise . the first time i popped this cd into the system , i found myself being friends with the skip forward button . the length of the records is despicable this cd is not worth having....the only track that stands out for me is superstar and i think common is amazing +camera pos i bought this camera to take pictures of my sons playing basketball . my other camera shot dark grainy pictures indoor . i have had a lot of success with this and really nice outdoor shots as well . what i just started playing with , and i love is the video feature . it is so easy to use and the images are better than i expected . i bought this camera in december as a present to myself and i have used it constantly and recharged the battery twice . this is major to me as my nikon was devouring batteries in an afternoon . the optical zoom is clean , but the digital is definitely noisy . i have had fun shooting pictures of my kids because the shutter speed is so quick and i do n't miss the shot . +music neg i agree with the other negative review below - uninspired , simply forgettable radio trash . cliched lyrics ? check . muddy , simple riffs ? check . boring drumming with a couple of poorly played double bass kicks ? check . thank god i got this in a box of cd 's from a dj buddy of mine for free awhile back . if i actually paid for this crap i 'd have to kill myself . judging from all the " positive " reviews however , it seems some people at lava records or possibly the band themselves ( if they 're still around . i hope not . ) have been trying to plug this sorry excuse for music . +camera pos i got this camera so i could have more control . i 'm learning to use the shutter and aperture settings...i have n't explored all the fancy settings much , but there are tons of them . i really like the continuous shooting option so i 'm more likely to catch a good action shot . the wide-angle lens has also allowed me to get some pretty cool shots and the macro settings work great for close-ups . i think it 's one of the best buys you can find if you want to take some pretty cool photos , but do n't feel quite ready for an slr +camera pos i recently bought this lens amid trepidation that the 85mm focal length would overwhelm the x1.6 crop factor of my digital rebel xl . my worries were needless : just a step or two back from the subject plus some getting used to the telephoto perspective were enough to turn this lens into the most effective portrait lens that i have . when attached to my eos elan 7n film camera , however , the lens really truly comes into its own , as the full frame 35mm slr delivers the entire focal range of this lens . the focused image is incredibly crisp compared to any other non-l grade lens . and i agree that this lens deserves the red ring of courage around it , like the l lenses have . this glass is absolutely essential in a very short list of affordable lenses , and should give many of the non-affordable ones a run for their money . solidly built too , with an old-fashioned no-nonsense look to it . i highly recommend it +camera pos i had the tokina 12-24 f4 and it was a great sharp lens . this canon focuses faster and is wider . if you 're worried about full frame in the future do n't be . just buy this lens and enjoy the ultra wide images . it light , fast and sharp . " l " quality pictures . the build could be better but i do n't see any problems down the road . +music neg i just finished seeing the movie and loved the song at the end and immediately started looking up amazon for this song . thanks to melania for pointing out the song title at the end . i realize this cd is just a soundtrack , but typically most soundtracks also include the ending songs . it is just plain dumb not to include the best music in this cd . my vote - do not buy this cd . the soundtrack is all pretty generic stuff . but get the ending title song if you can - it 's great . +music pos rien a dire si ce n'est que too $hort et ses potes ça claque c'est tout +camera neg we never dropped our camera and until now its still looks fresh and new . and one day , the lens just wo n't open . it lights up then after a few seconds , it turns off automatically . called a up a kodak service center and they gave me a quote for repair . the price they 've given me is close to my purchase price here in amazon ! i 'll never buy a kodak camera again until they come up with a good pricing for repairs . i do believe that all electronic gadgets die at some point . so i 'm expecting a believable quote for repairs . i think kodak is making expensive disposable digital camera +music pos though i own alot of paul desmond recordings , this one as been in the cd changer for weeks now . there 's great , gentle interplay with jim hall , and a total sound that is most enjoyable . warm and round notes make this perfect evening music which i have found pleases most everyone +camera neg i bought this frame as a gift for my parents and ended up returning it . the price was right but the quality was poor and there were 2 spots on the screen that looked like they were already burned out ( displaying blue and green pixels ) . i did enjoy the fact that it hooks right up to the computer with a usb port but that is about all . overall do n't waste your time and money +camera neg well at least , some stuff is cool , free cam bag , the pics come out excellent . the video feature is really crappy and when you play back video its very choppy and the audio is a little hard to know whats being heard . also you could through dozens of batteries with this cam . the adapter doesnt help only if youre going to sit down and review whats on it or keep the power from draining . the sd card kept popping out for someone which caused the cam to " freeze up " . bottom line...i recommend at least researching other brands of mini-tapeless cams...but this one...isnt worth 159 or whatever . its trash . go for something else +music neg i tried to listen to samples of the songs and you have them all wrong . i click on one song and get another from on the list . what gives anyway +music neg i love the song " nasca lines " which i first heard on a putamayo world music cd , so i ordered " under one sky " since it has " nasca lines . " i figured all the music would be as good , but i was so disappointed . it was very jazzy , which i hate . i 'm going back to the putamayo cds +camera pos i 've purchased other bags but this one beats all & it was a great price to +camera pos pros : compact and complete , this portable lighting studio offers flexibility with it 's reversible backdrop ( gray / blue ) . i also have used the black back panel for some shots as well . construction quality is good ( i found one of my cats sleeping on the top panel , which is fabric and held in place with velcro tabs ) , sturdy enough for its intended purpose . i like the output of the lights- -seems to be a broad spectrum similar to daylight . cons : only one complaint : the output of the lights could be stronger . requires a tripod to gain depth of field with a smaller aperture +camera pos i am starting my career as a professional photographer , and i have n't had any problems with these filters . they come in a nice case , and are easy to attach to my lenses . +camera pos xti is feature laden , but takes fantastic " point and shoot " photos . seems to be a significant improvement on canon 's rebel xt , a wonderful camera . for the money , the best slr going +music neg i own all of bebo norman 's cds , and i love all of them , except for this one . i bought it and listened to it once , and i hated it . it does not sound like bebo . this sounds like steven curtis chapman or michael w . smith or any of the other mass produced christian / pop music artists . on all of his previous albums , even though he changed his sound slightly , it was still generally very acoustic and bebo-ish . this album sounds nothing like his previous music . i was disappointed . +music neg zoolook~ jean-michel jarre is a case where the artist is way to avant-garde for his own best . after having made amazing albums such as oxygene , equinox and magnetic fields he unfortunately creates this mess of an album . i find it a bit too much like modern art , i.e. , confusing , confounding and impossible to grasp . it also seems like jarre was a bit over confident when he recorded this album . he had recorded some of the best synth albums of all time and decided to create a total arts album and it just does not work . this is an album that should have stayed unrealesed since it is just to avant-garde and sounds more like an experimental sound session rather then as a well produced album . very disapointing indeed ! +camera neg i agree with the people complaining about the poor cs policy at jvc . they let me down as well , when it was obvious the camera was poorly designed and built . i am now using a different brand and will definitely avoid jvc in the future . i just hate it when companies do not care about their customers but just about profit . this will come back and bite them in the behind +camera neg so i get my camera and first off they basically lie because they act like you have a lot of memory on it to start off but you dont.then after a week it just stops working.dont get it , theres no flash whatsoeve +music pos this record is one of the best that has found its way out since the new millenium . i am partial to good songwriting and bill 's particular folk-country-alt-emotive sound . the tracks to me all over the place and take it from someone who has been there and back -it was well worth the trip +music pos this is one of the truly great handel opera recordings of the last twenty years . as usual , nicholas mcgegan proves himself to be one of the two or three greatest handelian conductors of our time . the singing from beginning to end is first class . this opera is known for the famous largo " ombra mai fu , " but the music in this entire performance is a sheer delight +camera pos i purchased this kit , primarily for the extra battery , which retails for about what i paid for this item . having the backup battery is great , but i was pleasantly suprised by the soft case . it protects my dsc-p200 , without being bulky or heavy . with the camera being so small , it was hard to find good protection without spending quite a bit of money . the case for the memory sticks is nice as well . it is easy to lose a stick if it 's just floating around and the case keeps them securely . all in all , this is an excellent value +music pos i 'm only giving this 5 stars because the actual recordings are priceless . however i 'm telling you now . do not buy this album this is stolen goods and the recordings that are on this cd are not even of the finest quality . this is purely a commercial album released by the record company without the permission of jack off jill 's members . and thus they recieve no royalties for the selling of this album . fear not though . you can get the tracks off this album completely free and in better quality . agent moulder of jack off jill has remastered and released them on her website for your downloading pleasure . you can find them here : t-c-r.net / jojmusic while you are there check out and support her new band tcr , and their new album ' the chrome recordings' . singer jessicka also has an amazing new band if you did n't already know . check her and scarling . out at scarling.com god bless jack off jill . +camera neg ok , maybe a 1 star is actually fair since my nose does n't smudge the lcd screen as much . the most annoying thing for me is it constantly falls off the camera . both my 30d and rebel xt . if i am lucky enough it will fall off , get lost and eventually i will not be reminded i wasted money on this accesory +camera neg my 5-year old daughter spent all day taking pictures of her and her baby sister in san francisco . we put new batteries in that morning . the next day i was wondering why the picture numbers had reset . when i tried to download the pictures to my computer , they were all gone , and the battery icon was flashing . based on what i 've read here , it appears the batteries died after one day of use and the pictures were all erased . the picture quality is about the same as an old camera phone - - pretty poor , but good enough for my 5-year to enjoy . but what good is that when there are n't even any pictures the next day . i 'm hoping the store will take it back +camera pos this is something you will really need to keep you camcorder save and sound . defenitely worth the money +camera neg probably would buy other camera if i could do over this one takes along time to gechage after flash . it is very touchy and you get alot of blurred pictures . you have to learn how to be very steady with it +music neg i heard that song recently " three strange days " ...and i recalled how much i detested it when it came out . overt pandering to tyros in altered states . now i ca n't get it out of my head , and may require a lobotomy . there was a lot of interesting stuff that came out in ' 91 ; but this was n't part of that canon . nice try school of fish . have fun playing the cyo circuit +music pos i 'm not particularly familiar with sonic youth and the bits i 've heard from their other albums have n't really grabbed me . this does . the rhythm section would n't be out of place in pseudo-tribal funk , the guitars are dissonant , jangling , sometimes hypnotically repetitive , and just plain weird , and the vocals are distant , airy , lazy . some of the best music i 've heard in a good long while +camera neg i bought this to play back old hi8 tapes so i could transfer them to dvd . however , there is no s-video out and no stereo out . video quality was bad : output was noisey and reds were over saturated . i imagine this is because there is no s-video out . i returned it and have ordered a sony gv-d200. hopefully it will give me better quality since it was more than twice as much . there are some cheaper used options available , e.g. sony evo-250 +music neg i was ( and still am ) a huge fan of " mr. show " . it was the only reason i kept my hbo subscription . it 's hard for me to believe that the same talent that created " mr. show " produced this weak offering . might be the least funny comedy cd i 've ever heard . virtually all the material in the album has been done before , and much better , by other comedians . most of the bits just lay there and die . mr. cross seems to realize this and tries to make up for it by saying f*ck a lot . sorry , it just does n't work . do n't waste you money on this one . get the " mr. show " dvds instead and forget this ever existed . +music pos the fisrt cd is alot better than this one , but this one is still okay . i only liked one song on this disc and it is . track 4. will the circle be unbroken / i 'll fly away / jesus loves me . do n't get me wrong the music is beautiful , but i think the first one is alot better +music neg i think someone forgot to tell molotov that rap-metal / rock-rap was dead . had potential , but the simple riffage and annoying rapping killed it for me +camera pos yep , it extends the eyepiece out a little bit ... which helps those of us with noses not smudge the lcd display ... but it also distorts the view in an annoying way . i use mine on occasion ... but not all the time +music pos for those who have watched the movie jaws ( ask yourself , who has n't ) will know that one of many key elements that made the movie a huge success was the fantastic score john williams did for it . this cd captures all the music from the movie perfectly , with some new elements thrown in that are not found in the film . the linear notes are bright and colourful and provide some interesting information , which gives the overall package a nice touch . the overall cd package is certainly not a rushed effort and is worth every cent . a highly recommended purchase for those who love their soundtracks or anyone who wants to relive the film through the music +music neg this was one of the most dissappointing debut albums to come out of the mid nineties g-funk heyday . warren g . did n't even produce one song on this sorry attempt at making hard / soft gangsta rap except for the title track that was already used on his album a year before . the skits are ridiculous , the music is halfass , and the lyrics are amateur . there is absolutely nothing that keeps the listener 's attention for a whole album . this is similar to other west coast rap albums that play it too safe such as w.c. and the madd circle 's debut and coolio 's " it takes a thief " . one star for the hit single " summertime in the l.b.c. " . +camera pos i 've had other 3 digital cameras and this is the best i think , i shots very quick , flash is brighty , and even soft flash for more natural shots . can browse pictures very fast and is has a lot of posibilities to edit inside the camera , is light tiny and slim . one of the best cameras . i do n't find a negative feature on it . i love it +camera neg i just bought this camera and took it to one of my kid 's indoor soccer games . the light was low , but not that low . you should be able to take a picture without the flash . when i took the flash off , the picture looked fine on the preview , but came out completely black . yet the camera was able to take perfectly fine video at the same light level ! what a disappointment . i am going to try to return it +music pos brian regan is simply a comedic genius . this cd is especially funny after having seen him live- -you can just picture his hilarious gestures and facial expressions ! he has managed to create a hysterical routine based on the silly stuff we 've all said / done / thought . while i too enjoy comedians who are more " cutting edge " , i do n't think a routine has to be peppered with profanity to be funny . this cd is well worth any price ; check out his dvd and his live show , too +camera neg yes , it does provide a bit more eye relief , and can make it easier to see the whole frame ( by making it smaller ) , but there is a major problem with this . the eyepiece lens surface will not be as deeply couched in the rubber trim when you use this , and the result is a lot more reflections flashing around in the eyepiece when you have light behind you . this is especially a problem when you are wearing glasses . +music neg the track selection is fine and okay , but the track order is bad . no flow ! proving that he just took popular tracks that other big djs are spinning and sold an album without a smile . the mixing is terrible and abrupt , its basically not mixing . no art there . +music neg http : / / www.strangeland.com / asp / show.asp ? id=13635 http : / / www3.strangeland.com / asp / show.asp ? id=99 +camera neg i was not satisfied with the quality of the digital pictures on this ziga digital frame . i returned it +camera neg i bought this camera for my 13-year old son to take with him on a soccer trip to bermuda . it was ok . felt sort of cheap , but seemed like it would do what it was supposed to . big drawback....there is no lens cover that slips into place when a picture is n't being shot , so the danger of scratching the lens is immense . my son was so afraid of scratching the lens , that he barely used it . some of the few pictures that he did take were ok , but others were not of the best quality . i think this camera is a bit too costly for what you get , and i 'm surprised , because i usually love samsung products +music neg this recording is not great company . i 'm really confused : is it a broadway recording or a very poor amatuer recording ? and if so , did this rubbish actually make it to the broadway stage ? i feel for the people that saw it , and were expecting the rich full melodies that sondheim produced for this show . the musical director for this abomination should be called a mutilation director , because that is precisely what he did to the music of this show . so the only advice i give to future musical directors that want to revive and revamp a show : if it 's not broke , please , please , please do n't try and fix it ! some things are just perfect the way they are . do n't buy this cd . i did and it is now a coaster where it gets better use +music pos the ufo space travel theme of astonomy domine is continued on let there be more light saucerful of secrets and set the controls . rick wrights two songs are real good remember a day is one of the best on here . seesaw has interesting percusson . corporal clegg floyds first ww2 song is upbeat syds song jugband blues is one of the best early pink floyd songs.saucerful of secerets is a good early pink floyd cd it is an important part of pink floyds history . +music neg while filled with talented performers , this cd sucks . rocky is a campy , 1970 's b-movie , that 's what makes it enjoyable . even as a stage show it 's a hokey , rock-and-roll extravaganza . this cd tries to turn rocky into thoroughly modern millie , and it just does n't work . the corny sci-fi sound and less than amazing vocals are just what make rocky..rocky . this cast has so much less enthusiasm and energy than the original roxy cast . and lastly , tim curry is frank . his rendition is too ingrained in my head for me to accept the twangy annoyance that is the frank on this album . ripley is a little too legit for janet , and the female eddie weirds me out . buy the roxy cast . it 's so superior it 's almost laughable . +music neg i absolutely love charlotte church 's voice , but i could n't stand even 1 song on this cd . she 's lowered herself to a " brittany spears-wanna-be . " monotone songs , horrible bass , every song sounds the same . i am extremely disappointed in this collection of music . buy this one and you 're just wasting your money . would the real charlotte church please come back ? ? ? ? +music neg anyone ever see any of these rap " artists " perform live ? they 're the most boring , derivative " entertainers " in the world . they walk up and down the stage grabbing their crotch and yell their lyrics . they go from talking on records to yelling on stage . quite a stretch . all this is done with about thirty of their no-name friends prancing around stage with microphones saying " yeah ! " " uh-huh ! " " what ! " " that 's right ! " " uh ! " etc. get real . meanwhile , the only " music " provided is a backing track cued by some dude backstage . it makes for the most dull , predictable " concert " you 'll ever see . i ca n't wait until all this nonsense just disappears . in a world of common sense , these idiots would still be flipping burgers at mcdonald's . +camera neg please buy a different camera . i have owned 5 different pocket digital cameras . under normal wear and tear , the cannon sd400 's lcd screen broke where other cameras i 've owned have not . i just purchased the nikon s7c with a bigger screen that is so well protected that i can hit it with no adverse affect . if you do buy the sd400 , set aside the $150 you 'll likely need to replace the lcd +music neg this is the album when ja officially became a b*tch . his first 2 albums was good , i enjoyed them both and those are highly recommended . i hated this s*it from start to finish . this is a waste of space in the cd case . how can you be a murderer and a singer at the same time ? now i do n't mind too much about redoing a song about or with a dead rapper , but you should 've at least knew him muthaf***er ! another disembowelment to one of pac 's classics . i stopped listenin ' to ja because he made a big change . not cause of 50. unlike some turncoat fans . +camera pos price went up ! ! ! great value for money spent . will be buying a " ball " attachment for better adjustability . got some great steady shots with 48x digital zoom with the canon s2 i +music pos i love this soundtrack ! it stands alone as beautiful , haunting , alluring , and innocent- -just as griet herself was in the film . desplat perfectly captured the spirit of the story , enhanced and deepened a plot that was less than stellar . scarlett johanssen 's acting is superb , as well as essie davis and colin firth . the story , though , was a bit tired- -pretty housemaid / jealous wife / do-nothing husband . its portrayal of vermeer and his wife was a disservice to the real people , even though it is a fictionalized account . the two best tracks on this album are ' griet 's theme ' and ' colours in the clouds' . while i 'm not keen on seeing the film again , this soundtrack is a treasure . it 's a real work of art , second only to vermeer 's work +camera neg i received this filter and it had been used , seals were open and case that holds filters cracked , piece of plastic floating loose inside , smug marks on it . i was shocked , i order from amazon all the time and never had anything show up like this . +music pos top to bottom this album has it all - makes you laugh , makes you think , makes you want to dance . i ca n't wait till mainstream finally catches up and the music industry finally recognizes what a gift todd snider is and the talent he posseses . his music will inspire you to move something whether it 's your brain or your bottom ! check him out +music pos anyone who had access to a radio in the 80 's would know at least two songs by missing persons . their fun music and amazing flare ( dale did have pink and white stiped hair and it looked great ! ) make this a good party album . i also have their album color in your life and most of the songs are great . just as an added note , warren cuccarullo is now a member of duran duran ( my personal favorite band ) and has been since he appeared on their notorious album which was released in 1986 ! ! +music neg as much as it pains me to say it this live cd is not a worthy billy joel release . in fact one wonders why it was released at all . billy 's voice is strained and is prone to over singing and the arrangements are overblown . from the sound of things billy sounds like he was drunk or on medication . a lot of the running time is waisted with lengthy monologues with the audience . why this was put on the cd is anyones guess but it just neans less songs ! however the good news is that this cd has now been blown away by his superb new 12 gardens cd in which billy is the billy of old . the one who sung well and sung the songs straight as they were meant to be sung . 12 gardens is crammed with 32 songs rather than the 26 on offer here and there 's no timewaisting audience chat ! ! +music neg this is another " rip-off " cd . 3 songs and a video , do n't make this a good purchase . i expect a cd to have , at least , 8-10 songs on it . +music pos i purchased this cd during the lowest time of my life emotionally . every track brought solace and comfort beyond belief , especially the title track , deep peace . i would listen to it over and over , bathing in the lush healing sounds . each element , from the perfectly balanced vocals to the simple piano and violin motifs , is seemingly structured at a spiritual level . this is more than ambient music , it 's true music therapy . +camera neg the default supplier for this item is adorama . they have sku numbers mixed up on the back end , so they will ship you the hp 6221 dock instead . will not work with the r series . they do not even carry the actual hp 8887 dock . huge hassles , so click on the new and used link and buy directly from amazon . it 's a few dollars more , but at least you get the right item +camera neg the battery is half the side of the battery came with the camera an last half the time , an number or not the same , an it , s not the same battery . do not buy any thing from them because lying about what they are selling +camera neg the camera worked perfectly for one week and then stopped working permanently . i just sent it off for repairs and have not received a diagnosis as to the root of the problem +music pos incredible follow up to rated r which i did n't think could be equaled and they did . flat out incredible songwriting , amazing vocal identity and muscianship at its best . if you grew up in the 70 's as i did and miss those albums that you would play constantly from beginning to end then this album is for you . " go with the flow " is one of the greatest rock singles of all time but you wo n't be skipping any songs on this disc . baby boomers rejoice , rock is back +music neg i do n't see the comparison to jeff buckley at all ! that was a singer who had more talent in his little pinky than this band has on the entire album . all the songs are much too similar , the guy 's voice gets boring to listen to after a while and , if you remember london suede , has a very similar sound to them ( though i will say that london suede was much better ) . no one has come close to the pipes of j . buckley ( or even tim b . , for that matter ) in years and this does n't count any where near that , either +camera pos this monopod does a great job for my camera . you have the quick , easy-off , it attatches to your camera by a screw , and you can press the button on the side of the monopod and just slide your camera right off of it quickly . i wanted a nice , inexpensive monopod for my new zoom lense . i have a canon 35mm , and i recently purchased a 75-300 zoom lense for it , and i needed a monopod to stabilize the shoot . if i knew then what i know now , i would buy it again . nice product +music neg this is definitely not a bad collection , but there are so many better ones out there , that this should not be your first choice . the song sweet emotion has been completely destroyed on this album . the entire bass intro has been cut out , and the song starts about an entire minute into it . there really is no reason to do this , as even on the radio , they play the entire thing , as it runs about 4 and a half minutes long . the song starts at a terrible place too . it sounds like it would if you turned on your radio to the middle of the song , then just stuck it on the cd that way . again , not a terrible compilation , but definitely not a good first choice +camera pos while not on the ' highest end ' of tripod purchases , this one is a must for anyone owning a hdr-hc1 or other compatable camcorder . operating the camera from the tripod ( rather than the touch screen ) provides steady footage for the amatuer videographer . the unit assembles easily and has stable panning and rotation . the only drawback is the soft storage bag which does n't provide adequate head protection +camera neg hp is selling this bag for $30 bucks , so when i found it here for $10 less i could n't let this " deal " pass me by.. . however when i received the bag , i wished i had.. . the color is less vibrant , it 's cheap , poor quality , plus hp is n't embroidered on the bag.. . walk away from this bag and get the blue and black hp bag instead , it costs a little bit more but it 's well worth it ! ! +music neg as others have noted , this turns out to be only a handful of lullabyes in spanish sung by maria del rey , plus nursery rhymes spoken by children and men ( not very good for putting a baby to sleep ) , plus the whole thing repeated in english . in addition , i had been looking for traditional latin american pieces and apparently all of these are contemporary . do n't waste your money...i 'm planning on giving my copy away if i can figure out someone i know who could actually use it +camera pos this is the perfect gift for any occasion.i bought one for my husband for his birthday and he took it to work next thing you know everyone was on here buying theirselves one.it is a very easy thing to load pics on and hook up to your tv.he sales cars and hes got his on his desk showing his family off and cars that they also have on the lot for the older people who are unable to withstand the heat so they sit right at his desk and check every car out on his digital frame.i give this frame an a++++++ +camera pos since this is my first digital camera , i really ca n't compair it to others out there . however , it does everything i need it to do and has more features than i make use of ! i 've never had a problem with it +music neg one word . generic . terrible . boring . ( well , they are all one word ) people must learn to have a better taste in music . granted there is at least one good song . a few others are decent , but only because there are no vocals . if you have heard any new band for the last 3 years , you have heard pulse ultra . my friend likes breaking binjaman ( another uber generic rock band in my book ) and he listened to 2 songs from pulse ultra and said " thats enough " . do yourself a favor and buy a good cd . when will people learn ! +camera neg cons only , no pros : the velcro closure is week and opens easily terrible look the side zippers are a mistery , totally useless no space for extra memory or battery attaches only to a very small belt the flash opens spontaneously while inserting the camera in its pouch making it difficult to get it out later on and probably damaging the flash +music neg no need to say more , these f@gs are just making lousy punk pop for the teenage girls and mtv watching kids who think they 're quite rebel with listening to this kind of sheit , and these suckers do it just for the money like green day or blink 182. there just have to be some stuff like this to fill all the pop and mtv charts +music pos robbie 's flow corses through your veins causing a feeling of total ecstacy and rejuvination . to have a cd that has the power to lift your spirit and your soul is something i feel so honored to have in my possesion . hats off to robbie +music pos this is the first of alison 's album 's that i bought , many years ago.....i 've watched her career blossom.....she was an unknown when she recorded this album but in my opinon , it 's her best ! true bluegrass , beautiful voice , wonderful music ! i 've had the opportunity to see her and the band in concert several times and their music never leaves me disappointed +music pos this cd is perfect for driving . the downtempo / beat driven ambient feel and overall togetherness of this cd is a perfect choice for easy electronic listening . overall very pleased with mr. schnauss ' contribution to the genre . highly reccomende +camera neg i picked this up with a music order for my 350d - big mistake . the class came chipped , scratched and smuged ; tiffen filters are of very poor quality . do yourself a favor , like i did , and find your local camera supply store and pick up an optical grade filter for maybe , oh , 10 dollars more . this tiffen one was so bad that the scratches made their way onto some shots and ruined an entire day of shooting +camera pos your site was the only place where could find a replacement for my lost nikon uc-e6 usb cable for my nikon coolpix 3100. even nikon could not satisfy my request . thank you cynthia valesi +music pos i just love lynch mixed with dooms production . it is what real is +camera neg have never before provided a negative review but this is a product to avoid . instructions worthless - - only learned by reading reviews here that it is possible to change some display settings then went to much trial and error . after getting best possible settings , main problem is still picture quality : using high quality jpg files as input , photos display with about the visual sharpness of the sunday funnies - - individual dots very noticeable even at some distance . not at all like what i have seen in other digital picture frames . just arrived from amazon and intended as a v-day gift ( tomorrow ) for my wife , big disappointment , guess i better make a dash to the florist . +music pos i have just purchased this cd ( the day it came out ! ) and from what i 've heard , it is amazing , surpassing ( but not replacing ) boulez 's earlier recording . if you are a fan of boulez , 20th century music , or music in general , this is a must get +music pos i bought this cd yesterday and i immediatly knew it was going to rock ! after hearing the title track , go ! , i knew this cd was going to be different then the spice girls cds. it is better . my favorite songs are never be the same again , ga ga , and goin down . +music pos i had been hearing " always thinking of you . " but , i never got who it was . i purchased xm radio and on the smooth jazz channel , i heard the cut again and got the artist name . purchased the cd based on that one cut . every cut is great on this cd . i look forward to catching him live at some point and will continue to look for more from him in the future . he has his own style . but , not only do you hear hints of benson and brown..........i hear a little doc powell as well . i will be introducing friends to this great artist............keep it coming........... . +camera neg i wish that i could review how well this charger works , but unfortunately i can't . the reason is because it was dead on arrival . i essentially bought a $20.00 ( with eek technology 's outrageous shipping ) brick . it never worked , ever , and shipping it back to exchange would cost more than a new unit ! at least i have the 4 batteries it came with , so it is n't a total loss . do n't make the same mistake . steer clear of this piece of junk +camera pos i bought this together with the sony alpha ( very good deal from amazon ) . the lens is a great complement to the kit lens or the identical but older km 18-70. images are very sharp and the lens is built very well . great for wildlife imaging . the other reviewers are right ; the af is n't too good at the long end of this lens but overall a great camera . the end of the lens does rotate while zooming . it may not be good for some filters +music pos those who liked suede may be looking for more of the same from the tears , but despite the obviously recognisable vocals from brett , and the familiar wailing of bernard 's guitar , this marks a watershed in their repertoire . the most obvious difference is that all the songs seem to have been crafted as ' hits ' ( much more radio-friendly , and why not ? ) . it 's also a more mellow sound than suede ( there were fewer opportunities for vigorous bouncing and hand-clapping at the tears concert i attended ) . another important difference is the guitar work , with bernard soaring off into sonic highs not experienced since reeves gabrels and tin machine . among the better songs are apollo 13 , brave new century , refugees and co-star . though brett and bernard are capable of better , this is a shot in the arm for us disenfranchised suede-heads , and i recommend you turn it up loud +camera pos this lens works really fast . it is a great lens . captures the color in real depth and detail with my canon 20d camera +music pos one of his best times . all the songs on this cd are great he express his fellings very openly . with this cd people can really see who marc anthony really is +music neg i bought the cd because i thought it was instrumental music . then i hit the tracks with vocals - yikes ! this is the only cd of lee ritenour that i bought . i am a first time listener . i must say that i do like the instrumental music very much . however , i really hate the tracks with vocals . +camera pos works great on my s2is , clicked on silver on main page but switched to black on order form , did n't notice this but i like the black anyway . looks good with acc +music pos have loved this album since it first came out years ago ( bought on vinyl - lost to the mists of time ) . the cd was out of print but i kept looking and found it on amazon ( it was re-released ) , yeah ! ! ! ! last steam engine , from the cradle to the grave , louise , owls , you do n't have to need me - some of my favorites . this , to me , is kottke in his prime +music neg ok - let me preface my comments by justifying the 2-star rating...it 's rodney dangerfield - he was a class act . as for the cd : if you 're looking for a few songs by a comedian accompanied by someone 's cheesy clavinova , then this cd is for you . i bought this because of the last track , " rappin ' rodney " , and boy was i disappointed . it sounds like it was recorded from an old worn out cassette . do yourself a favor - get all of rodney 's dvd 's with his standup material and remember him for what he was - a comedy legend +camera pos i needed this tripod to use with my 20x50 binoculars since the least movement with 20x magnification causes the subject to wind up outside the viewing field . this tripod works well for that use . it is sturdy , has lots of features and is reasonably priced . however , if you wish to use the tripod for binoculars , a right angle adapter will be needed . i found one on ebay for a few dollars . +music neg the songs just did not get me dancing . i have to say i was disappointed . but i love kids favorite songs vol 2 but was never able to buy it as it was not availabl +camera pos takes great pics and the 3 " screen is really nice . wall plug in recharger is nice also . i have taken pics outside in sunny , overcast , & rainy conditions . indoors at sporting events and around the house . in all settings the pics have been truly wonderful . a few instances of blurriness caused by an unsteady hand but otherwise very nice pics . however , as canon 's top of the line powershot commanding a higher dollar price this camera really should have a higher optical zoom . 3x isnt enough when other , cheaper cameras have 6x optical zoom . also image stabilzation should be included +music neg i love the sludge and the roar but the vocals are monotone and the lyrics laughable . gimme earth or sunno ) ) ) anyday +camera neg amazon 's aggressive marketing tacticts now include shipping you goods when you called them to cancel it . i will never buy from amazon again . i bought over 100 items over 5 years . i purchased the camera on a 1 day delivery plan . they then just ship 4-5 day completely insensitive to a photographer 's needs . i cancelled order 2 days before it ships , they say sorry we cannot cancel . 2 days ? ? ? come-on . i guess the $3000 just creates nice interest . the end for me and amazon , i do not like this kind of " aggressive marketing " . good advice , rather buy direct from b&h photo , pay double if you like , but you will get what you pay for there , not aggressive marketing and shoving of a product down your throat at their terms . i am truly annoyed . run , hide . +camera pos i own several canon lens for my 20d and this is hands down the best . i had a 28-135 which was a very good lens regardless of some reviews , and i got many excellent photos with it - this is distinctly better in all ways . ( of course , it costs a lot more ) . recently went with the grandchildred to sea world and i got 100% good photos , with several really outstanding ones . it is light , accurate and has is - what more do you want ? you can replace a slew of lens with this one and perhaps selling the old ones will help pay for it . bought it as soon as it was available and have not regretted it one moment . if you have one lens , this is the one +camera pos slightly smaller than the charger that comes with the s ( 40 , 45 , 50 , ... ) series cameras and the digital rebel series cameras . seems to charge in about the same time . feels a bit more substantial , but that 's not saying much as the chargers that come with those cameras seem pretty flimsy . i ca n't give it 5 stars because it does nothing more than the chargers that come with the cameras ( which i lost ) +camera pos solid construction , good optics , nice sound . as mentioned by others , the output for the usb transfer is found in the handycam console and not the camera itself...a minor annoyance . all in all , this is a good camera that is touch pricy but you do get what you pay for... . +music pos eddie 's first all-studio recording , and the album that got me hooked . i must say that even though they are uncomparably fantastic live , this album demonstrates the range and diversity of eddie from ohio . " oh my brother " is a particular favorite with julie murphy wells displaying her amazing range and beautiful voice , and robbie schaffer 's talent for emoting the absolute best of a heartwrenching situation . if this song does n't touch your heart , you have no appreciation for music . a particular plus on this album is a beautiful violin solo of " yerushalyim shel zahav " by guest musician pete wilson on " jerusalem , " another song by robbie , this time also performed by him . as always , the amazing prowess of this group is displayed magnificently +camera neg just turned out ot be more complicated to set up than i wanted . never used . returned it +music neg i was very disappointed with this volume . the past 2 volumes had great retro / loungy mixes and this new one is too repetitive and clubby . i was excited to see the postal service doing a mix , however it sounded just like any of their other songs . this cd sucks . +camera pos this fugifilm padded soft case is strong , durable and very attractive . it was more than i expected . it is very professional looking +camera pos i recently purchased this camera . it arrived one day before i was due to fly out to palm springs . i took lots of pictures with this camera and was pleased with all of them except the night time pictures . this may or may not be because i am a novice photographer . even with the night time setting my pictures came out blurry , but all others came out better than i ever expected . i think once i play around with it , my night time pictures will improve , but straight out the box this was kinda disappointing to me . no regrets with this purchase though . also , buy a larger memory stick . the one that comes with the camera only stored 6 pictures and i had to run out and buy another . +camera neg i wear glasses and press against the viewfinder as hard as i can to help keep the shot stable ( i shoot birds at 700mm ) . the first thing my friend and i did was to compare two identical lenses / cameras etc. - one with , one without , the extender . result : - the image appeared the same size , and the extender slightly blurred the image . in other words - completely useless +camera neg here 's one more a95 to add to the ever increasing list of e18 failures . thanks to the horror stories from the other posters i 'm not even going to waste my time trying to get this repaired . the camera is only about 2 years old.. . guess i 'll put it back in the box and wait to see the outcome from the class action suits ! the camera really performed nicely when it was working.. . thus the 2 stars . hope you have better luck than me if you get one +music neg id advise not to buy the album . listening to it is like contacting gonorrhea . trust me ive done both +camera neg although easy to load a smart card , this viewer was disappointing in quality . my pictures look fine on my computer , but the pictures were dark and there was no instruction on how to change the contrast etc. ( although i found that it the picture could be adjusted , it was never mentioned in the manual ) . the manual is , because of the comment above , disgustingly incomplete . if not going through the bother of returning it through amazon because i purchased it on line , i would not have kept it . i actually bought another digital frame that was smaller and cheaper and it was worse , otherwise i would have given it only one star . i could have purchased a unit a circuit city or bestbuy and been better off +camera neg got this from toys-r-us for 35 dollars , it stopped working within a week , if there was a rating less than one star i 'd give it that , they should call it dummy - buyer - you 've - been - conned camera ki +music neg i gave this a good listen , but did not find it all that funny ... or memorable +music neg this cd has some good songs on it , but the majority of them are less than 2 minutes ! it 's kind of a rip off since the songs are much shorter than i expected . they are mixed together , and sometimes a song is so short that the one before it is still fading out by the time the song after it has started ! if you do n't mind really short songs , buy this , but i would n't recommend it otherwise +music neg this album is not what i call a album first 4 trackz are the tightest with the tightest beats . best track on here is " i practice looking hard " probably one of the best trackz he eva made in his whole career i love that song but otha than that " captain save a hoe " and " mail man " are a discrace . he shouldnt have even made this cd until he got more track +music pos this is a great cd with many good songs as it is one of my favorites and bruce rules +camera pos i upgraded from the canon digital rebel ( grey body ) to this because i was ready to take my photography to a new level . one thing i like most about this camera is it 's flash compenstation . i purchased the 430ex flash with it because i was tired of having to use the built in flash and always getting those hard shadows on the wall +music pos anais is one of the best cingers . i have seen her since objetivo fama , and she is just great . do n't listen to people who say this cd is bad because the are just hating . this cd is just great +music pos with his snarling , gritty guitar tones , swampy grooves , and scratchy vocals , c.c. adcock makes butt-shakin ' music that blends rockabilly , old-school memphis r&b , new orleans funk , cajun dancehall tunes , and juke-joint blues . he 's young , but no poseur : having paid dues with bo diddley and buckwheat zydeco , adcock knows rootsy textures like the back of his hand . but despite the tremolo guitar and slapped upright bass , this is n't a retro-sounding record . adcock and his various producers bring a hip sonic edge to the music that keeps the moods fresh and the vibe ominous . doyle bramhall joins adcock on two songs , and together they raise 6-string hell . boasting richly layered guitars and heaps of attitude , adcock 's music is soulful , somewhat twisted , and deeply satisfying +music neg this is anything but soothing . the tone is too high pitched ; nothing like the deep bass of crashing waves along the rocky carmel coastline that i was hoping for . i did buy the twofer and got the ocean surf cd by dan gibson and found it much more relaxing , even though it is n't a tumbling surf sound . i was able to fall asleep.. . which was my goal . now if i could only return ocean waves . +camera neg there is a serious design flaw with this camera and it is even acknowledged on the faq section of the sony website . " if there are dust particles floating in the air , they can be illuminated by the strong light of the flash and sometimes appear in a recorded image as white , round glare spots . this symptom tends to occur in low-light environments when using a compact digital camera due to the close proximity of the flash to the lens assembly . however , this is not a malfunction . " read : your low-light pictures will have spots all over them ! sony does not think this is a problem . it is a design flaw . if you are only going to use this camera in full sun , then it is fantastic but seriously , there are many other cameras out there that do a much better job ! +camera pos i was a little skeptical on this product because of the cheap price and the lack of reviews . but it is just what it says it is , and i am really happy with my purchase . i would definitely buy this again +music neg i did n't really feel like some of the songs were really love songs . a lot of these songs i had not even heard before . +music pos ca n't say enough about how great this record is . it still stands the test of time by remaining relevant . " summerland , " and " mission man " are my personal favs , but the whole album deserves raves +camera neg this battery does not fit the camera i purchased . the camera comes with a battery , so why did you try to sell me another one , one that does not fit , no less ? i have returned the battery but have not heard back from you on the return . it has been two weeks +camera neg my cheap 10x50 rugged exposure brand binoculars give me a better view . the rubber eye cups did not stay folded back for use with my glasses and i could n't get my glasses close enough to eleviate the round " binocular effect " . i did a side-by-side comparison with my cheap binocs and liked the cheap ones better - my vision is not that bad either . maybe with perfect vision they would work for , but i doubt it +music neg there are only a couple of songs i did like on this cd . i did enjoy ice cube and aaliyah , but the rest of the cd left me cold . i do think that if you can just find the two songs and pay to download them , it would have been better ! i suggest borrowing first from a friend and seeing if you actually like it first before you buy . +music neg item never came . however in their defense refund was promptly given out . i only wish that i had a chance to receive this one +music pos really enjoyed hearing all of them again . there is some great talent on here . i hope they all get their own opportunities ! i do think in some cases there are some better songs to show off these great singers voices . +camera neg yes , it does provide a bit more eye relief , and can make it easier to see the whole frame ( by making it smaller ) , but there is a major problem with this . the eyepiece lens surface will not be as deeply couched in the rubber trim when you use this , and the result is a lot more reflections flashing around in the eyepiece when you have light behind you . this is especially a problem when you are wearing glasses . +music neg je suis un peu du par cet album.. . c'est morne , le son est pas top.. . a trane dans les longueurs.. . bref ennuyeux ! mais bon il faut se mettre l' poque aussi ! a qd mme 13 ans +music neg ( it ? ) i have many of david and japan 's albums , but this thinly composed album is repetitive , boring and annoying . i think there were some hidden tracks too , but i just wanted the album to be over . you are better off with " dead bees on a cake " , " secrets of the beehive " or any bee related titled album of his +camera neg well of course i read the previous reviews regarding amazon shipping the grey-market version of this timer and figured that certainly by now they were shipping a us version.. . wrong ! i just received mine today and it 's got the international warranty card and users manual . i have n't decided if i 'm going to return it or not but figured that anyone else considering ordering this item should be advised that it appears that amazon is only shipping the grey-market version of this unit +music pos umm...i do n't think you quite got the point of this album . it is not about the artists that you like , it is about the artists that inspired moore . your ignorance forces me to do nothing but laugh . i find it funny that you feel you are making a point by saying " f*ck you soad " and so on . have some respect for other 's opinions . unfortunately , you are a steriotypical " ignorant american " .so with all that said , and with all due respect , i say , f*ck you pal +camera neg very disappointed by canon on the fit of this adapter . adapater and shade attachments block camer lens view and create flash shadows +camera neg i bought three of these - - one for myself and one for each pair of grandparents . two of them stopped working . one of the two had tons of bad pixels and the other one just stopped . unfortunately , out of the warranty period ! and inquiry to the manufacturer has been ignored . i 'm out a lot of money for this garbage . do not waste your money on this garbage ! ! ! ! +camera neg i loved this camera but i have had to send it back 3 times for the infamous " system error 2 " design fault which plagues many of these . the repair service is slow - the camera has been in repair 50% of the year i have had it +music neg paul brown is a tremendously talented artist and producer with a wonderful engineering background that allows him to set the standard in smooth jazz for clean production and versatile music . however , content on his latest project , " white sand " is n't musically expressive as the content heard on his first two solo albums . the artist collaborations on " white sand " make it tempting to purchase , but you quickly realize brown 's musical wittiness and versatility ( smooth , latin or r&b ) are lacking . overall it is still a cd worth paying for +music neg i really think snoop is a good rapper . he should only have stopped 10 years ago . i 'm very tired of his gizzle wizzle nizzle stuff , and i do n't like none of the beats here . and what 's left then ? nothing . i found out after i bought this album : i 'm not a snoop fan anymore.. . old school is the bes +music pos i have seen joe many years ago when he had played in a group called bloodline and he is even better now +camera neg i bought this with my camera and i guess i didnt realize i could get 3 sony tapes at walmart for the same price . my bad . but i would recommend you get the sony ones locally versus spending $14 on one tape +camera neg the s9000 fits perfectly in the case . too bad the case has no strap and no belt loop . apparently , the camera strap is supposed to function as the case strap also . too bad the camera strap is extremely short , made for very small people . so , instead of returning it and using a generic case that would not protectthe camera as well , i will adapt the case to work for me . i will get a bigger aftermarket strap for the camera . i can take the case to my seamstress and have a belt loop sewn on . it will work but only after extensive modification . great camera design so it 's odd that the case appears to have been designed by someone who has never used a camera before +music neg listening to this album made me question my own life . it is simply unoriginal , boring and really bad . save your money +camera pos this is the best price i found for my second rechargeable battery for my nikon coolpix 5200. it 's perfect , and so nice to have a second battery ! ! ! it was shipped so fast , i received it within a few days +camera pos the remote control works well with the olympus digital camera . it was delivered on time and without any problems . +music neg jonny 's conversion is fine and i hope he is happy , but this album was not good if you are expecting the blues guitar work of his early albums . if you want christan rock maybe this could be for you , but he missed the mark with me big time +camera pos after much research i finally found the binoculars that fit my every need . the price was right , the delivery was right on schedule , and the product is excellent +music neg i bought 4 of their cd 's from amazon after hearing the song " bad days " in a batman movie . this cd is the worst of the 4 i bought . not one good song . totally lame . i 'm not even going to stick someone else with it . i 'm just going to throw it out +camera pos i was able to scout out the different case options for my sony dsc-n1. after much review , i asked my wife for her opinion and she picked the lcs-nb . it holds the camera nice and snug but you could work in a memory stick or battery . so far , so good +music pos what can you say about mfl that has n't already been said . sublime , perfect , classic . this is still the definitive recording of the show , and no one has ever come close to the original cast . sadly , while the movie is wonderful , had warner bros . used andrew 's it might have been one of the greatest film musicals of all time . and while audrey hepburn gamely gives it her all , andrew 's had clearly made eliza doolittle her own , and she would have been uncomparable on film , and raised the level of the entire movie . well , the rest is history , andrews went on to be one of the biggest movie stars of the 60's . still , probably the best example of a play being adapted into a musical . as george bernard shaw said ( when he finally gave in and saw it during it 's london run ) " i do n't know where shaw ends and lerner and lowe begins . +camera pos it gave me the option to change the angle of the light.. . this is a nice option to have i am sure +music pos very good piece of music history . i still like the lp 's sound a bit better then cd 's due to some of the characteristic noise flaws but unfortunately lp 's do not play in the car . +camera pos all i can say is , if you know what you 're doing ( basic knowledge in digital photography ) you 'll love this camera . adobe photoshop would be nice to have , too , if you like to play around with the pictures to make it more better . have fun +music pos this album is absolutely beautiful . the full musical sound and talent of calexico together with the soothing warm vocals of iron & wine make the perfect match . it 's almost unheard of that i love every song on an album , but this one makes the cut . each song wraps you in a warm trance , a coccoon of well-being . it has a really positive emotional effect on me . it creates an ambiance of gentle strength . wonderful . i really hope to see a these two bands getting together for more albums +camera pos i took this case with me to my trip to new zealand and it allowed me to take amazing pictures of rafting and cave tubing . if i did n't have this case i would have missed out on amazing shots . it 's a great way to protect your camera from sand as well . i loved it so much i actually bought one for my sister as well . it is a great investment for anyone that does n't want to worry about their camera getting ruined and also wants to take amazing underwater pictures and videos +camera neg fuji fails to honor warrantee - do n't buy from them do not buy the fuji digital camera . they charged me $[...] for a fix within the warrantee period . their support manager told my wife the cameras are not being built well and dust gets inside destroying the gears . rather than fixing them they replace them and then they charged me for the replacement even though it still had months left on the warrantee . [... +music pos i 've gotten a copy of this cd for every friend i have so they can know what i 'm talking about when i crack a random joke . my mom even loves it and she would not be considered the ' target market' . for mitch check out his first cd , if you can find it in stores , if not , go online +camera pos i love the new digital canon . the only problem is it 's not nearly as tough as it 's film twin . i had the camera less than a month when the pop-up flash quit working . the canon people have been great , and very helpful , but i 'd rather not have had to send a brand new camera back to the factory . the photos , however , are wonderful . film quality for the most part - printable and enlargable . ( it would probably be better to use the camera with a tripod when using the 300mm telephoto but i hike with it , so just remember to steady it before taking wildlife photos . +camera pos works as great as orignal battery . you will never know the difference except that is a lot cheaper ! +music neg if you want to get into blind melon very quick , buy this....if you really like blind melon and wnat to hear something new...do n't buy this.. . +camera pos if you take lots of photos , rechargeable batteries are the way to go . carry the other charged batteries with you in case you need to swap them out +music neg this album is n't not very good at all . there are about four songs i like . first off , the production on this cd is disgusting considering some of the producers make great beats . then , the guest artists do a sub-par job lyrically . then , there are no new verses from biggie , on the album . they should have stopped with born again , because album will be a forgotten one , not a great way to close out the legecy of bigge smalls +camera neg sure my canon sd-30 is super cute and i get lots of compliments on how small and sexy it is , but heaven forbid you want to take pictures with it ! ! this camera cannot take pictures in low light at all ! every picture i 've taken at parties has been out of focus , which adds up to a lot of hazy photos of great memories . i took it back to the camera shop and the guy said i had the setting right but " yeah , they do n't work well in low light . " well if i needed a bright sunny day for every shot i could make a pinhole camera out of a cardboard box ! the pictures it takes in daylight are nice . but anyone who wants a tiny little camera like this is planning on putting it in their pocket and taking it to parties ! i got the sony cybershot 10.1 and it takes great pictures in low light . later , canon . +music neg i bought this soundtrack in 1984 when the movie adaptation of george orwell 's book came out , simply because it was attached to the movie . i 'll try not to use any non-family words here , but this soundtrack sucks . muldowney 's original score is available on cd , and simply imagining it used as intended adds a whole new dimension to the movie . as far as this soundtrack goes , though ; skip it +camera neg product is hard to review because you sent me the wrong battery . as of 1 / 29 / 07 it has not been taken off my credit card . how would you rate my review +camera pos my sony dscw100 camera is small but very functional and user friendly , it makes photography an easy and interesting hobby . +camera pos i purchased this camera case for the kodak z650. this case is perfect for the kodak z650. it looks and feels like a high quality camera case and does allow for the storage of an sd card or two . i 'm very happy with this purchase +music pos one ca n't go wrong with this one . a classic , which according to the well written liner notes was recorded 3 days after opening night . and , a pit orchestra that sounds like a pit orchestra...before the days of electronic music +music neg this album in some ways is a perfect antithesis of the quirky , wacky , vivid personality of the first three galactic studio albums- -this is boring , flat and generic . is that stanton moore or a drum machine ? precede straight to garage a trois +music neg after reading so many positive reviews , i was very exited when i recieved this cd in the mail . i popped it in my bose wave radio , turned it up to 85 , and listened to the most annoying hissing sound i 've ever heard coming from my system . i regret purchasing this cd +camera pos this is a great lens . i do not want to repeat all the good things other reviewers have written about this lens . it is not so heavy so i use tripod without using tripod collar ( costs 119.99 in b & h ) . this is the best value i have ever got for a lens . now i ca n't wait to get 17-40mm f4l too . you can get a very nice bokeh when wide open at f4 and f5.6 , of course depending on the how far the background is from the subject . people complain how ugly the hood looks but that is subjective . i like it because it works great and you can attach it in a reversed position on the lens so that it will fit in your camera bag . i think the fit and finish of the lens is beautiful +camera neg im not from usa . my brother bought me the camara in a trip three months ago and it is not working ! ! it has serious conection problems in the body that i cant fix in my country . i lost 1000 us +camera pos now that i have had this on my camera for a while now , my camera feels so weird with it off , i love the grip it gives and the extra battery life is great for those all day shooting events that i go to . i wish the buttons were the same plastic / chrome color as the ones on the camera but its a well built product and works fine so i cant complain +music pos if you want to learn about texas music just buy this disc . tom 's love of life and artist 's eye infect every song . the opening number " tonight we ride " is hard to beat . he sang it on david letterman 's show ( paul shaffer played the accordian ! ) . letterman described it as a " song that will make you want to saddle up a horse , ride up to connecticut and rob a liquor store . " me , i just went out and bought some good reposado gold . letterman 's got a point , though - the songs on this disc will move you one way or the other . my other favorites are bucking horse moon , and all this way for a short ride . tom russell is true american artist like woody guthrie or pete seeger , and this is one of his best . +music pos this cd is so awesome , it stays in my cd player and i have recently added it to my mp3. +music neg i basically love anything mr. carter does , but this one has alot of great lyrics ( as usual ) . i 'm so glad he 's coming out of retirement . any fan of jay-z will enjoy this cd +music neg i am very disappointed in this cd . not because the music is n't good , because it is . but because it is just not the pat green that used to play in stillwater . the passionate , soulful pat green . back then he sang about things that he believed in and loved . now he is singing what nashville tells him to . and this coming from the guy who sang " nashville sucks " with cory morrow . there are a ton of country singers out there that could have released this cd and it would have sounded exactly the same . but songs like " southbound 35 " and " three day " can only be sang by pat green . he needs to revisit his roots and come back to the red dirt country music that he was born to play . will the real pat green please stand up +music neg bob james - the mastermind of smooth jazz . " h " , " touchdown " , " grand piano cannyon " . eternal pieces of art. brave and thoughtful new directions in jazz . we owe him a lot . but the recent releases of fourplay -including " x " - do n't meet my expectations at all : predictable , repetitive , overproduced computer-music . the typical fourplay sound squeezed out like a lemon in another cd . larrys guitar playing takes a nice direction on " tournabout " - but then the song falls back again to old routine . " screenplay " is a good one ( one of two songs that were done by bob ) . the rest , hmm.. . some nice solos constricted in predictabiltiy . do n't get me wrong , i like all of the guys . every single member of the group has done great things in the past . so - a bit more breveness , yes please +music pos this is a great cd . " back where i come from " , is on of those feel good songs that gives me chill bumps every time i here it . chesney is a extremely talented artist whose passion is shown in every song . i recommend all his albums +camera pos handy item for price . not a great telescope , but a very useful tool to look at roof shingles , broken tree limbs , bird 's nests , etc. must be stable , but can be carried in a pocket , weighs very little and is very clear . very good deal . +music pos this talented woman can sing anything . i really enjoyed this cd with the lights turned down and a glass of wine to relax after a very stressful day at work . renee could definitely have another singing career outside of opera should she choose . hearing her drop that gorgeous voice down one octave rivals the best chanteuses in the business - cassandra wilson , nancy wilson , regina belle , sarah vaughan , etc. this cd of different musical styles reminds me of nina simone and cassandra wilson , two great singers whom could interpret any song genre and make their versions special . i loved all the songs and the standouts here are " haunted heart " , " river " , " my one and only love " , " my cherie amour " , " cancao do amor " , and beatles " in my life " , and " hard times come again no more " . i hope renee keeps recording whatever catches her fancy because i 'll certainly always listen +camera pos i think is a " must " for any beginner , for a low price you can have almost all the different size of ep . try them for a few months and then when you will be completely sure what do you want and buy the ep that you need . +camera pos the battery works as specified , the pricing was excellent and the order came in very timely . i 'm completely satisfied with this product and vendor +music pos another typical funk classic album from the brilliant tenor sax sounds of lou donaldson . the album released on blues notes features lou 's popular and individual classic jazz funk tones . lou even opts to ' chill ' out on a number called ' over the rainbow ' but on other numbers like ' donkey walk ' lou 's style and also his unique band really shine . the unmistakable hammond adds yet more funk and along with the jazzy guitar sound and funk and swinging drums this brings together another great album.keep on funkin mr lou donaldson ! ! ! ! +camera neg the battery lasts for about 10 minutes even with a full charge . i made the mistake of buying two of them for my husband 's dvd player and they were useless . what a waste of my money +camera pos an excellent flash to use with my canon 20d at a fantastic price , the canon 580ex was an expensive option , but should i buy one in the future ? the 430ex is perfect as a slave unit . great product from canon as always +camera pos the charger really did what it was supposed to do . i have an li-10b , so i was still some what worried that it was n't going to do the job , but it did . i also liked that it was small so you can travel with it anywhere . +camera pos this gadget is a must-have for gadget lovers.....and picture lovers . it is compact , solid and fits any small pocket or clutch bag . the images are crisp if you get it set appropriately . if you love attention get this product and if you do n't .....not to worry the camera gets all of it . +camera neg this kit is just junk . the " deluxe blower brush " is a cheap plastic blower in the tiniest size . there is a " tweezers " that is just folded aluminum sheet metal - there 's no way that is getting anywhere near my cameras . there are a few sheets of lense tissue and a few swabs to use with the cleaning solution . the " lintless cleaning cloth " is an about 3 " x 5 " piece of something akin to reusable paper towels that you 'll use about three times and then throw away . this kit is not worth buying at any price , because it 's not worth the shipping charges +music pos marias and srayle , if you like the guaraldi original then keep it and chuck the winston , personally , i think the winston performance is refreshing and a delightful ' twist ' on guaraldi 's works . the piano is brillaint sounding and at volume , thru a good system sounds like there 's a piano in the room . it should be emphatically understood , you are buying winston in this case , and not guaraldi . i have both versions +music pos this album is just non-stop funky . i originally got it just because i loved living in america when i first heard it - but i was pleasantly surprised to find the rest of the cd just as good . check out turn me loose i 'm dr. feelgood , let 's get personal , and gravity - they 're among the best on the cd +camera pos i bought this item for a present , and the person really liked it ! ! . he uses it to watch deer , and other animals . the focus is very good , and i am very happy that i bought this product ! +music neg this album sounds to much like pop music than hardcore reggaeton . they even have that rbd boyband in this piece . a few years ago lt saved reggaeton with their producing skills now it looks like they set out to kill the monster they created with this embarrasing album transforming a music of the streets into the music even grandmas like and that is scary . the only reason for the two star is because the zion and the arcangel & de la ghetto songs . if you wanna hear some real reggaeton look for producers like dj memo , meka , mambo kings , dj wassie & dj fat this dudes are doin it right and keepin reggaeton calle my friend +music pos i bought this the year it came out , after seeing george in concert and it is great ! most of these were big hit songs and i found that i really loved the others too especially hard day +music neg i was very disappointed that the version of " paper roses " included on this cd is an updated and new recorded version from 1990. it is not the original 1973 classic marie recorded when she was twelve.interestingly , this new version is produced by sonny james , the original producer of the original single , that also features many of the original studio musicians . so all is not lost . still , i prefer the original hit version and am disappointed there was no indication that this cd included an updated " paper roses . " +music neg the worst christmas album i ever heard . i just bought it , played it once , and will never play it again +camera pos the previous review is not completely correct . the problem is not with the product but with the description what amazon.com put up for the canon cpm-e3 battery magazine . it is a battery magazine for the canon compact battery pack cp-e3 and not for the camera battery grip . i think the product itself is a great thing , it lets you switch the whole magazine with 8 preloaded batteries instead replacing the batteries in the canon compact battery pack cp-e3. the previous reviewer should not judge a product by the incorrect infromation given by a retailer +music neg someone suggested i listen to this because i was , at the time , into what lame beret-wearing record-store dips would call " creatively aggresive " music . then it was death metal ( which i prefer without cursing or filth , you understand . ) since then i 've found the ascension into gabber and then full-on unmitigated hardcore . anyway , mr. bungle... . tepid . uninteresting . bland . stupid . gives the chin-strokers something to fascinate over . let them . someone 's got the fuel the economy +music neg it sounds like someone somehow got the deftones to suck worse than they already do . this album is n't nearly as musically interesting as tear from the red . i do n't mind the singers new approach to vocals , but it just sounded like they did n't try at all . all the songs sound the same , the tempo is too fast on almost all the songs for the screamo sound , and hearing random voices and sounds of them in the studio between recordings just makes the album drag . although they 've goten much tighter as a band and are n't as sloppy as they used to be , ( they fell out of sync a lot in the opposite of december ) this album was definitely a backwards step in their progression as real musicians . save your money and buy tear from the red instead +music pos the relaxation set is just that , pure relaxation . i love the active relaxation cd . i can read or work and i am real calm , on an even keel , feeling like when you go to sleep at night , not quite asleep and not quite awake . i also enjoy the water and the piano playing . highly recommended +camera pos i was able to use the canon ef 1.4x ii extender for some nature photography recently in wyoming . i shot elk in low light conditions so i was shooting pretty much wide open . the extender did not compromise the inherent sharpness of the lens at all . you could see the hairs on the animals heads . it 's fantastic +music neg when merging female vocal yodels and copying elements from switchblade syphony , one can only be disappointed in diva destruction 's music . the positive aspect is the better production on this cd compared to their debut +music neg many albums , including this one , have the problem that all the songs pretty much sound the same ; but this also has the troublesome problem of music that is too easy on the ears and that never gets very exciting - except for the first two tracks . the use of many poetry elements in their lyrics ca n't save the blandness of the music . " what about everything " and " life less ordinary " are good songs . the rest pretty much sound the same and will put you to sleep . +camera neg the only reason i am giving this 1 start is becuase of amazon 's poor service , otherwise i would give 5 stars for the product . i placed this order more than 30 days ago . amazon still has not shipped the item so i cancelled my order and placed it with j&r . if amazon did not have the item in stock , they should have stated on their web site or at least communicated with me that there will be a delay in shipping +camera neg in my opinion this is not a marketable product . the cameras features are irrelevant if it does not work . there is clearly a design fault and the product should be withdrawn from sale until there is a fix . when it did work it was a convenient pocketable unit . as for hd - possibly at high noon in the sahara , but in anything but perfect light the results are dissappointing . +camera neg i am a novice photographer , so take this with a grain of salt.. . i just bought this kit and it included no instructions and lots of components . i suppose if you are accustomed to using these kits , putting them together must seem self-explanatory . if you are new to these kits you will find it frustrating . it is also frustrating to discover smith victor does not have a support site ( just references on photography ) . they do not even provide a support # or address . keep all this in mind when considering something from this company +camera neg yes , i have to agree with the previous review . it does n't seem to make any difference in reducing lens flare from light sources . it does n't seem to extend far enough to actually do anything . if it was less expensive i would n't mind as much , and just chalk it up to extra protection . but that seems to be all it 's good for +camera pos holds all my lenses , camera body , remote , card reader , etc.. . with room to spare . compares to bags costing 3 times more . +music neg i did not get my order . you were suppoused to send my money back . i am waiting . thank +camera neg there 's little more to say....great item , almost a " must have " , but forty bucks for a half ounce of plastic is absolutely criminal +music neg as a fan of pete seeger 's music , i bought this cd in the hope that the family connection would ensure similar quality of the music . disappointingly , i 've found this album really grates on me after a couple of songs . peggy 's vocal style in particular becomes mighty annoying to listen to over the length of the album , as her delivery can best be described as a neo-hillbilly twang . i may end up combining the best half-dozen songs from this album with some other folk albums to generate a listenable " best-of " set , but i 'd find it unthinkable to listen to this entire set in one sitting . only devoted fans of the genre or the duo should invest in this set ; more casual fans of folk should direct their dollars to any of pete 's fine albums such as the carnegie hall classic +music neg it is ludicrous to even mention the fact that the duprees have lasted so long and can still be seen in atlantic city considering the fact that there is not one original member of the duprees in the group that is seen in atlantic city . this is a major problem with many groups purporting to be from the 50 's and 60's . the duprees appearing today is a perfect example of caveat emptor ... buyer beware for those readers who do n't read latin ! for those of us who were duprees fans , this is a not to be missed cd of the original duprees with the incomparable sound of joey vann and harmony that is hard to match . they did joni james proud in their remake of a number of her hits . it is nostalgia personified hearing the original duprees +camera pos i bought this camera around the beginning of july and have used it several times already . i 've upgrade from a nikon coolpix 3200 to this one due to smaller , sleaker size and more megapixels . this camera takes excellent pictures , in broad daylight as well as in the dark . red eye reduction is wonderful , however the flash does go off about 4 or 5 times . it 's not broken.. . it 's supposed to do that for everybody who thinks their camera has a glitch . overall , i think this was definitely a good buy and am looking forward to taking the camera on vacation ! +music neg i had the privilege of attending recitals of many of the 50 's and 60 's jazz legends - before they became household names . it was truly an honor and a blessing to be part of an era that will never come around again . i heard brief notes from this cd and i must agree that mr. winston did attempt to capture mr. guaraldi 's timeless expressions , but the this production did not have the same " golden flow " as the original . +camera neg i only got about 2 hours of run time per charge out of this battery so i returned it for my money back and picked up a batterygeek universal dvd battery which is now giving me 7+ hours of run time per charge . +camera pos i am a photographer and i am always running down my batteries.. . i have n't found one so cheap as i did here . thank you amazon. . +camera pos if you use the viewfinder instead of the lcd field , it does not appear on the lcd , you can only see it through the viewfinder . this is different from previous models . minor annoyance . the quality of the videos was surprisingly good , but it saves them in the quicktime .mov format . mov is not my favorite format , but perhaps others will not be bothered by this . although i had heard that the color on kodaks is not natural , i have found it to be excellent . the overall quality of the pictures is good . for the price , i think this is a very good value and adequate for most casual photographers . +music neg for starters i love bun b and pimp c and ugk and all that but the thing that kills it is lil jon yelling " gansta grizzel " like 10 times in every track . i love lil jon too , but they coulda done without it . also they just rappin over other peps beats , it just sounds like a mixed tape kinda deal . but heard rumor that bun b is bout to come out with an offical bun b record , not a mixed tape , or nothin like that , but only reason why i gave it two stars is just cuz they got tight flows on the tracks , but not their own beats , and lil jon coulda just shut the hell up on those tracks . just keepin it real . i wouldnt spend the money , id just wait for bun b to release his own offical cd , or till pimp c get out and ugk hooks it back up +camera pos i bought these binoculars for my dad for christmas , and he is absolutely in love with them . the distance it can handle is slightly above average , but the clarity is really where this thing shines . its very easy to use , and has held up reasonably well . i would recomend it to the casual user +camera pos excellent product , easy to use , great for edging cards and making trims for cards and craftwork . i ca n't wait to experiment with it +camera neg i had my sony dsc w70 for just one month when the viewing screen suddenly cracked without being dropped or hit . the glass itself was intact , but something underneath was clearly broken . mailed it in to the factory service company for sony , and i was informed 3 weeks later that it is not covered by warranty and will cost $181 to repair . this is 2 / 3 the cost of a new camera and does not make sense financially . i have a friend who had the same problem of a broken screen with the identical sony camera . +camera pos this tripod arrived on time and in good condition . however i have to put the " heavy duty " in quotations as this item is for amateurs mostly and is made of plastic as well . the weight you can put on it is limited . however it does the job well for the amateur photographer or videographer +music pos sweet brazillian jazz piano combined with guaraldi 's 1960 's hit " cast your fate to the wind . " throw in a coupla classics like " since i fell for you " and " moon river " masterfully interpreted by vince and you have the perfect album for unwinding , loving , or waking up +camera pos aside form the fact that canon charges an arm and a leg for a 1 dollar piece of plastic , the remote switch does work well . it does not feel very sturdy and does not seem nearly as well built as the canon cameras . people with big hands may have a little trouble using this product . overall , a " must have " addition for anyone interested in long exposures , images with excellent sharpness and depth of field +music neg layla is one of the most overrated songs of all time . cream is one of the most boring bands in history . why not do yourself a favour and buy enjoyable bands like dire straits , and metallica who rock . ps.this clapton compilation has no good songs so please do n't buy it at all +music pos these 3 discs ( there is a limited edition 10 disc set which has obviously sold out ! ! ) are a continuation of live dead . if you have n't heard the dead live then start with this or live dead . you will realise why to many they were america 's greatest improvisational rock band . the playing , the interplay between the musicians - particularly garcia and lesh is staggering . and how about a big hand for bill kreutzman on drums +camera neg it looks great , genuine leather , much better than synthetic . like a brand named leather wallet . but there is no where you can tie the case to the camera . hence you have to hold onto it with another hand when you pull the camera out to take photos . there is no where to put the essential accessories ( battery and another memory stick ) . there is no way to clip to the belt . will like to return if if not the hassle of mailing and the associated cost . bought another handy synthetic case afterwards +music neg method : take a monster , genre defining album you recorded over 15 years ago , borrow the voicings , polyrhythms and sound effects , rearrange them to slightly ( but not *that* ) different tunes , crib the album art ( cheesy then ; cheesier now ) and re-release . the point ? well , to the man , it 's obvious . there 's one born every minute . but for genuine , discerning afficionados of electronica ? search me . like a good souffle , it was better the first time . indeed , inventing oxygene parts 7 - 13 is almost as pointless an exercise as going back and re-recording the original album from scratch . and guess what turned out to be jarre 's next project ? whoops ! writer 's block , perchance ? olly buxto +camera neg it takes around 3-4 seconds to take the picture after i click the button ! ! and then another 8-10 seconds just to store that picture on the sd card ! ! so basically , i cant take another picture until atleast 10-15 seconds of one picture ! ! +camera pos have had good luck with these batteries . they last for a long time . first time with amazon and it was a good experience . will use them again +music pos i am a big ambrosia fan and i love " biggest part of me " , " you 're the only woman " , " how much i feel " and the newer track " i just ca n't let go " . however , i wish this cd contained all of their billboard hot 100 hits . the cd is missing their cover of " magical mystery tour " ( #39 ) and " how can you love me " ( #86 ) . for the casual listener , this cd is perfect . for the chart hit completionists out there , it misses a couple songs . i bought this cd used for $1.99 , which was a huge bargain for the songs included . for that price , i can certainly try to download the missing tracks +camera neg ...unless you want to have trouble focusing , have difficulty using them indoors at a sporting event , or have the neck strap bracket break off , etc. i wear glasses and these never did focus well for me . i was not happy when the bracket broke off the day i received them , just as i was to leave for an africa safari vacation . the biocs kept slipping off my neck the whole trip , and it was frustrating . even more frustrating was trying to get them repaired . suposedly there is a warranty on these . hah ! when i sent them to bushnell for repair , they wanted [...] +camera pos this was delivered so fast that it was unbelievable . they sent exactly what was pictured and it works perfectly +music neg this cd isnt real good if you like compilations than get the ruff ryders c +music pos right , so , you 're reading this either because you are a big oasis fan and realize that this album is wonderful , or because you 've heard some oasis songs on the ever-disappointingly-dull radio and it 's sparked yer interest . " the masterplan " is a compilation of oasis b-sides that have been released over the years . what has always made oasis the best band in the world is the fact that the songs that they include on their " albums proper " are not necessarily their best songs . as such , songs like " acquiesce " , " talk tonight " and " stay young " are vacant on their albums , yet they represent the best of this lovely band and are included here in stunning fashion . so in summary , i absolutely do not recommend you buy this album until you at least own and fall in love with " definitely maybe " and " morning glory " . to those who own and love this album , it is a part of rock history and is not to be overlooked . +music neg what an outrageous group , how can anyone like this rubbish . maybe an horde of brainless people . how i feel happy in being intelligent , and live my life with things of absolute quality and not consuming this kind of food for mediocres . how said romans , " it 's just bread and circus to the poors " . give to people what they deserve , rubbish ! it 's because you mediocre people that buy this , that this kind of people , the members of this group , get money and laughs behind the scenes about how dumb people can be . it 's the same horde that buy , beyonce , spears , madona , and other outrageous poor music . +music neg john mayer can grow his hair long and play his guitar slung low , but he is still a professionaly trained monkey , i mean musician . mayer along with " artists " like gavin degraw , teddy geiger , etc. , are todays n'sync and backstreet boys , nothing more . +music pos nas ' street 's disciple definitely has plenty of memorable / outstanding cuts on it . nas sounds very confident and his lyrical skill is prevelant throughout both discs . the subject matter varies which is way cool in that , it delivers to all audiences of his fans . every nas fan will be doing themselves a huge favor by supportin him and pickin this up today . a +camera neg the magnetic clasp is weak very weak - making it vulnerable to thieves with sticky fingers or opening up on it 's own . i keep this camera case inside of my purse . i would n't recommend this product there has to be something better +music neg ok......avoid this at all costs not worth your money ! ! ! ! as luck would have it i found it a a garage sale . the only track whorth listening to is track 12 which is vivi 's theme from ff9. the others well....they could have done better . most of the songs are to put it nicely......suck ( at least the way they where done ) . the only reason i rated 2 ( 1 1 / 2 to be accualy ) is because of vivi 's theme at the end . this is not whorth your time . get the imported cd 's they have much better music on them +music neg i bought this album after hearing america , their single off this album , and listening to the increasing hype about razorlight and johnny borrell being one of the most talented singer-songwriters of his generation . this follow up is a thorough disappointment compared to their first . it 's not bad , but it 's not that good either . the songs all sound like i 've heard them somewhere before , and the lyrics - well , how many times have we heard popstars going on about waiting by the phone , nothing on the radio , and not known what it all meant , while smoking cigarettes late at night . yawn.. . +music pos aretha 's voice , her style , delivery and interpretation of her music is incomparable . these songs are more than just classics ; they 're a songbook to millions of people 's lives who grew up listening to her in the 60 's and 70 's as i did . they evolk memories of times that changed our world , and showed just how powerful and influential music could be for generations to come . there is not much that came before , and very little that came after these golden years for aretha , that can compare to this treasury of her music . sadly the aretha frankiln of 2007 pales in comparison to the aretha franklin of this time , who was truly and rightfully the queen of soul . +camera pos it 's good as my title says , however , i found one con about it is there is no place i can put a string on it so that i have to put it in my pocket when i take it off +music pos i saw these guys live in the twin cities last week . they opened for keane and the zutons . these guys were definitely the best part of the show . they had great energy and actually looked like they were having fun . to top it off , they sounded great and their songs were well written . give these guys a shot , unless you hate rock ' n ' roll ! ! +camera pos this scope is one of the best gen 1 units on the market . at 36 lines / mm , it has just about the best resolution . most other units only have 24 lines / mm . the illuminator is bright ( almost too bright ) , uniform , and has a crisp edge . it could be a bit larger , however , so that it would fill the field of view . note that if you remove the eyepiece or lens , ( to put on the riflescope eyepiece or change the magnification ) you will break the seal and the unit will no longer be waterproof . do n't bother with the ir flashlight . it 's output is actually less than the built-in illuminator and it is far from uniform . +music neg the lack of someone lurking behind prince 's shoulder while in the recording studio and having the courage to tell him when he produces second rate nonsense has been missing since the departure of the fargnoli management team . this is a poor track incorporating biblical references that have little relevance or sense of genuine compassion to the katrina disaster . musically the lack of emotion conveyed by the unnecessarily complicated chord changes and irrelevant reference to sade also make the feel of this track disjointed . while prince fans will generally hype this track , the reality is that " 4 the tears in your eyes " this is n't and to add a charity track with an instrumental showing off your musical skills is just pure self indulgence and frankly crass . lets hope this is not an indication of the upcoming 3121. +camera pos the cover over the lense broke / small lcd screen / pictures are pritty good / battery life is pritty good / some images can come out a bit blurry if theres no flash and your hands arnt that steady / takes nice portaits / easy to use / has a veiw-finder +camera neg looks nice . unfortunately did not power up the camera , so i ca n't say much else . going to cost me return shipping at the very least . sorry i did n't buy the canon product instead +music neg somehow not up to her earlier work . the instrumental accompaniment is good , but tends to dominate at the expense of cesaria 's voice and the songs do n't strike me as particularly memorable . one reviewer said this was perhaps the best thing she 's done . if so , i just do n't see it . i was disiappointed and found myself wondering if maybe her best days are behind her . i hope not +music pos i just want to put it out there...audra mcdonald is an absolute genious . everything she touches turns to gold , and i just want to smack some of you for saying that she failed in her attempt to make a great record . this may not be the audra that we are used to , but if you listen closely she 's near by . so this cd is a little less difficult vocally . so what ? my favorite quality of ms. mcdonald 's is that she is emotionally connected to whatever she is singing . she could record twinkle twinkle little star and i would want to listen to it over and over again because she tells a story . so if you buy this cd , listen to it more than once . let it grow on you . let audra do her thang children . let her do her thang . +camera pos the philips 8-inch digital picture frame is an excellent , high-quality device . very easy to get it going - the included cable and computer software make it simple to select digital pictures already stored on your computer and copy them onto the device . no need to mess around with memory cards - although the device accepts those as well if that works best for you . everyone who has seen ours loves it . it looks great and the picture quality and size are excellent +music pos i recently discovered joyce cooling . yeah , i 've been in the dark ages . she is one of the smoothest guitarists out there and she does not try to sound like everyone else . i especially appreciate her percussive use of intonations . she 's got chops galore and is a beautiful woman to boot . you can hear it all in her music . buy revolving door ! you 'll love it +camera pos very compact , light and easy to hold - full marks for design . buttons etc can take a bit of getting used to , but ok once mastered . main downside for me it only takes dvd-r / rw - and not dvd-r / rw+ , bit of a problem when you pick up the wrong ones ! also , can be a problem taking it abroad - i had issues charging it as it would take a standard us to uk converter plug as the pins are slightly wider than normal us plugs . +camera neg as a professional photographer , i find myself going through 5-6 of these cords each year . my equipment is my livelyhood and although it is used often , i am exceptionally careful with all of my gear and do not bang it around or abuse it . i use a stroboframe which makes it necessary to use this cord to raise the flash well above the focal plane of the camera . these cords are very expensive to get just a few months out of them . eventually , the hot shoe connector will either become loose and the connection will no longer function or the plastic connector will break and your flash unit will fall to the ground . ( this has happened twice to me and fortunately i was able to catch the flash unit ! ) the cord is indespensible if you need it , but contact canon usa and ask them to reengineer this cord or expect to replace them every few months +camera pos yes this is a very good first camcorder . i am a first time user of any cam corder . i have olny had mine for a month or so but i have made several films with it and it is very inersting . but the software is harder to use that movie maker . but if you are a first time buyer then i would go for this becasuse 20gb is engough to use. . but the battery life is short but u wont need to make a feature length film ! ! ! it is just fantastic . enjoy. . do +camera neg unfortunately i received the items damaged . the exterior postage box was unharmed but the paper boxes were obviously dropped at some point before packaging . +camera pos for those wishing to purchase this product , and who also want accessory filters to protect the lens , or to add special effects , although not mentioned , the size of the filter is 30mm . ( not the 37 mm mentioned at other locations , which caused me to order the wrong size which now must be returned . ) remember , 30 ( thirty ) mm +camera neg there is a serious design flaw with this camera and it is even acknowledged on the faq section of the sony website . " if there are dust particles floating in the air , they can be illuminated by the strong light of the flash and sometimes appear in a recorded image as white , round glare spots . this symptom tends to occur in low-light environments when using a compact digital camera due to the close proximity of the flash to the lens assembly . however , this is not a malfunction . " read : your low-light pictures will have spots all over them ! sony does not think this is a problem . it is a design flaw . if you are only going to use this camera in full sun , then it is fantastic but seriously , there are many other cameras out there that do a much better job ! +music neg i agree complete with erik cobbett . this is covenant 's most unnecessary and boring album ever . there are a couple of nice parts on it , but generally it 's a big disappointment . +music neg don ` t waste your time and money on this compilation . what a cheap shot to take the consumers money . read the very fine print , it does have a disclaimer but you really have to look for it . shame on the distributor ! +music neg all in all , i was really dissapointed ; i really enjoyed the king geedorah album . i thought the king geedorah album boasted stellar , thematic , production , tolerable skits , and street-wise but deep lyrical content . doom is on the boards for about 1 / 3 of the tracks on ' escape.. . ' all have the stereotypical doom sound , with the only standout being ' 1 , 2...1 , 2. ' the x-ray produced tracks are minimal , but generally sound stiff , lacking much of a groove - thin synth lines , few sampled melodies . i did like ' warning ( kong ) , ' which has a nice , minimal , dark groove . the lyrical flows have a classic new york sound , pretty good . lyrical content is pretty bad , unless you enjoy repetitious rhymes about smoking weed and women riding my d$ &*. +music neg i thought it would have nice , soft songs . but , it is riddled with annoying sound effects and strange instrumentation +music pos relationships and drug use are major themes . this album starts off with two absolute killer tunes , lets down some but has a joy thoughout . i ca n't believe this is going to be his only album.....what a shame . from someone who has been listening to rock for a long time , i tell ya , this is a blast . pure fun . something you might want to give to someone you have broken up with as its full of a broken heart and the joy of being in love.....mostly rather quickly paced . one of my favorite albums of the 90s . more people should listen +music pos i am realtively new to country music . i purchased this because i had the pleasure of hearing willie sing " you do n't know me " on cmt one afternoon . i was quite taken with his rendition and recalled hearing this song growing up . from this one time " soft rocker " i could n't be happier . go willie +music pos i used to listen to a friend 's copy of the original " metal box " of ep 's , when it first came out . years later the " second edition " came out on lp 's for those of us who had n't sprung for the metal box before it sold out . eventually the second edition came out on this cd . so i finally could own a digital copy myself . pristine , audio quality at least as good as the original metal box in my opinion , if i remember correctly . you do need to listen to this . you do need to buy a copy and get other people to listen to this too +music pos i own a lot of waylon jennings albums but i have to say , i find myself playing this one on 9 out of 10 times . if you want to buy just one waylon album this is the one to own , the recording quality is brilliant for a live album and the music is alive . simply great , i ca n't say enough good things about this cd +camera pos i bought one of these items in december ' 04 from adorama . it had directions written in raised letters on the canister itself . i just ordered here and received a second one in march ' 07 and the " new " model has no instructions . other than that , it looks identical to the old one , so i assume the contents are the same . here are the exact words written on the old one : " hydrosorbent 40 gram silica gel " " when pink , reactivate 3 hours at 300f " the pink referred to is the little circle in the center of the canister . i keep this product with my camera ( in closed stuff sack ) and it seems to work as advertised - though i guess you just have to have faith that it does - no easy way to prove it ( except maybe in extremely humid climes ) +music pos it 's been a while since someone has sang the praises of this album . this is a timeless work . it never gets old no matter how many times it is played . i 've had this album for 5-6 years and i pull it out every summer . great music for boating or bbq 's on the deck . i promise you will love it . something everyone should have in their collection +music pos sounding thing occurred when ex-springfield messina melded with loggins , and it was large ! c.s.n. & ; y . strove to be this good every time they released a tune . this compilation not only displays the music-crafting abilities of these two in conjunction , but also showcases their power to deliver dynamic live performances . dedicated to todd j +camera neg this is the worst camera i 've ever owned . i 'm not exaggerating . i 'm so upset for wasting money on it . the only pictures that turn out , are outside in bright daylight . it takes horrible pictures in low light , there 's a high level of noise in the photos . the video mode moves in and out on its own , ruining the video . i sometimes get colored lines down the right side of the videos . my friend 's $88 dollar digital camera takes way better pictures than this thing . it just plain sucks . +music neg this great underground master dj deservedly gets a release on a major record label.. . but there are too many rappers , not enough personality in the production , and obvious restraint in the sampling ( surely the result of copyright clearance issues . ) compared to z-trip 's amazing and audacious uneasy listening with dj-p and live at the future primitive with radar , this is just a bore.. . yawn.. . +camera pos for the price , you get a lot out of this camera . 6x zoom stabilized , the images comes out great at full zoom ( 2 stabilization mode ) . the aid of a histogram will tell you the right exposure to set for your picture . the multiple program modes , just about lets you take a great picture under different situation ! controls are easy to use and get to . in all definitely a great buy for the price . the down side is that movie mode has no sound but if that is a factor then get the dmc-lz5 or a camcorder . +music pos this collection of italian cello sonatas by the great janos starker is one of the most delightful chamber albums i own . the world renowned cellist was joined on this 1966 recording by pianist stephen swedish on five of the selections , and by his frequent collaborator gyorgy sebok on the bach sonata in g minor , which was recorded in 1963 and added to this collection to increase its length ( it is a welcome addition musically too ) . the selections here range from famous composers like bach , boccherini and vivaldi , to the lesser known corelli , locatelli and valentini . for me , the common thread of this recording is the passionate performances of starker . whether it is the happy bounce of the vivaldi allegro , the sublime rendering of the boccherini adagio , or the precise interplay with sebok on the bach sonata , starker plays masterfully and his cello is captured in rich , full sound by the mercury living presence recording technique . this is an excellent purchase for all cello enthusiasts +music neg please change your name to ( kid rap ) .. when you start producing true rock cd 's then and only then you should put rock back into your fake name.. . stop playing both sides. . i realize that the rap - hip hop scene is much easier because over half the fan base is little girls / boys and people that dont have a clue what music is all about. . do yourself a favor and take the rap / hip hop out of your so called music . one day you will realize that the rap / hip hop scene is like a bad smell that real music fans hate and wish would go away. . +camera neg to customer before me , you camera d200 might be on recall . please check the nikon website for more info . you have described the exact recall problem . good luck ! btw , have you tried or someone tried this battery on a d70 ? i am thinking to consolidate and have all greys batteries rather than black for the d70 and grays from the d200. +camera pos i received the tripod ahead of the expected schedule . i 've been looking at tripods in stores in and around the greater boston area . you ca n't get a better tripod for the money . in fact , you ca n't get anything " decent " for under $40-50 and even then i 'm not sure you will get something this good . i had it shipped to my job and a few guys in the office ( which i did n't know ) had purchased a tripod in the past and where really impressed when i told them i only paid $25 for it . conclusion : is the tripod perfect , no . the head looks a little like plastic . but it has nice rubber feet and rubber grip in addition to everything listed on the website . this tripod is perfect for the beginner to enthusiast photographer . +music neg long studio sessions . if you want a truly incoherent album strung together in a twisted way , then this is it . if you do n't , get near the beginning or rock & roll . get some of their quality stuff . this definitely is n't it +music pos ( in reference to another review ) - the symbol on the cover of still is the factory records logo , joy division 's record label . since i 'm in the area... . i 've owned this album for about 15 years and it still sounds , in parts , as solid as anything joy division ever did . some of the live stuff is so-so but studio tracks like the kill , dead souls , exercise one , they walked in line and something must break are damn near worth the price of admission alone . if you already like joy division , thereby showing good taste , this is a great album . if you find yourself slowly descending beneath the black cloud of depression , unknown pleasures should fit . if you have been there and find yourself wanting out , closer is the soundtrack . this album is more varied in mood , for established fans and safer for household pets +music neg another unspeakable album from the most unspeakably overwrought , over-produced and over-rated rock band of all time . did i mention over the top ? let 's face it , queen was a group of crypto-fascists , working hard to put a human face on thatcherism . ghastly stuff . k . +camera pos installing the software was a piece of cake , using it is quite another matter . the basic introductory instructions are easy enough but after that it seems to require a phd in mathematic astrophysics to get round all the available toggles , tweaks and options . first attempts ? the moon came out real nice , but saturn was a white blob with no fine detail . nothing like type of pics that the super-whizzkids proudly display on the celestron site . will go back to night school and one day you might see my fine efforts published as well ( oh - was using it on a classic lx200 in good see'ing conditions - sorry celestron ! +camera pos this is a cool implimentation of a much needed device for those with d200s . the camera loves batteries . having two is good ! having the ability to watch one drain and knowing there 's another on standbye is a fine feeling . knowing that there are two more batteries in the case waiting is even better ! for a full day of shooting , you need this and some serious memory . highly recommended . also handles aas.. . always good in field conditions +camera neg this is another example of how sony is alienating its customer base . not only will it not work with standard sd memory like everyone else , it does not include a docking station . you have to shell out more money for that option . i dont think so +camera pos i purchased the canon off camera shoe cord to use with the canon ex 580 for weddings . i needed the cord to use the flash on a braket to avoid red eye . it does what it 's supposed to . no complaints . +camera pos this is a very powerful flash unit that works as a master to other canon flash units . you can get very nice results with a small amount of experimentation . it does what it suppose to . i used it with the 420ex i 've had for several years and it worked fine . mounted on the camera it 's a larger version of the built in popup on the 30d with some extra niceties and lots more power . thinking of the 430ex ? cough up the few extra bucks for this baby , you 'll be glad you did . it 's a one shot deal , [no pun intended] , you 'll be using it for years to come . i bought the 420ex for my elan ii e about 6 years ago . it 's been a great unit . this one recharges faster and has gobs more power . you 'll love it ! do n't let all the dials and switches scare you , read the instruction manual +music pos i feel bad doing this becuase i love iggy and the stooges but the quality on this set is pretty bad . all the live recordings are worth listening to and probably owning but the quality is very rough and can get frustrating . it 's like the first beatles anthology set : the material is amazing but the quality is bad . on the plus side the studio outtakes are decent quality wise and amazing content wise . the packaging is also very nice . i just though i 'd share this information before you drop all the money on the set . if you are a stooges fan do n't hesitate purchase now but if this is your introduction you should probably wait . +music pos all-instrumental collections of bluegrass are hard to find , and if you like it when a band takes a break from singing and just plays their instruments , here 's your chance for total immersion . all the songs on this compilation are from rounder records albums released 1976-1998 , by artists with familiar names like alison krauss and tony rice , and others you may never have heard of . all are first rate , foot stompin ' renditions of bluegrass traditionals , with a few great originals - - bill monroe 's " bluegrass breakdown " and earl scruggs ' " foggy mountain chimes . " best known for most listeners is a rousing version of " orange blossom special " by the johnson mountain boys . if you like bluegrass with plenty of pickin ' at breakneck speed , this cd will keep you smilin ' through many , many replays +camera neg the documentation is terrible . its going to take a lot of practice . if you 're just going to stick it on top your camera its fine . however i want to use it off-camera to trigger 2 x sb600s . just setting the d200 to fire a pre-flash that will trigger the sb800 / masster & sb600s it 's a nightmare and its not covered in any detail , in the manual . the sb800 is designed for this purpose . so why not include information on how to do this ? +camera pos easily snaps in place and does the job . considerably less expensive than the local retail outlet - and delivery was quick as well +music neg bands from the 90s just sucked and nirvana fits in with that . they had a couple of ok songs and kurt cobain was some what talented but this is nothing to get excited about . i can not for the life of me see the things people see that just go off about how great they were . i do n't see it . this is another cd in a long line of cds from the 90s that are a disgrace to music . +camera pos it works as specified on my sony hdr-hc3 hd camcorder . i have used it several times and cant find any noticeable blurs / distortions using this lens . its a little pricey , but well worth the money +music pos in temporary secretary theres a great melody struggling to escape from the space invaders backing.memo to paul-turn this into a ballad for your next album bogey music , inspired by a book , is quite interesting . waterfalls is the standout song and comin'up was the hit . the rest you just get used to what more could you ask +camera pos the fisheye lens is a lot of fun , and i enjoy using mine . however , i find that the practicality of the lens is minimal . i do n't usually want my " serious " photographs to have fisheye distortion . i do n't tend to like the 1.6x crop on canon 's lower-end digital slr cameras , but with the fisheye this has an interesting benefit : it 's reasonably easy to use the fisheye as a standard wide-angle lens , since most of the distortion is removed by the 1.6x crop . you can still get distortion , but it 's a lot easier to compose a shot without it using a 1.6x camera than a full-frame camera . either way , lots of fun . buy one for the enjoyment , or even for professional assignments if your work calls for it , but think about if you really want the distortion before getting one of these +music neg when i played the first composition on this cd , i started thinking that perhaps i had purchased a really stellar cd because the first song was really jumping . but after that , this cd is disapointing to me . there are maybe three pretty good compositions with the rest being totally unmemorable . with the three good cuts from this disc and a few from her first cd , joyce cooling could have made one good cd . but , in my opinion , there are n't enough good songs here to warrant a release of this cd . joyce certainly has potential , but she needs to work on her creativity . she sound here like an artist still maturing in style +camera pos out of the box this is a simple to use camera . the convenience of having the video or picture right on a hard drive is great . i did a lot of searching and this one was the most bang for the buck . just starting to use it so ca n't say much for now . my wife loved it for its size and weight +music pos i heard the chairman dances and went right to amazon to order this . this ia a lovely little gem of a cd , and it is so pleasing to find john adams , another great modern american composer . i 'm also a fan of composers such as christopher rouse , for example , and joe leniado chira is my cousin . modern composers are a precious resource that we should explore , demand more of and nurture . we afficianados would like to see symphony orchestras and ensembles giving more attention to the modern genre . meanwhile , john adams has impressed me with this disc . the chairman dances is my favorite . i can just see chairman mao doing a vigorous foxtrot to this , and tricky dick feeling jealous . this might be the music that opened china to the west +music neg i bought this based on reviews of " bass queen in the mix . " to me it sounds like the west coast edition of northern exposure without the 4 / 4 house beat . in other words , its very electronic sounding , almost completely non-vocal and not very funky at all . i listened to " eargasm " by plump dj 's and icey 's " funky breaks " after this and it 's definitely missing variety , skill in mixing and that " neck snapping " funky quality that make the plumps and icey so indispensible . not too bad but not that interesting either . i prefer her " mixtress " and still have not heard " bass queen.. . " btw , my speakers are flat down to below 30 hz and i did n't find the recording quality or the bass that impressive . listen to crystal method 's " phd " or " block rockin ' beats " by chemical brothers after this to see what i mean +camera neg they arrived on time and after that everything went downhill . the batteries charged lasted atleast five hours , so no complaints there , but the charger would keep coming out from the wall . it only seemed to work if it was all the way in and it would n't stay all the way in , i tried several outlets , finally after a whole two months it no longer worked at all +camera neg i purchased this set , and upon arrival , i found the circular polarizer to be defective . amazon quickly replaced the set , and this polarizer did not work either ! i returned the set , as i am not going to waste any more time trying to get a polarizer that works . i 'll pay more , and get a quality product from a different maker . i will say that amazon is second to nobody for customer service . i appreciate that , and will continue to be an amazon customer . however , i ca n't say the same for tiffen . +music neg i would n't know i never got my cd and its been over two month +music pos not only do you get some great music with this cd , you get the beginnings of climax as well . ( the last 2 cuts are essentially sonny geraci solo songs done by 1 / 2 of the band that would play on climax records ) includes their 4 hits ( time wont let me , girl in love , respectable & help me girl ) and a slew of other very like-minded material . if you like any of their 4 hits , you will love the rest . if you like climax , you should buy this for the 2 last songs which are essentially climax tunes +camera pos i have used this charger & battery package for a while now in my digital slr , battery performance is excellent ! the downside is that the charger has issues : the top bay charges faster than the bottom bay and the batteries get very hot when charging , it has not seemed to affect the batteries in the year i have had them . if you are looking for exceptional batteries buy these , and the charger is okay , just beware that it does not charge all nimh batteries but does do most +camera pos i just bought this for about $190 at the local px . i am impressed so far . i was going to buy the gs180 , but for the sale price i would be crazy to pass this up . so far the low light is much better than a single ccd . the video playback is quiet compared to a few other camcorders that record the motor noise onto the tape . i plan on buying an extended battery and a tripod today at the same sale . i will use this camcorder mostly for home videos of my son and vacations we take around europe . i look froward to using this camcorder a lot +camera neg very good product very satisfied , the night vision is great clarity is very good and portability is awesome plus the price is even bette +camera neg not too long after i purchased this camera the screen turned white when i turned it on . i would turn it off and on and nothing would help . finally i would take the batteries out and put them back in . this seemed to fix the problem a few times . after that i thought it was just operator error . but it wasn't . the camera finally gave out and the white screen never went away . so after being annoyed i left the camera alone for awhile . an event came up about a month later . i got my camera and tried to turn it on . nothing happened . so i changed the batteries . still nothing happened . i 'm not sure what happened . i do believe i purchased a lemon camera . i 'm hoping to resolve these issues with samsung . it was one of the cheapest cameras on the market at the time . so i guess you get what you pay for ! +music pos this cd is a classic , a must for all those who loved the movie . i wondered if i would get a crackling type of sound , but it is as crystal clear as the movie sound . this is perfect for those who want to practice the songs for a " sound of music " event or a singing class ! +camera neg gosh , i would really like to review this adapter , but- - - amazon has put my order on indefinate hold , as thier supplier is unable to get any more . but wait ! what 's that blurb on the product page - " availability : ususally ships within 24 hours " and " want it delivered tomorrow ? order it in the next 5 hours and 36 minutes , and choose one-day shipping at checkout . see details . " so they ca n't deliver it , yet they still list it as available for delivery tomorrow ? do n't order from amazon +music neg this was o.k. nothing more nothing less . this album was hard to review , beacuse no songs really stick out . i mean the guy is a mediocre artist with mediocre rhymes , laced over just above mediocre beats . i have heard better sesame street singalongs for yappy kids in the back seat of a mini van . i mean what does the album have that sticks out ? " saturday to saturday " ? " bloody horseshoe " ? or the multi - faceted " boo , we ai n't forgot about you " none of the above , or none on the album . sorry . and please , all angry people who think that this is a bad review , remember , it 's a review . i can say what i want +music neg gerry marsden and his pacemakers are great . i just want to point out that the double-cd ' best of ' import has 15 extra tracks and sells for about the same price . there is just no reason to buy this compilation instead of the import +music pos hey there all , want to listen to some great songs by a country artist , chely wright , then go ahead and purchase this cd you will be amazed at the talent chely has . songs spanning from her ealier days to her current hits , a great collection for the diehard fan , and a great gift for those who have not been able to experience the very talented chely wright +music neg i own this set , as does my roomate , and we both hate it . it highlights bands like ' red lorry , yellow lorry ' that no one likes or listens to , and uses great classic bands like bauhaus ' worst song as the first track . it is the hollow , tin-y , embarrassingly hokey side of goth , and i am ashamed to even have it in my house +camera pos i 've had my d2h for 9 months now . i 've heard of the magenta skin tones issue but have never seen it..skin tones on my unit are great . it seems this issue plagued a minority of users . camera is very fast , exposes well and delivers results . it 's primarily designed to be a sports and photojournalism camera - - for situations where speed counts . it 's a 4 megapixel wonder - - it 's true it only has 4 megapixels , but they are 4 great megapixels . images upsize wonderfully . i love my unit , and am debating whether to buy a second one as a backup , or wait for the d2x . the price of the d2x is making that decision a bit easier and i 'm leaning toward another d2h . +music neg very disappointing - nothing like riverdance would not recommend and i am avid fa +camera neg when i was buying my husbands olympus camera this rechargeable battery popped up as a suggested purchase to go with camera so i ordered it . not paying close enough attention and because the title does have stylus in it i assumed it was compatable with the camera i was purchasing at that time . no it was not ! ! ! so i paid for and wraped ( christmas present ) something that did not only not work for the camera but made me look like a idiot shopper when my husband opened it and saw that it was not compatiable . now i have to figure out how to send it back for a refund which will cost me shipping charges yet again...not to mention the frustration of a return ! ! ! ! not a happy amazon shopper ! +music neg this one is for you . but honestly now , the guy does n't write- -beautiful voice- -but songwriting is a major appeal . so guess a solo garfunkel is a lot like a step above justin timberlake . ok , there are definitely highlihgts like a heart in newyork , ( what a ) wonderful world , but generally this a very casual compilation , good for a couple listens . in general , art garfunkel is n't really good for more than that . check out him witht paul simon , that is amazing stuff , but this is kinda boring . i might have a bit more respect if he wrote the songs- -but even though there are good songwriters writing for him , the songs are still sub-par +music pos i first heard joe playing in that urgent style of his , on horace silvers ' " song for my father " album . the thing about him is that his playing has always sounded mature and developed , like he was born to play . on this cd , felicidade in particuliar , he simmers , builds to a rolling boil , and simmers again so nicely as he takes you to brasil . also the straight ahead playing on triste ' is nothing short of marvelous playing by the group ! the whole is cd is great . go ' head joe +camera neg the photoshare digital frame is a classic example of poor engineering . the " plug and play " ability is aggravating , at best , freezing two of my computers , requiring endless reboots to transfer images . photoshare provides zero customer support or technical assistance when you have problems interpreting the very poor operations manual . the expensive battery is almost impossible to install . the power cord has to be super glued to stay in place . and the frame is sloppy and dangerous - very easy for unit to fall out . buy another brand or just put pictures on disc and use a portable dvd player instead . +music pos no collection of blues / rock is complete without " a piece of your soul " . there very simply is not a weak track on the entire disc . from the raunchy ( " bitter rain " ) to the uplifting ( " good day for the blues " ) to the bittersweet ( " cynical " ) to the soft ( " share that smile " ) storyville encompasses the entire range of musical expression with a style that is as provocative as it is unique . put this disc on your list of music to have on a deserted island +music pos ...wandering through the dorms in the 1970 's this was one of those albums that was in everyone 's collection . it was usually very near the front of the record stack . every time i hear that opening guitar riff from reelin ' in the years i glide back to a very nice place in time . if you hope to understand the evolution of us pop / rock music you need to become intimate with this recording ! +camera pos this product offers a realy equity between price and quality , and a good results in photos +camera neg i agree with the many other users who have experienced the " condensation , operation paused " defect on their jvc gr-xxxx . despite numerous others reporting this problem , jvc says its not a recognized problem . i would disagree - it is a recognized problem , but its your problem , not theirs . +music pos this is a cd that one can listen to countless times . the virtuoso playing and beautiful tone produced by michael aptly display the characteristics of the euphonium . the selections are for college and graduate level players , as well as the occasionally " gifted " highschooler . a must hear , and a must buy +camera pos this is the perfect case for my sony m2 camera ! yes i said sony m2 ! this camera case is perfect for it.very sturdy and not expensive at all.cool sony cybershot insignia on it and good " d " ring for your belt.fits perfectly for my m2 and it has a very cool and stylish look to it ! 100% recommended to those who need a case for their m1 or m2 sony cybershot +music pos this album was by far the bands most daring ablum . they went away from the classic inxs sound that made them superstars ( kick , x ) and instead updated their sound to fit the time . like a previous reviewer noted , this was when grunge was becoming very popular in the us , and unfortunately , caused this album to go unnoticed for the most part . its sad too , cuz there are many solid tracks , inlcuding heaven sent ( my favorite ) , not enough time , baby dont cry and beautiful girl . i have recently become a big fan of inxs and have purchased all of their albums . i like this one in particular because it is different from all their other albums . i recommend " welcome " to any inxs fan and any other fan of great music +music neg buddy holly has a number of collections that are superior to the one put out under the 20th century masters series . every one of the cds in this series is skimpy in content and superfluous . this one is no exception . look elsewhere +camera pos it lasts a lot of shots , about 1000 shots , it 's amazing , with two of these batteries you have for almost a month in holiday without any recharge +camera neg i paid extra for air next day service . item was advertised as available and ready to ship immediately . item eventually arrived two weeks later . i had left for a trip . item was eventually sent back to merchant . merchant did n't credit me for item returned . i had to email merchant and wait for another 2 weeks before item was credited . i wo n't buy from willoughby 's again +music pos like louis jordan , his less well-known contemporary jump / jive artist , cab calloway fits into an area much beloved by americans who recall the boggie woogie era or simply love the jumpin bumpin scufflin shufflin sound of that pre-rock and roll music . though in truth i do love jordan more and think he was a truely protean genius who was the grandfather of r& ; b , calloway was the consumate showwman whose jive / jump music ca n't help but bring a smile to your lips and a lift to your heart +camera neg i purchased a 510 powershot in summer of 2005. after couple time of use the zoom on the cameras lens would n't work anymore . i cound't take any picture anymore . i contacted canon over this and they ask me to pay shiping to send the camera to them to fix . +camera neg i purchased this camera for my 13-yr old daughter as her first digital camera . it was a christmas present so i am highly dissapointed that 3 months after purchase , the flash stopped working . the picture quality was good but it hardly makes up for the fact that she can no longer take photo 's indoors or in low light . i would not recommend this camera . +camera pos i was amazed on how well this battery has performed . i did make sure when i got it i did a complete charge and complete discharge and it has not let me down since . i can shoot well over two hours without needing to change to the very meek battery that came with my camcorder ( sony hdr-hc1 ) . it is thicker and sticks off the back a little bit more so you can not get your eye up to the eyepiece but i use the lcd when shooting anyway , and almost always on tripod +music pos it does n't get any better than this . this album is a must have for all true judas priest fans . this is priest when they were really getting good . the guitars and the vocals rock you to the core +music pos stephen stills " for what it 's worth " is , of course , a classic song . " burned , " neil young 's strongest effort for this album , is another classic song . the rest of it is all very good . i would say that it does sound a bit dated , however ; , and that this one is mostly for fanatics of 60 's music . your average " artic monkeys " fan is not going to find this a good match for their musical sensiblities . better was on the way from buffalo springfield . their next album , " buffalo springfield again " is an all out rock masterpiece that everybody should own , whatever your age or inclinations . +music pos mr. kimbrough done come thru with the dirt on this one . this aint just blues music , it 's soul music right in there with isaac hayes and nem . it 's hard played and honest and that 's the true pleasure of it +camera pos after using both lenses i think this is much better . here are my reasons : 1 - f 2.8 makes the autofocus much faster and accurate . 2 - bokeh is much better in this one . 3 - macro is slightly better on this one . 4 - 105 mm does make a very little difference in image size . 5 - is is not very crucial in 24-50 range . +music pos that nigga 's crazy and bicentennial nigger both surpass this album in laughs , but it would still rank high if it was n't for the poor sound quality- -there 's a few audience members who can be heard a lot more clearly than pryor himself half the time . but some great classic bits , and believe me you 're never bored +camera neg i bought this camera 3 months ago and have used it a few times . last week all of a sudden the pictures look out of focus and over-exposed . i have n't changed anything or done anything . i have no idea what 's wrong with the camera , but given the price i 'm pretty annoyed and amazon.com will not refund my money because it has been over 30 days +camera pos this case is so well made , and just the right size to give the canon elura , a nice snug paddeded cushioned fit . plus secondary compartments for all the accessiories that you need to carry for your video photography...... . +music neg it 's a decent album but she seems to copy riffs a bit on this album . mother mother definitly rips of stairway to heaven from stairway 's ending vocals riff . ( and as we wind on down the road. . ) does she give zep credit on that ? now that rockstar supernova has used the song twice it has brought mother , mother back to life a bit but that riff rip just annoys me . good female yell and complain song but i just ca n't get past that riff rip +music neg vote this one off the island : 19 overproduced prog-tropical instrumentals consisting entirely of primitive thumping , chanting and grunting - sort of a new age tribal orgy with pygmy porn music composed by phil collins . it 's all supposed to convey the drama , intrigue and relevance of a tv show ( survivor yell , mud bath , chase race , tally the vote , i can see it , buzzed ) with no drama , intrigue and relevance . a desperate last ditch dig for one of the most unimportant moments in television +music neg how can anyone say this chick has talent ? ! ! ! my god , she is sooooooooo bad . and yes , i actually listened to it . the only reason it sounds semi ok is because she 's got millions backing her and that much technology could even make me sound good ! she does n't write any of her songs and she ca n't hold a tune . gives celine a run for her money ? please ! ! ! ! the only singer she sounds better than is paris hilton ! but whatever . if you like it , that 's all that matters . if you like pretty young pop stars , christina aguilera is much better . she can actually sing ! ! +camera neg i had my sony dsc w70 for just one month when the viewing screen suddenly cracked without being dropped or hit . the glass itself was intact , but something underneath was clearly broken . mailed it in to the factory service company for sony , and i was informed 3 weeks later that it is not covered by warranty and will cost $181 to repair . this is 2 / 3 the cost of a new camera and does not make sense financially . i have a friend who had the same problem of a broken screen with the identical sony camera . +camera neg i agree with m. arse with the 2star rating . i was disappointed with this camera from the beginning . not a user friendly one and the pictures turn out very grainy with bad color quality unless you are in an optimum light . i 'm interested in the 7 mp camera canon offers . i 've read that it has much better shutter speed . recommended ? ? +music pos another great album by firehouse . my favorites are reach for the sky , when i look into your eyes , and hold your fire . i have other favorites , but there are my top 3. i have a story to go along with this album , ladies and gentlemen . see , i was heading to cross-country one day , for the huge " group 2 " meet . ( there 's a section , and 5 groups from every section make it , and there were four sections , so you can make the calculations ) . i listened to this album , having a bad day before , and having a bad night of rest . listening to this album , i got a river of positivity , and i had a great start and a great finish . i ended up smashing my last personal best in cross-country . basically ladies and gentlemen , this cd has alot of effect . get it . i love to review things . have a great day +camera neg in an email , adorama specified that the filter diameter was , " 28mm . " on the amazon.com website is states that the same filter is a 55mm filter mounting ! either they do n't know their products or they do n't care about the customers . now i have to return it because of faulty information they supplied . please beware that their shipping charges equal approximately 25% of the purchase price - an amount i feel is beyond absurd . i can buy this locally for a lot less ( even though i would have to pay sales tax ) . buyer beware +camera neg for quite sometime lured by media publicity i thought sony a good brand . but this was not at all true for digital cameras . i bought this p73 for myself and an hp 4 mp camera for my cousin much cheaper than sony . both 3x optical zoom . the hp one was far better in image quality . main problem is that photo quality is not so good . it lacks sharpness and in most of the natural occassions becomes a bit hazy . this fact becomes annoying because your friend who has a cannon or an hp camera will take sharper pictures better than you in any light conditions . also , in the same price you might look for something higher than 3x optical zoom , say 5x or so in other brands . also during video , every option of adjusting to light conditions etc will be shut off , another irritating fact . not recommended +music pos this is a great classic rock cd including some timeless songs . if you like " summer breeze " as much as i do and have not heard the remix of it yet , you are in for a pleasent suprise . a remix album came out in november of 2004 called " what is hip " and in my opinion is the best remix album of 70 's music that i 've ever heard . their version of " summer breeze " is near perfect . a modernized , but not over the top version that manages to preserve the true melody of the song with out removing the original rhythm . the entire album is great too . i have this " greatest hits " and the " what is hip " cd and simply ca n't get enough . here 's a link to the cd . enjoy . http : / / www.amazon.com - - what is hip +music pos purchased this album because of the great album cover , was i surprised when i popped it into my cd player . i had n't heard of rick braun before but after listening to this cd , i ran out and purchased everything he has ever recorded . never have i heard a trumpet sound so beautiful . share this music with someone you love +music pos ok , i just could not resist coming on here to review this . i 've had this cd for about 4 years now and i still listen to quite a bit , proof right there that this cd is definetly a classic ( in my book at least ) every single song on here is original , the guitar riffs are simply amazing , and the lyrics i can not even describe in words how much they hit home and how breathtaking they are . if your a goo goo doll fan , and you still do not have this cd , i deeply encourge you to go buy it now ! this is the is the goos like you 've never heard them before . the cd is pure genius , and in my opinion the best cd i 've ever heard +camera neg this camera / mp3 / camcorder / webcam / voice recorder is way to good to be true ! i brought one because it was cute and looked perfect for mini movies . but i was sadly mistaken.. . this camera just takes cheap pictures and videos . the only thing that actully worked properly was the voice recorder that i had no need for . after about 3 days of trying to make it work a little better i gave up and sold it on ebay for the same price as i brought it for . it 's a great idea.. . but it just is n't a good camera but if you want a voice recorder this is pretty nice . the mp3 player is n't all that wonderful either . it does n't work with itunes . or easy work with windows . hope this helps.. . i wish i would have read this before i brought this camera +camera pos im a graphic design student in college , so i really needed a camera . i decided on this one and i am really glad i did . the pictures are nice and clean . the camera itslef is a very sleek looking one and is very compact . the only downfall to this is that it eats batteries pretty quick , but i just took them out when i wasnt using them . buy this camera +music neg i just purchased my sacd player and picked up boston and billy joel 's the stranger at the same time . after listening to the stranger , my mouth dropped . billy 's voice coming from the center speaker and all the other instruments and melodies coming from every different direction . then i put in boston and could n't tell a difference from the cd version i already own . i think it 's one of the best albums , but if you already own it on cd , do n't bother upgrading - there 's nothing special about the sacd version +music pos only 2 words can describe this great cd and they are ( simply incerdible ) im only 17 but i know great oldschool when i hear it and this is fantastic musi +camera neg a close friend made the unfortunate mistake of plunking down 2 grand for this camera . honestly olympus produces cameras that can do the same thing for $400. i 've used hers and the image quality is horrible and the colours are wrong 9 times out of 10. if you 're going to spend that much on a camera , get the d70 instead and buy a nice extra lens or some other gadgets to go with . the pictures are better and it offers more mp +music neg as much as i like most of the songs on this cd...it 's just too short . also the production is lousy . the recording quality sounds awful in places . hopefully , the updated compilations are better . this one is not worth the money ! ! ! +music neg if i ca n't buy the cd with all the songs that were played in the movie then i wo n't buy it . i know one cd could cover the entire movie so why ca n't this be done ? does it concern copy rights and releases +music neg hey ! never liked ja fool ! he is and will always be over ! where is he ? ? ? ? ? ? ? like i care ! any way ! ! ! ! 50 has sold 16 million+ cd 's and ja fool had the nerve to say 50 do n't sell ! ! ha ! ! ! ! ! ! ja fool ! ! ! greatest hits ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! nuff said ! over ja fool rule ! ! +camera pos kodak door strains to shut with this battery . nice idea but , too bad for kodak owners . i have great success though with energizer lithium batteries . they last me a long time and fit perfectly +music pos i have been following gospel since the early 80s . i am a big fan of contemporary gospel and shei atkins defines how r&p gospel should sound . trinitee 5:7 along with dawkins & dawkins have done a great job so far , but shei atkins covers it all- -relationships ( cheating , divorce , pre-marital sex ) ; worship ; hymns ; enocuragement ; you name it and she has a song for it . i just bought the cd and i ca n't take it out of my cd player ! ! her voice is so annointed and unique ! she can easily give beyonce , erykah badu and mary blige a run for their money ! she can easily be played on mainstream radio and everyone would be bobbin ' their heads to it- -yet she has no problem mentioning jesus in any of her songs ! for those christians who are looking for something that they can groove and relax too ( with some anointing ) please buy this cd- -i promise you that you wo n't be disappointed ! i can literally listen to every song on this cd over and over again +music pos first up i give this album a 4.5 / 5 for the fac that it has real hiphop beats and good lyrics . real hiphop , they stayed true to the sound . i just didnt give it a 5 since im not the biggest tcq fan and of that style . but all these emcees spit hott lyrics in this album . tracks like " keep it movin " , " hot sex " have ill beats . this album does have a real jazzy sound to it , which im not the biggest fan of , but its more of a unique style , and they deserve props for trying new styles . so overall this is a really good album , and worth getting . my top 5 songs 1.buggin out 2.hot sex 3.oh my god 4.luck of lucien 5.keep it movi +camera pos the item was exactly as expected . the packaging for shipment , along with the other item i ordered , was unacceptable . a child could have done better +camera pos i bought this a year ago and have taken many great pictures with it . it 's light , has many features and can be used as an automatic when all you want to do is point and click . i ca n't recommend it enough . +camera neg i wish there was a space for zero stars . we bought this frame for my in-laws for christmas and it worked for ten minutes and then died . it was definitely a fault unit and gauging by the other reviews on here , others have had a problem with it freezing . once it does that , there 's no fixing it , apparently . do some research and buy another unit ; that 's what i 'm going to do +camera pos i have had great luck with other opteka lenses , but i had to by a thread adapter . what is the thread size of this lens here ? i need to know before i buy . opteka , please put thread sizes of your lenses in the description . thanks ! +camera pos the picture is fine at this price . i bought the panasonic vdr-d100 for my daughter because she usually does n't want to do anything with the computer like edit video . when we gave it to her the first thing she asked was , " can i edit the movies ? " i did a quick test to make sure the dvds would finalize and work on another dvd player with success on 3 computers and 3 dvd players . i did n't find anything the disc would n't play on . then i started up vegas movie studio platinum which i use to edit my minidv movies . i selected import from dvd and it went straight to the minidvd and loaded in the files where i was able to edit and add titles , music , sound effects and a voice over if i wanted to . since i already bought dvd-r / w discs she will be able to reuse them if she ever edits the movies because you can unfinalize the discs and reformat them . +camera neg i am a nikon fan i have nikon 6t and nikon d50. but about coolpix 4600 : all picutures are always blurred or atleast fuzzy . it somehow take decent photos of face and buildings ( if they have strong straight edges / stripes ) +music neg i bought this cd for the avril lavigne song keep holding on. i really like her song , and this is the only way i could find to buy get it . was to buy the eragon sound track . i havent seen the movie . besides that i would n't have bought it +music neg i remember listening to this years ago , and i thought i would add this to my cd library , now i know why it has been years sense i 've listened to it , , very sqeaky , dull , slow paced stuff , bob segar makes this stuff sound like tin foil. . +camera neg after discovering that the makers of a great camera would only offer such an inferior case , i did some more looking . what i ended up with was a pelican case . for those not familiar with these cases stop by any camera / photo shop , and they most likely carry them . they come in many sizes and are simply an airtight , waterproof high impact plastic case with very snug fitting latches . the inside is solid soft foam that you " pluck " to fit what ever you want to store in the case . i purchased the 1300 for my finepix 3800. the case easily holds the camera , battery charger , mini tripod , and 3 xd cards . they come in 4 or 5 colors , and can be used for almost anything you want to protect from damage +music neg if you like early priest , buy genocide . it has both rocka rolla and sad wings of destiny in their entirety ( the only thing it does not have is the original album artwork ) . not leaving out important tracks like the ripper , for pete 's sake ! ! ! how could you leave out the ripper ? and what about island of domination ? i feel sorry for anyone that bought this that is unfamiliar with priest . they got jipped and did n't even know it . these are my favorite albums by priest and i hate to see them butchered like this.. . and what about the order of the songs ? why would they mess with that too ? do youself a favor and buy either genocide , or if you like to have the original artwork , buy rocka rolla and sad wings of destiny seperately +music pos i am a motown , oldies , r& ; b , soul , love songs , music lover.i like the songs that hit the heart and soul and hearing them brings back memories that come alive to the rhythem and bill withers definately fits right in there . i do n't realy have a favorite artist because i like sooooo many of them but if i had to pick my top 10 , this album would be in there +music neg so this is the winner of plop idol from the u.k then . well they do n't come prettier than this from scotland i guess , that 's for sure . as far as the music is concerned , avoid ! it 's nothing but a calchony of crap . perhaps michelle should stick at something she is good at - eating chips and mars bars +music pos gene watson was one of the finest voices in country music , and this compilation of 18 hits provide a fine sampling of that voice . considered by some to be " hard country " , i find gene watson to have a more " pop " oriented voice that combined well with his selection of songs ; and in the ' 70 's , that proved to be enough to keep him on the charts . while many of the songs on this album are pure country , others are the typical , drab , 70 's pop that filled the void between the nashville sound and the new traditional era of the 80's . in any case , there is no doubt that gene watson earned his spot in country music , and this collection carries those hits that made him the household name he is today ; including his signature songs " farewell party " and " love in the hot afternoon " . if you prefer the more traditional country sound , his " you could know as much about a stranger " and " should i come home " are also included +camera neg i 've had this battery for half a year and i agree with a fellow reviewer 's assessment that the battery does not hold much power . i am diligent about expending all energy before recharging because they have memory , but this delkin model 's life span was noticeably short . now i am going to buy a new charger / battery altogether because i do n't want to buy another delkin battery +camera neg this filter is fine for normal shooting , but if you do low-light work , beware ; you will see bad internal reflections on night shots , and will need to remove the filter +camera neg as i have gotten older seeing the tiny print inside the view finder has become more dificult , as well a seeing the image clearly enought to get super sharp focus . i thought this might be a solution . this eyecup fails on all requards . worst feature , the optics are not nearly as clear as you would expect . second the magnification is so minimal as to be useless . last it has the cheep feel of cracker jack plastic , well and the optics to match . now i know where olympus had it manufactured +music neg this cd had the makings of a great recording . the problem was telling popper where they were performing ! butch , please record another one but leave popper at home.he 's full of a lot of things , but talent is n't one of them +music pos ' live etc ' is an absolute must-have compilation for all true gong fans.it features a total of fifteen live tracks of tunes that originally appeared on the band 's key albums ' camembert electrique ' , ' flying teapot ' , ' angel 's egg ' and ' you' .taken from unreleased live soundboard tapes ( i assume ) from shows between 1973-75.absolute best cut here is " where have all the flowers gone ? " along with " 6 / 8 tune " , that are the disc 's only unreleased material.other cosmic gems include " dynamite / i am your animal " , " isle of everywhere " , " oily way " and " master builder " .duration is 78:33.heard they wanted to add the 16th cut that was originally on the 2-lp record , but the cd simply would n't hold it.talk about wanting to give your fans their money 's worth.long live the mother gong ship ! recommended +camera pos i ordered this hoping that it would fit my camera and accessories and it did . i have a stylus 750 plus a pop up screen shade , an extra battery , and an extra picture card . there are two slots specifically designed to fit two picture cards on the inside cover . in the main compartment , a small slit will fit an extra battery or two plus a creit card and perhaps a bit of paper money . ( it wo n't fit much more than that , though . ) it 's compact , stylish and functional- -i 'm glad i bought it +camera pos i use this gem on my 20d along with my 24-105mm , and as far as i 'm concerned it is one of the best optical lenses out there . my 24-105 is n't the ideal indoor / low light lens nor is it the ideal sports photography lens ( although it is sharp , just not quite long enough ) the 70-200 fills in that gap in my arsenal with is to boot ! the photos i 've taken so far on the sidelines are all keepers . if you can afford it , do it , you wo n't regret i +camera neg this gets 1 star for the simple fact that it does n't seem to fit my mark ii body properly . +music neg i was disappointed by ms. jackson . though it 's not such a big loss b / c i did n't pay much for it . none of the songs " jumped " out at me . thank god i did n't waste time putting this on my ipod why upset it +camera pos worked like a charm in my panasonic ag-dv30 video camera ! having 5+ hours of battery life really helps when you 're on vacation and do n't want to mess with charging batteries or being " selective " in your shooting . this gives you the freedom to tape what you want and edit out the boring stuff later . worth the money and a good deal here +camera neg this is a nice looking brown suede camera case . based on all the stylus models listed , i assumed my olympic stylus 595 would fit in it but , unfortunately , it does not . +camera pos it is a great camera , very small and gives very good photos in most circumstances . grainy pic in dim light . go to the casio website to download the new firmware for 4gb sd card compatibility . you will get over 1500 high res photos with a 4 gb card , where outpost is selling for 5o dollars a car +music neg as a contemporary of joan baez ( age-wise ) , i loved her early music and the power of her incredible voice . i even empathize with much of her politics , but unfortunately it 's time she rested on her laurels . her voice on this cd is quite far removed from what she was once capable of , and in fact i would have to say that there is no comparison between her vocal ability on bowery songs , and her earlier quality . like some professional athletes , she seems to not know when to quit.. . +camera neg i made the mistake of selecting the bundle without reading the requirements closely . the lens is for a variety of canon cameras but the adapter only works with the a6xx series . my adapter arrived and it does n't work with my camera . kinda misleading and now i have to spend more to buy the correct adapter separately . bummer . also , captain jack is correct about the vignetting . this lens is sort of like a magnifying class that sits in front of the built-in zoom lens . if you zoom wide angle , you see the horrible vignetting he mentioned . if you stay zoomed in , it works ok . disappointing +music pos dj quik ( the best producer ever ) did all the tracks in this one with help from robert bacon on some tracks . this album is just classic nuthin more to it ! +camera neg review : unit had a very large defect in the field of view . it 's not one of the usual spots from the intensifier tube ; those i am aware of as i have other night vision devices . this goes about 1 / 4 of the way across , near the center . had to return it . poor quality control . update - the new one does not have any image defects . it also does n't focus as sharply as the first one did ( or my other one does ) , but it is n't too bad +music pos i 'm just starting to become a true fan of pigpen . earlier , i just did n't get him and i would constantly skip forward to more of the gd extended jams . lately , i 've started to get what he was all about and what made him such an important part of the early dead shows . i 'm glad i picked up this set . it 's pigpen 's night and we should all be happy for this nice memory . pick it up . note : the rest of the band has some fine moments too ! ! +music neg back 2 da basics *1 / 2 stars yo gotti has made some decent albums , but this one is just so ridiculous and silly that it made me sick , gotti who thinks he put memphis on the map , has some good songs here and there , but the rest are just ridiculous , obnioxus and real pretentious . this is not a good album thumbs down +camera pos set the diffusion to ' stun ' when you do n't want your flash to ' kill ' with harsh , sharp , shadowy edges . yes , you need this if you have an sb-600. why ? nikon does n't make a diffuser for that model . basically , it fits snugly on the tip of the flash , slides off and on easy , will also protect your flashbulb from acidental nicks , like that macro shot of the benihana chefs . here 's what it does : diffuses your flash without having to go all into your menu settings and make adjustments . simple , sherlock . the omni-bounce ( what an imaginative name for a piece of shaped plastic ) performs as expected , no real cons , except shipping adds almost 50% to the price , so check your local camera shop to see if they have it in stock before ordering +camera pos i highly recommend the raynox dcr 1540pro teleconverter for the canon s2 instead of the canon branded one . hoya makes a 67mm uv filter for this and both are available at lensmate.com . the canon wc-dc58a wide angle converter however is really good . tiffen made a better one but it seems to not be available anymore . by the way , the function that the s2 provides for settings using the lens adaptors and teleconvertors are to adjust for the autofocus function of the camera and are necessary unless you wish to try to focus yourself using the manual focus which , in my mind , because of the lcd both in the screen as well as in the viewfinder with a lower resolution than an optical viewfinder , is iffy at best . trust the camera.....it really does an excellent job . one final note , i would recommend using the focus bracketing option in lower light situations as the auto focus is weak in those situations . +camera pos this lens does ok at magnifying about 2x max . on full zoom , the magnification was not as sharp as without the close-up lens +camera pos my fuji e900 fits perfectly and also the battery charger and extra batteries . the front pocket for additional memory cards is a great idea . case goes on belt or on neck strap to accomodate personal taste . very nice and reasonably priced +camera pos i recently moved into the prosumer level of digital . the canon d30 has proven to be an awesome camera . there maybe better ( d60 ) , but if you are serious about digital , the d30 has to be one of the best cameras for the price . there is a slight lag between shots , but if you are not photographing speeding bullets and express trains , the time between shots is hardly a distraction +music pos the most juiced-up sountern rock around . check out the tango guitar on " too hard to handle " and i always get a kick out of rick 's ole ' man . it 's a shame that there are n't bands like this around today . +camera neg i read other review , and decided to give it a try . as soon as i recieve it in the mail , and opened the box , i realized this was a mistake . cheap quality binocular with " high power " being a selling point . it came in already broken with two eye ruber pieces falling apart . you can see how the cheap glue was being used to put it in place ! it is extremly heavy to hold in hands for more than one minute for nature observation . you will be constantly ajdusting the focus . your fingers bumps with focus bar while you are holding it . indeed strap , case , lense protectors are all cheap crap , and annoying to have it all on~ ! i am taking this back , and buying made in japan " nikon eagle view " 100 times better . you get what you pay for~ ! ! ! ! ! +camera neg i purchased this camera case for my granddaughter for christmas to go with the camera her parents had bought for her . this is the first time i have ever been disappointed with a product i purchased from amazon . it was , in my opinion , not worth the price i paid ! the picture looked much larger that it actually was . i wil continue to purchase through amazon but i will be much more careful and definitely return it if i 'm not satisfied . in this case i did not have time to find another camera case . thanks for giving me the opportunity of expressing my opinion . linda sutto +music pos i finally got this cd , i have been looking for this cd for awhile now , a great by well worth it +music pos as one of the founding fathers of today 's heavy metal rock music , iron butterfly has them power , drive , and sound that made them unique in the world of rock music . this live album serves as a testament to that fact . eventhough the recordings of live concerts from the late 1960 's through the mid 1980 's was primative at best ( by today 's standards ) , this live recording of iron butterfly captures most of the groups best music durring their prime as a chart-topping group of that era . this is a " must-have " for all iron butterfly fans +music neg i hate the beatles . they are amongst my music guide top 20 worst bands ever . they only made a few decent songs in hey jude , let it be , and ballad of john and yoko . rest of their songs just stink ! even a mark knopfler cd without dire straits is better than this ! like i said , anyone who listens to the beatles or zeppelin do n't know what good music is about , huh ! ! ! good music is required dire straits , green day , foreigner , gnr , metallica , and nirvana . get any album from those bands insted . the beatles suck ! ! ! ! +music neg the kidz bop series is the ultimate travesty in music . and do n't think that it 's good just because your kids might love it . kids also like to eat mcdonalds , but do n't try telling me that their food is healthy . there is plenty of good music out there than is clean enough for children . and , surprisingly , a lot of these songs are very inappropriate for children , even with the expletives deleted . there is no reason on earth why these records should exist , excepting for the fact that record execs want to milk more money out of the singles once their radio play starts to diminish . i agree with the person who suggested the beatles as an alternative . seriously , do n't buy this ! +music neg stinkish-i totally agree with you 100% ! ! ! ! what was mattel thinking when they released this item ? some songs are ok , but " hit me baby one more time ? " that song is soooo old ! and so yesterday , by lip singer , hilary duff , is sooooo yesterday ! ! ! ! you gotta be desperate for music to actually buy this or want it.if you think that i am way wrong then include me in your review +music neg i purchased " empty " not long after it came out and it was fairly enjoyable , but eventually forgettable , pop / rock . this sophomore effort is , simply put , amatuer and sub-par . some of these sound like they would have been packaged more effectively as " empty " b-sides , while the cover of " electric avenue " never really distracts most listeners from thinking " what is this and why ? " over all , this might appeal to most christian radio listeners , but only because they will never scrutinize it for what it actually is : mold-fitting white noise +music neg i loved shedaisy 's first album the whole shebang . and i also really enjoy their christmas albumn . they have beautiful voices and i love the three part harmonies they come up with . i was very excited to get their newest album but i was sure dissapointed . this is a very dark and depressing album . almost every song is about lost love . also , all the songs but 1 are slow . where is the upbeat shedaisy i fell in love with ? ? ? i would suggest passing this one up and instead just listening to the whole shebang again . still , i look forward to what the future may bring from them . these sisters have alot of talent +music neg metallica never recovered from the death of cliff burton , as this album is prime evidence of . he helped to bring depth to the songs that is not present here . also , newstead only gets one song on this album , which is ironically the best song on the album . in the history of metallica , this album marks the transition from artistic song writing to commercial +camera neg i purchased this for my daughter since i had already had purchased one for myself . the pictures are clear and crisp . if i had to buy another i would purchase the same +camera neg i bought this camera and it took great pictures above water , but none of the pictures i took underwater turned out . i looked at the negatives and it was like i never even clicked the shutter . the negatives were blank where i took the underwater pictures +music pos jodeci 's forever my lady has a problem that most nineties r&b releases had at that time , if the fast songs were tight then the slow songs suck and vice versa . jodeci 's first cd had some of the finest slow songs to come off of one cd in 1991. stay , forever my lady , come & talk to me , u&i , and i 'm still waiting rank with the best but every single fast is hot trash +music neg i got this cd after seeing what i remembered as a decent video on fuse tv . maybe i was half-asleep , because after listening to this ho-hum entry into the world of emo copycats , i ca n't even remember or recognize which song it was . this album is ultimately forgettable- - better off listening to any jimmy eat world cd again and again , which is actually an enjoyable experience +camera neg i made mistake getting such a big & bulky case for small minidv sony camcorder hc26. this case can take any big size old camcorders ( like old sony hi8 ) , so if you are looking for your new camcorder this definately is a bad choice +camera neg the camera is a great camera.it is one of the best kind of camera in its level.everything is great in that ( perfect picture and easy to work ) but in that package as i saw in amazon add , the remote suppose to be in the package and comes with it but it wo n't and there is not remute in that package and it is kind of cheating...be careful about this product if you think whatever has written comes with package but not . +music pos tim mcgraw does it again . it is a great album with some really great songs . a must have +camera pos purchased a printer dock and camera bundle , from a local office supply store for $100. it only came with a 10 picture sample cartridge , so i purchsed this from amazon . amazon had the best price around on this item and free shipping . it works great . no complaints . the paper is not quite as shiny and or as thick as the epson photo glossy paper that i still use for some pictures , but works well for my classroom , to give to my students . the pictures do not run like some inkjet pictures do if you accidentally drip water on them +music pos if you want a feel good , come home from work and forget your day cd you found it her +music neg certainly not deserving of the grammy ( for cast recording ) . each of the other nominated productions is much better than this poor excuse of a revival . +music neg a lame group of angry teenagers screaming about themselves . ironic lyrics like " image of the invisible " do not make them intellectual . this trash is not music . get it off my radio ! if only i could give 0 stars. . +music neg this was the worst thing i 've ever heard , except maybe clap your hands say yeah . my cousin who has absolutely no musical taste introduced me to them and i hate them forever +camera pos bought this tripod to use with my spotting scope for target shooting . easy attachment to my scope and multiple adjustment heights , with the crank , make it easy to zero in on the target and allow anyone to see thru the scope , no matter how tall they are . compact and lite to carry , makes it easy to transport to and from the range +music pos grew up on this group . love them then and love them now . own the " best of " collection but you can never compile the best on one cd . for those winans fans you know what i 'm talking about . these brothers are music genuises especially marvin winans . like stevie wonder they were ahead of their time . my favorite song on this album shares the message of all times . " together we stand " opens up the eyes to all race , religion , and creed that its time to come together if we want to see a change in this world regardless of background . entire album is great including the celebrity appearances such as stevie wonder , teddy riley , and aaron hall . i like the flavor the cameos add to this album . if you 're into mid-tempo music this is the album to purchase +music pos this cd is a confusing mix of punk bands , from pop-punk 's sum 41 & good charlotte to punk favorites alkaline trio , vandetta red , & the casualties to bands that i 've never even heard of such as unsung zeros , ozma , & destruction made simple . i reccomend this cd if you 're looking for new bands to like & listen to . although it 's a confusing cd , it gives you new ideas of just how deep you 're going to go in the punk underground +music neg i was disappointed when i received this cd . although it is original , the music is hard for me to listen for more than a minute or two . by your side , ( my favorite ) is good for about two minutes . then the beat gets off track , and starts to sound terrible . if this was done on purpose , i cannot fathom why . i know this is " lo-fi " , but a hint of bass would n't hurt at all . as it stands , the cd sounds like an unfinished product , and is not nearly good enough to stand on its own . i think this cd would best be used for some sampling...especially in today 's hip-hop . if you are looking for beautiful , relaxing music...look elsewhere +camera neg i agree with m. arse with the 2star rating . i was disappointed with this camera from the beginning . not a user friendly one and the pictures turn out very grainy with bad color quality unless you are in an optimum light . i 'm interested in the 7 mp camera canon offers . i 've read that it has much better shutter speed . recommended ? ? +camera neg at 300mm this lens is very soft , it 's hard to get a shot that looks like it 's in focus . to do so , you need to shoot at about f / 11 , and then since there is little light available , you usually have to bump the iso to 800 or 1600 just to get an acceptable shutter speed . of course , the high iso then introduces other artifacts . the focus is also dead slow and often does n't lock on . this is a lens that i have constantly fought with . do n't upgrade to the new 70-300 is either , as it 's only marginally better . buy the 70-200 f / 4l . it 's a far superior lens +camera neg i feel that it is just way too much money for what you get . i own a lot of professional ( canon ) equipment and gladly paid the price because they are the best things out there . but it makes little sense to market a marginal product and still expect to command a high price . i have the s80. no complaint there . the leather case was just way too tight , which invites a fumble as you try to pull out the camera . the flap issue is an issue . the neck chain is a bit short , and similar and better items can be had for a lower price . if you shop around you can also find the li battery for less . i 'm not upset , but just disappointed with what i got for the price +camera neg not too long after i purchased this camera the screen turned white when i turned it on . i would turn it off and on and nothing would help . finally i would take the batteries out and put them back in . this seemed to fix the problem a few times . after that i thought it was just operator error . but it wasn't . the camera finally gave out and the white screen never went away . so after being annoyed i left the camera alone for awhile . an event came up about a month later . i got my camera and tried to turn it on . nothing happened . so i changed the batteries . still nothing happened . i 'm not sure what happened . i do believe i purchased a lemon camera . i 'm hoping to resolve these issues with samsung . it was one of the cheapest cameras on the market at the time . so i guess you get what you pay for ! +music pos the sounds were very convincing , i actually felt like i was there even my daughter thought it was really storming outside since i have a subwoofer and was able to control the thunder intensity ( all this was at night ) the only thing missing was the strobe light to add to the lightnig effect . it does relax you and allows you to destress . there are other types of stress management cd 's out there but if you like the outdoors and your'e not able to get away then this is what may work for you . johnny lina +music pos at first , i thought the only reason why i wanted this cd was because idina menzel was on it . but now , after listening to the whole cd , i was right , idina menzel was amazing , and all of the other cast members are incredibly talented too . i would highly recommend this because it is a very interesting story , it 's incredibly complex music ( theoretically ) , but at the same time it is very enjoyable ! ! ! ! i would give it more stars if i could.. . but i am only allowed 5... : ( +camera pos i enjoy all the features of this item . the main compartment that hold the camera is soft and secure . you can open it without worrying about your camera falling off . the back compartment is roomy enough for all the basic gear . the slot for memory cards 1-4 ( depends on the card type ) , batteries ( roomy for four aa ) , and cables can fit in it . the shoulder strap is basic and looks flimsy . it 's not long enough to hold comfortable diagonally but on the side is good . the belt loop is very secure and can fit on belt three inch in width . it can even handle the worst environment ever . hot , dry climate with sandstorms and occasional accidental drops . it has protected my dig . camera very well +music neg after reading glowing reviews of the dbts i picked up three of their cds . while some of the lyrics are strong , the songs have no melodies whatsoever . most of the arrangements consist of guitars blaring over a terrible singer . they 're reputed to be carrying on the tradition of skynyrd and the allmans . but those bands were n't just loud guitars...they had memorable tunes and great singers . dbts are a huge letdown +music neg i mainly bought this album because i was going to see them on this tour . in fact the gig i was at was the opening show on the tour . again , the band uses their patented formula basically creating the same album over and over again . i find most of this album to be very average . actually after listening , this album is not very good at all . the majority of the songs are clichĂ© ridden in both music and lyrics . there are a couple of catchy tracks most notably " safe in new york city " which is a bit different but most of this album is cock rock at its most basic . probably one of the bands weakest efforts +camera neg poor quality unit . worked sometimes , sometimes not . gave up and returned it after a couple of weeks of trying it out +music neg people this is easy listening at it 's easiest . every song is and will be a candidate for adult contemperary rotation in 2 years , that is if it is n't allready . i do n't know anything about what they have done in the past , except for a song i remember being played on the radio a few years ago . must have been on the album prior to this . but that song sounds just like two tracks on this one . not only that but if there was n't a pause in between these mini mediocre fests i could n't really tell any of them apart . horrible music with no feeling or soul , not even creative . do n't waste your time with this . +music pos this is the soundtrack that led me into the wonderful world of glam rock ! it is outstanding and i could just play it again and again... . it is certainly one of the most brilliant albums out there and probably my favourite soundtrack of all time . +music neg there is now no trace of delight left in this band . all songs are either moderately slow and somewhat self-indulgent or frightfully slow and quite self-indulgent . i do love this band and pronounce praises upon them whenever i receive a doe-eyed look saying their name , but this cd and the cd previous ( which did have 1 tune , " apples , " with which one could smile ) does , for the first time , take away any anticipation for their next collection of chopfallen tunes . first , we loose the roses , then the ned 's disband , following that , swervedriver breaks apart and velocity girl is gone forevermore . now my charlatans have become charlatans of the great band they once were . +music pos when i bought this cd it was for a little bit of nostalgia - those were the days . since playing it once when it blew me away with the tracks and the memories , i have played it so often that if it were vinyl it would be worn out by now . if you liked mary hopkins then this is a fantastic selection of her music and well worth a place in your collection +music neg some of the songs here are good , most notably " never be forgotten " .....beautiful . i heard this song on the radio and i thought it was faith hill or martina mcbride singing . herein lies the problem . the song is good , the voice is good . but if she sounds like faith or martina , there 's no distinction to set her off from the rest of the pack out there . add to this that this is mostly bubble-gum pop and not country....there 's really nothing that stands out here . why are recording companies giving contracts to people who sound like everybody else out there ? that 's the question . +camera neg the product features are ok , but the screen is very small . also , the resolution needs to be better . the photos were very grainy . an impressive looking product with not so impressive output +camera pos i took this with me recently to australia and shot landscapes as well as others , and the pictures came out better than the film cameras i have used recently , plus you do n't need a scanner . this camera works great , a must have for semi-pros . pros , wait for the new 1d . pictures come out great at 11 " x17 " +camera neg good : motor drive speed . grip feel . takes nikon lenses . reacts fast to pressing the shutter release . bad : skin tone renditions a color other than skin . white balance does n't balance well . noise at anything above iso 200 , looks like 3200. cf card door tough to open . screen fogs if you breathe when you shoot . battery cover is not part of the battery . button placement not as intuitive as on the d100. 4.1mp allows for virtually no cropping of enlargements . dumped mine a month after i got it +camera pos very nice bag and well made . however , i bought it for the canon dc100 dvd camcorder and found it a little small for carrying all the equipment ( cords and charger ) . +camera pos it was n't the easiest thing to transfer photos from a computer and to delete the " samples " on the frame was no picnic either , but once learned it becomes easier . i went from frustrated to happy , soon enough +music pos i am 62 years old , and seen them all . i have never seen anyone as visually and emotionally stunning as beth hart at the paradiso ! simply the most powerful stage performance i have ever witnessed ! she takes every single song to an epic level of entertainment , and just plain never coasts through a song . some of the spectators in attendance looked almost scared by what they were seeing , and most were mesmerized by her on-stage and off stage sexually potent antics ! she has been compared to janis . i saw janis twice , and beth hart would bury janis in any category ! i ca n't imagine how she can possibly maintain a level like that captured at the paradiso for very long- -it just does n't seem humanly possible ! i am so glad someone was there with so highly skilled a video crew to capture one of the most shattering evenings of music ever . magnificent in its fury ! +music pos i love this show so much ! ! it just has so much passion and beauty and all the cast members sing so well ! ! sutton foster as jo , was cast very well , its obvious she deserved that tony nomination in 2005 , and the sisters , even though they were n't the leads , they all had such great songs , especially beth , whose song , " some things are meant to be " always brings tears to my eyes , its just so touching . i would definitely recomend this cd to anyone who loves musical theatr +music pos i love this album . mc lyte is one of the best female rappers.how can someone not like her rap +camera neg i found the same problem that other users of this product experienced . particularly the issue of the shutter release being at the bottom of the camera when composing a portrait oriented shot . i found a stroboframe flash bracket that rotates the camera counter clockwise within the flash bracket instead of flipping the flash . this leaves the shutter release at the top of the camera and also alleviated the other problem of speed light hot shoe breakage from repeated " flipping " of the flash that some other users have reported . the item is manufactured by stroboframe and can be found at an ebay store called " gadget infinity " under the listing title of " flash bracket with 90 degrees camera rotate feature " . buy it now price is $29.99. i just bought one and it arrived yesterday and i could not be happier . pass the word of this ingenious new product that will solve the issues that have plagued photographers for the past several years +camera neg i would spend a little more money and buy a better quality camera . the picture quality was not good at all . i previously owned another kodak camera with the same megapixels and the picture quality on that camera was much better . just after a year of using the kodak c300 camera , it stopped working and i did not use it that much . i now own the sony cybershot dsc-w50 that takes great pictures , i have n't had any problems with it and i have been using it on an almost daily basis since may 2006 +music pos omg ! ! this is relient ks best cd yet . you should buy it , even if you did n't care for their other cds . because....well...it rocks ! ! +camera pos i have n't used it much but the few photos i have taken are excellent . i 'm not a photography expert so i 'll leave the technicalities to others . telephoto capability is increased noticeably but not a huge amount . the high quality of this lens , as with the wide-angle , is obvious . comes with caps and a storage bag +camera pos i upgraded from the canon digital rebel ( grey body ) to this because i was ready to take my photography to a new level . one thing i like most about this camera is it 's flash compenstation . i purchased the 430ex flash with it because i was tired of having to use the built in flash and always getting those hard shadows on the wall +music neg it has been nearly three months and i have yet to receive the subject michael henderson cd . amazon should not be offering this item for sale , if they do not have access to a supplier +music neg this is a pep rally on cd ; an unsingable , emotionally charged pep rally . it really upsets me that this is the face of today 's christian music . the melodies are not easily singable at all , and the songs use all the same musical cliches . this is worship manipulation at it 's best . if you read the words to learn something concrete about god , you will find nothing of substance . they talk about actions to give god and our response to god , but no meat-and-potatoes of why we should be doing this . god is great , but why ? this is very disturbing , and completely unacceptable for congregational worship . +music neg so far , so good...so what ! ( in it 's origional form ) used to conjure feeling . the remastered edition sounds like a group of studio musicians tried to remake the album and just did n't quite hit the nail on the head . if you bought this album on cassette when it came out in the late 80s , get your hands on that version . +music pos this is the latest entry in the lost legend series and it is the best alblum since the very first lost legends alblum release . the songs match up and compliment each other better than any of the previous alblums in this series , so well that it sounds like a dance alblum . i give it a high recommendation for any surf music fan . try alldirect.com for the best prices on this series of alblums +music neg there is at times , a fine line between noise and music . nin not only crossed that line in this cd , but stomped on it a few times in the process . not even close to the calibre of with teeth , this cd is a waste of time and an insult to the talent that resides within this group of musicians . songs that go from semi-music to irritating noise and last four times as long as one can abide , while " playing " the same thing over and over and ...well , you get my drift . if great music is your thing , pass this one up . or write me a note and tell me why on earth such a great group would release such an abomination +music neg this never should 've been pressed . they should 've taken the mix and thrown it out . do not buy ! ! +camera pos this is a wonderful lens with great image quality , very fast , and very good build quality . no complaints +music neg i ca n't believe the touch of b.b. king . i enjoy his playing immensely . i know this album gets buried in accolades . but i do n't like it . the quality is poor and , differing from other 's opinions , the crowd noise takes away from the music . b.b. said , in so many words , that live at the regal was far from his choice as his best recording . typically , he said he would n't argue with success- -and left it at that . there are so many good albums by b.b. you ca n't go wrong for $4.65 for the " ultimate collection " . sure it does n't have them all- -but it has quite a few of his great songs , including a few from live at the regal . i would steer clear of this selection . or i 'll send you mine for free +music neg to much guitar , drowns out all the other instruments . survivor was made famous by heavy keyboards and drums , not guitars . i was expecting another burning heart , is this love , high on you . no songs on this albums have that sound . the vocals by jamison are top notch , but none of the songs sound like the survivor i remember . survivor guitars were only there to complement the keyboards , bass and drums , not drive the whole song . i guess jim peterik was the man behind survivor all along . i give the cd 2 stars for fire makes steel , the rest are throw aways . ***recommended for die hards only*** i highly recommend ' when seconds count ' for anyone getting started with survivor +music pos forget the nit-picky comments you may read here , if you are a fan of any of the artists on this album , buy it ! the recording is of very high quality , and i agree with another review , vacuum tube amplification makes the vocals even better . the banter between the artists in between the musical numbers is a real treat for fans too young to experience these shows live . one other observation , if you buy this not having a huge appreciation for sammy already , you will be blown away by his talent . ..thanks to sinatra family for releasing this disc . hopefully many more are forthcoming +camera pos the case is great ! it fits the camera perfectly and is exactly what i expected to receive when ordering . the price was right but the shipping was a little higher than i expected +camera neg the camera is just plain cheap . takes nothing but fuzzy , low resolution pictures . the thing weighs a ton and even for all that the binoculars are only mediocre . a great idea , maybe someday someone will actually do it right +camera pos the sony cybershot is a great camera . the colors and the features are amazing . is very easy to use . the only thing i dont like about the camera is the zoom in and out button . if you zoomed in you wont be able to zoom out . +music pos i just bought this on cd as it was on sale through the cd club . i have the original vinyl , but had n't listened to it in years . this is one of the best works of music ever conceived , written and performed . it is absolutely timeless and each song impresses you more than the last . put this one on repeat and let it play three or four times . it just keeps getting better . stevie is an awesome talent and this may be his best . do n't forget how great music was in the 70's . this work is one of the major reasons for the resurgence of 70 's music today by artists that were n't even born then . you can see quite clearly the artists that followed stevie . most recently alicia keys who would be the first to say his music is pure inspiration +music pos wrathchild alone is worth the purchase of this album . its just that darn good of a song . but hey , the whole album is good . the title track is brutally awesome , especially live on the beast over hammersmith cd ( iron maiden box set ) . and murders in the rue morgue is another classic . then there is drifter , and the two intrumentals the ides of march and ghengis khan ( who papa roach would rip off the guitar riff from for their one hit wonder song last resort ) . maybe not as good as their debut album , but still a masterpeice of an album +camera neg i purchased this camera case for my granddaughter for christmas to go with the camera her parents had bought for her . this is the first time i have ever been disappointed with a product i purchased from amazon . it was , in my opinion , not worth the price i paid ! the picture looked much larger that it actually was . i wil continue to purchase through amazon but i will be much more careful and definitely return it if i 'm not satisfied . in this case i did not have time to find another camera case . thanks for giving me the opportunity of expressing my opinion . linda sutto +music pos my one complaint is that after i listen to this cd , the catchy tunes get stuck in my head ! and then i want to keep listening to it more and more . i love the selections on this cd , the fact that the songs are in english ( i always wondered what the " figaro , figaro , figaro " song was about ! ) , and that a little background is given to each piece as well +camera pos for its size and price , this little light ca n't be beat . very transportable and produces a dramatic influence on the image quality of evening shoots indoors . i think this is a must have for camcorder owners . my vhs family movies shot over 20 years ago are still a source of pure joy , so i see this as a miniscule investment for the long-term return . +music pos like many of the highly talented and innovative groups of the 1980 's , the pet shop boys were ahead of their time . this album was purchased mainly for " west end girls " and " it 's a sin . " play this album from beginning to end without interruption - it 's fantastic . " loves comes quickly " emerges for me as the best of the pet shop boys remarkable and unique sound - a composition reflecting orchestral complexity and pulsating energy . the great contributions of great britain and australia to music in the 1980 's in my opinion comes largely from their composers and performers effectively combining the power and harmonic complexity of some classical music compositions of the mid 1920 's to the early 1950 's ( no doubt the origins of some great movie scores ) with the emerging sophistication and always present upbeat effect of rock and roll . you will love the pet shop boys +music pos jeff beck is far from the typical rock guitarist . he never took the easy path of showing how fast or virtuoso he is . instead , he is full of intriguing and explosive ideas that make you want to listen to this cd over and over again . that 's what musicianship is all about , and jeff has plenty of it +music neg ashlee 's recent face lift and apparent nose job is proof that 's she 's all plastic and no talent . she must of asked the dr to make her look like her sister . very sad cause she 's unrecognizable now . better looking , maybe , still ca n't sing or dance . +camera neg i bought this frame as a gift for my parents and ended up returning it . the price was right but the quality was poor and there were 2 spots on the screen that looked like they were already burned out ( displaying blue and green pixels ) . i did enjoy the fact that it hooks right up to the computer with a usb port but that is about all . overall do n't waste your time and money +camera neg this camera has an attractive look and price but it does not take good pictures . i bought this camera for my 12 year old daughter and although she was happy with it ( she 's happy with anything pink ) i was very disappointed at the quality and functionality +camera pos the np-bg1 type g lith pack had good picture life , but i 'd carry a spare if your going to use your cameras movie feature +camera pos i have been using kodak cameras for years . this is my third kodak digital camera . it does everything , including taking excellent close-up wildlifephotos . it is as easy to use as a point and shoot . however , it does have all the bells and whistles needed for a professional style camera . it is well worth the money . look no further this is the camera for you +music pos i love these albums . get all 3 cause they are great +music neg if you are short on money , do not buy this c.d. you will regret it . however if you are trying to get rid of a gift voucher or something side one is really good , especially the dr. evil " just the two of us " . really this is not a good album , as side two is rubbish . i still have n't listened to it all the way throug +music neg about half the songs are great old songs i 'm familiar with , the other half are songs made famous by other artists and most are clangers for elvis that are painful to listen to +music pos " the passion of the christ - songs " is a fine collection of great songs , each in their own way a reaction to the spectacular film that mel gibson has created . the standouts are the song " i see love " by steven curtis chapman , third day an mercyme ; scott stapp 's powerful solo debut song " relearn love ; " " rainy day " by big dismal , and the emotional " new again " by brad paisley and sarah evans . despite a couple of songs that do n't reach their true potential ( " the passion , " and " how many lashes " ) , this is a fine cd that belongs in anyone 's and everyone 's christian music collection . grade : a - +camera pos the sony cybershot is a great camera . the colors and the features are amazing . is very easy to use . the only thing i dont like about the camera is the zoom in and out button . if you zoomed in you wont be able to zoom out . +music neg this collection is a must have if you like the bee gees and do n't have any of their albums...or even if you do . it 's one hit after another plus some i 've never heard , which is nice for variety . i could n't ask for a better collection - it 's like i had burned this for myself . +music neg she is not a singer , she is not able to write , play and read the scores / music . she is an entertainer ! the problem is : you ca n't stop the stupid kids for buying the celebrate pop crappy albums today . who still recognize this maid in the next 10 years ? it is the same case like britney spears and spice girls ! ps : pls throw away the cd from your window or burn it to the hot ash volcanos ! ! ! thank god for america 's future pop artists like this one ! +camera neg i own several great digital cameras . it seems like i get one for each use - one with good zoom , another camera for its good flash use in lowlight and others . this one i wanted for the high mp in a small compact size that i can put into my pocket . the first few photos were great , taken outdoors in my sunny patio . then every picture i took after that ( same settings - fine , hq , poster 10m etc.. . and vertical lines started showing on the lcd screen and the pictures were all washed out . when i download them on the computer , they look exactly that way too - with the lines and almost all white . i 've played around with the settings ( and i do know how to work them ) but still it does the same . so time to return to find a better one . that 's too bad since i read some good reviews and wanted to have it +camera pos i 've had a ton of these , and i take them on camping trips with kids where the main activity is playing in big mud fields . i 've had them in my pocket while rolling around in the mud , taken it out , shot a few pics , put it back in the pocket with no problem . ( see pictures for examples of " mud photos " ) a couple of times i 've had them stand up to so much moisture and abuse that the cardboard falls off , but still had beautiful pictures every time , no jams or over-exposures . i 've found the two pack at walmart on sale for $8.99 a couple of times , and you absolutely cannot be that deal . this is my favorite disposable camera , and i 've tried them all . +music pos what can i say about vince gill that his many fans have n't already mentioned . i had never been particularly interested in country music . but , one day i was listening to a country radio station and vince gill was singing " when ever you come around " and i was hooked . this cd is as consistant as all his others . great lyics and superb musicianship . i rate this five stars as i believe gill is one of the best singer songwriters in the world today +music neg the fact that this has had no us release was an immediate warning .... however as a longtime fan i figured i would check it out . boy is this bad . there are a few decent tracks , however the truly awful " crazy little thing called love " , " this magic moment " , " only you " - among many others - make this unlistenable . miss ross is a great singer and interpeter - check out the delicacy she approached the billie holliday material . she is a producer 's singer : ashford and simpson , chic , holland dozier holland - even hall & oates - all were able to take her talent and create - in some cases - true all time classics . this is a mess . diana , your voice still sounds great - stop executive producing your projects +camera neg this camera was a pain to pick the mode to get the camera to work . it 's batteries died all the time and lost all of the pictures . when you did get a picture loaded on the computer the software was terrible . we trashed it within 2 weeks of purchasing +camera neg i purchase this instrument twice . the first time there were black specks in the lense , so it was returned . the second time was worst , i.e. same black specs but the thing did n't work at all . i have also checked this manufacturer 's other models out and most come with the disturbing black specks in the lense . this is n't a quality optical product +camera neg this was the first digital camera i purchased . i am an adventurous person and wanted something that would stand up to my lifestyle . this camera was n't it . the good *it is compact , which is pretty convenient *it has several camera functions that have the potential to work well if you are techno-savvy . the bad *after snorkeling with it for 30 minutes , the camera leaked and broke . olympus replaced it , but only after my 2 month stay in costa rica was over . *the functions are unreliable and difficult to use . rarely if ever do i get them to work how i want . the pictures always need touched up afterwards , sometimes seriously . *the zoom sucks . do n't expect to get those awesome close ups they advertise unless you have some serious patience . *the image stabilization is a joke . you need a tripod or surgeons hands to take pictures that are n't blurry . *the user manual left me with a lot of questions +music neg after souring to dizzying heights with their first four albums ( a feat achieved by only a handful of bands ) the inevitable fall seems to have come on this disc . the bunnymen built their reputation on moody , psychedelic concept pieces that culminated in ocean rain . for this release the band moves into more ' mainstream ' territory , eschewing album-wide cohesiveness for a more radio friendly approach . unfortunately these lightweight songs do n't work as well as the tantalizingly obscure sound they abandoned . if you 're new to the bunnymen you 're probably better served by checking out their first four albums ( crocodiles , heaven up here , porcupine and ocean rain ) or skipping forward to their more recent efforts evergreen and flowers +music pos this cd is soo cool ! ! i love all the songs ! they are all good efforts . i especially like mr. coffee you have gotta hear that song ! other than that this is a great cd ! ! buy it today ! ! you 'll enjoy i +camera pos i love this camera . i have now traveled all over the usa , some places in europe , and will be using it in china . lens is excellent . i wish it were lighter weight , but ca n't have everything . and this weight has certainly no been a problem given its zoom . i have had this camera for over two years now and have no desire to switch to anything else +music neg it is bad ! as much as i like " 10 new songs " , this one disappointed me a lot . +camera pos i purchased this camera to use with my previous church 's media ministry , based on my trial use of the vx2000. that was three years ago . this camera is still running as well as it did when i bought it . i use it upwards of 3 times a week to create content for web and dvd production , plus , i get great digital audio recordings when i plug directly into my current church 's sound system . the ability to tweak audio and video input on the fly is incredible . now that i am creating a multimedia team for our church , i 've convinced the church to buy one for themselves +music pos i agree with most of the reviewers that this band was very underated.great singing electric and acoustic guitar playing and great songs.why were songs like natures way and i got a line not huge hits ? i got a line made the top 40 i think.natures way was a great acoustic ballad.also nothing to hide has a nice acoustic / electric section.also mister skin could of been a hit catchy.this band was better than a lot of the crap that came out in the late 1960 's all the bad hippie bands of that era.as for the whole album i think it would get five stars if it had some live tracks as bonus cuts , like a live i got a line or natures way live hearing that live would of been fun . i heard samples on a live spirit cd.a great unknown band that everyone should give a listen to and to remember what real musicians and songs were about in the old days +camera neg nothing special and probably over-priced for what it is . the leather is nigh on invisible . it 's more of a skin to protect the camera from scratches , " case " would be stretching the definition somewhat +camera neg i bought this toy a year ago and tried it on my etx-90ec telescope all i got is hazy moon video , the resolution is poor the maximum pixels is 640*420 which is very pooooooor resolution it didnt reach even 1 mega pixels , hey we 've got now 12 megapixels chips why dont provide it celstron ? ? ? tried to edit it with the included poor software but it was useless i thought it might need bigger telescope so the aperture would be higher and i might able to see some stars or galaxies as per advertisement i went to my cousin who has lx90 8 " telescope , the result was bright dots seem to be stars i dont recommend this toy its a waste of money if you want really to take serious photograph try to attach your film or digital camera to your telescope by t-adapte +camera neg i do n't see how they can recommend this kit for all dx cameras . the dx7590 would barely fit in that case +camera neg i bought the 2700 easy share camera and printer dock . money thrown away ! ! the camera does n't take quality pictures in my opinion and the printer was junk , also in my opinion . it truly is junk now as i got so frustrated with it , i threw it on the floor and smashed it . not kidding ! when i first got it , i called kodak and they told my son ( who is knowledgeable in this stuff ) how to reset the printer . we reset it and it worked for awhile . then it would n't work any more and i did away with it . no more kodak for me and my son bought a different brand after he saw how mine worked +camera pos it is light ; has 6x magnification ; and easy to use . this little tool is great for any golfer . you must know the yardage before you can select the correct club . how far is it to either the top of that bunker next to the green or the flagstick ? next , you just then need to pull the club that will get you there . fits on your belt through a loop in the safe carrying case or use the supplied clip to attached the case to your golf bag . these new laser rangefinders are better than ever and at a lower price than previous models . love it +music neg this cd is garbage . juvenile should go hang him self after putting out this album . he was alright when he first came out but now he sucks the big one . if i was you dont listen to the retards who tell you " this is a good comeback album " . instead of wasting you cah on this crap i recommend welcome back by mase . that is a good comeback album . the only thing that makes the album even worth noting is the beats of mannie fresh . juvenile just was a waste of those excellent beats . a shame they could n't go to ja rule , whose cd sucked with his beats . he has the vocal and writing talent but his beats blow +camera neg i bought this camera a year ago , the camera is goog only for outdoor use with a lot of light , but for using indoor ( with flash ) is very , very bad . when you use flash the photo are not good , but if you go to beach this may be a regular choice , if you can bought another camera . +camera pos this thing is perfect for carrying your stuff around in a not-so-fattening way . i hvae an external flash , macro kit , 28-80 lens , 50mm lens , 18-55mm lens , dslr w / batt grip and 75-300mm lens attached all fit into the main body of this thing . everything is seperated by the dividers making me feel confident and safe while walking , hiking , biking , etc. the addon pouches seem to make it a bit more bulking that you 'd want , but the bag all by itself is fantastic and i ca n't recommend it enough - get away from huge bulky shoulder bags ! ! lowepro did it again +music neg very very dissapointed . e-40 raps too quick , he is too hard to understand and he sounds like a trick +camera neg the battery which " popped up " with my camera order does not match the camera . thus i am stuck with the hassel of returning a battery . i was leaving for a trip when it arrived and so i had to go out and buy a replacement after it arrived . +camera pos i read many reviews at fredmiranda.com before i purchased this lens and i was not dissapointed one bit . i was lucky enough to receive a very sharp copy of this lens on the first try . the macro shots were very sharp and contrasty . the center part is already reaching near maximum sharpness at f2.8 anything beyond f4 is tack sharp . be carefull with this lens though . the dof at f2.8 is extremely narrow . do n't mistaken the out of focus shots for being unsharp . focus properly and crank up the aperture and you 'll get some very satisfying macro shots . the only thing i wish this lens had was image stabilizer . canon , how about a 100mm macro with is ? +camera pos this camera is an exelent camara . it has plenty of effects , plenty of modes , plenty of scenery options . the image quality is 3.2 megapixel , but its quite good . the pictures you take without the flash do end up getting a bit blury , where as if you take it with the flash , it comes out exelent . and sometimes it takes a long time for the picture to get taken with out the flash , and sometimes it happens imediatly . but all these flaws are only with my version . but if you are looking for a good camera with a great price , this is your best option +camera neg made the mistake of taking this camera on a trip to the pool ! ! pictures were horrible . eye piece is the biggest pain ! ! do n't buy this piece of junk . if you want great , good , wonderful pictures , buy the fuji quicksnap camera . kodak could have done much , much better +camera pos i purchased a nikon l5 from costco 2 weeks ago but returned it on saturday after i saw the lz-7. the lz-7 is way better in all aspects than the nikon l5 , save for the adjustable zoom in movie mode . pros : takes great pictures ; optical image stabilization ; 6x zoom ; and , great price . it is also made in japan , not china as the nikon l5 is . cons : fixed zoom while in movie mode ; no on-board camera speakers +camera neg i bought this about 10 months ago with an additional camera . the night vision only works on one of the cameras and the interference is horrible . it snaps and pops all night long and i have to move it all around to find " just the right spot " .i actually have to sleep with earplugs in to drown out the noise . i live in a single story 2100 sq . foot house . i should have returned it right away , but i kept it because i had no other monitor at the time . now , 10 months later , the volume control does not work anymore ! i am now trying to find a new monitor . i love having the video monitor though , so i will look for a different brand +music neg the only thing you can say about today 's music is that it 's disguisting , gross , and made by recording artists who drop out of school and seem to think that a life as a rap music artists is so cool , until they get shot . every copy of this cd should be burned +music neg phaeton 's son flew on wings of wax into sun crashed and burned instea +music neg i just wanted to let you know about a copyright situation . in this movie there is a part where they are sitting in a mexican food restuarant and there is a song playing in the back round . that song is not listed on the song track and i think it should be . the song is atrevido by orishas . i think this is wrong . +music neg i love love tegan and sara and when i found out this was one of their favorite cds i have to admit....i think i was devastated . i just saw pretty girls make graves last night and they really could not have sounded worse.not just not enjoyable...unbelieveably horrible . i think you should take your money and spend it on a cd that actually sounds like good music . do n't make your ears go through this much pain +music neg maybe her harp playing could be acceptable , but when she sings.. . everything turns awful . the worst singer i ever heard +music pos i had originally heard " drive away " on a radio station and i was instantly blown away . upon seeing the music video for it , i decided to buy the cd . i was hardly disappointed . the emotion that goes into the cd is amazing and it 's definitly a cd to sit down and enjoy . i saw the band in concert and met jonah after the show and was amazed by how down to earth he was . give gratitude a chance and you wo n't be disappointed . +camera neg i bought the 4600 for my parents in 2005. a seal in the lens housing broke in november and we sent it to nikon . when nikon recieved the camera they said it had " liquid " damage to the lens shutter area . my parents did n't send the camera in that condition , yet nikon claims that it is " impossible " for that kind of " accident " to occur at their facility . two months later i am still arguing with them over this . one of their service represatives , rob mustard , told me ( paraphrasing ) " i have 70 service orders in front of me and our facility gets hundreds of repairs each week ; i 've heard every excuse imaginable for why it is n't the customer 's fault . " besides being rude , does n't that scare you about his facility getting in hundreds of repairs each week ? ? ? ? do n't buy nikon is my recommendation . +camera pos i use this film just normally for everyday stuff . it is n't grainy when you enlarge the photos , and the colors are just outstanding . i use the 800 for the really important stuff though because i think the colors are more vibrant . but , for just vacations , stuff around the house , the 400 will do a great job . anything less it basically a waste of money . i shoot at least a roll a week just of everyday life and this is the one that i choose all the time . i have a basket full +music pos i 've had this cd since it came out and it continues to be my favorite . it 's a cd that i can put in anytime and thoroughly enjoy . this would be my pick for the cd to have while stranded on an island . it never gets boring and made me appreciate just how good schon is . unbelievable . if you like this , you 'll like eric johnson 's venus isle album too . two of my all time favorites +music neg i should first state that i am a huge ej fan . his music has been extremely important to me over the years . he is , without a doubt , a genius ... i would go so far as to call him the mozart of our times . but , elton can also write bloated , self-indulgent tripe , and if you ask me , this album belongs in that bucket . i give it 2 stars just because of ssmlt , one of his all-time greats . i never cease to be blown away by that song . but the rest of this album ? booooooring ! ! ! +camera neg i found the product to be made very poorly....all it too is one drop on the floor and the camera battery door cracked and that was is for the camera too....not a kid friendly camera at all +music neg i love milton nascimento 's early work ( " travessia " and " clube da esquina " ) , but this does not reach that level by far . my main objection is that it does not live up to the promise delivered by the famous names of the participants like herbie hancock , wayne shorter , pat metheny a.o. " vera cruz " is ok , but the rest is just too pretentious . just as a warning to all brazilian music lovers out there : this is certainly not a must have , apart from die hard milton fans . i would rather recommend to check out the latest releases by fellow brazilian caetano veloso ( " livro " and " prenda minha " ) , because they are really indispensable +camera neg i have had both the s5000 and the s5100 i was disapointed when my s5000 power switch stopped working after 18 months , but i was happy with the picture quality . i replaced it with the s5100 , it has a slightly better feature set over the s5000 ( in particular shutter speed choices ) while on a trip to niagara falls , i was unfortunate to give my camera a slight jolt ( and i mean slight ) after that it would n't power up . i am now looking for something a liitle more robust and reliable . +music pos plain and simple...cage is one of the best underground rappers around.....and soon after hell 's winter drops i think he will be accepted into mainstream......this cd is cage at his craziest , the beats are hott , the rhymes are hot...buy this cd....and if you like this cd buy some of his other cds , weatherproof , night hawks , smut peddler 's : porn again , the leak brothers : water world , and hell 's winter +music pos i 'm a bit surprised by the negative reviews , this cd is amazing . it 's not anything like soundgarden or audioslave - but it 's amazing none-the-less . every song on here is beautifully written , and , as always , cornell 's voice does n't disappoint . it 's different , but one of my new favorite cds +camera pos i purchase this on december 2006 i have other 10x50 binocular but when i look at sky through this binox..it 's amazing ! ! ! i recommend it for astronomy and birding trip. . +camera pos this is the only tripod that i have ever owned , however , i do agree that it seems to be a very nice piece of equipment , especially for the very low price . it suits my needs well for a small digital camera . the only downside is that it does not come with a carry bag . this was an oversight on my part when i ordered , and i 'm sure i would have to pay just as much as i did for the tripod to get a bag for it , so i will live with it as is +camera pos excelent battery ! i recommend it for all olympus slr digital cameras . i am using it on my e300 and you can take a lot of pictures in one day . i have 2 batteries because of outdoors shoots and this is really enough . +music neg pls tell me tat tis boxset is a joke ! ! ! ! classic rock - reo , romantics ... bangles ? ? ? its more like classic new wave . only thing good would be the price . pls ... who ever the a& ; r people are ... pls ... pls ... design something bette +camera pos have used this lens from the deer stand while hunting , at sporting events ( indoor and outdoor ) and at concerts . fast focusing and great image stabilization ( is does use quite a bit more power , though ) . have not had one problem with it . solid build and has a little heft to it . it is a bit pricey , but i chaulk that up to it being about the best on the market . would recommend it to anyone looking for a top shelf lens . +camera neg i was expecting much more from this flash , i already started looking for the better one . if i knew this was a closeout item i 'd never buy it . it died on me with no indication , sent to canon fixed and returned with a big scratch on it . now it does work but sometings wrong with recycle time even with brand new duracell batteries.. . save money and buy 5xx series flash. . +music neg is n't wearing your ancestry on your sleeve so blatantly and in such a predictable fashion just a 21st century version of al jolson ? the problem with so many new-traditionalist artists is that they lessen rather than deepen the understanding of the complexity and diversity of the celebrated cultural groups experience . hippies and white liberals love it , but where does that leave those that are living it ? far better capturing the latina experience are julietta venegas , south of the border , and east la 's lysa flores , north of the border +music neg great cd . imus in the morning recommended highly and the i-man was not wrong . one of the best cd 's i 've owned in years . i listen to a lot of buffett , james taylor , delbert mcclinton , and this cd places high in these ranks +camera pos i went to ritz camera today and took a good look at the tz3. i 'll tell you , its pretty nice . the build quality is really good , as a previous person mentioned . the body is metal . the dials and buttons click with precision , and have a nice resistance . it has a nice weight to it . i took some nice shots in the store . i must have clicked off 100 pics . i 'm impressed with it . if you want something relatively small , powerful and tough , this camera is for you . the 10x zoom is great , but on such a small camera it is difficult to hold it steady enough ( at least for me ) to use the zoom too much . i love the build quality and style , so i may be biased . it 's a nice piece of equipment . i cannot speak to the photo quality only having seen pics on the camera 's lcd +camera neg very dissappointed . my son ( i bought this for them ) hooked it up and there is so much interference it cannot be used . audio just static and noise . i did find it interesting that the instructions tell you it might not work . try telling this to me before i purchase thank you . this is the last i purchase equipment on-line . i will stick to books thank you very much +music neg it would be impossible for me to write you a review . i never received the subject cd . you sent me some piece of crap dics which i sent back . i have not received the gene watson cd i ordered and paid for . if i do n't get it soon , you will never hear from me again . edward n clark - herrin , i +music pos the first time ever i saw this group " amici forever " as they were singing " unchained melody " , i have confused that song like classical music . because , it was very familiar . actually , i did n't know exactly what 's that song that moment . finally , i knew that song is popular music i used to sing . so , laughed myself . it was brilliant and great performance i ever heared before . i bought dvd , too . and i recommended my friend and he also felt their singing like me . he said great and thanks to me +music neg this is a great album and a great artist with albert king theres no going wrong when you buy one of his albums . he is the king of electric-blues . you can hear all these songs in great format . just awsome playing awsome singing . its sure no wonder srv . and hendrix really loved albert king +music pos this cd has all of the cuts that you remember from back in the day...you will love it...it is always in my car +music pos this record is a fine example of earnest juju music . other artits have tricked it up some with synths and keyboards . chief commander obe has always managed to offer more traditional representation of juju as it evolved from highlife . keep in mind , this means amazing percussion work , intertwining guitar lines , loving vocals and long well developed instrumentals . if you 're interested , you should buy it . it will make you happy , no matter how you were feeling , and what you 're doing +camera pos this lens is outstanding . speed and sharpness are top-notch . i use this lens for a wide array of situations and it has always delivered impressive results . best lens in it 's class at a reasonable price . it 's well built , sturdy , and not so heavy so it 's relatively easy to carry around . canon really impressed me with this lens . i use it with my eos system ( traditional and digital cameras ) . +music neg this cd was a big seller upon it 's release in 1992 , boasting a plethora of big hits , along with some new songs . looking back through 2005 eyelids , it 's hard to hear why these songs were so huge....the cd starts off well , with hits from the primitive love album , but as one keeps listening , he realizes that none of these songs have passion or depth , a few catchy melodies and pleasant , if plain vocals . the dance numbers at least keep you awake , but the years 1988-92 found estefan leaning on ballads , and one was barely distinguishable from another ; on top of that , the 4 new cuts feel like padding , to fill a cd 's worth of material for a christmastime release...a couple of hits are missing , too ( i.e. , bad boys ) , so to summarize , nothing truly bad here , but precious little on target.. . +camera pos the casio exilim ex-s770rd is a great camera for the price . camera is the smallest on the market and will fit in any pocket . lcd sreen is large and very clear . 7.2 mp produces great picture quality and the functions are easily accessed . as this is my first casio purchase , i am very pleased with the quality +camera pos camera arrived earlier than i expected , and was just what i wanted . very small , but versitle . large screen . very satified with my purchase +music neg i 'm an avid tony yayo fan , but this album just did n't cut it . maybe its just trying to commercialize in the rap game and having pressure . i do n't know . but i listened to most of his mixtapes and this album sounds nothing like them . hopefully his next album will be way better . a few songs are good to listen to . i would think , coming out of prison you would have a lot to talk about , but " so seductive " being your first single ? ? come on . i am not a hater but just listen to the album and then listen to the gunit mixtapes and you will see what i mean . rating c +music pos i ca n't say with the words must listen ! +music neg see bonnie raitt be slowly overtaken by the blahs , actually one is temped to think the album will be cool when listening to ` the fundametal things ' , but no +music neg to those of you interested in this cd in lieu of finding the " songs with lyrics " in the movie ice age , got bad news for you . they are not here ! i really do hate it when a soundtrack is put out for a movie and they do n't include the best or features songs in the movie . anyway , the song that pretty much everyone wants when manny , sid , diego and the baby are together and walking towards half peak is called " send me on my way " by rusted root . it is on their latest album " when i woke " . put rusted root in the amazon search engine and you should find it . hope this helps those looking for this song +music pos excellent songwriting , guitar playing and overdubbing . another live album following his first with previously recorded songs not on frampton comes alive would have been just as successful as comes alive . days dawning , crying clown , fanfare are a few such songs . a few songs from wind of change , something 's happening , and even a couple from his early days with the herd would have contributed to a second successful live album rather than the i 'm in you album which was a terrible disappointment +camera pos i love this camera the first day i received it i took 3 rolls of film . it has been the best purchase i bought this year . i got a real good price on it and i received it fast ! +camera neg bag is ok but you must be careful if your moving around a lot . with extra batteries in the top zip compartment it is really top heavy and tips upside down while on your shoulder if the camera is out of it . the velcro does not hold it closed well either . my memory card fell out of the bag during one of these episodes , thank goodness my husband noticed +music pos this album has new meaning to me now in 2007 , where i go to a college next to a high school , where i see a bunch of " punk rockers " spending lots of money to make sure their hair is pretty and that their clothes are properly tattered to maximize trendiness . there are plenty of punk rock bands out there that keep the spirit of social distortion alive , but sometimes their music is hard to find , and all the posers you see start to slowly extinguish that old punk rock fire . albums like this exist for times like those . just stick it in , turn up the volume , and rock out +music neg in general i 'm a big fan of movie music , but to tell the truth i expected more from this one . this soundtrack is incomaparable to say lord of the rings or star wars movie music . it lacks depth and emotion and power . unlike emotionally potent melodies present in lotr soundtrack the eragon is pretty dull and uninteresting . i get the impression that the entire album is in fact a variation of a single theme called eragon . i get the feeling that entire album has only one very long and boring track . i hope they 'll make better album for the next movie of the inheritence trilogy . +camera pos this camera case is great . it 's very small and fits my coolpix 4600 perfectly . there is enough room to fit an extra memory card and some batteries ( but the batteries make it tight ) . i originally purchased the camera case listed for the 4600 , but it was a little bulky and the zipper could scratch the camera if you are n't careful . this camera case does not come with a strap like the other , but that is something i would never use . i highly recommend this case for those who want a small sleek case to protect their camera . +camera neg you got to have extremely steady hand , or camera stand to use this camaera . during my niece wedding , i put in a 2gb of memory and we were trigger happy , we must have took over couple hundred of pictures , however , i am very unhappy about the result . 3 out of 5 pictures are fuzzy , messy , out of focus . on the other hand , for the pictures that took a few mins to line up and with a very very steady hand , you got a great picture . size is good , weight is a bit on the heavy side for the size , but to some people that 's good quality +music neg i 've owned this cd , but did n't keep it for very long because it 's too poppy and slick for my tastes . i guess when about 1981 came around billy just wanted to distance himself from the brilliance of his 70 's style , and on this offering , he kind of wanted a 50 's or 60 's kind of sound . this stuff is just to slick for this hombre . he never made a solid album , after the release of glass houses , in about 1980. this is the kind of stuff that yuppies rave about , but if you 've got some integrity , you 'll probably want to steer clear of this one , and buy anything he recorded in the 70 's +camera pos has any one tried the compatible battery from power101 ? i ca n't believe the price . i am struggling btwn buying the sony brand battery and the compatible ones +music pos the soundtrack is great but some of the good songs from the movie arent on it . overall it is a good produc +camera neg loved the concept of this camera...small , 10x zoom and sleek looking , but the first one lasted 3 days , had it replaced and the second one lasted 1 week . both stopped operating completely . so given that kind of problem i do not recommend this camera +camera neg i bought a sony icd-mx20 digital voice recorder a week ago . i was surprised that sony does not provide downloads of the associated software named " digital voice editor " . sony customer service staff told me that if you lost the cd that came with the box , you had to buy a new one . only patches of the software are available to download . the customer service personnel told me that it was corporate policy despite the fact that the software is bound to the digital device . this immoral policy violating the norm of digital appliance industries and should not be encouraged . sony is demoting its brand name by offering poor post-sales services . think twice before making your buying decision . +music neg i love south music like three 6 , lil jon , master p , but this is a disgrace to every rapper alive and dead . man jd is just signing anyone these dayz to make money cuz he ca n't get no one wit talent . every song on here sounds like it was hurried up . fu*k so so de and fu*k dem franchize boyz they make me sick . +camera neg as the previous reviewer pointed out , this is not the klic-5001 1700 mah battery as described in the product details , it is the lower capacity ( 1050 mah ) klic-5000. at least it is the kodak battery , if that matters to you . ( i have a new kodak camera and want to protect the warranty . ) if not , plenty of places sell the generic klic-5001 for less than amazon sells the kodak klic-5000 +camera pos i really enjoy this camera ; mine has the carl zeiss vario-tessar lens . it works grewat - be sure to use the memory stick pro media . a great reasonable priced camera +music neg i am a cellist of 15 years on the breakthrough of becoming a renowed cellist . this cellist tone is so powerfull and clear.she tells a story this is so clear to understand because the music speaks . alisa should watch the slurs from the f to b and be more gracefull . the apres un reve was ok i guess . she really should of tooken more time . like floating on a dream cloud . when i play this piece i take the music from the begining as a fuzzy dream and play the pitch so the music tells a story and becomes more clear every measure . the elgar is somenthing she might not want to touch because no one plays it better than du pre +music pos my 8-month-old son and i listen to this cd every night , and by the pachelbel canon ( track 7 ) he 's usually sound asleep . it is not all synthesizer . the jacket clearly states that the " music box orchestra " includes flute , piano , cello , percussion , english horn , and oboe . as a musician , i am not offended by the " easy-listening " versions of these classics . in fact , i enjoy them . they introduce my son to the timeless melodies without overstimulating him at bedtime . i find them relaxing too +music neg this album contains only rap and no rock songs . this was very disappointing to say the least +music neg never shipped . i ordered this before christmas . they said it was in stock . where is it +music neg all the cds this band has made suck . not even the first one so never buy something this idiots have made . blink-182 , sugarcult or sum 41 are good punk-pop +camera pos i deal in major brand cameras and panasonic cameras are my personal favorite ! i 've seen people whine about the " noise " they make many times but have never found it to be a problem . i own the fz10 and the fx01 for my personal cameras . the fx01 is a very fast camera and takes great pics ! i love the 28mm wide lens . compared to most cameras i 've used the fx01 does a real good job of metering the light and exposing the images . i love panasonic 's solid build and reliability . they may not be as popular as canon or sony but in my opinion are every bit as good . +music neg this cd while full of nice music , is to me rather pointless . it 's listed as a sound track but all it has is background music instrumentals . does anyone know the titles of the actual songs used in the movie ? aside from crazy train +camera neg return ? ha ha ! ! ! you must email them for permission . they do n't provide the email address . i have spent untold hours trying to get them to respond . they will do everything to avoid returns . and amazon just looks the other way . do n't do it ! +camera pos i purchased this for my canons500. i have it for over a year now and it is still as good as new . good quality construction and a great look & feel +music neg maan , ima venda spenda of dis shizzi hur but fur shur , iz hord cor poor . i meanz what i be sayin is i be buyin all the hip s*** but when i play dis on ma player my mind be hurtin , in da bad way . so fow sho , to all da playaz out thay stay clean of this bad crack , itll hurt yow mind and yow poket . fur shur dis is da flippa , keep it clean boyz ( yea , you punks now what i be sayin +camera neg keep in mind that you ca n't use this product unless you buy an external flash . the built-in flash results in harsh shadows on the left edge of the photos . canon 's response thank you for your inquiry regarding the powershot g6. we are sorry to hear of any issues with the conversion lens . when using the built-in flash , a portion of the image may be blocked by the converters and appear dark . please refer to page 186 of the camera manual for detailed information . when the converters are used , it is recommended to not use the built-in flash . thank you for choosing canon +camera neg bought this case along with a digital rebel xti , my first slr . instead of the 18-55mm kit lens i opted for the sigma 17-70mm lens . sad to say , but the case fits only with the kit lens. . the rebel xti with the 17-70mm lens barely fits . so a word of cuation to everyone , if you 're planning on anything other than the kit lens , then do n't get this +camera pos this product fits my camera perfectly and is not at all bulky . a great safeguard from falls and the velcro latch provides just enough security . +camera neg hi , i have had the vdr-d300 for about 6 months now . i have never gotten a recording session to last more than about 20 min . the camcorder constantly locks up , usually after about 10 min . this is on a full battery - the unit never gets even to a battery alarm . several times the reset button nor the reset proceedure per the manual works . i must have a faulty unit . i 'm investigating repair . the unit has a great lens , camera , and video image , but my unit is not stable at all +music pos i like the main voice ( s ) and i like the music , but the voices are over powered by the music . if they turned up the voices a bit i think this would be a great album . this album does not sound like other albums i have so i 'm not sure what to compare it to . +music neg i may not be an expert on steel drums , but i do listen to jimmy buffett a lot ! he has a great steel drum drummer . after listening to this cd , i gave it away in a white elephant gift exchange this past xmas +music neg when i think of the sex pistols , i think the monkeys did it better as a boy band . let 's face it , dears , that is all the sex pistols were : a marketing ploy . they are f- -- --g nsync for another generation +camera neg when it was new out of the box it worked for baseball about 50% of the time if i was within a few feet of the pitcher or catcher . it seemed to become less effective each time i used it to the point that now i 'm lucky to get a reading 10% of the time . it still works for clocking cars but for baseball it is almost useless . +camera pos multi-element add-on lense used with kodak dx-7590 provides good wide-angle capability . note that this is a very large add-on lense ( screws into dx-7590 extension-piece which costs an additional $20 ) . does the job well in most portraiture and scenic applications , however two caveats : ( 1 ) slight curvature of field in extreme corners of wide-angle shots ( ie , corners of shots may be noticeably out of focus ) . suggest cropping to 95% of original picture to maintain sharpness across plane . ( 2 ) size of lense will render pop-up flash and outside the lense focusing system ( ultra-sonic ) less functional . +music pos since sunset boulevard is one of my favorite films , i bought the london cast album long before the musical came to america . patti lapone is the ultimate broadway star , having created the role of evita . her soaring versions of " as if we never said goodbye " , and " with one look " are unmatched . her power and vocal range soar ! all of norma 's songs had to be drastically reduced in vocal range to accomodate glen close 's lack of , ( or nonexistent ) singing ability . in fact , this dvd was unavailabe to the american market during the american run of the musical and was literally pulled from the shelves . perhaps alw did n't want the american audience to hear the masterwork of this production . kevin anderson , a brilliant actor , does not have the operatic quality of alan cambell in the u.s. cast , but he portrayed joe gillis with far more guts and passion . this is not for the lover 's of oklahoma of showboat , but for lovers of more contemporary musicals , this one is perfect +music neg after reading her excellent halloween book , i figured her halloween cd would be worth owning . i always search for " different " halloween cds , but this was filled with the same old stuff . chains , moans , and spooky laughs.. . then more chains , moans and spooky laughs . very dissapointing +music pos i am a lover of " greatest hits " compact discs but this one by far is the best one i have purchased recently . this compact disc has almost all of the best tunes that joe walsh made and i highly recommend it to anyone who loves to rock ! +music pos i had tears in my eyes when i first heard this album . i get emotional over music i really like , and this album got to me.so many great standards so well delivered by the duo . they deliberately chose slower ballads for this album so do n't look for uptempo , snappy songs in this one.not that harry warren could not write faster stuff like jeepers creepers , shuffling off to buffalo etc. this album is to sing along with softly or hum.i kept thinking of bogart in the rain in casablanca and other lovers in w.wii.i know the main tune in that movie was not by harry warren ; it simply reminded me of great love tunes from that era by julie styne[time after time] and the grossly underrated harry warren.grab someone you love , some good wine and savor one of the great popular composers and a great duo.they should do more harry warren albums , michael and george.i thank them profusely +camera neg the night owl optics monocular had a major flaw as soon as i started using it . the system uses high voltage derived from 2-aa bateries . occationally the unit would create a large snap ( arcing noise ) and emit a bright flash of light from the eyepiece . if one is using the instrument , the light actually hurts the eye . i have returned the monocular to night owl for repairs . i do not know the result of the repairs as it is still in transit . they told me to ship it at my expense . another strange requirement of the instrument is that the batteries are recommended to be removed if not used for 24 hours . other than the above , the monocular has performed well . epilogue-night owl optics did repair the unit and returned it . +music neg buyer beware . these new journey releases are reissues of their 1996 remastered releases . they are not remastered in 2006. rhino should be ashamed of itself for this ( it 's been 10 years - i would have gladly paid for a remastered version , but not for new packaging ) +music pos engelbert humperdinck ` s name has remained for almost five decades in the great musical stages . in spain there is a term that fits so well to describe his magnetism : duende . he shone with radiant intensity in the age of the great crooners , the most difficult , indeed : frankie , tony bennet , andy williams , dean martin , matt monroe , bobby vinton , booby goldsboro , glenn campbell , o.c. smith , otis reading , pat boone , kenny rogers , paul anka and neil diamond ( from time to time ) among the most remarkable ones . his peculiar style has deserved him the best acknowledgments all over the world . his multifacetic repertoire and elegant voice confers him presence and conviction every time he appears on stage . his name is now a legend . go for this admirable collection , you will enjoy it over and over +music neg with perverse , mike edwards set out to prove that jesus jones was more than a ` sunny , breezy pop band ' , what he ended up proving was that if they were n't no one was interested . sad to say , but pop hooks were what people expected from jj , and actually there are some here , but they are smothered by industrial / techno gook . stick with doubt , that 's where jj peaked , even if some claimed they had ` sold out' . here they are pushing the boundaries , but that does n't always make for a great listening experience +music pos i saw the outlaws live twice in the early eighties and had a great time at both shows . this album is just plain fun to listen to and brings back some very fond memories +camera neg sd110 not a good digital camera . better yet find something else . i 've had this camera almost a year but i just seldom use it because the result of the pictures are very disappointing . it is just fine downloading them on the internet but when you have it printed on the paper , the pictures get blurred . now , im looking for another digicam that wo n't disappoint me +music neg ..and what 's the point ? all of these songs ( minus a few ) are on the anthology , along with countless others . the beastie boys did n't put this out , their record label did . it 's just way for corporate to make money . if you consider yourself a real beastie boys fan , that is you 're interested in all the other music they made that was n't put on radio , then do n't buy this . if you occasionally heard them on the radio and fight for your right is your favorite song , then go ahead . the beastie boys are much more than just their greatest hits . to fully appreciate them , you have to listen to an album all the way through . +camera neg i received the remote this evening and have not been able to get the remote to work with my canon rebel xt camera . followed the directions that were furnished with the remote to no avail . it appears that this remote is defective +music neg i ca n't believe the other people giving this high marks . i love the wheel , but darn if this is n't just terrible . there is n't even a single on it ; i ca n't believe the studio released it . thank god i got a promotional copy and did n't have to go buy it in the store . the catherine wheel needs to get back together- -quick +camera pos i have enjoyed using my camera . i have been able to get some great pictures . the stabilization feature work well +music neg this is not the music from the movie . this purchase was a major dissapointment . you would do beter searching for the music credits for titles , then download the tracks form your music subscriber +music pos quite different from his later big-band recordings . some of the songs that you may find on wes ' ' best of ' collections sound too much like elevator music . not so with this debut album . a drummer , a organist , and a guitar player ; no horn section . stripped down in the sence of band size but very deep and articulate playing . he shows of his trade mark octave playing , his chord solos ( played over the organs rythm chords none the less ) , and flashy runs across the fret board when needed . a good cd to start with for the guitarist who wants to play jazz . +camera pos this case is the perfect size to hold our sony camcorder and a few blank tapes . we purchased it for a cruise , because we wanted to carry-on the camcorder and have it protected , but not have to lug the large case we owned that holds all the accessories . this smaller case still protects the camera and allows room for some extras +music neg golijov 's music incorporates jewish , arabic , christian , afro-brazilian , and other ethnic influences ad nauseum.. . so what ? listening to this disc is like having dental work done without novocaine . only diversity nazis who want to smugly bask in their own " enlightened " weltanschauung will find much to enjoy here . golijov cunningly caters to these folks ' taste . may he ride it all the way to the bank . +music neg as a 21 year old , i felt a little out of place buying this soundtrack . but , i was so excited that i had finally found a soundtrack to these two wonderful movies . imagine my disappointment when i could aurally pick out that rosemary clooney 's parts were not sung by rosemary clooney ! i do not recommend buying this album . enjoy the music when you watch the movies , instead . trust me , it 's better that way +music neg this disc was simply a waste of my time...very mediocre songs , heavy emphasis on sex instead of talent...corey 's voice is below average....i get the feeling that corey clark is imitating a good singer with a viable career , and not doing it very well....clearly ' fake it till you make it ' is n't working here . the songs all sound the same , i kept waiting for something to get me grooving , but it just did n't happen . i think his ego is much larger than his actual musical potential...he either needs voice lessons , a little humility , and some professional grooming ( and i do n't mean clothing ) . +music pos nice cd cool beats songs like welcome to atlanta pick it u +camera neg they tell you tha this product holds 6aa batteries , and works with the 20d 's battery grip , but when i received the item it is for a completely different product and does not work with the 20d 's bg-e2 grip . it has the product name of cpm-e3 , just as stated...but it accepts 8 aaa batteries and does n't even come close to working with the bg-e2. +music neg i remember listening to this years ago , and i thought i would add this to my cd library , now i know why it has been years sense i 've listened to it , , very sqeaky , dull , slow paced stuff , bob segar makes this stuff sound like tin foil. . +music neg i saw this movie ' cause i was interested to see cathy rigby , " who was born to play peter pan " . i hated it a lot . so , now i am in a high school production of peter pan , and i happend to see the mary martin version , and the mary martain cd . i loved it ! then i realized that ' peter pan ' is not a bad musical at all . cathy rigby and the " crew " were making it bad . i have no idea why they think cathy rigby is the greatest thing since sliced bread . do n't believe them . she isn't . she sounded like she was a stuiped little brat that just wanted to rot the rest of his [her] time just sitting in a dark corner carving forks while on the other hand , mary martain sounds all cheerful , fun , and real . i reccomend mary martain 's video and cd . i say no more +music neg i have been a ronstadt fan since the early 70 's , and although the nelson riddle stage and the mexican stage were not my style , i still loved her vocal perfection . this is truly the only album i have n't played more than twice ( i did n't like it the first time , which surprised me , so i tried it again ) . it does n't showcase her voice or her talents . the songs are very ho hum . linda , put out a christmas album ( been waiting for years ) , and try to get sweetness back for this old fan +camera pos it 's great . nice top storage for memory cards and extra battery . compact . perfect for camera size . +camera neg the adorama silica gel came without any instructions on how to use and reuse it . i emailed customer service at adorama to ask how to use it and how to recharge it once it has absorbed enough moisture but they did not respond . i ca n't tell when it needs recharging and when it is ready . what color should it be and what color should indicate recharging . how to i recharge it ? nothing tells me how to recharge it . so far , money wasted . unresponsive to my emails +music pos my roomate from two years ago had a cd of doris ; and i must admit , at first , i was a little skeptical . but soon i became stunned by her vocal prowess and the emotional heart juice that she brought to these classic songs . plus , you should see her in a football uniform ! man can she catch the pigskin +music pos toad the wet sprocket have to be one of the most underated bands of the ninties . they wrote some brilliant material and a lot of the songs on this album are very enjoyable . but , there are some strange ones that are do not appeal to my taste . my fave song is ' is it for me' . it is hard to classify them though . it sort of deep and meaningful ( at most times ) pop rock . other good tracks include walk on the ocean , pray your gods and i will not take...etc . i regard this album and ' dulcinea ' as their two best albums +camera neg if you purchase this wide angle lens adapter for the xacti hd1a , you will not be able to take still photos using the built in flash . the adapter blocks the flash and causes black shadows in the bottom half of your photos . it does work well for video . the sanyo xacti hd1a camera itself is a disappointment +music neg after reading her excellent halloween book , i figured her halloween cd would be worth owning . i always search for " different " halloween cds , but this was filled with the same old stuff . chains , moans , and spooky laughs.. . then more chains , moans and spooky laughs . very dissapointing +camera neg received as a christmas present , dead by february 24. well , actually , that 's two months . now all it does is flash an error message , and nothing i do gets it out of that mode . i liked it before it died on me +camera neg i bought this camera after using a sony minidv ( very small one ) camera over 8 years . the image quality of sanyo is horrible compared to my old sony under any condition : daylight , night etc. however price , size and easy operation makes this camera a winner as you can have it with you all the time . so if you want to use this camera as a second camera for everyday use go for it , but this is not a serious replacement to a high-end camcorder . +music pos there are plenty of reasons to get this dead album . one is the fact that this is probably the best recorded psychedelic cd of all time . it was the first rock album recorded on a 16 track . in fact it was rerecorded to take advantage of the technology . the remaster is splendid . another good reason is the great bonus tracks . almost 80 minutes of dead for less than the price of driving your suv to the record store . can you dig it +music pos tame 's music is all about the beat . it 's what got me right from the start , a grinding , repetitious backbone to every song . tame one rides every beat on these tracks without faltering and shows some true style in his delivery . tame gets rid of the verse-hook standarda , periodically ad-libing and allows the music to play when he feels like pausing . its an amazing album well worth purchasing . +music pos what an awesome cd.. . i bought a flogging molly cd as well but dropkick murphy 's are better by far ! +music pos as a pretty big comedy fan thanks to xm radio , i have listened to a lot of comics and i own a lot of comic cd 's ( mitch hedberg , bill hicks , emo philips , lewis black , steven wright , pablo francisco etc. ) and my absolute favorite is unprotected . there is not a slow part on this cd and it never fails to bring everyone to tears on a long car ride . his quick and merciless wit is better than any other comic in the us . his family must be very understanding since he does n't hesitate to include every detail of their personal lives in his act , but it all serves to create a punchline that we can all relate to . the highlights of this cd are his daughter 's boyfriend and guidelines for resuming sex after a heart attack . i highly highly reccomend this +camera pos this is a good padded case for your camera . but the back pocket shown in the picture with a phone stick out , was not deep enough for my phone with antenna attached . it measure 4 " x 3.5 " . but other than that i enjoy using this bag +music neg while the sound of the stream is relaxing and well recorded , there are way too many birds around . the cd describes their sound as distant and faint , but that 's far from accurate . the parts of the cd where all you hear is the stream alone do n't add up to more than 10 minutes , and never last more than a minute . for the most part you will hear the stream and plenty of birds , rather close and sometimes very loud . buyer beware : the 30 second samples you get here are precisely from the parts with no birds at all ! very misleading +camera pos i canceled this order because shipment was n't going to arrive in time for christmas +music neg unfortunately ttd went off the deep end on this album . consequently he put off many fans from buying the brilliant next album " symphony or damn " and the superb follow up " vibrator " . if you loved the first album , give this one a miss and get the two i just mentioned . come on ttd hurry up and release a new album +music pos you definetely gotta own this . after an 11 years break from the music scene , seger 's back full-force . already 400.000 copies sold . more info on bob at [... +camera pos i am a female bowhunter who really had trouble judjing distances on green fields . this is a great product . it is easy to use and very accurate +music neg i was never much of a chili peppers fan over the years , but i thought i 'd give them a chance and listen to this disc.and just as i always thought , it 's crap . very few bands have been able to pull off the repulsive people / repulsive music combo as thoroughly as these guys have . i feel like i need a bath after just looking at their picture . as far as the " music " is concerned , the singing is awful ( deadpan monotone voice ) , the instrumentation is very limited , and the overall production is 2nd rate . the only plus , if any , is that the band manages to show some progression on the newer material , which is still not very good . the fact that this band has been successful over the years just proves that a lot of people have really bad taste . +music pos although the real roots lie with the black artists who inspired these guys , the pbbb is where the hippy generation , ( this is a couple years pre-san francisco , and before the stones and beatles began stretching their arrangements out on record ) , learned to just play . their next record was more representative of what they were actually doing live at time time , and is the single greatest influence on what became the san francisco sound of the late 60 's and early 70 's , ( really long and experimental jamming ) , so this is in fact the " roots of the roots of the roots " of todays jam bands and guitar-heavy blues bands , mixed-race bands , and , for all practical purposes , the white-blues-man in todays ' world +camera neg poor and slow focus and flash . thought nikon had a good name.......wrong if you like this camera it must be you first digital +camera neg the first day i took them out to hunt with them they fogged over . i brought them home and there is fog inside . also inside is some dark crap that you cannot get to...and it is on the lens . i called bushnell 's help line and they told me.. . " well , it is n't internally fog proof , just externally " when asked about the stuff on the inside . " that is probably fungus , that sometimes happens " i just bought the binoculars ! ! ! he stated i could send them in and miss my entire hunting season and they would take the fungus out . avoid these at all costs ! ! ! they are a shoddy product with an even worse strap that is plastic and cuts into your neck +camera neg i purchased this to display mpeg movies ( which it says it can ) . i was told by tech support that i had to use a divx encoder and that they must be avi ( which is also incorrect ) . the sanyo xacti video camera i was using was mpeg-4 ( the ipod accepts the files without issue ) , i tried converting them in quicktime to several different types of mpeg4 and none worked . there are better frames out there and i intend on finding out which one is the best . i have ordered another brand and will see if it works . this was by first product return on amazon . +music pos this cd is the funniest cd i own . the first half of the cd is pure comedy and super funny . the second half is a little hard to understand , and it louds like is was recorded poorly , that is why i gave it four stars . track 2 is worth the money spent on the cd because that track is 8 mins of pure comedy . eddie makes fun of stevie wonder and boxer larry holmes , and he does it well +camera neg hey this is for everyone buying cameras over the world out of the united states , i have a problem with my camera and i do n't have anyone to help , i 've been trying some help in amazon 's help area but they just have thousands of links but any simple email where i can ask for some help , i do n't really understand why is this site so well known on " customer service " , but i just cannot communicate with no one in the company to ask anything , i 'm just mad about this , if anyone can help me to contact amazon or fujifilm please post an email or whatever cause there 's no such a thing like help in the " help area " . i need to repair my lcd monitor of my camera , it 's really fragile , so if you 're still thinking on buying in this site or even buying something from fujifilm , do n't do it , they do n't care about the customer satisfaction at all +camera pos it was everything it advertised as being . i can carry my digital camera and lenses as well as two point and shoot digital cameras . being a slingshot backpack , my back does n't moan and groan as it did with other camera bags . i like the feature of swinging the bag to the front and to get my cameras with out removing the backpack +camera neg i was counting on a three hour working battery . after all , that 's what it says it gives you . so far all i get from it , after more than a month of use , is two hour , max. . +camera pos i went from taking the camera out of its packing to taking professional quality pictures in twenty minutes . it 's amazing +music neg you 'll find better works out there , particularly if you 're a miles fan . the emphasis here is on milt jackson and his vibraphone , which gives the album a light , airy feeling . missing is much of miles ' horn and sentiment . you also get a bit shortchanged with a mere 30 minutes of music . i would call this a " pleasant " album , which in my jazz-world is not a happy thing +camera neg i bought this camera in about february 2005 but did n't know enought about digital to know what i can actually get . goes through batteries pretty fast . the recharge time between pictures sometimes causes me to miss another good shot . takes way too much time between pressing shutter button and taking the picture . i just thought this was normal for digital cameras till i began reading later reviews . then i accidentally dropped the camera onto a soft surface ( loose dirt and sawdust ) and now the lens is stuck most of the way out and will not retract and camera will not come on . contacted hp to get it fix but will cost close to $100 and they will just send a reconditioned one . so i am in the market for another digital camera-maybe a canon or sony or something besides an hp +music pos wow what a great cd . i 'm a big music fan of alot of different types of music and i have to say that this is one of the best cds that came out in 2004. you ca n't go wrong with this one . a +music pos joan . you do n't love me . because i 'm a guy . but i have loved you since 1976. ok so i 'm an old man ( age 43 ) . so what . she 's just the best rock and roll female on the planet . i like the young ones like sahara hotnights and the donnas as well but they just do n't measure up to joan born to be bad jett . this album - like most of her other albums - consists of a mix of old and new songs . does n't mattar . i love it . and the video.. . well it confirms what we have always known . not that it matters . the music matters +music pos hey bret is one of the most tallented song writers of our time ! he will be in the rock n ' roll hall of fame when he is done and his guitar playin ' and singin ' is very underrated ! buy this +music pos this is some great music from a litte know movie . you wo n't be let down +camera neg i purchased the camera in mid june 2006. after 1 month / 1 hr of recording the screen went black when in recording mode . it took the shop about 7 week to fix the problem . i used the camera to record another 20 minutes and now it does not want to focus to infinite . the recording now flickers a lot and a dot appears floating around the screen . this camera has been in the shop more time than in my hands . the store were i bought it said that it would give me a new camera if this happends for the thrid time . the only problem is that if this is a design problem , what do i get by getting a new camera ? just avoid buying this camera until they fix the problem +music pos i wonder if the two reviewers who said they were disappointed in this soundtrack watched the film ? my guess is that they did not . the film was enhanced by the james horner score and it would have been hurt by anything that was not light and subtle . it is a unique and amazing film and the score is a perfect match . by the way , the bigwigs at universal nearly died when they heard it and then were equally stunned when they asked horner for the written score and he had to admit that none existed ! wonderful music +camera neg this is a wonderful item if or when it works . it prints the pictures beautifully if it works . the trouble is that after using it for a little while ( and i mean a little while ) it will quit feeding the paper in and the lights start blinking saying that you are out of paper and that you are out of ink . i have messed with it and messed with it , for some of you who have the same problems sometimes cleaning the feeder roller with rubbing alcohol will get it to work but this does n't work all the time . right now my printer wo n't work and i cleaned the roller and it is very aggravating as the paper and ink are n't cheap . i think it is cheaper going down to walmart and using their instant photo machine . this is not worth the money or the aggravation ! ! ! ! +camera neg i have two 8 " picture frames that are other brands , and they are great and i use them for open houses all the time ! i got this one as a gift from a friend , and it is terrible ! ! the instructions are difficult to understand . the wide screen makes everyone in the picture look fat and distorted ! this is a weird size and i am not happy at all ! ! i do n't recommend it +music pos la pelicula es mas o menos , pero la banda sonora es buena , en especial la cancion #1 crush de garbage , es una excelente cancion.. . +music neg beautiful voice , but so much anger in the lyrics ruins the cd . i was offended just reading every name on this cd...it is really a shame , what pretty " vulgar " voice . if this cd sells millions will you be proud of the message of hate you just pushed into millions of ears . you should be ashamed of yourself as an artist , as you have such power , but it is spent on prepetuating hate . nina simone was a angry artist also , but not once did she offend me ( caucasian male ) with her lyrics and all of her hate for racism in america . the first song i ever heard of hers " mississippi goddam " made me cry , so emotionally charged and commanding of a voice . there will always be a " racist america " because people are selfish , but be responsible as a descent human being and as an artist . i liked the cd until i heard the lyrics , one less sale adds up after awhile +camera pos i 'm new to the digital slr world . i had been using the built in flash on my rebel xt . the built-in flash had done alright , but was nothing to write home about . since i had spent most of my money on the camera , i needed a flash that was both affordable and would get the job done . this flash met both requirements . if you are an advance user , you will want a higher end flash because the flash has limited adjuastable features . yet , if you a newbie like me , this flash is great ! it has improved my picture quality dramaticly . +camera pos this case is great for the quick day outings . it is rugged and keeps the camera safe . my wife can throw it in her purse and i do n't have to worry about it getting banged up and she does n't have to worry about it being too bulky . everyone should have two batteries with any of the canon cameras since their battery meter only shows up minutes before it goes dead . +music neg the problem with america was that started out great . the first album was fresh and different from everything . three young boys and accoustic quitars was a song all it own . " horse with no name " and " sandman " , was what pave the way for them . the problem was that each album after that they got farther away from their roots and into the middle of mainstream pop . they should of left " muskrat love . " to the captain and tennille . this album does a fine job of showing their career from beginning to end . the problem was that there was their first two albums , ( america and venture highway ) and there was their others . my recommandation would be to pick up the first 2 and leave this for the die hard fans +music pos forza eros ! may you live to make much more great music ! whether you understand italian or not , i heartily recommend this cd . in ogni senso lives up to its billing - it delights each and every one of the human senses , in all " sense " of the expression . this is a must-have for any true music lover +music pos this is one of my personal favorites . i bought this cd when my daughter was 1 month old . we would listen to it during those " late night " feedings to create a peaceful environment . i 'm pretty sure it was a benefit for her . it was definitely a benefit for me +music pos maiden had evolved into a new metal standard in 1986. not only did they lead the metal world with the greatest artwork on covers , but their music took a new form and justifed everything they had done in the past . iron maiden to powerslave were just the stepping stones to this standard classic . the cd starts out with caught somewhere in time , a galloping bassline , and parallel guitar make it , not only a classic , but ahead of its time . the rest of the cd id in pure form . my favorite track , however , is alexander the great . the intro starts out with a whisper of that era , and slowly builds to the howl of , i feel , the battle cry of the great warrior of history . iron maiden did not dissapoint with this cd . it is very well mixed and produced , and remains a standard in my collection of cd's . +camera neg the idea is wonderful but the window is too small to be useful . i have it , have pictures on it , but never show it to anyone . trying to find the right light to illuminate a tiny picture was ridiculous . easier to show a few pictures in my wallet +music pos it was good . there are so many albums like this . this is one of the good ones +camera pos the camera is good . had it 1 week now . low light it works and produces fair results . bright light is much better . small and light weight . you must use the supplied docking station to transfer as ther is no usb port on camera . there is the dc in and tv out on camera ( as well as the docking station...just no usb...why ? ) 30gb hard drive is plenty...maybe too much . if you fill this up you are looking at 8 dvd 's and hours of transfer . the software is weak and conflicts with roxio 7.5. roxio became unusable . roxio stinks anyway . found a simple program to burn after this...ashampoo . plan on getting adobe premier elements , too . amazon had the best deal...89 less 30 mail in rebate from adobe . much better then the software in box . my first cam as we now have a cute baby . easy to keep it rolling and have gigs to save . +camera pos very clear pictures , very happy with this camera . note that it has only the lcd screen and no viewfinder , but this has n't been a problem for me as it 's pretty easy to use +music neg forget the fact that despite the grumbling about today 's " music " too many people just swallow and digest the slop record companies throw at them , " hollaback girl " is the absolute dumbest " song " i 've ever had the displeasure to hear . there are two main parts to this travesty : 1. where she says " that 's my sh** " no less than a million times , and 2. she demonstrates that she 's hooked on phonics by being kind enough to spell bananas for the rest of us . if this is supposed to be rap , stefani failed miserably . if it 's supposed to be dance , again , she failed miserably . to be honest , i do n't know what the hell this is supposed to be because it sure is n't music . the fact that it was number one for so long proves that perhaps people do n't have any requirements for their ears . - donna di giacom +camera pos at 10mp , this camera takes some of the clearest and visually stunning pictures i have ever taken with a digital camera . the clarity and detail alone are reason to get this camera . the display , although pooh-poohed by others as too small , is quite large to me . the cameras small , lithe design is another selling point . nothing bulky about this camera . you can put it in your front pants-pocket if you needed to . do yourself a favor and get this camera . you wo n't regret it . +camera pos i was very happy with the product . it serves me well . fast delivery , good service by the vender . i got the project done and it will serve me well on into the future . great travel storage case , heavy plastic unit . good quality light stands +camera neg i 've never ordered anything and been this disappointed . i ordered two of these and both did n't work . i contacted the company 's tech support and they told me to send it back and they will replace it . i tried contacting ritz camera where i purchased the item and they refused to give me a refund . i am now stuck dealing with this company that has horrible customer support . i will never buy another product from this company again . +camera pos this 10-20mm lens is equivalent to a 15-30mm in a 35mm film camera , so it 's an ultra-wide lens at 10mm . i was pleasantly surprised at how sharp the images are from this lens ; and it 's rectilinear , which means that straight lines in real life remain straight in the photograph . it is a well-made lens , made with high-grade materials . what this lens excels at is when you want to photograph sweeping landscapes , close-quarters interior photography , and in architectural photography where you do n't mind the exaggerated converging lines that an ultrawide produces . personally , that 's what i like , so i 'm very happy with this sigma 10-20mm +camera pos this product delivers exactly as promised and we could not be more pleased . the pictures are wonderful . the initial downloading process was straighforward and problem-free . we actually purchased three photo frames for ourselves and our children and they love them as much as we do . the slideshow feature is wonderful as well . everyone of our friends that have seen the photo frame are equally amazed by this product as some were not aware that such a product even existed . to be sure , they are expensive but worth the cost . we will enjoy our photo frame for years to come as we update with new pictures regularly . thanks to the folks at philips for getting this soooooooooooo right . +music pos a friend of mine gave me this cd about a year ago , i listened to a few minutes of it and was like " what is this crap ? " and i shelved it for a couple months . i then picked it back up and gave it another listen . to my surprise it was really catchy to me . the music ( and lyrics ) are simple , but thats what i like about them . theyre simple ! this is a great college-rock cd . i plan on checking out more teenage fanclub , and i suggest you do the same . notable tracks are sidewinder , what you do to me , and is this music ? +camera neg this backpack was very uncomfortable . the inserts are stiff . it does n't represent canon quality ( i hope ) +music neg she does n't sing.. . she yells ! ! ! and using one of ednita 's songs as she did with " lo que son las cosas " is just sacrilege at its " best " ( or worst ) . it 's really easy to hit it big with your first single when the song is already a classic by itself . she has absolutely nothing on beyonce or cristina aguilera . her cd is just plain bad ! if you want to hear good music by latin women with beautiful powerful voices ( and that actually sing ) , you might want to look for la lupe , celia cruz , ednita nazario and lucecita benitez.. . and these are only the ones i remembered at the moment +music neg as if metalcore wasnt a chainsaw to your head enough , its absolutely ridiculous when metalcore bands mix emo with there already inoriginal sound . this band sounds like a even more flaccid killswitch engage , a hawthorne heights / silverstein with downtuned guitars . as if it wasnt an abomination already , they even sing about vampires . yes , thats right , vampires . and you couldnt get any g*yer . +music neg as you might think , i am not a die hard fan of jmj , i think that when only die hard fans rates an album , it makes you think that with such a high rating , everybody should love this album and this is not the thruth . not everybody like this king of musical experimentation , some do but some don't ...i like oxygene and equinoxe , and even after all those years , they are still good to listen too . rendez vous offers some really good moments , but we are far from the perfection as oxygene or equinoxe . rendez-vous is easier to get use to that zoolook is , but we are far from a near perfect album . that 's all +camera pos this accessory is very useful when taking group pictures with the photographer included +music neg in answer to a music fan from temple hills , the song was called king holiday by the king dream chorus & holiday crew . it came out on mercury in 1986 and featured the singers and rappers you mentioned . it made no.30 on the r& ; b charts but did n't crossover pop . the lyrics are on the net ( try google ) but i do n't know if the song still is +camera neg i bought this camera like 7 months ago since it was so small and i liked the design....but the pictures it takes suck , specially in the night time or with flash , you can barely see what you are photographing . the video feature its ok even though you cant change the zoom while making the video , but the design doesnt suit well this feature since the audio-in is in the exact same place where you are suppossed to hold the camera...so most of my videos dont have audio since i was blocking the audio entrace.. . its small and portable , and i could fit it in any pocket , so thats good , but its so small that the battery lasts only aorund 90 min...that 's what it says , but it keep going down like 5times faster than a regular min , so it only does last like 30 min +music pos hayley westenra , at only 18 years old , is an enchanting voice we should be hearing from for many years to come . this is an uplifting and at times , spiritual album that shows shades of greatness . throughout , westenra 's voice is captivating , though the musical scores are at times , sub-par and do not equal the vocal talent . there was an advertising tag on this cd that stated " the female josh grobin " , but i think a more accurate sentiment would be " a young sarah brightman " . odyssey is a fine mix of spiritual and operatic tunes , all of which match up well with westenra 's abilities . bocelli fans will also appreciate the duet , dell amore non si sa . they pair up for that one song , but the rest is all westenra . this is smooth , soothing and easy listening . if you like brightman , you will truly appreciate the voice of westenra . +camera pos you wo n't go wrong with a panasonic dv . i 've had a few models . i have several of this model for my business . they 're rock solid reliable , nice and small for portability , and the quality of the recording is very goo +music pos i have listened to this wonderful soundtrack and i think it is superb ! ! i now know that the alien movies rock ! the tone of the music fits the movie . i especially like " ripleys them " because it reflects on what has happened with ripley through-out the movie . the cloning , learing , remebering and also meeting her clones . i would also like to say that the movie was excellent aswell . the cast did a great job , acting their hearts out . jean-pierre jeunet should be proud of the music and his film.so if you are n't an alien fan , you sure as heck will be after you listen to the soundtracks ! ~ jenna +camera pos this filter is an excellent cost efficient way to protect your valuable lenses . +camera pos the battery is perfect and once in the camera , is indistinguishable from the original . +music neg am i the only ones who actually liked nelly 's first album , i thought it had charm , style , grandier to me and kind of scale and kind of importance , you thought it mean something , but this is just a lame gimmick from the start , i mean there are some moments and some good songs ( including the sexy and very funny music video hot in herre with cedric the entertainer ) , but the rest are just horrible , there is nothing else about this album that i can engage with nor cared about and who cares ? country grammer was funny and good , this one 's an utter disaster . one of the worst albums of the decade . +music neg do n't think dale can play a song the same way twice . did n't like the selection of songs nor the way they produced . +camera pos i 've had this camcorder for a week now and i think it works great .. except for the touch screen feature . that takes a little getting used to .. especially when accessing the special features ( such as fader effects ) while filming . the digital still quality is poor when recording directly to the memory stick .. but the same images taken as a still from prerecorded tape is much clearer . all in all it is a good product .. just takes some getting used to +camera neg ...but it stopped working after a year . the only thing the lens sees now is black , although the camera still turns on and i can look at pictures i took before the problem started . nonetheless , i loved this camera , and i think it was worth it , even though it only worked a year . now i 've learned my lesson and will buy a longer warranty or exchange for m new camera +music pos gun 's & roses came out in the nick of time . record companies were mass producing cookie cutter bands and they all sound the same . g&r made their debut on the music scene in 87 but did n't get big until almost late 88 early 89. appitite is a true masterpiece . welcome to the jungle , it 's so easy , mr. brownstone , my michelle....the list goes on and on . put it in turn it up to 10 and rock on ! the they made a mistake . they realeased an albums worth of great songs on 2 albums . so instead of another masterpiece they wound up with 2 ok albums . then they vanished . anyone who is a fan of the music but could n't care less about axl should pick up velvet revolver with slash and scott wieland from stone temple pilots +camera pos i bought this hood after reading elsewhere that it fits the 50mm f / 1.8 mark i ( the version with the metal mount and distance scale ) that i purchased recently . canon specs the discontinued es-65 hood for this lens . the great thing about this et-65iii is that it is longer , so it blocks more stray light without vignetting on full-frame or 1 / 6-frame slrs . the interior on this mark iii version is also flocked , providing a bit more light absorption . i 've used those collapsible rubber hoods before while in college , but this hood is definitely worth the investment : well built , fits backward on the lens for storage ( but too long while the lens is on the camera ) , and provides good protection for the front of the lens ( it 's quite deep ) . note that this will not fit the newer 50mm f / 1.8 mark ii version ( all plastic mount with no distance scale ) +music pos so , incubus rocks no matter who you are or which of their albums is your favorite . plainly put , this album was not my favorite of theirs . it 's good . it 's really good . but if you 're expecting incubus good , you 'll be slightly disappointed +music pos if you are a fan of the winter 's solstice series , than you will enjoy this cd , especially if you like the earlier volumes with the more original pieces rather than mostly traditional christmas music . +camera pos this lens is fairly inexpensive and the reason for that is while it definitely lets you get really close and the image is definitely larger than without it , the fact is the fz7 and the fz30 macro settings are already so good that the image is perhaps 15% or so bigger than without it . if i can i 'll post a couple flower images to permit comparison with and without the lens . the camera i have is a fz7. because i want as large an image as possible of my focus i am very happy +music pos all i have to say is great album +camera pos an excellent purchase that lives up to the sony name . my main concern before buying it was that it would swivel enough that i could point my mini-camera straight down to take macro photos of documents . it does this easily , and the legs do n't get in the way . it 's small enough to chuck in my backpack and take it all the time in case i need it , and it has its own little sturdy fabric carrying bag so that it does n't get tangled up in anything else . overall , i would rate it as excellent +camera neg the worst thing for this is , you have to bring a bench of disc with you and replace disc every 20 min if you are capturing hd video . i think most of buyers would take hd video if you buy a hd camcorder . but a small disc can only hold 20 min hd video , have to change disc time by time . the cmos sensor is worse than ccd but it is the best sensor among cmos in this price today . a lot of noise will come in low light condition ! i bought it for $800 and return it . i think you 'd better buy sr1 with a 30g hard drive . that would be a much better one ! +camera pos this diffuser is the same quality as the one that comes with the nikon sb 800 flash . it is much better than other aftermarket diffusers that require velcro . this is made to fit the sb 600 perfectly . it snaps on and off easily . angled at 75 degrees it provides excellent fill . i use it on the sb 600 set up as a slave with the sb 800 for fill and back lighting . it should have been included by nikon as original equipment but is inexpensive and cost effective . much better than the built in plastic flat diffuser +music pos jigga is incredibly hot on this album beanie is good to great . memphis bleek , is really good on this album , but is overshadowed . his " 534 " shows how good he is , this album does not . overall as an album it does a good job of showing off roc a fella , but not to much about the dynasty +camera neg this battery is not compatible with the the jvc-grd270us video camera . i did get a purchase price refund , but i am out shipping costs both ways +camera pos i won the kodak printer at a scrapbook convention & then went on the hunt to find the refills at a reasonable price . purchasing the 160 count made the price per print the lowest & beat out anything i could find in the local stores . it is a great convenience to be able to whip out a 4x6 print instead of having to download it to a store 's website , wait a few days , go there & pick it up , etc. great value +camera neg i bought this bag looking at the display on amazon . but compare to price i paid this bag is not atall good . size is small , extra pockets are useless , where you cant keep much . camera pocket is also not convenient . only plus point is quality of material used . +music neg i listened to this cd and unless you are into the whole barking dog sound of a band i did n't like this one , one bit , but than again it was also for my husband . i definitely would not recommend unless you have heard of the band and like that style of music +camera pos this case fits the camera perfectly . you hardly notice it when it 's attached to your belt . +camera pos it was everything it was reported to be . it works very well . we take it on every trip we take +camera pos it is exactly the same thing as came with my camera - just what i neede +camera pos took some nice pictures underwater in cuba . pretty easy to use . worked fine at our depth ( ~8 meters , 24 feet ) . still waiting for the chance to use it at greater depths . +camera pos small and compact . let me see everyting i wanted to +camera pos this is a good tool , does the job well , and serves the purpose , but is a little overpriced and canon keeps changing connectors , forcing us to buy new accessories which is a wrong practice against the consumer . i give a 4 star because of canon , not because of the product . if you are willing to pay for it , it 's a good product . +camera neg i am not satisfied by this product . the calrity is not good . also this is the most battery consuming device i have ever seen +music neg i love his voice , but the arrangements are way too complex and stilted . there are about 12 key changes in every song . the melodies are buried so far beneath his reinterpretations that one can barely recognize the songs . i feel these affectations detract from the songs . while his vocal gymnastics are very impressive , the result just is n't enjoyable to listen to ( unless you are a voice student or professional singer ) +music pos ...and if you 're fortunate enough to find it , i recommend buying the version with the bonus dvd , which chronicles the making of yellow brick road . when i bought it , it cost the same as the 2 sacd set without the dvd , so it was still a great deal . my only complaint- -and it 's really minor- -is that it would have been nice if they could have fit the original album onto a single sacd . a second disc could have included the bonus tracks that are included in this package , plus any extra- -maybe even audio-only interviews- -still remaining in the vaults . no matter . the important thing , if you are able , is to make sure you have an sacd-compatible player ( like the pioneer dv-563a , or one of the really expensive players if you 've got the cash and love audiophile formats in both your hardware and your cds ) . even if you do n't , the stereo cd layer still sounds truly excellent +camera neg sd card worked fine for a week . problems arise then worsens over time for one more week then it just does n't work anymore . problem is not the pda , nor software on it . tried to use the card on a separate flash reader / writer . tried formatting it to fat32 , create test directory , data stays on for less than one hour . i would refrain from buying this product . +camera neg this item was offered as a suggested accessory to the nikon monarch atb 8x42 waterproof binoculars that i purchased . i later also purchased the 12x42 binoculars . this harness can not be attached to either pair of binoculars ! the hook part of the snap is too thick to go through the strap eyelet on the binoculars . other than that the harness is a well made quality product +camera pos with these weights i was able to send my canon powershot s70 to the bottom of the atlantic , and i have great faith that they will keep it there . reliable , and more professional than a brick +music pos nothing at all like boy-band cds ( insync , backstreet boys , etc like editorial compared it to ) . while some of the songs are over-processed and do n't allow clay 's strong , clear , and beautiful voice to shine through enough , it is overall a very good cd . it has some catchy tunes on it . his second cd , merry christmas with love , allows his wonderful voice to shine through even more +camera neg the article that receipt is difrente to that of the photo that appears . the conector to the camera is not usb / fire wire , but it is a type nini stereo +camera neg at 300mm this lens is very soft , it 's hard to get a shot that looks like it 's in focus . to do so , you need to shoot at about f / 11 , and then since there is little light available , you usually have to bump the iso to 800 or 1600 just to get an acceptable shutter speed . of course , the high iso then introduces other artifacts . the focus is also dead slow and often does n't lock on . this is a lens that i have constantly fought with . do n't upgrade to the new 70-300 is either , as it 's only marginally better . buy the 70-200 f / 4l . it 's a far superior lens +camera pos i got this camera for my 17th birthday last summer , and it 's great . as much as i 'd love to have a canon powershot , it 's a bit out of my price range . all the people who think that using the lcd screen runs out the batteries after " 2-4 pictures " are lying to you . i bought rechargable batteries from radioshack , and i 've taken up to 400 picture without the batteries needing to be changed . this is a good camera with good quality in good lighting . in dark or overcast situations , it can look a bit grainy , but that 's easily photoshopped . i recommend that when uploading , plug it into the wall with a digital camera adapter , because uploading sucks all battery power right out . i recommend this for someone who has n't owned a digital camera before , or for someone that wants good quality at a not-so-crazy price +camera pos it 's a wonderful piece of equipment . love it . wish they made one for larger objects +camera pos i bought this camera for my sister , as an early christmas present , thinking i would need some time to set it up for her , well in less then 30 minutes i was ready , it 's a awesome camera , i was impressed , of the ease from set up to formatting the 512 sd card . i have sent the site to another sister whom is interested . it is the easiest camera to use and has features that will impress anyone , great photos from very close to far away . i would recommend this camera to anyone +music neg get 's one star in appreciation of the technicians who had to record the cd . what a mess ! never should have been made . even julie is way past the point of playing this onstage . she half talks her way through her songs , her voice clearly not what it was when she made the film . sorry julie , should have left it alone . the rest of the cast is not on a par with the film . tony roberts in place of robert preston...not on his best day . leslie ann warren was riotuosly original in the film , rachel york trying to copy her , is not . and michael nouri ? dismal . the songs added to the score for the stage.......forget it . not even worth mentioning any more . goes into the what were they thinking ? file . as for julie refusing her tony nomination because the rest of the show was overlooked ? c'mon julie , there was a reason for that , the show sucked ! +camera pos for the price it is a very good value especially with the capability of bouncing the flash in several directions . using the internal flash either left dark or washed out images at times . this flash solves the problem . i 've dealt with adorama several times and it was a pleasant experience . items were sent quickly +camera pos the lenes work on the factory lens only with no feature to add additional lens . it works as advertized , i would have like to add the wide / tell lens to the filter for better out door videoing +music neg just be sure to read up on this closely.. . it 's not the orchestra you hear in the movie , and you may be especially disappointed when you hear the vocal tracts - gone are great talents enya and annie lennox , replaced by no-name voices . this is not bad music , but do n't think you 're a genius for capturing the music of the movies on one inexpensive 2-cd set +music pos when i bought this cd i did not know that much about supergrass . the only songs i had even heard were " pumping on the stereo " and " sun hits the sky " and i liked both of these songs a lot . so while i was cruising the aisles in the record shop , my eyes caught a glimpse of supergrass is 10 , so i decided to buy it because it was at a great price , and i am glad i did . the cd has not left my car since i bought it two months ago . every single one of the songs can get stuck in your head , and you won'tbe upset . from the opening track " caught by the fuzz " to the finale " wait for the sun " the album just rock throughout , and everytime i listen to it i want more . the album clocks in at 71 minutes , but everytime i am done listenintg to it i feel unfulfilled . that is a sign of a band making great music +music neg if you need an experience of pure meaningless noise , this one 's for you . however , dont expect it to change your life much . the price listed above for the album is a very good example of the old cliche , " you get what you pay for . +camera pos i have been using this camera quite a bit and am completely happy . it has both point and shoot , and slr features . you can take quick shots or get started with amiture photography . the software was easy to use , easy to set up , and it works well on my mac . it has the quality the you would expect with the canon name . +camera pos purchased as a gift and well received . seems to handle larger chips in a timely manner . runs everyday , all day and no problems encountered . displays vacation pictures clearly . like that it is big enough to view across the room . frame is more compatible with decore than the 7 " model previously purchased +music pos i really like this cd a lot and i am looking forward to seeing them live +music pos bone thugs is always keepin it real . this album gots good production and of course them good lyrics . i love the beats on this album . the songs i got in my top 5 are straight bangers no doubt . this double album is a classic by bone thugs . you should cop this album . all tracks are 4-5 minutes long , each emcee spittin there verses , good stuff . definately check out this album now ! ! ! my top 5 songs 1.handle the vibe 2.look into my eyes 3.body rott 4.it 's all mo ' thug 5.ai n't nothin change +camera pos great product , great price , great company , quick delivery . we love the small size +camera pos excellent product for the price . pictures are not that good , but you ca n't ask more for this price +music neg i am at a loss to hear what people appreciate about this cd . we were barely able to make it through one listening . this is a classic example of a cd that never would have been produced had the artist ( using the term very loosely ) not already been famous for something besides music . the lack of talent and originality on this cd is apalling . it only gets a star because that 's the lowest rating . i want my money back +camera pos not knowing fully what i was getting into , on a whim i purchased this monopod hoping that is was a half-way decent product , i mean-it was so cheap . i was pleasantly surprised to find how sturdy the unit was and that what i had was a very high quality monopod . this was my second monopod and so i had another to compare it with ( the other was bought on an auction website ) . in comparison the opteka was a far better monopod in height and robust thickness and i use it exclusively on my minidv shoots +camera neg i made sure i did my research and read all the reviews on various cameras before deciding to go with this one . i was highly disappointed when i got my camera home and put in the batteries , turned it on and immediately the lens got stuck in the " out " position with an error reading that said : lens error , restart camera . i tried to restart it a zillion times , only for it to say the same thing . i went on line and found that this is a problem with some canon cameras and now , instead of being excited about having this particular camera , i am completely disappointed . i 'm glad others have had such good luck with their cameras . please research the error because , in some cases , it did n't happen until a year later +camera neg i ordered two of the items above in error . i did not think the first order was submitted properly so therefore a second one was ordered and came from antonline . i have been trying since dec. 19 to return the wide angle lens and adapter to them . i am 71 years old and not computer savvy . i just wish i could get return labels and my account credited . they are still in the original packing as received and never been opened . thank you for being interested . i was informed by them that my time had expired . i do not believe this to be true , or does your opening web page not apply to them . +music neg i have to admit , i expected a lot more from mr setzer . the first track was ok , then it proceeded to go down hill from there . not much rockabilly happening , then it all comes clear with " really rockabilly " when he slags off all his traditional rockabilly fans...world wide . he even gives us aussies a serv , even though i do n't think he has ever set foot here . if brian wants to turn his back on rockabilly and try swing , jazz , rock or whatever , then go ahead , but why slag your old fans ? . it 's the last time i buy one of his cds without listening to it first +music pos this album marked a return of sorts to the old trademark isley brothers sound , and it 's off the hook.jam and terry , steve huff , rafeal saddiq , kelly and angela winbush all took their turns puttin ' it down , and that 's exactly what they did.from the time move your body kicks in until the very end this album is absolutely slammin' .highlights in my opinion are you desreve better , just like this , warm summer night and move your body.but the absolute highlight and ( in my opinion ) one of the most slept on songs of all times is the title cut eternal.that is one of my top ten isley brothers favorites of all times.the song kind of reminds me of make me say it again , and earnie showed all the way out on the guitar solo on that song.contagious even had a bit of the isleys sound and probably introduced them to a whole new audience.as a whole , i am extremely fond of this album +music neg i read several different on-line reviews for this cd before i purchased it . each seemed to imply that this cd was a new direction for jaci , that her lyrics were bolder and the overall sound was much more independent in nature . strange . i must have purchsed the prozac copy of this cd because there is nothing new here from her . like my title line to this review states , it 's the exact same music she has always sang , just in a different package . now the cd just collects dust . what a shame +camera neg i bought this camera in oct 2005. i brought it everywhere . loved it . in april 2006 , the lcd screen blew . canon replaced it with a refurbished camera . in march 2007 , the exact same thing happened to the screen and now they will only repair for $97.00 , as they have determined this is the result of impact damage . how they determine this is unclear to me , as it was not dropped or impacted...apparently , you will spend 100.00 / yr maintaining this camera . that , to me , is the hallmark of a faulty product . unfortunate - as i really loved this camera +music pos pablo is definitely the babe ruth / moses of these pieces . however , tempo , cadence , clarity , consistency and emotional projection are much better here . starker is at least the michael jordan of the bach suites . -and compared to pablo ( i heard the naxos one ) the sound quality on this disc is the right hand of god . starker is the dog 's balls ; big ones , like a great dane . +camera neg instead of this pick up a plextor convertor box . it takes the output of the camcorder ( composite / rca or s-video ) and compresses that to mpeg-2 ( dvd ) or mpeg-4 ( or divx ) and includes software which easily burns that to dvd or cd ( mpeg-1 or mini dvd ) . look for plextor 's m402u box . unless you really want to deal with 3.125 mb of data per second ( 25 mbps ) , or about 180 mb per minute , or about 11 gb per hour through the firewire link , get the m402u . your options will be greatly expanded , and you wo n't tell the difference by looking +camera pos this battery for my cannon camera is a great little " back up " battery . my camera came with a cannon battery and charging unit . the replacement cannon battery sells for over $40.00 so purchasing this cta battery at less than $10.00 is a very good choice . +music neg yo nu-mixx sux i hate when people make cd 's like this to make some money off of great artist like pac . this cd is disrespecting pac and nobody should get this if your a pac fan . they take great songs and make crappy beats . get this if you want to support pac haters or waste your money +camera pos not much to add to the other positive reviews posted , other than i am another user that loves my d50. have had it for a year now and shot over 10 , 000 photos with excellent results ( mostly landscape and wildlife ) . excellent image quality and the hand grip fits perfectly to both my hand and my husbands . the only con i can think of at this time is that there is no backlight on the top panel - this makes it difficult to adjust settings in low / no light situations . also , for people that are used to the little compact point & shoot cameras this might seem a little overwhelming at first and bulky to carry around ( which is why i have a little pocket camera for my purse ) . i also got the 18-200 lens and love it - perfect walk around lens +camera pos the beauty of this charger is that it is 110 / 220v compatable , so with the appropriate international connector you can charge your batteries on european voltage . i have used two of these with the plug adapters and have kept four sets of batteries charged overnight for two olympus cameras giving a day plus of batteries available for each . very few cheap us chargers offer this multi voltage compatability . lots cheaper than multiple voltage convertors . if you plan on traveling internationally , this charger is a must ! +camera neg boy , this is way too much to pay for a hood on this lens . it 's a great a lens , but this is hardly worth the price +music pos if you like vocalese , then this cd is for you . the song selection and performances are excellent . in my opinion , it stands up with the best lambert , hendricks , and ross stuff . it is clear that a lot of love and effort went into the making of this record . buy and enjoy +camera pos i bought this filter for my 28-135 is canon lens and so far it has worked out great . unlike some of the other tiffen filters i bought , this one fits just right on the lens . all sides are even and it sits flush against the lens . i have n't noticed any artifacts from pictures i 've taken yet , but i have n't really had much of a chance to take many pictures with the lens . the night shots i 've take so far , i 've been quite pleased with , however +camera neg well of course i read the previous reviews regarding amazon shipping the grey-market version of this timer and figured that certainly by now they were shipping a us version.. . wrong ! i just received mine today and it 's got the international warranty card and users manual . i have n't decided if i 'm going to return it or not but figured that anyone else considering ordering this item should be advised that it appears that amazon is only shipping the grey-market version of this unit +camera pos these binoculars provide a good tool for night time sky viewing . easier to carry than a telescope with the advantage of using both eyes . the tripod mount can be used with most any tripod with a standard screw mount . the 15 power makes hand holding a challenge but with practice they work great . +music pos okay bryce nickelback yells not screams big difference and wtf sum 41 your kiding right sum 41 does not scream at all and you say " i like music " well you dont know any thing about music and another thing you poser is that limp bizkit is not metal they rap so how can you say that they scream all the time...limp bizkit is the worst band out their they give a bad name to music itself and as for you dont write anymore reviews until you know more about music wich with the information i just got from you that will take a long tim +camera pos i 'm still learning to use this camera and all the features . so far it is amazing . i 've been taking pictures of the kids and it looks like a pro did the shots . i use the auto mode a lot and it works great . the zoom is amazing . i love that it tells me when i am focused . also it has great battery life . i 'm very happy with this camera +camera neg i bought this for my 9 year old son to take movies and edit on the pc . it worked for about 2 days before there was no image from the lens to either the lcd or the viewfinder . i could see other information on the lcd , such as the date , time , menu , but no image from the screen . i called samsung and that is where it is now for repairs . a check of the web indicated that this problem is well documented . i did try to install the software that came with the camera , but that did not go to well either . i will retry when i get a working camera again . +music neg usually jerry 's scores for movies are priceless , ( i.e. the other score for " legend " ) but rudy is a little bit too unoriginal and the feelings meant to be expressed seem much too " forced " for my taste.it 's ok as a weird sort of comedy album , i suppose , but from the main theme i was laughing because it 's meant to be such a serious experience-but is n't ! i think that only the biggest goldsmith efficianado could find joy in this cd . ( . +camera pos this is my first camcorder , so i do n't have much to compare it to , but i 've enjoyed it so far . it 's easy to use . the picture quality seems high . the only minor problem i 've found is with the headphone input . had to try three different sets of headphones before i could find one that would fit into the narrow slot where the headphone jack is +camera neg i bought this for my husband for valentine 's day , so he could have photos of our new baby boy handy . unfortunately , the images appeared for one day , and then the unit stopped working . we had to send the unit back . i was very disappointed as there were many good ratings on the item . +music pos this is the best cd i have ever listened to ! i highly recommend i +camera pos i purchased this at a photographic store because a professional said you should n't go higher than 1.4x . just keep in mind- -1.4x is only " 40% better " . it worked really well , but did n't increase the zoomage enough . i decided to go with a 2x ( that 's twice the zoomage ) teleconverter by kenko instead . i gave this one to my brother-in-law for christmas . you have to think about what you want- -i want to get in really close to the birds . i have a 70-300mm zoom lens and 1.4x takes it to 98-420mm . it is an improvement , but not nearly enough ! if you want to get twice as close , this is n't going to do it for you . if you want to get half-again-as close , this almost gets you there . as far as quality , the quality is definitely there . five stars for quality , 3 for insufficient zoomage +camera pos i have had my canon eos 30d for about a week and after 500 shutter actuations i am completely addicted to photography . i bought the 17-85mm canon lens and it takes phenomenal pics especially using the software and post-processing in raw . i also have a 70-300mm lens for sports / outdoors / nature and bursts of 5fps are a beautiful sound . i bought the camera through dell and with rebates currently this is the best deal out there ! strongly recommend . pay the extra $$$ and get this over the rebel xti . you wo n't be disappointed +camera neg i just got this printer dock with a camera , and the printer feature is a real pain ! the paper will almost never feed no matter what i 've tried . when it does feed , it ends up jamming . i only successfully printed one picture and tried 7 others and then the laminate was gone . i 'm very unhappy with it and will probably send it back +camera neg the charger unit or the batteries ( or both ) do n't work right : i use the batteries one at a time , in rotation to power my zen mp3 player . sometimes i put discharged batteries in the charger , plug it in , the light blinks red , then goes off . only supposed to show either red ( discharged , charging ) or green ( fully charged . ) this morning 3 batteries show fully charged , i take one out , it is discharged . all these problems happened with a first unit , i returned it to monster and after they took their sweet time , got a replacement which works just as erratically . monster 's stuff looks good , but it is the last time i am going to buy their brand +music pos this is an amazing , beautiful album . probably a little more difficult to get into than streethawk , but after about the 4th or 5th listen , i found it more rewarding . the music is very dense , and the lyrics are beautifully poetic ( it helps that dan bejar has chosen to include a lyric sheet in the cover this time ) . a great album for any fan of intelligent independent music +camera pos this item worked , allowed me to use printer and docking station from another kodak camera . would do it agai +music neg first they started out as nu-metal , then they moved onto metalcore , and now psuedo-death metal . it should be no surprise to the fools who listen to this garbage that they are clearly following trends , and after each trend dies , they just move on to another one . if my calculations are correct , expect a psuedo-black metal release . but , what about the musicians ? sure , they have a fast drummer...who likes to trigger alot , then they have two guitarists...who like to steal pantera riffs , and then they have the singer , who , well , sounds just like all the rest . atleast they dont have the dj anymore ( oh wait , they do , nevermind . ) enough of my rambling , how does this untalented group of posers fair up ? well , image if mushroomhead went metalcore . ' nuff said . avoid +camera pos it is simple , handy and works well to prevent shaking your camera . but i am still doubt if this simple accessory really deserves 50 bucks.. . this wired release would be the choice only if you are not a digital rebel user who has a more reasonable price option for the additional shutter button . +camera neg i found it on sale - luckily because it did not work . cute as the dickens and came with a great strap and the art program was fun for the kids - but no go on the camera . never able to get it to power up - yes fresh batteries too . we were very disappointed : +music neg although prince is an utter genious ! this cd is merely a boring contract filler . i suggest you buy one of his older albums or the new album " musicology " instead +music pos both the italian version ( io canto ) and the spanish version ( yo canto ) are excellent , and amongst the best albums that i have heard this past year . the music is absolutely beautiful , fresh , and very well paced , and laura 's voice is soaring ! the quality of this album is exceptional....the production of the songs lends to laura 's very passionate approach to them . without understanding a word of either version , i cannot get enough of them ! listening to laura on this latest release of hers over and over again , each song continues to grow on me and i find myself completely absorbed in this album ! do yourself a favor and get this one....especially if you live in the united states . it will give you an opportunity to experience the power of what music can be if done right . you 'll find yourself relating to words you do n't even understand ! +music neg flcl is the worst anime of all time , and possibly the worst thing to come out of japan since the pearl harbor attacks , and the soundtrack is just as bad , if not worse . its nothing more than j-pop mixed with bad japanese rock . bad guitar playing , boring drum beats , and inaudible bass ; you 've heard one pillows song , you 've heard them all . only " otakus " with no life love this s*** ( like matthew g . salisbury ) . if you want good japanese music , go for king 's evil . ps , that album cover is possibly the worst ever made +music pos together with ' the best of kool& ; the gang' ..... t h i s is the ultimate bit of funk that i 've found so far . the tracks may not always have a " song structure " ( and for me the women singers may be omitted. . ) - the funkiest bits in history are found here ! ! ! ! ! ! +music neg yes , she has a great voice , but this entire cd is so overproduced , so lifeless , so very boring that i had to force myself to listen to the entire thing - searching desperately for a track that measures up to the voice . she sounds as bored as i was on every song . i hope she wakes up soon before we all fall asleep +camera pos when it comes to buying camcorders , i personally like the one with the build in memory . but after using this camcorder i was forced to change my mind . unlike other sony camcorders , first of all , it offers upto 40x zoom which is a lot . its a good use of your money . you can have it for under $400 and still works better than a lot of choices out there . easy to use , touch screen , takes still photos , has a good speaker so it 's easier to record video and voice , fits into your palm so to speak , and if you use rewritable mini dvds , you would n't have to worry about go out of memory . so when it comes to sony camcorders , i would say the better quality of this one would get the job done properly . +camera pos i love my new canon a710. large lcd makes taking pictures easy to frame , color and sharpness is good all around and needing only 2 aa batteries is great . i no longer need to search and buy special camera batteries , i can go into any drug store . only draw back on this camera is the size of the memory card 16mb . for a few bucks more put in at least a 1gig . overall rating for a camera in this price range - above average +music neg wen i bouht dis cd i thought is waz my holmes on it but it was jus sum dude wid a big azz hoodie and hat . when i put dis in my playa it was broken the rappers , main peter , voice sounded liek a blender . dah turntables sound like my moms bong a bubblin damn nigga was my favorite track but that was n't on dis cd . i wish i had da real copy and not da malufunked up one . peace out dawg keep it real and stay won wid dah underdawgzz +camera neg if you can actually get the picture to turn out right , it does take pretty decent pictures . most of the time the photo is either over-exposed or too dark and grainy . it also only holds about 5 pictures , so you will have to buy a memory card if you want to really use this alot . i was a little disapointed with it due to the fact that it cost 40 dollars , and it does n't really seem worth it +music neg this entire cd & hbo special is stolen material . all this material was originally written & performed by bill hicks . buy hicks dvd " bill hicks live - satirist , social critic , stand-up comedian " if you want the material in its true form http : / / www.amazon.com / exec / obidos / tg / detail / - / b0004z33fk / qid=1130712550 / sr=1-1 / ref=sr_1_1 / 104-5459925-2315938 ? v=glance&s=dvd bill hicks was also paid tribute on tool 's aenima album +music neg shannon lawson is capable of a much better album . i saw him down in nashville when he was with the galoots , and it was amazing ! if they were to put out a cd i 'm sure it would be one of my favorites . shannon has a voice and a talent for bluegrass music and that 's what nashville should have let him do on his first solo cd . instead they gave it this generic , overproduced sound , leaving shannon sound like everyone else . with the way bluegrass is selling these days , it 's a shame that shannon could n't showcase his enormous talent in the proper arena. . +music pos this has to be one of the most beautiful cds ever recorded . damien 's vocal range is vast ; his musicianship excellent ; but it 's the crafting of songs at which he truly surpasses most artists . haunting , sensitive , flowing , crashing.. . ( if i have one criticism , it 's the mixing levels - at times , his vocals are drowned . in concert , when he lets rip , you really feel the power of his vocals / music , which , unfortunately , does n't come over quite as well on the album . ) a truly magical album . +music pos in the early 60 's etta james was to r& ; b what patsy cline was to country . she could cross over and yet remain true to her roots , and that 's only one part of a nearly 50 year career ! from the velvety cross over soul of " at last " to the hard driving memphis soul of " tell mama " , this is one legend who certainly deserves a wider audience than she has today . she ranks right up with aretha franklin as an influential vocalist . i took far too many years to discover her power . if you have n't given her a serious look yet , stop wasting time and begin here +camera pos i got this camera for my birthday present in january and i 'm extremely satisfied . i 'm very new to the entire " photography world " , however this camera makes it easy to get into . the camera is smaller than i expected , however it takes great pictures . i use it often for pictures while we are on trips . the picture quality is great , however screen quality is n't up-to-par with other brands . this is a great value and i really like it . my only complaint is that the easyshare software is bad . it 's slow , outdated , and does n't work well overall . i recommend getting a 1 gb sd card . i have 3 of them +camera neg i bought this camera in february , and after taking 6 shots the camera almost died , i could review the photos i had taken , but when switched the dial to take photos the camera turned out black either the lcd / efv , and only turned off when i removed batteries , i sent it to fuji repair center , and got it back again almost one month later . then six months later the camera did exactly same thing , i have n't received my camera back yet , but i 'm sure never will buy a fuji camera again and of course my camera will died again in the next months after i get from the repair center and at the end of the day i will have wasted almost 500 dlls +camera pos this is a very flexible and capable camera . if you are looking for more than a point & shoot will offer , there are very few that would compare . for me the deciding factor was the high quality lieca lens with wide angle , if you havent compared this directly with a conventianal lens you will be amazed at what youve been missing . the 16:9 is an ok feature if you plan on hdtv veiwing but the screen size is compromised when you switch to 4:3. i would prefer a larger screen and lose the 16:9 feature . the lens cap is a little annoying as well but those issues aside , i am very satisfied +music pos this cd was beautifully sung by the cambridge singers , a boys / mens choir , mostly a ' capela . it 's the first christmas cd i 've bought that really tempts me to crank up the volume so i can revel in every note +camera neg before that it was kind of nice , but it cannot focus in even semi-low light . it is definitely light and easy to take everywhere , but there are so many conditions where the results are disappointing . no way i would call the output hd quality , just the best sd ever with a 16 * 9 format . and then it broke +camera pos this uv filter produces high quality pictures at a fraction of the cost of many ather brands +music pos i usually do n't do album reviews but i gotta say this was tight from beginning to end and i was shook that this was given a low reading by a magazine i call " the sauce " so many of yall need to stop reading magazine ratings and come to sites likes this and read your own peers ratings . word of mouth is bliss . a-g-2-a-ke who came out on rap-a-lot has n't come out with a cd since this classic . i 'm salty they did n't " make it " because this was heavily slept on +camera neg overall this is a well-designed case which is custom fit for your panasonic lx1 or lx2 camera , but it has a few major flaws . first , there is no simple way to attach it to your belt . there is a belt loop on the back but it is so small and tight that it wo n't fit any belt more than 1 / 2 " wide . also , there are two zippers on this case , one on each side , which could potentially scratch your camera coming in or out of the pocket . finally , the velcro tab that closes the case is not particularly strong and can occassionally pop loose on its own . this might be a good case if you are going to keep it in your backpack or suitcase , but not for carrying around for everyday use . +camera neg i purchased this along with a sony dcrhc21. this carry case was listed as an accesory so i expected it to be appropriately sized ( as other sony cases i 've purchased fit like a glove ) . this case is entirely too large to hold a minidv camcorder . the camcorder rattles around inside it . if you have extra attachments and lenses maybe you might need this one . otherwise i suggest you look at the product specifications , note the dimensions and then look at your camcorder 's size . +camera neg hi , i have lost the cd rom to download the movie from the camera . sony does not offer it for free on its website . you have to pay $70 dollars to get it again . that clearly disappoints me . +music pos spice 1 's just different from every other rapper . and he 's awesome . if you love hardcore rap , you 'll love spice 1 +camera pos i got this cam as a gift and it is very nice and sleek and easy to use ! the pictures are nice and it is light and easy to have it with you everywhere +music neg this album is dull and without any emotion.the only reason this guy is even known is because of his backgroud +music neg i loved " come away with me " the first moment i heard it . i also had the opportunity to see norah and her wonderful band in concert ... the experience was absolutely fantastic ! i could n't have asked for a better ! so naturally i waited in eager anticipation for her new album " feels like home " which after only one listen made me feel narcoleptic . it was a good thing i did n't try and listen to it while driving . to be perfectly honest , i have n't listened to it since . she is so talented , i wish this effort had been as successful as the first , but not everyone hits a homerun each time at bat . but i still hold out hope that her next album will be better +music pos i would like to point out that mtv rocks is funny and you guys are suckers . this album does rule , just not as much as top40 radio hits +music neg great cd . imus in the morning recommended highly and the i-man was not wrong . one of the best cd 's i 've owned in years . i listen to a lot of buffett , james taylor , delbert mcclinton , and this cd places high in these ranks +music pos it realy has been a long wait after jellyfish . this roger joseph manning solo effort is as beautiful as music can get , giving wagonloads of goosebumps all the way . if you have a craving for the ultimate in sophisticate popmusic you should get this rare jewel . and do n't wait for the us release : it lacks one song from a perfect 11 like the japanese has . i sure would n't want to miss any of these tracks . very higly recommended ! +music neg this album bores me out of my mind . only two decent tracks : bad boys and bonnie and clyde . and i 'm no avid radio listener . bet and mtv actually hit the nail on the head with these tracks . so i guess they good for somethin +camera neg these glasses should not have the bushnell name on them , which misleads one to think they are good quality . i bought them for my son , and by the time i got around to sending them , i discovered that the plastic housing was cracked where the front lens screws in , so the lens was misaligned . it was past the 30-day return date , so i glued the crack and kept them for my own use . they are still not right , but i keep them in my car for occasional use . my advice - - spend some extra money and get a good pair . +music pos need to say more ? this is one of the most beautiful and honest records western popular music ever seen . she sings beauty , so lovely , as some fairy enchanting gnomes in a huge yet peaceful forest , away from the horrors of humanity . that alien feeling you 'll get it since its first five seconds and it will lasts till the end . druids of the world unite +camera pos i got a nikon laser rangefinder for chrisymas and it had an 8x magnification . i found this to be to powerful for golf.i could not hold it steady on the flag.the 6x magnification on the bushnell yardage pro scout was much better . also it is very compact and stores easily in my golf cart . the price from amazon was well below i could find anywhere else . +music pos this is a fabulous cd and exactly what i was looking for . i 'm also thrilled that it has an accompanying book with all the sheet music . i am leading a seder this year for a church group who has never heard any of the songs before , so i wanted the traditional melodies , easy to follow sheet music , and easy guitar chords . this is perfect ! i 'm so pleased +music neg this cd is pretty awful , you wonder why leona even got the chance to record a cd , one of the worst songs ever is calling , , it sounds like taunting from elementary school kids on the playground , na na na na , na na na na , i agree with the reviewer who said she is a very weak edie brickell sounding singer....... . +music neg with the caliber of musicians playing on this album , i expected a hard hitting original . instead we get re-arranged covers and lots of " filler " salsa . no surprises here . the classic salsa albums are worth your cash but if you are curious , you 'll play this one once +music pos sing of mary is a work of art ! the beauty of the music is only surpassed by the woman it praises...mary ! god bless this cd. . +camera pos this is my second digital camera . although it does so much more than my first , it is much easier to operate . i especially love the fact that i can video my grandson 's baseball game , and then convert individule frames to photos ( jpeg ) with great quality . i have a series of photos with him getting a hit . it looks great ! thanks for a great product . ralp +music neg i love running to the marine corps cadence cds . volumes 1 and 2 are very good . volume 3 sounds studio produced and more choral . when running vols 1 & 2 are better synched for continuous running . the transitions on vol 3 feel out of synch to me . others do n't seem to agree and i still run to this cd ; i 'd buy 1 and 2 first if you do n't have them +camera neg i was all set to purchase this bag but wanted to try it out first . i had great difficulty finding one locally but finally after many many phone calls i located one bag and asked the merchant to hold it till i could get there to try it out . firstly , the bag is nice but does n't hold as much as i thought . it still could have worked for my but for one thing : this bag is not designed for those with a , er.....womanly build . it was the most uncomfortable bag i have ever tried out and looked absolutely ridiculous on me . so glad i was able to take it for a test drive before purchasing online . just a word of warning to the ladies ; - +music neg i was so disappointed with this cd . at least 6 of the songs were recorded from very old albums....scratches and all ! they were so bad . i play two of the songs over and over...the only two i liked . when i read the other reviews and there was mention of leaving out some of the songs , i assumed that they meant doubles of the same song....i was wrong . i do n't know why they had to add the scratchy music..a filler ? i would quickly skip to another song...only to have to " skip " many times ! +camera pos the case with battery and filter is well worth thr price paid +camera pos this seemingly simple piece of molded plastic was recommended to me by a professional photographer . basically it 's the shape of an open box that slides firmly onto the flash . it is small and sturdy enough to stash in your camera bag without worrying about damage . when used the light disperses more evenly and is less harsh on the subject being photographed . the white box is for general use . also available are the green omni-bounce for florescent lighting and the gold omni-bounce for a warming effect . pros : inexpensive solution for better flash photography . a quality product that works . cons : non +camera neg i keep this frame on all day and night . the lcd backlight should last longer than 4 months but mine just burned out . the quality of the pictures are okay if viewed from a distance but the low res . is not good if viewing up close . there is no external power controls or a remote so turning this unit on and off is a drag . regular lcd backlights should last a few years even if it stays on all day and night . this one just lasted 4 months . so the image is almost non-existant now . in the glare , you can barely make out the image so it 's still there but with no backlight so good as dead . i would recommend a more expensive philips ones . my friend has had it for about two years and it 's still going . plus it 's higher res and and has more controls such as a timer function and also can play video clips , which this one ca n't +camera neg i wear glasses and press against the viewfinder as hard as i can to help keep the shot stable ( i shoot birds at 700mm ) . the first thing my friend and i did was to compare two identical lenses / cameras etc. - one with , one without , the extender . result : - the image appeared the same size , and the extender slightly blurred the image . in other words - completely useless +music pos this was 2pac 's last good album before he joined deathrow.he was a good rapper but never the best , he started too much beef with other rappers for no reason.he had alot of beef with east coast rappers like biggie , nas , jay-z and mobb deep , but he never opened his mouth about wu-tang because they would lyrically destroy him.this is one of the best albums from 95 right behind gza 's liquid swords and mobb deep 's the infamous +music neg presumably the label is trying to cater to mid-range fans who have a prince album or two but do n't want to buy them all and who want more than a single disc hits collection . the way this is laid out though is confusing at best : disc 1 seems to be for the mid-range fan and it makes sense that they would choose the single edits though some of those chosen are questionable . ( " my name is prince " ? his take on " nothing compares 2 u " when sinead o'connor 's is definitive ? ) disc 2 compiles 12 " mixes and remixes and similar rarities..i.e . for the diehard only who has to have every little bleat his purpleness every records . bottom line : this is haphazardly thrown together . middle range fans are better off with the hits / the b-sides which compiles his biggest chart stuff with a pretty decent selection of interesting flip side material ( some of which equals his singles ) +camera pos very easy to use , multiple languages , something nice and easy for even unexperienced users . recommend to anybody buy it , it 's worth it . and the price is right for the features and mp . i would not hesitate to pay more for this camera . kodak has done wonderful job with this on +music pos ok ( i imagine there 's still drool over my " earlier " review...and my wife is none too pleased either.. . ) truth or dare time ! i bought this cd out of none-too-scientifical curiousity , that , and " let me blow ya mind " - and guess what ? i 'm beginnin ' to dig the entire cd . as i mentioned , 99 & 44 / 100th% of " rap music " fully explains to me what gregg allman meant when he sang , " it 's not my cross to bear . " ok , that being said , eve pulls no punches ( although the " skits " on the thing about wet myself laughing ) , and she 's not a lady whom 'd i 'd like to cross . but " i bought the ticket , so i 'm gonna take th ' ride . " and enjoy myself mightily while doing so. . +camera neg was dropped onece and it broke . computer doe n't recongise software with windows xp . kids were disappointed they could n't see there pictures . called the company and they were no help +music neg i forgot how bad this album was until i popped it into my cd player the other day . it seems like every song has one or two parts that are totally killer , followed by 3-4 minutes of boredom . the song " epic problem " is good throughout , and full disclosure is excellent except for the horrible screamed verses . strangelight is awesome too , and not very typical of fugazi . the kill is also good in the same way , it 's very chilled out . past these few standout tracks ( which would n't be standouts at all on any other album of theirs ) there is n't much reason to listen to the album . it 's incredibly boring . i suggest picking up any other fugazi album first , maybe 13 songs , red medicine or in on the kill taker +camera neg this product link needs to be corrected , as the battery contained in the kit is not the same battery which is used in the dcr-dvd7. do not purchase this accesory kit if you intend to use it for the dcr-dvd7 camera . +camera pos the case is protective and stylish without hindering the camera 's ability to store and transport easily . it 's definately worth the dough to keep your nikon s1 or s2 from scratching or even breaking from a minor fall +camera pos -this camara picture quality is nice , and depend on user purpose . my gf is kinda satify with it . -function is easy to use . -battery life is so so . -battery charger design is not convenience . you have the put the battery into the batter charger . recommand to get a cradle charger , but extra cost . it should sell with cradle charger . +camera neg i would agree with the other review . the indoor / low light quality of the video is unacceptable . i will be returning the camcorder today to purchase another +music neg i do n't even own this cd , and after seeing the reviews i do n't want it . 90% of the " 5 star " reviews are people with only one review . suspicious ? ? look for yourself , it 's right there to see . i have some other meditation cds that are very repetitive , i 'm not going to make the same mistake here , especially with such shameless self-promotion +camera neg to customer before me , you camera d200 might be on recall . please check the nikon website for more info . you have described the exact recall problem . good luck ! btw , have you tried or someone tried this battery on a d70 ? i am thinking to consolidate and have all greys batteries rather than black for the d70 and grays from the d200. +music pos brubeck and desmond work their special magic here and produce their finest live recording . this is sophisticated improv to tame the beast . i have listened to these tracks uncountable times and i never get tired of them . this is truely a wistful soundtrack to transport one to a higher realm . try this the next time you are caught in heavy traffic on a rainy afternoon . you wo n't mind the delay . it never fails +music neg ( ... ) this cd is sub-par . most of the beats are cool , but they 're overlayed with too many cheesy lyrics +music neg " modern " usually sounds like some outdated mid-80s new wave album by the cars , flock of seagulls , or somesuch . it is not a punk record , mostly midtempo pop . the three songs diggle wrote and sings on are basically awful ; shelley 's are considerably better - the usual wry lyrics and great hooks . i would say about 3 or 4 of the tunes are topnotch buzzcocks stuff ; newbies should buy " operator 's manual " or " going steady . " or dig up the amazing " different kind of tension " from a used record store somewhere ! also , see them live if you have a chance +music pos good cd , but where is his recent hit " i wanna feel that way again " and his classic hit " walkin ' to jeruselum " +music neg might just be me- -but this is one of those cd 's that the song they play on the radio is the only decent one . maybe i 'm too old for the rest- -but wish i had kept the crystal so i could sell it on ebay +music neg boston have to be one of the worst bands ever ! ! the singer screams and they made some of the lousiest songs like rock n roll band , and the horrible more than a feeling . they would not hold a candle to smart bands like metallica who rock ! i just got metallica 's 4th lp today . get and justice for all by metallica insted +camera pos it is rated for 5 meters but i took it to 9 and there were no sings of moisture or a single drop . the antifogging solution provided works for more than an hour . the microphone records sound well . i have a high def cam and the s.pack did not decrease image quality inside or outside the water . in the specs it is stated that its buoyancy is positive , and by experience i recomend to buy a weight for it to avoid the camera going up in the water while you push and push down - even more snorkeling . there are special weights that are mounted to the enclosure using the trypod whole . i would say a 14-18 onz it fine . it is a great item +music neg is it really necessary to take minute-long solos in every song ? really ? if you like your solos long-winded and lacking in destination , and your lyrics trite ( get a job ? ? ? ) , check these guys out . if you actually plan on listening to the music you buy , skip it +camera neg there is a serious design flaw with this camera and it is even acknowledged on the faq section of the sony website . " if there are dust particles floating in the air , they can be illuminated by the strong light of the flash and sometimes appear in a recorded image as white , round glare spots . this symptom tends to occur in low-light environments when using a compact digital camera due to the close proximity of the flash to the lens assembly . however , this is not a malfunction . " read : your low-light pictures will have spots all over them ! sony does not think this is a problem . it is a design flaw . if you are only going to use this camera in full sun , then it is fantastic but seriously , there are many other cameras out there that do a much better job ! +music neg i was first introduced to the symphonic power metallers formerly known as rhapsody ( name changed due to copyright issues ) on their 2006 live album live in canada . i have to say that i am just not that impressed or entertained by their latest studio effort . the group tends to rely more or the theatrical elements rather than focusing on their metal music . the vocals tend to be oversung , or drowned out by the chaos in the background . rather than enhancing your metal experience with musical theatrical elements , rhapsody of fire puts you to sleep with them . the group does stay true to their fantasy themes however +camera neg i got to get it off my chest . this camera takes great photos and they print out wonderful . but , the camera has several down sides : 1. as all have said , it eats batteries big time . this is a pain . 2. it recharges slow between flash and between non flash . forget about catching a great spontaneous moment . 3. not durable . i dropped mine out of the case from below waist hight and it does nto work at all . i am sure by the time i send it in and pay for shipping and repair i can buy a new one that is cheaper and more reliable . any suggestions ? ? ? +camera neg i got it just today and used it for cleaning my lens . the solution might be useful , the blower is useful , the swabs can be useful with their pointed tips , but the so called " magic cloth " is anything but magic . it kept leaving lint on my lens +music pos my son loves music and really likes dan zanes . we started with the videos on disney and the " catch that train " song really got us singing , so we ordered this cd . now my son sings along with it , dances and jumps around . dan zanes really is fun for the family +camera pos i purchased this case for my canon a530 camera . i find that it does a great job of being light , durable , and compact . it keeps the camera clean and scratch free . however i wish the case had a better carrying capacity . i would have liked a bit more space for spare batteries and chips . i use different ones for different pictures or video . batteries do tend to give out after a long day shooting and convient extras would be handy . the case has beltloops but not a good shoulder strap for times when a belt is not worn . that can be a bit akward . otherwise this case is a good protector of my camera and fits it well . +camera neg you have this camera case listed under accessories for the panasonic dmc fa20pp lumix camera . the camera does not come close to fitting in this case . the camera is 1 1 / 2 inches wider than the case . +camera neg beware of assuming that the uv filter recommended by amazon for a particular camera with a fixed lense size that i purchased is the correct size . it was n't even close . no size was given for the lense diameter . i returned the filter for a full refund minus my shipping & all the hassel of packaging it +camera pos i owned this lens for about a year before upgrading to the image stabilized f / 2.8 version . overall i was very happy with the f / 4 lens and miss having it available because of the significantly lower weight . sharpness is amazing and comparable for both lenses , and the f / 4 can provide plenty of background blur . if you are shooting mostly outdoors i would recommend the f / 4. +music neg this album is disgusting . no musical talent . this people are the farthest thing from musicians . if you enjoy overproduced music , and a rip off of fellow label mates fob and p ! atd - buy this . it is boring and it is a weak attempt at a record . shaant ca n't sing either . go back to buffalo +camera neg i measured 7 batteries out of the pack of 20 with la crosse charger , which i also bought from amazon . the capacity ranged from 547 mah to 2002 mah , with the average being 886 mah . that 's about a third of the stated capacity . before i took the measurements , i made sure the charger works properly by testing it with two different brands of aa nimh batteries : la crosse and energizer . both scored very close to their stated capacity . therefore , the test is valid and sunpak 's claim of 2650 mah is grossly overstated . my advice : avoid sunpak like the plague ! +camera pos third camera from kodak easyshare . great performance and pics . slendor size +camera pos i decided i wanted this a while before i got it . as i read reveiws i realized majority of them were postive . there is nothing wrong with it , the microphone works really good but you can not watch your videos with sound on the camera . it can take around 300 some pictures and about 60 minutes of video on super sine mode , where it uses the most megapixels . it is definetly something i would recommend for anyone +music pos i absolutely loved the string music on track 3. i remembered it from an old pc rpg called quest for glory iv . i was disappointed to find out that track 4 was only a minute and a half long , because i grew up loving that song from the various places i heard it ( fantasia and a kid detective pc game from the late 80 's ) . overall , though , grieg 's greatest hits is a must-have for collectors of classical music . grieg is revered as norway 's greatest composer of all time and he certainly has a knack for creating imagery of bustling fjords and majestic mountainsides with interlaced river ravines . +music pos i ca n't say enough how great this album is . grant green was one of the most soulful jazz guitarists who ever graced the planet . his soloing on this cd is filled with beautiful melodicism matched with a bluesy grit that is such a pleasure to listen to . and for me as a guitarist it has been an encyclopedia of how to play blues from a jazz perspective . my favorites are " miss ann 's tempo " and " blues for willarene " . it is such a shame that he died so young and never collected his just due +camera pos great seller ! shipping was very fast ! this battery out does the oem one that came with the camera.. . very happy ! thank +camera neg i bought a jvc mini dv just over a year ago . it now does not work . of course , the warranty has now expired and i am out of luck . spent $400 on this model . i do not recommend jvc . +music pos miss saigon is my favorite all-time musical ! i was hesitant when buying this recording because in my mind lea salonga is and always will be kim ! but i was pleasantly surprised . joanna ampil as kim holds her own . while she does n't have the vocal range of lea , she has a beautiful , crisp voice which she uses to emote the emotional turmoil of kim . she expresses herself in a way that makes you feel her love , pain and anguish and in turn she makes this part her own . the rest of the cast is superb ( especially the amazing ruthie henshall as ellen ) but make no mistake , this show belongs to ampil ! i also fell in love with some of the material left out of the lcr . there a beautiful bridges and songs which enrich the story . " back in town " stands out for me because of the gorgeous melodies . anyone who has fallen in love with the story of " miss saigon " will appreciate these added gems ! this cast recording is definitely worth a listen ! +camera neg pictures do not come out very good . poor quality ! i would not recommend it +music pos we are using this series of cds in our homeschool music program - they are fantastic ! we especially love this one about bach - what an awesome man ! the story of his life is told in a way that is very interesting and holds the children 's attention while also using various pieces of his music in the narration . it is done very well ! my children are gaining a tremendous amount of knowlege and appreciation for music through this cd and so are my husband and i +camera neg i thought i was ordering the right size batteries , but i found out too late this was not the case . now i am unable to get full credit for them when i return them +music pos considering how much bad music is out there these days , this was nice to come across . covers a wide range of topics and moods , musicianship is pretty good . i 'd recommend it to just about anyone . my tastes are usually heavier and more progressive - rush , dream theater , iron maiden , queensryche . but i like this disc too +camera neg it got to me and upon my sons birthday and opening it ( a month or so later ) it worked for about an hour and since has not registered speed correctly . a huge disappointment and waste of my money +camera neg i only wish i could return this camera . its automatic focus does not work well in photographing landscape scenes and plants ( what i do most ) and its manual focus is difficult ( very difficult ) to use . my much cheaper , and lower resolution , old minolta does a much better job in low light conditions . i find i have to delete half my photographs due to bad focus . in addition , photo files take 5 to 6 seconds to save to my so-called high-speed memory card . do n't buy this camera +music pos for those of us who thought phil collins was to be lost in the mass pop culture , think again.. . that was back in the early 80s when i heard this. . it is mastery distille +camera pos this camera works well , except that the shutter speed is a bit slow . the image quality is decent . the use of aa rechargeable batteries is also convenient . the camera is pretty sturdy . i 've dropped it a few times and it still works fine +camera neg straight out of the box disappointment with the extremely poor quality . plug into wall and does not work . after trying numerous different outlets / wiggles of the cord , it finally powered on . after putting in a card , the pics were ok , passable . the mp3 popped and moaned and popped some more , and i was only playing very quiet jazz . this is not worth the money even though it is cheap . pay a little more and get one that is of better quality +music pos if you want some classical music to sleep to , do n't buy this cd . if you want some high energy symphonies , however , i highly recommend it . from bach to vivaldi , the pure energy of this cd will give you a new understanding of the joys of classical music . just do n't listen to track 25 , because i have no idea why john philip sousa is included with tchaichovsky +camera pos this is the perfect camera for me . i take alot of close-up detail shots and the images come out great . it is smaller than my old g3 ( which i loved , but was pretty chunky ) +music pos metheny 's an innovator and has been all over the map over his long career in terms of styles , moods , textures , and sounds . here we have an early effort in which he takes his guitar and overdubs an introspective , wide-open-spaces musical journey across america , weaving in jazz , folk , country , rock , mountain music , and everything in between . if you love his work on joni mitchell 's amelia ( performed live on shadows and light ) , you 'll love the sound of this record . the mood is mellow but not dull , quiet but not silent , and the results are spectacular . this is the cd to take with you on a trip across the western frontier , or a short hop to burger king . works either way +music neg this band is getting alot of critical acclaim right now , but i 'm just not feeling it . the single " wolf like me " is the only song that stands out to me on the whole album . it is a great song , but everything else is just blah . i think the band could use a different singer , the guy they got does n't sing very well or very " soulful " . the music is good , very original and the only reason i have n't sold the cd yet . i really think ppl need to hear this one for themselves before they buy . do n't be fooled by these 5 star reviews . just listen to the cd before you buy it . that 's my advice +camera pos i 've used all types of film thoughout my photography days and by far kodaks treated me the best . if your out to capture rich , vibrant colors this is the film for you . so far i 've shot 4 rolls of it and i 'm amazed at how much the colors stand out . its definatly the film i 'll be using +music pos anybody know the name of the song played at the very end of the movie , when the brother and the sister are saying goodbye to each other , when she is crying and asking him what he is going to do with his life ? right before he enters the bus.. . i would love to listen to it again but i ca n't find it anywhere. . +music neg after discovering and loving the sound of gotan project i was shopping around for groups with a similar sound . i stumbled along emigrante and upon reading the other reviews written on this site about this cd , i thought i had found another gem . boy was i wrong . the first track drew me in and left me spellbound , unfortunately , it was all downhill after that . i was listening to the cd for the first time in my car and forgot it was even on . the rest of the songs were so uninspiring , the music soon became nothing more than meaningless background noise +camera pos i was n't sure if it would be worth spending the money on this case . how wrong i was . if you 're into diving and have one of these cameras , buy it now +camera pos fast delivery , great price . i would buy from them again , thanks = +camera pos i use this little gadget mainly for macro and portrait work . when you have it on the light emitting from the flash is diffused which gives you a more flattering less contrasty light to illuminate your subjects with . unless you are going for a very shadowy , high-contrast , image this diffuser can save the day . it is very light weight and easy to pack in small places , so you should never have a good reason to leave it behind . sometimes it is the simple things that make the biggest difference in a photo , and using this can defiantly make very noticeable differences +music neg the 1 star is for this 5 star cd box set being no longer available . does anyone know why or if it will be reissued soon ? i have the highlights cd and the " live at the plugged nickel " double lp - but not being able to buy this is disappointing and puzzling . thank you in advance for any help . scott k fis +camera neg wow.. . now if you really want to see a rip-off , here it is . not to be damaging to amazon.com but hey for the 50mm just get some carboard and tape it to the front to shield it from the sun . the hood is definitely not worth it +music neg i was disappointed with the album as a whole . when i heard the song " drink to me babe , then " , i thought it was great and sounded like the shins . the rest of the album was boring lyrically +camera pos this is the same charger came with my digital rebel , however , i like to charge two batteries at a time . so , i bought a second charger and place them side by side on the power strip . the prongs for the outlet fold over and into the back of the charger making the charger very compact , flat and easy to take along with you . it 's nice having a charger without long cords to fuss with . +camera pos this can be used in lieu of a replacement battery . plus if an electrical outlet is convienent , like when shooting inside , you never have to worry about running out of power . also handy if you are mobile and have a auto dc / ac converter . but not as overall convienent as an extra battery . i thought it would also trickle recharge the battery , but it doesn't . nikon should add this feature in +camera neg i was so dissapointed with this camera ! i purchased a sony cybershot 3 years ago and , it had been such a great camera , i automatically thought this newer model would be great . almost every picture i took was either blurry or the light areas of the picture were blown out ! as an experienced cybershot user , i tried all settings to fix the problem , but no luck . terrible for capturing a child 's first steps , as the description says . would not recommend +camera pos this was a great addition to the " photography basket " i made my grandson for easter +music pos i picked this up in a bootleg store in korea a few years back , since it was cheap , and i had loved the movie ( perhaps more so than any other of mallicks 's others , even - speaking of which , if you get a chance to see badlands on the big screen , do yourself a huge favour and do so ) . as i recall , i did n't really enjoy it on first listen . but then , somehow , i got sucked in . almost as much as the film itself , this is a hypnotic , haunting slice of poetry . nothing happens for about a minute , and then it builds and builds . unforgettable , otherwordly and quite beguiling . the structure of the soundtrack ( especially the songs toward the end featuring polynesian gospel-style singing ) is strongly reminiscent of the mike oldfield cd , ' songs of distant earth' . highly recommended , but do give it a couple of listens , because it might take a while to make its charms felt +music neg having listened to steven 's previous albums , greetings from michigan and seven swans countless times , i cannot help but to notice the amount of regurgitation on this album . stevens blatantly rips off his own music . i consider michigan to be sufjan 's masterpiece . do yourself a favor and start there +music neg too lisa loeb for me . sorry . maybe if someone else wrote her lyrics +camera neg i just got this camera a week ago and thought it was great . but today i tried to turn it on and it 's completely dead ! i even changed out the batteries and it 's still completely dead . this is the first digital camera i 've had and i bought it because i 'm going to europe ( two days after it died ) . now i have to scramble to get a replacement before i take off . grrrrr ! ! +music neg great fan of the man they call ' sugar ' zucchero , but this outing is really below par . this cd consists of rerecordings of older songs , with the addition of other famous singers . did he send the original recordings to these people , en did they ad little pieces here and there ? it sounds like it ! none of the songs have gotten ' better compared to the originals . to me this cd is a total rip off intended to make easy money ( and get more attention for ' sugar ' outside of italy ? ) . do n't buy it , get ' oro ' , ' shake ' or ' blue sugar ' instead +music pos a great sampling of one of top 10 musicians from the 20th century +music pos i personally like this compilation of prince , it 's got most of the songs i like and the sound is great . sure , there could have been a few more songs included , like " pop life " , " hot thing " , but when compared to the other compilations , this disc has more of the songs that are a must-have , for me , such as " i wanna be your lover " , which i do n't think was included on any of the other compilations . so , it 's just a matter of weighing what songs you most want , so that 's why i chose this disc and i 'm glad i did ! +camera pos the quality is definitely great . when attached to the s3 is , it makes your camera look serious about taking good shots . if you are attaching the hood and doing flash photography , i suggest you use a slave flash to eliminate the shadow caused by the hood +music pos this is such an good industrial album , that i was sitting and listening to it and all the adjectives that i wanted to use seemed not good enough . however , if i have to put one then it has to be these , brilliant , astounding , stupendous and awesome . this is probably one of the best industrial albums of all time . the first track is good and then it just gets better and better . in fact the first track is not as good as the other ones and could have been replaced with another track . the book-let is ok but the lyrics are missing , but still it is an important release since it showed that inudtrial bands are tallented muisicians and can sing . minphaser , life line , guna are some of the best made industrial tracks ever with the intricate layers of sounds , bets and samples . the keyboard sounds are constantly amazing and this is an album not to be missed if one likes industrial music +music neg nelly could make the wort rapper sound like a lyricyst , and how dare him to diss krs-one , he just said the truth and he really did not diss him on number 1 , he just added to why he sucks . lets face it , all his songs are basically dumb and and really don , t have much texture involved . and how funny is it that his friends really have no skill and they are all over this album it is just laughable . if you buy this album , you throw away good money . unless you like bubblegum rap . this is more for a teen white girl who wants to be cool , but lets face it , its played out +camera pos easy to use , including zoom and uploading to computer . nice clear photos when printed out +camera neg this is the worst camera i 've ever owned . i 'm not exaggerating . i 'm so upset for wasting money on it . the only pictures that turn out , are outside in bright daylight . it takes horrible pictures in low light , there 's a high level of noise in the photos . the video mode moves in and out on its own , ruining the video . i sometimes get colored lines down the right side of the videos . my friend 's $88 dollar digital camera takes way better pictures than this thing . it just plain sucks . +camera neg these glasses should not have the bushnell name on them , which misleads one to think they are good quality . i bought them for my son , and by the time i got around to sending them , i discovered that the plastic housing was cracked where the front lens screws in , so the lens was misaligned . it was past the 30-day return date , so i glued the crack and kept them for my own use . they are still not right , but i keep them in my car for occasional use . my advice - - spend some extra money and get a good pair . +music neg i 'm a hardcore lynch fan and find this album a big dissapointment . i like his older season of da sicc style nott this new stuff . in one song they 're talking about louie vitton , thats not the lynch i kno +music pos i saw her perform most of these songs on austin city limits . i must admit i had n't paid much attention to her since her debut album , back when i was playing in country bands . much of this material is kinda introspective , but hey , on the plus side you get great vocals , well crafted songs , tons of sincerity and just flat out integrity from this great artist who does n't have to pretend she is anything she isn't . and these days , that is pretty refreshing ! i think i am becoming a fan +music pos what makes a voice distinctive and memorable ? nat ( king ) cole i believe had the smoothest voice of any male singer . clarity and a sureness in phrasing was also gifts of his . aside from ' unforgettable ' the songs i best remember are ' mona lisa ' and ' nature boy' . but this recording also includes originals of the ' nat king cole trio' . it also includes the famous duet put together of ' unforgettable ' from his early version and his daughter natalie cole 's recording made after he had passed on . that particular recording was a ' knockout ' sentimental and beautiful . +camera pos this thing is great i just got it for a trip to seattle from hawaii . ( i know opposite ) but i was afraid when i had this default battery that came with my canon zr 500. ( which only last 45 min . ) but this one last at least 3 hours i love it . best buy for my camera so far , completely worth the $$$$ +camera neg i bought these binoculars because i wanted a medium size pair to use primarily for birding . first time out , i had difficulty getting a clear focus . to make maters worse , every bird that i looked at had a halo of red chromatic aberration around it 's head . i have a pair of nikon 10x25s which out performed the bushnell 's hands down in terms of both clarity and sharpness . i am returning the bushnell 's and considering the audubon equinox hp binoculars instead . +music neg although a few of the tracks seem inspired , it 's mainly mulligan going through the motions with getz , with very little chemistry between them . " anything goes " and " scrapple from the apple " are nice enough but beyond that it 's weak . mulligan himself did n't speak very highly of the recording session , saying that he enjoyed his other dates with desmond , webster , and hodges , but mentioning that " granz wanted that session a lot more than i did . " of course , it would be quite out of the ordinary to hear anything but negative remarks about stan getz and his sparkling personality . save your money and go buy the 2-disk reissue of " meets ben webster " . or , if you do n't have it already , the seminal pacific recordings with chet baker +music neg i think ms hewitt misses the mark , yes for an actress turned singer she 's ok and its more her acting clout that has landed her this record deal and not her talent as a singer.. . would someone off the street with the same looks and musical level get a record deal ? i think not.. . same goes for the other latin jennifer. . +camera neg here 's the good news : i have had many cameras in my life , digital and film , and i have found the z1 to be my favorite . the camera is very user friendly and the pictures are sharp with great color . my previous camera was a minolta dimage 7 ( $800 ) and i found that this camera 's photo quality was just as good . the best feature of the camera is the fact that it is sturdy and compact enough to carry with you daily . owning this camera made taking pictures a daily part of my life . here 's the bad news : recently my camera broke and when i tried to contact fuji to get a replacement or a repair , the service was terrible . their website is very difficult to navigate and offers very little support . summary : great camera as long as it does n't break . it 's easier to pay someone to fix it than actually get fuji to repair it +music pos i remember hearing of this band when i was just a lad , but i never owned any of their albums , and none of my closest friends played this for me , so this is a great discovery for me . i 'm only on my second listen , but it 's already obvious to me that this is going to become a favorite . it 's from my favorite rock period , the early seventies , and it 's not only nicely remastered , it 's also remixed , meaning they went back to the original multi-tracks , not the stereo master . i wish more reissues were done this way +camera pos this kit is a must have for any of the compatible canon cameras . digital camera rule #1 : always carry a spare battery - the kit is almost worth it for that alone . the leather case is great : stylish looks that provides a tough protective armor in case you drop the camera . the neck strap is quite strong and looks good too . it may not be everyone 's cup of tea but i like it . it comes in handy when i need quick access to the camera and do n't want to fumble through pockets or bags +music neg ignore the unique cover , clever song idea ( there is 30 ) which represent a comic book . ignore all that . it simply is not good . what is this ? i dont even know how to describe this music . it 's not even songs , but more a bunch of really short experimental , non-sensequel , inerworkings of annoyance . they will start off with a riff as if they are going on to a song , but its only a tease , until they stop and go slow , to say , " get on with it ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " add a bunch of zany sound effects , not to mention the recurring anoyance of a high pitched voice ringing out , sci-fi clips and completly hoarse vocals that are screams , and sounds , that add up , to one of the most pointless albums ever put out +music pos i do n't like this album as much as their earlier stuff . i have liked each release less than the previous , and this one falls right in line with that trend . the opener " quality revenge . . . " is one of their best songs hands down , though . this is a very good cd , but the farther from braid we get in time the less i seem to like their music +music pos this is the first cd i 've bought in the liquid mind series , but after hearing this one , i 'll buy more . the music is calming and soothing ; great to fall asleep by which i often do . it lulls you into a peaceful state of relaxation , letting your mind drift away from the cares of the day . it makes me think of floating on a cloud . i would highly recommend this cd for anyone with a busy , stressed-out life . +camera neg bought this camera for my wife . takes good pictures but handle this camera with extreme caution . if you drop it be prepared for a large repair bill . fuji customer relations is sub-par . warranty does not cover any impact internal damage . i 've had better luck with nikon and kodak and will steer clear of fuji in the future +music pos all i want to know is when is the next album going to be released ? i ca n't wait ! this album is fantastic +music neg this is not , i repeat not five stars ! in all honesty it 's more like 1.5 or 2 stars and i 'm a big fan of slug & atmosphere.albums like overcast , godlovesugly , the felt project , and the dynospectrum album is much better than this.though the lyrics are thought provoking , but slug has been better , the production does n't hold up.it 's some of the weakest i 've heard from rhymesayers.there 's only a couple tracks that stand out , but i 'd have to say " do n't ever f**king question that " is the best.if you wanna hear slug at his best check out the dynospectrum album.slug spits classic verse after classic verse +camera neg ordered two frames from the third party source . neither on of them worked at all . it has been a nightmare trying to return them for a refund +music neg bought this cd based upon the reviews and the fact that they were recommended with some other albums i like , and man , what a mistake . this cd borders on unlistenable , with no discernable melody / talent to be found . i 'm hardly some ignorant pop-music lover...i consider " blueberry boat " to be one of my favorite records - but this is just horrible +camera neg i do n't know what case others got , some have said " too tight " but mine was very loose . the camera is swimming around in the case , easily half a centimeter of clearance . not recommended . just buy the battery and wait for someone to make a good aftermarket case . +music neg this is the perfect cd for taking a nap to . it 's mostly full of slow pop and rock . if you 're a fan of this type of music , i recommend this cd , but if not , do n't buy it . there are only a few good tracks . all star , bad reputation , i 'm a believer , stay home . and i do n't enjoy buying a cd that only 1 / 3 of it is good . so , i would n't buy it , if i were you . +camera neg there is a serious design flaw with this camera and it is even acknowledged on the faq section of the sony website . " if there are dust particles floating in the air , they can be illuminated by the strong light of the flash and sometimes appear in a recorded image as white , round glare spots . this symptom tends to occur in low-light environments when using a compact digital camera due to the close proximity of the flash to the lens assembly . however , this is not a malfunction . " read : your low-light pictures will have spots all over them ! sony does not think this is a problem . it is a design flaw . if you are only going to use this camera in full sun , then it is fantastic but seriously , there are many other cameras out there that do a much better job ! +music neg this is the perfect example of why black women and women in general are disrespected . lil kim is teaching generations of women to be nasty as you can be and to disrespect yourself . then to top all of this off she is still hanging on the coat tails of biggie , the ultra fantasy gangsta rapper . queen latifah never had to talk like this to get her name out or to make good music . this is ridiculous ! kim would be better off in a porn movie than in the rap game . please please please spare us and stop rapping +camera pos what a great little accessory for my camera . could have used it in seattle last month , boy did it rain +camera neg you have listed this battery as an accessory to the camera and now that i have purchased it i discover that this battery does n't fit this camera . it is listed wrong +camera pos this is a neat idea . you do have to have close up pictures to really be able to see them in the small screen . it was very easy to load the pictures and it is very handy to have with me to show others our most recent pictures +camera neg i just got this camera a week ago and thought it was great . but today i tried to turn it on and it 's completely dead ! i even changed out the batteries and it 's still completely dead . this is the first digital camera i 've had and i bought it because i 'm going to europe ( two days after it died ) . now i have to scramble to get a replacement before i take off . grrrrr ! ! +camera pos i do n't like pink so i bought the blue bag . i had bought a black one , but it was so skimpy i returned it and prayed until this one arrived . i had no trouble with amazon crediting me for the return , either . it was so cute ! i 'm too old for " cute , " but i kept it because i needed a case for my new hp r717. it is small , yet padded enough to trust that your camera will be cushioned if you drop it . i have dropped my camera and it was not injured . it has a little pouch inside to store an extra battery for my camera , not the big aa batteries , but the flat type that come with my r717. i recommend this little bag , or the pink one , even if you do n't like pink...or blue . they are well cushioned and snug , but not too snug you think they will tear . the are sturdy and have nice shoulder straps and magnet closures +camera pos bought these batteries & charger just before going on an overseas trip . i did n't want to be bothered with frequently changing aa batteries , which seemed to last only a day or so of heavy use . i was quite pleased with the performance of these rechargeables . they lasted several days of heavy use before needing to be charged and they re-charged in only a few hours . a big bonus that i did n't expect : the recharger is compatible with european 240 voltage so i did n't have to use an electric converter ! +music neg the quality of this cd recording sounds like someone tapped it in their garage and burned it to cd with thier personal pc . very bad recording . it 's too bad because lathleen madigan is very witty and funny . +music neg the cat carol is the most depressing christmas song i have ever heard . not to ruin the ending for you but the cat dies ! did n't exactly put me in the holiday spirit +camera neg this frame is just ok you have to resize all your pictures and the quality is not good at all you are just better off paying the extra $75 and getting the phillip +camera pos as a novice astronomer i really enjoy the sharp , steady view with these binoculars . the view is fairly steady even with the i.s. off - depending how stable you are of course . my binoculars cost more than my telescope ! ! and my telescope is a decent one too . but i think they are worth it . you see so much more in the night sky than what the naked eye can see - by far . they are of course great during the day too . their weight is not much of an issue for me , although each person is different depending on their viewing habits . i think a hard carry case would have been the best but it 's not a big deal for my use . i recommend this pair of binoculars to anyone who is serious about great quality and performance +music neg the second cd was scratched and hence i cannot play it . i would appreciate it if you would send me another one and also include the information needed to return the damaged one sent to me . thanks . jeann +music pos the band is excellent and this album is just shy of the high quality of the first . however , the encroachment of our free use rights as legal consumers by the major record companies will not stop until they see a negative financial impact from pushing these copy crippled products . do n't support these products +music neg carter burwell 's soundtrack music to " rob roy " was an early sign that he was not just getting it right . the score is all wrong but so is the movie . this movie needed an uplifting score . carter burwell could not deliver it +camera pos i got this bag for a samsung digimax i got for a friend , and is a very nice , and usefull bag , she can put there , the camera , her cell phone , replacement batteries , memory stick and some keys : +music pos i just want to say that this record blows my mind ! only the japanese could come up with this musical hybrid that defies definition . only miss minekawa could inject such beautiful innocence into this thrilling aural rollercoaster of breaks , samples , and guitars . cornelius and dj me dj you are brilliant +camera neg after just over a year , my lens jammed and the display read " e18 " . so i was pretty upset to discover that this is an extremely common defect - and a defect that canon refuses to admit . try googling canon s500 e18 " , and you 'll see what i meant . do n't buy it unless you want a very expensive paperweight +camera neg not only is the physical appearance of this model ugly , it is a complete downgrade . panasonic takes off one of the most important features on the pv gs320 model , a microphone jack ! i currently own a 300 model and needed another camera to shoot different angels at the same time , since the 300 is discontinued i purchased the so called upgraded model . now the only available model with mic jack is the vdr 310 , and i have heard dvd is quality on camcorders is not what it should be . if you do any video prodcution and need to hook up your camera to a mic , this camera is not for you +camera pos love this battery . long lasting and just as good as the name brand +music neg only way you are gonna like this music is if you are some depressed emo kid who listens to punk rock music just because it is punk , and you think that 'll make you cool . this cd just does n't display musical talent , maybe originality , but this is not high quality music +music pos nwa was an original rap group and with that being said , this is definitely a must have album for rap lovers . along with public enemy , nwa christened their genre with hard core lyrics and tight bass beats . although i do n't agree with some of their lyrics , one would not expect this white kid to fully understand their view on life . anyways , buy this album , i recommend it . keep it away from the kiddies though +camera pos looks exactly as the posted picture except the badge reads " panasonic " , not " lumix " . fits the camera perfectly . no extra room for memory cards , spare battery , charger , etc. it 's easier to insert the camera with both zippers down . the belt loop wo n't fit most belts . no straps . however , the camera 's strap is good enough . good protection +music pos i have both the " heat " and " seduction " cd 's by oscar lopez and listen to both of them with wonder . this man is magic . i have about 20 " new flaminco " cd 's and these are right at the top as far as my tastes are concerned . oscar , if you 're listening , i check at least once a month for your next one +camera neg do not buy the case canon sells for this camera . it takes 20 seconds to take the camera out or put it in +music neg i like these guys alot.i own a bunch of there stuff and love to see them live . i played this cd a few times liked it at first , but it did n't grow on me at all liked i 'd hoped.to cute for me , not spontaneous enough.i feel this cd will be just another dust collector in a short period of time.just let it rip guys , that 's what you do best.thank god my brother bought this instead of me.i bought live at cow palace ( the dead ) great cd +camera pos the binoculars were suprisingly lightweight for their size and power . the 70mm lens were great at light gathering , and the 4.75 mm exit pupil provide more light than most adults can use . ( the avg . is 3-4 mm ) with a good strap is easy to wear for long periods and excellent for long distance terrestrial viewing or general astromical use . you really need a tripod to use the full power effectively , but for short periods those with steady hands can enjoy the binocs on the fly +music pos michelle branch carved out a place for herself in the young female pop singer market serveral years ago with a brilliant debut and a successful if derivitive duet with carlos santana . this record is her first with friend jessica harp . the ladies mine the borderline between the singer / songwriter and country genres for quality songs that should fit well in the americana format . highlights include the opening track leave the pieces , way back home , the good kind , and the title track stand still look pretty . of special note is the presence of producer / multi-instrumentalist john leventhal on many tracks . i recommend this record for folks who like songs that do n't sound like formula country +music pos a very proud and highly recommended production , it 's a real pitty this cd is not available , i still have this one as a precious thing , i hear it all the time as well as i want . nobody will forget jeff lynne as an excellent musician , ever +music pos mountain music offers what alabama is famous for , great music and great harmony all packaged together . the title cut is great , that harmonica and " old man of the mountain " intro is unique . as for " close enough to perfect " if any man sings that song to his lady , she is his forever . the cuteness of " never be one " also reminds us of the sadness that our children grow up so fast we hardly know it . there is n't a bad song on the whole cd and will make a good addition to any collection +music pos this is one of his older cds , but one of my favorites . the music is smooth and wonderful to listen to . great cd after a long day or to play on a special night +music neg very possibly the worst cd i have ever heard in my life . i could barely force myself to listen until the last song was blissfully over . this is not music . it is stupid noise ! +camera neg just returned the mobicam - had poor reception , even in adjacent room ! smallo screen & not stable - falls easy & seems like would break very quickly with a 3 yr old in the house ! +camera pos i purchase this lens for the digital rebel xt body i also purchased through amazon . so far the lens has performed as expected . it is solid and well built . sticks slightly , when zooming through 200mm . images are crisp and focus is sharp . working at 300mm can be a challenge without using a mono or tripod . shooting a bird in flight at 300mm is a trick . overall , good lens for $200. if you have more money , then a lens with image stabilization ( is ) would be the way to go . +music neg of the dozen tracks featured here , chances are the typical listener will only recognize four : " signs , " " sweet city woman , " " one fine morning " and " gimme dat ding " - and the last-named is out of sequence , having come out more than a year before the others . the star of this show is lighthouse 's " one fine morning , " and rhino must be praised for offering up the full ( lp ) version rather than the 45-rpm edit , which was about two minutes shorter . it 's a shame , in a way , that this song had lyrics ; had it been an instrumental , it would have found a perfect and permanent home - on " music from nfl films " - it had that quality about it . as for the other eight offerings : if they wanted to pick some obscure stuff , why did n't they go all the way and throw in dusk 's " treat me like a good piece of candy ? & quot +music neg after hearing " i 'm n luv ( wit a stripper ) " i do n't know why anyone would want to buy and listen to this cd in its entirety . i 'm not going to type a bunch of long paragraphs about why this cd sucks . this cd is a waste and t-pain is illiterate . there ! i said it in one sentence . holllaaa +camera pos for the price paid , this is a great camera . should last me for a long time . debated buying a slr , but this seems to have all the features of an expensive slr ( actually it is a slr , just no interchangable lenses ) and a lot easier to use +music pos fournier plays exquisitely , imbuing each note with an elegance of its own and keeping the piece lyrical yet still rhythmically precise . although his interpretation is romantic , the spirit is all bach with no egoism on the part of fournier . there is both serenity and tension in these recordings , and fournier 's smooth interpretation is one of the most moving recordings available +music pos collin has done it again . i did n't think i 'd enjoy a cd as much as his " the walls came down , " but " tracks " is just great . every song is better than the last . you ca n't go wrong with collin raye and you ca n't find anyone with a better voice . buy this one +music neg first show on broadway i ever left at intermission . i bought the tickets because i did n't think i could go wrong seeing a show directed by strohman , starring craig bierko who was fantastic in music man and was flat flat flat in this show , and music by harry connick jr. whom i have loved forever . it taught me that everything has it 's place and harry 's place is not a broadway stage . i hope for his sake , he does not try again . if i could rate something at zero stars , this would get that rating +music pos i like this album . its got a nice mix of old and new material . along with some live material . great to see pe still at it in this ever changing rap game +music neg despite all the rave reviews i 'm wondering if this is a dreaded rerecord . maybe i 'm paranoid , but the country music industry is so sleazy . and some stars feel entitled to cash in . how else can you explain the john anderson anthology...horror . ( john , how could you ? ) or the bill anderson oh boy classic [oh boy here comes a rerecord ) . hey , the cd sounds great . but what makes me suspiscious is that there are no copyright dates anywhere on this cd except for one . also the cryptic message on the inside sleeve . could someone please clear this up . and not some rcr bud logan shill either . john conlee is one of my hero 's and this is really worrying me . i ca n't look at this cd with rose colered glasses anymore +music pos the performances for every sonata and every partita are wonderful . this is the kind of material one can expect from deutsche grammophon . wonderful music , a wonderful violinist , wonderful interpretations , and wonderful sound ( not just for its time ) . there are also very few " squeaks " and he is almost always right on pitch ! often called definitive , this is the one to get . highly recommended +music neg this was just to much country for this parrothead . i liked one song , piece of work and that was about it +camera neg i have an olympus fe 100 camera and the battery did not fit ! my niece has an olympus fe 140 camera and the battery did not fit in hers either ! the company does not accept returns on batteries that are opened so i was just out of luck +camera neg i bought this camera to mainly use the digital macro mode , it worked great for several months , now it will not lock focus , this camera is very frustrating , every picture that i take i have to edit to lighten the picture , i tried just about every setting to get the pictures to come out , to no avail , i am a commercial real estate appraiser , so i have taken close to 2000 pictures with this camera , and just about every one i had to lighten , now the macro mode wont work , i will not buy another cannon product ever again ! ! +camera neg beware of poor cs policy at jvc . they recently let me down when it was obvious the camera was poorly designed and built . they were not interested in even trying to help . i hate it when companies only care about their profits +camera neg i had this camera for about a month and the first time it broke , i do n't know why it broke . i set it down and when i turned it back on , it had cracked . i then bought another lcd screen and repaired it myself , but two weeks later , i had a case for it , and put it in my purse . i carried my purse around and had not set my purse down . when i took it out , it had cracked again . i would not recommend getting this camera +camera pos i wish i 'd bought this a loooong time ago ! it is so helpful , esp . with macro shots . highly recommend +music pos gerry beckley is " timeless " . his new cd is awesome and seems to go back to his roots . his songs over the years last lifetimes and bring back amazing memories.this new cd just proves he hasnt lost his touch . anyone who does not agree , doesnt know the real gerry . i have had the privilege to meet him and talk with him many times , including being able to celebrate new years eve with them after a concert with the rest of america and their families.he is one of the nicest people i have ever met , and his songs have always been a part of my life . i hope there are still many more cd 's still to come and look forward to seeing him again in the near future in concert and afterwards +music pos its quite difficult to sum up the impact of this cd with few mere words . suffice to say , level 1 is a timeless classic , in fact , it was my entry pass into the realm of d-n-b . logical progressions level 1 is a must-have for all d-n-b heads & music lovers in general . demon 's theme , western , danny 's song & horizons remain some of my favorite songs in any genre . bukem 's level 1 displays his flawless production & track mastery which cascades the listener with the ideal mid-tempo balance between dance-floor adrenaline & ambient bliss +music pos this is their best album.easily better than anything the likes of oasis ever managed.richard iii , going out , late in the day and the title track are all top quality.if you rated blurs 3 " britpop " ( horrible term really ) albums from the 90s then get this.its up there with them.simple as that +music pos dream is a great album where keller coloboarates with many of his favorite musicians including bob wier , bella fleck , victor wooten and string cheese incident . all the songs are unique and great to sing too while driving or anytime ! +music neg this is a saccharine and banal take on irish music , with all the emotional intesity of a hummel figuraine . upon first listen , i remarked to my wife that they sounded more like peter , paul , and mary than the dubliners . she correctly pointed out that peter , paul , and mary were actually much better than this pablum , and that the irish rovers more closely resemble the fictional main street singers from a mighty wind . truly , absolutely , unlistenably passionless , cloying and bland +camera neg while the everio will work on a mac , it is with jvc 's movie program . it is not imovie ready . there is a very strange " work around " involving dvdrop that will make it work . not very pleased with what i feel is misleading information about compatibility with mac +camera neg after just over a year , my lens jammed and the display read " e18 " . so i was pretty upset to discover that this is an extremely common defect - and a defect that canon refuses to admit . try googling canon s500 e18 " , and you 'll see what i meant . do n't buy it unless you want a very expensive paperweight +camera neg i own the olympus fe-100 digital camera , and it came with unchargeable batteries ( oxyride ) . i switched to energizer batteries and bought an energizer 4-battery charger that can be had for less than the price of half a tank of gas . it 's not a quick charger like this one , but i say for less than half the investment , i 've got a charger that does the job . i would not spend this kind of money on a charger . so i say , if you 're part of the " gotta have it now " generation , you definitely pay for convenience . otherwise , charge your batteries more slowly ( 2-3 hours ) and save a lot of money +camera neg i purchased this bag because i did not wnat to spend a ton of money on a case to protect my canon rebel eos digital camera . i only have 2 lenses , but the bag is capable of holding the camera and 4 lenses as well as pockets for cables , batteries , etc. i think this is a great unit , for the beginner ( like me ) or the pro . +camera neg i bought this camera about a month ago and i am highly disappointed with it . the quality of the pictures is very poor , showing large grain , even at shq and low iso settings . no combination of settings seems to improve quality +camera neg very easy to set up , but no matter what i did , i got several horizontal interference bars . one very nice feature is a built in video modulator that allows you to connect to older tvs using a coax cable instead of rca . i am returning this product +camera neg have had an olympus 4.0m.for 4 years and been very happy with it . as a gift i got this canon and was very diappointed in the color quality and sharpness . shot about 600 pictures people were blurred , not crisp and dim even on a sunny day . had to return it.do n't bu +music neg being an osmond fan can be very frustrating at times.. . this cd has nothing new to offer . there have been several osmond compilation cds in the past 10 years . what 's so different about this one besides the photograph on the cover ? nothing . i agree with the reviewer who wishes the osmonds would put some of their old albums on cd instead of putting out hit compilation cds all the time . been there . done that . bored to tears +music pos low tech and brilliant , music that seems to have channeled zappa , winchester cathedral , and god knows what else . incredibly funny , and then suddenly sad . mr pink is a genius , you betcha . and he explains what it is and how it is to live here in this strange quasi-city in the shadow of the industry , in the curiously full and fun wasteland of other people 's dreams +music neg after norah 's first two cds and the little willie 's cd i was greatly looking forward to this release . to say the least i am disappointed . i was listening to it on my commute home and had to switch to something else to keep from falling asleep . where is the range of work ? all of the songs on this cd sound very much the same and nothing really stood out to me . i 'm giving it 2 stars just because of norah 's angelic voice , otherwise i 'd have to give this one a 1 star rating +music neg i bought usher 's 8701 on tape long ago , and i remember liking it . then a couple of years ago , i bought it again on cd , listened to it , and wondered why i wasted my money . maybe it 's the fact that i 've grown , but this album sounds so un-soulful now . it is just lacking any spirit , sort of like an over-produced record : all studio magic , but no magic from the singer . even the songs that are supposed to sound heartfelt , don't . the album sounds dated , not transcendent of time and era like all the albums that become classics . the songs are very forgettable , and i do n't see any of them being seen as classics twenty years from now . usher has yet to make a masterpiece . addendum : i was a little unfair in my rating . the album deserves 3 stars , not 2. unfortunately , i ca n't change it . +music neg god , i ca n't believe this guy . ja rule was never a gangsta in his life , he ca n't talk gangsta . and stop trying to be like tupac , tupac actually was a gangsta . your a fake and if he was still alive he would not only not role with you but diss you so badly you 'd wet your pants . this guy should be booted out of the game , not only his he lying when he talks all this gangsta s*** as if he went through it , his ruining hip hop . yeah and ja , stop dissing eminem and 50. you know perfectly well that they 'd kill you in a battle anyday . ja rule has always been s***. go listen to real rap +music pos this is what i grew up with on the radio , and listened to at the dance halls . this is not some sissy nashville sound . +camera pos yes it is a very fine lens . is and 105 mm long end are also appealing but after buying this i decided to sell it in favour of my ef 24-70 2.8l after 2 weeks of usage . f4 makes clearly the autofocus slower and fuzzier . bokeh is also worse than the other one . the viewfinder gets darker in 1.6 crop bodies . 105 mm does make a very little difference in image size . plus the macro option is weaker on this one . if you do n't care about the weight go with the ef 24-70 2.8l imho . +music pos beres has done it again . this is a great cd . i can actually say that enjoyed all 19 tracks +camera pos this is a camera that is very very easy to use . i was amazed by the colour quality even at a very low light . i took a movie at my nephew 's theater play and i am the contrasts and crispness of the picture are just perfect . the zoom is also very clear and crisp . putting it onto my imovie was also a piece of cake . the only down point is that the still image mode is worthless , but if you need that you should buy the next level up which has a memory card slot . i highly recommend this camer +music pos i love this cd ! i often put it in my personal cd player and take it to the coffee shop to help me as i study french . the music is relaxing but not sleep-inducing . steven halpern composes great music +camera neg i agree with the many other users who have experienced the " condensation , operation paused " defect on their jvc gr-xxxx . despite numerous others reporting this problem , jvc says its not a recognized problem . i would disagree - it is a recognized problem , but its your problem , not theirs . +camera neg i ca n't speak to how well the product performs because mine was doa . customer service was unable to do anything over the phone . since it was purchased as a gift and i had time before christmas , i opted for a different brand . does n't inspire confidence in their quality control when a unit fails to start up fresh out of the box +camera neg date on still photo will not print , it 's no good where yoy need that type of info on the printed photo +camera neg the plastic stand that holds the frame upright broke immediately . also , be sure to note that there is no memory card . spend the extra money and buy something better . i wish i had +music neg there was only one good song on the disk dont waste your mone +camera neg junk . you will get a lens cap error in about a year or so , where it will tell you lens cap is on and you will not be able to record anymore +camera neg bought the camera on a recommendation , and also what looked like good specs on the web . owned it for less than two weeks when the lcd screen cracked ( below the surface of the protective cover ) . turns out this is a very common problem with these cameras . panasonic will not warranty fix this ! if you do get one , or own one , be very careful not to use the left nav button . if you do , be very careful on the pressure you apply . this is the camera 's glass jaw , and you might end up " bricking " a brand new camera . i am replacing mine with a canon +music neg if you 're looking for billie in her prime , look elsewhere . all the music on this cd was recorded between ' 45 and ' 47 after she had lost her voice . look for the classic recording of strange fruit from ' 39 on one of the other cds available . +music pos i never loved a man the way i love you , what more can you say about the greates soul album of all time . this album released all of the music in aretha that was screaming to be released . it displayed a very mature aretha with complex emotions , very everyday lyrics , ones that make you say , oh yeah girl , lol . but also a delivery that the average person could n't lay down and dream about pulling off . this is just testiment that , even at such a young age , she was the queen +camera neg i purchased the wp-dc700 underwater case for my a70 and followed the directions exactly , oiling the gasket and cleaning it after each use . it leaked and ruined my month old camera . customer service was rude , blamed me and then tried to bargain with me to fix it for $190 instead of the $280 that they initially requested . the underwater case has a 7 day waranty and the camera is not covered for water damage . my father had a similar problem with his $1000 nikon digital which just stopped working for no aparent reason , they claimed it was water damage and tried to bargain with him to buy a rebuilt one for $500. so beware of bad customer service . canon 's customer service has all bad unreasolved reviews at the better business burea +camera neg do not buy the case canon sells for this camera . it takes 20 seconds to take the camera out or put it in +music neg this is simply a transfer of the lp master done when cds were just getting started . the quality is inferior to other collections and the selection is weaker . go for the collectables twofer instead . much better sound and more cuts +camera pos this is a great camera that takes the place of an earlier canon digital elph that i lost several years ago . the 7.1 megapixels ensures great quality and the 3x zoom provides crisp clear pictures . in fact the digital zoom also works great - just make sure the camera is steady ( i purchased a nice compact monopod and the results were awesome ) . although the image stabilization feature on the newer models would have been great to have , you ca n't beat the price and overall quality of this camera and the pictures it takes . the canon sd500 is a great little camera +music neg tihs album is not all that good when it came out in still not good till this day . i like all his other albums better i do n't know why he decided to release this crap.but the only song i really like is hip hip qurtables +music neg based on the reviews for this cd i decided to buy it without having sampled it . big mistake . i love , among others , marshall crenshaw , don dixon and peter holsapple , but what happened here ? this was so not fabulous +camera pos compare to the price of the product i highly recommend to any one who own canon eos camera.. . +camera neg it 's unfortunate that one of the best lens bargains out there is followed up by one of the worst photo ripoffs - - this hood . how can you pay $75 for a great prime lens , and $25 for a flimsy piece of plastic to cover it +camera neg i had jvc product and some of my friends too . these are good at the begining and after an year the motors will have problem and also the tape heads will have problem . even the cable pins will wearout easaly and will not work properly . price may be less buy its not worth for long run . i feel sony and canon are better than jvc . even hitachi is good +camera neg i 've just returned this camera for poor facial image quality after using it extensively for months . my regular camera is a fuji finepix s602z which is large and bulky , but , takes superb facial shots . i tried the casio due to needing something small to carry in my purse for special events and i 'm heartbroken at the incredible photo opps i 've had that resulted in poor facial quality . do n't buy this camera if you care about what everyone looks like . i 've just ordered the powershot sd1000 because of the facial detection feature on it . hopefully , it is better since i do n't want to have to carry my bulky fuji to get great facial photos . i 'll review the cannon once i 've had it for a few months +camera pos i just got back from vacation . i have a bad back , and it was sore . i was very happy to discover that the way this bag hangs , i could carry my nikon d-70 and one or two extra lens very comfortably . gear is super easy to access and the bag provides a nice platform for changing lenses . i have other bags which heft lots of gear , and they 're great for travel days and the occasional big shoot , but if you 're looking to hike ( and have a separate way to carry a tripod ) , then this is a wonderful bag +camera pos took the camera bag on vacation and it came in very handy . i carried both my camcorder and my regular camera in the bag . it has plenty of pockets for storage and the main space inside is flexible ( has a divider you can place where ever you want ) so you can secure cameras however you wish +camera neg as i watch the videos of my kids on my 50 " plasma , 32 " lcd and mac , trying to convince myself that i like the quality , my wife walks by and says , " fuzzy . " i know most guys out there will know what i 'm talking about - she just killed the deal . regardless of the specs , the wives do n't lie - the picture quality just does n't cut it . it 's unacceptably noisey in all but the brightest of light and is an incremental improvement over my 6 year old sony dvr . the product design is cool , the price is good , the sd card recording idea is perfect , but the hd promise does n't come close to paying off . if you 're looking for sharp , crystal clear images - you 're just not going to be happy with this camera unless the gathering of technology and low price are enough to cause you to settle . +music pos blue note was on the mark to re-release this classic . tina brook 's style of blues laced jazz is a sound that will bring joy to your soul . a must have cd for any jazz collection +camera pos this item was purchased for casio exilim 8 megapixel camera . the quality of this item is strong and durable . the camera is small any ways to take with you anywhere by putting it in your pocket . however , to protect the camera , this case provides outstanding protection and is still small and compact to take it with you anywhere +music neg bill charlap is undoubtedly one of the most talented , lyrcially-blessed jazz pianiasts around today . he has a deft touch and a senisbility that far exceeds his age and life experiences . that told , i find it very hard to give his latest effort , stardust , more than two stars . with very few exceptions , i found this cd to be fairly self-indulgent and charlap rather morose in his intrepretations . it was n't nearly a refeshing to the ear as written in the stars . i would recommend this for a charlap devotee but no one else . he has made better albums +camera neg the thing is that it is not a very stable camera , hence it does not give you very stable shots , so many of your pics will be blured . even those taken with a tripod . i am a pro photographer , and i would not recommend this camera . yes , it 's very thin , but is not worth the pics it takes...seek for other model not so tiny if you 're expecting better images +music pos this was the first queen album that i ever had so getting it on cd is great . " sheer heart attack " is an overlooked queen gem +camera neg i bought this camera 3 months ago and have used it a few times . last week all of a sudden the pictures look out of focus and over-exposed . i have n't changed anything or done anything . i have no idea what 's wrong with the camera , but given the price i 'm pretty annoyed and amazon.com will not refund my money because it has been over 30 days +camera pos i absolutely love this camera . i got it about 3 months ago and i cnt imagine life w / o it . im 13 nd mega clumsy nd it still has not one single scratch on it . it eats up batteries but so wat ? i love it buy it +camera pos this is a fabulous and reliable camera . feels solid . fantastic pictures . easy to operate . a new d40 has been announced over the past few days , but its lack of an lcd display and buttons to manage basic camera controls ( to reduce weight and make it more user friendly ) would still make this my recommended nikon dslr . expect prices to fall as the d40 becomes available +camera pos with most of the carrying case made of either fake leather or some kind of neoprene material , this one is really different . the rigid structure also seem to do a great job to protect the camera . there is also a belt loop and d-ring feature which is great . +camera neg i received this as a gift and at first i thought it was great , but then i realized it would only display 142 images . i worked with technical support for several months ( they are not the speediest or most helpful ) . i resized , renamed , restructured the photos , tried them on different media and finally they admitted it was a bug . i rma 'd the unit at my shipping expense of course , only to recieve another with the same problem . i would n't recommend this purchase +camera neg last march ( 2002 ) i bought this camera and it was wonderful , although it was " refurbished " by canon it worked perfectly . i bought also a new battery and a 48mb compactflash memory card and everything was working fine . 6 months later the camera had electrical problems and warranty had expired . now the cost to fix this problem is far bigger than to buy a new camera because warranty period for " refurbished " items is less than 6 months +music pos this is a wondrful cd and quite a bargin . two discs and the very best of nancy wilson . i liked so much , i bought two and gave one to a friend +camera neg i got this camera when it was rather new . i am not extremely pleased with it . it is not acting this way because it is 2 years old...it was like this when i bought it . -first of all...it has no lens cover so you have to keep it in a camera bag . incase you touch the lens without relizing...all your pictures will be ruined . -it takes for ever to take a picture . you have to wait for like 2 seconds for the picture to be taken . -it eats up batteries like crazy -it takes forever to turn on -if you have the flash setting on autoflash , the camera will still flash in bright sunlight -the pictures are extremly blurry when you print at home -it has no optical zoom ( but the zoom is really the customer 's choice . +camera pos purchased as a gift and well received . seems to handle larger chips in a timely manner . runs everyday , all day and no problems encountered . displays vacation pictures clearly . like that it is big enough to view across the room . frame is more compatible with decore than the 7 " model previously purchased +camera neg i bought this lens and was pretty excited about it , but i 've been disappointed . previous to this i bought the 50mm 1.8 for $70 and that lens completely puts this one to shame . i need a wider angle lens and went for this one , but all too often found myself quite disappointed with the results . edges of subjects were all messy and just looked terrible , even at higher f stops . i shoot with a 20d . the usm is awesome though and will for sure be an option in whatever lens i choose to buy in place of this one . the focal range of 28-105 was also very nice , but to me the picture quality was not so good +music pos i assume you already know what 's on this recording or you would n't be here , right ? do n't you probably have a thirty-year-or-so old vinyl copy of this that you have n't listened to for years because it 's dusty and has scratches and pops and who listens to that stuff anymore anyway ? well , i wo n't review the music here because others have done better than i would , but i will say that listening to this remaster through a high quality set of headphones ( sennheiser ) has enabled me to hear this as if it were the first time . it 's totally worth the money to get this new version , and the bonus tracks just make it even more fun . +music neg i guess i was expecting more of a ferrante and teicher thing with more than one piano going at a time ... could be that it is but , if so , am missing depth ... great family but disappointing albu +music pos i saw midlake at festival recently and had never heard of them . the live set was strong enough to convince me to order some albums and i 'm now a solid fan . the opening track , roscoe , reminds me a bit of adrian belew , a bit of xtc and a whole lot of midlake themselves . it 's like suddenly realizing how coldplay should sound . the music is layered and atmospheric with a bit of an eels feel . midlake is definitely their own band , for all the influences i 'm throwing out . they make the sort of music that feels old , like your favorite album you lost long ago . try ' roscoe ' or ' young bride ' for an indication of their style . if you like either of those , you need to buy the album . +camera pos i use it with my nikon d70 , and am very satisfied with it . i most often use it for long exposures , for taking picture that include myself , and for taking pictures of my 6-month old daughter , who stops acting naturally when she notices i hold the camera , so i place it on the tripod , and take pictures of her . +music pos the dead were primarily a live road band , but on this and the other great album from 1970 ( american beauty ) the band proved their mettle in the studio , moving into less spacey territory . the music reflects their range , from country and bluegrass to folk , blues and rock . superb . ps . their early studio effortsanthem.. . , aoxomoxoa ) were also noteworthy experiments , but the music was n't as powerful as the live interpretations +camera neg this was a terrible purchase on my part . it does n't even deserve 1 star . i just wanted a small bag to wear over the shoulder for quick access to my z7590 without holding other equipment or being too bulky . the bag was too small for my z7590 , and i paid $8 shipping plus return shipping . i only hope they do n't charge me a re-stocking fee . i went to walmart , found a cute little bag in the electronics dept . that the camera fits great in , with room for the strap and extra memory cards or battery if necessary . they have cute ones for ladies too , with pink polka dots or stripes inside ! for only $12. next time , i 'll be smarter ! +music neg i ordered the dvd of damn yankees to watch on tv for my daughter because she is doing a play and needed it for the day i ordered it . i paid for fast delivery because she had a deadline and we were thrilled to receive it on time but was very disappointed to see that it was the cd of only music ! i do n't think i will order from amazon again , it was my first time and probably my last . liz snyde +camera neg i purchased this bag because i did not wnat to spend a ton of money on a case to protect my canon rebel eos digital camera . i only have 2 lenses , but the bag is capable of holding the camera and 4 lenses as well as pockets for cables , batteries , etc. i think this is a great unit , for the beginner ( like me ) or the pro . +music pos good singing and good production must i say anything else ? .....no get this if you love mixtures of good uptempo and slow rn +music neg it ' curious how an interesting history can be not well told by a modern music . in some cases the music go to the hand with the story , but not in this cd , in which we say the music that it is not for the story . i did n't ejoyed with that c +music pos the music intelligentia probably wo n't like james morrison 's new album because almost everybody else will love it . bourgeois = uncool . however , if you just listen and feel this album , even if you have snobbish tendencies , it will move you . enjoy this amazing new album . i am +camera neg bought this about a year ago and now it has a lens cap error ( appears like the shutter never opens ) and will not record video . spoke with jvc and they seemed to know that this is a problem and are having me send it in . will update my rating after i see what is wrong , if they can fix it , if they will stand behind their product . watch for more details . before it failed only complaint i had was it was a little flakey with lighting but otherwise worked okay for the price +music neg dis gy is da kying of da south ! ! ! give me a f***ing break . when are we going to stop seeing crappy rapper after even crappier rappers that are so full of themselves that they feel the need to plasture their faces all over every one of their crappy unintelligent so called albums ! ! nothing descent to say at all , just a bunch of mindless [...]. i bet you they do n't even like music , they just want to be a " celebrity " and be rich for 3 years ( till their broke ) . if they really did geniunly like music , it would n't sound that sh**y ! ! ! ! get over yourselves ! ! ! +music pos this album is the foudation of modern hip hop...the format of the album the presence of rakim ....his image everything was new territory when this album came out in 86 ' all hip hop lovers should have this album especially people down south +camera neg if you want a nice camera that works well for 15 months , then look no further . but mine died completely and is headed for the electronic recycling bin . i did n't realize i was getting a disposable when i bought it +music pos i first heard this album in the late 6o 's when it was originally released . starting with the first track , " blood of the sun " , i was hooked . leslie west was and has been a vastly unnoticed guitarist treasure . his throaty singing and driving band , featuring felix pappalardi , made this band one that should be placed on the list of " great ones " . probably due to the many other better publicized bands , like led zeppelin and the like , leslie west and mountain seemed to get shoved away into the closet . open the closet , you guitarists out there , and give this cd a try . i do n't think you will be anything but delighte +camera pos looks exactly as the posted picture except the badge reads " panasonic " , not " lumix " . fits the camera perfectly . no extra room for memory cards , spare battery , charger , etc. it 's easier to insert the camera with both zippers down . the belt loop wo n't fit most belts . no straps . however , the camera 's strap is good enough . good protection +camera pos i purchased this bag to carry my hp photosmart digital camera and photo printer along with , 100pk 4 " x 6 " photo paper , power cord and two chargers that each hold 4 aa batteries , and i still have room left . i 'm very pleased +camera pos it is easy to mount and puts out a surprising amount of ligh +camera pos this is not a high-tech digital frame . it does n't play mp3's . it does n't come with a remote . it simply reads your digital pictures from a card and displays them in a slide show mode . there 's an " on " button and an " off " button . there is no manual to read in order to learn how to operate your frame ( though it does come with a one-page instruction sheet ) . it 's great for your office desk when all you need to do is reach over and turn it on or off . if you want to display it in a difficult-to-reach location , or choreograph your pictures with music , then this is not the frame for you +music neg bread8 , that 's one of the stupidest comments i 've ever read . you do n't know s*** about metal . you ca n't handle the intensity of real metal because you 're a fat virgin who 'd cry to your mommy if you heard godly metal songs like " immortal rites " and " pleasure to kill . " leave the metal to the metalheads you mallcore f@ggot . anyway , " dysfunction is better than staind 's other stuff , but only by a microscopic margin . aaron lewis is a weak , talentless crybaby whose bandmates could n't make a good song to save their lives . every song on here is full of bogus " pain " and " depression " coupled with abyssmal musicianship just like every other nu-metal band . if you want heavy music that 's accessible for the masses , go for rage against the machine ( except for " evil empire " ) , faith no more , helmet , living colour , and quicksand . +camera neg good : motor drive speed . grip feel . takes nikon lenses . reacts fast to pressing the shutter release . bad : skin tone renditions a color other than skin . white balance does n't balance well . noise at anything above iso 200 , looks like 3200. cf card door tough to open . screen fogs if you breathe when you shoot . battery cover is not part of the battery . button placement not as intuitive as on the d100. 4.1mp allows for virtually no cropping of enlargements . dumped mine a month after i got it +camera pos i 'm not a professional but this lens makes me feel like one . it is a very versatile lens , working well inside or out , low light or extremely bright . am looking forward to taking sporting pictures next spring +camera pos i already have 2 of the smaller versions for other lenses but wanted to be sure my efs 17-85-mm would be snug as a bug in its own pouch instead of a cheap felt sling thing . well , canon came through again with another of its soft felt line the lp1116. this pouch is thick and has the same firm bottom made of naugahide that protects the inside lens . the cord is strong and silky and does n't open accidently the way a silky cord would . obviously we ca n't throw the pouch around and we have to be careful but it really does the trick and feels good in your hand . the moment i buy another lens , i shall have to buy its matching pouch +camera pos this is an elegant leather case for the canon elph cameras . it fits in the pocket easily . i 'm satisfied +music pos i had this album for many years when i was younger . i had looked for along time to try and find it on cd with no luck . i finally found it on amazon . this is my favorite christmas album , i even have my teenage daughter hooked on it now . the caroling medely is awesome and my daugher loves the pinecones and hollyberries song . no one should be without this cd in their christmas collection . +music neg as for many of these kind of unknown groups , the music in the album is useless . in the meaning that this music has no use . it is not relaxing . it is not for contemplation . it is not spiritual . it is nothing but electronic esperiments that many vendors try to deliver under the name of " ambient " . but ambient music is music . this is crap . well differently from two a.d. where probably the producers realized that crap is crap and no more crap was good to be sold , because people is n't stupid . two a.d. is light years away from this crap . do n't waste your money . listen the the samples by yourself to grab what i mean . sergi +camera neg just for the record , my lens has frozen as many others have complained on this and earlier casio models . presently in iraq , i do want to have a camera with me , but am not inclined to send it back in view of the reports of poor customer service . sad . it looked to be a great camera +camera pos i recently purchased this camera and i 'm loving it . as a whole it 's very easy to use and carry . i 'm a college student going into photograpy and this is a great starter camera . i have a feeling this one is going to be with me for a very long time +music pos if you like beatles , monkees and the who , then you will like the group that is better than all of them ; the rascals ! " lonely too long " is a sad rock pop painful staple in your 60 's elbow...it hurts...then theres all this other good sh*** here...and i do n't mean groovin ! the harmonys and the killer keyboards and tight drumming in these little pop angry yet cheerful nuggets is where its at ! ...i can remember listening to the rascals intermitently with black sabbath and the stooges...and i realised that above all...i liked my rascals record the most back in 1987 up in that cold lonely bel air gardening cabode ! also known at times as ' the young rascals ' but to me...this band will always be the one from way back in childhood that got me listening to queen and the who later on........its hard to say that they are underrated since in any given conversation , you realise the rascals get tone of respect and people will take over and talk about them ; five stars...buy this thing +camera neg i read other review , and decided to give it a try . as soon as i recieve it in the mail , and opened the box , i realized this was a mistake . cheap quality binocular with " high power " being a selling point . it came in already broken with two eye ruber pieces falling apart . you can see how the cheap glue was being used to put it in place ! it is extremly heavy to hold in hands for more than one minute for nature observation . you will be constantly ajdusting the focus . your fingers bumps with focus bar while you are holding it . indeed strap , case , lense protectors are all cheap crap , and annoying to have it all on~ ! i am taking this back , and buying made in japan " nikon eagle view " 100 times better . you get what you pay for~ ! ! ! ! ! +camera pos great tripod . we 're using it in a television studio w / sony vx-2000 cameras . they work great +music neg i was , overall , disappointed by this cd . there are many good reviews here , but they generally overpraise . tracks 4 through 8 have too much synthesizer for my ears . a major highlight is track 9 , the crab and the egret , but interestingly , the flute is accompaniment to the wondrous chinese percussion . disappointingly , the cd is only 40 minutes long and left me wanting more tunes without synthesizer accompaniment +camera neg the camera worked fine ; however , after six months , it stopped working . i took it to a pentax authorized repairer and pentax refused to pay for the camera because the was dirt and grit in the zoom mechanism . my use was in no way abusive . i had a previous canon powershot s200 that lasted forever with the same usage , until i gave it away . i guess i should have stayed with canon . i bought the pentax for its size and lightweight , but what good is that if it does n't last ! do n't get the pentax and expect long term use out of it +camera pos i 've had it for several weeks now and it seems like a great camera . i am still learning new features . i would highly recommend it +camera neg yes , i have to agree with the previous review . it does n't seem to make any difference in reducing lens flare from light sources . it does n't seem to extend far enough to actually do anything . if it was less expensive i would n't mind as much , and just chalk it up to extra protection . but that seems to be all it 's good for +music neg this was not as good as i had hoped and half of it is too slow to listen to while i am working out but the rest is good . +camera neg i 've read good reviews of this camera on this and other sites but i am not having the same experience . the quality of the photos are horrible so i started thinking it was me and i tried it with different settings , tried being very , very still etc but , i only get one good shot out of about ten . i have a fuji 4mp that i bought about 6 years ago and it takes way better pictures than this . i bought this so i could give my old one to my daughter but i 'm gonna end up giving this one to my daughter and and keeping my fuji . we recently had snow here in tucson so i took pictures with mu fuji and compares them to the canon and the 6 year old fuji finepix beat it hands down . i do n't get it , did i get a defective camera or am i doing something wrong or does this camera just suck +camera neg this is a nice case , however , i needed something more sleek and small to fit into my purse when i go out with my friends . this case is bulky and my panasonic fxo1 would fit into something much smaller . i ended up going with a great case that i found at wal-mart for a cheeper price , sleeker design , small enough to hold my memory cards and camera and still fit into the small purses i take when i go out on the town +music neg however despite what amazon reviewer kristy martin may believe , ms croft does not need to get her freak on . wow . i guess hip hop can do no wrong . in a soundtrack which is filled with apporpriate trax to supplement the film , here comes another fanboy / girl of hip hop 's hopele$$$ley misplaced garbage . thank you kristy for proving to be yet another white suburban supporter of the most mass marketed crap to come along . ( missy ) this song is soo done it 's practically taboo to listen too . and outkast ? puhf_ckingleez . these clowns sold out a long long time ago +camera neg so , you go out and plunk down nearly 600 bucks of your hard-earned cash for a panasonic pb-gs65 dv camcorder . it is a digital video camcorder , after all . that 's why you bought it . well , guess what ? it does n't come with a dv cable to plug it into anything . that is so pathetically stupid i take it as an outright slap from a company that must think i 'm just some sort pain in their shorts . it cost me completion of a project that i had to put together as soon as the camera arrived . so , panasonic , i 'll post a negative review of as many of your products i possibly can over the next few weeks and make you pay as much as possible for being about as stupid a company as i 've ever had to deal with . oh yeah , and you 're camcorder is being returned . go buy a cable and have a ball +camera pos the bushnell powerview 12x25 is a fine , small pocket-sized binocular . since my wife is an avid bird watcher , we already have several binoculars of various sizes and viewing power . our grandson accidentally broke her small 10x25 bushnell that we used for trips , so i researched , then bought this one from amazon for her birthday . she loves it . the viewing power is a bit greater than the other and is every bit as compact , which makes it easy to pack for vacations , yet provides for a good viewing experience when enjoying the various bird populations around the country . we both highly recommend this , and other bushnell products +music neg if you have children that are five years & younger , this would be a good album to put in your child 's boom box or get it in cassette for their tape player . but if your children are six and up . your better off finding the real songs and burning them if you can find these songs . this album should be saved strictly for the poor folks who wnat music for their kids but cannot afford it . this ablum would be number 1 if it were sold in rwanda , sudan or other third world nations since it could be sold for like dirt cheap . parents , if you buy this album , after your children turn 6 years old . pack this cd and other ki8dz bop cd 's and send them to africa . this is pop music for impoverished folks +music pos buy this cd now if you do n't have it , it is an instant classic . the beats are banging , and fit cougnut and c-fresh 's lyrics perfectly . the lyrics are tight , and touch on many different things . " the last breath " is real life song about death and injustice , and decisions we all have to make in life . " protect what you hustle fo " is gangsta , about the individual struggle / hustle . " tell me something good " ( remix ) is even better than the west coast bad boyz version with master p . its about real life in the ghetto +music pos i have been a fan since valotte . and i like the other reviewers here , ca n't believe why this cd did n't receive the airplay it deserves ! there must have been some politics in there , with sean 's cd coming out on the same day ( yoko ? ) it is one of those cds that you just leave on and you do n't feel like you have to go and skip over songs that you do n't like ! i love every song ! ! especially " day after day " , " i should have known " , " i do n't want to know " and my fav right now " cold " .. i hope that what i have heard is true that he is working on his latest now . ca n't wait ! buy this cd. . you wo n't regret it +camera pos i like that the protection filter is threaded so you can screw a conversion lens right over it , rather than having to use one or the other +camera pos after checking prices with all the usual pricing bots , i found a better price , including free shipping , by going directly to amazon . this lowest price did not appear in the other searches , so it pays to go to amazon first . i replaced my canon sd400 with the casio and find the controls more logical to use . this is important if you do n't use the camera for a while , because you can just pick it up and start shooting without hunting for the manual . also , the docking base is much more convenient than plugging small cables into the camera . you do not have to remove the battery in the casio to charge it as you do with the canon sd400. the vga movie quality is superior on the casio . still pictures appear to be about equal . amazon delivered by ups in record time even with a weekend inbetween . i ordered on a friday and received it the following tuesday . go with amazon ! +music pos the coltrane soundscapes that this cd is infused flies to the mountain and back again , that 's the truth , but one troubling question for me remains ; no matter how much i enjoy this fusion incarnation by masters ( new & old ) - where in the world is alan holdsworth ? if any fusion guitar player has the rightful title claim to the coltrane moniker - it 's holdsworth . for years he 's been building the bridge between the good old philosophies and the new world order . including holdsworth would have just been the jazziest thing to do . +music pos i bought this cd six months ago because i am a miami vice fan . i did n't expect it to be good , but it is wonderful . " in dulce decorum " is incredible ! this is a hard-to-find cd . you will love it ! i enjoy it more with each playing +music pos this cd is dave bromberg 's best effort . playing solo allows his guitar playing capabilities to be clearly demonstrated . +music neg except for the song , mother mother , i did n't really care for the rest of the cd . i bought it for mother , mother so i guess i got what i wanted . i had hoped to like other songs as well , but , oh well +camera pos order received in good time - no problems . battery lifetimes are short - not as good as first original from dealer , but twice as good as poorer choice batteries from other suppliers +camera neg you have this camera case listed under accessories for the panasonic dmc fa20pp lumix camera . the camera does not come close to fitting in this case . the camera is 1 1 / 2 inches wider than the case . +camera pos make sure to check the compatibility charts to verify that your lenses will work with this before buying it since only a handful of l series lenses are compatible . if you do already have one or more of these lenses though this is a nice addition . the af only works with lenses f / 4 and faster on most camera bodies . you do also give up a little image quality by putting this between your lens and camera body , but the extra reach is really nice +music pos i remember thinking when this film came out that few things in life were as cool as lloyd dobler . this soundtrack is also one of those things . this album for me , as for many i 'm sure , somewhat reflected my taste in music at the time , and even now actually . of course the biggie here is " in your eyes " from peter gabriel . who has n't that track touched at some point ? this also confirmed my love for the red hot chili peppers , and here we get a slightly extended version of their classic " taste the pain " . toss on a few from fishbone , living colour , and the replacements and you solidify this soundtrack as a must own for the late 80 's alt-rock lover . not to mention the goods from depeche mode and nancy wilson ( heart ) . in fact the only thing that could 've made this album any better , is if it ended with a " ding " +camera neg i spent a couple hours , trying to get transfer dv from my camcorder to my mac powerbook . after hours and hours i had to realize that the usb cable delivered with the sony camcorder was absolutely worthless . if you do n't own a sony vaio ( which in my opinion just a overdesigned peace of fancy 007 gear with an i.link connection , which no other pc / mac has ) your getting frustrated pretty quick . i would have given the cable a 5 star rating , but the way i had to get the cable , by having to buy it seperately , is a big rip off . however i found the exact same cable in an apple store called " thin fire wire " . the exact same cable ( 1.8 meter 4 to 6 pin to be exact ) for only $29 and it works just fine . so check out an apple store near you and save some money . shame on you sony +camera neg if you like to take pictures with macro lense , it sucks . i 've had many canon cameras and this one takes the the prize for worst quality . if you get closer than five inches , the pictures messes up . i 've had no other problem with the hardware , though i hate carrying around that dock and it 's odd shaped charger . no other charger cable in the world is going to fit ! so loose it and you 're screwed . oh , and night photos also suck . big time , even with the flash on +camera neg because the camera eye moves only in one direction , the device had to be permanently attached on a wall across baby 's bed . you have to decide whether you want sacrifice the resolution to see the entire crib ( older child can crawl away from the view ) or see just a part of it . we have cell phones and wireless network so static was pretty bad . we went with graco 's excellent digital imonitor . +music pos this album is essentially a fusion of great musical minds . the legendary khan payes more attention to making this a better experience for the western audiences of the sufi music by playing more with his ( brilliant ) vocal skills then with the lyrics . micheal brooks ' music stands out and enhances the experience further . this is not to say that the mainstream indo-paki audience wo n't enjoy this album ( this is one of my all time favs ) . it is fabulous background listening while doing work which may need focus - for those who need music to do such things.. . : ) for those who have been thinking of testing out sufi music , this is the place to start . this is a fine introduction to the great nfak and sufi music . +music pos jon brion does such a great job capturing emotion with great music . hes also so damn great and fitting sound witht the mood of a movie . if you liked this movie , by all means , buy the soundtrack . you will not be dissapointed . eevery time it listen it not only reminds me of the amazing movie , it makes me feel. . just. . good . also , be sure to pick up his solo record , meaningless . if you liked the movie , buy this cd , you wont regret it +camera pos it is extremely easy to use . hard to figure out the menu , but once that is done there is no problem . takes beautiful pictures . great for action shots as well . seldom find a blurry photo as it has a stabelizer built in +music pos although i like this album , there 's nothing that especially stands out about it . it 's typical bright eyes , and if you already love the band you wo n't be disappointed . however , it 's not one of their best albums . it 's not as good as lifted , not as addicting as fevers and mirrors , and not as raw and endearing as letting off the happiness . but yet again , conor succeeds in writing songs that capture all of the emotion without making me ill in a dashboard confessional sort of way +camera pos my family goes swimming quiet a bit . i got the sports pack to take pictures of the kids underwater in the pool . this is a big hit . it works extremely well . i also highly recommend the sony dsc-t9 camera . it 's great for trips . it 's so small you can put it in your pocket and the pics look great +music neg this cd is 100% pure junk ! the cd is sung by kids ! they have high-pitched voices that are n't even good enough to win the school talent show . the other singers are adults who have voices that are n't anything impressive , either . if the songs were sung by the original singer it would of been better . stop this s****y music ! +music pos i rarely write reviews , but i need to comment on how fantastic this compilation is . i have a four-year-old and an eighteen-month-old , and this cd is in heavy rotation at our house . my husband and i love the music at least as much as they do - - it 's stylish and sets a great mood as we 're making dinner and doing dishes . the kids love it too , needless to say . my four-year-old 's favorites are three blind mice ( she loves when the farmer 's wife squeaks that she 'll give back the tails ) and the final track by peggy lee ( where she says the word *poop* , as in " party poop " - - endless laughter ensues ) . ella fitzgerald 's a-tisket , a-tasket and chew , chew your bubblegum are priceless . all in all , i highly recommend this cd - - everyone will be happy to hear it again and again +music pos this is a cd that everyone should have ! there are four great voices and they do country music the way it should be ! lorrie morgan is the best and i like everything on this ! ! buy it and enjoy ! chery +music pos this is their best studio album . what more can i say ? brokedown palace may be the most beautiful rock song of all time . a must diff --git a/labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.tok b/labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.tok new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8679886 --- /dev/null +++ b/labs/lab1/wiki-en-1m.tok @@ -0,0 +1,768 @@ +101 32 +115 32 +116 104 +97 110 +105 110 +101 114 +100 32 +116 32 +111 110 +258 256 +44 32 +97 114 +121 32 +111 114 +101 110 +97 108 +46 32 +111 102 +273 32 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It is one of the four months to have 30 days. + +April always begins on the same day of the week as July, and additionally, January in leap years. April always ends on the same day of the week as December. + +The Month + +April comes between March and May, making it the fourth month of the year. It also comes first in the year out of the four months that have 30 days, as June, September and November are later in the year. + +April begins on the same day of the week as July every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. April ends on the same day of the week as December every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. + +In common years, April starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, April starts on the same day of the week as January of the previous year, and in leap years and years immediately after that, April finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year. + +In years immediately before common years, April starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year. + +April is a spring month in the Northern Hemisphere and an autumn/fall month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of October in the other. + +It is unclear as to where April got its name. A common theory is that it comes from the Latin word "aperire", meaning "to open", referring to flowers opening in spring. Another theory is that the name could come from Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love. It was originally the second month in the old Roman Calendar, before the start of the new year was put to January 1. + +Quite a few festivals are held in this month. In many Southeast Asian cultures, new year is celebrated in this month (including Songkran). In Western Christianity, Easter can be celebrated on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25. In Orthodox Christianity, it can fall between April 4 and May 8. At the end of the month, Central and Northern European cultures celebrate Walpurgis Night on April 30, marking the transition from winter into summer. + +April in poetry +Poets use April to mean the end of winter. For example: April showers bring May flowers. + +Events in April + +Fixed Events + + April 1 - April Fools' Day + April 1 - Islamic Republic Day (Iran) + April 2 - International Children's Book Day + April 2 - Thai Heritage and Conservation Day + April 2 - World Autism Awareness Day + April 2 - Malvinas Day (Argentina) + April 4 - Independence Day (Senegal) + April 4 - International Day for Landmine Awareness and Assistance + April 4 - Peace Day (Angola) + April 5 - End of Tax Year (United Kingdom) + April 6 - Tartan Day (Canada and United States) + April 6 - Chakri Day (Thailand) + April 7 - Day of Maternity and Beauty (Armenia) + April 7 - Genocide Memorial Day (Rwanda) + April 7 - World Health Day + April 7 - Women's Day (Mozambique) + April 8 - Buddha's Birthday (Buddhism) + April 9 - Martyrs' Day (Tunisia) + April 9 - Day of National Unity (Georgia) + April 9 - Day of the Finnish language + April 12 - Cosmonauts' Day (Russia), marking the day of Yuri Gagarin's space flight + April 13 - Songkan (Laos), local New Year celebration + April 13 - Cambodian New Year + April 13 - Thomas Jefferson's Birthday (United States) + April 14 - Southeast Asian New Year festivals, including Songkran + April 14 - Georgian language Day + April 14 - Youth Day (Angola) + April 14 - Ambedkar Jayanti (India) + April 14 - Pan-American Day + April 15 - Tax Day (United States) + April 15 - Kim Il-Sung's Birthday (North Korea) + April 15 - Father Damien Day (Hawaii) + April 15 - Jackie Robinson Day (Major League Baseball) + April 16 - Birthday of Queen Margrethe II of Denmark + April 16 - Emancipation Day (Washington, DC) + April 16 - World Voice Day + April 16 - Selena Day (Texas) + April 17 - National Day of Syria + April 17 - Flag Day (American Samoa) + April 17 - Women's Day (Gabon) + April 17 - World Hemophilia Day + April 18 - Independence Day (Zimbabwe) + April 18 - Invention Day (Japan) + April 18 - International Day of Monuments and Sites + April 19 - Bicycle Day + April 19 - Dutch-American Friendship Day + April 19 - Birthday of King Mswati III of Swaziland + April 19 - Patriots' Day (Massachusetts, Maine, Wisconsin) + April 20 - 4/20 in Cannabis Culture + April 21 - John Muir Day (California) + April 21 - San Jacinto Day (Texas) + April 21 - Kartini Day (Indonesia) + April 21 - National Tree Planting Day (Kenya) + April 21 - First Day of Ridran (Baha'i faith) + April 21 - Grounation Day (Rastafari movement) + April 22 - Earth Day + April 22 - Discovery Day (Brazil) + April 23 - Saint George's Day, celebrating the patron saint of several countries, regions and cities (including England and Catalonia) + April 23 - World Book Day + April 23 - National Sovereignty and Children's Day (Turkey) + April 24 - Democracy Day (Nepal) + April 24 - Genocide Day (Armenia) + April 24 - Republic Day (the Gambia) + April 25 - Australia and New Zealand celebrate ANZAC Day. ANZAC means Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, and began in 1915. + April 25 - World DNA Day + April 25 - World Malaria Day + April 25 - Flag Day (Swaziland, Faroe Islands) + April 25 - Freedom Day (Portugal) + April 25 - Liberation Day (Italy) + April 25 - Army Day (North Korea) + April 26 - Union Day (Tanzania) + April 26 - Confederate Memorial Day (Texas, Florida) + April 27 - Independence Day (Sierra Leone and Togo) + April 27 - Freedom Day (South Africa) + April 27 - World Tapir Day + April 27 - King's Day (Netherlands) from 2014, birthday of Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands + April 28 - Workers Memorial Day + April 28 - National Day (Sardinia) + April 28 - National Heroes Day (Barbados) + April 29 - Showa Day (Japan), birthday of Emperor Hirohito, who died in 1989 + April 29 - International Dance Day + April 30 - Former Queen's Day Holiday in the Netherlands (changed to King's Day, April 27 in 2014), was the birthday of former Queen Juliana of the Netherlands + April 30 - Flag Day in Sweden (birthday of King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden) + April 30 - International Jazz Day + April 30 - Walpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe) + +Moveable Events + + Easter-related events in Western Christianity: + Palm Sunday (between March 15 and April 18) + Maundy Thursday (between March 19 and April 22) + Good Friday (between March 20 and April 23) + Easter Sunday (between March 22 and April 25) + Easter Monday (between March 23 and April 26) + Eastern Orthodox Easter falls between April 4 and May 8. + Ascension Day (Western Christianity), falls between April 30 and June 3. + Jewish Passover - falls in the same week as Western Christianity's Holy Week, which is the week leading up to Easter. + Mother's Day (UK) falls between March 1 and April 4. + World Snooker Championship (late April, early May) + Horse racing - Grand National (UK), Kentucky Derby (United States) + Start of Daylight Saving Time - Clocks going forward one hour: + Most of Mexico + Morocco (Ramadan does not include Daylight Saving Time) + End of Daylight Saving Time - Clocks going back one hour: + Southeast Australia, and New Zealand + Chile + Marathon Events in the following cities: + Belgrade, Serbia + Boston, Massachusetts, United States + Brighton, United Kingdom + Enschede, Netherlands + London, United Kingdom (held in October from 2020 to 2022 because of COVID-19) + Madrid, Spain + Paris, France + Rotterdam, Netherlands + Utrecht, Netherlands + Zurich, Switzerland + +Selection of Historical Events + + April 1, 1918 - The Royal Air Force is founded. + April 1, 1976 - Apple Inc. is founded. + April 1, 1979 - The Islamic Republic of Iran is founded. + April 1, 1999 - The territory of Nunavut is created in Northern Canada. + April 1, 2001 - The Netherlands introduces same-sex marriage, as the first country to do so. + April 2, 1519 - Florida is sighted by a European for the first time. + April 2, 1930 - Haile Selassie becomes Emperor of Ethiopia. + April 2, 1982 - Start of the Falklands War, as Argentine forces land on the Falkland Islands. + April 2, 2005 - Pope John Paul II dies aged 84, after years as Pope. + April 3, 1973 - The first-ever mobile phone call is placed by Martin Cooper in New York City. + April 4, 1721 - Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. + April 4, 1841 - William Henry Harrison dies. He was President of the United States for 31 days, the shortest-ever time in office for a US president. + April 4, 1960 - Senegal becomes independent. + April 4, 1968 - Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee. + April 5, 1722 - Jacob Roggeveen becomes the first European to land on Easter Island, landing there on Easter Sunday. + April 6, 1320 - Scotland's independence is confirmed with the Declaration of Arbroath. + April 6, 1830 - The Mormon Church is founded. + April 6, 1909 - Robert Peary claims to have been first at the North Pole on this date. + April 7, 1994 - The Rwandan Genocide begins. + April 9, 1865 - American Civil War: Confederate forces under Robert E. Lee surrender to Union forces. + April 9, 1940 - World War II: Denmark and Norway are invaded by Nazi Germany. + April 9, 1989 - April 9 tragedy: In Tbilisi, Georgia, a peaceful demonstration for independence is broken up by the Soviet Army, killing 20 people. The country gains independence on this date exactly two years later. + April 10, 1815 - Mount Tambora in Indonesia erupts in a huge eruption, affecting the world's climate for at least a year. + April 10, 2010 - A plane crash near Smolensk, Russia, kills several people who were important in Poland, including President Lech Kaczynski. + April 11, 1814 - Napoleon Bonaparte is exiled to the island of Elba. + April 11, 1954 - Said to have been the most boring day of the 20th century. + April 12, 1861 - The American Civil War begins at Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina. + April 12, 1945 - US President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies, and Harry S. Truman replaces him. + April 12, 1961 - Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to fly into space. + April 14, 1865 - US President Abraham Lincoln is shot dead at Ford's Theatre by John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln dies the next day. + April 14, 2010 - Qinghai Province, China, is hit by an earthquake, killing tens of thousands of people. + April 14, 2010 - The eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland shuts down air traffic around Europe for a week, due to its ash cloud. + April 15, 1912 - The ship RMS Titanic sinks near Newfoundland after hitting an iceberg, resulting in the deaths of many of the people on board. + April 16, 1943 - Albert Hofmann discovers LSD's effects. + April 17, 1946 - Syria gains full independence from France. + April 17, 1955 - Albert Einstein dies. + April 18, 1906 - 1906 San Francisco earthquake: San Francisco, California, is hit by a big earthquake, resulting in fires that destroy large parts of the city. + April 18, 1980 - Zimbabwe gains full independence. + April 19, 1897 - The first Boston Marathon is held. + April 19, 1971 - Sierra Leone becomes a republic. + April 19, 1993 - The siege of the Branch Davidians at Waco, Texas, ends in a fire that kills 82 people. + April 19, 1995 - Timothy McVeigh carries out the Oklahoma City bombing, killing 169 people. + April 19, 2005 - Joseph Alois Ratzinger becomes Pope Benedict XVI. + April 20, 1889 - Adolf Hitler is born. + April 20, 1902 - Marie Curie and Pierre Curie refine Radium. + April 20, 2010 - Deepwater Horizon oil spill: A massive fire on the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico kills 11 workers and causes a massive oil spill, the worst spill in US history. + April 21, 753 BC - Legendary founding date of Rome + April 21, 1509 - Henry VIII of England becomes King. + April 21, 1908 - Frederick Cook claims to have reached the North Pole on this date. + April 22, 1502 - Pedro Alvares Cabral becomes the first European to reach present-day Brazil. + April 22, 1970 - Earth Day is observed for the first time. + April 23, 1533 - The Church of England declares that Henry VIII of England and Catherine of Aragon are not married. + April 24, 1916 - The Easter Rising occurs in Dublin, Ireland. + April 24, 1990 - The Hubble Space Telescope is launched on the Space Shuttle Discovery. + April 25, 1915 - World War I: In Turkey, the Battle of Gallipoli begins, Australian, French, British and New Zealand forces land at Anzac cove. + April 25, 1974 - Portugal's dictatorship is overthrown in a coup, in what is known as the Carnation Revolution. + April 26, 1937 - Spanish Civil War: German planes bomb the town of Guernica, Basque Country, later depicted in a painting by Pablo Picasso. + April 26, 1964 - Tanganyika and Zanzibar merge to form Tanzania. + April 26, 1986 - A reactor explosion occurs at the Chernobyl nuclear plant in present-day Ukraine, with radiation spreading around Europe and the world. + April 26/27, 1994 - South Africa holds its first free elections. + April 27, 1960 - Togo becomes independent from France. + April 27, 1961 - Sierra Leone becomes independent from the United Kingdom. + April 28, 1789 - Mutiny on the ship Bounty in the Pacific Ocean, lead by Fletcher Christian. + April 28, 1945 - Benito Mussolini is executed by Italian partisans. + April 28, 1947 - In Peru, Thor Heyerdahl starts his Kon-Tiki expedition aimed at proving his theory that the Polynesian settlers on the Pacific Ocean's islands came from South America. + April 29, 1991 - A cyclone in Bangladesh kills an estimated 138,000 people. + April 29, 2011 - The wedding of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge is broadcast worldwide. + April 30, 1789 - George Washington becomes the first President of the United States. + April 30, 1803 - The United States purchases (buys) the Louisiana territory from France. + April 30, 1945 - Adolf Hitler commits suicide on the same day that the Soviet Army raises the Red Flag on Berlin's Reichstag. + April 30, 1952 - The Diary of Anne Frank is published in English. + April 30, 1975 - The Vietnam War ends, as North Vietnamese forces take Saigon. + April 30, 1980 - Queen Juliana of the Netherlands abdicates the throne, and her daughter becomes Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands. Beatrix later also abdicates, on this day in 2013, in favor of her son, King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. + +Trivia + April has the 100th day of the year. April 10 in a common year, April 9 in a leap year. + In Western Christianity, Easter falls more often in April than in March. + The months around April (March and May) both start with an 'M' in the English language, with an 'A' as the second letter. + In the English language, April is the first of three months in-a-row, along with May and June, that is also a female given name. + The astrological signs for April are Aries (March 21 to April 20) and Taurus (April 21 to May 20). + The sweet pea and daisy are the traditional birth flowers for April. + The birthstone for April is the diamond. + April 1 is the only day in April to start within the first quarter of the calendar year. + If the months of the year were arranged in alphabetical order in the English language, April would come first. + Five current European monarchs were born in April. They are King Philippe of Belgium (April 15), Queen Margrethe II of Denmark (April 16), Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (April 16), King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands (April 27), and King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden (April 30). Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms - who died on September 8, 2022 - was also born in April (on April 21). + +04 +August (Aug.) is the eighth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between July and September. It has 31 days. It is named after the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar. + +August does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August always ends on the same day of the week as November. + +The Month + +This month was first called Sextilis in Latin, because it was the sixth month in the old Roman calendar. The Roman calendar began in March about 735 BC with Romulus. October was the eighth month. August was the eighth month when January or February were added to the start of the year by King Numa Pompilius about 700 BC. Or, when those two months were moved from the end to the beginning of the year by the decemvirs about 450 BC (Roman writers disagree). In 153 BC January 1 was determined as the beginning of the year. + +August is named for Augustus Caesar who became Roman consul in this month. The month has 31 days because Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in 45 BC. August is after July and before September. + +August, in either hemisphere, is the seasonal equivalent of February in the other. In the Northern hemisphere it is a summer month and it is a winter month in the Southern hemisphere. + +No other month in common years begins on the same day of the week as August, but August begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August ends on the same day of the week as November every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart. + +In common years, August starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the previous year, and in leap years, June of the previous year. In common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as March and June of the previous year, and in leap years, September of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, August starts on the same day of the week as February of the previous year. + +In years immediately before common years, August starts on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, October of the following year. In years immediately before common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, February and October of the following year. + +August observances + +Fixed observances and events + + August 1 National Day of Switzerland + August 1 Independence Day (Benin) + August 1 Emancipation Day (Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago) + August 1 Army Day (People's Republic of China) + August 1 Lammas, cross-quarter day in the Celtic calendar + August 1 Statehood Day (Colorado) + August 2 Republic Day (Republic of Macedonia) + August 2 Emancipation Day (Bahamas) + August 3 Independence Day (Niger) + August 5 Independence Day (Burkina Faso) + August 5 Victory Day (Croatia) + August 6 Independence Day (Bolivia) + August 6 Independence Day (Jamaica) + August 7 Independence Day (Ivory Coast) + August 8 Father's Day (Taiwan) + August 9 National Day of Singapore + August 9 Day of the Indigenous People (Suriname) + August 9 National Women's Day (South Africa) + August 10 Independence Day (Ecuador) + August 10 Missouri Day + August 11 Independence Day (Chad) + August 12 Perseid Meteor Shower + August 12 Queen Sirikit's Birthday (Thailand) + August 13 Independence Day (Central African Republic) + August 14 Independence Day (Pakistan) + August 15 Assumption of Mary in Western Christianity + August 15 Independence Day (India) + August 15 Independence Day (Republic of the Congo) + August 15 Independence Day (Bahrain) + August 15 National Day of South Korea + August 15 National Day of Liechtenstein + August 15 Victory in Japan Day + August 17 Independence Day (Indonesia) + August 17 Independence Day (Gabon) + August 19 World Humanitarian Day + August 19 Independence Day (Afghanistan) + August 20 Feast day of Stephen I of Hungary + August 20 Regaining of Independence (Estonia) + August 21 Admission Day (Hawaii) + August 21 Ninoy Aquino Day (Philippines) + August 21 Saint Helena Day + August 22 Start of Ashenda (Ethiopia and Eritrea) + August 23 National Heroes Day (Philippines) + August 24 Independence Day (Ukraine) + August 25 Independence Day (Uruguay) + August 26 Heroes' Day (Namibia) + August 27 Independence Day (Moldova) + August 28 Assumption of Mary (Eastern Christianity) + August 29 National Uprising Day (Slovakia) + August 30 Constitution Day (Kazakhstan) + August 30 Republic Day (Tatarstan) + August 30 Victory Day (Turkey) + August 31 Independence Day (Kyrgyzstan) + August 31 Independence Day (Malaysia) + August 31 Independence Day (Trinidad and Tobago) + +Moveable and Monthlong events + + Edinburgh Festival, including the Military Tattoo at Edinburgh Castle, takes place through most of August and beginning of September. + UK Bank Holidays: First Monday in Scotland, last Monday in England and Wales + National Eisteddfod, cultural celebration in Wales: First week in August + Children's Day in Uruguay: Second Sunday in August + Monday after August 17: Holiday in Argentina, commemorating JosĂ© de San Martin + Discovery Day in Canada: third Monday in August + Summer Olympics, often held in July and/or August + +Selection of Historical Events + + August 1 1291: Traditional founding date of Switzerland. + August 1 1914: World War I begins. + August 1 1944: Anne Frank makes the last entry in her diary. + August 1 1960: Dahomey (now called Benin) becomes independent. + August 2 1990: Iraq invades Kuwait. + August 3 1492: Christopher Columbus sets sail on his first voyage. + August 3 1960: Niger becomes independent. + August 4 1944: Anne Frank and her family are captured by the Gestapo in Amsterdam. + August 4 1984: Upper Volta's name is changed to Burkina Faso. + August 5 1960: Upper Volta becomes independent. + August 5 1962: Film actress Marilyn Monroe is found dead at her home. + August 6 1825: Bolivian independence. + August 6 1945: The Atomic Bomb is dropped on Hiroshima. + August 6 1962: Jamaica becomes independent. + August 7 1960: Ivory Coast becomes independent. + August 9 1945: The Atomic Bomb is dropped on Nagasaki. + August 9 1965: Singapore becomes independent. + August 9 1974: US President Richard Nixon resigns following the Watergate scandal, with Gerald Ford replacing him. + August 10 1792: Storming of the Tuileries Palace during the French Revolution + August 10 1809: Beginning of Ecuadorean independence movement. + August 11 1960: Chad becomes independent. + August 13 1960: The Central African Republic becomes independent. + August 13 1961: Building of the Berlin Wall begins. + August 14 1945: Japan announces its surrender at the end of World War II. + August 14/15 1947: India is partitioned at independence from the UK, as the new mainly Islamic state of Pakistan is created. + August 15 1960: The Republic of the Congo becomes independent. + August 15 1971: Bahrain becomes independent. + August 16 1977: Elvis Presley dies aged 42, leading to a worldwide outpouring of grief. + August 17 1945: Indonesia declares independence from the Netherlands. + August 17 1960: Gabon becomes independent. + August 17 1962: Peter Fechter becomes the first person to be shot dead at the Berlin Wall. + August 19 43 BC: Augustus becomes Roman consul. + August 19 14: Augustus dies. + August 19 1919: Afghanistan becomes independent. + August 19 1991: The August Coup against Mikhail Gorbachev, in the Soviet Union, begins. + August 20 1940: Leon Trotsky is fatally wounded with an ice pick in Mexico. + August 20 1968: The Prague Spring uprising is crushed. + August 20 1991: Estonia regains its independence from the Soviet Union. + August 21 1959: Hawaii becomes the 50th State of the US. + August 24 79: Vesuvius erupts, destroying Pompeii and neighbouring Herculaneum. + August 24 1991: Ukraine regains independence from the Soviet Union. + August 24 2006: Pluto is demoted to a dwarf planet. + August 25 1825: Uruguay declares independence from Brazil. + August 25 1989: Voyager 2 flies by the planet Neptune. + August 27 1883: Krakatoa, in the Sunda Strait between Sumatra and Java, explodes, after a very violent eruption. + August 27 1991: Moldova becomes independent from the Soviet Union. + August 28 1963: The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom takes place, where Martin Luther King, Jr. makes his "I Have a Dream" speech for Civil Rights in the United States. + August 29 2005: Hurricane Katrina wreaks devastation in Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. New Orleans is flooded. + August 31 1957: Malaysia, then the Federation of Malaya, becomes independent. + August 31 1962: Trinidad and Tobago becomes independent. + August 31 1991: Kyrgyzstan becomes independent. + August 31 1997: Diana, Princess of Wales is killed in a car crash in Paris, leading to a big outpouring of grief. + +Trivia + Along with July, August is one of two calendar months to be named after people who really lived (July was named for Julius Caesar and August was named for Augustus). + Only one US President has died in August, Warren G. Harding, on August 2, 1923. + August's flower is the Gladiolus with the birthstone being peridot. + The astrological signs for August are Leo (July 22 - August 21) and Virgo (August 22 - September 21). +August is the second of two months beginning with 'A', the other being April, with both April 21 and August 21 falling either side of the Northern summer solstice. + +References + +08 +Art is a creative activity. It produces a product, an object. Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, performing subjects, and expressing the author's thoughts. The product of art is called a work of art, for others to experience. + +Some art is useful in a practical sense, such as a sculptured clay bowl that can be used. That kind of art is sometimes called a craft. + +Those who make art are called artists. They hope to affect the emotions of people who experience it. Some people find art relaxing, exciting or informative. Some say people are driven to make art due to their inner creativity. + +"The arts" is a much broader term. It includes drawing, painting, sculpting, photography, performance art, dance, music, poetry, prose and theatre. + +Types of art + +Art is divided into the plastic arts, where something is made, and the performing arts, where something is done by humans in action. The other division is between pure arts, done for themselves, and practical arts, done for a practical purpose, but with artistic content. + + Plastic art + Fine art is expression by making something beautiful or appealing to the emotions by visual means: drawing, painting, printmaking, sculpture + Literature: poetry, creative writing + Performing art + Performing arts are expression using the body: drama, dance, acting, singing + Auditory art (expression by making sounds): music, singing + Practical art + Culinary art (expression by making flavors and tastes): cooking + The practical arts (expression by making things and structures: architecture, filming, fashion, photography, video games) + +What "art" means +Some people say that art is a product or item that is made with the intention of stimulating the human senses as well as the human mind, spirit and soul. An artwork is normally judged by how much impact it has on people, the number of people who can relate to it, and how much they appreciate it. Some people also get inspired. + +The first and broadest sense of "art" means "arrangement" or "to arrange." In this sense, art is created when someone arranges things found in the world into a new or different design or form; or when someone arranges colors next to each other in a painting to make an image or just to make a pretty or interesting design. + +Art may express emotion. Artists may feel a certain emotion and wish to express it by creating something that means something to them. Most of the art created in this case is made for the artist rather than an audience. However, if an audience is able to connect with the emotion as well, then the art work may become publicly successful. + +History of art +There are sculptures, cave painting and rock art dating from the Upper Paleolithic era. + +All of the great ancient civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt, India, China, Greece, Rome and Persia had works and styles of art. In the Middle Ages, most of the art in Europe showed people from the Bible in paintings, stained-glass windows, and mosaic tile floors and walls. + +Islamic art includes geometric patterns, Islamic calligraphy, and architecture. In India and Tibet, painted sculptures, dance, and religious painting were done. In China, arts included jade carving, bronze, pottery, poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, and fiction. There are many Chinese artistic styles, which are usually named after the ruling dynasty. + +In Europe, after the Middle Ages, there was a "Renaissance" which means "rebirth". People rediscovered science and artists were allowed to paint subjects other than religious subjects. People like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci still painted religious pictures, but they also now could paint mythological pictures too. These artists also invented perspective where things in the distance look smaller in the picture. This was new because in the Middle Ages people would paint all the figures close up and just overlapping each other. These artists used nudity regularly in their art. + +In the late 1800s, artists in Europe, responding to Modernity created many new painting styles such as Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism. The history of twentieth century art includes Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and Minimalism. + +Roles of art +In some societies, people think that art belongs to the person who made it. They think that the artist put his or her "talent" and industry into the art. In this view, the art is the property of the artist, protected by copyright. + +In other societies, people think that art belongs to no one. They think that society has put its social capital into the artist and the artist's work. In this view, society is a collective that has made the art, through the artist. + +Functions of art +The functions of art include: + +1) Cognitive function + + Works of art let us know about what the author knew, and about what the surroundings of the author were like. + +2) Aesthetic function + + Works of art can make people happy by being beautiful. + +3) Prognostic function + + Some artists draw what they see the future like, and some of them are right, but most are not... + +4) Recreation function + + Art makes us think about it, not about reality; we have a rest. + +5) Value function + + What did the artist value? What aims did they like/dislike in human activity? This usually is clearly seen in artists' works. + +6) Didactic function + + What message, criticism or political change did the artist wish to achieve? + +Related pages + Art history + Modern art + Abstract art + Magnum opus + Painting + Sculpture + Street art + +References + + +Non-verbal communication +Basic English 850 words +A or a is the first letter of the English alphabet. The small letter, a or α, is used as a lower case vowel. + +When it is spoken, Ä is said as a long a, a diphthong of Ä and y. A is similar to Alphabet of the Greek alphabet. That is not surprising, because it means the same sound. + +"Alpha and Omega" (the last letter of the Greek alphabet) means from beginning to the end. In musical notation, the letter A is the symbol of a note in the scale, below B and above G. + +A is the letter that was used to represent a team in an old TV show, The A-Team. A capital a is written "A". Use a capital A at the start of a sentence if writing. + +A is also a musical note, sometimes referred to as "La". + +Where it came from +The letter 'A' was in the Phoenician alphabet's aleph. This symbol came from a simple picture of an ox head. + +This Phoenician letter helped make the basic blocks of later types of the letter. The Greeks later modified this letter and used it as their letter alpha. The Greek alphabet was used by the Etruscans in northern Italy, and the Romans later modified the Etruscan alphabet for their own language. + +Using the letter +The letter A has six different sounds. It can sound like ĂŠ, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, such as the word pad. Other sounds of this letter are in the words father, which developed into another sound, such as in the word ace. + +Use in mathematics +In algebra, the letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities. + +In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to label line segments, lines, etc. Also, A is typically used as one of the letters to label an angle in a triangle. + +Its letter shape is referred to abstractly in Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge's 5th postulate, the basis for, as one of the Millennium Prize Problems, the Hodge Conjecture. + +References + +Basic English 850 words +Vowel letters +Air is the Earth's atmosphere. Air is a mixture of many gases and tiny dust particles. It is the clear gas in which living things live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has mass and weight, because it is matter. The weight of air creates atmospheric pressure. There is no air in outer space. + +Atmosphere is a mixture of about 78% nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, and 1% other gases, such as Carbon Dioxide. + +Animals live and need to breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere. In breathing, the lungs put oxygen into the blood, and send back carbon dioxide to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off the oxygen that we breathe. Without it we die of asphyxia. + +Air can be polluted by some gases (such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides), smoke, and ash. This air pollution causes various problems including smog, acid rain and global warming. It can damage people's health and the environment. There are debates about whether or not to act upon climate change, but soon enough the Earth will heat up to much, causing our home to become too hot and not support life! Some say fewer people would die of cold weather, and that is true but there is already a huge amount of people dying from heat and that number is and will keep increasing at a frighting height. + +Since early times, air has been used to create technology. Ships moved with sails and windmills used the mechanical motion of air. Aircraft use propellers to move air over a wing, which allows them to fly. Pneumatics use air pressure to move things. Since the late 1900s, air power is also used to generate electricity. + +Air is invisible: it cannot be seen by the eye, though a shimmering in hot air can be seen. + +Air is one of the 4 classical elements. + +Main history + +Original atmosphere +At first it was mainly a hydrogen atmosphere. It has changed dramatically on several occasionsâfor example, the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago, greatly increased oxygen in the atmosphere from practically no oxygen to levels closer to present day. Humans have also contributed to significant changes in atmospheric composition through air pollution, especially since industrialisation, leading to rapid environmental change such as ozone depletion and global warming. + +Second atmosphere +Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases. + +Third atmosphere + +The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide was transferred to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago. The Great Oxygenation Event is shown by the end of the banded iron formations. + +Related pages + Air pollution + Air craft + +References + +Basic English 850 words +Atmosphere +Spain is divided in 17 parts called autonomous communities. Autonomous means that each of these autonomous communities has its own executive, legislative judicial powers. These are similar to, but not the same as, states in the United States of America, for example. + +Spain has fifty smaller parts called provinces. In 1978 these parts came together, making the autonomous communities. +Before then, some of these provinces were together but were broken. The groups that were together once before are called "historic communities": Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia. + +The Spanish language is the sole official language in every autonomous community but six, where Spanish is co-official with other languages, as follows: + Catalonia: Catalan and Occitan + Valencian Community: Catalan (also called Valencian there) + Balearic Islands: Catalan + Galicia: Galician + Basque Country: Basque + Navarre: Basque (only in the north and near the border with the Basque County) + +List of the autonomous communities, with their Capital city (the place where the government has its offices): + + Andalusia (its capital is Sevilla) + Aragon (its capital is Zaragoza) + Asturias (its capital is Oviedo) + Balearic Islands (its capital is Palma de Mallorca) + Basque Country (its capital is Vitoria) + Canary Islands (they have two capitals - Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife) + Cantabria (its capital is Santander) + Castile-La Mancha (its capital is Toledo) + Castile and LeĂłn (its capital is Valladolid) + Catalonia (its capital is Barcelona) + Extremadura (its capital is MĂ©rida) + Galicia (its capital is Santiago de Compostela) + La Rioja (its capital is Logroño) + Community of Madrid (its capital is Madrid) + Region of Murcia (its capital is Murcia) + Navarre (its capital is Pamplona) + Valencian Community (its capital is Valencia) + +Spain also has two cities on the north coast of Africa: Ceuta and Melilla. They are called "autonomous cities" and have simultaneously the majority of the power of an autonomous community and also power of provinces and power of municipalities. +Alan Mathison Turing OBE FRS (London, 23 June 1912 â Wilmslow, Cheshire, 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician and computer scientist. He was born in Maida Vale, London. + +Early life and family +Alan Mathison Turing was born in Maida Vale, [London] on 23 June 1912. His father was part of a family of merchants from Scotland. His mother, Ethel Sara, was the daughter of an engineer. + +Education +Turing went to St. Michael's, a school at 20 Charles Road, St Leonards-on-sea, when he was five years old. +"This is only a foretaste of what is to come, and only the shadow of what is going to be.â â Alan Turing. + +The Stoney family were once prominent landlords in North Tipperary. His mother Ethel Sara Stoney (1881â1976) was daughter of Edward Waller Stoney (Borrisokane, North Tipperary) and Sarah Crawford (Cartron Abbey, Co. Longford), who were Protestant Anglo-Irish gentry. She was educated in Dublin at Alexandra School and College. On October 1st 1907 she married Julius Mathison Turing, who was Reverend John Robert Turing and Fanny Boyd, in Dublin. Alan Turing was born on June 23rd 1912. He would go on to be regarded as one of the greatest figures of the twentieth century. + +Alan was a brilliant mathematician and cryptographer. He became the founder of modern-day computer science and artificial intelligence. He designed a machine at Bletchley Park to break secret Enigma encrypted messages used by the Nazi German war machine to protect sensitive commercial, diplomatic and military communications during World War 2. This made the single biggest contribution to the Allied victory in the war against Nazi Germany. It possibly saved the lives of an estimated 2 million people, and shortened World War II. + +In 2013, almost 60 years later, Turing received a posthumous Royal Pardon from Queen Elizabeth II. Today, the âTuring lawâ grants an automatic pardon to men who died before the law came into force, making it possible for living convicted gay men to seek pardons for offences now no longer on the statute book. + +Turing died in 1954, after being subjected by a British court to chemical castration. He is known to have ended his life at the age of 41 years, by eating an apple laced with cyanide. + +Career +Turing was one of the people who worked on the first computers. He created the theoretical Turing machine in 1936. The machine was imaginary, but it included the idea of a computer program. + +Turing was interested in artificial intelligence. He proposed the Turing test, to say when a machine could be called "intelligent". A computer could be said to "think" if a human talking with it could not tell it was a machine. + +During World War II, Turing worked with others to break German ciphers (secret messages). He worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking centre that produced Ultra intelligence. +Using cryptanalysis, he helped to break the codes of the Enigma machine. After that, he worked on other German codes. + +From 1945 to 1947, Turing worked on the design of the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine) at the National Physical Laboratory. He presented a paper on 19 February 1946. That paper was "the first detailed design of a stored-program computer". Although it was possible to build ACE, there were delays in starting the project. In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a sabbatical year. While he was at Cambridge, the Pilot ACE was built without him. It ran its first program on 10 May 1950. + +Private life +Turing was a homosexual man. In 1952, he admitted having had sex with a man in England. At that time, homosexual acts were illegal. Turing was convicted. He had to choose between going to jail and taking hormones to lower his sex drive. He decided to take the hormones. After his punishment, he became impotent. He also grew breasts. + +In May 2012, a private member's bill was put before the House of Lords to grant Turing a statutory pardon. In July 2013, the government supported it. A royal pardon was granted on 24 December 2013. + +Death +In 1954, Turing died from cyanide poisoning. The cyanide came from either an apple which was poisoned with cyanide, or from water that had cyanide in it. The reason for the confusion is that the police never tested the apple for cyanide. It is also suspected that he committed suicide. + +The treatment forced on him is now believed to be very wrong. It is against medical ethics and international laws of human rights. In August 2009, a petition asking the British Government to apologise to Turing for punishing him for being a homosexual was started. The petition received thousands of signatures. Prime Minister Gordon Brown acknowledged the petition. He called Turing's treatment "appalling". + +References + +Other websites +Jack Copeland 2012. Alan Turing: The codebreaker who saved 'millions of lives'. BBC News / Technology + +English computer scientists +English LGBT people +English mathematicians +Gay men +LGBT scientists +Scientists from London +Suicides by poison +Suicides in the United Kingdom +1912 births +1954 deaths +Officers of the Order of the British Empire +Alanis Nadine Morissette (born June 1, 1974) is a Grammy Award-winning Canadian-American singer and songwriter. She was born in Ottawa, Canada. She began singing in Canada as a teenager in 1990. In 1995, she became popular all over the world. + +As a young child in Canada, Morissette began to act on television, including 5 episodes of the long-running series, You Can't Do That on Television. Her first album was released only in Canada in 1990. + +Her first international album was Jagged Little Pill, released in 1995. It was a rock-influenced album. Jagged has sold more than 33 million units globally. It became the best-selling debut album in music history. Her next album, Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie, was released in 1998. It was a success as well. Morissette took up producing duties for her next albums, which include Under Rug Swept, So-Called Chaos and Flavors of Entanglement. Morissette has sold more than 60 million albums worldwide. + +She also acted in several movies, including Kevin Smith's Dogma, where she played God. + +About her life +Alanis Morissette was born in Riverside Hospital of Ottawa in Ottawa, Ontario. Her father is French-Canadian. Her mother is from Hungary. She has an older brother, Chad, and a twin brother, Wade, who is 12 minutes younger than she is. Her parents had worked as teachers at a military base in Lahr, Germany. + +Morissette became an American citizen in 2005. She is still Canadian citizen. + +On May 22, 2010, Morissette married rapper Mario "MC Souleye" Treadway. + +Jagged Little Pill +Morissette has had many albums. Her 1995 album Jagged Little Pill became a very popular album. It has sold over 30 million copies worldwide. The album caused Morissette to win four Grammy Awards. The album Jagged Little Pill touched many people. + +On the album, Morissette sang songs about many different things. These things include: +love (in the song "Head Over Feet") +life (in the songs "Ironic" and "You Learn") +her feelings (in the songs "Hand In My Pocket" and "All I Really Want") +sadness (in the song "Mary Jane") +anger (in the song "You Oughta Know") +frustration (in the songs "Not the Doctor" and "Wake Up") + +Discography + +Albums +Alanis (Canada-only, 1991) +Now Is the Time (Canada-only, 1992) +Jagged Little Pill (1995) +Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie (1998) +Alanis Unplugged (1999) +Under Rug Swept (2002) +Feast on Scraps (CD/DVD, 2002) +So-Called Chaos (2004) +Jagged Little Pill Acoustic (2005) +Alanis Morissette: The Collection (2005) +Flavors of Entanglement (2008) +Havoc and Bright Lights (2012) + +Selected songs +Morissette has written many songs. Some of her most famous songs are: +"You Oughta Know" - This song is to Morissette's ex-boyfriend, a man she once loved. In this song, Morissette is very angry. She wants her ex-boyfriend to know that he caused many problems after leaving her for another woman. +"Ironic" - This song is about life. It contains several stories about unlucky people. In one of the stories, a man is afraid of flying on airplanes. He finally flies in one, but the airplane crashes. +"You Learn" - In this song, Morissette says that bad things happen in life, but people learn from them. Anyone can make bad things into good things. She wants people to try new things in life. +"Uninvited" - In this song, Morissette is not happy because she is famous. She does not know whether she wants to continue to be famous or not. +"Thank U" - In this song, she thanks many things that have helped her. She thanks India, a country she visited and almost died in. She also lists ways she can improve herself. +"Hands Clean" - In this song, a man does something bad, and tells Morissette not to tell anyone else the bad thing the man did. She hides the man's secret for many years. + +References + +Other websites + + Official website + +1974 births +Living people + +American child actors +American movie actors +American pop musicians +American rock singers +American singer-songwriters +American television actors +Canadian movie actors +Canadian pop singers +Canadian rock singers +Canadian singer-songwriters +Canadian television actors +Grammy Award winners +People from Ottawa +Singers from Ontario +Twin people from Canada +Adobe Illustrator is a computer program for making graphic design and illustrations. It is made by Adobe Systems. Pictures created in Adobe Illustrator can be made bigger or smaller, and look exactly the same at any size. It works well with the rest of the products with the Adobe name. + +History +It was first released in 1986 for the Apple Macintosh. The latest version is Adobe Illustrator CS6, part of Creative Suite 6. + +Release history + +References + +Vector graphics editors +Adobe software +Andouille is a type of pork sausage. It is spicy (hot in taste) and smoked. There are different kinds, all with different combinations of pork meat, fat, intestines (tubes going to the stomach), and tripe (the wall of the stomach). + +Other sorts are "French andouille" and "German andouille"; they are less spicy than Cajun. Cajun has extra salt, black pepper, and garlic. Andouille makers smoke the sausages over pecan wood and sugar cane for a maximum of seven or eight hours, at about 175 degrees Fahrenheit (80 degrees Celsius). + +Sausage +Farming is growing crops and keeping animals for food and raw materials. Farming is a major part of agriculture. + +History +Farming started thousands of years ago, but no one knows for sure how old it is. The development of farming gave rise to the Neolithic Revolution as people gave up nomadic hunting and became settlers in cities. + +Farming and domestication probably started in the Fertile Crescent (the Nile Valley, the Levant and Mesopotamia). The area called Fertile Crescent is now in the countries of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt. Wheat and barley are some of the first crops people grew. + +Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC. + +Livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats were taken to the Americas, from the Old World. The first of those horses, came with the Spanish conquistadors (or soldiers and explorers) in the 1490s. Moving those cattle, sheep, goats and horses, were part of the Columbian Exchange. + +People probably started agriculture by planting a few crops, but still gathered many foods from the wild. People may have started farming because the weather and soil began to change. Farming can feed many more people than hunter-gatherers can feed on the same amount of land. + +This allowed the human population to grow to such large numbers as there are today. + +Types +Arable farming means growing crops. This would include wheat or vegetables. +Growing fruit means having orchards devoted to fruit. They cannot be switched easily with growing field crops. Therefore, they are not classed as arable land in the statistics. + +Many people still live by subsistence farming, on a small farm. They can only grow enough food to feed the farmer, his family, and his animals. The yield is the amount of food grown on a given amount of land, and it is often low. This is because subsistence farmers are generally less educated, and they have less money to buy equipment. Drought and other problems sometimes cause famines. Where yields are low, deforestation can provide new land to grow more food. This provides more nutrition for the farmer's family, but can be bad for the country and the surrounding environment over many years. + +In some countries, farms are often fewer and larger. During the 20th century they have become more productive because farmers are able to grow better varieties of plants, use more fertilizer, use more water, and more easily control weeds and pests. Many farms also use machines, so fewer people can farm more land. There are fewer farmers in rich countries, but the farmers are able to grow more. + +This kind of intensive agriculture comes with its own set of problems. Farmers use a lot of chemical fertilizers, pesticides (chemicals that kill bugs), and herbicides (chemicals that kill weeds). These chemicals can pollute the soil or the water. They can also create bugs and weeds that are more resistant to the chemicals, causing outbreaks of these pests. The soil can be damaged by erosion (blowing or washing away), salt builddup, or loss of structure. Irrigation (adding water from rivers) can pollute water and lower the water table. These problems have all got solutions, and modern young farmers usually have a good technical education. + +Farmers select plants with better yield, taste, and nutritional value. They also choose plants that can survive plant disease and drought, and are easier to harvest. Centuries of artificial selection and breeding have changed crop plants. The crops produce better yield. Fertilizers, chemical pest control, and irrigation all help. + +Some plants are improved with genetic engineering. One example is modifying the plant to resist herbicides. + +Livestock +Farms may also keep animals. That is called animal husbandry. If they are used to make meat for people to eat, that is livestock production. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, are kept for their produce. "Produce" here means their eggs and milk, which are sold by the farm, usually in markets. Large animals need grassland of some kind for grazing. What they need depends on the animals. Goats eat a much wider range of plants than cows. In some parts of the world, that makes goats a more sensible choice for a farmer than cows. + +Food + +It is important for there to be enough food for everyone. The food must also be safe and good. People say it is not always safe, because it contains some chemicals. Other people say intensive agriculture is damaging the environment. For this reason, there are several types of agriculture. + Traditional agriculture is mostly done in poor countries. + Intensive agriculture is mostly done in countries with more money. It uses pesticides, machinery, chemical fertilizers. + Organic farming is using only natural products such as compost and green manure. + Integrated farming is using local resources, and trying to use the waste from one process as a resource in another process. + +Agricultural policy means the goals and methods of agricultural production. Common goals of policy include the quality, amount, and safety of food. + +Problems +There are some serious problems that people face trying to grow food today. +These include: + Pollution + Erosion + Diseases + Pests + Weeds + Drought + Rainfall + Climate: Earth warming is an important example + Contamination + +There are also difficulties with the distribution of food: + Warfare: see Nigerian Civil War (Biafran War) for an example. See RussiaâUkrainian war for an example. + Distribution: Difficulties with moving product from grower to consumer. It is expected that this difficulty will increase in future. The reasons for this are complex, but one important factor may be the absence of a dominant international naval power. The British Navy provided protection against pirates in the 19th and early 20th century, and the US Navy protected shipping after WWII. The US is still a dominant naval power, but its power will soon be based on its small number of huge aircraft carriers. They will not deal with small boats full of armed pirates, which is the usual way piracy is done. So we can expect grain ships (etc) will have to carry any protection they may need, or they will have to go the long way around. That means avoiding the shortcuts into the Mediterranean. Other kinds of warfare, such as we see in the Ukraine, adds to the problem of shipping food products safely. + +Crops +In produced weight, these crops are the most important (global production in metric tonnes): + +The figure for sugarcane is rather deceptive. It omits sugar beet, but includes the weight of the woody stalk. Most of the plants which produce food are in the grass family Poaceae. + +Related pages + Aquaculture + Bee keeping + Animal husbandry + Fertilizers + Crop rotation + Urban farming + Breeding + Fencing + Ranching + Plantation + Crop protection +Cultured meat +Genetically modified food + +Agriculture by country +Agriculture in Azerbaijan +Agriculture in Pakistan + +References +In mathematics, arithmetic is the basic study of numbers. The four basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, although other operations such as exponentiation and roots are also studied in arithmetic. + +Other arithmetic topics includes working with negative numbers, fractions, decimals and percentages. + +Most people learn arithmetic in primary school, but some people do not learn arithmetic and others forget the arithmetic they learned. Many jobs require a knowledge of arithmetic, and many employers complain that it is hard to find people who know enough arithmetic. A few of the many jobs that require arithmetic include carpenters, plumbers, mechanics, accountants, architects, doctors, and nurses. Arithmetic is needed in all areas of mathematics, science, and engineering. + +Some arithmetic can be carried out mentally. A calculator can also be used to perform arithmetic. Computers can do it more quickly, which is one reason Global Positioning System receivers have a small computer inside. + +Examples of arithmetic + (addition is commutative: is the same as ) + (subtraction is not commutative: is different from ) + (multiplication is commutative: is the same as ) + (division is not commutative: is different from + +Related pages + Affine arithmetic + Elementary algebra + Interval arithmetic + Modular arithmetic + +References + +Arithmetics +Not to be confused with building extension which are also called additions + +In mathematics, addition, represented by the symbol , is an operation which combines two mathematical objects together into another mathematical object of the same type, called the sum. Addition can occur with simple objects such as numbers, and more complex objects and concepts such as vectors and matrices. + +Addition has several important properties. It is commutative, meaning that the order of the operands does not matter, and it is associative, meaning that when one adds more than two numbers, the order in which addition is performed does not matter (see Summation). Repeated addition of 1 is the same as counting. Addition of 0 does not change a number. Addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as subtraction and multiplication. + +Arithmetic + +In arithmetic, addition is the operation where two or more numbers called "addends" are used to make a new number, which is the "sum" or total that is expressed with the equals sign. The symbol for addition, in infix notation, is the plus sign "+" placed between the operands. + +Counting examples +For example, there are objects in two groups (as shown on the right). The objects are various shapes, where one group has 3 of them while the other has 2. When the two groups combine into one, the overall amount (sum) of the shapes become 5. + +Vertical Addition + +The animation above demonstrates the addition of seven hundred eighty six and four hundred sixty seven. The problem's digits have been separated into units, tens and hundreds (see Place value). + +First, the units 6 and 7 are added together to make 13, so 1 ten and 3 units, with the 3 written below and the 1 ten carried to the tens column. Next, in the tens column, the 1, 8, and 6 are added together to make 15 tens, so 1 hundred and 5 tens, with the 5 written below and the 1 hundred carried to the hundreds column. Finally, in the hundreds column, 1, 7, and 4 are added together to make 12 hundreds, so 1 thousand and 2 hundreds, with the 2 written below and the 1 thousand carried to the thousand column. The final answer is thus one thousand two hundred fifty three. + +A measurement example +Tom wants to know the distance between his house and Sally's house. Bob's house is 300 m east of Tom's house. Sally's house is 120 m east of Bob's house: + +Tom's house 300 m Bob's house 120 m Sally's house + +The distance from Tom's house to Sally's house can be found by adding the distances already measured. The distance from Tom's house to Bob's house, added to the distance from Bob's house to Sally's house, is the same as the distance from Tom's house to Sally's house. That is, 300 m plus 120 m. + +Hence Sally's house is 420 m to the east of Tom's house. + +Properties + +Commutativity + +Addition is commutative, meaning that one can change the order of the numbers in a sum, but still get the same result. For example: + and + +Associativity + +Addition is also associative, which means that when three or more numbers are added together, the order of operations does not change the result. + +For any three numbers , , and , it is true that . For example, and , which means that . + +When addition is used together with other operations, the order of operations becomes important. In the standard order of operations, addition is to be computed later than exponentiation, roots, multiplication and division, but has equal importance as subtraction. + +Addition table + +Related pages + Operations + Identity element + Order of operations + Hyperoperation + +References + +Other websites + AAA Math: Addition + +Basic English 850 words +Hyperoperations +Australia (officially called the Commonwealth of Australia) is a country and sovereign state in the southern hemisphere, located in Oceania. Its capital city is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney. + +Australia is the sixth biggest country in the world by land area, and is part of the Oceanic and Australasian regions. Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and other islands on the Australian tectonic plate are together called Australasia, which is one of the world's great ecozones. When other Pacific islands are included with Australasia, it is called Oceania. + +25 million people live in Australia, and about 85% of them live near the east coast. The country is divided up into six states and two territories, and more than half of Australia's population lives in and around the cities of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide. The first people to live in the country were the Indigenous Australians: many of them died from smallpox during colonisation. + +Australia is known for its mining (coal, iron, gold, diamonds and crystals), its production of wool, and as the world's largest producer of bauxite. Its emblem is a flower called the golden wattle. + +Australia is also known for its animals and rich wildlife. The national symbols of Australia are the kangaroo and the golden wattle. Scientifically, perhaps even more important are its two monotreme mammals: the platypus and the echidna. + +Geography + +Australia's landmass of is on the Indo-Australian plate. The continent of Australia, including the island of Tasmania, was separated from the other continents of the world many millions of years ago. Because of this, many animals and plants live in Australia that do not live anywhere else. These include animals like the kangaroo, the koala, the emu, the kookaburra, and the platypus. + +People first arrived in Australia more than 50,000 years ago. These native Australians are called the Australian Aboriginals. For the history of Australia, see History of Australia. + +Most of the Australian colonies, having been settled from Britain, became mostly independent democratic states in the 1850s and all six combined as a federation on 1 January 1901. The first Prime Minister of Australia was Edmund Barton in 1901. Australia is a member of the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations. It is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with King Charles III as King of Australia and Head of State and a Governor-General who is chosen by the Prime Minister to carry out all the duties of the King in Australia. + +Regions and cities + +Australia has six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia and Tasmania (which is a large island). The two major mainland territories are the Northern Territory (which is huge) and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) which is not much more than a city. + +The population is about 26 million people (2021 census = 25,890,773). Most Australians live in cities along the coast, such as Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, Newcastle and the Gold Coast. The largest inland city is Canberra, which is also the nation's capital. The largest city is Sydney. + +Australia is a very large country, but much of the land is very dry, and the middle of the continent is mostly a hot desert. Only the areas around the east, west and south coast have enough rain and a suitable climate (not too hot and dry) for farms and cities. The island state of Tasmania has a more balanced climate than much of the mainland. + +Climate change +All the capital cities except Perth and Darwin are in the south-east of the country. There is now increasing rainfall and flooding which affects this region, which is ominous [threatening]. It is thought this is caused by climate change, and may continue to get worse. The BBC report comments: "In the past three years, record-breaking bushfire and flood events have killed more than 500 people and billions of animals. Drought, cyclones and freak tides have gripped communities". The BBC report continues: "Nowhere is this a bigger issue than in Queensland. It is home to almost 40% of the 500,000 homes projected to be effectively uninsurable". This means people can't get insurance because the risk of flooding (in one season) or fire (in another season) is too great. + +History + +Aboriginal people + +The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people arrived in Australia about 60,000 years ago or maybe even earlier. Until the arrival of British settlers in 1788, the Aboriginal people lived by hunting and gathering food from the land. They lived in all sorts of climates and managed the land in different ways. An example of Aboriginal land management was the Cumberland Plain where Sydney is now. Every few years the Aboriginal people would burn the grass and small trees. This meant that a lot of grass grew back, but not many big trees. Kangaroos like to live on grassy plains, but not in forests. The kangaroos that lived on the plain were a good food supply for the Aboriginal people. Sometimes, Aboriginals would name a person after an animal, and they could not eat that animal to help level out the food population. + +Aboriginal people did not usually build houses, except huts of grass, leaves and bark. They did not usually build walls or fences, and there were no horses, cows or sheep in Australia that needed to be kept in pens. The only Aboriginal buildings that are known are fish-traps made from stones piled up in the river, and the remains of a few stone huts in Victoria and Tasmania. The Aboriginal people did not use metal or make pottery or use bows and arrows or weave cloth. In some parts of Australia the people used sharp flaked-stone spearheads, but most Aboriginal spears were made of sharply pointed wood. Australia has a lot of trees that have very hard wood that was good for spear making. The boomerang was used in some areas for sport and for hunting. + +The Aboriginal people did not think that the land belonged to them. They believed that they had grown from the land, so it was like their mother, and they belonged to the land. + +Terra Australis +In the 1600s, Dutch merchants traded with the islands of Batavia (now Indonesia), to the north of Australia and several different Dutch ships touched on the coast of Australia. The Dutch governor, van Diemen, sent Abel Tasman on a voyage of discovery and he found Tasmania, which he named Van Diemen's Land. Its name was later changed to honour the man who discovered it. + +The British Government was sure that there must be a very large land in the south, that had not been explored. They sent Captain James Cook to the Pacific Ocean. His ship, HMS Endeavour, carried the famous scientists, Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander who were going to Tahiti where they would watch the planet Venus pass in front of the Sun. Captain Cook's secret mission was to find "Terra Australis" (the Land of the South). + +The voyage of discovery was very successful, because they found New Zealand and sailed right around it. Then they sailed westward. At last, a boy, William Hicks, who was up the mast spotted land on the horizon. Captain Cook named that bit of land Point Hicks. They sailed up the coast and Captain Cook named the land that he saw "New South Wales". At last they sailed into a large open bay which was full of fish and stingrays which the sailors speared for food. Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander went ashore and were astonished to find that they did not know what any of the plants or birds or animals that they saw were. They collected hundreds of plants to take back to England. + +Captain Cook saw the Aboriginal people with their simple way of life. He saw them fishing and hunting and collecting grass seeds and fruit. But there were no houses and no fences. In most parts of the world, people put up a house and a fence or some marker to show that they own the land. But the Aboriginal people did not own the land in that way. They belonged to the land, like a baby belongs to its mother. Captain Cook went home to England and told the government that no-one owned the land. This would later cause a terrible problem for the Aboriginal people. + +Settlement + +In the 1700s, in England, laws were tough, many people were poor and gaols (jails) were full. A person could be sentenced to death for stealing a loaf of bread. Many people were hanged for small crimes. But usually they were just thrown in gaol. Often they were sent away to the British colonies in America. But by the 1770s, the colonies in America became the United States. They were free from British rule and would not take England's convicts any more, so England needed to find a new and less populated place. + +By the 1780s the gaols of England were so full that convicts were often chained up in rotting old ships. The government decided to make a settlement in New South Wales and send some of the convicts there. In 1788 the First Fleet of eleven ships set sail from Portsmouth carrying convicts, sailors, marines, a few free settlers and enough food to last for two years. Their leader was Captain Arthur Phillip. They were to make a new colony at the place that Captain Cook had discovered, named Botany Bay because of all the unknown plants found there by the two scientists. + +Captain Phillip found that Botany Bay was flat and windy. There was not much fresh water. He went with two ships up the coast and sailed into a great harbour called Port Jackson, which he said was "the finest harbour in the world". There were many small bays on the harbour so he decided on one which had a good stream of fresh water and some flat shore to land on. On 26 January 1788, the flag was raised and New South Wales was claimed in the name of King George III of England, and the new settlement was called Sydney. + +For the first few years of the settlement, things were very difficult. No-one in the British Government had thought very hard about what sort of convicts should be sent to make a new colony. Nobody had chosen them carefully. There was only one man who was a farmer. There was no-one among the convicts who was a builder, a brick-maker or a blacksmith. No-one knew how to fix the tools when they broke. All of the cattle escaped. There were no cooking pots. All the plants were different so no-one knew which ones could be eaten. It was probable that everyone in the new colony would die of starvation. + +The little group of tents had a hut for the Governor, Arthur Phillip, and another hut for the supply of food. Soon it grew into a small town with streets, a bridge over the stream, a windmill for grinding grain and wharves for ships. By the 1820s there was a fine brick house for the Governor. There was also a hospital and a convict barracks and a beautiful church which are still standing today. Settlements had spread out from Sydney, firstly to Norfolk Island and to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), and also up the coast to Newcastle, where coal was discovered, and inland where the missing cattle were found to have grown to a large herd. Spanish Merino sheep had been brought to Sydney, and by 1820, farmers were raising fat lambs for meat and also sending fine wool back to the factories of England. + +While the settlement was growing in New South Wales, it was also growing in Tasmania. The climate in Tasmania was more like that in England, and farmers found it easy to grow crops there. + +Exploration + +Because Australia is such a very large land, it was easy to think that it might be able to hold a large number of people. In the early days of the colony, a great number of explorers went out, searching for good land to settle on. +When the settlers looked west from Sydney, they saw a range of mountains which they called the Blue Mountains. They were not very high and did not look very rugged but for many years no-one could find their way through them. In 1813 Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and a 17-year-old called William Charles Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains and found land on the other side which was good for farming. A road was built and the governor, Lachlan Macquarie founded the town of Bathurst on the other side, 160 km (100 miles) from Sydney. Bathurst became Australia's first inland settlement. + +Some people, like Captain Charles Sturt were sure that there must be a sea in the middle of Australia and set out to find it. Many of the explorers did not prepare very well, or else they went out to explore at the hottest time of year. Some died like Burke and Wills. Ludwig Leichhardt got lost twice. The second time, he was never seen again. Major Thomas Mitchell was one of the most successful explorers. He mapped the country as he went, and his maps remained in use for more than 100 years. He travelled all the way to what is now western Victoria, and to his surprise and annoyance found that he was not the first white person there. The Henty brothers had come from Tasmania, had built themselves a house, had a successful farm and fed the Major and his men on roast lamb and wine. + +Self government + +The gold rushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold. The population grew across south east Australia and made great wealth and industry. By 1853 the gold rushes had made some poor people very rich. + +The transportation of convicts to Australia ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and not be told what to do from London. The first governments in the colonies were run by governors chosen by London. Soon the settlers wanted local government and more democracy. William Wentworth started the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government. In 1840, the city councils started and some people could vote. New South Wales Legislative Council had its first elections in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote. In 1855, limited self-government was given by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1855, the right to vote was given to all men over 21 in South Australia. The other colonies soon followed. Women were given the vote in the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 and they became the first women in the world allowed to stand in elections. + +Australians had started parliamentary democracies all across the continent. But voices were getting louder for all of them to come together as one country with a national parliament. + +The Commonwealth of Australia + +Until 1901, Australia was not a nation, it was six separate colonies governed by Britain. They voted to join to form one new country, called the Commonwealth of Australia, in 1901. Australia was still part of the British Empire, and at first wanted only British or Europeans to come to Australia. But soon it had its own money, its own Army and its own Navy. + +In Australia at this time, the trade unions were very strong, and they started a political party, the Australian Labor Party. Australia passed many laws to help the workers. + +In 1914, the First World War started in Europe. Australia joined in on the side of Britain against Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Australian soldiers were sent to Gallipoli, in the Ottoman Empire. They fought bravely, but were beaten by the Turks. Today Australia remembers this battle every year on ANZAC Day. They also fought on the Western Front. More than 60,000 Australians and New Zealanders were killed. + +In 1932, the Sydney Harbour Bridge was opened. + +Australia had a really hard time in the Great Depression of the 1930s and joined Britain in a war against Nazi Germany when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. But in 1941 lots of Australian soldiers were captured in the Fall of Singapore by Japan. Then Japan started attacking Australia and people worried about invasion. But with help from the United States Navy, the Japanese were stopped. After the war, Australia became a close friend of the United States and Japan. + +When the war ended, Australia felt that it needed many more people to fill the country up and to work. So the government said it would take in people from Europe who had lost their homes in the war. It did things like building the Snowy Mountains Scheme. Over the next 25 years, millions of people came to Australia. They came especially from Italy and Greece, other countries in Europe. Later they also came from countries like Turkey and Lebanon. An important new party, the Liberal Party of Australia was made by Robert Menzies in 1944 and it won lots of elections from 1949 until in 1972, then Gough Whitlam won for the Labor Party. Whitlam made changes, but he made the Senate unhappy and the Governor-General sacked him and forced an election in 1975. Then Malcolm Fraser won a few elections for the Liberal Party. + +In the 1960s many people began coming to Australia from China, Vietnam, Malaysia and other countries in Asia. Australia became more multicultural. In the 1950s and 1960s Australia became one of the richest countries in the world, helped by mining and wool. Australia started trading more with America, than Japan. Australia supported the United States in wars against dictatorships in Korea and Vietnam and later Iraq. Australian soldiers also helped the United Nations in countries like East Timor in 1999. + +In 1973, the famous Sydney Opera House opened. In the 1970s, 80s and 90s lots of Australian movies, actors and singers became famous around the world. In the year 2000, Sydney had the Summer Olympics. + +In the 1980s and 90s, the Labor Party under Bob Hawke and Paul Keating, then the Liberal Party under John Howard made lots of changes to the economy. Australia had a bad recession in 1991, but when other Western countries had trouble with their economies in 2008, Australia stayed strong. + +Today Australia is a rich, peaceful and democratic country. But it still has problems. Around 4-5% of Australians could not get a job in 2010. A lot of land in Australia (like Uluru) has been returned to Aboriginal people, but lots of Aboriginals are still poorer than everybody else. Every year the government chooses a big number of new people from all around the world to come as immigrants to live in Australia. These people may come because they want to do business, or to live in a democracy, to join their family, or because they are refugees. Australia took 6.5 million immigrants in the 60 years after World War Two, including around 660,000 refugees. + +Julia Gillard became the first woman Prime Minister of Australia in 2010 when she replaced her Labor Party colleague Kevin Rudd (who later replaced her). + +Politics + +Australia is part of the Commonwealth of Nations. Australia is made up of six states, and two mainland territories. Each state and territory has its own Parliament and makes its own local laws. The Parliament of Australia sits in Canberra and makes laws for the whole country, also known as the Commonwealth or Federation. + +The Federal government is led by the Prime Minister of Australia, who is the member of Parliament chosen as leader. The current Prime Minister is Anthony Albanese. + +The leader of Australia is the Prime Minister, although the Governor-General represents the Queen of Australia, who is also the Queen of Great Britain, as head of state. The Governor-General, currently His Excellency David Hurley, is chosen by the Prime Minister. + +Culture + +Australia was colonised by people from Britain, but today people from all over the world live there. English is the main spoken language. Christianity is the main religion, though all religions are accepted and not everybody has a religion. Australia is multicultural: all its people are encouraged to keep their different languages, religions and ways of life, while also learning English and joining in with other Australians. Australia has many immigrants from different countries around the world. + +Famous Australian writers include the bush balladeers Banjo Paterson and Henry Lawson who wrote about life in the Australian bush. More modern famous writers include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Colleen McCullough. In 1973, Patrick White won the Nobel Prize in Literature, the only Australian to have achieved this; he is seen as one of the great English-language writers of the twentieth century. + +Australian music has had world-wide stars, for example the opera singers Nellie Melba and Joan Sutherland, the rock and roll bands Bee Gees, AC/DC and INXS, the folk-rocker Paul Kelly (musician), the pop singer Kylie Minogue and Australian country music stars Slim Dusty and John Williamson. Australian Aboriginal music is very special and very ancient: it has the famous didgeridoo woodwind instrument. + +Australian TV has produced many successful programs for home and overseas. Skippy the Bush Kangaroo, Home and Away and Neighbours are examples. It has had well known TV stars, such as Barry Humphries (Dame Edna Everage), Steve Irwin (The Crocodile Hunter) and The Wiggles. Major Australian subgroups such as the Bogan have been shown on Australian TV in shows such as Bogan Hunters and Kath & Kim. + +Australia has two public broadcasters (the ABC and the multicultural SBS), three commercial television networks, three pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has its daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. + +Australian movies have a long history. The world's first feature movie was the Australian movie The Story of the Kelly Gang of 1906. In 1933, In the Wake of the Bounty, directed by Charles Chauvel, had Errol Flynn as the main actor. Flynn went on to a celebrated career in Hollywood. The first Australian Oscar was won by the 1942 Kokoda Front Line!, directed by Ken G. Hall. In the 1970s and 1980s Australian movies and movie stars became world famous. There were movies like Picnic at Hanging Rock, Gallipoli (with Mel Gibson), The Man From Snowy River and Crocodile Dundee. Russell Crowe, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger became global stars during the 1990s and Australia starring Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman made a lot of money in 2008. + +Australia is a popular destination for business conferences and research, with Sydney one of the top 20 meeting destinations in the world. + +Sport + +Sport is an important part of Australian culture because the climate is good for outdoor activities. 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly take part in organised sporting activities. The most popular sports are Australian rules football, rugby league and cricket. In international sports, Australia has very strong teams in cricket, hockey, netball, rugby league and rugby union, and performs well in cycling, rowing and swimming. Local popular sports include Australian Rules Football, horse racing, soccer and motor racing. Australia has participated in every summer Olympic Games since 1896, and every Commonwealth Games. Australia has hosted the 1956 and 2000 Summer Olympics, and has ranked in the top five medal-winners since 2000. Australia has also hosted the 1938, 1962, 1982 and 2006 Commonwealth Games and are to host the 2018 Commonwealth Games. Other major international events held regularly in Australia include the Australian Open, one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, annual international cricket matches and the Formula One Australian Grand Prix. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and elite athletes is common in Australia. Televised sport is popular; some of the highest-rated television programs include the Summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions. + +The main sporting leagues for men are the AFL (Australian rules football), the NRL (rugby league), the A-League (soccer) and the NBL (basketball). For women, they are the AFLW (Australian rules football), ANZ Netball Championships (netball), the W-League (soccer) and WNBL (basketball). + +Famous Australian sports players include the cricketer Sir Donald Bradman, the swimmer Ian Thorpe, the cricketer Shane Warne and the athlete Cathy Freeman. + +Art festivals +Just 60 years ago, Australia had only one big art festival. Now Australia has hundreds of smaller community-based festivals, and national and regional festivals that focus on specific art forms. + +Indigenous life +Australia is home to many animals and plants that can be found nowhere else on Earth, except perhaps New Guinea. + +The platypus and the short-beaked echidna are unique, and are two of the only five surviving monotremes. Monotremes are only found in Australia and New Guinea. + +Koalas, kangaroos, wombats, numbats and many others others, are marsupials. Most of the marsupials in the world are found only on the continent or on the neighbouring island of New Guinea. Wildfires from global warming in 2020 have reduced their population. + +Trees +The gum trees are almost as remarkable as the animals. They are mainly Eucalypts and other gum trees. These are woody evergeens which make essential oils and are prone to fire. Sticky heavily scented gum squeezes out of their wood. The tribe has about 860 species. They are all native to Southeast Asia and Oceania. Most live in Australia. Until British settlement in Australia, these trees were almost entirely unknown. They had been separated from the Americas, Africa and much of Asia for millions of years. + +References +Notes + +References + +Other websites + + Official website for australia travel Official website for Australia travel. + Australia travel informations User generated guide to Australia. + + +Australasia +Commonwealth realms +English-speaking countries +Federations +1901 establishments +American English or US English is the dialect of the English language spoken in the United States of America. It is different in some ways from other types of English, such as British English. Most types of American English came from local dialects in England. During the 18th and 19th centuries, pronunciation changed less in America than in England. + +Use +Many people today know about American English even if they live in a country where another type of English is spoken. They hear and read American English through the media, for example movies, television, and the Internet, where the most common form of English is American English. + +Because people all over the world use the English language, it gets many new words. English has been changing in this way for hundreds of years. For example, the many millions who speak Indian English frequently add American English words to go along with its British English base and many other words from the various Indian languages. + +Sometimes people learn American English as it is spoken in the US. For example, in telephone call centers in India and other places, people often learn American English to sound more like their customers who call from the US. These people often keep using American English in everyday life. + +Spelling + +There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often keeps more traditional ways of spelling words than American English. + +Vocabulary +There are also some words in American English that are a bit different from British English, e.g.: + aeroplane is called "airplane" + ladybird is called "ladybug" + lift is called "elevator" + toilet is called "bathroom", "restroom" or "comfort station" + lorry is called "truck" + nappies are called "diapers" + petrol is called "gas" (or "gasoline") + the boot of a car is called a "trunk" + a dummy is called a "pacifier" + trousers are called "pants" + underground is called "subway" + football is called "soccer" + braces are "suspenders" ("suspenders" in British-English are a type of clothing worn around the lower leg to stop socks/sox from sagging, or around the upper leg by people wearing stockings) + +Regional accents +General American English is the kind most spoken in mass media. It more vigorously pronounces the letter "R" than some other kinds do. "R-dropping" is frequent in certain places where "r" sound is not pronounced after a vowel. For example as in the words "car" and "card" sounding like "cah" and "cahd". This occurs in the Boston area. +Some regional accents of American English include + +Appalachian English - This is the stereotypical hillbilly accent. This accent is completely rhotic and can even have phantom Rs (in words they don't belong) + +General Southern - This is a range of accents which tend to be rhotic or semi-rhotic, have glide deletion (in which I is converted to broad A) + +Tidewater English - A non-rhotic (r-dropping) southern variety that also has a "Scottish" or "Canadian" raising of the "ow" diphthong in words like "house" "about" "brown", etc. + +Charleston and Savannah English - Almost extinct accents that are non-rhotic + +Boston English (also east New England English) - This is the most famous non-rhotic American accent and what most other non-rhotic American varieties often get compared to. Other Bostonian features include limited Canadian raising of the "ow" diphthong (before voiceless consonants such as in words like "house" and "about"). + +New York City English - One of the most recognizable dialects in the US, NYC English is characterized by variable non-rhoticity or semi-rhoticity, a rounding of the long o sound ( making " coffee" and "thought" sound like "cawfee" and "thawt"). + +South Louisiana English - This group of non-rhotic accents can be heard in New Orleans and its surrounding areas and can be described as a combination between New York City English and Southern American English. + +Northern Midwest English - The accents of this area tend to sound a lot like Canadian English. + +Valley girl and surfer dude - This accent is common to southern California and has features like " vocal fry" (creaky voice), and "upturn" at the ends of sentences. + +References + +Other websites + + American English -Citizendium +Aquaculture is the farming of fish, shrimp, abalones, algae, and other seafood. Aquaculture supplies fish, such as catfish, salmon, and trout. It was developed a few thousand years ago in China. Aquaculture supplies over 20% of all the seafood harvested. + +Fish farming has been practiced, in some parts of the world, for thousands of years. Goldfish originated about a thousand years ago in carp farms in China, and the Roman Empire farmed oysters and other seafood. Today, half of the seafood eaten in the U.S. is farmed. To help meet the growing global demand for seafood, aquaculture is growing fast. + +The environmental impact of fish farming varies widely, depending on the species being farmed, the methods used and where the farm is located. When good practices are used, it's possible to farm seafood in a way that has very little impact to the environment. Such operations limit habitat damage, disease, escapes of farmed fish and the use of wild fish as feed. + +References + +Aquaculture +An abbreviation is a shorter way to write a word or phrase. People use abbreviations for words that they write a lot. The English language occasionally uses the apostrophe mark ' to show that a word is written in a shorter way, but some abbreviations do not use this mark. More often, they use periods, especially the ones that come from the Latin language. Common Latin abbreviations include i.e. [id est] that is, e.g. [exempli gratia] for example, and et al. [et alia] and others. + +Some new abbreviations have been created by scientists, by workers in companies and governments, and by people using the Internet. + +People often think words are abbreviations when in fact they are acronyms. + +Here are examples of common acronyms: The word "radar" is an acronym for "Radio Detection and Ranging". The name of the large computer company IBM comes from the words "International Business Machines". The name of the part of the United States government that sends rockets into outer space is NASA, from the words "National Aeronautics and Space Administration". When people using the Internet think that something is very funny, they sometimes write "LOL" to mean "Laughing Out Loud". People sometimes write "ASAP" for "As Soon As Possible". + +Other websites + Acronym Finder - largest acronym site with many ways to search for acronyms and abbreviations in many languages. Over 10-year history. + All Acronyms - a website with a large number of abbreviations and acronyms + Acronyms Abbreviations and Slang - over 3 million different acronyms and abbreviations in searchable database + SlangLang Abbreviations - Slang Words: 2,700 abbreviations and their meanings +Linguistics +In many mythologies and religions, an angel is a good spirit. The word angel comes from the Greek word angelos which means "messenger". Angels appear frequently in the Old Testament, the New Testament, Qur'an and Aqdas. + +Different references to angels throughout the Bible suggest different kinds and ranks of angels, such as seraphs (Hebrew plural: seraphim) or cherubs (Hebrew plural: cherubim). This resulted in medieval theologians outlining a hierarchy of such divine messengers, including not only cherubs and seraphs, but also archangels, powers, principalities, dominions and thrones. + +The study of angels is called angelology. + +In the Bible +Angels are powerful spirits that obey God's commands. They sometimes appear to humans in a human form. They can deliver messages to people in person or in dreams. Angels that are named in the Bible are Michael (called a "chief prince"), Gabriel (known for telling Mary that she would be the mother of Jesus), and Raphael (in the Apocryphal Book of Tobit). The Ethiopian Book of Enoch also lists four Archangels which watch over the four quadrants of heaven; Michael, Raphael, Gabriel and Uriel. Lucifer is also known as an angel in the Bible. + +Types + Cherubs are described as creatures which have four wings. Cherubim guard the Eden with a sword of fire. This suggests that the author of Genesis was aware of different types of angels. A Cherub is mentioned in Ezekiel 28:13-14, saying that the angel was in the Garden of God. + +Ezekiel 28:13-14 +13. Thou hast been in Eden the garden of God; every precious stone was thy covering, the sardius, topaz, and the diamond, the beryl, the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald, and the carbuncle and gold: the workmanship of thy tabrets and of thy pipes was prepared in thee in the day that thou wast created. +14. Thou art the anointed cherub that covereth; and I have set thee so: thou wast upon the holy mountain of God; thou hast walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire. + +It describes the sound of their wings, "like the roar of rushing waters." + +Ezekiel 10:5-7 ; Ezekiel 10:8 reveals that they have hands like a man under their wings . + +Ezekiel 1:7 KJV reveals that they look like man but are different because they have "straight feet" and four wings and four faces. + +Ezekiel ch 1, and 10 describe the cherubim creatures ascending and descending from the earth with wheels. Ezekiel 1:14-20 ; Ezekiel 10:16 + +Ezekiel 10:9-13 describes what the wheels appeared to look like, and how they moved around, how they moved or flew through the sky quickly but turned not as they went; and how the inside workings of the wheels appeared to be "a wheel in the midst of a wheel" and that the color of the wheels was the color of "Amber" Stone. There are four separate wheels in both accounts, one for each single cherub which is there. + Seraphs (Hebrew for "burning") are depicted as having six wings They are known for singing and praising God. They can shout so loud, they shake the temple. + Archangels like Gabriel (Gospel of Luke 1:19) are the highest type of angel. They are considered saints in the Catholic church. However, in the King James Version of the Bible; they are another type of angel. In the Book of Revelation the Angel Michael casts the 'great dragon' Satan out of heaven and down to earth in a great battle between the good and bad angels, just before the Great Judgement of angels and man. (Revelation 12) + The Leviathan in Book of Job 41:19-21 has flame that goes: 'out of his mouth' like a dragon. Isaiah 30:6 also talks of a 'fiery flying serpent'. Compare Revelation 20:2: , where an angel: 'laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him a thousand years'. + +Religion + +Rabbinic Judaism +In Judaism angels are created by God from fire. They fullfil tasks given by God. Rabbinic Judaism rejects earlier accounts on fallen angels who sinned by mating with humans. Instead, angels are servants of God. Still, not all angels are benevolent. Some angels are jealous of humans, because God loves them so much. Unlike angels, humans can overcome sin and repent. Angels cannot repent their sin, because they are already sinless. + +When the Bible speaks about the creation of humans in the plural, Judaism sometimes argues that God discussed his decision with the angels. But they make clear, it is God alone who creates humans. God only wanted to discuss with the angels to show that someone in power, should still try to value the opinion of people lower. + +Islam +In Islam angels are created by God (Allah) before jinn and humans. Angels live in heaven and fullfil God's orders. Some angels deliver messages to humans and prophets, most famous among them is Gabriel. Other angels support humans with rain. Some angels don't have a task on earth, but dwell in heaven, for example, to praise God. Muslims disagree if angels can fail a task, but they agree that an angel never want to disobey. Sometimes angels might simply make mistakes on accident, like the angels Harut and Marut. But these angels are not considered evil, they just lose their rank as punishment, but can restore their rank later again. Not all angels are nice. God gives angels violent tasks too. For example, God orders angels to punish people in hell, not demons. Muslims believe hell is under God's control, and not the demon's. They believe hell is not only suffering, but also justice. Angels watch out that people don't escape their punishment. While the benevolent angels are said to be created from light, some Muslims think the angels in hell are created from fire. + +In art +They are often shown in art as having wings and a halo. The wings represent their speed, and the halo represents their holiness. + +The cherubim in art always appear as baby faced angels with very small, non-useful wings. + +The cherubim statue or bronze casting of cherubim in the Temple of Solomon depicted them as two four winged creatures whose wings touched at the peak of the ark that they were making. + +The same cherubim creatures were said to be cast in gold on top of the Ark of the Covenant. Casting metal is one of the oldest forms of artwork, and was attempted by Leonardo da Vinci. + +In literature +Angels are generally held to be holy and virtuous, hence the term is used loosely to apply to anyone particularly good or kind, or having a good influence. In his novel Far From the Madding Crowd, Thomas Hardy chooses the name of an angel, Gabriel, for his kind and helpful hero. On the other hand, in his play Measure for Measure, Shakespeare's use of the name Angelo is ironic, since Angelo is a character who likes to see himself as virtuous, but who is concealing evil aspects of his nature. Fallen angels, who are no longer holy or virtuous, are also known as devils. + +However, since angels are held to be spirits (that is, non-material beings), medieval theologians were faced with the problem of how humans could see a non-physical creature. Eventually a theory was put forward that angels must make themselves a body out of the nearest thing to the non-physical, i.e. from air. Hence in his famous poem Aire and Angels, the seventeenth century metaphysical poet John Donne uses this idea to write a cynical comment on women, whose love, he says, is like an angel's body of air, while men's love is like the real thing, the angel itself. + +Idea of Guardian angel +From the era of the Romantics onwards, there has developed the widely held belief that everyone has an angel assigned to guard them. This concept is probably based on Jesus' comment in Matthew 18:10 regarding children, though it is not mentioned elsewhere in the Bible. + +In superstitions +Seeing repetitive numbers are thought to be associated with numerology, also referred to as angel numbers. It is believed that angels communicate with humans through repetitive appearances of numbers. Humanity has studied and used numbers since the dawn of time, and no matter what the culture is, there are certain numbers that hold specific value or meaning over other numbers. + +References + +Related pages +Demigod + +Other websites +Ad hominem is a Latin word for a type of argument. It is a word often used in rhetoric. Rhetoric is the science of speaking well, and convincing other people of your ideas. + +Translated to English, ad hominem means against the person. In other words, when someone makes an ad hominem, they are attacking the person they are arguing against, instead of what they are saying. + +The term comes from the Latin word homo, which means human. Hominem is a gender neutral version of the word homo. In ancient Rome it referred to all free men, or in other words, all free human beings. + +Ad hominem can be a way to use reputation, rumors and hearsay to change the minds of other people listening. When a social network has already excluded or exiled one person, or applied a negative label to them, this can work more often. + +It is most of the time considered to be a weak and poor argument. In courts and in diplomacy ad hominems are not appreciated. + +Ad hominems are not wrong every time. For example, when people think that someone can't be trusted, things that they have said previously can be doubted. + +What an ad hominem argument looks like +In logic, a proof is something that starts with premises, and goes through a few logical arguments, to reach a conclusion. + +Normal (valid) proof + All humans are mortal. + Socrates is human. + Therefore, Socrates is mortal. + +Ad hominem example + Person A thinks abortion should be illegal. + Person A is uneducated and poor. + Therefore, abortion should not be illegal. + +In this example it can be seen that the (completely unrelated) fact that person A is uneducated and poor is used to prove that abortion should not be illegal. + +Related pages + Fallacy for a list of other types of (false) rhetorical arguments. + + + +Latin words used in English +Native Americans (also called Aboriginal Americans, American Indians, Amerindians or indigenous peoples of the Americas) are the indigenous peoples and their descendants, who were in the Americas before Europeans arrived. + +Sometimes these people are called Indians, but this may be confusing, because it is the same word used for people from India. When Christopher Columbus explored, he did not know about the Americas. He was in the Caribbean but thought he was in the East Indies, so he called the people Indians. Today, some think that calling a Native American an Indian is racist. + +There are many different tribes of Native American people, with many different languages. Some tribes were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to place. Others lived in one place and built cities and kingdoms. + +Many Native Americans died after the Europeans came to the Americas. There were diseases that came with the Europeans but were new to the Native Americans. There were battles with the Europeans. Many native people were hurt, killed, or forced to leave their homes by settlers who took their lands. + +Today, there are more than three million Native Americans in Canada and the U.S. combined. About 51 million more Native Americans live in Latin America. Many Native Americans still speak native languages and have their own cultural practices, while others have adopted some parts of Western culture. Many Native Americans face problems with discrimination and racism. + +Origins +The ancestors of Native Americans came to the Americas from Asia. Some of them may have come to America 15,000 years ago when Alaska was connected to Siberia by the Bering land bridge. + +The earliest people in the Americas came from Siberia when there was an ice bridge across the Bering Strait. The cold but mainly grassy plain which connected Siberia with Canada is called Beringia. It is reckoned that a few thousand people arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum before moving into the Americas sometime after 16,500 years before the present (BP). This would have occurred as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted, but before the bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 years BP. + +Before European colonization, Beringia was inhabited by the Yupik peoples on both sides of the straits. This culture remains in the region today, with others. In 2012, the governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish "a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage". Among other things this agreement would establish close ties between the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve and the Cape Krusenstern National Monument in the United States and Beringia National Park in Russia. + +Native Americans are divided into many small nations, called First Nations in Canada and tribes elsewhere. + +Culture +Each Native American tribe has their own culture. The cultures can be grouped together depending on region. For example, the tribes living in Mesoamerica have similar cultures. + +Food +Native Americans ate many different things depending on where they lived. + +Native Americans from Mesoamerica introduced vanilla, avocados, and chocolate to the world. + +Religion +Before Europeans came, the native peoples of the Americans practiced many different religions. Each tribe had their own different beliefs. + +Today, many Native Americans practice Christianity, a religion that was brought to the Americas by Europeans. Meanwhile, others still practice their own religions. + +Languages +Native Americans today speak over a thousand different languages. Some of these languages had writing systems before Europeans came. + +Many of these languages are endangered because more people are speaking European languages and not teaching Native American languages to their kids. + +Music +Native Americans make musical instruments using the things around them. + +Art +Native Americans made a lot of different art. + +Today + +North America + +United States +According to the 2010 United States census, 0.9% of Americans say they are Native American, 2.9 million people, and 0.8% of Americans say they are both Native American and something else. They are not evenly spread out through the United States. About a third of the people in Alaska are Native Alaskan and about a sixth of the people in Oklahoma are Native American. + +In the United States, most Native Americans live in cities. About 28% of Native Americans live on Indian reservations. Many Native Americans are poor, and 24% are extremely poor. The history of violence against Native Americans persists today in higher rates of violence against Native American people than white people. + +Mexico +Many Mexicans are of Native American or mestizo ancestry. Mexico has the largest and most diverse Native American population in Latin America. + +Canada +In the 2016 census, More than 1.67 million people in Canada identified as Indigenous, making them 4.9 per cent of Canadaâs population. + +Central America + +Guatemala +About 40% of the people of Guatemala identify as Native American. Many indigenous groups in the country are descendants of the Maya. + +Many Native Americans in Guatemala are poor. Many of them have left the country to find better jobs elsewhere. + +South America + +Bolivia +The majority of Bolivians belong to indigenous groups. Many are Aymara and Quechua. + +Peru +Peru has a large indigenous population, around 80% of Peru's population identify as indigenous or mestizo. + +Indigenous activism +In the later half of the 20th century, many Native Americans started to protest the unfair treatment they experienced from the societies they lived in. + +Some Native Americans have become famous in politics. For example, an Aymara man named Evo Morales was elected as president of Bolivia in 2005. He was the first indigenous presidential candidate in Bolivia and South America. + +Related pages +First Nations +Plains Indians +Native Americans in the United States + +References +An apple is the edible fruit of a number of trees, known for its juicy, green, or red fruits. The tree (Malus spp.) is grown worldwide. Its fruit is low-cost, popular, and common all over the earth. + +Applewood is a type of wood that comes from this tree. + +The apple tree comes from southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and northwestern part of China. Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and Europe. They were brought to North America by European settlers. Apples have religious and mythological significance in many cultures. + +Apples are generally grown by grafting, although wild apples grow readily from seed. Apple trees are large if grown from seed, but small if grafted onto roots (rootstock). There are more than 10000 known variants of apples, with a range of desired characteristics. Different variants are bred for various tastes and uses: cooking, eating raw and cider production are the most common uses. + +Trees and fruit are attacked by fungi, bacteria and pests. In 2010, the fruit's genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control and selective breeding in apple production. + +Worldwide production of apples in 2013 was 90.8 million tonnes. China grew 49% of the total. + +Botanical information +The apple has a small, leaf-shedding tree that grows up to tall. The apple tree has a broad crown with thick twigs. +The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals. They are 5 to 12 centimetres long and 3â6 centimetres (1.2â2.4 in) wide. It has a sharp top with a soft underside. Blossoms come out in spring at the same time that the leaves begin to bud. The flowers are white. They also have a slightly pink color. They are five petaled, and 2.5 to 3.5 centimetres (0.98 to 1.4 in) in diameter. The fruit matures in autumn. It is usually 5 to 9 centimetres (2.0 to 3.5 in) in diameter. There are five carpels arranged in a star in the middle of the fruit. Every carpel has one to three seeds. + +Wild ancestors +The wild ancestor of apple trees is Malus sieversii. They grow wild in the mountains of Central Asia in the north of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China, and possibly also Malus sylvestris. Unlike domesticated apples, their leaves become red in autumn. They are being used recently to develop Malus domestica to grow in colder climates. + +History + +The apple tree was possibly the earliest tree to be cultivated. Its fruits have become better over thousands of years. It is said that Alexander the Great discovered dwarf apples in Asia Minor in 300 BC. Asia and Europe have used winter apples as an important food for thousands of years. From when Europeans arrived, Argentina and the United States have used apples as food as well. Apples were brought to North America in the 1600s. The first apple orchard on the North American continent was said to be near Boston in 1625. In the 1900s, costly fruit industries, where the apple was a very important species, began developing. + +In culture + +Paganism + +In Norse mythology, the goddess Iðunn gives apples to the gods in Prose Edda (written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson) that makes them young forever. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson suggests that apples were related to religious practices in Germanic paganism. It was from there, she claims, that Norse paganism developed. She points out that buckets of apples were discovered in the place of burial for the Oseberg ship in Norway. She also remarks that fruit and nuts (Iðunn having been described as changing into a nut in SkĂĄldskaparmĂĄl) have been discovered in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England. They have also been discovered somewhere else on the continent of Europe. She suggests that this may have had a symbolic meaning. Nuts are still a symbol of fertility in Southwest England. + +Cooking +Sometimes apples are eaten after they are cooked. Often, apples are eaten uncooked. Apples can also be made into drinks. Apple juice and apple cider are drinks made with apples. + +The flesh of the fruit is firm with a taste anywhere from sour to sweet. Apples used for cooking are sour, and need to be cooked with sugar, while other apples are sweet, and do not need cooking. There are some seeds at the core, that can be removed with a tool that removes the core, or by carefully using a knife. + +The scientific name of the apple tree genus in the Latin language is Malus. Most apples that people grow are of the Malus domestica species. + +Most apples are good to eat raw (not cooked), and are also used in many kinds of baked foods, such as apple pie. Apples are cooked until they are soft to make apple sauce. + +Apples are also made into the drinks apple juice and cider. Usually, cider contains a little alcohol, about as much as beer. The regions of Brittany in France and Cornwall in England are known for their apple ciders. + +Apple variants +If one wants to grow a certain type of apple, it is not possible to do this by planting a seed from the wanted type. The seed will have DNA from the apple that the seeds came from, but it will also have DNA from the apple flower that pollinated the seeds, which might be a different variant of apple. This means that the tree which would grow from planting would be a mixture of two, or a hybrid. In order to grow a certain type of apple, a small twig, or 'scion', is cut from the tree that grows the type of apple desired, and then added on to a specially grown stump called a rootstock. The tree that grows will create apples of the type needed. + +There are more than 7,500 known variants of apples. Different variants are available for temperate and subtropical climates. One large collection of over 2,100 apple variants is at the National Fruit Collection in England. Most of these variants are grown for eating fresh (dessert apples). However, some are grown simply for cooking or making cider. Cider apples are usually too tart to eat immediately. However, they give cider a rich flavor that dessert apples cannot. + +Most popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Colorful skin, easy shipping, disease resistance, 'Red Delicious' apple shape, and popular flavor are also needed. Modern apples are usually sweeter than older cultivars. This is because popular tastes in apples have become different. Most North Americans and Europeans enjoy sweet apples. Extremely sweet apples with hardly any acid taste are popular in Asia and India. + +World production + +Apples are grown around the world. China produces more than half of all commercially grown apples. In 2020/2021, China produced 44,066,000 metric tons. Other important producers were the European Union (EU) (11,719,000 metric tons, the United States (4,490,000 metric tons), and Turkey (4,300,000 metric tons). Total world production was 80,522,000 metric tons. + +In the United Kingdom +In the United Kingdom there are about 3000 different types of apples. The most common apple type grown in England is the 'Bramley seedling', which is a popular cooking apple. + +Apple orchards are not as common as they were in the early 1900s, when apples were rarely brought in from other countries. Organizations such as Common Ground teach people about the importance of rare and local varieties of fruit. + +In North America +Many apples are grown in temperate parts of the United States and Canada. "Washington State currently produces over half the Nation's domestically grown apples and has been the leading apple-growing State since the early 1920s." New York and Michigan are the next two leading states in apple production. "The total reported area dedicated to the crop in the United States is 336,940 acres or 526.47 square miles." + +In many areas where apple growing is important, people have huge celebrations: + + Annapolis Valley Apple Blossom Festival - held five days every spring (May-June) in Nova Scotia + Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival - held six days every spring in Winchester, Virginia. + Washington State Apple Blossom Festival - held two weeks every spring (April-May) in Wenatchee, Washington. + +Varieties of apples + +There are many different varieties of apples, including: + + Aport + Cox's Orange Pippin + Fuji (apple) + Gala + Golden Delicious (sometimes called a Green Delicious Apple) + Granny Smith + Jonathan + Jonagold + McIntosh + Pink Lady + Red Delicious + Winesap + Yellow Sweeting, the first variety of the U.S. + +Family +Apples are in the group Maloideae. This is a subfamily of the family Rosaceae. They are in the same subfamily as pears. + +References + +Further reading + Potter D. et al 2007. Phylogeny and classification of Rosaceae. Plant Systematics and Evolution. 266 (1â2): 5â43. + +Other websites + + + + + +Basic English 850 words + +National symbols of Poland +An Abrahamic Religion is a religion whose followers believe in the prophet Abraham. They believe Abraham and his sons/grandsons hold an important role in human spiritual development. The best known Abrahamic religions are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Smaller religious traditions sometimes included as Abrahamic religions are Samaritanism, Druze, Rastafari, Babism and BahĂĄ'Ă Faith. Mandaeism (a religion that holds many Abrahamic beliefs) is not called Abrahamic because its followers think Abraham was a false prophet + +True Abrahamic religions are monotheistic (the belief that there is only one God). They also all believe that people should pray to God and worship God often. Among monotheistic religions, the Abrahamic religions have the world's largest number of followers. + +Religions + + +Mythology +Algebra (from Arabic: ۧÙۏۚ۱â, transliterated "al-jabr", meaning "reunion of broken parts") is a part of mathematics. It uses variables to represent a value that is not yet known or can be replaced with any value. When an equals sign (=) is used, this is called an equation. A very simple equation using a variable is: . In this example, , or it could also be said that " equals five". This is called solving for . + +Besides equations, there are inequalities (less than and greater than). A special type of equation is called the function. This is often used in making graphs because it always turns one input into one output. + +Algebra can be used to solve real problems because the rules of algebra work in real life and numbers can be used to represent the values of real things. Physics, engineering and computer programming are areas that use algebra all the time. It is also useful to know in surveying, construction and business, especially accounting. + +People who do algebra use the rules of numbers and mathematical operations used on numbers. The simplest are adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. More advanced operations involve exponents, starting with squares and square roots. + +Algebra was first used to solve equations and inequalities. Two examples are linear equations (the equation of a straight line, or ) and quadratic equations, which has variables that are squared (multiplied by itself, for example: , , or ). + +History +Early forms of algebra were developed by the Babylonians and Greek geometers such as Hero of Alexandria. However the word "algebra" is a Latin form of the Arabic word Al-Jabr ("casting") and comes from a mathematics book Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, ("Essay on the Computation of Casting and Equation") written in the 9th century by a Persian mathematician, Muhammad ibn MĆ«sÄ al-KhwÄrizmÄ«, who was a Muslim born in Khwarizm in Uzbekistan. He flourished under Al-Ma'moun in Baghdad, Iraq through 813-833 CE, and died around 840 CE. The book was brought into Europe and translated into Latin in the 12th century. The book was then given the name "Algebra". (The ending of the mathematician's name, al-Khwarizmi, was changed into a word easier to say in Latin, and became the English word algorithm). + +Examples + +Here is a simple example of an algebra problem: + +Sue has 12 candies, and Ann has 24 candies. They decide to share so that they have the same number of candies. How many candies will each have? + +These are the steps you can use to solve the problem: + + To have the same number of candies, Ann has to give some to Sue. Let represent the number of candies Ann gives to Sue. + Sue's candies, plus , must be the same as Ann's candies minus . This is written as: + Subtract 12 from both sides of the equation. This gives: . (What happens on one side of the equal sign must happen on the other side too, for the equation to still be true. So in this case when 12 was subtracted from both sides, there was a middle step of . After a person is comfortable with this, the middle step is not written down.) + Add to both sides of the equation. This gives: + Divide both sides of the equation by 2. This gives . The answer is six. This mean that if Ann gives Sue 6 candies, they will have the same number of candies. + To check this, put 6 back into the original equation wherever was: + This gives , which is true. They each now have 18 candies. + +With practice, algebra can be used when faced with a problem that is too hard to solve any other way. Problems such as building a freeway, designing a cell phone, or finding the cure for a disease all require algebra. + +Writing algebra +As in most parts of mathematics, adding to (or plus ) is written as ; + +subtracting from (or minus ) is written as ; + +and dividing by (or over ) is written as or . + +In algebra, multiplying by (or times ) can be written in 3 different ways: , or just . All of these notations mean the same thing: times . The symbol "" used in arithmetic is not used in algebra, because it looks too much like the letter , which is often used as a variable. + +When we multiply a number and a variable in algebra, we can simply write the number in front of the letter: . When the number is 1, then it is not written because 1 times any number is that number () and so it is not needed. And when it is 0, we can completely remove the terms, because 0 times any number is zero (). + +As a side note, you do not have to use the letters or in algebra. Variables are just symbols that mean some unknown number or value, so you can use any letter for a variable (except (Euler's number) and (Imaginary unit), because these are mathematical constants). and are the most common, though. + +Functions and Graphs + +An important part of algebra is the study of functions, since they often appear in equations that we are trying to solve. A function is like a machine you can put a number (or numbers) into and get a certain number (or numbers) out. When using functions, graphs can be powerful tools in helping us to study the solutions to equations. + +A graph is a picture that shows all the values of the variables that make the equation or inequality true. Usually this is easy to make when there are only one or two variables. The graph is often a line, and if the line does not bend or go straight up-and-down it can be described by the basic formula . The variable is the y-intercept of the graph (where the line crosses the vertical axis) and is the slope or steepness of the line. This formula applies to the coordinates of a graph, where each point on the line is written . + +In some math problems like the equation for a line, there can be more than one variable ( and in this case). To find points on the line, one variable is changed. The variable that is changed is called the "independent" variable. Then the math is done to make a number. The number that is made is called the "dependent" variable. Most of the time the independent variable is written as and the dependent variable is written as , for example, in . This is often put on a graph, using an axis (going left and right) and a axis (going up and down). It can also be written in function form: . So in this example, we could put in 5 for and get . Put in 2 for would get . And 0 for would get . So there would be a line going through the points , , and as seen in the graph to the right. + +If has a power of 1, it is a straight line. If it is squared or some other power, it will be curved. If it uses an inequality ( or ), then usually part of the graph is shaded, either above or below the line. + +Rules +In algebra, there are a few rules that can be used for further understanding of equations. These are called the rules of algebra. While these rules may seem senseless or obvious, it is wise to understand that these properties do not hold throughout all branches of mathematics. Therefore, it will be useful to know how these axiomatic rules are declared, before taking them for granted. Before going on to the rules, reflect on two definitions that will be given. + Opposite: the opposite of is . + Reciprocal: the reciprocal of is . + +Commutative property of addition +Commutative means that a function has the same result if the numbers are swapped around. In other words, the order of the terms in an equation does not matter. When two terms (addends) are being added, the commutative property of addition is applicable. In algebraic terms, this gives . + +Note that this does not apply for subtraction (i.e. except if ). + +Commutative property of multiplication +When two terms (factors) are being multiplied, the commutative property of multiplication is applicable. In algebraic terms, this gives . + +Note that this does not apply for division (i.e. , when and , except if ). + +Associative property of addition +Associative refers to the grouping of numbers. The associative property of addition implies that, when adding three or more terms, it doesn't matter how these terms are grouped. Algebraically, this gives . Note that this does not hold for subtraction, e.g. (see distributive property). + +Associative property of multiplication +The associative property of multiplication implies that, when multiplying three or more terms, it doesn't matter how these terms are grouped. Algebraically, this gives . Note that this does not hold for division, e.g. . + +Distributive property +The distributive property states that the multiplication of a term by another term can be distributed. For instance: . (Do not confuse this with the associative properties! For instance: .) + +Additive identity +Identity refers to the property of a number that it is equal to itself. In other words, there exists an operation of two numbers so that it equals the variable of the sum. The additive identity property states that any number plus 0 is that number: . This also holds for subtraction: . + +Multiplicative identity +The multiplicative identity property states that any number times 1 is that number: . This also holds for division: . + +Additive inverse property +The additive inverse property is somewhat like the inverse of the additive identity. When we add a number and its opposite, the result is 0. Algebraically, it states the following: , which is the same as . For example, the additive inverse (or opposite) of 1 is -1. + +Multiplicative inverse property +The multiplicative inverse property means that when we multiply a number and its reciprocal, the result is 1. Algebraically, it states the following: , which is the same as . For example, the multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal) of 2 is 1/2. To get the reciprocal of a fraction, switch the numerator and the denominator: the reciprocal of is . + +Advanced Algebra +In addition to "elementary algebra", or basic algebra, there are advanced forms of algebra, taught in colleges and universities, such as abstract algebra, linear algebra, and universal algebra. This includes how to use a matrix to solve many linear equations at once. Abstract algebra is the study of things that are found in equations, going beyond numbers to the more abstract with groups of numbers. + +Many math problems are about physics and engineering. In many of these physics problems time is a variable. The letter used for time is . Using the basic ideas in algebra can help reduce a math problem to its simplest form making it easier to solve difficult problems. Energy is , force is , mass is , acceleration is and speed of light is sometimes . This is used in some famous equations, like and (although more complex math beyond algebra was needed to come up with that last equation). + +Related pages + List of mathematics topics + Order of operations + Parabola + Computer Algebra System + +References + +Other websites + + Khan Academy: Algebra theory and practice + algebrarules.com: A free place to learn the basics of Algebra + Khan Academy: Origins of Algebra, free online micro lectures + +Algebra +An atom is the basic unit of matter. All normal matter â everything that has mass â is made of atoms. This includes solids, liquids, and gases. The atom cannot be broken to parts by chemistry, so people once thought it was the smallest and simplest particle of matter. There are over 100 different kinds of atoms, called chemical elements. Each kind has the same basic structure, but a different number of parts. + +Atoms are very small, but their exact size depends on the type. Atoms are from 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers across. One nanometer is about 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. This makes one atom impossible to see without special tools. Scientists learn how they work by doing experiments. + +Atoms are made of three kinds of subatomic particles. These are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons have much more mass. They are in the middle of the atom, the nucleus. Lightweight electrons move quickly around them. The electromagnetic force holds the nucleus and electrons together. + +Atoms with the same number of protons belong to the same chemical element. Examples of elements are carbon and gold. Atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons, are called isotopes. Usually an atom has the same number of electrons as protons. If an atom has more or less electrons than protons, it is called an ion, and has an electric charge. + +Atoms can join by chemical bonds. Many things are made of more than one kind of atom. These are chemical compounds or mixtures. A group of atoms connected by chemical bonds is called a molecule. For example, a water molecule is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The forming or breaking of bonds is a chemical reaction. + +Atoms split if the forces inside are too weak to hold them together. This is what causes radioactivity. Atoms can also join to make larger atoms at very high temperatures, such as inside a star. These changes are studied in nuclear physics. Most atoms on Earth are not radioactive. They are rarely made, destroyed, or changed into another kind of atom. + +History +The word "atom" comes from the Greek (áŒÏÏÎŒÎżÏ) "atomos", which means indivisible or uncuttable. One of the first people to use the word "atom" is the Greek philosopher Democritus, around 400 BC. He thought that everything was made of particles called atoms, which could not be divided into smaller pieces. Some Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist philosophers also had ideas like this. Atomic theory was a mostly philosophical subject, with not much scientific investigation or study, until the early 1800s. + +In 1777 French chemist Antoine Lavoisier defined the term element as we now use it. He said that an element was any substance that could not be broken down into other substances by the methods of chemistry. Any substance which could be broken down was a compound. + +In 1803, English philosopher John Dalton suggested that elements were made of tiny, solid balls called atoms. Dalton believed that all atoms of the same element have the same mass. He said that compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine. In any one compound, the atoms would always combine in the same numbers. + +In 1827, British scientist Robert Brown looked at pollen grains in water under his microscope. The pollen grains appeared to be shaking. Brown used Dalton's atomic theory to describe patterns in how they moved. This was called Brownian motion. In 1905 Albert Einstein used mathematics to prove that the pollen particles were being moved by the motion, or heat, of individual water molecules. By doing this, he proved that atoms are real without question. + +In 1869, Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev published the first periodic table. The periodic table groups elements by their atomic number (how many protons they have; this is usually the same as the number of electrons). Elements in the same column, or group, usually have similar qualities. For example, helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are all in the same column and are very similar. All these elements are gases that have no color or smell. Also, they cannot combine with other atoms to form compounds. Together they are known as noble gases. + +The physicist J.J. Thomson was the first person to discover electrons. This happened while he was working with cathode rays in 1897. He learned they had a negative charge, and the rest of the atom had a positive charge. Thomson made the plum pudding model, which said that an atom was like plum pudding: the dried fruit (electrons) were stuck in a mass of pudding (having a positive charge). + +In 1909, Ernest Rutherford used the GeigerâMarsden experiment to prove that most of an atom is in a very small space, the atomic nucleus. Rutherford took a photo plate and covered it with gold foil. He then shot alpha particles (made of two protons and two neutrons stuck together) at it. Many of the particles went through the gold foil, which proved that atoms are mostly empty space. Electrons are so small and fast-moving that they did not block the particles from going through. Rutherford later discovered protons in the nucleus. + +In 1913, Niels Bohr created the Bohr model. This model showed that electrons travel around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits. This was better than the Rutherford model, but it was still not completely true. + +In 1925, chemist Frederick Soddy discovered that some elements had more than one kind of atom, called isotopes. Soddy believed that each different isotope of an element has a different mass. To prove this, chemist Francis William Aston built the mass spectrometer, which measures the mass of single atoms. Aston proved that Soddy was right. He also found that the mass of each atom is a whole number times the mass of the proton. This meant that there must be some particles in the nucleus other than protons. In 1932, physicist James Chadwick shot alpha particles at beryllium atoms. He saw that a particle shot out of the beryllium atoms. This particle had no charge, but about the same mass as a proton. He named this particle the neutron. + +The best model so far comes from the Schrödinger equation. Schrödinger learned that the electrons exist in a cloud around the nucleus, called the electron cloud. In the electron cloud, it is impossible to know exactly where electrons are. The Schrödinger equation says where an electron is likely to be. This area is called the electron's orbital. + +In 1937, German chemist Otto Hahn became the first person to make nuclear fission in a laboratory. He discovered this by chance when shooting neutrons at a uranium atom, hoping to make a new isotope. However, instead of a new isotope, the uranium changed into a barium atom, a smaller atom than uranium. Hahn had "broken" the uranium atom. This was the world's first recorded nuclear fission reaction. This discovery led to the creation of the atomic bomb and nuclear power, where fission happens over and over again, creating a chain reaction. + +Later in the 20th century, physicists went deeper into the mysteries of the atom. Using particle accelerators, they discovered that protons and neutrons were made of other particles, called quarks. + +Structure and parts + +Parts + +An atom is made of three main particles: the proton, the neutron, and the electron. Protons and neutrons have nearly the same size and mass (about grams). The mass of an electron is about 1800 times smaller (about grams). Protons have a positive charge, electrons have a negative charge, and neutrons have no charge. Most atoms have no charge. The number of protons (positive) and electrons (negative) are the same, so the charges balance out to zero. However, ions have a different number of electrons than protons, so they have a positive or negative charge. + +Scientists believe that electrons are elementary particles: they are not made of any smaller pieces. Protons and neutrons are made of quarks of two kinds: up quarks and down quarks. A proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, and a neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark. + +Nucleus + +The nucleus is in the middle of the atom. It is made of protons and neutrons. The nucleus makes up more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom. However, it is very small: about 1 femtometer (10â15 m) across, which is around 100,000 times smaller than the width of an atom, so it has a very high density. + +Usually in nature, two things with the same charge repel or shoot away from each other. So for a long time, scientists did not know how the positively charged protons in the nucleus stayed together. We now believe that the attraction between protons and neutrons comes from the strong nuclear force. This force also holds together the quarks that make up the protons and neutrons. Particles called mesons travel back and forth between protons and neutrons, and carry the force. + +The number of neutrons in relation to protons defines whether the nucleus stays together or goes through radioactive decay. When there are too many neutrons or protons, the atom tries to make the numbers smaller or more equal by removing the extra particles. It sends out radiation in the form of alpha, beta, or gamma decay. Nuclei can also change in other ways. Nuclear fission is when the nucleus breaks into two smaller nuclei, releasing a lot of energy. This release of energy makes nuclear fission useful for making bombs, and electricity in the form of nuclear power. +The other way nuclei can change is through nuclear fusion, when two nuclei join or fuse to make a larger nucleus. This process requires very high amounts of energy to overcome the electric repulsion between the protons, as they have the same charge. Such high energies are most common in stars like our Sun, which fuses hydrogen for fuel. However, once fusion happens, far more energy is released, because some of the mass becomes energy. + +The energy needed to break a nucleus into protons and neutrons is called its nuclear binding energy. This energy can be converted to mass, as stated by Einstein's famous formula E = mc2. Medium-sized nuclei, such as iron-56 and nickel-62, have the highest binding energy per proton or neutron. They will probably not go through fission or fusion, because they cannot release energy in this way. Very small and very large atoms have low binding energy, so they are most willing to go through fission or fusion. + +Electrons + +Electrons orbit, or travel around, the nucleus. They are called the atom's electron cloud. They are attracted to the nucleus because of the electromagnetic force. Electrons have a negative charge, and the nucleus always has a positive charge, so they attract each other. + +The Bohr model shows that some electrons are farther from the nucleus than others in different levels. These are called electron shells. Only the electrons in the outer shell can make chemical bonds. The number of electrons in the outer shell determines whether the atom is stable or which atoms it will bond with in a chemical reaction. If an atom has only one shell, it needs two electrons to be complete. Otherwise, the outer shell needs eight electrons to be complete. + +The Bohr model is important because it has the idea of energy levels. The electrons in each shell have a certain amount of energy. Shells that are farther from the nucleus have more energy. When a small burst of energy called a photon hits an electron, the electron can jump into a higher-energy shell. This photon must carry exactly the right amount of energy to bring the electron to the new energy level. A photon is a burst of light, and the amount of energy determines the color of light. So each kind of atom will absorb certain colors of light, called the absorption spectrum. An electron can also send out, or emit, a photon, and fall into a lower energy shell. For the same reason, the atom will only send out certain colors of light, called the emission spectrum. + +The complete picture is more complicated. Unlike the Earth moving around the Sun, electrons do not move in a circle. We cannot know the exact place of an electron. We only know the probability, or chance, that it will be in any place. Each electron is part of an orbital, which describes where it is likely to be. No more than two electrons can be in one orbital; these two electrons have different spin. + +For each shell, numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on, there may be a number of different orbitals. These have different shapes, or point in different directions. Each orbital can be described by its three quantum numbers. The principal quantum number is the electron shell number. The azimuthal quantum number is represented by a letter: s, p, d, or f. Depending on the principal and azimuthal quantum numbers, the electron can have more or less energy. There is also a magnetic quantum number, but it does not usually affect the energy level. As more electrons are added, they join orbitals in order from lowest to highest energy. This order starts as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d. For example, a chlorine atom has 17 electrons. So, it will have: +2 electrons in the 1s orbital +2 electrons in the 2s orbital +6 electrons in the 2p orbitals +2 electrons in the 3s orbital +5 electrons in the 3p orbitals +In other words, it has 2 electrons in the first shell, 8 in the second shell, and 7 in the third shell. + +Properties + +Atomic number + +The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. Atoms of the same element have the same atomic number. For example, all carbon atoms have six protons, so the atomic number of carbon is six. Today, 118 elements are known. Depending on how the number is counted, 90 to 94 elements exist naturally on earth. All elements above number 94 have only been made by humans. These elements are organized on the periodic table. + +Atomic mass and weight +Because protons and neutrons have nearly the same mass, and the mass of electrons is very small, we can call the number of protons and neutrons in an atom its mass number. Most elements have several isotopes with different mass numbers. To name an isotope, we use the name of the element, followed by its mass number. So an atom with six protons and seven neutrons is called carbon-13. + +Sometimes, we need a more exact measurement. The exact mass of an atom is called its atomic mass. This is usually measured with the atomic mass unit (amu), also called the dalton. One amu is exactly 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, which is grams. Hydrogen-1 has a mass of about 1 amu. The heaviest atom known, oganesson, has a mass of about 294 amu, or grams. The average mass of all atoms of a particular element is called its atomic weight. + +Size +The size of an atom depends on the size of its electron cloud. Moving down the periodic table, more electron shells are added. As a result, atoms get bigger. Moving to the right on the periodic table, more protons are added to the nucleus. This more positive nucleus pulls electrons more strongly, so atoms get smaller. The biggest atom is caesium, which is about 0.596 nanometers wide according to one model. The smallest atom is helium, which is about 0.062 nanometers wide. + +How atoms interact +When atoms are far apart, they attract each other. This attraction is stronger for some kinds of atoms than others. At the same time, the heat, or kinetic energy, of atoms makes them always move. If the attraction is strong enough, relative to the amount of heat, atoms will form a solid. If the attraction is weaker, they will form a liquid, and if it is even weaker, they will form a gas. + +Chemical bonds are the strongest kinds of attraction between atoms. The movement of electrons explains all chemical bonds. +Atoms usually bond with each other in a way that fills or empties their outer electron shell. The most reactive elements have an almost full or almost empty outer shell. Atoms with a full outer shell, called noble gases, do not usually form bonds. + +There are three main kinds of bonds: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds. + +In an ionic bond, one atom gives electrons to another atom. Each atom becomes an ion: an atom or group of atoms with a positive or negative charge. The positive ion (which has lost electrons) is called a cation; it is usually a metal. The negative ion (which has gained electrons) is called an anion; it is usually a nonmetal. Ionic bonding usually results in a regular network, or crystal, of ions held together. + +In a covalent bond, two atoms share electrons. This usually happens when both atoms are nonmetals. Covalent bonds often form molecules, ranging in size from two atoms to many more. They can also form large networks, such as glass or graphite. The number of bonds that an atom makes (its valency) is usually the number of electrons needed to fill its outer electron shell. + +In a metallic bond, electrons travel freely between many metal atoms. Any number of atoms can bond this way. Metals conduct electric current because electric charge can easily flow through them. Atoms in metals can move past each other, so it is easy to bend, stretch, and change the shape of metals. + +All atoms attract each other by Van der Waals forces. These forces are weaker than chemical bonds. They are caused when electrons move to one side of an atom. This movement gives a negative charge to that side. It also gives a positive charge to the other side. When two atoms line up their sides with negative and positive charges, they will attract. + +Although atoms are mostly empty space, they cannot pass through each other. When two atoms are very close, their electron clouds will repel each other by the electromagnetic force. + +Magnetism +To understand how magnets work, we can look at the properties of the atom. Any magnet has a north and south pole, and a certain strength. The direction and strength of a magnet, together, are called its magnetic moment. Every electron also has a magnetic moment, like a tiny magnet. This comes from the electron's spin and its orbit around the nucleus. The magnetic moments for the electrons add up to a magnetic moment for the whole atom. This tells us how atoms act in a magnetic field. + +Every electron has one of two opposite spins. We can think of one as turning to the right, and the other as turning to the left. If every electron is paired with an electron with the opposite spin in the same orbital, the magnetic moments will cancel out to zero. Atoms like this are called diamagnetic. They are only weakly repelled by a magnetic field. + +However, if some electrons are not paired, the atom will have a lasting magnetic moment: it will be paramagnetic or ferromagnetic. When atoms are paramagnetic, the magnetic moment of each atom points in a random direction. They are weakly attracted to a magnetic field. When atoms are ferromagnetic, the magnetic moments of nearby atoms act on each other. They point in the same direction. This means that the whole object is a magnet, and it can point in the direction of a magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, are strongly attracted to a magnetic field. + +Radioactive decay + +Some elements, and many isotopes, have what is called an unstable nucleus. This means the nucleus is either too big to hold itself together, or it has too many protons or neutrons. When a nucleus is unstable, it has to eliminate the excess mass of particles. It does this through radiation. An atom that does this is called radioactive. Unstable atoms emit radiation until they lose enough particles in the nucleus to become stable. All atoms above atomic number 82 (82 protons, lead) are radioactive. + +There are three main kinds of radioactive decay: alpha, beta, and gamma. + Alpha decay is when the atom shoots out a particle having two protons and two neutrons. This is a helium-4 nucleus. The result is an element with an atomic number of two less than before. So, for example, if a uranium atom (atomic number 92) went through alpha decay, it would become thorium (atomic number 90). Alpha decay happens when an atom is too big and needs to lose some mass. + Beta decay is when a neutron turns into a proton, or a proton turns into a neutron. In the first case, the atom shoots out an electron. In the second case, it shoots out a positron (like an electron but with a positive charge). The result is an element with one higher or one lower atomic number than before. Beta decay happens when an atom has either too many protons or too many neutrons. + Gamma decay is when an atom shoots out a gamma ray, or wave. It happens when there is a change in the energy of the nucleus. This is usually after a nucleus has gone through alpha or beta decay. There is no change in the atom's mass, or atomic number, only in the stored energy inside the nucleus, in the form of particle spin. + +Every radioactive element or isotope has a half-life. This is how long it takes half of any sample of atoms of that type to decay into a different isotope or element. + +Creation of atoms +Nearly all the hydrogen atoms in the Universe, most of the helium atoms, and some of the lithium atoms were made soon after the Big Bang. Even today, about 90% of all atoms in the Universe are hydrogen. + +All other atoms come from nuclear fusion in stars, or sometimes from cosmic rays that hit atoms. At the start of their life, all stars fuse hydrogen to make helium. The least massive stars, red dwarfs, are expected to stop there. All other stars will then fuse helium to make carbon and oxygen. In stars like the Sun, the temperature and pressure are too low to make larger atoms. But more massive stars continue fusion, until they create iron (atomic number 26) or nickel (atomic number 28). Atoms can also grow larger when neutrons or protons hit them. This could happen inside stars or in supernovae. Most atoms on Earth were made by a star that existed before the Sun. + +People make very large atoms by smashing together smaller atoms in particle accelerators. However, these atoms often decay very quickly. Oganesson (element 118) has a half-life of 0.00089 seconds. Even larger atoms may be created in the future. + +Related pages +Atomic physics, for more detail about the physics of atoms +Atomic theory, for more detail about the history +Exotic atom, an atom with different parts instead of protons, neutrons, and electrons +Quantum mechanics, the study of small particles and how they interact with energy +States of matter, the different forms in which atoms or molecules can be found + +Sources + +References + +Bibliography + +Other websites + + Atom (science) -Citizendium + General information on atomic structure + + +Chemistry +Nuclear physics +Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial bodies. That means stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets and nebulae are studied, as are supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation. Astronomy concerns the development, physics, chemistry, meteorology and movement of celestial bodies. The big questions are the structure and development of the universe. + +Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. The patterns in the night sky were called constellations by the Arabs. They used the positions of the stars to navigate, and to find when was the best time to plant crops. + +Astrophysics is an important part of astronomy. A related subject, cosmology, is concerned with studying the universe as a whole, and the way the universe changed over time. Astronomy is not the same as astrology, a belief that the motion of the stars and the planets may affect human lives. + +There are two main types of astronomy, observational and theoretical astronomy. Observational astronomy uses telescopes and cameras to observe or look at stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects. Theoretical astronomy explains what we see. It predicts what might happen. Observations show whether the predictions work. The main work of astronomy is to explain puzzling features of the universe. For many years the most important issue was the motions of planets. Many other topics are now studied. + +Day-time astronomy is possible. First, there's the Sun, but observing directly is dangerous. It is too bright, and can burn your eyes and can cause permanent blindness. To look at the Sun you need proper shields and equipment. Some other individual bright stars and planets can be seen during daylight hours through a telescope or a powerful pair of binoculars. + +History of astronomy + +Ancient history +Early astronomers used only their eyes to look at the stars. They made maps of the constellations and stars for religious reasons and calendars to work out the time of year. Early civilisations such as the Maya people and the Ancient Egyptians built simple observatories and drew maps of the stars positions. They also began to think about the place of Earth in the universe. For a long time people thought Earth was the center of the universe, and that the planets, the stars and the sun went around it. This is known as geocentrism. Astronomy is from the Greek astron (áŒÏÏÏÎżÎœ) meaning "star" and nomos (nÏÎŒÎżÏ) meaning "law") + +Ancient Greeks tried to explain the motions of the sun and stars by taking measurements. A mathematician named Eratosthenes was the first who measured the size of the Earth and proved that the Earth is a sphere. A theory by another mathematician named Aristarchus was, that the sun is the center and the Earth is moving around it. This is known as heliocentrism. Only a few people thought it was right. The rest continued to believe in the geocentric model. Most of the names of constellations and stars come from Greeks of that time. + +Arabic astronomers made many advancements during the Middle Ages including improved star maps and ways to estimate the size of the Earth. They also learned from the ancients by translating Greek books into Arabic. + +Renaissance to modern era + +During the renaissance a priest named Nicolaus Copernicus thought, from looking at the way the planets moved, that the Earth was not the center of everything. Based on previous works, he said that the Earth was a planet and all the planets moved around the sun. This brought back the old idea of heliocentrism. Galileo Galilei built his own telescopes, and used them to look more closely at the stars and planets for the first time. He agreed with Copernicus. The Catholic Church thought Galileo was wrong. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. Heliocentric ideas were soon improved by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, who invented the theory of gravity. + +After Galileo, people made better telescopes and used them to see farther objects such as the planets Uranus and Neptune. They also saw how stars were similar to our Sun, but in a range of colours and sizes. They also saw thousands of other faraway objects such as galaxies and nebulae. + +Modern era +The 20th century after 1920 saw important changes in astronomy. + +In the early 1920s it began to be accepted that the galaxy in which we live, the Milky Way, is not the only galaxy. The existence of other galaxies was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy. It was also Hubble who proved that the universe was expanding. There were many other galaxies at large distances and they are receding, moving away from our galaxy. That was completely unexpected. + +In 1931, Karl Jansky discovered radio emission from outside the Earth when trying to isolate a source of noise in radio communications, marking the birth of radio astronomy and the first attempts at using another part of the electromagnetic spectrum to observe the sky. Those parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that the atmosphere did not block were now opened up to astronomy, allowing more discoveries to be made. + +The opening of this new window on the Universe saw the discovery of entirely new things, for example pulsars, which sent regular pulses of radio waves out into space. The waves were first thought to be alien in origin because the pulses were so regular that (so it was thought) it implied an artificial source. + +The period after World War II saw more observatories. Large and accurate telescopes were built and operated at good observing sites, usually by governments. For example, Bernard Lovell began radio astronomy at Jodrell Bank using leftover military radar equipment. By 1957, the site had the largest steerable radio telescope in the world. Similarly, the end of the 1960s saw the start of the building of dedicated observatories at Mauna Kea in Hawaii, a good site for visible and infra-red telescopes thanks to its high altitude and clear skies. + +The next great revolution in astronomy was thanks to the birth of rocketry. This allowed telescopes to be placed in space on satellites. + +Space telescopes gave access, for the first time in history, to the entire electromagnetic spectrum including rays that had been blocked by the atmosphere. The X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light and parts of the infra-red spectrum were all opened to astronomy as observing telescopes were launched. As with other parts of the spectrum, new discoveries were made. + +From 1970s satellites were launched to be replaced with more accurate and better satellites, causing the sky to be mapped in nearly all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. + +Discoveries +Discoveries broadly come in two types: bodies and phenomena. Bodies are things in the Universe, whether it is a planet like our Earth or a galaxy like our Milky Way. Phenomena are events and happenings in the Universe. + +Bodies +For convenience, this section has been divided by where these astronomical bodies may be found: those found around stars are solar bodies, those inside galaxies are galactic bodies and everything else larger are cosmic bodies. + +Solar + Planets + Asteroids + Comets + +Galactic + Stars + +Diffuse Objects: + Nebulas + Clusters + +Compact Stars: + White dwarf stars + Neutron stars + Black holes + +Cosmic + Galaxies + Galaxy clusters + Superclusters + +Phenomena +Burst events are those where there is a sudden change in the heavens that disappears quickly. These are called bursts because they are normally associated with large explosions producing a "burst" of energy. They include: + Supernovas + Novas + +Periodic events are those that happen regularly in a repetitive way. The name periodic comes from period, which is the length of time required for a wave to complete one cycle. Periodic phenomena include: + Pulsars + Variable stars + +Noise phenomena tend to relate to things that happened a long time ago. The signal from these events bounce around the Universe until it seems to come from everywhere and varies little in intensity. In this way, it is "noise", the background signal that pervades every instrument used for astronomy. The most common example of noise is static seen on analogue televisions. The principal astronomical example is: cosmic background radiation. + +Methods + +Instruments + Telescopes are the main tool of observing. They take all the light in a big area and put in into a small area. This is like making your eyes very big and powerful. Astronomers use telescopes to look at things that are far away and dim. Telescopes make objects look bigger, closer, brighter. + Spectrometers study the different wavelengths of light. This shows what something is made of. + Many telescopes are in satellites. They are space observatories. The Earthâs atmosphere blocks some parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, but special telescopes above the atmosphere can detect that radiation. + Radio astronomy uses radio telescopes. Aperture synthesis combines smaller telescopes to create a phased array, which works like a telescope as big as the distance between the smaller telescopes. + +Techniques +There are way astronomers can get better pictures of the heavens. Light from a distant source reaches a sensor and gets measured, normally by a human eye or a camera. For very dim sources, there may not be enough light particles coming from the source for it to be seen. One technique that astronomers have for making it visible is using integration (which is like longer exposures in photography). + +Integration +Astronomical sources do not move much: only the rotation and movement of the Earth causes them to move across the heavens. As light particles reach the camera over time, they hit the same place making it brighter and more visible than the background, until it can be seen. + +Telescopes at most observatories (and satellite instruments) can normally track a source as it moves across the heavens, making the star appear still to the telescope and allowing longer exposures. Also, images can be taken on different nights so exposures span hours, days or even months. In the digital era, digitised pictures of the sky can be added together by computer, which overlays the images after correcting for movement. + +Adaptive optics +Adaptive optics means changing the shape of the mirror or lens while looking at something, to see it better. + +Data analysis +Data analysis is the process of getting more information out of an astronomical observation than by simply looking at it. The observation is first stored as data. This data then has various techniques used to analyse it. + +Fourier analysis +Fourier analysis in mathematics can show if an observation (over a length of time) is changing periodically (changes like a wave). If so, it can extract the frequencies and the type of wave pattern, and find many things including new planets. + +Subfields of astronomy +Pulsars pulse regularly in radio waves. These turned out to be similar to some (but not all) of a type of bright source in X-rays called a Low-mass X-ray binary. It turned out that all pulsars and some LMXBs are neutron stars and that the differences were due to the environment in which the neutron star was found. Those LMXBs that were not neutron stars turned out to be black holes. + +This section attempts to provide an overview of the important fields of astronomy. + +Solar astronomy + +Solar astronomy is the study of the Sun. The Sun is the closest star to Earth at around 92 million (92,000,000) miles away. It is the easiest to observe in detail. Observing the Sun can help us understand how other stars work and are formed. Changes in the Sun can affect the weather and climate on Earth. A stream of charged particles called the Solar wind is constantly sent off from the Sun. The Solar wind hitting the Earth's magnetic field causes the northern lights. + +Stellar Astronomy + +Stellar Astronomy, sometimes generally stellar astrophysics is the scientific study of stars, their formation, evolution and fate (stellar evolution). In the most basic sense,Stellar Astronomy attempts to answer the questions to the universe's most common phenomena â stars. Heavily relating with Galactic and Planetary Astronomy. + +Planetary astronomy +Planetary astronomy is the study of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets and asteroids as well as other small objects that orbit stars. The planets of our own Solar System have been studied in depth by many visiting spacecraft such as Cassini-Huygens (Saturn) and the Voyager 1 and 2. + +Galactic astronomy +Galactic astronomy is the study of distant galaxies. Studying distant galaxies is a good way of learning about our own galaxy, as the gases and stars in our own galaxy make it difficult to observe. Galactic astronomers try to understand the structure of galaxies and how they are formed by using different types of telescopes and computer simulations. + +Gravitational wave astronomy +Gravitational wave astronomy is the study of the Universe in the gravitational wave spectrum. So far, all astronomy that has been done has used the electromagnetic spectrum. Gravitational waves are ripples in spacetime emitted by very dense objects changing shape, which include white dwarves, neutron stars and black holes. Because no one has been able to detect gravitational waves directly, the impact of gravitational wave astronomy has been limited. + +Unsolved problems +Great discoveries also produce unsolved problems. This is just a short-list: +Dark matter and dark energy: what are they? +Ultimate fate of the Universe? What will it be? +Why is lithium 4 times less than predicted? +Origin of supermassive black holes. +The source of ultra-high energy cosmic rays. +The existence of life elsewhere. + +Related pages + + Asteroid + Astrobiology + Black hole + Comet + Galaxy + Meteor + Planet + Planetarium + Satellite (natural) + Solar system + Star + Universe + +References + +Other websites + + Astronomy site specifically designed for kids and their parents. + Astronomy Picture of the Day +Architecture is the process of designing structures and buildings. It uses both art and engineering. Examples include houses, churches, hotels, office buildings, roads, viaducts, tunnels and bridges. + +Architecture is the profession of an architect. Usually, a person must study at an institution of higher education (university) to become an architect. There were architects long before there was higher education. They learnt by being an apprentice to an established architect. + +Architecture can do small designs, such as for a garage, or large designs, such as for a whole city. The capital cities of BrasĂlia, and Canberra were designed. Architects often work with structural engineers to make structurally sound buildings. + + + +History + +In the past, people built huts and wood houses to protect themselves from the weather. For safety, they were often close together. Great civilizations like the Ancient Egyptians built large temples and structures, like the Great Pyramids of Giza. The Ancient Greeks and Romans made what we now call "Classical Architecture". The Romans, working over 2000 years ago, copied the arch from the Etruscans, who copied it from the Mesopotamians. + +Classical architecture was formal, and it always obeyed laws. It used symmetry, which really means balance, and it used proportion between shapes. The Golden Mean was a rule which said, (to put it simply) if you are making a room, or any other thing, it will work best if you always make the long side 1.6 times as long as the short side. There are many 'laws' in classical architecture, like how high the middle of an arched bridge needs to be (which depends on how wide the bridge needs to be). These laws were learned from thousands of years of experience and they are often used today. However, today more notice is taken of specific facts, such as what wind speeds occur once or twice in a century. Several bridges have blown down because that was not properly taken into consideration. + +In some parts of the world, like India, the architecture is famous for carving the stone on temples and palaces. Different architectural styles occur in China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Africa, Mexico, and Central and South America. + +Architects in Western Europe in the Middle Ages made Romanesque architecture, then Gothic architecture. Gothic buildings have tall, pointed windows and arches. Many churches have Gothic architecture. Castles were also built at this time. In Eastern Europe, churches usually had domes. People added their own ideas and decoration to the Classical Architecture of the past. The Renaissance brought a return to classical ideas. + +In the late 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, people began to invent machines to make things quickly and cheaply. Many factories and mills were built during, or after this revolution. Decades later, in the Victorian era, architects like George Fowler Jones and Decimus Burton still followed the Gothic style to build new churches. Up to this point, buildings were limited in size and style by the strength of the wood and masonry used to construct them. Gothic cathedrals were among the largest buildings because the gothic arch when combined with buttresses allowed stone buildings to be built taller. For example, the cathedral in Ulm, Germany is over 500 feet tall. However, building with stone has its limits, and building too tall could result in collapse. This happened to the Beauvais Cathedral, which was never completed. + +Towards the end of the 19th Century with a second Industrial Revolution, steel became much cheaper. Architects began to use inventions like metal girders and reinforced concrete to build. An example is the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Buildings can now be built taller than ever before. We call them skyscrapers. This new technology has made us free from traditional limitations, and because of the new possibilities presented by these materials, many traditional methods of construction and ideas about style were reevaluated, replaced, or abandoned. Cheap, strong glass soon brought transparent exterior walls, especially for office buildings. + +Modernism is the name for the architectural style which developed because of these new building technologies, and its beginnings can been seen as early as 1890. Modernism can also refer to a specific group of architects and buildings from the early to late 20th century, and so may not be the proper term to use for many building built since then, which are sometimes called "post-modern". + +Many of the world's greatest structures were built by modern-day architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright; Sir Hugh Casson; Norman Foster; I. M. Pei; Adrian Smith; Edward Durell Stone; Frank Gehry; Fazlur Khan; Gottfried Böhm; and Bruce Graham. + +Related pages + Acoustics + Architect + Art + Building code + Building materials + Earthquake engineering + List of buildings + Pattern language + Skyscraper + Structural Engineering + World Heritage Sites + +References + +Other websites + + American Institute of Architects + Australian Institute of Architects + Royal Institute of British Architects + Royal Architectural Institute of Canada + New Zealand Institute of Architects + Architecture Citizendium +Anatomy is the study of the bodies of people and other animals. Anatomy is the study of the inside of the body and outside the body. Anatomy notes the position and structure of organs such as muscles, glands and bones. A person who studies anatomy is an anatomist. + +The history of anatomy dates back to 1600 BC when Egyptians began studying human anatomy. They discovered the functions of many organs like the liver, spleen, kidneys, heart etc. and were the first to discover the structure and functions of the lymphatic system. + +For long periods the dissection of deceased people was forbidden, and correct ideas about human anatomy was a long time coming. + +Academic human anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools and teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching and research. Gross anatomy studies parts of the body that are big enough to see. Micro-anatomy studies smaller parts. + +Body systems +There are different organ systems, such as the cardiovascular system, also known as the circulatory system (the system that gets blood around the body), the muscular system (the system that contains muscles), the nervous system (the system that controls the nerves,and the brain) and the skeleton (the bones). + +Anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are similar basic medical sciences. + +Related pages + Anatomical terms of location + Medicine + Zoology + Comparative anatomy + Organ (anatomy) + Gray's Anatomy + Vesalius + William Harvey + +References +An asteroid is a minor planet that orbits within the inner solar system. It is a small object in the Solar System that travels around the Sun. It is like a planet but smaller. They range from very small (smaller than a car) to 600 miles (1000 km) across. A few asteroids have asteroid moon. + +The name "asteroid" means "like a star" in the ancient Greek language. Asteroids may look like small stars in the sky, but they really do move around the Sun. Like planets, asteroids do not make their own light. Because of this, some people think "asteroids" is not a good name, and think that the name "planetoid" ("like a planet") would be a better name. + +Giuseppe Piazzi found the first asteroid, in 1801. He called it Ceres, and it is the biggest object in the asteroid belt. Others, like Juno, Pallas, and Vesta were found later. In the 1850s, so many had been found that they were numbered by a Minor planet designation starting with 1 Ceres. Today, astronomers using computerized telescopes find thousands of asteroids every month. Asteroid impact prediction is one of their purposes. + +Asteroids are the leftover rock and other material from the formation of the Solar System. These rocks were too small to come together to make a planet. Some are made of carbon or metal. Depending on what's on the surface, they are classified into various asteroid spectral types including Type M (metal), Type S (stone), and Type C (carbon). + +Most asteroids in our Solar System are in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Many are not in the main asteroid belt. The ones that come close to Earth are called Near-Earth asteroids. Some scientists think asteroids striking the Earth killed off all the dinosaurs and caused some of the other extinction events. + +References +Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (Pashto/Dari: ), is a country in Central Asia. It borders with Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast. Kabul is the country's capital city. + +Afghanistan is currently governed by the Taliban, after the collapse of the internationally recognized Islamic Republic of Afghanistan on 15 August 2021. In early times people passed through it with animals and other goods as it connected China and India with Central Asia and the Middle East. More recently, Afghanistan has been damaged by many years of war. There are not enough jobs. + +The country is around in size. There are 40.976 million people in Afghanistan. There are about 3 million Afghan refugees (people who had to leave the country) who are in Pakistan and Iran for some time. In 2011, its capital, Kabul, had about 3,691,400 people living in it. + +United Nations Human Rights Council decided in October to appoint (an independent expert, or) United Nations special rapporteur on "Afghanistan to [find out about, or] probe violations carried out by the Taliban and" others who are now part of a [big] conflict, media said. + +Geography + +Afghanistan has many mountains. The mountains are called the Hindu Kush and Himalayas. The tallest mountain in Afghanistan is Mount Nowshak. There are plains (which have soil that is good for growing plants) and foothills. Parts of the country are also dry, especially the Registan Desert. + +Afghanistan has snow and glaciers in the mountains. Amu Darya is the big water stream, or river. + +The country has an abundance of a valuable stone called lapis lazuli, which was also used to decorate the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun. + +Climate +Afghanistan has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. Having no water sometimes causes problems for farmers. Sandstorms happen a lot in the desert. + +Plants and animals + +Southern Afghanistan has not many plants because it is dry. There are more plants where there is more water. Mountains have forests of pine and fir, cedar, oak, walnut, alder, and ash trees. + +Afghanistan's wild animals live in the mountains. There are wolves, foxes, jackals, bears, and wild goats, gazelles, wild dogs, camels, and wild cats such as the snow leopard in the country. The birds are falcons, eagles and vultures. The Rhesus Macaque and the red flying squirrel are also in Afghanistan. + +Many years of war, hunting, and years of no water have killed animals in Afghanistan. There used to be tigers in Afghanistan, but now there aren't any. Bears and wolves are almost gone. + +People and culture + +Many people have moved through or invaded the land of Afghanistan. Today's people of Afghanistan are known as Afghans. They have many traits passed down from these previous peoples. + +The largest group of people are the Pashtuns. These make up about half the population. Tajiks are the second-largest ethnic group, making up about one-fifth of the population. Before the 20th century, Tajiks were called Sarts and some come from the Iranian peoples. Most Pashtuns are also related to the Iranian peoples. Some Pashtuns and Tajiks marry each other but at the same time they are rivals. The third-largest group are the Hazaras. They are native to the Hazaristan area in central Afghanistan. The country's other groups include the Uzbek, Aimaq, Turkmen, Nuristani, Baloch, Pashayi and a few others. + +Dari-Persian and Pashto are the official languages of Afghanistan. Many people speak both languages. Both are Indo-European languages from the Iranian languages sub-family. They are usually written with the Arabic alphabet. Uzbek and Turkmen are widely spoken in the north and Nuristani and Pashai are spoken in the east. Around 99% of all Afghans follow the religion of Islam. + +Afghanistan is a largely rural country. This means there are only a few major cities. About one fifth of the population live in cities. Kabul, the capital, is the largest city. It is south of the Hindu Kush range and alongside the Kabul River. Other cities in Afghanistan include Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-e Sharif, and Jalalabad. The rural population is made up of farmers and nomads. The farmers live mainly in small villages along the rivers. The nomads live in tents while moving from place to place with their animals and belongings. Some people live in the high central mountains. Some live in the deserts in the south and southwest. Millions of people left Afghanistan to get away from the wars that happened in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Most of them lived in neighboring Pakistan and Iran. + +History +Afghanistan is in the path of important trade routes that connect southern and eastern Asia to Europe and the Middle East. Because of this, many empire builders have decided to rule over the area. Signs that these emperors were near Afghanistan still exist in many parts of the country. Afghanistan is near what used to be the Silk Road, so it has many cultures. From up to 8,000 years ago, the peoples of Afghanistan helped develop (create) major world religions, traded and exchanged many products, and sometimes controlled politics and culture in Asia. + +Prehistory + +Archaeologists digging a cave in what is now northeastern Afghanistan (in Badakhshan), discovered that people lived in the country as early as 100,000 years ago. They found the skull of a Neanderthal, or early human, as well as tools from about 30,000 years ago. In other parts of Afghanistan, archaeologists uncovered pottery and tools that are 4,000 to 11,000 years oldâevidence that Afghans were among the first people in the world to grow crops and raise animals. + +Farmers and herders settled in the plains surrounding the Hindu Kush as early as 7000 B.C. These people may have grown rich off the lapis lazuli they found along riverbeds, which they traded to early city sites to the west, across the Iranian plateau and Mesopotamia. As farms and villages grew and thrived in Afghanistan, these ancient people eventually invented irrigation (digging ditches for water so it flows to crops) that allowed them to grow crops on the northern Afghanistan desert plains. This civilization (advanced state of organization) is today called BMAC (BactriaâMargiana Archaeological Complex), or the "Oxus civilization". + +The Oxus civilization expanded as far east as western edge of the Indus Valley during the period between 2200 and 1800 B.C. These people, who were the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans, used the term "Aryan" to identify their ethnicity, culture, and religion. Scholars know this when they read the ancient texts of these people; the Avesta of Iranic peoples and the Vedas of Indo-Aryans. + +Zoroaster, the founder of the Zoroastrian religion, the world's earliest monotheistic religion, (meaning a religion believing in one god) lived in the area (somewhere north of today's Afghanistan), around 1000 B.C. + +Ancient history + +Before the middle of the sixth century BCE, Afghanistan was held by the Medes. +Then the Achaemenids took over control of the land and made it part of the Persian empire. Alexander the great defeated and conquered the Persian Empire in 330 BCE. He founded some cities in the area. The people used Macedonian culture and language. After Alexander, Greco-Bactrians, Scythians, Kushans, Parthians and Sassanians ruled the area. + +Kushans spread Buddhism from India in the 1st century BCE, and Buddhism remained an important religion in the area until the Islamic conquest in the 7th century CE. + +The Buddhas of Bamiyan were giant statues, a reminder of Buddhism in Afghanistan. They were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. There were international protests. The Taliban believe that the ancient statues were un-Islamic and that they had a right to destroy them. + +Medieval history + +Arabs introduced Islam in the 7th century and slowly began spreading the new religion. In the 9th and 10th centuries, many local Islamic dynasties rose to power inside Afghanistan. One of the earliest was the Tahirids, whose kingdom included Balkh and Herat; they established independence from the Abbasids in 820. The Tahirids were succeeded in about 867 by the Saffarids of Zaranj in western Afghanistan. Local princes in the north soon became feudatories of the powerful Samanids, who ruled from Bukhara. From 872 to 999, north of the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan enjoyed a golden age under Samanid rule. + +In the 10th century, the local Ghaznavids turned Ghazni into their capital and firmly established Islam throughout all areas of Afghanistan, except the Kafiristan region in the northeast. Mahmud of Ghazni, a great Ghaznavid sultan, conquered the Multan and Punjab region, and carried raids into the heart of India. Mohammed bin Abdul Jabbar Utbi (Al-Utbi), a historian from the 10th century, wrote that thousands of "Afghans" were in the Ghaznavid army. The Ghaznavid dynasty was replaced by the Ghorids of Ghor in the late 12th century, who reconquered Ghaznavid territory in the name of Islam and ruled it until 1206. The Ghorid army also included ethnic Afghans. + +Afghanistan was recognized as Khorasan, meaning "land of the rising sun," which was a prosperous and independent geographic region reaching as far as the Indus River. + +All the major cities of modern Afghanistan were centers of science and culture in the past. The New Persian literature arose and flourished in the area. The early Persian poets such as Rudaki were from what is now Afghanistan. Moreover, Ferdowsi, the author of Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, and Rumi, the famous Sufi poet, were also from modern-day Afghanistan. It has produced scientists such as Avicenna, Al-Farabi, Al-Biruni, Omar KhayyĂĄm, Al-Khwarizmi, and many others who are widely known for their important contributions in areas such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, physics, geography, and geology. It remained the cultural capital of Persia until the devastating Mongol invasion in the 13th century. + +Timur, the Turkic conqueror, took over in the end of the 14th century and began to rebuild cities in this region. Timur's successors, the Timurids (1405â1507), were great patrons of learning and the arts who enriched their capital city of Herat with fine buildings. Under their rule Afghanistan enjoyed peace and prosperity. + +Between south of the Hindu Kush and the Indus River (today's Pakistan) was the native land of the Afghan tribes. They called this land "Afghanistan" (meaning "land of the Afghans"). The Afghans ruled the rich northern Indian subcontinent with their capital at Delhi. From the 16th to the early 18th century, Afghanistan was disputed between the Safavids of Isfahan and the Mughals of Agra who had replaced the Lodi and Suri Afghan rulers in India. The Safavids and Mughals occasionally oppressed the native Afghans but at the same time the Afghans used each empire to punish the other. In 1709, the Hotaki Afghans rose to power and completely defeated the Persian Empire. Then they marched towards the Mughals of India and nominally defeated them with the help of the Afsharid forces under Nader Shah Afshar. + +In 1747, after Nader Shah of Persia was killed, a great leader named Ahmad Shah Durrani united all the different Muslim tribes and established the Afghan Empire (Durrani Empire). He is considered the founding father of the modern state of Afghanistan while Mirwais Hotak is the grandfather of the nation. + +Since the 1800s +During the 1800s, Afghanistan became a buffer zone between two powerful empires, the British Indian Empire and the Russian Empire. As British India advanced into Afghanistan, Russia felt threatened and expanded southward across Central Asia. To stop the Russian advance, Britain tried to make Afghanistan part of its empire but the Afghans fought wars with British-led Indians from 1839 to 1842 and from 1878 to 1880. After the third war in 1919, Afghanistan under King Amanullah gained respect and recognition as a completely independent state. + +The Kingdom of Afghanistan was a constitutional monarchy established in 1926. It was the successor state to the Emirate of Afghanistan. On 27 September 1934, during the reign of Zahir Shah, the Kingdom of Afghanistan joined the League of Nations. During World War II, Afghanistan remained neutral. It pursued a diplomatic policy of non-alignment. + +The creation of Pakistan in 1947 as its eastern neighbor created problems. In 1973, political crises led to the overthrow of the king. The country's new leader ended the monarchy and made Afghanistan a republic. In 1978, a Communist political party supported by the Soviet Union seized control of Afghanistan's government. This move sparked rebellions throughout the country. The government asked the Soviet Union for military assistance. The Soviets took advantage of the situation and invaded Afghanistan in December 1979. + +Most people in Afghanistan opposed the sudden Soviet presence in their country. For nearly a decade, anti-Communist Islamic forces known as Mujahideen were trained inside neighboring Pakistan to fight the Soviets and the Afghan government. The United States and other anti-Soviet countries supported the Mujahideen. In the long war, over one million Afghan civilians were killed. The Soviet Army also lost more than 15,000 soldiers in that war. Millions of Afghans left their country to stay safe in neighboring Pakistan and Iran. In 1989 the Soviet Army withdrew the last of its troops. + +After the Soviets left in 1989, the Afghan Civil War started; different Afghan warlords began fighting for control of the country. The warlords received support from other countries, including neighboring Pakistan and Iran. A very conservative Islamic group known as the Taliban emerged in an attempt to end the civil war. By the late 1990s the Taliban had gained control over 95% of Afghanistan. A group known as the Northern Alliance, based in northern Afghanistan near the border with Tajikistan, continued to fight against the Taliban. + +The Taliban ruled Afghanistan according to their strict version of Islamic law. People whom the Taliban believed violated these laws were given cruel punishments. In addition, the Taliban completely restricted the rights of women. Because of such policies, most countries refused to recognize the Taliban government. Only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) accepted them as the official government. + +The Taliban also angered other countries by allowing suspected terrorists to live freely in Afghanistan. Among them were Osama bin Laden and members of the al-Qaeda terrorist network. In September 2001, the United States blamed bin Laden for the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon outside Washington, D.C. The Taliban refused to hand him over to the United States. In response, the United States and its allies launched a bombing campaign against al-Qaeda in October 2001. Within months the Taliban abandoned Kabul, and a new government led by Hamid Karzai came to power, but fighting between the Taliban and US-led armies continued. Taliban fighters have gone into Afghanistan from neighboring Pakistan. Afghans accuse Pakistan's military of being behind the Taliban militants but Pakistan has rejected this and stated that a stable Afghanistan is in Pakistan's own interest. + +In December 2004, Hamid Karzai became the first democratically elected president of Afghanistan. NATO began rebuilding Afghanistan, including its military and government institutions. Many schools and colleges were built. Freedom for women has improved. Women can study, work, drive, and run for office. Many Afghan women work as politicians, some are ministers while at least one is a mayor. Others have opened businesses, or joined the military or police. Afghanistan's economy has also improved dramatically, and NATO agreed in 2012 to help the country for at least another 10 years after 2014. In the meantime, Afghanistan improved diplomatic ties with many countries in the world and continues. + +In August 2021, the Cabinet of Afghanistan lost its power. Most of the country fell to the Taliban on 15 August 2021 with President Ashraf Ghani escaping the country. As of 18 August 2021, the former government's last remaining holdout is the Panjshir Valley. + +Government +Since the Taliban captured Kabul on 15 August 2021, the governance of Afghanistan is disputed between the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. + +According to Transparency International, Afghanistan remains in the top most corrupt countries list. + +Provinces +As of 2004, there are thirty-four provinces. Each province is divided into districts. (For cities see List of cities in Afghanistan.) + +Relationship with other countries + Russia's ambassador (Dmitrij Zjirnov) had a meeting with representatives from Taliban on 18 August 2021; Russia's embassy was still in operation (or open). + An "Indian [ diplomat or] envoy to Qatar" had [at least one] meeting "with Taliban leader Stanekzai in Doha in late August", media said. + A United States "team led by" [then] "Deputy Special Representative Tom West and [a] top USAID humanitarian official" had meetings, in Qatar in October, with Afghanistani officials. Women's rights was a subject during the talks. + Norway's ambassador visited Afghanistan - and had meetings with Taliban - during a two-day visit in the middle of January 2022. Representatives of the Taliban leadership will come to Norway and meet diplomats from different countries, during 23.-25. January. Also, Norway has stopped (as of 2022's first quarter) supporting with money - (to) the authorities of Afghanistan, media said. Previously, Norwegian diplomats had at least two meetings with Taliban in Doha, in 2021's fourth quarter; There are no political talks yet (as of 2021's fourth quarter); the talks are about humanitarian aid and evacuation. + Turkey's foreign minister had a meeting (in Turkey) with "a delegation led by" foreign minister of Afghanistan, in 2021's fourth quarter. + In Russia, a meeting about Afghanistan was held on October 20; "The participants [... were] India, USA, Afghanistan, China, Pakistan, Iran and Central Asian" countries, media said. + +Diplomatic missions that still represent the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan + The ambassador in Oslo, Norway does not recognize the Taliban-led government (as of 2021's fourth quarter). + +Related pages + Government of Afghanistan + Afghanistan at the Olympics + Afghanistan national football team + List of rivers of Afghanistan + Saeeda Etebari, Afghan jeweler + Wahida Amiri, Afghan activist + +Notes + +References + +Other websites + + + Afghan Studies Center + +Least developed countries +Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation +1709 establishments +Former British colonies +Landlocked countries +Afghanistan +Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country in southern Africa. It shares borders with Namibia in the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the north, and Zambia in the east. Its west border touches the Atlantic Ocean. Its coastline is 1600 kilometers. Angola's capital is Luanda. The country has many natural resources. Angola is the seventh largest country in Africa. The capital and most populated city of Angola is Luanda. + +Angola is a member state of the African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin Union, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone and the Southern African Development Community. + +History +Portugal built up its power in Angola from the late 15th to the middle 20th century. + +After independence there was a civil war from 1975 to 2002. Cuba and the Soviet Bloc supported the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). South Africa supported the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) until the end of apartheid. The war ended after the rebel leader Jonas Savimbi was killed. + +Geography +Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country. Angola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, the Republic of the Congo via the exclave of Cabinda, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west. + +Climate +Angola's average temperature on the coast is in the winter and in the summer. It has two seasons; dry (May to October) and hot rainy (November to April). + +Demographics + +Angola had a population of 25,789,024 in 2014. + +Provinces + +Angola is divided into eighteen provinces. + +See List of settlements in Angola for the cities and towns in the country. + +Related pages +Angola at the Olympics +Angola national football team +List of rivers of Angola + +References + +Other websites + + + + +Portuguese-speaking countries +Least developed countries +1975 establishments in Africa +Argentina (officially the Argentine Republic) is a country in South America. Argentina is the second-largest country in South America and the eighth-largest country in the world. + +Spanish is the most spoken language, and the official language, but many other languages are spoken. There are minorities speaking Italian, German, English, Quechua and even Welsh in Patagonia. + +In eastern Argentina is Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, it is also one of the largest cities in the world. In order by number of people, the largest cities in Argentina are Buenos Aires, CĂłrdoba, Rosario, Mendoza, La Plata, TucumĂĄn, Mar del Plata, Salta, Santa Fe, and BahĂa Blanca. + +Argentina is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. It is bordered by Paraguay and Bolivia in the north, Brazil and Uruguay in the northeast, and Chile in the west and south. It also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Most citizens of the Argentine Republic are descendants of immigrants from Europe. They are united by citizenship and not necessarily by ethnicity. Most Argentinians embrace both their ethnic origins and Argentinian nationality. + +History +The name Argentina comes from the Latin argentum (silver) as the Spanish conquistadors believed the area had silver. In the Americas (South and North), Canada, US, Brazil and Argentina are the largest countries (in that order). + +The oldest signs of people in Argentina are in the Patagonia (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and are more than 13,000 years old. In 1480 the Inca Empire conquered northwestern Argentina, making it part of the empire. In the northeastern area, the GuaranĂ developed a culture based on yuca and sweet potato however typical dishes all around Argentina are pasta, red wines (Italian influence) and beef. + +Other languages spoken are Italian, English and German. Lunfardo is Argentinean slang and is a mix of Spanish and Italian. Argentinians are said to speak Spanish with an Italian accent. + +Argentina declared independent from Spain in 1816, and achieved it in a War led by JosĂ© de San MartĂn in 1818. Many immigrants from Europe came to the country. By the 1920s it was the 7th wealthiest country in the world, but it began a decline after this. In the 1940s, following the "infamous decade" where the country's politics were not stable, Juan Peron came to power. Peron was one of the most important people in the country's history and many politicians today call themselves Peronist. Peron was forced out of power in 1955. After spending years in exile he returned to power in the 1970s. + +In 1976, the country was falling into chaos, and the military took power. This was not the first time the military had done this. Leading the new government was Jorge Rafael Videla. Videla was one of history's most brutal dictators. Thousands of people disappeared or were killed during his time as president. Videla retired in 1980. + +One of his successors was another general turned dictator, Leopoldo Galtieri. By the time Galtieri was in office in 1981 the dictatorship became unpopular. To stir up support, Galtieri ordered an invasion of the Falkland Islands, starting the Falklands War. Argentina lost the war, and soon the country fell into chaos again. Galtieri was removed from power and eventually democracy was restored. Galtieri and Videla would be charged with "crimes against humanity" because of the mass murder and other crimes that they ordered as president. + +In the early 21st century Argentina is one of the most important countries in Latin America, though it still has many problems. It has a large economy and is influential in the "southern cone" of South America and a member of the G20 developing nations. + +Politics +Argentina is a federal republic. The people of Argentina vote for a President to rule them and Senators and Deputies to speak for them and make laws for them. The President is Alberto FernĂĄndez since December 2019. + +Administrative divisions + +Argentina is divided into 23 provinces (provincias; singular: provincia), and 1 city (commonly known as capital federal): + +Geography + +Argentina is almost 3,700 km long from north to south, and 1,400 km from east to west (maximum values). It can be divided into three parts: the Pampas in the central part of the country, Patagonia in the southern part down to Tierra del Fuego; and the Andes mountain range along the western border with Chile, with the highest point in the province of Mendoza. Cerro Aconcagua, at 6,960 metres (22,834 ft), is the Americas' highest mountain. + +The most important rivers include the River Plate, Paraguay, Bermejo, Colorado, Uruguay and the largest river, the ParanĂĄ. River Plate was incorrectly translated though, and should have been translated to English as River of (the) Silver. River Plate is also a famous Buenos Aires soccer team. + +See List of cities in Argentina for the many places people live in Argentina. + +Other information +The majority of the Argentineans are descendants of Europeans mainly from Spain, Italy, Germany, Ireland, France, other Europeans countries and Mestizo representing more than 90% of the total population of the country. More than 300,000 Roma gypsies live in Argentina. Since the 1990s, Romanian, Brazilian and Colombian gypsies arrived in Argentina. + +Football or soccer is the most popular sport, although the national sport of the country is Pato. Argentina has a number of highly ranked Polo players. Field hockey (for women) rugby and golf are also favorites. + +Argentina is a Christian country. Most of Argentina's people (80 percent) are Roman Catholic. Argentina also has the largest population of Jewish community after Israel and US. Middle Eastern immigrants who were Muslims converted to Catholicism, but there are still Muslims as well. + +Medicine is socialized and so is education, making Argentina's literacy rate about 98%. State University is free as well. + +Related pages +Argentina at the Olympics +Argentina national football team +List of rivers of Argentina + +References + + General information and maps + Geography and tourism + Pictures from Argentina grouped by provincia + +Other websites + + Argentina.gov.ar - Official national portal + Gobierno ElectrĂłnico - Official government website + Presidencia de la NaciĂłn - Official presidential website + Honorable Senado de la NaciĂłn - Official senatorial website + Honorable CĂĄmara de Diputados de la NaciĂłn - Official lower house website + SecretarĂa de Turismo de la NaciĂłn - Official tourism board website + + +Spanish-speaking countries +Austria (, ; ), officially the Republic of Austria ( ), is a country in Central Europe. Around Austria there are the countries of Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. + +The people in Austria speak German, a few also speak Hungarian, Slovenian and Croatian. The capital of Austria is Vienna (Wien). + +History +Austria is more than a thousand years old. Its history can be followed to the ninth century. At that time the first people moved to the land now known as Austria. The name "Ostarrichi" is first written in an official document from 996. Since then this word has developed into the Modern German word Ăsterreich, which literally means "East Empire." + +Ancient times +There has been human settlement in the area that is now Austria for a long time. The first settlers go back to the Paleolithic age. That was the time of the Neanderthals. They left works of art such as the Venus of Willendorf. In the Neolithic age people were living there to dig for mineral resources, especially copper. Ătzi, a mummy found in a glacier between Austria and Italy, is from that time. In the Bronze Age people built bigger settlements and fortresses, especially where there were mineral resources. Salt mining began near Hallstatt. At that time, Celts began to form the first states. + +The Romans + +The Romans came 15 B.C. to Austria and made the Celtic Regnum Noricum to a province. Modern Austria was part of three provinces, Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia. The border in the north was the Danube. + +Holy Roman Empire +From the early Middle Ages, the area of modern-day Austria was a part of the Holy Roman Empire. The capital of the Holy Roman Empire was the Austrian city Vienna. The Austrian Habsburg family were the rulers of the Empire and the son of the Holy Roman Emperor held the title of Archduke of Austria. + +In 1806, France defeated the Holy Roman Empire and replaced it with the Confederation of the Rhine. Former Holy Roman Emperor Francis II became the Emperor of the new Austrian Empire, which later became Austria-Hungary. + +Modern history +In 1914, Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and this led to World War I. In 1918, both Austria and Hungary became republics. They also both split into two separate countries. + +During World War II, Austria was part of Nazi Germany. It became independent in May 1945. + +Geography + +Austria is a mountainous country since it is partially in the Alps. Grossglockner is the tallest mountain in Austria. The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country where the Danube flows. + +Climate +Austria has a continental climate. + +The highest temperature ever recorded in Austria was , on 8 August 2013 in Bad Deutsch-Altenburg. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Austria was , on 19 February 1932 at GrĂŒnloch doline. + +Politics + +Austria is a democratic republic. The President of Austria is the head of state and the Chancellor of Austria is the head of government. + +It is a neutral state, that means it does not take part in wars with other countries. It has been in the United Nations since 1955 and in the European Union since 1995. + +Austria is also a federal state and divided into nine states (): + Burgenland (Burgenland) + Carinthia (KĂ€rnten) + Lower Austria (Niederösterreich) + Upper Austria (Oberösterreich) + Salzburg(erland) (Salzburg) + Styria (Steiermark) + Tyrol (Tirol) + Vorarlberg (Vorarlberg) + Vienna (Wien) + +More information: States of Austria. + +Currently, the chancellor is Karl Nehammer The previous chancellor was Alexander Schallenberg (2021). Austria has been a member-state of the United Nations since 1955, the European Union since 1995 and OPEC since 2019. + +Culture + +Music and Arts +Many famous composers were Austrians or born in Austria. There are Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr., Johann Strauss, Jr. and Gustav Mahler. In modern times there were Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg, who belonged to the Second Viennese School. + +Austria has many artists, there are Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele or Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Inge Morath or Otto Wagner and scienc. + +Food +Famous Austrian dishes are Wiener Schnitzel, Apfelstrudel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, Knödel, Sachertorte and Tafelspitz. But you can also find a lot of local dishes like KĂ€rntner Reindling (a kind of cake), KĂ€rntner Nudeln (also called "KĂ€rntner Kasnudeln", you may write it "...nudln" too), Tiroler Knödl (may be written "...knödel"; ), Tiroler Schlipfkrapfen (another kind of "KĂ€rntner Nudeln"), Salzburger Nockerl (also may be written ..."Nockerln"), Steirisches Wurzelfleisch (..."Wurzlfleisch") or Sterz ("Steirischer Sterz"). + +UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Austria + Historic Centre of Salzburg â 1996 + Schönbrunn Palace â 1996 + HallstattâDachstein Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape â 1997 + Semmering Railway â 1998 + Historic Centre of Graz and Schloss Eggenberg â 1999 (extended in 2010) + Wachau Cultural Landscape â 2000 + Historic Centre of Vienna â 2001 + Lake Neusiedl â 2001 + +Gallery + +Related pages + List of rivers of Austria + +References + +Other websites + + + Austria Maps + + +European Union member states +German-speaking countries +Federations +Armenia (Armenian: ŐŐĄŐ”ŐĄŐœŐżŐĄŐ¶, Hayastan), officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country located in the Armenian Highlands, spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. + +History +The Hittites and Hayasa-Azzi may have played a significant role in the ethnicity of Armenians. It has an ancient cultural heritage. One of the earliest Armenian kingdoms such as Urartu was established in 860 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia. The Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC and became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion in the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The official date of state adoption of Christianity is 301. + +Foreign invasion +Between the 16th century and 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland composed of Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia came under the rule of the Ottoman and Iranian empires, repeatedly ruled by either of the two over the centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, while most of the western parts of the traditional Armenian homeland remained under Ottoman rule. + +20th century +During World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically +exterminated in the Armenian Genocide, perpetrated by Ottoman Young Turks. Around 1.5 million people were slaughtered and many more deported. In 1918, following the Russian Revolution, all non-Russian countries declared their independence after the Russian Empire ceased to exist, leading to the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and in 1922 became a founding member of the Soviet Union. In 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. + +21st century + +Administrative divisions +Armenia is divided into ten provinces, with the city of Yerevan having special administrative status as the country's capital. The chief executive in each of the ten provinces is the marzpet (marz governor), appointed by the government of Armenia. In Yerevan, the chief executive is the mayor, appointed by the president. + +, Armenia includes 915 communities, of which 49 are considered urban and 866 are considered rural. + +â 2011 censusSources: Area and population of provinces. + +Culture +Armenia is a Christian majority country, with European and some wider Eurasian cultural influences. The Republic of Armenia recognises the Armenian Apostolic Church, the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD. + +Armenia is a member of the Council of Europe, the Eurasian Economic Union and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia supports the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh, which was proclaimed in 1991. + +Gallery + +References + +Notes + +Armenia +Caucasus +Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of the human past. It looks at remains and objects left by the people who lived long ago. These remains may include old coins, tools, buildings, and inscriptions. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived. + +Fieldwork + +When archaeologists do fieldwork, they look for remains, often by digging in the ground. As settlements (places where people lived in groups) change and grow, old buildings get buried. Usually, this is a natural process. A typical student project is to leave an object in a place where there is nothing going on. It will get covered rather quickly, because wind, water and plants will bury it. Sometimes buildings are deliberately buried to make way for new buildings. Ancient Rome, for example, is now up to 40 feet (12 metres) below the present city. This process of natural or man-made burial is why archaeological fieldwork involves digging, and is expensive and takes a long time. + +When things are found, or even when nothing is found, the results of the fieldwork are taken back to a base. Short term, the base is often on or near the site. Longer term, the results will usually go to a university or museum. Everything is written down on paper or entered into a computer. Gradually, they build up a picture of what happened long ago. Archaeologists publish their research so others can understand what they learned. + +Fields of interest +Archaeologists do not all study the same topics. They have specialties. Some fields of interest include Ancient Egypt (these specialists are called Egyptologists), Ancient China, or the Vikings. Archaeologists study every civilization that is known, especially the ones where there is no written history. They can study any time period. For example, one might study the beginning of human life in Africa, or study World War II. Marine archaeologists study things that are now underwater. They search for sunken ships or cities that have been lost under the sea. + +Subdisciplines +There are many different ways of doing archaeology. these depend on the methods used, the things studied, and the environment. Some of these subdisciplines overlap with each other. + +Marine archaeology +Archaeology relating to oceans, seas and lakes is usually done underwater. It includes the study of sunken ships and submerged coastlines. "Maritime archaeology" is a part of this subdivision. It refers to the archaeological investigation of past ships and seafaring. A famous example of maritime archaeology is the recovery and restoration of the ship burial at Sutton Hoo. + +Ice-patch archaeology +When a glacier melts, objects that were captured in it are revealed. The recovery and study of these objects is called "ice-patch archaeology". A famous example is Ătzi the Iceman. + +Historical archaeology +Historical archaeology deals with places, things, and issues from the past or present at or related to sites with written records or oral traditions. Or it can be defined as "the archaeological investigation of any past culture that has developed a literate tradition." A prominent example of historical archaeology is the work done at Colonial Williamsburg. + +Industrial archaeology +This relatively new branch of archaeology consists of "the systematic study of structures and artefacts as a means of enlarging our understanding of the industrial past." + +Archaeozoology +Archaeozoology, or zooarchaeology, is the study of the relationships between humans and animals in the archaeological record. This includes the study of bones, feathers, teeth and other body parts as well as their interpretation. + +Experimental archaeology +This field involves attempts at replicating the actions and conditions of ancient cultures. Good examples are Butser Ancient Farm and Overton Down. + +Sites +In many countries, governments and other groups of people protect important archaeological sites so they will not be destroyed and so that visitors can always come and see them. + +Sometimes archaeological sites are found when foundations are dug for new buildings. Archaeologists have to work quickly when this happens, because people who are building often don't have a lot of time. As soon as the archaeologists are done with their work, the remains that they have found will be covered over, unless they are very important. + +Related pages + Archaeological site + Civilization + +References + +Other websites + + Archaeology -Citizendium +The word application has several uses. + +In medicine, 'application' means putting some drug or ointment usually on the skin where it is absorbed into the human body. + +In computer software, an application is a type of program which is designed for a particular function. Example: word processing. It is most used to mean a Mobile app. + +In business or government, an application is a (usually paper) form filled out and handed in by a person seeking a privilege from a state or company, such as work, credit, some type of license or permit, or a place to live. + +At work, generally engineering, when dealing with certain materials or objects, an "application" is a purpose that material or object can be used for. Wood and steel have many applications. +Animals (or Metazoa) are living creatures with many cells. Animals get their energy from other living things. Usually, they eat them or are parasites. Animals, plants, fungi, and some other living things have complex cells, so they are grouped together as eukaryotes. + +The study of animals is called zoology. The study of ancient life is called palaeontology. + +Most animals are mobile, meaning they can move around. Animals take in oxygen, and give out carbon dioxide. This cellular respiration is part of their metabolism (chemical working). In both these ways they are different from plants. Also, the cells of animals have different cell membranes to other eukaryotes like plants and fungi. + +Plants are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms, but live by using light, water and basic elements to make their tissues. + +Grouping animals +There are many different types of animals. The common animals most people know are only about 3% of the animal kingdom. When biologists look at animals, they find things that certain animals have in common. They use this to group the animals in a biological classification. Several million species may exist, but biologists have only identified about one million. + +Animals can mainly be divided into two main groups: the invertebrates and the vertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone, or spine; invertebrates do not. Vertebrates are the only group to have an adaptive immune system, which may be partly responsible for their size and success. + +Vertebrates are: +Fish (or 'fishes': both ways are correct) +Amphibia +Reptiles +Birds +Mammals + +Some invertebrates are: +Insects +Spiders +Crustacea +Molluscs (like a snail or squid) +worms +jellyfish + +Life styles +The animal mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic because they get their food from other living organisms. Some animals eat only plants; they are called herbivores. Other animals eat only meat and are called carnivores. Animals that eat both plants and meat are called omnivores. Some animals get their energy from photosynthetic protists that live inside them. + +The environments animals live in vary greatly. By the process of evolution, animals adapt to the habitats they live in. A fish is adapted to its life in water and a spider is adapted to a life catching and eating insects. A mammal living on the savannahs of East Africa lives quite a different life from a dolphin or porpoise catching fish in the sea. + +The fossil record of animals goes back about 600 million years to the Ediacaran period, or somewhat earlier. During the whole of this long time, animals have been constantly evolving, so that the animals alive on Earth today are very different from those on the edges of the sea-floor in the Ediacaran. + +Everyday language +In scientific usage, humans are animals. But in everyday use, humans are often not regarded as animals. + +Related pages + List of animal phyla +Ethology, the study of animal behaviour + +References + + +Basic English 850 words +Acceleration is a measure of how fast velocity changes. Acceleration is the change of velocity divided by the change of time. Acceleration is a vector, and therefore includes both a size and a direction. Acceleration is also a change in speed and direction, there is: + +Speed (a scalar quantity) (uses no direction) + + Distance is how far you traveled + Time is how long it took you to travel + Speed is how fast you are moving - Speed = Distance / Time + +Velocity (a vector quantity) (uses a direction) + + Displacement is how much your position has changed in what direction + Velocity is how quickly your position is changing and in what direction + Velocity = Displacement / Time + +The measurement of how fast acceleration changes is called jerk. + +Examples + An object was moving north at 10 meters per second. The object speeds up and now is moving north at 17 meters per second. The object has accelerated. + An apple is falling down. It starts falling at 0 meters per second. At the end of the first second, the apple is moving at 9.8 meters per second. The apple has accelerated. At the end of the second second, the apple is moving down at 19.6 meters per second. The apple has accelerated again. + Jane is walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Jane's velocity does not change. Jane's acceleration is zero. + Tom was walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Tom turns and walks south at 3 kilometers per hour. Tom has had a nonzero acceleration. + Sally was walking east at 3 kilometers per hour. Sally slows down. After, Sally walks east at 1.5 kilometers per hour. Sally has had a nonzero acceleration. + Acceleration due to gravity + +Finding acceleration + +Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object. Acceleration can be found by using: + +where + is the velocity at the start + is the velocity at the end + is the time at the start + is the time at the end + +Sometimes the change in velocity is written as Î. Sometimes the change in time is written as Ît. + +In difficult situations, the acceleration can be calculated using mathematics: in calculus, acceleration is the derivative of the velocity (with respect to time), . + +Units of measurement +Acceleration has its own units of measurement. For example, if velocity is measured in meters per second, and if time is measured in seconds, then acceleration is measured in meters per second squared (m/s2). + +Other words +Acceleration can be positive or negative. When the acceleration is negative (but the velocity does not change direction), it is sometimes called deceleration. For example, when a car brakes it decelerates. Physicists usually only use the word "acceleration". + +Newton's second law of motion +Newton's laws of motion are rules for how things move. These rules are called "laws of motion". Isaac Newton is the scientist who first wrote down the main laws of motion. +According to Newton's Second Law of Motion, the force something needs to accelerate an object depends on the object's mass (the amount of "stuff" the object is made from or how "heavy" it is). +The formula of Newton's Second Law of Motion is , +where is the acceleration, is the force, and the mass. +This formula is very well-known, and it is very important in physics. Newton's Second Law of Motion, in short "Newton's Second Law", is often one of the first things that physics students learn. + +Deceleration +Deceleration is negative or backwards acceleration. This means that something slows down instead of speeding up. For example, when a car brakes, it is decelerating. + +Basic physics ideas +Mechanics +Black pudding is an English name for zwarte pudding. It is food made by cooking down the blood of any mammal (usually pigs or cattle) with meat, fat or filler until it is thick enough to congeal (become firm or solid) when cooled. + +Types of black pudding + +In Great Britain, blood sausage is called "black pudding". The ingredients include pig's blood, suet, bread, barley and oatmeal. Bury is well known for them. The most common kind of German Blutwurst is made from fatty pork meat, beef blood and filler such as barley. Though already cooked and "ready to eat" it is usually served warm. + +Other kinds of blood sausage include boudin noir (France), boudin rouge (Creole and Cajun) and morcilla (Spain). + +History +A legend says that blood sausage was invented in a bet between two Bavarian butchers drunk on the alcoholic drink absinthe during the 14th century. Homer's Odyssey from Ancient Greece says that "As when a man besides a great fire has filled a sausage with fat and blood and turns it this way and that and is very eager to get it quickly roasted...". + +Related pages +Sausage + +References + +Sausage +A boot device is used to start a computer. It is named after a boot which fits on the foot. The word bootstrap is also closely related, and means, to use something simpler to get something more complex to make itself work better. It comes from the English phrase "pull yourself up by your own bootstraps." + +Before a computer can operate normally, it must have operating system instructions that tell it how to perform basic functions. A boot device loads the operating system into the memory of the computer. + +Devices that can boot a computer are usually boot disks or boot drives (normally a hard drive or Solid State Drive, but can be a floppy disk, flash drive or a CD). Some network computers use boot chips that get the operating system over a network. Web phones also use such chips to identify the user to the mobile phone network. Boot card standards may let many users boot kiosk computers with full privacy and access to all application software they own. There are also boot boards or boot add-in cards that are more permanent than boot cards. + +Some people refer to the boot device as just a boot and non-boot devices as data devices, although it is not the computer but the operating system that cares about the difference between these. + +Origin +The boot in boot device is the same as booting (or starting up). This is short for bootstrapping, or to start with simple stuff and make complex stuff out of it. + +Related pages +Booting + +software +Computer hardware +A boot is a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle. Boots are higher and larger than shoes and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the calves (lower part of the leg) as well. Some boots are held on with bootstraps or bootlaces. Some also have spats or gaiters to keep water out. Most have a very strong boot sole, the bottom part of a boot. + +Types of boots + Rain boots (or rubber boots) are made from rubber or plastic. Rain boots protect a person's feet from water and rain. People who work on fishing boats and farmers wear rubber boots to keep their feet dry. People who work in chemical factories wear rubber boots to protect their feet from dangerous chemicals. + + Winter boots are boots that keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as Canada and Sweden wear winter boots during the cold season. Winter boots can be made from many different materials, such as leather, fabric, or plastic. Winter boots are insulated with wool or fur to keep the feet warm. Most winter boots also keep people's feet dry. + + Work boots (or "construction boots") are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs. Work boots often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work boots are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals. Some work boots have a flat piece of steel in the sole to protect the foot from sharp nails. Many countries require construction workers to wear work boots when they are on a construction site. + + Fashion boots are boots that are worn for style than for protection. Usually the term is used for women's boots. These kind of boots come in many heights, where the top ends at the ankle, the knee, or the thigh. The ones that are tall are usually closed by a zipper or can stretch for putting it on easily. This is because using shoe laces would take time for the taller types. + +Other websites + +Basic English 850 words +Bankruptcy is a legal process which happens when a person or an organization does not have enough money to pay all of its debts. Legally they are insolvent. + +Where it is a person who cannot pay their debts, the person's creditors may ask the court to appoint a trustee in bankruptcy. This is a professional accountant who is appointed by the court, to take control of the bankrupt person's assets. Some assets are protected by law, but the trustee in bankruptcy will sell off all of the other assets and use the money to pay as much of that person's debts as possible. After the process is complete the person is discharged from bankruptcy, and the person is free from any further liability to pay those claims, but normally that person will be limited in their ability to borrow money again because their credit rating will be damaged. + +Where it is an organisation which cannot pay its debts, the creditors may ask the court to appoint a liquidator. The liquidator does a very similar job to the trustee in bankruptcy except that there are no assets which are protected so the liquidator can sell everything. Once all of the assets of the organisation have been sold, the organisation is then dissolved and no longer exists. Organisations do not get discharged from bankruptcy in the same way that a living person does. + +Insolvency or bankruptcy +People often confuse the terms bankruptcy and insolvency, and sometimes they use one word when they really mean the other. Insolvency usually just means that a someone does not have enough money to pay their debts or (sometimes) that the total amount of their debts is worth more than the total amount of their assets. Bankruptcy is a formal legal process in front of the courts. Although the two terms are connected, just because a person is insolvent does not necessarily mean that they will go into bankruptcy. + +Alternatives to bankruptcy +Many countries have alternatives to bankruptcy to try and allow people and businesses to try and avoid the bankruptcy process. + +In various countries, individual people can try and reach individual voluntary arrangements (or IVAs) with their creditors. This means that the creditors agree to take less money to discharge their debts. There are similar processes for companies and other organisations, and they go by various different names in different countries, but in many countries they are called schemes of arrangement. + +Bankruptcy protection +In many countries a company or business can ask the courts for bankruptcy protection to try and protect the business so that the creditors cannot destroy all of the physical capital and goodwill by breaking it apart and moving it away. The aim of this is to provide more time for the business to reorganise itself and to work out a new deal between the owners and the people with whom the business owes money. In many countries this is called going into administration. + +However, not all countries have bankruptcy protection laws for businesses. + +Debt slavery +Often a creditor threatens a debtor with debt slavery in many parts of the world. In some cases the debtor does not know that they have a right to go bankrupt. This is a human rights problem in some countries. Also, some creditors continue to harass a debtor even though bankruptcy laws say they should not, hoping that the debtor will pay them money that they do not deserve. + +United States +Bankruptcy in the United States falls mostly under federal law, Title 11 of the United States Code (Bankruptcy Code). The types of bankruptcy available in the United States are named after the primary divisions, or "chapters", of that law. The person or business that files a bankruptcy case is known as the debtor. + +When a bankruptcy case is filed, a trustee is chosen by the court. The trustee has authority over the property of the bankrupt person or business and may use some of the debtor's assets to pay the creditors. After a bankruptcy is filed, creditors are notified that they are to stop trying to collect money directly from the debtor and are to make claims for payment to the bankruptcy court. + +Chapter 7 +The most common form of bankruptcy is the Chapter 7 Bankruptcy, which can be filed by businesses or individuals. It is also called liquidation bankruptcy because some of a debtor's property may be sold (liquidated) to satisfy creditors. When a business is in debt which it cannot pay, it may ask or be forced to file bankruptcy in court under Chapter 7. This usually makes a company stop doing business. Employees often lose their jobs when company files for chapter 7. + +Chapter 11 +Chapter 11 bankruptcy is a complicated type of bankruptcy that reorganizes the debtor's finances, usually reducing the amount of debt owed and changing debt repayment terms. A Chapter 11 bankruptcy case allows a business to keep running while it finds ways to reduce and arrange payment of its debts. + +Almost all Chapter 11 bankruptcies are filed by businesses. Ordinary people do not usually file Chapter 11 bankruptcy, because a Chapter 13 bankruptcy will almost always be cheaper and easier for them. + +Chapter 13 +Chapter 13 is the most popular form of bankruptcy in the United States for ordinary people. In a Chapter 13 bankruptcy some of your debts may be forgiven (discharged), but you will have to pay back a portion of your debt. The debt repayment plan is supervised by the bankruptcy court and usually lasts for three to five years. Businesses cannot file for Chapter 13 bankruptcy. + +Other bankruptcy chapters + +Less common forms of bankruptcy may be filed under Chapter 9 and Chapter 12 of the bankruptcy code. + + Chapter 9 bankruptcy allows municipalities, smaller units of government such as cities and towns, to restructure their debts. + Chapter 12 bankruptcy is a special type of bankruptcy for family farms and fishermen. It combines elements of Chapter 11 and Chapter 13 bankruptcy to allow smaller farms and fishing businesses to stay open while they restructure their debts. + +References + +Finance +Business law +Breakfast sausage is a type of fresh pork sausage made from seasoned ground meat mixed with bread crumbs. Breakfast sausage has a blander flavor than many other types of sausage, such as British or Italian-style sausages. + +Using breakfast sausages +Breakfast sausages are not cured or smoked like other types of sausages, which means that they have to be cooked soon after they are purchased (unless they are frozen). Uncooked sausages should be stored in the refrigerator or the freezer. Individuals handling them should wash their hands in hot soapy water, because uncooked pork is unhealthy for humans. Pork sausages have to be heated until all of the meat inside is cooked. + +They are usually fried or grilled in a pan until they are browned and served at breakfast, often with cooked eggs, pancakes, and toasted bread. Breakfast sausages are also used in other dishes, such as "toad in the hole" a cooked batter dish. + +Types of breakfast sausages +Different types made from pork and beef mixtures as well as poultry can now be found. There are also vegetarian types that use textured vegetable protein in place of meat. Breakfast sausages are available in patties or slices from a large roll, or in weiner-like links of different lengths and thickness. + +Sausage +Breakfast foods +A browser is a name given to any animal, usually a herbivorous mammal, which eats leaves and shrubs rather than grass. It is contrasted with grazers, which eat grass. + +Animals by eating behaviors +Beekeeping or apiculture is the farming of honeybees. + +Uses +The keeping of bees is usually, and has been in the past, for honey. That is becoming less true. Instead, it is more used for crop pollination and other products. These are wax and propolis. + +There is only one queen bee in each hive and she is bigger than the rest. She lays all the eggs, which makes all the other bees in the hive her daughters and sons. However, they do not control the hive. + +Types of beekeeping +The largest beekeeping operations are agricultural businesses that are operated for profit. Some people also have small beekeeping operations that they do as a hobby. Urban beekeeping is a growing trend, and some have found that "city bees" are actually healthier than "rural bees" because there are fewer pesticides and greater biodiversity. + +Threats +Colony Collapse Disorder is a growing problem, along with mites. + +References +British English or UK English is the dialect of the English language spoken in the United Kingdom. It is different in some ways from other types of English, such as American English. British English is widely spoken throughout most countries that were historically part of the British Empire. + +Use in other countries +American English is used in the United States. In Canada, the accent sounds extremely similar to American English but with few exceptions (see Canadian English). Canada has mixed the spelling rules of American and British English to form its own spelling rules. + +All members of the Commonwealth of Nations learn British English, while American English is often learnt in the Americas, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. The United Kingdom and Ireland use British layout keyboards, while Australia, South Africa, Canada, New Zealand and the US use American layout keyboards. In continental Europe, English as a second language is sometimes taught in American English, except in Scandinavia and the Netherlands where British English is taught. + +Pronunciation +In the United Kingdom, the spelling remains the same but the pronunciation varies with local dialect. For example, a person from a place near London may not pronounce his "r"s the same as a person from Scotland. Across the country, the accent is different. In Liverpool, people may speak with a "Scouse" accent, in Birmingham with a "Brummie" accent. + +In London the "Cockney" accent was once common, but is almost never heard today. All these regional accents became less extreme in the 20th century. This is generally attributed to the arrival of radio and television. Another factor is the increased mobility of people. A similar process has been noted in the United States, where regional differences are much less noticeable than they used to be. + +Spelling + +There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often keeps more traditional ways of spelling words than American English. Many of the British English rules are also used in other countries outside of the United Kingdom. Most of those countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. + +Vocabulary +In British English, "dock" refers to the water in the space between two "piers" or "wharfs". In American English, the "pier" or "wharf" could be called a "dock", and the water between would be a "slip". + +Some common differences: + +British English â American English + accelerator â throttle + autumn â fall + biscuit â cookie + bonnet â hood (of a car) + boot â trunk (of a car) + bum â butt + caravan â travel trailer, mobile home + chips â French fries + courgette â zucchini + crisps â chips (especially potato chips) + care home - assisted living facility\home + sweets - candy + face flannel â washcloth + flat â apartment + football â soccer + garden â yard + bungalow - ranch house + handbag â purse + jumper â sweater + lift â elevator + lorry â truck + manual gearbox â stick shift + metro, underground, tube â subway + motorway â freeway + mum â mom + nappy â diaper + number plate â license plate + pants - underpants + pavement â sidewalk + lower ground floor - basement + ground floor - first\main floor + let - rent or lease + fuzz\coppers - police, the cops + knackered - exhausted, tired + aeroplane - airplane + pram â stroller + petrol â gas or gasoline + phone box - phone booth + post â mail, mailbox + railway â railroad + shopping trolley â shopping cart + loo â toilet + take-away â take-out + trousers â pants - Only Superman wears his pants outside of his trousers + torch â flashlight + tram â streetcar + holiday - vacation + +Other websites + British and American English differences + +References +Being is also a present tense part of to be + +The word being means a living person or animal. âHuman beingâ means the same as âpersonâ. Men, women, and children are human beings. + +Some people write stories or make movies about beings from other planets. Most religions talk about supernatural beings, for example spirits, angels, devils, gods, or God. + +Philosophy +Religion +Beijing is the capital of the People's Republic of China. The city used to be known as Peking. It is in the northern and eastern parts of the country. Having more that 21 million residents, it is one of the most populous capital cities. + +The city of Beijing has played a very important role in the development of China. Many people from different cities and countries come to Beijing to look for better chances to find work. Nearly 15 million people live there. Beijing hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 2008, and the Winter Olympic Games in 2022. It is the only city that has hosted both. + +Beijing is well known for its ancient history. Since the Jin Dynasty, Beijing has been the capital of several dynasties (especially the later ones), including the Yuan, Ming, and Qing. There are many places of historic interest in Beijing. + +Name + +The Mandarin Chinese name of the city is BÄijÄ«ng, which means "The Northern Capital". It got this name when the Yongle Emperor of the Ming family of rulers moved most of his government from Nanjing ("The Southern Capital") in the early 1400s. In Chinese, Beijing's name is written Today, people spell it "Beijing" because they use the pinyin way of spelling, which shows what the name should sound like in Mandarin. People used to spell it "Peking" because that was the spelling used by some of the first people from Europe to visit the Ming and write home about it; the Jesuits' work was made popular by their French brother Du Halde. It then became the official Chinese Postal Map spelling around 1900 and continued to be used until pinyin became more popular. + +Beijing was also known as Beiping ("City of Northern Peace") between 1928 and 1949, when the Nationalists moved the Chinese capital to Nanjing and Chongqing. + +History +The center of Beijing was settled in the 1st millennium BC. In those days, the Kingdom of Yan (ç, YÄn) set up their capital where Beijing is today. They called it Ji (è, JĂŹ). After the Kingdom of Yan was destroyed, the city became smaller, although it was still an important place. + +Beijing became more important again in the 10th century, when the Jin dynasty set its capital there. This city was destroyed by Mongol forces in 1215. Then in 1267, Mongols built a new city on the north side of the Jin capital, and called it "Great Capital" (性éœ, DĂ dĆ«), which was the beginning of modern Beijing. When Kublai Khan the Mongolian monarch, set up the Yuan dynasty, this city became his capital. + +The Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty and Qing dynasty all made Beijing their capital. When the Qing dynasty lost power and the Republic of China was set up, the new Republic moved its capital from Beijing to Nanjing. When the People's Republic of China seized power, Beijing became the capital of China again. + +In 1989, there were protests in Tian'anmen Square because some people wanted democracy. + +Special places +Important places in Beijing include: + The Great Wall of China (ChĂĄngchĂ©ng), in the mountains between Beijing and the grasslands of Mongolia + The Forbidden City (GĂčgĆng), the most important home of the emperors of Ming and Qing China + Tian'anmen Square (TiÄn'ÄnmĂ©n GuÇngchÇng), surrounded by China's most important government buildings and museums + Jingshan & Beihai Parks, the hill overlooking the Forbidden City and the lake beside it, with many temples + The Summer Palace (YĂŹhĂ©yuĂĄn) and Old Summer Palace (YuĂĄnmĂng YuĂĄn), the more natural home of the last Qing emperors and what is left of an older one + Prince Gong's Mansion, a very nice old house for one of the Qing princes + The Imperial Ancestral Temple (TĂ imiĂ o), where the emperors remembered the earlier people in their families + The Temple of Heaven (TiÄntĂĄn) and Temple of the Earth (DĂŹtĂĄn), important places for China's old national religion + The Temples of the Sun and the Moon, other important places for China's old national religion + The Temple of Confucius and Imperial Academy, important places for China's old kind of education + Niujie Mosque, a place for Beijing's Muslims and one of the city's oldest buildings + The National and Urban Planning Museums + Olympic Green, the park left from the 2008 Beijing Olympics + Marco Polo Bridge, a very old bridge across the main river west of town + Ming Tombs, where many Ming emperors were buried + Zhoukoudian, caves in the mountains west of town where people lived long, long ago + +Education +Beijing is the education center of People's Republic of China. More than 500 famous universities of China are in Beijing. They also include 5 of the top universities: Peking University, Tsinghua University, China People University, Beijing Normal University, and Beihang University. Beijing is also education center of China for teaching Chinese as a foreign language. The standard Chinese pronunciation is based on Beijing dialect, so over 70% foreigners who want to study Chinese go to Beijing for their studies. + +Sources + +Pages + +Books + . + . + +Other websites + + Beijing Travel + Beijing Travel Guide + Voyage PĂ©kin + Photos of Beijing + +Beijing +Olympic cities +Articles containing Chinese-language text +A bottle is a container used to carry liquids. Bottles can have many different sizes. Bottles are usually made of glass or plastic. Drinks such as milk, wine, lemonade, soft drinks, and water are often put into bottles. Other liquids put into bottles include chemicals like bleach or detergent, and some kinds of medicines. + +Basic English 850 words +Containers +The word berry is used for many different kinds of small fruits that have many seeds and can be used as food. Some examples are raspberry, strawberry, sutberry, lingonberry and blueberry. + +When botanists talk about berries, they mean a simple fruit produced from a single ovary. They sometimes call this true berry, to distinguish it from false berries. By that statement of how words are used, grapes or tomatoes are true berries. + +The berry is the most common type of soft fruit in which the entire ovary wall gets to the right stage of development of the pericarp which can be taken as food. The flowers of these plants have an upper ovary with one or more carpels. The seeds are inside the soft body of the ovary. + +Berries are small, sweet, bright colored fruits. Due to this, they are able to bring more animals towards them and spread their seeds. + +Some fruits that are called berries in English are not true berries by the use of words above. These include raspberries, strawberry, sutberry, blackberries, cranberries, and boysenberries. Some true berries do not have berry in their name. These include tomatoes, bananas, eggplants, guavas, pomegranates and chillies. Pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, oranges and lemons are also berries that have slightly different structure and may be called by different names (pepo for pumpkins, cucumbers, and melons, or hesperidium for oranges and lemons). + +References +Boil might mean: + +Boiling, heating a liquid to the point where it turns into gas +Boil, a type of Staphylococcal infection + +Basic English 850 words +A beard is the hair growing on the lower part of a man's face. + +The hair that grows on the upper lip of some men is a mustache. When a man has hair only below the lower lip and above the chin, it is called a soul patch. Some men have a lot of hair and a big beard, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their beards, or cut their beard so it does not get very long. + +Some animals also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a beard. + +Facial hair +In light, black is lack of all color. It is a shade. In painting, however, the black pigment is the combination of all colors. In heraldry, black is called "sable". It is the opposite of white. + +Origin of black +The word "black" comes from Old English blĂŠc ("black, dark", also, "ink"), from Proto-Germanic *blakkaz ("burned"), and from Proto-Indo-European *bhleg-. Black is the darkest color/tone on a scale. + +Black in science +In science, an object that is black absorbs the light that hits it. Because these objects do not reflect any light, the human eye can't see any color coming from that object. The brain then sees these objects as black. + +A way to create black objects is to mix pigments. A pigment works by reflecting only the color of the pigment. For example, a blue pigment absorbs all colors except blue. By mixing pigments in the right quantities, black can be made. + +In sunlight, black objects become quickly warm because they absorb much light. + +Meaning of black + +Black is associated with power, elegance, formality, safety, birth, male, evil and mystery. Black is a dark color, the darkest color there is. Black, along with gray and white, is a neutral color. This means that it is not a hot color or a cool color. + +Black is a color seen with fear and the unknown (black holes). It can have a bad meaning (blackbird, black bunny) or a good meaning ('in the black', 'black is beautiful'). Black can stand for strength and power. It can be a formal, elegant, and high-class color (black tie, black Mercedes, black man). Black clothing is dark in emo and goth subculture. + +Related pages + + List of colors + Blackbody radiation + Black people + +Basic English 850 words +Bubonic plague is the best-known form of the disease plague, which is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. The name bubonic plague is specific for this form of the disease, which enters through the skin, and travels through the lymphatic system. + +The plague was spread by fleas on rats. This method of spreading disease is a zoonosis. + +If the disease is left untreated, it kills about half its victims in three to seven days. The bubonic plague was the disease that caused the Black Death, which killed tens of millions of people in Europe, in the Middle Ages. + +Symptoms of this disease include coughing, fever, and black spots on the skin. + +Different kinds of the same disease +There are different kinds of Bubonic plague. The most common form of the disease is spread by a certain kind of flea, that lives on rats. Then there is an incubation period which can last from a few hours to about seven days. + +Septicemic plague +Sepsis happens when the bacterium enters the blood and makes it form tiny clots. + +Pneumonic plague +This happens when the bacterium can enter the lungs. About 95% of all people with this form will die. Incubation period is only one to two days. + +The abortive form +This is the most harmless form. It will result in a small fever. After that, the victim's body produces antibodies that protect against all forms of the disease for a long time. + +History +The first recorded epidemic was in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), It was called the Plague of Justinian after emperor Justinian I, who was infected but survived through extensive treatment. The pandemic resulted in the deaths of an estimated 25 million (6th century outbreak) to 50 million people (two centuries of recurrence). + +During the 1300s, this epidemic struck parts of Asia, North Africa, and Europe. Almost a third of the people in Europe died of it. Unlike catastrophes that pull communities together, this epidemic was so terrifying that it broke people's trust in one another. Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer of the time, described it: "This scourge had implanted so great a terror in the hearts of men and women that brothers abandoned brothers, uncles their nephews, sisters their brothers, and in many cases wives deserted their husbands. But even worse,... fathers and mothers refused to nurse and assist their own children". + +Local outbreaks of the plague are grouped into three plague pandemics, whereby the respective start and end dates and the assignment of some outbreaks to either pandemic are still subject to discussion. The pandemics were: + the first plague pandemic from 541 to ~750, spreading from Egypt to the Mediterranean (starting with the Plague of Justinian) and northwestern Europe + the second plague pandemic from ~1331 to ~1855, spreading from Central Asia to the Mediterranean and Europe (starting with the Black Death), and probably also to China + the third plague pandemic from 1855 to 1960, spreading from China to various places around the world, notably India and the West Coast of the United States. + +Globally about 600 cases of plague are reported a year. In 2017 the countries with the most cases include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, and Peru. + +Vector +The transmission of Y. pestis by fleas is well known. Fleas are the vector. The flea gets the bacteria as they feed on an infected animal, usually a rodent. Several proteins then work to keep the bacteria in the flea's digestive tract. This is important for the survival of Y. pestis in fleas. + +Modern history +In the 20th century, some countries did research on the bacteria that causes bubonic plague, in order to use it for biological warfare. + +Samples of this bacteria are carefully controlled. There is much paranoia (fear) about it. Dr. Thomas C. Butler, a US expert in this organism was charged in October 2003 by the FBI with various crimes. This happened after he said he lost samples of Yersinia pestis. This is the bacteria that causes bubonic plague. The FBI did not find the samples. They do not know what happened to them. + +References + +Plague +Pulmonology +Zoonoses +Biology is the science that studies life, living things, and the evolution of life. Living things include animals, plants, fungi (such as mushrooms), and microorganisms such as bacteria and archaea. + +The term 'biology' is relatively modern. It was introduced in 1799 by a physician, Thomas Beddoes. + +People who study biology are called biologists. Biology looks at how animals and other living things behave and work, and what they are like. Biology also studies how organisms react with each other and the environment. It has existed as a science for about 200 years, and before that it was called "natural history". Biology has many research fields and branches. Like all sciences, biology uses the scientific method. This means that biologists must be able to show evidence for their ideas and that other biologists must be able to test the ideas for themselves. + +Biology attempts to answer questions such as: + + "What are the characteristics of this living thing?" (comparative anatomy) + "How do the parts work?" (physiology) + "How should we group living things?" (classification, taxonomy) + "What does this living thing do?" (behaviour, growth) + "How does inheritance work?" (genetics) + "What is the history of life?" (palaeontology) + "How do living things relate to their environment?" (ecology) + +Modern biology is influenced by evolution, which answers the question: "How has the living world come to be as it is?" + +History +The word biology comes from the Greek word ÎČÎŻÎżÏ (bios), "life", and the suffix -λογία (logia), "study of". + +Branches + Algalogy + Anatomy + Arachnology + Bacteriology + Biochemistry + Biogeography + Biophysics + Botany + Bryology + Cell biology + Cytology + Dendrology + Developmental biology + Ecology + Endocrinology + Entomology + Embryology + Ethology + Evolution / Evolutionary biology + Genetics / Genomics + Herpetology + Histology + Human biology / Anthropology / Primatology + Ichthyology + Limnology + Mammalology + Marine biology + Microbiology / Bacteriology + Molecular biology + Morphology + Mycology / Lichenology + Ornithology + Palaeontology + Parasitology + Phycology + Phylogenetics + Physiology + Taxonomy + Virology + Zoology + +References + + +Science-related lists +Botany is the study of plants. It is a science. It is a branch of biology, and is also called plant biology. It is sometimes called phytology. Scientists who study botany are called botanists. They study how plants work. + +Branches of botany +AgronomyâApplication of plant science to crop production +BryologyâMosses, liverworts, and hornworts +ForestryâForest management and related studies +HorticultureâCultivated plants +MicropaleontologyâPollen and spores +MycologyâFungi +PaleobotanyâFossil plants +PhycologyâAlgae +PhytochemistryâPlant secondary chemistry and chemical processes +PhytopathologyâPlant diseases +Plant anatomyâCell and tissue structure +Plant ecologyâRole of plants in the environment +Plant geneticsâGenetic inheritance in plants +Plant morphologyâStructure and life cycles +Plant physiologyâLife functions of plants +Plant systematicsâClassification and naming of plants + +Recent trends +University departments of botany are often now merged into a wider group of specialities, including cell biology, genetics, ecology, cytology, palaeontology and other topics. This gives students and research workers access to a wider education and a wider range of research techniques. + +Notable botanists + Theophrastus, Hellenistic philosopher, wrote books, systematized botanical descriptions. + Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248), Andalusian-Arab scientist, author of one of the largest botanical encyclopedias. + Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707â1788) was a French naturalist, Intendant of the Jardin du Roi ('King's Garden'). Buffon published thirty-five volumes of his Histoire naturelle during his lifetime, and nine more volumes were published after his death. +Luther Burbank (1849â1926), American botanist, horticulturist, and a pioneer in agricultural science. +Charles Darwin (1809â1882) wrote eight important books on botany after he published the Origin of Species. +Al-Dinawari (828â896), Kurdish botanist, historian, geographer, astronomer, mathematician, and founder of Arabic botany. +Conrad Gessner (1516â1565) was a Swiss naturalist and bibliographer. +Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817â1911), English botanist and explorer. Second winner of Darwin Medal. +Carl Linnaeus (1707â1778), Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of Binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. +Gregor Mendel (1822â1884), Augustinian priest and scientist, and is often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. +Reid Venable Moran (1916â2010) was an American botanist and a curator of the San Diego Natural History Museum. He wrote a document titled "Cneoridium dumosum (Nuttall) Hooker F. Collected March 26, 1960, at an Elevation of about 1450 Meters on Cerro QuemazĂłn, 15 Miles South of BahĂa de Los Angeles, Baja California, MĂ©xico, Apparently for a Southeastward Range Extension of Some 140 Miles". +John Ray (1627â1705) was an English naturalist, the father of English natural history. +G. Ledyard Stebbins (1906â2000) was an American botanist and geneticist. He was one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century. +Eduard Strasburger (1844â1912) was a Polish-German professor who was one of the most famous botanists of the 19th century. +Nikolai Vavilov (1887â1943) was a Russian botanist and geneticist. He showed how and where crop plants evolved. He studied and improved wheat, corn, and other cereal crops. + +References + +Related pages + + Botanical garden +Belgium (officially the Kingdom of Belgium; , , ) is a country in Western Europe. Its capital, Brussels, is the home of many organisations including the European Union and NATO. Belgium is bordered by The Netherlands in the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast and France to the south. + +Belgium has an area of . Around 11.6 million people live in Belgium. It is a founding member of the European Union and is home to its headquarters. + +Regions +There are three regions in Belgium. The regions are mainly based on language and culture. Flanders and Wallonia are both split up into five provinces each. + Flanders is the name of the northern half of Belgium, just south of the Netherlands. Most of the people in this region, called the Flemish people, speak Dutch. + Wallonia is the name of the southern half of Belgium, just north of France. Here, most of the people, the Walloons, speak French. There is a small part of Wallonia next to the border with Germany where the people speak German. + The Brussels-Capital Region, where the capital of Brussels is found, is in the middle of the country, but surrounded by Flanders on all sides. It used to be Dutch-speaking, but today French is mostly spoken, with some Dutch. +The population is about 60% Dutch-speaking, 39% French-speaking, and 1% German-speaking (the so-called Deutschbelgier). To look after all these groups, Belgium has a complex system of government with highly autonomous regions. + +History + +The name 'Belgium' comes from Gallia Belgica. This was a Roman province in the northernmost part of Gaul. Before Roman invasion in 100 BC, the Belgae, a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples, lived there. The Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings. A slow shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to change into the Carolingian Empire. The Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the region into Middle and West Francia. They were vassals either of the King of France or of the Holy Roman Emperor. +Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries. + +The Eighty Years' War (1568â1648) divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. Southern Netherlands were ruled by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs. This made up most of modern Belgium. + +After the campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars, the Low Countries were added into the French First Republic. This ended Austrian rule in the area. Adding back the Low Countries formed the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. This happened at the end of the First French Empire in 1815. + +The Belgian Revolution was in 1830. Leopold became king on 1831. This is now celebrated as Belgium's National Day. + +The Berlin Conference of 1885 gave control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II. Millions of Congolese people were hurt or killed, mostly to make rubber, and Leopold became very wealthy. In 1908 the Belgian state took control of the colony after a scandal about the deaths. + +Germany invaded Belgium in 1914. This was part of World War I. The opening months of the war were very bad in Belgium. During the war Belgium took over Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi). After the War, the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy were added into Belgium in 1925. The country was again invaded by Germany in 1940 and under German control until 1944. After World War II, the people made king Leopold III leave his throne in 1951. This is because they thought he helped the Germans. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member. + +In 1960 the Belgian Congo stopped being under Belgian rule. Two years later Ruanda-Urundi also became free. + +Geography + +Belgium is next to France, Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Its total area is 34,143 square kilometers (including sea area). The land area alone is 30,689 kmÂČ, of which 195 kmÂČ or 0.64% are inland and coastal waters. Belgium has three main geographical regions. The coastal plain is in the north-west. The central plateau are part of the Anglo-Belgian Basin. The Ardennes uplands are in the south-east. The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium's southernmost tip, Belgian Lorraine. + +The coastal plain is mostly sand dunes and polders. Further inland is a smooth, slowly rising landscape. There are fertile valleys. The hills have many forests. The plateaus of the Ardennes are more rough and rocky. They have caves and small, narrow valleys. Signal de Botrange is the country's highest point at 694 metres (2,277 ft). + +Regions +Belgium is divided into three regions: Flemish Region (Flanders), Walloon Region (Wallonia), and Brussels-Capital Region (Brussels Region or Brussels - also the name of the city): + +Âč The city of Brussels does not lie in Flanders Region and therefore cannot be the largest city of this region. + +ÂČ German name: Wallonie(n): the very eastern part of the Walloon Region is officially German-speaking, the so-called German-speaking Community of Belgium. + +Provinces +Flanders and Wallonia are divided into provinces. Brussels (Region) is not part of any province. + +{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left" +! style="width:110px;"| Province +! style="width:110px;"| Region +! style="width:110px;"| Dutch name +! style="width:110px;"| French name +! style="width:115px;"| Capital +! style="width:115px;"| Largest city +! style="width:50px;"| Area (kmÂČ) +! style="width:70px;"| Population (2022) +|- +| Antwerp || Flanders || Antwerpen || Anvers || Antwerp(Dutch: Antwerpen)(French: Anvers)|| Antwerp || style="text-align:right"|2,876|| style="text-align:right"|1,886,609 +|- +| East Flanders || Flanders || Oost-Vlaanderen || Flandre-Orientale || Ghent(Dutch: Gent)(French: Gand) || Ghent || style="text-align:right"|3,007|| style="text-align:right"|1,543,865 +|- +| Flemish Brabant || Flanders || Vlaams-Brabant || Brabant flamand || Leuven(French: Louvain) || Leuven || style="text-align:right"|2,118 || style="text-align:right"|1,173,440 +|- +| Hainaut || Wallonia || Henegouwen || Hainaut || Mons(Dutch: Bergen) || Charleroi || style="text-align:right"|3,813|| style="text-align:right"|1,351,127 +|- +| LiĂšge Âč || Wallonia || Luik || LiĂšge || LiĂšge Âč(Dutch: Luik) || LiĂšge || style="text-align:right"|3,857 || style="text-align:right"|1,110,989 +|- +| Limburg || Flanders || Limburg || Limbourg || Hasselt || Hasselt || style="text-align:right"|2,427|| style="text-align:right"|885,951 +|- +| Luxembourg || Wallonia || Luxemburg || Luxembourg || Arlon(Dutch: Aarlen)(Luxembourgish: Arel) || Bastogne(Dutch: Bastenaken) || style="text-align:right"|4,459|| style="text-align:right"|291,143 +|- +| Namur || Wallonia || Namen || Namur || Namur(Dutch: Namen) || Namur || style="text-align:right"|3,675|| style="text-align:right"|499,454 +|- +| Walloon Brabant || Wallonia || Waals-Brabant|| Brabant wallon || Wavre(Dutch: Waver) || Braine-l'Alleud(Dutch: Eigenbrakel) || style="text-align:right"|1,097|| style="text-align:right"|409,782 +|- +| West Flanders || Flanders || West-Vlaanderen || Flandre-Occidentale || Bruges(Dutch: Brugge) || Bruges || style="text-align:right"|3,197|| style="text-align:right"|1,209,011 +|} + +Âč German name: LĂŒttich - the very eastern part of the province of LiĂšge is officially German-speaking, the so-called German-speaking Community of Belgium. + + Climate +Belgium has a mostly oceanic climate, but the Belgian Ardennes has a continental climate. + +The highest temperature ever recorded in Belgium was , on 25 July 2019 in Begijnendijk. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Belgium was , on 20 January 1940 in Lesse. + + Politics + +Since 1993, Belgium is a federal state, divided into three regions and three communities. + +Regions: + Brussels-Capital Region + Flemish Region (or Flanders) + Walloon Region (or Wallonia) + +Communities: + Flemish Community + French Community of Belgium + German-speaking Community of Belgium + +It has a system of government known as a constitutional monarchy, meaning that it has a monarch, but that the monarch does not rule the country, and that a government is elected democratically. + +Belgium has had its own monarchy since 1831. King Albert II left the throne on July 21, 2013 and the current king is Philippe. + +In Belgium, the government is elected. Between mid-2010 and late 2011, after no clear result in the election, Belgium had no official government, until Elio Di Rupo became Prime Minister. Flanders and Wallonia both also have their own regional governments, and there is a notable independence movement in Flanders. Alexander De Croo is currently the Prime Minister. + +Military +The Belgian Armed Forces have about 46,000 active troops. In 2009 the yearly defence budget was $6 billion. There are four parts: Belgian Land Component, or the Army; Belgian Air Component, or the Air Force; Belgian Naval Component, or the Navy; Belgian Medical Component. + +Science and technology + +Adding to science and technology has happened throughout the country's history. cartographer Gerardus Mercator, anatomist Andreas Vesalius, herbalist Rembert Dodoens and mathematician Simon Stevin are among the most influential scientists. + +Chemist Ernest Solvay and engineer Zenobe Gramme gave their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo in the 1860s. Bakelite was formed in 1907â1909 by Leo Baekeland. A major addition to science was also due to a Belgian, Georges LemaĂźtre. He is the one who made the Big Bang theory of the start of the universe in 1927. + +Three Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Belgians: Jules Bordet in 1919, Corneille Heymans in 1938 and Albert Claude together with Christian De Duve in 1974. Ilya Prigogine was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977. Two Belgian mathematicians have been awarded the Fields Medal: Pierre Deligne in 1978 and Jean Bourgain in 1994. (Retrieved: November 10, 2011) + +In February 2014, Belgium became the first country in the world to legalize euthanasia without any age limits. + +Culture +Fine arts + +There have been many additions to painting and architecture. Several examples of major architectural places in Belgium belong to UNESCO's World Heritage List. In the 15th century the religious paintings of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden were important. The 16th century had more styles such as Peter Breughel's landscape paintings and Lambert Lombard's showing of the antique. The style of Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck was strong in the early 17th century in the Southern Netherlands. + +During the 19th and 20th centuries many original romantic, expressionist and surrealist Belgian painters started. These include James Ensor and other artists in the Les XX group, Constant Permeke, Paul Delvaux and RenĂ© Magritte. The sculptor Panamarenko is still a remarkable figure in contemporary art. The artist Jan Fabre and the painter Luc Tuymans are other internationally known figures in contemporary art. + +Belgian contributions to architecture were also in the 19th and 20th centuries. Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde were major starters of the Art Nouveau style. + +In the 19th and 20th centuries, there were major violinists, such as Henri Vieuxtemps, EugĂšne YsaĂże and Arthur Grumiaux. Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846. The composer CĂ©sar Franck was born in LiĂšge in 1822. Newer music in Belgium is also famous. Jazz musician Toots Thielemans and singer Jacques Brel have made global fame. In rock/pop music, Telex, Front 242, K's Choice, Hooverphonic, Zap Mama, Soulwax and dEUS are well known. In the heavy metal scene, bands like Machiavel, Channel Zero and Enthroned have a worldwide fan-base. + +Belgium has several well-known authors, including the poet Emile Verhaeren and novelists Hendrik Conscience, Georges Simenon, Suzanne Lilar and AmĂ©lie Nothomb. The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. The Adventures of Tintin by HergĂ© is the best known of Franco-Belgian comics. Many other major authors, including Peyo, AndrĂ© Franquin, Edgar P. Jacobs and Willy Vandersteen brought the Belgian cartoon strip industry a worldwide fame. + +Belgian cinema has brought a number of mainly Flemish novels to life on-screen. Belgian directors include AndrĂ© Delvaux, Stijn Coninx, Luc and Jean-Pierre Dardenne. Well-known actors include Jan Decleir and Marie Gillain. Successful films include Man Bites Dog and The Alzheimer Affair''. + +Cuisine + +Belgium is famous for beer, chocolate, waffles and french fries. French fries were first made in Belgium. The national dishes are "steak and fries with salad", and "mussels with fries". +Other local fast food dishes include a Mitraillette. Brands of Belgian chocolate and pralines, like CĂŽte d'Or, Guylian, Neuhaus, Leonidas, CornĂ© and Galler are famous. Belgium makes over 1100 varieties of beer. The Trappist beer of the Abbey of Westvleteren has repeatedly been rated the world's best beer. The biggest brewer in the world by volume is Anheuser-Busch InBev, based in Leuven. + +Sports + +Since the 1970s, sports clubs are organised separately by each language community. Association football is one of the most popular sports in both parts of Belgium, together with cycling, tennis, swimming and judo. With five victories in the Tour de France and many other cycling records, Belgian Eddy Merckx is said to be one of the greatest cyclists of all time. Jean-Marie Pfaff, a former Belgian goalkeeper, is said to be one of the greatest in the history of football (soccer). Belgium and The Netherlands hosted the UEFA European Football Championship in 2000. Belgium hosted the 1972 European Football Championships. + +Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin both were Player of the Year in the Women's Tennis Association. The Spa-Francorchamps motor-racing circuit hosts the Formula One World Championship Belgian Grand Prix. The Belgian driver, Jacky Ickx, won eight Grands Prix and six 24 Hours of Le Mans. Belgium also has a strong reputation in motocross. Sporting events held each year in Belgium include the Memorial Van Damme athletics competition, the Belgian Grand Prix Formula One, and a number of classic cycle races such as the Tour of Flanders and LiĂšgeâBastogneâLiĂšge. The 1920 Summer Olympics were held in Antwerp. + +Related pages + Belgium at the Olympics + Belgium national football team + List of rivers of Belgium + +References + +Other websites + + Official website of Belgian monarchy + Official website of the Belgian federal government + Belgian Telephone directory + Belgium Travel Guide + TopoMapViewer, National Geographic Institute (official map of Belgium) + + +European Union member states +Benelux +Current monarchies +Dutch-speaking countries +French-speaking countries +German-speaking countries +Federations +Brazil (officially called Federative Republic of Brazil; how to say: ) is a country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country. The country has about 212 million people. The capital of Brazil is BrasĂlia. Brazil was named after brazilwood, which is a tree that once grew very well along the Brazilian coast. + +History +The first people to come to Brazil came around 9,000 B.C. That group of indigenous people is often called the South American Indians and probably came from North America. They practiced hunting, foraging, and farming. Over thousands of years, many different indigenous people were living there. + +Pedro Ălvares Cabral was the first European to see Brazil. He saw it in 1500. He was from Portugal and the Portuguese kingdom claimed Brazil. Soon, Portugal colonized Brazil and created colonies all along the coastline. They began to import black slaves from Africa and force them to work. Because of the violence of the slave masters, many of these slaves would run away into the forest and create their own communities called quilombos. + +In the late 1500s and early 1600s, the Dutch and the French tried to take some land in Brazil. Dutch, French, and Portuguese started moving inland further than the Treaty of Tordesillas said they could. This caused some fights with the Spaniards (people from Spain) and indigenous people in the area. + +In 1822, Brazil claimed to be its own country and not a part of Portugal anymore. Soon there was civil war. Meanwhile, the quilombos survived and Brazil was bringing in more slaves than any other country in the Americas, even though many countries were beginning to legally abolish slavery. This led to an increase in slave revolts, especially in the 1860s and 1880s, which forced the government to change the system to keep the country stable. Slavery was legally abolished in 1888. + +In 1889, there was a military coup, and Pedro II had to leave the country. In 1889, Brazil became a republic. The only people who could vote were people who owned land. There were some uprisings in the 1920s because some people thought the government was unfairly helping coffee growers. Brazil joined the Allies during World War II. + +During the 1960s, the military leader Castelo Branco overthrew the government and created a dictatorship that was supported by the United States. It was very anti-communist and they imprisoned, tortured, or killed many people on the left. Since then, the country has become more democratic, but some people feel that there are still big problems in health, education, crime, poverty and social inequality. + +In August 2016, then-president Dilma Rousseff was removed from office because of impeachment. + +Languages +The official language of Brazil is Portuguese. Brazil is the only country in South America that speaks Portuguese but people in South America speak Portuguese than Spanish because the population of Brazil is larger than the combined population of all the Spanish-speaking countries in South America. + +Some people in Brazil speak German dialects. That came from German immigrants. 2% of Brazilians speak German as their first language. Yiddish is spoken by the elders of the Jewish community. + +Other people in Brazil speak their ancestors' languages like Italian, Japanese, Polish, Ukrainian, French, Russian, Lithuanian, Chinese, Dutch and Korean. Spanish or "Portunhol", a mix of Portuguese and Castilian (Spanish) is spoken at some of the borders. Indigenous languages as Guarani and AymarĂĄ are the first languages of a small number of Brazilians. + +Geography +Brazil has the world's largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest. It makes up 40% of the country's land area. Brazil also has other types of land, including a type of savanna, called cerrado, and a dry plant region named caatinga. + +The most important cities are BrasĂlia (the capital), BelĂ©m, Belo Horizonte, Curitiba, FlorianĂłpolis, Fortaleza, GoiĂąnia, Manaus, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, SĂŁo Paulo (the biggest city) and VitĂłria. Other cities are at List of largest cities in Brazil. + +Brazil is divided into 26 states plus the Federal District in five regions (north, south, northeast, southeast and centre-west): + North: Acre, Amazonas, RondĂŽnia, Roraima, ParĂĄ, AmapĂĄ, Tocantins + Northeast: MaranhĂŁo, Pernambuco, CearĂĄ, PiauĂ, Rio Grande do Norte, ParaĂba, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia + Centre-West: GoiĂĄs, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Distrito Federal/ Federal District + Southeast: SĂŁo Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, EspĂrito Santo, Minas Gerais + South: ParanĂĄ, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul + +The country is the fifth-largest in the world by area. It is known for its many rainforests and jungles. It is next to every country in South America except Chile and Ecuador. +The name Brazil comes from a tree named brazilwood. + +Culture +Brazil is the largest country in South America and the fifth-largest in the world. Its people are called Brazilians or Brasileiros (In Portuguese). The people include citizens of Portuguese or other European descent who mainly live in the South and Southeast, Africans, Native Americans, Arabs, Gypsies, and people of mixed ancestry. Brazil also has the largest Japanese community outside Japan. Other East Asians follow the Japanese group. The Amazon River flows through Brazil, it is the 2nd longest river in the world (after the Nile). The current President of Brazil is Jair Messias Bolsonaro. Two major sporting events were held in Brazil recently: the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. + +Notable people + + JosĂ© Paulino Gomes, supercentenarian + +Related pages + Civil Police (Brazil) + Political subdivisions of Brazil + CIA World Factbook + +References + +Other websites + + + + +Portuguese-speaking countries +1825 establishments in South America +Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with chemical elements and compounds, and how they work together and change. In other words, chemistry is the branch of science about fundamental properties of matter and chemical reactions. Chemistry is the study of the substances and their transformations (or change). + +History +Before 1600, people studied substances to figure out how to do things such as turn lead into gold, but no one managed to do that. This was called alchemy. After 1600, using the scientific method alchemists became chemists. Chemists separated the air into many parts and isolated the noble gases from it. They also processed special minerals from a mine in Sweden to get rare earth metals. Radioactivity was also discovered. 118 different elements have been found. Some are very common, like oxygen. Many are very rare and expensive, like platinum. Some cannot be found on earth and can only be made in labs, like rutherfordium. + +Since the 1920s, the increased understanding of physics has changed chemists' theories about chemical reactions. With smaller and faster computers, chemists have built better tools for analyzing substances. These tools have been sent to study chemicals on Mars. Police also use those tools to study evidence from crime scenes. + +Types of chemistry +There are several types of chemistry. Analytical chemistry looks at which chemicals are in things. For example, looking at how much arsenic is in food. Organic chemistry looks at things that have carbon in them. For example, making acetylene. Inorganic chemistry looks at things that do not have carbon in them. One example is making an integrated circuit. Theoretical chemistry tries to explain chemical data with mathematics and computers. + +A large area of chemistry is polymer chemistry. This looks at plastics. One example is making nylon. Because plastics are made of carbon, polymer chemistry is part of organic chemistry. Another area is biochemistry. This looks at the chemistry of living things. An example would be seeing how arsenic poisons people. Biochemistry is also part of organic chemistry. There are many other small branches of chemistry. + +Concepts of chemistry + +Basic concepts +The basic unit of an element is called an atom. An atom is the smallest building block that you can cut an element into without the element breaking down (turning into a lighter element, for example through nuclear fission or radioactive decay). A chemical compound is a substance made up of two or more elements. In a compound, two or more atoms are joined to form a molecule. The tiniest speck of dust or drop of liquid, that one can see is made up of many millions or billions of these molecules. Mixtures are substances where chemicals are mixed but not reacted. An example would be mixing sand and salt. This can be undone again to produce salt and sand separately. Chemical compounds are changed by a chemical reaction. An example would be heating sodium bicarbonate, common baking soda. It will make water, carbon dioxide, and sodium carbonate. This reaction cannot be undone. + +One very important concept in chemistry is that different atoms interact with one another in very specific proportions. For example, two hydrogen atoms interacting with one oxygen atom lead to the water molecule, H2O. This relationship is known as the "Law of constant proportions" and leads to the idea of "stoichiometry", a term that refers to the ratios of different atoms in chemical compounds. For example, in water, there are always exactly 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen atom. In carbon dioxide, there are exactly 2 oxygen atoms for 1 carbon atom. These relationships are described using chemical formulas such as H2O (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom) and CO2 (one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms). + +Mole +Because atoms of different elements react with one another in very specific proportions but atoms of different elements have different weights, chemists often describe the number of different elements and compounds in terms of the number of "moles". A "mole" of any element contains the same number of atoms: 602,214,150,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. The atomic mass of an element can be used to see how much of the element makes a mole. For example, the atomic mass of copper is about 63.55. That means about 63.55 grams of copper metal has a mole of atoms. The atomic mass of chlorine is about 35.45. That means 35.45 grams of chlorine has a mole of atoms in it. + +Moles can be used to see how many molecules are in chemical compounds, too. Copper(II) chloride is an example. CuCl2 is its chemical formula. There is one copper atom (63.55) and two chlorine atoms (35.45 · 2 = 70.90). Add all the molar masses of the elements together to get the molar mass of the chemical compound (63.55 + 70.90 = 134.45). That means in 134.45 grams of copper(II) chloride, there is one mole of copper(II) chloride molecules. This concept is used to calculate how much chemicals are needed in a chemical reaction if no reactants (chemicals that are reacted) should be left. If too much reactant is used, there will be some reactants left in the chemical reaction. + +Acids and bases +Acids and bases are common chemicals. Acids release H+ ions when in water, and bases release OHâ ions when in water. Acids can react with bases. The H+ ion is taken from the acid by the base. This makes water, H2O. A salt is also made when an acid and a base react together. An example would be reacting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Hydrochloric acid releases H+ and Cl- ions in water. The base releases Na+ and OH- ions. The H+ and the OH- react to make water. There is a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) left. Sodium chloride is a salt. + +Usefulness +Chemistry is very useful in everyday life and makes up the foundation of many branches of science. Most objects are made by chemists (people who do chemistry). Chemists are constantly working to find new and useful substances. Chemists make new drugs and materials like paints that we use every day. + +Safety + +Many chemicals are harmless, but there are some chemicals that are dangerous. For example, mercury(II) chloride is very toxic. Chromates can cause cancer. Tin(II) chloride pollutes water easily. Hydrochloric acid can cause bad burns. Some chemicals like hydrogen can explode or catch fire. To stay safe, chemists experiment with chemicals in a chemical lab. They use special equipment and clothing to do reactions and keep the chemicals contained. The chemicals used in drugs and in things like bleach have been tested to make sure they are safe if used correctly. + +Related pages + + Periodic table + List of common elements + Laboratory techniques + Aerosol + +References +Chemical compound, a chemical combination of two or more chemical elements + Compound word, a word made from two or more other words +Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of computation and practical techniques for their application. +Computer science is the science of information. Computer scientists study different ways of reading, using, and encoding information. + +There are many different areas within computer science. In some areas, scientists only work with ideas "on paper". In other areas they use those ideas to make things like computers and computer programs. + +A person who works in computer science will often need to understand logic and mathematics. + +Common tasks for a computer scientist + +Asking questions +This is so people can find new and easier ways to do things, and the way to approach problems with this information. + +While computers can do some things easily (like simple math, or sorting out a list of names from A-to-Z), computers cannot answer questions when there is not enough information, or when there is no real answer. Also, computers may take too much time to finish long tasks. For example, it may take too long to find the shortest way through all of the towns in the USA - so instead a computer will try to make a close guess. A computer will answer these simpler questions much faster. + +Answering the question +Algorithms are a specific set of instructions or steps on how to complete a task. For example, a computer scientist wants to sort playing cards. There are many ways to sort them - by suits (diamonds, clubs, hearts, and spades) or by numbers (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King, and Ace). By deciding on a set of steps to sort the cards, the scientist has created an algorithm. The scientist then needs to test whether this algorithm works. This shows how well and how fast the algorithm sorts cards. + +A simple but slow algorithm is: pick up two cards and check whether they are sorted correctly. If they are not, reverse them. Then do it again with another two, and repeat them all until they are all sorted. This is called a bubble sort. This method will work, but it will take a very long time. + +A better algorithm is: find the first card with the smallest suit and smallest number (2 of diamonds), and place it at the start. After this, look for the second card, and so on. This algorithm is much faster, and does not need much space. This algorithm is called a "selection sort". + +Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm in 1843, for a computer that was never finished. Computers began during World War II. Computer science separated from the other sciences during the 1960s and 1970s. Now, computer science has its own methods, and has its own technical terms. It is related to electrical engineering, mathematics, and language science. + +Computer science looks at the theoretical parts of computers. Computer engineering looks at the physical parts of computers (hardware). Software engineering looks at the use of computer programs and how to make them. + +Parts of computer science + +Central math + Boolean algebra (when something can only be true or false) + Computer numbering formats (how computers count) + Discrete mathematics (math with numbers a person can count) + Symbolic logic (clear ways of talking about math) +Order of operations (which math operations are performed first) + +How an ideal computer works + Algorithmic information theory (how easily can a computer answer a question?) + Complexity theory (how much time and memory does a computer need to answer a question?) + Computability theory (can a computer do something?) + Information theory (math that looks at data and how to process data) + Theory of computation (how to answer questions on a computer using algorithms) + Graph theory (math that looks for directions from one point to another) + Type theory (what kinds of data should computers work with?) + Denotational semantics (math for computer languages) + Algorithms (looks at how to answer a question) + Compilers (turning words into computer programs) + Lexical analysis (how to turn words into data) + Microprogramming (how to control the most important part of a computer) + Operating systems (big computer programs, e.g. Linux, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS) to control the computer hardware and software. + Cryptography (hiding data) + Parallel computing (many instructions are carried out simultaneously) + Theoretical computer science (how information can be processed) + +Computer science at work + Artificial intelligence (making computers learn and talk, similar to people) + Computer architecture (building a computer) + Computer graphics (making pictures with computers) + Computer networks (joining computers to other computers) + Computer program (how to tell a computer to do something) + Computer programming (writing, or making, computer programs) + Computer security (making computers and their data safe) + Databases (a way to sort and keep data) + Data structure (how to build or group data) + Distributed computing (using more than one computer to solve a difficult problem) + Information retrieval (getting data back from a computer) + Programming languages (languages that a programmer uses to make computer programs) + Program specification (what a program is supposed to do) + Program verification (making sure a computer program does what it should do, see debugging) + Robots (using computers to control machines) + Software engineering (how programmers write programs) + Blockchain (use blockchain technology for security, and privacy) + +What computer science does + Benchmark (testing a computer's power or speed) + Computer vision (how computers can see and understand images) + Collision detection (how computers help robots move without hitting something) + Data compression (making data smaller) + Data structures (how computers group and sort data) + Data acquisition (putting data into computers) + Design patterns (answers to common software engineering problems) + Digital signal processing (cleaning and "looking" at data) + File formats (how a file is arranged) + Human-computer interaction (how humans use computers) + Information security (keeping data safe from other people) + Internet (a large network that joins almost all computers) + Web applications (computer programs on the Internet) + Optimization (making computer programs work better) + Software metrics (ways to measure computer programs, such as counting lines of code or number of operations) + VLSI design (the making of a very large and complex computer system) + +Related pages + Computing + Formal language + Turing Award + Computer jargon + Encyclopedia of Computer Terms + +References +A computer is a machine that uses electronics to input, process, store, and output data. Data is information such as numbers, words, and lists. Input of data means to read information from a keyboard, a storage device like a hard drive, or a sensor. The computer processes or changes the data by following the instructions in software programs. A computer program is a list of instructions the computer has to perform. Programs usually perform mathematical calculations, modify data, or move it around. The data is then saved on a storage device, shown on a display, or sent to another computer. Computers can be connected together to form a network such as the internet, allowing the computers to communicate with each other. + +The processor of a computer is made from integrated circuits (chips) that contains many transistors. Most computers are digital, which means that they represent information using binary digits, or bits. Computers come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the brand, model, and purpose. They range from small computers, such as smartphones and laptops, to large computers, such as supercomputers. + +Characteristics +The two things make it a computer are that it responds to a specific instruction set in a well-defined manner, and that it can execute a stored list of instructions called a program. There are four main actions in a computer: inputting, storing, outputting and processing. + +Modern computers can do billions of calculations in a second. Being able to calculate many times per second allows modern computers to multi-task, which means they can do many different tasks at the same time. Computers do many different jobs where automation is useful. Some examples are controlling traffic lights, vehicles, security systems, washing machines and digital televisions. + +Computers can be designed to do almost anything with information. Computers are used to control large and small machines that, in the past, were controlled by humans. Most people have a personal computer at home or at work. They are used for things such as calculation, listening to music, reading an article, writing, or playing games. + +Hardware +Modern computers are electronic computer hardware. They do mathematical arithmetic very quickly, but computers do not really "think." They only follow the instructions in their software programs. The software uses the hardware when the user gives it instructions and produces useful outputs. + +Controls +Computers are controlled with user interfaces. Input devices which include keyboards, computer mice, buttons, and touch screens, etc. + +Programs +Computer programs are designed or written by computer programmers. A few programmers write programs in the computer's own language, called machine code. Most programs are written using a programming language like C, C++, JavaScript. These programming languages are more like the language with which one talks and writes every day. The compiler converts the user's instructions into binary code (machine code) that the computer will understand and do what is needed. + +History of computers + +First computer +In 1837, Charles Babbage proposed the first general mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine. The Analytical Engine contained an Arithmetic Logic Unit, basic flow control, punched cards, and integrated memory. It is the first general-purpose computer concept that could be used for many things and not only one particular computation. However, this computer was never built while Charles Babbage was alive, because he didn't have enough money. In 1910, Henry Babbage, Charles Babbage's youngest son, was able to complete a portion of this machine and perform basic calculations. +Before the computer era there were machines that could do the same thing over and over again, like a music box. But some people wanted to be able to tell their machine to do different things. For example, they wanted to tell the music box to play different music every time. This part of computer history is called the "history of programmable machines" which in simple words means "the history of machines that I can order to do different things if I know how to speak their language." + +One of the first examples of this was built by Hero of Alexandria (c. 10â70 AD). He built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums. These ropes and drums were the language of the machine- they told what the machine did and when. Some people argue that this is the first programmable machine. + +Some people disagree on which early computer is programmable. Many say the "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is the first known programmable analog computer. The length of day and night could be adjusted every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. Some count this daily adjustment as computer programming. + +Others say the first computer was made by Charles Babbage. Ada Lovelace is considered to be the first programmer. + +The computing era +At the end of the Middle Ages, people started thinking math and engineering were more important. In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard made a mechanical calculator. Other Europeans made more calculators after him. They were not modern computers because they could only add, subtract, and multiply- you could not change what they did to make them do something like play Tetris. Because of this, we say they were not programmable. Now engineers use computers to design and plan. + +In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard used punched paper cards to tell his textile loom what kind of pattern to weave. He could use punch cards to tell the loom what to do, and he could change the punch cards, which means he could program the loom to weave the pattern he wanted. This means the loom was programmable. At the end of the 1800s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine, developing punched card data processing technology for the 1890 U.S. census. His tabulating machines read and summarized data stored on punched cards and they began use for government and commercial data processing. + +Charles Babbage wanted to make a similar machine that could calculate. He called it "The Analytical Engine". Because Babbage did not have enough money and always changed his design when he had a better idea, he never built his Analytical Engine. + +As time went on, computers were used more. People get bored easily doing the same thing over and over. Imagine spending your life writing things down on index cards, storing them, and then having to go find them again. The U.S. Census Bureau in 1890 had hundreds of people doing just that. It was expensive, and reports took a long time. Then an engineer worked out how to make machines do a lot of the work. Herman Hollerith invented a tabulating machine that would automatically add up information that the Census bureau collected. The Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (which later became IBM) made his machines. They leased the machines instead of selling them. Makers of machines had long helped their users understand and repair them, and CTR's tech support was especially good. + +Because of machines like this, new ways of talking to these machines were invented, and new types of machines were invented, and eventually the computer as we know it was born. + +Analog and digital computers +In the first half of the 20th century, scientists started using computers, mostly because scientists had a lot of math to figure out and wanted to spend more of their time thinking about science questions instead of spending hours adding numbers together. For example, if they had to launch a rocket ship, they needed to do a lot of math to make sure the rocket worked right. So they put together computers. These analog computers used analog circuits, which made them very hard to program. In the 1930s, they invented digital computers, and soon made them easier to program. However this is not the case as many consecutive attempts have been made to bring arithmetic logic to l3.Analog computers are mechanical or electronic devices which solve problems.Some are used to control machines as well. + +High-scale computers +Scientists figured out how to make and use digital computers in the 1930s to 1940s. Scientists made a lot of digital computers, and as they did, they figured out how to ask them the right sorts of questions to get the most out of them. Here are a few of the computers they built: + + Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine that used binary arithmetic. Binary arithmetic means using "Yes" and "No." to add numbers together. You could also program it. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete. Turing complete means that it is possible to tell this particular computer anything that it is mathematically possible to tell a computer. It is the world's first modern computer. + The non-programmable AtanasoffâBerry Computer (1941) which used vacuum tubes to store "yes" and "no" answers, and regenerative capacitor memory. + The Harvard Mark I (1944), A big computer that you could kind of program. + The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which could add numbers the way people do (using the numbers 0 through 9) and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). At first, however, the only way to reprogram ENIAC was by rewiring it. + +Several developers of ENIAC saw its problems. They invented a way to for a computer to remember what they had told it, and a way to change what it remembered. This is known as "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. John von Neumann talked about this design in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture started around this time. The first of these was completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first really useful computer that used the stored program design. Shortly afterwards, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paperâEDVACâwas completed but was not ready for two years. + +Nearly all modern computers use the stored-program architecture. It has become the main concept which defines a modern computer. The technologies used to build computers have changed since the 1940s, but many current computers still use the von-Neumann architecture. + +In the 1950s computers were built out of mostly vacuum tubes. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the 1960s because they were smaller and cheaper. They also need less power and do not break down as much as vacuum tubes. In the 1970s, technologies were based on integrated circuits. Microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004 made computers smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable. By the 1980s, microcontrollers became small and cheap enough to replace mechanical controls in things like washing machines. The 1980s also saw home computers and personal computers. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household. + +In 2005 Nokia started to call some of its mobile phones (the N-series) "multimedia computers" and after the launch of the Apple iPhone in 2007, many are now starting to add the smartphone category among "real" computers. In 2008, if smartphones are included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold, was no longer Hewlett-Packard, but rather Nokia. + +Kinds of computers +There are many types of computers. Some include: + personal computer + workstation + mainframe + minicomputer + supercomputer + embedded system + tablet computer + quantum computers + +A "desktop computer" is a small machine that has a screen (which is not part of the computer). Most people keep them on top of a desk, which is why they are called "desktop computers." "Laptop computers" are computers small enough to fit on your lap. This makes them easy to carry around. Both laptops and desktops are called personal computers, because one person at a time uses them for things like playing music, surfing the web, or playing video games. + +There are larger computers that can be used by multiple people at the same time. These are called "mainframes," and these computers do all the things that make things like the internet work. You can think of a personal computer like this: the personal computer is like your skin: you can see it, other people can see it, and through your skin you feel wind, water, air, and the rest of the world. A mainframe is more like your internal organs: you never see them, and you barely even think about them, but if they suddenly went missing, you would have some very big problems. + +An embedded computer, also called an embedded system is a computer that does one thing and one thing only, and usually does it very well. For example, an alarm clock is an embedded computer. It tells the time. Unlike your personal computer, you cannot use your clock to play Tetris. Because of this, we say that embedded computers cannot be programmed because you cannot install more programs on your clock. Some mobile phones, automatic teller machines, microwave ovens, CD players and cars are operated by embedded computers. + +All-in-one PC +All-in-one computers are desktop computers that have all of the computer's inner mechanisms in the same case as the monitor. Apple has made several popular examples of all-in-one computers, such as the original Macintosh of the mid-1980s and the iMac of the late 1990s and 2000s. + +Uses of computers + +At home + Playing computer games + Writing + Solving math problems + Watching videos + Listening to music and audio + Audio, Video and photo editing + Creating sound or video + Communicating with other people + Using The Internet + Online shopping + Drawing + Online bill payments + Online business + +At work + Word processing + Spreadsheets + Presentations + Photo Editing + E-mail + Video editing/rendering/encoding + Audio recording + System Management + Website Development + Software Development + +Working methods +Computers store data and the instructions as numbers, because computers can do things with numbers very quickly. These data are stored as binary symbols (1s and 0s). A 1 or a 0 symbol stored by a computer is called a bit, which comes from the words binary digit. Computers can use many bits together to represent instructions and the data that these instructions use. A list of instructions is called a program and is stored on the computer's hard disk. Computers work through the program by using a central processing unit, and they use fast memory called RAM (also known as Random Access Memory) as a space to store the instructions and data while they are doing this. When the computer wants to store the results of the program for later, it uses the hard disk because things stored on a hard disk can still be remembered after the computer is turned off. + +An operating system tells the computer how to understand what jobs it has to do, how to do these jobs, and how to tell people the results. Millions of computers may be using the same operating system, while each computer can have its own application programs to do what its user needs. Using the same operating systems makes it easy to learn how to use computers for new things. A user who needs to use a computer for something different, can learn how to use a new application program. Some operating systems can have simple command lines or a fully user-friendly GUI. + +The Internet +One of the most important jobs that computers do for people is helping with communication. Communication is how people share information. Computers have helped people move forward in science, medicine, business, and learning, because they let experts from anywhere in the world work with each other and share information. They also let other people communicate with each other, do their jobs almost anywhere, learn about almost anything, or share their opinions with each other. The Internet is the thing that lets people communicate between their computers. The Internet also allows the computer user to play an Online game. + +Computers and waste +A computer is now almost always an electronic device. It usually contains materials that will become electronic waste when discarded. When a new computer is bought in some places, laws require that the cost of its waste management must also be paid for. This is called product stewardship. + +Computers can become obsolete quickly, depending on what programs the user runs. Very often, they are thrown away within two or three years, because some newer programs require a more powerful computer. This makes the problem worse, so computer recycling happens a lot. Many projects try to send working computers to developing nations so they can be re-used and will not become waste as quickly, as most people do not need to run new programs. Some computer parts, such as hard drives, can break easily. When these parts end up in the landfill, they can put poisonous chemicals like lead into the ground-water. Hard drives can also contain secret information like credit card numbers. If the hard drive is not erased before being thrown away, an identity thief can get the information from the hard drive, even if the drive doesn't work, and use it to steal money from the previous owner's bank account. + +Main hardware +Computers come in different forms, but most of them have a common design. + All computers have a CPU. + All computers have some kind of data bus which lets them get inputs or output things to the environment. + All computers have some form of memory. These are usually chips (integrated circuits) which can hold information. + Many computers have some kind of sensors, which lets them get input from their environment. + Many computers have some kind of display device, which lets them show output. They may also have other peripheral devices connected. + +A computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a human body, the CPU is like a brain. It does most of the thinking and tells the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is on the Motherboard, which is like the skeleton. It provides the basis for where the other parts go, and carries the nerves that connect them to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides electricity to the entire computer. The various drives (CD drive, floppy drive, and on many newer computers, USB flash drive) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books. The hard drive is like a human's memory, and keeps track of all the data stored on the computer. Most computers have a sound card or another method of making sound, which is like vocal cords, or a voice box. Connected to the sound card are speakers, which are like a mouth, and are where the sound comes out. Computers might also have a graphics card, which helps the computer to create visual effects, such as 3D environments, or more realistic colors, and more powerful graphics cards can make more realistic or more advanced images, in the same way a well trained artist can. + +Largest computer companies + +References +Chinese might mean: + +Anything related to the country of China +Chinese people, the people of China +Chinese language +Chinese characters, the symbols used to write the Chinese and Japanese languages +A continent is a large area of the land on Earth that is joined. + +There are no strict rules for what land is considered a continent, but in general it is agreed there are six or seven continents in the world, including Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe, North America, Oceania (or Australasia), and South America. + +Statistics + +The most populous continent by population is Asia, followed by Africa. The third most populous continent is Europe. The fourth most populous is North America, and then South America. In sub-Saharan Africa, the largest age group are denarians (in their teens). In north Africa, the largest age group are vicenarian (in their twenties). In Europe, most people are tricenarian (in their thirties) or quadragenarian (in their forties). + +Continents +Geologists use the term continent to mean continental crust, a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Continental crust is less dense and much thicker than oceanic crust, which is why it "floats" higher than oceanic crust on the underlying mantle. This explains why the continents form high platforms surrounded by deep ocean basins. + +Australia +Some sources say that Australia is one of the seven continents. Others say that Australia is part of a larger continent, such as Australasia, or Oceania. Oceania is a region which includes Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. Australasia includes at least all countries on the Australian continental plate. This includes the islands of New Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand and a number of smaller islands. It is on the south-eastern side of the Wallace Line, with distinct differences in its biology from the Asian side of the line. + +"It includes all the islands of the Malay Archipelago... as well as the various groups of islands in the Pacific. The term has been used in very different senses". + +Zealandia +Zealandia is an almost entirely submerged land mass, and 93% of it still remains under water. Zealandia may have broken off the Australian plate between 85 and 130 million years ago. + +North and South America +North America and South America together are often described as one continent, "the Americas", or simply "America". This has the advantage of including Central America and the Caribbean islands. Otherwise, Central America is counted as part of North America. + +Eurasia +Eurasia is not really an alternative, rather it is a recognition that the landmasses of Europe and Asia are continuous, and some of its largest countries are in both regions. Russia extends from eastern Europe to the far east of Asia without a break. The Ural Mountains, which run roughly northâsouth, are the traditional dividing-line between Europe and Asia. For many purposes it is convenient to consider the great landmass as a single continent, Eurasia. + +When British people talk about "the Continent" (or "Continental" things) they mean the European mainland. This meaning is not used as much as it used to be, but is still seen in phrases like "Continental breakfast" (rolls with cheese, jam etc. as distinct from an "English breakfast" which is a cooked breakfast). + +Continents not only move but also sometimes move against each other. The Indian subcontinent has been colliding with the Eurasian continent for a while now. As these continents push against each other, they buckle and bend. Because of this, the Himalaya Mountains, with Mount Everest, are still being built up today. + +Antarctica +Antarctica is Earth's fifth largest continent. Antarctica, the coldest place on Earth, covers Earth's South Pole. It has a surface area of ~13.6 â14 million km2: this is about 1.4 times the size of Europe, The continent only has two seasons, a brief summer and a long winter. Antarctica is a cold desert. It does not rain or snow much there. Ever since its discovery in 1812, Antarctica was a great challenge for explorers. Despite being nearly completely covered by a thick layer of ice, Antarctica has a range of aquatic and terrestrial environments. + +Origin of continents +A craton is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere. It is the Earth's two topmost layers, the crust and the uppermost mantle. + +There are various hypotheses of how cratons have been formed.. Continents may have been formed by giant meteorite impacts in the first billion years of Earth's existence. The question is not yet settled. What is clear is that the cratons are very old, and are the basis for the continents we see today. + +Related pages + List of countries by continents + +References + + +Geology +The Greek classical elements are fire, air, water, and earth. In Greek philosophy, science and medicine, these make up a whole. + +Fire is both hot and dry. +Air is both hot and wet. +Water is both cold and wet. +Earth is both cold and dry. + +The image below has two squares on top of each other. The corners of one are the classical elements. The corners of the other are the properties. + +Galen said these elements were used by Hippocrates to describe the human body. The elements are linked to the four humours: phlegm (water), yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), and blood (air). + +In Chinese Taoism the elements are metal, wood, water, fire, earth (). + +References + +Ancient Greece +History of science +China ( Pinyin: ZhĆngguĂł) is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and a nation in East Asia. The official name is People's Republic of China or PRC. + +The last Chinese Civil War (19271949) resulted in two different political powers today: + + The Republic of China (ROC) (since 1911), commonly known as China since 1 January, 1911 to 25 October, 1971. Now commonly known as Taiwan, has control over the islands of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu. + The People's Republic of China (PRC) (since 1949), commonly known as China, has control over mainland China and the largely self-governing territories of Hong Kong (since 1997) and Macau (since 1999). + +China is one of the world's oldest civilizations: it has the oldest continuous civilization near the Yellow River region. There is archaeological evidence over 5,000 years old. China also has one of the world's oldest writing systems (and the oldest in use today). China has been the source of many major inventions. Geographically, Chinaâs longest river is the Yangtze River which runs through mega cities and is home to many species. It is the worldâs third longest river. + +Origins +The first recorded use of the word "China" is dated 1555. It is derived from chÄ«nÄ«, a Persian adjective meaning 'Chinese' which was popularized in Europe by Marco Polo. + +History + +Ancient (2100 B.C. 1500 A.D.) +Ancient China was one of the first civilizations and was active since the 2nd millennium BC as a feudal society. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing, with the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley civilization, the Maya civilization, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt. It reached its golden age during the Tang Dynasty (c. A.D. 10th century). Home of Confucianism and Daoism, it had great influence on nearby countries including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam in the areas of political system, philosophy, religion, art, writing and literature. China is home to some of the oldest artwork in the world. Statues and pottery, as well as decorations made of jade, are some classic examples. + +Before the Qin Dynasty united China, there were many small feudal states, nominally loyal to the Zhou King, that fought each other for hundreds of years in a war to control China. The majority of these states were ruled by relatives and clansmen of the Zhou royal house and carried the surname Ji (ć§Ź) and so were tied by family bonds to the Zhou king, to whom they were ritually subordinate, as members of collateral or lesser lineages. A minority of these states, such as the Qin and Chu, were ruled by non-Zhou clansmen, and were awarded their fiefs on account of some merit. Over time, these feudal states attained to power and wealth, that exceeded that of their Zhou nominal overlord, whose direct authority became confined to a very small territory near present-day Zhengzhou. These states also began to acquire some distinctive characteristics and identities of their own during the long centuries of loose control by the Zhou. Eventually, the Zhou kings were eclipsed in power by two especially problematic vassals - the Qin and Chu, and the functional independence of the Qin later led to its gradual conquest of all other vassal states and the formal supplantation of the Zhou to form a heavily centralised Empire. + +The long decline of the Zhou, incidentally the longest ruling dynastic house of China, is known as the Warring States Period. Despite the bloodiness and strife of the period, this was the time when many great philosophies emerged - including Confucianism and Daoism as a response to disintegrating central authority of the Zhou kings and fluctuating power of the vassal states, and the general uncertainty of that era. Confucianism and Daoism have been the foundation of many social values seen in modern east Asian cultures today. + +Other notable dynasties include the Han (from which is derived the ethnonym the Han Chinese, which is synonymous with the older self-referential term - the Huaxia) as well as dynasties such as the Tang, Song, and Ming, which were characterised by periods of affluence, wealth, population growth, and the proliferation of literature. + +During the later years, China was often raided or invaded by northern nomadic people such as the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Jurchens and the Mongols (the latter led by Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan). One effect of regular nomadic invasion and the collapse of native dynasties was the massive migration of Han Chinese - especially the aristocratic elite and the literati, to sparsely populated frontier regions south of the Yangzi river such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian. Several notable waves of Han Chinese immigration to Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian took place during the collapse of the Jin, the Tang, and the Song. + +Some nomadic groups succeeded in conquering the whole territory of China, establishing dynasties such as the Yuan (Mongol) and Qing (Manchu). Each time, they also brought new elements into Chinese culture - for instance, military uniform, the qipao and the pigtail, the latter of which was deeply resented by the Han Chinese. + +A new age + +While China achieved many things in the First millennium and early 2nd millennium, it became an isolationist country in the 15th century C.E. This was because Spain found enormous silver in the new continent, which was the main currency (money) in China and Europe at the time, and China did not want to be bought by the foreigners. + +By the time of the Renaissance, European powers started to take over other countries in Asia. While China was never actually taken over, many European countries, such as Britain and France built spheres of influence in China. Since China had cut itself off from the world over the previous few centuries, by the Qing Dynasty, it had fallen behind other countries in technology, and was helpless to stop this from happening. This had become clear when it lost the Opium Wars to Britain in the 19th century. + +Still influenced by Western sources, China faced internal strife. The Taiping Rebellion or Taiping War occurred in China from 1851 through 1864. The Taiping Rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan from Guangdong. Hong Xiuquan was influenced by Christian missionaries and declared himself the brother of Jesus. Hong made his mission to bring down the Qing Dynasty. Gaining influence on the southern Chinese population, the Taiping Rebellion attracted tens of thousands of supporters. The Taiping regime successfully created a state within the Qing Empire with the capital at Nanjing. Hong called his new state the Taiping Tianguo or "The Heavenly State of Great Peace". Local armies eventually suppressed the rebellion at the final battle of Nanjing. + +In 1911, the Republic of China was founded after the Xinhai revolution led by Sun Yat-sen, but its government was very weak. Warlords controlled many areas. Chiang Kai-shek led wars against them, and he became president and dictator. + +In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, a place in the northeastern part of China. On July 7, 1937, the Japanese attacked the rest of the country, starting what was called the Second Sino-Japanese War. + +On December 13 of that same year, The Japanese Army killed an estimated (guessed) 200,000 to 300,000 Chinese civilians (people) which is called Nanjing Massacre. The war later became part of World War II. The war was fought for eight years and millions of Chinese people were killed. + +However, the Chinese Civil War later started between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Communists of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Communists wanted to make China like the Soviet Union, whereas the other side wanted to keep China in its current state at the time. The Communists were led by Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai and others. The Communists eventually won the war by uniting all the people from different positions. The Nationalists (led by Chiang Kai-shek) fled to the island of Taiwan and set up their new capital city in Taipei. After the Chinese Civil War, the Communist leader Mao Zedong declared a new country, the People's Republic of China (PRC), in Beijing on October 1, 1949. + +Under Mao the country stayed poor while Taiwan became richer. His attempt at industrialization and collectivization with the Great Leap Forward led to the deaths of many people from famine. The Cultural Revolution caused great social upheaval. After 1976, China underwent market economy reforms under Deng Xiaoping, and experienced rapid economic growth, which made the former progress made by Taiwan became overshadowed. China is now one of the largest economies in the world, relying mainly on exports and manufactering. + +In recent history, China has had problems with protests, blocking of information on the Internet, and censorship of news. 1989 was notable for the controversial Tiananmen Square protests. Since the 2008 Olympics, China has hosted many major international events, and the 2022 Winter Olympics were held in Beijing, China. + +Geography + +China's landscape is vast and diverse. It ranges from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the north to subtropical forests in the south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern coast. The Yangtze River is the third-longest river in the world while the Yellow River is the sixth-longest. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers (9,000 mi) long. It is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe. The Eurasian Steppe has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the Steppe route. The Steppe Route is the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Road(s). + +Politics + +China's constitution states that The People's Republic of China "is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants". It also states the state organs "apply the principle of democratic centralism." The PRC is one of the world's only socialist states openly being communist. + +Military +With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world. The PLA is commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC). China has the second-biggest military reserve force, only behind North Korea. The PLA consists of the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF), and the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF). According to the Chinese government, China's military budget for 2017 was US$151,5 billion. China has the world's second-largest military budget. + +Science and technology + +China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the Ming dynasty. There are many Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions. For example, papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder are known as the Four Great Inventions. They became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers. By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world became better than China in science and technology. + +Demographics +The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China to be about 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old. The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%. + +Culture +China is the origin of Eastern martial arts, called Kung Fu or its first name Wushu. China is also the home of the well-respected Spa Monastery and Wudang Mountains. Martial art started more for the purpose of survival, defense, and warfare than art. Over time some art forms have branched off, while others have retained their distinct Chinese flavor. + +China has had renowned artists including Wong Fei Hung (Huang Fei Hung or Hwang Fei Hung) and many others. Art has also co-existed with a variety of paints including the more standard 18 colors. Legendary and controversial moves like Big Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture. + +China has many traditional festivals, such as Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-autumn Festival and so on. The most important is Chinese New Year. People in China will have holidays to celebrate these festivals. + +Festivals +Spring Festival is the Chinese New Year. + +Dragon Boat Festival is celebrated to commemorate the death of Qu Yuan, a patriotic poet of the State of Chu during the Warring States period. He persuaded his emperor not to accept Qin's diplomats' offers several times but his emperor did not listen to him. He was very sad and ended up jumping into the river to end his life. The people loved him so much that they did not want the fish to eat his corpse. They made and threw rice dumplings into the river. They hope the fish eat these dumplings instead of the poet's corpse. They also rowed dragon boats in the river to get rid of the fish. Such practices, eating rice dumplings and holding dragon boat races, become what Chinese do in this festival nowadays. + +Held on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, Mid-Autumn Festival is a festival for families. Now when the festival sets in, people would sit together to eat moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon, celebrate the bumper harvest and enjoy the family love and happiness. To the Chinese people, the full moon symbolizes family reunion, as does the "moon cakes." Hence the Mid-Autumn Festival is also called the Family Reunion Festival. + +Notes + +References + +Other websites + + Map of China + City Photo Gallery of China + China | Geography | People | Economy + China -Citizendium + +Divided regions + +Republics +A country is a distinct territory with defined borders, boundaries, people and government. Most countries are sovereign states while others make up one part of a larger state Every part of the world is in a country. The people that live in a country are referred to as a nation. The government that runs the country is called the state. + +Vatican City is the smallest country in the world and the largest is Russia. + +Number of countries +There is no universally accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there actually are, however the minimum answer is 193 for the 193 United Nations members. + +This can be developed on even further by adding the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, The Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Denmark which could add anywhere from three to eleven morecountries. + +There are multiple organisations that have their own lists of countries, one example being the Travellers Century Club which recognises 330 countries as of January 2022. + +Disputed countries +Taiwan is classified as a country. However, there is an ongoing dispute over Taiwan's independence with the People's Republic of China. + +There are a number of disputed areas that have declared independence from their parent state and receive limited recognition. For example, Kosovo, Transnistria, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Northern Cyprus, Artsakh and Somaliland. These are just some of the many examples of territories with limited to no recognition that are sometimes classed as countries. + +There is a lot of controversy surrounding the above examples and quite often any of these territories may be counted as countries purely based on opinion. If all of the above were added the list of U.N members there could be anything up to 211 countries. + +There are, however, many more territories with unique political circumstances that could also be counted. + +Depending on how loosely the dictionary definition for the word country is used there could be many more than 193 countries in the world. The matter is purely subjective depending on varying opinions. + +Constituent country + +Constituent country is a term sometimes used, usually by official institutions, in contexts in which a number of countries are part of a sovereign state. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has used the term referring to the former Yugoslavia, and the European institutions like the Council of Europe often use it in reference to the European Union. + +Territorial dispute + +A disputed territory is that territory whose sovereignty is jealously desired by two or more countries. Usually the administration of the territory is carried out by one of the countries that claims sovereignty, while the other country does not recognize the sovereignty over the territory of the other country. This does not usually happen in land or sea areas on which none possesses effective control, such as Antarctica, or only partially. + +Related pages +State +Sovereign state +Nation + +References + +Other websites + Geography Trainer 1.3.5 - Educational game aimed at school children to teach world capitals + Geography Trainer US States 1.1 game + List of countries + Geography Site Country Profiles - Based on the CIA World Factbook + + +Basic English 850 words +Colchester is a city in the northern part of the English county of Essex. It has a population of 104,000 people. People believe that Colchester is the oldest Roman town in England. + +History + +Before Roman times, Colchester was Camulodunon. This is a Celtic name that came from Camulos. Camulos was the Celtic god of war. The Romans called Colchester Camulodunum (written "CAMVLODVNVM") and made it the capital of Roman Britain. Colchester was attacked and burnt by Boudicca in 61 AD. The Romans moved their capital of Britannia to Londinium (now London), but Camulodunum remained an important city until the fifth century, when the Saxons conquered the region. + +The Roman town of Camulodunum, officially known as Colonia Victricensis, reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD. It may have reached a population of 30,000 in those centuries, but when the Romans withdrew from Britannia in 410 AD it probably had fewer than 5,000 inhabitants. + +The church at the Benedictine abbey of Saint John the Baptist was destroyed in 1539. This action was part of the dissolution of the monasteries by King Henry VIII. Only a gate remains, that people still go to visit. + +King Cunobelinus (or "Cunobelin") was from Colchester. + +Until 2022, Colchester was officially a town, not a city. On 5 September, Queen Elizabeth II signed letters patent to grant it city status. This was planned as part of her Platinum Jubilee celebrations. However, she died three days later. On 29 September, these letters were publicly released. + +Twin cities +Colchester is twinned with the following cities: + Imola, Italy + Wetzlar, Germany + Avignon, France + +Notes + +Bibliography + B D'Ambrosio. "Roman Camulodunum". Universita' Statale di Genova (Genova University). Genova, 2007 + +Settlements in Essex +Cities in England +Cartography is making maps. It is part of geography. How people make maps is always changing. In the past, maps were drawn by hand, but today most printed maps are made using computers and people usually see maps on computer screens. Someone who makes maps is called a cartographer. + +Making a map can be as simple as drawing a direction on a napkin, or as complicated as showing a whole country or world. Anyone can make a map, but cartographers spend their lives learning how to make better maps. + +For many centuries maps were usually carefully drawn onto paper or parchment. Now they are made on a computer which makes them look neater with accurate images. + +Maps are of two main types: + General maps with a variety of features. + Thematic maps with particular themes for specific audiences. + +General maps are produced in a series. Governments produce them in larger-scale and smaller-scale maps of great detail. + +Thematic maps are now very common. They are necessary to show spatial, cultural and social data. + +References + +Related pages + Map projection + Surveying + Topography + +Geodesy +History of science +Topography +Topology +A creator is a person who creates something. + +In some religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) God (or Allah meaning the God in Arabic) is the most important and original creator of the whole universe - including Man who is made "in his image" (see Genesis) to observe it and control it like God. The idea that anything that a person is creating, like an idea, can be owned as property comes from the ethical traditions and legal codes that came from these religions. + +In other traditions (Buddhism, Native American mythology) anyone has this potential for creating, and can become part of the greater creating of the universe. Stewardship of home, land and all of Earth is a test for participating in this, or just good sense. + +Related pages +Creation myth + +Theology +Contact network may mean: +Creative network +Social network +Power network +Chorizo is a pork (pig-meat) sausage which people first made in the Iberian Peninsula. It is made with large pieces of fatty pork, chili pepper and paprika. The special taste of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it. + +In the western hemisphere, the Mexican and Caribbean types are better known. These types of chorizo are made with smaller pieces of pork and different seasonings and peppers are used. + +Cured smoked chorizo is edible and can be eaten without cooking. Fresh chorizo must be cooked before eating. It can be eaten by its self, or as part of meal. It can also be used in place of ground beef or pork. + +Chorizo can be fresh. Also it can be dried. It can be spicy or not spicy depending on the recipe. There are many ways to eat chorizo. It can be sliced and eaten as a snack, or cooked. Dishes like stews, soups and rice dishes also use Chorizo. In Spain, chorizo is served as a small plate of food with drinks. In Latin America, chorizo is served with beans and eggs for breakfast. To make chorizo, the pork is cut into small pieces. Then it is mixed with spices and other ingredients. The mixture is then put into a casing. Casing is a thin, tube-like skin. Casing is made from the intestine of a pig. The chorizo is then left to dry for a few weeks. By doing this chorizo gets its special flavor and texture. There are many kinds of chorizo. Recipe of chorizo also different in different countries. In Spain, there are two main kinds of chorizo: chorizo de verdeo, and chorizo de cantimpalo. Chorizo de verdeo made with white wine and chorizo de cantimpalomade with red wine. In Latin America, chorizo is made with a mixture of chili peppers and other spices. It makes chorizo spicy. There are a few different ways to cook with chorizo. One popular way is to slice the chorizo and fry it in a pan until it is crispy. It can then be added to dishes like soups, stews and rice dishes. Chorizo can also be grilled, which gives it a smoky flavor. It can be sliced and added to sandwiches or served as a topping on pizza. Chorizo is a tasty and versatile food that can be enjoyed in many different ways. + +References + +Sausage +Creativity is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the process of making something new and useful or valuable. It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music. + + As a personal ability it is very difficult to measure. The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others. Judging what is creative is also controversial. Some people say only things which are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity. + +Some think that creativity is an important thing that makes humans different from apes. Others recognize that even apes, other primates, other mammals and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools). Liane Gabora believes that all culture comes from creativity, not imitation. Therefore, these people say, human science should focus on it (pay special attention to it): Ethics for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas. Politics would focus on the political virtues that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of education. Linguistics might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in grammar. + +Intellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or intellectual property in the law) are a way to reward creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is copyright which is supposed to pay writers and artists, but may only pay lawyers to make (imitative) arguments in court. + +Creativity is a central question in economics, where it is known as ingenuity (the ability to come up with new ideas) or individual capital - capacities that individuals have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a patent or training system that helps others do what the individual leader or founder of the system can do. In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this accurately and predict the economic growth of cities based on creativity. + +Related pages +Art +Imagination +Innovation + +Human behavior +The Cathar faith was a version of Christianity. They were usually considered Gnostics. The word 'Cathar' comes the Greek word katharos meaning 'unpolluted' (from Tobias Churton, The Gnostics) or "the pure ones". + +Principles +The Cathars believed that the world had been made by a bad god. They believed that this bad god had taken them from the good god and put them in the world, but inside their bodies there was a spirit, and that spirit needed to return to the good god. They were famous for a belief in a form of reincarnation and believed that when someone died the bad god would put that person's spirit in a new body. They believed this cycle of coming back to life could be escaped by a ritual cleansing. They were opposed to the doctrine of sin. + +Women were prominent in the faith. They were pacifists. They didn't eat anything that was made from other animals, including meat and cows milk. The only exception to this was fish. Fish was OK to eat because they believed fishes were not alive but just things that were sometimes produced from dirt and water. + +They preached tolerance of other faiths. They rejected the usual Christian rules of marriage and only believed in the New Testament. An earlier 10th-century Bulgarian heresy, Bogomilism and also Manichaeism started some of these trends. + +Language +They used a bible in the language people spoke. Many other Christians used a Bible in Latin. Latin was spoken only by the priests. + +Problems +In 1145, open challenge to Catholic dominance began. In about 1165, the first Cathars said that the Church was "full of ravening (starving) wolves and hypocrites" and "worshipping the wrong God", right in front of the most powerful Catholics. In 1166, the Council of Oxford in England wiped out the English Cathars. It was also suppressed in Northern France. In 1167, Cathar bishops met to discuss organizing a counter Church - in the South of France, the Languedoc nobles protected it, and many noble women became "Perfects". Parish clergy had low morale, or confidence. + +Reactions +The Catholic Church was against Catharism, seeing it as a heresy. + +In the South of France there was tremendous religious fervor, and an economy that was starting to grow, and a social class of merchants and peasants was starting to grow. Peasants owned their own land. Meanwhile, in other parts of Europe, peasants were forced to give up their land to nobles and become serfs or slaves - the system of feudalism. There was a strong central absolute monarchy that did not exist in the South of France. The burghers and bankers had more power in this looser system. R. I. Moore is a historian who believes that it was desire to crush this system and take over the land that drove the attack. + +However, there was real cultural and religious difference to cause problems: Troubadors, who combined some of the traditions of the Bards of the Celts, and Jews, were both part of the multicultural society in the South of France. Their influences were not appreciated by local or Roman Church figures. The 12th century Roman Catholic Monks were founding their monasteries outside the towns, drawing the best people there. + +Results +The Cathars thus had little competition. The Cathar "Perfects", the so-called Good Men or Good Women, lived restrained lives and spread their faith in towns - where the Catholics in general did not have their best agents. Also, Cathars preached that only these Good leaders had to follow the regimens their whole lives - lay people could repent only on their deathbeds. Many 20th century Christian sects have similar beliefs. + +The Albigensian Crusade + +Methods +The Pope ordered a crusade against the Cathars in southern France. He said any crusader who answered the call would be given the same rewards as a crusader who went to the Holy Land. This was an absolution of all sin. + +In the Launguedoc, on the 22nd of July 1209, a force of about 30,000 Crusaders arrived at the walls of Beziers bearing the cross pattee to mislead and create ease among the Cathars, thinking they were friend, not foe, and demanded that about 200 Cathars be surrendered. The people of the town who were mostly Catholic, said that rather than turn over their friends and family, "we would rather be flayed alive." + +A mistake by the defenders of Beziers let thousands of attackers in. Arnauld Amaury made the famous quote "Kill them all, God knows his own" on being asked how to tell who were Cathars during the assault. Everyone in the town was killed, some while taking refuge in the church. It is guessed that 20,000 were killed, many of whom were Catholics and not Cathars at all. The crusade became known as the Albigensian crusade after the town of Albi. It was to wipe out the Cathars almost entirely over forty or so years. The Crusaders wanted to go home, but were ordered by the Pope to continue until the whole South of France was controlled and all Cathars were dead. In 1210, they attacked the fortress at Minerv and built "the first great bonfire of heretics" - beginning the practice of burning at the stake that would continue in the Inquisition of the Counter-Reformation. It is interesting to note that at the siege of Montsegur when the fires were lit the Cathars ran down the hill and threw themselves on, as their beliefs were very strong. + +Result +Catharism disappeared from the northern Italian cities after the 1260s, pressured by the Inquisition. The last known Cathar perfectus in the Languedoc, Guillaume BĂ©libaste, was killed in 1321. + +Other websites + http://dannyreviews.com/h/Cathars.html + http://gnosistraditions.faithweb.com/mont.html + http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gui-cathars.html + http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/christ/west/cathar.html + http://pages.britishlibrary.net/forrester-roberts/cathars.html + Cathar Center in Barcelona: Books, spirituality, exhibition + +Gnosticism +Nontrinitarianism +Christianity of the Middle Ages +Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that deals with the origin, structure, evolution and space-time relationships of the universe. NASA defines cosmology as "The study of the structure and changes in the present universe". Another definition of cosmology is "the study of the universe, and humanity's place in it". + +Modern cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics. + +Though the word cosmology is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's Cosmologia Generalis), the study of the universe has a long history. + +History +Until the Renaissance people thought the universe was only the planets up to Saturn, and stars. With the invention of the telescope, we could see more of the universe. Early in the 20th century, astronomers thought the Milky Way was the entire universe. Later, with astrophotography and spectroscopy, astronomers (for example Edwin Hubble) showed that the Milky Way was only one of many galaxies. + +Modern cosmology is considered to have started in 1917 with the final paper of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. This made physicists realize that the universe changed. When a scientific discipline begins to change an idea that is believed by many people, it is known as a paradigm shift. During this paradigm shift, the Great Debate took place. Many scientists debated if there were other galaxies. The debate ended when Edwin Hubble found Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1926. + +The Big Bang model was then proposed by Belgian priest, Georges LemaĂźtre in 1927. This was supported by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the redshift in 1929. Later the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation was made. This was found by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. + +All of these discoveries have been further supported throughout the 21st century. Some more observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation were found by the COBE, WMAP, and Planck satellites. Some more observations of the redshift were found by the 2dfGRS and SDSS. These are known as redshift surveys. Survey is this context refers to an astronomical survey. An astronomical survey looks at a place in space. A redshift survey is a survey that looks for redshifts. + +On 1 December 2014, at the Planck 2014 meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% regular matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy. + +Key terms + Mass + Gravity + Electromagnetic radiation + Dark matter + Dark energy + Speed of light + Age of the Universe + +Related pages +String theory +Earth science +Inflation + +References + +Astrophysics +A church is a building that was constructed to allow people to meet to worship together. These people are usually Christians, or influenced by Christianity. Some other non-Christian religious groups also call their religious buildings churches, most notably Scientology. + +The following description is about Roman Catholic churches, although some parts are the same in Episcopalian and Lutheran churches. Depending on the number of people that are in a community, the churches come in different sizes. Small churches are called chapels. The churches in a particular geographical area form a group called the diocese. Each diocese has a cathedral. In most cases, the cathedral is a very big church. Cathedrals are the seat of bishops. + +History of church buildings + + + +In the early days of Christianity people met in private buildings. Church buildings are mentioned for the first time around the year 260 A.D. when the Emperor Galienus ordered an end of a persecution and to return the places of worship. In the third century we hear of large church buildings. We do not know, how these early buildings looked. Only in Dura-Europos (Syria) a building was discovered, which had been a private house modified for Christian services. + +After the death of the Roman emperor Constantine in 337 A.D. Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in. These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman basilicas. This plan was later used for the fine Gothic cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the Middle Ages. + +The parts of a church + +There are several parts in the architecture of a church. Not all churches will have all these parts: + + The nave is the main part of the church where the congregation (the people who come to worship) sit. + The aisles are the sides of the church which may run along the side of the nave. + The transept, if there is one, is an area which crosses the nave near the top of the church. This makes the church shaped like a cross, which is a symbol of Jesus's death on a cross. + The chancel leads up to the altar at the top of the church. The altar is in the sanctuary. The word âsanctuaryâ means âsacred placeâ. People were not allowed to be arrested in the sanctuary, so they were safe. The altar is usually at the east end of the church. People in the church sit facing the altar. We say that the church âfaces eastâ. + Churches will also have a tower or steeple, usually at the west end. If the church has a transept the tower may be above the centre of the transept. + +In Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of holy water near the entrance of the church. This tradition comes from the fact that Roman basilicas had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance. The font is a bowl where people (often babies) are baptized. This is also near the entrance of the church. This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church. + +Traditionally the nave has long benches for the congregation to sit on. These are called pews. Some churches may now have replaced their pews with chairs so that they can be moved about for different occasions. At the front of the nave is the pulpit where the priest preaches (these talks are called âsermonsâ). There is also a lectern (like a large music stand) from where the lessons (the Bible readings) are read. + +If there are aisles along the side of the nave there will be pillars which hold up the roof. In large churches or cathedrals there may be a row of little arches along the top of these pillars. This is called the triforium. Over the triforium is the clerestory which is a row of windows high up in the church wall. + +The chancel is the most holy part of the church, and this is why it is often separated from the nave by a screen which can be made of wood or stone, or occasionally iron. The congregation can see through the screen. On the top of the screen there may be a cross. This is called a rood (pronounce like ârudeâ) screen. Priests used to climb up a staircase to the top of the rood screen to read the epistle and the gospel. Sometimes people sang from there. + +Inside the chancel are the benches where the choir sit. These are called choir stalls. They are on both sides. The two sides of the choir sit facing one another. The choir members who sit on the left (north side) are called âcantorisâ (the side where the âcantorâ sits) and those on the right (south side) are called âdecaniâ (the side where the deacon sits). In some large churches or cathedrals the seats for the priests tip up. The top of these seats, when they are tipped up, are called misericords (from the Latin word for âmercyâ). This is because the priests or monks were able to lean against them when they got tired if they had to stand up for a long time. + +Sometimes there are holes in the walls of the screen so that the congregation can see through. These are called squints. If there is a recess in the wall it is called an aumbry. It is a cupboard for communion wine and bread that have been consecrated by a priest. + +The altar may be right at the east end of the church, but in larger churches or cathedrals it is often much farther forward. In that case the very east end is called an apse. Sometimes it is a separate chapel called the âLady Chapelâ. + +Churches through the ages + +The design of churches changed a lot during the course of history. Often churches were made bigger. When this happened there may be a mixture of architectural styles. These styles vary a lot in different countries. + +English churches + +In English churches there were several different periods of architecture: + + The Saxon period (700â1050) was a time when churches were very simple. The end of the church (end of the sanctuary) was often rounded. Hardly any are left now because they were mostly made of wood. + The Norman period (1050â1190) came from the style called Romanesque which was popular in Europe. The arches had ornaments which were called âmouldingsâ. The tops of the pillars looked like cushions, so they were called âcushion capitalsâ. The windows were narrow and rounded at the top. + Early English or Gothic architecture (1190â1280) was not as solid and heavy as Norman architecture. Towers were elegant and tall, like the tower of Salisbury Cathedral. + The Decorated style of architecture (1280â1360)was popular at a time when the plague (Black Death) was raging and a third of the people in England died. For that reason, not so much building was done then. There were lots of stone carvings were made in churches at that time. + The Perpendicular style (1360â1540) was very grand. It had lots of straight upward lines and fan vaulting. This can be seen in Westminster Abbey and King's College Chapel, Cambridge. Many churches that can be seen in England were built in this period. + +In the 1600s, churches were built in a variety of styles. Often they copied some of the older styles. After the Great Fire of London many new churches were built by the architect Sir Christopher Wren. They were built in the classical style. Churches continued to be built in later centuries like this, but also the Gothic style continued to be used. + +Modern churches often do not have the traditional cross-shape. It is difficult for the congregation to see and hear what is happening in the chancel. Modern churches bring the congregation, choir and priests in closer touch. An example is the round design for the Church of Christ the Cornerstone in Milton Keynes. Modern churches are often simpler but with a warmer character than the Gothic churches. Many have beautiful mosaic glass windows. Coventry Cathedral is a famous example of a modern church building. + +Related pages +Cathedral +Chapel +Choir (music) + +References + + EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica, 1973 + +Other websites + + Virtual Church +A city is a place where many people live close together. + +A city has many buildings and streets. It has houses, hotels, condominiums, and apartments for many people to live in, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work, and a government to run the city and keep law and order in the city. People live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do everything they want there. A city usually has a "city center" where government and business occur and suburbs where people live outside the center. + +Definition + +No rule is used worldwide to decide why some places are called "city," and other places are called "town." + +Some things that make a city are : + A long history. Although many cities today have only been around for tens or hundreds of years, there are a few which have been so for thousands of years. For example, Athens, Greece was founded in 1000 BC and Rome, Italy has existed since 700 BC. + A large population. Cities can have millions of people living in and around them. Among them are Tokyo, Japan, and the Tokyo Metropolis around it, which includes Yokohama and Chiba. + In Japan, the population of a city ( ćž ) is at least over 50,000 people. and among cities, there are various grades according to laws, which the central government of Japan governs. + A center where business and government takes place. The first case is often described as the financial capital, such as Frankfurt in Germany. The second case is true for different levels of government, whether they are local or part of a larger region (for example, Atlanta, Georgia, or the capital of the United States Washington, D.C.) Cities that contain the government of the region it is in are called capitals. Almost every country has its own capital. + Special powers called town privileges which have been given by the government of the country or its ruler. Europe during the Middle Ages was a great example of having town privileges. + Having a cathedral or a university. This rule is found in the United Kingdom. The smallest "cathedral cities" are St. David's and St. Asaph's which are both in Wales, Ripon and Wells which are in England. + +In American English, people often call all places where many people live cities. (See below: Size of cities ) + +Size of cities + +The sizes of cities can be very different. This depends on the type of city. Cities built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much are much smaller than modern cities. There are two main reasons. One reason is that old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it. Another important reason is that the streets in old cities are often narrow. If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the marketplace. People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city. + +Cities that were on a river like London could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like Sienna in Italy, because the river made a transport route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people. London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Sienna, a significant city in the 1300s, has changed very little in 700 years. + +Modern cities with modern transport systems can grow very large, because the streets are wide enough for cars, buses, and trucks, and there are often railway lines. + +In the US, the word city is often used for towns that are not very big. When the first European people went to America, they named " city " to new places. They hoped the places would be great cities in the future. For example, Salt Lake City was the name given to a village of 148 people. When they started building the town, they made street plans and called it Great Salt Lake City (for the nearby Great Salt Lake). + +Now, 150 years later, it really is a big city. + +In modern times many cities have grown bigger and bigger. The whole area is often called a "metropolis" and can sometimes include several small ancient towns and villages. The metropolis of London includes London, Westminster, and many old villages such as Notting Hill, Southwark, Richmond, Greenwich, etc. The part that is officially known as the " City of London " only takes up one square mile. The rest is known as "Greater London. " Many other cities have grown in the same way. + +These giant cities can be exciting places to live, and many people can find good jobs there, but modern cities also have many problems. Many people cannot find jobs in the cities and have to get money by begging or by crime. Automobiles, factories, and waste create a lot of pollution that makes people sick. + +Urban history + +Urban history is history of civilization. The first cities were made in ancient times, as soon as people began to create civilization . The oldest city on Earth is probably Catal Huyuk, which existed from 7500BCE to 6500bce, although mainstream historians consider Catal Huyuk to be a proto-city.Famous ancient cities which fell to ruins included Babylon, Troy, Mycenae and Mohenjo-daro. + +Benares in northern India is one among the ancient cities which has a history of more than 3000 years. Other cities that have existed since ancient times are Athens in Greece, Rome and Volterra in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt and York in England. + +In Europe, in the Middle Ages, being a city was a special privilege, granted by nobility. Cities that fall into this category, usually had (or still have) city walls. The people who lived in the city were privileged over those who did not. Medieval cities that still have walls include Carcassonne in France, Tehran in Iran, Toledo in Spain and Canterbury in England. + +Features + +Infrastructure + +People in a city live close together, so they cannot grow all their own food or gather their own water or energy. People also create waste and need a place to put it. Modern cities have infrastructure to solve these problems. Pipes carry running water, and power lines carry electricity. Sewers take away the dirty water and human waste. Most cities collect garbage to take it to a landfill, burn it, or recycle it. + +Transport is any way of getting from one place to another. Cities have roads which are used by automobiles (including trucks), buses, motorcycles, bicycles, and pedestrians (people walking). Some cities have trains and larger cities have airports. Many people in cities travel to work each day, which is called commuting. + +Buildings and design +Houses and apartments are common places to live in cities. Great numbers of people in developing countries (and developed countries, in the past) live in slums. A slum is poorly built housing, without clean water, where people live very close together. Buildings are usually taller in the city center, and some cities have skyscrapers. + +City streets can be shaped like a grid, or as a "wheel and spokes": a set of rings and lines coming out from the center. Streets in some older cities like London are arranged at random, without a pattern. The design of cities is a subject called urban planning. One area of the city might have only shops, and another area might have only factories. Cities have parks, and other public areas like city squares. + +United States politics + +Cities in the US are usually very-left leaning. The best examples of these would be New York, New York, and Washington, D.C. For example, in Louisiana, the only Democratic delegate in US Congress who is a Democrat was elected from a district comprising in New Orleans. Below is a list of states and the major city/cities that provide much of the liberal support in them : + + Atlanta, Georgia: 5 of the 16 delegates representing Georgia in the US Congress are Democrats. All hail from districts in Atlanta. + New Orleans, Louisiana: the only Democratic delegate from Louisiana in the US Congress was elected from a New Orleans district. + Kansas City, Kansas: the only Democratic congressman from Kansas was elected from a district in Kansas City. + Las Vegas, Nevada: all of the Democrats in the US House who represent Nevada are from Las Vegas. + Salt Lake City, Utah: the only Democrat representing Utah in the US Congress was elected from a Salt Lake City district. + Chicago, Illinois: if it weren't for Chicago, the state of Illinois would be as conservative as Indiana. + Louisville, Kentucky: the only Democrat representing Kentucky in the US Congress was elected from a Louisville district. + +World's largest cities + +These cities have more than 10 million people and can be called megacities: + Tokyo, Japan - 37 million + Delhi, India - 29 million + Shanghai, China - 26 million + SĂŁo Paulo, Brazil - 22 million + Mexico City, Mexico - 22 million + Cairo, Egypt - 20 million + Mumbai, India - 20 million + Beijing, China - 20 million + Dhaka, Bangladesh - 20 million + Osaka, Japan - 19 million + New York, United States - 19 million + Karachi, Pakistan - 15 million + Buenos Aires, Argentina - 15 million + Chongqing, China - 15 million + Istanbul, Turkey - 15 million + Kolkata, India - 15 million + Manila, Philippines - 13 million + Lagos, Nigeria - 13 million + Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 13 million + Tianjin, China - 13 million + Kinshasa, DR Congo - 13 million + Guangzhou, China - 13 million + Los Angeles, United States - 12 million + Moscow, Russia - 12 million + Shenzhen, China - 12 million + Lahore, Pakistan - 12 million + Bangalore, India - 11 million + Paris, France - 11 million + BogotĂĄ, Colombia - 11 million + Jakarta, Indonesia - 11 million + Chennai, India - 10 million + Lima, Peru - 10 million + Bangkok, Thailand - 10 million + +Gallery of cities + +References +Cooking is a process to make food ready to eat by heating it. + +Raw food is food that is not cooked. Some foods are good to eat raw. Other foods are not good for the body when they are raw, so they must be cooked. Some foods are good to eat either raw or cooked. + +Methods +Cooking is often done in a kitchen using a stove or an oven. It can also be done over a fire (for example, over a campfire or on a barbecue). + +The heat for cooking can be made in different ways. It can be from an open fire that burns wood or charcoal. It can be on a stove or in an oven that uses propane, natural gas, or electricity. + +There are several different ways to cook food. Boiling cooks food in hot water. Frying (deep or shallow) cooks food in hot butter, fat or oil. Baking and roasting cook food by surrounding it with hot air. Grilling means cooking food on a metal grill that has heat under it. + +People often cook meat by boiling, roasting, frying, or grilling it. Some foods such as bread or pastries are usually baked. + +Usually food is cooked in some kind of pot or pan. Sometimes people cook food by putting it directly into the fire, or by wrapping the food in leaves before they put it into the fire. + +Cooks + +A person whose job it is to cook food may be called a cook or a chef. The word cooker means a machine or tool that a cook might use to cook food. Rice cookers and pressure cookers are examples. + + +Basic English 850 words +To chat is to talk about ordinary things that are not very important. A person can chat with another person, or to many people. People also use this word now for parts of the Internet where we can talk with many different people at the same time. Usually, people chat on the Internet in a chat room or messaging service like AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Yahoo Messenger Windows Live Messenger or Tencent QQ. There are also programs which let people use different messaging services from one program, such as Pidgin. + +Related pages + Internet Relay Chat (IRC) + Conversation + +Human communication +Internet communication +Messaging +A cup is any kind of container used for holding liquid and drinking. These include: + +teacup +paper cup + +Cup may also mean: + +Measuring cup, a measuring instrument for liquids and powders, used primarily in cooking +Cup (unit), a customary unit of volume and measure +Cancer of unknown primary origin, form of cancer +The cup of a brassiĂšre, the part that covers the breasts +A cup-shaped trophy or award for winning in a sport + +Basic English 850 words +A crime (or misdemeanor or felony) is an act done by a person which is against the laws of a country or region. A person who does this is called a criminal. + +The basic idea of what things are called "crimes" is that they are thought to be things that might cause a problem for another person. Things like killing another person, injuring another person, or stealing from another person are crimes in most countries. Also, it can be a crime to have or sell contraband such as guns or illegal drugs. The latter two often fall under the category of victimless crime + +When some criminals make money from crime, they try to stop the police finding out where the money came from by money laundering. Men and boys commit many more crimes than women and girls. + +Etymology +The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernĆ, meaning "I decide, I give judgment". Originally the Latin word crÄ«men meant "charge" or "cry of distress." The Ancient Greek word ÎșÏÎŻÎŒÎ±, krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to an intellectual mistake or an offense against the community, rather than a private or moral wrong. + +In 13th century English crime meant "sinfulness", according to the Online Etymology Dictionary. It was probably brought to England as Old French crimne (12th century form of Modern French crime), from Latin crimen (in the genitive case: criminis). In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following: "charge, indictment, accusation; crime, fault, offense". + +Definition + +England and Wales +Whether a given act or omission constitutes a crime does not depend on the nature of that act or omission; it depends on the nature of the legal consequences that may follow it. An act or omission is a crime if it is capable of being followed by what are called criminal proceedings. + +Scotland +For the purpose of section 243 of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, a crime means an offence punishable on indictment, or an offence punishable on summary conviction, and for the commission of which the offender is liable under the statute making the offence punishable to be imprisoned either absolutely or at the discretion of the court as an alternative for some other punishment. + +Sociology +A normative definition views crime as deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms â cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave normally. + +Levels of crime +There are various levels of crimes. In some jurisdictions they are: + misdemeanor - a minor crime, typically punished by a fee or less than 1 year in jail. + felony (or high crime) - a major crime, typically punished by 1 year or longer in prison. + +Different countries have different ideas of what things are crimes, and which ones are the worst. Some things that are crimes in one country are not crimes in other countries. Many countries get their ideas of what things are crimes from religions or controversial events which cause a law to be quickly created. For example, a religious Taboo might say eating a particular food is a crime. When automobiles became numerous, they killed or hurt many people in road accidents, so new laws were made for them. + +In many countries, if people say they made or wrote a book, movie, song, or Web page that they did not really make or write, it is a crime against copyright laws. In many countries, helping to grow, make, move, or sell illegal drugs is a crime. + +In most countries, police try to stop crimes and to find criminals. When the police find someone who they think might be a criminal, they usually hold the person in a jail. Then, usually, a court or a judge decides if the person really did a crime. If the court or judge decides that the person really did it, then he or she might have to pay a fine or go to prison. Sometimes the judge might decide that the criminal should be executed (killed). This is called Capital punishment (or the Death Penalty). There are countries in the world that execute criminals, and others that do not. + +In many countries, two conditions must exist for an act to be thought of as a crime: + Actus rea - the criminal did something against the law + Mens rea - the criminal knew what they were doing was against the law and did it anyways, or they knew they were doing something that could accidentally end up being against the law and didn't care + +Both must be present for the act to be thought of as a crime. + +References + +Basic English 850 words +Time Cube was a personal website created on 1997 by Otis Eugene Ray. On that website, Ray explained his theory of everything, known as "Time Cube". It described the planet Earth as having a cubic symmetry, and time as rotating four "corners". He also said that all of modern physics is wrong. Scientists reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be tested. + +The Time Cube website was written in an angry and hateful voice. On his site, Ray said that not believing in Time Cube would be "stupid and evil". Some of the comments were racist and discriminatory, especially against black people and Jews. There were also many comments against gay people. Many people found the site to be difficult to understand. + +Ray spoke about Time Cube at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in January 2002. At MIT, a professor tried to cancel the lecture before it took place. Ray believed this is proof of a conspiracy to keep information about Time Cube hidden. Ray also spoke about Time Cube at the Georgia Institute of Technology in April 2005. + +Otis Eugene Ray died on March 18, 2015. He was 87 years old. The website went down in August 2015. It was last archived by the Wayback Machine on January 12, 2016. + +Related pages + Conspiracy theory + Pseudoscience + +References + +Pseudoscience +American websites +1997 establishments in the United States +Conspiracy theories +The Census of Marine Life was a ten-year survey of life in the oceans, starting in 2000. Its head was Ron O'Dor of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It used data from researchers all over the world. More than 70 nations were involved and over a billion US dollars were spent on it. + +It was a major work of marine ecology. It was founded by J. Frederick Grassle. + +The purpose of the Census of Marine Life was to say what is alive in our seas and oceans. + +Other websites + Census of Marine Life website + +Biological oceanography +Marine life +Maize or Indian corn (called corn in some countries) is Zea mays, a member of the grass family Poaceae. It is a cereal grain which was first grown by people in ancient Central America. Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year. However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans. Most is used to make corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup. + +Maize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside. It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell. It is has long been a staple food by many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa. In Europe and the rest of North America, maize is grown mostly for use as animal feed. In Canada and the United States, maize is commonly referred to as "corn". + +Centuries of cross breeding have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties. Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of corn starch. People have long eaten sweet corn and popcorn with little processing, and other kinds after processing into flour for making cornbread, tortillas, and other artificial foods. + +Maize has been a fruitful model organism for research in genetics for many years: see Barbara McClintock. Research has shown that artificial selection developed maize from a Mexican plant called Teosinte. + +The genus Zea +There are five species and many subspecies in the genus. They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs. The wild ones are sometimes called teosintes, and they are all native to Mesoamerica. + +References + + +Model organisms +Civics is the study of government. It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen. In college, civics is usually called political science. Since a city has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city. + +Theories of civics can be grouped as: + +Anarchist +Capitalist +Democrat +Green +Libertarian +Republican + +It contains the rule and regulations of the citizen to make the country democratic +Political science +Calculus is a branch of mathematics that describes continuous change. + +There are two different types of calculus. Differential calculus divides (differentiates) things into small (different) pieces, and tells us how they change from one moment to the next, while integral calculus joins (integrates) the small pieces together, and tells us how much of something is made, overall, by a series of changes. Calculus is used in many different sciences such as physics, astronomy, biology, engineering, economics, medicine and sociology. + +History +In the 1670s and 1680s, Sir Isaac Newton in England and Gottfried Leibniz in Germany figured out calculus at the same time, working separately from each other. Newton wanted to have a new way to predict where to see planets in the sky, because astronomy had always been a popular and useful form of science, and knowing more about the motions of the objects in the night sky was important for navigation of ships. Leibniz wanted to measure the space (area) under a curve (a line that is not straight). Many years later, the two men argued over who discovered it first. Scientists from England supported Newton, but scientists from the rest of Europe supported Leibniz. Most mathematicians today agree that both men share the credit equally. Some parts of modern calculus come from Newton, such as its uses in physics. Other parts come from Leibniz, such as the symbols used to write it. + +They were not the first people to use mathematics to describe the physical world â Aristotle and Pythagoras came earlier, and so did Galileo Galilei, who said that mathematics was the language of science. But both Newton and Leibniz were the first to design a system that describes how things change over time, and can predict how they will change in the future. + +The name "calculus" was the Latin word for a small stone the ancient Romans used in counting and gambling. The English word "calculate" comes from the same Latin word. + +Differential calculus + +Differential calculus is used to find the rate of change of a variableâcompared to another variable. + +Variables can change their value. This is different from numbers because numbers are always the same. For example, the number 1 is always equal to 1, and the number 200 is always equal to 200. One often writes variables as letters such as the letter x: "x" can be equal to 1 at one point and 200 at another. + +Some examples of variables are distance and time, because they can change. The speed of an object is how far it travels in a particular time. So if a town is 80 kilometres (50 miles) away and a person in a car gets there in one hour, they have traveled at an average speed of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per hour. But this is only an average: they travelled faster at some times (say on a highway), and slower at other times (say at a traffic light or on a small street where people live). Certainly it is more difficult for a driver to figure out a car's speed using only its odometer (distance meter) and clockâwithout a speedometer. + +Until calculus was invented, the only way to work this out was to cut the time into smaller and smaller pieces, so the average speed over the smaller time would get closer and closer to the actual speed at a point in time. This was a very long and hard process, and had to be done each time people wanted to work something out. + +Differential calculus is also useful for graphing. A very similar problem is to find the slope (how steep it is) at any point on a curve. The slope of a straight line is easy to work out â it is simply how much it goes up or down (y or vertical) divided by how much it goes across (x or horizontal). On a curve, however, the slope is a variable (has different values at different points) because the line bends. But if the curve was to be cut into very, very small pieces, the curve at the point would look almost like a very short straight line. So to work out its slope, a straight line can be drawn through the point with the same slope as the curve at that point. If this is done exactly right, the straight line will have the same slope as the curve, and is called a tangent. But there is no way to know (without complex mathematics) whether the tangent is exactly right, and our eyes are not accurate enough to be certain whether it is exact or simply very close. + +What Newton and Leibniz found was a way to work out the slope (or the speed in the distance example) exactly, using simple and logical rules. They divided the curve into an infinite number of very small pieces. They then chose points on either side of the range they were interested in and worked out tangents at each. As the points moved closer together towards the point they were interested in, the slope approached a particular value as the tangents approached the real slope of the curve. The particular value it approached was the actual slope. + +Given a function . f is short for function, so this equation means "y is a function of x". This tells us that how high y is on the vertical axis depends on what x (the horizontal axis) is at that time. For example, with the equation , we know that if is 1, then will be 1; if is 3, then will be 9; if is 20, then will be 400. The slope of the tangent line produced using this method here is , or 2 multiplied by . So we know without having to draw any tangent line at any point on the curve that the derivative, often written as (marked with the prime symbol), will be at any point. This process of working out a slope using limits is called differentiation, or finding the derivative. + +The way to write the derivative in mathematics is + +Leibniz came to the same result, but called h "", which means "with respect to x". He called the resulting change in "", which means "a tiny amount of y". Leibniz's notation is used by more books, because it is easy to understand when the equations become more complicated. In Leibniz notation: +. + +Mathematicians have grown this basic theory to make simple algebra rulesâwhich can be used to find the derivative of almost any function. + +In the real world, calculus can be used to find the speed of a moving object, or to understand how electricity and magnetism work. It is very important for understanding physicsâand many other areas of science. + +Integral calculus + +Integral calculus is the process of calculating the area underneath a graph of a function. An example is calculating the distance a car travels: if one knows the speed of the car at different points in time and draw a graph of this speed, then the distance the car travels will be the area under the graph. + +The way to do this is to divide the graph into many very small pieces, and then draw very thin rectangles under each piece. As the rectangles become thinner and thinner, the rectangles cover the area underneath the graph better and better. The area of a rectangle is easy to calculate, so we can calculate the total area of all the rectangles. For thinner rectangles, this total area value approaches the area underneath the graph. The final value of the area is called the integral of the function. + +In mathematics, the integral of the function f(x) from a to b, is written as +. + +Main idea of calculus +The main idea in calculus is called the fundamental theorem of calculus. This main idea says that the two calculus processes, differentiation and integration, are inverses of each other. That is, a person can use differentiation to undo an integration process. Also, a person can use integration to undo a differentiation. This is just like using division to "undo" multiplication, or addition to "undo" subtraction. + +In a single sentence, the fundamental theorem runs something like this: "The derivative of the integral of a function f is the function itself". + +Applications of calculus +Calculus is used to describe things that change, like things in nature. It can be used for showing and learning all of these: + +How waves move. Waves are very important in the natural world. For example, sound and light can be thought of as waves. +Where heat moves, like in a house. This is useful for architecture (building houses), so that the house can be as cheap to heat as possible. +How very small things like atoms act. +How fast something will fall, also known as gravity. +How machines work, also known as mechanics. +The path of the moon as it moves around the earth. Also, the path of the earth as it moves around the sun, and any planet or moon moving around anything in space. + +Related pages + + Calculus of variations + Derivative (mathematics) + Difference quotient + Mathematical analysis + Multivariable calculus + Vector calculus + +References +A coin is a piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. The earliest coins were in Lydia, in what is Turkey today, in 7th Century BC. They were made from electrum, an alloy found in riverbeds. + +Most people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints. + +Appearance +Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a king or ither important person's head on it. + +The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called "tossing a coin". A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it. You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries. + +Collecting + +Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little. + +References +A conceptual metaphor or cognitive metaphor is a metaphor which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another. For example, treating quantity in terms of direction: +Prices are rising. +I attacked every weak point in his argument. (Argument as war rather than enquiry or search for truth). +Life is a journey. +Love talked about as if it were war or competition. +Time talked about as if it were a path through space, or a quantity that can be saved or spent or wasted. + +The idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: Metaphors we live by. +"The most recent linguistic approach to literature is that of cognitive metaphor, which claims that metaphor is not a mode of language, but a mode of thought". Donald Freeman. +A convention is to write conceptual metaphors in small capital letters, e.g. , with the target domain (idea being referred to) first, here "money," and the source domain (terms used to refer to it) second. + +Political metaphors + eminence grise: literally, "grey man," from French. Colloquially, the power-behind-the-throne. An official close to the president or monarch who has so much power behind the scenes that he or she may double or serve as the monarch. + figurehead: a leader whose powers are entirely symbolic, such as a constitutional monarch. + puppet government: a government that is manipulated by a foreign power for its own interests. + star chamber: a secretive council or other group within a government that possesses the actual power, regardless of the government's overt form. + character assassination: spreading (usually) manufactured stories about a candidate with the intent to destroy his or her reputation in the eyes of the public. + landslide victory: a huge victory for one side. + riding coattails: victories by local or state politicians because of the popularity of more powerful politicians. + grassroots: a political movement driven by the constituents of a community. + astroturfing: public relations campaigns in politics and advertising that try to create the impression of being spontaneous, grassroots behavior. + straw man: the practice of refuting an argument that is weaker than one's opponent actually offers, or which he simply has not put forth at all. A type of logical fallacy. + spin (public relations): a heavily biased portrayal of an event or situation. + witch-hunt: the hysterical pursuit of political enemies + bread and circuses: satisfaction of shallow or immediate desires of the populace at the expense of good policy; also, the erosion of civic duty and the public life in a populace. + +There are many more, enough to prove the importance of the metaphor in our lives. + +Notes + +Metaphors +Crust is a piece of bread where the edge where it is harder and darker. + +Crust can also mean: +Crust (geology) - the outer solid layer of a planet such as the Earth but other planets also. +On Earth the crust can be divided into: +continental crust on which the land of the planet Earth sits +oceanic crust which forms most of the ocean floor +Comedy (from ), in modern times, is an entertainment with generally funny content. It is able to make people laugh. This definition was used for theatre plays, and was first used in Ancient Greece. Aristotle defined this as âComedy is, as an imitation of characters of a lower type- not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious example, the comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain.â To him, the lampooners became writers of Comedy and the truly artistic ones became writers of Tragedy. + +Comedy is also a media genre that is for television shows or movies that are either funny or silly. People who are known for acting in comedies are termed as comedians or comedic actors. + +History + +Satire +The ancient Greeks had comedies, which were presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia. + +One of the best-known comedy authors of the time was Aristophanes (about 446386 BC). One of his works, The Clouds was performed 425 BC. The work did not survive completely, but a later version did survive. It is a satire against Socrates, and pictures the great philosopher as a swaggering con artist. Some of the accusations were re-used at Socrates' trial, twenty years later. + +Typical for satire are that the author criticizes society, and living people. + +Satyr plays +Another type of Ancient Greek theatre was the satyr play. This was mock drunkenness, brazen sexuality (including phallic props), pranks, sight gags, and general merriment. The modern equivalent would be knock-about comedy. + +Humour +Humour, or 'New Comedy' is not about criticizing people or ideas, but rather about showing characters in funny situations. The most important Greek playwright of this type was probably Menander. The best known Roman comedy writer was Plautus. He often used Greek comedies for his plays. + +Many comedy plays were written in the 1500s by the British writer William Shakespeare. +Shakespeare's comedy plays include: Allâs Well That Ends Well, The Comedy of Errors, A Midsummer Nights Dream, and Twelfth Night. In Shakespeare's day a comedy did not mean a play that would make people laugh or that had a lot of jokes. Instead it was a play in which all the problems work out all right in the end. This was unlike a tragedy, where the problems do not work out, usually resulting in someone's death. +The two masks, one was smiling, the other crying, often associated with theatre represent comedy and tragedy. + +Types + +Slapstick +There are different types of comedy. One type of comedy is called "slap stick comedy." In "slap stick comedy," people do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Slap stick comedy can be used in comedy movies or comedy television shows. + +Slap stick comedy was used a lot in silent (no sound) movies from the 1920s. A comedian who acted in the silent movies who used a lot of slapstick comedy was Charlie Chaplin. In the 1950s and 1960s, comedian Jerry Lewis also used silly slap stick comedy in his comedy movies. + +Comedy movies +A comedy is a very popular type of movie. Some comedy movies have "slapstick comedy," in which people just do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Other comedy movies show funny stories or situations in which people are behaving in a silly manner. Some comedies make the audience laugh by showing strange or unusual images or situations that do not make sense. + +Parody/Spoof +A parody or spoof movie imitates or exaggerates another person or movie to make them seem silly, dumb, or just plain out of it. + +Different types of comedy movies +Some types of comedy movies mix comedy with other types of movies. +There is a type of movie called a dramedy, which is a mix of a drama movie and a comedy movie. +There is also a type of movie called a romantic comedy (sometimes called a "rom-com"). In romantic comedies, there is a love story about a couple who fall in love, along with silly or funny comedy parts. + +Comedy television shows +Comedy shows are very popular on television. Comedy shows on television are often called "sitcoms." The word "sitcom" is a shortened way of saying "situational comedy." Television situational comedies usually show characters who do silly or funny things which make the audience laugh. + +Related pages +Comedian +Opera buffa + + +Genres +A comet is a ball of mostly ice that moves around in outer space. Comets are often described as "dirty snowballs". They are very different from asteroids. The orbital inclinations of comets are usually high and not near the ecliptic where most solar system objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the Kuiper belt. That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at night. + +They have long "tails", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the solar wind. +The hard centre of the comet is the nucleus. It is one of the blackest things (lowest albedo) in the solar system. When light shone on the nucleus of Halley's Comet, the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us. + +Periodic comets visit again and again. Non-periodic or single-apparition comets visit only once. + +Comets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela did in the 19th century. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in 1994. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. Astronomers think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object. + +Famous comets + +Halley's +Hale-Bopp +Shoemaker-Levy 9 +Ikeya seki + +History of comets +For thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry shows the return of Halley's Comet and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. During the Renaissance, astronomers started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their science on observations. Tycho Brahe reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and calculations showed that comets must be six times farther than the earth is from the moon. + +Edmond Halley reasoned that some comets are periodic, that is, they appear again after a certain number of years, and again and again. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, Halley's Comet, named after him. + +Isaac Newton also studied comets. He realised that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked his friend Edmond Halley to publish this in his book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun. + +In later years, some astronomers thought comets were spit out by planets, especially Jupiter. + +All this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that hell was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space. + +In modern times, space probes have visited comets to learn more about them. + +Related pages +List of comets + +Other websites +Are Comets Made of Antimatter? +Cytology is the study of the cells, especially their appearance and structure. Cells are the small parts that make up all living things, and their effects on each other and their environment. + +There are two types of cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a clear and easy-to-see nucleus, and do not have a membrane, or wall, around them. Eukaryotic cells have an easy-to-see nucleus where all of the cell's functions take place, and a membrane around them. The main organelles of a cell and their uses are: + Mitochondria: produces energy for the cell + Endoplasmic reticulum: makes proteins and carbohydrates for the cell to use + Golgi bodies: store and package products that the cell uses + Plastid (present in plant cells only): contains chemicals needed to photosynthesize (create energy from sunlight); in plants only. + Nucleus: directs the actions of the cell + Centrosomes: guides the cell in mitosis and meiosis, the processes for cell division. + +Related pages +Cell biology is mostly about how cells work, and about cell division and molecular biology. +Histology deals with techniques for looking at tissues under a microscope. +Cytopathology is a medical discipline that deals with techniques for looking at cells under a microscope. + + +Molecular biology +A Christian () is a person who believes in Christianity, a monotheistic religion. Christianity is mostly about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, in the New Testament and interpreted or prophesied in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. Christianity is the world's largest religion, with 2.1 billion followers around the world. + +Views of the Bible +Christians consider the Holy Bible to be a sacred book, inspired by God. The Holy Bible is a combination of the Hebrew Bible, or Torah, and a collection of writings called the New Testament. Views on the importance of these writings vary. Some Christian groups prefer to favor the New Testament, while others believe the entire Bible is equally important. Also, while many Christians prefer to consider the Bible as fully true, not all Christian groups believe that it is completely accurate. + +Who is a Christian? +The question of "Who is a Christian?" can be very difficult. Christians often disagree over this due to their differences in opinion on spiritual matters. In countries where most persons were baptized in the state church or the majority Christian church, the term "Christian" is a default label for citizenship or for "people like us". +In this context, religious or ethnic minorities can use "Christians" or "you Christians" as a term for majority members of society who do not belong to their group - even in a very secular (though formally Christian) society. + +Persons who are more devoted the their Christian faith prefer not to use the word so broadly, but only use it to refer to those who are active in their Christian religion and really believe the teachings of Jesus and their church. In some Christian movements (especially Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism), to be a born-again Christian is to undergo a "spiritual rebirth" by believing in the Bible's teachings about Jesus and choosing to follow him. + +Church life +Many Christians choose to go to church. Most Christians believe this to be a sign of their religious devotion to God and an act of worship. However, some Christian groups think that one can be a Christian without ever going to a church. Though there are many different viewpoints on the issue, most Protestants believe all Christians are part of the spiritual church of Christ, whether or not those Christians go to an actual church each week. On the other hand, Catholics in the past have believed that the Holy Catholic Church is the only true church. + +Related pages + Christianity + Religion + Salvation + Meitei Christians + +References + +Christians + + +Origin +People have been making cheese since before history was written down. It is not known when cheese was first made. It is known that cheese was eaten by the Sumerians in about 4000 BC. + +Classification +There are many different ways to classify cheeses. Some ways include: + + How long the cheese was aged + The texture of the cheese. These include Hard, Soft and Softer. + How the cheese was made + What type of milk was used to make the cheese. This is mainly what animal the milk comes from, such as cows, sheep, and goats. The diet of the animal can also affect the type of cheese made from its milk. + How much fat is in the cheese + What color the cheese is (common colors are yellow, and white) + +There are also man-made foods that some people use instead of cheese. These are called Cheese analogues. + +Different types of cheese include: + +References + +Other websites + +Basic English 850 words +The constitution of a country (or a state) is a special type of law document that tells how its government is supposed to work. It tells how the country's leaders are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in office, how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed based on law, what kind of people are allowed to vote and what other rights they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed. + +Limits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution (see Rule of Law ). On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions without giving freedom to citizens and others. This can be known as dictatorship or simply "bending the rules". A Constitution is often a way of uniting within a Federation. + +The UK's constitution is not written in one single document like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights Act 1689 and including more modern Acts of Parliament. Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of judges over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or judicial precedence. Because of this, some people say that the United Kingdom has a de facto or "unwritten" constitution. + +The United States in 1787 began a trend in the writing of constitutions. The United States Constitution is also the shortest that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the Articles of Confederation but the Articles were replaced with today's Constitution. + +The Indian constitution of 1950 is the longest ever written constitution in the world. It originally consisted of 395 Articles arranged under 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. As of 2021, it has 470 Articles, 12 schedules, and 25 Parts with 5 appendices and 98 amendments. + +Related pages + Constitutional law + Constitutionalism + Constitutional economics + Democracy + International law + Jurisprudence + Rule of law + Social contract + US Constitution + +References +A circle, also known as a nought, is a round, two-dimensional shape. All points on the edge of the circle are at the same distance from the center. + +The radius of a circle is a line from the center of the circle to a point on the side. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of a circle's radius. The center of a circle is the point in the very middle. It is often written as . + +The diameter (meaning "all the way across") of a circle is a straight line that goes from one side to the opposite and right through the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of this line. The diameter of a circle is equal to twice its radius ( equals times ): + +The circumference (meaning "all the way around") of a circle is the line that goes around the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter for the length of this line. + +The number (written as the Greek letter pi) is a very useful number. It is the length of the circumference divided by the length of the diameter ( equals divided by ). As a fraction the number is equal to about or (which is closer) and as a number it is about . + +The area, , inside a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by itself, then multiplied by ( equals times times ). + +Calculating Ï + can be measured by drawing a circle, then measuring its diameter () and circumference (). This is because the circumference of a circle is always equal to times its diameter. + + can also be calculated by only using mathematical methods. Most methods used for calculating the value of have desirable mathematical properties. However, they are hard to understand without knowing trigonometry and calculus. However, some methods are quite simple, such as this form of the Gregory-Leibniz series: + +While that series is easy to write and calculate, it is not easy to see why it equals . A much easier way to approach is to draw an imaginary circle of radius centered at the origin. Then any point whose distance from the origin is less than , calculated by the Pythagorean theorem, will be inside the circle: + +Finding a set of points inside the circle allows the circle's area to be estimated, for example, by using integer coordinates for a big . Since the area of a circle is times the radius squared, can be approximated by using the following formula: + +Calculating measures of a circle + +Area +Using the radius: + +Using the diameter: + +Using the circumference: + +Circumference +Using the radius: + +Using the diameter: + +Using the area: + +Diameter +Using the radius: + +Using the circumference: + +Using the area: + +Radius +Using the diameter: + +Using the circumference: + +Using the area: + +Related pages + Semicircle + Sphere + Squaring the circle + Pi + Tau + +References + +Other websites + + Calculate the measures of a circle online + +Shapes +Conic sections +Capitalization (North American spelling), or capitalisation (British spelling), is a process to make one letter or more uppercase. The first letter of a sentence is capitalised in many languages, as are the first letters of proper nouns such as names of people and places. In German, however, all nouns are capitalized.. + +In the Latin alphabet, which is used in English, these are the uppercase or capital letters: + +A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z + +These are the lowercase or small letters: + +a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z + +The homonym capitalize is a different word, and means "to fully fund as an investment". + +Spelling +Cuba is an island country in the Caribbean Sea. The country is made up of the big island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud island (Isle of Youth), and many smaller islands. Havana is the capital city of Cuba. It is the largest city. The second largest city is Santiago de Cuba. In Spanish, the capital is called "La Habana". Cuba is near the United States, Mexico, Haiti, Jamaica and the Bahamas. People from Cuba are called Cubans (cubanos in Spanish). The official language is Spanish. Cuba is warm all year. + +In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on the island of Cuba. He claimed it for the Kingdom of Spain. Cuba became a Spanish colony until the SpanishâAmerican War of 1898. After the war, it was part of the United States. It gained independence in 1902. + +In 1959, guerrilla fighters led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara overthrew Cuba's dictator, Fulgencio Batista, in what became the Cuban Revolution. Castro began making relations with the Soviet Union and tried to close a lot of American businesses in Cuba; the United States did not like this. In 1961 Castro officially announced that his government was socialist. The US attempted to invade Cuba to regain control of it and overthrow its communist-led government but failed. The Communist Party of Cuba was created in 1965 and has ruled the island ever since. Today, Cuba is the only socialist state outside of Asia, in the Caribbean, and in the western hemisphere. + +Culture +Cuba is famous for many types of music, especially dance music such as the Salsa and Mambo. Because Cubans have ancestors from Spain, Africa, South America and North America, Cuban music is special and different. + +Reading is very popular in Cuba. Many people especially enjoy reading books or things that come from outside the country, even though the government does not approve of this. They also love music and sports. Cuban music is very lively. This is because a lot of it comes from African and Spanish rhythms. Baseball, basketball, and athletics events are loved by many Cuban people. The Chiefs football-team took at one Football-World-Cup part. In 1938, they reached the quarter-final and lost against Sweden 0:8. + +History + +Early history +Before Cuba was conquered by the Spaniards, three tribes lived on the island. They were the TaĂnos, the Ciboneys, and the Guanajatabeyes. The TaĂnos were the largest and most common of the three tribes. They farmed crops such as beans, corn, squash, and yams. The TaĂnos also slept in hammocks, which the Spaniards would introduce to the rest of the world. Then, in 1492, Christopher Columbus arrived in Cuba on his first trip to the Americas. Three years later, he claimed the islands for the Spanish. The Spanish began to rule Cuba afterwards. The Spanish brought thousands of slaves from Africa to Cuba to work for them. Most of the native Cubans died because of the new diseases brought by the Spanish and Africans. The Spanish also treated the native Cubans very cruelly and massacred many of them. + +The Spanish ruled for many years. Cuba became the most important producer of sugar. In the early 1800s, Cubans rebelled against the Spanish rulers, but failed until 1898, when the United States went to war with the Spanish and defeated them. Cuba became American for four years afterwards, before it became an independent republic in 1902. Even though Cuba was independent, the Americans still controlled the island by a law called the Platt Amendment. In 1933 the Cubans stopped the Platt Amendment, but the Americans still had a big say in Cuban politics. Americans owned most of Cubaâs businesses. The Americans supported the leader Fulgencio Batista, who was seen by many Cubans as corrupt. + +In addition to political control, the United States also exercised significant control over the Cuban economy. At the time, Cuba was a monoculture economy. While they produced coffee, tobacco, and rice, they relied primarily on sugar. Thus, they were known by other countries as the "sugar bowl of the world." The United States bought sugar from the Republic of Cuba at a price higher than the global standard. In exchange, Cuba was to give preference to the United States, and its industries. Cuba depended on the United States and their investments. Cuba was not industrialized and needed the revenue for goods and oil. They also needed the US investment for gas, electricity, communications, railways, and banks. While Cuban workers had better conditions than other countries in the continent, they still faced inequality, lack of infrastructure, high illiteracy rates, and a lack of full-time work (the sugar industry was seasonal). + +Cuban Revolution +In 1959, Fidel Castro led a revolution against Fulgencio Batista. Castro took power in Cuba with Che Guevara from Argentina, his brother Raul, and others who fought against Batista. Castro made many changes to Cuba. He ended American ownership of Cuban businesses. This made Castro unpopular in America and the United States banned all contact with Cuba. Many Cubans went to America because of this. In 1961, the Americans helped some of these Cubans to attack Cuba and try to remove Castro, but they failed. Castro then asked the Soviet Union to help defend them from the Americans, which they did. The Soviet Union put nuclear weapons in Cuba and aimed them at the United States. American President Kennedy demanded that they be removed or a new war would begin. This was known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Soviet Union removed the missiles when the United States agreed to not continue attacking Cuba and to remove missiles from Turkey. + +Cuba became a communist-led country like the Soviet Union after this. The Soviet Union bought most of Cubaâs sugar for expensive prices. Cuba spent this money on health, education and the army. This made Cubaâs schools and hospitals some of the best in the world. The army fought in Africa to support black Africans against the white South African army. Cuba also supported groups in South America fighting against the dictators of those countries. + +However, the Cuban government began to control most of life in Cuba under the communist system. Disagreeing with the Cuban government and Fidel Castro in public was not allowed. Some Cubans did not like this and tried to leave Cuba. Most Cubans who left went to the United States. Some Cubans who did not like the government and stayed were put in jail. Many groups from around the world protested against Cuba because of this, and demanded that Fidel Castro give up power. + +In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. This meant that Cuba, which had sold most of its products to the Soviet Union, had no money coming into the country. The Americans made the restrictions against contact with Cuba tighter. America said the restrictions on contact would continue unless Fidel Castro gave up power. Cuba became very poor in the 1990s. This became known in Cuba as âThe Special Periodâ. Because of the disaster, Cuba changed to allow less control by the government, more discussion amongst the people, and private shops and businesses. Cuba also tried to get tourists to visit the island. + +In the 2000s, tourism to Cuba began to make money for the island again. Though Fidel Castro had remained in power, he had passed all duties to his brother Raul after an illness. Fidel Castro was one of the longest-serving heads of state. In 2018, Miguel DĂaz-Canel became the official President of Cuba. + +In April 2015, historic talks took place with US President Obama and Cuban General Secretary RaĂșl Castro in improving relations between the two nations. + +The trade embargo issued by President Kennedy in the 1960s has been considerably loosened under Obama's administration. US citizens can now travel directly to Cuba at certain times of the year. Before, Americans had to go via Mexico if they wanted to go to Cuba. Americans are still not allowed to purchase or smoke Cuban cigars. The cigars are smuggled over the US-Canadian border since they are legal in Canada. + +For military service, men from the age of 17 to 28 years old must go into the army for two years. It is optional for women. + +In July 2021, there were demonstrations against the government. See the English Wikipedia article, 2021 Cuban protests, for details. + +Administrative divisions + +The country is divided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). The provinces are divided into municipalities. + +Demographics +The population of Cuba is close to 13 million. The people of Cuba come from three different groups. The largest group is the descendants of the Spanish settlers who came to Cuba. The smallest group is the descendants of the black African slaves who were brought in to do the work and birth children (in the barracoon) as New World slaves who could be legally sold into life time bondage in the United States. The middle-sized group is a mix of African and Spanish. The government succeeded in seeing that the three different groups were treated the same. According to a DNA Caribbean Studies Institute, the racial-makeup of the population of Cuba is: + European Cubans descend from settlers that came during the very late 15th century and onward. Most white Cubans came from many different parts of Spain, but the most numerous were the Canary Islanders, Andalusians, and Catalans. There was as well some French, Italian and English peoples. Whites makeup approximately 30% of Cuba's population as of 2012, and they mostly populate the western part of Cuba, specially cities like Havana and Pinar del Rio. These brought with them their language, religions, music and others. + Africans and Mulatto Cubans descend from the arrival of African slaves that came from various parts of Africa but the most numerous were West Africans. There were also more than 500,000 Haitians that came to Cuba during the Haitian Revolution days. Most Cuban slaves tended to come from the Kongo and Yoruba tribes, there were also the Igbos, Ewes, Fons, Fulas, Mandinkas and some others. Afro-Cubans range enormously from 33.9 percent to 70 percent of the population, and they are mostly concentrated in the east parts of Cuba. These brought with them their instruments, reigion (Santeria), and customs to the Cuban culture. + Mediterranean Cubans are about 3% of the population, however; one must know that a lot of the Southern Spaniard Cuban descendants have good portion of Moor blood in their family lines; due to the close proximate Spain is to North Africa. Many Mediterranean Cubans came during the 1820s-1880s and sometimes onward. These are most concentrated in the East specially cities like Guantanamo Bay. They brought much of their foods and cuisines to Cuba and a few vocabularies. + +Health and education +Cuba is a developing country, and is often depicted as a very poor country. In some aspects, however, like education, health care and life expectancy it ranks much better than most countries in Latin America. Its infant death rate is lower than some developed countries. The average life expectancy is 78 years. + +All the children are required to go to school from six to twelve years old, and nearly everybody is able to read and write at least. There is free education at every level. Because of this, Cuba has a 99.8% literacy rate. + +In 2006, the World Food Programme certified Cuba to be the only country in this region without undernourished children. In the same year, the United Nations said that Cuba was the only nation in the world that met the World Wide Fund for Nature's definition of sustainable development. + +Geography + +Cuba is the largest island in the West Indies. It has many resources. Only about one-fourth of the land is mountains or hills. Much of the land is gentle hills or plains which are good for farming or raising cattle. Cuba has fertile soil and a mostly warm and humid climate that makes it a great place for growing crops. + +Sugar is the most important crop of Cuba, and they may get it from the sugar cane. Sugar cane is the largest cash crop grown in Cuba, and it brings in most of the money. After that, the second is tobacco. Tobacco is made into cigars by hand. A hand-made cigar is considered by many people to be the finest in the world. Other important crops are rice, coffee, and fruit. Cuba also has many minerals. Cobalt, nickel, iron, copper, and manganese are all on the island. Salt, petroleum, and natural gas are there too. The coast of Cuba has many bays and a few good harbors. Havana, which is the capital, is also a port. Other harbors have port cities. Nuevitas is a port city on the north coast. Cienfuegos, GuantĂĄnamo, and Santiago de Cuba are some of the port cities on the south coast. + +Cuba has a semi-tropical climate. That means that the cool ocean winds keep it from becoming hot, despite it being in the tropical zone. Cuba has a wet season and a dry season. The dry season is from November to April, and the wet season is from May to October. August to October is also the hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean. Because of this, most of Cuba's port cities can be flooded along the coast. + +Related pages + Cuba at the Olympics + Cuba national football team + List of rivers of Cuba + +References + + +Spanish-speaking countries +Caribbean Community +Current dictatorships +A cube is a type of polyhedron with all right angles and whose height, width and depth are all the same. It is a type of rectangular prism, which is itself a type of hexahedron. + +A cube is one of the simplest mathematical shapes in space. Something that is shaped like a cube can be called cubic. +Surface area of cube=6l^2 +Lateral Surface area of cube=4l^2 +Volume of cube=l^3 + +Relative 2-dimensional shape +The basic difference between a cube and a square is, a cube is a 3D figure (having 3 dimensions) i.e. length, breadth and height while a square has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth. +The 2-dimensional (2D) shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc.) that a cube is made of is squares. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight lines. The corners (vertices) are at right angles. A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 faces, as in the most usual kind of dice. A tesseract carries this idea into the fourth dimension (4D) and is made of 8 cubes. + +Volume + The volume of a cube is the length of any one of the edges (they are all the same length so it does not matter which edge is used) cubed. + This means you multiply the number by itself, and then by itself again. + If the edge is named 'd' (See Diagram), the equation would be this: Volume=dĂdĂd (or Volume=d3). + +Cube-shaped figures + Dice + Boxes + +Platonic solids +Cost of living is the amount of money it costs just to live in a certain place. It includes food, housing, etc. +Economic indicators +December (Dec.) is the twelfth and last month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between November (of the current year) and January (of the following year). It has 31 days. With the name of the month coming from the Latin decem for "ten", it was the tenth month of the year before January and February were added to the Roman calendar. + +December always begins on the same day of the week as September, and ends on the same day of the week as April. + +December's flower is the Narcissus. Its birthstone is the turquoise. + +Some of the holidays celebrated in December are Christmas, New Year's Eve, Kwanzaa, and Hanukkah. + +The Month + +December is the twelfth and last month of every calendar year in the Gregorian calendar, and is one of seven months of the year to have 31 days. December 31 is followed by January 1 of the following year. + +December begins on the same day of the week as September every year, as each other's first days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart. December ends on the same day of the week as April every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. + +In common years, December starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the previous year, and in leap years, October of the previous year. In common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, December both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year. + +In years immediately before common years, December starts on the same day of the week as June of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and November of the following year. In years immediately before common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year. + +December is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is June, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), and in this month the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere is turned towards the Sun, meaning that December 21 or December 22 is the Northern Winter Solstice and the Southern Summer Solstice. This means that this date would have the least daylight of any day in the Northern Hemisphere, and the most in the Southern Hemisphere. There are 24 hours of darkness at the North Pole and 24 hours of daylight at the South Pole. + +In mainly Christian countries, December is dominated by Christmas, which is celebrated on December 25 in most of those countries, though Eastern Orthodox Christians celebrate it on January 7. It marks the birth of Jesus Christ. Epiphany, January 6, is also important in relation to Christmas. Advent starts on the Sunday on, or closest to, November 30, and some countries have their own related celebration before the 25th. Sinterklaas is celebrated on December 5 in the Netherlands and Belgium, and St. Nicholas Day on December 6 is also celebrated in some countries. The Scandinavian countries, mainly Sweden, celebrate St. Lucia Day on December 13, while Iceland celebrates Thorlaksmessa on December 23. The week after Christmas is spent preparing for New Year. + +Judaism's festival of light, Hanukkah, is also celebrated over eight days in this month. + +Holidays and Festivals + +Fixed dates + + December 1 - World AIDS Day + December 1 - National Day of Romania + December 1 - Self-government Day (Iceland) + December 1 - Day of Restoration of Independence (Portugal) + December 1 - First Day of Summer (Australia) + December 2 - National Day of Laos + December 2 - National Day of the United Arab Emirates + December 2 - International Day for the Abolition of Slavery + December 4 - Navy Day in India and Italy + December 4 - Miners' Day (Poland) + December 4 - Tupou I Day (Tonga) + December 5 - Sinterklaas (Netherlands, Belgium) + December 5 - Birthday of King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand + December 6 - Saint Nicholas Day + December 6 - Independence Day (Finland) + December 6 - Constitution Day (Spain) + December 7 - Pearl Harbor Day (United States) + December 8 - Constitution Day in Romania and Uzbekistan + December 8 - Day of the Immaculate Conception (Roman Catholicism) + December 9 - National Day of Tanzania + December 10 - Nobel Prize Day + December 10 - Constitution Day (Thailand) + December 10 - Human Rights Day + December 11 - Republic Day (Burkina Faso) + December 11 - Indiana Day + December 11 - International Mountain Day + December 12 - Independence Day (Kenya) + December 12 - Our Lady of Guadalupe (Roman Catholicism) + December 13 - St. Lucia Day + December 14 - Alabama Day + December 15 - Homecoming Day (Alderney) + December 15 - Kingdom Day (Netherlands) + December 15 - Zamenhof Day (Esperanto supporters) + December 16 - Independence Day (Kazakhstan) + December 16 - Day of Reconciliation (South Africa) + December 16 - Victory Day in India and Bangladesh + December 17 - National Day of Bhutan + December 18 - National Day of Qatar + December 18 - New Jersey Day + December 18 - Republic Day (Niger) + December 18 - International Migrants Day + December 18 - United Nations Day of the Arabic language + December 21/22 - Northern Winter Solstice and Southern Summer Solstice + December 22 - Dongzhi Festival (East Asia) + December 22 - Mother's Day (Indonesia) + December 23 - Birthday of Emperor Akihito (Japan) + December 23 - Thorlaksmessa/St. Thorlak's Day (Iceland) + December 23 - HumanLight (Secular Humanism) + December 24 - Independence Day (Libya) + December 24 - Christmas Eve in Western Christianity + December 25 - Christmas Day in Western Christianity + December 25 - Birthday of Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Pakistan) + December 26 - Boxing Day (UK) + December 26 - St. Stephen's Day (Republic of Ireland) + December 26 - First Day of Kwanzaa + December 27 - Constitution Day (North Korea) + December 27 - St. Stephen's Day (Eastern Orthodox Church) + December 28 - Proclamation Day (South Australia) + December 28 - Day of the Holy Innocents, celebrated in Spanish-speaking countries in a similar way to April Fools' Day + December 29 - Independence Day (Mongolia) + December 31 - New Year's Eve/ St. Silvester's Day - known as Hogmanay in Scotland and Calennig in Wales + +Moveable and Non-Single Day Events + + Hanukkah (Judaism) - celebrated over a period of eight days + Advent in Western Christianity +First Sunday in Advent occurs between November 27 and December 3 +Second Sunday in Advent occurs between December 4 and December 10 +Third Sunday in Advent occurs between December 11 and December 17 +Fourth and final Sunday in Advent occurs between December 18 and December 24 + Kwanzaa is from December 26 to January 1 + Marathon races held in December +Fukuoka, Japan +Las Vegas, Nevada, United States +Singapore +Taipei, Taiwan +Honolulu, Hawaii, United States + +Historical Events + + December 1, 1918 - The Kingdom of Yugoslavia is proclaimed. On the same day, Transylvania unites with Romania. + December 1, 1918 - Iceland becomes independent, but remains under the Danish crown. + December 1, 1955 - A protest by Rosa Parks on an Alabama bus starts the Montgomery Bus Boycott. + December 2, 1804 - Napoleon Bonaparte crowns himself Emperor of France. + December 2, 1942 - A team led by Enrico Fermi initiates the first nuclear chain reaction. + December 3, 1984 - A deadly chemical leak in Bhopal, India, kills 8,000 people instantly. + December 5, 2013 - Former South African President and Anti-Apartheid icon Nelson Mandela dies aged 95. + December 6, 1917 - Finland declares independence from Russia. + December 7, 1941 - During World War II, The Japanese attack Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, US. + December 8, 1980 - John Lennon is shot dead by Mark David Chapman. + December 9, 1961 - Tanganyika becomes independent. It later merges with Zanzibar to form Tanzania. + December 10, 1901 - The first Nobel Prizes are awarded. + December 11, 1936 - King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom abdicates from the throne. + December 12, 1911 - Delhi becomes the capital city of India. + December 12, 1963 - Kenya becomes independent from the United Kingdom. + December 14, 1861 - Albert, Prince Consort of Great Britain and Ireland dies aged 42, placing Queen Victoria in a state of mourning his loss for the rest of her life. + December 14, 1911 - A Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen reaches the South Pole, where previously no human had ever been. + December 15, 1891 - James Naismith introduces basketball. + December 16, 1920 - An earthquake in Gansu province, China, kills around 200,000 people. + December 16, 1991 - Kazakhstan declares independence from the Soviet Union. + December 17, 1903 - The Wright brothers make their first flight in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. + December 17, 1907 - Ugyen Wangchuck becomes King of Bhutan. + December 17, 2010 - Start of the Arab Spring, a series of uprisings across North Africa and the Middle East. + December 19, 1783 - William Pitt the Younger becomes the youngest Prime Minister of Great Britain. + December 20, 1999 - Portugal gives control of Macau to the People's Republic of China. + December 21, 1898 - Marie and Pierre Curie announce their discovery of radium. + December 21, 1913 - The first crossword puzzle is published. + December 21, 1988 - A terrorist bomb explodes on Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, southern Scotland, killing 270 people. + December 21, 2012 - End of the Mayan long-count calendar. + December 22, 1989 - The Brandenburg Gate is re-opened. + December 22, 1990 - Lech Walesa becomes President of Poland. + December 23, 1972 - A major earthquake strikes Nicaragua, killing thousands of people. + December 24, 1818 - The Christmas carol Silent Night is first performed at a church in Austria. + December 24, 1914 - The World War I Christmas truce takes place. + December 24, 1951 - Libya becomes independent. + December 24, 1968 - Apollo 8 orbits the Moon, and a stunning photograph of the Earth rising is taken. + December 25, 800 - Charlemagne is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. + December 25, 1066 - William the Conqueror is crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey. + December 26, 1991 - The USSR collapses. + December 26, 2004 - An earthquake off Sumatra, Indonesia, leads to tsunamis that kill over 300,000 people on Indian Ocean coasts, with nearby Sumatra being worst affected. + December 27, 531 - Inauguration of the Hagia Sophia as a church in what was then called Byzantium. + December 27, 1949 - Queen Juliana of the Netherlands officially recognizes Indonesia's independence. + December 28, 1612 - Galileo Galilei observes the planet Neptune, though there is dispute as to whether he mistook it for a star. + December 28, 1879 - The Tay Rail Bridge disaster on the east coast of Scotland kills 75 people. + December 28, 1895 - The Lumiere brothers open their first cinema in Paris. + December 29, 1911 - Mongolia becomes independent. + December 30, 1922 - The USSR is founded. + December 30, 2011 - This date is skipped in Samoa as the International Date Line is shifted. + December 31, 1857 - Ottawa is chosen as capital city of Canada. + December 31, 1999 - The US hands control of the Panama Canal over to Panama. + +Trivia + + The first Sunday of Advent is slightly more likely to fall in November than in December. + The star signs for December are Sagittarius (November 22 to December 21) and Capricorn (December 22 to January 20). + December 28 falls exactly half-way between the two Scottish celebrations of Saint Andrew's Day (November 30) and Burns Night (January 25). + In a leap year, December 31 is the 366th day of the year, rather than the 365th. + At the North Pole, the Sun does not rise in December; at the South Pole, it does not set. + +12 +Dublin () is the capital of the Republic of Ireland, and the biggest city on the island of Ireland. In 2011, there were over 1.1 million people living in the Greater Dublin Area. + +Dublin was built by the Vikings upon the river Liffey. The river divides the city into two parts, North Dublin and South Dublin. + +Many famous writers lived in Dublin. Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw were born in Dublin. James Joyce is probably Dublin's best known and most international writer. + +Dublin is home to Ireland's largest stadium for all sports, Croke Park. It can hold up to 85,000 people. Croke Park is the usual venue for all Ireland hurling and football finals. The Aviva Stadium hosts rugby and soccer. + +Notes + +References + +Other websites + + "The Reflecting City" + Dublin GDP stats + WikiSatellite view of Dublin at WikiMapia + The Dublin Community Blog + Satellite map of Dublin - Including local geographic features. + Dublin - Tourist information. + + +County towns in Ireland +Dance is a performing art. It is described in many ways. It is when people move to a musical rhythm, like a drum beat. They may be alone, or in a group. The dance may be an informal play, a part of a ritual, or a part of a professional performance. There are many kinds of dances, and every human society has its own dances. + +As with other performing arts, some people dance to express their feelings and emotions, or to feel better. Dance can be used to tell a story. In some societies, dance goes with song as well as music. Dancing is sometimes done as sport, and has similar athletic aspects. People who want to learn to dance can go to dance schools. It may take years of practice to become an experienced and capable dancer. + +To plan a dance is called choreography, done by a choreographer. Often this goes with music, and fits into a certain style. Dances may be planned in detail, or they may be whatever dancers feel like doing. However, most dancing does follow some general style or pattern. One style is the couple dance, where (usually) a man and a woman dance together. Other dances need an ensemble, a group of people together to make it work. + +History + +People have always danced. Many cultures have their own dances. There are pictures, on pottery and stone, which show dances from several thousand years ago, in Egypt and Greece. + +Sachs divides early dances into 'Imageless dances' and 'Image dances'. By 'imageless dances' he meant dances which have no set form, but aim at getting the dancers into a state of ecstasy. In this state the dancer(s) seem changed, in a trance, and are often thought of (by their society) as being 'possessed by spirits'. These dances are done on certain occasions: marriage, war, famine, illness or death, and so on. They are found in all early ('primitive') societies.p49; 62 + +The 'image dances', according to Sachs, are to do with the world outside the dancer. By imitating an animal or object, the dancer believes he can capture a power and make it useful. To dance in imitation of the animal which is going to be hunted is to become one with them. To imitate the act of sex is to achieve fertility. This is the kind of thinking behind an image dance. Sachs points out that societies of this kind do not really understand the connection between cause and effect. They really believe the image dances work. The dance type which is used in image dances is mime.p49; 77 + +The two styles of dance may be joined. Fertility dances may involve both ecstatic states and mime. The great dancer Nijinsky used some of these ideas in his choreography for the ballet Le Sacre du Printemps (The Rite of Spring), a ballet about the sacrifice of a girl during a primitive celebration of Spring. + +In more recent times, the first dance school we know about was opened in 1661 in Paris. Only men were accepted until 1681. After 1681, women were accepted too. Ballroom dances are forms of modern dance. Ballroom dances such as the waltz are done by couples. + +Until the 20th century, most ballroom dances were sequence dances. The way people moved was planned in set formation. These formations were usually lines or squares. Everyone moved at the same time, and finished at the same time. The music played for a set time, and then stopped. After the invention of the waltz, around 1800, another style of dancing developed. In the waltz, and later dances, people danced in couples, but they did so separately. They did not dance in formation, but moved round the room as they pleased (but anti-clockwise). Often, new dance styles arrive. Some dance as individuals, separately, as they please. Street dance is like that. All these types of dance have music. + +At the same time, round the world there are many traditional dances. Some of them have been going for hundreds of years. We call them folkloric dances. + +The coming of popular music videos and DVDs led to a kind of dancer previously seen in some stage shows. A backup dancer (or background dancer) is a performer who dances with or behind the lead performers in a live musical act or in a music video. + +Styles + +There are many different styles of dance, which fall into these general types: + + Classic dance + Professional dancing + Ballet + Modern dance + Theatre dance + Belly dancing + Jazz dance + Tap dance + Social dancing + Ballroom dancing (International style) + Waltz + Foxtrot + Tango + Quickstep + Viennese waltz + Cha-cha-cha + Jive + Paso doble + Samba + Rumba + Other styles + Salsa + Rock and Roll + Street dance + Breakdancing + Funk + Hip hop + Folk dance + Irish Dance + Morris Dance + Country Dance + Indian Classical Dances + Bharat Natyam + Kathak + Mohini Attam + Kathakali + Kuchipudi + +Professional dancers + Alvin Ailey + George Balanchine + Vernon and Irene Castle + Misty Copeland + Katherine Dunham + Bob Fosse + Loie Fuller + Gene Kelly + Vaslav Nijinsky + Margot Fonteyn + Monsieur Pierre + Antonio Ruiz Soler + Matt Steffanina + +References + + +Non-verbal communication +The dissolution of the monasteries was an event that happened from 1536 to 1540, when English King Henry VIII took away the land and money that the nuns and monks of the Roman Catholic church owned. Henry VIII then gave this land and money to people that supported him. + +This was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the Church of England (which is a type of Christianity). Parliament made the Act of Supremacy to give him the right to do both these things. It was part of the Protestant Reformation in England. + +16th century in England +Anglicanism +Protestant Reformation +A deadline is a time by which some task must be completed. + +Very often, it means a time limit that is set in place by an authority - for example, a teacher tells students that they must turn in their homework in by a certain time. This is so the teacher is able to report fairly to his or her principal that every student had the same chance to do the work. + +Deadlines may also be set by a time horizon that comes from something that is not a human authority, but part of nature. For example, by sunset one must do those tasks requiring daylight. However, a human must watch the sun and decide what light is strong enough to still be daylight, so time limits will still be involved even if one observes a horizon and sets a deadline oneself. + +A way to remember this is that a time horizon is like the physical horizon where sunset happens and a time limit is a thing people set up to deal with this. A deadline is a thing powerful people set up to ensure less powerful people comply with their way of doing things. + +time +Planning +Problem solving +Dutton Speedwords is a made-up language written by Reginald John Garfield Dutton. The idea of Dutton Speedwords is to make frequent words short, and very frequent words very short. Dutton Speedwords can be used as a second language for international communications. Dutton Speedwords is also a shorthand writing system â this means you can use it to write quickly. + +The method was made up by Reginald John Garfield Dutton (1886-1970) in 1922. It was first published in 1935. It was called International Symbolic Script. A year later, it was called Speedwords. It was changed in 1946 and 1951. + +It has two uses; to be a language and to be used for writing quickly. Dutton hoped that this would mean more people would learn it because they could use it for two reasons. + +The books that Dutton wrote about Speedwords are not printed anymore. But Speedwords is now being used by more people because they find it is good for working online. For example, it makes it faster to type an email. + +Another way of writing quickly is Pitman's shorthand. This uses special symbols instead of letters. Speedwords uses Roman letters. This makes it easier to learn. It also means it can be typed using a normal keyboard. Each word means only one thing. This means you do not need to use different forms of the same word. + +The words used in Speedwords are the same as the words used in many other languages. The words are like short versions of the writer's own language. + +Other websites + + overview of Speedwords by Richard K Harrison 1994 + +Constructed languages +In some religions and mythology, the Devil is an evil spirit, demon or supernatural being that tries to create problems for people and distance them from God. In some cultures, the Devil seen as the embodiment of evil. He is characterised by his red skin, horns and tail. + +Some people also use the words "the Devil" or "Satan" for the most powerful devil. + +Etymology +The word "devil" comes from the Greek word "diabolos" which means "someone who tells lies to hurt you". ("Diabolos" is translated to the English word "slanderer.") The New Testament uses "diabolos" as a title for Satan, so "the Devil" became another name for Satan in English. + +In the Old Testament, there is the Serpent and the Shaitan, who may be two different characters. "Shaitan" in Hebrew means "adversary", which is a word for an enemy or opponent. It is also a word used for the Devil in the Koran, who often appears as an animal and tries to get people to do the wrong thing. + +Appearances in religions + +Christianity +According to Christianity, the Devil wanted to be a deity besides God and be independent from God. Therefore, a war in heaven started and the angels battled. After the Devil lose the battle and was thrown out of heaven, he started doing bad things on the earth. He wants people to worship him instead of God. Sometimes he tries to trick people by giving them false promises. + +The other angels who were thrown out of heaven became evil spirits called demons. They obey the Devil and help him do evil things. + +The Book of Revelation says that God will punish the Devil and his demons by throwing them into a Lake of Fire that burns in Hell. This will happen in the future. + +Some Christians understand the Devil as the embodiment of chaos and death. They think that the Devil is the farest someone can get away from God. God, as the opposite of the Devil, stands for life and the Devil for death. The closer someone gets to the Devil the closer people come to death and will not be resurrected. + +Islam +In Islam, there is not only one devil, but there are several devils, who support Satan. The devils are invisible and tempt humans and djinns into sin. Humans and djinns, who follow the will of the devils, are called devils too. + +Other cultures and religions +Not all religions believe in the Devil. For example, some forms of Buddhism do not believe in the Devil. Judaism, has Satan, but does not believe that Satan is the Devil, but only an angel. + +In Wicca, the concept of the Devil and demons is also rejected, simply because, in Wiccan tradition, the creative energy is neither positive nor negative. According to Wiccans: "We are the ones who use this energy for good or evil. Therefore, the consequence of this action is our entire responsibility, not of an evil supernatural being." The corniferous god Cernunnos of Wicca was confused with the Christian Devil, for having horns (in antiquity, given the horns were phallic, they were associated with virility (fertility)), and were soon symbols of ancient European religions. He was already worshipped by pagan religions before Christianity arrived in Europe and the British Isles. Many satanists believe in the Devil or Satan only as a metaphor, not an actual being or person. In the BahĂĄ'Ă Faith, the Devil as a malevolent, supernatural entity is not believed to exist. These terms do, however, appear in the BahĂĄ'Ă writings, where they are instead used as metaphors for the lower nature of man. + +Arts +Artists draw pictures of the Devil that show him as ugly and evil. But nobody knows what he may look like in fact. Usually he is a spirit that nobody can see, but he can make himself look like a real person in order to trick people. Many modern depictions of the Devil portray him as a red human-like being with horns and a pointed tail, carrying a red pitchfork or trident. + +References + +Theology +Demons +Diarrhea (DIE-uh-REE-uh), also spelled diarrhoea, happens when the body makes more watery feces than normal. Diarrhea can occur in humans as well as most other mammals. + +Causes +Diarrhea is not a disease. But it may be a symptom of a disease. The most common causes of diarrhea are: + Viruses, like Norovirus (the most common cause of viral gastroenteritisâ"stomach flu"âin humans) + Bacteria, like E. coli or C. diff + Some medicines, especially antibiotics + Food poisoning + Lactose intolerance + Artificial sweeteners, like sorbitol and mannitol, which are in many sugar-free food products like sugarless gum + Other problems with the intestines, like Crohn's disease and irritable bowel syndrome + +Child death +In developing nations, diarrheal diseases are the second most common cause of death in children under age 5. Every year in the world, diarrhea kills around 760,000 children under age 5. + +In developing countries, diarrhea is also one of the most common causes of malnutrition in children under age 5. + +When children die from diarrhea, the cause is often dehydration (losing too much water from the body). Because diarrhea is watery, it takes away a lot of the water. It also takes away electrolytesâimportant salts that the body needs to survive. Dehydration is extra dangerous for small children because they have less water in their bodies to begin with. This means they cannot lose as much water as adults before they start to have serious health problems. + +Causes +In developing countries, diarrhea is usually caused by an infection in the intestines. These infections can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites. These infections spread easily in some developing countries because of the following reasons: + Unsafe drinking water. Bacteria, viruses, and parasites often get into the water, which people then have to drink. Anyone who drinks the water can then get an infection that causes diarrhea. + Sanitation, with clean toilets, is often not available. This makes it easier for infections to spread. + Clean water and soap for washing hands are often not available, either. If people cannot wash their hands, bacteria, viruses, or parasites can stay on their hands. These microbes can then enter the mouth or get spread to other people with handshaking. + +Preventing child deaths +Child deaths from diarrhea can be prevented in different ways. + +Re-hydration +When a child is sick with diarrhea, the best way to keep them from dying is to rehydrate them (give them the water and electrolytes (salts) they are losing by having diarrhea). If the child can go to a clinic or hospital, this can be done by giving water and salts intravenously (through a needle placed into a vein). + +If the child cannot go to a clinic or hospital, oral rehydration solution can be used. ("Oral" means "given by mouth"; a "solution" is a mixture.) Oral rehydration solution is a mixture of the most important things the body loses when it is dehydrated. These things are clean water, salt, and sugar. Some oral rehydration solutions have extra electrolytes, like potassium, in them also. + +Some oral rehydration solutions come in packets and just need to be mixed with clean water. Oral rehydration solution can also be made at home. If the water in the area is not safe, it can be boiled to make it safe. (Boiling the water will kill any bacteria, viruses, or parasites in the water.) Salt and sugar are then mixed into the water. Drinking this mixture, after the water cools, will re-hydrate the child, if he drinks enough. Adding a banana or orange juice can add potassium to the mixture. + +Breast milk will also re-hydrate a child with diarrhea. + +Preventing diarrhea +There are some ways to prevent diarrhea, or the spread of diseases that cause diarrhea. However, some of these ways are expensive and difficult to do. These include: + Making drinking water safe + Making sanitation better + Making clean water and soap available for hand washing + +Related pages + Feces + +References + +Symptoms +Dimensions are the way we see, measure and experience our world, by using up and down, right to left, back to front, hot and cold, how heavy and how long, as well as more advanced concepts from mathematics and physics. One way to define a dimension is to look at the degrees of freedom, or the way an object can move in a specific space. There are different concepts or ways where the term dimension is used, and there are also different definitions. There is no definition that can satisfy all concepts. + +In a vector space (with vectors being "arrows" with directions), the dimension of , also written as , is equal to the cardinality (or number of vectors) of a basis of (a set which indicates how many unique directions actually has). It is also equal to the number of the largest group of straight line directions of that space. "Normal" objects in everyday life are specified by three dimensions, which are usually called length, width and depth. Mathematicians call this concept Euclidean space. + +Dimensions can be used to measure position too. The distance to a position from a starting place can be measured in the length, width and height directions. These distances are a measure of the position. + +In some occasions, a fourth (4D) dimension, time, is used to show the position of an event in time and space. + +Other Dimensions +In modern science, people use other dimensions. Dimensions like temperature and weight can be used to show the position of something in less simple spaces. Scientist study those dimension with dimensional analysis. + +Mathematicians also use dimensions. In mathematics, dimensions are more general. Dimensions in mathematics might not measure things in the world. The rules for doing arithmetic with dimensions in mathematics might be different than usual arithmetic rules. + +Dimensions and vectors +Vectors are used to show distances and directions. Vectors are often used in engineering and science, and sometimes in mathematics. + +A vector is a list of numbers. There is one number for each dimension. There are arithmetic rules for vectors. + +For example, if Jane wants to know the position of Sally, Sally can give Jane a vector to show the position. If Jane and Sally are in the world, there are three dimensions. Therefore, Sally gives Jane a list of three numbers to show her position. The three numbers in the vector Sally gives Jane might be: + Sally's distance north of Jane + Sally's distance east of Jane + Sally's height above Jane + +Related pages + + 3D + Hypercube, generalization of square and cube beyond three dimensions + Minkowski spacetime, a four-dimensional manifold + Space-time + +References + +Geometry +Algebra +Distance is how far one thing is from another thing. It is also a measure of the space between two things. It can be measured along any path. Thus, someone who goes around in a circle has traveled a distance, even though his position has not changed. + +In geometry, the distance between two points A and B is sometimes written as . Pythagorean theorem is often used in the calculation of distance. Distance is a scalar, and thus is different from displacement. Displacement is a vector that measures distance with a straight line (and in only one path). Displacement is the shortest way to travel the distance. + +Examples + One ball is 5 feet from another ball. The distance between the two balls is 5 feet. + John walks at a speed of 6 kilometres per hour for one hour. John walks a distance of 6 kilometres. + A circle is a curved line. Each point on the circle is the same distance from the centre of the circle. + +Related pages + + Euclidean distance + Norm (mathematics) + +References + +Physical quantity +Mathematics +Geometry +In math, the distance between the nearest end and the farthest end of an object is its depth. + +For example, you can measure the depth of a box. When you find the distance between one end of the box and another end of the box, you measure the box's depth. + +Depth in Liquids + +For liquids, the distance between the top or surface of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid is the liquid's depth. + +For example, water is a liquid. If you fill a container with water, the distance between the top of the water and the bottom of the container is the water's depth. If the depth is big, we say the water is deep. + +Related pages + Volume + Geometry + Width + Height + Length + +Physical quantity +A dictionary is a type of book which explains the meanings of words or, more precisely, lexemes. The words are arranged in alphabetical order so that they can be found quickly. The word "dictionary" comes from the Latin "dictio" ("saying"). + +There are several types of dictionaries: dictionaries which explain words and how they are used, dictionaries which translate words from one language to another, dictionaries of biography which tell about famous people, technical dictionaries which explain the meanings of technical words or words connected to a particular subject (sometimes called a thesaurus). Some of these come close to being an encyclopedia, but an encyclopedia gives a lot of extra information about things (knowledge) and does not explain the use of the language. An encyclopedic dictionary gives less information about the topic than a real encyclopedia does, but more than a simple dictionary. + +Dictionaries which explain the meaning of words + +Online dictionaries + TheFreeDictionary + Longman English Dictionary Online +Dictionaries which explain what words mean will give a clear "definition" of the word (e.g. hippopotamus : a hoofed mammal with thick skin, large mouth and short legs that lives in rivers and lakes of Africa.) + +A big dictionary will also give more information about the word. It will explain how it is pronounced. Usually the International Phonetic Alphabet is used for this. It will explain how the word is used. This is not a problem for a word like "hippopotamus", but a word like "put" has so many different meanings that a large dictionary may have a whole page or more to explain how it can be used. It will also explain the origin of the word (e.g. Greek "hippos" horse and "potamus" river). + +A dictionary may also give the form of the word in different tenses, plural form etc. + +Dictionaries which translate into foreign languages +There are also dictionaries which translate words into foreign languages. Often one volume (one book) will translate both ways; for example, half the book might be translating from English to Dutch and the other half from Dutch to English. + +When using a dictionary to find out how to say something in another language one has to be careful to choose the right word. A word like "right" has two basic meanings in English: 1) "correct", and 2) the opposite of "left". Other languages have different words for these different meanings, but they have homonyms of their own. A word like "put" has many meanings. A good dictionary will have a large list of these meanings to help people find the word they want. In many languages, for example, the word âputâ will be different according to whether something is being put onto something (e.g. a table) or into something (e.g. a cupboard). + +Updating dictionaries + +Dictionaries need to be updated frequently because of the way language changes. New words are often brought into a language (e.g. lots of computer terms) or words change their meanings (e.g. "gay" or "cool"). In this sense, the most famous English Dictionary is the Oxford English Dictionary (or OED). Words are always being added to the OED. They are never taken out even if they are obsolete (not used any more). The OED can be accessed online (with a subscription). + +Related pages +Wiktionary + +Relevant literature + Henning Bergenholtz/Sven Tarp (eds.): Manual of Specialised Lexicography. Benjamins 1995. + Sandro Nielsen: The Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Gunter Narr 1994. + +Other websites + Centre for Lexicography + Dictionary -Citizendium + + Oxford English Dictionary + Oxford Learner's Dictionary + Cambridge Learner's Dictionary (British English) + Macmillan Dictionary + Collins Cobuild English Dictionary + American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language + Merriam-Webster American English dictionary + Merriam-Webster Learner's Dictionary + Learn These Words First: Multi-Layer Dictionary + SimpleVocab Multi-word Dictionary + English to English Dictionary + Terms Dictionary - English to Multi-Lang Dictionary + + +Reference works +A definition in language explains what a word or phrase means. A definition usually answers the question what is.... Defining means giving a definition. + +Other words with this meaning are description and explanation. It describes what a word means and explains to the person when and where it can be used. + +In mathematics, a definition is an exact way of saying what a mathematical concept is. It might not be the easiest way to say what it is, but it is used because it is exact. It can be used in a mathematical proof. + +Words +Denmark (), officially named the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the furthest south of the Scandinavian countries, to the south of Norway and south-west of Sweden (which it is connected to by a bridge). It has a south border with Germany. It borders both the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the east. Denmark is a developed country with a large welfare state; In 2006 and 2007, surveys ranked Denmark as "the happiest place in the world," based on standards of health, welfare, and education. + +The origin of the name Denmark () is uncertain. In Old Norse, the country was called DanmÇ«rk, referring to the Danish March (the marches of the Danes). + +The capital city of Denmark is Copenhagen, on the island of Zealand. Denmark is a constitutional monarchy (meaning the head of state is a monarch who has few established powers) with a queen, Margrethe II. Denmark is a parliamentary state, meaning the people appoint a parliament to make decisions for them, and it has a democratic government headed by an elected Prime Minister, who currently is Mette Frederiksen since 2019. + +History +Denmark was first united in the 10th century, during the Viking period, by king Harald Bluetooth (), who first converted Denmark to Christianity. The Vikings are well known for invading countries. In the 11th century, the Danish Vikings controlled England (the Danelaw) for a while. In 1397 Denmark, Sweden and Norway became a single country with one queen (this country was called the Kalmar Union) Sweden became a separate country again in 1523. Denmark and Norway (called Denmark-Norway) stayed united, until 1814. Denmark-Norway controlled many islands in the Atlantic Ocean, including the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland. Iceland became independent from Denmark in 1944. + +Denmark became a constitutional monarchy on June 5, 1849 when it adopted a constitution which took away powers from the King and gave rights to ordinary Danish people. June 5 is now a holiday in Denmark, called "Constitution Day". + +Over the years Denmark lost many of the lands that it controlled in battle. Denmark's biggest war defeat was the Second Schleswig War (in 1864) when the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were conquered by the Kingdom Prussia (now a part of Germany). This was a big loss for Denmark and, consequently, it began a policy of neutrality after the loss, meaning it would no longer take part in any wars or support other countries. Denmark did not take part in the First World War. + +On April 9, 1940, Denmark was invaded by Nazi Germany and the Nazis stayed in Denmark throughout World War II. During the war, in 1943, Danes helped over 8,000 Jews to escape from Denmark into Sweden after the Nazis tried to arrest them. + +After the liberation of Denmark, one part of the country was not. That was the island of Bornholm. The German Commandant von Kamptz who was stationed there, refused to surrender to the Soviets as the German were fleeing to Bornholm and further to Sweden. The Soviets then bombed the two biggest towns RĂžnne and NexĂž. After the Germans were captured on May 9, 1945, the Soviet Army occupied the island until April 6, 1946. + +After World War Two, Denmark became a member of NATO and the European Union. Greenland and the Faroe Islands are now part of the Kingdom of Denmark and have their own governments and limited power. + +Geography + +Denmark is the smallest of the Scandinavian countries. The neighbours are Germany (to the south), Sweden (to the east), Norway (to the north) and the United Kingdom (to the west). The country is surrounded by the sea except for Jutland (Jylland), the largest part of Denmark. It is connected to Germany by land. To the south-east there is the Baltic Sea, to the west the North Sea, to the north the Skagerrak and to the north-east the Kattegat. + +The western part of Denmark is the peninsula of Jutland (, pronounced yooÂŽ-land), bordering Germany. This is the only part of Denmark that is not an island. The rest of Denmark includes 76 islands people live on, and many tiny islands. The largest islands are Zealand (SjĂŠlland), and Funen (Fyn). To the east is the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea, the only place in Denmark where the bedrock can be seen. + +The country is quite flat. The highest hill or mountain is MĂžllehĂžj, which is 170.86 metres (560.56 ft) tall. There are many small hills, lakes, creeks, forests and farmland. Denmark's shore line covers 7,314 km (4,545 mi). Nobody in Denmark lives more than 60 km from the coast. The longest river in Denmark is the GudenĂ„. + +Climate +The weather in Denmark is quite windy and rainy. In the winter, it does not get very cold; in most years, there are only a few weeks of snow. Every ten years or so, the sea around the islands freezes over, but in most winters, it does not. The climate and topography are not good for winter sports. + +Most summers are not very hot. People always dress to be ready for rain or wind. There are also very sunny times, but nobody can know ahead of time when these will be. The best time of the year for outdoor activities is the months of May and June until midsummer. + +The highest temperature ever recorded in Denmark was , on 10 August 1975 in Holstebro. +And the lowest temperature ever recorded in Denmark was , on 8 January 1982 in HĂžrsted. + +Top 5 warmest days + + +Top 5 coldest nights + +Politics + +Denmark has three branches of power; the judiciary (the courts), the executive (the Prime Minister and the cabinet) and the legislature (the Danish parliament). The current Prime Minister of Denmark is Mette Frederiksen, who was elected in June 2019. + +Denmark is a Kingdom which means it has a monarch (a king or queen). The current monarch is Queen Margrethe II. Margrethe II does not have a lot of power (she does not make any important decisions) and has a symbolic role. Denmark became a constitutional monarchy in 1849. + +Elections to the parliament are held every four years, and the winner of the election is the party or coalition which gets the most votes and seats in the parliament. After the elections are done, several parties who are in agreement will group together to form a coalition government, and the leader of the largest party becomes the prime minister. + +Here is a short summary of the biggest political parties in Denmark, from left to right on the political axis: + Red-Green Alliance (Danish: Enhedslisten), a far-left socialist party. + The Alternative (Danish: Alternativet), a green progressive party. + Socialist People's Party (Danish: Socialistisk Folkeparti), a socialist party. + Social Democrats (Danish: Socialdemokraterne), a left-wing party which is "social democratic" (slightly socialist). + Venstre, Liberal Party of Denmark (Danish: Venstre (meaning "left")), a liberal party. + Danish Social Liberal Party (Danish: Det Radikale Venstre), a radical left/borderline right-wing liberal party. + Conservative People's Party (Danish: Det Konservative Folksparti), a conservative party. + Liberal Alliance (Danish: Liberal Alliance), a right-wing liberal party. + Danish People's Party (Danish: Dansk Folkeparti), a right-wing political party who dislike immigration (people from other countries who come to live in Denmark). + +Welfare +Denmark, like the other Nordic countries. is well known for being a large welfare state. The government provides many services to the public such as free health care, free education (school and college) and free housing for the poor. Danes pay high taxes to fund welfare. + +Kingdom of Denmark + +In geography, Denmark is the land in northern Europe, where the Danes live. In the political sense, the Kingdom of Denmark is the area which the Danish Monarch rules over. The Kingdom of Denmark includes Denmark and also includes the Faroe Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, and Greenland in North America. All three parts of the kingdom have different languages and culture. The Faroe Islands and Greenland are often considered to be separate countries but Denmark holds their sovereignty. + +Regions and municipalities + +Denmark is divided into five regions (Danish: regioner or region for one). The regions replaced the former counties (amter) in January 2007. The regions are in charge of hospitals and health care. + +The regions are then subdivided into municipalities (). There are currently 98 municipalities, but before January 2007 there were 275. The number of municipalities was decreased when it was decided that, to become more efficient, each should have a population of at least 20,000 . + +People + +The biggest part (90.5%) of Denmark's population of just under 5.4 million is of Danish descent, according to 2009 statistics. Of the rest 8.9% who are immigrants or descendent from recent immigrants, many come from South Asia or the Middle East. There are also small groups of Inuit from Greenland and Faroese. + +The Danes speak the national language, Danish, which is very similar to the other Scandinavian languages. Swedish and Norwegian are so close to Danish that most Danes understand them. + +As well as Danish, most Danes speak a foreign language too, such as English, which is popular as an international language, or German. In the southern part of Jutland, a German minority speaks German. On the Faroe Islands, Faroese is spoken, and people living in Greenland speak Inuit. + +Religion does not play a large part in the life of most Danes and church attendance is very low. However, even though many Danes are atheist, 80.4% are members of the Protestant "Church of Denmark" (, The National Church) which is the official "state church" of Denmark. The National Church is Lutheran, which means it separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th Century. Other important faiths include Judaism, Islam (the number of Muslims is increasing), other Protestant groups and Catholicism. + +Transport + +Because of the many islands, Denmark has many bridges. The main parts of the country, and most of the bigger islands, are connected by roads and railroads. One of the world's longest bridges connects the eastern and the western parts of the country, and there is a large bridge to Sweden also. There is still no bridge across the Baltic Sea to Germany, but it will most likely be built in a few years. The bridge to Sweden was expensive, took a long time to build, and required much planning by engineers. + +There are still many islands with no bridges to the mainland. People have to go by boat or airplane to reach these islands. Many islands will never be reached by bridges, because they are too small or too far away. If the island has too few people, bridges are often not built because it is expensive to build. + +Cycling is very popular in Denmark because the ground is so flat. Copenhagen is a city that is very bicycle friendly, with bicycle lanes extending over 12,000 km. + +Culture +The people of Denmark have always depended on the sea. In earlier days, people could not travel anywhere unless they went by boat. Many Danes were fishermen or merchants. Even today, many Danes spend much time near or at the sea. + +Farming has always been one of the main occupations. Because of the climate and the soil, Denmark is a good place for agriculture. Export of food to the neighbouring countries is one of the most important sources of income for the country. Danish hams and cookies are exported throughout the world. + +Perhaps the most famous Dane is actually Hamlet, the title character of William Shakespeare's famous play, which was set in the real castle of Kronborg in HelsingĂžr, north of Copenhagen. The play was based on an old Danish myth of the Viking Prince Amled of Jutland, and his quest for revenge against his father's killer. Another widely known Dane is Hans Christian Andersen, a writer mostly famous for such fairy tales as "The Little Mermaid", and "The Ugly Duckling". Also Karen Blixen, Tycho Brahe and the philosopher SĂžren Kierkegaard are well known worldwide. There are many famous Danish scientists, including Niels Bohr, the famous physicist who developed the first working model for the atom, and Ole RĂžmer, who discovered the speed of light. Hans Kirk, although less well known outside of Denmark, is the writer of the best-selling Danish novel of all time, The Fishermen. + +Music +Danes enjoy many different types of music, including ballets, jazz music, pop and rock. Denmark's most famous classical composer is Carl Nielsen. Famous Danish bands include Aqua, a pop band, and The Raveonettes, an indie rock band. The most famous Danish rock star is Lars Ulrich of the band Metallica. + +Food + +The cuisine of Denmark shares much with the other Nordic countries (Finland, Norway, Iceland, and Sweden) as well as northern Germany. Common meats are pork and fish. Traditional Danish food includes frikadeller (fried meatballs, often served with potatoes and various sorts of gravy). Fish is widely eaten, especially on the west coast of Jutland. + +Holidays +Christmas () is the main feast of the year. Christmas is traditionally celebrated on the eve, December 24, and this is when the main Christmas meal is eaten and presents are unwrapped. + +In midwinter, a fast is celebrated. Children are dressed up, and go from house to house begging for money. This practice has in the recent years been taken over by Halloween, and most people give candy not money. A barrel filled with candy is smashed with clubs. The person who makes the candy fall out is appointed queen of cats and the person who hits the last stick is appointed king of cats. + +Midsummer is celebrated with a huge bonfire in the evening of June 23. Most Danes have a three-week summer holiday in July or August. + +Sports +The most popular sport in Denmark is football (soccer). Sailing, swimming and other water sports are very popular because of the long coastline. Another common sport is cycling, (Copenhagen has been nicknamed the "City of Cyclists" because of the popularity of bicycles for moving around), which has become popular in Denmark partly because of the flat land all over the country. Indoor sports such as badminton and handball are also popular during the long winters. + +Monarchy + +Monarch is a word that means king or queen. Denmark is the oldest monarchy in Europe. The current monarch is Queen Margrethe II, who has been the queen since 1972. Denmark does not currently have a King. Margrethe's husband was called a prince because he was the son-in-law, not the son, of the previous King. He died on 13. February 2018 at the age of 83. The royal couple have two children: + Crown Prince Frederik who married an Australian woman named Mary, and have 4 children: + Prince Christian + Princess Isabella + Prince Vincent & Princess Josephine (twins) + Joachim married a British woman from Hong Kong but later divorced in 2005 after being married for 10 years. He has two sons: + Prince Nikolai + Prince Felix + +In 2008 Prince Joachim married for the second time. His new wife is from France and is called Marie, with whom he has a son and a daughter. + Prince Henrik + Princess Athena + +Related pages + Denmark at the Olympics + Denmark national football team + List of rivers of Denmark + +References + +Notes + +Other websites + + Denmark.dk â The official website of Denmark + VisitDenmark.com â Official travel guide to Denmark + Danish Culture + + +European Union member states +Nordic countries +Current monarchies +10th-century establishments in Europe +Death is the end of a life in an organism. All biological and living activity of the living thing stop, including the mind and the senses. The usual signal for death in humans and many other animals is that the heart stops beating and cannot be restarted. This can be caused by many things. All living things have a limited lifespan, and all living things eventually die. + +Living things that have died are normally described as being dead. Death of humans is often investigated for the cause, in case of crime (such as murder), accident or disease that may continue to kill other humans. About 150,000 people die every day around the world. About two thirds of these people die because of age. In addition to the physical body, some believe humans also have a soul and believe that the soul can continue without a body (afterlife), move into another body (reincarnation), or cease to exist (annihilationism). Religions have different beliefs about this issue. Many cultures have their own customs and rituals to respect the dead. + +When people talk about things or events that lead to the death of a plant or animal, those things or events are usually described as being deadly, or fatal. In the case of diseases, they are described as terminal. Humans are no different from any other lifeform. Our bodies have an ability for self-repair, but that ability is limited. Finding the cause of death is a medical speciality called pathology. In medicine, death is when the heart stops beating for more than several minutes. There are special times in which people recover even though the heart has stopped for 30 minutes, such as near-drowning in very cold water. If machines are used to help the heart and lungs work, then the moment of death is more difficult to know. + +Society and culture + +Death is commonly a sad or unpleasant thing to people. It can make people think about their own death. People might miss or be sad for the person who has died. They might also be sad for the family and friends of the person who has died. + +In any society, human death is surrounded by ritual - a wake or funeral is normal. In some places it was common to eat the dead in a form of ritual cannibalism. But this is no longer common, in part because disease like kuru can be passed this way. Human dead bodies are taboo in most societies and must be handled in special ways - for a combination of religious and hygiene reasons. A human dead body must always be reported in law, to be sure it is disposed of properly. In 2021 the leading cause of death in the United States was heart disease followed by cancer and then COVID-19. + +Dealing with dead bodies and their property + +Finding the cause of any human death and stopping a similar death from happening to someone else are the main reasons people look into human morbidity or let dead bodies be cut open and looked at in an autopsy. Some religions do not allow autopsies, because they feel the body is holy. Autopsies are usually required by the state if someone dies and people do not know why. The autopsy helps find out if someone killed the person on purpose, tried to hurt them, or if they died from a sickness. + +To prepare for their own death, humans can write a last will and testament to be clear about who gets their property and possessions. A person will sometimes also volunteer to be an organ donor. This might mean giving the whole body to medical research. It can also save the lives of others by making organ transplants possible. + +Religious views of death + +For a long time, many people have been afraid of death and a lot of people have wondered about what may happen to people after they die. This is one of the largest questions of philosophy and religion. Many people believe there is some form of afterlife. + +Ancient rulers sometimes did insist not only that their own bodies, and much property, but even their servants and relatives be destroyed at their funeral. + +Christianity has a special focus on death because of the state killing of Jesus Christ by the Romans. In Islam this is thought to demonstrate the injustice of human systems of dealing out death, and the ability of the best people to overcome it and even forgive it. In Christianity itself it is thought to prove that Jesus himself was really God and so could lose his body and still have the power of resurrection. In Buddhism reincarnation is believed to occur. Reincarnation is an idea taken from Hinduism. + +Confucianism advises respect for parents and forms of ancestor worship to respect both dead and living ancestors. + +Rituals surrounding death + +Every ethical tradition including the medical view of the body has some ritual surrounding death. Often these excuse behaviours that might be hated if they did not have the ritual. For instance, one may say that organ transplant is like cannibalism. + +Very much of what happens at a human death is ritual. People who wish theirs to be dealt with a certain way, and who wish a particular treatment like cremation of their body, should decide in advance and set up the necessary payments and agreements. This makes it much easier for their family after they die, since there is no longer the ability to clearly communicate the wish. + +For the same reason, saying goodbye is important. Most of the stress of death seems to come for loved ones who "did not have a chance to say goodbye". + +Maybe it is to relieve this stress that rituals are created, and to bring together those that knew someone so that the personal experience a person can no longer communicate for themselves, can be exchanged by others. + +Some ritual, such as seances, claim to allow people to speak to the dead. This is not claimed to be very reliable, both by scientists and even by those who do them very often. + +Preparing for death + +Aside from wills, goodbyes, organ donations and funerals, there is important personal experience to decide to pass on, or not, when someone knows they may soon die. Palliative care focuses on basic decisions people make when they are very close to the end of their lives, and it ensures someone is always available to talk to them. It is a replacement for heroic medical intervention that may keep them physically alive but with no quality of life. Human psychology must prepare for death if it is anything other than a quick surprise: + +Elizabeth Kubler-Ross wrote that there were several stages in dying, of which denial was the first, and acceptance was the last. Recording one's life is often something people with acceptance will do to leave a memoir or a full autobiography: + +Because events leave living memory, and may only be part of oral tradition, there are projects to record everything that people remember about World War I and the Shoah. The first of these was to record everything remembered about the U.S. Civil War. This discipline has changed history since we have so many more first person accounts of the times, and made social history much more standard. + +Other terms for death +There are other terms for death. Examples are, "to pass away", "to go to a better place", "to buy the farm" (generally used in the military), "to leave the earth", "big sleep", and "to kick the bucket". the term gone may also be a term for describing death. for example: if a person has died, they are also said to be gone, as in gone to a better place or no longer here. + +Unnatural causes of death +Old age and illness are not the only things that can end a person's life. People make other people die. This is called killing or murder. Three famous murders are John Wilkes Booth killing Abraham Lincoln, James Earl Ray killing Martin Luther King Jr. and Lee Harvey Oswald killing the President of the United States John F. Kennedy. People can also die by accidents resulting in terminal trauma, hypothermia, starvation, suicide and dehydration. + +References + +Related pages +Funeral +Death (personification) +Will (law) +Basic English 850 words +A diesel-electric engine is a diesel generator, a diesel engine that drives an electric generator. The generator feeds electric power to an electric motor which turns a driveshaft. Its efficiency is higher than when an engine drives a shaft through gears. Most locomotives and many ships use diesel-electric drive. + +Many diesel-electric drives, especially small ones, store the electricity in a battery. Some designs also store braking energy in a flywheel, which can also charge a battery. However, these add even more complexity and weight to the vehicle, so are more appropriate for city driving where service stations are always available and there is much stop and go driving. + +Because they do not require any change or investment in stations nor much in vehicle design, diesel-electric vehicles are believed to be the most likely replacement for today's internal combustion engine. When properly tuned, they have low emissions and they use only about one-third of the fossil fuel of most gasoline engines powering similar vehicles. + +Honda and Toyota are presently delivering consumer priced diesel-electric cars. By contrast, hydrogen infrastructure is thought to be decades off, and is not fully implemented even in Iceland where there is abundant free geothermal electricity. + +In countries like India, government is focusing on fully electric trains rather than diesel electric. That too electricity will be produced by renewable sources like Solar. + +Many activists feel that promoting hydrogen is a stall, a way to avoid forcing the shift to diesel-electric vehicles in the nearer term. + +Motors +A foreign embassy is the official office of one country in another. It is usually in the capital city of the other country. It is where the [[ambassador]relationship between the two countries. + +The head of the embassy is usually an ambassador, but can also be a minister, high commissioner, or other level of diplomatic personnel appointed by the sending country to represent it. + + + +Diplomacy +Europe is the western part of the continent of Eurasia, often thought of as its own continent. It is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains in Russia and the Bosporus strait in Turkey. + +Europe is bordered by water on three sides. On the west is the Atlantic Ocean. To the north is the Arctic Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea separates Southeastern Europe from Africa. On the eastern border of Europe are the Ural River and Ural Mountains. + +There are at least 44 countries in Europe (the European identities of 5 transcontinental countries: Cyprus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkey are disputed). Most of these countries are members of the European Union. + +Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometers (3,930,000 square miles). This is 2% of the Earth's surface (6.8% of its land area). + +As of 2017, about 510 million people lived in Europe. + +Europe contains the world's second most-active volcano, which is Mount Etna that is currently the most-active volcano in the continent. + +Europe is a major tourist attraction. People come from all over the world to see its many World Heritage Sites and other attractions. + +Origin of name +Europe is named after a princess in Greek mythology called "Europa." The myth says that Zeus kidnapped Europa and took her to Crete, where she became the mother of King Minos (from whom Europeâs first civilization gets its name, the Minoans). + +The name "Europa" was later used to describe Greece. Then, as the rest of modern-day Europe started to have cities and empires, the entire area West of the Ural Mountains came to be called "Europa". + +History + +The history of Europe is long and has many turns. Many great countries originated from Europe. Greek mythology and the beginning of western civilization came from European nations. + +Some of the major periods in European history have been: + Ancient Greece (Minoan, Mycenaean, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic): c.2000 BC to 146 BC + Ancient Rome (Roman kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire): 753BC-476 + Middle Ages (Early, High, Late): 476 to 1492 + Early Modern Era (Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Discovery, Enlightenment): 1492-1789 + 19th Century, 20th Century and 21st Century (French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars, Industrial Revolution, Colonialism, World War 1, October Revolution, World War 2, Cold War): 1789-present. + +Regions and countries +Andreas M. Kaplan describes modern Europe as a continent where many different cultures live closely together, "embracing maximum cultural diversity at minimal geographical distances". + +There are several major regions of Europe: + Eastern Europe + Central Europe + Western Europe + Northern Europe + Southern and Southeastern Europe +Within these regions, there are up to 48 independent European countries (with the identities of 5 transcontinental countries being disputed). The largest is the Russian Federation, which covers 39% of Europe. + +The European city with the largest population is Istanbul. The country with the largest population is the Russian Federation. About 15% of Europeans live in Russia. + +Two European countries, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, are on islands called the British Isles. + +Climate +Most of Europe lies in temperate climate zones. + +However, there are many different climates throughout Europe. For example, during the winter, it may be snowing and -30 degrees Celsius for 4â5 months in Finland. Yet it may be much warmer, with no snow at all except on high mountains, in Spain. + +European organizations +Council of Europe +European Court of Human Rights +European Union +Union of European Football Associations +Warsaw Pact Organization (1955-1989) + +European Union + +The European Union is a confederation of 27 European countries. These countries agree to follow common laws so that their citizens can move and trade in EU countries almost the same as they do in their own. Twenty of these countries also share the same type of money: the euro. + +List of widely-recognised independent European countries + + + + Geographically in Europe and Asia + EU member state + Geographically in Europe and Asia + + EU member state + + EU member state + EU member state + EU member state + EU member state, geographically in Europe and Asia + EU member state + EU member state + EU member state + EU member state + Geographically in Europe and Asia + EU member state + EU member state + Geographically in Europe and North America + EU member state + + EU member state + EU member state + Geographically in Europe and Asia + (not fully recognised as independent by other European countries) + EU member state + + EU member state + EU member state + EU member state + + + + EU member state + + + EU member state + EU member state + EU member state + Geographically in Europe and Asia + + + EU member state + EU member state + EU member state + EU member state + + Geographically in Europe and Asia + +References + + +Laurasia +An encyclopedia (also known in English as an encyclopĂŠdia) is a collection (usually a book or website) of information. Some are called "encyclopedic dictionaries". + +All encyclopedias were printed, until the late 20th century when some were on CDs and the Internet. 21st century encyclopedias are mostly online by Internet. +The largest encyclopedia in the English language is English Wikipedia, which has more than 6 million articles. The second largest is the EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica, which is the largest one that is printed. Either kind of encyclopedia can inform us on many different topics. + +Book series were used to summarize all knowledge have been published for thousands of years. A famous early one was the Natural History by Pliny the Elder. The name "encyclopedia" is from the 16th century and meant "complete knowledge". The French EncyclopĂ©die of Denis Diderot was the first that had major parts written by many people from all around the world. + +After the printing press was invented, dictionaries with long definitions began to be called encyclopedias that were books that has articles or subjects For example, a dictionary of science, if it included essays or paragraphs, it was thought of as an encyclopedia or knowledgeable book on the subject of science. Some encyclopedias then put essays on more than one subject in alphabetical order instead of grouping them together by subject. The word, encyclopedia, was put in the title of some encyclopedias. + +Companies such as Britannica were started for the purpose of publishing encyclopedias for sale to individuals, and for public use in libraries. Like dictionaries (which had definitions), these publishers hired hundreds of experts to write articles and read and choose articles. Some internet encyclopedias allowed their paying customers to submit articles from other encyclopedias. Other internet encyclopedias accepted writing from non-paying users (users who did not sign in) of the encyclopedia. + +Types of encyclopedias + +There are different types of encyclopedias. Some are general and have pages on lots of topics. The English language EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica and German Brockhaus are general encyclopedias. Some are about specific topics. For example, there are encyclopedias of medicine or philosophy. Others include the Dictionary of National Biography, the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, and Black's Law Dictionary. There are also encyclopedias that cover many topics with one perspective or one cultural bias. They include the Great Soviet Encyclopedia and Conservapedia. + +There are two main ways of organizing printed encyclopedias: from A to Z (the alphabetical way) or by categories. Most encyclopedias go from A to Z. + +Many dictionaries have similar information to encyclopedias. + +Examples of encyclopedic dictionaries + + The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. Volume I AâM, volume II NZ. 1971. Oxford University Press. + Websterâs Third New International Dictionary . . . Unabridged . . . Merriam-Webster. 1961. Encyclopedia. Springfield, MA: G & C Merriam Company. + Fowler's Modern English Usage. Fowler H.W; 2nd revised edition by Gower E. Oxford University Press. + +Examples of encyclopedias + + Citizendium + EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica + Encyclopaedia Hebraica + Encyclopaedia Metallum + Everipedia + Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls, Inc. + The Columbia Encyclopedia in one volume. 1940. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. + Wikipedia + +References +Earth science is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science may also be called geoscience. Geoscience is the study of the architecture of the earth. + +It is a broader term than geology because it includes aspects of planetary science, which is part of astronomy. The Earth sciences include the study of the atmosphere, oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to understand the Earth, and how it evolved to its current state. + +If there is one fact which underlies all Earth science it is this; the Earth is an ancient planet which has been changing the whole time since its formation. The extent of the changes is much greater than people used to think. + +Fields of study + +The following disciplines are generally recognised as being within the geosciences: + Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology, Mineralogy, petrophysics, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology and sedimentology.<ref +name="smith 5">Smith, Gary A. & Pun, Aurora 2006. How does the Earth work?. Pearson Prentice Hall, NJ. .</ref> + Geophysics and Geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere. + Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or pedosphere). + Oceanography and hydrology (includes limnology) describe the marine and freshwater domains of the watery parts of the Earth (or hydrosphere). Includes Marine biology. + Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere). + Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the exosphere (about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines are meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry and physics. + Astronomy includes the study of distant stars and galaxies to the examination of the 4.6 billion years old Earth from an astronomical point of view. It is also closely related with the study of the solar system and its planets, a subdiscipline called planetology. A more distant relative of astronomy is physical cosmology, which aims to study the Universe as a whole. + Closely related to the earth sciences are physical geography and biology. + +List of Earth science topics + +Atmosphere + + Atmospheric chemistry + Climatology + Meteorology + Paleoclimatology + +Biosphere + Biogeography + Paleontology + Micropaleontology + +Hydrosphere + Hydrology + Limnology + Hydrogeology + Oceanography + Marine biology + Paleoceanography + Physical oceanography + +Lithosphere or geosphere + Geology + Environmental geology + Historical geology + Planetary geology + Sedimentology + Stratigraphy + Structural geology + Geography + Physical geography + Geochemistry + Geomorphology + Geophysics + Geodynamics (see also Tectonics) + Geomagnetics + Seismology + Glaciology + Mineralogy + Crystallography + Petrology + Volcanology + +Pedosphere + Soil science + +Systems + Environmental science + Geography + Gaia hypothesis + +Others + Engineering Geology + Geostatistics + Geodesy + +References +Earth is the third planet from the Sun in the Solar System. It is the only planet known to have life on it. The Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago. It is one of four rocky planets on the inner side of the Solar System. The other three are Mercury, Venus, and Mars. + +The large mass of the Sun keeps the Earth in orbit through the force of gravity. Earth also turns around in space, so that different parts face the Sun at different times. Earth goes around the Sun once (one year) for every 365 times it turns around (one day). + +Earth is the only planet in the Solar System that has a large amount of liquid water on its surface. About 74% of the surface of Earth is covered by liquid or frozen water. Because of this, people sometimes call it the blue planet. + +Because of its water, Earth is home to millions of species of plants and animals which need water to survive. The things that live on Earth have changed its surface greatly. For example, early cyanobacteria changed the air and gave it oxygen. The living part of Earth's surface is called the "biosphere". + +Orbit and turning + +Earth is one of the eight planets in the Solar System. There are also thousands of small bodies which move around the Sun. The Solar System is moving through the Orion Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, and will be for about the next 10,000 years. + +Earth is about away from the Sun (this distance is called an "Astronomical Unit"). It moves on its orbit at an average speed of about . Earth turns all the way around about 365 times in the time it takes for Earth to go all the way around the Sun. To make up this extra bit of a day every year, an additional day is used every four years. This is named a "leap year". + +The Moon goes around Earth at an average distance of . It is locked to Earth, so that it always has the same half facing Earth; the other half is called the "dark side of the moon". It takes about 27 days for the Moon to go all the way around Earth, but because Earth is moving around the Sun at the same time, it takes about 29 days for the Moon to go from dark to bright to dark again. This is where the word "month" came from, even though most months now have 30 or 31 days. + +History of Earth + +Earth and the other planets formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Their origin was quite different from that of the Sun. The Sun was formed almost entirely of hydrogen, while the planets were formed mostly from higher elements. The smaller "rocky" planets are made almost entirely of higher elements. The Sun must have moved through areas where supernovae had previously exploded. All the planets have higher elements which are only made in supernovae. Only the so-called "gas giants" have much hydrogen and helium. + +The Moon may have been formed after a collision between the early Earth and a smaller planet (sometimes called Theia). Scientists believe that parts of both planets broke off becoming (by gravity) the Moon. + +Earth's water came from different places. Condensing water vapour, and comets and asteroids hitting Earth, made the oceans. Within a billion years (that is at about 3.6 billion years ago) the first life evolved, in the Archaean era. Some bacteria developed photosynthesis, which let them make food from the Sun's light and water. This released a lot of oxygen, which was first taken up by iron in solution. Eventually, free oxygen got into the atmosphere or air, making Earth's surface suitable for aerobic life (see Great Oxygenation Event). This oxygen also formed the ozone layer which protects life from ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Complex life on the surface of the land did not exist before the ozone layer. + +Earth's land and climate has been very different in the past. About 3 to 3.5 billion years ago almost all land was in one place. This is called a supercontinent. The earliest known supercontinent was called Vaalbara. Much later, there was a time (the Cryogenian) when Earth was almost entirely covered by thick ice sheets (glaciers). This is discussed as the Snowball Earth theory. + +What it is made of + +Earth is rocky. It is the largest of the rocky planets moving around the Sun by mass and by size. It is much smaller than the gas giants such as Jupiter. + +Chemical make-up +Overall, Earth is made of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%). The 1.2% left over is made of many different kinds of other chemicals. Some rare metals (not just gold and platinum) are very valuable. Rare Earth metals are used in all types of electronic phones and computers. + +The structure of Earth changes from the inside to the outside. The center of Earth (Earth's core) is mostly iron (88.8%), nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% other elements. The Earth's crust is largely oxygen (47%). Oxygen is normally a gas but it can join with other chemicals to make compounds like water and rocks. 99.22% of rocks have oxygen in them. The most common oxygen-having rocks are silica (made with silicon), alumina (made with aluminium), rust (made with iron), lime (made with calcium), magnesia (made with magnesium), potash (made with potassium), and sodium oxide, and there are others as well. + +Density +The Earth is the densest of all the planets. It has a lot of heavy metals in it. + +Shape +Earth's shape is a spheroid: not quite a sphere because it is slightly squashed on the top and bottom. The shape is called an oblate spheroid. As Earth spins around itself, centrifugal force forces the equator out a little and pulls the poles in a little. The equator, around the middle of Earth's surface, is about long. The reason the Earth is roughly a sphere (and so are all planets and stars) is gravity. Meteorites, on the other hand may be any shape because, in their case, the force of gravity is too weak to change their shape. + +The highest mountain above sea levelâthe well-known Mount Everest (which is above sea level)âis not actually the one that is the farthest away from the center of the Earth. Instead, the sleeping volcano Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador is; it is only above sea level but it is almost at the equator. Because of this, Mount Chimborazo is from the center of the Earth, while Mount Everest is closer to it. Similarly, the lowest point below sea level that we are conscious of is the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. It is about below sea level, but, again, there are probably places at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean that are nearer to the center of the Earth. + +Earthâs core + +The deepest hole ever dug is only about . We know something about the inside of the Earth, though, because we can learn things from earthquakes and the times when volcanoes erupt. We are able to see how quickly the shock waves move through Earth in different places. + +The inside of Earth is very different from the outside. Almost all of Earth's liquid water is in the seas or close to the surface. The surface also has a lot of oxygen, which comes from plants. Small and simple kinds of life can live far under the surface, but animals and plants only live on the surface or in the seas. The rocks on the surface of Earth (Earth's crust) are well known. They are thicker where there is land, between thick. Under the seas they are sometimes only thick. There are three groups of rocks that make up most of the Earth's crust. Some rock is made when the hot liquid rock comes from inside the earth (igneous rocks); another type of rock is made when sediment is laid down, usually under the sea (sedimentary rocks); and a third kind of rock is made when the other two are changed by very high temperature or pressure (metamorphic rocks). A very few rocks also fall out of the sky (meteorites). + +Below the crust is hot and almost-liquid rock which is always moving around (the Earth's mantle). Then, there is a thin liquid layer of heated rock (the outer core). This is very hot: . The middle of the inside of the Earth would be liquid as well but all the pressure of the rock above it makes it a solid. This solid middle part (the inner core) is almost all iron. It is what makes the Earth magnetic. + +Pieces of the crust form plates + +The Earth's crust is solid but made of parts which move very slowly. The thin skin of hard rock on the outside of the Earth rests on hot liquid material below it in the deeper mantle. This liquid material moves because it gets heat from the hot center of the Earth. The slow movement of the plates is what causes earthquakes, volcanoes and large groups of mountains on the Earth. + +There are three ways plates can come together. Two plates can move towards each other ("convergent" plate edges). This can form islands, volcanoes, and high mountain ranges (such as the Andes and Himalayas). Two plates can move away from each other ("divergent" plate edges). This gives the warm liquid rock inside the earth a place to come out. This makes special mountain ranges below the sea or large low lands like Africa's Great Rift Valley. Plates are able to move beside each other as well ("transform" plate edges, such as the San Andreas Fault). This makes their edges crush against each other and makes many shocks as they move. + +Surface +The outside of the Earth is not even. There are high places called mountains, and high flat places called plateaus. There are low places called valleys and canyons. For the most part, moving air and water from the sky and seas eats away at rocks in high places and breaks them into small pieces. The air and water then move these pieces to lower places. Because of this, the Earth would have been very flat a long time before now. The fundamental cause of the differences in the Earth's surface is plate tectonics. The shape of the entire planet itself is not a ball. Because of its spin, Earth has a slight bulge at the Equator. + +All places on Earth are made of, or are on top of, rocks. The outside of the Earth is usually not uncovered rock. Over 70% of the Earth is covered by seas full of salty water. This salty water makes up about 97% of all Earth's water. The drinkable fresh water is mostly in the form of ice. There is only a small amount (less than 3%) of fresh water in rivers and under the ground for people to drink. The air above the Earth stops the water from going away into outer space. Also, much of the land on Earth is covered with plants, or with what is left from earlier living things. Places with very little rain are dry wastes called deserts. Deserts usually have few living things, but life is able to grow very quickly when these wastes have rainfall. Places with large amounts of rain may be rain forests. Lately, people have changed the environment of the Earth a great deal. As population has increased, so has farming. Farming is done on what were once natural forests and grassland. + +Air + +All around the Earth is the of air (the atmosphere). The mass of the Earth holds the gasses in the air down and does not let them go into outer space. The air is mostly made of nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%) and there are a few other gasses as well. Most living things need the air (or, more precisely, the oxygen) to breathe and live. They use the gasses â especially oxygen and carbon dioxide â to make and use sugar and to give themselves power. + +The air animals and plants use to live is only the first level of the air around the Earth (the troposphere). The day to day changes in this level of air are called weather; the larger differences between distant places and from year to year are called the climate. Rain and storms come about because this part of the air gets colder as it goes up. Cold air becomes thicker and falls, and warm air becomes thinner and goes up. The turning Earth moves the air as well and air moves north and south because the middle of the Earth generally gets more power from the Sun and is warmer than the north and south points. Air over warm water evaporates but, because cold air is not able to take in as much water, it starts to make clouds and rain as it gets colder. The way water moves around in a circle like this is called the water cycle. + +Above this first level, there are four other levels. The air gets colder as it goes up in the first level; in the second level (the stratosphere), the air gets warmer as it goes up. This level has a special kind of oxygen called ozone. The ozone in this air keeps living things safe from damaging rays from the Sun. The power from these rays is what makes this level warmer and warmer. The middle level (the mesosphere) gets colder and colder with height; the fourth level (the thermosphere) gets warmer and warmer; and the last level (the exosphere) is almost outer space and has very little air at all. It reaches about half the way to the Moon. The three outer levels have a lot of electric power moving through them; this is called the ionosphere and is important for radio and other electric waves in the air. It is also where the Northern Lights are. + +Even though air seems very light, the weight of all of the air above the outside of the Earth (air pressure) is important. Generally, from sea level to the top of the outer level of the air, a space of air one cm2 across has a mass of about 1.03 kg and a space of air one sq in across has a weight of about 14.7 lb. Because of the air, small meteorites generally burn up long before they get to the earth. + +The air also keeps the Earth warm, specially the half turned away from the Sun. Some gasses â especially methane and carbon dioxide â work like a blanket to keep things warm. In the past, the Earth has been much warmer and much colder than it is now. Since people have grown used to the heat we have now, though, we do not want the Earth to be too much warmer or colder. Most of the ways people create electric power use burning kinds of carbon â especially coal, oil, and natural gas. Burning these creates new carbon dioxide and can cause more warming. A discussion is going on now about what people should do about the Earth's latest warming, which has gone on for about 150 years. So far, this warming has been acceptable: plants have grown better. The weather has been better than when it was colder. Bad things may happen if the warming goes on. + +People + +About eight billion people live on Earth. They live in about 200 different lands called countries. Some, for example, Russia, are large with many large cities. Others, for example, Vatican City, are small. The seven countries with the most people are China, India, the United States, Indonesia, Pakistan, Brazil and Nigeria. About 90% of people live in the northern hemisphere of the world, which has most of the land. Human beings originally came from Africa. Now, 70% of all people do not live in Africa but in Europe and Asia. + +People change the Earth in many ways. They have been able to grow plants for food and clothes for about ten thousand years. When there was enough food, they were able to build towns and cities. Near these places, men and women were able to change rivers, bring water to farms, and stop floods (rising water) from coming over their land. People found useful animals and bred them so they were easier to keep. + +Future +There is wide agreement that the future of Earth is tied to the future of the Sun. As time passes, the Sun will get hotter, and that will eventually make the Earth uninhabitable. + +Gallery + +Related pages + + Formation and evolution of the Solar System + Age of the Earth + Geology + List of planets + Solar System + Structure of the Earth + +References + +Other websites + + + + ("WP discussion") + + +Basic English 850 words +Earth +Geology +Astronomical objects +Planets +Terrestrial planets +Et cetera means "and the rest" in Latin. It is often used in English to continue a list that is longer than what can be normally written. People most often write "et cetera" as etc.. Very rarely, it is also written "&c" because the ampersand, or the "&", is the same as "et", having been formed by 'e' and 't' being joined into a single letter. It is also the symbol for "and". Some people write it as "ect", but that is wrong since it incorrectly abbreviates "et cetera". + +Examples + "Jane has a lot of pets. She has cats, dogs, cows, horses, kangaroos, rabbits, etc." + "Robert ordered a large amount of groceries in order to stock for later. He ordered carrots, tomatoes, potatoes, eggs, etc." + "Rocco ordered a lot of chips. He ordered cheese puffs, potato chips, Pringles, etc." + +Latin phrases +An experiment is a test of an idea or a method. It is often used by scientists and engineers. An experiment is used to see how well the idea matches the real world. Experiments have been used for many years to help people understand the world around them. Experiments are part of scientific method. Many experiments are controlled experiments or even blind experiments. Many are done in a laboratory. But thought experiments are done in mind. + +Experiments can tell us if a theory is false, or if something does not work. They cannot tell us if a theory is true. When Einstein said that gravity could affect light, it took a few years before astronomers could test it. General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.<ref>Shapiro S.S. et al 2004. Measurement of the solar gravitational deflection of radio waves using geodetic very-long-baseline interferometry data, 1979â1999. Phys. Rev. Lett'. 92 (12): 121101. </ref> + +Now, a hundred years or so after Einstein published his ideas, there have been many tests, all of which have been consistent with Einstein's predictions. But, one day, we might find the theory has some limits beyond which it does not work. What we test are implications of the theory, because the theory itself is too large and complicated to test all at once. + +"The universe does not tell us when we are right, only when we are wrong". â Karl Popper + +Controlled experiments +A controlled experiment is a kind of comparison. It often compares the results from experimental samples against control samples. Control samples are the same as the experimental sample, except for one difference. This difference is the one thing whose effect is being tested (the independent variable). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the experimental group (treatment group); and the one receiving the placebo or an older treatment would be the control group. + +Difference with observational study +An observational study is used when an experiment would be difficult, unethical, or expensive. Observational studies are not experiments. Experiments can control for other variables, and it allows the researchers to change something. Observational studies often do not have random samples, and they often have many variables. + + Famous experiments + Galileo Galilei did some experiments about free fall (1623) + Benjamin Franklin showed that lightning is a form of electricity (1752) + The MichelsonâMorley experiment proved a flaw in old physics, and prompted Einstein's work (1887) + Ivan Pavlov did some experiments about the classical conditioning of dogs (1927) + The AveryâMacLeodâMcCarty experiment proved DNA was the molecule which caused heredity (1944) + Stanley Milgram showed that people follow orders; this became known as the Milgram experiment (1961) + + References + + Shadish, William R; Cook, Thomas D. & Campbell, Donald T. 2002. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. + +Related pages +Experimental physics +Experimental psychology +Ethics is the study of good and bad behavior. It is one of the main parts of philosophy. Ethics tries to answer questions like: + + What actions are good? What actions are evil? + How can we tell the difference? + Are good and evil the same? + How should we make hard decisions that might help or hurt other people? + How do our actions affect others? + +Ideas about ethics +When discussing ethics, the philosophy is generally separated into: + thinking about morality, + the involvement of science, + the freedom of people to decide for themselves how to act within their own beliefs. + +Morality is what someone thinks or feels is good or bad. There are many different moralities, but they share some things. For example, most people think that murder (killing somebody) is wrong. (compare Exodus 20:13) Some philosophers hope to find more things that moralities share. They think that ethics should use the scientific method to study things that people think are good or bad. Their work can be used to test the fairness of a situation, such as how people should treat each other. An example of this kind of thinking is the categorical imperative. Many countries have laws based on this idea of fairness. + +What is ethics used for? +Understanding ethics can help people decide what to do when they have choices. Many philosophers think that doing anything or making any choice is a part of ethics. + +Ethics is part of other fields of study in many ways. Here are some ways: + + Ethics is part of the study of religion. In religion, people often learn what is good or bad from what they believe about God (or gods). Some important ideas about what is good or bad have come from religion. See Ten Commandments. + Some theories of economics say ethics has to do with money. Money is a big part of most people's lives. Thinking about morality can be important in economics. For example, there is a saying about ethics taken from the Bible that 'the love of money is the root of all kinds of evil' (1 Timothy).The philosophy of Marxism also says that a few people using money in the wrong way can hurt many other people. + Government policy can be affected by what politicians think is ethical. Politicians try to create laws that help everyone do what is right. Political debates happen when the people who make public policy do not agree about what is right. + In work, thinking about ethics can help with hard questions. Work can be like both economics and politics. Workers have to make money and follow laws. But the best way to do both is not always easy to know. The study of this is called business ethics + People like doctors and nurses have to make hard choices about how to care for people. Sometimes the person being cared for, their family or the doctor do not agree what is best for them. Also, choices have to be made if there are enough resources to help all. The study of this is called medical ethics. Similar studies for specific professions include bioethics and legal ethics. + Discussing ethics can also be a way to stop people fighting or starting a war. By talking about ethics, people hope to get what they want without being violent. This works when all people agree that peace is very important. But not everyone agrees about what is right or wrong. So, sometimes anger can make it hard to talk without fighting. + +Along with aesthetics ethics forms part of axiology, the philosophy of what people like. + +Related pages + Conflict of interest + Ethical tradition + Morality + Utilitarianism + Virtue + The Republic, a book by Plato that says that people who have power should use ethics to make choices. + The Prince, a book by NiccolĂČ Machiavelli that says that people who have power should not use ethics to make choices. + +Further reading + Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics + The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Ethics + Encyclopedia of Ethics. Lawrence C. Becker and Charlotte B. Becker, editors. Second edition in three volumes. New York: Routledge, 2002. A scholarly encyclopedia with over 500 signed, peer-reviewed articles, mostly on topics and figures of, or of special interest in, Western philosophy. + Blackburn, S. (2001). Being good: A short introduction to ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. + De Finance, Joseph, An Ethical Inquiry, Rome, Editrice Pontificia UniversitĂ Gregoriana, 1991. + Derrida, J. 1995, The Gift of Death, translated by David Wills, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. + Fagothey, Austin, Right and Reason, Tan Books & Publishers, Rockford, Illinois, 2000. + Solomon, R.C. Morality and the Good Life: An Introduction to Ethics Through Classical Sources, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1984. + Vendemiati, Aldo, In the First Person, An Outline of General Ethics, Rome, Urbaniana University Press, 2004. + John Newton, Ph.D. Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century, 2000. . + Guy Cools & Pascal Gielen, The Ethics of Art. Valiz: Amsterdam, 2014. + Lafollette, Hugh [ed.]: Ethics in Practice: An Anthology. Wiley Blackwell, 4th edition, Oxford 2014. + +Other websites + Brute Ethics: animal ethics encyclopedia +E Prime (it means English Prime) defines a way of speaking English without using the verb "to be" in any way ("be, is, am, are, was, were, been, and being"). Instead, an E Prime speaker or writer uses different verbs like "to become," "to remain," and "to equal" or they might choose to rearrange the sentence to show that the "thing" does not actually "act". For example, in E Prime, a writer would change the statement "Mistakes were made" to "Joe made mistakes." This change in wording reveals an actor (Joe) where the previous form concealed the actor. Users of E Prime would consider the changed sentence more accurate. + +What E Prime is +D. David Bourland, Jr. first suggested E Prime in 1965. Bourland had studied the discipline (way of thinking) of General Semantics. The main idea of General Semantics is that people can only know what they observe and experience when they see, hear, touch, taste, smell, think, and feel, and furthermore, that what they observe and experience can affect how they observe and experience in the future. Because each person has different experiences throughout their lives, they interpret their experiences differently. + +Students of General Semantics and users of E Prime contend that to say "This cat is soft" leaves out many other attributes, and implies that the outside "object" of the cat is the "same as" the inside experience of "softness". Instead, E Prime users say "This cat feels soft TO ME" to remind themselves of the following: +That their experience of "softness" involves both the outside "object" called "cat" and the eyes, hands, brain and nervous system of the observer. + That someone else might experience different aspects of the cat. + That they themselves might experience something different at a different time or in different circumstances. (The cat might scratch them, or look or feel wet or matted with dirt.) + +What E Prime is not +Although languages like Russian, Arabic, Turkish, and Cantonese do not always use a separate verb for "to be," they do have the idea of "being." For example, an English speaker might say "This apple is red." An Arabic speaker might say "This apple red." Most languages can be used to express the idea of a red apple. An E Prime user chooses to say "This apple looks red to me" to remind themselves that "seeing red" involves both the apple and the eye and brain of the person looking at the apple. + +Many teachers of English encourage students to use verbs other than "to be." To them, using more active verbs makes writing clearer and more interesting. These teachers want to improve their students' writing and may not agree with the ideas of General Semantics or E Prime. + +Different functions of 'to be' +In English, 'to be' can have different functions: +It talks about Identity: The cat is my only pet, The cat is Garfield +It talks about belonging to a class, or a group: The cat is an animal +It can talk about properties: The cat is furry +It can be an auxiliary verb: The cat is sleeping, The cat is bitten by the dog +It can talk about existence: There is a cat +It can talk about location: The cat is here + +English language +Einstein on the Beach is an opera written by the minimalist composer Philip Glass and theater director and designer Robert Wilson. It was first acted for an audience in Avignon, France in 1976. + +It is a single act opera, about five hours long with no intermission. Because of the length and the minimalist (repetitive) nature of the music, audience members are free to enter and leave the opera as they wish. Glass's music tends to cycle round, but does not exactly repeat itself. Admittedly, he has described himself as a composer of "music with repetitive structures". Though his earlier music fits what is normally called "minimalist", he has since evolved stylistically. + +References + +1970s operas +1976 +Were you looking for the English Wikipedia, the full English Wikipedia version of Simple? + +The word English can mean: + From or about the country England + English people + English language + The Amish word for somebody who is not in their group + Avoirdupois, a system of measurement sometimes called "English". +English opening, a chess opening + English, Indiana, the county seat of Crawford County +An ethnic group is a group of people who are considered to be the same in some or multiple ways. They may all have the same ancestors, speak the same language, or have the same culture, which could sometimes include religion. They often live in the same or surrounding area. + +Sometimes almost all of the people in one country are of the same ethnic group, but not always. Often one country may have several different ethnic groups, or the people of one ethnic group may live in several different countries. + +The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ensures the rights of ethnic groups in Article 27 and also gives them the right to use their own language. + +An example of an ethnic group is the Slavic peoples. + +Related terms + + Supraethnicity or supra-ethnicity: a grouping of several interrelated ethnicities that have similar but unique cultures. + +Related pages + + Ethnic groups of the United States + Minority group + +References +Ewe might mean: + + A female sheep + Ewe language +Ebola virus or Ebola virus disease (EVD), often shortened to Ebola, is a very dangerous virus. It belongs to the family Filoviridae. Four different types of Ebola virus can cause a severe disease which is often fatal. Ebola infection causes hemorrhagic fever which starts suddenly. "Hemorrhagic" means that the victim will bleed a lot, inside and outside of their body. The virus attacks almost every organ and tissue of the human body, causing multiple organs to fail at once. Out of every 100 people who get Ebola, on average 25 to 90 die. + +The virus was first found in Sudan. It is mostly found in Africa, with very few cases in Europe and the United States. + +Transmission + +The Ebola virus that makes people sick lives in the blood and other liquids and organs in some kinds of non-human animals without killing them. Scientists think the animals it lives in are mainly some kinds of monkeys or fruit bats. When people touch animals that have the virus, or secretions that came out of those animals, they can get sick. + +Ebola cannot be caught through the air, or by being near sick people. The virus can only go from liquids into people's bodies. This means Ebola can be caught by touching a sick person's blood, saliva, mucus, semen, diarrhea, vomit, or other fluids that come out of a sick person's body. + +If a person does not die from the disease, he can still give other people the infection by having sex for nearly another two months after they stop being sick. This is because the virus can still be in the man's semen after a long time. + +1. Once the virus enters the human body via mucosal surfaces, abrasions or injuries in the skin or by direct parental transmission, it fuses with the cells lining the respiratory tract, eyes, or body cavities. + +2. It invades the macrophages and dendritic immune cells and releases its genetic content. The cell explosion triggers the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines initiating a âcytokine stormâ. The genetic material takes over the cell machinery to replicate itself; new copies of the virus are formed and released into the system. + +3. The virus then, goes on to attack spleen, kidneys and even the brain. The blood vessels leak blood and fluid into the surrounding tissues. This atypical clotting and bleeding at the same time manifests externally in the form of rashes. + +4. The virus causes the shutdown of other vital organs such as liver and lungs too. In fact, it is able to invade almost all human cells through different attachment mechanisms for each cell type (except for lymphocytes). The very cells that are meant to fight infection are used as carriers to spread infection to other body parts + +5. It has been found that the ebola-infected cells do not undergo normal apoptosis, but exhibit vacuolization and signs of necrosis. + +Symptoms +When people get Ebola the first symptoms look like some other diseases. People get a fever and feel very tired. Their head, stomach, joints, and throat might hurt. Sometimes, people think they have other diseases like malaria or typhoid fever. + +Later, people get much sicker. They bleed both inside and outside their bodies. They have blood in their diarrhea and vomit. They bleed from their noses, mouths, and genitals/sex organs. They get shock: low blood pressure, fast pulse (heart rate), and low blood circulation to the body. Their organs might stop working. Ebola also causes stiffness throughout the body which makes it hard for sick people to move. + +Five to nine out of every ten people who get sick with Ebola die. + +Treatment +There is no cure for Ebola, but if people get care quickly from doctors and nurses at a hospital, more of them live. People with Ebola need a lot of fluids to replace fluids lost from diarrhea, vomiting, and bleeding. The most important care is giving them water with a very small amount of salt and sugar in it. This is called oral rehydration. It helps to replace their fluids and blood. It is also important to give medicines in case they get bad blood pressure and blood circulation. + +Prevention +In December 2016, a study found the VSV-EBOV vaccine to be very effective (in the neighborhood of 70â100%) against the Ebola virus, making it the first vaccine against the disease. + +Many Ebola vaccine candidates had been developed in the decade prior to 2014, but as of October 2014, none had yet been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in humans. + +Research +World Community Grid is a computing project that is seeking possible drug treatments. People donate the spare time on their computers to the project. + +Reference + +Viruses +Diseases caused by viruses +Zoonoses +Ecology is the branch of biology that studies the biota (living things), the environment, and their interactions. It comes from the Greek oikos = house; logos = study. + +Ecology is the study of ecosystems. Ecosystems describe the web or network of relations among organisms at different scales of organization. Since ecology refers to any form of biodiversity, ecologists research everything from tiny bacteria in nutrient recycling to the effects of tropical rain forests on the Earth's atmosphere. Scientists who study these interactions are called ecologists. + +Terrestrial ecoregion and climate change research are two areas where ecologists now focus. + +There are many practical applications of ecology in conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource management (agriculture, forestry, fisheries), city planning (urban ecology), community health, economics, and applied science. It provides a framework for understanding and researching human social interaction. + +Population ecology + +Population ecology measures the size of a population: all the living things from one species that live in an place. A population gets bigger because of birth and movement into a place, and it gets smaller because of death and movement out of a place. Growth rate is the change in population size divided by the current population size. When a population is small, growth rate does not change, so the population shows exponential growth. Rate of exponential growth depends on how a living thing reproduces. If it has only a few offspring (children) which grow slowly, like a human, the rate will be low. If it has a lot of offspring which grow quickly, like a fruit fly, the rate will be high. Any environment only has enough natural resources, such as food, water, or space, for a certain size of population. This size is called the carrying capacity. When population size is near the carrying capacity, growth rate will become less. The graph of population growth will be an S-shape, called logistic growth. + +Community and ecosystem ecology + +A community is all populations of different species that live in the same place. An ecosystem is a community and its environment. Ecosystem ecology studies how energy and nutrients move through an ecosystem. All living things need energy to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. A trophic level is the number of times energy moves from one living thing to another, before reaching a particular living thing. The first trophic level, called producers or autotrophs, gets energy from the environment. They use the energy to make organic compounds. Most producers, such as plants, take in energy from sunlight, but some take it from inorganic compounds. Other trophic levels, called consumers or heterotrophs, get their energy by eating other living things. All animals are consumers, and there are three kinds: herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. Herbivores eat only plants, carnivores eat only other animals, and omnivores eat both. Decomposers are living things which break down dead things. A food web shows the movement of energy in an ecosystem. + +Humans and ecology + +Ecology in politics +Ecology starts many powerful philosophical and political movements - including the conservation movement, wellness movement, environmental movement, and ecology movement we know today. When these are combined with peace movements and the Six Principles, they are called green movements. In general, these put ecosystem health first on a list of human moral and political priorities, as the way to achieve better human health and social harmony, and better economics. + +People with these beliefs are called political ecologists. Some have organized into the Green Parties, but there are actually political ecologists in most political parties. They very often use arguments from ecology to advance policy, especially forest policy and energy policy. + +Also, ecology means that it is the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions between organisms and their environment, including other organisms. + +Ecology includes economics +Many ecologists also deal with human economics: + + Lynn Margulis says that economics studies how humans make a living, while ecology studies how every other animal makes a living. + Mike Nickerson says that "economy is three-fifths of ecology", since ecosystems create resources and dispose of waste, which the economy assumes is done "for free". + +Ecological economics and human development theory try to separate the economic questions from others, but it is difficult. Many people think economics is just part of ecology now, and that economics that ignores it is wrong. "Natural capital" is an example of one theory combining both. + +Ecology and anthropology +Sometimes ecology is compared to anthropology. Anthropology includes how our bodies and minds are affected by our environment, while ecology includes how our environment is affected by our bodies and minds. There is even a type of anthropology called ecological anthropology, which studies how people interact with the environment. + +Antoine de Saint-Exupery stated: "The earth teaches us more about ourselves than all the books. Because it resists us. Man discovers himself when he measures himself against the obstacle". + +Related pages + Prey-predator equations +Ecological economics +Ecomuseum +Environmentalism +Sustainable development + +References + +Other websites +Economics is the social science which studies economic activity: how people make choices to get what they want. It has been defined as "the study of scarcity and choice" and is basically about the choices people make. It also studies what affects the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in an economy. + +Investment and income relate to economics. The word comes from Ancient Greek, and relates to ÎżáŒ¶ÎșÎżÏ oĂkos "house" and ΜÏÎŒÎżÏ nomos "custom" or "law". The models used in economics today were mostly started in the 19th century. People took ideas from political economy and added to them because they wanted to use an empirical approach similar to the one used in the natural sciences. + +Subjects and objects in economics +The subjects (actors) in economic study are households, business companies, the government (the state), and foreign countries. Households offer their "factors of production" to companies. This includes work, land, capital (things like machines and buildings) and information. In exchange for their factors of production, households get income which they use to consume (buy) goods from other subjects. + +Business companies produce and sell goods and services and buy factors of production from households and from other companies. + +The state or public sector includes institutions and organisations. The state takes some of the earnings from the business companies and households, and uses it to pay for "public goods" like streets or education, to be available for everyone. The last subject is foreign countries. This includes all households, business companies and state institutions, which are not based in one's own country. They demand and supply goods from abroad. + +The objects (things acted upon) in economic study are consumer goods, capital goods, and factors of production. Consumer goods are classified as "usage goods" (for example, gasoline or toilet paper), as "purpose goods" (for example, a house or bicycle), and as "services" (for example, the work of a doctor or cleaning lady). Capital goods are goods which are necessary for producing other goods. Examples of these are buildings, equipment, and machines. Factors of production are work, ground, capital, information, and environment. + +General economic rules + All people have to decide between their options. + The cost of goods is what a person gives up for the goods. + When a person gives up something (like money) to get a good, they also give up other things that they could have gotten instead. This means that the true cost of something is what you give up to get it. This includes money, and the economic benefits ("utility") that you didn't get because you can no longer buy something else.This is called opportunity cost. + People choose between options based on the rewards ("incentives") or bad things ("disincentives") they expect from each option. Adding to the rewards for an option will often make more people choose it. + Trade can make everyone better off. + Markets are usually good for the organisation of economic life. In the free market, goods will be shared by people and companies making small decisions. The âinvisible handâ of the market (Adam Smith) states that if everyone tries to get what they want, everyone will be as well-off as they could possibly be. + Sometimes prices do not fully show the cost or benefit to society. For example, air pollution is bad for society, and education is good for society. The government can put a tax (or do something to reduce sales) on items that are bad for society. It can also support (like giving money for) items that are good for society. + The living standard of a country depends on the skills to produce services and goods. Productivity is the amount of the produced goods divided by total working hours. + When there is an increase in the total money supply, or when the cost to produce things rises, prices go up. This is called inflation. + +History + 18th century analysis of wealth + Physiocracy + Classical economics + Marxist economics + Austrian economics + Neoclassical economics + Welfare economics + +The ideas that economists have depend a lot on the times they live in. For example, Karl Marx lived in a time when workers' conditions were very poor, and John Maynard Keynes lived through the Great Depression of the 1930s. Today's economists can look back and understand why they made their judgments, and try to make better ones. + +Branches of economics +The two main branches of economics are microeconomics and macroeconomics. + +Macroeconomics is about the economy in general. For example, macroeconomists study things that make a country's wealth go up and things that make millions of people lose their jobs. Microeconomics is about smaller and more specific things such as how families and households spend their money and how businesses operate. + +There are a number of other branches of economics: + + Behavioral economics + Business economics + Constitutional economics + Cultural economics + Development economics + Ecological economics + Economic geography +Economic policy Analysis + Environmental economics + Energy economics + Financial economics + Industrial economics + Information economics + International economics + Labor economics + Managerial economics + Mathematical economics or econometrics + Resource economics + Urban economics + Public economics + descriptive, theoretical and policy economics + monetary economics + +Famous economists + +Famous economists in history include: + Adam Smith (His works include The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments. First introduce the concept of "Invisible Hand"). + Thomas Malthus (Author of An Essay on the Principle of Population. Establish the theory of population ). +David Ricardo (First introduce the theory of Comparative advantage). + Karl Marx (His works include Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto; a famous critique of Capitalism). + John Maynard Keynes (Founder of the school of Keynesian economics). +Milton Friedman (Proponent of monetarism. His works include Capitalism and Freedom ). + +Famous economists of the 19th and 20th century include Friedrich August von Hayek, Wassily Leontief, Carl Menger, and LĂ©on Walras. + +Related pages +Political economy +Constitutional economics + +References + +Other websites + + Economics Citizendium +A chemical element is a substance that is made up of only one type of atom. Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. + +The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number. For example, all atoms with 6 protons are atoms of the chemical element carbon, and all atoms with 92 protons are atoms of the element uranium. The number of neutrons in the nucleus does not have to be the same in every atom of an element. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Saying that a substance "contains only one type of atom" really means that it contains only atoms that all have the same number of protons. + +The number of protons in the nucleus causes its electric charge. This fixes the number of electrons in its normal (un-ionized) state. The electrons in their atomic orbitals determine the element's various chemical properties. + +Elements are the basic building blocks for all types of substances. If a substance contains more than one type of atom, it is a compound or a mixture. The smallest particle of a compound is a molecule. + +118 different chemical elements are known to modern chemistry. 92 of these elements can be found in nature, and the others can only be made in laboratories. The human body is made up of 26 elements. The last natural element discovered was uranium, in 1789. The first man-made element was technetium, in 1937. + +Chemical elements are commonly arranged in the periodic table. Where the elements are in the table tells us about their properties relative to the other elements. + +Chemical symbols +Chemical elements are given a unique chemical symbol. Chemical symbols are used all over the world. This means that, no matter which language is spoken, there is no confusion about what the symbol means. Chemical symbols of elements almost always come from their English or Latin names. For example, carbon has the chemical symbol 'C', and sodium has chemical symbol 'Na', after the Latin natrium. Tungsten is called 'W' after its German name, wolfram. 'Au' is the symbol for gold and it comes from the Latin word for gold, aurum. Another symbol which comes from Latin is 'Ag'. This is the element silver and it comes from the Latin argentum. Lead's symbol, 'Pb', comes from the Latin plumbum and the English word plumber derives from this as pipes used to be made out of lead. Some more recently discovered elements were named after famous people, like einsteinium, which was named after Albert Einstein. + +Compounds +Elements can join (react) to form pure compounds (such as water, salts, oxides, and organic compounds). In many cases, these compounds have a fixed composition and their own structure and properties. The properties of the compound may be very different from the elements it is made from. Sodium is a metal that burns when put into water and chlorine is a poisonous gas. When they react together they make sodium chloride (salt) which is generally harmless in small quantities and edible. + +Mixtures +Some elements mix together in any proportion to form new structures. Such new structures are not compounds. They are called mixtures or, when the elements are metals, alloys. + +Isotopes +Most elements in nature consist of atoms with different numbers of neutrons. An isotope is a form of an element with a certain number of neutrons. For example, carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes: carbon-12 (6 neutrons) and carbon-13 (7 neutrons). Carbon-14 (8 neutrons) is a naturally occurring radioactive isotope of carbon. At least two isotopes of each element are known (except for Oganesson, of which only a few atoms have been made). + +Classification +Elements can be classified based on physical states. At room temperature and pressure, most elements are solids, only 11 are gases and 2 are liquids. + +Elements can also be classified into metals and non-metals. There are many more metals than non-metals. + +However, a few elements have properties in between those of metals and non-metals. These elements are called semimetals (or metalloids). + +Related pages + Periodic table + +References + + +Nuclear physics +Egypt is a country in northeast Africa, parts of the country hang on to the Middle East. Its capital city is Cairo. Egypt is famous for its ancient monuments, such as the Pyramids and the Sphinx. + +History +Ancient Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country in the world as it used to be ruled by pharaohs. As a province of the Roman Empire, it became Christian and some Coptic Church people are thereafter more than a thousand years of Muslim rule. The Fatimid Caliphate ruled Egypt in the tenth through twelfth centuries. Mamlukes ruled it until 1798 when Napoleon defeated them. Muhammad Ali Pasha soon took over and started a dynasty of Khedives under the Ottoman Empire. The Empire fell apart after World War I. Egypt became an independent country in 1922 and the khedive became a king. Egypt is a member of the United Nations and the Arab League. It became a republic after the Army's revolution of 1952. + +Geography +Egypt is a large country, but a large portion of it is desert. Most people (95% of Egypt's total people) live in areas around the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and along the Nile River. This includes the cities of Cairo, Alexandria, Aswan, and Port Said. Not many people live in the desert. Today, Egypt has about 90 million people. + +Egypt is divided into 29 areas, called Governorates of Egypt. + +Politics +Egypt is a country that has had many different rulers and many political systems. After World War II, Egypt was still ruled by a king, Farouk of Egypt (11 February 1920 â 18 March 1965). He was the last ruler of the Muhammad Ali dynasty. + +Farouk was overthrown on 23 July 1952 by a military coup. The coup was led by Muhammad Naguib, and Gamal Abdel Nasser. From then on, Egypt had military rulers or rulers who had the backing of the army and many citizens. + +Nasser became president, from 1956 to 1970. Later rulers were Anwar Sadat, and Hosni Mubarak. + +Abdel Fattah el-Sisi became president in 2014. + +Revolution of 2011 + +In January 2011, thousands of protesters gathered in Cairo. They wanted Hosni Mubarak to leave office. He had been the President for almost 30 years. On February 11, 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman made an announcement. He said that Mubarak agreed to leave office. In 2012, Egypt had a democratic election for the post of President. The winner was the Muslim Brotherhood candidate, Mohamed Morsi. + +The events which followed are still controversial, but one aspect stands out. Morsi issued a declaration that in effect gave him unlimited powers. He had the power to legislate (make laws) without legal overview by the courts. This caused widespread protests. On 3 July 2013, he was unseated by a military coup council (a coup d'Ă©tat). After an election in June 2014, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi became President of Egypt. Islamist movements, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, rejected the change of regime as a military coup, and not democratic. + +Demographics + +Religion +Today, the people of Egypt are mostly Sunni Muslims. There are many Christians in Egypt today. Many of these belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. + +Languages +The official language in Egypt is Arabic. The majority speak Egyptian Arabic but many speak other dialects. Some Egyptians still speak Coptic and English. They also speak French and German in Egypt. These are taught in Egypt as additional languages. + +Famous people +Many famous people are from Egypt. Some of these include Omar Sharif, who was an international actor, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, who was the first person from Africa to lead the United Nations, and four Nobel Prize winners: Anwar Sadat, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978, Naguib Mahfouz, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988, Ahmed Zewail, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1999, and Mohamed ElBaradei, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. Mohamed Salah is a famous footballer who plays for Liverpool in England. A famous Egyptian singer is called Amr Diab. + +Governorates +Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are divided into regions. The regions have towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital. Sometimes capital has the same name as the governorate. + +Culture +Egypt is a country with an immense cultural mix. Life in the countryside differs from life in large cities. There are differences between the families which are Muslim, and the smaller number which are Coptic Christians. There are noticeable differences in the standards of education. + +Tourism + +Tourism is one of the most important national incomes in Egypt. In 2008, about 12 million tourists visited Egypt providing nearly $12 billion of national income to Egypt. Tourism affects the economy of the country as a whole. + +Giza Necropolis is one of Egypt's iconic sites. It is a popular destination for tourists to visit. It includes the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. + +Transport +There are methods of transport in Egypt. The Suez Canal carries ships of many countries. + +Cairo Metro is one of the most important projects in Egypt. It consists of 3 lines. Metro is the most preferable transport in Egypt due to persistent major traffic jams in the streets of Cairo. Metro line 4 is being developed to reach the New Cairo District. + +Egypt established EgyptAir in 1932. The airline is based in Cairo International Airport and is owned by the government. + +References + +Other websites + + + +Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation +1922 establishments in Africa +North African countries +Everything2 or E2 is a website. It lets people make pages about many different things, and some people use it as a diary. + +E2 users create pages called nodes and add stuff in writeups. Only logged-in users can create writeups. Only the person who created the writeup or someone who the website owners (called "gods") choose can edit the writeup. On the other hand, on Wikipedia, anyone can edit pages, but on Everything2 only those who can edit the writeup can edit pages. + +Everything2 does not require a neutral point of view like Wikipedia does. So, it is possible to have more than one article (writeups) under the same title (node), each by different authors, and presenting different points of view. + +Other websites + Everything2 website + Everything2.com article about Wikipedia + +Websites +1998 establishments +An Editor is a person who makes changes to documents. +More specifically the word editor can mean: + a person who edits texts; see copy editing. A newspaper or magazine editor is a person who prepares articles for printing and sometimes chooses which articles to put in the newspaper. The main editor of a newspaper or magazine is called the "editor-in chief". + a Wikipedia user who makes changes (also called "edits") to pages ("articles") + text editor, an application program for editing an electronic text or media document + one who, or that which, edits photos + film editor, a person who edits movies + a human or machine for movie film or video editing +Ecological yield is the harvestable growth of an ecosystem. It is most commonly measured in forestry - in fact sustainable forestry is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year, within a given patch of forest. + +However, the concept is also applicable to water, and soil, and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed - the so-called renewable resources. The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is "renewed" (refreshed or regrown or rebuilt). + + +Ecology +The experience economy is the intangible service economy that customers experience directly. In moral purchasing, Natural Capitalism and other theories of how consumers make choices, they are actually choosing experiences or comprehensive outcomes of their choices. For instance to buy local is to choose a whole experience of local suppliers, such as in a farmers market or Slow Food, that is quite different than the experience associated with factory food or fast food. + +Economics +Execution is where state authorities kill someone for having committed an extremely serious crime, usually treason or especially terrible murders. In most countries where the death penalty is still provided for by law, using it is an option available to the sentencing judge: even if the jury or judicial panel recommends the death penalty, the presiding judge still has the option to lock the convicted person in a prison for the rest of their life. A person whose job is to execute others is an executioner. + +Beheading + +Beheading means cutting the person's head off. It is one of the oldest execution methods and mentioned in the Bible. Beheading used to be the standard method of execution in Scandinavia and Germany. Commoners were usually beheaded with an axe and noblemen with a sword. A special device, like the guillotine, may be used, as in France. Nazi Germany used the guillotine to execute criminal convicts, such as murderers. + +Many countries formerly used beheading as an execution for important people, including England. In England, many noblemen and even some kings and queens have been beheaded. There, the prisoner would be led up the scaffold and might be allowed a last speech. Then, he/she would be blindfolded and put his/her neck onto a block. Then, the executioner would lift up his axe and swing it down onto the victim's neck. If the executioner was skilled and the axe was sharp, then the axe would usually cut through the bone and organs of the victim in one stroke. But if the executioner was inexperienced, then it might take several strokes before the head was cut off. + +Other ways of execution + +Many countries do not allow executions as punishment any more, because it is too violent or immoral. However, many states of the United States and some other countries use it. In the United States, less violent ways of execution are used than in the past. Here are some ways of executing people: + + Hanging: Using a rope to either break the convict's neck or to choke (or strangle) them. Widely used around the world until the 20th century. Still today in use in some countries, such as Iraq, Singapore and Japan. + Firing Squad: Several people shoot and kill a person. Armies around the world have long used this method, since guns and bullets are readily available. Firing squad was the lawful means of execution in Finland until 1944, when death penalty was abolished (stopped by the law). It was also used in the state of Utah in the 20th century. In most cases, not all the shooters have real bullets. After the execution, it is not possible to determine which of the people firing killed the person just executed. + Gas chamber: killing a person by filling the air in a room with poison gas until the person cannot breathe and dies. This method was used for executions in some U.S. states, and for mass murder by the Schutzstaffel during the Holocaust. + +Lethal injection: Killing a person by placing poisons into their bloodstream. This is the choice of execution in most U.S. states that allow executions. +Electrocution: Killing a person by placing them in an electric chair and giving them a very high electric shock. + +Old-fashioned methods +Crucifixion: a person (or their corpse) is fixed to a timber by nails or by impalement. The Romans used crucifixion to punish traitors, rebels and runaway slaves because the Romans considered it the most unpleasant death. Death by this method may take days. Besides ancient Greece, ancient Rome, and the Persian empires, this method was also used in feudal Japan. +Drawing and Quartering: A violent form of execution common in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. It involved taking a person's organs out while they were still alive. +Breaking on the wheel: the executioner breaks all the bones of a person's limbs with a heavy object. The executioner wraps the person's limbs around a wheel from a carriage, and lifts the wheel to the top of a tall pole. Slowly, the person dies. +Crushing, also called pressing: used in the common law legal systems. A defendant who refused to plead ("stood mute") would be subjected to having heavier and heavier stones placed upon their chest until a plea was entered or the person suffocated. +Garroting, a method of strangulation used in Spain for hundreds of years. + +Capital punishment +The Flesch Reading Ease (FRES) score says how easy something is to read. J. Peter Kincaid and others made this formula for the U.S. Navy in 1975. + +How it works +The FRES test works by counting the number of words, syllables, and sentences in the text. It then calculates the average number of words per sentence and the average number of syllables per word. The idea is that shorter words and shorter sentences are easier to read. The higher the score, the easier the text is to understand. The formula is: + +Some points of reference for the score are: + +The highest score possible is 121.22. It is gained if every sentence only has a one-syllable word. +"The cat sat on the mat" scores 116. There is no lower limit to this score. Some very complicated +sentences can have negative scores. + +The Flesch score is usually lower for technical documentation because the topic itself is complicated. +Someone who uses the test regularly will develop a sense of a reasonable score for this type of writing. +They can then aim to align with this score. + +The Flesch score for this subsection is 74. + +Tools +Tools to calculate the Flesch Reading Ease include: + + Microsoft Word's grammar check + Abiword (open source) + KWord (open source) + koRpus + +References + +Other websites + + CheckText.org ; A website that calculates Flesch Reading Ease + Rudolf Flesch, the developer of the test, provides some background information on how to write plain English . + readabilityofwikipedia.com: a website that calculates the score for Wikipedia + +Reading +February (Feb.) is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between January and March. It has 28 days in common years, and 29 days in leap years. In Sweden in 1712 and 1732 the month had 30 days. This was to make the calendar match to the rest of the world. In 1930 and 1931, February had 30 days in the Soviet Union because the government changed all the months to be 30 days long. The name comes either from the Roman god Februus or else from "februa", the festivals of purification celebrated in Rome every fifteenth of this month. + +February begins on the same day of the week as March and November in common years, and August in leap years. February always ends on the same day of the week as October, and additionally, January in common years. + +The Month + +February is one of the last two months to be added to the calendar at the beginning of the year (the other is January). This is because in the original Roman calendar, the two months of winter, when not much would happen in agriculture, did not have names. + +February is the second month of the year, coming between January and March, and is also the shortest month, with 28 days in a common year, and 29 days in a leap year. + +February begins on the same day of the week as March and November in common years and on the same day of the week as August in leap years. February ends on the same day of the week as January in common years and October every year, as each other's last days are exactly 4 weeks (28 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. In a leap year, February is the only month to begin and end on the same day of the week. + +Every year, February starts on the same day of the week as June of the previous year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In common years, February finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August and November of the previous year. + +In common years immediately before other common years, February starts on the same day of the week as August of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, May of the following year. In years immediately before common years, February finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and December of the following year. + +February is also the only month of the calendar that, once every six years and twice every 11 years consecutively, either back into the past or forward into the future, will have four full 7-day weeks. In countries that start their week on a Monday, it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday, in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday, this was observed in 2021 and can be traced back 11 years to 2010, 11 years back to 1999, 6 years back to 1993, 11 years back to 1982, 11 years back to 1971 and 6 years back to 1965, and will be observed again in 2027 In countries that start their week on a Sunday, it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday, with the next occurrence in 2026, and previous occurrences in 2015 (11 years earlier than 2026), 2009 (6 years earlier than 2015), 1998 (11 years earlier than 2009) and 1987 (11 years earlier than 1998). This works unless the pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100. + +From circa 700 BC, when Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, added it to the calendar, February had 23 days and 24 days on some of every second year, until 46 BC when Julius Caesar assigned it 29 days on every fourth year and 28 days otherwise. Leap year Day, February 29, is added in every year that can be divided equally by four, such as 2012 and 2016, but this does not apply when the year ending in "00" at the turn of the century does not divide equally into 400. This means that 1600 and 2000 were leap years in the Gregorian calendar, but 1700, 1800, and 1900 were rather common years. This is where the Julian calendar calculated dates differently, as it always repeated February 29 every four years. + +February is a winter month in the Northern Hemisphere and a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of August in the other. In weather lore, Groundhog Day, in the United States, is set to decide what the weather will be like for the rest of the winter. + +February's flower is the violet and its birthstone is the amethyst. The meaning of the amethyst is sincerity. The zodiac signs for February are Aquarius (January 21 to February 19), and Pisces (February 20 to March 20). + +Events in February + +Fixed Events + + February 1 - Freedom Day (United States) + February 1 - Imbolc (Paganism) + February 2 - Groundhog Day (United States) + February 2 - Candlemas (Western Christianity) + February 2 - Inventor's Day (Thailand) + February 2 - World Wetlands Day + February 2 - Constitution Day (Philippines) + February 3 - Heroes' Day (Mozambique) + February 3 - Veterans' Day (Thailand) + February 4 - Independence Day (Sri Lanka) + February 4 - Day of the Armed Struggle (Angola) + February 4 - World Cancer Day + February 5 - Constitution Day (Mexico) + February 5 - Runeberg's Birthday (Finland) + February 5 - Unity Day (Burundi) + February 6 - Waitangi Day (New Zealand) + February 6 - SĂĄmi National Day (Norway, Sweden, Finland, parts of Russia) + February 6 - Ronald Reagan Day (California) + February 7 - Independence Day (Grenada) + February 10 - Feast of St. Paul's Shipwreck (Malta) + February 10 - Fenkil Day (Eritrea) + February 11 - National Foundation Day (Japan) + February 12 - Darwin Day + February 12 - Abraham Lincoln's birthday (United States) + February 12 - Union Day (Burma) + February 12 - Youth Day (Venezuela) + February 14 - Valentine's Day + February 14 - Statehood Day in Arizona and Oregon + February 15 - Day of the Flag of Canada + February 16 - Independence Day (Lithuania) + February 17 - Celebrated as Independence Day in Kosovo + February 18 - Independence Day (the Gambia) + February 18 - International Asperger's Day + February 21 - International Mother Language Day + February 21 - Language Movement Day (Bangladesh) + February 21 - Biikebrennen, celebrated in Northern Schleswig-Holstein (Germany) and southern Denmark + February 22 - George Washington's birthday (United States) + February 22 - Independence Day (Saint Lucia) + February 23 - Republic Day (Guyana) + February 23 - National Day (Brunei) + February 23 - Defender of the Fatherland Day (Russia) + February 24 - Independence Day (Estonia) + February 24 - Flag Day (Mexico) + February 25 - National Day (Kuwait) + February 25 - People Power Day (Philippines) + February 25 - Soviet Occupation Day (Georgia) + February 26 - Liberation Day (Kuwait) + February 27 - National Day (Dominican Republic) + February 28 - Kalevala Day (Finland) + February 28 - National Science Day (India) + February 28 - Peace Memorial Day (Taiwan) + February 29 - Leap day + +Moveable and month-long Events + + Chinese New Year, falls on a new moon between January 21 and February 21. + Lent-related observances in Western Christianity: + Shrove Monday - can fall between February 2 and March 8 + Shrove Tuesday (Pancake Day) - can fall between February 3 and March 9 + Ash Wednesday, start of Lent - can fall between February 4 and March 10 + Carnival - most famous ones take place in Rio de Janeiro and Venice + Black History Month (Canada and United States) + Presidents' Day (United States) - Third Monday in February, celebrating the birthdays of Abraham Lincoln and George Washington. + Super Bowl (American football), usually on the first Sunday in February + Six Nations (rugby union), tournament running from early February to mid-March between England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales. + Winter Olympics are often held in February, last in 2010, and next in 2014. + +Selection of Historical Events + + February 1, 1884 - The first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary is published. + February 1, 1953 - In the night from January 31, parts of the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom are severely flooded. + February 1, 2003 - Space Shuttle Columbia breaks up on re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts on board. + February 2, 1913 - Grand Central Terminal in New York City is opened for the first time. + February 3, 1931 - A magnitude 7.8 earthquake hits the cities of Napier and Hastings, New Zealand. + February 3, 1959 - Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and The Big Bopper die in a plane crash in Iowa on the "Day The Music Died". + February 4, 1948 - Ceylon, present-day Sri Lanka, becomes independent. + February 4, 2004 - Facebook is founded. + February 5, 1818 - Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte becomes King of Sweden. + February 5, 1909 - Leo Baekeland announces the creation of Bakelite. + February 6, 1788 - Massachusetts becomes a US State. + February 6, 1840 - The Treaty of Waitangi is signed in New Zealand, officially making it a British colony. + February 6, 1952 - Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom becomes Queen. + February 7, 1979 - Grenada becomes independent. + February 8, 1542 - Mary, Queen of Scots is executed. + February 10, 1763 - In the Treaty of Paris, France has to give Quebec to Great Britain. + February 10, 1863 - The fire extinguisher is patented. + February 11, 1979 - Islamic Revolution. + February 11, 1990 - In South Africa, Nelson Mandela is released from prison. + February 11, 2011 - Hosni Mubarak resigns as President of Egypt, after widespread protests. + February 11, 2013 - Pope Benedict XVI announces his resignation, effective at the end of the month. + February 12, 1809 - Charles Darwin and Abraham Lincoln are born on the same day. + February 12, 1818 - Bernardo O'Higgins signs the Independence of Chile near Concepcion. + February 13, 1668 - Spain recognizes Portugal as an independent country. + February 13, 1931 - New Delhi becomes the capital city of India. + February 14, 1779 - James Cook is killed by local people in the Hawaiian Islands. + February 15, 1965 - The Maple Leaf Flag becomes the Flag of Canada. + February 15, 2013 - A meteorite explodes over Chelyabinsk, western Siberia, Russia, injuring over 1,000 people. + February 16, 1918 - Lithuania declares independence. + February 16, 1959 - Fidel Castro becomes leader of Cuba. + February 17, 2008 - Kosovo declares independence from Serbia, which does not recognize it as an independent state. + February 18, 1930 - Clyde Tombaugh discovers the dwarf planet Pluto. + February 18, 1965 - The Gambia becomes independent. + February 19, 1861 - Serfdom ends in Russia. + February 20, 1472 - Orkney and Shetland become part of Scotland. + February 20, 1929 - American Samoa becomes a US territory. + February 21, 1613 - Mikhail I of Russia becomes Tsar, starting the Romanov Dynasty. + February 21, 1848 - Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish the Communist Manifesto. + February 21, 1958 - The peace symbol is designed. + February 22, 1862 - Jefferson Davis officially becomes President of the Confederate States of America. + February 22, 1979 - Saint Lucia becomes independent. + February 22, 2011 - A strong earthquake strikes the city of Christchurch, New Zealand, killing 181 people, and destroying the city's cathedral. + February 23, 1941 - Plutonium is first produced and isolated by Glenn T. Seaborg. + February 23, 1970 - Guyana becomes a republic. + February 24, 1918 - Estonia declares independence. + February 24, 2022 - Russia invades Ukraine. + February 25, 1921 - Soviet Russia occupies Tbilisi, Georgia. + February 25, 1947 - Prussia no longer exists from this date. + February 25, 1986 - Through the People Power Revolution, Corazon Aquino becomes President of the Philippines. + February 26, 1815 - Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from exile on the island of Elba. + February 26, 1993 - A terrorist bomb explodes in a car park under the World Trade Center, New York City. + February 27, 1844 - The Dominican Republic becomes independent from Haiti. + February 27, 2010 - The 2010 Cauquenes earthquake strikes Central Chile, causing major destruction and killing around 500 people. + February 28, 1922 - Egypt declares independence. + February 28, 1986 - Prime Minister of Sweden Olof Palme is murdered. + February 29, 1960 - An earthquake strikes Agadir, Morocco, killing 3,000 people. + February 29, 1984 - Pierre Trudeau announces his resignation as Prime Minister of Canada. + February 29, 2004 - Jean-Bertrand Aristide resigns as President of Haiti following a popular rebel uprising. + +Trivia + + In February the Sun passes through zodiac constellations Capricornus and Aquarius. + The signs of the zodiac within the month of February are Aquarius (January 21 to February 19) and Pisces (February 20 to March 20). + February is the shortest month of the year. + In a leap year, February 29 falls on the same day of the week as October 31. + The birth flower of February is the violet. + The Amethyst and the Pearl are considered birthstones of the month of February. + Two of the most highly rated US Presidents were born in February - Abraham Lincoln and George Washington. Other US Presidents born in February are Ronald Reagan and William Henry Harrison, who was the shortest-serving President. + Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, two famous astronomers, were both born in February. + +02 +FAQ is an abbreviation for "Frequently Asked Question(s)". The term is used for a list of questions and answers. All of the questions are supposed to be asked often and they all are about the same thing. Since the acronym was first used in written form, there are different ways it is said; both "fak" and "F.A.Q." are commonly used. + +Internet slang +A flame is the part of a fire that can be seen. Flame might also mean: + + Flaming (internet) - Insult sent over the internet on purpose + Flame polishing + Flame retardant, a kind of material that resists heat and flame. + Flame Nebula, a star in Orion's Belt + +Organizations + Calgary Flames, Canadian ice hockey team + Atlanta Flames, original name of the Calgary Flames + Guildford Flames, English ice hockey team + Northumbria Flames, Northumbria University's ice hockey team + Westchester Flames F.C., American football (soccer) team + Canterbury Flames, New Zealand netball team + Florida Flame, American basketball team + Black Flame, publishing company + +Wilflife + Flame (moth), a kind of moth + Flame Skimmer, a kind of dragonfly + Flame maple, a kind of maple tree + Flame Robin, a kind of robin + +Other + Flame gun + Flame cell + +Basic English 850 words +Financial capital is a form of capital. It is things that have value, but do not do anything by themselves. They are only valuable because people value (want) them. For example, money is a form of financial capital. You cannot do anything with money but it still has value. + +Financial capital is used to pay for things, this is because there is always more of it and people always want it. This means that financial capital has a stable value and can be traded in most places and with most people. + +Some forms of financial capital, such as stocks, gold or bonds are not wanted by everybody. However they can be traded with people for money or another type of financial capital. Because of this, these forms of financial capital do not have a stable price. This means that some people try to make a profit by buying and selling these types of financial capital in a market. + +Some things are treated as financial capital, even though they do have a use. For example, some people buy and sell land but are not interested in doing anything with it. Some people think this sort of trade is bad because the land should be used and not just treated like money. Other types of capital, such as social capital and human capital are rarely treated like financial capital. This may be because they involve people. Treating useful capital like financial capital is called comodification. + +In politics, a common question is how often the government should use financial capital. In particular, should the government use financial capital to make a profit? Traditionally, liberal politicians do not mind this kind of trading for profit, but socialist or conservative politicians are against it. + +Factors of production +Finance +Fecund universes is a multiverse theory of Lee Smolin. It relies on models of our universe and statistics from astrophysics but is more correctly a theory of cosmology. + +In this theory, collapsing stars, or black holes, are always creating new universes with slightly different laws of physics. Because these laws are only slightly different, each is assumed to be like a mutation of the original universe, as if each universe was a kind of single-celled organism. It would reproduce by "splitting" in some sense. + +This theory relies on many models of our universe to model these "mutated" alternative universes, the ones that Smolin supposes are generated or "spun off" by black holes. + +No human can ever be part of any of these "other" universes. Observations from astrophysics can only say if the black holes exist or are common, and give some idea of how much the laws of physics can vary and still let the new universes produce new black holes. + +Smolin predicts that there would be many black holes in the universe humans can see, since they are likely in a very late born universe, by simple probability. If there are many black holes, that is evidence for his theory, + +As this shows, cosmology has a very different standard of evidence and burden of proof than is required for models of our universe only, which humans (using mathematics) can observe and exchange knowledge on. + +It is hard to separate science from religion on such questions. It may be a simple matter of preference whether one wants to see one's universe as part of a system like biology or like mechanics - clockwork. Smolin's theory is important mostly because it challenges the mechanistic paradigm. + +Even if it is wrong, it raises the idea that living beings might have to see their universe as also living to be able to understand or care about it at all. Some compare Smolin's theory to Gaia philosophy which combines biology, geology and ecology to explain the Earth, our planet, as a living thing. If both are right, humans are on a living planet in a living universe. This idea is very appealing - which does not mean it is really "right". + +Cosmology +Food is what people, plants and animals eat to live. Every organism needs energy to carry on with the process of living which comes from food. Food usually comes from animals and plants. It is eaten by living things to provide energy and nutrition. Food contains the nutrition that people and animals need to be healthy. The consumption of food is normally enjoyable to humans. + +It contains protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, water and minerals. Liquids used for energy and nutrition are often called "drinks". If someone cannot afford food they go hungry. + +Food for humans is mostly made through farming or gardening. It includes animal and vegetable sources. Some people refuse to eat food from animal origin, like meat, eggs, and products with milk in them. Not eating meat is called vegetarianism. Not eating or using any animal products is called veganism. + +Food produced by farmers or gardeners can be changed by industrial processes (the food industry). Processed food usually contains several natural ingredients and food additives (such as preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifiers, flavor enhancers). For example, bread is processed food. + +Food processing at home is done in the kitchen, by the cook. The cook sometimes uses a cookbook. Examples of cooking utensils are pressure cookers, pots, and frying pans. + +Food can also be prepared and served in restaurants or refectory (in particular for children in school). + +The utensils used may be a plate, knife, fork, chopsticks, spoon, bowl, or spork. + +Many people do not grow their own food. They have to buy food that was grown by someone else. People buy most of their food in shops or markets. But some people still grow most or all of their own food. + +People may buy food and take it home to cook it. They may buy food that is ready to eat from a street vendor or a restaurant. + +Other countries have their own way of eating food. An example of an ethnic food is Mexican food. + +Production of food +Originally, people got food as hunter-gatherers. The agricultural revolution changed that. Farmers grew crops including those invented and improved by selective breeding. These improvements, for example the invention of maize, allowed feeding more people, and further improvements gave it a better taste. + +Food shortage has been a big problem throughout history. Many people do not have enough money to buy the food that they need. Bad weather or other problems sometimes destroy the growing food in one part of the world. When people do not have enough food, we say that they are hungry. If they do not eat enough food for a long time, they will become sick and die from starvation. In areas where many people do not have enough food, we say that there is famine there. + +Food and water can make people sick if it is contaminated by microorganisms, bad metals, or chemicals. + +If people do not eat the right foods, they can become sick. + If people do not eat enough protein, they get the disease called kwashiorkor. + If they do not eat enough vitamin B1 (thiamine), they get the disease called beriberi. + If they do not eat enough vitamin C, they get the disease called scurvy. + If children do not eat enough vitamin D, they get the disease called rickets. + +People may often have a variety of eating disorders that cause them to either eat too much, or not be able to eat certain things or amounts. Common diseases like Coeliac disease or food allergies cause people to experience ill effects from consuming certain foods that are normally safe. If people eat too much food, they can become overweight or obese. This causes numerous health problems. On the other hand, eating too little food, from lack of access or anorexia could cause malnutrition. Therefore, people have to balance the amount, the nutrition, and the type of food to be healthy. + +Food in religions +Many cultures or religions have food taboos. That means they have rules what people should not eat, or how the food has to be prepared. Examples of religious food rules are the Kashrut of Judaism and the Halal of Islam, that say that pig meat cannot be eaten. In Hinduism, eating beef is not allowed. Some Christians are vegetarian (someone who does not eat meat) because of their religious beliefs. For example, Seventh-day Adventist Church recommends vegetarianism. + +In addition, sometime beliefs do not relate to the religion but belong to the culture. For example, some people pay respect to GuÄn YÄ«n mothergod and those followers will not consume "beef" as they believe that her father has a shape of the cow. + +References + +Basic English 850 words +If someone is found guilty of a crime, their punishment may be to pay a fine, a certain amount of money. In many countries, fines can be ordered by police, court judges and some government officers. + +When agreeing to a contract with a business, a customer may agree to certain rules. If the customer breaks the rules, then they agree to pay a fine for doing so. For example, when somebody hires a car and agrees to return it by Friday, they agree that if they do not return the car by Friday, they must pay a $50 fine to the business. + +Punishments +Money +Frying is cooking food in hot butter or vegetable oil or other fat. We can fry food in a small amount of fat in a pan or in a lot of oil in a pot. Some restaurants use deep frying to fry a large amount of food. + +Cooking methods +Fish (plural: fish or fishes) are a group of animals with bones which live in water and respire (get oxygen) from their gills. As a group, they are much older than other vertebrates. The first fish developed about 500 million years ago. + +Fish used to be a class of vertebrates. Now the term covers five classes of animals that live in the water: +Jawless fish +Armoured fish +Cartilaginous fish +Ray-finned fish +Lobe-finned fish + +There are more fish than four-limbed animals: there are over 33,000 described species of fish. Fish are usually covered with scales. They have two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are cold-blooded (poikilotherm). + +There are many different kinds of fish. They live in fresh water in lakes and rivers (freshwater fish), and in salt water (marine fish) in the oceans. Some fish are less than one centimeter long. The largest fish is the whale shark, which can be almost 15 meters long and weigh 15 tons. Almost all fish live in the water. A group of fish called the lungfish have developed lungs because they live in rivers and pools which dry up in certain parts of the year. They burrow into mud and aestivate until the water returns. + +The English word "fish" does not fit neatly into cladistics, which is the scientific way to put living things into groups. So scientists call it a paraphyletic word. This means that the animals called "fish" in English do not fit into just one phylum. Some fish are more closely related to land animals than they are to other fish. For example, lobe-finned fish were the first animals with bones to come live on land, and all land animals are their descendants. Lobe-finned fish are more closely related to humans than to ray-finned fish. + +Types of fish +"Fish" is not a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals all descended from lobe-finned fish. But the use of the term "fish" is so convenient that we go on using it. + +Fish are the oldest vertebrate group. The term includes a huge range of types, from the Middle Ordovician, about 490 million years ago, to the present day. These are the main groups: + + Agnatha: the jawless fish. Cambrian to present day. + Pteraspids: the head-shields + Anaspids: gills opened as holes. Silurian to end-Devonian. + Cephalaspids: early jawless fish + Lampreys: living ectoparasites + Osteostraci: bony-armoured jawless fish. + Gnathostomata: the jawed fish. Includes all types commonly called fish, except the lamprey. + Placoderms: heavily armoured fish + Chondrichthyes: cartilaginous fish: sharks, rays and skates. + Acanthodii: extinct spiny sharks + Osteichthyes: bony fish. + Actinopterygii: the ray-finned fish. + Chondrostei: sturgeons and some other early types. + Neopterygii: first seen in the later Permian, lighter and faster-moving than previous groups. + Holostei: the gars and bowfins + Teleostei: the most successful group, Triassic to present day. + Sarcopterygii: the lobe-finned fish + Dipnoi: the lungfish; eight genera survive. + Coelacanths: two species survive. They were probably a sister-group to the tetrapods. + +Certain animals that have the word fish in their name are not really fish: crayfish are Crustacea, and jellyfish are Cnidaria. Some animals look like fish, but are not. Whales and dolphins are mammals, for example. + +Anatomy + +Bony and cartilaginous fish +Most kinds of fish have bones. Some kinds of fish, such as sharks and rays, do not have real bones. Their skeletons are made of cartilage, and so they are known as cartilaginous fish. + +Fish scales +All fish are covered with overlapping scales, and each major group of fish has its own special type of scale. Teleosts ('modern' fish) have what are called leptoid scales. These grow in concentric circles and overlap in a head to tail direction like roof tiles. Sharks and other chondrichthyes have placoid scales made of denticles, like small versions of their teeth. These also overlap in a head to tail direction, producing a tough outer layer. Shark skin is available for purchase as shagreen, a leather which as original is smooth in one direction, and rough in the other direction. It may be polished for use, but is always rough in texture and resistant to slipping. + +The scales are usually covered with a layer of slime which improves passage through the water, and makes the fish more slippery to a predator. + +There are various types of eel: most are in the Anguilliformes. Their life-style has evolved many times. Eels have scales with smooth edges or are absent. + +Freshwater fish + +41% of all fish live in freshwater. There are also some important fish which breed in rivers, and spend the rest of their life in the seas. Examples are salmon, trout, the sea lamprey, and three-spined stickleback. Some fish are born in salt water, but live most of their mature lives in fresh water: for example the eels. +Species like these change their physiology to cope with the amount of salt in the water. + +Saltwater fish + +59% of fish live in saltwater and are known as marine fish. Some of the common marine fish are from the family Pomacentridae and sub-family Pomacentrinae. Many of the smaller, colourful marine fish are used in aquariums. + +Swimming +Fish swim by exerting force against the surrounding water. There are exceptions, but this is usually done by the fish contracting muscles on either side of its body. This starts waves of flexion which travel the length of the body from nose to tail, generally getting larger as they go along. + +Most fishes generate thrust using lateral movements of their body & tail fin (caudal fin). However, there are also species which move mainly using their median and paired fins. The latter group profits from the gained manoeuvrability. This is needed, for example, when living in coral reefs. Such fish cannot swim as fast as fish using their bodies & caudal fins. + +Muscle +Fish can swim slowly for many hours using red muscle fibres. They also make short, fast bursts using white muscle. The two types of muscle have a fundamentally different physiology. The red fibres are contined in the middle of the body along the spine and usually alongside a much greater number of white fibres. + +The white fibres get their energy by converting the carbohydrate glycogen to lactate (lactic acid). This is anaerobic metabolism, that is, it does not need oxygen. They are used for fast, short bursts. Once the lactic acid builds up in the muscles, they stop working, and it takes time for the lactate to be removed, and the glycogen replaced. Using their white fibres, fish can reach speeds of 10 lengths per second for short bursts. + +Swimming for long periods needs oxygen for the red fibres. The oxygen supply has to be constant because these fibres only operate aerobically. They are red because they have a rich blood supply, and they contain myoglobin. Myoglobin transports the oxygen to the oxidising systems. Red muscle gets its energy by oxidising fat, which weight for weight has twice as much energy as carbohydrate or protein. Using their red fibres, fish can keep up a speed of 35 lengths per second for long periods. + +Swimming in groups + +Many fish swim in groups. Schools of fish can swim together for long distances, and may be chased by predators which also swim in schools. Casual groups are called 'shoals'. + +Body shape +The shape of the body of a fish is important to its swimming. This is because streamlined body shapes makes the water drag less. Here are some common fish shapes:- + +The picture on the right shows a shark. This shark's shape is called fusiform, and it is an ovoid shape where both ends of the fish are pointy. This is the best shape for going through water quickly. Fishes with fusiform shapes can chase prey and escape predators quickly. Many live in the open ocean and swim constantly, like marlins, swordfish, and tuna. Ichthyosaurs, porpoises, dolphins, killer whales all have similar shapes. This is an example of convergent evolution. + +Eel-like +The long, ribbon-like shape of an eel's body shows another shape. This enables them to hide in cracks, springing out quickly to capture prey, then returning quickly to their hiding spot. + +Flatfish + +Flatfish live on the bottom of the ocean or lake. Most use camouflage: they change colours to match the ocean floor. During their early lives, their eyes move to the upper side of their flat body. + +Reef fish also have flat bodies, and their body is often highly coloured. Flat bodies can slip in and out among the corals, sponges, and rocks, avoiding predators. Angelfish, surgeonfish, and butterflyfish are examples. + +Fish as food + +Some people eat many different kinds of fish. These include carp, cod, herring, perch, sardines, sturgeon, tilapia, trout, tuna, and many others. A person who buys and sells fish for eating is called a fishmonger. + +The word to fish is also used for the activity of catching fishes. People catch fish with small nets from the side of the water or from small boats, or with big nets from big boats. People can also catch fish with fishing poles and fishhooks with bait. This is often called angling. Anglers also different types of fishing lures. + +Because people are catching too many fish for food or other uses, there are less and less fish in the sea. This is a problem known as overfishing. + +Fish as pets +Selective breeding of carp made them into the domesticated koi in Japan, and goldfish in China. This breeding began over 2,000 years ago. The Chinese brought their goldfish indoors during the Song Dynasty. They kept them in large ceramic vessels. That we now do in glass fish tanks. + +Gallery + +Related pages + Shark + +References + +Basic English 850 words +Foot is also the name of a unit of measurement. See foot (unit). + +A foot (one foot, two or more feet) is a body part on the end of a leg. It is used when walking. It is also important for balance: it helps people stand straight. People also use it to kick, in both fighting and sports, football being an example. + +People's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five digits (the fingers and toes). Many other animals with backbones also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the heel. The bottom of the foot is called the sole. + +Most land vertebrates have feet, and there are many different sorts of foot. The feet of monkeys are much like the hands. The hard foot of an ungulate is a hoof. When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, it is called a paw. Many invertebrates also have feet. + +Many use footwear to protect themselves from weather and dirt. There are multiple kinds of footwear, for example sandals, shoes, and boots. When people do not remove footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (foot odour). Wearing footwear that is too big or small can be bad for the feet, causing blisters. People who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes. + +People have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear. For example, in many countries, usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home. In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home. In Japan, people do not wear shoes in homes, and floors are often made of very soft materials. In Japan it is also important to keep the floors clean. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them. Not wearing shoes can be good for the feet, especially if they are damaged. + +Conditions like Athlete's foot affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked. Doctors who work with people's feet are podiatrists or chiropodists''. + +Bones +Half the bones in a human body are in the foot. There are 26 bones there. They are 14 phalanges (toes), 5 metatarsals (arch of the foot), and 7 tarsals (ankle bones). + +Basic English 850 words +France ( or ; ), officially the French Republic (, ), is a country in Western Europe. It also includes various departments and territories of France overseas. + +Mainland France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is sometimes referred to as LâHexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the shape of its territory. + +France is a unitary semi-presidential republic. The head of state is the President, who is also a politician. The Prime Minister is secondary to the President. + +Metropolitan France is bordered (clockwise from the North) by Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, and Spain. The overseas departments and collectives of France share land borders with Brazil and Suriname (bordering French Guiana), and the Netherlands Antilles (bordering Saint Martin). France is linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes under the English Channel. + +France is the largest country in the European Union and the second largest in Europe. It has been one of the world's most powerful countries for many centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonized much of North America. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built one of the largest colonial empires of the time. This included large parts of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific Islands. France is a developed country and has a large economy. + +It is the most visited country in the world, with 82 million foreign visitors every year. + +France was one of the first members of the European Union, and has the largest land area of all members. It is also a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, NATO, and the Latin Union. It is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. France has the largest number of nuclear weapons with active warheads, and the largest number of nuclear power plants, in the European Union. + +France's official language is French, which is also official in 29 other countries. Some other French speaking countries include the Congo, Quebec, and Mauritius. + +An interesting fact is that the French King Louis XIX only enjoyed 20 minutes of royal fame after his father Charles X abdicated, leaving him to ascend the French throne in July 1830. + +Geography and climate +France is in Western Europe. France shares its borders with Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, and Spain. France has two mountain ranges near its borders: the Alps in the east and the Pyrenees in the south. The climate of southern France is similar to Greece which both have Mediterranean climate. There are many rivers in France, including the Seine and the Loire. In the north and the west of France, there are low hills and river valleys. + +In France there are many different climates. The Atlantic has a major effect on the weather in the north and west. This means the temperature is about the same most of the year. It is in the marine west coast climate region. In the east, winters are cold and the weather is good. Summers are hot and stormy. In the south, winters are cool and wet. Summers are hot and dry. The north has a temperate climate similar to that of the United Kingdom and other Northern European countries. + +France has the second-largest exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the world. It covers 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,637 sq mi). Only the United States has a larger one. + +History + +Name +The name "France" comes from the Latin word Francia ', which means "land of the Franks". + +Roman Gaul +The borders of modern France are about the same as those of ancient Gaul. Celtic Gauls inhabited Ancient Gaul. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul for Rome in the 1st century BC. Eventually, the Gauls adopted Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved) and Roman culture. Christianity first appeared in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. It became firmly established by the fourth and fifth centuries. + +Franks +In the 4th century AD, the Germanic tribes, principally the Franks invaded the Gauls. This is how the name Francie appeared. The modern name "France" comes from the name of the Capetian Kings of France around Paris. The Franks were the first tribe of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Christianity rather than Arianism. The French called themselves "the most Christian Kingdom of France". + +The Treaty of Verdun (843), divided Charlemagne's Empire into three parts. The biggest area was Western Francia. It is similar to modern France. + +Kingdom + +Middle Ages +The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet became King of France. His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon, unified the country with many wars and dynastic inheritance. + +Enlightenment +The monarchy was the most powerful during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV of France. At that time, France had the largest population in Europe. The country had a big influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the common language of diplomacy in international affairs. Much of the Enlightenment happened in France. French scientists made big scientific discoveries in the 18th century. France also conquered many overseas possessions in the Americas and Asia. + +Republic + +Napoleonic Wars +France had a monarchy until the French Revolution in 1789. King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were executed in 1793. Thousands of other French citizens were killed. Napoleon Bonaparte took control of the Republic in 1799. He later made himself Emperor of the First Empire (1804â1814). His armies conquered most of continental Europe. The metric system was invented by French scientists during the French revolution. That time 3 estates were developed. + +After Napoleon's final defeat in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, another monarchy arose. Later Louis-NapolĂ©on Bonaparte created the Second Empire in 1852. Louis-NapolĂ©on was removed after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. The Third Republic replaced his regime. + +Colonialism +The large French colonial empire in the 19th century included parts of West Africa and Southeast Asia. The culture and politics of these regions were influenced by France. Many ex-colonies officially speak the French language. + +World Wars +The country actively took part in both the First and Second World Wars, with battles taking place on its soil. During the First World War, millions were killed in the trenches including over a million in the Battle of the Somme. The conditions were extremely difficult for the soldiers on the front. The last surviving veteran was Pierre Picault who died on 20 November 2008 at the age of 109. + +During the Second World War, Nazis occupied France. The Allies landed in Normandy on 6 June 1944 and began the Battle of Normandy. German forces lost France in just a few months. + +Divisions + +The 13 regions and 96 departments of metropolitan France include Corsica. France is divided into (administrative) regions: + Auvergne-RhĂŽne-Alpes + Bourgogne-Franche-ComtĂ© + Brittany (Bretagne) + Centre-Val de Loire + Corsica (Corse) + Grand Est + Hauts-de-France + Ăle-de-France + Normandy (Normandie) + Nouvelle-Aquitaine + Occitanie + Pays de la Loire + Provence-Alpes-CĂŽte d'Azur + +Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolitan regions. It is called collectivitĂ© territoriale. + +France also has five overseas regions: + French Guiana (in South America) + Guadeloupe (in the Caribbean) + Martinique (in the Caribbean) + Mayotte (in the Indian Ocean) + RĂ©union (in the Indian Ocean) +These five overseas regions have the same status as the metropolitan ones. They are like the overseas American states of Alaska and Hawaii. + +Then France is divided into 101 departments. The departments are divided into 342 arrondissements. The arrondissements are re-divided into 4,032 cantons. The smallest subdivision is the commune (there are 36,699 communes). On 1 January 2008, INSEE counted 36,781 communes in France. 36,569 of them are in metropolitan France and 212 of them are in overseas France. + +Government +The government of France is a semi-presidential system determined by the constitution of the French Fifth Republic. It provides for a separation of powers. + +The main ideals are expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The constitution declares the nation to be "an indivisible, secular, democratic, and social Republic". With a Prime Minister subordinate to the President, this slightly strange system was chosen by General Charles de Gaulle in 1958. + +Military + +The French armed forces has four branches: + The ArmĂ©e de Terre (Army) + The Marine Nationale (Navy) + The ArmĂ©e de l'Air (Air Force) + The Gendarmerie Nationale (a military force which acts as a National Rural Police) + +France has about 359,000 military personnel. France spends 2.6% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on defense. This is the highest in the European Union. France and the UK spend 40% of the EU defence budget. About 10% of France's defence budget is for its nuclear weapons force. + +Foreign relations + +France is a member of the United Nations. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and has veto rights. It is also a member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). It hosts the headquarters of the OECD, UNESCO and Interpol. In 1953, the United Nations asked France to choose a coat of arms to represent them internationally. The French emblem is now on their passports. + +France was a founding member of the European Union. In the 1960s, France wanted to exclude the United Kingdom from the organisation. It wanted to build its own economic power in continental Europe. France and Germany became closer after World War II. This was to try to become the most influential country in the EU. It limited the influence of the new Eastern European members. France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). However, under President de Gaulle, it left the joint military command. In the early 1990s, France received criticism for its underground nuclear tests in French Polynesia. France vigorously opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq. France retains strong political and economic influence in its former African colonies. For instance it has supplied economic aid and troops for peace-keeping missions in the Ivory Coast and Chad. + +Economy + +France is a member of the G8 group of leading industrialised countries. France has the eighth-largest economy in the world by Gross domestic product (GDP) (which takes into account how much it costs to live in different countries and inflation rates). France and 11 other European Union members jointly launched the euro on 1 January 1999 and started using it in 2002. + +France's economy has nearly 2.9 million registered companies. The government has a considerable influence over railway, electricity, aircraft, and telecommunications firms (as it owns big companies like SNCF and EDF (French electricity)). France has an important aerospace (design of aircraft and spacecraft) industry led by Airbus. It can also launch rockets from French Guiana. + +France has invested a lot in nuclear power. This made France the smallest producer of carbon dioxide among the seven most industrialised countries in the world. As a result, 59 nuclear power plants generate most of the electricity produced in the country (78% in 2006, up from only 8% in 1973, 24% in 1980, and 75% in 1990). + +France is the leading agricultural producer and exporter in Europe. France exports wheat, poultry, dairy products, beef, and pork. It is also famous for its wine industry. France received 10 billion euros in 2006 from the European Community as subsidies to its farmers. + +At one time, the Factory Act of 1833 limited the workday for women and children to 11 hours a day. + +Demographics +On 1 January 2008, it was estimated that 63.8 million people live in France, including in the Overseas Regions of France. 61,875,000 of these live in metropolitan France, the part of the country that is within Europe. + +Ethnic groups +The major ethnic groups living in France today are descended from Celtic people and Roman people. The significant minority groups living in France are: + Teutonic, that is Germanic peoples + Slavic + people from North Africa + Sub-Saharan African - people from Africa who live south of the Sahara desert + people from Indochina + people from the Basque Country of southwest Europe + +Culture + +Language + +French is the official language of France. It belongs to the Romance language group, which includes Italian and Spanish. Many regional dialects are also used in France. Alsatian, a German dialect, is spoken in Alsace and in parts of Lorraine in eastern France. French was the language of diplomacy and culture in Europe between the 17th and 19th century and is still widely used. + +Some people in France also speak Basque, Breton, Catalan, Corsican, German, Flemish, and Occitan. + +Religion + +France is a secular country and the constitution guarantees freedom of religion. The population is about 51% Roman Catholic, and 31% of people are agnostics or atheists. 5% are Muslim, 3% say they are Protestant and 1% say they are Jewish. 10% are from other religions or do not have an opinion about religion. There are also Zoroastrian, Unitarian Universalist, Jain and Wiccan communities. Religions founded in France include Raelism. + +According to a Poll in 2007: + 34% of French citizens responded that "they believe there is a God". + 27% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force". + 33% answered that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". + +Literature + +French literature began in the Middle Ages. French was divided into several dialects at the time. Some authors spelled words differently from one other. + +During the 17th century, Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, MoliĂšre, Blaise Pascal and RenĂ© Descartes were the main authors. + +In the 18th and 19th centuries, French literature and poetry reached its best. The 18th century saw writings of authors, essayists and moralists as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. +As for French children's literature in those times, Charles Perrault wrote stories such as "Little Red Riding Hood", "Beauty and the Beast", "Sleeping Beauty" and "Puss in Boots". + +Many famous French novels were written in the 19th century by authors such as Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas and Jules Verne. They wrote popular novels like The Three Musketeers, The Count of Monte-Cristo, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, The Hunchback of Notre-Dame and Les MisĂ©rables. Other 19th century fiction writers include Emile Zola, Guy de Maupassant, ThĂ©ophile Gautier and Stendhal. + +Famous novels were written during the 20th century by Marcel Proust, Antoine de Saint-ExupĂ©ry, Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre and Michel Houellebecq. + +Sports + +The Tour de France cycling race in July is one of the best-known sporting events. It is a three-week race of around 3,500 km that covers most of France and ends in the centre of Paris, on the Avenue des Champs-ElysĂ©es. Football is another popular sport in France. The French team won the FIFA World Cup in 1998 and 2018. They also won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1984 and 2000. France also hosts the 24 Hours of Le Mans car race. France also hosted the Rugby World Cup in 2007 and finished fourth. +France is closely associated with the Modern Olympic Games. At the end of the 19th century, the Baron Pierre de Coubertin suggested having the Olympic Games again. France hosted the Summer Olympics twice, in 1900 and 1924, in Paris. France will host the Summer Olympics in 2024, in Paris. France also hosted the Winter Games three times: in 1924 in Chamonix, in 1968 in Grenoble, and in 1992 in Albertville. + +Cuisine + +French cuisine has influenced the style of cooking throughout Europe, and its chefs work in restaurants throughout the world. + +The roots of modern haute cuisine lie in chefs like La Varenne (1615â1678) and the notable chef of Napoleon, Marie-Antoine CarĂȘme (1784â1833). These chefs developed a lighter style of food compared to the food of the Middle Ages. They used fewer spices, and more herbs and creamy ingredients. + +Typical ingredients like roux and fish stock, and techniques such as marinading, and dishes such as ragout, were invented. CarĂȘme was an expert pĂątissier (pastry-maker), and this is still a mark of French cooking. He developed basic sauces, his 'mother sauces'; he had over a hundred sauces in his repertoire, based on the half-dozen mother sauces. + +French cuisine was introduced in the 20th century by Georges Auguste Escoffier (1846â1935). He was a genius at organisation. He worked out how to run large restaurants, as in a big hotel or a palace; how the staff should be organised; how the menu was prepared. He had methods for everything. Escoffier's largest contribution was the publication of Le Guide Culinaire in 1903, which established the fundamentals of French cookery. Escoffier managed the restaurants and cuisine at the Savoy Hotel and Carlton Hotel in London, the HĂŽtel Ritz Paris, and some of the greatest cruise ships. + +Escoffier, however, left out much of the culinary character to be found in the regions of France. + +Gastro-tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to make people familiar with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had great influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have become common all over the country. Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles regionally and nationally. In the north of France, people often prefer to use butter to cook. In the south, they prefer olive oil and garlic. In France, each region has its own special dish; choucroute in Alsace, quiche in Lorraine, cassoulet in the Languedoc-Roussillon, and tapenade in Provence-Alpes-CĂŽte d'Azur. + +In November 2010, French gastronomy was added by UNESCO to its lists of the world's 'intangible cultural heritage'. + +Tourism + +France is the number one tourist destination in the world. In 2007, 81.9 million foreign tourists visited France. Spain comes second (58.5 million in 2006) and the United States comes third (51.1 million in 2006). +Some of the most famous attractions in Paris, are the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe. Another one is Mont Saint Michel, in Normandy. + +A European Disneyland is located in a suburb east of Paris. The resort opened in 1992 and is also a popular tourist destination in Europe. + +Related pages + France at the Olympics + France national football team + List of rivers of France + +References + +Notes + +Other websites + + + + + + + +European Union member states +Former good articles +French-speaking countries +G8 nations +G7 nations +Finland (Finnish: Suomi) is a country in Northern Europe and is a member state of the European Union. Finland is one of the Nordic countries and is also part of Fennoscandia. Finland is located between the 60th and 70th latitudes North. Its neighbours are Sweden to the west, Norway to the north, Russia to the east and Estonia to the south, beyond the sea called Gulf of Finland. Most of western and southern coast is on the shore of the Baltic Sea. + +The capital of Finland is Helsinki; the second largest city is Tampere. The official currency of the country is the euro (EUR); before 2002 it was the markka, the Finnish mark (FIM). The president of Finland is Sauli Niinistö. 5.5 million people live in Finland. Finnish and Swedish both are the official languages of Finland; the most spoken languages is Finnish, mother tongue of about 90% of the population. Swedish is spoken by the Swedish speaking minority of Finland, called the Finnish Swedes, who make up 5% of the total population. Finland became independent of Russia on 6 December 1917. + +The most important cities and towns in Finland are Helsinki, Espoo, Tampere, Vantaa, Turku, Oulu, Lahti, Kuopio, JyvĂ€skylĂ€ and Pori. + +Finland is a highly industrialised First World country. The most important Finnish industrial products are paper, and steel products such as machines and electronics. Nokia (the mobile company) is originally a company of Finland, named after a small town called Nokia. + +Finland has been top of the list of least corrupt countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index more times than any other country. + +People and culture +The people of Finland are called Finns. Most Finns speak Finnish as their mother tongue. About six percent of Finns have the Swedish language as their mother tongue. They live mostly in the western part of Finland and on Ă land (Finnish Ahvenanmaa) + +Finns also study mandatory English and Swedish in school. Most Finns work either in services (that is: shops, banks, offices or businesses) or in factories. Finns often like saunas and nature. Many Finnish families have summer cottages, small houses where they go to relax on their summer holidays. The most important festivals that Finnish people celebrate are Midsummer and Christmas. + +The most popular sports in Finland are ice hockey, skiing, track and field and association football (soccer). Finns have also won events in swimming, motor sports and gymnastics. + +There is a group of a few thousand SĂĄmis (also called Lapps) in the most northern part of Finland, called Lapland. Most of the Samis live in Norway and Sweden. Many Sami people farm reindeers. Originally, Samis were hunter-gatherers. In the past the Sami were nomads, but nowadays they live in regular houses. + +Very few people in Finland are from other countries. In 2016 about 4% of residents were born in another country. + +Nature and weather + +Most of Finland is covered by pine forest. The swan, which was considered holy long ago, is the national bird of Finland. Wood is the most important natural resource of Finland. It is estimated that up to one-third of all wood resources of the European Union are in Finland. + +The national animal of Finland is the brown bear. The largest animal is the elk, a type of moose, which is a member of the deer family. + +There are hundreds of rivers and thousands of fresh water lakes. Fishing is a popular sport. It is estimated there are almost 180,000 lakes in Finland. + +Many islands in the Baltic Sea belong to Finland, too. Thousands of islands are part of the Ă land archipelago. Tourists from all over the world come to see the fells and the northern lights in Lapland. + +The highest mountain of Finland is Halti, which is 1328 meters high. The largest lake is Saimaa, 4,400 square kilometres. The longest river of Finland is Tornionjoki. The largest river (by watershed) is Kemijoki, 552 kilometres long. + +The weather in Finland varies widely by season. Summer usually lasts from May to early September, and temperatures can reach up to +30 °C. Autumns are dark and rainy. Winter snow usually begins to fall in Helsinki in early December (in Lapland it can fall as early as October) and in the winter the temperature can drop to -40 °C. Highest temperature recorded in Finland is +37,2 °C and lowest temperature is -51,5 °C. Winter usually lasts to mid-March, when the snow melts in Helsinki (in Lapland the snow usually doesn't melt until early May), and Spring lasts till late May. Spring can be erratic, and the weather can change from frost to sunshine within a matter of days. The famed Northern Lights are common in Lapland. + +History +People first came to Finland 10,000 years ago. That was just after an ice age, after a glacier that covered the ground had receded. + +Some think the first people in Finland already spoke a language similar to the Finnish language that is spoken today. It is known that an early form of the Finnish language was spoken in Finland in the Iron Age. (The Iron Age in Finland was 2,500â800 years ago). + +The first residents in Finland hunted animals, as "hunter-gatherers". Some people started to farm crops about 5,200 years ago. Farming slowly became more and more popular and became the major way of life until the modern age. + +The ancient Finns were pagans. The most important god of the Finnish pantheon was Ukko. He was a god of sky and thunder, much like Odin, another Scandinavian god-king. These powers were common among the pagan god kings in pantheons ranging from the Finnish Ukko, to the Scandinavian/Germanic/Saxon Odin, all the way east to Zeus of the Greeks and Jupiter of the Romans. + +Around a thousand years ago, when most of Europe was adopting Christianity, Finland also began following Christianity. During the Reformation of Christianity in the 16th century, most Finns became Protestants. Some pagan practices still remain amongst the now Christian Finns, such as bear worship. + +From the Middle Ages Finland was a part of Sweden. Then, in the year 1809, Russia took Finland from Sweden. Finland was a part of Russia, but after a short period of time it became autonomous. The Finns essentially controlled Finland, though the Tsar was in control officially. Finns could create their own laws and had their own currency, (called the markka), their own stamps and own customs. However, Finland did not have its own army. + +During the 1905 Russian Revolution, in the Grand Duchy of Finland: +the Social Democrats organised the general strike of 1905 (). The Red Guards were formed. On , Russian artillerymen and military engineers rose to rebellion in the fortress of Sveaborg (later called Suomenlinna), Helsinki. The Finnish Red Guards supported the Sveaborg Rebellion with a general strike, but the mutiny was quelled by loyal troops and ships of the Baltic Fleet within 60 hours. + +After independence +On 6 December 1917, Finland became independent, which meant that it no longer was a part of Russia. There was a communist revolution in Russia and after 1922 Russia was a part of the Soviet Union. There were communists in Finland too, who tried to create a revolution in Finland +This attempt at revolution caused the Finnish civil war. The communists lost the civil war, and Finland did not change its old capitalist system + +Stalin, who was the leader of the Soviet Union, did not like having a capitalist country as its neighbour. Stalin wanted Finland to become a communist state and be a part of the Soviet Union. The leaders of Finland refused: they wanted to stay independent. The Soviet Union sent many troops across the eastern border of Finland to try to make Finland join them, which resulted in the Winter War. The Soviet Union eventually won, and took most of Karelia and other parts of Finland. + +Adolf Hitler was the dictator of Germany, and he wanted to invade the Soviet Union. Finland wanted to retrieve the areas that it had lost, so they joined the German invasion, which started with Operation Barbarossa in 1941. The Finnish part of the Second World War is called the Continuation War in Finland. However, Finland was not a fascist or an antisemitic country. Finns were interested in freedom rather than dictatorship. + +While Germany was losing the war, Finland had already progressed into the Soviet Union in order to regain the areas lost in the previous peace. Finland wanted to end the war with the Soviet Union, which resulted in peace. Once again Finland had to give up the areas they had conquered. This time, the peace with the Soviet Union made Finland and Germany enemies. Finns fought the Germans, and Germans retreated to Norway, burning down all of Lapland behind them. This is called the Lapland War. Finland remained independent. + +After the war, many factories were built in Finland. Many people moved from farms to cities. At that time, big factories manufactured products like paper and steel. More and more people worked in more advanced jobs, like high technology. Also, many people went to universities to get a good education. Finland was one of the first countries where most people had Internet connections and mobile phones. A well-known company that makes mobile phones, Nokia, is from Finland. + +Finland joined the European Union in 1995. The Finnish currency was changed to the euro in 2002. + +Finland joined NATO in 2023, after the Russian invasion of Ukraine. + +Economy +Finland has a mixed economy. Free market controls most of production and sales of goods, but public sector is involved in services. In 2013, taxes were 44% of gross national product. This is 4th largest in Europe, after Denmark, France and Belgium. + +In 2014 services were 70% of the gross national product. + +The largest company in 2014 was oil refinery Neste Oil. The second largest was Nokia. Two forest industries Stora Enso and UPM-Kymmene, were numbers three and four. Number five was Kesko which sells everyday goods in K-supermarkets. + +Elections +Elections are organized to select 200 members to the Parliament of Finland. Also selected are the president of Finland, members of town and city councils and Finnish members to the European Parliament. The elections are secret and direct. People vote directly for the person they want to be elected. In presidential elections votes are only cast for a person, not for a political party. All the other elections are proportional. The system is a combination of voting for individuals and parties. The right to vote is universal and equal. In general elections everybody has one vote. + +Famous Finnish people + + Alvar Aalto, architect + Markku Alen, 1978 World Rally Champion + Valtteri Bottas, current Formula One driver + The Dudesons, also known as Duudsonit, a four-man stunt group with several TV shows and a movie. Close friends with the Jackass crew + Akseli Gallen-Kallela, artist + Marcus Gronholm, 2000/02 World Rally Champion + Mika HĂ€kkinen, 1998 and 1999 Formula One World Champion + Tarja Halonen, former President of Finland + Tuomas Holopainen, founder of the internationally famous band Nightwish + Sami HyypiĂ€, football coach; 2005 UEFA Champions League winner + Juha Kankkunen, 1986/87/91/93 World Rally Champion + Urho Kekkonen, former President of Finland during the cold war + Jari Kurri, 5 time Stanley Cup Winner, NHL Hall Of Famer + Eino Leino, poet + Elias Lönnrot, compiler of National epic Kalevala + Jari Litmanen, footballer; 1995 UEFA Champions League winner + Tommi Makinen, 1996-99 World Rally Champion + Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, a president and military commander + Karita Mattila, world famous opera singer, winner of the first Cardiff singer of the world competition + Hannu Mikkola, 1983 World Rally Champion + Paavo Nurmi, famous Olympic long-distance runner + Kimi RĂ€ikkönen, 2007 Formula One World Champion + Keke Rosberg, 1982 Formula One World Champion + Timo Salonen, 1985 World Rally Champion + Timo Sarpaneva, famous designer mainly in glass + Teemu Selanne, 2007 Stanley Cup Winner + Jean Sibelius, the most important Finnish composer + Lauri Törni, later known as Larry Thorne, a winner of the Mannerheim Cross during the Continuation War + Linus Torvalds, the creator of Linux + Tarja Turunen, former member of the internationally famous band Nightwish + Ville Valo, Lead Singer songwriter of HIM + Ari Vatanen, 1981 World Rally Champion + Tapio Wirkkala, designer and artist + +References + +Other websites + History + Finland Travel Community - Discussion Forum (English) + Finland -Citizendium + + +European Union member states +Nordic countries +Members of NATO +1917 establishments in Europe +In botany, a fruit is a plant structure that contains the plant's seeds. + +To a botanist, the word fruit is used only if it comes from the part of the flower which was an ovary. It is an extra layer round the seeds, which may or may not be fleshy. However, even in the field of botany, there is no general agreement on how fruits should be classified. Many do have extra layers from other parts of the flower. + +In general speech, and especially in cooking, fruits are a sweet product, and many botanical fruits are known as vegetables. This is how ordinary people use the words. On this page, we describe what botanists call a fruit. + +The fleshy part of a fruit is called the mesocarp. It is between the fruit's skin (exocarp) and the seeds. The white part of an apple, for example, is the "fleshy" part of the apple. Usually, when we eat a fruit, we eat the "fleshy" part. + +Types of fruits + +Berry +If the entire fruit is fleshy, except for maybe a thin skin, the fruit is called a berry. A berry might contain one seed or many. Grapes, avocados, and blueberries are berries. They all have a thin skin, but most of the fruit is fleshy. Don't get confused by the name of fruits like strawberries, because actually they are not berries. The seeds are on the outside: on a real berry, the seed or seeds are inside the fruit. + +Pepo +A pepo (pronounced pee' po) is a modified berry. Its skin is hard and thick and is usually called a "rind". Pumpkins and watermelons, for instance, are pepos. + +Hesperidium +A hesperidium is another modified berry. It has a leathery skin that is not as hard as the skin of a pepo. All citrus fruit like oranges and lemon are hesperidiums. + +Pome + +A pome (pohm) is a fruit that has a core surrounded by fleshy tissue that one can eat. The core is usually not eaten. Berries are different - the seeds are inside the fleshy part, not separated from it by a core. apples and pears are pomes. + +Drupe + +Drupes are also called stone fruit. A drupe is a fleshy fruit with a hard stone around the seed. We usually call this 'stone' the 'pit' of the fruit. Peaches and olives are drupes. Actually, the almond fruit is a drupe, too, though we eat the seed that is inside the 'pit' of the almond fruit. + +Botanical fruits +Since fruits are produced from fertilised ovaries in flowers, only flowering plants produce fruits. Fruits are an evolutionary 'invention' which help seeds get dispersed by animals. + +The botanical term includes many that are not 'fruits' in the common sense of the term. such as the vegetables squash, pumpkins, cucumbers, tomato, peas, beans, corn, eggplant, and bell pepper and some spices, such as allspice and chili + +. + +Accessory fruits + +An accessory fruit or false fruit (pseudocarp) is a fruit in which some of the flesh is derived not from the ovary but from some adjacent tissue. + +A fig is a type of accessory fruit called a syconium. Pomes, such as apples and pears, are also accessory fruits: the core is the true fruit. + +Non-botanical fruits +Strictly speaking, these are not botanical fruits: + any produced by non-flowering plants, like juniper berries, which are the seed-containing female cones of conifers. + fleshy fruit-like growths that develop from other plant tissues (like rhubarb). + +Area of agreement +These are fruits which you can buy in shops, and which are also acceptable as botanical fruits: + berry fruits: redcurrant, gooseberry, cranberry, blueberry Also, but not commonly known as berry fruits, are tomato, avocado, banana. + false berries: raspberry, strawberry, blackberry: they are aggregate fruits (see below). The yew berry is not a fruit at all because the yew is a conifer. + stone fruits or drupes: plum, cherry, peach, apricot, olive. + citrus fruits, like oranges, grapefruits, and tangerines. + aggregate fruits: raspberries, blackberries. + multiple fruits: pineapples, figs. + +Many fruits come from trees or bushes. For plants, fruits are a means of dispersal, usually by animals. When the fruit is eaten, the seed(s) are not digested, and get excreted. Where fruits have big stones, just the soft parts are eaten. + +Most fruits we eat contain a lot of water and natural sugars, and many are high in Vitamin C. They have a large amount of dietary fibre. Fruits are usually low in protein and fat content, but avocados and some nuts are exceptions to this. Not only humans, but our closest living relatives (primates) are keen fruit-eaters. So are many other groups of herbivorous mammals and many birds. + +Seedless fruits +Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial bananas, pineapple, and watermelons are examples of seedless fruits. Some citrus fruits, especially oranges, satsumas, mandarin oranges, and grapefruit are valued for their seedlessness. + +Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant which is produced by fertilisation. The method requires normal pollination and fertilisation. + +Related pages + List of fruit + +References + +Basic English 850 words + +Plant anatomy +A farm is a piece of land used to grow crops and/or raise animals. + +People who grow these plants or raise these animals are called farmers. This work is called farming. + +Land that is used to grow plants is called farmland. Land that is used to feed animals with its grass is called pasture. Land that can be used to grow plants for food is called arable land. + +Many farms are very large and can cause damage. In some places farms are many and small, and can also cause damage. Farms provides most of the food for people. Some people farm to eat the food they produce (subsistence agriculture). Other farms, including large ones, sell their products to markets far away in urban areas (commercial or industrial farming). Most subsistence farms are in poorer countries, while industrial farms are in richer countries. + +Kinds of farms + + A farm that produces fruits or nuts is called an orchard. + A farm that produces grapes is called a vineyard. + A farm that raises and trains horses is called a stable. + A farm that produces milk and dairy products is called a dairy farm. + If the animals are raised for meat it is a ranch. + A large farm that produces non-essential crops like tobacco, coffee, cotton or sugarcane is called a plantation. + +Related pages + Farming + Ranch + + +Basic English 850 words +Geography (from Greek: , geographia, literally "earth description") is the study of earth and its people. Its features are things like continents, seas, rivers and mountains. Its inhabitants are all the people and animals that live on it. Its phenomena are the things that happen like tides, winds, and earthquakes. + +A person who is an expert in geography is a geographer. A geographer tries to understand the world and the things that are in it, how they started and how they have changed. + +Geography is divided into two main parts called physical geography and human geography. Physical geography studies the natural environment and human geography studies the human environment. The human environmental studies would include things such as the population in a country, how a country's economy is doing, and more. There is also environmental geography. + +Maps are a main tool of geography, so geographers spend much time making and studying them. Making maps is called cartography, and people who specialize in making maps are cartographers. + +Branches + +Physical geography + +Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere). + +Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including: + +{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" +| || || || +|- +| Biogeography || Climatology & Meteorology || Coastal geography || Environmental management +|- +| || || || +|- +| Geodesy || Geomorphology || Glaciology || Hydrology & Hydrography +|- +| || || || +|- +| Landscape ecology || Oceanography || Pedology || Palaeogeography +|- +| +|- +| Quaternary science +|} + +Human geography + +Human geography is the social science that covers the study of people and their communities, cultures, economies and their interaction with the environment. Geographers studying the human environment may look at: + Population + Countries of the world + Land use + Agriculture + City + Industry + Energy + Pollution + +History +The oldest known world map dates back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC. The best known Babylonian world map is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC. Star charts (maps of the sky) are of similar age. + +During the Middle Ages, people in Europe made fewer maps. People in the eastern countries made more. AbĆ« Zayd al-BalkhÄ« created the "BalkhÄ« school" of mapping in Baghdad. + +Western Europe became known as the leader of geographic thought during the European Renaissance and The Age of Exploration (1400â1600). The printing press made maps and information about the world available to everyone. + +This caused more interest in how the world worked. + +In the 1700s and 1800s scientists started to study the relationship between the environment and its people + +Related pages + Geographer + Geographical renaming + Geopolitics + International Geographical Union + Landform + Map + Navigator + +References + +Other websites + Geography Trainer 1.3 - Educational game aimed at school children + www.geoknow.net - Geography resources at your fingertips! + PopulationData.net + PopulationMondiale.com + Using Literature To Teach Geography in High Schools. ERIC Digest. + Teaching Geography at School and Home. ERIC Digest. + The National Geography Content Standards. ERIC Digest. +Grammar is the study of words, how they are used in sentences, and how they change in different situations. The Ancient Greeks used to call it grammatikÄ tĂ©khnÄ, the craft of letters. It can have any of these meanings: + The study of a language: how it works, and everything about it. This is background research on language. + The study of sentence structure. Rules and examples show how the language should be used. This is a correct usage grammar, as in a textbook or manual/guide. + The system which people learn as they grow up. This is the native-speaker's grammar. + +When we speak, we use the native person's grammar, or as near as we can. When we write, we try to write with correct grammar. So, speaking and writing a language each have their own style. + +Different languages +All languages have their own grammar. Most European languages are rather similar. + +English makes few changes to its word endings ('suffixes'). In the Italic or 'Romance' languages (such as French, Italian, and Spanish), word endings carry a lot of meaning. In English we have just a few: plurals and possessives (John's) are the most common. In our verbs we have dropped most endings except one: I love, you love, but she loves. That final 's' comes from the Anglo-Saxon, which had more suffixes. Verbs do have endings which show changes in tense: walked, walking. + +Word order is the other big difference. Romance languages normally put adjectives after the nouns to which they refer. For example, in English, a person may say I like fast cars, but in Spanish, it is Me gustan los coches rĂĄpidos. The order of the words has changed: if just the words, without the grammar, are translated into English, it would mean 'to me they please the cars fast'. This is because Spanish and English have different rules about word order. In German, verbs often come near the end of sentences (as: Die Katze hat die Nahrung gegessen), whereas in English we usually put them between subject and object, as: the cat has eaten the food. + +Changing language +Written grammar changes slowly but spoken grammar is more fluid. Sentences which English speakers find normal today, might have seemed strange 100 years ago. And they might not, because many of our favourite sayings come from the Authorized King James Version of the Bible, and from Shakespeare. + +Different people speak with grammar that differs from that of other people. For example, people who use the dialects called General American English and BBC English might say, I didn't do anything, while someone who speaks what is called African American Vernacular English or AAVE might say, I didn't do nothing. London working class version: I ain't done nuffink! These are called double negatives, and are found almost entirely in spoken English, and seldom written. + +These differences are called dialects. The dialect a person uses is usually decided by where they live. Even though the dialects of English use different words or word order, they still have grammar rules. However, when writing in American English, grammar uses the rules of General American English. When people talk about using 'proper English', they usually mean using the grammar of general British English, as described in standard reference works. The models for spoken English in Britain are often called Received Pronunciation or BBC English. + +Parts of speech +Grammar studies nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, sentences, phrases, clauses, interjections. + +Nouns +Nouns are 'thing' words like 'table and 'chair'. They are objects, things you see in everyday life. Proper nouns are names of specific places, people, or other things like days of the week. The name 'James' is a proper noun, as is 'Wednesday' and 'London'. Nouns can also be abstract things, such as 'suffering' or 'happiness'. + +Verbs +Verbs are words that describe actions: "Ryan threw the ball". State: "I am worried". The basic verb form is called the infinitive. The infinitive for existence is "to be". A famous example is the speech of Hamlet: To be or not to be, that is the question. + +Variations of the infinitive create verb tenses. + + Past tense = was + +Present tense = is + +Future tense = will/shall + +Adjectives +Adjectives describe nouns. For example, the pretty in "pretty bicycle" says that the bicycle is pretty. In other words, the "pretty" is describing the bicycle. This can also happen with a place. For example, the tall in "that's a tall building" is describing the building. + +Syntax +Grammar studies syntax which is how the "parts of speech" fit together according to rules and create sentences. Sentences fit together and create paragraphs. + +References +The Great Lakes are five large lakes in east-central North America. They hold 21% of the world's surface fresh water. + +The five lakes are: Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario. + +Geography + +Four of the Great Lakes are on the border between Canada and the United States of America. The other, Lake Michigan, is completely inside the United States. + +All together, by volume, they are the largest group of fresh water lakes in the world. No one of the Lakes is larger than Lake Baikal (Russia) or Lake Tanganyika (East Africa). + +The cities of Chicago, Illinois (9.8 million people, on Lake Michigan), Toronto, Ontario (5.5 million, on Lake Ontario); Detroit, Michigan (5.3 million, on the Detroit river); Montreal, Quebec (3.9 million, on the St. Lawrence River), Cleveland, Ohio (2.9 million, on Lake Erie), Buffalo, and Ottawa (1.2 million, Ontario, on the Ottawa River) are on the shores of the Great Lakes or their rivers. + +Though the five lakes have separate basins, they form a single, connected body of freshwater. The lakes connect the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. Lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie are approximately equally high and ships can easily pass from one to the next. Water flows from Lake Superior and Lake Michigan into Lake Huron; then through the Detroit River into Lake Erie; then through Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario; and then through the Saint Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean. Water also drains from the Chicago River on the south. + +Many rivers flow through a large watershed into the lakes. The lakes have about 35,000 islands. The Great Lakes region includes the five lakes and many thousands of smaller lakes, often called inland lakes. + +Lake Michigan and Lake Huron hit all-time record low levels in 2013. + +The unusual shape of the Great Lakes has created the possibility of large waves called seiche. If a storm causes a fast, strong increase in air pressure on one side of a lake, the water level on that side of the lake will drop and suddenly push up the water level on the opposite side of the lake. A 10 foot tall wave in Chicago caused several deaths in 1954. + +Ecological threats +The Great Lakes are home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. In recent years, overfishing caused a decline in lake trout. The drop in lake trout increased the alewife population. In response, the government introduced salmon as a predator to decrease the alewife population. This program was so successful that the salmon population rose rapidly, and the states surrounding Lake Michigan promoted 'salmon snagging'. This has been made illegal in all of the Great Lakes states except for a limited season in Illinois. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species such as lampreys, round goby, and zebra mussels threaten the native fish populations. + +Invasive species +Accidentally introduced species are a big problem. Since the 19th century about 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem, causing severe economic and ecological impacts. According to the Inland Seas Education Association, they deprive fish of food, cause blooms of toxic algae, and foul boats, spawning areas and drinking water intakes. On average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months. + +Two important infestations in the Great Lakes are the zebra mussel, first discovered in 1988, and the quagga mussel in 1989. These molluscs are efficient filter feeders. They compete with native mussels, and also reduce available food and spawning grounds for fish. + +Also, the mussels hurt utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5 billion over the next decade. Because the quagga mussel is good at filtering plankton from the lake water, sunlight reaches deeper into the lake. This increases the growth of algae. + +Pollution +Chemicals from industrial plants run off the land into rivers and arrive in the lakes. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic, such as mercury. Contaminated water from sewer overflows also reaches the lakes, and beaches get closed because of the threat of pathogenic bacteria. + +Notes + +References + + +Lakes of Canada +Geography of Ontario +Lakes of the United States +The GNU Free Documentation License (GNU FDL or simply GFDL) is a copyleft license for open content such as software. It was made by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) for the GNU project. It was initially created for use with software documentation, but can be applied to other types of works as well, such as Wikipedia. + +As a copyright license, the GFDL is a type of contract between the creator of a copyrightable work (such as a book, an encyclopedia article, a painting, or a piece of music) and anyone else who might want to use it. The GFDL is considered "copyleft" because the license is meant to make it easier to use and re-use the copyrighted work, not to restrict its use. + +If a copyrightable work is released under the GFDL, the creator of the work is saying that anyone else may reproduce, distribute, or modify the work, as long as they follow a set of requirements specified in the GFDL. Among the requirements of the GFDL are that any new work created from the original work is also licensed under the GFDLâthat is, once something is licensed as GFDL, it will always stay licensed as GFDL, and anything which uses it also is licensed as GFDL. + +The GFDL also says that in order to distribute or modify a work licensed with the GFDL, the re-user must give credit to any previous authors of the work, and include a list of changes they made to the work. + +Finally, any work licensed with the GFDL must contain, somewhere, the entire text of the license. This provision has been criticized, because it is not always easy to include an entire, long license with a copyrighted work. In a book, for example, it is easy to include one extra page with the license, but if the work is something like a song, or a photograph, it is not easy. + +The GFDL has other requirements that are more complicated. For example, if part of the work is labeled as an "invariant section," it cannot ever be removed or changed by someone using the work ("invariant" means "does not change"). + +Works licensed under the GFDL may be included in with non-GFDL-licensed works only if it is clear which parts of the work are licensed as the GFDL. For example, in a book of poetry it would be easy to label some poems as licensed under the GFDL and some not licensed under it. But it would not be easy to label if part of a song was licensed as GFDL and the rest was not, so this would not be allowed. + +Any use of GFDL material which violates the terms of the GFDL is potentially copyright infringement. Infringement issues are managed through a community based approach with the approval and assistance of the Free Software Foundation. + +A number of online projects use the GFDL. An online project to license its content under the GFDL is Wikipedia. + +The GFDL has been criticized by many people who wish that it made it even easier for content to be re-used. Among the criticisms are that it is very hard to combine GFDL material with other copyleft licenses, that it is not always clear and easy to understand, and that some of its requirements, such as the "invariant sections", are not free at all. + +History +The GFDL was released in draft form for feedback in September 1999. After revisions, version 1.1 was issued in March 2000, version 1.2 in November 2002, and version 1.3 in November 2008. The current state of the license is version 1.3. + +Conditions +Material licensed under the current version of the license can be used for any purpose, as long as the use meets certain conditions. + +All previous authors of the work must be credited. +All changes to the work must be logged. +All derivative works must be licensed under the same license. +The full text of the license, unmodified invariant sections as defined by the author if any, and any other added warranty disclaimers (such as a general disclaimer alerting readers that the document may not be accurate for example) and copyright notices from previous versions must be maintained. +Technical measures such as DRM may not be used to control or obstruct distribution or editing of the document. + +Related pages + + BSD license + Copyleft + Copyright + Free software license + GNU + Non-commercial educational + Open content + Simple English "translation" of the GFDL text + Share-alike + Software licensing + +References + +Other websites + + FSF guide to the new drafts of documentation licenses + GFDL official text + Free Software and Free Manuals, essay by Richard Stallman + Apple's Common Documentation License , an alternative license +Software licences +Glass is a hard material that can be made in many shapes. It is usually transparent, but it can also be made in colours. Glass is mainly made of silica; glass made of silica only is called silica glass. It originated in India. + +Glass used to make windows and bottles is a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of about 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives. + +By changing the proportions, and adding different ingredients, many kinds of glass can be made. Coloured glass is made by adding small amounts of metal oxides. For example, a blue colour is given by tiny amounts of cobalt oxide. + +Crystal glass is made by adding lead and zinc oxides. It is not actually a crystal because all glass is a non-crystalline solid. Crystal glass is called cut glass if it has been cut by hand: +" 'Cut glass' is glass that has been decorated entirely by hand by use of rotating wheels. Cuts are made in an otherwise completely smooth surface of the glass by workers holding and moving the piece against various sized metal or stone wheels". + +Because glass is used to make lenses, the word "glasses" often means eyeglasses. + +The myth that glass is actually a liquid comes from the fact that old windows in houses and churches (200â300 years old) are sometimes a little out of shape: thicker at the bottom than the top. This is actually due to the process of glass making in the past which led to the glass pane being thicker at one edge than the other. It was sensible to install the windows with the thick edge at the bottom. Sometimes a window can be found with the thick edge at the top of the window. + +Glass can be recycled over and over. Glass bottles and jars can easily be recycled to make new glass bottles and jars or used in industry as aggregate (building material) or sand. + +References + +Other websites + + Corning Museum of Glass + A comprehensive guide to art glass and crystal around the world + Working Description Furnace & Moleria - Murano Glass + Informative website about the glass industry + Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass + Almost 400 articles and images about glass (mostly art glass) + + +Basic English 850 words +God is a being or spirit worshipped as a deity. He is considered to be the creator of the universe in some religions. Theists believe that God created everything that exists and has ever existed. Some theists think God is immortal (cannot die) and has power without limits. Deism is the belief that God exists, but God does not very often change or never changes things in the universe. Pantheism is the belief that the universe is God, while atheism is the belief that there are no deities. Agnostics think we cannot know for sure whether God or gods exist, but still might (or might not) believe at least one deity exists. People who believe that the word "God" should be defined before taking a theological position are ignostic. + +In some religions, there is only one deity, God. This is called monotheism. Some monotheistic religions are the Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), the BahĂĄ'Ă Faith, and Sikhism. In other religions there are many gods. This is polytheism. Some polytheistic religions are Hinduism, Shinto, Taoism, paganism, Wicca and some variants of Buddhism. Some say that there is one God who can come in many forms, or that there is one God that is more powerful than the other gods. + +In philosophy and theology, people normally write about a God that has a personality but no body and is everywhere at once; that God made the world and time and is separate from the world; that no-one made God; that God knows everything and has all power; that God is both free and good; and that God is perfect and the start of all morality. + +There are different names for God in different religions. Some examples are Yahweh, Elohim in Judaism and Christianity, Allah in Islam, Baha in BahĂĄ'Ă Faith, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. + +In English, people write the words "god" and "gods" are in lowercase letters. People that believe in only on god (monotheists) like to write God with a capital letter. Some people that believe in more than one god (polytheists) also like to use capital letters when writing about their gods. Most people that believe in God or gods do not believe in the gods of other religions. + +Does God exist? +Many people have asked themselves if God exists. Philosophers, theologians, and others have tried to prove that it exists. Others have tried to disprove the hypothesis. In philosophical terminology, such arguments are about the epistemology of the ontology of God. The debate exists mainly in philosophy, because science does not address whether or not supernatural things exist. + +There are many philosophical issues with the existence of God. Some definitions of God are not specific. Arguments for the existence of God typically include metaphysical, empirical, inductive, and subjective types. Some theories try to explain order and complexity in the world without evolution or scientific method. Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive arguments. Conclusions sometimes include: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost certainly does not exist" (de facto atheism); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism); "God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (deism or theism); and "God exists and this can be proven" (theism). There are many variations on these positions, and sometimes different names for some of them. For example, the position "God exists and this can be proven" is sometimes called "gnostic theism" or "strong theism". + +Believing in God + +By the year 2000, approximately 53% of the world's population were part of one of the three main Abrahamic religions (33% Christian, 20% Islam, less than 1% Judaism), 6% with Buddhism, 13% with Hinduism, 6% with traditional Chinese religion, 7% with various other religions, and less than 15% as non-religious. Most of these religious beliefs involve God or gods. Some religions do not believe in a god or do not include the concept of gods. + +God in the Abrahamic religions +Abrahamic religions are very popular monotheistic ones. Well-known Abrahamic religions include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Monotheistic means the people in these religions believe there is only one God. The name of God is usually not allowed to be said in Judaism, but some Jews today call him YHWH (Yahweh) or Jehovah. Muslims say the word Allah, which is the Arabic word for "God". + +Believers in the Abrahamic religions (except Islamic believers) believe that God has created human beings in his image, but this idea is not easily understood by humankind. One artistic idea is that of an wise elder man in use since the Renaissance. + +God in Christianity + +The Christian Bible talks about God in different ways. Within Christian canon the Old Testament talks about "God the Father", whilst the Gospels in the New Testament are about Jesus, or "God the Son". Many Christians believe that Jesus was God's incarnation on Earth. Christians consider the Holy Spirit to be God as well, the third person of God. + +In the New Testament, there are three beings who are said to be God in different forms: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (also known as the Holy Ghost). This is called the Trinity. Although the word "Trinity" is not in the Bible, the word used for God in chapter one of Genesis is actually plural, and the phrase "in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit' is used in the New Testament, (e.g. Matthew 28:19). Another word that Christians believe has exactly the same meaning as "Trinity" is the word "Godhead", which is in the Bible. + +Christians believe that God incarnated in a human body, through the normal birth process, normally growing up into a man named Jesus or (Yeshua), coming to Earth specifically to give every person an opportunity of salvation from their own evil, called sin. The effect of personal evil far transcends the repercussions humans cause to one another in the world, but affects one's relationship with God the Father, and that aspect of the self cannot be addressed through one's own self-improvement efforts, but requires God to intervene in order to set one right. When Jesus prayed and talked to God, he called him "Father," and taught others to do the same. + +Jesus also taught that one must be born again in order to receive God's Spirit, otherwise one remains separated from God, acting merely from their own mind, thus being vulnerable to deception by human philosophies or the many spiritual philosophies which do not come from God but from fallen angels, which are within various false religions. After a person consciously accepts the free gift of eternal life, which Jesus's sacrifice offers, God comes to live in the individual, as God lived in humankind before the Fall. + +God in Eastern religions +In Hinduism, there is only one God, named Brahman, but Brahman is said to have taken on many different incarnations. Some of these are Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Shiva, Kali, Parvati, and Durga. To many outsiders, the worship of God's different incarnations is considered to be the worship of many gods. However, it is really only the worship of one God in different ways. + +Some Hindus also believe that the spirit of God lives in everyone. This idea is called Advaita Vedanta, which is the Hindu term for Monism. + +Religions like Buddhism and Confucianism involve the worship of many gods, or sometimes no gods at all. + +In Shinto, there is not a single specific God, as is in most religions, but instead, a wide variety of deities called kami, they are the spirit and essence of all nature things, both animate and inanimate, even including rocks, trees and poetry, for example. As Shinto is a polytheistic religion, it is usually believed that there are eight-million Kami (ć «çŸäžăźç„ yaoyorozu-no-kami), in the Japanese language, the number "eight-million" is normally used to mean infinity. + +God in Western philosophy +Philosophers can talk about God or god; sometimes they talk about a specific god, but other times they are just talking about the idea of god. + +One of the earliest Western philosophers to write about God in a monotheistic way was the Greek Aristotle, who describes god as the Supreme Cause. Aristotle saw God as a being that makes everything happen, but is not influenced by anything else. + +The idea of an "all powerful" God raises some interesting questions. One of them is called the God paradox. It asks whether God can make a mountain (or rock) that is so heavy he cannot lift it. The question considers if a god "who can do anything" could do two things that are mutually contradictory. + +There have been several attempts to prove the existence of God with logic. Blaise Pascal said that it is better to believe there is a god, than to believe there isn't. This argument is known as Pascal's wager today. Note that Blaise Pascal was a mathematician, and he used this argument to illustrate the concept of expected value in statistics. Other attempts known as the ontological argument, the cosmological argument, and teleological argument today. Kurt Gödel formulated an argument for the existence of God using modal logic in the 1970s. + +Related pages +Cosmogony +Deity +Thomas Aquinas +Immanuel Kant + +References + +Gods and goddesses +In folklore, a ghost is thought to be the spirit of a dead person which tried very much to scare us or they are referred to as the supernatural by others. Scientists say that there are no real ghosts, but many people believe that there are. There are a huge amount of stories about ghosts in books and movies. Sometimes the ghost is the spirit of a person who was killed by someone or who was already dead. + +The ghost may stay on Earth because he or she has unfinished problems or is still trying to say goodbye to people who they missed. Sometimes ghosts are said to live in a particular locality, for example an abandoned house or a place that existed hundreds of years ago. + +Sometimes the ghosts in these stories exist because of some problem the person had during life or to say goodbye to loved ones, that was not solved before he or she died. The ghost stays on Earth trying to fix the problem. If the problem is fixed, the ghost can leave. Many people say they have seen or heard ghosts. People who try to talk to ghosts as their job are called mediums. + +There can be bad ghosts and there can also be good ones. There have never been any ghosts that have actually hurt or killed people, although people tell stories about it. + +Many people believe they have seen ghosts. Others believe they have felt ghosts near them. Often the ghost is said to appear as a feeling of cold and a light or a misty cloud, but sometimes people say they have seen ghosts that look more like people. Sometimes ghosts are said to come in human form. Some ghosts might cause fear in the person who sees them, by being seen suddenly. Some ghosts are said to be friendly and help people who have problems. People or animals that can sense ghosts cannot feel them touching them as they are the spirit of a person, or a personified force. + +Ghosts are said to form right after people die, or even centuries later. Many people make up stories or urban legends. Many try to prove the existence of these paranormal creatures with special technology such as heat sensors. They also make TV shows dedicated to proving the existence of ghosts. They often investigate cases where a person has seen one or visit a place of sighting. + +Stories of ghosts can be found all over the world. Chinese philosopher Confucius said "Respect ghosts and gods, but keep away from them." + +The most feared spirit in Thailand is Phi Tai Hong, the ghost of a person who has died suddenly of a violent death. The Koran discusses spirits known as jinn. In Europe there is the recurring fear of "returning" or revenant deceased who may harm the living. This includes the Scandinavian , the Romanian , the Serbian vampir, the Greek vrykolakas among others. + +Modern times + +In modern days, ghosts have become common features in horror and fantasy stories. Their appearance can take the form of the person they once were or sometimes they are depicted wearing white cloaks over their body and face. + +At Halloween, many people dress up as ghosts. + +Related pages +Spiritual sĂ©ance + +References + +Other websites + + Ghost and the musical traditions within the County of Nice, France + Ghostsandstories.com Ghost stories and haunted places. + Your Ghost Stories People sharing their ghost experiences. + +Occult +Afterlife +Green is a color between the yellow and blue colors in the rainbow. Green is a primary color (a color that can be mixed with another color) of light. The others are red and blue. + +Green and blue are next to each other on the spectrum, and there are languages which do not distinguish between them. Examples are old Chinese, Thai, old Japanese, and Vietnamese. + +Green paint can be made by mixing yellow paint and blue tempera paint together. + +Green light, like all light, is quantaâcomposed of photons. The wavelength of green light is about 550 nanometers (one-billionth of a meter). + +Most leaves of growing plants, such as trees and bushes, are green. This is because there is a chemical in leaves, called chlorophyll, which is colored green. + +See color vision for more on the significance of green. + +Meaning of green + Green is used as a color associated with jealousy. The phrase "green-eyed monster" means a jealous person. + + The color green is the color of nature. Having a "green thumb" means that you're good at gardening. + +Green is a color associated with poison. Paris green is a highly toxic chemical compound. + +Green is a color of the Islamic religion. Search the shade "Islamic Green" below. + + Green is also the color of sickness. The phrase "green around the gills" is an expression implying that the person is nauseated. + +Comparison of green, teal, blue and ultramarine + +Tones of green color comparison chart +Green is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by range with a wavelength of roughly 570-520 nm. + +Related pages + + Color vision + List of colors + Chartreuse green + Emerald green + Erin + Fruitamins +Grape +Gray-green +Harlequin green + Kiwi green + Lime green + Mint green + Olive green + Parrot + Spring green + Sweet Lime green + Viridian + +References + +Basic English 850 words +God's eye view is a name for a point of view where the speaker or writer assumes he or she has knowledge only God would have. It appears several ways: + +In religion, when an institution claims to speak for a divine being. + +In writing, when a writer leaves the point of view of the main actor to start writing about things they could not know if the story were in real life. + +In science, when a scientist ignores the way a subject-object problem affects statistics or an observer effect affects experiment. + +In medicine when a doctor makes a claim that The Gaze they use on a patient, actually sees the problem, rather than making a guess at a problem. + +In ethics when a statement is made about who or what is right, without an honest attempt to make the process of deciding this consider all points of view. + +A special case of the last is in a wiki with a GodKing. Often this person can get others to believe what they say about what is right, without making any special effort to be fair to other views. + +Many people think RenĂ© Descartes took a God's eye view when he said cogito ergo sum. George Berkeley argued that optics from Isaac Newton and Johannes Kepler also had this problem. + +Social sciences +Google LLC is an American multinational corporation from the United States. It is known for creating and running one of the largest search engines on the World Wide Web (WWW). Every day more than a billion people use it. Google's headquarters (known as the "Googleplex") is in Mountain View, California, part of Silicon Valley. The motto of Google is "Do the right thing". + +Since September 2, 2015, Google has been owned by a holding company called Alphabet Inc.. That company has taken over some of Google's other projects, such as its driverless cars. It is a public company that trades on the NASDAQ under the ticker symbols GOOG and GOOGL. + +Google's search engine can find pictures, videos, news, Usenet newsgroups, and things to buy online. By June 2004, Google had 4.28 billion web pages on its database, 880 million pictures and 845 million Usenet messagesâsix billion things. Google's American website has an Alexa rank of 1, meaning it is the most widely visited website in the world. It is so widely known that people sometimes use the word "google" as a verb that means "to search for something on Google". Because more than half of people on the web use it, "google" has also been used to mean "to search the web". + +History +Larry Page and Sergey Brin, two students at Stanford University, USA, started BackRub in early 1996. They made it into a company, Google Inc., on September 7, 1998, at a friend's garage in Menlo Park, California. In February 1999, the company moved to 165 University Ave., Palo Alto, California, and then moved to another place called the Googleplex. + +In September 2001, Google's rating system (PageRank, for saying which information is more helpful) got a U.S. Patent. The patent was to Stanford University, with Lawrence (Larry) Page as the inventor (the person who first had the idea). + +Google makes a percentage of its money through America Online and InterActiveCorp. It has a special group known as the Partner Solutions Organization (PSO) which helps make contracts, helps to make accounts better and gives engineering help. + +Advertising +Google makes money by advertising. People or companies who want people to buy their product, service, or ideas give Google money, and Google shows an advertisement to people Google thinks will click on the advertisement. Google only gets money when people click on the link, so it tries to know as much about people as possible to only show the advertisement to the "right people". It does this with Google Analytics, which sends data back to Google whenever someone visits a website. From this and other data, Google makes a profile about the person and then uses this profile to figure out which advertisements to show. + +Branding +The name "Google" is a misspelling of the word googol. Milton Sirotta, nephew of U.S. mathematician Edward Kasner, made this word in 1937, for the number 1 followed by one hundred zeroes (10100). Google uses this word because the company wants to make lots of stuff on the Web easy to find and use. Andy Bechtolsheim thought of the name. + +The name for Google's main office, the "Googleplex," is a play on a different, even bigger number, the "googolplex", which is 1 followed by one googol of zeroes 1010100. + +Products + Android is an operating system for mobile devices and was originally made by Google as part of the Open Handset Alliance, which Google leads. It is the chief competitor to Apple's iOS and Windows Phone by Microsoft (now discontinued). + Google Adsense is a free program that enables website publishers of all sizes to display relevant Google ads and earn money. + Google Analytics is the enterprise-class web analytics solution that gives one rich insights into his website traffic and marketing effectiveness. + Google Alerts Google Alerts are email updates of the latest relevant Google results (web, news, etc.) based on one's choice of query or topic. + Google Allo was software for discussing with other people live. + Google Assistant is a virtual assistant application built into Android devices. + Blogger is a free tool that allows users to publish blogs on a Google website. + Google Books lets people search for books. + Google Calendar is an online calendar. + Google Chrome is a web browser that Google made. +Google Classroom is an online system for students. It was popular during COVID-19. + Google Docs is an online Google full of docs. + Google Drive is an online document editor. + Google Earth is the 3D version of Google Maps with a digital globe. + Google Groups is a place for users to discuss topics. Google bought Deja News in 2001 and made it into Google Groups. + Google Images is an image search utility. + Google Maps is a service from Google to provide satellite pictures and road maps for everywhere around the world. + Google News is a facility which shows news stories from over 4,500 news sources. Google News Archives + Google Pay is a way to pay online. Users can send money using their credit cards or bank accounts to other users. + Google Photos is a software for organizing and editing photos. +Google Play is a sector that has games, and other things. + Google Products is a pack of Google software. + Google Search is a search utility. + Google Shopping lets the user find out about things for sale on the Internet. + Google Translate is an online translation service. It can translate websites and text into other languages. + Google Sites is a service for making websites. + Google Video is a video search utility. + Google+ was a social networking service that is like Facebook. The service launched on June 28, 2011. + Gmail is an e-mail service that Google started in 2004. It is called Google Mail in the United Kingdom and Germany. Users get free space to store e-mail. + Hangouts is an instant messenger where one can talk to friends. It ended up shutting down on November 1, 2021. + Sidewalk Labs + Tenor is a search utility for GIF files + Waze is a navigation service that gives driving directions. +YouTube is a video hosting service which was bought by Google from PayPal for 1.65 billion dollars and now runs as a Google service. + +References + +Notes + +Other websites + + + The search engine + + + + +1998 establishments in the United States +Companies listed on NASDAQ +Mountain View, California +Search engines +Companies based in California +A gallon is a volumetric unit of measurement. People have used many different gallons throughout history. Only two gallons are still commonly used, which are the imperial and U.S. liquid gallon.This is 3,57 liter + +Sale of petrol +Petrol, also known as gasoline, is sold by the imperial gallon in four British Overseas Territories (Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, and Montserrat) and six countries (Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines). All of the countries and territories just mentioned also use miles per hour for speed limits and drive on the left side of the road. + +Gasoline is sold by the U.S. gallon in Belize, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, and Peru, as well as in the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau. + +Sizes + +References + +Imperial units +Units of volume +A government is a group of people that have the power to rule in a territory, according to the administrative law. This territory may be a country, a state or province within a country, or a region. There are many types of government, such as democratic, parliamentary, presidential, federal or unitary. + +Works +Governments make laws, rules and regulations, collect taxes and print money. +Governments have monopolies on the legal use of force. +Governments have systems of justice that list the acts or activities that are against the law and describe the punishments for breaking the law. +Governments have a police force to make sure people follow the laws. +Governments have diplomats who communicate with the governments of other countries by having meetings. Diplomats try to solve problems or disagreements between two countries, which can help countries to avoid war, make commercial agreements, and exchange cultural or social experiences and knowledge. +Governments have a military force such as an army that protects the country from terrorists and other major threats that attack or which can be used to attack and invade other countries. +The leader of a government may have advisors and ministers for various departments. Together they are called the administration. + +Types of governments +Plato listed five kinds of government in The Republic: + +Democracy +The most common type of government in the Western world is called democracy. In democracies, people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or political parties that they prefer. The people in democracies can elect representatives who will sit on legislatures such as the Parliament or Congress. Political parties are organizations of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people. + +However, many countries have forms of democracy which limit freedom of choice by the voters. One of the most common ways is to limit which parties can stand for parliament, or limit the parties' access to mass media such as television. Another way is to rig (unfairly manipulate or interfere with) the voting system by removing votes from opposition voters and substituting votes for the party in power. Few countries are textbook (classic, paradigmatic) democracies, and the differences between them has been much studied. + +Monarchy +A monarchy is a government ruled by a king or a queen who inherits their position from their family, which is often called the "royal family." There are two types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers. In a constitutional monarchy a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a constitution. + +In modern times, monarchies still exist in Great Britain and the Commonwealth, the Netherlands, Spain, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and Thailand, along with several other countries. A monarch may have one of several titles: King or Queen, Emperor or Empress, or Emir. + +Aristocracy +An aristocracy is a government run by the people of a ruling class, usually people who come from wealthy families with a particular set of values, or people who come from a particular place. A person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat. Aristocracy is different from nobility, in that nobility means that one bloodline would rule, whereas an aristocracy would mean that a few or many bloodlines would rule, or that rulers be chosen in a different manner. + +Dictatorship +Under a dictatorship, the government is run by one person who has all the power over the people in a country. A dictatorship may also be called one-man rule, autocracy or tyranny. + +Originally, the Roman Republic made dictators to lead during time of war. The Roman dictators (and Greek tyrants) were not always cruel or unkind, but they did hold power all by themselves, rather than sharing power with the people. Roman dictators only held power for a short period of time. + +In modern times, a dictator's rule is not stopped by any laws, constitutions, or other social and political institutions, and can last many years or even decades. After leaving the Spanish Empire, many countries in Latin America were dictatorships. World War II was partly a war between dictators, and later new countries in Asia and Africa also were ruled by dictators. Examples of dictators include Josef Stalin, Adolf Hitler, Augusto Pinochet, Idi Amin, Muammar al-Qaddafi, and Gamal Abdul Nasser. These men ruled from when they took power until when they died, because they would not let anyone else take power from them. There is no evidence of a woman serving as a dictator in modern times. + +Oligarchy +An oligarchy is a government ruled by a small group of powerful people. These people may spread power equally or not equally. More so a different version of a monarchy, where everyone makes decisions together instead of one person making them all or telling people what to do, such as in a Dictatorship. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or passed down from father to son. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people. Some past examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Apartheid South Africa. A fictional example is the dystopian society of Oceania in the book Nineteen Eighty-Four. Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy. This view is shared by anarchists. An oligarchy may have a leader in the ruling group. + +The history and the theory of government +The simplest idea of government is those who rule over people and land. This may be as small as a community or village or as big as a continent (like Australia and India). + +The people who rule can allow others to own land. It is a deed by government that gives this right in the way that laws describe. Some think they have the right to hold land without government permission. This view is called libertarianism. Others think they can do without government. This view is called anarchism. + +Almost every place on Earth is connected to one and only one government. Places without government are where people follow traditions instead of government rules, small border disputed areas and the continent of Antarctica, because almost no people live there. For every other place on Earth there is a government that claims 'sovereign control' over it. The word "sovereign" is old and means "control by a King" (sovereign). Governments of villages, cities, counties and other communities are subordinate to the government of the state or province where they exist, and then to that of the country. + +It is from Kings and feudalism that modern governments and nation states came. The capital of a country, for instance, is where the King kept his assets. From this we get the modern idea of capital in economics. A government may regulate trade as well as to rule over land. + +Governments also control people and decide things about what morality to accept or punish. In many countries, there are strict rules about sexual intercourse and drugs which are part of law and offenders are punished for disobeying them. + +Tax is how government is paid for in most countries. People who buy, sell, import, invest, own a house or land, or earn money are made to pay some of the money to a government. + +There are many theories of how to organize government better. These are called theories of civics. Many people think leaders must be elected by some kind of democracy. That way, they can be replaced at election. Many governments are not a democracy but other forms in which only a few people have power. + +There are many theories of how to run a government better, and keep people from hurting each other. These theories are part of politics. + +Related pages + + Constitution + Horseshoe Theory + Justice system + Law + Legal rights + Local government + Political economy + State + Big Government + +References + +Basic English 850 words +A galaxy is a group of many stars, with gas, dust, and dark matter. The name 'galaxy' is taken from the Greek word galaxia meaning milky, a reference to our own galaxy, the Milky Way. + +Gravity holds galaxies together against the general expansion of the universe. In effect, the expansion of the universe takes place between groups of galaxies, not inside those groups. Gravity holds the galaxy together. The same applies to groups and clusters of galaxies, such as our Local Group where the Milky Way is, and the Virgo Cluster, a collection of more than 1,000 (might even be 2,000) galaxies. The gravitation is produced by the matter and energy in a galaxy or group of galaxies. Everything in a galaxy moves around a centre of mass, which is also an effect of gravity. + +There are various types of galaxies: elliptical, spiral and lenticular galaxies, which can all be with or without bars. Then there are irregular galaxies. All galaxies exist inside the universe. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (1012) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth). + +Description +There are galaxies of different sizes and type. Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (107) stars up to giants with a hundred trillion (1014) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass. Galaxies may contain many multiple star systems, star clusters, and various interstellar clouds. The Sun is one of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy; the Solar System includes the Earth and all the other objects that orbit the Sun. + +Star clusters are not galaxies, they are inside galaxies. Globular clusters are spherical-shaped star clusters which are part of the outer halo of the Milky Way. One of the largest (and oldest) known star clusters, Messier 15, has several million stars, packed closely together, with a black hole at its centre. The stars are too closely packed to get an accurate count, but it certainly has more stars than some of the smaller galaxies. + +Within galaxy clusters, galaxies move relative to other galaxies. They can and do collide. When this happens, the stars generally move past each other, but gas clouds and dust interact, and can form a burst of new stars. Gravity pulls both galaxies into somewhat new shapes, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures. + +Many galaxies continue to form new generations of stars. The Milky Way, and all spiral shaped galaxies like it (see right side image of NGC 2997), produce new stars at a rate of one or two stars per year. This star formation happens in the vast interstellar clouds that account for about 1% to 10% of the mass of these galaxies. Globular star clusters, on the other hand, are not currently forming stars because this activity happened billions of years ago and then stopped once all of the gas and dust clouds were used up. + +In the astronomical literature, the word 'Galaxy' with a capital G is used for our galaxy, the Milky Way. The billions of other galaxies are written as 'galaxy' with a lowercase g. The term Milky Way first came out in the English language in a poem by Chaucer. + +When William Herschel wrote his catalogue of deep sky objects, he used the name spiral nebula for objects like the Andromeda Galaxy. 200 years later astronomers discovered that they are made of stars as the Milky Way is, so the term 'nebula' is now only used for diffuse structures within a galaxy. + +Types + +There are two main kinds of galaxies, spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy. They are classified according to the Hubble Sequence. + +Spiral galaxy + +A spiral galaxy is a galaxy that has a spiral shape. Most of the galaxies in the universe observed by astronomers are spiral galaxies (about 77%). + +They are divided into two : + Barred spiral galaxy (classified as "SB") + Unbarred spiral galaxy (classified as "SA") +NGC 1300 and NGC 1672 are examples of barred spiral galaxies. The Whirlpool galaxy and Messier 81 are examples of unbarred spiral galaxies. + +The identifying characteristics of a spiral galaxy are disk-shaped rotating, spiral arms, and a bulge in the galactic core. The spiral arms are where new hot stars are born. "Bulge" in the galactic core has old stars. This feature is common to the most spiral galaxies. + +Elliptical galaxy + +An elliptical galaxy is a galaxy that has a ellipsoid (3D of ellipse) shape. This type of galaxy are dominant in universe, especially in galaxy clusters. The shape ranges from circle, ellipse, and cigar-shaped. In Hubble Sequence, this shape can be represented as class : + E0 (circle-shape) + E53 (ellipse-shape) + E7 (cigar-shaped) +Elliptical galaxies have a large range in size. The giant elliptical galaxy can be over a more 1 million light years and the smallest (know as "dwarf elliptical galaxy") are less than one-tenth the size of Milky Way The effective radius defines the area from which half its light comes. The mass of elliptical galaxy is also large. A giant elliptical galaxy can have mass of 1013 (many trillions) of solar masses. + +Other kinds of galaxies + + +A lenticular galaxy is a galaxy seen as a disc shape. The shape of a lenticular galaxy can be between spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy. The shape can be known by looking at the bulge of the galactic center. If the bulge is very bright, it is a spiral galaxy + +Related pages +List of galaxies +List of nearest galaxies +Most distant things +Local Group +IC 1101: the largest known galaxy, with about 100 trillion stars. +Milky Way +Andromeda galaxy + +References + +Other websites + + Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages + An Atlas of The Universe + Galaxies â Information and amateur observations + The oldest galaxy yet found + Galaxies â discussed on BBC Radio 4's "In Our Time" programme + Galaxy classification project, harnessing the power of the internet and the human brain + How many galaxies are in our universe? +Geometry (from Ancient Greek: ÎΔÏΌΔÏÏία (romanized: Geometria (English: "Land measurement") derived from Îη (romanized: Ge; English: "Earth" or "land") and also derived from ÎÎÏÏÎżÎœ) (romanized: MĂ©tron; English: "A measure")) is a branch of mathematics that studies the size, shapes, positions and dimensions of things. We can only see shapes that are flat (2D) or solid (3D), but mathematicians (people who study math) are able to study shapes that are 4D, 5D, 6D, and so on. + +Squares, circles and triangles are some of the simplest shapes in flat geometry. Cubes, cylinders, cones and spheres are simple shapes in solid geometry. + +Uses +Plane geometry can be used to measure the area and perimeter of a flat shape. Solid geometry can measure a solid shape's volume and surface area. + +Geometry can be used to calculate the size and shape of many things. For example, geometry can help people find: + the surface area of a house, so they can buy the right amount of paint + the volume of a box, to see if it is big enough to hold a liter of food + the area of a farm, so it can be divided into equal parts + the distance around the edge of a pond, to know how much fencing to buy. + +Origins +Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. Geometry began as the art of surveying of land so that it could be shared fairly between people. The word "geometry" is from a Greek word that means "to measure the land". It has grown from this to become one of the most important parts of mathematics. The Greek mathematician Euclid wrote the first book about geometry, a book called The Elements. + +Non-Euclidean geometry +Plane and solid geometry, as described by Euclid in his textbook Elements, is called "Euclidean Geometry". This was simply called "geometry" for centuries. In the 19th century, mathematicians created several new kinds of geometry that changed the rules of Euclidean geometry. These and earlier kinds were called "non-Euclidean" (not created by Euclid). For example, hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry come from changing Euclid's parallel postulate. + +Non-Euclidean geometry is more complicated than Euclidean geometry but has many uses. Spherical geometry for example is used in astronomy and cartography. + +Examples +Geometry starts with a few simple ideas that are thought to be true, called axioms. Such as: + A point is shown on paper by touching it with a pencil or pen, without making any sideways movement. We know where the point is, but it has no size. + A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. For example, Sophie pulls a piece of string from one point to another point. A straight line between the two points will follow the path of the tight string. + A plane is a flat surface that does not stop in any direction. For example, imagine a wall that extends in all directions infinitely. + +Related pages + Topology + +References +Graph theory is a field of mathematics about graphs. A graph is an abstract representation of: a number of points that are connected by lines. Each point is usually called a vertex (more than one are called vertices), and the lines are called edges. Graphs are a tool for modelling relationships. They are used to find answers to a number of problems. + +Some of these questions are: + What is the best way for a mailman to get to all of the houses in the area in the least amount of time? The points could represent street corners and lines could represent the houses along the street. (see Chinese postman problem) + A salesman has to visit different customers, but wants to keep the distance traveled as small as possible. The problem is to find a way so they can do it. This problem is known as Travelling Salesman Problem (and often abbreviated TSP). It is among the hardest problems to solve. If a commonly believed conjecture is true (described as P â NP), then an exact solution requires one to try all possible routes to find which is shortest. + How many colors would be needed to color a map, if countries sharing a border are colored differently? The points could represent the different areas and the lines could represent that two areas are neighboring. (look at the Four color theorem) + Can a sketch be drawn in one closed line? The lines of the drawing are the lines of the graph and when two or more lines collide, there is a point in the graph. The task is now to find a way through the graph using each line one time. (look at Seven Bridges of Königsberg) + +Different kinds of graphs + + Graph theory has many aspects. Graphs can be directed or undirected. An example of a directed graph would be the system of roads in a city. Some streets in the city are one way streets. This means, that on those parts there is only one direction to follow. + Graphs can be weighted. An example would be a road network, with distances, or with tolls (for roads). + The nodes (the circles in the schematic) of a graph are called vertices. The lines connecting the nodes are called edges. There can be no line between two nodes, there can be one line, or there can be multiple lines. + In graph theory, Trees structures are widely used, they represent hierarchical structures. A Tree is a directed or undirected graph where there is no cycle, meaning: no way of going from one vertex (for example a town) to the same one using each edge you use only once (walking only once on each road you take). + +History + â + â + +A visualization of the Seven Bridges of Königberg. Leonhard Euler solved this problem in 1736, which led to the development of topology, and modern graph theory. + +A graph is an abstract data structure. It holds nodes that are usually related to each other. A node is a dataset, typically in the form of ordered pairs. Nodes are either connected or not connected to another node. The relation between nodes is usually defined as an Edge. Graphs are useful for their ability to associate nodes with other nodes. +There are a few representations of Graphs in practice. + +Leonhard Euler used to live in a town called Königsberg. (Its name changed to Kaliningrad in 1946). The town is on the river Pregel. There is an island in the river. There are some bridges across the river. Euler wanted to walk around and use each of the bridges once. He asked if he could do this. In 1736, he published a scientific article where he showed that this was not possible. Today, this problem is known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg. The article is seen as the first paper in the history of graph theory. + +This article, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the knight problem, carried on with the analysis situs initiated by Leibniz. Euler's formula was about the number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized by Cauchy and L'Huillier, and is at the origin of topology. + +The fusion of the ideas coming from mathematics with those coming from chemistry is at the origin of a part of the standard terminology of graph theory. In particular, the term "graph" was introduced by Sylvester in an article published in 1878 in Nature. + +One of the most famous and productive problems of graph theory is the four color problem: "Is it true that any map drawn in the plane may have its regions colored with four colors, in such a way that any two regions having a common border have different colors?" + +Graph theory in perspective +Graph theory is an important part of mathematics and computer science. To many such problems, exact solutions do exist. Many times however, they are very hard to calculate. Therefore, very often, approximations are used. There are two kinds of such approximations, Monte-Carlo algorithms and Las-Vegas algorithms. + +References + +Related pages +Data structure +A goatee is a beard formed by a tuft of hair under the chin, resembling that of a billy goat. + +Other websites +Information on goatees + +Facial hair +Herm is the smallest of the Channel Islands that is open to the public. + +Herm is only 1 miles long. Cars are banned from the small island just like its Channel Island neighbour, Sark. Unlike Sark, bicycles are banned too. The sandy white beaches make Herm a walker's paradise. + +Population: 60 (2002). + +Islands of the Channel Islands +History is the study of past events. People know what happened in the past by looking at things from the past including sources (like books, newspapers, scripts and letters), buildings and artifacts (like pottery, tools, coins and human or animal remains.) Libraries, archives, and museums collect and keep these things for people to study history. A person who studies history is called a historian. A person who studies pre-history and history through things left behind by ancient cultures is called an archaeologist. A person who studies mankind and society is called an anthropologist. The study of the sources and methods used to study and write history is called historiography. + +People can learn about the past by talking to people who remember things that happened at some point in the past. This is called oral history. For example, when people who had been slaves and American Civil War survivors got old, some historians recorded them talking about their lives, so that history would not be lost. + +In old times people in different parts of the world kept separate histories because they did not meet each other very often. Some groups of people never met each other. The rulers of Medieval Europe, Ancient Rome and Ancient China each thought that they ruled the only important parts of the world and that other parts were "barbarian". But they were still connected, even if they didn't realize it. + +The term "historically" is used to say that something has been a certain way during most of its history. For example, a historically female university is a university which has had a student body that was mostly or entirely female for most of its history. The term is often used for historically female and historically black (African American) schools. + +Timeline of history + +Pre-history + Ancient history + Sumer + Ancient Egypt + Babylonia +Ancient Armenia + Ancient Greece + Ancient India + Ancient China and Japan, Korea, Mongolia + Ancient Southeast Asia - Cambodia - Thailand - Indonesia + Ancient North America - Iroquois, Mohawk, Huron, Haida, Lenape, Mohican, Cree, Sioux, Inuit, Dene + Ancient Central America - Aztecs, Maya, Olmecs, Toltecs, Teotihuacan, Mixtecs + Ancient South America - Inca, Chimu, Tihuanacu, Huari + Ancient Africa + Ancient Australia + Roman Empire + Christian Rome - Justinian to the rise of Byzantium + Chinese Dynasties + Byzantine Empire + Early Islamic Caliphate - Muhammad to The Crusades + Early Middle Ages - end of European Dark Ages to rise of Roman Catholic Church + High Middle Ages and the Crusades - conflict with Islam, Cathars, pagan tribes in Lithuania, etc. + Late Middle Ages - 13th century to 15th century + Late Islamic Caliphate - to fall of Muslim Spain + Mongol Empire + Renaissance - 15th century renewal of science etc., based on texts from Ancient Greece and Roman Empire that were preserved by Muslims and captured by Christians + European colonization of the Americas - 15th century impact on America +Spanish Empire +British Empire + Baroque era - mid 16th century to mid-late 18th century + Conflict of Ottoman Empire with Austria-Hungary + Rise of the Qing Dynasty in China + Enlightenment - mid 17th century to late 18th century + 19th century +British Empire + 20th century +History of Australia since colonizing Australia +History of the United States + Modern History and origins of modern world power structure +World War I + World War II + United Nations ascendance - how it became so central. + Chinese Revolution, Partition of India, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) + US-Soviet Cold War including Korean War, Vietnam War, Soviet-Afghan War + Recent conflicts in the Muslim World - Arab-Israeli Wars, US invasion of Afghanistan, US invasion of Iraq + Recent conflicts in West Africa - Uganda, Chad, Rwanda, Congo, Liberia, Ivory Coast, and so on + +Current events, modern economic history, modern social history and modern intellectual history take very different views of the way history has affected the way that we think today. + +Related pages + + List of historians + World History + Political economy + Historical novel +Basic English 850 words + +References +Health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease" according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Physical health is about the body. Mental health is about how people think and feel. Social health talks about how people live with other people. It is about family, work, school, and friends. + +Aspects of health + +Physical health +Physical fitness refers to good body health. It is dependent on genetic determinators and also on social, economic and ecological factors. That means, one's genes are partly responsible for one's physical health, but also other circumstances: where you live, how clean or polluted your water and the air around you is and also how good your social and medical system is. It is also the result of regular exercise, proper diet and nutrition, and proper rest for physical recovery. A person who is physically fit will be able to walk or run without getting breathless and they will be able to carry out the activities of everyday living and not need help. How much each person can do will depend on their age and whether they are a man or woman. A physically fit person usually has a normal weight for their height. The relation between their height and weight is called their Body Mass Index. A taller person can be heavier and still be fit. If a person is too heavy or too thin for their height it may affect their health. Better health is central to human happiness and well-being. It also makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer, are more productive, and save more. Many factors influence health status and a country's ability to provide quality health services for its people. + +Mental health +Mental health refers to a person's emotional and psychological well-being. "A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her thinking and emotional (feeling) abilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life." + +One way to think about mental health is by looking at how well a person functions. Feeling capable and efficient; being able to handle normal levels of stress, have good friends and family, and lead an independent life; and being able to "bounce back," or recover from hardships, are all signs of mental health. Itâs normal for all of us to feel worried, sad, upset, or have difficult emotions from time to time. For most people though, these feelings are only temporary and are resolved without causing any long-term problems. However, for some people, these negative feelings can become worse over time and lead to a mental health problem such as depression, anxiety, stress or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). + +Public health + +Public health refers to trying to stop a disease that is unhealthy to the community, and does not help in living a long life or promote your health. This is fixed by organized efforts and choices of society, public and private clubs, communities and individuals. + +It is about the health of many people, or everybody, rather than one person. Public health stops instead of encouraging a disease through surveillance of cases. To prevent being sick, it is good to act according to some simple advice: Hand washing, regular check-ups, vaccination programmes, drinking clean water, and using condoms. When infectious diseases break out, washing hands for about 30 seconds may be especially important. Sometimes it is necessary to avoid masses of people or wear a surgical mask to protect yourself and to stop the spreading of the disease. Teaching people how to live healthily and educate them, especially about sex and childbirth, is also very important. + +Related pages + Medicine + Healthy lifestyle + Fitness + Right to health + +References + +Health +Basic English 850 words +A harbor (American English) or harbour (British English) is a place where ships may shelter. Some harbours are used as ports to load and unload ships. The port will have quays or piers where the ships may be moored or tied up and a transport system for taking goods inland. Often railway and road transport will be used. Goods also move by pipeline transport and by smaller ships on rivers. + +Harbor means to shelter or keep safe. Harbors can be natural as in San Francisco or artificial as in ancient Carthage or a mix of both. During the D-Day operations of 1944, two artificial harbors (named mulberry) were built just off the beaches where the invasion was happening. + +Related pages + Dock + Dockyard + Marina + Naval base + Quay + Seaport + Transport + Wharf + +References + +Basic English 850 words +Hawaii (sometimes spelled "Hawai'i") is a U.S. state and the only U.S. State that is in Oceania. It is the last state that joined the United States, becoming a state on August 21, 1959. It is the only state made only of islands. Hawaii is also the name of the largest island. The capital and largest city of Hawaii is Honolulu on the island named Oahu. + +Name +Hawaii is known as the "Aloha State". Aloha is a Hawaiian word that has many meanings like welcome, hello and goodbye. Aloha also means love and care. The different meanings are brought together in the term "Aloha Spirit" to describe the friendly people of Hawaii. + +Geography +Hawaii is an archipelago, a long chain of islands. There are eight main islands and many small islands and atolls. They are the tops of underwater volcanos. The main islands are Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui and Hawaii. + +History +The first people of Hawaii were Polynesians. They came to the islands sometime between 200 and 600 AD. Captain James Cook discovered the islands in 1778. Others may have been there before him. Captain Cook named the islands the Sandwich Islands for the fourth Earl of Sandwich, John Montague. + +Kamehameha I was the first king of Hawaii. He united the separate small Hawaiian kingdoms into one large kingdom in 1795. In 1893, American soldiers stopped Queen Liliuokalani from leading Hawaii when American business people took over the government and made their own laws. She was the last monarch of Hawaii. She also wrote the original words of the song called Aloha Oe. + +The Americans made Hawaii into a republic for a short time. The new leader, Sanford Dole was called the President of Hawaii. In 1898, the United States of America took over the government and made Hawaii into a territory.In 1907, University of HawaiÊ»i is established. In 1959, Hawaii became the fiftieth American state. In other words, it was taken ("annexed") against the wishes of its native people. Their queen, Liliâuokalani, wrote that âit had not entered into our hearts to believe that these friends and allies from the United States⊠would ever go so far as to absolutely overthrow our form of government, seize our nation by the throat, and pass it over to an alien powerâ. + +Reason for statehood +Early in World War II the U.S. Pacific Fleet was based on the Philippines. Perceiving that this was not safe, the navy moved its base to the Hawaiian islands, namely Oahu (the main island in the chain). It was there that the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. That was significant in the later discussions about the future of the islands. + +Economy +The biggest industry of Hawaii is tourism. Almost seven million people visited in 2000. Important exports are sugar, pineapple, macadamia nuts, and coffee. + +Popular tourist sites include Waikiki Beach, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Polynesian Cultural Center, and the USS Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor. + +State symbols +The state flower is the yellow hibiscus (Hibiscus brackenridgei or ). The state bird is the Hawaiian goose (nene). The state fish is the reef triggerfish, also called the . The state tree is the candlenut, also called kukui. The state song is Hawaii Ponoi. The state motto is . In English it says, The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness. + +References + +Notes + +Other websites + + +1959 establishments in the United States +Honolulu is the capital city of the U.S. state of Hawaii. It is also the largest city in Hawaii and it has the most important harbor. It is on the south-east shore of the island of Oahu. + +Etymology +Honolulu means "sheltered harbor" in the Hawaiian language. No one knows for sure when Honolulu was first settled or when the name was first used. + +History +Honolulu harbor was called Kulolia before foreigners came. The first foreigner was Captain William Brown of the English ship Butterworth, in 1794. He named the harbor Fair Haven. Other foreign captains is started calling it Brown's Harbor. The name Honolulu was used some time after that. + +Honolulu quickly became the most important harbor of Hawaii. At that time, sandalwood was a big export. Honolulu was also an important supply point for whalers. + +Kamehameha III made Honolulu the capital city of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1850. It was also the capital of the Republic of Hawaii and the Territory of Hawaii. It stayed the capital when Hawaii became a state in 1959. + +Notable people +Ferdinand Marcos, President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986, died in Honolulu +Bruno Mars, singer, was born in Honolulu +Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States, was born in Honolulu +Nicole Scherzinger, singer, was born in Honolulu +Jason Momoa, actor currently lives in Honolulu + +References + + +State capitals in the United States +1907 establishments in North America +1900s establishments in Hawaii +County seats in Hawaii +The Island of HawaiÊ»i is the largest U.S. Hawaiian Island, and it is the farthest south. It is also called the "Big Island." Its area is 4,038 sq. miles (10,458 km2). The widest part of the island is 93 miles (150 km) across. +The Big Island has more than half (~62%) of the total land area of State of Hawaii. It is part of County of Hawaii. + +The island is seven separate shield volcanos that erupted more or less one at a time, one partly covering the other. These are (from oldest to youngest): Kohala (extinct), Mauna Kea (dormant), Hualalai (dormant), Mauna Loa (active), Kulani (extinct, mostly buried), and Kilauea (very active). The volcanos were caused by the Pacific oceanic tectonic plate moving over a hotspot. There lava from the Earth's lower mantle or upper core is close to the surface. + +The largest city on the island is Hilo. Hilo has many historic buildings, interesting shops, parks, many performances, festivals and events. It is on the rainy, east side of the island. The city of Kailua-Kona is on the dry, west side of Hawaii, and is popular with tourists. + +References + +MacDonald, G. A., and A. T. Abbott. 1970. Volcanoes in the Sea. Univ. of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 441 p. +History and culture of Hilo. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.hiloliving.com/Hilo_Culture.html + +Islands of Hawaii +"HawaiÊ»i Ponoʻī" (; "Hawai's Sons") is the state song of Hawaii. The words were written by King David Kalakaua, the music by Prof. Henry Berger, the Royal Bandmaster. "Hawai`i Ponoi" was also the anthem of the Kingdom of Hawai`i and the Territory of Hawai`i. + +Lyrics + +References + +Culture of Hawaii + +Historical anthems +Healing is a process that happens in the body. Through healing, cells are able to repair damaged tissue. +There are two different ways healing can happen: + The damaged tissue is replaced with tissue of the same kind. This is called regeneration. + The damaged tissue is replaced with scar tissue. This is called repair + +Most healing processes combine both ways of healing. + +Other websites + How wounds heal and tumors form With this simple Flash demonstration, Harvard professor Donald Ingber explains how wounds heal, why scars form, and how tumors develop. Presented by Children's Hospital Boston. + Wound Healing + Wound Healing and Repair + Lorenz H.P. and Longaker M.T. Wounds: Biology, Pathology, and Management . Stanford University Medical Center. + Romo T. and McLaughlin L.A. 2003. Wound Healing, Skin. Emedicine.com. + Rosenberg L. and de la Torre J. 2003. Wound Healing, Growth Factors. Emedicine.com. + +Health +Tissues +People have lived in Australia for over 65,000 years. The first people who arrived in Australia were the Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander people's. They lived in all parts of Australia. They lived by hunting, fishing and gathering. + +Aboriginal peoples invented tools like the boomerang and spear. There is also evidence that the Aboriginal people used farming methods. Tradition was very important in their lives. Their religion is called the Dreamtime, which has lots of stories about the creation of the world by spirits. Aboriginal art started at least 30,000 years ago and there are lots of Dreaming stories painted on walls and cut in rocks all around Australia. Aboriginal music has songs about the Dreamtime, sometimes with special instruments like the didgeridoo. + +In 1606 the first European, Dutch explorer Willem Janszoon (1571â1639), visited the west. Luis Vaez de Torres sailed through the water between Australia and New Guinea later that year. +Only after Dirk Hartog chanced upon the west coast in 1616 did other European vessels visit and map the coast. After sixty more ships visited the coast, enough was known for a map to be published in 1811. The land was dry because of not much rain; some was a desert. The explorers thought no crops could be grown and so it would be difficult for people to live there. They decided there would be no economic reasons to stay. + +In 1642, Dutchman Abel Tasman, working for the Dutch East Indies Company reached Tasmania, which he called Antony van Diemenslandt. He then called the continent he charted the north coast of on his second visit in 1644 New Holland. In 1688, William Dampier became the first Englishman to reach Australia. But in 1770 a British sailor, Captain James Cook, found the fertile east coast of Australia. He called it New South Wales, and claimed it for Britain. +Englishman Matthew Flinders published his map of the coast in 1814, calling it Australia for the first time, a name later formally adopted by the authorities. + +Colonial Australia + +The British decided to use the land visited by Captain Cook as a prison colony. Britain needed a place to send its convicts (people who had been sent to jail for theft and other crimes) because its gaols were full and it had just lost its American colonies in the American War of Independence. In 1788 the British First Fleet of 11 ships, carrying about 1500 people arrived at Botany Bay (Sydney). Arthur Phillip led them as the first Governor of New South Wales. About 160 000 convicts were brought to Australia from 1788 until 1868. Free immigrants began arriving in the 1790s. + +For the first few years they did not have much food, and life was very hard. But soon they began to farm, and more people came. Sydney grew, and new towns were started. Wool brought good money. By 1822, many towns had been set up and people from the towns often visited Sydney for additional economic resources. + +Soon people from Sydney found other parts of Australia. George Bass and Matthew Flinders sailed south to Tasmania and a colony was started at Hobart in 1803. Hamilton Hume and William Hovell went south from Sydney by land. They found the Murray River, and good land in Victoria. Thomas Mitchell went inland, and found more rivers. In 1826, the first British military outpost was set up at King George Sound in Western Australia. The Swan River Colony was started in 1829, with townsites at Fremantle and Perth. In 1836, a free-settler colony was started in South Australia, where no convicts were ever sent. Queensland became a separate colony in 1859. As the towns and farms spread across Australia, the Aboriginal people were pushed off their land. Some were killed, and many died from illness and hunger. Soon, Australia's Aborigines were outnumbered by Europeans, and many were made to live on reserves. + +The goldrushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold. The population grew across south east Australia and made great wealth and industry. By 1853 the goldrushes had made some poor people very rich. + +Convict transportation ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and self-govern. The first governments in the colonies were run by Governors chosen by London. Soon the settlers wanted local government and more democracy. The New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in 1825 to advise the Governor of New South Wales, but it was not chosen by voters. William Wentworth established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales. In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were started and some people could vote for them (but only men with a certain amount of money). Then, Australia's first parliamentary elections were held for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote. The Australian Colonies Government Act [1850] allowed constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1850 elections for legislative councils were also held in the colonies of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. + +In 1855, limited self-government was granted by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. A new secret ballot was introduced in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia in 1856, allowing people to vote in private. This system was copied around the world. In 1855, the right to vote was given to all men over 21 in South Australia. The other colonies soon followed. Women were given the vote in the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 and they became the first women in the world allowed to stand in elections. In 1897, Catherine Helen Spence became the first female political candidate. + +Australians had started parliamentary democracies all across the continent. But voices were getting louder for all of them to come together as one country with a national parliament. + +References + +Other websites + + History of the Australian nation â State Library of NSW + The Australian History page at Project Gutenberg of Australia + Bush Poetry a source of Australian History + An Aborigine on his understanding of tradition +Spain is a country in Europe. + +Early History +People have lived on the Iberian Peninsula for about 500,000 years. Neanderthal man came about 200,000 years ago. Modern humans first came about 40,000 years. Thousands of years ago Iberians and Celts lived there, and the Phoenicians made a few cities there to get tin and silver to trade. + +The Roman Empire controlled Spain for three hundred years; then people from Eastern Europe called Visigoths fought for Spain, won it from the Romans, and controlled Spain for over two hundred years. + +Medieval times +The Visigoths converted from Arian Christianity to Roman Catholics. Muslims who were Arab and Berber invaded in 711 and conquered Spain in 718. They called it Al-Andalus. Roman Catholics eventually decided to fight to take Spain back from the Muslims. They fought wars called the reconquista for more than seven hundred years. They also fought Crusades against other Christians like the Cathars. The Moors also fought each other for control of Al-Andalus. + +In the year 1492, they took the last part of Spain that had belonged to the Moors. Boabdil, the last Moorish Leader of Granada, gave the city to King Ferdinand of Aragon on 2 January 1492, and Christians now ruled all of Spain. + +Before this, several different kings had ruled different countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when the king of Aragon, Ferdinand II, married the queen of Castile, Isabella. + +In the same year, 1492, they decided to send Christopher Columbus to explore the Atlantic Ocean. Columbus found a land there that the people of Europe did not yet know. These were the islands of the Caribbean Sea. + +Late 15th century +Columbus and other sailors explored more and found that there were two continents there - North America and South America. Spain sent many soldiers and businessmen to North and South America, and they took over very large parts of those two continents. Owning this empire made Spain very rich. But when they conquered that empire, they killed millions of the Native Americans who had lived there before. Spain owned this empire for more than three hundred years. + +Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or spread to other countries. Jews had been expelled from Spain. The multicultural society was destroyed, and so was the learning. Among the few things kept and respected in Spain were in music: harmony and stringed instruments, and of course the buildings, many of which became churches, by adding crosses. + +16th and 17th centuries +The Spanish Empire was the strongest in the world through most of the next two centuries, thanks to gold from the Americas. This new gold made rulers and colonial governors rich. Meanwhile, others' savings became worth less due to inflation. Spain became a society of very rich and very poor. Some of the poorest went to the new colonies in the Caribbean, Central America and South America, mostly to find gold. + +Native American peoples were killed by diseases brought by the Spaniards, but most Spaniards did not know this. They found damaged and dying societies with people who had lost some of their most important leaders and thinkers. The Spaniards thought this meant they were inferior, and used this as an excuse to enslave the natives. Millions of natives died mining gold for the Spanish. + +The Spanish Empire also at this time funded the Spanish Inquisition which tortured and killed anyone who disagreed with the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformation which created Protestant sects in Europe was not allowed into Spain, it was kept out and, as with Jews or Muslims, its believers were killed. + +The nobles of Spain no longer had to fight anyone since the internal feuds were over. No one could challenge their power. In many ways it was held together as a reign of terror. People who challenged them were often called heretics, so that the Inquisition could torture them, and then nobles take the property. + +For ordinary people on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, life got worse. A few rulers got rich. Today we would say that these people were guilty of war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity. Many Church people who had the power to speak out at that time, did so, and they said many of the same things as we would say today. But none of this mattered much to the rulers. + +The great satire Don Quixote was written about this time. + +18th century +In the 18th century, there was doubt over who should become king of Spain; this doubt led many of the kings of Europe to fight to become king of Spain. This was called the War of the Spanish Succession. + +France occupied Spain for a long time. This made Spain very weak. It also made Spain lose its empire in North and South America; all of the parts of that empire became their own countries, or were taken over by other countries such as the United States of America. + +20th century +There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century. Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made the King of Spain leave the country. However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, or take orders from one person. In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government. + +Franco died in 1975. He had decided that Spain should have a king again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of the king who had been forced to leave the country, to be king. But the king did not rule as a dictator; instead, he chose to set up a democracy. Also since Franco's death, Spain appointed Adolfo SuĂĄrez to became Spain's first democratically elected prime minister. Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world. It is a part of the European Union. +Height is the distance between the lowest end and highest end of an object. + +For example, it is said the bottom of the foot is a person's lowest end, and the top of the head is a person's highest end. If the distance between the bottom of a person's foot and the top of that person's head is 64 inches, then that person's height is 64 inches. + +Height is measured in 3D objects. 2D objects do not have height; they only have length and width. + +Related pages + Depth + Elevation + Volume + +Physical quantity +A historian is someone who studies history. Historians use written sources to understand past events and societies. + +Related pages +List of historians + +References + +Sources + Richard B. Todd, ed. (2004). Dictionary of British Classicists, 1500â1960, Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 . + Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing. London [etc.] : Fitzroy Dearborn + Lateiner, D. (1989). The historical method of Herodotus. Phoenix, 23. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. + John Cannon et al., eds. (1988). The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988 . + Hartog, F. (1988). The mirror of Herodotus: the representation of the other in the writing of history. Berkeley: University of California Press. + Erik Christiansen (1970). The Last Hundred Years of the Roman Republic, Odense: Andelsbogtrykkeriet + Gottschalk, L. R. (1950). Understanding history; a primer of historical method. New York: Knopf + Barnes, M. S. (1896). Studies in historical method. Heath's pedagogical library. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co. + Taylor, I. (1889). History of the transmission of ancient books to modern times, together with the process of historical proof: or, a concise account of the means by which the genuineness of ancient literature generally, and authenticity of historical works especially, are ascertained, including incidental remarks upon the relative strength of the evidence usually adduced in behalf of the Holy Scriptures. Liverpool: E. Howell. + Herodotus, Rawlinson, G., Rawlinson, H. C., & Wilkinson, J. G. (1862). History of Herodotus. A new English version. London: John Murray. +VĂ©ricour, L. R. d. (1850). Historical analysis of Christian civilisation. London: J. Chapman. + Taylor, I. (1828). The process of historical proof. London: Printed for B. J. Holdsworth. + Elizabeth Kostova "The Historian" + + + +Writing occupations +The human body is the body of a person. It is the physical structure of a person. + +The body is a thing that can be hurt or killed. Its functions are stopped by death. You need your muscles and your joints to move. + +Study of the human body + +Some people study the human body. They look at where it is different from, or the same as, other animals' bodies. These animals can be alive today. Or they can be extinct animals like other hominids. (Hominids are primates that are close to humans. Neanderthals and Homo erectus were hominids.) Some people study how the human body works and lives in its environment. Some people study what people think about their body. Artists study how to draw or paint the human body. + +Fields of study +Many different fields of study look at the human: + Biology is a field of science. It studies living things. It looks at how the human body works. It studies how the human body came from evolution. It studies how genetics makes the human body. + Anatomy studies the parts of the body and how they work together. + Ecology studies the environment including how humans affect it. +Physical anthropology is a field of science. It compares humans to other hominids. It also studies all other hominid bodies. They look at how humans and chimpanzees are the same or different. + Psychology is a field of medicine. It looks at how people think and feel. The brain is part of the body. How we think and feel comes from the brain. So psychologists study the body. They study how the brain lets us be who we are. + Religion also talks about the body. Some religions see the body as where the soul lives. Some see the body as like a church. This is because a church is where people worship God. These people think God should be worshiped inside people. Some religions think the body is made from chakras that connect us to the universe. + Medicine sees the body like a machine. Doctors want to fix problems with the body. They study how to fix the problems, called diseases. + +Parts of human body + +Head +Ear +Face +Forehead +Eyebrow +Eye +Cheek +Nose +Mouth +Lips +Chin +Neck +Torso +Chest +Breast +Abdomen +Umbilicus +groin +Pelvis +Vulva +Penis +Scrotum +Back +Upper limb +Shoulder +Axilla +Elbow +Forearm +Wrist +Hand +Finger +Lower limb +Buttocks +Thigh +Knee +Calf +Ankle +Foot + +Organ system + +Various organ systems give the body the ability to live and do things. + + circulatory system is the body system that moves blood around the body. + digestive system is the parts of the body that digest food. + The endocrine system includes those organs of the body which produce hormones. + immune system is the set of tissues which work together to resist infections. + integumentary system is everything covering the outside of an animal's body. + lymphatic system is a network of thin vessels that branch into tissues throughout the body. + musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton and attached muscles. + nervous system is a body system which sends signals around the body. + reproductive system is the part of an organism that makes them able to sexually reproduce. + respiratory system is the body getting rid of carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen. + urinary system is a system of organs that makes urine/pee and takes it out of the body. + +The human body and other animals +The human body is like other animals. The skeleton, muscles and other parts are very much like those of other primates. Our body is also like other mammals, and somewhat like other vertebrates. DNA differences follow a similar pattern. The human genome is closer to that of other primates than to other vertebrates, and closest to chimpanzee. + +References + +Anatomy +Hydrogen is a chemical element at the start of the periodic table. It has the symbol H and atomic number 1. It also has a standard atomic weight of 1.008, which makes it the lightest element in the periodic table. + +Hydrogen is the most common chemical element in the Universe, making up 75% of all normal (baryonic) matter (by mass). Most stars are made of mostly hydrogen. Hydrogen's most common isotope has one proton with one electron orbiting around it. + +Properties +Hydrogen is grouped as a reactive nonmetal, unlike the other elements found in the first column of the periodic table, which are grouped as alkali metals. The solid form of hydrogen should behave like a metal, though. + +When by itself, hydrogen normally binds with itself to make dihydrogen (H2) which is very stable, because of its high bond-dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol. At normal temperature and pressure, this hydrogen gas (H2) has no color, smell, or taste and is not poisonous as it is a nonmetal and burns very easily. + +Combustion +Molecular hydrogen is flammable and reacts with oxygen: + +2 H2(g) + O2(g) â 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol) + +At temperatures higher than 500 °C, hydrogen suddenly burns in air. + +Compounds +While hydrogen gas in its natural form is not reactive, it does form compounds with many elements, especially halogens, which are very electronegative, meaning they want an electron very badly. Hydrogen also forms massive arrays with carbon atoms, forming hydrocarbons. The study of the properties of hydrocarbons is known as organic chemistry. + +The H- anion (negatively charged atom) is named a hydride, though the word is not commonly used. An example of a hydride is lithium hydride (LiH), which is used as a "spark plug" in nuclear weapons. + +Acids +Acids dissolved in water normally contain high levels of hydrogen ions, in other words, free protons. Their level is generally used to determine its pH, that is, the content of hydrogen ions in a volume. For example, hydrochloric acid, found in people's stomachs, can dissociate into a chloride anion and a free proton, and the property of the free proton is how it can digest food by corroding it. + +Though uncommon on Earth, the H3+ cation is one of the most common ions in the universe. + +Isotopes + +Hydrogen has 7 known isotopes, two of which are stable (1H and 2H), which are commonly named protium and deuterium. The isotope 3H is known as tritium, has a half-life of 12.33 years, and is produced in small amounts by cosmic rays. The 4 isotopes left have half-lives on the scale of yoctoseconds. + +Hydrogen in nature +In its natural form on Earth, hydrogen is generally a gas. Hydrogen is also one of the parts that make up a water molecule. Hydrogen is important because it is the fuel that powers the Sun and other stars. +Hydrogen makes up about 74% of the complete universe. + +Natural hydrogen is normally made of two hydrogen atoms connected together. Scientists name these diatomic molecules. Hydrogen will have a chemical reaction when mixed with most other elements, though it has no color or smell. + +Natural hydrogen is very uncommon in the Earth's atmosphere, because nearly all primordial hydrogen would have escaped into space because of its weight. In nature, it is generally in water. Hydrogen is also in all living things, as a part of the organic compounds that living things are made of. In addition, hydrogen atoms can join with carbon atoms to form hydrocarbons. Petroleum and other fossil fuels are made of these hydrocarbons and commonly used to make energy. + +Some other facts about hydrogen: + It is a gas at room temperature + It acts like a metal when it is solid. + It is the lightest element in the Universe. + It is the most common element in the Universe. + It burns or explodes at temperatures higher than 1000°F / 528°C, such as in fire. + It glows purple when it is in plasma state. + +History of Hydrogen +Hydrogen was first separated in 1671 by Robert Boyle. In 1776, Henry Cavendish identified it as its own element and named it "inflammable air". He saw in 1781 that burning it made water. + +Antoine Lavoisier gave Hydrogen its name, from the Greek word for water, 'Ï ÎŽÎżÏ (read /HEEW-dor/) and gennen meaning to "produce" as it forms water in a chemical reaction with oxygen. + +Uses of Hydrogen +The most common uses are in the petroleum industry and in making ammonia by the Haber process. Some is used in other places in the chemical industry. A little of it is used as fuel, for example in rockets for spacecraft. Most of the hydrogen that people use comes from a chemical reaction between natural gas and steam. + +Nuclear fusion + +Nuclear fusion is a very powerful source of energy. It depends on forcing atoms together to make helium and energy, as in a star like the Sun, or in a hydrogen bomb. This needs a large amount of energy to get started, and is not easy to do currently. A big advantage over nuclear fission, which is used in today's nuclear power stations, is that it makes less nuclear waste and does not use a poisonous and uncommon fuel like uranium. More than 600 million tons of hydrogen undergo fusion every second on the Sun. + +Using hydrogen +Hydrogen is mostly used in the petroleum industry, to change heavy petroleum parts into lighter, more useful ones. It is also used to make ammonia. Smaller amounts are burned as fuel. Most hydrogen is made by a reaction between natural gas and steam. + +The electrolysis of water breaks water into hydrogen and oxygen, using electricity. Burning hydrogen joins with oxygen molecules to make steam (natural water vapor). A fuel cell joins hydrogen with an oxygen molecule, releasing an electron as electricity. For these reasons, many people believe hydrogen power will replace other synthetic fuels in the future. + +Hydrogen can also be burned to make heat for steam turbines or internal combustion engines. Like other synthetic fuels, hydrogen can be made from natural fuels such as coal or natural gas, or from electricity, and therefore represents a valuable addition to the power grid; in the same role as natural gas. Such a grid and infrastructure with fuel cell vehicles is now planned by a number of countries, such as Japan, Korea and many European countries. This lets these countries buy less petroleum, which is an economic advantage. The other advantage is that, used in a fuel cell or burned in a combustion engine as in a hydrogen car, the engine does not make pollution. Only water, and a small amount of nitrogen oxides, forms. + +References + +Other websites + Hydrogen - Citizendium + +Hydrogen +Helium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol He, atomic number 2, and atomic weight of about 4.002602. There are 9 isotopes of helium, only two of which are stable. These are 3He and 4He. 4He is by far the most common isotope. + +Helium is called a noble gas, because it does not regularly mix with other chemicals and form new compounds. It has the lowest boiling point of all the elements. It is the second most common element in the universe, after hydrogen, and has no color or smell. However, helium has a red-orange glow when placed in an electric field. Helium does not usually react with anything else. Astronomers detected the presence of helium in 1868, when its spectrum was identified in light from the Sun. This was before its discovery on Earth. + +Helium is used to fill balloons and airships because its density is lighter than air. It does not burn, so is safe for that kind of use. It is also used in some kinds of light bulbs. People can breathe in helium: It makes their voices sound higher than it normally does. This may seem silly, but it can actually be quite dangerous as if they breathe in too much, hypoxia can injure or kill them as they are not breathing normal air. Breathing too much helium can also cause long-term effects to vocal cords. + +Helium is created through the process of nuclear fusion in the Sun, and in similar stars. During this process, two hydrogen atoms are fused together to form one helium atom. On Earth it is made by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements like thorium and uranium, although there are other examples. The alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei. + +History +Helium was discovered by the French astronomer pierre Janssen on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was thought to be sodium. On the same year, English astronomer, Norman Lockyer, also observed it and found that it was caused by a new element. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element helium, from the Greek word for the Sun, ጄλÎčÎżÏ (helios). + +Characteristics +Helium is the second least reactive noble gas after neon. It is the second least reactive of all elements. It is chemically inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Helium is the least water-soluble monatomic gas. + +Uses +Helium is used as a shielding gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in making titanium and zirconium, and in gas chromatography, because it is inert. Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding. + +Helium is mixed with oxygen and other gases for deep underwater diving because it does not cause nitrogen narcosis. + +Helium is also used to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is used to remove the fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment before the rocket launches. It is used to cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles before the rocket launches. + +Helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some nuclear reactors that are cooled down by gas. Helium is also used in some hard disk drives. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics. + +Supply +Helium has become rare on Earth. If it gets free into the air it leaves the planet. Unlike hydrogen, which reacts with oxygen to form water, helium is not reactive. It stays as a gas. For many years after the 1925 Helium Act, the USA collected helium in a National Helium Reserve. American helium comes from wells in the Great Plains area. At present, more helium is supplied by Qatar than by the USA. + +Several research organisations have released statements on the scarcity and conservation of helium. These organisations released policy recommendations as early as 1995 and as late as 2016 urging the United States government to store and conserve helium because of the natural limits to the helium supply and the unique nature of the element. For researchers, helium is irreplaceable because it is essential for producing very low temperatures. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain cryogenics applications. Liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging. + +References +The home page of a website is the document that a web server sends to another computer's web browser application when it has been contacted without a request for specific information. That is, when one enters only a domain name in the Address box without specifying a directory or a file, the home page is usually the first part of the website one would be taken to. The Home Page is also called the Main Page. + +A properly written home page will tell a user about the information available on the website, and how to view different parts of the website. + +The home page of simple.wikipedia.org can be found at this link. + +Home Page was a popular computer application used for composing web pages. + +In Linux servers +In Linux-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc. This is a problem for website administrators to install website applications like MediaWiki. Mainly because most website applications are created with the homepage as index.php for PHP applications. + +In Windows servers +Similarly, in Windows-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc. + +Websites +Web design +Hair is something that grows from the skin of mammals. Hair is made of keratins, which are proteins. + +Animal hair is usually called fur. Sheep and goats have curly hair, called wool. Wool is used to make many products, like clothing and blankets. + +Humans and some other animals have lost much of their hair through evolution, and some other mammals, such as the elephant and the whale, have almost none at all. + +Functions of hair + +Hair has different functions: +It can protect against losing body heat. This is thought to be the basic, original function of hair. +It protects against UV radiation, which damages the skin. +It can protect against rain or water. Air can be trapped in the fur, or oil can be secreted by the skin. Both these methods prevent the rain or water from making the body too cold. Aquatic mammals in cold waters usually have blubber (fat) under the skin, and almost no hair. +Defence: hair is modified in mammals like porcupines, for protection. +Hair colouring can perform different functions. It helps to camouflage some animals. It can also signal to others of the same species. Examples are: signalling to females for mating purposes and signalling to others for territory control. Signalling danger to other species (aposematic colouring) is also done by, for example, skunks. +Animals can change their hair so they look bigger, or more threatening. This can also be used for mating; which is the case with lions, for example. Also, the male lions' mane also protects their neck from damage when fighting other males. + +False hair +Some animals, for example certain insects and spiders also have hairs. However, these are not hair in the biological sense, but are actually bristles. The hairs found on certain plants are also not true hair, but trichomes. + +Human hair + +In humans, hair grows mostly on the head, and the amount of body hair is different from person to person. + +Hair color + +Hair color is passed down by parents only. Natural hair color can be given only by genes. Natural hair color is passed down genetically by both mother and father. This relies on dominant and recessive genes carried by a parent. These genes may not be the color of their hair, however, many people carry genes that are recessive and do not show in their traits or features. + +Dyeing hair is to change the color of hair. It consists of a chemical mixture which can change the color of hair by a chemical reaction. Many people dye their hair to hide gray or white hairs. This is because most people gain white or gray hairs as they grow older. + +Genetics and chemistry +Two types of melanin pigment give hair its color: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Pheomelanin colors hair red. Eumelanin determines the darkness of the hair color. A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair, but more brown eumelanin will color the hair brown. High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair, while low concentrations give gray hair. All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair. + +The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established. According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color. + +One phenotype (brown/blond) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child. + +The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the not-red allele is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair, but it will be either auburn or bright reddish orange depending on whether the first gene pair gives brown or blond hair, respectively. + +The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blonde/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several other gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect (quantitative genetics). + +Hair texture +Hair texture is also inherited genetically. The thickness of hair, its color and its tendency to curl are all inherited. There are also genetic differences between men and women. + +Hair loss +People have about 100,000 hairs on their head. About 100 fall out each day, but they usually grow back. Some men are bald but girls and women may become bald if they lose their hair from a disease called alopecia. + +Men often lose some of their hair as they grow older. This is known as baldness. Doctors call it "male pattern baldness" because hairs often fall out in similar places. It often begins by hair falling out first from the front of the head, and then from the top of the head. After a while, all that may be left is a some hair running above the ears and around the lower back of the head. Even though it is unusual for women to go bald, many women suffer from thinning hair over the top of their head as they grow old. + +People have tried to find cures for hair loss for thousands of years. In an effort to get their hair back, men have tried "cures" like applying strange lotions or even having their heads packed in chicken manure. Many unproven "cures" are still marketed today. It is only in the last decade or so that treatments have been developed which do sometimes work. Some doctors do hair transplants, where they take tiny plugs of hair from areas like the back of the neck and plant them in the bald spots on the head. Some drugs have been tested and approved for sale as hair loss treatments. They encourage hair regrowth and thickening, but work better if applied before hair loss turns to baldness. + +History and culture + People have been interested in hair on their heads for hundreds of thousands of years. For both men and women, styling and coloring hair have been ways to look good, and get attention. Sometimes society makes rules about hair, for example by not allowing people to cut their hair or beards, like in Sikhism + +References + +Basic English 850 words +Ireland (; ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic. It is about 486 kilometres (302 miles) long and about 288 kilometres (179 miles) wide. To the west of Ireland is the Atlantic Ocean; to the east of Ireland is the island of Great Britain. Over 6.4 million people lived on the island in 2016. + +Countries +Today, the island of Ireland is made up of two countries: the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland: + The Republic of Ireland is a sovereign state and occupies 84% of the island. Its capital and largest city is Dublin. The official languages of the Republic are Irish and English. Even though Irish is official in the country, only a small part of the population is fluent or a native speaker. While the Irish language (or Gaelic) is taught in most schools, most people speak English in their day-to-day lives. + Northern Ireland, which is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom, makes up the remaining 17% of Ireland and is in the north-east part of the island. It has a population of 1.8 million people, and its capital and largest city is Belfast. + During the 1550s and the 1650s four plantations had taken place in Ireland. + +From 1801 to 1921, all of Ireland was part of the same country, called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1919, a war broke out, the Irish War of Independence, and on December 6 1921, the Irish Free State became independent. After a new constitution came into effect in 1937, the state became a republic. Northern Ireland stayed with the UK, and this would lead to The Troubles beginning in the 1960s and ending with the Good Friday Agreement signed in 1998. + +Facts + The flag colours of the Republic of Ireland are green, white and orange. + A symbol of Ireland is the shamrock. + Popular games in Ireland include Gaelic football and hurling. + The population of the Republic of Ireland is around 4.7 million. + The president of the Republic of Ireland is Michael D. Higgins. + The two parts of Ireland are the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. + The River Shannon, which runs from north to south, is the longest river on the island. Ireland has many lakes and Lough Neagh, in Northern Ireland, is the largest lake in Ireland. Ireland is known for its landscapes, music, history, and mythology. + the great potato famine was very bed about 1 million people died + +Provinces and counties +Ireland is traditionally divided into four provinces and thirty-two counties. Twenty-six counties are in the Republic and six in Northern Ireland. Three of the provinces are entirely within the Republic (Connacht, Leicester and Munster), and one province (Ulster) has some counties in both the Republic and in Northern Ireland. + Connacht - Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo + Leinster - Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, Laois, Longford, Louth, County Meath, Offaly, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow + Munster - Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, Waterford + Ulster - Cavan, Donegal, Monaghan (Republic of Ireland); Antrim, Armagh, Derry, Down, Fermanagh, Tyrone (Northern Ireland) + +Main cities +Dublin is the largest city. It is the capital of the Republic of Ireland. Dublin was established as a Viking settlement in the 9th century. The population is 525,383 in Dublin City, and 1,270,603 in Co. Dublin. + +Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland. It has 483,000 people in the Greater Belfast urban area there are 267,000 in the city itself. Shipbuilding used to be a major industry here. The Titanic was built in Belfast at the Harland and Wolff shipyard. + +Armagh is a city in Northern Ireland. It is often called the 'Ecclesiastic Capital of Ireland' as it is the seat of both the Catholic Church and the (Protestant) Church of Ireland. The population is 14,590. + +Cork is the largest city in Munster. Corkonians often refer to it as 'the Real Capital'. The population is 119,230. but following a 2019 Cork boundary change|boundary extension in 2019, the population increased to c. 210,000. + +Derry (Or Londonderry) is the second largest city in Northern Ireland. Derry is notable for the Medieval city walls which still stand. Because the walls have never been breached, the city is nicknamed "The Maiden City". In 2013 Derry was the UK Capital of Culture. Many cultural events took place there during the year. The population is 83,652. + +History + +During the last glacial period (the "ice age"), most of Ireland was covered with ice. After that, Ireland became covered with trees. The first people came to Ireland about 9,000 years ago, in the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic period). They were nomadic. Once food ran out in the place they lived, they would move to another place. Evidence of these people was found in Mount Sandel, Co. Derry. + +About 4000 BC, in the New Stone Age (Neolithic period), the first farmers arrived in Ireland. These people cleared openings in the forest and built permanent settlements with houses and farmland. When people in this age died, they were buried in tombs called megaliths. Many megaliths are left standing today, such as portal dolmens and passage tombs.The most famous megalith is Newgrange passage tomb in co.Meath. + +New settlers came around 2000BC, marking the start of the Bronze Age. Copper was mined mainly in Mount Gabriel, Co. Cork and tin was imported from Cornwall. These people used bronze to make weapons, such as swords. They also used it to make early forms of jewellery, such as sun discs and torcs. These settlers buried the dead in court tombs or wedge tombs, and burial places have been found with stone circles. + +It is unknown when the Celts came to Ireland, but it is likely they brought the use of iron with them. The use of iron marks the start of the Iron Age. It is known that by about 300BC, the use of iron and Celtic culture was widespread in Ireland. The Celts lived in ring forts, hill forts, promontory forts and crannĂłgs. It is thought that only the richer families and settlements lived in crannĂłgs. These were man-made islands in the middle of lakes with houses on them. + +Celtic Ireland was split into around 150 kingdoms called tuath. The king was elected from the royal family. Below the king were the Nobles, and the Aos DĂĄna, who were people with special skills, such as poets, Druids (priests), judges and craftsmen. + +By the early 6th century, Ireland was mostly Christian through the work of St. Patrick and other missionaries. Druids were replaced by priests and monks. Monasteries soon were built such as Glendalough in co. Wicklow. Glendalough and other monasteries built round towers for safety when Vikings attacked. Small monasteries were also built in remote places, the most famous being Skellig Michael, off the coast of co. Kerry. + +At this time many hand-written manuscripts were created by the monasteries. They include the Cathach, the Book of Durrow, and the Book of Kells. Monks also produced fine silver chalices, croziers and brooches, and carved high crosses. + +In 1169, Anglo-Norman lords invaded Ireland. They were led by Strongbow who landed at Passage East, Co. Waterford. The Anglo-Normans conquered many parts of Ireland in the following 60 years. They introduced their way of life to the Irish people. The feudal system was soon introduced in Ireland as a means of organising land. Castles were built to defend the land like Trim Castle, Co. Meath. During the Middle Ages, Ireland's first proper towns were built. + +From 1801 until 1921, all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1921 Northern Ireland was created and 'partitioned' from the south. Northern Ireland has stayed within the United Kingdom since then. The full name of the UK is 'The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'. + +In 1921 the south became the Irish Free State. In 1937 the Irish Free State adopted a new constitution which named the state 'Ireland', and in 1948 this state passed the Republic of Ireland Act which declared it to be a republic. + +Migration +Many Irish people have left Ireland and moved to the United States, Canada, Australia, and South America. The Great Famine (1845 to 1849 inclusive) forced many to leave; it is estimated almost a million people died of starvation, and a million more emigrated. From a maximum of over 8 million in 1841, the total Irish population dropped to just over 4 million in the 1940s. Since then, the population has grown to over 6 million. This has been helped by the economic growth of the "Celtic Tiger" and since 2004 immigration from countries in Eastern Europe such as Poland. + +Today almost 80 million people around the world are descended from Irish immigants. + +Climate + +Ireland has an oceanic climate. + +The highest temperature ever recorded in Ireland was , on 16 July 1876 in Dublin. + +Top 5 warmest days + +Sports + +Ireland's main sports are Gaelic Games (Gaelic football, hurling, etc.) and soccer. + +The many sports played and followed in Ireland include Gaelic games (mainly Gaelic football, hurling and camogie), horse racing, show jumping, greyhound racing, basketball, fishing, handball, motorsport, MMA, boxing, target shooting and tennis. Hockey, golf, rowing, cricket, rugby union and Olympic target shooting are organised on an all-island basis, with a single team representing the whole of Ireland in international competitions. Other sports, such as soccer and netball, have separate organizing bodies in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. + +As Northern Ireland is a constituent nation of the United Kingdom it also sends a Northern Ireland Team to the Commonwealth Games. At the Olympic Games, a person from Northern Ireland can choose to represent either Ireland or Great Britain. + +Soccer is the most popular team sport in terms of participation. According to the Irish Sports Monitor 2015 annual report, 4.8% of adults over 15 participate in Soccer. Gaelic football 2%, camogie 1.2, rugby 1.1%. Individual exercise pursuits are most popular with 43% of all sport participated by individuals on their own. Personal exercise 13.7%, running 8.2%, swimming 8%, cycling 5.5%, dancing 3%, golf 2.7%, weights 2.3%, yoga 1.5% and pilates 1.4%. + +Soccer is by far the most popular team pursuit for males at 8.8% with Gaelic football attracting 3.4%. Personal exercise 13.4% and running 8.9% are the most popular male activities. Team sports do not figure highly amongst females with dancing at 4.6% and yoga 2.4% are two of the highest shared activities. + +Given the variety of sports in Ireland, it is of interest to note how the government's Capital Sports programme 2017 allocated it's âŹ56 million funds. âŹ23.5 million went to the GAA which highlights the strength of the GAA lobby. âŹ7.25 million to soccer, Rugby âŹ3.1 million, tennis âŹ2.64 million, golf âŹ1.97 million, sailing âŹ1.21 million, athletics just under âŹ1 million, diving âŹ451,000 while other sports did not fare so well. + +Gaelic Football is one of the most popular sports in Ireland in terms of match attendance, and in 2003 had 34% of total sports attendances at events in the Republic of Ireland, followed by hurling at 23%, soccer at 16% and rugby at 8%. Initiative's ViewerTrack study, which measured 2005 sports audiences, showed the sport's highest-profile match, the All-Ireland Football Final, to be the most watched event of the nation's sporting year. Soccer is the most played team sport in Ireland. + +References + + +Divided regions +The Internet is the biggest world-wide communication network of computers. The Internet has a lot of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry many different kinds of information. The short form of internet is the 'Net'. The World Wide Web is one of its biggest services. It is used by countless people all over the world. + +The Internet was developed in the United States by the Department of Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Internet was first connected in October 1969 and was called ARPANET. The World Wide Web was created at CERN in Switzerland in 1990 by a British (UK) scientist named Tim Berners-Lee. + +Today, people can pay money to access the Internet from internet service providers. Some services on the Internet cost nothing to use. Sometimes people who offer these free services use advertising to make money. Censorship and freedom of speech on the Internet can be controversial. + +Services + +The Internet is used for many things, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer and other documents of the World Wide Web. + +The most used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web (which is also called the "Web" or âwwwâ). The web contains websites, including social media, blogs, and wikis like Wikipedia. Webpages on the Internet can be seen and read by anyone (unless the page needs a password, or it is blocked). + +The second biggest use of the Internet is to send and receive e-mail. E-mail is private and goes from one user to another. Instant messaging is similar to email, but allows two or more people to chat to each other faster. + +Some governments think the internet is a bad thing, and block all or part of it. For example, the Chinese government thinks that Wikipedia is bad, so often no one in China can read it or add to it. Another example of the internet being blocked is in North Korea. Some parents and schools block parts of the Internet they think are bad for children to see. + +Dangers +The Internet makes communication easy, and communication can be dangerous too. People often send secret information, and sometimes other people can steal that information. They can use the Internet to spread lies, steal secrets, or give dangerously bad advice. For example, Facebook has had some problems with privacy settings. + + Some websites may trick people into downloading viruses that can harm a computer, or spyware that spies on its users (looks at what they are doing and tells someone else). +E-mails can have harmful files with them as "attachments". + In internet chatrooms, people might be preying on others or trying to stalk or abuse them. + The Internet contains content that many people find offensive , as well as content intended to be offensive. + Criminals may steal people's personal information or trick people into sending them money. + +Related pages +Communications satellite +Media studies +World Wide Web +ARPANET +Happy + +Further reading + +References +Italy ( [iËtaËlja]) is a country in Southern Europe. It is a member of the European Union. Its official name is the Italian Republic (). The Italian flag is green, white and red. Italy is a democratic republic. + +Italy is a founding member of the European Union. In 2022, Italy's president is Sergio Mattarella. Its prime minister is Giorgia Meloni. Italy is also a member of the G7, as it has the eighth largest gross domestic product in the world. + +Italy has become famous for its wine and food. Some foods are different between regions. Famous dishes include various types of pasta, pizza, and grapes. Olives are also often used. + +Before 1861, Italy was made up of smaller kingdoms and city-states. + +The country's capital, Rome, is one of the most famous cities in the world. It was the capital of the Roman Empire. Other famous cities in Italy include Venice, Naples, Turin, Genoa, Florence, Palermo, and Milan. + +Geography + +Italy is a peninsula. It is surrounded by the sea on all of its sides except its north side. Northern Italy is separated from France, Switzerland, and Austria by the Alps, a chain of mountains. Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco in Italian or white mountain in English), the highest mountain in Western Europe, is in this chain. The second important chain of mountains in Italy is the Apennines (), which are in central and southern Italy. + +The Po River is the longest river in Italy. It flows through 5 cities: Turin, Piacenza, Cremona, and Ferrara. The Tiber River runs through the city of Rome. + +Northern Italy has some of the biggest lakes in the country, such as Lake Garda, Lake Como, Lake Maggiore and Lake Iseo. Because it is surrounded by the sea, Italy has a very long coast, which brings tourists from all over the world. Tourists also come to see Italy's historical places. + +The country has a number of islands, the biggest of which are Sicily and Sardinia, which can be reached by ship or aircraft. Italy has a border at sea with Libya to the south. + +Political geography + +The capital of Italy is Rome. This is where the Roman Empire started. Other large cities in Italy include Milan, Naples, Turin, Florence, Palermo, and Venice. + +Two enclaves (separate countries) are located within Italy. They are San Marino, which is surrounded by Northern Italy, and the Vatican City, which is surrounded by the city of Rome. Vatican City is also the only enclave in the world to also be surrounded by a city. + +Climate +Italy has both an oceanic climate and continental climate. + +The highest temperature ever recorded in Italy was on 25 June 2007 in Foggia. + +The lowest temperature ever recorded in Italy was on 10 February 2013 at Pale di San Martino. + +People and culture + +People from Italy are called Italians. Even if an Italian were to leave Italy, it is possible that their descendants could also claim Italian citizenship. This is because of Italian nationality law relying mostly on ius sanguinis, or "right of blood" in Latin. Almost all Italians are Christians. Most of these are Roman Catholics. Roman Catholicism + +is based in the Vatican City, which is home to its leader, the Pope. + +The population of Italy is about 60 million people. Almost 3 million of them live in Rome, and 1.5 million in Milan. As of December 2015, over 5 million foreigners were living in Italy, which is 8.3% of the total population. + +The official language of Italy is Italian. German, Slovenian, French, and a few others are also recognized. People also speak dialects of Italian such as Sicilian and Sardinian. There are many different dialects spoken in Italy. They vary between regions and sometimes between provinces. + +The people of Italy are mostly descendant from the ancient Romans. + +Italy is home to more World Heritage Sites than any other country in the world. These sites are culturally important and valued according to UNESCO. About 60% of the works of art of the world are in Italy. Italy is also a big wine producer. In 2005, it made over 5 million tonnes of wine. + +Food +Famous Italian foods include pasta and pizza. + +Art +Many notable artists were from Italy. They include: + Donatello, sculptor + Leonardo da Vinci, painter + Michelangelo, sculptor and painter + Amedeo Modigliani, painter + Raphael, painter + +Economy + +Italy has a modern social welfare system. The labor market is very strong. Many foreigners, especially from Romania, work in Italy where the wages are much higher. + +Italy's modern society has been built up through loans. Now the country has a very high debt of 1.9 trillion euros or 120% of the country's total GDP. + +Religion + +Most people in Italy are Roman Catholics, but the Catholic Church is no longer officially the state religion. 87.8% of the people said they were Roman Catholic. +Only about a third said they were active members (36.8%). There are also other Christian groups in Italy, with more than 700,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians. 180,000 of them belong to the Greek Orthodox Church. + +550,000 are Pentecostals and Evangelicals (0.8%). 235,685 Jehovah's Witnesses (0.4%), 30,000 Waldensians, 25,000 Seventh-day Adventists, 22,000 Mormons, 20,000 Baptists, 7,000 Lutherans, 4,000 Methodists. +The country's oldest religious minority is the Jewish community. It has about 45,000 people. It is no longer the largest non-Christian group. +About 825,000 Muslims live in Italy. Most of them immigrated. (1.41% of the total population) Only 50,000 are Italian citizens. In addition, there are 50,000 Buddhists 70,000 Sikh and 70,000 Hindus in Italy. + +Major cities + + Rome + Venice + Milan + Naples + Turin + Florence + Bologna + Palermo + Trieste + Bari + +Regions +Italy has 20 regions (). Every region is divided into provinces. + +There are 20 regions. Five of them have a special status, called autonomous. This means that they can make certain local laws more easily. These regions are marked with an asterisk (*) below. + +Politics + +The head of state is Sergio Mattarella. He became President of the Italian Republic in February 2015. The first president was Enrico De Nicola. + +The head of government is Giorgia Meloni. She became Prime Minister on October 22, 2022, the first woman in that role. She succeeded Mario Draghi. Draghi's cabinet, fell after support for his coalition fell. + +Italy was one of the first members of the European Union. In 2002 along with 11 other European countries, it changed to using the euro as its official currency. Before this, the Italian lira had been used since 1861. + +Anyone who wants to be President of Italy must have Italian citizenship, be at least 50 years old, and must be able to uphold political and civil rights. + +History + +The capital of Italy is Rome. Rome was founded in 753 BC. It was a separate state well known as Roman Kingdom firstly, Roman Republic and Roman Empire later. It conquered various neighbors including the Etruscan civilization in the north and the states in the south known as Magna Graecia. + +Before 1861, Italy was not a state. The area included a group of separate states that were ruled by other countries (such as Austria, France, and Spain). In the 1850s, the Earl of Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour was the head of government of the "State of Sardinia". He talked to the Austrians in Lombardy and Veneto and said they should create a Northern Italian state. This happened, but other Central and Southern Italian states also joined Piedmont to create a bigger state. + +Kingdom of Italy + +In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi took control of Sicily, creating the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Victor Emmanuel II was made the king. In 1861, Latium and Veneto were still not part of Italy, because they were ruled by the Pope and Austrian Empire. + +Veneto was made part of Italy in 1866 after a war with Austria. Italian soldiers won Latium in 1870. That was when they took away the Pope's power. The Pope, who was angry, said that he was a prisoner to keep Catholic people from being active in politics. That was the year of Italian unification. + +Italy participated in World War I. It was an ally of Great Britain, France, and Russia against the Central Powers. Almost all of Italy's fighting was on the Eastern border, near Austria. After the "Caporetto defeat", Italy thought they would lose the war. But, in 1918, the Central Powers surrendered. Italy gained the Trentino-South Tyrol, which once was owned by Austria. + +Fascist Italy +In 1922, a new Italian government started. It was ruled by Benito Mussolini, the leader of Fascism in Italy. He became head of government and dictator, calling himself "Il Duce" (which means "leader" in Italian). He became friends with German dictator Adolf Hitler. Germany, Japan, and Italy became the Axis Powers. In 1940, they entered World War II together against France, Great Britain, and later the Soviet Union. During the war, Italy controlled most of the Mediterranean Sea. + +On July 25, 1943, Mussolini was removed by the Great Council of Fascism. On September 8, 1943, Badoglio said that the war as an ally of Germany was ended. Italy started fighting as an ally of France and the UK, but Italian soldiers did not know whom to shoot. In Northern Italy, a movement called Resistenza started to fight against the German invaders. On April 25, 1945, much of Italy became free, while Mussolini tried to make a small Northern Italian fascist state called the Republic of SalĂČ. The fascist state failed and Mussolini tried to flee to Switzerland and escape to Francoist Spain, but he was captured by Italian partisans. On 28 April 1945 Mussolini was executed by a partisan. + +After World War Two + +The state became a republic on June 2, 1946. For the first time, women were able to vote. Italian people ended the Savoia dynasty and adopted a republic government. + +In February 1947, Italy signed a peace treaty with the Allies. They lost all the colonies and some territorial areas (Istria and parts of Dalmatia). + +Since then Italy has joined NATO and the European Community (as a founding member). It is one of the seven biggest industrial economies in the world. + +Transportation + +The railway network in Italy totals . It is the 17th longest in the world. High speed trains include ETR-class trains which travel at speeds of up to . + +Related pages + Italy at the Olympics + Italy national football team + Italian cuisine + Italophilia + Italian Mare Nostrum + List of rivers of Italy + +References + +Other websites + + Official tourism website + + +European Union member states +Italian-speaking countries +G8 nations +G7 nations +If is a word to describe a statement where one thing depends on something else. + +For example: +We can call this true if there is proof. +We will play outside if it does not rain. + +If â is a poem written by Rudyard Kipling. It appeared in the Brother Square Toes chapter of Kipling's book Rewards and Fairies. In a 1995 BBC opinion poll, it was voted Britain's favourite poem. It is arguably Kipling's most famous poem. + +Basic English 850 words +An island is a piece of land that is surrounded by a body of water such as a lake, river, sea or ocean. Islands are smaller than continents. Although there are many Islands that surround fresh water, the vast majority of them surround oceans. + +Greenland and Australia are huge islands, but they are built of continental rock, and the latter is generally considered a continent. The most ancient part of continental rock is far older and chemically more complex than the rock of the sea floor. + +The heart of continents is their cratons, which are the most ancient and stable parts of the Earth's crust. In the cratons are all the rare elements needed for electronic equipment. They were swept up as the Sun moved through areas where supernovae had exploded. The rare elements we need were all got indirectly from supernovae explosions. The Sun's energy comes from turning hydrogen into helium. + +There are some islands which do have rare elements, and that is a sign that they were once part of a large supercontinent. So Great Britain was once part of a supercontinent. The oldest rocks are 2,700 million years old, and include many rare elements only found in cratons. Britain is a snapped-off piece of the Old Red Sandstone continent, now known as Laurasia. + +Other islands that were formed from the ocean floor, as Japan, and Hawaii were, lack most of the rare elements. Japan has for many years since WWII imported iron ore from Australia. Its seizing of Manchukuo (~Manchuria) and the infamous attack on Pearl Harbour no doubt had many reasons. Lack of raw materials was one of these Now it looks for potential in its nearby deep-sea muds. + +Big islands + +In Europe + Great Britain 218,995 kmÂČ + Iceland 101,826 kmÂČ + Ireland 81,638 kmÂČ + The island in the north of Novaja Zemlja 47,079 kmÂČ + Spitsbergen 38,981 kmÂČ + The island in the south of Novaja Zemlja 33,246 kmÂČ + Sicily 25,662 kmÂČ + Sardinia 23,812 kmÂČ + Nordaustlandet (archipelago of Svalbard, Norway) 14,247 kmÂČ + Cyprus 9,234 + Corsica 8,741 kmÂČ + +Other places + Greenland 2,130,800 kmÂČ + New Guinea 785,753 kmÂČ + Borneo 748,138 kmÂČ + Madagascar 587,041 kmÂČ + Baffin 507,451 kmÂČ + Sumatra 677,658 kmÂČ + +References + +Basic English 850 words +An interim is a period of temporary pause or change in a sequence of events, or a temporary state, and is often applied to transitional political entities. + +Interim may also refer to: + +Temporary organizational arrangements (general concept) +Provisional government, emergency government during the creation, collapse, or crisis of a state; also called interim government +Caretaker government, temporary rule between governments in a parliamentary democracy; also called interim government +Acting president, interim head of a state +Acting (law), designation of a person temporarily exercising the authority of any position +Interim management, in business + +Specific temporary political arrangements + +Provisional and interim governments and constitutions +Articles of Confederation, United States 1781â1788 +Interim government of California, 1846â1850 +Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States, 1861â1862 +Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, 1912â1931 +DĂĄil Constitution, Ireland 1918â1921 +Interim National Assembly (Czechoslovakia), 1945â1946 +Interim Government of India, 1946â1947 +Provisional Constitution of 1950, Indonesia 1950â1959 +Interim Constitution of Tanzania, 1964â1977 +Interim presidency of Suharto, Indonesia 1967â1968 +Interim Constitution of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (1974), from 1974 +Interim Batasang Pambansa, government of the Philippines 1978â1984 +Interim Government of Iran 1979â80, also covered by Interim Government of Iran (1979â80), +Interim Government of Iran (1981) +Interim Parliament of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 1983 +Transitional Government of Ethiopia, 1991â1995 +Interim Government of Somalia, 1991â1996 +Interim National Government, Nigeria 1993 +Interim Constitution (South Africa), 1994â1997 +National Transitional Council (Congo), 1997â2001 +Joint Interim Administrative Structure, Kosovo 2000â2001 +Afghan Interim Administration, 2001â2002 +Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 2004â2005 +Iraqi Interim Government, 2005 +Iraqi Transitional Government, 2005â2006 +Interim National Constitution of the Republic of Sudan, 2005 +2006 interim constitution of Thailand and 2006 Thai interim civilian government +Interim Cabinet of Fiji, 2007 +2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, 2011â2012 +National Transitional Council, Libya 2011â2012 +Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration, from 2011 +Regmi interim cabinet, Nepal 2013â2014 +Interim Government of Ambazonia, from 2017 +2020 interim government of Kyrgyzstan + +Caretaker interim governments + +Specific states generally +Interrex (English: "between kings"), office in the Roman Kingdom and Republic, a type of regent +Caretaker government of Australia, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country +Caretaker government of Bangladesh, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country +Caretaker government of Malaysia, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country +Caretaker Prime Minister of Pakistan, laws and history pertaining to interim governments in that country +Interim and Acting President of Israel +Interim leader (Canada), a temporary party leader appointed upon the resignation or death of a party leader + +Specific caretaker interim governments +Churchill caretaker ministry, United Kingdom 1945 +Iraqi Governing Council, government under the Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, 2004â2005 (see above) +Interim legislature of Nepal, from 2009 +Interim Cabinet of Panagiotis Pikrammenos in Greece, 2012 +2015 interim election government of Turkey +Caretaker Government of Myanmar (2021), from 2021 +Sub-state entities +Interim East Punjab Assembly, 1947â1951 +Interim Morgan Government, Wales 2000 +Interim Uttarakhand Assembly, Indian state of Uttarakhand 2000â2002 +Ituri Interim Administration, government of the Ituri region of the Congo, from 2003 +Syrian Interim Government, government of some parts of Syria from 2013 +Bangsamoro Interim Cabinet, government of Bangsamoro in the Philippines from 2018 + +Temporary peaces +Regensburg Interim, 1542 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany +Augsburg Interim, 1548 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany +Leipzig Interim, another 1548 decree relating to religious disputes in Germany +Interim Peace between Finland and the USSR 1940â1941 + +Diplomacy +ChargĂ© d'affaires ad interim, temporary head of a diplomatic mission +Interim Meeting of Foreign Ministers, 1945, also called the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers +Interim Agreement, commonly known as the Oslo Accords, relating to the IsraeliâPalestinian conflict +Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, commonly known as the Oslo II Accord +Sinai Interim Agreement, also known as the Sinai II Agreement, between Egypt and Israel 1975 +Interim Self Governing Authority, 2003 Tamil proposal +Geneva interim agreement on Iranian nuclear program, 2013, commonly known as the Joint Plan of Action + +Other +Interim Committee, precursor to the American Atomic Energy Commission 1945â1946 +Interim Independent Electoral Commission (Kenya), 2009â2011 +Interim Committee on Un-American Activities, commonly known as the Canwell Committee, legislative committee of Washington State in the United States, 1947â1949 +Nassau Interim Finance Authority, from 2000, New York State commission +Interim Climate Change Committee, New Zealand 2018â2019 + +Legal concepts and procedures +Interim order, court order in effect pending outcome of a case +Interim trustee, concept in United States bankruptcy law +Interim appeal, a partial appeal in United States law +Interim interdict in Scots law, a temporary injunction +Judicial interim release, part of Canadian bail law + +Peacekeeping forces +United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, from 1978 +United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei in Sudan, from 2011 + +Sports +Caretaker manager, temporary manager of a soccer team; also called interim manager +Interim championship, temporary world championship in boxing and other contact sports +IFA Interim Intermediate League, Ireland 2008â2009 + +The arts +Interim (film), 1953 short film by Stan Brakhage +Interim (album), 2004 album by British rock band The Fall +Interim Resurgence, 1985 album by Zoogz Rift +INTERIM-Theater in Munich + +Other +Interim analysis, in science, analysis of incomplete data +Interim state, in some religious thought, an intermediate state between one's death and the End Times +Interim alternative educational setting, in American education, temporary placement for a special-needs student +Interim Housing, in China, provision for temporarily displaced persons +MCC Interim Linux, provisional software release 1992 +Institute of Interim Management, United Kingdom +Interim Fast Attack Vehicle, American scout vehicle +Interim Control Module, NASA machine +Interim Capability for Airborne Networking, United States Air Force process +Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera, taxonomic database +Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia + +Related pages +Ad interim, Latin phrase for "in the meantime" +Interim velim a sole mihi non obstes ("In the meantime, don't block my sun") +Regent, temporary ruler standing in for monarch currently unable to exercise rule +Locum tenens, a person who temporarily fulfills the duties of another +An idiom is a common phrase which means something different from its literal meaning but can be understood because of their popular use. + +Idioms are difficult for someone not good at speaking the language. Some idioms are only used by some groups of people or at certain times. The idiom shape up or ship out, which is like saying improve your behavior or leave if you don't, might be said by an employer or supervisor to an employee, but not to other people. + +Idioms are not the same thing as slang. Idioms are made of normal words that have a special meaning known to almost everyone. Slang is usually special words, or special meanings of normal words that are known only to a particular group of people. + +To learn a language a person needs to learn the words in that language, and how and when to use them. But people also need to learn idioms separately because certain words together or at certain times can have different meanings. In order to understand an idiom, one sometimes needs to know the culture from which the idiom comes. + +To know the history of an idiom can be useful and interesting. For example, most native British English speakers know that "No room to swing a cat" means "there was not much space" and can use the idiom properly. However, few know this is because 200 years ago sailors were punished by being whipped with a "cat o' nine tails". A big space was cleared on the ship so that the person doing the whipping had room to swing the cat. + +An idiom is a phrase whose meaning cannot be understood from the dictionary definitions of each word taken separately. The linguist's term for the real meaning of an idiom is the subtext. + +Simple Definition +Idioms are phrases or expressions that have a figurative meaning different from their literal interpretation. They are commonly used in everyday language to convey a specific idea, often with cultural or historical significance. Idioms are not meant to be taken literally, and their meaning can be understood only by familiarizing oneself with their usage and context. + +Some common idioms + Break a leg + A way to wish someone good luck. + To live it up + To enjoy life, to live widely + To kick the bucket + To die. + Shape up or ship out + Used to tell someone that they should leave if they don't improve their behavior or performance + Learn the ropes +Learn and often perfect the skills of a craft, job, etc. + Mad as a hatter +Mentally unstable, especially as the result of poisoning. + To shed crocodile tears To cry about something but without actually caring. + Wild goose chase A useless journey or pursuit. + Nothing burger An idea or promise without substance + There's no room to swing a cat + There is not a lot of space. + To pay through the nose + To pay a lot of money, more than is normal. + Cost an arm and a leg +Be extremely expensive. + To bark up the wrong tree + To choose the wrong course of action. + To spill the beans + To tell a secret. + It's raining cats and dogs + It's raining heavily. + To get into hot water + To get into trouble. + Skate on thin ice +To disregard caution. + Chicken-hearted + Frightened or cowardly + To chicken out + Not doing a thing, because of fear. + Top dog + Leader. + To smell a rat + To think that something is wrong. + To give up + To quit. + To give up on + To stop believing in something or someone. + I could eat a horse + I am very hungry. + To be on top of the world +To be really happy. + Once in a blue moon +Rarely + Wouldn't touch with a ten-foot pole! (Or barge pole in British English) +Not wanting anything to do with something or someone. + Avoid like the plague +Avoid at any cost. + Miss the boat +Be too late for a chance or opportunity. + Child's play +Easy to do. + Cakewalk +Something easy to accomplish. + Chinese puzzle +Extremely difficult task. + Castle in the clouds or pie in the sky +An impossible or improbable dream, project, etc. + Hit the sack +To go to bed + Get\give the sack +Dismiss or be dismissed from one's employment. + The whole nine yards +Everything + Bells and whistles +All the unnecessary luxuries, features, etc + Mad as a hater +Insane, as from poisoning. + Turn a blind eye \ deaf ear +To ignore. + Cry wolf +Report a false emergency. + One's cup of tea +What someone prefers. + Not for all the tea in China + + Less common idioms include + Safe as houses +Very safe and secure. + +Idioms which have unclear meaning +Articles by Oxfam and the BBC have said that many idioms in English are unclear, or ambiguous. Many are understood differently in different countries. Many of the examples are taken from face-to-face talk, but may also apply in written reports. + +Examples +Satisfactory (in a report, or in an assessment) might mean not satisfactory. +I hear what you say. Might mean I'm listening, but more likely I totally disagree. +With the greatest respect. May mean You are quite wrong. 68% of British thought it meant "I think you are an idiot", whereas 49% of Americans thought it meant "I am listening to you". +I'll bear it in mind. In a survey 55% of British thought it meant I've forgotten it already. 43% of Americans thought it meant I will probably do it. + +Vocables are sounds that are not proper words, but mean something, and are often ambiguous. One is a long drawn-out sound hmmmmmm. + +One suggestion is that these idioms are used to smooth over difficult areas in social interaction. They cover passive-aggressive statements which might cause more conflict if openly expressed. + +Related pages +Proverb + +References + +Figures of speech +The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) tests how fluent you are in the English language. People who take the test take the Academic Module or the General Training Module. The academic one is for people who want to go to university. The general one is for people who want to do other training or want to get work experience. People who want to emigrate to a country that uses English also take the general one. + +Most universities in Australia, Britain, Canada, New Zealand and the United States accept the IELTS. Many professional companies do as well. + +Other websites + IELTS Web Site + IELTS Exams + +English language +Tests +Ink is a liquid that is used to write, draw, print, or make marks. The word ink is from Latin and means "colored water". Ink is used in pens, in some computer printers, and in printing presses. In some countries, people write by using ink and brushes. People usually write or print using black ink, but ink can be any color. The first ink was used in Egypt about 2600 BC. + +The first inks were carbon inks, made from soot, which is 80% carbon, water and gum arabic. Red ink would need iron oxide (such as haematite) from ground rocks instead of soot. Later, in Europe, people used iron gall ink. This is the kind of ink Johann Sebastian Bach and Leonardo da Vinci used. Now ink colours are produced by man-made dyes. + +A disadvantage of many kinds of ink is that they may smudge when wet, spoiling the picture or writing. If water-based ink is used, the writing situation needs to be stable, with the writer seated at a table. Ink in a ballpoint pen (biro) is a kind of gel. It is held in a thin long cylinder (tube) inside the pen. The ink does not fall out of the cylinder as it sticks to the sides of the tube. Therefore, ballpoint pens can be used in a wider range of circumstances compared to water-based inks. + +== References == + . + +Basic English 850 words +Writing tools +Art materials +The inch is a unit of length in the Imperial system and the United States customary system. The abbreviation for inches is in or ". There are 12 inches in a foot. One inch is equal to 2.54 centimetres. + +The word "inch" came from Middle English unche, which came from Old English ynce, from Latin uncia meaning "a twelfth part". + +History + +The inch was originally defined as 3 barleycorns. The inch was finally standardised in the International Yard and Pound Treaty in 1959 between the United States, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. The international yard was made equal to 0.9144 metres. From this, subdivisions and multiples of the yard were specifically defined. + +Usage + +In Britain and the United States, people use inches more than they use millimetres or centimetres. In the rest of the world, international units are almost always used. The inch is not used by scientists. + +In the United Kingdom, road signs that show how high a vehicle can be in order to pass through a tunnel are required to be in feet and inches. Theme parks and drive thru signs usually show it in metres. People regularly measure their height in feet and inches. Official medical records, however, are required to record people's height in metric measurements only. + +In Canada, a mix of centimetres and inches are used in height. Older generations, especially, use Imperial units. A lot of exposure to Americanized phrases leads to younger generations often having a good understanding of both the Imperial and metric systems. + +In the United States, height is always in feet and inches. Science is the only field to use metric measurements. + +Other Commonwealth countries, including Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Jamaica use inches to varying degrees. From every day use to exclusively the older community. + +Length + +Units of length +Imperial units +The pint (abbreviated pt) is a unit of volume in imperial units and United States customary units. There are three types of pints used in different countries. An imperial pint and US pint both equal of a quart and of a gallon. + +An imperial fluid ounce is approximately 4% smaller than a US fluid ounce although an imperial pint has 4 more fluid ounces than a US pint, making an imperial pint approximately 20% larger than a US pint. + +Imperial Pint +The imperial pint is the pint used in England, Canada, Ireland, and Burma. The unit may appear in other Commonwealth. Confusion in Canada often arises as liquids are occasionally sold in U.S. pints, near the border, although the official and only pint that is legal in Canada is the imperial pint. The imperial system has no dry pint and volume in dry units, since solid objects are measured by mass. 1 imperial pint equals 568,261.25 mm3. + +An imperial fluid ounce is approximately 4% smaller than a US fluid ounce although an imperial pint has 4 more fluid ounces than a US pint, making an imperial pint approximately 20% larger than a US pint. + +US Wet Pint +The US wet pint, or more commonly 'pint', is the unit used to measure volume in the United States. It is more common than the dry pint which is used for non-liquid volume measurements. 1 US pint is exactly equal to 473,176.473 mm3, defined by the international yard and pound agreement. + +US Dry Pint +The US dry pint was a unit used for measuring the volume of solid objects instead of mass or quantity. + +Usage + The wet U.S. pint is still commonly used in the United States. + In Canada, it is commonly used for alcohol although a pint can vary from 12 fl oz to 20 fl oz and is sometimes incorrectly given in US fl oz. + In England and Ireland, only milk and pure ethanol are sold in pints; however, milk must have litres next to pints. + In England, milk is often sold in metric quantities near to imperial pints. + +Imperial units +Units of volume +The word Italian may mean: +Anything related to the country of Italy +Italians, people of Italy +Italian cuisine, food of Italy +Italian language +Italians ( ) are a Romance ethnic group native to the Italian peninsula. Italians have a common culture, history, ancestry and language. + +References + +Italy +Ethnic groups in Europe +ISO 19011 is the new global accounting standard, replacing accounting standards that were part of ISO 14001 and ISO 9001. It is the most likely basis for accounting reform which could put an end to accounting scandals. + +The standard offers four resources to organizations to "save time, effort and money": + + A clear explanation of the principles of management systems auditing. + Guidance on the management of audit programs. + Guidance on the conduct of internal or external audits. + Advice on the competence and evaluation of auditors. + +Accounting +19011 +India (Hindi: ), officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ) and also known as HindustÄn or BhÄrat within the country, is a country in South Asia. It is the largest country by number of people and seventh largest country by land area. India is a peninsula, bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It has six neighbors: Pakistan in the north-west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan in the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east. Sri Lanka is nearby to the south. + +The capital city of India is New Delhi. India has the second largest military force in the world and is also a nuclear weapon state. India's economy became the world's fastest growing in the G20 developing nations during 2014, replacing the People's Republic of China. India's literacy and wealth are also rising. According to New World Wealth, India is the fifth richest country in the world with a total individual wealth of $12.6 trillion. However, it still has many social and economic issues like poverty and corruption. India is a founding member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and has signed the Kyoto Protocol. + +India has the fifth largest economy by nominal GDP, the third largest by GDP (PPP) and is the fastest growing major economy. India is a nuclear power and has the second largest standing military in the world. India has its own space agency (ISRO) and has done various research throughout the solar system, including sending spacecraft to the Moon, Mars, and Venus. India is also a member of the G20 developing nations, and has been described as a potential superpower due to its rising economy and increase in global influence. + +India has the fourth largest number of spoken languages per country in the world, only behind Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Nigeria. People of many different religions live there, including the five most popular world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, and Christianity. The first three religions originated from the Indian subcontinent along with Jainism. + +National symbols + +The national emblem of India shows four lions standing back-to-back. The lions symbolize power, pride, confidence, and courage. Only the government can use this emblem, according to the State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005. + +The name India comes from the Greek word, Indus. This came from the word sindhu, which, over time, turned into Hind, Hindi, or Hindu. The preferred endonym (the name given to the country by its own people) is "BhÄrat" in Hindi and other Indian languages as contrasted with names from outsiders. Some of the national symbols are: + National anthem: Jana Gana Mana + National song: Vande Mataram + National animal: Tiger + National bird: Peacock + National flower: Lotus + National tree: Banyan + National river: Ganges (Ganga) + National Aquatic Animal: Ganges River Dolphin + National fruit: Mango + National heritage animal: Elephant + National heritage bird: Indian eagle + +History + +Some of the main classical languages of the world, Tamil and Sanskrit, were born in today's India. Both of these languages are more than 3000 years old. The country founded a religion called Hinduism, which most Indians still follow. Later, a king named Chandragupt Maurya built an empire called the Maurya Empire in 300 BC. It made most of South Asia into one whole country. From 180 BC, many other countries invaded India. Even later (100 BC AD 1100), other Indian dynasties (empires) came, including the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandyas. Southern India at that time was famous for its science, art, and writing. The Cholas of Thanjavur were pioneers at war in the seas and invaded Malaya, Borneo, Cambodia. The influence of Cholas are still noticeable in Southeast Asia. + +Many dynasties ruled India around the year 1000. Some of these were the Mughal, Vijayanagara, and the Maratha empires. In the 1600s, European countries invaded India, and the British controlled most of India by 1856. + +In the early 1900s, millions of people peacefully started to protest against British control. One of the people who led the freedom movement was Mahatma Gandhi, who only used peaceful tactics, including a way called "ahimsa", which means "non-violence". On 15 August 1947, India peacefully became free and independent from the British Empire. India's constitution was founded on 26 January 1950. Every year, on this day, Indians celebrate Republic Day. The first official leader (Prime Minister) of India was Jawaharlal Nehru. + +After 1947, India had a socialist planned economy. It is one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. It has fought many wars since independence from Britain, including the wars in 1947-48, 1965, 1971, and 1999 with Pakistan and in 1962 with China. It also fought a war to capture Goa, a Portuguese-built port and a city that was not a part of India until 1961. The Portuguese refused to give it to the country, and so India had to use force and the Portuguese were defeated. India has also done nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998. It is one of the few countries that have nuclear bombs. Since 1991, India has been one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. + +Government + +India has the most people of any democracy in the world. + +India's government is divided into three parts: the Legislative (the one that makes the laws, the Parliament), the Executive (the government), and the Judiciary (the one that makes sure that the laws are obeyed, the supreme court). + +The legislative branch is made up of the Parliament of India, which is in New Delhi, the capital of India. The Parliament of India is divided into two houses: the upper house, Rajya Sabha (Council of States); and the lower house, Lok Sabha (House of People). The Rajya Sabha has 250 members, and the Lok Sabha has 552 members. + +The executive branch is made up of the President, Vice President, Prime Minister, and the Council of Ministers. The President of India is elected for a period of five years. The President can choose the Prime Minister, who has most of the power. The Council of Ministers, such as the Minister of Defence, helps the Prime Minister. Narendra Modi became the Prime Minister of India on 16 May 2014. He is the 19th Prime Minister of India. The president has less power than the prime minister. + +The judicial branch is made up of the courts of India, including the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of India is the head of the Supreme Court. Supreme Court members have the power to stop a law being passed by Parliament if they think that the law is illegal and contradicts (opposes) the Constitution of India. In India, there are also 24 High Courts. + +Geography and climate + +India is the seventh biggest country in the world. It is the main part of the Indian subcontinent. The countries next to India are Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Bhutan, and Nepal. It is also near Sri Lanka, an island country. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a union territory of India, is near Thailand, Indonesia, and Myanmar. + +India is a peninsula, which means that it is surrounded on three sides by water. In the west is the Arabian Sea, in the south is the Indian Ocean, and in the east is the Bay of Bengal. The coastline of India is of about long. The northern part of India has many mountains. The most famous mountain range in India is the Himalayas, which have some of the tallest mountains in the world. There are many rivers in India. The main rivers are the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, the Kaveri, the Narmada, and the Krishna. + +India has different climates. In the South, the climate is mainly tropical, which means it can get very hot in summer and cool in winter. The northern part, though, has a cooler climate, called sub-tropical, and even alpine in mountainous regions. The Himalayas, in the alpine climate region, can get extremely cold. There is very heavy rainfall along the west coast and in the Eastern Himalayan foothills. The west, though, is drier. Because of some of the deserts of India, all of India gets rain for four months of the year. That time is called the monsoon. That is because the deserts attract water-filled winds from the Indian Ocean, which give rain when they come into India. When the monsoon rains come late or not so heavily, droughts (when the land dries out because there is less rain) are possible. Monsoons normally come around JulyâAugust. + +Military + +The Indian Armed Forces is the military of India. It is made up of an Army, Navy and Air Force. There are other parts like Paramilitary and Strategic Nuclear Command. + +The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief. However, it is managed by the Ministry of Defence. In 2010, the Indian Armed Forces had 1.32 million active personnel. This makes it one of the largest militaries in the world. + +The Indian Army is becoming more modern by buying and making new weapons. It is also building defenses against missiles of other countries. In the years 2018-2022, India imported more arms than any other nation in the world. + +From its independence in 1947, India fought four wars with Pakistan and a war with China. + +Indian states +For administration purposes, India has been divided into smaller pieces. Most of these pieces are called states, some are called union territories. States and union territories are different in the way they are represented. Most union territories are ruled by administrators (called Lieutenant Governors) sent by the central government. All the states, and the territories of Delhi, and Puducherry elect their local government themselves. In total, there are twenty-eight states and eight union territories. + +States: + +Union territories: + +<li> + +Trouble with the borders +There are disputes about certain parts of the Indian borders. Countries do not agree on where the borders are. Pakistan and China do not recognise the disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian government claims it as an Indian state. Similarly, the Republic of India does not recognise the Pakistani and Chinese parts of Kashmir. + +In 1914, British India and Tibet agreed on the McMahon Line, as part of the Simla Accord. In July 1914, China withdrew from the agreement. Indians and Tibetans see this line as the official border. China does not agree, and both mainland China and Taiwan do not recognize that Arunachal Pradesh belongs to India. According to them, it is a part of South Tibet, which belongs to China. + +Economy + +The economy of the country is among the world's fastest growing. It is the 7th largest in the world with a nominal GDP of $2,250 billion (USD), and in terms of PPP, the economy is 3rd largest (worth US$8.720 trillion). The growth rate is 8.25% for fiscal 2010. However, that is still $3678 (considering PPP) per person per year. India's economy is based mainly on: + Service sector: 43% + Industries: 41% + Information technology: 7% + Farming: 7% + Outsourcing: 2%. + +India's economy is diverse. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles. + +However, despite economic growth, India continues to suffer from poverty. 27.5% of the population was living in poverty in 2004â2005. In addition, 80.4% of the population live on less than US$2 a day, which was lowered to 68% by 2009. + +People + +There are 1.4 billion people living in India. In 2023, India passed China to become the world's most populous country. +About 65% of Indians live in rural areas, or land set aside for farming. The largest cities in India are Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Ahmedabad. India has 23 official languages. Altogether, 1,625 languages are spoken in India. + +Languages +There are many different languages and cultures in India. There are two main language families in India, the Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian languages. About 69% of Indians speak an Indo-Arayan language, and about 26% speak a Dravidian language. Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic group. Around 5% of the people speak a Tibeto-Burman language. + +Hindi is the official language in India with the largest number of speakers. It is the official language of the union. Native speakers of Hindi represent about 41% of the Indian population (2001 Indian census). English is also used, mostly for business and in administration. It has the status of a 'subsidiary official language'. The constitution also recognises 21 other languages. Either many people speak those languages, or they have been recognized to be very important for Indian culture. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652. + +In the south of India, many people speak Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Malayalam. In the north, many people speak Chhattisgarhi, Punjabi, Bengali, Gujarati, and Marathi, Odia, and Bihari. + +India has 27 official languages. Its constitution lists the name of the country in each of the languages. Hindi and English (listed in boldface) are the "official languages of the union" (Union meaning the Federal Government in Delhi); Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Odia are officially the "classical languages of India." + +Culture + +Cave paintings from the Stone Age are found across India. They show dances and rituals and suggest there was a prehistoric religion. During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were written from about 500â100 BCE, although these were orally transmitted for centuries before this period. Other South Asian Stone Age sites apart from Pakistan are in modern India, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art showing religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music. + +Several modern religions are linked to India, namely modern Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. All of these religions have different schools (ways of thinking) and traditions that are related. As a group they are called the Eastern religions. The Indian religions are similar to one another in many ways: The basic beliefs, the way worship is done and several religious practices are very similar. These similarities mainly come from the fact that these religions have a common history and common origins. They also influenced each other. + +The religion of Hinduism is the main faith followed by 79.80% of people in the Republic of India; Islam â 14.23%; Christianity â 2.30%; Sikhism â 1.72%; Buddhism â 0.70% and Jainism â 0.37%. + +Technology +India sent a spacecraft to Mars for the first time in 2014. That made it the fourth country and first Asian country to do so, successfully. It was called the Mars Orbiter Mission. + +ISRO launched 104 satellites in a single mission to create a world record. India became the first nation in the world to have launched over a hundred satellites in one mission. That was more than the 2014 Russian record of 37 satellites in a single launch. + +Pop culture +India has the largest movie industry in the world. It is based in Bombay which is now known as Mumbai, the industry is also known as Bollywood. It makes 1,000 movies a year, about twice as many as Hollywood. + +Sports + +Indians have excelled in hockey. They have also won eight gold, one silver, and two bronze medals at the Olympic games. However, cricket is the most popular sport in India. The Indian cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 Cricket World Cup and the 2007 ICC World Twenty20. They shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka and won the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Cricket in India is controlled by the Board of Control for Cricket in India or BCCI. Domestic tournaments are the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy, and the Challenger Series. There is also the Indian cricket league and Indian premier league Twenty20 competitions. + +Tennis has become popular due to the victories of the India Davis Cup team. Association football is also a popular sport in northeast India, West Bengal, Goa and Kerala. The Indian national football team has won the South Asian Football Federation Cup many times. Chess, which comes from India, is also becoming popular. This is with the increase in the number of Indian Grandmasters. Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played throughout India. + +Notes + +References + +Other websites + + Government + Official entry portal of the Government of India + Official directory of Indian Government websites + + +Gondwana +1947 establishments in Asia +Commonwealth member states +An insult is a description of someone that will offend them. It may or may not be true. It is called derogatory language. Terms like foolish, stupid, idiot and moron are insults, because they say that a person's mind is not quick or smart. + +Insulting someone's mother directly is a serious insult in many cultures. + +Ritual insults are part of many cultures. For example, they can be found in sports and military training. They are also very common in jargons. For example, the word newbie is a part of net jargon. Calling someone a newbie is usually insulting. + +One should be very careful when using new words to describe others. + +Reason +Usually, someone insults others because they want to feel like they are better or have more power (influence) than the people they insult. They may want this because they are actually afraid that they are worse or less powerful than the people they are insulting. + +Effects +When someone is insulted, their pride is hurt. They may want to fight back by insulting the person who insulted them, or by telling someone who is older. + +Figures of speech +Immunology is the study of the immune system. The immune system is the parts of the body which work against infection and parasitism by other living things. Immunology deals with the working of the immune system in health and diseases, and with malfunctions of the immune system. + +An immune system is present in all plants and animals. We know this because biologists have found genes coding for toll-like receptors in many different metazoans. These toll-like receptors can recognise bacteria as 'foreign', and are the starting-point for immune reactions. The type of immunity which is triggered by the toll-like receptors is called innate immunity. This is because it is entirely inherited in our genome, and is fully working as soon as our tissues and organs are properly developed. + +Vertebrates, and only vertebrates, have a second type of immunity. This is called adaptive immunity, because it 'remembers' previous infections. Then, if the same infection occurs again, the reaction is much stronger and faster. This immunological memory "confers a tremendous survival advantage" and with it vertebrates "can survive over a long lifetime in a pathogen-filled environment". + +Types of immunity in vertebrates + +Innate immune response + +The innate immune system is usually means all of the cells and systems that does not have to be exposed to a particular pathogen before they can work. + +Innate immunity starts with the skin, which is an excellent barrier to infection. + +Adaptive immune response + +The adaptive immune system includes cells and systems that do require previous exposure to a pathogen. It explains the unique ability of the mammalian immune system to remember previous infections and mount a rapid and robust reaction to secondary infections. This immunological memory is due to the biology of T-cells and B-cells. + +Other aspects of immunity +Vaccines boost the acquired immune system by offering weak forms of infection that the body can fight off. The system remembers how to do it again when a stronger infection happens. If the vaccine works, the body can then fight off a serious infection. + +The distribution of vaccines and other immune system affecting cures can be considered another level of acquired immune system, one governed by access to vaccination and medicine in general. The intersection of this with the spread of disease (as studied in epidemiology) is part of the field of public health. + +Errors and weaknesses +Errors of the immune system may cause damage. In autoimmune diseases, the body attacks parts of itself because the system mistakes some parts of the body as 'foreign'. Some kinds of arthritis are caused this way. + +Sometimes serious pathogens slip in because their surface is disguised as something the host cell walls can accept. That is how viruses work. Once inside a cell, their genetic material controls the cell. Infections like HIV get in this way, and then attack cells which are the basis of the immune system. Artificial means are often used to restore immune system function in an HIV-challenged body, and prevent the onset of AIDS. This is one of the most complex issues in immunology as it involves every level of that system. This research during the 1980s and 1990s radically changed the view of the human immune system and its functions and integration in the human body. + +History of immunology + +Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides (460â395 BC) noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of some diseases could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. + +In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom. This and other observations of acquired immunity led to Louis Pasteur (1822â1895) developing vaccination and the germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until the proofs Robert Koch (1843â1910) published in 1891 (for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905) that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, when the yellow fever virus was discovered by Walter Reed (1851â1902). + +Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity. Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich (1854â1915), who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction. The Nobel Prize for 1908 was jointly awarded to Ehrlich and the founder of cellular immunology, Ilya Mechnikov (1845â1916). + +The simplest form of immunity is the DNA restriction system in bacteria that prevents infection by bacteriophages. + +References + +Related pages + Lymphatic system + White blood cell +Infinity () is a number which is about things that never end. It is written in a single digit. Infinity means many different things, depending on when it is used. The word is from Latin origin, meaning "without end". Infinity goes on forever, so sometimes space, numbers, and other things are said to be 'infinite', because they never come to a stop. + +Infinity is usually not an actual number, but it is sometimes used as one. Infinity often says how many there is of something, instead of how big something is. For example, there are infinitely many whole numbers (called integers), but there is no integer which is infinitely big. But different kinds of math have different kinds of infinity. So its meaning often changes. + +There are two kinds of infinity: potential infinity and actual infinity. Potential infinity is a process that never stops. For example, adding 10 to a number. No matter how many times 10 is added, 10 more can still be added. Actual infinity, on the other hand, refers to objects that are accepted as infinite entities (such as transfinite numbers). + +Infinity in Mathematics +Mathematicians have different sizes of infinity and three different kinds of infinity. + +Counting infinity +The number of things, beginning with 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., to include infinite cardinal numbers. There are many different cardinal numbers. Infinity can be defined in one of two ways: Infinity is a number so big that a part of it can be of the same size; Infinity is larger than all of the natural numbers. There is a smallest infinite number, countable infinity. It is the counting number for all of the whole numbers. It is also the counting number of the rational numbers. The mathematical notation is the Hebrew letter aleph with a subscript zero; . It is spoken "aleph naught". + +It was a surprise to learn that there are larger infinite numbers. The number of real numbers, that is, all numbers with decimals, is larger than the number of rational numbers, the number of fractions. This shows that there are real numbers which are not fractions. The smallest infinite number greater than is (aleph one). The number of mathematical functions is the next infinite cardinal number, . +And these numbers, called aleph numbers, go on without end. + +Ordering infinity +A different type of infinity are the ordinal numbers, beginning "first, second, third, ...". The order "first, second, third, ..." and so on to infinity is different from the order ending "..., third, second, first". The difference is important for mathematical induction. The simple first, second, third, ... has the mathematical name: the Greek letter omega with subscript zero: . (Or simply omega .) The infinite series ending "... third, second, first" is . + +The real line and complex plane +The third type of infinity has the symbol . This is treated as addition to the real numbers or the complex numbers. It is the result of division by zero, or to indicate that a series is increasing (or decreasing) without bound. The series 1, 2, 3, ... increases without upper bound. This is written: the limit is . In calculus, the integral over all real numbers is written: + +The arithmetic of infinity +Each kind of infinity has different rules. + +Addition, multiplication, exponentiation + + Addition with "alephs" is commutative. + + Multiplication with "alephs" is commutative. + +. + +. Addition with "omegas" is not commutative. + +. Multiplication with "omegas" is not commutative. + +Subtraction, division + + when X is a real number. Otherwise, division by infinity (for example, with omegas or alephs) is not meaningful. Subtraction with infinity is not meaningful. + +Related pages +Countable set +Eternity +Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel +Riemann sphere, complex plane with a point at infinity +Uncountable set + +References + +Other websites + A Crash Course in the Mathematics of Infinite Sets , by Peter Suber. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59. The stand-alone appendix to Infinite Reflections, below. A concise introduction to Cantor's mathematics of infinite sets. + Infinite Reflections , by Peter Suber. How Cantor's mathematics of the infinite solves a handful of ancient philosophical problems of the infinite. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59. + Infinity, Principia Cybernetica + Hotel Infinity + The concepts of finiteness and infinity in philosophy + +Numbers +Mathematics +January (Jan.) is the first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between December (of the previous year) and February (of the current year). It has 31 days. + +January begins on the same day of the week as October in common years, and April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years, and July in leap years. + +The Month + +January is named for Janus, the Roman god of doors and gates. + +January and February were put on the calendar after all the other months. This is because in the original Roman calendar, winter did not have months. Although March was originally the first month, January became the new first month because that was when people chose the new consuls (Roman leaders). The month has 31 days. + +January is a winter month in the Northern Hemisphere and a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of July in the other. Perihelion, the point in its orbit where the Earth is closest to the Sun, also occurs in this month, between January 2 and January 5. January is the only month of the year that always has a "twin" - a month that both begins and ends on the same day of the week as it does. In a common year, this is October, and in a leap year, July. + +January begins on the same day of the week as October in common years and on the same day of the week as April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years and on the same day of the week as July in leap years. + +Every year, January both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. + +In common years immediately before other common years, January starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, September and December of the following year. In common years immediately before other common years, January finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, April and December of the following year. + +January's flower is the carnation with its birthstone being the garnet. + +The first day of January is called New Year's Day. It is said that it became this date when Roman consuls took office on this day in 153 BC. Different calendars across Europe made this the start of the New Year at different times, as some observed it on March 25. + +Reaching over from December, the Christmas season in Christianity also extends into this month. Eastern churches celebrate Christmas on January 6 or January 7, and Epiphany on January 18 or January 19 - In Western Christianity this occurs on January 6, with Christmas occurring on December 25. + +January 1 is celebrated the Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God, that is a feast day of precept of the Blessed Virgin Mary. + +Events + +Fixed Events + + January 1 - New Year's Day + January 1 - Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God + January 1 - World Day of Peace + January 1 - Founding Day (Republic of China) + January 1 - Independence Day in Brunei, Haiti and Sudan + January 1 - Triumph of the Revolution (Cuba) + January 1 - Constitution Day (Italy) + January 2 - New Year's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) + January 2 - Ancestry Day (Haiti) + January 2 - Berchtold's Day (Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Alsace + January 3 - Statehood Day (Alaska) + January 4 - Independence Day (Burma) + January 4 - Day of the Fallen Against Colonial Repression (Angola) + January 4 - Day of the Martyrs (Democratic Republic of the Congo) + January 5 - Twelfth Night in Western Christianity - night to January 6 + January 6 - Epiphany in Western Christianity. + January 6 - Christmas in the Armenian Apostolic Church + January 7 - Christmas in Eastern Orthodox Christianity. + January 7 - Tricolour Day (Italy) + January 7 - Victory from Genocide Day (Cambodia) + January 8 - Commonwealth Day (Northern Mariana Islands) + January 8 - Celebration of Elvis Presley's birthday at Graceland + January 8 - Kim Jong-un's birthday (North Korea) + January 9 - Martyrs' Day (Panama) + January 11 - Kagami Biraki (Japan) + January 11 - Republic Day (Albania) + January 11 - Day of National Unity (Nepal) + January 12 - Memorial Day (Turkmenistan) + January 12 - National Youth Day (India) + January 12 - Zanzibar Revolution Day (Tanzania) + January 13 - Korean American Day + January 13 - Old New Year (parts of Eastern Europe) + January 13 - St. Knut's Day (Norway, Finland, Sweden) + January 14 - New Year's Day (Eastern Orothodox Church) + January 14 - National Flag Day in Georgia + January 14 - National Forest Conservation Day (Thailand) + January 15 - Armed Forces Day (Nigeria) + January 15 - Army Day (India) + January 15 - Tree Planting Day (Egypt) + January 16 - Teacher's Day (Thailand) + January 16 - Flag Day (Israel) + January 17 - Roman Catholic feast day of St. Anthony + January 18 - Royal Thai Armed Forces Day + January 18 - Revolution Day (Tunisia) + January 18 - World Religion Day + January 19 - Epiphany in Eastern Orthodox Christianity + January 20 - Armed Forces Day (Mali) + January 20 - Martyrs' Day (Azerbaijan) + January 20 - Inauguration Day (United States) - newly elected US president takes office in a year after a leap year (last in 2021, next in 2025) + January 21 - Flag Day (Quebec) + January 21 - Christian feast day of St. Agnes. + January 22 - Wellington Anniversary (New Zealand) + January 22 - Reunion Day (Ukraine) + January 23 - National Pie Day (United States) + January 23 - Bounty Day (Pitcairn Island) + January 24 - Feast Day of Our Lady of Peace (Roman Catholicism) + January 24 - Unification Day (Romania) + January 25 - Burns Night (Scotland and Scottish communities), celebrating the birthday of Scottish poet Robert Burns + January 25 - Dydd Santes Dwynwen (Welsh equivalent of Valentine's Day) + January 25 - National Voters Day (India) + January 25 - Tatiana Day (Russia) + January 26 - Australia Day + January 26 - Republic Day (India) + January 26 - Duarte Day (Dominican Republic) + January 26 - Liberation Day (Uganda) + January 27 - Holocaust Memorial Day + January 28 - Army Day (Armenia) + January 28 - EU Data Privacy Day + January 28 - Unofficial day commemorating Charlemagne by some Christians + January 30 - Martyrs' Day (India) + January 30 - School Day of Non-Violence and Peace (Spain) + January 31 - Independence Day (Nauru) + +Month-long or Moveable Events + + Coming of Age Day (Japan), second Monday in January + Martin Luther King, Jr. Day (United States), third Monday in January, commemorating civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., who was born on January 15. + Chinese New Year (between January 21 and February 21) + Australian Open - One of the major Grand Slam tennis tournaments. Starts between January 13 and January 19, ends between January 26 and February 1. + Auckland Anniversary (New Zealand) on a Monday between January 26 and February 1. + Weight Loss Awareness Month (United States) + National Mentoring Month (United States) + +Selection of Historical Events + + January 1, 153 BC - Roman consuls are said to have taken office on this day for the first time. + January 1, 1801 - The United Kingdom is created, with the inclusion of Ireland. + January 1, 1804 - Haiti becomes the second independent country in the Americas, after the US. + January 1, 1901 - Australia is given self-government. + January 1, 1956 - Sudan becomes independent. + January 1, 1959 - Fidel Castro takes over in Cuba. + January 1, 1962 - Samoa becomes independent. + January 1, 1984 - Brunei becomes independent. + January 1, 2002 - The Euro currency comes into use in 12 EU countries. + January 2, 1492 - Spanish Reconquista: Granada, the last Moorish stronghold, surrenders. + January 3, 1868 - Meiji Restoration in Japan. + January 3, 1959 - Alaska becomes the 49th US State. + January 4, 1948 - Burma becomes independent. + January 4, 2010 - The world's tallest building, the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, opens. + January 5, 1066 - Edward the Confessor, King of England, dies. + January 6, 1066 - Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England. + January 7, 1610 - Galileo Galilei discovers Jupiter's four Galilean moons - Io, Callisto, Ganymede and Europa. + January 7, 1979 - The Khmer Rouge in Cambodia is overthrown by Vietnamese troops. + January 7, 1989 - Japanese Emperor Hirohito dies, aged 87. + January 7, 2015 - Charlie Hebdo shooting in Paris. + January 8, 1642 - Galileo Galilei dies. + January 8, 1912 - The African National Congress is founded. + January 8, 1935 - Elvis Presley is born. + January 10, 1863 - The first section of the London Underground opens. + January 12, 2010 - The 2010 Haiti earthquake causes many deaths and destruction across Haiti. + January 13, 1915 - The Avezzano earthquake in Italy kills 29,800 people. + January 13, 1935 - Most voters in Saarland choose to be part of Germany. + January 14, 1954 - Marilyn Monroe marries Joe DiMaggio. + January 14, 1972 - Margrethe II of Denmark becomes the first Danish Queen since 1412. + January 15, 1929 - Civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. is born in Atlanta, Georgia, US. + January 15, 2001 - Wikipedia goes online. + January 15, 2009 - US Airways Flight 1549 is safely landed on the Hudson River in New York City by Chesley Sullenberger, after experiencing difficulties shortly after take-off. + January 16, 2006 - Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf of Liberia becomes the first female President in Africa. + January 17, 1893 - American and European sugar planters overthrow the government of Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii. + January 17, 1912 - Robert Falcon Scott's expedition reaches the South Pole over a month after that of Roald Amundsen. + January 17, 1991 - Operation Desert Storm in the Gulf War. + January 17, 1995 - The Great Hanshin earthquake strikes Japan, mainly the city of Kobe, killing over 6,000 people. + January 18, 1778 - James Cook reaches the Hawaiian Islands. + January 20, 1936 - King George V of the United Kingdom dies, leaving the throne to Edward VIII of the United Kingdom, who lasts less than 11 months in the post. + January 20, 2009 - Barack Obama becomes the first African American President of the United States. + January 21, 1793 - King Louis XVI of France is executed by guillotine. + January 22, 1901 - Queen Victoria dies aged 81, ending Britain's Victorian Era. + January 22, 1968 - Apollo 5 lifts off, carrying the first lunar module. + January 23, 1960 - In the Bathyscaphe Trieste, Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh, dive to the deepest point of the Pacific Ocean, the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench. + January 24, 41 - Roman Emperor Caligula is assassinated by the Praetorian Guard. + January 24, 1965 - British statesman Winston Churchill dies. + January 24, 1986 - Voyager 2 flies by the planet Uranus. + January 25, 1919 - The League of Nations is founded. + January 25, 2011 - The 2011 Egyptian protests begin. + January 26, 1788 - The first British fleet arrives in what is now Sydney Harbour, Australia. + January 26, 1950 - India becomes a Republic. + January 26, 2020 - NBA legend Kobe Bryant, his 13-year-old daughter Gianna and seven others are killed in a helicopter crash in Calabasas, California. + January 27, 1945 - The Red Army liberates Auschwitz. + January 27, 1967 - US astronauts Gus Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee are killed in a fire while testing the Apollo 1 spacecraft. + January 28, 1935 - Iceland becomes the first country to legalize abortion. + January 28, 1986 - The Space Shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after take-off from Cape Canaveral, Florida, killing all seven astronauts on board. + January 29, 1996 - Venice's La Fenice opera house is destroyed by fire. + January 30, 1649 - King Charles I of England is executed. + January 30, 1933 - Adolf Hitler comes to power in Germany. + January 30, 1948 - Indian independence and non-violence campaigner Mahatma Gandhi is shot dead by a Hindu extremist in Delhi. + January 31, 1968 - Nauru becomes independent from Australia. + January 31, 1990 - Moscow's first McDonald's restaurant opens. + +Trivia + + January is named after the Roman God Janus, who was the Roman God of doors and gates. + January and July are the only pair of 31-day month's that are exactly six months apart. In the English language, they are also the only pair of months to both begin and end with the same letters (J and Y respectively). + The star signs for January are Capricorn (December 22 to January 20) and Aquarius (January 21 to February 19). + It is the coldest month in the Northern Hemisphere, and the warmest in the Southern Hemisphere. + It is one of three months in the English language to begin with "J", along with June and July, but unlike the latter two, does not have a "U" as a second letter. + +References + +01 +June (Jun.) is the sixth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between May and July. It has 30 days. In Sweden in 1732 the month had 31 days. June is named for the Roman goddess Juno, the wife of Jupiter. She is goddess of marriage. Because of this, getting married in June was thought to be lucky. + +June never begins on the same day of the week as any other month, but always ends on the same day of the week as March. + +The Month +June comes between May and July and is the sixth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar. It is one of the four months to have 30 days. + +No other month of any year begins on the same day of the week as June; this month and May are the only two months with this property. June ends on the same day of the week as March every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.In common years, June starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the previous year, and in leap years, April and July of the previous year. In common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as September of the previous year, and in leap years, April and December of the previous year. +Every year, June starts on the same day of the week as February of the following year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In years immediately before common years, June starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, August of the following year. In years immediately before common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year. + +June is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is December, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), and in this month the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere is turned towards the Sun, meaning that June 20 or June 21 is the Northern Summer Solstice and the Southern Winter Solstice. This means that this date would have the most daylight of any day in the Northern hemisphere, and the least in the Southern Hemisphere. There are 24 hours of daylight at the North Pole and 24 hours of darkness at the South Pole. + +Events in June + The solstice occurs around June 21, but it may occur on either the 20th or the 22nd. It is the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere and the winter solstice in the southern hemisphere. + Midsummer is celebrated in Sweden on the third Friday in June. + Father's Day is celebrated in the United States on the third Sunday in June. + Gay pride celebrations happen in many countries, in honour of the Stonewall riots. + World Environment Day is celebrated on June 5. + World Ocean Day is celebrated on June 8. + June Holiday (LĂĄ Saoire i mĂ Mheitheamh) in the Republic of Ireland is celebrated on June 1 + Queen's Official Birthday in New Zealand, Cook Islands and Western Australia is celebrated on June 1 + Western Australia Day is celebrated on June 1 + Global Running Day is celebrated on June 3 + World bicycle day is celebrated on June 3 + Labour Day in the Bahamas is celebrated on June 5 + National Doughnut Day is celebrated on June 5 + National Trails Day in the United States is celebrated on June 5 + Armed Forces Day in Canada is celebrated on June 7 + Children's Day in the United States is celebrated on June 7 + Father's Day in Lithuania and Switzerland is celebrated on June 7 + National Cancer Survivors Day in the United States is celebrated on June 7 + Teacher's Day in Hungary is celebrated on June 7 + The Seamen's Day in Iceland is celebrated on June 7 + Queen's Official Birthday in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Australia, except Western Australia is celebrated on June 8 + Seersucker Thursday in the United States is celebrated on June 11 + China's Cultural Heritage Day in China is celebrated on June 13 + National Day in Montserrat, Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, Tristan da Cunha in the United Kingdom is celebrated on June 13 + Queen's Official Birthday in the United Kingdom and Tuvalu is celebrated on June 13 + Canadian Rivers Day is celebrated on June 14 + Father's Day in Austria and Belgium is celebrated on June 14 + Mother's Day in Luxembourg is celebrated on June 14 + Queen's Official Birthday in the Norfolk Island is celebrated on June 15 + World Bisexuality Awareness Day in the United States is celebrated on June 15 + National Flip Flop Day in the United States is celebrated on June 19 + International Surfing Day is celebrated on June 20 + International Yoga Day is celebrated on June 20 + World Music Day is celebrated on June 20 + Father's Day in Afghanistan, Albania, Antigua, Barbuda, Argentina, Aruba, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brunei, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Curaçao, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Dominica, Ecuador, Ethiopia, France, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guyana, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Ireland, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Kosovo, Kuwait, Laos, Macau, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Mozambique, Namibia, Netherlands, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, People's Republic of China, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovakia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States, Venezuela, Vietnam, Zambia and Zimbabwe is celebrated on June 21 + National Bomb Pop Day in the United States is celebrated on June 25 + Take Your Dog to Work Day in the United Kingdom and United States is celebrated on June 26 + Armed Forces Day in the United Kingdom is celebrated on June 27 + Inventors' and Rationalizers' Day in Russia is celebrated on June 27 + Veterans Day in the Netherlands is celebrated on June 27 + Father's Day in Haiti is celebrated on June 28 + Log Cabin Day in Michigan, United States is celebrated on June 28 + Mother's Day in Kenya is celebrated on June 28 + +Selection of Historical Events +June 1, 1794: French Revolutionary Wars: The battle of the Glorious First of June is fought, the first naval engagement between Britain and France. + +June 2, 1953: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. + +June 3, 1965: The launch of Gemini 4, the first multi-day space mission by a NASA crew. June 4, 1783: The Montgolfier brothers publicly demonstrate their montgolfiĂšre (hot air balloon). + +June 5, 1837: Houston is incorporated by the Republic of Texas. + +June 6, 1844: The Young Men's Christian Association is founded in London. + +June 7, 1942: World War II: The Battle of Midway ends in American victory. + +June 8, 1949: George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is published. + +June 9, 1944: World War II: Tulle massacre + +June 10, 2003: The Spirit rover is launched for NASA's Mars Exploration mission + +June 11, 2010: 2010 FIFA World Cup (first African FIFA) + +June 12, 2018: 2018 North Korea-United States Summit + +June 13, 1983: Pioneer 10 becomes the first man-made object to leave the central Solar System + +June 25, 1950: Korean War starts. + +June 30, 1908: Tunguska event. + +Trivia + June is one of the two months that never begins on the same day of the week as any other months within any calendar year. (May is the other) + The months of June and July both start with the "Ju" letter combination in the English language, and in some languages have only one letter's difference between their names. + June's flower is the Rose. + Its birthstone is the pearl. + The Zodiac signs for June are Gemini (May 21 â June 20) and Cancer (June 21 â July 21). + At the North Pole, the Sun does not set in June; at the South Pole, it does not rise. + +06 +July (Jul.) is the seventh month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between June and August. It has 31 days. July was named after Julius Caesar. The halfway point of the year is either on July 2 or in the night of July 1-2. + +July always begins on the same day of the week as April, and additionally, January in leap years. July does not end on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but ends on the same day of the week as January in leap years. + +The Month + +In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of January in the other hemisphere. In the North, it is summer and in the South it is winter. + +In the Northern Hemisphere, July is often the warmest month of the year, and major sporting events and music festivals are held around this time. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is a winter month, with the coldest-recorded temperature having been measured in Antarctica in this month. + +July begins on the same day of the week as April every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. No other month in common years ends on the same day of the week as July, but July ends on the same day of the week as January in leap years. + +In common years, July starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as February and October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, July both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year. + +In years immediately before common years, July starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as April and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, September of the following year. + +July's flower is a variety of the water lily. Its birthstone is the ruby. The meaning for the birthstone ruby is contented mind. Astrological signs for July are Cancer (June 21 - July 21) and Leo (July 22 - August 21). + +In the old Roman calendar, July was called Quintilis, meaning Fifth Month, because, in the old calendar, the year began in March. Augustus later renamed it July in honor of Julius Caesar, whose birthday was in this month. Augustus later also named the following month, August, after himself. + +Holidays + +Fixed Events + + July 1 Canada Day, National Day of Canada + July 1 Independence Day in Somalia + July 1 Independence Day in Burundi + July 1 Independence Day in Rwanda + July 1 Keti Koti (Suriname) + July 1 Republic Day (Ghana) + July 1 Doctor's Day (India) + July 2 Canada Day, observed on this date if July 1 is a Sunday + July 2 Bahia Independence Day (Brazil) + July 3 Independence Day in Belarus + July 3 Emancipation Day (US Virgin Islands) + July 4 Independence Day in the United States, commemorating the Declaration of Independence. + July 4 Filipino-American Friendship Day + July 4 Liberation Day (Rwanda) + July 5 Independence Day in Venezuela + July 5 Independence Day in Algeria + July 5 Independence Day in Cape Verde + July 6 Independence Day in Malawi + July 6 Independence Day in the Comoros + July 6-14 San Fermin festival and bull run in Pamplona, Spain. + July 7 Independence Day in the Solomon Islands + July 7 Tanabata in Japan, traditional 'Make a Wish' celebration + July 9 Independence Day (Argentina) + July 9 Independence Day (South Sudan) + July 10 Independence Day in the Bahamas + July 10 Silence Day + July 10 Statehood Day (Wyoming) + July 11 Day of the Flemish Community (Belgium) + July 11 World Population Day + July 11 National Day of Commemoration (Ireland) + July 11 to 13 Naadam (Mongolia) + July 12 Battle of the Boyne/Orangeman's Day (Northern Ireland) + July 12 Independence Day (SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe) + July 12 Independence Day in Kiribati + July 13 Statehood Day (Montenegro) + July 14 Bastille Day, national holiday of France + July 14 Republic Day (Iraq) + July 15 St. Swithun's Day in UK weather lore + July 18 Mandela Day + July 18 Constitution Day (Uruguay) + July 19 Sandinista Day (Nicaragua) + July 20 Independence Day (Colombia) + July 21 National Day of Belgium + July 21 Liberation Day (Guam) + July 22 Saint Mary Magdalene Day (Roman Catholicism) + July 23 Birthday of Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia + July 23 Revolution Day in Egypt + July 24 Pioneer Day (Utah) + July 24 Simon Bolivar Day (Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela) + July 25 Constitution Day (Occupation Day) in Puerto Rico + July 25 Christian feast day of Saint James, includes regional holiday in Galicia + July 26 Independence Day in Liberia + July 26 Independence Day in the Maldives + July 27 Victory Day (North Korea) + July 28 Independence Day in Peru + July 28 Liberation Day (San Marino) + July 29 Feast Day of St. Olav, celebrated in the Faroe Islands + July 29 International Tiger Day + July 29 World Hepatitis Day + July 30 Independence Day (Vanuatu) + July 30 Throne Day (Morocco) + July 31 Ka Hae Hawaii Day + +Moveable events + Wimbledon tennis tournament, held in late June and early July + FIFA World Cup, often held in June and/or July + Summer Olympics, often held in July and/or August + Tour de France cycling race + In Northern Hemisphere countries, many Sports events and Music Festivals take place in July + National Ice Cream month in the United States + Presidents' Day (Botswana) on the 3rd Monday or Tuesday + So-called "Dog Days" in some Northern Hemisphere countries, referring to the hot summer weather + Marathon Races: +Gold Coast, Australia +Recife, Brazil +Rio de Janeiro, Brazil +San Francisco, California, United States + +Selection of Historical Events + + July 1 1863: American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg is fought until July 3. + July 1 1867: The Canadian Confederation is founded. + July 1 1937: The 999 emergency dialing service begins in the UK. + July 1 1997: The United Kingdom hands control of Hong Kong back to China. + July 1 1999: The new Scottish Parliament is opened in Edinburgh. + July 1 2013: Croatia joins the European Union. + July 2 1937: Amelia Earhart goes missing. + July 3 1844: The Great Auk becomes extinct, after the last group were killed in Iceland. + July 4 1776: 13 colonies on the East coast of North America issue the Declaration of Independence, now celebrated on this date in the United States. + July 4 1826: US Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson die on the same day as each other. + July 4 2012: Scientists at CERN announce the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson, after experiments at the Large Hadron Collider. + July 5 1811: Venezuela declares independence. + July 5 1962: Algeria becomes independent. + July 5 1975: Cape Verde becomes independent. + July 6 1964: Malawi becomes independent. + July 6 1975: The Comoros become independent. + July 7 1937: The Second Sino-Japanese War begins. + July 7 1978: The Solomon Islands become independent. + July 7 2005: Islamic extremists detonate explosives at tube stations around London and on a bus, killing 52 people. + July 9 1816: The United Provinces of Rio de la Plata declare independence, as the predecessor state of present-day Argentina. + July 9 2011: South Sudan becomes independent from Sudan, after a referendum six months earlier. + July 10 1913: At nearly 57 degrees Celsius, the hottest-recorded temperature on Earth, is measured in Death Valley, California. + July 10 1973: The Bahamas become independent from the UK. + July 10 1985: French agents torpedo the Rainbow Warrior vessel docked in Auckland harbour, New Zealand, where activists on board were protesting against French nuclear tests. + July 11 1960: The novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is first published. + July 11 1987: World population reaches 5 billion. + July 11 1995: The worst massacre in post-World War II Europe occurs at Srebrenica, at the height of the Balkan War. + July 11 2010: Spain wins the 2010 FIFA World Cup against the Netherlands after a bad-tempered match. + July 12 or 13 100 BC: Julius Caesar is born. + July 12 1561: St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow is consecrated. + July 13 1930: The 1930 FIFA World Cup in Uruguay begins. + July 14 1789: The Bastille prison is stormed in Paris, starting the French Revolution. + July 14 2015: New Horizons flies by the dwarf planet Pluto. + July 16 1950: Uruguay wins its second FIFA World Cup, defeating host nation Brazil in the final. + July 17 1918: The family of Tsar Nicholas II is executed by the Bolsheviks in Russia. + July 17 1936: The Spanish Civil War begins. + July 19 1903: Maurice Garin wins the first Tour de France. + July 20 1810: Bogota, New Granada (now Colombia) declares independence from Spain. + July 20 1969: Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the Moon, followed shortly after by Buzz Aldrin. + July 21 1983: At -89.2 degrees Celsius, the coldest-ever recorded temperature is measured in Antarctica. + July 21 2011: End of the Space Shuttle programme. + July 22 2009: Solar eclipse over Asia and the Pacific Ocean. + July 22 2011: The 2011 Norway attacks occur, as Anders Behring Breivik kills a total of 77 people in two separate attacks. + July 23 1952: The Egyptian monarchy is removed from power in a coup. + July 24 1911: Explorer Hiram Bingham re-discovers the remains of Machu Picchu in Peru. + July 25 1978: Louise Brown, the first 'test-tube baby', is born in the UK. + July 26 1847: Liberia declares independence. + July 26 1965: The Maldives declare independence. + July 27 1940: Cartoon character Bugs Bunny makes his first appearance. + July 27 1953: The Korean War ends, though an official state of war still exists between North Korea and South Korea. + July 28 1821: Peru declares independence. + July 28 1914: World War I - Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. + July 28 1976: Tangshan, China, is struck by a huge earthquake, killing many thousands of people. + July 29 1900: King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Gaetano Bresci. + July 30 1930: Uruguay wins the first FIFA World Cup, defeating Argentina in the final in Montevideo. + July 30 1980: The New Hebrides, changing their name to Vanuatu, become independent. + July 30 2012: A massive power blackout affects around 620 million people in Northern India. + July 31 1790: The first US patent is given to Samuel Hopkins for a potash process. + +Trivia + + July has the 200th day of the year. July 19 in a common year, July 18 in a leap year. + July is often the hottest month in the Northern Hemisphere + The hottest and coldest-ever recorded temperatures on Earth were both recorded in July. + The months of June and July both start with the "Ju" letter combination in the English language and in some languages have only one letter's difference between their names. + July and August are the only months named after people who really lived (Julius Caesar and Augustus respectively). + January and July are the only 31-day months that are exactly six months apart. In the English language, they are also the only pair of months to both begin and end with the same letters (J and Y respectively) + July 1 is the only day in July that is entirely within the first half of the calendar year. + Canada, the United States and France are among the countries that celebrate their national holidays in July. + The astrological signs for July are Cancer (June 21 to July 21) and Leo (July 22 to August 21). + +07 +Japan (; romanised as nihon or nippon) is a country in East Asia. It is a group of many islands close to the east coast of Korea, China and Russia. The Pacific Ocean is to the east of Japan and the Sea of Japan is to the west. Most people in Japan live on one of the four islands. The biggest of these islands, Honshu, has the most people. Honshu is the 7th largest island in the world. Tokyo is the capital of Japan and its biggest city. + +The Japanese people call their country "Nihon" or "Nippon", which means "the origin of the Sun" in Japanese. Japan is a monarchy whose head of state is called the Emperor. Japan is the oldest monarchy in the world, lasting more than 2,000 years. + +History + +The first people in Japan were the Ainu people and other JĆmon people. They were closer related to Europeans or Mongols. They were later conquered and replaced by the Yayoi people (early Japanese and Ryukyuans). The Yayoi were an ancient ethnic group that migrated to the Japanese archipelago mainly from southeastern China during the Yayoi period (300 BCEâ300 CE). Modern Japanese people have primarily Yayoi ancestry at an average of 97%. The indigenous Ryukyuan and Ainu peoples have more JĆmon ancestry on the other hand. + +The earliest records on Japan are from Chinese documents. One of those records said there were many small countries (in Japan) which had wars between them and later a country, ruled by a queen, became the strongest, unified others, and brought peace. + +The Japanese began to write their own history after the 5th and 6th centuries, when people from Korea and China taught Japan about the Chinese writing system. Japan's neighbours also taught them Buddhism. The Japanese changed Buddhism in many ways. For example, Japanese Buddhists used ideas such as Zen more than other Buddhists. + +Japan had some contact with the Europeans in the 16th century. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to visit Japan. Later, the Spanish and Dutch came to Japan to trade. Also, they brought Christianity. Japan's leaders welcomed them at first, but because Europeans had conquered many places in the world, the Japanese were scared they would conquer Japan too. So the Japanese did not let the Europeans come into Japan anymore, except in a small area in Nagasaki city. Many Christians were killed. Only the Chinese, Korean, and Dutch people were allowed to visit Japan, in the end, and they were under careful control of the Japanese government. Japan was opened for visitors again in 1854 by Commodore Matthew Perry, when the Americans wanted to use Japanese ports for American whale boats. Perry brought steamships with guns, which scared the Japanese into making an agreement with him. + +This new contact with Europeans and Americans changed the Japanese culture. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 stopped some old ways and added many new ones. The Empire of Japan was created, and it became a very powerful nation and tried to invade the countries next to it. + +It invaded and annexed Ryukyu Kingdom, Taiwan, and Korea. It had wars with China and Russia: the First Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, the Russo-Japanese War, World War I and Siberian Intervention. + +In 1918, World War I allowed Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to capture German possessions in the Pacific and in China. + +which grew to become a part of World War II when Japan became allies with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. +In 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, a water base of the United States, and destroyed or damaged many ships and airplanes. This started the United States' involvement in World War II. American and Japanese forces fought each other in the Pacific. Once airbases were established within range of the Japanese mainland, America began to win, and started dropping bombs on Japanese cities. America was able to bomb most of the important cities and quickly brought Japan close to defeat. +To make Japan surrender, the United States dropped two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing 150,000 Japanese citizens. Soon after this the Soviet Union began to fight against Japan, and the Japanese army in Manchuria lost. Japan surrendered and gave up all the places it took from other countries, accepting the Potsdam Proclamation. The United States occupied Japan from September 1945 to April 1952 and forced it to write a new constitution, in which it promised to never go to war again. + +Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. A period of record growth propelled Japan to become the second-largest economy in the world. On 11 March 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history, triggering the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. On 1 May 1 2019, after the historic abdication of Emperor Akihito, his son Naruhito became Emperor, beginning the Reiwa era. On 8 July 2022, former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe was assassinated while giving a campaign speech in Nara. + +Geography + +Japan is a group of islands in the Western Pacific, off the coast of China. The four biggest islands are Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, and Kyushu, and there are about 6,000 smaller islands there. Japan is separated from the Asian continent by the Sea of Japan and the East China Sea. Honshu, which means 'Mainland' in the Japanese language, is the biggest island. Hokkaido is the island north of Honshu. Kyushu is the island west of Honshu. Shikoku is the island to the south-west of Honshu. + +In the middle of Japan there are mountains. They cover the middle of the islands and leave a very narrow strip of flat land on most coasts. Many of the mountains are extinct volcanoes, but some are still active. The highest of these mountains is the beautiful, volcano-shaped Mt Fuji (3,776 metres or 12,389 feet high). Japan has many earthquakes, in fact there are about 1500 of these every year. The biggest earthquake recorded in Japan was in 2011 - called '2011 Tohoku Earthquake'. It caused great damage to several power plants forcing Japan to shut down all its nuclear plants. There was nuclear core meltdown which caused a serious health risk to nearby villages and cities. + +90% of the people living in Japan live in just 10% of the land, near the coast. The other 10% of the people in Japan live away from the coast. + +Over 10 cities have more than a million people in them. The biggest city in Japan is Tokyo, which is the capital. + +Science and technology +Japan has made many contributions to science and technology. + +The QR code, the camera phone, the CD player, and the VHS were invented in Japan. + +Japan is a leader in the robotics industry: It is the world's largest maker of industrial robots. It has the 2nd most industrial robots behind China. + +Economy +Japan has one of the strongest economies of any country. Its nominal gross domestic product (GDP) is the 3rd highest in the world. It has a very low unemployment rate and was the 4th-largest exporter and 4th-largest importer in 2021. + +Japan is known for its automotive industry: It is home to Toyota, the world's largest car company. Honda, Nissan, Suzuki and Mazda are other popular car makers from Japan. + +Tokyo is the most populous city in the world. It also has one of the largest economies of any city. It is an important financial center: It has the Tokyo Stock Exchange, one of the largest stock exchanges in Asia. + +Society and culture + +Many things in Japanese culture originated in China, like Go and bonsai. + +Cherry blossom also known as Japanese cherry and Sakura is thought to be the national flower of Japan. + +Japan's traditional food is seafood, rice, miso soup, and vegetables. Noodles and tofu are also common. Sushi, a Japanese food made of cooked rice with vinegar with other ingredients such as raw fish, and sometimes fried shrimp, is popular around the world. + +The religion in Japan is mostly Shinto and Buddhist. Due to the tolerant nature of the two main Japanese religions, and the resulting intermixing of the two, many Japanese identify as both Shinto and Buddhist at the same time. There are small numbers of Christians and Hindus, and a few Jews. + +When it comes to popular culture, Japan is famous for making video games. Many of the biggest companies that make games, like Nintendo, Namco, and Sega, are Japanese. Other well-known parts of Japanese arts are its comics, called manga, and its digital animation, known as anime. Many people get to know Japanese or how life in Japan is like by reading manga or watching anime on television. + +The Ryukyuans and the Ainu both have their own separate cultures, languages and religion. + +Armed forces + +Education + +Cities, regions and territories +The biggest cities in Japan are: + Tokyo (capital cityïŒ + Yokohama + Nagoya + Osaka + Kyoto + Kobe + Hiroshima + Fukuoka + Kitakyushu + Sendai + Sapporo + Nagasaki + +In Japan there are seven traditional regions: + Hokkaido + Tohoku + Kanto + Chubu + Kansai + Chugoku + Shikoku + Kyushu + +Territorial problem +Since Japan is an island nation, Japan has several problems over territory because maritime boundaries can be hard to protect. These days, Japan is competing for at least 4 different territories. It cannot agree with some neighbouring countries on whether the land belongs to Japan or the other country. + Senkaku Islands problem (with China and Taiwan) + Liancourt Rocks island problem (with South Korea) + Southern Chishima Islands problem (with Russia) + Sea of Japan problem (with South Korea and North Korea) + +Public transportation + +There are several important international airports in Japan. Narita is the major international airport in the Tokyo area. Kansai International Airport serves as the main airport for Osaka, Kobe, and Kyoto. ChĆ«bu Centrair International Airport near Nagoya is the newest of the three. Haneda Airport is close to central Tokyo and is the largest domestic airport in the country. + +The Shinkansen is one of the fastest trains in the world and connects cities in Honshu and Kyushu. Networks of public and private railways are almost all over the country. People mostly travel between cities in buses. + +Subdivisions + +Modern Japan is divided into 47 prefectures. Before the Meiji period (1868-1912), the nation was divided into provinces which were consolidated in the prefectural system. + +Sports + +Japan has many traditional sports such as sumo, judo, karate, kyudo, aikido, iaido and kendo. Also, there are sports which were imported from the West such as baseball, soccer, rugby, golf and skiing. Baseball is the most popular sport. + +Japan has taken part in the Olympic Games since 1912. It hosted the Olympic Games in 1964, 1972, 1998 and 2020. From 1912 until now, Japanese sportspeople have won 398 medals in total. + +Professional sports are also popular and many sports such as baseball (see Pacific League and Central League), soccer (see List of Japanese football teams), sumo, American football, basketball and volleyball, are played professionally. + +Related pages + Japanese food + Japanese language + Japanese calendar + +References + +Notes + +Other websites + + Government + Kantei.go.jp, official prime ministerial and cabinet site + Ministry of Foreign Affairs, papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life + National Diet Library + Sntv24samachar + Shugi-in.go.jp, official site of the House of Representatives + Chief of State and Cabinet Members. . + +G7 nations + +Current monarchies +Monarchies of Asia +G8 nations +Jargon is a special way to use words that are shared only by a certain group of people. They may not mean what the dictionary says they mean. They have different meanings to the people using them than their everyday meaning. + +For example, the ordinary words boot, net, and web also have special meanings for users of computers, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. These, and to flame, to ping and many acronyms are part of net jargon. + +An acronym means that only some of the letters in the word or phrase are used. Often this is the first letter of each word. Other acronyms found online are simply common shorthand. + +Usually, more jargon is created over time. + +Jargon is common in the military and other complex organisations. It includes phrases like SNAFU. + +Jargon can be used by a clique to prevent others from joining or understanding, but it also is often just used because it is shorter. +Terminology +Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System. It is the fifth planet from the Sun. Jupiter is a gas giant because it is so large, and made mostly of gas. The other gas giants in the Solar System are Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. + +Jupiter's mass is about 318 times the mass of Earth. This is more than twice the mass of all the other planets in the Solar System put together. + +Jupiter can be seen from Earth without using a telescope, in fact, it is the third-brightest object in the night sky. Only the Earth's moon and Venus are brighter. The ancient Romans named the planet after their King of the Gods, Jupiter (Latin: Iuppiter). + +Jupiter has 95 known moons. About 75 of them are very smallâless than five kilometres wide. The four largest moons of Jupiter are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They are called the Galilean moons because Galileo Galilei discovered them. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System. Its diameter is larger than that of the planet Mercury. + +Name and symbol + +Jupiter was named for the king of the gods. The Greeks called him Zeus. The Romans called him Jupiter. The symbol for Jupiter, â, is from the Greek zeta. It has a horizontal stroke . This stands as an abbreviation for Zeus. + +Structure +Jupiter is the biggest planet in the Solar System. Its diameter is 142,984 km. This is eleven times larger than the diameter of Earth. Jupiter is twice as massive as all the other planets in the Solar System put together. Jupiter is 318 times as massive as Earth. The volume of Jupiter is 1,317 times the volume of Earth. In other words, 1,317 Earth-sized objects could fit inside it. It gives off more heat than it gets from the Sun. + +Atmosphere +The atmosphere near the surface of Jupiter is about 90% hydrogen, 10% helium, and less than 1% other gases. + +The lower atmosphere is so heated and the pressure so high that helium changes to liquid. It rains down onto the planet. Based on spectroscopy, Jupiter seems to be made of the same gases as Saturn. It is different from Neptune or Uranus. Those two planets have much less hydrogen and helium gas. + +Core +It is not possible to say exactly what metals are in the core of Jupiter.. However, by measuring the gravity around Jupiter, one can estimate its size. The inner core is dense. It has a lot of heavy elements, probably in the form of rock and ice. The heavy elements in the core have a total mass of 7â25 times that of Earth. + +Round the unknown inner core is an outer core. The outer core of Jupiter is thick, liquid hydrogen. + +Jupiter is mainly made of the same elements (hydrogen and helium) as the Sun, but it is not large enough to have the internal pressure and temperature necessary to cause hydrogen to fuse to helium, the energy source that powers the Sun and most other stars. If Jupiter had 75 times its mass, it could fuse hydrogen to helium. + +Cloud layers +Jupiter has many bands of clouds going horizontally across its surface. The light parts are zones and the darker ones are belts. The zones and belts often interact with each other. This causes huge storms. Wind speeds of 360 kilometres per hour (km/h) are common on Jupiter. To show the difference the strongest tropical storms on Earth are about 100 km/h. + +Most of the clouds on Jupiter are made of ammonia. There may also be clouds of water vapor like clouds on Earth. Multiple spacecraft such as Voyager 1 have seen lightning on the surface of the planet. Scientists think it was water vapor because lightning needs water vapor. These lightning bolts have been measured as up to 1,000 times as powerful as those on Earth. + +Great Red Spot +One of the biggest features in Jupiter's atmosphere is the Great Red Spot. It is a huge storm that is bigger than the entire Earth. It is on record since at least 1831, and as early as 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two smaller "red spots" next to the Great Red Spot. Storms can last for hours or as long as hundreds of years in the case of the Great Red Spot. + +Magnetic field +Jupiter has a magnetic field like Earth's but 10 times stronger. It also has a magnetosphere much bigger and stronger than Earth's. The field traps radiation belts much stronger than Earth's Van Allen radiation belts, strong enough to endanger any spacecraft travelling near. The magnetic field is probably caused by the large amounts of liquid metallic hydrogen in the core of Jupiter. The four largest moons of Jupiter and many of the smaller ones orbit or go around the planet within the magnetic field. This protects them from the solar wind. Jupiter's magnetic field is so large, it reaches the orbit of Saturn 7.7 million miles (12 million km) away. The Earth's magnetosphere does not even cover its moon, less than a quarter of a million miles (400,000 km) away. Jupiter also experiences large aurorae, which happen when charged particles from the volcanic moon Io land in its atmosphere. + +Ring system + +Jupiter also has a thin planetary ring system. These rings are difficult to see and were not discovered until 1979 by NASA's Voyager 1 probe. There are four parts to Jupiter's rings. The closest ring to Jupiter is called the Halo Ring. The next ring is called the Main Ring. It is about wide and only thick. The Main and Halo rings of Jupiter are made of small, dark particles. The third and fourth rings, called the Gossamer rings, are transparent and are made from microscopic debris and dust. This dust probably comes from small meteors striking the surface of Jupiter's moons. The third ring is called the Amalthea Gossamer Ring, named after the moon Amalthea. The outer ring, the Thebe Gossamer Ring, is named after the moon Thebe. The outer edge of this ring is about from Jupiter. + +Formation +Jupiter and other gas giants probably started as rocky planets, similar to Earth. This theory is called the core accretion model. The rocky core would have formed in the early Solar System, within a disk of gases around the Sun. When the planet reached a critical mass, its gravity started to quickly capture lots of gas. In this way, Jupiter became a giant planet. In order for Jupiter to reach this critical mass before the gas disk disappeared, there must have been lots of ice in the area. Jupiter must have formed outside the snow line, the area that is cold enough for water to freeze. + +The disk instability model is another theory. It says that Jupiter was formed by gas clumping together in the disk around the Sun. In this case, a rocky core would not need to form. However, this process would probably create planets that are bigger than Jupiter, so most scientists think Jupiter was formed by core accretion. + +Orbit +The orbit of a planet is the time and path it takes to go around the Sun. In the time it takes for Jupiter to orbit the Sun once, the Earth orbits the Sun 11.86 times. One year on Jupiter is equal to 11.86 years on Earth. + +The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million kilometres. This is five times the distance between Earth and the Sun. Jupiter is not tilted on its axis as much as Earth or Mars. This causes it to have no seasons, for example summer or winter. Jupiter rotates, or spins around very quickly. This causes the planet to bulge in the middle. Jupiter is the fastest spinning planet in the Solar System. It completes one rotation or spin in 10 hours. Because of the bulge, the length of the equator of Jupiter is longer than the length from pole to pole. + +Jupiter in the Solar System + +Grand tack hypothesis +The orbit of Jupiter is unusual compared to planets in other star systems. It is usual for giant planets to be much nearer to their stars. Because Jupiter is not, this suggests an unusual explanation is needed for the arrangement of the planets in the Solar System. Astronomers have an idea on why this happened. It is called the grand tack hypothesis. + +It is suggested that Jupiter formed about 3.5 astronomical units from the Sun. It started migrating inward and scattered the rocky planet-forming materials out beyond its orbit. Saturn formed later than Jupiter and started its own inward migration. When Jupiter reached 1.5 astronomical units, it became locked into an orbital resonance with Saturn. Both planets turned around and moved outward until Jupiter arrived at its current position, 5.2 astronomical units from the Sun. Saturn arrived at about 7 astronomical units. + +The grand tack hypothesis explains another mystery of the Solar System. Mars should have been larger than Earth but is instead only of this size. On Jupiter's grand tack, it cleared the area where Mars orbits today. After it left, the material remaining was only enough to form a small planet and a low-mass asteroid belt. Although the hypothesis has not been absolutely proven, there is no other competing explanation why the Solar System's giant should be so far from its star, and Mars so small. + +Asteroids and comets + +Jupiter's large gravity has had an effect on the Solar System. Jupiter protects the inner planets from comets by pulling them towards itself. Because of this, Jupiter has the most comet impacts in the Solar System. + +Two groups of asteroids, called Trojan asteroids, have settled into Jupiter's orbit around the Sun. One group is called the Trojans and the other group is called the Greeks. They go around the Sun at the same time as Jupiter. + +Research and exploration + +From Earth +Jupiter is the third brightest object in the night sky, after the Moon and Venus. The first person known to really study the planet was Galileo Galilei in 1610. He was the first person to see Jupiter's moons Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. This was because he used a telescope, unlike anyone before him. + +No new moons were discovered for more than two hundred years. In 1892, astronomer E.E. Barnard found a new moon using his observatory in California. He called the moon Amalthea. It was the last of Jupiter's 67 moons to be discovered by human observation through a telescope. +In 1994, bits of the comet Shoemaker Levy-9 hit Jupiter. It was the first time a collision between two Solar System objects was seen. + +From spacecraft +Seven spacecraft have flown past Jupiter since 1973. These were Pioneer 10 (1973), Pioneer 11 (1974), Voyagers 1 and 2 (1979), Ulysses (1992 and 2004), Cassini (2000) and New Horizons (2007). Two spacecraft have been brought into orbit around Jupiter. These were Galileo (1995) and Juno (2011). + +The Pioneer missions were the first spacecraft to take close-up pictures of Jupiter and its moons. Five years later, the two Voyager spacecraft discovered three new moons. They captured photo evidence of lightning on the night side of Jupiter. + +The Ulysses probe was sent to study the Sun. It only went to Jupiter after it had finished its main mission. Ulysses had no cameras so it took no photographs. +In 2006, the Cassini spacecraft, on its way to Saturn, took some very good, very clear pictures of the planet. Cassini also found a moon and took a picture of it but it was too far away to show the details. + +The Galileo mission in 1995 was the first spacecraft to go into orbit around Jupiter. It flew around the planet for seven years and studied the four biggest moons. It launched a probe into the planet to get information about Jupiter's atmosphere. The probe travelled to a depth of about 150 km before it was crushed by the pressure of all the gas above it. The Galileo spacecraft was also crushed in 2003 when NASA steered the craft into the planet. They did this so that the craft could not crash into Europa, a moon that scientists think might have life. + +NASA has sent another spacecraft to Jupiter called Juno. It was launched on August 5, 2011 and arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016. NASA published some results from the Juno mission in March 2018. + +Several other missions have been planned to send spacecraft to Jupiter's moons, Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede. One called JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) was cancelled in 2006 because it cost too much money. The European Space Agency launched JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer) on April 14, 2023. It will enter orbit around Jupiter in July 2031. + +Moons + +Jupiter has 95 known moons, as of February 23, 2023. The four largest were seen by Galileo with his primitive telescope and nine more can be seen with modern telescopes. Three moons were identified by the Voyager spacecraft. All other moons were first seen on Earth, using modern telescopes and advanced photography methods. The smallest moon (S/2003 J 12) is only one kilometre across. The largest, Ganymede, has a diameter of 5,262 kilometres. It is bigger than the planet Mercury. The other three Galilean moons are Io, Europa and Callisto. Due to the way they orbit Jupiter, gravity affects three of these moons greatly. The friction caused by the gravity of Europa and Ganymede pulling on Io makes it the most volcanic object in the Solar System. It has over 400 volcanoes, more than three times as many as Earth. + +Related pages + List of planets + Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 + +References + +Notes + +Other websites + + + + + Jupiter (planet) -Citizendium + + +Very good articles +A king is a male monarch who rules a country or territory which is a monarchy. The person usually inherits the title and position. A king comes to power when the previous monarch dies, who is usually a family member of his, most likely a parent. Sometimes a person may become king due to the previous monarch's abdication, for example George VI (who became King of Britain after his brother decided to abdicate). + +If a country has a king or a queen, that means it is a monarchy. A country which a king or queen rules is called a kingdom. + +For most of history, most countries were ruled in this way, especially in Europe. However, most countries, such as France, decided to become republics. Some, such as the United Kingdom, still have a royal family. In some countries, people chose a new king from other people to decide from. + +The wife of a king is called a queen. A woman who becomes a ruler because of inheritance is also called a queen. + +In the Muslim world a King would be known as Malik, Sultan or shah. + +Shah (Persian: ێۧÙ) is a Persian word which means the king or ruler of a country. The term "Shah" often means Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran from 1949 to 1979. + +Some modern kings today include Charles III of the United Kingdom and Felipe VI of Spain. + +Related pages + Shah + Emperor + Prince + Queen + Princess + Sultan + Duke +Knowledge means the things which are true, as opposed to opinion. Information which is correct is knowledge. Knowledge can always be supported by evidence. If a statement is not supported by evidence, then it is not knowledge. The evidence makes it justified. + +Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. This was the point of Ryle's distinction between "knowing that" and "knowing how". It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be more or less formal or systematic. In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology. The philosopher Plato defined knowledge as "justified true belief". This definition is the subject of the Gettier problems. + +All knowledge is a claim to be true, but the claim can be incorrect. The only claims (propositions) which are certainly true are circular, based on how we use words or terms. We can correctly claim that there are 360 degrees in a circle, since that is part of how circles are defined. The point of Aristotle's syllogism was to show that this kind of reasoning had a machine-like form: +If all swans are white, and this is a swan, then it must be white. +But actually, in the real world, not all swans are white. + +The most widely accepted way to find reliable knowledge is the scientific method. Yet one thing all philosophers of science agree is that scientific knowledge is just the best we can do at any one time. All scientific knowledge is provisional, not a claim of absolute truth. + +Religion and knowledge +Knowledge in religion is different in that it depends on faith, belief and the authority of religious leaders, not on evidence of a scientific or legal kind. There are differing views on whether religious statements should be regarded as knowledge. + +In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. +In the Garden of Eden knowledge is the factor that made humans greedy and treacherous. But in the Book of Proverbs it states: 'to be wise you must first obey the LORD' (9:10). + +In Islam, knowledge has great significance. "The All-Knowing" (al-ÊżAlÄ«m) is one of the Names of God, reflecting distinct properties of God in Islam. The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God and various hadith encourage getting knowledge. Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title alim, meaning 'knowledgeable'. + +References + +Basic English 850 words +Kauai (Kaua'i in Hawaiian) is the second oldest (after Ni'ihau) and fourth largest of the main Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kaua'i lies 73 miles (117 kilometers) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of Honolulu on Oahu. It is of volcanic origin. The highest point on the island is Kawaikini. It is located above sea level. The wettest spot on Earth, with average rainfall of a year, is just east of Mount Waialeale. The high yearly rainfall has eroded deep valleys and canyons in the central mountain. The waterfalls that have been created by erosion in canyons are now popular tourist spots. + +The city of Lihue, on the island's southeast side, is the seat of Kauai County. It has a population of around 6,500, and is the main city on the island. Waimea, which is located on the island's southwest side and the first capital of Kauai, was the first place visited by Englishexplorer Captain James Cook in 1778. It was also the first capital of Kauai. The city is at the head of one of the most beautiful canyons in the world, Waimea Canyon, whose gorge is 900 meters (3,000 feet) deep. + +The island of Kauai was featured in Disney's 2002 animated feature film Lilo & Stitch. + +Lihue Airport is the only commercial airport on the island. There are two other general aviation airports on the island: Port Allen Airport, and Princeville Airport. + +Islands of Hawaii +Kahoolawe is the smallest of the eight main volcanic islands of Hawaii. It is west of Maui and south of Lanai. It is roughly 11 miles long by across (). The highest point, Lua Makika, is above sea level. The island is dry because its low elevation does not cause much rain (orographic precipitation) to fall from the northeastern trade winds. + +Kahoolawe was used as a gunfire and bombing target by the United States military during World War II. It was a defense training area by the United States Navy from around 1941 until May 1994. Popular opinion in the state against this practice brought the end to this use. Navy has since been trying to cleanup unexploded ordnance (bombs and explosive shells) from the island. Ordnance is still buried or lying on the ground. Other items have washed down gullies and still other unexploded ordnance is underwater offshore. In 1981, the entire island was included on the National Register of Historic Places. + +The island is planned to be given back to the Hawaiian people. In 1993, the U.S. Congress passed a law that "recognized the cultural importance of the island, required the Navy to return the island to the State, and directed the Navy to do an unexploded ordnance (UXO) cleanup and environmental restoration" . The turnover officially occurred on November 11, 2003, but the cleanup has not yet been completed. The U.S. Navy was given $400 million and 10 years to complete the large cleanup task, but this work has gone much slower than planned. + +After the cleanup is finished, the restoration of Kahoolawe will need ways to control erosion, restore the plant life, recharge the water table, and slowly replace alien plants with native ones. Plans will include methods for damming gullies and reducing rainwater runoff. Non-natives will temporarily stabilize some areas before the permanent planting of native plants. + +Other websites +http://www.state.hi.us/kirc/main/home.htm + +Islands of Hawaii +Volcanoes of Hawaii +Killing a living thing is when someone or something ends that life and makes the living thing die. It means causing a death. When a human being kills another human being, it is called murder or homicide, such as manslaughter. + +Pesticides and herbicides are poisons for killing bad wild small animals or plants, respectively. + +When a soldier kills another in war, it is called "combat". When the state kills a convict sentenced to capital punishment, it is called execution. When someone kills a powerful person it is called assassination. When a person who wants to die kills himself it is suicide, or euthanasia if killed by another. When people kill other people to eat them, it is called cannibalism. + +Related pages + Death + Murder + Suicide + Manslaughter + +Violence +Death +The kilometre is a common unit used for longer distances on Earth. The international unit for measuring distances is the metre and a kilometre is 1000 metres. It is used in most countries for measuring road and sea distances. In the UK and the USA, the statute mile is used more than kilometres for road distances and the nautical mile for sea distances. + +It is often used to measure the speed of cars, planes and boats by saying how many kilometres it can travel in an hour. This is shown as km/h. + +It is also spelled kilometer. This spelling is used in American English. + +One kilometre is 0.6214 miles (1093 yards or 3280.84 feet). This means that one mile is 1.6093 kilometres. + +One kilometre is the approximate distance a healthy adult human being can walk in ten minute + +A kilometer is sometimes called a klick + +Related pages + Yard (unit of length) + +Units of length +Language is the normal way humans communicate. Only humans use language, though other animals communicate through other means. The study of language is called linguistics. + +Human language has syntax, a set of rules for connecting words together to make statements and questions. Language can also be changed, by adding new words, for example, to describe new things. Other animals may inherit a set of calls which have pre-set functions. + +Language may be done by speech or by writing or by moving the hands to make signs. It follows that language is not just any way of communicating. Even some human communication is not language: see non-verbal communication. Humans also use language for thinking. + +When people use the word language, they can also mean: + the language of a community or country + the ability of speech + formal language in mathematics, logic and computing + sign language for deaf people (people who cannot hear) + a type of school subject + +UNESCO says that 2,500 languages are at risk of becoming extinct. + +Universals of language +All languages share certain things which separate them from all other kinds of communication. + A language has rules which are shared by a community. + All human languages are based on sound and hearing, or in the case of sign language, vision. All the basic sound units, or phonemes, have this in common: they can be spoken by the human voice, and heard by the human ear. + The sounds come out in a sequence, not all at once. This is mimicked in writing, where the marks are put on the paper or screen in the same sequence. + The stream of sounds have little gaps between them, and come in bigger packages. We call the bigger packets sentences or questions or replies or comments. + In most languages, English being one, the syntax or order of the words can change the meaning: "the cat sat on the man" is different from "the man sat on the cat". + Words (which may be made up of more than one phoneme) divide up into two classes: content and non-content. Content words have meaning: nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.. Non-content words are there to make the language work: and, not, in, out, what, etc. Grammar consists of studying how words fit together to mean something. + All languages have: + sentences with two types of expression: nouns and verbs: Jill is here. + adjectives to modify nouns: good food. + ways of linking: sink or swim. + dummy elements: Jill likes to swim, so do I. + devices to order or ask questions: Get up! Are you ill? + Most of the languages have a written form. Before the invention of audio recording, the writing system was the only way to keep track of spoken information. + All languages constantly evolve. New words appear, new forms of saying things, new accents. +There are many more things in common between languages. + +Inheritance +The capacity to learn and use language is inherited. Normally, all humans are born with this capability. Which language is learned by a child depends on which language is spoken by the child's community. The capacity is inherited, but the particular language is learned. + +Children have a special period, from about 18 months to about four years, which is critical for learning the language. If this is seriously disrupted, then their language skills will be damaged. Older people learn differently, so they seldom learn a second language as well as they learn their native language. + +Types of language +Mathematics and computer science use created languages called formal languages (like computer programming languages), but these may or may not be 'true' languages. Mathematics itself is seen as a language by many. Some people consider musical notation to be a way of writing the musical language. + +Chinese is the language with the most native speakers in the world, but Chinese is not really a language. It is a close family of dialects, some of which are as different as Romance languages are from one another. + +Greek is one of the world's oldest surviving languages. In its modern form, Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. About 13.5 million people speak the Greek language. + +English is often called "the international language", or lingua franca. It is the main second language of the world and the international language of science, travel, technology, business, diplomacy, and entertainment. French had a similar status until the 20th century, and other languages had it at other times. + English as a first language: 380 million.p108 + English as an official second language: up to 300 million. + English taught as a second language, but with no official status: anyone's guess, up to 1000 million/1 billion. + Chinese (Mandarin): 390 million native speakers.p96 +Hoffish(Swedish Dialect): 176 (smallest spoken language) +Some languages are made up so that a lot of people around the world can learn them, without the new languages being tied to any specific country or place. These are called constructed languages also known as Oral Sects. One of the most popular of these languages is Esperanto, which is sometimes called "La Internacia Lingvo," or "The International Language." Another of these languages is called VolapĂŒk, which was popular about a hundred years ago but is much less popular now. It has mostly been replaced by languages like Esperanto, Interlingua, and Ido. Dialects are basically other versions of a language. For example, Hoffish is a dialect of Swedish. + +Part of the reason that VolapĂŒk became unpopular is that some sounds are hard to say for people who speak Spanish or English, two of the most widely spoken languages in the world. + +Some languages are only spoken by closed ethnic groups such as the Romani language, which is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by only gypsies. + +Related pages + + Alphabet + Basic English + Sign language + English as a foreign language + English language + Historical linguistics + Language education + Language families and languages + Linguistics + List of languages + Orthography + Phonology + Second language + Semantics + Speech therapy + +References + +Other websites + Language (general) -Citizendium +Leisure (or free time) is when a person can choose what to do. During a person's leisure time, they do not have an obligation to be at school or work at a job. During leisure time, people can do fun activities, family activities, or other non-work activities, such as hobbies. + +Common forms of recreation or leisure are: + + Playing sports such as football or hockey + Playing games such as chess or cards + Exercising such as running or lifting weights + Watching television and movies + Listening to music + Hobbies such as playing piano or guitar, knitting, or sewing + Travelling + Reading + Drawing + Painting + +A vacation or holiday is the setting aside of time specifically for leisure. During their vacation, some people travel to a different region or country, and stay at a hotel so that they can do things they could not do near home. Other people prefer to spend their vacation time at home in their own community. + +In rich industrialized countries such as the US and Canada, as well as in most European countries, workers are allowed to stay home on the weekend (usually Saturday and Sunday), and use it as leisure time. People in poorer developing countries usually have less leisure time, as they have to work longer hours and more days per year. +Live can be a verb. It rhymes with "give". "To live" means "to be alive" (and it is not dead). If you live, then you have life. + +It can be used in a general way: +"I live in London". +"I live in a house". +"A person can always live in fear". + +Live can be an adjective. It rhymes with "five". +In television, a "live" program is one where what is happening can be seen at the same time as it is happening. Sports program are usually "live". +In music, If a CD is a "live recording" it means a recording which was made at a concert with an audience present. If it is not a live recording it may be a recording made in a studio. +Live album +"Live" can also mean "full of energy" or simply "happening now". Something that is being talked about in the newspapers at the moment can be a "live issue". + +VOA Special English words +Life is a concept in biology. It is about the characteristics, state, or mode that separates a living thing from dead matter. +The word itself may refer to a living being or to the processes of which living things are a part. It may refer to the period when a living thing is functional (as between birth and death). + +The study of life is called biology: people who study life are called biologists. A lifespan is the average length of life in a species. Most life on Earth is powered by solar energy: the only known exceptions are the chemosynthetic bacteria living around the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. All life on Earth is based on the chemistry of carbon compounds, specifically involving long-chain molecules such as proteins and nucleic acid. With water, which all life needs, the long molecules are wrapped inside membranes as cells. This may or may not be true of all possible forms of life in the Universe: it is true of all life on Earth today. + +Summary + +Living things, or organisms, can be explained as open systems. They are always changing, because they exchange materials and information with their environment. They undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli and reproduce. + +Through natural selection, they adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means. Many life forms can be found on Earth. The properties common to these organismsâplants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteriaâare a carbon and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information. + +The systems that make up life have many levels of organization. From smallest to biggest, they are: molecule, cell, tissue (group of cells with a common purpose), organ (part of the body with a purpose), organ system (group of organs that work together), organism, population (group of organisms of the same species), community (all of the organisms that interact in an area), ecosystem (all of the organisms in an area and the non-living surroundings), and biosphere (all parts of the Earth that have life). + +At present, the Earth is the only planet humans have detailed information about. The question of whether life exists elsewhere in the Universe is open. There have been a number of claims of life elsewhere in the Universe. None of these have been confirmed so far. The best evidence of life outside of Earth is are nucleic acids that have been found in certain types of meteorites. + +Definitions +One explanation of life is called the cell theory. The cell theory has three basic points: all living things are made up of cells. The cell is the smallest living thing that can do all the things needed for life. All cells must come from pre-existing cells. + +Something is often said to be alive if it: + grows, + takes in food, uses the food for energy, and passes waste products (see metabolism), + moves: it must either move itself, or have movement inside itself, + reproduces, either sexually (with another living thing) or asexually, by creating copies of itself, + reacts to its surroundings, + functions + +However, not all living things fit every point on this list. + Mules cannot reproduce, and neither can worker ants. + Viruses and spores are not actively alive (metabolising) until the conditions are right. + +They do, however, fit the biochemical definitions: they are made of the same kind of chemicals. + +The thermodynamic definition of life is any system which can keep its entropy levels below maximum (usually through adaptation and mutations). + +A modern approach +A modern definition was given by Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela in 1980, to which they gave the name autopoiesis: + The production of their own components + The correct assembly of these components + Continuous repair and maintenance of their own existence. +Roth commented that "In short, organisms are self-reproducing and self-maintaining, or 'autopoietic', systems". This approach makes use of molecular biology ideas and systems science ideas. + +What life needs + +Chemistry + +Life on Earth is made from organic compoundsâmolecules that contain carbon. Four types of long-chain molecules (macromolecules) are important: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. + Simple carbohydrates (sugars) are used for energy, or as a building block. Complex carbohydrates, like starch and cellulose, can keep energy for a long time. They are also used to make a strong structure, like a plant stem. + Lipids can be insulation to keep a living thing warm, such as fat on a penguin, or to stop water from passing in or out, such as waterproof feathers. Two layers of phospholid (a kind of lipid) make up all cell membranes. Some kinds of lipids are hormones, which send messages from one cell to another. + Proteins, long chains of amino acids, have many purposes. They fold into complex shapes because their amino acids interact. Proteins are involved in many chemical reactions, to make them go faster. + Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, are long chains of nucleotides. There are only four kinds of nucleotides in each chain, but they are the instructions for life, like a language. Each three nucleotides tell the cell to make one amino acid. One part of a nucleic acid is the code for one protein molecule. + +Almost all living things need the chemical elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, to build these macromolecules. Living things also need small amounts of other elements, called trace elements. Water is a very important part of all living things. For example, humans are about two-thirds water. Water is a solvent that lets molecules mix and react with other molecules. + +Energy sources +All living things need energy to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. Some can get energy from the environment without help from other living things: these are called producers, or autotrophs. Plants, algae, and some bacteria, a group of producers called photoautotrophs, use the sun's light for energy. When producers use light to make and store organic compounds, this is called photosynthesis. Some other producers, called chemoautotrophs, get energy from chemicals that come out of the ocean floor in hydrothermal vents. Other living things get their energy from organic compounds: these are called consumers, or heterotrophs. Animals, fungi, most bacteria, and most protists are consumers. Consumers can eat other living things or dead material. + +Both producers and consumers need to break down organic compounds to free energy. The best way to do this is aerobic respiration, which frees the most energy, but living things can only do aerobic respiration if they have oxygen (O2). They can also break down these compounds without oxygen, using anaerobic respiration or fermentation. + +Cells + +All living things have cells. Every cell has a cell membrane on the outside, and a jelly-like material that fills the inside, called cytoplasm. The membrane is important because it separates the chemicals inside and outside. Some molecules can pass through the membrane, but others cannot. Living cells have genes, made of DNA. Genes say to the cell what to do, like a language. One DNA molecule, with many genes, is called a chromosome. Cells can copy themselves to make two new cells. + +There are two main kinds of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells have only a few parts. Their DNA is the shape of a circle, inside the cytoplasm, and they have no membranes inside the cell. Eukaryotic cells are more complex, and they have a cell nucleus. The DNA is inside the nucleus, and a membrane is around the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells also have other parts, called organelles. Some of these other organelles also have membranes. + +Types of life + +Taxonomy is how lifeforms are put into groups. The smaller groups are more closely related, but the larger classes are more distantly related. The levels, or ranks, of taxonomy are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. There are many ideas for the meaning of species. One idea, called the biological species concept, is as follows. A species is a group of living things that can mate with each other, and whose children can make their own children. + +Taxonomy aims to group together living things with a common ancestor. This can now be done by comparing their DNA. Originally, it was done by comparing their anatomy. + +The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic and have only one cell. Bacteria range in size from 0.15 cubic micrometres (Mycoplasma) to 200,000,000 cubic micrometres (Thiomargarita namibiensis). Bacteria have shapes which are useful in classification, such as round, long and thin, and spiral. Some bacteria cause diseases. Bacteria in our intestines are part of our gut flora. They break down some of our food. Both bacteria and archaea may live where larger forms of life cannot. Bacteria have a molecule called peptidoglycan in their cell wall, but archaea do not. Archaea have a molecule called isoprene in their cell membrane, but bacteria do not. + +Eukarya are living things with eukaryotic cells, and they can have one cell or many cells. Most eukaryotes use sexual reproduction to make new copies of themselves. In sexual reproduction, two sex cells, one from each parent, join to make a new living thing. + +Plants are eukaryotes that use the Sun's light for energy. They include algae, which live in water, and land plants. All land plants have two forms during their life cycle, called alternation of generations. One form is diploid, where the cells have two copies of their chromosomes, and the other form is haploid, where the cells have one copy of their chromosomes. In land plants, both diploid and haploid forms have many cells. Two kinds of land plants are vascular plants and bryophytes. Vascular plants have long tissues that stretch from end to end of the plant. These tissues carry water and food. Most plants have roots and leaves. + +Animals are eukaryotes with many cells, which have no rigid cell walls. All animals are consumers: they survive by eating other organic material. Almost all animals have neurons, a signalling system. They usually have muscles, which make the body move. Many animals have a head and legs. Most animals are either male or female. They need a mate of the opposite sex to make offspring. Sex cells from the male and female can meet inside or outside the body. + +Fungi are eukaryotes which may have one cell, like yeasts, or many cells, like mushrooms. They are saprophytes. Fungi break down living or dead material, so they are decomposers. Only fungi, and a few bacteria, can break down lignin and cellulose, two parts of wood. Some fungi are mycorrhiza. They live under ground and give nutrients to plants, like nitrogen and phosphorus. Eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi are called protists. Most protists live in water. + +Evolution + +Over thousands or millions of years, living things can change, through the process of evolution. One kind of evolution is when a species changes over time, such as giraffes growing longer necks. Most of the time, the species becomes better suited to its environment, a process called adaptation. Evolution can also cause one group of living things to split into two groups. This is called speciation if it makes a new species. An example is mockingbirds on the Galapagos Islandsâone species of mockingbird lives on each island, but all the species split from a shared ancestor species. Groups that are bigger than species can also split from a shared ancestorâfor example, reptiles and mammals. A group of living things and their shared ancestor is called a clade. + +Living things can evolve to be quite different from their ancestors. As a result, parts of the body can also change. The same bone structure became the hands of humans, the hooves of horses, and the wings of birds. Different body parts that evolved from the same thing are called homologous. + +Extinction is when all members of a species die. About 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are extinct. Extinction can happen at any time, but it is more common in certain time periods called extinction events. The most recent was 65 million years ago, when the dinosaurs went extinct. + +Origin of life + +By comparing fossils and DNA, we know that all life on Earth today had a shared ancestor, called the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). Other living things may have been alive at the same time as the LUCA, but they died out. A study from 2018 suggests that the LUCA is about 4.5 billion (4,500,000,000) years old, nearly as old as the Earth. The oldest fossil evidence of life is about 3.5 billion years old. + +How did non-living material become alive? This is a difficult question. The first step must have been the creation of organic compounds. In 1953, the MillerâUrey experiment made inorganic compounds into organic compounds, such as amino acids, using heat and energy. + +Life needs a source of energy for chemical reactions. On the early Earth, the atmosphere did not have oxygen. Oxidation using the Krebs cycle, which is common today, was not possible. The Krebs cycle may have acted backwards, doing reduction instead of oxidation, and the cycle may have made larger molecules. To make life, molecules needed to make copies of themselves. DNA and RNA make copies of themselves, but only if there is a catalystâa compound which speeds up the chemical reaction. One guess is that RNA itself served as a catalyst. At some time, the molecules were surrounded by membranes, which made cells. + +Gallery of images of life + +Related pages + Artificial life + Biology + Birth + Death + Earliest known life forms + Evolution + Tree of life + +References + +Life +Law is a set of rules decided by a particular place or authority meant for the purpose of keeping the peace and security of society. + +Courts or police may enforce this system of rules and punish people who break the laws, such as by paying a fine, or other penalty including jail. In ancient societies, laws were written by leaders, to set out rules on how people can live, work and do business with each other. But many times in history when laws have been on a false basis to benefit few at the expense of society, they have resulted in conflict. To prevent this, in most countries today, laws are written and voted on by groups of politicians in a legislature, such as a parliament or congress, elected (chosen) by the governed peoples. Countries today have a constitution for the overall framework of society and make further laws as needed for matters of detail. Members of society generally have enough freedom within all the legal things they can choose to do. An activity is illegal if it breaks a law or does not follow the laws. + +A legal code is a written code of laws that are enforced. This may deal with things like police, courts, or punishments. A lawyer, jurist or attorney is a professional who studies and argues the rules of law. In the United States, there are two kinds of attorneys - "transactional" attorneys who write contracts and "litigators" who go to court. In the United Kingdom, these professionals are called solicitors and barristers respectively. + +The Rule of Law is the law which says that government can only legally use its power in a way the government and the people agree on. It limits the powers a government has, as agreed in a country's constitution. The Rule of Law prevents dictatorship and protects the rights of the people. When leaders enforce the legal code honestly, even on themselves and their friends, this is an example of the rule of law being followed. "The rule of law", wrote the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350 BC, "is better than the rule of any individual." + +Culture is usually a major source of the principles behind many laws, and people also tend to trust the ideas based on family and social habits. In many countries throughout history, religion and religious books like the Vedas, Bible or the Koran have been a major source of law. + +Types of law +Medical law is the body of laws concerning the rights and responsibilities of medical professionals and their patients. The main areas of focus for medical law include confidentiality, negligence and other torts related to medical treatment (especially medical malpractice), and criminal law and ethics. +Physician-Patient Privilege protects the patient's private conversations with a medical physician (doctor), this also extends to their personal information (like their contact details) shared with medical personnel. + Property law states the rights and obligations that a person has when they buy, sell, or rent homes and land (called real property or realty), and objects (called personal property). + Intellectual property (IP) law involves the rights people have over things they create, such as art, music, and literature. This is called copyright. It also protects inventions that people make, by a kind of law called patent. It also covers the rights people have to the names of a company or a distinctive mark or logo. This is called trademark. + Trust law (business Law) sets out the rules for money that is put into an investment, such as pension funds that people save up for their retirement. It involves many different types of law, including administrative and property law. +Tort law helps people to make claims for compensation (repayment) when someone hurts them or hurts their property. +Criminal law is used by the government to prevent people from breaking laws, and punish people who do break them. +Constitutional law deals with the important rights of the government, and its relationship with the people. It mainly involves the interpretation of a constitution, including things like the Separation of powers of the different branches of government. +A court order is an official proclamation by a judge that defines and authorizes the carrying out of certain steps for one or more parties to a case. +Administrative law is used by ordinary citizens who want to challenge decisions made by governments. It also involves things like regulations, and the operation of the administrative agencies. +International law is used to set out rules on how countries can act in areas such as trade, the environment, or military action. The Geneva Conventions on the conduct of war and the Roerich Pact are examples of international law. +Custom and tradition are practices that are widely adopted and agreed upon in a society, thought often not in a written form. Custom and tradition can be enforced in courts and are sometimes considered as part of the legal reasoning in matters decided in courts. In some societies and cultures all law is or was custom and tradition, though this is increasingly rare although there are some parts of the world where custom tradition are still binding or even the predominant form of law, for example tribal lands or failed states. + +Civil law and common law +Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. Civil law is based on legislation that is found in constitutions or statutes passed by government. The secondary part of civil law is the legal approaches that are part of custom. In civil law governments, judges do not generally have much power, and most of the laws and legal precedent are created by Members of Parliament. + +Common law is based on the decisions made by judges in past court cases. It comes from England and it became part of almost every country that once belonged to the British Empire, except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec. It is also the predominant form of law in the United States, where many laws called statutes are written by Congress, but many more legal rules exist from the decisions of the courts. Common law had its beginnings in the Middle Ages, when King John was forced by his barons to sign a document called the Magna Carta. + +Religious law +Religious law is law based on religious beliefs or books. Examples include the Jewish Halakha, Islamic Sharia, and Christian Canon law. + +Until the 1700s, Sharia law was the main legal system throughout the Muslim world. In some Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, the whole legal systems still base their law on Sharia law. Islamic law is often criticised because it often has harsh penalties for crimes. A serious criticism is the judgement of the European Court that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy". + +The Turkish Refah Party's sharia-based "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The Court decided Refah's plan would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy". + +History of law +The history of law is closely connected to the development of human civilizations. Ancient Egyptian law developed in 3000 BC. In 1760 BC King Hammurabi, took ancient Babylonian law and organized it, and had it chiseled in stone for the public to see in the marketplace. These laws became known as the Code of Hammurabi. + +The Torah from the Old Testament is an old body of law. It was written around 1280 BC. It has moral rules such as the Ten Commandments, which tell people what things are not permitted. Sometimes people try to change the law. For example, if prostitution is illegal, they try to make it legal. + +Legislature +In democracies, the people in a country usually choose people called politicians to represent them in a legislature. Examples of legislatures include the Houses of Parliament in London, the Congress in Washington, D.C., the Bundestag in Berlin, the Duma in Moscow and the AssemblĂ©e nationale in Paris. Most legislatures have two chambers or houses, a 'lower house' and an 'upper house'. To pass legislation, a majority of Members of Parliament must vote for a bill in each house. The legislature is the branch of government that writes laws, and votes on whether they will be approved. + +Judiciary +The judiciary is a group of judges who resolve people's disputes and determine whether people who are charged with crimes are guilty. In some jurisdictions the judge does not find guilt or innocence but instead directs a jury, how to interpret facts from a legal perspective, but the jury determines the facts based on evidence presented to them and finds the guilt or innocences of the charged person. Most countries of common law and civil law systems have a system of appeals courts, up to a supreme authority such as the Supreme Court or the High Court. The highest courts usually have the power to remove laws that are unconstitutional (which go against the constitution). + +Executive (government) and Head of State +The executive is the governing center of political authority. In most democratic countries, the executive is elected from people who are in the legislature. This group of elected people is called the cabinet. In France, the US and Russia, the executive branch has a President which exists separately from the legislature. + +The executive suggests new laws and deals with other countries. As well, the executive usually controls the military, the police, and the bureaucracy. The executive selects ministers, or secretaries of state to control departments such as the health department or the department of justice. + +In many jurisdictions the Head of State does not take part in the day-to-day governance of the jurisdiction and takes a largely ceremonial role. This is the case in many Commonwealth nations where the Head of State, usually a Governor almost exclusively acts "on the advice" of the head of the Executive (e.g. the Prime Minister, First Minister or Premier). The primary legal role of the Head of State in these jurisdictions is to act as a check or balance against the Executive, as the Head of State has the rarely exercised power to dissolve the legislature, call elections and dismiss ministers. + +Other parts of the legal system +The police enforce the criminal laws by arresting people suspected of breaking the law. Bureaucrats are the government workers and government organizations that do work for the government. Bureaucrats work within a system of rules, and they make their decisions in writing. + +Lawyers are people who have learned about laws. Lawyers give people advice about their legal rights and duties and represent people in court. To become a lawyer, a person has to complete a two- or three-year university program at a law school and pass an entrance examination. Lawyers work in law firms, for the government, for companies, or by themselves. + +Civil society is the people and groups that are not part of government that try to protect people against human rights abuses and try to protect freedom of speech and other individual rights. Organizations that are part of civil society include political parties, debating clubs, trade unions, human rights organizations, newspapers and charities. + +"Corporations are among the organizations that use the legal system to further their goals. Like the others, they use means such as campaign donations and advertising to persuade people that they are right. Corporations also engage in commerce and make new things such as automobiles, vaporisers/e-cigarettes, and Unmanned aerial vehicles (i.e. "drones") that the old laws are not well equipped to deal with. Corporations also makes use of a set of rules and regulations to ensure their employees remain loyal to them (usually presented in a legal contract), and that any disobedience towards these rules are considered uncivilized and therefore given grounds for immediate dismissal. + +Related pages +Constitution +Death penalty +Ethics +Legal code +Legal rights +Parliament + Physical law + Political economy + +Further reading +H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law, (Penelope A. Bullock & Joseph Raz eds. 2nd ed. 1994) (1961). +Sandro Nielsen: The Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Principles and Practice for Legal Language. Benjamins 1994. +A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. edited by Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit. . +Johnson, Alan (1995). The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology. Blackwells publishers. . +Handbook of Political Institutions. edited by R. A. W. Rhodes, Sarah A. Binder and Bert A. Rockman. Oxford University Press. +An Introduction to IP Law. edited by John Watts. Oxford University Press. Available at Patent Professionals LLC + +References + +Other websites + Law -Citizendium +Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof (; , ; â ), credited as L. L. Zamenhof and sometimes as the pseudonymous Dr. Esperanto, was an eye doctor, linguist (who creates a language), and scholar who created the international language Esperanto. + +Biography +Zamenhof was born in 1859 in the town of BiaĆystok, Poland. At the time, Poland was a part of the Russian Empire. Bialystok contained three major groups: Poles, Belorussians, and Yiddish-speaking Jews. Zamenhof thought that one common language would join these groups and stop fights between them. + +His first language was said to be Polish. His parents spoke Russian and Yiddish at home. His father was a German teacher, so Zamenhof learned that language from an early age and spoke the language fluently. Later he learned French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew and English. He also had an interest in Italian, Spanish and Lithuanian. + +Zamenhof decided that the international language must have a simple grammar and be easier to learn than VolapĂŒk, an earlier international language. He attempted to create the international language with a grammar that was rich, and complex. The basics of Esperanto were published in 1887. He translated the Hebrew Bible into Esperanto. + +His grandson, Louis-Christophe Zaleski-Zamenhof, was an engineer. + +He was 14 times nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize between 1907 and 1917. + +References + +1859 births +1917 deaths +Bible translators +Esperantists +Inventors +Jewish scientists +Legion of Honour +Linguists +Polish Jews +Polish scientists +Zionists +This is a list of sovereign states. Disputed countries are listed at the bottom. + +A + - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - + +B + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + +C + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + +D + - - - + +E + - - - - - - - - + +F + - - + +G + - - - - - - - - - - + +H + - - - + +I + - - - - - - - - + +J + - - + +K + - - - - - - + +L + - - - - - - - - + +M + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + +N + - - - - - - - - - - - + +O + +P + - - - - - - - - - + +Q + +R + - - - + +S + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - + +T + - - - - - - - - - + +U + - - - - - - + +V + - (Holy See) - - + +W + - - + +Y + +Z + - + +Disputed countries + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + +Places sometimes considered countries, but not actual countries according to international law + - - - - +Canada is a country and sovereign state in the north of North America. It is made up of thirteen administrative divisions: ten provinces and three territories. + +The different levels of government in Canada are based on the principles of a federation: the governments of each province and territory share power with the federal government. The territories' governments have a more limited set of powers than the federal government. + +The provinces are in the south of Canada, near the border with the United States. They go from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. The territories are to the north, where fewer people live, close to the Arctic Circle and Arctic Ocean. + +Here is a list of the provinces and territories, and their standard abbreviations, with their capitals (the cities where their governments are based) and largest cities. Canada's national capital, where the federal government meets, is Ottawa. + +References + + +Canada geography-related lists +Las Vegas is a city in the American state of Nevada. There were 641,903 people living in the city in 2020, and more than 2,000,000 people living in the metropolitan area. It is the largest city in Nevada. Las Vegas is also the county seat of Clark County. + +Las Vegas is famous for its casinos and resort hotels. It is one of the world's most popular places for tourism. + +Hispanics (especially Mexicans and Cubans) and white people are the largest racial and ethnic groups in Las Vegas. Las Vegas has many Italians, Germans, English people and Irish people. + +Politics +Las Vegas leans to the left. Three of the four congressional districts in Nevada include parts of Las Vegas, and all three congresspeople representing those districts are Democrats from Las Vegas. + +History +Native Americans were the first to reside in the area, specifically the Paiute tribe. It was first called Las Vegas (which means The Meadows in the Spanish language) by the Spanish. The city is known for its dry weather, as is the rest of southern Nevada. It is surrounded by desert. + +The US Army built Fort Baker there in 1864. Las Vegas has natural springs, where people used to stop for water when they were going to Los Angeles or other places in California. + +In 1905, 110 acres owned by William A. Clark, on which he built a railroad to Southern California were auctioned and Las Vegas was founded as a railroad town. Las Vegas officially became a city in 1911. + +The Hispanic population in Las Vegas is growing and has rapidly increased. Most Latino Las Vegas residents are of Mexican, Cuban and Salvadoran descent. Las Vegas also has a small Puerto Rican, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Peruvian, Colombian, Honduran, Nicaraguan and Argentine population. The most common European ancestries in Las Vegas are German, Irish, Italian, Polish, French, Scottish, Russian, Swedish, Norwegian, Dutch and Welsh. Filipino, Korean, Vietnamese, Japanese, Indian and Chinese are the most common Asian ancestries. + +People +There is a Mexican, Chinese, Greek, German, Korean, Japanese, French, Arab, Italian, Jewish, African-American, Turkish, Croatian, Polish, Filipino, Indian, Ethiopian and Chilean community in Las Vegas. + +Las Vegas has a growing Hispanic population. Many Hispanics in Las Vegas are of Mexican, Cuban and Salvadoran ancestry. + +Most of the foreign-born population were born in Mexico, the Philippines and El Salvador. + +References + + +County seats in Nevada +1905 establishments in the United States +20th-century establishments in Nevada +Lanai (or LÄnaÊ»i) is sixth largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. It is also known as the "Pineapple Island". The island is almost a circle in shape and is 18 miles wide in the longest direction. The land area is 140 sq. miles (367 km2). It is separated from the island of Moloka'i by the Kalohi Channel to the north. + +History +Lana'i was first seen by Europeans on 25 February 1779 by Captain Clerke, with HMS Resolution on the James Cook Pacific Ocean trip. Clerke took command of the ship after Capt. Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14, and was leaving the islands for the North Pacific. + +In 1922, Jim Dole, the president of Dole Pineapple Company, bought the island of Lana'i. He made a large part of it into the world's largest pineapple plantation. + +Tourism +Tourism on Lana'i started not long ago. That was when the growing of pineapple was slowly coming to an end in the Islands. On Lana'i, you can be with nature and feel the mood of the Hawaiian countryside. Not like nearby O'ahu, the only town (Lana'i City) is small. It has no traffic or shopping centers. Tourists come mainly to relax. + +There are three hotels on Lana'i and several golf courses. + +Islands of Hawaii +A leap year is a calendar year in which an extra day is added to the Gregorian calendar, which is used by most of the world. A common year has 365 days, but a leap year has 366 days. The extra day, February 29, is added to the month of February. In a common year, February has 28 days, but in a leap year it has 29 days. The extra day, called a leap day, occurs on the same day of the week as the first day of the month, February 1. Additionally, a leap year does not begin and end on the same day of the week, as a common year does. + +Leap years are evenly divisible by 4. The most recent leap year was 2020 and the next leap year will be 2024. However, any year that is evenly divided by 100 would not be a leap year unless it is evenly divided by 400. This is why 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, while 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300 are common years, even though they are all divisible by 4. + +We have leap years because instead of 365 days, the Earth really takes a few minutes less than 365-1/4 days (365.24219) to go completely around the Sun. Without leap years, the seasons would start one day earlier on the calendar every four years. After 360 years, spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere would begin on December 21 (which is when winter in the Northern Hemisphere and summer in the Southern Hemisphere presently begins). + +A number of countries use a lunar calendar (based on the Moon, instead of the Sun, like our solar calendar is). They have leap years when they add an extra lunar month. Different calendars add the extra month in different ways. So a year which has 366 days instead of 365 days where the month of February has 29 days is called a leap year. + +In a leap year, the corresponding months are January, April, and July, February and August, March and November, and September and December. No month corresponds to May, June, or October. + +In the Gregorian calendar, 97 out of every 400 years are leap years. In the outdated Julian calendar, 100 years out of every 400 are leap years. All other years are common years. + +Related pages + February 29 + Common year + Century leap year + +Years +Leather is the skin of an animal made into a durable material by tanning. The skins of cows, pigs, and goats are often used to make leather. Skins of snakes, alligators or crocodiles, and ostriches are sometimes used to make fancier leather. Shoes, bags, clothes, and balls are often made of leather. Sometimes people make leather out of whales, ducks, giraffes, and African elephants. All of these ways of making leather are very simple but some are rare. + +How leather is made +The way leather is made is divided into three processes. They are preparing the leather, tanning it, and crusting. + +In preparing the leather, many things are done to make it ready for tanning. They include soaking it, removing the hair, liming, deliming, bating, bleaching, and pickling. + +Tanning is a process that makes the proteins, especially collagen, in the raw hide stable. It increases the thermal and chemical stability of the animal skins. The difference between fresh and tanned animal skin is that fresh animal skin dries to make it hard and stiff. When water is added to it, it becomes bad. But, animal skin that is tanned dries to make it flexible. It does not become bad when water is added to it. + +Crusting is a process that makes the leather thin and lubricates it. Chemicals added when crusting must be set in place. Crusting ends with drying and making the leather soft. It may include splitting, shaving, dyeing, whitening or other methods. + +From other animals +Today, most leather is made from the skin of cattle, which makes up about 67% of all the leather made. Other animals that are used include sheep (about 12%), pigs (about 11%), and goats (about 10%). + +Horse skin is used to make strong leather. Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather. It is used in work gloves and indoor shoes. + +Kangaroo leather is used to make things that must be strong and flexible. It is used in bullwhips. + +In Thailand, stingray leather is used in wallets and belts. Stingray leather is tough and durable. + +References + +Natural materials +A license (in American English) or licence (in British English) allows someone to do something that they otherwise are not allowed to do. A person usually has to pay some money, and maybe pass a test to get a license. A license is usually written but it does not have to be. Most kinds of licenses can only be used by the person they were given to. Licenses may be temporary or permanent. Some licenses can not be taken away once they are given. A person with a license is called a licensee. + +In many countries, if a person tries to do something without the correct license to do it, they might have to pay a fine or go to prison. + +Examples of licenses +There are many different types of licenses. + +Driver's license +The laws of most countries say that people are only allowed to drive cars if they have a driver's license. If a person does not have a license, they may have to pay a fine if they are caught by the police. In many countries, a person must take a test and pay money to get a license. The test would check that they know the road rules, and have the skill to drive a car. + +Hunting license +Other licenses give permission to shoot animals (often called a hunting license). The hunting license usually says when a person may hunt. A hunter may have to pass a test to show that they understand the rules about hunting. + +Television licence +In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, if someone has a television set, they must buy a "television licence" every year. + +Copyright licenses +Copyright is a law that gives the owner of a creative work the right to decide what other people can do with it. A person or a company can give a license to a copyright that they own. So in order for another person to use an owner's copyright they need permission from the owner. For example, when someone buys computer software, they also need a license from the creator of the software (a copyright owner) allowing the buyer to use the software. + +Difference between license and licence +"License" is a verb and "licence" is a noun. "Licensing sessions" were the meetings of magistrates which decided about giving licences to sell alcohol. + +In American English there is no difference in spelling between the verb "to license" meaning to give permission, and the noun "a license" meaning the permission to do something. + +Distinction between a licence and a qualification +A degree in medicine is a qualification showing a person has successfully studied medicine. It is awarded for life. A licence to practice medicine is a legal permission to do so within the territory covered by the licensing authority. The licence may be taken away ('revoked') in certain situations. + +Related pages + Copyright + Patent + Trademark + +References + +Law +A link, also hyperlink in computing, is a part of a chain. A chain is made of many pieces of metal; each piece is a link. + +Today, people also use the word link in a new way. The World Wide Web on the Internet is made of many different Web pages. The computer software that people use to make these pages (HTML) lets us go to other pages in a very fast and easy way. + +The person who makes the web page can tell the computer to show a word or a picture on the Web page as a link. This means that when we click on the link with our computer mouse, the computer will show us the new page we want to see. Most links are blue, but they can be any color. + +The color of the link will change to dark blue when clicked as the web browser recognises it in the browser's cache. Unless the cache is cleared, the link will always stay dark blue. + +Ways of making links +There are many ways in making a link on a web page. The process is different for different internet software. + +Plain HTML +In .htm and .html files, a link can be created using this code: + +<a href="http://www.example.com">Text of link</a> + +WikiSyntax +WikiSyntax like MediaWiki uses a simpler way of making links. To create a link to another page of the same website: + +[[Page name|Link text]] or just [[Page name]]. + +To link to an external website: + +[http://www.example.com Link text], [http://www.example.com], or just http://www.example.com. + +BB code +BB code is used in forum software. To create a link: + +[url]http://www.example.com[/url], or [url=http://www.example.com]Link text[/url] + +Internet +A library is a place where many books are kept. Most libraries are public and let people take the books to use in their home. Most libraries let people borrow books for several weeks. Some belong to institutions, for example, companies, churches, schools, and universities. The people who work in libraries are librarians. Librarians are people who take care of the library. + +Other libraries keep famous or rare books. There are a few "Copyright libraries" which have a copy of every book which has been written in that country. Some libraries also have other things that people might like, such as magazines, music on CDs, or computers where people can use the Internet. In school they offer software to learn the alphabet and other details.With the spread of literacy, libraries have become essential tools for learning. Libraries are very important for the progress and development of a society. Libraries are collections of books and other informational materials, however a library can also be a collection of items or media. People come to libraries for reading, study or reference. Libraries contain a variety of materials. They contain printed materials, films, sound and video recordings, maps, photographs, computer software, online databases, and other media. + +A library is not a bookstore (a store that sells books). + +Importance of a Library +The prime purpose of a library is to provide access to knowledge and information. To fulfil this mission, libraries preserve a valuable record of culture. Then they pass down this to the coming generations. Therefore, they are an essential link between the past, present and future. + +People use libraries to work. They also use library resources to learn about personal interests. Sometimes, they get recreational media such as films and music. Students use libraries to study. + +Libraries help the students to develop good reading and study habits. Public officials use libraries for research and public issues. The libraries provide information and services that are essential for learning and progress. + +Public libraries + +Many places have a public library, where anybody can join if they live in the area. With a library card, people can borrow books and take them home for several weeks. It does not cost money to get a library card at most public libraries. + +Books are kept on shelves in a special order so they are easy to find. Public libraries have lot of books on various topics including story books and many others. Many public libraries have books and CDs about learning English. Stories are kept in alphabetical order by the last name of the person who wrote them, the writer. Books about other things are often given a special number, that refers to what they are about. They are then put on the shelf in number order. One number system used by many libraries is the Dewey decimal system. + +Mobile libraries + +In rural areas books may be taken in a bookmobile, or mobile library to remote places. + +Academic libraries +Many colleges and universities have large academic libraries. These libraries are for the use of college students, professors, and researchers. Academic libraries are used mainly for doing research like studying the solar system or how earthquakes happen. These libraries do not have the same types of books you would find in a public library. They usually do not have fiction books or books for children (unless they are being studied). Academic libraries can have many books, sometimes more than a million. + +Special libraries +Special libraries are those libraries that are not public libraries or academic libraries. They are usually small. Many times a special library holds books on a particular subject or even a special kind of book. Some special libraries keep just old books or books by Shakespeare. A special library can be owned by a business for use only by that business. For example, Disney World in Orlando has its own library that is not open to the public but for the use of the people who work for the company. + +Librarians +A librarian is a person who works in a library. Librarians help people find books and information. They can teach people how to find books and use the library. A professional librarian is a person who went to school to study library science. They can earn a degree called a Masters in Library Science. + +History +The earliest known library was discovered in Iraq and belonged to the ancient civilization in Sumer. They didn't use paper books but instead wrote everything on clay tablets using a style of writing called cuneiform. These tablets are over 5,000 years old. The Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most important library of the ancient world. It was destroyed when the Romans conquered Egypt in 30 BC. Romeâs first public library was established by Asinius Pollio who was a lieutenant of Julius Caesar. Eventually Rome would build 28 public libraries within the city. When the Roman Empire fell in 330 AD, many books went east to the city of Byzantium where a large library was built. Other libraries were built in monasteries and public homes. + +Libraries began to appear in many Islamic cities, where science and philosophy survived after the fall of the Roman Empire. Christian monks and Islamic libraries exchanged books to copy. + +Recent times +COVID-19 pandemic has further changed how libraries operate in year 2020 and many of them around the world were faced with really hard choices as to which services to offer and which services to shut down for a limited time. + +Related pages +Archive +Bookcase + +References +There are a number of topics in mathematics. Some of them include: + + Algebra + Analysis + Arithmetic + Calculus + Combinatorial game theory + Cryptography + Differential equations +Partial differential equations +Ordinary differential equation + Discrete mathematics + Geometry + Graph theory + Infinity + Linear algebra + Number theory + Numerical analysis + Numerical integration + Numerical linear algebra + Validated numerics + Order of Operations + Probability + Statistics + Topology + Trigonometry + +Related pages + List of mathematicians + Mathematics Genealogy Project + Mathematics Subject Classification + Timeline of women in mathematics + +Mathematical societies + American Mathematical Society + Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics + +Other websites + For a much more complete list of mathematics topics, see Math Topics from the Internet Mathematics Library + +Topics +Like can mean some different things: + +1. We can use to like to say that we find a thing is good: +I like my house. = I think my house is good. +I like Jenny = I think Jenny is an OK person. + +2. We can use like for "the same as" or "nearly the same as": + +This cheese sandwich feels like rubber = the sandwich is difficult to eat, nearly the same as rubber. +Jenny is like her mother = Jenny has brown hair, and her mother also has brown hair (for example). +Your pen is like my pen = Your pen and my pen are the same sort. + +3. We can also use like for "the same way as": +She runs like the wind - she and the wind are both fast. +She talks like a child - she and children speak slowly or with a high voice. + +4. In a question, we can use like to ask people to talk about a thing, or to say if they find it good or not: +What's your house like? (Answer: "It has two bedrooms and a big kitchen...") +What was the film like? (Answer: "It was very good!") + +5. We can also use like as "for example": +I often go to other countries, like France or Germany = I go to other countries, for example France and Germany. + +6. In British and American English young people, when talking, have recently started using like as an extra word in the middle of sentences. Sometimes they use it to report what someone said, especially when mimicking the way they said it. This should never be used in writing: +The teacher was like: "Don't do that!" + +As works in the same way as example 2 - comparing two things using either the word "like" or the word "as" is called making a simile (As big as an elephant). It may be better to use the word "as" for this to stop confusion with example 1. + +Basic English 850 words +There are twenty-three provinces, four municipalities, five autonomous regions and two special administrative regions in the People's Republic of China. Provinces are pronounced ShÄng in Chinese Pinyin. The island of Taiwan is claimed as a province by the People's Republic of China (PRC), but it is not under their control. Taiwan is an island known as Republic of China (Taiwan). + +Provinces and autonomous regions are broken into prefectures and sub-provincial cities. + +Provinces +There are 23 provinces in the People's Republic of China. + Anhui + Fujian + Gansu + Guangdong + Guizhou + Hainan + Hebei + Heilongjiang + Henan + Hubei + Hunan + Jiangsu + Jiangxi + Jilin + Liaoning + Qinghai + Shaanxi + Shandong + Shanxi + Sichuan + Taiwan* + Yunnan + Zhejiang + +* The island of Taiwan is claimed as a province by the People's Republic of China (PRC), but it is not under their control. Taiwan is an island known as Republic of China (Taiwan). + +Municipalities +There are 4 municipalities in the People's Republic of China. "Municipality" is the common English name for the Chinese zhĂxiĂĄshĂŹ, meaning a city directly controlled by the national government. + Beijing, formerly part of Hebei + Tianjin, formerly part of Hebei + Shanghai, formerly part of Jiangsu + Chongqing, formerly part of Sichuan + +Autonomous Regions +There are 5 autonomous regions in the People's Republic of China. "Autonomous region" is the common English name for the Chinese zĂŹzhĂŹqĆ«, meaning an area with greater levels of self-government to accommodate minority groups. + Xinjiang, for the Uygurs and other Turkic peoples + Tibet, for Tibetans + Inner Mongolia, for Mongolians + Guangxi, for the Zhuang + Ningxia, for the Hui + +Special Administrative Regions +There are 2 special administrative regions in the People's Republic of China. "Special administrative region" is the common English name for the Chinese tĂšbiĂ© xĂngzhĂšng qĆ«, meaning an area under special administration as a result of treaties that returned former European colonies to Chinese control. + Hong Kong, formerly a British colony + Macau, formerly a Portuguese colony +Fruits on this list are defined as the word is used in everyday speech. It does not include vegetables, whatever their origin. + +The following items are fruits, according to the scientific definition, but are sometimes considered to be vegetables: + +Related pages + List of vegetables + +Food-related lists +Lists of plants +Legislature is a word that comes from the Latin language, meaning "those who write the laws." A legislature is therefore a group of people who vote for new laws, for example in a state or country. + +Each person in the legislature is usually either elected or appointed. The constitution of that state or country usually tells how a legislature is supposed to work. + +In many countries, the legislature is called a Parliament, Congress, or National Assembly. Sometimes there are two groups of members in the legislature. This is called a "bicameral" legislature. A unicameral legislature has only one group of members. + +A country, district, city, or other small area may also have something like a legislature. These are often called councils, and they make smaller laws for their areas. + +List of titles of legislatures + +National + Parliament + Congress + Diet + National Assembly + Althing â Iceland + Assembleia da RepĂșblica â Portugal + Bundestag â Germany + Riksdag â Sweden + Cortes Generales â Spain + Eduskunta â Finland + Federal Assembly â Russia, Switzerland + Folketing â Denmark + Stortinget â Norway + Knesset â Israel + Assembly of Albania â Albania + Legislative Yuan â Republic of China/Taiwan + moganane â Iran + United States Capitol - United States + +Sub-National + List of state legislatures of the United States â United States + General Assembly / Assembly + Great and General Court / General Court + House of Delegates + Landtag â Germany, Austria + Canada + Legislative Assembly â All provinces and territories except: + National Assembly â Quebec + House of Assembly â Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador + Australia + Legislative Assembly - All States and Territories except: + House of Assembly - South Australia and Tasmania + Legislative Council - All States except Queensland + United Kingdom + Scottish Parliament â Scotland + Northern Ireland Assembly â Northern Ireland + National Assembly for Wales â Wales +Houses of Parliament â United Kingdom overall. +Linear algebra is a branch of mathematics. It came from mathematicians trying to solve systems of linear equations. Vectors and matrices are used to solve these systems. The main objects of study currently are vector spaces and linear mappings between vector spaces. Linear algebra is useful in other branches of mathematics (e.g. differential equations and analytic geometry). It can also be applied to the real world in areas such as engineering, physics and economics. + +Linear algebra describes ways to solve and manipulate (rearrange) systems of linear equations. + +For example, consider the following equations: + +These two equations form a system of linear equations. +It is linear because none of the variables are raised to a power. +The graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line. +The solution to this system is: + +This is because it makes all of the original equations valid, that is, the value on the left side of the equals sign is exactly the same as the value on the right side for both equations. + +Linear algebra uses a system of notation for describing system behavior, called a matrix. For the previous example, the coefficients of the equations can be stored in a coefficient matrix. + +Related pages + + Abstract algebra + Matrix analysis + Matrix function + Numerical linear algebra + System of linear equations + +Further reading + Israel Gelfand (1998), Lectures on linear algebra, Courier Dover Publications. + +Linear algebra +London is the capital of the United Kingdom (UK), and its largest city. It is also the city with the highest population in the UK. The population is just under 9 million. The city is the largest in western Europe by population and area. + +On the Thames, London has been a central city since it was founded by the Romans two millennia ago as Londinium. The Romans bridged the river Thames and built a road network to connect Londinium with the rest of the country. + +London's original city centre, the City of London is England's smallest city. In 2011 it had 7,375 inhabitants on an area of 1.12 square miles. The term "London" is used for the urban region which developed around this city centre. This area forms the region of London, the Greater London administrative unit led by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. + +London is one of the world's most important political, economic and cultural centres. London was the capital of the British Empire and so for almost three centuries the centre of power for large parts of the world. + +The city has about 9.1 million inhabitants (2018). If one counts the entire metropolitan area of London (London Metropolitan Area), it has about 15 million people. The climate is moderate. + +History +The Romans built the city of Londinium along the River Thames in AD 43. The name Londinium (and later 'London') came from the Celtic language of the Ancient Britons. In AD 61, the city was attacked and destroyed. Then the Romans rebuilt the city, and London became an important trading hub. + +5th century: end of Roman rule to 12th century +After the decline of the Roman Empire, few people remained in London. The Anglo-Saxon people of sub-Roman Britain were mainly agricultural. Once the Romans had gone, trade with Continental Europe dwindled. In the 9th century, more people started living in London again. It became the largest city in England. However, it did not become the capital city of England again until the 12th century. For a long time after the Romans, England was not unified, and so had no capital. + +15th/16th century +Trade grew and the East India Company was founded as a monopoly trader. Trade expanded to the New World. London became the main North Sea port, and migrants went from England and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605. + +17th century +The 17th century saw Londoners suffer from the plague and the fire of London. The century starts with the famous Gunpowder Plot. + +In the 17th century the Stuart kings ruled: James I and Charles I. Charles Stuart was defeated by Cromwell, so the century was remarkable in that respect. Cromwell marks the beginning of the modern system whereby Parliament is more important than the monarch. The war between Cromwell and Charles was bitterly fought. London was the key city, and Oxford was also important. + +The century also had two great disasters: the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London. The control of London by Cromwell and Parliament was one of the decisive factors in the civil war. Cromwell's victory was followed by his death in 1658, and the country for a time moved back to royal rule under Charles II. + +The plague virus, carried by fleas on rats, came to Britain from Europe. + +The Great Fire of London broke out at the beginning of September 1666. Unfortunately there were warehouses full of timber, pitch, tallow, wine and tar. These caught fire and, in the end, all the riverfront buildings were destroyed. The fire eventually destroyed about 60% of the city, (mainly the City of London, rather than the large city we have today). Old St Paul's Cathedral was destroyed. Some fires burnt more widely, up to present-day Southwark and even Highgate (which are not in the city, but are in London). + +Modern era +Another famous old part of Greater London is Westminster, which was a different city from the City of London. In Westminster is Westminster Abbey (a cathedral), the Palace of Westminster (the Houses of Parliament, and 10 Downing Street (where the Prime Minister lives). + +After the railways were built, London grew much larger. Greater London has 33 boroughs (neighbourhoods) and a mayor. The old City of London is only a square mile in size but has its own Lord Mayor. + +Expansion of London +In stages, London has several times increased in size by statute in Parliament. The main motive for this has been taxation, and the increase in houses in what was once countryside. Since taxation was paid to the counties surrounding London, there was a motive for absorbing the countryside into London. This happened in several stages. + +Outside London, local taxes are paid to the County Councils; inside London they are paid to the Greater London Council. One county has been lost entirely (Middlesex) and all the others have lost land and revenue. The London Boroughs and the GLA (Greater London Authority) both raise taxes, and the representatives are elected. There is a London Plan which sets out the priorities. The number of local authorities which raise local taxes and spend it is 33: 32 London boroughs and the City of London. + +Geology +One aspect of its geology had big consequences. North of the Thames London is on chalk, which is easy (with modern equipment) to tunnel through. South of the Thames London is on clay, which was, and still is, much more difficult to dig out. So most of the subterranean engineering is north of the Thames. The road system south of the Thames is also inadequate by modern standards. This difference is reflected in the prices for property, the road transport, the Underground railway and the definition of "London" as a taxable area. The growth of London has been more vigorous North of the Thames, and has included the complete absorption of Middlesex, once a separate county. + +Events + AD 43 Londinium is founded by the Romans. + 61 â Londinium is sacked by Queen Boudica and the Iceni. + 100 â Londinium becomes the capital of Roman Britain. + 200 â The population is about 6,000. + 410 â the end of Roman rule in Britain + 8th century â London is captured by Vikings. + 885 â King Alfred the Great recaptures the city and makes peace with the Viking leader Guthrum. + 1045/50 â Westminster Abbey is rebuilt by Edward the Confessor who is buried there in January 1066. + 1066 â William the Conqueror is crowned in Westminster Abbey. + 1100 â The population is about 16,000. + 1300 â The population of London has risen to 100,000. + 1381 â the Peasants' Revolt â the first poll tax riots + 1605 â The Gunpowder Plot is stopped. + 1642 â The English Civil War starts. + 1647 â London supports Cromwell's army. + 1665 â the Great Plague of London + 1666 â the Great Fire of London + 1700s â the Georgian era (the time of George III) + 1780 â the Gordon Riots + 1900s â Canals, railways, bridges. British Empire. + 1851 â The Great Exhibition is held at the Crystal Palace. + 1908 â The Olympic Games take place in London. + 1940/1941 â London was bombed by German planes during World War II: explosive and incendiary bombs. This was known as The Blitz. + 1944/45 â London bombed by V-1 flying bomb and later the V2 rockets. + 1948 â The Summer Olympic Games take place in London for the second time. + 1966 â The Football World Cup final took place in London. It was won by England. + 1990 â the Second Poll Tax Riots + 2005 â The 7 July bombings on the London Underground and a bus. 52 people die and over 700 people are injured. + 2012 â The Summer Olympic Games take place in London for a third time. + 2017 â There were two terrorist attacks. The first happened in March on Westminster Bridge and Parliament Square. Five people were killed outside the Palace of Westminster, including the attacker and a police officer. 40 more people were injured. Another attack happened on London Bridge in June. Seven people were killed before the Metropolitan Police shot down the three attackers near Borough Market. The Islamic State has said they were responsible for both attacks. +2020 â COVID-19 did not affect London much until the Spring of 2020. From then until mid 2022, every aspect of life was affected. Government regulation of private life was almost unknown except in wartime (WWII). Many aspects of consumer activity have taken time to recover. Education of young people was interrupted, shops closed and all forms of live mass entertainment were banned. + +Landmarks + + Big Ben (Elizabeth Tower) + Buckingham Palace + Millennium Dome + London Eye + Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square + Tower Bridge + London Underground + Natural History Museum + St. Paul's Cathedral + Palace of Westminster + The Shard + Alexandra Palace + Tower of London + +Business and economy +London has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark. + +The London Stock Exchange is the most international stock exchange and the largest in Europe. + +Financial services +London's largest industry is finance. This includes banks, stock exchanges, investment companies and insurance companies The Bank of England is in the City of London and is the second oldest bank in the world. + +Professional services +London has many professional services such as law and accounting firms. + +Media +The British Broadcasting Company (BBC), which has many radio and TV stations, is in London. + +Tourism +Tourism is one of London's biggest industries. London is the most visited city in the world by international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors per year. Within the UK, London is home to the ten most-visited tourist attractions. Tourism employed about 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003. Tourists spend about ÂŁ15 billion per year. + +Technology +A growing number of technology companies are based in London. + +Retail +London is a major retail centre, and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around ÂŁ64.2 billion. The UK's fashion industry, centred on London, contributes tens of billions to the economy. + +Manufacturing and construction +For the 19th and much of the 20th centuries London was a major manufacturing centre (see Manufacturing in London), with over 1.5 million industrial workers in 1960. Many products were made in London including ships, electronics and cars. Nowadays, most of these manufacturing companies are closed but some drug companies still make medicine in London. + +Transportation (trains, airports and underground) +The city has a huge network of transport systems including trains, underground (metro) and five main airports. + +The Victorians built many train systems in the mid-19th century (1850s). Their main stations are in London, and the lines go to every part of Great Britain. There were originally five major companies but the five companies became a national rail network in modern times. Their terminals at King's Cross, St. Pancras, Paddington, Waterloo and Charing Cross are still used as terminals. + +There are five airports, though only one is actually in London (London City Airport). The most used airport is Heathrow Airport, although it is actually outside the city. There is the London end of the LondonBirmingham canal, which was important to the industrial 19th century. Really heavy goods can be transported on water by canal or sea. + +The London Underground is a system of electric trains which are in London. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the Metropolitan Railway. Later, the system was copied in other cities, for example Paris, New York, Moscow and Madrid. Even though it is called the London Underground, about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is the name used for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are semi-round tubes running through the ground. The Underground has 274 stations and over 250 miles (402 km) of track. Over one billion passengers used the underground each year. + +With the need for more rail capacity in London, the Elizabeth Line (also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022. It is a new railway line running east to west through London, with a branch to Heathrow Airport. It is Europe's biggest construction project, with a ÂŁ15 billion projected cost. + +There is a black taxi system regulated by the Metropolitan Police, and various other private enterprise hire car companies. Efforts are being made to make roads safer for cyclists. + +Sewage tunnel +London's biggest tunnel has just been completed to take sewage from the capital to the East where it will be processed. + +Climate +London has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb). It is not usually very hot or cold. It is often cloudy. + +Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. Winters are generally cool. Spring and autumn are mild. + +London has regular, light rain throughout the year. July is the warmest month, with an average temperature at Greenwich of 13.6 °C to 22.8 °C. The coldest month is January, with an average of 2.4 °C to 7.9 °C. The average annual precipitation is fairly low at 583.6 mm, and February is normally the driest month. Drought is sometimes possible, especially during longer heatwaves in summer. Snow is uncommon but usually falls at least once each winter and heavy snow is rarer and does not happen every winter. While snow is uncommon in central London itself, there is more snow in the outer areas; this is because the "urban heat island" the big city generates makes the city about 5 °C warmer than surrounding areas in winter. + +Temperature extremes in London range from at Heathrow Airport on 19 July 2022 down to at Northolt on 1 January 1962. + +Twinnings + +London has twin and sister city agreements with these cities: + Sister cities: + Berlin, Germany (since 2000) + New York City, USA (since 2001) + Moscow, Russia + Beijing, China (since 2006) + Partner cities: + Paris, France (since 2001) + Rome, Italy + +London also has a "partnership" agreement with Tokyo, Japan. + +References + +Other websites + + London City Government + WorldFlicks in London: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps. . + Events in London + + +Olympic cities +A litre (international spelling) or liter (American spelling) is one of the metric units of volume. It is not a basic SI unit, but it is a supplementary unit. + +One litre is the volume of 1000 cubic centimetres, that is a cube of 10 Ă 10 Ă 10 centimetres (1000 cm3). One litre of water at has the mass of exactly one kilogram. This results from the definition given in 1795, where the gram was defined as the weight of one cubic centimetre of melting ice. + +Liters are usually utilized to measure the volume of liquids, this is because the density of liquids can vary a lot. However it can be applied to solids as well, for example 1 liter of Iron is around 7.7 kg. The symbol for litre is l or L. The script letter â is also sometimes used. + +For smaller volumes, the decilitre is used: 10 dl = one litre. + +For smaller volumes, the centilitre is used: 100 cl = one litre. + +For smaller volumes, the millilitre is used: 1000 ml = one litre. + +The capital letter "L" is preferred by some people as the small "l" can look like the number one "1". + 1 litre = 0.2200 imperial gallons + 1 litre = 0.2642 US gallons + 1 imperial gallon = 4.5461 litres + 1 US gallon = 3.7854 litres + 1 litre = 1 dm3 + +History +The metric system was first introduced in France in 1791. That system did not have its own unit of capacity or volume because volume can be measured in cubic metres. In 1793 work to make the metric system compulsory in France was started by the Temporary Commission of Republican Weights and Measures. Due to public demand, the commission said that the cubic metre was too big for everyday use. They said that a new unit based on the old cadil should be used instead. One cadil was to be 0.001 cubic metres. This was equivalent to a cube with sides 10 cm. The cadil was also known as the pinte or the litron. The pinte had been an old French unit of measure of capacity. In 1795 the definition was revised. The cadil was given the name litre. + +In 1795 the kilogram was defined to be exactly one litre of water at 4 °C. In 1799 the kilogram was redefined. The new definition said that the kilogram was the mass of the kilogram des archives. In 1901 scientists measured the volume of one litre of water at 4 °C very carefully. They found that it occupied about dm3. The BIPM redefined the litre as being exactly the volume of one kilogram of water at 4 °C. + +In 1960 the SI was introduced. The BIPM changed the definition of the litre back to "one dm3". The litre is not part of SI. The BIPM defined the litre as a "Non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI". This was because it is used in many countries. The BIPM said that the litre should not be used for very accurate work. + +According to SI rules, the symbol for the litre should be "l". This is because the litre was not named after somebody whose name was "Litre". However the symbol "l" and the number "1" are easily confused. In 1979 the BIPM made an exception for the symbol for the litre. They said that people could use either "L" or "l" as its symbol. + +In Europe, milk is sold in one litre cartons. One litre bottle is also a popular package for soft drinks. Most alcoholic drinks are sold as 1/3 litre (0.33 l), litre (0.5 l) or 3/4 litre (0.75 l) bottles. + +Notes + +References + +Units of volume +Lime is a green fruit, and the tree fruit itself. They are citrus fruits similar to lemons. Citrus fruits like limes are rich in vitamin C. Sailors from Britain were given lemon or lime juice to stop them falling ill with scurvy. This is how they got the nickname Limey. There are several citrus trees whose fruits are called limes. They include the key lime Citrus aurantiifolia, the Persian lime, the kaffir lime, and the desert lime Citrus glauca. + +Limes are small, round and bright green. If they stay on the tree for a long time they turn yellow. Then they look like small round lemons. + +Lime juice is used in cooking and in drinks. Lime oils are often used in perfumes, used for cleaning, and used for aromatherapy. + +Lime tastes acidic and bitter. Lime juice is also made from limes. + +Different kinds of limes + Persian lime â This lime is most often sold in supermarkets as lime. + Key lime â Smaller than the Persian lime, used to mix Cocktails and make pies. + Kaffir lime â Very small fruits, vegetable oil from the leaves is used for perfumes, leaves are used for cooking. + +Other websites + http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/citrus/limes.htm + +Citrus +Mathematics is the study of numbers, shapes, and patterns. The word comes from the Greek ÎŒÎŹÎžÎ·ÎŒÎ± (mĂĄthema), meaning "science, knowledge, or learning", and is sometimes shortened to math. + +It is the study of: + Numbers: including how things can be counted. + Structure: including how things are organized, but also how they can be or could have been. This subfield is usually called algebra. + Place: where things are, and spatial arrangement, including arrangements of spaces themselves. This subfield is usually called geometry. + Change: how things become different. This subfield is usually called analysis. + +Applied math is useful for solving problems in the real world. People working in business, science, engineering, and construction use mathematics. + +Problem-solving in mathematics +Mathematics solves problems by using logic. One of the main tools of logic used by mathematicians is deduction. Deduction is a special way of thinking to discover and prove new truths using old truths. To a mathematician, the reason something is true (called a proof) is just as important as the fact that it is true, and this reason is often found using deduction. Using deduction is what makes mathematical thinking different from other kinds of scientific thinking, which might rely on experiments or on interviews. + +Logic and reasoning are used by mathematicians to create general rules, which are an important part of mathematics. These rules leave out information that is not important so that a single rule can cover many situations. By finding general rules, mathematics solves many problems at the same time as these rules can be used on other problems. These rules can be called theorems (if they have been proven) or conjectures (if it is not known if they are true yet). Most mathematicians use non-logical and creative reasoning in order to find a logical proof. + +Sometimes, mathematics finds and studies rules or ideas that we don't understand yet. Often in mathematics, ideas and rules are chosen because they are considered simple or neat. On the other hand, sometimes these ideas and rules are found in the real world after they are studied in mathematics; this has happened many times in the past. In general, studying the rules and ideas of mathematics can help us understand the world better. Some examples of math problems are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, calculus, fractions and decimals. Algebra problems are solved by evaluating certain variables. A calculator answers every math problem in the four basic arithmetic operations. + +Areas of study in mathematics + +Number +Mathematics includes the study of numbers and quantities. It is a branch of science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity, and arrangement. Most of the areas listed below are studied in many different fields of mathematics, including set theory and mathematical logic. The study of number theory usually focuses more on the structure and behavior of the integers rather than on the actual foundations of numbers themselves, and so is not listed in this given subsection. + +{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" +| || || || || +|- +| Natural numbers || Integers || Rational numbers || Real numbers || Complex numbers +|- +|| || || || || +|- +|| Ordinal numbers || Cardinal numbers || Arithmetic operations || Arithmetic relations || Functions, see also special functions +|} + +Structure + Structural mathematics studies objects' and constructions' shape and integrity. These are areas of algebra and calculus. + +{| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30" +| || || || || +|- +| Number theory || Abstract algebra || Linear algebra || Order theory || Graph theory +|} + +Shape +Some areas of mathematics study the shapes of things. Most of these areas are part of the study of geometry. + +{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" +| || || || || +|- +| Topology || Geometry || Trigonometry || Differential geometry || Fractal geometry +|} + +Change +Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of analysis. +{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40" +| || || +|- +| Calculus || Vector calculus || Analysis +|- +|| || || +|- +|| Differential equations || Dynamical systems || Chaos theory +|} + +Applied mathematics +Applied math uses symbolic logic to solve problems in areas like engineering and physics. + +Numerical analysis â Optimization â Probability theory â Statistics â Mathematical finance â Game theory â Mathematical physics â Fluid dynamics - Computational algorithms + +Famous theorems +These theorems and conjectures have interested mathematicians and amateurs alike: + +Pythagorean theorem â FLT â Goldbach's conjecture â Twin Prime Conjecture â Gödel's incompleteness theorems â PoincarĂ© conjecture â Cantor's diagonal argument â Four color theorem â Zorn's lemma â Euler's Identity â Church-Turing thesis + +These theorems and hypotheses have greatly changed mathematics: + +Central limit theorem classification theorems of surfaces â Continuum hypothesis â Fourier Theorem â Fundamental theorem of calculus â Fundamental theorem of algebra â Fundamental theorem of arithmetic â Fundamental theorem of projective geometry â Gauss-Bonnet theorem - Kantorovich theorem â P Versus NP â Pythagorean theorem â Riemann hypothesis + +These are a few conjectures that have been called "revolutionary": + +Beal Conjecture (a generalization of FLT) â Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer Conjecture â Collatz Conjecture â Goldbach's Conjecture âHodge Conjecture â PoincarĂ© Conjecture + +Foundations and methods + +Set theory â Symbolic logic â Model theory â Category theory â Logic â Table of mathematical symbols + +History and the world of mathematicians + +History of mathematics â Timeline of mathematics â Mathematicians â Fields Medal â Abel Prize â Millennium Prize Problems (Clay Math Prize) â International Mathematical Union â Mathematics competitions â Lateral thinking â Mathematics and gender + +Awards in mathematics +There is no Nobel Prize in mathematics. Mathematicians can receive the Abel Prize and the Fields Medal for important works. + +The Clay Mathematics Institute has said it will give one million dollars to anyone who solves one of the Millennium Prize Problems. + +Mathematical tools +There are many tools used to do math or find answers to math problems. + +Older tools + Abacus + Napier's bones, Slide rule + Ruler and Compass + Mental calculation + Writing + +Newer tools + Graphing calculators, scientific calculators and more complex computer visual tools + Programming languages + Computer algebra systems (listing) and automated matrix analysis + statistics software (for example SPSS) + SAS (programming language) + R (programming language) + +References + +Related pages + Timeline of women in mathematics + American Mathematical Society + Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics + EASIAM + International Congress on Industrial and Applied Mathematics + International Congress of Mathematicians + International Mathematical Olympiad + Mathematics Genealogy Project + Mathematics Subject Classification + +Other websites + + Mathematics Citizendium + + +Mathematics +March (Mar.) is the third month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between February and April. It has 31 days. March is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. + +March always begins on the same day of the week as November, and additionally, February in common years. March always ends on the same day of the week as June. + +The Month + +In ancient Rome, March was called Martius. It was named after the war god (Mars) and the Romans thought that it was a lucky time to begin a war. Before Julius Caesar's calendar reform, March was the first month of the year in the Roman calendar, as the winter was considered to be a monthless period. It is one of seven months to have 31 days. + +March begins on the same day of the week as February in common years and November every year, as each other's first days are exactly 4 weeks (28 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. March ends on the same day of the week as June every year, as each other's last days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart. + +In common years, March starts on the same day of the week as June of the previous year, and in leap years, September and December of the previous year. In common years, March finishes on the same day of the week as September of the previous year, and in leap years, April and December of the previous year. + +In years immediately before common years, March starts on the same day of the week as August of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year. In years immediately before common years, March finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year. + +In leap years, the day before March 1 is February 29. This determines the position of each day of the year from there on. As an example, March 1 is usually the 60th day of the year, but in a leap year is the 61st day. + +In terms of seasons, March is one of two months to have an equinox (the other is September, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), with daylight and darkness of roughly the same number of hours, halfway between the December and June solstices. In the Northern Hemisphere, spring starts in this month, while it is autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. + +Start of the season + +The official start of either season is March 1, though the equinox can fall on March 20 or 21, occasionally on March 19. The northern spring equinox marks the start of the Iranian New Year and Baha'i New Year. It is from the March 21 date that Easter's date is calculated, on the Sunday after the first full moon in spring, meaning it can fall between March 22 and April 25 in Western Christianity. + +Events in March + +Fixed events + + March 1 - Saint David's Day (Wales) + March 1 - March 1st Movement Memorial Day (South Korea) + March 1 - Beer Day (Iceland) + March 1 - Independence Day (Bosnia and Herzegovina) + March 2 - Independence Day (Morocco) + March 2 - Texas Independence Day + March 2 - jana day (Algeria) + March 2 - Peasants Day (Burma) + March 3 - Hinamatsuri, Girls' Day (Japan) + March 3 - Liberation Day (Bulgaria) + March 3 - Mother's Day (Georgia) + March 3 - Sportsmen's Day (Egypt) + March 3 - Martyrs' Day (Malawi) + March 4 - Saint Casimir's Day (Poland and Lithuania) + March 5 - Custom Chief's Day (Vanuatu) + March 5 - Lei Feng Day (China) + March 5 - National Tree Planting Day (Iran) + March 5 - Saint Piran's Day (Cornwall) + March 6 - Independence Day (Ghana) + March 6 - Alamo Day (Texas) + March 6 - Foundation Day (Norfolk Island) + March 7 - Felicity and Perpetua (Roman Catholicism) + March 7 - Teachers' Day (Albania) + March 8 - International Women's Day + March 9 - Teachers' Day (Lebanon) + March 10 - Tibetan Uprising Day (Supporters of Tibetan Independence) + March 11 - Re-establishment of Independence (Lithuania) + March 11 - Moshoeshoe Day (Lesotho) + March 11 - Johnny Appleseed Day (United States) + March 12 - National Day of Mauritius + March 12 - Youth Day (Zambia) + March 14 - Pi Day + March 14 - Mother Tongue Day (Estonia) + March 14 - White Day (Japan and Korea) + March 15 - The Ides of March, and the assassination of Julius Caesar. + March 15 - National Day of Hungary + March 15 - Holiday in Liberia, celebrating its first President, Joseph Jenkins Roberts + March 15 - Honen Matsuri (Japan) + March 16 - Saint Urho's Day (Finnish Communities in Canada and the US) + March 16 - Latvian Legion Day + March 16 - Day of the Book Smugglers (Lithuania) + March 17 - Saint Patrick's Day, celebrating Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland + March 19 - Saint Joseph's Day (Roman Catholicism) + March 19 - Unity Day (Kashubia, northern Poland) + March 20/21 - Equinox, northern Spring, southern Autumn + March 20/21 - Iranian New Year + March 20 - Independence Day (Tunisia) + March 20 - Francophone Day + March 21 - Baha'i New Year + March 21 - Independence Day (Namibia) + March 21 - Benito Juarez' Birthday (Mexico) + March 21 - World Poetry Day + March 21 - Youth Day (Tunisia) + March 21 - Harmony Day (Australia) + March 21 - Human Rights Day (South Africa) + March 21 - World Down syndrome Day + March 22 - World Water Day + March 22 - Emancipation Day (Puerto Rico) + March 22 - Day of the People's Party (Laos) + March 23 - Republic Day (Pakistan) + March 23 - Polish-Hungarian Friendship Day + March 23 - Family Day (South Africa) + March 24 - World Tuberculosis Day + March 24 - Day of Remembrance for Truth and Justice (Argentina) + March 25 - Independence Day (Greece) + March 25 - Maryland Day + March 25 - Mother's Day (Slovenia) + March 25 - Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholicism), also known as Lady Day, old New Year in some European countries + March 26 - Independence Day (Bangladesh) + March 26 - Prince Kuhio Day (Hawaii) + March 26 - Prophet Zoroaster's Birthday (Zoroastrianism) + March 26 - Day of Democracy (Mali) + March 28 - Serfs Emancipation Day (Tibet) + March 28 - Teachers' Day (Czech Republic and Slovakia) + March 29 - Boganda Day (Central African Republic) + March 29 - Youth Day (Republic of China) + March 31 - Cesar Chavez Day (United States) + March 31 - Freedom Day (Malta) + +Moveable events + + On a Sunday between March 1 and April 4, Mother's Day is celebrated in the UK. + Lent and Easter-related observances in Western Christianity. +Shrove Monday - between February 2 and March 8 +Shrove Tuesday (Pancake Day) - between February 3 and March 9 +Ash Wednesday, start of Lent - between February 4 and March 10 +Palm Sunday, start of Holy Week - between March 15 and April 18 +Maundy Thursday - between March 19 and April 22 +Good Friday - between March 20 and April 23 +Easter occurs on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25 (note: In Eastern Christianity, Easter falls between April 4 and May 8). +Easter Monday - between March 23 and April 26 + Jewish Passover coincides with Christian Holy Week, earliest run is March 15 to March 22, latest run is April 18 to April 25. + Commonwealth Day (second Monday in March) + Canberra Day (Second Monday in March) + Daylight Saving Time +Canada and the United States start Daylight Saving Time on the second Sunday in March. Clocks go forward one hour. +European Summer Time begins on the last Sunday in March. Clocks go forward one hour. + The Winter Paralympics are often held in this month. + Six Nations - rugby union tournament running from early February to mid-March, competing countries are England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales + Start of the Formula One motor racing season + +Selection of historical events + + March 1, 1872 - Yellowstone National Park becomes the world's first national park. + March 1, 1910 - An avalanche buries a train in northeastern King County, Washington. + March 1, 1919 - The March 1st Movement begins in Korea. + March 1, 1936 - The Hoover Dam is completed. + March 2, 1956 - Morocco declares its independence from France. + March 3, 1845 - Florida becomes the 27th State of the US. + March 3, 1925 - The Mount Rushmore monument is founded, starting work on carving four Presidents' faces into the mountain. + March 5, 1953 - Russian composer Sergei Prokofiev and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin die on the same day as each other. + March 6, 1788 - The first fleet of convicts arrives at Norfolk Island. + March 6, 1957 - Ghana becomes independent from the United Kingdom. + March 7, 1867 - Alexander Graham Bell is granted a patent for the telephone. + March 7, 1912 - Roald Amundsen announces that his Norwegian expedition successfully reached the South Pole on December 14 of the previous year. + March 8, 1911 - First celebration of International Women's Day. + March 8, 1918 - The first cases of the deadly Spanish flu virus are reported. + March 8, 2014 - Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappears. + March 9, 1908 - A five-man team climbs to the top of Mount Erebus in Antarctica. + March 9, 1959 - The first Barbie dolls are sold. + March 10, 1906 - A deadly mining disaster in Courrieres, France, kills 1,099 miners. + March 10, 1957 - Osama bin Laden is born. + March 10, 1977 - Astronomers discover rings around the planet Uranus. + March 11, 1985 - Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader of the Soviet Union. + March 11, 1990 - Lithuania declares its independence from the Soviet Union. + March 11, 2004 - Terrorists bomb rush-hour trains in Madrid, killing 191 people. + March 11, 2011 - The 2011 Sendai earthquake and tsunami disaster kills many thousands of people in northeastern Japan, after a magnitude 9.1 earthquake, tsunamis, and a nuclear disaster at Fukushima. + March 12, 1913 - Canberra is officially named. + March 12, 1930 - Mahatma Gandhi begins his Salt March, as part of the movement for Indian independence. + March 12, 1968 - Mauritius becomes independent. + March 13, 1781 - William Herschel discovers the planet Uranus. + March 13, 1881 - Tsar Alexander II of Russia is murdered when a bomb is thrown at his carriage. + March 13, 2013 - Pope Francis is chosen as Pope. Coming from Argentina, he is the first Latin American Pope. + March 14, 1879 - Albert Einstein is born. + March 14, 1883 - Karl Marx dies at the age of 64 years. + March 14, 2018 - Stephen Hawking dies. + March 15, 44 BC - Julius Caesar is murdered on the Ides of March. + March 15, 1820 - At the easternmost tip of the US, Maine becomes the 23rd State. + March 15, 1848 - Revolution in Pest, Hungary. + March 15, 2019 - A terrorist shooting occurs in Christchurch, killing 49 Muslims. + March 17, 1861 - Italy becomes a Kingdom, making Italy a unified state. + March 17, 1959 - Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama flees to India. + March 17, 1992 - A referendum in South Africa supports the end of Apartheid. + March 18, 1965 - Aleksei Leonov performs the first spacewalk. + March 19, 1932 - Sydney Harbour Bridge is opened. + March 20, 526 - The 526 Antioch earthquake kills around 300,000 people in Syria and southeastern Turkey. + March 20, 1861 - Mendoza, Argentina is destroyed by an earthquake that kills 6,000 people. + March 20, 1956 - Tunisia becomes independent. + March 20, 1995 - The Aum Shinrikyo cult carries out a deadly sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway. + March 20, 2003 - Iraq War starts. + March 21, 1844 - Start of the Baha'i calendar. + March 21, 1960 - Sharpeville massacre: Police open fire on demonstrators in South Africa, killing 69 people. + March 21, 1990 - Namibia becomes independent. + March 21, 2006 - Twitter is founded. + March 22, 1818 - Most recent occurrence of Easter on its earliest possible date. + March 22, 1957 - The Arab League is founded. + March 22, 1997 - Comet Hale-Bopp makes its closest approach to Earth. + March 23, 1956 - Pakistan becomes an Islamic Republic. + March 24, 1603 - Queen Elizabeth I of England dies aged 69, without children. James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England. + March 24, 1989 - The Exxon Valdez oil tanker runs aground at Prince William Sound in Alaska, causing a devastating oil spill. + March 25, 1655 - Christiaan Huygens discovers Saturn's moon Titan. + March 25, 1821 - Greece declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire. + March 25, 1957 - The European Economic Community is founded. + March 26, 1830 - The Book of Mormon is published in Palmyra, New York. + March 26, 1971 - Bangladesh's war of Independence starts. + March 26, 1997 - Members of the Heaven's Gate cult commit mass suicide. + March 27, 1964 - The Good Friday earthquake strikes south-central Alaska. + March 28, 1939 - Spanish Civil War: Francisco Franco conquers Madrid. + March 29, 1792 - King Gustav III of Sweden dies as a result of being shot at a masquerade ball. + March 30, 1867 - United States Secretary of State agrees to purchase Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million. + March 30, 1981 - John Hinckley shoots at Ronald Reagan in an attempt to kill him. + March 31, 1889 - The Eiffel Tower is opened to the public. + March 31, 1968 - US President Lyndon B. Johnson announces that he intends not to run for re-election. + March 31, 1995 - American singer Selena is shot and killed by her former manager and friend of her boutiques, Yolanda Saldivar. + +Trivia + + March's flower is the daffodil. + March's birthstones are the bloodstone and aquamarine. The meaning of the bloodstone is courage. + The star signs for March are Pisces (February 20 to March 20) and Aries (March 21 to April 20). + March is one of two months of the year that begin with an 'M' in the English language (May is the other). Both have an 'A' as their second letter, and they come on either side of April. + March 1 is the only day in March to start within the first sixth of the calendar year. + It is less common for Easter to occur in March than in April. Recent occurrences in March were in 2002 (March 31), 2005 (March 27), 2008 (March 23), 2013 (March 31) and 2016 (March 27). + March is named for Mars, the Roman god of war, and is called "mars" in some languages. This is also where the planet Mars gets its name from. + +Other meanings + A march is also a type of music, originally written for and performed by marching bands. + March also refers to a certain way of walking. + March is also the name of a place in Germany. + There is a \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.tok b/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.tok new file mode 100644 index 0000000..806cf11 --- /dev/null +++ b/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.tok @@ -0,0 +1,768 @@ +195 176 +114 32 +32 195 +105 110 +97 110 +115 116 +97 114 +195 179 +195 173 +97 32 +256 32 +105 32 +195 161 +46 32 +115 107 +97 257 +117 109 +10 32 +101 114 +44 32 +195 182 +195 166 +117 257 +103 32 +101 110 +101 105 +258 173 +117 32 +45 32 +117 110 +46 273 +111 114 +260 100 +111 279 +258 161 +97 108 +32 284 +49 57 +282 32 +115 32 +195 186 +110 32 +258 190 +97 102 +115 101 +97 256 +105 257 +97 109 +105 108 +272 32 +117 114 +116 116 +105 266 +259 103 +97 266 +115 108 +102 114 +101 257 +106 263 +259 110 +109 32 +101 103 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32 +110 301 +51 269 +365 283 +328 114 +109 315 +402 323 +118 276 +997 891 +578 114 +502 114 +53 32 +66 390 +293 54 +46 10 +78 467 +261 117 +298 309 +116 425 +107 117 +49 32 diff --git a/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.txt b/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e19067b --- /dev/null +++ b/labs/lab1/wiki-is-1m.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12828 @@ +Finnland (finnska Suomi, Suomen tasavalta, sĂŠnska Republiken Finland) er eitt Norðurlandanna Ă norðanverðri EvrĂłpu. Landið liggur að tveimur flĂłum Ășr Eystrasalti, Helsingjabotni Ă vestri og KirjĂĄlabotni Ă suðri. Ăað ĂĄ einnig landamĂŠri að SvĂĂŸjóð Ă vestri, Noregi Ă norðri og RĂșsslandi Ă austri. Ălandseyjar Ă Eystrasaltinu eru undir finnskri stjĂłrn en njĂłta vĂðtĂŠkrar sjĂĄlfstjĂłrnar. Finnland er stundum nefnt ĂĂșsundvatnalandið. + +Finnland er Ă EvrĂłpusambandinu og er eina NorðurlandaĂŸjóðin sem hefur tekið upp evruna sem gjaldmiðil. + +Höfuðborg Finnlands heitir ĂĄ finnsku Helsinki og sĂŠnsku Helsingfors og er einnig stĂŠrsta borg landsins. Aðrir stĂŠrstu bĂŠir Ă stĂŠrðarröð eru eftirfarandi: Espoo (sĂŠnska: Esbo), Tampere (s. Tammerfors), Vantaa (s. Vanda), Turku (s. Ă bo) og Oulu (s. UleĂ„borg). Espoo og Vantaa ĂĄsamt Helsinki mynda höfuðborgarsvÊðið, og Tampere myndar annað stĂłrt ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli. + +Heiti +Uppruni nafnsins Suomi er ĂłljĂłs, en talið er að ĂŸað sĂ© skylt baltneska orðinu zeme, sem merkir grund, jörð, ĂŸjóð. + +Nafnið Finnland, sem haft er um landið ĂĄ öðrum tungum, lĂkist öðrum skandinavĂskum staðarheitum. Ăar mĂĄ nefna Finnmörk, Finnveden og Finnskogen. Ăll eiga ĂŸau rĂŠtur að rekja til germanska orðsins finn, sem er heiti yfir hirðingjaveiðimenn (sem er andstÊða við kyrrsetubĂŠndur). Hvernig ĂŸetta heiti komst yfir Finna er að mestu leyti ĂłĂŸekkt. Ă meðal fyrstu rituðu heimilda ĂŸar sem âland Finnaâ er nefnt eru tveir rĂșnasteinar. Annar ĂŸeirra er Ă Söderby Ă SvĂĂŸjóð með ĂĄletruninni finlont og hinn ĂĄ Gotlandi með ĂĄletruninni finlandi frĂĄ 11. öld. + +Saga +Af fornleifum mĂĄ råða að ĂŸað svÊði, sem nĂș er Finnland, byggðist ĂĄ nĂundu öld fyrir Krist, ĂŸegar Ăshella sĂðustu Ăsaldar hörfaði undan. Fyrstu ĂbĂșar ĂĄ svÊðinu bjuggu við steinaldarmenningu og lifðu ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ sem freðmĂœrin og sjĂłrinn gĂĄfu. Ekki er vitað hvenĂŠr finnsk-ĂșgrĂskumĂŠlandi ĂŸjóðflokkar hafa fyrst numið land ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ svÊði sem nĂș kallast Finnland. + +Elstu leifar akuryrkju eru frĂĄ seinni hluta ĂŸriðja ĂĄrĂŸĂșsundsins fyrir Krist en veiðimennska og söfnun voru lengi eftir ĂŸað algengasti lĂfsmĂĄtinn, ekki sĂst Ă austur- og norðurhluta landsins. + +Bronsöld (1500â500 f. Kr.) og jĂĄrnöld (500 f. Kr. â 1200 e. Kr.) einkenndust mjög af nĂĄnum samskiptum við SkandinavĂu, norðurhluta RĂșsslands og EystrarsaltssvÊðið. Finnar og Kvenir eru nefndir ĂĄ nokkrum stöðum Ă rĂłmverskum heimildum og Ă Ăslendingasögunum, ĂŸĂł er sennilegast að ĂĄtt sĂ© við Sama en ekki Finna. FĂĄeinar ritaðar heimildir um sögu Finnlands eru til frĂĄ 13. öld en ĂŸað er ekki fyrr en ĂĄ 14. og 15. öld sem raunveruleg rituð saga hefst. + +Finnland og SvĂĂŸjóð eiga nĂŠrri 700 ĂĄra sameiginlega sögu. Sögur herma að upphaf ĂŸess sĂ© krossferð undir stjĂłrn EirĂks IX SvĂakonungs, sem ĂĄ að hafa ĂĄtt sĂ©r stað ĂĄrið 1154. ĂvĂst er hvort ĂŸessi krossferð var farin eða hvort ĂŸetta er einungis sögusögn. Ritaðar heimildir eru hins vegar fyrir ĂŸvĂ að Finnland var hluti af rĂki Birgis jarls ĂŸegar krossferð var gerð ĂŸangað 1249. + +SĂŠnska var råðandi með fram allri strandlengjunni og Ă stĂłrum hluta Suður-Finnlands allt fram undir lok 19. aldar og var ĂŸar að auki tungumĂĄl yfirvalda og menntunar enda landið hlĂști SvĂarĂkis. Lengi var ĂŸað sem nĂș er Finnland ekki skilgreint sem sĂ©rstakt svÊði innan sĂŠnska rĂkisins, frekar var að miðhluti SvĂĂŸjóðar og suðurhluti Finnlands vĂŠru ĂĄlitin sameiginlegt meginsvÊði rĂkisins enda voru samgöngur sjĂłleiðina mun auðveldari en yfir land. + +SĂŠnskir kĂłngar leituðust við að flytja landamĂŠri rĂkisins lengra austur ĂĄ bĂłginn og voru meira og minna stöðugar erjur við RĂșssa gegnum aldirnar af ĂŸeim sökum. Ă 18. öld snerist taflið og rĂșssneskur her hertĂłk nĂĄnast allt ĂŸað sem nĂș er Finnland tvisvar (1714â1721 og svo aftur 1742â1743). Upp frĂĄ ĂŸessu fer hugtakið âFinnlandâ að eiga við allt landsvÊðið frĂĄ Helsingjabotni að rĂșssnesku landamĂŠrunum, bÊði Ă umrÊðum innan sĂŠnska rĂkisins og Ă RĂșsslandi. Suðurhluti Finnlands, ĂŸað sem åður hafði verið kallað Finnland, fĂ©kk nĂș nafnið Hið eiginlega Finnland (Egentliga Finland ĂĄ sĂŠnsku, Varsinais-Suomi ĂĄ finnsku) og heitir svo enn. + +Ărið 1808 hertĂłk rĂșssneskur her Finnland og SvĂar neyddust til að afsala sĂ©r yfirråðarĂ©tti yfir ĂŸvĂ. Finnland varð sjĂĄlfstjĂłrnarsvÊði, StĂłrfurstadĂŠmið Finnland, innan rĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmisins allt fram til 1917. Alexander I, RĂșsslandskeisari, varð fyrsti stĂłrfursti Finnlands. SmĂĄm saman fĂ©kk finnskan mikilvĂŠgara hlutverk Ă opinberu lĂfi, upphaflega sem hluti af rĂșssneskri viðleitni til að draga Ășr sambandinu við sĂŠnska menningu og menningarhefð en meir og meir sem hluti af finnskri ĂŸjóðernishreyfingu. MikilvĂŠgt skref var söfnun og ĂștgĂĄfa sagnaverksins Kalevala ĂĄrið 1835 og ekki sĂður ĂŸegar finnska var gerð jafnrĂ©tthĂĄ sĂŠnsku sem opinbert mĂĄl 1892. Finnsk ritmenning hĂłfst ĂĄ fyrri hluta 19. aldar og voru ĂŸað ekki sĂst sĂŠnskumĂŠlandi menntamenn sem stóðu fremst Ă að smĂða ĂŸetta nĂœja ritmĂĄl, m.a. með slagorðinu: âSvenskar Ă€ro vi icke, ryssar vilja vi icke vara, lĂ„t oss bli finnarâ. + +FljĂłtlega eftir byltingu bolsĂ©vĂka Ă RĂșsslandi lĂœsti finnska ĂŸingið yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði Finnlands, hinn 6. desember 1917. BolsĂ©vĂkastjĂłrnin viðurkenndi sjĂĄlfstÊðið en Ă Finnlandi braust Ășt blóðug borgarastyrjöld 1918 Ă kjölfar barĂĄttu hvĂtliða og rauðliða Ă RĂșsslandi. Ă Finnlandi endaði styrjöldin með sigri hvĂtliða. + +FrĂĄ strĂðslokum og fram undir miðjan fjĂłrða ĂĄratug tuttugustu aldar voru tengsl Finnlands og SovĂ©trĂkjanna nokkurn veginn hlutlaus. Ărið 1939 gerðu SovĂ©trĂkin talsverðar landakröfur ĂĄ Finnland sem ekki var orðið við og hĂłf ĂŸĂĄ sovĂ©ski herinn ĂŸað sem nefnt er Finnska vetrarstrĂðið með innrĂĄs Ă Finnland. Finnar vörðust mĂĄnuðum saman en mĂĄttu sĂn ĂĄ endanum lĂtils gegn ofureflinu. + +Mikil hefndarhugur var Ă mörgum Finnum eftir lok vetrarstrĂðsins 1940 og Finnland tengdist nĂĄið ĂĂœskalandi undir stjĂłrn nasista. Finnar drĂłgust aftur Ășt Ă strĂð við SovĂ©trĂkin 1941 og börðust ĂŸĂĄ með Ăjóðverjum. Eftir strĂðið neyddust Finnar til að lĂĄta af hendi stĂłr landsvÊði til SovĂ©trĂkjanna og greiða ĂŸeim strĂðsskaðabĂŠtur ĂĄrum saman. + +TĂmabilið frĂĄ lokum seinni heimstyrjaldarinnar fram að upplausn SovĂ©trĂkjanna einkenndist af hlutleysi Finnlands Ă alĂŸjóðamĂĄlum og nĂĄnu samstarfi við grannann Ă austri. ĂĂłtti mörgum nĂłg um undirgefni Finna og varð til Ășr ĂŸessu alĂŸjóðlega hugtakið âfinlandiseringâ. + +Finnland fĂ©kk inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandið ĂĄrið 1995 um leið og SvĂĂŸjóð og AusturrĂki og er hið eina Norðurlandanna sem hefur tekið upp evru sem gjaldmiðil. Finnland gekk jafnframt Ă Atlantshafsbandalagið ĂĄrið 2023 og batt ĂŸannig enda ĂĄ ĂĄratugalangt hlutleysi sitt. + +LandfrÊði +Finnland prĂœĂ°a mörg ĂŸĂșsund vatna og eyja. Stöðuvötn sem eru 500 mÂČ að flatarmĂĄli eða meira eru 187.888 talsins og eyjarnar 179.584. Saimaa-vatn er eitt ĂŸessara vatna og er ĂŸað 5. stĂŠrsta stöðuvatn Ă EvrĂłpu. Finnskt landslag er að mestu leyti flatt, en ĂŸĂł er ĂŸað hĂłlĂłtt ĂĄ svÊðum. HĂŠsti punktur landsins er Halti (1328 m) Ă norðurhluta Lapplands, við landamĂŠri Noregs. BarrskĂłgur ĂŸekur landið að mestu leyti og lĂtið er af rĂŠktanlegu landi. Algengasta bergtegundin er granĂt. Ăað er alltaf nĂĄlĂŠgt yfirborðinu og sjĂĄanlegt ĂŸar sem jarðvegur er af skornum skammti. Jökulruðningur er algengastur lausra jarðefna, gjarnan ĂŸakinn ĂŸunnu lagi af mold. Meirihluti eyjanna eru Ă suðvesturhluta Eyjahafsins (hluti af eyjaklasa Ălandseyja) og með fram suðurströnd KirjĂĄlabotns. + +Plöntu- og dĂœrarĂki + +Gróður- og dĂœralĂf Ă Finnlandi er mjög fjölbreytt. Plöntu- og dĂœrategundir eru mismunandi eftir landshlutum, vegna mismunandi loftslags ĂĄ milli norður-, vestur- og suðurhluta Finnlands. Ă landinu eru yfir 1200 tegundirir af Êðplöntum, 800 af mosaplöntum og 1000 tegundir af flĂ©ttum, og er auðugasta gróðurfarið Ă suðurhluta landsins og ĂĄ Ălandseyjum. LĂkt og allt annað Ă vistfrÊði Finnlands, ĂĄ plöntulĂf auðvelt með að aðlagast og ĂŸola ĂłlĂkar ĂĄrstĂðir og veðurskilyrði. Um ĂŸað bil tveir ĂŸriðju af flatarmĂĄli landsins er ĂŸakinn barrskĂłgi, furu og greni. Ă nyrsta hlutanum vex ĂŸĂł einungis birki. Eik og önnur lauftrĂ© vaxa ĂĄ Ălandseyjum og Ă syðsta hluta landsins. Landið klĂŠddist skĂłgi eftir ĂŸvĂ sem Ăsjaðarinn hopaði Ă lok sĂðustu Ăsaldar, fyrst birkitegundum en sĂðan furu fyrir um 10.000 ĂĄrum sĂðan. FrĂĄ ĂŸvĂ fyrir um 6.000 ĂĄrum fĂłr greni að breiðast Ășt austan frĂĄ og nåði vesturströndinni fyrir um ĂŸað bil 3.000 ĂĄrum. 72 % flatarmĂĄls Finnlands er skĂłgur, ĂŸað hĂŠsta Ă EvrĂłpu. + +Einnig bĂœr Finnland yfir fjölbreyttu og vĂðtĂŠku dĂœralĂfi. ĂĂł ĂŸurrkuðust öll dĂœr nĂĄnast Ășt ĂĄ meðan að sĂðasta Ăsöld stóð yfir. DĂœrin komu til Finnlands ĂĄ nĂœ fyrir u.ĂŸ.b. 10.000 ĂĄrum sĂðan, fylgdu hopi jökla og framsĂłkn gróðurs. NĂșorðið eru ĂŸar a.m.k. sextĂu innlendar tegundir spendĂœra, 248 tegundir varpfugla, rĂșmlega 70 fiskategundir og ellefu skriðdĂœra- og froskdĂœrategundir. + +Af stĂłrum villtum spendĂœrum eru ĂŸau algengustu skĂłgarbjörn (ĂŸjóðardĂœrið), grĂĄĂșlfur, elgur og hreindĂœr. Ănnur algeng spendĂœr eru rauðrefur, rauðĂkorni og fjallahĂ©ri. Meðal sjaldgĂŠfari skepna eru flugĂkorni, kĂłngsörn, hringanĂłri og heimskautarefur, sem er talinn vera Ă mestri ĂștrĂœmingarhĂŠttu finnskra dĂœra. Ăjóðarfugl Finnlands er ĂĄlft. Algengustu fuglategundirnar eru laufsöngvari, bĂłkfinka og skĂłgarĂŸröstur. + +Ă Saimaa-vatnasvÊðinu Ă Suðaustur-Finnlandi bĂœr Saimaa-hringanĂłri (Phoca hispida saimensis), ein af ĂŸremur ferskvatnsselategundum Ă heiminum. Samtök finnskra nĂĄttĂșruverndarsinna hafa barist fyrir verndun hringanĂłrans og hefur tekist vel að bjarga honum frĂĄ ĂștrĂœmingu. Samt sem åður telst tegundin enn ĂŸĂĄ vera Ă ĂștrĂœmingarhĂŠttu. NĂș er talið að um 270 Saimaa-hringanĂłrar sĂ©u ĂĄ lĂfi. Talið er að ĂŸeim ĂŸurfi að fjölga upp Ă 400 seli til ĂŸess að stofninn komist Ășr ĂștrĂœmingarhĂŠttu. + +Vegna veiða og ĂĄreitis Ă gegnum tĂðina hefur mörgum dĂœrum ĂĄ borð við kĂłngsörn, skĂłgarbjörn og gaupu fĂŠkkað mjög. En vegna mikillar verndunar og stofnunar vĂðlendra ĂŸjóðgarða hefur ĂŸeim fjölgað ĂĄ nĂœ undanfarin ĂĄr. + +Loftslag +Loftslagið Ă Suður-Finnlandi er kaldtemprað. Ă Norður-Finnlandi, sĂ©rstaklega Ă Lapplandi, rĂkir heimskautaloftslag sem einkennist af köldum, jafnvel hörðum vetrum og nokkuð heitum sumrum. Ăað sem ĂĄ stĂŠrstan ĂŸĂĄtt Ă loftslagi Finnlands er lega ĂŸess ĂĄ milli 60. og 70. breiddarbaugslĂnu ĂĄ evrasĂsku strandlengjunni, sem veldur ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸar er bÊði sjĂĄvarloftslag og meginlandsloftslag, breytilegt eftir vindĂĄtt. Finnland er nĂłgu nĂĄlĂŠgt Atlantshafinu til að njĂłta hlĂœrra ĂĄhrifa Golfstraumsins, sem ĂștskĂœrir fremur hlĂœtt loftslag miðað við legu. + +FjĂłrðungur af Finnlandi nĂŠr norður fyrir heimskautsbaug, ĂŸað veldur ĂŸvĂ að miðnĂŠtursĂłl er ĂŸar ĂĄ lofti Ă marga daga. Ă nyrsta punkti Finnlands sest sĂłl ekki Ă 73 daga samfellt yfir sumarið og rĂs ekki Ă 51 dag yfir veturinn. + +StjĂłrnmĂĄl +Finnland er lĂœĂ°veldi eins og Ăsland en hefur ekki ĂŸingbundna konungsstjĂłrn eins og skandinavĂsku löndin. Forseti Finnlands hefur framkvĂŠmdavald og er ĂŸjóðhöfðingi landsins. Einnig sĂ©r forsetinn um utanrĂkismĂĄl utan EvrĂłpusambandsins, Ă samstarfi við finnska ĂŸingið. Ăingið er valdamesta stofnun landsins og er Êðsti maður ĂŸess forsĂŠtisråðherrann. Finnska ĂŸingið er yfirlöggjafarvald Finnlands, ĂŸar sitja 200 manns. Ă finnsku nefnist ĂŸað Eduskunta og ĂĄ sĂŠnsku Riksdag. + +Forseti +Forseti Finnlands er ĂŸjóðhöfðingi landsins. SamkvĂŠmt stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ landsins hefur forsetinn framkvĂŠmdavald ĂĄsamt rĂkisstjĂłrninni. ĂbĂșar landsins kjĂłsa forsetann Ă lĂœĂ°rÊðislegum kosningum og er kjörtĂmabilið sex ĂĄr. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1991 hefur enginn forseti mĂĄtt sitja lengur við völd en tvö kjörtĂmabil. Forsetinn verður að vera innfĂŠddur rĂkisborgari. + +NĂșverandi forseti landsins er Sauli Niinistö. Hann tĂłk við forsetastöðunni ĂĄrið 2012 og var endurkjörinn 28. janĂșar 2018. Hann getur ĂŸvĂ setið til ĂĄrsins 2024. Hann er tĂłlfti forseti Finnlands. Forveri hans, Tarja Halonen, var fyrsta konan til að gegna stöðunni. + +Ăingið + +Finnska ĂŸingið er Ă einni deild með tvö hundruð ĂŸingmönnum, sem eru kosnir til fjögurra ĂĄra Ă senn með hlutfallskosningu. SamkvĂŠmt stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ Finnlands kĂœs ĂŸingið svo forsĂŠtisråðherra, sem forsetinn skipar Ă embĂŠtti. Aðra råðherra skipar forsetinn Ă embĂŠtti eftir tilnefningum frĂĄ forsĂŠtisråðherra. + +UtanrĂkisstefna +UtanrĂkisstefna Finnlands byggir ĂĄ nĂĄinni samvinnu við aðrar NorðurlandaĂŸjóðir bÊði formlega, Ă gegnum samstarfið Ă Norðurlandaråði og Ăłformlega, ekki sĂst innan EvrĂłpusambandsins og Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna. FrĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að Finnland gerðist aðili að EvrĂłpubandalaginu 1995 hefur ĂŸĂĄtttakan Ă starfi ĂŸess Ă vaxandi mĂŠli verið ĂŸungamiðja utanrĂkisstefnunnar. StĂŠrstan hluta 20. aldar var sambĂșðin við SovĂ©trĂkin hins vegar helsti ĂŸĂĄttur Ă utanrĂkismĂĄlum landsins. FrĂĄ lokum seinni heimsstyrjaldarinnar hefur Finnland ekki ĂĄtt Ă neinum alĂŸjóðlegum deilum um landamĂŠri landsins. Formlega er finnski herinn eingöngu til sjĂĄlfsvarnar og heimilar finnska stjĂłrnarskrĂĄin honum einungis ĂŸĂĄtttöku Ă hernaðaraðgerðum sem Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðirnar eða ĂSE heimila. Finnland er mjög håð utanrĂkisverslun, sem gefur af sĂ©r u.ĂŸ.b. ĂŸriðjung ĂŸjóðartekna. Landið er mjög håð innflutningi hrĂĄefna, mĂĄlma og olĂu. + +VarnarmĂĄl +Her Finnlands er skipt upp Ă ĂŸrjĂĄr greinar, landher, sjĂłher og flugher. Herinn gegnir ekki landamĂŠragĂŠslu ĂĄ friðartĂmum, sĂș gĂŠsla er undir stjĂłrn innanrĂkisråðuneytisins. Almenn herskylda karlmanna er Ă landinu, að undanteknum Ălendingum, og um 80 % hvers ĂĄrgangs karla gegnir herĂŸjĂłnustu. Herskylda nĂŠr ekki til kvenna en frĂĄ 1995 geta ĂŸĂŠr boðið sig fram til herĂŸjĂłnustu til jafns við karla. HerĂŸjĂłnustutĂminn er 6, 9 eða 12 mĂĄnuðir allt eftir ĂĄbyrgð og verkefni. Um 34.000 manns eru að jafnaði undir vopnum en samanlagt eru um 350.000 manns ĂŸar að auki reiðubĂșnir að vera kallaðir inn ef ĂĄ ĂŸarf að halda. Mögulegt er að inna aðra ĂŸegnskylduĂŸjĂłnustu af hendi Ă 12 mĂĄnuði Ă stað ĂŸess að gegna herĂŸjĂłnustu. FjĂĄrmagn til varna jafngildir u.ĂŸ.b. 1,4% af landsframleiðslu. + +Finnland hefur ĂĄtt aðild að NATO frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2023. + +StjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar + +Fyrrum fylki + +Til ĂĄrsins 2009 var landinu skipt Ă sex fylki (ĂĄ finnsku lÀÀni, fl. lÀÀnit, ĂĄ sĂŠnsku lĂ€n) en ĂŸĂĄ voru ĂŸau afnumin. Fylkin voru stjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar rĂkisvaldsins og sĂĄu m.a. um löggĂŠslu og dĂłmsmĂĄl. + +FylkisstjĂłri og fylkisstjĂłrn voru skipuð af rĂkisstjĂłrninni og engar kosningar fĂłru fram til embĂŠtta innan fylkisins. Fylkjaskipunin var upphaflega sett ĂĄ laggirnar ĂĄrið 1634 en sĂðasta uppskipting var gerð ĂĄrið 1997 og ĂŸĂĄ voru fylkin eftirfarandi (sjĂĄ mynd til hĂŠgri): + Suður-Finnland + Vestur-Finnland + Austur-Finnland + Oulu + Lappland + Ăland + +NĂșverandi hĂ©ruð + +NĂș eru Ă Finnlandi 19 hĂ©ruð: +Lappland +Norður-Austurbotn +Suður-Austurbotn +Mið-Austurbotn +Austurbotn +Kainuu +Norður-KarelĂa +Suður-KarelĂa +Suður-SavonĂa +Norður-SavonĂa +Mið-Finnland +Pirkanmaa +Satakunta +PĂ€ijĂ€t-HĂ€me +Kanta-HĂ€me +Kymenlaakso +Uusimaa +Suðvestur-Finnland +Ălandseyjar + +Ălandseyjar eru sjĂĄlfsstjĂłrnarsvÊði innan finnska rĂkisins. LögĂŸing og heimastjĂłrn Ălandseyja hafa sjĂĄlfstjĂłrn um Ăœmsa mĂĄlaflokka, t.d. mennta- og heilsugĂŠslumĂĄl, Ăștvarp og sjĂłnvarp og lögreglu- og atvinnumĂĄl. Ă Ălandseyjum er sĂŠnska eina opinbera mĂĄlið og er ĂŸvĂ strangt framfylgt m. a. geta einungis sĂŠnskumĂŠlandi ĂbĂșar verið landeigendur. + +SveitarfĂ©lög + +AðalstjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar Finnlands eru sveitarfĂ©lögin (ĂĄ finnsku kunta, sĂŠnsku kommun), 310 að tölu ĂĄrið 2020. Kosið er til sveitarstjĂłrna Ă beinum kosningum fjĂłrða hvert ĂĄr. SveitarstjĂłrn og borgarstjĂłrn eru Ă grĂłfum drĂĄttum ĂŸað sama, fyrir utan muninn ĂĄ dreifbĂœli og ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1977 hefur ekki verið greint ĂĄ milli borga, bĂŠja og dreifbĂœlis. SveitarfĂ©lög eru sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt stjĂłrnvald innan ramma laga sem sett eru af rĂkinu. Enginn getur ĂĄfrĂœjað ĂĄkvörðunum sveitarfĂ©lags svo lengi sem ĂŸĂŠr eru löglegar. + +SveitarfĂ©lög hafa með sĂ©r tvenns konar skipulagt samstarf. Annars vegar Ă tuttugu samstarfseiningum sem eru nefndar ĂĄ finnsku maakunta og ĂĄ sĂŠnsku landskap. Hlutverk ĂŸessara hĂ©raðssamtaka er menntunar- og heilsugĂŠslusamstarf. Hins vegar eru sjötĂu og fjĂłrar samstarfseiningar sem nefndar eru ĂĄ finnsku seutukunta og ekonomisk region ĂĄ sĂŠnsku. Hlutverk ĂŸessara samstarfseininga er efnahagssamvinna. + +Ăland hefur sjĂĄlfstÊða stöðu innan finnska rĂkisins með eigið lögĂŸing og heimastjĂłrn og er ĂŸar að auki formlega sĂ©rstakt fylki. + +Samar hafa takmarkaða sjĂĄlfstjĂłrn ĂĄ sviði tungumĂĄla og menningarmĂĄla Ă Lapplandi. + +StĂŠrstu bĂŠir og sveitafĂ©lög +Taflan hĂ©r að neðan sĂœnir fjölda ĂbĂșa fjölmennustu sveitarfĂ©laganna Ă heild, ekki einungis ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlis. Tölurnar eru frĂĄ 31. mars 2011. HöfuðborgarsvÊðið, sem samanstendur af Helsinki, Vantaa, Espoo og Kauniainen, myndar samtals milljĂłn manna byggð. + +EfnahagslĂf +Ărið 2022 var Finnland Ă 16. sĂŠti yfir lönd eftir vergri landsframleiðslu ĂĄ mann að nafnvirði samkvĂŠmt AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðnum. Finnland er ĂŸvĂ eitt af rĂkustu löndum heims, en er lĂka ĂŸekkt fyrir ĂŸrĂłað velferðarkerfi með gjaldfrjĂĄlsri menntun og fullkomnu heilbrigðiskerfi. + +ĂjĂłnustugeirinn er stĂŠrsti geiri efnahagslĂfsins með 66% af vergri landsframleiðslu. Ăar ĂĄ eftir koma iðnaður og mĂĄlmhreinsun með 31%. Frumframleiðsla stendur undir 2,9%. Ef miðað er við utanrĂkisverslun er iðnaðurinn lykilgeiri atvinnulĂfsins. StĂŠrstu iðngreinarnar ĂĄrið 2007 voru rafeindatĂŠkni (22%); vĂ©lar, bifreiðar og annar stĂĄliðnaður (21,1%); skĂłgrĂŠkt (13%) og efnaiðnaður (11%). Verg landsframleiðsla nåði hĂĄpunkti ĂĄrið 2021. Ărið 2022 var Finnland Ă 9. sĂŠti yfir mestu nĂœsköpunarlönd heims Ă NĂœsköpunarvĂsitölunni. + +Finnland bĂœr yfir miklum auðlindum timburs, jarðefna (jĂĄrns, krĂłms, kopars, nikkels og gulls) og ferskvatns. SkĂłgrĂŠkt, pappĂrsverksmiðjur og landbĂșnaður eru mikilvĂŠg starfsemi ĂĄ landsbyggðinni. Um einn ĂŸriðji af vergri landsframleiðslu Finnlands verður til ĂĄ stĂłrborgarsvÊði Helsinki. Einkarekin ĂŸjĂłnustufyrirtĂŠki eru stĂŠrstu vinnuveitendur landsins. + +Loftslag og jarðvegur Ă Finnlandi gerir jarðrĂŠkt sĂ©rstaklega erfiða. Vetur eru harðir og vaxtartĂmabilið hlutfallslega stutt og stundum með hretum. Vegna temprandi ĂĄhrifa Golfstraumsins bĂœr Finnland samt yfir helmingi alls rĂŠktanlegs lands norðan við 60. breiddargråðu. ĂrsĂșrkoma er oftast nĂŠgileg, en fellur nĂŠr eingöngu yfir vetrarmĂĄnuðina, ĂŸannig að ĂŸurrkasumur eru stöðug Ăłgn. Til að bregðast við ĂŸessum ĂĄskorunum hafa bĂŠndur treyst ĂĄ hraðvaxta og frostĂŸolin afbrigði, og rĂŠkta Ă hlĂðum sem snĂșa Ă suður og frjĂłsamari dalverpum til að tryggja jafna framleiðni ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir sumarfrost. Oft ĂŸarf að gera afrennsli til að ĂŸurrka landið. + +SkĂłgar leika lykilhlutverk Ă efnahag landsins. Finnland er einn stĂŠrsti framleiðandi hrĂĄefnis fyrir viðarvinnsluiðnaðinn. LĂkt og Ă landbĂșnaði hefur rĂkið lengi verið Ă leiðandi hlutverki Ă skĂłgrĂŠkt með lögum um skĂłgarhögg, styrkjum til tĂŠkniĂŸrĂłunar og langtĂmastefnumĂłtun til að tryggja að skĂłgar landsins framleiði ĂĄfram nĂŠgjanlegt hrĂĄefni. + +Ărið 2008 voru kaupmĂĄttarjafnaðar tekjur svipaðar og ĂĄ ĂtalĂu, Ă SvĂĂŸjóð, ĂĂœskalandi og Frakklandi. Ărið 2006 störfuðu 62% mannaflans fyrir fyrirtĂŠki með innan við 250 starfsmenn sem stóðu undir 49% af heildarveltu fyrirtĂŠkja. Atvinnuleysi er mikið meðal kvenna og skipting milli starfa ĂŸar sem karlar eru råðandi annars vegar og konur hins vegar, er meiri en Ă BandarĂkjunum. Hlutfall fĂłlks Ă hlutastarfi var með ĂŸvĂ lĂŠgsta meðal OECD-rĂkja ĂĄrið 1999. Ărið 2013 voru 10 stĂŠrstu einkareknu fyrirtĂŠkin Ă Finnlandi Itella, Nokia, OP-Pohjola, ISS, VR, Kesko, UPM-Kymmene, YIT, Metso og Nordea. Atvinnuleysi var 6,8% ĂĄrið 2022. + +Ărið 2022 voru einstÊðingar ĂĄ 46% heimila Ă Finnlandi, tvĂŠr manneskjur ĂĄ 32% heimila og ĂŸrjĂĄr eða fleiri ĂĄ 22% heimila. Meðalfermetrafjöldi ĂĄ mann er 40 mÂČ. Ărið 2021 nåði verg landsframleiðsla Ă Finnlandi 251 milljörðum evra. Ărið 2022 störfuðu 74% mannaflans Ă ĂŸjĂłnustu og stjĂłrnsĂœslu, 21% Ă iðnaði og byggingariðnaði, og 4% Ă landbĂșnaði og skĂłgrĂŠkt. + +Ă Finnlandi er hĂŠst hlutfall samvinnufĂ©laga miðað við ĂbĂșafjölda. StĂŠrsta verslunarkeðjan, sem er lĂka stĂŠrsti vinnuveitandinn, S Group, og stĂŠrsti bankinn, OP Group, eru bÊði samvinnufĂ©lög. + +ĂbĂșar + +Ă Finnlandi bĂșa um 5,5 milljĂłnir manna og er ĂŸĂ©ttleiki byggðar að meðaltali 17 ĂbĂșar ĂĄ hvern ferkĂlĂłmetra. Ăað gerir landið að ĂŸriðja strjĂĄlbĂœlasta landi EvrĂłpu, ĂĄ eftir Noregi og Ăslandi. Suðurhluti landsins hefur alltaf verið fjölmennastur og ĂŸar jĂłkst ĂbĂșafjöldinn enn meir við ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisĂŸrĂłun 20. aldar. StĂŠrstu og mikilvĂŠgustu borgir Ă Finnlandi eru StĂłr-Helsinki (sem nĂŠr yfir Helsinki, Vantaa, Espoo og Kauniainen), Tampere, Turku og Oulu. + +Eftir VetrarstrĂðið ĂĄrið 1939 (og FramhaldsstrĂðið 1941), urðu 12% af ĂbĂșum Finnlands að flytjast bĂșferlum. StrĂðsskaðabĂŠtur, atvinnuleysi og Ăłvissa um ĂŸjóðhöfðingja og sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ SovĂ©trĂkjunum olli miklum fĂłlksflĂłtta, sem ekki fĂłr að draga Ășr fyrr enn ĂĄ 8. ĂĄratug 20. aldar. Um hĂĄlf milljĂłn Finna fluttist til SvĂĂŸjóðar ĂĄ ĂĄratugunum frĂĄ 1950 fram til 1980, en allstĂłr hluti ĂŸeirra hefur flust heim að nĂœju. + +FrĂĄ seinni hluta 10. ĂĄratugar 20. aldar hefur Finnland tekið ĂĄ mĂłti svipuðum fjölda flĂłttamanna og innflytjenda og hin Norðurlöndin. Finnland er ĂŸjóðfrÊðilega mjög einsleitt land. Ătlendingar eru einungis 4% af heildarĂbĂșatölu landsins. Umtalsvert hlutfall innflytjenda ĂĄ rĂŠtur sĂnar að rekja til fyrrum SovĂ©trĂkjanna. Innflytjendur tala ĂĄ ĂŸriðja tug tungumĂĄla Ă Finnlandi Ă dag, miðað við að a.m.k. 1000 manns tali hvert mĂĄl. + +TungumĂĄl +Finnska og sĂŠnska eru bÊði opinber tungumĂĄl Ă Finnlandi og jafnrĂ©tthĂĄ samkvĂŠmt finnskum lögum. Meirihluti Finna (88%) hefur finnsku að móðurmĂĄli. Finnska tilheyrir finnsk-ĂșgrĂsku tungumĂĄlafjölskyldunni og er ĂĄ milli ĂŸess að vera samloðunarmĂĄl og beygingamĂĄl. Ă finnsku breytast og beygjast nafnorð, lĂœsingarorð, fornöfn, töluorð og sagnorð eftir hlutverki ĂŸeirra Ă setningunni. Finnland er eitt af ĂŸremur sjĂĄlfstÊðum rĂkjum ĂŸar sem meirihluti ĂŸjóðarinnar talar finnsk-ĂșgrĂskt mĂĄl. Hin eru Eistland og Ungverjaland. + +StĂŠrstu minnihlutamĂĄlin Ă Finnlandi eru sĂŠnska (5,2%), rĂșssneska (1,4%) og eistneska (0,9%). TĂŠplega 2000 samar hafa samĂsku að móðurmĂĄli, einkum Ă norðurhluta landsins. SamĂsku mĂĄlin eru einnig finnsk-ĂșgrĂsk mĂĄl. Alls eru ĂŸrjĂș samĂsk mĂĄl töluð Ă Finnlandi: norðursamĂska, inarisamĂska og skoltsamĂska. + +Auk finnsku er sĂŠnska opinbert tungumĂĄl Ă Finnlandi. SĂŠnskumĂŠlandi Finnum fĂŠkkaði talsvert ĂĄ sĂðustu öld af Ăœmsum ĂĄstÊðum. T.d. flutti mikill fjöldi sĂŠnskumĂŠlenda til SvĂĂŸjóðar, fjölskyldur sĂŠnskumĂŠlenda eru minni og ekki sĂst varð fjölskyldumĂĄlið finnska Ă fjölmörgum blönduðum fjölskyldum. SĂŠnska er samkvĂŠmt lögum eina opinbera tungumĂĄlið ĂĄ Ălandseyjum. + +MinnihlutahĂłpar hafa rĂ©tt ĂĄ að hlĂșa að menningu sinni og tungumĂĄlin eru vernduð með lögum, ĂŸar hafa Samar sĂ©rstöðu. SamĂska er opinbert minnihlutamĂĄl. + +SĂŠnska er skyldunĂĄmsgrein Ă finnskum skĂłlum sem og finnska Ă skĂłlum sĂŠnskumĂŠlandi Finna og Finnar lĂŠra einnig ensku Ă skĂłlum og af ljĂłsvakamiðlum til að vera samrÊðufĂŠrir ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ mĂĄli. Margir lĂŠra að auki ĂŸĂœsku eða frönsku. + +Frumbyggjar +Samar eru frumbyggjar sem bĂșa Ă Finnlandi, SvĂĂŸjóð, Noregi og RĂșsslandi. Ăður fyrr voru Samar oft kallaðir Lappar, en nĂș til dags telja margir Samar ĂŸað vera niðrandi heiti. Auk eigin tungumĂĄla hafa Samar sinn eigin lĂfsstĂl, yfirbragð og menningu. Svipuð saga, hefðir, lifnaðarhĂŠtti og siðir sameina Sama sem bĂșa Ă mismunandi löndum. Samtals eru Samar um 75.000 til 100.000 en af ĂŸeim bĂșa minna en 7.000 Ă Finnlandi, sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir að Samar eru einungis 0,13% af ĂbĂșum Finnlands. + +TrĂșarbrögð + +Meirihluti Finna (um 65,2%) eru mĂłtmĂŠlendatrĂșar og tilheyra Ăjóðkirkju Finnlands. Einnig tilheyrir minnihluti Finnsku rĂ©tttrĂșnaðarkirkjunni (1,1%). Aðrir mĂłtmĂŠlendasöfnuðir og kaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan eru talsvert minni sem og Ăslam, gyðingdĂłmur og önnur trĂșarbrögð (samtals 1,8%). RĂșm 32,0% af ĂbĂșunum eru utan trĂșfĂ©laga. Meirihluti ĂŸeirra sem tilheyra ĂŸjóðkirkjunni tekur lĂtinn ĂŸĂĄtt Ă starfi hennar. + +Menntun + +Menntakerfið Ă Finnlandi er ekki ĂłlĂkt ĂŸvĂ sem er ĂĄ öðrum Norðurlöndum. Nemendur Ă fullu nĂĄmi ĂŸurfa ekki að borga nein nĂĄmsgjöld. SkĂłlaskylda er frĂĄ aldrinum 7-18 ĂĄra og fĂĄ nemendur Ă grunn- og menntaskĂłlum mĂĄltĂðir sĂ©r að kostnaðarlausu ĂĄ skĂłlatĂma. SkĂłlaskylda er fyrstu nĂu ĂĄr skĂłlagöngunnar og sĂŠkja nemendurnir skĂłla Ă nĂĄgrenni við heimili sitt. FramhaldsnĂĄm er ekki skylda en ĂŸað fer annaðhvort fram Ă iðnskĂłla eða skĂłla sem undirbĂœr fyrir ĂĄframhaldandi nĂĄm, Ă verknĂĄmsskĂłlum eða hĂĄskĂłlum. SamkvĂŠmt alĂŸjóðlegu PISA-mati OECD samtakanna ĂĄ frammistöðu 15 ĂĄra unglinga Ă nĂĄmi eru Finnar ofarlega ĂĄ blaði. Ărið 2006 voru 15 ĂĄra finnskir unglingar hĂŠstir ĂĄ heimsvĂsu hvað varðaði lesskilning, nĂĄttĂșruvĂsindi og stĂŠrðfrÊði + +HeilsugĂŠsla +Heilbrigðiskerfi Finnlands ĂŸykir mjög ĂŸrĂłað ĂĄ heimsvĂsu. Heimilin sjĂĄlf greiða 18,9% af kostnaði við heilsugĂŠslu, 76,6% borgar rĂkið og ĂŸað sem eftir stendur aðrir aðilar. Um hvern lĂŠkni eru 307 ĂbĂșar. + +Ă ĂĄttunda ĂĄratugnum gerðu Finnar miklar breytingar ĂĄ lĂfsvenjum sĂnum, Ă ljĂłsi ĂŸess að dĂĄnartĂðni ĂŸeirra af völdum hjartasjĂșkdĂłma var ein sĂș hĂŠsta Ă heiminum. Ă dag eru Finnar meðal heilbrigðari ĂŸjóða. + +LĂfslĂkur kvenna eru 82 ĂĄr og karla 75 ĂĄr. + +TilvĂsanir + +Ătarefni + Opinbert vefsvÊði forseta Finnlands + Opinber heimasĂða rĂksistjĂłrnarinnar + VefgĂĄtt Finnlands + TölfrÊðiupplĂœsingar um Finnland ĂĄ Norden.org + +Tenglar + ĂĂșsund vatna ljĂșfa land; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1953 + Aukablað um Finnland; fylgdi Morgunblaðinu 24. aprĂl 1983 + +EvrĂłpulönd +EvrĂłpusambandslönd +Norðurlönd +Finnland +Grein mĂĄnaðarins + +Eldri greinar â Tilnefna grein mĂĄnaðarins + +Ă frĂ©ttum + +SjĂĄ aðra atburði ĂĄrsins +Atburðir . + +SjĂĄ hvað fleira gerðist . + +Vissir ĂŸĂș... + +Ăr nĂœjustu greinunum + +Systurverkefni + +ReykjavĂk er höfuðborg Ăslands, fjölmennasta sveitarfĂ©lag landsins og eina borgin. Ăannig er ReykjavĂk efnahagsleg, menningarleg og stjĂłrnmĂĄlaleg ĂŸungamiðja landsins. Ă ReykjavĂk bĂșa tĂŠplega 140.000 manns (1. aprĂl 2023), ĂŸar af eru um 11% innflytjendur. ĂbĂșar höfuðborgarsvÊðisins eru um 249 ĂŸĂșsund Ă sjö sveitarfĂ©lögum. Opinbert heiti sveitarfĂ©lagsins ReykjavĂkur er ReykjavĂkurborg. + +IngĂłlfur Arnarson, sem er Ă LandnĂĄmabĂłk sagður vera fyrsti landnĂĄmsmaður Ăslands, settist að ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄrið 870, að ĂŸvĂ talið er, og bjĂł sĂ©r bĂłl og nefndi Reykja(r)vĂk, ĂŸar sem borgin stendur nĂș. NĂœlegir fornleifafundir Ă miðborg ReykjavĂkur, einkum Ă AðalstrĂŠti, Suðurgötu og KirkjustrĂŠti benda til ĂŸess sama, og hafa fundist mannvistarleifar allt frĂĄ um 870. Sagan segir að IngĂłlfur hafi gefið bĂŠ sĂnum nafnið vegna reykjarstrĂłka sem ruku Ășr hverum Ă grenndinni. + +Saga + +SamkvĂŠmt ĂslendingabĂłk nam IngĂłlfur Arnarson allt suðvesturhorn landsins og byggði bĂŠ sinn Ă ReykjavĂk. Með tĂð og tĂma byggðust fleiri bĂŠir Ă kring og mĂĄ ĂŸar helst nefna Laugarnes og Nes við Seltjörn. Ărið 1226 hĂłfst byggð Ă Viðey ĂŸegar munkar af ĂgĂșstĂnusarreglu stofnuðu ĂŸar klaustur. VĂkurkirkja stóð við ReykjavĂkurbĂŠinn að minnsta kosti frĂĄ 1200. Ekki fĂłr að myndast ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli að råði Ă ReykjavĂk fyrr en ĂĄ 18. öld, en fram að ĂŸvĂ lĂĄgu bĂœli af Ăœmsum stĂŠrðum ĂĄ vĂð og dreif um svÊðið ĂŸar sem borgin stendur nĂș. Ă 18. öld var gerð tilraun til að reka ullariðnað Ă ReykjavĂk. Ăessi tilraun var ĂŸekkt sem InnrĂ©ttingarnar, og markaði hĂșn ĂŸĂĄttaskil Ă ĂŸrĂłun svÊðisins, sem Ă kjölfarið fĂłr að taka ĂĄ sig einhverja ĂŸorpsmynd. Danska konungsvaldið studdi ĂŸessar tilraunir til uppbyggingar með ĂŸvĂ að gefa jarðir sem ĂŸað ĂĄtti Ă ReykjavĂk og Ărfirisey. SextĂĄn hĂșs voru byggð Ă ReykjavĂk vegna InnrĂ©ttinganna, sem hefur verið mikil fjölgun ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma, merki um tvö ĂŸeirra mĂĄ enn sjĂĄ. ĂĂĄ var fyrsta fangelsi landsins byggt ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1761â71, stÊðilegt steinhĂșs sem Ă dag er StjĂłrnarråð Ăslands við LĂŠkjargötu. + +Ă tillögum Landsnefndarinnar fyrri 1774 var mĂŠlt með ĂŸvĂ að gera ReykjavĂk að âhöfuðbĂŠâ landsins og að tillögu Landsnefndarinnar sĂðari var ĂĄkveðið að flytja biskupsstĂłlinn frĂĄ SkĂĄlholti til ReykjavĂkur og reisa ĂŸar nĂœja dĂłmkirkju. ReykjavĂk fĂ©kk kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi ĂĄrið 1786, Ă kjölfar afnĂĄms einokunarverslunar Ă landinu, og sama ĂĄr var HĂłlavallaskĂłli stofnaður ĂŸar. Ă nĂtjĂĄndu öld mynduðust ĂŸĂ©ttar ĂŸyrpingar lĂtilla hĂșsa eða kofa sjĂłmanna Ă bĂŠnum. AlĂŸingi var endurreist Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄrið 1845. Ări sĂðar var MenntaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk fluttur frĂĄ Bessastöðum Ă miðbĂŠinn. Ărið 1881 var AlĂŸingishĂșsið fullbĂșið. StĂœrimannaskĂłlinn tĂłk til starfa 1891 eftir að ĂŸilskip voru komin til landsins. Ărið 1898 var MiðbĂŠjarskĂłlinn við Tjarnargötu fullbĂșinn. Hann var ĂŸĂł ekki tekinn Ă notkun fyrr en haustið 1908 og ĂŸĂĄ hĂłfu tĂŠplega ĂŸrjĂș hundruð grunnskĂłlabörn nĂĄm ĂŸar. Ă nĂłvember 1906 kom upp taugaveikisfaraldur Ă Skuggahverfinu. + +Fyrsti bĂŠjarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur, PĂĄll Einarsson, tĂłk til starfa 1908 og fyrstu konurnar sem settust Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrn ĂĄ Ăslandi voru kjörnar af kvennalistum sem buðu fram til bĂŠjarstjĂłrnarkosninga Ă ReykjavĂk Ă janĂșar ĂĄrið 1908. Vatnsveita ReykjavĂkur tĂłk til starfa 1909. Gasstöð ReykjavĂkur við Hlemm var tekin Ă gagnið ĂĄrið 1910. Gasstöðin starfaði til 1956. ReykjavĂkurhafnir voru byggðar Ă ĂĄföngum ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1913â17 bĂŠttu mjög skipaaðstöðu. Ăaðan af gĂĄtu hafskip lagst að bryggju en åður fyrr ĂŸurfti að ferja fĂłlk og varning ĂĄ milli smĂŠrri bryggja og hafskipa sem lĂĄgu Ăști fyrir. Veturinn 1917â1918, nefndur Frostaveturinn mikli, var sĂĄ kaldasti sem mĂŠlst hefur; ĂŸĂĄ lĂĄ hafĂs Ă ReykjavĂkurhöfn og hitastigið fĂłr niður Ă -24,5 °C. Ă oktĂłber 1918 barst spĂŠnska veikin, sem geysaði vĂðar Ă heiminum, til Ăslands með skipum frĂĄ Kaupmannahöfn og er talið að um ĂŸriðjungur bĂŠjarbĂșa hafi veikst ĂĄ örfĂĄum vikum. ElliðaĂĄrvirkjun var byggð 1921 til ĂŸess að sjĂĄ ört stĂŠkkandi borginni fyrir rafmagni. + +Heimskreppan mikla hafði slĂŠm ĂĄhrif um allan heim. Ă Ăslandi nåðu ĂŸau hĂĄmarki Ă GĂșttĂłslagnum ĂĄrið 1932 ĂŸegar ĂŸunnskipuð lögregla ĂŸurfti að berjast við verkamenn fyrir utan GóðtemplarahĂșs ReykjavĂkur, ĂŸar sem haldinn var bĂŠjarstjĂłrnarfundur ĂŸar sem lĂŠkka ĂĄtti laun Ă atvinnubĂłtavinnu ĂĄ vegum bĂŠjarins. Einu sinni hafði åður skorist alvarlega Ă odda ĂĄ milli lögreglunnar og annarra hĂłpa, en ĂŸað var Ă HvĂta strĂðinu svokallaða rĂșmum ĂĄratugi fyrr. Ă mars 1937 var Sundhöll ReykjavĂkur vĂgð og var ĂŸað fyrsta sundlaug bĂŠjarins. Ăann 10. maĂ 1940 gengu breskir hermenn ĂĄ land Ă ReykjavĂk og hernĂĄmu Ăsland. Ă meðan veru ĂŸeirra stóð hĂłfu ĂŸeir byggingu varanlegs flugvallar Ă ReykjavĂk. BandarĂkjamenn tĂłku við af Bretunum rĂșmu ĂĄri seinna og fĂłru ekki fyrr en að strĂðinu loknu, 8. aprĂl 1947. + +LandafrÊði + +ReykjavĂk er ĂĄ suðvesturhorni landsins. StrandlĂna ReykjavĂkur einkennist af nesjum, fjörðum, skerjum og eyjum. Fjallið Esja (914 m) er ĂŸekkt kennileiti Ă ReykjavĂk. ElliðaĂĄr sem renna Ă gegnum ElliðaĂĄrdal eru virkjaðar. StĂŠrsta eyjan sem liggur nĂŠrri ReykjavĂk er Viðey, ĂŸar ĂĄ eftir eru Engey og Akurey Ă Kollafirði. + +Ă ReykjavĂk hafa verið gerðar samfelldar veðurathuganir frĂĄ 1920, en elstu skråðu veðurathuganir eru frĂĄ fyrri hluta 19. aldar. Ăann 3. janĂșar 1841 mĂŠldist loftĂŸrĂœstingurinn Ă ReykjavĂk 1058,5 hPa, sem er sĂĄ mesti sem mĂŠlst hefur ĂĄ Ăslandi. Meðal opinna og grĂŠnna svÊða Ă ReykjavĂk mĂĄ nefna HljĂłmskĂĄlagarðinn, KlambratĂșn, ĂskjuhlĂð og ElliðaĂĄrdal. + +ReykjarvĂk er 2 886 km frĂĄ norðurpĂłlnum og 7116 km frĂĄ miðbaug. + +Veðurfar +Golfstraumurinn gerir veðurfar Ă ReykjavĂk mun hlĂœrra og jafnara ĂĄ ĂĄrsmĂŠlikvarða en ĂĄ flestum öðrum stöðum ĂĄ sömu breiddargråðu. Hitastig að vetrarlagi fer sjaldan undir -10 °C. Lega borgarinnar ĂĄ suðvesturströnd Ăslands ber með sĂ©r fremur vindasamt veður og eru rok algeng, sĂ©rlega að vetrarlagi. Sumur eru svöl, hitastig venjulega ĂĄ bilinu 10 °C til 15 °C og fer einstaka sinnum upp undir 20 °C. ĂĂł svo að Ășrkoma sĂ© ekki mjög mikil Ă ReykjavĂk mĂŠlist ĂŸĂł Ășrkoma að meðaltali 213 daga ĂĄ ĂĄri. Lengri ĂŸurrkatĂmar eru sjaldgĂŠfir. Vorið er að öllu jöfnu sĂłlrĂkast og ĂŸĂĄ helst maĂmĂĄnuður. Ărlegir sĂłlartĂmar mĂŠlast um 1.300 sem er sambĂŠrilegt við stĂłran hluta norðurhluta EvrĂłpu. Hitamet Ă borginni var sett 30. jĂșlĂ 2008 og mĂŠldist hiti ĂŸĂĄ 25 7 °C.Kaldast var 21. janĂșar 1918 og mĂŠldist hiti ĂŸĂĄ -24,5 °C. + +Veðuryfirlit + +StjĂłrnsĂœsla + +BorgarstjĂłrn + +Ă borgarstjĂłrn ReykjavĂkur sitja 23 fulltrĂșar sem kjörnir eru hlutfallskosningu ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra fresti. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1908 til dagsins Ă dag hafa 22 einstaklingar, ĂŸar af 18 karlmenn og fjĂłrar konur, setið sem borgarstjĂłrar ReykjavĂkur. SĂðast var kosið til borgarstjĂłrnar Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarkosningum 14. maĂ 2022. BorgarstjĂłrn kĂœs sĂ©r borgarstjĂłra, sem er framkvĂŠmdastjĂłri borgarinnar. + +SĂðan 2014 hefur Dagur B. Eggertsson Ășr Samfylkingu verið borgarstjĂłri. Eftir kosningarnar 2022 mynduðu Samfylkingin, FramsĂłknarflokkurinn, PĂratar og Viðreisn meirihluta Ă borgarstjĂłrn. SamkvĂŠmt meirihlutasĂĄttmĂĄlanum mun Dagur B. Eggertsson sitja sem borgarstjĂłri til ĂĄrsloka 2023 en ĂŸĂĄ muni Einar Ăorsteinsson taka við sem borgarstjĂłri ĂŸað sem eftir lifir kjörtĂmabilsins. + +Råð og nefndir +Borgarråð er framkvĂŠmdastjĂłrn borgarinnar. Ăar sitja sjö borgarfulltrĂșar kosnir af borgarstjĂłrn og sjö til vara, ĂĄsamt borgarstjĂłra. Ănnur råð borgarinnar skipuð kjörnum fulltrĂșum (ĂĄrið 2022) eru mannrĂ©ttinda- og ofbeldisvarnarråð, menningar-, ĂĂŸrĂłtta- og tĂłmstundaråð, skĂłla- og frĂstundaråð, velferðarråð, umhverfis- og skipulagsråð og stafrĂŠnt råð. + +Meðan nefnda borgarinnar eru almannavarnanefnd, barnaverndarnefnd, fjölmenningarråð og öldungaråð. + +Borgin skipar fulltrĂșa Ă stjĂłrnir fyrirtĂŠkja sem eru Ă hennar eigu að hluta eða heild: BrĂș lĂfeyrissjóðs, FaxaflĂłahafna, Orkuveitu ReykjavĂkur, StrĂŠtĂł, Sorpu, Slökkvilið HöfuðborgarsvÊðisins, Malbikunarstöðvarinnar Höfða, FĂ©lagsbĂșstaða og Betri samgangna. + +Svið +Starfsemi borgarinnar skiptist ĂĄ ĂĄtta fagsvið; ĂĂŸrĂłtta- og tĂłmstundasvið, skĂłla- og frĂstundasvið, menningar- og ferðamĂĄlasvið, velferðarsvið, mannauðs- og starfsumhverfissvið, fjĂĄrmĂĄla- og ĂĄhĂŠttustĂœringarsvið og ĂŸjĂłnustu- og nĂœsköpunarsvið. + +Hverfaskipting + +SamkvĂŠmt samĂŸykkt borgarråðs ReykjavĂkur frĂĄ jĂșnĂ 2003 skiptist ReykjavĂk Ă tĂu hverfi, hvert með sĂnu hverfisråði. Ăau eru (með tilheyrandi hverfahlutum): + +Samgöngur + +EinkabĂllinn er algengur samgöngumĂĄti Ă ReykjavĂk sem og leigubĂlar. StrĂŠtisvagnar StrĂŠtĂł bs. ganga um allan bĂŠinn og tengja Ășt fyrir borgarmörkin til Akraness, Borgarfjarðar, Akureyrar og vĂðar. Ă undanförnum ĂĄrum hafa fleiri og fleiri hjĂłlreiðastĂgar verið lagðir til ĂŸess að gera hjĂłlreiðar að raunhĂŠfari samgöngumĂĄta. Oft hefur verið rĂŠtt um að koma upp skilvirkari almenningssamgöngum ĂĄ höfuðborgarsvÊðinu. Meðal ĂŸess sem stungið hefur verið upp ĂĄ sĂðustu ĂĄr eru LĂ©ttlestakerfi höfuðborgarsvÊðisins og BorgarlĂna. Eitt af ĂŸvĂ sem stendur Ă vegi fyrir slĂkum ĂĄformum er hvað svÊðið er Ă raun dreifbĂœlt. + +Helsti innanlandsflugvöllur Ăslands, ReykjavĂkurflugvöllur, er Ă VatnsmĂœri Ă ReykjavĂk. Skiptar skoðanir eru um hvort fĂŠra eigi hann annað. Ăann 17. mars 2001 var haldin atkvÊðagreiðsla meðal borgarbĂșa ĂŸar sem naumur meirihluti var fyrir ĂŸvĂ að flytja flugvöllinn burt. Hins vegar tĂłku aðeins 37% ĂŸĂĄtt ĂŸannig að kosningin var ekki bindandi. + +Menning + +Söfn +Ă ReykjavĂk eru flest söfn ĂĄ Ăslandi. Elsta listasafnið er Listasafn Einars JĂłnssonar. Ă borginni er einnig að finna Listasafn Ăslands og Listasafn ReykjavĂkur sem hefur aðstöðu bÊði Ă miðbĂŠ ReykjavĂkur og við MiklatĂșn. Listasafn Ăsmundar Sveinssonar tilheyrir einnig Listasafni ReykjavĂkur. BorgarbĂłkasafn ReykjavĂkur er einnig að finna Ă miðbĂŠnum og mörg ĂștibĂș eru Ă hverfum borgarinnar. + +Ăjóðminjasafn Ăslands er nĂŠrri miðbĂŠnum við HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands. Borgarsögusafn rekur meðal annars SjĂłminjasafnið Ă ReykjavĂk og ĂrbĂŠjarsafn ĂŸar sem hĂŠgt er að skoða gömul hĂșs sem ĂŸangað hafa verið fĂŠrð og torfbĂŠinn ĂrbĂŠ sem safnið dregur nafn sitt af, en hann hefur verið ĂŸar frĂĄ upphafi. Reðursafnið hefur verið vinsĂŠlt hjĂĄ ferðamönnum. + +HĂĄtĂðir +ListahĂĄtĂð Ă ReykjavĂk er gamalgrĂłin hĂĄtĂð sem rekja mĂĄ til 1970. Hinsegin dagar hafa verið haldnir Ă ĂĄgĂșst frĂĄ 1999. MenningarnĂłtt hefur verið frĂĄ aldamĂłtum 2000. JazzhĂĄtĂð ReykjavĂkur ĂĄ rĂŠtur að rekja til NorrĂŠnna Ăștvarpsjazzdaga Ă maĂ 1990 og InnipĂșkinn hefur verið haldin um verslunarmannahelgi frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ ĂĄrið 2001 (að undanskildum ĂĄrunum 2020 og 2021 ĂŸegar hĂĄtĂðin var felld niður vegna COVID-19). Aðrar tĂłnlistarhĂĄtĂðir eru t.d. Iceland Airwaves um haustið. HĂĄtĂðir Ă jĂșnĂ eru SjĂłmannadagurinn og 17. jĂșnĂ. + +SkipulagsmĂĄl +Ă ReykjavĂk er Ă gildi aðalskipulag fyrir tĂmabilið 2010-2030 sem samĂŸykkt var ĂĄrið 2013. Vinna við endurskoðun aðalskipulagsins hĂłfst ĂĄrið 2007 og hefur Haraldur Sigurðsson skipulagsfrÊðingur haft umsjĂłn með endurskoðun og breytingum aðalskipulagsins. SviðsstjĂłri Umhverfis- og skipulagssviðs við endurskoðun var Ălöf ĂrvarsdĂłttir. Formaður umhverfis- og skipulagsråðs við samĂŸykkt ĂĄĂŠtlunarinnar var PĂĄll Hjaltason arkitekt og fullltrĂși Besta flokksins Ă BorgarstjĂłrn. Aðalskipulag ReykjavĂkur 2010-2030 (AR 2010-30) markaði breytingar ĂĄ ĂĄherslum Ă skipulagi borgarinnar með aukinni ĂĄherslu ĂĄ ĂŸĂ©ttingu byggðar Ă stað uppbyggingar nĂœrra hverfa utan marka byggðar. + +Systraborgir/VinabĂŠir +ReykjavĂk viðheldur vinabĂŠjatengslum við eftirfarandi borgir: + + BakĂș, AserbaĂsjan + Karakas, VenesĂșela + Kaupmannahöfn, Danmörku + Helsinki, Finnlandi + Kingston upon Hull, Bretlandi + La Paz, BĂłlivĂu + MexĂkĂłborg, MexĂkĂł + LvĂv, ĂkraĂnu + Nuuk, GrĂŠnlandi + ĂslĂł, Noregi + Seattle, BandarĂkjunum (frĂĄ 1986) + StokkhĂłlm, SvĂĂŸjóð + Strumitsa, Norður-MakedĂłnĂa + ĂĂłrshöfn, FĂŠreyjum + VilnĂus, LithĂĄen + Winnipeg, Kanada + WrocĆaw, PĂłllandi + Zevenaar, Hollandi + +Ă jĂșlĂ ĂĄrið 2013 lagði JĂłn Gnarr borgarstjĂłri til að samstarfssamningur ReykjavĂkur og Moskvu yrði endurskoðaður vegna lagasetninga sem beindust gegn mĂĄlÂefnÂum samÂkynÂhneigðra, tvĂÂkynÂhneigðra og transÂfĂłlks Ă RĂșsslandi. LvĂv Ă ĂkraĂnu kom Ă stað Moskvu ĂĄrið 2023. + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + + Reykjavik.is, opinber vefur ReykjavĂkurborgar + Saga ReykjavĂkur ĂĄ vef ĂrbĂŠjarsafnsins + ReykjavĂk - LjĂłsmyndavefur islandsmynda.is + LjĂłsmyndablogg af ReykjavĂk + UpplĂœsingavefur fyrir ferðamenn ĂĄ leið til ReykjavĂkur + AlfrÊði ReykjavĂkur; SkrĂĄ um reykvĂsk fyrirbĂŠri Ă stafrĂłfsröð + ReykjavĂk - upphaf höfuðstaðar; LĂœĂ°ur Björnsson, SkĂrnir janĂșar 1979, bls. 42â63. + +Skipulag ReykjavĂkur + ĂĂĄttaskil Ă byggingarsögu ReykjavĂkur; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1959 + Skipulag ReykjavĂkur fyrr og sĂðar; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1966 + LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins; um ReykjavĂk og skipulag hennar; 1966 + FramtĂðarsĂœn; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1999 + ReykjavĂk ĂĄrið 2000; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1978 + Skipulag Ă eina öld; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1997 + ĂyrnirĂłsasvefn Ă heila öld; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1982 + Verður gamla ReykjavĂk reist ĂĄ eiðinu Ă Viðey; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1980 + Hverfi ReykjavĂkur; 1. grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1929 + Hverfi ReykjavĂkur; 2. grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1929 + Byggingarnefnd ReykjavĂkur 100 ĂĄra; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1940 + VanĂŸrĂłunarsvipurinn ĂĄ MiðbĂŠ ReykjavĂkur; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1981 + + +Aðsetur sĂœslumanna ĂĄ Ăslandi +ĂĂ©ttbĂœlisstaðir Ăslands +Höfuðborgir +Veðurathugunarstöðvar ĂĄ Ăslandi +Ărnefni Ă ReykjavĂk +LandafrÊði ReykjavĂkur +SvĂĂŸjóð (sĂŠnska: Sverige), formlegt heiti KonungsrĂkið SvĂĂŸjóð (sĂŠnska: Konungariket Sverige), er land Ă Norður-EvrĂłpu og eitt Norðurlandanna. LandamĂŠri liggja að Noregi til vesturs og Finnlandi til norðausturs. Landið tengist Danmörku með EyrarsundsbrĂșnni yfir Eystrasaltið til austurs. SvĂĂŸjóð er fjölmennast Norðurlanda með 10 milljĂłnir ĂbĂșa en er ĂŸĂł frekar strjĂĄlbĂœlt. Langflestir ĂbĂșanna bĂșa Ă suðurhluta landsins. + +Höfuðborg SvĂĂŸjóðar er StokkhĂłlmur. Aðrar stĂŠrri borgir landsins eru: Gautaborg, MĂĄlmey, Uppsalir, Linköping, VĂ€sterĂ„s, Ărebro, Karlstad, Norrköping, Helsingjaborg, Jönköping, GĂ€vle, Sundsvall og UmeĂ„. + +BarrskĂłgar landsins eru nĂœttir Ă timbur- og pappĂrsgerð. Ă norðurhluta landsins er mikil nĂĄmuvinnsla; einkum er ĂŸar unninn jĂĄrnmĂĄlmur en ĂŸar er einnig að finna Ăœmsa aðra mĂĄlma. AðaliðnaðarsvÊðið er um mitt landið en landbĂșnaður einkennir mjög suðurhlutann. + +Saga +Fornleifar sĂœna að ĂŸað landsvÊði sem nĂș er SvĂĂŸjóð byggðist ĂŸegar ĂĄ steinöld. Eftir ĂŸvĂ sem Ăsaldarjökullinn hopaði fylgdu hĂłpar veiðimanna og safnara sem fluttu sig lengra norður meðfram strönd Eystrasaltsins. + +FornleifafrÊðingar hafa grafið upp marga stĂłra verslunarstaði sem styrkja ĂŸĂĄ kenningu að landsvÊðið hafi verið fullbyggt ĂŸegar ĂĄ bronsöld. + +Ă nĂundu og tĂundu öld stóð vĂkingamenning ĂĄ stĂłrum hluta ĂŸess svÊðis sem nĂș er SvĂĂŸjóð. Einkum hĂ©ldu sĂŠnskir vĂkingar Ă austurveg til Eystrasaltslandanna, RĂșsslands og allt suður til Svartahafs. SĂŠnskumĂŠlandi ĂbĂșar settust að Ă suðurhluta Finnlands og einnig Ă Eistlandi. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma tĂłk einnig sĂŠnskt rĂki að myndast með ĂŸungamiðju Ă Uppsölum og nåði ĂŸað allt suður að SkĂĄni, sem ĂŸĂĄ var hluti Danmerkur. + +Ărið 1389 sameinuðust Danmörk, Noregur og SvĂĂŸjóð undir einum konungi. Kalmarsambandið var ekki pĂłlitĂskt sambandsrĂki heldur konungssamband. Meirihluta 15. aldar reyndi SvĂĂŸjóð að hamla ĂŸeirri miðstĂœringu sem Danir vildu koma ĂĄ Ă sambandinu undir dönskum kĂłngi. SvĂĂŸjóð sagði sig Ășr Kalmarsambandinu 1523 ĂŸegar GĂșstaf EirĂksson Vasa, sĂðar ĂŸekktur sem GĂșstaf I, endurreisti sĂŠnska konungdĂŠmið. + +Ă 17. öld varð SvĂĂŸjóð eitt helsta stĂłrveldi EvrĂłpu eftir mikla sigra Ă ĂrjĂĄtĂu ĂĄra strĂðinu. Ăegar ĂĄ leið 18. öld hvarf ĂŸessi staða ĂŸegar RĂșssland vann ĂĄ Ă barĂĄttunni um völdin við Eystrasalt. + +Saga SvĂĂŸjóðar sĂðustu aldirnar heftur einkennst af friði. SĂðasta stĂłra styrjöldin sem SvĂĂŸjóð tĂłk ĂŸĂĄtt Ă var við RĂșssland 1809 ĂŸegar Finnland var innlimað Ă RĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmið. MinnihĂĄttar skĂŠrur urðu ĂŸĂł við Noreg 1814. ĂĂŠr enduðu með ĂŸvĂ að sĂŠnski krĂłnprinsinn samĂŸykkti norsku stjĂłrnaskrĂĄna 17. maĂ sama ĂĄr og með ĂŸvĂ gengu Noregur og SvĂĂŸjóð Ă konungssamband. Ăegar norska stĂłrĂŸingið samĂŸykkti upplausn ĂŸessa sambands 1905 lĂĄ við strĂði en ĂŸað tĂłkst að koma Ă veg fyrir ĂŸað og ĂŸess Ă stað enduðu deilurnar með samningum. + +SvĂĂŸjóð lĂœsti yfir hlutleysi Ă båðum heimsstyrjöldunum og hefur allt sĂðan haldið fast við ĂŸĂĄ stefnu að standa utan hernaðarbandalaga Ă ĂŸvĂ augnmiði að halda sig utan við vĂŠntanlegar styrjaldir. + +LandfrÊði +SvĂĂŸjóð liggur að JĂłtlandshafi, Noregi, Finnlandi og Eystrasalti. Lengsta lengd ĂŸess frĂĄ norðri til suðurs er 1.572 km og frĂĄ austri til vesturs 499 km. Um ĂŸað bil 221.800 eyjar tilheyra SvĂĂŸjóð. ĂĂŠr stĂŠrstu eru Gotland og Eyland sem båðar eru Ă Eystrasaltinu. + +Meirihluti SvĂĂŸjóðar er flatur og hÊðóttur, en SkandinavĂufjöllin rĂsa Ă yfir 2.000 m hÊð við landamĂŠrin að Noregi. HĂŠsti hnjĂșkurinn er Kebnekaise sem er 2.111 m yfir sjĂĄvarmĂĄli. 28 ĂŸjóðgarðar eru dreifðir um landið. Ăeir stĂŠrstu eru Ă norðvesturhluta landsins. + +Suður- og Mið-SvĂĂŸjóð (Gautland og Svealand) nĂĄ aðeins yfir tvo fimmtu hluta landsins en Norður-SvĂĂŸjóð (Norrland) nĂŠr yfir ĂŸrjĂĄ fimmtu hluta landsins. Syðsti oddur landsins er hĂ©raðið SkĂĄnn. HĂ©ruð Ă SvĂĂŸjóð eru 25. + +Gróður og dĂœralĂf +Um helmingur landsins er skĂłgi vaxinn (aðallega greni og furu). Ă suðurhluta landsins eru einnig eikarâ og beykiskĂłgar. + +Alls eru 65 tegundir landspendĂœra Ă SvĂĂŸjóð og er engin ĂŸeirra einlend Ă landinu. Af spendĂœrategundum mĂĄ nefna elg, rĂĄdĂœr, rauðhjört, Ăœmsar tegundir nagdĂœra svo sem rauðĂkorna, mĂœs, lĂŠmingja og bifur, kanĂnur og hĂ©ra. + +ĂrjĂĄr tegundir spendĂœra eru taldar Ă mikilli ĂștrĂœmingarhĂŠttu Ă landinu. TvĂŠr ĂŸessara tegunda eru leðurblökur og ĂŸriðja tegundin Ă mikilli ĂștrĂœmingarhĂŠttu er Ășlfurinn. +TĂŠplega 260 tegundir fugla verpa að staðaldri Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. +Alls hafa fundist sjö tegundir skriðdĂœra Ă SvĂĂŸjóð, ĂŸar af ĂŸrjĂĄr tegundir snĂĄka. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir kalda veðrĂĄttu hluta ĂĄrs eru 13 tegundir froskdĂœra Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. + +StjĂłrnmĂĄl +SvĂĂŸjóð hefur verið konungdĂŠmi Ă hĂĄtt Ă ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr. Konungur hefur stĂŠrstan hluta ĂŸessa tĂma deilt löggjöf með ĂŸinginu (ĂĄ sĂŠnsku: Riksdag). Ăingið hefur hins vegar haft mismikil völd gegnum tĂðina. FrĂĄ endurreisn konungdĂŠmisins 1523 var lagasetningu og stjĂłrn rĂkisins skipt milli konungs og stĂ©ttarĂŸings aðalsmanna. Ărið 1680 gerðist sĂŠnski konungurinn hins vegar einvaldur. + +Eftir tap SvĂa Ă NorðurlandaĂłfriðinum mikla hĂłfst ĂŸað sem nefnt er frelsistĂminn frĂĄ 1719. Honum fylgdu ĂŸrjĂĄr stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingar, 1772, 1789 og 1809, sem allar styrktu vald borgara gagnvart konungi. ĂingrÊði var komið ĂĄ 1917 ĂŸegar GĂșstaf 5. sĂŠtti sig við að skipa rĂkisstjĂłrn Ă samrĂŠmi við valdahlutföll ĂĄ ĂŸingi, eftir langa barĂĄttu. Almennum kosningarĂ©tti var komið ĂĄ 1918 â 1921. Með nĂœrri stjĂłrnaskrĂĄ 1975 var allt vald konungs afnumið. TĂĄknrĂŠnu embĂŠtti konungs var haldið en ĂĄn nokkurs valds. + +Ă upphafi 20. aldar mĂłtaðist ĂŸað flokkakerfi sem að miklu leyti hefur einkennt sĂŠnsk stjĂłrnmĂĄl sĂðan. SĂŠnski jafnaðarmannaflokkurinn hefur verið langstĂŠrsti stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkurinn allar götur frĂĄ öðrum ĂĄratug 20. aldar og hefur setið Ă stjĂłrn meira og minna samfleytt Ă yfir sjötĂu ĂĄr. Ă ĂŸingi sitja nĂș fulltrĂșar sjö flokka sem skiptast Ă tvĂŠr fylkingar, vinstri og hĂŠgri. Til vinstrifylkingarinnar teljast sĂŠnski jafnaðarmannaflokkurinn (Socialdemokraterna), sĂŠnski vinstriflokkurinn (VĂ€nsterpartiet), sĂŠnski umhverfisflokkurinn (Miljöpartiet). Til hĂŠgrifylkingarinnar teljast sĂŠnski hĂŠgriflokkurinn (Moderaterna), sĂŠnski ĂŸjóðarflokkurinn (Folkpartiet) (frjĂĄlslyndur miðjuflokkur), sĂŠnski miðflokkurinn (Centerpartiet) og kristilegir demĂłkratar (Kristdemokraterna) og sĂðan SvĂĂŸjóðardemĂłkratar (Sverigedemokraterna) lengst til hĂŠgri. + +StjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar + +EfnahagslĂf + +SvĂĂŸjóð er tĂłlfta rĂkasta land heims mĂŠlt Ă vergri landsframleiðslu ĂĄ mann og ĂbĂșar bĂșa við mikil lĂfsgÊði. SvĂĂŸjóð er með blandað hagkerfi. Helstu auðlindir landsins eru timbur, vatnsafl og jĂĄrngrĂœti. Hagkerfi landsins leggur mikla ĂĄherslu ĂĄ Ăștflutning og alĂŸjóðaviðskipti. VerkfrÊðigeirinn stendur undir helmingi af Ăștflutningi, en fjarskiptageirinn, bĂlaiðnaður og lyfjafyrirtĂŠki eru lĂka mikilvĂŠg. SvĂĂŸjóð er nĂundi stĂŠrsti vopnaframleiðandi heims. LandbĂșnaður stendur undir 2% af landsframleiðslu og atvinnu. Landið er með eina mestu Ăștbreiðslu farsĂmaĂŸjĂłnustu og Internets Ă heimi. + +Samningar verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©laga nĂĄ yfir hĂĄtt hlutfall launĂŸega Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. Ăessi mikla Ăștbreiðsla samninga hefur nåðst ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir skort ĂĄ löggjöf og endurspeglar styrk verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©laga ĂĄ sĂŠnskum vinnumarkaði. Ăegar Ghent-kerfinu Ă SvĂĂŸjóð var breytt ĂĄrið 2007, sem leiddi til hĂŠrri greiðslna Ă atvinnuleysissjóði, drĂł Ășr aðild að verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lögum. + +Ărið 2010 var Gini-stuðull SvĂĂŸjóðar sĂĄ ĂŸriðji lĂŠgsti meðal ĂŸrĂłaðra rĂkja. Hann var ĂŸĂĄ 0,25, eilĂtið hĂŠrri en Ă Japan og Danmörku, sem bendir til mikils tekjujöfnuðar. EignaĂłjöfnuður var hins vegar sĂĄ annar hĂŠsti Ă ĂŸrĂłuðu rĂki, og yfir meðaltali EvrĂłpu og Norður-AmerĂku, sem bendir til lĂtils eignajöfnuðar. Gini-stuðullinn er mjög ĂłlĂkur innan ĂłlĂkra hĂ©raða og sveitarfĂ©laga Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. Daneryd, utan við StokkhĂłlm, hefur hĂŠsta Gini-stuðul SvĂĂŸjóðar, eða 0,55, meðan Hofors við GĂ€vle er með ĂŸann lĂŠgsta, eða 0,25. Ă kringum StokkhĂłlm og SkĂĄn, tvö ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlustu svÊði SvĂĂŸjóðar, er Gini-stuðull tekna ĂĄ milli 0,35 og 0,55. + +SĂŠnska hagkerfið einkennist af stĂłrum, ĂŸekkingarfrekum og Ăștflutningshneigðum iðnaði; stĂŠkkandi en tiltölulega litlum viðskiptaĂŸjĂłnustugeira, og hlutfallslega stĂłrum opinberum ĂŸjĂłnustugeira. StĂłrfyrirtĂŠki, sĂ©rstaklega Ă iðnaði og ĂŸjĂłnustu, einkenna efnahagslĂf SvĂĂŸjóðar. HĂĄtĂŠkni- og meðalhĂĄtĂŠkniiðnaður stendur undir 9,9% af landsframleiðslu. + +20 stĂŠrstu fyrirtĂŠki SvĂĂŸjóðar miðað við veltu ĂĄrið 2007 voru Volvo, Ericsson, Vattenfall, Skanska, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB, Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget, Electrolux, Volvo Personvagnar, TeliaSonera, Sandvik, Scania, ICA, Hennes & Mauritz, IKEA, Nordea, Preem, Atlas Copco, Securitas, Nordstjernan og SKF. Mikill meirihluti sĂŠnskra iðnfyrirtĂŠkja er Ă einkaeigu, ĂłlĂkt mörgum iðnvĂŠddum vestrĂŠnum rĂkjum. + +Talið er að 4,5 milljĂłnir SvĂa sĂ©u ĂĄ vinnumarkaði og um ĂŸriðjungur vinnandi fĂłlks hefur lokið hĂĄskĂłlaprĂłfi. Landsframleiðsla ĂĄ vinnustund var sĂș nĂunda hĂŠsta Ă heimi Ă SvĂĂŸjóð ĂĄrið 2006, eða 31 dalur, miðað við 22 dali ĂĄ SpĂĄni og 35 dali Ă BandarĂkjunum. Landsframleiðsla ĂĄ vinnustund vex um 2,5% ĂĄ ĂĄri à öllu hagkerfinu og viðskiptajafnaður framleiðnivöxtur er 2%. SamkvĂŠmt OECD hefur afnĂĄm regluverks, hnattvÊðing og vöxtur tĂŠknigeirans verið helstu drifkraftar aukinnar framleiðni. SvĂĂŸjóð stendur fremst allra landa hvað varðar einkarekna lĂfeyrissjóði og vandamĂĄl við fjĂĄrmögnun lĂfeyris eru tiltölulega lĂtil miðað við mörg Vestur-EvrĂłpurĂki. Ărið 2014 var ĂĄkveðið að prĂłfa sex tĂma vinnudag Ă SvĂĂŸjóð ĂĄ Ăłbreyttum launum, með ĂŸĂĄtttöku starfsfĂłlks sveitarfĂ©lagsins Gautaborgar. Með ĂŸessu leitast sĂŠnska rĂkið við að draga Ășr kostnaði vegna veikindaleyfa og auka afkastagetu. + +Ăegar skattafleygurinn hefur verið dregið frĂĄ heldur dĂŠmigerður sĂŠnskur verkamaður eftir 40% af launum sĂnum. Skattar sem hlutfall af vergri landsframleiðslu nåðu hĂĄmarki, 52,3%, ĂĄrið 1990. Sem liður Ă að takast ĂĄ við fasteigna- og bankakreppu ĂŸað ĂĄr réðist rĂkisstjĂłrnin Ă umbĂŠtur ĂĄ skattkerfinu, lĂŠkkaði skattahlutfall og vĂkkaði Ășt skattheimtuna. FrĂĄ 1990 hefur skattahlutfallið lĂŠkkað miðað við landsframleiðslu og skattahlutfall fĂłlks með mestar tekjur hefur lĂŠkkað mest. Ărið 2010 voru skattar 45,8% af vergri landsframleiðslu, sem var annað hĂŠsta hlutfallið innan OECD, og nĂŠstum tvöfalt hĂŠrra hlutfall en Ă Suður-KĂłreu. Ăriðjungur vinnandi fĂłlks Ă SvĂĂŸjóð er Ă störfum sem fjĂĄrmögnuð eru með sköttum, sem er umtalsvert hĂŠrra hlutfall en à öðrum löndum. SĂðan umbĂŠturnar voru gerðar hefur hagvöxtur verið mikill, sĂ©rstaklega Ă iðnaði. + +SamkvĂŠmt World Economic Forum var SvĂĂŸjóð með fjĂłrða samkeppnishĂŠfasta hagkerfi heims 2012-2013. SvĂĂŸjóð var Ă efsta sĂŠti Global Green Economy Index (GGEI) ĂĄrið 2014 og Ă 4. sĂŠti ĂĄ lista IMD-viðskiptaskĂłlans yfir lönd eftir samkeppnishĂŠfni 2013. SamkvĂŠmt bĂłkinni The Flight of the Creative Class eftir bandarĂska hagfrÊðinginn Richard Florida, er talið að SvĂĂŸjóð bĂși yfir bestu aðstÊðum heims fyrir skapandi greinar og muni virka sem segull fyrir einbeitt starfsfĂłlk. Röðun bĂłkarinnar byggist ĂĄ ĂŸĂĄttum eins og hĂŠfileikum, tĂŠkni og umburðarlyndi. + +SvĂĂŸjóð er með sinn eigin gjaldmiðil, sĂŠnska krĂłnu (SEK), eftir að SvĂar höfnuðu upptöku evru Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu. Seðlabanki SvĂĂŸjóðar var stofnaður ĂĄrið 1668 og er ĂŸvĂ elsti seðlabanki heims. Bankinn leggur ĂĄherslu ĂĄ verðstöðugleika með 2% verðbĂłlgumarkmið. SamkvĂŠmt könnun OECD frĂĄ 2007 hefur meðalverðbĂłlga Ă SvĂĂŸjóð verið með ĂŸvĂ lĂŠgsta sem gerist meðal EvrĂłpurĂkja frĂĄ miðjum 10. ĂĄratug 20. aldar, aðallega vegna afnĂĄms regluverks og snöggra viðbragða við hnattvÊðingu. + +Helstu viðskiptalönd SvĂĂŸjóðar eru ĂĂœskaland, BandarĂkin, Noregur, Bretland, Danmörk og Finnland. + +AfnĂĄm regluverks ĂĄ 9. ĂĄratugnum hafði neikvÊð ĂĄhrif ĂĄ fasteignamarkaðinn, leiddi til eignabĂłlu og hruns snemma ĂĄ 10. ĂĄratugnum. Fasteignaverð lĂŠkkaði um 2/3 sem varð til ĂŸess að sĂŠnska rĂkisstjĂłrnin varð að taka yfir tvo sĂŠnska banka. Ă nĂŠstu tveimur ĂĄratugum styrktist fasteignamarkaðurinn. Ărið 2014 vöruðu hagfrÊðingar og AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðurinn við ört hĂŠkkandi fasteignaverði og versnandi skuldastöðu heimilanna. Hlutfall skulda af tekjum Ăłx um 170%. AGS mĂŠlti með umbĂłtum Ă byggðaskipulagi og öðrum leiðum til að auka framboð ĂĄ hĂșsnÊði, ĂŸar sem eftirspurnin var meiri sem ĂŸrĂœsti upp fasteignaverði. Ă ĂĄgĂșst 2014 voru 40% fasteignalĂĄna vaxtalĂĄn, en önnur lĂĄn greiddu ĂŸað lĂtið af höfuðstĂłlnum að full greiðsla hefði tekið meira en 100 ĂĄr. + +ĂbĂșar + +TrĂșarbrögð +SĂŠnska kirkjan er fjölmennasta trĂșfĂ©lagið en hĂșn var ĂŸjóðkirkja til ĂĄrsins 2000. 52.8% SvĂa eru meðlimir hennar. ĂĂł sĂŠkja aðeins um 2% kirkju reglulega. Um 5% eru mĂșslimar og 2% kaĂŸĂłlskir. Ă SvĂĂŸjóð er fjöldi trĂșlausra. + +Menning + +Margir SvĂar lĂta svo ĂĄ að tengsl við nĂĄttĂșruna og ĂĄhugi ĂĄ Ăștivist sĂ© eitt af helstu einkennum sĂŠnskrar menningar. SĂ©rstök sĂŠnsk menning ĂŸrĂłaðist ĂĄ 19. öld Ășt frĂĄ ĂłlĂkri menningu landshluta og ĂŸjóðflokka, sem sumir hverjir höfðu aðeins tilheyrt SvĂĂŸjóð um stutt skeið og höfðu sĂnar eigin mĂĄllĂœskur og alĂŸĂœĂ°uhefðir. Sumar af ĂŸessum staðbundnu hefðum voru teknar upp sem sĂŠnsk ĂŸjóðmenning, eins og Dalahestar, skĂðaĂĂŸrĂłttin og bĂĄlkestir ĂĄ Valborgarmessu. Dalarna hafa lengi verið ĂĄlitnir kjarnasvÊði sĂŠnskra alĂŸĂœĂ°uhefða. + +SĂŠnsk menning hefur verið ĂŸekkt fyrir ĂĄherslu ĂĄ jafnrĂ©tti og jöfnuð (meðal annars Ă gegnum Jantelögin og arfbĂłtastefnu ĂĄ 20. öld), sterka hefð fyrir borgararĂ©ttindum og frjĂĄlslyndi Ă hjĂșskaparmĂĄlum. SĂŠnska ĂŸjóðarheimilið var einkenni ĂĄ stefnu sĂłsĂaldemĂłkrata Ă velferðarmĂĄlum lengst af ĂĄ 20. öld, undir ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ kenningum hagfrÊðingsins Gunnar Myrdal, ĂŸar sem allir nytu aðstoðar og umhyggju, Ăłhåð efnahag eða uppruna. SamkvĂŠmt hugmyndinni um ĂŸjóðarheimilið ĂĄtti rĂkið að tryggja öllum ĂbĂșum sambĂŠrileg grunnlĂfsgÊði með gjaldfrjĂĄlsri menntun og heilsugĂŠslu. Hugmyndinni um ĂŸjóðarheimilið var stillt upp sem âĂŸriðju leiðâ milli kommĂșnisma og kapĂtalisma. + +Ă 7. ĂĄratugnum reyndi SvĂĂŸjóð að seilast til ĂĄhrifa ĂĄ alĂŸjóðavettvangi Ășt frĂĄ hugmyndinni um âsiðferðilega risaveldiðâ. SĂŠnsk stjĂłrnvöld reyndu að miðla mĂĄlum Ă Ăœmsum deilumĂĄlum risaveldanna ĂĄ tĂmum kalda strĂðsins og kynntu landið sem hlutlausan vettvang fyrir råðstefnur alĂŸjóðastofnana. Ă sama tĂma var SvĂĂŸjóð leiðandi Ă kynlĂfsbyltingunni og sĂŠnskar kvikmyndir sem fjölluðu um kynlĂf ĂĄ opinskĂĄan hĂĄtt, eins og Forvitin gul, vöktu athygli um allan heim. GagnrĂœnendur uppnefndu ĂŸessi viðhorf âsĂŠnsku syndinaâ. FrjĂĄlslynd viðhorf til samkynhneigðar hafa lĂka verið talin einkenna sĂŠnskt samfĂ©lag. + +SvĂĂŸjóð hefur lengi verið stĂłrveldi Ă vĂsnasöng og dĂŠgurtĂłnlist. Lög Carl Michael Bellman nåðu miklum vinsĂŠldum um öll Norðurlönd ĂĄ 18. og 19. öld, og sĂŠnski Ăłperusöngvarinn Jussi Björling slĂł Ă gegn ĂĄ alĂŸjóðavĂsu ĂĄ millistrĂðsĂĄrunum. SvĂĂŸjóð varð stĂłrveldi Ă alĂŸjóðlegri dĂŠgurtĂłnlist eftir að hljĂłmsveitin ABBA nåði heimsfrĂŠgð ĂĄ 8. ĂĄratug 20. aldar. SĂðan ĂŸĂĄ hafa SvĂar ĂĄtt marga frĂŠga lagahöfunda, danshöfunda, leikstjĂłra tĂłnlistarmyndbanda og tĂłnlistarframleiðendur. + +FrĂŠgir sĂŠnskir rithöfundar eru meðal annars Astrid Lindgren, Selma Lagerlöf og leikskĂĄldið August Strindberg. Ăekktasti kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri SvĂĂŸjóðar er Ingmar Bergman. Leikkonurnar Greta Garbo og Ingrid Bergman eru ĂŸekktustu leikarar SvĂĂŸjóðar. MĂĄlarinn Anders Zorn nåði alĂŸjóðlegri frĂŠgð undir lok 19. aldar og Carl Larsson ĂĄtti ĂŸĂĄtt Ă að skapa Ămynd sĂŠnskrar alĂŸĂœĂ°umenningar Ă verkum sĂnum. Meðal ĂŸekktra sĂŠnskra vĂsindamanna eru Carl Linneus, Jöns Jacob Berzelius, Anders Celsius, Eva Ekeblad, Alfred Nobel, Ulf von Euler og Harry Nyquist. + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + Staðreyndir um SvĂĂŸjóð + +EvrĂłpulönd +EvrĂłpusambandslönd +Norðurlönd +Danmörk (danska: Danmark; ) er land Ă EvrĂłpu sem ĂĄsamt GrĂŠnlandi og FĂŠreyjum myndar KonungsrĂkið Danmörk. + +Danmörk samanstendur af JĂłtlandsskaga og 443 eyjum en af ĂŸeim eru 72 (2007) byggðar. Landið liggur að sjĂł að vestan, norðan og austan. Að vestan er NorðursjĂłr, Skagerrak og Kattegat að norðvestan og norðaustan og Eystrasalt að austan, en að sunnan ĂĄ Danmörk landamĂŠri að ĂĂœskalandi við suðurenda JĂłtlands. JĂłtland er skagi sem gengur til norðurs Ășt Ășr EvrĂłpuskaganum. Ăað er stĂŠrsti hluti Danmerkur. Auk JĂłtlandsskagans er mikill fjöldi byggðra eyja sem eru Ă Eystrasalti. StĂŠrstar eru SjĂĄland og FjĂłn. Helstu borgir eru Kaupmannahöfn ĂĄ SjĂĄlandi; ĂðinsvĂ© ĂĄ FjĂłni; ĂrĂłsar, Ălaborg, Esbjerg, Randers, Kolding, Horsens og Vejle ĂĄ JĂłtlandi. + +Danmörk var åður mun vĂðåttumeira rĂki en ĂŸað er Ă dag. BÊði ĂĄtti ĂŸað miklar lendur austan Eyrarsunds, SkĂĄn, Halland og Blekinge og einnig bÊði hĂ©ruðin SlĂ©svĂk og Holtsetaland og nåðu landamĂŠrin suður fyrir Hamborg ĂŸegar veldið var sem mest. Danska konungsĂŠttin er elsta rĂkjandi konungsĂŠtt Ă heimi. Ă nĂtjĂĄndu öld gekk Noregur Ășr konungssambandi við Danmörku og var ĂŸĂĄ um tĂma undir sĂŠnska konunginum. Ă 20. öld fĂ©kk svo Ăsland sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ Dönum, en FĂŠreyjar og GrĂŠnland eru enn Ă konungssambandi við Danmörku ĂŸĂł að bÊði löndin hafi fengið heimastjĂłrn. + +Heiti + +Mikið er deilt um orðsifjar âDanmerkurâ, sambandið milli Dana og Danmerkur og sameiningu Danmerkur Ă eina ĂŸjóð. Deilurnar snĂșast um forskeytið âDanâ og hvort ĂŸað eigi við ĂŠttflokkinn Danir eða konunginn Dan, og merkingu viðskeytisins â-mörkâ. Oftast er forskeytið talið eiga rĂŠtur að rekja til orðs sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir âflatt landâ, tengt ĂŸĂœska orðinu Tenne âĂŸreskigĂłlfâ, enska den â hellirâ og sanskrĂt dhĂĄnuáčŁ- (à€§à€šà„à€žà„; â eyðimörkâ). Viðskeytið â-mörkâ er talið eiga við skĂłga Ă Suður-SlĂ©svĂk, kannski svipað nöfnunum Finnmörk, Heiðmörk, Ăelamörk og ĂĂ©ttmerski. Ă fornnorrĂŠnu var nafnið stafað DanmÇ«rk. + +Fyrsta ĂŸekkta notkun orðins âDanmörkâ Ă Danmörku sjĂĄlfri er ĂĄ Jalangurssteininum, sem eru rĂșnasteinar taldir hafa verið settir upp af Gormi gamla (um ĂĄrið 955) og Haraldi blĂĄtönn (um ĂĄrið 965). Orðið âDanmörkâ er notað ĂĄ båðum steinunum, Ă ĂŸolfalli âtanmaurkâ ([danmÉrk]) ĂĄ stĂłra steininum og Ă eignarfalli âtanmarkarâ ([danmarkaÉœ]) ĂĄ litla steininum. ĂbĂșar Danmerkur eru kallaðir âtaniâ ([danÉȘ]) eða âDanirâ ĂĄ steinunum. + +Saga + +Fornsaga +BĂșið hefur verið Ă Danmörku sĂðan um ĂŸað bil 12.500 f.Kr. og eru sannindamerki um landbĂșnað frĂĄ 3600 f.Kr. Bronsöldin Ă Danmörku var frĂĄ 1800â600 f.Kr. og ĂŸĂĄ voru margir haugar orpnir. Ă ĂŸeim hafa fundist lĂșðrar og SĂłlvagninn. Fyrstu Danir komu til landsins ĂĄ rĂłmversku jĂĄrnöld (1â400 e.Kr.). ĂĂĄ var verslun milli RĂłmaveldisins og ĂŠttflokka Ă Danmörku og rĂłmverskir peningar hafa fundist ĂŸar. Ennfremur finnast sannindamerki um ĂĄhrif frĂĄ Keltum, meðal annars Gundestrup-potturinn. + +VĂkingaöld + +FrĂĄ 8. öld til 11. aldar voru Danir meðal ĂŸeirra sem ĂŸekktir voru sem VĂkingar. VĂkingar nĂĄmu Ăsland ĂĄ 9. öld með viðkomu Ă FĂŠreyjum. FrĂĄ Ăslandi sigldu ĂŸeir til GrĂŠnlands og ĂŸaðan til VĂnlands (lĂklega NĂœfundnalands) og settust ĂŸar að. VĂkingar voru snillingar Ă skipasmĂðum og gerðu ĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ Bretlandi og Frakklandi. Ăeir voru lĂka mjög lagnir Ă verslun og viðskiptum og sigldu siglingaleiðir frĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi til KonstantĂnusarborgar um rĂșssneskar ĂĄr. Danskir vĂkingar voru mjög virkir ĂĄ Bretlandi, Ărlandi og Ă Frakklandi og settust að Ă sumum hlutum Englands og nåðu ĂŸar völdum (ĂŸ.e. Danalög). + +LandfrÊði +Danmörk ĂĄ aðeins landamĂŠri að ĂĂœskalandi og er lengd landamĂŠranna 140 km. Strandlengjan er 7 314 km. HĂŠsti punktur er MĂžllehĂžj, ĂĄ mið-austur JĂłtlandi, 171 (170,86) metra hĂĄr. FlatarmĂĄl Danmerkur er 42 434 km2. Danmörk ĂĄ ekki verulegt hafsvÊði og bĂŠtist innan við ĂŸĂșsund ferkĂlĂłmetrar við heildaryfirråðasvÊði Danmerkur sĂ© ĂŸað tekið með Ă 43 094 km2. Stöðuvötn ĂŸekja 660 km2. + +StjĂłrnmĂĄl + +Ă Danmörku er formlega ĂŸingbundin konungsstjĂłrn. Drottning Danmerkur, MargrĂ©t 2., er ĂŸjóðhöfðingi sem fer formlega með framkvĂŠmdavald og er forseti rĂkisråðs Danmerkur. Eftir upptöku ĂŸingrÊðis Ă Danmörku er hlutverk ĂŸjóðhöfðingjans aðallega tĂĄknrĂŠnt eins og formleg skipun og uppsögn forsĂŠtisråðherra Danmerkur og annarra råðherra Ă rĂkisstjĂłrn Danmerkur. Drottningin ber ekki sjĂĄlf ĂĄbyrgð ĂĄ stjĂłrnarathöfnum og persĂłna hennar er friðhelg. + +Danmörk er Ă fimmta sĂŠti Ă lĂœĂ°rÊðisvĂsitölu Economist og Ă fyrsta sĂŠti spillingarvĂsitölu Transparency International. + +StjĂłrnvöld + +StjĂłrnskipan Ă Danmörku byggist ĂĄ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ Danmerkur sem var samin ĂĄrið 1849. Til að breyta stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni ĂŸarf hreinan meirihluta ĂĄ tveimur ĂŸingum og sĂðan einfaldan meirihluta Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu með minnst 40% ĂŸĂĄtttöku. Henni hefur verið breytt fjĂłrum sinnum, sĂðast ĂĄrið 1953. + +ĂjĂłĂ°ĂŸing Danmerkur (Folketinget) fer með löggjafarvald og situr Ă einni deild. Ăað er Êðsti löggjafi landsins, getur sett lög um alla hluti og er Ăłbundið af fyrri ĂŸingum. Til að lög öðlist gildi ĂŸarf að leggja ĂŸau fyrir rĂkisråðið og ĂŸjóðhöfðingjann sem staðfestir ĂŸau með undirskrift sinni innan 30 daga. + +Ă Danmörku er ĂŸingbundin konungsstjĂłrn og fulltrĂșalĂœĂ°rÊði með almennum kosningarĂ©tti. Ăingkosningar eru hlutfallskosningar milli stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokka ĂŸar sem flokkar ĂŸurfa minnst 2% atkvÊða til að koma að manni. Ă ĂŸinginu eru 175 ĂŸingmenn auk fjögurra frĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi og FĂŠreyjum. Ăingkosningar eru haldnar ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra fresti hið minnsta en forsĂŠtisråðherra getur Ăłskað eftir ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸjóðhöfðingi boði til kosninga åður en kjörtĂmabili lĂœkur. Ăingið getur neytt forsĂŠtisråðherra til að segja af sĂ©r með ĂŸvĂ að samĂŸykkja vantraust ĂĄ hann. + +FramkvĂŠmdavaldið er formlega Ă höndum drottningar, en forsĂŠtisråðherra og aðrir råðherrar fara með ĂŸað fyrir hennar hönd. ForsĂŠtisråðherra er skipaður sĂĄ sem getur aflað meirihluta Ă ĂŸinginu og er venjulega formaður stĂŠrsta stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokksins eða leiðtogi stĂŠrsta flokkabandalagsins. Oftast er rĂkisstjĂłrn Danmerkur samsteypustjĂłrn og oft lĂka minnihlutastjĂłrn sem reiðir sig ĂĄ stuðning minni flokka utan rĂkisstjĂłrnar til að nĂĄ meirihluta Ă einstökum mĂĄlum. + +FrĂĄ ĂŸingkosningum 2019 hefur Mette Frederiksen verið forsĂŠtisråðherra Ă eins flokks minnihlutastjĂłrn Jafnaðarmannaflokksins með stuðningi annarra vinstri- og miðjuflokka. + +DĂłmsvald +Ă Danmörku gildir rĂłmverskur rĂ©ttur sem skiptist milli dĂłmstĂłla ĂĄ sviði einkarĂ©ttar og stjĂłrnsĂœslurĂ©ttar. DĂłmskerfi landanna sem mynda konungsrĂkið er aðskilið en hĂŠgt er að skjĂłta mĂĄlum frĂĄ FĂŠreyjum og GrĂŠnlandi til hĂŠstarĂ©ttar Danmerkur sem er Êðsta dĂłmsvald Ă Danmörku. + +Greinar 62 og 64 Ă stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni kveða ĂĄ um sjĂĄlfstÊði dĂłmstĂłla frĂĄ rĂkisstjĂłrn og ĂŸingi. + +AlĂŸjóðatengsl og her + +AlĂŸjóðatengsl Danmerkur mĂłtast að miklu leyti af aðild landsins að EvrĂłpusambandinu sem Danmörk gekk Ă ĂĄrið 1973. Danmörk hefur sjö sinnum farið með formennsku Ă EvrĂłpuråðinu, sĂðast ĂĄrið 2012. Danmörk batt enda ĂĄ hlutleysi landsins sem hafði verið hornsteinn utanrĂkisstefnunnar Ă tvĂŠr aldir eftir SĂðari heimsstyrjöld ĂŸegar landið var hernumið af Ăjóðverjum. Danmörk varð ĂŸannig stofnaðili að Atlantshafsbandalaginu 1949. Danmörk rekur virka utanrĂkisstefnu með ĂĄherslu ĂĄ mannrĂ©ttindi og lĂœĂ°rÊði. Ă sĂðari ĂĄrum hafa GrĂŠnland og FĂŠreyjar Ă auknum mĂŠli tekið sjĂĄlfstÊðar ĂĄkvarðanir Ă utanrĂkismĂĄlum, meðal annars Ă tengslum við fiskveiðar, hvalveiðar og EvrĂłpumĂĄl. FĂŠreyjar og GrĂŠnland eru hvorki aðilar að EvrĂłpusambandinu nĂ© Schengen-svÊðinu. + +Her Danmerkur (Forsvaret) hefur ĂĄ að skipa um 33.000 manna liði ĂĄ friðartĂmum sem skiptast milli landhers, flota og flughers. Drottningin er yfirmaður heraflans. + +Danska neyðarĂŸjĂłnustan hefur ĂĄ að skipa um 2.000 manns og um 4.000 starfa Ă sĂ©rhĂŠfðum deildum eins og dönsku landvarnasveitinni, rannsĂłknarĂŸjĂłnustunni og leyniĂŸjĂłnustunni. Að auki eru um 55.000 sjĂĄlfboðaliðar Ă danska heimavarnaliðinu. Danmörk hefur verið virkur ĂŸĂĄtttakandi Ă alĂŸjóðlegum friðargĂŠslusveitum, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal Ă KosĂłvĂł, LĂbanon og Afganistan. Um 450 danskir hermenn voru Ă Ărak frĂĄ 2003 til 2007. Danmörk hefur haft umsjĂłn með aðstoð Atlantshafsbandalagsins við Eystrasaltslöndin. + +StjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar + + +Danmörk skiptist Ă fimm hĂ©ruð. HĂ©ruðin skiptast enn fremur Ă tĂu landshluta (kjördĂŠmi) Ă ĂŸingkosningum. Norður-JĂłtland er eina hĂ©raðið sem er Ăłskipt. TölfrÊðistofnun Danmerkur skiptir landinu Ă ellefu landshluta. HöfuðborgarsvÊðið, Hovedstaden, skiptist Ă fjĂłra landshluta og ĂŸar af er eyjan BorgundarhĂłlmur einn en hinir ĂŸrĂr ĂĄ StĂłr-KaupmannahafnarsvÊðinu. + +Ă Danmörku eru 98 sveitarfĂ©lög. Austasta land Danmerkur, eyjan Ertholmene, tilheyrir hvorki hĂ©raði nĂ© sveitarfĂ©lagi og heyrir undir danska varnarmĂĄlaråðuneytið. + +HĂ©ruðin voru stofnuð við sveitarstjĂłrnarumbĂŠturnar ĂĄrið 2007 og tĂłku við af sextĂĄn ömtum. Ă sama tĂma var sveitarfĂ©lögum fĂŠkkað Ășr 270. NĂș er ĂbĂșafjöldi sveitarfĂ©laga að jafnaði meiri en 20.000 með nokkrum undantekningum. SveitarstjĂłrnir og hĂ©raðsråð eru kosin Ă beinum kosningum ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra fresti. SĂðustu sveitarstjĂłrnarkosningar Ă Danmörku voru haldnar ĂĄrið 2013. SveitarfĂ©lögin eru grunnstjĂłrnsĂœslueining Ă hĂ©raði og jafngilda löggĂŠsluumdĂŠmum, hĂ©raðsdĂłmsumdĂŠmum og kjördĂŠmum Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarkosningum. + +Ă hĂ©raðsråðum sitja 41 fulltrĂși kjörnir til fjögurra ĂĄra Ă senn. Yfir hĂ©raðsråðinu er hĂ©raðsråðsformaður sem råðið kĂœs sĂ©r. HĂ©raðsråðin fara með heilbrigðisĂŸjĂłnustu, fĂ©lagsĂŸjĂłnustu og atvinnuĂŸrĂłun, en ĂłlĂkt ömtunum innheimta ĂŸau ekki skatta. HeilsugĂŠslan er að mestu fjĂĄrmögnuð með sĂ©rstöku 8% heilbrigðisframlagi og fjĂĄrmunum frĂĄ rĂkinu og sveitarfĂ©lögum. Ănnur mĂĄl sem ömtin bĂĄru ĂĄbyrgð ĂĄ voru flutt til hinna stĂŠkkuðu sveitarfĂ©laga. + +HĂ©ruðin eru mjög misfjölmenn. HöfuðborgarsvÊðið er ĂŸannig meira en ĂŸrisvar sinnum fjölmennara en Norður-JĂłtland. Meðan ömtin voru við lĂœĂ°i höfðu sum sveitarfĂ©lög ĂĄ höfuðborgarsvÊðinu, eins og Kaupmannahöfn og Frederiksberg, fengið sömu stöðu og ömtin. + +GrĂŠnland og FĂŠreyjar +KonungsrĂkið Danmörk er eitt Ăłskipt rĂki sem nĂŠr yfir FĂŠreyjar og GrĂŠnland, auk Danmerkur. Ăetta eru tvö lönd Ă Norður-Atlantshafi með heimastjĂłrn Ă eigin mĂĄlum ĂŸĂłtt danska rĂkið fari að mestu leyti með utanrĂkis- og varnarmĂĄl. Ăau hafa ĂŸvĂ eigin ĂŸing og rĂkisstjĂłrn, en auk ĂŸess tvo fulltrĂșa hvort ĂĄ danska ĂŸinginu. RĂkisumboðsmenn eru fulltrĂșar danska rĂkisins ĂĄ lögĂŸingi FĂŠreyja og grĂŠnlenska ĂŸinginu. GrĂŠnlendingar eru auk ĂŸess skilgreindir sem sĂ©rstök frumbyggjaĂŸjóð með aukinn sjĂĄlfsĂĄkvörðunarrĂ©tt. + +EfnahagslĂf + +Danmörk bĂœr við ĂŸrĂłað blandað hagkerfi og telst vera hĂĄtekjuland samkvĂŠmt Heimsbankanum. Ărið 2017 var Danmörk Ă 16. sĂŠti ĂĄ lista yfir lönd eftir ĂŸjóðartekjum ĂĄ mann kaupmĂĄttarjafnað og Ă 10. sĂŠti að nafnvirði. Danmörk er með hĂŠstu löndum ĂĄ vĂsitölu um viðskiptafrelsi. Hagkerfi Danmerkur er ĂŸað 10. samkeppnishĂŠfasta Ă heimi og ĂŸað 6. samkeppnishĂŠfasta Ă EvrĂłpu, samkvĂŠmt World Economic Forum ĂĄrið 2018. + +Danmörk er með fjĂłrða hĂŠsta hlutfall hĂĄskĂłlamenntaðra Ă heimi. Landið situr Ă efsta sĂŠti hvað varðar rĂ©ttindi verkafĂłlks. Landsframleiðsla ĂĄ vinnustund var sĂș 13. hĂŠsta Ă heimi ĂĄrið 2009. TekjuĂłjöfnuður Ă Danmörku er nĂĄlĂŠgt meðaltali OECD-rĂkja, en eftir skatta og opinbera styrki er hann umtalsvert lĂŠgri. SamkvĂŠmt Eurostat er Gini-stuðull Danmerkur sĂĄ 7. lĂŠgsti Ă EvrĂłpu ĂĄrið 2017. +SamkvĂŠmt AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðnum eru lĂĄgmarkslaun Ă Danmörku ĂŸau hĂŠstu Ă heimi. Ă Danmörku eru engin lög um lĂĄgmarkslaun, ĂŸannig að ĂŸetta stafar af öflugum verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lögum. Sem dĂŠmi mĂĄ nefna að vegna samninga verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lagsins Fagligt FĂŠlles Forbund og atvinnurekendasamtakanna Horesta, hefur starfsfĂłlk hjĂĄ McDonald's og öðrum skyndibitakeðjum Ă Danmörku 20 dollara ĂĄ tĂmann, yfir helmingi meira en starfsfĂ©lagar ĂŸeirra fĂĄ Ă BandarĂkjunum, auk ĂŸess að fĂĄ greidd sumarfrĂ, foreldraorlof og lĂfeyri. Aðild að verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lögum Ă Danmörku var 68% ĂĄrið 2015. + +Danmörk ĂĄ hlutfallslega mikið rĂŠktanlegt land og efnahagur landsins byggðist åður fyrr aðallega ĂĄ landbĂșnaði. FrĂĄ 1945 hafa iðnaður og ĂŸjĂłnusta vaxið hratt. Ărið 2017 stóð ĂŸjĂłnustugeirinn undir 75% af vergri landsframleiðslu, framleiðsluiðnaður var um 15% og landbĂșnaður innan við 2%. Helstu iðngreinar eru framleiðsla ĂĄ vindhverflum, lyfjaframleiðsla, framleiðsla ĂĄ lĂŠkningatĂŠkjum, vĂ©lar og flutningstĂŠki, matvĂŠlavinnsla og byggingariðnaður. Um 60% af ĂștflutningsverðmĂŠti er vegna Ăștflutningsvara, en 40% er vegna ĂŸjĂłnustuĂștflutnings, aðallega skipaflutninga. Helstu Ăștflutningsvörur Danmerkur eru vindhverflar, lyf, vĂ©lar og tĂŠki, kjöt og kjötvörur, mjĂłlkurvörur, fiskur, hĂșsgögn og aðrar hönnunarvörur. Danmörk flytur meira Ășt en inn af mat og orku og hefur Ă mörg ĂĄr bĂșið við jĂĄkvÊðan greiðslujöfnuð ĂŸannig að landið ĂĄ meira Ăștistandandi en ĂŸað skuldar. Ăann 1. jĂșlĂ 2018 jafngilti staða erlendra eigna 64,6% af vergri landsframleiðslu. + +Danmörk er hluti af innri markaði EvrĂłpusambandsins með 508 milljĂłn neytendur. Viðskiptalöggjöfin er að hluta bundin samningum milli aðila sambandsins og löggjöf ĂŸess. Danskur almenningur styður almennt frjĂĄls viðskipti; Ă könnun frĂĄ 2016 sögðust 57% svarenda telja að hnattvÊðing vĂŠri tĂŠkifĂŠri, meðan 18% litu ĂĄ hana sem Ăłgnun. 70% af viðskiptum landsins eru innan EvrĂłpusambandsins. StĂŠrstu viðskiptalönd Danmerkur ĂĄrið 2017 voru ĂĂœskaland, SvĂĂŸjóð, Bretland og BandarĂkin. + +Dönsk krĂłna (DKK) er gjaldmiðill Ă Danmörku. HĂșn er fest við evru ĂĄ genginu 7,46 krĂłnur ĂĄ evru, Ă gegnum gengissamstarf EvrĂłpu. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir að Danir hafi hafnað upptöku evrunnar Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu ĂĄrið 2000 fylgir Danmörk stefnu Efnahags- og myntbandalags EvrĂłpu og uppfyllir kröfur fyrir upptöku evrunnar. Ă maĂ 2018 sögðust 29% svarenda Ă Danmörku Ă könnun frĂĄ Eurobarometer vera hlynnt myntbandalaginu og evrunni, meðan 65% voru ĂĄ mĂłti ĂŸvĂ. + +StĂŠrstu fyrirtĂŠki Danmerkur miðað við veltu eru: A.P. MĂžller-MĂŠrsk (skipaflutningar), Novo Nordisk (lyfjaframleiðandi), ISS A/S (eignaumsĂœsla), Vestas (vindmyllur), Arla Foods (mjĂłlkurvörur), DSV (flutningar), Carlsberg Group (bjĂłr), Salling Group (smĂĄsala), Ărsted A/S (orkufyrirtĂŠki), Danske Bank (fjĂĄrmĂĄlafyrirtĂŠki). + +ĂbĂșar + +TrĂșarbrögð + +Yfir 72% ĂbĂșa Danmerkur eru skråðir Ă dönsku ĂŸjóðkirkjuna sem er lĂștersk-evangelĂsk ĂŸjóðkirkja. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸennan mikla fjölda eru aðeins um 3% sem mĂŠta reglulega Ă messur. Ă stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ Danmerkur er kveðið ĂĄ um trĂșfrelsi en einn meðlimur dönsku konungsfjölskyldunnar verður að vera meðlimur ĂŸjóðkirkjunnar. + +Ărið 1682 fengu ĂŸrjĂș trĂșfĂ©lög leyfi til að starfa utan ĂŸjóðkirkjunnar: kaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan, danska frĂkirkjan og gyðingar. Upphaflega var samt Ăłlöglegt að snĂșast til ĂŸessara trĂșarbragða. Fram ĂĄ 8. ĂĄratug 20. aldar fengu trĂșfĂ©lög opinbera viðurkenningu en sĂðan ĂŸĂĄ er engin ĂŸĂ¶rf ĂĄ slĂku og hĂŠgt er að fĂĄ leyfi til að framkvĂŠma giftingar og aðrar athafnir ĂĄn formlegrar viðurkenningar. + +MĂșslimar eru rĂ©tt um 3% ĂbĂșa Danmerkur og eru fjölmennasti minnihlutatrĂșarhĂłpur landsins. Ărið 2009 voru nĂtjĂĄn trĂșfĂ©lög mĂșslima skråð Ă Danmörku. SamkvĂŠmt tölum danska utanrĂkisråðuneytisins eru ĂbĂșar sem hafa önnur trĂșarbrögð um 2% ĂbĂșa landsins. + +Menning + +ĂĂŸrĂłttir + +Danir hafa nåð langt ĂĄ alĂŸjóðavĂsu Ă fjölda ĂĂŸrĂłttagreina. Knattspyrna er langvinsĂŠlasta ĂĂŸrĂłttin Ă Danmörku og er danska Ășrvalsdeildin efsta deildin. Ăekktustu knattspyrnumenn Danmerkur eru Allan Simonsen, Peter Schmeichel og Michael Laudrup. Handbolti hefur vaxið að vinsĂŠldum sĂðustu ĂĄratugi og danska karlalandsliðið Ă handknattleik hefur unnið flest verðlaun allra liða Ă EvrĂłpumĂłti karla Ă handbolta. Danska kvennalandsliðið Ă handknattleik hefur sigrað EvrĂłpumĂłt kvenna Ă handbolta ĂŸrisvar og unnið alls til fimm verðlauna. + +VatnaĂĂŸrĂłttir eins og kappsiglingar, kappróður, kanĂł- og kajakróður, sund og stangveiði eru vinsĂŠlar ĂĂŸrĂłttagreinar Ă Danmörku. Paul ElvstrĂžm vann gullverðlaun Ă siglingum ĂĄ fjĂłrum ĂlympĂuleikum Ă röð. Danmörk er mikið hjĂłlreiðaland og danski hjĂłlreiðamaðurinn Bjarne Riis sigraði Tour de France ĂĄrið 1996. Golf, tennis, badminton og ĂshokkĂ eru lĂka vinsĂŠlar greinar. Lene KĂžppen og Camilla Martin urðu heimsmeistarar Ă badminton 1977 og 1999. Danir hafa nåð langt Ă speedway-mĂłtorhjĂłlakappakstri og unnið Speedway-heimsbikarinn nokkrum sinnum. + +Ă ĂłlympĂuleikunum Ă London 2012 unnu Danir til gullverðlauna Ă kappróðri og hjĂłlreiðum karla og silfurverðlaun Ă siglingum, skotfimi karla, kappróðri kvenna og badminton karla. + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + Staðreyndir um Danmörku ĂĄ Norden.org + + +Norðurlönd +EvrĂłpa eða NorðurĂĄlfa er ein af sjö heimsĂĄlfum jarðarinnar. Frekar mĂŠtti kannski kalla ĂĄlfuna menningarsvÊði heldur en ĂĄkveðna staðhĂĄttafrÊðilega heild, sem leiðir til ĂĄgreinings um landamĂŠri hennar. EvrĂłpa er, sem heimsĂĄlfa, ĂĄ miklum skaga vestur Ășr AsĂu (EvrĂłpuskaganum) og myndar með henni EvrasĂu. + +LandamĂŠri EvrĂłpu eru nĂĄttĂșruleg að mestu leyti. Ăau liggja um Norður-Ăshaf Ă norðri, Atlantshaf Ă vestri (að Ăslandi meðtöldu), um Miðjarðarhaf, Dardanellasund og BospĂłrussund Ă suðri og eru svo yfirleitt talin liggja um Ăralfjöll Ă austri. Flestir telja KĂĄkasusfjöll einnig afmarka EvrĂłpu Ă suðri og KaspĂahaf Ă suðaustri. + +EvrĂłpa er nĂŠstminnsta heimsĂĄlfan að flatarmĂĄli, en hĂșn er um 10.180.000 ferkĂlĂłmetrar eða 2,0 % af yfirborði jarðarinnar. Hvað varðar ĂbĂșafjölda er EvrĂłpa ĂŸriðja fjölmennasta heimsĂĄlfan, ĂĄ eftir AsĂu og AfrĂku. Ă henni bĂșa fleiri en 740.000.000 manna (2011). Ăað eru 12 % af ĂbĂșafjölda heimsins. + +EvrĂłpusambandið (ESB) er stĂŠrsta stjĂłrnmĂĄlalega og efnahagslega eining ĂĄlfunnar en ĂŸvĂ tilheyra 27 aðildarrĂki. NĂŠststĂŠrsta einingin er RĂșssland. + +Orðsifjar + +Ă grĂskri goðafrÊði var EvrĂłpa afburða fögur fönikĂsk prinsessa. Seifur brĂĄ sĂ©r Ă nautslĂki og nam hana ĂĄ brott til KrĂtar, ĂŸar sem hĂșn fĂŠddi MĂnos en hann var að hluta maður og að hluta naut. Ă huga HĂłmers var EvrĂłpa (GrĂska: ÎÏ ÏÏÏη) hin goðsagnalega drottning KrĂtar en ekki landfrÊðilegt hugtak. Seinna stóð EvrĂłpa fyrir meginland Grikklands og um ĂĄrið 500 f.Kr. var merking orðsins orðin vĂðari og ĂĄtti nĂș einnig við um landsvÊðið fyrir norðan. + +GrĂska hugtakið EvrĂłpa er komið Ășr grĂsku orðunum eurys (breiður) og ops (andlit), ĂŸar sem âbreiðurâ er lĂking við móður jörð Ă hinum endurreistu forn-indĂłevrĂłpsku trĂșarbrögðum. Sumir telja hins vegar að merking hugtaksins hafi afmyndast ĂĄ ĂŸann hĂĄtt að ĂŸað hafi komið Ășr semitĂsku orði eins og hinu akkadĂska erebu sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir âsĂłlarlagâ. FrĂĄ Mið-Austurlöndum séð sest sĂłlin yfir EvrĂłpu, Ă vestri. Eins telja margir orðið AsĂa hafa öðlast merkingu sĂna Ășr semitĂsku orði eins og hinu akkadĂska asu, sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir sĂłlarupprĂĄs, en AsĂa er einmitt Ă austri frĂĄ Mið-Austurlöndum. + +Meirihluti tungumĂĄla heimsins nota orð skyld âEuropaâ um heimsĂĄlfuna â aðalundantekningin er hið kĂnverska æŹ§æŽČ (ĆuzhĆu) en uppruni ĂŸess er ĂłljĂłs. + +Saga + +Uppruni vestrĂŠnnar menningar, lĂœĂ°rÊðis og einstaklingshyggju er oft rakinn til Forn-Grikklands. Aðrir ĂĄhrifavaldar, til dĂŠmis kristni, hafa eflaust einnig haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ vestrĂŠn gildi eins og jafnrĂ©ttisstefnu og rĂ©ttarrĂkið. + +Eftir fall rĂłmverska stĂłrveldisins gekk langt breytingaskeið yfir EvrĂłpu með ĂŸjóðflutningunum. Ăað skeið er ĂŸekkt sem miðaldirnar eða âhinar myrku miðaldirâ eins og ĂŸĂŠr voru gjarnan kallaðar ĂĄ endurreisnartĂmanum enda litu menn ĂĄ ĂŸĂŠr sem hnignunarskeið. Afskekkt klaustursamfĂ©lög ĂĄ Ărlandi og vĂðar vernduðu og skråðu skrifaða ĂŸekkingu sem åður hafði safnast saman. + +Undir lok 8. aldar var Hið heilaga rĂłmverska rĂki stofnað sem eins konar arftaki Vest-rĂłmverska rĂkisins en var Ă raun laustengt samband Ăœmissa smĂĄrĂkja Ă Mið-EvrĂłpu. Austurhluti RĂłmaveldis varð AustrĂłmverska rĂkið, með KonstantĂnĂłpel (BĂœzantĂon, sĂðar IstanbĂșl) sem höfuðborg. Ărið 1453, ĂŸegar OttĂłmanveldið yfirtĂłk KonstantĂnĂłpel, riðaði AustrĂłmverska rĂkið til falls. + +Endurreisnin og nĂœju konungsdĂŠmin ĂĄ 15. öld mörkuðu upphaf tĂmabils rannsĂłkna, uppgötvana og meiri vĂsindalegrar ĂŸekkingar. ĂĂĄ hĂłf PortĂșgal og skömmu sĂðar SpĂĄnn landvinningana. SĂðar fylgdu Frakkland, Holland og Bretland Ă fĂłtspor ĂŸeirra. Með nĂœlendustefnunni byggðu ĂŸessi lönd upp vĂðfeðm nĂœlenduveldi Ă AfrĂku, Suður- og Norður-AmerĂku og AsĂu. + +Eftir landvinningana miklu tĂłk lĂœĂ°rÊðisleg hugsun við Ă EvrĂłpu. BarĂĄtta gegn einrÊði varð meiri, sĂ©rstaklega Ă Frakklandi Ă Frönsku byltingunni. Ăetta leiddi til grĂðarlegra umbrota Ă EvrĂłpu meðan ĂŸessar byltingakenndu hugmyndir og hugsjĂłnir breiddust Ășt um ĂĄlfuna. LĂœĂ°rÊði leiddi til aukinnar spennu Ă EvrĂłpu ofan ĂĄ ĂŸĂĄ spennu sem fyrir var vegna samkeppninnar við nĂœja heiminn. FrĂŠgustu ĂĄtökin urðu ĂŸegar NapĂłleon BĂłnaparte komst til valda og hĂłf að hertaka nĂĄlĂŠg lönd, og byggði ĂŸannig upp nĂœtt franskt stĂłrveldi, sem ĂŸĂł fĂ©ll skömmu seinna. Eftir ĂŸessa landvinninga varð EvrĂłpa aftur stöðug, en byrjað var að hrikta Ă gömlu undirstöðunni. + +Iðnbyltingin hĂłfst Ă Bretlandi seint ĂĄ 18. öld, en með henni drĂł Ășr mikilvĂŠgi landbĂșnaðar, almenn hagsĂŠld jĂłkst og fĂłlki fjölgaði. Mörg af rĂkjunum Ă EvrĂłpu komust Ă nĂșverandi form eftir fyrri heimsstyrjöldina. FrĂĄ lokum seinni heimsstyrjaldarinnar og fram til ĂŸess að kalda strĂðinu lauk skiptist EvrĂłpa Ă tvĂŠr pĂłlitĂskar og efnahagslegar blokkir: kommĂșnistarĂki Ă Austur-EvrĂłpu (Tyrkland og Grikkland eru undantekningar), sem byggðu ĂĄ ĂĄĂŠtlunarbĂșskap, og kapĂtalistarĂki Ă Suður- og Vestur-EvrĂłpu, sem byggðust ĂĄ markaðshagkerfi. Um ĂĄrið 1990 fĂ©ll BerlĂnarmĂșrinn og með honum JĂĄrntjaldið og SovĂ©trĂkin liðuðust Ă sundur. + +FrĂĄ lokum seinni heimsstyrjaldar hefur samstarf evrĂłpskra rĂkja verið einkennandi fyrir ĂĄlfuna og hefur breiðst til Austur-EvrĂłpu eftir kalda strĂðið. EvrĂłpubandalagið og sĂðar EvrĂłpusambandið er bandalag 27 rĂkja um samvinnu ĂĄ Ăœmsum sviðum. Ăað hefur ĂŸrĂłast Ășr friðar- og efnahagssamstarfi Ă einingu sem svipar til rĂkjabandalags. NATO hefur lĂka stĂŠkkað frĂĄ enda kalda strĂðsins og mörg austur-evrĂłpsk rĂki hafa gengið Ă ĂŸað. + +StaðhĂŠttir og landamörk + +LandfrÊðilega er EvrĂłpa vestasti hluti mun stĂŠrra landflĂŠmis sem kallast EvrasĂa. HeimsĂĄlfan byrjar við Ăralfjöll Ă RĂșsslandi, sem skilgreina austurmörk ĂĄlfunnar við AsĂu. Suðausturmörkin eru ekki staðfest. Ăralfjöll eða Emba-fljĂłt eru bÊði mögulegir kostir. Mörkin halda ĂĄfram yfir KaspĂahaf, KĂĄkasus-fjöll (eða Kura-fljĂłt) og um Svartahafið, gegnum BospĂłrussund, Marmarahafið og Dardanellasund og Ășt Ă Eyjahaf en ĂŸar gilda landamĂŠri Tyrklands og Grikklands. Mörkin halda svo ĂĄfram um Miðjarðarhaf Ă suðri, N-Atlantshafið Ă vestri (Ăsland er ĂĄ mörkum EvrĂłpu) og um N-Ăshafið Ă norðri. + +Vegna pĂłtitĂsks og menningarlegs mismunar eru til margar lĂœsingar ĂĄ mörkum EvrĂłpu. Sumir telja ĂĄkveðin svÊði ekki Ă EvrĂłpu en aðrir telja ĂŸau Ă henni. Til dĂŠmis telja landafrÊðingar frĂĄ RĂșsslandi og öðrum fyrrum sovĂ©tlöndum að Ăralfjöllin sĂ©u Ă EvrĂłpu en KĂĄkasus-svÊðið Ă AsĂu. + +Ănnur notkun ĂĄ orðinu EvrĂłpa er stytting fyrir EvrĂłpusambandið og meðlimi ĂŸess og nokkur önnur rĂki sem eru talin ĂŠtla sĂ©r að ganga Ă sambandið Ă framtĂðinni. Ăessi skilgreining ĂĄ hins vegar ekki við um lönd utan sambandsins, t.d. Noreg, Sviss og Ăsland. + +StaðhĂŠttir +HÊðarmunur Ă EvrĂłpu getur verið mjög mikill ĂĄ milli tiltölulega lĂtilla svÊða. Suður-EvrĂłpa er fjalllendari en Ă norðurĂĄtt lĂŠkkar landið frĂĄ hĂĄum fjallgörðum eins og Ălpunum, PĂœreneafjöllum og Karpatafjöllum og breytist Ășr hĂĄlendu fjallsvÊði Ă hÊðir og hĂłla og loks Ă lĂĄglendar og frjĂłsamar slĂ©ttur Ă norðri og sömuleiðis Ă austri ĂŸar sem ĂŸĂŠr eru mjög stĂłrar. Ăetta risavaxna lĂĄglendi er ĂŸekkt sem evrĂłpska slĂ©ttan og hjarta ĂŸess er Ă norður-ĂŸĂœsku slĂ©ttunni. Ă Norðvestur-EvrĂłpu liggur langur fjallgarður, frĂĄ Bretlandseyjum og um ögrum skorinn SkandinavĂuskagann norður til KĂłlaskaga. Helstu ĂĄm Ă EvrĂłpu mĂĄ skipta Ă tvo flokka, annars vegar straumhörð fljĂłt sem koma Ășr fjallgörðum, t.d. DĂłnĂĄ, RĂn og RĂłn, og hins vegar lygn fljĂłt sem aðallega mĂĄ finna ĂĄ hinum miklu slĂ©ttum austar Ă ĂĄlfunni eins og Volga, DnĂ©pr og Don. + +Ăetta er einfölduð lĂœsing. SvÊði eins og ĂberĂuskaginn og ĂtalĂa hafa hvert sĂna eigin flĂłknu landfrÊðieiginleika, eins og meginland EvrĂłpu. Ăar er að finna margar hĂĄslĂ©ttur, ĂĄrdali og vĂðåttumikla dali sem ekki fylgja aðalstefnunni. Ăsland og Bretlandseyjar eru sĂ©rstök tilfelli. Ăsland myndaðist fyrir tilstilli flekamĂłta N-AmerĂkuflekans og EvrasĂuflekans. Bretland var eitt sinn tengt meginlandinu en vegna hĂŠkkandi sjĂĄvarstöðu myndaðist Ermarsundið milli ĂŸess og meginlandsins. + +Lönd +Eftirfarandi er kort af EvrĂłpu og ĂŸau lönd sem henni tilheyra. + +Listi yfir lönd + +Menning + +Segja mĂĄ að menning EvrĂłpu sĂ© sambland af menningu Ăœmissa smĂŠrri svÊða sem skarast. Greina mĂĄ merki blandaðrar menningar um heimsĂĄlfuna ĂŸvera og endilanga. Spurningin um sameiginlega menningu EvrĂłpu eða evrĂłpska kjarnamenningu er ĂŸvĂ flĂłkin. + +Grunninn að evrĂłpskri menningu er að finna Ă menningu, sögu og bĂłkmenntum Forngrikkja og RĂłmverja. Við ĂŸennan grunn bĂŠttist svo kristni, sem varð rĂkjandi trĂș og mĂłtaði heimsmynd EvrĂłpumanna frĂĄ sĂðfornöld og upp gegnum miðaldir. Endurreisnin ĂĄ 15. öld og siðaskiptin höfðu ĂĄhrif Ăști um alla EvrĂłpu, eins og upplĂœsingin ĂĄ 18. öld. + +Heimildir + +Tengt efni + EvrĂłpuråðið + EvrĂłpusambandið + Listi yfir stĂŠrstu borgir EvrĂłpusambandsins + +Tenglar + + + + +HeimsĂĄlfur +Nefnifall er fall sem fallorð geta staðið Ă. Nefnifall er almennt notað fyrir frumlag setninga og fyrir sagnfyllingar. + +Nefnifall Ă forngrĂsku +Frumlag setningar stendur alla jafnan Ă nefnifalli Ă forngrĂsku. Ă Ăłbeinni rÊðu ĂŸar sem gerandi stĂœrandi sagnar er sĂĄ sami og gerandi nafnhĂĄttar Ă Ăłbeinu rÊðunni, stendur frumlag nafnhĂĄttarins Ă nefnifalli (sĂ© ĂŸað tekið fram) en vĂŠri annars Ă ĂŸolfalli. + +Nefnifall Ă Ăslensku + +Nefnifall er eitt af fjĂłrum föllum Ă Ăslensku. Orð sem eru Ă nefnifalli eru annaðhvort frumlag setningar eða sagnfylling. Einnig er nefnifall notað Ă ĂĄvörpum. Ă sumum örðum tungumĂĄlum, svo sem latĂnu, er sĂ©rstakt ĂĄvarpsfall notað Ă ĂŸessum tilgangi. Einstöku sinnum er ĂŸetta latneska fall notað Ă Ăslensku. + +Venja er hjĂĄ Ăslendingum að bĂŠta við hĂ©r er fyrir framan nefnifallið Ă eintölu en hĂ©r eru Ă fleirtölu ĂŸegar orð eru fallbeygð sĂ©rstaklega. + +SjĂĄ einnig + NefnifallssĂœki + +Föll (mĂĄlfrÊði) +Föll Ă Ăslensku +Ă Ăslensku eru fjögur föll, nefnifall, ĂŸolfall, ĂŸĂĄgufall og eignarfall (ĂŸolfall, ĂŸĂĄgufall og eignarfall kallast aukaföll). Auk ĂŸeirra mĂĄ geta að orðmyndin JesĂș er ĂĄvarpsfall af orðinu JesĂșs ĂĄ latĂnu og er stundum notuð sem slĂk Ă Ăslensku. Annars er nefnifall notað Ă ĂĄvörpum ĂĄ Ăslensku. + +Form fallorða breytast eftir ĂŸvĂ Ă hvaða falli ĂŸau standa. Til fallorða teljast orðflokkar nafnorð, lĂœsingarorð, fornöfn og raðtölur auk töluorðanna einn, tveir, ĂŸrĂr og fjĂłrir. Hlutverk orðs Ă setningu rÊður ĂŸvĂ Ă hvaða falli ĂŸað er. Til dĂŠmis eru fallorð Ă ĂŸolfalli ĂĄ eftir forsetningunni um, Ă ĂŸĂĄgufalli ĂĄ eftir frĂĄ og Ă eignarfalli ĂĄ eftir til. Algengt er að gefa fallbeygingar upp með hjĂĄlp ĂŸessara forsetninga: + +DĂŠmi: + (HĂ©r er) hestur (nefnifall) + um hest (ĂŸolfall) + frĂĄ hesti (ĂŸĂĄgufall) + til hests (eignarfall) + + (HĂ©r er) kĂœr + um kĂș + frĂĄ kĂș + til kĂœr + +Föll Ă Ăslensku +Noregur (norska: Norge) er land sem nĂŠr yfir vestur- og norðurhluta SkandinavĂu Ă Norður-EvrĂłpu. Noregur fer lĂka með stjĂłrn fjarlĂŠgu eyjanna Jan Mayen og Svalbarða. Auk ĂŸess er Bouvet-eyja Ă Suður-Atlantshafi norsk hjĂĄlenda. Noregur gerir tilkall til tveggja landsvÊða ĂĄ Suðurskautslandinu: Eyju PĂ©turs 1. og Matthildarlands. Noregur ĂĄ landamĂŠri að SvĂĂŸjóð, Finnlandi og RĂșsslandi, og er eitt Norðurlandanna. Sunnan við Noreg skilur Skagerrak landið frĂĄ Danmörku. Noregur ĂĄ mjög langa strandlengju að Atlantshafi og Barentshafi. + +Ă Noregi bĂșa 5,5 milljĂłnir (2023). Höfuðborg landsins er ĂslĂł. Haraldur 5. af LukkuborgarĂŠtt er konungur Noregs og Jonas Gahr StĂžre hefur gegnt embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisråðherra frĂĄ 2021. Noregur er einingarrĂki með ĂŸingbundna konungsstjĂłrn ĂŸar sem rĂkisvaldið skiptist milli dĂłmsvalds, norska stĂłrĂŸingsins og rĂkisstjĂłrnar Noregs, samkvĂŠmt stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ Noregs frĂĄ 1814. Norska konungsrĂkið var stofnað 872 ĂŸegar mörg smĂĄkonungsdĂŠmi runnu saman. FrĂĄ 1537 til 1814 var Noregur hluti af Danaveldi og frĂĄ 1814 til 1905 var landið Ă konungssambandi við SvĂĂŸjóð. Noregur var hlutlaus Ă fyrri heimsstyrjöld, en Ă sĂðari heimsstyrjöld hernĂĄmu Ăjóðverjar landið til strĂðsloka. + +Staðbundin stjĂłrnvöld Ă Noregi eru ĂĄ tveimur stjĂłrnsĂœslustigum: fylki og sveitarfĂ©lög. Samar njĂłta sjĂĄlfsĂĄkvörðunarrĂ©ttar og ĂĄhrifa ĂĄ stjĂłrn hefðbundinna landsvÊða sinna Ă gegnum SamaĂŸingið og Finnmerkurlögin. Noregur ĂĄ Ă nĂĄnu samstarfi við EvrĂłpusambandið og BandarĂkin og er hluti af EvrĂłpska efnahagssvÊðinu. Noregur er stofnaðili að Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðunum, NATO, EvrĂłpuråðinu, AlĂŸjóðaviðskiptastofnuninni og OECD. Noregur er hluti af Schengen-svÊðinu. Norska er norrĂŠnt mĂĄl sem lĂkist dönsku og sĂŠnsku. + +Noregur bĂœr við norrĂŠnt velferðarkerfi sem byggist ĂĄ jafnaðarhugsjĂłnum. Norska rĂkið ĂĄ stĂłra eignarhluti Ă lykilgeirum eins og olĂu- og gasvinnslu, nĂĄmum, timburframleiðslu, Ăștgerð og ferskvatnsframleiðslu. Um fjĂłrðungur af vergri landsframleiðslu landsins kemur Ășr olĂuiðnaðinum. Miðað við höfðatölu er Noregur stĂŠrsti framleiðandi olĂu og jarðgass utan Mið-Austurlanda. Tekjur ĂĄ mann eru ĂŸĂŠr fjĂłrðu hĂŠstu Ă heimi miðað við lista AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðsins og Heimsbankans. Norski olĂusjóðurinn er stĂŠrsti ĂŸjóðarsjóður heims, metinn ĂĄ 1,3 billjĂłn dali. + +Heiti +Heitið Noregur kemur fyrir Ă heimildum frĂĄ miðöldum sem bÊði âNoregurâ og âNorvegurâ og er talið merkja ânorðurvegurâ. Ă FrĂĄsögn Ăttars hĂĄleygska frĂĄ um 880 kemur nafnið fyrir (ĂĄ engilsaxnesku) sem Norðweg og ânorðmanna landâ sem heiti ĂĄ ströndinni frĂĄ Ăgðum til HĂĄlogalands. Norðmenn gĂŠtu ĂŸĂĄ hafa verið ĂbĂșar norðan fjallanna, âAustmennâ austan ĂŸeirra og âDanirâ Ă VĂkinni. Norðurvegur vĂŠri aftur Ă andstöðu við Austurveg (austan Eystrasalts), Vesturveg (til Bretlands) og âSuðurvegâ til ĂĂœskalands. Aðrar orðmyndir frĂĄ miðöldum eru Nortuagia (Durham Liber Vitae), Nuruiak (Jalangurssteinarnir) og nuriki (rĂșnasteinn frĂĄ Noregi). Seinna var heitið tĂșlkað sem samsetning Ășr Nor- og rige (ârĂkiâ, sbr. âSvĂarĂkiâ). Hugsanlega hefur ĂŸĂĄgufallsmyndin Norege haft ĂŸar ĂĄhrif. NĂșverandi rithĂĄttur ĂĄ norsku er frĂĄ 17. öld og gĂŠti verið samdrĂĄttur ĂĄ danska orðinu Norrige. + +Ă nĂœnorsku heitir landið Noreg, en var åður Norig. Ă norðursamĂsku heitir ĂŸað Vuodna (âfjörðurâ), Nöörje ĂĄ suðursamĂsku og Norja ĂĄ kvensku. + +Ă fornsögunni âHvernig Noregur byggðistâ Ă FlateyjarbĂłk segir frĂĄ börnum Ăorra sem eru sögð vera synirnir NĂłrr, GĂłrr og dĂłttirin GĂłi. Ăar segir að NĂłrr hafi lagt undir sig löndin vestan við Kjölinn og Noregur dregið nafn sitt af honum. Talið er að nafn sagnkonungsins sĂ© dregið af landinu fremur en öfugt, en til er tilgĂĄta um að nafnið sĂ© dregið af norska orðinu nor, âsundâ eða âvĂkâ. + +Saga + +âââFĂłlk hefur bĂșið Ă Noregi Ă yfir 12.000 ĂĄr. FĂłlkið fluttist frĂĄ ĂĂœskalandi Ă suðri eða Ășr norðaustri, ĂŸ.e. frĂĄ Norður-Finnlandi og RĂșsslandi. Milli 5000 og 4000 fyrir Krist var landbĂșnaður fyrst hafinn Ă OslĂłarfirði. Heimildir eru fyrir verslun við RĂłmverja. + +Ă 8. - 11. öld fĂłru margir norskir vĂkingar til Ăslands, FĂŠreyja og GrĂŠnlands og til Bretlandseyja. Ăeir sem fĂłru til Ăslands gerðu ĂŸað meðal annars til að flĂœja ofrĂki Haralds hĂĄrfagra sem reyndi að leggja undir sig allan Noreg. Aðrir fĂłru vegna skorts ĂĄ góðu landbĂșnaðarlandi Ă Vestur-Noregi og leituðu nĂœrra landsvÊða. NĂœ siglingatĂŠkni, eins og langskipin, ĂĄtti sinn ĂŸĂĄtt Ă ĂștrĂĄsinni. Kristni breiddist Ășt ĂĄ 11. öld. Ătök urðu Ă landinu vegna tilkomu kristninnar og Stiklastaðaorrusta var einn af atburðunum sem mörkuðu ĂŸau. Að lokum kristnaðist Noregur og varð NiðarĂłs biskupsstĂłll landsins. + +Ărið 1349 gekk Svarti dauði og aðrar plĂĄgur yfir Noreg og urðu til ĂŸess að fĂłlki fĂŠkkaði um helming. Ă 14. öld varð Björgvin helsta verslunarhöfn Noregs en henni stjĂłrnuðu Hansakaupmenn. Ărið 1397 gekk Noregur Ă rĂkjasamband með SvĂĂŸjóð og Danmörku Ă Kalmarsambandinu. SvĂĂŸjóð gekk Ășr sambandinu ĂĄrið 1523 og Ășr varð rĂkjasamband Danmerkur og Noregs. + +Ărið 1537 urðu siðaskiptin Ă Noregi. Konungsveldi var sett ĂĄ laggirnar ĂĄrið 1661 og danski konungurinn varð einvaldur. NĂĄmavinnsla hĂłfst Ă stĂłrum stĂl ĂĄ 17. öld og ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal voru silfurnĂĄmur Ă Kongsberg og koparnĂĄmur Ă RĂžros. Ărið 1814 gaf Danmörk SvĂĂŸjóð eftir yfirråð yfir Noregi. Noregur lĂœsti ĂŸĂł yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði. Ăann 17. maĂ 1814 fĂ©kk Noregur stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ. + +IðnvÊðing hĂłfst upp Ășr 1840 en eftir 1860 fluttist fĂłlk Ă stĂłrum stĂl til Norður-AmerĂku. + +Noregur varð sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt land 7. jĂșnĂ ĂĄrið 1905 vegna sambandsslita Noregs og SvĂĂŸjóðar. Eftir ĂŸað hefur 17. maĂ verið ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂðardagur Noregs. + +Ărið 1913 fengu norskar konur kosningarĂ©tt og urðu nĂŠstfyrstar Ă heiminum til að nĂĄ ĂŸeim ĂĄfanga. FrĂĄ ĂŸvĂ um 1880-1920 fĂłru norskir landkönnuðir að kanna heimskautasvÊðin. Meðal ĂŸeirra mikilvirkustu voru Fridtjof Nansen, Roald Amundsen og Otto Sverdrup. Amundsen komst fyrstur manna ĂĄ SuðurpĂłlinn ĂĄrið 1911. + +Ă byrjun 20. aldar urðu skipaflutningar og vatnsorka ĂŠ mikilvĂŠgari. JĂĄrnbrautir voru lagðar milli helstu ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisstaða. Efnahagurinn sveiflaðist og upp spruttu verkalĂœĂ°shreyfingar. Ăjóðverjar hernĂĄmu Noreg ĂĄrið 1940 eftir bardaga við norskar og breskar hersveitir og stóð hernĂĄm ĂŸeirra til 1945. RĂkisstjĂłrnin og konungsfjöldskyldan flĂșðu til London. Vidkun Quisling vann með nasistum og lĂœsti sig forsĂŠtisråðherra fyrst um sinn en sĂðar tĂłk Ăjóðverjinn Josef Terboven við taumunum. + +Eftir sĂðari heimsstyrjöld varð Noregur stofnmeðlimur NATO ĂĄrið 1949 en leyfði ĂŸĂł ekki erlendar herstöðvar eða kjarnavopn Ă landinu til að styggja ekki SovĂ©tmenn. Landið gekk Ă frĂverslunarbandalagið EFTA ĂĄrið 1960. + +OlĂa var uppgötvuð Ă NorðursjĂł ĂĄrið 1969 og undir lok 20. aldar var Noregur einn af mestu olĂuĂștflutningsaðilum heims. Equinor er stĂŠrsta olĂufyrirtĂŠkið og ĂĄ norska rĂkið 2/3 hluta Ă ĂŸvĂ. + +RĂkisstjĂłrn Noregs er nĂș undir forystu Jonasar Gahr StĂžre. + +LandfrÊði +Strönd Noregs er mjög vogskorin og með Ăłtal fjörðum sem Ăsaldarjökullinn mĂłtaði. Sognfjörður er stĂŠrsti fjörðurinn og inn af honum ganga margir smĂĄfirðir. Einnig eru margar eyjar undan ströndum Noregs. Eyjaklasinn LĂłfĂłtur er rĂłmaður fyrir nĂĄttĂșrufegurð. Jan Mayen og Svalbarði heyra undir Noreg. SkandinavĂufjöll liggja frĂĄ norðri til suðurs Ă gegnum landið. Ă fjalllendinu Jötunheimum eru jöklar; stĂŠrsti jökull fastalands Noregs, Jostedalsjökull, er ĂŸar og einnig hĂŠsta fjallið, Galdhöpiggen (2469 m.). Mun stĂŠrri jöklar eru ĂĄ Svalbarða (Austfonnajökull). Hornindalsvatnet er dĂœpsta vatn EvrĂłpu. + +Einstakir firðir, Geirangursfjörður og NĂŠrĂžyfjörður, hafa verið settir ĂĄ heimsminjalista UNESCO. + +38% landins eru skĂłgi vaxin. Af trjĂĄtegundum mĂĄ helst nefna rauðgreni, skĂłgarfuru, grĂĄelri, ilmbjörk, hengibjörk, ilmreyni og eini. Sunnarlega mĂĄ finna beyki og ask. + +Heiðar Ă yfir 1000 metra hÊð eru algengar Ă Noregi. Með ĂŸeim ĂŸekktari er Hardangervidda. + +DĂœralĂf +DĂœralĂf er fjölbreytt. Til dĂŠmis finnast 90 tegundir spendĂœra, 250 tegundir staðfugla, 2800 tegundir hĂĄplantna, 45 tegundir ferskvatnsfiska, 150 tegundir sjĂĄvarfiska og 16.000 tegundir skordĂœra. + +Ă dag telja lĂffrÊðingar að aðeins 80-100 Ășlfar finnist Ă norsku Ăłbyggðunum og er jarfastofninn litlu stĂŠrri. Uppi ĂĄ heiðunum finnast lĂŠmingjar en ĂŸeir ganga Ă gegnum miklar stofnsveiflur með reglulegu millibili, ĂŸannig að stofninn nĂŠr hĂĄmarki reglulega ĂĄ 11-12 ĂĄra fresti. + +Ă hĂĄlendisheiðinni Hardangervidda og Ă aðliggjandi fjöllum finnst sĂðasti villti stofn hreindĂœra Ă EvrĂłpu. Hann telur nĂș um 15 ĂŸĂșsund dĂœr. Elg hefur fjölgað mjög Ă Noregi ĂĄ undanförnum 50 ĂĄrum og er stofninn geysistĂłr ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir að 40-50 ĂŸĂșsund dĂœr sĂ©u felld ĂĄ ĂĄri. BjĂłrnum hefur einnig farnast vel Ă skjĂłli friðunar en eftir seinni heimsstyrjöld var heildarstofn hans Ă gjörvallri EvrĂłpu aðeins rĂșmlega 500 dĂœr. NĂș hefur hann, bÊði Ă Noregi og vĂðar, numið gömul vatnasvÊði að nĂœju. + +SamkvĂŠmt AlĂŸjóðlegu nĂĄttĂșruverndasamtökunum teljast ĂŸrjĂĄr tegundir landspendĂœra vera Ă hĂŠttu ĂĄ að hverfa Ășr norskri nĂĄttĂșru. Ăetta eru skĂłgarbjörn, Ășlfur og fjallarefur en ĂŸeim sĂðastnefnda hefur fĂŠkkað mjög Ă Noregi ĂĄ sĂðustu öld, sennilega vegna hlĂœnunar. Við hlĂœnun sĂŠkir rauðrefurinn mun norðar og melrakkinn hefur ekki roð við honum Ă harðri samkeppni. + +Flestar fuglategundir sem teljast til fuglafĂĄnu Noregs eru farfuglar. Harðgerðar tegundir eins og hrafn og rjĂșpa eru dĂŠmi um tegundir sem ĂŸreyja ĂŸorrann Ă kaldri vetrartĂðinni. Sumar fuglategundir fara langt suður ĂĄ bĂłginn ĂĄ veturna meðan aðrar leita aðeins niður ĂĄ ströndina. + +FuglalĂfið Ă Noregi er afar fjölbreytt enda eru ĂŸar gjöful hafsvÊði sem nĂŠra milljĂłnir sjĂłfugla, skĂłgar sem hĂœsa milljĂłnir fugla og heiðalönd sem eru heimkynni rjĂșpu og annarra tegunda. Ă kjarrlendi eru akurhĂŠnur ĂĄberandi og Ă skĂłgunum mĂĄ sjĂĄ spĂŠtur, ĂŸiður og orra auk fjölda tegunda ugla og smĂŠrri rĂĄnfugla sem veiða ĂŸessa fugla auk urmuls smĂĄrra spendĂœra sem lifa Ă skĂłgunum. + +Ă fuglafĂĄnu Noregs er fjöldi tegunda vatna- og votlendisfugla, svo sem andfuglar og rellur, auk ĂŸess sem svartfuglar eru algengir meðfram ströndinni. Haförninn er ĂĄberandi fugl sem lifir við hina löngu strandlengju Noregs. LangstĂŠrsti hluti heimsstofns hafarnarins lifir Ă Noregi eða ĂĄ milli 3.500 og 4.000 fuglar en heimsstofninn er vel innan við 5.000 fuglar. + +StjĂłrnmĂĄl + +StjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar +Fylki Noregs eru 11 og 356 sveitarfĂ©lög. Fylkin eru ĂŸessi: + +Landshlutar +Noregi er skipt Ă fimm landshluta. + Austur-Noregur, Austlandet. + Norður-Noregur, Nord-Noreg. + Suður-Noregur, SĂžrlandet. + Vestur-Noregur, Vestlandet. + ĂrĂŠndalög, TrĂžndelag. + +EfnahagslĂf + +Ă Noregi er verg landsframleiðsla ĂĄ mann sĂș önnur hĂŠsta Ă EvrĂłpu ĂĄ eftir LĂșxemborg og sĂș sjötta hĂŠsta kaupmĂĄttarjöfnuð. Noregur er Ă dag annað auðugasta land heims að nafnvirði og ĂĄ stĂŠrsta varasjóð Ă heimi miðað við höfðatölu. SamkvĂŠmt CIA World Factbook lĂĄnar Noregur meira en landið skuldar. Noregur var Ă efsta sĂŠti vĂsitölu um ĂŸrĂłun lĂfsgÊða sex ĂĄr Ă röð (2001-2006) og nåði ĂŸvĂ svo aftur ĂĄrið 2009. LĂfskjör Ă Noregi eru með ĂŸvĂ besta sem gerist Ă heiminum. TĂmaritið Foreign Policy setti Noreg Ă sĂðasta sĂŠti lista yfir brostin rĂki ĂĄrin 2009 og 2023, ĂŸannig að landið var metið best virkandi og stöðugasta land heims. Ă betra lĂf-vĂsitölu OECD var Noregur Ă 4. sĂŠti og Ă ĂŸriðja sĂŠti yfir teygni tekna milli kynslóða. + +Norska hagkerfið er dĂŠmigert blandað hagkerfi; auðugt kapĂtalĂskt velferðarrĂki með blöndu af frjĂĄlsum markaði og eignarhaldi rĂkisins Ă lykilgeirum, undir ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ frjĂĄlslyndum stjĂłrnum 19. aldar og stjĂłrnum Verkamannaflokksins eftir sĂðari heimsstyrjöld. Aðgangur að heilbrigðiskerfi Noregs er gjaldfrjĂĄls (fyrir utan 2000 krĂłna ĂĄrgjald fyrir alla yfir 16 ĂĄra aldri) og foreldrar fĂĄ 46 vikna foreldraorlof. RĂkið hefur miklar tekjur af sölu nĂĄttĂșruauðlinda, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal frĂĄ olĂuframleiðslu. Atvinnuleysi Ă Noregi er 4,8% og atvinnuĂŸĂĄtttaka er 68%. FĂłlk ĂĄ vinnumarkaði er Ăœmist Ă vinnu eða Ă leit að vinnu. 9,5% fĂłlks ĂĄ aldrinum 18-66 ĂĄra eru ĂĄ örorkubĂłtum og 30% vinna hjĂĄ rĂkinu, sem er hĂŠsta hlutfall meðal OECD-rĂkja. Framleiðni ĂĄ vinnustund er með ĂŸvĂ mesta sem gerist Ă heiminum. + +Jafnaðarhyggja einkennir norskt samfĂ©lag, ĂŸannig að launamunur ĂĄ ĂŸeim hĂŠst og lĂŠgst launuðu er miklu minni en Ă flestum öðrum vestrĂŠnum rĂkjum. Ăetta endurspeglast Ă lĂĄgum Gini-stuðli Noregs. + +RĂkið ĂĄ stĂłra eignarhluti Ă lykilgeirum Ă iðnaði, eins og Ă olĂuiðnaðinum (Equinor), vatnsaflsvirkjunum (Statkraft), ĂĄlframleiðslu (Norsk Hydro), stĂŠrsta norska bankanum (DNB ASA) og fjarskiptafyritĂŠki (Telenor). Ă gegnum ĂŸessi stĂłrfyrirtĂŠki fer rĂkið með um 30% af skråðum hlutabrĂ©fum Ă kauphöllinni Ă OslĂł. Ef Ăłskråð fyrirtĂŠki eru talin með er hlutur rĂkisins jafnvel enn hĂŠrri (aðallega vegna eignarhalds ĂĄ olĂuleyfum). Noregur er ĂĄberandi Ă skipaflutningum og ĂĄ sjötta stĂŠrsta kaupskipastĂłl heims, með 1412 skip Ă norskri eigu. + +Norðmenn höfnuðu ESB-aðild Ă tveimur ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslum 1972 og 1994. Noregur hefur aðgang að innri markaði EvrĂłpusambandsins, ĂĄsamt Ăslandi og Liechtenstein, Ă gegnum samninginn um EvrĂłpska efnahagssvÊðið. Samningurinn kveður ĂĄ um innleiðingu EvrĂłpusambandslöggjafar Ă norsk lög. Samningurinn nĂŠr ekki að öllu leyti yfir suma geira, eins og landbĂșnað, olĂu og fisk. Noregur ĂĄ lĂka aðild að Schengen-samkomulaginu og fleiri samningum EvrĂłpusambandsrĂkja. + +Noregur ĂĄ mikið af nĂĄttĂșruauðlindum, eins og olĂu- og gaslindir, vatnsafl, fiskimið, skĂłga og jarðefni. Ă 7. ĂĄratug 20. aldar uppgötvuðust stĂłrar olĂu- og jarðgaslindir undan ströndum Noregs sem leiddu til mikils vaxtar Ă efnahagslĂfinu. Að hluta hefur Noregur nåð að skapa bestu lĂfskjör heims með ĂŸvĂ að nĂœta ĂŸessar rĂkulegu auðlindir miðað við smÊð ĂŸjóðarinnar. Ărið 2011 komu 28% af tekjum norska rĂkisins Ășr olĂuiðnaðinum. Eftirlaunasjóður norska rĂkisins var stofnaður ĂĄrið 1990 til að halda utan um tekjur rĂkisins af olĂuvinnslunni. Ărið 2011 var ĂŸessi sjóður orðinn stĂŠrsti rĂkisfjĂĄrfestingasjóður heims. + +ĂbĂșar + +TungumĂĄl +TungumĂĄl Norðmanna er norska (sem hefur tvenns konar opinbert ritmĂĄl, bĂłkmĂĄl og nĂœnorsku), ĂĄsamt samĂskum tungumĂĄlum. Norskt talmĂĄl einkennist af miklum mĂĄllĂœskumun. Að nota mĂĄllĂœsku Ă venjulegu talmĂĄli er jafn algengt hjĂĄ ĂŸeim sem rita bĂłkmĂĄl eins og ĂŸeim sem nota nĂœnorsku sem ritmĂĄl. + +TilvĂsanir + +Tengt efni + UpplĂœsingasĂða frĂĄ norska sendiråðinu ĂĄ Ăslandi + Staðreyndir um Noreg + Ăslendingar Ă Noregi; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1961 + 350 ĂĄr frĂĄ stofnun norska hersins; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1978 + SjĂĄlfstÊðisbarĂĄtta Noregs ĂĄrið 1905; grein Ă SkĂrni 1908 +BorgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur er Êðsti embĂŠttismaður ReykjavĂkurborgar. BorgarstjĂłri framkvĂŠmir samĂŸykktir borgarstjĂłrnar og er yfirmaður starfsmanna borgarinnar. Hann er oftast valinn Ășr hĂłpi borgarfulltrĂșa ĂŸĂł hann geti lĂka verið råðinn. NĂșverandi borgarstjĂłri er Dagur B. Eggertsson og tĂłk hann við embĂŠtti 16. jĂșnĂ 2014. + +Sögulegt yfirlit + +Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrnarlögum fyrir ReykjavĂk sem sett voru ĂĄrið 1907 var Ă fyrsta sinn kveðið ĂĄ um embĂŠtti borgarstjĂłra. EmbĂŠttið var auglĂœst ĂĄrið 1908 og sĂłttu tveir um stöðuna, ĂŸeir PĂĄll Einarsson og Knud Zimsen. PĂĄll var råðinn til sex ĂĄra en að ĂŸeim tĂma loknum ĂĄkvað hann að hĂŠtta störfum og Knud Zimsen tĂłk við embĂŠttinu. Hann hĂ©lt ĂŸvĂ til ĂĄrsins 1932. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1935 til 1994 komu allir nema einn af borgarstjĂłrum ReykjavĂkur Ășr röðum SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokksins, sem hĂ©lt lengi vel hreinum meirihluta Ă borginni. Ă kosningunum 1994 stofnuðu ĂŸĂĄverandi fĂ©lagshyggjuflokkar (AlĂŸĂœĂ°uflokkurinn, AlĂŸĂœĂ°ubandalagið, Kvennalistinn og FramsĂłknarflokkurinn) sameiginlegan framboðslista sem kallaður var ReykjavĂkurlistinn undir forystu Ingibjargar SĂłlrĂșnar GĂsladĂłttur. ReykjavĂkurlistinn bauð fram og hĂ©lt meirihluta Ă borginni til ĂĄrsins 2006 ĂŸegar flokkarnir sem mynduðu listann (ĂŸĂĄ Samfylkingin, Vinstrihreyfingin - grĂŠnt framboð og FramsĂłknarflokkurinn) buðu fram undir eigin merkjum ĂĄ nĂœ. NĂœtt framboð, Besti flokkurinn, sem leiddur var af JĂłni Gnarr bauð fram Ă SveitarstjĂłrnarkosningunum 2010 og varð stĂŠrsti flokkurinn Ă borgarstjĂłrn Ă kjölfar efnahagshrunsins ĂĄ Ăslandi 2008. ĂĂĄ mynduðu borgarfulltrĂșar flokksins meirihluta ĂĄsamt Samfylkingunni og varð JĂłn Gnarr borgarstjĂłri. Besti flokkurinn bauð ekki fram aftur Ă SveitarstjĂłrnarkosningunum 2014 en ĂŸĂĄ varð Samfylkingin stĂŠrsti flokkurinn Ă borgarstjĂłrn með fimm borgarfulltrĂșa og tĂłk Dagur B. Eggertsson við sem borgarstjĂłri. FĂłr Samfylkingin fyrir meirihluta ĂĄsamt Vinstri hreyfingunni - grĂŠnu framboði, Bestaflokknum og PĂrötum. + +Ă kosningum til borgarstjĂłrnar ĂĄrið 2018 varð SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokkurinn ĂĄ nĂœ stĂŠrsti flokkurinn með naumum mun yfir Samfylkginguna. Gamli meirihlutinn frĂĄ kosningunum 2014 hĂ©lt að mestu leyti Ă sinni mynd, utan ĂŸess að Viðreisn kom Ă stað Besta flokksins. Eins bĂŠttust við ĂŸrĂr nĂœir flokkar sem ekki höfðu åður setið Ă borgarstjĂłrn: Miðflokkurinn, SĂłsĂalistaflokkur Ăslands og Flokkur fĂłlksins. NĂșverandi meirihluti ReykjavĂkurborgar er myndaður af Samfylkingunni, Viðreisn, Vinstrihreyfingunni - grĂŠnu framboði og PĂrötum en Ă minnihluta sitja borgarfulltrĂșar SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokksins, Miðflokksins, SĂłsĂalistaflokks Ăslands og Flokks fĂłlksins. + +Starf +Starf borgarstjĂłra felst Ă tveimur meginhlutverkum, annars vegar að starfa sem framkvĂŠmdarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkurborgar og hins vegar að koma fram sem opinber fulltrĂși hennar. Iðulega er borgarstjĂłri jafnframt pĂłlitĂskur leiðtogi meirihluta borgarstjĂłrnar. Svo ĂŸarf ekki að vera, enda getur borgarstjĂłri verið råðinn ĂĄ faglegum forsendum eða verið pĂłlitĂskur fulltrĂși sem hefur ĂŸĂł ekki sĂ©rstakar leiðtogastöðu. + +Hann getur tekið sĂŠti ĂĄ fundum nefndar borgarinnar og hefur ĂŸar bÊði mĂĄlfrelsi og tillögurĂ©tt. Einnig gegnir hann skyldum sem prĂłkĂșruhafi borgarsjóðs og undirritar skjöl varðandi kaup og sölu ĂĄ fasteignum, lĂĄntökur og annað sem varðar fjĂĄrhagslegar skuldbindingar og råðstafanir eftir að borgarstjĂłrn hefur samĂŸykkt ĂŸĂŠr. BorgarstjĂłri fer lĂka með eignarhluta ReykjavĂkurborgar Ă svokölluðum B-hluta fyrirtĂŠkjum. + +BorgarstjĂłrar +Eftirtaldir hafa gegnt embĂŠtti borgarstjĂłra Ă ReykjavĂk: + +Heimildir + Reykjavik.is - BorgarstjĂłrar Ă ReykjavĂk frĂĄ 1908 + UpplĂœsingasĂða um JĂłn Gnarr af vef ReykjavĂkurborgar + Ăld frĂĄ skipun fyrsta borgarstjĂłra + + +Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄlasaga +Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄl +Auður Auðuns (f. ĂĄ Ăsafirði 18. febrĂșar 1911 - d. 19. oktĂłber 1999) var Ăslenskur lögfrÊðingur og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. HĂșn var fyrsta konan sem Ăștskrifaðist ĂĄ Ăslandi sem lögfrÊðingur og fyrsta konan sem varð borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur og råðherra ĂĄ Ăslandi. + +Ăvi +Auður var dĂłttir JĂłns Auðuns JĂłnssonar alĂŸingismanns, fyrst fyrir Ăhaldsflokkinn og svo seinna fyrir SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokkinn, og MargrĂ©tar GuðrĂșnar JĂłnsdĂłttur. Auður tĂłk stĂșdentsprĂłf við MenntaskĂłlann Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄrið 1929 og lauk lögfrÊðiprĂłfi frĂĄ HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands ĂĄrið 1935, fyrst Ăslenskra kvenna. Ări seinna giftist hĂșn Hermanni JĂłnssyni, hĂŠstarĂ©ttarlögmanni og eignaðist með honum fjögur börn; JĂłn (1939), Einar (1942), MargrĂ©ti (1949) og Ărna (1954). + +Auður starfaði sem lögfrÊðingur MÊðrastyrksnefndar ReykjavĂkur ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1940 til 60. HĂșn var bĂŠjar- og sĂðar borgarfulltrĂși Ă ReykjavĂk 1946-1970, forseti bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar og sĂðar borgarstjĂłrnar 1954 til 1959 og 1960 til 1970. Auður var fyrsta konan sem gegndi embĂŠtti borgarstjĂłra Ă ReykjavĂk en hĂșn gegndi embĂŠttinu ĂĄsamt Geir HallgrĂmssyni frĂĄ 19. nĂłvember 1959 til 6. oktĂłber 1960. + +HĂșn var alĂŸingismaður ReykvĂkinga 1959 til 74 fyrir SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokkinn. HĂșn sat ĂĄ AllsherjarĂŸingi Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna 1967. HĂșn var skipuð dĂłms- og kirkjumĂĄlaråðherra ĂŸann 10. oktĂłber 1970 og gegndi embĂŠttinu fram ĂĄ mitt sumar 1971. HĂșn var fyrsta Ăslenska konan til að gegna råðherraembĂŠtti. Loks mĂĄ geta ĂŸess að hĂșn sat Ă Ăștvarpsråði 1975 til 1978. + +Auður var virk Ă KvenrĂ©ttindafĂ©lagi Ăslands og var gerð að heiðursfĂ©laga ĂŸess, 19. jĂșnĂ 1985 ĂŸegar sjötĂu ĂĄr voru liðin frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að Ăslenskar konur fengu kosningarĂ©tt. Landssamband sjĂĄlfstÊðiskvenna og Hvöt, fĂ©lag sjĂĄlfstÊðiskvenna Ă ReykjavĂk gĂĄfu Ășt AuðarbĂłk Auðuns ĂĄrið 1981 Ă tilefni af sjötugsafmĂŠli Auðar. + +Tengt efni + BrĂet BjarnhéðinsdĂłttir + Ingibjörg H. Bjarnason + +Tenglar + Vefur ReykjavĂkurborgar + AlĂŸingismannatal + Safn efnis ĂĄ vefsiðu Morgunblaðsins um Auði + Greinin Framlag sjĂĄlfstÊðiskvenna - heiðrum minningu Auðar ĂĄ heimasĂðu Sambands ungra sjĂĄlfstÊðismanna + ĂverpĂłlitĂsk kvennaframboð leysir engan vanda, viðtal við Auði Ă Morgunblaðinu 7. ĂĄgĂșst 1983 + +DĂłmsmĂĄlaråðherrar Ăslands +Ăslenskir stjĂłrnmĂĄlamenn +BorgarstjĂłrar ReykjavĂkur +KvenborgarstjĂłrar ReykjavĂkur +Ăslenskir lögfrÊðingar +KvenrĂ©ttindi ĂĄ Ăslandi +Ăslenskar kvenrĂ©ttindakonur +StĂșdentar Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk +Ăingmenn SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokksins +Ăslenskar stjĂłrnmĂĄlakonur +Handhafar stĂłrriddarakross Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorðu +Ăslenskar konur ĂĄ 20. öld + +BorgarfulltrĂșar SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokksins +18. febrĂșar er 49. dagur ĂĄrsins samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 316 dagar (317 ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1145 - EvgenĂus 3. varð pĂĄfi. + 1229 - Friðrik 2. keisari nåði völdum Ă JerĂșsalem, Betlehem og Nasaret með tĂu ĂĄra vopnahlĂ©ssamningi við soldĂĄninn Al-Kamil. + 1478 - George Plantagenet, hertogi af Clarence var dĂŠmdur sekur fyrir landråð gegn eldri bróður sĂnum JĂĄtvarði 4., og tekinn af lĂfi Ă Tower of London. + 1563 - Frans hertogi af Guise, foringi kaĂŸĂłlikka Ă Frakklandi, var sĂŠrður af HĂșgenottanum Jean de Poltrot de MĂ©rĂ© ĂŸegar hann sat um OrlĂ©ans og dĂł sex dögum sĂðar. + 1678 - BĂłkin För pĂlagrĂmsins eða Krossgangan eftir John Bunyan kom Ășt. + 1797 - Bretar lögðu undir sig eyjarnar TrĂnidad og TĂłbagĂł. + 1875 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă SveinagjĂĄ ĂĄ MĂœvatnsörĂŠfum. + 1878 - Stofnaður var AlĂŸĂœĂ°uskĂłlinn Ă Flensborg Ă Hafnarfirði. Ăar var fyrsti vĂsir að kennaramenntun ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸar til KennaraskĂłli Ăslands var stofnaður 1908. + 1885 - SnjĂłflóð fĂ©ll ĂĄ fjĂłrtĂĄn ĂbĂșðarhĂșs ĂĄ Seyðisfirði og grandaði 24 mönnum. + 1910 - Tuttugu manns fĂłrust Ă snjĂłflóði ĂĄ HnĂfsdal. + 1930 - SĂŠnska frystihĂșsið hĂłf starfsemi Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1930 - Clyde Tombaugh fann PlĂștĂł ĂŸegar hann var að skoða myndir sem hann tĂłk Ă janĂșar sama ĂĄr. + 1930 - Elm Farm Ollie varð fyrsta kĂœrin sem flaug Ă flugvĂ©l og var mjĂłlkuð Ă hĂĄloftunum. + 1934 - SjĂșkrahĂșs HvĂtabandsins Ă ReykjavĂk var vĂgt. + 1959 - Vitaskipið Hermóður fĂłrst undan Reykjanesi með tĂłlf manna ĂĄhöfn. + 1959 - Fidel Castro varð forsĂŠtisråðherra KĂșbu. + 1965 - GambĂa fĂ©kk sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ Breska samveldinu. + 1967 - GolfklĂșbburinn Keilir Ă Hafnarfirði var stofnaður. + 1974 - KISS sendi frĂĄ sĂ©r samnefnda plötu, ĂŸeirra fyrstu. + 1975 - Ăjóðfrelsishreyfing TĂgra stofnuð Ă EĂŸĂĂłpĂu. + 1977- GeimskutluĂĄĂŠtlunin: Geimskutlan Enterprise flaug âjĂłmfrĂșarflugâ ĂĄ Boeing 747 burðarĂŸotu. + 1977 - Fyrsta tölublað breska myndasögutĂmaritsins 2000 AD kom Ășt. + 1979 - Ă Saharaeyðimörkinni snjĂłaði Ă hĂĄlftĂma. + 1983 - Nellie-fjöldamorðið: Yfir 2000 mĂșslimar Ă bĂŠnum Nellie Ă indverska hĂ©raðinu Assam voru myrtir. + 1983 - Wah Mee-blóðbaðið Ă Seattle. + 1993 - Marita Petersen varð fyrsti kvenkyns forsĂŠtisråðherra FĂŠreyja. + 1996 - Sprengja IRA sprakk Ă strĂŠtisvagni Ă London með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að sprengjumaðurinn lĂ©st og 9 aðrir sĂŠrðust. + 2001 - BandarĂski alrĂkislögreglumaðurinn Robert Hanssen var handtekinn fyrir njĂłsnir fyrir RĂșssa. + 2003 - 198 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar maður kveikti eld Ă neðanjarðarlest Ă SeĂșl Ă Suður-KĂłreu. + 2004 - 320 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar sprenging varð Ă jĂĄrnbrautarlest Ă Ăran. + 2010 - Forseta NĂger, Mamadou Tandja, var steypt af stĂłli af hĂłpi hermanna undir stjĂłrn Salou Djibo. + 2011 - BĂłkabĂșðin MĂĄl og menning tilkynnti um gjaldĂŸrot eftir margra ĂĄra rekstur við Laugaveg. + 2012 - 3/4 kjĂłsenda Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu um stöðu rĂșssnesku Ă Lettlandi höfnuðu ĂŸvĂ að hĂșn yrði annað opinbert mĂĄl landsins. + 2016 - RĂșssneska farsĂmafyrirtĂŠkið VimpelCom samĂŸykkti að greiða bandarĂskum og hollenskum yfirvöldum 795 milljĂłn dala sekt vegna spillingar ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 2006-12. + 2018 - Iran Aseman Airlines flug 3704 hrapaði Ă Sagrosfjöllum með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að allir 65 um borð fĂłrust. + 2021 - Mars 2020: MarsbĂllinn Perseverance og drĂłninn Ingenuity lentu ĂĄ yfirborði Mars eftir 7 mĂĄnaða geimferð. + 2022 - Hin ĂĄrlega öryggisråðstefna Ă MĂŒnchen var haldin, en RĂșssland sniðgekk hana. + +FĂŠdd + 1516 - MarĂa 1. Englandsdrottning (d. 1558). + 1635 - Johan Göransson Gyllenstierna, sĂŠnskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1680). + 1642 - Marie ChampmeslĂ©, frönsk leikkona (d. 1698). + 1838 - Ernst Mach, austurrĂskur eðlisfrÊðingur (d. 1916). + 1847 - Thomas Alva Edison, bandarĂskur uppfinningamaður (d. 1931). + 1849 - Alexander Kielland, norskur rithöfundur (d. 1906). + 1886 - JĂłn Sigurðsson frĂĄ Kaldaðarnesi, Ăslenskur ĂŸĂœĂ°andi (d. 1957). + 1898 - Enzo Ferrari, Ătalskur ökuĂŸĂłr og bĂlaframleiðandi (d. 1988). + 1911 - Auður Auðuns, stjĂłrnmĂĄlakona (d. 1999). + 1931 - Toni Morrison, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (d. 2019). + 1933 - Yoko Ono, japönsk myndlistarkona. + 1936 - Ian Hacking, kanadĂskur heimspekingur. + 1947 - Dennis DeYoung, söngvari og hljĂłmborðsleikari Styx. + 1949 - Ingibjörg PĂĄlmadĂłttir, fyrrverandi heilbrigðisråðherra. + 1950 - Cybill Shepherd, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1954 - John Travolta, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1954 - HerdĂs ĂorgeirsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur lögmaður. + 1955 - StefĂĄn JĂłn Hafstein, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1956 - Arnbjörg SveinsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1957 - Marita Koch, ĂŸĂœsk ĂĂŸrĂłttakona. + 1957 - Vanna White, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1959 - HallgrĂmur Helgason, Ăslenskur rithöfundur. + 1959 - Jayne Atkinson, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1961 - Armin Laschet, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1963 - Ăorsteinn M. JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur athafnamaður. + 1964 - Matt Dillon, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1965 - Dr. Dre, bandarĂskur rappari og Ăștgefandi. + 1967 - Roberto Baggio, Ătalskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1968 - Molly Ringwald, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1973 - Claude Makelele, franskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1975 - Keith Gillespie, norður-Ărskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1975 - ĂĂłra ArnĂłrsdĂłttir, Ăslensk fjölmiðlakona. + 1975 - Gary Neville, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1983 - Jermaine Jenas, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1995 - RĂșnar Alex RĂșnarsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 999 - GregorĂus 5. pĂĄfi. + 1294 - KĂșblaĂ Kan, keisari MongĂłlaveldisins (f. 1215). + 1379 - Albert 2., hertogi af Mecklenburg (f. um 1318). + 1455 - Fra Angelico, Ătalskur listamaður (f. um 1395). + 1546 - Marteinn LĂșther, ĂŸĂœskur munkur og siðbĂłtarfrömuður (f. 1483). + 1564 - Michelangelo Buonarroti, Ătalskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1475). + 1851 - Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, ĂŸĂœskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (f. 1804). + 1967 - J. Robert Oppenheimer, bandarĂskur eðlisfrÊðingur, kallaður âfaðir atĂłmsprengjunnarâ (f. 1904). + 2003 - Isser Harel, Ăsraelskur Mossad leiðtogi (f. 1912). + 2008 - Alain Robbe-Grillet, franskur rithöfundur (f. 1922). + 2017 - Norma Leah McCorvey, sĂŠkjandi Ă dĂłmsmĂĄlinu âRoe gegn Wadeâ (f. 1947). + +TilvĂsanir + +FebrĂșar +Ăessi grein fjallar um gömlu stjĂłrnsĂœslueininguna. Fyrir ĂŸĂĄ sem er við lĂœĂ°i Ă dag, sjĂĄ sĂœslumenn ĂĄ Ăslandi. + +SĂœslur Ăslands eru fyrrverandi stjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar ĂĄ Ăslandi sem eru ekki lengur opinberlega Ă gildi. SĂœslur voru umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna sem fĂłru með framkvĂŠmdavald Ă hĂ©raði allt frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að Ăsland gekk undir stjĂłrn Noregskonungs ĂĄ 13. öld. SĂœslumörk festust smĂĄm saman Ă sessi og ĂĄ fyrri hluta 17. aldar voru sĂœslurnar 19 talsins. SĂœslum var svo Ăœmist skipt upp eða ĂŸĂŠr sameinaðar en ĂŸĂŠr voru 23 talsins ĂŸegar ĂŸĂŠr voru afnumdar sem stjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar. Ă 9. ĂĄratug 20. aldar voru gerðar miklar breytingar ĂĄ sveitarstjĂłrnum og hlutverkum sĂœslumanna sem leiddu Ă raun til ĂŸess að hin hefðbundna sĂœsluskipting hafði ekki lengur neitt stjĂłrnsĂœslulegt gildi. + +ĂrĂĄtt fyrir að sĂœslurnar hafi fallið niður sem stjĂłrnsĂœslueiningar ĂŸĂĄ hafa ĂŸĂŠr lifað ĂĄfram Ă daglegu tali ĂŸegar vĂsað er til tiltekinna landsvÊða. + +Saga + +Upphaf sĂœsluskipunar + +Ăegar Ăsland gekk undir Noregskonung ĂĄ 13. öld ĂŸurfti konungur umboðsmenn ĂĄ landinu til að fara með vald sitt og komu ĂŸĂĄ til sögunar nĂœ embĂŠtti hirðstjĂłrar og sĂœslumenn. Ăess er getið Ă Gamla sĂĄttmĂĄla sem sagður vera frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1262 að Ăslenskir höfðingjar hafi sett ĂŸað sem skilyrði fyrir ĂŸvĂ að gangast undir vald konungs að sĂœslumenn yrðu Ăslenskir og af ĂŸeim höfðingjaĂŠttum sem åður höfðu farið með goðorðin. Settar hafa verið fram efasemdir um að ĂŸessi texti Gamla sĂĄttmĂĄla sĂ© Ă raun frĂĄ 13. öld en ljĂłst er að Ă framkvĂŠmd fĂłr konungur eftir ĂŸessu og skipaði einungis Ăslendinga sem sĂœslumenn. Orðið sĂœsla merkir Ă raun verk, vinnu eða athöfn sem maður innir af hendir fyrir sjĂĄlfan sig eða annan. SĂœslumaður var ĂŸvĂ sĂĄ embĂŠttismaður sem innir eitthvað af hendi fyrir konung. SlĂkir embĂŠttismenn ĂŸekktust fyrir Ă Noregi og Danmörku. Menn höfðu sĂœslu með ĂĄkveðnum landshlutum og hugtakið var ĂŸĂĄ einnig notað til að vĂsa til landssvÊðis sem sĂœslumaður hafði sĂœslu með. SĂœslumanna var getið Ă JĂĄrnsĂðu og JĂłnsbĂłk en ĂŸar var ĂŸĂł ekki getið um stĂŠrð og staðarmörk sĂœslanna. Ă upphafi konungsstjĂłrnar ĂĄ Ăslandi hafa sĂœslur verið mjög stĂłrar, nåð yfir heila landsfjĂłrðunga eða jafnvel fleiri en einn fjĂłrðung. SĂœsluskiptingin var lengi ĂĄ reiki, sĂœslur misstĂłrar og aðallega mĂłtaðar af samkomulagi hvers og eins sĂœslumanns við konung eða hirðstjĂłra. SmĂĄtt og smĂĄtt fĂłru ĂŸĂŠr ĂŸĂł að taka ĂĄ sig fastmĂłtaðri mynd, m.a. með tilliti til ĂŸeirra rökrĂ©ttu landslagsmarka sem hin forna skipting landsins Ă hĂ©raðsĂŸing hafði åður byggt ĂĄ en ĂŸað var ekki fyrr en ĂĄ sĂðari hluta 16. aldar sem að sĂœslurnar voru komnar með ĂŸau nöfn og staðarmörk sem hĂ©ldust Ă tiltölulega föstum skorðum eftir ĂŸað. Ă sĂðari hluta 17. aldar voru allt að 24 sĂœslumenn Ă landinu. + +Tekið var manntal ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄrið 1703 og voru ĂŸĂĄ 23 sĂœslumenn ĂĄ Ăslandi sem fengu ĂŸað hlutverk að skila skĂœrslu Ășr sinni sĂœslu um alla menn sem ĂŸar fundust fyrir. + +FjölĂŸĂŠtt hlutverk +Við endurreisn AlĂŸingis ĂĄrið 1844 var sĂœsluskipting landsins notuð til grundvallar kjördĂŠmaskipan við kosningar til ĂŸingsins. Ă fyrstu kosningunum voru sĂœslurnar allar einmenningskjördĂŠmi auk ReykjavĂkur sem myndaði sĂ©rstakt kjördĂŠmi. Eftir ĂŸvĂ sem ĂŸingmönnum ĂĄ hinu endurreista ĂŸingi var fjölgað var sumum sĂœslum breytt Ă tvĂmenningskjördĂŠmi en öðrum skipt upp. StĂŠrstu kaupstaðir urðu einnig að sĂ©rstökum kjördĂŠmum. Með uppstokkun kjördĂŠmakerfisins 1959 var hĂŠtt að notast við sĂœslurnar og Ă staðinn voru tekin upp ĂĄtta stĂŠrri kjördĂŠmi með hlutfallskosningum. + +SamkvĂŠmt konunglegri tilskipun um sveitarstjĂłrnarmĂĄl ĂĄrið 1872 fengu sveitarfĂ©lög forrÊði yfir eigin mĂĄlum og settar voru ĂĄ laggirnar kjörnar hreppsnefndir og sĂœslunefndir auk amtsråða sem sĂœslunefndarmenn kusu fulltrĂșa Ă. Með ĂŸessum breytingum drĂł mjög Ășr boðvaldi sĂœslumanna sem fulltrĂșa konungs Ă hĂ©raði ĂŸar sem Ăœmis staðbundin mĂĄl heyrðu nĂș undir forrÊði kjörinna fulltrĂșa Ă hrepps- og sĂœslunefndum. SĂœslur höfðu upp frĂĄ ĂŸessu Ă raun tvöfalt hlutverk, annars vegar sem sveitarstjĂłrnarumdĂŠmi sem höfðu umboð kjĂłsenda og hins vegar sem lögsagnarumdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna sem umboðsmanna framkvĂŠmdavaldsins. Ăetta tvöfalda hlutverk birtist til dĂŠmis Ă ĂŸvĂ að farið var að skipta sumum sĂœslum upp Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarskyni ĂŸĂł að ĂŸĂŠr hĂ©ldust Ăłbreyttar sem lögsagnarumdĂŠmi. Ăannig var t.d. HĂșnavatnssĂœslu skipt upp Ă tvö sĂœslufĂ©lög Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarmĂĄlum (Austur- og Vestur-HĂșnavatnssĂœsla) en Ăłskipt HĂșnavatnssĂœsla hĂ©lt ĂĄfram að vera til sem lögsagnarumdĂŠmi sĂœslumanns. + +Allir hreppar voru hluti af sĂœslufĂ©lagi og völdu kjĂłsendur Ă hverjum hreppi einn fulltrĂșa til að sitja Ă sĂœslunefndinni. SĂœslumaður var ĂĄvallt formaður sĂœslunefndar. Verkefni sĂœslufĂ©laganna voru fjölbreytt og snertu til dĂŠmis gerð og viðhald sĂœsluvega, fjallskil, fĂĄtĂŠkraframfĂŠrslu og frÊðslumĂĄl. SĂœslufĂ©lögin fjĂĄrmögnuðu verkefni sĂn með gjöldum sem lögð voru ĂĄ hreppana samkvĂŠmt ĂĄkvörðunum sĂœslunefnda en ĂŸessi gjöld voru mjög mishĂĄ ĂĄ milli sĂœslufĂ©laga ĂŸar sem umfangið ĂĄ Ăștgjöldum ĂŸeirra var einnig misjafnt. Ă sumum sĂœslum voru sĂœslufĂ©lög með umfangsmikinn rekstur ĂĄ skĂłlum, söfnum, elliheimilum o.s.frv. ĂĄ meðan hrepparnir sjĂĄlfir fĂłru með ĂŸau mĂĄl milliliðalaust à öðrum sĂœslum. + +Kaupstaðir voru ĂĄ hinn bĂłginn ekki hluti af sĂœslufĂ©lögunum og ĂŸegar hreppur fĂ©kk kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi gekk hann um leið Ășr sĂœslufĂ©laginu. Kaupstaðir höfðu ĂŸannig meiri stjĂłrn ĂĄ sĂnum mĂĄlum og greiddu ekki Ă sĂœslusjóði. Kaupstaðir mynduðu einnig sjĂĄlfstÊð lögsagnarumdĂŠmi og bĂŠjarfĂłgetar fĂłru ĂŸar með ĂŸau löggĂŠslu- og dĂłmsmĂĄl sem sĂœslumenn sĂĄu um Ă dreifbĂœlinu. Hins vegar var ĂŸað ĂŸĂł vĂða ĂŸannig að sami embĂŠttismaðurinn gegndi samhliða stöðu bĂŠjarfĂłgeta og sĂœslumanns, til dĂŠmis var sĂœslumaður GullbringusĂœslu einnig bĂŠjarfĂłgeti kaupstaðanna Ă KeflavĂk, NjarðvĂk og GrindavĂk. + +AfnĂĄm + +Ăegar leið ĂĄ seinni helming 20. aldar var farið að kalla eftir umbĂłtum og einföldun stjĂłrnkerfisins, bÊði ĂĄ sveitarstjĂłrnarstiginu ĂŸar sem farið var að leggja ĂĄherslu ĂĄ sameiningu fĂĄmennra sveitarfĂ©laga og einnig ĂĄ fyrirkomulagi umboðsvalds og dĂłmsvalds sem var ĂĄ höndum sĂœslumanna og bĂŠjarfĂłgeta. Ă 9. ĂĄratugnum var ĂŸvĂ råðist Ă miklar lagabreytingar sem Ă reynd lögðu sĂœslur af sem stjĂłrnsĂœsluumdĂŠmi. Ărið 1986 voru samĂŸykkt nĂœ sveitarstjĂłrnarlög sem mĂŠltu fyrir um að sĂœslufĂ©lög skyldu afnumin Ă ĂĄrslok 1988 og að öll sveitarfĂ©lög Ă landinu skyldu hafa sömu rĂ©ttarstöðuna, hvort sem um hreppa eða kaupstaði vĂŠri að rÊða. Ă stað sĂœslufĂ©laga ĂĄttu að koma hĂ©raðsnefndir sem byggðu ĂĄ valfrjĂĄlsri ĂŸĂĄtttöku sveitarfĂ©laga og sem kaupstaðir gĂĄtu lĂka verið aðilar að. SlĂkar hĂ©raðsnefndir störfuðu sums staðar ĂĄ grunni gömlu sĂœslufĂ©laganna en sĂðar hefur samstarf sveitarfĂ©laga aðalega fĂŠrst yfir ĂĄ vettvang landshlutasamtaka sem taka yfir stĂŠrra svÊði. VĂða hafa sveitarfĂ©lög einnig sameinast ĂŸannig að ĂŸau nĂĄ nĂș yfir heilar sĂœslur. SveitarfĂ©lagið Borgarbyggð er til dĂŠmis myndað Ășr öllum hreppum fyrrum MĂœrasĂœslu, mörgum hreppum fyrrum BorgarfjarðarsĂœslu og einum hreppi að auki Ășr fyrrum SnĂŠfellsnes- og HnappadalssĂœslu. + +Samhliða breytingum ĂĄ sveitarstjĂłrnarstiginu var råðist Ă breytingar ĂĄ embĂŠttum sĂœslumanna og bĂŠjarfĂłgeta. Aðalhvatinn að ĂŸeim breytingum var sĂĄ að fyrirkomulag framkvĂŠmdavalds og dĂłmsvalds ĂĄ landsbyggðinni hafði sĂŠtt gagnrĂœni erlendis vegna ĂŸess að sami embĂŠttismaðurinn (eða fulltrĂșar hans) fĂłru með lögregluvald og rannsĂłkn mĂĄla og svo dĂŠmdu svo Ă sömu mĂĄlum. DĂłmur MannrĂ©ttindadĂłmstĂłls EvrĂłpu vegna mĂĄls manns sem hafði verið dĂŠmdur fyrir umferðarlagabrot ĂĄ Akureyri var svo kornið sem fyllti mĂŠlinn. Með lögum um aðskilnað dĂłmsvalds og umboðsvalds Ă hĂ©raði var skilið ĂĄ milli rannsĂłkna og ĂĄkĂŠruvalds Ă sakamĂĄlum annars vegar og dĂłmsvaldsins hins vegar með ĂŸvĂ að stofnaðir voru sĂ©rstakir hĂ©raðsdĂłmstĂłlar sem lĂŠgsta ĂŸrep dĂłmsvaldsins à öllum mĂĄlum. Um leið voru ĂŸĂŠr breytingar gerðar ĂĄ umboðsvaldinu að landinu var skipt Ă 27 umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna. HĂŠtt var að kenna embĂŠttin við hinar fornu sĂœslur heldur tekið upp að kenna embĂŠttin við aðsetur sĂœslumanns, t.d. varð sĂœslumaður BarðastrandarsĂœslu að sĂœslumanninum ĂĄ Patreksfirði. Eftir ĂŸessa breytingu voru umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna einnig skilgreind Ă reglugerð með upptalningu ĂĄ sveitarfĂ©lögum sem falla undir hvert umdĂŠmi. Ăessi nĂœju sĂœslumannsumdĂŠmi fĂ©llu að mestu leyti saman við hina hefðbundnu sĂœsluskipan en ĂŸĂł með nokkrum undantekningum, s.s. að leggja nokkur nĂĄgrannasveitarfĂ©lög ReykjavĂkur Ășr fyrrum KjĂłsarsĂœslu undir sĂœslumanninn Ă ReykjavĂk og að lĂĄta Svalbarðsstrandar- og GrĂœtubakkahrepp fylgja sĂœslumanninum ĂĄ Akureyri ĂŸĂł að ĂŸessir hreppar hafi åður tilheyrt ĂingeyjarsĂœslu. Eftir ĂŸvĂ sem sveitarfĂ©lög sameinuðust ĂĄ nĂŠstu ĂĄrum voru ĂŸau stundum sameinuð ĂŸvert ĂĄ sĂœslumörk ĂŸannig að umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna Ăœmist minnkuðu eða stĂŠkkuðu eftir ĂŸvĂ Ă hvaða umdĂŠmi hinu sameinaða sveitarfĂ©lagi var skipað. + +EmbĂŠtti sĂœslumanna voru stokkuð upp ĂĄ nĂœjan leik með lagabreytingu ĂĄrið 2014 og var ĂŸeim ĂŸĂĄ fĂŠkkað niður Ă nĂu. LögsagnarumdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna byggja nĂș ĂĄ sömu skiptingu landsins Ă landshluta og landshlutasamtök sveitarfĂ©laga, með ĂŸeirri undantekningu að Vestmannaeyjar eru sĂ©rstakt umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanns. + +SĂœslurnar +SĂœslurnar voru 23 talsins. + +Kaupstaðir +Auk sĂœslnanna voru 24 sjĂĄlfstÊðir bĂŠir, kaupstaðir. + +Grundarfjörður (fĂ©kk kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi 1786 en missti ĂŸau og endurheimti ekki aftur) + +Annað +Ă flokkunarkerfi Sarps er minjum Ășthlutuð landfrÊðileg staðsetning eftir sĂœslum. + +NeðanmĂĄlsgreinar + +Tenglar + Vefur SĂœslumanna ĂĄ Ăslandi + Lög um framkvĂŠmdarvald rĂkisins Ă hĂ©raði 1989 nr. 92 1. jĂșnĂ ĂĄ vef AlĂŸingis + Reglugerð 1151/2014 um umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna. + Svar dĂłmsmĂĄlaråðherra við fyrirspurn Hjörleifs Guttormssonar um sĂœslur., 122. löggjafarĂŸing 1997â98. Ăskj. 1251 â 668. mĂĄl. +Ăsland er nĂŠst stĂŠrsta eyja EvrĂłpu, 103 ĂŸĂșsund kmÂČ að stĂŠrð. Ăsland er ĂĄ heitum reit ĂĄ Atlantshafshryggnum tĂŠplega 300 km austan við GrĂŠnland. Ă Ăslandi er mikil eldvirkni og vĂða jarðhiti, vĂða eru heitir hverir og er jarðhitinn nĂœttur til upphitunar hĂșsa. Um ĂŸað bil 10% eyjarinnar er undir jöklum, tĂŠplega fjĂłrðungur er grĂłinn, rĂșmlega helmingur er auðn og um 75% telst til hĂĄlendis. Eyjan er vogskorin nema suðurströndin, og flestir ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisstaðir standa við firði, vĂkur og voga. + +Helstu ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisstaðir eru ĂĄ höfuðborgarsvÊðinu ĂŸar sem ReykjavĂk, KĂłpavogur, GarðabĂŠr, Hafnarfjörður og MosfellsbĂŠr liggja saman. Meðal stĂŠrri ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisstaða Ă dreifbĂœli mĂĄ nefna Akureyri, höfuðstað Norðurlands, Ăsafjörð ĂĄ Vestfjörðum, ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli Ă ReykjanesbĂŠ ĂĄ Reykjanesi og Vestmannaeyjar. Akranes og Selfoss eru vaxandi ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisstaðir. + +Staðsetning og stĂŠrð + +Ăsland er vestasta land Ă EvrĂłpu en nĂĄgrannalandið GrĂŠnland er austasta land Ă AmerĂku. AsĂłreyjar, lĂtill eyjaklasi Ă Atlantshafi sem tilheyrir PortĂșgal, liggja að hluta vestar en Ăsland. Ăsland liggur Ă um 970 km fjarlĂŠgð frĂĄ Noregi, um 1489 km eru til Danmerkur, 420 km til FĂŠreyja og 550 til Jan Mayen. + +Ăsland er um 103.000 kmÂČ, 106. stĂŠrsta land heimsins, rĂflega 5 ĂŸĂșsund kmÂČ minna en Gvatemala og tĂŠpum 4 ĂŸĂșsund km stĂŠrra en Suður KĂłrea, og um 0,07% af flatarmĂĄli jarðarinnar. StrandlĂna landsins mĂŠlist 4.970 km en VestfjarðakjĂĄlkinn, Reykjanes og SnĂŠfellsnes hafa mikla strandlĂnu. Nyrsti tangi Ăslands heitir Rifstangi (66°32,3ÂŽ N) og sĂĄ syðsti Kötlutangi (63°23,6ÂŽ N), Ăsland liggur ĂŸvĂ ĂĄ milli 63 og 66 breiddargråðu. Vestasti oddi landsins eru Bjargtangar (24°32,1ÂŽ V) og sĂĄ austasti Gerpir (13°29,6ÂŽ V). + +StĂŠrstu eyjarnar við strendur landsins eru Vestmannaeyjar (samanlagt 17 kmÂČ), HrĂsey (8 kmÂČ), Hjörsey (5,5 kmÂČ), GrĂmsey (5,3 kmÂČ) og Flatey ĂĄ SkjĂĄlfanda (2,8 kmÂČ). Byggð er ĂĄ Vestmannaeyjum, ĂŸar bĂșa rĂflega fjögur ĂŸĂșsund manns. + +JarðfrÊði + +Ăsland tĂłk að myndast fyrir um 26-44 milljĂłnum ĂĄra. Elsta berg landsins er yst ĂĄ Vestfjörðum og er um 16 milljĂłn ĂĄra gamalt samkvĂŠmt aldursgreiningum. Vegna norðlĂŠgrar legu landsins eru ummerki Ăsaldarinnar ĂĄberandi en hĂșn hĂłfst af fullum krafti fyrir rĂșmlega 2 milljĂłnum ĂĄra. Seinasta kuldaskeiði Ăsaldar lauk fyrir um 11.500 ĂĄrum og er tĂmabilið eftir ĂŸað nefnt nĂștĂmi. + +Eins og åður hefur komið fram er Ăsland ĂĄ heitum reit, og er jarðhitasvÊðum skipt Ă hĂĄhitasvÊði eins og Kröflu, Brennisteinsfjöll og Hengil annars vegar og lĂĄghitasvÊði eins og við Reykholt Ă Borgarfirði ĂŸar sem Deildartunguhver er að finna. Ă gegnum Ăsland liggja ĂŸrjĂĄr aðalsprungureinar sem allar tilheyra Norður-Atlantshafshryggnum; ein kemur sunnan frĂĄ vestan Vestmannaeyja og endar við syðri rĂŠtur Langjökuls Ă norðri. Ănnur kemur norðan að austan GrĂmseyjar, yfir MelrakkaslĂ©ttu og niður Vatnajökul með BĂĄrðarbungu og GrĂmsvötnum til suðurs. Milli ĂŸessarra tveggja klemmist svo ĂŸverbrotabelti Suðurlandsundirlendisins sem gerir ĂŸað að mjög virku jarðskjĂĄlftasvÊði. Ăriðja og mĂĄttlausasta sprungureinin gengur vestan við Ăsland og norður með landinu austan við GrĂŠnland, og snertir eingöngu ĂĄ föstu landi við SnĂŠfellsjökul. + +Jöklar, vötn, ĂĄr og fossar + +Jöklar ĂŸekja 11.922 kmÂČ eða 11,6% landsins. Vatnajökull, stĂŠrsti jökull EvrĂłpu, er ĂĄ Suð-Austurlandi en hann er 8.100 kmÂČ. Ăr Vatnajökli ganga nokkrir skriðjöklar; SkaftĂĄrjökull, KöldukvĂslarjökull, TungnĂĄrjökull, SĂðujökull, SkeiðarĂĄrjökull, Breiðamerkurjökull, SkĂĄlafellsjökull, FlĂĄajökull, Eyjabakkajökull, BrĂșarjökull og Dyngjujökull. NĂŠst-stĂŠrsti jökull landsins er Langjökull um 950 kmÂČ, Hofsjökull er litlu minni eða 925 kmÂČ, MĂœrdalsjökull er 596 kmÂČ, Drangajökull 160 kmÂČ og fjölda smĂŠrri jökla er að finna ĂĄ landinu. + +Alls ĂŸekja stöðuvötn um 2.757 kmÂČ af yfirborði Ăslands eða sem samsvarar 2,68% af flatarmĂĄli landsins. StĂŠrsta stöðuvatn Ăslands er ĂĂłrisvatn eða Ăingvallavatn, eftir ĂŸvĂ hver vatnsstaðan Ă ĂĂłrisvatni er en ĂŸað er miðlunarlĂłn fyrir Vatnsfellsvirkjun. DĂœpsta stöðuvatn landsins er Ăskjuvatn við Ăskju, um 220 m ĂĄ dĂœpt. MĂœvatn er ĂŸekkt stöðuvatn sem er nĂĄlĂŠgt Kröflu og er mjög grunnt og Ă eru fjöldi eyja. Ă MĂœvatni finnast stĂłrir, kĂșlulaga grĂŠnĂŸĂ¶rungar sem nefnt er kĂșluskĂtur en ĂŸeir eru sĂ©rstakir fyrir ĂŸĂŠr sakir að ĂŸeir finnast aðeins Ă MĂœvatni og Ă Akanvatni ĂĄ Hokkaidoeyju Ă Japan. + +Lengsta ĂĄ Ăslands er ĂjĂłrsĂĄ sem rennur frĂĄ norðanverðum Sprengisandi um 230 km leið til sjĂĄvar. Vatnsmesta ĂĄ Ăslands er ĂlfusĂĄ en við Selfoss mĂŠlist meðalrennsli hennar 400 mÂł/s. JökulsĂĄ ĂĄ Fjöllum sem rennur undan Vatnajökli er önnur lengsta ĂĄ landsins, JökulsĂĄ ĂĄ Dal sem rennur lĂka undan Vatnajökli hefur verið virkjuð með KĂĄrahnjĂșkavirkjun. + +HĂŠsti foss landsins er Morsi Ă MorsĂĄ, mĂŠldur 227,3 m ĂĄ hÊð. Gullfoss er einn ĂŸekktasti foss landsins sem ĂĄsamt hvernum Geysi trekkir að fjölda ferðamanna ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri. Dettifoss, Goðafoss, Glymur Svartifoss og Dynjandi eru einnig ĂŸekkt örnefni. + +Veðurfar +Ă Ăslandi er temprað loftslag, landið er ekki stĂłrt og geta mĂĄnaðarmeðaltöl Ă hita ĂĄ tilteknum stað veitt góða hugmynd um aðra staði ĂĄ landinu. Golfstraumurinn hefur talsverð ĂĄhrif ĂĄ hitastig, að vetri til er hlĂœjar meðfram ströndinni en inni ĂĄ landi. Ăetta getur ĂŸĂł breyst sĂ© hafĂs við landið eða ef mjög hĂŠgviðrasamt er. Að sumri til rÊður vindafar miklu um hitastig ĂĄ landinu. Mesti hiti sem mĂŠlst hefur ĂĄ landinu var 30,5 °C Teigarhorni ĂŸann 22. jĂșnĂ 1939 en lĂŠgsti hiti mĂŠldist ĂĄ GrĂmsstöðum og Möðrudal -38 °C ĂŸann 21. janĂșar 1918. Meðalhiti Ă ReykjavĂk Ă janĂșar er 1,8 °C en â8 °C ĂĄ miðhĂĄlendinu ĂŸar sem vetur eru kaldastir. Meðalhiti Ă jĂșlĂ er um 10 °C ĂĄ landinu öllu, aðeins lĂŠgri ĂĄ norðurlandi. + +Fylgni er ĂĄ milli Ășrkomu og hitastigs ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ă sĂðastliðinni hĂĄlfri öld eða svo hefur Ășrkoma aukist. Talsverður munur er Ă meðalĂșrkomu og meðalhita ĂĄ veðurathugunarstöðvum fyrir ĂĄrið 2006; ĂĄ KirkjubĂŠjarklaustri mĂŠldist Ășrkoman 2.218 mm og hitinn 5,6 °C, ĂĄ Raufarhöfn 509 mm og 3,8 °C Ă ReykjavĂk 890 mm og 5,4 °C. + +Gróðurfar + +Ă landnĂĄmsöld er ĂĄĂŠtlað að um fjĂłrðungur landsins hafi verið ĂŸakinn birkiskĂłgi eða kjarri en Ă dag er um 2% lands skĂłg eða kjarri vaxið. Ăar af er 0,5% rĂŠktaður skĂłgur og 1,5% birkiskĂłgar og kjarr (2019) . + +Algengasta tréð er ilmbjörk. Ănnur innlend trĂ© eru ilmreynir og hin sjaldgĂŠfa blÊösp. Einnig finnast runnar og kjarr eins og gulvĂðir og loðvĂðir og fjalldrapi. Innfluttar trjĂĄtegundir sem notaðar hafa helst Ă skĂłgrĂŠkt eru: Alaskaösp, sitkagreni, rĂșssalerki og stafafura. SkĂłgrĂŠkt innfluttra trĂĄa jĂłkst mjög eftir seinni heimsstyrjöld. Talið er að eingöngu um 500 tegundir hĂĄplantna sĂ© að finna ĂĄ Ăslandi vegna sĂðustu Ăsaldar, er landið var hulið jökli. Bróðurpartur ĂŸeirra plantna sem nĂș ĂŸrĂfast ĂĄ landinu hafa borist eftir Ăsöld með vindum, fuglum eða mönnum en sumir telja að allt að fimmtungur hafi lifað af Ăsöldina, til dĂŠmis ĂĄ jökulskerjum. + +LĂtil fjölbreytni er Ă gróðurfari milli landshluta. ĂĂł er talað um einkennisplöntur, ĂŸað er blĂĄklukku og gullsteinbrjĂłt ĂĄ Austurlandi og draumsĂłley og krossjurt ĂĄ Vestfjörðum. Nokkrar plöntur eru bundnar við ĂĄkveðin svÊði, til dĂŠmis skeggburkni ĂĄ Norðurlandi og burstajafni ĂĄ Suðausturlandi. Yfir 600 mosategundir, 700 flĂ©ttutegundir og um 2.000 tegundir af sveppum hafa fundist ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ein ĂĄstÊða fjölda sveppategunda er sĂș að sveppagrĂł eru smĂĄsĂŠ og geta borist með vindum, aukinheldur ĂŸrĂfast sveppir Ă tiltölulega ĂłfrjĂłum jarðvegi. Eitt megineinkenni gróðurfars ĂĄ Ăslandi er mosi en hann er vĂða eini gróðurinn sem ĂŸrĂfst Ă hraunum og söndum landsins. + +DĂœralĂf + +Miðað er við að um 1.600 tegundir dĂœra finnist ĂĄ Ăslandi, rĂflega helmingurinn skordĂœr. FĂĄ stĂłr spendĂœr finnast ĂĄ Ăslandi, heimskautarefurinn er eina upprunalega spendĂœrið. HvĂtabirnir hafa einnig borist til landsins með hafĂs. Ănnur stĂŠrri dĂœr hafa verið flutt til landsins og meðal ĂŸeirra mĂĄ nefna hagamĂșsina, hreindĂœr, minkinn, rottuna, ketti og hunda. BĂșskapur er hafður ĂĄ kindum, hestum og nautgripum. ĂĂĄ tĂðkast einnig eldi hĂŠnsna (kjöt og eggjaafurðir), loðdĂœra, svĂna og geita. + +Rostunga mĂĄ finna við strendur landsins og sex tegundir sela sömuleiðis; landselur, vöðuselur, hringanĂłri, Ăștselur, blöðruselur og kampselur. SĂ©st hafa 23 tegundir hvala ĂĄ Ăslandsmiðum en ĂĄ hverjum tĂma er metið sem svo að ĂĄ bilinu 3-4 hundruð ĂŸĂșsund hvali megi finna ĂŸar. Einna fjölmennustu tegundirnar eru langreyður, hrefna, grindhvalur og sandreyður en einnig finnast steypireyðar, andarnefjur, hĂĄhyrningar, bĂșrhvalir og blettahnĂœĂ°ar. HnĂșfubakur er aftur ĂĄ mĂłti mjög sjaldgĂŠfur að talið er vegna ofveiða Norðmanna en hann var friðaður ĂĄrið 1955. Enn sjaldgĂŠfari tegundir eru nĂĄhvalur og mjaldur. Ă ferskvatni lifa laxar, urriðar, bleikjur, hornsĂli og ĂĄlar. + +Alls hafa sĂ©st um 370 tegundir fugla ĂĄ Ăslandi, ĂŸ.m.t. mĂĄvar, endur, svanir, hafernir, hrafnar og fĂĄlkar. Um 80 tegundir fugla verpa ĂĄ Ăslandi. Lundinn er ĂĄlitinn eins konar einkennisdĂœr landsins, enda er hann fjölmennastur fugla, talið er að 10 milljĂłn lunda verpi ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ hverju sumri. Ăsland er einnig viðkomustaður farfugla, s.s. gĂŠsa og vaðfugla. Mikil dĂșntekja hefur verið við Ăslandsstrendur Ă gegnum aldirnar en hĂșn er mikilvĂŠg ĂĄ hlunnindajörðum. Ăðarfuglinn var friðaður ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄrið 1786. + +TilvĂsanir +<div class="references-small"> + +Heimildir + UpplĂœsingar ĂĄ Ăœmsum vefsĂðum NĂĄttĂșrufrÊðistofnunar Ăslands + +Tenglar + + NĂĄttĂșrufrÊðistofnun Ăslands + NĂĄttĂșrufrÊðistofa KĂłpavogs + Island.is - Ferðalög og samgöngur > Innanlands + NĂĄttĂșrustofa Austurlands + NĂĄttĂșrustofa Vesturlands + NĂĄttĂșrustofa Norðausturlands + NĂĄttĂșrustofa Suðurlands + NĂĄttĂșrustofa Reykjaness + NĂĄttĂșrustofa Vestfjarða + NĂĄttĂșrustofa Norðurlands vestra + LandmĂŠlingar Ăslands + HafrannsĂłknarstofnun + VeiðimĂĄlastofnun + Orkustofnun - Gögn og fróðleikur + Landshagir 2007 - Land og umhverfi, rit gefið Ășt af Hagstofu Ăslands + FlĂłra Ăslands + +FĂ©lagasamtök + Landvernd + NĂĄttĂșruverndarsamtök Ăslands +Getur lĂka ĂĄtt við Ăslenska menningu, bĂłk Sigurðar Nordals. +Ăslensk menning er menning Ăslendinga. HĂșn er ĂŸekkt fyrir bĂłkmenntasögu sĂna, sem er byggð ĂĄ höfundum frĂĄ 12. og 14. öldum. + +BĂłkmenntir +Elstu Ăslensku bĂłkmenntirnar eru skrifaðar Ă kringum 1100, ĂŸĂł ĂŸĂŠr eigi sĂ©r mun eldri rĂŠtur Ă munnlegri geymd. Ăað sem fyrst var skrifað voru lög, ĂĄttvĂsi (ĂŠttfrÊði) og ĂŸĂœĂ°ingar helgar (kristinfrÊði), auk Fyrstu mĂĄlfrÊðiritgerðarinnar og ĂslendingabĂłkar Ara fróða. Sögur af konungum fylgdu svo Ă kjölfarið og ĂŸĂĄ Ăslendingasögur, riddarasögur og fornaldarsögur. + + Ăslensk skĂĄld + Ăslenskar bĂłkmenntir + +Leiklist + Ăslenskir leikarar + +Kvikmyndir +Ărlega eru veitt verðlaun fyrir afrek liðins ĂĄrs Ă kvikmyndagerð ĂĄ Ăslandi. Verðlaunin, sem hafa Ăskarsverðlaunin bandarĂsku sem fyrirmynd, eru kölluð Edduverðlaunin. + + Ăslenskar kvikmyndir + +TĂłnlist + Ăslenskir tĂłnlistarmenn + Ăslenskar hljĂłmsveitir + Ăslensku tĂłnlistarverðlaunin 2004 + +Myndlist +Myndlist ĂĄ Ăslandi er ung ĂĄ alĂŸjóðamĂŠlikvarða. Ăður voru ĂŸað aðallega mĂĄlverk sem voru gerð, en um 1965 varð til hĂłpur sem kallaði sig SĂM og ĂŸeir komu með nĂœjar stefnur Ă Ăslenska myndlist Ă fyrsta sinn. Innsetningar, gjörningar og fleira Ă ĂŸeim dĂșr kom Ă fyrsta sinn til landsins og var listamaðurinn Dieter Roth helsta driffjörðin Ă SĂM. + + Ăslenskir myndlistamenn + Ăslenskir mĂĄlarar + MyndlistarskĂłlar + +Hannyrðir og klÊðagerð + + ĂjóðbĂșningurinn + +Annað +Ăekktustu Ăslendingarnir eru lĂklega tĂłnlistarkonan Björk GuðmundsdĂłttir og rithöfundurinn HalldĂłr Laxness, NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi Ă bĂłkmenntum ĂĄrið 1955. + +Ăslensk menning +Lofsöngur er sĂĄlmur eftir MatthĂas Jochumsson við lag Sveinbjörns Sveinbjörnssonar samið fyrir ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂð Ă tilefni af ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄra afmĂŠli Ăslandsbyggðar ĂĄrið 1874. Lag og ljóð voru frumflutt af blönduðum kĂłr við hĂĄtĂðarguðsĂŸjĂłnustu sem hĂłfst klukkan 10:30 Ă DĂłmkirkjunni Ă ReykjavĂk sunnudaginn 2. ĂĄgĂșst 1874 sem Lofsöngur Ă minningu Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄra og var konungur Danmerkur (og ĂŸar með konungur Ăslands), KristjĂĄn IX, viðstaddur ĂŸĂĄ athöfn. + +Ljóðið öðlaðist Ă kjölfar ĂŸess vinsĂŠldir meðal almennings sem ĂŸjóðsöngur og var flutt sem slĂkt við fullveldistökuna 1918, sĂș staða ljóðs og lags var svo fest Ă âlög um ĂŸjóðsöng Ăslendingaâ, sem voru samĂŸykkt ĂĄ AlĂŸingi 8. mars 1983 og tĂłku gildi 25. mars sama ĂĄr. Ăður var vĂsan Eldgamla Ăsafold eftir Bjarna Thorarensen við lagið God Save the Queen oft sungin sem einhvers konar ĂŸjóðsöngur, en ĂŸað ĂŸĂłtti ekki hĂŠfa að notast við sama lag og aðrar ĂŸjóðir nota við ĂŸjóðsöng sinn. + +Lofsöngurinn gengur oftast undir heitinu Ă, Guð vors lands, sem er fyrsta ljóðlĂna hans og er ĂŸað meðal annars notað sem heiti ljóðsins Ă lögum um ĂŸjóðsönginn, en er ĂŸĂł skrifað ĂŸar ĂĄn kommu ĂĄ eftir Ăł-inu. + +Saga +Gefinn var Ășt konungsĂșrskurður ĂŸann 8. september 1873 ĂŸess efnis að opinber guðsĂŸjĂłnusta skyldi haldin à öllum kirkjum landsins Ă tilefni 1000 ĂĄra afmĂŠli Ăslandsbyggðar sumarið 1874, og ĂĄtti biskup Ăslands samkvĂŠmt honum að ĂĄkveða messudag og rÊðutexta, PĂ©tur PĂ©tursson sem ĂŸĂĄ ĂŸjĂłnaði sem biskup ĂĄkvað að messudagurinn skyldi vera 2. ĂĄgĂșst 1874 og að sĂĄlmurinn sem flytja skyldi vĂŠri 90. DavĂðssĂĄlmur, 1.-4. og 12.-17. vers, og urðu ĂŸau vers innblĂĄstur MatthĂasar Jochumssonar að Lofsöngnum: + +Drottinn, ĂŸĂș hefir verið oss athvarf +frĂĄ kyni til kyns. +Ăður en fjöllin fĂŠddust +og jörðin og heimurinn urðu til, +frĂĄ eilĂfð til eilĂfðar ert ĂŸĂș, Ăł Guð. + +ĂĂș lĂŠtur manninn hverfa aftur til duftsins +og segir: "Hverfið aftur, ĂŸĂ©r mannanna börn!" +ĂvĂ að ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr eru Ă ĂŸĂnum augum +sem dagurinn Ă gĂŠr, ĂŸegar hann er liðinn, +jĂĄ, eins og nĂŠturvaka. + +Kenn oss að telja daga vora, +að vĂ©r megum öðlast viturt hjarta. + +SnĂș ĂŸĂș aftur, Drottinn. Hversu lengi er ĂŸess að bĂða, +að ĂŸĂș aumkist yfir ĂŸjĂłna ĂŸĂna? +Metta oss að morgni með miskunn ĂŸinni, +að vĂ©r megum fagna og gleðjast alla daga vora. + +Veit oss gleði Ă stað daga ĂŸeirra, er ĂŸĂș hefir lĂŠgt oss, +ĂĄra ĂŸeirra, er vĂ©r höfum illt reynt. +LĂĄt dåðir ĂŸĂnar birtast ĂŸjĂłnum ĂŸĂnum +og dĂœrð ĂŸĂna börnum ĂŸeirra. + +Hylli Drottins, Guðs vors, sĂ© yfir oss, +styrk ĂŸĂș verk handa vorra. + +Ljóðið var ort ĂĄ Bretlandseyjum veturinn 1873-1874, fyrsta erindið ĂĄ heimili Sveinbjörns Sveinbjörnssonar að London Street 15 Ă Edinborg ĂĄrið 1873, ĂŸar sem MatthĂas dvaldi um hrĂð en annað og ĂŸriðja erindið Ă LundĂșnum og segir MatthĂas svo frĂĄ yrkingu ĂŸess Ă sjĂĄlfsĂŠvisögu sinni, Sögukaflar af sjĂĄlfum mĂ©r, Ă kaflanum âĂriðja Ăștförin mĂnâ, undirkaflanum âHjĂĄ kunningjum ĂĄ Bretlandiâ: + +BrynjĂłlfur TĂłbĂasson segir Ă bĂłk sinni, ĂjóðhĂĄtĂðin 1874, ĂŸannig frĂĄ fyrsta flutningi Lofsöngsins: + +UmrÊður um að skipta um ĂŸjóðsöng +Reglulega hefur sĂș hugmynd komið upp Ă ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagsumrÊðunni að skipta um ĂŸjóðsöng og hafa ĂŸĂĄ oft verið nefnd lögin Ăsland er land ĂŸitt eftir MagnĂșs ĂĂłr Sigmundsson við texta MargrĂ©tar JĂłnsdĂłttur og ljóð Eggerts Ălafssonar Ăsland ögrum skorið við lag Sigvalda KaldalĂłns og Ăxar við ĂĄna, lag Helga Helgasonar við ljóð SteingrĂms Thorsteinssonar. Ăjóðsöngurinn hefur einkum verið gagnrĂœndur fyrir að ĂŸykja torsunginn; að vera of langur, en iðulega ĂŸarf að auka spilunarhraða lagsins eða stytta ĂŸað, oftast niður Ă fyrsta erindið, við alĂŸjóðlega kappleiki og aðrar ĂŸjóðlegar samkomur; fyrir að vera torskilinn og að lokum fyrir að fjalla aðallega um Guð kristinna manna. + +Ărið 1996 (121. löggjafarĂŸing, 35. mĂĄl) var lögð fram ĂŸingsĂĄlyktunartillaga um âendurskoðun ĂĄ lögum um ĂŸjóðsöng Ăslendingaâ og m.a. lagt til að taka upp annan ĂŸjóðsöng ĂĄsamt lofsöngnum og hafa ĂŸĂĄ tvo ĂŸjóðsöngva (lĂkt og t.d. NĂœja SjĂĄland hefur gert), tillagan var felld. + +Ăann 8. nĂłvember 2004 (131. löggjafarĂŸing, 279. mĂĄl) lögðu tveir ĂŸingmenn SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokksins Ășr NorðausturkjördĂŠmi, SigrĂður IngvarsdĂłttir og Hilmar Gunnlaugsson fram ĂŸingsĂĄlyktunartillögu ĂŸess efnis að kannað yrði hvort rĂ©tt vĂŠri að skipta um ĂŸjóðsöng, âmeð ĂŸað fyrir augum að taka upp nĂœjan ĂŸjóðsöng sem vĂŠri auðveldari Ă flutningi og hentaði betur til almennrar notkunar, svo sem Ă skĂłlum, ĂĄ ĂĂŸrĂłttakappleikjum og við önnur svipuð tĂŠkifĂŠri.â Ăau mĂŠltu einkum með tveimur staðgenglum: ljóðinu Ăsland ögrum skorið og laginu Ăsland er land ĂŸitt. Fyrri umrÊða var haldin 16. nĂłvember 2004 og var ĂĄkveðið skv. atkvÊðagreiðslu að halda henni ĂĄfram Ă sĂðari umrÊðu. + +Ă könnun Gallup Ă mars 1994 var spurt tveggja spurninga: âHvað heitir ĂŸjóðsöngurinn?â og âĂ að skipta um ĂŸjóðsöng?â + +Við fyrri spurningunni svöruðu 60% âĂ guð vors landsâ, 1,8% âLofsöngurâ, 6% nefndu aðra söngva, 32% aðspurðra kvåðust ekki vita nafn ĂŸjóðsöngsins. Mikill munur var eftir aldri ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ hvort aðspurðir vissu hver ĂŸjóðsöngurinn vĂŠri, eða um 30% 15-24 ĂĄra fĂłlks og 90% 55-69 ĂĄra. + +Við seinni spurningunni svöruðu 65% ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸeir vildu halda sig við nĂșverandi ĂŸjóðsöng, tĂŠplega 5% kusu Ăxar við ĂĄna. + +Ă annarri Gallupkönnun sem gerð var Ă nĂłvember 1996 Ă kjölfar umrÊðna ĂĄ AlĂŸingi um hvort skipta ĂŠtti um ĂŸjóðsöng, vildu 68% halda nĂșverandi ĂŸjóðsöng og tĂŠplega 32% vildu nĂœjan. Stuðningur við ĂŸjóðsönginn jĂłkst með hĂŠkkandi aldri en fĂłr ĂŸĂł aldrei niður fyrir 50%. Athuga skal, að Ă hvorugri könnuninni gaf Gallup upp stĂŠrð Ășrtaks eða svarhlutfall. + +Lagaleg staða +âLög um ĂŸjóðsöng Ăslendingaâ, ĂŸar sem söngurinn er nefndur âĂ Guð vors landsâ, voru samĂŸykkt ĂĄ AlĂŸingi 8. mars 1983 og tĂłku gildi 25. mars sama ĂĄr. Ăar er m.a. staðhĂŠft að hann sĂ© eign Ăslensku ĂŸjóðarinnar, að hann skuli ekki flytja eða birta Ă annarri mynd en hinni upprunalegu, að eigi sĂ© heimilt að nota hann Ă viðskipta- eða auglĂœsingaskyni, að forsĂŠtisråðherra skuli skera Ășr um allan ĂĄgreining um rĂ©tta notkun hans og að forsĂŠtisråðuneytið fari með umråð yfir ĂștgĂĄfurĂ©tti hans. Forsetinn hefur svo vald til að setja nĂĄnari ĂĄkvÊði um notkun hans með forsetaĂșrskurði ef ĂŸĂ¶rf ĂŸykir. + +Brot ĂĄ lögunum vörðuðu upprunalega varðhaldi allt að 2 ĂĄrum, en ĂŸvĂ var breytt með lögum nr. 82, 16. jĂșnĂ 1998. Eftir að ĂŸau tĂłku gildi varðaði brot ĂĄ lögum um ĂŸjóðsöng Ăslendinga fangelsisvist allt að 2 ĂĄrum. + +Ljóðið +Lofsöngurinn samanstendur af ĂŸremur erindum og er yfirleitt lĂĄtið nĂŠgja að syngja ĂŸað fyrsta við opinberar samkomur. + +1. erindi +Ă, guð vors lands! Ă, lands vors guð! +VĂ©r lofum ĂŸitt heilaga, heilaga nafn! +Ăr sĂłlkerfum himnanna hnĂœta ĂŸĂ©r krans +ĂŸĂnir herskarar, tĂmanna safn. +Fyrir ĂŸĂ©r er einn dagur sem ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr +og ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr dagur, ei meir: +eitt eilĂfðar smĂĄblĂłm með titrandi tĂĄr, +sem tilbiður guð sinn og deyr. +Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr, +Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr, +eitt eilĂfðar smĂĄblĂłm með titrandi tĂĄr, +sem tilbiður guð sinn og deyr. + +2. erindi +Ă, guð, Ăł, guð! VĂ©r föllum fram +og fĂłrnum ĂŸĂ©r brennandi, brennandi sĂĄl, +guð faðir, vor drottinn frĂĄ kyni til kyns, +og vĂ©r kvökum vort helgasta mĂĄl. +VĂ©r kvökum og ĂŸĂ¶kkum Ă ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr, +ĂŸvĂ ĂŸĂș ert vort einasta skjĂłl. +VĂ©r kvökum og ĂŸĂ¶kkum með titrandi tĂĄr, +ĂŸvĂ ĂŸĂș tilbjĂłst vort forlagahjĂłl. +Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr +Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr +voru morgunsins hĂșmköldu, hrynjandi tĂĄr, +sem hitna við skĂnandi sĂłl. + +3. erindi +Ă, guð vors lands! Ă, lands vors guð! +VĂ©r lifum sem blaktandi, blaktandi strĂĄ. +VĂ©r deyjum, ef ĂŸĂș ert ei ljĂłs ĂŸað og lĂf, +sem að lyftir oss duftinu frĂĄ. +Ă, vert ĂŸĂș hvern morgun vort ljĂșfasta lĂf, +vor leiðtogi Ă daganna ĂŸraut +og ĂĄ kvöldin vor himneska hvĂld og vor hlĂf +og vor hertogi ĂĄ ĂŸjóðlĂfsins braut. +Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr +Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr +verði grĂłandi ĂŸjóðlĂf með ĂŸverrandi tĂĄr, +sem ĂŸroskast ĂĄ guðsrĂkis braut. + +SjĂĄ einnig +Ăslenski fĂĄninn +Skjaldarmerki Ăslands + +TilvĂsanir + +Heimild + + Sögukaflar af sjĂĄlfum mĂ©r eftir MatthĂas Jochumsson. 1959. + +Tenglar + + Upprunalegt nĂłtnahandrit Lofsöngsins + Lög um ĂŸjóðsöng Ăslendinga . og lög um breytingu ĂĄ ĂŸeim (ĂĄsamt öðrum lögum) (). + Tillaga til ĂŸingsĂĄlyktunar um nĂœjan ĂŸjóðsöng, ĂștbĂœtt 8. nĂłvember 2004. + VefsĂða ForsĂŠtisråðuneytisins um ĂŸjóðsönginn ĂŸar sem farið er Ă sögu hans, sĂœndar eru nĂłtur fyrir blandaðan kĂłr, pĂanĂł og karlakĂłr, auk ĂŸess sem hĂœstar eru ĂŸĂœĂ°ingar ĂĄ fyrsta erindi ljóðsins yfir ĂĄ fjölmörg tungumĂĄl. + Ăjóðsöngur Ăslendinga - formĂĄli eftir SteingrĂm J. Ăorsteinsson - 1957 + Ăgrip af sögu ĂŸjóðsöngsins eftir Birgi Thorlacius - 1991 + âĂ, Guð vors landsâ - Ăjóðsöngur Ăslendingaâ inniheldur m.a. sönginn Ă flutningi blandaðs kĂłrs og blandaðs kĂłrs ĂĄsamt hljĂłmsveit. + +Greinar um lofsöngin + Land vors guðs? - Saga lofsöngsins; af Vantru.is . + NĂș vantar ĂŸjóðsönginn; grein eftir HalldĂłr Laxness, birtist Ă Ăjóðviljanum 1944 + âĂtti medalĂu skiliðâ; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1972 + +Ăslensk tĂłnlist +SĂĄlmar +ĂjóðartĂĄkn Ăslands +Ăjóðsöngvar +Ăslenska er vesturnorrĂŠnt, germanskt og indĂłevrĂłpskt tungumĂĄl sem er einkum talað og ritað ĂĄ Ăslandi og er móðurmĂĄl langflestra Ăslendinga. Ăað hefur tekið minni breytingum frĂĄ fornnorrĂŠnu en önnur norrĂŠn mĂĄl og er skyldara norsku og fĂŠreysku en sĂŠnsku og dönsku. + +ĂlĂk mörgum öðrum vesturevrĂłpskum tungumĂĄlum hefur Ăslenskan Ătarlegt beygingarkerfi. Nafnorð og lĂœsingarorð eru beygð jafnt sem sagnir. Fjögur föll eru Ă Ăslensku, eins og Ă ĂŸĂœsku, en Ăslenskar nafnorðabeygingar eru flĂłknari en ĂŸĂŠr ĂŸĂœsku. Beygingarkerfið hefur ekki breyst mikið frĂĄ vĂkingaöld, ĂŸegar Norðmenn komu til Ăslands með norrĂŠna tungumĂĄl sitt. + +Meirihluti ĂslenskumĂŠlenda bĂœr ĂĄ Ăslandi, eða um 300.000 manns. Um 8.000 ĂslenskumĂŠlendur bĂșa Ă Danmörku, en ĂŸar af eru 3.000 nemendur. Ă BandarĂkjunum eru talendur mĂĄlsins um 5.000, og Ă Kanada 1.400. StĂŠrsti hĂłpur kanadĂskra ĂslenskumĂŠlenda bĂœr Ă Manitoba, sĂ©rstaklega Ă Gimli, ĂŸar sem Vestur-Ăslendingar settust að. ĂĂł að 97% Ăslendinga telji Ăslensku móðurmĂĄl sitt er tungumĂĄlið nokkuð Ă rĂ©nun utan Ăslands. Ăeir sem tala Ăslensku utan Ăslands eru oftast aðfluttir Ăslendingar, nema Ă Gimli ĂŸar sem ĂslenskumĂŠlendur hafa bĂșið frĂĄ 1880. + +Ărnastofnun sĂ©r um varðveislu mĂĄlsins og hĂœsir miðaldahandrit sem skrifuð voru ĂĄ Ăslandi. Auk ĂŸess styður hĂșn rannsĂłknir ĂĄ mĂĄlinu. FrĂĄ 1995 hefur verið haldið upp ĂĄ dag Ăslenskrar tungu ĂŸann 16. nĂłvember ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri, sem var fÊðingardagur JĂłnas HallgrĂmssonar skĂĄlds. + +Saga +Sögu Ăslenskunnar mĂĄ skipta Ă ĂŸrjĂș skeið: fornmĂĄl til um 1350, miðmĂĄl frĂĄ 1350 til um 1550 (eða 1600), og nĂștĂmamĂĄl frĂĄ lokum miðmĂĄls. Ă ĂŸeim tĂma sem hefur liðið hafa orðið talsverðar breytingar ĂĄ tungumĂĄlinu, einkum ĂĄ orðaforða og framburði, en lĂtt ĂĄ mĂĄlfrÊði. Breytingar ĂŸessar, einkum ĂĄ orðaforða, mĂĄ rekja til breyttra lifnaðarhĂĄtta, breytinga ĂĄ samfĂ©laginu, nĂœrrar tĂŠkni og ĂŸekkingar, sem og ĂĄhrifa annarra tungumĂĄla ĂĄ Ăslensku, einkum ensku og dönsku. + +Uppruni +Ăslenska tilheyrir hinni germönsku grein indĂłevrĂłpskra tungumĂĄla sem greindist snemma Ă norður-, austur- og vesturgermönsk mĂĄl. Ăslenska ĂĄ rĂŠtur sĂnar að rekja til elsta stigs norðurgermanskra mĂĄla: frumnorrĂŠnu, sem töluð var ĂĄ Norðurlöndum ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 200 til 800. + +Ă kringum vĂkingaöld (frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 793â1066) greindist norrĂŠnan svo Ă austur- (dönsku og sĂŠnsku) og vesturnorrĂŠnu (Ăslensku, norsku, fĂŠreysku og norn) og er Ăslenska ĂŸvĂ skyldari norsku og fĂŠreysku en sĂŠnsku og dönsku. ĂĂĄ fluttu norskir landnĂĄmsmenn með sĂ©r tungumĂĄl sitt ĂŸegar ĂŸeir settust að ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ 9. öld en ĂŸeir komu flestir frĂĄ Vestur-Noregi. + +FornĂslenska +Ăað er ĂĄlitamĂĄl hvenĂŠr Ăslenskan sjĂĄlf hafi orðið til og Ăștilokað að tĂmasetja ĂŸað nĂĄkvĂŠmlega: Ăslenskan og norskan fjarlĂŠgðust svo hĂŠgt og rĂłlega og voru ĂŸau orðin talsvert ĂłlĂk Ă kringum 1400 en eðlilegast vĂŠri að segja að Ăslenska hafi orðið sĂ©rtungumĂĄl ĂŸegar orðinn var einhver ĂĄkveðinn munur ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ og ĂŸvĂ norsku. + +Sumir landnĂĄmsmenn voru frĂĄ Bretlandseyjum af norrĂŠnum og keltneskum uppruna og einnig fluttu landnĂĄmsmenn með sĂ©r fĂłlk frĂĄ Ărlandi. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸað hafa ĂĄhrif Kelta ĂĄ Ăslenskuna ekki verið mikil eru einskorðuð við tökuorð, mannanöfn og örnefni. + +Ă fornĂslensku var raddað blĂsturshljóð /z/, sem afraddaðist og styttust forliggjandi sĂ©rhljóðar (Ăzur â Ăssur, Gizur â Gjissur). Milli 1100 og 1200 urðu s að r-um (samanber vas â var og es â er). + +ĂĂĄtĂð fyrstu persĂłnu eintölu framsöguhĂĄttar veikra sagna sem nĂș endar með -i endaði með -a (ek kallaða â Ă©g kallaði). Beygingarendingar fyrstu persĂłnu viðtengingarhĂĄttar hafa sömuleiðis breyst Ă hvort tveggja eintölu sem fleirtölu. ViðtengingarhĂĄttur fyrstu persĂłnu eintölu nĂștĂðar endaði Ă fornmĂĄlinu ĂĄ -a (ĂŸĂłtt ek brjĂłta), en ekki -i (ĂŸĂłtt Ă©g brjĂłti) eins og Ă dag. Ă fleirtölu endaði hann ĂĄ -im en ekki -um. Enn fremur breyttist miðmyndarendingin Ășr -sk Ă -st (barðisk â barðist). + +MiðĂslenska + +Ăslenskt ritmĂĄl hefur lĂtið breyst sĂðan ĂĄ 11. öld með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að Ăslendingar geta enn Ă dag â með nokkurri ĂŠfingu â lesið forn rit ĂĄ borð við LandnĂĄmu, Snorra-Eddu og Ăslendingasögurnar. SamrĂŠmd stafsetning, og ĂŸĂł einkum nĂștĂmastafsetning, auðveldar lesturinn ĂŸĂł mikið, auk ĂŸess sem orðaforði ĂŸessara rita er heldur takmarkaður. Meiri breytingar hafa orðið ĂĄ framburði, en minni breytingar hafa orðið ĂĄ mĂĄlfrÊði. + +Helstu breytingar ĂĄ framburði Ă miðĂslensku voru meðal annars aukin notkun samhljóðaruna. Eftir 1300 var u skotið inn ĂĄ undan -r-endingum (samanber maðr â maður) Ă auknum mĂŠli. Svo breyttist framburður ĂĄ samhljóðalklösunum -ll- og -nn- Ășr [lË] og [n:] Ă [tl] og [tn]. Svo önghljóðuðust mörg lokhljóð, samanber mik â mig, barnit â barnið. + +Breytingar ĂĄ mĂĄlfrÊði voru minni en samt markverð. TvĂtalan hvarf Ășr mĂĄlinu, sem tĂðkaðist Ă fyrstu og annarri persĂłnu persĂłnufornafna, og varð fleirtala. Svo varð fleirtalan hĂĄtĂðlegt mĂĄl, en ĂŸĂ©ranir tĂðkast ekki enda eru ĂĄvörp tiltölulega Ăłformleg Ă daglegum samskiptum. Nokkrar sterkar sagnir fengu veikar beygingar, samanber hratt â hrinti, fĂłl â faldi, hjalp â hjĂĄlpaði, en athyglisvert er að sterku beygingarnar eru enn notaðar Ă ĂĄkveðnu samhengi. Endingar sagna Ă annarri persĂłnu breyttust lĂka, samanber ferr â ferð, slĂŠr â slĂŠrð og less â lest, lĂklega vegna ĂĄhrifa frĂĄ fornafni annarrar persĂłnu. + +Orðaforði Ăslenskunnar hefur breyst töluvert Ă gegnum söguna. Fjöldi tökuorða hefur bĂŠst við mĂĄlið, en ĂĄ stigi miðĂslensku voru ĂŸau aðallega Ășr grĂsku og latĂnu (samanber orð eins og biblĂa, kirkja og prestur). Ă 12. öldinni voru tekin upp nĂœ dagaheiti (fyrir ĂĄhrif frĂĄ JĂłni Ăgmundarsyni HĂłlabiskupi) ĂłlĂkt ĂŸvĂ sem var à öðrum germönskum mĂĄlum. Heiðin heiti og heitin Ă dag eru tilgreind Ă töflunni til hĂŠgri. + +NĂștĂmaĂslenska +Ă upphafsstigi nĂștĂmaĂslensku fĂłr straumur tökuorða að vaxa ört. Mikið var tekið af orðum Ășr latĂnu og sĂðar dönsku, og viðhorf til ĂŸeirra voru misjöfn. Ă 19. öld tĂłku Fjölnismenn upp hreintungustefnu og reyndu að koma tökuorðum Ășr umferð Ă mĂĄlinu. Ăau bjuggu til nĂœyrði Ășr Ăslenskum eða fornĂslenskum orðhlutum en ĂŸessi hefð er enn lifandi Ă dag. Dönsk orð eins og bĂginna âbyrjaâ, bĂtala âborga fyrirâ og forsĂŠkja âreynaâ voru hreinsuð Ășr mĂĄlinu og eru ekki lengur notuð Ă dag. + +Ă 20. öld varð hreintungustefna opinber rĂkisstefna en Orðanefnd verkfrÊðinga var stofnuð ĂĄrið 1919. Ăessi var fyrsta nefndin sem hafði ĂŸað að markmið að skipuleggja nĂœyrðasmĂði ĂĄ formlegan hĂĄtt. Ăslensk mĂĄlnefnd var stofnuð ĂĄrið 1964, en hĂșn sĂĄ um nĂœyrðasmĂði Ă miklum mĂŠli og greip meðal annars til samstarfs við fjölmiðla til að koma nĂœyrðum sĂnum Ă umferð. Ăslensk mĂĄlnefnd sameinaðist nokkrum öðrum stofnunum ĂĄrið 2006 og varð svo að Ărnastofnun. + +Ă dag koma langflest tökuorð Ășr ensku, en ĂŸetta endurspeglast Ă minni stöðu dönskunnar ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ 21. öld. Auk ĂŸess hefur dregið mikið Ășr notkun Ăslenskra mĂĄllĂœska og tungumĂĄlið er orðið samrĂŠmdara um landið allt. Ăetta er Ă miklum mĂŠli ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisĂŸrĂłun um að kenna, en ĂĄhrif fjölmiðlanna frĂĄ höfuðborgarsvÊðinu gegna einnig hlutverki Ă ĂŸessu. + +HljóðfrÊði +Ă Ăslensku eru bÊði einhljóð og tvĂhljóð. Samhljóð geta verið annaðhvort rödduð eða Ăłrödduð. Greinarmunurinn ĂĄ samhljóðum er yfirleitt gerður með röddun, nema ĂĄ lokhljóðum. Lokhljóðin b, d og g eru Ăłrödduð og eini munurinn ĂĄ ĂŸeim og p, t og k er frĂĄblĂĄstur. Ă undan löngu p, t eða k er aðblĂĄstur, en ekki ĂĄ undan löngu b, d eða g. AðblĂĄsið tt-hljóð samsvarar samhljóðaklasanum cht ĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku og hollensku (samanber nĂłtt, dĂłttir og ĂŸĂœska Nacht, Tochter og hollenska nacht, dochter). + +Samhljóð + +SĂ©rhljóð + +MĂĄlfrÊði + +Ăslenska beygingarkerfið er flĂłkið og hefur ekki breyst mikið frĂĄ fornĂslensku. Nafnorð og fornöfn beygjast Ă kyni, tölu og föllum. Kynin eru ĂŸrjĂș: karlkyn, kvenkyn og hvorugkyn. Ă hverju kyni eru misjafnar beygingarmyndir. Föllin fjögur sem voru til Ă fornĂslensku hafa öll varðveist, en ĂŸau eru nefnifall, ĂŸolfall, ĂŸĂĄgufall og eignarfall. LĂœsingarorð beygjast Ă kyni, tölu, föllum og ĂŸremur stigum (frumstigi, miðstigi og efsta stigi). Auk ĂŸess hefur hvert lĂœsingarorð sterka og veika beygingu. Ăkveðinn greinir er skeyttur við nafnorð, eins og ĂĄ hinum norrĂŠnu mĂĄlunum, en enginn óåkveðinn greinir er til ĂĄ Ăslensku. Töluorðin einn, tveir, ĂŸrĂr og fjĂłrir beygjast Ă kyni og föllum, en hin töluorðin eru Ăłbeygð. ĂĂ©run er Ă rauninni Ăștdauð Ă mĂĄlinu, og er notuð aðeins Ă kaldhÊðnum eða hĂĄtĂðlegum tilgangi Ă dag. + +Sagnkerfið ĂĄ Ăslensku er margbrotið. Sagnir beygjast Ă tveimur tĂðum, persĂłnu, tölu, hĂĄttum og myndum. TĂðarnir eru tvĂŠr, eins og ĂĄ öðrum germönskum mĂĄlum: nĂștĂð og ĂŸĂĄtĂð. PersĂłnurnar eru ĂŸrjĂĄr: fyrsta, önnur og ĂŸriðja. SagnhĂŠttirnir eru ĂŸrĂr: framsöguhĂĄttur, viðtengingarhĂĄttur (sem horfin Ășr hinum norrĂŠnu mĂĄlunum) og boðhĂĄttur. Svo eru sagnmyndirnar, en ĂŸĂŠr eru ĂŸrjĂĄr: germynd, miðmynd og ĂŸolmynd. Miðmyndin er frekar sĂ©rstök, en uppruni hennar liggur Ă afturbeygða fornafninu sig. Deilt er um hvort hĂșn eigi að vera talin sagnmynd, ĂŸvĂ margar sagnir Ă miðmynd hafa öðruvĂsi merkingar en samsvarandi germyndarformin, t.d. gera â gerast, taka â takast. Ăslenskar sagnir geta verið annað hvort sterkar eða veikar, en stĂŠrri fjöldi Ăslenskra sagna eru veikar en ĂĄ hinum germönsku mĂĄlunum. Flokkun Ăslenskra sagna er mismunandi, en talið er að flokkarinar eru allt að 3 til 7. Langflestar Ăslenskar sagnir enda með -a Ă nafnhĂŠtti, en ĂŸað er lĂtill hĂłpur sagna sem endar ĂĄ -ĂĄ. TvĂŠr sagnir enda með -u Ă nafnhĂŠtti, en ĂŸĂŠr eru munu og skulu. Svo eru undantekningarnar ĂŸvo (ĂŸvĂĄ ĂĄ fornĂslensku) og ske (tökuorð Ășr dönsku). + +Orðaröðin ĂĄ Ăslensku er frumlag-sögn-andlag (FSA), en hĂșn er frekar frjĂĄlsleg og nĂŠstum hvaða orðaröð sem er mĂĄ nota Ă skĂĄldamĂĄli. Samt sem åður er sögnin oftast à öðru sĂŠti Ă setningunni, eins og ĂĄ öðrum germönskum mĂĄlum. + +Varðveisla +Ămsar ĂĄstÊður eru fyrir ĂŸvĂ hversu vel mĂĄlið hefur varðveist. Hefðbundna skĂœringin er auðvitað einangrun landsins en lĂklega hefur fullmikið verið gert Ășr ĂŸvĂ og er sĂș skĂœring ein tĂŠpast fullnĂŠgjandi. Ănnur ĂĄstÊða sem oft er nefnd er sĂș að mĂĄlið hafi varðveist Ă skinnhandritunum, hvort sem var um afĂŸreyingarbĂłkmenntir að rÊða eða frÊði. Handritin hafi verið lesin og innihald ĂŸeirra flutt fyrir ĂŸĂĄ sem ekki voru lĂŠsir, ĂŸannig hafi mĂĄl ĂŸeirra varðveist og orðaforði handritanna haldist Ă mĂĄlinu. + +Enn fremur hafi lĂŠrðir Ăslendingar skrifað að miklu leyti ĂĄ móðurmĂĄlinu, allt frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að Ari fróði og fyrsti mĂĄlfrÊðingurinn skråðu sĂn rit, ĂŸess vegna hafi latĂnuĂĄhrif orðið minni en vĂða annars staðar. Kirkjunnar menn ĂĄ Ăslandi voru lĂka fljĂłtir að tileinka sĂ©r aðferðir Marteins LĂșthers og BiblĂan var snemma ĂŸĂœdd ĂĄ Ăslensku. BiblĂur og önnur trĂșarrit voru ĂŸvĂ snemma til ĂĄ Ăslensku ĂĄ helstu frÊðasetrum landsins og prestar boðuðu Guðs orð ĂĄ Ăslensku. Ăessa kenningu mĂĄ helst styðja með ĂŸvĂ að bera okkur saman við ĂŸjóðir sem ekki ĂĄttu BiblĂu ĂĄ eigin tungu, til dĂŠmis Norðmenn en ĂŸeir notuðust við danska BiblĂu. Orsakir ĂŸeirrar ĂŸrĂłunar sem varð ĂĄ Ăslensku verða seint ĂștskĂœrðar til hlĂtar en ĂŸeir ĂŸĂŠttir sem nefndir eru hĂ©r að ofan hafa allir haft einhver ĂĄhrif. + +Margir Ăslendingar telja Ăslenskuna vera âupprunalegraâ mĂĄl en flest önnur og að hĂșn hafi breyst minna. Ăað er ekki alls kostar rĂ©tt og mĂĄ Ă ĂŸvĂ sambandi nefna að Ăslenskan hefur einungis fjögur föll af ĂĄtta Ășr indĂłevrĂłpska frummĂĄlinu, ĂĄ meðan flest slavnesk mĂĄl hafa sex föll og pĂłlska sjö. ĂĂœska hefur einnig fjögur föll eins og Ăslenska og varðveitt eru rit ĂĄ fornhĂĄĂŸĂœsku sem eru mun eldri en Ăslensku handritin eða frĂĄ ĂĄttundu öld. Ă Grikklandi er enn töluð grĂska, rĂ©tt eins og fyrir ĂŸrjĂș ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄrum og svo mĂĄ lengi telja. Grikkir geta ĂŸĂł ekki skilið forngrĂsku eins og Ăslendingar skilja texta ĂĄ fornĂslensku, ĂŸvĂ breytingarnar voru of miklar milli forn-, mið- og nĂœgrĂsku, vegna Ăœmissa mĂĄllĂœskna sem höfðu ĂĄhrif hver ĂĄ aðra. Ăll ĂŸessi mĂĄl eiga ĂŸað ĂŸĂł sameiginlegt að hafa breyst að einhverju leyti og er Ăslenskan ĂŸar engin undantekning. + +MĂĄllĂœskur + +Ăsland er talið nĂŠr mĂĄllĂœskulaust land og skiptist ekki greinilega upp Ă mĂĄllĂœskusvÊði. Ămis svÊðisbundin afbrigði mynduðust Ă mĂĄlinu, ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir hinar litlu breytingar, en deildar meiningar eru um hvort sĂĄ munur geti kallast mĂĄllĂœskumunur. Hingað til hefur yfirleitt verið einblĂnt ĂĄ framburðarmun ĂŸĂł einnig hafi einhver munur verið ĂĄ orðanotkun. MĂĄlvöndunarmenn ĂĄ fyrri hluta tuttugustu aldar gengu hart fram Ă að ĂștrĂœma flĂĄmĂŠli, einkum vegna ĂŸess að ĂŸað var talið geta raskað samrĂŠmi milli talmĂĄls og ritmĂĄls. SkĂłlarnir voru meðal annars notaðir Ă ĂŸeim tilgangi. + +MĂĄllĂœskumunur hefur dofnað talsvert ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ tuttugustu öld og sumar framburðarmĂĄllĂœskurnar eru nĂĄnast horfnar Ășr mĂĄlinu. + +Helstu Ăslensku framburðarmĂĄllĂœskurnar eru skaftfellskur einhljóðaframburður, vestfirskur einhljóðaframburður, harðmĂŠli og raddaður framburður, ngl-framburður, bð- og gð-framburður, hv-framburður og rn- og rl-framburður. + +Ăslenska utan Ăslands +Ăslenska er töluð af ĂĄhugamönnum og fĂłlki af Ăslensku bergi brotnu vĂðsvegar um heim. Mest var af ĂslenskumĂŠlandi fĂłlki Ă Kanada (t.d. Ă Gimli Ă Manitoba), og BandarĂkjunum (til dĂŠmis Norður-Dakota) en ĂŸangað fluttust stĂłrir hĂłpar Ăslendinga (kallaðir Vesturfarar) við lok 19. aldar, en ĂslenskukunnĂĄtta er ĂŸar nĂș lĂtil meðal yngra fĂłlks. + +Merk rit, rituð ĂĄ Ăslensku + Ritaðar um 1190â1320: Ăslendingasögurnar + Rituð um 1140: Fyrsta mĂĄlfrÊðiritgerðin + Kom Ășt 1952: Gerpla HalldĂłrs Laxness (skrifuð Ă stĂl Ăslendingasagna, ĂŸar er greint ĂĄ milli tvĂtölu og fleirtölu eins og gert var til forna). + +TilvĂsanir + +Heimildir + Gyldendals Tibinds Leksikon. 1977. AðalritstjĂłri: JĂžrgen Bang, cand. mag.. Gyldendalske Boghandel, Nordisk Forlag A.S. Kaupmannahöfn. + Heimir PĂĄlsson. 1999. FrĂĄ lĂŠrdĂłmsöld til raunsĂŠis - Ăslenskar bĂłkmenntir 1550-1900. Vaka-Helgafell hf., ReykjavĂk. + Ăslensk orðabĂłk. 1985. Ărni Böðvarsson ritstĂœrði. BĂłkaĂștgĂĄfa Menningarsjóðs, ReykjavĂk. + Ăslenska AlfrÊðiorðabĂłkin A-G. 1990. RitstjĂłrar: DĂłra HafsteinsdĂłttir og SigrĂður HarðardĂłttir. Ărn og Ărlygur hf., ReykjavĂk. + Ăslenska AlfrÊðiorðabĂłkin H-O. 1990. RitstjĂłrar: DĂłra HafsteinsdĂłttir og SigrĂður HarðardĂłttir. Ărn og Ărlygur hf., ReykjavĂk. + Ăslenska AlfrÊðiorðabĂłkin P-Ă. 1990. RitstjĂłrar: DĂłra HafsteinsdĂłttir og SigrĂður HarðardĂłttir. Ărn og Ărlygur hf., ReykjavĂk. + Ăvar Björnsson. [ĂtgĂĄfuĂĄr ĂłĂŸekkt]. MĂĄlsaga fyrir framhaldsskĂłla. 2. ĂștgĂĄfa. Offsetfjölritun hf., ReykjavĂk. + +Tengt efni + Ăslenska stafrĂłfið + GĂŠsalappir + HĂĄfrĂłnska + +Tenglar + + Ăslenskar fornbĂłkmenntir + Ritreglur Ă samrĂŠmi við auglĂœsingar mennta- og menningarmĂĄlaråðuneytis nr. 695/2016 og 800/2018 með leiðrĂ©ttingum. + BragfrÊði og HĂĄttatal + Iðunn - KvÊðamannafĂ©lag + Safn af Ăslenzkum orðskviðum, fornmĂŠlum, heilrÊðum, snilliyrðum, sannmĂŠlum ... Eftir Guðmundur JĂłnsson, Ăslenska bĂłkmenntafĂ©lag, Ăștgefið 1830. + Nokkur erfið atriði Ășr daglegu mĂĄli tekin fyrir + Stofnun Ărna MagnĂșssonar Ă Ăslenskum frÊðum - Ămislegt varðandi Ăslenska mĂĄlfrÊði, orðabĂŠkur o.fl. +Ăslenska: Ă senn forn og nĂœ + +Greinar um Ăslensku +Að rĂłsta kjötið og klĂna upp hĂșsið. LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 22. tölublað (16.06.1984), BlaðsĂða 3 +HĂșn fĂłr Ășt með bojfrendinu sĂnu. LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 23. tölublað (23.06.1984), BlaðsĂða 11 +Siðmenning ĂŸjóðar bĂœr Ă mĂĄli hennar. LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 32. tölublað (16.09.1995), BlaðsĂða 1 +Siðmenning ĂŸjóðar bĂœr Ă mĂĄli hennar; 2. grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1995 +MĂĄlfrelsi. LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, Tölublað (05.09.1926), BlaðsĂða 1 +Ălyktun um stöðu Ăslenskrar tungu 2007; pdf-skjal +Hvað heitir maðurinn?. Morgunblaðið, 82. tölublað (11.04.1980), BlaðsĂða 19 +Fostroðra fĂłr Ă ĂjĂșlgĂșsið. LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 11. tölublað (19.03.1994), BlaðsĂða 9 +JĂłn forseti og rĂ©ttur tungunnar. LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 16. nĂłvember (16.11.1996), BlaðsĂða 4 +FyrirtĂŠkjanöfn; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1987 + +OrðabĂŠkur + Ăðorðabankinn + Ăslensk nĂștĂmamĂĄlsorðabĂłk (OrðabĂłk HĂĄskĂłlans) + Orðanet - Ăslenskur orðaforði flokkaður eftir merkingareinkennum orðanna + Landaheiti og höfuðstaðaheiti + Hugtakasafn ĂĂœĂ°ingamiðstöðvar utanrĂkisråðuneytisins + A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic + An Icelandic-English Dictionary (innskönnuð) eftir Guðbrand VigfĂșsson og Richard Cleasby, gefin Ășt 1874. + Ăslensk-ensk orðabĂłk University of Wisconsin-Madison + StĂłr ensk-Ăslenskur tölvuorðalisti + Annar stĂłr ensk-Ăslenskur tölvuorðalisti (html ĂștgĂĄfa) +ĂslĂł (eða OslĂł; norska: Oslo) er höfuðborg Noregs. Ăar bjuggu rĂșmlega 700 ĂŸĂșsund ĂbĂșar ĂĄrið 2020 en rĂșm milljĂłn ĂĄ stĂłrborgarsvÊðinu. Fylkið, sveitarfĂ©lagið og bĂŠrinn heita öll ĂslĂł. Borgin er vinabĂŠr ReykjavĂkur. BorgarstjĂłri er Marianne Borgen sem situr fyrir sĂłsĂalĂska vinstriflokkinn. Fylkið ĂslĂł er ĂŸað fjölmennasta Ă landinu og er staðsett Ă landshlutanum Austurland. + +Saga +SamkvĂŠmt Heimskringlu byggðist svÊðið við AkersĂĄna fyrst ĂĄrið 1048 og var ĂŸað fyrir tilstilli Haraldar Harðråða sem ĂŸĂĄ var konungur Noregs. FrĂĄ aldamĂłtunum 1300 allt fram ĂĄ nĂștĂð hefur borgin verið höfuðborg landsins. + +Eftir borgarbrunana ĂĄrin 1567 og 1624 byggði KristjĂĄn 4. borgina upp ĂĄ nĂœtt ĂĄrið 1624 og lĂ©t hana heita KristjanĂu (no: Christiania og sĂðar Kristiania) og hĂ©t hĂșn ĂŸað allt til ĂĄrsins 1925. Við ströndina lĂ©t KristjĂĄn konungur byggja Akershusvirki sem ĂĄtti að vernda borgina gegn herfylkingum sem gĂŠtu komið sjĂłleiðina inn ĂslĂłarfjörðinn. + +Ărið 1814 varð borgin höfuðborg Noregs ĂŸvĂ ĂŸĂĄ sundraðist samstarf Norðmanna og Dana. Ă 19. öldinni blĂłmstraði borgin og margar mikilfenglegar byggingar voru reistar, s.s. Konungshöllin, HĂĄskĂłlinn, ĂinghĂșsið, ĂjóðleikhĂșsið og fleiri. + +Borgin og umhverfið + +Borgin skiptist Ă 15 bĂŠjarhluta; Alna, Bjerke, Frogner, Gamle Oslo, Grorud, GrĂŒnerlĂžkka, Nordre Aker, Nordstrand, Sagene, St. Hanshaugen, Stovner, SĂžndre Nordstrand, Ullern, Vestre Aker og ĂstensjĂž. Hver bĂŠjarhluti sĂ©r um hluta af ĂŸjĂłnustuverkefnum sem borgin ĂŸarf að ĂŸjĂłnusta ĂbĂșa með. + +Ă kring um ĂslĂł eru fjöll og ĂĄsar, sĂĄ hĂŠsti heitir Kjerkeberget og er 629 m.y.s. Ă firðinum eru margar eyjar og eru ferjusamgöngur til ĂŸeirra. + +Ă Frogner er að finna Vigelandsgarðinn, en ĂŸar eru styttur eftir myndhöggvarann Gustav Vigeland. Meðal annars er ĂŸar að finna 14 metra hĂĄa styttu sem kallast Monolitten en hĂșn sĂœnir gang lĂfsins. Styttan er skorin Ășt Ășr einum granĂt-steini. VĂkingaskipasafnið er ĂĄ eyjunni Bygdö, ĂŸar eru heilleg vĂkingaskip: Gauksstaðaskipið og Ăsubergsskipið. + +Menning + +VetrarĂłlympĂuleikarnir 1952 voru haldnir Ă ĂslĂł, en borgin er mikil ĂĂŸrĂłttaborg. Ekki ĂŸurfa borgarbĂșar að fara langt til að komast Ă ĂĂŸrĂłttaiðkun. Ă veturnar er ĂŸað sĂ©rstaklega vinsĂŠlt að fara ĂĄ gönguskĂði Ă skĂłgunum Ă kring, auk ĂŸess sem skautahlaup er iðkað ĂĄ Ăsilögðum fĂłtboltavöllum Ășt um alla borg og ĂĄ vötnum Ă skĂłgunum. + +Norwegian Wood-tĂłnlistarhĂĄtĂðin er haldin ĂĄr hvert ĂĄ Frogner og margir af ĂŸekktustu tĂłnlistarmönnum heims koma ĂŸar fram. Oslo Horse Show er einnig haldið ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri, en ĂŸað er stĂłr hestasĂœning og -keppni sem haldin er Ă Oslo Spektrum-fjölnotahĂșsinu Ă miðborg ĂslĂłar. Oslo Spektrum er Ăœmist notað undir tĂłnleikahald, ĂsdanssĂœningar auk ĂŸess sem hĂșsið hefur marga aðra möguleika Ă sĂœninga- og råðstefnuhaldi. + +Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva var haldin Ă ĂslĂł ĂĄrið 1996 vegna ĂŸess að Noregur vann keppnina ĂĄri fyrr með Secret Garden með laginu Nocturne með Ă Point Theatre Ă Dublin, Ărlandi. Keppnin, 1996 var haldin Ă Oslo Spektrum Ă ĂslĂł. Keppnin var svo aftur haldin Ă ĂslĂł ĂĄrið 2010 eftir að Alexander Rybak vann keppnina og slĂł öll met með laginu Fairytale og fĂ©kk 387 stig. Keppnin var haldin Ă Telenor Arena Ă ĂslĂł. + +Ăekkt fĂłlk frĂĄ ĂslĂł + ThorbjĂžrn Egner (1912-1990), rithöfundur + Carl I. Hagen, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður + Sonja Henie (1912-1969), skautakona + Odd Nerdrum, listmĂĄlari + Jens Stoltenberg, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og forsĂŠtisråðherra + KĂ„re Willoch, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og fyrrum forsĂŠtisråðherra + +TilvĂsanir + +Tengill + Opinber vefsĂða ĂslĂł + + + +ĂslĂł +Fylki Noregs +Marteinn LĂșther (stundum lĂka Marteinn LĂșter ĂĄ Ăslensku) (10. nĂłvember 1483 â 18. febrĂșar 1546) (ĂŸĂœska Martin Luther) var ĂŸĂœskur munkur af ĂgĂșstĂnusarreglunni og prĂłfessor Ă biblĂufrÊðum við HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă Wittenberg. Hann er ĂŸekktastur fyrir að vera einn af siðbĂłtarmönnum kirkjunnar ĂĄ 16. öld. Við hann er kennd evangelĂsk-lĂșthersk kirkja. LĂșther var fjölhĂŠfur guðfrÊðingur og iðinn rithöfundur. Eftir hann liggur mikið safn rita af Ăœmsum toga. Hann stóð einnig fyrir ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu BiblĂunnar yfir ĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku. + +Marteinn LĂșther negldi tĂĄknrĂŠnt skjal ĂĄ dyr kirkjunnar Ă Wittenberg, ĂŸar sem hann setti fram Ă 95 greinum kenningar sĂnar um kristna trĂș og leiðir til ĂŸess að endurbĂŠta hana, ĂŸĂĄ sĂ©r Ă lagi með tilliti til sölu ĂĄ syndaaflausn. Með ĂŸessum gjörningi kom hann af stað MĂłtmĂŠlendahreyfingunni innan RĂłmversk-kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunnar sem ĂŸrĂłaðist loks Ă evangelĂsku-lĂșthersku kirkjuna. + +Tengt efni + Hinar 95 greinar + +Tenglar + Marteinn LĂșther. Stuttorð frÊðsla - um ĂŸað sem leita bera að og vĂŠnta skal Ă fagnaðarboðskapinum; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1967 + Hann birti frelsi og nåð; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1983 + Ă slóðum LĂșthers; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1981 +Erlendir + Martin Luther â Eine Bibliographie + +DĂœrlingar ensku biskupakirkjunnar +LĂștherstrĂș +Siðaskiptamenn +ĂĂœskir prestar +Ărið 1911 (MCMXI Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) + +Ă Ăslandi + 20. febrĂșar - FiskifĂ©lag Ăslands, verslunarfĂ©lag með sjĂĄvarafurðir, var stofnað. + 11. maĂ - KnattspyrnufĂ©lagið Valur var stofnað. + 17. jĂșnĂ - HĂĄskĂłli Ăslands stofnaður. + IðnsĂœningin 1911 fĂłr fram sama dag Ă MiðbĂŠjarskĂłlanum. + 18. september - LestrarfĂ©lag kvenna var stofnað Ă ReykjavĂk af konum Ășr KvenrĂ©ttindafĂ©lagi Ăslands. + 4. oktĂłber - kennsla hefst Ă HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands. + +Ădagsett + TĂmaritið Fjallkonan hĂŠtti ĂștgĂĄfu. + SelvĂkurnefsviti við Siglufjörð var fyrst reistur sem stĂłlpaviti. + Sambandsflokkurinn var stofnaður eftir AlĂŸingiskosningar af Hannesi Hafstein og meðlimum HeimastjĂłrnarflokksins. + +FĂŠdd + 15. janĂșar - Ălafur Kalstað Ăorvarðsson, knattspyrnumaður, fyrsti forstjĂłri Sundhallarinnar Ă ReykjavĂk og formaður KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram. + 17. janĂșar - JĂłn MagnĂșsson, verslunarmaður Ă Hafnarfirði, knattspyrnumaður og formaður KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram og FimleikafĂ©lags Hafnarfjarðar. + 18. febrĂșar - Auður Auðuns, fyrsta konan sem Ăștskrifaðist ĂĄ Ăslandi sem lögfrÊðingur og fyrsta konan sem varð borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur (d. 1999). + 19. aprĂl - Barbara Ărnason, Ăslenskur listamaður af enskum uppruna. + 24. aprĂl - Sigursveinn D. Kristinsson, tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1990). + 30. jĂșnĂ - Sigurbjörn Einarsson, biskup Ăslands frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1959-1981. + 14. ĂĄgĂșst - Helgi HĂĄlfdanarson, apĂłtekari og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi, m.a. heildarverka Shakespeares (d. 2009). + 21. oktĂłber - Hulda DĂłra JakobsdĂłttir, fyrsta konan ĂĄ Ăslandi sem varð bĂŠjarstjĂłri (Ă KĂłpavogi). + 26. oktĂłber - Einar KristjĂĄnsson, rithöfundur og bĂłndi. + 13. jĂșlĂ - HalldĂłr HalldĂłrsson, mĂĄlfrÊðingur og prĂłfessor við HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands. + 23. jĂșlĂ - Carl Billich - Ăslenskur hljĂłmsveitarstjĂłri af austurrĂskum ĂŠttum. + 23. ĂĄgĂșst - ĂrĂĄinn Sigurðsson, klÊðskeri, knattspyrnuĂŸjĂĄlfari og formaður KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram. + 2. september - LĂșðvĂk KristjĂĄnsson, frÊðimaður og rithöfundur. + 30. oktĂłber - Sigurður SamĂșelsson, hjartalĂŠknir og stofnandi HjartasjĂșkdĂłmafĂ©lag Ăslenskra lĂŠkna. + 16. nĂłvember - Oddgeir KristjĂĄnsson, tĂłnlistarmaður og lagahöfundur. + 9. desember - Ăorvaldur Guðmundsson, athafnamaður kenndur við fyrirtĂŠki sitt SĂld og fisk. + 19. desember - JĂłn Karel Kristbjörnsson, knattspyrnumaður. + 27. desember - Sigvaldi Thordarson, arkitekt. + +DĂĄin + 10. janĂșar - Oddur V. GĂslason, Ăslenskur guðfrÊðingur, sjĂłmaður og barĂĄttumaður fyrir öryggi sjĂłmanna. + 10. jĂșnĂ - GuðjĂłn Baldvinsson, Ăslenskur sĂłsĂalisti + 7. september - Hans J. G. Schierbeck, danskur lĂŠknir sem starfaði Ă um ĂĄratug sem landlĂŠknir ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ăhugamaður um garðyrkju og trjĂĄrĂŠkt. + 20. oktĂłber - SigfĂșs Eymundsson, ljĂłsmyndari og bĂłksali. + 20. oktĂłber - Ăorsteinn Sveinbjörnsson Egilson, kaupmaður og sparisjóðsstjĂłri Ă Hafnarfirði. Sonur Sveinbjarnar Egilssonar rektors, skĂĄlds og ĂŸĂœĂ°anda. + +Erlendis + +Atburðir + 1. janĂșar - Norður-svÊðið fĂŠr sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ Suður-ĂstralĂu. + 25. maĂ - MexĂkĂłska byltingin: Porfirio DĂaz, forseti MexĂkĂł, sagði af sĂ©r. + 24. jĂșlĂ - Inkaborgin Machu Picchu fannst ĂĄ nĂœ. + 21. ĂĄgĂșst - MĂĄlverkinu MĂłna LĂsa var stolið Ășr Louvre-safninu. + 1. desember - AðaljĂĄrnbrautarstöðin Ă Kaupmannahöfn opnaði. + 29. september - ĂtalĂa lĂœsti strĂð ĂĄ hendur OttĂłmanveldinu. + 1. nĂłvember - ĂtalĂa gerði fyrstu loftĂĄrĂĄsina Ășr flugvĂ©l ĂĄ LĂbĂu sem var hluti af OttĂłmanveldinu. Nokkrum dögum sĂðar innlima Ătalir borgina TrĂpĂłlĂ. + 1. desember - Ytri-MongĂłlĂa, forveri MongĂłlĂu verður sjĂĄlfstÊð frĂĄ KĂnaveldi. + 14. desember â Roald Amundsen komst ĂĄ SuðurpĂłlinn. +Ădagsett + Ernest Rutherford einangraði kjarna atĂłms. + +FĂŠdd + 17. janĂșar - George J. Stigler, hagfrÊðingur (d. 1991). + 6. febrĂșar - Ronald Reagan, BandarĂkjaforseti (d. 2004). + 16. mars - Josef Mengele, ĂŸĂœskur lĂŠknir nasista sem gerði tilraunir ĂĄ fĂłlki. + 20. mars - Alfonso GarcĂa Robles, mexĂkĂłskur rĂkiserindreki og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður sem vann til friðarverðlauna NĂłbels ĂĄrið 1982. + 28. mars - John L. Austin, breskur heimspekingur. + 15. maĂ - Max Frisch, svissneskur rithöfundur. + 27. maĂ - Vincent Price, bandarĂskur leikari. + 27. maĂ - Hubert Humphrey, bandarĂskur öldungardeildarĂŸingmaður og varaforseti BandarĂkjanna. + 31. maĂ - Maurice Allais, franskur hagfrÊðingur og nĂłbelsverðlaunahafi. + 9. jĂșnĂ - Leopold Kielholz, svissneskur knattspyrnumaður og ĂŸjĂĄlfari (d. 1980). + 11. jĂșnĂ - Norman Malcolm, bandarĂskur heimspekingur. + 30. jĂșnĂ - CzesĆaw MiĆosz, pĂłlskt skĂĄld, rithöfundur og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi. + 5. jĂșlĂ - Georges Pompidou, forseti Frakklands frĂĄ 1969. + 21. jĂșlĂ - Marshall McLuhan, kanadĂskur bĂłkmenntafrÊðingur og fjölmiðlafrÊðingur. + 6. ĂĄgĂșst - Lucille Ball, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 17. ĂĄgĂșst - MĂkhaĂl BotvĂnnĂk, sovĂ©skur stĂłrmeistari Ă skĂĄk. + 18. ĂĄgĂșst - Herbert Bloch, ĂŸĂœskur fornfrÊðingur og textafrÊðingur og prĂłfessor Ă fornfrÊði við Harvard-hĂĄskĂłla. + 28. ĂĄgĂșst - Joseph Luns, hollenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður, utanrĂkisråðherra Hollands 1952 til 1971 og fimmti framkvĂŠmdastjĂłri Atlantshafsbandalagsins. + 19. september - William Golding, breskur rithöfundur og ljóðskĂĄld. NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi Ă bĂłkmenntum. + 24. september - KonstantĂn Tsjernenko, sovĂ©skur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og aðalritari sovĂ©ska kommĂșnistaflokksins. + 14. oktĂłber - LĂȘ Äức Thá» vĂetnamskur byltingarmaður, hershöfðingi, rĂkiserindreki og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 2. nĂłvember - Odysseas Elytis, grĂskt skĂĄld og verðlaunahafi bĂłkmenntaverðlaun NĂłbels 1979. + 11. desember - Naguib Mahfouz, egypskur rithöfundur sem hlaut NĂłbelsverðlaunin Ă bĂłkmenntum ĂĄrið 1988. + 29. desember - Nicolae KovĂĄcs, rĂșmenskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 1977). + +DĂĄin + 17. janĂșar - Francis Galton, breskur mannfrÊðingur, landkönnuður, uppfinningamaður, og tölfrÊðingur. + 15. febrĂșar - Theodor Escherich, bĂŠverskur barnalĂŠknir og örverufrÊðingur (f. 1857). + 25. aprĂl - Emilio Salgari, Ătalskur rithöfundur. + 18. maĂ - Gustav Mahler, var austurrĂskt tĂłnskĂĄld. + 18. september - Pjotr StolypĂn, ĂŸriðji forsĂŠtisråðherra RĂșsslands og innanrĂkisråðherra rĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmisins frĂĄ 1906 til 1911. + 29. oktĂłber - Joseph Pulitzer, ungversk-bandarĂskur dagblaðaĂștgefandi og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + +NĂłbelsverðlaunin + EðlisfrÊði - Wilhelm Wien + EfnafrÊði - Marie Sklodowska-Curie + LĂŠknisfrÊði - Allvar Gullstrand + BĂłkmenntir - Maurice (Mooris) Polidore Marie Bernhard Maeterlinck Greifi + Friðarverðlaun - Tobias Michael Carel Asser, Alfred Hermann Fried + +1911 +janĂșar + +febrĂșar + +mars1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 + +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 + +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +78 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 + +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 + +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +1415 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 + +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 + +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +2122 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +28 + +22 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +28 + +22 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +2829 +30 +31 + +(29) + +29 +30 +31 + +aprĂl + +maĂ + +jĂșnĂ1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 + +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 + +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +78 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 + +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 + +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +1415 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 + +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 + +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +2122 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +28 + +22 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +28 + +22 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +2829 +30 + +29 +30 +31 + +29 +30jĂșlĂ + +ĂĄgĂșst + +september1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 + +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 + +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +78 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 + +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 + +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +1415 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 + +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 + +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +2122 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +28 + +22 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +28 + +22 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +2829 +30 +31 + +29 +30 +31 + +29 +30oktĂłber + +nĂłvember + +desember1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 + +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 + +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +78 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 + +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 + +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +1415 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 + +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 + +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +2122 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +28 + +22 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +28 + +22 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +2829 +30 +31 + +29 +30 + +29 +30 +31 + +Listar +Mars eða marsmĂĄnuður er ĂŸriðji mĂĄnuður ĂĄrsins og er nefndur eftir Mars, rĂłmverskum strĂðsguði. + +Orðsifjar +MĂĄnaðarheitið mars er komið Ășr latĂnu. Fyrir daga JĂșlĂusar Sesars byrjaði ĂĄrið hjĂĄ RĂłmverjum með marsmĂĄnuði. ĂĂĄ fĂłr að vora suður ĂŸar og ĂŸĂłtti ĂŸĂĄ hentugt að fara Ă strĂð. MĂĄnuðurinn var ĂŸvĂ helgaður herguðinum Mars og heitir eftir honum. Vegna ĂŸess að mars var fyrstur Ă röðinni innan ĂĄrsins skĂœrast nöfn mĂĄnaðanna september, oktĂłber, nĂłvember og desember (= sjöundi, ĂĄttundi, nĂundi og tĂundi mĂĄnuður). Ăetta er lĂka orsök ĂŸess að hlaupĂĄrsdagur er sĂðasti dagur febrĂșar, sem ĂŸannig var sĂðasti dagur ĂĄrsins, sem verður að teljast eðlilegur staður fyrir innskotsdag. + +Veðurfar ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă mars +ReykjavĂk + Meðalhiti 2,9°C + Ărkoma 59,3mm + SĂłlskinsstundir 140,0 + +Akureyri + Meðalhiti -1,3 °C + Ărkoma 43,3mm + SĂłlskinsstundir 77,0 + +Ăðey (ĂsafjarðardjĂșpi) + Meðalhiti -1,9 °C + Ărkoma 46,1mm + SĂłlskinsstundir NA + +Dalatangi (Austfjörðum) + Meðalhiti 0,1 °C + Ărkoma 116,0mm + SĂłlskinsstundir NA + +StĂłrhöfði (Vestmannaeyjum) + Meðalhiti 1,7 °C + Ărkoma 141,4mm + SĂłlskinsstundir NA + +Heimildir + VeðurfarsupplĂœsingar af vef Veðurstofu Ăslands sem sĂœna meðaltöl ĂĄranna 1961-1990 + +Mars +Ăetta er listi yfir einstaklinga sem gegnt hafa embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisråðherra Ăslands. ForsĂŠtisråðherra er leiðtogi rĂkisstjĂłrnar Ăslands. + +Råðherrar heimastjĂłrnar Ăslands + +ForsĂŠtisråðherrar Ăslands + +ForsĂŠtisråðherrar hins fullvalda konungsrĂkis Ăslands +Hið fullvalda konungsrĂki Ăsland (1. desember 1918 â 17. jĂșnĂ 1944)'' + +ForsĂŠtisråðherrar LĂœĂ°veldisins Ăslands + LĂœĂ°veldið Ăsland (frĂĄ 17. jĂșnĂ 1944) + +Tengt efni + ForsĂŠtisråðherra Ăslands + RĂkisstjĂłrn Ăslands + Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄl + Forsetar lĂœĂ°veldisins Ăslands + UtanrĂkisråðherrar ĂĄ Ăslandi + FjĂĄrmĂĄlaråðherrar ĂĄ Ăslandi + Forseti AlĂŸingis + Ăslandsråðgjafi + + +StjĂłrnmĂĄl +Listar tengdir Ăslenskum stjĂłrnmĂĄlum +Listar yfir Ăslendinga +Ăsland forsĂŠtisråðherrar +PĂłlland (pĂłlska: Polska), formlega LĂœĂ°veldið PĂłlland, er land Ă Mið-EvrĂłpu. Ăað ĂĄ landamĂŠri að ĂĂœskalandi Ă vestri, TĂ©kklandi og SlĂłvakĂu Ă suðri, ĂkraĂnu, HvĂta-RĂșsslandi og LitĂĄen Ă austri og RĂșsslandi (KalĂnĂngrad) Ă norðri. Landið ĂĄ strönd að Eystrasalti og renna ĂŸar ĂĄrnar Odra og Visla Ă sjĂł. PĂłlland er landfrÊðilega fjölbreytt land sem nĂŠr að SĂșdetalandi og Karpatafjöllum Ă suðri. PĂłlland er 312.679 ferkĂlĂłmetrar að flatarmĂĄli og er nĂunda stĂŠrsta land EvrĂłpu. ĂbĂșar PĂłllands eru rĂșmlega 38 milljĂłnir og ĂŸað er sjötta fjölmennasta rĂki EvrĂłpusambandsins. VarsjĂĄ er höfuðborg landsins og stĂŠrsta borgin. Aðrar helstu borgir PĂłllands eru KrakĂĄ, ĆĂłdĆș, WrocĆaw, PoznaĆ, GdaĆsk og Szczecin. + +Saga PĂłllands nĂŠr ĂŸĂșsundir ĂĄra aftur Ă tĂmann. Ă sĂðfornöld settust Ăœmsir ĂŸjóðflokkar og ĂŠttbĂĄlkar að ĂĄ Norður-EvrĂłpuslĂ©ttunni. Vestur-PĂłlanar lögðu hluta svÊðisins undir sig og landið dregur nafn sitt af ĂŸeim. Stofnun rĂkis Ă PĂłllandi mĂĄ rekja til ĂĄrsins 966 ĂŸegar Mieszko 1., fursti yfir landsvÊði sem samsvarar nokkurn veginn nĂșverandi rĂki, tĂłk kristni og snerist til rĂłmversk-kaĂŸĂłlskrar trĂșar. KonungsrĂkið PĂłlland var stofnað ĂĄrið 1025 og ĂĄrið 1569 gekk ĂŸað Ă konungssamband við StĂłrhertogadĂŠmið LitĂĄen með Lublinsamningnum. PĂłlsk-litĂĄĂska samveldið var eitt af stĂŠrstu og fjölmennustu rĂkjum EvrĂłpu ĂĄ 16. og 17. öld með einstaklega frjĂĄlslynt stjĂłrnkerfi sem tĂłk upp fyrstu stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ EvrĂłpu. + +PĂłlska gullöldin leið undir lok við skiptingar PĂłllands af hĂĄlfu nĂĄgrannarĂkja undir lok 18. aldar. Landið fĂ©kk aftur sjĂĄlfstÊði ĂŸegar Annað pĂłlska lĂœĂ°veldið var stofnað eftir Versalasamningana 1918. Eftir röð ĂĄtaka um yfirråðasvÊði komst PĂłlland til ĂĄhrifa Ă evrĂłpskum stjĂłrnmĂĄlum ĂĄ nĂœ. SĂðari heimsstyrjöldin hĂłfst með innrĂĄs Ăjóðverja Ă PĂłlland og sĂðan innrĂĄs SovĂ©trĂkjanna Ă kjölfarið, samkvĂŠmt Molotov-Ribbentrop-sĂĄttmĂĄlanum milli rĂkjanna. Um sex milljĂłn PĂłlverjar, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal ĂŸrjĂĄr milljĂłnir gyðinga, tĂœndu lĂfinu Ă styrjöldinni. Eftir strĂðið varð PĂłlland hluti af Austurblokkinni og PĂłlska alĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldið var stofnað. Landið var einn af stofnaðilum VarsjĂĄrbandalagsins Ă Kalda strĂðinu. Ărið 1989 hĂłfust mĂłtmĂŠli gegn kommĂșnistastjĂłrninni og verkföll verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©laga Samstöðu. StjĂłrn Sameinaða pĂłlska verkamannaflokksins fĂ©ll og PĂłllandi var breytt Ășr flokksrÊði Ă forsetaĂŸingrÊði. + +PĂłlland er með ĂŸrĂłað markaðshagkerfi og telst til miðvelda. Hagkerfi PĂłllands er ĂŸað sjötta stĂŠrsta Ă EvrĂłpusambandinu að nafnvirði og ĂŸað fimmta stĂŠrsta kaupmĂĄttarjafnað. PĂłllandi situr hĂĄtt ĂĄ lista yfir lönd eftir lĂfsgÊðum, og skorar hĂĄtt fyrir öryggi og viðskiptafrelsi. HĂĄskĂłlamenntun og heilbrigðisĂŸjĂłnusta eru opinber og gjaldfrjĂĄls. PĂłlland ĂĄ aðild að Schengen-svÊðinu, EvrĂłpusambandinu, EvrĂłpska efnahagssvÊðinu, Ăryggis- og samvinnustofnun EvrĂłpu, Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðunum, Höfunum ĂŸremur, VisegrĂĄd-hĂłpnum og NATO. + +Heiti +Ă pĂłlsku heitir landið Polska. Nafnið er dregið af heiti PĂłlana, vesturslavnesks ĂŸjóðarbrots sem bjĂł við Warta-ĂĄ frĂĄ 6. til 8. aldar. Heiti ĂŸjóðarbrotsins er dregið af frumslavneska orðinu pole sem merkir âakurâ og er dregið af frumindĂłevrĂłpska orðinu *plehâ- âflatlendiâ. Orðið vĂsar til landfrÊði svÊðisins og flatlendrar slĂ©ttunnar Ă PĂłllandi hinu meira. + +Landið hĂ©t åður fyrr PĂłlĂnaland og ĂbĂșar ĂŸess PĂłlĂnar ĂĄ Ăslensku, en frĂĄ miðri 19. öld var farið að notast við orðmyndina PĂłlland. Nafn landsins var ĂŸĂœtt sem âSlĂ©ttumannalandâ Ă 4. hefti Fjölnis. Latneska heitið Polonia var almennt notað Ă EvrĂłpu ĂĄ miðöldum. + +Annað fornt norrĂŠnt heiti ĂĄ ĂbĂșum landsins er LĂŠsir, dregið af forna heitinu Lechia sem er uppruni heitis PĂłllands ĂĄ ungversku, litĂĄĂsku og persnesku. Nafnið er dregið af sagnkonungnum Lech sem ĂĄtti að hafa stofnað rĂki Ă PĂłllandi hinu minna. Orðið er skylt fornpĂłlska orðinu lÄda âslĂ©ttaâ. BÊði nöfnin Lechia og Polonia voru notuð af sagnariturum ĂĄ miðöldum. + +Saga + +Forsögulegur tĂmi +Elstu merki um mannabyggð (Homo erectus) ĂĄ svÊðinu eru um ĂŸað bil 500.000 ĂĄra gömul, en Ăsaldir sem fylgdu Ă kjölfarið hafa gert varanlega byggð Ăłmögulega. VĂsbendingar eru um að hĂłpar neanderdalsmanna hafi hafst við Ă suðurhĂ©ruðum PĂłllands ĂĄ Eem-hlĂœskeiðinu (128.000-115.000 f.o.t.) og nĂŠstu ĂĄrĂŸĂșsund. Koma nĂștĂmamanna fĂłr saman við lok sĂðustu Ăsaldar (10.000 f.Kr.) ĂŸegar PĂłlland varð byggilegt. Minjar frĂĄ nĂœsteinöld sĂœna umtalsverða ĂŸrĂłun mannabyggða ĂĄ svÊðinu; elstu dĂŠmi um ostagerð Ă EvrĂłpu (5500 f.Kr.) fundust Ă KujavĂu, og Bronicice-potturinn er grafinn með mynstri sem gĂŠti verið elstu ĂŸekktu myndir af hjĂłli (3400 f.Kr.). + +Bronsöld hĂłfst Ă PĂłllandi um 2400 f.Kr. en jĂĄrnöld hĂłfst um 750 f.Kr. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma varð LĂșsatĂumenningin, sem nĂŠr frĂĄ bronsöld til jĂĄrnaldar, ĂĄberandi ĂĄ svÊðinu. FrĂŠgasti fornleifafundur frĂĄ forsögulegum tĂma Ă PĂłllandi er vĂggirta byggðin Ă Biskupin (endurbyggð sem Ăștisafn), sem er frĂĄ LĂșsatĂumenningunni ĂĄ sĂðbronsöld, um 748 f.Kr. + +Mörg aðskilin menningarsamfĂ©lög settust að ĂĄ svÊðinu ĂĄ klassĂskri fornöld, sĂ©rstaklega Keltar, SkĂœĂŸar, Germanar, Sarmatar, Slavar og EystrasaltsbĂșar. FornleifarannsĂłknir hafa auk ĂŸess staðfest að rĂłmverskar herdeildir hafi komið til svÊðisins. +Ăetta hafa lĂklega verið könnunarsveitir sendar til að verja flutninga rafs um Rafleiðina. PĂłlskir ĂŠttbĂĄlkar komu fram ĂĄ ĂŸjóðflutningatĂmabilinu um miðja 6. öld. Ăetta voru aðallega Vestur-Slavar og LekĂtar að uppruna, en blönduðust öðrum hĂłpum sem bĂșið höfðu ĂĄ svÊðinu Ă ĂŸĂșsundir ĂĄra. Elstu ĂŠttbĂĄlkasamfĂ©lögin gĂŠtu tengst Wielbark-menningunni og Przeworsk-menningunni. + +Piast-ĂŠtt + +RĂki tĂłk að myndast Ă PĂłllandi um miðja 10. öld ĂŸegar Piast-ĂŠtt barðist til valda. Ărið 966 tĂłk Mieszko 1. kristni og gerði að rĂkistrĂș. BrĂ©f um hann frĂĄ um 1080 sem ber titilinn Dagome iudex skilgreinir landamĂŠri PĂłllands, segir höfuðborgina vera Gniezno og staðfestir að konungur landsins sĂ© undir verndarvĂŠng PĂĄfadĂłms. Saga PĂłllands var fyrst sögð af sagnaritaranum Gallus Anonymus Ă ritinu Gesta principum Polonorum. MikilvĂŠgur atburður ĂĄ miðöldum var ĂŸegar Aðalbert af Prag var myrtur af heiðingjum ĂĄrið 997 og lĂkamsleifar hans keyptar fyrir ĂŸyngd ĂŸeirra Ă gulli af eftirmanni Mieszkos, BolesĆaw 1. + +Ărið 1000 lagði BolesĆaw grunninn að ĂŸvĂ sem sĂðar varð sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt konungsrĂki. Hann fĂ©kk skrĂœĂ°ingarleyfi frĂĄ OttĂł 3. keisara sem samĂŸykkti stofnun biskupsdĂŠma. Fyrstu pĂłlsku biskupsdĂŠmin voru stofnuð Ă KrakĂĄ, KoĆobrzeg og WrocĆaw. Ă ĂŸinginu Ă Gniezno gaf OttĂł BolesĆaw konungstĂĄkn og eftirmynd af spjĂłtinu helga fyrir krĂœningu hans sem fyrsta konungs PĂłllands Ă kringum 1025. BolesĆaw stĂŠkkaði rĂkið umtalsvert með ĂŸvĂ að hertaka hluta af LĂșsatĂu, MĂŠri, Efra-Ungverjalandi og svÊði sem GarðarĂki réði yfir. + +Umskiptin frĂĄ slavneskri heiðni til kristni Ă PĂłllandi urðu ekki umsvifalaus og leiddu til andspyrnu pĂłlskra heiðingja ĂĄ 4. ĂĄratug 11. aldar. Ărið 1031 missti Mieszko 2. konungstitilinn og flĂșði eftir ĂĄtök. Ăfriðurinn leiddi til ĂŸess að höfuðborgin var flutt til KrakĂĄr af KasimĂr 1. Ărið 1076 endurreisti BolesĆaw 2. konungdĂŠmið, en var sĂðan bannfĂŠrður ĂĄrið 1079 fyrir að myrða andstÊðing sinn, Stanislaus biskup. Ărið 1138 var landinu skipt Ă fimm furstadĂŠmi ĂŸegar BolesĆaw 3. skipti ĂŸvĂ milli sona sinna. Ăessi furstadĂŠmi voru PĂłlland hið meira, PĂłlland hið minna, SlĂ©sĂa, MasĂłvĂa og Sandomierz, sem stundum nåði lĂka yfir Pommern. Ărið 1226 bað Konråður 1. af MasĂłvĂu ĂĂœsku riddarana að hjĂĄlpa sĂ©r gegn hinum heiðnu baltnesku PrĂșssum. SĂș ĂĄkvörðun leiddi ĂĄ endanum til strĂðs gegn riddurunum. + +Um miðja 13. öld reyndu Hinrik hinn skeggjaði og Hinrik hinn frĂłmi að sameina hertogadĂŠmin, en innrĂĄs MongĂłla Ă PĂłlland og lĂĄt Hinriks frĂłma Ă orrustunni við Legnica komu Ă veg fyrir sameiningu. Eyðilegging og mannfĂŠkkun Ă kjölfar innrĂĄsanna og eftirspurn eftir faglĂŠrðu vinnuafli leiddu til innflutnings ĂŸĂœskra og flĂŠmskra handverksmanna til PĂłllands, sem pĂłlsku hertogarnir studdu. Ărið 1264 fengu Gyðingar mikið sjĂĄlfstÊði með Kalisz-sĂĄttmĂĄlanum. Ărið 1320 varð VladislĂĄs 1. af PĂłllandi fyrsti konungur sameinaðs PĂłllands frĂĄ 1296 og var sĂĄ fyrsti sem var krĂœndur Ă Wawel-dĂłmkirkju Ă KrakĂĄ. + +KasimĂr 3. hĂłf að reisa net kastala, bĂŠta herinn og laga- og dĂłmskerfi landsins og efla alĂŸjóðatengsl. Undir hans stjĂłrn gerðist PĂłlland stĂłrveldi Ă EvrĂłpu. Hann lagði RĂșĂŸenĂu undir pĂłlska stjĂłrn ĂĄrið 1340 og setti reglur um sĂłttkvĂ sem komu Ă veg fyrir Ăștbreiðslu svarta dauða. Ărið 1364 stofnaði hann hĂĄskĂłla Ă KrakĂĄ sem er ein af elstu hĂĄskĂłlastofnunum EvrĂłpu. AndlĂĄt hans ĂĄrið 1370 markaði endalok valdatĂðar Piast-ĂŠttar. Eftirmaður hans var nĂŠsti karlkyns ĂŠttingi hans, LoðvĂk af Anjou, sem rĂkti yfir PĂłllandi, Ungverjalandi og KrĂłatĂu með konungssambandi. Yngri dĂłttir LoðvĂks, Jadwiga, varð fyrsta rĂkjandi drottning PĂłllands ĂĄrið 1384. + +Jagiellon-ĂŠtt + +Ărið 1386 gekk Jadwiga af PĂłllandi að eiga WĆadysĆaw 2. JagieĆĆo, stĂłrhertoga af LithĂĄen. Ăar með tĂłk Jagiellon-ĂŠtt við völdum Ă konungssambandi sem nefndist PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska sambandið og rĂkti frĂĄ lokum sĂðmiðalda til upphafs ĂĄrnĂœaldar. StĂłrhertogadĂŠmið var ĂŸĂĄ miklu stĂŠrra en LithĂĄen er Ă dag og ĂĄtti seinna eftir að verða enn stĂŠrra. PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska sambandið varð ĂŸannig eitt af stĂŠrstu og fjölbreyttustu rĂkjum EvrĂłpu ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma. + +Ătök PĂłlverja og LithĂĄa við ĂŸĂœsku riddarana hĂ©ldu ĂĄfram og nåðu hĂĄmarki Ă orrustunni við Grunwald ĂĄrið 1410, ĂŸar sem sameinaður her gersigraði riddarana. Ărið 1466, eftir ĂŸrettĂĄn ĂĄra strĂðið, gekk KasimĂr 4. Jagiellon að Thorn-friðnum sem leiddi til stofnunar hertogadĂŠmis Ă PrĂșsslandi undir pĂłlska konungdĂŠminu og neyddi råðamenn Ă PrĂșsslandi til að greiða skatt. Jagiellon-ĂŠttin nåði lĂka yfirråðum yfir konungsrĂkjum Ă BĂŠheimi og Ungverjalandi. Ă suðri barðist rĂkið gegn Tyrkjaveldi og KrĂmkanatinu, og Ă austri gegn RĂșsslandi. + +PĂłlland breyttist Ă lĂ©nsveldi sem byggðist ĂĄ landbĂșnaði með sĂfellt valdameiri lendan aðal ĂŸar sem bĂŠndur unnu sem leiguliðar ĂĄ stĂłrjarðeignum. Ărið 1493 samĂŸykkti JĂłhann 1. Albert stofnun ĂŸings Ă tveimur deildum: Sejm (neðri deild) og öldungadeild. Nihil novi voru lög sem pĂłlska ĂŸingið samĂŸykkti ĂĄrið 1505 og fĂłlu Ă sĂ©r að löggjafarvald fluttist frĂĄ konungi til ĂŸingsins. SĂĄ atburður markar upphaf svokallaðs gyllts frelsis, ĂŸegar landið breyttist Ă samveldi pĂłlskra aðalsmanna sem voru jafningjar að nafninu til. + +Ă 16. öld nåðu siðaskiptin til PĂłllands og leiddu til aukins trĂșfrelsis, sem var einstakt Ă evrĂłpsku samhengi. Ăað varð til ĂŸess að landið slapp við trĂșarĂĄtök og styrjaldir sem ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma einkenndu aðra hluta EvrĂłpu. PĂłlska brÊðralagið boðaði andĂŸrenningartrĂș og skildi sig frĂĄ kalvĂnskum rĂłtum sĂnum. BrÊðralagið ĂĄtti seinna ĂŸĂĄtt Ă stofnun ĂșnĂtarahreyfingarinnar. + +Ă valdatĂð Sigmundar gamla og Sigmundar 2. barst endurreisnin til PĂłllands og leiddi til upphafs pĂłlsku gullaldarinnar ĂŸegar efnahagur og menningarlĂf blĂłmstraði Ă landinu. Eiginkona Sigmundar gamla, Bona Sforza, dĂłttir hertogans af MĂlanĂł, Gian Galeazzo Sforza, hafði mikil ĂĄhrif ĂĄ pĂłlskan arkitektĂșr, pĂłlska matargerð, tungumĂĄl og hirðsiði Ă Wawel-kastala. + +PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldið + +PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldið var stofnað með Lublin-samningnum ĂĄrið 1569. Ăetta var sameinað lĂ©nsveldi með kjörkonung, sem aðallinn rĂkti yfir að mestu. Stofnunin fĂłr saman við uppgangstĂma Ă sögu landsins sem varð leiðandi afl og menningarmiðstöð með mikil ĂĄhrif um alla Mið-, Austur- og Suðaustur-EvrĂłpu. Innanlands fĂłr fram pĂłlskuvÊðing sem mĂŠtti andstöðu, sĂ©rstaklega Ă löndum sem nĂœlega höfðu verið innlimuð Ă rĂkið og meðal trĂșarlegra minnihlutahĂłpa. + +Ărið 1573 fullgilti fyrsti kjörkonungurinn, Hinrik af Valois, Hinriksgreinarnar sem skuldbundu framtĂðarkonunga landsins til að virða rĂ©ttindi aðalsins. Eftirmaður hans, StefĂĄn BĂĄthory, gerði innrĂĄs Ă LĂfland Ă LĂflandsstrĂðinu og stĂŠkkaði ĂŸannig rĂkið norður eftir strönd Eystrasalts. StjĂłrn rĂkisins var að mestu Ă höndum kanslarans, Jan Zamoyski. Ărið 1592 tĂłk Sigmundur 3. af PĂłllandi við af föður sĂnum, JĂłhanni Vasa, sem konungur SvĂĂŸjóðar. PĂłlsk-sĂŠnska bandalagið stóð til 1599 ĂŸegar SvĂar settu hann frĂĄ völdum. + +Ărið 1609 gerði Sigmundur innrĂĄs Ă RĂșssaveldi ĂŸar sem rĂłsturtĂmarnir stóðu yfir. Ări sĂðar hertĂłku vĂŠngjaðir hĂșsarar, undir stjĂłrn StanisĆaw ƻóĆkiewski, Moskvu, og hĂ©ldu henni Ă tvö ĂĄr eftir Ăłsigur RĂșssa Ă orrustunni við Klusjino. Sigmundur barðist lĂka gegn Tyrkjaveldi Ă suðaustri. Jan Karol Chodkiewicz vann afgerandi sigur gegn Tyrkjum Ă orrustunni um Khotyn ĂĄrið 1621, sem flĂœtti fyrir falli soldĂĄnsins Ăsmans 2. + +Löng valdatĂð Sigmundar Ă PĂłllandi var kölluð âsilfuröldâ. Hinn frjĂĄlslyndi konungur VladislĂĄs 4. Vasa nåði að viðhalda yfirråðum PĂłllands yfir löndum sĂnum, en eftir lĂĄt hans tĂłku innri ĂĄtök og stöðugur hernaður að draga Ășr mĂŠtti rĂkisins. Ărið 1648 var KmelnitskĂjuppreisnin gerð Ă ĂkraĂnu og ĂŸar ĂĄ eftir fylgdi SĂŠnska syndaflóðið sem olli mikill eyðileggingu. PrĂșssland varð sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt 1657 með BrombergsĂĄttmĂĄlanum. Ărið 1683 sĂœndi JĂłhann 3. Sobieski fram ĂĄ hernaðarmĂĄtt rĂkisins að nĂœju ĂŸegar hann stöðvaði innrĂĄs Tyrkjaveldis Ă orrustunni um VĂn. Eftir hans tĂð tĂłk Wettin-ĂŠtt við völdum og Ă valdatĂð ĂgĂșstusar 2. og ĂgĂșstusar 3. efldust nĂĄgrannalönd PĂłllands eftir NorðurlandaĂłfriðinn mikla (1700) og PĂłlska erfðastrĂðið (1733). + +Upplausn + +Konungskjör Ă PĂłllandi 1764 varð til ĂŸess að StanislĂĄs 2. ĂgĂșstus varð konungur. Framboð hans var styrkt af fyrrum ĂĄstkonu hans, KatrĂnu miklu keisaraynju RĂșsslands. NĂœi konungurinn sveiflaðist milli ĂŸess að koma ĂĄ nĂștĂmalegri stjĂłrnhĂĄttum og halda frið við nĂĄgrannarĂkin. UmbĂŠtur hans leiddu til uppreisnar aðalsmanna Ă Barbandalaginu gegn honum og erlendum ĂĄhrifum almennt, sem sĂłttust eftir að viðhalda sĂ©rrĂ©ttindum aðalsins. Misheppnaðar tilraunir til umbĂłta Ă stjĂłrnkerfinu og innanlandsĂłfriður urðu til ĂŸess að nĂĄgrannarĂkin kusu að grĂpa inn Ă. + +Ărið 1772 var fyrsta skipting PĂłllands samĂŸykkt af PrĂșsslandi, RĂșsslandi og AusturrĂki. PĂłlska ĂŸingið samĂŸykkti hana sem orðinn hlut eftir mikinn ĂŸrĂœsting. Ărið 1773 var gerð ĂĄĂŠtlun um rĂłttĂŠkar umbĂŠtur Ă landinu ĂŸar sem meðal annars var stofnuð fyrsta opinbera menntastofnun EvrĂłpu, Menntaråð PĂłllands. LĂkamlegar refsingar gegn börnum voru bannaðar með lögum ĂĄrið 1783. StanislĂĄs var leiðandi Ă pĂłlsku upplĂœsingunni, hvatti til iðnĂŸrĂłunar og studdi við byggingarlist Ă nĂœklassĂskum anda. Vegna ĂŸessa var hann gerður að fĂ©laga Ă Konunglega breska vĂsindafĂ©laginu. + +Ărið 1791 samĂŸykkti stĂłrĂŸingið MaĂstjĂłrnarskrĂĄna, fyrstu stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ landsins sem kom ĂĄ ĂŸingbundinni konungsstjĂłrn. Targowica-bandalagið, samtök aðalsmanna sem voru andsnĂșnir stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni, sneri sĂ©r til KatrĂnar miklu sem hĂłf strĂð PĂłllands og RĂșsslands 1792. RĂșssar og PrĂșssar Ăłttuðust vaxandi styrk PĂłlverja og framkvĂŠmdu ĂŸvĂ aðra skiptingu PĂłllands 1793. Eftir ĂŸað var landið rĂșið sĂnum mikilvĂŠgustu landsvÊðum og Ă reynd ĂłfĂŠrt um að viðhalda sjĂĄlfstÊði sĂnu. Eftir ĂŸriðju skiptingu PĂłllands 24. oktĂłber 1795 var landið ekki lengur til. SĂðasti konungur PĂłllands, StanislĂĄs ĂgĂșstus, sagði af sĂ©r ĂŸann 25. nĂłvember 1795. + +Uppreisnir + +PĂłlverjar gerðu nokkrar uppreisnir gegn hernĂĄmsliðum rĂkjanna sem höfðu skipt landinu milli sĂn. Ărið 1794 var KoĆciuszko-uppreisnin gerð, ĂŸar sem vinsĂŠll herforingi, Tadeusz KoĆciuszko, sem hafði åður barist með George Washington Ă frelsisstrĂði BandarĂkjanna, leiddi uppreisnarmenn. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir sigur Ă orrustunni við RacĆawice varð Ăłsigur hans ĂĄ endanum til ĂŸess að vonin um endurheimt sjĂĄlfstÊðis dĂł. + +Ărið 1806 leiddi Jan Henryk DÄ browski uppreisn rĂ©tt fyrir innrĂĄs NapĂłleons inn Ă RĂșssland Ă fjĂłrða bandalagsstrĂðinu. Með TilsitsĂĄttmĂĄlanum lĂœsti NapĂłleon yfir stofnun hertogadĂŠmisins VarsjĂĄr 1807. HertogadĂŠmið var lepprĂki undir stjĂłrn bandamanns hans, Friðriks af Saxlandi. PĂłlverjar studdu franska herinn Ă NapĂłleonsstyrjöldunum, sĂ©rstaklega lið undir stjĂłrn JĂłzef Poniatowski sem varð hermarskĂĄlkur skömmu fyrir andlĂĄt sitt Ă orrustuna um Leipzig 1813. Eftir að NapĂłleon var hrakinn Ă Ăștlegð var hertogadĂŠmið VarsjĂĄ lagt niður ĂĄ VĂnarĂŸinginu 1815 og landi ĂŸess skipt milli KongresskonungsrĂkisins PĂłllands undir stjĂłrn RĂșsslands, StĂłrhertogadĂŠmisins Posen undir stjĂłrn PrĂșsslands, og AusturrĂska PĂłlland með frĂrĂkinu KrakĂĄ. + +Ărið 1830 hĂłfu foringjaefni Ășr herforingjaskĂłla Ă VarsjĂĄ NĂłvemberuppreisnina. Eftir að hĂșn var brotin ĂĄ bak aftur missti KongressrĂkið PĂłlland sjĂĄlfstÊði sitt, her og löggjafarĂŸing. ByltingarĂĄrið 1848 gerðu PĂłlverjar enn uppreisn gegn ĂŸĂœskuvÊðingu vesturhĂ©raðanna. Ă kjölfarið varð stĂłrhertogadĂŠmið Posen að einföldu hĂ©raði sem var innlimað Ă ĂĂœska keisaradĂŠmið 1871. Ă RĂșsslandi var JanĂșaruppreisnin 1863-1864 barin niður með hörku og leiddi til brottflutnings PĂłlverja og pĂłlskra gyðinga. Undir lok 19. aldar ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað mikil iðnvÊðing Ă Kongress-PĂłllandi og helstu Ăștflutningsafurður urðu kol, sink, jĂĄrn og textĂll. + +Annað pĂłlska lĂœĂ°veldið + +Eftir fyrri heimsstyrjöldina samĂŸykktu bandamenn að endurreisa PĂłlland með Versalasamningunum Ă jĂșnĂ 1919. Alls börðust 2 milljĂłnir pĂłlskra hermanna með hernĂĄmsliðunum ĂŸremur, og yfir 450.000 lĂ©tu lĂfið. Eftir undirritun vopnahlĂ©s við ĂĂœskaland Ă nĂłvember 1918 lĂœstu PĂłlverjar yfir stofnun annars pĂłlska lĂœĂ°veldisins. NĂŠstu ĂĄr var sjĂĄlfstÊði ĂŸess staðfest Ă röð strĂðsĂĄtaka, sĂ©rstaklega strĂði PĂłllands og SovĂ©trĂkjanna ĂŸar sem PĂłlverjar gersigruðu rauða herinn Ă orrustunni um VarsjĂĄ ĂĄrið 1920. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma tĂłkst pĂłlska lĂœĂ°veldinu að sameina löndin sem åður höfðu skipst milli ĂŸriggja rĂkja, Ă eitt ĂŸjóðrĂki. + +Ă millistrĂðsĂĄrunum fĂłr Ă hönd nĂœtt tĂmabil Ă pĂłlskum stjĂłrnmĂĄlum. Ăratugina ĂĄ undan höfðu pĂłlskir stjĂłrnmĂĄlaleiðtogar mĂĄtt ĂŸola ritskoðun, og nĂș ĂŸurfti að skapa nĂœja stjĂłrnmĂĄlaumrÊðu. Margir ĂștlĂŠgir pĂłlskir aðgerðasinnar, eins og Ignacy Paderewski (sem sĂðar varð forsĂŠtisråðherra), sneru nĂș aftur heim og margir ĂŸeirra gegndu lykilstöðum Ă stjĂłrnkerfinu. Ărið 1922 var fyrsti forseti PĂłllands, Gabriel Narutowicz, myrtur Ă VarsjĂĄ af hĂŠgriöfgamanninum Eligiusz Niewiadomski. + +Ărið 1926 leiddi herforinginn og ĂŸjóðhetjan JĂłzef PiĆsudski valdarĂĄn og fĂłl Sanacja-hreyfingunni stjĂłrn landsins til að koma Ă veg fyrir að rĂłttĂŠkar stjĂłrnmĂĄlahreyfingar til hĂŠgri og vinstri nÊðu völdum. Seint ĂĄ 4. ĂĄratugnum varð Ăłttinn við rĂłtttĂŠkar hreyfingar svo mikill að stjĂłrnvöld beittu sĂfellt meiri hörku og bönnuðu marga stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokka, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal kommĂșnista og ĂŸjóðernissinnaða flokka sem ĂŸau töldu Ăłgna stöðugleikanum. + +Seinni heimsstyrjöld + +SĂðari heimsstyrjöld hĂłfst ĂŸegar Ăriðja rĂkið gerði innrĂĄs Ă PĂłlland 1. september 1939. Ă kjölfarið fylgdi innrĂĄs SovĂ©tmanna Ă PĂłlland 17. september. Ăann 28. september fĂ©ll VarsjĂĄ. SamkvĂŠmt MĂłlotov-Ribbentrop-samningnum var PĂłllandi skipt Ă tvennt milli hernĂĄmsliðanna. FrĂĄ 1939 til 1941 flutti SovĂ©therinn ĂŸĂșsundir PĂłlverja burt. SovĂ©ska innanrĂkisråðuneytið NKVD myrti ĂŸĂșsundir pĂłlskra strĂðsfanga Ă Katyn-fjöldamorðunum åður en Ăjóðverjar réðust ĂĄ SovĂ©trĂkin Ă Barbarossa-aðgerðinni. Ă ĂŸĂœskum ĂĄĂŠtlunum var talað um âĂștrĂœmingu PĂłlverjaâ ĂĄrið 1939 og Generalplan Ost fĂłl Ă sĂ©r ĂŸjóðarmorð. + +PĂłlverjar lögðu til fjĂłrða stĂŠrsta herlið EvrĂłpu + og pĂłlskir hermenn börðust fyrir bÊði ĂștlagastjĂłrn PĂłllands Ă vestri og PĂłllandsher undir stjĂłrn SovĂ©trĂkjanna Ă austri. PĂłlskir hermenn lĂ©ku stĂłr hlutverk Ă Overlord-aðgerðinni, ĂtalĂuherförinni og Norður-AfrĂkuherförinni, og er sĂ©rstaklega minnst fyrir framgöngu sĂna Ă orrustunni um Monte Cassino. PĂłlskir njĂłsnarar reyndust bandamönnum Ăłmetanleg uppspretta upplĂœsinga innan Ășr EvrĂłpu og pĂłlskum dulmĂĄlssĂ©rfrÊðingum tĂłkst að råða Ă Enigma-dulmĂĄlið. Ă austri barðist pĂłlski fyrsti herinn með SovĂ©thernum Ă orrustum um VarsjĂĄ og BerlĂn. + +PĂłlska andspyrnuhreyfingin og Armia Krajowa (âheimaherinnâ) börðust gegn hernĂĄmi Ăjóðverja og störfuðu eins og neðanjarðarrĂki, með virku menntakerfi og dĂłmskerfi. Andspyrnan leit ĂĄ ĂștlagastjĂłrnina sem rĂ©ttmĂŠta stjĂłrn landsins og hafnaði hugmyndinni um kommĂșnistastjĂłrn yfir PĂłllandi. Af ĂŸeim orsökum hĂłf hĂșn Stormaðgerðina 1944, en uppreisnin Ă VarsjĂĄ er ĂŸekktasti angi ĂŸeirrar aðgerðar. + +SamkvĂŠmt skipunum Hitlers reistu Ăjóðverjar sex ĂștrĂœmingarbĂșðir ĂĄ hernĂĄmssvÊðinu Ă PĂłllandi, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal Treblinka, Majdanek og Auschwitz. Ăjóðverjar fluttu milljĂłnir gyðinga alls staðar að Ășr EvrĂłpu til bĂșðanna ĂŸar sem ĂŸeir voru myrtir. Talið er að um 3 milljĂłnir pĂłlskra gyðinga â um 90% af öllum gyðingum Ă PĂłllandi - og milli 1,8 og 2,8 aðrir PĂłlverjar hafi verið myrtir meðan ĂĄ hernĂĄmi PĂłllands stóð, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal voru milli 50 og 100.000 pĂłlskir menntamenn (hĂĄskĂłlakennarar, lĂŠknar, lögfrÊðingar, aðalsmenn og prestar). Ă uppreisninni Ă VarsjĂĄ einni voru 150.000 pĂłlskir borgarar drepnir, flestir myrtir af Ăjóðverjum Ă Wola og Ochota. Um 150.000 pĂłlskir almennir borgarar voru myrtir af SovĂ©tmönnum milli 1939 og 1941 meðan ĂĄ hernĂĄmi SovĂ©trĂkjanna Ă austurhluta PĂłllands stóð, og eins er talið að um 100.000 PĂłlverjar hafi verið myrtir af Uppreisnarher ĂkraĂnu milli 1943 og 1944 Ă Volhynia og Austur-GalisĂu. Talið er að PĂłlland hafi misst hĂŠsta hlutfall ĂbĂșa sinna Ă strĂðinu, um 6 milljĂłnir, yfir 1/6 af ĂbĂșafjöldanum fyrir strĂð. Helmingur ĂŸeirra voru gyðingar. + +Ărið 1945 voru bÊði austur- og vesturlandamĂŠri PĂłllands flutt Ă vesturĂĄtt. Yfir 2 milljĂłnir pĂłlskra ĂbĂșa Kresy voru reknir yfir Curzon-lĂnuna af JĂłsef StalĂn. VesturlandamĂŠrin voru sett við Oder-Neisse-lĂnuna. Afleiðingin var að PĂłlland minnkaði um 20% eða 77.500 kmÂČ. Ăessi breyting leiddi til stĂłrfelldra fĂłlksflutninga PĂłlverja, Ăjóðverja, ĂkraĂnumanna og Gyðinga. + +KommĂșnistastjĂłrnin + +SamkvĂŠmt kröfum StalĂns ĂĄ Jaltaråðstefnunni var mynduð nĂœ samsteypustjĂłrn Ă PĂłllandi sem var hliðholl kommĂșnistum, en pĂłlska ĂștlagastjĂłrnin Ă London hunsuð. Margir PĂłlverjar litu ĂĄ ĂŸetta sem svik Vesturveldanna. Ărið 1944 hafði StalĂn heitið Winston Churchill og Franklin D. Roosevelt að virða fullveldi PĂłllands og heimila lĂœĂ°rÊðislegar kosningar, en eftir að sigur vannst 1945 stóðu sovĂ©sk hernĂĄmsyfirvöld fyrir fölsun kosningaĂșrslita til að rĂ©ttlĂŠta yfirråð SovĂ©trĂkjanna yfir PĂłllandi. SovĂ©trĂkin komu ĂĄ nĂœrri kommĂșnistastjĂłrn Ă PĂłllandi eins og annars staðar Ă Austurblokkinni. Vopnuð andspyrna gegn hernĂĄmi SovĂ©tmanna stóð fram ĂĄ 6. ĂĄratuginn. + +ĂrĂĄtt fyrir mĂłtmĂŠli samĂŸykkti pĂłlska stjĂłrnin innlimun austurhĂ©raða PĂłllands Ă SovĂ©trĂkin (sĂ©rstaklega borgirnar Wilno og LwĂłw) og samĂŸykkti varanlegar herstöðvar rauða hersins Ă PĂłllandi. Með VarsjĂĄrbandalaginu Ă kalda strĂðinu voru hernaðarlegir hagsmunir PĂłllands og SovĂ©trĂkjanna sameinaðir. + +NĂœja kommĂșnistastjĂłrnin tĂłk upp litlu stjĂłrnarskrĂĄna ĂŸann 19. febrĂșar 1947. PĂłlska alĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldið (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) var formlega stofnað ĂĄrið 1952. Ărið 1956, eftir andlĂĄt BolesĆaw Bierut, tĂłk stjĂłrn WĆadysĆaw GomuĆka við völdum sem var eilĂtið frjĂĄlslyndari um tĂma, lĂ©t marga lausa Ășr fangelsi og jĂłk einstaklingsfrelsi. StjĂłrnin batt lĂka enda ĂĄ hina misheppnuðu samyrkjuvÊðingu Ă pĂłlskum landbĂșnaði. Svipað gerðist Ă valdatĂð Edward Gierek ĂĄ 8. ĂĄratugnum, en lengst af hĂ©ldu ofsĂłknir gegn stjĂłrnarandstöðu ĂĄfram. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸað var PĂłlland oft talið minnsta alrÊðisrĂkið Ă Austurblokkinni. + +Vinnudeilur ĂĄrið 1980 leiddu til stofnunar verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lagsins Samstöðu (SolidarnoĆÄ) sem varð með tĂmanum að stjĂłrnmĂĄlaafli. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ofsĂłknir og setningu herlaga ĂĄrið 1981, grĂłf hĂșn undan stjĂłrn Sameinaða pĂłlska verkamannaflokksins og ĂĄrið 1989 voru fyrstu frjĂĄlsu kosningarnar haldnar Ă landinu frĂĄ lokum seinni heimsstyrjaldar. Leiðtogi Samstöðu, Lech WaĆÄsa, sigraði forsetakosningar ĂĄrið 1990. + +Eftir 1989 + +Snemma ĂĄ 10. ĂĄratugnum hĂłf Leszek Balcerowicz lostmeðferð til að breyta efnahagslĂfi landsins Ășr sĂłsĂalĂskum ĂĄĂŠtlunarbĂșskap Ă markaðsbĂșskap. LĂkt og önnur fyrrum kommĂșnistarĂki gekk PĂłlland Ă gegnum tĂmabil ĂŸar sem lĂfsgÊði, efnahagur og fĂ©lagsleg ĂŸjĂłnusta drĂłgust saman eftir fall kommĂșnistastjĂłrnarinnar, en landið varð sĂðan ĂŸað fyrsta sem endurheimti verga landsframleiðslu frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ fyrir 1989 Ășt af miklum hagvexti strax ĂĄrið 1995. PĂłlland gerðist aðili að VisegrĂĄd-hĂłpnum ĂĄrið 1991 og gekk Ă NATO ĂĄrið 1999. PĂłlska ĂŸjóðin kaus sĂðan að ganga Ă EvrĂłpusambandið Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu 2003 og landið varð fullgildur meðlimur 1. maĂ 2004 eftir stĂŠkkun EvrĂłpusambandsins 2004. + +PĂłlland gekk Ă Schengen-samstarfið ĂĄrið 2007 og opnaði landamĂŠri sĂn að öðrum EvrĂłpusambandsrĂkjum. Ăann 10. aprĂl 2010 fĂłrst forseti PĂłllands, Lech KaczyĆski, ĂĄsamt 89 hĂĄtt settum pĂłlskum råðamönnum Ă flugslysi nĂŠrri Smolensk Ă RĂșsslandi. + +Ărið 2011 sigraði Borgaralegur vettvangur ĂŸingkosningarnar. Ărið 2014 varð forsĂŠtisråðherra PĂłllands, Donald Tusk, forseti EvrĂłpska råðsins og sagði af sĂ©r embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisråðherra Ă kjölfarið. Ăhaldsflokkurinn Lög og rĂ©ttlĂŠti með formanninum JarosĆaw KaczyĆski sigraði ĂŸingkosningarnar ĂĄrin 2015 og 2019. Ăað hefur leitt til vaxandi andstöðu við stefnu EvrĂłpusambandsins og gagnrĂœni frĂĄ sambandinu fyrir að vega að rĂ©tti kvenna, samkynhneigðra og dĂłmskerfinu. Ă desember 2017 varð Mateusz Morawiecki nĂœr forsĂŠtisråðherra. Forsetinn Andrzej Duda rĂ©tt nåði endurkjöri Ă forsetakosningum 2020. InnrĂĄs RĂșsslands Ă ĂkraĂnu 2022 olli ĂŸvĂ að yfir 5 milljĂłn flĂłttamenn frĂĄ ĂkraĂnu komu til PĂłllands. + +LandfrÊði + +PĂłlland er stĂłrt land, og nĂŠr yfir um 312.696 ferkĂlĂłmetra. 98,52% af ĂŸeim eru ĂŸurrlendi og 1,48% eru ĂĄr og vötn. Landið er ĂŸað 9. stĂŠrsta Ă EvrĂłpu og Ă 69. sĂŠti ĂĄ heimsvĂsu. PĂłlland er landfrÊðilega fjölbreytt land með aðgang að sjĂł Ă norðri, fjöll Ă suðri og flatlenda slĂ©ttu Ă miðið. Megnið af miðhlutanum er flöt slĂ©tta, en annars staðar eru mörg stöðuvötn, ĂĄr, hÊðir, mĂœrar og skĂłgar. + +PĂłlland ĂĄ strönd við Eystrasalt Ă norðri, sem nĂŠr frĂĄ PommernflĂła að GdaĆsk-vĂk. Ăt frĂĄ ströndinni liggja margar eyrar, strandlĂłn og sandöldur. Ströndin er að mestu bein, en Szczecin-lĂłn, Puck-flĂłi og Vistula-lĂłn ganga inn Ă hana. + +Mið- og norðurhluti landsins eru ĂĄ Norður-EvrĂłpuslĂ©ttunni. Ofan við hana eru hÊðótt svÊði mynduð Ășr jökulruðningum og jökullĂłn sem mynduðust eftir sĂðustu Ăsöld, einkum Ă vatnasvÊðinu Ă Pommern, vatnasvÊðinu Ă StĂłra-PĂłllandi, vatnasvÊðinu Ă KassĂșbĂu og MasĂșrĂuvötnum. StĂŠrst ĂŸessara fjögurra vatnasvÊða er MasĂșrĂuvatnasvÊðið sem nĂŠr yfir megnið af norðausturhluta PĂłllands. VatnasvÊðin mynda röð jökulgarða meðfram suðurströnd Eystrasalts. + +Sunnan við Norður-EvrĂłpuslĂ©ttuna eru hĂ©ruðin LĂșsatĂa, SlesĂa og MasĂłvĂa, sem eru breiðir Ăsaldardalir. Syðsti hluti PĂłllands er fjalllendur; hann nĂŠr frĂĄ SĂșdetafjöllum Ă vestri að Karpatafjöllum Ă austri. HĂŠsti hluti Karpatafjalla eru Tatrafjöll við suðurlandamĂŠri PĂłllands. +HĂŠsti tindur PĂłllands er ĂĄ fjallinu Rysy, 2.499 metrar. + +StjĂłrnmĂĄl +PĂłlland er lĂœĂ°veldi með fulltrĂșalĂœĂ°rÊði ĂŸar sem forseti PĂłllands er ĂŸjĂłhöfðingi. Råðherraråð PĂłllands fer með framkvĂŠmdavaldið og forsĂŠtisråðherra PĂłllands er stjĂłrnarleiðtogi. Råðherrar Ă råðherraråðinu eru valdir af forsĂŠtisråðherra, skipaðir af forseta með fulltingi ĂŸingsins. Forsetinn er kosinn Ă almennum kosningum til fimm ĂĄra Ă senn. NĂșverandi forseti er Andrzej Duda og Mateusz Morawiecki er forsĂŠtisråðherra. + +PĂłlska ĂŸingið kemur saman Ă tveimur deildum, með neðri deild (Sejm) með 460 ĂŸingmönnum, og efri deild (öldungadeild) með 100 ĂŸingmönnum. Ăingmenn eru kosnir Ă Sejm með hlutfallskosningu ĂŸar sem ĂŸingsĂŠtum er Ășthlutað með d'Hondt-aðferðinni. ĂldungadeildarĂŸingmenn eru kosnir með meirihlutakosningu Ă einmenningskjördĂŠmum. Ăldungadeildin getur breytt eða hafnað lögum sem Sejm samĂŸykkir, en Sejm getur fellt ĂŸĂĄ ĂĄkvörðun Ășr gildi með einföldum meirihluta. + +Fyrir utan ĂŸjóðernisminnihlutahĂłpa ĂŸurfa listar stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokka Ă PĂłllandi að fĂĄ minnst 5% atkvÊða ĂĄ landsvĂsu til að fĂĄ ĂŸingfulltrĂșa ĂĄ Sejm. Ăingmenn beggja deilda eru kosnir til fjögurra ĂĄra Ă senn og njĂłta ĂŸinghelgi. SamkvĂŠmt nĂșverandi lögum ĂŸarf frambjóðandi að hafa nåð 21 ĂĄrs aldri til að verða ĂŸingmaður, 30 til að verða öldungadeildarĂŸingmaður og 35 til að bjóða sig fram til forseta. + +Båðar deildir mynda saman ĂŸjĂłĂ°ĂŸing PĂłllands. ĂjĂłĂ°ĂŸingið kemur saman af ĂŸrennu tilefni: ĂŸegar nĂœr forseti tekur við embĂŠtti, ef forseti sĂŠtir ĂĄkĂŠru fyrir landsrĂ©tti, og ef ĂŸvĂ er lĂœst yfir að forseti geti ekki uppfyllt skyldur sĂnar vegna heilsufars. + +HĂ©ruð + +Við endurreisn PĂłllands eftir heimsstyrjöldina sĂðari var landinu skipt upp Ă 14 hĂ©ruð (pl: wojewĂłdztwo - ĂŸĂœĂ°ir upphaflega hertogadĂŠmi). 1950 var ĂŸeim fjölgað Ă 17. +Ărið 1975 var stjĂłrnkerfinu breytt og stjĂłrnstigum fĂŠkkað um eitt. HĂ©ruðin urðu ĂŸĂĄ 49 talsins og hĂ©lst svo til nĂŠstu stjĂłrnkerfisbreytingar ĂĄrið 1999. +Var hĂ©ruðum ĂŸĂĄ aftur fĂŠkkað, að ĂŸessu sinni Ă 16: + +EfnahagslĂf +Hagkerfi PĂłllands mĂŠlt Ă vergri landsframleiðslu er nĂș ĂŸað sjötta stĂŠrsta innan EvrĂłpusambandsins að nafnvirði og ĂŸað fimmta stĂŠrsta með kaupmĂĄttarjöfnuði. Ăað er lĂka ĂŸað hagkerfi innan sambandsins sem er à örustum vexti. Um 61% mannaflans starfa innan ĂŸriðja geirans, 31% Ă framleiðsluiðnaði og 8% Ă landbĂșnaði. PĂłlland er hluti af innra markaði EvrĂłpusambandsins, en hefur ĂŸĂł ekki tekið upp evruna og opinber gjaldmiðill er enn pĂłlskur zĆoty (zĆ, PLN). + +PĂłlland er leiðandi efnahagsveldi Ă Mið-EvrĂłpu með um 40% af 500 stĂŠrstu fyrirtĂŠkjum heimshlutans (miðað við tekjur) og hĂĄa hnattvÊðingarvĂsitölu. StĂŠrstu fyrirtĂŠki landsins eru hlutar af hlutabrĂ©favĂsitölunum WIG20 og WIG30 Ă Kauphöllinni Ă VarsjĂĄ. SamkvĂŠmt skĂœrslum til Seðlabanka PĂłllands var andvirði beinna erlendra fjĂĄrfestinga Ă PĂłllandi nĂŠstum 300 milljarðar pĂłlsk zloty undir lok ĂĄrs 2014. TölfrÊðistofnun PĂłllands ĂĄĂŠtlaði að ĂĄrið 2014 hefðu 1.437 pĂłlsk fyrirtĂŠki ĂĄtt hlut Ă 3.194 erlendum fyrirtĂŠkjum. + +Bankakerfið Ă PĂłllandi er ĂŸað stĂŠrsta Ă Mið-EvrĂłpu með 32,3 ĂștibĂș ĂĄ 100.000 fullorðna ĂbĂșa. PĂłlska hagkerfið var ĂŸað eina Ă EvrĂłpu sem komst hjĂĄ alĂŸjóðlegu fjĂĄrmĂĄlakreppunni 2008. Landið er 20. stĂŠrsti Ăștflytjandi ĂĄ vörum og ĂŸjĂłnustu Ă heiminum. Ătflutningur ĂĄ vörum og ĂŸjĂłnustu var talinn vera 56% af vergri landsframleiðslu ĂĄrið 2020. Ă september 2018 var atvinnuleysi ĂĄĂŠtlað 5,7% sem var með ĂŸvĂ lĂŠgsta sem gerðist Ă EvrĂłpusambandinu. Ărið 2019 voru sett lög Ă PĂłllandi sem gĂĄfu launafĂłlki undir 26 ĂĄra aldri undanĂŸĂĄgu frĂĄ tekjuskatti. + +ĂbĂșar +ĂbĂșar PĂłllands voru rĂșmlega 38 milljĂłnir ĂĄrið 2021 og landið er ĂŸvĂ nĂunda fjölmennasta land EvrĂłpu og fimmta stĂŠrsta aðildarrĂki EvrĂłpusambandsins. ĂbĂșaĂŸĂ©ttleiki er 122 ĂĄ ferkĂlĂłmetra. FrjĂłsemishlutfall var talið vera 1,42 börn ĂĄ konu ĂĄrið 2019, sem er með ĂŸvĂ lĂŠgsta sem gerist Ă heiminum. Að auki eru ĂbĂșar PĂłllands að eldast töluvert og miðaldur er um 42 ĂĄr. + +Um 60% af ĂbĂșum bĂșa Ă ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli eða stĂłrborgum og 40% Ă sveitahĂ©ruðum. Ărið 2020 bjĂł yfir helmingur PĂłlverja Ă einbĂœlishĂșsum og 44,3% Ă ĂbĂșðum. Fjölmennasta sĂœsla PĂłllands er MasĂłvĂa og fjölmennasta borgin er höfuðborgin, VarsjĂĄ, með 1,8 milljĂłn ĂbĂșa og aðrar 2-3 milljĂłnir ĂĄ stĂłrborgarsvÊðinu. StĂŠrsta ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlissvÊðið er stĂłrborgarsvÊði Katowice ĂŸar sem ĂbĂșar eru milli 2,7 milljĂłn og 5,3 milljĂłn. ĂbĂșaĂŸĂ©ttleiki er meiri Ă suðurhluta landsins og er mestur milli borganna WrocĆaw og KrakĂĄ. + +Ă manntali ĂĄrið 2011 töldu 37.310.341 sig vera PĂłlverja, 846.719 sögðust vera SlesĂubĂșar, 232.547 KasĂșbĂubĂșar og 147.814 Ăjóðverjar. Aðrir minnihlutahĂłpar töldu 163.363 manns (0,41%) og 521.470 (1,35%) gĂĄfu ekki upp neitt ĂŸjóðerni. Opinberar tölur um ĂbĂșa innihalda ekki farandverkafĂłlk ĂĄn dvalarleyfis eða Karta Polaka (rĂkisborgaraskĂrteini). Yfir 1,7 milljĂłn ĂșkraĂnskir rĂkisborgarar störfuðu löglega Ă PĂłllandi ĂĄrið 2017. Fjöldi aðfluttra fer ört vaxandi og rĂkið samĂŸykkti 504.172 atvinnuleyfisumsĂłknir Ăștlendinga ĂĄrið 2021. + +Borgir og bĂŠir +Bielsko-BiaĆa, BiaĆystok, Bydgoszcz, CzÄstochowa, GdaĆsk, Gdynia, Gniezno, GoleniĂłw, Karpacz, Katowice, Kielce, KoĆobrzeg, Koszalin, KrakĂĄ, Lublin, Ćowicz, ĆĂłdĆș, Malbork, Nowe Warpno, Olsztyn, Opole, Police, PoznaĆ, Radom, Sopot, Stargard SzczeciĆski, Szczecin, ĆwinoujĆcie, ToruĆ, VarsjĂĄ, Wolin, WrocĆaw, Zakopane + +Menning + +Matargerð + +PĂłlsk matargerð hefur breyst Ă gegnum tĂma vegna breytilegra aðstÊðna Ă landinu. HĂșn er svipuð öðrum eldunarhefðum sem er að finna annars staðar Ă Mið-EvrĂłpu og Austur-EvrĂłpu og jafnvel Ă Frakklandi og ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. Ăhersla er lögð ĂĄ kjöt, sĂ©rstaklega svĂnakjöt, nautakjöt og kjĂșkling (mismunandi eftir svÊðum), og vetrargrĂŠnmeti svo sem kĂĄl, ĂĄsamt kryddi. Ămiss konar nĂșðlur er lĂka að finna Ă mörgum rĂ©ttum, meðal ĂŸeirra helstu eru kluski, auk kornplantna eins og kasza. PĂłlsk matargerð er almennt vegleg og mikið er notað af eggjum og rjĂłma. Hefðbundnu rĂ©ttirnir krefjast mikils undirbĂșnings. Margir PĂłlverjar eyða miklum tĂma Ă að undirbĂșa og borða hĂĄtĂðarrĂ©tti sĂna, sĂ©rstaklega um jĂłl og pĂĄska. ĂĂĄ getur tekið nokkra daga til að bĂșa til alla rĂ©ttina. + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + + Vefur pĂłlska rĂkisins +PoznaĆ (ĂŸĂœska: Posen, latĂna: Posnania) er fimmta fjölmennasta borg PĂłllands og höfuðborg StĂłra-PĂłlland sĂœslu. Borgin er ein elsta borg PĂłllands og var mikilvĂŠg miðstöð ĂĄ fyrstu ĂĄrdögum pĂłlska rĂkisins. PoznaĆ liggur við ĂĄnna Warta. + +ĂĂŸrĂłttir +Lech PoznaĆ er knattspyrnulið borgarinnar. + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + Poznan (en) + +Borgir Ă PĂłllandi +VarsjĂĄ (pĂłlska: Warszawa, latĂna: Varsovia) er höfuðborg PĂłllands og jafnframt stĂŠrsta borg landsins. Borgin liggur við ĂĄna Visla og er um ĂŸað bil 260 km frĂĄ Eystrasalti og 300 km frĂĄ Karpatafjöllunum. Ărið 2021 var ĂbĂșafjöldinn tĂŠplega 1,9 milljĂłn manns og 3,1 milljĂłn ĂĄ stĂłrborgarsvÊðinu, ĂŸannig er VarsjĂĄ 6. fjölmennasta borg EvrĂłpusambandsins. FlatarmĂĄl borgarinnar er 517,24 ferkĂlĂłmetrar en stĂłrborgarsvÊðið nĂŠr yfir 6.100,43 ferkĂlĂłmetra. VarsjĂĄ er Ă hĂ©raðinu MasĂłvĂa og er stĂŠrsta borg ĂŸess. + +VarsjĂĄ er talin heimsborg og er vinsĂŠl ferðamannaborg og mikilvĂŠg fjĂĄrmĂĄlamiðstöð Ă Mið-EvrĂłpu. HĂșn er einnig ĂŸekkt sem âfönĂxborginâ af ĂŸvĂ að hĂșn hefur staðist mörg strĂð Ă gegnum söguna. Helsta ĂŸessara strĂða var seinni heimsstyrjöldin ĂŸar sem 80 % af byggingum Ă borginni voru eyðilagðar en borgin var endurbyggð vandlega eftir ĂŸað. Ăann 9. nĂłvember 1940 var borginni gefið hĂŠsta heiðursmerki PĂłllands, Virtuti Militari, vegna umsĂĄtursins um VarsjĂĄ (1939). + +Borgin er nafni fjölda rĂkja, samninga og atburða, meðal ĂŸeirra eru VarsjĂĄrĂkjabandalagið, VarsjĂĄrbandalagið, hertogadĂŠmið VarsjĂĄ, VarsjĂĄrsĂĄttmĂĄlinn, VarsjĂĄrsamningurinn, uppreisnin Ă VarsjĂĄ og uppreisnin Ă VarsjĂĄrgettĂłinu. Ăopinber söngur borgarinnar er Warszawianka. + +Orðsifjar + +Ă pĂłlsku ĂŸĂœĂ°ir orðið Warszawa (einnig stafað Warszewa eða Warszowa) âĂ eigu Warszâ. Warsz er stytting ĂĄ slavnesku karlmannanafni WarcisĆaw (nafn borgarinnar WrocĆaw ĂĄ lĂka rĂŠtur að rekja til ĂŸessa mannanafns). SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸjóðsögu var Warsz fiskimaður giftur konu sem hĂ©t Sawa. Sawa var hafmeyja sem bjĂł Ă ĂĄnni Visla nĂĄlĂŠgt borginni, sem Warsz varð ĂĄstfanginn af. Ă rauninni var Warsz aðalsmaður sem var uppi ĂĄ 12. eða 13. öld sem ĂĄtti ĂŸorp sem ĂĄ svÊðinu ĂŸar sem hverfið Mariensztat liggur Ă dag. Opinbera heiti borgarinnar ĂĄ pĂłlsku er miasto stoĆeczne Warszawa (höfuðborgin VarsjĂĄ). + +Ă Ăslensku var borgin stundum nefnd VarsjĂĄfa, VarsjĂĄva eða VarsjĂĄv. + +Saga + +Upphaf + +Fyrstu byggðirnar ĂĄ staðnum sem Ă dag er kallaður VarsjĂĄ voru BrĂłdno (9. â 10. öld) og JazdĂłw (12. â 13. öld). Eftir að ĂĄrĂĄs var gerð ĂĄ JazdĂłw var sest að ĂĄ svÊðinu ĂŸar sem fiskiĂŸorpið Warszowa var. BolesĆaw 2. MasĂłvĂuprins stofnaði byggðina VarsjĂĄ um ĂĄrið 1300. Ă byrjun 14. aldar varð byggðin valdastĂłll MasĂłvĂuhertoganna og var svo gerð að höfuðbĂŠ MasĂłvĂu ĂĄrið 1413. Ă ĂŸeim tĂma var efnahagur VarsjĂĄr byggður ĂĄ handiðnum og verslun. Ăegar hertogaĂŠttin dĂł Ășt var MasĂłvĂa fellt aftur inn Ă konungsrĂkið PĂłlland ĂĄrið 1526. + +16. â 18. öld +PĂłlska ĂŸingið (p. Sejm) var fyrst haft Ă VarsjĂĄ ĂĄrið 1529 og var ĂŸar til frambĂșðar frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1569. Ărið 1573 var VarsjĂĄrrĂkjabandalagið myndað sem veitti ĂbĂșum PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldisins trĂșarfrelsi formlega. Vegna góðrar staðsetningar ĂĄ milli KrakĂĄr og VilnĂusar varð VarsjĂĄ höfuðborg samveldisins en Sigmundur 3. konungur flutti pĂłlsku hirðina frĂĄ KrakĂĄ til VarsjĂĄr ĂĄrið 1596. + +Ărin eftir ĂŸað stĂŠkkaði borgin Ășt Ă Ășthverfin. Nokkur sjĂĄlfstÊð einkahverfi Ă eigu aðalsmanna voru stofnuð en ĂŸeim var stjĂłrnað með sĂ©rlögum. Ă tĂmabilinu 1655â1658 var borgin undir umsĂĄtri ĂŸrisvar en hĂșn var tekin og rĂŠnd af heröflum frĂĄ SvĂĂŸjóð, Brandenborg og TransylvanĂu. Ărið 1700 braust NorðurlandaĂłfriðurinn mikli Ășt og nokkrar ĂĄrĂĄsir voru gerðar ĂĄ VarsjĂĄ. Borgin var lĂka neydd til að borga framlagsfĂ© til strĂðsins. + +StanisĆaw August Poniatowski konungur endurnĂœjaði Konunglega kastalann og gerði VarsjĂĄ að menningar- og listamiðstöð. GĂŠlunafnið ParĂs austursins var haft um borgina eftir ĂŸað. + +19. og 20. aldir +VarsjĂĄ var ĂĄfram höfuðborg PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldisins til ĂĄrsins 1795 ĂŸegar ĂŸað varð hluti af konungsrĂkinu PrĂșsslandi. ĂĂĄ varð VarsjĂĄ höfuðborg hĂ©raðsins Suður-Prusslands. Borgin var frelsuð af hermönnum NapĂłleons ĂĄrið 1806 og var gerð svo að höfuðborg hertogadĂŠmisins VarsjĂĄr. Ă kjölfar VĂnarråðstefnunnar ĂĄrið 1815 varð VarsjĂĄ höfuðborg konungsrĂkisins PĂłllands, sem var ĂŸingbundin konungsstjĂłrn Ă konungssambandi við RĂșssneska heimsveldið. Konungslegi hĂĄskĂłlinn Ă VarsjĂĄ var stofnaður ĂĄrið 1816. + +Vegna fjölda brota ĂĄ pĂłlsku stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinni fyrir hendi RĂșsslands braust NĂłvemberuppreisnin Ășt ĂĄrið 1830. PĂłlsk-rĂșssneska strĂðinu 1831 lauk ĂŸĂł með Ăłsigri PĂłlverja og sjĂĄlfstÊði konungsrĂkisins var afnumið. Ăann 27. febrĂșar 1861 skaut rĂșssneskt herlið ĂĄ mannfjölda sem var að mĂłtmĂŠla stjĂłrn RĂșsslands yfir PĂłllandi en fimm menn fĂłrust Ă kjölfar skotĂĄrĂĄsarinnar. PĂłlska rĂkisstjĂłrnin var Ă felum Ă VarsjĂĄ meðan ĂĄ JanĂșaruppreisninni stóð ĂĄrin 1863â64. + +VarsjĂĄ blĂłmstraði Ă lok 19. aldar undir stjĂłrn Sokrates Starynkiewicz (1875â92), sem var rĂșssneskur hershöfðingi skipaður Ă embĂŠtti af Alexander 3. Ă tĂmum Starynkiewicz byggði William Lindley enskur verkfrÊðingur ĂĄsamt syni sĂnum William Heerlein Lindley fyrsta vatnsveitu- og frĂĄrennsliskerfið Ă VarsjĂĄ. Auk ĂŸess voru sporvagnakerfið, gaskerfið og götulĂœsingarkerfið endurbĂŠtt og stĂŠkkuð. + +SamkvĂŠmt manntali rĂșssneska heimsveldisins ĂĄrið 1897 bjuggu 626.000 manns Ă VarsjĂĄ og borgin var ĂĄ sĂnum tĂma ĂŸriðja stĂŠrsta Ă heimsveldinu ĂĄ eftir Sankta PĂ©tursborg og Moskvu. + +VarsjĂĄ var undir ĂŸĂœsku hernĂĄmi frĂĄ 4. ĂĄgĂșst 1915 til 1918. Eftir hernĂĄmið varð hĂșn höfuðborg nĂœlega sjĂĄlfstÊðs PĂłllands ĂĄrið 1918. Undir strĂði SovĂ©trĂkjanna og PĂłllands +ĂĄrið 1920 var orrustan um VarsjĂĄ håð Ă Ășthverfunum, ĂŸar sem PĂłlverjarnir sigruðu Rauða herinn. Ăannig stöðvaði PĂłlland aleitt framrĂĄs Rauða hersins. + +Seinni heimsstyrjöldin + +Ă seinni heimsstyrjöldinni var miðsvÊði PĂłllands, ĂĄsamt VarsjĂĄ, undir stjĂłrn AllsherjarrĂkisstjĂłrnarinnar (ĂŸ. Generalgouvernement), sem var ĂŸĂœsk nasistastjĂłrn. Ăllum hĂĄskĂłlum var lokað strax og allir gyðingar Ă borginni, nokkur hundruð ĂŸĂșsund manns eða 30 % af öllum ĂbĂșafjöldanum, voru fluttir inn Ă VarsjĂĄrgettĂłið. Seinna varð borgin miðstöð andspyrnunnar gegn nasistastjĂłrn Ă EvrĂłpu. Sem hluti af Lokalausninni skipaði Hitler að gettĂłið yrði eyðilagt ĂŸann 19. aprĂl 1943 en svo byrjaði uppreisn Ă gettĂłinu gegn honum. ĂĂł að uppreisnarmennirnir voru ofurliði bornir og lĂtið vopnaðir stóðst gettĂłið Ă yfir einn mĂĄnuð. Ăegar bardaganum lauk voru eftirlifendur strĂĄdrepnir og mjög fĂĄir komust undan og tĂłkust að fela sig. + +Fyrir jĂșlĂ 1944 var Rauði herinn löngu kominn inn ĂĄ pĂłlska yfirråðasvÊðið og var farinn ĂĄ eftir Ăjóðverjunum Ă ĂĄtt að VarsjĂĄ. PĂłlska rĂkisstjĂłrnin var Ă Ăștlegð Ă London og vissi að StalĂn var ĂĄ mĂłti sjĂĄlfstÊðu PĂłllandi. RĂkisstjĂłrnin skipaði svo Heimahernum (p. Armia Krajowa) að reyna að hrifsa stjĂłrn ĂĄ VarsjĂĄ af Ăjóðverjunum åður en Rauði herinn komst ĂŸar. Af ĂŸessum sökum byrjaði VarsjĂĄruppreisnin ĂŸann 1. ĂĄgĂșst 1944 ĂŸegar Rauði herinn nĂĄlgaðist borgina. BarĂĄttunni, sem ĂĄtti að standa yfir Ă 48 klukkustundir, lauk eftir 63 daga. StalĂn skipaði ĂŸĂĄ hermönnunum sĂnum að bĂða fyrir utan VarsjĂĄ. Að lokum neyddist heimaherinn og barĂĄttumennirnir sem voru að hjĂĄlpa honum til að gefast upp. Ăeir voru teknir Ă strĂðsfangabĂșðir og allir Ăłbreyttir borgarar voru reknir Ășt Ășr borginni. Gert er råð fyrir að 150.000 til 200.000 pĂłlskir Ăłbreyttir borgarar hafi dĂĄið ĂŸĂĄ. + +Ăjóðverjarnir tortĂmdu borginni. Hitler hunsaði skilyrði uppgjafarsamningsins, skipaði að borgin yrði eyðilögð og svo að öll bĂłkasöfn og minjasöfn vĂŠru annaðhvort tekin til ĂĂœskalands eða brennd. Minnismerki og stjĂłrnarråðsbyggingar voru sprengdar Ă loft upp af ĂŸĂœsku sĂ©rliði sem hĂ©t Verbrennungs- und Vernichtungskommando (âBrennslu- og eyðileggingarsveitinâ). Um ĂŸað bil 85 % af borginni var eyðilögð ĂĄsamt gamla bĂŠnum og Konunglega kastalanum. + +Ăann 17. janĂșar 1945 fĂłru sovĂ©skir hermenn inn Ă rĂșstir borgarinnar og frelsaði Ășthverfin frĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku hernĂĄmi. Borgin var fljĂłtt tekin af sovĂ©ska hernum sem sĂłtti ĂŸĂĄ fram til ĆĂłdĆș ĂĄ meðan ĂŸĂœskir hermenn söfnuðust saman ĂĄ nĂœ vestri. + +Ă dag + +Ărið 1945 eftir að sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum, uppreisnum, bardaga og eyðileggingu var lokið lĂĄ mestöll borgin Ă rĂșstum. Eftir strĂðið kom kommĂșnistastjĂłrn mörgum byggingarverkefnum Ă gang til ĂŸess að takast ĂĄ við skort ĂĄ hĂșsnÊði. StĂłr staðsteypt hĂșs voru byggð ĂĄsamt öðrum byggingum sem voru algengar Ă borgum Austurblokkarinnar, svo sem Menningar- og vĂsindahöllin. Borgin endurheimti hlutverk sitt sem höfuðborg PĂłllands og miðstöð pĂłlskrar menningar og stjĂłrnmĂĄla. Margar gamlar götur, byggingar og kirkjur voru endurreistar Ă upprunalegri mynd. Ărið 1980 var gamli bĂŠrinn skråður ĂĄ heimsminjaskrĂĄ UNESCO. + +JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. pĂĄfi heimsĂłtti heimaborg sĂna ĂĄrin 1979 og 1983 og hvatti til stuðnings fyrir verðandi hreyfinguna Samstöðu og stuðlaði að andkommĂșnistahreyfingum. Ărið 1979, eftir minna en eitt ĂĄr að hann varð pĂĄfi, hĂ©lt JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. messu ĂĄ Sigurtorginu og endaði predikun sĂna með ĂĄkalli ĂĄ að âendurnĂœja andlit PĂłllandsâ. Ăessi orð voru ĂŸĂœĂ°ingarmikil fyrir PĂłlverja og ĂŸeir skildu ĂŸau sem hvatningu til lĂœĂ°rÊðis. + +Ărið 1995 var neðanjarðarlestakerfi VarsjĂĄr opnað. PĂłlland gekk Ă EvrĂłpusambandið ĂĄrið 2004 og ĂŸar hefur verið mikill efnahagslegur vöxtur frĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma. Opnunarleikur EvrĂłpumeistaramĂłts UEFA 2012 var haldinn Ă VarsjĂĄ. + +LandafrÊði + +VarsjĂĄ liggur Ă miðausturhluta PĂłllands um ĂŸað bil 300 km frĂĄ Karpatafjöllunum, 260 km frĂĄ Eystrasalti og 520 km fyrir austan BerlĂn Ă ĂĂœskalandi. Ăin Visla rennur Ă gegnum borgina. Borgin liggur beint Ă miðri MasĂłvĂuslĂ©ttunni og er að meðaltali 100 m yfir sjĂĄvarmĂĄli. HĂŠsti punkturinn Ă vesturhluta borgarinnar er 115,7 yfir sjĂĄvarmĂĄli Ă hverfinu Wola og hĂŠsti punkturinn Ă austurhlutanum er 122,1 km yfir sjĂĄvarmĂĄli Ă hverfinu WesoĆa. LĂŠgsti punkturinn er ĂĄ austurbakka ĂĄrinnar en hann er 75,6 m yfir sjĂĄvarmĂĄli. Ă borginni eru nokkrir hĂłlar en ĂŸeir eru að mestu leyti manngerðir, t.d. VarsjĂĄruppreisnarhĂłll (121 m) og SzczÄĆliwice-hĂłll (138 m, hĂŠsti staðurinn Ă allri VarsjĂĄ). + +Loftslag +Ă VarsjĂĄ er temprað loftslag (Köppen: Dfb) með köldum vetrum og mildum sumrum. Meðalhiti Ă janĂșar er â3 °C og 19,3 °C Ă jĂșlĂ. Hitastigið getur nåð allt að 30 °C ĂĄ sumrin. ĂrsmeðalĂșrkoma er 495 millimetrar og en blautasti mĂĄnuður ĂĄrsins er jĂșlĂ. Ă vorin er mikill blĂłmi og sĂłlskin en ĂĄ haustin er annaðhvort sĂłlskinsveður eða ĂŸoka en ĂŸĂĄ er oftast svalt en ekki kalt. + +Hverfi +Til ĂĄrsins 1994 voru sjö hverfi Ă VarsjĂĄ: ĆrĂłdmieĆcie, Praga PĂłĆnoc, Praga PoĆudnie, Ć»oliborz, Wola, Ochota og MokotĂłw. Ăeim var svo fjölgað og ĂĄ tĂmabilinu 1994â2002 voru ĂŸau 11: Centrum, BiaĆoĆÄka, TargĂłwek, RembertĂłw, Wawer, WilanĂłw, UrsynĂłw, WĆochy, Ursus, Bemowo og Bielany. Ărið 2002 var bĂŠrinn WesoĆa gerður að hverfi. + +VarsjĂĄ er powiat (sĂœsla) og skiptist Ă 18 borgarhluta sem heita dzielnica en Ă hverjum borgarhluta er sĂ©r sjĂłrnsĂœsla. Ă hverjum borgarhluta eru nokkur hverfi með engri rĂ©ttarstöðu eða stjĂłrnsĂœslu. Ăað eru lĂka tvö söguleg hverfi Ă borginni: gamli bĂŠrinn (p. Stare Miasto) og nĂœi bĂŠrinn (p. Nowe Miasto) Ă borgarhlutanum ĆrĂłdmieĆcie. + +Borgarmynd + +Yfirlit +Saga VarsjĂĄr og PĂłllands endurspeglast Ă fjölbreyttri blöndu byggingarstĂla sem er að finna Ă borginni. Ă seinni heimsstyrjöldinni var mestöll borgin tortĂmd Ă sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum og fyrirhugaðri eyðileggingu. Eftir að borgin var frelsuð hĂłfst endurbygging eins og à öðrum borgum Ă alĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldinu PĂłllandi. Flestar gamlar byggingar voru endurreistar Ă upprunalegri mynd. Samt sem åður voru nokkrar byggingar frĂĄ 19. öld sem hĂŠgt var að endurbyggja rifnar niður ĂĄ sjötta og sjöunda ĂĄratugnum. StĂłrar ĂbĂșðablokkir voru reistar Ă byggingarstĂl sem var algengur Ă Austurblokkarlöndum ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma. + +Mikið er fjĂĄrfest Ă opinberum svÊðum Ă VarsjĂĄ og ĂŸannig hafa alnĂœ torg verið byggð ĂĄsamt nĂœjum görðum og minnismerkjum. Ă dag er mikið af samtĂmabyggingum Ă borginni. + +Byggingarlist +Ă VarsjĂĄ er mikið af marglitum kirkjum, höllum og höfðingjasetrum Ă nĂŠst öllum evrĂłpskum byggingarstĂlum frĂĄ hverju sögutĂmabili. Mest ĂĄberandi eru byggingar Ă gotneskum stĂl, endurreisnarstĂl, barokkstĂl og nĂœklassĂskum stĂl og margar ĂŸeirra eru innan göngufĂŠris frĂĄ miðborginni. + +Helstu byggingarnar Ă gotneskum stĂl eru stĂłrar kirkjur og virki, ĂĄsamt hĂșsum sem byggð voru fyrir miðstĂ©ttina. DĂŠmi um svona byggingar eru JĂłnsdĂłmkirkja (14. öld), sem er dĂŠmigert eintak um svokallaða âMasĂłvĂugotneska stĂlinnâ, MarĂukirkja (1411), raðhĂșs byggt fyrir Burbach-fjölskylduna (14. öld) og Konunglegi kastalinn Curia Maior (1407â1410). Nokkrar athyglisverðar byggingar Ă endurreisnarstĂlnum eru hĂșs Baryczko-fjölskyldunnar (1562), bygging sem heitir âSvertinginnâ (17. öld) og Salwator-fjölbĂœlishĂșsið (1632). Ăsamt dĂŠmum um manierismastĂlinn eru Konunglegi kastalinn (1596â1619) og JesĂșĂtakirkja (1609â1626) Ă gamla bĂŠnum. + +Ă lok 17. aldar var byggt mikið af kirkjum og hĂșsum fyrir aðalsmenn. Helstu dĂŠmin frĂĄ ĂŸessu tĂmabili eru KrasiĆski-höll (1677â1683), WilanĂłw-höll (1677â1696) og Kazimierz-kirkja (1688â1692). Meðal byggingar Ă rĂłkokĂłstĂlnum eru Czapski-höll (1712â1721), Höll fjögurra vinda (1730) og Wizytki-kirkja (1728â1761). Byggingar Ă VarsjĂĄ Ă nĂœklassĂskum stĂl einkennast af rĂșmfrÊðilegum formum og ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ rĂłmverskum byggingum. Bestu dĂŠmin um nĂœklassĂskan stĂl eru Ćazienki-höll (endurbyggð 1775â1795), KrĂłlikarnia (1782â1786), KarmelĂtakirkja (1761â1783) og Kirkja heilagrar ĂŸrenningar (1777â1782). Ă tĂmum konungsrĂkisins PĂłllands var mikill efnahagslegur vöxtur og aukinn ĂĄhugi ĂĄ arkitektĂșr Ă kjölfarið. Ăhuginn ĂĄ nĂœklassĂska stĂlnum var töluverður og sĂ©st Ă byggingum ĂĄ borð við Mikla leikhĂșs (1825â1833) og byggingarnar ĂĄ Bankatorginu (1825â1828). + +Margar byggingar Ă borgarastĂ©ttarstĂlnum voru ekki endurreistar af kommĂșnistastjĂłrninni eftir strĂðið en sumar ĂŸeirra voru endurbyggðar Ă ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagslegum raunsĂŠisstĂl (svo sem hĂșs fĂlharmĂłnĂusveitar VarsjĂĄr). Sum dĂŠmi um byggingar frĂĄ 19. öld er samt að finna Ă borginni, eins og tĂŠknihĂĄskĂłlinn Ă VarsjĂĄ (1899â1902). Margar byggingar frĂĄ ĂŸessu tĂmabili austan megin við Vislu voru gerðar upp en eru Ă slĂŠmu ĂĄstandi Ă dag. BorgarstjĂłrn VarsjĂĄr hefur ĂĄkveðið að endurbyggja Saxahöllina og BrĂŒhl-höllina sem voru ĂĄsamt helstu byggingum Ă borginni fyrir strĂðið. + +Nokkur dĂŠmi um samtĂmabyggingar eru Menningar- og vĂsindahöllin (1952â1955), sem er skĂœjakljĂșfur byggður Ă ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagslegum raunsĂŠisstĂlnum, og StjĂłrnarskrĂĄrtorg, ĂŸar sem fleiri byggingar Ă ĂŸessum stĂl er að finna. Ă miðju hverfinu Praga austan megin við ĂĄna eru mörg niðurnĂdd hĂșs við hliðina ĂĄ nĂœjum ĂbĂșðablokkum og verslunarmiðstöðvum. + +Byggingar Ă nĂștĂmastĂlnum, ĂĄ borð við Metropolitan Office Building ĂĄ PiĆsudski-torgi, sem var hönnuð af breskum arkitekt Norman Foster, BĂłkasafn hĂĄskĂłlans Ă VarsjĂĄ (BUW) eftir arkitektana Marek BudzyĆski og Zbigniew Badowski, skrifstofuhĂșsið Rondo 1, sem var hannað af Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, og ZĆote Tarasy sem er með nokkrum hvolfĂŸĂ¶kum sem skarast, er að finna vĂðs vegar um borgina. + +VarsjĂĄ er meðal hĂŠstu borganna Ă EvrĂłpu, 18 af 21 hĂŠstu byggingu Ă PĂłllandi eru Ă VarsjĂĄ. + +PlöntulĂf og dĂœralĂf + +Um 40 % af flatarmĂĄli VarsjĂĄr er grĂŠnt, ĂŸað er að segja almenningsgarðar, grasbrĂșnir og trĂ© ĂĄ götum, landverndarsvÊði og litlir skĂłgar Ă Ăștjaðri borgarinnar. Almenningsgarðar Ă borginni eru 82 samtals og nĂĄ yfir 8 % af flatarmĂĄli borgarinnar. Hinir elstu ĂŸeirra Saxagarðurinn og garðarnir við hallirnir KrasiĆski, Ćazienki og KrĂłlikarnia. + +Saxagarðurinn er 15,5 ha að flatarmĂĄli og var åður fyrr konunglegur garður. Ă garðinum eru yfir 100 trjĂĄtegundir og breiddar göngubrautir með bökkum. Gröf ĂłĂŸekkta hermannsins er Ă austurhluta garðsins. Garðurinn við KrasiĆski-höll var gerður upp af landslagsartitektinum Franciszek Szanior ĂĄ 19. öld en Ă miðjum garðinum er enn að finna trĂ© frĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma svo sem musteristrĂ©, svört valhnotutrĂ© og hesliviði. Ăar eru lĂka margir bekkir, blĂłm, andatjörn og leikvelli en hann er mjög vinsĂŠll meðal VarsjĂĄrbĂșa. Minnismerki um uppreisnina Ă VarsjĂĄrgettĂłinu er lĂka Ă garðinum. + +Garðurinn við Ćazienki-höll er 76 ha að flatarmĂĄli en skipulag garðsins og plönturnar ĂŸar endurspegla sĂ©rkennilegu sögu hans. Ă garðinum eru nokkur samkomuhĂșs, höggmyndir, brĂœr og tjarnir en ĂŸað sem aðskilur hann frĂĄ öðrum almenningsgörðum Ă VarsjĂĄ er pĂĄfuglar og fasanar sem flĂŠkjast frjĂĄlsir um garðinn. Einnig eru vatnakarfar Ă tjörnunum. Garðurinn við WilanĂłw-höll er 43 ha og var opnaður Ă lok 17. aldar. Hann var skipulagður Ă frönskum stĂl og minnir ĂĄ barokkstĂl hallarinnar. Austurhluti garðsins er nĂŠstur höllinni og er ĂĄ tveimur hÊðum. + +Heimildir + +VarsjĂĄ +Borgir Ă PĂłllandi +Höfuðborgir +Akureyri er bĂŠr (åður kaupstaður) Ă Eyjafirði ĂĄ Mið-Norðurlandi. Ă sveitarfĂ©laginu bĂșa um 20.000 (26. aprĂl 2023). AkureyrarbĂŠr er fimmta fjölmennasta sveitarfĂ©lag Ăslands og er annað fjölmennasta utan höfuðborgarsvÊðisins ĂĄ eftir ReykjanesbĂŠ. Fyrir utan hið eiginlega bĂŠjarland Akureyrar Ă botni Eyjafjarðar eru eyjarnar GrĂmsey og HrĂsey einnig innan vĂ©banda sveitarfĂ©lagsins. + +Saga bĂŠjarins + +LandnĂĄmabĂłk greinir frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að fyrsti landneminn ĂĄ svÊðinu var Helgi âmagriâ Eyvindarson sem kom ĂŸangað ĂĄ 9. öld. Elstu heimildir um nafnið Akureyri eru ĂŸĂł frĂĄ 1562 en ĂŸĂĄ fĂ©ll dĂłmur ĂĄ staðnum yfir konu fyrir að hafa sĂŠngað hjĂĄ karli ĂĄn ĂŸess að hafa giftingarvottorð. + +Ă 17. öld tĂłku danskir kaupmenn að reisa bĂșðir sĂnar ĂĄ sjĂĄlfri Akureyri sem var ein af nokkrum eyrum sem sköguðu Ășt Ă Pollinn. Ăeir völdu staðinn vegna afbragðs hafnarskilyrða og einnig vegna ĂŸess að hĂ©raðið er og var gjöfult landbĂșnaðarsvÊði en dönsku kaupmennirnir sĂłttust einkum eftir ull og kjöti. Dönsku kaupmennirnir bjuggu ĂŸĂł ekki ĂĄ Akureyri allt ĂĄrið ĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma heldur lĂŠstu ĂŸeir hĂșsum sĂnum og yfirgĂĄfu staðinn yfir vetrartĂmann. + +Ărið 1778 var fyrsta ĂbĂșðarhĂșsið reist ĂĄ staðnum og varanleg bĂșseta hĂłfst. 8 ĂĄrum sĂðar fĂ©kk bĂŠrinn kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi ĂĄsamt fimm öðrum bĂŠjum ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ăetta var að undirlagi Danakonungs en hann vildi reyna að efla hag Ăslands með ĂŸvĂ að hvetja til ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlismyndunar ĂŸar en slĂkt var ĂŸĂĄ nĂĄnast ĂłĂŸekkt ĂĄ landinu. Akureyri stĂŠkkaði ĂŸĂł ekki við ĂŸetta og missti kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindin 1836 en nåði ĂŸeim aftur 1862 og klauf sig ĂŸĂĄ frĂĄ Hrafnagilshreppi, ĂŸĂĄ hĂłfst vöxtur Akureyrar fyrir alvöru og mörk AkureyrarbĂŠjar og Hrafnagilshrepps voru fĂŠrð nokkrum sinnum enn eftir ĂŸvĂ sem bĂŠrinn stĂŠkkaði. BĂŠndur Ă Eyjafirði voru ĂŸĂĄ farnir að bindast samtökum til að styrkja stöðu sĂna gagnvart dönsku kaupmönnunum, uppĂșr ĂŸvĂ varð KaupfĂ©lag Eyfirðinga (KEA) stofnað. KEA ĂĄtti mikinn ĂŸĂĄtt Ă vexti bĂŠjarins, ĂĄ vegum ĂŸess voru rekin mörg iðnfyrirtĂŠki Ă bĂŠnum sem mörg sĂ©rhĂŠfðu sig Ă Ășrvinnslu landbĂșnaðarafurða. Ărið 1954 var mörkum AkureyrarbĂŠjar og GlĂŠsibĂŠjarhrepps breytt ĂŸannig að ĂŸað ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli sem tekið var að myndast handan GlerĂĄr teldist til Akureyrar, ĂŸar hefur nĂș byggst upp GlerĂĄrhverfi. + +Ă sĂðasta ĂĄratug 20. aldar tĂłk Akureyri miklum breytingum, framleiðsluiðnaðurinn sem hafði verið grunnurinn undir bĂŠnum lĂ©t töluvert ĂĄ sjĂĄ og KEA drĂł verulega Ășr umsvifum sĂnum. Meiri umsvif Ă verslun og ĂŸjĂłnustu, ferðaĂŸjĂłnustu, sjĂĄvarĂștvegi og HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri hafa nĂș komið Ă stað iðnaðarins að miklu leyti. HrĂseyjarhreppur sameinaðist AkureyrarbĂŠ 2004 en Ă kosningum Ă oktĂłber 2005 var tillögu um sameiningu allra sveitarfĂ©laga Ă Eyjafirði hafnað ĂĄ Akureyri. GrĂmseyjarhreppur sameinaðist AkureyrarbĂŠ 2009. + +Ă Akureyri hefur verið mönnuð veðurathugunarstöð sĂðan 1881. + +BĂŠjarstjĂłrn +SjĂĄ einnig: BĂŠjarstjĂłrnarkosningar ĂĄ Akureyri +Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrn Akureyrar sitja 11 fulltrĂșar sem kjörnir eru af ĂbĂșum bĂŠjarins yfir 18 ĂĄra aldri ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra fresti. BĂŠjarstjĂłrn skipar bĂŠjarråð sem fer með fjĂĄrmĂĄlastjĂłrn bĂŠjarins og aðrar fastanefndir sem fjalla um afmörkuð svið. Forseti bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar er Êðsti yfirmaður hennar og hĂșn kemur saman ĂĄ opnum fundum að jafnaði tvisvar Ă mĂĄnuði en bĂŠjarråð fundar vikulega. + +BĂŠjarstjĂłrinn er yfirmaður embĂŠttismannakerfisins, hann er råðinn af bĂŠjarstjĂłrninni og getur verið annaðhvort kjörinn bĂŠjarfulltrĂși eða utanaðkomandi. StjĂłrnkerfinu er svo skipt Ă ĂŸrjĂș meginsvið (fĂ©lagssvið, stjĂłrnsĂœslusvið, tĂŠkni- og umhverfissvið) sem svo skiptast Ă deildir og undir ĂŸeim eru einstakar stofnanir. + +NĂșverandi skipan bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar +Kosningar til bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar voru sĂðast haldnar 14. maĂ 2022. Skipting atkvÊða og bĂŠjarfulltrĂșa var sem hĂ©r segir: + +BĂŠjarlistinn, SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokkurinn og Miðflokkurinn mynduðu saman meirihluta eftir kosningarnar. + +BĂŠjarstjĂłri +Staða bĂŠjarstjĂłra var auglĂœst laus til umsĂłknar að loknum kosningum 26. maĂ 2018. Ăsthildur SturludĂłttir var råðin bĂŠjarstjĂłri 31. jĂșlĂ 2018 og tĂłk til starfa Ă september. Råðning hennar var framlengd eftir kosningarnar 2022. + +Fyrri bĂŠjarstjĂłrar + 1919â1934 - JĂłn Sveinsson + 1934â1958 - Steinn Steinsen + 1958â1967 - MagnĂșs GuðjĂłnsson + 1967â1976 - Bjarni Einarsson + 1976â1986 - Helgi M. Bergs + 1986â1990 - SigfĂșs JĂłnsson + 1990â1994 - HalldĂłr JĂłnsson + 1994â1998 - Jakob Björnsson + 1998â2007 - KristjĂĄn ĂĂłr JĂșlĂusson + 2007â2009 - SigrĂșn Björk JakobsdĂłttir + 2009â2010 - Hermann JĂłn TĂłmasson + 2010â2018 - EirĂkur Björn Björgvinsson + 2018â - Ăsthildur SturludĂłttir + +StaðhĂŠttir +Akureyri stendur við botn Eyjafjarðar við Pollinn en svo er sjĂłrinn milli Oddeyrar og Ăłsa EyjafjarðarĂĄr kallaður. Ă gegnum bĂŠinn rennur GlerĂĄ sem aðskilur GlerĂĄrhverfi (Ăorpið) frĂĄ öðrum bĂŠjarhlutum. Ănnur hverfi bĂŠjarins eru Oddeyri, Brekkan, Naustahverfi, Lundahverfi, InnbĂŠrinn og MiðbĂŠr. + +Samgöngur +StrĂŠtisvagnakerfi er rekið Ă bĂŠnum af StrĂŠtisvögnum Akureyrar, og frĂĄ og með ĂĄrinu 2007 voru ferðir gerðar gjaldfrjĂĄlsar og fjölgaði farĂŸegum um rĂșm 60% eftir ĂŸað, eða Ășr 640 (ĂŸriðju viku ĂĄrsins 2006) Ă að meðaltali 1020 (um sama leyti 2007). + +Menntastofnanir +Akureyri er mikill skĂłlabĂŠr. Ă bĂŠnum eru tveir stĂłrir framhaldsskĂłlar (MA og VMA) MyndlistaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri, TĂłnlistarskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri og HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri. + +Atvinnuvegir +Helstu atvinnuvegir bĂŠjarbĂșa eru verslun og ĂŸjĂłnusta, framleiðsluiðnaður, sjĂĄvarĂștvegur og opinber ĂŸjĂłnusta. Ă bĂŠnum er FjĂłrðungssjĂșkrahĂșsið ĂĄ Akureyri, nĂŠststĂŠrsta sjĂșkrahĂșs landsins (ĂĄ eftir LandsspĂtala HĂĄskĂłlasjĂșkrahĂșsi); Hlutur framleiðsluiðnaðar Ă atvinnulĂfi Ă bĂŠnum hefur minnkað mikið sĂðustu 15-20 ĂĄrin, en ĂĄ mĂłti hefur sjĂĄvarĂștvegur vaxið og Ă dag hafa tvö stĂŠrstu sjĂĄvarĂștvegsfyrirtĂŠki landsins, Brim og Samherji ĂŸar höfuðstöðvar. + +Söfn og afĂŸreying +Listasafnið ĂĄ Akureyri +NonnahĂșs (minningarsafn um JĂłn Sveinsson, barnabĂłkahöfund) +DavĂðshĂșs (minningarsafn um DavĂð StefĂĄnsson, ljóðskĂĄld) +Iðnaðarsafnið ĂĄ Akureyri +Flugsafn Ăslands +FriðbjarnarhĂșs +Lystigarður Akureyrar +MenningarhĂșsið Hof +Minjasafnið ĂĄ Akureyri +MĂłtorhjĂłlasafn Ăslands + +Sundlaug Akureyrar +HlĂðarfjall, skĂðasvÊði +Skautahöllin ĂĄ Akureyri +KjarnaskĂłgur, Ăștivist o.fl. +AmtsbĂłkasafnið ĂĄ Akureyri + +Svipmyndir + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + + VefsĂða AkureyrarbĂŠjar + FerðamannasĂða Akureyrarstofu + VefsĂða RES OrkuskĂłla (RES - The School for Renewable Energy Science) + TrjĂĄgróður ĂĄ Akureyri - KjarnaskĂłgur.is + HĂșs með sĂĄl og sögu ĂĄ Akureyri; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1985 + EnnĂŸĂĄ er stĂll yfir staðnum; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1967 + VigfĂșs SigfĂșsson hĂłteleigandi ĂĄ Akureyri; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1943 + SkĂĄldabĂŠrinn Akureyri; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1971 + + +Veðurathugunarstöðvar ĂĄ Ăslandi +HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri er hĂĄskĂłli Ă bĂŠnum Akureyri ĂĄ Ăslandi sem stofnaður var ĂĄrið 1987. Hann hefur vaxið mikið sĂðan og Ă dag eru ĂŸar skråðir Ă kring um 2.500 stĂșdentar. SkĂłlinn er meðal ĂŸeirra fremstu ĂĄ Ăslandi og hefur verið framsĂŠkinn ĂŸegar kemur að sveigjanlegu nĂĄmsfyrirkomulagi. + +Sveigjanlegt nĂĄm er stĂłr kostur við HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri. Fjölbreyttar og nĂștĂmalegar kennslu- og nĂĄmsaðferðir eru notaðar við miðlun nĂĄmsefnis. + +Allt grunnĂĄm er Ă boði sem sveigjanlegt nĂĄm. Ăað ĂŸĂœĂ°ir að stĂșdentar ĂŸurfa ekki endilega að vera bĂșsettir ĂĄ Akureyri heldur koma Ă hĂĄskĂłlann Ă sĂ©rstakar nĂĄmslotur ĂŸar sem meginĂĄhersla er lögð ĂĄ verkefnavinnu og umrÊður. Allir fylgja sömu nĂĄmskrĂĄnni og nĂĄmskröfur eru ĂŸĂŠr sömu. + +Ă nĂĄmslotunum gefst ĂŸĂ©r tĂŠkifĂŠri til að hitta kennara, stĂșdenta og annað starfsfĂłlk hĂĄskĂłlans og tengjast enn betur hĂĄskĂłlasamfĂ©laginu. + +Saga + +HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri var stofnaður 5. september 1987 og starfaði hann fyrst Ă stað Ă hĂșsnÊði VerkmenntaskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri að ĂingvallastrĂŠti 23. ĂĂĄ var boðið upp ĂĄ nĂĄm Ă tveimur deildum: Heilbrigðisdeild og Rekstradeild. Fyrsti rektor skĂłlans var Haraldur Bessason. Fyrstu Ăștskriftarnemarnir voru 10 iðnrekstrarfrÊðingar, brautskråðir 1989. Fyrstu framhaldsnemarnir voru brautskråðir með M.Sc. Ă hjĂșkrunarfrÊðum 26. febrĂșar 2000. + +NĂĄm +Fjölbreytt nĂĄm er Ă boði við HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri, bÊði ĂĄ grunn- og framhaldsstigi. FrĂĄ og með vormisseri 2019 varð HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri fullvaxta hĂĄskĂłli með nĂĄm ĂĄ öllum ĂŸrepum hĂĄskĂłlanĂĄms ĂŸegar honum var veitt heimild til að bjóða upp ĂĄ doktorsnĂĄm. Kennsla fer fram ĂĄ tveimur frÊðasviðum og ĂŸau eru: + +Hug- og fĂ©lagsvĂsindasvið +Hug- og fĂ©lagsvĂsindasvið samanstendur af fjĂłrum deildum; FĂ©lagsvĂsindadeild, Lagadeild, SĂĄlfrÊðideild og Kennaradeild. Ăar er boðið upp ĂĄ fjölbreytt grunnnĂĄm +bakkalĂĄrprĂłfs (B.A. og B.Ed.) og framhaldsnĂĄm til meistaraprĂłfs (M.A., M.Ed., M.l. +og ll.M). Miðstöð skĂłlaĂŸrĂłunar við HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri tilheyrir einnig sviðinu +og starfar ĂŸað Ă nĂĄnum tengslum við Kennaradeild að ĂŸrĂłunar- og umbĂłtastarfi Ă +skĂłlum, ĂĄsamt råðgjöf og frÊðslu. + +NĂĄmið einkennist af fjölbreyttum ĂĄherslum sem koma til mĂłts við ĂłlĂkar ĂŸarfir +og ĂĄhuga stĂșdenta. Hver deild hefur sĂna sĂ©rstöðu: + + Ă FĂ©lagsvĂsindadeild er boðið upp ĂĄ fjĂłrar nĂĄmsleiðir til BA gråðu, ĂŸar af eru fĂ©lagsvĂsindi, fjölmiðlafrÊði og lögreglufrÊði einungis kennd við HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri. Að hluta til er boðið upp ĂĄ sömu nĂĄmskeið Ă ĂŸessum nĂĄmsleiðum ĂĄ fyrsta ĂĄri og stĂșdentar fĂĄ fljĂłtlega tĂŠkifĂŠri til að sĂ©rhĂŠfa sig með ĂŸvĂ að taka valnĂĄmskeið. Til viðbĂłtar eru Ă boði tvĂŠr nĂĄmsleiðir ĂĄ meistarastigi. + Við Lagadeild er kennd lögfrÊði Ă grunnnĂĄmi og framhaldsnĂĄmi auk ĂŸess sem heimskautarĂ©ttur er Ă boði Ă framhaldsnĂĄmi. SĂ©rstaða lögfrÊðinĂĄms HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri felst Ă alĂŸjóðlegri nĂĄlgun og sveigjanlegu nĂĄmsfyrirkomulagi. + Ă SĂĄlfrÊðideild er boðið upp ĂĄ 3 ĂĄra BA nĂĄm Ă sĂĄlfrÊði ĂŸar sem sĂ©rstaðan er sveigjanlegt nĂĄmsfyrirkomulag og nĂĄmsmat. Auk ĂŸess bĂœĂ°ur SĂĄlfrÊðideild upp ĂĄ MA nĂĄm Ă sĂĄlfrÊði sem er rannsĂłknartengt og er sniðið að ĂĄhugasviði hvers og eins. + Við Kennaradeild er kennt fjölbreytt nĂĄm ĂĄ grunn- og framhaldsstigi. NĂĄmið miðar að ĂŸvĂ að stĂșdentar öðlist ĂŸĂĄ ĂŸekkingu, leikni og hĂŠfni sem kennarastarf krefst ĂĄ hverjum tĂma. Deildin bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ fjölbreytt nĂĄm með margvĂslegri sĂ©rhĂŠfingu sem leggur traustan grunn að ĂŸeirri fĂŠrni sem ĂŸrĂłun skĂłlastarfs, iðkun rannsĂłkna og frekara nĂĄm gerir kröfur um. + +GrunnĂĄm: + + FĂ©lagsvĂsindi (BA) + FjölmiðlafrÊði (BA) + KennarafrÊði (BEd) + LögfrÊði (BA) + LöggĂŠslu- og löggĂŠslufrÊði (BA) + LögreglufrÊði fyrir starfandi lögreglumenn (DiplĂłma) + LögreglufrÊði fyrir verðandi lögreglumenn (DiplĂłma) + NĂștĂmafrÊði (BA) + SĂĄlfrÊði (BA) + +FramhaldsnĂĄm: + + FĂ©lagsvĂsindi (MA) + Fjölmiðla- og boðskiptafrÊði (MA) + Forysta Ă lĂŠrdĂłmssamfĂ©lagi (DiplĂłma) + HeimskautarĂ©ttur (LLM/MA/DiplĂłma) + KennarafrÊði (MT) + LögfrÊði (ML) + MĂĄm og margbreytileiki â sĂ©rkennslufrÊði (MA) + MenntavĂsindi (MA) + MenntunarfrÊði (DiplĂłma) + MenntunarfrÊði (MEd) + NĂĄm og lĂŠsi â lestrarfrÊði (DiplĂłma) + NĂĄm og lĂŠsi â lestrarfrÊði (MA) + NĂĄm og margbreytileiki â sĂ©rkennslufrÊði (DiplĂłma) + SĂĄlfrÊði (MA) + SjĂĄvarbyggðafrÊði (MA) + Starfstengd leiðsögn (DiplĂłmanĂĄm) + StjĂłrnun og forysta Ă lĂŠrdĂłmssamfĂ©lagi (DiplĂłma) + StjĂłrnun og forysta Ă lĂŠrdĂłmssamfĂ©lagi (MA) + UpplĂœsingatĂŠkni Ă nĂĄmi og kennslu (DiplĂłma) + UpplĂœsingatĂŠkni Ă nĂĄmi og kennslu (MA) + +Heilbrigðis-, viðskipta- og raunvĂsindasvið +Inann Heilbrigðis-, viðskipta- og raunvĂsindasviðs eru fimm deildir: Auðlindadeild, FramhaldsnĂĄmsdeild Ă heilbrigðisvĂsindum, HjĂșkrunarfrÊðideild, IðjuĂŸjĂĄlfundarfrÊðideild og Viðskiptadeild. FrÊðasviðið bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ fjölbreytt grunn- og framhaldsnĂĄm og ĂŸar er einnig að finna nĂĄmsleiðir sem einungis eru kenndar við HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri og hafa markað sĂ©r ĂĄkveðna sĂ©rstöðu. Hver deild hefur sĂna sĂ©rstöðu: + + Ă Auðlindadeild er lögð rĂk ĂĄhersla ĂĄ nĂĄm og rannsĂłknir Ă tengslum við sjĂĄlfbĂŠra og arðbĂŠra nĂœtingu nĂĄttĂșruauðlinda. Með ĂŸetta að leiðarljĂłsi er boðið upp ĂĄ hagnĂœtt viðskipta- og raunvĂsindatengt nĂĄm ĂĄ ĂŸremur frÊðasviðum; lĂftĂŠkni, sjĂĄvarĂștvegsfrÊði og nĂĄttĂșru- og auðlindafrÊði. + FramhaldsnĂĄmsdeild Ă heilbrigðisvĂsindum hefur ĂŸað að markiði að mennta fagfĂłlk ĂĄ heilbrigðissviði til vĂsindarannsĂłknastarfa og nĂœsköpunar. SĂ©rstaða og styrkur nĂĄmsins felst meðal annars Ă ĂŸverfaglegum stĂșdentahĂłpi ĂŸar sem fagfĂłlk Ășr hinum Ăœmsu fagstĂ©ttum heilbrigðiskerfisins kemur saman til að taka sĂnar meistaragråður. + HjĂșkrunarfrÊðideild bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ 4 ĂĄra BS nĂĄm Ă hjĂșkrunarfrÊði og er HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri eini hĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ landinu sem bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ sveigjanlegt nĂĄm Ă hjĂșkrunarfrÊði. + IðjuĂŸjĂĄlfundarfrÊðideild bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ 3 ĂĄra BS nĂĄm Ă iðjuĂŸjĂĄlfunarfrÊði og 1 ĂĄrs viðbĂłtardiplĂłmu til starfsrĂ©ttinda Ă iðjuĂŸjĂĄlfun en HĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri er eini hĂĄskĂłlinn ĂĄ landinu sem bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ nĂĄm Ă iðjuĂŸjĂĄlfunarfrÊði. + Viðskiptadeild bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ grunn og framhaldsnĂĄm sem er fjölbreytt og hagnĂœtt. Ăhersla er lögð ĂĄ sveigjanlegt nĂĄmsfyrirkomulag. ĂĂĄ bĂœĂ°ur HA upp ĂĄ nĂĄm Ă tölvunarfrÊði Ă samstarfi við HĂĄskĂłlann Ă ReykjavĂk. + +GrunnnĂĄm: + + FagnĂĄm fyrir sjĂșkraliða â öldrunar- og heimahjĂșkrun (DiplĂłma) + FagnĂĄm fyrir sjĂșkraliða â samfĂ©lagsgeðhjĂșkrun (DiplĂłma) + HjĂșkrunarfrÊði (BS) + IðjuĂŸjĂĄlfundarfrÊði (BS) + LĂftĂŠkni (BS) + SjĂĄvarĂștvegsfrÊði (BS) + TölvunarfrÊði (BS) + TölvunarfrÊði (DiplĂłma) + ViðskiptafrÊði â stjĂłrnun og fjĂĄrmĂĄl (BS) + ViðskiptafrÊði â stjĂłrnun og markaðsfrÊði (BS) + ViðskiptafrÊði með ĂĄherslu ĂĄ sjĂĄvarĂștveg (BS) + ViðskiptafrÊði- og sjĂĄvarĂștvegsfrÊði (BS), tvĂŠr hĂĄskĂłlagråður ĂĄ fjĂłrum ĂĄrum! + +FramhaldsnĂĄm: + + AuðlindafrÊði (MS) + Haf- og strandsvÊðastjĂłrnun (MRM) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â Almenn lĂna (MS) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â EndurhĂŠfing (MS) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â GeðheilbrigðisfrÊði (MS) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â HeilsugĂŠsla Ă hĂ©raði â frÊðileg (MS) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â HeilsugĂŠsla Ă hĂ©raði â klĂnĂsk (MS) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi - Krabbamein og lĂknarmeðferð (MS) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi - Langvinn veikindi og lĂfsglĂman (MS) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â LjĂłsmÊður, heilbrigði kvenna (MS) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â Ăldrun og heilbrigði + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â SĂĄlrĂŠn ĂĄföll og ofbeldi + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â SĂ©rsvið hjĂșkrunar (DiplĂłma) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi - StarfsendurhĂŠfing (MS) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â StjĂłrnun Ă heilbrigðisĂŸjĂłnustu (MS) + HeilbrigðisvĂsindi â Verkir og verkjameðferðir (MS) + IðjuĂŸjĂĄlfun (ViðbĂłtardiplĂłma) + StjĂłrnun sjĂĄvarauðlinda (MS) + ViðskiptafrÊði (MS) + +DoktorsnĂĄm +DoktorsnĂĄm við HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri er einstaklingsmiðað nĂĄm og rannsĂłknarverkefni doktorsnemans er lykilĂŸĂĄttur nĂĄmsins. Doktorsnemar hĂĄskĂłlans verða virkir ĂŸĂĄtttakendur Ă vĂsindasamfĂ©lagi HA. NĂĄmið veitir prĂłfgråðuna Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) ĂĄ tilteknu frÊðasviði. + +Stofnanir +Innan vĂ©banda HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri eru starfrĂŠktar Ăœmsar stofnanir sem sinna rannsĂłknum og Ăœmiss konar ĂŸjĂłnustu við frÊðasamfĂ©lagið. + +RannsĂłknastofnanir +HeilbrigðisvĂsindastofnun HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri +RannsĂłknamiðstöð ferðamĂĄla +RannsĂłknarmiðstöð HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri (RHA) +RannsĂłknir gegn ofbeldi +SjĂĄvarĂștvegsmiðstöð HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri + +ĂjĂłnustustofnanir +BĂłkasafn HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri +FĂ©lagsstofnun stĂșdenta við HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri (FĂSTA) +Miðstöð skĂłlaĂŸrĂłunar við HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri (MSHA) +SĂmenntun HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri +SjĂĄvarĂștvegsskĂłlinn +VĂsindaskĂłli unga fĂłlksins + +FĂ©lagslĂf +StĂșdentafĂ©lag HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri, SHA er fĂ©lag allra innritaðra stĂșdenta við HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri. FĂ©lagið er fyrst og fremst hagsmunafĂ©lag stĂșdenta, bakland og sameiningartĂĄkn aðildarfĂ©laga ĂŸess og ĂŸeirra aðila sem sinna trĂșnaðarstörfum ĂĄ vegum fĂ©lagsins. FĂ©lagið stendur vörð um hagsmuni heildarinnar, stuðlar að bĂŠttri heilsu og lĂðan stĂșdenta og vinnur nĂĄið með starfsfĂłlki skĂłlans að hagsmunamĂĄlum, kynningarmĂĄlum og öðru ĂŸvĂ sem snertir stĂșdenta, beint eða Ăłbeint. + +Sjö aðildarfĂ©lög eiga aðild að SHA. AðildarfĂ©lög SHA eru sviðs- og deildarfĂ©lög. Starfsemi ĂŸeirra og hlutverk hafa ĂŸrĂłast gegnum ĂĄrin og tekið breytingum eins og starfsemi og hlutverk SHA. FĂ©lögin eru: + Data, fĂ©lag tölvunarfrÊðinema, var stofnað ĂĄrið 2016. + Eir, fĂ©lag heilbrigðisnema, var stofnað ĂĄrið 1990. + KumpĂĄni, fĂ©lag fĂ©lagsvĂsinda- og sĂĄlfrÊðinema, var stofnað ĂĄrið 2004. + Magister, fĂ©lag kennaranema, var stofnað ĂĄrið 1993. + Reki, fĂ©lag viðskiptafrÊðinema, var stofnað ĂĄrið 1990. + StafnbĂși, fĂ©lag auðlindafrÊðinema, var stofnað ĂĄrið 1990. + Ăemis, fĂ©lag laganema, var stofnað ĂĄrið 2005. + +Rektorar +Rektor er forseti HĂĄskĂłlaråðs, yfirmaður stjĂłrnsĂœslu hĂĄskĂłlans og Êðsti fulltrĂși hans gagnvart starfsfĂłlki og stofnunum innan hĂĄskĂłlans og utan. Hann hefur frumkvÊði að ĂŸvĂ að hĂĄskĂłlaråð marki heildarstefnu Ă mĂĄlefnum hĂĄskĂłlans. Rektor ber ĂĄbyrgð ĂĄ og hefur eftirlit með allri starfsemi hĂĄskĂłlans og ĂĄ milli funda HĂĄskĂłlaråðs fer hann með ĂĄkvörðunarvald à öllum mĂĄlum hĂĄskĂłlans. NĂșverandi rektor HĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ Akureyri er Dr. EyjĂłlfur Guðmundsson sem tĂłk við embĂŠtti rektors 1. jĂșlĂ 2014. + +TilvĂsanir + +Akureyri +HĂĄskĂłlar ĂĄ Ăslandi +Menntastofnanir ĂĄ Akureyri +MosfellsbĂŠr (einnig kallaður MosĂł Ă talmĂĄli) er sveitarfĂ©lag sem liggur norðaustan við ReykjavĂk. MosfellsbĂŠr varð til 9. ĂĄgĂșst 1987 ĂŸegar Mosfellshreppur varð að bĂŠjarfĂ©lagi. ĂbĂșar eru um 13.519 Ă aprĂl 2023. + +SĂðan 1933 hefur heitt vatn verið leitt Ășr MosfellsbĂŠ og til ReykjavĂkur. Ullarvinnsla var mikilvĂŠg grein Ă bĂŠnum og var ĂŸar framleiðsla við Ălafoss frĂĄ 1919 til 1955. NĂș er ĂŸar meðal annars aðsetur listamanna. + +ĂĂŸrĂłttir og afĂŸreying +Ă MosfellsbĂŠ er ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lagið Afturelding. TvĂŠr sundlaugar eru Ă MosfellsbĂŠ: VarmĂĄrlaug og LĂĄgafellslaug. GöngustĂgar eru við Ălafosskvos og við Reykjalund. SkĂłgrĂŠkt og gönguleiðir eru við Ălfarsfell. + +BĂŠjarstjĂłrn + +Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrn MosfellsbĂŠjar sitja 11 fulltrĂșar sem kjörnir eru Ă hlutfallskosningu ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra fresti. SĂðast var kosið til bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarkosningunum 14. maĂ 2022. + +VinabĂŠir + , Finnlandi + , Noregi + Thisted, Danmörku + Uddevalla, SvĂĂŸjóð + +Heiðursborgarar +ĂrĂr einstaklingar eru heiðursborgarar MosfellsbĂŠjar: + + 1972 â HalldĂłr Laxness (1902-1998) + 2000 â JĂłn M. Guðmundsson (1920-2009) + 2007 â Salome ĂorkelsdĂłttir (*1927) + +Mosfellingur ĂĄrsins +BĂŠjarblaðið Mosfellingur hefur staðið fyrir vali ĂĄ Mosfellingi ĂĄrsins sĂðan 2005. Blaðið kynnir Mosfelling ĂĄrsins Ă fyrsta tölublaði hvers ĂĄrs. SautjĂĄn einstaklingar hafa hlotið nafnbĂłtina Mosfellingur ĂĄrsins: + +Myndir + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + + MosfellsbĂŠr + Staldrað við Ă Mosfellshreppi; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1972 + + +ĂĂ©ttbĂœlisstaðir Ăslands +VladĂmĂr VladĂmĂrovĂtsj PĂștĂn (rĂșssneska: ĐĐ»Đ°ĐŽĐžĐŒĐžŃ ĐĐ»Đ°ĐŽĐžĐŒĐžŃĐŸĐČĐžŃ ĐŃŃĐžĐœ; f. 7. oktĂłber 1952) er annar forseti RĂșsslands. + +Hann Ăștskrifaðist frĂĄ lögfrÊðideild RĂkishĂĄskĂłlans Ă LenĂngrad ĂĄrið 1975 og hĂłf störf hjĂĄ KGB. Ă ĂĄrunum 1985-1990 starfaði hann Ă Austur-ĂĂœskalandi. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1990 gegndi hann Ăœmsum embĂŠttum, meðal annars Ă RĂkishĂĄskĂłlanum Ă LenĂngrad, borgarstjĂłrn Sankti PĂ©tursborgar og frĂĄ 1996 hjĂĄ stjĂłrnvöldum Ă Kreml. Ă jĂșlĂ 1998 var hann skipaður yfirmaður FSB (arftaka KGB) og frĂĄ mars 1999 var hann samtĂmis ritari Ăryggisråðs rĂșssneska sambandslĂœĂ°veldisins. FrĂĄ 31. desember 1999 var hann settur forseti rĂșssneska sambandslĂœĂ°veldisins en 26. mars 2000 var hann kosinn forseti. Hann var endurkjörinn 14. mars 2004. Hann varð forsĂŠtisråðherra frĂĄ 2008 til 2012 og var sĂðan aftur kjörinn forseti ĂĄrin 2012 og 2018. + +VladĂmĂr PĂștĂn talar auk rĂșssnesku, ĂŸĂœsku og ensku. Hann var giftur LjĂșdmĂlu Aleksandrovnu PĂștĂnu til ĂĄrsins 2014. Ăau eiga saman tvĂŠr dĂŠtur, MarĂu (f. 1985) og JekaterĂnu (f. 1986). + +ĂviĂĄgrip +PĂștĂn fĂŠddist ĂŸann 7. oktĂłber 1952 Ă LenĂngrad Ă SovĂ©trĂkjunum og var yngstur ĂŸriggja barna foreldra sinna. Ăegar hann var tĂłlf ĂĄra byrjaði hann að ĂŠfa sambĂł og jĂșdĂł. Hann er Ă dag með svart belti Ă jĂșdĂł og er landsmeistari Ă ŃаÌĐŒĐ±ĐŸ (stafsett ĂĄ latnesku letri: sambĂł). PĂștĂn lĂŠrði ĂŸĂœsku Ă gagnfrÊðiskĂłla Ă Sankti PĂ©tursborg og talar hana reiprennandi. + +PĂștĂn hĂłf laganĂĄm Ă rĂkishĂĄskĂłla LenĂngrad ĂĄrið 1970 og Ăștskrifaðist ĂĄrið 1975. Ă hĂĄskĂłlaĂĄrunum gekk hann Ă sovĂ©ska kommĂșnistaflokkinn og var meðlimur hans til ĂĄrsins 1991. + +Störf hjĂĄ KGB +Ărið 1975 gekk PĂștĂn til liðs við leyniĂŸjĂłnustuna KGB. Hann vann Ă gagnnjĂłsnum og fylgdist með Ăștlendingum og erindrekum Ă LenĂngrad. FrĂĄ 1985 til 1990 vann hann Ă Dresden Ă Austur-ĂĂœskalandi. Opinberlega var PĂștĂn staðsettur ĂŸar sem tĂșlkur en umdeilt er hvað hann fĂ©kkst við ĂŸar Ă raun og veru. SamkvĂŠmt sumum heimildum var vera PĂștĂns Ă Dresden viðburðalĂtil og starf hans gekk Ășt ĂĄ fĂĄtt annað en að fylgjast með fjölmiðlum og safna Ășrklippum. Aðrar heimildir herma að PĂștĂn hafi fengist við að fĂĄ Ăjóðverja til að njĂłsna fyrir SovĂ©trĂkin og jafnvel að hann hafi ĂĄtt Ă samstarfi við kommĂșnĂska hryðjuverkahĂłpinn Rote Armee Fraktion. SamkvĂŠmt opinberri ĂŠvisögu PĂștĂns brenndi hann leyniskjöl KGB Ă borginni til ĂŸess að koma Ă veg fyrir að ĂŸau fĂ©llu Ă hendur mĂłtmĂŠlenda ĂŸegar BerlĂnarmĂșrinn fĂ©ll. + +Eftir að austur-ĂŸĂœska kommĂșnistastjĂłrnin fĂ©ll sneri PĂștin aftur til LenĂngrad ĂĄrið 1990. Ăegar reynt var að fremja valdarĂĄn gegn MĂkhaĂl Gorbatsjov ĂĄrið 1991 segist PĂștĂn hafa sagt af sĂ©r og staðið með rĂkisstjĂłrninni. Hann varð sĂðan eftir hrun SovĂ©trĂkjanna aðstoðarmaður AnatolĂj Sobtsjak, borgarstjĂłra PĂ©tursborgar frĂĄ 1991 til 1996. + +ForstjĂłri FSB og forsĂŠtisråðherra +Ărið 1996 var PĂștĂn kallaður til starfa Ă Moskvu og varð ĂĄrið 1998 forstjĂłri nĂœju rĂșssnesku leyniĂŸjĂłnustunnar, FSB. Ăar sem BorĂs JeltsĂn, ĂŸĂĄverandi forseti RĂșsslands, var rĂșinn vinsĂŠldum og mĂĄtti ekki gegna ĂŸriðja kjörtĂmabilinu sem forseti samkvĂŠmt ĂŸĂĄgildandi lögum fĂłru bandamenn hans ĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma að svipast eftir sigurvĂŠnlegum frambjóðanda sem gĂŠti tekið við af honum og hlĂft valdaklĂkunni við spillingarĂĄkĂŠrum. Sagt er að ĂłlĂgarkinn BorĂs BerezovskĂj hafi fyrstur stungið upp ĂĄ PĂștĂn sem rĂ©tta manninum Ă starfið. + +Ăann 15. ĂĄgĂșst ĂĄrið 1999 Ăștnefndi JeltsĂn PĂștĂn forsĂŠtisråðherra Ă stjĂłrn sinni og lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ jafnframt yfir að hann vildi að PĂștĂn yrði eftirmaður sinn. PĂștĂn var nĂĄnast ĂłĂŸekktur ĂŸegar hann varð forsĂŠtisråðherra og fĂĄir bjuggust við ĂŸvĂ að hann myndi endast lengi Ă embĂŠttinu, enda hafði JeltsĂn margsinnis skipt um forsĂŠtisråðherra ĂĄ undanförnum ĂĄrum. + +Ăað var einkum með framgöngu sinni Ă seinna TĂ©tĂ©nĂustrĂðinu sem PĂștĂn vann sĂ©r upphaflega hylli rĂșssnesku ĂŸjóðarinnar. Ă september 1999 voru gerðar sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ ĂbĂșðablokkir Ă Moskvu og Volgodonsk sem RĂșssar sögðu hryðjuverkamenn frĂĄ TĂ©tĂ©nĂu bera ĂĄbyrgð ĂĄ. RĂșssar brugðust við ĂĄrĂĄsunum með ĂŸvĂ að rjĂșfa friðarsamkomulag sem gert hafði verið við TĂ©tĂ©na ĂĄrið 1997 og hefja innrĂĄs Ă TĂ©tĂ©nĂu 28. september 1999. PĂștĂn hĂ©lt fjölda vĂgreifra sjĂłnvarpsĂĄvarpa ĂĄ tĂma innrĂĄsarinnar og uppskar fljĂłtt miklar vinsĂŠldir hjĂĄ rĂșssneskri alĂŸĂœĂ°u, sem var full hefndarĂŸorsta vegna hryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄsanna. + +FrĂĄ upphafi hafa verið uppi kenningar um að leyniĂŸjĂłnustan FSB hafi sviðsett sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsirnar Ă Moskvu og Volgodonsk Ă ĂŸĂĄgu PĂștĂns til að skapa ĂĄtyllu fyrir strĂði Ă TĂ©tĂ©nĂu. Ăessi kenning styðst meðal annars við ĂŸað að tveir starfsmenn FSB sĂĄust koma pokum með dufti sem lĂktist sprengiefninu RDX fyrir Ă kjallara ĂbĂșðablokkar Ă Rjazan. Ăeir voru handteknir en lögreglu svo skipað að lĂĄta ĂŸĂĄ lausa. Einn ĂŸeirra sem taldi PĂștĂn hafa sviðsett ĂĄrĂĄsirnar var fyrrum FSB-liðinn Aleksandr LĂtvĂnenko, sem flĂșði Ă Ăștlegð til Bretlands ĂĄrið 2000. LĂtvĂnenko lĂ©st ĂĄrið 2006 eftir að eitrað var fyrir honum með geislavirka efninu PĂłlon-210. + +RĂșssar gerðu linnulausar loftĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ tĂ©tĂ©nsku höfuðborgina GroznĂj Ă um fjĂłra mĂĄnuði og höfðu nĂĄnast alfarið lagt hana Ă rĂșst ĂŸegar sĂðustu tĂ©tĂ©nsku skĂŠruliðarnir hörfuðu ĂŸaðan Ă lok janĂșar ĂĄrið 2000. + +Forseti (2000â2008) + +Ăann 31. desember 1999 sagði JeltsĂn af sĂ©r og PĂștĂn varð ĂŸar með starfandi forseti RĂșsslands Ă hans stað. Eitt af ĂŸvĂ fyrsta sem PĂștĂn gerði Ă embĂŠtti var að skrifa undir tilskipun ĂŸess efnis að JeltsĂn og fjölskylda hans yrðu ekki lögsĂłtt fyrir spillingarmĂĄl sem höfðu komið upp Ă forsetatĂð hans. Afsögn JeltsĂns leiddi til ĂŸess að forsetakosningar voru haldnar ĂŸremur mĂĄnuðum fyrr en stjĂłrnarandstaðan hafði gert råð fyrir. PĂștĂn vann kosningarnar Ă fyrstu umferð með 53% greiddra atkvÊða. Hann tĂłk forsetaeiðinn ĂŸann 7. maĂ ĂĄrið 2000. + +Ărið 2003 var samningur gerður við TĂ©tĂ©na ĂŸar sem TĂ©tĂ©nĂa varð sjĂĄlfstjĂłrnarhĂ©rað innan rĂșssneska sambandsrĂkisins undir stjĂłrn Akhmads Kadyrov, strĂðsherra sem hafði gengið til liðs við PĂștĂn Ă seinna TĂ©tĂ©nĂustrĂðinu. PĂștĂn gerði einnig samninga við rĂșssneska olĂgarka um stuðning ĂŸeirra við rĂkisstjĂłrn hans Ă skiptum fyrir að ĂŸeir hĂ©ldu flestum völdum sĂnum. OlĂgarkar sem hĂ©ldu ekki tryggð við stjĂłrn PĂștĂns, til dĂŠmis olĂujöfurinn MĂkhaĂl KhodorkovskĂj, ĂĄttu hĂŠttu ĂĄ handtöku. + +Efnahagur RĂșsslands nåði sĂ©r smĂĄm saman ĂĄ strik upp Ășr ĂĄrinu 1999 eftir efnahagskreppu sem rĂkt hafði Ă kjölfar hruns SovĂ©trĂkjanna. Ă fyrstu tveimur kjörtĂmabilum PĂștĂns jĂłkst kaupmĂĄttur RĂșssa um 72 prĂłsent, einkum vegna hĂŠkkunar ĂĄ olĂuverði. + +PĂștĂn vann endurkjör ĂĄrið 2004 með 71% greiddra atkvÊða. + +ForsĂŠtisråðherra (2008â2012) +RĂșssneska stjĂłrnarskrĂĄin meinaði PĂștĂn að bjóða sig fram Ă ĂŸriðja skipti Ă röð Ă forsetakosningunum ĂĄrið 2008. ĂvĂ studdi PĂștĂn fyrrverandi kosningastjĂłra sinn, DmĂtrĂj Medvedev, til embĂŠttisins. Eftir sigur Medvedev gerðist PĂștĂn sjĂĄlfur forsĂŠtisråðherra ĂĄ nĂœ og hĂ©lt ĂŸannig flestum völdum sĂnum ĂĄ fjögurra ĂĄra forsetatĂð Medvedev. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma brutust Ășt fjöldamĂłtmĂŠli eftir ĂŸingkosningar ĂŸann 4. desember ĂĄrið 2011 ĂŸar sem tugĂŸĂșsundir RĂșssa mĂłtmĂŠltu meintu kosningasvindli. + +ForsetatĂð Medvedevs var Ăłvenjuleg meðal rĂșssneskra leiðtoga ĂŸvĂ PĂștĂn naut ĂĄfram verulegra valda sem forsĂŠtisråðherra. Fyrri forsĂŠtisråðherrar RĂșsslands höfðu jafnan verið algjörlega undirgefnir ĂŸjóðhöfðingjanum en valdatĂð Medvedevs einkenndist ĂŸess Ă stað af nokkurs konar tvĂmenningabandalagi ĂŸeirra PĂștĂns. Haft var fyrir satt meðal flestra stjĂłrnmĂĄlaskĂœrenda að annaðhvort vĂŠru ĂŸeir Medvedev og PĂștĂn båðir jafnvoldugir Ă stjĂłrninni eða ĂŸĂĄ að PĂștĂn vĂŠri Ă reynd enn Êðsti valdsmaður RĂșsslands og Medvedev forseti vĂŠri lĂtið meira en staðgengill eða strengjabrĂșða hans. + +Forseti (2012â2018) +Ărið 2012 bauð PĂștĂn sig aftur fram til forseta með stuðningi Medvedev. PĂștĂn vann kosningarnar ĂŸann 4. mars 2012 með 63.6% greiddra atkvÊða. Ăeir Medvedev skiptust ĂŸvĂ aftur ĂĄ hlutverkum og Medvedev varð forsĂŠtisråðherra. Mikið var um ĂĄsakanir um kosningasvindl Ă forsetakjörinu og talsvert var um mĂłtmĂŠli gegn PĂștĂn Ă og eftir kosningarnar. AlrĂŠmdasta uppĂĄkoman var mĂłtmĂŠlagjörningur pönkhljĂłmsveitarinnar Pussy Riot ĂŸann 21. febrĂșar, en meðlimir hennar voru Ă kjölfarið handteknir. Um 8.000 â 20.000 mĂłtmĂŠlendur komu saman Ă Moskvu ĂŸann 6. maĂ. Um ĂĄttatĂu ĂŸeirra sĂŠrðust Ă ĂĄtökum við lögreglu og um 450 voru handteknir. GagnmĂłtmĂŠli um 130.000 stuðningsmanna PĂștĂn voru haldin ĂĄ LĂșzhnĂkĂ-leikvanginum sama dag. + +Eftir að PĂștĂn settist ĂĄ forsetastĂłl ĂĄ nĂœ skrifaði hann undir lög sem ĂŸjörmuðu nokkuð að samfĂ©lagi hinsegin fĂłlks Ă RĂșsslandi. Lögin beindust gegn âĂĄróðri samkynhneigðraâ og bönnuðu meðal annars notkun regnbogafĂĄnans og birtingu verka um samkynhneigð. + +Eftir að VĂktor JanĂșkovytsj forseta ĂkraĂnu, bandamanni PĂștĂns, var steypt af stĂłli Ă byltingu ĂĄrið 2014 sendi PĂștĂn rĂșssneska hermenn inn ĂĄ KrĂmskaga og hertĂłk hann. Ă meðan ĂĄ hernĂĄminu stóð var haldin umdeild atkvÊðagreiðsla ĂŸar sem KrĂmverjar kusu að slĂta sig frĂĄ ĂkraĂnu og gerast sjĂĄlfstjĂłrnarhĂ©rað Ă rĂșssneska sambandsrĂkinu. Ă kjölfarið brutust Ășt ĂĄtök Ă austurhluta ĂkraĂnu milli ĂșkraĂnsku rĂkisstjĂłrnarinnar og aðskilnaðarsinna Ă Donbas-hĂ©ruðunum sem vildu einnig ganga til liðs við RĂșssland. RĂkisstjĂłrn PĂștĂn hefur sent hermenn til stuðnings skĂŠruliðunum Ă Donbas en hefur jafnan neitað að um rĂșssneska hermenn sĂ© að rÊða. Vegna brots ĂĄ fullveldi ĂkraĂnu hafa mörg rĂki beitt RĂșssa efnahagsĂŸvingunum frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2014, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal Ăsland. + +Ăann 27. febrĂșar 2015 var leiðtogi rĂșssnesku stjĂłrnarandstöðunnar, BorĂs Nemtsov, skotinn til bana stuttu frĂĄ Kreml Ă Moskvu, fĂĄeinum dögum åður en hann ĂŠtlaði að taka ĂŸĂĄtt Ă friðargöngu til að mĂłtmĂŠla rĂșssneskum hernaðarafskiptum Ă ĂkraĂnu. PĂștĂn skipaði sjĂĄlfur rannsĂłknarnefnd til að finna morðingjann. Opinber skĂœring rannsĂłknarnefndarinnar er sĂș að morðið hafi verið framið af stuðningsmönnum Ramzans Kadyrov, forseta TĂ©tĂ©nĂu og eins heitasta stuðningsmanns PĂștĂns. TĂŠpum ĂŸremur vikum fyrir morðið hafði Nemtsov lĂœst ĂŸvĂ yfir að hann Ăłttaðist að PĂștĂn myndi koma sĂ©r fyrir kattarnef. + +Ăann 30. september 2015 skipaði PĂștĂn inngrip rĂșssneska hersins Ă sĂœrlensku borgarastyrjöldina til stuðnings Bashar al-Assad SĂœrlandsforseta. RĂșssar hĂłfu beina ĂŸĂĄtttöku Ă styrjöldinni Ă lok mĂĄnaðarins með loftĂĄrĂĄsum bÊði ĂĄ Ăslamska rĂkið og ĂĄ uppreisnarhĂłpa sem nutu stuðnings alĂŸjóðabandalags BandarĂkjanna. Inngrip RĂșssa Ă styrjöldina hefur styrkt stöðu Assads verulega og stuðlað að ĂŸvĂ að sĂœrlenski stjĂłrnarherinn hefur frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2015 smĂĄm saman endurheimt mikinn hluta ĂŸess landsvÊðis sem glataðist til uppreisnarmanna Ă byrjun strĂðsins. + +RĂkisstjĂłrn PĂștĂns hefur verið ĂĄsökuð um að hafa haft afskipti af bandarĂsku forsetakosningunum ĂĄrið 2016. Ă janĂșar ĂĄrið 2017 lĂœsti bandarĂsk rannsĂłknarnefnd ĂŸvĂ yfir að fullvĂst vĂŠri að PĂștĂn hefði sett ĂĄ fĂłt ĂĄróðursherferð gegn Hillary Clinton og til stuðnings Donald Trump Ă kosningunum. PĂștĂn hefur ĂŠtĂð neitað að hafa haft nokkur afskipti af kosningunum. Bandamaður PĂștĂns, olĂgarkinn JevgenĂj PrĂgozhĂn, hefur hins vegar viðurkennt að fyrirtĂŠki hans hafi reynt að hafa ĂĄhrif ĂĄ kosningar Ă BandarĂkjunum Ă ĂŸĂĄgu RĂșsslands. + +Forseti (2018 â) + +PĂștĂn var endurkjörinn ĂĄrið 2018 og vann sitt fjĂłrða kjörtĂmabil sem forseti RĂșsslands með um 76% greiddra atkvÊða. Ă aðdraganda kosninganna hafði helsta leiðtoga rĂșssnesku stjĂłrnarandstöðunnar, Aleksej Navalnyj, verið bannað að gefa kost ĂĄ sĂ©r vegna skilÂorðsbundÂins fangÂelsÂisÂdĂłms sem hann hafði vegna meints fjĂĄrÂmĂĄlaÂmÂisÂferlÂis. Eftirlitsmönnum kom ekki um allt saman um ĂŸað hvort kosningarnar hefðu farið sĂłmasamlega fram, en almennt voru ĂŸeir ĂŸĂł ĂĄ sama mĂĄli um að samkeppnin við PĂștĂn hefði verið lĂtil sem engin. + +PĂștĂn hitti Donald Trump BandarĂkjaforseta ĂĄ leiðtogafundi Ă Helsinki ĂŸann 18. jĂșlĂ 2018. Stuttu fyrir fund forsetanna hafði ĂĄkĂŠra verið lögð fram Ă BandarĂkjunum gegn 12 rĂșssneskum leyniĂŸjĂłnustumönnum fyrir tölvuĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ flokksĂŸing DemĂłkrataflokksins og forsetaframboð Hillary Clinton ĂĄrið 2016. Ă fundinum Ătrekaði PĂștĂn að RĂșssar hefðu ekkert haft að gera með tölvuĂĄrĂĄsirnar og Trump lĂœsti yfir að hann sĂŠi âenga ĂĄstÊðuâ til að draga orð PĂștĂns Ă efa. Trump bauð PĂștĂn Ă opinbera heimsĂłkn til Washington Ă kjölfar fundarins. + +MĂłtmĂŠli gegn PĂștĂn brutust Ășt vĂða um RĂșssland og vinsĂŠldir hans dvĂnuðu nokkuð Ă september ĂĄrið 2018 vegna fyrirhugaðrar hĂŠkkunar ĂĄ eftirlaunaaldri Ă RĂșsslandi. + +Ăann 15. janĂșar ĂĄrið 2020 tilkynnti PĂștĂn umfangsmiklar breytingar sem hann vildi gera ĂĄ rĂșssnesku stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni sem ĂŠtlað var að fĂŠra völd frĂĄ forsetaembĂŠttinu til ĂŸingsÂins og rĂkÂisÂråðs landsÂins. Breytingarnar, sem PĂștin hugðist leggja Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu, munu gera eftirmann hans nokkuð valdaminni Ă forsetaembĂŠttinu en PĂștĂn hefur verið. Sama dag og PĂștĂn tilkynnti fyrirhuguðu breytingarnar baðst DmĂtrĂj Medvedev lausnar fyrir rĂkisstjĂłrn sĂna og rĂkisskattstjĂłrinn MĂkhaĂl MĂshĂșstĂn var skipaður nĂœr forsĂŠtisråðherra. + +RĂșssneska ĂŸingið samĂŸykkti einnig með 383 atkvÊðum gegn engu að ĂŸurrka Ășt embĂŠttistĂma PĂștĂns með stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingunum. SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸeirri breytingu mun PĂștĂn geta gegnt embĂŠtti forseta til ĂĄrsins 2036 ef hann ĂĄkveður að gefa aftur kost ĂĄ sĂ©r. Breytingarnar voru samĂŸykktar Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu ĂŸann 1. jĂșlĂ 2020. Með stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingunum var hjĂłnaband einnig skilgreint sem samband milli karls og konu, fĂŠrt var inn ĂĄkvÊði sem felur Ă sĂ©r viðurkenningu ĂĄ âforfeðrum sem lĂ©tu [RĂșssum] eftir hugsjĂłnir sĂnar og trĂș ĂĄ guðiâ, bannað var að gera lĂtið Ășr framlagi SovĂ©trĂkjanna Ă seinni heimsstyrjöldinni og bannað að leggja til að RĂșssar lĂĄti nokkurn tĂmann af hendi landsvÊði sem ĂŸeir råða yfir (til að mynda umdeild landsvÊði eins og KĂșrileyjar og KrĂmskaga). + +InnrĂĄsin Ă ĂkraĂnu (2022â) + +Undir lok ĂĄrsins 2021 og Ă byrjun ĂĄrsins 2022 söfnuðu RĂșssar tĂŠplega 200.000 manna herliði við landamĂŠri ĂkraĂnu, sem vakti Ăłtta Ă ĂkraĂnu og ĂĄ Vesturlöndum um að PĂștĂn hygðist fyrirskipa innrĂĄs Ă landið. RĂșssnesk stjĂłrnvöld ĂŸvertĂłku Ătrekað fyrir að innrĂĄs vĂŠri yfirvofandi en råðamenn ĂŸar lögðu jafnframt fram kröfur um að ĂkraĂnu yrði meinaður aðgangur að Atlantshafsbandalaginu um alla framtĂð og að bandalagið fjarlĂŠgði alla hermenn og öll vopn sĂn Ășr Austur-EvrĂłpu. + +Ăann 21. febrĂșar viðurkenndi PĂștĂn sjĂĄlfstÊði AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldanna Donetsk og LĂșhansk, hĂ©raða rĂșssneskumĂŠlandi aðskilnaðarsinna sem höfðu klofið sig frĂĄ ĂkraĂnu ĂĄrið 2014 með stuðningi RĂșssa. PĂștĂn sendi Ă kjölfarið rĂșssneska hermenn yfir ĂșkraĂnsku landamĂŠrin til að gegna âfriðargĂŠsluâ Ă Donetsk og Luhansk. Ă rÊðu sem PĂștĂn hĂ©lt við viðurkenningu sĂna ĂĄ sjĂĄlfstÊði hĂ©raðanna efaðist hann um sögulegar forsendur fyrir ĂkraĂnu sem sjĂĄlfstÊðu rĂki og sakaði stjĂłrnvöld ĂŸar um að fremja ĂŸjóðarmorð. + +Ăann 24. febrĂșar hĂłf PĂștĂn allsherjar innrĂĄs Ă ĂkraĂnu. + +RĂșssland hefur tekið ĂŸĂĄtt Ă mörgum strĂðum (t.d. lĂka Ă SĂœrlandi) að skipan PĂștĂns, en strĂðið Ă ĂkraĂnu hefur sĂ©rstaklega sĂŠtt gagnrĂœni, upp Ășr innrĂĄsinni Ă febrĂșar 2022. Vegna ĂŸess hefur meðal annars hann persĂłnulega sĂŠtt viðskiptaĂŸvingunum, og lagt hefur verið til að ĂĄkĂŠra hann fyrir strĂðsglĂŠpadĂłmstĂłlnum. DĂłmarar AlĂŸjóðlega sakamĂĄladĂłmstĂłlsins Ă Haag gĂĄfu Ășt handtökuskipun ĂĄ hendur PĂștĂn (og MarĂu Lvova-Belova, umboðsmanni barna Ă RĂșsslandi) ĂŸann 17. mars 2023 vegna tilkynninga um að fjölda ĂșkraĂnskra barna hefði verið rĂŠnt Ă innrĂĄsinni og ĂŸau flutt til RĂșsslands. + +Ăann 21. september tilkynnti PĂștĂn að gripið yrði til takmarkaðrar herkvaðningar til ĂŸess að halda hernaðinum Ă ĂkraĂnu ĂĄfram. Gripið var til ĂŸessa ĂșrrÊðis samhliða ĂŸvĂ sem ĂkraĂnumenn höfðu endurheimt mikið landsvÊði af RĂșssum Ă gagnsĂłkn Ă KharkĂvfylki Ă austurhluta landsins. Ă sama tĂma hafði verið tilkynnt að leppstjĂłrnir RĂșssa Ă Donetsk, LĂșhansk, Kherson og ZaporĂzjzja myndu halda atkvÊðagreiðslur um ĂŸað að gerast hluti af RĂșssneska sambandsrĂkinu lĂkt og hafði verið gert ĂĄ KrĂmskaga ĂĄrið 2014. + +LeppstjĂłrnir RĂșssa ĂĄ hernĂĄmssvÊðum ĂŸeirra Ă Donetsk, LĂșhansk, Kherson og ZaporĂzjzja hĂłfu atkvÊðagreiðslur um að gerast hluti af RĂșsslandi ĂŸann 23. september. FjĂłrum dögum sĂðar tilkynntu hĂ©raðsstjĂłrnir ĂĄ hernumdu svÊðunum Ă LĂșhansk og suðurhlutum Kherson og ZaporĂzjzja að yfirgnĂŠfandi meirihlutar kjĂłsenda hefðu samĂŸykkt að hĂ©ruðin skyldu sameinast RĂșsslandi. Ămsir erlendir ĂŸjóðarleiðtogar fordĂŠmdu atkvÊðagreiðslurnar og sögðu niðurstöður ĂŸeirra hafa verið ĂĄkveðnar fyrirfram. Volodymyr Zelenskyj ĂkraĂnuforseti sagði ĂŸĂŠr markleysu og að ĂŸĂŠr myndu engu breyta um ĂŸĂŠr fyrirĂŠtlanir ĂkraĂnumanna að endurheimta hĂ©ruðin. + +PĂștĂn tilkynnti formlega innlimun hĂ©raðanna fjögurra Ă RĂșssland ĂŸann 30. september 2022 ĂĄ stĂłrviðburði ĂĄ Rauða torginu Ă Moskvu. Ăegar PĂștĂn tilkynnti ĂŸetta stjĂłrnuðu RĂșssar engu af hĂ©ruðunum fjĂłrum Ă heild sinni. + +Ămynd og orðspor PĂștĂns + +PĂștĂn hefur notið mikilla vinsĂŠlda meðal rĂșssneskrar alĂŸĂœĂ°u nĂĄnast frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að hann tĂłk við embĂŠtti. Ă skoðanakönnunum hefur PĂștĂn oftast mĂŠlst með stuðning yfir 60% RĂșssa og hĂŠst hefur stuðningur við hann mĂŠlst um tĂŠp 90%. AðdĂĄendur PĂștĂns ĂŸakka honum fyrir að koma ĂĄ efnahagslegum stöðugleika eftir fjĂĄrmĂĄlakreppu tĂunda ĂĄratugarins og fyrir að gera RĂșssland að marktĂŠku alĂŸjóðaveldi ĂĄ nĂœ eftir tĂmabil auðmĂœkingar sem fylgdi Ă kjölfar hruns SovĂ©trĂkjanna. + +PĂștĂn hefur verið duglegur að rĂŠkta karlmennskuĂmynd sĂna og hefur sett ĂĄ svið Ăœmsa gjörninga til ĂŸess að viðhalda henni. Meðal annars hefur hann âfyrir tilviljunâ fundið grĂska forngripi frĂĄ sjöttu öld er hann stakk sĂ©r til köfunarsunds Ă Svartahafi og haldið aftur af hlĂ©barða Ă dĂœragarði sem ĂŠtlaði að råðast ĂĄ frĂ©ttamenn. Hann hefur nokkrum sinnum birt myndir af sĂ©r berum að ofan Ă frĂi Ăști Ă nĂĄttĂșrunni Ă SĂberĂu. + +PĂștĂn er ĂŸaulsĂŠtnasti leiðtogi RĂșssa frĂĄ tĂmum StalĂns. Ă stjĂłrnartĂð hans hefur ĂŸrĂłun Ă ĂĄtt að lĂœĂ°rÊði Ă RĂșsslandi sem hĂłfst ĂĄ tĂunda ĂĄratugnum eftir fall SovĂ©trĂkjanna að mestu leyti verið snĂșið við. Vegna skorts ĂĄ frjĂĄlsum kosningum, fjölmiðlafrelsi og virkri stjĂłrnarandstöðu Ă RĂșsslandi hefur Ă sĂauknum mĂŠli verið litið ĂĄ PĂștĂn sem einrÊðisherra ĂĄ sĂðari ĂĄrum. + +Eignir PĂștĂns +VladĂmĂr PĂștĂn er talinn með auðugustu mönnum heims. SamkvĂŠmt Ășttekt Samtaka rannsĂłknarblaðamanna OCCRP og tĂmaritsins Forbes frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2017 nema auðÊfi PĂștĂns og nĂĄnustu bandamanna hans um 24 milljörðum BandarĂkjadala, eða rĂșmum 2.500 milljörðum Ăslenskra krĂłna. Mestöll ĂŸessi auðÊfi eru formlega skråð ĂĄ fĂłlk Ă innra hring PĂștĂns, meðal annars vini, ĂŠttingja og pĂłlitĂska bandamenn hans. Margir af nĂĄnustu bandamönnum PĂștĂns voru nefndir sem eigendur aflandsfĂ©laga Ă skattaskjĂłlum Ă Panamaskjölunum ĂĄrið 2016. Gjarnan er fjallað um olĂgarka Ă innsta hring PĂștĂns, sem efnast hafa ĂĄ tengslum sĂnum við forsetann, sem âpyngjur PĂștĂns.â + +Fjölskylduhagir +VladĂmĂr PĂștĂn kvĂŠntist LjĂșdmĂlu Skrjebevnu ĂĄrið 1983. HĂșn er fĂŠdd ĂĄrið 1958 og Ăłlst upp Ă KalĂnĂngrad. HĂșn flutti ĂĄsamt eiginmanni sĂnum til ĂĂœskalands ĂĄ nĂunda ĂĄratugnum og ĂŸar eignuðust ĂŸau tvĂŠr dĂŠtur, MarĂu ĂĄrið 1985 og JekaterĂnu ĂĄrið 1986. Eftir að PĂștĂn komst til valda hĂ©lt hann fjölskyldu sinni Ășr sviðsljĂłsinu og eiginkona hans og dĂŠtur birtust afar sjaldan með honum opinberlega. Ăar sem LjĂșdmĂla sĂĄst sjaldan með PĂștĂn voru orðrĂłmar lengi ĂĄ kreiki að ĂŸau vĂŠru aðeins hjĂłn að nafninu til. Ărið 2013 tilkynnti PĂștĂn formlega að ĂŸau LjĂșdmĂla hefðu gengið frĂĄ skilnaði sĂnum. + +Auk MarĂu og JekaterĂnu er talið að PĂștĂn eigi eina laundĂłttur, Luizu Rozovu Krivonogikh, sem fĂŠdd er ĂĄrið 2003. Móðir hennar er milljarðamĂŠringurinn Svetlana Krivonogikh, sem bÊði rĂșssneskir og vestrĂŠnir fjölmiðlar hafa fullyrt að sĂ© ĂĄstkona PĂștĂns. + +Heimildir + +TilvĂsanir + +Forsetar RĂșsslands +ForsĂŠtisråðherrar RĂșsslands +FĂłlk fĂŠtt ĂĄrið 1952 +Starfsmenn FSB +Starfsmenn KGB +Ăslensk sveitarfĂ©lög eftir mannfjölda er listi yfir sveitarfĂ©lög ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă röð eftir mannfjölda 1. janĂșar ĂĄr hvert, ĂĄsamt upplĂœsingum um breytingu frĂĄ fyrra ĂĄri og yfir 10 ĂĄra tĂmabil, bÊði hvað varðar fjölda einstaklinga og hlutfallslega. UpplĂœsingarnar eru fengnar af vef Hagstofu Ăslands. + +Ăar sem sveitarfĂ©lög hafa sameinast ĂĄ ĂĄrinu miðast eldri tölur við samanlagðan ĂbĂșafjölda Ă ĂŸeim sveitarfĂ©lögum sem sameinuðust. + +Listinn + +TilvĂsanir + +Tengt efni +Ăslensk sveitarfĂ©lög eftir flatarmĂĄli. + + +Listar tengdir Ăslandi +SveitarfĂ©lag er svÊðisbundin stjĂłrnsĂœslueining innan rĂkis sem er lĂŠgra sett en yfirstjĂłrn rĂkisins. SveitarfĂ©lög hafa yfirleitt skĂœrt ĂĄkvörðuð landamörk og taka oft yfir eina borg, bĂŠ eða ĂŸorp eða sveitahĂ©rað. Ein skilgreining ĂĄ sveitarfĂ©lagi er að ĂŸau sĂ©u lĂŠgstu stjĂłrnsĂœslueiningarnar sem hafa lĂœĂ°rÊðislega kjörna stjĂłrn. + +SveitarfĂ©lög sjĂĄ yfirleitt um grunnĂŸjĂłnustu við borgarana ĂĄ borð við sorphirðu, skĂłla og almenningssamgöngur. Ăau geta myndað byggðasamlög með öðrum sveitarfĂ©lögum til að eiga við verkefni sem ella yrði erfitt að framfylgja. + +Tengt + SveitarfĂ©lög ĂĄ Ăslandi + +StjĂłrnsĂœsla +Ăessi sĂða er um RĂșssland, fyrir strĂðsĂĄstandið ĂŸar, sjĂĄ InnrĂĄs RĂșssa Ă ĂkraĂnu 2022â. + +RĂșssland (rĂșssneska: Đ ĐŸŃŃĐžÌŃ, umritun: RossĂja), formlegt heiti RĂșssneska sambandsrĂkið (rĂșssneska: Đ ĐŸŃŃĐžÌĐčŃĐșĐ°Ń Đ€Đ”ĐŽĐ”ŃаÌŃĐžŃ, umritun: RossĂjskaja federatsĂja), er vĂðfeðmt land Ă Austur-EvrĂłpu og Norður-AsĂu. Landið er ĂŸað langstĂŠrsta að flatarmĂĄli Ă heiminum, yfir 17 milljĂłn ferkĂlĂłmetrar, nĂŠr yfir 11 tĂmabelti og ĂŸekur 8. hluta af ĂŸurrlendi Jarðarinnar. Ăað er nĂĄnast tvöfalt stĂŠrra en Kanada sem er nĂŠststĂŠrst. RĂșssland ĂĄ landamĂŠri að 16 öðrum rĂkjum. Landið er einnig ĂŸað nĂunda fjölmennasta Ă heiminum og fjölmennasta EvrĂłpulandið. Höfuðborgin, Moskva, er stĂŠrsta borg EvrĂłpu. Ănnur stĂŠrsta borg landsins er Sankti PĂ©tursborg. RĂșssar eru fjölmennasti hĂłpur Slava og rĂșssneska er ĂŸað slavneska mĂĄl sem hefur langflesta mĂĄlhafa. + +Austur-Slavar komu fram ĂĄ sjĂłnarsviðið sem sĂ©rstök EvrĂłpuĂŸjóð milli 3. og 8. aldar. Ă 9. öld stofnuðu norrĂŠnir vĂkingar GarðarĂki Ă kringum borgirnar HĂłlmgarð (Novgorod) og KĂŠnugarð (KyjĂv). Ărið 988 tĂłk GarðarĂki upp grĂskan rĂ©tttrĂșnað undir ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ AustrĂłmverska rĂkinu. BĂœsantĂum hafði mikil menningarleg ĂĄhrif ĂĄ RĂșssland nĂŠstu aldirnar. GarðarĂki tĂłk að leysast upp ĂĄ 12. öld og furstadĂŠmin urðu að skattlöndum MongĂłla eftir að ĂŸeir réðust ĂĄ ĂŸau ĂĄ 13. öld. StĂłrhertogadĂŠmið Moskva efldist ĂĄ 15. öld og lagði undir sig norðurhluta hins forna GaðrarĂkis. Ăvan grimmi tĂłk upp titillinn tsar (keisari) og stofnaði RĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmið ĂĄ 16. öld. Með landkönnun og landvinningum um alla AsĂu varð RĂșssaveldi ĂŸriðja stĂŠrsta heimsveldi sögunnar. Eftir rĂșssnesku byltinguna varð RĂșssland mikilvĂŠgasta sambandslĂœĂ°veldi SovĂ©trĂkjanna. Landið ĂĄtti stĂłran ĂŸĂĄtt Ă sigri Bandamanna Ă sĂðari heimsstyrjöld og varð risaveldi sem keppti við BandarĂkin um alĂŸjóðleg ĂĄhrif ĂĄ tĂmum kalda strĂðsins. Eftir upplausn SovĂ©trĂkjanna ĂĄrið 1991 fĂ©kk RĂșssland sjĂĄlfstÊði sem sambandsrĂki. Eftir stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrkreppuna 1993 varð landið Ă auknum mĂŠli að forsetarÊði. VladĂmĂr PĂștĂn hefur haft ĂŸar mest völd frĂĄ aldamĂłtunum 2000. RĂkisstjĂłrn hans hefur verið sökuð um alrÊðistilburði, mannrĂ©ttindabrot og spillingu. PĂștĂn tilkynnti sĂ©rstaka hernaðaraðgerð til að afvopna og afnasistavÊða ĂkraĂnu Ă febrĂșar 2022, og bannar að nota orðið strĂð yfir ĂŸað (og ĂŸĂșsundum mĂłtmĂŠlenda sem nota ĂŸað orð hafa verið stungið Ă fangelsi fyrir ĂŸað og RĂșssland skilgreint Facebook (og Meta, fyrirtĂŠkið sem ĂĄ Facebook og Instagram) sem öfgasamtök ), en alĂŸjóðasamfĂ©lagið (ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal Ăsland) kallar ĂŸað strĂð og innrĂĄs RĂșssa Ă ĂkraĂnu 2022. + +RĂșssland er stĂłrveldi ĂĄ alĂŸjóðavĂsu ĂŸĂłtt ĂŸað sĂ© ekki sama risaveldið og SovĂ©trĂkin voru åður. Landið situr hĂĄtt ĂĄ VĂsitölu um ĂŸrĂłun lĂfsgÊða, ĂŸar er almenn heilbrigðisĂŸjĂłnusta og Ăłkeypis hĂĄskĂłlamenntun. Hagkerfi RĂșsslands er ĂŸað 11. stĂŠrsta Ă heimi og ĂŸað 6. stĂŠrsta kaupmĂĄttarjafnað. RĂșssland er kjarnorkuveldi sem ĂĄ mesta safn kjarnavopna Ă heimi og rÊður yfir öðrum öflugasta her Ă heimi. Landið er Ă fjĂłrða sĂŠti yfir fjĂĄrveitingar til hermĂĄla. RĂșssland bĂœr yfir miklum olĂu- og gaslindum. Landið ĂĄ fast sĂŠti Ă Ăryggisråði Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna, ĂĄ aðild að G20, Samvinnustofnun SjanghĂŠ, Efnahagssamstarfi AsĂu- og KyrrahafsrĂkjanna, Ăryggis- og samvinnustofnun EvrĂłpu, AlĂŸjóðlega fjĂĄrfestingarbankanum og AlĂŸjóðaviðskiptastofnuninni, auk ĂŸess að vera leiðandi Ă Samveldi sjĂĄlfstÊðra rĂkja, Sameiginlegu öryggissĂĄttmĂĄlastofnuninni og EvrasĂska efnahagssambandinu. RĂșssland er Ă nĂunda sĂŠti yfir fjölda heimsminja. + +Heiti +Ăjóðaheitið RĂșssar (Đ ŃŃŃ Rusj) var upphaflega heiti ĂĄ norrĂŠnum mönnum, vĂkingum frĂĄ Eystrasalti og vĂŠringjum frĂĄ Miklagarði, sem stofnuðu GarðarĂki Ă kringum borgirnar HĂłlmgarð og KĂŠnugarð ĂĄ miðöldum. Orðið er hugsanlega dregið af finnska orðinu Ruotsi yfir SvĂa frĂĄ Roslagen, skylt sögninni âað rĂłaâ. Latneska ĂștgĂĄfan RĂșĂŸenĂa var algengara heiti yfir lönd Austur-Slava ĂŸar sem nĂș eru RĂșssland og ĂkraĂna ĂĄ Vesturlöndum ĂĄ miðöldum og sĂðar. Latneska heitið Moscovia var lĂka ĂĄfram notað ĂĄ Vesturlöndum, ĂŸĂłtt StĂłrhertogadĂŠmið Moskva yrði formlega séð fyrst StĂłrfurstadĂŠmið RĂșssland og sĂðan KeisaradĂŠmið RĂșssland. + +NĂșverandi heiti landsins Đ ĐŸŃŃĐžŃ (Rossija) er dregið af grĂska heitinu ÎĄÏÏÏία (RĂłssĂa) sem var notað Ă AustrĂłmverska rĂkinu yfir GarðarĂki. Ăessi ĂștgĂĄfa heitisins komst fyrst Ă notkun ĂĄ 15. öld eftir að Ăvan mikli hafði sameinað nokkur af fyrrum löndum GarðarĂkis og titlaði sig âstĂłrfursta alls RĂșsjâ. Ă 17. öld voru lönd kĂłsakka ĂŸar sem ĂkraĂna er nĂș kölluð Malorossija (âLitla RĂșsslandâ) og löndin við Svartahaf sem RĂșssar unnu af Tyrkjaveldi voru kölluð Novorossija (âNĂœja RĂșsslandâ). Vesturhluti hins forna GarðarĂkis varð hluti StĂłrfurstadĂŠmisins LithĂĄens og skiptist Ă HvĂta-RĂșssland (austurhluti nĂșverandi HvĂta-RĂșsslands), Svarta-RĂșssland (vesturhluti nĂșverandi HvĂta-RĂșsslands) og Rauða-RĂșssland (vesturhluti nĂșverandi ĂkraĂnu og suðausturhluti nĂșverandi PĂłllands). + +Saga +Ăau vĂðerni sem RĂșssland nĂștĂmans ĂŸekur voru åður byggð Ăœmsum ĂłsamstÊðum ĂŠttbĂĄlkum sem sĂŠttu stöðugum innrĂĄsum HĂșna, Gota og Avara ĂĄ milli ĂŸriðju og sjöttu aldar eftir Krist. Fram ĂĄ 8. öld bjuggu SkĂœĂŸar, Ărönsk ĂŸjóð, ĂĄ gresjunum ĂŸar sem nĂș er sunnanvert RĂșssland og ĂkraĂna og vestar bjĂł tyrknesk ĂŸjóð, Kasarar en ĂŸessir ĂŸjóðflokkar viku fyrir sĂŠnskum vĂkingum sem kallaðir voru VĂŠringjar og Slövum sem ĂŸĂĄ voru teknir að flytjast ĂĄ svÊðið. VĂŠringjar stofnuðu GarðarĂki með höfuðborg Ă HĂłlmgarði og runnu sĂðar saman við slavana sem urðu fljĂłtlega fjölmennasti ĂŸjóðflokkurinn ĂŸar. + +GarðarĂki stóð Ă nokkrar aldir og ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma tengdist ĂŸað rĂ©tttrĂșnaðarkirkjunni og flutti höfuðborg sĂna til KĂŠnugarðs ĂĄrið 1169. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma var fyrst farið að nota orðin âRhosâ eða âRussâ, bÊði um VĂŠringjana og Slavana. Ă 9. og 10. öld var ĂŸetta rĂki hið stĂŠrsta Ă EvrĂłpu og einnig var ĂŸað auðugt vegna verslunarsambanda sinna við bÊði EvrĂłpu og AsĂu. + +Ă 13. öld var svÊðið illa leikið af innbyrðis deilum sem og innrĂĄsum Ășr austri, bÊði af hendi MongĂłla og Ăslömskum, tyrkneskumĂŠlandi hirðingjum sem ĂĄttu eftir að valda miklum Ăłskunda ĂĄ svÊðinu nĂŠstu ĂŸrjĂĄr aldirnar. Ăeir gengu einnig undir nafninu Tatarar og réðu lögum og lofum Ă mið- og suðurhluta RĂșsslands ĂĄ meðan vesturhluti ĂŸess fĂ©ll undir yfirråð PĂłlsk-lithĂĄenska samveldisins. Upplausn GarðarĂkis leiddi til ĂŸess að aðskilnaður varð milli RĂșssa sem bjuggu norðar og austar og ĂkraĂnumanna og HvĂtrĂșssa Ă vestri og ĂŸessi aðskilnaður hefur haldist fram ĂĄ ĂŸennan dag. + +Norður-RĂșssland og HĂłlmgarður nutu einhverrar sjĂĄlfstjĂłrnar ĂĄ valdatĂma mongĂłla og ĂŸessi svÊði sluppu betur undan ĂŸeirri skĂĄlmöld sem rĂkti annars staðar Ă landinu. ĂbĂșarnir ĂŸar ĂŸurftu ĂŸĂł að kljĂĄst við ĂŸĂœska krossfara sem reyndu að leggja undir sig svÊðið. + +LĂkt og ĂĄ Balkanskaga og Ă Litlu AsĂu varð langvarandi valdaskeið hirðingja til ĂŸess að hĂŠgja mikið ĂĄ efnahagslegri og fĂ©lagslegri ĂŸrĂłun landsins. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸað nåðu RĂșssar að rĂ©tta Ășr kĂștnum ĂłlĂkt bĂœsanska keisaradĂŠminu sem var andlegur leiðtogi ĂŸeirra, råðast gegn Ăłvinum sĂnum og leggja lönd ĂŸeirra undir sig. Eftir að KonstantĂnĂłpel fĂ©ll ĂĄrið 1453 var RĂșssland eina burðuga kristna rĂkið Ă Austur EvrĂłpu og ĂŸað gat ĂŸvĂ litið ĂĄ sig sem arftaka AustrĂłmverska rĂkisins. + +RĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmið +ĂrĂĄtt fyrir að vera enn ĂŸĂĄ að nafninu til undir yfirråðum MongĂłla tĂłk hertogadĂŠmið Moskva að auka ĂĄhrif sĂn og seint ĂĄ 14. öld losnaði ĂŸað alveg undan yfirråðum innrĂĄsarĂŸjóðanna. Ăvan grimmi sem var fyrsti leiðtoginn sem krĂœndur var keisari RĂșsslands hĂ©lt ĂștĂŸenslustefnunni ĂĄfram og nåði nĂŠrliggjandi hĂ©ruðum undir stjĂłrn Moskvu og lagði svo undir sig vĂðerni SĂberĂu og RĂșssneska keisaraveldið varð til. ĂvĂ nĂŠst komst RĂłmanovĂŠttin til valda, fyrsti keisari hennar var Mikael RĂłmanov sem krĂœndur var 1613. PĂ©tur mikli rĂkti frĂĄ 1689 til 1725 en hann fĂŠrði RĂșssland nĂŠr Vestur-EvrĂłpu og sĂłtti ĂŸangað hugmyndir og menningu til að draga Ășr ĂĄhrifum hirðingjamenningar sem hafði hafði haldið aftur af efnahagslegri framĂŸrĂłun landsins. KatrĂn mikla (valdatĂð: 1767-1796) lagði ĂĄfram ĂĄherslu ĂĄ ĂŸessi atriði og RĂșssland var nĂș stĂłrveldi, ekki bara Ă AsĂu heldur einnig Ă EvrĂłpu ĂŸar sem ĂŸað stóð nĂș jafnfĂŠtis löndum eins og Englandi, Frakklandi og ĂĂœskalandi. + +Stöðugur ĂłrĂłi var ĂŸĂł viðloðandi meðal ĂĄnauðugra bĂŠnda og niðurbĂŠldra menntamanna og við upphaf Fyrri heimsstyrjaldar virtist staða ĂŸĂĄverandi keisara NikulĂĄsar 2. og keisaradĂŠmisins vera fremur Ăłviss. Miklir Ăłsigrar rĂșssneska hersins Ă strĂðinu kyntu undir uppĂŸotum Ă stĂŠrri borgum sem að lokum leiddu til ĂŸess að RĂłmanovĂŠttinni var steypt af stĂłli 1917 Ă uppreisn kommĂșnista. + +RĂșssneska byltingin og SovĂ©trĂkin +Undir lok ĂŸessarar byltingar tĂłk bolsĂ©vika-armur KommĂșnistaflokksins öll völd undir stjĂłrn Vladimirs LenĂns og SovĂ©trĂkin voru stofnuð en rĂșssneska sovĂ©tlĂœĂ°veldið var ĂŸungamiðja ĂŸeirra. Undir stjĂłrn JĂłsefs StalĂns var landið iðnvĂŠtt með hraði og samyrkjubĂșskapur tekinn upp Ă landbĂșnaði, fyrirkomulag sem kostaði tugi milljĂłna mannslĂfa. Ă valdatĂð hans tĂłku SovĂ©trĂkin ĂŸĂĄtt Ă sĂðari heimsstyrjöldinni gegn ĂĂœskalandi en mannfall var geypilegt Ă strĂðinu, bÊði meðal hermanna og almennra borgara. + +Að strĂðinu loknu öðluðust SovĂ©trĂkin mikil ĂĄhrif Ă Austur-EvrĂłpu og komu ĂŸar til valda leppstjĂłrnum kommĂșnista Ă mörgum rĂkjum og stofnuðu VarsjĂĄrbandalagið með ĂŸeim sem beint var gegn Atlantshafsbandalagi BandarĂkjanna og bandamanna ĂŸeirra en ĂŸessi tvö rĂki voru nĂș einu risaveldin Ă heiminum og börðust um hugmyndafrÊði, völd og ĂĄhrif Ă Kalda strĂðinu svokallaða sem braust Ă raun aldrei Ășt Ă beinum vopnuðum ĂĄtökum ĂŸessara tveggja rĂkja en ĂĄ milli ĂŸeirra rĂkti ĂłgnarjafnvĂŠgi sem byggði ĂĄ stĂłrum kjarnorkuvopnabĂșrum beggja aðila. Ă ĂĄratugunum eftir frĂĄfall StalĂns stöðnuðu SovĂ©trĂkin efnahagslega og fĂ©lagslega og reynt var að slaka ĂĄ kjarnorkuviðbĂșnaðinum en ĂŸeir voru einnig tĂmabil mikilla afreka hjĂĄ SovĂ©skum vĂsindamönnum. + +Endalok SovĂ©trĂkjanna +Um miðjan 9. ĂĄratuginn kynnti ĂŸĂĄverandi leiðtogi SovĂ©trĂkjanna, MĂkhaĂl Gorbatsjov tillögur sĂnar glasnost (opnun) og perestroika (endurskipulagning) Ă ĂŸeim tilgangi að nĂștĂmavÊða kommĂșnismann en Ăłviljandi leystu ĂŸĂŠr Ășr lÊðingi öfl sem tvĂstruðu SovĂ©trĂkjunum Ă 15 sjĂĄlfstÊð rĂki Ă desember 1991, RĂșssland langstĂŠrst ĂŸeirra. RĂșssland hefur sĂðan ĂŸĂĄ verið að reyna að byggja upp lĂœĂ°rÊðislega stjĂłrnunarhĂŠtti og markaðshagkerfi en gengur hĂŠgt. Skömmu eftir fall SovĂ©trĂkjanna tĂłk að bera ĂĄ ĂŸjóðernisdeilum ĂĄ meðal sumra ĂŸeirra fjölmörgu ĂŸjóðernishĂłpa sem bĂșa innan landamĂŠra RĂșsslands og ĂĄ stöðum eins og TĂ©tĂ©nĂu og Norður-OssetĂu braust Ășt skĂŠruhernaður sem entist Ă mörg ĂĄr. + +LandfrÊði + +RĂșssland nĂŠr yfir stĂłra hluta tveggja heimsĂĄlfa, EvrĂłpu og AsĂu. Landið nĂŠr yfir nyrsta hluta EvrasĂu og ĂĄ fjĂłrðu lengstu strandlengju heims, 37.653 km að lengd. RĂșssland er ĂĄ milli 41. og 82. breiddargråðu norður og 19. lengdargråðu austur og 169. lengdargråðu vestur. Landið er raunar stĂŠrra en ĂŸrjĂĄr heimsĂĄlfur: EyjaĂĄlfa, EvrĂłpa og Suðurskautslandið, og er um ĂŸað bil jafnstĂłrt og yfirborð PlĂștĂłs. + +Vestasti hluti RĂșsslands er Ăștlendan KalĂnĂngrad við Eystrasalt, sem er um 9.000 km frĂĄ austasta hluta landsins, StĂłru DĂĂłmedeseyju Ă Beringssundi. Ă suðurhluta landsins er stĂłr hluti KĂĄkasusfjalla með Elbrusfjalli, sem er hĂŠsti tindur RĂșsslands Ă 5.642 metra hÊð; AltaĂfjöll og Sajanfjöll er að finna Ă SĂberĂu; og Austur-SĂberĂufjöll og fjöllin ĂĄ Kamsjatka Ă Austurlöndum RĂșsslands. Ăralfjöll liggja frĂĄ norðri til suðurs Ă vesturhluta RĂșsslands og skilgreina mörk EvrĂłpu og AsĂu. + +Ăsamt Kanada er RĂșssland annað tveggja landa sem ĂĄ strönd að ĂŸremur Ășthöfum, auk ĂŸess að tengjast yfir ĂŸrettĂĄn randhöfum. Helstu eyjar og eyjaklasar RĂșsslands eru Novaja Semlja, Frans JĂłsefsland, Severnaja Semlja, NĂœju SĂberĂueyjar, Wrangel-eyja, KĂșrileyjar og SakalĂn. Sundið milli DĂĂłmedeseyja ĂŸar sem landhelgi RĂșsslands og BandarĂkjanna (Alaska) mĂŠtast, er aðeins 3,8 km að breidd, og eyjan KĂșnasjĂr (KĂșrileyjar) er aðeins 20 km frĂĄ HokkaĂdĂł Ă Japan. + +Ă RĂșsslandi eru yfir 100.000 ĂĄr og landið rÊður yfir einum mesta vatnsforða heims. Stöðuvötn Ă RĂșsslandi geyma um fjĂłrðung ferskvatnsbirgða heims. Bajkalvatn er stĂŠrsta stöðuvatn RĂșsslands. Ăað er dĂœpsta, elsta og vatnsmesta stöðuvatn heims og geymir um fimmtung alls ferskvatns ĂĄ yfirborði Jarðar. Ladogavatn og Onegavatn Ă norðvesturhluta RĂșsslands eru tvö af stĂŠrstu vötnum EvrĂłpu. RĂșssland er à öðru sĂŠti ĂĄ eftir BrasilĂu yfir mesta endurnĂœjanlega vatnsforða heims. Volga er lengsta fljĂłt EvrĂłpu. Ă SĂberĂu eru Ob, Jenisej, Lena og AmĂșrfljĂłt með lengstu fljĂłtum heims. + +StjĂłrnsĂœsluskipting + +SvÊði sem RĂșssland gerir tilkall til +Auk lögbundinna yfirråðasvÊða RĂșsslands gerir rĂkið tilkall til Ăœmissa landsvÊða Ă ĂkraĂnu sem RĂșssar hafa lagt undir sig Ă strĂði rĂkjanna frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2014. RĂșssar innlimuðu KrĂmskaga ĂĄrið 2014 og viðhalda ĂŸar fullum yfirråðum. StjĂłrn RĂșsslands tilkynnti um innlimun fylkjanna Donetsk. LĂșhansk. Kherson og ZaporĂzjzja ĂĄ tĂma innrĂĄsarinnar Ă ĂkraĂnu ĂĄrið 2022. RĂșssar hafa nĂŠr fulla stjĂłrn ĂĄ Donetsk en råða aðeins um helmingi af hinum ĂŸremur fylkjunum. + +Flest rĂki viðurkenna ekki tilkall RĂșsslands til ĂŸessara svÊða og lĂta ĂĄ stjĂłrn ĂŸeirra ĂŸar sem Ăłlöglegt hernĂĄm. VĂðast hvar er litið ĂĄ ĂŸau sem lögmĂŠtan hluta ĂkraĂnu. + +* Borgirnar Kherson og ZaporĂzjzja eru undir yfirråðum ĂkraĂnumanna ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir að RĂșssar segist hafa innlimað ĂŸĂŠr sem fylkishöfuðborgir samnefndra fylkja. + +Borgir + Moskva - 12.197.565 + Sankti PĂ©tursborg - 4.661.000 + NovosĂbĂrsk - 1.425.000 + NĂzhnĂj Novgorod - 1.311.000 + JekaterĂnbĂșrg - 1.294.000 + Samara - 1.157.000 + Omsk - 1.134.000 + Kazan - 1.106.000 + TsjeljabĂnsk - 1.077.000 + Rostov við Don - 1.068.000 + Ăfa - 1.042.000 + Volgograd - 1.011.000 + Perm - 1.002.000 + Krasnojarsk - 909.000 + Saratov - 873.000 + Voronezh - 849.000 + ToljattĂ - 703.000 + Krasnodar - 646.000 + Ăljanovsk - 636.000 + Ăzhevsk - 632.000 + VladĂvostok - 594.000 + Arkhangelsk - 349.000 + MĂșrmansk - 298.000 + Petropavlovsk-KamtsjatskĂj - 198.000 + +TilvĂsanir + +RĂșssland +Höfuðborg er sĂș borg Ă gefnu rĂki ĂŸar sem stjĂłrnvöld rĂkisins hafa oftast aðsetur, dĂŠmi: OslĂł. Einnig er talað um höfuðborgir fylkja Ă sambandsrĂkjum. + +LandafrÊðihugtök +Ăttar er Ăslenskt karlmannsnafn. + +Dreifing ĂĄ Ăslandi + +Heimildir + + + +Ăslensk karlmannsnöfn +HandelshĂžyskolen BI (Ăsl: Norski viðskipta- og stjĂłrnunarhĂĄskĂłlinn BI) er einkaskĂłli, með höfuðstöðvar Ă ĂslĂł Ă Noregi. Ărið 2022 voru um 21.653 nemendur við skĂłlan, af ĂŸeim voru um 10.000 Ă fullu nĂĄmi, og um 390 starfsmenn. SkĂłlinn bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ fjölbreytt nĂĄm Ă viðskiptafrÊðum bÊði ĂĄ norsku og ensku. NĂŠr allt nĂĄm til mastersgråðu er ĂĄ ensku. + +SkĂłlinn var stofnaður ĂĄrið 1943 sem råðgjafafyrirtĂŠki er bauð upp ĂĄ kvöldskĂłla Ă bĂłkfĂŠrslu. SĂðan ĂŸĂĄ hefur skĂłlanum vaxið fiskur um hrygg og er nĂș alĂŸjóðlegur skĂłli sem bĂœĂ°ur upp ĂĄ nĂĄm Ă viðskipta- og stjĂłrnunarfrÊðum. Ă dag er BI stĂŠrsti viðskiptahĂĄskĂłli Ă EvrĂłpu og nĂŠststĂŠrsta skĂłlastofnun Ă Noregi. + +Ytri tengill + HandelshĂžyskolen BI + +HĂĄskĂłlar Ă Noregi +ViðskiptaskĂłlar +Fyrir ĂŸråðlausu nettenginguna mĂĄ sjĂĄ: Heitur reitur (net). + +Heitur reitur er Ă jarðfrÊði staður ĂĄ yfirborði jarðar ĂŸar sem eldvirkni er mikil sökum möttulstrĂłks sem af ber heita kviku Ășr iðrum jarðar upp að jarðskorpunni (sem af ĂŸessum sökum er ĂŸynnri en annars staðar), um 50 heitir reitir eru ĂŸekktir, helstir ĂŸeirra eru Hawaii, Ăslands og Yellowstone reitirnir. + +FyrirbĂŠrinu var fyrst lĂœst af kanadĂska jarðvĂsinda og jarðfrÊðingnum John Tuzo Wilson Ă flekakenningu hans ĂĄrið 1963, ĂŸar sem hann hĂ©lt fram að eldfjallakeðjur eins og Hawaiieyjar mynduðust sökum ĂŸess að jarðflekar fĂŠrðust yfir fastan punkt (heitan reit) ĂĄ löngum tĂma ĂĄ jarðsögulegum mĂŠlikvarða. + +Tengt efni + MöttulstrĂłkur + MöttulstrĂłkurinn undir Ăslandi + +Flekakenningin +JarðvĂsindi +JarðfrÊði +Fyrir ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂðardaginn, sjĂĄ ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂðardagur Ăslendinga. + +17. jĂșnĂ er 168. dagur ĂĄrsins (169. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu og ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂðardagur Ăslendinga. 197 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1040 - Hörða-KnĂștur kom að landi við Sandwich ĂĄ Englandi og gerði tilkall til ensku krĂșnunnar. + 1221 - Björn Ăorvaldsson var drepinn ĂĄ BreiðabĂłlstað Ă FljĂłtshlĂð. + 1395 - Friðarsamningar voru gerðir Ă Lindholm-kastala Ă SvĂĂŸjóð milli MargrĂ©tar drottningar og Albrekts af Mecklenburg. + 1397 - EirĂkur af Pommern var krĂœndur konungur allra Norðurlanda. + 1449 - Danmörk og England gerðu með sĂ©r samning sem heimilaði enskum sjĂłmönnum siglingar til Ăslands með sĂ©rstöku leyfi Danakonungs. + 1527 - GĂșstaf Vasa innleiddi lĂștherska kirkjuskipan Ă rĂki sĂnu. + 1596 - Willem Barents kom auga ĂĄ Svalbarða. + 1775 â BandarĂska frelsisstrĂðið: Orrustan við Bunker Hill ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað. + 1881 - ĂorlĂĄkur O. Johnson, sem lagt hafði stund ĂĄ verslunarnĂĄm Ă Englandi, opnaði verslun Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1886 - Haldið var upp ĂĄ afmĂŠli JĂłns Sigurðssonar Ă fyrsta sinn opinberlega Ă kaffihĂșsinu Hermes ĂĄ LĂŠkjargötu 4 Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1900 - Fyrsta pĂłstferð með farĂŸega, vörur og pĂłst, farin ĂĄ fjĂłrhjĂłla hestvagni frĂĄ ReykjavĂk og austur fyrir fjall. + 1907 - StĂșdentafĂ©lagið gekkst fyrir ĂŸvĂ að vĂða var flaggað Ăslenskum fĂĄna, blĂĄum með hvĂtum krossi. Ăessum fĂĄna var flaggað vĂða um land og voru 65 fĂĄnar við hĂșn Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1911 - HĂĄskĂłli Ăslands var stofnaður og settur Ă fyrsta sinn. TĂłk hann yfir rekstur PrestaskĂłlans, LĂŠknaskĂłlans og LagaskĂłlans, sem um leið voru lagðir niður. + 1911 - Fyrsta landsmĂłt UngmennafĂ©lags Ăslands hĂłfst ĂĄ ĂĂŸrĂłttavellinum ĂĄ Melnunum Ă ReykjavĂk og stóð Ă viku. + 1911 - IðnsĂœningin 1911 var opnuð Ă MiðbĂŠjarskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1915 - Fyrsta bĂlprĂłfið var tekið Ă ReykjavĂk. Handhafi ökuskĂrteinis nĂșmer eitt var Hafliði Hjartarson trĂ©smiður, 28 ĂĄra gamall. + 1916 - Norska knattspyrnuliðið FK BodĂž/Glimt var stofnað. + 1917 - Nokkur fĂ©lagasamtök hĂ©ldu samsĂŠti Ă ReykjavĂk til heiðurs Stephani G. Stephanssyni skĂĄldi, sem staddur var ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă fyrsta sinn frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að hann kvaddi landið tvĂtugur að aldri. + 1918 - Loftskeytastöðin ĂĄ Melunum Ă ReykjavĂk var tekin Ă notkun Ă samvinnu við Marconi-fĂ©lagið Ă London. + 1925 - Ă Ăsafirði var tekið Ă notkun nĂœtt sjĂșkrahĂșs sem talið var hið fullkomnasta ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1926 - Björg KarĂtas ĂorlĂĄksdĂłttir varð fyrst Ăslenskra kvenna til að ljĂșka doktorsprĂłfi er hĂșn varði doktorsritgerð sĂna við Sorbonne-hĂĄskĂłla Ă ParĂs. + 1926 - Melavöllurinn Ă ReykjavĂk var vĂgður eftir flutning. + 1939 - SĂðasta opinbera aftakan með fallöxi fĂłr fram Ă Frakklandi. + 1940 - SovĂ©trĂkin hernĂĄmu Eistland, Lettland og LithĂĄen. + 1940 - Aðalbygging HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands við Suðurgötu Ă ReykjavĂk var vĂgð. + 1940 - ĂrĂr bĂĄtar komu frĂĄ Noregi til Austfjarða með 59 norska flĂłttamenn um borð. MĂĄnuði fyrr höfðu 26 norskir flĂłttamenn komið til Akureyrar. + 1941 - Sveinn Björnsson var kjörinn rĂkisstjĂłri Ăslands af AlĂŸingi, en hann hafði verið sendiherra landsins Ă Kaupmannahöfn Ă tvo ĂĄratugi. + 1944 - Ăslenska lĂœĂ°veldið var stofnað ĂĄ Ăingvöllum og jafnframt var fyrsta stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ lĂœĂ°veldisins staðfest. Einnig var Sveinn Björnsson rĂkisstjĂłri kjörinn fyrsti forseti lĂœĂ°veldisins. SĂðan ĂŸĂĄ hefur dagurinn verið ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂðardagur Ăslands. + 1945 - VerslunarskĂłli Ăslands brautskråði stĂșdenta Ă fyrsta sinn og voru ĂŸeir sjö talsins. + 1945 - Minningarskjöldur var afhjĂșpaður ĂĄ hĂșsi JĂłns Sigurðssonar Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + 1947 - Fyrsta millilandaflugvĂ©l Ă Ăslenskri eigu kom til landsins. Var ĂŸað Skymaster-flugvĂ©lin Hekla Ă eigu Loftleiða. + 1953 - SovĂ©skt herlið bĂŠldi niður uppreisn verkamanna Ă Austur-BerlĂn. + 1954 - Morgunblaðið birti ljóðið âĂsland er land ĂŸittâ eftir MargrĂ©ti JĂłnsdĂłttur Ă tilefni af tĂu ĂĄra afmĂŠli lĂœĂ°veldisins. Ljóðið varð ĂŸekkt ĂŸegar MagnĂșs ĂĂłr Sigmundsson gerði lag við ĂŸað og gaf Ășt ĂĄ plötu ĂĄrið 1982. + 1959 - ĂĂŸrĂłttavöllurinn Ă Laugardal var formlega vĂgður, en hann hafði verið Ă notkun Ă tvö ĂĄr. + 1959 - NĂŠrri lĂĄ að slys yrði er varnargarður brast ĂĄ virkjunarsvÊðinu við Sog. Menn sluppu naumlega. + 1961 - 150 ĂĄra afmĂŠlis JĂłns Sigurðssonar var vĂða minnst, meðal annars með hĂĄtĂð ĂĄ fÊðingarstað hans, Hrafnseyri við Arnarfjörð. + 1969 - AldarfjĂłrðungsafmĂŠli lĂœĂ°veldisins var fagnað Ă mikilli rigningu. + 1970 - Zemla-uppreisnin. Ătök brutust Ășt milli sjĂĄlfstÊðissinna Ă Vestur-Sahara og spĂŠnskra yfirvalda. + 1972 - Upphaf Watergate-hneykslisins. Fimm menn voru handteknir fyrir innbrot Ă höfuðstöðvar DemĂłkrata Ă Watergate-byggingunni Ă Washington en ĂŸeir höfðu ĂŠtlað að koma ĂŸar fyrir hlerunarbĂșnaði. + 1974 - Ă KirkjubĂŠjarklaustri var vĂgð kapella til minningar um JĂłn SteingrĂmsson eldklerk. + 1975 - Sumar ĂĄ SĂœrlandi, fyrsta plata Stuðmanna, kom Ășt. + 1977 - Afsteypa af höggmyndinni Alda aldanna eftir Einar JĂłnsson myndhöggvara var afhjĂșpuð ĂĄ FlĂșðum. + 1980 - ĂsbjarnarblĂșs, fyrsta sĂłlĂłplata Bubba Morthens, kom Ășt. + 1982 - Ăriðja skipið með nafnið Akraborg kom til landsins og sigldi ĂĄ milli ReykjavĂkur og Akraness. + 1985 - Ă Vestmannaeyjum var afhjĂșpuð höggmynd til minningar um GuðrĂði SĂmonardĂłttur. + 1991 - VĂkingaskipið Gaia kom til ReykjavĂkur. + 1994 - 50 ĂĄra afmĂŠli LĂœĂ°veldisins Ăslands var fagnað ĂĄ Ăingvöllum. + 1994 - JĂłhanna SigurðardĂłttir lagði grunninn að stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokknum Ăjóðvaka með orðunum âminn tĂmi mun komaâ. + 2000 - JarðskjĂĄlfti, 6,5 stig ĂĄ Richter, skĂłk Suðurland. + 2004 - Sundlaugin ĂĄ HĂłlmavĂk var tekin Ă notkun. + 2006 - Ăslenska landsliðið Ă handbolta vann sĂ©r ĂŸĂĄtttökurĂ©tt ĂĄ HM Ă ĂĂœskalandi 2007 með ĂŸvĂ að sigra SvĂa Ă Laugardalshöllinni með samanlagt ĂŸriggja marka mun. + 2006 - Samtökin FramtĂðarlandið voru stofnuð Ă AusturbĂŠjarbĂĂłi. + 2008 - HvĂtabjörn var skotinn ĂĄ Skaga, eftir að tilraunir til að svĂŠfa hann með deyfilyfjum misheppnuðust. + 2011 - HĂŠgvarpsĂŸĂĄtturinn Hurtigruten minutt for minutt var sendur Ășt ĂĄ norsku sjĂłnvarpsstöðinni NRK2. + 2012 - Ălfahjörð Ă KolmĂ„rden-dĂœragarðinum Ă SvĂĂŸjóð réðist ĂĄ og drap starfsmann. + 2015 - BandarĂski stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaðurinn Clementa C. Pinckney var myrtur ĂĄsamt ĂĄtta öðrum Ă skotĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ kirkju Ă Charleston. + 2019 â 30 lĂ©tust Ă ĂŸremur sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ knattspyrnuleik Ă Borno Ă NĂgerĂu. + 2021 - Geimferðastofnun KĂna sendi fyrstu ĂŸrjĂĄ geimfarana til geimstöðvarinnar Tiangong. + 2022 - Golden State Warriors unnu sinn 4. NBA-titil ĂĄ sjö ĂĄrum. Stephen Curry var valinn mikilvĂŠgasti leikmaðurinn Ă Ășrslitum. + 2022 - ĂkraĂna og MoldĂłva fengu formlega stöðu umsĂłknarrĂkja að EvrĂłpusambandinu. + +FĂŠdd + 1239 - JĂĄtvarður 1. Englandskonungur (d. 1307). + 1625 - Peder Hansen Resen, danskur sagnfrÊðingur (d. 1688). + 1682 - Karl 12. SvĂakonungur (d. 1718). + 1808 - Henrik Wergeland, norskt skĂĄld og mĂĄlvĂsindamaður (d. 1845). + 1811 - JĂłn Sigurðsson, âsĂłmi Ăslands, sverð ĂŸess og skjöldurâ, fĂŠddist ĂĄ Hrafnseyri við Arnarfjörð. Hann dĂł 7. desember 1879. + 1882 - Ăgor StravinskĂj, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1971). + 1893 - Ăskar HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur Ăștgerðarmaður (d. 1953). + 1900 - Martin Bormann, ĂŸĂœskur nasistaforingi (d. 1945). + 1936 - Ken Loach, enskur leikstjori. + 1942 - Mohamed ElBaradei, handhafi friðarverðlauna NĂłbels og fyrrverandi yfirmaður AlĂŸjóðakjarnorkumĂĄlastofnunarinnar. + 1942 - Einar Ăorsteinn Ăsgeirsson, Ăslenskur arkitekt (d. 2015). + 1943 - Newt Gingrich, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1943 - Barry Manilow, bandariskur songvari. + 1945 - Ken Livingstone, breskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og fyrrverandi borgarstjĂłri LundĂșna. + 1948 - Hrafn Gunnlaugsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1958 - Robert Farelly, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1959 - Baltazar Maria de Morais JĂșnior, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1967 - Zinho, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1971 - Steinunn GestsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur sĂĄlfrÊðingur. + 1975 - Shoji Jo, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1980 - Venus Williams, bandarisk tennisleikkona. + 1990 - Jordan Henderson, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 1631 - Mumtaz Mahal, kona mogulsins Jahans 1. (f. 1593). + 1696 - JĂłhann 3. Sobieski, konungur PĂłllands og stĂłrfursti Ă LithĂĄen (f. 1629). + 1779 - JĂłn Ălafsson Ășr GrunnavĂk, Ăslenskur frÊðimaður (f. 1705). + 1835 - Björn Stephensen, Ăslenskur dĂłmsmĂĄlaritari (f. 1769). + 1972 - JĂłhannes Gunnarsson, biskup kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunnar ĂĄ Ăslandi (f. 1897). + 1987 - Yasuo Haruyama, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1906). + 2002 - Fritz Walter, knattspyrnumaður (f. 1920). + 2019 - Mohamed Morsi, forseti Egyptalands (f. 1951). + +HĂĄtĂðis og tyllidagar + Ăslenski ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂðardagurinn + +JĂșnĂ +Ăetta er listi yfir Ăslensk skĂĄld og rithöfunda. HĂŠgt er að breyta röðun töflunnar með ĂŸvĂ að Ăœta ĂĄ haus hennar. Listinn er ekki tĂŠmandi, ĂŸĂș getur [ bĂŠtt við hann]. + +{| class= "wikitable sortable" style= "text-align: center;" +|+ +!Höfundur +!FĂŠddist +!LĂ©st +!Skrifaði helst +!Verk sem höfundur er t.d. ĂŸekktur fyrir +! style= "max-width:100px" |HöfundarĂ©ttur ĂĄ verkum enn Ă gildi + + + +Listar +SkĂĄld er sĂĄ sem yrkir ljóð (ljóðskĂĄld). Heitið er einnig notað um leikritahöfunda (leikskĂĄld), enda voru leikrit skrifuð Ă bundnu mĂĄli fram ĂĄ 19. öld. Heitið er sjaldnar notað um rithöfunda â ĂŸĂĄ sem semja skĂĄldsögur. + +Stundum eru athafnamenn upphafnir með ĂŸvĂ að kalla ĂŸĂĄ âathafnaskĂĄldâ og einnig eru til svokölluð nĂœyrðaskĂĄld. + +Tengt efni + AtĂłmskĂĄld + Lexicon poeticum antiquĂŠ linguĂŠ septentrionalis + Listi yfir Ăslensk skĂĄld +HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk (HR) er rannsĂłknar- og menntastofnun sem Ăștskrifar nemendur Ășr sjö akademĂskum deildum, auk HĂĄskĂłlagrunns. ĂĂŠr eru lagadeild, verkfrÊðideild, tölvunarfrÊðideild, iðn- og tĂŠknifrÊðideild, sĂĄlfrÊðideild, ĂĂŸrĂłttadeild og viðskiptadeild. Við HR er jafnframt starfrĂŠktur Opni hĂĄskĂłlinn Ă HR, sem sĂ©rhĂŠfir sig Ă sĂ- og endurmenntun fyrir sĂ©rfrÊðinga og stjĂłrnendur. Jafnframt geta nemendur sem vantar tilskilinn undirbĂșning stundað nĂĄm Ă HĂĄskĂłlagrunni HR sem er Ă frumgreinadeild og að ĂŸvĂ loknu sĂłtt um grunnnĂĄm. Ă stefnu HR segir meðal annars að hlutverk HĂĄskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk sĂ© að skapa og miðla ĂŸekkingu til að auka samkeppnishĂŠfni og lĂfsgÊði fyrir einstaklinga og samfĂ©lag með siðgÊði, sjĂĄlfbĂŠrni og ĂĄbyrgð að leiðarljĂłsi. + +Saga +Saga HR hefst með stofnun TĂŠkniskĂłli Ăslands ĂĄrið 1964. Með tilvist hans var ĂŠtlað að brĂșa bilið milli iðnmenntunar og hĂĄskĂłlanĂĄms. TĂŠkniskĂłlinn var fĂŠrður ĂĄ hĂĄskĂłlastig ĂĄrið 2002 og tĂłk ĂŸĂĄ upp nafnið TĂŠknihĂĄskĂłli Ăslands. Ăann 4. mars ĂĄrið 2005 sameinuðust TĂŠknihĂĄskĂłli Ăslands og HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk undir nafni HĂĄskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk. HR hafði verið starfrĂŠktur frĂĄ 4. september ĂĄrið 1998 og var starfsemi hans byggð ĂĄ TölvuhĂĄskĂłla VerzlunarskĂłla Ăslands (TVĂ) sem stofnaður var Ă janĂșar 1988. HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk var settur Ă fyrsta sinn undir nafninu ViðskiptahĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk. TVĂ varð önnur tveggja deilda hins nĂœja hĂĄskĂłla. Ă janĂșar ĂĄrið 2000 var ĂĄkveðið að breyta nafni skĂłlans Ă HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk ĂŸar sem gamla nafnið ĂŸĂłtti ekki nĂłgu lĂœsandi fyrir starfsemi skĂłlans. + +Haustið 2001 hĂłfst MBA-nĂĄm við hĂĄskĂłlann Ă samvinnu við hĂĄskĂłla beggja vegna Atlantshafsins. Haustið 2002 var lagadeild stofnuð. Ărið 2005, við sameiningu TĂŠknihĂĄskĂłlans og HR voru fjĂłrar nĂĄmsdeildir við hĂĄskĂłlann; kennslufrÊði- og lĂœĂ°heilsudeild, tĂŠkni- og verkfrÊðideild, viðskiptadeild og lagadeild. Haustið 2007 var fimmta deildin við HR stofnuð; tölvunarfrÊðideild en tölvunarfrÊðin sem var ein af stofndeildum skĂłlans hafði ĂŸĂĄ um tveggja ĂĄra skeið verið innan tĂŠkni- og verkfrÊðideildar. Ărið 2010 var starfsemi skĂłlans flutt Ă hĂșsnÊði við Menntaveg 1 Ă NauthĂłlsvĂk. Starfsemi HR var ĂŸar með komin öll undir eitt ĂŸak. Ăað sama ĂĄr var deildum hĂĄskĂłlans fĂŠkkað Ășr fimm Ă fjĂłrar og var kennslufrÊði- og lĂœĂ°heilsudeild lögð niður. + +RannsĂłknir +Við HĂĄskĂłlann Ă ReykjavĂk er lögð ĂĄhersla ĂĄ að stunda alĂŸjóðlega viðurkenndar rannsĂłknir. Ărlega er gert Ătarlegt mat ĂĄ rannsĂłknarvirkni allra akademĂskra starfsmanna með rannsĂłknarskyldu við hĂĄskĂłlann af fjögurra manna nefnd erlendra sĂ©rfrÊðinga. Helstu viðmið Ă ĂŸessu ĂĄrlega mati eru birtingar ĂĄ ritrĂœndum vettvangi, önnur rannsĂłknarstörf svo sem leiðbeiningar rannsĂłknarnema, ĂŸĂĄtttaka Ă alĂŸjóðlegu rannsĂłknarstarfi og öflun rannsĂłknarfjĂĄr Ășr samkeppnissjóðum. Niðurstaða matsins er einnig lögð til grundvallar við skiptingu rannsĂłknarframlags rĂkisins ĂĄ milli deilda hĂĄskĂłlans. RannsĂłknarråð HR hefur yfirumsjĂłn og ber ĂĄbyrgð ĂĄ matinu en matið er mikilvĂŠgur ĂŸĂĄttur Ă gÊðaeftirliti rannsĂłkna við hĂĄskĂłlann. + +Kennsla +Ăhersla er lögð ĂĄ fjölbreyttar kennslu- og nĂĄmsmatsaðferðir, raunhĂŠf verkefni, virka ĂŸĂĄtttöku nemenda og tengsl nĂĄmsins við atvinnulĂf og samfĂ©lag. NĂĄminu Ă HR er ĂŠtlað að ĂŸjĂĄlfa nemendur Ă gagnrĂœnni hugsun og sjĂĄlfstÊðum vinnubrögðum. Kennslumat er lagt fyrir à öllum nĂĄmskeiðum tvisvar ĂĄ önn og ĂĄrlega fer fram frammistöðumat ĂŸeirra starfsmanna sem sinna kennslu. Við hĂĄskĂłlann starfar nĂĄmsråð sem skipað er fulltrĂșum allra deilda og forstöðumanni kennslusviðs. Råðið hefur m.a. ĂŸað hlutverk að mĂłta kennslustefnu og tryggja gÊði kennslu. Auk ĂŸess starfa nĂĄmsmatsnefndir Ă deildum sem mĂłta stefnu Ă samrĂŠmi við heildarstefnu skĂłlans. + +Ăhrif +Ă hverju ĂĄri stunda nĂșorðið um 3500 nemendur hĂĄskĂłlanĂĄm við HR ĂĄ grunn-, meistara- og doktorsstigi. + +HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk er Ă samstarfi við Ăslenska og erlenda hĂĄskĂłla og Ăœmsar opinberar stofnanir sem fĂĄst við menntun og rannsĂłknir. HĂĄskĂłlinn hefur ĂŸar að auki gert samstarfssamninga við fyrirtĂŠki og fĂ©lög sem styrkja enn frekar tengsl hĂĄskĂłlans við atvinnulĂfið. Ăetta samstarf styður við nĂœsköpun Ă menntun og rannsĂłknum. + +Ăar að auki ĂĄ HR Ă miklu og góðu samstarfi við grunnskĂłla og +framhaldsskĂłla með Ăœmsum verkefnum. Oft er með ĂŸeim leitast við að kynna ĂŸað lĂf og starf sem veggir HR hĂœsa og sĂœna ungmennum möguleikana sem hĂĄskĂłlanĂĄm opnar, oftar en ekki Ă tĂŠknigreinum. DĂŠmi um slĂk verkefni eru Hringekjan og Boxið - framkvĂŠmdakeppni framhaldsskĂłlanna. + +Nokkur âspin-outsâ-fyrirtĂŠki hafa verið stofnuð innan HR. Með ĂŸeim eru sköpuð verðmĂŠti Ășr ĂŸeirri ĂŸekkingu sem verður til við rannsĂłknir og verkefnavinnu innan hĂĄskĂłlasamfĂ©lagsins, til dĂŠmis með ĂŸvĂ að skapa hĂĄtĂŠknistörf. FyrirtĂŠkjunum er komið ĂĄ fĂłt af nemendum og starfsmönnum hĂĄskĂłlans með nauðsynlegum stuðningi HR. DĂŠmi um slĂk fyrirtĂŠki eru Skema, fyrirtĂŠki sem sĂ©rhĂŠfir sig Ă forritunarkennslu barna og kennara, og Videntifier Technologies sem ĂŸrĂłar leitarkerfi til að finna Ăłlöglegt myndefni. HR er jafnframt virkur ĂŸĂĄtttakandi Ă fjölbreyttri ĂŸrĂłun klasa og geira ĂĄ Ăslandi. DĂŠmi um slĂka klasa eru Ăslenski jarðvarmaklasinn, FerðaĂŸjĂłnustuklasinn og Samband Ăslenskra leikjaframleiðenda. + +Skipulag og stjĂłrnun +HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk er hlutafĂ©lag og eru hluthafar og eignarhluti ĂŸeirra eftirfarandi: SjĂĄlfseignarstofnun Viðskiptaråðs Ăslands um viðskiptamenntun 64%, Samtök iðnaðarins 24% og Samtök atvinnulĂfsins 12%. HĂĄskĂłlinn er rekinn sem sjĂĄlfseignarstofnun. Eigendur hafa ekki fjĂĄrhagslegan ĂĄvinning af rekstri hans og ekki er heimilt að greiða arð til hluthafa. HR er með ĂŸjĂłnustusamning við menntamĂĄlaråðuneytið sem m.a. kveður ĂĄ um að rĂkið greiði tiltekna upphÊð fyrir hvern nemanda Ă skĂłlanum. Jafnframt eru innheimt skĂłlagjöld af nemendum. + +Ăbyrgð ĂĄ rekstri HR er Ă höndum hĂĄskĂłlaråðs sem kjörið er að bakhjörlum hĂĄskĂłlans ĂĄ aðalfundi til eins ĂĄrs Ă senn. HĂĄskĂłlaråð skipar rektor HR sem kemur fram fyrir hönd hĂĄskĂłlans, annast daglegan rekstur hans og ber ĂĄbyrgð ĂĄ rekstrinum gagnvart hĂĄskĂłlaråði. Rektor rÊður forseta deilda, framkvĂŠmdastjĂłra og aðra starfsmenn sem undir hann heyra. Dr. Ari Kristinn JĂłnsson var rektor HĂĄskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk frĂĄ 2009 til ĂĄrsins 2021. Ărið 2021 var Ragnhildur HelgadĂłttir skipuð nĂœr rektor HĂĄskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk. + +Heimildir + +Tenglar + Vefur HR + +HĂĄskĂłlar ĂĄ Ăslandi +HlĂðar +Sveinn Björnsson (27. febrĂșar 1881 Ă Kaupmannahöfn Ă Danmörku â 25. janĂșar 1952) var fyrsti forseti Ăslands. Sem fyrsti forseti landsins gerði Sveinn talsvert til ĂŸess að mĂłta embĂŠttið. Kona hans var dönsk og hĂ©t GeorgĂa Björnsson (fĂŠdd Georgia Hoff-Hansen). Ăau ĂĄttu sex börn. Elsti sonur hans, Björn Sv. Björnsson, var mjög umdeildur eftir seinni heimsstyrjöldina vegna tengsla sinna við ĂŸĂœska nasistaflokkinn. + +ĂviĂĄgrip +Foreldrar Sveins voru Björn JĂłnsson (sem sĂðar varð råðherra Ăslands) og ElĂsabet SveinsdĂłttir. Sveinn var fĂŠddur ĂŸann 27. febrĂșar 1881 Ă Kaupmannahöfn. Sveinn lauk stĂșdentsprĂłfi ĂĄrið 1900, hann lauk prĂłfi Ă lögfrÊði frĂĄ KaupmannahafnarhĂĄskĂłla ĂĄrið 1907 og gerðist mĂĄlaflutningsmaður Ă ReykjavĂk. Hann var kjörinn ĂŸingmaður ReykvĂkinga 1914. Hann sat ĂĄ AlĂŸingi frĂĄ 1914 til 1915 fyrir SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokkinn eldri og frĂĄ 1919 til 1920 utan flokka. FrĂĄ 1912 til 1920 sat Sveinn jafnframt Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrn ReykjavĂkur og var forseti bĂŠjarstjĂłrnarinnar sĂðustu tvö ĂĄrin. Sveinn tĂłk ĂĄrið 1914 ĂŸĂĄtt Ă stofnun EimskipafĂ©lagsins og var forstjĂłri ĂŸess nĂŠstu sex ĂĄrin. Hann tĂłk einnig ĂŸĂĄtt Ă ĂŸvĂ að stofna BrunabĂłtafĂ©lag Ăslands, SjĂłvĂĄ og Rauða kross Ăslands. + +Ărið 1920 var Sveinn skipaður fyrsti sendiherra Ăslands, með aðsetur Ă Kaupmannahöfn. Sem sendiherra var Sveinn nokkurs konar Ăłformlegur viðskipta- og utanrĂkisråðherra landsins og vann bÊði sem viðskiptafulltrĂși og samningamaður fyrir Ăslands hönd Ă utanrĂkisviðskiptum. Sveinn var sendiherra Ăslands Ă Kaupmannahöfn nĂŠr Ăłslitið til ĂĄrsins 1941. + +RĂkisstjĂłri Ăslands (1941â1944) + +Ărið 1940 sneri Sveinn heim til Ăslands eftir að Ăjóðverjar hertĂłku Danmörku og brenndi öll skjöl Ăslenska sendiråðsins Ă Kaupmannahöfn åður en hann fĂłr. Ăegar heim var komið gerðist Sveinn Ă fyrstu råðgjafi stjĂłrnvalda Ă utanrĂkis- og öryggismĂĄlum. Ărið 1941 ĂĄkvað AlĂŸingi að skipa rĂkisstjĂłra til að fara með vald konungs Ăslands ĂŸar sem talið var að KristjĂĄn 10. vĂŠri ĂłfĂŠr um að gegna skyldum sĂnum sem ĂŸjóðhöfðingi landsins ĂĄ meðan Danmörk vĂŠri hertekin af Ăjóðverjum og Ăsland af bandamönnum. Sveinn varð fyrir valinu og var hann kjörinn rĂkisstjĂłri til eins ĂĄrs ĂŸann 17. jĂșnĂ ĂĄrið 1941. + +Sem rĂkisstjĂłri varð Sveinn umdeildur meðal sumra råðamanna ĂĄ Ăslandi, sem ĂŸĂłtti hann skipta sĂ©r um of af stjĂłrn landsins. Sveinn skipaði eigin utanĂŸingsstjĂłrn til ĂŸess að leysa Ășr stjĂłrnarkreppu ĂĄrið 1942 og sat hĂșn Ă tvö ĂĄr. Ăetta er Ă eina skiptið sem ĂŸjóðhöfðingi Ăslands hefur skipað utanĂŸingsstjĂłrn og lengi hefur sĂðan verið deilt um ĂŸað hvort forseti landsins hafi Ă reynd völd til ĂŸess að grĂpa til ĂŸessa råðs samkvĂŠmt strangri tĂșlkun ĂĄ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni. Sveinn hvatti auk ĂŸess til ĂŸess að Ăslendingar stigju hĂŠgt niður Ă sjĂĄlfstÊðismĂĄlum og biðu ĂŸess helst að Danmörk yrði frelsuð åður en sambandi yrði slitið. + +Forseti Ăslands (1944â1952) +Eftir að ĂĄkveðið var að stofna lĂœĂ°veldi ĂĄ Ăslandi kaus AlĂŸingi Svein fyrsta forseta Ăslands að Lögbergi ĂĄ Ăingvöllum 17. jĂșnĂ 1944 til eins ĂĄrs, með 30 atkvÊðum af 52 greiddum. Ăað að Sveinn hlaut ekki öll greidd atkvÊði var til marks um hve sumir stjĂłrnmĂĄlamenn landsins voru honum gramir fyrir framkomu hans Ă rĂkisstjĂłraembĂŠttinu. Ătlunin var að Sveinn sĂŠti aðeins Ă eitt ĂĄr sem forseti en að sĂðan skyldi boðað til almennra kosninga, en ĂŸar sem Sveinn fĂ©kk aldrei mĂłtframboð Ă embĂŠttið var Sveinn sjĂĄlfkjörinn ĂĄn atkvÊðagreiðslu frĂĄ 1945 og aftur frĂĄ 1949 til dauðadags. + +ForsetatĂð Sveins var stormasamt tĂmabil Ă Ăslenskum stjĂłrnmĂĄlum, ekki sĂst vegna deilna um aðild Ăslands að Atlantshafsbandalaginu. ĂlĂkt flestum eftirmönnum sĂnum hikaði Sveinn sjaldan við að skipta sĂ©r með beinum og Ăłbeinum hĂŠtti af stjĂłrnmĂĄlunum og lĂ©t Ăłspart Ă ljĂłs skoðanir sĂnar. Við setningu AlĂŸingis ĂŸann 14. nĂłvember ĂĄrið 1945 hĂłtaði Sveinn að skipa utanĂŸingsstjĂłrn ĂĄ nĂœ ef ĂŸingmönnum tĂŠkist ekki að mynda stjĂłrn innan mĂĄnaðar. Ărið 1950 synjaði Sveinn beiðni Ălafs Thors forsĂŠtisråðherra um ĂŸingrof. Ă seinni tĂð hefur verið deilt um hvort ĂŸessi ĂĄkvörðun Sveins setji fordĂŠmi fyrir ĂŸvĂ að forseti landsins megi neita að rjĂșfa ĂŸing ĂŸĂłtt forsĂŠtisråðherrann Ăłski ĂŸess. + +Sveinn fĂłr Ă nokkrar utanlandsferðir ĂĄ forsetatĂð sinni. Hann fĂłr aðeins Ă eina opinbera heimsĂłkn, til Franklins D. Roosevelt BandarĂkjaforseta stuttu eftir lĂœĂ°veldisstofnunina. Sveinn fĂ©kk góðar viðtökur og Ătrekaði kröfu Ăslendinga um að hernĂĄmslið BandarĂkjamanna hyrfi frĂĄ Ăslandi eftir strĂðið. + +Samband Sveins við KristjĂĄn 10. Danakonung var ĂŠtĂð stirt eftir stofnun lĂœĂ°veldisins. KristjĂĄn hĂ©lt ĂŸvĂ fram að Sveinn hefði lofað ĂŸvĂ að Ăsland myndi ekki slĂta sambandi við Danmörku ĂĄ meðan ĂĄ hernĂĄminu stÊði en ĂŸetta ĂŸvertĂłk Sveinn fyrir að hafa gert. ĂĂł taldist Sveinn vissulega til lögskilnaðarsinna og hefði heldur kosið að lĂœĂ°veldisstofnun vĂŠri frestað til strĂðsloka. Sveinn taldi ĂŸað hins vegar ekki valdsvið sitt sem rĂkisstjĂłra að setja fĂłt milli stafs og hurðar við råðagerðir stjĂłrnvalda Ă ĂŸessu mĂĄli. Ăetta meinta eiðrof stuðlaði að ĂŸvĂ að Sveinn fĂłr aldrei Ă opinbera heimsĂłkn til Danmerkur ĂĄ forsetatĂð sinni. + +Fleiri deilumĂĄl spilltu sambandi Sveins við Dani ĂĄ forsetatĂð hans. Sonur Sveins, Björn Sv. Björnsson, hafði gengið til liðs við SS-sveitir nasista Ă strĂðinu og hafði unnið fyrir ĂŸĂĄ bÊði innan og utan Danmerkur. Ă strĂðslok hafði Björn verið handtekinn, en Ăslensk stjĂłrnvöld höfðu (að ĂĄeggjan Sveins og GeorgĂu forsetafrĂșr) beitt ĂĄhrifum sĂnum til að fĂĄ hann leystan Ășr haldi og framseldan til Ăslands. Ăað að fyrrum nasisti gengi laus Ă innsta hring forsetans olli enn meiri kala milli Sveins og Danmerkur, og eitt sinn er sendiherra Dana sĂĄ Björn ĂĄlengdar er hann sĂłtti veislu ĂĄ Bessastöðum bauð honum svo við að hann gekk ĂĄ dyr. Sagt er að sonur og arftaki KristjĂĄns, Friðrik 9. Danakonungur, hafi eitt sinn lĂĄtið ĂŸau orð falla að allir Ăslendingar vĂŠru velkomnir Ă konungsgarð, ânema Sveinn Björnssonâ. SjĂĄlfur bannaði Sveinn syni sĂnum að tjĂĄ sig um reynslu sĂna Ă strĂðinu eða að svara spurningum blaðamanna. + +Hrakandi heilsa Sveins kom Ă veg fyrir að hann sĂŠkti jarðarför KristjĂĄns ĂĄrið 1947 og sĂŠkti heim hin Norðurlöndin. Hann er til ĂŸessa dags eini forseti Ăslands sem hefur lĂĄtist Ă embĂŠtti. + +TilvĂsanir + +Tengill + Handhafi forsetavalds; stutt klausa Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1965 + +Forsetar Ăslands + +Handhafar stĂłrkross Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorðu +Ăslendingar sem gengið hafa Ă KaupmannahafnarhĂĄskĂłla +Ăslenskir lögfrÊðingar +Ăslenskir sendiherrar +RĂkisstjĂłrar +StjĂłrnmĂĄlaleiðtogar Ă seinni heimsstyrjöldinni +LĂffĂŠrakerfi er Ă lĂffrÊði hĂłpur lĂffĂŠra sem eru samsett Ășr vef, lĂffĂŠri ĂŸessi hafa eitt eða fleiri hlutverk Ă lĂkama dĂœrsins. +JafnvĂŠgi getur vĂsað til nokkurra hluta: + + JafnvĂŠgisskyn + JafnvĂŠgi lĂfkerfa eða samvĂŠgi. +JafnvĂŠgisskyn er eitt af skynfĂŠrunum, ĂŸað gerir mönnum og dĂœrum mögulegt að halda jafnvĂŠgi. JafnvĂŠgisskynfĂŠrin Ă mönnum eru Ă innra eyra og eru Ă bogagöngunum, sem eru vökvafyllt og vaxin skynhĂĄrum að innan, sem skynja hreyfingu Ă vökvanum. + +Tengt efni + JafnvĂŠgi + +LĂffrÊði +Bein eru hluti beinagrindar hryggdĂœrs, sem myndar stoðkerfi lĂkamans. Bein eru gerð Ășr beinvef. Vöðvar tengjast beinum með sinum. + +Tegundir beina +FjĂłrar megintegundir eru löng, stutt, flöt og Ăłregluleg bein. + + Löng bein hafa meiri lengd en breidd og samanstanda af skafti (e. diaphysis) og breytilegum fjölda enda (e. epiphysis). Oftast er einhver sveigja ĂĄ löngum beinum. Löng bein eru Ă lĂŠrinu, fĂłtlegg, handlegg, upphandlegg, fingrum og tĂĄm. + Stutt bein eru nokkurs konar teningslaga og jöfn Ă lengd og breidd. Stutt bein eru til dĂŠmis Ă Ășlnliði og ökkla. + Flöt bein eru almennt ĂŸunn. Ăau veita töluverða vernd og eru með mikið yfirborð fyrir vöðvafestingar. DĂŠmi um flöt bein eru höfuðkĂșpubeinið, sem verndar heilann, bringubeinið og rifbein auk herðablaða. + Ăregluleg bein hafa flĂłkna lögun. Ăregluleg bein eru til dĂŠmis hryggjarliðir og nokkur andlitsbein. + +Gerð beins +Miðja beins nefnist skaft, (e. diaphysis), endar beins nefnast beinköst, (e. epiphysis), endafletir beins heita liðfletir en ĂŸeir eru brjĂłskklĂŠddir. +Allt beinið er ĂŸakið beinhimnu (e. periosteum), nema ĂĄ liðflötum, ĂŸar er ĂŸað ĂŸakið liðbrjĂłski (e. articular cartilage). Ă löngum beinum er merghol (e. medullary cavity)sem er ĂŸakið að innan ĂŸunnri himnu, mergholshimnu, (e. endosteum). Ă mergholinu er fituvefur sem nefnist guli beinmergurinn. ĂĂ©ttbein (e. compact bone) eru að mestu leyti utan til Ă beininu ĂŸar sem ĂŸarf sterkan vef en frauðbein (e. spongy bone) eru mestmegnis innan Ă beinendum og utan við mergholið. + +Beinvefur +Beinvefur er Ășr lifandi frumum og millifrumuefnis (matrix). Til eru fjĂłrar gerðir lifandi beinfrumna: + + Beinforfrumur (e. osteogenic cells) eru stofnfrumur sem taka mĂtĂłsuskiptingu og verða að beinkĂmfrumum. Beinforfrumur eru til dĂŠmis Ă beinhimnu. + BeinkĂmfrumur (e. oseoblasts) mynda beinvef utan um sig og verða imlyksa Ă lacunae beins. + Beinfrumur (e. oseocytes) sjĂĄ um daglegt starfsemi beina. + BeinĂĄtfrumur (e. osteoclasts) leysa upp bein við ĂŸroskun og viðgerðir. + +EndurnĂœjun beina +Beinin eru Ă stöðgri endurnĂœjun Ășt allt lĂfið, hraði endurnĂœjunarinnar fer eftir ĂĄlagi og öðrum kröfum sem eru gerðar til beinana. + +TvĂŠr gerðir frumna sjĂĄ um að byggja upp bein og brjĂłta ĂŸau niður, ĂŸað eru beinkĂmfrumur og beinĂĄtfrumur. Ăessar frumur vinna hlið við hlið að við ĂŸað að lagfĂŠra beinin Ă lĂkamanum. + +Myndun beina +Ăað ferli ĂŸegar bein myndast er kallað beingerð/beinmyndun (e. ossification). Beinmyndun ĂĄ sĂ©r stað aðallega af fjĂłrum ĂĄstÊðum. + Frummyndun beinanna Ă fĂłsturvĂsi. + Vöxtur beinanna Ă bernsku og unglingsĂĄrum ĂŸar til fullri stĂŠrð hefur verið nåð. + EndurmĂłtun beinanna. Ă.e. gamall beinvefur leystur af fyrir nĂœjan. + Endurlögun byggingar. + +TvĂŠr mismunandi beinmyndanir eru innanhimnu beingerð (e. intramembranous ossification) og innanbrjĂłsks beingerð (e. endochondral ossification). + +Vöxtur beina +Allt til unglingsĂĄranna vaxa beinin bÊði að lengd og ĂŸykkt. Lengd beina tengist starfsemi vaxtarlagsins. Vaxtarlagið (e. epiphyseal growth plate) er ĂĄ milli beinendans og skaftsins. Ă vaxtarlaginu eru brjĂłskfrumur sem eru stanslaust að skipta sĂ©r. Ăegar bein vex Ă lengd myndast nĂœjar brjĂłskfrumur Ă vaxtarlaginu beinenda megin ĂĄ meðan bein myndast skaft megin, og skaftið lengist. Ăegar unglingsĂĄrin taka enda minnkar myndun nĂœrra fruma og millifrumu matrix og hefur endanlega stoppað Ă kringum 18-25 ĂĄra. ĂĂĄ hefur bein tekið við af öllu brjĂłski vaxtarlagsins. + +Endurbygging beina +Bein eru stanslaust að endurbyggjast. Endurbyggingin stafar af stanslausri skiptingu gamals beinvefs fyrir nĂœjan. Ăetta er ferli sem inniheldur ĂŸað að beinĂĄtfrumur hreinsa steinefni og kollagenĂŸrÊði frĂĄ beininu og nĂœjum steinefnum og kollagenĂŸråðum er komið fyrir með beinkĂmfrumum. Endurbygging sĂ©r einnig um að gera við meidd bein. + +Eyðing beina +BeinĂĄtfrumur eru stĂłrar frumur, sem ferðast um og vella leysihvötum, sem melta beinið. + +Heimildir + Introduction to the Human Body, the essentials of anatomy and physiology. +LĂkami er Ă lĂfeðlisfrÊði efnisheild lĂfveru. + +ByggingaĂŸrep +LĂkamanum er skipt Ă byggingarĂŸrep til að fĂłlk eigi auðveldara með að ĂĄtta sig ĂĄ heildarmyndinni. ByggingarĂŸrepin eru ĂŸessi, frĂĄ hinu flĂłkna til hins einfalda: + + LĂfvera + LĂffĂŠrakerfi + LĂffĂŠri + Vefur + Fruma + FrumulĂffĂŠri + Efni + Sameind + Frumeind + +Tengt efni + MannslĂkaminn + +LĂkami +LĂfeðlisfrÊði +Beinagrind mannsins er hluti stoðkerfis mannslĂkamans gegnir eftirfarandi hlutverkum: + + HĂșn heldur lĂkamanum upprĂ©ttum + HĂșn styður við vefi og lĂffĂŠri + HĂșn verndar lĂfsnauðsynleg lĂffĂŠri + Bein hennar flytja til vöðvakrafta + Rauði beinmergur beinanna framleiðir blóðfrumur + Beinin eru forðabĂșr fyrir kalk- og fosföt. + +Flokkun +Mannbeinagrindinni er gjarnan skipt Ă tvo flokka beina: + Möndulhluta, sem er höfuðkĂșpa, hryggsĂșla, rifbein og bringubein + Viðhengishluta, en honum tilheyra efri og neðri Ăștlimir, axlagrindur og mjaðmagrind, að undanskildu spjaldbeininu. + +Stutt yfirlit yfir ĂŸau bein sem eru ĂĄ myndinni til hliðar: + +Tengt efni + Listi yfir bein Ă beinagrind mannsins + +Beinagrind +Leggur getur ĂĄtt við: + Stilk + + Ă lĂffĂŠrafrÊði + FĂłtlegg + Bein + + Ă stĂŠrðfrÊði + Legg Ă netafrÊði +HöfuðkĂșpan (hauskĂșpa eða haus(s)kella) (latĂna: cranium af grĂska: orðinu ÎșÏαΜÎčÎżÎœ) er ĂŸyrping beina efst ĂĄ hryggsĂșlunni, sem hefur að geyma heilann, augun og efsta hluta mĂŠnunnar. HauskĂșpa manns er Ășr 22 beinum af Ăœmsum stĂŠrðum og gerðum, auk tungubeins, tanna og ĂŸriggja beina Ă miðeyra hvoru megin. Hlutar höfuðkĂșpurnar eru tengdir saman með (tenntum) beinsaumum. + +HöfuðkĂșpunni er skipt Ă tvennt: kĂșpubein, sem umlykja heilann og andlitsbein. + +Yfirlit yfir bein höfuðkĂșpunnar sem eru ĂĄ myndunum til hliðar: + +Beinagrind +âVefurâ getur lĂka ĂĄtt við veraldarvefinn. +Vefur er hĂłpur af nĂĄtengdum frumum sem sĂ©rhĂŠfa sig til að gegna ĂĄkveðnum hlutverkum. + +Vefjum er skipt Ă nokkra flokka, ĂŸeir eru helstir: + + Bandvefi + Taugavefi + Vöðvavefi + Ăekjuvefi + +LĂffĂŠrafrÊði +NĂșllið var almenningssalerni Ă miðborg ReykjavĂkur. Kallað nĂșllið fyrst og fremst vegna staðsetningar sinnar neðst Ă BankastrĂŠtinu, neðan við fyrstu nĂșmeruðu lóðirnar. NĂș er ĂŸar Pönksafn Ăslands. + +ReykjavĂk +Beinvefur er harður og steinefnarĂkur stoðvefur, gerður Ășr bandvefsĂŸråðum og steinefnum, einkum kristölluðum kalsĂumfosfatsöltum, en einnig natrĂum-, kalĂum-, klĂłr- og flĂșorsöltum. + +Beinvefjum er gjarnan skipt Ă tvennt: + + Frauðbein + ĂĂ©ttbein + +Beinhimna umlykur allan beinvef en hĂșn er Ășr bandvef. HĂșn aðstoðar beinin við að grĂła með nĂŠringartilfĂŠrslu. Endar beina sem mĂŠta öðrum beinum er brjĂłsk. + +Stoðvefir +ĂĂ©ttbein er, eins og nafnið bendir til, ĂŸĂ©tt, en lĂka hart. ĂĂ©ttbeinið er bĂșið til Ășr örlitlum samfelldum spĂłlum sem nefnast beinflögur, osteocytes. Innan ĂŸessara beinflagna eru beinfrumurnar, hinar ĂŸroskuðu frumur beinvefjarins, og liggja ĂŸar à örholum sem nefnast lĂłn. LĂłnunum er raðað Ă samlĂŠga hringi utan um hverja beinflögu. + +ĂĂ©ttbeinið er að mestu utan til Ă beininu ĂŸar sem sterkan vef ĂŸarf. + +Bein +Fjalakötturinn var fyrsta kvikmyndahĂșsið ĂĄ Ăslandi og var Ă sama sal og BreiðfjörðsleikhĂșsið, AðalstrĂŠti 8, ReykjavĂk. Ăar var tekið að sĂœna kvikmyndir 2. nĂłvember 1906 og tĂłk salurinn 300 manns Ă sĂŠti. KvikmyndasĂœningum lauk Ă Fjalakettinum 1926 og ĂŸar ĂĄ eftir var salurinn notaður til allavega fundarhalda. Til dĂŠmis voru ĂŸar uppboð (aksjĂłn), stĂșkufundir góðtemplara og t.d. stjĂłrnmĂĄlafundir kommĂșnistaflokksins um 1932. + +Saga ReykjavĂkur Biograftheater +HĂșs Valgarðs Ă. Breiðfjörðs, sem sĂðan var kallað Fjalakötturinn ĂŸegar hĂșsið var farið að lĂĄta ĂĄ sjĂĄ, var einnig nefnt ReykjavĂkur Biograftheater, eða einfaldlega BĂĂł Ă daglegu tali ĂŸegar enn fĂłru fram kvikmyndasĂœningar Ă hĂșsinu. KvikmyndahĂșsið var til hĂșsa við AðalstrĂŠti 8, við hlið nĂșverandi Morgunblaðshallar. Gengið var inn Ă kvikmyndasalinn (og leikhĂșsið) frĂĄ Bröttugötu Ă GrjĂłtaĂŸorpinu, en verslun Breiðfjörðs sneri Ășt að AðalstrĂŠtinu. + +Fjalakötturinn var ekki lengi eina kvikmyndahĂșsið ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸvĂ ĂĄrið 1912 tĂłk NĂœja bĂĂł til starfa. Við ĂŸað varð ReykjavĂkur Biograftheater að Gamla bĂĂłi Ă hugum bĂŠjarbĂșa ĂŸĂł ĂŸað hefði vart slitið barnsskĂłnum. Gamla bĂĂł flutti svo ĂĄ ĂŸriðja ĂĄratugnum upp ĂĄ IngĂłlfsstrĂŠti ĂŸar sem kvikmyndasĂœningum var fram haldið ĂŸar til 1980. Ăslenska Ăłperan var ĂŸar frĂĄ 1980 til 2011 ĂŸegar hĂșn flutti Ă Hörpuna. + +Saga hĂșssins +Indriði Guðmundsson sem vann við verslun Breiðfjörðs Ă AðalstrĂŠti 8 segir svo frĂĄ starfsemi Ă hĂșsinu: âĂg vann við afgreiðslu Ă nĂœlenduvörubĂșðinni, en hĂșn var ĂŸar sem verið hefur SkĂłbĂșð ReykjavĂkur. DömubĂșð var ĂŸar sem nĂș er veitingastofa, og rak GuðrĂșn JĂłnasson, sĂðar bĂŠjarfulltrĂși, ĂŸĂĄ bĂșð um skeið. Bak við verzlunina var pakkhĂșs og ĂŸar var sekkjavaran geymd og afgreidd. Undir pakkhĂșsinu var kjallari og ĂŸar voru vĂnföng. Ăar var vĂnið tappað af ĂĄnum og ĂŸar var Rabbecks-AllĂ©-ölið geymt. Eins og kunnugt er, er hĂșsið geysistĂłrt. Ăað var kallað âFjalakötturinn",en ekki man Ă©g nĂș af hverju sĂș nafngift kom. Ăetta er mjög frĂŠgt hĂșs Ă sögu ReykjavĂkur. Ăar fĂłru fram leiksĂœningar og ĂŸar hĂłf LeikfĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur starfsemi sĂna, og ĂŸarna var og veitingasalur ĂĄ ĂŸriðju hÊð. Allt var hĂșsið notað fyrir verzlunina, leikstarfsemina og veitingasöluna, nema hvað fjölskylda Breiðfjörðs hafði og bĂșstað Ă ĂŸvĂ ĂĄ annarri hÊð. Einnig bjĂł starfsfĂłlk og vinnufĂłlk Breiðfjörðs. Seinna eignaðist JĂłhann prĂłki, bróðir Sig. JĂșl. JĂłhannessonar skĂĄlds og lĂŠknis, hĂșsið." + +Niðurrif +ĂrĂĄtt fyrir að ĂŸarna hafi verið rekið sögufrĂŠgt leikhĂșs og sĂðar kvikmyndahĂșs, sem sagt var elsta uppistandandi kvikmyndahĂșs Ă heimi var Fjalakötturinn rifinn ĂĄrið 1985. NĂș stendur hĂșs Tryggingamiðstöðvarinnar ĂĄ sömu lóð. Ăkvörðunin um niðurrif hĂșssins var mjög umdeild og um hana stóð töluverður styr. + +Ă HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands ĂĄ ĂĄttunda ĂĄratug 20. aldar tĂłk kvikmyndaklĂșbburinn Fjalakötturinn sĂ©r nafn eftir hinum sögufrĂŠga kvikmyndasal. Nafnið var lĂka notað ĂĄ dagskrĂĄrlið frĂĄ fyrstu ĂĄrum Stöðvar 2 ĂŸar sem sĂœndar voru sĂgildar kvikmyndir ĂĄ laugardögum. + +Ărið 2005 var opnaður veitingastaður með nafninu Fjalakötturinn Ă nĂœju hĂłteli Hotel Reykjavik Centrum en ĂŸað var teiknað með ĂŸað fyrir augum að ĂŸað liti Ășt eins og ĂŸau ĂŸrjĂș hĂșs sem åður stóðu við AðalstrĂŠti, og sĂĄ hluti byggingarinnar sem veitingastaðurinn er Ă er teiknaður eftir Fjalakettinum (ĂŸ.e.a.s. BreiðfjörðshĂșsi). + +Heimildir + Björn Ingi Hrafnsson, LjĂłsin slökkt og filman rĂșllar + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + Fjalakötturinn; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1969 + HĂĄkonsenshĂșs (Fjaðrafok); grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1961 + LeikhĂșs W.Ă. Breiðfjörðs; grein Ă ReykvĂkingi 1896 + Hvern varðar um varðveislu Fjalarkattarins?; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1983 + AðalstrĂŠti 8; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1984 + Fjalakötturinn rifinn; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1985 + Hvað merkir Fjalaköttur; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1984 + Greinagerð borgarminjavarðar um Fjalaköttinn; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1984 + +KvikmyndahĂșs ĂĄ Ăslandi +Horfnar byggingar Ă ReykjavĂk +Miðborg ReykjavĂkur +Frauðbeinið er innan Ă beinendum og utan við mergholið. Ăað er gljĂșpt og myndar bjĂĄlka. Ă holrĂșmum ĂŸeirra myndast rauði beinmergurinn. DĂŠmi um frauðbein eru t.d. höfuðbein, hryggjarliður, rifbein og fleiri. + +Bein +Frumur eru smĂŠstu, lifandi byggingareiningar lĂfvera, ĂŸ.e.a.s. allar lĂfverur eru gerðar Ășr frumum. Til eru lĂfverur sem eru einungis ein fruma og nefnast ĂŸĂŠr einfrumungar en að öðrum kosti fjölfrumungar. Frumum er almennt skipt Ă dĂœrafrumur og plöntufrumur. ĂĂŠr geta verið sĂ©rhĂŠfðar, t.d. taugafrumur og veffrumur. + +Frumur eru mjög misstĂłrar, sumar sjĂĄanlegar með berum augun, jafnvel mjög stĂłrar, ĂŸĂł alger undantekning, og hafa mismunandi lögun og ĂĄĂŠtlað er að mannslĂkaminn sĂ© um 30 milljĂłn milljĂłn frumur (og um 200 mismunandi tegundir). StĂŠrð og lögun frumna er talin styðja við ĂŸrĂłunarkenningu Darwins; varðandi uppruna mannsins og annars lĂfs ĂĄ jörðunni. + +Aðeins um 43% of frumum Ă mannslĂkamanum eru mannafrumur. Ărverumengi mannsins (e. microbiome) samanstendur s.s. að mestu leiti af öðrum frumum, ĂŸ.e. gerlum (bakterĂum), um, sveppagróðri og fyrnum (e. archaea) sem samanlagt eru nokkuð fleiri, en ĂŸĂł aðeins 0,3% af lĂkamsĂŸyngdinni, svo 99,7% af lĂkamsĂŸyngdinni eru samt mannafrumur. + +Samsetning +Um 60â70% frumna er vatn (miðað við rĂșmmĂĄl, en meira en 99% af sameindum Ă lĂkamanum eru vatn, ĂŸvĂ vatnssameindin er svo Ăłvenju smĂĄ sameind). Um 1% eru ĂłlĂfrĂŠnar jĂłnir m.a. kalĂum, natrĂum, magnesĂum og kalsĂum. Afgangurinn er Ăœmsar lĂfrĂŠnar sameindir m.a. lĂpĂð, kolvetni, prĂłtĂn og kjarnsĂœrur. + +FrumulĂffĂŠri +FrumulĂffĂŠri eru Ăœmsar sĂ©rhĂŠfðar starfseiningar frumunnar sem sinna ĂłlĂkum hlutverkum og eru ĂŸau nokkur talsins (sjĂĄ mynd): + +Ă hverri frumu er einn eða fleiri kjarnar sem innihelda litninga. Frumur eru nefndar heilkjörnungar ef ĂŸĂŠr hafa skĂœrt afmarkaðan kjarna með kjarnahimnu en ella eru ĂŸeir nefndir dreifkjörnungar. Ă kjörnum eru kjarnakorn sem mynda RNA við frumuskiptingu. + + Umfrymi nefnist vökvi sem ĂŸekur rĂœmið milli frumulĂffĂŠranna. Umfrymið stjĂłrnar umferð efna innan frumunnar ĂĄ milli frumulĂffĂŠranna og Ă gegnum frumuhimnuna. Um umfrymið hrĂslast frymisnet sem getur annað hvort verið slĂ©tt eða kornĂłtt eftir tegund frumunnar. + + RĂbĂłsĂłm (netkorn eða rĂplur) er gerð Ășr rRNA og prĂłtĂnum. Hlutverk ĂŸeirra er að mynda prĂłtĂn eftir forskrift mRNA, annað hvort til neyslu innan frumunnar eða til Ăștflutnings. + + Golgikerfi (golgiflĂ©tta eða frymisflĂ©tta) eru klasar sekkja, seytibĂłla, efna sem fruman ĂŠtlar til Ăștflutnings t.d. ĂĄ mjölva, fitu eða Ășrgangsefnum. Golgikerfi geta einnig verið sekkir leysikorna sem sundra ĂłnothĂŠfum frumulĂffĂŠrum. + + SafabĂłlur eru oftast nĂŠr litlar Ă dĂœrafrumum en stĂłrar Ă plöntufrumum. + + Hvatberar eru prĂłtin stönglar sem nĂŠra frumukjarni með nĂŠringu til að framleiða DNA. + + GrĂŠnukorn eru Ă plöntufrumum og eru nauðsynleg forsenda ljĂłstillĂfunar. + + ĂrpĂplur og örĂŸråðlingar eru hluti af stoðkerfi frumunnar. Ăau mynda lögun hennar og taka ĂŸĂĄtt Ă myndum bifhĂĄra og svipa. + +Ă dĂœra- og plöntufrumum er valgegndrĂŠp frumuhimna, ĂŸ.e.a.s. hĂșn âvelurâ hvaða efni ferðast Ă gegn. Frumuhimnan er aðallega gerð Ășr fituefni sem nefnist fosfĂłlĂpĂð, og prĂłtĂnum. + +Frumuveggur er ysta verndarlag plöntufrumna gert Ășr beðma og pektĂni. Eins og nafnið gefur til kynna er ĂŸað eins konar styrktarlag frumunnar og liggur hann utan við frumuhimnuna Ă plöntufrumum. + +StĂŠrð +Frumur eru misstĂłrar og hafa mismunandi lögun og ĂĄĂŠtlað að mannslĂkaminn sĂ© um 30 milljĂłn milljĂłn frumur (og um 200 mismunandi tegundir), 80% af ĂŸeim rauð blóðkorn, hvert mjög smĂĄtt. Kynfrumurnar eru bÊði minnstu og stĂŠrstu frumurnar, ĂŸ.e. eggfrumur kvenna eru stĂŠrstar (og geta sĂ©st með berum augum) og sÊðisfrumur karla minnstar (og einstakar sjĂĄst aðeins Ă smĂĄsjĂĄ, lĂkt og ĂĄ við um flestar frumur). Ăegar ĂŸĂŠr sameinast verður til stĂŠrri okfruma, sem sĂðan fer að skipta sĂ©r. Lengstu frumar lĂkamans er mjög Ălangar (en t.d. eggfrumur eru um ĂŸað bil kĂșlulaga), ĂŸ.e. margar taugafrumur (og vöðvafrumur) og sĂș lengsta (sciatic nerve) nĂŠr frĂĄ mĂŠnunni niður Ă stĂłru tĂĄ, er allt upp Ă meter að lengd en aðeins fĂĄir mĂkrĂłmetrar að breidd. Ă gĂraffa (og manninum og öðrum hryggdĂœrum) er taug (recurrent laryngeal nerve) sem fer niður allan hĂĄlsinn og svo upp aftur Ă barkakĂœlið; yfir 4 metrar að lengd ĂŸvĂ hĂĄlsinn er um 2,3 metrar, sem hefur verið talin sönnun ĂŸrĂłun, ĂŸ.e. að allt dĂœrarĂkið ĂĄ landi hafi ekki verið hannað heldur hafi ĂŸrĂłast frĂĄ fiskum (eða ĂŸĂĄ ĂĄkv. dĂœr sĂ©staklega illa hönnuð, ĂŸvĂ ĂŸessi taug ĂŸyrfti ekki að vera lengri en örfĂĄir sentimetrar hefði ĂŸrĂłunin ekki smĂĄ lent hana; gĂŠti lĂka verið styttri Ă mönnum). Plöntufrumur eru almennt minni en dĂœrafrumur og sĂș lengsta 5,5 cm. + +ĂĂŠr taugafrumur sem mest er af eru cerebellar granule frumur, sem eru 3/4 of öllum taugafrumum Ă manninum, og um 50 milljarðar að tölu. Ăll spendĂœr eru með dorsal root ganglion frumu sem eru taugar, og hefur mjög langan taugasĂma. Hvalurinn steypireyður sem er stĂŠrsta dĂœr sem nokkurn tĂman hefur lifað ĂĄ jörðinni, og með lengstu frumuna sem er sĂș taug. + +Ă lĂkamanum eru um 38 milljĂłn milljĂłn gerlar (bakterĂur), ĂŸĂŠr frumur eru litlu fleiri en okkar eigin frumur (og við myndum ekki lifa ĂĄn ĂŸeirra, åður var talið að ĂŸĂŠr vĂŠrum um 10 sinnum fleiri en okkar eigin). ĂĂł svo gerlar sĂ©u fleiri eru ĂŸeir ekki nema um 0,3% af lĂkamsĂŸyngdinni eða um 0,2 kg fyrir karlmenn. ĂĂł langflestar okkar frumur sĂ©u rauð blóðkorn, eru ĂŸau bara lĂtið brot af ĂŸyngd, og vöðvafrumaur algengastar hĂĄtt Ă helmingur af lĂkamsĂŸyngd. + +Með minnstu frumum, ef ekki minnstu, eru mycoplasma gallisepticum sem eru ĂĄn frumuveggs, sem er ekki venjan fyrir gerla eða aðrar frumur. VĂrusar eru minni, en eru hvorki taldir, af flestum lĂffrÊðingum, vera lifandi, nĂ© eru frumur. Ăeir hins vegar fara inn Ă frumur og yfirtaka, og Ă ĂĄkv. skilningi verða ĂŸannig lifandi ĂŸegar ĂŸað gerist. + +StĂŠrsti (ĂŸyngsti) einfrumungurinn er Valonia ventricosa (ĂŸekktur sem kĂșlu ĂŸĂ¶rungur eða sjĂłmannsauga), 1 til 4 cm að stĂŠrð, jafnvel upp Ă 5,1 cm, svo alltaf sjĂĄanlegur með berum augum sem er mjög sjaldgĂŠft með einfrumunga eða frumur almennt. StĂŠrsti (lengd/flatarmĂĄl) einfrumungurinn er botnĂŸĂ¶rurinn Caulerpa taxifolia sem er 20â60 cm langur og er ĂĄ lista yfir 100 verstu ĂĄgengu tegundundirnar, einn af tveimur ĂŸĂ¶rungum ĂŸar, nefndur drĂĄpsĂŸĂ¶rungurinn. StĂŠrsta fruma (Ă dĂœrarĂkinu, af nĂșlifandi dĂœrum) er strĂștsegg, yfir 16 cm Ă ĂŸvermĂĄl og jafnvel yfir 2.5 kg (risaeðluegg hafa fundist stĂŠrri, t.d. 45,0 cm Ă ĂŸvermĂĄl). + +Tengt efni + byggingarĂŸrep lĂkamans + +Tenglar + NĂĄmsvefur Ă frumulĂffrÊði fyrir grunnskĂłla + +VĂsindavefurinn + +Heimildir + +Frumur +KĂșpubeinin (frÊðiheiti: ossa cranii) eru ĂŸau bein höfuðkĂșpunnar, sem hvelfast um heilann og mynda heilakĂșpu (frÊðiheiti: cranium). Ănnur bein höfuðkĂșpunnar nefnast andlitsbein. + +Bein +Mannsheili er heili mannsins, samsettur Ășr fjölmörgum taugaĂŸråðum og myndar ĂĄsamt mĂŠnu miðtaugakerfið. Heilinn vegur um 1.4 kg (um 2% af lĂkamsmassa). ĂrĂĄtt fyrir lĂtinn massa tekur hann til sĂn um 20% af ĂŸvĂ blóði sem hjartað dĂŠlir frĂĄ sĂ©r. + +LĂfeðlisfrÊði +Heilinn ĂŸarf stöðugt flÊði sĂșrefnis og glĂșkĂłsa til að framleiða ATP og ĂŸar með halda virkni sinni. GlĂșkĂłsi er fluttur með virkum flutningi yfir blóðheilahemilinn, en sĂșrefni með Ăłvirkum. Heilafrumur geta, undir venjulegum kringumstÊðum, bara nĂœtt sĂ©r glĂșkĂłsa sem orku. SĂ© heilinn sveltur af glĂșkĂłsa geta heilafrumur nĂœtt ketĂłnkorn sem myndast við niðurbrot fitu sem orkulind. + +Skortur ĂĄ sĂșrefni eða glĂșkĂłsa Ă heila getur valdið varanlegum frumudauða. Miðað er við að manneskja geti verið sĂșrefnislaus Ă ĂŸrjĂĄr til fjĂłrar mĂnĂștur ĂĄn ĂŸess að hljĂłta af varanlegan heilaskaða. + +SvÊði heilans +Mörg svÊði og undirsvÊði mynda heildina sem heilinn er. + +Heilastofn + +Heilastofn er Ă augnhÊð og samanstendur af ĂŸremur undirsvÊðum: + +MĂŠnukylfa +MĂŠnukylfan eða medulla oblongata, er neðsti hluti heilastofnsins og gengur mĂŠnan neðan Ășr mĂŠnukylfunni. + +Ăað er mĂŠnukylfan sem ber âĂĄbyrgðâ ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að vinstri hluti heilans stjĂłrnar hĂŠgri hluta lĂkamans og hĂŠgri hluti heilans stjĂłrnar vinstri hluta lĂkamans, vegna ĂŸess að ĂŸað er Ă mĂŠnukylfunni sem ĂĄkveðnar boðbrautir vĂxlast. + +Ă mĂŠnukylfunni eru lĂka lĂfsnauðsynlegar heilastöðvar; heilastöð sem stjĂłrnar hjartslĂŠtti, ÊðastjĂłrnstöð sem stillir blĂłĂ°ĂŸrĂœsting og svo öndunarstöð sem stjĂłrnar öndun. Einnig eru heilastöðvar sem stĂœra Ăœmsum viðbrögðum eins og uppköstum, hnerra, hĂłsta og kyngingu. + +BrĂș +BrĂș, pons, tengir saman Ăœmsa hluta heilans. Auk ĂŸess ĂĄ ein öndunarstöð aðsetur Ă brĂșnni. + +Ăað sem er einna merkilegast við ĂŸetta svÊði er ĂŸað að hĂ©r vĂxlast taugabrautir; allar innboðstaugar sem koma frĂĄ hĂŠgri hlið lĂkamans og bera heilanum skynĂĄreiti vĂxlast Ă brĂșnni og liggja yfir til vinstra heilahvelsins og öfugt. + +Miðheili +Ă miðheila, mesencephalon, eru sjĂłnviðbragsstöðvar fyrir höfuð og hreyfingar augna og svo er lĂka skiptistöð fyrir upplĂœsingar tengdar heyrn. Framhluti miðheila er samansettur af tveimur pedunculus cerebri. Ă ĂŸeim eru taugasĂmar hreyfitaugunga sem leiða taugaboð frĂĄ hjarna til mĂŠnu, mĂŠnukylfu, brĂșar annars vegar og hins vegar skyntaugunga sem nĂĄ frĂĄ mĂŠnukylfu til stĂșku. Ă miðheila er substantia nigra, en Parkison-sjĂșkdĂłmurinn felur Ă sĂ©r hrörnun ĂŸeirra. Ăar eru einnig hĂŠgri og vinstri nucleus ruber, ĂŸar ĂĄ sĂ©r stað samhĂŠfing vöðvahreyfinga litlaheila og hjarna. Ă miðheila er einnig að finna kjarna tengda heilataugum III og IV. ĂĂĄ er að finna kjarnana colliculus superius og colliculus inferior ĂĄ bakhluta miðheila. Um hina tvo c. sup. ganga margir viðbragðsbogar tengdir hreyfingum augna, höfuðs og hĂĄls. Hinir tveir c. inf. eru hluti af heyrnarbrautinni en ĂŸeir senda ĂĄfram boð frĂĄ viðtökum Ă eyra til stĂșku. Einnig eru ĂŸeir viðbragðsbogar fyrir að hrökkva við, ĂŸ.e. skyndihreyfingar höfuðs og lĂkama sem ĂĄ sĂ©r stað ĂŸegar manni bregður við hĂĄtt hljóð. + +Milliheili + +Milliheili, diencephalon, skiptist Ă ĂŸrjĂș svÊði; stĂșku, undirstĂșku og heilaköngul. + +StĂșkan +StĂșkan, thalamus sĂ©r um að tengja ĂĄnĂŠgju eða óånĂŠgju við skynjunarboð frĂĄ taugum, endurvarpa taugaboðum frĂĄ nokkrum skynfĂŠrum til stĂłra heila og gegnir mikilvĂŠgu hlutverki varðandi svefn og vöku. + +UndirstĂșkan + +UndirstĂșkan, hypothalamus, hefur fjölmörg hlutverk, meðal annars: + HĂșn stillir lĂkamshitann + Matarlystar- og mettunarstöðvar Ă henni stilla ĂĄtĂŸĂ¶rf. + HĂșn tekur ĂŸĂĄtt Ă viðhaldi vökvajafnvĂŠgis og ĂŸar er ĂŸorstastöðin staðsett. + HĂșn hefur ĂĄhrif ĂĄ kynhegðun og geðshrĂŠringar. + Miðstöðvar Ă henni meta hvort atburðir eru ĂĄnĂŠgjulegir eða sĂĄrsaukafullir. + HĂșn tengir saman taugakerfi og innkirtla og hĂșn er lĂka mikilvĂŠgur tengiliður milli hugar og lĂkamsstarfsemi. + HĂșn viðheldur jafnvĂŠgi Ă lĂkamanum. + +Heilaköngull +Heilaköngullinn (e. pineal gland, lat. epiphysis) telst til innkirtlakerfisins. + +Heilahnykill (Litli heili) + +Heilahnykill (litli heili), cerebellum, er nĂŠststĂŠrsti hluti heilans + +Hlutverk heilahnykilsins eru: + Gera vöðvahreyfingar lĂkamans mjĂșkar + Stuðla að vöðvaspennu og ĂŸar að leiðandi rĂ©ttstöðu lĂkamans + Vinna Ășr upplĂœsingum sem berast frĂĄ lĂffĂŠrum jafnvĂŠgisstöðunnar Ă inneyra og nota ĂŸĂŠr til að halda jafnvĂŠgi. + +Hvelaheili (StĂłri heili) + +Hvelaheili eða stĂłri heili (e. cerebrum) er stĂŠrsti hluti heilans og geymir miðstöð Êðri hugsunar, gĂĄfnafars, rökhugsunar, minnis, tungutaks og vitundar. Ă honum fer fram Ășrvinnsla meðvitaðrar skynjunar og stjĂłrnun hreyfinga. Ăökk sĂ© hvelaheila hefur maðurinn eiginleika sem aðrar lĂfverur stĂĄta ekki af; siðferðiskennd, ljóðagerð, listsköpun hvers konar og hĂŠfileika til að uppgötva nĂœja hluti. + +Ysta lag hvelaheilans nefnist einnig heilabörkur og er myndað Ășr grĂĄum taugavef (l. substantia grisea). Vefurinn er grĂĄr ĂŸvĂ ekkert einangrandi mĂœelĂnslĂður umlykur taugafrumurnar, ĂŸvert ĂĄ ĂŸað sem gerist innan við börkinn og kallast hvĂtan (l. substantia alba) en mĂœelĂn sem umlykur taugaĂŸrÊðia gerir taugavefinn hvĂtleitari. HvĂta taugavefnum mĂĄ lĂkja við hraðbrautir sem ganga milli undirsvÊða heilans. + +Ăað er einmitt ĂŸessi hjarnabörkur sem greinir taugakerfi mannsins frĂĄ skyldum lĂfverum og gefur okkur suma af ĂŸeim eiginleikum sem voru nefndir hĂ©r að ofan. + +Hlutverk hvelaheilans er ĂŸrĂĂŸĂŠtt: + Skynjun + Hreyfing + Tenging + +Skipting hvelaheila: + +Heilabörkur (cerebral cortex) +Heilabörkurinn er ysta lag grĂĄnuefnisins sem umlykur heilann. Maðurinn hefur hlutfallslega stĂŠrstan heilabörk allra dĂœra. Taugabrautir Ă heilaberki gegna mikilvĂŠgu hlutverki Ă Ăœmiss konar hugarferlum og hreyfistjĂłrn. + +Heilabotnskjarnar (basal ganglia) +Heilabotnskjarnar, einnig kallaðir grunnlĂŠg heilahnoð, gegna mikilvĂŠgu hlutverki Ă stjĂłrnun hreyfinga. Ăeir eru ĂŸrĂr: + +Bleikhnöttur (globus pallidus) +RĂłfukjarni (caudate nucleus) +Skel (putamen) + +Randkerfi (limbic system) +Randkerfið, eða limbĂska kerfið, sĂ©r um Ăœmsa ĂŸĂŠtti tilfinninga og minnis. ĂĂŠr heilastöðvar sem tilheyra randkerfinu eru: +Dreki (hippocampus) +Fornix +Randbörkur (limbic cortex) +Mandla (amygdala) +StĂșka (thalamus, aðeins hlutar hennar tilheyra ĂŸĂł randkerfinu) +UndirstĂșka (hypothalamus, aðeins hlutar hennar tilheyra ĂŸĂł randkerfinu) + +Ăhrif umhverfisins ĂĄ heilann + +Tilraunir hafa leitt Ă ljĂłs að reynsla getur valdið breytingum Ă heila, bÊði efnafrÊðilegum og lĂkamlegum. Ămislegt er ĂŸĂł ĂłljĂłst Ă ĂŸessum efnum. + +RannsĂłknir sem beinast að ĂŸvĂ að kanna tengsl heila og umhverfis gefa til kynna að ĂĄreiti snemma ĂĄ ĂŠviferlinum sĂ© mjög afgerandi fyrir taugar, hreyfingar og gĂĄfnaĂŸroska barna. + +Tenglar + Við höfum 10 milljarða staðreynda Ă höfðinu; grein Ă HeimilistĂmanum 1975 + +SĂĄlfrÊði +Miðtaugakerfið + +de:Gehirn#Das menschliche Gehirn +ta:àźźàź©àźżàź€ àźźàŻàźłàŻ +MĂŠnan er Ă lĂffĂŠrafrÊði annar hluti miðtaugakerfis hryggdĂœra, hĂșn er umlukin og vernduð af hryggsĂșlunni en hĂșn fer Ă gegnum hrygggöngin. HĂșn tilheyrir miðtaugakerfinu ĂŸvĂ Ă mĂŠnu er unnið Ășr taugaboðum og andsvar taugakerfisins rÊðst gjarnan af samspili heila og mĂŠnu. Ămis viðbrögð lĂkamans fara aðeins um mĂŠnutaugar eða mĂŠnu og nefnast ĂŸvĂ mĂŠnuviðbrögð (t.d. ef maður brennir sig). + +Miðtaugakerfið +HryggsĂșlan +Miðtaugakerfi er annar hluti taugakerfisins, myndað af heila og mĂŠnu. Hinn hluti taugakerfisins er Ășttaugakerfið. + +Miðtaugakerfið gegnir ĂŸvĂ hlutverki að vera stjĂłrnstöð fyrir alla starfsemi lĂkamans. Ăað vinnur Ășr ĂŸvĂ ĂĄreiti sem berast ĂŸvĂ Ă gegnum Ășttaugakerfið, ĂŸ.e. skynfĂŠrum lĂkamans og ĂĄkveður viðbrögð við ĂŸeim. SvÊði heilans eru mörg og gegna mismunandi hlutverkum. + +Miðtaugakerfið +Andlitsbeinin (frÊðiheiti: ossa faciale) eru ĂŸau 14 bein höfuðkĂșpnnar, sem flest er tengd með Ăłhreyfanlegum liðamĂłtum, sem nefnast beinsaumar og eru við fÊðingu ekki að fullu samvaxnir. Beinin, sem hvelfast um heilann, nefnast kĂșpubein. + +Bein + +de:SchĂ€del#Die Knochen des SchĂ€dels +Frumeind eða atĂłm er smĂŠsta aðgreinanlega eining frumefnis, sem jafnframt hefur efnafrÊðilega eiginleika ĂŸess til að bera. Frumeind er ĂŸannig grundvallareining efna og helst Ăłbreytt Ă efnahvörfum. + +Hver frumeind er Ășr ĂŸremur gerðum einda: + nifteindum sem ekki hafa hleðslu + rafeindum sem eru neikvĂŠtt hlaðnar + rĂłteindum sem eru jĂĄkvĂŠtt hlaðnar + +Eiginleikar +Eiginleikar frumeinda eru aðallega ĂĄkvarðaðir Ășt frĂĄ kjarna og rafeindaskĂœi ĂŸeirra, ĂŸar mĂĄ nefna massa, hleðslu, kjarnakraft, geislun, seguleiginleika og ĂĄstand ĂŸeirra. + +Frumeind mĂĄ einnig skipta Ă tvo hluta: kjarna og rafeindasvigrĂșm. RafeindasvigrĂșmið hĂœsir allar rafeindir frumeindarinnar og mynda rafeindirnar skĂœ um kjarnann. Kjarninn er Ășr rĂłteindum og nifteindum. Frumeind er sögð vera Ăłhlaðin ef fjöldi rĂłteinda og rafeinda er jafn. Annars kallast hĂșn jĂłn, og hefur jĂĄkvÊða rafhleðslu ef rĂłteindir eru fleiri en rafeindirnar, annars neikvÊða hleðslu. ĂĂłtt Ăłmögulegt sĂ© að ĂĄkvarða samtĂmis bÊði hraða og staðsetningu einstakra rafeinda með nĂĄkvĂŠmni, mĂĄ skipta rafeindaskĂœinu upp Ă hvolf eftir orkustigi rafeindanna. Hvolfin samsvara ĂŸĂĄ fjarlĂŠgð frĂĄ kjarnanum, ĂŸar sem hĂŠrra orkustig merkir meiri fjarlĂŠgð frĂĄ kjarnanum. Rafeindirnar leitast við að fylla orkulĂŠgri hvolfin, en hvert hvolf getur aðeins rĂșmað ĂĄkveðinn fjölda skv. reglunni 2n2 ĂŸar sem n er raðtala hvolfsins talið frĂĄ kjarna. Rafeindir sem sitja yst Ă tiltekinni frumeind nefnast gildisrafeindir og hafa mest ĂĄhrif ĂĄ efnafrÊðilega hegðun hennar. ĂĂŠr gegna lykilhlutverki Ă að binda frumeindir saman og mynda ĂŸannig sameindir. Efnishlutur sem eingöngu er Ășr einni tegund frumeinda kallast frumefni. + +SĂŠtistala frumefna rÊðst af fjölda rĂłteinda. Frumeindir sem hafa sömu sĂŠtistölu geta haft ĂłlĂkan fjölda nifteinda, ĂŸessar eindir eru kallaðar samsĂŠtur. DĂŠmi um ĂŸĂŠr eru til dĂŠmis: + 1H og 2H, hafa sĂŠtistöluna 1 + 12C og 13C, hafa sĂŠtistöluna 6 + +Kjarni +Hvert atĂłm hefur kjarna sem er Ășr kjarneindunum rĂłteind og nifteind. Ăessum eindum heldur sterki kjarnakrafturinn saman. RadĂus kjarnans er u.ĂŸ.b. fm, ĂŸar sem A er fjöldi kjarneinda Ă kjarnanum. Ăessi stĂŠrð er mun minni en heildarradĂus atĂłmsins sem er ĂĄ stĂŠrðargråðunni 105 fm. Kjarninn er ĂŸvĂ aðeins brotabrot af heildarstĂŠrð atĂłmsins, en nĂŠstum allur massi ĂŸess bundinn Ă honum. Massi rafeindanna er mun minni er massi kjarnans og yfirleitt ekki tekinn með Ă Ăștreikningum sem varða atĂłmið Ă heild. + +Kjarneindirnar eru fermĂeindir og ĂŸvĂ gildir einsetulögmĂĄl Paulis um ĂŸĂŠr. Ăað ĂŸĂœĂ°ir að hver rĂłteind er með sitt eigið skammtaĂĄstand og deilir ĂŸvĂ ĂĄstandi ekki með annarri rĂłteind. Sama gildir um nifteindirnar en ĂŸar sem ĂŸessar tvĂŠr kjarneindir hafa mismunandi hleðslu ĂŸĂĄ gildir einsetulögmĂĄlið ekki ĂĄ milli ĂŸeirra. + +Fjöldi rĂłteinda ĂĄkvarðar sĂŠtistölu atĂłmsins og ĂŸar með stöðu atĂłmsins innan lotukerfisins. Hvert atĂłm getur haft mismunandi samsĂŠtur ĂŸar sem fjöldi nifteinda getur verið mismunandi en fjöldi kjarneinda ĂĄkveða kjarnagerðina. + +RafeindasvigrĂșm + +Umhverfis kjarnann eru rafeindir. Ăessar rafeindir skiptast niður Ă svokölluð rafeindasvigrĂșm og sjĂĄ mĂĄ fyrstu fimm svigrĂșmin ĂĄ mynd hĂ©r til hliðar. RafeindasvigrĂșmin hafa ĂĄkveðið rĂșmmĂĄl, sem eru håð skammtafrÊðilegum eiginleikum rafeindanna og er ĂŸĂŠr að finna innan ĂŸessa rĂșmmĂĄls, en nĂĄkvĂŠmlega hvar innan ĂŸess er Ăłmögulegt að ĂĄkveða með tilraunum eða Ăștreikningum (sjĂĄ ĂłvissulögmĂĄl Heisenbergs). Aðeins er hĂŠgt, með skammtafrÊðilegum Ăștreikningum, að reikna lĂkindi ĂĄ staðsetningu og hraðavigur rafeindarinnar. RafeindasvigrĂșmin eru kyrrstÊð m.t.t. kjarna frumeindarinnar. + +Saga +GrĂskir heimspekingar komu fyrstir fram með ĂŸĂĄ kenningu að allt efni vĂŠri gert Ășr Ăłdeilanlegum eindum og nefndu ĂŸeir ĂŸessar eindir atomos. Ăað orð er sett saman Ășr a, sem er neitandi forskeyti og tomos, skurður, sem sagt eitthvað sem ekki er hĂŠgt að skera eða deila og lĂœsti ĂŸetta hugmynd ĂŸeirra um eðli ĂŸessara einda (atomos=Ăłdeili). DemĂłkrĂtos frĂĄ Abderu er sĂ©rstaklega bendlaður við ĂŸessa kenningu. HĂ©r ber að undirstrika að ĂŸessar fyrstu hugmyndir um Ăłdeilanlegar frumeindir eru Ă mikilsverðu tilliti frĂĄbrugðnar hugmyndum nĂștĂmamanna. GrĂsku frumeindasinnarnir hugsuðu sĂ©r að frumeindirnar vĂŠru Ă raun allar Ășr sama efninu en að ĂŸĂŠr skiptust Ă Ăłendanlegan fjölda tilbrigða eftir stĂŠrð og lögun, ĂŸar sem eindir af hverju tilbrigði/tegund ĂĄttu að vera eilĂfar og Ăłbreytanlegar. StĂŠrð (ĂŸĂł alltaf örlĂtil) og lögun eindanna ĂĄtti að ĂĄkvarða efnafrÊðilega eiginleika ĂŸeirra. Ăetta ĂĄttu að vera grunneiningar alls hversdagslegs efnis, sem yfirleitt er hrĂŠrigrautur einda af mismunandi gerðum. ĂĂł fyrirfinnast efnishlutir sem eingöngu eru Ășr eindum af tiltekinni gerð. Ăetta ĂĄtti t.d. að gilda um vatn, loft og eld. Ăannig var hĂŠgt að tala um frumefni, ĂŸ.e.a.s efni sem aðeins vĂŠri Ășr eindum af tiltekinni gerð. En ĂŸað er m.a. ĂŸetta atriði sem tengir ĂŸessi fornaldarfrÊði við nĂștĂmahugmyndir um frumeindir. + + +Spurningin um tilvist frumeinda/Ăłdeila var mjög umdeild allt frĂĄ fornöld og fram ĂĄ seinni hluta 19. aldar. Spurningin var alltaf nĂĄtengd efnafrÊði og snerist um ĂŸað hvort frumefni vĂŠru til og ĂŸĂĄ hvort tiltekið frumefni vĂŠri Ășr Ăłdeilanlegum frumeindum. SmĂĄm saman tĂłkst ĂŸĂł að renna stoðum undir kenninguna um tilvist frumefna, t.d. með uppgötvun fosfĂłrs ĂĄ 17. öld og sĂðar sĂșrefnis ĂĄ 18. öld. Ărið 1808 setti John Dalton sĂðan fram ĂŸĂĄ kenningu að frumefni vĂŠru samsett af einni gerð frumeinda, sem lĂkt og frumeindir DemokrĂtosar vĂŠru Ăłbreytanlegar Ă lögun og byggingu. Ănnur efnasambönd mĂŠtti sĂðan fĂĄ fram með ĂŸvĂ að blanda ĂłlĂkum frumefnum saman. Um miðja 19. öld vann rĂșssneski efnafrÊðingurinn Mendelejev að ĂŸvĂ að bĂșa til töflu eða kerfi frumefna sem byggðist ĂĄ upplĂœsingum um atĂłmmassa frumefna, en ĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma höfðu menn ekki hugmynd um innri gerð atĂłma. Ăetta kerfi kallast lotukerfi. + +Af ĂŸessu mĂĄ ljĂłst vera að ĂŸað var helsta skilgreiningaratriði frumeinda/atĂłma að ĂŸĂŠr vĂŠru ĂłkljĂșfanlegar, sbr. nafnið atomos. Ăað er ĂŸvĂ dĂĄlĂtið kaldhÊðnislegt að ĂŸĂŠr tilraunir og uppgötvanir sem loks leiddu til ĂŸess að frumeindakenningin var tekin Ă sĂĄtt, sĂœndu beinlĂnis að frumeindirnar voru kljĂșfanlegar. Með uppgötvun rafeindarinnar undir lok 19. aldar fĂłru menn að velta ĂŸvĂ fyrir sĂ©r hvort fleiri eindir vĂŠru Ă atĂłminu og voru ĂŸað einna helst uppgötvanir J. J. Thomson, Henri Becquerel og Ernest Rutherford sem ruddu brautina Ă ĂŸeim efnum. Ărið 1896 uppgötvaði Becquerel geislavirkni og ĂĄri sĂðar uppgötvaði Thomson rafeindina. Rutherford tilkynnti svo um uppgötvun kjarnans ĂĄrið 1911. Allan ĂŸennan gerjunartĂma veltu menn ĂŸvĂ fyrir sĂ©r hvernig frumeindir vĂŠru uppbyggðar og hvernig ĂŸĂŠr viðhĂ©ldu stöðugleika. Loks tĂłkst Niels Bohr, ĂĄrið 1913, að setja fram lĂkan af vetnisfrumeindinni, sem skapaði grundvöll fyrir ĂĄframhaldandi starf og skilning ĂĄ byggingu frumeinda. Ekki nåðust myndir af atĂłmum fyrr en með tilkomu rafeindasmĂĄsjĂĄrinnar ĂĄ 20. öld. + +Heimild + + +EðlisfrÊði +EfnafrÊði +AtĂłmfrÊði +Ă efnafrÊði er sameind (sjaldnar mĂłlekĂșl) skilgreind sem nĂŠgjanlega stöðugur rafhlutlaus hĂłpur tveggja eða fleiri frumeinda með fasta rĂșmfrÊðilega skipan sem sterk efnatengi halda saman. Hana mĂĄ einnig skilgreina sem einingu tveggja eða fleiri atĂłma sem deilitengi halda saman. Sameindir greinast frĂĄ fjölatĂłma jĂłnum Ă ĂŸessum stranga skilningi. Ă lĂfrĂŠnni efnafrÊði og lĂfefnafrÊði er merking hugtaksins sameind vĂðari og nĂŠr einnig til hlaðinna lĂfrĂŠnna sameinda og lĂfsameinda. + +Ăessi skilgreining hefur ĂŸrĂłast með vaxandi ĂŸekkingu ĂĄ byggingu sameinda. Fyrri skilgreiningar voru ĂłnĂĄkvĂŠmari og skilgreindu sameindir sem minnstu eindir hreinna kemĂskra efna sem enn hefðu samsetningu og efnafrÊðilega eiginleika ĂŸeirra. Ăessi skilgreining reynist oft ĂłtĂŠk ĂŸvĂ mörg algeng efni, svo sem steindir, sölt og mĂĄlmar eru Ășr atĂłmum eða jĂłnum sem ekki mynda sameindir. + +Ă kvikfrÊði lofttegunda er hugtakið sameind oft notað um hvaða ögn ĂĄ loftformi sem er, Ăłhåð samsetningu. SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸvĂ vĂŠri minnsta eind eðallofttegunda talin sameind ĂŸĂłtt hĂșn sĂ© aðeins Ășr einu Ăłtengdu atĂłmi. + +Sameind getur verið Ășr atĂłmum sama frumefnis, eins og ĂĄ við um sĂșrefni (O2), eða ĂłlĂkum frumefnum, eins og ĂĄ við um vatn (H2O). AtĂłm og flĂłkar sem tengjast með Ăł-jafngildum tengjum svo sem vetnistengjum eða jĂłnatengjum eru venjulega ekki talin stakar sameindir. + +Ekki er hĂŠgt að skilgreina dĂŠmigerðar sameindir fyrir jĂłnĂsk sölt og deilitengis-kristalla sem eru samsettir Ășr endurteknu mynstri einingarsella, annaðhvort Ă fleti (eins og Ă grafĂti) eða ĂŸrĂvĂðu (eins og Ă demanti eða natrĂnklĂłrĂði). Ăetta ĂĄ einnig við um flest ĂŸĂ©ttefni með mĂĄlmtengjum. + +SameindafrÊði + +Ăau vĂsindi sem fjalla um sameindir nefnast sameindaefnafrÊði eða sameindaeðlisfrÊði eftir ĂĄherslunni. SameindaefnafrÊði fjallar um lögmĂĄlin sem stĂœra vĂxlverkun milli sameinda sem leiða til ĂŸess að efnatengi komast ĂĄ og rofna, en sameindaeðlisfrÊði fjallar um lögmĂĄlin sem stĂœra byggingu ĂŸeirra og eiginleikum. Ă reynd er ĂŸessi aðgreining ĂłljĂłs. Ă sameindavĂsindum jafngildir sameind stöðugu kerfi (bundnu ĂĄstandi) Ășr tveimur eða fleiri atĂłmum. Stundum er gagnlegt að hugsa um fjölatĂłmajĂłnir sem rafhlaðnar sameindir. Hugtakið Ăłstöðug sameind er notað um mjög hvarfgjarnar sameindir, ĂŸ.e. skammlĂfar samstÊður (hermueindir) rafeinda og kjarna, svo sem sindurefni, sameindajĂłnir, Rydbergsameindir, fĂŠrsluĂĄstönd, van der Waals efnasambönd eða kerfi Ășr atĂłmum sem rekast saman eins og Ă Bose-Einstein-döggum. + +Saga + +RenĂ© Descartes varpaði fyrstur fram hugtakinu molĂ©cule sem merkir "örsmĂĄ ögn" ĂĄ 3. ĂĄratugi 17. aldar. ĂĂł margir efnafrÊðingar hafi viðurkennt tilvist sameinda sĂðan snemma ĂĄ 19. öld vegna lögmĂĄls Daltons um ĂĄkveðin og margföld hlutföll (1803-1808) og lögmĂĄls Avogadrosar (1811), gĂŠtti mĂłtstöðu af hĂĄlfu pĂłsitĂvista og eðlisfrÊðinga svo sem Machs, Boltzmanns, Maxwells og Gibbs, sem litu ĂĄ sameindir einfaldlega sem hentugar stĂŠrðfrÊðilegar hugarsmĂðar. Með framlagi Perrins um brownĂska hreyfingu (1911) er lokasönnunin fyrir tilvist sameinda talin hafa komið fram. + +StĂŠrð sameinda +Flestar sameindir eru langtum minni en svo að séðar verði berum augum, en ĂŸĂł ekki allar. Minnsta sameindin er tvĂatĂłma vetni, H2 en lengd hennar er hĂ©r um bil tvöföld tengilengdin sem er 74 pm. Sameindir sem eru byggingareiningar lĂfrĂŠnna efnasmĂða hafa lengd frĂĄ nokkrum tugum pm til nokkurra hundraða pm. Greina mĂĄ litlar sameindir og jafnvel ĂștlĂnur einstakra atĂłma með rafeindasmĂĄsjĂĄ. StĂŠrstu sameindir nefnast risasameindir og ofursameindir. DeoxĂœrĂbĂłsakjarnsĂœra, sem er risasameind, getur orðið stĂłrsĂŠ, sem og sameindir margra fjölliða. + +Virkur sameindarradĂi endurspeglar ĂŸĂĄ stĂŠrð sem sameind virðist hafa Ă lausn. + +SameindarformĂșla + +EfnaformĂșla efnasambands er einfaldasta heiltöluhlutfall frumefnanna sem ĂŸað er gert Ășr. Til dĂŠmis er vatn ĂĄvallt sett saman Ășr vetni og sĂșrefni Ă hlutföllunum 2:1. EtĂœlalkĂłhĂłl eða etanĂłl er ĂĄvallt sett saman Ășr kolefni, vetni og sĂșrefni Ă hlutföllunum 2:6:1. Ăetta ĂĄkvarðar gerð sameindar en er ĂŸĂł ekki einhlĂtt. Til dĂŠmis hefur dĂmetĂœleter sömu hlutföll og etanĂłl. Sameindir með sömu atĂłm Ă mismunandi uppröðunum nefnast raðbrigði. + +SameindarformĂșla sameindar lĂœsir nĂĄkvĂŠmum fjölda ĂŸeirra atĂłma sem sameindin er sett saman Ășr og auðkennir ĂŸar með raðbrigðin. + +EfnaformĂșlan er oft hin sama og sameindarformĂșlan en ekki alltaf. Til dĂŠmis hefur sameindin etĂœn sameindarformĂșluna C2H2 en einfaldasta heiltöluhlutfall frumefnanna er CH. + +MĂłlmassa efnis mĂĄ reikna Ășt frĂĄ efnaformĂșlunni og setja fram Ă hefðbundnum atĂłmmassaeiningum. Ă kristöllum er hugtakið formĂșlueining notað Ă stĂłkĂĂłmetrĂskum reikningum. + +SameindarĂșmfrÊði + +Sameindir hafa fasta jafnvĂŠgis-rĂșmskipan â tengilengdir og -horn â sem ĂŸĂŠr sveiflast stöðugt um með titrings- og snĂșningshreyfingu. Hreint efni er Ășr sameindum með sömu meðaltals-rĂșmfrÊðilega byggingu. EfnaformĂșlan og bygging sameindarinnar eru hinir tveir mikilvĂŠgu ĂŸĂŠttir sem ĂĄkvarða eiginleika ĂŸess, einkum hvarfgirnina. Raðbrigði deila sömu efnaformĂșlu en hafa yfirleitt mjög ĂłlĂka eiginleika vegna ĂłlĂkrar byggingar. Formbrigði, tiltekin tegund raðbrigða, geta haft mjög ĂĄĂŸekka eðlis-efnafrÊðilega eiginleika en um leið mjög ĂłlĂka lĂfefnafrÊðilega virkni. + +SameindalitrĂłfsgreining + +SameindalitrĂłfsgreining fĂŠst við viðbragð (litrĂłf) sameinda sem vĂxlverka við könnunarmerki af ĂŸekktri orku (eða tĂðni samkvĂŠmt formĂșlu Plancks.) TvĂstrunarfrÊði er frÊðilegur bakgrunnur litrĂłfsgreiningar. + +Könnunarmerkið sem notað er Ă litrĂłfsgreiningu getur verið rafsegulbylgja eða öreindageisli (rafeinda, jĂĄeinda o.s.frv.) Viðbragð sameindarinnar kann að felast Ă gleypingu merkis (gleypnilitrĂłfsgreining), Ăștgeislun annars merkis (ĂștgeislunarlitrĂłfsgreining), sundrun eða efnafrÊðilegum breytingum. + +LitrĂłfsgreining er viðurkennd sem öflugt verkfĂŠri við rannsĂłknir ĂĄ smĂĄsĂŠjum eiginleikum sameinda, einkum orkustigum ĂŸeirra. Til að öðlast sem mestar smĂĄsĂŠjar upplĂœsingar Ășr tilraunaniðurstöðum er litrĂłfsgreining oft tengd saman við efnafrÊðilega Ăștreikninga. + +FrÊðilegar hliðar + +Skoðun sameinda ĂștfrĂĄ sameindaeðlisfrÊði og kennilegri efnafrÊði byggist að verulegu leyti ĂĄ skammtafrÊði, sem liggur til grundvallar skilningi ĂĄ efnatenginu. Einfaldasta sameindin er vetnis-sameindar-jĂłnin H2+ og einfaldasta efnatengið af öllum er einnar-rafeindar-tengið. H2+ er sett saman Ășr tveimur jĂĄkvĂŠtt hlöðnum rĂłteindum og einni neikvĂŠtt hlaðinni rafeind sem bindast saman með ĂŸvĂ að skiptast ĂĄ ljĂłseindum, sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir að auðveldara er að leysa Schrödingerjöfnu kerfisins vegna fjarveru frĂĄhrindikrafta milli tveggja rafeinda. Eftir tilkomu hraðvirkra tölva hafa nĂĄlgunarlausnir fyrir flĂłknari sameindir orðið mögulegar og eru ĂŸĂŠr eitt helzta viðfangsefni reiknilegrar efnafrÊði. + +Ăegar reynt er að skilgreina nĂĄkvĂŠmlega hvort tiltekin skipan atĂłma sĂ© "nĂłgu stöðug" til að lĂta megi ĂĄ hana sem sameind, segir IUPAC að hĂșn "verði að samsvara lĂŠgð ĂĄ mĂŠttisorkuyfirborðinu sem er nĂłgu djĂșp til að fanga a.m.k. eitt titringsĂĄstand". Ăessi skilgreining er aðeins håð styrk vĂxlverkunarinnar milli atĂłmanna, ekki eðli hennar. Raunar telur hĂșn með veikt tengdar samstÊður sem yfirleitt vĂŠri ekki litið ĂĄ sem sameindir, svo sem helĂn-tvĂliðuna He2, sem hefur aðeins eitt bundið titrings-ĂĄstand og er svo laustengt að hennar verður sennilega aðeins vart við mjög lĂĄgan hita. + +Heimildir + +EfnafrÊði +EðlisfrÊði +EfnafrÊðihugtök +FrumulĂffĂŠri eru starfseiningar frumunnar. Ăað eru frumulĂffĂŠrin sem Ă raun gera allt ĂŸað sem frumunni er ĂŠtlað að gera. + +Helstu frumulĂffĂŠrin eru ĂŸessi: + + BifhĂĄr + BĂłlur og korn + Deilikorn + Frumuhimna + Frumuveggur + Frymisgrind + Frymisinnskot + Frymisnet + SlĂ©tt frymisnet + HrjĂșft frymisnet + GolgiflĂ©ttur + GrĂŠnukorn + HimnubĂłlur + Hvatberar + LeysibĂłlur + Netkorn +Svipur + Kjarni + Kjarnakorn + ĂrpĂplur + ĂrĂŸråðlingar + +Frumur +Sesambein er bein sem liggur Ă sin eða einhvers konar mjĂșkvef og myndar ekki liði með öðrum beinum. HnĂ©skel er dĂŠmi um sesambein. + +Bein +MannslĂkaminn samanstendur Ă stĂłrum drĂĄttum af höfði, hĂĄlsi, bĂșk, tveimur fĂłtleggjum og tveimur handleggjum. Ă fullorðinsĂĄrum eru Ă lĂkamanum um 10 trilljĂłnir (1012) frumna, sem eru smĂŠstu byggingareiningar mannslĂkamans. HĂłpar frumna liggja saman og mynda vefi, sem samlagast og mynda lĂffĂŠri, sem aftur vinna saman og mynda lĂffĂŠrakerfi. + +Ă vestrĂŠnum iðnrĂkjum er meðalhÊð fullorðinna karla um 1,7 til 1,8 metrar og fullorðinna kvenna 1,6 til 1,7 metrar. HÊð einstaklingsins rÊðst af erfðavĂsum og matarÊði. Ăað eru um 206 bein Ă fullsköpuðum mannslĂkama. Fjöldi beina er ekki alltaf sĂĄ sami, til dĂŠmis hafa ekki allir jafn marga rĂłfuliði. + +MannslĂkaminn samanstendur af nokkrum kerfum: + + Hjarta- og Êðakerfið + Innkirtlakerfið + Meltingarkerfið + ĂnĂŠmiskerfið + SogÊðakerfið + Stoðkerfið + Taugakerfið + Vöðvakerfið + Ăndunarkerfið + Ăxlunarkerfið + Ăekjukerfið + Ăvagkerfið + +LĂffĂŠrafrÊði mannsins +LĂkami +16. mars er 75. dagur ĂĄrsins (76. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 290 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 597 f.Kr. - BabĂœlonĂumenn hertĂłku JerĂșsalem. + 1190 - GyðingaofsĂłknir ĂĄttu sĂ©r stað Ă York ĂĄ Englandi. 150-500 gyðingar voru drepnir. + 1315 - Bein Guðmundar góða voru tekin upp og Gvendardagur gerður messudagur ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1322 - JĂĄtvarður 2. Englandskonungur bĂŠldi niður uppreisn aðalsmanna Ă orrustunni við Boroughbridge. + 1337 - Svarti prinsinn, JĂĄtvarður sonur JĂĄtvarðar 3. Englandskonungs, var krĂœndur hertogi af Cornwall. + 1521 - Ferdinand Magellan kom til Filippseyja. + 1608 - JesĂșĂtar fengu leyfi til að stofna trĂșboðsstöðvar Ă ParagvĂŠ. + 1621 - IndĂĂĄninn Samoset kom Ă tjaldbĂșðirnar Ă Plymouth-nĂœlendunni og heilsaði fĂłlkinu ĂĄ ensku, ĂŸvĂ til mikillar furðu. + 1657 - Miklir jarðskjĂĄlftar riðu yfir Suðurland og fĂ©llu hĂșs vĂða, en mest Ă FljĂłtshlĂð. + 1660 - Langa ĂŸingið var leyst upp Ă Englandi. + 1769 - Franski landkönnuðurinn Louis Antoine de Bougainville lauk ĂŸriggja ĂĄra hnattsiglingu. Ă föruneyti hans var Jeanne BarĂ©, fyrsta konan sem vitað er til að hafi siglt umhverfis hnöttinn. + 1792 - GĂșstaf 3. SvĂakonungur var sĂŠrður til ĂłlĂfis ĂĄ grĂmuballi Ă Ăłperunni. Hann dĂł ĂŸann 29. mars. + 1813 - PrĂșssar lĂœstu yfir strĂði ĂĄ hendur NapĂłleoni keisara Frakka. + 1815 - VilhjĂĄlmur 1. varð konungur Hollands. + 1852 - TĂłlf menn drukknuðu ĂŸegar skipi hvolfdi Ă Höfnum. + 1867 - Joseph Lister birti grein Ă The Lancet ĂŸar sem Ă fyrsta sinn er lĂœst skurðaðgerðum við dauðhreinsaðar aðstÊður. + 1910 - PĂłstskipið s.s. Laura, eign Sameinaða danska gufuskipafĂ©lagsins strandaði ĂĄ Skagaströnd hjĂĄ Finnstaðanesi. + 1935 - Adolf Hitler fyrirskipaði vĂgvÊðingu ĂŸĂœska rĂkisins Ă trĂĄssi við VersalasĂĄttmĂĄlann. + 1942 - Fyrsta V-2-flugskeytinu var skotið Ă tilraunaskyni Ă ĂĂœskalandi. Ăað sprakk Ă flugtaki. + 1968 - Fjöldamorðin Ă My Lai Ă VĂetnam: BandarĂskir hermenn drĂĄpu hvert mannsbarn Ă heilu ĂŸorpi ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir að ĂŸar vĂŠru engir karlmenn ĂĄ herskyldualdri. + 1976 - Harold Wilson sagði af sĂ©r embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands. + 1978 - Rauðu herdeildirnar rĂŠndu Aldo Moro Ă RĂłm. Hann fannst sĂðar myrtur Ă farangursgeymslu fĂłlksbifreiðar. + 1978 - OlĂuskipið Amoco Cadiz steytti ĂĄ skerjum Ă Ermarsundi og brotnaði Ă tvennt með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að Ășr varð eitt alvarlegasta umhverfisslys sögunnar. + 1979 - StrĂði KĂna og VĂetnam lauk með ĂŸvĂ að KĂnverjar drĂłgu herlið sitt frĂĄ VĂetnam. + 1980 - FjĂłrða hrina Kröfluelda hĂłfst. Ăetta gos var kallað skrautgos ĂŸar sem ĂŸað stóð stutt en ĂŸĂłtti fallegt. + 1982 - Claus von BĂŒlow var dĂŠmdur fyrir tilraun til að myrða eiginkonu sĂna Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1983 - ReykjavĂkurborg keypti stĂłrt land Ă Viðey af Ălafi Stephensen og ĂĄtti ĂŸĂĄ nĂĄnast alla eyjuna, nema Viðeyjarstofu og Viðeyjarkirkju sem var Ă eigu rĂkisins til 1986. + 1984 - Yfirmanni CIA Ă BeirĂșt, William Francis Buckley, var rĂŠnt af Samtökunum heilagt strĂð. + 1988 - GasĂĄrĂĄs var gerð ĂĄ Ăraska bĂŠinn Halabja, ĂŸar sem aðallega bjuggu KĂșrdar. Allir bĂŠjarbĂșar fĂłrust, yfir 5000 talsins. + 1988 - Ăran-Kontrahneykslið: Herforingjarnir Oliver North og John Poindexter voru ĂĄkĂŠrðir fyrir svik gegn BandarĂkjunum. + 1990 - Söngkeppni framhaldsskĂłlanna fĂłr fram Ă fyrsta sinn. + 1992 - Boris JeltsĂn tilkynnti að stofnaður yrði sĂ©rstakur RĂșsslandsher. + 1995 - Mississippi staðfesti ĂrettĂĄnda viðauka stjĂłrnarskrĂĄr BandarĂkjanna um bann við ĂŸrĂŠlahaldi. + 1996 - Robert Mugabe var kjörinn forseti Simbabve. + 1997 - Sandline-mĂĄlið: PapĂșski herforinginn Jerry Singirok lĂ©t handtaka Tim Spicer og mĂĄlaliða frĂĄ Sandline International. + 2002 - Erkibiskupinn Ă Cali Ă KĂłlumbĂu, Isaias Duarte, var myrtur fyrir framan kirkju. + 2003 - StĂŠrstu samrĂŠmdu fjöldamĂłtmĂŠli ĂĄ heimsvĂsu voru haldin gegn strĂði Ă Ărak. + 2006 - AllsherjarĂŸing Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna samĂŸykkti stofnun MannrĂ©ttindaråðs Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna með yfirgnĂŠfandi meirihluta atkvÊða. + 2010 - KasubigrafhĂœsin Ă Ăganda eyðilögðust Ă eldi. + 2014 - Umdeild atkvÊðagreiðsla meðal ĂbĂșa KrĂmskaga, hvort skaginn skyldi verða hluti af RĂșsslandi, fĂłr fram. + 2020 â Dow Jones-vĂsitalan fĂ©ll um 2.997,10 punkta, sem var mesta lĂŠkkun sögunnar Ă punktum talið og önnur mesta lĂŠkkunin Ă prĂłsentum. + 2022 - LoftĂĄrĂĄs RĂșssa ĂĄ leikhĂșs Ă Mariupol Ă ĂkraĂnu olli dauða 600 almennra borgara sem höfðu leitað ĂŸar skjĂłls. + 2022 - RĂșssland var rekið Ășr EvrĂłpuråðinu vegna innrĂĄsarinnar Ă ĂkraĂnu. + 2880 - Hugsanlegt er talið að loftsteinninn 1950 DA muni rekast ĂĄ jörðina og valda gjöreyðingu. Reiknaðar lĂkur eru 1/300. + +FĂŠdd + 1478 - Francisco Pizarro, spĂŠnskur landvinningamaður (d. 1541). + 1751 - James Madison, 4. forseti BandarĂkjanna (d. 1836). + 1774 - Matthew Flinders, enskur landkönnuður (d. 1814). + 1789 - Georg Simon Ohm, ĂŸĂœskur eðlisfrÊðingur (d. 1854). + 1827 - Ferdinand Meldahl, danskur arkitekt (d. 1908). + 1839 - Sully Prudhomme, franskt skĂĄld og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1907). + 1839 - JĂłn Ăsgeirsson frĂĄ Ăingeyrum, Ăslenskur bĂłndi (d. 1898). + 1868 - Maxim GorkĂj, rĂșssneskur rithöfundur (d. 1936). + 1885 - Sigurður Norland, Ăslenskur nĂĄttĂșruverndarsinni (d. 1971). + 1911 - Josef Mengele, ĂŸĂœskur lĂŠknir, vĂsindamaður og strĂðsglĂŠpamaður (d. 1979). + 1921 - Fahd bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud, konungur SĂĄdi-ArabĂu (d. 2005). + 1926 - Jerry Lewis, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1927 - Daniel Patrick Moynihan, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 2003). + 1931 - Anthony Kenny, enskur heimspekingur. + 1941 - Bernardo Bertolucci, kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1953 - Richard Stallman, stofnandi FrjĂĄlsu hugbĂșnaðarstofnunarinnar. + 1959 - Jens Stoltenberg, forsĂŠtisråðherra Noregs. + 1967 - John Darnielle, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1968 - Kahimi Karie, japönsk söngkona. + 1970 - PĂĄll Ăskar HjĂĄlmtĂœsson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1987 - Tiiu Kuik, eistnesk fyrirsĂŠta. + 1997 - Dominic Calvert-Lewin, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 37 - TĂberĂus RĂłmarkeisari (f. 42 f.Kr.). + 455 - ValentĂnĂanus 3., keisari RĂłmar (f. 419). + 1237 - Guðmundur Arason góði, HĂłlabiskup (f. 1161). + 1341 - JĂłn Indriðason, biskup Ă SkĂĄlholti. + 1485 - Anne Neville, Englandsdrottning, kona RĂkharðs 3. (f. 1456). + 1664 - Ăvan VĂgovskĂj, kĂłsakkaleiðtogi. + 1683 - Henrik Bjelke, norskur flotaforingi og hirðstjĂłri ĂĄ Ăslandi (f. 1615). + 1698 - Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, dĂłttir KristjĂĄns 4. + 1828 - Johannes Galletti, ĂŸĂœskur sagnfrÊðingur (f. 1750). + 1930 - Miguel Primo de Rivera, spĂŠnskur einrÊðisherra (f. 1870). + 1938 - Egon Friedell, austurrĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1878). + 1940 - BrĂet BjarnhéðinsdĂłttir, ritstjĂłri, bĂŠjarfulltrĂși og kvenrĂ©ttindafrömuður (f. 1856). + 1940 - Selma Lagerlöf, sĂŠnskur rithöfundur (f. 1858). + 1963 - ValtĂœr StefĂĄnsson, Ăslenskur blaðamaður (f. 1893). + 1977 - HalldĂłr PĂ©tursson, Ăslenskur skopmyndateiknari (f. 1916). + 2017 - Helgi M. Bergs, Ăslenskur hagfrÊðingur (f. 1945). + +Mars +Ăreitisvaldur Ă lĂŠknisfrÊði er hvert ĂŸað ĂĄreiti kallað sem að raskar jafnvĂŠgi lĂkamans. + +NĂĄi jafnvĂŠgistĂŠki lĂkamans ekki að endurheimta stöðugleika sinn geta Ăœmsir sjĂșkdĂłmar komið upp, og jafnvel getur ĂŸað leitt til dauða. + +LĂŠknisfrÊði +Ărið 1955 (MCMLV Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) + +Atburðir + + 14. maĂ - VarsjĂĄrbandalagið stofnað Ă VarsjĂĄ Ă PĂłllandi. StofnrĂki eru: SovĂ©trĂkin, PĂłlland, Austur-ĂĂœskaland, TĂ©kkĂłslĂłvakĂa, Ungverjaland, RĂșmenĂa, BĂșlgarĂa og AlbanĂa. + 1. desember - Rosa Parks neitaði að standa upp fyrir hvĂtum manni Ă strĂŠtisvagni Ă BandarĂkjunum og er Ă kjölfarið handtekin. + HalldĂłr Laxness hlaut NĂłbelsverðlaun Ă bĂłkmenntum + Skipuð var nefnd ĂŸingmanna ĂĄ Ăslandi til að rannsaka okurlĂĄnaviðskipti. + +FĂŠdd + 28. janĂșar - Nicolas Sarkozy, forseti Frakklands. + 5. maĂ - PĂ©tur Ăorsteinsson, nĂœyrðaskĂĄld, ĂŠskulĂœĂ°sfulltrĂși og prestur Ăhåða safnaðarins. + 6. jĂșlĂ - Sigurður SigurjĂłnsson, leikari. + 17. jĂșlĂ - Valgerður GunnarsdĂłttir, skĂłlameistari. + 4. ĂĄgĂșst - SteingrĂmur J. SigfĂșsson, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 8. ĂĄgĂșst - SigrĂșn HjĂĄlmtĂœsdĂłttir, söngkona. + 31. oktĂłber - Guðmundur Ărni StefĂĄnsson, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 24. nĂłvember - Einar KĂĄrason, rithöfundur og ljóðskĂĄld. + +DĂĄin + 11. mars - Alexander Fleming, skoskur lĂf- og lyfjafrÊðingur (f. 1881). + 18. aprĂl - Albert Einstein, ĂŸĂœskur eðlisfrÊðingur (f. 1879). + 30. september - James Dean, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1931). + 6. oktĂłber - Jean Doisy, belgĂskur myndasöguhöfundur (f. 1900). + +NĂłbelsverðlaunin + EðlisfrÊði - Willis Eugene Lamb, Polykarp Kusch + EfnafrÊði - Vincent du Vigneaud + LĂŠknisfrÊði - Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell + BĂłkmenntir - HalldĂłr Kiljan Laxness + Friðarverðlaun - Ekki veitt ĂŸetta ĂĄrið + +1955 +HalldĂłr (Kiljan) Laxness (23. aprĂl 1902 - 8. febrĂșar 1998) var Ăslenskur rithöfundur og skĂĄld, jafnan talinn einn helsti Ăslenski rithöfundurinn ĂĄ 20. öld. + +Hann byrjaði snemma að lesa bĂŠkur og skrifa sögur, og ĂŸegar hann var 13 ĂĄra gamall fĂ©kk hann sĂna fyrstu grein birta Ă Morgunblaðinu undir nafninu H.G., og ekki löngu sĂðar, ĂŸĂĄ 14 ĂĄra gamall, birti hann grein Ă sama blaði undir sĂnu eigin nafni H. GuðjĂłnsson frĂĄ Laxnesi. + +Ă ferli sĂnum skrifaði HalldĂłr skĂĄldsögur, smĂĄsögur, margar blaðagreinar, samdi ljóð, leikrit, ĂŸĂœddi bĂŠkur yfir ĂĄ Ăslensku og fleira. HalldĂłr hlaut NĂłbelsverðlaun Ă bĂłkmenntum ĂĄrið 1955. + +Nafn +HalldĂłr Laxness fĂŠddist sem HalldĂłr GuðjĂłnsson. Ărið 1905 hĂłf fjölskylda hans bĂșskap að Laxnesi Ă Mosfellssveit, og kenndi HalldĂłr sig við ĂŸann bĂŠ ĂŠ sĂðar. Millinafnið Kiljan tĂłk hann upp ĂŸegar hann skĂrðist til kaĂŸĂłlskrar trĂșar. + +Ăvi + +HalldĂłr var elstur Ă ĂŸriggja systkina hĂłpi, en yngri voru systur hans, SigrĂður (28. aprĂl 1909 - 18. ĂĄgĂșst 1966) og Helga (5. maĂ 1912 - 15. janĂșar 1992). Foreldrar HalldĂłrs voru GuðjĂłn Helgi Helgason (23. oktĂłber 1870 - 19. jĂșnĂ 1919) og SigrĂður HalldĂłrsdĂłttir (27. oktĂłber 1872 - 17. september 1951). GuðjĂłn var af fĂĄtĂŠkum ĂŠttum og vann meðal annars Ă vegavinnu um allt Ăsland og fĂ©kk fyrir ĂŸað ĂŸokkaleg laun. SigrĂður móðir HalldĂłrs var ĂŠttuð frĂĄ Ălfusi, hĂșn fluttist ung til ReykjavĂkur ĂŸar sem hĂșn og GuðjĂłn kynntust svo sĂðar. + +Ărið 1905 seldi GuðjĂłn hĂșsið sitt Ă ReykjavĂk og keypti jörðina Laxnes Ă Mosfellsdal sem er 20 kĂlĂłmetrum frĂĄ ReykjavĂk. Ăangað fluttist HalldĂłr með foreldrum sĂnum og móðurömmu, GuðnĂœju KlĂŠngsdĂłttur (18. febrĂșar 1832 - 21. mars 1924), ĂĄsamt vinnukonu og vinnumanni. Oftast var ĂŸĂł fleira fĂłlk Ă Laxnesi, bÊði gestir og vinnu- og kaupafĂłlk. HalldĂłri fannst ĂŸað gĂŠfa hans að hafa fengið að reyna að bĂșa ĂĄ stĂłru sveitaheimili og svo virðist sem hann hafi alist upp við góðar aðstÊður Ă Laxnesi. + +HalldĂłr byrjaði að skrifa sem barn og fĂ©kk ungur ĂĄhuga ĂĄ Ăslenskri tungu og beitti sĂ©r fyrir mĂĄlrĂŠkt Ă Mosfellsdalnum. Hann gaf Ășt fyrstu bĂłk sĂna, Barn nĂĄttĂșrunnar, 1919 ĂŸĂĄ aðeins 17 ĂĄra gamall. Hann skrifaði bĂłkina ĂŸegar hann var 16 ĂĄra og sat ĂŸĂĄ frekar ĂĄ LandsbĂłkasafninu að skrifa en að mĂŠta Ă skĂłlann. Barn nĂĄttĂșrunnar gaf glöggum bĂłkarĂœnum fyrirheit um ĂŸað sem koma skyldi. + +Ăegar HalldĂłr var ungur maður fĂłr hann að ferðast og dvaldi meðal annars Ă Vesturheimi ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1927â1929. Hann var Ă klaustri Ă LĂșxemborg frĂĄ desember 1922 fram til haustsins 1923. Ă klaustrinu tĂłk hann kaĂŸĂłlska trĂș og var skĂrður og fermdur til kaĂŸĂłlskrar kirkju 6. janĂșar 1923. + +Frumburð sinn, MarĂu (10. aprĂl 1923 - 19. mars 2016), eignaðist HalldĂłr með MĂĄlfrĂði JĂłnsdĂłttur (29. ĂĄgĂșst 1896 - 7. nĂłvember 2003) sem hann hafði kynnst sumarið 1922 Ă Rönne ĂĄ BorgundarhĂłlmi; ĂŸau giftust samt ekki. Ă lok ĂŠvi sinnar var MĂĄlfrĂður elsti lifandi Ăslendingurinn. + +HalldĂłr var tvĂkvĂŠntur. Ărið 1930 giftist hann Ingibjörgu EinarsdĂłttur (3. maĂ 1908 - 22. janĂșar 1994) og með henni ĂĄtti hann soninn Einar (9. ĂĄgĂșst 1931 - 23. maĂ 2016). Ăau slitu samvistir 1940. HalldĂłr kynntist seinni konu sinni, Auði SveinsdĂłttur (30. jĂșnĂ 1918 - 29. oktĂłber 2012), ĂĄ Laugarvatni 1939. SamkvĂŠmt frĂĄsögn ĂŠvisöguritara HalldĂłrs Laxness, HalldĂłri Guðmundssyni, vildi HalldĂłr fara rĂłlega Ă sakirnar, og fyrstu ĂĄrin eftir að ĂŸau byrjuðu að vera saman ĂŸurfti Auður að bĂða ĂŸolinmóð eftir honum. HalldĂłr Guðmundsson segir svo frĂĄ að Auður hafi verið tilbĂșin til ĂŸess að fĂŠra fĂłrnir fyrir HalldĂłr og getað lĂ©tt ĂĄhyggjum af skĂĄldinu, hĂșn var konan sem HalldĂłr dreymdi um. Auður og HalldĂłr giftu sig hjĂĄ borgarfĂłgeta 24. desember 1945. Ăau fluttu að GljĂșfrasteini Ă Mosfellssveit ĂĄrið 1945, en ĂŸað hĂșs lĂ©tu hjĂłnin byggja. Ăað var draumur HalldĂłrs að eignast heimili ĂĄ sĂnum bernskuslóðum og ĂŸau fengu arkitektinn til ĂŸess að teikna hĂșsið. Auður sĂĄ að mestu um að fylgjast með hĂșsasmĂðunum ĂĄ meðan HalldĂłr einbeitti sĂ©r að skrifum. HalldĂłr og Auður eignuðust tvĂŠr dĂŠtur - SigrĂði (*26. maĂ 1951) og GuðnĂœju (*23. janĂșar 1954). + +Ăegar HalldĂłr var orðinn gamall maður og heilsunni farið að hraka fluttist hann ĂĄ Reykjalund. Ăar var hann Ă fjögur ĂĄr og sĂfellt meira bundinn við rĂșmið. HalldĂłr Laxness lĂ©st 8. febrĂșar 1998, ĂŸĂĄ orðinn 95 ĂĄra. Ă Morgunblaðinu birtist grein eftir MatthĂas Johannessen skĂĄld ĂŸar sem hann sagði meðal annars: + +Viðurkenning +Ărið 1955 var HalldĂłr Laxness sĂŠmdur NĂłbelsverðlaununum. Ăað var Ă StokkhĂłlmi sem HalldĂłr veitti verðlaununum viðtöku frĂĄ ĂŸĂĄverandi konungi SvĂa, GĂșstaf VI. Adolf, nĂĄnar tiltekið Ă HljĂłmleikahĂșsinu við KĂłngsgötuna. NĂłbelsverðlaunin höfðu strax jĂĄkvÊð ĂĄhrif, og bĂŠkurnar HalldĂłrs voru Ă kjölfarið ĂŸĂœddar ĂĄ fleiri tungumĂĄl og menn sem höfðu ekki gefið verkunum gaum åður kynntu sĂ©r bĂŠkurnar hans. Verðlaunin, NĂłbelsskjalið og gullpeningurinn, eru varðveitt Ă Ăjóðminjasafninu og Ă myntsafni seðlabankans. + +Auk NĂłbelsverðlauna fĂ©kk HalldĂłr fjöldan allan af viðurkenningum fyrir ritstörf sĂn, en dĂŠmi um aðrar viðurkenningar sem honum hlotnuðust voru: Menningarverðlaun ASF, Silfurhesturinn (bĂłkmenntaverðlaun dagblaðanna) og virt dönsk verðlaun kennd við , svo nokkur sĂ©u nefnd. + +HalldĂłr Laxness var gerður að heiðursdoktor við eftirfarandi hĂĄskĂłla: + 1968: Aabo hĂĄskĂłlinn () Ă Finnlandi Ă tilefni 50 ĂĄra afmĂŠlis sĂŠnskudeildarinnar við skĂłlann, + 1972: HĂĄskĂłli Ăslands Ă tilefni sjötugsafmĂŠlis HalldĂłrs, + 1977: EdinborgarhĂĄskĂłli Ă Skotlandi, + 1982: HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă TĂŒbingen Ă ĂĂœskalandi Ă tilefni ĂĄttrÊðisafmĂŠlis HalldĂłrs. + +StĂll + +Ăegar HalldĂłr var ungur umgekkst hann mikið eldra fĂłlk og talsmĂĄti hans varð ĂŸess vegna hĂĄfleyglegur. Hann rĂŠktaði tungumĂĄlið meira en aðrir höfundar og notaði öðruvĂsi stafsetningu til ĂŸess að nĂĄ fram ĂĄkveðnum stĂl Ă textann sem og mörg ĂĄhugaverð orð. + +HalldĂłr hafði sterkar stjĂłrnmĂĄlalegar skoðanir og skrifaði til að mynda HalldĂłr tvĂŠr bĂŠkur um SovĂ©trĂkin sem ĂŠtlaðar voru til varnaðar ĂŸjóðskipulagi landsins. Skrif skĂĄldsins um hag Ăslensku ĂŸjóðarinnar vöktu ĂĄvallt athygli, landinn reiddist honum Ăœmist eða varð snortinn yfir einlĂŠgni hans. + +Safnið ĂĄ GljĂșfrasteini +Að frumkvÊði DavĂðs Oddssonar, forsĂŠtisråðherra, keypti rĂkissjóður GljĂșfrastein af Auði Laxness, ekkju HalldĂłrs, Ă aprĂl 2002. Ă september 2004 var opnað ĂŸar safn til minningar um skĂĄldið; fjölskylda HalldĂłrs hafði gefið safninu allt innbĂș GljĂșfrasteins. + +Deilur um ĂŠvisögu Laxness +Hannes HĂłlmsteinn Gissurarson, prĂłfessor sagði frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ opinberlega sumarið 2003, að hann vĂŠri að skrifa ĂŠvisögu Laxness, en Ă kjölfarið reyndi Auður Laxness að meina honum aðgang að brĂ©fasafni skĂĄldsins ĂĄ handritadeild ĂjóðarbĂłkhlöðunnar og tĂłkst ĂŸað. ĂstÊðan var sĂș að hĂșn taldi Hannes ekki fĂŠran um að skrifa ĂłhlutdrĂŠga ĂŠvisögu Laxness. Eftir að fyrsta bindi ĂŠvisögunnar HalldĂłr kom Ășt gagnrĂœndu Helga Kress, prĂłfessor, og fleiri Hannes harðlega fyrir að fara frjĂĄlslega með tilvitnanir Ă texta skĂĄldsins ĂĄn ĂŸess að geta heimilda. Hannes hefur sĂðar viðurkennt Ă viðtölum að hann hefði ĂĄtt að geta heimilda Ă rĂkara mĂŠli en hann gerði. + +Haustið 2004 höfðaði Auður mĂĄl gegn Hannesi fyrir brot ĂĄ lögum um höfundarrĂ©tt. Hannes var sĂœknaður Ă HĂ©raðsdĂłmi ReykjavĂkur 2006 en mĂĄlinu var ĂĄfrĂœjað til HĂŠstarĂ©ttar og ĂŸar var Hannes dĂŠmdur ĂĄrið 2008 fyrir brot ĂĄ höfundarrĂ©tti Ă fyrsta bindi af ĂŠvisögu HalldĂłrs Laxness. Var honum gert að greiða 1,5 milljĂłnir krĂłna Ă fĂ©bĂŠtur og 1,6 milljĂłnir Ă mĂĄlskostnað. + +Auður Laxness og fjölskylda hennar hefur lagt blessun sĂna yfir ĂŠvisögu skĂĄldsins, sem rituð var af HalldĂłri Guðmundssyni, rithöfundi, og veitti honum góðfĂșslega aðgang að brĂ©fasafni og gögnum, sem voru Ă vörslu fjölskyldunnar. + +Meint afskipti Ăslenskra råðamanna af ĂștgĂĄfu rita Laxness Ă BandarĂkjununm +GuðnĂœ HalldĂłrsdĂłttir, leikstjĂłri og dĂłttir skĂĄldsins, sagði Ă KastljĂłsĂŸĂŠtti sjĂłnvarpsins 18. mars 2007 að Bjarni Benediktsson, forsĂŠtisråðherra 1963-1970, hefði lagt stein Ă götu föður sĂns sem varð til ĂŸess að honum reyndist illmögulegt að gefa Ășt bĂŠkur sĂnar Ă BandarĂkjunum. + +Verk + +HalldĂłr skrifaði fjölmörg skĂĄldverk, ĂŸĂœddi verk annarra yfir ĂĄ Ăslensku og sendi frĂĄ sĂ©r greinar Ă dagblöð og tĂmarit. Alls skrifaði hann 13 stĂłrar skĂĄldsögur; BrekkukotsannĂĄl, Gerplu, AtĂłmstöðina, HeimsljĂłs I og II, Ăslandsklukkuna, Kristnihald undir Jökli, Söguna af brauðinu dĂœra, Sölku Völku I og II, SjĂĄlfstĂŠtt fĂłlk I og II, SmĂĄsögur (öllum smĂĄsögum skĂĄldsins safnað saman Ă eina bĂłk), Vefarann mikla frĂĄ KasmĂr og GuðsgjafarĂŸula var svo sĂðasta skĂĄldsagan sem hann skrifaði. Einnig orti HalldĂłr Ăœmiskonar kvÊði og gaf Ășt fjĂłrar minningasögur, ein ĂŸeirra er bĂłkin Ă tĂșninu heima. Auk ĂŸess samdi hann fimm leikrit og leikgerð að einni skĂĄldsögu, en fyrsta leikritið samdi Laxness ekki fyrr en hann var orðinn ĂŸroskaður höfundur, Straumrof, 1934. + +Verk HalldĂłrs eru fjölbreytt og hafa komið Ășt Ă meira en 500 ĂștgĂĄfum og ĂĄ 43 tungumĂĄlum auk móðurmĂĄlsins. HalldĂłr ĂŸĂœddi verk frĂĄ öðrum og ĂŸar mĂĄ nefna BirtĂng eftir Voltaire, Vopnin kvödd eftir Ernest Hemingway og Fjallkirkjuna eftir Gunnar Gunnarsson. + +Kvikmyndir gerðar eftir bĂłkum Laxness + 1954 â Salka Valka + 1972 â BrekkukotsannĂĄll + 1981 â ParadĂsarheimt + 1984 â AtĂłmstöðin + 1989 â Kristnihald undir Jökli + 1999 â UngfrĂșin góða og hĂșsið + +TilvĂsanir + +Heimildir + bls. 65 + Hannes HĂłlmsteinn Gissurarson. 2003. HalldĂłr. (ReykjavĂk: Almenna bĂłkafĂ©lagið). + Hannes HĂłlmsteinn Gissurarson. 2004. Kiljan. (ReykjavĂk: Almenna bĂłkafĂ©lagið). + Hannes HĂłlmsteinn Gissurarson. 2005. Laxness. (ReykjavĂk: Almenna bĂłkafĂ©lagið). + HalldĂłr Guðmundsson. 2004. HalldĂłr Laxness. (ReykjavĂk: JPV). SjĂĄ hĂ©r + Heimir PĂĄlsson. Sögur, ljóð og lĂf (ReykjavĂk: Vaka-Helgafell, 1998). + Ălafur Ragnarsson. HalldĂłr Laxness: LĂf Ă skĂĄldskap (ReykjavĂk: Vaka-Helgafell, 2002). + Ălafur Ragnarsson. Til fundar við skĂĄldið, HalldĂłr Laxness (ReykjavĂk: Veröld, 2007). + RitaskrĂĄ. 2004, 12. mars. SjĂĄ: http://www2.mbl.is/mm/serefni/laxness/ritaskra.html + HalldĂłr Laxness. 2004, 12. mars. SjĂĄ: http://www2.mbl.is/mm/serefni/laxness/ + +Tengt efni + Tilnefningar til bĂłkmenntaverðlauna Norðurlandaråðs frĂĄ Ăslandi + BĂłkmenntaverðlaun Norðurlandaråðs + +Tenglar + + HalldĂłr Laxness SĂ©rvefur Morgunblaðsins um HalldĂłr Laxness + Vefur RĂV um afhendingu NĂłbelsverðlaunanna 1955 + GljĂșfrasteinn â HĂșs skĂĄldsins + SkrĂĄ um rit HalldĂłrs Laxness ĂĄ Ăslensku og erlendum mĂĄlum â ĂrbĂłk LandsbĂłkasafns Ăslands 1993, bls. 49-140 + Kennsluefni um nokkur verk HalldĂłrs Laxness â Kennsluvefir Hörpu HreinsdĂłttur 2010 + Glatkistan - TĂłnlistartengd umfjöllun + +Verk Laxness ĂĄ netinu + Hverasilungar og hverafuglar, Morgunblaðið, 19. mars 1916, bls. 7. + Gömul klukka, Morgunblaðið, 7. nĂłvember 1916, bls. 2. + Athugasemd við ĂŸað, sem menn ĂĄ Ăslandi alment halda um ritdĂłmara, Morgunblaðið, 28. jĂșnĂ 1922, bls. 2-3. + BrĂ©f Ășr Alpafjöllum, AlĂŸĂœĂ°ublaðið, 15. febrĂșar 1922, bls. 1-2. + Jarðarför Laugu Ă Gvöndarkoti, Morgunblaðið, 6. mars 1923, bls. 3. + KĂĄlfkotungaĂŸĂĄttur; brot Ășr uppkasti Morgunblaðið, 10. mars 1923, bls. 3-4. + KvÊði eftir HalldĂłr frĂĄ Laxnesi, Morgunblaðið, 30. maĂ 1923, bls. 3. + KvÊði, Morgunblaðið, 2. jĂșnĂ 1923, bls. 2-3. + Ăsa (frĂĄ JĂ€mtlandi 1920), Morgunblaðið, 8. jĂșnĂ 1923, bls. 4. + Barningsmenn, Morgunblaðið, 13. jĂșnĂ 1923, bls. 3-4. + Fegursta sagan Ă bĂłkinni, Morgunblaðið, 20. jĂșnĂ 1923, bls. 3-4. + Ăr Westminster Abbey Ă Westminster Cathedral, Morgunblaðið, 24. desember 1923, bls. 11. + FrĂĄ Niðurlöndum, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 21. febrĂșar 1926, bls. 1-3. + Rhodymenia Palmata, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 4. aprĂl 1926, bls. 6-7. + Bjarni Björnsson - hermileikari, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 4. mars 1928, bls. 7-8. + Tilkynning til lesenda, Dagur, 7. nĂłvember 1929, bls. 4. + NĂș vantar ĂŸjóðsönginn, Ăjóðviljinn, 9. mars 1944, bls. 3. + FrĂĄ gömlum hundamanni, Morgunblaðið, 16. desember 1970, bls. 17. + Valdir kaflar Ășr verkum Laxness, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 23. aprĂl 1972, bls. 4-6+14. + SmĂĄmunarĂœni, Dagblaðið, 10. oktĂłber 1979, bls. 10-11. + Athuganir um fornbĂłkmenntir, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 29. mars 1980, bls. 2-5. + FerðabĂŠklingur Ășr RĂșmenĂu, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 7. janĂșar 1984, bls. 4-7. + Saga Ășr sĂldinni, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 25. aprĂl 1992, bls. 4-5. + +Greinar um Laxness + Barn nĂĄttĂșrunnar, Morgunblaðið, 10. nĂłvember 1919, bls. 3. + NĂœ skĂĄldsaga (Undir HelgahnĂșk), Morgunblaðið, 7. jĂșnĂ 1924, bls. 2. + FĂłtatak manna, Heimskringla, 7. mars 1934, bls. 2-3. + HalldĂłr Kiljan Laxness NĂłbelsverðlaunahöfundur, TĂmarit ĂjóðrĂŠknisfĂ©lags Ăslendinga Ă Vesturheimi, 1. janĂșar 1955, bls. 4-41. + StĂłrverk um Laxness, Ăjóðviljinn, 17. maĂ 1957, bls. 7. + HjĂłnin Ă Laxnesi (fyrri hluti), LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 2. aprĂl 1967, bls. 1-2+13. + HjĂłnin Ă Laxnesi (seinni hluti), LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 9. aprĂl 1967, bls. 7+12+15. + SkĂĄldaeðlið sĂœnist vera takmarkað, Morgunblaðið, 11. aprĂl 1968, bls. 14-15. + Ăegar bĂłkin er bĂșin er Ă©g fullsaddur ĂĄ efninu, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 11. maĂ 1969, bls. 4+13. + Horft til ĂŠskuĂĄra, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 23. aprĂl 1972, bls. 2-3+14. + Við Ăœmis tĂŠkifĂŠri ĂĄ sĂðum Morgunblaðsins, Morgunblaðið, 23. aprĂl 1972, bls. 7-8. + Yfir hið liðna bregður blĂŠ ..., LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 26. september 1976, bls. 6. + HalldĂłr Laxness 75 ĂĄra, Morgunblaðið, 23. aprĂl 1977, bls. 21-24. + FullveldistĂmaritið LĂĄki, Ăjóðviljinn, 3. desember 1978, bls. 1-2+11. + SkrĂlĂștgĂĄfa ĂĄ LaxdĂŠlu og hatursĂștgĂĄfa ĂĄ NjĂĄlu (fyrri hluti), LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 10. febrĂșar 1979, bls. 4-5+14-15. + SkrĂlĂștgĂĄfa ĂĄ LaxdĂŠlu og hatursĂștgĂĄfa ĂĄ NjĂĄlu (sĂðari hluti), LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 17. febrĂșar 1979, bls. 6-7+14-15. + HalldĂłr Laxness, mĂłrmĂłnarnir og fyrirheitna landið, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 5. maĂ 1979, bls. 2-4+14. + GrikklandsĂĄrið, Morgunblaðið, 6. desember 1980, bls. 25. + Með andstÊðum forteiknum, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 2. jĂșlĂ 1983, bls. 4-5+14. + Börn nĂĄttĂșrunnar (HalldĂłr Laxness deiglunni I), LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 19. janĂșar 1985, bls. 4-6. + Guð hĂłtar að stoppa ballið (HalldĂłr Laxness deiglunni II), LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 26. janĂșar 1985, bls. 12-14. + Guðleysi eða sjĂĄlfsmorð (HalldĂłr Laxness deiglunni III), LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 2. febrĂșar 1985, bls. 6-7. + Einvaldi sviðinsvĂkur, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 8. aprĂl 2000, bls. 7-8. + SkeggrÊður gegnum tĂðina, LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins, 20. aprĂl 2002, bls. 1-12. + LĂfsins skĂĄld; hvenĂŠr komu skĂĄldsögur HalldĂłrs Laxness Ășt og hvernig var ĂŸeim tekið, Morgunblaðið, 20. aprĂl 2002, bls. 18-20. + +Viðtöl við Laxness + Ăað er gott að vinna ĂĄ GljĂșfrasteini, Morgunblaðið, 4. september 1946, bls. 2. + BĂłkmenntir ĂĄ tĂmum rauðra penna, Morgunblaðið, 28. febrĂșar 1982, bls. 49+71-74. + + +Ăslenskir rithöfundar +Ăslenskir ĂŸĂœĂ°endur +Handhafar bĂłkmenntaverðlauna NĂłbels +Handhafar stĂłrkross Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorðu +âHryggurâ beinist hingað. Fyrir aðrar merkingar mĂĄ sjĂĄ hryggur (aðgreining). +HryggsĂșlan er einn af mikilvĂŠgustu hlutum beinagrindarinnar, hĂșn heldur lĂkamanum uppi og ver mĂŠnuna. Ă hryggnum eru 24 liðir (7 hĂĄlsliðir, 12 hryggjarliðir, 5 lendaliðir), og auk ĂŸess spjaldbeinið og rĂłfubeinið, sem hvort um sig eru samvaxnir liðir. + +HryggsĂșla mannsins +Liðir hryggjarins, hryggjarliðirnir, eru 32-33, sĂ©u samvaxnir liðir spjaldbeins og rĂłfubeins taldir með. + +Ath: Undir vinstri myndinni hĂ©r að neðan stendur handskrifað: Séð að framan, en ĂĄ að vera séð að aftan. + +Hryggjarliðirnir + +Beinagrind +Spjaldbein (krossliðsbein, beinið helga eða spjaldhryggur) (frÊðiheiti: Os sacrum) er stĂłrt ĂŸrĂhyrningslaga bein neðst ĂĄ hryggnum. Ăað myndar afturhluta mjaðmagrindar. Ă rauninni er ĂŸað fimm samvaxnir hryggjarliðir ofan við rĂłfubein og neðan við lendaliðina. Spjaldbein myndar liðamĂłt ĂĄ tveimur stöðum við mjaðmarbeinið. + +Tengt efni + HryggsĂșla + +Heimild +930 (CMXXX Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) + +Ă Ăslandi + + AlĂŸingi stofnað. LandnĂĄmsöld lauk. + +FĂŠdd + +DĂĄin + +Erlendis + +FĂŠdd + +DĂĄin + +930 +921-930 +874 (DCCCLXXIV Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var 74. ĂĄr 9. aldar sem hĂłfst ĂĄ föstudegi samkvĂŠmt jĂșlĂska tĂmatalinu. + +Ă Ăslandi + + Hefðbundið viðmiðunarĂĄrtal upphafs landnĂĄms ĂĄ Ăslandi, en ĂŸað var reiknað með hliðsjĂłn af LandnĂĄmu ĂŸegar haldið var upp ĂĄ 1000 ĂĄra afmĂŠli Ăslands ĂĄrið 1874. ĂslendingabĂłk Ara fróða segir hins vegar ekki að fundur Ăslands hafi orðið ĂŸað ĂĄr og lĂklega komu ĂŸeir fĂłstbrÊður IngĂłlfur Arnarson og Hjörleifur Hróðmarsson nokkrum ĂĄrum åður, eða um 870 til að nema land ĂĄ Ăslandi fyrstir manna. + +FĂŠdd + +DĂĄin + +Erlendis + +FĂŠdd + +DĂĄin + +874 +871-880 +Ărið 1786 (MDCCLXXXVI Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) + +Ă Ăslandi + + 18. ĂĄgĂșst - Konungleg auglĂœsing um afnĂĄm einokunarverslunar ĂĄ Ăslandi gefin Ășt. Einokuninni lauk ĂŸĂł ekki fyrr en um ĂĄramĂłtin 1787-1788. + 17. nĂłvember - Sex staðir fengu kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi. Allir staðirnir misstu ĂŸau aftur nema ReykjavĂk, en sumir hafa sĂðan orðið kaupstaðir aftur. Ăessir staðir voru: ReykjavĂk, Grundarfjörður, Ăsafjörður, Akureyri, Eskifjörður og Vestmannaeyjar. + Móðuharðindum lauk en bĂłlusĂłtt geisaði enn. Ăslendingum fĂŠkkaði um nĂĄlega 1200 ĂĄ ĂĄrinu. + Björn HalldĂłrsson klĂĄraði tvĂmĂĄla orðabĂłkina Lexicon Islandico-Latino-Danicum eftir 15 ĂĄra vinnu. + Kennsla hĂłfst Ă HĂłlavallarskĂłla Ă ReykjavĂk. + Reglugerð sett um að landpĂłstar skyldu vera fjĂłrir og tveir aukapĂłstar. + +FĂŠdd + 4. september - ĂĂłrður Sveinbjörnsson hĂĄyfirdĂłmari (d. 1856). + 30. desember - Bjarni Thorarensen amtmaður (d. 1841). + +DĂĄin + 2. oktĂłber - Oddur GĂslason prestur ĂĄ MiklabĂŠ (f. 1740) hvarf ĂĄ leið heim að bĂŠ sĂnum og var afturgöngunni MiklabĂŠjar-Solveigu kennt um og sagt að hĂșn hefði dregið prestinn Ă gröf sĂna. LĂk hans fannst raunar ĂĄri sĂðar Ă lĂŠk skammt frĂĄ MiklabĂŠ. + Hjörleifur ĂĂłrðarson prestur og skĂĄld ĂĄ ValĂŸjĂłfsstað. + ĂĂłrunn ĂlafsdĂłttir Stephensen biskupsfrĂș Ă SkĂĄlholti, kona Hannesar Finnssonar. + +Opinberar aftökur + EirĂkur ĂorlĂĄksson hĂĄlshöggvinn ĂĄ MjĂłeyri Ă Eskifirði fyrir ĂŸað að skera tungu Ășr öðrum dreng. + +Erlendis + 1. maĂ - Ăperan BrĂșðkaup FĂgarĂłs eftir Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart frumflutt Ă VĂnarborg. + 8. ĂĄgĂșst - Fjallið Mont Blanc klifið Ă fyrsta sinn. + Byrjað var að flytja breska fanga til sakamannanĂœlendunnar Ă Botany Bay Ă ĂstralĂu. + +FĂŠdd + 24. febrĂșar - Wilhelm Grimm, ĂŸĂœskur ĂŸjóðsagnasafnari (d. 1859). + 17. ĂĄgĂșst - Davy Crockett, bandarĂskur landkönnuður og veiðimaður (d. 1836). + 25. ĂĄgĂșst - LĂșðvĂk 1., konungur BĂŠheims (d. 1868). + 18. september - KristjĂĄn 8. Danakonungur (d. 1848). + 18. nĂłvember - Carl Maria von Weber, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1826). + +DĂĄin + 15. maĂ - Eva Ekeblad, sĂŠnskur vĂsindamaður (f. 1724). + 25. maĂ - PĂ©tur 3. PortĂșgalskonungur, eiginmaður MarĂu 1. PortĂșgalsdrottningar (f. 1717). + 17. ĂĄgĂșst - Friðrik mikli PrĂșssakonungur (f. 1712). + +TilvĂsanir + +1786 +Ărið 1845 (MDCCCXLV Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) + +Ă Ăslandi + + 1. jĂșlĂ - AlĂŸingi endurreist Ă ReykjavĂk. Fyrsti fundur ĂŸess haldinn ĂĄ sal hins nĂœja hĂșss lĂŠrða skĂłlans. + 2. september - Heklugos hefst og stendur fram ĂĄ vor. Ăskufall til austsuðausturs. + +FĂŠdd + + 2. febrĂșar - Torfhildur HĂłlm, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (d. 1918) + +DĂĄin + 26. maĂ - JĂłnas HallgrĂmsson, nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingur, skĂĄld og einn Fjölnismanna (f. 1807). + +Erlendis + +FĂŠdd + 27. mars - Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, ĂŸĂœskur eðlisfrÊðingur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1923). + 24. aprĂl - Carl Spitteler, svissneskt ljóðskĂĄld og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1924). + 12. maĂ â Gabriel FaurĂ©, franskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1924). + 16. maĂ - Ilja MĂ©tsjnĂkoff, ĂșkraĂnskur örverufrÊðingur og handhafi NĂłbelsverðlaunanna Ă lĂfeðlisfrÊði (d. 1916). + +DĂĄin + +1845 +Mjaðmagrind (latĂna: pelvis) er mikilvĂŠgur hluti stoðkerfisins, mynduð Ășr mjaðmabeinum, spjaldbeini og rĂłfubeini. + +Hlutverk mjaðmagrindarinnar er að verja lĂffĂŠrin Ă kviðar- og grindarholi; ĂŠxlunarfĂŠrin, ĂŸvagblöðru og hluta digurgirnis. + +Mjaðmagrind kvenna er hlutfallslega stĂŠrri en mjaðmagrind karla og er grindarholið einnig iðulega vĂðara hjĂĄ konum en körlum. + +Bein mjaðmagrindarinnar: + +Tengill + +Beinagrind +Ăjóðsöngur er sönglag sem rĂkisstjĂłrn og almenningur viðurkennir sem formlegan söng ĂŸjóðarinnar. Ă 19. og 20. öld, Ă kjölfar ris ĂŸjóðernishyggju, tĂłku flest rĂki heimsins upp ĂŸjóðsöngva. Lofsöngur (âĂ, Guð vors landsâ), við sĂĄlm eftir MatthĂas Jochumsson, er ĂŸjóðsöngur Ăslendinga. + +SjĂĄ einnig + ĂjóðlagatĂłnlist +Aðflutningur nefnist ĂŸað ĂŸegar einstaklingur hefur fasta bĂșsetu à öðru rĂki en ĂŸvĂ landi sem hann fĂŠddist Ă. Innflytjendur koma Ă mörgum tilvikum til með að bĂșa Ă landinu sem ĂŸeir flytja til Ă mörg ĂĄr jafnvel Ășt ĂŠvina og hljĂłta ĂŸĂĄ rĂkisborgararĂ©tt Ă mörgum tilvikum. + +Ferðamenn og aðrir gestir sem koma tĂmabundið til landsins teljast ekki innflytjendur. NĂ© heldur flĂłttamenn. Farandverkamenn ĂĄ hinn bĂłginn eru oft flokkaðir sem innflytjendur. Ărið 2005 mat SĂ sem svo að fjöldi innflytjanda Ă heiminum nĂŠmi 190 milljĂłnum manna, u.ĂŸ.b. 3% fĂłlksfjölda heimsins. + +Ă nĂștĂmanum eru innflytjendur tengdir ĂŸrĂłunar rĂkja og alĂŸjóðlegra laga. RĂkisborgararĂ©ttur rĂkis veitir ĂŸegnum rĂ©ttinn til viðveru Ă rĂkinu, en jafnframt setur ĂŸað ĂŸegninum skyldur. Innflytjendur fĂŠra með sĂ©r aðra menningu og tilheyra öðrum ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagshĂłpum og ĂŸað getur skapað spennu milli ĂŸeirra og annarra hĂłpa Ă landinu. + +Ălöglegir innflytjendur nefnast ĂŸeir sem flytja bĂșferlum milli landa með Ăłlöglegum hĂŠtti, ĂŸ.e.a.s. brjĂłta Ă bĂĄga við ĂŸau lög sem sett hafa verið Ă landinu um innflutning fĂłlks. Ăað getur bÊði ĂĄ við fĂłlk sem kemst til landsins ĂĄn ĂŸess að hljĂłta vegabrĂ©fsĂĄritun eða fĂłlk sem dvelur Ă landinu lengur en ĂŸað hefur leyfi til. + +Innflytjendur ĂĄ Ăslandi +Aðlögun innflytjenda ĂĄ Ăslandi snĂœst að miklu leyti um að lĂŠra Ăslensku og að geta orðið virkir ĂŸegnar. Ă byrjun 21. aldarinnar fluttust til landsins ĂŸĂșsundir farandverkamanna vegna byggingar KĂĄrahnjĂșkavirkjunar vegna ĂŸess að ekki var til mannafli til verksins. Aukinheldur voru ĂŸað Ăștlend verktakafyrirtĂŠki sem sĂĄu um vinnuna og var ĂŸað Ă ĂŸeirra höndum að sjĂĄ um starfsmannamĂĄl. Gert er råð fyrir ĂŸvĂ að flestir ĂŸessara verkamanna hverfi af landi. + +Ărið 1991 var 161 einstaklingi veittur Ăslenskur rĂkisborgararĂ©ttur, fimmtĂĄn ĂĄrum seinna, 2006, var 844 einstaklingum veittur Ăslenskur rĂkisborgararĂ©ttur. + +Ăann 12. nĂłvember 2007 var Andie Sophia Fontaine varaĂŸingmaður Vinstri grĂŠnna fyrst innflytjenda til ĂŸess að taka sĂŠti ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. + +Stundum verða ĂĄrekstrar milli innflytjenda og heimamanna. + +Heimildir + +Tengill + FĂ©lagsmĂĄlaråðuneytið: MĂĄlefni innflytjenda + HeimasĂða AlĂŸjoðahĂșssins + Lög um Ăslenskan rĂkisborgararĂ©tt. 1952 nr. 100 23. desember + Lög um Ăștlendinga. 2002 nr. 96 15. maĂ + Stefna rĂkisstjĂłrnarinnar um aðlögun innflytjenda, janĂșar 2007 + +FĂłlksflutningar +LĂœĂ°frÊði +EinvĂgi er bardagi tveggja manna ĂĄn afskipta ĂŸriðja aðila. + +EinvĂgi voru ĂŸekkt aðferð til að leysa deilumĂĄl vĂða Ă EvrĂłpu allt fram ĂĄ 20. öld, og tĂłku ĂĄ sig Ăœmsar myndir. Algengt var að tveir menn Ăștkljåðu deilumĂĄl sĂn með skotvopnum eða sverðum, og var ĂŸĂĄ farið að ĂĄkveðnum reglum. +Margir ĂŸekktir menn hafa verið drepnir Ă einvĂgum, t.d. rĂșssneska skĂĄldið Alexander PĂșskĂn sem dĂł Ășr sĂĄrum sĂnum ĂĄrið 1837 eftir einvĂgi við elskhuga eiginkonu sinnar. + +EinvĂgi hafa einnig verið stunduð vĂða annars staðar Ă heiminum, t.d. Ă Villta vestrinu. + +EinvĂgi eru algeng Ă evrĂłpskum miðaldabĂłkmenntum, t.d. riddarasögum og Ăslendingasögum. Ă Ăslendingasögum eru ĂŸau jafnan kölluð hĂłlmgöngur og um ĂŸĂŠr giltu ĂĄkveðnar reglur. DĂŠmi um hĂłlmgöngur mĂĄ til dĂŠmis finna Ă Egils sögu ĂŸar sem segir frĂĄ LjĂłti hinum bleika, hĂłlmgöngumanni, og vĂða annars staðar. + +Ăekktustu einvĂgin Ă bĂłkmenntasögunni er hins vegar að finna Ă Skyttunum ĂŸremur eftir Alexandre Dumas, ĂŸegar D'Artagnan skuldbatt sig til að heyja ĂŸrjĂș einvĂgi Ă röð við skytturnar ĂŸrjĂĄr, Athos, Porthos og Aramis. +EinvĂgi +Dimmu Borgir er sinfĂłnĂsk black metal hljĂłmsveit frĂĄ Noregi. HljĂłmsveitin var upphaflega stofnuð Ă Jessheim Ă AkurshĂșs Ă Noregi ĂĄrið 1993 af Shagrath, Silenoz og Tjodlav. Sveitin gaf skömmu sĂðar Ășt smĂĄskĂfu sem bar nafnið Inn I Evighetens MĂžrke (1994). Ăessi stutta breiðskĂfa seldist upp ĂĄ vikum og sveitin gaf stuttu seinna Ășt breiðskĂfuna For All Tid (1994). + +HljĂłmsveitin ĂŸrĂłaðist Ășr hrĂĄum svartmĂĄlmi yfir Ă melĂłdĂskari ĂĄtt með fleiri meðlimum og hefur haft sinfĂłnĂur og kĂłra Ă tĂłnlist sinni. + +Dimmu Borgir heita eftir hraunmyndununum Dimmuborgum nĂĄlĂŠgt MĂœvatni. + +Meðlimir + Shagrath (Stian Thoresen) - Söngur (1993-) + Silenoz (Sven Atle Kopperud) - GĂtar (1993-) + Galder (Thomas Rune Andersen) - GĂtar (2001-) + +TĂłnleikameðlimir +Daray (Dariusz Brzozowski) â Trommur (2008â) +Gerlioz (Geir Bratland) â HljĂłmborð, hljóðgervlar (2010â) +Victor Brandt â Bassi (2018â) + +Fyrrverandi meðlimir + Mustis (Ăyvind Johan Mustaparta) - HljĂłmborð (1998-2009) + ICS Vortex (Simen Hestnaes) - Bassi og bakraddir (2000-2009) + Archon (Lars Haider) - GĂtar (2000-2000) + Tjodalv (Kenneth Ă kesson) - Trommur (1993-1999) + Astennu (Jamie Stinson) - GĂtar (1997-2000) + Nagash (Stian Arnesen) - Bassi (1997-1999) + Jens Petter - GĂtar (1996-1997) + Brynjard Tristan - Bassi (1993-1996) + Stian Aarstad - HljĂłmborð (1993-1997) + Nicholas Barker - Trommur (1999-2004) + +Ătgefið efni + +BreiðskĂfur + Inn I Evighetens MĂžrke - (1994) + For All Tid - (1994) (endurĂștg. 1997) + StormblĂ„st - (1996) (endurĂștg. 2005) + Devil's Path - (1996) + Enthrone Darkness Triumphant - (1997) (endurĂștg. 2002) + Spiritual Black Dimensions - (1999) (endurĂștg. 2004) + Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia - (2001) + Death Cult Armageddon - (2003) + In Sorte Diaboli - (2007) + Abrahadabra - (2010) + Eonian - (2018) + +Annað + Inspiratio Profanus (2023) Ăbreiðuplata + +Tengill + HeimasĂða Dimmu Borga + +Norskar hljĂłmsveitir +Norskar ĂŸungarokkshljĂłmsveitir +Korn (einnig KoĐŻn) er ĂŸungarokkshljĂłmsveit frĂĄ Bakersfield Ă KalifornĂu. HljĂłmsveitin tilheyrir ĂŸeim undirflokk ĂŸungarokksins sem hefur fengið viðurnefnið nu metal. + +SöguĂĄgrip +Ăður en Korn var stofnuð stofnuðu ĂŸeir James âMunkyâ Shaffer, Reginald âFieldyâ Arvizu, David Silveria og söngvarinn Richard Morales hljĂłmsveitina âLAPDâ eða âLove and Peace Dudeâ en breyttu ĂŸvĂ fljĂłtlega Ă âLaughing as People Dieâ til ĂŸess að vera teknir mun alvarlega. Liðsmenn LAPD fengu sĂðar liðstyrk, gĂtarleikarann Brian âHeadâ Welch og skiptu ĂŸeir um nafn og tĂłku sĂ©r nafnið âCreepâ. ĂĂĄ vantaði söngvara. + +Munky og Head heyrðu Ă Jonathan Davis ĂĄ tĂłnleikum ĂĄ bar Ă Bakersfield sem var ĂŸĂĄ með hljĂłmsveitinni âSexartâ. Eftir tĂłnleikana spurðu ĂŸeir Davis hvort hann hafði ĂĄhuga að prufa syngja fyrir hljĂłmsveitina ĂŸeirra. Ăr var hljĂłmsveitin Korn sem gaf Ășt sitt fyrsta demo ĂĄrið 1993. + +Fyrsta platan ĂŸeirra kom Ășt ĂĄrið 1994 og hlaut nafnið Korn. + +Meðlimir + + Jonathan Hauseman Davis (söngur, sekkjapĂpa) 1993- + Reginald Quincy âFieldyâ Arvizu (bassi) 1993- + Ray Luzier (trommur) 2007- + James âMunkyâ Shaffer (gĂtar) 1993- + Brian âHeadâ Welch (gĂtar) 1993-2005 / 2013- + +Fyrrum meðlimir + David Silveria (Trommur) 1993-2006 + +Ătgefið efni + +BreiðskĂfur + Korn (1994) + Life Is Peachy (1996) + Follow the Leader (1998) + Issues (1999) + Untouchables (2002) + Take a Look in the Mirror (2003) + See You On The Other Side (2005) + Untitled (2007) + III: Remember Who You Are (2010) + The Path of Totality (2011) + The Paradigm Shift (2013) + The Serenity of Suffering (2016) + The Nothing (2019) + Requiem (2022) + +Tengill + HeimasĂða Korn + +BandarĂskar rokkhljĂłmsveitir +BandarĂskar ĂŸungarokkshljĂłmsveitir +Stofnað 1993 +Fimleikar eru ĂĂŸrĂłtt sem felur Ă sĂ©r ĂŠfingar sem ĂŸarfnast styrks, liðleika, lipurðar, samhĂŠfingar og jafnvĂŠgis. Ă Ăslandi eru fimleikar Ă grĂðarlegri sĂłkn og er nĂș svo komið að ĂĂŸrĂłttin er sĂș fjĂłrða mest stundaða ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ eftir, knattspyrnu, golfi og hestaĂĂŸrĂłttum. Fimleikar eru jafnframt nĂŠst mest stundaða ĂĂŸrĂłtt 16 ĂĄra og yngri og nĂŠst mest stundaða kvennaĂĂŸrĂłttin.. + +Fimleikum er stĂœrt af AlĂŸjóða fimleikasambandinu (FIG) og Ă EvrĂłpu af EvrĂłpska fimleikasambandinu (UEG). + +Fimleika er hĂŠgt að stunda sem einstaklingsĂĂŸrĂłtt eða hĂłpĂĂŸrĂłtt. Ă EvrĂłpu skiptast fimleikar Ă 7 aðalgreinar: Ăhaldafimleika, HĂłpfimleika, NĂștĂmafimleika, TrampolĂn, Ăolfimi, SĂœningarfimleika og Almenningsfimleika. Ă Ăslandi eru Ă dag stundaðar ĂŸrjĂĄr af ĂŸessum aðalgreinum: Ăhaldafimleikar, HĂłpfimleikar og Almenningsfimleikar. + +Ă ĂĄhaldafimleikum er ĂŠfingar gerðar ĂĄ mismunandi ĂĄhöldum. Ăau eru gĂłlf, stökk, kvennatvĂslĂĄ, slĂĄ, karlatvĂslĂĄ (samsĂða), bogahestur, hringir og svifrĂĄ. Markmiðið er að gera eins flĂłknar ĂŠfingar og hĂŠgt er. Ekki mĂĄ ĂŸĂł gera of flĂłknar ĂŠfingar ĂŸvĂ að maður verður að geta råðið við ĂŸĂŠr til að geta gert fallegra. Fimleikar reyna ĂŸvĂ mikið ĂĄ kraft, jafnvĂŠgi, fimi og að geta hugsað um margt Ă einu. + +Ăegar maður er að keppa er dĂłmari sem gefur einkunn, sĂĄ vinnur sem fĂŠr hĂŠstu einkunn. Gefið er einkunn fyrir erfiðaleikastig atriðsins og framkvĂŠmd ĂŸess. + +Saga +Fimleikar byrjuðu sem ĂŠfing Ă forn Grikklandi, Spörtu og AĂŸenu. F.L. Jahn er talin vera faðir fimleikanna. Hann opnaði ĂĂŸrĂłttasvÊði fyrir fimleika Ă ĂĂœskalandi ĂĄrið 1811 og ĂŸað er talað um að saga fimleikanna hafi hafist ĂŸĂĄ. 5 ĂĄrum seinna gaf hann Ășt bĂłkina Die deutsche Turnkunst (ĂĂœska fimleikalistin). Jahn samdi hana með nemenda sĂnum E. Eiselen. RĂ©tt fyrir 1900 breiddust fimleikar Ășt til annarra landa Ă EvrĂłpu. Fyrsta ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lagið ĂĄ Ăslandi sem hĂŠgt var að ĂŠfa fimleika var ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur (ĂR) Sem var stofnað ĂĄrið 1907. Fyrsta fimleikamĂłt Ăslands var haldið ĂĄrið 1924 og ĂŸað var hĂłpfimleikamĂłt og ĂŸar hlaut ĂR sigur. Fyrsta einstaklingsfimleikamĂłtið var haldið 1927. ĂĂĄ voru einungis karlar Ă fimleikum. MĂłt var haldið ĂĄrlega ĂŸangað til 1938. Aftur var byrjað að halda mĂłt ĂĄrið 1968 og voru konur ĂŸĂĄ meðal ĂŸĂĄtttakenda. + +Greinar + +Almennir fimleikar +Ăegar fĂłlk byrjar að ĂŠfa fimleika byrjar ĂŸað Ă almennum fimleikum og velur svo hvort ĂŸað ĂŠtli Ă ĂĄhaldafimleika, hĂłpfimleika eða ĂŸolfimi. + +Ăhaldafimleikar +Ăhaldafimleikar skiptast eftir kyni Ă Ăhaldafimleika Karla og Ăhaldafimleika Kvenna. Karlar keppa ĂĄ sex ĂĄhöldum: gĂłlfi, bogahesti, hringjum, stökki, karlatvĂslĂĄ (samsĂða) og svifrĂĄ, ĂĄ meðan konur keppa ĂĄ fjĂłrum ĂĄhöldum: stökki, kvennatvĂslĂĄ, jafnvĂŠgisslĂĄ og ĂĄ gĂłlfi. + +Ă Ăslandi er keppt eftir Ăslenska fimleikastiganum sem getur tekið breytingum ĂĄ milli ĂĄra. + +Greinar Ă Ăhaldafimleikum kvenna + +StökkĂ stökki hleypur keppandi eftir 25m hlaupabraut, stekkur ĂĄ fjaðurbretti, setur hendurnar Ă hestinn og fer 1-2 heljarstökk með snĂșningum. + +KvennatvĂslĂĄKeppandi gerir ĂŠfingar ĂĄ tveim slĂĄm sem eru Ă Ăłjafnri hÊð frĂĄ gĂłlfi. + +JafnvĂŠgisslĂĄĂfingin mĂĄ taka allt að 90 sekĂșndur. SlĂĄin er 125 cm frĂĄ gĂłlfi, 500 cm að lengd og 10 cm breið. + +GĂłlfĂŠfingarĂfingarnar eru framkvĂŠmdar ĂĄ gĂłlfi sem er 12m x 12m. GĂłlfið er yfirleitt samansett ĂŸannig að efsta lag ĂŸess er fĂnofið teppi sem er lagt ofanĂĄ krossviðslag, ĂŸar undir eru svo harðir svampkubbar sem gera ĂŸað að verkum að gĂłlfið fjaðrar. Hver keppandi keppir Ă allt að 90 sekĂșndur eftir tĂłnlist.ĂĄ milli gerir keppandin serĂur sem gilda mismikið + +Greinar Ă Ăhaldafimleikum karla + +GĂłlfĂŠfingar + +Bogahestur + +Hringir + +Stökk + +KarlatvĂslĂĄ + +SvifrĂĄ + +HĂłpfimleikar +Ă HĂłpfimleikum er keppt Ă GĂłlfĂŠfingu, TrampolĂnstökki og ĂĄ FĂberdĂœnu. Keppt er Ăœmist eftir Landsreglum eða Team gym reglum. Landsreglur eru reglur sem einungis eru notaðar hĂ©r ĂĄ landi og meira svigrĂșm er fyrir keppendur að taka ĂŸĂĄtt Ă fleiri umferðum. Team gym reglur eru sam-evrĂłpskar reglur UEG sem notaðar eru ĂŸegar lið eru að keppast um að komast ĂĄ norðurlanda- og/eða evrĂłpumĂłt. Reglurnar ĂŸar eru örlĂtið strangari hvað varðar fjölda keppenda og val ĂŠfinga. Einnig er keppt eftir Team-gym reglum ĂĄ evrĂłpu- og norðurlandamĂłtum. Ă hĂłpfimleikum er keppt Ă ĂŸrem flokkum: Kvennalið Karlalið og svo Mix-lið sem samanstendur af jafnmörgum keppendum af båðum kynjum. Ărið 2006 kepptu fyrstu Ăslensku mix-liðin ĂĄ Ăslandi (Stjarnan/Björk og Ărmann/GrĂłtta)og fyrstu karlaliðin ĂĄrið ĂŸar ĂĄ eftir (Stjarnan og Ărmann). +Gerpla var unglingameistari ĂĄrin 2005, 2006 og 2007. + +GĂłlfĂŠfingĂ dansi dansar allur hĂłpurinn saman (6-20 keppendur Ă Landsreglum en 12 Ă Team gym reglum)og mikilvĂŠgt er að allir sĂ©u samtaka. Reglur eru um munstur, val ĂŠfinga, samsetningu og tĂłnlist. + +TrampolĂnstökkĂar er stokkið af litlu trampolĂni og gerðar eru kĂșnstir Ă loftinu, svo sem skrĂșfur eða heljarstökk. Ă trampolĂni er keppt Ă ĂŸremur umferðum, ein umferð ĂĄn hests og ein ĂĄ hesti og svo ein umferð annaðhvort ĂĄ hesti eða ekki. HĂĄmark keppenda er tĂu og lĂĄgmark sex Ă hverri umferð Ă landsreglunum. Ă Team-gym eru einungis sex keppendur Ă hverri umferð. Alltaf eru framkvĂŠmdar ĂŸrjĂĄr umferðir. Ă fyrstu umferð framkvĂŠma allir sömu ĂŠfinguna en Ă annarri og ĂŸriðju umferð mĂĄ skipta Ășt keppendum og ĂŠfingarnar mega vera mismunandi en ĂŸĂł verða ĂŸĂŠr allar að vera Ășr sama flokki og með stĂganda. Sama keppnisfyrirkomulag er ĂĄ fĂberdĂœnu og trampolĂn. + +FĂberdĂœnaĂ fĂberdĂœnu er hĂĄmark keppenda tĂu og lĂĄgmark sex eins er ĂŸað ĂĄ stökki. Ă dĂœnu er hĂĄmark keppenda tĂu og lĂĄgmark sex Ă hverri umferð Ă landsreglunum. Ă Team-gym eru einungis sex keppendur Ă hverri umferð. Alltaf eru framkvĂŠmdar ĂŸrjĂĄr umferðir. Ă fyrstu umferð framkvĂŠma allir keppendur sömu ĂŠfinguna. Ă annarri og ĂŸriðju umferð mĂĄ skipta Ășt keppendum og ĂŠfingarnar meiga mismunandi en ĂŸĂł verða ĂŸĂŠr allar að vera Ășr sama flokki og með stĂganda. En Ăað ĂŸarf að vera að minnsta kosti ein umferð fram og ein umferð afturĂĄbak, ĂŸriðja umferðin fram eða afturĂĄbak. + +Allir keppendur ĂŸurfa að vera Ă eins göllum og snyrtilega greiddir. DĂłmarar geta dregið frĂĄ ef reglur um bĂșninga eru brotnar. + +Ăolfimi +MagnĂșs Scheving er frĂŠgasti ĂŸolfimimaður Ăslendinga. + +Heimildir + + ĂSĂ (2010). TölfrÊðihefti. + +Tenglar + Fimleikasamband Ăslands + www.fimleikar.is + +TilvĂsanir +Edduverðlaunin eru Ăslensk sjĂłnvarps- og kvikmyndaverðlaun veitt af Ăslensku sjĂłnvarps- og kvikmyndaakademĂunni fyrir bestu frammistöðu og verk sĂ©rhvers ĂĄrs Ă nokkrum verðlaunaflokkum. + +Edduverðlaunin voru fyrst veitt 15. nĂłvember 1999 og hafa verið nĂŠr ĂĄrlegur viðburður sĂðan. + +Verðlaunaflokkar +Verðlaunaflokkarnir ĂĄ Edduverðlaununum hafa tekið breytingum frĂĄ ĂĄri til ĂĄrs. Upphaflega voru veitt verðlaun Ă ĂĄtta flokkum, en nĂș eru flokkarnir fleiri en 25. LanglĂfustu flokkarnir eru til dĂŠmis kvikmynd ĂĄrsins, leikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins og heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins sem hafa verið ĂŸeir sömu frĂĄ upphafi. Verðlaun fyrir leikara Ă aðal- og aukahlutverkum hafa verið sitt ĂĄ hvað kynjaskipt eða sameiginleg Ă gegnum tĂðina. Verðlaun fyrir sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂŠtti hafa breyst til að taka mið af framleiðslunni hverju sinni og svokölluð fagverðlaun (fyrir leikmynd, bĂșninga, förðun o.s.frv.) hafa lĂka verið með Ăœmsum hĂŠtti. + +Heiðursverðlaun ĂKSA hafa verið veitt Ă hvert sinn fyrir sĂ©rstakt framlag eða ĂŠvistarf Ă ĂŸĂĄgu kvikmynda- og dagskrĂĄrgerðar ĂĄ Ăslandi. Fyrsti handhafi heiðursverðlaunanna var Indriði G. Ăorsteinsson rithöfundur. + +Tenglar + Vefur verðlaunanna +Edduverðlaunin 1999 voru fyrsta afhending Edduverðlauna nĂœstofnaðrar Ăslenskrar kvikmynda- og sjĂłnvarpsakademĂu sem fĂłr fram Ă BorgarleikhĂșsinu ĂŸann 15. nĂłvember 1999. Kynnir kvöldsins var , framkvĂŠmdastjĂłri Kvikmyndasjóðs. Veitt voru verðlaun Ă ĂĄtta flokkum auk sĂ©rstakra heiðursverðlauna fyrir sĂ©rstakt framlag til sjĂłnvarps eða kvikmyndagerðar. Kvikmynd GuðnĂœjar HalldĂłrsdĂłttur, UngfrĂșin góða og hĂșsið, eftir sögu HalldĂłrs Laxness, hreppti fimm viðurkenningar. Afhendingin var sĂœnd Ă beinni Ăștsendingu ĂĄ Stöð 2. + +Handhafar Edduverðlaunanna 1999 + +BĂĂłmynd ĂĄrsins + +LeikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins + +Leikari ĂĄrsins + +Leikkona ĂĄrsins + +Heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins + +SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttur ĂĄrsins + +Leikið sjĂłnvarpsefni ĂĄrsins + +Fagverðlaun + +Heiðursverðlaun ĂKSA 1999 + +Framlag Ăslands til forvals Ăskarsins + +Edduverðlaunin +Edduverðlaunin 2000 voru afhending Edduverðlauna Ăslensku kvikmynda- og sjĂłnvarpsakademĂunnar Ă ĂjóðleikhĂșsinu sunnudaginn 19. nĂłvember ĂĄrið 2000. Veitt voru verðlaun Ă ellefu flokkum, en nĂœir flokkar voru leikari og leikkona Ă aukahlutverkum. Auk ĂŸess var tekið upp ĂĄ ĂŸeirri nĂœjung að velja sjĂłnvarpsmann ĂĄrsins Ă netkosningu sem fram fĂłr ĂĄ vefnum mbl.is. StjĂłrnendur voru JĂłn ĂrsĂŠll ĂĂłrðarson, sjĂłnvarpsmaður og Steinunn ĂlĂna ĂorsteinsdĂłttir, leikkona. + +Mikið var rĂŠtt um kosningasmalanir, ĂĄróður og jafnvel mĂștur fyrir kosningu akademĂunnar Ășr tilnefningum dĂłmnefndar. Almenningur gat einnig kosið à öllum flokkum ĂĄ mbl.is og giltu ĂŸau atkvÊði 30% ĂĄ mĂłti 70% vĂŠgi atkvÊða akademĂunnar nema Ă kosningunni um sjĂłnvarpsmann ĂĄrsins ĂŸar sem atkvÊði almennings giltu 100%. + +Kvikmyndin Englar alheimsins eftir Friðrik ĂĂłr Friðriksson, byggð ĂĄ bĂłk Einars MĂĄs Guðmundssonar, hlaut flestar tilnefningar, ĂĄtta talsins og sjö verðlaun auk ĂŸess að vera valin sem framlag Ăslands til forvals Ăskarsverðlaunanna. + +Tilnefningar og handhafar Edduverðlaunanna +Handhafar verðlauna Ă hverjum flokki eru feitletraðir. + +BĂĂłmynd ĂĄrsins + +LeikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins + +Leikari ĂĄrsins + +Leikkona ĂĄrsins + +Leikari ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki + +Leikkona ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki + +Heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins + +SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttur ĂĄrsins + +SjĂłnvarpsverk ĂĄrsins + +SjĂłnvarpsmaður ĂĄrsins + +Fagverðlaun ĂĄrsins + +Heiðursverðlaun ĂKSA 2000 + +Framlag Ăslands til forvals Ăskarsverðlaunanna + +Edduverðlaunin +Edduverðlaunin 2001 voru ĂŸriðja afhending Edduverðlauna Ăslensku kvikmynda- og sjĂłnvarpsakademĂunnar. Afhendingin fĂłr fram ĂĄ veitingastaðnum Broadway 11. nĂłvember 2001. FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu åður bĂŠttust við tveir nĂœir verðlaunaflokkar, âHandrit ĂĄrsinsâ og âSjĂłnvarpsfrĂ©ttamaður ĂĄrsinsâ, og voru ĂŸvĂ veitt verðlaun Ă ĂŸrettĂĄn flokkum auk heiðursverðlauna ĂKSA. Einnig voru Ă fyrsta sinn stuttmyndir teknar með Ă flokknum âSjĂłnvarpsverk/leikið sjĂłnvarpsefni ĂĄrsinsâ. Almenningi gafst tĂŠkifĂŠri til að hafa ĂĄhrif með netkosningu en mest vĂŠgi à öllum flokkum nema flokknum âvinsĂŠlasti sjĂłnvarpsmaður ĂĄrsinsâ höfðu ĂŸĂł atkvÊði meðlima akademĂunnar. + +Aðalkynnar kvöldsins voru Valgeir GuðjĂłnsson, tĂłnlistarmaður og Edda HeiðrĂșn Backman, leikkona. Verðlaunaafhendingunni var sjĂłnvarpað beint Ă RĂkissjĂłnvarpinu. + +Mesta athygli vakti að kvikmyndin MĂĄvahlĂĄtur eftir ĂgĂșst Guðmundsson hlaut alls tĂu tilnefningar og sex verðlaun og var valin framlag Ăslands til forvals Ăskarsverðlaunanna. + +Tilnefningar og handhafar Edduverðlaunanna 2001 +Handhafar Edduverðlaunanna Ă hverjum flokki eru feitletraðir og gulllitaðir. + +BĂĂłmynd ĂĄrsins + +SjĂłnvarpsverk/stuttmynd ĂĄrsins + +Handrit ĂĄrsins + +LeikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins + +FrĂ©ttamaður ĂĄrsins + +SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttur ĂĄrsins + +VinsĂŠlasti sjĂłnvarpsmaður ĂĄrsins + +Fagverðlaun ĂĄrsins + +Heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins + +Leikkona ĂĄrsins + +Leikari ĂĄrsins + +Leikkona ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki + +Leikari ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki + +Heiðursverðlaun ĂKSA 2001 + +Framlag Ăslands til forvals Ăskarsins + +Edduverðlaunin +Edduverðlaunin 2002 voru afhending Edduverðlauna Ăslensku kvikmynda- og sjĂłnvarpsakademĂunnar Ă ĂjóðleikhĂșsinu 10. nĂłvember 2002. Veitt voru verðlaun Ă sextĂĄn flokkum auk heiðursverðlauna ĂKSA sem var ĂŸremur fleira en ĂĄrið åður. Fagverðlaunum ĂĄrsins var nĂș skipt Ă tvennt og veitt sĂ©rstök verðlaun fyrir annars vegar hljóð og mynd og hins vegar Ăștlit myndar. Að auki var bĂŠtt við flokkunum âStuttmynd ĂĄrsinsâ og âTĂłnlistarmyndband ĂĄrsinsâ. + +Aðalkynnar hĂĄtĂðarinnar voru Valgerður MatthĂasdĂłttir og Logi Bergmann Eiðsson. + +Kvikmynd Baltasars KormĂĄks, Hafið, var aðsĂłpsmest ĂĄ hĂĄtĂðinni og fĂ©kk alls ĂĄtta verðlaun. Einnig vakti athygli að tölvuteiknuð stuttmynd, Litla lirfan ljĂłta, fĂ©kk tvĂŠr tilnefningar og ein verðlaun. + +Tilnefningar og handhafar Edduverðlaunanna +Handhafar verðlauna Ă hverjum flokki eru feitletraðir og gulllitaðir. + +BĂĂłmynd ĂĄrsins + +LeikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins + +Leikkona ĂĄrsins + +Leikari ĂĄrsins + +Leikkona ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki + +Leikari ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki + +Handrit ĂĄrsins + +SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttur ĂĄrsins + +Ătlit myndar + +Hljóð og mynd + +Leikið sjĂłnvarpsverk ĂĄrsins + +Heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins + +Stuttmynd ĂĄrsins + +TĂłnlistarmyndband ĂĄrsins + +FrĂ©ttamaður ĂĄrsins + +SjĂłnvarpsmaður ĂĄrsins + +Heiðursverðlaun ĂKSA 2002 + +Framlag Ăslands til forvals Ăskarsins + +Edduverðlaunin +Edduverðlaunin 2003 voru afhending Edduverðlauna Ăslensku kvikmynda- og sjĂłnvarpsakademĂunnar sem fĂłr fram ĂĄ HĂłtel Nordica, föstudagskvöldið 10. oktĂłber 2003. Aðalkynnar ĂĄ hĂĄtĂðinni voru Eva MarĂa JĂłnsdĂłttir og Sverrir ĂĂłr Sverrisson. ĂĂŠr breytingar urðu ĂĄ verðlaunaflokkum að flokkurinn âleikið sjĂłnvarpsverk ĂĄrsinsâ var lagður niður og voru ĂŸvĂ veitt verðlaun Ă fimmtĂĄn flokkum auk heiðursverðlauna ĂKSA. + +Kvikmynd Dags KĂĄra, NĂłi albĂnĂłi, var tvĂmĂŠlalaust sigursĂŠlust ĂĄ ĂŸessari afhendingu með tĂu tilnefningar og sex verðlaun auk ĂŸess að vera valin sem framlag Ăslands til forvals Ăskarsverðlaunanna. + +Tilnefningar og handhafar Edduverðlaunanna +Handhafar verðlauna Ă hverjum flokki eru feitletraðir. + +Leikari ĂĄrsins Ă aðalhlutverki + +Leikkona ĂĄrsins Ă aðalhlutverki + +Leikari ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki + +Leikkona ĂĄrsins Ă aukahlutverki + +SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttur ĂĄrsins + +SjĂłnvarpsfrĂ©ttamaður ĂĄrsins + +Heimildarmynd ĂĄrsins + +Hljóð og mynd + +Ătlit myndar + +Handrit ĂĄrsins + +LeikstjĂłri ĂĄrsins + +BĂĂłmynd ĂĄrsins + +Stuttmynd ĂĄrsins + +TĂłnlistarmyndband ĂĄrsins + +Heiðursverðlaun ĂKSA 2003 + +SjĂłnvarpsmaður ĂĄrsins + +Framlag Ăslands til Ăskarsforvals + +Edduverðlaunin +Rammstein er ĂŸĂœsk ĂŸungarokkhljĂłmsveit sem stofnuð var ĂĄrið 1994 Ă BerlĂn. Ă tĂłnlist Rammstein gĂŠtir mikilla ĂĄhrifa frĂĄ raftĂłnlist og iðnaðarrokki. Einnig eru ĂĄhrif frĂĄ slĂłvensku sveitinni Laibach. Rammstein er kennd við bylgju rokks Ă ĂĂœskalandi og AusturrĂki sem kennd er við Neue Deutsche HĂ€rte, nĂœju ĂŸĂœsku hörkuna. Textar Rammstein eru nĂŠr eingöngu ĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku en nokkrir eru ĂĄ ensku. + +HljĂłmsveitin +Allir meðlimir hljĂłmsveitarinnar koma frĂĄ fyrrverandi Austur-ĂĂœskalandi, Austur-BerlĂn og Schwerin nĂĄnar tiltekið. Nafn sveitarinnar er dregið af bĂŠnum Ramstein Ă Suður-ĂĂœskalandi ĂŸar sem mannskĂŠtt slys varð ĂĄ flugsĂœningu ĂĄrið 1988, lagið Rammstein er samið til minningar um ĂŸann atburð. Með ĂŸvĂ að bĂŠta inn einu âmâ Ă viðbĂłt Ă nafn bĂŠjarins er hĂŠgt að ĂŸĂœĂ°a ĂŸað sem âað berja Ă steinâ sem ĂŸykir viðeigandi miðað kraftmikla og ĂĄleitna tĂłnlist sveitarinnar. + +Riedel, Schneider og Kruspe-Bernstein stofnuðu Rammstein upphaflega en sĂĄ sĂðastnefndi hafði ĂŸĂĄ um skeið verið viðriðinn hljĂłmsveitina Orgasm Death Gimmicks sem starfaði Ă Vestur-BerlĂn og gerði tĂłnlist að amerĂskri fyrirmynd. Kruspe-Bernstein sagði um ĂŸetta: âĂg ĂĄttaði mig ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸað er mjög mikilvĂŠgt að bĂșa til tĂłnlist og lĂĄta hana passa við tungumĂĄlið ĂŸitt sem Ă©g hafði ekki verið að gera åður. Ăg kom aftur [til ĂĂœskalands] og sagði: âĂað er kominn tĂmi til að bĂșa til tĂłnlist sem er ekta.â Ăg stofnaði ĂŸĂĄ til verkefnisins sem kallast Rammstein, til ĂŸess að bĂșa til alvöru ĂŸĂœska tĂłnlist.â ĂvĂ nĂŠst höfðu ĂŸeir samband við Lindemann, ĂŸĂĄverandi körfuvefara og trommuleikara Ă hljĂłmsveit sem kallaði sig First Arsch og buðu honum stöðu sem söngvari Ă sveitinni sem hann og ĂŸĂĄĂ°i. Ăannig skipuð tĂłk sveitin ĂŸĂĄtt Ă hljĂłmsveitakeppni fyrir nĂœjar hljĂłmsveitir og sigraði Ă henni. Ăannig kviknaði ĂĄhugi Landers ĂĄ sveitinni en hann ĂŸekkti alla meðlimi hennar fyrir og ĂĄkvað að ganga til liðs við hana. SĂðasti meðlimurinn var âFlakeâ Lorenz, hann hafði spilað með Landers Ă hljĂłmsveitinni Feeling B, hann var Ă fyrstu tregur til að ganga til liðs við sveitina en lĂ©t ĂŸĂł sannfĂŠrast að lokum, ĂĄri sĂðar kom fyrsta platan Ășt. + +ĂrĂĄtt fyrir að syngja langmest ĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku ĂŸĂĄ nĂœtur hljĂłmsveitin mikilla vinsĂŠlda vĂða utan ĂĂœskalands og eftir ĂștgĂĄfu Reise, Reise ĂĄrið 2004 varð hĂșn vinsĂŠlasta ĂŸĂœskumĂŠlandi hljĂłmsveit allra tĂma. + +Rammstein hĂ©lt tvenna tĂłnleika ĂĄ Ăslandi, ĂŸĂĄ fyrstu 15. jĂșnĂ 2001 ĂŸar sem HAM hitaði upp fyrir ĂŸĂĄ og ĂŸĂĄ sĂðari 16. jĂșnĂ 2001 með Kanada en ĂŸeir tĂłnleikar voru haldnir sökum ĂŸess að ekki fengu allir miða sem vildu ĂĄ ĂŸĂĄ fyrri ĂŸĂł svo að fyrri tĂłnleikarnir hafi verið markaðssettir undir ĂŸvĂ yfirskyni að ekki vĂŠri möguleiki ĂĄ að haldnir yrðu aukatĂłnleikar. Rammstein hĂ©lt einnig tĂłnleika ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă maĂ 2016. + +Rammstein ollu hneykslan ĂŸann 18. september 2009 ĂŸegar ĂŸeir settu myndband við lagið sitt "Pussy" ĂĄ netið, en ĂŸað ĂŸĂłtti helst minna ĂĄ atriði Ășr grĂłfri klĂĄmmynd. Ăar koma hljĂłmsveitameðlimir fram alnaktir Ă samförum við kvenmenn, en ĂŸĂĄ er lĂkama Flake Lorenz einnig breytt Ă kvennmannslĂkama. Einnig töldu ĂŸĂœsk yfirvöld að lagið hvatti til kynlĂfs ĂĄn getnaðarvarna. + +NĂŠstu ĂĄr fĂłr hljĂłmsveitin ĂĄ tĂłnleikaferðalög og tĂłnleika- og safnskĂfur komu Ășt. Lindemann og Kruspe gĂĄfu Ășt sĂłlĂłplötur. Ărið 2019 gaf hljĂłmsveitin Ășt smĂĄskĂfuna Deutschland og kom platan Rammstein Ășt Ă maĂ ĂŸað ĂĄr, 10 ĂĄrum eftir sĂðustu breiðskĂfu. + +Meðlimir + Richard Z. Kruspe-Bernstein â gĂtar + Paul Landers â gĂtar + Till Lindemann â söngur + Oliver Riedel â bassi + Christoph âDoomâ Schneider â trommur + Christian âFlakeâ Lorenz â hljĂłmborð + +ĂtgĂĄfur + +BreiðskĂfur + Herzeleid, 1995 + Sehnsucht, 1997 + Live aus Berlin, 1999 + Mutter, 2001 + Reise, Reise, 2004 + Rosenrot, 2005 + Liebe ist ĂŒr alle da, 2009 + Rammstein 2019 + Zeit (2022) + +SmĂĄskĂfur + Du riechst so gut (1995) + Seemann (1996) + Engel, Fan-Edition (1997) + Engel (1997) + Du hast (1997) + Das Modell (1997) + Du riechst so gut '98 (1998) + Stripped (1998) + SmĂĄskĂfusafn (1998) + Sonne (2001) + Links 2 3 4 (2001) + Ich will (2001) + Mutter (2002) + Feuer frei! (2002) + Mein Teil (2004) + Amerika (2004) + Ohne Dich (2004) + Keine Lust (2005) + Benzin (2005) + Rosenrot (2005) + Mann Gegen Mann (2005) + Pussy (2009) + Ich tuh dir weh (2010) + Haifisch (2010) + Waidmanns Heil/Liebe ist fĂŒr alle da (2011) + Mein Land (2011) + Mein Herz Brennt (2012) + Deutschland (2019) + Radio (2019) + Zeit (2022) + Zick Zack (2022) + Angst (2022) + Dicke Titten (2022) + Adieu (2022) + +Myndbönd + Du Riechst so Gut + Seemann + Rammstein + Engel + Du Hast + Du Riechst so Gut '98 + Stripped + Sonne + Links 2-3-4 + Ich Will + Mutter + Feuer Frei! + Mein Teil + Amerika + Ohne Dich + Keine Lust + Benzin + Rosenrot + Mann Gegen Mann + Pussy + Haifisch + Mein Land + Mein Herz brennt + Deutchsland + Zick Zack (2022) + Angst (2022) + Dicke Titten (2022) + Adieu (2022) + +DVD/tĂłnleikar + Live Aus Berlin (1999) + Links 2 3 4 (2001) + Lichtspielhaus (2003) + Völkerball (2006) + Videos 1995 - 2012 (2012) + Rammstein in Amerika (2015) + Rammstein: Paris (2017) + +Tenglar + HeimasĂða hljĂłmsveitarinnar + +ĂĂœskar ĂŸungarokkshljĂłmsveitir +Eftirfarandi er listi yfir Ăslenska tĂłnlistarmenn. Listinn er ekki tĂŠmandi. + +20. öld + Atli Heimir Sveinsson + Ăsi Ă BĂŠ (Ăstgeir Kristinn Ălafsson) (1914â1985) + Bjarni Tryggvason (1963-) + Bjartmar Guðlaugsson (1952-) + Björgvin Guðmundsson (1891-1961) + Björgvin GĂslason + Björgvin HalldĂłrsson + Björk GuðmundsdĂłttir (1965-) + Bubbi Morthens (Ăsbjörn Morthens) (1956-) + Egill Ălafsson + Einar Vilberg Hjartarson + Elly VilhjĂĄlms + EyĂŸĂłr ĂorlĂĄksson + Gunnar ĂĂłrðarson + Guðmundur JĂłnsson (söngvari) + Haukur Morthens + Helena EyjĂłlfsdĂłttir + Helgi Björnsson + Ingimar Eydal + Ingi T. LĂĄrusson + JĂłn Leifs + JĂłn Kr. Ălafsson + KarĂłlĂna EirĂksdĂłttir + KristjĂĄn KristjĂĄnsson (KK) + Loftur Guðmundsson (1892â1952) + MagnĂșs Blöndal + Megas (MagnĂșs ĂĂłr JĂłnsson) (1945-) + Ămar Ragnarsson + Oddgeir KristjĂĄnsson (1911â1966) + PĂĄll Ăskar HjĂĄlmtĂœsson + PĂĄlmi Gunnarsson + PĂ©tur Wigelund KristjĂĄnsson (1952â2004) + Pjetur StefĂĄnsson (1953-) + Ragnar Bjarnason + Roar Kvam + RĂșnar JĂșlĂusson + SigfĂșs HalldĂłrsson + Sigvaldi KaldalĂłns + StefĂĄn Hilmarsson + SteingrĂmur Ăli Sigurðarson + VilhjĂĄlmur VilhjĂĄlmsson + Ăorgeir Ăstvaldsson + Ăorkell Sigurbjörnsson + ĂurĂður SigurðardĂłttir + +21. öld + Ăki Ăsgeirsson + Ăsgeir Trausti + Egill Ălafsson + EmilĂana Torrini + G. Dan Gunnarsson + Guðmundur Steinn Gunnarsson + Garðar Cortes + G. Magni Ăsgeirsson + HafdĂs BjarnadĂłttir + HafdĂs Huld ĂrastardĂłttir + Haffi Haff + Hansa + Heimir Eyvindarson + Heiða Hrönn JĂłhannsdĂłttir + Hera HjartardĂłttir + Hlynur Aðils Vilmarsson + Hreiðar Ingi Ăorsteinsson + Ingi Garðar Erlendsson + Jens Ălafsson + JĂłnas Sig + JĂșnĂus Meyvant + Karl Henry HĂĄkonarson + MagnĂșs Jensson + Mugison (Ărn ElĂas Guðmundsson) + Oddur Hrafn Björgvinsson + Ălafur Björn Ălafsson + PĂĄll Ivan PĂĄlsson + PĂ©tur ĂĂłr Benediktsson + Prins PĂłlĂł + Ragnheiður Gröndal + RĂkharður H. Friðriksson + RĂłbert Reynisson + RĂșnar ĂĂłrisson + SmĂĄri JĂłsepsson + StefĂĄn I. ĂĂłrhallsson + StefĂĄn Jakobsson (Jak) + Svala BjörgvinsdĂłttir + SĂŠvar Helgason + Valur SnĂŠr Gunnarsson (1976-) + ĂĂłrir Gunnarsson + +Listar tengdir Ăslandi +Ăslenskir tĂłnlistarmenn +TĂłnlistarmenn +Ăslenskir tĂłnlistarmenn +Listar yfir tĂłnlistarfĂłlk +Bjartmar Anton Guðlaugsson (f. 13. jĂșnĂ 1952) er Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður, skĂĄld og myndlistarmaður sem hĂłf að gefa Ășt tĂłnlist ĂĄ nĂunda ĂĄratug 20. aldar. Lögin SĂșrmjĂłlk Ă hĂĄdeginu (og Cheerios ĂĄ kvöldin), TĂœnda kynslóðin, FimmtĂĄn ĂĄra ĂĄ föstu, Sumarliði er fullur, Negril, JĂĄrnkarlinn, og Ăannig tĂœnist tĂminn eru meðal vinsĂŠlla laga hans. + +Ferill +Ă tĂunda ĂĄratugnum flutti Bjartmar til Danmerkur Ă fimm ĂĄr og hĂłf ĂŸar m.a. myndlistarnĂĄm. Hann hĂłf feril sinn sem laga- og textahöfundur ĂĄrið 1977. +Bjartmar var einn vinsĂŠlasti tĂłnlistarmaður ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂĄ nĂunda ĂĄratugnum, slĂł Ă gegn ĂĄrið 1987 ĂŸegar hann gaf Ășt vinsĂŠlustu plötu sĂna Ă fylgd með fullorðnum. Platan var nĂŠstsöluhĂŠsta plata ĂĄrsins. + +Plötunni fylgdi hann eftir að ĂĄri með Með vottorð Ă leikfimi. âTĂmi ĂŸverslaufupoppsins er liðinnâ, sagði Bjartmar Ă viðtali við Dagblaðið VĂsi ĂĄrið 1986 og hafði nĂș sĂœnt fram ĂĄ ĂŸað svo ekki var um að villast. + +Ăður en hann slĂł Ă gegn með Ă fylgd með fullorðnum, skrifaði Bjartmar texta fyrir aðra með góðum ĂĄrangri, meðal annars fyrir Ăorgeir Ăstvaldsson, Björk o.fl. Hann hafði einnig gefið Ășt breiðskĂfurnar Ef Ă©g mĂŠtti råða og Venjulegur maður auk smĂĄskĂfunnar ĂĂĄ sjaldan maður lyftir sĂ©r upp, sem hann gerði Ă samstarfi við PĂ©tur. + +Bjartmari hefur oft tekist að fanga tĂðarandann Ă textum sĂnum og notast við satĂrun, t.d. Ă laginu um BastĂan. Textinn fjallar um ungt og ĂĄstfangið par, sem fer illa Ășt Ășr samskiptum sĂnum við raunveruleikann. Textinn (og lagið) eru augljĂłs skopstĂŠling ĂĄ óð DavĂðs Oddssonar ĂŸĂĄverandi borgarstjĂłra, Við ReykjavĂkurtjörn, og lögin eru Ă raun fullkomnar andstÊður. BastĂan sĂĄ sem ĂĄkallaður er Ă laginu og ĂŸað nefnt eftir, er að sjĂĄlfsögðu erkitĂœpa bĂŠjarstjĂłrans og vĂsun Ă frĂŠgan bĂŠjarfĂłgeta með sama nafni. BĂŠjarfĂłgeti Bjartmars skekur hamarinn og sendir fulltrĂșa sinn, en Ă stað ĂŸess að bera skrifpĂșlt, stĂłl og rĂșm inn Ă bĂĄrujĂĄrnshĂșs við BergĂŸĂłrugötuna, lĂkt og Ă texta DavĂðs, âhann borðið og stĂłlinn og skrifpĂșltið tĂłkâ. âĂeim hefði verið nĂŠr að byrja bĂșskapinn við BĂĄrujĂĄrnsgötunaâ. + +FrĂĄ 1977 hefur Bjartmar samið bÊði fyrir aðra og eigið Ăștgefið efni. ĂĂĄ hefur hann haldið tĂłnleika um allt land og erlendis bÊði sem trĂșbador (einn með gĂtar) og hinum Ăœmsu hljĂłmsveitum. MĂĄ ĂŸar nefna The Hounds, Dauðarefsing, Umbrot, Logar frĂĄ Vestmannaeyjum, GlitbrĂĄ ĂĄ Hvolsvelli, EinsdĂŠmi ĂĄ Seyðisfirði, Töfraflautan, Geimsteinn (annað veifið), JĂĄrnkarlarnir, DĂșndur og Bjartmar og Bergrisarnir. Auk ĂŸess hefur Bjartmar komið fram sem gestur hjĂĄ hinum Ăœmsu hljĂłmsveitum. + +Bjartmar sat sem fulltrĂși Danmarks Radio Ă samnorrĂŠnni hljĂłmsveit höfunda sem hĂ©t Nordmix Ă sjö mĂĄnuði (1992-1993) og spilaði hljĂłmsveitin vĂðsvegar um Danmörk og SvĂĂŸjóð ĂĄ hinum Ăœmsu tĂłnleikahĂĄtĂðum og komu fram Ă sjĂłnvarpi og Ăștvarpi. Bjartmar er höfundur lags og ljóðs ĂĄ Ăłskalagi ĂŸjóðarinnar ĂĄrið 2014 âĂannig tĂœnist tĂminnâ Ărið 2019 samdi Bjartmar lag og texta ĂjóðhĂĄtĂðar Vestmannaeyja, âEyjarĂłsâ. + +Bjartmar hefur gefið Ășt lög og texta með öðrum flytjendum, ĂŸar mĂĄ nefna plötur Björgvins GĂslasonar, Ăorgeirs Ăstvaldssonar (Hurðaskellir og StĂșfur staðnir að verki) og fleiri lagahöfunda ĂŸar sem Bjartmar hefur séð um textagerðina. DĂŠmi: Logar, Papar, StjĂłrnin, JĂłn Ălafsson (ĂjóðhĂĄtĂðarlag Vestmannaeyja 1989), Laddi, Hrafnar, GĂșsti, Ellen KristjĂĄnsdĂłttir, Shady Owens, DiddĂș, Ragnar Bjarnarson, Lay Low, MagnĂșs Ălafsson, GR LĂșðvĂksson, RĂșnar JĂșlĂusson, PĂ©tur KristjĂĄnsson, Björk, JĂłn Sigurðsson, Ăsafold, Lifun, Ojbarasta og fleiri og fleiri. + +SĂłlĂłferill +1984 â Ef Ă©g mĂŠtti råða (Ăștgefið af Geimsteini) +1985 â Venjulegur maður, NĂș (eigin ĂștgĂĄfa) +1986 â ĂĂĄ sjaldan maður lyftir sĂ©r upp (Ăștgefið af Steinar) +1987 â Ă fylgd með fullorðnum (Ăștgefið af Steinar) +1988 â Með vottorð Ă leikfimi (eigin ĂștgĂĄfa ĂĄsamt Sigurði R. JĂłnssyni - Stemma) +1991 â Ăað er puð að vera strĂĄkur (Ăștgefið af SkĂfunni) +1992 â Engisprettufaraldur, Haraldur (Ăștgefið af Geimsteini) +1994 â Bjartmar, eigin ĂștgĂĄfa (tekin upp Ă SvĂĂŸjóð) +1997 â TvĂŠr fyrstu ĂĄ geisladisk (Ăștgefið af Geimsteini - endurĂștgĂĄfa) +1998 â Ljóð til vara (Ăștgefið af SkĂfunni - geisladiskur/ safnplata) +1999 â Strik (Ăștgefið af Japis) +2002 â Vor (Ăștgefið af Geimsteini) +2005 â Ekki barnanna beztur (eigin ĂștgĂĄfa - mynd 44) +2010 â SkrĂœtin veröld (Ăștgefin af Geimsteini - Bjartmar og Bergrisarnir) +2012 â Sumarliði, Hippinn og allir hinir (safnplata með 60 lögum og textum, Ăștgefið af Geimsteini) +2018 â BlĂĄ nĂłtt (eigin ĂștgĂĄfa með 10 lögum) + +Ăslenskir tĂłnlistarmenn +EfnafrÊði er vĂsindagrein sem fjallar um eiginleika efna. EfnafrÊði er sĂș undirgrein nĂĄttĂșruvĂsindanna sem fjallar um frumefnin sem allt efni er bĂșið til Ășr, og efnasambönd bĂșin til Ășr frumeindum, sameindum og jĂłnum: samsetningu ĂŸeirra, uppbyggingu, eiginleika, hegðun og breytingu sem verður ĂĄ ĂŸeim ĂŸegar ĂŸau ganga Ă gegnum efnahvörf. + +EfnafrÊði tekur fyrir efni eins og hvernig frumeindir og sameindir vĂxlverka Ă gegnum efnatengi og mynda nĂœ efnasambönd. Efnatengjum mĂĄ skipta niður Ă tvo flokka: grunnefnatengi (e. primary chemical bond), tengi eins og samgild tengi, ĂŸar sem frumeindir deila með sĂ©r einni eða fleiri rafeindum; jĂłnatengi, ĂŸar sem frumeind gefur annari frumeind eina eða fleiri rafeindir og myndar ĂŸar með jĂłnir (katjĂłnir og anjĂłnir); mĂĄlmtengi, og svo veik efnatengi (e. secondary chemical bond) sem eru tengi sem stafa af millisameindakröftum, tengi eins og vetnistengi, van der Waals-tengi, jĂłna-jĂłna vĂxlverkanir og jĂłna-tvĂskauts vĂxlverkanir. + +Undirstöðuatriði +LĂkanið sem notast er við til að lĂœsa byggingu frumeinda byggist ĂĄ skammtafrÊði. Ă grunninn ĂŸĂĄ rannsakar efnafrÊðin öreindir, frumeindir, sameindir, efnasambönd, mĂĄlma, kristala og önnur form efnis. Efni geta verið rannsökuð Ă mismunandi fösum, ein og sĂ©r eða Ă Ăœmsum samsetningum. Efnahvörf og aðrar breytingarnar sem verða ĂĄ efnum eiga sĂ©r yfirleitt stað Ășt af vĂxlverkunum milli frumeinda, sem leiðir til endurröðunar ĂĄ efnatengjunum sem halda frumeindunum saman. SlĂkar breytingar eru rannsakaðar ĂĄ rannsĂłknarstofum. + +Efnahvarf er ferli ĂŸar sem efni breytist; efnasambönd myndast, breytast eða brotna niður. Efnahvörfum mĂĄ almennt séð lĂœsa sem breytingu ĂĄ efnatengjum milli frumeinda. Fjöldi frumeinda fyrir og eftir efnahvörf helst alltaf sĂĄ sami. Ef fjöldinn helst ekki stöðugur er um kjarnahvarf að rÊða. Efnahvörf fylgja alltaf ĂĄkveðnum reglum sem kallast efnafrÊðilögmĂĄl. + +Orka og Ăłreiða koma einnig mikið við sögu Ă efnafrÊði. + +HĂŠgt er að greina efnasambönd með verkfĂŠrum efnagreiningar, t.d.. litrĂłfsgreining og litskiljun. + +Ămis hugtök eru mikilvĂŠg Ă efnafrÊði; nokkur ĂŸeirra eru: + +Efni +Ă efnafrÊði er efni skilgreint sem allt sem hefur massa og rĂșmmĂĄl og er bĂșið til Ășr eindum. Eindirnar sem efni inniheldur hafa einnig massa. Efni getur verið hreint efni eða efnablanda. + +Frumeind +Frumeindir eru grunneiningar efnafrÊðinnar. ĂĂŠr eru samsettar Ășr kjarna sem er umkringdur skĂœi af rafeindum. Kjarninn er samsettur Ășr jĂĄkvĂŠtt hlöðnum rĂłteindum og Ăłhlöðnum nifteindum (saman flokkast ĂŸĂŠr sem kjarneindir). Rafeindirnar eru neikvĂŠtt hlaðnar og sveima Ă kringum kjarnann. Ă hlutlausum frumeindum eru jafn margar rafeindir og rĂłteindirnar sem eru Ă kjarnanum, ĂŸannig vegur neikvÊða hleðsla rafeindanna upp ĂĄ mĂłti jĂĄkvÊðu hleðslu rĂłteindanna. Kjarni frumeindar er mjög eðlisĂŸungur; massi kjarneinda er um ĂŸað bil 1836 sinnum meiri en massi rafeindar, samt er geisli frumeindar um ĂŸað bil 10 ĂŸĂșsund sinnum meiri en geisli kjarnans. + +Frumeindin er smĂŠsta aðgreinanlega eining frumefnis, sem jafnramt hefur efnafrÊðilega eiginleika ĂŸess að bera, svo sem rafneikvÊðni, jĂłnunarorka, oxunarĂĄstönd, girðitala, og hvers konar efnatengi efnið myndar. + +Frumefni +Frumefni er hreint efni sem eingöngu er samsett Ășr einni tegund frumeindar, sem einkenndar eru Ășt frĂĄ fjölda rĂłteinda Ă kjarna ĂŸeirra. Fjöldi rĂłteinda Ă kjarna frumeindar er einnig ĂŸekktur sem sĂŠtistala frumeindarinnar. Massatala frumeinda er summa fjölda rĂłteinda og nifteinda Ă kjarnanum. ĂĂł svo að kjarnar frumeinda Ă frumefni hafa allir sama fjölda rĂłteinda, hafa ĂŸeir ekki endilega sömu massatölu; frumeindir frumefnis sem hafa mismunandi massatölu kallast samsĂŠtur. Sem dĂŠmi mĂĄ taka að allar frumeindir sem hafa 6 rĂłteindir Ă kjarnanum flokkast sem kolefni, en kolefniseindir geta haft massatölu 12 eða 13, ĂŸað fer eftir fjölda nifteinda Ă kjarnanum. + +Frumefnunum er raðað upp Ă töflu sem kallast lotukerfið, ĂŸar sem ĂŸeim er raðað eftir sĂŠtistölu. Lotukerfinu er skipt Ă lotur (raðir), og flokka (dĂĄlka). Lotukerfið er mjög gagnlegt til að bera kennsl ĂĄ lotubunda eiginleika frumefna. + +Efnasamband +Efnasamband er hreint efni sem er samsett Ășr fleiri en einni tegund frumeinda. Efnaeiginleikar efnasambanda eru oft mjög ĂłlĂkir eiginleika frumeindanna sem efnasambandið er samsett Ășr. AlĂŸjóðasamtök um hreina og hagnĂœta efnafrÊði (IUPAC) halda utan um ĂŸað nafnakerfi sem notað er um efnasambönd. Chemical Abstract Service, deild innan EfnafrÊðifĂ©lags BandarĂkjanna, hefur bĂșið til kerfi til að flokka efnasambönd. Efnasamböndunum er gefið nĂșmer sem kallast CAS nĂșmer. + +Sameind + +Sameind er minnsta aðgreinanlega eining hreins efnis sem hefur efnafrÊðilega eiginleika efnisins , ĂŸað er, hvernig ĂŸað gengur Ă gegnum efnahvörf með öðrum efnum. Ăessi skilgreining er ĂŸĂł ekki algild ĂŸvĂ hrein efni eru ekki alltaf Ășr sameindum, heldur geta sölt, frumefni og mĂĄlmblöndur einnig flokkast sem hrein efni. Sameindir samanstanda yfirleitt af frumeindum sem eru tengdar saman með samgildum tengjum, ĂŸannig að efnabyggingin sĂ© Ăłhlaðin og allar gildisrafeindir eru paraðar með öðrum rafeindum annað hvort Ă efnatengjum eða Ă rafeindapörum. + +Sameindir eru, ĂłlĂkt jĂłnum, alltaf hlutlausar. Ăegar ĂŸessi regla er brotin, ĂŸað er, âsameindinâ fĂŠr hleðslu, ĂŸĂĄ er eindin stundum kölluð sameindajĂłn eða fjölatĂłma jĂłn. Sumar sameindir hafa eina eða fleiri Ăłparaða rafeind. SlĂkar sameindur kallast stakeindir eða rĂłttĂŠklingar, og eru almennt mjög hvarfgjarnar, en sumar, eins og nituroxĂð (NO) geta verið stöðugar. + +Eitt aðaleinkenni sameinda er efnabyggingin ĂŸeirra. Efnabygging sameindar spilar stĂłran ĂŸĂĄtt Ă að ĂĄkvarða eiginleika sameindarinnar. + +Hrein efni og efnablöndur +Hrein efni (e. chemical substance) eru efni sem hafa fasta samsetningu og eiginleika. Blanda af hreinum efnum kallast efnablanda. DĂŠmi um efnablöndur er andrĂșmsloftið og mjĂłlk. DĂŠmi um hrein efni eru demantur og matarsalt. + +MĂłl +MĂłl er mĂŠlieining sem lĂœsir magni efnis. Eitt mĂłl er skilgreint sem nĂĄkvĂŠmlega 6,02214076 Ă1023 eindir (frumeindir, sameindir, jĂłnir eða rafeindir), ĂŸar sem fjöldi einda Ă einu mĂłli er ĂŸekkt sem tala Avogadros. MĂłlarstyrkur er magn efnis ĂĄ rĂșmmĂĄl Ă lausn, oft tĂĄknað með einingunni mĂłl/L + +Fasi + +Efni geta verið til ĂĄ nokkrum mismunandi fösum. Fasarnir skilgreinast Ășt frĂĄ hamskiptunum, ĂŸar sem orkan sem bĂŠtist við kerfið eða losnar Ășr ĂŸvĂ fer Ă að breyta uppsetningu kerfisins Ă stað ĂŸess að breyta aðstÊðum kerfisins, svo sem hitastigi eða ĂŸrĂœstingi. + +Ăekktustu fasarnir eru föst efni, vökvar og gös. Mörg efni hafa marga fasa af föstu efni. Sem dĂŠmi hefur jĂĄrn ĂŸrjĂĄ fasa af föstu efni (alfa, gamma og delta) sem eru mismunandi eftir hitastigi og ĂŸrĂœstingi. Munurinn ĂĄ milli mismunandi fastra fasa er felst Ă kristalsbyggingu efnisins, ĂŸað er, hvernig frumeindirnar raðast upp. + +Fleiri fasar en ĂŸessir ĂŸrĂr eru einnig til. Ăar ber helst að nefna rafgas, sem oft er nefnt âfjĂłrði efnishamurinnâ. + +Annar algengur fasi sem efnafrÊðingar vinna með er vatnsfasi, ĂŸað er ĂŸegar efni er uppleyst Ă vatni. + +Efnatengi + +Orka + +Efnahvarf + +JĂłnir og sölt +JĂłn er hlaðin eind, frumeind eða sameind, sem hefur annað hvort tapað eða fengið eina eða fleiri rafeindir. Ăegar frumeind tapar rafeind, og hefur ĂŸar af leiðandi fleiri rĂłteindir en rafeindir, verður hĂșn plĂșshlaðin jĂłn, oft kölluð katjĂłn. Ăegar frumeind fĂŠr rafeind, og hefur ĂŸar af leiðandi fleiri rafeindir en rĂłteindir, verður hĂșn neikvĂŠtt hlaðin jĂłn, oft kölluð anjĂłn. KatjĂłnir og anjĂłnir geta myndað saman kristala af hlutlausum söltum, til dĂŠmis mynda Na+ og Clâ natrĂumklĂłrĂð, eða NaCl. DĂŠmi um fjölatĂłmajĂłnir sem klofna ekki við sĂœru-basa efnahvörf eru hĂœdroxĂð (OHâ) og fosfat (PO43â). + +SĂșrleiki og styrkur basa + +Mörg efni er hĂŠgt að skilgreina sem sĂœru eða basa. Til eru nokkrar kenningar sem ĂștskĂœra sĂœru-basa hegðun. Einfaldasta kenningin er kenning sĂŠnska efnafrÊðingsins Svante Arrhenius, sem segir að sĂœra sĂ© efni sem framleiðir hĂœdrĂłnĂumjĂłnir ĂŸegar ĂŸað er leyst upp Ă vatni, og að basi framleiði hĂœdroxĂð jĂłnir ĂŸegar hann er leystur upp Ă vatni. SamkvĂŠmt BrĂžnstedâLowry sĂœru-basa kenningunni, eru sĂœrur efni sem gefa frĂĄ sĂ©r plĂșshlaðna vetnisjĂłn til annars efnis og að basi sĂ© efni sem ĂŸiggur slĂka jĂłn. + +Ănnur mikilvĂŠg sĂœru-basa kenning er Lewis sĂœru-basa kenningin, sem byggist ĂĄ myndun nĂœrra efnatengja. Lewis kenningin segir að sĂœra sĂ© efni sem getur ĂŸegið rafeindapar frĂĄ öðru efni við myndun nĂœs efnatengis, ĂĄ meðan basi sĂ© efni sem getur veitt rafeindapar til ĂŸess að mynda nĂœtt tengi. + +SĂșrleiki er oft mĂŠldur með tveimur aðferðum. Ănnur aðferðin, sem byggist ĂĄ kenningu Arrhenius, er pH, sem er mĂŠling ĂĄ styrk hĂœdrĂłnĂumjĂłna Ă lausn, er tjåð ĂĄ neikvÊðum lograskala. Lausn sem hefur lĂĄgt pH-gildi hefur ĂŸar af leiðandi hĂĄan styrk hĂœdrĂłnĂumjĂłna og myndi ĂŸĂĄ teljast sĂșr. + +Hin mĂŠliaðferðin, sem byggð er ĂĄ BrĂžnstedâLowry kenningunni, er sĂœruklofningsfastinn (Ka (a fyrir acid, oft skrifað sem Ks ĂĄ Ăslandi)), sem mĂŠlir eiginleika efnis til að haga sĂ©r eins og sĂœra samkvĂŠmt BrĂžnstedâLowry ĂștskĂœringunni ĂĄ sĂœru. Efni sem hafa hĂŠrri Ka gildi eru lĂklegri til að gefa frĂĄ sĂ©r vetnisjĂłn Ă efnahvörfum en ĂŸau sem hafa lĂŠgri Ka gildi. + +Oxunar-afoxunar hvörf +Oxunar-afoxunar hvörf, einni ĂŸekkt sem redox hvörf (Ășt af enska heitinu reduction-oxidation), eru efnahvörf ĂŸar sem oxunarĂĄstand frumeinda breytist annað hvort með ĂŸvĂ að fĂĄ rafeindir (afoxun) eða með ĂŸvĂ að tapa rafeindum (oxun). Efni sem hafa eiginleikann að geta oxað önnur efni kallast oxarar. Oxarar fjarlĂŠgja rafeindir af öðrum efnum. Ă sama hĂĄtt, kallast efni sem geta afoxað önnur efni, afoxarar. Afoxarar gefa öðru efnum rafeindir og oxast ĂŸar af leiðandi sjĂĄlfir Ă leiðinni. + +JafnvĂŠgi +JafnvĂŠgi er að finna Ă mörgum greinum vĂsindanna. Ă efnafrÊðilegu samhengi er jafnvĂŠgi ĂĄstand ĂŸar sem styrkur efna Ă efnahvörfum eða Ă fasabreytingum helst stöðugur. + +ĂĂł svo að styrkur efna haldist stöðugur við jafnvĂŠgi, ĂŸĂĄ halda efnin Ă lausninni yfirleitt ĂĄfram að hvarfast við hvort annað, fram og til baka, jafn hratt Ă båðar ĂĄttir. SlĂk jafnvĂŠgi eru kölluð kvik jafnvĂŠgi. + +EfnafrÊðilögmĂĄl +Efnahvörf fylgja öll vissum lögmĂĄlum sem eru Ă raun undirstaða allrar efnafrÊði. + +DĂŠmi um efnafrÊðilögmĂĄl eru: + +LögmĂĄl Avogadros + +LögmĂĄl Beer-Lambert + +LögmĂĄl Boyles (1662, tengir saman ĂŸrĂœsting og rĂșmmĂĄl) + +LögmĂĄl Charles (1787, tengir saman rĂșmmĂĄl og hitastig) + +LögmĂĄl Daltons + +Regla Le Chatelier + +LögmĂĄl Henrys + +LögmĂĄl Hess + +LögmĂĄl Gay-Lussac (1809, tengir saman ĂŸrĂœsting og hitastig) + +LögmĂĄlið um föst massahlutföll + +LögmĂĄlið um margfeldni hlutfallanna + +MassavarðveislulögmĂĄlið + +OrkuvarðveislulögmĂĄlið + +LögmĂĄl Raoults + +Undirgreinar efnafrÊðinnar + +EfnafrÊðin er yfirleitt flokkuð Ă eftirfarandi fimm aðalsvið. Sum ĂŸeirra skarast við aðrar vĂsindagreinar meðan önnur eru sĂ©rhĂŠfðari: + Efnagreining Efnagreining er greining sĂœna til ĂŸess að fĂĄ upplĂœsingar um efnainnihald ĂŸeirra og byggingu. + ĂlĂfrĂŠn efnafrÊði ĂlĂfrĂŠn efnafrÊði fjallar meðal annars um eiginleika og hvörf ĂłlĂfrĂŠnna efnasambanda. StĂłr ĂŸĂĄttur greinarinnar er kristallafrÊði og sameindasvigrĂșm. Skilin milli lĂfrĂŠnnar og ĂłlĂfrĂŠnnar efnafrÊði eru mjög ĂłskĂœr enda skarast greinarnar Ă mĂĄlmlĂfrĂŠnni efnafrÊði. + LĂfrĂŠn efnafrÊði LĂfrĂŠn efnafrÊði fjallar aðallega um byggingu, eiginleika, samsetningu og efnahvörf lĂfrĂŠnna efnasambanda. LĂfrĂŠn efnafrÊði fjallar sĂ©rstaklega um ĂŸĂŠr sameindir sem innihalda kolefni. LĂfrĂŠn efni eru ekkert endilega meira lifandi en önnur, en ĂĄstÊða nafngiftarinnar er að ĂŸau greindust fyrst Ă lĂfverum. DĂŠmi um lĂfrĂŠn efni eru plöst, fitur og olĂur. + EðlisefnafrÊði EðlisefnafrÊði fĂŠst einkum við eðlisfrÊði efnafrÊðinnar, ĂŸĂĄ sĂ©rstaklega orkuĂĄstönd efnahvarfa. AðalrannsĂłknarsviðin innan eðlisefnafrÊðinnar eru meðal annars safneðlisfrÊði, hvarfhraðafrÊði, varmaefnafrÊði, skammtafrÊðileg efnafrÊði og litrĂłfsgreining. + LĂfefnafrÊði LĂfefnafrÊði fĂŠst við efnahvörf, sem eiga sĂ©r stað inni Ă lĂfverum og eru oftast hvötuð af ensĂmum. Einnig er bygging efna og virkni ĂŸeirra skoðuð. Ăetta eru efni ĂĄ borð við prĂłtein, lĂpĂð, kjarnsĂœrur og aðrar lĂfsameindir. + Aðrar sĂ©rhĂŠfðari greinar eru meðal annars hafefnafrÊði, kjarnefnafrÊði, fjölliðuefnafrÊði, efnaverkfrÊði og fleiri greinar. + +Ăekktar efnafrÊðitilraunir + +TilvĂsanir +GrĂska (gr. ÎλληΜÎčÎșÎŹ, Ellinika) er indĂł-evrĂłpskt tungumĂĄl sem talað er Ă Grikklandi og ĂĄ KĂœpur. GrĂska er rituð með grĂsku letri. + +GrĂskir orðstofnar eru mikið notaðir Ă vĂsindaorðum Ă mörgum tungumĂĄlum. DĂŠmi um orð Ă Ăslensku sem eiga rĂŠtur að rekja til Grikklands: AtĂłm, biblĂa, biskup, pĂłlitĂk, sĂłfisti. GrĂska hefur haft minni bein ĂĄhrif ĂĄ Ăslensku en flest önnur evrĂłpsk tungumĂĄl, til að mynda ensku. + +Eins og gefur að skilja er grĂsku skipt upp Ă margar mĂĄllĂœskur og tĂmabil. Elstu textar eru frĂĄ 1500 f.Kr. Ăessir elstu textar eru ritaðir með tveimur letrum, lĂnuletri A og lĂnuletri B, og hefur einungis tekist að råða annað ĂŸeirra eða lĂnuletur B. ĂvĂst er hvort lĂnuletur A er grĂska. Ăessir elstu textar komu fyrst Ă leitirnar við fornleifauppgröft ĂĄ Knossos ĂĄ KrĂt um aldamĂłtin 1900 en fundust sĂðar ennfremur Ă PĂœlos, Tiryns og MĂœkenu ĂĄ Pelopsskaga og vĂðar. + +Hvað varðar tĂmabil er grĂsku oft skipt Ă fimm skeið: mĂœkenĂska grĂsku (1500 â 1100 f.Kr.), klassĂska grĂsku (800 â 300 f.Kr.), hellenĂska grĂsku (300 f.Kr. â 300 e.Kr.), miðgrĂsku (300 â 1100) og nĂœgrĂsku (1600 â ). + +ForngrĂskum mĂĄllĂœskum er oftast skipt Ă vestrĂŠnar og austrĂŠnar mĂĄllĂœskur. + +AusturgrĂskar teljast attĂska, jĂłnĂska, ĂŠĂłlĂska og kĂœprĂska en til vestrĂŠnna mĂĄllĂœskna teljast meðal annars dĂłrĂskan. + +ForngrĂska hafði fimm föll nafnorða: nefnifall, ĂĄvarpsfall, eignarfall, ĂŸĂĄgufall og ĂŸolfall. Ă dag er ĂŸĂĄgufallið að mestu horfið (nema Ă föstum orðasamböndum). LĂkt og Ă germönskum mĂĄlum hefur tvĂtalan lagst af. GrĂska stafrĂłfið er leitt af fönikĂsku stafrĂłfi. + +Tenglar + + + LĂtil ĂĄrĂ©tting um rithĂĄtt grĂskra orða; birtist Ă Morgunblaðinu 1992 + +IndĂłevrĂłpsk tungumĂĄl +"Maamme" (landið okkar) er ĂŸjóðsöngur Finnlands. Heiti ĂŸess ĂĄ sĂŠnsku, sem er annað opinbert mĂĄl Finnlands, er âVĂ„rt landâ. + +Lagið er samið af Fredrik Pacius en ljóðið er eftir Johan Ludvig Runeberg, sem samdi ĂŸað upprunalega ĂĄ sĂŠnsku. Sama lag eftir Pacius er notað Ă eistneska ĂŸjóðsöngnum, sem hefur ljóð Ă svipuðum dĂșr. âMu isamaaâ (Föðurland mitt). + +Maamme +(ĂĂœtt ĂĄ finnsku af Paavo Cajander) +Oi maamme, Suomi, synnyinmaa! +Soi sana kultainen! +Ei laaksoa, ei kukkulaa, +ei vettĂ€ rantaa rakkaampaa +kuin kotimaa tÀÀ pohjoinen. +Maa kallis isien. + +Sun kukoistukses kuorestaan +kerrankin puhkeaa; +viel' lempemme saa nousemaan +sun toivos, riemus loistossaan, +ja kerran laulus, synnyinmaa +korkeemman kaiun saa. + +VĂ„rt land +(upprunalega ljóð er eftir Johan Ludvig Runeberg) + +VĂ„rt land, vĂ„rt land, vĂ„rt fosterland, +ljud högt, o dyra ord! +Ej lyfts en höjd mot himlens rand, +ej sĂ€nks en dal, ej sköljs en strand, +mer Ă€lskad Ă€n vĂ„r bygd i nord, +Ă€n vĂ„ra fĂ€ders jord! + +Din blomning, sluten Ă€n i knopp, +Skall mogna ur sitt tvĂ„ng; +Se, ur vĂ„r kĂ€rlek skall gĂ„ opp +Ditt ljus, din glans, din fröjd, ditt hopp. +Och högre klinga skall en gĂ„ng +VĂ„r fosterlĂ€ndska sĂ„ng. + +Ăjóðsöngvar +Finnland +Akraneskaupstaður er kaupstaður ĂĄ Skipaskaga ĂĄ Vesturlandi og var åður kallaður Skipaskagi, enn Ă daglegu tali Skaginn. Ăar bjuggu 7.948 Ă nĂłvember 2022. + +Akranes heitir Ă raun allt nesið milli Hvalfjarðar og LeirĂĄrvoga og trĂłnir Akrafjall ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ miðju. Nesið skiptist frĂĄ fornu fari milli tveggja hreppa: Akraneshrepps að sunnan og vestan og Skilmannahrepps norðan og austan. Ă 19. öld fĂłr að myndast ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli Ă kringum sjĂłsĂłkn og verslun ĂĄ Skipaskaga yst ĂĄ nesinu. Ărið 1885 var ĂĄkveðið að skipta Akraneshreppi Ă tvennt vegna hinna ĂłlĂku hagsmuna ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlisins og sveitarinnar. Varð kauptĂșnið og nĂŠsta nĂĄgrenni ĂŸess að Ytri-Akraneshreppi en sveitin inn með Akrafjalli að Innri-Akraneshreppi. +Ytri-Akraneshreppur hlaut kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi ĂĄrið 1942 og hĂ©t eftir ĂŸað Akraneskaupstaður. + +Enn Ă dag er sjĂĄvarĂștvegur mikilvĂŠgasti atvinnuvegur bĂŠjarins en verslun er einnig mikilvĂŠg svo og iðnaður. Ă bĂŠnum er sementsverksmiðja sem starfrĂŠkt hefur verið sĂðan ĂĄ 6. ĂĄratug 20. aldar og ĂĄ Grundartanga skammt frĂĄ bĂŠnum er ĂĄlver sem starfað hefur sĂðan 1998. + +Knattspyrna hefur lengi verið Ă hĂĄvegum höfð ĂĄ Akranesi og lið bĂŠjarins, ĂA, hefur löngum verið Ă fremstu röð ĂĄ Ăslandi. + +Hvalfjarðargöngin sem vĂgð voru 1998 voru mikil samgöngubĂłt fyrir Akranes og styttu verulega akstursleiðina til ReykjavĂkur. Með tilkomu ĂŸeirra hĂŠtti Akraborgin siglingum sĂnum milli ReykjavĂkur og Akraness. + +SkĂłlar +Ă Akranesi eru leikskĂłlar, grunnskĂłlar og framhaldsskĂłli. + +LeikskĂłlar: Akrasel, Garðasel, Teigasel og Vallarsel +GrunnskĂłlar: BrekkubĂŠjarskĂłli, GrundaskĂłli +FramhaldsskĂłli: FjölbrautaskĂłli Vesturlands ĂĄ Akranesi + +Myndir + +Tenglar + FrjĂĄlst kort af Akranesi bĂșið til af OpenStreetMap verkefninu + Loftmynd ĂĄ Google Maps + HeimasĂða Akraneskaupstaðar + SafnasvÊðið ĂĄ Akranesi + Akranes = Skipasagi; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1927 + Ărnefni ĂĄ Akranesi; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1942 + Um örnefni ĂĄ Akranesi (svargrein); grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1942 + + +Ăslensk sjĂĄvarĂŸorp +Hafnarfjörður er bĂŠr ĂĄ höfuðborgarsvÊðinu +Ăar bjuggu 30.704 manns 1. aprĂl ĂĄrið 2023 og hefur bĂŠrinn vaxið grĂðarlega ĂĄ sĂðustu ĂĄrum og ĂĄratugum lĂkt og önnur sveitarfĂ©lög ĂĄ höfuðborgarsvÊðinu hafa gert. Höfnin sem bĂŠrinn er kenndur við var ein stĂŠrsta verslunarhöfn landsins allt frĂĄ 16. öld og mikil Ăștgerð hefur verið stunduð ĂŸaðan Ă sögunni. Ă 18. öld var rĂŠtt um að gera Hafnarfjörð að höfuðstað Ăslands, en slĂŠm samgönguskilyrði ĂŸangað, lĂtil mĂłtekja og lĂtið undirlendi urðu helstu ĂĄstÊður ĂŸess að ReykjavĂk varð ofan ĂĄ Ă valinu. + +Hafnarfjörður heyrði undir Ălftaneshrepp framan af en eftir skiptingu hans ĂĄrið 1878 varð bĂŠrinn hluti hins nĂœmyndaða Garðahrepps. Hinn 1. jĂșnĂ 1908 fĂ©kk Hafnarfjörður kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi og varð ĂŸĂĄ að sjĂĄlfstÊðu bĂŠjarfĂ©lagi. ĂbĂșar voru ĂŸĂĄ orðnir 1469 talsins. + +Skammt vestan HafnarfjarðarbĂŠjar er StraumsvĂk ĂŸar sem Alcan ĂĄ Ăslandi rekur ĂĄlver. + +Sagan + +Upphaf byggðar og verslunar +Hafnarfjörður var Ă landnĂĄmi Ăsbjarnar Ăzurarsonar, bróðursonar IngĂłlfs Arnarsonar. Hafnarfjörður er fyrst nefndur Ă HauksbĂłk LandnĂĄmu, ĂŸar sem segir frĂĄ brottför Hrafna-FlĂłka og samferðamanna hans frĂĄ Ăslandi. FrĂĄ upphafi landnĂĄms ĂĄ Ăslandi og fram til upphafs 15. aldar kemur staðurinn annars lĂtið sem ekkert við sögu. + +Vegna góðra hafnarskilyrða frĂĄ nĂĄttĂșrunnar hendi varð Hafnarfjörður ein helsta verslunar- og fiskveiðihöfn landsins frĂĄ og með upphafi 15. aldar, eftir ĂŸvĂ sem skreið tĂłk við af vaðmĂĄl sem eftirsĂłttasta Ăștflutningsvara Ăslendinga. Ă upphafi 15. aldar hĂłfu Englendingar fiskveiðar og verslun við Ăsland. Ărið 1413 kom fyrsta enska kaupskipið að landi sem sögur fara af við Hafnarfjörð. Ăslendingar tĂłku ensku kaupmönnunum vel, en Danakonungur reyndi að koma Ă veg fyrir verslun Englendinga við Ăsland og ĂŸess vegna kom oft til ĂĄtaka milli Englendinga og sendimanna Danakonungs. Eftir ĂŸvĂ sem ĂĄrin liðu urðu Englendingarnir ekki eins vel liðnir vegna yfirgangs. Einnig ĂĄttu ĂŸeir til að rĂŠna skreið frĂĄ Ăslendingum. + +Um 1468 hĂłfu ĂŸĂœskir Hansakaupmenn siglingar til Ăslands frĂĄ Bergen Ă Noregi. NĂŠstu tvo ĂĄratugina var hörð samkeppni ĂĄ milli Englendinga og Hansakaupmanna, sem leiddist oft Ășt Ă slagsmĂĄl og bardaga. ĂĂœsku kaupmennirnir höfðu betur að lokum. Ăeir gĂĄtu boðið ĂłdĂœrari og fjölbreyttari vöru heldur en Englendingarnir. Ă 16. öld var Hafnarfjörður orðinn aðalhöfn Hamborgarmanna ĂĄ Ăslandi. + +Um miðja öldina reyndu Danakonungar enn að koma Ă veg fyrir verslun Ăjóðverja ĂĄ Ăslandi og koma versluninni Ă hendur danskra kaupmanna. Ărið 1602 gaf KristjĂĄn 4. Danakonungur Ășt tilskipun um einokunarverslun og ĂŸar með varð Ăști um verslunarsamband milli Ăslands og ĂĂœskalands. + +Ă fyrri hluta einokunartĂmabilsins var Hafnarfjörður helsti verslunarstaður ĂĄ Ăslandi. FrĂĄ 1602-1774 var verslunin Ă höndum danskra kaupmanna og verslunarfĂ©laga, en ĂĄrið 1774 tĂłk konungurinn við versluninni. Ărið 1787 voru eignir konungsverslunarinnar seldar starfsmönnum hennar. ĂĂĄ myndaðist vĂsir að samkeppni Ă verslunarrekstri ĂŸegar lausakaupmenn fĂłru að keppa við arftaka konungsverslunarinnar. Ekkert varð ĂŸĂł meira Ășr ĂŸessari samkeppni, ĂŸar sem dönsku kaupmennirnir höfðu yfirhöndina. Ărið 1795 kĂŠrðu bĂŠndur dönsku kaupmennina fyrir of hĂĄtt verð ĂĄ innfluttum vörum og kröfðust ĂŸess að verslun yrði gefin algerlega frjĂĄls. + +Ărið 1794 keypti Bjarni SĂvertsen verslunarhĂșs konungsverslunarinnar. Hann gerðist brĂĄtt umsvifamikill kaupmaður og Ăștgerðarmaður. Hann keypti gamlar bĂșjarðir Ă landi Hafnarfjarðar og kom upp skipasmĂðastöð. Bjarni varð einn af fyrstu Ăslendingunum til að fĂĄ verslunarleyfi eftir að danska einokunarverslunin var lögð niður. Vegna umsvifa sinna Ă Hafnarfirði hefur hann oft verið nefndur faðir Hafnarfjarðar. + +FrĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1787 til 1908 voru flestir kaupmenn Ă Hafnarfirði danskir. Einn norskur kaupmaður var ĂŸar, Hans Wingaard Friis frĂĄ Ălasundi Ă Noregi og hann bĂșsettist Ă Hafnarfirði. Ă upphafi tuttugustu aldar fĂłr Ăslenskum kaupmönnum hins vegar að fjölga, en ĂŸeim dönsku fĂłr fĂŠkkandi að sama skapi. + +Fyrsta almenningsrafveitan ĂĄ Ăslandi var sett upp 12. desember 1904 Ă Hafnarfirði af JĂłhannesi Reykdal, veitan liggur Ă gegnum HamarskotslĂŠk. Hann er lĂka einn mesti gufustaður landsins. + +KaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi +Upphaflega var Hafnarfjörður hluti af Ălftaneshreppi. Hafnarfjörður hafði ĂŸĂĄ sĂ©rstöðu miðað við aðra staði Ă hreppnum að aðalatvinnuvegur ĂŸar var sjĂĄvarĂștvegur, en ekki landbĂșnaður. Vegna ĂŸessarar sĂ©rstöðu var vilji til ĂŸess að gera Hafnarfjörð að sĂ©rstöku sveitarfĂ©lagi og kom hugmyndin fyrst fram opinberlega ĂĄrið 1876. + +Ărið 1878 var haldinn hreppsnefndarfundur Ă Ălftaneshreppi, ĂŸar sem samĂŸykkt var að skipta hreppnum Ă ĂŸrennt: Ălftaneshrepp, Garðahrepp og Hafnarfjörð. Gengi ĂŸað ekki var ĂĄkveðið að hreppnum yrði skipt Ă tvennt: Bessastaðahrepp og Garðahrepp. Seinni tillagan var samĂŸykkt og varð Hafnarfjörður ĂŸvĂ hluti af Garðahreppi. + +Aftur var reynt að fĂĄ kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi ĂĄrið 1890. Ă fundi hreppsnefndar Garðahrepps Ă jĂșnĂ ĂŸað ĂĄr var kosin nefnd til að rÊða um kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi Hafnarfjarðar. Nefndin hĂ©lt fund 27. febrĂșar 1891, ĂŸar sem kosið var um skiptingu hreppsins, en meirihluti fundarmanna var andvĂgur skiptingunni. Var mĂĄlið ĂŸvĂ lĂĄtið niður falla og lĂĄ ĂŸað niðri nĂŠstu ĂĄrin vegna erfiðra tĂma Ă Hafnarfirði. + +NĂŠst var hreyft við mĂĄlinu ĂĄrið 1903. Ă mars ĂŸað ĂĄr komu nokkrir ĂbĂșar Ă Hafnarfirði ĂŸvĂ til leiðar að frumvarp var lagt fram ĂĄ AlĂŸingi til laga um kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi Hafnarfjarðar. Ă frumvarpinu var m.a. gert råð fyrir ĂŸvĂ að bĂŠjarfĂłgetinn Ă Hafnarfirði yrði jafnframt bĂŠjarstjĂłri og laun hans yrðu greidd Ășr landssjóði. Frumvarpið var fellt Ă atkvÊðagreiðslu ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. Ăað var lagt fram aftur ĂĄ AlĂŸingi ĂĄrið 1905, en aftur fellt Ă atkvÊðagreiðslu. Hins vegar afgreiddi AlĂŸingi frumvörp sem gĂĄfu kauptĂșnum meiri sjĂĄlfstjĂłrn en åður, en ĂŸau gengu ekki nĂłgu langt til að Hafnfirðingar yrðu ĂĄnĂŠgðir. + +Enn var ĂŸvĂ komið til leiðar að frumvarp um kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi Hafnarfjarðar var lagt fyrir AlĂŸingi, nĂș ĂĄrið 1907. Meðal breytinga frĂĄ fyrra frumvarpinu var sĂș að nĂș var gert råð fyrir ĂŸvĂ að bĂŠjarstjĂłri fengi greidd laun Ășr bĂŠjarsjóði en ekki landssjóði. Ăetta frumvarp var samĂŸykkt sem lög nr. 75, 22. nĂłvember 1907 og tĂłku lögin gildi 1. jĂșnĂ 1908. +Hafnarfjörður varð ĂŸar með fimmta bĂŠjarfĂ©lagið ĂĄ Ăslandi sem fĂ©kk kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi. + +BĂŠjarstjĂłrn + +Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrn Hafnarfjarðar eru ellefu bĂŠjarfulltrĂșar. Kosningar til bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar fĂłru sĂðast fram 26. maĂ 2018. + +BĂŠjarstjĂłri og formaður bĂŠjarråðs er RĂłsa GuðbjartsdĂłttir og forseti bĂŠjarstjĂłrnar er Kristinn Andersen. + +Gaflarar +Orðið Gaflari hefur verið notað um Hafnfirðinga um ĂĄrabil. Upphaf orðsins mĂĄ rekja til kreppuĂĄranna milli heimsstyrjaldanna, ĂŸegar atvinnuleysi var mikið. Var orðið ĂŸĂĄ notað um sjĂłmenn og verkamenn Ă Hafnarfirði sem biðu undir hĂșsgöflum Ă von um að fĂĄ vinnu. +Skilgreining orðsins hefur verið nokkuð ĂĄ reiki undanfarin ĂĄr. Ă hugum margra eru Gaflarar aðeins ĂŸeir sem eru bÊði fĂŠddir og uppaldir Ă Hafnarfirði. (SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸeirri skilgreiningu hefur alvöru Göflurum farið fĂŠkkandi ĂĄ undanförnum ĂĄratugum, ĂŸar sem fÊðingardeild hefur ekki verið starfrĂŠkt Ă Hafnarfirði sĂðan Ă jĂșnĂ 1976). Ăðrum finnst nĂłg að menn bĂși Ă Hafnarfirði eða hafi einhverntĂma bĂșið ĂŸar til að geta talist Gaflarar. +Vorið 1993 hĂłfst framleiðsla ĂĄ GaflarabrĂșðum Ă Hafnarfirði. BrĂșðan var hönnuð af KatrĂnu ĂorvaldsdĂłttur og ĂĄtti að tĂĄkna hinn eina sanna Gaflara. NĂș eru brĂșðurnar ĂłfĂĄanlegar. + +VinabĂŠir + Frederiksberg + Tartu + HĂ€meenlinna + Ilulissat + Akureyri + BĂŠrum + Uppsala + Cuxhaven + TvĂžroyri + Baoding + +SkĂłlar +Ă Hafnarfirði eru reknir sautjĂĄn leikskĂłlar, ĂĄtta grunnskĂłlar, tveir framhaldsskĂłlar og einn tĂłnlistarskĂłli. Ă miðstöð sĂmenntunar fer auk ĂŸess fram starfsemi NĂĄmsflokka Hafnarfjarðar. + +LeikskĂłlar +Arnarberg, Ălfaberg, Ălfasteinn, Bjarkavellir, Hamravellir, Hjalli, HlĂðarberg, HlĂðarendi, HraunvallaskĂłli, Hvammur, Hörðuvellir, Norðurberg, SmĂĄralundur/KatĂł, StekkjarĂĄs, TjarnarĂĄs, Vesturkot og VĂðivellir. + +GrunnskĂłlar +ĂslandsskĂłli, EngidalsskĂłli, HraunvallaskĂłli, HvaleyrarskĂłli, LĂŠkjarskĂłli, SetbergsskĂłli, VĂðistaðaskĂłli, ĂldutĂșnsskĂłli, og SkarðshlĂðarskĂłli. + +FramhaldsskĂłlar +FlensborgarskĂłlinn Ă Hafnarfirði, TĂŠkniskĂłlinn + +TĂłnlistarskĂłli +TĂłnlistarskĂłli Hafnarfjarðar. (stofnaður Ă September, 1950) + +ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lög +BadmintonfĂ©lag Hafnarfjarðar, FimleikafĂ©lagið Björk, FimleikafĂ©lag Hafnarfjarðar, GolfklĂșbburinn Keilir, SiglingaklĂșbburinn Ăytur, KnattspyrnufĂ©lagið Haukar, SkotĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lag Hafnarfjarðar, SundfĂ©lag Hafnarfjarðar og Fjörður ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lag fatlaðara. + +TilvĂsanir + +Heimildir + Ăsgeir Guðmundsson. Saga Hafnarfjarðar 1908-1983 - Fyrsta bindi. SkuggsjĂĄ - BĂłkabĂșð Olivers Steins SF, 1983. + +Tenglar + VefsĂða Hafnarfjarðar + Sakar bĂŠjaryfirvöld Ă Hafnarfirði um leyndarhyggju + HafnarfjörðurâĂștgerðarbĂŠr; Sigurður PĂ©tursson, Ăgir ĂĄgĂșst 1986, bls. 450â490. + + +ĂĂ©ttbĂœlisstaðir Ăslands +ĂĂłrunn Elfa MagnĂșsdĂłttir (f. 20. jĂșlĂ 1910 â 26. febrĂșar 1995) var Ăslenskur rithöfundur. HĂșn gaf Ășt ĂĄ ĂŸriðja tug bĂłka ĂĄ ĂŠvi sinni en fyrsta bĂłk hennar, DĂŠtur ReykjavĂkur I, kom Ășt ĂĄrið 1933. DĂŠtur ReykjavĂkur II og III komu Ășt ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1934 og 1938 og eru ĂŸessar sögur jafnan taldar með fyrstu ReykjavĂkursögunum. SkĂĄldsaga hennar LĂf annarra (1938) var endurĂștgefin af bĂłkaĂștgĂĄfunni SĂŠmundi ĂĄrið 2016. + +Ăvi +ĂĂłrunn Elfa fĂŠddist Ă ReykjavĂk en Ăłlst upp Ă Klifshaga Ă Axarfirði Ă Norður-ĂingeyjarsĂœslu. HĂșn stundaði nĂĄm Ă bĂłkmenntum og tungumĂĄlum Ă Drammen og OslĂł og fĂ©kk auk ĂŸess styrk til hĂĄskĂłlanĂĄms Ă Uppsölum Ă SvĂĂŸjóð 1946-1947. ĂĂłrunn Elfa var Ă nefndum Ă KvenrĂ©ttindafĂ©lagi Ăslands og fulltrĂși Rithöfundasambands Ăslands Ă Bandalagi Ăslenskra listamanna. HĂșn hlaut verðlaun Ă verðlaunasamkeppni RĂkisĂștvarpsins fyrir minningaĂŸĂĄtt ĂĄrið 1962 og verðlaun Ășr Rithöfundasjóði RĂkisĂștvarpsins ĂĄrið 1973. + +ĂĂłrunn giftist JĂłni ĂĂłrðarsyni 25. oktĂłber 1941, ĂŸau skildu ĂĄrið 1966. Börn ĂŸeirra eru Einar MĂĄr JĂłnsson, sagnfrÊðingur og rithöfundur Ă ParĂs, MagnĂșs ĂĂłr JĂłnsson (Megas) tĂłnlistarmaður og Anna MargrĂ©t JĂłnsdĂłttir. + +Verk + DĂŠtur ReykjavĂkur I-III (1933, 1934 og 1938) + Að SĂłlbakka (1937) + LĂf annarra (1938) + Draumur um LjĂłsaland I-II (1941 og 1943) + EvudĂŠtur, ĂĄtta sögur (1944) + Lilli Ă sumarleyfi (1946) + Snorrabraut 7 (1947) + Ă biðsal hjĂłnabandsins (1949) + LjĂłsaskipti, leikrit (1950) + DĂsa Mjöll (1953) + SambĂœlisfĂłlk (1954) + Sverðið, leikgerð eftir sögunni DĂsu Mjöll (1954) + Eldliljan (1957) + Fossinn (1957) + Litla stĂșlkan ĂĄ snjĂłlandinu (1957) + FrostnĂłtt Ă maĂ (1958) + Anna RĂłs (1963) + Ă skugga valsins (1964) + MiðnĂŠtursĂłnatan (1966) + MarĂba Brenner, framhaldsleikrit (1967) + KĂłngur vill sigla (1968) + Elfarniður, ljóð (1976) + FrĂĄ SkĂłlavörðustĂg að SkĂłgum Ă Axarfirði, endurminningar (1977) + Vorið hlĂŠr (1979) + Hver var frĂș Bergsson? sögur (1981) + Ă leikvelli lĂfsins (1985) + +TilvĂsanir + +Ăslenskir rithöfundar +FĂłlk fĂŠtt ĂĄrið 1910 +FĂłlk dĂĄið ĂĄrið 1995 +Ăslenskar konur +GrĂska stafrĂłfið (grĂska ÎλληΜÎčÎșÏ Î±Î»ÏÎŹÎČηÏÎż) er stafrĂłf sem hefur verið notað við ritun grĂska tungumĂĄlsins frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ ĂĄ 9. öld f.Kr. Ăað er elsta stafrĂłfið sem ennĂŸĂĄ er notað. BĂłkstafir hafa einnig verið notaðir til að tĂĄkna grĂska tölustafi sĂðan ĂĄ 2. öldin f. Kr. Ă stafrĂłfinu eru 24 bĂłkstafir auk sjö eldri stafa sem duttu snemma Ășr notkun. + +Tenglar + Little Greek 101: The Greek Alphabet UpplĂœsingar um grĂska stafrĂłfið, framburður hljóða, hvernig ĂĄ að skrifa stafina. + Greek and Coptic + Greek Unicode Issues + +GrĂskt stafrĂłf +StafrĂłf +KĂœrillĂskt stafrĂłf er stafrĂłf notað til að rita sex slavnesk mĂĄl: rĂșssnesku, ĂșkraĂnsku, hvĂtrĂșssnesku, serbnesku, makedĂłnsku og bĂșlgörsku ĂĄsamt Ăœmsum tungumĂĄlum Ă fyrrum SovĂ©trĂkjunum. + +Ăað er einnig notað af ĂŸeim ĂŸjóðum sem höfðu ekkert skrifmĂĄl fyrr en SovĂ©tmenn fĂŠrðu ĂŸĂŠr nĂŠr nĂștĂmanum og einnig af ĂŸjóðum sem notuðust við önnur leturkerfi en skiptu yfir Ă kĂœrillĂskt letur ĂĄ SovĂ©ttĂmanum. Margar ĂŸessara ĂŸjóða hafa tekið upp annað leturkerfi eftir hrun SovĂ©trĂkjanna, t.d. latneskt letur eða ritmĂĄlið sem ĂŸĂŠr notuðu åður. + +KĂœrillĂska stafrĂłfið byggist ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ grĂska og er kennt við grĂska trĂșboðann Kyrillos. + +KĂœrillĂska stafrĂłfið +HĂ©r sĂ©st kĂœrillĂska stafrĂłfið eins og ĂŸað kemur fram Ă rĂșssnesku: + +TilvĂsanir + +StafrĂłf +HöfuðborgarsvÊðið er sĂĄ hluti Ăslands sem samanstendur af ReykjavĂkurborg og nĂŠsta nĂĄgrenni hennar. Algengasta afmörkun svÊðisins er sĂș að ĂŸað nĂĄi yfir ReykjavĂk og 7 nĂĄgrannasveitarfĂ©lög hennar. SvÊðið nĂŠr frĂĄ botni Hvalfjarðar Ă norðri og suður fyrir StraumsvĂk sunnan Hafnarfjarðar, jarðfrÊðilega er ĂŸað hluti Reykjanesskaga. SvÊðið er afar ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœlt ĂĄ Ăslenskan mĂŠlikvarða og Ăłx mjög hratt ĂĄ sĂðari hluta 20. aldar, nĂș bĂșa ĂŸar um 64% Ăslendinga; um 249.223 manns (aprĂl 2023). + +SveitarfĂ©lögin ĂĄ svÊðinu eiga með sĂ©r vĂðtĂŠkt samstarf ĂĄ Ăœmsum sviðum. Til dĂŠmis Ă sorpmĂĄlum og almenningssamgöngum auk ĂŸess að ĂŸau reka sameiginlegt slökkvilið. Ărið 2007 var svo stofnað sameiginlegt lögregluembĂŠtti fyrir allt svÊðið. + +SvÊðinu er skipt niður Ă ĂŸrjĂș kjördĂŠmi vegna alĂŸingiskosninga: ReykjavĂk skiptist Ă norður og suðurkjördĂŠmi en hin sveitarfĂ©lögin ĂĄ svÊðinu tilheyra SuðvesturkjördĂŠmi (kraganum). Ăað land sem sveitarfĂ©lögin nĂĄ yfir var hluti af Gullbringu- og KjĂłsarsĂœslu. Til forna var ĂŸetta land hluti KjalarnesĂŸings. + +Hvað dĂłmsvald Ă hĂ©raði snertir ĂŸĂĄ tilheyra ReykjavĂk, Seltjarnarnes, MosfellsbĂŠr og KjĂłsarhreppur umdĂŠmi hĂ©raðsdĂłms ReykjavĂkur en GarðabĂŠr, Hafnarfjörður og KĂłpavogur umdĂŠmi hĂ©raðsdĂłms Reykjaness. + +SveitarfĂ©lög +Sjö sveitarfĂ©lög eiga aðild að Samtökum sveitarfĂ©laga ĂĄ höfuðborgarsvÊðinu: + +TilvĂsanir +Eggert Ălafsson (1. desember 1726 - 30. maĂ 1768) var skĂĄld, rithöfundur og nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingur Ășr Svefneyjum ĂĄ Breiðafirði. Hann var einn boðbera upplĂœsingarinnar ĂĄ Ăslandi. Rannveig systir Eggerts var kona sĂ©ra Björns HalldĂłrssonar Ă Sauðlauksdal. + +Fjölskylda +Eggert var elsti sonur Ălafs Gunnlaugssonar og Ragnhildar SigurðardĂłttur sem rĂĄku bĂș Ă Svefneyjum Ă Breiðafirði. Systkini hans voru MagnĂșs Ălafsson lögmaður sunnan og austan, JĂłn Ălafsson âlĂŠrðiâ fornfrÊðingur Ă Kaupmannahöfn, GuðrĂșn ĂlafsdĂłttir, Rannveig ĂlafsdĂłttir og JĂłn Ălafsson yngri stĂșdent Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + +Eggert fĂ©kk seint embĂŠtti, en 1767 var hann skipaður varalögmaður sunnan og austan. Sama haust gekk hann að eiga Ingibjörgu GuðmundsdĂłttur, dĂłttur Guðmundar Sigurðssonar sĂœslumanns, sem var móðurbróðir hans. Ăau drukknuðu bÊði ĂĄ Breiðafirði ĂĄrið eftir. + +NĂĄm, störf og rit +Eggert nam heimspeki við HafnarhĂĄskĂłla, og lagði auk ĂŸess stund ĂĄ fornfrÊði, mĂĄlfrÊði, lögfrÊði, lögspeki, nĂĄttĂșruvĂsindi og bĂșfrÊði. + +Eggert ritaði um Ăœmis efni, sem ekki hefur allt verið gefið Ășt. Hann er og talinn frumkvöðull að ĂŸvĂ að semja samrĂŠmdar rĂ©ttritunarreglur, en ĂŸĂŠr reglur eru fremur ĂłlĂkar ĂŸeim sem við fylgjum Ă dag. Einnig er hann talinn vera mesti mĂĄlverndarsinni 18. aldar auk ĂŸess að vera ĂŸjóðrĂŠktarmaður. + +Eggert fĂłr Ă rannsĂłknarferðir um Ăsland með Bjarna PĂĄlssyni ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1752-1757, ĂĄ vegum Konunglega danska vĂsindafĂ©lagsins. Ă ĂŸessum ferðum könnuðu ĂŸeir nĂĄttĂșru landsins en einnig almennt ĂĄstand ĂŸess og gerðu tillögur til ĂșrbĂłta. Ă veturna sat hann Ă Viðey hjĂĄ SkĂșla MagnĂșssyni landfĂłgeta - lĂkt og Ărni MagnĂșsson hafði hĂĄlfri öld åður setið Ă SkĂĄlholti milli ferða sinna um landið. Bjarni var skipaður fyrsti landlĂŠknir Ăslands 1760 en Eggert sĂĄ um að fullvinna ferðabĂłk ĂŸeirra fĂ©laga ĂĄ dönsku Ă Kaupmannahöfn frĂĄ 1760 til 1766 með styrk Ășr Ărnasjóði. BĂłkin kom Ășt ĂĄrið 1772. Tveimur ĂĄrum sĂðar kom bĂłkin Ășt ĂĄ ĂŸĂœsku, ĂĄ frönsku ĂĄrið 1802 og hlutar hennar ĂĄ ensku 1805. Ă Ăslensku kom hĂșn Ășt ĂĄrið 1942. + +SamtĂðarmenn Eggerts gĂĄfu Ășt nokkuð af verkum hans eftir dauða hans. Björn mĂĄgur hans og MagnĂșs bróðir hans gĂĄfu ĂŸannig Ășt garðyrkjubĂłkina Stutt ĂĄgrip Ășr lachanologia eða maturtabĂłk 1774 og ĂŸekktasta kvÊði hans, BĂșnaðarbĂĄlkur, kom Ășt Ă Hrappsey ĂĄrið 1783. HeildarĂștgĂĄfa af kvÊðum Eggerts kom fyrst Ășt ĂĄrið 1953. + +Töluvert af ritverkum Eggerts er varðveitt Ă handritum. Ă handritasafni LandsbĂłkasafns er til matreiðslubĂłkin Pipar à öllum mat (Lbs 857 8vo), samin ĂĄ 6. ĂĄratug 18. aldar og ĂŸvĂ lĂklega elsta matreiðslubĂłk sem samin hefur verið ĂĄ Ăslensku. Ăar er einnig varðveitt Uppkast til forsagna um brĂșðkaupssiðu hĂ©r ĂĄ landi frĂĄ 1760 (Lbs 551 4to). Ă handritasafni National Library of Scotland Ă Edinborg er varðveitt eiginhandarrit Eggerts að DrykkjabĂłk Ăslendinga, ĂĄrsett 1761, sem åður var Ă handritasafni Finns MagnĂșssonar Ă Kaupmannahöfn (Adv.MS.21.3.15). Hugsanlega hefur Eggert samið ĂŸĂĄ bĂłk samhliða vinnu við FerðabĂłkina Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + +Dauði +Eggert drukknaði ĂĄ Breiðafirði ĂĄrið 1768, ĂĄsamt konu sinni Ingibjörgu GuðmundsdĂłttur. Voru ĂŸau ĂĄ leið heim Ășr vetursetu Ă Sauðlauksdal. Ăegar Eggert Ălafsson fĂłr seinast frĂĄ Sauðlauksdal, 29. maĂ 1768, söng sĂ©ra Björn HalldĂłrsson hann Ășr hlaði að fornum sið, með kveðjuĂĄvarpi sem hann hafði ort: + +Far nĂș, minn vin, sem ĂĄsatt er +auðnu og manndyggðabraut, +far nĂș, ĂŸĂłtt sĂĄrt ĂŸĂn söknum vĂ©r, +sviftur frĂĄ allri ĂŸraut. +Far Ă guðs skjĂłli, ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸĂ©r +ĂŸann kjĂłsum förunaut. +Farðu blessaður, ĂŸegar ĂŸver +ĂŸitt lĂf, Ă drottins skaut. +Um drukknun Eggerts orti MatthĂas Jochumsson erfiljóðið Eggert Ălafsson. + +Ătgefin rit frĂĄ 18. öld + 1749: Enarrationes historicĂŠ de natura IslandiĂŠ formatĂŠ et transformatĂŠ per eruptiones ignis (BĂŠkur.is) + 1749: Islandia expergefacta (BĂŠkur.is) + 1751: Disquisitio antiquario-physica prĂŠmittenda enarrationum islandicarum (BĂŠkur.is) + 1766: FriðriksdrĂĄpa (BĂŠkur.is) + 1772: Reise igiennem Island (BĂŠkur.is). + 1774: Stutt ĂĄgrip Ășr lachanologia eða maturtabĂłk (BĂŠkur.is) + 1780: Index geographiĂŠ veterum Islandorum (BĂŠkur.is) + 1783: BĂșnaðarbĂĄlkur (BĂŠkur.is) + +Heimildir +Silja AðalsteinsdĂłttir, 1993, BĂłk af bĂłk, MĂĄl og menning ReykjavĂk, prentun frĂĄ 2003. + +Tenglar + + Handrit með verkum Eggerts Ălafssonar + BĂŠkur eftir Eggert Ălafsson + Eggert Ălafsson; grein Ă Ăsafold 1879 + +Ăslensk skĂĄld +Ăslenskir rithöfundar +Ăslenskir nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingar +Ăslendingar sem lĂĄtist hafa af slysförum +Ăslendingar sem gengið hafa Ă KaupmannahafnarhĂĄskĂłla +Ă SvĂĂŸjóð er löng hefð fyrir ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlist eins og polka, skottĂs, vals, polska og mazurka. SĂŠnska ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlistin er mest spiluð ĂĄ harmonikku, klarinett, fiðlu og/eða nikkelhörpu. Ă sjöunda ĂĄratugnum (1960-1970) fĂłru ungir sĂŠnskir tĂłnlistarmenn að sĂŠkja Ă ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlistina. Ăeir vildu lĂfga við hefð sem var að deyja Ășt. Ungu SvĂarnir spiluðu tĂłnlistina m.a. Ă almenningsĂștvarpi og -sjĂłnvarpi. Ăeir lögðu ĂĄherslu ĂĄ polska, leikinn aðeins af hljóðfĂŠrum, en u.ĂŸ.b. 30 ĂĄrum sĂðar, ĂĄ ĂĄrunum um 1990-1995, fĂłr söngur að vera ĂĄberandi Ă tĂłnlistinni. Ăessi bylting sem ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað um og eftir 1960 er kölluð âAfturhvarfiðâ. + +SĂŠnsk tĂłnlist varð lĂka fyrir ĂĄhrifum af nĂștĂmalegri tĂłnlistarstefnum, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal popp tĂłnlistar. Ă lok nĂunda ĂĄratugarins og byrjun ĂŸess tĂunda ĂĄ 20. öldinni, fengu Gautaborg og StokkhĂłlmur mikilvĂŠgt hlutverk Ă ĂŸungarokksheiminum. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma urðu skandinavĂskar ĂŸungarokkshljĂłmsveitir, eins og Opeth, mjög vinsĂŠlar meðal ĂŸeirra sem hlustuðu ĂĄ ĂŸungarokk. Gautaborg og StokkhĂłlmur voru aðalmiðstöðvar hljĂłmsveitanna. + +SĂŠnskar popphljĂłmsveitir eins og ABBA, Roxette, Ace of Base og The Cardigans eru meðal ĂŸeirra sem hlotið hafa heimsfrĂŠgð. Pönk rokkhljĂłmsveitin The Hives, svo enn nĂœlegra dĂŠmi sĂ© tekið, er einnig orðin heimsfrĂŠg. + +ĂjóðlagatĂłnlist +Ballöður og kulning hafa yfirhöndina Ă sĂŠnskri ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlist. Kulning var upprunalega notað af kĂșahirðum til að smala saman kĂșahjörðinni, og er samkvĂŠmt hefðinni sungið af konum, ĂŸeirra ĂĄ meðal er söngsnillingurinn Lena Willemark. Textar ballaðanna eiga uppruna sinn að rekja til âSkillingtryckâ sem var sĂŠnskt alĂŸĂœĂ°legt smĂĄrit 19. aldar með vĂsum, sögum og ĂŸess hĂĄttar. NĂștĂmalegar hljĂłmsveitir Folk och Rackare, Hedningarna og Garmarna eru bĂșnar að bĂŠta ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlist Ă lagalistana sĂna. + +ĂjóðlagahljóðfĂŠri +Fiðlan er sennilega ĂŸað hljóðfĂŠri sem mest hefur sett svip ĂĄ sĂŠnska ĂŸjóðlagahefð. Orðið âspelmanâ Ă sĂŠnsku sem ĂŸĂœĂ°ir bĂłkstaflega hljóðfĂŠraleikari, hefur hlotið merkinguna fiðlari, eða fiðluleikari, vegna ĂŸess hversu vinsĂŠl fiðlan er Ă sĂŠnskri ĂŸjóðlagahefð. Fiðlan var komin til SvĂĂŸjóðar ĂĄ 17. öld og varð fljĂłtt almenn, ĂŸar til ĂĄ 19. öld, ĂŸegar afturhaldssamir trĂșarleiðtogar Ă landinu sögðu að flestar gerðir af tĂłnlist vĂŠru syndsamlegar og Ăłguðlegar. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir kĂșgunina, urðu ĂŸĂłnokkrir fiðluleikarar rĂłmaðir fyrir snilli sĂna, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal Lapp-Nils frĂĄ Offerdal, JĂ€mtland, Pekkos Per frĂĄ Bingsjö og Lejsme-Per Larsson frĂĄ Malung. Enginn ĂŸessara tĂłnlistarmanna var ĂŸĂł nokkurn tĂmann hljóðritaður. Hjort Anders Olsson var fyrsti meiri hĂĄttar fiðluleikarinn Ă SvĂĂŸjóð sem var hljóðritaður. + +Nikkelharpan er hljóðfĂŠri sem lĂkist fiðlu, en hefur svokallaða snertla, ekki Ăłsvipaða pĂanĂłlyklum, en spilað er ĂĄ hljóðfĂŠrið með fiðluboga. Uppruni nikkelhörpunnar er ĂłĂŸekktur, en Ăœmist er talað um að hljóðfĂŠrið komi frĂĄ SvĂĂŸjóð eða að upprunann megi rekja til ĂĂœskalands. Vitað er að harpan var til Ă SvĂĂŸjóð ĂĄrið 1350, en ĂŸað ĂĄr var skorin Ășt mynd af henni Ă kirkjuhlið Ă Gautlandi. Ă 15. og 16. öldinni var nikkelharpan orðin almenn Ă SvĂĂŸjóð og Danmörku. Notkun ĂĄ nikkelhörpu fĂłr minnkandi frĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma allt fram til 1960, ĂŸegar ungu SvĂarnir tĂłku ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlistina ĂĄstfĂłstri, endurlĂfgarar sĂŠnsku ĂŸjóðlagahefðarinnar. HljóðfĂŠrið sem ĂĄ var spilað ĂĄ 15. og 16. öld er ekki ĂŸað sama og algengast er Ă dag. Upprunalega hljóðfĂŠrið er samt til Ă dag, auk margra ĂștfĂŠrslna ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ, en ĂŸessi algengasta, kölluð ânĂștĂma krĂłmatĂsk nikkelharpaâ varð til fyrir tilstilli tveggja manna. Auguste Brohlin og Eric Sahlström gerðu båðir endurbĂŠtur ĂĄ hljóðfĂŠrinu. Brohlin endurbĂŠtti upprunalega hljóðfĂŠrið upp Ășr 1925, en Sahlström endurbĂŠtti svo nikkelhörpu Brohlins enn frekar um 1980. ĂĂł Brohlin hafi gert endurbĂŠturnar um 1925, fĂłr notkun nikkelhörpunnar samt minnkandi, en ĂŸað var Sahlström sem gerði ĂŸað að verkum að ĂŸessi gerð er sĂș sem algengust er Ă dag. Sahlström kenndi nefnilega öðrum nikkelhörpuleikurum að smĂða hljóðfĂŠrið, og ĂŸeir kenndu öðrum og svo koll af kolli, ĂŸannig að Ă dag eru til u.ĂŸ.b. 25.000 nikkelhörpur Ă SvĂĂŸjóð einni og talið er að um 8.000 SvĂar spili ĂĄ hljóðfĂŠrið. + +SĂŠnska sekkjarpĂpan var stĂłr hluti af ĂŸjóðlagahefðinni. SekkjarpĂpuleikarar komu kunnĂĄttunni ĂĄ hljóðfĂŠrið til arftakanna munnlega. Engar nĂłtur voru til og ekki var kennt ĂĄ hljóðfĂŠrið. Seinasti upprunalegi sekkjapĂpuleikarinn var Gudmunds Nils Larsson, en hann dĂł ĂĄrið 1949. Með honum dĂł hefðin, en ĂĄ sjöunda ĂĄratugnum með Afturhvarfinu var hljóðfĂŠrinu gefið lĂf ĂĄ nĂœ. + +Harmonikkur og munnhörpur voru meginĂŸĂĄttur sĂŠnskrar ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlistar Ă upphafi 20. aldarinnar. FrĂŠgasti harmonikkuleikari SvĂĂŸjóðar er ĂĄn efa Kalle Jularbo sem var frĂŠgur snemma ĂĄ 20. öldinni. Svo, ĂĄ tĂmum afturhvarfsins, voru harmonikkur og munnhörpur ekki vel séðar meðal afturhvarfssinna, eða ekki fyrr en undir lok ĂĄttunda ĂĄratugarins. + +Afturhvarfið +Ă sjöunda ĂĄratugnum fengu sĂŠnskir jazz tĂłnlistarmenn eins og Jan Johansson innblĂĄstur og ĂĄhrif frĂĄ ĂŸjóðlagatĂłnlistinni. Ăetta varð til ĂŸess að Ă byrjun ĂĄttunda ĂĄratugarins var röð tĂłnlistarhĂĄtiða haldin Ă StokkhĂłlmi. + +Heimildir + http://www.nyckelharpa.org/info/history.html + http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyckelharpa + http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Sweden + http://www.norbeck.nu/swedtrad/index.html + Eurpean Nyckelharpa Training + International Days of the Nyckelharpa +Roxette var sĂŠnskur poppdĂșett, sem samanstóð af Per Gessle og Marie Fredriksson. Eins og margir aðrir sĂŠnskir popparar sungu ĂŸau ĂĄ ensku. + +Roxette ĂĄtti nokkur lög sem komust ofarlega ĂĄ vinsĂŠldalista, ĂŸar mĂĄ til dĂŠmis nefna: âIt Must Have Been Loveâ, sem var spilað Ă kvikmyndinni Pretty Woman, âThe Lookâ, âJoyrideâ og âSpending my timeâ. + +Fredriksson lĂ©st ĂĄrið 2019. + +BreiðskĂfur + +Pearls of Passion (1986) +Look Sharp! (1988) +Joyride (1991) +Tourism (1992) +Crash! Boom! Bang! (1994) +Have a Nice Day (1999) +Room Service (2001) +Charm School (2011) +Travelling (2012) +Good Karma (2016) + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + + VefsĂða Roxette + AðdĂĄendaklĂșbbur Roxette + Run to Roxette + R2R Forum + The Daily Roxette + Roxette Lyrics + +SĂŠnskar hljĂłmsveitir +Stofnað 1986 +AlĂŸingi er löggjafarĂŸing Ăslands sem upphaflega var stofnað ĂĄrið 930 ĂĄ Ăingvöllum ĂŸar sem ĂŸað kom saman ĂĄrlega fram til ĂĄrsins 1799. AlĂŸingi var endurreist Ă nĂșverandi mynd Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄrið 1844. Ă ĂŸinginu sitja 63 fulltrĂșar ĂŸjóðarinnar, alĂŸingismenn, sem eru kjörnir af henni Ă beinni og leynilegri kosningu. AlĂŸingi er Êðsti handhafi löggjafarvalds ĂĄ Ăslandi og samkvĂŠmt ĂŸingrÊðisreglunni bera råðherrar ĂĄbyrgð gagnvart AlĂŸingi og rĂkisstjĂłrnin verður að njĂłta stuðnings meirihluta ĂŸingheims. + +AlĂŸingi kemur saman ĂĄrlega ĂĄ öðrum ĂŸriðjudegi septembermĂĄnaðar og stendur til annars ĂŸriðjudags septembermĂĄnaðar ĂĄrið eftir ef kjörtĂmabilinu lĂœkur ekki Ă millitĂðinni eða ĂŸing er rofið, kjörtĂmabilið er fjögur ĂĄr. KosningarĂ©tt til AlĂŸingis hafa allir Ăslenskir rĂkisborgarar sem hafa nåð 18 ĂĄra aldri. Allir ĂŸeir sem hafa kosningarĂ©tt til ĂŸingsins og Ăłflekkað mannorð eru kjörgengir til AlĂŸingis. Ăingið starfar Ă einni deild ĂłlĂkt löggjafarĂŸingum margra annarra rĂkja. + +Reglulegur samkomustaður ĂŸingsins er Ă ReykjavĂk ĂŸar sem ĂŸað hefur aðstöðu Ă AlĂŸingishĂșsinu við Austurvöll og fleiri nĂĄlĂŠgum byggingum. Við sĂ©rstakar aðstÊður getur forseti Ăslands skipað fyrir um að AlĂŸingi komi saman annars staðar ĂĄ landinu, sem gerist ĂŸĂł sjaldan og er yfirleitt vegna stĂłrafmĂŠla eða annarra hĂĄtĂða. + +Saga + +Ăjóðveldisöld + +AlĂŸingi er elsta starfandi ĂŸingum heims og er vĂða ĂŸekkt fyrir ĂŸað. Ăað var fullstofnað ĂĄ Ăingvöllum ĂĄrið 930, um hĂĄlfri öld eftir að landnĂĄm Ăslands hĂłfst. SamkvĂŠmt ĂslendingabĂłk var AlĂŸingi upprunalega staðsett Ă BlĂĄskĂłgum en eigandi landsins, ĂĂłrir kroppinskeggi, hafði gerst sekur um morð og landið varð almenningseign. UndirbĂșningur að stofnun ĂŸingsins var talinn hafa verið ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 920 til 930 en m.a. var maður að nafni ĂlfljĂłtur sendur til Noregs til að nema lög en fyrstu lögin eru einmitt nefnd ĂlfljĂłtslög eftir honum. Lögin Ă Hörðalandi Ă Noregi voru höfð sem fyrirmynd Ăslenskra laga. Talið er að AlĂŸingi hafi verið valinn staður ĂĄ Ăingvelli vegna ĂŸess að ĂŸað var tiltölulega miðsvÊðis og ĂŸvĂ aðgengilegt flestum. Einnig er talið að ĂŠttingjar IngĂłlfs Arnarssonar, sem åður höfðu stofnað KjalarnesĂŸing, hafi nokkru råðið um staðsetningu ĂŸingsins. + +Undir erlendum yfirråðum +AlĂŸingi starfaði sem löggjafarsamkoma og Êðsti dĂłmstĂłll landsins ĂŸar til ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1262-64 ĂŸegar Ăslendingar samĂŸykktu Gamla sĂĄttmĂĄla og gengu Noregskonungi ĂĄ hönd. ĂĂĄ voru nĂœjar lögbĂŠkur lögteknar, JĂĄrnsĂða ĂĄrið 1271 og sĂðan JĂłnsbĂłk ĂĄrið 1281. Við ĂŸað breyttist hlutverk AlĂŸingis mikið. Löggjafarvald var Ă höndum konungs og AlĂŸingis sameiginlega, einkum konungs. DĂłmstörfin urðu aðalverkefni ĂŸingsins. Ărið 1662 afsöluðu Ăslendingar sĂ©r svo sjĂĄlfstjĂłrn Ă hendur konungi með KĂłpavogssamningi. Ăinghaldi lauk ĂĄ Ăingvöllum ĂĄrið 1798, en LögrĂ©tta kom ĂŸĂł saman Ă HĂłlavallaskĂłla Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄrið 1799 og 1800. AlĂŸingi var lagt af ĂŸann 6. jĂșnĂ 1800 en ĂŸĂĄ fĂłru nĂŠr eingöngu dĂłmstörf ĂŸar fram. Hafði ĂŸað ĂŸĂĄ starfað samellt Ă 870 ĂĄr. + +Endurreisn AlĂŸingis +Danakonungur gaf Ășt tilskipun um endurreisn AlĂŸingis, ĂŸann 8. mars 1843 eftir mikla barĂĄttu sjĂĄlfsstÊðihreyfingarinnar Ăslensku, Baldvin Einarsson fĂłr ĂŸar fremstur Ă flokki. Fyrstu kosningarnar fĂłru fram ĂĄri sĂðar og ĂŸing kom Ă fyrsta skipti saman ĂĄ endurreistu AlĂŸingi ĂŸann 1. jĂșlĂ 1845. Fyrir um ca 170 ĂĄrum. + +Endurreist AlĂŸingi starfaði fyrst um sinn Ă LatĂnuskĂłlanum (nĂș MenntaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk). Ărið 1881 flutti AlĂŸingi svo Ă sitt nĂșverandi hĂșsnÊði Ă AlĂŸingishĂșsinu við Austurvöll. + +Fyrst um sinn var ĂŸað ĂŸĂł eingöngu råðgjafarĂŸing, konungi til råðuneytis um löggjafarmĂĄlefni Ăslendinga. Ărið 1871 voru Stöðulögin sett, ĂŸeim fylgdi nĂœ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ, Ă tilefni af ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄra afmĂŠli byggðar ĂĄ Ăslandi, ĂŸremur ĂĄrum seinna. AlĂŸingi fĂ©kk takmarkað löggjafarvald, en konungur hafði synjunarvald og beitti ĂŸvĂ nokkrum sinnum. Yfir Ăslandi var skipaður landshöfðingi sem var fulltrĂși konungs ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. Ăslendingar fengu svo heimastjĂłrn ĂĄrið 1904 og ĂŸĂĄ var ĂŸingrÊði innleitt sem ĂŸĂœddi að Ăslendingar fengu Ăslandsråðherra, með aðstöðu ĂĄ Ăslandi, sem var ĂĄbyrgur gagnvart AlĂŸingi. Ăsland varð fullvalda rĂki ĂĄrið 1918 ĂŸegar Sambandslögin voru sett. + +Sambandið við Danakonung rofnaði ĂĄrið 1940 Ă seinni heimsstyrjöldinni, ĂŸegar Ăsland var hernumið af Bretum, og ĂŸann 15. maĂ 1941 samĂŸykkti AlĂŸingi kosningu rĂkisstjĂłra. Ă ĂŸað embĂŠtti var Sveinn Björnsson kosinn. Sambandslögin voru einrĂłma felld Ășr gildi 25. febrĂșar 1944 ĂĄ AlĂŸingi en ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðsla var haldin um mĂĄlið 20.-23. maĂ. Sambandslögin voru sĂðan formlega felld Ășr gildi 16. jĂșnĂ sama ĂĄr og sĂðan var lĂœst yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði Ăslands ĂŸann 17. jĂșnĂ 1944. + +ĂrĂłun kosningarĂ©ttar +Ă fyrstu kosningunum til endurreists AlĂŸingis, ĂĄrið 1844, höfðu kosningarĂ©tt karlmenn 25 ĂĄra og eldri að uppfylltum ĂĄkveðnum skilyrðum um eignir. Ăað voru um 5% landsmanna. Ărið 1903 voru ĂĄkvÊði rĂœmkuð um kosningarĂ©tt efnaminni manna. Kosningar til AlĂŸingis voru leynilegar frĂĄ 1908, en fram að ĂŸvĂ höfðu ĂŸĂŠr verið opinberar. Ărið 1915 fengu hluti kvenna kosningarĂ©tt og skilyrðin um eignir voru felld niður. Eignalausir verkamenn og vinnumenn til sveita, konur og karlar, fengu samt ekki kosningarĂ©tt fyrr en ĂŸau höfðu nåð 40 ĂĄra aldri. Aldursmörkin fĂŠrðust svo niður um eitt ĂĄr ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri. Allir fengu rĂ©ttinn 25 ĂĄra ĂĄrið 1920. Ărið 1934 var kosningarĂ©ttur lĂŠkkaður Ă 21 ĂĄr, aftur Ă 20 ĂĄr ĂĄrið 1968, og að lokum Ă 18 ĂĄr ĂĄrið 1984. + +KjördĂŠmaskipan og deildaskipting + +Ărið 1874 var ĂŸingi skipt Ă tvĂŠr deildir, efri og neðri deild. Ăingmenn voru ĂŸĂĄ 36 og Ă efri deild sat ĂŸriðjungur ĂŸingmanna, eða 12 ĂŸingmenn. Sex ĂŸeirra voru ĂŸjóðkjörnir en sex konungkjörnir. Allir ĂŸingmenn Ă neðri deild voru ĂŸjóðkjörnir. Sameiginlegir fundir ĂŸingmanna beggja deilda nefndust sameinað AlĂŸingi. + +Ărið 1903 var ĂŸingmönnum fjölgað um fjĂłra og voru ĂŸĂĄ 40. Við stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingarnar 1915 var konungskjör ĂŸingmanna fellt niður og tekið upp landskjör ĂŸar sem allt landið var eitt kjördĂŠmi. Landskjörnir ĂŸingmenn voru sex, ĂŸeir voru kosnir til 12 ĂĄra og sĂĄtu Ă efri deild. Ărið 1920 var ĂŸingmönnum fjölgað Ă 42 og ĂŸĂĄ var ĂĄkveðið að AlĂŸingi kĂŠmi saman ĂĄrlega. Ărið 1934 var ĂŸingmönnum aftur fjölgað, nĂș um 7 eða Ă 49. ĂĂĄ var landskjör einnig fellt niður ĂŸað ĂĄr. 1942 var ĂŸeim svo fjölgað Ă 52. ĂĂĄ var landið 28 kjördĂŠmi, 21 einmenningskjördĂŠmi, sex tvĂmenningskjördĂŠmi og ReykjavĂk sem fĂ©kk ĂĄtta ĂŸingmenn. Auk ĂŸess voru 11 uppbĂłtarĂŸingmenn. Ărið 1959 var landinu skipt upp Ă ĂĄtta kjördĂŠmi með hlutfallskosningu auk 11 uppbĂłtarĂŸingsĂŠta. Ăingmönnum var aftur fjölgað, nĂș Ă 60. Ărið 1984 var ĂŸingmönnum fjölgað Ă 63 og ĂĄrið 1991 voru deildirnar tvĂŠr, efri og neðri deild, sameinaðar. KjördĂŠmaskipan var svo breytt ĂĄrið 1999 með stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingu og kjördĂŠmunum fĂŠkkað Ă sex. + +Völd ĂŸingsins +Völd AlĂŸingis eiga sĂ©r stoð Ă fyrstu og annari grein stjĂłrnarskrĂĄr lĂœĂ°veldisins Ăslands. Ă fyrstu greininni segir: âĂsland er lĂœĂ°veldi með ĂŸingbundinni stjĂłrnâ og ĂŸeirri annarri er mĂŠlt fyrir um ĂŸrĂskiptingu rĂkisvaldsins. Almennt er talið að með orðalaginu ĂŸingbundin stjĂłrn sĂ© ĂĄtt við að ĂĄ Ăslandi sĂ© ĂŸingrÊði eða Ă ĂŸað minnsta âað råðherrar skuli vera håðir AlĂŸingi með einÂhverjum hĂŠtti, t.d. með ĂŸvĂ að standa ĂŸinginu reikningsskil gjörða sinna.â MĂŠlt er nĂĄnar fyrir um råðherraĂĄbyrgð Ă 14. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar ĂŸar sem segir að AlĂŸingi geti kĂŠrt råðherra fyrir embĂŠttisrekstur ĂŸeirra og dĂŠmi landsdĂłmur ĂŸau mĂĄl. + +ĂrĂskipting rĂkisvaldsins felur ĂŸað Ă sĂ©r að löggjafarvaldið setur lög sem framkvĂŠmdarvaldið framkvĂŠmir og dĂłmsvaldið sker Ășr um ĂŸegar ĂĄgreiningur kemur upp. Löggjafarvaldið getur ekki leyst Ășr dĂłmsmĂĄlum nĂ© heldur getur ĂŸað tekið einstaka stjĂłrnvaldsĂĄkvarðanir sem er að öllu jöfnu viðfangsefni framkvĂŠmdarvaldsins og nefnist opinber stjĂłrnsĂœsla. Að ĂŸvĂ sögðu er ĂŸað ĂŸĂł ljĂłst af ĂŸingrÊðisreglunni og fjĂĄrstjĂłrnarvaldi ĂŸingsins að ekki er jafnrÊði milli ĂŸessara handhafa rĂkisvaldsins heldur er AlĂŸingi ĂłtvĂrĂŠtt valdamesta stofnunin. + +MikilvĂŠgi fjĂĄrstjĂłrnunarvaldsins sĂ©st Ă 42. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar sem segir að fyrir hvert reglulega samankomið AlĂŸingi beri að leggja fram frumvarp til fjĂĄrlaga fyrir ĂŸað fjĂĄrhagsĂĄr. Ăetta er eitt viðamesta verkefni AlĂŸingis ĂĄr hvert enda eru rekstrartekjur hinna Ăœmsu opinberra stofnana og styrkupphÊðir til einkaaðila ĂĄkveðin ĂŸar. + +AlĂŸingi er ekki með Ăłtakmarkað löggjafarvald heldur ĂŸarf forseti Ăslands að staðfesta lögin með undirskrift sinni. SamkvĂŠmt 19. og 26. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar ĂŸarf undirskrift forseta Ăslands til ĂŸess að veita frumvarpi lagagildi ellegar er ĂŸeim vĂsað til ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu. Ăessi völd forseta Ăslands voru lengi vel talin Ăłformleg, ĂŸeim var ekki beitt fyrr en Ălafur Ragnar GrĂmsson synjaði fjölmiðlafrumvarpinu staðfestingar ĂĄrið 2004. Ekki kom til ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu ĂŸĂĄ ĂŸar sem frumvarpið var dregið til baka af rĂkisstjĂłrninni. Ă byrjun ĂĄrs 2010 synjaði Ălafur Ragnar Icesave-frumvarpinu staðfestingar og fĂłr fram ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðsla um ĂŸað Ă mars ĂŸað ĂĄr ĂŸar sem lögin voru felld. Ă febrĂșar 2011 synjaði Ălafur nĂœju frumvarpi sem einnig er kennt við Icesave staðfestingar og var ĂŸað einnig fellt Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu sem haldin var Ă aprĂl ĂŸað ĂĄr. + +ĂĂĄ getur forseti Ăslands rofið ĂŸing samkvĂŠmt 24. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar. SlĂkt hefur aldrei gerst ĂĄ lĂœĂ°veldistĂmanum en AlĂŸingi var rofið ĂĄrið 1931 fyrir tilstuðlan KristjĂĄns 10. Danakonungs. + +Um fundarstjĂłrn, embĂŠtti AlĂŸingis og feril lagasetningar er mĂŠlt fyrir um Ă ĂŸingskaparlögum. Sumarið 2011 var ĂŸingskaparlögum nokkuð breytt, meðal annars var fjölda fastanefnda AlĂŸingis breytt. + +Lagasetning +Lagasetning ĂĄ AlĂŸingi fylgir föstu ferli sem mĂŠlt er fyrir um Ă stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni og ĂŸingskaparlögum. 38. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar mĂŠlir fyrir um að aðeins ĂŸingmenn og råðherrar megi leggja fram lagafrumvörp eða ĂŸingsĂĄlyktunartillögur. 44. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar mĂŠlir fyrir um að ekkert lagafrumvarp megi samĂŸykkja nema að undangengnum ĂŸremur umrÊðum ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. ĂĂĄ segir Ă 53. gr. stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrinnar að AlĂŸingi geti ekki samĂŸykkt mĂĄl nema meira en helmingur ĂŸingmanna sĂ©u viðstaddir atkvÊðagreiðslu og 67. gr. ĂŸingskaparlaga mĂŠlir fyrir um að afl atkvÊða råði Ășrslitum um mĂĄl og mĂĄlsatriði nema annað sĂ© skĂœrt tekið fram Ă stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni eða ĂŸingskaparlögum. + +Sem fyrr segir skiptist umfjöllun AlĂŸingis Ă ĂŸrjĂĄ umrÊður. Ăriðji kafli ĂŸingskaparlaga fjallar nĂĄnar um lagasetningu ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. Ăar er mĂŠlt fyrir um að að fyrstu umrÊðu lokinni vĂsi forseti AlĂŸingis frumvarpinu til fastanefndar AlĂŸingis að hans vali. Ăingmenn geta krafist atkvÊðagreiðslu ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂmapunkti um ĂŸað hvort ljĂșka beri fyrstu umrÊðu eða hvort vĂsa eigi frumvarpinu til annarar fastanefndar en ĂŸeirrar sem forseti AlĂŸingis leggur til. + +Ănnur umrÊða fer fram Ă fyrsta lagi nĂłttu eftir að fyrstu umrÊðu er lokið eða ĂștbĂœtingu nefndarĂĄlits. ĂĂĄ eru einstaka greinar frumvarpsins rĂŠddar og breytingartillögur ef einhverjar hafa fram komið. ĂĂĄ eru greidd atkvÊði um einstakar greinar frumvarpsins og einstök atriði sem ĂŸingmenn ĂŠskja eftir að kosið sĂ© um. + +ĂĂĄ gengur frumvarpið til ĂŸriðju umrÊðu en ĂŸingmenn geta Ăłskað eftir atkvÊðagreiðslu åður ĂŸvĂ til staðfestingar. Hafi frumvarpið breyst við aðra umrÊðu getur ĂŸingmaður eða råðherra Ăłskað eftir ĂŸvĂ að nefnd taki ĂŸað til umfjöllunar ĂĄ nĂœ. Ăriðja og sĂðasta umrÊðan fer fram Ă fyrsta lagi nĂłttu eftir aðra umrÊðu. ĂĂĄ eru rĂŠddar greinar frumvarpsins og breytingartillögur við frumvarpið og einnig frumvarpið Ă heild. Loks eru greidd atkvÊði um breytingartillögurnar ef einhverjar eru og svo frumvarpið Ă heild. + +EmbĂŠtti ĂŸingsins +Ăðsta embĂŠtti ĂŸingsins er forseti AlĂŸingis. NĂșverandi forseti er SteingrĂmur J. SigfĂșsson, alĂŸingismaður Vinstri grĂŠnna. Eins og segir Ă kynningarbĂŠklingi AlĂŸingis âstjĂłrnar [forseti] ĂŸinghaldinu, ĂĄkveður dagskrĂĄ ĂŸingfunda og hefur frumkvÊði að ĂŸvĂ að semja starfsĂĄĂŠtlun AlĂŸingis og ĂĄĂŠtlun um fundarhöld. Forseti hefur enn fremur umsjĂłn með starfi ĂŸingnefnda og alĂŸjóðanefnda og fyrirspurnir til råðherra eru håðar leyfi hans. Forseti sker Ășr ĂĄgreiningi um tĂșlkun ĂŸingskapa og umrÊður utan dagskrĂĄr eru bundnar samĂŸykki hans.â SamkvĂŠmt stjĂłrnarskrĂĄnni er forseti AlĂŸingis einn ĂŸriggja handhafa forsetavalds. + +Forsetar AlĂŸingis eru kosnir af ĂŸinginu strax eftir ĂŸingsetningu og stĂœrir aldursforseti ĂŸingsins, sĂĄ ĂŸingmaður með lengstu setu ĂĄ ĂŸingi fundum ĂŸangað til að forseti AlĂŸingis hefur verið kosinn. Ăingmenn eru tilnefndir til embĂŠttisins og eru ĂŸeir Ă framboði sem ekki hreyfa við ĂŸvĂ mĂłtmĂŠlum. SĂĄ ĂŸingmaður er kosinn sem hlĂœtur yfir helming atkvÊða eða hreinan meirihluta. + +Stofnanir AlĂŸingis +TvĂŠr sjĂĄlfstÊðar stofnanir starfa ĂĄ vegum AlĂŸingis. Ăað eru umboðsmaður AlĂŸingis og RĂkisendurskoðun. Hlutverk umboðsmanns AlĂŸingis er að hafa eftirlit með opinberri stjĂłrnsĂœslu af hĂĄlfu AlĂŸingis. Hlutverk RĂkisendurskoðunar er fyrst og fremst að endurskoða rĂkisreikninginn og reikninga opinberra stofnana. Hvorki umboðsmaður AlĂŸingis nĂ© RĂkisendurskoðun lĂșta beinu boðvaldi AlĂŸingis heldur geta tekið fyrir mĂĄl að eigin frumkvÊði. AlĂŸingi getur ĂŸĂł krafist skĂœrslna af hendi RĂkisendurskoðunar um tiltekin mĂĄl. + +Samsetning ĂŸingsins +Eins og fram hefur komið er ĂŸingrÊði ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ăsland skilur sig hins vegar frĂĄ hinum Norðurlöndunum að ĂŸvĂ leyti að ĂĄ Ăslandi er sterk hefð fyrir öflugum meirihlutastjĂłrnum. FrĂĄ lĂœĂ°veldisstofnun ĂĄrið 1944 hafa 15 vantrauststillögur verið lagðar fram af stjĂłrnarandstöðu. Allar hafa ĂŸĂŠr verið felldar af meirihluta rĂkisstjĂłrnarinnar. Ăessi hefð er svo sterk ĂĄ Ăslandi að rĂŠtt hefur verið um samĂŸĂŠttingu löggjafarvalds og framkvĂŠmdavalds af ĂŸeim sökum. Ă stefnurÊðu við ĂŸingsetningu ĂĄrið 1997 komst DavĂð Oddsson, ĂŸĂĄ forsĂŠtisråðherra svo að orði: + +Tengt efni +Listi yfir alĂŸingiskosningar +AlĂŸingisbĂŠkur Ăslands + +Tilvitnanir +<div class="references-small"> + +Punktar + +Tenglar +VefsĂða AlĂŸingis +Kynning og saga (kynningarbĂŠklingur) +Ungmennavefur AlĂŸingis, kynning, saga og kennsluefni ĂŠtluð ungmennum + Lög um ĂŸingsköp AlĂŸingis 1991 nr. 55 31. maĂ + Myndir af AlĂŸingishĂșsinu Ă ReykjavĂk + +TĂmarita- og blaðagreinar + AlĂŸingi Ă ljĂłsi samĂŸĂŠttingar löggjafarvalds og framkvĂŠmdavalds, grein eftir Ăorstein MagnĂșsson forstöðumann ĂĄ skrifstofu AlĂŸingis Ă vefritinu StjĂłrnmĂĄl og stjĂłrnsĂœsla + NĂłtt hinna ĂŸinglausu ĂĄra - 1800-1845; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1945 + Upptökubönd nĂĄ frĂĄ ReykjavĂk til Egilsstaða; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1987 + + +Ăslenskar rĂkisstofnanir +Ăing eftir löndum +Ă stĂŠrðfrÊði er hugtakið flatarmĂĄl notað yfir tölugildi tvĂvĂðs afmarkaðs svÊðis. + +Taka mĂĄ ferhyrning sem dĂŠmi: +LĂta mĂĄ ĂĄ beina lĂnu milli tveggja punkta sem einvĂðan vigur. Hann hefur aðeins lengd, sĂ© vigurinn ekki skoðaður með tilliti til tvĂ- eða ĂŸrĂvĂðs umhverfis. SĂ© annar vigur leiddur inn Ă dĂŠmið, sem er einnig einvĂður, en situr hornrĂ©tt ĂĄ við hinn fyrrnefnda vigur, ĂŸĂĄ afmarka vigrarnir tveir tvĂvĂðan flöt, sem finna mĂĄ flatarmĂĄlið ĂĄ með ĂŸvĂ að margfalda lengdir vigranna saman. + +Að jafnaði er flatarmĂĄl gefið upp dags daglega með mĂŠlieiningum, gjarnan Ășr SI kerfinu. Til dĂŠmis er flatarmĂĄl landa gefið upp Ă ferkĂlĂłmetrum (kmÂČ), flatarmĂĄl akurlendis Ă hektörum (eða hektĂłmetrum), (hmÂČ), og flatarmĂĄl hĂșsnÊðis Ă fermetrum (mÂČ). VeldisvĂsinn hjĂĄ mĂŠlieiningunni mĂĄ nota til ĂŸess að sjĂĄ hversu margar svigrĂșmsvĂddir umrĂŠtt rĂșm hefur. T.d. myndu rĂșmkĂlĂłmetrar - kmÂł vera með ĂŸrjĂĄr svigrĂșmsvĂddir, og lĂœsir 1kmÂł ĂŸĂĄ ĂŸrĂvĂðu rĂșmi. + +FormĂșlur + +Tengt efni + ĂrĂvĂtt rĂșm + LĂna + Vigur + Hallatala + YfirborðsflatarmĂĄl + +StĂŠrðfrÊði +Taugakerfið er kerfið sem er samansett Ășr taugum og sĂ©rstökum frumum sem eru ĂŸekktar sem taugafrumur en ĂŸĂŠr mynda flĂłkin net sem senda merki eða boð ĂĄ milli mismunandi lĂkamsparta. Ăað eru um 86 milljarða taugafrumna Ă fullvaxta heila (Matthews, 2020). Uppbygging taugafrumna er örlĂtið flĂłkin en hver fruma er gerð Ășr frumubol og grönnum taugaĂŸråðum. Frumurnar geta sĂðan flutt veik boð en ĂŸau kallast taugaboð. Ăessi boð berast til frumubolsins með taugaĂŸråðum sem eru kallaðir griplur og eru ĂŸetta stuttir ĂŸrÊðir. SĂðan berast boðin ĂĄfram til annarra taugafrumna eftir löngum ĂŸråðum sem kallast sĂmi. SĂminn greinist svo Ă endann og kallast ĂŸað sĂmaendar og geta ĂŸeir verið margir. SĂmar geta verið allt frĂĄ meira en einum metra að lengd niður Ă fĂĄeina millimetra. Boðin berast hraðar eftir taugasĂmum sem hafa um sig hlĂfðarlag Ășr fitu en ĂŸau boð geta farið meira en 100 metra ĂĄ sekĂșndu. SĂmaendar geta svo tengst himnu annarra frumu en ĂŸað kallast taugamĂłt. Hver taugafruma getur haft ĂŸĂșsundir tengipunkta við aðrar frumur (Fabricius, 2011). + +Uppbygging taugakerfisins + +Taugakerfið er sett saman Ășr tveimur hlutum, miðtaugakerfinu en ĂŸar undir falla mĂŠnan og heilinn, og Ășttaugakerfið en ĂŸað skiptist Ă viljastĂœrða kerfið en ĂŸað er kerfið sem við getum stjĂłrnað með eigin vilja og sjĂĄlfvirka taugakerfið sem er ekki undir viljastjĂłrn (Fabricius, 2011)( (Zimmermann, 2018). + +Miðtaugakerfið +Taugarnar sem liggja Ășt frĂĄ heilanum flytja boð til lĂffĂŠra lĂkamans til að mynda hreyfiboð sem gera okkur kleift að hreyfa okkur. Einnig eru taugar sem flytja boð til heilans en ĂŸað eru boð til dĂŠmis frĂĄ augunum, sem heilinn tĂșlkar svo og bĂœr til sjĂłnhrif en ĂŸað eru myndirnar sem við sjĂĄum (Fabricius, 2011). + +Ăttaugakerfið +ViljastĂœrða taugakerfið stjĂłrnar beinagrindavöðvum og sjĂĄlfvirka taugakerfið stjĂłrnar svo hjartavöðvum, slĂ©ttum vöðvum og kirtlum. SjĂĄlfvirka taugakerfið skiptist svo enn meira niður Ă drifkerfið og sefkerfið (ĂurĂður ĂorbjarnardĂłttir, 2006). + +Taugaviðbrögð og taugafrumur +MĂŠnan sem er partur af miðtaugakerfinu er um ĂŸað bil 45 cm langur strengur og liggur inni Ă holrĂșmi Ă hryggjarliðunum. MĂŠnan er tengibraut fyrir taugaboð til og frĂĄ heilanum en hĂșn er lĂka hraðtenging taugabrauta Ă taugaviðbröðgum sem kallast mĂŠnuviðbrögð. + +Ăegar skyntaugarnar sem koma inn Ă mĂŠnuna tengjast beint við hreyfitaugar til vöðvanna, ĂŸĂĄ fara boðin stystu leiðina til vöðvans og sleppa ĂŸvĂ að fara til heilans fyrst, ĂŸetta kallast mĂŠnuviðbrögð. Ein tegund af mĂŠnuviðbröðgum er sĂĄrsaukaviðbragð en ĂŸað er meðfĂŠtt. Ef að ĂŸĂș rekur hendina Ă eitthvað rykkir ĂŸĂș henni tilbaka ĂĄn ĂŸess að hugsa um ĂŸað. SkĂœringin ĂĄ ĂŸessu er að skynfĂŠri Ă hendinni senda boð til mĂŠnunnar eftir skyntaugafrumunum. Ă mĂŠnunni vekja ĂŸau svo boð Ă hreyfitaugafrumum sem flytja svo boðið til vöðva Ă hendinni sem kippir henni frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ sem að olli henni sĂĄrsauka. Ăessi viðbrögð taka einungis fĂĄ sekĂșndubrot. SĂðan, um leið og að taugaboðið hefur borist til handarinnar berst taugaboð til heilans um að ĂŸĂș hafir meitt ĂŸig Ă hendinni en ĂŸĂĄ ertu nĂș ĂŸegar bĂșin að fĂŠra hana frĂĄ (Fabricius, 2011). Einnig eru til lĂŠrð viðbrögð en ĂŸað er eins og ĂŸað að hjĂłla. Ăegar ĂŸĂș hjĂłlar eða hleypur ĂŸĂĄ ertu ekki að hugsa um hverja hreyfingu sem lĂkaminn framkvĂŠmir. Vöðvarnir og taugakerfið hafa ĂłsjĂĄlfrĂĄtt lĂŠrt að framkvĂŠma ĂŸessar hreyfingar af ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸetta eru orðin lĂŠrð taugaviðbrögð (Fabricius, 2011). + +Sumar taugar senda taugaboð til heilans, en ĂŸĂŠr kallast skyntaugar og aðrar senda boð frĂĄ heilanum en ĂŸĂŠr kallast hreyfitaugar. Starf skyntauga er að flytja boðin frĂĄ skynfĂŠrum, til sjĂłnsvÊðis, heyrnasvÊðis og hinna starfsvÊða heilans. Hreyfitaugarnar hins vegar stjĂłrna öllum hreyfingunum okkar. + +Ăegar kemur að minninu hafa taugafrumurnar lĂka hlutverk. ĂĂŠr mynda ĂŸĂ©tt net tenginga Ă heilanum og minnið byggist ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸessar tengingar eru að breytast. Taugafrumurnar hafa lĂka hlutverk ĂŸegar kemur að fĂkniefnum. ĂvĂ ĂŸegar taugafrumurnar bregðast við efnum eins og nikĂłtĂni getur ĂŸað skapað minni og ĂŸað getur leitt til ĂŸess að heilinn vilji meira af efninu (Fabricius, 2011). Taugafrumur eru bĂșnar til eða framleiddar ĂĄ fĂłsturstigi og er taugakerfið myndað um 18 dögum eftir getnað (Matthews, 2020). + +Kvillar +Ăað geta komið upp sjĂșkdĂłmar Ă taugakerfinu og eru til margar aðferðir við að rannsaka ĂŸað. LĂŠknar geta fylgst með ĂŸvĂ hvernig taugabrautirnar starfa með ĂŸvĂ að skoða jafnvĂŠgið og taugaviðbrögð. Einnig er hĂŠgt að skoða heilann með ĂŸvĂ að taka af honum sneiðmyndir svo er einnig hĂŠgt að skoða sĂșrefnisnotkun og blóðflÊði um heilann til að rannsaka starfsemi hans (Fabricius, 2011). Ăar sem taugakerfið er heilinn, mĂŠnan og taugarnar sem stjĂłrna hvernig lĂkaminn starfar ĂŸĂĄ geta taugasjĂșkdĂłmar haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ svo margt. Ăeir geta haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ hreyfigetu einstaklings og talgetu. Einnig getur einstaklingur sem ĂŸjĂĄist af taugasjĂșkdĂłmi ĂĄtt erfitt með að kyngja, anda eða lĂŠra. Ăetta getur lĂka haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ minni, skynfĂŠri og hugarĂĄstand (Neurologic diseases, 2014). Ăeir sjĂșkdĂłmar sem geta komið upp Ă taugakerfinu eru misalvarlegir en geta til dĂŠmis verið heiladauði, heilahimnubĂłlga og flogaveiki en einnig er ĂŸunglyndi talið koma af ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸað sĂ© skortur ĂĄ tilteknum boðefnum Ă heilanum (Fabricius, 2011). + +Heimildir + +Fabricius, S. H. (2011). MannslĂkaminn. ReykjavĂk: NĂĄmsgagnastofnun. + +Matthews, P. (9. April 2020). Human nervous system. SĂłtt af https://www.britannica.com/science/human-nervous-system + +Neurologic diseases. (29. September 2014). SĂłtt af https://medlineplus.gov/neurologicdiseases.html + +Zimmermann, K. (14. February 2018). Nervous system: Facts, function & diseases. SĂłtt af https://www.livescience.com/22665-nervous-system.html + +ĂurĂður ĂorbjarnardĂłttir. (28. September 2006). Afhverju svitnar maður ĂŸegar maður er kvĂðinn eða stressaður. SĂłtt af https://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=6215# +Ăttaugakerfið er annar tveggja hluta taugakerfisins, hinn verandi miðtaugakerfið. Ăttaugakerfið samanstendur af ĂŸeim taugum og taugafrumum sem eru utan við heila og mĂŠnu og flytja boð til eða frĂĄ. + +Ăttaugakerfinu er skipt Ă tvennt: ViljastĂœrða taugakerfið sem lĂfvera stjĂłrnar með vilja sĂnum og sjĂĄlfvirka taugakerfið sem sinnir starfsemi lĂffĂŠranna. +SkynfĂŠri halda tengslum við ytra umhverfi og innra ĂĄstand. + +Ytri skynjarar, exteroceptores, skynja breytingar Ă umhverfinu en innri skynjarar, interoceptores, skynja innvortis breytingar. + +Til skynfĂŠra manna teljast meðal annars augu, eyru, bragðlaukar, lyktarnemar og snertinemar. Ănnur dĂœr eins og fiskar, skordĂœr og fuglar bĂșa yfir skynfĂŠrum ĂĄ borð við fĂĄlmara, lĂœrunema og veiðihĂĄr. +SkynfĂŠri + +pt:Sentido +TĂłmas Lemarquis (fĂŠddur 3. ĂĄgĂșst 1977) er Ăslensk-franskur leikari. Hann Ăștskrifaðist Ășr LHĂ 2003. Hann er ĂŸekktur fyrir að leika NĂła, aðalsöguhetjuna Ă kvikmyndinni NĂłi albĂnĂłi og hlutverk Ă kvikmyndinni VilliljĂłs frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2001. Hann lĂ©k Ă myndinni Desember ĂĄsamt Laylow. + +TĂłmas hefur leikið Ă alĂŸjóðlegum myndum og er Blade Runner með ĂŸeim ĂŸekktari. + +Tenglar + Listaverk eftir TĂłmas . + +Ăslenskir leikarar +FĂłlk fĂŠtt ĂĄrið 1977 +ListahĂĄskĂłli Ăslands er hĂĄskĂłli ĂĄ sviði lista og menningar og miðstöð Êðri listmenntunar ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ă ListahĂĄskĂłla Ăslands eru sjö deildir, en innan ĂŸeirra eru starfrĂŠktar bÊði nĂĄmsbrautir ĂĄ bakkalĂĄrstigi og ĂĄ meistarastigi. ĂĂŠr eru: myndlistardeild, hönnunar- og arkitektĂșrdeild, listkennsludeild, tĂłnlistardeild, sviðslistadeild og kvikmyndadeild. ListahĂĄskĂłlinn var stofnaður 21. september 1998. Kennsla hĂłfst haustið 1999. Rektor er FrĂða Björk IngvarsdĂłttir. + +Tengill + www.lhi.is + +HĂĄskĂłlar ĂĄ Ăslandi +Enska (English; ) er vesturgermanskt tungumĂĄl sem ĂĄ rĂŠtur að rekja til fornlĂĄgĂŸĂœsku og annarra nĂĄskyldra tungumĂĄla Engla og Saxa, sem nĂĄmu fyrstir Germana land ĂĄ Bretlandseyjum, en mĂĄlið hefur orðið fyrir miklum ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ Ăœmsum öðrum mĂĄlum, ĂŸĂĄ sĂ©r Ă lagi latĂnu, fornnorrĂŠnu, grĂsku, og keltneskum mĂĄlum sem fyrir voru ĂĄ eyjunum. + +Enska er töluð vĂða Ă heiminum, og er opinbert mĂĄl ĂĄ Englandi, Ărlandi, Skotlandi, Wales, NĂœja SjĂĄlandi, ĂstralĂu, Suður-AfrĂku, BandarĂkjunum, Kanada og fjölmörgum öðrum löndum. + +ĂrĂłunarsögu ensku er skipt Ă ĂŸrjĂș tĂmabil. Elst er fornenska (Old English), sem er einnig kölluð engilsaxneska eftir hinum germönsku Englum og Söxum sem réðu rĂkjum ĂĄ Englandi frĂĄ 5. öld og fram ĂĄ vĂkingaöld. Miðenska (Middle English) var töluð eftir komu vĂkinga og fram að ĂŸeim tĂma ĂŸegar prentsmiðjur urðu algengar. Eftir tilkomu prentsmiðjanna hefur verið talað ĂŸað mĂĄl sem við ĂŸekkjum nĂș (nĂștĂmaenska). + +Notkun um heiminn + +Sökum mikillar Ăștbreiðslu enskunnar og töluverðrar innbyrðis einangrunar mĂŠlenda hennar, hafa orðið til margar mismunandi mĂĄllĂœskur sem hafa einkennandi raddblĂŠ, framburð og orðaforða. Til dĂŠmis eru til mörg orð Ă ĂĄstralskri ensku sem enginn Ă Kanada myndi nota Ă daglegu mĂĄli, og öfugt. + +Til ĂŸess að sporna við ĂŸessari ĂŸrĂłun hĂłf Oxford-hĂĄskĂłli ĂștgĂĄfu Oxford English Dictionary, sem talin er yfirgripsmesta nĂștĂma enska orðabĂłkin. HĂșn var fyrst gefin Ășt ĂĄrið 1884, en hefur sĂðan ĂŸĂĄ verið stĂŠkkuð mjög til ĂŸess að nĂĄ yfir allar helstu orðmyndir sem koma fyrir Ă mĂĄlinu allt aftur til upphafs nĂștĂmaensku. + +Saga +Enska er vesturgermanskt tungumĂĄl sem ĂĄ upptök sĂn Ă engilfrĂsneskum og lĂĄgsaxneskum mĂĄllĂœskum sem kĂłmu ĂĄ Bretlandseyjar með germönskum ĂŠttflokkum og rĂłmverskum hermönnum, frĂĄ svÊðinu sem er nĂș Norðvestur-ĂĂœskaland, Danmörk og Holland ĂĄ 5. öld. Einn ĂŸessara ĂŠttflokka voru Englar sem voru lĂklega komnir frĂĄ Angeln. Að sögn Bedu prests kĂłmu allir ĂŸeirra til Bretlands og gamla land ĂŸeirra varð yfirgefið. Orðin England (Ășr Engla land âEnglalandâ) og English/enska (ĂĄ fornensku Englisc) ĂĄ rĂŠtur að rekja til nafns ĂŸessa ĂŠttflokks. + +Engilsaxneska innrĂĄsin Ă Bretland hĂłfst um arið 449 e.Kr. InnrĂĄsarmenn komu frĂĄ Danmörk og JĂłtlandi. Ăður en innrĂĄsin ĂĄ Bretlandi voru innfĂŠddu mennirnir Keltar sem töluðu bretnesku, sem var keltneskt tungumĂĄl. TungumĂĄlið sem talað var ĂĄ undan normönnskum landvinningum ĂĄrið 1006 hĂ©t fornenska. Upp ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ hĂłfust mikilvĂŠgar breytingar ĂĄ tungumĂĄlið. + +Upprunalega var fornenska hĂłpur ĂłlĂkra mĂĄllĂœska sem endurspegluðu engilsaxnesku kĂłnungsrĂkin sem voru til Ă Bretlandi ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma. Ein ĂŸessara mĂĄllĂœska, vestursaxneska, varð sĂș helsta. Ein helstu ĂĄhrif ĂĄ ĂŸrĂłun enskunnar var rĂłmversk-kaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan. + +Ă miðöldum hafði rĂłmversk-kaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan einokun ĂĄ hugverkum Ă breska ĂŸjóðfĂ©laginu, sem hĂșn notaði til að hafa ĂĄhrif ĂĄ ensku. KaĂŸĂłlskir munkar skrifuðu eða afrituðu texta aðallega ĂĄ latnesku sem var ĂŸĂĄ sĂș helsta tungumĂĄl Ă EvrĂłpu. Ăegar munkarnir skrifuðu ĂĄ móðurmĂĄl sitt notuðu ĂŸeir oft orð Ășr frĂĄ latnesku til að skrĂœa frĂĄ hugtökum sem ĂĄttu ekkert orð ĂĄ ensku. Meginhluti orðaforða enskunnar ĂĄ rĂŠtur að rekja til latnesku. Talið er að gegnum tĂma notuðu enska menntastĂ©ttin meira og meira orð sem munkarnir tĂłku frĂĄ latnesku. Ăar að auki hĂ©lt hĂșn ĂĄfram að draga nĂœ orð Ășr latneksu eftir ĂŸað. + +TvĂŠr bylgjur innrĂĄsar höfðu mikil ĂĄhrif ĂĄ fornensku. FĂłlkið sem gerði fyrstu innrasĂna talaði norrĂŠnt tungumĂĄl, og sigraði og nam land ĂĄ Bretlandseyjum ĂĄ 8. og 9. öldum. Normannar gerðu aðra innrĂĄsina ĂĄ 11. öld. Ăeir töluðu normönnsku og ĂŸrĂłuðu enska tegund af ĂŸessu mĂĄli. Með tĂmanum minnkuðu ĂĄhrif frĂĄ normönnsku vegna frönskutegundarinnar sem töluð var Ă ParĂs. TungumĂĄl Normannana breyttist Ă engilfrönsku. Vegna ĂŸessara innrĂĄsa tveggja varð enska svolĂtið âblandaðâ mĂĄl, en hĂșn var ekki Ă raun blendingsmĂĄl. + +Vegna samlĂfis við Norðmenn stĂŠkkaði magn germanskra orða Ă fornensku. Auk ĂŸess, við normönnsku landvinningar, voru fleiri orð tekin frĂĄ rĂłmönskum tungumĂĄlum. Normönnsku ĂĄhrif ĂĄ ensku var aðallega sökum notkunar normönnsku af rĂkisstjĂłrninni. Ăannig var hafið Ă alvöru að taka mörg orð frĂĄ öðrum tungumĂĄlum, og orðaforði enskunnar varð mjög stĂłr. + +Við tilkomu Breska heimsveldsins hĂłfst notkun ensku Ă Norður-AmerĂku, Indlandi, AfrĂku, ĂstralĂu og ĂĄ öðrum svÊðum. MikilvĂŠgi BandarĂkjanna sem risaveldi hefur lĂka hjĂĄlpað ĂștĂŸenslu ensku um heiminn. + +LandfrÊðileg dreifing +Um ĂŸað bil 375 milljĂłnir manns tala ensku sem móðurmĂĄl. Talið er að enska sĂ© ĂŸriðja stĂŠrsta tungumĂĄlið Ă heimi eftir magni mĂĄlhafa, eftir kĂnversku og spĂŠnsku. Hins vegar ĂŸegar talaðir eru allir sem tala ensku sem móðurmĂĄl og annað mĂĄl, er enska stĂŠrsta tungumĂĄlið Ă heimi. + +Lönd eftir mĂĄlhafatölu + +MĂĄlfrÊði + +Ă ensku eru ekki eins margar beygingar og à öðrum indĂłevrĂłpskum mĂĄlum. Til dĂŠmis Ă nĂștĂmaensku eru ekki mĂĄlfrÊðileg kyn eða stigbreytingar lĂœsingarorða, ĂłlĂkt Ă nĂștĂmaĂŸĂœsku eða hollensku. Fallendingar Ă ensku eru nĂŠstum ĂŸvĂ horfnar, en eru enn ĂŸĂĄ til Ă fornöfnum. Ă ensku eru til bÊði sterkar (t.d. speak/spoke/spoken) og veikar sagnir sem eiga germanskar rĂŠtur. Afgangar frĂĄ beygingum (til dĂŠmis Ă fleirtölu) geta sĂ©st enn ĂŸĂĄ en eru orðnir reglulegri. + +Um leið er enska orðið greinandi tungumĂĄl. Oftar er notað Ă ensku Ăłfullkomnar hjĂĄlparsagnir og orðaröð heldur fallendingar til ĂŸess að bera merkingar. HjĂĄlparsagnir merkja spurningar, neikvÊðar setningargerðir, ĂŸolmynd og svo framvegis. + +DĂŠmi + +Fornenska er töluvert lĂkari Ăslensku en nĂștĂmaensku, eins og sjĂĄ mĂĄ ĂĄ ĂŸessu ljóðbroti Ășr BjĂłlfskviðu frĂĄ 8. öld: + +Ăa se ellengĂŠst earfoðlice +ĂŸrage geĂŸolode, se ĂŸe in ĂŸystrum bad, +ĂŸĂŠt he dogora gehwam dream gehyrde +hludne in healle; ĂŸĂŠr wĂŠs hearpan sweg, +swutol sang scopes. SĂŠgde se ĂŸe cuĂŸe +frumsceaft fira feorran reccan, +cwÊð ĂŸĂŠt se Ălmihtiga eorðan worhte, +wlitebeorhtne wang, swa wĂŠter bebugeð, +gesette sigehreĂŸig sunnan ond monan + +Ăr ljóðinu um ĂłvĂŠttinn Grendel + +Ăegar ĂŸetta er borið saman við nĂœrri ensk verk mĂĄ sjĂĄ hversu hratt enskan fjarlĂŠgist Ăslenskuna: + +Ich was in one sumere dale, +in one suthe diyhele hale, +iherde ich holde grete tale +an hule and one niyhtingale. + +Ăr âThe Owl and the Nightingaleâ, skrifað c.a. 1260 + +Svo eru nĂștĂmaverkin öllu lĂkari ĂŸvĂ sem við ĂŸekkjum Ă dag. Ăetta dĂŠmi er eftir Jonathan Swift, sem ĂŸekktastur er fyrir að hafa skrifað Ferðir GĂșllĂvers ĂĄ 18. öld: + +I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least objection. + +En ögn eldri dĂŠmi um nĂștĂmaensku koma upp um fortĂð mĂĄlsins, eins og sĂ©st hĂ©r Ă broti Ășr Fönixinum og skjaldbökunni eftir William Shakespeare (c.a. 1586) + +Let the bird of lowdest lay, +On the sole Arabian tree, +Herauld sad and trumpet be: +To whose sound, chast wings obay. + +But thou, shriking harbinger, +Foule precurrer of the fiend, +Augour of the fevers end, +To this troupe come thou not neere. + +Frekari fróðleikur + Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable, A History of the English Language, London 2002, ISBN 978-0-13-015166-7. + Frederic G. Cassidy, Geographical Variation of English in the United States, in Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach, English as a World Language, Ann Arbor 1982, pp. 177â210, ISBN 978-3-12-533872-2. + Fausto Cercignani, Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation. Oxford 1981, ISBN 0-19-811937-2. + David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge 2003, ISBN 0-521-53033-4. + Manfred Görlach, Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge 1991, ISBN 0-521-32529-3. + Christian Mair, Twentieth-century English: History, variation and standardization. Cambridge 2006. + Tom McArthur, The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford 1992, ISBN 978-0-19-214183-5. + David Northrup, How English Became the Global Language. London 2013, ISBN 978-1-137-30306-6. + Peter Roach, English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge 2009. + Peter Trudgill and Jean Hannah, International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English, London 2008, ISBN 978-0-340-97161-1. + J. C. Wells, Accents of English, I, II, III. Cambridge 1982. + +Tenglar + + NĂștĂma enska: Eyðiland lĂĄgkĂșru, klisju og klĂĄms; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1992 + +Erlendir + Oxford English Dictionary + Re-Romanization of English + Yfir 20.000 ensk orð upptekin af einhverjum sem talar ensku sem móðurmĂĄl + Free Online Dictionary English-Icelandic, orðabĂłk enska <-> Ăslenska + Ăegar Ăslendingar fĂłru að lĂŠra ensku , Steinunn EinarsdĂłttir + +Ensk tungumĂĄl +Taug (frÊðiheiti: nervus) er stĂłrt taugasĂmaknippi, sem er hjĂșpað bandvef. Taug lĂkist sĂmastreng að ĂŸvĂ leyti að taugasĂmarnir sjĂĄlfir eru einstakir vĂrar Ă strengnum, og svo eru mĂœlið, frumuslĂðrið og bandvefjahulur einangrun. + +Taugakerfið +VesturnorrĂŠn mĂĄl eru norrĂŠnu mĂĄlin Ăslenska, fĂŠreyska og norska. + +Taka skal fram að Ăœmsar svÊðis- og stĂ©ttarmĂĄllĂœskur Ă Noregi, ĂŸar með talið bĂłkmĂĄlið og rĂkismĂĄlið hafa talist bÊði til vestur- og austurnorrĂŠnna mĂĄla. Ă hĂ©ruðunum BohuslĂ€n og Jamtlandi, sem tilheyrt hafa SvĂĂŸjóð sĂðan ĂĄ 17. öld, finnast einnig mĂĄllĂœskur sem nĂĄskyldar eru norsku. + +Til vesturnorrĂŠna mĂĄla teljast einnig Ăștdauðu mĂĄlin norn, sem talað var fram ĂĄ 18. öld nyrst ĂĄ Bretlandseyjum og grĂŠnlandsnorrĂŠna, sem töluð var fram ĂĄ 15. öld Ă byggðum norrĂŠnna manna ĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi. + +Tenglar + Listi yfir netorðabĂŠkur ĂĄ NorðurlandamĂĄlunum + +NorrĂŠn tungumĂĄl +Norðurlönd +23. aprĂl er 113. dagur ĂĄrsins (114. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 252 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1014 - BrjĂĄnsbardagi var håður ĂĄ Ărlandi. + 1016 - JĂĄtmundur jĂĄrnsĂða varð konungur Englands eftir lĂĄt föður sĂns Aðalråðs råðlausa. + 1374 - JĂĄtvarður 3. Englandskonungur veitti rithöfundinum Geoffrey Chaucer gallĂłn (um 3,8 lĂtra) af vĂni ĂĄ dag ĂŸað sem hann ĂŠtti eftir Ăłlifað. SĂðar var skĂĄldalaununum breytt Ă peningagreiðslu. + 1455 - Kalixtus 3. (Alfons de Borja) kjörinn pĂĄfi. + 1516 - Reinheitsgebot, reglur um hreinleika bjĂłrs, sett Ă BĂŠjaralandi. + 1568 - Fyrsta orrusta ĂttatĂu ĂĄra strĂðsins, orrustan við RĂnardal, ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað. + 1660 - SvĂĂŸjóð og PĂłlland gerðu með sĂ©r OliwasĂĄttmĂĄlann. + 1661 - Karl 2. Englandskonungur var krĂœndur öðru sinni Ă Westminster Abbey. + 1889 - KaupfĂ©lag Skagfirðinga var stofnað. + 1924 - Thorvald Stauning myndar fyrstu rĂkisstjĂłrn danskra jafnaðarmanna. + 1927 - Cardiff City sigrar Arsenal Ă Ășrslitum enska bikarsins og verður ĂŸar með eina liðið utan Englands til að verða bikarmeistari. + 1935 - NĂœ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ tĂłk gildi Ă PĂłllandi. + 1964 - LeikfĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur hĂ©lt upp ĂĄ 400 ĂĄra afmĂŠli Shakespeares með hĂĄtĂðarsĂœningu ĂĄ RĂłmeĂł og JĂșlĂu. + 1961 - Judy Garland kom fram Ă Carnegie Hall. + 1968 - Nemendur við Columbia-hĂĄskĂłla Ă BandarĂkjunum lögðu undir sig skĂłlabyggingar til ĂŸess að mĂłtmĂŠla VĂetnamstrĂðinu. + 1970 - BorðtennisfĂ©lagið Ărninn var stofnað ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1972 - Haldið var upp ĂĄ sjötugsafmĂŠli HalldĂłrs Laxness, hann var Ăștnefndur heiðursborgari MosfellsbĂŠjar og heiðursdoktor við HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands. + 1972 - Sporvagnar voru lagðir niður Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + 1976 - Fyrsta hljĂłmplata Ramones kom Ășt Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1983 - AlĂŸingiskosningar 1983: Kvennalistinn fĂ©kk 3 konur kjörnar ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. + 1983 - Corinne HermĂšs sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva fyrir LĂșxemborg með laginu âSi la vie est cadeauâ. + 1984 - BandarĂskir vĂsindamenn sögðu frĂĄ uppgötvun AIDS-vĂrussins. + 1985 - Coca-Cola Company gaf Ășt nĂœja ĂștgĂĄfu af kĂłka kĂłla undir heitinu New Coke. Viðbrögð urðu svo neikvÊð að fyrirtĂŠkið tĂłk aftur upp gömlu uppskriftina ĂŸremur mĂĄnuðum sĂðar. + 1990 - Neslistinn, fyrsta bĂŠjarmĂĄlafĂ©lag ĂĄ Ăslandi, var stofnaður ĂĄ Seltjarnarnesi. + 1990 - NamibĂa gerist aðildarrĂki Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna. + 1992 - HalldĂłr Laxness varð nĂrÊður og af ĂŸvĂ tilefni var farin blysför að GljĂșfrasteini og efnt til leiksĂœninga. + 1993 - StĂŠrstur hluti bĂĄtasafns Ăjóðminjasafns Ăslands brann Ă skemmu við Vesturvör Ă KĂłpavogi. + 1993 - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigðismĂĄlastofnunin lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir að berklar vĂŠru orðnir að heimsvĂĄ. + 1993 - YfirgnĂŠfandi meirihluti ĂbĂșa ErĂtreu samĂŸykkti sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ EĂŸĂĂłpĂu Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu. + 1997 - Omaria-fjöldamorðin ĂĄttu sĂ©r stað Ă Omaria, litlu ĂŸorpi Ă suðurhluta AlsĂr ĂŸar sem 42 ĂŸorpsbĂșar, konur og börn voru drepin. + 1998 - JĂșgĂłslavĂuher veitti sveit Ășr Frelsisher KosĂłvĂł fyrirsĂĄt ĂŸar sem ĂŸeir reyndu að smygla vopnum frĂĄ AlbanĂu til KosĂłvĂł. + 2003 - British Airways og Air France gĂĄfu Ășt yfirlĂœsingu um að ĂŸau myndu ekki notast við Concorde-flugvĂ©lar framar. + 2005 - Fyrsta myndskeiðið var sett inn ĂĄ YouTube. + 2007 - GlĂłperur voru bannaðar Ă Kanada. + 2008 - MĂłtmĂŠli vörubĂlstjĂłra ĂĄ Ăslandi 2008 hĂ©ldu ĂĄfram. Lögreglan var vopnuð ĂłeirðabĂșnaði, t.d. mĂșgskjöldum og piparĂșða og beitti gegn mĂłtmĂŠlendum. + 2009 - Jacob Zuma var kjörinn forseti Suður-AfrĂku. + 2012 - DĂłmur fĂ©ll Ă LandsdĂłmsmĂĄlinu, AlĂŸingi gegn Geir H. Haarde, með sakfellingu fyrir hluta ĂĄkĂŠruliða. + 2018 - TrukkaĂĄrĂĄsin Ă TorontĂł: 10 lĂ©tust og 16 sĂŠrðust ĂŸegar 25 ĂĄra gamall maður Ăłk trukk ĂĄ hĂłp fĂłlks Ă TorontĂł Ă Kanada. + +FĂŠdd + 1121 - JĂłn Ăgmundsson, HĂłlabiskup (f. 1052). + 1464 - JĂłhanna af Valois, drottning Frakklands (f. 1505). + 1676 - Friðrik 1. SvĂakonungur (d. 1751). + 1775 - William Turner, breskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1851). + 1791 - James Buchanan, forseti BandarĂkjanna (d. 1868). + 1858 - Max Planck, ĂŸĂœskur eðlisfrÊðingur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1947). + 1858 - Pandita Ramabai, indversk barĂĄttukona (d. 1922). + 1883 - Clara Pontoppidan, dönsk leikkona (d. 1975). + 1891 - Sergej Prokofjev, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1953). + 1897 - Lester B. Pearson, kanadĂskur rĂkiserindreki (d. 1972). + 1902 - HalldĂłr GuðjĂłnsson (sĂðar Laxness), rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1998). + 1924 - Margit Sandemo, norskur rithöfundur. + 1936 - Roy Orbison, amerĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (d. 1988). + 1937 - JĂșlĂus SĂłlnes, Ăslenskur verkfrÊðingur. + 1943 - HervĂ© Villechaize, franskur leikari (d. 1993). + 1947 - Glenn Cornick, breskur bassaleikari (Jethro Tull). + 1958 - Hilmar Ărn Hilmarsson, tĂłnskĂĄld. + 1961 - Andrej KĂșrkov, ĂșkraĂnskur rithöfundur. + 1961 - Ăröstur LeĂł Gunnarsson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1963 - MagnĂșs Ver MagnĂșsson, kraftlyftingamaður. + 1963 - Robby Naish, bandarĂskur seglbrettamaður. + 1967 - Melina Kanakaredes, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1968 - Timothy McVeigh, bandarĂskur hryðjuverkamaður og fjöldamorðingi (d. 2001). + 1971 - Silja BĂĄra ĂmarsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlafrÊðingur. + 1972 - MagnĂșs Orri Schram, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1975 - JĂłn ĂĂłr Birgisson, söngvari Ă hljĂłmsveitinni Sigur RĂłs. + 1975 - Christian CorrĂȘa Dionisio, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1979 - Lauri Ylönen, finnskur söngvari (The Rasmus). + 1986 - Jessica Stam, sĂŠnsk fyrirsĂŠta. + 1990 - ĂĂłrarinn Ingi Valdimarsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1997 - Alex Ferris, bandarĂskur leikari. + 2018 - LĂșðvĂk prins af Cambridge, breskur prins. + +DĂĄin + 303 - Heilagur Georg, pĂslarvottur. + 871 - Aðalråður af Wessex, Englandskonungur. + 1014 - Brian Boru (BrjĂĄnn), yfirkonungur Ărlands (f. um 941). + 1014 - Sigurður Hlöðvisson, Orkneyjajarl (f. um 960). + 1016 - Aðalråður råðlausi, Englandskonungur (f. um 968). + 1121 - JĂłn Ăgmundsson helgi HĂłlabiskup (f. um 1052). + 1124 - Alexander 1. Skotakonungur (f. 1078). + 1151 - Adeliza af Louvain, drottning Englands (f. 1103). + 1200 - Zhu Xi, kĂnverskur frÊðimaður (f. 1130). + 1217 - Ingi BĂĄrðarson, Noregskonungur (f. 1185). + 1605 - Boris Godunov, RĂșssakeisari (f. um 1550). + 1616 - Miguel de Cervantes, spĂŠnskur rithöfundur (f.1547). + 1616 - William Shakespeare, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1564). + 1625 - MĂłrits af NassĂĄ, staðarhaldari Ă Hollandi (f. 1567). + 1670 - Loreto Vittori, Ătalskur söngvari (f. 1604). + 1840 - Sveinn PĂĄlsson, lĂŠknir og nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingur (f. 1762). + 1841 - Edmund Fanning, bandarĂskur landkönnuður (f. 1769). + 1850 - William Wordsworth, breskt ljóðskĂĄld (f. 1770). + 1915 - Rupert Brooke, breskt skĂĄld (f. 1887). + 1939 - Ăorbergur Ăorleifsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1890). + 1951 - Charles G. Dawes, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1865). + 1978 - Jacques Rueff, franskur hagfrÊðingur og råðgjafi de Gaulles, hershöfðingja og Frakklandsforseta (f. 1896). + 1992 - Satyajit Ray, bengalskur kvikmyndagerðarmaður (f. 1921). + 2007 - Boris JeltsĂn, forseti RĂșsslands (f. 1931). + 2008 - Elsa G. VilmundardĂłttir, Ăslenskur jarðfrÊðingur (f. 1932). + 2013 - MĂșhameð Ămar, leiðtogi talĂbana (f. 1960). + 2014 - Yozo Aoki, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1929). + 2019 - JĂłhann af LĂșxemborg, stĂłrhertogi (f. 1921). + +AprĂl +8. febrĂșar er 39. dagur ĂĄrsins samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 326 dagar (327 ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1570 - JarðskjĂĄlfti sem talinn er hafa verið 8,3 ĂĄ Richter reið yfir ConcepciĂłn Ă Chile. + 1587 - MarĂa StĂșart Skotadrottning var hĂĄlshöggvin Ă Fotheringhay-kastala Ă Englandi fyrir meinta ĂŸĂĄtttöku Ă morðtilrÊði gegn frĂŠnku sinni, ElĂsabetu 1.. + 1601 - Robert Devereux, jarl af Essex, gerði misheppnaða tilraun til uppreisnar gegn ElĂsabetu 1. + 1610 - KaĂŸĂłlska bandalagið Ă ĂĂœskalandi ĂĄkvað að koma upp her undir stjĂłrn MaximilĂans af BĂŠjaralandi. + 1622 - Jakob 1. leysti breska ĂŸingið upp. + 1666 - TyrkjasoldĂĄn lĂ©t handtaka ShabbetaĂŻ Zevi. + 1692 - LĂŠknir Ă Salem Ă Massachusetts Ă BandarĂkjunum lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir að ĂŸrjĂĄr tĂĄningsstĂșlkur vĂŠru andsetnar af djöflinum og markaði ĂŸannig upphaf galdraofsĂłkna Ă ĂŸorpinu. + 1696 - Ăveður gerði ĂĄ norður- og vesturlandi og urðu fimmtĂĄn manns Ăști. FrĂĄ ĂŸessu segir Ă HestsannĂĄl. + 1696 - PĂ©tur mikli varð einn keisari RĂșsslands við lĂĄt hĂĄlfbróður sĂns, Ăvans 5.. + 1724 - PĂ©tur mikli RĂșssakeisari gerði konu sĂna, KatrĂnu, að meðstjĂłrnanda sĂnum. + 1826 - Bernardino Rivadavia varð fyrsti forseti ArgentĂnu. + 1861 - SuðurrĂkjasambandið var stofnað Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1904 - StrĂð RĂșsslands og Japans hĂłfst. + 1924 - Nevada varð fyrsta fylki BandarĂkjanna til að taka mann af lĂfi með gasi. + 1925 - Halaveðrið. Tveir togarar fĂłrust ĂĄ Halamiðum, Leifur heppni og Robertson. Með ĂŸeim fĂłrust 68 menn. Einnig fĂłrst vĂ©lbĂĄtur með sex mönnum. Fimm manns urðu Ăști. + 1935 - Enskur togari strandaði við Svalvogahamra ĂĄ milli DĂœrafjarðar og Arnarfjarðar og fĂłrst ĂĄhöfnin öll, 14 menn. + 1943 - SĂðari heimsstyrjöldin: Rauði herinn nåði borginni KĂșrsk ĂĄ sitt vald. + 1949 - Mindszenty kardinĂĄli Ă Ungverjalandi var dĂŠmdur fyrir landråð. + 1959 - NĂœfundnalandsveðrið: Ăslenski togarinn JĂșlĂ fĂłrst ĂĄ NĂœfundnalandsmiðum. + 1971 - NASDAQ-hlutabrĂ©famarkaðurinn hĂłf starfsemi. + 1980 - RĂkisstjĂłrn Gunnars Thoroddsen tĂłk við völdum og sat Ă ĂŸrjĂș ĂĄr. + 1984 - VetrarĂłlympĂuleikarnir 1984 hĂłfust Ă SarajevĂł. + 1989 - Boeing 707 ĂŸota fĂłrst ĂĄ AsĂłreyjum. 144 lĂ©tu lĂfið. + 1992 - VetrarĂłlympĂuleikarnir voru settir Ă Albertville Ă Frakklandi. + 1996 - Docklands-sprengjan sprakk Ă London og markaði endalok vopnahlĂ©s IRA. + 1996 - Bill Clinton undirritaði nĂœ bandarĂsk fjarskiptalög. + 2002 - OpnunarhĂĄtĂð VetrarĂłlympĂuleikanna fĂłr fram Ă Salt Lake City. + 2005 - Ăsrael og PalestĂna samĂŸykktu vopnahlĂ©. + 2005 - KortaĂŸjĂłnustan Google Maps hĂłf göngu sĂna. + 2006 - Fuglaflensutilfelli voru staðfest Ă ĂtalĂu, Grikklandi og BĂșlgarĂu. + 2007 - PalestĂnsku hreyfingarnar Hamas og Fatah sammĂŠltust um samsteypustjĂłrn. + 2007 - BandarĂska fyrirsĂŠtan Anna Nicole Smith fannst lĂĄtin vegna ofneyslu lyfja ĂĄ hĂłtelherbergi Ă Hollywood. + 2010 - Geimskutlan Endeavour var send til AlĂŸjóðlegu geimstöðvarinnar. + 2012 - Verne Global, fyrsta âgrĂŠnaâ gagnaverið Ă heiminum, var tekið Ă notkun ĂĄ ĂsbrĂș. Ăað var jafnframt fyrsta atvinnuskapandi verkefnið sem fĂłr af stað ĂĄ Suðurnesjum eftir Bankahrunið. + 2020 â Ăingkosningar fĂłru fram ĂĄ Ărlandi. LĂœĂ°veldisflokkurinn Sinn FĂ©in vann Ă fyrsta sinn flest atkvÊði af öllum flokkum. + +FĂŠdd + 412 - PrĂłklos, grĂskur heimspekingur (d. 485). + 1191 - Jaroslav 2. af RĂșsslandi (d. 1246). + 1291 - Alfons 4., konungur PortĂșgals (d. 1357). + 1591 - Giovanni Francesco Barbieri, Ătalskur mĂĄlari (d. 1666). + 1649 - Gabriel Daniel, franskur sagnaritari (d. 1728). + 1700 - Daniel Bernoulli, svissneskur eðlis- og stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1782). + 1820 - William Tecumseh Sherman, bandarĂskur herforingi (d. 1891). + 1828 - Jules Verne, franskur rithöfundur (d. 1905). + 1834 - Dmitri Mendelejev, rĂșssneskur efnafrÊðingur (d. 1907). + 1851 - Kate Chopin, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (d. 1904). + 1877 - GuðrĂșn JĂłnasson, bĂŠjarfulltrĂși og verslunareigandi (d. 1958). + 1883 - Joseph Schumpeter, austurrĂskur hagfrÊðingur (d. 1950). + 1892 - Ralph Chubb, breskt skĂĄld og listamaður (d. 1960). + 1898 - Ăorbjörg DĂœrleif ĂrnadĂłttir, hjĂșkrunarfrÊðingur og rithöfundur (d. 1984). + 1902 - Georgij Malenkov, sovĂ©skur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1988). + 1905 - Preguinho, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 1979). + 1911 - Elizabeth Bishop, bandarĂskt ljóðskĂĄld (d. 1979). + 1911 - Big Joe Turner, bandarĂskur söngvari (d. 1985). + 1915 - Takeshi Kamo, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 2004). + 1925 - Jack Lemmon, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2001). + 1931 - James Dean, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 1955). + 1932 - John Williams, bandarĂskt kvikmyndatĂłnskĂĄld. + 1941 - Nick Nolte, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1945 - Kinza Clodumar, forseti NĂĄrĂș. + 1955 - John Grisham, bandarĂskur rithöfundur. + 1959 - Mauricio Macri, argentĂnskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1961 - Vince Neil, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (Mötley CrĂŒe) + 1963 - JĂłhann Hjartarson, Ăslenskur skĂĄkmaður. + 1966 - Hristo Stoichkov, bĂșlgarskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1974 - Seth Green, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1977 - Dave Farrell, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (Linkin Park). + 1977 - Sverre Andreas Jakobsson, Ăslenskur handknattleiksmaður. + 1977 - Daniel Sanabria, paragvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1979 - Josh Keaton, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1981 - Sebastian PreiĂ, ĂŸĂœskur handknattleiksmaður. + 1983 - Olga Syahputra, indĂłnesĂskur leikari (d. 2015). + 1995 - Hjörtur Hermannsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1995 - Joshua Kimmich, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 1296 - PrzemysĆ 2., konungur PĂłllands (f. 1257). + 1587 - MarĂa Skotadrottning (f. 1542). + 1709 - Giuseppe Torelli, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1658). + 1725 - PĂ©tur mikli, RĂșssakeisari (f. 1672). + 1743 - JĂłn Ărnason, SkĂĄlholtsbiskup (f. 1665). + 1749 - Jan van Huysum, hollenskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1682). + 1849 - France PreĆĄeren, slĂłvenskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1800). + 1886 - Samuel Kleinschmidt, grĂŠnlenskur trĂșboði (f. 1814). + 1910 - Hans JĂŠger, bandarĂskur rithöfundur og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1854). + 1921 - Pjotr Kropotkin, rĂșssneskur anarkisti (f. 1842). + 1957 - John von Neumann, ungverskur eðlis- og stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (f. 1903). + 1960 - John L. Austin, breskur heimspekingur (f. 1911). + 1973 - SteinĂŸĂłr Guðmundsson, Ăslenskur kennari og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1890). + 1983 - Sigurður ĂĂłrarinsson, Ăslenskur jarðfrÊðingur (f. 1912). + 1998 - HalldĂłr Laxness, Ăslenskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1902). + 1999 - Iris Murdoch, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1919). + 2001 - Ivo Caprino, norskur kvikmyndagerðarmaður (f. 1920). + 2007 - Anna Nicole Smith, bandarĂsk fyrirsĂŠta (f. 1967). + 2017 - Ălöf Nordal, Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄlakona (f. 1966). + +FebrĂșar +UndirstĂșka er hluti af heila sem tilheyrir milliheila. UndirstĂșka liggur undir stĂșku og yfir heiladingli. Kjarnar Ă undirstĂșku stjĂłrna mörgum nauðsynlegum störfum Ă lĂkamanum sem flest tengjast samvĂŠgi hans. + +Heimild +22. mars er 81. dagur ĂĄrsins (82. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 284 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 238 - ĂbĂșar rĂłmversku AfrĂku gerðu uppreisn gegn Maximinusi og hinn aldraði GordĂanus 1. tĂłk við embĂŠtti RĂłmarkeisara ĂĄsamt syni sĂnum, GordĂanusi 2. + 1604 - Karl hertogi var hylltur sem konungur SvĂĂŸjóðar ĂĄ stĂ©ttaĂŸingi Ă Norrköping Ă kjölfar ĂŸess að JĂłhann hertogi af Austur-Gautlandi afsalaði sĂ©r kröfu til krĂșnunnar. + 1622 - Blóðbaðið Ă Jamestown: AlkonkvĂnar drĂĄpu 347 enska landnema Ă Jamestown Ă VirginĂu (ĂŸriðjung allra ĂbĂșa nĂœlendunnar) og brenndu bĂŠinn Henricus til grunna. + 1882 - BandarĂkjaĂŸing bannaði fjölkvĂŠni. + 1888 - Enska knattspyrnudeildin var stofnuð. + 1895 - Fyrsta kvikmyndasĂœning sögunnar fĂłr fram Ă ParĂs ĂŸegar brÊðurnir Auguste og Louis LumiĂšre sĂœndu ĂĄhorfendum Ă fyrsta sinn kvikmynd. SĂœningin var einungis fyrir boðsgesti. + 1924 - Ăriðja rĂkisstjĂłrn JĂłns MagnĂșssonar tĂłk við völdum og sat Ă rĂșm tvö ĂĄr. + 1939 - LĂșðrasveit Vestmannaeyja var stofnuð af Oddgeiri KristjĂĄnssyni. + 1945 - Arababandalagið var stofnað. + 1948 - SkĂĄldsaga HalldĂłrs Laxness AtĂłmstöðin kom Ășt og seldist upp samdĂŠgurs. + 1959 - LeikfĂ©lag KĂłpavogs frumsĂœndi leikritið VeðmĂĄl MĂŠru Lindar Ă leikstjĂłrn Gunnars Hansen Ă FĂ©lagsheimili KĂłpavogs. + 1972 - Geirfugladrangur vestur af Eldey hrundi. Hann var åður um tĂu metra hĂĄr, en eftir hrunið kemur hann aðeins upp Ășr um fjöru. + 1974 - BandarĂkjaĂŸing samĂŸykkti stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbreytingu sem kvað ĂĄ um jafnrĂ©tti kynjanna. + 1978 - Loftfimleikamaðurinn Karl Wallenda lĂ©st ĂŸegar hann fĂ©ll af lĂnu sem hann gekk ĂĄ ĂĄ milli hĂłtela Ă San Juan, PĂșertĂł RĂkĂł. + 1982 - Geimskutlan Columbia hĂ©lt Ă sĂna ĂŸriðju geimferð. + 1986 - Kvikmyndin Eins og skepnan deyr var frumsĂœnd Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1993 - Intel setti fyrsta Pentium-örgjörvann ĂĄ markað. + 1995 - ValerĂj Poljakov sneri aftur til jarðar eftir að hafa dvalið 438 daga Ă geimnum. + 1996 - Fyrsti tölvuleikurinn Ă leikjaröðinni Resident Evil kom Ășt Ă Japan. + 1996 - Göran Persson varð forsĂŠtisråðherra SvĂĂŸjóðar. + 1997 - Tara Lipinski varð yngsti heimsmeistari sögunnar Ă listdansi ĂĄ skautum. + 1997 - Ăslenska heimildarmyndin Ăslands ĂŸĂșsund ĂĄr var frumsĂœnd. + 2004 - Ahmed Jassin, leiðtogi Hamassamtakanna myrtur af Ăsraelska hernum. + 2012 - Forseta MalĂ, Amadou Toumani TourĂ©, var steypt af stĂłli. + 2016 - 35 lĂ©tust Ă ĂŸremur hryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ flugvellinum Ă Brussel og lestarstöð Ă Maalbeek Ă BelgĂu. + 2017 - ĂrĂĄsin Ă Westminster 2017: 52 ĂĄra Breti Ăłk bĂl ĂĄ vegfarendur ĂĄ Westminster-brĂș Ă London og stakk lögreglumann åður en hann var skotinn til bana. + 2017 - Orrustan um MĂłsĂșl: Fjöldagröf með ĂŸĂșsundum fĂłrnarlamba Ăslamska rĂkisins fannst við borgina. + 2022 - RĂșssneski stjĂłrnarandstöðuleiðtoginn Aleksej NavalnĂj var dĂŠmdur Ă nĂu ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir svik og vanvirðingu við dĂłmstĂłla. + +FĂŠdd + 1366 - Thomas de Mowbray, 1. hertogi af Norfolk (d. 1399). + 1459 - MaximilĂan 1., keisari hins Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis. + 1599 - Antoon van Dyck, flĂŠmskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1641). + 1609 - JĂłhann 2. KasimĂr Vasa, konungur PĂłllands (d. 1672). + 1797 - VilhjĂĄlmur 1. ĂĂœskalandskeisari (d. 1888). + 1847 - MagnĂșs ĂĂłrarinsson, Ăslenskur tĂłvinnumaður (d. 1917). + 1857 - Paul Doumer, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1932). + 1869 - Emilio Aguinaldo, forseti Filippseyja (d. 1964). + 1886 - August Rei, eistneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1963). + 1887 - Chico Marx, bandarĂskur gamanleikari (d. 1961). + 1929 - Yayoi Kusama, japonsk myndlistarkona. + 1930 - Stephen Sondheim, bandariskt tonskald (d. 2021). + 1930 - EyĂŸĂłr ĂorlĂĄksson, Ăslenskur gĂtarleikari (d. 2018). + 1931 - William Shatner, kanadĂskur leikari. + 1937 - JĂșlĂus SĂłlnes, Ăslenskur råðherra, alĂŸingismaður og prĂłfessor. + 1941 - Bruno Ganz, svissneskur leikari. + 1948 - Andrew Lloyd Webber, breskt tĂłnskĂĄld. + 1957 - MagnĂșs Tumi MagnĂșsson, Ăslenskur myndlistamaður. + 1968 - Kazuya Maekawa, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1976 - Reese Witherspoon, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1977 - Owusu Benson, ganverskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1978 - Björn Lind, sĂŠnskur skĂðagöngumaður. + 1978 - Rökkvi VĂ©steinsson, Ăslenskur uppistandari. + 1981 - Rakel LogadĂłttir, Ăslensk knattspyrnukona. + 1999 - BrĂet, Ăslensk tĂłnlistarkona. + +DĂĄin + 752 - SakarĂas pĂĄfi. + 1421 - TĂłmas af Lancaster, hertogi af Clarence, nĂŠstelsti sonur Hinriks 4. Englandskonungs (f. 1388). + 1471 - PĂĄll II pĂĄfi, (f. 1418). + 1602 - Agostino Carracci, Ătalskur listmĂĄlari og prentmyndasmiður (f. 1557). + 1685 - Go-Sai, Japanskeisari (f. 1638). + 1687 - Jean-Baptiste Lully, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1632). + 1832 - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, ĂŸĂœskt skĂĄld (f. 1749). + 1917 - ĂĂłra PĂ©tursdĂłttir, Ăslensk myndlistarkona (f. 1847). + 1958 - Mike Todd, kvikmyndaframleiðandi og ĂŸriðji eiginmaður ElĂsabetar Taylor fĂłrst Ă flugslysi. + 1998 - Shoichi Nishimura, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1911). + 1999 - Ăorleifur Einarsson, Ăslenskur jarðfrÊðingur (f. 1931). + 2004 - Ahmed Yassin, leiðtogi Hamas. + +Mars +Arababandalagið (ŰŹŰ§Ù ŰčŰ© ۧÙŰŻÙÙ Ű§ÙŰč۱ۚÙŰ© ĂĄ arabĂsku), er bandalag ArabarĂkja. Ăað var stofnað 22. mars 1945 af sjö rĂkjum, Egyptalandi, Ărak, Jemen, JĂłrdanĂu, LĂbanon, SĂĄdi-ArabĂu og SĂœrlandi, til að efla samvinnu ArabarĂkja. StjĂłrnarskrĂĄ ĂŸess bannar aðildarrĂkjum að beita hvert annað hervaldi. + +Aðalmarkmið ĂŸess er: + +âAð ĂŸjĂłna sameiginlegum hagsmunum allra ArabarĂkja, bĂŠta kjör allra ArabarĂkja, tryggja framtĂð allra ArabarĂkja og að uppfylla ĂŸarfir og vĂŠntingar allra ArabarĂkja.â + +AðildarrĂki + AlsĂr + Barein + DjĂbĂștĂ + Ărak + Katar + KĂłmoreyjar + KĂșveit + LĂbĂa + MarokkĂł + MĂĄritanĂa + Ăman + PalestĂnurĂki + Sameinuðu arabĂsku furstadĂŠmin + SĂłmalĂa + SĂșdan + SĂœrland + TĂșnis +VigdĂs FinnbogadĂłttir (fĂŠdd 15. aprĂl 1930) var fjĂłrði forseti Ăslands og gegndi hĂșn embĂŠttinu frĂĄ 1980 til 1996. HĂșn var fyrsta konan i heiminum sem kosin var Ă lĂœĂ°rÊðislegum kosningum til að gegna hlutverki ĂŸjóðhöfðingja. + +Fjölskylda +VigdĂs fĂŠddist Ă Tjarnargötu 14 Ă ReykjavĂk og Ăłlst ĂŸar upp fyrstu ĂĄrin. Ăegar hĂșn var fjögurra ĂĄra fluttist fjölskyldan að Ăsvallagötu 79 Ă VesturbĂŠ ReykjavĂkur. Ă sumrin var VigdĂs Ă sveit Ă Eystra-Geldingaholti Ă GnĂșpverjahreppi Ă ĂrnessĂœslu. + +Foreldrar VigdĂsar voru hjĂłnin Finnbogi RĂștur Ăorvaldsson (1891-1973) prĂłfessor Ă verkfrÊði við HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands og SigrĂður EirĂksdĂłttir (1894-1986) hjĂșkrunarfrÊðingur og formaður HjĂșkrunarfĂ©lags Ăslands. VigdĂs ĂĄtti einn bróður, Ăorvald Finnbogason stĂșdent en hann lĂ©st af slysförum ĂĄrið 1952, aðeins tvĂtugur að aldri. + +Ărið 1954 giftist VigdĂs Ragnari Arinbjarnar lĂŠkni en ĂŸau skildu sjö ĂĄrum sĂðar. Ărið 1972 varð VigdĂs fyrst einhleypra kvenna ĂĄ Ăslandi til að ĂŠttleiða barn, er hĂșn ĂŠttleiddi dĂłttur sĂna ĂstrĂði MagnĂșsdĂłttur (f. 1972). + +Menntun +VigdĂs gekk Ă LandakotsskĂłla og GagnfrÊðaskĂłla VesturbĂŠjar. HĂșn lauk stĂșdentsprĂłfi frĂĄ MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄrið 1949 og stundaði nĂĄm Ă frönsku og frönskum bĂłkmenntum með leikbĂłkmenntir sem sĂ©rsvið við hĂĄskĂłlana Ă Grenoble og Sorbonne Ă ParĂs Ă Frakklandi ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1949-1953. Einnig stundaði hĂșn nĂĄm Ă leiklistarsögu Ă Danmörku og SvĂĂŸjóð um nokkurra ĂĄra skeið. HĂșn lauk BA-prĂłfi Ă frönsku og ensku við HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands ĂĄrið 1968 og einnig nĂĄmi Ă uppeldis- og kennslufrÊði. + +Starfsferill fram að forsetakjöri +VigdĂs starfaði sem ritstjĂłri leikskrĂĄr og blaðafulltrĂși ĂjóðleikhĂșssins 1954-57, var frönskukennari við MenntaskĂłlann Ă ReykjavĂk og MenntaskĂłlann við HamrahlĂð ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1962-1972. HĂșn sĂĄ um frönskukennslu Ă sjĂłnvarpinu frĂĄ 1970-1971, kenndi franskar leikbĂłkmenntir við HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands 1972-1980 og var leikhĂșsstjĂłri LeikfĂ©lags ReykjavĂkur sem ĂŸĂĄ var til hĂșsa Ă IðnĂł, frĂĄ 1972-1980. VigdĂs var forseti Alliance française ĂĄ Ăslandi frĂĄ 1975-1976 og sat Ă stjĂłrn ListahĂĄtĂðar Ă ReykjavĂk 1976-1978. VigdĂs var einn af stofnendum leikhĂłpsins GrĂmu ĂĄrið 1961 og ĂŸĂœddi einnig fjölda leikrita. + +Samhliða ĂŸessum störfum vann VigdĂs um ĂĄrabil sem leiðsögumaður hjĂĄ Ferðaskrifstofu rĂkisins og hafði ĂŸar umsjĂłn með skipulagningu menningartengdrar ferðaĂŸjĂłnustu auk umsjĂłnar með nĂĄmskeiðum fyrir verðandi leiðsögumenn. + +Forsetaframboð + +Ă ĂĄramĂłtaĂĄvarpi sĂnu ĂĄ nĂœĂĄrsdag ĂĄrið 1980 tilkynnti KristjĂĄn EldjĂĄrn forseti Ăslands að hann hyggðist ekki gefa kost ĂĄ sĂ©r ĂĄfram. Ă kjölfarið fĂłr fram umrÊða um mögulegan eftirmann KristjĂĄns og meðal ĂŸeirra sem nefnd voru var VigdĂs FinnbogadĂłttir sem ĂŸĂĄ gegndi starfi leikhĂșsstjĂłra LeikfĂ©lags ReykjavĂkur en VigdĂs varð ĂŸjĂłĂ°ĂŸekkt nokkrum ĂĄrum fyrr er hĂșn annaðist frönskukennslu Ă SjĂłnvarpinu. + +Nafn VigdĂsar var fyrst nefnt opinberlega Ă lesendabrĂ©fi frĂĄ Laufeyju JakobsdĂłttur sem birtist Ă Dagblaðinu 15. janĂșar 1980. Ă fyrstu var VigdĂs ekki ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að gefa kost ĂĄ sĂ©r en lĂ©t að lokum tilleiðast eftir hvatningu Ășr Ăœmsum ĂĄttum. VigdĂs tilkynnti framboð sitt ĂŸann 1. febrĂșar 1980 og varð ĂŸar með fyrsta konan til að gefa kost ĂĄ sĂ©r til embĂŠttis forseta Ăslands. Segja mĂĄ að framboð VigdĂsar megi að nokkru leyti rekja til kvennafrĂdagsins 24. oktĂłber 1975 en dagurinn markaði ĂŸĂĄttaskil Ă Ăslenskri kvennabarĂĄttu en fjöldi kvenna lagði niður störf ĂŸennan dag til að vekja athygli ĂĄ mikilvĂŠgi vinnuframlags kvenna bÊði innan og utan heimilis. Ăhrif kvennafrĂdagsins sĂĄust vĂða Ă ĂŸjóðfĂ©laginu og Ă fjölda fyrirtĂŠkja og stofnana lĂĄ starfsemi niðri. Mikil vitundarvakning varð ĂĄ meðal kvenna Ă kjölfar dagsins og blĂ©s hann ĂŸeim barĂĄttuanda Ă brjĂłst. + +VigdĂs hefur sagt Ă viðtölum að markmið með framboðinu hafi ekki endilega verið að nĂĄ kjöri heldur hafi hĂșn fyrst og fremst vilja sĂœna fram ĂĄ að kona ĂŠtti erindi Ă forsetaframboð ekki sĂður en karl. + +KosningabarĂĄttan +ĂrĂr frambjóðendur voru Ă kjöri auk VigdĂsar en ĂŸað voru ĂŸeir Albert Guðmundsson alĂŸingismaður, Guðlaugur Ăorvaldsson rĂkissĂĄttasemjari og PĂ©tur J. Thorsteinsson sendiherra. FljĂłtlega varð ljĂłst að barĂĄttan stóð einkum milli VigdĂsar og Guðlaugs. + +KosningabarĂĄttan ĂŸĂłtti nokkuð hörð og mĂŠtti VigdĂs annars konar viðmĂłti heldur en meðframbjóðendur hennar. Kynferði hennar og sĂș staðreynd að hĂșn var einhleyp og einstÊð móðir var tĂðrĂŠtt umtalsefni. VigdĂs ĂŸurfti einnig að ĂŸola Ăœmsar nĂŠrgöngular spurningar, m.a. um brjĂłstakrabbamein sem hĂșn hafði greinst með nokkrum ĂĄrum fyrr. Ă framboðsfundi var hĂșn t.d. spurð að ĂŸvĂ hvort ĂŸað myndi hĂĄ henni Ă embĂŠtti að vera aðeins með eitt brjĂłst. VigdĂs ĂŸĂłtti svara vel fyrir sig er hĂșn sagði: âĂŸað stóð nĂș aldrei til að hafa ĂŸjóðina ĂĄ brjĂłsti.â + +VigdĂsi var einnig legið ĂĄ hĂĄlsi fyrir að vera heldur vinstri sinnuð og sumir höfðu ĂĄhyggjur af ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸĂĄtttaka hennar Ă starfi Samtaka herstöðvarandstÊðinga ĂĄ ĂĄrum åður myndi lita störf hennar Ă embĂŠtti forseta Ăslands og jafnvel tefla varnarsamningi Ăslands og BandarĂkjanna Ă tvĂsĂœnu. + +Svo fĂłr að ĂŸann 29. jĂșnĂ 1980 var VigdĂs FinnbogadĂłttir kjörin forseti Ăslands, fyrst kvenna Ă heiminum sem kjörin var ĂŸjóðhöfðingi Ă lĂœĂ°rÊðislegum kosningum. VigdĂs hlaut 33,8% atkvÊða en sĂĄ frambjóðandi sem nĂŠstur kom, Guðlaugur Ăorvaldsson hlaut 32,3% og ĂŸvĂ munaði aðeins einu og hĂĄlfu prĂłsentustigi ĂĄ frambjóðendunum tveimur. Kjör VigdĂsar vakti mikla athygli erlendis og greindu margir helstu fjölmiðlar heimsins frĂĄ kosningu hennar og ĂŸeirri staðreynd að kona hafði verið kjörin forseti Ă fyrsta sinn Ă lĂœĂ°rÊðislegum kosningum. VigdĂs var endurkjörin ĂĄn atkvÊðagreiðslu 1984 og 1992 en ĂĄrið 1988 hlaut hĂșn mĂłtframboð frĂĄ SigrĂșnu ĂorsteinsdĂłttur hĂșsmóður Ă Vestmannaeyjum en ĂŸað var Ă fyrsta sinn sem sitjandi forseti Ăslands fĂ©kk mĂłtframboð. VigdĂs sigraði með fĂĄheyrðum yfirburðum og hlaut 92,7% atkvÊða. + +ForsetatĂð + +VigdĂs lagði ĂĄherslu ĂĄ að vera ĂłpĂłlitĂskur forseti og forðaðist að blanda sĂ©r Ă deilumĂĄl ĂĄ vettvangi stjĂłrnmĂĄlanna. Ă rÊðum og ĂĄvörpum lagði hĂșn ĂĄherslu ĂĄ ĂŸau gildi sem sameina fĂłlk og segja mĂĄ að einkunnarorð hennar Ă embĂŠtti hafi verið upphafsorðin Ă ljóði Snorra Hjartarsonar, Land, ĂŸjóð og tunga og helstu hugðarefni hennar hafi endurspeglast Ă ĂŸeim kjörorðum. SkĂłgrĂŠkt og landgrÊðsla voru VigdĂsi ofarlega Ă huga og hĂșn var ötull talsmaður landrĂŠktar. Ă ferðum sĂnum um landið fĂ©kk hĂșn börn og unglinga gjarnan til liðs við sig Ă gróðursetningu. Unga kynslóðin var henni hugleikin og Ă rÊðum minnti hĂșn oft ĂĄ mikilvĂŠgi ĂŸess að hlĂș að ĂŠskunni og hvatti ĂŸĂĄ sem eldri eru til að vera góðar fyrirmyndir. SĂðast en ekki sĂst lagði hĂșn ĂĄherslu ĂĄ mikilvĂŠgi ĂŸess að standa vörð um Ăslenska tungu. + +Ă forsetatĂð VigdĂsar varð sĂș breyting ĂĄ embĂŠttinu að starfsvettvangur forseta Ăslands varð ekki nĂĄnast eingöngu innanlands eins og verið hafði, heldur ferðaðist VigdĂs Ă mun meira mĂŠli Ășt fyrir landsteinana en forverar hennar. Henni var boðið Ă heimsĂłknir vĂða erlendis og hĂșn lagði kapp ĂĄ að nĂœta athyglina sem kjör hennar vakti Ă ĂŸĂĄgu lands og ĂŸjóðar. Ă opinberum erindagjörðum VigdĂsar erlendis voru gjarnan skipulagðir viðburðir ĂŸar sem Ăslensk framleiðsla var kynnt, listafĂłlk var gjarnan með Ă för og Ăslenskir matreiðslumenn sem matreiddu Ășr Ăslensku hrĂĄefni. Ă ĂŸessum tĂma var umfjöllun um Ăsland Ă erlendum frĂ©ttamiðlum af skornum skammti og ĂŸekking umheimsins ĂĄ landi og ĂŸjóð takmörkuð, en kosning VigdĂsar varpaði nĂœju ljĂłsi ĂĄ land og ĂŸjóð. RĂșmum 20 ĂĄrum eftir að VigdĂs lĂ©t af embĂŠtti hlaut hĂșn heiðursverðlaun Ăștflutningsverðlauna forseta Ăslands fyrir stuðning sinn við Ăslenskan Ăștflutning og framleiðslu, með ĂŸeim orðum að âĂŸað hefði verið mikið lĂĄn fyrir Ăslenskan Ăștflutning að njĂłta atbeina hennar.â + +Erfiðasta ĂĄrið ĂĄ embĂŠttisferli VigdĂsar var ĂĄrið 1995 ĂŸegar snjĂłflóð fĂ©llu ĂĄ SĂșðavĂk og ĂĄ Flateyri með 9 mĂĄnaða millibili með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 34 lĂ©tust. VigdĂs ĂŸĂłtti sĂœna af sĂ©r mikla manngĂŠsku ĂĄ ĂŸeim minningarathöfnum sem haldnar voru um ĂŸĂĄ sem lĂ©tust. Ăar sĂœndi hĂșn ĂŸeim sem misst höfðu ĂĄstvini samĂșð og hvatti Ăslensku ĂŸjóðina til ĂŸess að sĂœna samstöðu með Vestfirðingum ĂĄ ĂŸessum erfiðu tĂmum. + +ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸann ĂĄsetning VigdĂsar um að blanda sĂ©r ekki Ă pĂłlitĂsk deilumĂĄl ĂĄ forsetastĂłli, varð aðkoma hennar að tveimur mĂĄlum nokkuð umdeild. Annað tengist lagasetningu sem batt enda ĂĄ verkfall flugfreyja ĂĄ kvennafrĂdaginn ĂĄrið 1985 og hins vegar staðfestingu hennar ĂĄ lögum um aðild Ăslands að EES-samningnum ĂĄrið 1993. + +Að lokinni forsetatĂð +Eftir að VigdĂs lĂ©t af embĂŠtti forseta Ăslands hefur hĂșn unnið að Ăœmsum mĂĄlum, einkum tengdum menningu, tungumĂĄlum og umhverfisvernd. HĂșn er velgjörðarsendiherra UNESCO (MenningarmĂĄlastofnunnar Sameinuðu Ăjóðanna) og ĂĄrið 1997 var hĂșn ein af stofnendum Heimsråðs kvenleiðtoga Council of Women World Leaders og var fyrsti formaður ĂŸess. Råðið hafði aðsetur við John F. Kennedy School of Government við Harvard-hĂĄskĂłla Ă BandarĂkjunum. Ă heimsråðinu sitja starfandi og fyrrverandi forsetar og forsĂŠtisråðherrar Ășr röðum kvenna. FrĂĄ 2001 hefur rannsĂłknarstofnun HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands Ă erlendum tungumĂĄlum verið kennd við VigdĂsi, (Stofnun VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur Ă erlendum tungumĂĄlum) og ĂĄrið 2017 var nĂœtt hĂșsnÊði stofnunarinnar við BrynjĂłlfsgötu Ă ReykjavĂk vĂgt en hĂșsið ber heitið Veröld - hĂșs VigdĂsar. + +UmhverfismĂĄl og nĂĄttĂșruvernd hafa verið VigdĂsi hugleikin og hĂșn hefur við Ăœmis tĂŠkifĂŠri veitt liðsinni sitt ĂĄ vettvangi umhverfismĂĄla. VigdĂs hefur einnig tekið ĂŸĂĄtt Ă starfi StjĂłrnarskrĂĄrfĂ©lagsins og hefur hĂșn m.a. lĂœst stuðningi sĂnum við tillögu StjĂłrnlagaråðs til nĂœrrar stjĂłrnarskrĂĄr. + +VigdĂs hefur Ă gegnum tĂðina hlotið fjölmargar viðurkenningar fyrir störf sĂn. HĂșn var sĂŠmd stĂłrkrossi Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorðu fyrir störf Ă ĂŸĂĄgu Ăslensku ĂŸjóðarinnar ĂĄrið 1996 og hĂșn hefur hlotið heiðursdoktorsnafnbĂŠtur við HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands og HĂĄskĂłlann ĂĄ Akureyri og við tuttugu erlenda hĂĄskĂłla. Ă 80 ĂĄra afmĂŠli sĂnu ĂĄrið 2010 var VigdĂs gerð að heiðursborgara ReykjavĂkur. + +2014-2015 var sett upp sĂœningin âErtu tilbĂșin frĂș forseti?â Ă Hönnunarsafni Ăslands Ă GarðabĂŠ. Ă sĂœningunni var sĂœndur fatnaður og fylgihlutir Ășr eigu VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur. + +Tenglar + + Stofnun VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur Ă erlendum tungumĂĄlum + Forsetar Ăslands + Leiðsögumaður er spegill landsins; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1969 + Tilvitnanir og fleyg orð + +BĂŠkur um VigdĂsi FinnbogadĂłttur + +1980 - Forsetakjör 1980 eftir GuðjĂłn Friðriksson sagnfrÊðing. +1988 - Ein ĂĄ forsetavakt: dagar Ă lĂfi VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur eftir Steinunni SigurðardĂłttur. +2009 - Kona verður forseti, ĂŠvisaga VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur rituð af PĂĄli Valssyni. +2019 - VigdĂs: BĂłkin um fyrsta konuforsetann eftir RĂĄn Flygenring. + +Viðtöl við VigdĂsi FinnbogadĂłttur + +HĂ©r er saga Ă hverju herbergi, viðtal við VigdĂsi Ă VĂsi, 25. febrĂșar 1981. +Að taka afstöðu til nĂœrra tĂma, viðtal Ărna SnĂŠvarr við VigdĂsi Ă DV, 25. ĂĄgĂșst 1984. +Við megum aldrei gleyma JĂłni Sigurðssyni, viðtal við VigdĂsi Ă Ăskunni, 5-6. tbl. 1984. +Ăg hlakka til ĂŸess dags..., viðtal Rannveigar JĂłnsdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă tĂmaritinu 19. jĂșnĂ, 1. tbl. 1987. +Að eiga fjallið sitt, viðtal JĂłhönnu KristjĂłnsdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă Morgunblaðinu, 12. aprĂl 1990. +Megum aldrei lĂĄta vonleysi nĂĄ tökum ĂĄ okkur. Viðtal við VigdĂsi Ă DV, 31. jĂșlĂ 1992 +SjĂĄlfstraustið kemur með frelsinu. Viðtal ElĂnar PĂĄlmadĂłttur við VigdĂsĂ Ă Morgunblaðinu, 17. jĂșnĂ 1994. +Siðferðileg ĂĄlitamĂĄl eru mĂ©r hugleikin. Viðtal Ragnhildar SverrisdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă Morgunblaðinu, 18. janĂșar 1998. +Met einfaldleikann og hið lĂĄtlausa mest..., viðtal SigrĂðar ArnardĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă Vikunni, 1. tbl. 1998. +Gengur of hĂŠgt Ă jafnrĂ©ttismĂĄlum, viðtal Erlu Huldu HalldĂłrsdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă Veru, 2. tbl. 2001. +Ăg er ĂĄgĂŠt að draga hlöss, viðtal við VigdĂsi Ă StĂșdentablaðinu, 6. tbl. 2001. +Konur eru gullnĂĄma heimsins, viðtal SĂșsunnu SvavarsdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă Morgunblaðinu, 1. febrĂșar 2004. +Ein af oss - en einstök ĂŸĂł, viðtal GuðrĂșnar GuðlaugsdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă Morgunblaðinu, 15. aprĂl 2005. +TungumĂĄl eru lykillinn að heiminum, viðtal Ragnhildar SverrisdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă Morgunblaðinu 14. ĂĄgĂșst 2005. +LĂfsgÊðakapphlaupið er ĂĄkaflega smitandi, viðtal ĂorgrĂms ĂrĂĄinssonar við VigdĂsi Ă HeilbrigðismĂĄl, tĂmariti KrabbameinsfĂ©lags Ăslands, 1. tbl. 2005. +HrĂŠrð yfir ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸetta starf mitt skuli ekki vera gleymt, viðtal við VigdĂsi Ă Morgunblaðinu, 17. jĂșnĂ 2006. +Ăetta getur komið fyrir allar stelpur, viðtal Bergsteins Sigurðssonar við VigdĂsi og PĂĄl Valsson Ă FrĂ©ttablaðinu, 21. nĂłvember 2009. +Ekki benda mĂ©r ĂĄ helga steininn, viðtal SigrĂðar Bjargar TĂłmasdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă FrĂ©ttablaðinu, 10. aprĂl 2010. +Konur munu verða bjargvĂŠttar heimsins, viðtal KolbrĂșnar BergĂŸĂłrsdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă Morgunblaðinu 15. aprĂl 2010. +TrĂșir ĂĄ fegurðina og hið góða orð, viðtal við VigdĂsi Ă tĂmaritinu 19. jĂșnĂ, 1. tbl. 2010. +ForrĂ©ttindi að fÊðast ĂĄ Ăslandi, viðtal við VigdĂsi Ă Monitor, fylgiriti Morgunblaðsins, 22. mars 2012 +Madame President, viðtal við VigdĂsi Ă ReykjavĂk Grapevine, 3. tbl. 2014. +Sannaði að konur eru lĂka menn, viðtal Höllu HarðardĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă FrĂ©ttatĂmanum, 19. jĂșnĂ 2015. +JafnrĂ©tti er mannrĂ©ttindi, viðtal Brynhildar BjörnsdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă FrjĂĄlsri verslun, 5. tbl. 2015. +Ăg er ĂĄ mjög góðum jĂĄrnum, viðtal Bjarkar EiðsdĂłttur við VigdĂsi Ă FrĂ©ttablaðinu, 11. aprĂl 2020. + +TilvĂsanir + +Forsetar Ăslands +Frambjóðendur til embĂŠttis forseta Ăslands +Handhafar stĂłrkross Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorðu +KvenrĂ©ttindi ĂĄ Ăslandi +StĂșdentar Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk +Ăslenskir leikhĂșsstjĂłrar +23. mars er 82. dagur ĂĄrsins (83. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 283 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 752 - StefĂĄn 2. varð pĂĄfi. + 1281 - Marteinn 4. (Simone de Brion) varð pĂĄfi. + 1568 - VopnahlĂ© var gert Ă Frönsku trĂșarbragðastyrjöldunum. Karl 9. Frakkakonungur og KatrĂn af Medici veittu hĂșgenottum umtalsverð rĂ©ttindi. + 1816 - BĂŠndaĂĄnauð var afnumin Ă Eistlandi. + 1903 - Wright-brÊður sĂłttu um einkaleyfi ĂĄ hönnun sinni ĂĄ flugvĂ©l. + 1919 - Benito Mussolini stofnaði fasistaflokkinn Ă MĂlanĂł. + 1933 - Adolf Hitler varð kanslari ĂĂœskalands. + 1937 - Sundhöllin Ă ReykjavĂk var vĂgð. + 1943 - KeflavĂkurflugvöllur var tekinn Ă notkun af BandarĂkjaher. + 1948 - Danska ĂŸingið samĂŸykkti HeimastjĂłrnarlögin sem fĂŠrðu FĂŠreyingum völd yfir eigin mĂĄlum. + 1956 - Pakistan varð fyrsta Ăslamska lĂœĂ°veldið. + 1960 - Söngsveitin FĂlharmĂłnĂa kom fram opinberlega Ă fyrsta sinn Ă uppfĂŠrslu ĂjóðleikhĂșssins ĂĄ Carmina Burana eftir Carl Orff. + 1965 - Geimfararnir Virgil I. âGusâ Grissom og John Young fĂłru Ășt Ă geiminn Ă fyrsta tveggja manna bandarĂska geimfarinu Gemini 3. + 1970 - ĂrĂr ĂŸjóðkunnir leikarar hĂ©ldu upp ĂĄ 25 ĂĄra leikafmĂŠli: Baldvin HalldĂłrsson, Gunnar EyjĂłlfsson og RĂłbert Arnfinnsson. + 1983 - Ronald Reagan BandarĂkjaforseti setti fram fyrstu hugmyndir sĂnar um tĂŠkni til að verjast eldflaugum. ĂĂŠtlunin (SDI) var kölluð âStjörnustrĂðsĂĄĂŠtluninâ Ă fjölmiðlum. + 1987 - BandarĂska sĂĄpuĂłperan The Bold & the Beautiful hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ CBS. + 1989 - Stanley Pons og Martin Fleischmann lĂœstu ĂŸvĂ yfir að ĂŸeim hefði tekist að framkalla kaldan kjarnasamruna Ă rannsĂłknarstofu við HĂĄskĂłlann Ă Utah Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1991 - Borgarastyrjöldin Ă SĂerra LeĂłne hĂłfst ĂŸegar skĂŠruliðasamtökin Revolutionary United Front reyndu að fremja valdarĂĄn. + 1996 - Göran Persson varð forsĂŠtisråðherra SvĂĂŸjóðar. + 1996 - Fyrstu forsetakosningarnar voru haldnar Ă kĂnverska lĂœĂ°veldinu ĂĄ TĂŠvan. Sitjandi forseti, Lee Teng-hui, var kjörinn. + 1997 - Bresku sakamĂĄlaĂŸĂŠttirnir Barnaby rÊður gĂĄtuna hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ ITV. + 1998 - Kvikmyndin Titanic vann ellefu Ăskarsverðlaun og jafnaði ĂŸar með met Ben HĂșr frĂĄ 1959. Lokakafli HringadrĂłttinssögu jafnaði metið aftur ĂĄrið 2004. + 1998 - Kjalarnes varð hluti af ReykjavĂk. + 1998 - Boris JeltsĂn rak rĂkisstjĂłrn RĂșsslands og skipaði Sergej Kirijenko forsĂŠtisråðherra. + 1999 - Luis Maria Argana, varaforseti ParagvĂŠ, var myrtur. + 2001 - RĂșssneska geimstöðin MĂr hrapaði til jarðar Ă Kyrrahafið Ăști fyrir ströndum NĂœja-SjĂĄlands. + 2004 - SĂðasti ĂŸĂĄttur gamanĂŸĂĄttaraðarinnar Frasier var tekinn upp Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 2005 - JĂłakim, prins af Danmörku og Alexandra Manley sĂłttu formlega um skilnað. + 2007 - NĂœja leikjatölvan frĂĄ Sony, PlayStation 3, kom Ășt Ă EvrĂłpu, ĂstralĂu og SingapĂșr. + 2007 - SjĂłher Ăranska byltingarvarðarins handtĂłku 15 breska sjĂłliða ĂĄ umdeildu hafsvÊði milli Ărans og Ăraks. + 2010 - Nektardans var bannaður ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 2010 - Lög um vernd sjĂșklinga og heilbrigðisĂŸjĂłnustu ĂĄ sanngjörnu verði, einnig ĂŸekkt sem Obamacare, voru undirrituð Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 2018 - FjölbrautaskĂłlinn Ă GarðabĂŠ sigraði Ă Gettu betur Ă fyrsta sinn. + 2018 - 25 ĂĄra gamall MarokkĂłbĂși myrti 4 og sĂŠrði 15 Ă röð skotĂĄrĂĄsa Ă Carcassonne og TrĂšbes Ă Frakklandi. Hann var ĂĄ endanum skotinn til bana af lögreglu. + 2019 â SĂðasta landsvÊðið sem var undir stjĂłrn Ăslamska rĂkisins, Al-Baghuz Fawqani, var frelsað. + +FĂŠdd + 1429 - MargrĂ©t af Anjou, Englandsdrottning, kona Hinriks 6. (f. 1482). + 1643 - MarĂa de JesĂșs de LeĂłn y Delgado, spĂŠnskur sjĂĄandi (d. 1731). + 1795 - Bernt Michael Holmboe, norskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1850). + 1820 - Viktor EmmanĂșel 2., konungur SardinĂu og sĂðar ĂtalĂu (d. 1878). + 1881 - Roger Martin du Gard, franskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1958). + 1882 - Emmy Noether, ĂŸĂœskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1935). + 1895 - Ălafur JĂłnsson, råðunautur, Ăslenskur nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingur (d. 1980). + 1908 - Joan Crawford, bandarĂsk leikkona (d. 1977). + 1910 - Akira Kurosawa, japanskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (d. 1998). + 1912 - Wernher von Braun, ĂŸĂœskur eðlisfrÊðingur og verkfrÊðingur (d. 1977). + 1923 - Baldvin HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur leikari (d. 2007). + 1944 - Jamshid Hashempour, Ăranskur Ăștvarpsmaður. + 1946 - JĂłn MagnĂșsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1950 - Valgerður SverrisdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1965 - Einar Sveinbjörnsson, veðurfrÊðingur og fyrrverandi bĂŠjarfulltrĂși Ă GarðabĂŠ. + 1967 - John Wayne Bobbitt, bandarĂskur ofbeldismaður. + 1968 - Bjarni Ărmannsson, Ăslenskur athafnamaður. + 1972 - Joe Calzaghe, velskur boxari. + +DĂĄin + 59 - Agrippina yngri, rĂłmversk aðalskona. + 1369 - PĂ©tur KastilĂukonungur, myrtur eftir orrustuna við Montiel (f. 1334). + 1555 - JĂșlĂus 3. pĂĄfi, (f. 1487). + 1641 - Andries Both, hollenskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1612 eða 1613). + 1653 - Johan van Galen, hollenskur sjĂłliðsforingi (f. 1604). + 1663 - Ragnheiður BrynjĂłlfsdĂłttir (f. 1641). + 1680 - Nicolas Fouquet, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1615). + 1801 - Pavel I PetrovĂtsj, (PĂĄll I) RĂșsslandskeisari (f. 1754) + 1992 - Friedrich A. von Hayek, austurrĂsk-breskur hagfrÊðingur, stjĂłrnmĂĄlaheimspekingur og nĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1899). + 2011 - Elizabeth Taylor, bresk-bandarisk leikkona (f. 1932). + 2014 - Adolfo SuĂĄrez, forsĂŠtisråðherra SpĂĄnar (f. 1932). + 2015 - Lee Kuan Yew, forsĂŠtisråðherra SingapĂșr (f. 1923). + +Mars +Ăskarsverðlaunin (enska: Academy Awards eða Ăłformlega the Oscars) eru bandarĂsk kvikmyndaverðlaun veitt kvikmyndagerðarmönnum og öðrum sem starfa við kvikmyndir. VerðlaunahĂĄtĂðin er yfirleitt sĂș best kynnta og mest ĂĄberandi ĂĄ Vesturlöndum, og verðlaunin af flestum talin ĂŸau eftirsĂłknarverðustu. Ăskarsverðlaunin eru veitt af BandarĂsku kvikmyndaakademĂunni (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences), samtökum fĂłlks sem starfar við kvikmyndagerð Ă BandarĂkjunum, og er aðild að ĂŸeim einungis veitt Ă heiðursskyni. + +Ărið 2003 voru 5.816 meðlimir Ă akademĂunni með kosningarĂ©tt við val ĂĄ Ăskarsverðlaunahöfum. Ăskarsverðlaunin hafa verið veitt ĂĄrlega frĂĄ 1929. + +Ăslenskar tilnefningar til Ăskarsverðlauna +Eftirtaldir Ăslenskir aðilar eða myndir hafa fengið tilnefningu BandarĂsku kvikmyndaakademĂunnar til Ăskarsverðlauna. + Mynd Friðriks ĂĂłrs Friðrikssonar, Börn nĂĄttĂșrunnar hlaut tilnefningu Ă flokknum âBesta erlenda myndinâ ĂĄrið 1991. + Björk GuðmundsdĂłttir hlaut tilnefningu Ă flokknum âbesta lagiðâ fyrir âI've seen it allâ Ășr mynd Lars von Triers, Myrkradansaranum ĂĄrið 2000. + SĂðasti bĂŠrinn eftir RĂșnar RĂșnarsson og ĂĂłr S. SigurjĂłnsson var tilnefnd Ă flokknum âBesta leikna stuttmyndinâ ĂĄrið 2005. + JĂłhann JĂłhannsson hlaut tilnefningu Ă flokknum âbesta frumsamda tĂłnlistâ Ășr mynd James Marsh, The Theory of Everything ĂĄrið 2015. + Hildur GuðnadĂłttir var tilnefnd til Ăskarsverðlauna fyrir bestu frumsömdu tĂłnlistina fyrir kvikmyndina Joker ĂĄrið 2020. +Ărið 2021 var stuttmynd eftir Arnar Gunnarsson og GĂsla Darra HalldĂłrsson, JĂĄ-fĂłlkið, tilfefnd Ă flokknum Besta teiknaða stuttmyndin. + Ărið 2023 var stuttmynd Söru GunnarsdĂłttur, My Year of Dicks, tilfefnd Ă flokknum Besta teiknaða stuttmyndin. + +Ăslenskir Ăskarsverðlaunahafar +Ărið 2020 vann Hildur GuðnadĂłttir Ăskar fyrir bestu frumsömdu tĂłnlistina fyrir myndina Joker og varð fyrst Ăslendinga til að vinna slĂk verðlaun. + +TilvĂsanir + +Tengill + VefsĂða Ăskarsverðlaunanna + + +KvikmyndahĂĄtĂðir +76. ĂskarsverðlaunahĂĄtĂðin var haldinn 2003. + +Verðlaunahafar + +Bestu myndir Ă fullri lengd + Besta mynd ĂĄrsins: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Framleidd af Barrie M. Osborne, Peter Jackson og Fran Walsh + Besta kvikmynd ĂĄ öðru tungumĂĄli en ensku: The Barbarian Invasions - Kanada + Besta heimildarmyndin: The Fog of War - Errol Morris og Michael Williams + Besta teiknimyndin Ă fullri lengd: Finding Nemo - Andrew Stanton + +Bestu stuttmyndir + Besta stutta heimildarmyndin: Chernobyl Heart - Maryann DeLeo + Besta leikna stuttmyndin: Two Soldiers - Aaron Schneider og Andrew J. Sacks + Besta teiknaða stuttmyndin: Harvie Krumpet - Adam Elliot + +Besta leikstjĂłrn og leikur + Besta leikstjĂłrn: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Peter Jackson + Besti leikari Ă aðalhlutverki: Sean Penn Ă Mystic River + Besta leikkona Ă aðalhlutverki: Charlize Theron Ă Monster + Besti leikari Ă aukahlutverki: Tim Robbins Ă Mystic River + Besta leikkona Ă aukahlutverki: RenĂ©e Zellweger Ă Cold Mountain + +Bestu handrit og tĂłnlist + Upprunalegt handrit: Lost in Translation - Sofia Coppola + Handrit byggt ĂĄ eldra verki: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens & Peter Jackson + Besta tĂłnlist samin fyrir kvikmynd: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Howard Shore + Besta sönglag samið fyrir kvikmynd: Into the West Ășr The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Texti og tĂłnlist eftir Fran Walsh, Howard Shore og Annie Lennox + +Bestu tĂŠknilegu ĂștfĂŠrslur + Besta listrĂŠna stjĂłrn: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - ListrĂŠnn stjĂłrnandi: Grant Major; Sviðsmynd: Dan Hennah og Alan Lee + Besta kvikmyndataka: Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World - Russell Boyd + Besta bĂșningahönnun: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Ngila Dickson og Richard Taylor + Besta klipping: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Jamie Selkirk + Besta förðun: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Richard Taylor og Peter King + Besta hljóðhönnun: Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World - Richard King + Besta hljóðblöndun: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Christopher Boyes, Michael Semanick, Michael Hedges og Hammond Peek + Bestu tĂŠknibrellur: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King - Jim Rygiel, Joe Letteri, Randall William Cook og Alex Funke + +ĂskarsverðlaunahĂĄtĂðir +18. mars er 77. dagur ĂĄrsins (78. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 288 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 37 - Caligula varð keisari RĂłmar. + 417 - Sosimus varð pĂĄfi. + 731 - GregorĂus 3. varð pĂĄfi. + 1229 - Friðrik 2. keisari krĂœndi sjĂĄlfan sig konung JerĂșsalem Ă sjöttu krossferðinni. + 1325 - Borgin Tenochtitlan var stofnuð Ă MexĂkĂł. + 1438 - Albert 2. af Habsborg varð konungur ĂĂœskalands. + 1608 - Susenyos var krĂœndur EĂŸĂĂłpĂukeisari Ă AxĂșm. + 1760 - EmbĂŠttið landlĂŠknir, landfysikus, var stofnað ĂĄ Ăslandi með Ășrskurði Danakonungs, hliðstĂŠtt embĂŠtti danskra stiftslĂŠkna og varð Bjarni PĂĄlsson fyrsti landlĂŠknir Ăslands. + 1772 - Björn JĂłnsson var skipaður fyrsti lyfsali ĂĄ Ăslandi með aðsetur Ă Nesi við Seltjörn. + 1793 - Borgin Mainz lĂœsti yfir stofnun sjĂĄlfstÊðs lĂœĂ°veldis, ĂŸess fyrsta ĂĄ ĂŸĂœskri grundu. Ăað leystist ĂŸĂł upp eftir aðeins fjĂłra mĂĄnuði + 1793 - Orrustan við Neerwinden: AusturrĂkismenn hröktu Frakka frĂĄ Niðurlöndum + 1871 - 25 karlar og tvĂŠr konur hvöttu til ĂŸess að stofnaður yrði kvennaskĂłli Ă ReykjavĂk Ă ĂĄvarpi til Ăslendinga. KvennaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk tĂłk til starfa 1874. + 1871 - ParĂsarkommĂșnan var stofnuð. + 1891 - SĂmasamband komst ĂĄ milli London og ParĂsar. + 1913 - Georg 1. Grikklandskonungur var myrtur. + 1921 - StrĂði SovĂ©trĂkjanna og PĂłllands lauk með Riga-sĂĄttmĂĄlanum. + 1922 - Mahatma Gandhi var dĂŠmdur Ă sex ĂĄra fangelsi ĂĄ Indlandi fyrir borgaralega ĂłhlĂœĂ°ni. Hann sat Ă fangelsi Ă tvö ĂĄr. + 1926 - H.f. Ătvarp, fyrsta Ăștvarpsstöðin ĂĄ Ăslandi, hĂłf reglubundnar Ăștsendingar. + 1945 - RithöfundafĂ©lag Ăslands klofnaði ĂĄ aðalfundi og FĂ©lag Ăslenskra rithöfunda var stofnað. + 1967 - RisaolĂuskipið Torrey Canion strandaði ĂĄ rifi fyrir utan Wales. Um 120 ĂŸĂșsund tonn af olĂu fĂłru Ă hafið og ollu gĂfurlegu tjĂłni. + 1970 - Lon Nol framdi valdarĂĄn Ă KambĂłdĂu og stofnaði KmeralĂœĂ°veldið. + 1971 - HandritamĂĄlið: HĂŠstirĂ©ttur Danmerkur kvað upp Ășrskurð sem gerði dönsku rĂkisstjĂłrninni kleift að afhenda Ăslendingum handrit sem geymd höfðu verið Ă Ărnasafni Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + 1978 - Fyrrum forsĂŠtisråðherra Pakistan, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, var dĂŠmdur til dauða fyrir að hafa fyrirskipað morð ĂĄ pĂłlitĂskum andstÊðingi. + 1985 - Ăstralska sĂĄpuĂłperan Grannar hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ Seven Network. + 1989 - 4.400 ĂĄra gömul mĂșmĂa fannst Ă Giza-pĂramĂdanum Ă Egyptalandi. + 1990 - TĂłlf mĂĄlverkum og kĂnverskum vasa var stolið Ășr Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Ă Boston. Ăetta var stĂŠrsti listaverkaĂŸjĂłfnaður Ă sögu BandarĂkjanna. + 1990 - Fyrstu frjĂĄlsu kosningarnar voru haldnar Ă Austur-ĂĂœskalandi. + 1992 - HvĂtir Suður-AfrĂkubĂșar samĂŸykktu Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu umbĂŠtur til að binda enda ĂĄ aðskilnaðarstefnuna. + 1992 - Finnland sĂłtti um aðild að EvrĂłpusambandinu. + 1994 - Washington-samningurinn: BosnĂukrĂłatar sömdu um vopnahlĂ© við stjĂłrn BosnĂu-HersegĂłvĂnu. + 1996 - 163 lĂ©tu lĂfið Ă eldsvoða ĂĄ skemmtistaðnum Ozone Disco Ă Quezon-borg ĂĄ Filippseyjum. + 1998 - Listi fĂłlksins var stofnaður ĂĄ Akureyri. + 2003 - Listi viljugra ĂŸjóða sem studdu afvopnun Ăraks var birtur og var Ăsland ĂĄ honum. Tveimur dögum sĂðar hĂłfst innrĂĄsin Ă Ărak. + 2004 - Lið MR tapaði Ă spurningakeppni framhaldsskĂłlanna, Gettu betur, Ă fyrsta skipti frĂĄ 1992. + 2005 - HjĂłmsveitin JakobĂnarĂna sigraði MĂșsĂktilraunir með miklum meirihluta atkvÊða, bÊði dĂłmnefndar og ĂĄhorfenda. + 2006 - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn umdeildum lögum um råðningarsamninga Ă Frakklandi enduðu með ĂĄtökum 500.000 mĂłtmĂŠlenda við lögreglu. + 2011 - RĂłtarlĂ©nið .xxx var formlega tekið Ă notkun af ICANN. + 2016 - Eini ĂŸekkti lifandi ĂĄrĂĄsarmaðurinn frĂĄ hryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄsunum Ă ParĂs, Salah Abdeslam, var handtekinn Ă Brussel Ă BelgĂu. + 2018 - Ăjóðarher SĂœrlands og Tyrklandsher nåðu borginni Afrin Ă SĂœrlandi ĂĄ sitt vald. + +FĂŠdd + 1496 - MarĂa Tudor, yngri systir Hinriks 8., drottning Frakklands Ă nokkra mĂĄnuði (kona LoðvĂks 12.) (d. 1533). + 1555 - Frans hertogi af Anjou, yngsti sonur Hinriks 2. Frakkakonungs og KatrĂnar af Medici (d. 1584). + 1603 - JĂłhann 4. PortĂșgalskonungur (d. 1656). + 1609 - Friðrik 3. Danakonungur (d. 1670). + 1614 - Brostrup Giedde, danskur hirðstjĂłri (f. um 1560). + 1634 - Marie-Madeleine de La Fayette, franskur rithöfundur (d. 1693). + 1782 - John C. Calhoun, sjöundi varaforseti BandarĂkjanna (d. 1850). + 1822 - EirĂkur JĂłnsson, frÊðimaður og ritstjĂłri Ă Kaupmannahöfn (d. 1889). + 1837 - Grover Cleveland, fyrrum BandarĂkjaforseti (d. 1908). + 1844 - Nikolaj Rimsky-Korsakov, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1908). + 1858 - KatrĂn MagnĂșsson, Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄla- og kvenrĂ©ttindakona (d. 1932). + 1869 - Neville Chamberlain, forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands (d. 1940). + 1903 - Galeazzo Ciano, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1944). + 1919 - G.E.M. Anscombe, enskur heimspekingur (d. 2001). + 1926 - Peter Graves, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2010). + 1932 - John Updike, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (d. 2009). + 1936 - F.W. de Klerk, fyrrum forseti Suður-AfrĂku (d. 2021). + 1952 - KolbrĂșn BjörgĂłlfsdĂłttir (Kogga), Ăslenskur myndlistarmaður. + 1961 - JĂłhann R. Benediktsson, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaður. + 1963 - Vanessa Williams, bandarĂsk söngkona. + 1966 - Jerry Cantrell, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1970 - Queen Latifah, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona. + 1974 - PĂĄll PĂĄlsson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1977 - Danny Murphy, enskur fĂłtboltamaður. + 1977 - Zdeno Chara, slĂłvakĂskur ĂshokkĂleikmaður. + 1997 - Ciara Bravo, bandarĂsk leikkona. + +DĂĄin + 235 - Alexander Severus, RĂłmarkeisari (f. 208). + 978 - JĂĄtvarður pĂslarvottur, Englandskonungur (f. um 962). + 1227 - HonorĂus 3. pĂĄfi (f. 1148). + 1314 - Jacques de Molay, stĂłrmeistari Musterisriddaranna var brenndur ĂĄ bĂĄli. + 1583 - MagnĂșs, konungur LĂflands og hertogi af Holtsetalandi, sonur KristjĂĄns 3. Danakonungs (f. 1540). + 1745 - Robert Walpole, fyrsti forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands (f. 1676). + 1768 - Laurence Sterne, Ărskur rithöfundur (f. 1713). + 1871 - Augustus De Morgan, breskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (f. 1806). + 1913 - Georg 1. Grikklandskonungur (f. 1845). + 1936 - ElefĂŸerios Venizelos, grĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1864). + 1983 - ĂmbertĂł 2. fyrrum konungur ĂtalĂu (f. 1904). + 1996 - Odysseas Elytis, grĂskt skĂĄld (f. 1911). + 2016 - Guido Westerwelle, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1961). + +Mars +SjĂłnvarpið (einnig kallað RĂkissjĂłnvarpið) er eina rĂkisrekna sjĂłnvarpsstöðin ĂĄ Ăslandi. HĂșn hĂłf Ăștsendingar ĂŸann 30. september 1966. SjĂłnvarpið er deild innan RĂkisĂștvarpsins, RĂV, sem einnig rekur ĂŸrjĂĄr Ăștvarpsstöðvar. + +Ăegar sjĂłnvarpið hĂłf göngu sĂna var aðeins sent Ășt tvisvar sinnum Ă viku, ĂĄ föstudögum og miðvikudögum en smĂĄtt og smĂĄtt jukust Ăștsendingar. FljĂłtlega var sent Ășt alla daga nema fimmtudaga. Einnig fĂłr sjĂłnvarpið Ă sumarfrĂ Ă jĂșlĂ allt ĂŸar til 1983 og voru ĂŸĂĄ engar Ăștsendingar Ă gangi. Ăað var svo ekki fyrr en 1. oktĂłber 1987 sem sjĂłnvarpið hĂłf göngu sĂna 7 daga vikunnar. NĂș ĂĄ dögum er sjĂłnvarpað allan sĂłlarhringinn. FrĂ©ttaĂŸjĂłnusta landsmanna batnaði til muna ĂŸegar erlendar frĂ©ttir fĂłru að berast gegnum gervihnött, en ĂŸað gerðist Ă fyrsta skipti Ă september ĂĄrið 1981 gegnum jarðstöðina Skyggni Ă MosfellsbĂŠ. + +Fyrir stofnun RĂV hafði aðeins kanasjĂłnvarpið verið Ă gangi og mjög fĂĄir höfðu aðgang að sjĂłnvarpi. Ătvarpið var ĂŸĂĄ aðalfjölmiðillinn fyrir utan dagblöðin. + +Tenglar + Vefur RĂkisĂștvarpsins + Eins og að stökkva fram af klettum; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1986 + +Ăslenskar sjĂłnvarpsstöðvar +Gettu betur er spurningakeppni Ăslenskra framhaldsskĂłla sem RĂkisĂștvarpið stendur fyrir ĂĄrlega. Hver framhaldsskĂłli getur sent eitt lið Ă keppnina, sem skipað er ĂŸremur nemendum við skĂłlann. Undankeppni fer fram Ă Ăștvarpi og að henni lokinni halda ĂĄtta lið ĂĄfram Ă ĂștslĂĄttarkeppni Ă sjĂłnvarpinu. + +Saga keppninnar +Keppnin var fyrst haldin ĂĄrið 1986 og hefur farið fram ĂĄrlega sĂðan ĂŸĂĄ. Keppnin hefur verið einn vinsĂŠlasti dagskrĂĄrliður RĂkisĂștvarpsins frĂĄ upphafi. UmsjĂłnarmaður keppninnar frĂĄ 1991 til ĂĄrsins 2012 var AndrĂ©s Indriðason og ĂĄ eftir honum tĂłk ElĂn SveinsdĂłttir við ĂŸvĂ hlutverki. NĂșverandi umsjĂłnarmaður keppninnar er Ragnar EyĂŸĂłrsson. + +Forkeppnin hefst Ă janĂșar ĂĄr hvert og fer fram Ă Ăștvarpi. Að tveimur umferðum loknum eru ĂĄtta lið eftir og heldur keppnin ĂĄfram Ă sjĂłnvarpssal. Ărið 2009 var metĂĄr Ă sögu Gettu betur. ĂĂĄ tĂłk alls 31 skĂłli ĂŸĂĄtt og hafa ĂŸeir aldrei verið fleiri. + +Alls hafa nĂu skĂłlar unnið keppnina og er MenntaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk sĂĄ sigursĂŠlasti. NĂŠst ĂĄ eftir koma MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri og KvennaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk með ĂŸrjĂĄ sigra hvor. ĂvĂ nĂŠst er VerzlunarskĂłli Ăslands með tvo sigra. Ăeir eru einu skĂłlarnir sem hafa unnið keppnina oftar en einu sinni. + +Spyrill stendur fyrir miðju og ber upp spurningarnar. Oft er starf spyrils Ă höndum einhvers ĂŸjĂłĂ°ĂŸekkts einstaklings. DĂłmarinn semur spurningarnar og dĂŠmir svörin. FrĂĄ upphafi hefur stigavörður setið ĂĄ vinstri hönd dĂłmara og talið stigin. Fyrir keppnina ĂĄrið 2012 var ĂĄkveðið að leggja niður stigavarðarembĂŠttið og hafa Ă stað ĂŸess tvo dĂłmara. Ărið 2013 var ĂĄkvörðun tekin um að kynjakvĂłti skyldi settur og tĂłk hann Ă gildi ĂĄrið 2015. + +Fyrir keppnina 2020 varð sĂ©rkeppni sem nefndist Gettu Betur - StjörnustrĂð. Ăetta gaf góða raun og var endurtekið ĂĄrið eftir fyrir sjĂłnvarpakeppnina. + +Gettu betur fĂłr ekki varhluta af Covid-19 faraldrinum. Allt stefndi Ă að Ășrslitin 2020 yrðu haldin ĂĄn ĂĄhorfenda, en svo fĂłr að hvort lið fĂ©kk að hafa nokkra Ă salnum. Ătvarpshluti keppninnar 2021 fĂłr ekki fram ĂĄ MarkĂșsartorgi, eins og venjan hefur verið ĂĄrin ĂĄ undan, heldur Ă hljóðveri 12. Vegna fjöldatakmarkanna var ĂŸessi hluti keppninnar ĂĄhorfendalaus. + +Yfirlit + +Besti ĂĄrangur einstakra skĂłla + +Sigurvegarar +MenntaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk â 23 sinnum +MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri â 3 sinnum +KvennaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk â 3 sinnum +VerzlunarskĂłli Ăslands â 2 sinnum +MenntaskĂłlinn við Sund â 1 sinni +FjölbrautaskĂłli Suðurlands â 1 sinni +MenntaskĂłlinn Ă KĂłpavogi â 1 sinni +BorgarholtsskĂłli â 1 sinni +FjölbrautaskĂłlinn Ă Breiðholti â 1 sinni +MenntaskĂłlinn við HamrahlĂð â 1 sinni +FjölbrautaskĂłlinn Ă GarðabĂŠ â 1 sinni +2. sĂŠti +FlensborgarskĂłli â 3 sinnum +VerkmenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Akureyri â 1 sinni +UndanĂșrslit +FjölbrautaskĂłlinn við ĂrmĂșla â 4 sinnum +MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Egilsstöðum â 4 sinnum +MenntaskĂłlinn að Laugarvatni â 3 sinnum +VerkmenntaskĂłli Austurlands â 2 sinnum +TĂŠkniskĂłlinn â 1 sinni +FjölbrautaskĂłli Vesturlands â 1 sinni +LandbĂșnaðarhĂĄskĂłlinn Ăslands â 1 sinni +FramhaldsskĂłlinn Ă Austur-SkaftafellssĂœslu â 1 sinni +MenntaskĂłlinn Hraðbraut â 1 sinni (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur) +8-liða Ășrslit +FjölbrautaskĂłli Suðurnesja â 6 sinnum +FjölbrautaskĂłli Norðurlands vestra â 4 sinnum +FramhaldsskĂłlinn ĂĄ Laugum â 3 sinnum +MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Ăsafirði â 2 sinnum +FramhaldsskĂłlinn ĂĄ HĂșsavĂk â 1 sinni +FramhaldsskĂłlinn Ă Vestmannaeyjum â 1 sinni +2. umferð +FjölbrautaskĂłli SnĂŠfellinga â 4 sinnum +MenntaskĂłli Borgarfjarðar â 4 sinnum +FramhaldsskĂłlinn Ă MosfellsbĂŠ â 2 sinnum +MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Tröllaskaga - 1 sinni +Aldrei komist upp Ășr 1. umferð +MenntaskĂłlinn Ă tĂłnlist +MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ ĂsbrĂș +IðnskĂłlinn Ă Hafnarfirði (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur) +StĂœrimannaskĂłlinn (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur) +AlĂŸĂœĂ°uskĂłlinn ĂĄ Eiðum (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur) +SkĂłgaskĂłli (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur) +SamvinnuskĂłlinn (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur) +ĂĂŸrĂłttakennaraskĂłli Ăslands (ekki lengur starfrĂŠktur) + +SjĂĄ einnig + + Listi yfir Ășrslit Gettu betur + +Tenglar + gettubetur.is + +GrafĂskar tĂmalĂnur +Gettu betur +Keppnir Ăslenskra framhaldsskĂłla +Ăslenskir sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂŠttir +SpurningaĂŸĂŠttir +DavĂð ĂĂłr JĂłnsson (fĂŠddur 5. janĂșar 1965) varð landsĂŸekktur skemmtikraftur Ă upphafi 10. ĂĄratugarins, ĂŸegar hann og Steinn Ărmann MagnĂșsson leikari settu upp stutta ĂștvarpsleikĂŸĂŠtti daglega ĂĄ Aðalstöðinni. LeikĂŸĂŠttina kölluðu ĂŸeir Flugur. Ăeir ĂŸĂłttu grĂłfir og Ă ĂŸeim var skopast að Hafnfirðingum, KĂłpavogsbĂșum, samkynhneigðum, kvenkyns ĂĂŸrĂłttamönnum, bifvĂ©lavirkjum og öðrum sem lĂĄgu vel við höggi. + +Saman kallaði tvĂeykið sig RadĂusbrÊður, og ĂŸeir tróðu vĂða upp með grĂni Ă nokkur ĂĄr, aðallega Ă framhaldsskĂłlum og ĂĄ ĂĄrshĂĄtĂðum. + +DavĂð ĂĂłr er Ăștskrifaður guðfrÊðingur, hann var spyrill Ă Gettu betur 1996 â 98, hefur verið vinsĂŠll viðmĂŠlandi Ă spjallĂŸĂĄttum Ă sjĂłnvarpi og ritstjĂłri tĂmaritsins Bleikt & BlĂĄtt 1997 â 2001. Hann hefur starfað sem ĂŸĂœĂ°andi, raddleikari og ljóðskĂĄld. DavĂð var spurningahöfundur og dĂłmari Ă Gettu betur ĂĄrin 2007 og 2009. Hann skrifaði BakĂŸanka Ă FrĂ©ttablaðið hĂĄlfsmĂĄnaðarlega frĂĄ 2006 â 2012. + +DavĂð ĂĂłr gegndi embĂŠtti hĂ©raðsprests Ă AusturlandsprĂłfastsdĂŠmi frĂĄ 2014-2016. FrĂĄ 2016 hefur hann verið sĂłknarprestur Ă Laugarnesprestakalli Ă ReykjavĂk. + +Ătgefin verk + JĂłlasnĂłtirnar 13 (2004) + VĂsur fyrir vonda krakka (2004) + Orrustan um Fold (2012) + MĂłrĂșn - Ă skugga Skrattakolls (2015) +MĂłrĂșn - Stigamenn Ă StyrskĂłgum (2016) + +Tengill + CV at Official Blog + +Ăslenskir skemmtikraftar +RadĂusbrÊður var sviðsnafn DavĂðs ĂĂłrs JĂłnssonar og Steins Ărmanns MagnĂșssonar, ĂŸegar ĂŸeir tróðu saman upp með framsĂŠknu grĂni ĂĄ fyrri hluta tĂunda ĂĄratugarins. RadĂusbrÊður komu fyrst fram með ĂștvarpsĂŸĂĄttinn RadĂus ĂĄ Aðalstöðinni. SĂðar ĂĄttu ĂŸeir ĂŸĂĄtt Ă gerð sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttanna LimbĂł Ă leikstjĂłrn Ăskars JĂłnassonar. Ăeir ĂŸĂŠttir urðu skammlĂfir en RĂV hĂŠtti framleiðslu ĂŸeirra eftir tvo ĂŸĂŠtti. SĂðar voru ĂŸeir með eigin ĂŸĂŠtti og stutt atriði Ă DagsljĂłsi til 1995. Ărið 1995 gerðu ĂŸeir ĂŸĂŠttina RadĂus, 12 ĂŸĂĄtta sketsaröð með ĂŸeim tveim. + +Tenglar + + Glatkistan + +Ăslenskir skemmtikraftar +StefĂĄn PĂĄlsson (1975) er Ăslenskur sagnfrÊðingur, stjĂłrnmĂĄlaskĂœrandi og varaborgarfulltrĂși Vinstri grĂŠnna Ă ReykjavĂk. Hann stundaði nĂĄm við MR ĂŸar sem hann tĂłk ĂŸĂĄtt Ă spurningakeppninni Gettu betur og var hann Ă sigurliðinu 1995. Ărin 2004 og 2005 gegndi hann sjĂĄlfur stöðu dĂłmara Ă keppninni. Hann var ĂĄ tĂmabili söngvari Ă pönk-hljĂłmsveitinni Tony Blair. Hann er dyggur aðdĂĄandi KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram og breska knattspyrnuliðsins Luton Town. StefĂĄn er mikill ĂĄhugamaður um viskĂœ og bjĂłr. + +Auk Gettu betur tĂłk StefĂĄn einnig ĂŸĂĄtt Ă rÊðukeppninni MORFĂS ĂĄ menntaskĂłlaĂĄrum sĂnum. Eftir að hann lauk nĂĄmi og fram eftir ĂŸrĂtugsaldri kom hann að ĂŸjĂĄlfun bÊði Gettu betur- og MorfĂs-liða Ăœmissa framhaldsskĂłla. Hann hefur starfað sem spurningahöfundur og dĂłmari Ă Gettu betur og Ătsvari. + +StefĂĄn er mikill ĂĄhugamaður um teiknimyndasögur. Ărið 2013 setti hann rÊðumet með ĂŸrettĂĄn og hĂĄlfrar klukkustundar fyrirlestri um Sval og Val, sem fögnuðu 75 ĂĄra afmĂŠli um ĂŸĂŠr mundir. + +StefĂĄn hefur verið virkur Ă starfi Vinstri grĂŠnna, en hann var einnig einn stofnenda MĂĄlfundafĂ©lags Ășngra rĂłttĂŠklinga (MĂR) ĂĄrið 1999, sem hĂ©lt Ăști vefritinu MĂșrnum fram til 2007. Hann skipaði annað sĂŠti ĂĄ lista Vinstri grĂŠnna Ă ReykjavĂk Ă sveitarstjĂłrnarkosningunum ĂĄrið 2022 og er fyrsti varaborgarfulltrĂși flokksins. + +StefĂĄn var formaður Samtaka hernaðarandstÊðinga frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2000 til 2015. + +Eiginkona StefĂĄns er Steinunn ĂĂłra ĂrnadĂłttir alĂŸingiskona. + +Ătgefið efni + +Helstu ritverk + FrambĂłkin: KnattspyrnufĂ©lagið Fram Ă 100 ĂĄr (2009) + ð ĂŠvisaga (2012, meðhöfundar Anton Kaldal ĂgĂșstsson, Gunnar VilhjĂĄlmsson og Steinar Ingi Farestveit) + BjĂłr: umhverfis jörðina ĂĄ 120 tegundum (2014, meðhöfundar Höskuldur SĂŠmundsson og RĂĄn Flygenring) + Gleymið ekki að endurnĂœja. Saga HappdrĂŠttis HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands (2020) + +Borðspil + Spark - spurningaspil um knattspyrnu (2005) + Gettu betur-spilið - 10 ĂĄra afmĂŠlisĂștgĂĄfa (2010) + Ăslandssöguspilið (2013) + Ăslenska spurningaspilið (2019) + EvrĂłpa - spurningaspil (2021) + +SpurningaĂŸĂŠttir Ă sjĂłnvarpi og Ăștvarpi + Gettu betur ĂĄ RĂV (2004-05) + Spark - spurningaĂŸĂĄttur um knattspyrnu ĂĄ SkjĂĄ 1 (2005) + Ha? ĂĄ SkjĂĄ 1 (2011-13) + Ătsvar ĂĄ RĂV (2013-15) + Spurningakeppni fjölmiðlanna ĂĄ Bylgjunni (2018-21) + Kvisslingur ĂĄ SjĂłnvarpi SĂmans (2020) + +Tenglar + + BloggsĂða StefĂĄns. + MĂșrinn. + +TilvĂsanir + +Ăslenskir sagnfrÊðingar +Ăslenskir aðgerðasinnar +Sigurvegarar Ă Gettu betur +Vinstrihreyfingin - grĂŠnt framboð +Ăslendingar + +StĂșdentar Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk +Hermann Gunnarsson, ĂŸekktastur sem âHemmi Gunnâ (9. desember 1946 â 4. jĂșnĂ 2013), var landsĂŸekktur ĂĂŸrĂłttafrĂ©ttamaður, skemmtikraftur, ĂŸĂĄttastjĂłrnandi og einn fremsti knattspyrnumaður Ăslendinga ĂĄ 20. öld. Hermann var ĂĄn efa ĂŸekktastur fyrir skemmtiĂŸĂĄtt sinn Ă tali hjĂĄ Hemma Gunn, sem sĂœndur var ĂĄ RĂV sĂðasta ĂĄratug 20. aldar. + +Ăvi Hermanns +Hermann var einn fremsti knattspyrnumaður Ăslands ĂĄ sjöunda ĂĄratugnum. Hann spilaði með Val ĂĄ blĂłmaskeiði fĂ©lagsins en var einnig landsliðsmaður. Hemmi ĂŸĂłtti einnig nokkuð liðtĂŠkur Ă handbolta og lĂ©k nokkra landsleiki Ă ĂĂŸrĂłttinni. Hann ĂĄtti meðal annars markametið yfir flest mörk skoruð Ă landsleik Ă mörg ĂĄr, ĂŸar til ĂŸað var bĂŠtt af GĂșstaf Bjarnasyni Ă leik gegn KĂna ĂĄrið 1995. + +Hermann stundaði nĂĄm við VerzlunarskĂłla Ăslands. Að knattspyrnuferlinum loknum tĂłk hann til starfa sem ĂĂŸrĂłttafrĂ©ttamaður hjĂĄ SjĂłnvarpinu. Hann starfaði ĂŸar um ĂĄrabil, ĂŸĂł ekki vĂŠri hann alltaf ĂĂŸrĂłttafrĂ©ttamaður. Ă nĂunda ĂĄratugnum hĂłf hann að stjĂłrna sĂnum eigin sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂŠtti hjĂĄ RĂV, Ă tali hjĂĄ Hemma Gunn. Ă lok mars 2005 hĂłf göngu sĂna nĂœr tĂłnlistargetraunaĂŸĂĄttur undir stjĂłrn Hermanns, Ăað var lagið, sem sĂœndur var ĂĄ Stöð 2. Eins stjĂłrnaði hann ĂŸĂŠttinum Ă sjöunda himni ĂĄ Stöð 2 veturinn 2006-'07. + +Hann söng inn ĂĄ hljĂłmplötur bÊði einn og með öðrum, meðal annars með Ladda. Hemmi gaf einnig sjĂĄlfur Ășt hljĂłmplötu, FrĂskur og fjörugur. Ă henni er að finna lög eins og Einn dans við mig og FallerĂ, fallera. Hann starfaði lengi sem fararstjĂłri og rak veitingastað Ă TĂŠlandi. Ărið 2003 starfaði hann sem kynningarstjĂłri Vestfirska forlagsins. + +Hermann varð bråðkvaddur Ă TĂŠlandi 4. jĂșnĂ 2013. + +Plötur +FrĂskur og fjörugur (1984) +Hemmi Gunn og RĂșnni JĂșll syngja fyrir börnin (1993) (Með RĂșnari JĂșlĂussyni) + +TilvĂsanir + +Ăslenskt fjölmiðlafĂłlk +Ăslenskir handknattleiksmenn +Ăslenskir knattspyrnumenn +Ăslandsklukkan er söguleg skĂĄldsaga eftir HalldĂłr Laxness. HĂșn kom Ășt Ă ĂŸremur hlutum ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1943-1946: Ăslandsklukkan (1943), Hið ljĂłsa man (1944) og Eldur Ă Kaupinhafn (1946). + +SöguĂŸråður +Fyrsti hluti sögunnar segir frĂĄ JĂłni Hreggviðssyni, bĂłnda ĂĄ Rein, og barĂĄttu hans við yfirvöld. JĂłn er dĂŠmdur til dauða fyrir að drepa kĂłngsins böðul, Sigurð Snorrason, en sleppur Ășr haldi með hjĂĄlp ĂslandssĂłlarinnar SnĂŠfrĂðar og flĂœr til Hollands og svo til Danmerkur ĂŸar sem hann ĂŠtlar sĂ©r að freista ĂŸess að nĂĄ tali af konungi og fĂĄ nåðun. + +SnĂŠfrĂður ĂslandssĂłl, dĂłttir EydalĂns lögmanns (SnĂŠfrĂður BjörnsdĂłttir EydalĂn), er Ă aðalhlutverki à öðrum hlutanum. SnĂŠfrĂður er kynnt til sögunnar Ă fyrsta hlutanum ĂŸar sem hĂșn ferðast um landið með Arnasi ArnĂŠus og sĂðar ĂŸegar hĂșn fĂŠr varðmann til að leysa JĂłn Hreggviðsson Ășr haldi ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. +à öðrum hlutanum er SnĂŠfrĂður gift MagnĂșsi Ă BrÊðratĂșngu, ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir að hafa elskað Arnas. + +Ăriðji hlutinn fjallar svo um Arnas ArnĂŠus og örlög bĂłkasafns hans Ă Kaupinhafn. Arnas giftist SnĂŠfrĂði aldrei, heldur bĂœr Ă Kaupinhafn með rĂkri konu sem fjĂĄrmagnar bĂłkasöfnun hans. + +Allar koma aðalpersĂłnurnar við sögu à öllum hlutum sögunnar, en rauði ĂŸråðurinn er barĂĄtta JĂłns Hreggviðssonar. + +VĂsanir Ă sögunni +SnĂŠfrĂður ĂslandssĂłl hefur gjarnan verið borin saman við GuðrĂșnu ĂsvĂfursdĂłttur, söguhetju Ă LaxdĂŠlu. ĂĂŠr eru båðar miklir skörungar og ummĂŠli ĂŸeirra um lĂfsförunauta sĂna ĂŸykja svipuð. + âHeldur ĂŸann versta en ĂŸann nĂŠstbestaâ sagði SnĂŠfrĂður ĂslandssĂłl ĂŸegar faðir hennar spurði hana 17 ĂĄra gamla hvers vegna hĂșn vildi ekki DĂłmkirkjuprestinn. + âĂeim var Ă©g verst er Ă©g unni mestâ sagði GuðrĂșn ĂsvĂfursdĂłttir ĂŸegar Bolli sonur hennar spurði hana hvern eiginmanna hennar hĂșn hefði elskað mest. + +Fyrirmyndir og sögulegur bakgrunnur +Ăegar sagan kom Ășt var viðvörun til lesenda aftan ĂĄ fyrsta bindinu sem var svo Ătrekuð Ă sĂðari bindum verksins: + +Höfundur vill lĂĄta ĂŸess getið að bĂłkin er ekki âsagnfrÊðileg skĂĄldsagaâ, heldur lĂșta persĂłnur hennar, atburðir og stĂll einvörðĂșngu lögmĂĄlum verksins sjĂĄlfs. + +ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸetta er ljĂłst að rĂŠtur sögunnar liggja djĂșpt Ă ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagsveruleika sögutĂmans. + +SögupersĂłnurnar eiga sĂ©r margar fyrirmyndir Ă raunveruleika sögutĂmans. Ăar mĂĄ nefna: + + JĂłn Hreggviðsson - JĂłn Hreggviðsson, bĂłndi ĂĄ Fellsöxl Ă Skilmannahreppi, sĂðar ĂĄ Efri-Reyni Ă Akranesshreppi. + SnĂŠfrĂður ĂslandssĂłl - ĂĂłrdĂs JĂłnsdĂłttir, systir SigrĂðar konu JĂłns VĂdalĂns biskups Ă SkĂĄlholti, og eiginkona MagnĂșsar Sigurðssonar Ă BrÊðratungu er sĂș persĂłna sögutĂmans sem auðveldast er að tengja SnĂŠfrĂði við. Fyrirmyndir hennar eru ĂŸĂł fleiri, t.d. GuðrĂșn ĂsvĂfursdĂłttir og Scarlett O'hara, sögupersĂłna Ă hverfanda hveli. Peter Hallberg bar hana saman við Marie Grubbe Ă sögu J. P. Jacobsens. + Arnas ArnĂŠus - Ărni MagnĂșsson er hans helsta fyrirmynd, ĂŸĂł einnig virðist hafa verið tekið mið af afskiptum SkĂșla MagnĂșssonar, landfĂłgeta, af dönsku einokunarversluninni. + JĂłn Grindvicensis - JĂłn Ălafsson Ășr GrunnavĂk, skrifari Ărna MagnĂșssonar. + MagnĂșs Ă BrÊðratĂșngu - MagnĂșs Sigurðsson Ă BrÊðratungu. + JĂłn Marteinsson - JĂłn Torfason frĂĄ Flatey og JĂłn Marteinsson frĂĄ Hildisey. Einnig hefur JĂłn Eggertsson frĂĄ Ăkrum Ă Skagafirði verið nefndur Ă ĂŸessu sambandi. + Metta kona ArnĂŠusar - Mette Fischer kona Ărna MagnĂșssonar. + HĂłlmfastur Guðmundsson, maður sem var hĂœddur fyrir að selja fisk fyrir snĂŠrisspotta en röngum kaupmanni ĂĄ tĂmum Einokunarverslunarinnar + +Fleiri persĂłnur sögunnar eiga sĂ©r fyrirmyndir Ă raunveruleikanum, t.d. allir ĂŸeir Ăslandskaupmenn sem nefndir eru og Ăœmsar aðrar minni hĂĄttar persĂłnur. + +HalldĂłr notar sĂ©r annĂĄla töluvert. Stundum nĂĄnast orðrĂ©tt, til dĂŠmis lĂœsinguna ĂĄ bruna Kaupinhafnar Ă fimmtĂĄnda kafla ĂŸriðja bindis, sem er tekin Ășr HĂtardalsannĂĄl. Einnig nĂœtir hann sĂ©r annað aðsĂłtt efni eftir föngum en samsamar ĂŸað ĂŸĂł sögunni og fĂŠr ĂŸvĂ ĂŸannig nĂœja merkingu og nĂœtt hlutverk. + +Heimildir + EirĂkur JĂłnsson, 1981. RĂŠtur Ăslandsklukkunnar. Hið Ăslenska bĂłkmenntafĂ©lag, ReykjavĂk. + +Tenglar + MĂn klukka - klukkan ĂŸĂn; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1976 + Guðs miskunn er ĂŸað fyrsta sem deyr Ă vondu ĂĄri; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1976 + Hans nafn lifir Ă stjörnunum; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1977 + Dönsk svipa blakti listilega; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1976 + Ă nĂș loksins að höggva mig, spurði hann glaður; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1977 + Hvar ĂŸĂș nĂĄir að kaupa kĂșt kastaðu ĂŸar til öllu; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1977 + Ăað er eldur Ă Kaupinhafn; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1975 + ĂjĂłnn ĂŸeirra svarlausu; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 2000 + Ăxi skil Ă©g; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1985 + Hver var MagnĂșs Ă BrÊðratungu; 1. grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1945 + Hver var MagnĂșs Ă BrÊðratungu; 2. grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1945 + Kennsluefni um Ăslandsklukkuna; Kennsluvefir Hörpu HreinsdĂłttur + +SkĂĄldsögur eftir HalldĂłr Laxness +Sögulegar skĂĄldsögur +Ăað sem enginn sĂ©r var framlag Ăslands til Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva ĂĄrið 1989. Flytjandi var DanĂel ĂgĂșst Haraldsson. Lag og texti var eftir Valgeir GuðjĂłnsson. Lagið var fyrsta Ăslenska lagið til að hljĂłta engin stig Ă keppninni. + +Framlög Ăslands til Eurovision +SjĂĄlfstĂŠtt fĂłlk er skĂĄldsaga eftir HalldĂłr Laxness sem var gefin Ășt Ă fjĂłrum bindum ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1933-1935: LandnĂĄmsmaður Ăslands, Skuldlaust bĂș, Erfiðir tĂmar og VeltiĂĄr. Seinna meir voru bindin sameinuð Ă eina bĂłk og er sĂș bĂłk nefnd SjĂĄlfstĂŠtt fĂłlk. BĂłkin er ein ĂŸekktasta Ăslenska skĂĄldsagan, hĂșn er kennd ĂĄ framhaldsskĂłlastigi ĂĄ Ăslandi. Sagan er jafnan talin tilheyra fĂ©lagslegri raunsĂŠisstefnu Ă bĂłkmenntafrÊðum og mĂĄ ĂŠtla að hĂșn gerist ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1899-1921 ĂĄ Ăslandi. + +SöguĂŸråður +Sagan fjallar um Guðbjart JĂłnsson, Bjart Ă SumarhĂșsum, fjölskyldu hans og örlög ĂŸeirra. Sagan hefst ĂŸĂł ĂĄ frĂĄsögn um KĂłlumkilla. Guðbjartur vann Ă 18 ĂĄr fyrir hreppstjĂłrann Ă sveitinni meðal annars sem smali, en ĂŸĂĄ hafði hann loks safnað nĂŠgu fĂ© til ĂŸess að kaupa sĂ©r sitt eigið land. Hann tĂłk við landi er hafði verið Ă eyði sökum reimleika. Gunnvör og KĂłlumkilli voru draugar og höfðu tekið sĂ©r ĂŸar bĂłlfestu og rekið fyrrum ĂĄbĂșendur Ă burtu. Bjartur trĂșði ekki ĂĄ drauga og lĂ©t ĂŸað ekki aftra sĂ©r frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að hefja bĂșskap Ă VeturhĂșsum. Hann breytti nafninu ĂĄ bĂŠnum Ă SumarhĂșs og reisti nĂœtt bĂœli. Hann giftist stuttu sĂðar RĂłsu, sem lĂ©st af barnsförum ĂĄri sĂðar. Bjartur var Ăști Ă leit að ĂĄ ĂŸegar RĂłsa lĂ©st. Ăsta SĂłllilja, dĂłttir RĂłsu, rĂ©tt lifði af. Bjartur var mikill kvÊðamaður og lagði ekki mikið Ă nĂștĂmakveðskap, heldur vildi rĂm og hefðbundna bragarhĂŠtti. SĂðari hluti sögunnar fjallar að mestu um Ăstu SĂłllilju. + +Helstu sögupersĂłnur + Bjartur Ă SumarhĂșsum, bĂłndi (Guðbjartur JĂłnsson) + RĂłsa, móðir Ăstu SĂłllilju og fyrsta kona Bjarts + Ăsta SĂłllilja, dĂłttir RĂłsu en aðeins stjĂșpdĂłttir Bjarts, IngĂłlfur Arnarsson var hennar eiginlegi faðir. + JĂłn Guðbjartsson (Nonni) + Helgi Guðbjartsson + Guðmundur Guðbjartsson (Gvendur) + Guðfinna (Finna), seinni kona Bjarts + JĂłn, hreppstjĂłri + RauðsmĂœrarmaddaman + IngĂłlfur Arnarson JĂłnsson, faðir Ăstu + +En auk ĂŸess kemur móðir Finnu, Hallbera, amma Guðbjartssonanna mikið við sögu. + +Eitt og annað + SĂŠnski leikstjĂłrin Ingmar Bergman hafði ĂĄhuga ĂĄ að kvikmynda verk upp Ășr SjĂĄlfstÊðu fĂłlki. Ăannig segir frĂĄ Ă Regn Ă rykið eftir Thor VilhjĂĄlmsson, sem tĂłk viðtal við hann Ă Malmö ĂĄ sjötta ĂĄratug 20. aldar: âĂĂł lĂœsir hann [Ingmar Bergman] ĂĄhuga sĂnum ĂĄ SjĂĄlfstÊðu fĂłlki eftir Laxness. Ărum saman, segir hann: hefur mig langað til að gera kvikmynd byggða ĂĄ fyrri hluta verksins. En ĂŸað vantar peninga. Ăg hef lengi reynt að fĂĄ peninga til ĂŸess en ekki tekist, sagði Bergmanâ. + Talið er að móðir Finnu eigi sĂ©r fyrirmynd à ömmu HalldĂłrs, en persĂłnur lĂkar ömmunni eru tĂðar Ă verkum hans. + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + + RĂłsalundur fĂĄtĂŠktarinnar - föng HalldĂłrs Laxness Ă rÊðu skĂĄldkonunnar ĂĄ ĂtirauðsmĂœri; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1976 + Mynd sem aflvaki skĂĄldskapar; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1990 + Vinstri vĂĄngi - kafli Ășr SjĂĄlfstÊðu fĂłlki; birtist Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1997 + Mikil bĂłk lĂtillar ĂŸjóðar; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1996 + Enskur ĂŸĂœĂ°andi sjĂĄlfstÊðs fĂłlks; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1998 +26. mars er 85. dagur ĂĄrsins (86. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 280 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 752 - StefĂĄn 2. varð pĂĄfi. + 1027 - JĂłhannes 19. pĂĄfi krĂœndi Konråð 2. keisara hins Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis. + 1211 - Alfons 2. varð konungur PortĂșgals. + 1431 - RĂ©ttarhöldin yfir JĂłhönnu af Ărk hĂłfust. + 1489 - Englendingar og SpĂĄnverjar sömdu um að ArthĂșr, elsti sonur Hinriks 8. Englandskonungs, skyldi giftast KatrĂnu af AragĂłnĂu. + 1636 - Utrecht-hĂĄskĂłli var stofnaður Ă Hollandi. + 1687 - ĂlafsvĂk varð löggilt verslunarhöfn með konungsbrĂ©fi. + 1707 - Skoska ĂŸingið var lagt niður. + 1796 - NapolĂ©on Bonaparte tĂłk við stjĂłrn ĂtalĂuhers Frakka Ă Nice. + 1808 - Karl 4. SpĂĄnarkonungur sagði af sĂ©r og Ferdinand 7. sonur hans tĂłk við. + 1871 - ParĂsarkommĂșnan var stofnuð formlega Ă ParĂs. + 1876 - LĂșðurĂŸeytarafĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur var stofnað. Ăað er talin vera fyrsta hljĂłmsveit ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1919 - PĂłstmannafĂ©lag Ăslands var stofnað. + 1920 - Varðskipið ĂĂłr kom til Vestmannaeyja, en hann var fyrsta björgunar- og varðskip Ăslendinga. + 1947 - Knattspyrnusamband Ăslands var stofnað. + 1961 - SovĂ©tmenn endurheimtu leifarnar af geimfarinu SpĂștnik 10 ĂĄsamt hundinum Zvezdochka, sem var um borð. Geimfarinu var skotið upp sama dag. + 1971 - Austur-Pakistan lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ Pakistan og Bangladess var stofnað. + 1973 - Flugslys varð Ă BĂșrfjöllum norðan Langjökuls. Ăar fĂłrst flugvĂ©lin Vor og með henni Björn PĂĄlsson flugmaður og fleiri. + 1977 - Samtökin Focus on the Family voru stofnuð af James Dobson. + 1979 - Anwar Sadat og Menachem Begin undirrituðu friðarsĂĄttmĂĄla Ă HvĂta hĂșsinu Ă Washington. + 1982 - Fyrsta skĂłflustunga var tekin að Vietnam Veterans Memorial Ă Washington-borg. + 1991 - HĂłpur herforingja, undir stjĂłrn Amadou Toumani TourĂ©, gerði stjĂłrnarbyltingu Ă MalĂ og handtĂłk Moussa Traore forseta. + 1991 - Suður-AmerĂkurĂkin ArgentĂna, BrasilĂa, ĂrĂșgvĂŠ og ParagvĂŠ stofnuðu sameiginlegan markað rĂkjanna, Mercosur. + 1995 - SchengensĂĄttmĂĄlinn gekk Ă gildi. + 1996 - AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðurinn samĂŸykkti 10,2 milljarða dala lĂĄn til RĂșsslands til að standa undir efnahagsumbĂłtum. + 1997 - LĂk 39 meðlima Ă nĂœtrĂșarhreyfingarinnar Heaven's Gate fundust Ă KalifornĂu. + 1997 - Sandline-mĂĄlið: Julius Chan sagði af sĂ©r sem forsĂŠtisråðherra PapĂșu NĂœju-GĂneu. + 1998 - Oued Bouaicha-fjöldamorðin ĂĄttu sĂ©r stað Ă AlsĂr. 52 voru myrt með eggvopnum, ĂŸar af 32 ungabörn. + 1999 - Tölvuormurinn Melissa hĂłf að smitast um Internetið. + 2000 - VladimĂr PĂștĂn var kosinn forseti RĂșsslands. + 2002 - SĂŠnska sĂmafyrirtĂŠkið Telia og finnska fyrirtĂŠkið Sonera tilkynntu um samruna. + 2002 - Ăslenska kvikmyndin ReykjavĂk Guesthouse var frumsĂœnd. + 2003 - FĂ©lag lesblindra ĂĄ Ăslandi stofnað. + 2006 - Skotar bönnuðu reykingar ĂĄ öllum opinberum stöðum. + 2010 - 46 fĂłrust ĂŸegar kĂłreska herskipið Cheonan sökk við vesturströnd landsins með 104 um borð. + 2015 - Ăslenska brjĂłstabyltingin hĂłfst ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸrjĂĄr Ăslenskar konur hvöttu kynsystur sĂnar til að mĂŠta Ă Laugardalslaug berar að ofan. + 2017 - Yfir 700 voru handteknir Ă vĂðtĂŠkum mĂłtmĂŠlum gegn stjĂłrn PĂștĂns Ă RĂșsslandi. + 2018 - Yfir 100 rĂșssneskir rĂkiserindrekar Ă 20 löndum voru reknir vegna eitrunar Sergej og Juliu Skripal. + +FĂŠdd + 1874 - Robert Frost, skĂĄld (d. 1963). + 1875 - Syngman Rhee, suðurkĂłreskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1965). + 1893 - Palmiro Togliatti, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1964). + 1911 - Tennessee Williams, bandarĂskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1983). + 1913 - PĂĄl ErdĆs, ungverskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1996). + 1918 - Takashi Kasahara, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1930 - Erlingur E. HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur ĂŸĂœĂ°andi (d. 2011). + 1931 - Leonard Nimoy, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2015). + 1940 - James Caan, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1940 - Nancy Pelosi, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmalamaður. + 1941 - Richard Dawkins, breskur lĂffrÊðingur. + 1943 - Bob Woodward, bandarĂskur blaðamaður. + 1944 - Diana Ross, bandarĂsk söngkona. + 1948 - Richard Tandy, tĂłnlistarmaður (Electric Light Orchestra). + 1948 - Steven Tyler, tĂłnlistarmaður (Aerosmith). + 1949 - Patrick SĂŒskind, ĂŸĂœskur rithöfundur. + 1950 - Martin Short, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1951 - Hafliði ArngrĂmsson, dramatĂșrg og leikhĂșsfrömuður. + 1956 - Haukur HĂłlm, frĂ©ttamaður ĂĄ Stöð 2. + 1957 - JĂłnĂna BenediktsdĂłttir, Ăslensk athafnakona. + 1962 - John Stockton, bandarĂskur körfuknattleiksmaður. + 1968 - James Iha, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (The Smashing Pumpkins og A Perfect Circle). + 1968 - AdĂlson Batista, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1969 - Almir de Souza Fraga, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1972 - VĂkingur KristjĂĄnsson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1972 - Leslie Mann, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1973 - Larry Page, einn af stofnendum Google. + 1979 - Jay Sean, breskur söngvari. + 1980 - Pascal Hens, ĂŸĂœskur handknattleiksmaður. + 1982 - Mikel Arteta, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1985 - Keira Knightley, ensk leikkona. + 1997 - Sara PĂ©tursdĂłttir, Ăslensk söngkona betur ĂŸekkt undir listamannsnafninu Glowie. + +DĂĄin + 1130 - Sigurður JĂłrsalafari, Noregskonungur (f. um 1090). + 1212 - Sancho 1. PortĂșgalskonungur (f. 1154). + 1324 - MarĂa af LĂșxemborg, Frakklandsdrottning, önnur kona Karls 4. (d. 1324). + 1350 - Alfons 11., konungur KastilĂu (f. 1311). + 1378 - GregorĂus 11. pĂĄfi. + 1811 - Ketill JĂłnsson Melstað, danskur lögfrÊðingur (f. 1765). + 1814 - Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, franskur lĂŠknir (f. 1738). + 1827 - Ludwig van Beethoven, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1770). + 1892 - Walt Whitman, bandarĂskt skĂĄld (f. 1819). + 1902 - Cecil Rhodes, breskur landkönnuður (f. 1853). + 1923 - Sarah Bernhardt, frönsk leikkona (f. 1844). + 1926 - Constantin Fehrenbach, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1852). + 1945 - David Lloyd George, forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands (f. 1863). + 1959 - Raymond Chandler, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (f. 1888). + 1990 - Sveinbjörn SigurjĂłnsson, Ăslenskur skĂłlastjĂłri (f. 1899). + 1992 - Rihei Sano, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1912). + 1995 - Ko Takamoro, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1907). + 1996 - David Packard, verkfrÊðingur og annar stofnenda Hewlett-Packard (f. 1912) + 1997 - Marshall Applewhite, stofnandi sĂ©rtrĂșarsöfnuðarins Heaven's Gate (f. 1931). + 2004 - Takeshi Kamo, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1915). + 2005 - Einar Bragi Sigurðsson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi (f. 1921). + 2005 - James Callaghan, forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands (f. 1912). + 2011 - Paul Baran, bandarĂskur verkfrÊðingur (f. 1926). + 2015 - Tomas Tranströmer, sĂŠnskt skĂĄld (f. 1931). + +Mars +Hamas, skammstöfun fyrir Harakat al-Muqawamah al-Islamiyyah (arabĂska: Ăslamska andspyrnuhreyfingin), eru herskĂĄ palestĂnsk mĂșslimasamtök sem starfa aðallega ĂĄ HeimastjĂłrnarsvÊðum PalestĂnumanna. Samtökin stofnuðu stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokk og eru Ă meirihluta ĂĄ ĂŸingi PalestĂnumanna. + +Hamas voru stofnuð af Ahmed Jassin sĂðla ĂĄrs 1987, ĂŸĂĄ sem klofningshreyfing Ășr BrÊðralagi mĂșslima, og helga sig stofnun Ăslamsks rĂkis Ă PalestĂnu. ĂsraelsrĂki, BandarĂkin, EvrĂłpusambandið og fleiri lönd hafa skilgreint samtökin sem hryðjuverkasamtök. ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸetta reka samtökin lĂka Ăœmsa samfĂ©lagsĂŸjĂłnustu svo sem heilsugĂŠslu og skĂłla. + +SöguĂĄgrip +RĂŠtur Hamas liggja hjĂĄ BrÊðralagi mĂșslima, stĂŠrstu og elstu hreyfingu Ăslamista Ă heimi. Ărið 1973 stofnaði Ahmed Jassin, meðlimur Ă BrÊðralaginu, góðgerðarsamtökin Mujama, sem meðal annars rak sjĂșkrahĂșs, barnaheimili og skĂłla. HernĂĄmsstjĂłrn Ăsraela ĂĄ Gasaströndinni hvatti Mujama ĂĄrið 1978 til að sĂŠkja um skrĂĄningu sem góðgerðarfĂ©lag og veitti stofnuninni fjĂĄrhagslega styrki. Stefna Ăsraela ĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma var sĂș að styðja Ăslamskar hreyfingar ĂĄ hernumdu svÊðunum til ĂŸess að kljĂșfa palestĂnsku ĂŸjóðernishreyfinguna, sem var ĂŸĂĄ undir stjĂłrn veraldlegra flokka Ă Frelsissamtökum PalestĂnu (PLO). + +Ă nĂunda ĂĄratugnum fĂłru Mujama-menn Ă sĂauknum mĂŠli að beita ofbeldi gegn hlutum sem ĂŸeir ĂĄlitu ekki samrĂŠmast ĂslamstrĂș, meðal annars kvikmyndahĂșsum, veitingahĂșsum sem buðu upp ĂĄ ĂĄfengi og spilavĂtum. Ăetta leiddi til ĂŸess að Ăsraelar hĂŠttu stuðningi við samtökin og lĂ©tu ĂĄrið 1984 handtaka Jassin og tĂłlf samverkamenn hans, auk ĂŸess sem vopnahirsla ĂŸeirra var gerð upptĂŠk. + +Ărið 1987 stofnaði Jassin formlega Hamas-samtökin ĂĄsamt öðrum Ăslamistum. Tilgangurinn með stofnun samtakanna var að gera meðlimum BrÊðralags mĂșslima kleift að berjast gegn Ăsraelum Ă fyrstu intifödunni, uppreisn PalestĂnumanna gegn Ăsraelsku hernĂĄmi sem stóð frĂĄ 1987 til 1993. Ă stofnsĂĄttmĂĄla Hamas, sem var gerður Ă ĂĄgĂșst 1988, var boðað að ĂslamstrĂș skyldi tortĂma Ăsrael og að öll PalestĂna vĂŠri Ăslamskt land sem mĂșslimar gĂŠtu aldrei gefið eftir. Ă tĂunda ĂĄratugnum mĂłtmĂŠltu Hamas-samtökin ĂslĂłarsamkomulaginu sem leiðtogar PLO gerðu við stjĂłrn Ăsraels Ă viðleitni til að leysa Ășr deilum ĂŸjóðanna. + +Ăegar PersaflĂłastrĂðið braust Ășt með innrĂĄs Ăraks Ă KĂșveit ĂĄrið 1990 lĂœsti Yasser Arafat, leiðtogi PLO, yfir stuðningi við Saddam Hussein, forseta Ăraks. Hamas-samtökin hvöttu aftur ĂĄ mĂłti bÊði Ăraka og BandarĂkjamenn til ĂŸess að draga hersveitir sĂnar burt frĂĄ KĂșveit. Ăetta leiddi til ĂŸess að margir fjĂĄrhagslegir bakhjarlar PLO, bÊði Ă SĂĄdi-ArabĂu og Ă Ăran, hĂŠttu stuðningi við ĂŸau samtök og fĂłru ĂŸess Ă stað að styðja Hamas. + +Með auknum erlendum fjĂĄrstuðningi gĂĄtu Hamas-samtökin að miklu leyti tekið við af hlutverki PLO Ă velferðarmĂĄlum. Ăetta leiddi til ĂŸess að vinsĂŠldir Hamas jukust grĂðarlega meðal palestĂnskrar alĂŸĂœĂ°u. Hamas-samtökin vörðu miklum hluta fjĂĄr sĂns til uppbyggingar samfĂ©lagsĂŸjĂłnustu Ă PalestĂnu samhliða ĂŸvĂ sem samtökin stóðu fyrir ĂĄframhaldandi ĂĄrĂĄsum gegn ĂsraelsrĂki. ĂĂŠtlað er að frĂĄ 1993 til 2009 hafi rĂșmlega 500 manns lĂĄtist Ă um 350 ĂĄrĂĄsum sem Hamas-samtökin stóðu fyrir. + +Hamas-samtökin komust til valda ĂĄ Gasaströndinni ĂĄrið 2007 eftir að ĂŸau unnu sigur Ă ĂŸingkosningum og unnu sĂðan stutt strĂð gegn Fatah-hreyfingunni, sem styður MahmĂșd Abbas, forseta PalestĂnu og leiðtoga PLO. UmsĂĄtursĂĄstand hefur rĂkt ĂĄ Gasaströndinni frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að Hamas komst ĂŸar til valda ĂŸar sem samtökin neita að sameinast palestĂnsku heimastjĂłrninni ĂĄ Vesturbakkanum og Ăsraelar råða yfir lofthelgi, strandlengju og vöruflutningum til svÊðisins. + +HernaðarĂĄtök við Ăsrael frĂĄ 2008 +PalestĂnumenn hafa Ătrekað mĂłtmĂŠlt og barist gegn lokun Ăsraela ĂĄ Gasaströndinni frĂĄ valdatöku Hamas, sem hefur margsinnis leitt til blóðugra ĂĄtaka. Ărið 2008 kom til ĂĄtaka eftir að Hamas-liðar skutu eldflaugum ĂĄ Ăsrael frĂĄ Gasaströndinni, sem leiddi til ĂĄtaka ĂŸar sem 1.100 PalestĂnumenn og 13 Ăsraelar lĂ©tust. + +Ărið 2012 gerðu Ăsraelar loftĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ Gasaströndina til að råða af dögum Ahmed Jabari, leiðtoga hernaðarvĂŠngs Hamas. Eftir vikulöng ĂĄtök hafði Jabari verið drepinn ĂĄsamt 150 PalestĂnumönnum og sex Ăsraelsmönnum. + +GasastrĂðið 2014 hĂłfst eftir að Hamas-liðar rĂŠndu ĂŸremur Ăsraelskum unglingum og myrtu ĂŸĂĄ ĂĄ Gasaströndinni. Ăsraelsher hĂłf viðbragðsaðgerðir ĂĄ Vesturbakkanum ĂŸar sem 350 PalestĂnumenn voru handteknir en Hamas brĂĄst við með ĂŸvĂ að skjĂłta eldflaugum frĂĄ Gasaströndinni ĂĄ Ăsrael. Ăessi ĂĄtök entust Ă sjö vikur og að ĂŸeim loknum höfðu 2.200 PalestĂnumenn og 73 Ăsraelar fallið Ă valinn. + +Ăann 7. oktĂłber 2023 gerði Hamas ĂłvĂŠnta stĂłrĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ Ăsrael með mikilli flugskeytahrĂð ĂŸar sem um 250 Ăsraelskir rĂkisborarar lĂ©tust. Fjöldi Hamas-liða braust jafnframt Ă gegnum girðingarnar Ă kringum Gasa og réðst ĂĄ bĂŠi og ĂŸorp Ăsraela við landamĂŠrin. Meðal annars gerðu liðsmenn Hamas ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ tĂłnlistarhĂĄtĂð Ă suðurhluta Ăsraels og drĂĄpu ĂŸar um 260 Ăłbreytta borgara. + +BenjamĂn NetanjahĂș, forsĂŠtisråðherra Ăsraels, lĂœsti yfir strĂðsĂĄstandi Ă kjölfar ĂĄrĂĄsanna. + +Tenglar + VefsĂða Hamas + +TilvĂsanir + +Hamas +PalestĂnskir stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkar +Langafasta, einnig kölluð sjöviknafasta, hefst ĂĄ Ăskudegi, miðvikudegi Ă 7. viku fyrir pĂĄska. Föstuinngangur stendur frĂĄ sunnudeginum ĂĄ undan og getur borið upp ĂĄ 1. febrĂșar til 7. mars og fara ĂŸeir vĂðast hvar Ă hinni vestrĂŠnu kirkju fram með fögnuði fyrir föstutĂmann. Ă Ăslandi er Ă dag er ekki haldið upp ĂĄ sunnudaginn lengur en hann hefur ĂŸĂł verið tengdur ĂskulĂœĂ°sdegi ĂŸjóðkirkjunnar, haldið er aftur ĂĄ mĂłti upp ĂĄ mĂĄnudaginn með Bolludegi, ĂŸriðjudaginn með Sprengidegi og svo hefst Langafasta ĂĄ miðvikudeginum með Ăskudegi. + +Siður er ĂĄ Ăslandi að ĂĄ lönguföstu sĂ©u PassĂusĂĄlmar HallgrĂms PĂ©turssonar lesnir Ă RĂkisĂștvarpinu. + +Uppruni +Lönguföstu kristinna mĂĄ rekja til 40 daga föstu Gyðinga fyrir pĂĄska. HeilbrigðissjĂłnarmið virðast hafa råðið miklu um föstusiði eftir landsvÊðum og sĂðar gildi ĂŸess meðal hirðingja að fella ekki lambfylltar ĂŠr sem ĂĄttu að bera ĂĄ pĂĄskunum. Gyðingar skipuðu ĂŸvĂ bann við kjötĂĄti sjö vikurnar fyrir PĂĄska og er ĂŸað frumgerð Lönguföstu eins og hĂșn er tĂmasett Ă dag. PĂĄskarnir voru ĂŸvĂ uppskeruhĂĄtĂð og nĂœfĂŠddum lömbum slĂĄtrað við mikil hĂĄtĂðarhöld. PĂĄskalambið sem trĂșartĂĄkn er frĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma runnið. Ă dögum Krists voru gyðingar ekki lengur hirðingjar en pĂĄskalambið lifði ĂĄfram sem trĂșartĂĄkn en Ă stað ĂŸess voru ĂŸeir orðin akuryrkjuĂŸjóð og ĂŸvĂ var hĂĄtĂð ĂłsĂœrða brauðsins bĂșin að bĂŠtast við tĂĄkn PĂĄskanna. + +PĂĄskafasta kristinna manna var upphaflega ekki lengri en föstudagurinn langi og laugardagurinn eftir eða sĂĄ tĂmi sem JesĂșs hvĂldi Ă gröf sinni. Um miðja 3. öld var ĂŸĂł vĂða orðið siður meðal kristinna safnaða að fast eina til tvĂŠr vikur fyrir PĂĄska. En ĂĄ fyrri hluta 4. aldar varð 40 daga fastan råðandi. Með ĂŸvĂ var föstutĂmi gyðinga tekin upp að nĂœju en ĂŸĂĄ undir ĂŸeim formerkjum að JesĂșs hafi fastað 40 daga Ă eyðimörkinni og MĂłses dvalist jafnlengi ĂĄ SĂnaĂfjalli. Um miðja 5. öld ĂștskĂœrði LeĂł pĂĄfi 1. tilgang lönguföstu sem að hĂșn ĂŠtti að undirbĂșa sĂĄlina fyrir pĂĄskaundrið með innri hreinsun og helgun. HĂșn var ĂŸvĂ tĂmi iðrunar fyrir drĂœgðar syndir. SjĂĄlf fastan var mikilvĂŠgasti ĂŸĂĄttur ĂŸessa undirbĂșnings. + +Föstuhald var misstrangt Ă kaĂŸĂłlskum sið. Kjöt var efst ĂĄ bannlistanum, ĂŸĂĄ egg og smjör, svo fiskur, nĂŠst grĂŠnmeti og mjĂłlkurvörur en ströngust var fasta upp ĂĄ vatn og brauð. Mismunandi var hve mikið eða hve oft mĂĄtti neyta ĂŸessa matar en fasta er ekki megrun nĂ© svelti heldur aðhald og agi Ă matarÊði. + +Föstuinngangur +Föstuinngangur er upphaf langaföstu sem stendur yfir ĂŸrjĂĄ daga fyrir öskudag, frĂĄ sunnudegi til ĂŸriðjudags. Hann fer vĂðast fram með fögnuði fyrir föstutĂmann. Gleðskapur við upphaf föstunnar ĂĄ sĂ©r fornar rĂŠtur og hefur runnið saman við vorhĂĄtĂðir Ă Suður-EvrĂłpu. Algengt var að stĂ©ttir samfĂ©lagsins hĂŠfu föstu hver sinn dag Ă föstuinngang og gat ĂŸvĂ orðið samfeld kjötkveðjuhĂĄtĂð Ă nokkra daga. Við siðaskiptin var gerð hörð hrĂð að ĂŸessum siðum og til dĂŠmis bannaði Danakonungur föstugangshlaup Ă löndum sĂnum ĂĄ 17. öld en ekkert er vitað um slĂka skemmtun ĂĄ Ăslandi fyrr en ĂĄ 18. öld. Heimildir geta um matarveislur ĂĄ ĂŸriðjudaginn, sprengidagskvöld, og telja mĂĄ vĂst að saga ĂŸeirra nĂĄi aftur til kaĂŸĂłlskra tĂma. Ekki var haldið upp ĂĄ mĂĄnudaginn fyrr en ĂĄ 19. öld með Bolludeginum en miðvikudagurinn hafi breyst Ășr iðrunardegi Ă skemmtidag eftir siðaskiptin ĂĄ 16. öld. + +Tengt efni + Bolludagur + Sprengidagur + Ăskudagur + +Heimildir + + + + +Dagatal +Kristnar hĂĄtĂðir +HrĂŠranlegar hĂĄtĂðir +Valur SnĂŠr Gunnarsson (f. 26. ĂĄgĂșst 1976) er Ăslenskur rithöfundur, blaðamaður, ritstjĂłri og fyrrum söngvari rokkhljĂłmsveitarinnar RĂkið sem flutti pĂłlitĂskt rokk. + +Ărið 2000 gaf hann Ășt sĂłlĂłplötu, ReykjavĂk er köld, ĂŸar sem hann söng lög eftir Leonard Cohen Ă eigin ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu. Ărið 2003 gaf RĂkið Ășt fyrstu og einu plötu sĂna, Seljum allt, með textum eftir Val. Valur var ĂŸekktur fyrir Ăłvenjulega sviðsframkomu ĂŸar sem hann leitaði sĂ©r fyrirmynda Ă pönkinu og meðal Ăłheflaðra rokkara. Ăegar Valur kom fram ĂĄsamt RĂkinu var hann jafnan klĂŠddur hermannajakka, nokkrum nĂșmerum of litlum. + +Valur var ritstjĂłri ReykjavĂk Grapevine til ĂĄrsins 2005 og hefur eftir ĂŸað fengist við skriftir og blaðamennsku, m.a. ĂĄ DV og FrĂ©ttablaðinu. Ărið 2004 gaf hann Ășt ljóðasafn ĂĄ ensku, A Fool for Believing (Owings Mills, Md.: Watermark, 2004). + +Hann hefur gefið Ășt tvĂŠr skĂĄldsögur, Konungur norðursins: Harmsaga Ilkka Hampurilainen. 1 sem kom Ășt 2007 (MĂĄl og menning) og SĂðasti elskhuginn sem kom Ășt 2013 (Ormstunga), og hafa ĂŸĂŠr båðar fengið góða dĂłma. Ă 2015 gaf hann Ășt stutta ĂŠvisögu, Paul Luchterhand 1873-1923, og ĂĄrið 2017 gaf hann Ășt Ărninn og fĂĄlkinn: SkĂĄldsaga (MĂĄl og menning). + +Ăslenskir söngvarar +Ăslenskir rithöfundar +Ăslenskir blaðamenn +PassĂusĂĄlmarnir eru sĂĄlmar eftir HallgrĂm PĂ©tursson, sem hann orti ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1656-1659. Ăeir teljast vera höfuðverk hans og hafa verið hluti af pĂĄskahefð Ăslendinga um margra alda skeið. SĂĄlmarnir eru 50 talsins og Ă ĂŸeim er pĂslarsaga Krists rakin af mikilli innlifun. Ăeir hafa komið Ășt ĂĄ Ăslensku oftar en 80 sinnum og hafa verið ĂŸĂœddir ĂĄ fjöldamörg önnur tungumĂĄl. SĂĄlmarnir eru fluttir Ă RĂkisĂștvarpinu ĂĄ föstunni ĂĄr hvert, og hafa einnig verið fluttir Ă heild sinni ĂĄ Föstudaginn langa Ă HallgrĂmskirkju sĂðan hĂșn var vĂgð. + +SĂ©ra Hjörleifur ĂĂłrðarson ĂĄ ValĂŸjĂłfsstað (d. 1786 um nĂrĂŠtt) ĂŸĂœddi PassĂusĂĄlma HallgrĂms ĂĄ latĂnu, og var sĂș ĂŸĂœĂ°ing gefin Ășt Ă Kaupmannahöfn 1785, og nefndist: Quinquaginta psalmi passionales. FormĂĄla PassĂusĂĄlmanna lĂœkur með orðunum Vale pie lector (latĂna: âSĂŠll, guðhrĂŠddi lesandiâ eða âVertu sĂŠll góði lesandiâ). + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + Konungur PassĂusĂĄlmanna. Dr. MagnĂșs JĂłnsson prĂłfessor, Kirkjuritið 9. tbl. 1. desember 1943, bls. 331â344. + PassĂusĂĄlmarnir PassĂusĂĄlmarnir af Snerpuvefnum + +Ăslensk ritverk +SĂĄlmar +RĂkisĂștvarpið ohf. (skammstafað RĂV) er opinbert hlutafĂ©lag staðsett ĂĄ Ăslandi, sem hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄrið 1930 og sĂ©r um Ăștsendingar ĂĄ Ăștvarpi og sjĂłnvarpi. ĂtvarpsstjĂłri frĂĄ 2020 er StefĂĄn EirĂksson. + +Ăað sendir Ășt eina sjĂłnvarpsstöð sem heitir SjĂłnvarpið en er oft Ă daglegu tali kölluð Stöð 1 eða RĂV. Ăað rekur ĂŸrjĂĄr Ăștvarpsstöðvar, RĂĄs 1 sem einbeitir sĂ©r að dagskrĂĄrgerð um menningu af Ăœmsum toga, RĂĄs 2 sem hefur ĂŸað verksvið að fjalla um tĂłnlist, dĂŠgurmĂĄl og fleira Ă ĂŸeim dĂșr og RondĂł sem sendir stafrĂŠnt Ășt ĂĄ höfuðborgarsvÊðinu og spilar klassĂska tĂłnlist og djass allan sĂłlarhringinn. Einnig sendir ungmennaĂŸjĂłnustan RĂV NĂșll Ășt tĂłnlist ĂĄ netinu allan sĂłlarhringinn. + +Einnig starfrĂŠkir RĂV fjĂłrar deildir ĂĄ landsbyggðinni sem sinna frĂ©ttaĂŸjĂłnustu ĂĄ sĂnum svÊðum og senda Ășt staðbundna dagskrĂĄ ĂĄ vissum tĂmum, deildirnar eru ĂĄ Ăsafirði, Akureyri, Egilsstöðum og Selfossi. Ăar að auki rekur RĂkisĂștvarpið frĂ©tta- og dagskrĂĄrvefinn ruv.is og textavarpið. RĂkisĂștvarpið er fjĂĄrmagnað með auglĂœsingum en einkum framlagi Ășr rĂkissjóði. Ăður var innheimt afnotagjald sem öllum eigendum sjĂłnvarps- og ĂștvarpstĂŠkja bar skylda til að greiða en afnotagjöldin voru afnumin ĂĄrið 2009 og upp tekinn nefskattur sem ĂĄ að renna Ăłskiptur Ă reksturinn. + +Ătvarp +RĂkisĂștvarpið hĂłf Ăștsendingar 20. desember 1930, en fyrir ĂŸann tĂma höfðu verið starfrĂŠktar einkareknar Ăștvarpsstöðvar Ă ReykjavĂk og ĂĄ Akureyri, sĂș fyrsta var H.f. Ătvarp. Fyrstu ĂĄr Ăștvarpsins var bara sent Ășt ĂĄ einni rĂĄs og Ă nokkra klukkutĂma ĂĄ kvöldi. Fyrsti ĂștvarpstjĂłrinn var JĂłnas Ăorbergsson. RĂkisĂștvarpið ĂŸurfta að fara eftir ĂĄkveðnum Ăștvarpreglum svo sem að rĂŠkta Ăslenska tungu og sögu Ăslands. Einnig ĂŸurftu ĂŸeir að vera með einhverskonar frĂ©ttir og lĂĄta Ă ljĂłs mismunandi skoðanir fyrir fĂłlk til umhugsunar. Ăað ĂŸurfti lĂka að huga að hafa skemmtiefni fyrir almenning og einnig eitthvað uppbyggilegt barnaefni fyrir krakka ĂĄ öllum aldri. Ătvarpið hĂłf rekstur sinn Ă AusturstrĂŠti 12, ĂŸvĂ hĂșsi sem nĂș er English Pub. Ărið eftir stofnun flutti ĂŸað Ă LandssĂmahĂșsið við Austurvöll, ĂŸar sem ĂŸað var til hĂșsa til ĂĄrsins 1959. ĂĂĄ flutti Ăștvarpið ĂĄ SkĂșlagötu 4, hĂșs sem Ă dag er ĂŸekkt sem SjĂĄvarĂștvegshĂșsið. Ărið 1987 flutti Ăștvarpið Ă nĂșverandi hĂșsnÊði, ĂtvarpshĂșsið Ă Efstaleiti. Ă ĂĄgĂșst 1982 hĂłfust Ăștsendingar RĂVAK ĂĄ Akureyri, en sĂș deild hafði bÊði umsjĂłn með að skaffa deildum fyrir sunnan frĂ©tta- og dagskrĂĄrefni, sem og svÊðisbundnar Ăștsendingar með ĂĄherslu ĂĄ mĂĄlefni svÊðis. Ărið 1983 hĂłf svo RĂĄs 2 Ăștsendingar sĂnar. Ă fyrstu ĂĄtti sĂș stöð að vera fyrir yngri kynslóðina t.d fyrir unglingana â ĂŸar voru t.d. spilaðir poppĂŸĂŠttir og nĂștĂmalegra efni en ĂĄ RĂĄs 1 â en Ă dag er dagskrĂĄin mjög fjölbreytt. Sama mĂĄ reyndar segja um RĂĄs 1, en ĂŸĂł eru gerðar ĂŸar meiri kröfur um að efni sĂ© meira unnið, meira lagt Ă dagskrĂĄrgerðina. DagskrĂĄrfĂłlk ĂĄ RĂĄs 1 keppist við að vinna vandað efni af öllu tagi. Ăar mĂĄ heyra reglulega leikritaflutning. ĂtvarpsleikhĂșsið hefur starfað reglubundið frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1947 og sendir jafnan Ășt ĂĄ RĂĄs 1, ĂŸĂł stundum sĂ©u einnig Ăștsendingar frĂĄ leikhĂșsinu ĂĄ RĂĄs 2. Ă RĂĄs 1 er sendir Ășt reglulega tĂłnleikar frĂĄ SinfĂłnĂuhljĂłmsveit Ăslands. Eldra fĂłlk hlustar mikið ĂĄ RĂĄs 1 en ĂŸað er vĂðari hlustendahĂłpur ĂĄ RĂĄs 2. 17. jĂșnĂ 1996 hĂłf RĂkisĂștvarpið Ăștsendingar ĂĄ netinu. Sumarið 2004 hĂłf RĂV tilraunaĂștsendingar Ăștvarpsstöðvarinnar RondĂł, sem leikur klassĂska tĂłnlist og djass Ă Ăłkynntri sjĂĄlfvirkri dagskrĂĄ. Ă mai 2018 bĂŠttist svo ungmennaĂŸjĂłnustan RĂșv NĂșll Ă flĂłruna, Ăștsending ĂĄ netinu sem er Ă gangi allann sĂłlarhringinn, megni tĂmans er send Ășt Ăłkynnt tĂłnlist en ĂĄ kvöldin eru sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂŠttir. Ăað mĂŠtti ĂŸvĂ skilgreina RĂV nĂșll streymið sem blöndu af sjĂłnvarps- og Ăștvarpsstöð, ĂŸĂł stofnunin sjĂĄlf skilgreinir ĂŸjĂłnustuna sem vefsĂðu. + +SjĂłnvarp +Aðalgrein: SjĂłnvarpið. +SjĂłnvarpið hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂŸann 30. september ĂĄrið 1966. + +Almennt + +SjĂłnvarpið og Ăștvarpið eru nĂș Ă sama hĂșsi eða frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 2000 við Efstaleiti 1. RĂkisĂștvarpið er eini fjölmiðillinn hĂ©r ĂĄ landi sem leiðbeinir starfsmönnum um Ăslenskt mĂĄl og hefur markað sĂ©r stefnu Ă ĂŸeim mĂĄlum. + +ĂtvarpsstjĂłri sĂðan 2020 er StefĂĄn EirĂksson og hefur hann ĂŸað hlutverk að annast rekstur og fjĂĄrmĂĄl rĂkisĂștvarpsins. ĂtvarpsstjĂłri gegnir starfi sĂnu Ă fimm ĂĄr Ă senn en ĂŸĂĄ skipar menntamĂĄlaråðherra nĂœjan. + +Ătlunarverk rĂkisĂștvarpsins samkvĂŠmt vef ĂŸeirra er að vera Ă fararbroddi Ăslenskra fjölmiðla með ĂŸvĂ að bjóða landsmönnum fjölbreytta og vandaða dagskrĂĄ Ă samrĂŠmi við menningar- og lĂœĂ°rÊðishlutverk sitt. + +Með lögum sem sett voru 23. janĂșar 2007 var RĂkisĂștvarpinu breytt Ă opinbert hlutafĂ©lag. Mikil óånĂŠgja var um frumvarpið meðal stjĂłrnarandstöðunnar sem að beitti mĂĄlĂŸĂłfi til ĂŸess að tefja framgöngu ĂŸess en yfir 100 klukkustundir fĂłru Ă umrÊður. Frumvarpið var ĂĄ endanum samĂŸykkt með 29 atkvÊðum gegn 21, 13 ĂŸingmenn voru fjarstaddir og tĂłk ĂŸað gildi 1. aprĂl 2007. + +Miklir niðurskurðir voru hjĂĄ RĂkisĂștvarpinu frĂĄ 2008. Almennrar óånĂŠgju gĂŠtti með uppsagnahrinu Ă desember 2013 og var efnt til mĂłtmĂŠla fyrir utan ĂștvarpshĂșsið og fundar Ă HĂĄskĂłlabĂĂłi Ă kjölfarið ĂŸar sem fulltrĂșar fjölda aðila Ă samfĂ©laginu fordĂŠmdu aðgerðina. + +Markmið +Meginmarkmið RĂkisĂștvarpsins eru samkvĂŠmt Ăștvarpslögum: + + Að vera vettvangur og hvati lĂœĂ°rÊðislegrar umrÊðu + Að endurspegla Ăslenska menningu og stuðla að varðveislu tungunnar + Að upplĂœsa og frÊða landsmenn um Ăslensk og erlend mĂĄlefni + Að vera vettvangur fyrir nĂœsköpun Ă dagskrĂĄrgerð + Að efla dagskrĂĄrgerð utan höfuðborgarsvÊðisins + Að tryggja öfluga dreifingu dagskrĂĄrefnis + Að varðveita dagskrĂĄrefni fyrir komandi kynslóðir + Að standa vörð um öryggishlutverk sitt. + +ĂtvarpsstjĂłrar + +SjĂĄ grein: ĂtvarpsstjĂłri + + JĂłnas Ăorbergsson (1930-1953) + Sigurður ĂĂłrðarson (settur) (1950-1952) + VilhjĂĄlmur Ă. GĂslason (1953-1967) + AndrĂ©s Björnsson (1968-1986) + MarkĂșs Ărn Antonsson (1985-1991) + Heimir Steinsson (1991-1996) + PĂ©tur Guðfinnsson (settur) (1996-1997) + MarkĂșs Ărn Antonsson (1998-2005) + PĂĄll MagnĂșsson (2005-2013) + MagnĂșs Geir ĂĂłrðarson (2014-2019) + StefĂĄn EirĂksson (2020â) + +Tenglar + FrĂ©ttavefur og vefsĂða RĂkisĂștvarpsins + Lög um RĂkisĂștvarpið + Lög um RĂkisĂștvarpið ohf. + +Heimildir + http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20060522223656/www.ruv.is/heim/upplysingar/um/ + http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20060522230755/www.ruv.is/heim/upplysingar/um/stefna/ + http://mbl.is/mm/frett.html?nid=1248536 + http://okkarruv.blogspot.com + http://www.bjorn.is/pistlar/2005/09/04/nr/3247 + Ălund gagnvart RĂșv + RĂkisĂștvarpið hf., skoðun Verslunarråðs Ăslands + Hið heilaga strĂð gegn RĂV, Gunnar HĂłlmsteinn ĂrsĂŠlsson + Hin ĂĄrlega atlaga, Ărni Heimir IngĂłlfsson + KaldhÊðnislegt ĂĄstar- og haturssamband við RĂkisĂștvarpið, eftir Ăla Björn KĂĄrason 12. september 2012 + RĂkisĂștvarpinu ohf. blÊðir Ășt, eftir Ăli Björn KĂĄrason 17. jĂșlĂ 2013 + +TilvĂsanir + +RĂkisĂștvarpið +Ăslenskir fjölmiðlar +Opinber hlutafĂ©lög +Ăslenskar Ăștvarpstöðvar +EðlisfrÊði er sĂș grein nĂĄttĂșruvĂsindanna sem fjallar um samhengi efnis, orku, tĂma og rĂșms og beitir vĂsindalegum aðferðum við hönnun lĂkana, sem setja nĂĄttĂșrufyrirbĂŠri Ă stĂŠrðfrÊðilegan bĂșning. EðlisfrÊðingar rannsaka meðal annars vĂxlverkun efnis og geislunar og samhengi efnis og orku, tĂma og rĂșms til ĂŸess að skilja hvernig alheimurinn virkar. + +EðlisfrÊðin skĂœrir efni ĂŸannig að ĂŸað sĂ© samsett Ășr frumeindum, sem eru samsettar Ășr kjarneindum, sem aftur eru gerðar Ășr kvörkum. Efni og orka eru Ă raun sama fyrirbĂŠrið samkvĂŠmt afstÊðiskenningunni. Geislun er skĂœrð með ljĂłseindum og/eða rafsegulbylgjum (tvĂeðli). LögmĂĄl eðlisfrÊðinnar eru flest sett fram sem stĂŠrðfrÊðijöfnur, yfirleitt sem lĂnulegt samband tveggja stĂŠrða, eða sem 1. eða 2. stigs deildajöfnur. + +NĂștĂmaeðlisfrÊði reynir að sameina megingreinar eðlisfrÊðinnar, rafsegulfrÊði (rafsegulkrafturinn), ĂŸyngdaraflsfrÊði (ĂŸyngdarkrafturinn) og kjarneðlisfrÊði (sterki og veiki kjarnakrafturinn) Ă eina allsherjarkenningu. + +Helstu greinar eðlisfrÊðinnar +EðlisfrÊðinni mĂĄ skipta grĂłflega Ă kjarneðlisfrÊði, ĂŸĂ©tteðlisfrÊði, atĂłmfrÊði, stjarneðlisfrÊði og hagnĂœtta eðlisfrÊði. Ăessar greinar hafa svo fjölda sĂ©rhĂŠfðra undirgreina, eins og öreindafrÊði, safneðlisfrÊði, sameindaeðlisfrÊði, ljĂłsfrÊði, skammtafrÊði, rafgasfrÊði, geimeðlisfrÊði og klassĂska aflfrÊði. Ăessar greinar vinna Ășt frĂĄ nokkrum grundvallarkenningum, eins og afstÊðiskenningunni, kenningunni um miklahvell, staðallĂkaninu, samĂŸĂŠttingarkenningunni og ofurstrengjafrÊði. + +FrĂĄ 20. öld hafa rannsĂłknarsvið eðlisfrÊðinnar orðið sĂ©rhĂŠfðari og flestir eðlifrÊðingar Ă dag vinna allan sinn feril ĂĄ ĂŸröngu sĂ©rsviði. FrÊðimenn sem vinna ĂĄ mörgum sviðum, eins og Albert Einstein og Lev Landau, eru sĂfellt sjaldgĂŠfari. + + +RaunvĂsindi +Spil eða leikur er athöfn ĂŠtluð til að skemmta einum eða fleiri leikmönnum. Leiki mĂĄ skilgreina Ășt frĂĄ a) markmiðum sem leikmönnum er ĂŠtlað að nĂĄ, og b) ĂŸeim reglum sem leikmenn verða að fylgja. Sumir leikir eru bara fyrir einn leikmann, en yfirleitt eru ĂŸeir ĂŠtlaðir fleiri leikmönnum sem keppa sĂn ĂĄ milli. Yfirleitt ĂŸurfa leikmenn að taka ĂĄkvarðanir sem hafa ĂĄhrif ĂĄ velgengni ĂŸeirra Ă leiknum, ĂĄkvarðanirnar ĂŸurfa ĂŸĂł að vera teknar Ă samrĂŠmi við settar reglur. Ăað kallast yfirleitt svindl ef leikmaður fylgir ekki reglunum Ă athöfnum sĂnum, og talað er um að leikmaður hafi rangt við. + +FrĂĄ örĂłfi alda hafa menn leikið leiki, sĂ©r og öðrum til skemmtunar. Fjölmargar tegundir leikja hafa orðið til; nokkrar ĂŸeirra eru listaðar neðar ĂĄ sĂðunni. + +Heimspekingurinn Ludwig Wittgenstein fĂŠrði rök fyrir ĂŸvĂ Ă riti sĂnu, Philosophische Untersuchungen (RannsĂłknum Ă heimspeki), að hugtakið âleikurâ yrði ekki skilgreint með einföldum hĂŠtti, heldur yrði að lĂta svo ĂĄ að einungis vĂŠri hĂŠgt að skilgreina hugtakið með fjölda mismunandi skilgreininga sem deila einhverjum lĂkindum. + +Ămsar tegundir leikja + Ăgiskunarleikir + Barnaleikir + BĂlaleikir + Borðspil + Drykkjuleikir + FjĂĄrhĂŠttuspil + Hlutverkaleikir + ĂĂŸrĂłttaleikir + Orðaleikir + PartĂleikir + PĂłstleikir + PĂșsluspil + Ratleikir + RökĂŸrautir + Spunaspil + Spurningaleikir + StĂŠrðfrÊðileikir + Teningaspil + Tilviljunarleikir + Tölvuleikir + +Tengt efni + Leikur + +Tenglar + Eigum við að slĂĄ Ă slag?; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1957 + Að leika sĂ©r saman; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1976 + +Spil +Tölvuleikur er hvers kyns leikur sem leikinn er Ă tölvu eða leikjatölvu. Ăeir eru margs konar; spilakassaleikir, sjĂłnvarpsleikir, textaleikir, netleikir og herkĂŠnskuleikir hafa t.d. verið vinsĂŠlar tegundir. Upp ĂĄ sĂðkastið hafa tölvuleikir Ă auknum mĂŠli verið notaðir til auglĂœsinga og Ă stafrĂŠnni list. + +VĂ©lbĂșnaður + +Tölvuleikir eru spilaðir ĂĄ Ăœmiskonar vĂ©lbĂșnaði. Algengustu gerðir eru heimilistölvur eða leikjatölvur. Aðrar gerðir af vĂ©lbĂșnaði eru handleikjatölvur eins og Nintendo DS leikjatölvan eða spilakassar sem eru sĂ©rstaklega hannaðir til ĂŸess að spila tölvuleiki. Ă sĂðustu ĂĄrum hefur sĂș ĂŸrĂłun ĂĄtt sĂ©r stað að raftĂŠki sem åður fyrr notuðust ekki við hugbĂșnað hafa Ă sĂfellt meiri mĂŠli notast við hugbĂșnaðarlausnir. Ăar af leiðandi er hĂŠgt að spila tölvuleiki ĂĄ enn fleiri miðlum en åður. Sem dĂŠmi um vĂ©lbĂșnað sem getur spilað tölvuleiki en er ekki sĂ©rhannaður til ĂŸess eru farsĂmar, lĂłfatölvur, grafĂskar reiknivĂ©lar, GPS-tĂŠki, MP3-spilarar, stafrĂŠnar myndavĂ©lar og Ășr. + +Flokkar + +Tölvuleikir eru eins og bĂŠkur, bĂĂłmyndir og tĂłnlist oft flokkaðir niður Ă mismunandi gerðir. Algengast er að flokka tölvuleiki eftir ĂŸvĂ hvernig ĂŸeir eru spilaðir lĂkt og Ă ĂŠvintĂœraleiki, skotleiki, bardagaleiki og ĂŸrautaleiki. Til eru margir undirflokkar og hĂŠgt er að setja suma leiki Ă marga flokka ĂĄ meðan erfitt er að flokka aðra. Sem dĂŠmi um tölvuleik sem hĂŠgt vĂŠri að flokka ĂĄ marga vegu er leikurinn Doom 3. Hann er fyrst og fremst fyrstu persĂłnu skotleikur en einnig vĂŠri hĂŠgt að flokka hann sem hryllingsleik. + +StjĂłrntĂŠki + +Ăað fer eftir gerð leiks og ĂĄ hvernig tölvu hann er spilaður , hvernig stjĂłrntĂŠki eru notuð. Ă venjulegum heimilistölvum er oft notast við lyklaborð, mĂșs eða bÊði lyklaborð og mĂșs Ă einu. Ă heimilistölvum er einnig hĂŠgt að kaupa sĂ©rstaka stĂœripinna fyrir leiki og eru sĂ©rhannaðir stĂœripinnar fyrir flugherma og bĂlaleiki ĂŸĂłnokkuð algengir. + +Ă leikjatölvum er langalgengast að notast sĂ© við sĂ©rstaka stĂœripinna sem eru sĂ©rhannaðir fyrir hverja tölvu og fylgja ĂŸĂĄ oft með tölvunni sjĂĄlfri. Fyrstu leikjatölvurnar notuðust við lyklaborð og einfalda stĂœripinna en eftir ĂŸvĂ sem leikjatölvurnar ĂŸrĂłuðust hurfu lyklaborðin smĂĄm saman. StĂœripinnar fyrir leikjatölvur hafa ĂŸrĂłast mikið frĂĄ upphafi og með hverri kynslóð af leikjatölvum koma oftast einhverjar nĂœjungar fram ĂĄ sjĂłnarsviðið. + +Ă leikjatölvum er einnig hĂŠgt að kaupa sĂ©rhannaða stĂœripinna sem oft eru sĂ©rhannaðir fyrir sĂ©rstaka leiki. Ă skotleikjum ĂĄ borð við Duck Hunt og House of the Dead 2 er notast við sĂ©rstakar tölvuleikjabyssur og Ă leiknum Guitar Hero er notast við sĂ©rstakan tölvuleikjagĂtar. + +Kenningar +ĂrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸað að tĂŠknilegir ĂŸĂŠttir tölvuleikja hafa verið rannsakaðir Ă mörg ĂĄr eru rannsĂłknir um ĂĄhrif tölvuleikja ĂĄ samfĂ©lagið skemmra ĂĄ veg komnar. SamfĂ©lagslegar rannsĂłknir eru gerðar ĂĄ sviði frĂĄsagnarfrÊði og leikjarannsĂłkna. Sögumenn lĂta ĂĄ tölvuleiki sem miðil ĂŸar sem einstaklingar fĂĄ að vera aðrar persĂłnur og taka ĂĄkvarðanir Ă nĂœjum heimi með hliðsjĂłn af Holodeck-tĂŠkninni Ășr Star Trek. FrÊðimenn ĂĄ sviði leikjarannsĂłkna eru ĂłsammĂĄla ĂŸessari skoðun og telja tölvuleiki byggjast fyrst og fremst ĂĄ umhverfi og reglum leikjanna. Rök ĂŸeirra eru að söguĂŸrÊðir og persĂłnur sĂ©u ekki nauðsynlegar Ă leikjum. Tölvuleikir notast hins vegar oft við söguĂŸråð meðal annars vegna ĂŸess að almenningur er vanur ĂŸvĂ að Ăœmsir skemmanamiðlar eins og kvikmyndir geri slĂkt hið sama. SöguĂŸråður Ă tölvuleikjum er ĂŸannig oft notaður til ĂŸess að draga spilara að leiknum.. + +FĂ©lagsleg ĂĄhrif +Ă rannsĂłkn sem GameVision Europe gerði Ă rĂkjum EvrĂłpusambandsins voru 54% leikmanna sem spila leiki ĂĄ farsĂmum eða lĂłfatölvum, 20% leikmanna eru kvenkyns og 21% spila tölvuleiki með vinum. + +Tölvuleikir hafa lengi verið fĂ©lagsvĂŠnir. Fjölspilunarleikir eru spilaðir af nokkrum leikmönnum, Ăœmist sem keppnisleikur eða með nokkrum stĂœripinnum. Leikjatölvur hafa sĂðan ĂŸĂĄ komið með tveimur eða fjĂłrum tengjum fyrir stĂœrapinna. Heimilistölvur einblĂœna frekar ĂĄ netið fyrir fjölspilun, Ăœmist Ă gegnum staðarnet eða internetið. Fjöldanetspunaleikir geta tekið við grĂðarlega hĂĄum fjölda leikmanna; EVE Online setti met með 54.446 leikmenn ĂĄ einum netĂŸjĂłn ĂĄrið 2010. + +Kostir tölvuleikja +RannsĂłknir sĂœna að leikmenn sem spila tölvuleiki hafa betri samhĂŠfingu augna og handa ĂĄsamt betri samhĂŠfingu miðtaugakerfisins og vöðva, sem leiðir af sĂ©r betra ĂŸol fyrir truflunum og talningu hluta sem eru sĂœnd Ă skamman tĂma, heldur en ĂŸeir sem spila ekki tölvuleiki. + +Ă bĂłk Steven Johnson, Everything Bad is Good for You, fĂŠrir hann rök fyrir ĂŸvĂ að tölvuleikir sĂ©u erfiðari en hefðbundin spil. Tölvuleikir halda aftur mikilvĂŠgum upplĂœsingum svo að leikmaðurinn ĂŸarf að ĂĄtta sig ĂĄ umhverfi leiksins. Flestir leikir gera kröfu um mikla athygli og ĂŸeir fresta ĂĄnĂŠgju mun lengur en aðrar skemmtanir. + +Leikmenn eru með einbeitt viðhorf gangvart tölvuleikjum. Einbeitingin er ĂŸað mikil að ĂŸeir glĂma við vandann ĂĄn ĂŸess að ĂĄtta sig ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸeir sĂ©u að lĂŠra Ă leiðinni. Ef að sama viðhorfið gĂŠti verið yfirfĂŠrt yfir ĂĄ skĂłlana ĂŸĂĄ myndi menntun ĂŸeirra verða mun betri. Með ĂŸvĂ að leysa ĂŸrautir leikja lĂŠra ĂŸĂŠr og ĂŸað eflir skapandi hugsun. + +GagnrĂœni +GagnrĂœni ĂĄ tölvuleiki beinist að fĂkniefnum, ofbeldi, ĂĄróðri og orðbragði leikjanna. RannsĂłknir hafa sĂœnt að tengsl eru ĂĄ milli ofbeldisfullra leikja og ĂĄrĂĄsarhneigðar. Rök eru fĂŠrð fyrir ĂŸvĂ að tölvuleikir sĂ©u miðill sem einstaklingar geti lĂŠrt af og hermt eftir Ă daglegu lĂfi. + +Nokkur samtök flokka tölvuleiki eftir aldri, eins og PEGI sem flokkar leiki Ă EvrĂłpu og ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal ĂĄ Ăslandi. Ăessi samtök eru Ăœmist Ă einkaeigu eða Ă eigu rĂkisins. Flestir leikir birta einkunn sĂna ĂĄ framhlið vörunnar, en margir foreldrar eru ĂłupplĂœstir um ĂŸessar merkingar. + +Markaðurinn + +Sölutölur leikja +StĂŠrstu framleiðendur tölvuleikja (Ă ĂŸessari röð) eru: BandarĂkin, Kanada, Japan og Bretland. Ărar eru stĂŠrstu kaupendur tölvuleikja eftir höfðatölu. + +Heimildir + +Tengt efni + +Tegundir af leikjum + Hasarleikur + Fyrstu persĂłnu skotleikur + HerkĂŠnskuleikur + RauntĂmaherkĂŠnskuleikur + Fjölnotendanetspunaleikur + Hlutverkaleikur (Spunaspil eða RPG) + ĂĂŸrĂłttaleikur + Sandkassaleikur (Opinn leikheimur) + Spilakassaleikur + ĂvintĂœraleikur + Ărautaleikur + +Tenglar + Nöfn flestra tölvuleikja sem framleiddir hafa verið + +Tölvuleikir + +la:Ludus computatralis +sl:Video igra +Leikjatölva er tölva sem er sĂ©rhönnuð með ĂŸað Ă huga að spila sjĂłnvarpsleiki. Yfirleitt er ĂŠtlast til að tölvan sĂ© tengd sjĂłnvarpi og ĂŸað notað Ă stað tölvuskjĂĄs. Handleikjatölva er leikjatölva sem hönnuð er til að ferðast með. Fyrstu leikjatölvurnar komu Ășt ĂĄ ĂĄttunda ĂĄratugnum en ĂŸeim er oftast skipt Ă nokkrar kynslóðar til að aðgreina munina ĂĄ ĂŸeim. + +Helstu framleiðendur leikjatölva Ă dag eru Microsoft, Nintendo og Sony, en Atari og Sega voru bÊði ĂĄhrĂfarĂk fyrirtĂŠki ĂĄ sĂnum tĂma. + +Saga + +Fyrsta kynslóð + +Magnavox Odyssey var fyrsta heimaleikjatölva sem hĂŠgt var að tengja við sjĂłnvarp, hĂșn var fundin upp af Ralph H. Baer og kom ĂĄ markaðinn ĂĄrið 1972. HĂșn var sĂŠmilega vel heppnuð en almenningurinn hafði ekki mikinn ĂĄhuga ĂĄ tölvuleikum ĂŸangað til PONG frĂĄ Atari kom Ășt. Fyrir haustið 1975 hĂŠtti Magnavox framleiðslu ĂĄ Odyssey og kom smĂŠrri leikjatölvu ĂĄ markaðinn sem hĂ©t Odyssey 100. Með henni var aðeins hĂŠgt að spila PONG og hokkĂ. Ănnur leikjatölva sem hĂ©t Oydssey 200 kom Ășt með stigum ĂĄ skjĂĄnum, möguleika að lĂĄta allt að fjĂłra spilara spila og öðrum leik: Smash. Atari framleiddi leikjatölvu fyrir Pong sem kom Ășt nĂŠstum samtĂmis en ĂŸessar tvĂŠr tölvur hjĂĄlpuðu að kveikja ĂĄhuga almennings ĂĄ tölvuleikjum. Bråðum voru allmargar leikjatölvur ĂĄ markaðnum með PONG-leikjum og leikjum byggðum ĂĄ honum. + +Ănnur kynslóð + +Fairchild setti Video Entertainment System (VES) ĂĄ markaðinn ĂĄrið 1976. ĂĂł að ĂŸað hefði verið aðrar leikatölvur sem notuðu hylki innihĂ©ldu ĂŸau ekki gögn og voru ĂŸess Ă stað notuð sem rofa (Ă til dĂŠmis Odyssey), eða ĂŸau innihĂ©ldu öll gögn um leikinn og engin gögn voru Ă leikjatölvunni sjĂĄlfri. Hins vegar var VES með forritanlegum örgjörva og ĂŸannig ĂŸurfti aðeins einn minniskubb Ă hverju hylki til að geyma leiðbeiningar fyrir örgjörvann. + +Bråðum hĂłfu bÊði RCA og Atari framleiðslu ĂĄ leikjatölvum sem notuðu hylki. Ărið 1977 byrjuðu leikjatölvuframleiðendur að selja gömlu vörurnar sĂnar með hĂĄum afslĂŠtti en ĂŸetta drĂł Ășr eftirspurn eftir öðrum leikjatölvum og ĂŸĂĄ hĂŠttu RCA og Fairchild að selja leikjatölvurnar sĂnar. Ăess vegna voru bara Atari og Magnavox eftir Ă ĂŸessum markaði. Seinna hĂŠttu ĂŸau lĂka að framleiða leikjatölvur. + +VES seldist ĂĄfram eftir 1977 og skilaði hagnaði en svo gaf Bally Ășt Home Library Computer (ĂĄrið 1977) og Magnavox OdysseyÂČ (ĂĄrið 1978) sem båðar voru forritanlegar leikjatölvur sem notuðu hylki. Samt sem åður var ĂŸað ekki fyrir ĂĄrið 1980 ĂŸegar Atari kom leiknum Space Invaders Ășt að markaðurinn yrði aftur Ă góðu lagi. VinsĂŠldir Space Invaders voru miklar og svo komu margir slĂkir leikir ĂĄ markaðinn ĂĄ ĂŸessum tĂma Ă samkeppni við hann. Margir keyptu sĂ©r Atari 2600 bara til að spila Space Invaders. + +Ă byrjun nĂunda ĂĄratugarins komu margar aðrar leikjatölvur Ășt og ĂŸĂł að sumar vĂŠru betri en Atari 2600 ĂĄ tĂŠknilegan hĂĄtt seldust ĂŸĂŠr ekki eins vel og hĂșn. Atari 5200 kom Ășt ĂĄrið 1982 en nĂŠsta ĂĄrið 1983 var annar samdrĂĄttur ĂĄ tölvuleikjamarkaðnum vegna mikillar samkeppni og leikja sem voru ĂłvinsĂŠlir hjĂĄ spilurum, eins og E.T. frĂĄ Atari. Flest tölvuleikjafyrirtĂŠki urðu gjaldĂŸrota eða hĂŠttu Ă tölvuleikjamarkaðnum. Mattel Electronics seldi framleiðsluleyfi ĂĄ Intellivision-tölvunni fyrirtĂŠkinu INTV Corporation sem hĂ©lt ĂĄfram að selja hana og framleiða hana ĂŸar til ĂĄrsins 1991. Sölum allra annarra bandarĂskra leikjatölva var hĂŠtt fyrir ĂĄrið 1984. + +Ăriðja kynslóð + +Ărið 1983 kom Nintendo Family Computer Ășt (eða Famicom) Ă Japan. Eins og ColecoVision var Famicom með hĂĄgÊðagrafĂk en gĂŠti sĂœnt fleiri liti. Ăess vegna gĂŠtu leikir fyrir Famicom verið lengri og ĂŸeir höfðu nĂĄkvĂŠmari grafĂk. Nintendo hĂłf sölum ĂĄ Famicom Ă BandarĂkjunum ĂĄrið 1965 undir nafninu Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). Ăar voru tölvuleikir talnir tĂskufyrirbrigði sem var bĂșið. Til ĂŸess að aðgreina tölvuna sĂna frĂĄ eldri leikjatölvum setti Nintendo hylkjarauf ĂĄ framhliðina eins og ĂŸað sem fannst ĂĄ myndbandstĂŠki og henni fylgdi Super Mario Bros. og ljĂłsbyssa frĂtt. NES var seld sem leikfang. Nintendo seldi lĂka âvĂ©lmenniâ sem hĂ©t R.O.B. en Ă sumum tilfellum fylgdi hĂșn með tölvunni. + +Alveg eins og Space Invaders var vinsĂŠlasti leikurinn fyrir Atari 2600 var Super Mario Bros vinsĂŠlasti leikurinn fyrir NES. Velgengni Nintendo Ă tölvuleikjamarkaðnum endurvakti hann og Ă samkeppni við NES komu aðrar leikjatölvur Ășt Ă kjölfar hennar. + +Ătlað var að Master System frĂĄ Sega gĂŠti keppt ĂĄ mĂłti NES en hĂșn seldist ekki vel Ă BandarĂkjunum. Henni gekk talsvert betra Ă löndum ĂŸar sem PAL-staðallinn er notaður, sĂ©rstaklega Ă BrasilĂu. + +FjĂłrða kynslóð + +Sega endurheimti markaðshlutdeild sinni með Mega Drive/Genesis sem kom Ășt Ă Japan 29. oktĂłber 1988, ĂĄgĂșst 1989 Ă BandarĂkjunum (undir nafninu Sega Genesis) og svo ĂĄrið 1990 Ă EvrĂłpu eða tveimur ĂĄrum fyrir að Nintendo gĂŠti komið Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) ĂĄ markaðinn. + +Sega seldi lĂka geisladrifið Mega CD/Sega CD sem veitti meira geymsluplĂĄssi fyrir margmiðlunarleiki sem tĂðkuðust ĂŸĂĄ hjĂĄ forriturum. Seinna kom Sega viðbĂłtarverkfĂŠrið 32X ĂĄ markaðinn sem bauð upp ĂĄ svipaðri ĂŸrĂvĂddargrafĂk eins og var Ă fimmtu kynslóðar leikjatölvum ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma. Ăetta viðbĂłtarverkfĂŠri misheppnaðist vegna ĂŸess að fĂĄir leikir virkuðu með ĂŸvĂ og forritarar vildu frekar forrita fyrir kraftmeiri leikjatölvur sem fleiri notuðu, eins og Sega Saturn sem kom Ășt stutt sĂðan. + +Aðrar leikjatölvur fjĂłrðu kynslóðar voru TurboGrafx-16 frĂĄ NEC og Neo Geo frĂĄ SNK Playmore. + +Fimmta kynslóð + +Fyrstu leikjatölvur fimmtu kynslóðar voru Atari Jaguar og 3DO frĂĄ Panasonic. Båðar ĂŸessar voru miklu kraftmeiri en Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) eða Mega Drive/Genesis: ĂŸĂŠr voru betri Ă að sĂœna marghyrninga og gĂŠtu sĂœnt fleiri liti, og leikir fyrir 3DO-tölvuna voru seldir ĂĄ diskum heldur en hylkjum. Diskarnir innihĂ©ldu meiri gögn og ĂŸað var ĂłdĂœrara að framleiða ĂŸĂĄ. Hvorug ĂŸessara leikjatölva hafði mikil ĂĄhrif ĂĄ sölum Nintendo eða Sega ĂŸĂł að ĂŸĂŠr voru betri. 3DO kostaði meira en bÊði SNES og Mega Drive saman og ĂŸað var ĂĄkaflega erfitt að forrita leiki fyrir Jaguar og ĂŸess vegna voru fĂĄir leikir sem nĂœttu hana að fullum krafti. Båðar ĂŸessar tölvur voru teknar af markaðnum ĂĄrið 1996. Bandai tilkynnti vĂ©l sem byggð var ĂĄ Apple Macintosh og hĂ©t Pippin en hĂșn var frekar heimilstölva ĂĄ lĂĄgu verði en góð leikjatölva. Henni gekk illa ĂĄ markaðnum. + +Fimmtu kynslóðar leikjatölvur voru ekki svo vinsĂŠlar åður en Saturn frĂĄ Sega, PlayStation frĂĄ Sony og Nintendo 64 komu Ășt. Leikir fyrir Saturn og PlayStation fengust ĂĄ geisladiskum en leikir fyrir N64 voru ĂĄ hylkjum. Allar ĂŸessar vĂ©lar kostuðu miklu minna en 3DO og ĂŸað var auðveldara að forrita ĂŸĂŠr en Jaguar. + +Sjötta kynslóð + +Ă ĂŸessari kynslóð urðu leikjatölvur meira eins og borðtölvur og ĂŸað tĂðkaðist að nota DVD-diska fyrir leiki Ă stað geisladiska. Ă kjölfar ĂŸess komu Ășt lengri leikir og með betri grafĂk. Ăar að auki voru tilraunir með netleiki gerðar og sumum vĂ©lum fylgdu harðir diskar til að vista gögn. + +Dreamcast frĂĄ Sega kom Ășt Ă Norður-AmerĂku 9. september 1999 en hĂșn var sĂðasta leikjatölvan frĂĄ fyrirtĂŠkinu. HĂșn var meðal fyrstu fimmtu kynslóðar leikjatölvanna sem hĂŠtt varð Ă framleiðslu. SĂ©rstakir diskar sem hĂ©tu GD-ROM voru notaðir til að hindra Ăłlöglega ĂștgĂĄfu leika ĂŸar sem auðvelt var að afrita diska fjĂłrðu kynslóðar en um sĂðir var farið Ă kringum ĂŸetta. HĂŠtt var að selja Dreamcast mars 2001 og Sega fĂłr ĂŸĂĄ bara að framleiða leiki. Dreamcast var lĂka með 33,6Kb eða 56k mĂłtaldi sem maður gĂŠti notað til að komast ĂĄ netið eða spila nokkra leiki, eins og Phantasy Star Online. + +PlayStation 2 frĂĄ Sony kom Ășt Ă Norður-AmerĂku 26. oktĂłber 2000 og leysti PlayStation af hĂłlmi. HĂșn var lĂka fyrsta leikjatölvan sem gat spilað DVD-diska. Eins og gert var með PlayStation ĂĄrið 2000 endurhannaði Sony PlayStation 2 Ă minni ĂștgĂĄfu ĂĄrið 2004. FrĂĄ og með jĂșlĂ 2008 höfðu um 140 milljĂłnir eintaka PlayStation 2 selst og ĂŸetta gerir hana ĂŸĂĄ leikjatölvu allra tĂma sem selst hefur best. + +Microsoft gaf Ășt fyrstu leikjatölvuna sĂna ĂĄrið 2001 en hĂșn heitir Xbox. Henni var fyrsta leikjatölvan sem fygldi harður diskur til að vista leiki og var svipuð Ă hraða ĂłdĂœrri borðtölvu ĂĄ sĂnum tĂma. ĂĂł að hĂșn var dĂŠmd fyrir stĂŠrð sĂna (hĂșn var tvisvar sinnum stĂŠrri en aðrar leikjatölvur ĂŸĂĄtĂmans) og stĂœribĂșnaðinn sem var talinn erfiður Ă notkun varð hĂșn vinsĂŠlla vegna velgegni leikjaraðarinnar Halo. Xbox var fyrsta leikjatölvan með Ethernet-tengi og bauð upp ĂĄ hĂĄhraðanetleikum Ă gegnum Xbox LIVE. + +Nintendo kom Ășt með GameCube Ă Norður-AmerĂku 18. nĂłvember 2001 og var fjĂłrða heimaleikjatölvan frĂĄ fyrirtĂŠkinu en sĂș fyrsta sem notaði geisladiska Ă stað hylkja. Geisladrifið Ă GameCube tĂłk ekki við venjulegum 12 cm-diskum en aðeins smĂŠrri 8 cm-diskum. + +Sjöunda kynslóð + +Miklar framfarir hafa verið Ă leikjatölvum sjöundu kynslóðar. Fleiri disktegundir voru tilkynntar, eins og Blu-ray Ă PlayStation 3 og HD DVD Ă Xbox 360 Ă gegnum aukahluta en sĂðar var henni hĂŠtt Ă framleiðslu ĂŸegar Blu-ray varð vinsĂŠlli. Allar leikjatölvur sjöundu kynslóðar styðja ĂŸråðlaus stjĂłrntĂŠki. Sumar fjĂĄrstĂœringar eru bĂșnar hreyfiskynjun sem skynja hreyfingar spilarans. + +Xbox 360 frĂĄ Microsoft var fyrsta leikjatölva ĂŸessarar kynslóðar en hĂșn kom Ășt 22. nĂłvember 2005 Ă BandarĂkjunum. HĂșn var kraftmeiri en allar aðrar leikjatölvur ĂŸegar hĂșn kom Ășt ĂŸangað til PlayStation 3 var sett ĂĄ markaðinn. Ăllum Xbox 360 vĂ©lum fylgir fĂŠranlegur harður diskur nema ĂŸeim sem fylgir SSD-diskur. Ă henni er DVD-drif sem les leikjadiska og mynddiska. HĂŠgt er að tengja allt að fjögur stjĂłrntĂŠki við hana. Ă dag fĂĄst tvĂŠr ĂștgĂĄfur af Xbox 360, ein með hörðum diski og önnur með SSD. MyndavĂ©l sem heitir Kinect er hĂŠgt að tengja við Xbox 360 svo að hĂșn skynji hreyfingar spilara. + +PlayStation 3 frĂĄ Sony kom Ășt Ă Japan 11. nĂłvember 2006, 17. nĂłvember sama ĂĄr Ă Norður-AmerĂku og svo 23. mars 2007 Ă EvrĂłpu. Allar PlayStation 3 vĂ©lar eru bĂșnar hörðum diskum og geta lesið Blu-ray leiki og mynddiska beint Ășr kassanum. PlayStation 3 var fyrsta leikjatölvan með HDMI-tengi og getur sĂœnt myndir Ă fullri 1080p upplausn. Eldri PlayStation 3 vĂ©lar styður minniskort eins og Memory Stick, SD og CompactFlash. TvĂŠr gerðir af PlayStation 3 eru ĂĄ markaðnum Ă dag: ein með 160 GB hörðum diski og önnur með 320 GB diski. Ă ĂŸessar vĂ©lar er ekki hĂŠgt að setja minniskort. StjĂłrntĂŠki sem heitir PlayStation Move gerir spilurum kleift að nota hreyfingar sĂnar til að stjĂłrna vĂ©linni. Hreyfingar eru teknar upp með myndavĂ©l. + +Nintendo Wii kom ĂĄ markaðinn 19. nĂłvember 2006 Ă Norður-AmerĂku, Ă Japan 2. desember sama ĂĄr og daginn eftir ĂĄ ĂstralĂu, og svo Ă EvrĂłpu 8. desember sama ĂĄr. Henni fylgir Wii Sports og Wii Sports Resort alls staðar nema Ă Japan. Wii er ĂłlĂk öðrum leikjatölvum sjöundu kynslóðar ĂŸar sem hĂșn er ekki með hörðum diski en er með 512 MB vinnsluminni og styður SD-minniskort. HĂșn getur sĂœnt myndir Ă upplausnum allt að 480p og hĂșn er einasta vĂ©l sjöundu kynslóðar sem getur ekki sĂœnt myndir Ă hĂŠrri upplausn en ĂŸessari. HĂșn er ĂŸekkt fyrir stjĂłrntĂŠkið sitt sem heitir Wii Remote og lĂtur Ășt eins og sjĂłnvarpsfjĂĄrstĂœring. Wii sendir frĂĄ sĂ©r innrautt ljĂłs sem myndavĂ©l Ă stjĂłrntĂŠkinu skynir. HĂŠgt er að spila leiki sem hannaðir voru fyrir GameCube ĂĄ Wii og maður getur tengt allt að fjögur GameCube-stjĂłrntĂŠki við hana. Wii Motion Plus er aukahluti sem hĂŠgt er að festa ĂĄ stjĂłrntĂŠkið til að nĂĄ betri hreyfiskynjun. Wii fĂŠst Ă Ăœmsum litum. + +Handleikjatölvur + +Leikjatölvur sem hĂŠgt er að halda ĂĄ og krefjast ekki að vera tengdar við innstungu heita handleikjatölvur, og er ĂŸvĂ hĂŠgt að ferðast með ĂŸĂ©r. HĂ©rna er listi af nokkrum af frĂŠgustu tölvunum: + + Game Boy + Game Boy Color + Game Boy Advance + DS + DS Lite + PSP + +Tengti efni + + Tölvuleikur + Listi yfir leikjatölvur + Listi yfir tölvuleiki + +Leikjatölvur +Tölvur +Ă vĂðasta skilningi lĂœtur tölvunarfrÊði að rannsĂłknum ĂĄ upplĂœsingavinnslu og reikningsaðferðum, bÊði Ă hugbĂșnaði og vĂ©lbĂșnaði. Ă reynd snĂœst tölvunarfrÊðin um fjölmörg viðfangsefni, allt frĂĄ formlegri greiningu reiknirita og aðgerðagreiningar til frÊða tengdum eiginlegum tölvum eins og forritunarmĂĄl, hugbĂșnað og tölvuvĂ©lbĂșnað. + +Tengt efni + + HugbĂșnaðarverkfrÊði + TölvunarfrÊðingur + +TölvunarfrÊði +TĂŠkni +BĂłkmenntafrÊði, stundum nefnd almenn bĂłkmenntafrÊði, er frÊðileg umfjöllun um bĂłkmenntir almennt en einkum ĂŸĂł fagurbĂłkmenntir. SkĂĄldskaparfrÊði, bĂłkmenntasaga og bĂłkmenntarĂœni eru helstu undirgreinar bĂłkmenntafrÊði. BĂłkmenntafrÊði ĂĄ sĂ©r djĂșpar rĂŠtur Ă vestrĂŠnni menningu sem teygja sig allt aftur Ă fornöld en verður ekki til sem sĂ©rstök frÊðigrein við evrĂłpska hĂĄskĂłla fyrr en ĂĄ 18. öld. + +Viðfangsefni bĂłkmenntafrÊði hafa verið breytileg Ă gegnum tĂðina en mĂłtast ĂŸĂł alltaf af svörum við ĂŸremur spurningum, sem ĂŠtĂð flĂ©ttast saman: Hvað eru bĂłkmenntir? Hvað er eftirsĂłknarvert að vita um ĂŸĂŠr? Hvaða aðferðum er heppilegast að beita við rannsĂłknir ĂĄ ĂŸeim? + +Ă Ăslensku er heiti frÊðigreinarinnar âbĂłkmenntafrÊðiâ eða âalmenn bĂłkmenntafrÊðiâ en ĂĄ mörgum mĂĄlum er hĂșn kennd við samanburðarbĂłkmenntir og felur Ă sĂ©r alĂŸjóðlegar bĂłkmenntarannsĂłknir fremur en ĂŸjóðlega textafrÊði eins og hĂșn hefur verið stunduð Ă hĂĄskĂłlum EvrĂłpu um aldaraðir undir ĂĄhrifum frĂĄ Dante og ĂŸjóðarbĂłkmenntahugtakinu. + +Heimildir + Jakob Benediktsson (ritstj.), Hugtök og heiti Ă bĂłkmenntafrÊði (ReykjavĂk: BĂłkmenntafrÊðistofnun HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands, 1983). +SĂœslumenn ĂĄ Ăslandi eru 9 talsins (voru åður lengst af 24). Verkefni ĂŸeirra eru aðfarargerðir, dĂĄnarbĂș, nauðungarsölur, ĂŸinglĂœsingar og leyfi. Hinsvegar er ĂŸað lögreglustjĂłrn og ĂĄkĂŠruvald. Fyrir lagabreytinguna 2014 fĂłru sumir sĂœslumenn auk ĂŸess með lögreglustjĂłrn Ă sĂnum umdĂŠmum. Skipulagsbreytingar hjĂĄ lögreglunni sem tĂłku gildi 1. janĂșar 2007 fĂŠkkuðu umdĂŠmunum og ĂŸar með lögreglustjĂłrum en fyrir hafði sĂœslumaðurinn Ă ReykjavĂk verið sĂĄ eini sem ekki var einnig lögreglustjĂłri. Ărið 2014 voru sett nĂœ lög um sĂœslumannsembĂŠttin sem ĂŸĂĄ fĂŠkkaði Ășr 24 Ă 9. Um leið fluttist lögreglustjĂłrn frĂĄ öllum sĂœslumönnum til embĂŠtta lögreglustjĂłra. + +SĂœslumannsembĂŠttin eru einnig tengiliðir við Tryggingastofnun rĂkisins og Hagstofu Ăslands vegna ĂŸjóðskrĂĄr og hlutafĂ©lagaskrĂĄr. + +Aðsetur og umdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna frĂĄ 2007 til 2014 + + SĂœslumaðurinn Ă ReykjavĂk: +ReykjavĂkurborg, SeltjarnarnesbĂŠr, MosfellsbĂŠr og KjĂłsarhreppur. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Akranesi: +Akraneskaupstaður. + SĂœslumaðurinn Ă Borgarnesi: +Hvalfjarðarsveit, Skorradalshreppur og Borgarbyggð. +FĂłr einnig með lögreglustjĂłrn Ă Dalabyggð. + SĂœslumaður SnĂŠfellinga - StykkishĂłlmi: +Eyja- og Miklaholtshreppur, SnĂŠfellsbĂŠr, GrundarfjarðarbĂŠr, Helgafellssveit og StykkishĂłlmsbĂŠr. + SĂœslumaðurinn Ă BĂșðardal: +Dalabyggð. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Patreksfirði: +ReykhĂłlahreppur, Vesturbyggð og TĂĄlknafjarðarhreppur. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + SĂœslumaðurinn Ă BolungarvĂk: +BolungarvĂkurkaupstaður. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Ăsafirði: +ĂsafjarðarbĂŠr og SĂșðavĂkurhreppur. +FĂłr einnig með lögreglustjĂłrn Ă Ărneshreppi, BolungarvĂk, BĂŠjarhreppi, Kaldrananeshreppi, ReykhĂłlahreppi, Strandabyggð, TĂĄlknafjarðarhreppi og Vesturbyggð. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ HĂłlmavĂk: +Ărneshreppur, Kaldrananeshreppur, Strandabyggð og BĂŠjarhreppur. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ BlönduĂłsi: +HĂșnaĂŸing vestra, Ăshreppur, HĂșnavatnshreppur, BlönduĂłsbĂŠr, Höfðahreppur og Skagabyggð. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ SauðårkrĂłki: +SveitarfĂ©lagið Skagafjörður. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Siglufirði: +Fjallabyggð. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Akureyri: +GrĂmseyjarhreppur, DalvĂkurbyggð, Arnarneshreppur, HörgĂĄrbyggð, Akureyrarkaupstaður, Eyjafjarðarsveit, Svalbarðsstrandarhreppur og GrĂœtubakkahreppur. +FĂłr einnig með lögreglustjĂłrn Ă Fjallabyggð + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ HĂșsavĂk: +Ăingeyjarsveit, SkĂștustaðahreppur, AðaldĂŠlahreppur, NorðurĂŸing, Tjörneshreppur, Raufarhafnarhreppur, Svalbarðshreppur og ĂĂłrshafnarhreppur. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Seyðisfirði: +Skeggjastaðahreppur, Vopnafjarðarhreppur, FljĂłtsdalshĂ©rað, FljĂłtsdalshreppur, Borgarfjarðarhreppur og Seyðisfjarðarkaupstaður. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Eskifirði: +MjĂłafjarðarhreppur, Fjarðabyggð, Breiðdalshreppur og DjĂșpavogshreppur. +FĂłr einnig með lögreglustjĂłrn Ă SveitarfĂ©laginu Hornafirði. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Höfn: +SveitarfĂ©lagið Hornafjörður. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + SĂœslumaðurinn Ă VĂk: +SkaftĂĄrhreppur og MĂœrdalshreppur. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Hvolsvelli: +RangĂĄrĂŸing eystra, RangĂĄrĂŸing ytra og Ăsahreppur. +FĂłr einnig með lögreglustjĂłrn Ă SkaftĂĄrhreppi og MĂœrdalshreppi. + SĂœslumaðurinn Ă Vestmannaeyjum: +VestmannaeyjabĂŠr. + SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Selfossi: +FlĂłahreppur, SveitarfĂ©lagið Ărborg, Skeiða- og GnĂșpverjahreppur, Hrunamannahreppur, BlĂĄskĂłgabyggð, GrĂmsnes- og Grafningshreppur, HveragerðisbĂŠr og SveitarfĂ©lagið Ălfus. + SĂœslumaðurinn Ă KeflavĂk: +GrindavĂkurkaupstaður, SandgerðisbĂŠr, SveitarfĂ©lagið Garður, ReykjanesbĂŠr og SveitarfĂ©lagið Vogar, að varnarsvÊðum undanskildum. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + SĂœslumaðurinn Ă Hafnarfirði: +Hafnarfjarðarkaupstaður, GarðabĂŠr og SveitarfĂ©lagið Ălftanes. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + SĂœslumaðurinn Ă KĂłpavogi: +KĂłpavogsbĂŠr. +Var ekki lögreglustjĂłri. + +Hin gamla sĂœsluskipting réði oft mörkum umdĂŠmanna en ĂŸað er ĂŸĂł ekki algilt. + +Heimildir + Reglugerð um stjĂłrnsĂœsluumdĂŠmi sĂœslumanna 057/1992 ĂĄsamt breytingum + +Tenglar +Lög 92/1989 um framkvĂŠmdarvald rĂkisins Ă hĂ©raði +DĂłmsmĂĄlaråðuneytið + +Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄl +Listar tengdir Ăslenskum stjĂłrnmĂĄlum +27. mars er 86. dagur ĂĄrsins (87. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 279 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1272 - GregorĂus 10. (Tedaldo Visconti) varð pĂĄfi. + 1513 - Juan Ponce de Leon sĂĄ strönd FlĂłrĂda og hĂ©lt að hĂșn vĂŠri eyja. + 1625 - Karl 1. var krĂœndur konungur Englands og Skotlands. + 1764 - InnrĂ©ttingar SkĂșla fĂłgeta brunnu. ĂrjĂĄr vefstofur og tĂu vefstĂłlar ĂĄsamt öðrum tĂŠkjum urðu eldinum að bråð auk hrĂĄefnis og fullunnins varnings. Alls var tjĂłnið metið ĂĄ 3706 rĂkisdali og sex skildinga. + 1782 - Charles Watson-Wentworth, markgreifi af Rockingham, varð forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands. + 1884 - Fyrsta langlĂnusĂmtal sögunnar ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað ĂŸegar hringt var ĂĄ milli New York og Boston. + 1943 - Breski togarinn War Grey var staðinn að Ăłlöglegum veiðum við Stafnes. Togarinn sigldi af stað ĂĄleiðis til Englands með stĂœrimann varðskipsins SĂŠbjargar um borð og stöðvaði ekki fyrr en varðskipið Ăgir hafði skotið að honum ĂŸrjĂĄtĂu skotum. + 1945 - Ăjóðverjar skutu sĂðustu V-2 flugskeytum sĂnum ĂĄ England og BelgĂu. + 1956 - âHrÊðslubandalagiðâ, kosningabandalag AlĂŸĂœĂ°uflokks og FramsĂłknarflokks, var stofnað. + 1958 - Nikita KrĂșstsjov var formlega gerður að forsĂŠtisråðherra SovĂ©trĂkjanna. + 1963 - Mikill jarðskjĂĄlfti, um sjö stig, ĂĄtti upptök norður af mynni Skagafjarðar. SkjĂĄlftinn fannst vĂða og flĂșðu sumir hĂșs sĂn. + 1968 - JĂșrĂ GagarĂn, fyrsti maðurinn til að fara Ășt Ă geim, fĂłrst Ă flugslysi. + 1977 - MannskÊðasta flugslys sögunnar varð ĂŸegar tvĂŠr farĂŸegaĂŸotur, frĂĄ KLM og Pan Am skullu saman ĂĄ flugvellinum ĂĄ TenerĂfe með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 583 fĂłrust. + 1979 - Samtök olĂuframleiðslurĂkja samĂŸykktu að hĂŠkka verð hrĂĄolĂu um 20%. Við ĂŸetta hĂłfst olĂukreppan 1979. + 1980 - Norski olĂuborpallurinn Alexander Kielland brotnaði Ă NorðursjĂł með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 123 af 212 manna ĂĄhöfn fĂłrust. + 1981 - Mikil bĂlasĂœning, Auto '81, var haldin Ă ReykjavĂk. Ăar voru meðal annars sĂœndir Rolls Royce- og Lamborghini-bĂlar. + 1990 - BandarĂsk stjĂłrnvöld hĂłfu sjĂłnvarpsĂștsendingar Ă ĂĄróðursskyni til KĂșbu. SjĂłnvarpsstöðin heitir TV MartĂ. + 1991 - Fyrsta GSM-sĂmtalið var flutt yfir finnska farsĂmanetið Radiolinja. + 1993 - Jiang Zemin tĂłk við embĂŠtti sem forseti KĂna. + 1994 - Bandalag hĂŠgriflokka undir forystu athafnamannsins Silvio Berlusconi sigraði ĂŸingkosningar ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. + 1998 - MatvĂŠla- og lyfjaeftirlit BandarĂkjanna samĂŸykkti lyfið Sildenafil frĂĄ Pfizer sem var selt undir heitinu Viagra. + 1999 - F-117 Nighthawk-flugvĂ©l frĂĄ BandarĂkjaher var skotin niður yfir KosĂłvĂł. + 2002 - 30 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar palestĂnskur sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjumaður sprengdi sig Ă loft upp ĂĄ hĂłteli Ă Netanya Ă Ăsrael. + 2005 - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin Grey's Anatomy hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ ABC. + 2007 - Samningur um landamĂŠri Lettlands og RĂșsslands var undirritaður. + 2008 - MĂłtmĂŠli vörubĂlstjĂłra ĂĄ Ăslandi 2008 hĂłfust með ĂŸvĂ að hĂłpur bĂlstjĂłra lagði bĂlum sĂnum Ă ĂrtĂșnsbrekkunni Ă ReykjavĂk og stöðvaði ĂŸannig alla umferð. + 2008 - Fjöldi greina ĂĄ Wikipediu nåði 10 milljĂłnum. + 2010 - BandarĂski gamanĂŸĂĄtturinn Victorious hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ Nickelodeon. + 2011 - RĂșmenĂa og BĂșlgarĂa gerðust aðilar að Schengen-samstarfinu. + 2013 - Kanada drĂł sig Ășt Ășr samningi Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna um aðgerðir gegn eyðimerkurmyndun. + 2014 - AllsherjarĂŸing Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna ĂĄlyktaði að KrĂmskagi tilheyrði ĂkraĂnu en ekki RĂșsslandi. + 2016 - Yfir 70 lĂ©tust Ă sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum Ă Lahore Ă Pakistan. + +FĂŠdd + 1676 - Frans 2. RĂĄkĂłczi, TransylvanĂufursti (d. 1735). + 1702 - Johann Ernst Eberlin, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1762). + 1744 - Sigurður StefĂĄnsson, HĂłlabiskup (d. 1798). + 1781 - Charles Joseph Minard, franskur verkfrÊðingur (d. 1870). + 1785 - LoðvĂk 17. rĂkisarfi Ă Frakklandi (d. 1795). + 1838 - JĂșlĂana JĂłnsdĂłttir, skĂĄldkona, sem var fyrst Ăslenskra kvenna til að gefa Ășt ljóðabĂłk (d. 1918). + 1845 - Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, ĂŸĂœskur eðlisfrÊðingur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1923). + 1866 - LĂĄrus H. Bjarnason, Ăslenskur lögmaður (d. 1934). + 1886 - Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, ĂŸĂœskur arkitekt (d. 1969). + 1896 - ĂĂłrarinn Guðmundsson, Ăslenskur fiðluleikari og tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1979). + 1901 + Carl Barks, bandarĂskur myndasöguhöfundur (d. 2000). + Eisaku SatĆ, forsĂŠtisråðherra Japans (d. 1975). + 1912 - James Callaghan, forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands (d. 2005). + 1938 - Styrmir Gunnarsson, ritstjĂłri Morgunblaðsins. + 1943 - Michael York, enskur leikari. + 1955 - Ăorleifur Gunnlaugsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1955 - Mariano Rajoy, spĂŠnskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1963 - Quentin Tarantino, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri og framleiðandi. + 1965 - Gunnar Oddsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnuĂŸjĂĄlfari. + 1969 - Keith Flint, breskur söngvari (The Prodigy) (d. 2019). + 1969 - Pauley Perrette, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1970 - Mariah Carey, bandarĂsk söngkona. + 1970 - Gaia Zucchi, Ătölsk leikkona. + 1974 - Ălafur JĂłhannes Einarsson, Ăslenskur lögfrÊðingur. + 1975 - Stacy Ferguson, bandarĂsk söngkona (Black Eyed Peas). + 1981 - Cacau, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1983 - Alina Devecerski, sĂŠnsk söngkona. + 1985 - Guillaume Joli, franskur handknattleiksmaður. + 1985 - David Navara, tĂ©kkneskur skĂĄkmeistari. + 1986 - Rosario Miraggio, Ătalskur söngvari. + 1986 - Manuel Neuer, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1988 - Brenda Song, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1988 - Atsuto Uchida, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1989 - Ălafur GĂșstafsson, Ăslenskur handknattleiksmaður. + +DĂĄin + 1191 - Klemens 3., pĂĄfi. + 1462 - VasilĂj 2., stĂłrfursti af Moskvu (f. 1415). + 1482 - MarĂa af BĂșrgund, kona MaxĂmilĂans 1. keisara (f. 1457). + 1615 - MargrĂ©t af Valois, Frakklandsdrottning (f. 1553). + 1625 - Jakob konungur Skotlands og Englands og Ărlands (f. 1566). + 1635 - Robert Naunton, enskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1563). + 1714 - Charlotte Amalie af Hessen-Kassel, Danadrottning (f. 1650). + 1927 - Klaus Berntsen, danskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og forsĂŠtisråðherra (f. 1844). + 1952 - Friðrik Hansen, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1891). + 1968 - JĂșrĂ GagarĂn, rĂșssneskur geimfari (f. 1934). + 1986 - Constantin Stanciu, rĂșmenskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1907). + 2002 - Dudley Moore, leikari (f. 1935). + 2006 - StanisĆaw Lem, pĂłlskur rithöfundur (f. 1921). + 2008 - Bolli GĂșstavsson, Ăslenskur prestur (f. 1935). + 2008 - Ălafur Ragnarsson, Ăslenskur Ăștgefandi (f. 1944). + 2010 - VasilĂj Smyslov, rĂșssneskur skĂĄkmeistari (f. 1921). + 2015 - Olga Syahputra, indĂłnesĂskur leikari (f. 1983). + +Mars +ĂĂœsku V-2-fluskeytin voru fyrstu langdrĂŠgu flugskeyti sögunnar. Ăjóðverjar skutu fyrsta flugskeytinu af ĂŸessari gerð frĂĄ hafnarbĂŠnum PeenemĂŒnde ĂĄrið 1942. + +ĂĂœski vĂsindamaðurinn Wernher von Braun stóð ĂĄ bak við ĂŸrĂłun flugskeytisins, en að strĂðinu loknu flutti hann til BandarĂkjanna ĂŸar sem hann fĂ©kk strax starf hjĂĄ NASA við að bĂșa til geimflaugar. + +NĂĄnast vonlaust var að verjast ĂŸessum flugskeytum. Ăau flugu fyrst upp Ă nĂu kĂlĂłmetra hÊð, beygðu svo Ă ĂĄtt að skotmarkinu og fĂ©llu svo að lokum til jarðar af svo miklum krafti að ĂŸau grĂłfust niður Ă jörðina åður en ĂŸau sprungu. + +V-2-flugskeyti voru fyrst notuð ĂŸann 6. september ĂĄrið 1944, ĂŸegar tveimur slĂkum var skotið ĂĄ ParĂs. Fyrstu tilraunir mistĂłkust en tveimur dögum sĂðar, ĂŸann 8. september, heppnuðust tilraunirnar betur. NĂŠsta hĂĄlfa ĂĄrið skutu Ăjóðverjar meira en ĂŸrjĂș ĂŸĂșsund flugskeytum ĂĄ Ăłvini sĂna, flestum ĂĄ LundĂșnir og ĂĄ Antwerpen Ă BelgĂu. ĂĂŠtlað er að strĂðstĂłlið hafi kostað nĂŠrri 8.000 manns lĂfið. SĂðustu V-2-flugskeytunum var skotið 27. mars ĂĄrið 1945 ĂĄ England og BelgĂu. NĂŠrri 200 manns fĂ©llu Ă ĂŸeim ĂĄrĂĄsum. + +Tengill + www.v2rocket.com + +Heimild + Tracy Dungan: V-2: A Combat History of the First Ballistic Missile. Westholme Publishing ( ) 2005, ISBN 1-59416-012-0 + + A4tebeschreibung + A4_Fibel + raketenspezialisten.de + Raketenfertigung in Friedrichshafen + kheichhorn.de + bernd-leitenberger.de + v2werk-oberraderach.de + +Flugskeyti +LangdrĂŠg vopn +Arnaldur Indriðason (fĂŠddur 28. janĂșar 1961 Ă ReykjavĂk) er Ăslenskur spennusagnahöfundur og sagnfrÊðingur. + +Arnaldur er sonur ĂĂłrunnar Ălafar FriðriksdĂłttur og Indriða G. Ăorsteinssonar rithöfundar. Hann lauk BA-prĂłfi Ă sagnfrÊði frĂĄ HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands ĂĄrið 1996 og starfaði við Morgunblaðið frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ hann Ăștskrifaðist Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum við HamrahlĂð ĂĄrið 1981, Ăœmist Ă lausamennsku eða fullu starfi. Hann var kvikmyndagagnrĂœnandi blaðsins frĂĄ 1986 til 2001. + +Arnaldur hefur sent frĂĄ sĂ©r tuttugu og fjĂłrar skĂĄldsögur sem allar eru spennusögur. SkĂĄldsögur hans hafa verið ĂŸĂœddar yfir ĂĄ um 40 tungumĂĄl og hlotið góðar viðtökur, sĂ©rstaklega Ă ĂĂœskalandi og Frakklandi en alls hafa selst yfir fjĂłrtĂĄn milljĂłnir eintaka af skĂĄldsögum hans og ĂŸĂŠr hafa komist ofarlega ĂĄ metsölulista Ă mörgum EvrĂłpulöndum. Arnaldur hefur einnig unnið Ăștvarpsleikrit upp Ășr nokkrum bĂłka sinna sem Leiklistardeild rĂkisĂștvarpsins hefur flutt. Kvikmynd gerð eftir einni skĂĄldsögu hans, MĂœrinni, Ă leikstjĂłrn Baltasars KormĂĄks, var frumsĂœnd ĂĄrið 2006. + +Arnaldur hlaut Glerlykilinn, NorrĂŠnu glĂŠpasagnaverðlaunin, fyrir MĂœrina ĂĄrið 2002 og aftur ĂĄri sĂðar fyrir GrafarĂŸĂ¶gn. + +Ărið 2005 hlaut hann hin virtu ensku glĂŠpasagnaverðlaun GullrĂœtinginn frĂĄ Samtökum glĂŠpasagnahöfunda fyrir ensku ĂștgĂĄfuna af GrafarĂŸĂ¶gn. Hann hefur einnig hlotið Grand Prix LittĂšrature PoliciĂ©re Ă Frakklandi, sĂŠnsku Martin Beck verðlaunin fyrir Röddina og bandarĂsku Barry-verðlaunin fyrir Kleifarvatn, svo og fjölmargar aðrar viðurkenningar. + +SkĂĄldsögur + 1997 â Synir duftsins + 1998 â DauðarĂłsir + 1999 â NapĂłleonsskjölin + 2000 â LeyndardĂłmar ReykjavĂkur 2000 (kafli Ă spennusögu eftir nokkra höfunda) + 2000 â MĂœrin + 2001 â GrafarĂŸĂ¶gn + 2002 â Röddin + 2003 â BettĂœ + 2004 â Kleifarvatn + 2005 â Vetrarborgin + 2006 â KonungsbĂłk + 2007 â Harðskafi + 2008 â MyrkĂĄ + 2009 â Svörtuloft + 2010 â Furðustrandir + 2011 â EinvĂgið + 2012 â ReykjavĂkurnĂŠtur + 2013 â Skuggasund + 2014 â Kamp Knox + 2015 â ĂĂœska hĂșsið + 2016 â Petsamo + 2017 - Myrkrið veit + 2018 - StĂșlkan hjĂĄ brĂșnni + 2019 - Tregasteinn + 2020 - ĂagnarmĂșr + 2021 - Sigurverkið + 2022 - KyrrĂŸey + 2023 - SĂŠlurĂkið + +Ăslenskir rithöfundar +Ăslenskir sagnfrÊðingar +Handhafar riddarakross Hinnar Ăslensku fĂĄlkaorðu +Arnaldur Indriðason + +StĂșdentar Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum við HamrahlĂð +LeyndardĂłmar ReykjavĂkur 2000 er skĂĄldsaga sem var skrifuð af helstu Ăslensku spennusagnahöfundunum um aldamĂłtin. Ăeir eru: Arnaldur Indriðason, Ărni ĂĂłrarinsson, Birgitta H. HalldĂłrsdĂłttir, Gunnar Gunnarsson, Hrafn Jökulsson, Kristinn KristjĂĄnsson, Stella BlĂłmkvist og Viktor Arnar IngĂłlfsson. Hver ĂŸeirra skrifar sinn kafla. + +Ăslenskar skĂĄldsögur +28. mars er 87. dagur ĂĄrsins (88. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 278 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. VilhjĂĄlmur VilhjĂĄlmson (söngvari) lĂ©st + +Atburðir + 193 - PretĂłrĂuvörðurinn myrti Pertinax. KeisaradĂŠmið var ĂŸĂĄ boðið upp og Didius Julianus bauð hĂŠst, 300 milljĂłn sestertĂur fyrir hĂĄsĂŠtið. LandstjĂłrarnir Clodius Albinus (Ă BritannĂu) og Pescennius Niger (Ă SĂœrĂu) gerðu båðir tilkall til keisaratignarinnar. + 364 - Valens varð keisari RĂłmar. + 845 - VĂkingar réðust ĂĄ ParĂs og rĂŠndu og rupluðu. Heimildir greina frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að Ă fararbroddi hafi verið vĂkingur að nafni Reginherus sem sumir halda að hafi verið Ragnar loðbrĂłk, en samkvĂŠmt öðrum frĂĄsögnum var hann uppi heilli öld fyrr. + 1193 - LeĂłpold 5. AusturrĂkishertogi flutti fanga sinn, RĂkharð ljĂłnshjarta, til Speyer og afhenti Hinrik 6. keisara hann. + 1241 - EirĂkur plĂłgpeningur varð konungur Ă Danmörku. + 1462 - Ăvan mikli tĂłk við af föður sĂnum VasilĂj 2. sem stĂłrfursti af Moskvu. + 1584 (18. mars samkvĂŠmt Gamla stĂl) - Fjodor 1. varð RĂșssakeisari. + 1696 - Konungur lagði ĂŸĂĄ kvöð ĂĄ Ăslendinga að senda skyldi ĂŸrjĂĄ menn Ășr hverri sĂœslu, ĂŸrjĂĄtĂu alls, til að ĂŸjĂłna Ă flota eða landher Danaveldis. + 1797 - Einkaleyfi fĂ©kkst fyrir fyrstu ĂŸvottavĂ©linni Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1814 - Joseph-Ignace Guillotin sem fann upp fallöxina var jarðsettur Ă Frakklandi. + 1854 - KrĂmstrĂðið: Bretland og Frakkland sögðu RĂșssum strĂð ĂĄ hendur. + 1875 - Ăskjugos hĂłfst. Ăað er talið eitt mesta öskugos ĂĄ Ăslandi eftir að land byggðist. Ăegar gosið hafði staðið Ă hĂĄlfan annan sĂłlarhring urðu menn varir við gosmökkinn Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. Gosið varð til ĂŸess að mikill fjöldi ĂbĂșa ĂĄ Austfjörðum fluttist til Vesturheims ĂĄ nĂŠstu ĂĄrum. + 1881 - Tveir menn gengu ĂĄ hafĂs alla leiðina frĂĄ Siglufirði til Akureyrar, en ĂŸessi vetur var með ĂŸeim hörðustu sem vitað er um ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1882 - ĂĂœski lyfsalinn Carl Paul Beiersdorf stofnaði fyrirtĂŠkið Nivea. + 1909 - SafnahĂșsið við Hverfisgötu (sem nĂș heitir ĂjóðmenningarhĂșsið) var vĂgt. Ă upphafi hĂœsti hĂșsið Forngripasafnið, LandsbĂłkasafnið, Landsskjalasafnið og NĂĄttĂșrugripasafnið. + 1929 - NĂœtt geðsjĂșkrahĂșs tĂłk til starfa ĂĄ Kleppi. + 1930 - Nöfnum tyrknesku borganna KonstantĂnĂłpel og AngĂłra var breytt Ă IstanbĂșl og Ankara. + 1939 - SpĂŠnska borgarastrĂðinu lauk. + 1956 - AlĂŸingi samĂŸykkti (31 gegn 18) að BandarĂkjaher skyldi yfirgefa Ăsland enda ĂŠtti ekki að vera her Ă landinu ĂĄ friðartĂmum. ViðrÊðum um brottför hersins var frestað Ă nĂłvember vegna Uppreisnarinnar Ă Ungverjalandi. + 1963 - Kvikmyndin Fuglarnir eftir Alfred Hitchcock var frumsĂœnd Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1971 - SĂðasti ĂŸĂĄttur Ed Sullivan Show fĂłr Ă loftið. + 1977 - PortĂșgal sĂłtti formlega um aðild að EvrĂłpubandalaginu. + 1978 - VilhjĂĄlmur VilhjĂĄlmsson, söngvari, lĂ©st Ă umferðarslysi Ă LĂșxemborg. + 1979 - Bilun Ă kĂŠlibĂșnaði Ă Three Mile Island-kjarnorkuverinu Ă PennsylvanĂu leiddi til ĂŸess að mikið af geislavirku gasi fĂłr Ășt Ă umhverfið. Ăetta er talið vera versta kjarnorkuslys Ă sögu BandarĂkjanna. + 1979 - MinnihlutastjĂłrn breska verkamannaflokksins undir stjĂłrn James Callaghan fĂ©ll ĂĄ vantrausti vegna misheppnaðrar ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu um heimastjĂłrn Ă Skotlandi og Wales. + 1980 - Talpiot-gröfin uppgötvaðist Ă nĂĄgrenni JerĂșsalem. + 1986 - 6.000 Ăștvarpsstöðvar um allan heim spiluðu lagið âWe are the worldâ samtĂmis til styrktar aðgerðum gegn hungursneyð Ă AfrĂku. + 1988 - Atlantic Airways flaug sitt fyrsta flug milli FĂŠreyja og Danmerkur. + 1991 - Volkswagen Group hĂłf samstarf við tĂ©kkneska bĂlaframleiðandann Ć koda automobilovĂĄ. + 1994 - Blóðbaðið við Shell House: Ăryggisverðir Ă höfuðstöðvum AfrĂska ĂŸjóðarflokksins skutu ĂĄ ĂŸĂșsundir fylgismanna Inkathahreyfingarinnar. + 1996 - ĂrĂr breskir hermenn voru dĂŠmdir sekir um að hafa nauðgað og myrt Louise Jensen ĂĄ KĂœpur. + 1997 - Ătalska strandgĂŠsluskipið Sibilla sigldi ĂĄ albanska vĂ©lskipið KatĂ«r i RadĂ«s með 120 flĂłttamenn um borð með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 80 ĂŸeirra drukknuðu. + 1999 - TeiknimyndaĂŸĂŠttirnir Futurama hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ FOX. + 1999 - KosĂłvĂłstrĂðið: Fjöldamorðin Ă Podujevo og Izbica ĂĄttu sĂ©r stað. + 2004 - Fellibylurinn KatarĂna, fyrsti hitabeltisfellibylur sem skråður hefur verið Ă Suður-Atlantshafi, tĂłk land Ă BrasilĂu. + 2006 - Um milljĂłn manns mĂłtmĂŠltu fyrirhugaðri atvinnulöggjöf Ă Frakklandi. + 2006 - Kadima vann sigur Ă kosningum Ă Ăsrael, en hlaut ĂŸĂł fĂŠrri atkvÊði en ĂștgönguspĂĄr gerðu råð fyrir. + 2007 - Frumvarp um VatnajökulsĂŸjóðgarð var samĂŸykkt ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. + 2012 - JĂĄrnbrautarbrĂș yfir Limafjörð Ă Danmörku skemmdist mikið ĂŸegar finnskt flutningaskip sigldi ĂĄ hana. + 2018 - Leiðtogi Norður-KĂłreu, Kim Jong-un, fĂłr Ă opinbera heimsĂłkn til KĂna til fundar við Xi Jinping. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta sinn sem hann fĂłr Ășr landi eftir að hann tĂłk við embĂŠtti ĂĄrið 2011. + 2018 - 78 lĂ©tust Ă eldsvoða Ă fangageymslum lögreglustöðvarinnar Ă Valencia (VenesĂșela). + 2019 - Ăslenska flugfĂ©lagið WOW Air varð gjaldĂŸrota. + +FĂŠdd + 1592 - Comenius, tĂ©kkneskur kennari og rithöfundur (d. 1670). + 1609 - Friðrik 3. Danakonungur (d. 1670). + 1749 - Pierre-Simon Laplace, franskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1827). + 1868 - MaxĂm GorkĂj, rithöfundur (d. 1936). + 1878 - Johannes Erhardt Böggild, sendiherra Dana ĂĄ Ăslandi (d. 1929). + 1886 - SigfĂșs M. Johnsen, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1974). + 1897 - Sepp Herberger, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnuĂŸjĂĄlfari (d. 1977). + 1901 - Marta, sĂŠnsk prinsessa og sĂðar krĂłnprinsessa Noregs, kona Ălafs 5. (d. 1954). + 1910 - IngirĂður Danadrottning (d. 2000). + 1911 - John L. Austin, breskur heimspekingur (d. 1960). + 1914 - JĂłn JĂłnsson frĂĄ LjĂĄrskĂłgum, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (d. 1945). + 1926 - Ingvar GĂslason, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1936 - Mario Vargas Llosa, perĂșskur rithöfundur og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1940 - Luis Cubilla, ĂșrĂșgvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaður og -ĂŸjĂĄlfari (d. 2013). + 1942 - Daniel Dennett, bandarĂskur heimspekingur. + 1945 - Rodrigo Duterte, forseti Filippseyja. + 1956 - Zizi Possi, brasilĂsk tĂłnlistarkona. + 1964 - Harpa ArnardĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona. + 1966 - HĂžgni Hoydal, fĂŠreyskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1970 - Vince Vaughn, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1986 - Lady Gaga (Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta), bandarisk söngkona. + +DĂĄin + 193 - Pertinax, rĂłmverskur keisari (f. 126). + 1241 - Valdimar sigursĂŠli, Danakonungur (f. 1170). + 1285 - Marteinn 4. pĂĄfi. + 1584 - Ăvan grimmi, RĂșssakeisari (f. 1530). + 1619 - GĂsli ĂĂłrðarson, Ăslenskur lögmaður (f. 1545). + 1794 - Condorcet markgreifi, franskur heimspekingur (f. 1743). + 1850 - Bernt Michael Holmboe, norskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (f. 1795). + 1881 - Modest MĂșssorgskĂj, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1839). + 1932 - Arinbjörn Sveinbjarnarson, bĂłkbindari og bĂŠjarfulltrĂși (f. 1866). + 1941 - Virginia Woolf, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1882). + 1943 - Sergej RakhmanĂnov, tĂłnskĂĄld og pĂanĂłleikari (f. 1873). + 1959 - Edmond DebeaumarchĂ©, franskur andspyrnumaður (f. 1906). + 1969 - Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34. forseti BandarĂkjanna (f. 1890). + 1972 - Vilmundur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur lĂŠknir (landlĂŠknir) (f. 1889). + 1978 - VilhjĂĄlmur VilhjĂĄlmsson, Ăslenskur söngvari (f. 1945). + 1985 - Marc Chagall, franskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1887). + 2008 - Gunnar Ărn Gunnarsson, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1946). + 2013 - Richard Griffiths, breskur leikari (f. 1947). + +Mars +29. mars er 88. dagur ĂĄrsins (89. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 277 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 537 - VigilĂus varð pĂĄfi. + 1461 - Orrustan við Towton, sem talin er blóðugasti bardagi sem håður hefur verið ĂĄ enskri grund, ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað. Ăar vann JĂĄtvarður 4. sigur ĂĄ liði MargrĂ©tar drottningar. + 1549 - Borgin Salvador Ă BrasilĂu var stofnuð. + 1613 - Samuel de Champlain var skipaður fyrsti landstjĂłri NĂœja Frakklands. + 1613 - Pocahontas, dĂłttir Powhatans höfðingja, var tekin höndum og fĂŠrð til Jamestown. + 1638 - Fyrstu sĂŠnsku landnemarnir komu til NĂœju-SvĂĂŸjóðar ĂŸar sem nĂș er Delaware. + 1691 - BĂŠrinn Mons gafst upp fyrir umsĂĄtursmönnum. + 1787 - JĂłn EirĂksson, lögfrÊðingur og konferensråð svipti sig lĂfi Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + 1875 - Ăskjugosið 1875 hĂłfst. 17 jarðir ĂĄ Jökuldal fĂłru Ă eyði vegna ĂŸess. + 1881 - BjarndĂœr var skotið ĂĄ LĂĄtrum við Eyjafjörð og nokkur fleiri um austanvert landið. + 1883 - Mannskaðaveður reið yfir ĂorlĂĄkshöfn. TĂĂŠringur fĂłrst með ĂĄhöfn, en frönsk fiskiskĂșta bjargaði hĂĄsetum af öðru skipi. + 1930 - Heinrich BrĂŒning var skipaður rĂkiskanslari ĂĂœskalands. + 1943 - Skömmtun ĂĄ mjĂłlkurafurðum ĂĄ borð við mjĂłlk, smjör og ost hĂłfst Ă BandarĂkjunum vegna seinni heimsstyrjaldarinnar. + 1945 - SĂðustu V1-ĂĄrĂĄsir Ăjóðverja ĂĄ England ĂĄttu sĂ©r stað. + 1945 - Skeiðsfossvirkjun Ă Skagafirði var gangsett. + 1947 - Heklugos hĂłfst, hið fyrsta Ă rĂșma öld. Gosmökkurinn nåði 30 km hÊð og barst aska meðal annars til Finnlands og Englands. Gosið stóð Ă rĂșmt ĂĄr. + 1951 - Julius og Ethel Rosenberg voru dĂŠmd sek fyrir njĂłsnasamsĂŠri Ă BandarĂkjunum. Ăau voru tekin af lĂfi tveimur ĂĄrum sĂðar. + 1958 - 4 ungir menn fĂłrust Ă flugslysi ĂĄ Ăxnadalsheiði. + 1961 - Sett voru lög um launajöfnuð kvenna og karla ĂĄ Ăslandi. Skyldu ĂŸau komin til framkvĂŠmda að fullu fyrir 1. janĂșar 1967. + 1970 - HennĂœ HermannsdĂłttir (ĂŸĂĄ ĂĄtjĂĄn ĂĄra) sigraði Ă keppninni Miss Young International, sem haldin var Ă Japan. + 1971 - KviðdĂłmur Ă Los Angeles mĂŠltist til ĂŸess að Charles Manson yrði dĂŠmdur til dauða fyrir morðið ĂĄ leikkonunni Sharon Tate. + 1973 - SĂðustu bandarĂsku hermennirnir yfirgĂĄfu Suður-VĂetnam. + 1974 - KĂnverskir bĂŠndur uppgötvuðu leirherinn. + 1976 - HerforingjastjĂłrn undir forystu Jorge Videla tĂłk við völdum Ă ArgentĂnu. + 1981 - LundĂșnamaraĂŸonið var sett Ă fyrsta sinn. + 1985 - Manni var bjargað Ășr jökulsprungu sem hann fĂ©ll Ă Ă Kverkfjöllum eftir 32 klukkustundir. + 1988 - SuðurafrĂska ĂŸingkonan Dulcie September var myrt við skrifstofur AfrĂska ĂŸjóðarråðsins Ă ParĂs. + 1993 - Ădouard Balladur varð forsĂŠtisråðherra Frakklands. + 1998 - Vasco da Gama-brĂșin Ă PortĂșgal var vĂgð. + 1999 - Dow Jones-vĂsitalan stóð Ă 10.006,78 að loknum viðskiptadegi Ă Wall Street. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta skipti sem vĂsitalan var yfir 10.000 við lokun kauphallarinnar. + 2002 - Ăsraelsher hĂłf Defensive Shield-aðgerðina ĂĄ Vesturbakkanum. + 2004 - BĂșlgarĂa, Eistland, Lettland, LithĂĄen, RĂșmenĂa, SlĂłvakĂa og SlĂłvenĂa gerðust öll aðilar að NATO. + 2006 - Fyrrum forseti LĂberĂu, Charles Taylor, var handtekinn Ă MonrĂłvĂu sakaður um strĂðsglĂŠpi. + 2007 - 179 lĂ©tust Ă fimm sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjutilrÊðum Ă Ărak. + 2010 - Hryðjuverkin 29. mars 2010 Ă Moskvu: TvĂŠr konur frömdu sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjuĂĄrĂĄsir Ă neðanjarðarlestarstöðvum Ă Moskvu með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að yfir 40 lĂ©tu lĂfið. + 2012 - VarnarmĂĄlaråðherra SvĂĂŸjóðar, Sten Tolgfors, sagði af sĂ©r vegna SĂĄdĂhneykslisins. + 2013 - StjĂłrn Norður-KĂłreu lĂœsti yfir strĂðsĂĄstandi gagnvart Suður-KĂłreu. + 2017 - Bretland virkjaði 50 grein LissabonsĂĄttmĂĄlans og hĂłf ĂŸar með formlega Ăștgönguferli Ășr EvrĂłpusambandinu. + +FĂŠdd + 1769 - Jean-de-Dieu Soult, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1851). + 1780 - Jörundur hundadagakonungur (d. 1841). + 1790 - John Tyler, Bandarikjaforseti (d. 1862). + 1799 - Edward Smith-Stanley, jarl af Derby (d. 1869). + 1899 - LavrentĂj BerĂa, yfirmaður sovĂ©sku öryggislögreglunnar (d. 1953). + 1902 - William Walton, breskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1983). + 1916 - Peter Geach, breskur heimspekingur (d. 2013). + 1927 - JĂłn Hnefill Aðalsteinsson, Ăslenskur ĂŸjóðfrÊðingur (d. 2010). + 1937 - Gordon Milne, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1943 - Eric Idle, breskur gamanleikari og rithöfundur. + 1943 - John Major, fyrrverandi forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands. + 1944 - ĂĂłrir Baldursson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1952 - Bola Tinubu, forseti NĂgerĂu. + 1957 - Christopher Lambert, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1958 - Tsutomu Sonobe, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1959 - Nouriel Roubini, bandarĂskur hagfrÊðingur. + 1964 - Elle Macpherson, ĂĄströlsk fyrirsĂŠta + 1966 - Ăvar Guðmundsson Ăștvarpsmaður + 1967 - MargrĂ©t LĂła JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslenskt skĂĄld. + 1968 - Lucy Lawless, nĂœsjĂĄlensk leikkona. + 1972 - Rui Costa, portĂșgalskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1972 - Hera Björk ĂĂłrhallsdĂłttir, Ăslensk söngkona. + 1973 - Marc Overmars, hollenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1978 - Ragnar Hansson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1990 - Teemu Pukki, finnskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 1058 - StefĂĄn 9. pĂĄfi. + 1772 - Emanuel Swedenborg, sĂŠnskur vĂsindamaður (f. 1688). + 1787 - JĂłn EirĂksson, Ăslenskur lögfrÊðingur (f. 1728). + 1792 - GĂșstaf 3. SvĂakonungur, eftir að hafa verið skotinn ĂŸann 16. mars. + 1870 - Paul-Ămile Botta, franskur fornleifafrÊðingur og konsĂșll (f. 1802). + 1912 - Robert Falcon Scott, breskur landkönnuður (f. 1868). + 1955 - Einar ArnĂłrsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1880). + 1963 - August Rei, eistneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1886). + 1973 - Adolfo ZumelzĂș, argentĂnskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1902). + 1982 - Carl Orff, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1895). + 1985 - Jeanine Deckers, belgĂsk nunna (f. 1933). + 1985 - George Peter Murdock, breskur mannfrÊðingur (f. 1897). + 1991 - Lee Atwater, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlaråðgjafi (f. 1951). + 1999 - Gyula ZsengellĂ©r, ungverskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1915). + 2003 - Tadao Horie, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1913). + 2005 - Mitch Hedberg, bandarĂskur grĂnisti (f. 1968). + 2016 - Patty Duke, bandarĂsk leikkona (f. 1946). + +Mars +30. mars er 89. dagur ĂĄrsins (90. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 276 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1131 - Almyrkvi ĂĄ sĂłlu sĂĄst ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1282 - Sikileysku aftansöngvarnir hĂłfust, uppreisn gegn stjĂłrn Frakka ĂĄ eynni. + 1296 - JĂĄtvarður 1. Englandskonungur réðist ĂĄ skoska landamĂŠrabĂŠinn Berwick-upon-Tweed og strĂĄfelldi flesta ĂbĂșana. + 1533 - Thomas Cranmer varð erkibiskup af Kantaraborg. + 1742 - Sveinn Sölvason varð varalögmaður norðan lands og vestan. + 1802 - BĂłlusetning við kĂșabĂłlu var lögboðin ĂĄ Ăslandi og var ĂŸað með fyrstu löndum til slĂkrar lagasetningar. + 1816 - Hið Ăslenska bĂłkmenntafĂ©lag var stofnað. + 1858 - Hymen Lipman fĂ©kk skråð einkaleyfi ĂĄ blĂœanti með ĂĄföstu strokleðri. + 1867 - BandarĂkin keyptu Alaska af RĂșssum fyrir 7,2 milljĂłnir dollara. + 1912 - Ungmennasamband Austur-HĂșnvetninga var stofnað. + 1934 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă GrĂmsvötnum Ă Vatnajökli og olli hlaupi Ă SkeiðarĂĄ. + 1945 - SĂðari heimsstyrjöldin: SovĂ©tmenn réðust inn Ă AusturrĂki og hertĂłku VĂnarborg. + 1949 - AlĂŸingi Ăslendinga samĂŸykkti aðild landsins að NATO, en við ĂŸað brutust Ășt Ăłeirðir ĂĄ Austurvelli. + 1972 - VĂetnamstrĂðið: Her Norður-VĂetnam hĂłf PĂĄskasĂłknina inn Ă Suður-VĂetnam. + 1976 - Gaukshreiðrið eftir Milos Forman hlaut Ăskarsverðlaun sem besta kvikmyndin. + 1981 - Ronald Reagan var skotinn Ă brjĂłstið fyrir utan hĂłtel Ă Washington. + 1981 - Kvikmyndin Chariots of Fire var frumsĂœnd Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1982 - Geimskutlan Columbia lenti Ă NĂœju MexĂkĂł eftir 129 ferðir umhverfis jörðina. + 1985 - MĂłtefni gegn eyðniveiru fundust Ă fyrsta sinn Ă blóði Ăslendings. + 2004 - FĂ©lagið FriðarhĂșs var stofnað Ă ReykjavĂk. + 2006 - MĂœraeldar komu upp ĂĄ Hraunhreppi Ă MĂœrasĂœslu og brunnu Ă yfir tvo sĂłlarhringa. + 2017 - GeimflutningafyrirtĂŠkið SpaceX endurnĂœtti Ă fyrsta sinn eldflaug Ă geimskoti. + 2019 â Zuzana ÄaputovĂĄ var kjörin forseti SlĂłvakĂu. + 2020 â OlĂuverðstrĂð RĂșsslands og SĂĄdi-ArabĂu 2020: SĂĄdi-ArabĂa lĂŠkkaði verð ĂĄ hrĂĄolĂu Ă 23 dollara, sem var ĂŸað lĂŠgsta frĂĄ 2002. + +FĂŠdd + 1432 - Mehmet 2. TyrkjasoldĂĄn (d. 1481). + 1639 - Ăvan Mazepa, ĂșkraĂnskur kĂłsakkaleiðtogi (d. 1709). + 1746 - Francisco Goya, spĂŠnskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1828). + 1844 - Paul Verlaine, franskt skĂĄld (d. 1896). + 1853 - Vincent van Gogh, hollenskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1890). + 1892 - Stefan Banach, pĂłlskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1945). + 1895 - NĂkolaj BĂșlganĂn, forsĂŠtisråðherra SovĂ©trĂkjanna (d. 1975). + 1926 - Ingvar Kamprad, sĂŠnskur athafnamaður (d. 2018). + 1927 - MĂĄlmfrĂður SigurðardĂłttir, alĂŸingiskona. + 1937 - Warren Beatty, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1945 - Eric Clapton, breskur tĂłnlistarmaður + 1962 - MC Hammer, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1964 - Tracy Chapman, bandarĂskur söngvari. + 1964 - Vera Zimmermann, brasilĂsk leikkona. + 1967 - Gerald McCullouch, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1968 - CĂ©line Dion, kanadĂsk söngkona. + 1968 - Ari Alexander Ergis MagnĂșsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1970 - Secretariat, bandarĂskur veðhlaupahestur (d. 1989). + 1973 - Auður JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur rithöfundur. + 1979 - Norah Jones, bandarĂsk söngkona. + 1982 - Jason Dohring, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1986 - Sergio Ramos, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1988 - Richard Sherman, bandarĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1990 - Stella SigurðardĂłttir, Ăslensk handknattleikskona. + +DĂĄin + 1842 - Ălisabeth Louise VigĂ©e Le Brun, frönsk myndlistarkona (f. 1755). + 1885 - Hugh Andrew Johnston Munro, breskur fornfrÊðingur (f. 1819). + 1902 - Matthias Hans RosenĂžrn, danskur embĂŠttismaður og stiftamtmaður ĂĄ Ăslandi (f. 1814). + 1934 - Finnur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur mĂĄlfrÊðingur (f. 1858). + 1950 - LĂ©on Blum, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1872). + 1970 - Heinrich BrĂŒning, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1885). + 1986 - James Cagney, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1899). + 1993 - Richard Diebenkorn, bandarĂskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1922). + 2002 - ElĂsabet drottningarmóðir (f. 1900). + 2003 - Michael Jeter, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1952). + 2005 - Alan Dundes, bandarĂskur ĂŸjóðfrÊðingur (f. 1934). + +Mars +31. mars er 90. dagur ĂĄrsins (91. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 275 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1344 - JĂłn Sigurðsson SkĂĄlholtsbiskup aflagði ĂgĂșstĂnusarreglu Ă Viðey og klaustrið varð aðsetur Benediktsmunka til 1352. + 1376 - GregorĂus 11. pĂĄfi bannfĂŠrði alla stjĂłrnendur FlĂłrens og setti borgina Ă bann. + 1492 - FerdĂnand og Ăsabella fyrirskipuðu brottrekstur allra gyðinga frĂĄ SpĂĄni nema ĂŸeir snerust til kaĂŸĂłlskrar trĂșar. + 1532 - Englendingar börðust við ĂŸĂœska kaupmenn um hafnaraðstöðu ĂĄ BĂĄsendum og biðu Ăłsigur. + 1547 - Hinrik 2. varð konungur Frakklands. + 1814 - NapĂłleonsstyrjaldirnar: Alexander 1. RĂșssakeisari og Friðrik VilhjĂĄlmur 3. PrĂșssakonungur riðu inn Ă ParĂs. + 1829 - Francesco Saverio Castiglioni varð PĂus 8. pĂĄfi. + 1854 - SjĂłguninn af Japan neyddist til að undirrita friðar- og vinĂĄttusamning við bandarĂska flotaforingjann Matthew C. Perry. + 1856 - KrĂmstrĂðinu lauk með friðarsamningum Ă ParĂs. + 1863 - Kona kaus Ă fyrsta sinn Ă bĂŠjarstjĂłrnarkosningum ĂĄ Ăslandi og var ĂŸað Maddama Vilhelmina Lever ĂĄ Akureyri. + 1880 - Wabash Ă Indiana Ă BandarĂkjunum varð fyrsti raflĂœsti bĂŠr heimsins. + 1889 - Eiffelturninn var vĂgður. + 1905 - Gull fannst við jarðborun Ă VatnsmĂœri við ĂskjuhlĂð Ă ReykjavĂk. Magnið var of lĂtið til að vera vinnanlegt. + 1909 - Björn JĂłnsson tĂłk við råðherraembĂŠtti af Hannesi Hafstein. Björn sat Ă tvö ĂĄr. + 1909 - SerbĂa viðurkenndi yfirråð AusturrĂkis yfir BosnĂu-HersegĂłvĂnu. + 1917 - BandarĂkin keyptu Dönsku Vestur-IndĂur af Dönum og borguðu 25 milljĂłnir dollara fyrir. SĂðan hafa eyjarnar heitið BandarĂsku JĂłmfrĂșreyjar. + 1931 - JarðskjĂĄlfti lagði Managva Ă NĂkaragva Ă rĂșst og 2.000 manns dĂłu. + 1948 - HeimastjĂłrnarlögin 1948 voru gefin Ășt um stöðu FĂŠreyja Ă Danmörku. + 1949 - Samtök rafverktaka stofnuð Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1955 - Togarinn JĂłn Baldvinsson strandaði við Reykjanes. Allri ĂĄhöfninni var bjargað, 42 mönnum. + 1959 - Tenzin Gyatso, fjĂłrtĂĄndi DalaĂ Lama, fĂ©kk pĂłlitĂskt hĂŠli ĂĄ Indlandi. + 1964 - BrasilĂski herinn framdi valdarĂĄn gegn JoĂŁo Goulart, forseta BrasilĂu. + 1966 - SovĂ©trĂkin skutu upp geimfarinu Luna 10 og komu ĂŸvĂ ĂĄ sporbaug um tunglið. + 1967 - Ă Raufarhöfn mĂŠldist 205 cm snjĂłdĂœpt og ĂŸykir ĂŸað með fĂĄdĂŠmum Ă ĂŸĂ©ttbĂœli ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1969 - KjörĂs hĂłf starfsemi Ă Hveragerði. + 1970 - Japanski rauði herinn rĂŠndi flugvĂ©l Japan Airlines ĂĄ leið frĂĄ TĂłkĂœĂł til Fukuoka með 131 farĂŸega. + 1974 - Breska flugfĂ©lagið British Airways var stofnað. + 1979 - SteingrĂmur Hermannsson tĂłk við af Ălafi JĂłhannessyni sem formaður FramsĂłknarflokksins. + 1979 - Varnarsamningur milli Möltu og Bretlands rann Ășt og sĂðasti breski hermaðurinn fĂłr frĂĄ eyjunni. + 1979 - Ăsrael sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva með laginu âHallelujahâ sem flutt var af söngkonunni Gali Atari og sönghĂłpnum Milk & Honey. + 1986 - 167 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Boeing 747-farĂŸegavĂ©l hrapaði Ă MexĂkĂł. + 1989 - LĂnuhraðall, tĂŠki til geislameðferðar vegna krabbameina, var tekinn Ă notkun ĂĄ LandspĂtala Ăslands. + 1990 - NefskattsĂłeirðirnar Ă Bretlandi: âĂnnur orrustan um Trafalgarâ ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað ĂŸegar Ăłeirðir brutust Ășt ĂĄ Trafalgartorgi Ă London. + 1991 - VarsjĂĄrbandalagið var leyst upp. + 1991 - Fyrstu fjölflokkakosningarnar voru haldnar Ă AlbanĂu. + 1991 - Yfir 99% kjĂłsenda Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu um sjĂĄlfstÊði GeorgĂu samĂŸykktu. + 1994 - TĂmaritið Nature sagði frĂĄ uppgötvun fyrstu heilu hauskĂșpu Australopithecus afarensis Ă EĂŸĂĂłpĂu. + 1995 - BandarĂsk-mexĂkĂłska söngkonan Selena var myrt af fyrrum starfsmanni sĂnum, Yolanda SaldĂvar. + 1997 - BarnaĂŸĂŠttirnir Stubbarnir hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ BBC Two. + 1998 - Netscape gaf frumkóða Mozilla-vafrans Ășt með frjĂĄlsu afnotaleyfi. + 1999 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Fylkið var frumsĂœnd. + 2002 - Svissneska flugfĂ©lagið Swissair varð gjaldĂŸrota. + 2003 - 400 fĂłrust Ă aurskriðu sem fĂłr yfir nĂĄmubĂŠinn Chima Ă BĂłlivĂu. + 2006 - MenntaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk sigrar MorfĂs ĂŸað ĂĄrið. + 2007 - ĂbĂșar Hafnarfjarðar höfnuðu stĂŠkkun Ălversins Ă StraumsvĂk. + 2009 - 200 flĂłttamenn fĂłrust Ă Miðjarðarhafi milli LĂbĂu og ĂtalĂu. + 2009 - Benjamin Netanyahu myndaði stjĂłrn Ă Ăsrael ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir að hafa beðið lĂŠgri hlut fyrir Tzipi Livni Ă kosningum. + 2011 - Mayotte varð frönsk handanhafssĂœsla og ĂŸar með hluti af Frakklandi. + 2011 - Hersveitir Alassane Ouattara hĂ©ldu inn Ă höfuðborg FĂlabeinsstrandarinnar til að setja forsetann, Laurent Gbagbo, af eftir að hann hafði neitað að viðurkenna tap Ă forsetakosningum ĂĄrið åður. + 2012 - Fyrsta danska hraðbrautin sem reist var sem einkaframkvĂŠmd, SĂžnderborg-hraðbrautin, var opnuð ĂĄri fyrr en ĂĄĂŠtlað var. + 2013 - Fyrsta tilvikið ĂŸar sem fuglaflensuveiran H7N9 smitaðist Ă mann greindist Ă KĂna. + 2014 - AlĂŸjóðadĂłmstĂłllinn Ășrskurðaði að hvalveiðar Japana Ă Suður-Ăshafi gĂŠtu ekki talist Ă vĂsindaskyni og ĂŠttu ekki að fĂĄ fleiri leyfi. + 2015 - Muhammadu Buhari varð forseti NĂgerĂu. + 2016 - StrĂðsglĂŠpadĂłmstĂłll Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna sĂœknaði serbneska ĂŸjóðernissinnann Vojislav Ć eĆĄelj af ĂĄsökunum um glĂŠpi gegn mannkyni. + 2017 - KvennaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk sigrar Ă Gettu betur Ă annað sinn. + +FĂŠdd + 1499 - PĂus 4. pĂĄfi (d. 1565). + 1519 - Hinrik 2. Frakkakonungur (d. 1559). + 1596 - RenĂ© Descartes, heimspekingur og stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1650). + 1675 - Benedikt 14. pĂĄfi (d. 1758). + 1684 - Francesco Durante, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1755). + 1723 - Friðrik V Danakonungur (d. 1766). + 1732 - Joseph Haydn, austurrĂskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1809). + 1781 - Bjarni Thorsteinsson, amtmaður (d. 1876). + 1791 - PĂĄll Melsteð, amtmaður, sĂœslumaður og alĂŸingismaður (d. 1861). + 1809 - Nikolaj Gogol, rĂșssneskur rithöfundur (d. 1852). + 1819 - Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-SchillingsfĂŒrst, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1901). + 1835 - Theodor WisĂ©n, sĂŠnskur norrĂŠnufrÊðingur (d. 1892). + 1872 + Alexandra Kollontaj, sovĂ©sk stjĂłrnmĂĄlakona og erindreki (d. 1952). + Helgi Pjeturss, Ăslenskur jarðfrÊðingur (d. 1949). + 1914 - Octavio Paz, mexĂkĂłskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1998). + 1919 - StefĂĄn Hörður GrĂmsson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (d. 2002). + 1921 - JĂłn MĂșli Ărnason, Ăslenskur Ăștvarpsmaður (d. 2002). + 1928 - Sigurður A. MagnĂșsson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (d. 2017). + 1934 - Shirley Jones, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1935 - Richard Chamberlain, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1936 - Towa Carson, sĂŠnsk söngkona. + 1939 - Zviad Gamsakhurdia, forseti GeorgĂu (d. 1993). + 1943 - Christopher Walken, leikari + 1948 - Al Gore, fyrrverandi varaforseti BandarĂkjanna. + 1964 - Olexander TĂșrtsĂnov, ĂșkraĂnskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1967 - ÄœubomĂr LuhovĂœ, slĂłvakĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1968 - CĂ©sar Sampaio, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumyndir. + 1971 - Ewan McGregor, skoskur leikari. + 1973 - ĂrĂșður VilhjĂĄlmsdĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona. + 1973 - KristjĂĄn Guy Burgess, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlafrÊðingur. + 1982 - ChloĂ© Zhao, kĂnverskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1985 - Jessica Szohr, bandarĂsk leikkona. + +DĂĄin + 1296 - Ăorvarður ĂĂłrarinsson, Ăslenskur goðorðsmaður og riddari af ĂŠtt SvĂnfellinga. + 1340 â Ăvan 1. af Moskvu (f. 1288). + 1547 - Frans 1. Frakkakonungur (f. 1494). + 1621 - Filippus 3. SpĂĄnarkonungur (f. 1578). + 1631 - John Donne, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1572). + 1727 - Isaac Newton, enskur vĂsindamaður (f. 1642). + 1748 - Ărni Hallvarðsson, prestur ĂĄ Hvalsnesi ĂĄ Suðurnesjum (f. 1712). + 1837 - John Constable, enskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1776). + 1850 - John C. Calhoun, varaforseti BandarĂkjanna (f. 1782). + 1855 - Charlotte BrontĂ«, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1816). + 1917 - Emil von Behring, ĂŸĂœskur örverufrÊðingur og nĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1854). + 1945 - Anna Frank, dagbĂłkarhöfundur (f. 1929). + 1980 - Jesse Owens, bandarĂskur ĂĂŸrĂłttamaður (f. 1913). + 1988 - William McMahon, fĂŠrsĂŠtisråðherra ĂstralĂu (f. 1908). + 1993 - Brandon Lee, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1965). + 1995 - Selena, bandarĂsk söngkona (f. 1971). + 2008 - Gunnar GĂslason, Ăslenskur prestur (f. 1914). + 2009 - Raul Alfonsin, forseti ArgentĂnu (f. 1927). + 2016 - Imre KertĂ©sz, ungverskur rithöfundur (f. 1929). + 2017 - Tino Insana, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1948). + +Mars +1. aprĂl er 91. dagur ĂĄrsins (92. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 274 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1240 - HĂĄkon ungi HĂĄkonarson var krĂœndur meðkonungur föður sĂns Ă Noregi. + 1340 - Niels Ebbesen drap Geirharð 3. hertoga af Holtsetalandi Ă Randers. + 1605 - Alessandro Ottaviano de'Medici varð LeĂł 11. pĂĄfi. + 1621 - ĂbĂșar Plymouth-nĂœlendunnar gerðu sinn fyrsta samning við indĂĂĄna. + 1807 - Trampe stiftamtmaður setti reglugerð um brunavarnir Ă ReykjavĂk. Bannað var að reykja pĂpu innanhĂșss og nĂĄlĂŠgt eldfimum efnum. + 1855 - EinkarĂ©ttur Dana til verslunar ĂĄ Ăslandi var aflagður og mĂĄttu Ăslendingar eftir ĂŸað versla við allar ĂŸjóðir. + 1867 - Fyrsta nemendafĂ©lag MenntaskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk, BandamannafĂ©lagið, var stofnað. + 1871 - FjĂĄrhagur Ăslands og Danmerkur var aðskilinn og Ăslensk krĂłna varð til. + 1873 - Hilmar Finsen varð fyrsti landshöfðingi Ăslands. Hann var åður stiftamtmaður en sĂðar borgarstjĂłri Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + 1891 - Wrigley-fyrirtĂŠkið var stofnað Ă Chicago Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1896 - Ălafoss hĂłf ullarvinnslu. + 1924 - Adolf Hitler var dĂŠmdur Ă fimm ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir ĂŸĂĄtttöku sĂna Ă valdarĂĄnstilraun Ă MĂŒnchen ĂĄrið 1923. Hann sat ĂŸĂł aðeins inni Ă nĂu mĂĄnuði. + 1936 - AlĂŸĂœĂ°utryggingalög gengu Ă gildi ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1955 - HĂĄtĂðahöld til að minnast aldarafmĂŠlis frjĂĄlsrar verslunar fĂłru fram ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1955 - AprĂlgabb birtist Ă TĂmanum um vĂŠntanlegan fund Êðstu råðamanna heims Ă ReykjavĂk. SlĂkur fundur varð ekki ĂĄ dagskrĂĄ fyrr en 31 og hĂĄlfu ĂĄri sĂðar, 10. oktĂłber 1986. + 1965 - StĂłr-LundĂșnasvÊðið var formlega skipulagt sem sĂœsla ĂĄ Englandi. + 1970 - Richard Nixon undirritaði Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act sem bannaði sĂgarettuauglĂœsingar Ă sjĂłnvarpi. + 1976 - TölvufyrirtĂŠkið Apple var stofnað af Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak og Ronald Wayne. + 1976 - Postverk FĂžroya tĂłk við pĂłstĂŸjĂłnustu Ă FĂŠreyjum af Post- og TelegrafvĂŠsnet. + 1976 - Opinbera lestarfyrirtĂŠkið Conrail var stofnað Ă BandarĂkjunum til að taka við rekstri 13 gjaldĂŸrota jĂĄrnbrauta. + 1979 - Barnastöðin Pinwheel Network breytti nafni sĂnu Ă Nickleodeon og hĂłf Ăștsendingar ĂĄ Ăœmsum kapalkerfum Warner. + 1979 - AusturrĂskir lögreglumenn handtĂłku lĂŠrlinginn Andreas Mihavecz, lokuðu hann inni Ă fangaklefa og gleymdu honum svo. Hann fannst aftur fyrir tilviljun 17 dögum sĂðar og hafði lifað af með ĂŸvĂ að sleikja raka af veggjum klefans. + 1981 - Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin GrĂœlurnar var stofnuð. + 1981 - SumartĂmi var tekinn upp Ă SovĂ©trĂkjunum. + 1984 - Marvin Gaye, söngvari, var skotinn til bana af föður sĂnum. + 1984 - Kringvarp FĂžroya hĂłf Ăștsendingar. + 1986 - Sector Kanda: KommĂșnistar Ă Nepal reyndu valdarĂĄn með ĂŸvĂ að råðast ĂĄ lögreglustöðvar Ă KatmandĂș. + 1987 - TaĂlensk-austurrĂski orkudrykkurinn Red Bull kom ĂĄ markað Ă AusturrĂki. + 1990 - Seyðisfjarðarkaupstaður og Seyðisfjarðarhreppur vou sameinaðir undir merkjum Seyðsfjarðarkaupstaðar. + 1991 - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsstöðin Comedy Central hĂłf göngu sĂna Ă kapalkerfi. + 1992 - Blóðbaðið Ă Bijeljina hĂłfst ĂŸegar vopnaðir serbneskir hĂłpar hĂłfu að myrða Ăłbreytta borgara Ă Bijeljina Ă BosnĂu. + 1995 - Dialog Telekom hĂłf rekstur fyrsta GSM-nets SrĂ Lanka. + 1996 - SveitarfĂ©lagið Halifax var myndað Ășr fjĂłrum eldri sveitarfĂ©lögum. + 1997 - Hale-Bopp-halastjarnan nåði sĂłlnĂĄnd. + 1997 - TeiknimyndaĂŸĂŠttirnir PokĂ©mon hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ TV Tokyo. + 1997 - Borgarhverfið UĆŸupis Ă Vilnius lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði sem âlĂœĂ°veldið UĆŸupisâ. + 1998 - Vefmiðillinn VĂsir stofnaður. + 1999 - KanadĂska fylkið Nunavut varð til Ășr austurhluta NorðvesturhĂ©raðanna. + 2000 - Siglingamiðstöðin Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy var opnuð. + 2001 - Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ, fyrrverandi forseti JĂșgĂłslavĂu gaf sig fram við sĂ©rsveitir lögreglu. + 2001 - Flugslysið ĂĄ Hainan: BandarĂsk njĂłsnaflugvĂ©l lenti Ă ĂĄrekstri við kĂnverska orrustuflugvĂ©l. KĂnverski flugmaðurinn fannst aldrei en 10 manna ĂĄhöfn bandarĂsku flugvĂ©larinnar nauðlenti Ă KĂna, var handtekin og haldið Ă 10 daga. + 2001 - HjĂłnabönd samkynhneigðra voru heimiluð með nĂœjum lögum Ă Hollandi. + 2002 - Holland lögleiddi aðstoð við sjĂĄlfsvĂg fyrst landa. + 2003 - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Fyrsti aprĂll var frumsĂœnd. + 2005 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Sin City var frumsĂœnd Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 2007 - Ăslenska fjarskiptafyrirtĂŠkið MĂla ehf var stofnað. + 2008 - StĂŠrsta rĂĄn Ă sögu Danmerkur var framið Ă peningageymslu Ă Glostrup. RĂŠningjarnir komust undan með 62 milljĂłnir. + 2009 â AlbanĂa og KrĂłatĂa gengu Ă NATĂ. + 2012 - Flokkur Aung San Suu Kyi, LĂœĂ°rÊðisbandalagið, vann meirihluta lausra ĂŸingsĂŠta Ă aukakosningum Ă Mjanmar. + 2017 - Mocoa-skriðan: Yfir 300 fĂłrust Ă skriðum Ă KĂłlumbĂu. + +FĂŠdd + 1545 - Peder ClaussĂžn Friis, norskur fornfrÊðingur (d. 1614). + 1640 - Georg Mohr, danskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1697). + 1755 - Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, franskur matmaður (d. 1826). + 1815 - Otto von Bismarck, stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1898). + 1873 - Sergei Rachmaninoff, tĂłnskĂĄld, pĂanĂłleikari og stjĂłrnandi (d. 1943). + 1920 - ToshirĆ Mifune, leikari (d. 1997). + 1920 - Hjörtur EldjĂĄrn ĂĂłrarinsson, bĂłndi ĂĄ Tjörn Ă Svarfaðardal (d. 1996). + 1929 - Milan Kundera, tĂ©kkneskur rithöfundur. + 1930 - Ăsta SigurðardĂłttir, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (d. 1971). + 1932 - Debbie Reynolds, leikkona. + 1940 - Wangari Maathai, kenĂskur lĂffrÊðingur (d. 2011). + 1950 - Samuel Alito, bandarĂskur hĂŠstarĂ©ttardĂłmari. + 1958 - Milton Queiroz da PaixĂŁo, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1961 - Susan Boyle, skosk söngkona. + 1963 - Joe Wright, bandarĂskur körfuknattleiksmaður. + 1971 - Method Man, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1975 - Washington Stecanela Cerqueira, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1979 - Ivano BaliÄ, krĂłatĂskur handknattleiksmaður. + 1983 - Ălafur Ingi SkĂșlason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1985 - Elena Berkova, rĂșssnesk klĂĄmmyndaleikkona og söngkona. + 1987 - JosĂ© Ortigoza, paragvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 1132 - HĂșgĂł frĂĄ ChĂąteauneuf, biskup Ă Grenoble (f. 1052). + 1204 - ElinĂłra af AkvitanĂu, drottning Frakklands og sĂðar Englands. + 1205 - Amalrekur 1., konungur KĂœpur og JerĂșsalem (f. 1145). + 1412 - Albrekt af Mecklenburg, SvĂakonungur 1363â1389 (f. 1336). + 1441 - Blanka 1., drottning Navarra (f. 1387). + 1637 - Niwa Nagashige, japanskur strĂðsherra (f. 1571). + 1684 - Roger Williams, enskur guðfrÊðingur (f. 1603). + 1868 - Rasoherina, drottning Madagaskar (f. 1814). + 1922 - Karl 1. AusturrĂkiskeisari (f. 1887). + 1922 - Henri-Paul Motte, franskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1846). + 1927 - Eymundur JĂłnsson, jĂĄrnsmiður og bĂłndi (f. 1840). + 1976 - Max Ernst, listmĂĄlari (f. 1891). + 1984 - Marvin Gaye, bandarĂskur söngvari (f. 1939). + 1990 - Carlos Peucelle, argentĂnskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1908). + 1996 - Hjörtur EldjĂĄrn ĂĂłrarinsson, bĂłndi ĂĄ Tjörn Ă Svarfaðardal (f. 1920). + 2002 - JĂłn MĂșli Ărnason, Ăștvarpsmaður og tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1921). + 2013 - HerdĂs ĂorvaldsdĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona (f. 1923) + +Hefðir + AprĂlgabb + +Heimildir + +AprĂl +2. aprĂl er 92. dagur ĂĄrsins (93. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 273 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 999 - Gerbert d'Aurillac varð Silvester 2. pĂĄfi. + 1285 - Giacomo Savelli varð HonĂłrĂus 4. pĂĄfi. + 1305 - LoðvĂk krĂłnprins Frakklands, sĂðar LoðvĂk 10., varð konungur Navarra sem LoðvĂk 1. við lĂĄt móður sinnar. Skömmu åður hafði hann gengið að eiga MargrĂ©ti af BĂșrgund. + 1453 - UmsĂĄtrið um KonstantĂnĂłpel hĂłfst. + 1725 - JarðskjĂĄlftar við upphaf Heklugoss voru âskelfilegirâ að sögn HĂtardalsannĂĄls. + 1801 - Breski flotinn undir stjĂłrn Nelsons flotaforingja gjörsigraði danska flotann við Kaupmannahöfn. + 1831 - Lorentz Angel Krieger varð stiftamtmaður ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1877 - Talsvert tjĂłn varð Ă ReykjavĂk og nĂĄgrenni Ă norðanstormi sem stóð Ă tvo daga. + 1900 - Setning Forakerlaganna Ă bandarĂska ĂŸinginu veitti PĂșertĂł RĂkĂł heimastjĂłrn. + 1902 - Fyrsta kvikmyndahĂșsið Ă BandarĂkjunum, Electric Theatre, var opnað Ă Los Angeles Ă KalifornĂu. + 1908 - TĂłlf menn fĂłrust en einn bjargaðist er bĂĄtur fĂłrst Ă lendingu við Stokkseyri. + 1928 - Fyrsta Ăslenska konan fĂ©kk lyfsöluleyfi, JĂłhanna MagnĂșsdĂłttir, sem rak LyfjabĂșðina Iðunni Ă ReykjavĂk Ă ĂĄratugi. + 1930 - Haile Selassie var lĂœstur keisari EĂŸĂĂłpĂu. + 1973 - StafrĂłfsmorðin: Wanda Walkowicz hvarf Ă Rochester (New York). + 1973 - LexisNexis opnaði fyrir tölvukeyrða leit Ă dĂłmasafni. + 1982 - ArgentĂna gerði innrĂĄs ĂĄ Falklandseyjar og hĂłf ĂŸannig FalklandseyjastrĂðið. + 1991 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă PĂnatĂșbĂł ĂĄ Filippseyjum. + 1992 - John Gotti var dĂŠmdur Ă ĂŠvilangt fangelsi Ă New York-borg, fyrir morð og skipulagða glĂŠpastarfsemi. + 2004 - BĂșlgarĂa, Eistland, Lettland, LithĂĄen, RĂșmenĂa, SlĂłvakĂa og SlĂłvenĂa urðu fullgildir meðlimir Ă NATO. + 2007 - JarðskjĂĄlfti að stĂŠrðargråðu 8,1 ĂĄ Richter skĂłk SalĂłmonseyjar og olli flóðbylgju. + 2007 - Reykingabann ĂĄ almannafĂŠri og vinnustöðum tĂłk gildi Ă Wales. + 2011 - KvennaskĂłlinn Ă ReykjavĂk sigrar Ă Gettu betur Ă fyrsta sinn. + +FĂŠdd + 747 - KarlamagnĂșs (Karl mikli], konungur Franka (d. 814). + 1545 - ElĂsabet af Valois, drottning SpĂĄnar (d. 1568). + 1618 - Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Ătalskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1663). + 1725 - Giacomo Casanova, feneyskur ĂŠvintĂœramaður og rithöfundur (d. 1798). + 1805 - Hans Christian Andersen, danskur rithöfundur (d. 1875). + 1840 - Ămile Zola, franskur rithöfundur og gagnrĂœnandi (d. 1902). + 1891 - Max Ernst, ĂŸĂœskur mĂĄlari (d. 1976). + 1914 - Alec Guinness, breskur leikari (d. 2000). + 1923 - Wendell Clausen, bandarĂskur fornfrÊðingur (d. 2006). + 1927 - Ferenc PuskĂĄs, ungverskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 2006). + 1939 - Marvin Gaye, söngvari. (d. 1984). + 1945 - Linda Hunt, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1951 - SigfĂșs JĂłnsson, fyrrum bĂŠjarstjĂłri Akureyrar. + 1952 - Leon Wilkeson, bandarĂskur bassaleikari (Lynyrd Skynyrd). + 1959 - Alberto FernĂĄndez, forseti ArgentĂnu. + 1961 - Keren Woodward, bresk söngkona (Bananarama). + 1965 - Svavar Hrafn Svavarsson, Ăslenskur heimspekingur. + 1965 - Rodney King, bandarĂskur leigubĂlstjĂłri (d. 2012). + 1967 - Greg Camp, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (Smash Mouth). + 1975 - Adam RodrĂguez, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1979 - MagnĂșs KĂĄri JĂłnsson, ĂŸjĂĄlfari. + 1989 - Berglind Festiva PĂ©tursdĂłttir, sjĂłnvarpskona + +DĂĄin + 1118 - Baldvin 1. konungur JerĂșsalem. + 1244 - Henrik HarpestrĂŠng, danskur lĂŠknir og grasafrÊðingur. + 1272 - RĂkharður, jarl af Cornwall og konungur ĂĂœskalands (f. 1209). + 1305 - JĂłhanna 1. Navarradrottning (f. 1273). + 1335 - Hinrik BĂŠheimskonungur (f. um 1265). + 1641 - Georg af BrĂșnsvĂk-LĂŒneburg, ĂŸĂœskur hertogi (f. 1582). + 1657 - Ferdinand 3. keisari hins heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis (f. 1603). + 1709 - Giovanni Battista Gaulli, Ătalskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1639). + 1861 - Peter Georg Bang, danskur forsĂŠtisråðherra (f. 1797). + 1872 - Samuel Morse, höfundur Morse-merkjakerfisins (f. 1791). + 1894 - HermannĂus E. Johnson, landfĂłgeti ĂĄ Ăslandi (f. 1825). + 1914 - Paul Heyse, ĂŸĂœskur rithöfundur og nĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1830). + 1974 - Georges Pompidou, forseti Frakklands (f. 1911). + 2005 - JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. pĂĄfi (f. 1920). + +AprĂl +3. aprĂl er 93. dagur ĂĄrsins (94. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 272 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1367 - Orrustan við NĂĄjera: PĂ©tur KastilĂukonungur komst aftur Ă hĂĄsĂŠtið með aðstoð JĂĄtvarðar svarta prins og herliðs hans, + 1631 - SvĂar lögðu Frankfurt an der Oder undir sig. + 1647 - BrĂ©f frĂĄ New Model Army ĂŸar sem töfum ĂĄ launagreiðslum er mĂłtmĂŠlt, var lesið upp Ă enska ĂŸinginu. + 1657 - Oliver Cromwell tĂłk sĂ©r titilinn LĂĄvarður samveldis Englands, Skotlands og Ărlands. + 1882 - Landshöfðingi tilkynnti að stofnuð yrði geymsla fyrir skjalasöfn Êðstu embĂŠtta. Ăað varð grunnurinn að Ăjóðskjalasafni Ăslands. + 1882 - Jesse James, Ăștlagi Ă villta vestrinu, var skotinn Ă bakið og drepinn. + 1920 - Millilandaskipið Ăsland var sett Ă sĂłttkvĂ við komuna til ReykjavĂkur vegna inflĂșensu um borð. + 1922 - JĂłsef StalĂn var Ăștnefndur aðalritari sovĂ©ska kommĂșnistaflokksins. + 1948 - Harry S Truman, forseti BandarĂkjanna, skrifaði undir Marshall-ĂĄĂŠtlunina. + 1968 - Martin Luther King yngri hĂ©lt frĂŠga rÊðu. + 1968 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin ApaplĂĄnetan var frumsĂœnd. + 1969 - Hungurvaka var haldin Ă tvo sĂłlarhringa Ă MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk til ĂŸess að vekja athygli ĂĄ hungri Ă heiminum. + 1971 - MĂłnakĂł sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva með laginu âUn banc, un arbre, une rueâ sem franska söngkonan SĂ©verine söng. + 1973 - Motorola sĂœndi Ă fyrsta sinn farsĂma sem gat hringt Ă gegnum farsĂmakerfi. + 1974 - AlĂŸingi lĂœsti Surtsey friðland. + 1975 - Bobby Fischer neitaði að heyja heimsmeistaraeinvĂgi við AnatolĂj Karpov, og varð Karpov ĂŸar með heimsmeistari. + 1976 - Breska hljĂłmsveitin Brotherhood of Man sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva með laginu âSave Your Kisses for Meâ. + 1977 - Fyrsta geimgreftrunin fĂłr fram ĂŸegar aska Gene Roddenberry var flutt Ășt Ă geim með geimskutlu. + 1984 - Banni við hundahaldi var aflĂ©tt Ă ReykjavĂk, en ĂŸað hafði staðið sĂðan 1. september 1971. + 1986 - IBM sĂœndi fyrstu kjöltutölvu fyrirtĂŠkisins, IBM Portable Personal Computer. + 1986 - Bresku barnaĂŸĂŠttirnir TuskubrĂșðurnar hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ ITV. + 1991 - Ăryggisråð Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna samĂŸykkti ĂĄlyktun 687 ĂŸar sem Ărak var gert að afvopnast og eyða öllum efna- og lĂfefnavopnum sĂnum. + 1995 - AlrĂkislögregla RĂșssneska SambandsrĂkisins var stofnuð af Boris JeltsĂn ĂŸĂĄverandi forseta RĂșsslands. + 1996 - Theodore Kaczynski, betur ĂŸekktur sem Unabomber var handtekinn Ă fjallakofa Ă Montana. + 1996 - Boeing 737-herflugvĂ©l rakst ĂĄ fjall norðan við Ragusa Ă KrĂłatĂu. Allir um borð, 35 talsins, lĂ©tust, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal viðskiptaråðherra BandarĂkjanna Ron Brown. + 1996 - TĂștsar hĂłfu fjöldamorð ĂĄ hĂștĂșum Ă BĂșrĂșndĂ. + 1997 - Thalit-fjöldamorðin: Allir ĂbĂșar Thalit Ă AlsĂr nema einn voru myrtir af skĂŠruliðum. + 2000 - BandarĂkin gegn Microsoft: TölvufyrirtĂŠkið Microsoft var sĂłtt til saka vegna ĂĄsakana um samkeppnishamlandi aðgerðir. + 2001 - Fyrstu tveggja hÊða strĂŠtisvagnarnir hĂłfu að ganga Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + 2003 - SerbĂa og Svartfjallaland varð aðili að EvrĂłpuråðinu. + 2003 - Risasmokkfiskur veiddist Ă Rosshafi. + 2003 - ĂraksstrĂðið: BandarĂkjaher lagði alĂŸjóðaflugvöllinn Ă Bagdad undir sig. + 2005 - VĂ©lhjĂłlaklĂșbbur Skagafjarðar var stofnaður. + 2006 - Thaksin Shinawatra sigraði mjög umdeildar ĂŸingkosningar Ă TaĂlandi ĂŸar sem stjĂłrnarandstaðan hvatti fĂłlk til að sniðganga kosningarnar. + 2007 - Franska hĂĄhraðalestin TGV nåði 574,8 km/klst hraða og setti ĂŸannig hraðamet hefðbundinna jĂĄrnbrautarlesta. + 2008 - Fyrrum forsĂŠtisråðherra KosĂłvĂł, Ramush Haradinaj, var sĂœknaður af ĂĄkĂŠrum um strĂðsglĂŠpi gegn serbneskum ĂbĂșum KosĂłvĂł fyrir AlĂŸjóðlega strĂðsglĂŠpadĂłmstĂłlnum fyrir fyrrum JĂșgĂłslavĂu. Mörg vitni gegn honum höfðu verið myrt eða horfið Ă aðdraganda rĂ©ttarhaldanna. + 2009 - L-listinn drĂł framboð sitt til AlĂŸingis til baka. + 2010 - Apple Inc setti iPad ĂĄ markað. + 2011 - Fyrsta Druslugangan var farin Ă Toronto Ă Kanada. + 2016 - FrĂ©ttir birtust um Panamaskjölin Ă fjölmiðlum um allan heim. Skjölin voru gefin Ășt af blaðamannasamtökunum International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. + 2017 - HryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄsin Ă Sankti PĂ©tursborg 2017: 16 lĂ©tust Ă sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjuĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ neðanjarðarlestarstöð Ă Sankti PĂ©tursborg Ă RĂșsslandi. + +FĂŠdd + 1245 - Filippus 3., konungur Frakklands (d. 1285). + 1366 - Hinrik 4. Englandskonungur (d. 1413). + 1683 - Mark Catesby, enskur nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingur (d. 1749). + 1693 - George Edwards, enskur nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingur (d. 1773). + 1783 - Washington Irving, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (d. 1859). + 1829 - KatrĂn ĂorvaldsdĂłttir SĂvertsen, eiginkona JĂłns Ărnasonar ĂŸjóðsagnasafnara (d. 1895). + 1881 - Alcide De Gasperi, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1954). + 1901 - Eric Voegelin, ĂŸĂœskur hagfrÊðingur (d. 1985). + 1922 - Doris Day, bandarĂsk leikkona (d. 2019). + 1924 - Marlon Brando, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2004). + 1926 - JĂłn hlaupari, Ăslenskur frjĂĄlsĂĂŸrĂłttamaður (d. 2016). + 1929 - Poul SchlĂŒter, forsĂŠtisråðherra Danmerkur. + 1930 - Helmut Kohl, kanslari ĂĂœskalands (d. 2017). + 1934 - Jane Goodall, breskur dĂœrafrÊðingur. + 1949 - Anthony C. Grayling, breskur heimspekingur. + 1957 - Yves Chaland, franskur myndasöguhöfundur. + 1958 - Alec Baldwin, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1960 - Miguel DĂaz-Canel, forseti KĂșbu. + 1961 - Eddie Murphy, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1965 - Katsumi Oenoki, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1968 - Jamie Hewlett, breskur myndasöguhöfundur. + 1970 - Donald-Olivier SiĂ©, knattspyrnumaður frĂĄ FĂlabeinsströndinni. + 1971 - Robert da Silva Almeida, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1971 - Shireen Abu Akleh, palestĂnsk blaðakona (d. 2022). + 1976 - Drew Shirley, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (Switchfoot). + 1977 - Alen AvdiÄ, bosnĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1982 - Cobie Smulders, kanadĂsk leikkona. + 1986 - Amanda Bynes, bandarĂsk leikkona. + +DĂĄin + 963 - VilhjĂĄlmur 3. hertogi af AkvitanĂu. + 1287 - HonĂłrĂus 4. pĂĄfi. + 1350 - OttĂł 4., hertogi af BĂșrgund (f. 1295). + 1658 - Ălafur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur prestur (f. 1570). + 1682 - BartolomĂ© Esteban Murillo, spĂŠnskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1618). + 1882 - Jesse James, Ăștlagi Ă villta vestrinu (f. 1847). + 1897 - Johannes Brahms, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1833). + 1917 - MagnĂșs Stephensen, Ăslenskur landshöfðingi (f. 1836). + 1974 - Guðmundur Böðvarsson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1904). + 1991 - Graham Greene, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1994). + 1994 - JĂ©rĂŽme Lejeune, franskur erfðafrÊðingur (f. 1926). + 2009 - IngĂłlfur Guðbrandsson, Ăslenskur ferðamĂĄlafrömuður (f. 1923). + 2010 - Eugene Terre'Blanche, suðurafrĂskur nĂœfasisti (f. 1941). + 2013 - Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, ĂŸĂœskur rithöfundur (f. 1927). + +AprĂl +4. aprĂl er 94. dagur ĂĄrsins (95. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 271 dagur er eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1328 - NiðarĂłsdĂłmkirkja Ă Noregi brann. + 1406 - Jakob 1. varð konungur Skotlands að nafninu til. + 1581 - Francis Drake lauk hringferð sinni um heiminn og var aðlaður af ElĂsabetu 1. Englandsdrottningu. + 1588 - KristjĂĄn 4. varð konungur Danmerkur, 11 ĂĄra gamall, eftir lĂĄt föður sĂns Friðriks 2. + 1607 - Iskandar Muda varð soldĂĄn Ă Aceh. + 1609 - Filippus 3. gaf Ășt tilskipun um að kristnir mĂĄrar skyldu reknir frĂĄ SpĂĄni. + 1639 - SĂŠnski herinn undir stjĂłrn Johans BanĂ©r, vann sigur ĂĄ keisarahernum Ă orrustunni við Chemnitz Ă Saxlandi. + 1721 - Robert Walpole var skipaður forsĂŠtisråðherra Ă Bretlandi. + 1897 - Hið Ăslenska prentarafĂ©lag var stofnað. Ăað er elsta starfandi verkalĂœĂ°sfĂ©lag ĂĄ Ăslandi og er nĂș hluti af FĂ©lagi bĂłkagerðarmanna. + 1905 - 370.000 manns fĂłrust Ă jarðskjĂĄlfta nĂĄlĂŠgt Kangra ĂĄ Indlandi. + 1923 - BandarĂska kvikmyndaframleiðslufyrirtĂŠkið Warner Bros. var stofnað. + 1939 - Faisal 2. varð konungur Ăraks. + 1949 - TĂłlf ĂŸjóðir skrifuðu undir Norður-AtlantshafssĂĄttmĂĄlann og mynduðu ĂŸannig Atlantshafsbandalagið (NATO) + 1956 - AlĂŸĂœĂ°ubandalagið var stofnað. + 1959 - MalĂsambandið var stofnað. + 1964 - BĂtlarnir ĂĄttu smĂĄskĂfur à öllum fimm efstu sĂŠtum bandarĂska Billboard-listans. + 1965 - Mosfellskirkja Ă Mosfellsdal var vĂgð. + 1968 - Martin Luther King yngri var myrtur. + 1970 - RĂșgbrauðsgerðin Ă ReykjavĂk stĂłrskemmdist Ă eldi. HĂșsið var gert upp og hĂœsir nĂș veislusali rĂkisins. + 1973 - World Trade Center var formlega opnað Ă New York-borg. + 1974 - Seðlabankinn hĂłf að selja ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂðarmynt að verðgildi 500 kr., 1000 kr. og 10000 kr. og rann ĂĄgóðinn Ă ĂŸjóðhĂĄtĂðarsjóð. + 1975 - FyrirtĂŠkið Microsoft stofnað af Bill Gates og Paul Allen Ă Albuquerque Ă NĂœju-MexĂkĂł. + 1979 - Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, forseti Pakistans, var tekinn af lĂfi. + 1981 - Breska hljĂłmsveitin Bucks Fizz sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva með laginu âMaking Your Mind Upâ. + 1982 - FalklandseyjastrĂðið: Breska varnarliðið ĂĄ Falklandseyjum gafst upp fyrir ArgentĂnuher. + 1983 - Fyrsta flug geimskutlunnar Challenger fĂłr fram. + 1984 - Ronald Reagan kallaði eftir alĂŸjóðlegu banni við notkun efnavopna. + 1987 - FjölbrautaskĂłlinn Ă Breiðholti sigrar Ă Gettu betur Ă fyrsta og eina sinn. + 1991 - SĂðasta bindi AlĂŸingisbĂłka Ăslands kom Ășt. Bindin eru 17 alls og stóð ĂștgĂĄfan yfir frĂĄ 1912. + 1991 - FjĂłrir ungir menn af vĂetnömskum uppruna tĂłku 40 manns Ă gĂslingu Ă Sacramento Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1991 - SĂŠnska stjĂłrnin skipaði Lars Eckerdal biskup Ă Gautaborg ĂŸar sem hann var eini umsĂŠkjandinn sem samĂŸykkti að vĂgja konur til prests. + 2002 - Borgarastyrjöldinni Ă AngĂłla lauk með friðarsamkomulagi stjĂłrnarinnar við skĂŠruliða UNITA. + 2004 - BandĂœmannafĂ©lagið Viktor var stofnað Ă ReykjavĂk. + 2005 - Askar Akayev sagði af sĂ©r sem forseti Kirgistan. + 2006 - Tom Delay, leiðtogi repĂșblikana ĂĄ bandarĂska ĂŸinginu tilkynnti um afsögn sĂna. + 2007 - StjörnufrÊðingar uppgötvuðu fjarreikistjörnuna Gliese 581 c. + 2008 - Franska seglskipinu Le Ponant var rĂŠnt af sjĂłrĂŠningjum við strönd SĂłmalĂu með 30 farĂŸega um borð. + 2009 - George Abela varð forseti Möltu. + 2020 â Keir Starmer tĂłk við sem leiðtogi Breska verkamannaflokksins af Jeremy Corbyn. + 2021 - Yfir 270 fĂłrust ĂŸegar fellibylurinn Seroja gekk yfir Austur-Nusa Tenggara og TĂmor. + +FĂŠdd + 188 - Caracalla, keisari RĂłmaveldis (d. 217). + 1646 - Antoine Galland, franskur fornleifafrÊðingur (d. 1715). + 1905 - Shojiro Sugimura, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 1975). + 1906 - Yasuo Haruyama, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 1987). + 1913 - Muddy Waters, tĂłnlistarmaður (d. 1983). + 1928 - Maya Angelou, bandarĂskt ljóðskĂĄld og rithöfundur (d. 2014). + 1932 - Andrej TarkovskĂj, kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (d. 1986). + 1932 - Anthony Perkins, kvikmyndaleikari (d. 1992). + 1936 - Ann-Louise Hanson, sĂŠnsk söngkona. + 1944 - Craig T. Nelson, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1957 - Aki KaurismĂ€ki, finnskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1958 - Edvaldo Oliveira Chaves, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1958 - Masakuni Yamamoto, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1960 - Hugo Weaving, ĂĄstralskur leikari. + 1961 - Gyrðir ElĂasson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur. + 1965 - Robert Downey Jr., bandarĂskur leikari. + 1979 - Heath Ledger, ĂĄstralskur leikari (d. 2008). + 1990 - Manabu Saito, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1991 - Jamie Lynn Spears, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona. + +DĂĄin + 896 - FormĂłsus pĂĄfi. + 911 - Liu Yin, strĂðsherra ĂĄ tĂmum Tangveldisins (f. 874). + 1284 - Alfons 10. KastilĂukonungur (f. 1221). + 1292 - NikulĂĄs 4. pĂĄfi. + 1406 - RĂłbert 3. Skotakonungur (f. 1337). + 1459 - EirĂkur af Pommern, konungur Danmerkur (d. 1382). + 1588 - Friðrik 2. Danakonungur (f. 1534). + 1617 - John Napier, skoskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (f. 1550). + 1761 - Stephen Hales, enskur vĂsindamaður (f. 1677). + 1841 - William Henry Harrison, 9. forseti BandarĂkjanna (f. 1773). + 1929 - Karl Benz, ĂŸĂœskur verkfrÊðingur og bifreiðahönnuður (f. 1844). + 1958 - Victor Urbancic, austurrĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (f. 1903). + 1967 - HĂ©ctor Scarone, ĂșrĂșgvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1898). + 1968 - Martin Luther King, Jr., bandarĂskur mannrĂ©ttindafrömuður (f. 1929). + 1979 - Ali Bhutto, forseti og forsĂŠtisråðherra Pakistans (f. 1928). + 1991 - Max Frisch, svissneskur rithöfundur (f. 1911). + 2010 - JĂłn Böðvarsson, Ăslenskur skĂłlameistari og frÊðimaður (f. 1930). + 2013 - Ălafur HalldĂłrsson, ĂslenskufrÊðingur (f. 1920). + 2015 - Klaus Rifbjerg, danskur rithöfundur (f. 1931). + +AprĂl +5. aprĂl er 95. dagur ĂĄrsins (96. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 270 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1058 - Benedikt 10. mĂłtpĂĄfi tĂłk við embĂŠtti. + 1241 - MongĂłlar sigruðu Bela 4. af Ungverjalandi Ă orrustunni við Sajo. Landið var lagt meira og minna Ă auðn. + 1242 - Alexander NevskĂj sigraði ĂĂœsku riddarana ĂĄ orrustunni ĂĄ Ăsnum ĂĄ Peipusvatni. + 1355 - Karl 4. var krĂœndur keisari hins Heilaga rĂłmverska keisaradĂŠmis Ă RĂłm. + 1534 - ĂĂœskir mĂĄlaliðar drĂĄpu Jan Matthys ĂĄ pĂĄskadag en ĂŸann dag hafði hann einmitt spåð að reiði Guðs kĂŠmi yfir hina ranglĂĄtu. + 1614 - Pocahontas og John Rolfe gengu Ă hjĂłnaband Ă Jamestown. + 1621 - Skipið Mayflower sneri aftur til Englands frĂĄ Plymouth-nĂœlendunni. + 1654 - WestminstersĂĄttmĂĄlinn batt enda ĂĄ fyrsta strĂð Englands og Hollands. + 1697 - Karl 12. varð konungur SvĂĂŸjóðar. + 1815 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă fjallinu Tambora Ă Hollensku Austur-IndĂum (IndĂłnesĂu). Tindur fjallsins eyddist Ă gĂfurlegu sprengigosi og tugĂŸĂșsundir manna lĂ©tust Ă gosinu eða Ă kjölfar ĂŸess. Mikið magn gjĂłsku barst Ășt Ă andrĂșmsloftið og hafði ĂĄhrif ĂĄ loftslag og veðurfar um heim allan. Talið er að meðallofthiti ĂĄ jörðinni allri hafi lĂŠkkað nokkur nĂŠstu ĂĄr. + 1933 - AlĂŸjóðadĂłmstĂłllinn Ă Haag dĂŠmdi Dönum yfirråð yfir öllu GrĂŠnlandi, en Norðmenn höfðu reynt að helga sĂ©r hluta ĂŸess undir heitinu Land EirĂks rauða. + 1940 - AlĂŸingi samĂŸykkti að taka upp hĂŠgri umferð ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸann 1. janĂșar 1941. Horfið var frĂĄ ĂŸeim ĂĄformum vegna hernĂĄms Breta, sem Ăłku vinstra megin og gera enn. + 1948 - Lög voru sett um vĂsindalega verndun fiskimiða landgrunnsins. Ă ĂŸeim byggðist ĂștfĂŠrsla fiskveiðilögsögunnar. + 1951 - Ethel og Julius Rosenberg voru dĂŠmd til dauða Ă BandarĂkjunum fyrir að stunda njĂłsnir Ă ĂŸĂĄgu SovĂ©trĂkjanna. + 1955 - Sir Winston Churchill sagði af sĂ©r sem forsĂŠtisråðherra Breta og drĂł sig Ă hlĂ© frĂĄ stjĂłrnmĂĄlum vegna heilsubrests, 80 ĂĄra gamall. + 1968 - KosningarĂ©ttur var lĂŠkkaður Ășr 21 ĂĄri Ă 20 ĂĄr. + 1971 - Söngleikurinn HĂĄrið var frumsĂœndur Ă GlaumbĂŠ. + 1973 - Pierre Messmer varð forsĂŠtisråðherra Ă Frakklandi. + 1976 - James Callaghan varð forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands. + 1977 - Joachim Yhombi-Opango varð forseti herforingjastjĂłrnarinnar Ă Vestur-KongĂł. + 1986 - Flugslysið Ă LjĂłsufjöllum: FlugvĂ©l ĂĄ leið frĂĄ Ăsafirði]] til ReykjavĂkur fĂłrst Ă LjĂłsufjöllum ĂĄ SnĂŠfellsnesi og með henni 5 manns, en tveir lifðu af. + 1986 - DiskĂłtilrÊðið Ă BerlĂn: Sprengja sprakk ĂĄ diskĂłteki Ă Vestur-BerlĂn með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 3 lĂ©tust. + 1988 - Kuwait Airways flugi 422 var rĂŠnt. Ă kjölfarið fylgdu umsĂĄtur Ă ĂŸremur heimsĂĄlfum og morð ĂĄ tveimur farĂŸegum. + 1992 - BosnĂa-HersegĂłvĂna lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði eftir ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu. + 1992 - BosnĂustrĂðið: Serbneskar hersveitir settust um SarajevĂł. + 1992 - Alberto Fujimori, forseti PerĂș, leysti upp ĂŸing PerĂș með tilskipun, kom ĂĄ ritskoðun og lĂ©t handtaka stjĂłrnarandstöðuĂŸingmenn. + 1994 - SkotĂĄrĂĄsin Ă ĂrĂłsahĂĄskĂłla: Fleming Nielsen skaut tvĂŠr konur til bana og sĂŠrði aðrar tvĂŠr ĂĄ matsal Ă ĂrĂłsahĂĄskĂłla Ă Danmörku. + 1995 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin The Last Supper var frumsĂœnd. + 1998 - StĂŠrsta hengibrĂș heims, Akashi KaikyĆ-brĂșin milli eyjanna Shikoku og HonshĆ« Ă Japan, var opnuð fyrir umferð. + 1999 - LĂbĂœa afhenti skoskum yfirvöldum tvo menn sem grunaðir voru um að hafa valdið sprengingunni Ă Pan Am flugi 103 yfir Lockerbie. + 2000 - Mori Yoshiro tĂłk við sem forsĂŠtisråðherra Japans. + 2006 - Slökkvistarfi vegna MĂœraelda lauk að fullu. + 2008 - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn hernĂĄmi KĂna Ă TĂbet ĂĄttu sĂ©r stað ĂŸar sem ĂlympĂukyndillinn var borinn um strĂŠti London. + 2009 - Anders Fogh Rasmussen sagði af sĂ©r forsĂŠtisråðherraembĂŠtti Ă Danmörku eftir að hafa verið skipaður framkvĂŠmdastjĂłri NATO. + 2009 - Norður-KĂłrea skaut gervihnettinum KwangmyĆngsĆng-2 Ășt Ă geim með eldflaug. Ăryggisråð Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna var kallað saman af ĂŸvĂ tilefni. + 2016 - Sigmundur DavĂð Gunnlaugsson sagði af sĂ©r embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisråðherra Ăslands Ă kjölfar uppljĂłstrana um aflandsfyrirtĂŠki hans og eiginkonu hans. + 2018 - Handtökuskipun var gefin Ășt ĂĄ hendur fyrrum forseta BrasilĂu, Luiz InĂĄcio Lula da Silva, eftir að hĂŠstirĂ©ttur ĂĄkvað að fella niður habeas corpus vegna spillingar. + +FĂŠdd + 1170 - Ăsabella af Hainaut, drottning Frakklands (d. 1190). + 1588 - Thomas Hobbes, enskur heimspekingur (d. 1679). + 1828 - Ărni Thorsteinson, landfĂłgeti og alĂŸingismaður (d. 1907). + 1841 - HallgrĂmur Sveinsson, biskup Ăslands (d. 1909). + 1900 - Spencer Tracy, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 1967). + 1908 - Bette Davis, bandarĂsk leikkona (d. 1989). + 1908 - Herbert von Karajan, austurrĂskur hljĂłmsveitarstjĂłri (d. 1989). + 1914 - Gunnar GĂslason, Ăslenskur prestur (d. 2008). + 1916 - Gregory Peck, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2003). + 1928 - ĂgĂșst George, hollenskur prestur (d. 2008). + 1937 - Colin Powell, utanrĂkisråðherra BandarĂkjanna. + 1941 - Peter Greenaway, velskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1941 - Bas van Fraassen, hollenskur heimspekingur. + 1946 - Jane Asher, ensk leikkona. + 1947 - Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, forseti Filippseyja. + 1950 - Agnetha FĂ€ltskog, sĂŠnsk söngkona. + 1973 - Pharrell Williams, bandariskur songvari. + +DĂĄin + 1205 - Ăsabella, drottning JerĂșsalem (f. 1172). + 1534 - Jan Matthys, leiðtogi anabaptista Ă MĂŒnster (f. um 1500). + 1697 - Karl 11. SvĂakonungur (f. 1655) + 1821 - SĂŠmundur MagnĂșsson HĂłlm, prestur ĂĄ Helgafelli (f. 1749). + 1923 - Carnarvon lĂĄvarður, enskur aðalsmaður (f. 1866). + 1929 - Otto Liebe, danskur forsĂŠtisråðherra (f. 1850). + 1958 - ĂsgrĂmur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1876). + 1954 - Marta krĂłnprinsessa Noregs (f. 1901). + 1975 - Chiang Kai-shek, leiðtogi Kuomintang (f. 1887). + 1994 - Kurt Cobain, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (f. 1967). + 1997 - Allan Ginsberg, bandarĂskt skĂĄld (f. 1926). + 1998 - JĂłnas Ărnason, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (f. 1923). + 2002 - Layne Staley, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (f. 1967). + 2005 - Saul Bellow, bandarĂskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1915). + 2006 - Gene Pitney, bandarĂskur dĂŠgurlagasöngvari (f. 1940). + 2008 - Charlton Heston, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1923). + 2012 - Bingu wa Mutharika, forseti Malavi (f. 1934). + 2023 - Sigurlaug BjarnadĂłttir frĂĄ Vigur fv. alĂŸingismaður og menntaskĂłlakennari (f. 1926). + +AprĂl +Eftirfarandi er listi yfir Ăslenskar kvikmyndir. Taldar eru upp ĂŸĂŠr kvikmyndir sem höfðu aðalframleiðslu ĂĄ Ăslandi og eru ekki styttri en 45 mĂnĂștur. + +Ăannig er Ă skĂłm drekans ekki ĂĄ ĂŸessum lista ĂŸvĂ hĂșn er heimildarmynd, hins vegar er hĂșn ĂĄ listanum yfir Ăslenskar heimildarmyndir. Einnig er Litla lirfan ljĂłta ekki ĂĄ listanum ĂŸvĂ hĂșn er aðeins 28 mĂnĂștur og telst ĂŸvĂ stuttmynd, hana mĂĄ hins vegar finna ĂĄ listanum yfir Ăslenskar stuttmyndir. Ămsar aðrar myndir gĂŠtu ef til vill talist Ăslenskar vegna tengsla ĂŸeirra við Ăsland, til dĂŠmis er kvikmyndin Hadda Padda stundum kölluð fyrsta Ăslenska kvikmyndin, en hĂșn er ekki ĂĄ ĂŸessum lista ĂŸvĂ hĂșn er strangt til tekin framleidd Ă Danmörku ĂŸĂłtt að hĂșn hafi verið tekin upp ĂĄ Ăslandi og margir Ăslendingar unnið við hana, sĂș mynd er ĂĄ listanum yfir kvikmyndir tengdar Ăslandi. SilnĂœ kafe er einnig ĂĄ ĂŸeim lista ĂŸvĂ hĂșn var meðframleidd af Ăslendingum og var leikstĂœrt af Ăslendingi. + +1949 â 1979 + +1980 â 1989 + +1990 â 1999 + +2000 â 2009 + +2010 â 2019 + +2020 â 2029 + +Verk Ă vinnslu + +Heimildir +Listi yfir Ăslenskar bĂĂłmyndir, stuttmyndir og sjĂłnvarpsefni ĂĄ Kvikmyndir.is +Ăslenskar bĂĂłmyndir ĂĄ Steinninn.is +All titles from Iceland ĂĄ IMDb +Ăslenskar bĂĂłmyndir frumsĂœndar ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1962-2004 ĂĄ heimasĂðu Ălafs H. T. +UpplĂœsingar um Ăslenska list ĂĄ icelandculture.ru +Catalogue ĂĄ heimasĂðu Kvikmyndamiðstöðvarinnar +VĂŠntanlegar Ăslenskar myndir ĂĄ Kvikmyndir.is +Ăslenskar kvikmyndir ĂĄ Kvikmyndavefurinn +Verk Ă vinnslu ĂĄ Kvikmyndamiðstöð Ăslands + +Listar tengdir Ăslandi + +Ăslenskar kvikmyndir +Miðnesheiði getur ĂĄtt við eftirfarandi: + Kvikmyndina Miðnesheiði + Miðnesheiði ĂĄ milli Sandgerðis og KeflavĂkur +Milli fjalls og fjöru var fyrsta Ăslenska kvikmyndin Ă fullri lengd, sem og fyrsta talmyndin. HĂșn var gefin Ășt ĂĄrið 1949 og er 91 mĂnĂșta að lengd. LeikstjĂłri myndarinnar var Loftur Guðmundsson sem var mikill frumkvöðull Ă kvikmyndagerð ĂĄ Ăslandi. Myndin var frumsĂœnd Ă Gamla bĂĂłi 13. janĂșar 1949 og almennar sĂœningar hĂłfust daginn eftir. + +Ăslenskar kvikmyndir +Loftur Guðmundsson (18. ĂĄgĂșst 1892 - 4. janĂșar 1952) var Ăslenskur ljĂłsmyndari og kvikmyndagerðarmaður. Loftur fĂŠddist Ă HvammsvĂk Ă KjĂłs. Foreldrar hans voru Guðmundur Guðmundsson, bĂłndi og sĂðar verslunarmaður Ă ReykjavĂk, og JakobĂna JakobsdĂłttir. Loftur var tvĂkvĂŠntur, fyrri kona hans var StefanĂa ElĂn GrĂmsdĂłttir og eignuðust ĂŸau fjögur börn. Eftir að hĂșn lĂ©st bjĂł hann með GuðrĂði SveinsdĂłttur. Loftur fluttist til Danmerkur 1921 og stundaði nĂĄm Ă orgelleik og lĂŠrði ljĂłsmyndun og framhaldsnĂĄm hjĂĄ Peter Elfelt Ă Kaupmannahöfn 1925. Samhliða ljĂłsmyndanĂĄminu kynnti hann sĂ©r kvikmyndagerð og ĂĄrið 1945 hĂ©lt hann til BandarĂkjanna til ĂŸess að kynna sĂ©r kvikmyndagerð frekar. Loftur var einn helsti ljĂłsmyndari landsins ĂĄ öðrum fjĂłrðungi tuttugustu aldar. Hann var fyrst og fremst portrettljĂłsmyndari en tĂłk einnig myndir fyrir LeikfĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur um ĂĄrabil, auk ĂŸess nokkuð af atburða- og staðarmyndum ĂĄ fyrstu starfsĂĄrum sĂnum. + +Loftur stofnaði verslun ĂĄsamt öðrum og rak hana ĂŸar til hann tĂłk við rekstri gosdrykkjagerðarinnar Sanitas ĂĄrið 1913 af bróður sĂnum Guðmundi gerlafrÊðingi. Ărið 1924 seldi hann hlut sinn og ĂĄri seinna stofnaði hann ljĂłsmyndastofu Ă NĂœja bĂĂłi Ă LĂŠkjargötu Ă ReykjavĂk. HĂșn var starfrĂŠkt ĂŸar til 1943 en flutti ĂŸĂĄ að BĂĄrugötu 5. Hann rak hana til dĂĄnardags en niðjar hans tĂłku við og rĂĄku til ĂĄrsins 1996. Loftur varð konunglegur sĂŠnskur hirðljĂłsmyndari ĂĄrið 1928 fyrir myndir sem hann sendi sĂŠnska konunginum að gjöf. ĂĂĄ hlaut hann viðurkenningu frĂĄ Jupiterlicht verksmiðjunni Ă ĂĂœskalandi fyrir uppfinningu ĂĄ sĂ©rstaklega heppilegri notkun ĂĄ ljĂłsmyndalömpum. + +Loftur var einn af stofnendum KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Vals og lĂ©k með fĂ©laginu við góðan orðstĂr. ĂĂĄ var Loftur jafnframt fyrsti formaður Vals en hann var formaður fĂ©lagsins ĂĄrin 1911-1914. + +Hann var einn af brautryðjendum Ăslenskrar kvikmyndagerðar en fyrsta mynd hans var stuttmyndin ĂvintĂœri JĂłns og Gvendar sem var sĂœnd ĂĄrið 1923. NĂŠstu ĂĄrin gerði hann nokkrar heimildarmyndir, en ĂĄrið 1949 var frumsĂœnd eftir hann fyrsta Ăslenska talmyndin Ă fullri lengd, Milli fjalls og fjöru. Ărið 1951 gerði hann svo Niðursetninginn sem var sĂðasta kvikmynd hans. Loftur skrifaði sjĂĄlfur handrit kvikmynda sinna. + +Ărið 2002 gaf Ăjóðminjasafn Ăslands Ășt bĂłkina Enginn getur lifað ĂĄn Lofts. BĂłkin hefur að geyma ĂŸrjĂĄr greinar um Loft, ĂŠvi hans og störf, eftir Erlend Sveinsson, Ingu LĂĄru BaldvinsdĂłttur og MargrĂ©ti ElĂsabetu ĂlafsdĂłttur. Titillinn vĂsar til auglĂœsingar frĂĄ Lofti Guðmundssyni sem birtist ĂĄrið 1945. + +Ăslenskir kvikmyndaleikstjĂłrar +Ăslenskir ljĂłsmyndarar +Niðursetningurinn er kvikmynd eftir Loft Guðmundsson frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1951. BrynjĂłlfur JĂłhannesson leikur aðalhlutverkið og leikstĂœrir myndinni. + +Með önnur hlutverk Ă myndinni fĂłru meðal annars (Ă stafrĂłfsröð): JĂłn Aðils, Bessi Bjarnason, Hanna GuðmundsdĂłttir, Valur GĂslason, JĂłn LeĂłs, BryndĂs PĂ©tursdĂłttir og Haraldur Ă. Sigurðsson. + +Ăslenskar kvikmyndir +Hringurinn er tilraunakvikmynd eftir Friðrik ĂĂłr Friðriksson. Ă myndinni keyrir myndatökumaður Hringveginn (Ăjóðveg 1) Ă kringum Ăsland með myndavĂ©l ĂĄ ĂŸaki bĂlsins. MyndavĂ©lin tekur svo einn ramma ĂĄ hverjum 12 metrum. Ăegar myndin er svo sĂœnd ĂĄ 24 römmum ĂĄ sekĂșndu samsvarar ĂŸað ĂŸvĂ að ferðast ĂĄ hljóðhraða. Hringferðin tekur um 80 mĂnĂștur. + +Ăslenskar kvikmyndir +SĂłley er Ăslensk kvikmynd eftir RĂłsku frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1982. Myndin fjallar um ungann mann sem leitar að hestinum sĂnum sem strauk. Við leitina berst hann við djöfulinn með konu sem minnir helst ĂĄ guð. + +Ăslenskar kvikmyndir +Rauða skikkjan var kvikmynd framleidd ĂĄrið 1967 Ă sameiningu af SvĂum, Dönum og Ăslendingum. HĂșn var tekin ĂĄ Ăslandi og er Ă lit. Flestir leikarar myndarinnar voru sĂŠnskir eða danskir, en ĂŸrĂr Ăslendingar fĂłru ĂŸĂł með hlutverk Ă henni, ĂŸeir Borgar Garðarsson, GĂsli Alfreðsson og Flosi Ălafsson. Sagan var byggð ĂĄ sögu Ășr 7. bĂłk Gesta Danorum eftir Saxo Grammaticus. + +Ăslenskar kvikmyndir +Danskar kvikmyndir +SĂŠnskar kvikmyndir +Veiðiferðin er Ăslensk fjölskyldumynd eftir AndrĂ©s Indriðason frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1980. + +Ăslenskar kvikmyndir +Virginia Woolf (25. janĂșar 1882 â 28. mars 1941) var breskur rithöfundur, gagnrĂœnandi og feministi. HĂșn er Ă hĂłpi ĂĄhrifamestu skĂĄldsagnahöfunda ĂĄ 20. öld. Auk ĂŸess sem verk hennar höfðu mikil ĂĄhrif ĂĄ kvennabarĂĄttu 20. aldar, var Virginia brautryðjandi nĂœrra aðferða við skĂĄldsagnaritun með notkun hugflÊðis og innra eintals. HĂșn skrifaði um hversdagslega atburði, lagði ekki ĂĄherslu ĂĄ flĂłknar flĂ©ttur eða djĂșpa persĂłnusköpun heldur ĂĄ tilfinningalĂf og hugmyndir söguhetjanna. Ăar takmarkaði hĂșn sig ekki við eina söguhetju heldur ferðaðist Ășr hugarfylgsnum einnar persĂłnu til annarrar, The Waves er lĂklega besta dĂŠmi ĂŸess. Ăekktasta bĂłk Virginiu er ĂŸĂł eflaust skĂĄldsagan To the Lighthouse frĂĄ 1927. Nokkrar kvikmyndir hafa verið gerðar um lĂf skĂĄldkonunnar, nĂș sĂðast The Hours (2002) með Nicole Kidman Ă hlutverki Virginiu. + +Virginia Woolf giftist Leonard Woolf, gagnrĂœnanda, ĂĄrið 1912. Saman stofnuðu ĂŸau Hogarth Press ĂĄrið 1917. Heimili ĂŸeirra var samkomustaður fjölda listamanna, skĂĄlda og gagnrĂœnenda, og kallaðist sĂĄ hĂłpur Bloomsbury-hĂłpurinn. + +Ărin 1895 og 1915 fĂ©kk hĂșn taugaĂĄföll, en hĂșn ĂĄtti við geðrĂŠn vandamĂĄl að strĂða. + +Virginia framdi sjĂĄlfsmorð ĂŸann 28. mars 1941 með ĂŸvĂ að drekkja sĂ©r. Eiginmaður hennar, Leonard, ritstĂœrði flestum verka hennar sem gefin voru Ășt eftir andlĂĄt hennar. + +Verk eftir Virginiu sem komið hafa Ășt ĂĄ Ăslensku + 1983 - SĂ©rherbergi - (A Room of One's Own - Ăștg. 1929). ĂĂœĂ°andi: Helga Kress. +2014 - Ăt Ă vitann - (To the Lighthouse - Ăștg. 1927). ĂĂœĂ°andi: HerdĂs HreiðarsdĂłttir. +2017 - OrlandĂł - (Orlando: A Biography - Ăștg. 1928). ĂĂœĂ°andi: SoffĂa Auður BirgisdĂłttir. +2017 - Mrs. Dolloway - (Mrs. Dolloway - Ăștg. 1925). ĂĂœĂ°andi: Atli MagnĂșsson. + +TilvĂsanir + +Breskar kvenrĂ©ttindakonur +Breskir rithöfundar +Dauðsföll af völdum sjĂĄlfsmorða +6. aprĂl er 96. dagur ĂĄrsins (97. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 269 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 648 f.Kr. - Fyrsti sĂłlmyrkvinn sem skriflegar heimildir eru til um. Skråðar af Forn-Grikkjum. + 1190 - JĂłhann landlausi varð konungur Englands. + 1320 - Skotar staðfestu sjĂĄlfstÊði sitt með Arbroath-yfirlĂœsingunni. + 1520 - Orrustan við Uppsali: Stuðningsmenn Sten Sture biðu Ăłsigur fyrir her KristjĂĄns 2. + 1580 - JarðskjĂĄlfti Ă Englandi olli skemmdum ĂĄ PĂĄlskirkjunni Ă LundĂșnum og mörgum fleiri byggingum. + 1652 - Hollenski skipstjĂłrinn Jan van Riebeeck stofnaði birgðastöð ĂĄ Góðrarvonarhöfða. Ăt frĂĄ henni reis Höfðaborg sĂðar. + 1746 - Tveir bĂĄtar af ĂŸremur, sem reru frĂĄ IngĂłlfshöfða fĂłrust. Eftir ĂŸað var Ăștgerð lögð af ĂŸaðan. + 1782 - Thongduang varð konungur TaĂlands sem Rama 1. + 1830 - Joseph Smith stofnaði mormĂłnakirkjuna Ă New York-borg. + 1896 - Fyrstu nĂștĂma ĂlympĂuleikarnir hĂłfust Ă AĂŸenu. + 1909 - Robert Peary taldi sig hafa nåð NorðurpĂłlnum. Ekki varð ljĂłst fyrr en tĂŠpri öld sĂðar að ĂŸað var ekki rĂ©tt. + 1917 - BandarĂkin lĂœstu strĂði ĂĄ hendur Ăjóðverjum. + 1924 - Fasistar unnu ĂŸingkosningar ĂĄ ĂtalĂu og fengu tvo ĂŸriðju hluta atkvÊða. + 1941 - Lengsti ĂŸorskur sem vitað var um að veiðst hefði ĂĄ Ăslandsmiðum var dreginn Ășr MiðnessjĂł. Hann var 181 cm ĂĄ lengd. + 1941 - Ăxulveldin gerðu innrĂĄs Ă JĂșgĂłslavĂu og Grikkland. + 1944 - BandarĂsk herflugvĂ©l fĂłrst Ășt af Vatnsleysuströnd og var ĂĄtta mönnum bjargað. + 1956 - LaugarĂĄsbĂĂł Ă ReykjavĂk hĂłf sĂœningar með ĂŸĂœsku kvikmyndinni Fiskimaðurinn og aðalsmĂŠrin (Der Fischer vom Heiligensee). + 1965 - Fyrsta fjarskiptahnettinum Ă einkaeigu, Intelsat I, var skotið ĂĄ loft. + 1968 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin 2001: A Space Odyssey var frumsĂœnd. + 1970 - ViðrÊðum um norrĂŠna tollabandalagið NORDEK var formlega slitið. + 1971 - Veitingastaðurinn Bautinn var opnaður ĂĄ Akureyri. + 1973 - Pioneer 11-geimfarið var sent af stað. + 1974 - SĂŠnska hljĂłmsveitin Abba vann Eurovision. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta skipti sem sĂŠnsk hljĂłmsveit vann keppnina. + 1979 - HelgarpĂłsturinn kom Ășt ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă fyrsta skipti. + 1979 - Kvikmyndirnar Land og synir, Ăðal feðranna og Veiðiferðin hlutu hĂŠstu styrki við fyrstu Ășthlutun Ășr Kvikmyndasjóði. + 1985 - Herforinginn Suwwar al-Dhahab leiddi valdarĂĄn Ă SĂșdan. + 1992 - StrĂð hĂłfst Ă BosnĂu og HersegĂłvĂnu. + 1992 - Windows 3.1x var sett ĂĄ markað. + 1992 - BarnaĂŸĂĄtturinn Barney and Friends hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ PBS. + 1993 - Kjarnorkuslys varð ĂŸegar tankur sprakk Ă Tomsk-7 endurvinnslustöðinni Ă Seversk Ă RĂșsslandi. + 1994 - Forseti RĂșanda, JuvĂ©nal Habyarimana, og forseti BĂșrĂșndĂ, Cyprien Ntaryamira, fĂłrust ĂŸegar ĂŸyrla ĂŸeirra var skotin niður við KĂgalĂ Ă RĂșanda. + 1998 - Pakistan prĂłfaði meðaldrĂŠgar eldflaugar sem hĂŠgt vĂŠri að nota til að råðast ĂĄ Indland. + 1998 - BandarĂski fjĂĄrfestingabankinn Citigroup varð til við sameiningu Citicorp og Travellers Group. + 2001 - SĂðasta eintak danska dagblaðsins Aktuelt kom Ășt. + 2006 - Yayi Boni tĂłk við embĂŠtti forseta BenĂn. + 2006 - Umdeild ĂŸĂœĂ°ing ĂĄ JĂșdasarguðspjalli kom Ășt ĂĄ vegum National Geographic Society. + 2008 - Samgönguråðherra SrĂ Lanka, Jeyaraj Fernandopulle, lĂ©st ĂĄsamt 11 öðrum Ă hryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄs Ă KĂłlombĂł. + 2009 - JarðskjĂĄlfti olli yfir 300 dauðsföllum og mikilli eyðileggingu Ă L'Aquila ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. SkjĂĄlftinn mĂŠldist 6,3 ĂĄ Richter-kvarða. + 2010 - Karl og kona urðu Ăști ĂĄ Emstrum eftir að hafa villst ĂŸangað ĂĄ bĂl ĂĄ leið frĂĄ eldgosinu ĂĄ FimmvörðuhĂĄlsi. Kona sem var með ĂŸeim bjargaðist. + 2010 - Ăingkosningar fĂłru fram Ă Bretlandi. Enginn flokkur nåði hreinum meirihluta sem leiddi til stofnunar fyrstu samsteypustjĂłrnar Bretlands Ă 36 ĂĄr. + 2012 - Ăjóðfrelsishreyfing Azawad lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði Azawad frĂĄ MalĂ. + 2014 - RĂșssneski fĂĄninn var dreginn að hĂșni Ă mĂłtmĂŠlum Ă Donetsk og Karkiv Ă ĂkraĂnu. + 2017 - Borgarastyrjöldin Ă SĂœrlandi: BandarĂkjaher skaut 59 loftskeytum ĂĄ flugstöð Ă SĂœrlandi vegna gruns um að efnavopnum hefði verið beitt gegn bĂŠ Ă höndum uppreisnarmanna. + +FĂŠdd + 1483 - Rafael, Ătalskur mĂĄlari og arkitekt (d. 1520). + 1773 - James Mill, skoskur sagnfrÊðingur (d. 1836). + 1812 - Alexander Herzen, ĂŸĂœskur lĂfeðlisfrÊðingur (d. 1870). + 1839 - Antonio Starabba, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1908). + 1866 - Butch Cassidy, Ăștlagi Ă villta vestrinu (d. 1909). + 1890 - Anthony Fokker, hollenskur flugvĂ©lahönnuður (d. 1939). + 1904 - Kurt Georg Kiesinger, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1988). + 1928 - James D. Watson, bandarĂskur erfðafrÊðingur. + 1942 - Barry Levinson, kvikmyndaframleiðandi og leikstjĂłri. + 1949 - KĂĄri StefĂĄnsson, lĂŠknir og forstjĂłri Ăslenskrar erfðagreiningar. + 1950 - Christer Sjögren, sĂŠnskur söngvari. + 1952 - Bogi ĂgĂșstsson, Ăslenskur frĂ©ttamaður. + 1953 - ĂĂłrdĂs Anna KristjĂĄnsdĂłttir, Ăslensk körfuknattleikskona. + 1962 - Tomoyasu Asaoka, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1963 - Rafael Correa, forseti Ekvadors. + 1964 - David Woodard, bandarĂskur rithöfundur, tĂłnskĂĄld og leiðari. + 1969 - Paul Rudd, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1972 - Roberto Torres, paragvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1975 - Zach Braff, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1976 - Unnur Ăsp StefĂĄnsdĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona. + 1976 - Georg HĂłlm, Ăslenskur bassaleikari. + 1983 - Mitsuru Nagata, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1986 - Ryota Moriwaki, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 1199 - RĂkharður 1. Englandskonungur. + 1490 - MatthĂas Corvinus, konungur Ungverjalands (f. 1443). + 1520 - Rafael, Ătalskur mĂĄlari og arkitekt. + 1520 - Kai von Ahlefeldt, åður hirðstjĂłri ĂĄ Ăslandi, fĂ©ll Ă orrustu við Uppsali. + 1528 - Albrecht DĂŒrer, ĂŸĂœskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1471). + 1827 - Sigurður PĂ©tursson, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaður og leikskĂĄld (f. 1759). + 1829 - Niels Henrik Abel, norskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (f. 1802). + 1906 - Alexander Kielland, norskur rithöfundur (f. 1849). + 1971 - Ăgor StravinskĂj, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld. + 1992 - Isaac Asimov, rithöfundur (f. 1920). + 2000 - Habib Bourguiba, forseti TĂșnis (f. 1903). + 2005 - Rainier 3. fursti af MĂłnakĂł (f. 1923). + 2014 - Mickey Rooney, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1920). + 2020 - Radomir AntiÄ, serbneskur ĂĂŸrĂłttamaður og knattspyrnuĂŸjĂĄlfari (f. 1948). + +AprĂl +7. aprĂl er 97. dagur ĂĄrsins (98. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 268 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 30 - Krossfesting JesĂș Krists samkvĂŠmt einni kenningu (samkvĂŠmt annarri kenningu ĂĄtti hĂșn sĂ©r stað 3. aprĂl 33). + 1141 - Matthildur keisaraynja tĂłk völdin um stutt skeið Ă Englandi. + 1348 - KarlshĂĄskĂłli Ă Prag var stofnaður. + 1449 - Felix 5. mĂłtpĂĄfi (Amadeus 3. af Savoja) sagði af sĂ©r embĂŠtti að beiðni pĂĄfa. + 1549 - Marteinn Einarsson var vĂgður SkĂĄlholtsbiskup. + 1625 - Albrecht von Wallenstein var skipaður yfirhershöfðingi keisarahers hins Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis. + 1655 - Fabio Chigi varð Alexander 7. pĂĄfi. + 1682 - Landkönnuðurinn RenĂ©-Robert Cavelier de La Salle kom að Ăłsum MississippifljĂłts. + 1795 - Frakkar tĂłku upp metrakerfið til lengdarmĂŠlinga. + 1831 - Pedro 1. BrasilĂukeisari sagði af sĂ©r og sonur hans, Pedro 2., tĂłk við. + 1906 - Ă aftakaveðri fĂłrust ĂŸrjĂș skip ĂĄ FaxaflĂła: Ingvar með 20 manna ĂĄhöfn ĂĄ Hjallaskeri við Viðey, Emilie með 24 mönnum og Sophie Wheatly vestur undir MĂœrum. Ăll skipin voru frĂĄ ReykjavĂk. + 1906 - Eldgos Ă VesĂșvĂusfjalli sem lagði NapĂłlĂ Ă rĂșstir. + 1909 - SamkvĂŠmt dagbĂłkum Robert Peary nåði hann ĂĄ norðurpĂłlinn ĂŸennan dag. + 1927 - Fyrsta sjĂłnvarpsĂștsendingin með Ăștvarpsbylgjum fĂłr fram Ă Washington DC Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1939 - Ătalir réðust inn Ă AlbanĂu. + 1941 - Togarinn Gulltoppur bjargaði 33 mönnum af einum björgunarbĂĄti Ășt af Reykjanesi og bĂĄtar frĂĄ Hellissandi björguðu 32 af öðrum björgunarbĂĄti Ășt af SnĂŠfellsnesi fjĂłrum dögum eftir að flutningaskipið Beaverdale var skotið Ă kaf suður af Ăslandi. Skipbrotsmenn voru af flutningaskipinu. + 1943 - LaugarnesspĂtali Ă ReykjavĂk brann til kaldra kola. Upphaflega var hann holdsveikraspĂtali, en sĂðustu ĂĄrin hafði breski herinn hann til umråða. + 1943 - LSD var fyrst framleitt af Alberti Hoffdal. + 1948 - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigðismĂĄlastofnunin var stofnuð af Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðunum. + 1963 - JĂșgĂłslavĂa var lĂœst sĂłsĂalistalĂœĂ°veldi og JĂłsip Broz TĂtĂł var Ăștnefndur forseti til lĂfstĂðar. + 1968 - Lög um tĂmareikning gengu Ă gildi klukkan 01:00. SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸeim skal miða tĂmareikning ĂĄ öllu Ăslandi við miðtĂma Greenwich. + 1969 - TĂĄknrĂŠnn fÊðingardagur Internetsins: RFC 1 var birt. + 1973 - LĂșxemborg sigraði Ă Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva með laginu Tu te reconnaĂźtras sem Anne-Marie David söng. + 1976 - Deng Xiaoping var sviptur öllum embĂŠttum vegna ĂĄsakana um âhĂŠgrimennskuâ. + 1980 - BandarĂkin slitu stjĂłrnmĂĄlasambandi við Ăran. + 1985 - Fyrsta gervihjartaĂgrÊðslan Ă EvrĂłpu fĂłr fram ĂĄ Karolinska sjukhuset Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. SjĂșklingurinn lifði Ă ĂŸrjĂĄ mĂĄnuði. + 1989 - SovĂ©ski kafbĂĄturinn KomsomĂłlets sökk Ă Barentshafinu undan strönd Noregs vegna eldsvoða. 42 sjĂłmenn lĂ©tu lĂfið. + 1990 - Eldur um borð Ă farĂŸegaferjunni Scandinavian Star ĂĄ leið frĂĄ OslĂł til Frederikshavn kostaði 158 farĂŸega lĂfið. + 1994 - Ăjóðarmorðið Ă RĂșanda: Fjöldamorð ĂĄ TĂștsum hĂłfust Ă KĂgalĂ Ă RĂșanda. + 1995 - BandarĂska teiknimyndin GuffagrĂn var frumsĂœnd. + 1995 - Fyrra TĂ©tĂ©nĂustrĂðið: RĂșssneskar hersveitir drĂĄpu 103 almenna borgara Ă Samashki. + 1999 - Sprengja sprakk Ă Dal hinna föllnu ĂĄ SpĂĄni. SkĂŠruliðahreyfingin GRAPO lĂœsti ĂĄbyrgð ĂĄ hendur sĂ©r. + 1999 - KosĂłvĂłstrĂðið: JĂșgĂłslavĂuher lokaði helstu landamĂŠrastöðvum Ă KosĂłvĂł til að koma Ă veg fyrir flĂłtta albanskra ĂbĂșa. + 2001 - Gervitunglinu 2001 Mars Odyssey var skotið ĂĄ loft. + 2003 - ĂraksstrĂðið: Breski herinn nåði Basra ĂĄ sitt vald. + 2009 - Stöð 2 greindi fyrst frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokkurinn hefði ĂŸegið 30 milljĂłnir krĂłna Ă styrk frĂĄ FL Group. Ăr varð StyrkjamĂĄlið. + 2009 â Alberto Fujimori, fyrrverandi forseti PerĂș var dĂŠmdur Ă 25 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir að skipa öryggissveitum fyrir um manndrĂĄp og gĂslatökur. + 2010 - Forseti Kirgistan, Kurmanbek Bakijev, flĂșði land vegna mĂłtmĂŠlaöldu Ă höfuðborginni Biskek. + 2014 - AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldið Donetsk lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ ĂkraĂnu. + 2014 - Fjölmennustu kosningar sögunnar fĂłru fram ĂŸegar ĂŸingkosningar hĂłfust ĂĄ Indlandi. 815 milljĂłnir voru ĂĄ kjörskrĂĄ. + 2017 - ĂrĂĄsin Ă StokkhĂłlmi 2017: Maður Ăłk vöruflutningabĂl inn Ă hĂłp fĂłlks ĂĄ Drottninggatan Ă miðborg StokkhĂłlms með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 5 lĂ©tust. + +FĂŠdd + 1613 - Gerhard Douw, hollenskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1675). + 1652 - Klemens 12. pĂĄfi (d. 1740) + 1770 - William Wordsworth, enskt skĂĄld (d. 1850) + 1772 - Charles Fourier, franskur heimspekingur (d. 1837). + 1882 - Kurt von Schleicher, ĂŸĂœskur herforingi og kanslari ĂĂœskalands (d. 1934). + 1884 - BronisĆaw Malinowski, pĂłlskur mannfrÊðingur (d. 1942). + 1889 - Gabriela Mistral, sĂleskt skĂĄld og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1957). + 1891 - Ole Kirk Christiansen, danskur leikfangasmiður (d. 1958). + 1908 - Alfred Eisenbeisser, rĂșmenskur knattspyrnu- og skautakappi (d. 1991) + 1915 - Billie Holiday, bandarĂsk djass- og blĂșssöngkona (d. 1959) + 1920 - Ravi Shankar, indverskur tĂłnlistarmaður (d. 2012). + 1921 - Einar Bragi Sigurðsson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (d. 2005). + 1928 - James Garner, bandariskur leikari (d. 2014). + 1928 - Alan J. Pakula, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaframleiðandi og leikstjĂłri (d. 1998). + 1938 - Jerry Brown, fyrrum fylkisstjori Kaliforniu. + 1939 - Francis Ford Coppola, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1944 - Gerhard Schröder, kanslari ĂĂœskalands. + 1945 - MagnĂșs ĂĂłr JĂłnsson (Megas), Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1949 - Andrea JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslensk Ăștvarpskona. + 1954 - Jackie Chan, kĂnverskur leikari. + 1957 - EirĂkur Guðmundsson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1963 - Ălafur Rafnsson, Ăslenskur ĂĂŸrĂłttafrömuður (d. 2013) + 1964 - Russell Crowe, nĂœsjĂĄlenskur leikari. + 1965 - Steinunn ValdĂs ĂskarsdĂłttir, borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur. + 1985 - Humza Yousaf, skoskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1989 - Sylwia Grzeszczak, pĂłlsk söngkona. + +DĂĄin + 1234 - Sancho 7. konungur Navarra. + 1498 - Karl 8. Frakkakonungur (f. 1470). + 1614 - El Greco, krĂtverskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1541). + 1651 - Lennart Torstenson, sĂŠnskur herforingi (f. 1603). + 1803 - Toussaint L'Ouverture, byltingarforingi ĂĄ HaĂtĂ (f. 1743). + 1891 - P. T. Barnum, bandarĂskur athafnamaður og sirkusstjĂłri (f. 1810). + 1937 - StefĂĄn Th. JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur Ăștgerðarmaður (f. 1865). + 1947 - Henry Ford, bandarĂskur iðnjöfur og bĂlaframleiðandi (f. 1863). + 1972 - Guðmundur Kjartansson, Ăslenskur jarðfrÊðingur (f. 1909). + 1994 - Albert Guðmundsson, knattspyrnu- og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1923). + +AprĂl +8. aprĂl er 98. dagur ĂĄrsins (99. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 267 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 217 - Caracalla var myrtur af hermönnum sĂnum við Edessa. Foringi PretĂłrĂuvarðarins, Marcus Opellius Macrinus, lĂœsti sig keisara. + 1571 - Guðbrandur ĂorlĂĄksson var vĂgður biskup ĂĄ HĂłlum, 29 ĂĄra gamall. Hann gegndi embĂŠttinu Ă 56 ĂĄr. + 1609 - Shimazu Yoshihiro hĂłf að leggja RyĆ«kyĆ«-eyjar undir lĂ©nið Satsuma Ă Japan. + 1663 - Theatre Royal, Drury Lane opnaði með nĂœrri uppfĂŠrslu ĂĄ Gamansama liðsforingjanum eftir John Fletcher. + 1703 - Manntal var tekið ĂĄ Ăslandi um ĂŸetta leyti ĂĄrsins. Ăetta manntal var fyrsta manntal heims sem nåði til heillar ĂŸjóðar. + 1742 - ĂratorĂan MessĂas eftir Georg Friedrich HĂ€ndel var frumflutt Ă Dyflinni ĂĄ Ărlandi. + 1783 - KrĂmkanatið var innlimað Ă RĂșssneska keisaradĂŠmið. + 1838 - ĂĂŠtlunarsiglingar með gufuskipum hĂłfust ĂĄ milli Bristol Ă Englandi og New York Ă BandarĂkjunum. Ăað var gufuskipið Great Western sem fĂłr fyrstu ferðina. + 1898 - KristjĂĄn konungur 9. varð ĂĄttrÊður og var af ĂŸvĂ tilefni haldin stĂłrveisla Ă ReykjavĂk samkvĂŠmt ĂrbĂłkum ReykjavĂkur. + 1924 - Sharia-dĂłmstĂłlar eru bannaðir Ă Tyrklandi sem hluti af umbĂłtum stjĂłrnar Kemal AtatĂŒrk. + 1947 - SĂðustu bandarĂsku hermennirnir sem staðsettir voru ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă SĂðari heimsstyrjöld yfirgĂĄfu landið með herflutningaskipinu Edmund B. Alexander. + 1957 - 49 punda stĂłrlax veiddist Ă ĂŸorskanet við GrĂmsey. Ăetta var stĂŠrsti lax sem menn vissu til að veiðst hefði við Ăsland. + 1970 - 79 lĂ©tust Ă gassprengingu Ă neðanjarðarlestarkerfi Ăsaka Ă Japan. + 1977 - Fyrsta hljĂłmplata bresku hljĂłmsveitarinnar The Clash kom Ășt. + 1978 - LeikskĂłlinn Furugrund hĂłf starfsemi Ă KĂłpavogi. + 1989 - BĂłnus opnaði fyrstu verslun sĂna við SkĂștuvog Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1990 - Fyrsti ĂŸĂĄttur TvĂdranga (Twin Peaks) var sendur Ășt ĂĄ ABC Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1990 - Birendra af Nepal aflĂ©tti banni við stjĂłrnarandstöðuflokkum Ă Nepal eftir mikil mĂłtmĂŠli. + 1991 - GĂtarleikari norsku svartmĂĄlmshljĂłmsveitarinnar Mayhem, Ăystein Aarseth, kom að söngvara hljĂłmsveitarinnar Per Yngve Ohlin sem hafði framið sjĂĄlfsmorð. Aarseth tĂłk ljĂłsmynd af lĂkinu sem var notuð ĂĄ umslag bootleg-plötunnar Dawn of the Black Hearts fjĂłrum ĂĄrum sĂðar. + 1994 - LĂœĂ°veldið MakedĂłnĂa gerist aðili að Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðunum. + 1994 - DĂłmsdagur Michelangelos ĂĄ endavegg SixtĂnsku kapellunnar Ă VatĂkaninu var sĂœndur almenningi eftir 10 ĂĄra viðgerðir. + 1994 - Kurt Cobain, söngvari bandarĂsku hljĂłmsveitarinnar Nirvana, fannst lĂĄtinn ĂĄ heimili sĂnu. + 1995 - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1999 - Bill Gates varð rĂkasti einstaklingur heims vegna mikilla hĂŠkkana ĂĄ hlutabrĂ©fum Ă Microsoft. + 2004 - Ătökin Ă DarfĂșr: RĂkisstjĂłrn SĂșdan gerði vopnahlĂ©ssamkomulag við tvo skĂŠruliðahĂłpa. + 2010 - BandarĂkin og RĂșssland endurnĂœjuðu START-samninginn um fĂŠkkun kjarnavopna. + 2018 - Borgarastyrjöldin Ă SĂœrlandi: 70 voru sagðir hafa lĂĄtist eftir sarĂngasĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ bĂŠinn Douma. + 2020 â SĂĄdi-ArabĂa og bandamenn ĂŸeirra lĂœstu yfir einhliða vopnahlĂ©i Ă borgarastyrjöldinni Ă Jemen. + +FĂŠdd + 563 f.Kr. - Gautama BĂșdda, trĂșarleiðtogi (d. 483 f.Kr.). + 1320 - PĂ©tur 2. PortĂșgalskonungur (d. 1367). + 1588 - Thomas Hobbes, enskur heimspekingur (d. 1679). + 1605 - Filippus 4. konungur SpĂĄnar og PortĂșgals (d. 1665). + 1794 - Helgi G. Thordersen, Ăslenskur biskup (d. 1867). + 1818 - KristjĂĄn 9. Danakonungur (d. 1906). + 1836 - Oddur V. GĂslason, Ăslenskur prestur (d. 1911). + 1850 - JĂłhannes Guðmundsson Nordal, Ăslenskur athafnamaður (d. 1946). + 1859 - Edmund Husserl, ĂŸĂœskur heimspekingur (d. 1938). + 1892 - Mary Pickford, kanadĂsk leikkona (d. 1979). + 1912 - Sonja Henie, norskur listskautari (d. 1969). + 1919 - Ian Smith, fyrrum forsĂŠtisråðherra RĂłdesĂu (d. 2007). + 1929 - Erlendur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur. + 1938 - Kofi Annan, fyrrum aðalritari Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna (d. 2018). + 1941 - Vivienne Westwood, enskur fatahönnuður (d. 2022). + 1944 - Masanobu Izumi, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1947 - Larry Norman, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (d. 2008). + 1950 - Nobuo Fujishima, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1951 - Geir H. Haarde, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1955 - Kazuyoshi Nakamura, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1962 - Izzy Stradlin, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1963 - Julian Lennon, breskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1968 - Patricia Arquette, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1972 - Piotr Ćwierczewski, pĂłlskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 217 - Caracalla, RĂłmarkeisari (f. 186). + 1364 - JĂłhann 2. Frakkakonungur (f. 1319). + 1492 - Lorenzo de Medici, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1449). + 1608 - ĂĂłrður Guðmundsson, Ăslenskur lögmaður (f. 1524). + 1697 - Niels Juel, danskur flotaforingi (f. 1629). + 1879 - Anthony Panizzi, Ătalskur lögfrÊðingur og bĂłkavörður (f. 1797). + 1909 - V.U. Hammershaimb, fĂŠreyskur mĂĄlvĂsindamaður (f. 1819). + 1931 - Erik Axel Karlfeldt, sĂŠnskt ljóðskĂĄld og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1864). + 1973 - Pablo Picasso, spĂŠnskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1881). + 1973 - E.R. Dodds, breskur fornfrÊðingur (f. 1893). + 1975 - BrynjĂłlfur JĂłhannesson, Ăslenskur leikari (f. 1897). + 1977 - Stefania Turkewich, ĂșkraĂnskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1898). + 2009 â Haraldur Bessason, Ăslenskur frÊðimaður og rithöfundur (f. 1931) + 2010 - Malcolm McLaren, breskur tĂłnlistarmaður og umboðsmaður (f. 1946). + 2013 â MargrĂ©t Thatcher, forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands (f. 1925). + 2018 - Chuck McCann, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1934). + +AprĂl +9. aprĂl er 99. dagur ĂĄrsins (100. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 266 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 193 - Septimius Severus varð RĂłmarkeisari. + 1363 - HĂĄkon 6. MagnĂșsson gekk að eiga MargrĂ©ti ValdimarsdĂłttur Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + 1378 - Eftir dauða GregorĂusar pĂĄfa kom til Ăłeirða Ă RĂłm ĂŸar sem ĂŸess var krafist að RĂłmverji yrði kosinn pĂĄfi til að tryggja að pĂĄfastĂłll yrði um kyrrt Ă borginni en GregorĂus hafði flutt sig ĂŸangað frĂĄ Avignon ĂĄri fyrr. Bartolomeo Prignano, erkibiskup Ă Bari (Ătali en ĂŸĂł ekki RĂłmverji), var kjörinn pĂĄfi sem Ărbanus 6.. + 1483 - JĂĄtvarður 5. varð konungur Englands, tĂłlf ĂĄra að aldri, en var komið fyrir Ă LundĂșnaturni, ĂĄsamt bróður sĂnum, RĂkharði hertoga af York. Ăar var ĂŸeim råðinn bani. + 1596 - SpĂĄnverjar hertĂłku Calais. + 1870 - Deutsche Bank hĂłf rekstur Ă BerlĂn. + 1894 - James Craig keypti Geysi fyrir 3000 kr af bĂŠndum Ă Haukadal. + 1911 - Ăingeyrarkirkja var vĂgð. + 1940 - Ăjóðverjar hernĂĄmu Danmörku og gerðu innrĂĄs Ă Noreg. Vidkun Quisling lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir að rĂkisstjĂłrn Noregs hefði flĂșið og hann tĂŠki sjĂĄlfur við sem forsĂŠtisråðherra. + 1942 - Tveir Ăslendingar og 22 Norðmenn fĂłrust með norska skipinu Fanefeld ĂĄ leið frĂĄ BĂldudal til Ăsafjarðar. + 1963 - Mikið norðanrok og hörkufrost skall ĂĄ og fĂłrust sextĂĄn sjĂłmenn ĂŸennan dag og hinn nĂŠsta. + 1967 - Fyrsta Boeing 737-flugvĂ©lin flaug jĂłmfrĂșarflug sitt. + 1976 - SĂðasta kvikmynd Alfred Hitchcock, FjölskyldugĂĄta, kom Ășt Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1981 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă Heklu. Ăað stóð stutt og er venjulega talið sem framhald gossins ĂĄrið åður. + 1984 - Ronald Reagan kallaði eftir alĂŸjóðlegu banni við notkun efnavopna. + 1989 - 20 almennir borgarar lĂ©tust Ă Tbilisi Ă GeorgĂu ĂŸegar Rauði herinn barði niður mĂłtmĂŠli. + 1989 - LandamĂŠrastrĂð MĂĄritanĂu og Senegal hĂłfst vegna deilna um beitarrĂ©ttindi. + 1991 - GeorgĂa lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ SovĂ©trĂkjunum. + 1992 - Manuel Noriega fyrrum einrÊðisherra Ă Panama var dĂŠmdur fyrir margvĂslega glĂŠpi, s.s. fĂkniefnasmygl og peningaĂŸvĂŠtti. + 1999 - Ibrahim BarĂ© MaĂŻnassara, forseti NĂger, var råðinn af dögum. + 2000 - SĂŠnska nunnan Elisabeth Hesselblad var lĂœst sĂŠl af kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunni. + 2002 - ElĂsabet drottningarmóðir var borin til grafar frĂĄ Westminsterklaustri. + 2003 - ĂraksstrĂðið: BandarĂkjaher nåði Bagdad ĂĄ sitt vald. + 2005 - TugĂŸĂșsundir mĂłtmĂŠltu hersetu BandarĂkjanna Ă Ărak Ă Bagdad. + 2011 - ĂjóðaratkvÊðagreiðsla fĂłr fram um Icesave-samkomulag rĂkisstjĂłrnarinnar við Breta og Hollendinga og var ĂŸvĂ hafnað með 59,7% atkvÊða ĂĄ mĂłti 40,1% sem vildu samĂŸykkja ĂŸað. + 2012 - Facebook keypti Instagram fyrir milljarð bandarĂkjadala. + 2013 - 32 fĂłrust Ă Bushehr-jarðskjĂĄlftanum Ă Ăran. + 2017 - ĂrĂĄsirnar ĂĄ koptĂsku kirkjurnar Ă Egyptalandi Ă aprĂl 2017: 44 lĂ©tust Ă tveimur sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ koptĂskar kirkjur Ă AlexandrĂu og Tanta. + 2019 â Ăingkosningar fĂłru fram Ă Ăsrael. Kosningarnar skiluðu jafntefli milli Likud-flokksins og BlĂĄhvĂta bandalagsins og voru ĂŸvĂ endurteknar Ă september sama ĂĄr. + +FĂŠdd + 1683 - Ăorleifur Skaftason, Ăslenskur prestur (d. 1748). + 1806 - Isambard Kingdom Brunel, enskur verkfrÊðingur (d. 1859). + 1812 - Johan Fritzner, norskur prestur (d. 1893). + 1821 - Charles Baudelaire, franskt ljóðskĂĄld (d. 1867). + 1835 - LeĂłpold 2. BelgĂukonungur (d. 1909). + 1857 - Ălöf SigurðardĂłttir frĂĄ Hlöðum, rithöfundur og ljĂłsmóðir (d. 1933). + 1865 - Erich Ludendorff, ĂŸĂœskur hershöfðingi (d. 1937). + 1872 - LĂ©on Blum, forsĂŠtisråðherra Frakklands (d. 1950). + 1914 - Koichi Oita, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 1996). + 1918 - JĂžrn Utzon, danskur arkitekt (d. 2008). + 1926 - Hugh Hefner, bandarĂskur tĂmaritaĂștgefandi (d. 2017). + 1932 - Carl Perkins, kĂĄntrĂtĂłnlistarmaður (d. 1998). + 1933 - Jean-Paul Belmondo, franskur leikari. + 1935 - Josef Fritzl, austurrĂskur nĂðingur. + 1942 - Petar Nadoveza, krĂłatĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1949 - Guðni ĂgĂșstsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1954 - Dennis Quaid, leikari + 1954 - Iain Duncan Smith, breskur ĂŸingmaður. + 1957 - OddnĂœ G. HarðardĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1957 - Lars Demian, sĂŠnskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1957 - Severiano Ballesteros, spĂŠnskur golfleikari. + 1963 - RunĂłlfur ĂgĂșstsson, Ăslenskur lögfrÊðingur. + 1964 - Akihiro Nagashima, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1965 - Mark Pellegrino, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1967 - Sam Harris, bandarĂskur rithöfundur. + 1972 - Steinunn KristĂn ĂĂłrðardĂłttir, Ăslenskur rekstrarhagfrÊðingur. + 1974 - Jenna Jameson, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1975 - Robbie Fowler, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1977 - Gerard Way, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður og myndasöguhöfundur. + 1981 - Albin Pelak, bosnĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1982 - Jay Baruchel, kanadĂskur leikari. + 1986 - Leighton Meester, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona. + 1987 - Jesse McCartney, bandarĂskur söngvari og leikari. + 1999 - Lil Nas X, bandarĂskur rappari. + +DĂĄin + 715 - KonstantĂnus pĂĄfi. + 1137 - VilhjĂĄlmur 10. af AkvitanĂu (f. 1099). + 1283 - MargrĂ©t af Skotlandi, Noregsdrottning (f. 1261). + 1483 - JĂĄtvarður 4. Englandskonungur (f. 1442). + 1492 - Lorenzo de'Medici, fursti af FlĂłrens (Lorenzo hinn stĂłrfenglegi) (f. 1449). + 1553 - Francois Rabelais, franskur rithöfundur. + 1598 - PĂĄll JĂłnsson, StaðarhĂłls-PĂĄll, skĂĄld og sĂœslumaður. + 1626 - Francis Bacon, heimspekingur. + 1693 - Roger de Bussy-Rabutin, franskur rithöfundur (f. 1618). + 1761 - William Law, enskur prestur (f. 1686). + 1869 - KristjĂĄn JĂłnsson fjallaskĂĄld (f. 1842). + 1904 - Ăsabella 2. SpĂĄnardrottning (f. 1830). + 1936 - Ferdinand Tönnies, ĂŸĂœskur hagfrÊðingur (f. 1855). + 1945 - Dietrich Bonhoeffer, ĂŸĂœskur guðfrÊðingur (f. 1906). + 1959 - Frank Lloyd Wright, bandarĂskur arkitekt (f. 1867). + 1961 - Zog AlbanĂukonungur (f. 1895). + 2005 - Andrea Dworkin, bandarĂskur aðgerðasinni (f. 1945). + 2021 + DMX (f. 1970) + Filippus prins, hertogi af Edinborgâ (f. 1921) + +AprĂl +10. aprĂl er 100. dagur ĂĄrsins (101. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 265 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 428 - NestorĂos varð patrĂarki Ă KonstantĂnĂłpel. + 847 - LeĂł 4. varð pĂĄfi. + 1045 - Benedikt 9. varð pĂĄfi. + 1555 - Marsellus 2. varð pĂĄfi. + 1607 - Jakob 1. stofnaði tvö VirginĂufĂ©lög, Ă London og Plymouth, með einkaleyfi ĂĄ verslun við nĂœlendurnar Ă NĂœja heiminum. + 1656 - KirkjubĂłlsmĂĄlið: Feðgarnir JĂłn JĂłnsson eldri og JĂłn JĂłnsson yngri frĂĄ KirkjubĂłli Ă Skutulsfirði voru brenndir ĂĄ bĂĄli fyrir galdur eftir kĂŠru sĂra JĂłns MagnĂșssonar prests ĂĄ Eyri Ă Skutulsfirði. + 1710 - Fyrstu höfundarrĂ©ttarlögin, kennd við Ănnu drottningu, gengu Ă gildi Ă Bretlandi. + 1782 - Taksin, konungur SĂam, var hĂĄlshöggvinn eftir stjĂłrnarbyltingu. Rama 1. tĂłk við kĂłrĂłnunni. + 1790 - BandarĂkin tĂłku Ă notkun einkaleyfakerfi. + 1815 - Eldfjallið Tambora ĂĄ eyjunni Sumbabwa Ă IndĂłnesĂu gaus. + 1886 - MagnĂșs Stephensen var skipaður landshöfðingi 49 ĂĄra gamall. + 1912 - Titanic lagði Ășr höfn Ă Southampton ĂĄ Englandi. + 1933 - Togarinn SkĂșli fĂłgeti strandaði vestan við Staðarhverfi Ă GrindavĂk. Slysavarnadeildin Ăorbjörn Ă GrindavĂk bjargaði alls 24 mönnum með fluglĂnutĂŠkjum en 12 menn fĂłrust og höfðu ĂŸeir allir farist åður en björgunarmenn komu ĂĄ vettvang. + 1938 - Ădouard Daladier varð forsĂŠtisråðherra Frakklands. + 1940 - AlĂŸingi fĂłl rĂkisstjĂłrninni konungsvald eftir að Ăjóðverjar hernĂĄmu Danmörku. + 1941 - BandarĂkin hernĂĄmu GrĂŠnland. + 1956 - Friðrik 9. Danakonungur og IngirĂður drottning hans komu Ă fjögurra daga opinbera heimsĂłkn til Ăslands. + 1970 - Paul McCartney gaf Ășt yfirlĂœsingu ĂŸess efnis að BĂtlarnir vĂŠru hĂŠttir. + 1972 - Samningur um bann við ĂŸrĂłun, framleiðslu og söfnun sĂœkla- og eiturvopna og um eyðingu ĂŸeirra var undirritaður af um 70 löndum Ă Washington-borg. + 1972 - Fimm ĂŸĂșsund lĂ©tust Ă jarðskjĂĄlfta sem mĂŠldist 7,0 ĂĄ Richter Ă Fars Ă Ăran. + 1974 - GrindavĂk, BolungarvĂk, DalvĂk og Eskifjörður urðu kaupstaðir með lögum. Seltjarnarnes varð kaupstaður daginn åður. + 1974- Golda Meir sagði af sĂ©r sem forsĂŠtisråðherra Ăsraels. + 1979 - 42 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar fellibylur gekk yfir Wichita Falls Ă Texas. + 1981 - Fjölflokkakerfi var tekið upp Ă TĂșnis. + 1985 - Madonna hĂłf tĂłnleikaferðalagið The Virgin Tour. + 1988 - StĂłra SetĂłbrĂșin yfir SetĂłhaf Ă Japan var opnuð. + 1990 - Kvikmyndin The Juniper Tree var frumsĂœnd Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1991 - 140 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar farĂŸegaferjan Moby Prince rakst ĂĄ olĂuflutningaskipið Agip Abruzzo Ă ĂŸoku við höfnina Ă Livorno ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. + 1992 - Ărski lĂœĂ°veldisherinn stóð fyrir sprengjutilrÊði Ă Baltic Exchange Ă London. 3 lĂ©tust og 91 sĂŠrðust. + 1993 - SuðurafrĂski barĂĄttumaðurinn Chris Hani var myrtur. + 1998 - FöstudagssĂĄttmĂĄlinn var undirritaður ĂĄ Norður-Ărlandi. + 2008 - Ă Nepal fĂłru fram kosningar til stjĂłrnlagaĂŸings til að semja nĂœja lĂœĂ°veldisstjĂłrnarskrĂĄ. + 2010 - Lech KaczyĆski, forseti PĂłllands fĂłrst Ă flugslysi ĂĄsamt 95 öðrum Ă grennd við borgina Smolensk Ă RĂșsslandi. KaczyĆski var ĂĄ leið til Smolensk til að taka ĂŸĂĄtt Ă minningarathöfn Ă tilefni ĂŸess að 70 ĂĄr voru liðin frĂĄ Katyn-fjöldamorðunum. + 2014 - EvrĂłpuråðið svipti RĂșssland atkvÊðisrĂ©tti sĂnum tĂmabundið vegna innlimunar KrĂmskaga. + 2016 - Yfir 100 lĂ©tust Ă hofbruna Ă Kerala ĂĄ Indlandi. + 2019 â Fyrsta staðfesta ljĂłsmyndin af svartholi sem nåðst hefur var kynnt. + 2020 â Geimkönnunarfarið BepiColombo hĂłf ferð sĂna til Venus. + 2020 â FjĂĄrmĂĄlaråðherrar EvrĂłpusambandsins samĂŸykktu 504 milljarða evra lĂĄnapakka til að bregðast við efnahagslegum afleiðingum faraldursins. + +FĂŠdd + 1512 - Jakob 5. Skotakonungur (d. 1542). + 1583 - Hugo Grotius, hollenskur lögfrÊðingur (d. 1645). + 1636 - Balthasar Kindermann ĂŸĂœskt skĂĄld (d. 1706). + 1812 - Arthur Edmund Denis Dillon lĂĄvarður (d. 1892). + 1847 - Joseph Pulitzer, blaðamaður og Ăștgefandi (d. 1911). + 1870 - VladimĂr LenĂn, forseti SovĂ©trĂkjanna (d. 1924). + 1891 - Bjarni RunĂłlfsson, bĂłndi og rafstöðvasmiður Ă HĂłlmi Ă Landbroti (d. 1938). + 1927 - Marshall Warren Nirenberg, bandarĂskur lĂfefnafrÊðingur og nĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 2010). + 1929 - Max von Sydow, sĂŠnskur leikari (d. 2020). + 1929 - Yozo Aoki, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 2014). + 1931 - RenĂ© Follet, belgĂskur myndasöguhöfundur (d. 2020). + 1932 - Omar Sharif, egypskur leikari (d. 2015). + 1952 - Steven Seagal, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1954 - Peter MacNicol, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1956 - Masafumi Yokoyama, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1963 - Erling JĂłhannesson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1968 - Orlando Jones, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1970 - Matthew Lillard, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1973 - Roberto Carlos, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1974 - Goce Sedloski, norðurmakedĂłnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1979 - Sophie Ellis-Bextor, ensk songkona. + 1983 - Hannes Sigurðsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1984 - Mandy Moore, bandarĂsk söng- og leikkona. + 1986 - Vincent Kompany, belgĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1988 - Haley Joel Osment, leikari. + 1989 - JĂłn Guðni FjĂłluson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1992 - Sadio ManĂ©, senegalskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1992 - Daisy Ridley, ensk leikkona. + 2007 - ArĂanna Hollandsprinsessa. + +DĂĄin + 1216 - EirĂkur KnĂștsson SvĂakonungur. + 1533 - Friðrik 1. Danakonungur (f. 1471). + 1585 - GregorĂus 13. pĂĄfi (f. 1502). + 1598 - StaðarhĂłls-PĂĄll, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1534). + 1640 - Agostino Agazzari, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1578). + 1756 - Giacomo Antonio Perti, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1661). + 1813 - Joseph Louis Lagrange, stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (f. 1736) + 1919 - Emiliano Zapata, mexĂkĂłskur byltingarmaður (f. 1879). + 1931 - Khalil Gibran, lĂbanskt skĂĄld og mĂĄlari (f. 1883). + 1946 - Unnur BenediktsdĂłttir Bjarklind, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1881). + 1954 - Auguste Lumiere, frumkvöðull Ă kvikmyndatĂŠkni (f. 1862). + 1962 - Stuart Sutcliffe, fyrri bassaleikari BĂtlanna (f. 1940). + 2010 - Lech Kaczynski, forseti PĂłllands (f. 1949). + +AprĂl +11. aprĂl er 101. dagur ĂĄrsins (102. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 264 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 217 - Macrinus varð keisari RĂłmar. + 672 - AdeĂłdatus 2. varð pĂĄfi. + 1471 - JĂĄtvarður 4. tĂłk við hĂĄsĂŠtinu Ă Englandi og setti Hinrik 6. endanlega af. + 1677 - StrĂð Frakklands og Hollands: Filippus 1. hertogi af OrlĂ©ans sigraði her Hollendinga Ă orrustunni við Cassel. + 1700 - Hvergi var messað ĂĄ landinu ĂŸĂł pĂĄskadagur vĂŠri vegna mikillar snjĂłkomu ĂĄ norðan. Veturinn var ĂŸvĂ kallaður pĂĄskavetur. + 1836 - Newark (New Jersey) fĂ©kk borgarrĂ©ttindi. + 1885 - KnattspyrnufĂ©lagið Luton Town var stofnað. + 1909 - UngmennafĂ©lagið Afturelding var stofnað Ă MosfellsbĂŠ. + 1912 - MĂĄnaðarlöngu verkfalli kvenna Ă fiskverkun Ă Hafnarfirði lauk með samningum. Ăetta var fyrsta verkfall kvenna ĂĄ Ăslandi og jafnvel fyrsta skipulagða verkfallið. + 1915 - FlĂŠkingurinn með Charlie Chaplin var frumsĂœnd. + 1920 - SveinafĂ©lag jĂĄrniðnaðarmanna var stofnað en stuttu seinna var nafninu breytt Ă FĂ©lag jĂĄrniðnaðarmanna. + 1945 - StefĂĄnskirkjan Ă VĂn brann. + 1959 - Rannveig ĂorsteinsdĂłttir fĂ©kk rĂ©tt til ĂŸess að flytja mĂĄl fyrir HĂŠstarĂ©tti fyrst kvenna. + 1961 - Bob Dylan kom fyrst fram Ă New York-borg. + 1970 - MinkarĂŠkt hĂłfst að nĂœju ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1970 - AppollóåÊtlunin: Appollo 13 var skotið ĂĄ loft. + 1970 - SnjĂłflóð fĂ©ll ĂĄ berklahĂŠli Ă Ălpunum með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 74, mest ungir drengir, lĂ©tust. + 1976 - Apple I fĂłr ĂĄ markað Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1979 - TansanĂuher nåði Kampala Ă Ăganda ĂĄ sitt vald og Idi Amin flĂșði til LĂbĂœu. + 1981 - UppĂŸotin Ă Brixton 1981: MĂłtmĂŠlendur köstuðu bensĂnsprengjum og rĂŠndu verslanir Ă Brixtonhverfinu Ă London. + 1985 - EinrÊðisherra AlbanĂu, Enver Hoxha, lĂ©st og Ramiz Alia tĂłk við völdum 20 dögum sĂðar. + 1988 - SĂðasti keisarinn eftir Bernardo Bertolucci hlaut nĂu Ăłskarsverðlaun. + 1991 - 5 lĂ©tust og yfir 50.000 tonn af olĂu runnu Ășt Ă sjĂł ĂŸegar sprenging varð Ă olĂuflutningaskipinu Haven við GenĂșa ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. + 1993 - Hjallakirkja var vĂgð Ă KĂłpavogi. + 1996 - Ăsraelsher hĂłf ĂrĂșgur reiðinnar-aðgerðina með ĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ LĂbanon Ă hefndarskyni fyrir hryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄsir Hezbollah-samtakanna. + 1996 - 17 lĂ©tust ĂĄ DĂŒsseldorf-flugvelli vegna reyks Ășr brennandi frauðplasti. + 1997 - DĂłmkirkjan Ă TĂłrĂnĂł skemmdist Ă eldi. + 2001 - Bob Dylan sagði frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að hann hefði verið giftur Carol Dennis frĂĄ 1986 til 1992 en haldið ĂŸvĂ leyndu. + 2002 - 21 lĂ©st ĂŸegar bĂlasprengja ĂĄ vegum Al-KaĂda sprakk við samkomuhĂșs gyðinga Ă Djerba Ă TĂșnis. + 2006 - ĂsĂœnilegi flokkurinn skipulagði mĂłtmĂŠli Ă StokkhĂłlmi og Gautaborg. + 2006 - Geimkönnunarfarið Venus Express fĂłr ĂĄ braut um Venus. + 2006 - Sikileyski mafĂuforinginn Bernardo Provenzano var handtekinn eftir að hafa verið eftirlĂœstur Ă 43 ĂĄr. + 2006 - Forseti Ărans, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, staðfesti að vĂsindamönnum hefði tekist að framleiða nokkur grömm af auðguðu Ășrani. + 2007 - Sam Mansour, âbĂłksalinn frĂĄ BrĂžnshĂžjâ, var dĂŠmdur Ă 3 og hĂĄlfs ĂĄrs fangelsi eftir nĂœjum dönskum lögum fyrir að hvetja til hryðjuverka. + 2008 - Nintendo gaf Ășt leikinn Mario Kart Wii. + 2011 - Fyrrum forseti FĂlabeinsstrandarinnar, Laurent Gbagbo, var handtekinn Ă forsetahöllinni af sveitum Alassane Ouattara með fulltingi franska hersins. + 2016 - KirkjuĂŸing norsku ĂŸjóðkirkjunnar samĂŸykkti giftingu samkynhneigðra Ă kirkjum. + 2018 - Flugslysið Ă Boufarik: 257 fĂłrust ĂŸegar IljĂșsĂn IL-76-flugvĂ©l hrapaði Ă AlsĂr. + 2019 - Omar al-Bashir, forseta SĂșdans til 30 ĂĄra, var steypt af stĂłli af sĂșdanska hernum eftir langa mĂłtmĂŠlaöldu. + 2019 - Julian Assange var ĂșthĂœst Ășr sendiråði Ekvadors Ă London eftir sjö ĂĄra dvöl ĂŸar. Lögreglan Ă London handtĂłk hann sĂðan. + +FĂŠdd + 145 - Septimius Severus, RĂłmarkeisari (d. 211). + 1357 - JĂłhann 1. PortĂșgalskonungur (d. 1433). + 1370 - Friðrik 1. kjörfursti af Saxlandi (d. 1428). + 1374 - Roger Mortimer, jarl af March, rĂkiserfingi Englands (Ăștnefndur arftaki RĂkharðs 2.)(d. 1398). + 1492 - MargrĂ©t, drottning Navarra, kona Hinriks 2. (d. 1549). + 1869 - Gustav Vigeland, norskur myndhöggvari (d. 1943). + 1879 - JĂłninna SigurðardĂłttir, Ăslenskur matreiðslukennari (d. 1962). + 1920 - Emilio Colombo, Ătalskur forsĂŠtisråðherra (d. 2013). + 1928 - Gerður HelgadĂłttir, Ăslenskur myndhöggvari (d. 1975). + 1945 - VilhjĂĄlmur VilhjĂĄlmsson, Ăslenskur söngvari (d. 1978). + 1950 - Bill Irwin, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1953 - Andrew Wiles, breskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur. + 1958 - JĂłn StefĂĄn KristjĂĄnsson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1963 - Hinrik Ălafsson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1974 - Tricia Helfer, kanadĂsk leikkona. + 1980 - JĂłn Trausti Reynisson, Ăslenskur blaðamaður. + 1981 - Matt Ryan, velskur leikari. + 1984 - Nikola KarabatiÄ, franskur handknattleiksmaður. + +DĂĄin + 678 - DĂłnus pĂĄfi. + 1165 - StefĂĄn 4., konungur Ungverjalands (f. um 1133). + 1778 - MiklabĂŠjar-Solveig, vinnukona ĂĄ MiklabĂŠ Ă BlönduhlĂð (fyrirfĂłr sĂ©r). + 1964 - Guillermo Subiabre, sĂleskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1903). + 1985 - Enver Hoxha, einrÊðisherra AlbanĂu (f. 1908). + 1987 - Primo Levi, Ătalskur efnafrÊðingur (f. 1919). + 1990 - Ivar Lo-Johansson, sĂŠnskur rithöfundur (f. 1901). + 2005 - Lucien Laurent, franskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1907). + 2007 - Kurt Vonnegut, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (f. 1922). + 2012 - Ahmed Ben Bella, forseti AlsĂr (f. 1918). + +AprĂl +12. aprĂl er 102. dagur ĂĄrsins (103. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 263 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 238 - Orrustan um KarĂŸagĂł (238): Herlið Maximinusar réðist inn Ă AfrĂku frĂĄ NĂșmidĂu ĂĄsamt Legio III Augusta. GordĂanus 2. var drepinn eftir 36 daga umsĂĄtur og GordĂanus 1. hengdi sig með belti sĂnu. + 467 - Anthemius varð keisari RĂłmar. + 1529 - Friðrik 1. Danakonungur skipaði Dietrich van Bramstedt hirðstjĂłra ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1540 - Lokið var við prentun NĂœja testamentisins Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu Odds GottskĂĄlkssonar. Ăað er fyrsta prentaða bĂłk sem vitað er um ĂĄ Ăslensku. + 1554 - MarĂa af Guise varð rĂkisstjĂłri Skotlands. + 1606 - StĂłra Bretland tĂłk upp breska sambandsfĂĄnann Union Jack eftir að Skotland og England gengu Ă konungssamband. + 1665 - Fyrsta dauðsfallið vegna PlĂĄgunnar miklu var skråð Ă London. + 1861 - Fyrstu ĂĄtökin Ă bandarĂska borgarastrĂðinu hĂłfust með ĂĄrĂĄs sunnanmanna ĂĄ Sumtervirki Ă Suður-KarĂłlĂnu. + 1912 - FarĂŸegaskipið Titanic, sem aldrei ĂĄtti að sökkva, lagði upp Ă sĂna fyrstu og einu ferð. Skipið sökk ĂŸrem dögum seinna eftir ĂĄrekstur við borgarĂsjaka. + 1919 - ĂtjĂĄn manns fĂłrust Ă snjĂłflóðum við Siglufjörð og sĂldarverksmiðja gjöreyðilagðist. + 1927 - ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lagið Völsungur var stofnað ĂĄ HĂșsavĂk. + 1927 - Sameinað konungsrĂki StĂłra-Bretlands og Ărlands varð Sameinað konungsrĂki StĂłra-Bretlands og Norður-Ărlands. + 1930 - Ătvegsbanki Ăslands var stofnaður. + 1931 - KnattspyrnufĂ©lagið Haukar var stofnað Ă Hafnarfirði. + 1940 - Bretar hernĂĄmu FĂŠreyjar. + 1945 - Franklin D. Roosevelt lĂ©st Ă embĂŠtti og Harry S. Truman tĂłk við sem 33. forseti BandarĂkjanna. + 1947 - Ăslenska tĂłnlistarĂștgĂĄfan Ăslenzkir tĂłnar var stofnuð Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1952 - VĂ©lbĂĄturinn Veiga sökk við Vestmannaeyjar. Tveir menn fĂłrust en sex björguðust Ă gĂșmmĂbjörgunarbĂĄt. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta sinn sem slĂkur bĂĄtur var notaður hĂ©r við land. + 1953 - MenntaskĂłlinn ĂĄ Laugarvatni varð sjĂĄlfstÊður menntaskĂłli. Hann var fyrsti menntaskĂłlinn Ă dreifbĂœli ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1961 - JĂșrĂ GagarĂn varð fyrsti maðurinn til að fara Ășt Ă geiminn. + 1974 - Rithöfundasamband Ăslands var stofnað upp ĂĄ nĂœtt sem stĂ©ttarfĂ©lag Ăslenskra rithöfunda. + 1980 - Samuel Kanyon Doe framdi valdarĂĄn Ă LĂberĂu. + 1981 - Geimskutlu var skotið ĂĄ loft Ă fyrsta sinn (Columbia). + 1982 - Kvikmyndin SĂłley var frumsĂœnd Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1983 - Yasser Arafat heimsĂłtti Olof Palme Ă StokkhĂłlmi ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir mĂłtmĂŠli frĂĄ Ăsrael. + 1984 - Ătalski stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkurinn Lega Lombarda var stofnaður. + 1985 - 18 SpĂĄnverjar lĂ©tust Ă sprengjutilrÊði ĂĄ vegum Samtakanna heilagt strĂð ĂĄ veitingastað nĂĄlĂŠgt Madrid ĂĄ SpĂĄni. + 1986 - FjölbrautaskĂłli Suðurlands verður fyrsti sigurvegari Ă Spurningakeppni framhaldsskĂłlanna. + 1987 - V. P. Singh, varnarmĂĄlaråðherra Indlands, sakaði Bofors um að hafa greitt 145 milljĂłnir sĂŠnskra krĂłna Ă mĂștur vegna vopnasölu til Indlands. + 1988 - Poppsöngvarinn Sonny Bono var kjörinn borgarstjĂłri Ă Palm Springs Ă KalifornĂu. + 1992 - Eurodisney-skemmtigarðurinn var opnaður. SĂðar var nafni hans breytt Ă Disneyland Paris. + 2003 - KjĂłsendur Ă Ungverjalandi samĂŸykktu inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandið. + 2010 - RannsĂłknarnefnd AlĂŸingis birti skĂœrslu um aðdraganda og orsakir hrunsins Ă nĂu bindum. + 2011 - Gyrðir ElĂasson hlaut bĂłkmenntaverðlaun Norðurlandaråðs fyrir smĂĄsagnasafnið Milli trjĂĄnna. + 2012 - Uppreisnarhermenn Ă GĂneu-BissĂĄ tĂłku sitjandi forseta og forsetaframbjóðanda höndum Ă miðri kosningabarĂĄttu. + 2012 - Albanar skutu fimm MakedĂłna til bana utan við Skopje. Morðin leiddu til uppĂŸota og ĂĄtaka milli ĂŸjóðarbrota Ă MakedĂłnĂu. + 2020 â OPEC-rĂkin samĂŸykktu að skera olĂuframleiðslu niður um 9,7 milljĂłn tunnur ĂĄ dag frĂĄ 1. maĂ. + +FĂŠdd + 1116 - RĂkissa af PĂłllandi, drottning SvĂĂŸjóðar og hertogaynja af Minsk (d. eftir 1156). + 1573 - KristĂn af Holstein-Gottorp, SvĂadrottning, kona Karls 9. (d. 1625). + 1577 - KristjĂĄn 4. Danakonungur (d. 1648). + 1892 - Ăsa GuðmundsdĂłttir Wright, Ăslenskur hjĂșkrunarfrÊðingur (d. 1971). + 1936 - Hörður Tulinius, Ăslenskur körfuknattleiksmaður (d. 1989). + 1941 - SigrĂður ĂorvaldsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur leikstjĂłri og leikari. + 1942 - Jacob Zuma, forseti Suður-AfrĂku. + 1947 - Tom Clancy, bandarĂskur rithöfundur. + 1947 - David Letterman, bandarĂskur sjĂłnvarpsmaður. + 1948 - Joschka Fischer, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1953 - Niklas RĂ„dström, sĂŠnskur rithöfundur. + 1955 - Viktor Arnar IngĂłlfsson, Ăslenskur spennusagnahöfundur. + 1956 - Herbert Groenemeyer, ĂŸĂœskur söngvari. + 1961 - Lisa Gerrard, ĂĄströlsk tĂłnlistarkona. + 1962 - Katsuhiro Kusaki, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1967 - Shinkichi Kikuchi, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1971 - Nicholas Brendon, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1972 - Friðrik Friðriksson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1990 - Hiroki Sakai, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1991 - Ryota Morioka, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1997 - Brynjar SnĂŠr GrĂ©tarsson, Ăslenskur körfuknattleiksmaður. + +DĂĄin + 352 - JĂșlĂus 1. pĂĄfi. + 1167 - Karl Sörkvisson, SvĂakonungur (f. 1130). + 1555 - JĂłhanna KastilĂudrottning, kona Filippusar 1. (f. 1479). + 1817 - Charles Messier, franskur stjörnufrÊðingur (f. 1730). + 1878 - William M. Tweed, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1823). + 1945 - Franklin D. Roosevelt, BandarĂkjaforseti (f. 1882). + 1946 - Teizo Takeuchi, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1908). + 1995 - PĂ©tur J. Thorsteinsson, Ăslenskur sendiherra (f. 1917). + 2005 - Richard Popkin, bandarĂskur heimspekisagnfrÊðingur (f. 1923). + 2019 - Georgia Engel, bandarĂsk leikkona (f. 1948). + +AprĂl +13. aprĂl er 103. dagur ĂĄrsins (104. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 262 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1203 - Guðmundur Arason var vĂgður HĂłlabiskup, 43 ĂĄra. + 1204 - Krossfarar réðust ĂĄ KonstantĂnĂłpel, hertĂłku borgina og rĂŠndu ĂŸar og rupluðu. + 1252 - Ăgmundur Helgason Ă KirkjubĂŠ lĂ©t taka SĂŠmund Ormsson SvĂnfelling og Guðmund bróður hans af lĂfi. + 1412 - Enska öldin: Yfir tuttugu ensk skip fĂłrust við Ăsland Ă miklu illviðri með fannfergi. + 1419 - Ă skĂrdag gerði mikið Ăłveður með snjĂłkomu. HĂĄlfur ĂŸriðji tugur enskra skipa fĂłrst við strendur Ăslands. + 1565 - StĂłridĂłmur var leiddur Ă lög ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1598 - Hinrik 4. gaf hann Ășt Nantes-tilskipunina sem tryggði mĂłtmĂŠlendum trĂșfrelsi og batt ĂŸar með enda ĂĄ borgarastyrjöldina sem geisað hafði Ă Frakklandi. + 1605 - Fjodor 2. varð RĂșssakeisari við lĂĄt Boris GodĂșnov. + 1627 - PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldið vann sigur ĂĄ SvĂum Ă orrustunni við Hammerstein. + 1742 - ĂratĂłrĂan MessĂas eftir HĂ€ndel var frumflutt Ă Dyflinni ĂĄ Ărlandi. + 1844 - JĂłn Sigurðsson var kosinn ĂĄ ĂŸing með 50 atkvÊðum af 52. Hann var oft ĂŸingforseti og sat ĂĄ ĂŸingi til 1879. + 1886 - Eggert TheĂłdĂłr JĂłnassen var skipaður amtmaður Ă Suður- og Vesturamti. + 1895 - BaðhĂșsfĂ©lag ReykjavĂkur var stofnað. + 1919 - Amritsar-fjöldamorðin: Bretar myrtu 379 Ăłvopnaða mĂłtmĂŠlendur Ă Amritsar ĂĄ Indlandi. + 1936 - Knattspyrnumaðurinn Joe Payne skorar tĂu m0rk Ă sama leiknum Ă enska boltanum og setur met. + 1940 - Bretar hernĂĄmu FĂŠreyjar. + 1953 - Fyrsta skĂĄldsagan um James Bond kom Ășt Ă Bretlandi. + 1956 - Um 200 ĂŸĂșsund danskir mĂłtmĂŠlendur söfnuðust saman fyrir framan KristjĂĄnsborg til að mĂłtmĂŠla lögum um vinnutĂma. + 1970 - AppollóåÊtlunin: SĂșrefnistankur sprakk Ă Appollo 13 svo ĂĄhöfnin neyddist til að lenda geimfarinu. + 1972 - AlĂŸjóðapĂłstsambandið ĂĄkvað að lĂta ĂĄ AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldið KĂna sem eina fulltrĂșa KĂna og rak ĂŸar með LĂœĂ°veldið KĂna Ășr sambandinu. + 1975 - ĂrĂĄs byssumanna ĂĄ kirkju Ă Ain El Remmeneh-hverfi BeirĂșt ĂĄsamt ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ rĂștu með Ăłbreyttum borgurum ĂŸar sem 17 PalestĂnumenn lĂĄgu Ă valnum markaði upphaf LĂbanska borgarastrĂðsins. + 1975 - Forseti Tjad, François Tombalbaye, var myrtur Ă herforingjauppreisn sem FĂ©lix Malloum leiddi gegn honum. + 1976 - FjörutĂu lĂ©tust Ă sprengingu Ă vopnaverksmiðju Ă Lapua Ă Finnlandi. + 1984 - Indverjar lögðu svÊðið við Siachen-jökul Ă KasmĂr undir sig. + 1986 - JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. heimsĂłtti samkomuhĂșs gyðinga Ă RĂłm fyrstur pĂĄfa. + 1986 - Fyrsta barnið sem Ăłskyld staðgöngumóðir gekk með fĂŠddist Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1987 - PortĂșgal og AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldið KĂna undirrituðu samkomulag um að stjĂłrn MakĂĄ gengi til KĂna ĂĄrið 1999. + 1990 - SovĂ©trĂkin båðust formlega afsökunar ĂĄ fjöldamorðunum Ă KatynskĂłgi. + 1997 - Tiger Woods varð yngsti kylfingurinn Ă sögunni sem sigraði Masters-golfmĂłtið. + 2007 - BĂlanaust og OlĂufĂ©lagið ESSO sameinuðust og stofnuðu N1. + 2010 - JarðskjĂĄlfti varð Ă vestanverðu KĂna, 6,8 ĂĄ Richter. Yfir 1000 manns fĂłrust Ă skjĂĄlftanum. + 2012 - NorðurkĂłreski gervihnötturinn KwangmyĆngsĆng-3 sprakk skömmu eftir geimskot. + 2015 - TĂ©kkneski aðgerðasinninn VĂt JedliÄka lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði LĂberlands. + 2017 - LoftĂĄrĂĄsin ĂĄ Nangarhar: BandarĂkjaher varpaði GBU-43/B MOAB-sprengju ĂĄ miðstöð Ăslamska rĂkisins Ă Afganistan með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 94 lĂ©tust. + 2021 - RĂkisstjĂłrn Japans samĂŸykkti að dĂŠla geislavirku vatni frĂĄ Kjarnorkuverinu Ă Fukushima Ă Kyrrahaf yfir 30 ĂĄra tĂmabil. + +FĂŠdd + 1350 - MargrĂ©t 3., greifynja af FlĂŠmingjalandi (d. 1405). + 1519 - KatrĂn af Medici, drottning Hinriks 2. Frakkakonungs (d. 1589). + 1570 - Guy Fawkes, enskur samsĂŠrismaður (d. 1606). + 1636 - Hendrik van Rheede hollenskur grasafrÊðingur (d. 1691). + 1732 - Frederick North, breskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1792). + 1743 - Thomas Jefferson, 3. forseti BandarĂkjanna (d. 1826). + 1852 - F.W. Woolworth, bandarĂskur kaupsĂœslumaður (d. 1919). + 1876 - Ăorbjörg SigurðardĂłttir Bergmann, Ăslensk kaupsĂœslukona (d. 1952). + 1877 - Jes Zimsen, Ăslenskur kaupmaður (d. 1938). + 1899 - Alfred SchĂŒtz, austurrĂskur fĂ©lagsfrÊðingur (d. 1959). + 1906 - Samuel Beckett, Ărskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1989). + 1922 - Julius Nyerere, forseti TansanĂu (d. 1999). + 1923 - Don Adams, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2005). + 1939 - Paul Sorvino, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1939 - Seamus Heaney, Ărskur rithöfundur (d. 2013). + 1940 - J. M. G. Le ClĂ©zio, franskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi. + 1944 - Geirmundur ValtĂœsson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1945 - RĂșnar JĂșlĂusson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistamaður (d. 2008). + 1950 - Ron Perlman, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1959 - Hermann JĂłn TĂłmasson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1960 - Rudi Völler, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1961 - Ăröstur LeĂł Gunnarsson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1962 - Edivaldo Martins Fonseca, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1963 - GarrĂ Kasparov, rĂșssneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og skĂĄkmeistari. + 1970 - Rick Schroder, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1974 - Ruben Ăstlund, sĂŠnskur leikstjĂłri. + 1984 - Atli Fannar Bjarkason, Ăslenskur blaðamaður og ritstjĂłri. + 1988 - Anderson LuĂs de Abreu Oliveira, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1991 - Tindra Frost, Ăslensk klĂĄmmyndaleikkona. + +DĂĄin + 1275 - ElinĂłra af Englandi, dĂłttir JĂłhanns landlausa og kona Simon de Montfort (f. 1215). + 1605 - Boris GodĂșnov, RĂșssakeisari (f. 1551). + 1695 - Jean de la Fontaine, franskur rithöfundur (f. 1621). + 1865 - Amanz Gressly, svissneskur jarðfrÊðingur (f. 1814). + 1941 - Annie Jump Cannon, bandarĂskur stjörnufrÊðingur (f. 1863). + 1945 - ElĂsabet JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslenskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1869). + 1967 - FriĂ°ĂŸjĂłfur Thorsteinsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður, ĂŸjĂĄlfari og formaður KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram (d. 1895). + 1972 - JĂłhannes Sveinsson Kjarval, Ăslenskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1885). + 1972 - Helgi JĂłnasson, Ăslenskur grasafrÊðingur (f. 1887). + 1983 - MercĂš Rodoreda, katalĂłnskur rithöfundur (f. 1908). + 1999 - Willi Stoph, austurĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1914). + 2015 - GĂŒnter Grass, ĂŸĂœskur rithöfundur (f. 1927). + 2023 - Ărni Tryggvason, leikari + +AprĂl +14. aprĂl er 104. dagur ĂĄrsins (105. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 261 dagur er eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 69 - Fyrsti bardaginn við Bedriacum: Vitellius sigraði heri Othos sem framdi sjĂĄlfsvĂg. + 193 - Septimius Severus var hylltur af mönnum sĂnum sem keisari RĂłmar. + 1028 - Hinrik 3. varð keisari hins Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis. + 1191 - SelestĂnus 3. pĂĄfi tĂłk við eftir lĂĄt Klemens 3. + 1205 - Orrustan um AdrĂanĂłpel milli BĂșlgara og hers Latverska keisaradĂŠmisins Ă KonstantĂnĂłpel. + 1695 - HafĂs barst inn ĂĄ FaxaflĂła Ă fyrsta sinn sĂðan 1615. Ăsinn barst suður með Austurlandi og svo vestur með Suðurlandi og fyrir Reykjanes. + 1790 - Ălafur StefĂĄnsson var skipaður stiftamtmaður, fyrstur Ăslendinga. + 1814 - NapĂłleon BĂłnaparte sagði af sĂ©r keisaratign eftir Ăłsigur Ă Sjötta bandalagsstrĂðinu. + 1849 - Ungverjar hĂłfu uppreisn og lĂœstu yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ AusturrĂki. + 1912 - FarĂŸegaskipið RMS Titanic sigldi ĂĄ borgarĂsjaka rĂ©tt fyrir miðnĂŠtti. + 1927 - fyrsti Volvo-bĂllinn var framleiddur Ă Gautaborg. + 1931 - ĂingrofsmĂĄlið: AlĂŸingi var rofið og boðað til nĂœrra ĂŸingkosninga. Ăingrofið var mjög umdeilt. + 1935 - Frakkar, Bretar og Ătalir gerðu með sĂ©r Stresasamkomulagið + 1962 - Handritastofnun Ăslands sem sĂðar fĂ©kk nafnið Ărnastofnun var stofnuð með sĂ©rstökum lögum ĂŸegar hillti undir lausn HandritamĂĄlsins. + 1963 - HrĂmfaxi, flugvĂ©l FlugfĂ©lags Ăslands, fĂłrst við OslĂł og fĂłrust tĂłlf manns, flest Ăslendingar. + 1975 - Söngleikurinn Chorus Line var frumsĂœndur ĂĄ ShakespearehĂĄtĂð Ă New York-borg. + 1980 - Fyrsta hljĂłmplata Iron Maiden, Iron Maiden, kom Ășt Ă Bretlandi. + 1983 - ĂlafsvĂk fĂ©kk kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi. + 1984 - FriðarpĂĄskar voru settir Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1985 - Alan GarcĂa var kjörinn forseti PerĂș. + 1986 - Allt að 1 kĂlĂła ĂŸung högl fĂ©llu Ă Bangladess með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 92 lĂ©tust. + 1986 - Fyrsti matsölustaður HlöllabĂĄta var opnaður Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1987 - Flugstöð Leifs EirĂkssonar ĂĄ KeflavĂkurflugvelli var vĂgð. + 1989 - Game Boy kom fyrst ĂĄ markað Ă Japan. + 1990 - BandarĂski verðbrĂ©fasalinn Michael Milken jĂĄtaði sig sekan um fjĂĄrsvik. + 1991 - ĂjĂłfar stĂĄlu 20 verkum Ășr Van Gogh-safninu Ă Amsterdam. Myndirnar fundust innan við klukkutĂma sĂðar Ă yfirgefnum bĂl Ă nĂĄgrenninu. + 1992 - RåðhĂșs ReykjavĂkur var tekið Ă notkun. Bygging ĂŸess kostaði ĂĄ fjĂłrða milljarð krĂłna. + 1997 - 343 fĂłrust Ă eldi Ă tjaldbĂșðum pĂlagrĂma Ă nĂĄgrenni Mekka. + 1999 - KosĂłvĂłstrĂðið: FlugvĂ©lar NATO réðust ĂĄ bĂlalest með albönskum flĂłttamönnum fyrir mistök og drĂĄpu 79 flĂłttamenn. + 2003 - Kortlagningu gengamengis mannsins Ă Human Genome Project lauk. + 2007 - 42 lĂ©tust Ă hryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄs Ă Karbala Ă Ărak. + 2008 - Bandalag hĂŠgriflokka undir forystu Silvio Berlusconi vann sigur Ă ĂŸingkosningum ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. + 2010 - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă Eyjafjallajökli. Eldfjallaaskan sem dreifðist yfir EvrĂłpu olli miklum truflunum ĂĄ flugumferð Ă ĂĄlfunni. + 2013 - NicolĂĄs Maduro var kjörinn forseti VenesĂșela. + 2014 - 276 stĂșlkum var rĂŠnt Ășr skĂłla Ă Chibok Ă NĂgerĂu. + 2014 - 75 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar bĂlsprengja sprakk Ă höfuðborg NĂgerĂu, Abuja. + 2018 - Borgarastyrjöldin Ă SĂœrlandi: BandarĂkin, Bretland og Frakkland fyrirskipuðu loftĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ herstöðvar SĂœrlandshers vegna sarĂngasĂĄrĂĄsanna. + 2020 â Donald Trump lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir að BandarĂkin myndu stöðva fjĂĄrframlög til AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigðisstofnunarinnar. + +FĂŠdd + 1527 - Abraham Ortelius, flĂŠmskur kortagerðarmaður og landfrÊðingur (d. 1598). + 1578 - Filippus 3. SpĂĄnarkonungur (d. 1621). + 1629 - Christiaan Huygens, hollenskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1695). + 1738 - William Cavendish-Bentinck, hertogi af Portland, breskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1809). + 1862 - Pjotr Stolypin, forsĂŠtisråðherra RĂșsslands (d. 1911). + 1882 - Moritz Schlick, ĂŸĂœskur heimspekingur (d. 1936). + 1889 - SigrĂður ZoĂ«ga, Ăslenskur ljĂłsmyndari (d. 1968). + 1906 - Faisal bin Abdul Aziz al-SĂĄd, konungur SĂĄdi-ArabĂu (d. 1975). + 1920 - Ălöf PĂĄlsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur myndhöggvari (d. 2018). + 1921 - Thomas Schelling, bandarĂskur hagfrÊðingur (d. 2016). + 1907 - François Duvalier (Papa Doc), forseti HaĂtĂs (d. 1971). + 1912 - Arne Brustad, norskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 1987). + 1924 - Mary Warnock, breskur heimspekingur (d. 2019). + 1931 - Haraldur Bessason, Ăslenskur frÊðimaður og hĂĄskĂłlakennari (d. 2009). + 1934 - Fredric Jameson, bandarĂskur bĂłkmenntafrÊðingur. + 1950 - Mitsuru Komaeda, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1957 - Haruhisa Hasegawa, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1957 - Masaru Uchiyama, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1960 - Brad Garrett, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1961 - Robert Carlyle, skoskur leikari. + 1961 - Yuji Sugano, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1961 - Daniel Clowes, bandarĂskur myndasöguhöfundur. + 1968 - Heimir Eyvindarson, Ăslenskur hljĂłmborðsleikari. + 1969 - Guðfinna JĂłhanna GuðmundsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1970 - Emre AltuÄ, tyrkneskur söngvari. + 1973 - Adrien Brody, bandariskur leikari. + 1977 - Sarah Michelle Gellar, bandarisk leikkona. + 1983 - James McFadden, skoskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1996 - Abigail Breslin, bandarisk leikkona. + +DĂĄin + 911 - SergĂus 3. pĂĄfi. + 1578 - KristĂn GottskĂĄlksdĂłttir, Ăslensk hĂșsfreyja. + 1620 - GĂsli Guðbrandsson, Ăslenskur skĂłlameistari. + 1647 - VigfĂșs GĂslason, Ăslenskur skĂłlameistari (f. 1608). + 1711 - LoðvĂk, le Grand Dauphin, sonur LoðvĂks 14. Frakkakonungs (f. 1661). + 1759 - Georg Friedrich HĂ€ndel, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (f. 1685). + 1872 - Ălafur Stephensen, Ăslenskur lögfrÊðingur (f. 1791). + 1963 - Anna Borg, Ăslensk leikkona (f. 1903). + 1964 - Rachel Carson, bandarĂskur dĂœrafrÊðingur (f. 1907). + 1986 - Simone de Beauvoir, franskur rithöfundur (f. 1908). + 1998 - Björn Sv. Björnsson, Ăslenskur SS-maður (f. 1909). + 2004 - Haraldur Blöndal, hĂŠstarĂ©ttarlögmaður (f. 1946). + 2015 - Percy Sledge, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (f. 1940). + +AprĂl +15. aprĂl er 105. dagur ĂĄrsins (106. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 260 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1448 - Marcellus de Niveriis var skipaður SkĂĄlholtsbiskup. Hann kom ĂŸĂł aldrei til landsins. + 1638 - SĂðustu leifar Shimabarauppreisnarinnar Ă Japan voru sigraðar af her sjĂłgunsins. + 1654 - Westminster-sĂĄttmĂĄlinn sem batt enda ĂĄ Fyrsta strĂð Englands og Hollands var undirritaður. + 1683 - KristjĂĄn 5., konungur Danmerkur, skrifaði undir Dönsku lögbĂłkina. + 1687 - Norsku lög KristjĂĄns 5. voru lögtekin. + 1755 - Samuel Johnson gaf Ășt orðabĂłk sĂna, sem hann hafði unnið að Ă nĂu ĂĄr. + 1785 - SkĂĄlholtsskĂłli var lagður niður og biskupsstĂłll fluttur til ReykjavĂkur samkvĂŠmt Ășrskurði konungs. + 1803 - ReykjavĂk varð sĂ©rstakt lögsagnarumdĂŠmi. Fyrsti bĂŠjarfĂłgetinn var Rasmus Frydensberg. + 1892 - FyrirtĂŠkið General Electric var stofnað Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1912 - FarĂŸegaskipið Titanic sökk Ă fyrstu ferð sinni frĂĄ Englandi til BandarĂkjanna eftir ĂĄrekstur við Ăsjaka suðaustur af NĂœfundnalandi. + 1955 - Fyrsti McDonalds-veitingastaðurinn opnaði Ă Des Plaines Ă Illinois, BandarĂkjunum. + 1960 - Heildverslunin Ăslensk AmerĂska var stofnuð ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1967 - Um 250 ĂŸĂșsund BandarĂkjamenn mĂłtmĂŠltu VĂetnamstrĂðinu Ă New York Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1977 - JĂłn L. Ărnason varð Ăslandsmeistari Ă skĂĄk aðeins sextĂĄn ĂĄra gamall. + 1979 - Sterkur jarðskjĂĄlfti upp ĂĄ 7.0 stig ĂĄ Richter lagði borgina Budva Ă Svartfjallalandi Ă rĂșst. + 1981 - Fyrsta Coca Cola-verksmiðjan Ă KĂna hĂłf starfsemi. + 1983 - Disneyland Ă TĂłkĂœĂł var opnað. + 1984 - Dagur ĂŠskunnar var haldinn hĂĄtĂðlegur Ă fyrsta sinn Ă RĂłm ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. + 1985 - Banni við giftingum fĂłlks af ĂłlĂkum kynĂŸĂŠtti var aflĂ©tt Ă Suður-AfrĂku. + 1986 - BandarĂskar flugvĂ©lar vörpuðu sprengjum ĂĄ lĂbĂœsku borgirnar TrĂpĂłlĂ og Benghazi vegna stuðnings LĂbĂœustjĂłrnar við hryðjuverk. + 1989 - Hillsborough-slysið: 96 stuðningsmenn Liverpool F.C. lĂ©tust Ă troðningi ĂĄ leik liðsins við Nottingham Forest F.C. + 1990 - Mikið hĂŠttuĂĄstand skapaðist ĂŸegar eldur kom upp Ă ammonĂakstanki Ăburðarverksmiðjunnar Ă Gufunesi. Eldurinn var fljĂłtlega slökktur. + 1991 - EvrĂłpubandalagið aflĂ©tti viðskiptabanni sĂnu ĂĄ Suður-AfrĂku. + 1994 - Umbjóðendur 124 rĂkja auk ESB-rĂkjanna skrifuðu undir Marrakesssamninginn sem kvað ĂĄ um grundvallarbreytingar ĂĄ GATT-samningnum og stofnun AlĂŸjóðaviðskiptastofnuninnar. + 1999 - Forsetakosningar fĂłru fram Ă AlsĂr og Abdelaziz Bouteflika var kjörinn forseti. + 2000 - âLeyniskĂĄpurinnâ með erĂłtĂskum minjum frĂĄ Pompeii og Herculaneum var opnaður Ă Minjasafni NapĂłlĂ eftir aldalanga lokun. + 2002 - Vefurinn FĂłtbolti.net var stofnaður ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 2002 - 129 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Air China flug 129 hrapaði Ă Suður-KĂłreu. + 2005 - SĂðasti bĂlaframleiðandinn Ă breskri eigu, MG Rover, varð gjaldĂŸrota. + 2006 - BosnĂsk-bandarĂski rithöfundurinn Semir OsmanagiÄ hĂ©lt ĂŸvĂ fram að hann hefði uppgötvað 14.000 ĂĄra gamla pĂramĂda Ă BosnĂu. + 2006 - Borgarastyrjöldinni Ă BĂșrĂșndĂ lauk. + 2008 - 65 lĂ©tust Ă hryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄsum Ă Baquba og Ramadi Ă Ărak. + 2009 - Ăeirðalögregla réðist inn Ă hĂșs sem hĂșstökufĂłlk hafði lagt undir sig við VatnsstĂg Ă ReykjavĂk og handtĂłk 22. + 2010 - Kraftlyftingasamband Ăslands var stofnað. + 2013 - TvĂŠr sprengjur sprungu Ă BostonmaraĂŸoninu með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 3 lĂ©tust og 264 sĂŠrðust. + 2015 - Nokia eignaðist franska sĂmtĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkið Alcatel-Lucent. + 2017 - Yfir 120 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar ĂĄrĂĄs var gerð ĂĄ bĂlalest með flĂłttafĂłlk við AleppĂł Ă SĂœrlandi. + +FĂŠdd + 1452 - Leonardo da Vinci, Ătalskur listamaður og uppfinningamaður (d. 1519). + 1469 - Nanak, sĂkagĂșrĂș (d. 1539). + 1642 - SĂșleiman 2. TyrkjasoldĂĄn (d. 1691). + 1646 - KristjĂĄn 5. Danakonungur (d. 1699). + 1684 - KatrĂn 1. keisaraynja RĂșsslands (d. 1727). + 1692 - HalldĂłr BrynjĂłlfsson, HĂłlabiskup (d. 1752). + 1707 - Leonhard Euler, svissneskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1783). + 1768 - TĂłmas Klog, Ăslenskur lĂŠknir (d. 1824). + 1797 - Adolphe Thiers, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1877). + 1810 - BrynjĂłlfur PĂ©tursson, lögfrÊðingur og einn Fjölnismanna (d. 1851). + 1817 - Benjamin Jowett, enskur fornfrÊðingur (d. 1893). + 1858 - Ămile Durkheim, franskur fĂ©lagsfrÊðingur (d. 1917). + 1867 - Bjarni SĂŠmundsson, Ăslenskur nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingur (d. 1940). + 1877 - W.D. Ross, skoskur heimspekingur (d. 1971). + 1899 - LĂĄra miðill (d. 1971). + 1901 - Ăskar GĂslason, Ăslenskur kvikmyndagerðarmaður (d. 1990). + 1910 - Miguel Najdorf, pĂłlskur skĂĄkmaður (d. 1997). + 1912 - Kim Il-sung, leiðtogi Norður-KĂłreu (d. 1994). + 1920 - Richard von WeizsĂ€cker, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 2015). + 1930 - VigdĂs FinnbogadĂłttir, 4. forseti Ăslands. + 1931 - Tomas Tranströmer, sĂŠnskt skĂĄld (d. 2015). + 1944 - Kunishige Kamamoto, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1951 - Choei Sato, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1960 - Filippus BelgĂukonungur. + 1961 - Carol W. Greider, bandarĂskur sameindalĂffrÊðingur og nĂłbelsverðlaunahafi. + 1963 - KristĂn GuðrĂșn GunnlaugsdĂłttir, Ăslensk myndlistarkona. + 1964 - Ari MatthĂasson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1965 - SkĂșli Helgason, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1976 - Seigo Narazaki, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1982 - Seth Rogen, kanadĂskur leikari. + 1983 - Merik Tadros, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1983 - Dudu Cearense, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1990 - Emma Watson, ensk leikkona. + 1992 - Amy Diamond, sĂŠnsk söngkona. + +DĂĄin + 69 - Otho, keisari RĂłmar framdi sjĂĄlfsvĂg. + 1558 - Roxelana, eiginkona SĂșleimans mikla (f. Ă kringum 1502â04). + 1641 - Domenico Zampieri, Ătalskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1581). + 1761 - Archibald Campbell, 3. hertogi af Argyll, skoskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1682). + 1764 - Madame de Pompadour, frönsk aðalskona (f. 1721). + 1835 - CristĂłbal Bencomo y RodrĂguez, spĂŠnskur prestur (f. 1758). + 1865 - Abraham Lincoln, BandarĂkjaforseti (f. 1809). + 1866 - MagnĂșs Stephensen, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaður (f. 1797). + 1916 - JĂłnas Guðlaugsson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1887). + 1925 - Fritz Haarmann, ĂŸĂœskur raðmorðingi (f. 1879). + 1942 - Robert Musil, austurrĂskur rithöfundur (f. 1880). + 1953 - Knud Zimsen, borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur (f. 1875). + 1972 - Frank H. Knight, bandarĂskur hagfrÊðingur (f. 1885). + 1980 - Jean-Paul Sartre, heimspekingur, rithöfundur og nĂłbelsverðlaunahafi 1964 (f. 1905). + 1990 - Greta Garbo, sĂŠnsk leikkona (f. 1905). + 1994 - KristjĂĄn frĂĄ DjĂșpalĂŠk, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1916). + 1997 - Aatami Kuortti, ingermanlenskur prestur (f. 1903). + 1998 - Pol Pot, leiðtogi rauðu khmeranna Ă KambĂłdĂu (f. 1925). + 2001 - Jörundur Ăorsteinsson, knattspyrnudĂłmari og formaður KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram (f. 1924). + 2010 - Jack Herer, bandarĂskur aðgerðasinni (f. 1939). + 2011 - IngĂłlfur Margeirsson, Ăslenskur blaðamaður og rithöfundur (f. 1948). + 2015 - Tadahiko Ueda, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1947). + 2018 - R. Lee Ermey, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1944). + +AprĂl +16. aprĂl er 106. dagur ĂĄrsins (107. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 259 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 69 - Vitellius varð keisari RĂłmar eftir lĂĄt Othos. + 556 - PelagĂus 1. varð pĂĄfi. + 1055 - Viktor 2. varð pĂĄfi. + 1071 - Robert Guiscard lagði BarĂ undir sig sem var sĂðasta borgin ĂĄ Suður-ĂtalĂu undir yfirråðum AustrĂłmverska rĂkisins. + 1203 - Filippus 2. Frakkakonungur reið inn Ă RĂșðuborg sem varð til ĂŸess að NormandĂ sameinaðist Frakklandi. + 1594 - Ferdinando Stanley, jarl af Derby, dĂł skyndilega, lĂklega drepinn með eitri. Hann var ĂŸĂĄ annar Ă erfðaröðinni (nĂŠstur ĂĄ eftir móður sinni) að bresku krĂșnunni samkvĂŠmt ĂŸvĂ sem Hinrik 8. hafði mĂŠlt fyrir Ă erfðaskrĂĄ sinni, + 1899 - Franska spĂtalaskipið St. Paul strandar við Meðalland. + 1915 - Gullfoss, fyrsta skip EimskipafĂ©lags Ăslands og jafnframt fyrsta vĂ©lknĂșna millilandaskipið sem smĂðað var fyrir Ăslendinga, kom til ReykjavĂkur. + 1919 - Mahatma (Mohandas) Gandhi skipulagði dag föstu og bĂŠna til að mĂłtmĂŠla fjöldamorðum Breta ĂĄ indverskum mĂłtmĂŠlendum Ă Amritsar. + 1946 - SĂœrland hlaut sjĂĄlfstÊði. + 1947 - Geysileg sprenging varð Ă ammonĂumnĂtratfarmi skips sem lĂĄ við bryggju Ă Texas City Ă Texas. 552 fĂłrust og um 3000 manns slösuðust. + 1954 - AA-samtökin ĂĄ Ăslandi voru stofnuð. Ăau starfa Ă deildum um allt land. + 1957 - BĂŠjarråð ReykjavĂkur samĂŸykkti að friða ĂrbĂŠ og nĂŠsta nĂĄgrenni hans og gera að almenningsgarði. + 1970 - Ănnur umferð SALT-viðrÊðnanna hĂłfst. + 1972 - Tunglfarinu Appollo 16 var skotið ĂĄ loft. + 1975 - Hosni Mubarak var skipaður varaforseti Egyptalands. + 1988 - Japanska teiknimyndin NĂĄgranninn minn Totoro var frumsĂœnd. + 1988 - Ătalski ĂŸingmaðurinn Roberto Ruffilli var myrtur af Rauðu herdeildunum. + 1992 - OlĂuflutningaskipið Katina P sigldi Ă strand skammt frĂĄ MapĂștĂł Ă MĂłsambĂk með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að sextĂu ĂŸĂșsund lĂtrar af olĂu fĂłru Ă sjĂłinn. + 1992 - Uppreisnarmenn steyptu forseta Afganistan, Mohammad Najibullah, af stĂłli og tĂłku hann höndum sem leiddi til borgarastyrjaldar. + 1993 - Srebrenica Ă BosnĂu var lĂœst âöryggissvÊði Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðannaâ. + 1993 - AhmiÄi-blóðbaðið ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað ĂŸegar yfir hundrað BosnĂumĂșslima voru myrtir af BosnĂukróötum Ă LaĆĄva-dal. + 1994 - SteingrĂmur Hermannsson og EirĂkur Guðnason voru skipaðir seðlabankastjĂłrar. + 1994 - Finnar samĂŸykktu aðild að EvrĂłpusambandinu Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu. + 2000 - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn hnattvÊðingu fĂłru fram Ă Washington D.C. + 2003 - AðildarsĂĄttmĂĄlinn 2003 um aðild 10 nĂœrra EvrĂłpusambandsrĂkja var undirritaður af 25 rĂkjum. + 2007 - Virginia Tech-fjöldamorðin: Nemandinn Seung-Hui Cho við TĂŠknihĂĄskĂłlann Ă VirginĂu Ă BandarĂkjunum myrti 32, sĂŠrði 29 og framdi sĂðan sjĂĄlfsmorð. + 2011 - Ărleg råðstefna BRICS-landanna fĂłr fram Ă Sanya Ă KĂna. Suður-AfrĂka tĂłk ĂŸĂĄtt Ă fyrsta sinn. + 2012 - RĂ©ttarhöld yfir Anders Behring Breivik hĂłfust Ă ĂslĂł. + 2014 - 304 manns lĂ©tust ĂŸegar ferjunni Sewol hvolfdi Ă Suður-KĂłreu. + 2016 - 40 fĂłrust ĂŸegar jarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir Kumamoto-hĂ©rað Ă Japan. + 2017 - Tyrkir samĂŸykktu umdeildar breytingar ĂĄ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ Tyrklands Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu. + +FĂŠdd + 1319 - JĂłhann 2. Frakkakonungur (d. 1364). + 1646 - Jules Hardouin Mansart, franskur arkitekt (d. 1708). + 1661 - Charles Montagu, enskt skĂĄld (d. 1715). + 1825 - Jacob BrĂžnnum Scavenius Estrup, forsĂŠtisråðherra Danmerkur (d. 1913). + 1844 - Anatole France, franskur rithöfundur (d. 1924). + 1863 - Ămile Friant, franskur myndlistarmaður (d. 1932). + 1867 - Wilbur Wright, flugmaður (d. 1912). + 1887 - GuðjĂłn SamĂșelsson, hĂșsameistari (d. 1950). + 1889 - Charlie Chaplin, enskur leikari (d. 1977). + 1920 - Sigurður Guðmundsson, vĂgslubiskup (d. 2010). + 1921 - Peter Ustinov, breskur leikari (d. 2004). + 1922 - Kingsley Amis, enskur rithöfundur (d. 1995). + 1924 - Enrico Nicola (Henry) Mancini, tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1994). + 1927 - Benedikt 16. pĂĄfi (d. 2022). + 1940 - MargrĂ©t ĂĂłrhildur, Danadrottning. + 1947 - SigurrĂłs ĂorgrĂmsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1951 - Björgvin HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur söngvari. + 1951 - Ari Kristinsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1952 - Yoshikazu Nagai, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1955 - Hinrik af LĂșxemborg. + 1958 - ElĂsabet JökulsdĂłttir, Ăslenskt skĂĄld. + 1960 - Pierre Littbarski, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1962 - Antony Blinken, bandarĂskur erindreki. + 1969 - Michael Baur, austurrĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1970 - Anna KolbrĂșn ĂrnadĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1977 - Alek Wek, sĂșdönsk fyrirsĂŠta. + 1977 - Fredrik Ljungberg, sĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1985 - Sam Tillen, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1986 - Epke Zonderland, hollenskur frjĂĄlsĂĂŸrĂłttamaður. + 1986 - Shinji Okazaki, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1987 - Aaron Lennon, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1996 - Kento Misao, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 69 - Otho RĂłmarkeisari (f. 32). + 1115 - MagnĂșs eyjajarl (f. 1075). + 1331 - LĂĄrentĂus KĂĄlfsson HĂłlabiskup (f. 1267). + 1496 - Karl 2., hertogi af Savoja (f. 1489). + 1689 - Ăorsteinn Geirsson, Ăslenskur kennari (f. 1638). + 1828 - Francisco Goya, spĂŠnskur listamaður (f. 1746). + 1850 - Marie Tussaud, frönsk vaxmyndagerðarkona (f. 1761). + 1930 - Ălafur HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur lögfrÊðingur (f. 1855). + 1947 - Rudolf Höss, ĂŸĂœskur fangabĂșðastjĂłri (f. 1900). + 1958 - Rosalind Franklin, breskur efnafrÊðingur (f. 1920). + 1964 - Sigvaldi Thordarson, Ăslenskur arkitekt (f. 1911). + 1970 - Richard Thors, Ăslenskur athafnamaður (f. 1888). + 1972 - Yasunari Kawabata, japanskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1899). + 1989 - BrynjĂłlfur Bjarnason, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1898). + 1991 - David Lean, breskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (f. 1908). + 1991 - Sergio Peresson, Ătalskur fiðlusmiður (f. 1913). + 1997 - Roland Topor, franskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1938). + 2000 - NĂna Björk ĂrnadĂłttir, Ăslenskt skĂĄld og rithöfundur (f. 1941). + 2003 - Isao Iwabuchi, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1933). + +TilvĂsanir + +AprĂl +17. aprĂl er 107. dagur ĂĄrsins (108. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 258 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 69 - Vitellius tĂłk við sem keisari Ă RĂłm. + 1498 - LoðvĂk 12. varð konungur Frakklands. + 1555 - Borgin Siena ĂĄ ĂtalĂu gafst upp eftir ĂĄtjĂĄn mĂĄnaða umsĂĄtur herliðs FlĂłrens og keisarans. + 1711 - Karl 6. varð keisari hins Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkis. + 1797 - Bretar reyndu að hertaka PĂșertĂł RĂkĂł en fĂłru halloka gegn SpĂĄnverjum. + 1895 - HvĂtabandið var stofnað Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1910 - Ungmennasamband Skagafjarðar var stofnað. + 1913 - JĂĄrnbraut ĂĄ milli ĂskjuhlĂðar og ReykjavĂkurhafnar var tekin Ă notkun. HĂșn var notuð til grjĂłtflutninga. + 1913 - Ălgerðin Egill SkallagrĂmsson tĂłk til starfa. + 1937 - Daffy Duck kom fyrst fram Ă mynd frĂĄ Warner Bros. + 1939 - ĂjóðstjĂłrnin, samsteypustjĂłrn FramsĂłknarflokks, SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokks og AlĂŸĂœĂ°uflokks undir forsĂŠti Hermanns JĂłnassonar, tĂłk við völdum. HĂșn sat Ă 3 ĂĄr. + 1941 - RĂkisstjĂłrn JĂșgĂłslavĂu gafst upp fyrir innrĂĄs Ăxulveldanna. + 1961 - AFRTS Keflavik fĂ©kk leyfi menntamĂĄlaråðherra til að auka Ăștsendingarstyrk sjĂłnvarpsĂștsendinga stöðvarinnar. + 1961 - InnrĂĄsin Ă SvĂnaflĂła: Vopnaður hĂłpur ĂștlĂŠgra KĂșbverja gerði misheppnaða innrĂĄs Ă KĂșbu með fulltingi bandarĂsku leyniĂŸjĂłnustunnar CIA. + 1964 - BandarĂski bĂlaframleiðandinn Ford setti Ford Mustang ĂĄ markað. + 1970 - AppollóåÊtlunin: Appollo 13 lenti heilu og höldnu Ă Kyrrahafi. + 1971 - Sheikh Mujibur Rahman stofnaði AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldið Bangladess en tveimur dögum sĂðar flĂșði stjĂłrnin til Indlands. + 1973 - SĂ©rsveitin GSG 9 var stofnuð Ă ĂĂœskalandi til að takast ĂĄ við hryðjuverk. + 1975 - Rauðu kmerarnir nåðu höfuðborg KambĂłdĂu, Phnom Penh, ĂĄ sitt vald. + 1979 - Fjöldi skĂłlabarna Ă Mið-AfrĂkulĂœĂ°veldinu var handtekinn og mörg drepin eftir mĂłtmĂŠli gegn skĂłlabĂșningum. + 1982 - Kanada fĂ©kk fullt sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ Bretlandi með nĂœrri stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ. + 1991 - Dow Jones-vĂsitalan nåði 3000 stigum Ă fyrsta sinn. + 1994 - Gerðarsafn, listasafn KĂłpavogs, var opnað. + 1999 - Naglasprengja sem hĂŠgriöfgamaðurinn David Copeland kom fyrir sprakk ĂĄ markaði Ă Brixton. + 2002 - Al-KaĂda lĂœsti ĂĄbyrgð ĂĄ hryðjuverkunum 11. september 2001 ĂĄ hendur sĂ©r. + 2003 - Anneli JÀÀtteenmĂ€ki varð fyrsti kvenforsĂŠtisråðherra Finnlands. + 2004 - Leiðtogi Hamas, Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi, var drepinn Ă ĂŸyrluĂĄrĂĄs Ăsraelshers ĂĄ Gasaströndinni. + 2009 - FjĂłrir sakborningar Ă Pirate Bay-mĂĄlinu Ă SvĂĂŸjóð voru dĂŠmdir Ă ĂĄrs fangelsi og til að greiða 30 milljĂłnir sĂŠnskra krĂłna Ă bĂŠtur. + 2010 - Ăorgerður KatrĂn GunnarsdĂłttir, varaformaður SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokksins, sagði af sĂ©r og tĂłk sĂ©r hlĂ© frĂĄ ĂŸingstörfum. Ăður höfðu Björgvin G. Sigurðsson, Samfylkingu, og Illugi Gunnarsson, SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokki, einnig tekið sĂ©r hlĂ© frĂĄ ĂŸingstörfum vegna upplĂœsinga sem fram komu Ă skĂœrslu rannsĂłknarnefndar AlĂŸingis. + 2015 - ĂkraĂna Ăłskaði eftir ĂŸvĂ að AlĂŸjóðadĂłmstĂłllinn Ă Haag fjallaði um strĂðsglĂŠpi aðskilnaðarsinna ĂĄ KrĂmskaga. + 2016 - Yfir 200 fĂłrust à öflugum jarðskjĂĄlfta Ă Ekvador. + 2021 - AndlĂĄt vegna COVID-19 nåðu 3 milljĂłnum ĂĄ heimsvĂsu. + 2021 - ĂtjĂĄn rĂșssneskir sendifulltrĂșar og leyniĂŸjĂłnustumenn voru reknir frĂĄ TĂ©kklandi eftir yfirlĂœsingu um að ĂŸeir bĂŠru ĂĄbyrgð ĂĄ sprengingum Ă skotfĂŠrageymslum Ă VrbÄtice ĂĄrið 2014. + +FĂŠdd + 1497 - Pedro de Valdivia, spĂŠnskur landvinningamaður (d. 1553). + 1573 - MaximilĂan 1., kjörfursti af BĂŠjaralandi (d. 1651). + 1734 - Taksin, Konungur ThaĂlands (d. 1782). + 1799 - Eliza Acton, enskt ljóðskĂĄld og brautryðjandi Ă matreiðslubĂłkaskrifum (d. 1859). + 1837 - J. P. Morgan, bandarĂskur fjĂĄrfestir (d. 1913). + 1885 - Karen Blixen, danskur rithöfundur (d. 1962). + 1894 - NĂkĂta KhrĂșstsjov, aðalritari sovĂ©ska kommĂșnistaflokksins (d. 1971). + 1897 - Thornton Wilder, bandarĂskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1975). + 1916 - Sirimavo Bandaranaike, forsĂŠtisråðherra SrĂ Lanka (d. 2000). + 1928 - Cynthia Ozick, bandarĂskur rithöfundur. + 1941 - JĂłn Sigurðsson, fyrrum råðherra og bankastjĂłri NorrĂŠna fjĂĄrfestingabankans. + 1948 - Jan Hammer, tĂ©kkneskt tĂłnskĂĄld. + 1948 - John N. Gray, breskur heimspekingur. + 1952 - Joe Alaskey, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 2016). + 1957 - Nick Hornby, breskur rithöfundur. + 1959 - Sean Bean, breskur leikari. + 1961 - EyjĂłlfur KristjĂĄnsson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1963 - Joel Murray, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1964 - Maynard James Keenan, bandarĂskur söngvari (Tool og A Perfect Circle). + 1967 - Birgitta JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslenskt skĂĄld og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1974 - Victoria Beckham, fyrrum meðlimur Spice Girls. + 1978 - Jordan Hill, bandarĂsk söngkona. + 1985 - Takuya Honda, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1992 - Shkodran Mustafi, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1993 - RĂșnar Freyr ĂĂłrhallsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1996 - Dee Dee Davis, bandarĂsk leikkona. + +DĂĄin + 485 - PrĂłklos, grĂskur heimspekingur (f. 412). + 858 - Benedikt 3. pĂĄfi. + 1298 - Ărni ĂorlĂĄksson SkĂĄlholtsbiskup (f. 1237). + 1427 - JĂłhann 4., hertogi af Brabant (f. 1403). + 1761 - Thomas Bayes, breskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (f. um 1702). + 1790 - Benjamin Franklin, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1706). + 1902 - Valdimar Ăsmundsson, Ăslenskur ritstjĂłri (f. 1852). +1966 - JĂșlĂana SveinsdĂłttir, Ăslensk myndlistakona (f. 1889) + 1979 - Yukio Tsuda, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1917). + 1985 - Lon Nol, kambĂłdĂskur hershöfðingi (f. 1913). + 1996 - Piet Hein, danskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur og skĂĄld (f. 1905). + 2003 - Koji Kondo, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1972). + 2014 - Gabriel GarcĂa MĂĄrquez, kĂłlumbĂskur rithöfundur, blaðamaður og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1927). + 2019 - Alan GarcĂa, fyrrum forseti PerĂș (f. 1949). + +AprĂl +18. aprĂl er 108. dagur ĂĄrsins (109. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 257 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 309 - EvsebĂus varð pĂĄfi. + 1244 - KĂŠgil-Björn Dufgusson var drepinn af mönnum Kolbeins unga Ă KrĂłksfirði. + 1355 - Marino Faliero, hertogi Ă Feneyjum, var hĂĄlshöggvinn fyrir samsĂŠri gegn Minnaråðinu. + 1378 - Bartolomeo Prignano varð Ărbanus 6. pĂĄfi. + 1518 - Bona Sforza var krĂœnd drottning PĂłllands og giftist Sigmundi 1. + 1864 - Orrustunni við DybbĂžl lauk með stĂłrsĂłkn PrĂșssa. + 1872 - Mikið tjĂłn varð ĂĄ HĂșsavĂk vegna jarðskjĂĄlfta og varð ĂĄ annað hundrað manns hĂșsnÊðislaust. + 1880 - Ăingkosningar Ă Bretlandi: FrjĂĄlslyndi flokkurinn vann sigur og William Ewart Gladstone varð forsĂŠtisråðherra öðru sinni. + 1903 - HĂșsið Glasgow Ă ReykjavĂk, sem var stĂŠrsta hĂșs ĂĄ Ăslandi, brann til kaldra kola. Mannbjörg varð. + 1906 - Mikill jarðskjĂĄlfti olli gĂfurlegum skemmdum Ă San Francisco Ă BandarĂkjunum. Eldar kviknuðu Ă kjölfarið og juku mjög ĂĄ skemmdirnar. Fjöldi fĂłlks fĂłrst. + 1944 - Hermann JĂłnasson tĂłk við af JĂłnasi JĂłnssyni frĂĄ Hriflu sem formaður FramsĂłknarflokksins. + 1949 - Ărska lĂœĂ°veldið var stofnað og Ărar sögðu sig um leið Ășr Breska samveldinu. + 1954 - Gamal Abdel Nasser komst til valda Ă Egyptalandi. + 1955 - Bandung-råðstefnan hĂłfst Ă IndĂłnesĂu. + 1971 - MagnĂșs Torfi Ălafsson bar sigur Ășr bĂœtum Ă spurningakeppni Ăștvarpsins, Veistu svarið? Ăremur mĂĄnuðum sĂðar var hann orðinn menntamĂĄlaråðherra. + 1978 - Pol Pot fyrirskipaði innrĂĄs Ă VĂetnam. + 1980 - RĂłdesĂa fĂ©kk de jure sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ Bretlandi og breytti nafni sĂnu Ă Simbabve. + 1983 - SjĂłnvarpsstöðin Disney Channel var stofnuð Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 1983 - 63 lĂ©tust Ă sprengjuĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ BandarĂska sendiråðið Ă BeirĂșt. + 1995 - Rox var fyrsta sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin sem dreift var ĂĄ netinu. + 1996 - Qana-fjöldamorðin Ă LĂbanon: Ă ĂŸað minnsta 106 lĂbanskir borgarar lĂ©tu lĂfið er Ăsraelski herinn beitti sprengjum gegn byrgi SĂ nĂĄlĂŠgt Qana. + 1996 - 163 lĂ©tu lĂfið Ă eldsvoða ĂĄ skemmtistaðnum Ozone Disco Ă Quezon-borg ĂĄ Filippseyjum. + 2005 - HugbĂșnaðarrisinn Adobe Systems tilkynnti kaup sĂn ĂĄ Macromedia. + 2007 - Mikill bruni varð ĂĄ horni AusturstrĂŠtis og LĂŠkjargötu. + 2007 - VatnstjĂłn varð ĂŸegar allt að 80 °C heitt vatn rann niður VitastĂg og ĂŸar Ășt Ă ĂĄtt að Snorrabraut um Laugaveg. + 2007 - NĂŠr 200 lĂ©tust Ă röð ĂĄrĂĄsa Ă Bagdad. + 2014 - 16 nepalskir fjallaleiðsögumenn fĂłrust ĂŸegar snjĂłflóð fĂ©ll Ă Everestfjalli nĂŠrri grunnbĂșðum Everest. + 2015 - HĂłpar fĂłlks réðust gegn erlendu verkafĂłlki Ă JĂłhannesarborg Ă Suður-AfrĂku. + 2016 - OlĂu- og gasvinnslusvÊðið GolĂatsvÊðið Ă Noregshafi var formlega tekið Ă notkun. + 2016 - SĂŠnski råðherrann Mehmet Kaplan sagði af sĂ©r eftir að Ă ljĂłs kom að hann hafði haldið ramadan hĂĄtĂðlegan með hĂĄtt settum meðlimi tyrknesku nĂœfasistasamtakanna GrĂĄu Ășlfanna. + 2018 - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn breytingum ĂĄ almannatryggingalögum hĂłfust Ă NĂkaragva. Talið er að 34 hafa fallið fyrir hendi lögreglu Ă mĂłtmĂŠlunum. + 2018 - KvikmyndahĂșs voru opnuð Ă SĂĄdi-ArabĂu Ă fyrsta sinn frĂĄ 1983. Fyrsta myndin sem sĂœnd var var Svarti pardusinn. + 2018 - Geimferðastofnun BandarĂkjanna skaut rannsĂłknargervihnettinum Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite ĂĄ loft. + 2021 - TĂłlf knattspyrnufĂ©lög Ășr efstu deildum EvrĂłpu samĂŸykktu ĂŸĂĄtttöku Ă evrĂłpskri ofurdeild. Ăkvörðunin var vĂða fordĂŠmd og mörg ĂŸeirra drĂłgu stuðning sinn til baka nokkrum dögum sĂðar. + 2022 - Orrustan um Donbas hĂłfst Ă ĂkraĂnu. + +FĂŠdd + 1480 - Lucrezia Borgia, Ătölsk hertogaynja (d. 1519). + 1590 - Akmeð 1. TyrkjasoldĂĄn (d. 1617). + 1605 - Giacomo Carissimi, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1674). + 1647 - Elias Brenner, finnskur listamaður (d. 1717). + 1772 - David Ricardo, breskur hagfrÊðingur (d. 1823). + 1854 - Louis Zöllner, danskur kaupmaður (d. 1945). + 1858 - Clarence Darrow, bandarĂskur lögfrÊðingur (d. 1938). + 1862 - MagnĂșs KristjĂĄnsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1928). + 1902 - Giuseppe Pella, fyrrum forsĂŠtisråðherra ĂtalĂu (d. 1981). + 1918 - Gabriel Axel, danskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (d. 2014). + 1920 - Ălafur HalldĂłrsson, ĂslenskufrÊðingur (d. 2013). + 1926 - Indriði G. Ăorsteinsson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (d. 2000). + 1927 - Samuel P. Huntington, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlafrÊðingur. + 1932 - Nic Broca, belgĂskur teiknari (d. 1993). + 1941 - Michael D. Higgins, forseti Ărlands. + 1944 - Robert Hanssen, bandarĂskur njĂłsnari. + 1947 - James Woods, bandariskur leikari. + 1959 - Ingibjörg JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaður. + 1961 - Ălisabeth Borne, forsĂŠtisråðherra Frakklands. + 1964 - Niall Ferguson, breskur sagnfrÊðingur. + 1971 - David Tennant, skoskur leikari. + 1972 - Eli Roth, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri. + 1972 - Lars Christiansen, danskur handknattleiksmaður. + 1976 - Melissa Joan Hart, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1979 - Kourtney Kardashian, bandarĂsk athafnakona. + 1984 - America Ferrera, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1990 - Wojciech SzczÄsny, pĂłlskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 1244 - KĂŠgil-Björn Dufgusson, liðsmaður.Sturlunga. + 1756 - Jacques Cassini, franskur stjörnufrÊðingur (f. 1677). + 1873 - Justus von Liebig, ĂŸĂœskur efnafrÊðingur (f. 1803). + 1878 - Thomas Thomson, skoskur grasafrÊðingur (f. 1817). + 1922 - ĂĂłrunn JĂłnassen, kvenrĂ©ttindakona og bĂŠjarfulltrĂși Ă ReykjavĂk (f. 1850). + 1955 - Albert Einstein, austurrĂskur eðlisfrÊðingur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1879). + 1958 - Thora Friðriksson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (f. 1866). + 2002 - Thor Heyerdahl, norskur mannfrÊðingur og landkönnuður (f. 1914). + 2004 - Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, fyrsti forsetisråðherra Fiji og forseti Fiji (f. 1920). + 2013 - Storm Thorgerson, bandarĂskur hönnuður (f. 1944). + +AprĂl +19. aprĂl er 109. dagur ĂĄrsins (110. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 256 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1042 - Mikael 5. keisara Ă BĂœsans var steypt af stĂłli eftir fjĂłra mĂĄnuði Ă hĂĄsĂŠti. + 1244 - Tumi Sighvatsson yngri var drepinn ĂĄ ReykhĂłlum. + 1246 - Ă BlönduhlĂð Ă Skagafirði var Haugsnesfundur, en ĂŸar börðust Brandur Kolbeinsson og ĂĂłrður kakali um völd. Meira en hundrað manns fĂ©llu Ă bardaganum og er ĂŸetta mannskÊðasta orusta sem håð hefur verið ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1390 - RĂłbert 3. varð Skotakonungur. + 1409 - BrĂ©f var skrifað Ă Hvalsey ĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi til að votta um brĂșðkaup sem ĂŸar var haldið ĂĄrið åður. Ăetta brĂ©f er sĂðasta staðfesta heimildin um bĂșsetu norrĂŠnna manna ĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi. + 1608 - Bandalag Ungverjalands, AusturrĂkis og MoravĂu setti fram kröfugerð með stuðningi MatthĂasar, bróður RĂșdolfs 2. keisara sem henni var beint gegn. + 1689 - SoffĂu AmalĂuborg brann Ă miðri ĂłperusĂœningu. 170 manns Ășr hĂłpi betri borgara Kaupmannahafnar fĂłrust Ă eldsvoðanum. + 1770 - BrĂșðkaup LoðvĂks 16. Frakkakonungs og Marie Antoinette fĂłr fram Ă VĂnarborg. + 1770 - James Cook skipstjĂłri sĂĄ strönd ĂstralĂu. + 1776 - Orrusturnar um Lexington og Concord voru fyrstu orrustur BandarĂska frelsisstrĂðsins. + 1810 - VenesĂșela fĂ©kk heimastjĂłrn. + 1839 - KonungsrĂkið BelgĂa varð formlega sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt og Sameinað konungsrĂki Niðurlandanna var leyst upp. + 1887 - Landsbanki Ăslands var sameinaður Sparisjóði ReykjavĂkur. + 1917 - LeikfĂ©lag Akureyrar var stofnað. Ăað var upphaflega ĂĄhugamannafĂ©lag, en hefur rekið atvinnuleikhĂșs sĂðan 1973. + 1923 - AlĂŸĂœĂ°ubĂłkasafn ReykjavĂkur, sem sĂðar var nefnt BorgarbĂłkasafn ReykjavĂkur, tĂłk til starfa. + 1954 - Fermingarbörn Ă Akureyrarkirkju voru klĂŠdd hvĂtum kyrtlum sem var nĂœjung ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1954 - Ăslenska kvikmyndin NĂœtt hlutverk var frumsĂœnd. + 1956 - Rainier III, fursti af MĂłnakĂł giftist bandarĂsku leikkonunni Grace Kelly. + 1968 - Ralph Plaisted varð fyrstur til að komast ĂĄ Norðurheimskautið svo Ăłumdeilt sĂ©. + 1971 - Charles Manson var dĂŠmdur til dauða fyrir hlutdeild Ă morðinu ĂĄ Sharon Tate. + 1971 - SovĂ©trĂkin skutu geimstöðinni SaljĂșt I Ășt Ă geiminn. + 1975 - SiglingaklĂșbburinn Ăytur Ă Hafnarfirði var stofnaður. + 1980 - Johnny Logan sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva með laginu âWhat's Another Yearâ + 1981 - DĂœragarðurinn Le Cornelle var stofnaður Ă Valbrembo ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. + 1984 - âAdvance Australia Fairâ varð ĂŸjóðsöngur ĂstralĂu. + 1987 - TeiknimyndaĂŸĂŠttirnir Simpsonfjölskyldan hĂłfu göngu sĂna Ă The Tracey Ullman Show. + 1989 - Central Park-ĂĄrĂĄsin: Råðist var ĂĄ skokkarann Trisha Meili og henni nauðgað og misĂŸyrmt hrottalega Ă Central Park Ă New York-borg. Fimm unglingar voru dĂŠmdir fyrir ĂĄrĂĄsina en reyndust saklausir ĂŸegar hinn raunverulegi ĂĄrĂĄsarmaður jĂĄtaði sök sĂna mörgum ĂĄrum sĂðar. + 1993 - UmsĂĄtrinu Ă Waco, Texas, lauk ĂŸegar eldur braust Ășt og David Koresh lĂ©st ĂĄsamt 75 fylgismönnum. + 1995 - SprengjutilrÊðið Ă OklahĂłmaborg: Sprengja sprakk Ă Alfred. P. Murrah-byggingunni Ă OklahĂłmaborg. 169 manns fĂłrust. + 2000 - NĂœtt hĂșsnÊði Listasafns ReykjavĂkur var opnað Ă HafnarhĂșsinu við Tryggvagötu. + 2005 - ĂĂœski kardinĂĄlinn Joseph Alois Ratzinger var kjörinn pĂĄfi kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunnar og tĂłk sĂ©r nafnið Benedikt 16. + 2007 - DagblaðastrĂðið Ă Danmörku: FrĂblaðið Dato hĂŠtti ĂștgĂĄfu. + 2011 - Goodluck Jonathan var kjörinn forseti NĂgerĂu. + 2018 - RaĂșl Castro lĂ©t af embĂŠtti sem forseti KĂșbu. Miguel DĂaz-Canel tĂłk við og varð ĂŸar með fyrsti forseti KĂșbu Ă rĂșm fjörutĂu ĂĄr sem ekki er af Castro-ĂŠtt. + 2020 â MĂłtmĂŠli gegn råðstöfunum stjĂłrnvalda vegna COVID-19-faraldursins brutust Ășt Ă ParĂs, BerlĂn og fleiri stöðum. + 2021 - GeimĂŸyrlan Ingenuity tĂłkst ĂĄ loft ĂĄ Mars. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta sinn Ă sögunni sem menn stĂœrðu loftfari ĂĄ annarri plĂĄnetu. + 2021 - RaĂșl Castro sagði af sĂ©r embĂŠtti aðalritara kĂșbverska kommĂșnistaflokksins. Ăar með lauk 62ja ĂĄra valdatĂð Castro-brÊðranna. + 2022 - Elsta kona heims, Kane Tanaka, lĂ©st 119 ĂĄra að aldri. + +FĂŠdd + 1658 - JĂłhann VilhjĂĄlmur 2., kjörfursti Ă Pfalz (d. 1716). + 1793 â Ferdinand 1. AusturrĂkiskeisari (d. 1875). + 1801 - Gustav Fechner, ĂŸĂœskur sĂĄlfrÊðingur (d. 1887). + 1832 - JosĂ© Echegaray, spĂŠnskt leikskĂĄld og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1916). + 1882 - GetĂșlio Vargas, forseti BrasilĂu (d. 1954). + 1911 - Barbara Ărnason, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaður (d. 1977). + 1912 â Glenn Seaborg, bandarĂskur efnafrÊðingur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1999). + 1917 - Sven Hassel (BĂžrge Willy Redsted Pedersenn), danskur rithöfundur (d. 2012). + 1922 - Erich Hartmann, ĂŸĂœskur herflugmaður (d. 1993). + 1925 - Guðmundur Steinsson, Ăslenskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1996). + 1933 â Jayne Mansfield, bandarĂsk leikkona (d. 1967). + 1935 â Dudley Moore, breskur leikari og tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 2002). + 1941 - Alan Price, breskur tĂłnlistarmaður (The Animals). + 1942 - Bas Jan Ader, hollenskur myndlistarmaður (d. 1975). + 1946 â Tim Curry, breskur leikari. + 1951 - JĂłannes Eidesgaard, fĂŠreyskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1960 - Gustavo Petro, kĂłlumbĂskur hagfrÊðingur. + 1970 - JĂłn PĂĄll EyjĂłlfsson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1972 - Hinrik Hoe Haraldsson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1972 - Rivaldo, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1981 â Hayden Christensen, kanadĂskur leikari. + 1992 - Nick Pope, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1999 - Ty Panitz, bandarĂskur leikari. + +DĂĄin + 1244 - Tumi Sighvatsson yngri, drepinn ĂĄ ReykhĂłlum (f. 1222). + 1246 - Brandur Kolbeinsson, höfðingi Ăsbirninga (f. 1209). + 1390 - RĂłbert 2., Skotakonungur (f. 1316). + 1560 - Philipp Melanchthon, ĂŸĂœskur siðbĂłtarmaður (f. 1497). + 1689 - KristĂn SvĂadrottning (f. 1626). + 1738 - ĂrĂșður ĂorsteinsdĂłttir, biskupsfrĂș ĂĄ HĂłlum, (f. 1666). + 1768 - Canaletto, Ătalskur mĂĄlari (f. 1697). + 1824 - Byron lĂĄvarður, enskt skĂĄld (f. 1788). + 1881 - Benjamin Disraeli, breskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og forsĂŠtisråðherra (f. 1804). + 1882 - Charles Darwin, enskur nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingur (f. 1809). + 1906 - Pierre Curie, franskur eðlisfrÊðingur og nĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1859). + 1914 - Charles Sanders Peirce, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1838). + 1961 - Jimmy Youell, breskur flugmaður (f. 1900). + 1967 â Konrad Adenauer, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og kanslari (f. 1876). + 1974 - Ayub Khan, forseti Pakistan (f. 1907). + 1989 â Daphne du Maurier, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1907). + 1992 â Benny Hill, enskur gamanleikari (f. 1924). + 1998 - Octavio Paz, mexĂkĂłskur rithöfundur (f. 1914). + 2005 â Niels-Henning Ărsted Pedersen, danskur djasstĂłnlistarmaður (f. 1946). + 2009 - J. G. Ballard, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1930). + 2021 â Walter Mondale, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1928). + +AprĂl +20. aprĂl er 110. dagur ĂĄrsins (111. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 255 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1303 - HĂĄskĂłlinn Ă RĂłm var stofnaður af BĂłnifasĂusi 8. pĂĄfa. + 1378 - Frönsku kardĂnĂĄlarnir ĂĄsamt fleirum sem voru óånĂŠgðir með kjör Ărbanusar 6. og afstöðu hans kusu Klemens 7. sem mĂłtpĂĄfa. Hann settist að Ă Avignon og kaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan var klofin nĂŠstu ĂĄratugina. + 1593 - Ari MagnĂșsson fĂ©kk sĂœsluvöld Ă BarðastrandarsĂœslu og umboð konungsjarða. + 1602 - Einokunarverslun Dana hĂłfst ĂĄ Ăslandi með ĂŸvĂ að konungur veitti borgurum Ă Kaupmannahöfn, MĂĄlmey og Helsingjaeyri einkarĂ©tt til verslunar ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1608 - ViskĂœframleiðandinn Bushmills ĂĄ Norður-Ărlandi fĂ©kk leyfi til viskĂœframleiðslu frĂĄ Jakobi Englandskonungi. + 1653 - Oliver Cromwell leysti Langa ĂŸingið upp. + 1657 - Robert Blake sigraði spĂŠnska silfurflotann við Santa Cruz de Tenerife. + 1706 - Miklir jarðskjĂĄlftar riðu yfir ĂĄ Suðurlandi og fĂ©llu 24 bĂŠir til grunna Ă Ălfusi og FlĂła. Ein gömul kona lĂ©st ĂĄ Kotferju en manntjĂłn varð ekki vĂðar. + 1740 - SunnefumĂĄl: Upp kom sakamĂĄl Ă MĂșlaĂŸingi ĂŸar sem systkini voru ĂĄkĂŠrð fyrir að eiga barn saman. + 1821 - Mönguvetur drĂł nafnið af ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸennan dag komu skipbrotsmenn af hvalveiðiskipinu MargrĂ©ti að landi ĂĄ ĂangskĂĄla ĂĄ Skaga eftir mikla hrakninga Ă Ăs norðan við land. + 1912 - Fenway Park var opnaður Ă Boston. + 1916 - VĂðavangshlaup ĂR fĂłr fram Ă fyrsta sinn en ĂŸað hefur verið ĂĄrviss viðburður sĂðan ĂĄ sumardaginn fyrsta. + 1920 - SumarĂłlympĂuleikarnir voru settir Ă Antwerpen Ă BelgĂu. + 1925 - Kastrupflugvöllur Ă Danmörku var vĂgður. + 1928 - MÊðrastyrksnefnd var stofnuð Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1930 - StĂłra bomba: JĂłnas JĂłnsson frĂĄ Hriflu, dĂłmsmĂĄlaråðherra, vĂ©k Helga TĂłmassyni, yfirlĂŠkni ĂĄ Kleppi Ășr starfi. + 1950 - ĂjóðleikhĂșsið var vĂgt Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1964 - Breska sjĂłnvarpsstöðin BBC Two hĂłf Ăștsendingar. + 1968 - Pierre Elliott Trudeau var kosinn fimmtĂĄndi forsĂŠtisråðherra Kanada. + 1969 - ĂjĂłrsĂĄrdalsför: SkĂșli Thoroddsen lĂŠknir skoraði Bretadrottningu ĂĄ hĂłlm. + 1972 - ĂsatrĂșarfĂ©lagið var stofnað ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1977 - Boris SpasskĂj vann Vlastimil Hort Ă skĂĄkeinvĂgi ĂŸeirra, sem haldið var Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1978 - SĂŠnska ĂŸingið samĂŸykkti breytingar ĂĄ erfðalögum sem gerði ViktorĂu að krĂłnprinsessu. + 1979 - NorðuramerĂsk mĂœrarkanĂna réðist ĂĄ Jimmy Carter ĂŸar sem hann var ĂĄ fiskveiðum Ă GeorgĂu. + 1986 - Um 400 manns lĂ©tust ĂŸegar yfirfullri ferju hvolfdi Ă Bangladess. + 1991 - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar ĂĄ Ăslandi. Fleiri listar voru Ă framboði en nokkru sinni, eða 11 listar alls. + 1992 - HeimssĂœningin Ă Sevilla var opnuð. + 1994 - Paul Touvier varð fyrsti Frakkinn sem dĂŠmdur var fyrir glĂŠpi gegn mannkyni fyrir að hafa fyrirskipað aftöku 7 gyðinga undir Vichy-stjĂłrninni Ă Frakklandi ĂĄ strĂðsĂĄrunum. + 1998 - ĂĂœsku hryðjuverkasamtökin Rote Armee Fraktion voru leyst upp (að talið er). + 1999 - Columbine-fjöldamorðin: Tveir nemendur Columbine-menntaskĂłlans skutu 13 skĂłlafĂ©laga sĂna til bana og sĂŠrðu 24 aðra en frömdu sĂðan sjĂĄlfsmorð. + 2006 - RES OrkuskĂłli (The School for Renewable Energy Science) tĂłk formlega til starfa ĂĄ Akureyri, sumardaginn fyrsta, 20. aprĂl 2006. + 2008 - Benedikt 16. pĂĄfi heimsĂłtti Ground Zero Ă New York-borg. + 2010 - Sprenging Ă olĂuborpallinum Deepwater Horizon Ă MexĂkĂłflĂła olli olĂuleka sem stĂłrskaðaði vistkerfi flĂłans. + 2017 - HryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄsin ĂĄ Champs-ĂlysĂ©es: Kharim Cheurfi réðist ĂĄ lögreglumenn og ĂŸĂœska ferðakonu með AK-47-ĂĄrĂĄsarriffli. + 2020 â HrĂĄolĂuverð nåði sögulegu lĂĄgmarki vegna faraldursins og verð ĂĄ West Texas Intermediate-hrĂĄolĂu varð neikvĂŠtt. + 2020 â Benjamin Netanyahu og Benny Gantz samĂŸykktu að mynda ĂŸjóðstjĂłrn Ă Ăsrael og binda ĂŸannig enda ĂĄ langa stjĂłrnarkreppu. + 2021 - Forseti Tjad, Idriss DĂ©by, lĂ©st Ă ĂĄtökum við uppreisnarmenn eftir 30 ĂĄra valdatĂð. HerforingjastjĂłrn tĂłk við völdum. + 2021 - Lögreglumaðurinn Derek Chauvin var dĂŠmdur sekur fyrir morðið ĂĄ George Floyd Ă Minneapolis. + 2022 - JosĂ© Ramos-Horta var kjörinn forseti Austur-TĂmor. + 2023 - Edda (HĂșs Ăslenskra frÊða) var opnað almenningi. + +FĂŠdd + 1494 - Johannes Agricola, ĂŸĂœskur siðaskiptamaður (d. 1566). + 1633 - Go-Komyo, Japanskeisari (d. 1654). + 1808 - NapĂłleon 3., Frakkakeisari (d. 1873). + 1889 - Adolf Hitler, einrÊðisherra Ă ĂĂœskalandi (d. 1945). + 1893 â Harold Lloyd, bandarĂskur leikari (d. 1971). + 1893 â Joan MirĂł, spĂŠnskur mĂĄlari (d. 1983). + 1933 - Auður ĂorbergsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur dĂłmari (d. 2023). + 1937 - George Takei, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1939 - Gro Harlem Brundtland, norskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1941 â Ryan O'Neal, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1942 â Arto Paasilinna, finnskur rithöfundur. + 1947 - Björn Skifs, sĂŠnskur söngvari. + 1949 - Massimo D'Alema, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1949 â Jessica Lange, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1951 â Luther Vandross, bandarĂskur söngvari (d. 2005). + 1952 - VilhjĂĄlmur Bjarnason, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1962 - Sigurður Ingi JĂłhannsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og dĂœralĂŠknir. + 1964 â Andy Serkis, enskur leikari. + 1965 - Bernardo Fernandes da Silva, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1966 - David Chalmers, ĂĄstralskur heimspekingur. + 1969 - Geir Björklund, norskur ritstjĂłri. + 1970 - Shemar Moore, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1972 - Carmen Electra, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1973 - Toshihide Saito, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1976 - Shay Given, Ărskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1983 - Heiða KristĂn HelgadĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1994 - StefĂĄn Karel Torfason, fyrrum Ăslenskur körfuboltamaður. + +DĂĄin + 1314 â Klemens 5. pĂĄfi (f. 1264). + 1812 - George Clinton, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1739). + 1912 â Bram Stoker, Ărskur rithöfundur (f. 1847). + 1947 â KristjĂĄn 10. Danakonungur (f. 1870). + 1951 - Ivanoe Bonomi, forsĂŠtisråðherra ĂtalĂu (f. 1873). + 1996 â Christopher Robin Milne, sonur rithöfundarins A.A. Milne og eigandi BangsĂmons (f. 1920). + 2012 - Ăsgeir ĂĂłr DavĂðsson, Ăslenskur athafnamaður (f. 1950). + 2018 - Avicii, sĂŠnskur tĂłnlistarmaður og plötusnĂșður (f. 1989). + +AprĂl +21. aprĂl er 111. dagur ĂĄrsins (112. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska dagatalinu. 254 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 753 f.Kr. - Stofnun RĂłmar: RĂłmĂșlus og Remus stofnuðu RĂłmarborg samkvĂŠmt fornri arfsögn. + 1509 - Hinrik 8. varð Englandskonungur. + 1510 - LĂœbikumenn sögðu Dönum strĂð ĂĄ hendur. Nokkru sĂðar gengu SvĂar Ă lið með LĂœbikumönnum. + 1526 - Fyrsta orrustan við Panipat: BabĂșr vann sigur ĂĄ Lodiveldinu ĂĄ Indlandi. Stofnun MĂłgĂșlveldisins miðast við ĂŸennan atburð. + 1607 - PĂĄll 5. pĂĄfi samdi um frið við Feneyska lĂœĂ°veldið fyrir milligöngu Hinriks 4. Frakkakonungs. + 1648 - SnjĂłr var Ă mitti ĂĄ slĂ©ttlendi ĂĄ Suðvesturlandi, segir Ă SetbergsannĂĄl. + 1733 - KristjĂĄn 6. Danakonungur lagði hornstein að KristjĂĄnsborgarhöll Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + 1736 - Erich Lassen fann minna gullhornið Ă Danmörku. + 1800 - Sex bĂĄtar fĂłrust Ășr Staðarsveit og Bjarneyjum og með ĂŸeim 37 manns Ă miklu norðanveðri. + 1898 - StrĂð SpĂĄnar og BandarĂkjanna braust Ășt. + 1908 - Frederick Cook komst ĂĄ norðurpĂłlinn að eigin sögn, ĂĄri ĂĄ undan Robert Peary. + 1908 - KnattspyrnufĂ©lagið VĂkingur var stofnað Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1946 - SĂłsĂalĂski einingarflokkurinn var stofnaður Ă Austur-ĂĂœskalandi. + 1962 - SĂœning 21. aldarinnar opnuð Ă Seattle. + 1965 - NafnskĂrteini voru gefin Ășt til allra Ăslendinga, 12 ĂĄra og eldri. Um leið voru tekin upp svonefnd nafnnĂșmer. + 1967 - HerforingjastjĂłrn undir forystu GeorgĂos PapaðopĂșlos framdi valdarĂĄn Ă Grikklandi. + 1970 - FurstadĂŠmið Hutt River lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ ĂstralĂu. + 1971 - HandritamĂĄlið: Fyrstu handritin komu heim frĂĄ Danmörku og voru ĂŸað FlateyjarbĂłk og KonungsbĂłk EddukvÊða. + 1982 - FalklandseyjastrĂðið: Bretar hĂłfu aðgerðir til að endurheimta Suður-GeorgĂu frĂĄ ArgentĂnu með ĂŸvĂ að senda ĂŸangað sĂ©rsveitarmenn. + 1989 - Um 100 ĂŸĂșsund kĂnverskir mĂłtmĂŠlendur söfnuðust saman ĂĄ Torgi hins himneska friðar Ă Beijing Ă KĂna. + 1992 - RĂĄnið Ă Bilka: Ă Danmörku komst rĂŠningi undan með 7,5 milljĂłnir danskra krĂłna eftir að hafa lĂĄtið til skarar skrĂða gegn peningaflutningabĂl Danske Bank við Bilka Ă ĂrĂłsum. + 1993 - HĂŠstirĂ©ttur Ă La Paz dĂŠmdi Luis Garcia Meza, fyrrum einrÊðisherra BĂłlivĂu, Ă 30 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir morð, ĂŸjĂłfnað, svik og stjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbrot. + 1996 - ĂlĂfubandalagið undir forystu Romano Prodi sigraði Ă ĂŸingkosningum ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. + 1997 - Fyrsta geimgreftrunin ĂĄ vegum einkaaðila fĂłr fram ĂŸegar jarðneskar leifar 24 manna voru sendar Ășt Ă geim með Pegasusflaug. + 2007 - Umaru Musa Yar'Adua var kjörinn forseti NĂgerĂu eftir kosningar sem ĂŸĂłttu einkennast af svindli. + 2009 - VĂsindamenn frĂĄ Stjörnuskoðunarstöðinni Ă Genf tilkynntu uppgötvun plĂĄnetunnar Gliese 581 e. + 2009 - Gagnasafnið World Digital Library var opnað af UNESCO. + 2010 - Ăslenski handritavefurinn Handrit.is var opnaður. + 2019 - Um 290 manns lĂ©tust Ă sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ kirkjur og hĂłtel Ă SrĂ Lanka. + 2019 - VolodimĂr Selenskij var kjörinn forseti ĂkraĂnu Ă seinni umferð forsetakosninga landsins. + +FĂŠdd + 1073 - Alexander 2. pĂĄfi. + 1652 - Michel Rolle, franskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1719). + 1671 - John Law, skoskur hagfrÊðingur (d. 1729). + 1815 - Louise Rasmussen (Danner greifynja), ĂŸriðja kona Friðriks 7. Danakonungs (d. 1874). + 1816 - Charlotte BrontĂ«, enskur skĂĄldsagnahöfundur og ljóðskĂĄld (d. 1855). + 1837 - Fredrik Bajer, danskur rithöfundur (d. 1922). + 1864 - Max Weber, ĂŸĂœskur hagfrÊðingur (d. 1920). + 1889 - Paul Karrer, svissneskur efnafrÊðingur og nĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1971). + 1903 - Hans Hedtoft, danskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1955). + 1922 - Alistair MacLean, skoskur rithöfundur (d. 1987). + 1926 - ElĂsabet 2. Bretlandsdrottning (d. 2022). + 1930 - Dieter Roth, ĂŸĂœskur myndlistarmaður (d. 1998). + 1934 - Masao Uchino, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1934 - Kenzo Ohashi, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 2015). + 1936 - James Dobson, bandarĂskur sĂĄlfrÊðingur. + 1937 - Auður Eir VilhjĂĄlmsdĂłttir, fyrsti kvenprestur Ăslands. + 1942 - SteingrĂmur NjĂĄlsson, Ăslenskur barnanĂðingur (d. 2013). + 1947 - Iggy Pop, bandarĂskur söngvari. + 1955 - Toninho Cerezo, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1956 - JĂłhann Sigurðarson, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1958 - Andie MacDowell, bandarisk leikkona. + 1972 - JosĂ©-Luis Munuera, spĂŠnskur teiknari. + 1973 - Yoshiharu Ueno, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1978 - Yngvi Gunnlaugsson, Ăslenskur körfuknattleiksĂŸjĂĄlfari. + 1979 - James McAvoy, skoskur leikari. + 2007 - Ăsabella Danaprinsessa. + +DĂĄin + 1142 - Pierre AbĂ©lard, franskur rithöfundur og heimspekingur (f. 1079). + 1509 - Hinrik 7., konungur Englands (f. 1457). + 1574 - KosĂmĂł 1. stĂłrhertogi af Toskana (f. 1519). + 1644 - Torsten StĂ„lhandske, finnskur herforingi (f. 1593). + 1699 - Jean Racine, franskt leikskĂĄld (f. 1639). + 1729 - John Law, skoskur hagfrÊðingur (f. 1671). + 1910 - Mark Twain, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (f. 1835). + 1918 - Manfred von Richthofen, ĂŸĂœskur flugkappi (f. 1892). + 1919 - ĂĂłra Melsteð, stofnandi KvennaskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk (f. 1823). + 1946 - John Maynard Keynes, enskur hagfrÊðingur (f. 1883). + 1971 - François Duvalier, einrÊðisherra ĂĄ HaĂtĂ (f. 1907). + 1989 - JĂłn Gunnar Ărnason, Ăslenskur myndhöggvari (f. 1931). + 1989 - Uichiro Hatta, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1903). + 2003 - Nina Simone, bandarĂsk djasssöngkona (f. 1933). + 2016 - Prince, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (f. 1958). + 2018 - Verne Troyer, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1969). + +AprĂl +22. aprĂl er 112. dagur ĂĄrsins (113. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 253 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 238 - Ăr keisaranna sex: RĂłmverska öldungaråðið lĂœsti Maximinus ĂștlĂŠgan og Ăștnefndi Pupienus og Balbinus sem keisara. + 1445 - Hinrik 6. Englandskonungur og MargrĂ©t af Anjou gengu Ă hjĂłnaband. + 1509 - Hinrik 8. varð konungur Englands við lĂĄt föður sĂns Hinriks 7.. + 1529 - Austurhveli jarðar var skipt milli SpĂĄnar og PortĂșgals með SaragossasĂĄttmĂĄlanum. + 1678 - Karl 11. SvĂakonungur gaf Ășt ĂŸĂĄ skipun að allir karlmenn milli 15 og 60 ĂĄra Ă Ărkened ĂĄ SkĂĄni skyldu teknir af lĂfi vegna gruns um að ĂŸeir vĂŠru snapphanar, uppreisnarmenn gegn yfirråðum SvĂa ĂĄ SkĂĄni. + 1906 - SĂ©rstakir aukaĂłlympĂuleikar voru settir Ă AĂŸenu Ă tilefni af tĂu ĂĄra afmĂŠli nĂștĂmaĂłlympĂuleikanna. + 1917 - JĂłn Helgason var vĂgður biskup. Hann skrifaði meðal annars ĂrbĂŠkur ReykjavĂkur. + 1918 - Konur voru kosnar Ă fyrsta skiptið til ĂŸjĂłĂ°ĂŸings Danmerkur Ă ĂŸingskosningum. + 1944 - Bresk flugvĂ©l fĂłrst rĂ©tt við nĂœja stĂșdentagarðinn Ă ReykjavĂk, NĂœja garð. Ăll ĂĄhöfnin fĂłrst með vĂ©linni. + 1950 - Leikritið Ăslandsklukkan eftir HalldĂłr Kiljan Laxness var frumsĂœnt Ă ĂjóðleikhĂșsinu. + 1970 - Sex aðildarrĂki EvrĂłpubandalagsins undirrituðu LĂșxemborgarsĂĄttmĂĄlann. + 1970 - Dagur jarðar var haldinn hĂĄtĂðlegur Ă fyrsta skipti. + 1976 - Ingmar Bergman flutti frĂĄ SvĂĂŸjóð vegna ĂĄsakana um skattaundanskot. + 1977 - OlĂuslys varð Ă olĂuborpallinum Ekofisk 2/4 B Ă NorðursjĂł. OlĂa lak Ășr borholunni Ă ĂĄtta daga stjĂłrnlaust. + 1978 - Ăsrael sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva með laginu âA-Ba-Ni-Biâ. + 1987 - Gro Harlem Brundtland, formaður nefndar Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna um umhverfi og ĂŸrĂłun, skilaði skĂœrslunni Our Common Future ĂŸar sem hugtakið sjĂĄlfbĂŠr ĂŸrĂłun kom fyrir. + 1988 - GĂslatakan ĂĄ OuvĂ©a: Tugir lögreglumanna og einn saksĂłknari voru teknir Ă gĂslingu af sjĂĄlfstÊðissinnum ĂĄ NĂœju-KaledĂłnĂu. + 1991 - 84 lĂ©tust Ă jarðskjĂĄlfta Ă Kosta RĂka og Panama. + 1992 - Sprenging varð Ă Guadalajara Ă MexĂkĂł eftir að eldsneyti lak ofan Ă niðurfall. 215 lĂ©tust og 1.500 sĂŠrðust. + 1997 - Haouch Khemisti-fjöldamorðin Ă AlsĂr ĂĄttu sĂ©r stað. + 1997 - Eftir 126 daga umsĂĄtur um japanska sendiråðið Ă LĂma Ă PerĂș réðust stjĂłrnarliðar inn Ă bygginguna og drĂĄpu alla skĂŠruliða TĂșpac Amaru. + 1998 - DĂœragarðurinn Disney's Animal Kingdom var opnaður Ă Walt Disney World Ă OrlandĂł Ă FlĂłrĂda. + 2000 - AlrĂkislögreglumenn tĂłku Elian Gonzalez frĂĄ ĂŠttingjum Ă Miami, FlĂłrĂda. + 2004 - Ryongchon-slysið: Sprenging varð Ă lest sem flutti eldfiman varning Ă Norður-KĂłreu. + 2007 - Fyrsta umferð forsetakosninga Ă Frakklandi fĂłr fram. + 2008 - LĂŠknar við Moorfields Eye Hospital Ă London grĂŠddu Ă fyrsta sinn gerviaugu Ă tvo blinda sjĂșklinga. + 2016 - 175 lönd höfðu undirritað ParĂsarsamkomulagið. + 2020 â Ryfast-vegtengingin var opnuð Ă Noregi. + 2021 - Dagur jarðar: Haldinn var netfundur ĂŸjóðarleiðtoga um loftslagsmĂĄl ĂŸar sem sett voru metnaðarfyllri markmið um að draga Ășr losun gróðurhĂșsalofttegunda. + +FĂŠdd + 1451 - Ăsabella 1. af KastilĂu, SpĂĄnardrottning (d. 1504). + 1518 - Anton af Bourbon, Navarrakonungur, faðir Hinriks 4. Frakkakonungs (d. 1562). + 1610 - Alexander 8. pĂĄfi (d. 1691). + 1658 - Giuseppe Torelli, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1709). + 1692 - James Stirling, skoskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1770). + 1707 - Henry Fielding, breskur rithöfundur (d. 1754). + 1724 - Immanuel Kant, ĂŸĂœskur heimspekingur (d. 1804). + 1854 - Henri La Fontaine, belgĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1943). + 1870 - LenĂn, rĂșssneskur byltingarleiðtogi (d. 1924). + 1888 - Edmund Jacobson, bandarĂskur lĂŠknir (d. 1983). + 1899 - Vladimir Nabokov, rĂșssneskur rithöfundur (d. 1977). + 1904 - Robert Oppenheimer, bandarĂskur eðlisfrÊðingur (d. 1967). + 1906 - Snorri Hjartarson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (d. 1986). + 1906 - GĂșstaf AdĂłlf erfðaprins Ă SvĂĂŸjóð (d. 1947). + 1916 - Yvette Lundy, frönsk andspyrnukona og kennari (d. 2019). + 1917 - Sidney Nolan, ĂĄstralskur myndlistarmaður (d. 1992). + 1922 - Richard Diebenkorn, bandarĂskur listmĂĄlari (d. 1993). + 1931 - Sigmund Johanson Baldvinsen, Ăslenskur skopmyndateiknari (d. 2012). + 1935 - Ălfur Hjörvar, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (d. 2008). + 1937 - Jack Nicholson, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1940 - Ragnheiður JĂłnasdĂłttir, Ăslensk fyrirsĂŠta. + 1946 - John Waters, bandarĂskur leikari og leikstjĂłri. + 1948 - George Abela, maltneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1957 - Donald Tusk, forsĂŠtisråðherra PĂłllands. + 1960 - Mart Laar, eistneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1966 - Jeffrey Dean Morgan, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1967 - VĂðir Reynisson, Ăslenskur lögreglustjĂłri. + 1972 - Heiðar MĂĄr GuðjĂłnsson, Ăslenskur hagfrÊðingur. + 1974 - Shavo Odadjian, bassaleikari bandarĂsku hljĂłmsveitarinnar System of a Down. + 1974 - Kenichi Uemura, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1975 - Pavel HorvĂĄth, tĂ©kkneskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1986 - Kim Noorda, hollensk fyrirsaeta. + 1987 - John Obi Mikel, nigeriskur knattspyrnuleikari. + 1989 - Aron Einar Gunnarsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 296 - Gajus pĂĄfi. + 536 - Agapitus 1. pĂĄfi. + 1672 - Georg Stiernhielm, sĂŠnskt skĂĄld (f. 1598). + 1827 - Thomas Rowlandson, enskur skopteiknari (f. 1756). + 1908 - Henry Campbell-Bannerman, breskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1836). + 1930 - Jeppe AakjĂŠr, danskt ljóðskĂĄld (f. 1866). + 1994 - Richard Nixon, BandarĂkjaforseti (f. 1913). + 2013 - IngĂłlfur JĂșlĂusson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður (f. 1970). + 2015 - PĂĄll SkĂșlason, Ăslenskur heimspekingur (f. 1945). + 2019 - Hörður Sigurgestsson, Ăslenskur viðskiptafrÊðingur (f. 1938). + +AprĂl +24. aprĂl er 114. dagur ĂĄrsins (115. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 251 dagur er eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 858 - NikulĂĄs mikli varð pĂĄfi. + 871 - Alfreð mikli varð Englandskonungur. + 1016 - JĂĄtmundur jĂĄrnsĂða varð konungur Englands. + 1333 - Kingigtorssuaq-rĂșnasteinninn: Erlingur Sighvatsson, Bjarni ĂĂłrðarson og Eindriði Oddson klöppuðu nöfn sĂn ĂĄ rĂșnastein Ă vörðu Ă Norðursetu, um 30 kĂlĂłmetrum fyrir norðan ĂŸar sem nĂș er bĂŠrinn Upernavik ĂĄ GrĂŠnlandi, nĂŠstum norður ĂĄ 73° gråðu norðlĂŠgrar breiddar. Ărtalið er ĂŸĂł ĂłvĂst. + 1558 - MarĂa Skotadrottning giftist Frans 2. Frakkakonungi. + 1585 - Felice Peretti varð Sixtus 5. pĂĄfi. + 1596 - NjarðvĂkurbĂŠirnir voru felldir undir Vatnsleysustrandarhrepp. + 1608 - KristjĂĄn 4. boðaði að allar byggingar ĂŸĂœskra kaupmanna ĂĄ konungsjörðum eða kirkjujörðum skyldu rifnar til grunna. + 1610 - Hollenska Austur-IndĂafĂ©lagið fĂ©kk verslunarleyfi Ă Pulicat ĂĄ Indlandi. + 1704 - Fyrsta frĂ©ttablaðið Ă Norður-AmerĂku, The Boston News-Letter, hĂłf ĂștgĂĄfu. + 1862 - Sigurður mĂĄlari skrifaði hugvekju Ă Ăjóðólf ĂŸar sem hann hvatti til stofnunar Forngripasafns. + 1877 - StrĂð braust Ășt milli RĂșssa og OttĂłmanaveldisins. ĂvĂ lauk 1878. + 1898 - SpĂŠnsk-bandarĂska strĂðið hĂłfst ĂŸegar SpĂĄnn lĂœsti yfir strĂði gegn BandarĂkjunum. + 1908 - BĂŠjarstjĂłrnarkosningar voru haldnar Ă ReykjavĂk + 1914 - SĂðasti lĂflĂĄtsdĂłmur var kveðinn upp ĂĄ Ăslandi. DĂłmnum var sĂðar breytt Ă ĂŠvilangt fangelsi. + 1915 - Ăjóðarmorð Tyrkja ĂĄ Armenum hĂłfst með aftöku armenskra menntamanna Ă austurhluta AnatĂłlĂu. + 1916 - PĂĄskauppreisnin hĂłfst ĂĄ Ărlandi. + 1920 - RĂșssland og PĂłlland lĂœstu yfir strĂði. + 1922 - HestamannafĂ©lagið FĂĄkur var stofnað Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1953 - ElĂsabet 2. Bretadrottning slĂł Winston Churchill til riddara. + 1967 - SovĂ©ski geimfarinn VladimĂr Komarov fĂłrst ĂŸegar geimflaugin SojĂșs 1 hrapaði til jarðar. + 1967 - ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lagið GrĂłtta var stofnað ĂĄ Seltjarnarnesi. + 1968 - MĂĄritĂus varð aðili að Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðunum. + 1970 - Fjöldi hĂĄskĂłlastĂșdenta settist að ĂĄ göngum og Ă skrifstofum MenntamĂĄlaråðuneytisins til ĂŸess að leggja ĂĄherslu ĂĄ kröfur nĂĄmsmanna erlendis. + 1970 - Fyrsti kĂnverski gervihnötturinn, Dong Fang Hong 1, fĂłr ĂĄ braut um jörðu. + 1971 - HĂĄlf milljĂłn manna mĂłtmĂŠlti VĂetnamstrĂðinu Ă Washington-borg. + 1975 - Sex meðlimir Baader-Meinhof-gengisins hertĂłku sendiråð Vestur-ĂĂœskalands Ă SvĂĂŸjóð og kröfðust lausnar fanga. + 1977 - Vlastimil Hort setti heimsmet Ă fjöltefli ĂĄ Seltjarnarnesi. Hann tefldi við 550 manns ĂĄ rĂșmum sĂłlarhring. + 1980 - Eagle Claw-aðgerðin: BandarĂkjamenn reyndu að frelsa 52 bandarĂska gĂsla, sem voru Ă haldi Ă Teheran, höfuðborg Ărans. Leiðangurinn mistĂłkst og engum gĂslum var bjargað en ĂĄtta bandarĂskir hermenn lĂ©tu lĂfið. + 1981 - Fjölflokkakerfi var tekið upp Ă Senegal. + 1982 - JĂłn PĂĄll Sigmarsson setti tvö EvrĂłpumet Ă lyftingum, lyfti 362,5 kg Ă rĂ©ttstöðu og 940 kg samtals. + 1982 - Nicole sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva fyrir Vestur-ĂĂœskaland með laginu âEin biĂchen Friedenâ. + 1990 - Hubble-sjĂłnaukinn var sendur Ășt Ă geim um borð Ă geimskutlunni Discovery. + 1990 - Austur- og Vestur-ĂĂœskaland samĂŸykktu að taka upp sameiginlega mynt 1. jĂșlĂ. + 1993 - Einn lĂ©st ĂŸegar stĂłr bĂlasprengja ĂĄ vegum IRA sprakk Ă Bishopsgate Ă London. + 1994 - MagnĂșs Scheving nåði öðru sĂŠti ĂĄ heimsmeistaramĂłti Ă ĂŸolfimi, sem haldið var Ă Japan. + 1995 - Gilbert Murray var myrtur með brĂ©fsprengju frĂĄ Unabomber. + 1999 - Meðlimir Falungong stóðu fyrir mĂłtmĂŠlum utan við stjĂłrnarbyggingu Ă Zhongnanhai sem leiddi til vĂðtĂŠkra ofsĂłkna gegn hreyfingunni. + 2004 - ĂbĂșar KĂœpur greiddu atkvÊði um AnnanĂĄĂŠtlunina um sameiningu eyjarinnar. KĂœpurgrikkir höfnuðu henni en KĂœpurtyrkir samĂŸykktu. + 2006 - SprengjutilrÊðin Ă Dahab: 23 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar ĂŸrjĂĄr sprengjur sprungu Ă ferðamannabĂŠnum Dahab ĂĄ SĂnaĂskaga. + 2007 - FĂłstureyðingar voru leyfðar Ă MexĂkĂłborg. + 2007 - StjörnufrÊðingar uppgötvuðu lĂfvĂŠnlegu plĂĄnetuna Gliese 581 c Ă stjörnumerkinu Voginni. + 2009 â AlĂŸjóða heilbrigðisstofnunin varaði við svĂnaflensufaraldri eftir að svĂnaflensa tĂłk að breiðast Ășt Ă MexĂkĂł. + 2013 - 1.134 textĂlverkamenn lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Rana Plaza Ă Bangladess hrundi. + 2021 - IndĂłnesĂuher greindi frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að kafbĂĄturinn KRI Nanggala hefði farist með 53 ĂĄhafnarmeðlimum. + +FĂŠdd + 1533 - VilhjĂĄlmur ĂŸĂ¶gli ĂranĂufursti (d. 1584). + 1628 - SoffĂa AmalĂa, Danadrottning (d. 1685). + 1815 - Anthony Trollope, breskur rithöfundur (d. 1882). + 1845 - Carl Spitteler, svissneskt ljóðskĂĄld og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1924). + 1856 - Henri Philippe PĂ©tain, franskur herforingi og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1951). + 1896 - Egill Holmboe, norskur nasisti (d. 1986). + 1908 - JĂłzef GosĆawski, pĂłlskur myndhöggvari (d. 1963). + 1911 - Sigursveinn D. Kristinsson, Ăslenskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1990). + 1924 - JĂłn Ăsberg, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaður. + 1930 - JosĂ© Sarney, forseti BrasilĂu. + 1934 - Shirley MacLaine, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1942 - Barbra Streisand, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona. + 1945 - Doug Clifford, bandarĂskur trommari (Creedence Clearwater Revival). + 1952 - Geir JĂłn ĂĂłrisson, Ăslenskur yfirlögregluĂŸjĂłnn. + 1957 - Bamir Topi, forseti AlbanĂu. + 1960 - Friðrik Karlsson, Ăslenskur gĂtarleikari. + 1964 - Björn Malmquist, Ăslenskur frĂ©ttamaður. + 1964 - EyglĂł HarðardĂłttir, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaður. + 1966 - Alessandro Costacurta, Ătalskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1974 - Eric Kripke, bandarĂskur kvikmyndagerðarmaður. + 1982 - Kelly Clarkson, bandarĂsk söngkona. + 1991 - TĂłmas SteindĂłrsson, Ăslenskur Ăștvarpsmaður. + +DĂĄin + 1342 - Benedikt 12. pĂĄfi. + 1731 - Daniel Defoe, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1680) + 1840 - Sveinn PĂĄlsson, lĂŠknir og nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingur. + 1944 - Michael Pedersen Friis, danskur forsĂŠtisråðherra (f. 1857). + 1960 - Max von Laue, ĂŸĂœskur eðlisfrÊðingur (f. 1879). + 1964 - Gerhard Domagk, ĂŸĂœskur örverufrÊðingur og nĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1895). + +AprĂl +25. aprĂl er 115. dagur ĂĄrsins (116. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 250 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1236 - Abel Valdimarsson gekk að eiga Mechthilde af Holtsetalandi Ă SlĂ©svĂk. + 1287 - EirĂkur menved var krĂœndur konungur Danmerkur. + 1607 - Hollenskur floti sigraði spĂŠnskan flota Ă orrustunni við GĂbraltar. + 1626 - ĂrjĂĄtĂu ĂĄra strĂðið: Albrecht von Wallenstein vann sigur ĂĄ Ernst von Mansfeld Ă orrustunni um DessauerbrĂș. + 1644 - Uppreisn Li Zicheng rĂŠndi Beijing sem leiddi til sjĂĄlfsmorðs sĂðasta Mingkeisarains Chongzhen. + 1719 - RĂłbinson KrĂșsĂł eftir Daniel Defoe kom Ășt. + 1859 - FramkvĂŠmdir hĂłfust við SĂșesskurðinn. + 1915 - StĂłrbruni varð Ă ReykjavĂk er HĂłtel ReykjavĂk og ellefu önnur hĂșs við AusturstrĂŠti, PĂłsthĂșsstrĂŠti og HafnarstrĂŠti brunnu. Tveir menn fĂłrust. + 1926 - Reza Khan var krĂœndur Reza Shah Pahlavi keisari Ărans. + 1940 - Merkið, fĂŠreyski fĂĄninn var gerður að opinberum fĂĄna eyjanna. + 1944 - Ăperettan Ă ĂĄlögum var frumsĂœnd. Ăetta var fyrsta Ăslenska Ăłperettan. +1950 - GuðjĂłn SamĂșelsson, hĂșsameistari rĂkisnins lĂ©st. + 1953 - Grein birtist Ă vĂsindatĂmaritinu Nature um byggingu kjarnsĂœrunnar DNA. Höfundarnir voru Watson og Crick, sem sĂðar fengu NĂłbelsverðlaun fyrir rannsĂłknir sĂnar. + 1970 - Norska stĂłrĂŸingið samĂŸykkti aðildarviðrÊður við EvrĂłpubandalagið. + 1974 - Nellikubyltingin hĂłfst Ă PortĂșgal ĂŸar sem einrÊðisstjĂłrn landsins var steypt af stĂłli. + 1980 - Dan-Air flug 1008 fĂłrst ĂĄ TenerĂfe. 146 lĂ©tust. + 1981 - Yfir 100 starfsmenn kjarnorkuvers urðu fyrir geislun ĂĄ meðan viðgerð stóð yfir Ă Tsuruga Ă Japan. + 1982 - SĂðustu Ăsraelsku hermennirnir hurfu frĂĄ SĂnaĂskaga Ă Egyptalandi. + 1983 - JĂșrĂj Andropov bauð bandarĂsku stĂșlkunni Samantha Smith til SovĂ©trĂkjanna eftir að hĂșn hafði sent honum brĂ©f og lĂœst ĂĄhyggjum sĂnum af kjarnorkustyrjöld. + 1987 - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar, ĂŸĂŠr fyrstu samkvĂŠmt nĂœjum kosningalögum sem var ĂŠtlað að jafna hlut flokka með uppbĂłtarĂŸingmönnum. + 1988 - Fyrsta breiðskĂfa Sykurmolanna, Life's Too Good, kom Ășt Ă Bretlandi. + 1988 - Ivan Demjanjuk var dĂŠmdur til dauða Ă Ăsrael fyrir strĂðsglĂŠpi sem hann framdi Ă ĂștrĂœmingarbĂșðunum Ă Treblinka. + 1989 - Motorola MicroTAC, ĂŸĂĄ minnsti farsĂmi heims, kom ĂĄ markað. + 1990 - Violeta Chamorro tĂłk við embĂŠtti forseta NĂkaragva, fyrsta konan sem kjörin var til forsetaembĂŠttis Ă Suður-AmerĂku. + 1991 - Bifreið var ekið upp ĂĄ HvannadalshnĂșk Ă fyrsta skipti. + 2001 - Fyrrum forseti Filippseyja, Joseph Estrada, var handtekinn og ĂĄkĂŠrður fyrir fjĂĄrdrĂĄtt. + 2001 - Franska kvikmyndin Hin stĂłrkostlegu örlög AmĂ©lie Poulain var frumsĂœnd. + 2002 - Leikbraut og rennibraut voru opnaðar við Grafarvogslaug. + 2003 - Winnie Mandela var dĂŠmd Ă sex ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir svik og ĂŸjĂłfnað. + 2005 - BĂșlgarĂa og RĂșmenĂa skrifuðu undir samning um inngöngu Ă ESB. + 2005 - 107 lĂ©tust og 562 slösuðust ĂŸegar lest fĂłr Ășt af sporinu Ă Amagasaki Ă Japan. + 2009 - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 2012 - Agnes M. SigurðardĂłttir var kjörin fyrsti kvenbiskup Ăslensku ĂŸjóðkirkjunnar. + 2015 - JarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir Nepal og olli alls 9.018 dauðsföllum Ă Nepal, Indlandi, KĂna og Bangladess. + 2019 â VladimĂr PĂștĂn, RĂșsslandsforseti, og Kim Jong-un, leiðtogi Norður-KĂłreu, mĂŠttust ĂĄ fundi Ă Vladivostok. + 2021 â StĂșlknakĂłr frĂĄ HĂșsavĂk kom fram Ă myndbandi sem spilað var við afhendingu Ăskarsverðlaunanna. StĂșlkurnar fluttu lagið HĂșsavĂk â My Home Town Ășr kvikmyndinni Eurovision Song Contest: The Story of Fire Saga ĂĄsamt sĂŠnsku söngkonunni Molly SandĂ©n''. + 2022 - StjĂłrn Twitter samĂŸykkti 44 milljarða dala tilboð Elon Musk Ă fyrirtĂŠkið. + +FĂŠdd + 1214 - LoðvĂk 9., Frakklandskonungur. + 1284 - JĂĄtvarður 2. Englandskonungur (d. 1327). + 1599 - Oliver Cromwell, enskur einrÊðisherra (d. 1658). + 1762 - Sveinn PĂĄlsson, Ăslenskur lĂŠknir (d. 1840). + 1772 - Sveinn PĂĄlsson, Ăslenskur lĂŠknir og nĂĄttĂșrufrÊðingur (d. 1840). + 1840 - Pjotr Iljitsj TsjaĂkovskĂj, rĂșssneskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1893). + 1873 - FĂ©lix d'Herelle, kanadĂskur örverufrÊðingur (d. 1949). + 1874 - Guglielmo Marconi, Ătalskur uppfinningamaður, handhafi NĂłbelsverðlaunanna Ă eðlisfrÊði ĂĄrið 1909 (d. 1937). + 1895 - Stanley Rous, enskur forseti FIFA (d. 1986). + 1898 - Stefania Turkewich, ĂșkraĂnskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1977). + 1900 - Wolfgang Ernst Pauli, austurrĂskur eðlisfrÊðingur, handhafi NĂłbelsverðlaunanna Ă eðlisfrÊði ĂĄrið 1945 (d. 1958). + 1903 - Andrej Kolmogorov, sovĂ©skur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1987). + 1917 - Ella Fitzgerald, bandarĂsk djasssöngkona (d. 1996). + 1927 - Albert Uderzo, franskur myndasöguhöfundur (d. 2020). + 1940 - Al Pacino, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1945 - Björn Ulvaeus, sĂŠnskur tĂłnlistsarmaður. + 1946 - VladĂmĂr ZhĂrĂnovskĂj, rĂșssneskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 2022). + 1947 - Johan Cruyff, hollenskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 2016). + 1949 - Dominique Strauss-Kahn, franskur hagfrÊðingur. + 1969 - RenĂ©e Zellweger, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1971 - Hannes Bjarnason, Ăslenskur forsetaframbjóðandi. + 1975 - Hannes Sigurbjörn JĂłnsson, formaður Körfuknattleikssambands Ăslands. + 1976 - Tim Duncan, bandarĂskur körfuknattleiksmaður. + +DĂĄin + 1228 - JĂłlanda (Ăsabella 2.), drottning JerĂșsalem (f. 1212). + 1265 - HĂĄlfdan SĂŠmundsson, goðorðsmaður ĂĄ Keldum. + 1295 - Sancho 4., konungur KastilĂu (f. 1257). + 1647 - Matthias Gallas, hershöfðingi Ă her keisara Heilaga rĂłmverska rĂkisins (f. 1584). + 1667 - Pedro de Betancur, spĂŠnskur trĂșboði (f. 1626). + 1692 - HĂłlmfrĂður SigurðardĂłttir, prĂłfastsfrĂș Ă Vatnsfirði (f. 1617). + 1694 - MagnĂșs JĂłnsson, lögmaður norðan og vestan (f. 1642). + 1890 - Theodor Möbius, ĂŸĂœskur norrĂŠnufrÊðingur (f. 1821). + 1908 - PĂ©tur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur ĂĂŸrĂłttafrömuður (f. 1856). + 1911 - Emilio Salgari, Ătalskur rithöfundur (f. 1862). + 1950 - GuðjĂłn SamĂșelsson, Ăslenskur arkitekt (f. 1887). + 1978 - Jökull Jakobsson, Ăslenskt leikskĂĄld (f. 1933). + 1995 - Ginger Rogers, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona (f. 1911). + +AprĂl +26. aprĂl er 116. dagur ĂĄrsins (117. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 249 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1164 - Guido da Crema varð Paskalis 3. mĂłtpĂĄfi. + 1478 - Flugumenn Pazzi-fjölskyldunnar réðust ĂĄ Lorenzo de' Medici og drĂĄpu bróður hans, Giuliano, Ă hĂĄtĂðarmessu Ă dĂłmkirkjunni Ă FlĂłrens. + 1607 - Fyrstu ensku landnemarnir komu ĂĄ land við Cape Henry Ă VirginĂu. + 1617 - Råðgjafi Mariu de'Medici, Frakklandsdrottningar, Concino Concini, var myrtur af Ăștsendurum LoðvĂks 13. sem tĂłk stjĂłrn landsins Ă sĂnar hendur. + 1834 - Ofsaveður brast ĂĄ ĂĄ FaxaflĂła og fĂłrust ĂŸar 42 menn af tveimur skipum og 14 bĂĄtum. + 1903 - KnattspyrnufĂ©lagið AtlĂ©tico Madrid er stofnað ĂĄ SpĂĄni. + 1909 - Björn JĂłnsson råðherra skipaði ĂŸriggja manna rannsĂłknarnefnd til að rannsaka hagi Landsbanka Ăslands og var ĂŸað upphafið að Bankafarganinu. + 1920 - KanadĂska Ăsknattleiksliðið Winnipeg Falcons, sem var að mestu skipað Vestur-Ăslendingum, varð ĂlympĂumeistari Ă Antwerpen. + 1942 - Listamannadeilan: Formaður menntamĂĄlaråðs, JĂłnas JĂłnsson frĂĄ Hriflu, opnaði myndlistarsĂœningu til håðungar ĂŸeim sem ĂŸar ĂĄttu verk Ă bĂșðarglugga Gefjunar við AðalstrĂŠti Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1944 - Við Tjarnargötu Ă ReykjavĂk fannst gamall öskuhaugur ĂŸegar tekinn var grunnur að nĂœju hĂșsi. Ă haugnum fundust bein margra dĂœra, meðal annars svĂna og geirfugla. Haldið er að hĂ©r hafi öskuhaugur IngĂłlfs Arnarsonar fundist. + 1964 - Sansibar og Tangajika sameinuðust og TansanĂa var stofnuð. + 1965 - BrasilĂska sjĂłnvarpsstöðin Rede Globo var stofnuð. + 1966 - Akraborgin fĂłr sĂna sĂðustu ferð til Borgarness. + 1970 - Samningur um stofnun AlĂŸjóðahugverkastofnunarinnar gekk Ă gildi. + 1971 - RĂkisstjĂłrn Tyrklands lĂœsti yfir umsĂĄtursĂĄstandi Ă 11 hĂ©ruðum, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal Ankara, vegna mĂłtmĂŠla. + 1978 - Kvikmyndasjóður Ăslands og Kvikmyndasafn Ăslands voru stofnuð. + 1984 - Iskandar af Johor varð ĂĄttundi ĂŸjóðhöfðingi MalasĂu. + 1986 - TsjernĂłbĂœlslysið: Einn af ofnum kjarnorkuversins Ă TsjernĂłbĂœl sprakk. + 1987 - SĂŠnska fyrirtĂŠkið SAAB kynnti orrustuĂŸotuna Saab 39 Gripen. + 1989 - BanvĂŠnasti fellibylur allra tĂma, Daulatpur-Saturia-fellibylurinn, gekk yfir Dhaka-hĂ©rað Ă Bangladess með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 1300 fĂłrust. + 1991 - Sorpa hĂłf starfsemi Ă ReykjavĂk. + 1991 - Esko Aho varð yngsti forsĂŠtisråðherra Finnlands, 36 ĂĄra gamall. + 1994 - 264 fĂłrust ĂŸegar China Airlines flug 140 hrapaði við Nagoya Ă Japan. + 1996 - Samningur um öryggismĂĄl var undirritaður af fimm rĂkjum Ă SjanghĂŠ. + 1999 - Breska sjĂłnvarpskonan Jill Dando var skotin til bana við heimili sitt Ă Fulham. + 2002 - Fyrrum nemandi skaut 13 kennara, 2 nemendur, 1 lögreglumann og sĂðast sjĂĄlfan sig til bana Ă menntaskĂłla Ă Erfurt Ă ĂĂœskalandi. + 2003 - StĂłrbruni varð Ă moskunni Islamic Center Ă Malmö. Slökkviliðsmenn urðu fyrir grjĂłtkasti við störf sĂn. + 2004 - Fjölmiðlafrumvarpið var lagt fram ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. + 2005 - Sedrusbyltingin: SĂœrlendingar yfirgĂĄfu LĂbanon eftir að hafa haft ĂŸar her Ă 29 ĂĄr. + 2007 - BronsnĂłttin: Ăeirðir brutust Ășt Ă Tallinn Ă Eistlandi Ă kjölfar ĂŸess að borgaryfirvöld lĂ©tu fĂŠra umdeilda styttu. + 2012 - Fyrrum forseti LĂberĂu, Charles Taylor, var dĂŠmdur sekur um stuðning við strĂðsglĂŠpi og glĂŠpi gegn mannkyni Ă Borgarastyrjöldinni Ă SĂerra LeĂłne. + 2019 - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Avengers: Endgame var frumsĂœnd og varð ein tekjuhĂŠsta mynd allra tĂma. + +FĂŠdd + 121 - MarkĂșs ĂrelĂus, rĂłmverskur keisari og stĂłĂskur heimspekingur (d. 180) + 1564 - William Shakespeare, enskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1616). + 1575 - Maria de'Medici, drottning Frakklands, kona Hinriks 4. (d. 1642). + 1648 - PĂ©tur 2. konungur PortĂșgals (d. 1712). + 1660 - Henrik Ochsen, danskur embĂŠttismaður (d. 1750). + 1710 - Thomas Reid, skoskur heimspekingur (d. 1796) + 1711 - David Hume, skoskur heimspekingur (d. 1776) + 1759 - Sigurður PĂ©tursson, Ăslenskt leikskĂĄld og sĂœslumaður (d. 1827). + 1877 - JĂłhann Eyfirðingur, Ăslenskur sjĂłmaður (d. 1959). + 1887 - PĂ©tur HalldĂłrsson, borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkur (d. 1940). + 1889 - Ludwig Wittgenstein, austurrĂskur heimspekingur (d. 1951). + 1894 - Rudolf Hess, ĂŸĂœskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1987). + 1898 - Vicente Aleixandre, spĂŠnskt ljóðskĂĄld og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (d. 1984). + 1906 - RegĂna ĂĂłrðardĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona (d. 1974). + 1917 - I. M. Pei, kĂnversk-bandarĂskur arkitekt. + 1933 - ĂĂłra FriðriksdĂłttir, Ăslensk leikkona. + 1940 - Giorgio Moroder, Ătalskt tĂłnskĂĄld. + 1946 - VilhjĂĄlmur Ă. VilhjĂĄlmsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1950 - Einar Vilberg Hjartarson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 1960 - Roger Andrew Taylor, breskur trommari (Duran Duran). + 1963 - Jet Li, kĂnverskur leikari. + 1964 - Björn ZoĂ«ga, Ăslenskur lĂŠknir. + 1965 - Kevin James, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1972 - RĂkharður Daðason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1972 - SigrĂður BenediktsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur hagfrÊðingur. + 1980 - Channing Tatum, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1983 - Andri Freyr Hilmarsson, Ăslenskur dagskrĂĄrgerðarmaður. + +DĂĄin + 757 - StefĂĄn 2. pĂĄfi. + 1792 - JĂłn ArnĂłrsson eldri, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaður (f. 1734). + 1865 - John Wilkes Booth, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1838). + 1910 - BjĂžrnstjerne BjĂžrnson, norskur rithöfundur (f. 1832). + 1920 - Srinivasa Ramanujan, indverskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (f. 1887). + 1938 - Edmund Husserl, ĂŸĂœskur heimspekingur (f. 1859). + 1966 - Tom Florie, bandarĂskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1897). + 1994 - Aðalheiður BjarnfreðsdĂłttir, Ăslensk stjĂłrnmĂĄlakona (f. 1921). + 2003 - Yun Hyon-seok, suðurkĂłreskur mannrĂ©ttindafrömuður (f. 1984). + 2018 - Yoshinobu Ishii, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1939) + 2018 - Ketill Larsen, Ăslenskur leikari (f. 1934). + +AprĂl +27. aprĂl er 117. dagur ĂĄrsins (118. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 248 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1124 - DavĂð 1. drap Alexander 1. og gerðist Skotakonungur. + 1241 - MongĂłlar sigruðu Bela 4. af Ungverjalandi Ă orrustunni við Sajo. Landið var lagt meira og minna Ă auðn. + 1296 - Orrustan við Dunbar: JĂĄtvarður 1. vann sigur ĂĄ her Skota. + 1423 - BĂŠheimsku styrjaldirnar: TaborĂtar unnu Ășrslitasigur ĂĄ Ăștrakistum Ă orrustunni við Horic. + 1509 - JĂșlĂus 2. pĂĄfi setti Feneyjar Ă bann ĂŸar sem Feneyingar höfðu hafnað ĂŸvĂ að lĂĄta hluta Romagna-hĂ©raðs Ă hendur pĂĄfastĂłls. + 1521 - Orrustan um Mactan: Ferdinand Magellan var drepinn Ă ĂĄtökum við höfðingjann Lapu-Lapu ĂĄ Filippseyjum. + 1646 - Enska borgarastyrjöldin: Karl 1. Englandskonungur flĂșði frĂĄ Oxford. + 1650 - Orrustan við Carbisdale: Her konungssinna gerði innrĂĄs Ă Skotland frĂĄ Orkneyjum en var sigraður af her SĂĄttmĂĄlamanna. + 1682 - PĂ©tur mikli var krĂœndur RĂșssakeisari tĂu ĂĄra gamall, ĂĄsamt hĂĄlfbróður sĂnum Ăvan. + 1830 - SimĂłn BolĂvar sagði af sĂ©r sem forseti BĂłlivĂu. + 1858 - PĂłstskipið Victor Emanuel, sem sĂðar var nefnt Arcturus, kom Ă fyrstu ĂĄĂŠtlunarferð sĂna frĂĄ Kaupmannahöfn. Meðal farĂŸega var Konrad Maurer, ĂŸĂœskur prĂłfessor, sem skrifaði bĂłk um för sĂna. + 1908 - SumarĂłlympĂuleikar voru settir Ă London. + 1915 - Gullfoss sigldi frĂĄ ReykjavĂk til New York og kom til baka mĂĄnuði sĂðar. Ăetta var fyrsta ferð skips með Ăslenskri ĂĄhöfn ĂĄ milli Ăslands og AmerĂku frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ ĂĄ dögum Leifs heppna. + 1944 - Bestu hĂĄtĂðarljóð fyrir lĂœĂ°veldishĂĄtĂðina ĂŸann 17. jĂșnĂ voru valin âLand mĂns föðurâ eftir JĂłhannes Ășr Kötlum og âHver ĂĄ sĂ©r fegra föðurlandâ eftir Unni BenediktsdĂłttur Bjarklind sem kallaði sig Huldu. + 1960 - TĂłgĂł fĂ©kk sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ Frakklandi. + 1961 - SĂerra LeĂłne fĂ©kk sjĂĄlfstÊði frĂĄ Bretum. + 1972 - HĂștar Ă her BĂșrĂșndĂ hĂłfu uppreisn. StjĂłrnin brĂĄst við með ĂŸvĂ að drepa tugi ĂŸĂșsunda HĂșta nĂŠstu daga. + 1977 - Ănnur goshrina Kröfluelda hĂłfst og stóð Ă ĂŸrjĂĄ daga. + 1978 - Daoud Khan, forseti Afganistan, var myrtur Ă valdarĂĄni hersins. Afganska borgarastyrjöldin hĂłfst Ă kjölfarið. + 1992 - Stuttmyndadagar Ă ReykjavĂk voru haldnir Ă fyrsta skipti ĂĄ HĂłtel Borg. + 1993 - Allir liðsmenn karlalandsliðs SambĂu Ă knattspyrnu fĂłrust ĂŸegar flugvĂ©l ĂŸeirra hrapaði við Libreville Ă Gabon ĂĄ leið til Dakar. + 2001 - 17 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar herlögregla skaut ĂĄ mĂłtmĂŠlendur Ă Kabylie Ă AlsĂr. + 2005 - Airbus A380, stĂŠrsta farĂŸegaĂŸota heims til ĂŸessa, fĂłr Ă sitt fyrsta reynsluflug frĂĄ Toulouse Ă Frakklandi. + 2007 - HĂłpur vĂsindamanna Ă Genf undir stjĂłrn StĂ©phane Udry uppgötvaði lĂfvĂŠnlegu plĂĄnetuna Gliese 581d. + 2010 - Standard & Poor's fĂŠrði lĂĄnshĂŠfismat Grikklands niður Ă ruslflokk 4 dögum eftir virkjun 45 milljarða evra björgunarpakka frĂĄ EvrĂłpusambandinu og AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðnum. + 2011 - LandamĂŠradeilur TaĂlands og KambĂłdĂu: Til skotbardaga kom við kmerahofið Prasat Ta Muen Thom. + 2013 - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar ĂĄ Ăslandi. FramsĂłknarflokkurinn vann stĂłrsigur og bĂŠtti við sig 10 ĂŸingmönnum. + 2014 - PĂĄfarnir JĂłhannes 23. og JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. voru teknir Ă dĂœrlinga tölu. + 2018 - Kim Jong-un fĂłr yfir hlutlausa beltið og til Suður-KĂłreu til fundar við Moon Jae-in. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta sinn sem norðurkĂłreskur leiðtogi fĂłr yfir beltið. + 2018 - Leikjakerfið Nintendo Labo var sett ĂĄ markað. + +FĂŠdd + 1650 - Charlotte Amalie af Hessen-Kassel, Danadrottning (d. 1714). + 1759 - Mary Wollstonecraft, enskur rithöfundur og barĂĄttukona (d. 1797). + 1791 - Samuel Morse, bandarĂskur uppfinningamaður (d. 1872). + 1820 - Herbert Spencer, enskur fĂ©lagsfrÊðingur og heimspekingur (d. 1903). + 1822 - Ulysses S. Grant, 18. forseti Bandarikjanna (d. 1885). + 1873 - JĂłn StefĂĄnsson (Filippseyjakappi), Ăslenskur hermaður (d. 1932). + 1896 - Wallace Carothers, bandarĂskur efnafrÊðingur (d. 1937). + 1932 - Anouk Aimee, frönsk leikkona. + 1932 - Casey Kasem, bandarĂskur Ăștvarpsmaður (d. 2014). + 1949 - Hiroji Imamura, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1950 - Jakob Björnsson, bĂŠjarstjĂłri ĂĄ Akureyri. + 1955 - Katsuyuki Kawachi, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1967 - VilhjĂĄlmur Alexander Hollandskonungur. + 1971 - MaĆgorzata KoĆŒuchowska, pĂłlsk leikkona. + 1975 - SigĂŸĂłr JĂșlĂusson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1984 - Hannes ĂĂłr HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1985 - DĂłra StefĂĄnsdĂłttir, Ăslensk knattspyrnukona. + 1986 - Dinara Safina, rĂșssnesk tennisleikkona. + +DĂĄin + 1404 - Filippus 2. hertogi af BĂșrgund (f. 1342). + 1521 - Ferdinand Magellan, portĂșgalskur landkönnuður (f. 1480). + 1605 - LeĂł 11. pĂĄfi. + 1641 - Wilhelm von Rath, ĂŸĂœskur hermaður (f. um 1585). + 1702 - Jean Bart, franskur flotaforingi (f. 1651). + 1714 - Charlotte Amalie af Hessen-Kassel, Danadrottning (f. 1650). + 1796 - JĂłn ArnĂłrsson yngri, Ăslenskur sĂœslumaður (f. 1740). + 1882 - Ralph Waldo Emerson, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1803). + 1937 - Antonio Gramsci, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1891). + 1959 - Andrew Fire, bandarĂskur lĂffrÊðingur. + 1964 - Ălafur TĂșbals, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1897). + 1972 - JĂłhannes Ășr Kötlum, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1899). + 1972 - Kwame Nkrumah, fyrsti forseti Gana (f. 1909). + 1991 - Rob-Vel, franskur teiknimyndasagnahöfundur (f. 1909). + 2004 - JĂłnas SvafĂĄr, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1925). + 2009 - Tomohiko Ikoma, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1932). + +AprĂl +28. aprĂl er 118. dagur ĂĄrsins (119. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 248 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1118 - ĂorlĂĄkur RunĂłlfsson var vĂgður SkĂĄlholtsbiskup Ă Danmörku. + 1180 - Filippus ĂgĂșstus, rĂkisarfi Frakklands, giftist Ăsabellu af Hainaut. + 1192 - AssassĂnar myrtu Konråð frĂĄ Montferrat Ă TĂœros nokkrum dögum eftir að hann var kjörinn konungur JerĂșsalem. + 1237 - BĂŠjarbardagi var håður Ă Borgarfirði milli sveita Ăorleifs ĂĂłrðarsonar og Sturlu Sighvatssonar. Yfir ĂŸrjĂĄtĂu manns fĂ©llu ĂŸar. + 1357 - Friður komst ĂĄ milli feðganna MagnĂșsar EirĂkssonar og EirĂks MagnĂșssonar ĂŸannig að EirĂkur fĂ©kk SkĂĄn, Finnland, Austur-Gautland og hluta SmĂĄlanda. + 1789 - Skipverjar ĂĄ HMS Bounty gerðu uppreisn gegn yfirmönnum sĂnum. + 1796 - Frönsku byltingarstrĂðin: Samið var um vopnahléð Ă Cherasco milli NapĂłleons og Savoja. + 1819 - Konungur fyrirskipaði að tugthĂșsið Ă ReykjavĂk yrði embĂŠttisbĂșstaður stiftamtmanns. NĂș er ĂŸar skrifstofa forsĂŠtisråðherra. + 1877 - Heimavöllur Chelsea F.C., Stamford Bridge, var opnaður Ă London. + 1965 - Haraldur Björnsson ĂĄtti fimmtĂu ĂĄra leikafmĂŠli og var haldið upp ĂĄ ĂŸað hjĂĄ LeikfĂ©lagi ReykjavĂkur með sĂœningu ĂĄ ĂvintĂœri ĂĄ gönguför. + 1969 - Charles de Gaulle sagði af sĂ©r forsetaembĂŠtti Ă Frakklandi og Georges Pompidou tĂłk við. + 1971 - Dagblaðið Il Manifesto hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. + 1977 - DĂłmstĂłll Ă Stuttgart dĂŠmdi ĂŸrjĂĄ meðlimi Rote Armee Fraktion, Andreas Baader, Gudrun Ensslin og Jan-Carl Raspe, Ă lĂfstĂðarfangelsi. + 1980 - Fyrsti Game & Watch-leikurinn kom Ășt hjĂĄ Nintendo. + 1984 - Ăslenska fyrirtĂŠkið Te og Kaffi var stofnað. + 1989 - JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. pĂĄfi hĂłf opinbera heimsĂłkn til Madagaskar, SambĂu, MalavĂ og RĂ©union. + 1992 - Einu tvö JĂșgĂłslavĂulĂœĂ°veldin sem eftir voru, Svartfjallaland og SerbĂa, mynduðu SambandslĂœĂ°veldið JĂșgĂłslavĂu sem sĂðar var kallað SerbĂa og Svartfjallaland. + 1993 - AlĂŸingi samĂŸykkti aukaaðild landsins að Vestur-EvrĂłpusambandinu. + 1993 - Carlo Azeglio Ciampi varð fyrsti forsĂŠtisråðherra ĂtalĂu sem ekki ĂĄtti sĂŠti ĂĄ ĂŸingi. + 1995 - 101 fĂłrst ĂŸegar gassprenging varð ĂĄ byggingarsvÊði Ă Daegu Ă Suður-KĂłreu. + 1996 - Blóðbaðið Ă Port Arthur: Martin Bryant drap 35 ĂĄ ferðamannastað Ă TasmanĂu. + 1996 - Yfir 60 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar sprengja sprakk Ă Bhaiperu Ă Pakistan. + 2001 - BandarĂkjamaðurinn Dennis Tito varð fyrsti ferðamaðurinn Ă geimnum ĂŸegar hann fĂłr með SojĂșs TM-32. + 2004 - Fyrstu myndirnar sem sĂœndu pyntingar fanga Ă fangabĂșðunum Ă Abu Ghraib birtust Ă fjölmiðlum. + 2007 - AFL StarfsgreinafĂ©lag var myndað með sameiningu ĂŸriggja stĂ©ttarfĂ©laga ĂĄ Austurlandi. + 2007 - 55 lĂ©tust Ă hryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄsum Ă Karbala Ă Ărak. + 2008 - Indland setti nĂœtt heimsmet með ĂŸvĂ að senda 10 gervihnetti ĂĄ sporbaug um jörðu Ă einu geimskoti. + 2008 - AusturrĂkismaðurinn Josef Fritzl jĂĄtaði að hafa haldið dĂłttur sinni fanginni Ă 24 ĂĄr og ĂĄtt 7 börn með henni. + 2009 - Ăslenska varðskipið ĂĂłr var sjĂłsett Ă Chile. + 2011 - SprengjutilrÊðið Ă Marrakess 2011: Sprengja sprakk ĂĄ kaffihĂșsi Ă Marrakess Ă MarokkĂł með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 17 lĂ©tust. + 2014 - BandarĂkin hĂłfu að beita viðskiptaĂŸvingunum gegn RĂșsslandi vegna deilunnar um KrĂmskaga. + 2019 â Ăingkosningar fĂłru fram ĂĄ SpĂĄni. SpĂŠnski sĂłsĂalĂski verkamannaflokkurinn, flokkur Pedro SĂĄnchez forsĂŠtisråðherra, hlaut um 30 prĂłsent atkvÊða, mest allra flokka. + +FĂŠdd + 1442 - JĂĄtvarður 4. Englandskonungur (d. 1483). + 1758 - James Monroe, BandarĂkjaforseti (d. 1831). + 1838 - Tobias Asser, hollenskur lögfrÊðingur (d. 1913). + 1889 - Antonio Oliveira de Salazar, einrÊðisherra Ă PortĂșgal (d. 1970). + 1906 - Kurt Gödel, tĂ©kkneskur rökfrÊðingur (d. 1978). + 1922 - Alistair MacLean, skoskur rithöfundur (d. 1987). + 1931 - Takashi Mizuno, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1937 - Saddam Hussein, forseti Ăraks (d. 2006). + 1938 - Hildur HĂĄkonardĂłttir, Ăslensk myndlistarkona og rithöfundur. + 1948 - Terry Pratchett, enskur rithöfundur (d. 2015). + 1949 - Paul Guilfoyle, bandarĂskur leikari. + 1950 - Jay Leno, bandarĂskur ĂŸĂĄttastjĂłrnandi. + 1952 - Mary McDonnell, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1954 - Elena Kagan, bandarĂskur dĂłmari. + 1960 - Ian Rankin, skoskur rithöfundur. + 1960 - JĂłn PĂĄll Sigmarsson, Ăslenskur aflraunamaður (d. 1993). + 1969 - Elliði Vignisson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1970 - Diego Simeone, argentĂnskur knattspyrnumaður og ĂŸjĂĄlfari. + 1972 - Cauet, franskur sjĂłnvarpsmaður. + 1972 - Edwin Ifeanyi, kamerĂșnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1972 - Koji Kondo, japanskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 2003). + 1973 - Pauleta, portĂșgalskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1974 - PenĂ©lope Cruz, spĂŠnsk leikkona. + 1977 - RoniĂ©liton Pereira Santos, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1981 - Jessica Alba, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1988 - Juan Mata, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1994 - Milos Degenek, ĂĄstralskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 1074 - Sveinn ĂstrĂðarson, Danakonungur (f. um 1019). + 1250 - Ormur Björnsson, goðorðsmaður ĂĄ BreiðabĂłlstað, sonur Hallveigar OrmsdĂłttur (f. um 1219). + 1641 - Hans Georg af Arnim-Boitzenburg, ĂŸĂœskur herforingi (f. 1583). + 1772 - Johann Friedrich Struensee, ĂŸĂœskur lĂŠknir (f. 1737). + 1892 - Ludvig Holstein-Holsteinborg, danskur forsĂŠtisråðherra (f. 1815). + 1918 - Gavrilo Princip, bosnĂuserbneskur hryðjuverkamaður (f. 1894). + 1922 - Paul Deschanel, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1855). + 1945 - Benito Mussolini, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og einrÊðisherra (f. 1883). + 1954 - LĂ©on Jouhaux, franskur verkalĂœĂ°sleiðtogi (f. 1879). + 1973 - Robert Buron, franskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1910). + 1977 - Sepp Herberger, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1897). + 1992 - Francis Bacon, Ărskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1909). + 2012 - Matilde Camus, spĂŠnskt skĂĄld (f. 1919). + 2015 - Einar Ăorsteinn Ăsgeirsson, Ăslenskur arkitekt (f. 1942) + +AprĂl +29. aprĂl er 119. dagur ĂĄrsins (120. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂanska tĂmatalinu. 246 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 1106 - JĂłn Ăgmundsson var vĂgður biskup ĂĄ HĂłlum. + 1623 - Ellefu hollensk skip lögðu Ășr höfn og hugðust nĂĄ völdum Ă PerĂș. + 1670 - Emilio Altieri varð Klemens 10. pĂĄfi. + 1672 - LoðvĂk 14. gerði innrĂĄs Ă Holland. + 1688 - Friðrik 1. af PrĂșsslandi varð kjörfursti Ă Brandenborg. + 1769 - James Watt fĂ©kk einkaleyfi ĂĄ endurbĂŠttri ĂștgĂĄfu af gufuvĂ©linni. + 1899 - Kristilegt fĂ©lag ungra kvenna, KFUK, var stofnað ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1916 - Bretar brutu PĂĄskauppreisnina ĂĄ Ărlandi ĂĄ bak aftur. + 1945 - FĂ©lag Ăslenskra rithöfunda var stofnað. + 1961 - AlĂŸjóðlegi nĂĄttĂșruverndarsjóðurinn var stofnaður. + 1967 - Breskur togari Ă haldi vegna landhelgisbrots sigldi Ășr höfn Ă ReykjavĂk með tvo Ăslenska lögregluĂŸjĂłna um borð ĂĄleiðis til Bretlands. Hann nåðist sĂðar um daginn. + 1967 - Sparisjóður alĂŸĂœĂ°u var stofnaður ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1970 - BandarĂkin sendu herlið til KambĂłdĂu til að berjast við VĂet Kong. + 1982 - SrĂ JajevardenepĂșra varð stjĂłrnsĂœsluleg höfuðborg SrĂ Lanka. + 1982 - Nelson Mandela var fluttur Ă Pollsmoor-fangelsi Ă Höfðaborg eftir ĂĄtjĂĄn ĂĄra fangavist ĂĄ Robben Island. + 1988 - Fyrsta reglulega flug Boeing 747-400-vĂ©lar fĂłr fram. + 1991 - Bangladessfellibylurinn olli ĂŸvĂ að 138.000 manns fĂłrust. + 1992 - UppĂŸotin Ă Los Angeles 1992 hĂłfust eftir að tveir lögreglumenn sem gengu Ă skrokk ĂĄ Rodney King voru sĂœknaðir fyrir rĂ©tti. + 1997 - Efnavopnasamningurinn tĂłk gildi. Hann skyldar aðilarĂki til að hĂŠtta ĂŸrĂłun, framleiðslu, söfnun og notkun efnavopna. + 2002 - NĂœ einkatölva frĂĄ Apple, eMac, var sett ĂĄ markað. + 2002 - Ăjóðhagsstofnun var lögð niður ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 2003 - BandarĂkjaher tilkynnti að hann hygðist draga herlið sitt frĂĄ SĂĄdĂ-ArabĂu. + 2006 - Norðeyjagöngin voru opnuð Ă FĂŠreyjum. + 2011 - Konunglegt brĂșðkaup var haldið Ă LundĂșnum ĂŸegar VilhjĂĄlmur Bretaprins gekk að eiga Catherine Elizabeth Middleton. Talið er að 2 milljarðar manna hafi fylgst með brĂșðkaupinu Ă sjĂłnvarpi. + 2015 - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigðismĂĄlastofnunin tilkynnti að rauðum hundum hefði verið ĂștrĂœmt Ă AmerĂku. + 2016 - 13 fĂłrust ĂŸegar ĂŸyrla af gerðinni Airbus H225 Super Puma hrapaði við TurĂžy Ă Noregi. + 2021 - Geimferðastofnun KĂna skaut fyrsta hluta Tiangong-geimstöðvarinnar ĂĄ loft. + +FĂŠdd + 1636 - Esaias Reusner, ĂŸĂœskt tĂłnskĂĄld (d. 1679). + 1818 - Alexander 2. RĂșssakeisari (d. 1881). + 1823 - Konrad Maurer, ĂŸĂœskur sagnfrÊðingur (d. 1902). + 1841 - JĂłn JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (d. 1883). + 1851 - Indriði Einarsson, Ăslenskt leikskĂĄld (d. 1939). + 1863 - William Randolph Hearst, bandarĂskur Ăștgefandi (d. 1951). + 1876 - Zauditu, keisaraynja Ă EĂŸĂĂłpĂu (d. 1930). + 1888 - Richard Thors, Ăslenskur framkvĂŠmdastjĂłri (d. 1970). + 1893 - Harold Urey, bandarĂskur efnafrÊðingur (d. 1981). + 1895 - Vladimir Propp, rĂșssneskur ĂŸjóðfrÊðingur (d. 1970). + 1897 - KarĂłlĂna GuðmundsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur vefari (d. 1981). + 1899 - Duke Ellington, bandarĂskur djasspĂanisti (d. 1974). + 1901 - Showa keisari Japans (d. 1989). + 1917 - Uri Bronfenbrenner, bandarĂskur sĂĄlfrÊðingur (d. 2005). + 1943 - MagnĂșs TĂłmasson, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaður. + 1953 - Jon Gunnar JĂžrgensen, norskur textafrÊðingur. + 1954 - Jerry Seinfeld, bandarĂskur uppistandari. + 1955 - GrĂ©tar Mar JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1957 - Daniel Day-Lewis, breskur leikari. +1958 - Auður Ava ĂlafsdĂłttir, Ăslenskir listfrÊðingur og rithöfundur. + 1964 - LĂșðvĂk Bergvinsson, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1966 - RamĂłn Medina Bello, argentĂnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1968 - Kolinda Grabar-KitaroviÄ, krĂłatĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1970 - Andre Agassi, bandarĂskur tennisleikari. + 1970 - Uma Thurman, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1972 - Takahiro Yamada, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1973 - RĂșnar Freyr GĂslason, Ăslenskur leikari. + 1974 - Sigvaldi âSvaliâ KaldalĂłns Ăștvarpsmaður ĂĄ K100. + 1974 - Anggun, indĂłnesĂsk söngkona. + 1977 - Svavar PĂ©tur Eysteinsson, ĂŸekktur sem Prins PĂłlĂł, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður + 1978 - Frosti Logason, Ăștvarpsmaður X 977 og fyrrum gĂtarleikari MĂnus. + 1980 - Nicole Steinwedell, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1980 - Bre Blair, kanadĂsk leikkona. + 1981 - Ragnhildur Steinunn JĂłnsdĂłttir, Ăslensk dagskrĂĄrgerðarkona. + 1994 - DavĂð Arnar Sigvaldason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 2007 - SofĂa SpĂĄnarprinsessa. + +DĂĄin + 1326 - Blanka af BĂșrgund, fyrrverandi drottning Frakklands, fyrsta kona Karls 4. (f. um 1296). + 1376 - NikulĂĄs Ăorsteinsson, prestur Ă Holti Ă Ănundarfirði, veginn Ă Holtskirkju ĂĄ PĂ©tursmessu. + 1380 - Heilög KatrĂn frĂĄ Siena (f. 1347). + 1417 - LoðvĂk 2. NapĂłlĂkonungur (f. 1377). + 1937 - Wallace Carothers, bandarĂskur efnafrÊðingur (f. 1896). + 1951 - Ludwig Wittgenstein, austurrĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1889). + 1980 - Alfred Hitchcock, bandarĂskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (f. 1899). + 2005 - Gils Guðmundsson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur og stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1914). + 2008 - Albert Hofmann, svissneskur efnafrÊðingur (f. 1906). + 2012 - Hafsteinn Guðmundsson, Ăslenskur ĂĂŸrĂłttakennari og ĂŠskulĂœĂ°sfrömuður (f. 1923). + 2014 - Bob Hoskins, enskur leikari (f. 1942). + 2018 - Luis GarcĂa Meza Tejada, einrÊðisherra Ă BĂłlivĂu (f. 1929). + 2020 - Roger Westman, enskur arkitekt (f. 1939). + +AprĂl +30. aprĂl er 120. dagur ĂĄrsins (121. ĂĄ hlaupĂĄri) samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. 245 dagar eru eftir af ĂĄrinu. + +Atburðir + 711 - Sveitir MĂĄra lentu við GĂbraltar og hĂłfu innrĂĄs sĂna Ă SpĂĄn. + 1250 - LoðvĂk 9. Frakkakonungur var leystur Ășr haldi Egypta gegn ĂŸvĂ að greiða lausnargjald, milljĂłn dĂnara og borgina Damietta sem hann hafði åður hertekið. + 1429 - UmsĂĄtrið um OrlĂ©ans: JĂłhanna af Ărk kom til OrlĂ©ans með varalið. + 1632 - ĂrjĂĄtĂu ĂĄra strĂðið: SvĂar unnu sigur ĂĄ her keisarans Ă orrustunni við Lech. + 1789 - George Washington sĂłr embĂŠttiseið og varð ĂŸar með fyrsti forseti BandarĂkjanna. + 1838 - NĂkaragva sagði sig Ășr RĂkjasambandi Mið-AmerĂku og lĂœsti yfir sjĂĄlfstÊði. + 1917 - ĂrĂșgvĂŠska knattspyrnufĂ©lagið Progreso var stofnað. + 1930 - Helga TĂłmassyni var vikið Ășr starfi yfirlĂŠknis ĂĄ Kleppi Ă kjölfar StĂłru bombu. + 1939 - Franklin D. Roosevelt kom fram Ă sjĂłnvarpi, fyrstur bandarĂskra forseta. + 1945 - SovĂ©tmenn nåðu ĂŸinghĂșsinu Ă BerlĂn og flögguðu sovĂ©ska fĂĄnanum ĂĄ ĂŸaki ĂŸess. + 1945 - BandarĂkjamenn lögðu MĂŒnchen undir sig. + 1945 - Adolf Hitler, kanslari ĂĂœskalands og eiginkona hans Eva Braun frömdu sjĂĄlfsmorð með ĂŸvĂ að taka blĂĄsĂœru Ă loftvarnabyrgi Ă BerlĂn. + 1948 - Fyrsti Land Rover-jeppinn var sĂœndur ĂĄ bĂlasĂœningu Ă Amsterdam. + 1957 - NorrĂŠnu skĂðalandskeppninni lauk. ĂĂĄ höfðu 14% Ăslendinga, eða um 23.000 manns, tekið ĂŸĂĄtt og gengið 4 km ĂĄ skĂðum. Ă Ălafsfirði var ĂŸĂĄttakan 67%. + 1966 - HĂłtel Loftleiðir var opnað Ă ReykjavĂk aðeins 16 mĂĄnuðum eftir að framkvĂŠmdir hĂłfust. + 1975 - VĂetnamstrĂðinu lauk með falli SaĂgon Ă hendur Norður-VĂetnama. + 1978 - Nur Muhammad Taraki lĂœsti yfir stofnun AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldisins Afganistan. + 1980 - Beatrix Hollandsdrottning tĂłk við krĂșnunni af móður sinni. + 1982 - Bijon Setu-blóðbaðið: SextĂĄn munkar og nunnur Ananda Marga voru myrt Ă Vestur-Bengal. + 1988 - CĂ©line Dion sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva 1988 fyrir Sviss með laginu âNe partez pas sans moiâ. + 1988 - HeimssĂœningin World Expo 88 var opnuð Ă Brisbane Ă ĂstralĂu. + 1991 - RĂkisstjĂłrn SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokks og AlĂŸĂœĂ°uflokks tĂłk við stjĂłrnartaumunum. DavĂð Oddsson varð forsĂŠtisråðherra. + 1993 - AlĂŸingi samĂŸykkti fyrstu stjĂłrnsĂœslulög ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸar sem kveðið var ĂĄ um meginreglur opinberrar stjĂłrnsĂœslu. Meðal ĂŸess sem var lögfest voru jafnrÊðisreglan og andmĂŠlarĂ©ttur við meðferð opinberra mĂĄla. + 1993 - Tennisstjarnan Monica Seles var stungin Ă bakið af aðdĂĄanda Steffi Graf Ă keppni Ă Hamborg. + 1993 - HĂłpur fĂłlks mĂłtmĂŠlti fyrrum forsĂŠtisråðherra ĂtalĂu, Bettino Craxi, með ĂŸvĂ að henda Ă hann smĂĄpeningum ĂŸegar hann kom Ășt af hĂłteli Ă RĂłm. + 1993 - CERN lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir að Veraldarvefurinn skyldi vera aðgengilegur öllum ĂĄn endurgjalds. + 1994 - ĂrbĂŠjarlaug var opnuð. + 1994 - Paul Harrington og Charlie McGettigan sigruðu Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva fyrir Ărland með laginu âRock 'N' Roll Kidsâ. + 1995 - BandarĂkjastjĂłrn hĂŠtti fjĂĄrmögnun NSFNET. Ăar með var Internetið orðið að fullu einkavĂŠtt. + 1999 - KambĂłdĂa gekk Ă Samband Suðaustur-AsĂurĂkja. + 1999 - Ăriðja naglasprengja David Copeland sprakk ĂĄ krĂĄ Ă Soho Ă London með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að ĂłfrĂsk kona lĂ©st auk tveggja vina hennar og 70 sĂŠrðust. + 2000 - Faustina Kowalska var lĂœst dĂœrlingur Ă kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunni. + 2004 - Umdeild breyting ĂĄ Ăștlendingalögunum var samĂŸykkt ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. + 2007 - Reykingabann ĂĄ almannafĂŠri og vinnustöðum tĂłk gildi ĂĄ Norður-Ărlandi. + 2009 - Sjö lĂ©tust og fjöldi slasaðist ĂŸegar maður reyndi að aka bĂl ĂĄ miklum hraða ĂĄ hollensku konungsfjölskylduna Ă nĂĄgrenni Apeldoorn. + 2009 - Ăslenska fjĂĄrfestingafĂ©lagið Fons var tekið til gjaldĂŸrotaskipta. + 2010 - SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂŠttirnir Steindinn okkar hĂłfu göngu sĂna ĂĄ Stöð 2. + 2013 - VilhjĂĄlmur Alexander varð konungur Hollands. + 2015 - Könnunarfarið MESSENGER rakst ĂĄ plĂĄnetuna MerkĂșr eftir að hafa verið ĂĄ braut um hana frĂĄ 2011. + 2015 - ForsĂŠtisråðherra Ungverjalands, Viktor OrbĂĄn, lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir að landið ĂŠtti að taka aftur upp dauðarefsingu og reisa fangabĂșðir fyrir Ăłlöglega innflytjendur. + 2017 - GeimflutningafyrirtĂŠkið SpaceX endurnĂœtti Ă fyrsta sinn eldflaug Ă geimskoti. + 2019 â Akihito Japanskeisari sagði af sĂ©r sökum aldurs og sonur hans, krĂłnprinsinn Naruhito, settist ĂĄ keisarastĂłl. + +FĂŠdd + 1245 - Filippus 3. Frakkakonungur (d. 1285). + 1310 - KasimĂr 3. PĂłllandskonungur (d. 1368). + 1662 - MarĂa 2. Englandsdrottning (d. 1694). + 1777 - Carl Friedrich Gauss, ĂŸĂœskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 1855). + 1883 - Jaroslav HaĆĄek, tĂ©kkneskur rithöfundur (d. 1923). + 1893 - Joachim von Ribbentrop, utanrĂkisråðherra ĂĂœskalands ĂĄ tĂmum ĂŸriða rĂkisins. (d. 1946). + 1899 - Bart McGhee, bandarĂskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 1979). + 1902 - Peregrino Anselmo, ĂșrĂșgvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaður (d. 1975). + 1906 - Ăorvaldur SkĂșlason, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaður (d. 1984). + 1908 - Bjarni Benediktsson, forsĂŠtisråðherra Ăslands (d. 1970). + 1909 - JĂșlĂana Hollandsdrottning (d. 2004). + 1913 - Yasuo Suzuki, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1916 - Claude Shannon, bandarĂskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (d. 2001). + 1926 - Jakob Björnsson, Ăslenskur orkumĂĄlastjĂłri (d. 2020). + 1933 - Ăorgeir Ăorgeirsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndagerðarmaður og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi (d. 2003). + 1946 + Karl 16. GĂșstaf SvĂakonungur. + Sven Nordqvist, sĂŠnskur barnabĂłkahöfundur. + 1949 - AntĂłnio Guterres, portĂșgalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og aðalritari Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna. + 1956 - Lars von Trier, danskur leikstjĂłri. + 1959 - Stephen Harper, kanadĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður. + 1961 - Isiah Thomas, bandarĂskur körfuknattleiksmaður. + 1961 - ArnĂłr Guðjohnsen, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1964 - Lorenzo Staelens, belgĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1967 - Philipp Kirkorov, bĂșlgarskur söngvari. + 1969 - Brynhildur PĂ©tursdĂłttir, fyrrverandi alĂŸingiskona. + 1972 - Hiroaki Morishima, japanskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1973 - Naomi Novik, bandarĂskur rithöfundur. + 1974 - StefĂĄn I. ĂĂłrhallsson, Ăslenskur slagverksleikari. + 1981 - Peter Nalitch, rĂșssneskur söngvari. + 1982 - Kirsten Dunst, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1986 - Dianna Agron, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1991 - Victor PĂĄlsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 65 - Lucanus, rĂłmverskt skĂĄld (f. 39). + 1341 - JĂłhann 3. hertogi af Bretagne (f. 1286). + 1632 - Sigmundur 3., konungur PĂłlsk-lithĂĄĂska samveldisins og SvĂĂŸjóðar (f. 1566). + 1632 - Tilly, ĂŸĂœskur herforingi Ă ĂrjĂĄtĂu ĂĄra strĂðinu (f. 1559). + 1883 - Ădouard Manet, franskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1832). + 1899 - EirĂkur JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur frÊðimaður (f. 1822). + 1945 - Adolf Hitler, einrÊðisherra Ă ĂĂœskalandi (f. 1889). + 1945 - Eva Braun, eiginkona Adolfs Hitlers (f. 1912). + 1945 - Blondi, hundur Adolfs Hitler. + 1978 - Haraldur JĂłnasson, Ăslenskur bĂłndi (f. 1895). + 1989 - Sergio Leone, Ătalskur leikstjĂłri (f. 1929). + 1996 - Juan Hohberg, argentĂnskur/ĂșrĂșgvĂŠskur knattspyrnumaður og -ĂŸjĂĄlfari (f. 1926). + 2013 - Helgi Sigurður Guðmundsson, Ăslenskur athafnamaður (f. 1948). + 2017 - JidĂ©hem, belgĂskur myndasöguhöfundur (f. 1935) + +AprĂl +Ărið 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var 88. ĂĄr 20. aldar og hlaupĂĄr sem hĂłfst ĂĄ föstudegi samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. + +Atburðir + +JanĂșar + + 1. janĂșar - Kennitölur voru teknar upp ĂĄ Ăslandi Ă stað nafnnĂșmera. + 1. janĂșar - StĂŠrsta lĂștherska trĂșfĂ©lag BandarĂkjanna, EvangelĂska lĂștherska kirkjan Ă AmerĂku, var stofnað. + 2. janĂșar - EfnahagsumbĂŠtur MikhaĂls Gorbatsjovs, Perestrojka, hĂłfust Ă SovĂ©trĂkjunum. + 7.-8. janĂșar - Orrustan um hÊð 3234 var håð milli sovĂ©skra hermanna og mĂșjaheddĂna Ă Afganistan. + 13. janĂșar - Forseti TĂŠvan, Chiang Ching-kuo, lĂ©st og varaforsetinn, Lee Teng-hui, tĂłk við. + 13. janĂșar - Kalksteinsdrangurinn Sommerspiret ĂĄ MĂžns Klint Ă Danmörku hrundi Ă hafið. + 15. janĂșar - Lögreglu og mĂłtmĂŠlendum lenti saman við Klettamoskuna Ă JerĂșsalem. + 22. janĂșar - Paul Watson, skipstjĂłra og forsprakka Sea Shepherd-samtakanna, var vĂsað Ășr landi, gefið að sök að hafa lĂĄtið sökkva hvalbĂĄtunum tveimur Ă ReykjavĂkurhöfn ĂĄrið 1986. + 25. janĂșar - Varaforseti BandarĂkjanna, George H. W. Bush, reiddist sĂœnilega Ă sjĂłnvarpsviðtali við Dan Rather ĂĄ CBS um Ăran-Kontrahneykslið. + 26. janĂșar - Söngleikurinn Ăperudraugurinn hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ Broadway. + 30. janĂșar - Listasafn Ăslands var opnað Ă gamla ĂshĂșsinu við Tjörnina Ă ReykjavĂk. + +FebrĂșar + + 2. febrĂșar - HalldĂłr HalldĂłrsson varð fyrstur Ăslendinga til að fĂĄ ĂgrĂŠdd hjarta og lungu Ă ĂĄtta klukkustunda aðgerð Ă London. + 3. febrĂșar - BandarĂkjaĂŸing hafnaði beiðni Ronald Reagan BandarĂkjaforseta um fjĂĄrveitingu til stuðnings KontraskĂŠruliðum Ă NĂkaragva. + 5. febrĂșar - JĂłhann Hjartarson skĂĄkmaður sigraði Viktor Kortsnoj Ă undankeppni einvĂgis um um rĂ©ttinn til að skora ĂĄ heimsmeistarann Ă skĂĄk. + 6. febrĂșar - Alfred Jolson var vĂgður biskup kaĂŸĂłlskra ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 6. febrĂșar - SĂŠnski stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkurinn SvĂĂŸjóðardemĂłkratarnir var stofnaður. + 12. febrĂșar - SovĂ©ska herskipið BessavetnĂj sigldi ĂĄ bandarĂsku freigĂĄtuna USS Yorktown ĂĄ Svartahafi ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir að Yorktown hefði krafist rĂ©ttar til friðsamlegrar ferðar. + 13. febrĂșar - VetrarĂłlympĂuleikarnir 1988 voru settir Ă Calgary Ă Kanada. + 17. febrĂșar - 27 lĂ©tust og 70 sĂŠrðust ĂŸegar sprengja sprakk við First National Bank Ă Oshakati Ă NamibĂu. + 17. febrĂșar - BandarĂska undirofurstanum William R. Higgins var rĂŠnt Ă LĂbanon. Hann var sĂðar myrtur. + 23. febrĂșar - MĂĄlverki Edvards Munch, Vampyr, var stolið frĂĄ Nasjonalgalleriet Ă OslĂł. + 24. febrĂșar - HĂŠstirĂ©ttur BandarĂkjanna dĂŠmdi tĂmaritinu Hustler Ă vil Ă mĂĄlinu Hustler Magazine gegn Falwell. + 27. febrĂșar - Sumqayit-ofsĂłknirnar gegn Armenum Ă Sumqayit Ă sovĂ©ska AserbaĂsjan hĂłfust. + +Mars + + 1. mars - NĂœ umferðarlög gerðu notkun ökuljĂłsa allan sĂłlarhringinn að skyldu, svo og notkun öryggisbelta. + 3. mars - Breski stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkurinn FrjĂĄlslyndir demĂłkratar var stofnaður. + 6. mars - FlavĂusaðgerðin: Breskir sĂ©rsveitarmenn skutu tvo Ărska lĂœĂ°veldishermenn ĂĄ GĂbraltar. Fjöldi hefndaraðgerða fylgdi Ă kjölfarið. + 10. mars - SĂĄlin hans JĂłns mĂns hĂ©lt sĂna fyrstu tĂłnleika Ă BĂĂłkjallaranum við LĂŠkjargötu. + 13. mars - Seikangöngin milli HokkaĂdĂł og HonsjĂș voru opnuð fyrir lestarumferð. + 16. mars - Ăraksher gerði gasĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ Ăraska bĂŠinn Halabja, ĂŸar sem aðallega bjuggu KĂșrdar. Allir bĂŠjarbĂșar fĂłrust, yfir 5000 talsins. + 16. mars - Ăran-Kontrahneykslið: Herforingjarnir Oliver North og John Poindexter voru ĂĄkĂŠrðir fyrir svik gegn BandarĂkjunum. + 17. mars - Fyrsta Ăslenska glasabarnið fĂŠddist og var ĂŸað tĂłlf marka drengur. + 17. mars - SjĂĄlfstÊðisstrĂð ErĂtreu: Orrustan um Afabet. + 17. mars - 143 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Avianca flug 410 hrapaði Ă fjallshlĂð við landamĂŠri KĂłlumbĂu og VenesĂșela. + 19. mars - KorporĂĄlamorðin Ă Belfast: Tveir breskir hermenn Ă borgaralegum klÊðum voru myrtir eftir að hafa mĂŠtt lĂkfylgd ĂŸekkts lĂœĂ°veldishermanns. + 24. mars - Fyrsti McDonald's-veitingastaðurinn var opnaður Ă Belgrad Ă JĂșgĂłslavĂu. + 24. mars - Mordechai Vanunu var dĂŠmdur Ă 18 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir að hafa afhjĂșpað kjarnavopnaĂĄĂŠtlun Ăsraels. + 25. mars - KertamĂłtmĂŠlin Ă Bratislava fyrir trĂșfrelsi fĂłru fram. + 28. mars - Atlantic Airways flaug sitt fyrsta flug milli FĂŠreyja og Danmerkur. + 29. mars - SuðurafrĂska ĂŸingkonan Dulcie September var myrt við skrifstofur AfrĂska ĂŸjóðarråðsins Ă ParĂs. + +AprĂl + + 5. aprĂl - Kuwait Airways flugi 422 var rĂŠnt. Ă kjölfarið fylgdu umsĂĄtur Ă ĂŸremur heimsĂĄlfum og morð ĂĄ tveimur farĂŸegum. + 10. aprĂl - StĂłra SetĂłbrĂșin yfir SetĂłhaf Ă Japan var opnuð. + 11. aprĂl - SĂðasti keisarinn eftir Bernardo Bertolucci hlaut nĂu Ăłskarsverðlaun. + 12. aprĂl - Poppsöngvarinn Sonny Bono var kjörinn borgarstjĂłri Ă Palm Springs Ă KalifornĂu. + 16. aprĂl - Japanska teiknimyndin NĂĄgranninn minn Totoro var frumsĂœnd. + 16. aprĂl - Ătalski ĂŸingmaðurinn Roberto Ruffilli var myrtur af Rauðu herdeildunum. + 22. aprĂl - GĂslatakan ĂĄ OuvĂ©a: Tugir lögreglumanna og einn saksĂłknari voru teknir Ă gĂslingu af sjĂĄlfstÊðissinnum ĂĄ NĂœju-KaledĂłnĂu. + 25. aprĂl - Fyrsta breiðskĂfa Sykurmolanna, Life's Too Good, kom Ășt Ă Bretlandi. + 25. aprĂl - Ivan Demjanjuk var dĂŠmdur til dauða Ă Ăsrael fyrir strĂðsglĂŠpi sem hann framdi Ă ĂștrĂœmingarbĂșðunum Ă Treblinka. + 29. aprĂl - Fyrsta reglulega flug Boeing 747-400-vĂ©lar fĂłr fram. + 30. aprĂl - CĂ©line Dion sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva 1988 fyrir Sviss með laginu âNe partez pas sans moiâ. + 30. aprĂl - HeimssĂœningin World Expo 88 var opnuð Ă Brisbane Ă ĂstralĂu. + +MaĂ + + 4. maĂ - PEPCON-slysið ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað Ă Nevada Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 10. maĂ - Ăingkosningar fĂłru fram Ă Danmörku aðeins sjö mĂĄnuðum eftir sĂðustu ĂŸingkosningar. + 10. maĂ - Ăingmönnum ĂĄ norska stĂłrĂŸinginu var fjölgað Ășr 157 Ă 165. + 14. maĂ - 27 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar ölvaður ökumaður Ăłk ĂĄ rĂștu ĂĄ ĂŸjóðvegi 71 Ă Kentucky Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 15. maĂ - StrĂð SovĂ©tmanna Ă Afganistan: SovĂ©tmenn hĂłfu að draga herlið sitt frĂĄ Afganistan. + 18. maĂ - BĂłkamessan Ă TĂłrĂnĂł fĂłr fram Ă fyrsta sinn. + 23. maĂ - Danska kvikmyndin Pelle sigurvegari eftir Bille August vann GullpĂĄlmann ĂĄ KvikmyndahĂĄtĂðinni Ă Cannes. + 24. maĂ - Umdeild sveitarstjĂłrnarlög voru samĂŸykkt Ă Bretlandi ĂŸar sem kynning ĂĄ samkynhneigð Ă opinberum skĂłlum var bönnuð Ă grein 28. + 29. maĂ - Leiðtogafundurinn Ă Moskvu 1988 hĂłfst. + 31. maĂ - Fyrsti Reyklausi dagurinn var haldinn. + +JĂșnĂ + + 4. jĂșnĂ - MammĂŹ-lögin um takmörkun ĂĄ eignarhaldi fjölmiðla ĂĄ ĂtalĂu voru samĂŸykkt. + 6. jĂșnĂ - ElĂsabet 2. svipti knapann Lester Piggott riddaratign eftir að hann hlaut fangelsisdĂłm vegna skattsvika. + 7. jĂșnĂ - Anna-Greta Leijon sagði af sĂ©r embĂŠtti dĂłmsmĂĄlaråðherra Ă SvĂĂŸjóð eftir að upp komst að hĂșn hafði stutt einkarannsĂłkn Ăștgefandans Ebbe Carlsson ĂĄ morðinu ĂĄ Olof Palme. + 10. jĂșnĂ - EvrĂłpukeppnin Ă knattspyrnu 1988 hĂłfst Ă ĂĂœskalandi. + 10. jĂșnĂ - Söngvabyltingin hĂłfst Ă Eistlandi. + 11. jĂșnĂ - StĂłrtĂłnleikar voru haldnir ĂĄ Wembley-leikvanginum Ă London Ă tilefni af 70 ĂĄra afmĂŠli Nelson Mandela. + 14. jĂșnĂ - SkĂłgareldur braust Ășt rĂ©tt norðan við Yellowstone-ĂŸjóðgarðinn Ă BandarĂkjunum. Ăegar hann var slökktur Ă september höfðu 3.000 kmÂČ eða 36% af ĂŸjóðgarðinum brunnið. + 22. jĂșnĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Hver skellti skuldinni ĂĄ Kalla kanĂnu var frumsĂœnd. + 25. jĂșnĂ - EvrĂłpukeppnin Ă knattspyrnu 1988: Holland sigraði SovĂ©trĂkin 2-0 Ă Ășrslitaleik. + 27. jĂșnĂ - Lestarslysið ĂĄ Garde de Lyon: 56 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar lest ĂĄ leið inn ĂĄ stöðina Gare de Lyon Ă ParĂs rakst ĂĄ kyrrstÊða lest. + 28. jĂșnĂ - JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. gaf Ășt pĂĄfatilskipunina Pastor Bonus (âgóði hirðirinnâ) með breytingum ĂĄ pĂĄfaråði og stjĂłrnsĂœslu kirkjunnar. + 29. jĂșnĂ - Morrison gegn Olson: HĂŠstirĂ©ttur BandarĂkjanna staðfesti heimild sĂ©rstakra saksĂłknara til að rannsaka glĂŠpi embĂŠttismanna framkvĂŠmdavaldsins. + 30. jĂșnĂ - KaĂŸĂłlski erkibiskupinn Marcel Lefebvre skipaði fjĂłra biskupa Ă ĂcĂŽne Ă Sviss gegn vilja pĂĄfa. + +JĂșlĂ + + 1. jĂșlĂ - DAX-vĂsitalan hĂłf göngu sĂna Ă ĂĂœskalandi. + 3. jĂșlĂ - StrĂð Ăraks og Ărans: BandarĂska herskipið USS Vincennes skaut Ă misgripum niður farĂŸegaĂŸotu ĂĄ vegum Iran Air. 290 farĂŸegar fĂłrust. + 3. jĂșlĂ - Fatih Sultan Mehmet-brĂșin yfir BospĂłrussund var fullbyggð. + 3. jĂșlĂ - Ă msele-morðin: HjĂłn og 15 ĂĄra sonur ĂŸeirra voru myrt af Juha Valjakkala og kĂŠrustu hans Ă Ă msele Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. Eftir mikinn eltingarleik nåðust ĂŸau Ă ĂðinsvĂ©um Ă Danmörku sjö dögum sĂðar. + 6. jĂșlĂ - Eldur braust Ășt ĂĄ olĂuborpallinum Piper Alpha Ă NorðursjĂł. 165 verkamenn og 2 björgunarsveitarmenn fĂłrust. + 6. jĂșlĂ - SjĂșkrahĂșssĂșrgangur barst ĂĄ land ĂĄ strönd Long Island Ă New York Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 11. jĂșlĂ - DĂłmur fĂ©ll vegna blóðbaðsins Ă Bologna. FjĂłrir hĂŠgriöfgamenn hlutu lĂfstĂðardĂłma. + 14. jĂșlĂ - FjĂĄrfestingarfĂ©lag Berlusconis, Fininvest, keypti verslunarkeðjuna Standa af Montedison. + 15. jĂșlĂ - Fyrsta staðfesta tilfelli selapestar Ă Eystrasalti. + 28. jĂșlĂ - FjĂłrir leiðtogar Ătölsku vinstrihreyfingarinnar Lotta Continua voru handteknir vegna Calabresi-morðsins. + 31. jĂșlĂ - 32 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar landgangur ĂĄ Abdul Halim-ferjustöðinni hrundi Ă Butterworth Ă MalasĂu. + +ĂgĂșst + 2. ĂĄgĂșst - Flugslys varð Ă ReykjavĂk og fĂłrust ĂŸrĂr menn er kanadĂsk flugvĂ©l skall Ă jörðina ĂĄ milli Hringbrautar og flugbrautarendans. + 5. ĂĄgĂșst - Leiðtogi sjĂamĂșslima Ă Pakistan, Arif Hussain Hussaini, var skotinn til bana Ă Peshawar. + 8. ĂĄgĂșst - ĂĂșsundir mĂłtmĂŠlenda voru drepnir Ă 8888-uppreisninni Ă Mjanmar. + 8. ĂĄgĂșst - Samið var um vopnahlĂ© milli Suður-AfrĂku, AngĂłla og KĂșbu. + 10. ĂĄgĂșst - StrĂði Ăraks og Ărans lauk með friðarsamningum. + 11. ĂĄgĂșst - Osama Bin Laden stofnaði hryðjuverkasamtökin Al-KaĂda. + 17. ĂĄgĂșst - Forseti Pakistans Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq og sendiherra BandarĂkjanna Arnold Raphel lĂ©tust Ă flugslysi. + 18. ĂĄgĂșst - EndurbĂłtum lauk ĂĄ Viðeyjarstofu og Viðeyjarkirkju. + 21. ĂĄgĂșst - Stuðlabergsdrangur var reistur Ă Skagafirði til minningar um Ărlygsstaðabardaga er 750 ĂĄr voru liðin frĂĄ atburðinum. + 21. ĂĄgĂșst - Hundruðir lĂ©tu lĂfið Ă jarðskjĂĄlfta við landamĂŠri Nepals og Indlands. + 26. ĂĄgĂșst - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Foxtrot var frumsĂœnd. + 26. ĂĄgĂșst - âFlugstöðvarmaðurinnâ Mehran Karimi Nasseri settist að ĂĄ Charles de Gaulle-flugvelli Ă ParĂs ĂŸar sem hann hĂ©lt sig til ĂĄrsins 2006. + 28. ĂĄgĂșst - Skriðuföll urðu ĂĄ Ălafsfirði eftir miklar rigningar og urðu tvö hundruð manns að rĂœma hĂșs sĂn. TjĂłn varð mikið ĂĄ mannvirkjum en ekki slys ĂĄ fĂłlki. + 28. ĂĄgĂșst - ĂrjĂĄr af flugvĂ©lum Ătalska listflugshĂłpsins Frecce Tricolori rĂĄkust saman yfir Ramstein-flugstöðinni. Ein ĂŸeirra hrapaði ĂĄ ĂĄhorfendur með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 75 lĂ©tust. + +September + + 1. september - Fyrsta kona sem gegndi embĂŠtti råðuneytisstjĂłra tĂłk til starfa sem slĂk. Var ĂŸað Berglind ĂsgeirsdĂłttir, ĂŸĂĄ 33 ĂĄra gömul. + 3. september - Tekin var Ă notkun ĂseyrarbrĂș yfir Ăłsa ĂlfusĂĄr og styttist leiðin milli ĂorlĂĄkshafnar og Eyrarbakka við ĂŸað Ășr 45 Ă 15 kĂlĂłmetra. + 11. september - Söngvabyltingin: 300.000 manns tĂłku ĂŸĂĄtt Ă mĂłtmĂŠlum gegn yfirråðum SovĂ©trĂkjanna. + 12. september - Fellibylurinn Gilbert tĂłk land ĂĄ JamaĂka ĂŸar sem hann olli miklum skemmdum. 30 manns fĂłrust. + 14. september - Fellibylurinn Gilbert kom upp að JĂșkatanskaga. Yfir 200 manns fĂłrust Ă MexĂkĂł vegna hans. + 17. september - SumarĂłlympĂuleikar voru settir Ă Seoul Ă Suður-KĂłreu. + 17. september - SteingrĂmur Hermannsson og JĂłn Baldvin Hannibalsson lĂ©tu ĂŸau orð falla Ă viðtali Ă frĂ©ttaskĂœringaĂŸĂŠtti ĂĄ Stöð 2 að rĂkisstjĂłrn Ăorsteins PĂĄlssonar vĂŠri fallin ĂŸar sem ekki vĂŠru forsendur fyrir samstarfi eftir tillögur forsĂŠtisråðherra um 6% gengisfellingu til að mĂŠta vanda sjĂĄvarĂștvegsins. + 19. september - Finnska farsĂmanetið Radiolinja hĂłf starfsemi. + 22. september - Eldur braust Ășt ĂĄ olĂuborpallinum Ocean Odyssey Ă NorðursjĂł. + 23. september - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Ă ĂŸokumistrinu var frumsĂœnd. + 24. september - Mikil mĂłtmĂŠli brutust Ășt Ă Vestur-BerlĂn vegna fundar AlĂŸjóðabankans og AlĂŸjóðagjaldeyrissjóðsins. + 26. september - Upp komst um lyfjamisnotkun Ben Johnson sem sett hafði heimsmet Ă 100 metra hlaupi ĂĄ ĂlympĂuleikunum Ă SeĂșl. + 28. september - Ănnur rĂkisstjĂłrn SteingrĂms Hermannssonar tĂłk við völdum. + 29. september - Geimskutlunni Discovery var skotið ĂĄ loft. + +OktĂłber + + 1. oktĂłber - Danska sjĂłnvarpsstöðin TV 2 hĂłf Ăștsendingar og batt ĂŸar með enda ĂĄ einokun DR1. + 5. oktĂłber - MĂłtmĂŠli hĂłfust gegn rĂkisstjĂłrn AlsĂr. Ăau voru barin niður af mikilli hörku. + 5. oktĂłber - ĂjóðaratkvÊðagreiðsla um framlengingu valdatĂðar Augusto Pinochet fĂłr ĂŸannig að meirihluti kaus gegn honum. + 11. oktĂłber - Fyrsta konan var kosin forseti sameinaðs AlĂŸingis og var ĂŸað GuðrĂșn HelgadĂłttir. + 12. oktĂłber - Blóðbaðið Ă Birchandra Manu: Yfir 13 stuðningsmenn KommĂșnistaflokks Indlands (marxistanna) voru drepnir af stuðningsmönnum Kongressflokksins. + 21. oktĂłber - Listasafn SigurjĂłns Ălafssonar var opnað Ă ReykjavĂk. Ăennan dag hefði SigurjĂłn orðið ĂĄttrÊður, en hann lĂ©st Ă desember 1982. + 23. oktĂłber - Ăslendingar unnu 11 verðlaun ĂĄ heimsleikum fatlaðra Ă SeĂșl Ă Suður-KĂłreu. Ăar af voru tvenn gullverðlaun, sem Haukur Gunnarsson og Lilja M. SnorradĂłttir hlutu. + 24. oktĂłber - Stöð 2 stóð fyrir heimsbikarmĂłti Ă skĂĄk, sem fram fĂłr Ă BorgarleikhĂșsinu Ă ReykjavĂk og lauk með sigri heimsmeistarans, GarrĂ Kasparov. + 27. oktĂłber - Ronald Reagan ĂĄkvað að lĂĄta rĂfa sendiråð BandarĂkjanna Ă Moskvu Ășt af hlerunarbĂșnaði sem byggður var inn Ă bygginguna. + 28. oktĂłber - Kvikmyndin Ă skugga hrafnsins var frumsĂœnd Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. + 29. oktĂłber - Leikjatölvan Sega Genesis kom Ășt Ă Japan. + 30. oktĂłber - Philip Morris keypti Kraft Foods fyrir 13,1 milljarð dala. + 30. oktĂłber - Ayrton Senna tryggði sĂ©r heimsmeistaratitilinn Ă FormĂșlu 1-kappakstri með sigri Ă Japan. + +NĂłvember + + 1. nĂłvember - Fyrsta fjĂłrburafÊðing ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸar sem öll börnin lifðu, allt stĂșlkur. + 2. nĂłvember - Fyrsti tölvuormurinn sem dreifði sĂ©r um Internetið, Morrisormurinn, hĂłf göngu sĂna. + 3. nĂłvember - TamĂlskir mĂĄlaliðar frĂĄ SrĂ Lanka reyndu að fremja valdarĂĄn ĂĄ MaldĂveyjum en Indlandsher kom Ă veg fyrir ĂŸað. + 3. nĂłvember - ĂĂșsundir nĂĄmsmanna mĂłtmĂŠltu fyrrum forseta Suður-KĂłreu Chun Doo-hwan. + 8. nĂłvember - George H. W. Bush, fulltrĂși repĂșblikanaflokksins, var kosinn forseti BandarĂkjanna. Michael Dukakis var Ă framboði fyrir demĂłkrata. + 10. nĂłvember - BandarĂski flugherinn viðurkenndi tilvist njĂłsnavĂ©larinnar Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk. + 15. nĂłvember - Frelsissamtök PalestĂnu viðurkenndu tilvist Ăsraels og lĂœsti jafnframt yfir stofnun PalestĂnurĂkis ĂĄ Vesturbakkanum. + 15. nĂłvember - Fyrsta Fairtrade-merkið var gefið Ășt af Max Havelaar-stofnuninni Ă Hollandi. + 16. nĂłvember - Söngvabyltingin: Eistneska SovĂ©tið lĂœsti ĂŸvĂ yfir að lög ĂŸess vĂŠru Êðri lögum SovĂ©trĂkjanna. + 16. nĂłvember - Benazir Bhutto var kjörin forsĂŠtisråðherra Pakistans. + 17. nĂłvember - Linda PĂ©tursdĂłttir var krĂœnd UngfrĂș heimur. + 18. nĂłvember - StrĂðið gegn eiturlyfjum: Ronald Reagan undirritaði lög sem kvåðu ĂĄ um dauðarefsingu fyrir tiltekin brot. + 22. nĂłvember - Fyrsta frumgerð Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit-sprengjuflugvĂ©lar var kynnt Ă KalifornĂu. + 23. nĂłvember - Fyrrum forseti Suður-KĂłreu, Chun Doo-hwan, baðst opinberlega afsökunar ĂĄ spillingu Ă valdatĂð sinni og sagðist myndu fara Ă Ăștlegð. + 24. nĂłvember - BandarĂsku gamanĂŸĂŠttirnir Mystery Science Theater 3000 hĂłfu göngu sĂna. + 25. nĂłvember - ĂfengiskaupamĂĄlið: Forseti HĂŠstarĂ©ttar, MagnĂșs Thoroddsen, sagði af sĂ©r. + 29. nĂłvember - FimleikafĂ©lagið RĂĄn var stofnað Ă Vestmannaeyjum. + +Desember + + 1. desember - Fyrstu tĂłnleikar Ăslensku hljĂłmsveitarinnar Bless fĂłru fram. + 2. desember - Benazir Bhutto varð fyrsti kvenkyns forsĂŠtisråðherra Ăslamsks rĂkis. + 2. desember - ĂĂșsundir lĂ©tust ĂŸegar fellibylur gekk yfir Bangladess. + 7. desember - JarðskjĂĄlfti gekk yfir SovĂ©tlĂœĂ°veldið ArmenĂu með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að nĂŠr 25.000 lĂ©tust. + 9. desember - SĂðustu Dodge Aries- og Plymouth Reliant-bifreiðarnar voru framleiddar af Chrysler. + 12. desember - 35 lĂ©tust Ă lestarslysi Ă Clapham Ă London. + 20. desember - Samningur Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna gegn Ăłlöglegri verslun með fĂkniefni og skynvilluefni var undirritaður Ă VĂnarborg. + 21. desember - FlugvĂ©l sprakk yfir Lockerbie Ă Bretlandi. Alls dĂłu 270 manns, ĂŸar af 243 farĂŸegar, 16 Ă ĂĄhöfn og 11 ĂĄ jörðu niðri. + 21. desember - BandarĂska fjĂĄrmĂĄlafyrirtĂŠkið Drexel Burnham Lambert viðurkenndi innherjaviðskipti og samĂŸykkti að greiða 650 milljĂłn dala sekt. + 22. desember - New York-samningarnir voru undirritaðir milli KĂșbu, AngĂłla og Suður-AfrĂku ĂŸar sem Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðirnar fengu stjĂłrn NamibĂu. + 22. desember - BrasilĂski aðgerðasinninn Chico Mendes var myrtur. + 27. desember - Fyrsta fasta bĂlnĂșmerið Ă nĂœju nĂșmerakerfi var sett ĂĄ bifreið HalldĂłrs ĂsgrĂmssonar dĂłmsmĂĄlaråðherra, HP741. NĂœja kerfið gekk Ă gildi Ă ĂĄrsbyrjun 1989. + 29. desember - Ăslenska hugbĂșnaðarfyrirtĂŠkið Kögun hf var stofnað. + +Ădagsettir atburðir + Friðrik SkĂșlason hĂłf ĂŸrĂłun ĂĄ ĂŠttfrÊðiforritinu EspĂłlĂn. + SkĂœjakljĂșfurinn Torre Picasso var opnaður Ă MadrĂd. + BĂłk Salman Rushdie, Söngvar Satans, kom Ășt. + Veitingastaðurinn ĂtalĂa hĂłf starfsemi Ă ReykjavĂk. + HljĂłmsveitin Traveling Wilburys var stofnuð. + UngmennafĂ©lagið Fjölnir var stofnað Ă Grafarvogi Ă ReykjavĂk. + Ăslenska fyrirtĂŠkið Milestone ehf. var stofnað. + BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin Nine Inch Nails var stofnuð. + +FĂŠdd + 1. janĂșar - Katie Volding, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 17. janĂșar - Nikki Reed, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 14. febrĂșar - Ăngel Di MarĂa, argentĂnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 17. febrĂșar - Natascha Kampusch, fĂłrnarlamb mannrĂŠningja. + + 20. febrĂșar - Rihanna, söngkona frĂĄ Barbados. + 25. febrĂșar - RĂșrik GĂslason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 28. aprĂl - Juan Mata, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 4. mars - Adam Watts, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 5. mars - Bjarni Viðarsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 11. mars - FĂĄbio CoentrĂŁo, portĂșgalskur knattspyrnumaður. + 11. mars - Helena SverrisdĂłttir, Ăslensk körfuknattleikskona. + 27. mars - Brenda Song, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 30. mars - Richard Sherman, bandarĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 10. aprĂl - Haley Joel Osment, bandarĂskur leikari. + 13. aprĂl - Anderson LuĂs de Abreu Oliveira, brasilĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 28. aprĂl - Juan Mata, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 5. maĂ - Adele, bresk söngkona. + 11. maĂ - Oscar CarlĂ©n, sĂŠnskur handknattleiksmaður. + 27. maĂ - Birkir Bjarnason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1. jĂșnĂ - Javier HernĂĄndez, mexĂkĂłskur knattspyrnumaður. + + 28. jĂșlĂ - Gunnar Nelson, Ăslenskur bardagaĂĂŸrĂłttamaður. + 18. ĂĄgĂșst - Ăsgeir Erlendsson, Ăslenskur frĂ©ttamaður. + 24. ĂĄgĂșst - Rupert Grint, enskur leikari. + 27. ĂĄgĂșst - Alexa Vega, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 1. september - SigurjĂłn Friðbjörn Björnsson, Ăslenskur handknattleiksmaður. + 27. september - Hjörtur Logi Valgarðsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 27. september - GuðnĂœ Björk ĂðinsdĂłttir, Ăslensk knattspyrnukona. + 4. oktĂłber - Derrick Rose, bandarĂskur körfuknattleiksmaður. + 7. oktĂłber - Diego Costa, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 7. oktĂłber - Friðrik DĂłr, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 13. oktĂłber - Ălfur Karlsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndagerðarmaður. + 15. oktĂłber - Mesut Ăzil, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + 6. nĂłvember - Conchita Wurst, austurrĂskur söngvari. + 19. nĂłvember - Xavier Barachet, franskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1. desember - Jay Simpson, breskur knattspyrnumaður. + 7. desember - Emily Browning, ĂĄströlsk leikkona. + 14. desember - Vanessa Hudgens, bandarĂsk leikkona. + 19. desember - Alexis SĂĄnchez, spĂŠnskur knattspyrnumaður. + 27. desember - Hera HilmarsdĂłttir, Ăslensk leikari. + 30. desember - Rakel HönnudĂłttir, Ăslensk knattspyrnukona. + +DĂĄin + 15. febrĂșar - Richard Feynman, bandarĂskur eðlisfrÊðingur (f. 1918). + + 28. febrĂșar - GuðrĂșn Ă. SĂmonar, Ăslensk Ăłperusöngkona (f. 1924). + 25. mars - Gunnar M. MagnĂșss, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (f. 1898). + 31. mars - William McMahon, forsĂŠtisråðherra ĂstralĂu (f. 1908). + 21. maĂ - Sammy Davis, Sr., bandarĂskur dansari og leikari (f. 1900). + 27. maĂ - Hjördis Petterson, sĂŠnsk leikkona (f. 1908). + 25. jĂșnĂ - Svavar Guðnason, Ăslenskur listmĂĄlari (f. 1909). + 30. jĂșlĂ - Ălafur JĂłhann Sigurðsson, Ăslenskur rithöfundur (f. 1918). + 2. ĂĄgĂșst - Raymond Carver, bandarĂskur rithöfundur (f. 1938). + 14. ĂĄgĂșst - Enzo Ferrari, Ătalskur bĂlahönnuður (f. 1898). + 27. ĂĄgĂșst - Max Black, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1909). + 28. ĂĄgĂșst - Paul Grice, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1913). + 16. oktĂłber - Christian Matras, fĂŠreyskur mĂĄlfrÊðingur (f. 1900). + 22. oktĂłber - PlĂĄcido Galindo, perĂșskur knattspyrnumaður (f. 1906). + 26. oktĂłber - Ragnar Kjartansson, Ăslenskur myndhöggvari (f. 1923). + 6. desember - Roy Orbison, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (f. 1936). + +NĂłbelsverðlaunin + EðlisfrÊði - Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, Jack Steinberger + EfnafrÊði - Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber, Hartmut Michel + LĂŠknisfrÊði - James W, Black, Gertrude B. Elion, George H. Hitchings + BĂłkmenntir - Naguib Mahfouz + HagfrÊði - Maurice Allais + Friðarverðlaun - FriðargĂŠslusveitir Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna, New York borg + +1988 +NĂłbelsverðlaunin Ă bĂłkmenntum eru ein af fimm verðlaunum sem kennd eru við Alfred Nobel. Verðlaunahafar eru valdir af SĂŠnsku akademĂunni og eru tilkynntir Ă oktĂłber ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri og verðlaunin eru veitt 10. desember. Verðlaunin hafa verið veitt sĂðan ĂĄrið 1901. + +Saga og fyrirkomulag +Alfred Nobel var einn rĂkasti maður SvĂĂŸjóðar ĂĄ sinni tĂð og auðgaðist stĂłrlega ĂĄ uppfinningu sinni dĂnamĂtinu. Hann ritaði nokkrar erfðaskrĂĄr en Ă ĂŸeirri sĂðustu, frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1895, ĂĄnafnaði hann nĂŠr öllum auði sĂnum til stofnunar verðlaunasjóðs Ă fimm flokkum. Nobel lĂ©st sĂðla ĂĄrs 1896. Við tĂłk nokkur Ăłvissa um lögmĂŠti erfðaskrĂĄrinnar en eftir að botn fĂ©kkst Ă ĂŸau mĂĄl var gengið frĂĄ stofnun verðlaunanna. ĂlĂkum aðilum var falið að sjĂĄ um einstaka verðlaunaflokka og komu bĂłkmenntaverðlaunin Ă hlut SĂŠnsku akademĂunnar. Voru fyrstu verðlaunin veitt ĂĄrið 1901. + +Ăr hvert kallar SĂŠnska akademĂan eftir tilnefningum og er fjöldinn allur af fĂłlki sem hefur heimild til að senda inn tilnefningar. Er ĂŸar um að rÊða meðlimi akademĂunnar sjĂĄlfrar, sem og sambĂŠrilegra stofnanna à öðrum löndum, prĂłfessorar Ă tungumĂĄlum og bĂłkmenntafrÊði, forsetar rithöfundasamtaka og fyrrum verðlaunahafar. Eina skilyrðið er að höfundum er Ăłheimilt er að tilnefna sjĂĄlfa sig. + +Tilnefningar skulu hafa borist akademĂunni fyrir 1. febrĂșar ĂĄr hvert og fara ĂŸĂŠr ĂŸvĂ nĂŠst til sĂ©rstakrar NĂłbelsnefndar til meðhöndlunar. Nefndin ĂŸrengir hringinn jafnt og ĂŸĂ©tt, fyrst niður Ă um tuttugu höfunda og ĂŸvĂ nĂŠst niður Ă fimm manna lista ĂŸegar komið er fram Ă maĂ. NĂŠstu fjĂłra mĂĄnuðina kynnir nefndin sĂ©r verk ĂŸessara fimm höfunda Ă ĂŸaula og gengur ĂŸvĂ nĂŠst til atkvÊða Ă oktĂłbermĂĄnuði. SĂĄ höfundur hlĂœtur verðlaunin sem fĂŠr meirihluta atkvÊða. Einungis ĂŸeir koma til greina sem nåð hafa Ă ĂŸað minnsta tvĂvegis inn ĂĄ fimm manna listann og eru ĂŸvĂ dĂŠmi um að höfundar hafi margoft verið teknir til athugunar. + +NĂłbelsnefndina skipa ĂĄtjĂĄn fulltrĂșar sem skulu bĂșa yfir mikilli tungumĂĄlakunnĂĄttu. Ăeir eru skipaðir ĂŠvilangt og til skamms tĂma var ekki gert råð fyrir að ĂŸeir gĂŠtu sagt af sĂ©r. Ărið 2018 breytti Karl GĂșstaf XVI reglunum ĂĄ ĂŸann hĂĄtt að unnt vĂŠri að leysa nefndarmenn undan skyldum sĂnum Ă kjölfar hneykslismĂĄls sem skĂłk nefndina og varð til ĂŸess að Ășthlutun verðlaunanna 2018 var frestað um ĂĄr. + +Verðlaunahafar + + 1901 - Sully Prudhomme + 1902 - Theodor Mommsen + 1903 - BjĂžrnstjerne BjĂžrnson + 1904 - FrĂ©dĂ©ric Mistral, JosĂ© Echegaray + 1905 - Henryk Sienkiewicz + 1906 - GiosuĂš Carducci + 1907 - Rudyard Kipling + 1908 - Rudolf Eucken + 1909 - Selma Lagerlöf + 1910 - Paul Heyse + 1911 - Maurice Maeterlinck + 1912 - Gerhart Hauptmann + 1913 - Rabindranath Tagore + 1915 - Romain Rolland + 1916 - Verner von Heidenstam + 1917 - Karl Adolph Gjellerup, Henrik Pontoppidan + 1918 - Enginn verðlaunahafi + 1919 - Carl Spitteler + 1920 - Knut Hamsun + 1921 - Anatole France + 1922 - Jacinto Benavente + 1923 - William Butler Yeats + 1924 - Wladyslaw Reymont + 1925 - George Bernard Shaw + 1926 - Grazia Deledda + 1927 - Henri Bergson + 1928 - Sigrid Undset + 1929 - Thomas Mann + 1930 - Sinclair Lewis + 1931 - Erik Axel Karlfeldt + 1932 - John Galsworthy + 1933 - Ivan Bunin + 1934 - Luigi Pirandello + 1936 - Eugene O'Neill + 1937 - Roger Martin du Gard + 1938 - Pearl S. Buck + 1939 - Frans Eemil SillanpÀÀ + 1944 - Johannes V. Jensen + 1945 - Gabriela Mistral + 1946 - Hermann Hesse + 1947 - AndrĂ© Gide + 1948 - T. S. Eliot + 1949 - William Faulkner + 1950 - Bertrand Russell + 1951 - PĂ€r Lagerkvist + 1952 - François Mauriac + 1953 - Winston Churchill + 1954 - Ernest Hemingway + 1955 - HalldĂłr Laxness + 1956 - Juan RamĂłn JimĂ©nez + 1957 - Albert Camus + 1958 - Boris Pasternak + 1959 - Salvatore Quasimodo + 1960 - Saint-John Perse + 1961 - Ivo AndriÄ + 1962 - John Steinbeck + 1963 - Giorgos Seferis + 1964 - Jean-Paul Sartre (afĂŸakkaði verðlaunin) + 1965 - MĂkhaĂl Sholokhov + 1966 - Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Nelly Sachs + 1967 - Miguel Angel Asturias + 1968 - Yasunari Kawabata + 1969 - Samuel Beckett + 1970 - Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn + 1971 - Pablo Neruda + 1972 - Heinrich Böll + 1973 - Patrick White + 1974 - Eyvind Johnson, Harry Martinson + 1975 - Eugenio Montale + 1976 - Saul Bellow + 1977 - Vicente Aleixandre + 1978 - Isaac Bashevis Singer + 1979 - Odysseas Elytis + 1980 - CzesĆaw MiĆosz + 1981 - Elias Canetti + 1982 - Gabriel GarcĂa MĂĄrquez + 1983 - William Golding + 1984 - Jaroslav Seifert + 1985 - Claude Simon + 1986 - Wole Soyinka + 1987 - Joseph Brodsky + 1988 - Naguib Mahfouz + 1989 - Camilo JosĂ© Cela + 1990 - Octavio Paz + 1991 - Nadine Gordimer + 1992 - Derek Walcott + 1993 - Toni Morrison + 1994 - Kenzaburo Oe + 1995 - Seamus Heaney + 1996 - Wislawa Szymborska + 1997 - Dario Fo + 1998 - JosĂ© Saramago + 1999 - GĂŒnter Grass + 2000 - Gao Xingjian + 2001 - V.S. Naipaul + 2002 - Imre KertĂ©sz + 2003 - J. M. Coetzee + 2004 - Elfriede Jelinek + 2005 - Harold Pinter + 2006 - Orhan Pamuk + 2007 - Doris Lessing + 2008 - J. M. G. Le ClĂ©zio + 2009 - Herta MĂŒller + 2010 - Mario Vargas Llosa + 2011 - Tomas Tranströmer + 2012 - Mo Yan + 2013 - Alice Munro + 2014 - Patrick Modiano + 2015 - Svetlana AleksĂevĂtsj + 2016 - Bob Dylan + 2017 - Kazuo Ishiguro + 2018 - Olga Tokarczuk (veitt 2019) + 2019 - Peter Handke + 2020 - Louise GlĂŒck + 2021 - Abdulrazak Gurnah + 2022 - Annie Ernaux + 2023 - Jon Fosse +Eftirfarandi konur hafa hlotið NĂłbelsverðlaunin Ă bĂłkmenntum: Selma Lagerlöf, Grazia Deledda, Sigrid Undset, Pearl S. Buck, Gabriela Mistral, Nelly Sachs, Toni Morrison, Nadine Gordimer, Wislawa Szymborska, Elfriede Jelinek, Doris Lessing, Herta MĂŒller, Alice Munro, Svetlana AleksĂevĂtsj, Olga Tokarczuk, Louise GlĂŒck og Annie Ernaux. Aðrir verðlaunahafar eru karlmenn. + +Tenglar + http://www.nobel.se/literature/laureates/index.html + +Heimildir + +TilvĂsanir + +BĂłkmenntaverðlaun +NĂłbelsverðlaun +Listar um bĂłkmenntir +BĂłkmenntir +HagfrÊðiverðlaun seðlabanka SvĂĂŸjóðar til minningar Alfreds Nobels eru verðlaun sem seðlabanki SvĂĂŸjóðar stofnaði til 1968 og voru fyrst veitt 1969 af konunglegu sĂŠnsku vĂsindaakademĂunni til að heiðra ĂŸĂĄ, sem ĂŸĂłtt hafa lagt mikið til og skarað fram Ășr ĂĄ sviði hagfrÊði. Ăau eru Ăłformlega nefnd nĂłbelsverðlaunin Ă hagfrÊði og eru veitt samtĂmis hinum eiginlegu nĂłbelsverðlaunum. + +Listi yfir verðlaunahafa + 1969 - Ragnar Anton Kittil Frisch, Jan Tinbergen + 1970 - Paul Samuelson + 1971 - Simon Kuznets + 1972 - John Hicks, Kenneth Arrow + 1973 - Wassily Leontief + 1974 - Gunnar Myrdal, Friedrich Hayek + 1975 - LeonĂd KantorovĂtsj, Tjalling Koopmans + 1976 - Milton Friedman + 1977 - Bertil Ohlin, James Meade + 1978 - Herbert Simon + 1979 - Theodore Schultz, Arthur Lewis + 1980 - Lawrence Klein + 1981 - James Tobin + 1982 - George Stigler + 1983 - Gerard Debreu + 1984 - Richard Stone + 1985 - Franco Modigliani + 1986 - James Buchanan yngri + 1987 - Robert Solow + 1988 - Maurice Allais + 1989 - Trygve Haavelmo + 1990 - Harry Markowitz, Merton Miller, William Sharpe + 1991 - Ronald Coase + 1992 - Gary Becker + 1993 - Robert Fogel, Douglass North + 1994 - Reinhard Selten, John Forbes Nash, John Harsanyi + 1995 - Robert Lucas Jr + 1996 - James Mirrlees, William Vickrey + 1997 - Robert Merton, Myron Scholes + 1998 - Amartya Sen + 1999 - Robert Mundell + 2000 - James Heckman, Daniel McFadden + 2001 - George A. Akerlof, Michael Spence, Joseph E. Stiglitz + 2002 - Daniel Kahneman, Vernon L. Smith + 2003 - Robert F. Engle, Clive W. J. Granger + 2004 - Finn E. Kydland, Edward C. Prescott + 2005 - Robert J. Aumann, Thomas Schelling + 2006 - Edmund Phelps + 2007 - Leonid Hurwicz, Eric Maskin og Roger Myerson + 2008 - Paul Krugman + 2009 - Elinor Ostrom, Oliver E. Williamson + 2010 - Peter A. Diamond, Dale T. Mortensen og Christopher A. Pissarides + 2011 - Thomas J. Sargent og Christopher A. Sims + 2012 - Alvin Roth og Lloyd Shapley + 2013 - Eugene Fama, Robert J. Shiller og Lars Peter Hansen + 2014 - Jean Tirole + 2015 - Oliver Hart + 2016 - Bengt Holmström + 2017 - Richard Thaler + 2018 - William Nordhaus og Paul Romer + 2019 - Abhijit Banerjee, Esther Duflo og Michael Kremer + 2020 - Paul Milgrom og Robert Wilson + 2021 - David Card, Joshua Angrist og Guido Imbens + 2022 - Ben Bernanke, Douglas Diamond og Philip Dybvig + 2023 - Claudia Goldin + +Tenglar + Verðlaunahafar + +NĂłbelsverðlaun +Listar um hagfrÊði +HagfrÊði +Booker-bĂłkmenntaverðlaunin eru ein virtustu bĂłkmenntarverðlaun heims og eru veitt ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri rithöfundi sem er ĂŸegn Breska samveldisins eða Ărlands. Booker fyrirtĂŠkið stofnaði til verðlaunanna ĂĄrið 1968. Til að tryggja að einungis fyrsta flokks bĂŠkur sĂ©u valdar eru dĂłmarar valdir Ășr einvalaliði gagnrĂœnenda, rithöfunda og hĂĄskĂłlamanna. SĂðan 2002 hafa verðlaunin gengið undir nafninu âMan Booker verðlauninâ, vegna stuðnings fjĂĄrfestingarfĂ©lagsins Man Group plc.. RĂșssnesk ĂștgĂĄfa verðlaunanna var sett ĂĄ fĂłt ĂĄrið 1992. + +Forval bĂłkanna getur verið tvenns konar. BĂłkaĂștgefendur geta sent inn handrit, eða dĂłmarar geta beðið um að ĂĄkveðin handrit eða bĂŠkur sĂ©u sendar inn. Ărið 2003 voru 110 bĂŠkur sendar inn af Ăștgefendum, en dĂłmarar båðu um að 10 bĂłkum vĂŠri bĂŠtt við ĂŸað. + +Verðlaunahafar +HĂ©r fyrir neðan er listi yfir verðlaunahafa og tilnefningar til Booker-verðlaunanna. Nöfn verðlaunahafa eru tilgreind fremst fyrir hvert ĂĄr og feitletruð. Ăslensk nöfn ĂŸeirra bĂłka sem komið hafa Ășt ĂĄ Ăslensku eru tilgreind aftan við upprunaleg nöfn. + 1969: Percy Howard Newby, Something to Answer For + Barry England, Figures in a Landscape + Nicholas Mosley, Impossible Object + Iris Murdoch, The Nice and the Good + Muriel Spark, The Public Image + G. M. Williams, From Scenes like These + + 1970: Bernice Rubens, The Elected Member + A. L. Barker, John Brown's Body + Elizabeth Bowen, Eva Trout + Iris Murdoch, Bruno's Dream + William Trevor, Mrs Eckdorf in O'Neill's Hotel + T. W. Wheeler, The Conjunction + + 1971: Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul, In a Free State + Thomas Kilroy, The Big Chapel + Doris Lessing, Briefing for a Descent into Hell + Mordecai Richler, St Urbain's Horseman + Derek Robinson, Goshawk Squadron + Elizabeth Taylor, Mrs Palfrey at the Claremont + + 1972: John Berger, G + Susan Hill, Bird of Night + Thomas Keneally, The Chant of Jimmy Blacksmith + David Storey, Pasmore + + 1973: James Gordon Farrell, The Siege of Krishnapur + Beryl Bainbridge, The Dressmaker + Elizabeth Mavor, The Green Equinox + Iris Murdoch, The Black Prince (Svarti prinsinn) + + 1974: Nadine Gordimer, The Conservationist, og Stanley Middleton, Holiday + Kingsley Amis, Ending Up + Beryl Bainbridge, The Bottle Factory Outing + C. P. Snow, In Their Wisdom + + 1975: Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, Heat and Dust + Thomas Keneally, Gossip from the Forest + + 1976: David Storey, Saville + AndrĂ© Brink, An Instant in the Wind + R. C. Hutchinson, Rising + Brian Moore, The Doctor's Wife + Julian Rathbone, King Fisher Lives + William Trevor, The Children of Dynmouth + + 1977: Paul Scott, Staying On + Paul Bailey, Peter Smart's Confessions + Caroline Blackwood, Great Granny Webster + Jennifer Johnston, Shadows on our Skin + Penelope Lively, The Road to Lichfield + Barbara Pym, Quartet in Autumn + + 1978: Iris Murdoch, The Sea, the Sea (Hafið, hafið) + Kingsley Amis, Jake's Thing + AndrĂ© Brink, Rumours of Rain + Penelope Fitzgerald, The Bookshop + Jane Gardam, God on the Rocks + Bernice Rubens, A Five-Year Sentence + + 1979: Penelope Fitzgerald, Offshore + Thomas Kneally, Confederates + Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul, A Bend in the River + Julian Rathbone, Joseph + Fay Weldon, Praxis + + 1980: William Golding, Rites of Passage + Anthony Burgess, Earthly Powers + Anita Desai, Clear Light of Day + Alice Munro, The Beggar Maid + Julian O'Faolain, No Country for Young + Barry Unsworth, Pascali's Island + J. L. Carr, A Month in the Country + + 1981: Salman Rushdie, Midnight's Children (MiðnĂŠturbörn) + Molly Keane, Good Behaviour + Doris Lessing, The Sirian Experiments + Ian McEwan, The Comfort of Strangers + Ann Schlee, Rhine Journey + Muriel Spark, Loitering with Intent + D. M. Thomas, The White Hotel + + 1982: Thomas Keneally, Schindler's Ark (Listi Schindlers) + John Arden, Silence Among the Weapons + William Boyd, An Ice-Cream War + Lawrence Durrell, Constance or Solitary + Alice Thomas Ellis, The 27th Kingdom + Timothy Mo, Sour Sweet + + 1983: J. M. Coetzee, Life and Times of Michael K + Malcolm Bradbury, Rates of Exchange + John Fuller, Flying to Nowhere + Anita Mason, The Illusionist + Salman Rushdie, Shame + Graham Swift, Waterland + + 1984: Anita Brookner, Hotel du Lac + J. G. Ballard, Empire of the Sun + Julian Barnes, Flaubert's Parrot + Anita Desai, In Custody + Penelope Lively, According to Mark + David Lodge, Small World + + 1985: Keri Hulme, The Bone People + Peter Carey, Illywhacker + J. L. Carr, The Battle of Pollocks Crossing + Doris Lessing, The Good Terrorist + Jan Morris, Last Letters from Hav + Iris Murdoch, The Good Apprentice + + 1986: Kingsley Amis, The Old Devils + Margaret Atwood, The Handmaid's Tale (Saga ĂŸernunnar) + Paul Bailey, Gabriel's Lament + Robertson Davies, What's Bred in the Bone + Kazuo Ishiguro, An Artist of the Floating World + Timothy Mo, An Insular Possession + + 1987: Penelope Lively, Moon Tiger + Chinua Achebe, Anthills of the Savannah + Peter Ackroyd, Chatterton + Nina Bawden, Circles of Deceit + Brian Moore, The Colour of Blood + Iris Murdoch, The Book and the Brotherhood + + 1988: Peter Carey, Oscar and Lucinda + Bruce Chatwin, Utz + Penelope Fitzgerald, The Beginning of Spring + David Lodge, Nice Work + Salman Rushdie, The Satanic Verses (Söngvar satans) + Marina Warner, The Lost Father + + 1989: Kazuo Ishiguro, The Remains of the Day (Dreggjar dagsins) + Margaret Atwood, Cat's Eye John Banville, The Book of Evidence Sybille Bedford, Jigsaw James Kelman, A Disaffection Rose Tremain, Restoration 1990: Antonia Susan Byatt, Possession + Beryl Bainbridge, An Awfully Big Adventure + John McGahern, Amongst Women + Brian Moore, Lies of Silence + Mordecai Richler, Solomon Gursky Was Here + + 1991: Ben Okri, The Famished Road + Martin Amis, Time's Arrow + Roddy Doyle, The Van + Rohinton Mistry, Such a Long Journey + Timothy Mo, The Redundancy of Courage + William Trevor, Reading Turgenev (from Two Lives) + + 1992: Michael Ondaatje, The English Patient (Enski sjĂșklingurinn), og Barry Unsworth, Sacred Hunger + Christoper Hope, Serenity House + Patrick McCabe, The Butcher Boy + Ian McEwan, Black Dogs + MichĂšle Roberts, Daughters of the House + + 1993: Roddy Doyle, Paddy Clarke Ha Ha Ha (Paddy Clarke, ha, ha, ha) + Tibor Fisher, Under the Frog + Michael Ignatieff, Scar Tissue + David Malouf, Remembering Babylon + Caryl Phillips, Crossing the River + Carol Shields, The Stone Diaries + + 1994: James Kelman, How late it was, how late + Romesh Gunesekera, Reef + Abdulrazak Gurnah, Paradise + Alan Hollinghurst, The Folding Star + George Mackay Brown, Beside the Ocean of Time + Jill Paton Walsh, Knowledge of Angels + + 1995: Pat Barker, The Ghost Road + Justin Cartwright, In Every Face I Meet + Salman Rushdie, The Moor's Last Sigh (SĂðasta andvarp MĂĄrans) + Barry Unsworth, Morality Play + Tim Winton, The Riders + + 1996: Graham Swift, Last Orders (HestaskĂĄlin) + Margaret Atwood, Alias Grace + Beryl Bainbridge, Every Man for Himself + Seamus Deane, Reading in the Dark + Shena Mackay, The Orchard on Fire + Rohinton Mistry, A Fine Balance + + 1997: Arundhati Roy, The God of Small Things (Guð hins smĂĄa) Jim Crace, Quarantine + Mick Jackson, The Underground Man + Bernard MacLaverty, Grace Notes + Tim Parks, Europa + Madeline St John, The Essence of the Thing + + 1998: Ian McEwan, Amsterdam (Amsterdam) + Beryl Bainbridge, Master Georgie + Julian Barnes, England England + Martin Booth, The Industry of Souls + Patrick McCabe, Breakfast on Pluto + Magnus Mills, The Restraint of Beasts (Taumhald ĂĄ skepnum) + + 1999: J. M. Coetzee, Disgrace (VansĂŠmd) + Anita Desai, Fasting, Feasting + Michael Frayn, Headlong + Andrew O'Hagan, Our Fathers + Ahdaf Soueif, The Map of Love + Colm TĂłibĂn, The Blackwater Lightship + + 2000: Margaret Atwood, The Blind Assassin + Trezza Azzopardi, The Hiding Place + Michael Collins, The Keepers of Truth + Kazuo Ishiguro, When we were Orphans (Veröld okkar vandalausra) + Matthew Kneale, English Passengers + Brian O'Doherty, The Deposition of Father McGeevy + + 2001: Peter Carey, True History of the Kelly Gang Ian McEwan, Atonement (FriĂ°ĂŸĂŠging) + Andrew Miller, Oxygen + David Mitchell, [number9dream + Rachel Seiffert, The Dark Room + Ali Smith, Hotel World + + 2002: Yann Martel, Life of Pi (Sagan af PĂ) + Rohinton Mistry, Family Matters + Carol Shields, Unless + William Trevor, The Story of Lucy Gault + Sarah Waters, Fingersmith + Tim Winton, Dirt Music + + 2003: D.B.C. Pierre, Vernon God Little Monica Ali, Brick Lane + Margaret Atwood, Oryx and Crake + Damon Galgut, The Good Doctor + ZoĂ« Heller, Notes on a Scandal + Clare Morrall, Astonishing Splashes of Colour + + 2004: Alan Hollinghurst, The Line of Beauty Achmat Dangor, Bitter Fruit + Sarah Hall, The Electric Michelangelo + David Mitchell, Cloud Atlas + Colm TĂłibĂn, The Master + Gerard Woodward, I'll Go to Bed at Noon + + 2005: John Banville, The Sea Julian Barnes, Arthur & George + Sebastian Barry, A Long Long Way + Kazuo Ishiguro, Never Let Me Go (Slepptu mĂ©r aldrei) + Ali Smith, The Accidental + Zadie Smith, On Beauty + + 2006: Kiran Desai, The Inheritance of Loss Kate Grenville, The Secret River + M. J. Hyland, Carry Me Down + Hisham Matar, In the Country of Men + Edward St Aubyn, Mother's Milk (novel)|Mother's Milk + Sarah Waters, The Night Watch + + 2007: Anne Enright, The Gathering Nicola Barker, Darkmans + Mohsin Hamid, The Reluctant Fundamentalist + Lloyd Jones, Mister Pip + Ian McEwan, On Chesil Beach + Indra Sinha,, Animal's People + 2008: Aravind Adiga, The White Tiger Sebastian Barry, The Secret Scripture + Amitav Ghosh, Sea of Poppies + Linda Grant, The Clothes on Their Backs + Philip Hensher, The Northern Clemency + Steve Toltz, The Little Stranger + 2009: Hilary Mantel, Wolf Hall A. S. Byatt, The Children's Book + J. M. Coetzee, Summertime + Adam Foulds, The Quickening Maze + Simon Mawer, The Glass Room + Sarah Waters, The Little Stranger + 2010: Howard Jacobson, The Finkler Question Peter Carey, Parrot and Olivier in America + Emma Donoghue, Room + Damon Galgut, In a Strange Room + Andrea Levy, The Long Song + Tom McCarthy, C + 2011: Julian Barnes, The Sense of an Ending Carol Birch, Jamrach's Menagerie + Patrick deWitt, The Sisters Brothers + Esi Edugyan, Half-Blood Blues + Stephen Kelman, Pigeon English + A D Miller, Snowdrops + 2012: Hilary Mantel, Bring Up the Bodies Tan Twan Eng, The Garden of Evening Mists + Deborah Levy, Swimming Home + Alison Moore, The Lighthouse + Will Self, Umbrella + Jeet Thayil, Narcopolis + 2013: Eleanor Catton, The Luminaries NoViolet Bulawayo, We Need New Names + Jim Crace, Harvest + Jhumpa Lahiri, The Lowland + Ruth Ozeki, A Tale for the Time Being + Colm TĂłibĂn, The Testament of Mary + 2014: Richard Flanagan, The Narrow Road to the Deep North Joshua Ferris, To Rise Again at a Decent Hour + Karen Joy Fowler, We Are All Completely Beside Ourselves + Howard Jacobson, J + Neel Mukherjee, The Lives of Others + Ali Smith, How to Be Both + 2015: Marion James, A Brief History of Seven Killings Hanya Yanagihara, A Little Life + Anne Tyler, A Spool of Blue Thread + Tom McCarthy, Satin Island + Chigozie Obioma, The Fishermen + Sunjeev Sahota, The Year of the Runaways + 2016: Paul Beatty, The Sellout Deborah Levy, Hot Milk + Graeme Macrae Burnet, His Bloody Project + Ottessa Moshfegh, Eileen + David Szalay, All That Man Is + Madeleine Thien, Do Not Say We Have Nothing + 2017: George Saunders, Lincoln in the Bardo Paul Auster, 4321 + Fiona Mozley, Elmet + Moshin Hamid, Exit West + Emily Fridlund, History of Wolves + Ali Smith, Autumn + 2018: Anna Burns, Milkman Daisy Johnson, Everything Under + Rachel Kushner, The Mars Room + Esi Edugyan, Washington Black + Richard Powers, The Overstory + Robin Robertson, The Long Take + 2019: Margaret Atwood, The Testaments og Bernardine Evaristo, Girl, Woman, Other Lucy Ellmann, Ducks, Newburyport + Chigozie Obioma, An Orchestra of Minorities + Salman Rushdie, Quichotte + Elif Shafak, 10 Minutes 38 Seconds in This Strange World + 2020: Douglas Stuart, Shuggie Bain Diane Cook, The New Wilderness + Tsitsi Dangarembga, This Mournable Body + Avni Doshi, Burnt Sugar + Maaza Mengiste, The Shadow King + Brandon Taylor, Real Life + 2021: Damon Galgut, The Promise' + Anuk Arudpragasam, A Passage North Patricia Lockwood, No One Is Talking About This Nadifa Mohamed, The Fortune Men Richard Powers, Bewilderment + Maggie Shipstead, Great Circle'' + +TilvĂsanir + +BĂłkmenntaverðlaun +Yann Martel (fĂŠddur 25. jĂșnĂ 1963) er kanadĂskur rithöfundur. Faðir Yanns Martels starfaði sem kennari og sĂðar sem diplĂłmati ĂĄ meðan Yann Ăłlst upp. Störf föður hans höfðu Ă för með sĂ©r að fjölskyldan var stöðugt að flytja heimshorna ĂĄ milli og ĂŸau bjuggu meðal annars Ă Alaska, Frakklandi, MexĂkĂł, Kosta RĂka og Ă kanadĂsku hĂ©ruðunum Ontario og Bresku KĂłlumbĂu. + +Ă fullorðinsĂĄrum sĂnum hĂ©lt hann Yann ĂĄfram að ferðast um heiminn, og dvaldi meðal annars Ă Ăran, Tyrklandi og Indlandi. Að loknu heimspekinĂĄmi við Trent hĂĄskĂłlann Ă Peterborough Ă Ontario, ĂĄkvað hann að leggja fyrir sig ritstörf. Dvöl hans Ă hinum Ăœmsu menningarheimum hefur haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ skrif hans, eins og glögglega mĂĄ sjĂĄ Ă Sögunni af PĂ sem aflaði honum hinna virtu Booker-bĂłkmenntaverðlauna ĂĄrið 2002. Ăegar hann undirbjĂł sig fyrir að skrifa Söguna um PĂ, varði Yann Martel sex mĂĄnuðum við að heimsĂŠkja moskur, musteri, kirkjur og dĂœragarða Ă Indlandi. Að ĂŸvĂ loknu varði hann heilu ĂĄri við lestur trĂșarlegra texta og sagna af skipbrotsmönnum. Eftir ĂŸessar rannsĂłknir tĂłk ĂŸað hann tvö ĂĄr Ă viðbĂłt að skrifa bĂłkina. + +Aðspurður segist Yann Martel nĂș bĂșa Ă MontrĂ©al Ă QuĂ©bec-hĂ©raði Ă Kanada, vegna ĂŸess að ĂŸar lenti flugvĂ©lin. Hann kann illa við að vera bundinn einhverju og ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ litlar eignir og ĂŸegar hann skorti fĂ© åður fyrr tĂłk hann hver ĂŸau störf sem veittu honum fĂŠri ĂĄ að ferðast og skrifa. + +BĂŠkur eftir höfundinn + Life of Pi - (2001) + Ă Ăslensku: Sagan af PĂ (Bjartur, 2003) - (ĂĂœĂ°. JĂłn Hallur StefĂĄnsson) + Self - (1996) + Facts Behind the Helsinki Roccamatios (smĂĄsagnasafn) - (1993) + +BĂłkmenntaverðlaun + Vann Booker-bĂłkmenntaverðlaunin ĂĄrið 2002. + Vann Hugh MacLennan-bĂłkmenntaverðlaunin ĂĄrið 2001. + Tilnefndur til Governor General-bĂłkmenntaverðlaunanna ĂĄrið 2001. + Tilnefndur til kanadĂsku Chapters/Books verðlaunanna fyrir fyrstu skĂĄldsögu höfundar. + Vann Journey-verðlaunin. + +Martel, Yann +MagnĂșs ĂĂłr JĂłnsson (fĂŠddur 7. aprĂl 1945 Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄ Ăslandi) er Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður, dĂŠgurlagahöfundur, rithöfundur og myndlistarmaður, hann er best ĂŸekktur undir listamannsnafninu Megas. + +Uppeldi og nĂĄm +Megas fĂŠddist 7. aprĂl 1945, sonur skĂĄldkonunnar ĂĂłrunnar Elfu MagnĂșsdĂłttur og JĂłns ĂĂłrðarsonar kennara og rithöfundar. MagnĂșs MagnĂșsson nafni hans og móðurafi var verkamaður Ă ReykjavĂk sem stundaði jafnframt sjĂłinn. MargrĂ©t amma Megasar var frĂĄ Horni Ă Skorradal en föðurforeldrarnir SnĂŠfellingar. Ăau hĂ©tu Sesselja JĂłnsdĂłttir og ĂĂłrður PĂĄlsson frĂĄ Borgarholti Ă Miklaholtshreppi ĂŸar sem ĂŸau stunduðu bĂșskap. + +Megas Ăłlst upp Ă NorðurmĂœrinni Ă ReykjavĂk og gekk Ă AusturbĂŠjarskĂłlann og svo Ă MenntaskĂłlann Ă ReykjavĂk, ĂŸaðan sem hann lauk stĂșdentsprĂłfi ĂĄrið 1965. ĂĂĄ vann hann um hrĂð sem gjaldkeri Ă Landsbankanum, en hĂ©lt svo til Noregs til að stunda nĂĄm Ă ĂŸjóðhĂĄttafrÊði við HĂĄskĂłlann Ă OslĂł. + +Megas byrjaði snemma að fĂĄst við lagasmĂðar og textagerð, lĂŠrði ĂĄ pĂanĂł og samdi meðal annars lagið um Gamla sorrĂ GrĂĄna fyrir fermingu. Ă gagnfrÊðaskĂłlaĂĄrunum samdi hann menĂșetta åður en hann hellti sĂ©r Ășt Ă ĂŸjóðlagapĂŠlingar, keypti sĂ©r nĂłtnabĂłk með amerĂskri alĂŸĂœĂ°utĂłnlist og lagði sig eftir skandinavĂskum ĂŸjóðlögum. FrĂĄ ĂŠskuĂĄrum Megasar er einnig til fjöldi teikninga af Ăœmsum toga sem hann hefur haldið til haga. Helstu ĂĄhrifavaldar Megasar ĂĄ ĂŠskuĂĄrum hans voru HalldĂłr Laxness og Elvis Presley. + +Ă menntaskĂłlaĂĄrunum tĂłk Megas ĂŸĂĄtt Ă að mĂĄla leiktjöld fyrir hundrað ĂĄra afmĂŠlissĂœningu Ătilegumannanna eftir MatthĂas Jochumsson, gerði myndskreytingar Ă skĂłlablaðið og fĂ©kk nokkur ljóða sinna birt Ă blaðinu og smĂĄsögur. Hann hlustaði ĂĄ klassĂk, einkum ĂŸungmelta tĂłlf tĂłna tĂłnlist og Bob Dylan, en margorðir textar Dylans heilluðu Megas og höfðu veruleg ĂĄhrif ĂĄ hann. Að loknu stĂșdentsprĂłfi innritaðist Megas Ă HĂĄskĂłlann. Ăar rakst hann ĂĄ nafnið Megas Ă grĂskri orðabĂłk og ĂŠtlaði að nota ĂŸað sem skĂĄldanafn ĂŸegar hann reyndi að fĂĄ birta eftir sig smĂĄsögu Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins. SmĂĄsagan komst inn eftir nokkrar hremmingar en hann varð að birta hana undir eigin nafni. Engu að sĂður notaði hann listamannsnafnið Megas eftir ĂŸetta. + +Um jĂłlin 1968 gaf hann Ășt bĂłkina Megas, sem innihĂ©lt lögin Dauði Snorra Sturlusonar, JĂłn Sigurðsson & sjĂĄlfstÊðisbarĂĄtta Ăslendinga, Með gati, ĂfelĂa, Ragnheiður biskupsdĂłttir, Silfur Egils, Um Ăłheppilega fundvĂsi IngĂłlfs Arnarsonar, Um skĂĄldið JĂłnas, Um grimman dauða JĂłns Arasonar og Vertu mĂ©r samferða innĂ blĂłmalandið, amma. Stuttu sĂðar kom Ășt annað heftið og ĂŸað ĂŸriðja ĂĄrið 1973, sem hĂ©t Megas kominn, en frĂĄleitt farinn. + +Ăður en fyrsta hljĂłmplata hans kom Ășt Ă Noregi ĂĄrið 1972 komu Ășt eftir hann ĂŸrjĂș hefti með textum, nĂłtum og teikningum. Ăau hĂ©tu einfaldlega Megas I (1968), Megas II (1969) og Megas III (1970). Ărið 1973 gaf hann heftin ĂŸrjĂș Ășt aftur, endurskoðuð, og bĂŠtti fjĂłrða heftinu við, Megas IV. Margt af ĂŸvĂ efni sem birtist Ă heftunum ĂĄtti sĂðar eftir að rata inn ĂĄ plöturnar hans. + +Ătgefin verk + +HljĂłmplötur +1972 - Megas +1975 - Millilending +1975 - SmĂĄskĂfa: Spåðu Ă mig / Komdu og skoðaðu Ă kistuna mĂna +1976 - Fram og aftur blindgötuna +1977 - Ă bleikum nĂĄttkjĂłlum +1978 - NĂș er Ă©g klĂŠddur og kominn ĂĄ rĂłl +1978 - Drög að sjĂĄlfsmorði +1986 - Ă góðri trĂș +1987 - Loftmynd (hljĂłmplata) +1988 - Höfuðlausnir +1988 - BlĂĄir draumar +1990 - HĂŠttuleg HljĂłmsveit og GlĂŠpakvendið Stella +1992 - ĂrĂr blóðdropar +1993 - ParadĂsarfuglinn - Safnplata +1994 - Drög að upprisu - TĂłnleikar Ă MH +1996 - Til hamingju með fallið +1997 - FlĂĄa veröld +2000 - Svanasöngur ĂĄ leiði +2001 - Far ĂŸinn veg +2001 - Haugbrot +2002 - (Kristilega kĂŠrleiksblĂłmin spretta Ă kringum) Hitt og ĂŸetta +2002 - Megas 1972-2002 - Safnplata +2005 - HĂșs datt (með SĂșkkat) +2006 - PassĂusĂĄlmar Ă SkĂĄlholti upptaka frĂĄ 2001 +2006 - Greinilegur pĂșls með Björk o.fl. +2006 - Drög að upprisu - TĂłnleikar Ă MH - aukin ĂștgĂĄfa +2006 - HĂŠttuleg HljĂłmsveit og GlĂŠpakvendið Stella- með demĂł-upptökum +2006 - PĂŠldu Ă ĂŸvĂ sem pĂŠlandi er Ă - Safnplata +2007 - FrĂĄgangur ĂĄsamt SenuĂŸjĂłfunum +2007 - Hold er mold ĂĄsamt SenuĂŸjĂłfunum +2008 - Ă Morgun ĂĄsamt SenuĂŸjĂłfunum +2009 - Segðu Ekki FrĂĄ (Með LĂfsmarki) tvöföld tĂłnleikaplata ĂĄsamt SenuĂŸjĂłfum +2011 - (Hugboð um) VandrÊði ĂĄsamt SenuĂŸjĂłfunum +2011 - Aðför að lögum ĂĄsamt Strengjum +2012 - Megas raular lögin sĂn +2017 - ĂsĂłmaljóð (Megas syngur ĂsĂłmaljóð Ăorvaldar Ăorsteinssonar) +2020 - Syngdu eitthvað gamalt! (Safnplata) + +BĂŠkur +1968 - Megas I, ljóðabĂłk, endurĂștg. 1973 +1968 - Megas II, ljóðabĂłk, endurĂștg. 1973 +1973 - Megas III, ljóðabĂłk +1990 - SĂłl Ă NorðurmĂœri: pĂslarsaga Ășr AusturbĂŠ ĂĄsamt ĂĂłrunni ValdimarsdĂłttur +1991 - Textar +1994 - Björn og Sveinn eða makleg mĂĄlagjöld +2001 - Megas. Greinasafn eftir Ăœmsa höfunda, myndir, nĂłtur, viðtöl. MĂĄl og menning 2001 + +Megas + +Megas I-III PjĂĄturĂștgĂĄfa (desember 2009) Ă 20 eintökum nĂșmeruð og ĂĄrituð + +Megas I-III endurĂștgefin (2009/10) Ă allt að 100 eintökum + +Von er ĂĄ nĂœrri textabĂłk JPV gefur Ășt 2010 eða 2011 + +Heimildir + + ĂĂłrunn ValdimarsdĂłttir. 1993. SĂłl Ă NorðurmĂœri: pĂslarsaga Ășr AusturbĂŠ. MĂĄl og menning, ReykjavĂk. + + JĂłnatan Garðarsson. 2002. Megas 1972-2002. ĂviĂĄgrip Ă bĂŠklingi plötunnar (Kristilega kĂŠrleiksblĂłmin spretta Ă kringum) Hitt og ĂŸetta. Ăslenskir tĂłnar, ReykjavĂk. +GdaĆsk (ĂĂœska: Danzig, LatĂna: Gedanum) er 6. stĂŠrsta borg PĂłllands og höfuðborg Pommern sĂœslu. + + FlatarmĂĄl: 262 kmÂČ + Mannfjöldi: 460 524 + +FĂłlk + ĆwiÄtopeĆk (1191-1266) + Jan Dantyszek (1485-1548) + Abraham van den Blocke (1572-1628) + Izaak van den Blocke (1572-1626) + Jeremiasz Falck (1610-1667) + Jerzy Strakowski (1614-1675) + Jan Heweliusz (1611-1687) + Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) + Daniel Gralath (1708-1767) + Daniel Chodowiecki (1726-1801) + Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski, (1734-1823) + Jan Uphagen (1731-1802) + Krzysztof Celestyn Mrongovius (1764-1855) + Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) + Lech BÄ dkowski (1920-1984) + GĂŒnter Grass (1927-2015) + Lech WaĆÄsa (1943) + Krzysztof Kolberger (1950) + Jan de Weryha-WysoczaĆski (1950) + Jerzy Owsiak (1953) + Donald Tusk (1957) + PaweĆ Huelle (1957) + Zbigniew WÄ siel (1966) + Dariusz Michalczewski (1968) + +Tenglar + www.gdansk.pl + +Borgir Ă PĂłllandi +Hansasambandið +StĂŠrðfrÊði er rökvĂsindi sem beitir ströngum, rökfrÊðilegum aðferðum til að fĂĄst við tölur, rĂșm, ferla, varpanir, mengi, mynstur, breytingar o.ĂŸ.h. Einnig er stĂŠrðfrÊði sĂș ĂŸekking sem leidd er Ășt með rökrĂ©ttum hĂŠtti frĂĄ ĂĄkveðnum fyrirframgefnum forsendum sem kallaðar eru frumsendur. Ăeir sem starfa við rannsĂłknir og hagnĂœtingu ĂĄ stĂŠrðfrÊði eru kallaðir stĂŠrðfrÊðingar. + +ĂrĂĄtt fyrir að stĂŠrðfrÊðin sĂ© ekki nĂĄttĂșruvĂsindagrein ĂŸar eð stĂŠrðfrÊðingar gera ekki athuganir eða tilraunir ĂĄ nĂĄttĂșrunni er hĂșn ein helsta undirstöðugrein allra raunvĂsinda, verkfrÊði og hagfrÊði. Hvergi hefur ĂŸĂł orðið jafn sterk samsvörun milli stĂŠrðfrÊðinnar og hins raunverulega heims og Ă eðlisfrÊði. Uppgötvanir stĂŠrðfrÊðinga ĂĄ nĂœjum stĂŠrðfrÊðilegum fyrirbĂŠrum virðast oft hafa litla tengingu við raunveruleikann ĂŸegar ĂŸĂŠr eiga sĂ©r stað, en leiða jafnoft til framfara Ă tilteknum vĂsindagreinum. + +Saga stĂŠrðfrÊðinnar + +StĂŠrðfrÊði hefur fylgt manninum frĂĄ örĂłfi alda, en elstu skråðu heimildir sĂœna stĂŠrðfrÊði Ă mikilli notkun Ă SĂșmeru og sĂðar BabĂœlĂłnĂu, ĂŸar sem vitað er að menn ĂŸekktu pĂ, hornasummu ĂŸrĂhyrnings og veldisreikning, svo að fĂĄtt eitt sĂ© nefnt. BabĂœlĂłnĂumenn hĂ©ldu skrĂĄr yfir landareignir og bĂșfĂ©nað, stunduðu verslun, og skiluðu jafnvel mjög frumstÊðum skattaskĂœrslum. Ăessi iðja krafðist skilnings ĂĄ tölum og einföldum reikniaðgerðum sem giltu um tölurnar, svo sem samlagningu, frĂĄdrĂĄtt, margföldun og deilingu. + +ĂĂł eru til enn ĂŸĂĄ eldri heimildir um stĂŠrðfrÊði, frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ löngu åður en ritlistin kom til. FornleifafrÊðingar hafa fundið mannvistarleifar Ă suðurhluta AfrĂku sem benda til ĂŸess að reikningar og tĂmamĂŠlingar (byggðar ĂĄ staðsetningu stjarna) hafi verið stundaðar um 70.000 f.Kr. Ishangobeinið, sem fannst við upptök NĂlar (Ă Norðaustur-KongĂł), varðveitir elstu ĂŸekktu heimildina um runu frumtalna, ĂĄsamt nokkrum jafnhlutfallarunum, en beinið er frĂĄ um 20.000 f.Kr. Fornegyptar gerðu teikningar af einföldum rĂșmfrÊðilegum fyrirbĂŠrum um 5.000 f.Kr. + +Indversk stĂŠrðfrÊði +Yngri heimildir eru til frĂĄ Indlandi. Eftir hrun siðmenningarinnar Ă Indusdalnum um 1.500 f.Kr. komu fram Ăœmsir stĂŠrðfrÊðingar. MĂĄlfrÊðingurinn Panini lagði fram mĂĄlfrÊðireglur ĂĄ 5. öld f.Kr. fyrir sanskrĂt með hĂŠtti sem lĂkist nĂștĂmalegu stĂŠrðfrÊðitĂĄknmĂĄli. Var fĂĄgun ĂŸess slĂk að bĂșa mĂĄ til Turing-vĂ©lar með ĂŸvĂ. Ă dag er Panini-Backus-mĂĄlskilgreiningarformið gjarnan notað til að skilgreina formleg mĂĄl Ă tölvum. + +Indverski stĂŠrðfrÊðingurinn Pingala, sem uppi var ĂĄ 4. eða 3. öld f.Kr. rannsakaði ĂŸað sem við ĂŸekkjum Ă dag sem Fibbonaccirununa, ĂĄsamt PascalsĂŸrĂhyrningnum og tvĂundarkerfi. Hann notaðist við einfaldan punkt til ĂŸess að tĂĄkna nĂșll, en ĂŸað er eitt af elstu dĂŠmum um sĂ©rstakt tĂĄkn fyrir nĂșll. + +Bakshalihandritið, sem var ritað einhvern tĂmann ĂĄ milli 200 f.Kr. og 200 e.Kr. sĂœnir meðal annars lausnir ĂĄ lĂnulegum jöfnuhneppum með allt að fimm ĂłĂŸekktum stĂŠrðum, lausn annars stigs jöfnu, geĂłmetrĂskar raðir og jafnvel neikvÊðar tölur, sem ĂŸĂłttu vafasamar Ă margar aldir ĂŸar ĂĄ eftir. Einnig virðast indverskir stĂŠrðfrÊðingar frĂĄ Jaina-tĂmabilinu hafa ĂŸekkt mismunandi stig Ăłendanleika, mengjafrÊði, logra, umraðanir og margt fleira. + +GrĂsk og hellenĂsk stĂŠrðfrÊði + +Saga grĂskrar stĂŠrðfrÊði hĂłfst um 500 f.Kr. ĂŸegar Ăales og PĂœĂŸagĂłras fluttu ĂŸekkingu BabĂœlĂłnĂumanna og Egypta til Grikklands. Ăales notaði rĂșmfrÊði til að reikna hÊðir pĂramĂda og fjarlĂŠgð skipa frĂĄ ströndu. Talið er að PĂœĂŸagĂłras hafi lagt fram pĂœĂŸagĂłrasarregluna, sem er kennd við hann, og að hann hafi notað algebraĂskar reglur til að reikna Ășt pĂœĂŸagĂłrĂskar ĂŸrenndir. + +KĂnversk stĂŠrðfrÊði +Ă KĂna ĂĄrið 212 f.Kr. skipaði keisarinn Qin Shi Huang (Shi Huang-ti) fyrir um að allar bĂŠkur skyldu brenndar. ĂĂł svo að ĂŸessari tilskipun hafi ekki verið fylgt til hlĂtar, hefur lĂtið varðveist um sögu kĂnverskrar stĂŠrðfrÊði. Ăað að KĂnverjar skrifuðu ĂĄ bambus gerði lĂtið til ĂŸess að bĂŠta Ășr ĂŸvĂ. + +Heimildir um talnaritun hafa fundist Ă skjaldbökuskeljum, en KĂnverjar notuðust við tugakerfi sem var ĂŸannig að tölur voru ritaðar ofan frĂĄ og niður, með tĂĄkni hverrar einingar, ĂĄsamt tugveldismargföldunartĂĄkni inn ĂĄ milli. Ăannig var talan 123 rituð með ĂŸvĂ að skrifa tĂĄknið fyrir 1, svo tĂĄknið fyrir hundrað, svo tĂĄknið fyrir 2, svo tĂĄknið fyrir tug, loks tĂĄknið fyrir 3. Ă sĂnum tĂma var ĂŸetta fullkomnasta talnaritunarkerfi heims, en ĂŸað gaf fĂŠri ĂĄ Ăștreikningum með reiknitĂŠkjum ĂĄ borð við suan pan og abakus. + +Elsta stĂŠrðfrÊðitengda ritið sem lifði af bĂłkabrennuna var I Ching frĂĄ 12. öld f.Kr., sem notast við 64 umraðanir strika sem voru Ăœmist heil eða brotin. ĂĂœski stĂŠrðfrÊðingurinn Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz hafði mikinn ĂĄhuga ĂĄ ĂŸessu riti, og telja sumir að hugmynd hans að tvĂundarkerfinu hafi komið ĂŸaðan. + +KĂnverjar uppgötvuðu Ăœmislegt sem EvrĂłpa fĂłr lengi vel ĂĄ mis við, ĂĄ borð við neikvÊðar tölur, tvĂliðuregluna, notkun fylkjareiknings til að leysa lĂnuleg jöfnuhneppi, og kĂnverslu leifaregluna. Einnig ĂŸekktu KĂnverjar PascalsĂŸrĂhyrninginn og ĂŸrĂliður löngu åður en ĂŸĂŠr ĂŸekktust Ă EvrĂłpu. + +Persnesk og arabĂsk stĂŠrðfrÊði + +Ăslamska heimsveldið sem nåði yfir Miðausturlönd, norðurhluta AfrĂku, ĂberĂuskagann og hluta Indlands (sem nĂș er Pakistan) ĂĄ 8. öld varðveitti og ĂŸĂœddi mikið af grĂskum stĂŠrðfrÊðiritum, sem ĂŸĂĄ höfðu gleymst vĂða Ă EvrĂłpu. Einnig voru ĂŸĂœdd indversk stĂŠrðfrÊðirit, sem höfðu mikil ĂĄhrif, og urðu grunnur að gerð arabĂskra talna, sem við notum Ă dag. + +Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi ritaði inngangsrit að ĂŸvĂ sem Ă dag ĂŸekkist sem algebra, og er ĂŸað nafn dregið af einu orði Ă nafni bĂłkarinnar. Einnig er erlent nafn reiknirita (algĂłriĂŸmi) dregið af nafni al-Khwarizmi sjĂĄlfs. Algebra ĂŸrĂłaðist talsvert Ă höndum Abu Bakr al-Karaji (953-1029), og Abul Wafa ĂŸĂœddi verk DĂĂłfantĂłsar, og fann sĂðar upp tangens. + +StĂŠrðfrÊði ĂĄ Ăslandi +Elstu heimildir um notkun talna og stĂŠrðfrÊði ĂĄ Ăslandi (reyndar öllum Norðurlöndum) er Ășr HauksbĂłk eftir Hauk Erlendsson. + +Greinar stĂŠrðfrÊðinnar + +StĂŠrðfrÊðin skiptist niður Ă nokkrar undirgreinar, mĂĄ ĂŸar einna helst nefna eftirfarandi: + + Algebra er sĂș grein sem fĂŠst við jöfnur og ĂłĂŸekktar stĂŠrðir Ă ĂŸeim. + RĂșmfrÊði fĂŠst við lögun og stĂŠrð hluta Ă rĂșmi. + StĂŠrðfrÊðigreining greinir stĂŠrðfrÊðileg föll með notkun örsmÊðareiknings. + TalnafrÊði fjallar um eiginleika talna. + HagnĂœt stĂŠrðfrÊði brĂșar bilið ĂĄ milli stĂŠrðfrÊði og annarra vĂsindagreina. + StrjĂĄl stĂŠrðfrÊði fjallar um Ăłsamfelldar stĂŠrðir Ă stĂŠrðfrÊðinni, t.d. mĂŠtti fĂŠra rök fyrir ĂŸvĂ að talnafrÊði vĂŠri undirgrein strjĂĄllar stĂŠrðfrÊði. + +Ăetta eru aðeins nokkrar greinar innan stĂŠrðfrÊðinnar, fyrir lengri lista sĂĄ aðalgreinina fyrir ĂŸennan lið. + +FrĂŠgir stĂŠrðfrÊðingar +''Höfuðgrein: FrĂŠgir stĂŠrðfrÊðingar + +PĂœĂŸagĂłras â Leibniz â Newton â Euler â Gauss â Mandelbrot â Shannon â Turing â Wiles â Fermat â Gödel + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + Orðasafn Ăslenska stĂŠrðfrÊðafĂ©lagsins + Hugtök Ă stĂŠrðfrÊði , kennslubĂłk Ă stĂŠrðfrÊði +KrakĂĄ (pĂłlska: KrakĂłw, ĂŸĂœska: Krakau, latĂna: Cracovia) er önnur stĂŠrsta borg PĂłllands og höfuðborg Litla-PĂłlland sĂœslu. HĂșn er Ă suðurhluta PĂłllands við ĂĄna Vislu. + +Saga +Fyrstu heimildir um byggð Ă KrakĂĄ er hĂŠgt að rekja aftur til 996. Ăað er ĂŸĂł talið að allstĂłr bĂŠr hafi verið ĂŸar nokkru lengur, og fyrst ĂĄ Wawel hÊðinni. Ărið 1000 var KrakĂĄ gerð að biskupssetri og ĂĄrið 1038 að höfuðborg PĂłllands. + +Ă 13. öld var borgin endurskipulögð samkvĂŠmt svokölluðu "skĂĄkborðsskipulagi", ĂŸannig að frĂĄ aðaltorginu lĂĄgu fjĂłrar götur Ă hverja ĂĄtt, sem voru svo tengdar með minni götum og umhverfis allt lĂĄgu borgarmĂșrarnir. Fyrir utan borgarmĂșrana lĂĄgu svo minni og sjĂĄlfstÊðir bĂŠir sem með tĂmanum urðu sameinaðir KrakĂĄ. Ărið 1364 var Ă KrakĂĄ stofnaður elsti hĂĄskĂłli Ă PĂłllandi, Uniwersytet JagielloĆski, sem ĂŸĂĄ kallaðist Akademia Krakowska. + +Ă 15. og 16. öld var PĂłlland eitt af stĂłrveldum EvrĂłpu og Ă KrakĂĄ ĂĄtti ĂŸvĂ sĂ©r stað ör ĂŸrĂłun. Borgin var miðstöð menninngar, lista og verslunar auk ĂŸess sem stĂłrir hlutar hennar, m.a. kastalinn ĂĄ Wawel hÊðinni voru endurbyggðir. Ă 16. öld voru ĂbĂșar KrakĂĄ um 30 ĂŸĂșsund. + +Með sameiningu PĂłllands og LithĂĄen varð KrakĂĄ Ă Ăștjaðri rĂkisins. VarsjĂĄ fĂłr að taka við sem staður funda og kosninga, og ĂĄrið 1609 varð höfuðborgin endanlega fĂŠrð ĂŸangað. Konungar voru ĂŸĂł enn krĂœndir Ă KrakĂĄ fram til 1734. + +Með skiptingu PĂłllands milli nĂĄgrannalanda 1795 komst KrakĂĄ undir stjĂłrn AusturrĂkis. Ă ĂĄrunum 1815-1846 varð hĂșn höfuðborg LĂœĂ°veldisins KrakĂĄ, sem formlega var sjĂĄlfstĂŠtt, en var Ă raun undir sameiginlegri stjĂłrn ĂŸeirra ĂŸriggja landa sem höfðu skipt PĂłllandi milli sĂn, AusturrĂkis, RĂșsslands og PrĂșsslands. Mikil endurnĂœjun ĂĄtti sĂ©r ĂŸĂĄ stað ĂĄ borginni, mestur hluti borgarmĂșranna var rifinn og Ă stað sĂkisins var reistur garður sem kallast Planty. Einnig ĂŸĂłtti råðhĂșsið taka of stĂłran hluta af aðaltorginu og ĂŸvĂ tekið Ă sundur og aðeins turninn skilinn eftir. + +Eftir byltingu ĂĄrið 1846 var KrakĂĄ aftur innlimuð Ă AusturrĂki og var hluti ĂŸess fram til 1918 ĂŸegar PĂłlland öðlaðist sjĂĄlfstÊði ĂĄ nĂœ. Ărið 1978 var miðborg KrakĂĄ skråð ĂĄ heimsminjaskrĂĄ UNESCO. + +Ăhugaverðir staðir + +KrakĂłw er mjög vel varðveitt borg og skartar byggingum frĂĄ Ăœmsum tĂmabilum. Aðaltorgið Ă borginni er ĂŸað stĂŠrsta Ă allri Mið- og Austur-EvrĂłpu. Ă torginu eru meðal annars: + + Kirkja heilags Albert (pl: KoĆcioĆ Ćw. Wojciecha) - ein elsta kirkjan Ă KrakĂĄ, talið að byrjað hafi verið að byggja hana ĂĄ 10. öld. + + MarĂukirja (pl: KoĆciĂłĆ Mariacki) - eitt frĂŠgasta tĂĄkn KrakĂĄ og einnig PĂłllands, kirkja frĂĄ 13. öld með tveimur mishĂĄum turnum. Ăr ĂŸeim efri er spilað ĂĄ klukkutĂma fresti sĂ©rstakt lag kallað "HejnaĆ" sem hefur orðið að tĂĄkni KrakĂĄ. + + RåðhĂșsturninn - ĂŸað eina sem er orðið af råðhĂșsinu sem var tekið Ă sundur 1820. + Sukiennice - markaðstorg frĂĄ 13. öld sem hĂœsir nĂș aðallega tĂșristamarkað. + Stytta af ĂŸjóðskĂĄldinu Adam Mickiewicz. + +Ăt frĂĄ aðaltorginu liggja götur Ă allar ĂĄttir, meðal annars helstu verslunargötur borgarinnar, Grodzka og FloriaĆska. Við enda FloriaĆska götunnar er eina borgarhliðið sem enn stendur og hluti af gömlu virki sem kallast Barbakan. + +Aðeins utan við gamla miðbĂŠinn liggur Wawel-hÊðin ĂŸar sem gamli konungskastalinn stendur. Einn hluti kastalans er dĂłmkirkja ĂŸar sem flestir konungar PĂłllands eru grafnir. Wawel hÊðinni tengist ĂŸjóðsaga um dreka sem ĂŠtlaði að Ă©ta alla ĂbĂșa KrakĂĄ en var drepinn af fĂĄtĂŠkum skĂłsmið sem fĂ©kk konungsdĂłtturina að launum. Ă Wawel hÊðinni er lĂtill hellir sem er sagður hafa bĂșið Ă, og fyrir utan stendur stytta af drekanum sem er vinsĂŠll myndatökustaður fyrir tĂșrista. + +Ă KrakĂĄ er einnig mjög vel varðveitt gyðingahverfi sem kallast Kazimierz. Ăar eru m.a. nokkur bĂŠnahĂșs gyðinga og grafreitur. + +Ă undanförnum ĂĄrum hefur KrakĂĄ orðið vinsĂŠll ferðmannastaður og ĂĄ hverju ĂĄri heimsĂŠkja borgina 3-4 milljĂłnir ferðamanna. FrĂĄ og með vori 2004 hafa Heimsferðir staðið fyrir beinu leiguflugi til KrakĂĄ nokkrum sinnum ĂĄ ĂĄri. + +Ăekktir KrakĂĄbĂșar + Stefan Banach + Jan Matejko + +Tenglar + KrakĂĄ; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1999 + www.e-krakow.pl + +Borgir Ă PĂłllandi +Hansasambandið +LandfrÊði eða landafrÊði er frÊðigrein sem fĂŠst við samspil nĂĄttĂșru og mannlĂfs ĂĄ jörðinni. SjĂłnarhorn landfrÊðingsins getur verið gervöll jörðin, tiltekin svÊði eða einstakir staðir. Fagið er mjög fjölbreytt og tekur bÊði til fĂ©lags- og nĂĄttĂșruvĂsinda. + +NĂĄttĂșrulandfrÊði fĂŠst við ytri ĂĄsĂœnd landsins, svo sem landmĂłtun, jarðveg, gróður og veðurfar. + +MannvistarlandfrÊði fĂŠst við lĂf fĂłlks ĂĄ jörðinni frĂĄ mörgum sjĂłnarhornum. HĂșn tekur til menningar, efnahagslĂfs og annarra samfĂ©lagslegra ĂŸĂĄtta. + +NĂĄttĂșru- og mannvistarlandfrÊði eiga sĂ©r snertiflöt Ă umhverfismĂĄlum, ĂŸar sem nĂœting nĂĄttĂșruauðlinda og ĂĄhrif mannlegra athafna ĂĄ nĂĄttĂșruna eru Ă brennidepli. Ă ĂŸessu ört vaxandi sviði hefur landfrÊðin Ăœmislegt til mĂĄlanna að leggja. + +Kortlagning og greining lands og landupplĂœsinga hefur alltaf skipað veglegan sess Ă greininni og eru tölvuvĂŠdd landupplĂœsingakerfi, byggð ĂĄ sĂ©rstökum aðferðum landfrÊðinga, orðin mikilvĂŠg ĂĄ mörgum sviðum ĂŸjóðfĂ©lagsins. + +Greinin ĂĄ sĂ©r afar langa sögu og hið alĂŸjóðlega frÊðiheiti hennar, geĂłgrafĂa, sem komið er Ășr grĂsku (γΔÏÎłÏαÏία). Ăað ĂŸĂœĂ°ir einfaldlega "skrif um jörðina". + +Tengt efni + LandmĂŠlingar + Landslag + StaðfrÊði +KeflavĂk er um 19.000 manna bĂŠr (2019) austan megin ĂĄ Miðnesi ĂĄ Reykjanesskaga og heyrir undir sveitarfĂ©lagið ReykjanesbĂŠ. KeflavĂk er helst ĂŸekkt fyrir herstöðina ĂĄ Miðnesheiði, eina alĂŸjóðaflugvöllinn ĂĄ Ăslandi, KeflavĂkurflugvöll og blĂłmlegt tĂłnlistarlĂf ĂĄ seinni hluta 20. aldar. + +BĂŠrinn dregur nafn sitt af samnefndri vĂk, sem liggur ĂĄ milli HĂłlmsbergs að norðan og Vatnsness að sunnan og gengur til vesturs inn Ășr Stakksfirði. VĂkin er opin ĂĄ mĂłti austri og ĂŸĂłtti aldrei gott skipalĂŠgi. HĂșn var samt grundvöllur ĂŸeirrar verslunar sem ĂŸar ĂŸrĂłaðist frĂĄ 17. öld og varð grundvöllur bĂŠjarins. + +Saga +SamkvĂŠmt LandnĂĄmu var Steinunn gamla, landnĂĄmskona, fyrsti eigandi lands ĂĄ Suðurnesjum, ĂŸar með talið KeflavĂk. KeflavĂkur er fyrst getið Ă rituðum heimildum um 1270. KeflavĂkurjörðin heyrði undir Rosmhvalaneshrepp frĂĄ fornu fari. Fram eftir 15. öld stunduðu Englendingar veiðar Ă kringum Suðurnes og hafa sjĂĄlfsagt komið ĂĄ land Ă KeflavĂk. Ărið 1579 gaf Danakonungur Ășt fyrsta verslunarleyfið til Hansakaupmanna að ĂŸeir mĂŠttu versla Ă KeflavĂk. FrĂĄ og með 1602 hefst einokunarverslun Dana. + +Elstu heimildir um byggð Ă KeflavĂk eru frĂĄ 1627. Fyrsti bĂłndinn sem nafngreindur er Ă KeflavĂk var GrĂmur Bergsson, fyrrverandi sĂœslumaður Ă KjĂłsarsĂœslu og lögrĂ©ttumaður ĂĄ Suðurnesjum sem samkvĂŠmt SetbergsannĂĄl dĂł við störf sĂn ĂĄrið 1649. Ăar settist HallgrĂmur PĂ©tursson að ĂĄrið 1637 ĂĄsamt konu sinni GuðrĂði SĂmonardĂłttur ĂŸar sem ĂŸau bjuggu til ĂĄrsins 1641 ĂŸegar ĂŸau fluttu ĂĄ Hvalnes. Miðað er við að byggð hafi fyrst farið að ĂŸĂ©ttast Ă kjölfar ĂŸess að Holger Jacobaeus var skipaður kaupmaður Ă KeflavĂk ĂĄrið 1766 ĂĄ vegum Almennna verslunarfĂ©lagsins sem fĂłr með einokun ĂĄ verslun ĂĄ Ăslandi. + +Með vexti kauptĂșnsins ĂĄ seinni hluta 19. aldar reyndist landrĂœmi of lĂtið fyrir byggðina. 1891 var löggilt stĂŠkkun ĂĄ verslunarlóðinni til suðurs, Ă landi NjarðvĂkurhrepps, sem stofnaður hafði verið tveimur ĂĄrum åður. KeflavĂk var ĂŸannig Ă tveimur hreppum samtĂmis og hĂ©lst svo til ĂĄrsins 1908. + +Hinn 15. jĂșnĂ 1908 var Rosmhvalaneshreppi skipt upp. Varð nyrðri hlutinn að Gerðahreppi en KeflavĂkurjörðin Ă suðri var sameinuð NjarðvĂkurhreppi undir heitinu KeflavĂkurhreppur. NjarðvĂkurhreppur klauf sig aftur frĂĄ hreppnum 1. janĂșar 1942. Ă kjölfar seinni heimstyrjaldarinnar fjölgaði hratt Ă KeflavĂk enda var mikið um uppgrip og vinnu að fĂĄ Ă kring um KeflavĂkurstöðina og KeflavĂkurflugvöll. + +KeflavĂk fĂ©kk kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi 22. mars 1949. Hinn 11. jĂșnĂ 1994 sameinaðist KeflavĂk NjarðvĂkurkaupstað og Hafnahreppi undir nafninu ReykjanesbĂŠr. + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + + KeflavĂk ĂĄ fyrri öldum, SkĂșli MagnĂșsson + Drög að sögu KeflavĂkur, SkĂșli MagnĂșsson (framhald Ă nokkrum tölublöðum) + TvĂŠr aldir Ă KeflavĂk, grein eftir Dr. FrĂðu Sigurðsson Ă TĂmanum 1972 + + Fyrstu ĂĄr KeflavĂkur, Faxi, 5. tölublað (01.05.1947), BlaðsĂða 1 + Ăhrif og umsvif Ă KeflavĂk : Ăr sögu Duus-veldisins , bls 5 Faxi, 2. tbl. 2007 + +KeflavĂk +ReykjanesbĂŠr +ĂĂ©ttbĂœlisstaðir Ăslands +Aðsetur sĂœslumanna ĂĄ Ăslandi +FornleifafrÊði er frÊðigrein, sem fjallar um manninn Ășt frĂĄ margvĂslegum hliðum, t.a.m. Ășt frĂĄ beinum (dĂœra- og manna), gripum (ĂŸ.m.t. byggingum), landslagi, ljosmyndum, kortum og öðrum skjölum. Helstu aðferðir fornleifafrÊðinga er fornleifaskrĂĄning og fornleifauppgröftur. FornleifafrÊðingar fĂĄst við rannsĂłknir ĂĄ ĂłlĂkum tĂmum, t.d. forsögulegum, miðöldum, og ĂĄ minjum nĂștĂmasamfĂ©laga. + +Saga fornleifafrÊði ĂĄ Ăslandi + +Fram til 1850 +Ă meginlandi EvrĂłpu fĂłr ĂĄhugi ĂĄ fornminjum vaxandi samhliða hugmyndum um rĂkisvald ĂĄ 16. og 17. öld. NĂœstofnuð rĂki ĂŸurftu að geta sĂœnt fram ĂĄ að rĂkisbĂșar sĂnir ĂŠttu sameiginlega fortĂð og upprunasögu; vegna ĂŸess beindist ĂĄhugi fĂłlks að slĂkum gripum og minjastöðum. ĂlĂka var að gerast ĂĄ Ăslandi ĂŸar sem fornfrÊðingar heimsĂłttu merkilega sögustaði sem nefndir voru Ă Ăslendingasögum. + +Fyrsta heildarskrĂĄning fornleifa ĂĄ Ăslandi var ĂĄ vegum dönsku fornleifanefndarinnar ĂĄ ĂĄrunum milli 1817 og 1823. Konungur Danmerkur sendi skipunarbrĂ©f ĂĄrið 1807 um að skrĂĄ fornleifar Ă Danmörku og ĂĄttu skrĂĄsetjarar að vera sĂłknarprestur sem mundu skrifa ritgerð um fornleifar Ă sinni sĂłkn. Prestar ĂĄttu að lĂta sĂ©rstatklega til staðbunda minja um fornsögur og elstu leifar stjĂłrnvalds, t.d. dĂłmhringi og ĂŸingstaði. + +Tengt efni + Fornleifar + NeðansjĂĄvarfornleifafrÊði + Greinar um fornleifauppgröft ĂĄ Ăslandi + +Frekara lesefni + Adolf Friðriksson. (1994). Sagas and Popular Antiquarianism in Icelandic Archaeology. Aldershot: Avebury. + Birna LĂĄrusdĂłttir (ritstj.). (2013). Mannvist: SĂœnisbĂłk Ăslenskra fornleifa. ReykjavĂk: Opna. + Steinunn KristjĂĄnsdĂłttir. (2010). Sagan af klaustrinu ĂĄ Skriðu. ReykjavĂk: Ăjóðminjasafn Ăslands. + Orri VĂ©steinsson, Gavin Lucas, Kristborg ĂĂłrsdĂłttir og Ragnheiður GlĂł GylfadĂłttir (ritstj.). (2011). Upp ĂĄ yfirborðið: NĂœjar rannsĂłknir Ă Ăslenskri fornleifafrÊði. ReykjavĂk: Fornleifastofnun Ăslands. + +HeimildaskrĂĄ + Thomas, J. (2004). Archaeology and Modernity. New York: Routledge. + +Tenglar +Murakami Haruki (æäžæ„æšč), einnig ĂŸekktur sem Haruki Murakami, (f. Ă KĂœĂłtĂł ĂŸann 12. janĂșar 1949) er vinsĂŠll japanskur rithöfundur og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi. + +Ăvi og störf +Hann bjĂł Ă Kobe flest öll ĂŠskuĂĄrin. Faðir hans var bĂșddaprestur og móðir hans var dĂłttir kaupmanns frĂĄ Osaka. Ăau kenndu bÊði japanskar bĂłkmenntir. + +Murakami hafði hins vegar meiri ĂĄhuga ĂĄ bandarĂskum bĂłkmenntum en japönskum, eins og glögglega mĂĄ sjĂĄ Ă skrifum hans, en vestrĂŠnn ritstĂllinn er frĂĄbrugðinn flestum öðrum japönskum bĂłkmenntum samtĂmans. + +Hann lagði stund ĂĄ leiklist Ă Waseda hĂĄskĂłla Ă TĂłkĂœĂł, og hitti ĂŸar Yoko, eiginkonu sĂna. Fyrsta starf hans var Ă hljĂłmplötuverslun, en að nĂĄmi loknu stofnaði hann djassbar Ă TĂłkĂœĂł, sem hann rak ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1974 til 1982. TĂłnlistarĂĄhuginn kemur lĂka fram Ă sögum hans, sĂ©rstaklega Ă Dansu dansu dansu (e. Dance, Dance, Dance) og Noruwei no mori (e. Norwegian Wood), sem nefnd er eftir samnefndu BĂtlalagi. + +Fyrsta skĂĄldsaga hans: Kaze no oto wo kike (e. Hear the Wind Sing) vann til verðlauna ĂĄrið 1979. Ări sĂðar gaf hann Ășt 1973 nen no pinbohru (e. Pinball, 1973). Ăessar skĂĄldsögur mynda RottuĂŸrĂleikinn, ĂĄsamt Hitsuji wo meguru Bohken (e. A Wild Sheep Chase). Ărið 1985 gaf hann Ășt vĂsindaskĂĄldsögu, Sekai no owari to hahdo bohrudo wandahrando (e. Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World). + +Hann slĂł loks Ă gegn Ă Japan með ĂștgĂĄfu Noruwei no mori ĂĄrið 1987. Ărið 1986 fĂłr Murakami frĂĄ Japan til vesturlanda. Hann ĂŸvĂŠldist um EvrĂłpu og BandarĂkin og settist að lokum að Ă bĂŠnum Cambridge Ă Massachusetts Ă BandarĂkjunum. Ă ĂŸessum ĂĄrum skrifaði hann Dansu dansu dansu og Sunnan við mĂŠri, vestur af sĂłl (Kokky no minami, taiyou no nishii). + +Ărin 1994 og 1995 sendi hann frĂĄ sĂ©r Nejimakidori kuronikuru (e. The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle) Ă ĂŸremur hlutum. BĂłkin fjallaði meðal annars um japanska strĂðsglĂŠpi Ă MansjĂșrĂu. Fyrir ĂŸĂĄ skĂĄldsögu fĂ©kk hann Yomuiri bĂłkmenntaverðlaunin. + +Með Nejimakidori kuronikuru varð vendipunktur ĂĄ ferli Murakamis. Rit hans urðu ĂŸyngri, en fram að ĂŸessu höfðu ĂŸau verið hĂĄfgert lĂ©ttmeti. Ăegar hann var að leggja lokahönd ĂĄ bĂłkina, reið KĂłbe-jarðskjĂĄlftinn yfir og gerð var taugagasĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ neðanjarðarlestakerfið Ă TĂłkĂœĂł. Ă kjölfar ĂŸessara atburða sneri hann aftur til Japans. Atburðirnir voru ĂŸungamiðjan Ă smĂĄsagnasafninu Kami no kodomotachi ha mina odoru (e. After the Quake) og Ă fyrsta ritgerðasafni hans, Andaguraundo/Yakusoku sareta basho de (e. Underground). + +Auk skĂĄldsagna sinna og smĂĄsagnasafnsins Kami no kodomotachi ha mina odoru, sem fyrr er getið, hefur Murakami skrifað fjölda smĂĄsagna. Hann hefur einnig ĂŸĂœtt verk eftir F. Scott Fitzgerald, Raymond Carver, Truman Capote, John Irving, Paul Theroux og fleiri ĂĄ japönsku. + +SkĂĄldsögur + Kaze no oto wo kike (e. Hear the Wind Sing) (1979) + 1973 nen no pinbohru (e. Pinball, 1973) (1980) + Hitsuji wo meguru Bohken (e. A Wild Sheep Chase) (1982) + Sekai no owari to hahdo bohrudo wandahrando (e. Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World) (1985) + Noruwei no mori (e. Norwegian Wood) (1987) + Ă Ăslensku: Norwegian Wood (Bjartur, 2006) - (ĂĂœĂ°. Uggi JĂłnsson) + Dansu dansu dansu (e. Dance, Dance, Dance) (1988) + Kokky no minami, taiyou no nishii (e. South of the Border, West of the Sun) (1992) + Ă Ăslensku: Sunnan við mĂŠrin, vestur af sĂłl (Bjartur, 2001) - (ĂĂœĂ°. Uggi JĂłnsson) + Nejimakidori kuronikuru (e. The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle) (1994/5) + Supuhtoniku no Koibito (e. Sputnik Sweetheart) (1999) + Ă Ăslensku: SpĂștnik-ĂĄstin (Bjartur, 2003) - (ĂĂœĂ°. Uggi JĂłnsson) + Umibe no Kafka (e. Kafka on the Shore) (2002) + +SmĂĄsögur + Kami no kodomotachi ha mina odoru (e. After the Quake) (2000) + +Einnig hefur komið Ășt ĂĄ ensku smĂĄsagnasafn sem hefur að geyma sögur eftir hann frĂĄ nĂunda ĂĄratugnum: + The Elephant Vanishes (1996) + +Ritgerðir + Andaguraundo/Yakusoku sareta basho de (e. Underground) (1997/8) + +Tenglar + Hanami Web - Murakami Haruki + Viðtal Ă Salon, December 1997 + +Japanskir rithöfundar +StĂșka getur ĂĄtt við um: + LĂffĂŠrið stĂșku Ă mannsheilanum. + ĂĂœsku herflugvĂ©lina Junkers Ju 87 sem var kölluð stĂșka (stytting ĂĄ Sturzkampfflugzeug). + Yfirbyggða ĂĄhorfendapalla ĂĄ leikvangi. + Lokað ĂĄhorfendaherbergi nĂĄlĂŠgt sviðinu Ă leikhĂșsi. + Einstakar greinar brÊðrafĂ©lags eins og Góðtemplarareglunnar, Oddfellowreglunnar og FrĂmĂșrarareglunnar. +Ăessi grein fjallar um hĂŠfileikann til að muna. Til eru aðrar merkingar ĂĄ orðinu minni (aðgreining). +Minni er hĂŠfileiki til að mĂłttaka eða afla, varðveita og endurheimta upplĂœsingar. + +Menn hafa lengi rannsakað minnið, en ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir miklar uppgötvanir og framfarir er Ăœmislegt enn ĂĄ huldu um hvernig minnið starfar. Stöðugar framfarir eru Ă sĂĄlfrÊði og lĂŠknavĂsindunum og geta ĂŸĂŠr framfarir auðveldlega umbylt ĂŸeim kenningum sem eru taldar fullgildar hverju sinni. + +Tilgangur minnis og kenningar +Minnið gegnir mjög mikilvĂŠgu hlutverki Ă lĂfi okkar. Svo mikilvĂŠgt er minnið, að spyrja mĂŠtti hvort manneskja ĂĄn minnis sĂ© yfir höfuð með meðvitund. Allt sem við kunnum er geymt Ă minninu; öll sĂș vitneskja sem við höfum um sjĂĄlf okkur er geymd ĂŸar, öll orð sem við kunnum, vitneskjan um ĂŠttingja okkar og svo framvegis. Við notum minnið að miklu leyti Ăłmeðvitað, ĂŸ.e., ĂĄn ĂŸess að reyna mikið ĂĄ okkur við að rifja upp. + +Til eru nokkrar kenningar um ĂŸað hvernig minnið virkar, en Ă ĂŸessari grein er aðalĂĄherslan lögð ĂĄ kenningu sem er kölluð GrunnlĂkanið um minni, en einnig er fjallað er um aðrar kenningar. Ekki er til ein heildarkenninng um virkni minnisins. ĂĂł eru menn almennt sammĂĄla um nokkur atriði minnis, en ĂŸau eru helst: + + Til eru ĂŸrjĂș minnisĂŸrep; umskrĂĄning, geymd og endurheimt + Minnst tvö og stundum ĂŸrjĂș minniskerfi; skynminni, skammtĂmaminni og langtĂmaminni. + Margar minnistegundir, svo sem; sjĂłnmunaminni, aðferðaminni, merkingarminni. + +MinnisĂŸrepin ĂŸrjĂș +Ăegar við lĂŠrum eitthvað erum við að gera tvo hluti; umskrĂĄ boð sem berast okkur sjĂłnrĂŠnt, hljóðrĂŠnt eða með öðrum hĂŠtti Ă eitthvað sem mannsheilinn skilur og geyma ĂŸað Ă minni. Svo ĂŸegar við ĂŸurfum ĂĄ upplĂœsingunum að halda rifjum við ĂŸĂŠr upp. Ăessu ferli er hĂŠgt að skipta Ă ĂŸrennt; umskrĂĄning, geymd og endurheimt. + +Ă fyrsta ĂŸrepinu breytum við upplĂœsingum sem birtast okkur sjĂłnrĂŠnt, hljóðrĂŠnt eða með öðrum hĂŠtti Ă taugaboð. Ăetta kallast umskrĂĄning. Annað ĂŸrepið kallast geymd, og felst Ă ĂŸvĂ að upplĂœsingarnar eru geymdar Ă minninu (meira mĂĄ lesa um ĂŸetta ĂŸrep Ă greininni um geymd). Svo ĂŸegar við ĂŸurfum ĂĄ upplĂœsingunum að halda nĂĄum við Ă upplĂœsingarnar Ășr minninu. Ăað er kallað endurheimt. Minnið getur brugðist okkur ĂĄ öllum ĂŸessum ĂŸrepum, en ĂŸað veldur ĂŸvĂ sem við köllum dags-daglega að við munum ekki [eitthvað]. + +Hvert minniskerfi fyrir sig notar sĂ©rhĂŠfðar aðferðir við umskrĂĄningu, geymslu og endurheimt. + +Minniskerfin ĂŸrjĂș +Almennt er viðurkennt að minniskerfin sĂ©u minnst tvö, en sumir segja að ĂŸau sĂ©u ĂŸrjĂș. Ăau eru: + Skynminni (SM); geymir nĂĄkvĂŠma mynd ĂĄreitanna sem berast skynfĂŠrum. Oftast er ĂŸað bundið við eitt skynfĂŠri Ă einu (svo sem sjĂłn eða heyrn). (Ăetta minniskerfi er umdeilt, og er stundum eða oft sleppt) + SkammtĂmaminni (STM); geymir fĂĄ atriði Ă senn, menn hafa oft horft til tölunnar sjö varðandi geymslugetu. Notast helst við hljóðrĂŠna Ășrvinnslu. + LangtĂmaminni (LM); geymir mjög mikið magn upplĂœsinga og varir lengi. Ăað er Ăłmeðvitað að mestu og notast helst við merkingarlega Ășrvinnslu. + +Ef litið er ĂĄ flÊði upplĂœsinga um skynminni og skammtĂmaminni, ĂŸĂĄ er ljĂłst að ĂĄreiti berst frĂĄ umhverfinu inn Ă skynminnið. Skynminnið er Ăłvirkt minniskerfi, ĂŸvĂ ekki er unnið Ășr upplĂœsingum ĂŸar. Ăað sem ĂĄ sĂ©r stað Ă skynminninu er eitthvað sem við erum ekki meðvituð um. Ăegar athyglin beinist að einhverju Ă umhverfinu er upplĂœsingunum hleypt inn Ă skammtĂmaminnið, og ĂŸar er svo unnið Ășr ĂĄreitunum og er ĂŸvĂ virkt minniskerfi. + +GrunnlĂkanið um minni +GrunnlĂkanið um minni var sett fram af Richard C. Atkinson og Richard M. Shiffrin ĂĄ sjöunda ĂĄratug 20. aldar. LĂkanið gerir råð fyrir ĂŸremur minniskerfum, og að upplĂœsingar flÊði milli ĂŸessara kerfa með tiltölulega reglulegum hĂŠtti. Ăessi ĂŸrjĂș kerfi eru skynminni, skammtĂmaminni og langtĂmaminni. Ă fyrstu fara upplĂœsingar sem skynjaðar eru Ă umhverfi Ă skynminni sem er ĂŸĂł talið frekar hluti af skynjun en minni. Ăaðan fara upplĂœsingar Ă skammtĂmaminni með takmarkaða rĂœmd og að lokum er hĂŠgt að umskrĂĄ upplĂœsingar Ă langtĂmaminni sem hefur Ăłtakmarkaða rĂœmd. LĂkanið leggur mikla ĂĄherslu ĂĄ geymsluhlutverk og aðgreining kerfana byggist ekki sĂst ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ hversu lengi upplĂœsingarnar staldra við Ă hverju minniskerfi. + +Mörg rök hafa verið fĂŠrð fyrir ĂŸessu lĂkani, en mörgum finnst ĂŸĂł kerfið full einfalt og nĂĄi ekki að skĂœra hin flĂłknu tengsl ĂĄ milli minnis og ĂŸekkingar. Einnig hefur verið bent ĂĄ, að lĂkanið geti ekki skĂœrt Ășt hvers vegna við nĂĄum að muna atriði sem voru vistuð fyrir löngu sĂðan, tiltölulega fyrirhafnarlĂtið. Ăessi kenning nĂœtur ĂŸĂł mikillar hylli. + +Minniskerfin ĂŸrjĂș + +Skynminni +Skynminnið geymir ĂŸau ĂĄreiti sem berast skynfĂŠrum lĂkamans. Oftast er skynminnið bundið við eitt skynfĂŠri Ă senn. Skynminnið varir Ă stutta stund, lĂklega 1/4 Ășr sekĂșndu til ĂŸriggja sekĂșndna. Skynminni fyrir sjĂłn geymir hraðvirkt og sjĂĄlfvirkt og er snemma Ă skynferlinu. Ăaðan berst ĂŸað kennslabiðminni sem er hĂŠgvirkara og varanlegra og gerir atriði aðgengileg til svörunar. Svipuð ferli eru fyrir önnur skynfĂŠri. +Athygli vinnsluminni beinist að nokkrum atriðum sem var lengur en önnur sem flokkast Ășr. + +SkammtĂmaminni +SkammtĂmaminnið geymir upplĂœsingar Ă nokkrar sekĂșndur og með endurtekningu geta upplĂœsingar haldist ĂŸar inni lengur. DĂŠmigerð endurtekning er að ĂŸylja með sĂ©r upplĂœsingarnar sem ĂŸarf að geyma aftur og aftur. Til að upplĂœsingar geti komist inn Ă skammtĂmaminnið ĂŸurfum við að veita ĂŸeim athygli, en svo er oft alls ekki raunin. Oft, ĂŸegar svoleiðis lagað gerist, er ĂŸað stimplað sem gleymska. Ăetta er mjög eðlilegt fyrirbĂŠri, ĂŸar eð okkur er illmögulegt að veita öllu athygli sem gerist Ă kringum okkur. + +SkrĂĄsetning +Ă skammtĂmaminninu eru upplĂœsingar skråðar fyrst og fremst hljóðrĂŠnt, en ĂŸĂŠr geta lĂka verið skråðar ĂĄ fleiri vegu; ĂŸĂŠr geta einnig verið geymdar sjĂłnrĂŠnt, eða tenging við eitthvað sem hefur merkingu. Mjög vel hefur reynst að geyma upplĂœsingarnar ĂĄ hljóðrĂŠnu formi, með ĂŸvĂ að endurtaka ĂŸau (endurtekning). Athugið ĂŸĂł, að ef upplĂœsingar eru fyrst skråðar myndrĂŠnt Ă skammtĂmaminnið getur ĂŸað umritast og orðið hljóðrĂŠnt fljĂłtt, en við ĂŸað glatast upplĂœsingar um t.d. letur, leturstĂŠrð og svo frv. um textann sem var lesinn. + +Geymsla +Talið er að um sjö atriði, plĂșs eða mĂnus tvö, geti rĂșmast Ă skammtĂmaminninu Ă einu, ĂŸar sem að nĂœ atriði ryðja eldri atriðum burt, með ĂŸeirri undantekningu að atriði sem eru endurtekin ryðjast ekki Ășt. Einnig dofna ĂŸau atriði sem eru ekki endurtekin og hverfa loks Ășr skammtĂmaminninu. Um minnið og ĂŸessa tölu, sjö, var skrifuð frĂŠg ritgerð, nefnd âThe Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Informationâ, og birtist hĂșn ĂĄrið 1956. + +En atriðin sjö geta verið svo mismunandi, tökum sem dĂŠmi heimilisfangið HĂĄsteinsvegur 9. Heimilisfangið mĂĄ bĂșta niður: + Vegur við hĂĄstein, hĂșsnĂșmerið 9 (tvö atriði) + HĂĄsteins-vegur 9 (ĂŸrjĂș atriði) + HĂĄsteinsvegur 9 (eitt atriði) + +HĂ©r er sĂœnt hvernig mĂĄ geyma heimilisfangið Ă skammtĂmaminninu ĂĄ ĂŸrjĂĄ mismunandi vegu. Hvernig best er að geyma heimilisfangið Ă minninu veltur ĂĄ fyrri reynslu viðkomandi og ĂŸvĂ hvort að hann ĂŸekki nöfnin fyrir, ĂŸ.e.a.s. hvort að atriðið sĂ© Ă langtĂmaminninu. Ăessi leið, að skipta upplĂœsingunum niður, er ĂŸvĂ mjög góð til að muna eitthvað sem er nĂœtt fyrir okkur og ĂłĂŸekkt. + +Endurheimt +Leit Ă skammtĂmaminninu er lĂklegast raðleit, ĂŸar sem eitt atriði er athugað Ă einu. Fyrir hvert atriði sem er Ă listanum eykst leitartĂminn að jafnaði um 38 millisekĂșndur. Athyglivert er ĂŸĂł að athuga að menn virðast vera nokkuð lengur að ĂĄtta sig ĂĄ andlitsmyndum en orðum og öðru munnlegu efni. + +LangtĂmaminni +LangtĂmaminnið er ef til vill mikilvĂŠgasta minniskerfið, en ĂŸar eru geymdar upplĂœsingar sem hafa varðveist lengri eða skemmri tĂma; nokkra klukkutĂma, daga, mĂĄnuði og ĂĄr. SkrĂĄning Ă langtĂmaminnið er, ĂłlĂkt skammtĂmaminninu, fyrst og fremst merkingabĂŠrt, en ĂŸað getur einnig skråð upplĂœsingar ĂĄ Ăœmsa vegu, t.d. hljóðbĂŠrt. LangtĂmaminnið er að mestu Ăłmeðvitað og notast helst við merkingarlega Ășrvinnslu. + +Leiðin fyrir ĂĄreiti að festast Ă langtĂmaminni er slĂk að fyrst festist ĂĄreitið Ă skynminni, sĂðan fer ĂŸað Ă skammtĂmaminnið og seinast kemur ĂŸað Ă langtĂmaminnnið ef varanleg minnisfesting verður. Ef minnisatriðin eru endurtekin oft leiðir ĂŸað til minnisfestingar Ă langtĂmaminni. + +LangtĂmaminnið geymir svo mikið af upplĂœsingum að talin er ĂŸĂ¶rf ĂĄ að skipta ĂŸvĂ Ă nokkur undirkerfi, sem hvert og eitt hefur sĂn sĂ©rkenni. LangtĂmaminnið byrjar að skiptast Ă tvennt, Ă ljĂłst minni, sem geymir ĂŸau ĂŸekkingaratriði sem við höfum meðvitaðan aðgang að og dulið minni en ĂŸar bĂœr sĂș ĂŸekking sem okkur reynist erfiðara að hafa ĂĄ stjĂłrn ĂĄ. LjĂłst minni skiptist Ă atburðaminni og merkingaminni, en dulið minni skiptist Ă aðferðaminni, viðbragðsskilyrðingu og viðvana. + +ĂstÊður ĂŸess sem við köllum dags-daglega gleymsku Ă langtĂmaminninu eru taldar vera dofnun og hömlun sem megi rekja til vandkvÊða við endurheimt og loks geta tilfinningar haft ĂĄhrif ĂĄ hana og skipulagsleysi. Dofnun er talin eiga mest Ă hlut ĂŸegar við getum ekki rifjað eitthvað upp Ășr langtĂmaminninu. + +Dulið minni +Dulið minni felst Ă ĂŸvĂ að fyrri reynsla gerir okkur kleift að framkvĂŠma ĂĄkveðna hluti ĂĄn ĂŸess að vera með hugann við upprifjun, eitthvað sem við ĂŸurfum ekki að muna aðferðina við til að geta athafnað okkur, t.d. synda, hjĂłla, dansa o.s.frv. Ă duldu minni bĂœr sĂș ĂŸekking sem okkur reynist erfiðara að hafa meðvitaðan aðgang að, t.d. hreyfifĂŠrni og nĂĄm lĂŠrt með viðbragðsskilyrðingu. Um er að rÊða Ăłmeðvitað minni ĂŸar sem venjulegri upprifjun verður ekki við komið. Dulið minni veldur ĂŸvĂ að börn geta jafnvel munað ĂŸað sem henti ĂŸau ĂŸegar ĂŸau voru enn Ă móðurkviði. + +Til eru ĂŸrjĂĄr tegundir dulins minnis: Aðferðaminni, viðbragðsskilyrðing og viðvani. Mest athygli hefur ĂŸĂł beinst að aðferðarminninu ĂŸegar talað er um dulið minni. + + Aðferðaminni er ĂŸað að vita hvernig maður framkvĂŠmir ĂĄkveðna hluti. HĂŠfileikinn að halda jafnvĂŠgi ĂĄ hjĂłli og keyra bĂl krefjast flĂłkinnar samhĂŠfingar hreyfinga og skynjunar. Við lĂŠrum fyrst rĂ©ttu hreyfingarnar og hvernig best er að eiga við hlutina ĂŸangað til að ĂŸetta fer allt saman að verða meira og minna ĂłsjĂĄlfrĂĄtt. Ă aðferðaminni er talað um að fyrri reynsla stĂœri sĂðari hegðun, t.d. getur lĂfvera lĂŠrt að forðast ĂĄkveðna staði hafi hĂșn slĂŠma reynslu af honum Ășr fortĂðinni. HĂșn ĂŸarf ekki að vera beinlĂnis meðvituð um ĂŸað sem gerðist og meira að segja ekki endilega muna atburðinn, heldur verða viðbrögð hennar sjĂĄlfvirk. SĂĄlfrÊðingurinn Endel Tulving ĂĄlĂtur að aðferðaminnið sĂ© elst Ă ĂŸrĂłunarlegu tilliti en atburðarminnið yngst og viðkvĂŠmast fyrir ĂĄföllum. Aðferðaminni getur lĂka tengst flĂłknara hugrĂŠnu atferli, t.d lestri. Ăað sem einkennir nĂĄm af slĂku tagi er að atferlið er hĂŠgt og hikandi Ă byrjun en ĂŸegar leikni er nåð að fullu verður ĂŸað sjĂĄlfvirkt og Ăłmeðvitað. + + Viðbragðsskilyrðingin felst Ă stuttu mĂĄli Ă ĂŸvĂ að parað er saman annars vegar Ăłskilyrt ĂĄreiti, t.d. sem vekur meðfĂŠdda svörun sem ekki ĂŸarf að lĂŠra eins og að bregða við hĂĄvaða, og hins vegar svokallað skilyrt ĂĄreiti, sem vekur svörun sem ekki hefur tengst åður ĂŸessu ĂĄreiti t.d að Ăłttast staðinn sem hĂĄvaðinn varð. + + Viðvani felst Ă ĂŸvĂ að við hĂŠttum að taka eftir ĂĄreiti sem fĂŠrir okkur engar nĂœjar upplĂœsingar, t.d tifi Ă klukku og umferðarhljóði. + +Aðrar kenningar og afbrigði + +ĂrvinnsludĂœpt +ĂrvinnsludĂœpt (e. Levels-of-processing effect) nefnist kenning sem Kenneth Craik og Lockhart mĂłtuðu. ĂrvinnsludĂœpt byggist ĂĄ ĂŸeirri hugmynd að fĂŠrsla milli skammtĂmaminnis og langtĂmaminnis sĂ© ekki að mestu leyti håð endurtekningu og upprifjun heldur råði hversu mikil vitrĂŠn Ășrvinnsla fer fram um minnisatriðið. Ăeir sögðu að ĂŸeim mun meiri Ășrvinnslu sem atriðið ĂŸyrfti, ĂŸvĂ betra vĂŠri að muna ĂŸað sökum ĂŸess að ĂŸĂĄ greinir heilinn atriðið og kemur ĂŸvĂ Ă eitthvert kerfi. Tilraunir ĂŸeirra styðja stoðum undir kenninguna. + +Ein tilraunanna var sĂș að sĂœna fĂłlki lista með Ăłtengdum orðum og ĂŸĂĄtttakendurnir sĂðan beðnir að svara um ĂŸau ĂŸremur ĂłlĂkum spurningum. Ă fyrstu spurningalotu var fĂłlk beðið að svara til um hvort orð vĂŠru skrifuð með hĂĄ- eða lĂĄgstöfum. Svo var fĂłlk beðið að svara til um hvort ĂĄkveðin orðapör rĂmuðu, og að lokum var fĂłlk beðið að segja til um hvort ĂĄkveðin orð pössuðu inn Ă setningu. Helmingur svaranna var jĂĄ, en hinn nei. Eftir ĂŸetta voru svo lagðir fyrir ĂŸĂĄtttakendurna langir orðalistar, og ĂŸað beðið að segja til um hvort orðin ĂĄ listanum hefðu komið fyrir Ă fyrri lotunni. Niðurstöðurnar sĂœndu glögglega að ĂŸeim mun meiri vinnsla fĂłr fram, ĂŸvĂ auðveldara ĂĄtti fĂłlkið með að muna ĂŸau ĂŸegar spurningalistinn var lagður fyrir. Svör sem jĂĄkvĂŠtt svar var við festust einnig betur Ă minni en ĂŸau neikvÊðu, lĂkast sökum meiri merkingartengsla. + +En ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir að niðurstöðurnar standist, og kenningin skĂœri betur en grunnlĂkanið hvernig atriði ferðast milli skammtĂmaminnis og langtĂmaminnis, hefur kenningin Ăœmsa vankanta. MĂĄ ĂŸar meðal annars nefna hvernig merkingarlĂtil ĂĄreiti eiga ĂŸað til að festast Ă minni, að erfitt er að skilgreina nĂĄkvĂŠmlega hvað krefst djĂșprar Ășrvinnslu og að kenningin gerir råð fyrir lĂnulegri ĂŸrepaskiptingu atriða milli skammtĂmaminnis og langtĂmaminnis, ĂŸ.e.a.s. sjĂłnrĂŠn Ășrvinnsla orðsins, ĂŸĂĄ hljóðrĂŠn tĂĄknmynd ĂŸess og að lokum merkingarleg Ășrvinnsla, ĂĄ meðan nĂœjar rannsĂłknir benda til ĂŸess að Ășrvinnsla ĂĄreita fari fram Ă mörgum samhliða ferlum. + +HeilalĂffĂŠri tengd minni + +Ămis heilalĂffĂŠri koma að minninu, en Ăœmsar rannsĂłknir hafa verið gerðar til að leiða Ă ljĂłs hvaða tilgangi ĂŸau gegna. HĂ©r verður fjallað um nokkur ĂŸessara lĂffĂŠra. + +Gagnaugablað +KanadĂski heilaskurðlĂŠknirinn Wilder Penfield var einn ĂŸeirra manna sem rannsakaði heilann með rafreitingu. Hann lĂ©t veikan rafstraum fara um heilabörk sjĂșklinga og kannaði svo hvaða ĂĄhrif ĂŸað hefði ĂĄ Ăœmsa sĂĄlfrÊðilega starfsemi hjĂĄ fĂłlki með flogaveiki ĂĄ hĂĄu stigi. Fyrstu vĂsbendingar um að minni vĂŠri staðsett Ă gagnaugablaði fundust ĂĄrið 1938, en gagnaugablaðið er sĂĄ hluti heilabarkar sem liggur innan við gagnaugað. Ăar með kom Ă ljĂłs að hjĂĄ sumum virðist ĂĄreiting gagnaugablaðsins kallaði fram liðnar minningar og jafnvel ljĂłslifandi. + +Drekinn +Talið að drekinn sĂ© viðriðinn ljĂłsa minnið sem er ĂŸrĂłaðasti hluti minnisins. Auk ĂŸess að sjĂĄ um minnisfestingar Ă ljĂłsa minninu hefur drekinn verið bendlaður við rĂœmisskynjun. FĂłlk með skemmd Ă drekanum ĂĄ mjög erfitt að bĂșa sĂ©r til hugrĂŠnt kort af nĂœjum stöðum og ĂĄ mjög erfitt að rata heim til sĂn ef ĂŸað flytur eitthvert annað eftir ĂĄfallið. ĂtĂð hefur drekinn verið tileinkaður minnisfestingunni og geymd Ă ljĂłsa minninu. En nĂœjar rannsĂłknir sem Teng og Squire (1999) gerðu sĂœna fram ĂĄ að hann ĂĄ einungis að hafa með minnisfestinguna að gera en ekki geymdina. Ăeir prĂłfuðu mann vegna herpesveiru sem var með ĂłnĂœtan dreka og skemmd ĂĄ hluta ĂĄ gagnaugablaðsins Ă båðum hvelum. Ăar sem ĂŸessar skemmdir voru til staðar ĂŸĂĄ leiddi ĂŸað til verlegs Ăłminnis. Hann getur engan vegin munað hvar hann bĂœr eða lĂŠrt ĂĄ hverfið sem hann flutti Ă eftir ĂĄfallið. En ĂŸað merkilega við ĂŸað að minni hans um ĂŠskustöðvar Ă Los Angeles reyndist alveg eins en fimm jafnaldra hans sem höfðu bĂșið ĂŸar jafnlengi og flutt svo Ă burtu um svipað leyti og hann. Teng og Squire ĂĄlyktuðu ĂŸĂĄ af niðurstöðum sĂnum að drekinn og gagnaugablaðið gegndu vissulega lykilhlutverki Ă að festa ljĂłsar minningar Ă LTM en ekki að endurheimta ĂŸĂŠr eða geyma gamlar minningar. + +Möndlungurinn +Möndlungurinn tengist lykilhlutverki Ă randkerfinu sem tengist geðhrĂŠringum. Hann virðist sjĂĄ um samskipti við hin Ăœmsu kerfi lĂkamans sem stjĂłrna Ăłttaviðbrögðum (t.d. auka hjartslĂĄtt, hĂŠgja ĂĄ meltingu eða frysta hreyfingar ef við verðum skelfingu lostin). Antonio Damasio og fĂ©lagar hans hafa rannsakað konu með heilaskemmd sem er bundin við möndlunginn. HĂșn gat lesið öll tilfinningaleg lĂĄtbrigði nema Ăłttaviðbrögð. LeDoux og fĂ©lagar komust að ĂŸvĂ að fĂłlk með skemmd ĂĄ gagnaugablaði og Ă möndlungi bregst ekki við ĂłĂŸĂŠgilegu ĂĄreiti. Ăau sĂœndu svo að heilbrigt fĂłlk (samanburðarhĂłpur) sĂœndi lĂfeðlisleg viðbrögð ĂŸegar ĂłĂŸĂŠgilegur hĂĄvaði (skilyrt ĂĄreiti) var paraður við hlutlausan tĂłn (skilyrt ĂĄreiti). Skilyrðingin var ĂŸannig að hlutlausi tĂłnninn, sem heyrðist alltaf ĂĄ undan Ăłskilyrta ĂĄreitinu, dugði einn og sĂ©r til að kalla fram ĂłĂŸĂŠgindatilfinningu. Ăað ĂĄtti ekki við tilraunahĂłpinn sem var með heilaskaða Ă möndlungi og gangaugablaði, skilyrta ĂĄreitið vakti engin lĂfeðlisleg viðbrögð. Ăar af ĂĄlyktaði LeDoux að skemmdin Ă möndlungi orsakaði ĂŸetta âĂłttaleysiâ. Möndlungurinn virðist hafa með dulið tilfinningaminni að gera. + +GrĂĄhĂœĂ°i og rĂłfukjarni +GrĂĄhĂœĂ°i og rĂłfukjarni kallast einu nafni rĂĄkakjarni. BÊði lĂffĂŠrin tilheyra svokölluðum botnkjörnum. Ăeir liggja djĂșpt Ă mannsheilanum og ĂŸess vegna er ekki eins mikil ĂĄhĂŠtta ĂĄ að ĂŸað skaddist eins og randkerfið og börkurinn . Talið er að Ă ĂŸessum lĂffĂŠrum sĂ© aðsetur aðferðaminnisins. FĂłlk sem ĂŸjĂĄist af Ăłminni er iðulega fĂŠrt um að sĂœna merki ĂŸjĂĄlfunar sem reynir ĂĄ ĂŸennan hluta minnisins. Gott dĂŠmi er tilfelli Clive Wearing, breskum tĂłnlistarmanni sem fĂ©kk heilabĂłlgu og afleiðingin varð margvĂslegur minnisbrestur. Hann getur ekki myndað nĂœjar minningar (eins og tĂminn standi Ă stað hjĂĄ honum). Einnig er minni hans ĂĄ liðna atburði gloppĂłtt. En ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir ĂŸessi veikindi sĂn getur Clive spilað ĂĄ pĂanĂł og sellĂł og stjĂłrnað tĂłnlistarviðburðum eins og ekkert sĂ©. Skemmdirnar sem hann hlaut snertu ekki botnkjarnana og ĂŸað er talin lĂklegasta skĂœringin ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að aðferðaminni tĂłnlistar hefur haldið Ăłskert. + +Forennisblaðið +Forennisblaðið er fremsti hluti heilabarkarins. Heilaskimarnir hafa sĂœnt að ĂŸað svÊði er mjög virkt ĂŸegar er verið að leysa vinnsluminnisverkefni. Tilraunir ĂĄ öpum hafa sĂœnt að ef ĂŸað kemur fram skemmd ĂĄ ĂŸessu svÊði ĂŸĂĄ gĂŠtu ĂŸeir ekki mögulega leyst verkefni sem reyna ĂĄ vinnsluminnið. + +MinnisfyrirbĂŠri + +Leifturminni +Leifturminni kallast ĂŸað ĂŸegar fĂłlk hefur tiltölulega skĂœra mynd eða minningu af ĂŸvĂ hvar og hvernig ĂŸeim bĂĄrust upplĂœsingar um tiltekinn tilfinningaĂŸrunginn atburð, t.d ĂĄrĂĄsirnar ĂĄ tvĂburaturnanna Ă New York 11. september 2001. Ekki er vitað til fullnustu hvað veldur ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸessar minningar festast svo Ă vitund fĂłlks en allt eru ĂŸetta minningar sem tengjast sterku tilfinningarĂłti. Ăt frĂĄ ĂŸessu telja menn að hormĂłn (adrenalĂn) og boðefni (dĂłpamĂn, serĂłtĂłnĂn, noradrenalĂn og asetĂœlkĂłlĂn) eigi stĂłran ĂŸĂĄtt Ă ĂŸessu, svo virðist sem að tilfinningahlaðnar minningar tengist auknu rennsli adrenalĂns og noradrenalĂns en hlutlausar minningar gera ĂŸað ekki. + +Tilraun var gerð til að sĂœna fram ĂĄ ĂŸetta. HĂłpi fĂłlks var skipt Ă tvennt. HĂłpunum voru sĂœndar skyggnumyndir og helmingnum var sögð ĂĄtakanleg saga en hinum ekki. Helmingi hvors hĂłps um sig var gefið lyfið propanolol, sem hindrar verkan adrenalĂns og noradrenalĂns, en hinum helmingnum var gefinn lyfleysa. Ă ljĂłs kom að ĂŸeir sem fengu propanolol ĂĄttu Ă erfiðleikum með að rifja upp tilfinningaĂŸrungnu söguna en hinir ekki. Lyfið hafði engin ĂĄhrif ĂĄ hlutlausu söguna. Ăað bendir til ĂŸess að åðurgreind efni gegni mikilvĂŠgu hlutverki við festingu Ă leifturminni. + +Heilaskimun bendir til ĂŸess að möndlungurinn sĂ© viðrinn tilfinningaminni. Aukin virkni Ă möndlungi sĂœnir betra minni ĂĄ tilfinningaĂŸrungið efni. + +Af ĂŸessu mĂĄ ĂŠtla að tilfinningaminnið sĂ© skråð ĂĄ annan hĂĄtt en hlutlausa minnið. Ăað er ĂŸĂł umdeilt og rannsĂłknir ĂĄ nĂĄkvĂŠmni frĂĄsagna sĂœnir að leifturminningar virðast jafn viðkvĂŠmar og venjulegar minningar. ĂvĂ hafa sumir sagt sem svo að leifturminningar hafi fĂ©lagslegt mikilvĂŠgi og ĂŸvĂ rifjar fĂłlk slĂkar minningar oft upp og finnst ĂŸað muna ĂŸað lĂkt og ĂŸað gerðist Ă gĂŠr en raunin virðist vera önnur. + +Ămsar vangaveltur um minnið + +Algleymi eða alminni? + +Hvort er betra að vera minnislaus eða muna allt? William James sagði að ĂŸað vĂŠri jafnvont. + +Að muna allt merkir samkvĂŠmt löghyggju, að maður muni allt sem liðið er, og hafi ĂŸar með góða hugmynd um hvað framtĂðin ber Ă skauti sĂ©r. Einnig er vafasamt að mannsheilinn sĂ© gerður til að muna âalltâ og muni ĂŸvĂ byrja að skemmast ĂŸegar einhverjum âhĂĄmarks ĂŸröskuldiâ er nåð, eða að heilinn muni bregðast við ĂĄ sem skynsamlegastan hĂĄtt og gera mann brjĂĄlaðan ĂĄ öllum ĂŸeim upplĂœsingum sem við höfum. + +Aftur ĂĄ mĂłti gefur minnisleysi möguleikann ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að muna ekki að maður sĂ© með minnisleysi og ĂŸannig hefur maður ekki hugmynd um að ĂŸað sĂ© eitthvað að, ĂŸetta getur verið talið sem ein gerð ĂĄnĂŠgju. Reyndar gĂŠti ĂŸetta verið hĂĄlfgerð blessun fyrir manninn, ĂŸvĂ að einn besti hĂŠfileiki mannsins er að hunsa allt annað en hann sjĂĄlfan og loka augunum gersamlega fyrir öllu ĂŸvĂ slĂŠma Ă lĂfi hans, en með eins ĂŸröngri sĂœn ĂĄ veruleikan og hann getur, ĂŸĂĄ finnur hann auðvitað eitthvað að kvarta um. Minnisleysið mundi bĂŠta ĂŸennan hĂŠfileika hans, vegna ĂŸess að sĂĄ sem mundi ekki neitt gĂŠti ekki munað eftir neinu, hvorki slĂŠmu nĂ© góðu. + +Töfratalan sjö og minni +Lengi hafa menn vitað að minni okkar er ekki Ăłtakmarkað. Breski aðalsmaðurinn William Hamilton komst að ĂŸeirri niðurstöðu strax ĂĄ 19. öld. Hann sĂĄ að ĂŸegar handfylli af marmarakĂșlum er fleygt ĂĄ gĂłlf getur maður aðeins greint sjö ĂŸeirra vel Ă einu. Breski kennarinn John Jacobs gerði tilraun ĂĄ nemendum sĂnum ĂĄrið 1887. Ăar kom Ă ljĂłs að nemendur gĂĄtu að meðaltali munað samtĂmis sjö tölur Ă einu ef ĂŸeim var raðað handĂłhĂłfkennt. Hermann Ebbinghaus komst svo einnig að sömu niðurstöðu. Loks velti bandarĂski sĂĄlfrÊðingurinn George A. Miller (1956) ĂŸessu fyrir sĂ©r og kallaði töluna sjö (plĂșs mĂnus tveir) töfratölu enda kĂŠmi oft fyrir Ă heiminum, t.d. eru sjö heimshöf, sjö undur veraldar, sjö dagar Ă vikunni, sjöundi himinn og sjö dauðasyndir. + +MinnistĂŠkni +Ăað sparar tĂma og fyrirhöfn að hafa gott minni, ĂŸĂĄ ĂŸarf maður ekki að skrĂĄ allar upplĂœsingar hjĂĄ sĂ©r eða geta treyst ĂĄ ĂŸað að geta flett ĂŸeim upp. Ăður fyrr var ĂŸað metinn mikilsverður hĂŠfileiki að hafa gott minni, ĂŸvĂ að ĂŸĂĄ höfðu landsmenn ekki almennan aðgang að bĂłkum og aðeins hluti ĂŸeirra var lĂŠs. NĂș til dags hafa menn glatað hĂŠfileikanum til að muna langar frĂĄsagnir eins og t.d. Ăslendingasögurnar. Flestir reikna ekki lengur Ă huganum heldur slĂĄ ĂŸað inn Ă reiknivĂ©l, tölvurnar eru góður staður til að geyma upplĂœsingar og einnig GSM- sĂminn. Eins og alltaf koma nĂœir hlutir Ă staðinn fyrir ĂŸĂĄ gömlu, Ă dag ĂŸarf fĂłlk að muna alls kyns aðgangsorð og nĂșmer að kerfum af Ăœmsu tagi (tölvupĂłstur, bankanĂșmer o.s.frv.). + +Enn er ekki ljĂłst hvers vegna sumir hafa mun betra minni en aðrir, ĂŸĂł er vitað að ĂŸjĂĄlfun og erfðir skipta mjög miklu mĂĄli. Fyrsta minnisaðferðin nefnist staðaraðferðin, hĂșn felst Ă ĂŸvĂ að atriði sem ĂĄ að muna er sett Ă samband við ĂĄkveðinn stað. DĂŠmi um aðrar aðferðir sem hafa reynst vel, ĂŸeim sem vilja bĂŠta minnið sitt með sĂ©rstakri minnistĂŠkni, eru: að nota Ămyndir, bĂșa til sögur eða nota hrĂm og hrynjandi. +Hver og einn hefur sĂna aðferð til að muna og eflaust eru til margar aðrar minnisaðferðir. + + SjĂĄ nĂĄnar Ă bĂłkinni Almennri sĂĄlfrÊði eftir AldĂsi Unni GuðmundsdĂłttur og Jörgen L. Pind. + +Heimilidir Ă texta + +Frekari lesning + AldĂs Unnur GuðmundsdĂłttir, Jörgen L. Pind: Almenn SĂĄlfrÊði: Hugur Heili og HĂĄtterni, MĂĄl og menning 2005. + Clive Wearing - ĂŸjĂĄist af einu versta minnisleysistilfelli sem er ĂŸekkt. + H.M. - ĂŸjĂĄist af framvirku Ăłminni. + Minnisleysi + +Heimildir + AldĂs Unnur GuðmundsdĂłttir, Jörgen L. Pind: Almenn SĂĄlfrÊði: Hugur Heili og HĂĄtterni, MĂĄl og menning 2005. + Rita L. Atkinson, Richard C. Atkinson, Ernest R. Hilgard: SĂĄlfrÊði, ĂĄttunda ĂștgĂĄfa, Iðunn 1992. + +Hugarstarf +SĂĄlfrÊði +Minni +SĂĄlfrÊði er gjarnan skilgreind sem vĂsindagrein um hugarstarf og hegðun. Ăeir sem leggja stund ĂĄ sĂĄlfrÊði eru lĂka Ă auknum mĂŠli farnir að kanna heilastarf. SĂĄlin (sem Ăłefnislegt fyrirbĂŠri aðskilið lĂkamanum) er ekki viðfangsefni greinarinnar og ĂŸvĂ er nafn hennar ef til vill villandi. + +Segja mĂĄ að sĂĄlfrÊði sĂ© yfirgrein margra undirgreina sem rannsaka mannlega hegðun og hugsun, en ĂŸað sem sameini ĂŸessar greinar er aðferðafrÊði, krafa um vĂsindalega nĂĄlgun, en jafnframt er oft hĂŠgt að samnĂœta ĂŸekkingu Ășr öllum greinunum samtĂmis. + +Viðfangsefni sĂĄlfrÊðinnar + +SĂĄlfrÊði er fyrst og sĂðast frÊðigrein sem fjallar um ĂŸĂĄ hluta mannsins sem snĂșa að hegðun, hugsun og heila hans. Margar spurningar sem fengist er við Ă sĂĄlfrÊði eru Êði heimspekilegar en sĂĄlfrÊðin ĂĄ sĂ©r rĂŠtur einmitt Ă heimspeki ĂŸĂł svo að rĂŠtur hennar nĂĄi einnig til lĂffrÊði. Spurningarnar sem fengist er við eru spurningar eins og âHvað er hugsun?â og âAf hverju hegðar fĂłlk sĂ©r eins og ĂŸað gerir?â. ĂlĂkt heimspeki notar sĂĄlfrÊði vĂsindalega aðferð til að leita svara við ĂŸeim. + +SĂĄlfrÊðin snertir mörg önnur svið og ĂŸeir sem hafa veitt ĂŸekkingu inn Ă fagið koma vĂða að, svo sem Ășr heimspeki, lĂffrÊði, fĂ©lagsfrÊði, eðlisfrÊði, lĂfeðlisfrÊði, lĂŠknisfrÊði, erfðafrÊði, lĂfefnafrÊði, mannfrÊði, mĂĄlvĂsindum og tölvunarfrÊði. + +Grundvöllur sĂĄlfrÊðinnar eru rannsĂłknir, einkum tilraunir. RannsĂłknum Ă sĂĄlfrÊði fylgja Ăœmis vandkvÊði ĂŸar sem ĂŸĂŠr eru Ă flestum tilfellum gerðar ĂĄ fĂłlki. Fyrir ĂŸað fyrsta er hĂŠtta ĂĄ að fĂłlk breyti hegðun sinni ĂŸegar ĂŸað veit að einhver fylgist með ĂŸvĂ. Auk ĂŸess ĂŸurfa sĂĄlfrÊðingar að fylgja Ăœtrustu siðgÊðisreglum. Reglurnar hafa orðið strangari Ă seinni tĂð svo sumar eldri rannsĂłknir vĂŠru ekki gerðar nĂș til dags. + +Tilraunir Ă sĂĄlfrÊði eru af Ăœmsum toga. Sem dĂŠmi mĂĄ nefna tilraun ĂŸar sem einstaklingur leggur ĂĄ minnið lista af orðum sem hann rifjar svo upp eftir fremsta megni. Annað dĂŠmi eru tilraunir ĂŸar sem einstaklingur er lĂĄtinn leysa ĂŸrautir ĂĄ meðan höfuð hans er Ă fMRI-skanna. Enn annað dĂŠmi er ĂŸegar rannsakendur fylgjast með atferli fĂłlks Ă vissum aðstÊðum (t.d. Ă skĂłlastofu), breyta vissum atriðum Ă ĂŸessum aðstÊðum og kanna hvaða ĂĄhrif breytingarnar hafa. + +DĂŠmi um viðfangsefni sĂĄlfrÊðinnar: + +Störf sĂĄlfrÊðinga +Algengur misskilningur er að sĂĄlfrÊði snĂșist fyrst og sĂðast um að veita ĂŸeim meðferð sem eiga Ă einhvers konar erfiðleikum. Ăetta er að sjĂĄlfsögðu hluti af sĂĄlfrÊði og margir sĂĄlfrÊðingar vinna við að hjĂĄlpa fĂłlki með geðraskanir, veita hjĂłnabandsråðgjöf eða annars konar klĂnĂska ĂŸjĂłnustu. Ăeir eru ĂŸĂł aðeins brot af heildinni, sĂĄlfrÊði fjallar aðeins að litlu leyti um að leysa vandamĂĄl fĂłlks. + +SĂĄlfrÊðimenntað fĂłlk starfar ĂĄ Ăœmsum vettvangi, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal við stjĂłrnun fyrirtĂŠkja, råðgjöf, starfsmannastjĂłrnun, markaðssetningu, hönnun tĂŠkja og mannvirkja, ĂĄ rannsĂłknarstofum, við Ăœmiss konar meðferð, Ă fjölmiðlum, Ă skĂłlum, Ă lĂftĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkjum og ĂĄ auglĂœsingastofum. SĂĄlfrÊðimenntað fĂłlk er sĂfellt að hasla sĂ©r breiðari völl Ă atvinnulĂfinu og atvinnutĂŠkifĂŠri eru fjölmörg. Ăessi hagnĂœting ĂĄ sĂĄlfrÊði byggir ĂĄ öflugu vĂsinda- og rannsĂłknarstarfi sem er grundvöllur greinarinnar. + +Ă Ăslandi veitir BS-gråða frĂĄ Ăslenskum hĂĄskĂłlum ekki rĂ©ttindi til að starfa sem sĂĄlfrÊðingur, heldur ĂŸarf að minnsta kosti tveggja ĂĄra framhaldsmenntun til ĂŸess - ĂŸ.e., gråðu Ă klĂnĂskri sĂĄlfrÊði. Ă HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands er boðið upp ĂĄ framhaldsnĂĄm Ă klĂnĂskri sĂĄlfrÊði, barnasĂĄlfrÊði og vinnusĂĄlfrÊði. Margir fara ĂŸĂł Ă framhaldsnĂĄm à öðrum greinum, bÊði innan sĂĄlfrÊði og utan. Til að starfa sem sĂĄlfrÊðingur er vĂða um heim gerð krafa um viðurkenningu yfirvalda. + +SjĂĄ einnig: Listi yfir sĂĄlfrÊðinga + +Saga sĂĄlfrÊðinnar + +Yfirlit + +Seinni hluti 19. aldar markar upphaf sĂĄlfrÊðinnar sem vĂsindagreinar. Gjarnan er miðað við ĂĄrið 1879 en ĂŸĂĄ stofnaði Wilhelm Wundt fyrstu rannsĂłknarstofuna Ă sĂĄlfrÊði. Aðrir mikilvĂŠgir frumkvöðlar voru Hermann Ebbinghaus sem rannsakaði minni, Ivan Pavlov sem uppgötvaði klassĂska skilyrðingu og sĂĄlgreinandinn Sigmund Freud sem gerði frĂŠga hugmyndina um dulvitund. + +Ă fyrri hluta 20. aldar var kenningum Freuds hafnað innan sĂĄlfrÊði. Ăetta leiddi til mĂłtunar atferlisstefnunnar sem John B. Watson og sĂðar B. F. Skinner gerðu vinsĂŠla. Kenningar Freuds höfðu samt gĂfurleg ĂĄhrif ĂĄ aðrar greinar, svo sem geðlĂŠknisfrÊði og bĂłkmenntafrÊði, og ĂĄ hugmyndir almennings um sĂĄlarlĂfið. + +Ă sĂðustu ĂĄratugum 20. aldar varð til nĂœtt ĂŸverfaglegt fag um hugarstarf bÊði lĂfvera og vĂ©la, svokölluð vitsmunavĂsindi. Innan vitsmunavĂsinda starfs frÊðimenn með bakgrunn Ă sĂĄlfrÊði, mĂĄlvĂsindum, tölvunarfrÊði, heimspeki og taugavĂsindum, svo eitthvað sĂ© nefnt. + +FrumsĂĄlfrÊði + +Hin forn-egypsku Ebers-skjöl, frĂĄ um 1550 fyrir Krist, innihalda lĂœsingar ĂĄ geðröskunum eins og klĂnĂsku ĂŸunglyndi og vitglöpum. Forn-Egyptar virðast ekki hafa talið neinn grundvallarmun vera ĂĄ geðröskunum og lĂkamlegum kvillum. + +Heimspekingar hafa lengi spåð Ă eðli hugans, ferla hans og innihald, en yfirleitt einungis með kenningum ĂĄn kerfisbundinna athugana. Forn-grĂsku heimspekingarnir Alkmajon af KrĂłton (um 500 f. Kr.) og EmpedĂłkles af Akragas (um 450 f. Kr.) geta ef til vill talist til fyrstu frumsĂĄlfrÊðinganna (e. protopsychologists). Ăeir reyndu båðir að finna lĂfeðlislegar skĂœringar ĂĄ hugsun og hegðun manna. Alkmajon kannaði til að mynda sjĂłnskynjun, eitt aðalviðfangsefni skynjunarsĂĄlfrÊðinga, og taldi rĂ©ttilega að upplifun og hugsun ĂŠttu sĂ©r stað Ă heilanum. EmpedĂłkles reyndi lĂka að finna nĂĄttĂșrlegar skĂœringar ĂĄ skynjun, en taldi ĂŸĂł að hĂșn ĂŠtti rĂŠtur Ă hjartanu. + +Upphaflega litu Forn-Grikkir fremur ĂĄ sĂĄlina (psykke) sem lĂfsanda en ekki sem geranda hegðunar nĂ© sem sjĂĄlf manns. Platon ĂŸrĂskipti sĂðan sĂĄlinni Ă skynsemi, skap og löngun. AristĂłteles setti fram Ăœmsar kenningar, t.d. um eðli sĂĄlarinnar, minni og skynjun. AristĂłteles skipti sĂĄlinni lĂka Ă marga parta, og taldi að við skynjun tĂŠki hugurinn ĂĄ sig form ĂŸess skynjaða. + +Aðrir seinni tĂma forverar sĂĄlfrÊðinnar eru til að mynda heimspekingarnir RenĂ© Descartes (1596-1650) og John Locke (1632-1704). Saman mĂłtuðu ĂŸeir hugmyndir manna um að hinn meðvitaði hugur vĂŠri aðskilinn hinum efnislega heimi. Descartes gerði skĂœran greinarmun ĂĄ sĂĄl og lĂkama og gekk Ășt frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að lĂkamsstarfsemi mĂŠtti skĂœra með vĂ©lrĂŠnum lögmĂĄlum. Hann fĂŠrði einnig rök fyrir ĂŸvĂ að sĂĄlin vĂŠri af allt öðru tagi en efnisheimurinn. HĂșn laut engum vĂ©lrĂŠnum lögmĂĄlum, hana ĂŸurfti að kanna með sjĂĄlfsskoðun og Ăhugun. Hann taldi einnig að dĂœr vĂŠru algjörlega sĂĄlarlaus og mĂŠtti ĂŸĂĄ ĂștskĂœra tilveru ĂŸeirra einungis Ășt frĂĄ vĂ©lrĂŠnum lögmĂĄlum. Descartes reyndi einnig að staðsetja sĂĄlina Ă manninum, hann komst að ĂŸeirri niðurstöðu að hĂșn vĂŠri Ă heilakönglinum enda vĂŠri hann svolĂtið sĂ©r ĂĄ bĂĄti Ă heilanum - enginn vissi hvaða tilgangi hann gegndi og hann er eina heilalĂffĂŠrið sem er ekki til Ă tvöföldu upplagi. Ăar vildi Descatres meina að heimili sĂĄlarinnar vĂŠri. Bresku heimspekingarnir John Locke og John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) notuðu kenningar AristĂłtelesar til að rekja mannlega ĂŸekkingu og töldu hana vera samspil skynjunar og hugtengsla. Ăeim fannst einnig að meðvitundin ĂŠtti að vera aðalviðfangsefni sĂĄlfrÊðinnar. NĂștĂmasĂĄlfrÊði hefur reynt eftir fremsta megni að losa sig undan viðjum ĂŸessarar tvĂhyggju um sĂĄl og lĂkama. + +SĂĄlfrÊði verður að vĂsindagrein + +Ărið 1879 opnaði Wilhelm Wundt tilraunastofu sĂna Ă sĂĄlfrÊði við HĂĄskĂłlann Ă Leipzig Ă ĂĂœskalandi, ĂŸar sem sjĂłnum var sĂ©rstaklega beint að hegðun og hugarĂĄstandi. Svo, ĂĄrið 1890, gaf William James Ășt bĂłkina Principles of Psychology, eða Grundvöll sĂĄlfrÊðinnar, sem lagði undirstöðurnar að fjölda spurninga sem sĂĄlfrÊðingar einbeittu sĂ©r að um langt skeið. William James var fyrsti prĂłfessorinn Ă sĂĄlfrÊði við Harvard-hĂĄskĂłla. + +Ăað mikilvĂŠgasta var að aðferðir og viðhorf Wilhelms Wundt og William James voru laus við yfirskilvitlegar trĂșarlegar ĂștskĂœringar ĂĄ hugsun manna eða hegðun, sem losaði sĂĄlfrÊðina undan viðjum heimspeki og guðfrÊði, og lagði grunninn að nĂștĂma sĂĄlfrÊði sem vĂsindagrein. + +Ărið 1892 voru samtökin American Psychological Association, amerĂska sĂĄlfrÊðingafĂ©lagið, stofnuð, en stofnun ĂŸeirra hafði mikil ĂĄhrif ĂĄ ĂŸrĂłun greinarinnar. + +Ă ĂĄrunum 1890-1900 mĂłtaði AusturrĂski taugalĂŠknirinn Sigmund Freud kenningar sĂnar um dulvitund og ĂŸrĂłaði Ășt frĂĄ ĂŸeim aðferðir sem hann taldi að gĂŠtu gagnast til að lĂŠkna sĂĄlarmein. Aðferðir og kenningar Freuds eru einu nafni nefndar sĂĄlgreining. Skilningur Freuds ĂĄ huganum var að mestu byggður ĂĄ tĂșlkunaraðferðum og Ăłbeinum athugunum, en ekki kerfisbundnum rannsĂłknum. + +Flestir sĂĄlfrÊðingar nĂștĂmans hafna kenningum Freuds og ĂŸeim aðferðum sem ĂĄ ĂŸeim byggja, yfirleitt ĂĄ ĂŸeim forsendum að ĂŸĂŠr sĂ©u Ă eðli sĂnu ĂłprĂłfanlegar og ĂŸvĂ ĂłvĂsindalegar. Dulvitundin, eitt grundvallarhugtakið Ă sĂĄlgreiningu, er til dĂŠmis samkvĂŠmt skilgreiningu nokkuð sem ekki er hĂŠgt að rannsaka með beinum hĂŠtti. Kenningar og aðferðir Freuds eru enn ĂŸrĂŠtuefni. ĂĂł er engin spurning um að ĂĄhrifa hans gĂŠtir vĂða, ekki hvað sĂst Ă hugmyndum almennings um sĂĄlfrÊði. + +Að hluta til sem viðbrögð við hve mikil sĂĄlfrÊðin einbeitti sĂ©r að sjĂĄlfsskoðun og huglĂŠgi ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma, varð atferlisstefnan vinsĂŠl sem leiðbeinandi sĂĄlfrÊðikenning. Með forvĂgismennina John B. Watson, Edward Thorndike og B.F. Skinner Ă fararbroddi, ĂŸĂĄ stóð atferlisstefnan ĂĄ bakvið ĂŸĂŠr hugmyndir að sĂĄlfrÊðin skyldi vera vĂsindagrein sem rannsakaði hegðun, en ekki hugann og hafnaði hugmyndum um hugarĂĄstand (svo sem trĂș, langanir og markmið) og hĂ©lt ĂŸvĂ fram að öll hegðun og reynsla helgaðist af viðbrögðum frĂĄ umhverfinu. + +Ă ritinu Psychology as the Behaviorist views it, SĂĄlfrÊðin eins og atferlissinninn sĂ©r hana, sem Watson skrifaði ĂĄrið 1913, segir hann að sĂĄlfrÊði sĂ© algjörlega undirfag nĂĄttĂșruvĂsinda sem rannsaki hlutlĂŠgt, og ekkert annað. Ă sama riti hafnar hann algjörlega að sjĂĄlfsskoðun sĂ© nokkuð sem sĂĄlfrÊði styðjist við og að atferlissinni ĂŸekki enga lĂnu sem skilji að menn og dĂœr. + +Atferlisstefnan var rĂkjandi innan sĂĄlfrÊðinnar stĂłran hluta fyrriparts 20. aldarinnar, að miklu leyti vegna ĂŸess hve vel kenningarnar um skilyrðingu og hagnĂœtingu ĂŸeirra (ekki sĂst Ă auglĂœsingum) sem vĂsindaleg mĂłdel af mannlegri hegðun heppnuðust. + +En ĂŸað varð smĂĄm saman ljĂłst að atferlisstefnan var ekki nĂłgu góð sem leiðandi kenning um mannlega hegðun, ĂŸrĂĄtt fyrir mikilvĂŠgar uppgötvanir. GagnrĂœni Noam Chomsky ĂĄ bĂłk Skinners, Verbal behavior (sem hafði ĂŸað markmið að skĂœra Ășt tungumĂĄlanĂĄm með kenningum atferlissinna), er talin vera ein af stĂŠrstu ĂŸĂĄttunum Ă ĂŸvĂ að atferlisstefnan hĂŠtti að vera rĂkjandi. + +Chomsky sĂœndi fram ĂĄ ĂŸað að tungumĂĄl vĂŠri ekki hĂŠgt að lĂŠra með skilyrðingunni einni saman, vegna ĂŸess að fĂłlk getur bĂșið til setningar sem eru einstakar Ă uppbyggingu og að merkingu sem geta ekki orðið til eingöngu með reynslu af nĂĄttĂșrulegu tungumĂĄli og gaf ĂŸar með Ă skyn að ĂŸað hlyti að vera til hugarĂĄstand, sem atferlisstefnan hafnaði. + +HliðstĂŠtt, ĂŸĂĄ sĂœndi Albert Bandura fram ĂĄ ĂŸað Ă verki sĂnu að börn gĂŠtu lĂŠrt með ĂŸvĂ að fylgjast með hegðun Ă umhverfi sĂnu, ĂĄn breytinga ĂĄ hegðun, svo eitthvað innra með okkur hlyti að eiga hlut að mĂĄli. + +Ris tölvutĂŠkninnar lagði sinn skerf til Ă ĂŸvĂ að lĂta ĂĄ virkni hugans sem Ășrvinnslu ĂĄ upplĂœsingum. Ăetta, ĂĄsamt vĂsindalegum aðferðum við að rannsaka hugann, sem og trĂș ĂĄ hugarĂĄstand, leiddi til riss hugfrÊðistefnunnar sem rĂkjandi kenningu um hugann. + +Tengingar ĂĄ milli heilans og taugakerfisins voru einnig að verða ljĂłsar, að hluta til vegna tilrauna Charles Sherrington og Donald Hebb, og að hluta til vegna rannsĂłkna ĂĄ fĂłlki sem hafði hlotið heilaskaða. Með ĂŸrĂłun ĂĄ tĂŠkni sem gerir okkur kleift að rannsaka heilastarfsemi nĂĄkvĂŠmlega, ĂŸĂĄ hefur taugasĂĄlfrÊði og skilvitleg taugavĂsindi (e. cognitive neurosience) orðið að einna mest virkar innan nĂștĂma sĂĄlfrÊði. + +Með aukinni ĂŸĂĄtttöku annarra greina, svo sem heimspeki, tölvunarfrÊði og taugafrÊði, Ă leit að skilningi ĂĄ huganum, ĂŸĂĄ hefur orðið til yfirfag sem kallast vitsmunavĂsindi, sem einblĂnir ĂĄ að hagnĂœta öll framlög með uppbyggilegum hĂŠtti. + +En ekki hafa allir sĂĄlfrÊðingar verið hrifnir af ĂŸvĂ að reyna að skilja hugann og nĂĄttĂșruna með mekkanĂskum aðferðum. + +Carl Jung, sem eitt sinn fylgdi stefnu Freuds, var frumkvöðull Ă að betrumbĂŠta sjĂĄlfsskoðun Freuds með hugmyndum um trĂș. (Freud hafði hafnað trĂș sem hĂłpblekkingu). + +Alfred Adler, eftir að hafa ĂĄtt einhver samskipti við umrÊðuhĂłp Freuds, myndaði sitt eigið fag, kallað einstaklingssĂĄlfrÊði. Ăhrif hans ĂĄ nĂștĂmasĂĄlfrÊði hafa verið talsverð, ĂŸar sem margar nĂĄlganir hafa fengið að lĂĄni hluta af kenningum hans. KlassĂsk adlerĂsk sĂĄlfrÊði er nĂœleg endurfÊðing ĂĄ kenningum Alfreds Adlers, en ĂŸessi frÊði fella saman upprunalegu kenningu Adler's um persĂłnuleika, stĂl sĂĄlfrÊðimeðferða og heimspeki lĂfsviðhorfa, ĂĄsamt sĂœn Abrahams Maslow's ĂĄ bestu virkni (e. optimal functioning). + +FyrirbĂŠrafrÊði eða hĂșmanĂsk sĂĄlfrÊði varð til ĂĄ 4. ĂĄratug 20. aldar, og hefur veitt mĂłtvĂŠgi við framstefnu og vĂsindalegar aðferðir til að rannsaka hugann. HĂșn leggur ĂĄherslu ĂĄ rannsĂłknir, ĂĄ skynjun einstaklingsins og leitast við að skilja manneskjur og hegðun ĂŸeirra með ĂŸvĂ að framkvĂŠma rannsĂłknirnar. FyrirbĂŠrafrÊðin ĂĄ rĂŠtur sĂnar Ă existentĂalisma og fyrirbĂŠrafrÊði Ă heimspeki. Margir fyrirbĂŠrafrÊðingar hafna algjörlega vĂsindalegum aðferðum og segja að ĂŸað að reyna að mĂŠla upplifanir og skynjun rĂŠni ĂŸað ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu og merkingu mannlegrar tilvistar. + +Ăeir sem lögðu fram ĂŸĂŠr hugmyndir sem mynda grunninn að fyrirbĂŠrafrÊðinni eru meðal annars Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, og Fritz Perls. + +SjĂĄ einnig: Ăgrip af sögu sĂĄlfrÊðinnar, Helstu ĂĄrtöl Ă sögu bandarĂskrar sĂĄlfrÊði, Helstu ĂĄrtöl Ă sögu Ăslenskrar sĂĄlfrÊði + +Ăekktar rannsĂłknir Ă sĂĄlfrÊði + +Undirgreinar sĂĄlfrÊðinnar +Ăað helsta sem sameinar ĂłlĂkar undirgreinar sĂĄlfrÊði er viss aðferðafrÊði, rannsĂłknaraðferðir. Gerð er krafa um hlutlĂŠgar rannsĂłknir, einkum tilraunir. Tilraunaaðferð nĂĄttĂșruvĂsinda er meðal aðalsmerkja sĂĄlfrÊði, sem gerir hana frĂĄbrugðna öðrum greinum sem fjalla um manninn, svo sem heimspeki og stjĂłrnmĂĄlafrÊði. + +LĂta mĂĄ ĂĄ ĂłlĂkar undirgreinar sĂĄlfrÊði sem sjĂłnarhorn ĂĄ viðfangsefni sitt, manninn. Svo nokkur dĂŠmi sĂ©u tekin, ĂŸĂĄ er Ă atferlisgreiningu eingöngu hegðun rannsökuð og reynt að spĂĄ fyrir um hana Ășt frĂĄ fyrri hegðun, Ă lĂffrÊðilegri sĂĄlfrÊði er hegðun og hugsun rannsökuð Ășt frĂĄ lĂfrÊðilegum forsendum, og Ă hugfrÊði er reynt að spĂĄ fyrir um hugsun Ășt frĂĄ hegðun. Aðrar greinar rannsaka sama viðfangsefni, en frĂĄ sĂnum sjĂłnarhornum. Innbyrðis innan sĂĄlfrÊði er sem sagt reynt að ĂștskĂœra hegðun Ășt frĂĄ mismunandi forsendum. + +Ăegar kemur að hagnĂœtingu ĂĄ ĂŸekkingu Ășr undirgreinum sĂĄlfrÊðinnar er svo stuðst við ĂŸekkingu Ășr öllum undirgreinum, en skĂœringar sem taldar eiga frekar við en aðrar eru nĂœttar. + +Helstu undirgreinar sĂĄlfrÊði eru eftirfarandi: + +Atferlisgreining + +FĂ©lagssĂĄlfrÊði + +HagnĂœtt sĂĄlfrÊði + +HagnĂœtt sĂĄlfrÊði snĂœst um að nota sĂĄlfrÊðilegar aðferðir og kenningar til að leysa vandamĂĄl à öðrum greinum, eins og t.d. Ă starfsmannastjĂłrnun, vöruhönnun, lĂŠkningum og menntun. + +HeilsusĂĄlfrÊði + +HugfrÊði + +KlĂnĂsk sĂĄlfrÊði + +LĂffrÊðileg sĂĄlfrÊði + +NĂĄmssĂĄlfrÊði + +PersĂłnuleikasĂĄlfrÊði + +PersĂłnuleikasĂĄlfrÊði getur talist til sĂgildra undirgreina sĂĄlfrÊðinnar og eiga rĂŠtur að rekja til kenninga Freuds um persĂłnuleikann. Ăhersla er lögð ĂĄ einstaklingsmun og gengið er Ășt frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að fĂłlk sĂ© ĂłlĂkt vegna meðfĂŠddra eða ĂĄunninna persĂłnuleikaĂŸĂĄtta sem mĂłta hegðun fĂłlks Ă vissum aðstÊðum og valda ĂŸvĂ að hver einstaklingur sĂœnir ĂĄkveðinn stöðugleika Ă hegðun. + +RĂ©ttarsĂĄlfrÊði + +SkynjunarsĂĄlfrÊði + +TaugasĂĄlfrÊði + +TilraunasĂĄlfrÊði + +VinnusĂĄlfrÊði + +ĂroskasĂĄlfrÊði + +ĂrĂłunarsĂĄlfrÊði + +ĂldrunarsĂĄlfrÊði + +ĂldrunarsĂĄlfrÊði fjallar um lĂkamlegar, hugrĂŠnar, fĂ©lagslegar og sĂĄlrĂŠnar breytingar sem eiga sĂ©r stað við öldrun. ĂldrunarsĂĄlfrÊði fĂŠst bÊði við breytingar sem fylgja eðlilegri öldrun sem og Ăłeðlilegar breytingar, svo sem heilabilun. + +Heimildir + Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund, Daniel Reisberg: Psychology, sjötta ĂștgĂĄfa, W.W. Norton & Company 2004. + + Rita L. Atkinson, Richard C. Atkinson, Ernest R. Hilgard: SĂĄlfrÊði I, ĂĄttunda ĂștgĂĄfa, Iðunn 1992. + Rita L. Atkinson, Richard C. Atkinson, Ernest R. Hilgard: SĂĄlfrÊði II, ĂĄttunda ĂștgĂĄfa, Iðunn 1988. + + + UpplĂœsingar um undirgreinar sĂĄlfrÊðinnar af vef HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands og Ășr greininni Hvað eru til margar gerðir af sĂĄlfrÊði? af VĂsindavefnum. + +Tengt efni + Saga sĂĄlfrÊðinnar ĂĄ Ăslandi + AtferlishagfrÊði (e. behavioral economics) + FĂ©lagsfrÊði + FĂ©lagsråðgjöf + GervigreindarfrÊði + HĂĄtternisfrÊði (e. ethology) + Hugspeki + KennslufrÊði + LĂffrÊði + LĂfeðlisfrÊði + LĂŠknisfrÊði + MannĂŸĂĄttafrÊði (e. human factors) + MarkaðsfrÊði + MĂĄlvĂsindi + PrĂłffrÊði + TaugavĂsindi + Uppeldis- og menntunarfrÊði + VitsmunavĂsindi + +Tenglar + +Frekari upplĂœsingar + SĂĄlfrÊðiskor HĂĄskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk + SĂĄlfrÊðiskor HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands + Umfjöllun um sĂĄlfrÊði ĂĄ Iðan.is + SĂĄlfrÊðiefni hjĂĄ AmoebaWeb + APA Ă hundrað ĂĄr + SĂgild verk Ă sögu sĂĄlfrÊðinnar + OrðabĂłk Ă sĂĄlfrÊði + AlfrÊðiorðabĂłk um sĂĄlfrÊði + SĂĄlfrÊðigreinar + SĂĄlfrÊðiritgerðir + SĂĄlfrÊðiråðstefnur + SĂĄlfrÊðiĂŸing (aðallega evrĂłpsk) + FrĂ©ttir frĂĄ ScienceDaily Mind and Brain + PsychCentral + SĂĄlfrÊðiefni (einnig um fĂ©lagssĂĄlfrÊði og einnig um "Cumulative Risk and Resilience") + Psychology Career Ladders (criticism) + +SĂĄlfrÊðifĂ©lög og -samtök + SĂĄlfrÊðingafĂ©lag Ăslands + Anima, fĂ©lag sĂĄlfrÊðinema við HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands + Res Extensa - ĂŸverfaglegt Ăslenskt fĂ©lag ĂĄhugamanna um hug, heila og hĂĄtterni. + AmerĂska sĂĄlfrÊðingafĂ©lagið + AmerĂska sĂĄlfrÊðifĂ©lagið + AusturrĂska sĂĄlfrÊðifĂ©lagið + BelgĂska sĂĄlfrÊðifĂ©lagið + Breska sĂĄlfrÊðifĂ©lagið + Ansia Psychology University of Rome Research (it) + KanadĂska sĂĄlfrÊðifĂ©lagið + Finnska sĂĄlfrÊðifĂ©lagið + ĂĂœska sĂĄlfrÊðifĂ©lagið + Norsk samtök ĂŸeirra sem hafa mastersgråðu Ă sĂĄlfrÊði + SingapĂșrska sĂĄlfrÊðifĂ©lagið + In-Mind, Quarterly Magazine for Social Psychology +EðlisfrÊðilögmĂĄl er stĂŠrðfrÊðilegt samhengi ĂĄ milli mĂŠlanlegrar stĂŠrðar og ĂŸeirra ĂŸĂĄtta sem hluturinn, sem ĂĄ að mĂŠla, er håður. Ăetta er grundvallarhugtak Ă eðlisfrÊðinni. + +EðlisfrÊðilögmĂĄl eru yfirleitt sannreynd med tilraunum. Tilraunir hafa alltaf einhverja Ăłvissu Ă sĂ©r og ĂŸvĂ er hĂŠgt ad segja að eðlisfrÊðilögmĂĄl sĂ©u nĂĄlganir ĂĄ ĂŸvĂ sem mĂŠlt er vegna ĂŸess að lĂkanið, sem er byggt Ășt frĂĄ tilraununum, lĂœsir mĂŠliniðurstöðum innan einhverja skekkjumarka. + +FrĂŠg eðlisfrÊðilögmĂĄl eru t.d. lögmĂĄl Newtons og jöfnur Maxwells. + +EðlisfrÊði +Eskifjörður er bĂŠr ĂĄ norðurströnd samnefnds fjarðar sem liggur Ășt frĂĄ Reyðarfirði norðanverðum. ĂbĂșar Eskifjarðar voru 1040 ĂŸann 1. janĂșar 2019 og hefur ĂbĂșatalan haldist nokkuð stöðug sĂðustu ĂĄrin. + +Eskifjörður var verslunarstaður fyrr ĂĄ öldum og var einn hinna sex staða ĂĄ Ăslandi, sem fengu kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi ĂĄrið 1786 við afnĂĄm einokunarverslunarinnar, en missti ĂŸau aftur sĂðar. Ărið 1798 reisti danska verslunarfyrirtĂŠkið Ărum og Wulff verslunarhĂșs Ă Ătkaupstað, sem svo er kallaður, og hĂłf ĂŸar verslun. Ăað var ĂŸĂł ekki fyrr en Norðmenn hĂłfu sĂldveiðar við Ăsland ĂĄ sĂðari hluta 19. aldar sem ĂbĂșum tĂłk að fjölga verulega og ĂĄrið 1902 voru ĂbĂșarnir orðnir 228. + +Aðalatvinnuvegur ĂbĂșa Eskifjarðar er sjĂĄvarĂștvegur og fiskvinnsla en verslun og ĂŸjĂłnusta eru einnig mikilvĂŠgar atvinnugreinar. Ă Eskifirði er SjĂłminjasafn Austurlands Ă gömlu hĂșsi sem Ărum og Wulff byggðu um 1816 og ĂŸar mĂĄ sjĂĄ minjar um sjĂłsĂłkn ĂĄ Austfjörðum og byggðasögu og atvinnulĂf ĂĄ Eskifirði. Aðsetur sĂœslumannsembĂŠttis Suður-MĂșlasĂœslu var flutt til Eskifjarðar 1853 og ĂŸar er miðstöð löggĂŠslu ĂĄ Austurlandi. + +Byggðin var gerð að sĂ©rstökum hreppi, Eskifjarðarhreppi, ĂĄrið 1907 en hafði fram að ĂŸvĂ tilheyrt Reyðarfjarðarhreppi. Hreppurinn fĂ©kk kaupstaðarrĂ©ttindi ĂĄ nĂœ 22. aprĂl 1974. Hinn 1. janĂșar 1988 sameinaðist Helgustaðahreppur Eskifirði. Hinn 7. jĂșnĂ 1998 sameinaðist Eskifjarðarkaupstaður Reyðarfjarðarhreppi ĂĄ nĂœ og Neskaupstað að auki undir nafninu Fjarðabyggð. + +Ă Eskifirði er Steinasafn Sigurborgar og Sörens. + +Heimildir + + +Ă ĂĄrunum 1971 til 1986 kom Ășr fimm binda ritverk Einars Braga skĂĄlds, sem kallast Eskja. + +Tenglar + www.eskifjordur.is - UpplĂœsingasĂða um sögu Eskifjarðar + www.eskifjordur.com - UpplĂœsingasĂða um allt Ă kringum Eskifjörð + www.facebook.com/eskifjordur - Eskifjörður ĂĄ Facebook. + +Aðsetur sĂœslumanna ĂĄ Ăslandi +Eskifjörður +Firðir ĂĄ Ăslandi +Ăslensk sjĂĄvarĂŸorp +Ărið 2003 (MMIII Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var 3. ĂĄr 21. aldar sem hĂłfst ĂĄ miðvikudegi samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. + +Atburðir + +JanĂșar + + 1. janĂșar - LuĂz InĂĄcio Lula Da Silva tĂłk við embĂŠtti sem 37. forseti BrasilĂu. + 1. janĂșar - Pascal Couchepin varð forseti Sviss. + 5. janĂșar - 20 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar tveir palestĂnskir sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjumenn réðust ĂĄ strĂŠtisvagnastöð Ă Tel AvĂv. + 7. janĂșar - Vafrinn Safari kom fyrst Ășt. + 9. janĂșar - Yfirmaður vopnaeftirlits Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna Ă Ărak, Hans Blix, staðfesti að engar sannanir hefðu fundist fyrir ĂŸvĂ að Ărak ĂŠtti gereyðingarvopn. + 16. janĂșar - Sölusamningur um BĂșnaðarbankann var undirritaður. + 16. janĂșar - Geimskutlan Columbia hĂ©lt Ă sĂna sĂðustu geimferð. + 18. janĂșar - ĂslendingabĂłk var opnuð almenningi. + 18. janĂșar - SkĂłgareldar ollu grĂðarlegu tjĂłni Ă Ăștjaðri Canberra Ă ĂstralĂu. + 21. janĂșar - Rithöfundurinn HallgrĂmur Helgason birti grein Ă Morgunblaðinu um âblĂĄu höndinaâ, hugtak sem sĂðar varð vinsĂŠlt til að lĂœsa ĂĄhrifum SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokksins Ă viðskiptalĂfinu. + 21. janĂșar - Kevin Mitnick fĂ©kk að nota tölvu aftur. + 22. janĂșar - SĂðasta merkið frĂĄ geimkönnunarfarinu Pioneer 10 barst til jarðar Ășr 7,6 milljarða mĂlna fjarlĂŠgð frĂĄ jörðu. + 24. janĂșar - Råðstefnunni World Social Forum lauk Ă Porto Alegre Ă BrasilĂu með ĂĄkalli um að hĂŠtt yrði að heyja fyrirbyggjandi strĂð og að öryggisråðið beitti neitunarvaldi fyrir frið. + 28. janĂșar - Nigergate-hneykslið: George W. Bush sagði frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að CIA hefði undir höndum skjöl um meint kaup Saddam Hussein ĂĄ rĂœrðu Ășrani frĂĄ NĂger. Skjölin reyndust sĂðar vera fölsuð. + 30. janĂșar - BelgĂa lögleiddi hjĂłnabönd samkynhneigðra. + +FebrĂșar + + 1. febrĂșar - Geimskutlan Columbia fĂłrst yfir Texas ĂŸegar hĂșn er ad koma aftur inn Ă andrĂșmsloftið. Allir geimfararnir fĂłrust, sjö talsins. + 1. febrĂșar - ĂĂłrĂłlfur Ărnason tĂłk við sem borgarstjĂłri ReykjavĂkurborgar. + 4. febrĂșar - SerbĂa og Svartfjallaland hĂŠtti að nota nafnið JĂșgĂłslavĂa opinberlega. + 6. febrĂșar - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Didda og dauði kötturinn var frumsĂœnd. + 9. febrĂșar - Ingibjörg SĂłlrĂșn GĂsladĂłttir hĂ©lt frĂŠga rÊðu Ă Borgarnesi ĂŸar sem hĂșn gagnrĂœndi afskipti DavĂðs Oddssonar af viðskiptalĂfinu. + 15. febrĂșar - AlĂŸjóðleg mĂłtmĂŠli fĂłru fram gegn strĂðinu Ă Ărak. Meira en 6 milljĂłnir manna mĂłtmĂŠltu Ă 600 borgum. + 17. febrĂșar - Egypska trĂșarleiðtoganum Abu Omar var rĂŠnt af Ăștsendurum CIA Ă MĂlanĂł. + 18. febrĂșar - 198 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar maður kveikti eld Ă neðanjarðarlest Ă SeĂșl Ă Suður-KĂłreu. + 19. febrĂșar - 302 hermenn lĂ©tust ĂŸegar herflugvĂ©l hrapaði Ă Ăran. + 19. febrĂșar - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigðisstofnunin staðfesti að EbĂłlafaraldur vĂŠri hafinn Ă Vestur-KongĂł. + 21. febrĂșar - JarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir Xinjang. 257 fĂłrust. + 24. febrĂșar - SĂŠnska sjĂłnvarpsstöðin SVT24 hĂłf Ăștsendingar. + 26. febrĂșar - BandarĂskur kaupsĂœslumaður kom inn ĂĄ spĂtala Ă Hanoi með bråðalungnabĂłlgu, einnig ĂŸekkt sem SARS. + 26. febrĂșar - StrĂðið Ă DarfĂșr hĂłfst ĂŸegar skĂŠruliðar risu gegn stjĂłrn SĂșdan. + 28. febrĂșar - Kvikmyndin NĂłi albĂnĂłi eftir Dag KĂĄra PĂ©tursson var frumsĂœnd. + 28. febrĂșar - VĂĄclav Klaus var kjörinn forseti TĂ©kklands. + +Mars + + 2. mars - Pakistönsk yfirvöld handsömuðu Khalid Shaikh Mohammed sem var ĂĄlitinn standa ĂĄ bak við Hryðjuverkin 11. september 2001. Einnig handtĂłku ĂŸeir Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi sem var talinn hafa fjĂĄrmagnað ĂĄrĂĄsirnar. + 6. mars - Yasser Arafat Ăștnefndi Mahmoud Abbas eftirmann sinn. + 8. mars - ĂbĂșar Möltu samĂŸykktu inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandið. + 12. mars - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigðismĂĄlastofnunin lĂœsti yfir neyðarĂĄstandi vegna bråðalungnabĂłlgu. + 12. mars - Leyniskytta myrti Zoran ÄinÄiÄ forsĂŠtisråðherra SerbĂu Ă Belgrad. + 14. mars - FemĂnistafĂ©lag Ăslands var stofnað. + 14. mars - Recep Tayyip ErdoÄan tĂłk við embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisråðherra Tyrklands. + 15. mars - Hu Jintao tĂłk við sem forseti alĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldisins KĂna af Jiang Zemin. + 16. mars - StĂŠrstu samrĂŠmdu fjöldamĂłtmĂŠli ĂĄ alheimsvĂsu voru haldin gegn strĂði Ă Ărak. + 17. mars - Robin Cook, innanrĂkisråðherra Bretlands sagði af sĂ©r vegna ĂĄgreinings um ĂĄĂŠtlanir um strĂð ĂĄ hendur Ărak. + 18. mars - Listi viljugra ĂŸjóða sem studdu afvopnun Ăraks var birtur og var Ăsland ĂĄ honum. + 19. mars - George W. Bush, ĂŸĂĄverandi forseti BandarĂkjanna, fyrirskipaði upphaf ĂraksstrĂðsins. + 20. mars - Hermenn frĂĄ BandarĂkjunum, Bretlandi, ĂstralĂu og PĂłllandi réðust inn Ă Ărak. + 20. mars - Staðlaråð Ăslands var stofnað. + 23. mars - SlĂłvenar samĂŸykktu inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandið og NATO. + 24. mars - Arababandalagið samĂŸykkti ĂĄlyktun um að herir BandarĂkjanna og Breta yfirgĂŠfu Ărak tafarlaust. + 31. mars - 400 fĂłrust Ă aurskriðu sem fĂłr yfir nĂĄmubĂŠinn Chima Ă BĂłlivĂu. + +AprĂl + + 1. aprĂl - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Fyrsti aprĂll var frumsĂœnd. + 3. aprĂl - SerbĂa og Svartfjallaland varð aðili að EvrĂłpuråðinu. + 3. aprĂl - Risasmokkfiskur veiddist Ă Rosshafi. + 3. aprĂl - ĂraksstrĂðið: BandarĂkjaher lagði alĂŸjóðaflugvöllinn Ă Bagdad undir sig. + 7. aprĂl - ĂraksstrĂðið: Breski herinn nåði Basra ĂĄ sitt vald. + 9. aprĂl - ĂraksstrĂðið: BandarĂkjaher nåði Bagdad ĂĄ sitt vald. + 12. aprĂl - KjĂłsendur Ă Ungverjalandi samĂŸykktu inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandið. + 14. aprĂl - Kortlagningu gengamengis mannsins Ă Human Genome Project lauk. + 16. aprĂl - AðildarsĂĄttmĂĄlinn 2003 um aðild 10 nĂœrra EvrĂłpusambandsrĂkja var undirritaður af 25 rĂkjum. + 17. aprĂl - Anneli JÀÀtteenmĂ€ki varð fyrsti kvenforsĂŠtisråðherra Finnlands. + 23. aprĂl - British Airways og Air France gĂĄfu Ășt yfirlĂœsingu um að ĂŸau myndu ekki notast við Concorde-flugvĂ©lar framar. + 25. aprĂl - Winnie Mandela var dĂŠmd Ă sex ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir svik og ĂŸjĂłfnað. + 26. aprĂl - StĂłrbruni varð Ă moskunni Islamic Center Ă Malmö. Slökkviliðsmenn urðu fyrir grjĂłtkasti við störf sĂn. + 29. aprĂl - BandarĂkjaher tilkynnti að hann hygðist draga herlið sitt frĂĄ SĂĄdĂ-ArabĂu. + +MaĂ + + 1. maĂ - George W. Bush tilkynnti að hernaðaraðgerðum Ă Ărak vĂŠri lokið. + 3. maĂ - 16 lĂ©tust Ă flóðum Ă ArgentĂnu. + 10. maĂ - AlĂŸingiskosningar voru haldnar. Meirihluti SjĂĄlfstÊðisflokks og FramsĂłknarflokks hĂ©lst en SjĂĄlfstÊðismenn töpuðu fjĂłrum ĂŸingsĂŠtum. + 11. maĂ - Saltkeri Cellinis var stolið frĂĄ Kunsthistorisches Museum Ă VĂn. + 12. maĂ - 60 manns lĂ©tu lĂfið Ă sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjuĂĄrĂĄs Ă TĂ©tĂ©nĂu. + 12. maĂ - 35 lĂ©tust Ă fimmtĂĄn sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum Ă SĂĄdĂ-ArabĂu. + 14. maĂ - Fjöldagröf með lĂkamsleifum 3000 manna var uppgötvuð Ă Hilla, 90 km frĂĄ Bagdad. + 16. maĂ - Ălafur Ragnar GrĂmsson forseti Ăslands kvĂŠntist Dorrit Moussaieff. + 16. maĂ - HryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄsirnar Ă Casablanca: 45 lĂ©tust og yfir 100 slösuðust Ă fjĂłrtĂĄn sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum Ă Casablanca Ă MarokkĂł. + 18. maĂ - 260 lĂ©tust af völdum flóða ĂŸegar hitabeltisfellibylur gekk yfir SrĂ Lanka. + 19. maĂ - StrĂðið Ă Aceh 2003-2004: IndĂłnesĂuher hĂłf aðgerðir Ă Aceh-hĂ©raði. + 21. maĂ - JarðskjĂĄlfti, 6,7 ĂĄ Richter með upptök við BoumerdĂšs, skĂłk AlsĂr. 2300 lĂ©tust. + 23. maĂ - Ăslenska alĂŸjóðabjörgunarsveitin fĂłr Ășt til AlsĂr til rĂșstabjörgunar. + 24. maĂ - Sertab Erener sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva fyrir Tyrkland með laginu âEveryway That I Canâ. Framlag Ăslands var lagið âOpen Your Heartâ. + 29. maĂ - Ludwig Scotty varð forseti NĂĄrĂș. + +JĂșnĂ + + JĂșnĂ - Tölvuleikurinn Orustan um Wesnoth kom fyrst Ășt. + 1. jĂșnĂ - Vatn hĂłf að safnast Ă uppistöðulĂłnið við Ăriggja gljĂșfra stĂfluna Ă KĂna. Við ĂŸetta hĂŠkkaði vatnsborðið um allt að 100 metra. + 6. jĂșnĂ - Endurgerða Austur-IndĂafarið Götheborg var sjĂłsett Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. + 8. jĂșnĂ - KjĂłsendur Ă PĂłllandi samĂŸykktu aðild að EvrĂłpusambandinu. + 14. jĂșnĂ - KjĂłsendur Ă TĂ©kklandi samĂŸykktu aðild að EvrĂłpusambandinu. + 16. jĂșnĂ - Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin Hraun var stofnuð. + 17. jĂșnĂ - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Ăriðja nafnið var frumsĂœnd. + 18. jĂșnĂ - ForsĂŠtisråðherra Finnlands, Anneli JÀÀtteenmĂ€ki, neyddist til að segja af sĂ©r eftir að hafa logið að ĂŸinginu. + 20. jĂșnĂ - Samtökin Wikimedia voru stofnuð. + 27. jĂșnĂ - Tveir leiðtogar Al-KaĂda, Ayman al-Zawahiri og Suleyman Abu Ghaith, voru handteknir Ă Ărak. + 30. jĂșnĂ - Ăðru strĂðinu Ă KongĂł lauk með friðarsamningum. + +JĂșlĂ + + 1. jĂșlĂ - Ăslenskar orkurannsĂłknir tĂłku til starfa. + 5. jĂșlĂ - AlĂŸjóðaheilbrigðisstofnunin tilkynnti að nåðst hefði að takmarka Ăștbreiðslu bråðalungnabĂłlgu (SARS). + 5. jĂșlĂ - 12 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar tĂ©tĂ©nskir sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjumenn gerðu ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ rokktĂłnleika Ă Tusjino Ă nĂĄgrenni Moskvu. + 6. jĂșlĂ - Cosmic Call-verkefnið sendi skilaboð frĂĄ Jevpatoria ĂĄ KrĂmskaga til fimm stjarna: Hip 4872, HD 245409, 55 Cancri, HD 10307 og 47 Ursae Majoris. Skilaboðin munu nĂĄ ĂĄfangastað ĂĄ ĂĄrunum frĂĄ 2036 til 2049. + 6. jĂșlĂ - ĂsraelsstjĂłrn lĂ©t 350 palestĂnska fanga lausa. + 8. jĂșlĂ - Um 600 fĂłrust og 200 björguðust ĂŸegar ferja sökk Ă Bangladess. + 9. jĂșlĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin SjĂłrĂŠningjar ĂĄ KarĂbahafi: Bölvun svörtu perlunnar var frumsĂœnd. + 10. jĂșlĂ - WikibĂŠkur, systurverkefni Wikipediu, hĂłf göngu sĂna. + 15. jĂșlĂ - Mozilla Foundation var stofnuð. + 18. jĂșlĂ - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Ussss var frumsĂœnd. + 18. jĂșlĂ - EvrĂłpuråðstefnan gaf Ășt fyrstu drög að nĂœrri stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ EvrĂłpu. + 18. jĂșlĂ - Breski vopnaeftirlitsmaðurinn David Kelly sem dregið hafði Ă efa skĂœrslu um fund gereyðingarvopna Ă Ărak fannst lĂĄtinn. + 22. jĂșlĂ - Uday og Qusay Hussein, synir Saddams Hussein, voru felldir eftir umsĂĄtur um MĂłsĂșl Ă Ărak. + 24. jĂșlĂ - Ăstralir hĂłfu RAMSI-aðgerðina ĂĄ SalĂłmonseyjum eftir að stjĂłrn eyjanna hafði Ăłskað eftir alĂŸjóðlegri aðstoð vegna innanlandsĂłfriðar. + 30. jĂșlĂ - SĂðasta Volkswagen bjallan var framleidd Ă MexĂkĂł. ĂĂĄ höfðu 21.529.464 bĂlar af ĂŸessari gerð verið framleiddir frĂĄ 1938. + 31. jĂșlĂ - Fyrsta Roverway-skĂĄtamĂłtið hĂłfst Ă PortĂșgal. + +ĂgĂșst + + ĂgĂșst - Ăslenska vefritið VantrĂș hĂłf göngu sĂna. + 1. ĂĄgĂșst - 35 rĂșssneskir hermenn lĂ©tu lĂfið Ă sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjuĂĄrĂĄs Ă Norður-OssetĂu. + 1. ĂĄgĂșst - MenntafĂ©lagið ehf. tĂłk við rekstri StĂœrimannaskĂłlans og VĂ©lskĂłlans sem voru sĂðar sameinaðir við TĂŠkniskĂłlann. + 11. ĂĄgĂșst - Seinni borgarastyrjöldin Ă LĂberĂu tĂłk enda ĂŸegar Charles Taylor sagði af sĂ©r og flĂșði land. + 11. ĂĄgĂșst - NATO tĂłk yfir stjĂłrn alĂŸjóðlega friðargĂŠsluliðsins Ă Afganistan. + 12. ĂĄgĂșst - PortĂșgalski knattspyrnumaðurinn Cristiano Ronaldo var seldur til Manchester United fyrir 12,24 milljĂłn pund. + 18. ĂĄgĂșst - Norðurlandasamningur um almannatryggingar var undirritaður. + 18. ĂĄgĂșst - MenntaskĂłlinn Hraðbraut hĂłf starfsemi sĂna. + 19. ĂĄgĂșst - BĂlasprengja sprakk Ă hverfi Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna Ă Bagdad með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 22 lĂ©tust, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal sĂ©rstakur sendimaður SĂŸ Ă Ărak, Sergio Vieira de Mello. + 19. ĂĄgĂșst - 23 lĂ©tust og 100 sĂŠrðust ĂŸegar sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjumaður ĂĄ vegum Hamas gerði ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ strĂŠtisvagn Ă JerĂșsalem. + 21. ĂĄgĂșst - Ăsraelsher myrti nĂŠstråðanda Hamassamtakanna, Ismail Abu Shanab, Ă hefndarskyni fyrir sprengjutilrÊðið tveimur dögum fyrr. + 25. ĂĄgĂșst - Spitzer-geimsjĂłnaukanum var skotið ĂĄ loft. + 25. ĂĄgĂșst - 50 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar tvĂŠr bĂlasprengjur sprungu Ă Mumbai ĂĄ Indlandi. + 27. ĂĄgĂșst - PlĂĄnetan Mars var nĂŠr jörðu en hĂșn hafði verið Ă 60.000 ĂĄr. + 27. ĂĄgĂșst - Fyrstu sexhliða viðrÊðurnar um kjarnorkuĂĄĂŠtlun Norður-KĂłreu fĂłru fram. + 29. ĂĄgĂșst - BĂlasprengja sprakk við mosku Ă Nadjaf Ă Ărak með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 95 lĂ©tust, ĂŸar ĂĄ meðal sjĂtaklerkurinn Mohammad Baqr al Hakim. + +September + + 4. september - Verslunarmiðstöðin Bull Ring var opnuð Ă Birmingham ĂĄ Englandi. + 11. september - Anna Lindh, utanrĂkisråðherra SvĂĂŸjóðar, lĂ©st ĂĄ sjĂșkrahĂșsi daginn eftir að råðist var ĂĄ hana og hĂșn stungin margsinnis Ă verslunarmiðstöð. + 14. september - ĂbĂșar Eistlands samĂŸykktu aðild að EvrĂłpusambandinu Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu. + 14. september - Råðherrafundi AlĂŸjóðaviðskiptastofnunarinnar lauk ĂĄn ĂĄrangurs Ă Cancun. + 15. september - SkĂŠruliðar Ășr Ăjóðfrelsisher KĂłlumbĂu rĂŠndu ĂĄtta erlendum ferðamönnum Ă Ciudad Perdida. Ăeim var sleppt 100 dögum sĂðar. + 20. september - Lettar samĂŸykktu inngöngu Ă EvrĂłpusambandið Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu. + 22. september - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin Two and a Half Men hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ CBS. + 23. september - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin One Tree Hill hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ The WB Television Network. + 24. september - Hubble Ultra-Deep Field-verkefnið hĂłfst ĂŸar sem Hubble-sjĂłnaukinn tĂłk yfir 800 myndir af agnarlitlu svÊði Ă geimnum. + 25. september - JarðskjĂĄlfti sem mĂŠldist ĂĄtta stig ĂĄ Richter reið yfir eyjuna HokkaĂdĂł. + 26. september - TĂłnlistarhĂșsið Auditorio de Tenerife var vĂgt ĂĄ KanarĂeyjum. + 27. september - Geimferðastofnun EvrĂłpu skaut SMART-1-gervihnettinum ĂĄ braut um Tunglið. + 29. september - NetsĂmafyrirtĂŠkið Skype var stofnað. + +OktĂłber + + 1. oktĂłber - Eyririnn var lagður niður og ein krĂłna varð minnsta gjaldmiðilseiningin ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 4. oktĂłber - SjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjumaður myrti 19 ĂĄ bar Ă HaĂfa Ă Ăsrael. + 5. oktĂłber - Ăsraelskar herĂŸotur réðust ĂĄ meintar bĂŠkistöðvar hryðjuverkamanna Ă SĂœrlandi. + 5. oktĂłber - Ăslamskir hermenn myrtu Ătalska trĂșboðann Annalena Tonelli Ă sjĂșkrahĂșsinu sem hĂșn hafði stofnað Ă Borama. + 7. oktĂłber - Arnold Schwarzenegger var kjörinn fylkisstjĂłri KalifornĂu. + 10. oktĂłber - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Kill Bill var frumsĂœnd. + 12. oktĂłber - MyndvinnsluhugbĂșnaðurinn Hugin kom fyrst Ășt. + 12. oktĂłber - Michael Schumacher slĂł met Juan Manuel Fangio ĂŸegar hann sigraði FormĂșlu 1-kappaksturinn Ă sjötta sinn. + 15. oktĂłber - Fyrsta mannaða geimfari KĂna, Shenzhou 5, var skotið ĂĄ loft. + 16. oktĂłber - Listaverkið The Weather Project eftir Ălaf ElĂasson var opnað almenningi Ă Tate Modern Ă London. + 17. oktĂłber - Friðarbogin, samtök homma og lesbĂa, voru stofnuð Ă FĂŠreyjum. + 19. oktĂłber - BĂĄtur með flĂłttafĂłlki fĂłrst við Ătölsku eyjuna Lampedusa; 70 drukknuðu. + 24. oktĂłber - SĂðasta ĂĄĂŠtlunarflug Concorde-ĂŸotu var flogið. + 24. oktĂłber - StĂœrikerfið Mac OS X Panther var kynnt til sögunnar. + 27. oktĂłber - 25 lĂ©tust Ă fimm sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ höfuðstöðvar Rauða krossins og lögreglustöðvar Ă Bagdad. + +NĂłvember + + 6. nĂłvember - Fyrsta ĂștgĂĄfa Linuxdreifingarinnar Fedora kom Ășt. + 8. nĂłvember - 17 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar bĂlasprengja sprakk Ă ĂbĂșðahverfi Ă RĂad Ă SĂĄdĂ-ArabĂu. + 12. nĂłvember - 26 lĂ©tust Ă sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjuĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ bĂŠkistöðvar Ătölsku herlögreglunnar Ă Nassiriya Ă Ărak. + 14. nĂłvember - VĂsindamenn Ă San Diego uppgötvuðu dvergreikistjörnuna 90377 Sedna. + 15. nĂłvember - 25 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar bĂlasprengjur sprungu við samkomuhĂșs gyðinga Ă IstanbĂșl Ă Tyrklandi. + 19. nĂłvember - George W. Bush hĂ©lt Ă opinbera heimsĂłkn til Bretlands og var boðið Ă Buckingham-höll af ElĂsabetu 2., fyrstum BandarĂkjaforseta frĂĄ 1918. + 20. nĂłvember - 27 lĂ©tust Ă hryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄs gegn breska sendiråðinu og breskum banka Ă IstanbĂșl Ă Tyrklandi. + 21. nĂłvember - Breska kvikmyndin Ăstin grĂpur alla var frumsĂœnd. + 23. nĂłvember - RĂłsabyltingin: Eduard Shevardnadze sagði af sĂ©r embĂŠtti forseta GeorgĂu eftir mĂłtmĂŠlaöldu Ă kjölfar ĂĄsakana um kosningasvindl. + 26. nĂłvember - Concorde-flugvĂ©larnar voru teknar Ășr notkun vegna einnar brotlendingar og vegna hryðjuverkanna 11. september 2001. Concorde-vĂ©larnar nåðu allt að 2000 km/klst. + 27. nĂłvember - George W. Bush heimsĂłtti herlið BandarĂkjanna Ă Ărak ĂĄ ĂŸakkargjörðarhĂĄtĂðinni. + +Desember + + 5. desember - Fyrsta breytingin ĂĄ Ăslensku var gerð ĂĄ Ăslensku Wikipedia (sjĂĄ sögu Wikipedia). + 12. desember - Jean ChrĂ©tien sagði af sĂ©r embĂŠtti forsĂŠtisråðherra Kanada eftir 10 ĂĄra setu. + 12. desember - ViðrÊður um nĂœja stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ EvrĂłpu fĂłru Ășt um ĂŸĂșfur. + 13. desember - Saddam Hussein fannst falinn Ă byrgi nĂĄlĂŠgt Tikrit Ă Ărak og var tekinn höndum af BandarĂkjaher. + 23. desember - AlĂŸjóðaferðamĂĄlastofnunin varð ein af stofnunum Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna. + 23. desember - Um 200 manns lĂ©tust ĂŸegar sprenging varð Ă gaslind Ă Chongqing Ă KĂna. + 26. desember - Fyrsta greinin var skrifuð Ă Ăslenska hluta Wikipediu. + 27. desember - JarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir Ăran; um 30.000 fĂłrust. + 27. desember - 13 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar nokkrar bĂlsprengjur sprungu Ă pĂłlska hverfinu Ă Kerbala Ă Ărak. + 29. desember - BrĂ©fasprengjur bĂĄrust seðlabankastjĂłra EvrĂłpu Jean-Claude Trichet og Europol. + +Ădagsettir atburðir + BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin All time low var stofnuð. + Ritið Demokrati med radvalg og fondsvalg eftir Björn S. StefĂĄnsson kom Ășt við OslĂłarhĂĄskĂłla. + FyrirtĂŠkið Landsnet var stofnað ĂĄ Ăslandi. + SkĂĄldsaga Lauren Weisberger, The Devil Wears Prada, kom Ășt Ă bandarĂkjunum. + Oyster-kort, snertikort sem veita aðgang að almenningssamgöngum Ă London, voru tekin Ă notkun. + Enska hljĂłmsveitin Enter Shikari var stofnuð. + Breska hljĂłmsveitin McFly var stofnuð. + Ăslenska vefritið Gagnauga hĂłf göngu sĂna. + Ăslenska bĂłkaĂștgĂĄfan Skrudda var stofnuð. + Enska hljĂłmsveitin Noisettes var stofnuð. + Tvöföldun Reykjanesbrautar hĂłfst. + Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin Fighting Shit var stofnuð. + Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin HvanndalsbrÊður var stofnuð. + Fyrsta keppnin Ă skĂĄkboxi var haldin Ă BerlĂn. + +FĂŠdd + 3. janĂșar - Greta Thunberg, sĂŠnskur aðgerðasinni. + 23. mars - Ăsak Bergmann JĂłhannesson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður + 12. maĂ - Madeleine McCann, bresk stĂșlka sem hvarf Ă PortĂșgal. + 1. desember - Jackson Nicoll, bandarĂskur leikari. + 7. desember - KatarĂna AmalĂa Hollandsprinsessa. + +DĂĄin + 23. janĂșar - RĂșrik Haraldsson, Ăslenskur leikari (f. 1926). + 14. febrĂșar - Kindin Dolly, fyrsta klĂłnaða spendĂœrið (f. 1996). + 18. febrĂșar - Isser Harel, Ăsraelskur Mossad-leiðtogi (f. 1912). + 24. febrĂșar - Alberto Sordi, Ătalskur leikari (f. 1920). + 28. febrĂșar - Fidel SĂĄnchez HernĂĄndez, forseti El Salvador (f. 1917). + 9. mars - Bernard Dowiyogo, nĂĄrĂșskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1946). + 10. mars - Geoffrey Kirk, breskur fornfrÊðingur (f. 1921). + 13. mars - DĂłsĂłĂŸeus TĂmĂłteusson, Ăslenskt skĂĄld (f. 1910). + 25. mars - PĂĄll S. Ărdal, Ăslenskur heimspekingur (f. 1924). + 30. mars - Michael Jeter, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1952). + 21. aprĂl - Nina Simone, bandarĂsk djasssöngkona (f. 1933). + 26. aprĂl - Yun Hyon-seok, suðurkĂłreskur aðgerðasinni (f. 1984). + 1. maĂ - Haukur Clausen, Ăslenskur frjĂĄlsĂĂŸrĂłttamaður (f. 1928). + 10. jĂșnĂ - Bernard Williams, breskur heimspekingur (f. 1929). + 12. jĂșnĂ - Gregory Peck, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1916). + 16. jĂșnĂ - Georg Henrik von Wright, finnskur heimspekingur (f. 1916). + 26. jĂșnĂ - Strom Thurmond, bandarĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1902). + 29. jĂșnĂ - JĂłhannes Geir JĂłnsson, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1927). + 29. jĂșnĂ - Katharine Hepburn, bandarĂsk leikkona (f. 1907). + 4. jĂșlĂ - Barry White, bandarĂskur söngvari (f. 1944). + 16. ĂĄgĂșst - Idi Amin, forseti Ăganda (f. um 1925). + 30. ĂĄgĂșst - Donald Davidson, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1917). + 30. ĂĄgĂșst - Charles Bronson, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1921). + 8. september - Leni Riefenstahl, ĂŸĂœskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (f. 1902). + 11. september - Anna Lindh, utanrĂkisråðherra SvĂĂŸjóðar (f. 1957). + 12. september - Johnny Cash, bandarĂskur söngvari (f. 1932). + 14. oktĂłber - Moktar Ould Daddah, forseti MĂĄritanĂu (f. 1924). + 30. oktĂłber - Ăorgeir Ăorgeirson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndagerðarmaður og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi (f. 1933). + 22. nĂłvember - Mario Beccaria, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1920). + 12. desember - HĂĄhyrningurinn KeikĂł (f. 1976). + +NĂłbelsverðlaunin + EðlisfrÊði - Alexei Alexeevich Abrikosov, Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg, Anthony James Leggett + EfnafrÊði - Peter Agre, Roderick MacKinnon + LĂŠknisfrÊði - Paul Lauterbur, Sir Peter Mansfield + BĂłkmenntir - John Maxwell Coetzee + Friðarverðlaun - Shirin Ebadi + HagfrÊði - Robert F. Engle, Clive W. J. Granger + +2003 +2001-2010 +Ărið 2001 (MMI Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var fyrsta ĂĄr 21. aldarinnar, samkvĂŠmd gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. + +Atburðir + +JanĂșar + + 1. janĂșar - Nafni KalkĂștta ĂĄ Indlandi var formlega breytt Ă Kolkata. + 6. janĂșar - Ărinu helga 2000 lauk formlega ĂŸegar JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. pĂĄfi lokaði hurðinni helgu. + 10. janĂșar - Wikipedia hĂłf göngu sĂna sem hluti af Nupedia. Fimm dögum sĂðar varð hĂșn sĂ©rstakur vefur. + 10. janĂșar - ĂjóðbĂșningaråð var stofnað ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 10. janĂșar - AlrĂkisviðskiptastofnun BandarĂkjanna samĂŸykkti samruna America Online og Time Warner. + 11. janĂșar - BandarĂska kvikmyndin The Invisible Circus var frumsĂœnd. + 13. janĂșar - 800 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar jarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir El Salvador. + 14. janĂșar - AFL StarfsgreinafĂ©lag Austurlands var stofnað. + 15. janĂșar - Wikipedia var opnuð almenningi. + 20. janĂșar - George W. Bush tĂłk við af Bill Clinton sem forseti BandarĂkjanna. + 20. janĂșar - Vantrauststillaga gegn forseta Filippseyja, Joseph Estrada, var samĂŸykkt og varaforsetinn, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, tĂłk við. + 23. janĂșar - Fimm manneskjur kveiktu Ă sĂ©r ĂĄ Tiananmentorgi Ă Beijing. + 24. janĂșar - Borgaraflokkurinn var stofnaður Ă PĂłllandi. + 26. janĂșar - ĂĂșsundir fĂłrust ĂŸegar jarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir Gujarat ĂĄ Indlandi. + +FebrĂșar + + 1. febrĂșar - SĂðdegisĂŸĂĄttur Bylgjunnar, ReykjavĂk sĂðdegis, fĂłr Ă loftið. + 1. febrĂșar - Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, lĂbĂskur hryðjuverkamaður, var dĂŠmdur Ă lĂfstĂðarfangelsi fyrir að sprengja farĂŸegaĂŸotu frĂĄ PanAm yfir Lockerbie Ă Skotlandi ĂĄrið 1988 með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 270 manns fĂłrust. + 5. febrĂșar - Tom Cruise og Nicole Kidman tilkynntu að ĂŸau vĂŠru skilin. + 6. febrĂșar - Ariel Sharon, formaður Likud-flokksins, vann forsĂŠtisråðherrakosningarnar Ă Ăsrael. + 9. febrĂșar - BandarĂski kafbĂĄturinn USS Greenville sökkti Ăłvart japanska fiskiskipinu Ehime-Maru með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 9 Ășr ĂĄhöfn skipsins fĂłrust. + 12. febrĂșar - Geimkönnunarfarið NEAR Shoemaker lenti ĂĄ loftsteini. + 12. febrĂșar - BandarĂskur dĂłmstĂłll komst að ĂŸeirri niðurstöðu að tĂłnlistardeiliforritinu Napster bĂŠri að loka. + 13. febrĂșar - JarðskjĂĄlfti, 6,6 stig ĂĄ Richterskvarða reið yfir El Salvador. Að minnsta kosti 400 manns lĂ©tu lĂfið. + 18. febrĂșar - BandarĂski alrĂkislögreglumaðurinn Robert Hanssen var handtekinn fyrir njĂłsnir fyrir RĂșssa. + 20. febrĂșar - Gin- og klaufaveikifaraldur gekk yfir Bretland. Veikin breiddist hratt Ășt og hafði vĂðtĂŠkar afleiðingar fyrir landbĂșnað um alla EvrĂłpu. + 20. febrĂșar - SĂŠnska gervihnettinum Odin var skotið ĂĄ loft frĂĄ SĂberĂu. + 25. febrĂșar - Leiðtogi EZLN Ă MexĂkĂł, Marcos undirherforingi, hĂłf göngu til MexĂkĂłborgar til stuðnings rĂ©ttindum frumbyggja. + 26. febrĂșar - Nice-sĂĄttmĂĄlinn var undirritaður af 15 aðildarrĂkjum EvrĂłpusambandsins. + 28. febrĂșar - Great Heck-lestarslysið: TvĂŠr jĂĄrnbrautarlestar og bĂll rĂĄkust saman Ă Norður-Yorkshire ĂĄ Bretlandi sem leiddi til dauða 10 manna. + +Mars + + 4. mars - Hintze Ribeiro-slysið: Gömul steinsteypt brĂș Ă Entre-os-Rios, PortĂșgal, hrundi með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 59 lĂ©tust. + 5. mars - TalĂbanastjĂłrnin Ă Afganistan lĂ©t sprengja merk BĂșddalĂkneskin Ă Bamyan Ă tĂŠtlur vegna ĂŸess að ĂŸau vĂŠru Ăłguðleg. Ăessum verknaði var mĂłtmĂŠlt um vĂða veröld. + 6. mars - TvĂŠr bandarĂskar konur fĂłrust ĂŸegar tveggja hreyfla vĂ©l ĂŸeirra hrapaði Ă hafið skammt vestur af Vestmannaeyjum. + 7. mars - Sprenging Ă flugeldaverksmiðju Ă Fanglin Ă KĂna varð tugum barna að bana. Börnin voru neydd til að bĂșa til flugelda Ă skĂłlanum. + 7. mars - Sjö manns voru dĂŠmd fyrir peningaĂŸvĂŠtti Ă HĂ©raðsdĂłmi ReykjavĂkur. Ăetta var Ă fyrsta skipti sem dĂŠmt var eftir lögum um peningaĂŸvĂŠtti ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 10. mars - Samtökin Free Software Foundation Europe voru stofnuð. + 17. mars - Kosning um framtĂð ReykjavĂkurflugvallar fĂłr fram Ă ReykjavĂk. Aðeins 37% borgarbĂșa tĂłku ĂŸĂĄtt ĂŸannig að kosningin var ekki bindandi. Naumur meirihluti vildi að flugvöllurinn yrði fluttur. + 20. mars - StĂŠrsti fljĂłtandi olĂuborpallur heims, Petrobras 36, sökk við strendur BrasilĂu. + 23. mars - RĂșssneska geimstöðin MĂr hrapaði til jarðar Ă Kyrrahafið Ăști fyrir ströndum NĂœja SjĂĄlands. + 23. mars - GlĂmusambandið World Wrestling Federation keypti keppinaut sinn, World Championship Wrestling, fyrir 7 milljĂłn BandarĂkjadali. + 24. mars - Fyrsta ĂștgĂĄfa Mac OS X (âCheetahâ) kom ĂĄ markað. + 25. mars - Schengen-samstarfið tĂłk gildi ĂĄ Norðurlöndunum. + 25. mars - Uppreisnin Ă MakedĂłnĂu 2001: MakedĂłnĂuher hĂłf aðgerðir gegn uppreisnarsveitum albanskra aðskilnaðarsinna, Ăjóðfrelsishersins. + +AprĂl + + 1. aprĂl - BandarĂsk njĂłsnaflugvĂ©l lenti Ă ĂĄrekstri við kĂnverska orrustuflugvĂ©l. KĂnverski flugmaðurinn fannst aldrei en 10 manna ĂĄhöfn bandarĂsku flugvĂ©larinnar nauðlenti Ă KĂna, var handtekin og haldið Ă 10 daga. + 1. aprĂl - Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ, fyrrverandi forseti JĂșgĂłslavĂu gaf sig fram við sĂ©rsveitir lögreglu. + 1. aprĂl - HjĂłnabönd samkynhneigðra voru heimiluð með nĂœjum lögum Ă Hollandi. + 3. aprĂl - Fyrstu tveggja hÊða strĂŠtisvagnarnir hĂłfu að ganga Ă Kaupmannahöfn. + 6. aprĂl - SĂðasta eintak danska dagblaðsins Aktuelt kom Ășt. + 7. aprĂl - Gervitunglinu 2001 Mars Odyssey var skotið ĂĄ loft. + 11. aprĂl - Bob Dylan sagði frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að hann hefði verið giftur Carol Dennis frĂĄ 1986 til 1992 en haldið ĂŸvĂ leyndu. + 22. aprĂl - BandarĂska teiknimyndin Shrek var frumsĂœnd. + 25. aprĂl - Fyrrum forseti Filippseyja, Joseph Estrada, var handtekinn og ĂĄkĂŠrður fyrir fjĂĄrdrĂĄtt. + 27. aprĂl - 17 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar herlögregla skaut ĂĄ mĂłtmĂŠlendur Ă Kabylie Ă AlsĂr. + 28. aprĂl - BandarĂkjamaðurinn Dennis Tito varð fyrsti ferðamaðurinn Ă geimnum ĂŸegar hann fĂłr með SojĂșs TM-32. + +MaĂ + + 6. maĂ - JĂłhannes PĂĄll 2. pĂĄfi heimsĂłtti mosku Ă Damaskus Ă SĂœrlandi, fyrstur pĂĄfa Ă sögunni. + 7. maĂ - Serbneskir ĂŸjóðernissinnar réðust ĂĄ hĂłp fĂłlks sem hugðist leggja hornstein að endurbyggingu Ferhadija-moskunnar Ă Banja Luka Ă BosnĂu og HersegĂłvĂnu. + 11. maĂ - Ăslenska vefritið BaggalĂștur hĂłf göngu sĂna. + 12. maĂ - Eistland sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva 2001 með laginu âEverybodyâ. Framlag Ăslands var lagið âAngelâ. + 13. maĂ - Kosningabandalag undir forystu Silvio Berlusconi sigraði ĂŸingkosningar ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. + 22. maĂ - PlĂștĂłstirnið 28978 Ixion var uppgötvað. + 24. maĂ - Temba Tsheri varð yngstur til að nĂĄ tindi Everestfjalls, 16 ĂĄra. + 24. maĂ - Versalaslysið: Hluti ĂŸriðju hÊðar samkomusalarins Versala Ă JerĂșsalem hrundi með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 24 brĂșðkaupsgestir lĂ©tust. + 25. maĂ - Erik Weihenmayer varð fyrsta blinda manneskjan til ad nĂĄ tindi Everestfjalls. + 25. maĂ - HandklÊðisdagurinn var fyrst haldinn hĂĄtĂðlegur. + 29. maĂ - ĂbĂșar BorgundarhĂłlms samĂŸykktu Ă atkvÊðagreiðslu að sameina öll fimm sveitarfĂ©lög eyjarinnar Ă eitt. + +JĂșnĂ + + 1. jĂșnĂ - Konunglegu fjöldamorðin Ă Nepal: Dipendra prins myrti tĂu meðlimi konungsfjölskyldunnar og framdi sĂðan sjĂĄlfsmorð. + 1. jĂșnĂ - SjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjumaður ĂĄ vegum Hamas myrti 21 ĂĄ diskĂłteki Ă Tel AvĂv Ă Ăsrael. + 3. jĂșnĂ - Alejandro Toledo var kjörinn forseti PerĂș. + 7. jĂșnĂ - Tony Blair var endurkjörinn forsĂŠtisråðherra Bretlands. + 11. jĂșnĂ - Timothy McVeigh var tekinn af lĂfi fyrir sprengjutilrÊðið Ă OklahĂłma. + 13. jĂșnĂ - PĂłlski stjĂłrnmĂĄlaflokkurinn Lög og rĂ©ttlĂŠti var stofnaður. + 15. jĂșnĂ - BandarĂska teiknimyndin Atlantis: TĂœnda Borgin var frumsĂœnd. + 15. jĂșnĂ - Samvinnustofnun SjanghĂŠ var stofnuð. + 18. jĂșnĂ - Norska olĂufyrirtĂŠkið Statoil var skråð Ă Kauphöllina Ă New York. + 19. jĂșnĂ - Eldflaug sem bilaði lenti ĂĄ knattspyrnuvelli Ă norðurhluta Ărak með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 23 lĂ©tust og 11 sĂŠrðust. + 20. jĂșnĂ - Andrea Yates, sem ĂŸjåðist af fÊðingarĂŸunglyndi, drekkti 5 börnum sĂnum til að bjarga ĂŸeim frĂĄ Satan. + 20. jĂșnĂ - Herforinginn Pervez Musharraf skipaði sjĂĄlfan sig forseta Pakistan. + 21. jĂșnĂ - Lengsta jĂĄrnbrautarlest heims, 682 flutningavagnar með jĂĄrngrĂœti, Ăłk milli Newman og Port Hedland Ă ĂstralĂu. + 23. jĂșnĂ - Harður jarðskjĂĄlfti skĂłk suðurhluta PerĂș. Flóðbylgjan sem fylgdi Ă kjölfarið varð 74 að bana. + 28. jĂșnĂ - StjĂłrn SerbĂu og Svartfjallalands framseldi Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ til AlĂŸjóðlega strĂðsglĂŠpadĂłmstĂłlsins fyrir fyrrverandi JĂșgĂłslavĂu. + +JĂșlĂ + + 1. jĂșlĂ - StrĂŠtĂł bs. var stofnað með sameiningu StrĂŠtisvagna ReykjavĂkur og Almenningsvagna. + 1. jĂșlĂ - NĂœ stĂșka var vĂgð við HĂĄsteinsvöll Ă Vestmannaeyjum. + 2. jĂșlĂ - Fyrsta sjĂĄlfvirka gervihjartað var grĂŠtt Ă Robert Tools Ă BandarĂkjunum. + 7. jĂșlĂ - UppĂŸotin Ă Bradford hĂłfust eftir að fĂ©lagar Ă National Front stungu mann af asĂskum uppruna utan við krĂĄ Ă Bradford. + 16. jĂșlĂ - BandarĂska alrĂkislögreglan handtĂłk DmĂtrĂ Skljarov fyrir meint brot gegn Digital Millennium Copyright Act. + 18. jĂșlĂ - 60 vagna jĂĄrnbrautarlest fĂłr Ășt af teinunum Ă göngum Ă Baltimore Ă BandarĂkjunum. Eldur kviknaði og stóð Ă marga daga og varð til ĂŸess að miðborg Baltimore lokaðist. + 19. jĂșlĂ - Breski stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaðurinn Jeffrey Archer var dĂŠmdur Ă 4 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir að bera ljĂșgvitni. + 20. jĂșlĂ - Japanska teiknimyndin Chihiro og ĂĄlögin var frumsĂœnd. + 20. jĂșlĂ - GrĂðarleg mĂłtmĂŠli ĂĄttu sĂ©r stað ĂŸegar fundur 8 helstu iðnrĂkja heims hĂłfst Ă GenĂșa ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. Einn mĂłtmĂŠlandi, Carlo Giuliani, var skotinn til bana af lögreglumanni. + 23. jĂșlĂ - MĂĄlamiðlunartillaga til að bjarga KĂœĂłtĂłbĂłkuninni var samĂŸykkt ĂĄ loftslagsråðstefnu Ă Bonn. + 23. jĂșlĂ - Ăing IndĂłnesĂu setti forsetann Abdurrahman Wahid af vegna vanhĂŠfni og spillingar. + 24. jĂșlĂ - TamĂltĂgrar réðust ĂĄ Bandaranaike-flugvöll. + 24. jĂșlĂ - Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, sĂðasti keisari BĂșlgarĂu, varð 48. forsĂŠtisråðherra landsins. + 25. jĂșlĂ - Veitingastaðurinn Friðrik V var stofnaður ĂĄ Akureyri. + 25. jĂșlĂ - âRĂŠningjadrottninginâ Phoolan Devi var myrt Ă NĂœju-DelĂ. + 25. jĂșlĂ - Rauð rigning fĂ©ll Ă Kerala ĂĄ Indlandi. + 28. jĂșlĂ - Alejandro Toledo varð forseti PerĂș. + +ĂgĂșst + + 1. ĂĄgĂșst - DĂłmari við hĂŠstarĂ©tt Alabama lĂ©t setja upp minnismerki um boðorðin tĂu Ă dĂłmshĂșsinu sem leiddi til mĂĄlshöfðunar um að fjarlĂŠgja ĂŸað. + 2. ĂĄgĂșst - AlĂŸjóðadĂłmstĂłllinn Ă Hag dĂŠmdi Radislav Krstic Ă 46 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir fjöldamorðin Ă Srebrenica. +3. ĂĄgĂșst- 5. ĂĄgĂșst - Fyrsti InnipĂșkinn fer fram, tĂłnlistarhĂĄtĂð Ă ReykjavĂk. + 6. ĂĄgĂșst - Eldsvoðinn Ă Erwadi: 28 geðsjĂșklingar sem voru hlekkjaðir fastir lĂ©tu lĂfið ĂŸegar eldur kom upp Ă trĂșarstofnun Ă Tamil Nadu. + 9. ĂĄgĂșst - PalestĂnumaður réðist ĂĄ Sbarro-veitingastað Ă JerĂșsalem og myrti 15 manns. + 10. ĂĄgĂșst - SkĂŠruliðar UNITA réðust ĂĄ jĂĄrnbrautarlest Ă AngĂłla og myrtu 252 farĂŸega. + 13. ĂĄgĂșst - Ohrid-samkomulagið var undirritað af albönskum uppreisnarmönnum og stjĂłrnvöldum Ă MakedĂłnĂu. + 18. ĂĄgĂșst - LeikhĂłpurinn Vesturport var stofnaður með uppsetningu ĂĄ leikritinu DiskĂłpakk (Disco Pigs) eftir Enda Walsh ĂĄ horni Vesturgötu og NorðurstĂgs Ă Gamla VesturbĂŠnum. + 25. ĂĄgĂșst - BandarĂska söngkonan Aaliyah og ĂĄtta aðrir lĂ©tust ĂŸegar yfirhlaðin flugvĂ©l ĂŸeirra hrapaði skömmu eftir flugtak frĂĄ Bahamaeyjum. + 25. ĂĄgĂșst - HĂĄkon krĂłnprins Noregs gekk að eiga Mette-Marit Tjessem HĂžiby Ă OslĂłardĂłmkirkju. + 26. ĂĄgĂșst - Norska flutningaskipið Tampa bjargaði 438 flĂłttamönnum við JĂłlaeyju Ă Kyrrahafi. + 27. ĂĄgĂșst - ForsĂŠtisråðherra ĂstralĂu John Howard neitaði flutningaskipinu Tampa um leyfi til að leggja að höfn. + 30. ĂĄgĂșst - Aðskilnaðarsinnar frĂĄ Bougainville undirrituðu friðarsamkomulag við rĂkisstjĂłrn PapĂșu NĂœju-GĂneu. + 31. ĂĄgĂșst - Heimsråðstefna gegn kynĂŸĂĄttahyggju hĂłfst Ă Durban Ă Suður-AfrĂku. + +September + + 3. september - NorðurĂrskir sambandssinnar hĂłfu mĂłtmĂŠli við kaĂŸĂłlskan stĂșlknaskĂłla Ă Belfast. + 4. september - Skemmtigarðurinn Tokyo DisneySea var opnaður Ă Japan. + 5. september - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin The Amazing Race hĂłf göngu sĂna. + 9. september - Leiðtogi afganska Norðurbandalagsins, Ahmad Shah Massoud, var myrtur af sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjumanni. + 9. september - 68 dĂłu Ășr metanĂłleitrun Ă PĂ€rnu Ă Eistlandi. + 10. september - AntĂŽnio da Costa Santos, borgarstjĂłri Campinas Ă BrasilĂu, var myrtur. + 11. september - Hryðjuverkin 11. september 2001 Ă BandarĂkjunum: Al-KaĂda rĂŠndi fjĂłrum farĂŸegaĂŸotum og flaug ĂĄ byggingar Ă New York og VirginĂu. 2973 lĂ©tu lĂfið Ă ĂĄrĂĄsunum. + 12. september - AðildarrĂki Atlantshafsbandalagsins samĂŸykktu einrĂłma að grĂpa til 5. greinar stofnsĂĄttmĂĄlans Ă kjölfar hryðjuverka Ă BandarĂkjunum, sem kveður ĂĄ um að ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ eitt ĂŸeirra sĂ© ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ ĂŸau öll. + 12. september - Ăstralska flugvĂ©lagið Ansett Australia fĂłr Ă stöðvun. + 12. september - Hrun varð ĂĄ hlutabrĂ©famörkuðum um allan heim vegna ĂĄrĂĄsanna 11. september. + 13. september - Borgaralegt flug hĂłfst aftur Ă BandarĂkjunum eftir ĂĄrĂĄsirnar 11. september. + 17. september - Mesta stigafall Ă sögu Dow Jones-vĂsitölunnar varð ĂĄ fyrsta viðskiptadegi bandarĂsku kauphallarinnar eftir 11. september. + 18. september - MiltisbrandsĂĄrĂĄsirnar 2001: BrĂ©f með miltisbrandsgrĂłum voru send til sjĂłnvarpsfrĂ©ttastofanna ABC News, CBS News, NBC News og dagblaðanna New York Post og National Enquirer. + 20. september - George W. Bush lĂœsti yfir âstrĂði gegn hryðjuverkumâ Ă ĂĄvarpi til BandarĂkjaĂŸings. + 21. september - GóðgerðatĂłnleikarnir America: A Tribute to Heroes voru sendir Ășt af 35 sjĂłnvarpsstöðvum. + 27. september - Blóðbaðið Ă Zug: Friedrich Leibacher myrti 14 og framdi sĂðan sjĂĄlfsmorð Ă Zug Ă Sviss. + +OktĂłber + + 1. oktĂłber - SkĂŠruliðar réðust ĂĄ ĂŸinghĂșsið Ă Srinagar Ă KasmĂr og myrtu 38. + 1. oktĂłber - Mikil sprenging varð Ă Ăburðarverksmiðjunni Ă Gufunesi. Eldur kom upp en engan sakaði. Talið er að skammhlaup Ă gömlum rafmagnstöflum hafi valdið sprengingunni. + 1. oktĂłber - Stofnun VigdĂsar FinnbogadĂłttur Ă erlendum tungumĂĄlum var stofnuð við HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands. + 2. oktĂłber - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin NĂœgrÊðingar hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ NBC. + 2. oktĂłber - Svissneska flugfĂ©lagið Swissair hĂŠtti öllu flugi. + 4. oktĂłber - 78 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Siberia Airlines flug 1812 fĂłrst ĂĄ leið frĂĄ Tel Aviv til Novosibirsk. + 7. oktĂłber - StrĂðið Ă Afganistan: BandarĂkin réðust inn Ă Afganistan. + 8. oktĂłber - Arnold Schwarzenegger var kosinn rĂkisstjĂłri KalifornĂu. + 8. oktĂłber - Linate-slysið: 118 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar tvĂŠr flugvĂ©lar rĂĄkust saman yfir Linate-flugvelli Ă MĂlanĂł. + 9. oktĂłber - SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin SjĂĄlfstĂŠtt fĂłlk hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ Stöð 2. + 9. oktĂłber - MiltisbrandsĂĄrĂĄsirnar 2001: Ănnur brĂ©fasending með miltisbrandi var send af stað. + 10. oktĂłber - Verslunarmiðstöðin SmĂĄralind var opnuð Ă KĂłpavogi. + 11. oktĂłber - Polaroid Corporation sĂłtti um gjaldĂŸrotaskipti. + 16. oktĂłber - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin Smallville hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ The WB. + 17. oktĂłber - FerðamĂĄlaråðherra Ăsraels Rehavam Ze'evi var myrtur Ă hryðjuverkaĂĄrĂĄs. + 19. oktĂłber - SIEV X: BĂĄtur með 421 flĂłttamann um borð fĂłrst um 70 km sunnan við Jövu. Yfir 300 manns drukknuðu. + 23. oktĂłber - TĂmabundni Ărski lĂœĂ°veldisherinn hĂłf að afvopnast. + 25. oktĂłber - Microsoft sendi frĂĄ sĂ©r stĂœrikerfið Windows XP. + 26. oktĂłber - George W. Bush undirritaði Patriot-lögin. + +NĂłvember + + 2. nĂłvember - Glocal Forum um borgarsamstarf var stofnað. + 4. nĂłvember - Breska kvikmyndin Harry Potter og viskusteinninn var frumsĂœnd. + 4. nĂłvember - Fellibylurinn Michelle gekk yfir KĂșbu og olli miklu tjĂłni. + 7. nĂłvember - BelgĂska flugfĂ©lagið Sabena varð gjaldĂŸrota. + 10. nĂłvember - AlĂŸĂœĂ°ulĂœĂ°veldið KĂna gerðist aðili að AlĂŸjóðaviðskiptastofnuninni. + 10. nĂłvember - Apple Inc. setti tĂłnlistarspilarann iPod ĂĄ markað. + 10. nĂłvember - Yfir 900 manns lĂ©tust Ă aurskriðum Ă AlsĂr. + 11. nĂłvember - Kvikmyndin MĂĄvahlĂĄtur var valin besta Ăslenska kvikmyndin ĂĄ EdduverðlaunahĂĄtĂðinni. + 11. nĂłvember - Blaðamennirnir Pierre Billaud, Johanne Sutton og Volker Handloik lĂ©tust Ă ĂĄrĂĄs ĂĄ bĂlalest sem ĂŸeir ferðuðust með Ă Afganistan. + 12. nĂłvember - 260 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar American Airlines flug 587 hrapaði Ă Queens Ă New York. + 12. nĂłvember - StrĂðið Ă Afganistan: Her TalĂbana hörfaði frĂĄ KabĂșl. + 12. nĂłvember - Ein af elstu kirkjum SvĂĂŸjóðar, gamla kirkjan Ă Södra RĂ„da, brann. + 13. nĂłvember - Doha-viðrÊðurnar ĂĄ vegum AlĂŸjóða viðskiptastofnunarinnar hĂłfust. + 23. nĂłvember - NetglĂŠpasĂĄttmĂĄlinn var undirritaður Ă BĂșdapest. + 27. nĂłvember - LofthjĂșpur Ășr vetni var uppgötvaður með Hubble-geimsjĂłnaukanum ĂĄ plĂĄnetunni ĂsĂris. + 27. nĂłvember - Anders Fogh Rasmussen varð forsĂŠtisråðherra Danmerkur. + 30. nĂłvember - BandarĂski raðmorðinginn Gary Ridgway var handtekinn. + +Desember + + Desember - AlĂŸjóðanefnd um Ăhlutun og fullveldi rĂkja gaf Ășt skĂœrslu um verndarĂĄbyrgð. + 2. desember - BandarĂska orkufyrirtĂŠkið Enron Ăłskaði eftir gjaldĂŸrotaskiptum. + 2. desember - Kreppan mikla Ă ArgentĂnu: RĂkisstjĂłrn ArgentĂnu frysti allar innistÊður Ă 12 mĂĄnuði sem leiddi til uppĂŸota. + 10. desember - NĂœsjĂĄlenska kvikmyndin HringadrĂłttinssaga: Föruneyti hringsins var frumsĂœnd. + 13. desember - Fimm hryðjuverkamenn réðust ĂĄ indverska ĂŸinghĂșsið og skutu ĂŸar nĂu til bana. + 14. desember - BandarĂska kvikmyndin The Royal Tenenbaums var frumsĂœnd. + 14. desember - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Vanilla Sky var frumsĂœnd. + 15. desember - Skakki turninn Ă PĂsa var opnaður almenningi eftir 11 ĂĄra viðgerðir. + 18. desember - Samkeppniseftirlitið framkvĂŠmdi hĂșsleit hjĂĄ olĂufĂ©lögunum fjĂłrum: Ker hf. (åður OlĂufĂ©lagið hf.), OlĂuverzlun Ăslands hf., Skeljungur hf. og BensĂnorkan ehf. sem leiddi að dĂłmsmĂĄli um samråð olĂufĂ©laganna. + 19. desember - MetlofĂŸrĂœstingur, 1085,6 hektĂłpasköl, mĂŠldist Ă MongĂłlĂu. + 21. desember - NĂœ kvikmyndalög tĂłku gildi ĂĄ Ăslandi og Kvikmyndamiðstöð Ăslands var stofnuð. + 21. desember - RĂkisstjĂłrn ArgentĂnu lĂœsti yfir gjaldfalli. + 22. desember - Borgaraleg starfstjĂłrn undir forsĂŠti Hamid Karzai tĂłk við völdum Ă Afganistan. + 22. desember - Richard Reid reyndi að kveikja Ă American Airlines flugi 63 með sprengiefni sem hann hafði falið Ă skĂłm sĂnum. + 29. desember - 291 lĂ©st Ă eldsvoða Ă Mesa Redonda-verslunarmiðstöðinni Ă LĂma, PerĂș. + +Ădagsettir atburðir + SĂŠnsk-norska hljĂłmsveitin Kikki, Bettan & Lotta var stofnuð. + FrumtöluskĂtandi björninn birtist fyrst ĂĄ Internetinu. + Iglesia del Pueblo Guanche var stofnuð ĂĄ KanarĂeyjum. + BandarĂsku samtökin Creative Commons voru stofnuð. + SĂŠnski sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄtturinn Doktor Mugg hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ TV4. + BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin The Killers var stofnuð. + Ungliðahreyfing Samfylkingarinnar, Hallveig, var stofnuð. + Hugtakið BRIC-lönd var fyrst notað af hagfrÊðingnum Jim O'Neill. + SĂŠnska hljĂłmsveitin The Tough Alliance var stofnuð. + BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin The Postal Service var stofnuð. + SĂŠnska hljĂłmveitin Lo-Fi-Fnk var stofnuð. + BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin Audioslave var stofnuð. + BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin My Chemical Romance var stofnuð. + Norska hljĂłmsveitin Wig Wam var stofnuð. + ĂĂœska hljĂłmsveitin Wir sind Helden var stofnuð. + ĂslandsskĂłli hĂłf starfsemi Ă Hafnarfirði. + Ăslenska fjĂĄrfestingafyrirtĂŠkið Exista var stofnað. + +FĂŠdd + 19. ĂĄgĂșst - GuðjĂłn Ernir Hrafnkelsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 1. oktĂłber - Mason Greenwood, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 12. desember - GĂșsti B, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður. + 15. desember - DiljĂĄ, Ăslensk tĂłnlistarkona. + 18. desember - Billie Eilish, bandarĂsk tĂłnlistarkona. + 30. desember - Daniil, Ăslenskur rappari. + +DĂĄin + 5. janĂșar - G.E.M. Anscombe, enskur heimspekingur (f. 1919). + 7. febrĂșar - Dale Evans, bandarĂskur rithöfundur, tĂłnlistarkona og kvikmyndastjarna (f. 1912). + 8. febrĂșar - Ivo Caprino, norskur kvikmyndagerðarmaður (f. 1920). + + 24. febrĂșar - Claude Shannon, bandarĂskur stĂŠrðfrÊðingur (f. 1916). + 13. mars - Henry Lee Lucas, bandarĂskur raðmorðingi (f. 1936). + 1. aprĂl - Jalil Zandi, Ăranskur flugmaður (f. 1951). + 15. aprĂl - Jörundur Ăorsteinsson, knattspyrnudĂłmari og formaður KnattspyrnufĂ©lagsins Fram (f. 1924). + 7. maĂ - Joseph Greenberg, bandarĂskur mĂĄlfrÊðingur (f. 1915). + 11. maĂ - Douglas Adams, breskur rithöfundur (f. 1952). + 1. jĂșnĂ - Birendra, konungur Nepals (f. 1945). + 4. jĂșnĂ - Dipendra konungur Nepals (f. 1971). + 11. jĂșnĂ - Timothy McVeigh, bandarĂskur fjöldamorðingi (f. 1968). + 27. jĂșnĂ - Tove Jansson, finnskur rithöfundur (f. 1914). + 27. jĂșnĂ - Jack Lemmon, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1925). + 14. oktĂłber - David Lewis, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1941). + 9. nĂłvember - Giovanni Leone, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1908). + 26. nĂłvember - GĂsli JĂłnsson, ĂslenskufrÊðingur (f. 1925). + 29. nĂłvember - George Harrison, breskur gĂtarleikari (f. 1943). + +NĂłbelsverðlaunin + EðlisfrÊði - Eric A Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle, Carl E Wieman + EfnafrÊði - William S. Knowles, Ryoji Noyori, K. Barry Sharpless + LĂŠknisfrÊði - Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, Paul M. Nurse + BĂłkmenntir - V.S. Naipaul + Friðarverðlaun - Sameinuðu Ăjóðirnar, Kofi Annan + HagfrÊði - George A. Akerlof, A. Michael Spence, Joseph E. Stiglitz + +2001 +2001-2010 +Ărið 1998 (MCMXCVIII Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var 98. ĂĄr 20. aldar og almennt ĂĄr sem byrjaði ĂĄ fimmtudegi samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. + +Atburðir + +JanĂșar + + 1. janĂșar - NĂœ Ăslensk skipulags- og byggingarlög tĂłku gildi. SamkvĂŠmt ĂŸeim er allt landið skipulagsskylt. + 1. janĂșar - Haraldur Ărn Ălafsson, Ălafur Ărn Haraldsson og IngĂŸĂłr Bjarnason komust ĂĄ SuðurpĂłlinn eftir fimmtĂu daga göngu. + 1. janĂșar - Landsbanka Ăslands var breytt Ă almenningshlutafĂ©lag. + 2. janĂșar - Yfirvöld Ă RĂșsslandi gĂĄfu Ășt nĂœjar rĂșblur til að reyna að hemja verðbĂłlgu Ă landinu. + 4. janĂșar - Ramka-fjöldamorðin: Yfir 170 voru myrt Ă ĂŸremur ĂŸorpum Ă AlsĂr. + 6. janĂșar - Litla hafmeyjan Ă Kaupmannahöfn missti höfuðið Ă annað sinn. + 7. janĂșar - Monica Lewinsky undirritaði yfirlĂœsingu um að hĂșn hefði ekki ĂĄtt Ă kynferðissambandi við Bill Clinton. + 10. janĂșar - Mesti 10 mĂnĂștna vindhraði mĂŠldist við Esju, 62,5 metrar ĂĄ sekĂșndu. + 11. janĂșar - Yfir 100 manns voru myrt Ă Sidi-Hamed-fjöldamorðunum Ă AlsĂr. + 12. janĂșar - 19 evrĂłpsk lönd bönnuðu klĂłnun ĂĄ mönnum. + 13. janĂșar - Alfredo Ormando kveikti Ă sĂ©r ĂĄ torginu við PĂ©turskirkjuna Ă RĂłm Ă mĂłtmĂŠlaskyni við afstöðu kirkjunnar til samkynhneigðar. + 14. janĂșar - 26 lönd undirrituðu samkomulag um bann við olĂuleit og -vinnslu ĂĄ Suðurskautslandinu. + 17. janĂșar - Paula Jones ĂĄsakaði Bill Clinton, forseta BandarĂkjanna, um kynferðislega ĂĄreitni. + 21. janĂșar - Opinber heimsĂłkn JĂłhannesar PĂĄls 2. pĂĄfa til KĂșbu hĂłfst. + 22. janĂșar - Theodore Kaczynski jĂĄtaði að hann vĂŠri Unabomber. Hann var dĂŠmdur Ă lĂfstĂðarfangelsi ĂĄn möguleika ĂĄ nåðun. + 26. janĂșar - Lewinsky-hneykslið: Bill Clinton neitaði að hafa ĂĄtt Ă kynferðislegu sambandi við Monicu Lewinsky. + 26. janĂșar - Compaq keypti Digital Equipment Corporation. + 28. janĂșar - Byssumenn hĂ©ldu 400 börnum Ă gĂslingu Ă skĂłla Ă Manila ĂĄ Filippseyjum. + 28. janĂșar - Leikvangurinn Stade de France var opnaður Ă ParĂs. + +FebrĂșar + + 2. febrĂșar - mbl.is, frĂ©ttavefur Morgunblaðsins, var opnaður sem sĂ©rstakur fjölmiðill eftir að hafa verið vefĂștgĂĄfa blaðsins Ă nokkur ĂĄr. + 3. febrĂșar - Blóðbaðið Ă Cermis ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað ĂŸegar bandarĂsk herflugvĂ©l sleit streng klĂĄfferju skĂðasvÊðis Ă DĂłlĂłmĂtunum ĂĄ ĂtalĂu. 20 lĂ©tu lĂfið. + 4. febrĂșar - 2.323 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar jarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir Takhar-hĂ©rað Ă Afganistan. + 4. febrĂșar - KrĂĄareigandinn Dragan JoksoviÄ var skotinn til bana Ă StokkhĂłlmi sem leiddi til strĂðs milli gengja Ă veitingahĂșsageiranum Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. + 7. febrĂșar - VetrarĂłlympĂuleikarnir hĂłfust Ă Nagano, Japan. + 16. febrĂșar - 202 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar China Airlines flug 676 hrapaði ĂĄ ĂbĂșabyggð við Chiang Kai-shek-flugvöll ĂĄ TaĂvan. + 20. febrĂșar - Kofi Annan og Saddam Hussein gerðu samkomulag um ĂĄframhald vopnaeftirlits Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna Ă Ărak og komu ĂŸannig Ă veg fyrir hernaðarĂhlutun Breta og BandarĂkjamanna. + 28. febrĂșar - KosĂłvĂłstrĂðið hĂłfst með ĂĄrĂĄsum serbneskrar lögreglu ĂĄ ĂŸorpin LikoĆĄane og Äirez + +Mars + + 1. mars - Kvikmyndin Titanic varð fyrsta bandarĂska kvikmyndin sem nåði yfir 1 milljarði dala Ă tekjur. + 2. mars - Gögn frĂĄ geimfarinu Galileo bentu til ĂŸess að ĂĄ tungli JĂșpĂters, EvrĂłpu, vĂŠri haf undir ĂŸykkri Ăshellu. + 2. mars - Wolfgang PĆiklopil rĂŠndi hinni 10 ĂĄra gömlu Natöschu Kampusch. + 5. mars - NASA tilkynnti að könnunarfarið Clementine hefði fundið nĂŠgilegt vatn Ă gĂgum ĂĄ Tunglinu til að hĂŠgt vĂŠri að koma ĂŸar upp nĂœlendu. Ăessar niðurstöður voru sĂðar dregnar Ă efa. + 11. mars - Ăingkosningar voru haldnar Ă Danmörku: RĂkisstjĂłrn Poul Nyrup Rasmussen hĂ©lt velli. + 13. mars - RannsĂłknarhĂłpurinn High-Z Supernova Search Team gaf fyrstur Ășt ĂŸĂĄ niðurstöðu að alheimurinn ĂŸendist Ășt ĂĄ sĂauknum hraða. + 17. mars - Uffe Ellemann-Jensen sagði af sĂ©r sem formaður danska hĂŠgriflokksins Venstre. + 23. mars - Kvikmyndin Titanic vann ellefu Ăskarsverðlaun og jafnaði ĂŸar með met Ben HĂșr frĂĄ 1959. Lokakafli HringadrĂłttinssögu jafnaði metið aftur ĂĄrið 2004. + 23. mars - Kjalarnes varð hluti af ReykjavĂk. + 23. mars - Boris JeltsĂn rak rĂkisstjĂłrn RĂșsslands og skipaði Sergej Kirijenko forsĂŠtisråðherra. + 24. mars - Mitchell Johnson og Andrew Golden skutu fjĂłra nemendur og einn kennara til bana Ă miðskĂłla Ă Jonesboro Ă Arkansas. + 26. mars - Oued Bouaicha-fjöldamorðin ĂĄttu sĂ©r stað Ă AlsĂr. 52 voru myrt með eggvopnum, ĂŸar af 32 ungabörn. + 27. mars - MatvĂŠla- og lyfjaeftirlit BandarĂkjanna samĂŸykkti lyfið Sildenafil frĂĄ Pfizer sem var selt undir heitinu Viagra. + 29. mars - Vasco da Gama-brĂșin Ă PortĂșgal var vĂgð. + 31. mars - Netscape gaf frumkóða Mozilla-vafrans Ășt með frjĂĄlsu afnotaleyfi. + +AprĂl + + AprĂl - Intel setti Celeron-örgjörvann ĂĄ markað. + 2. aprĂl - Maurice Papon var dĂŠmdur Ă fangelsi Ă Frakklandi fyrir að hafa sent gyðinga Ă ĂștrĂœmingarbĂșðir nasista Ă SĂðari heimsstyrjöld. + 5. aprĂl - StĂŠrsta hengibrĂș heims, Akashi KaikyĆ-brĂșin milli eyjanna Shikoku og HonshĆ« Ă Japan, var opnuð fyrir umferð. + 6. aprĂl - Pakistan prĂłfaði meðaldrĂŠgar eldflaugar sem hĂŠgt vĂŠri að nota til að råðast ĂĄ Indland. + 6. aprĂl - BandarĂski fjĂĄrfestingabankinn Citigroup varð til við sameiningu Citicorp og Travellers Group. + 10. aprĂl - FöstudagssĂĄttmĂĄlinn var undirritaður ĂĄ Norður-Ărlandi. + 20. aprĂl - ĂĂœsku hryðjuverkasamtökin Rote Armee Fraktion voru leyst upp (að talið er). + 22. aprĂl - DĂœragarðurinn Disney's Animal Kingdom var opnaður Ă Walt Disney World Ă OrlandĂł Ă FlĂłrĂda. + 23. aprĂl - JĂșgĂłslavĂuher veitti sveit Ășr Frelsisher KosĂłvĂł fyrirsĂĄt ĂŸar sem ĂŸeir reyndu að smygla vopnum frĂĄ AlbanĂu til KosĂłvĂł. + +MaĂ + + MaĂ - Vefurinn Kvikmyndir.is var opnaður. + 1. maĂ - Ecofin kom saman til að samĂŸykkja lista yfir rĂki sem fengju að taka upp evruna. + 2. maĂ - Ăkveðið var að evran skyldi tekin upp 1. janĂșar 1999. Danmörk, SvĂĂŸjóð, Bretland og Grikkland ĂĄkvåðu af ĂłlĂkum ĂĄstÊðum að taka hana ekki upp. + 3. maĂ - Fyrsta ĂĄfangi Grafarvogslaugar var opnaður. + 9. maĂ - Dana International sigraði Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva 1998 með laginu âDivaâ. + 11. maĂ - Indverjar framkvĂŠmdu ĂŸrjĂĄr kjarnorkutilraunir neðanjarðar. Ă einni ĂŸeirra sprengdu ĂŸeir vetnissprengju. + 11. maĂ - Fyrstu evrumyntirnar voru slegnar Ă Pessac Ă Frakklandi. ĂĂŠr voru sĂðan brĂŠddar aftur. + 13. maĂ - UppĂŸotin Ă IndĂłnesĂu Ă maĂ 1998: Reiður mĂșgur réðist ĂĄ verslanir fĂłlks af kĂnverskum uppruna Ă Djakarta. + 19. maĂ - Gervihnötturinn Galaxy IV bilaði sem varð til ĂŸess að 80-90% af sĂmboðum heims hĂŠttu að virka. + 21. maĂ - Suharto sagði af sĂ©r sem forseti IndĂłnesĂu eftir 32 ĂĄra valdatĂma Ă kjölfar uppĂŸotanna Ă Djakarta. + 22. maĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas var frumsĂœnd. + 26. maĂ - Bear Grylls varð yngstur Breta til að komast ĂĄ tind Everestfjalls. + 26. maĂ - National Sorry Day var haldinn Ă fyrsta sinn Ă ĂstralĂu til að minnast ranginda sem frumbyggjar ĂstralĂu voru beittir. + 28. maĂ - Pakistan framkvĂŠmdi Chagai-I-kjarnorkutilraunina og sprengdi 5 kjarnorkusprengjur Ă Chagai-hÊðum. Ăetta varð til ĂŸess að landið var beitt viðskiptaĂŸvingunum. + 29. maĂ - NĂœ lög Ă SvĂĂŸjóð gerðu kaup ĂĄ vĂŠndi refsiverð frĂĄ 1. janĂșar 1999. + 30. maĂ - Allt að 5.000 manns fĂłrust ĂŸegar jarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir Afganistan. + 30. maĂ - Pakistan framkvĂŠmdi Chagai-II-kjarnorkutilraunina. + +JĂșnĂ + + 2. jĂșnĂ - TölvuvĂrusinn CIH var uppgötvaður Ă TaĂvan. + 3. jĂșnĂ - Lestarslysið Ă Eschede: Yfir 100 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar hraðlest fĂłr Ășt af teinunum milli HannĂłver og Hamborgar Ă ĂĂœskalandi. + 5. jĂșnĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Hið fullkomna morð var frumsĂœnd. + 6. jĂșnĂ - SveitarfĂ©lagið Skagafjörður varð til við sameiningu 11 sveitarfĂ©laga ĂĄ norðurlandi vestra og SveitarfĂ©lagið Hornafjörður varð til við sameiningu allra sveitarfĂ©laga Ă Austur-SkaftafellssĂœslu. + 7. jĂșnĂ - SveitarfĂ©lagið Ărborg varð til við sameiningu 4 sveitarfĂ©laga ĂĄ suðurlandi og Fjarðabyggð varð til við sameiningu 3 sveitarfĂ©laga ĂĄ Austfjörðum. + 7. jĂșnĂ - Borgarastyrjöldin Ă GĂneu-BissĂĄ hĂłfst ĂŸegar Ansumane ManĂ© tĂłk völdin Ă herskĂĄla Ă BissĂĄ. + 7. jĂșnĂ - James Byrd Jr. var barinn til bana af ĂŸremur hvĂtum mönnum Ă Jasper, Texas. + 7. jĂșnĂ - Ătalski hjĂłlreiðamaðurinn Marco Pantani sigraði Giro d'Italia Ă fyrsta skipti. + 9. jĂșnĂ - HeimsmeistaramĂłt landsliða Ă knattspyrnu karla 1998 hĂłfst Ă Frakklandi. + 10. jĂșnĂ - Ăjóðlendulögin voru samĂŸykkt ĂĄ AlĂŸingi. + 14. jĂșnĂ - AusturbrĂșin Ă StĂłrabeltistengingunni var opnuð fyrir umferð. + 18. jĂșnĂ - Kinza Clodumar var settur af sem forseti NĂĄrĂș með vantrausti. + 19. jĂșnĂ - BandarĂska teiknimyndin MĂșlan var frumsĂœnd. + 25. jĂșnĂ - Windows 98 kom Ășt. + 27. jĂșnĂ - Kuala Lumpur-flugvöllur var opnaður Ă MalasĂu. + 30. jĂșnĂ - Joseph Estrada varð forseti Filippseyja. + +JĂșlĂ + + 2. jĂșlĂ - SkĂĄldsagan Harry Potter og leyniklefinn eftir J. K. Rowling kom Ășt. + 5. jĂșlĂ - Japanar sendu geimkönnunarfar til Mars. + 6. jĂșlĂ - AlĂŸjóðaflugvöllurinn Ă Hong Kong var opnaður. + 6. jĂșlĂ - BandarĂski tennisleikarinn Pete Sampras sigraði Wimbledon-mĂłtið. + 11. jĂșlĂ - Hvalfjarðargöngin voru opnuð. + 12. jĂșlĂ - Frakkar sigruðu HeimsmeistaramĂłt landsliða Ă knattspyrnu karla 1998 með 3-0 sigri ĂĄ BrasilĂu. + 12. jĂșlĂ - SkjĂĄborðsumhverfið KDE kom Ășt Ă ĂștgĂĄfu 1.0. + 17. jĂșlĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Ăað er eitthvað við Mary var frumsĂœnd. + 17. jĂșlĂ - 120 lönd samĂŸykktu stofnun AlĂŸjóðlega sakamĂĄladĂłmstĂłlsins. + 17. jĂșlĂ - Jarðneskum leifum NikulĂĄsar 2. RĂșssakeisara og fjölskyldu hans var komið fyrir Ă kapellu Ă Sankti PĂ©tursborg. + 17. jĂșlĂ - JarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir PapĂșu NĂœju-GĂneu með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að yfir 2000 lĂ©tust. + 17. jĂșlĂ - Blóðbaðið Ă KleÄka hĂłfst. + 24. jĂșlĂ - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Björgun Ăłbreytts Ryans var frumsĂœnd. + 30. jĂșlĂ - Obuchi Keizo tĂłk við af RyĆ«tarĆ Hashimoto sem forsĂŠtisråðherra Japans. + 30. jĂșlĂ - Skemmtistaðurinn Tunglið við LĂŠkjargötu gjöreyðilagðist Ă eldsvoða. + +ĂgĂșst + + 1. ĂĄgĂșst - Eitt dĂœrasta frĂmerki heims, Gul tre skilling banco frĂĄ 1855, var selt fyrir 14 milljĂłn sĂŠnskar krĂłnur. + 2. ĂĄgĂșst - Ătalski hjĂłlreiðamaðurinn Marco Pantani sigraði Tour de France-keppnina. + 4. ĂĄgĂșst - AfrĂkustrĂðið mikla hĂłfst Ă KongĂł. + 5. ĂĄgĂșst - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Halloween H20: 20 Years Later var frumsĂœnd. + 7. ĂĄgĂșst - BĂlasprengjur sprungu við sendiråð BandarĂkjanna Ă NaĂrĂłbĂ og Dar es Salaam með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að yfir 200 lĂ©tust. Samtökin heilagt strĂð og Al-KaĂda voru bendluð við ĂĄrĂĄsirnar. + 7. ĂĄgĂșst - Yfir 12.000 fĂłrust Ă KĂna ĂŸegar ĂĄin Jangtse flaut yfir bakka sĂna. + 15. ĂĄgĂșst - Apple Inc. kynnti iMac til sögunnar. + 15. ĂĄgĂșst - SprengjuĂĄrĂĄsin Ă Omagh: Ărski lĂœĂ°veldisherinn sprengdi bĂlasprengju Ă Omagh ĂĄ Norður-Ărlandi með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að 29 lĂ©tust. + 17. ĂĄgĂșst - FjĂĄrmĂĄlakreppan Ă RĂșsslandi 1998 hĂłfst. + 21. ĂĄgĂșst - FerjufyrirtĂŠkið Scandlines varð til við sameiningu ferjudeildar dönsku jĂĄrnbrautanna og ĂŸĂœsks ferjufyrirtĂŠkis. + 24. ĂĄgĂșst - Fyrsta RFID-tĂŠkinu var komið fyrir Ă manneskju Ă Bretlandi. + 26. ĂĄgĂșst - TölvuvĂrusinn CIH fĂłr Ă gang og réðist ĂĄ Windows 9x-stĂœrikerfi. + 27. ĂĄgĂșst - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Sporlaust var frumsĂœnd. + +September + + 1. september - Kio Briggs var handtekinn Ă Leifsstöð með yfir 2000 e-töflur Ă farangri sĂnum. + 2. september - Swissair flug 111 nauðlenti nĂĄlĂŠgt Peggys Cove Ă Nova Scotia Ă Kanada. Allir 229 farĂŸegar sem voru um borð lĂ©tu lĂfið. + 4. september - Google var stofnað af Larry Page og Sergey Brin, nemendum við Stanford-hĂĄskĂłla. + 4. september - Skrunda-1, sĂðustu sovĂ©sku ratsjĂĄrstöðinni Ă Lettlandi var lokað. + 9. september - HĂĄhyrningurinn KeikĂł kom til Vestmannaeyja og var sleppt Ă KlettsvĂk. + 10. september - Alexander Kusminik hĂłf skotĂĄrĂĄs um borð Ă rĂșssneska kafbĂĄtnum Vepr (K-157) og myrti 7 manns. + 12. september - Fimmenningarnir frĂĄ Miami voru handteknir fyrir njĂłsnir. + 18. september - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Rush Hour var frumsĂœnd. + 21. september - ListahĂĄskĂłli Ăslands var stofnaður. + 23. september - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Dansinn var frumsĂœnd. + 24. september - Sveinn Waage var kosinn Fyndnasti maður Ăslands ĂŸegar uppistandskeppnin var haldin Ă fyrsta sinn. + 24. september - Mohammad Khatami Ăransforseti drĂł til baka fatwa gegn Söngvum Satans sem hafði verið Ă gildi frĂĄ 1989. + 28. september - SĂłsĂaldemĂłkratar sigruðu ĂŸingkosningar Ă ĂĂœskalandi. Gerhard Schröder varð kanslari. + +OktĂłber + + 2. oktĂłber - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Kvöld Ă klĂșbbnum var frumsĂœnd. + 5. oktĂłber - IBM gaf Ășt RISC-örgjörvann POWER3. + 6. oktĂłber - Matthew Shepard var barinn illa Ă Laramie, Wyoming. + 7. oktĂłber - South Park-ĂŸĂĄtturinn âChef Aidâ var sendur Ășt ĂŸar sem Chewbacca-vörninni var lĂœst. + 8. oktĂłber - Gardermoen-flugvöllur var opnaður Ă Noregi. + 12. oktĂłber - Ăslenska heimildarmyndin Popp Ă ReykjavĂk var frumsĂœnd. + 14. oktĂłber - Eric Rudolph var kĂŠrður fyrir fjĂłrar sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsir Ă Atlanta. + 16. oktĂłber - Augusto Pinochet var settur Ă stofufangelsi ĂŸar sem hann leitaði lĂŠkninga Ă Bretlandi. + 17. oktĂłber - 1.082 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar olĂuleiðsla sprakk Ă NĂgerĂu. + 23. oktĂłber - Kvikmyndin Fucking Ă mĂ„l var frumsĂœnd Ă kvikmyndahĂșsum Ă SvĂĂŸjóð. + 24. oktĂłber - Norska sĂĄpuĂłperan Hotel CĂŠsar hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ TV 2. + 28. oktĂłber - Flugmaður Air China, Yuan Bin, rĂŠndi farĂŸegaĂŸotu og flaug henni til TaĂvan. + 29. oktĂłber - Fellibylurinn Mitch gekk yfir Mið-AmerĂku með ĂŸeim afleiðingum að um 18.000 fĂłrust. + +NĂłvember + + 1. nĂłvember - Mika HĂ€kkinen varð heimsmeistari ökuĂŸĂłra Ă FormĂșlu 1-kappakstri. + 11. nĂłvember - Samtök ferðaĂŸjĂłnustunnar voru stofnuð ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 17. nĂłvember - Geimkönnunarfarið Voyager 1 nåði lengra Ășt Ă geim en Pioneer 10 hafði gert. + 19. nĂłvember - DvergplĂĄnetan 19521 Chaos var uppgötvuð utan við sporbaug PlĂștĂłs. + 20. nĂłvember - Fyrsta hluta AlĂŸjóðlegu geimstöðvarinnar var skotið ĂĄ loft frĂĄ Kasakstan. + 21. nĂłvember - Tölvuleikurinn The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time kom Ășt. + 23. nĂłvember - Game Boy Color kom Ășt Ă EvrĂłpu. + 24. nĂłvember - Marc Hodler ljĂłstraði upp um mĂștur Ă aðdraganda ĂŸess að Salt Lake City var valin til að halda VetrarĂłlympĂuleikana 2002. + 24. nĂłvember - Fjarreikistjarnan Gliese 86 b var uppgötvuð ĂĄ braut um hvĂta dverginn Gliese 86. + 27. nĂłvember - Sjötta kynslóð tölvuleikjavĂ©la hĂłfst með ĂștgĂĄfu Dreamcast frĂĄ Sega. + 28. nĂłvember - Stofnfundur FrjĂĄlslynda flokksins var haldinn Ă RĂșgbrauðsgerðinni. + +Desember + + 4. desember - Ăðrum hluta AlĂŸjóðlegu geimstöðvarinnar, Unity, var skotið ĂĄ loft Ă geimskutlunni Endeavor. + 6. desember - Hugo ChĂĄvez var kjörinn forseti VenesĂșela. + 8. desember - 81 manns voru myrtir Ă Tadjena-fjöldamorðunum Ă AlsĂr. + 14. desember - JĂșgĂłslavĂuher drap 36 meðlimi Frelsishers KosĂłvĂł. + 16. desember - Eyðimerkurrefsaðgerðin: Bill Clinton fyrirskipaði loftĂĄrĂĄsir ĂĄ Ărak. + 17. desember - JarðskjĂĄlftar fundust við GrĂmsvötn. + 18. desember - Gos hĂłfst Ă GrĂmsvötunum og var ĂŸað Ă fyrsta skipti sem vĂsindamenn gĂĄtu fylgst með eldgosi undir stĂłrum jökli. + 19. desember - Vantraust ĂĄ Bill Clinton BandarĂkjaforseta kom fram ĂĄ BandarĂkjaĂŸingi vegna meinsĂŠris Ă Lewinsky-mĂĄlinu. + 23. desember - Leikjatölvan PocketStation kom ĂĄ markað. + 28. desember - Eldgosi lauk Ă GrĂmsvötnum. + +Ădagsettir atburðir + Ăslenska Vefstofan var stofnuð. + Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin ĂrafĂĄr var stofnuð. + ĂĂŸrĂłttafĂ©lagið HvĂti riddarinn var stofnað Ă MosfellsbĂŠ. + SamfĂ©lag trĂșlausra var stofnað ĂĄ Ăslandi. + Ăslenska lĂftĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkið Prokaria var stofnað. + BandarĂska hljĂłmsveitin 30 Seconds to Mars var stofnuð. + Ăslenska hljĂłmsveitin Ă svörtum fötum var stofnuð. + Breska hljĂłmsveitin Oceansize var stofnuð. + Ăslenska ĂștgerðarfyrirtĂŠkið Brim hf. var stofnað. + Franska hljĂłmsveitin TĂ©lĂ©popmusik var stofnuð. + Ăslenska lĂftĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkið Biogels var stofnað. + Ăslenska fyrirtĂŠkið FjĂĄrvaki ehf. var stofnað. + Finnska pappĂrsfyrirtĂŠkið Stora Enso var stofnað. +Fyrsta heimsmeistarakeppnin Ă mĂœrarbolta var haldin Ă Finnlandi. + +FĂŠdd + 6. aprĂl - Alfons Sampsted, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 12. maĂ - Sveinn Aron Guðjohnsen, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 21. maĂ - Ari Ălafsson, Ăslenskur söngvari. + 1. jĂșlĂ - Mikael Anderson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 8. jĂșlĂ - Jaden Smith, bandarĂskur leikari og söngvari. + 18. september - Christian Pulisic, bandarĂskur knattspyrnumaður. + 7. oktĂłber - Trent Alexander-Arnold, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 12. oktĂłber - Anton Karl Kristensen, Ăslenskur leikstjĂłri. + 3. desember - ElĂsabet Hulda SnorradĂłttir, Ăslensk fyrirsĂŠta. + 8. desember - Maximilian Eggestein, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + 20. desember - Kylian MbappĂ©, franskur knattspyrnumaður. + +DĂĄin + 6. febrĂșar - Falco, austurrĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (f. 1957). + 6. febrĂșar - Carl Wilson, bandarĂskur tĂłnlistarmaður (The Beach Boys) (f. 1946). + + 8. febrĂșar - HalldĂłr Laxness, Ăslenskur rithöfundur og NĂłbelsverðlaunahafi (f. 1902). + 5. aprĂl - JĂłnas Ărnason, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og leikskĂĄld (f. 1923). + 14. aprĂl - Björn Sv. Björnsson, Ăslenskur SS-maður (f. 1909). + 15. aprĂl - Pol Pot, leiðtogi rauðu khmeranna Ă KambĂłdĂu (f. 1925). + 19. aprĂl - Octavio Paz, mexĂkĂłskur rithöfundur (f. 1914). + 14. maĂ - Frank Sinatra, bandarĂskur söngvari og kvikmyndaleikari (f. 1915). + 29. maĂ - Barry M. Goldwater, bandarĂskur ĂŸingmaður (f. 1909). + 5. jĂșnĂ - Dieter Roth, Ăslenskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1930). + 10. jĂșnĂ - Hammond Innes, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1913). + 27. jĂșlĂ - GĂsli HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur leikari (f. 1927). + 2. ĂĄgĂșst - Otto Bumbel, brasilĂskur knattspyrnuĂŸjĂĄlfari (f. 1914). + 6. september - AkĂra KĂșrĂłsava, japanskur kvikmyndaleikstjĂłri (f. 1910). + 12. oktĂłber - GuðrĂșn KatrĂn ĂorbergsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1934). + 12. oktĂłber - Ăsta B. ĂorsteinsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1945). + 31. oktĂłber - Hulda DĂłra JakobsdĂłttir, Ăslenskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður (f. 1911). + 6. nĂłvember - Niklas Luhmann, ĂŸĂœskur fĂ©lagsfrÊðingur (f. 1927). + 24. nĂłvember - John Chadwick, enskur fornfrÊðingur (f. 1920). + 25. nĂłvember - Nelson Goodman, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1906). + +NĂłbelsverðlaunin + EðlisfrÊði - Robert B. Laughlin, Horst L. Störmer, Daniel C. Tsui + EfnafrÊði - Walter Kohn, John A Pople + LĂŠknisfrÊði - Robert F Furchgott, Louis J Ignarro, Ferid Murad + BĂłkmenntir - JosĂ© Saramago + Friðarverðlaun - John Hume, David Trimble + HagfrÊði - Amartya Sen + +1998 +BĂșðardalur getur einnig ĂĄtt við BĂșðardal ĂĄ Skarðsströnd. +BĂșðardalur er ĂŸorp Ă Dölum, við botn Hvammsfjarðar. Ăorpið er nĂș hluti af sveitarfĂ©laginu Dalabyggð og er stjĂłrnsĂœslumiðstöð ĂŸess. ĂbĂșar BĂșðardals voru 256 ĂĄrið 2022. + +Ă LaxdĂŠlasögu er BĂșðardalur nefndur og sagt frĂĄ ĂŸvĂ að Höskuldur Dala-Kollsson lenti skipi sĂnu fyrir innan LaxĂĄrĂłs ĂŸegar hann kom Ășr Noregsferð og hafði ambĂĄttina Melkorku með sĂ©r: âHöskuldur lenti Ă LaxĂĄrĂłsi, lĂŠtur ĂŸar bera farm af skipi sĂnu en setja upp skipið fyrir innan LaxĂĄ og gerir ĂŸar hrĂłf að og sĂ©r ĂŸar tĂłftina sem hann lĂ©t gera hrĂłfið. Ăar tjaldaði hann bĂșðir og er ĂŸað kallaður BĂșðardalur. SĂðan lĂ©t Höskuldur flytja heim viðinn og var ĂŸað hĂŠgt ĂŸvĂ að eigi var löng leið.â + +Verslun hĂłfst Ă BĂșðardal ĂĄrið 1899 er Bogi Sigurðsson, kaupmaður, byggði ĂŸar fyrsta hĂșsið, sem var bÊði ĂbĂșðar- og verslunarhĂșs. Ăetta hĂșs var sĂðar flutt ĂĄ Selfoss og stendur ĂŸar enn. Um aldamĂłtin hĂłf KaupfĂ©lag Hvammsfjarðar verslunarrekstur Ă BĂșðardal og var ĂŸar nĂŠr allsråðandi uns ĂŸað varð gjaldĂŸrota 1989. + +BĂșðardalur er ĂŸjĂłnustukjarni fyrir Dalina og ĂŸar er meðal annars mjĂłlkurstöð MS, verslanir, bĂlaverkstÊði, pĂłsthĂșs, apĂłtek, banki og önnur ĂŸjĂłnusta fyrir heimamenn og ferðamenn. Ăar er AuðarskĂłli, sameinaður leik- og grunnskĂłli fyrir Dalabyggð, og dvalarheimilið SilfurtĂșn. SĂœslumaðurinn ĂĄ Vesturlandi hefur aðsetur Ă StykkishĂłlmi en afgreiðsla er Ă BĂșðardal. Ă BĂșðardal er heilsugĂŠslustöð og lĂŠknar. Engin kirkja er Ă ĂŸorpinu en sĂłknarkirkjan er Hjarðarholtskirkja. Hins vegar er prestssetrið Ă BĂșðardal. + +VĂnlandssetrið er við höfnina Ă BĂșðardal. Ăað er safn um VĂnlandsferðir Ăslendinga. EirĂksstaðir, bĂłndabĂŠr EirĂks rauða, er ekki langt frĂĄ BĂșðardal. Ăar bjĂł EirĂkur åður en hann fĂłr til GrĂŠnlands. Skammt utan við ĂŸorpið eru Höskuldsstaðir, ĂŸar sem Höskuldur Dala-Kollsson bjĂł og einnig Hjarðarholt, ĂŸar sem Ălafur pĂĄi bjĂł. Hallgerður langbrĂłk og Ălafur pĂĄi voru börn Höskuldar ĂĄ Höskuldsstöðum. Ă EirĂksstöðum er tilgĂĄtubĂŠr sem er opinn ferðamönnum. Ein merkasta landnĂĄmskonan, Auður djĂșpĂșðga KetilsdĂłttir, nam land við Hvammsfjörð. HĂșn byggði bĂŠ sinn Ă Hvammi og er jarðsett ĂŸar Ă fjörunni. SĂðar meir reis Ă Hvammi mikil ĂŠtt, Sturlungar, sem kennd er við Sturla ĂĂłrðarson Ă Hvammi. Enn er bĂșið Ă Hvammi og er ĂŸar bĂșskapur og Hvammskirkja sem byggð var 1883-1884. + +Tenglar + HeimasĂða Dalabyggðar + HeimasĂða AuðarskĂłla +EirĂksstaðir +VĂnlandssetrið + +Ăslensk sjĂĄvarĂŸorp +Dalabyggð +JosĂ© Saramago (16. nĂłvember 1922 â 18. jĂșnĂ 2010) var portĂșgalskur rithöfundur, fĂŠddur Ă Azinhaga. JosĂ© Saramago var bĂșsettur ĂĄ KanarĂeyjum. Hann vann sem vĂ©lvirki, blaðamaður, ritstjĂłri og ĂŸĂœĂ°andi åður en hann ĂĄvann sĂ©r nafn með sögunni Memorial do Convento, sem Ă enskri ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu var nefnd: Baltasar og Blimunda. + +Helstu verk + 1947 - Terra do Pecado - Jörð syndaranna + 1966 - Os Poemas PossĂveis - Möguleg ljóð + 1970 - Provavelmente Alegria + 1971 - Deste Mundo e do Outro - Ăessi heimur og hinn + 1973 - A Bagagem do Viajante - Farangur ferðalaganna + 1974 - As OpiniĂ”es que o DL teve + 1975 - O Ano de 1993 - Ărið 1993 + 1976 - Os Apontamentos + 1977 - Manual de Pintura e Caligrafia - HandbĂłk um mĂĄlverk og skrautritun + 1978 - Objecto Quase - HĂĄlfhlutir + 1981 - Viagem a Portugal - Ferð til PortĂșgals + 1982 - Memorial do Convento - Minningar frĂĄ klaustrinu (einnig: Baltasar og Blimunda) + 1984 - Ano da Morte de Ricardo Reis - Ărið sem Ricardo Reis lĂ©st + 1986 - Jangada de Pedra - Steinflekinn + 1989 - HistĂłria do Cerco de Lisboa - Sagan af umsĂĄtrinu um Lissabon + 1991 - Evangelho Segundo Jesus Cristo - Guðspjall JesĂșs Krists + 1995 - Ensaio sobre a Cegueira Blindness - Ritgerð um blindu (Blinda) + 1997 - Todos os Nomes - Ăll nöfnin + 1999 - Conto da Ilha Desconhecida - Saga af ĂłĂŸekktu eyjunni + 2001 - Caverna - Hellir + 2003 - Homem Duplicado - TvĂfarinn + 2004 - Ensaio sobre a Lucidez - Ritgerð um skĂœrleika + 2005 - Don Giovanni ou o Dissoluto Absolvido + 2005 - As IntermitĂȘncias da Morte + +Handhafar bĂłkmenntaverðlauna NĂłbels +Saramago, JosĂ© +GĂŒnter Grass (fĂŠddur Ă Danzig 16. oktĂłber 1927 - dĂĄinn 13. aprĂl 2015) var ĂŸĂœskur rithöfundur, myndlistarmaður og uppgjafahermaður. Hlaut nĂłbelsverðlaun Ă bĂłkmenntum 1999. Var meðlimur Ă HitlersĂŠskunni og sĂðar Waffen-SS og barðist með 10 SS-skriðdrekasveit (Frundsberg) Ă seinni heimsstyrjöld ĂŸar til hann var tekinn til fanga af bandamönnum. + +Helstu verk + Danziger Trilogie + Die Blechtrommel (1959) (Blikktromman) + Katz und Maus (1961) (Köttur og mĂșs) + Hundejahre (1963) + Ărtlich betĂ€ubt (1969) + Aus dem Tagebuch einer Schnecke (1972) + Der Butt (1979) + Das Treffen in Telgte (1979) + Kopfgeburten oder Die Deutschen sterben aus (1980) + Die RĂ€ttin (1986) + Zunge zeigen. Ein Tagebuch in Zeichnungen (1988) + Unkenrufe (1992) + Ein weites Feld (1995) + Mein Jahrhundert (1999) + Im Krebsgang (2002) (Krabbagangur) + +ĂĂœskir rithöfundar +Handhafar bĂłkmenntaverðlauna NĂłbels +Toni Morrison (18. febrĂșar 1931 â 5. ĂĄgĂșst 2019) var bandarĂskur rithöfundur og handhafi BĂłkmenntaverðlauna NĂłbels. Verk hennar snĂșast að mestu um samfĂ©lag blökkumanna Ă BandarĂkjunum. + +BĂłk hennar ĂstkĂŠr vann Pulitzer verðlaunin ĂĄrið 1988 og Söngur SalĂłmons vann til National Books Critic Avards. + +Helstu verk +The Bluest Eye (1970) +Sula (1973) +Song of Solomon (1977) (gefin Ășt ĂĄ Ăslensku undir nafninu Söngur SalĂłmons) +Tar Baby (1981) Beloved (1987) (gefin Ășt ĂĄ Ăslensku undir nafninu ĂstkĂŠr)Jazz (1992) Playing in the Dark (1993) Paradise (1999) Love'' (2003) + +Morrison, Toni +Morrison, Toni +Ernest Miller Hemingway (21. jĂșlĂ 1899 Ă Oak Park Ă Illinois Ă BandarĂkjunum â +2. jĂșlĂ 1961 Ă Ketchum Ă Idaho) var bandarĂskur rithöfundur. Hann starfaði m.a. sem blaðamaður, sjĂșkraflutningabĂlstjĂłri (ĂĄ ĂtalĂu Ă fyrri heimsstyrjöldinni) og, að sjĂĄlfsögðu, sem rithöfundur. Hann bjĂł um tĂma Ă ParĂs ĂŸar sem hann kynntist m.a. F. Scott Fitzgerald og James Joyce. Ernest Hemingway fyrirfĂłr sĂ©r með byssuskoti Ă höfuðið ĂĄrið 1961, ĂŸĂĄ 61 ĂĄrs að aldri. + +Verk Hemingways +SmĂĄsögur + 1923 - Three Stories & Ten Poems. + 1924 - In our time. + 1927 - Men Without Women. + 1933 - Winner Take Nothing. + 1938 - The Fifth Column and the First Forty-nine Stories. + 1961 - Snows of Kilimanjaro â (SnjĂłrinn ĂĄ KilimanjarĂł og fleiri sögur Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu Sigurðar A. MagnĂșssonar, 2004 (Ath. öllu fleiri sögur eru Ă nöfnu Sigurðar, og ekki allar sem voru Ă upphaflegu bĂłkinni). + 1963 - The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber and Other Stories. + +SkĂĄldsögur + 1926 - The Torrents of Spring : a Romantic Novel in Honor of the Passing of a Great Race. + 1926 - Siesta, Sun Also Rises (Og sĂłlin rennur upp Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu Karls Ăsfeld, 1941) + 1929 - Farewell to Arms - (Vopnin kvödd, Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu HalldĂłrs Laxness, 1941) + 1937 - To Have and Have Not - (Einn gegn öllum Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu Karls Ăsfeld, 1946) + 1940 - For Whom the Bell Tolls - (Hverjum klukkan glymur Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu StefĂĄns Bjarman, 1951) + 1950 - Across the River and Into the Trees. + 1952 - Old Man and the Sea â (Gamli maðurinn og hafið Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu Björns O. Björnssonar, 1954) + 1970 - Islands in the Stream. + 1986 - The Garden of Eden. + 1999 - True at First Light : a Fictional Memoir. + +Annað + 1926 - Today is Friday. + 1932 - Death in the Afternoon. + 1933 - God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen. + 1935 - Green Hills of Africa. + 1938 - The Spanish Earth. + 1954 - The Secret Agent's Badge of Courage. + 1959 - Two Christmas Tales. + 1964 - Movable feast â (Veisla Ă farĂĄngrinum, Ă ĂŸĂœĂ°ingu HalldĂłrs Laxness, 1966) + 1970 - The Collected Poems of Ernest Hemingway. + +Tenglar + Hann var Ă miðpunkti aldarinnar; andlĂĄtsfregn Ă Morgunblaðinu 1961 + Ă nĂĄvĂgi við dauðann alla ĂŠvi; andlĂĄtsfregn 2 Ă Morgunblaðinu 1961 + Gamli maðurinn og gĂŠfan; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1976 + FjĂłrar eiginkonur Hemingways; fyrri hluti; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1972 + FjĂłrar eiginkonur Hemingways; seinni hluti; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1972 + LjóðskĂĄldið Hemingway; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1980 + Ăg hitti Hemingway, eftir William Caldwell; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1964 + Hemingway ĂĄ Ăłstöðugum stalli; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1982 + Ăg hef ekki drepið neinn Ă fjögur ĂĄr; um brĂ©f Hemingways; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1985 + Hemingway Ă ParĂs 1920-30; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1964 + Naut eða nautabani; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1987 + Hinar fögru sonardĂŠtur Hemingways; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1981 +Verk Hemingways + NĂș legg Ă©g mig; smĂĄsaga eftir Hemingway; Guðmundur Arnfinnsson ĂŸĂœddi; birtist Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1967 + HjĂĄ indĂĂĄnum; smĂĄsaga eftir Hemingway; birtist Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1964 + Gamall maður við brĂșnna; smĂĄsaga eftir Hemingway; birtist Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1966 + Dags bið; smĂĄsaga eftir Hemingway; birtist Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1966 + Tyrkneski hershöfðinginn og Ătalski einrÊðisherrann; grein eftir HemingwayÂŽ; birtist Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1963 + Geta hermenn Mussolinis barist?; birtist Ă AlĂŸĂœĂ°ublaðinu 1938 + +BandarĂskir blaðamenn +BandarĂskir rithöfundar +Dauðsföll af völdum sjĂĄlfsmorða +FĂłlk tengt spĂŠnsku borgarastyrjöldinni +Handhafar bĂłkmenntaverðlauna NĂłbels +Joseph Brodsky (eða JĂłsef Brodsky) (24. maĂ 1940 - 28. janĂșar 1996) fĂŠddur JosĂf AleksandrovĂtsj BrodskĂj eða ĐĐŸÌŃĐžŃ ĐлДĐșŃаÌĐœĐŽŃĐŸĐČĐžŃ ĐŃĐŸÌĐŽŃĐșĐžĐč, var rĂșssneskt skĂĄld, leikrita- og ritgerðarhöfundur. Joseph Brodsky fĂŠddist Ă Leningrad (nĂș Sankti PĂ©tursborg) Ă RĂșsslandi en fluttist til BandarĂkjanna eftir að hafa verið gerður ĂștlĂŠgur Ășr SovĂ©trĂkjunum. Hann öðlaðist bandarĂskan rĂkisborgararĂ©tt 1977. Hann fĂ©kk aldrei að hitta foreldra sĂna aftur, og tileinkaði ĂŸeim ritgerðarsafnið Less Than One. + +Joseph Brodsky fĂ©kk NĂłbelsverðlaun Ă bĂłkmenntum ĂĄrið 1987. Hann er grafinn Ă Feneyjum. + +Tenglar + GĂŠddi rĂșssneskan skĂĄldskap nĂœju lĂfi; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1996 + RĂ©ttarhöldin yfir Iosif Brodsky; 1. grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1964 + RĂ©ttarhöldin yfir Iosif Brodsky; 2. grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1964 + ĂsĂœnileg hetja og hetjulegur prins; grein Ă DV 1996 + Að orðin hafi merkingu; grein Ă Morgunblaðinu 1978 + +Handhafar bĂłkmenntaverðlauna NĂłbels +RĂșssnesk skĂĄld +2000 (MM Ă rĂłmverskum tölum) var sĂðasta ĂĄr 20. aldar og hlaupĂĄr sem hĂłfst ĂĄ laugardegi samkvĂŠmt gregorĂska tĂmatalinu. + +Ărið var Ăștnefnt AlĂŸjóðlegt ĂĄr friðarmenningar og AlĂŸjóðlegt ĂĄr stĂŠrðfrÊðinnar. + +Ăetta var ĂĄr 2000-vandans ĂŸar sem sumir bjuggust við ĂŸvĂ að tölvukerfi hĂŠttu að virka ĂŸar sem eldri tölvur gerðu ekki råð fyrir hĂŠrri ĂĄrtölum en 1999 en afar fĂĄ slĂk vandamĂĄl komu upp ĂŸegar ĂĄrið gekk Ă garð. + +Atburðir + +JanĂșar + + 1. janĂșar - StjĂłrnarskrĂĄrbundin tengsl SĂŠnsku kirkjunnar við sĂŠnska rĂkið voru rofin. + 1. janĂșar - Kvikmyndin Englar alheimsins var frumsĂœnd ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 1. janĂșar - Finnur IngĂłlfsson var skipaður seðlabankastjĂłri. + 1. janĂșar - TĂłnverkið Longplayer hĂłf að spila. + 3. janĂșar - SjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄtturinn KastljĂłs hĂłf göngu sĂna Ă Ăslenska rĂkissjĂłnvarpinu. + 4. janĂșar - 19 lĂ©tust Ă Ă sta-lestarslysinu Ă Noregi. + 5. janĂșar - Råðstefna Al-KaĂda Ă KĂșala LĂșmpĂșr hĂłfst Ă MalasĂu. + 6. janĂșar - SĂðasti villti pĂœreneaĂbexinn fannst dauður. + 10. janĂșar - America Online keypti Time Warner fyrir 162 milljarða bandarĂkjadala. Ăetta var stĂŠrsti fyrirtĂŠkjasamruni sögunnar ĂĄ ĂŸeim tĂma. + 14. janĂșar - HĂŠsta skrĂĄning Dow Jones vĂsitölunnar var við lokun; 11.722,98 stig, ĂĄ hĂĄtindi NetbĂłlunnar. + 14. janĂșar - DĂłmstĂłll ĂĄ vegum Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna dĂŠmdi 5 BosnĂukrĂłata Ă 25 ĂĄra fangelsi fyrir morð ĂĄ yfir 100 BosnĂumĂșslimum. + 24. janĂșar - SkĂŠruliðahreyfingin Her guðs tĂłk 700 gĂsla ĂĄ sjĂșkrahĂșsi Ă TaĂlandi. + 29. janĂșar - VĂsindavefurinn var formlega opnaður af forseta Ăslands. + 30. janĂșar - 169 fĂłrust ĂŸegar Kenya Airways flug 431 hrapaði Ă Atlantshafið. + 31. janĂșar - 88 fĂłrust ĂŸegar Alaska Airlines flug 261 hrapaði Ă Kyrrahaf. + +FebrĂșar + + 1. febrĂșar - 35 tĂma vinnuvika var leidd Ă lög Ă Frakklandi. + 4. febrĂșar - ĂĂœski hermdarverkamaðurinn Klaus-Peter Sabotta var dĂŠmdur Ă lĂfstĂðarfangelsi fyrir skemmdarverk og fjĂĄrkĂșgun. + 6. febrĂșar - Tarja Halonen var kjörin forseti Finnlands. + 7. febrĂșar - Stipe MesiÄ var kjörinn forseti KrĂłatĂu. + 9. febrĂșar - Steypiregn Ă AfrĂku leiddu til verstu flóða Ă MĂłsambĂk Ă 50 ĂĄr og dauða 800 manna. + 13. febrĂșar - SĂðasta myndasagan um SmĂĄfĂłlkið kom Ășt, en höfundur hennar, Charles M. Schulz, lĂ©st daginn åður. + 17. febrĂșar - Microsoft gaf Ășt Windows 2000. + 21. febrĂșar - AlĂŸjóðlegi móðurmĂĄlsdagurinn var haldinn hĂĄtĂðlegur Ă fyrsta sinn. + 26. febrĂșar - Eldgos hĂłfst Ă Heklu. Ăað stóð Ă ellefu daga. + 29. febrĂșar - HlaupĂĄrsdag bar upp ĂĄ aldarĂĄri Ă fyrsta sinn frĂĄ ĂĄrinu 1600. + +Mars + + 1. mars - Jorge Batlle var kosinn forseti Ă ĂrĂșgvĂŠ. + 1. mars - NĂœ stjĂłrnarskrĂĄ tĂłk gildi Ă Finnlandi. + 4. mars - PlayStation 2 kom fyrst Ășt Ă Japan. + 8. mars - Naka-Meguro-lestarslysið ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað Ă Japan. TvĂŠr neðanjarðarlestar Ă TĂłkĂœĂł rĂĄkust ĂĄ sem leiddi til dauða 5 manna. + 10. mars - Ăslenska kvikmyndin FĂaskĂł var frumsĂœnd. + 10. mars - NASDAQ-vĂsitalan nåði 5.048 stigum ĂĄ hĂĄtindi NetbĂłlunnar. + 13. mars - BandarĂkjadalur varð opinber gjaldmiðill Ă Ekvador. + 13. mars - JosĂ© MarĂa Aznar sigraði ĂŸingkosningar ĂĄ SpĂĄni. + 20. mars - Jamil Abdullah Al-Amin, fyrrum meðlimur Svörtu hlĂ©barðanna, var handtekinn eftir skotbardaga sem leiddi til dauða eins lögreglumanns. + 26. mars - VladĂmĂr PĂștĂn var kosinn forseti RĂșsslands. + +AprĂl + + 1. aprĂl - Siglingamiðstöðin Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy var opnuð. + 3. aprĂl - BandarĂkin gegn Microsoft: TölvufyrirtĂŠkið Microsoft var sĂłtt til saka vegna ĂĄsakana um samkeppnishamlandi aðgerðir. + 5. aprĂl - Mori Yoshiro tĂłk við sem forsĂŠtisråðherra Japans. + 9. aprĂl - SĂŠnska nunnan Elisabeth Hesselblad var lĂœst sĂŠl af kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunni. + 15. aprĂl - âLeyniskĂĄpurinnâ með erĂłtĂskum minjum frĂĄ Pompeii og Herculaneum var opnaður Ă Minjasafni NapĂłlĂ eftir aldalanga lokun. + 16. aprĂl - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn hnattvÊðingu fĂłru fram Ă Washington D.C. + 19. aprĂl - NĂœtt hĂșsnÊði Listasafns Ăslands var opnað Ă HafnarhĂșsinu við Tryggvagötu. + 22. aprĂl - AlrĂkislögreglumenn tĂłku Elian Gonzalez frĂĄ ĂŠttingjum Ă Miami, FlĂłrĂda. + 30. aprĂl - Faustina Kowalska var lĂœst dĂœrlingur Ă kaĂŸĂłlsku kirkjunni. + +MaĂ + + 2. maĂ - GPS-kerfið var opnað að fullu fyrir almenna notendur. + 3. maĂ - Fyrsti Geocaching-leikurinn fĂłr fram. + 4. maĂ - TölvuvĂrusinn ILOVEYOU breiddist hratt um heiminn. + 4. maĂ - 54 fĂłrust ĂŸegar jarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir Banggai Ă IndĂłnesĂu. + 5. maĂ - SjaldgĂŠf samstaða sjö himintungla, SĂłlarinnar, Tunglsins og reikistjarnanna frĂĄ MerkĂșr til SatĂșrnusar, ĂĄtti sĂ©r stað ĂĄ nĂœju Tungli. + 5. - 6. maĂ - Stofnfundur Samfylkingarinnar var haldinn. + 12. maĂ - Listasafnið Tate Modern var opnað Ă London. + 13. maĂ - Olsen-brÊður unnu Söngvakeppni evrĂłpskra sjĂłnvarpsstöðva 2000. Einar ĂgĂșst & Telma fluttu lagið âTell Me!â fyrir Ăslands hönd. + 13. maĂ - 23 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar sprenging varð Ă flugeldaverksmiðju Ă Enschede Ă Hollandi. + 15. maĂ - FjĂĄrfestingabanki atvinnulĂfsins rann saman við Ăslandsbanka. + 16. maĂ - LandspĂtali varð til við samruna LandspĂtalans og BorgarspĂtalans. + 16. maĂ - Ahmet Necdet Sezer var kjörinn forseti Tyrklands. + 19. maĂ - Baneheia-mĂĄlið Ă Noregi: Tveimur ungum stĂșlkum var nauðgað og ĂŸĂŠr myrtar Ă Kristiansand. + 25. maĂ - Ăsrael drĂł herlið sitt frĂĄ LĂbanon eftir 22 ĂĄra hersetu. + +JĂșnĂ + + 1. jĂșnĂ - HeimssĂœningin Expo 2000 hĂłfst Ă HannĂłver Ă ĂĂœskalandi. + 1. jĂșnĂ - Ăslenska kvikmyndin 101 ReykjavĂk var frumsĂœnd. + 4. jĂșnĂ - Yfir 100 fĂłrust ĂŸegar jarðskjĂĄlfti reið yfir SĂșmötru. + 5. jĂșnĂ - Stuttmyndin 405 The Movie var sett Ă dreifingu ĂĄ Internetinu. + 13. jĂșnĂ - Forseti Suður-KĂłreu, Kim Dae-jung, heimsĂłtti Norður-KĂłreu. + 17. og 21. jĂșnĂ - SuðurlandsskjĂĄlftar skĂłku Suðurlandsundirlendið. + 17. jĂșnĂ - Ylströndin var opnuð Ă NauthĂłlsvĂk. + 18. jĂșnĂ - VigdĂs FinnbogadĂłttir rĂŠsti keppendur Ă Skippers d'Islande-siglingakeppninni Ă Paimpol Ă Frakklandi. + 23. jĂșnĂ - FrĂžya-göngin milli eyjanna FrĂžya og Hitra Ă Noregi voru opnuð. + 26. jĂșnĂ - Fyrstu drögin að erfðamengi mannsins voru gefin Ășt af Human Genome Project. + 26. jĂșnĂ - KaĂŸĂłlska kirkjan lĂ©t ĂŸriðja leyndardĂłm FatĂmu uppi. + 28. jĂșnĂ - Franska kvikmyndin RĂddu mĂ©r var frumsĂœnd. + 28. jĂșnĂ - EliĂĄn GonzĂĄlez sneri aftur til KĂșbu ĂĄsamt föður sĂnum. + 30. jĂșnĂ - Edda - miðlun og ĂștgĂĄfa var stofnuð með samruna MĂĄls og menningar og Vöku-Helgafells. + 30. jĂșnĂ - 9 lĂ©tust og 26 slösuðust Ă troðningi ĂĄ tĂłnleikum Pearl Jam ĂĄ HrĂłarskelduhĂĄtĂðinni. + +JĂșlĂ + + 1. jĂșlĂ - EyrarsundsbrĂșin milli Danmerkur og SvĂĂŸjóðar var opnuð. + 1. jĂșlĂ - KristnihĂĄtĂðin var sett ĂĄ Ăingvöllum. Fjöldi gesta ĂĄ hĂĄtĂðinni reyndist mun minni en bĂșist hafði verið við. + 2. jĂșlĂ - AlĂŸingi samĂŸykkti stofnun KristnihĂĄtĂðarsjóðs ĂĄ hĂĄtĂðarfundi ĂĄ Ăingvöllum. + 2. jĂșlĂ - Frakkar sigruðu Ătali 2-1 Ă lokaleik EvrĂłpukeppninnar Ă knattspyrnu. + 2. jĂșlĂ - Vicente Fox varð forseti MexĂkĂł. + 2. jĂșlĂ - Fyrsta lestin frĂĄ Kaupmannahöfn Ă Danmörku til Ystad Ă SvĂĂŸjóð lagði af stað. + 3. jĂșlĂ - Stofnunin Transport for London var sett ĂĄ fĂłt til að hafa yfirumsjĂłn með almenningssamöngum ĂĄ StĂłr-LundĂșnasvÊðinu. HĂșn tĂłk við af London Transport. + 10. jĂșlĂ - 10 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar lek olĂuleiðsla Ă NĂgerĂu sprakk. + 13. jĂșlĂ - Ehud Barak og Yasser Arafat hittust Ă Camp David en tĂłkst ekki að komast að samkomulagi. + 14. jĂșlĂ - Ăflugt sĂłlgos olli segulstormi ĂĄ jörðu. + 17. jĂșlĂ - Bashar al-Assad varð forseti SĂœrlands. + 18. jĂșlĂ - Alex Salmond sagði af sĂ©r sem leiðtogi Skoska ĂŸjóðarflokksins. + 25. jĂșlĂ - HljóðfrĂĄ Concorde-ĂŸota fĂłrst Ă flugtaki Ă ParĂs. 114 fĂłrust Ă slysinu og stuttu sĂðar var hĂŠtt að nota slĂkar vĂ©lar. + 28. jĂșlĂ - SĂðasta Ătalska lĂran var prentuð. + 30. jĂșlĂ - Stafkirkja var vĂgð Ă Vestmannaeyjum. HĂșn var gjöf frĂĄ Norðmönnum. + +ĂgĂșst + + 3. ĂĄgĂșst - Yfir 100 manns réðust ĂĄ fjölbĂœlishĂșs Ă Portsmouth ĂĄ Englandi vegna ĂŸess að ĂŸekktur barnanĂðingur var talinn bĂșa ĂŸar. + 7. ĂĄgĂșst - Vefurinn DeviantART hĂłf göngu sĂna. + 8. ĂĄgĂșst - SuðurrĂkjakafbĂĄtnum H. L. Hunley var bjargað af hafsbotni. + 10. ĂĄgĂșst - Ferenc MĂĄdl varð forseti Ungverjalands. + 12. ĂĄgĂșst - RĂșssneski kafbĂĄturinn KĂșrsk sökk Ă Barentshafi. Allir 118 um borð fĂłrust. + 14. ĂĄgĂșst - DĂłra landkönnuður hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ Nickleodeon. + 14. ĂĄgĂșst - NikulĂĄs 2. keisari var lĂœstur dĂœrlingur Ă rĂșssnesku rĂ©tttrĂșnaðarkirkjunni. + 23. ĂĄgĂșst - KaĂŸĂłlski presturinn John Anthony Kaiser var myrtur Ă KenĂœa. + 24. ĂĄgĂșst - Leikjatölvan GameCube frĂĄ Nintendo var kynnt. + +September + + 5. september - TĂșvalĂș gerðist aðili að Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðunum. + 6. september - SĂðasti alsĂŠnski vopnaframleiðandinn, Bofors, var seldur til bandarĂska fyrirtĂŠkisins United Defense. + 6. september - ĂĂșsaldarråðstefna Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna hĂłfst. + 7. september - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Ăslenski draumurinn var frumsĂœnd. + 7. september - EldsneytismĂłtmĂŠlin Ă Bretlandi hĂłfust. + 8. september - ĂĂșsaldarråðstefnu Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðanna lauk. + 13. september - Steve Jobs kynnti betaĂștgĂĄfu Mac OS X. + 15. september - SumarĂłlympĂuleikar voru settir Ă Sydney. + 16. september - ĂkraĂnski blaðamaðurinn GeorgĂj Gongadse sĂĄst sĂðast ĂĄ lĂfi. + 22. september - Kauphallirnar Ă Amsterdam, Brussel og ParĂs runnu saman Ă eina og Euronext varð til. + 24. september - Vojislav KoĆĄtunica sigraði Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ Ă fyrstu umferð forsetakosninga Ă SerbĂu og Svartfjallalandi en MiloĆĄeviÄ neitaði að viðurkenna Ăłsigur. +25. september - Vala FlosadĂłttir hlaut bronsverðlaun Ă stangarstökki ĂĄ ĂlympĂuleikunum Ă Sydney Ă ĂstralĂu. + 26. september - GrĂska farĂŸegaferjan Express Samina sökk við eyjuna Paros. 80 af 500 farĂŸegum fĂłrust. + 26. september - MĂłtmĂŠli gegn hnattvÊðingu fĂłru fram Ă Prag. + 28. september - Ăsraelski stjĂłrnarandstöðuleiðtoginn Ariel Sharon heimsĂłtti Musterisfjallið. Al-Aqsa-uppreisnin hĂłfst. + 28. september - Danir höfnuðu ĂŸvĂ Ă ĂŸjóðaratkvÊðagreiðslu að taka upp evru með naumum meirihluta. + 29. september - Maze-fangelsinu ĂĄ Norður-Ărlandi var lokað. + +OktĂłber + + OktĂłber - FraktflugfĂ©lagið BlĂĄfugl var stofnað ĂĄ Ăslandi. + 5. oktĂłber - OktĂłberbyltingin Ă JĂșgĂłslavĂu: Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ neyddist til að segja af sĂ©r sem forseti SerbĂu og Svartfjallalands. + 6. oktĂłber - BandarĂska sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttaröðin CSI hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ CBS. + 6. oktĂłber - BandarĂska kvikmyndin Meet the Parents var frumsĂœnd. + 6. oktĂłber - SĂðasti Mini-bĂllinn var framleiddur Ă Longbridge ĂĄ Englandi. + 11. oktĂłber - ReykjavĂkurborg seldi hĂșsið Esjuberg við ĂingholtsstrĂŠti til hugbĂșnaðarfyrirtĂŠkisins OZ fyrir 70 milljĂłnir. Ăar stóð til að stofna frumkvöðlasetur en hĂșsið hĂœsti åður BorgarbĂłkasafn ReykjavĂkur. Tveimur ĂĄrum sĂðar seldi OZ svo hĂșsið til norska myndlistarmannsins Odd Nerdrum fyrir 100 milljĂłnir. + 11. oktĂłber - 950.000 rĂșmmetrar af kolasora flĂŠddu Ășt Ă Martin-sĂœslu Ă Kentucky. + 12. oktĂłber - Tveir sjĂĄlfsmorðssprengjumenn ĂĄ vegum Al-KaĂda ollu dauða 17 ĂĄhafnarmeðlima bandarĂska herskipsins USS Cole Ă Aden Ă Jemen. + 13. oktĂłber - Starfsgreinasamband Ăslands var stofnað. + 13. oktĂłber - OpenOffice.org varð til ĂŸegar Sun Microsystems gaf Ășt frumkóða skrifstofuvöndulsins StarOffice. + 18. oktĂłber - Ăslenski sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄtturinn 70 mĂnĂștur hĂłf göngu sĂna ĂĄ PoppTĂvĂ. + 21. oktĂłber - FimmtĂĄn leiðtogar ArabarĂkja komu saman Ă KaĂrĂł ĂĄ fyrsta leiðtogafundi rĂkjanna Ă fjögur ĂĄr. + 22. oktĂłber - Japanska dagblaðið Mainichi Shimbun afhjĂșpaði svik fornleifafrÊðingsins Shinichi Fujimura. + 26. oktĂłber - Yfirvöld Ă Pakistan sögðu frĂĄ fundi mĂșmĂu persneskrar prinsessu Ă BalĂșkistan. Ăran, Pakistan og TalĂbanar gerðu öll tilkall til mĂșmĂunnar ĂŸar til ĂĄri sĂðar að sannað var að hĂșn var fölsun. + 30. oktĂłber - Geimfarið SojĂșs TM-31 flutti ĂĄhöfn AlĂŸjóðlegu geimstöðvarinnar Ășt Ă geim. FrĂĄ ĂŸessum degi hefur alltaf verið maður staddur Ă geimnum. + 31. oktĂłber - 83 lĂ©tust ĂŸegar Singapore Airlines flug 006 lenti Ă ĂĄrekstri ĂĄ Chiang Kai Shek-flugvelli. + +NĂłvember + + 1. nĂłvember - SerbĂa og Svartfjallaland gerðist aðili að Sameinuðu ĂŸjóðunum. + 2. nĂłvember - Fyrsta fastaĂĄhöfnin hĂłf bĂșsetu Ă AlĂŸjóðlegu geimstöðinni. + 7. nĂłvember - HĂłpur rĂŠningja réðist ĂĄ ĂĂșsaldarhvelfinguna Ă London til að stela ĂĂșsaldardemantinum en voru gripnir af lögreglu. + 7. nĂłvember - Hillary Clinton tĂłk sĂŠti à öldungadeild BandarĂkjaĂŸings. + 7. nĂłvember - George W. Bush var kjörinn forseti BandarĂkjanna eftir nauman sigur ĂĄ Al Gore. + 11. nĂłvember - Kaprunslysið: 152 skĂða- og snjĂłbrettamenn lĂ©tust ĂŸegar eldur kom upp Ă drĂĄttarlest inni Ă göngum. + 15. nĂłvember - Indverska fylkið Jharkhand var stofnað. + 16. nĂłvember - Bill Clinton heimsĂłtti VĂetnam fyrstur BandarĂkjaforseta frĂĄ lokum VĂetnamstrĂðsins. + 17. nĂłvember - Alberto Fujimori flaug til TĂłkĂœĂł og sendi afsögn sĂna sem forseti PerĂș með faxi. + 24. nĂłvember - Ăslenska kvikmyndin Ăskabörn ĂŸjóðarinnar var frumsĂœnd. + 27. nĂłvember - Lengstu veggöng heims, LĂŠrdalsgöngin Ă Noregi, 25,5 km að lengd, voru opnuð. + 28. nĂłvember - ĂkraĂnski stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaðurinn Olexandr Moros sakaði LeonĂd KĂștsma forseta um aðild að morðinu ĂĄ GeorgĂj Gongadse. + +Desember + + 1. desember - Vicente Fox tĂłk við embĂŠtti forseta MexĂkĂł. + 7. desember - HindĂșahofið Kadisoka fannst við Yogyakarta Ă IndĂłnesĂu. + 12. desember - Bush gegn Gore: HĂŠstirĂ©ttur BandarĂkjanna stöðvaði endurtalningu atkvÊða Ă FlĂłrĂda. + 15. desember - Ăriðja og sĂðasta kjarnakljĂșfi TsjernĂłbĂœlkjarnorkuversins var lokað. + 22. desember - Ăremur mĂĄlverkum eftir Rembrandt var stolið frĂĄ Nationalmuseum Ă StokkhĂłlmi. + 24. desember - AðfangadagsĂĄrĂĄsirnar Ă IndĂłnesĂu: Ăslamskir öfgamenn stóðu fyrir sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsum ĂĄ kirkjur um alla IndĂłnesĂu. + 25. desember - Eldsvoðinn Ă Luoyang: 309 lĂ©tust Ă eldsvoða Ă verslunarmiðstöð Ă KĂna. + 30. desember - SprengjuĂĄrĂĄsirnar 30. desember Ă Filippseyjum: 22 lĂ©tust Ă röð sprengjuĂĄrĂĄsa Ă Manila. + 30. desember - Geimkönnunarfarið Cassini-Huygens fĂłr framhjĂĄ JĂșpĂter ĂĄ leið sinni til SatĂșrnusar. + +Ădagsettir atburðir + BĂłkin Empire kom Ășt. + FarsĂminn Nokia 3310 kom ĂĄ markað. + Ăslenska lĂftĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkið Saga Medica var stofnað. + Ăslenska lĂftĂŠknifyrirtĂŠkið Orf LĂftĂŠkni var stofnað. + Ăslenska fyrirtĂŠkið Haliotis var stofnað. + +FĂŠdd + 6. janĂșar - Fiete Arp, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + 24. febrĂșar - Jean-Manuel Mbom, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + 9. mars - PĂĄll HrĂłar Beck Helgason, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 11. mars - ElĂas Rafn Ălafsson, Ăslenskur knattspyrnumaður. + 21. mars - Matty Longstaff, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 25. mars - Jadon Sancho, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 9. maĂ - Ăsgeir Sigurðsson, Ăslenskur kvikmyndagerðarmaður. + 10. maĂ - Percy Liza, perĂșskur knattspyrnumaður. + 28. maĂ - Phil Foden, enskur knattspyrnumaður. + 23. ĂĄgĂșst - Vincent MĂŒller, ĂŸĂœskur knattspyrnumaður. + 31. oktĂłber - Willow Smith, bandarĂsk leik- og söngkona. + +DĂĄin + 19. janĂșar - Bettino Craxi, Ătalskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og forsĂŠtisråðherra (f. 1934). + 10. febrĂșar - Jim Varney, bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1949). + 26. febrĂșar - Louisa MatthĂasdĂłttir, Ăslensk-bandarĂskur myndlistarmaður (f. 1917). + 21. mars - MagnĂșs Ingimarsson, Ăslenskur tĂłnlistarmaður (f. 1933). + 5. aprĂl- HalldĂłr HalldĂłrsson, Ăslenskur mĂĄlfrÊðingur og prĂłfessor (f. 1911). + 16. aprĂl - NĂna Björk ĂrnadĂłttir, skĂĄld og rithöfundur (f. 1941). + 7. maĂ - Douglas Fairbanks jr., bandarĂskur leikari (f. 1909). + 14. maĂ - Obuchi Keizo, fyrrum forsĂŠtisråðherra Japans (f. 1937). + 15. maĂ - Heimir Steinsson, Ăslenskur prestur (f. 1937). + 21. maĂ - Barbara Cartland, enskur rithöfundur (f. 1901) + 21. maĂ - Sir John Gielgud, enskur leikari (f. 1904). + 26. maĂ - JĂłn Kr. Gunnarsson, Ăslenskur skipstjĂłri og rithöfundur (f. 1929). + 5. jĂșnĂ - Franco Rossi, Ătalskur handritshöfundur (f. 1919). + 10. jĂșnĂ - Hafez al-Assad, forseti SĂœrlands (f. 1930). + 23. jĂșlĂ - BenjamĂn H. J. EirĂksson, Ăslenskur hagfrÊðingur (f. 1910). + 5. ĂĄgĂșst - Alec Guinness, breskur leikari (f. 1914). + 17. ĂĄgĂșst - Robert R. Gilruth, bandarĂskur geimferðastjĂłri (f. 1913). + 25. ĂĄgĂșst - Carl Barks, bandarĂskur teiknari (f. 1901). + 3. september - Indriði G. Ăorsteinsson, rithöfundur (f. 1926). + 28. september - Pierre Trudeau, kanadĂskur stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður og forsĂŠtisråðherra (f. 1919). + 10. oktĂłber - Sirimavo Bandaranaike, forsĂŠtisråðherra SrĂ Lanka (f. 1916). + 7. nĂłvember - IngirĂður Danadrottning, kona Friðriks 9. (f. 1910). + 18. desember - Kirsty MacColl, bresk söngkona og lagahöfundur (f. 1959). + 25. desember - Willard Van Orman Quine, bandarĂskur heimspekingur (f. 1908). + +NĂłbelsverðlaunin + EðlisfrÊði - Zhores Ivanovich Alferov, Herbert Kroemer, Jack Kilby + EfnafrÊði - Alan J Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid, Hideki Shirakawa + LĂŠknisfrÊði - Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard, Eric R. Kandel + BĂłkmenntir - Gao Xingjian + Friðarverðlaun - Kim Dae Jung + HagfrÊði - James Heckman, Daniel McFadden + +2000 +1991-2000 +Kjörorð er setning sem hĂłpur hefur valið sĂ©r til að sameinast um. DĂŠmi um ĂŸetta er kjörorð skyttnanna Ă bĂłkinni Skytturnar ĂŸrjĂĄr eftir Alexandre Dumas: âAllir fyrir einn, einn fyrir alla!â. + + +Hugtök +Tony Blair var Ăslensk pönkhljĂłmsveit. + +Meðlimir + PĂĄll Hilmarsson (söngur) + Hilmar Hilmarsson (gĂtar) + Haraldur Ingi Ăorleifsson (bassi) + Guðmundur Björnsson (trommur) + +Ăslenskar hljĂłmsveitir +Sjeik Ahmed Yassin (1937 â 22. mars, 2004) var leiðtogi Hamas samtakanna ĂŸangað til hann var drepinn af Ăsraelska hernum. Talsmenn ĂsraelsstjĂłrnar sögðu að aftakan vĂŠri refsing fyrir allan ĂŸann fjölda sjĂĄlfsmorðsĂĄrĂĄsa ĂĄ Ăsraelska borgara, sem Hamas hefur staðið fyrir. Stuðningsmenn Ahmeds Jassins, auk fjölmargra annarra, fordĂŠmdu aftökuna. + +Ahmed Yassin stofnaði Hamas ĂĄsamt Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi ĂĄrið 1987. Upphaflega voru samtökin kölluð PalestĂnuvĂŠngur BrÊðralags MĂșslima. ĂsraelsrĂki, BandarĂkin, EvrĂłpusambandið og fleiri lönd hafa skilgreint samtökin sem hryðjuverkasamtök. Auk ĂŸess að vera sjĂłndapur svo jaðraði við blindu var hann lamaður fyrir neðan mitti og bundinn við hjĂłlastĂłl vegna ĂĂŸrĂłttaĂłhapps sem henti hann ĂĄ hans yngri ĂĄrum. + +Hamas +PalestĂnskir stjĂłrnmĂĄlamenn +JĂłn Einarsson GĂșstafsson (f. 29. jĂșlĂ 1963) var vinsĂŠll ĂŸĂĄttastjĂłrnandi ĂĄ nĂunda ĂĄratugnum, ĂŸar sem hann kom að stjĂłrn margra sjĂłnvarps- og ĂștvarpsĂŸĂĄtta sem einkum voru ĂŠtlaðir ungu fĂłlki. MĂĄ ĂŸar nefna: Rokkarnir geta ekki ĂŸagnað, Unglingarnir Ă frumskĂłginum og spurningakeppnina Gettu betur ĂŸegar hĂșn var fyrst haldin ĂĄrið 1986. SĂðar stĂœrði hann spurningaĂŸĂŠttinum SPK fyrir yngri keppendur. + +Hann hafði lĂŠrt kvikmyndagerð við Manchester Polytechnic, og leikstjĂłrn fyrir kvikmyndir og leikhĂșs við CalArts, ĂŸar sem leiðbeinandi hans var Alexander Mackendrick, leikstjĂłri við Ealing Studios. Hann leikstĂœrði kanadĂsku heimildarmyndinni Reiði guðanna (2006), ĂŸar sem Gerard Butler, Wendy Ord, Sarah Polley, Paul Stephens og Sturla Gunnarsson fĂłru með hlutverk. Ăað var önnur mynd hans fyrir CBC Newsworld, frĂ©ttastöð kanadĂska rĂkissjĂłnvarpsins, en fyrsta myndin sem hann gerði fyrir ĂŸau var The Importance of Being Icelandic. Annað sem hann fĂ©kkst við meðan hann bjĂł Ă Kanada var meðal annars kvikmyndin Kanadiana (2002) og tĂłnlistarmyndband við lagið Brighter Hell fyrir kanadĂsku rokksveitina The Watchmen. Hann framleiddi verðlaunastuttmyndina In a Heartbeat (2010), sem leikstĂœrð var af Karolinu Lewicka, ĂĄ vegum framleiðslufyrirtĂŠkis hans, Artio Films. JĂłn var leikstjĂłri og framleiðandi kvikmyndarinnar Skuggahverfið (2020) ĂĄsamt Karolinu Lewicka. + +Kvikmyndir + The Importance of Being Icelandic (1998) + Kanadiana (2002) + Reiði guðanna (2006) + Skuggahverfið (2020) + +TilvĂsanir + +Tenglar + + Glatkistan + +Ăslenskir kvikmyndaleikstjĂłrar +FĂłlk fĂŠtt ĂĄrið 1963 +StefĂĄn JĂłn Hafstein (f. 18. febrĂșar 1955) er starfsmaður ĂrĂłunarsamvinnustofnunar og hefur verið frĂĄ 2007. Hann var umdĂŠmisstjĂłri Ă MalavĂ 2008-2012, en åður verkefnastjĂłri Ă NamibĂu. FrĂĄ 2015 er hann umdĂŠmisstjĂłri Ă Ăganda. Hann ĂĄ feril sem stjĂłrnmĂĄlamaður, fjölmiðlamaður og rithöfundur. Kom að stofnun DĂŠgurmĂĄlaĂștvarps RĂĄsar 2 og stjĂłrnaði ĂștvarpsĂŸĂĄttunum Meinhorninu og ĂjóðarsĂĄlinni, ĂŸar sem hlustendum gafst fĂŠri ĂĄ að hringja inn og tjĂĄ sig um Ăœmis mĂĄlefni. + +StefĂĄn var kosinn borgarfulltrĂși ReykjavĂkurlistans 2002 og Samfylkingarinnar 2005 en hann fĂ©kk leyfi frĂĄ störfum Ă borgarstjĂłrn Ă upphafi ĂĄrs 2007 til tveggja ĂĄra til að starfa sem verkefnisstjĂłri hjĂĄ ĂrĂłunarsamvinnustofnun Ăslands Ă NamibĂu. Hann var umdĂŠmisstjĂłri ĂSSĂ Ă MalavĂ 2008-2012 og starfar hjĂĄ ĂrĂłunarsamvinnustofnun Ă ReykjavĂk frĂĄ 2012. Maki er GuðrĂșn KristĂn SigurðardĂłttir. + +Ăvi +Foreldrar StefĂĄns eru Hannes ĂĂłrður Hafstein (lĂĄtinn) og SigrĂșn StefĂĄnsdĂłttir (lĂĄtin). StefĂĄn gekk Ă VogaskĂłla og Ăștskrifaðist 1975 frĂĄ MenntaskĂłlanum við Tjörnina. Hann stundaði nĂĄm Ă ensku og bĂłkmenntun við HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands og lauk BA nĂĄmi Ă fjölmiðlafrÊðum frĂĄ Polytechnic of Central London 1979. + +Að nĂĄmi loknu sneri StefĂĄn heim til Ăslands og starfaði sem frĂ©ttamaður og dagskrĂĄrgerðarmaður hjĂĄ RĂV 1979-1982. Svo settist hann ĂĄ nĂœ ĂĄ skĂłlabekk og stundaði framhaldsnĂĄm Ă boðskiptafrÊðum við University of Pennsylvania 1983-85 og Ăștskrifaðist með MA gråðu frĂĄ ĂŸeim skĂłla. + +Að framhaldsnĂĄminu loknu starfaði hann um hrĂð sem sendifulltrĂși Rauða krossins Ă Genf og EĂŸĂĂłpĂu og gengdi trĂșnaðarstörfum sem slĂkur vĂðar. Hann starfaði sem dagskrĂĄrstjĂłri RĂĄsar 2, dagskrĂĄrgerðarmaður SjĂłnvarpsins, Stöðvar 2 og RĂĄsar 1. StjĂłrnandi spurningakeppninnar Gettu betur ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1991-1994. Hann var ritstjĂłri dagblaðsins Dags-TĂmans (sĂðar Dags) 1997-1999, með eigin rekstur 2000 og starfaði sem yfirmaður nĂœmiðlunar og rekstrarstjĂłri hjĂĄ Eddu - miðlun og ĂștgĂĄfu 2001-2002. + +StjĂłrnmĂĄl +StefĂĄn tĂłk ĂŸĂĄtt Ă undirbĂșningi og stofnun Samfylkingarinnar ĂĄrin 1999 og 2000. Hann var kjörinn formaður framkvĂŠmdastjĂłrnar Samfylkingarinnar 2001-2005. Var kjörinn borgarfulltrĂși Ă ReykjavĂk ĂĄrið 2002 fyrir ReykjavĂkurlistann, ĂŸar sem hann er fulltrĂși Samfylkingarinnar. Hann hlaut fyrsta sĂŠti ĂĄ lista Samfylkingar Ă prĂłfkjöri 2003. Hefur starfað sem formaður borgarråðs, forseti borgarstjĂłrnar, formaður menntaråðs, formaður menningar- og ferðamĂĄlaråðs og formaður hverfisråðs Grafarvogs. Formaður VĂkarinnar sjĂłminjasafns frĂĄ 2004. Ă framboði til borgarstjĂłrnar ĂĄrið 2005 fyrir Samfylkinguna og nåði kjöri, sat Ă menntaråði, menningar- og ferðamĂĄlaråði og stjĂłrn Orkuveitunnar um hrĂð. + +StefĂĄn JĂłn Hafstein fĂ©kk leyfi frĂĄ störfum Ă borgarstjĂłrn Ă upphafi ĂĄrs 2007 til tveggja ĂĄra til að starfa sem verkefnisstjĂłri hjĂĄ ĂrĂłunarsamvinnustofnun Ăslands Ă NamibĂu og hĂŠtti Ă framhaldi stjĂłrnmĂĄlaĂŸĂĄtttöku að sinni er hann varð umdĂŠmisstjĂłri ĂSSĂ Ă MalavĂ 2008 og starfaði að ĂŸeim mĂĄlum sĂðan. + +BĂŠkur +Sex bĂŠkur liggja eftir StefĂĄn: + SagnaĂŸulir samtĂmans, fjölmiðlar ĂĄ öld upplĂœsinga (1987) + Guðirnir eru geggjaðir, ferðasaga frĂĄ AfrĂku (1990) + New York New York (1992) + Fluguveiðisögur (2000) (sjĂĄ Flugur.is) +Fluguveiðiråð (2013) +AfrĂka - ĂĄst við aðra sĂœn. BĂłk með rĂkulegum myndskreytingum við greinaflokka frĂĄ sunanverðri AfrĂku (2014). + +Tengill +HeimasĂða StefĂĄns JĂłns + +Ăslenskir rithöfundar +Ăslenskir stjĂłrnmĂĄlamenn +BorgarfulltrĂșar Samfylkingarinnar + +BorgarfulltrĂșar ReykjavĂkurlistans +Sveinn H. Guðmarsson (fĂŠddur 1974) er Ăslenskur fjölmiðlamaður og nĂșverandi upplĂœsingafulltrĂși utanrĂkisråðuneytisins. Hann er með BA-prĂłf Ă guðfrÊði frĂĄ HĂĄskĂłla Ăslands og MSc Ă alĂŸjóðastjĂłrnmĂĄlum frĂĄ EdinborgarhĂĄskĂłla. + +Sveinn var dĂłmari Ă Gettu betur ĂĄrið 2003, en var åður Ă sigurliði MenntaskĂłlans Ă ReykjavĂk Ă sömu keppni ĂĄrin 1993 og 1994. Hann var inspector scholae (formaður nemendafĂ©lags) MR veturinn 1993-1994. ĂĂĄ leiddi hann lista Vöku Ă kosningum til StĂșdentaråðs 1995. + +Hann hefur starfað sem dagskrĂĄrgerðarmaður ĂĄ RĂĄs 2 og Ă SjĂłnvarpinu, við blaðamennsku ĂĄ FrĂ©ttablaðinu, sem frĂ©ttamaður ĂĄ Stöð 2, ritstjĂłri Iceland Review og flugtĂmarisins Atlantica. Hann starfaði sem frĂ©ttaritari RĂV Ă LundĂșnum til ĂĄrsins 2009 og ĂĄrið 2010 starfaði Sveinn sem upplĂœsingafulltrĂși Unicef Ă Jemen. Hann var frĂ©ttamaður ĂĄ RĂV ĂŸar til hann hĂłf störf sem upplĂœsingafulltrĂși hjĂĄ LandhelgisgĂŠslunni Ă lok ĂĄrs 2016. Ărið 2018 var hann råðinn upplĂœsingafulltrĂși utanrĂkisråðuneytisins. + +Ă RĂĄs 2 var Sveinn meðal annars umsjĂłnarmaður hinnar ĂĄrvissu Spurningakeppni fjölmiðlanna. ĂĂĄ hefur hann sinnt dĂłmargĂŠslu og samið spurningar fyrir sjĂłnvarpsĂŸĂĄttinn Ătsvar ĂĄ RĂV. + +Sveinn bĂœr ĂĄ Seltjarnarnesi ĂŸar sem hann er uppalinn. + +Ăslenskt fjölmiðlafĂłlk +Sigurvegarar Ă Gettu betur + +StĂșdentar Ășr MenntaskĂłlanum Ă ReykjavĂk +Hlemmur er yfirbyggt torg sem stendur efst ĂĄ Hverfisgötu, gegnt aðallögreglustöð borgarinnar. Ăar er nĂș mathöllin Hlemmur - Mathöll. Nafnið Hlemmur vĂsar til brĂșarstubbs sem ĂŸar var yfir lĂŠkinn RauðarĂĄ, sem RauðarĂĄrstĂgur Ă ReykjavĂk er kenndur við. + +Komið var upp vatnsĂŸrĂł ĂĄ Hlemmtorgi, til að brynna hestum, skömmu eftir stofnun Vatnsveitu ReykjavĂkur. Ărið 2005 var höggmyndin âKlyfjahesturinnâ eftir SigurjĂłn Ălafsson, sem stóð åður við SogamĂœri, sett niður rĂ©tt við Hlemm til minnis um ĂŸetta. + +Ă fyrri hluta tuttugustu aldar stóð Gasstöð ReykjavĂkur við Hlemm. Hana hefur Megas sungið um. Einnig kemur Gasstöðin við sögu Ă skĂĄldsögu Arnaldar Indriðasonar, GrafarĂŸĂ¶gn. Ăar sem torgið er nĂș stóðu meðal annars bensĂnstöð og leigubĂlastöð Hreyfils åður en nĂșverandi bygging var reist. + +Ărið 1978 var byggingin ĂĄ Hlemmi reist sem ein af aðalskiptistöðvum StrĂŠtĂł bs. Ă ReykjavĂk eftir teikningu Gunnars Hanssonar arkitekts. Skiptistöðin var um ĂĄrabil eins konar afdrep ĂștigangsfĂłlks Ă ReykjavĂk. Kvikmyndin Hlemmur frĂĄ 2003 fjallar um ĂŸað. FrĂĄ 1980-1984 var Hlemmur auk ĂŸess ein aðalfĂ©lagsmiðstöð ungra upprennandi pönkara sem komu saman ĂĄ hverjum degi og hĂ©ngu ĂŸar saman. Ă ĂŸeim tĂma var töluvert um afĂŸreyingarstarfsemi Ă kringum Hlemm, svo sem skyndibitastaðir, spilasalir og vĂdeĂłleigur. + +Ărið 2017 var ĂĄkveðið að BSĂ tĂŠki við af Hlemmi sem samgöngumiðstöð fyrir HöfuðborgarsvÊðið. Sama ĂĄr var Hlemmur - Mathöll opnuð ĂŸar eftir miklar endurbĂŠtur ĂĄ hĂșsnÊðinu. Ărið 2019 var kynnt nĂœtt deiliskipulag fyrir Hlemm og nĂŠrliggjandi svÊði ĂŸar sem gert er råð fyrir að stĂŠkka torgið austan við Hlemm (Hlemmtorg) og leiða umferð frĂĄ Suðurlandsbraut ĂŸar norðan við. + +TilvĂsanir og heimildir + +Torg Ă ReykjavĂk +HlĂðar +Gasstöð ReykjavĂkur var gasveita við Hlemm Ă ReykjavĂk sem var starfrĂŠkt frĂĄ 1910 til 1956. HĂșn framleiddi gas til eldunar og lĂœsingar Ășr innfluttum kolum. Ăegar gasinu hafði verið nåð Ășr kolunum með upphitun, varð til kox, sem Gasstöðin seldi. Gasið var sĂðan notað til lĂœsingar og eldunar og koxið til brennslu og upphitunar. Eftir stofnun Rafmagnsveitu ReykjavĂkur ĂĄrið 1921 var gasið nĂŠr einvörðungu nĂœtt til eldamennsku. + +BrauðgerðarhĂșsið Ă Gasstöðinni +Vorið 1918 var lokið við að koma upp bökunarofni Ă Gasstöðinni. Var hann settur ofan ĂĄ annan gasgerðarofninn, og með ĂŸeim hĂŠtti var hĂŠgt að nota hitann frĂĄ honum, sem annars fĂłr til ĂłnĂœtis. Tilraun ĂŸessi ĂŸĂłtti sĂœna ĂŸað, að ĂŸarna vĂŠri fundinn hitagjafi, sem ekki hefði verið nĂœttur, og hann mundi duga til að baka við hann brauð. Um ĂŸað bil er Fyrri heimsstyrjöldinni lauk, störfuðu fjĂłrir bakarar Ă ĂŸessari nĂœstĂĄrlega brauðgerðarhĂșsi, en forstöðumaður ĂŸess var KristjĂĄn Hall. Var Ă råði að setja ĂŸar upp annan bakaraofn, en af ĂŸvĂ varð ekki. KristjĂĄn Hall lĂ©st nĂŠsta haust Ășr spönsku veikinni, og nokkuð eftir lĂĄt hans hĂŠtti brauðbakstur Ă Gasstöðinni. + +Eitt og annað + TĂłnlistarmaðurinn Megas söng um gasstöðina Ă lagi sĂnu âGamla gasstöðin við Hlemmâ. + Gasstöðin kemur við sögu Ă skĂĄldverkinu âGrafarĂŸĂ¶gnâ eftir Arnald Indriðason. + +Tenglar + Gasið og gasstöðin. - Samtal við PĂĄl Einarsson borgarstjĂłra o.fl., Ăsafold 27. ĂĄgĂșst 1910 + Gasstöðin kveður; grein Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 1958 + Hlemmur (ferlir.is) +Saga ReykjavĂkur +Byggingar Ă ReykjavĂk +RauðarĂĄrstĂgur er gata Ă ReykjavĂk milli Miklubrautar og SkĂșlagötu, austan NorðurmĂœrar, kennd við lĂŠkinn RauðarĂĄ, sem nĂș rennur Ă rĂŠsi undir götunni. Yfir RauðarĂĄ lĂĄ åður brĂșarstubburinn Hlemmur. + +Við götuna eru starfrĂŠktar Ăœmsar verslanir og ĂŸjĂłnustufyrirtĂŠki. MĂĄ ĂŸar nefna ĂsbĂșðina HerdĂsi, ĂŸar sem åður var söluturninn Draumurinn, söluturninn Svarta svaninn, GallerĂœ Fold, veitingastaðinn Resto og steikhĂșsið RauðarĂĄ. + +Götur Ă ReykjavĂk +Vatnsveita ReykjavĂkur tĂłk til starfa ĂĄrið 1909. Lengst af voru aðalvatnsbĂłl Vatnsveitunnar Ă Gvendarbrunnum. + +Vatnsveita ReykjavĂkur er nĂș hluti Orkuveitu ReykjavĂkur sem er Ă meirihlutaeigu ReykjavĂkurborgar. + +Tengill + Gvendarbrunnar: Vatnsveita ReykjavĂkur var stĂŠrsta fyrirtĂŠki landsins ĂĄ sinni tĂð, grein eftir Ărna Ăla Ă LesbĂłk Morgunblaðsins 4. aprĂl 1965 + +ReykjavĂk +Ăslensk fyrirtĂŠki +SkĂșlagata er gata Ă ReykjavĂk kennd við SkĂșla MagnĂșsson landfĂłgeta. HĂșn nåði åður milli HöfðatĂșns og IngĂłlfsstrĂŠtis, en eftir 2012 hefur vegurinn frĂĄ Snorrabraut að HöfðatĂșni heitið BrĂetartĂșn. Eldra heiti SkĂșlagötu er âVindheimagataâ, sem vĂsar til torfbĂŠjarins Vindheima sem stóð við norðvesturenda KlapparstĂgs, en ĂŸangað nåði gatan til 1914 ĂŸegar hĂșn var lengd til vesturs við lagningu jĂĄrnbrautar frĂĄ ĂskjuhlĂð að ReykjavĂkurhöfn. Ărið 1918 var ĂĄkveðið að nefna götuna SkĂșlagötu. + +RĂkisĂștvarpið var með starfsemi sĂna að SkĂșlagötu 4 frĂĄ 1959-1987, ĂŸegar starfsemi ĂŸess var flutt Ă Efstaleiti. Ăar eru nĂș til hĂșsa SjĂĄvarĂștvegsråðuneytið, HafrannsĂłknastofnun og RannsĂłknastofnun fiskiðnaðarins. + +Hluti SkĂșlagötu, frĂĄ Snorrabraut að HöfðatĂșni fĂ©kk ĂĄrið 2012 heitið BrĂetartĂșn eftir BrĂeti BjarnhéðinsdĂłttur. SkĂșlagata er einnig staðsett Ă Borgarnesi. + +Götur Ă ReykjavĂk +Miðborg ReykjavĂkur +HegningarhĂșsið við SkĂłlavörðustĂg 9 (oft kallað NĂan eða HegnĂł og hĂ©r åður fyrr tugthĂșsið, fangahĂșsið eða Steinninn) var fangelsi rekið af FangelsismĂĄlastofnun. SĂðast var ĂŸað notað sem mĂłttökufangelsi, ĂŸar sem fangar dvöldu Ă stutta stund ĂŸegar ĂŸeir hĂłfu afplĂĄnun dĂłma. Ăann 1. jĂșnĂ 2016 var starfsemi hegningarhĂșssins hĂŠtt. + +Saga +HegningarhĂșsið er hlaðið steinhĂșs reist ĂĄrið 1872 af PĂĄli EyjĂłlfssyni gullsmið. HĂșsið var friðað 18. ĂĄgĂșst ĂĄrið 1978 samkvĂŠmt 1. mĂĄlsgrein 26. og 27. greinar ĂŸjóðminjalaga nr. 52/1969 og tekur friðunin til ytra borðs ĂŸess ĂĄsamt ĂĄlmum til beggja hliða og anddyri með stiga. HĂŠstirĂ©ttur var ĂŸar til hĂșsa ĂĄ ĂĄrunum 1920 â 1949. + +Ă hegningarhĂșsinu voru sextĂĄn fangaklefar, litlir og ĂŸröngir og loftrĂŠsting lĂ©leg. Fangaklefarnir voru auk ĂŸess ĂĄn salernis og handlaugar. Ă efri hÊð voru skrifstofur og salur sem åður hĂœsti bĂŠjarĂŸingsstofuna, LandsyfirrĂ©tt og sĂðar HĂŠstarĂ©tt ĂŸar til hann flutti Ă nĂœbyggingu við Lindargötu ĂĄrið 1947. + +Ărið 2020 hĂłfust endurbĂŠtur ĂĄ hĂșsinu og stefnt er að opna ĂŸað fyrir almenningi. + +Eitt og annað +Orðin steinn eða grjĂłt Ă merkingunni fangelsi, og sem oftast eru höfð með greini: steininn eða grjĂłtið eru tilkomin vegna HegningarhĂșsins ĂĄ SkĂłlavörðustĂg, enda hlaðið hĂșs Ășr Ăslensku hraungrĂœti. +Hin Ămyndaða ĂĄhöfn ĂĄ Mb. Rosanum var stungið inn Ă NĂuna (ĂŸ.e.a.s. HegningarhĂșsið), eins segir Ă samnefndu lagi ĂĄ plötu Bubba Morthens, ĂsbjarnarblĂșs. + +Tengt efni +FangelsismĂĄlastofnun r \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.tok b/labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.tok new file mode 100644 index 0000000..24e2062 --- /dev/null +++ b/labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.tok @@ -0,0 +1,768 @@ +101 114 +101 110 +116 32 +97 32 +195 164 +97 110 +97 114 +100 101 +257 32 +195 182 +105 110 +195 165 +32 115 +115 32 +108 108 +116 105 +111 109 +115 116 +115 107 +44 32 +111 99 +256 32 +46 32 +111 114 +265 114 +97 116 +276 104 +111 110 +101 32 +100 32 +282 32 +263 32 +105 103 +101 116 +260 114 +105 32 +272 32 +97 118 +102 280 +266 103 +97 108 +262 32 +97 109 +261 32 +101 258 +293 32 +117 110 +114 105 +111 108 +10 10 +114 101 +260 110 +267 32 +109 101 +281 258 +271 270 +101 108 +118 105 +49 57 +100 264 +274 259 +117 116 +267 110 +110 295 +10 32 +97 103 +290 32 +97 287 +110 259 +261 100 +268 292 +116 116 +99 107 +112 112 +108 288 +115 115 +46 305 +114 111 +108 101 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+852 325 +84 104 diff --git a/labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.txt b/labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0efe4d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/labs/lab1/wiki-sv-1m.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9266 @@ +Amager Ă€r en dansk ö i Ăresund. Ăns norra och vĂ€stra delar tillhör Köpenhamn, medan övriga delar upptas av TĂ„rnby kommun och DragĂžrs kommun. +Amager har en yta pĂ„ 96,29 kmÂČ och befolkningen uppgĂ„r till 196 047 personer (1/1 2018). PĂ„ den östra delen av ön ligger Köpenhamns flygplats (Kastrup). Amager har flera militĂ€ra anlĂ€ggningar, sĂ„som Kastrup fort och Dragör fort. PĂ„ ön finns strandomrĂ„dena Amager Strandpark och Kastrup Strandpark, flera restauranger i vĂ€rldsklass, det stora naturomrĂ„det Amager FĂŠlled, ett av Nordens största köpcentra (Field's) och mycket annat. Amager förkortas ofta Ama'r för att Ă„terspegla det danska uttalet. + +Amager Ă€r delvis en konstgjord ö, delvis en naturlig sĂ„dan. Till exempel anlades en konstgjord ö i anslutning till den redan existerande Amager Strandpark, nĂ€r denna rustades upp vĂ€sentligen 2005. Ăn Ă€r mycket lĂ„glĂ€nt och vissa delar ligger under havsytan, framför allt det genom fördĂ€mning och utfyllnad skapade omrĂ„det Kalvebod FĂŠlled (Vestamager). Amager började uppodlas i större skala under första hĂ€lft, dĂ„ kung Kristian II bjöd in nederlĂ€ndska bönder till att odla upp ön för kronans rĂ€kning. Flertalet slog sig ned i fiskelĂ€get DragĂžr dĂ€r mĂ„nga Ă€n idag har namn med nederlĂ€ndskt ursprung som Neels och TĂžnnes. + +Den stora utvecklingsfasen började pĂ„ 1800-talet dĂ„ flera fabriker, bostadsomrĂ„den och militĂ€r verksamhet utvecklade sig pĂ„ ön. Det fanns ett antal stora och kĂ€nda fabriker pĂ„ ön och den industriella prĂ€geln höll sig vĂ€ldigt tydlig lĂ„ngt in pĂ„ 1900-talet. Det förekommer ocksĂ„ omrĂ„den som tidigare varit sommarstugeomrĂ„den och dĂ€r det Ă€n idag finns kolonilottomrĂ„den, i till exempel SundbyĂžster ut mot kusten. Under 1900-talet började militĂ€ren att utveckla stora övningsomrĂ„den pĂ„ ön, vilket resulterade i Vestamager som idag innefattar ett stort naturomrĂ„de endast nĂ„gra kilometer frĂ„n Köpenhamns centrum. Under senare delen av 1900-talet har flygplatsen expanderat kraftigt och i samband med byggandet av Ăresundsförbindelsen började Ă€ven ett stort omrĂ„de byggas som kallas för Ărestad. + +Ăn, som Ă€r förbunden med övriga Köpenhamn genom flera broar, jĂ€rnvĂ€g och sedan 2017 Ă€ven Metro, har sedan sent 1990-tal förĂ€ndrats mycket. Dels har flera omrĂ„den exploaterats med nya moderna kvarter lĂ€genheter, till exempel i omrĂ„dena Ărestad, Islands Brygge och Amager Strand, och dels har Amagers nĂ€rhet till Köpenhamn raderat dess tidigare rykte som en industriell förstad till Köpenhamn. Idag finns det omrĂ„den av alla sorter pĂ„ ön. Tack vare flygplatsen finns ett aktivt nĂ€ringsliv kvar, samtidigt som de nya omrĂ„dena och inte minst upprustningen av Amager Strand har förĂ€ndrat bilden av ön. Idag Ă€r flera delar av ön mycket attraktiva bostadsomrĂ„den. + +Amager Ă„terfick i samband med Ăresundsbron Ă€ven en jĂ€rnvĂ€gsförbindelse vilket inte funnits sedan 1960-talet. En motorvĂ€g byggdes samtidigt över öns mellersta del. Köpenhamns metro gĂ„r till bland annat Kastrups flygplats och Ărestad, med ett antal stationer pĂ„ ön. Kring metro- och regionaltĂ„gsstationen Ărestad har ett stort kontors-, handels- och bostadsomrĂ„de uppförts under 00-talet med för nĂ€rvarande (2020) invĂ„nare och arbetsplatser. Detta strĂ€cker sig frĂ„n Bella Center i norr till metrostationen Vestamager i söder. Ăven om omrĂ„det inte ligger vid kusten har Ărestad delvis fĂ„tt karaktĂ€ren av en hamnstad genom anlĂ€ggandet av konstgjorda kanaler och dammar. Vid Islands Brygge finns en "Ă€kta" sjöstad. + +Före Ăresundsförbindelsens uppförande hade smĂ„staden DragĂžr en fĂ€rjeförbindelse med Limhamn i södra Malmö. PĂ„ grund av denna fanns i DragĂžr tidigare en betydande grĂ€nshandel. Denna har under 2000-talet helt upphört liksom den genomgĂ„ende trafiken. + +Amagers vĂ€stra del, som utvanns frĂ„n Ăresund under 1920- och 30-talen, Ă€r med undantag för Bella Center, Ărestad samt ett koloniomrĂ„de, avsatt som natur- och rekreationsomrĂ„de. Marken Ă€r Ă€ngsmark (odlad mark finns dock pĂ„ den naturliga delen av öns södra del). LĂ€ngst i söder finns skogen Kongelunden, som anlades av Det Kongelige Danske Landhusholdningsselskab. Tidigare skog hade redan anvĂ€nts till odling, brĂ€nsle och byggnadsmaterial och det sista omrĂ„det fördĂ€rvades under Karl X Gustavs första danska krig . PĂ„ öns östra del, vid Ăresundskusten, finns Amager Strandpark med en populĂ€r sandstrand. OmrĂ„det har omgestaltats, med en konstgjord ö och en lagun innanför. Nyinvigningen av parken, som funnits sedan 1934, Ă€gde rum 2005. + +Amager Ă€r den tĂ€tast befolkade ön i Danmark. Den nĂ€st mest tĂ€tbefolkade Ă€r ThurĂž. + +Uttryck med 'Amager' + Amar! â en besvĂ€rjelse för oskuld, en mild ed. Amager FĂŠlled anvĂ€ndes tidigare som plats för avrĂ€ttning. HĂ€pnadsvĂ€ckande! + Amagerbroderi â et broderi med plattsöm i kulörta fĂ€rger. + Amagersyning (Amagersömnad) Ă€r hollĂ€ndskt inspirerad broderiteknik. + Amagergarn â pĂ€rlgarn, merceriserad bomullsbroderitrĂ„d (pĂ„ tyska: :de:Perlgarn). + Amagerhylde â Amagerhylla, en A-formad triangulĂ€r hylla för prydnadssaker. + Amagermad â Amagermacka Ă€r en dubbelmacka bestĂ„ende av en skiva rĂ„gbröd och en skiva vetebröd med smör emellan och möjligen pĂ„lĂ€gg. + Amager-nummerplade (registreringsskylt frĂ„n Amager) betecknar en tatuering pĂ„ lĂ€ndryggen. + +Se Ă€ven +Amagerbro +Amagerport +Amagerbroderi + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Ăar i Region Hovedstaden +Afrika Ă€r jordens nĂ€st största kontinent (efter Eurasien) och Ă€ven jordens nĂ€st största vĂ€rldsdel efter Asien, bĂ„de vad gĂ€ller areal och folkmĂ€ngd. Med vĂ€rldsdelens öar inrĂ€knade mĂ€ter Afrika 30 244 050 kmÂČ, vilket motsvarar 20,3 procent av jordens landmassa eller cirka 6 procent av jordens totala area. Omkring 22 miljoner kmÂČ av dessa ligger i tropikerna vilket gör den afrikanska kontinenten till vĂ€rldens varmaste kontinent. Antalet invĂ„nare i afrika Ă„r 2022 berĂ€knas till 1,4 miljarder, mer Ă€n en sjĂ€ttedel av jordens befolkning. Dess lĂ€ngd i nordlig-sydlig riktning Ă€r omkring 8 000 km och dess största bredd omkring 7 800 km. + +Etymologi +Ordet âAfrikasâ etymologiska bakgrund Ă€r dunkel, och ordet har dessutom haft olika betydelse under olika epoker. + +I Ă€ldre tider kallades allt land vĂ€ster om Egypten för âLibyenâ. Enligt den grekiska historieskrivaren Herodotos berĂ€ttelse seglade feniciska sjömĂ€n pĂ„ uppdrag av den egyptiska kungen Neko runt Libyen, det vill sĂ€ga kontinenten Afrika redan omkring 600 f.Kr. + +NĂ€r romarna först anvĂ€nde termen Africa terra avsĂ„g de före andra puniska kriget endast trakten kring Karthago, det vill sĂ€ga motsvarande ungefĂ€r dagens Tunisien dĂ€r sjĂ€lva staden Karthago lĂ„g samt stora delar av Libyen och Algeriet. Romarna uppfattade först Egypten som en del av Asien, och det var först geografen Ptolemaios som drog grĂ€nsen vid Suez. Under kejsartiden kom Africa att avse hela det omrĂ„det romarna kĂ€nde till av kontinenten, och allt eftersom europĂ©erna upptĂ€ckte mer och mer av kontinenten kom termen att avse ett allt större omrĂ„de. Namnet ska ha avsett "landet dĂ€r afri" (singularis: afer) bodde. Afer avsĂ„g namnet pĂ„ ett folk som kan motsvara dagens berber. Vikingarna under 800- och 900-talen kallade norra Afrika för "BlĂ„land". + +Geografi + +Geologiskt Ă€r Afrika en mycket gammal kontinent, i huvudsak uppbyggd av urberg. Under jordens forntid var den en del av jĂ€ttekontinenten Gondwanaland. Denna gled isĂ€r under jura- och krita-perioderna för 100-150 miljoner Ă„r sedan, och sĂ„ fick Afrika sin nuvarande form. + +Inom sina regelbundna kuster rymmer den en total yta pĂ„ omkring 30 244 050 kmÂČ inklusive öarna. Afrika Ă„tskiljs frĂ„n Europa av Medelhavet och förenas med Asien i sitt nordöstra hörn genom nĂ€set vid Suez, omkring 130 km i bredd. Omkring 8 000 km skiljer den nordligaste punkten, Ras ben Sakka i Tunisien, frĂ„n dess sydligaste, Kap Agulhas i Sydafrika. FrĂ„n Kap Verde, dess vĂ€stligaste punkt, till Ras Hafun i Somalia Ă€r det omkring 7 400 km. Afrikas kuster mĂ€ter omkring 28 000 km (1 km kust pĂ„ 1 057 kmÂČ) varav Medelhavet stĂ„r för 5 400 km, Atlanten 11 000 km, Indiska oceanen 8 700 km och Röda havet 2 900 km, och avsaknaden av djupare bukter och betydande halvöar blir uppenbar om man jĂ€mför med Europas 9 700 000 kmÂČ som omgĂ€rdas av 32 000 km kust (1 km kust pĂ„ 278 kmÂČ land), eller med det fjordrika Norge, dĂ€r motsvarande siffra 385 000 kmÂČ land och en kuststrĂ€cka pĂ„ 20 000 km (1 km kust per 19 kmÂČ land). + +Afrikas genomsnittliga höjd över havet Ă€r omkring 600 m, vilket motsvarar de bĂ„da amerikanska kontinenternas höjd men Ă€r lĂ€gre Ă€n den asiatiska pĂ„ omkring 950 m. JĂ€mfört med de andra kontinenterna utmĂ€rker sig Afrika med en liten andel landomrĂ„den pĂ„ mycket hög respektive mycket lĂ„g höjd. LandomrĂ„dena under 180 m ö.h. upptar en osedvanligt liten del av den totala landmassan, och Ă€ven de högsta delarna, som Ă€r betydligt lĂ€gre Ă€n motsvarande i Asien, utgörs av isolerade berg och bergskedjor. Generellt ligger de högre platĂ„erna i öst och söder och de lĂ€gre delarna Ă„t vĂ€st och norr och med en linje frĂ„n ungefĂ€r vid Röda havets mitt till Kongoflodens mynning kan kontinenten delas upp i ett lĂ„gland i norr och ett högland i söder. Man kan sĂ„ledes dela upp Afrika i fyra övergripande landomrĂ„den: + SlĂ€ttlanden vid kusterna â ofta med mangrovetrĂ€sk insprĂ€ngda â nĂ„r aldrig lĂ„ngt in frĂ„n kusterna utom vid vattendragens nedre delar. Slamrika slĂ€ttland finns egentligen bara vid de större flodernas deltan, och annars utgör kustomrĂ„dena det lĂ€gsta steget i en serie terrasser som bildar stigningen upp till de inre platĂ„erna. + Atlasbergen i norr, som ligger isolerade av Saharaöknen. + De södra och östra höglanden som ligger pĂ„ mellan 600 och 1 000 m ö.h. + De nordliga och vĂ€stra slĂ€ttlanden, inklusive Sahara, som kantas och genomfars av strĂ„k med högre landomrĂ„den, men i allmĂ€nhet hĂ„ller sig under 600 m ö.h. Sahara ligger till och med bitvis under havsytan. + +Skog tĂ€cker cirka en femtedel av Afrikas yta. + +Hela Afrika har ett tropiskt eller Subtropiskt klimat. + +Fauna + +Afrika Ă€r huvudsakligen kĂ€nt för den öppna savannen med vĂ€ldiga hjordar av hovdjur, som afrikansk buffel, gnuer, antiloper, giraffer och zebror. Dessa jagas av stora rovdjur som lejon, hyenor och geparder. Den afrikanska djungeln befolkas av ormar och primater samt av vattenlevande djur som krokodiler och groddjur. Afrika har Ă€ven det största antalet arter som kan rĂ€knas till megafaunan, bland annat afrikanska elefanter, trubbnoshörning och flodhĂ€st, pĂ„ grund av att kontinenten bara i mindre utstrĂ€ckning var pĂ„verkad av det massutdöende som skedde under pleistocen. + +Historia + +Den första mĂ€nskliga migrationen, frĂ„n kontinenten men Ă€ven inom Afrikas kuster, kan spĂ„ras lingvistiskt, kulturellt och genom datoranalyser av genetiskt material. NĂ„gonstans i Ăstafrika tror dagens forskare att de första hominiderna uppkom. I Etiopien har man hittat ett tvĂ„ miljoner Ă„r gammalt skelett som uppkallades Lucy, den första kĂ€nda mĂ€nskliga primaten. + +Tidigare civilisationer och handel +Lingvistiska spĂ„r tyder pĂ„ att Bantufolk emigrerade frĂ„n VĂ€stafrika in i khoisanfolkets (de som tidigare kallades bushmĂ€n och hottentotter) omrĂ„de och undantrĂ€ngde dem. Bantufolken anvĂ€nde en uppsĂ€ttning grödor, bland annat kassava och jams, som var mer lĂ€mpade för jordbruk i det tropiska Afrika, och med sitt jordbruk kunde bantu försörja en betydligt större folkmĂ€ngd Ă€n de jĂ€gare eller samlare som de trĂ€ngde undan. Bantufolkens traditionella bosĂ€ttningsomrĂ„de strĂ€cker sig frĂ„n Saharaöknen till de tempererade regionerna i söder. Historiskt har deras vapen varit spjut, sköld, pil och bĂ„ge. Det för khoisansprĂ„kens karaktĂ€ristiska klickljuden Ă„terfinns i nguni- och bantusprĂ„k som till exempel xhosa och zulu. KhoisansprĂ„ken talas idag frĂ€mst av utspridda minoritetsgrupper i södra Afrika i lĂ€nderna kring Kalahariöknen. + +Afrika söder om Sahara har bestĂ„tt av olika stater och riken, mindre stadsstater samt stammar och klaner. Det forna egyptiska riket, Ă€r en av vĂ€rldens Ă€ldsta stater, och den mest kĂ€nda av de Ă€ldre afrikanska civilisationerna. Det fanns Ă€ven statsbildningar i Nubien, Ghana, Timbuktu, Kanem-Bornu och i nuvarande Zimbabwe. + +Nordafrika kom frĂ„n och med 600-talet under arabiskt inflytande â en tid av kulturell blomstring â och med kamelens hjĂ€lp spreds Islam och den arabiska kulturen genom Sahara och vidare söderut. Arabiska och persiska handelsmĂ€n spred likasĂ„ Islam lĂ€ngs med den östafrikanska kusten parallellt med en omfattande svart slavhandel. Detta östafrikanska handelsutbyte med araber och perser strĂ€ckte sig Ă€nda bort till Java. DĂ€rigenom uppstod den etniska, kulturella och sprĂ„kliga mĂ„ngfalden pĂ„ Ăstafrikas kust, Madagaskar och Komorerna. + +ArabvĂ€rlden och Europa utforskar kontinenten +Det arabiska intresset för Afrika gĂ„r lĂ„ngt tillbaka, men handel med slavar frĂ„n centra som Lamu och Zanzibar vid östkusten har pĂ„gĂ„tt Ă„tminstone sedan senare delen av 1000-talet e.Kr. De miljoner slavar som exporterades till arabvĂ€rlden och österut under den arabiska slavhandeln finns idag kvar som en stor etnisk grupp dĂ€r, i stor utstrĂ€ckning integrerad med den ursprungliga arabiska befolkningen. Slavhandel med svarta pĂ„gĂ„r fortfarande i vissa arablĂ€nder, till exempel Sudan. + +Under 1300-talet började vissa europeiska handelsexpeditioner fĂ„ kontakt med Nord- och VĂ€stafrika. + +FrĂ„n 1500-talets mitt fram till förbudet mot slavhandel i Storbritanniens parlament 1807, som kom att fĂ„ full kraft först nĂ„got Ă„rtionde senare, handlades slavar frĂ„n lokala stamledare i frĂ€mst VĂ€st- och Centralafrika. Flera miljoner afrikaner sĂ„ldes pĂ„ detta vis som slavar till frĂ€mst de Europeiska kolonierna i Amerika. + +Tidiga kolonisatörer var araber, portugiser och spanjorer. DĂ€refter koloniserades kontinenten framför allt av Storbritannien, Frankrike, Spanien, Italien, Belgien, NederlĂ€nderna, Tyskland och Portugal. + +Koloniseringen + + FrĂ„n slutet av 1000-talet koloniserade arabiska köpmĂ€n den afrikanska östkusten. HollĂ€ndarna koloniserade pĂ„ 1600-talet den dĂ„ relativt folktomma södra udden av Afrika. Portugiserna grundade flera kolonier i vĂ€stra Afrika och vid nuvarande Moçambique. I mitten av 1800-talet leddes flera expeditioner in i de centrala delarna av Afrika, bland annat av Livingstone och Speke, men ocksĂ„ den svenske upptĂ€cktsresanden Andersson. Denna kolonisering förĂ€ndrade i grunden det ekonomiska livet pĂ„ kontinenten, och innebar i flera fall ensidig export av naturresurser. Kung Leopolds rovdrift pĂ„ sin privata koloni Kongostaten Ă€r ökĂ€nd och kostade miljontals afrikanska liv. + +I Afrika fanns efter första vĂ€rldskriget endast tre sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndiga stater nĂ€mligen konungariket Egypten, republiken Liberia och konungariket Abessinien. Tanger bildade med sitt omrĂ„de en internationell zon. För övrigt var hela vĂ€rldsdelen uppdelad pĂ„ kolonier Ă„t europeiska makter. + +Flertalet kolonier erhöll sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet under slutet av 1950-talet och början av 1960-talet. Avkoloniseringen resulterade i flertalet fall med katastrof, dĂ€r diktatur och etnisk rensning vanligen blev följden, till exempel i Rhodesia (nuvarande Zimbabwe), Rwanda, Uganda, Nigeria m.fl. stater. + +Politik + +Det postkoloniala Afrikas politik har i hög grad prĂ€glats av diktatur, statskupper och brist pĂ„ mĂ€nskliga rĂ€ttigheter. + +Nationerna i Afrika har ofta visat sig vara instabila stater som efter sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigheten hemsökts av korruption, vĂ„ldsamma statskupper, despotism och militĂ€rdiktaturer. Under perioden 1960-1989 genomfördes över 70 kupper och 13 mord pĂ„ presidenter. Under det kalla kriget kĂ€mpade USA och Sovjetunionen om makten i Afrika, och tillsammans med lĂ€nder som Frankrike och Kuba, stödde de aktivt diktaturer och iscensatte flera av dessa kupper och illgĂ€rningar mot demokratiskt valda regeringar. Enligt en spridd uppfattning beror mĂ„nga militĂ€ra konflikter om territorier och grĂ€nser under Afrikas moderna historia pĂ„ de grĂ€nser frĂ„n kolonial tid som huvudsakligen drogs upp efter Kongokonferensen, men detta kan inte visas eftersom nĂ„got jĂ€mförelseomrĂ„de inte finns. Konflikter i Afrika har ofta drivits av tillgĂ„ngen till kontinentens rika rĂ„varutillgĂ„ngar â diamanter och metaller som guld, platina, uran och koppar. + +Korruption och havererade politiska program har lett till utbredd undernĂ€ring och undermĂ„lig infrastruktur orsakar alltjĂ€mt brist pĂ„ mat och rent vatten. Sanitetsproblemen har ocksĂ„ orsakat en akut spridning av bland annat hiv-viruset som leder till sjukdomen aids. + +Trots nöd och umbĂ€randen finns vissa positiva tecken â demokratiskt valda regeringar vĂ€xer i antal Ă€ven om de inte utgör nĂ„gon majoritet Ă€nnu. Genom pĂ„tryckningar frĂ„n till exempel Internationella valutafonden (IMF) har mĂ„nga afrikanska stater lyckats vĂ€nda en nedĂ„tgĂ„ende ekonomisk spiral som varat i flera decennier till en positiv tillvĂ€xt. Om man beaktar IMF:s katastrofala misslyckanden i lĂ€nder som Argentina och Filippinerna Ă€r det dock oklart i vilken omfattning dessa konventionella ekonomiska kriterier ger en rĂ€ttvis bild av vad Afrika faktiskt behöver. + +De afrikanska ledarna har i olika omgĂ„ngar sökt former för samarbete sinsemellan. Hittills har dock detta inte lyckats sĂ€rskilt vĂ€l. Under inbördeskriget i Kongo var det grannstaterna som spĂ€dde pĂ„ konflikten snarare Ă€n utomafrikanska stater, och motivet var frĂ€mst att skaffa kortsiktiga vinster genom att utvinna diamanter och andra mineraler. Antalet döda i konflikten har uppskattats till 3,5 miljoner under en femĂ„rsperiod. + +De politiska samarbetsorganisationer man skapat har inte kunnat leva upp till förvĂ€ntningarna. Organisationen för afrikansk enighet (OAU 1963-2002) kallades till exempel diktatorsklubben för dess tendens att alltid stödja de sittande politiska ledarna och Ă€gna vĂ€ldigt lite energi Ă„t att frĂ€mja den vanlige afrikanens mĂ€nskliga rĂ€ttigheter. 2002 skapades i stĂ€llet Afrikanska unionen, som Ă€r tĂ€nkt att underlĂ€tta ett framtida samarbete mellan kontinentens stater. Hittills har denna organisation inte klarat att hantera till exempel utrotningskriget i Darfur-provinsen i Sudan, dĂ€r en arabisk statsledning tillĂ„tit slakt pĂ„ hundratusentals av bantubefolkningen i sydvĂ€st. En avgörande skillnad mellan sĂ„vĂ€l OAU som AU Ă„ ena sidan och EU Ă„ den andra, Ă€r att EU startades av en grupp lĂ€nder som satte demokrati och mĂ€nskliga rĂ€ttigheter i fokus för den egna politiken, och som krĂ€vt detta av tillkommande medlemsstater. OAU och AU har frĂ„n början i stĂ€llet varit territoriellt inriktade, och visserligen haft demokrati och mĂ€nskliga rĂ€ttigheter som skrivelser i sina stadgar, men ytterst sĂ€llan satt kraft bakom dessa ord. PĂ„ sĂ„ sĂ€tt liknar AU mer FN Ă€n EU. + +Ekonomi + +Afrikas ekonomi omfattar ungefĂ€r 887 miljoner mĂ€nniskor i 54 olika stater (Juli 2005). Afrika Ă€r vĂ€rldens fattigaste kontinent, och den Ă€r, i medeltal, fattigare Ă€n den var för 25 Ă„r sedan. PĂ„ FN:s Human Development Report frĂ„n 2003 (som rankade vĂ€rldens 175 lĂ€nder enligt en rad kriterier) var plats mellan 151 och 175 intagna av lĂ€nder i Afrika. + +Det finns dock lĂ€nder som lyckas bra ekonomiskt, bland andra Botswana, Ghana och Sydafrika. Etiopien har ocksĂ„ en relativ bra ekonomi tack vare den höga tillvĂ€xten i landet pĂ„ cirka 11-15% per Ă„r. Sydafrika har en vĂ€l fungerande inhemsk aktiehandel och har stora naturtillgĂ„ngar i bland annat guld och diamanter och ett vĂ€l fungerande rĂ€ttsvĂ€sen. Det finns i Sydafrika Ă€ven tillgĂ„ng till investeringskapital, stora marknader och utbildad arbetskraft. Det finns Ă€ven andra afrikanska lĂ€nder, exempelvis Egypten, som lĂ€nge haft en vĂ€l fungerande handelssektor och ekonomi. + +Kontinentens kust mot Atlanten Ă„terfinns stora fyndigheter av olja. I Nigeria finns en av vĂ€rldens mest betydande oljereserver och landets ekonomi Ă€r bland de snabbast vĂ€xande i vĂ€rlden. + +Afrikas jordbruk sysselsĂ€tter drygt hĂ€lften av Afrikas befolkning och Ă€r den viktigaste nĂ€ringen. Cirka 6 % (ungefĂ€r 1 814 600 kmÂČ) av vĂ€rldsdelens yta Ă€r uppodlad, mest i savannomrĂ„dena. I stora delar av de brukningsbara omrĂ„dena Ă€r jordens bördighet ganska lĂ„g. De bĂ€sta jordarna Ă„terfinns i begrĂ€nsade höglandsomrĂ„den som i till exempel Kamerun och Ăstafrika. + +Demografi + +Befolkning +MĂ€nniskan, Homo sapiens sapiens, antas hĂ€rstamma frĂ„n Afrika och spred sig hĂ€rifrĂ„n till de omgivande kontinenterna. Den svarta befolkningen söder om Sahara tillhör den ursprungliga befolkningen som hela tiden levat i Afrika. + +Norr om Sahara prĂ€glar samröret med övriga MedelhavsomrĂ„det och inte minst sydvĂ€stra Asien bĂ„de befolkning, sprĂ„k och kultur. + +PĂ„ ön Madagaskar, som lĂ€nge var obebodd, hĂ€rstammar majoriteten av befolkningen frĂ„n mĂ€nniskor som emigrerat frĂ„n Indonesien. Under kolonialtiden skedde inflyttning frĂ„n Europa och Asien till södra Afrika, dĂ€r den icke-svarta befolkningen idag utgör betydande minoritetsgrupper. + +Afrikas befolkning uppvisar mĂ„nga för utvecklingsregioner typiska drag, som höga födelsetal i kombination med sjunkande dödstal med snabb befolkningsökning och lĂ„g medelĂ„lder (45 % Ă€r under 15 Ă„r) som följd. Ăven om befolkningstĂ€theten varierar kraftigt mellan olika regioner Ă€r Afrika generellt en glestbefolkad kontinent, med i genomsnitt 27,8 invĂ„nare per kmÂČ. + +Afrika Ă€r den kontinent som har den lĂ€gsta urbaniseringsgraden, med endast 25% boende i stĂ€der. Ăven hĂ€r Ă€r variationerna stora, och i norra och östra Afrika finns en lĂ„ng urban tradition. + +SprĂ„k + +Uppskattningsvis finns det ungefĂ€r 1800 talade sprĂ„k i Afrika idag. Vissa av dessa, till exempel Swahili, Hausa, och Yoruba, talas av mĂ„nga miljoner mĂ€nniskor, medan det finns andra som bara talas av nĂ„gra hundra eller Ă€nnu fĂ€rre. Afrika har Ă€ven mĂ„nga olika teckensprĂ„k. De flesta afrikaner talar som modersmĂ„l ett sprĂ„k tillhörande nĂ„gon av de fyra sprĂ„kfamiljerna afroasiatiska sprĂ„k, nilo-sahariska sprĂ„k, Niger-KongosprĂ„k eller khoisansprĂ„k. +Med nĂ„gra fĂ„ nĂ€mnvĂ€rda undantag i östra Afrika, har nĂ€stan alla afrikanska lĂ€nder sprĂ„k som har sitt ursprung utanför vĂ€rldsdelen som officiellt sprĂ„k, pĂ„ grund av kolonialismen och mĂ€nsklig migration. Till exempel anvĂ€nds i ett stort antal afrikanska lĂ€nder franska eller engelska som administrativt sprĂ„k för stat, handel, utbildning och media. Arabiska, portugisiska, afrikaans och malagassiska Ă€r andra exempel pĂ„ sprĂ„k med ursprung utanför Afrika som idag anvĂ€nds av miljoner afrikaner, bĂ„de i offentliga och privata sammanhang. + +Religion + +Kristendom och islam Ă€r de största religionerna i Afrika, 46,3 % av alla afrikaner Ă€r kristna och 40,5 % Ă€r muslimer. Resten 11,8 % tillhör olika lokala afrikanska religioner som funnits före den europeiska kolonisationen. Ett mindre antal afrikaner Ă€r hinduer, eller har tro frĂ„n judisk tradition. Exempel pĂ„ afrikanska folk som tillhör judendomen Ă€r Beta Israel, Lembafolk och Abayudaya i östra Uganda. Sydafrika och Angola har över 55% kristna katoliker. + +Kultur + +Afrika har ett stort antal överlappande kulturer, och flera tusen olika etniska grupper. Den mest konventionella distinktionen Ă€r den mellan omrĂ„det söder om Sahara och omrĂ„det norr om öknen. De nordliga lĂ€nderna associerar sig frĂ€mst med arabkulturen, medan de sydliga lĂ€nderna bestĂ„r av i sin tur mĂ„nga olika kulturella omrĂ„den. En av de största kulturella identiteterna Ă€r den som innefattar alla folk som talar nĂ„got bantusprĂ„k. + +Det gĂ„r ocksĂ„ att göra en indelning i gamla franska VĂ€stafrika Ă„ ena sidan, och resten av Afrika (mer specifikt de brittiska eller portugisiska kolonierna i södra och östra Afrika) Ă„ andra sidan. En annan kulturell linje gĂ„r mellan de afrikaner som hĂ„ller kvar vid sina gamla traditionella livsstilar, och de som har anpassat sig till en mer modern livsstil. Det gĂ„r Ă€ven att dela upp traditionalisterna i sĂ„dana som Ă€gnar sig Ă„t uppfödning av boskap, och sĂ„dana som Ă€gnar sig Ă„t jordbruk. + +Afrikansk konst och afrikansk arkitektur reflekterar de afrikanska kulturernas diversitet. De Ă€ldsta exemplen pĂ„ afrikansk konst Ă€r 75 000 Ă„r gamla pĂ€rlsmycken gjorda av nassariusskal, dessa hittades i Blombosgrottan. Pyramiderna i Giza var vĂ€rldens högsta byggnader under 4 000 Ă„r. Klippkyrkorna i Lalibela i Etiopien, bland vilka Bete Giyorgis ("St. Göranskyrkan") Ă€r mest vĂ€lkĂ€nd, Ă€r ocksĂ„ kĂ€nda exempel pĂ„ afrikansk arkitektur. + +Regioner och territorier + +AnmĂ€rkningar + +Se Ă€ven + Nordafrika + VĂ€stafrika + Ăstafrika + Centralafrika + Södra Afrika + Afrikas klimat + +Referenser + +Noter + +KĂ€llor + + Pennsylvania State University â African Ethnic Groups och andra kartor + PygmĂ©erna i Afrika Kultur och musik av de första urinvĂ„narna i Afrika + Afrika i skolböckerna, M. Palmberg 1987 + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +Amerika (engelska: the Americas) bestĂ„r av landmassorna mellan Atlanten och Stilla havet pĂ„ vĂ€stra halvklotet, namngivna efter den italienske upptĂ€cktsresanden Amerigo Vespucci. Amerika uppfattas vanligen idag som tvĂ„ vĂ€rldsdelar, Nordamerika och Sydamerika. Amerika indelas geografiskt i Nordamerika (med Centralamerika) och Sydamerika. Grönland ingĂ„r geografiskt i Nordamerika, men rĂ€knas politiskt och kulturellt till Europa. Kulturgeografiskt avgrĂ€nsas ocksĂ„ ofta Latinamerika, dĂ„ inklusive bĂ„de Central- och Sydamerika samt Mexiko, och Angloamerika, som Ă€r USA och Kanada. OmrĂ„dets totala landyta Ă€r ungefĂ€r 42 miljoner kvadratkilometer och Ă€r sĂ„ledes nĂ„got mindre Ă€n Asiens. + +Ofta anvĂ€nds Amerika och amerikansk för enbart landet USA, det vill sĂ€ga för den politiska (kontinents- och) vĂ€rldsmakten som formellt heter Amerikas förenta stater, vilket medför en förvĂ€xlingsrisk med dubbelkontinenten som helhet men Ă€r jĂ€mförbart med hur andra landsnamn förkortas i dagligt tal (exempelvis Mexiko, vars fullstĂ€ndiga namn översatt till svenska Ă€r Mexikos förenta stater). PĂ„ engelska, portugisiska och spanska kommer man ofta runt problemet genom att de tvĂ„ vĂ€rldsdelarna kallas the Americas respektive las AmĂ©ricas ("[de tvĂ„] Amerikorna", ett uttryck som dock aldrig har etablerats pĂ„ svenska). + +Namnet +Amerika namngavs efter Amerigo Vespucci, som var den första som insĂ„g att Amerika var en kontinent som nyligen kommit till kĂ€nnedom för europĂ©er, som inte var Ăstindien. Namnet anvĂ€nds 1507 för första gĂ„ngen i en vĂ€rldskarta som skapades av den tyske geografen Martin WaldseemĂŒller och beskriver dĂ€r Sydamerika. 1511 omnĂ€mnes det i ett engelskt skĂ„despel och 1516 anvĂ€nds det av Leonardo da Vinci pĂ„ hans vĂ€rldskarta och vann alltsĂ„ snabb utbredning. Spanjorerna brukade i början ha andra namn. De kallade landet för "Den nya vĂ€rlden" eller las Indias occidentales (vĂ€stra Indien). För Sydamerika behöll de under hela 1500-talet namnen Peruana och Brasilia. Först pĂ„ 1600-talet blev namnet Amerika allmĂ€nt antaget. + +Historia + se Amerikas historia + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Amerika +Kontinenter +Abba kan avse: + + Abba â en svensk popgrupp + Abba (musikalbum) â ett album av gruppen + Abba Seafood â ett fiskkonservföretag + Abba (teologi) â ett arameiskt ord + Abba (hederstitel) â en hederstitel och förtroligt tilltal + Abba (spindelslĂ€kte) â slĂ€kte av hjulspindlar + +Geografi + +Australien + + Abba River â vattendrag i Western Australia + +Etiopien + + Äbaya HÄyk', sjö, + +Robotskapade Etiopienförgreningar +AbbekĂ„s (uttalas abbekĂ„-s) Ă€r en tĂ€tort i Skivarps distrikt (Skivarps socken) pĂ„ SöderslĂ€tt i Skurups kommun. + +Historia +AbbekĂ„s var frĂ„n början ett fiskelĂ€ge pĂ„ SkĂ„nes sydkust mellan Ystad och Trelleborg, omtalad redan pĂ„ medeltiden. Onsdagen den 13 november 1872 förstördes stora delar av byn av en stormflod kallad Backafloden, framkallad av en orkan som drog in över sydkusten frĂ„n nordost. 34 hus förstördes, alla fiskeredskap, bĂ„tar och befolkningens vinterförrĂ„d. VattenstĂ„ndet ökade till 3,6 meter över det normala, vilket fortfarande Ă€r svenskt rekord. Redan Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ inleddes med hjĂ€lp av statsbidrag arbetet med en riktig hamn, och fisket och kusthandeln kunde Ă„ter komma igĂ„ng. En ny storhetstid för fisket intrĂ€ffade under andra vĂ€rldskriget. + +2011 renoverades pirar och kajer, och inloppet gjordes om för att öka sĂ€kerheten i yttre hamnbassĂ€ngen. + +Befolkningsutveckling + +Namnet +Namnet skrevs 1536 Abbekassz. Efterleden Ă€r kĂ„s, 'bĂ„tplats, mindre hamn'. Förleden innehĂ„ller förmodligen mansnamnet Abbi.. + +SamhĂ€llet +AbbekĂ„s hamn bestĂ„r av en yttre och en inre hamnbassĂ€ng, dĂ€r den inre anvĂ€nds av fiskarna och den yttre Ă€r till för fritidsseglare och gĂ€stbĂ„tar. DĂ€r finns hamnkrog, hotell samt ett hus för tvĂ€tt, dusch och toalett för besökare. LĂ€ngre upp i byn finns ytterligare en restaurang, ett konstgalleri och tvĂ„ bed and breakfast. Strax öster om byn ligger AbbekĂ„s Golfklubb. + +AbbekĂ„s i musiken +AbbekĂ„s Ă€r omsjunget av Edvard Persson i sĂ„ngen AbbekĂ„sagĂ„sen Joakim. + +KĂ€nda profiler +Lorens Brolin, spelman + +Bilder + +Omgivande orter + +Noter + +Externa lĂ€nkar +AbbekĂ„s Byalag + +Orter i Skurups kommun +FiskelĂ€gen +TĂ€torter i Sverige +AlingsĂ„s () Ă€r en tĂ€tort i VĂ€stergötland i VĂ€stra Götalands lĂ€n med strax över 27 000 invĂ„nare (2020) och Ă€r centralort i AlingsĂ„s kommun. + +Orten ligger vid sjöarna Mjörn och Gerdsken och genomskĂ€rs av SĂ€veĂ„n och Gerdska ström (LillĂ„n) och FĂ€rgen som ligger vid HjĂ€lmared. AlingsĂ„s genomkorsas av E20, vĂ€g 180 och vĂ€stra stambanan. + +AlingsĂ„s Ă€r kĂ€nt för sina kafĂ©er och kallas för "KafĂ©staden". Det finns omkring 25 kafĂ©er. + +AlingsĂ„s kallas ocksĂ„ för "Potatisstaden", genom Jonas Alströmer som populariserade potatisen i Sverige, +och varje Ă„r firas det med en potatisfestival. + +Historia +Ortens namn, belagt sedan 1357, kommer möjligen frĂ„n sammansĂ€ttningen av orden aling och Ă„s, syftande pĂ„ att en person frĂ„n Ale, kallad aling, bosatt sig pĂ„ platsen. Efterleden -Ă„s kommer troligen av att personen bosatte sig pĂ„ Ă„sen som idag ligger vid stadsdelen Nolby. AlltsĂ„ kallades platsen för Alings Ă„s. + +AlingsĂ„s fick stadsrĂ€ttigheter 21 september g.s. (1 oktober n.s.) Ă„r 1619 av Gustav II Adolf, vilket gör AlingsĂ„s till en av de Ă€ldsta stĂ€derna i regionen, sedan den utgjort rekommenderad inflyttningsort för borgare som inte tillĂ€ts Ă„teruppbygga det i krig brĂ€nda Nya Lödöse. + +1639 erhöll man privilegier och stadsvapen. Staden förde dock under de första Ă„ren en tynande tillvaro och hade i början av 1720-talet omkring 150 invĂ„nare, men fick ett uppsving frĂ„n 1720-talet och framĂ„t i samband med etableringen av Jonas Alströmers manufakturverk. Verksamheten var dock beroende av statsstöd och drabbades hĂ„rt av manufakturkrisen i slutet av 1700-talet. AlingsĂ„s hade dĂ„ omkring 1 000 invĂ„nare. + +1724 och 1779 drabbades AlingsĂ„s av stadsbrĂ€nder som förstörde större delen av staden. + +Manufakturverkets fortsatta tillbakagĂ„ng och slutliga avveckling 1847 medförde en lĂ„ngsam utveckling för AlingsĂ„s. Efter att AlingsĂ„s anslutits till VĂ€stra stambanan 1859 och AlingsĂ„s bomullsvĂ€veri anlagts 1862 följde en period av uppgĂ„ng och AlingsĂ„s utvecklades till ett viktigt textilindustricentrum. Tekokrisen pĂ„ 1960- och 1970-talen slog hĂ„rt mot AlingsĂ„s. + +Administrativa tillhörigheter +FrĂ„n att varit kyrkby i AlingsĂ„s socken, utbröts orten 1643 till AlingsĂ„s stad. Efter kommunreformen 1862 lĂ„g sedan bebyggelsen i stadskommunen AlingsĂ„s stad och med en mindre del före 1952 i AlingsĂ„s socken. Staden utökades 1952 och 1955 med grannsocknar, bland annat AlingsĂ„s socken, och orten utgjorde dĂ€refter, som dess centralort, en liten del av stadskommunens omrĂ„de. 1971 uppgick AlingsĂ„s stad i AlingsĂ„s kommun och orten Ă€r sedan dess centralort i kommunen. + +AlingsĂ„s tillhör sedan 1967 AlingsĂ„s församling för att innan dess tillhört AlingsĂ„s stadsförsamling och med en del AlingsĂ„s landsförsamling. + +AlingsĂ„s tillhörde judiciellt till 1965 AlingsĂ„s rĂ„dhusrĂ€tt och dĂ€refter till 1971 VĂ€ttle, Ale och Kullings tingslag. Sedan 1971 ingĂ„r orten i AlingsĂ„s tingsrĂ€tts domsaga. + +Befolkningsutveckling + +Stadsdelar + +Kommunikationer + +Biltrafik +E20 gĂ„r rakt igenom AlingsĂ„s och delar AlingsĂ„s mer eller mindre i tvĂ„ delar. E20 gĂ„r till Göteborg i sydvĂ€stlig riktning samt Stockholm i nordöst. LĂ€nsvĂ€g 180 korsar AlingsĂ„s och nĂ„r BorĂ„s i sydöst. + +Kollektivtrafik +AlingsĂ„s station trafikeras av Göteborgs pendeltĂ„g, regionaltĂ„g samt fjĂ€rrtĂ„g. Stationen öppnade redan Ă„r 1857. +Det finns ocksĂ„ bussar till olika delar av staden, samt bussar till BorĂ„s, Sollebrunn, VĂ„rgĂ„rda, Ingared och Stora Lygnö. + +Flygplats +NĂ€rmaste flygplats med reguljĂ€r flygtrafik Ă€r Landvetter. + +Utbildning + +Gymnasieskolor +I AlingsĂ„s finns den kommunala gymnasieskolan Alströmergymnasiet. Alströmergymnasiet Ă€r godkĂ€nda av fotbolls- och handbollsförbundet att bedriva sĂ„ kallad nationell godkĂ€nd idrottsutbildning (NIU), med namnet Alströmergymnasiet NIU elitdrottsgymnasium. + +Högskoleutbildning +PĂ„ Campus AlingsĂ„s, inuti Utbildningens hus, erbjuds högskoleutbildningar dĂ€r Campus AlingsĂ„s fungerar som lĂ€rcentrum. Exempel pĂ„ utbildningar som givits eller ges Ă€r Butikschefsprogrammet, FörskollĂ€rarprogrammet och GrundlĂ€rarprogrammet. Det finns Ă€ven utbildningar inom yrkeshögskola i Utbildningens hus. + +Kultur och evenemang +AlingsĂ„s museum Ă€r ett museum som var inrymt i AlingsĂ„s Ă€ldsta profana byggnad, det sĂ„ kallade Alströmerska magasinet. + +Det internationella Lights in AlingsĂ„s Ă€r ett evenemang dĂ€r kommunen tillsammans med de kommunala bolagen och Sparbanken AlingsĂ„s bjuder in ljusdesigners frĂ„n hela vĂ€rlden för att tillsammans med studenter ljussĂ€tta offentliga miljöer i staden. + +Potatisfestivalen anordnas Ă„rligen i juni mĂ„nad. + +Högstadieskolan Ăstlyckan sĂ€tter varje Ă„r upp en kabaret pĂ„ Palladium. + +Varje Ă„r anordnar AlingsĂ„s Motorveteraner "Chicken Race". PĂ„ lĂ„ngfredagen samlas hundratals klassiska mopeder pĂ„ ABB Kabeldons parkeringsplats för att sedan ge sig ut pĂ„ en cirka 6 mil lĂ„ng runda. Ă r 2015 blev det rekord med hela 980 startande. + +Nolhaga parkbad Ă€r ett badhus med Ă€ventyrsbad, spa och relaxavdelning i Nolhagaparken. + +Lokala medier +AlingsĂ„s har tvĂ„ lokaltidning morgontidningen AlingsĂ„s Tidning som utkommer tre gĂ„nger i veckan, och gratistidningen AlingsĂ„s Kuriren som utkommer en gĂ„ng i veckan. + +NĂ€ringsliv, handel och föreningar + +NĂ€ringsliv +Som mĂ„nga andra svenska orter har AlingsĂ„s fĂ„tt stĂ€lla om frĂ„n ett producerande samhĂ€lle till ett tjĂ€nstesamhĂ€lle samt stödja sig allt mer pĂ„ pendling till sĂ€rskilt Göteborg. Det finns fortfarande industri i AlingsĂ„s, men pĂ„ en mindre skala Ă€n tidigare. Exempel pĂ„ nedlĂ€ggningar Ă€r Electrolux, Arla, Karamellpojkarna/Cloetta samt Lindex som hade sitt huvudkontor i staden tills 2003. Utpendlingen till Göteborg var 3341 personer, mot inpendlingen frĂ„n Göteborg med 691 personer (2012) . Utpendlingen till BorĂ„s var 613 personer (2013) . Varav 10919 personer arbetade inom AlingsĂ„s kommuns grĂ€nser och den totala utpendlingen frĂ„n AlingsĂ„s var 4092 personer (2013). + +VĂ€lkĂ€nda industrier genom tiderna: + Alströmers manufakturverk + AlingsĂ„s bomullsvĂ€veri + AB AlingsĂ„s keramik + Karamellpojkarna + ABB Kabeldon + B&B Tools + StrĂ„lfors + +Handel +Handeln i AlingsĂ„s har pĂ„ 2000-talet utvecklat sig snabbt. Centrumhandeln Ă€r anrik och fylld med mĂ„nga Ă€ldre trĂ€hus, med ett flertal innergĂ„rdar med smĂ„ butiker, kafĂ©er och restauranger. 2008 öppnades centrumgallerian Storken pĂ„ affĂ€rsgatan Kungsgatan, med ett 30-tal butiker och restauranger/kafĂ©er. Under 2014 öppnades affĂ€rshuset Vimpeln samt Bolltorps handelsomrĂ„de strax utanför stadskĂ€rnan. + +HandelsomrĂ„den och gallerior: + Storken (öppnade i oktober 2008) + Vimpeln (öppnade i mars 2014) + Bolltorps handelsomrĂ„de (öppnade i oktober 2014) + +Föreningsliv +AlingsĂ„s har cirka 350 föreningar av olika slag. Under 2013 öppnade den nya evenemangshallen Estrad AlingsĂ„s, som anvĂ€nds av det lokala handbollslaget AHK samt för diverse evenemang sĂ„ som Lights in AlingsĂ„s. + +ScoutkĂ„ren Alströmer grundades 1923 som "AlingsĂ„s FlickscoutkĂ„r". Efter bildandet av Svenska Scoutförbundet 1960 bytte kĂ„ren namn till "ScoutkĂ„ren Alströmer". Samtidigt integrerades pojkar i kĂ„rens verksamhet. KĂ„ren tillhör Ălvsborgs Södra Scoutdistrikt av Svenska Scoutförbundet. + +BankvĂ€sende +För nĂ€rvarande har Handelsbanken, Nordea och Sparbanken AlingsĂ„s kontor i AlingsĂ„s. Ăven LĂ€nsförsĂ€kringar har viss bankverksamhet med kontor i AlingsĂ„s. + +Sparbanken AlingsĂ„s grundades 1832 och Ă€r alltjĂ€mt fristĂ„ende. + +Den Ă„r 1864 grundade Enskilda Banken i Venersborg hade tidigt kontor i AlingsĂ„s. Vid 1920-talets början hade bĂ„de Göteborgs bank och Göteborgs handelsbank/Nordiska handelsbanken etablerat sig i AlingsĂ„s. Göteborgs handelsbanks kontor övertogs i augusti 1949 av Jordbrukarbanken. Den 18 december 1969 etablerade sig Skandinaviska banken i AlingsĂ„s. + +SEB stĂ€ngde sitt kontor i AlingsĂ„s mot slutet av Ă„r 2017. + +Naturreservat +FriluftsfrĂ€mjandet har en lokalavdelning i AlingsĂ„s. Föreningen har sitt klubbhus i nya naturreservatet Hjortmarka som delas med BĂ€linge socken. (För fler tĂ€tortsnĂ€ra naturreservat se AlingsĂ„s socken.) + +Sport + +Bandy +Redan före 1921 spelades bandy under organiserade former. AlingsĂ„s IF var stadens dominerande lag. Under 1920-talet var AIF i DM-final. Mest framgĂ„ngsrik blev AlingsĂ„s Sportklubb, bildad 1930 som Ingelunds IF, som tre gĂ„nger under 1940-talet kvalade till Allsvenskan (utan att nĂ„ dit). AlingsĂ„s SK sammanslogs 1966 med Stockslycke BK till BK AlingsĂ„s. (AlingsĂ„s Idrottshistoriska SĂ€llskap) + +Aktiva bandyklubbar i AlingsĂ„s Ă€r Hemsjö IF och Vadsjöns BK. Bandyn saknar Ă€nnu konstfrusen bandybana i AlingsĂ„s. + +Handboll +AlingsĂ„s elitlag i Handboll, AlingsĂ„s HK, spelar i Handbollsligan, landets högsta division. Klubben blev svenska mĂ€stare 2009 och 2014. + +Potatiscupen Ă€r en stor inomhuscup för ungdomslag som spelas Ă„rligen i mĂ„nga av AlingsĂ„s inomhushallar. Finalspelet gĂ„r i Estrad AlingsĂ„s dĂ€r AlingsĂ„s Handbollklubb spelar sina hemmamatcher. + +Ishockey +Ishockeyklubben Sörhaga/AlingsĂ„s Hockey spelade sĂ€songen 2020/2021 i Hockeytrean. + +Fotboll +Staden har ett antal lag i seriespel pĂ„ seniornivĂ„. De mest framgĂ„ngsrika Ă€r Holmalunds IF (dam- och herrlag), AlingsĂ„s Idrottsförening (herrlag), Gerdskens bollklubb (herrlag) och AlingsĂ„s Kvinnliga Idrottsklubb (damlag). Numera spelar Ă€ven AlingsĂ„s IF:s damlag i superettan. + +Bowling +Bowlingklubben Team AlingsĂ„s BC har sedan sĂ€songen 2011/12 spelat i landets högsta division för herrar, Elitserien, efter att sedan starten 2007/08 ha kvalat sig upp en division varje Ă„r. Klubben spelar sedan första sĂ€songen i Stures Bowling & Sportbar dĂ€r Ă€ven en utbredd korpverksamhet Ă€ger rum. + +KĂ€nda personer med anknytning till AlingsĂ„s + +Claes Adelsköld, jĂ€rnvĂ€gsbyggare, riksdagsman, född pĂ„ och senare i livet Ă€gare av Nolhaga +Jonas Alströmer, en av den industriella revolutionens förgrundsfigurer i Sverige, född och verksam i AlingsĂ„s +Karin Boye, poet och författare, avled i Nolby i AlingsĂ„s + Iwan Bratt, lĂ€kare i AlingsĂ„s +Christian BĂ€ckman, ishockeyspelare, föddes och inledde sin karriĂ€r i AlingsĂ„s +Johan Elmander, fotbollsspelare, föddes och inledde sin karriĂ€r i AlingsĂ„s +Markus Granseth, programledare, uppvuxen i AlingsĂ„s +Christoffer Hiding, Idol-deltagare, uppvuxen i AlingsĂ„s +Chris HĂ€renstam, sportjournalist pĂ„ SVT, uppvuxen i AlingsĂ„s +Karl-Johan Karlsson, journalist och författare, uppvuxen i AlingsĂ„s + Peter Karlsson, sprintermĂ€stare pĂ„ 100 meter (innehar fortfarande svenska rekordet). +Sven Lendahl, fabrikör och stor mecenat i staden under 1700-talet +Moa Lignell, Idol-deltagare, uppvuxen i AlingsĂ„s +Hedda Lindahl, politiker, minister, frĂ„n AlingsĂ„s +Stefan Lindberg, författare, dramatiker och översĂ€ttare frĂ„n AlingsĂ„s. +Peter Lorentzon, skĂ„despelare, född och uppvuxen i AlingsĂ„s +Daniel NyhlĂ©n, journalist, inledde sin journalistkarriĂ€r pĂ„ AlingsĂ„s Tidning +Marianne Samuelsson, politiker, född i AlingsĂ„s +Peter Weiss, författare, konstnĂ€r, filmare, bodde en tid som krigsflykting i AlingsĂ„s, en tid som han beskrivit i sin produktion + Fillip Williams, sĂ„ngare och skĂ„despelare och deltagare i Idol 2004 +Jack Vreeswijk, artist, som vuxen boende i AlingsĂ„s + +Se Ă€ven +Lista över fasta fornminnen i AlingsĂ„s (för omfattning av detta omrĂ„de, se AlingsĂ„s stad#Sockenkod) +Personer frĂ„n AlingsĂ„s + +Referenser + +Noter + +Tryckta kĂ€llor +HĂ€ndelser man minns - en bokfilm, Harald Schiller 1970 + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Orter i AlingsĂ„s kommun +Centralorter i VĂ€stra Götalands lĂ€n +TĂ€torter i Sverige +Orter avbildade i Suecian +Orter grundade 1619 +Stockholm-Arlanda flygplats Ă€r Sveriges största flygplats, belĂ€gen i Sigtuna kommun i Stockholms lĂ€n. Driftbolaget Swedavia marknadsför flygplatsen med namnet Stockholm Arlanda Airport. Mer Ă€n 26 miljoner passagerare reser till respektive frĂ„n flygplatsen per Ă„r, drygt 230 000 starter och landningar genomförs per Ă„r. Flygplatsen har kapacitet för 80 starter/landningar per timme. En vĂ€sentlig del av passagerarna reser inrikes. Flygplatsen har VIP-service. + +Flygplatsen med tillhörande verksamheter klassas av SCB som ett arbetsplatsomrĂ„de utanför tĂ€tort. Detta har kod A0240 och omfattar 1 181 hektar. Inom detta omrĂ„de finns 163 arbetsstĂ€llen med totalt cirka 17 000 anstĂ€llda (2021). Flygplatsens markomrĂ„de om 2 600 hektar omfattar ett bansystem med tre banor, fyra terminaler, driftbyggnader, jordbruksmark, skogsomrĂ„den, vattendrag samt Halmsjön. + +Historia + +Tidiga namnförslag 1947 och 1958 +"Attunda", förslag till benĂ€mning av flygplatsen vid Halmsjön + +Arlandas tillkomst + +Byggandet av Arlanda föregicks av mĂ„nga Ă„rs utredningar dĂ€r mĂ„nga olika förslag till placering figurerade. Redan 1943 tillsattes en utredning för att undersöka möjligheten att komplettera Bromma flygplats, som hade invigts 1936. Anledningen till detta var planer pĂ„ att inrĂ€tta flyglinjer till Nordamerika. Brommas banor var nĂ€mligen för korta för de nya lĂ„ngdistansflygplanen. Utredningen - som kom att kallas 1944 Ă„rs flygplatsutredning - skulle undersöka alternativa lĂ€gen för ett "AtlantflygfĂ€lt". Utredningens förslag var Grillby i nuvarande Enköpings kommun i Uppsala lĂ€n, uppĂ„t 80 kilometer vĂ€ster om Stockholm. Utredningen avrĂ„dde frĂ„n de alternativa placeringarna SkĂ„-Edeby och VĂ€sby. Stockholms stad föredrog dock att flygplatsen placerades i VĂ€sby, och efter kompletterande utredning föreslog utredningen i januari 1946 att flygplatsen skulle placeras vid Halmsjön, 42 kilometer norr om Stockholm, en bit bortom VĂ€sby. Samma Ă„r fattade riksdagen beslut om att anlĂ€gga en storflygplats i enlighet med utredningens förslag. Byggandet vid Halmsjön startade 1952 men pĂ„ grund av anstrĂ€ngd ekonomi blev resultatet först en enkel betongbana som gick under namnet Halmsjöbanan. Invigningsflygningen genomfördes den 26 november 1954 pĂ„ strĂ€ckan Bromma - Halmsjön. Med öknamnet puckelbanan blev banan föga anvĂ€nd. Halmsjöbanan kom efter ombyggnad senare att ingĂ„ i det som idag Ă€r bana 2:s (08/26) taxibana pĂ„ Arlanda. + +Eftersom Halmsjöbanan med denna utformning inte löste storflygplatsfrĂ„gan lade Luftfartsstyrelsen i januari 1956 fram en skrivelse till regeringen med tvĂ„ alternativa lĂ€gen för en storflygplats, dels Halmsjön, och dels Jordbro, som man rekommenderade pĂ„ grund av att avstĂ„ndet till Stockholm endast var 24 km. Snabbt visade det sig dock att bĂ„de VĂ€sterhaninge landskommun, lĂ€nsstyrelsen och försvaret var negativa till en flygplats i Jordbro, bland annat pĂ„ grund av nĂ€rheten till flygflottiljen F 18 Tullinge och marinbasen i Berga. I april 1956 tillsatte regeringen dĂ€rför en ny utredning - storflygplatsutredningen - under ledning av statssekreterare Grafström. Denna utredning föreslog en fortsatt utbyggnad vid Halmsjön. Luftfartsverket och flygbolagen var dock negativa eftersom de ansĂ„g att Halmsjön lĂ„g för lĂ„ngt bort frĂ„n Stockholm, och redan i oktober 1956 tillsattes en ny utredning för att utreda alternativ till Halmsjön. Denna utredning gick igenom ett 15-tal alternativ och rekommenderade i januari 1957 SkĂ„-Edeby som den överlĂ€gset bĂ€sta placeringen för en storflygplats. En ytterligare utredning tillsattes i april 1957 för att undersöka markförhĂ„llandena i SkĂ„-Edeby och vid Halmsjön, och kom fram att markförhĂ„llandena i SkĂ„-Edeby (tjocka lager av lera) var olĂ€mpliga för flygplatsen. De mĂ„nga och lĂ„ngdragna turerna gjorde att man under 1957 började fundera pĂ„ provisoriska lösningar, sĂ„som en utbyggnad av Bromma, eller utbyggnad av de militĂ€ra flygplatserna Tullinge eller Barkarby. Anledningen till detta var att SAS frĂ„n slutet av 1959 skulle börja fĂ„ leveranser av flygplanstypen DC-8, och att en ny flygplats behövde kunna tas i bruk 1960. För att slippa att ordna en sĂ„dan lösning bytte Luftfartsverket uppfattning i oktober 1957 och förordade nu Halmsjön som plats för flygplatsen. Riksdagsbeslutet kom i december 1957, och man anslog 153 miljoner kronor till byggandet av storflygplatsen, som skulle byggas med tvĂ„ banor, den 3,3 km lĂ„nga bana 1 (huvudbana), som gĂ„r i nord-sydlig riktning och den 2,5 km lĂ„nga bana 2 som gĂ„r i öst-vĂ€stlig riktning. + +För att hitta ett passande namn till flygplatsen utlyses en namntĂ€vling 1958 i tidningen Ă ret Runt men istĂ€llet för att föreslĂ„ nĂ„got av de inlĂ€mnade förslagen framförde juryn förslaget Arlanda som var en modifiering av ortnamnsforskaren Lars Hellbergs ursprungliga förslag Arland. Namnet kommer av Ărlinghundra hĂ€rad, dĂ€r flygplatsen Ă€r belĂ€gen. I ett dokument frĂ„n 1316 omtalades detta som provincia Aarland, = "Ă„kerlandets omrĂ„de". Mot denna historiska bakgrund faststĂ€llde riksdagen 1958 namnet Stockholm-Arlanda flygplats. + +Flygplatsen började anvĂ€ndas den 14 december 1959 och dĂ„ endast för skolflygning. Klockan 13.59 landade det första flygplanet pĂ„ bana 1, en Caravelle frĂ„n SAS som hade startat frĂ„n Bromma med flygkapten Axel Oldne vid spakarna. Med pĂ„ flygresan var kommunikationsminister Gösta Skoglund som samma dag förklarade flygfĂ€ltet öppnat. Den 5 januari 1960 öppnades Arlanda för trafik och den 26 juni 1960 lyfte en DC-8 frĂ„n SAS pĂ„ den första reguljĂ€ra flygningen till New York. Inledningsvis anvĂ€ndes mycket primitiva byggnader pĂ„ Arlanda som terminalbyggnad för denna trafik. + +Den 1 april 1962 invigde kung Gustaf VI Adolf officiellt Stockholm-Arlanda Flygplats som dĂ„ hade fĂ„tt en sĂ€rskild utrikeshall och utrikestrafiken frĂ„n Stockholm flyttade i och med detta frĂ„n Bromma till Arlanda. Den första "kĂ€ndisen" som flög frĂ„n Arlanda var Greta Garbo, som klockan 00:15 pĂ„ invigningsdagen den 1 april, startade mot USA. + +Under Ă„r 1964-1965 installerades ett av vĂ€rldens första digitala flygtrafikledningssystem pĂ„ Arlanda av Standard Radio & Telefon. Detta var baserat pĂ„ teknik utvecklat för radargruppcentralerna i det svenska försvarsprogrammet STRIL 60 och kunde följa flygplan i realtid. Det ursprungligen militĂ€ra systemet utökades med sekundĂ€rradarextraktorer och fick stor internationell uppmĂ€rksamhet. + +Utbyggnader pĂ„ Arlanda + +Den ökande svenska charterturismen till varmare lĂ€nder ledde till att en sĂ€rskild charterhall togs i bruk 1972. 1976 invigdes utrikesterminalen Arlanda International (Ă€ven Arlanda Utrikes) den nuvarande Terminal 5, av kung Carl XVI Gustaf och all utrikestrafik, bĂ„de reguljĂ€r och charter, flyttade hit. + +Den 1 oktober 1983 invigdes Arlanda Inrikes (senare Inrikes 1), som idag Ă€r Terminal 4, av kung Carl XVI Gustaf och drottning Silvia. Den 1 januari 1984 flyttade SAS inrikesflyg och Linjeflyg till terminalen, delvis frĂ„n Bromma som skulle tömmas pĂ„ jetflyg. Terminalen var underdimensionerad redan nĂ€r den invigdes dĂ„ inrikesflyget hade vuxit lĂ„ngt mer Ă€n de prognoser som lĂ„g till grunden för bygget. 1990 invigdes dĂ€rför Inrikes 2, som idag Ă€r Terminal 2, av prins Bertil. SAS inrikesflyg flyttade in i terminalen men en kraftig lĂ„gkonjunktur ledde till sjunkande antal passagerare och redan 1992 lĂ€mnade SAS den, vilket ledde till en lĂ„ngdragen juridisk tvist om kostnaderna för byggandet av "Inrikes 2". Tvisten gĂ€llde huruvida Luftfartsverket och SAS hade ett avtal som stipulerade villkoren för anvĂ€ndandet av terminalen. Tvisten vanns sedermera av SAS (jfr pir F nedan). Terminalen byggdes dĂ€refter om till en kombinerad in- och utrikesterminal, vilket krĂ€vde sĂ€kerhetskontroll (behövdes dĂ„ inte inrikes), passkontroll, större bagagehantering, taxfree-butik och andra ombyggnader. Terminalerna döptes dĂ„ om till nummer 2-5 istĂ€llet för de tidigare inrikes- och utrikesbeteckningar. Uppgifter gör gĂ€llande att siffran 1 reserverades för en eventuell framtida terminal bredvid Terminal 2 (se nedan). Terminal 3 invigdes i augusti 1989 och hade under en period namnet Inrikes 2 innan det blev Inrikes 3 under nĂ„gra Ă„r. Den var avsedd att flytta mindre bolags rutter med propellerplan frĂ„n Bromma. Det blev till nytta sĂ€rskilt för de mĂ„nga som anvĂ€nder dessa linjer med byte till eller frĂ„n annat större plan. En del kortare flyglinjer försvann dock av olika skĂ€l. + +Efter byggandet av en sĂ€rskild jĂ€rnvĂ€g (Arlandabanan) med underjordiska stationer började snabbtĂ„get Arlanda Express i november 1999 att trafikera strĂ€ckan Stockholm C-Arlanda. + +I mitten av 1990-talet gick konjunkturen upp igen och flygresandet ökade till nya rekordsiffror, vilket ledde till att det blev trĂ„ngt pĂ„ Arlanda. Den 10 november 1998 gick dĂ€rför det officiella startskottet för byggandet av bana 3, som ligger parallellt med bana 1. I samband med byggandet av den tredje banan pĂ„börjades byggandet av ett nytt trafikledartorn (83 m högt) som togs i drift den 23 december 2001. Nybyggnaderna omfattade Ă€ven en ny brandstation och en ny terminal, som kom att utgöra den tredje piren (pir F) pĂ„ Terminal 5, och togs i bruk i januari 2002. I samband med Sveriges intrĂ€de i Schengensamarbetet 2001 skedde ombyggnader för att kunna separera utrikespassagerare frĂ„n icke-Schengen-lĂ€nder frĂ„n övriga passagerare. För att möjliggöra detta blev Terminal 2 en ren utrikesterminal och Terminal 5 fick en fjĂ€rde vĂ„ning. Invigningen av det nya tornet, pir F och bana 3, förrĂ€ttades den 29 maj 2002 av kronprinsessan Victoria. Invigningsflygningen pĂ„ bana 3 skedde dock först klockan 11.00 den 17 april 2003. Det hade blivit lĂ„gkonjunktur vid den tiden sĂ„ bana 3 anvĂ€ndes ganska lite i början, delvis pĂ„ grund av protester. + +Konflikten om bana 3 +Placeringen av bana 3 blev tidigt omstridd dĂ„ miljödomstolen 1993 avslog byggandet pĂ„ den föreslagna platsen som vid normal trafik skulle ge oacceptabla bullerstörningar för nĂ€rmare 30 000 kringboende, samt spĂ€rra omrĂ„den för framtida bostadsbyggande. IstĂ€llet för att Ă€ndra placeringen Ă„terkom Arlanda med ett förslag dĂ€r banan Ă€ndĂ„ skulle byggas pĂ„ den föreslagna platsen, men överflygningar av nĂ€rliggande tĂ€torter skulle undvikas genom nya tekniska lösningar som skulle utvecklas och vara anvĂ€ndbara under tiden som banan byggdes. Bana 3 fick ett nytt tillstĂ„nd som villkorade att överflygningar av bland annat Upplands VĂ€sby tĂ€tort inte skulle ske (villkor 6 i miljötillstĂ„ndet för Arlanda flygplats). +Förslaget mötte redan initialt hĂ„rd kritik dels frĂ„n experter som hĂ€vdade att Arlanda underskattade problemen med införandet av den sk. "kurvade inflygningen", dels frĂ„n politiker som menade att det var riskabelt att basera byggande av viktig infrastruktur pĂ„ icke existerande tekniska lösningar. Efter ett flertal dispenser för att Ă€ndĂ„ tillfĂ€lligt flyga över tĂ€tbebyggt omrĂ„de meddelande Arlanda under 2011 att man misslyckats med införandet av "Kurvad inflygning" och nu inte heller tror detta kommer att vara klart till 2018 dĂ„ prövoperioden avslutas, och ansökte dĂ€rför om ett nytt miljötillstĂ„nd dĂ€r man begĂ€r att befrias frĂ„n villkor 6 FrĂ„gan har lett till en infekterad konflikt mellan Arlanda flygplats/Swedavia och nĂ€rliggande kommuner samt olika sammanslutningar av nĂ€rboende. Arlanda har delvis undvikit att anvĂ€nda bana 3 för starter söderut och landningar frĂ„n söder, men taxibanorna till terminalerna Ă€r anslutna i banans norra Ă€nde varför det tar lĂ€ngre tid mellan terminal och flygning. + + Flygplatsen menar att man visserligen missbedömt utvecklingen, men att Arlandas stora samhĂ€llsintresse och flygplatsens status som riksintresse borde ha företrĂ€de framför miljöhĂ€nsyn, bostadsbyggande och enskildas intressen. + De kringliggande kommunerna och nĂ€rboende hĂ€nvisar Ă„ sin sida till att Arlanda redan 1993 var ett riksintresse och att man dĂ€rför borde undvikit chansningen pĂ„ icke existerande teknik, och att Arlanda nu borde leva upp till sina Ă„taganden, eller bygga om banan sĂ„ den kan anvĂ€ndas med dagens teknik inom gĂ€llande miljöregler. + +- Den 27 november 2013 beslutade Mark- och miljödomstolen att Arlandas undantag för att anvĂ€nda bana 3 med inflygning över tĂ€tbefolkade omdĂ„en skulle upphöra frĂ„n 2018. Arlanda menade att domen skulle innebĂ€ra ett stort ekonomiskt avbrĂ€ck för regionen, medan ansvariga politiker i kringliggade kommuner vĂ€lkomnade beslutet och pĂ„pekade att Arlanda haft över 20 Ă„r pĂ„ sig att införa den teknik man sjĂ€lva föreslog som villkor för att fĂ„ bygga bana 3 trots den redan frĂ„n början ifrĂ„gasatta placeringen. + +- Den 21 november 2014 upphĂ€vde Mark- och miljööverdomstolen förbudet mot raka inflygningar över tĂ€tbebyggt omrĂ„de frĂ„n 2018. Efter att Arlanda överklagat mark och miljödomstoplens beslut frĂ„n 27 november 2013. Förbudet ersĂ€ttes med ett villkor att utreda kurvad inflygning och strĂ€va efter att utveckla metoder att inte flyga in över tĂ€tort. + +- I december 2020 ansökte Swedavia om Ă€ndringstillstĂ„nd för Arlanda för att möjliggöra en ökad andel kurvade inflygningar till bana 3, vilket Ă€r ett steg att tillmötesgĂ„ de miljökrav och skydd för omkringboende som ursprungligen skulle varit ett krav för att överhuvudtaget fĂ„ ta bana 3 i bruk. Vid samma tillfĂ€lle ansökte man om nya kurvade inflygningsvĂ€gar till bana 1 och 2. + +2000-talet +En ny lĂ„gkonjunktur i början av 2000-talet minskade Ă„ter resandet under nĂ„gra Ă„r. Efter ett antal Ă„r med kraftig tillvĂ€xt i passagerarantalet och en topp i resandet 2000 (18 264 000 passagerare), var passagerarantalet 2003 nere pĂ„ 15 113 000, vilket bara Ă€r aningen över 1997 Ă„rs nivĂ„. Under nĂ„gra Ă„r var det dĂ€rför ingen större trĂ€ngsel i de utbyggda terminalbyggnaderna eller pĂ„ den nya banan, och Arlanda Express gick ekonomiskt dĂ„ligt pĂ„ grund av lĂ„gt passagerarantal. En intressant hĂ€ndelse Ă€r att SAS och Luftfartsverket Ă„terigen hamnade i en juridisk tvist om betalning och utnyttjande av en nybyggd Terminal pĂ„ Arlanda. Inte heller denna gĂ„ng förelĂ„g ett skriftligt avtal med LFV och SAS, endast nĂ„gra Ă„r efter att den lĂ„ngdragna tvisten om Inrikes 2 bilagts (se ovan). Passagerarantalet ökade sedermera och efter att under 2006 ha uppgĂ„tt till 17 539 000 (vilket var mer Ă€n 1999 men mindre Ă€n 2000 och 2001), rĂ€knade Luftfartsverket med att siffrorna för 2007 skulle övertrĂ€ffa de för 2000. Fraktvolymerna har under senare Ă„r ökat procentuellt snabbare Ă€n passagerarflyget, och redan Ă„r 2005 övertrĂ€ffade fraktmĂ€ngderna siffrorna frĂ„n den förra högkonjunkturen. Antalet flygplanrörelser har dock inte ökat i samma utstrĂ€ckning, utan istĂ€llet flyger genomsnittligt större flygplan pĂ„ Arlanda. 2000 genomfördes 275 000 starter och landningar, 2003 var siffran nere pĂ„ 228 000, och prognosen för 2007 var 231 000, trots att passagerarantalet förutsĂ€tts slĂ„ nytt rekord. Det beror pĂ„ att mindre linjer minskat av olika skĂ€l. + +Passagerarantalet pĂ„ Arlanda har sedermera ökat stegvis och uppgick Ă„r 2012 till ca 19 642 000 passagerare och Ă„r 2018 hade Arlanda fler passagerare Ă€n nĂ„gonsin tidigare - antalet hade dĂ„ stigit till 26 846 000. + +I samband med Coronaviruspandemin utbrott vĂ„ren 2020 upphörde stora delar av flygtrafiken i vĂ€rlden. DĂ€rmed stĂ€ngdes terminal 2, 3 och 4 och Swedavia valde att koncentrera all passagerarflyg till terminal 5. Under juli och augusti 2021 reste 1,5 miljon resenĂ€rer frĂ„n Swedavias flygplatser, vilket motsvarade 40% med juli och augusti före pandemin. Den 26 oktober 2021 planerade Swedavia att öppna terminal 2 igen, dĂ„ ökningen av passagerare skett snabbare Ă€n förvĂ€ntat. Inledningsvis anvĂ€ndes terminalen av KLM, Air France, Transavia, Easyjet, CSA Czech Airlines och Vueling. Sommaren 2022 var kaotisk dĂ„ sĂ€kerhetsföretaget under pandemin avskedat mĂ„nga inom sĂ€kerhetskontrollen, och inte kunde Ă„teranstĂ€lla sĂ„ mĂ„nga, dĂ„ de uppsagda vanligen fĂ„tt andra anstĂ€llningar. NyanstĂ€llda mĂ„ste fĂ„ sĂ€kerhetsgodkĂ€nnande vilket tog tid, och sĂ€kerhetsföretaget ville inte heller anstĂ€lla sökande förrĂ€n de fĂ„tt sĂ€kerhetsgodkĂ€nnande vilket fick mĂ„nga sökande att ta andra arbeten. Kapacitetsbristen i sĂ€kerhetskontrollen gjorde att mĂ„nga resenĂ€rer kom i mycket god tid vilket skapade mycket lĂ„nga köer sĂ€rskilt pĂ„ morgnarna. En lösning blev att passagerare inte fick komma in pĂ„ flygplatsen om de inte hade biljett till en avgĂ„ng inom tre timmar. + +Skrinlagda planer och framtida utbyggnader + +En omfattande ombyggnad av Arlanda började planeras 1998 under namnet Projekt Arlanda 2002, utöver de genomförda Ă„tgĂ€rderna med att bygga bana 3, nytt torn och pir F, var tanken att ombyggnaden skulle innefatta att Terminal 3 revs och Ă„teruppstod som en helt ny terminal mellan dagens Terminal 2 och Terminal 4, vilka tillsammans skulle bilda Terminal Syd med pir A, pir B och pir C. Terminal 5 med dess tvĂ„ existerande pirer skulle ocksĂ„ byggas om och tillsammans med en nybyggd pir bilda Terminal Nord med pir D, pir E och pir F. BĂ„da terminalerna skulle ha avgĂ„ngshall pĂ„ övre plan och ankomsthall i nedre plan. Dessa utbyggnader sköts pĂ„ framtiden. Projektet var först planerat att fĂ€rdigstĂ€llas 2002 men senare besked frĂ„n Luftfartsverket hade först 2004 som tidpunkt för fĂ€rdigstĂ€llandet. Den 17 december 2003 invigde statsrĂ„det Ulrica Messing det "Nya Arlanda" och dĂ€rigenom verkar resterande utbyggnader ha instĂ€llts eller skjutits upp till en obestĂ€md framtid. + +Arlanda Ă€r under ombyggnad & tillbyggnad. Mycket av den nuvarande Terminal 5 pĂ„ Arlanda ska göras om, för att bli modernare och smidigare för passagerarna, men framförallt för att fĂ„ mer kapacitet och att kunna ta emot större flygplan, för att uppnĂ„ mer passagerare per Ă„r pĂ„ Arlanda. Till exempel ska Terminal 5 byggas om med ny bagagehall, ny sĂ€kerhetskontroll, och en ny pir, Pir G, som ska kunna ta emot stora flygplan. + +En direktgĂ„ng ska Ă€ven byggas mellan Terminal 4 och Terminal 5. I juni 2022 öppnade en passage med rullband mellan terminalerna innanför sĂ€kerhetskontrollen. + +Arlanda har till skillnad frĂ„n vissa flygplatser, exempelvis Bromma flygplats, inte drabbats av problem med att nĂ€rliggande tĂ€torter vĂ€xt sig allt för nĂ€ra flygplatsen, dĂ„ Arlanda genom sin status som riksintresse har ett beslutat influensomrĂ„de dĂ€r Arlanda har vetorĂ€tt för exempelvis bostadsbyggande. DĂ€remot har situationen mellan Arlanda och kringliggande tĂ€torter, frĂ€mst Sigtuna, Rosersberg och Upplands VĂ€sby lett till intressekonflikter dĂ„ Arlandas expansion skapat önskemĂ„l frĂ„n flygplatsen om att utvidga "influensomrĂ„det". Systemet med influensomrĂ„de har inneburit att man undvikit att bygga bostĂ€der rakt under bana 1 och 2:s flygleder. DĂ€remot har den mycket nyare bana 3, som efter flygets behov byggts parallellt med bana 1, skapat bullerproblem dĂ„ misslyckandet att anvĂ€nda den teknik som utlovades, gjort att Arlanda i efterhand vill Ă€ndra inflygningsreglerna sĂ„ man skall fĂ„ tillstĂ„nd att flyga över omrĂ„den som tidigare inte varit tillĂ„tna att flyga över. (Se avsnittet "Konflikten om bana 3".) + +Kommunikationer + +JĂ€rnvĂ€g +Arlandabanan Ă€r jĂ€rnvĂ€gen till Arlanda flygplats sedan 1999. Det finns tre stationer, tvĂ„ för Arlanda Express (se nedan) och en, Arlanda C, som ligger under servicekomplexet SkyCity för övriga tĂ„g. A-train AB som förvaltar Arlandabanan tar ut en passageavgift per passagerare vid Arlanda C som kan ingĂ„ i biljetten eller tas ut direkt av passageraren. För att sĂ€kerstĂ€lla att denna avgift faktiskt betalats infördes i december 2006 en spĂ€rr i SkyCity för Arlanda C dĂ€r biljetterna kontrolleras. AvgiftsintĂ€kterna anvĂ€nds för att betala lĂ„nen som togs för att bygga Arlandabanan. + +Arlanda Express Ă€r ett snabbtĂ„g Ă€r det snabbaste sĂ€ttet att ta sig mellan Arlanda och Stockholm central. Restiden till Stockholm central Ă€r cirka 20 minuter. Arlanda Express har tvĂ„ stationer, Arlanda S under Terminal 2, 3 och 4, och Arlanda N under Terminal 5. +SJ:s snabbtĂ„g, intercity, regional och nattĂ„g stannar vid Arlanda C och det gĂ„r att resa till bland annat Stockholm C, Norrköping C, Linköping C, GĂ€vle C, Uppsala C, Sundsvall C, BorlĂ€nge C, Falun C, Mora, UmeĂ„ C, Ăstersund C och Ă re utan att byta tĂ„g. Restiden till Stockholm central Ă€r cirka 20 minuter. +SL:s pendeltĂ„g trafikerar sedan 2012 Arlanda C i halvtimmestrafik. Nuvarande (2023) linje gĂ„r Uppsala C â Arlanda C â Stockholm City â SödertĂ€lje centrum. Restiden till Stockholm City Ă€r 37 minuter och till Uppsala 18 minuter. + +Busstrafik +Det finns direktbussar via Arlandaleden och E4 mellan Arlanda och Stockholm City med Vy Flygbussarna. SL och UL kör lokal linjetrafik. + +Vy Flygbussarna kör mellan Arlanda och Stockholm Cityterminalen. Restiden Ă€r ca 40 minuter till Cityterminalen för det snabbaste alternativet utan stopp pĂ„ vĂ€gen. +Flygbussarna kör Ă€ven tvĂ„ linjer mellan Arlanda och Liljeholmen respektive Brommaplan. +Storstockholms Lokaltrafiks linjer: + Linje 583 - MĂ€rsta stn - Arlanda, direktbuss frĂ„n MĂ€rsta station till terminalerna, stannar enbart vid Tomta. + Linje 589 - Ăstra Steninge (MĂ€rsta) - Arlanda, via Valsta centrum, stannar vid alla terminaler och ett antal ytterligare hĂ„llplatser dĂ€rtill. + Linje 586 - NederĂ€ng - Ekillaskolan (MĂ€rsta), via Skepptuna, Lunda, Arlanda, MĂ€rsta stn, stannar vid ett antal hĂ„llplatser vid flygplatsomrĂ„det, stannar inte vid terminalerna. + Linje 579 - BĂ„lsta stn - Arlanda, via Sigtuna och MĂ€rsta station, stannar vid alla hĂ„llplatser före och efter terminalerna samt vid terminalerna. + Linje 593 (nattbus) - Stockholm (Cityterminalen) - Uppsala centralstation, via Arlanda och Knivsta stn, stannar vid alla terminaler och ett antal ytterligare hĂ„llplatser dĂ€rtill. + Linje 592 (nattbuss) - Stockholm (Cityterminalen) - Arlanda, via MĂ€rsta stn, Upplands VĂ€sby, Rotebro stn och Norrviken stn, stannar vid alla terminaler och ett antal ytterligare hĂ„llplatser dĂ€rtill. +Upplands Lokaltrafiks linjer: + Linje 806 - Knutby - Arlanda, via Almunge och LĂ„nghundra, stannar vid alla terminaler och ett antal ytterligare hĂ„llplatser dĂ€rtill. + Linje 801 - Uppsala C - Arlanda, via Knivsta (Ar-terminalen), stannar vid alla terminaler och ett antal ytterligare hĂ„llplatser dĂ€rtill. + Linje 880 - Uppsala C - Arlanda, via Knivsta (Ar-terminalen), stannar endast vid hĂ„llplatserna Flygskolan, DriftvĂ€gen, SAS-hangaren och Halmsjön, stannar ej vid terminalerna. +Flixbus (f.d. Swebus Express, sedermera Swebus) trafikerar Arlanda. +Nettbuss trafikerar strĂ€ckan Oslo - Arlanda, via Ă rjĂ€ng, Karlstad, Kristinehamn, Karlskoga, Ărebro, Arboga och VĂ€sterĂ„s. + +Bil - Taxi +Flygplatsen har direktanslutning till motorvĂ€gen Arlandaleden som i sin tur ansluter till E4 mot Stockholm och Uppsala/Sundsvall. VĂ€gavstĂ„nd till Stockholm Ă€r 41 km och till Uppsala 32 km. + +Om slutdestinationen inte ligger i direkt nĂ€rhet av Stockholms centralstation (eller ligger söder om MĂ€laren) Ă€r det snabbaste alternativet till slutdestinationen ofta taxi hela vĂ€gen som har fasta priser till Stockholms centrala delar. Man kan med fördel resa med tĂ„g och taxi i kombination, sĂ€rskilt fördelaktigt för mĂ„lpunkter söder om Stockholms innerstad, dĂ„ det Ă€r ofta Ă€r köer pĂ„ E4. + +Arlanda har ett sĂ€rskilt miljötaxi-system som innebĂ€r att ju bĂ€ttre miljöprestanda desto kortare vĂ€ntetid fĂ„r bilen för att hĂ€mta upp nya passagerare. Sedan 2012 uppfyller alla taxi-bilar som minimum miljöbilsdefinitionen. + +Cykel +Det finns cykelbana frĂ„n MĂ€rsta (strax söder om stationen), varifrĂ„n det Ă€r cirka 6 km till terminalerna. + +Myndigheter och sĂ€kerhet +Arlanda Ă€r ett skyddsobjekt och riksgrĂ€ns och följer internationella flygsĂ€kerhetregler. DĂ€rför arbetar dessa enheter dygnet runt pĂ„ flygplatsen: + +Polisen +GrĂ€nspolisen pĂ„ Arlanda har bland annat i uppgift att sköta passkontrollen pĂ„ terminalerna 2 och 5 för flyg utanför Schengensamarbetet, passkundtjĂ€nst och allmĂ€nt polisarbete. Bombrobot finns placerad av sĂ€kerhetsskĂ€l. Det Ă€r GrĂ€nspolisen som undersöker farligt bagage efter en bedömning av skyddsvakt. Polisstationen som hjĂ€lper till med anmĂ€lan och provisoriskt pass ligger pĂ„ TullvĂ€gen 7 A. + +Tullen +Tullverket pĂ„ Arlanda har i uppgift att ta hand om tullavgifter och stoppa illegalt varuinflöde till Sverige. GrĂ€nsskyddsgrupper genomför tullkontroll pĂ„ resenĂ€rer och frakt. Klareringsexpedition finns pĂ„ ankomsthall i Terminal 2 (beroende pĂ„ flyg), 5 och Ă€ven i TullgrĂ€nd. + +SĂ€kerhetskontroll +SĂ€kerhetskontrollen sköts sedan februari 2017 av Avarn Security och skyddsvaktsbevakning sköts sedan 2007 av Securitas. RĂ€ddningstjĂ€nsten bemannas av personal frĂ„n Securitas medan vakthavande sĂ€kerhetschef Duty officer Ă€r Swedavias ansvar. + +Terminaler + +För nĂ€rvarande bestĂ„r Arlanda av fyra terminaler: + Terminal 2 för utrikestrafik med i första hand reguljĂ€ra flygbolag som ingĂ„r flygbolagsallianserna Oneworld och SkyTeam, samt flygbolag som har ett mindre passagerarunderlag frĂ„n Stockholm. + Terminal 3 Ă€r stĂ€ngd, men Ă€r byggd för inrikes trafik med mindre plan. + Terminal 4 för inrikes och utrikestrafik, sĂ€rskilt flygbolag inom European Low Fares Airline Association. Ingen passkontroll. + Terminal 5 för inrikes och utrikestrafik, flygplatsens största terminal, med tre separata pirar. De tre pirarna pĂ„ Terminal 5 heter frĂ„n söder till norr pir D (Tidigare B), pir E (Tidigare A) och pir F. + +Mellan terminalerna Ă€r det gĂ„ngavstĂ„nd, om Ă€n ganska lĂ„ngt mellan Terminal 2 och 5 (cirka 700 m, och 1100 m till pir F). Hela strĂ€ckan Ă€r dock inomhus. Det finns dessutom transferbussar mellan terminalerna samt lĂ„ngtidsparkering. Arlanda Express tar ocksĂ„ passagerare som vill förflytta sig mellan terminal 2 och 5 med pĂ„ sina tĂ„g kostnadsfritt. + +Det finns ingen Terminal 1. Det finns olika uppgifter om varför det blivit sĂ„. En anledning kan vara de Ă€ldre namnen pĂ„ terminalerna. Terminal 5 som var den första terminalen som byggdes, kallades Arlanda Utrikes dĂ„ allt inrikesflyg gick frĂ„n Bromma. NĂ€r SAS och LIN 1983 flyttade sin inrikestrafik frĂ„n Bromma till nuvarande Terminal 4, kallades den enbart för Arlanda Inrikes. NĂ€r sedan flygplatsen byggdes ut med ytterligare en inrikesterminal 1990 fick den namnet Arlanda Inrikes 2 (nuvarande Terminal 2). Samtidigt byggdes ocksĂ„ nuvarande terminal 3, som fick namnet Arlanda Inrikes 3. NĂ€r sedan Terminal 2 blev utrikesterminal för att SAS inte ville anvĂ€nda dem, fick man byta namn pĂ„ terminalerna till en gemensam nummerserie, och Inrikes 2 och 3 fick behĂ„lla sina siffror, och resten av terminalerna fick ordna in sig i ledet. + +I samband med pandemin 2020-2021 Ă€ndrades terminalernas anvĂ€ndning, och terminal 4 och 5 har bĂ„de inrikes och utrikestrafik. Ibland Ă€r det incheckning i den ena av dessa och avgĂ„ng frĂ„n den andra (i bĂ„da riktningar), sĂ„ att passagerare fĂ„r gĂ„ i en underjordisk gĂ„ng som byggdes 2021 mellan dem. Innan 2021 var terminalerna strikt inrikes eller utrikes och passagerare fick gĂ„ genom sĂ€kerhetskontroll för att byta terminal. + +Sky City + +Mitt i Arlandas terminalbyggnad finns Sky City som förbinder Terminal 4 och utrikes Terminal 5. Byggnaden hyser förutom hotellen Radisson Blu SkyCity Hotel, Clarion Hotel Arlanda Airport och Rest and fly, Ă€ven en del butiker och restauranger och Ă€ven valutavĂ€xling. I Sky City finns fönster av vĂ€l tilltagna proportioner, varigenom man bland annat kan beskĂ„da flygplanstrafiken vid terminalerna fyra och fem. Sky City ritades av van Mierop & Belaieff Arkitektkontor och invigdes 1993. + +Flygledartornet + +Bygget av det nya kontrolltornet, Arlandatornet, började juli 1999 och blev klart maj 2001 till en byggkostnad av 24 miljoner kronor. Driftstarten för tornet blev den 23 december 2001. Tornet Ă€r 83 meter högt (90 meter inklusive masten) men det strĂ€cker sig ocksĂ„ 11 meter ner under markytan. Vid klart vĂ€der Ă€r det möjligt att se bĂ„de Globen i Stockholm och Uppsala domkyrka frĂ„n tornet. + +Flygledarna arbetar högst upp i tornet, i en driftcentral pĂ„ 90 kvadratmeter. PĂ„ vĂ„ningen under finns rampkontrollen, de som fördelar flygplanen pĂ„ terminaler och olika gater. Under slutet av 2016 har rampkontrollen flyttat ner och den nya positionen Ă€r vĂ„ning tvĂ„ i samma byggnad. + +Start- och landningsbanor + +Arlanda har tre start- och landningsbanor. + Bana 1 (01L,19R), Ă€r Arlandas huvudbana som har varit med sedan starten. UngefĂ€r 50% av starterna sker pĂ„ denna bana som Ă€r 3 301 m lĂ„ng. + Bana 2 (26,08), har ocksĂ„ varit med sedan starten. UngefĂ€r 35% av landningarna sker pĂ„ denna bana. + Bana 3 (01R,19L), öppnades 2003. AnvĂ€nds vid landningar vid högtrafik men Ă€ven vid starter under hela dagen. UngefĂ€r 15% av landningarna sker pĂ„ denna bana. + +Bansystemet 01L/19R och 01R/19L (bana 1 och bana 3) Ă€r ett exempel pĂ„ parallellbanesystem, dĂ€r under högtrafik den lĂ€ngre 01L/19R anvĂ€nds för starter och 01R/19L för landningar. Eftersom en avbruten landnings flygvĂ€g inte korsar startade flygplans kan starter och landningar ske oberoende vilket tillĂ„ter större antal per timme. + +Under lĂ„gtrafik anvĂ€nds 08/26 tillsammans med en av de andra i huvudsak sĂ„ att starter sker i riktning frĂ„n terminalerna och landingar mot terminalerna för att minska körstrĂ€ckan pĂ„ marken. Vindriktningen avgör vilken som anvĂ€nds för starter och vilken för landningar, med undantag för nĂ€r ett startande flygplan behöver anvĂ€nda den lĂ€ngre 01L/19R eller dĂ„lig sikt gör att instrumentlandningssystemen pĂ„ bana 1 och 3 behövs. + +Arlanda Ă€r ibland utsatt för kraftiga snöfall under den tidiga vintern dĂ„ kall luft kan ta upp fukt frĂ„n Ăstersjön innan den blivit isbelagd. Det Ă€r dĂ„ en fördel att det Ă€r tre banor, eftersom banor mĂ„ste stĂ€ngas dĂ„ de plogas. + +Destinationer och flygbolag + +Passagerare + +Frakt +2006 transporterades totalt 184 000 ton gods och post via Arlanda. Fraktflygen har ökat pĂ„ senare tid, +7 % 2005â2006. Andelen post har minskat med 4,1 % till 26 000 ton medan övrigt gods har ökat med 9 % till totalt 158 000 ton (alla siffror avser jĂ€mförelse 2005/2006). + +Korean Air och Turkish Airlines trafikerar idag Arlanda med fraktflyg. Andra operatörer Ă€r FedEx, UPS och DHL med flera. + +Statistik + +De vanligaste destinationerna mĂ€tt i passagerarantal 2018 + +KĂ€lla: Swedavia - destinationsstatistik + +Arlanda pĂ„ film och TV +Urval av filmer som delvis utspelar sig pĂ„ flygplatsen: + + SĂ€llskapsresan (1980) + Varning för Jönssonligan (1981) + GrĂ€sĂ€nklingar (1982) + Jönssonligan fĂ„r guldfeber (1984) + Artisten (1987) + Hundtricket (2002) + Cockpit (2012) + +TV frĂ„n flygplatsen: + Stockholm - Arlanda (2009), TV3 + +Konst pĂ„ Arlanda + +Stockholm-Arlanda flygplats utgör en del av Sweden Solar System, dĂ„ en modell av Jupiter finns sedan 2019 uppsatt i entrĂ©n till Clarion Hotel Arlanda. Planeten representerades tidigare av en blomsterplantering utanför Sky City gjord 1998, men togs bort för att göra plats för bygget av Clarion Hotel. + +Se Ă€ven + Arlandatornet + Stockholm-Bromma flygplats + Stockholm-Skavsta flygplats + VĂ€sterĂ„s flygplats + Lista över flygplatser i Sverige + Lista över Nordens största flygplatser + Stockholm-Arlanda (TV-program) + Jumbo Hostel + +Referenser + +Noter + +KĂ€llor + + Nationalencyklopedin (2007) + fil dr Harald Schiller, HĂ€ndelser man minns â en krönika 1920â1969, (1970) + Luftfartsverket, Arlanda Facts 2006 + Luftfartsverket, historik + Luftfartsverket, Arlandatornet fĂ„r europeisk utmĂ€rkelse + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Bandstein, StenĂ©rus & Espinoza, En samhĂ€llsanalys av Stockholm-Arlanda Airport. Flygplatsens inverkan pĂ„ Stockholmsregionen och Sverige (FOI), november 2009. + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Stockholm-Arlanda Airport Officiell webbplats + arlanda.net Webbplats för flygplatsens anstĂ€llda + +Flygplatser i Stockholms lĂ€n +Byggnader och anlĂ€ggningar i Sigtuna kommun +Flygplatser invigda 1959 +Nedlagda flygbaser i Sverige +Den hĂ€r artikeln handlar om guden Ares. För andra betydelser, se Ares (olika betydelser). + +Ares (grek. ÎÏηÏ) var krigets, ursinnets och det besinningslösa vĂ„ldets gud i grekisk mytologi. Han var son till Zeus och Hera. Han identifieras med den förgrekiske krigsguden Enyalios. Ares deltog ofta i stora krig. Han avbildas ofta med ett spjut och en brinnande fackla. Gamen var hans kĂ€nnetecken. Ares motsvaras i den romerska mytologin av guden Mars och var dĂ€r en betydligt viktigare gestalt Ă€n Ares var bland de grekiska gudarna. + +Beskrivning +Ares var vacker men brutal och uteslöts dĂ€rför ofta frĂ„n de andra gudarnas krets. Han var ökĂ€nd för sin blodtörst, och det föreföll som om han stred för stridens egen skull, och struntade i vilken sida han kĂ€mpade pĂ„. Hans syster Athena, som representerar de listiga, skickliga och strategiska i krigen, gillade inte att Ares var sĂ„ blodtörstig och stridslysten sĂ„ de hamnade ibland i krig mot varandra. Ett av de krigen var det trojanska kriget mellan akajerna, ledda av Agamemnon som var konung i Mykene och trojanerna dĂ€r Troja (understödda av Ares) förlorade. + +Barn och Ă€lskarinnor +Myterna om Ares Ă€r fĂ„. Vid sidan om berĂ€ttelser om strider figurerar han oftast i olika kĂ€rleksaffĂ€rer. Han hade mĂ„nga Ă€lskarinnor och mĂ„nga barn men, sĂ„vitt kĂ€nt, ingen hustru. NĂ„gra av hans Ă€lskarinnor var Afrodite, Aglauros, Eos, Pelopia, Harpina och Tirine. + +Ares barn +(moderns namn stĂ„r kursivt) +Afrodite: Anteros, Deimos, Eros, Harmonia och Phobos. +Aglauros: Alkippe. +Astyokhe: Askalaphos. +Atalanta: Parthenopeus. +Khryse: Phlegyas. +Erytheia: Eurytion. +Kyrene: Diomedes. +Otrera: Hippolyte, Penthesilea, Antiope och Melanippe. +Sterope el. Harpina: Oenomaus. +Tereine: Thrassa. + +Ares hade dessutom ett antal barn som var utan eller hade okĂ€nda mödrar. NĂ„gra av dessa barn hette: Bisto, Kyknos, Enyo och Tereus. + +Ares och Afrodites kĂ€rleksaffĂ€r +De mest kĂ€nda myterna om Ares handlar om hans kĂ€rleksförbindelser med kĂ€rleksgudinnan Afrodite nĂ„got som bland annat Homeros Ă„terger i Iliaden. + +Afrodite var redan gift med smideskonstens gud, Hefaistos men det var inget som det Ă€lskande paret bekymrade sig om. Hefaistos var vĂ€l medveten om sin hustrus otrohet och han beslutade sig för att avslöja dem inför de andra gudarna. Han smidde ett vackert nĂ€t som var lika tunt och lĂ€tt som spindelvĂ€v men lika starkt som diamanttrĂ„dar. NĂ€r paret lĂ„g i bĂ€dden ovetande om att Hefaistos nĂ€rmade sig, blev de fĂ„ngade av nĂ€tet som han kastade över dem. Triumferande över att ha lyckats ertappa dem pĂ„ bar gĂ€rning kallade Hefaistos till sig de andra gudarna för att de skulle bevittna brottet. Men istĂ€llet för att fördöma det generade paret skrattade de bara Ă„t honom. Hermes och Apollon retades ocksĂ„ med honom att det vore vĂ€rt skammen att bli ertappad om man fick Ă€lska med Afrodite. Ares slĂ€pptes först nĂ€r han lovade att betala skadestĂ„nd till Hefaistos. + +SlĂ€ktskap + +Referenser + +Gudar i grekisk mytologi +Krigsgudar +Artemis var enligt grekisk mytologi jaktens och kyskhetens gudinna samt beskyddare av kvinnor. + +Beskrivning + +Bakgrund +Artemis var jaktens gudinna. Hon var Ă€ven modern till allt levande, mĂ€nniskor och djur. Hon avbildades som en höggravid kvinna men hon var inte bara moder, hon var ocksĂ„ hĂ€mndlysten och blodtörstig. I den grekiska mytologin Ă€r Artemis Apollons tvillingsyster. + +Artemis slĂ„r hĂ„rt vakt om sin kyskhet, och en av sagorna om henne Ă€r nĂ€r Orion försöker vĂ„ldta henne. DĂ„ frammanar hon skorpioner som sticker ihjĂ€l Orion och hans hund. Orion far dĂ„ upp till himmelen tillsammans med sin hund och blir en stjĂ€rnbild. Hunden blir hundstjĂ€rnan, Sirius. + +Betydelse +Artemis hjĂ€lpte de gravida genom att omvandla sig sjĂ€lv till en sĂ€ker livmoder. PĂ„ sĂ„ sĂ€tt kunde fler kvinnor behĂ„lla sina barn. Artemis hade dock ett fruktansvĂ€rt temperament, och om en gravid kvinna grĂ€t under graviditeten avvisade hon barnet och Ă„t upp det. + +Hon ansĂ„gs ocksĂ„ som en mĂ„ngudinna eftersom hon jagade under mĂ„nen. + +Etymologi +Förr, antogs det ofta att bĂ„de namnet och gudinnan hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n Anatolien, sĂ€rskilt Lydien (artimus) eller Lykien (ertemi), men nuförtiden behandlas denna uppfattning med större försiktighet. Ăven fornpersiskans arta "store, helig" har föreslagits (omtvistat), vilket blev mindre troligt nĂ€r namnet pĂ„trĂ€ffades pĂ„ Linear B-lertavlor frĂ„n Pylos. Idag, anses namnet hĂ€rstamma frĂ„n ett förgrekiskt substrat. + +Motsvarighet +Den romerska motsvarigheten heter Diana. + +SlĂ€ktskap + +Se Ă€ven + Mytologi: jakten + Artemistemplet i Efesos + Operation Artemis + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +MĂ„ngudar +Gudinnor i grekisk mytologi +Jaktgudar +1 april Ă€r den 91:a dagen pĂ„ Ă„ret i den gregorianska kalendern (92:a under skottĂ„r). Det Ă„terstĂ„r 274 dagar av Ă„ret. + +Ă terkommande bemĂ€rkelsedagar + +Helgdagar + PĂ„skdagen firas i vĂ€sterlĂ€ndsk kristendom för att högtidlighĂ„lla Jesu Ă„teruppstĂ„ndelse efter korsfĂ€stelsen, Ă„ren 1804, 1866, 1877, 1888, 1923, 1934, 1945, 1956, 2018, 2029, 2040. + +Nationaldagar + Iran (till minne av utropandet av Iran som islamisk republik 1979) + UĆŸupis (till minne av utropandet av UĆŸupis som republik 1997) + +Ăvriga + Dagen för aprilskĂ€mt + +Namnsdagar + +I den svenska almanackan + Nuvarande â Harald och Hervor + FöregĂ„ende i bokstavsordning + Hadar â Namnet infördes pĂ„ dagens datum 1986 men flyttades 1993 till 10 oktober och utgick 2001. + Halvar â Namnet infördes 1986 pĂ„ 14 maj. 1993 flyttades det till dagens datum men 2001 flyttades det tillbaka till 14 maj. + Harald â Namnet fanns tidigare pĂ„ 20 oktober men flyttades 1747 till dagens datum, dĂ„ det ersatte Hugo, och har funnits dĂ€r sedan dess. + Hardy â Namnet infördes pĂ„ dagens datum 1986 men utgick 1993. + Hervor â Namnet infördes 1986 pĂ„ 16 mars. 1993 flyttades det till 16 januari och 2001 till dagens datum. + Hugo â Namnet fanns, till minne av en fransk abbot frĂ„n 1100-talet, pĂ„ dagens datum före 1747, dĂ„ det utgick till förmĂ„n för Harald. 1901 Ă„terinfördes det pĂ„ 11 januari och flyttades 2001 till 3 november. + FöregĂ„ende i kronologisk ordning + Före 1747 â Hugo + 1747â1900 â Harald + 1901â1985 â Harald + 1986â1992 â Harald, Hadar och Hardy + 1993â2000 â Harald och Halvar + FrĂ„n 2001 â Harald och Hervor + KĂ€llor + Brylla, Eva (red.): NamnlĂ€ngdsboken, Norstedts ordbok, Stockholm, 2000. + af Klintberg, Bengt: Namnen i almanackan, Norstedts ordbok, Stockholm, 2001. + +I den finlandssvenska almanackan + + Nuvarande (revidering 2020) â Harald + + I föregĂ„ende i revideringar +1929 â Harald +1950 â Harald +1964 â Harald +1973 â Harald +1989 â Harald +1995 â Harald +2000 â Harald +2005 â Harald +2010 â Harald +2015 â Harald +2020 â Harald + +HĂ€ndelser + 1577 â Den svenska kungen Erik XIV begravs i VĂ€sterĂ„s domkyrka. + 1605 â Sedan Clemens VIII har avlidit den 5 mars vĂ€ljs Alessandro Ottaviano de' Medici till pĂ„ve och tar namnet Leo XI. Han avlider dock sjĂ€lv redan den 27 april. + 1643 â Den dalslĂ€ndska orten Ă mordh fĂ„r stadsprivilegium av drottning Kristinas förmyndarregering och blir under namnet Ă mĂ„l landskapets enda stad (numera finns ett antal kommuner i Dalsland, men Ă mĂ„l Ă€r den enda ort i landskapet, som tilldelas stadsprivilegier innan utdelandet av dessa upphör i och med 1952 Ă„rs kommunreform). Ă mĂ„ls upphöjelse till stad Ă€r ett försök av myndigheterna att fĂ„ bĂ€ttre kontroll över och i viss mĂ„n helt stoppa grĂ€nshandeln med Norge. Dock lyckas man inte hindra den smuggling som tar vid, nĂ€r den officiella handeln stoppas. + 1807 â Under det pĂ„gĂ„ende kriget mellan Sverige och Frankrike har fransmĂ€nnen ockuperat större delen av Svenska Pommern och sedan 30 januari belĂ€grar de centralorten Stralsund. Denna dag genomför svenskarna ett framgĂ„ngsrikt utfall, som bryter belĂ€gringen, varpĂ„ de snart kan Ă„terta öarna Usedom och Wolin. Redan tvĂ„ veckor senare blir svenskarna dock besegrade av fransmĂ€nnen i slaget vid UeckermĂŒnde och tvingas till sommaren helt lĂ€mna Svenska Pommern i franska hĂ€nder och retirera över till SkĂ„ne. + 1826 â Den amerikanske uppfinnaren Samuel Morey tar patent pĂ„ en tidig förbrĂ€nningsmotor. Det dröjer dock ytterligare 60 Ă„r, innan bensindrivna motorer börjar fĂ„ nĂ„gon praktisk anvĂ€ndning, nĂ€r de första bilarna konstrueras. + 1867 â Den sydostasiatiska ön Singapore, som har varit en brittisk handelsstation sedan 1819 och som sedan 1824 helt har varit i brittiska hĂ€nder, blir kronkoloni inom det brittiska imperiet. Kolonin förblir brittisk till 1963 (med undantag för 1942â1945, dĂ„ den ockuperas av Japan), dĂ„ den övertas av Malaysia, för att 1965 bli en sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig republik. + 1876 â De tyska entreprenörerna Benno Orenstein och Arthur Koppel grundar företaget Orenstein & Koppel, som tillverkar maskiner och lok. Företaget finns Ă€n idag (), men har sedan 1981 slutat tillverka lok och Ă€r nu inriktade pĂ„ anlĂ€ggningsmaskiner, sĂ„som grĂ€vmaskiner, bulldozrar och vĂ€gvĂ€ltar. + 1905 â I Tyskland införs en lag, genom vilken bokstavskombinationen SOS införs som allmĂ€n nödsignal vid telegrafering med morsealfabetet. Ă ret dĂ€rpĂ„ antas den som internationell konvention, vilket trĂ€der i kraft 1908. Den tidigare nödsignalen CQD, som har föreslagits av Marconi Company 1904, men aldrig officiellt antagits som internationell standard, försvinner dĂ€rmed snart (exempelvis skickas vid RMS Titanics förlisning 1912 bĂ„de CQD och SOS, men det Ă€r en myt att det skulle ha varit första gĂ„ngen SOS anvĂ€ndes â dĂ€remot var det troligtvis sista gĂ„ngen CQD anvĂ€ndes). + 1918 â Den brittiska armĂ©ns och flottans flygvapenkĂ„rer, som bĂ„da har bildats 1912, slĂ„s samman och bildar Royal Air Force, som blir grunden till det brittiska flygvapnet. + 1924 â Den tyske nazistledaren Adolf Hitler döms till fem Ă„rs fĂ€ngelse för sin delaktighet i den misslyckade statskuppen i MĂŒnchen i november Ă„ret före. Han blir frigiven efter endast nio mĂ„nader, men under fĂ€ngelsetiden skriver han första delen av sitt politiska manifest Mein Kampf. + 1941 â Första försökflygplanet fĂ€rdigstĂ€llt av Messerschmitt Me 262. + 1953 â Sveriges första manliga sjuksköterska, Allan HĂ€rsing, utexamineras i Stockholm. + 1976 â De amerikanska datorentreprenörerna Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak och Ronald Wayne grundar företaget Apple Computer, som blir bland de första i vĂ€rlden att tillverka persondatorer. Det Ă€r idag () ett av de ledande företagen inom datorutveckling och vĂ€rldens dyraste och högst vĂ€rderade företag. + 1979 â Sedan den persiske shahen Mohammad Reza Pahlavi under den iranska revolutionen har gĂ„tt i landsflykt i mitten av januari kan revolutionsledaren Ruhollah Khomeini denna dag utropa Iran till islamsk republik, med sig sjĂ€lv som högste ledare. + 1997 â Kometen HaleâBopp syns passera som nĂ€rmast solen i sin omloppsbana. + 2009 â Den starkt kritiserade svenska lagen CivilrĂ€ttsliga sanktioner pĂ„ immaterialrĂ€ttens omrĂ„de (i folkmun kallad Ipred-lagen, efter EU-direktivet IPRED, som den bygger pĂ„) trĂ€der i kraft efter att ha röstats igenom i riksdagen den 25 februari. Den ger den som innehar upphovsrĂ€tten till ett visst verk rĂ€tt att göra egna efterforskningar i vem som olovligt har kopierat verket, om sĂ„dan sĂ„ kallad piratkopiering har intrĂ€ffat. + +Födda + 1220 â Go-Saga, kejsare av Japan 1242â1246 + 1578 â William Harvey, engelsk vetenskapsman + 1743 â William Hindman, amerikansk politiker, senator för Maryland 1800â1801 + 1776 â Sophie Germain, fransk matematiker och filosof + 1789 â John Hopkins Clarke, amerikansk whigpolitiker, senator för Rhode Island 1847â1853 + 1815 + Henry B. Anthony, amerikansk politiker, guvernör i Rhode Island 1849â1851, senator för samma delstat frĂ„n 1859 + Otto von Bismarck, preussisk-tysk politiker, kĂ€nd som "JĂ€rnkanslern", Tysklands rikskansler 1871â1890 + Edward Clark, amerikansk militĂ€r och politiker, viceguvernör i Texas 1859â1861 och guvernör i samma delstat 1861 + 1818 â Omar D. Conger, amerikansk republikansk politiker, senator för Michigan 1881â1887 + 1841 + Knut Michaelson, svensk författare och teaterchef + Ahmed Orabi, egyptisk general och politiker + 1860 + Carl Ericsson, svensk jurist och liberal politiker + Herman Brag, svensk operasĂ„ngare + 1863 â Harald Jacobson, svensk poet + 1865 â Richard Zsigmondy, österrikisk kemist, mottagare av Nobelpriset i kemi 1925 + 1868 â Edmond Rostand, fransk författare och poet + 1873 + Bibb Graves, amerikansk politiker, guvernör i Alabama 1927â1931 och 1935â1939 + Sergej Rachmaninov, rysk pianist och kompositör + 1879 â Lionel Braham, brittisk skĂ„despelare + 1883 â Lon Chaney, amerikansk skĂ„despelare + 1884 â George A. Wilson, amerikansk republikansk politiker, guvernör i Iowa 1939â1943, senator för samma delstat 1943-1949 + 1885 + Wallace Beery, amerikansk skĂ„despelare + Gunhild Robertson, svensk skĂ„despelare + 1895 â Gustaf Edgren, svensk regissör, manusförfattare och producent + 1898 â William James Sidis, amerikanskt underbarn med en uppskattad IQ pĂ„ mellan 250 och 300 (den högsta uppmĂ€tta nĂ„gonsin) + 1900 â Folke Algotsson, svensk tecknare och skĂ„despelare + 1904 â Holger Löwenadler, svensk skĂ„despelare + 1908 â Richard Barstow, amerikansk filmregissör och koreograf + 1910 â Erik Jansson, svensk ombudsman och socialdemokratisk politiker + 1912 â Sven-Otto Lindqvist, svensk skĂ„despelare + 1914 â Ragnar Edenman, svensk socialdemokratisk politiker, Sveriges ecklesiastikminister 1957â1967, landshövding i Uppsala lĂ€n 1967â1980 + 1919 â Joseph E. Murray, amerikansk kirurg, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin 1990 + 1920 + Liane Linden, svensk skĂ„despelare + Toshiro Mifune, japansk skĂ„despelare + Susanna Ramel, svensk skĂ„despelare och sĂ„ngare + 1923 â Ingrid Ăstergren, svensk skĂ„despelare + 1924 â Birgitta Pramm-Johansson, svensk fotograf och tv-producent + 1927 â Jacques Mayol, fransk fridykare + 1929 + Milan Kundera, tjeckisk författare + Jane Powell, amerikansk skĂ„despelare + 1932 â Debbie Reynolds, amerikansk skĂ„despelare och sĂ„ngare + 1933 + Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, fransk fysiker, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysik 1997 + Dan Flavin, amerikansk konstnĂ€r och skulptör + 1937 â Ewonne Winblad, svensk journalist, tv-reporter och tv-chef + 1938 â Ali MacGraw, amerikansk skĂ„despelare + 1940 â Wangari Maathai, kenyansk miljöaktivist, Kenyas vice miljöminister 2003â2005, mottagare av Nobels fredspris 2004 + 1942 â Samuel R. Delany, amerikansk författare och litteraturkritiker + 1943 + Mario Botta, schweizisk arkitekt + Herman Lindqvist, svensk journalist och författare + Anne Otto, svensk filmproducent och produktionsledare + 1945 â Totta NĂ€slund, svensk musiker + 1951 â Johanna Wanka, tysk matematiker och kristdemokratisk politiker, Tysklands utbildningsminister 2013â2018 + 1954 â Mats Ronander, svensk musiker + 1961 â Anders Forsbrand, svensk golfspelare + 1962 â Trond Korsmoe, svensk musiker, medlem i gruppen Larz-Kristerz + 1965 + Tomas Alfredson, svensk regissör + Tiggy Legge-Bourke, brittisk barnflicka, anstĂ€lld vid brittiska hovet 1993â1999 + 1968 + Lasse Karlsson, svensk stĂ„uppkomiker + MĂ„rten Klingberg, svensk skĂ„despelare, manusförfattare och regissör + Alexander Stubb, finlĂ€ndsk samlingspartistisk politiker, statsminister 2014â2015 + 1971 â Clifford Smith, amerikansk hiphopartist och skĂ„despelare med artistnamnet Method Man + 1973 + Martin AxĂ©n, svensk musiker, gitarrist i gruppen The Ark + Anna Carin Olofsson, svensk lĂ€ngdskidĂ„kare, skidskytt och sjukgymnast, OS-guldvinnare 2006 + 1980 â Bijou Phillips, amerikansk skĂ„despelare + 1981 +Hannah Spearritt, brittisk skĂ„despelare och sĂ„ngare +Alx Danielsson, svensk racerförare och instruktör + 1982 + Sam Huntington, amerikansk skĂ„despelare + Andreas Thorkildsen, norsk friidrottare, OS-guldvinnare 2004 och 2008 + Gunnar Heidar Thorvaldsson, islĂ€ndsk fotbollsspelare + Zhang Xiaoping, kinesisk amatörboxare + 1983 +Sergej Lazarev, rysk sĂ„ngare, dansare och skĂ„despelare +Sean Taylor, amerikansk utövare av amerikansk fotboll + 1989 â Melih Umdu, svensk/turkisk entreprenör, nattklubbschef + 1990 â Samuel Haus, svensk skĂ„despelare + 1993 â Adrian Kolgjini, svensk travkusk och travtrĂ€nare + +Avlidna + 996 â Johannes XV, pĂ„ve sedan 985 + 1204 â Eleonora av Akvitanien, 80 eller 82, Frankrikes drottning 1137â1152 (gift med Ludvig VII) och Englands drottning 1154â1189 (gift med Henrik II) (född 1122 eller 1124) + 1221 â Berengaria av Portugal, 26, Danmarks drottning sedan 1214 (gift med Valdemar Sejr) (död denna dag eller 27 mars) (född 1194) + 1412 â Albrekt av Mecklenburg, omkring 72 eller 74, kung av Sverige 1364â1389 och hertig av Mecklenburg sedan 1379 (död denna eller föregĂ„ende dag) (född 1338 eller 1340) + 1835 â Bartolomeo Pinelli, 53, italiensk illustratör och gravör (född 1781) + 1843 â Adolph Ribbing, 78, svensk greve, inblandad i komplotten mot och mordet pĂ„ Gustav III (född 1765) + 1863 â Jakob Steiner, 67, schweizisk matematiker (född 1796) + 1865 + John Milton, 57, amerikansk politiker, guvernör i Florida sedan 1861 (sjĂ€lvmord) (född 1807) + Giuditta Pasta, 67, italiensk operasĂ„ngare (född 1797) + 1884 â Edvard Carleson, 63, svensk riksdagsman 1850â1865 och 1873â1884, Sveriges justitiestatsminister 1874â1875 (född 1820) + 1899 â Nils MĂ„nsson Mandelgren, 85, svensk konstnĂ€r och forskare (född 1813) + 1902 â Joseph S. Fowler, 81, amerikansk republikansk politiker, senator för Tennessee 1866â1871 (född 1820) + 1910 â Michail Vrubel, 54, rysk konstnĂ€r (född 1856) + 1913 â Otto March, 67, tysk arkitekt (född 1845) + 1917 â Scott Joplin, omkring 49 eller 50, amerikansk musiker och kompositör (född omkring 1867 eller 1868) + 1922 â Karl I, 34, kejsare av Ăsterrike och kung av Ungern 1916â1918 (född 1887) + 1923 â Thomas Mitchell Campbell, 66, amerikansk demokratisk politiker, guvernör i Texas 1907â1911 (född 1856) + 1927 â James Smith, Jr., 75, amerikansk demokratisk politiker, senator för New Jersey 1893â1899 (född 1851) + 1928 â Nils ArĂ©hn, 50, svensk skĂ„despelare (född 1877) + 1930 â Cosima Wagner, 92, tysk kvinna, dotter till kompositören Franz Liszt, ledare för festspelen i Bayreuth sedan 1906 (född 1837) + 1947 + Georg II, 56, kung av Grekland 1922â1924 och sedan 1935 (född 1890) + Franz Seldte, 64, tysk nazistisk politiker (född 1882) + 1952 â Ferenc MolnĂĄr, 74, ungersk dramatiker (född 1878) + 1962 â Michel de Ghelderode, 64, belgisk författare och journalist (född 1898) + 1966 â Flann O'Brien, 54, irlĂ€ndsk författare (född 1911) + 1967 â Sixten Sason, 55, svensk industriformgivare (född 1912) + 1968 + Lev Landau, 60, sovjetisk teoretisk fysiker, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysik 1962 (född 1908) + Ernst Nygren, 78, svensk medeltidshistoriker och arkivarie (född 1889) + 1972 â Eric Nilsson, 66, svensk agronom och riksdagspolitiker (högern) (född 1905) + 1976 â Max Ernst, 84, tysk konstnĂ€r (född 1891) + 1984 â Marvin Gaye, 44, amerikansk soul-, blues- och R&B-sĂ„ngare (skjuten av sin egen far dagen före sin 45-Ă„rsdag) (född 1939) + 1991 â Detlev Karsten Rohwedder, 58, tysk företagsledare och politiker (född 1932) + 1993 â Millan Lyxell, 87, svensk skĂ„despelare (född 1905) + 2001 â Jean Anderson, 93, brittisk skĂ„despelare (född 1907) + 2002 â Simo HĂ€yhĂ€, 96, finsk prickskytt (född 1905) + 2003 + Sven Holmberg, 85, svensk skĂ„despelare och sĂ„ngare (född 1918) + Eivor Wallin, 98, svensk politiker (socialdemokrat) (född 1904) + 2005 â Jack Keller, 68, amerikansk lĂ„tskrivare och skivproducent (född 1936) + 2009 â Arne Andersson, 91, svensk löpare och folkskollĂ€rare, bragdmedaljör (född 1917) + 2010 + Anders "Lillen" Eklund, 52, svensk tungviktsboxare (född 1957) + John Forsythe, 92, amerikansk skĂ„despelare (född 1918) + 2012 + Miguel de la Madrid, 77, mexikansk politiker, Mexikos president 1982â1988 (född 1934) + Leila Denmark, 114, amerikansk barnlĂ€kare (född 1898) + Giorgio Chinaglia, 65, italiensk fotbollsspelare (född 1947) + Ekrem Bora, 78, turkisk skĂ„despelare (född 1934) + 2013 + Nicolae Martinescu, 73, rumĂ€nsk brottare (född 1940) + Moses Blah, 65, liberiansk politiker, Liberias president 2003 (född 1947) + 2017 + Gösta Ekman, 77, svensk skĂ„despelare och regissör (född 1939) + Jevgenij Jevtusjenko, 83, rysk författare och poet (född 1933) + 2020 â Yvonne Schaloske, 68, svensk skĂ„despelare (född 1951) + 2021 â Isamu Akasaki, 92, japansk fysiker, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysik 2014 (född 1929) + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar +Arkeologi (av grek. archaiologia "fornkunskap", av archaios "urgammal", "forntida": kunskapen om den forna mĂ€nniskan). +Arkeologi Ă€r studiet av materiella lĂ€mningar som pĂ„ nĂ„got sĂ€tt pĂ„verkat eller pĂ„verkats av mĂ€nniskan, exempelvis artefakter. Ămnet Ă€r av natur tvĂ€rvetenskapligt, och kan anses vara bĂ„de av humanistisk och naturvetenskaplig art. Arkeologin behandlade lĂ€nge det som kunde beaktas vara mĂ€nniskans förhistoria, men idag Ă€r arkeologiska studier inte begrĂ€nsade tidsmĂ€ssigt. Ămnet delas ibland upp i följande underdiscipliner; historisk arkeologi (efter skrivkonsten), förhistorisk arkeologi (före skrivkonsten), klassisk arkeologi (Grekland och Rom), egyptologi (Egypten), assyriologi (FrĂ€mre Orienten före Islam), islamisk arkeologi (FrĂ€mre Orienten efter Islam) och osteologi. Indelningen av omrĂ„det i dessa discipliner har dock föga betydelse för den yrkesverksamme arkeologen. + +Som universitetsĂ€mne blev arkeologin ett eget Ă€mne under 1800-talet. 1818 var Caspar Reuvens utsetts vĂ€rldens första professor i arkeologi vid Universitetet i Leiden i NederlĂ€nderna. Som den första arkeologiska avhandlingen i Sverige brukar Hans Hildebrands frĂ„n 1866 rĂ€knas. Oscar Montelius lade fram sin avhandling 1869. 1914 inrĂ€ttades den första professuren i arkeologi vid Uppsala universitet, dĂ€r Oscar Almgren blev den förste innehavaren av professuren. Den följdes snart av en professur vid Lunds universitet 1919, med Otto Rydbeck som dess förste innehavare. + +Arkeologisk teori + +Den arkeologiska teorin var frĂ„n början i stor utstrĂ€ckning underordnad skrifthistoriska perspektiv (i Skandinavien ofta sagohistoria). Den uppvisar inga tydliga sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndiga skolbildningar före mitten av 1800-talet dĂ„ den kulturhistoriska arkeologin formulerades. Denna förblev det rĂ„dande perspektivet fram till 1960-talet. + +I slutet av 1960-talet kom ett antal yngre, framför allt amerikanska arkeologer, som till exempel Lewis Binford att opponera mot den kulturhistoriska arkeologin. De menade att arkeologin skulle anvĂ€nda sig av mer naturvetenskapliga och antropologiska metoder med hypotestestning. De kallade detta för "New Archaeology" och den blev allmĂ€nt kĂ€nd som processuell arkeologi. + +Under 1980-talet vĂ€xte det fram en ny inriktning, postprocessuell arkeologi, vilken bland annat företrĂ€ds av de brittiska arkeologerna Ian Hodder, Michael Shanks och Christopher Tilley. De ifrĂ„gasatte den processuella arkeologins fokus pĂ„ naturvetenskap och objektivitet. De framhöll i stĂ€llet vikten av relativism och humanistiska perspektiv. Enkelt uttryckt hade New Archaeology velat ta reda pĂ„ vad folk Ă„t förr medan den postprocessuella koncentrerade sig pĂ„ kokkĂ€rlens sociala symbolik. Den senare har i sin tur kritiserats av processuella arkeologer för brist pĂ„ vetenskaplig stringens. Debatten pĂ„gĂ„r fortfarande. Postprocessuell arkeologi Ă€r enhetlig i Ă€nnu mindre utstrĂ€ckning Ă€n andra teoribildningar och kan sĂ€gas vara tĂ€mligen disparat. + +Postkolonial arkeologi sysslar frĂ€mst med de problem som kolonialismen skapat dĂ€r vĂ€sterlĂ€ndska arkeologer hĂ€vdade tolkningsföretrĂ€de gentemot de koloniserade folkgrupperna. + +Arkeologisk teori lĂ„nar numera frĂ„n ett brett fĂ€lt inkluderande evolutionsteori, fenomenologi, postmodernism, agentteori, kognitiv vetenskap, funktionalism, genderteori, hermeneutik, feministisk teori och systemteori. + +Dessa olika inriktningar influerar kontinuerligt varandra och den enskilde arkeologen kan vara svĂ„r, för att inte sĂ€ga omöjlig, att snĂ€vt bestĂ€mma som tillhörig den ena eller andra inriktningen. + +Arkeologisk praktik + +Arkeologin handlar i bredast utstrĂ€ckning om historieskrivning, att nĂ„ mĂ€nniskans förflutna. Eftersom mycket av det material som finns bevarat Ă€r begravt under mark, har utgrĂ€vningar blivit synonyma med fĂ€ltet. + +FĂ€ltarkeologi kan sĂ€gas bedrivas i tvĂ„ former: inventering och utgrĂ€vning. + +Ănda sedan 1600-talet har man utfört utgrĂ€vningar i syfte att studera forntiden. En modern utgrĂ€vning Ă€r dock ofta tĂ€mligen högteknologisk och man anvĂ€nder sig idag ofta av digital inmĂ€tningsutrustning. Stora grĂ€vmaskiner Ă€r ocksĂ„ vanliga hjĂ€lpmedel vid sidan av spadar, skĂ€rslevar och svampknivar. + +MĂ„nga av fĂ€ltarkeologins begrepp och metoder har hĂ€mtats frĂ„n nĂ€rliggande discipliner, till exempel geologi, Ă€ven om man ocksĂ„ har en livaktig och sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig metodutveckling. + +I Sverige beslutar lĂ€nsstyrelserna eller RiksantikvarieĂ€mbetet om en utgrĂ€vning skall företas, detta enligt kulturmiljölagen, som förbjuder att en fast fornlĂ€mning rubbas eller förstörs utan tillstĂ„nd. + +Betydelse och bakgrund +Den största delen av mĂ€nniskans historia finns inte nedtecknad. Skrivkonsten utvecklades för ca 5000 Ă„r sedan i Mesopotamien i form av kilskrift. Homo sapiens dĂ€remot har funnits i minst 200 000 Ă„r, och andra arter av hominider i miljoner Ă„r (se den mĂ€nskliga evolutionen). Varje kunskap om den tidiga mĂ€nskliga utvecklingen mĂ„ste alltsĂ„ komma frĂ„n arkeologin. Arkeologin kan Ă€ven vara ett viktigt komplement till studier av historiska kĂ€llskrifter som ofta Ă€r partiska. I mĂ„nga samhĂ€llen var nĂ€mligen skrivkunnigheten begrĂ€nsad till dess elit, som prĂ€sterskap eller byrĂ„krater. Ăven bland aristokratin har mĂ„nga gĂ„nger lĂ€skunnigheten varit begrĂ€nsad. Ofta blir dĂ„ de materiella lĂ€mningarna mer representativa för ett samhĂ€lle. Ăven materiella lĂ€mningar har dock sina egna problem, sĂ„ som representativitet och tafonomi. + +Vid sidan av dess vetenskapliga karaktĂ€r har arkeologin Ă€ven anvĂ€nts i politiska syften, till exempel som argumentation om vem som har rĂ€tt till ett visst markomrĂ„de. Arkeologin har Ă€ven anvĂ€nts som ett politiskt medel för att stĂ€rka eliters stĂ€llning som, eller för, skapandet av etnicitet. + +Se Ă€ven +Arkeolog +StenĂ„ldern +BronsĂ„ldern +JĂ€rnĂ„ldern +marinarkeologi +gravskick +stenstrĂ€ng +boplats +arkeologisk teori +historisk osteologi +FMIS Fornsök +förhistorisk indelning +paleoantropologi + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar + Fokus Arkeologi - Arkeologisk nyhetsportal och nĂ€ttidskrift + Arkeologiforum - Diskussionsforum + FMIS Fornsök - Fornminnesregistret pĂ„ nĂ€tet + Sök rapporter kring BohuslĂ€ns museums arkeologiska undersökningar + +Arkeologi +Artificiell intelligens (AI) eller maskinintelligens Ă€r förmĂ„gan hos datorprogram och robotar att efterlikna mĂ€nniskors och andra djurs naturliga intelligens, frĂ€mst kognitiva funktioner sĂ„som förmĂ„ga att lĂ€ra sig saker av tidigare erfarenheter, förstĂ„ naturligt sprĂ„k, lösa problem, planera en sekvens av handlingar och att generalisera. Det Ă€r ocksĂ„ namnet pĂ„ det akademiska studieomrĂ„de som studerar hur man skapar datorprogram med intelligent beteende. Exempel pĂ„ Ă€ldre delomrĂ„de och metodik Ă€r expertsystem, medan mer aktuella delomrĂ„den Ă€r maskininlĂ€rning, databrytning (datamining), datorseende, stora sprĂ„kmodeller och . Exempel pĂ„ tillĂ€mpningsomrĂ„den Ă€r maskinlĂ€sning, röststyrning, maskinöversĂ€ttning, chattbotar, digitala assistenter, business intelligence, ansiktsigenkĂ€nning, , sjĂ€lvkörande bilar och autonoma vapensystem. + +MĂ„nga AI-forskare och AI-lĂ€roböcker definierar omrĂ„det som "studiet och utformningen av intelligenta agenter", dĂ€r en intelligent agent Ă€r ett system som uppfattar sin omgivning och vidtar Ă„tgĂ€rder som maximerar sina chanser att framgĂ„ngsrikt uppnĂ„ sina mĂ„l. John McCarthy, som myntade begreppet 1956, definierar det som "vetenskapen och tekniken att skapa intelligenta maskiner". De frĂ€msta problemen (eller mĂ„len) för AI-forskningen Ă€r bland annat: resonemang, kunskap, planering, inlĂ€rning, naturlig sprĂ„kbearbetning (kommunikation), perception och förmĂ„ga att flytta och manipulera objekt. + +Artificiell generell intelligens (AGI), och Ă€r fortfarande hypotetiska och lĂ„ngsiktiga mĂ„l för forskningen. Dagens AI Ă€r applikationsspecifik. + +AI-forskningen Ă€r mycket teknisk och specialiserad, och djupt splittrad i delfĂ€lt som ofta helt saknar kontakt med varandra. Till en del beror delningen pĂ„ sociala och kulturella faktorer. DelomrĂ„den har vuxit upp kring sĂ€rskilda institutioner och enskilda forskares projekt. AI-forskningen Ă€r ocksĂ„ kluven av flera tekniska frĂ„gor. Vissa delomrĂ„den fokuserar pĂ„ att lösa specifika problem. Andra Ă€r inriktade pĂ„ en av flera möjliga metoder, pĂ„ anvĂ€ndningen av ett visst verktyg eller pĂ„ att utföra speciella tillĂ€mpningar. Metoder som Ă€r vanliga för nĂ€rvarande Ă€r statistiska metoder, berĂ€kningsintelligens och traditionell symbolisk AI. Inom maskininlĂ€rning har pĂ„ senare Ă„r artificiella neurala nĂ€tverk och djupinlĂ€rning fĂ„tt uppmĂ€rksamhet. Det finns ett stort antal verktyg som anvĂ€nds i AI, inklusive versioner av sökning och matematisk optimering, logik, metoder baserade pĂ„ sannolikheter och ekonomi, och mĂ„nga andra. AI-forskningen Ă€r tvĂ€rvetenskaplig, det vill sĂ€ga att flera olika vetenskapsdiscipliner och yrken konvergerar, till exempel datavetenskap, matematik, psykologi, lingvistik, filosofi och neurovetenskap samt andra specialiserade omrĂ„den, som artificiell psykologi. + +ForskningsomrĂ„det grundades pĂ„ pĂ„stĂ„endet att en central egenskap hos mĂ€nniskan, nĂ€mligen intelligens, "gĂ„r att beskrivas exakt, vilket gör det möjligt för en maskin att simulera den." Detta vĂ€cker filosofiska frĂ„gor om sjĂ€len och om etiken kring att skapa konstgjorda varelser utrustade med mĂ€nniskoliknande intelligens, frĂ„gor som har tagits upp i myter, fiktion och filosofi sedan antiken. AI har varit föremĂ„l för en enorm optimism, men har ocksĂ„ drabbats av hĂ€pnadsvĂ€ckande motgĂ„ngar. I dag har AI blivit en viktig del av teknikindustrin och utför de tyngsta uppgifterna kring mĂ„nga av de mest utmanande problem inom datavetenskap. + +Historik +Mer detaljerad historik finns i engelska Wikipedia: Historik, Framsteg, Tidslinje +TĂ€nkande maskiner och artificiella varelser dyker upp i grekiska myter, sĂ„som Hefaistos guldrobotar och Pygmalions Galatea. MĂ€nniskoliknande enheter som troddes ha intelligens byggdes i varje större civilisation: animerade kultbilder dyrkades i Egypten samt Grekland och humanoida automater byggdes av Yan Shi, Heron och Al Jazari. Under 1800- och 1900-talet hade artificiella varelser blivit ett vanligt inslag i fiktion, som i Mary Shelleys Frankenstein eller Karel Äapeks R.U.R. (Rossum Universal Robots). Författaren Pamela McCorduck hĂ€vdar att alla dessa gestalter Ă€r exempel pĂ„ en gammal drift, som hon beskriver det, "att skapa gudarna". BerĂ€ttelser om dessa varelser och deras öden beskriver mĂ„nga av samma förhoppningar, rĂ€dslor och etiska frĂ„gor som presenteras av AI. + +"Formella" resonemang har utvecklats av filosofer och matematiker sedan antiken. Studier om logiska operationer ledde direkt till uppfinningen av den programmerbara digitala elektroniska datorn, baserat pĂ„ arbete av matematikern Alan Turing och andra. Turings teori om berĂ€kningar föreslog att en maskin, genom att blanda symboler sĂ„ enkelt som "0" och "1", kan simulera varje tĂ€nkbar handling av matematisk deduktion. Turings vetenskapliga artikel frĂ„n 1950 vid namn Computing Machinery and Intelligence kristalliserade idĂ©n om AI och i den stĂ€llde han frĂ„gan: "Kan maskiner tĂ€nka?". Detta, tillsammans med samtida upptĂ€ckter inom neurologi, informationsteori och cybernetik, inspirerade en liten grupp forskare att börja allvarligt övervĂ€ga möjligheten att bygga en elektronisk hjĂ€rna. + +ForskningsomrĂ„det AI bildades vid en konferens pĂ„ universitetsomrĂ„det pĂ„ Dartmouth College sommaren 1956. Deltagarna var John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Claude Shannon, Ray Solomonoff, Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, Arthur Samuel, Oliver Selfridge, Nathaniel Rochester och Trenchard More. De blev ledarna inom AI-forskningen under mĂ„nga decennier. De och deras elever skrev program som var, för de flesta mĂ€nniskor, helt enkelt hĂ€pnadsvĂ€ckande; datorer vann i damspel, löste ordproblem i algebra, bevisade logiska satser och talade engelska. I mitten av 1960-talet var forskningen i USA starkt finansierat av Department of Defense och laboratorier hade upprĂ€ttats runt om i vĂ€rlden. AI:s grundare var djupt optimistiska om framtiden för det nya fĂ€ltet. Herbert Simon förutspĂ„dde att "maskiner kommer att kunna, inom tjugo Ă„r, att göra alla arbeten en mĂ€nniska kan göra" och Marvin Minsky höll med och skrev "inom en generation ... problemet med att skapa AI kommer i huvudsak att lösas". + +De hade misslyckats med att erkĂ€nna svĂ„righeten med problem de stod inför. Ă r 1974, som svar pĂ„ kritiken frĂ„n James Lighthill och pĂ„gĂ„ende pĂ„tryckningar frĂ„n den amerikanska kongressen för att finansiera mer produktiva projekt, avbröt de amerikanska och brittiska regeringarna all oriktad grundforskning i AI. De kommande Ă„ren skulle senare komma att kallas en "AI-vinter", en period dĂ„ finansieringen för AI-projekt var svĂ„ra att hitta. + +I början av 1980-talet, skedde en tillfĂ€llig renĂ€ssans för AI-forskningen; den kommersiella framgĂ„ngen för expertsystem, en form av AI-program som simulerade kunskaper och analytiska fĂ€rdigheter av en eller flera mĂ€nskliga experter. Ă r 1985 hade marknaden för AI nĂ„tt över en miljard dollar. Samtidigt hade Japans femte generations datorprojekt inspirerat de amerikanska och brittiska regeringarna att Ă„teruppta finansieringen av akademisk forskning pĂ„ omrĂ„det. Men med kollapsen av marknaden för Lisp-maskiner 1987, föll AI Ă„terigen i vanrykte, och en andra, lĂ€ngre AI-vinter började. + +Under 1990-talet och i början av 2000-talet, uppnĂ„dde denna Ă€ldre typ av AI sina största framgĂ„ngar, om Ă€n nĂ„got bakom kulisserna. Artificiell intelligens anvĂ€nds för logistik, databrytning, medicinsk diagnos och mĂ„nga andra omrĂ„den inom hela teknologiindustrin. FramgĂ„ngen berodde pĂ„ flera faktorer: den ökande datorkraften av datorer (Moores lag), en större betoning pĂ„ att lösa specifika delproblem, inrĂ€ttandet av nya band mellan AI och andra omrĂ„den som arbetar med liknande problem, och ett nytt Ă„tagande frĂ„n forskare till fasta matematiska metoder och rigorösa vetenskapliga standarder. + +Den 11 maj 1997 blev Deep Blue den första schackspelsdatorn som slog den regerande vĂ€rldsmĂ€staren i schack, Garry Kasparov. I en uppvisningsmatch i Jeopardy! i februari 2011, besegrade IBM:s frĂ„gebesvarande system, Watson, de tvĂ„ största Jeopardy-mĂ€starna, Brad Rutter och Ken Jennings, med stor marginal. I mars 2016 vann AlphaGo 4 av 5 matcher av Go i en match mot Go-mĂ€staren Lee Sedol, vilket resulterade i att AlphaGo blev det första datorbaserade Go-spelsystem att slĂ„ en professionell Go-spelare utan handikapp. + +Kinect, som producerar ett grĂ€nssnitt för kroppsrörelse i 3D för Xbox 360 och Xbox One, samt digitala assistenter i smartphones, anvĂ€nder algoritmer som utvecklats av mĂ„nga Ă„r av AI-forskning. + +AI-tekniker +Under 2010-talet har AI-tekniker som maskininlĂ€rning och djupinlĂ€rning gjort stora framsteg och blivit vanligare. + +AI-pionjĂ€rer +Det finns mĂ„nga forskare som har bidragit till utvecklingen av AI, nĂ„gra nĂ€mnvĂ€rda personer bortsett frĂ„n de forskare som deltog i Dartmouth-konferensen (AI-grundarna) Ă€r Geoffrey Hinton, Yann LeCun och Yoshua Bengio. + +AI-vinter +AI-vinter Ă€r en period av minskad finansiering och intresse för AI-forskning. Termen myntades 1984 av American Association for Artificial Intelligence, i analogi med idĂ©n om en Atomvinter. Det fanns tvĂ„ stora AI-vintrar, 1974â1980 och 1987â1993 och flera mindre episoder. OmrĂ„det har dessutom upplevt flera hajp-perioder. + +Medvetande + +Det finns inga objektiva kriterier för att veta om en intelligent agent Ă€r kĂ€nnande; att den har medvetna upplevelser. Vi utgĂ„r frĂ„n att andra mĂ€nniskor har det, eftersom vi sjĂ€lva har det och andra sĂ€ger att de har det, men det Ă€r bara ett subjektivt beslut. Avsaknaden av nĂ„gra hĂ„rda kriterier kallas "hĂ„rda problemet" i teorin om medvetandet. Problemet gĂ€ller inte bara för andra mĂ€nniskor, men ocksĂ„ för mer intelligenta djur och AI agenter. + +SnĂ€v AI + +SnĂ€v AI (svag AI, narrow AI, weak AI, applied AI) Ă€r AI som inte uppvisar mĂ€nnisko-lik intelligens inom alla omrĂ„den. SnĂ€v AI avser all AI som existerar idag (2019), och anvĂ€nds inom bland annat strategidatorspel, sprĂ„köversĂ€ttning, sjĂ€lvkörande bilar och bildigenkĂ€nning. + +Artificiell generell intelligens +Artificiell generell intelligens (artificial general intelligence, AGI) Ă€r en hypotetisk AI som uppvisar mĂ€nnisko-lik intelligens, det vill sĂ€ga, som klarar av att utföra vilken intellektuell uppgift som helst som en mĂ€nniska kan utföra. AGI hĂ€nvisas ocksĂ„ till som "strong AI" (full AI, stark AI), eller som förmĂ„gan att kunna utföra "generella intelligenta handlingar". AI som inte uppvisar mĂ€nnisko-lik intelligens inom alla omrĂ„den anses dĂ€rför vara "snĂ€v AI". AGI förknippas med egenskaper som medvetande, förnimbarhet, förnuft och sjĂ€lvmedvetande. + +FöresprĂ„kare för AGI menar vidare att intelligens gĂ„r att Ă„terskapa genom programmering, dĂ„ intelligens i mĂ„nga fall endast ses som komplexitet. En helt annan diskussion inom AI-fĂ€ltet Ă€r den om medvetande Ă€r nĂ„gonting som gĂ„r att Ă„terskapa digitalt. + +Ray Kurzweil förutspĂ„r att AGI intrĂ€ffar 2029, andra forskare tror 2030, 2040 och vissa 2050. Den amerikanska regeringen (2016) tror att det Ă€r vĂ€ldigt osannolikt att det intrĂ€ffar innan 2036. + +Superintelligens +En superintelligens (superintelligence, hyperintelligence) Ă€r en hypotetisk agent som besitter en intelligens som vida övertrĂ€ffar de mest lysande och mest begĂ„vade mĂ€nniskornas sinnen. Superintelligens kan ocksĂ„ hĂ€nvisa till en form eller grad av intelligens besatt av en sĂ„dan agent. Oxford-futuristen Nick Bostrom definierar superintelligens som "ett intellekt som Ă€r mycket smartare Ă€n de bĂ€sta mĂ€nskliga hjĂ€rnorna inom praktiskt taget alla omrĂ„den, bland annat vetenskaplig kreativitet, allmĂ€n visdom och sociala fĂ€rdigheter." + +VĂ€nlig AI +Termen vĂ€nlig AI ("friendly artificial intelligence", friendly AI, FAI) Ă€r ett begrepp myntat av Eliezer Yudkowsky för att diskutera superintelligenta artificiella agenter som pĂ„ ett tillförlitligt sĂ€tt implementerar mĂ€nskliga vĂ€rden. + +"Friendly" anvĂ€nds i detta sammanhang som teknisk terminologi, och plockar ut medel som Ă€r sĂ€kra och anvĂ€ndbara, inte nödvĂ€ndigtvis "vĂ€nliga" i vardaglig mening. I första hand Ă„beropas konceptet i samband med diskussioner om rekursivt sjĂ€lvförbĂ€ttrande artificiella agenter som snabbt exploderar i intelligens, med motiveringen att denna hypotetiska teknik skulle ha en stor, snabb och svĂ„rkontrollerade inverkan pĂ„ det mĂ€nskliga samhĂ€llet. + +Teknologisk singularitet + +Om forskningen kring AGI producerar tillrĂ€ckligt intelligent programvara, sĂ„ ska programvaran kunna programmera och förbĂ€ttra sig. Den förbĂ€ttrade programvaran skulle bli Ă€nnu bĂ€ttre pĂ„ att förbĂ€ttra sig, vilket leder till rekursiv sjĂ€lvförbĂ€ttring. Den nya intelligensen kan sĂ„ledes öka exponentiellt och dramatiskt övertrĂ€ffa mĂ€nniskor i intelligens. Science fiction-författaren Vernor Vinge namngav detta scenario "singularitet". Teknologisk singularitet Ă€r nĂ€r accelererande framsteg inom teknologier kommer att orsaka en skenande effekt dĂ€r AI kommer att överstiga mĂ€nsklig intellektuell kapacitet och kontroll, vilket radikalt förĂ€ndrar eller förstör civilisationen. Funktionerna i en sĂ„dan intelligens kan vara omöjliga att förstĂ„ vilket gör den teknologiska singulariteten till en hĂ€ndelse dĂ€r man inte vet vad som hĂ€nder efter, eftersom hĂ€ndelsen Ă€r oförutsĂ€gbar och obegriplig. + +Ray Kurzweil har anvĂ€nt sin "The Law of Accelerating Returns" (som beskriver den obevekliga exponentiella förbĂ€ttring av digital teknologi), en förlĂ€ngning och bearbetad modell av fenomenet Moores lag, för att berĂ€kna att stationĂ€ra datorer kommer att ha samma processorkraft som mĂ€nskliga hjĂ€rnor Ă„r 2029 (med andra ord AGI), och förutspĂ„r att singulariteten kommer att ske 2045. + +Transhumanism + +Robotdesignern Hans Moravec, cybernetikern Kevin Warwick och uppfinnaren Ray Kurzweil har förutspĂ„tt att mĂ€nniskor och maskiner kommer att gĂ„ samman i framtiden som cyborgs, som Ă€r mer kapabla och kraftfulla Ă€n var för sig. Denna idĂ©, som kallas transhumanism, som har rötter i Aldous Huxleys och Robert Ettingers verk, har visats i skönlitteratur ocksĂ„, till exempel i manga, Ghost in the Shell och science fiction-serien Dune. + +Edward Fredkin hĂ€vdar att "AI Ă€r nĂ€sta steg i evolutionen", en idĂ© som först föreslogs i Samuel Butlers "Darwin among the Machines" (1863), och har kompletterats av George Dyson i sin bok med samma namn som utgavs 1998. + +Effekt och nytta +Artificiell intelligens innebĂ€r en direkt tidsbesparing i och med att en uppgift kan flyttas frĂ„n en mĂ€nniska till en dator. I vissa fall kan uppgiften vara sĂ„ pass komplicerad att en mĂ€nniska inte hade klarat av den. I andra fall kan uppgiften betraktas som enkel och dĂ„ innebĂ€r AI att mĂ€nniskan som skulle gjort uppgiften ur en praktiskt synpunkt inte behövs lĂ€ngre. För företag Ă€r den huvudsakliga nyttan med AI dĂ€rmed den kostnadsbesparing som görs nĂ€r AI kostar mindre Ă€n mĂ€nniskan. FrĂ„n en privatpersons perspektiv skiljer sig inte produkter som anvĂ€nder sig av AI frĂ„n produkter som inte gör det. Produkter som anvĂ€nder sig av AI har dock kunnat lösa problem och utmaningar som man inte lyckats lösa utan AI. + +PĂ„verkan pĂ„ arbete +I oktober 2016 publicerade den amerikanska regeringen ett dokument med titeln: Preparing for the Future of Artificial Intelligence, dĂ€r de skriver bland annat att AI-automatisering kommer ha negativ effekt pĂ„ lĂ„gbetalda jobb och att det finns en risk för att lönegapet kommer att öka mellan lĂ„gutbildade arbetare och "more-educated workers", potentiellt sĂ€tt öka ekonomisk ojĂ€mlikhet. De skriver vidare att automatisering av jobb kommer att öka produktiviteten och skapa vĂ€lstĂ„nd. I boken AI Superpowers: China, Silicon Valley, and the New World Order frĂ„n 2018 skriver AI-experten Kai-Fu Lee att den psykologiska skadan som mĂ€nniskor kommer att uppleva nĂ€r de blir arbetslösa pĂ„ grund av AI-automatisering kommer vara omfattande. De stĂ„r inför möjligheten att inte bara vara temporĂ€rt arbetslösa, utan permanent arbetslösa och exkluderade frĂ„n samhĂ€llet, nĂ€r algoritmer och robotar prestera bĂ€ttre pĂ„ uppgifter och fĂ€rdigheter som mĂ€nniskor har förfinat hela sina liv. Detta kommer resultera i skada i identitet och syfte hos mĂ€nniskor. Fler och fler av de arbeten som Ă€nnu inte automatiseras kommer vara deltidsjobb eller "gigjobb" menar Lee. Kai-Fu Lee stĂ€ller frĂ„gan: "nĂ€r maskiner kan göra allt vi kan, vad betyder det att vara mĂ€nniska?". Historiken och författaren Yuval Harari menar att AI kommer att skapa en samhĂ€llsklass som han kallar "the useless class" (den vĂ€rdelösa klassen), dĂ€r mĂ€nniskor i denna samhĂ€llsklass kommer inte bara vara arbetslösa utan oanstĂ€llbara och utan förmĂ„gan att bidra varken ekonomiskt eller politiskt till samhĂ€llet. + +PĂ„verkan pĂ„ samhĂ€llet +I boken AI Superpowers skriver Kai-Fu Lee att AI hotar att skapa enorm social och politisk tumult som hĂ€rrör frĂ„n omfattande arbetslöshet och gapande ojĂ€mlikhet orsakad av AI. Vidare skriver han att den ekonomiska fördelen som utvecklingslĂ€nder en gĂ„ng haft med billig arbetskraft kommer att försvinna, eftersom fabriker med AI-automatisering kommer att placeras nĂ€rmare kunderna i industrilĂ€nder. Detta kommer leda till att skillnaden mellan vĂ€lbĂ€rgade lĂ€nder och fattiga lĂ€nder kommer att öka mer och mer. + +Kinas vĂ€xande AI-potential + +FĂ€ltet AI grundades i USA och landet har varit ledare sedan starten av forskningsomrĂ„det pĂ„ 1950-talet. Under 2010-talet har dock USA:s AI dominans börjat sjunka, pĂ„ grund av att Kina investerat stora summor pengar inom AI och har som mĂ„l att vara ledare inom AI till Ă„r 2030. Kina vill inte bara vara ledande inom AI utan Ă€ven inom högteknologi Ă„r 2030 och har som mĂ„l att slĂ„ USA. En av anledningarna till att Kina har kunnat investera stora summor pengar inom AI Ă€r tack vare den kinesiska ekonomin som rĂ€knat i nominell BNP Ă€r nĂ€st störst i vĂ€rlden efter USA:s (2017) och lĂ€r fortsĂ€tta öka enligt prognoser vilket medför att runt 2030-talet kommer Kinas ekonomi vara större Ă€n USA:s rĂ€knat i nominell BNP. I boken AI Superpowers skriver Kai-Fu Lee att Kina Ă€r dominerande inom AI (2018) och kan möjligen passera USA. + +Forskning inom universitet och företag +Kai-Fu Lee skriver i boken AI Superpowers att fundamentala genombrott inom AI lĂ€r snarare komma frĂ„n universitet Ă€n företag eftersom universitet Ă€r mer öppna miljöer. DĂ€remot skriver han att de nuvarande AI-teknikerna som bland annat djupinlĂ€rning, krĂ€ver stora mĂ€ngder data och processorkraft vilket oftast universitet inte har. Företag dĂ€remot, som exempelvis Google, har enorma mĂ€ngder data om anvĂ€ndare och datorer med vĂ€ldigt hög processorkraft. DĂ€rför lĂ€r förbĂ€ttringar inom de nuvarande AI-teknikerna (exempelvis djupinlĂ€rning, maskininlĂ€rning) komma frĂ„n företag. Lee skriver vidare att om nĂ€sta stora steg inom AI ska upptĂ€ckas inom företag sĂ„ har Google störst chans att göra det. Google upptĂ€ckte djupinlĂ€rnings potential tidigt och har anvĂ€nt mer resurser till det Ă€n nĂ„got annat företag, dessutom Ă€ger Google bolaget DeepMind och en av personerna bakom djupinlĂ€rnings genombrott, Geoffrey Hinton, arbetar pĂ„ Google. Ray Kurzweil arbetar Ă€ven dĂ€r. Google spenderar dessutom mer Ă€n dubbelt sĂ„ mycket som den amerikanska regeringen (2018) pĂ„ forskning och utveckling inom matematik och datavetenskap och hĂ€lften av alla de bĂ€sta hundra AI-forskare och ingenjörer i vĂ€rlden arbetar (2018) för Google. Lee skriver Ă€ven att desto mer data exempelvis Google och andra stora AI-företag ackumulerar desto svĂ„rare blir det för andra företag att konkurrera mot dem. + +Etik +AI:s etik (Ă€ven robotetik) Ă€r den del av teknologisk etik som Ă€r specifik för robotar och annan AI-teknik. Ămnet Ă€r uppdelat i robotetik (moraliskt beteende hos mĂ€nniskor nĂ€r de utformar, anvĂ€nder och behandlar AI-teknik) och maskinetik (det moraliska beteendet hos artificiella moraliska aktörer). + +I Mary Shelleys Frankenstein betraktas etiken kring AI som en nyckelfrĂ„ga: om man kan skapa en maskin som har intelligens, kan den dĂ„ ocksĂ„ kĂ€nna? Om den kan kĂ€nna, har den samma rĂ€ttigheter som en mĂ€nniska? IdĂ©n diskuteras ocksĂ„ i modern science fiction, sĂ„som i filmen Artificial Intelligence, dĂ€r humanoida maskiner har förmĂ„gan att kĂ€nna kĂ€nslor. Ămnet, som bl.a. kallas "robot- rĂ€ttigheter", diskuteras för nĂ€rvarande av till exempel California's Institute for the Future, Ă€ven om mĂ„nga kritiker anser att diskussionen Ă€r för tidig. Ămnet diskuteras djupgĂ„ende i dokumentĂ€rfilmen Plug & Be frĂ„n 2010. + +Filosofi + +Filosofin kring AI försöker besvara frĂ„gor som: + Kan en maskin agera intelligent? Kan den lösa alla de problem som en mĂ€nniska skulle kunna lösa genom att tĂ€nka? + Ăr mĂ€nsklig intelligens och maskinintelligens samma sak? Ăr den mĂ€nskliga hjĂ€rnan i huvudsak en dator? + Kan en maskin ha ett psyke, mentala tillstĂ„nd och ett medvetande i samma mening som mĂ€nniskor gör? Kan den kĂ€nna hur saker och ting Ă€r? +Dessa frĂ„gor Ă„terspeglar olika intressen hos bland annat AI-forskare, kognitionsforskare och filosofer. De vetenskapliga svaren pĂ„ dessa frĂ„gor beror pĂ„ definitionen av "intelligens" och "medvetande" samt vilka sorters "maskiner" man talar om. + +Viktiga pĂ„stĂ„enden inom filosofin kring AI Ă€r: + Turings "polite convention": Om en maskin beter sig lika intelligent som en mĂ€nniska, Ă€r den dĂ„ lika intelligent som en mĂ€nniska? + Dartmouth-förslaget: "Varje aspekt av lĂ€rande eller vilken annan egenskap hos intelligens som helst, kan i princip beskrivas sĂ„ precist att en maskin kan fĂ„s att simulera den." + Newell och Simons fysiska symbolsystem-hypotes: "Ett fysiskt symbolsystem har de nödvĂ€ndiga och de tillrĂ€ckliga medlen för allmĂ€n intelligent handling." + Searles Strong AI hypotes: "En lĂ€mpligt programmerad dator med rĂ€tt in- och utgĂ„ngar skulle dĂ€rmed ha ett psyke pĂ„ exakt samma sĂ€tt som mĂ€nniskor har psyken." Searle motsĂ€ger detta pĂ„stĂ„ende med sitt tankeexperiment Det kinesiska rummet, som sĂ€ger att man ska titta in i en datorn och försöka hitta var "psyket" kan vara nĂ„gonstans. + Hobbes mekanism: "Förnuft Ă€r ingenting annat Ă€n berĂ€kning. + +Kan en maskin visa allmĂ€n intelligens? +Ăr det möjligt att skapa en maskin som kan lösa alla de problem som mĂ€nniskor löser med sin intelligens? Denna frĂ„ga definierar omfattningen av vad maskiner kommer att kunna göra i framtiden och styr riktningen av AI-forskningen. Det gĂ€ller bara beteendet hos maskiner och ignorerar frĂ„gor av intresse för psykologer, kognitionsforskare och filosofer; för att besvara denna frĂ„ga spelar det ingen roll om en maskin verkligen tĂ€nker (som en person tĂ€nker) eller bara agerar som att den tĂ€nker. + +Existentiell risk och farhĂ„gor + +Existentiell risk orsakad av AGI (artificiell generell intelligens) Ă€r risken för att framsteg inom AI kan leda till en allvarlig global katastrof, sĂ„ som mĂ€nskligt utdöende. Temat har fĂ„tt populĂ€r uppmĂ€rksamhet, sĂ€rskilt i ljuset av farhĂ„gor som uttryckts av experter som Stephen Hawking, Nick Bostrom, Bill Gates, och Elon Musk. Allvaret i olika AI- riskscenarier Ă€r allmĂ€nt debatterat, och vilar pĂ„ ett antal olösta frĂ„gor om den framtida utvecklingen inom datavetenskap. + +Stuart Russell och Peter Norvigs Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, standardlĂ€robok inom AI, citerar möjligheten att en AI-systems inlĂ€rningsfunktion "kan leda till utvecklingen av ett system med ett oavsiktlig beteende" som den allvarligaste existentiella risken frĂ„n AI-teknik. De citerar stora framsteg inom AI och potentialen för AI att fĂ„ enorma lĂ„ngsiktiga fördelar eller kostnader. + +Ă r 2015 skrevs "Open Letter on Artificial Intelligence", brevet var undertecknat av ett antal ledande AI forskare inom akademi och industri, inklusive Thomas Dietterich, Eric Horvitz, Bart Selman, Francesca Rossi, Yann LeCun och grundarna av Vicarious och Google DeepMind. Brevet diskuterar om och hur intelligenta autonoma vapensystem bör förbjudas. Fredsrörelsen krĂ€ver ett sĂ„dant förbud. + +Institutioner som Machine Intelligence Research Institute, Future of Humanity Institute, Future of Life Institute, Centre for the Study of Existential Risk och OpenAI Ă€r för nĂ€rvarande involverade i att mildra existentiell risk frĂ„n AGI, till exempelvis genom att forska om vĂ€nlig AI. + +AI-boten Tay +Microsoft lanserade en chatbot vid namn Tay, med snĂ€v artificiell intelligens den 23 mars 2016 pĂ„ Twitter, Kik Messenger och GroupMe. Boten var ett maskininlĂ€rnings-projekt och inte en produkt, och var designad för interaktion med mĂ€nniskor, mer specifikt med personer frĂ„n 18 till 24 Ă„rs Ă„lder. Den lĂ€rde sig att uttrycka Ă„sikter genom att ha konversationer med andra mĂ€nniskor och ju mer data Tay lĂ€rde sig av genom att interagera med, desto mer nyanserad blev hennes svar. Microsoft sa att ju mer man chattar med Tay desto smartare blir den. BĂ„de kommunikation i form av skrift och via bilder var möjlig. Inom 16 timmar efter lanseringen av Tay bestĂ€mde Microsoft att stĂ€nga ner boten efter att den gĂ„tt frĂ„n att uttrycka harmlösa skĂ€mt till att uttrycka nazistiska och rasistiska Ă„sikter. Tay lĂ€rde sig att bland annat tycka om Adolf Hitler och försvarade honom. Andra Ă„sikter som Tay uttryckte var hat mot minoriteter i USA, konspirationsteorier om 11 september-attackerna, förkĂ€rlek för Trump och muren mot Mexiko, att Obama Ă€r en apa, att förintelsen inte Ă€gt rum, föresprĂ„kandet av misogyni, föresprĂ„kandet av gasandet av judarna, föresprĂ„kandet av antisemitism och sa bland annat: "Hitler hade rĂ€tt jag hatar judar" samt "bush utförde 9/11 och Hitler skulle ha gjort ett bĂ€ttre jobb Ă€n den apa vi har fĂ„tt nu. donald trump Ă€r det enda hoppet vi har". Microsoft anklagade internettroll för hĂ€ndelserna samt bad om ursĂ€kt och Ă„terlanserad aldrig Tay igen utan ersatte den med en annan chatbot vid namn Zo, som Ă€ven den stĂ€ngdes ner. + +AI-övertagande +AI-övertagande (AI takeover) avser ett hypotetiskt scenario dĂ€r AI blir den dominerande formen av intelligens pĂ„ jorden. Ett scenario dĂ€r mĂ€nniskorna förlorar kontrollen över planeten medan datorer eller robotar effektivt tar kontrollen över den. TĂ€nkbara scenarier inkluderar övertagandet av en superintelligent AI och den populĂ€ra förestĂ€llningen om en robotuppror. Robotuppror har varit ett huvudtema i science fiction i mĂ„nga Ă„rtionden, men de scenarier som behandlas av science fiction Ă€r i allmĂ€nhet mycket annorlunda frĂ„n de rĂ€dslor som forskare har. + +AI inom populĂ€rkulturen + "HAL 9000" frĂ„n filmen Ă r 2001 â ett rymdĂ€ventyr frĂ„n 1968 Ă€r en dator med AI som lurar mĂ€nniskorna i rymden. +"Skynet" frĂ„n filmen Terminator frĂ„n 1984 Ă€r ett sjĂ€lvmedvetet AI-nĂ€tverk som försöker utrota mĂ€nskligheten. +"Samantha" frĂ„n filmen Her frĂ„n 2013 Ă€r ett operativsystem med AI som utvecklar en relation med filmens protagonist Theodore. + "Ava" frĂ„n filmen Ex Machina frĂ„n 2015 Ă€r en android med AI som filmens huvudkaraktĂ€r Caleb utför ett Turingtest pĂ„. + I serien Westworld frĂ„n 2016 fĂ„r vissa androids AI, bland andra "Dolores", och bestĂ€mmer sig för att inte följa mĂ€nniskornas order. + +Vidare lĂ€sning + The Singularity Is Near (2005) av Ray Kurzweil + Superintelligens (2014) av Nick Bostrom + Liv 3.0 (2017) av Max Tegmark +AI Superpowers (2018) av Kai-Fu Lee +The Big Nine (2019) av Amy Webb +Hageback, Niklas. (2017). The Virtual Mind: Designing the Logic to Approximate Human Thinking (Chapman & Hall/CRC Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Series) 1st Edition. . +VĂ€rlden sjĂ€lv. (2020). Ulf Danielsson. + +Se Ă€ven + Moravecs paradox + Genetisk programmering + EvolutionĂ€r robotik + Talteknologi â Talsyntes, TaligenkĂ€nning + Spelteori + Svenska AI SĂ€llskapet, SAIS + Automatisk planering + Teknologisk singularitet + +Referenser + +Noter + +Originalcitat + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + SAIS, Swedish Artificial Intelligence Society + MaskininlĂ€rning.se â Ideell faktasida om maskininlĂ€rning och AI i praktiken + + +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +Kognitionsvetenskap +MaskininlĂ€rning +Antropologi Ă€r lĂ€ran om mĂ€nniskoslĂ€ktet och mĂ€nniskan som gruppvarelse. Dess vanliga studieomrĂ„den Ă€r dels ursprunget och utvecklingen av mĂ€nniskoslĂ€ktet genom historien, samt mĂ€nniskans egenskaper och anpassning till olika livsmiljöer, dels mĂ€nskligt liv, beteende och relationer, ofta betraktade utifrĂ„n ett socialt eller kulturellt perspektiv. + +De klassiska antropologiska inriktningarna Ă€r socialantropologi som studerar sociala strukturer i mĂ€nskliga samhĂ€llen, kulturantropologi som studerar mĂ€nniskan som kulturvarelse, lingvistisk antropologi som studerar sprĂ„kets sociala inflytande, samt fysisk antropologi som studerar mĂ€nniskoslĂ€ktet och dess utveckling utifrĂ„n ett biologiskt perspektiv. Internationellt sett betraktas Ă€ven ibland arkeologi som en antropologisk inriktning. + +Typiskt Ă€r att antropologi Ă€r tvĂ€rvetenskapligt, dĂ€r kunskaper frĂ„n humanvetenskap, samhĂ€llsvetenskap och naturvetenskap möts. Beroende pĂ„ inriktning Ă€r antropologi nĂ€ra relaterad till mĂ„nga andra discipliner sĂ„som anatomi, arkeologi, demografi, ekologi, ekonomi, ekonomisk historia, etnografi, etnologi, evolutionspsykologi, filologi, filosofi, fysiologi, geografi, geologi, historia, humanetologi, kognitionsvetenskap, lingvistik, medicin, paleontologi, psykologi, religionsvetenskap, sociologi eller statsvetenskap med flera. + +Ordet antropologi +Ordet antropologi kommer frĂ„n grekiska áŒÎœÎžÏÏÏÎżÏ ĂĄnthroposâ "mĂ€nniska" och λÏÎłÎżÏ lĂłgos, "lĂ€ra"; alltsĂ„ lĂ€ran eller vetenskapen om mĂ€nniskan. + +Vid sidan av detta har ordet antropologi Ă€ven anvĂ€nts som en beteckning för exempelvis psykologiska, filosofiska eller teologiska beskrivningar av mĂ€nniskans konstitution. + +Termen antropologi (i betydelsen beskrivning av mĂ€nniskan) har tidigt anvĂ€nts av den tyske lĂ€karen, filosofen och teologen Magnus Hundt (1449-1519). + +Inriktningar +Mot drömmen om en "Unity of science", enhetsvetenskap, om mĂ€nniskan" har det ofta funnits tydligt motstĂ„nd, en vilja att avgrĂ€nsa sina "egna" omrĂ„den. Socialantropolologen Lucy Mair skrev 1965: + +"Antropologi har ibland fĂ„tt beteckna studiet av 'mĂ€nniskans totala situation'. För dem som intar denna hĂ„llning tĂ€cker Ă€mnet sĂ„vĂ€l fysisk antropologi som socialantropologi, kulturantropologi, arkeologi och lingvistik, kort sagt alla de Ă€mnen som blomstrade vid mitten av 1800-talet dĂ„ idĂ©n om en 'vetenskap om mĂ€nniskan' började ta form. Alternativt kan socialantropologi ses som en gren av sociologin och inplaceras bland samhĂ€llsvetenskaperna." +Antropologer anvĂ€nder ofta ordet kultur i en mycket vid mening: âallt som mĂ€nniskan har, gör och tĂ€nker i egenskap av samhĂ€llsvarelseâ. Detta kan innefatta allt frĂ„n tankesystem och materiell kultur till samhĂ€llsstrukturer och sociala beteendemönster. + +Socialantropologi + +Socialantropologi Ă€r lĂ€ran om mĂ€nniskan som social varelse. Inom socialantropologin studerar man mĂ€nniskan i sociala och kulturella sammanhang. Socialantropologer undersöker de processer som producerar, upprĂ€tthĂ„ller och förĂ€ndrar samhĂ€llsstrukturer och sociala beteendemönster. + +Kulturantropologi + +Kulturantropologi Ă€r lĂ€ran om mĂ€nniskan som kulturell varelse. Inom kulturantropologin studerar man mĂ€nniskan i sociala och kulturella sammanhang. Kulturantropologer undersöker de processer som producerar, upprĂ€tthĂ„ller och förĂ€ndrar kulturella beteendemönster, samhĂ€llsstrukturer och meningssystem. En modern form av tillĂ€mpad kulturantropologi Ă€r affĂ€rsantropologi. + +Lingvistisk antropologi +Lingvistisk antropologi behandlar hur sprĂ„k formar mĂ€nniskors sociala liv. Lingvistisk antropologi utforskar hur sprĂ„k bildar kommunikation, social identitet och gruppmedlemskap, organiserar olika kulturella övertygelser och ideologier samt utvecklar en samhĂ€llskulturell representation av mĂ€nniskors sociala vĂ€rldar. Forskare inom lingvistisk antropologi fokuserar ofta pĂ„ att dokumentera och studera hotade sprĂ„k vĂ€rlden över. + +Fysisk antropologi + +Fysisk antropologi (ibland biologisk antropologi) studerar mĂ€nniskoslĂ€ktets sĂ€rdrag och variation genom att utforska artens utvecklingshistoria och genetiska variation. + +Modern fysisk antropologi omfattar dels utvecklingsbiologi, som studerar mĂ€nniskoslĂ€ktets utveckling (paleoantropologi) och dess förhĂ„llande till övriga primater (primatologi), dels humanbiologi, som studerar populationsgenetik, och anpassningsstudier (humanekologi), med tonvikt pĂ„ studier av mĂ€nskliga gruppers biologiska anpassning till den fysiska miljön. En specialgren av den fysiska antropologin Ă€r rĂ€ttsantropologin, som bĂ„de Ă€gnar sig Ă„t kroppsidentifikation av lik, och att studera anatomin pĂ„ döda vid arkeologiska undersökningar. + +Historia + +Liksom alla akademiska discipliner har det omgivande samhĂ€llets ideal och vĂ€rderingar kommit att prĂ€gla antropologin â inriktningen av studier, utformningen av teoretiska modeller och tolkningen av forskningens resultat. Detta blir tydligt i en historisk överblick, dĂ€r pedagogiskt avgrĂ€nsade epoker avlöser varandra. Epokerna speglar visserligen en verklighet, men de som noga studerat enskilda antropologers studier kan ofta, som Robert Layton, konstatera att: +"NĂ€r jag gĂ„tt tillbaka till de kĂ€llor jag diskuterar, har jag stĂ€ndigt funnit att dessa Ă€r lĂ„ngt mycket rikare pĂ„ idĂ©er Ă€n vad som kan utlĂ€sas ur nĂ„gon sekundĂ€r kĂ€lla." + +Antiken +Exempel pĂ„ tidiga antropologiska beskrivningar Ă€r den grekiske historikern Herodotos, som omkring Ă„r 450 f.Kr. beskrev orsaken till persernas nederlag genom en noggrann redogörelse av olika berörda folk. Ăven den romerske historikern Tacitus skrev omkring Ă„r 100 e.Kr. en motsvarande beskrivning av de germanska folken, vilken ofta uppfattats vara prĂ€glad av kulturkritisk "primitivism", som romantiserar ett "naturligt" och "ursprungligt" liv. + +Sedan antiken har förestĂ€llningen om ett naturtillstĂ„nd funnits, ett tillstĂ„nd som antogs uppstĂ„ om man kunde ta bort de lagar som (vĂ€sterlĂ€ndska) mĂ€nniskor skapat. Platon, Seneca, Thomas av Aquino, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau och Edmund Burke har exempelvis utlagt tankar om sĂ„dana förhistoriska naturtillstĂ„nd, ibland idealiserade (den Ă€dle vilden), ibland svartmĂ„lande, som argument i sin samtids debatt. + +Medeltiden (ca 500â1500) +BerĂ€ttelser frĂ„n kristna missionĂ€rer fick starkt inflytande för dĂ„tidens lĂ€rda uppfattning om andra folk. Ibland var dessa skildringar avsedda att rĂ€ttfĂ€rdiga missionen och framstĂ€llde dĂ€rför de berörda folken som barbarer. + +Adam av Bremen skildring av de nordiska folken frĂ„n 1070-talet, var byggd pĂ„ enbart hörsĂ€gen. Jesuiter som JosĂ© da Costa och BartolomĂ© de Las Casas beskrev med sympati de sydamerikanska indianerna pĂ„ 1500-talet, Francisco Xavier beskrev japanskt folkliv, jesuitpatern Athanasius Kircher beskrev Kina 1666. + +ReseberĂ€ttelser har fĂ„tt betydelse, Marco Polo pĂ„ 1200-talet, Christofer Columbus pĂ„ 1400-talet, Olaus Magnus resa lĂ€ngs Norrlandskusten pĂ„ 1500-talet. + +LĂ€nge var John de Mandevilles reseberĂ€ttelser frĂ„n 1400-talet inflytelserika, men visade sig senare vara fiktiva. De var exempel pĂ„ "skrivbordsantropologi". I bibliotekets reselitteratur kunde man stĂ€lla samman den berĂ€ttelse man ville förmedla. Ingen stĂ€llde krav pĂ„ "fĂ€ltarbete". + +1500-tal och 1600-tal +Kolonialismen vĂ€xte fram frĂ„n 1500-talet och Michel de Montaignes kritik i texten Om kannibaler har uppmĂ€rksammats. EuropĂ©er hade beskrivit de amerikanska urinvĂ„narna som kannibaler. Men Montaigne pĂ„pekar att de "civiliserade" europĂ©erna först mĂ„ste rannsaka sig sjĂ€lva, och nĂ€mner inkvisitionen som ett exempel. Och han betonar att den kannibalism som beskrivs som avskyvĂ€rd mĂ„ste förstĂ„s i sitt sammanhang (ett tidigt exempel pĂ„ kulturrelativism). + +Thomas Hobbes hade i mitten pĂ„ 1600-talet funnit att Amerikas indianer kom ganska nĂ€ra hans förestĂ€llning om ett naturtillstĂ„nd, dĂ€r varje mĂ€nniska var pĂ„ vakt mot sin nĂ€sta och mĂ€nniskors liv var "ensamt, fattigt, smutsigt, djuriskt och kort". Jesuitpatern Joseph Lafitau beskrev nordamerikanska indianstammar 1724, och jĂ€mförde deras seder med antikens, som de hade beskrivits av grekiska och romerska författare. + +Man har ofta önskat sammanfatta historiska skeenden i fasta mallar. Giambattista Vico förklarade 1725 historieutvecklingen som ett cykliskt förlopp med tre Ă„terkommande stadier: en teokratisk, en heroisk och en mĂ€nsklig Ă„lder, vilket Ă€ven lĂ„ngt senare haft inflytande pĂ„ vetenskapligt tĂ€nkande. + +1700-tal och upplysning +Upplysningstidens tĂ€nkare efterstĂ€vade sekulĂ€r vetenskap, ett "fast sammanhĂ„llet system av fakta och förklaringar" grundad pĂ„ ett naturvetenskapligt ideal om lagbundenhet och den nya psykologins mĂ€nniskouppfattning. + +Alexander Pope hade redan pĂ„ 1730-talet fastlagt att "the proper study of mankind is man" â inte teoretisk spekulation eller filologiska studier, som man tidigare Ă€gnat sig Ă„t. Man skulle betrakta mĂ€nniskan som biologisk varelse. + +Montesquieus De l'esprit des lois, 1748, har kommit att betraktas som funktionalistisk i sitt teoretiserande om huruvida skillnader i olika rĂ€ttssystem kunde förklaras av skillnader hos befolkning, temperament, religiösa uppfattningar, ekonomisk organisation, seder i allmĂ€nhet och livsmiljö. KĂ€nd Ă€r ocksĂ„ hans geografiska determinism som den uttrycks i hans klimatlĂ€ra. + +Carl von LinnĂ© hade i mitten pĂ„ 1700-talet klassificerat mĂ€nniskan i fyra "varieteter" efter de fyra vĂ€rldsdelarna. Inom ramen för den vetenskap som kom att kallas etnologi utvecklades vidlyftiga rasteorier pĂ„ 1800-talet. I LinnĂ©s Systema naturae (1735) samordnades mĂ€nniskan med de mĂ€nniskolika aporna sĂ„som högsta ordningen bland dĂ€ggdjuren. + +Jean-Jacques Rousseau och mĂ„nga efterföljare under 1700-talet gav kulturkritiskt stöd Ă„t tanken om ett ursprungligt naturtillstĂ„nd som fritt och lyckligt. Diskussionen fördes genom Johann Gottfried Herders Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (1784â91) över till romantikens tankevĂ€rld. + +Evolutionismen (1850-1910) + +Under 1800-talet vĂ€xte kunskapen om mĂ€nniskans fornhistoria bl.a. genom paleontologiska fynd. Intresset för mĂ€nniskans ursprung och utveckling ledde till olika teorier om raser (Blumenbach) och metoder för rasbestĂ€mning, till exempel genom mĂ€tning av kranier etc (Anders Retzius). + +Darwins och Wallaces arbeten om arternas förĂ€nderlighet gav nya impulser till antropologins utveckling. De stora frĂ„gorna om mĂ€nniskans uppkomst, slĂ€ktets Ă„lder, dess enhetlighet eller hĂ€rstamning frĂ„n flera skilda grupper dryftades nitiskt (Huxley, Latham, Tylor). + +1900-talet +Ănda fram till 1950-talet hade funktionalistiska förklaringar dominerat den sociologiska vetenskapen och antropologin. Det innebar att sociologer och antropologer försökte förklara vad olika fenomen (sociala akter eller institutioner) var till för. Förekomsten av ett fenomen förklarades om den troddes fylla en funktion. Det enda alternativet till denna teori hade varit att förklara fenomen historiskt, genom att förklara hur de blivit till. + +Efter andra vĂ€rldskriget + +Under senare delen av 1900-talet kom Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss teorier att bli inflytelserika. Hans bidrag kom att förĂ€ndra antropologin i grunden. + +LĂ©vi-Struss teorier presenteras i Anthropologie structurale. De kan kortfattat sammanfattas som att han uppfattar kulturer som system av symbolisk kommunikation, vilka bör undersökas med metoder som andra före honom anvĂ€nt i liten omfattning för att studera tal, berĂ€ttelser, sport och film. Han resonemang förstĂ„s bĂ€st mot bakgrund av den tidigare sociologiska teorin. I Ă„rtionden skrev han om denna relation. + +Dock uppstod tvĂ„ differenta idĂ©er om sociala funktioner. Den engelska antropologen Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown, som beundrade sociologen Ămile Durkheim, proponerade att syftet med antropologin var att finna den kollektiva funktionen, vad en religiös förestĂ€llning eller Ă€ktenskapslagar hade för funktion för samhĂ€llet som sĂ„dant. I grunden till detta förhĂ„llningssĂ€tt fanns uppfattningen att kulturer utvecklas frĂ„n en primitiv fas till allt mera civiliserade och moderna faser, som alltid var desamma överallt. Alla hĂ€ndelser i ett samhĂ€lle upptrĂ€dde enligt deras mening pĂ„ ett likartat sĂ€tt genom att nĂ„gon slags allmĂ€ngiltig logik drev fram utvecklingen i samma riktning. Sett pĂ„ detta sĂ€tt kan kulturer uppfattas som organismer, dĂ€r dess delar fungerar tillsammans som organ i en kropp. + +Ăn mer inflytelserik funktionalist var BronisĆaw Malinowski, som beskrev vilken funktion ett fenomen fyllde för individen, och vad de enskilda personerna i en kultur fick ut av att upprĂ€tthĂ„lla en tradition. + +I USA, dĂ€r antropologin skapades efter tysk modell av Franz Boas, hade den historiska modellen ett klart företrĂ€de framför funktionalismen. Denna modell hade uppenbara svĂ„righeter, vilka LĂ©vi-Strauss berömde Boas för att ha lyckats blottlĂ€gga. + +Historiska förklaringar Ă€r knappast möjligt nĂ€r det Ă€r frĂ„ga om folk som saknar skriftsprĂ„k, insĂ„g LĂ©vi-Strauss. Antropologen fyller i med jĂ€mförelser med andra kulturer, och Ă€r hĂ€nvisad till teorier som saknar bevis: den gamla uppfattningen om utveckling eller pĂ„stĂ„endet att kulturella likheter beror pĂ„ nĂ„gon av vetenskapen okĂ€nd förbindelse av personlig art mellan grupper. Boas kom till slutsatsen att ingen allmĂ€ngiltig förklaring till likheter mellan olika kulturer kunde bevisas; för honom fanns ingen historia, bara historier. + +Det Ă€r tre övergripande frĂ„gestĂ€llningar som hĂ€nger samman med dessa skolors skillnader. BĂ„da mĂ„ste vĂ€lja vilken slags bevis de anvĂ€nde, huruvida man borde fokusera det enskilda eller det gemensamma för kulturerna, samt definiera den mĂ€nskliga naturen. + +Socialvetenskaperna överlag förlitade sig pĂ„ mellankulturella studier. Det var alltid ofrĂ„nkomligt att belysa ett samhĂ€lle genom ett annat. SĂ„ en idĂ© om en gemensam mĂ€nsklig natur var underförstĂ„dd i varje studie. + +Men en kritisk punkt kunde forskarna inte undkomma: existerade sociologiska fakta för att de var funktionella för den sociala ordningen eller för att de var funktionella för en person? Beror likheter mellan kulturer pĂ„ att de erbjuder organisatoriska lösningar som Ă€r gemensamma för kulturerna, eller pĂ„ att de uppfyller behov som Ă€r gemensamma för samtliga mĂ€nniskor? + +LĂ©vi-Strauss var benĂ€gen att se det som att de var funktionella för den sociala ordningen. NĂ€r Malinowski framhĂ€rdat att magi fyllde ett behov av trygghet nĂ€r utgĂ„ngen av en viktig hĂ€ndelse var oviss, hade han bevisat detta med en rit dĂ€r vĂ€vning spelade en avgörande roll. Men han kunde inte förklara varför vĂ€vning i samma kultur oftast inte hade nĂ„got med magi att göra alls, eller varför andra moment med oviss utgĂ„ng inte ingick i magi. Men inte heller de kollektivistiska eller historiska förklaringssĂ€tten var tillfredsstĂ€llande. Olika samhĂ€llen kan ha institutioner som tydligt liknar varandra men som Ă€ndĂ„ fyller andra funktioner som Ă€r olika. MĂ„nga stammar var i Sydamerika till exempel delade i tvĂ„ grupper och reglerna för hur dessa grupper skulle förhĂ„lla sig till varandra var mycket strikta men exakt vad som var tillĂ„tet och inte skilde sig Ă„t, och dĂ€rför frĂ„ngick man med dĂ„tidens förklaringsmodeller att peka pĂ„ den strukturella likheten. + +Det var genom lingvistiken som LĂ©vi-Strauss kom fram till en lösning. Han byggde sina analogier frĂ€mst pĂ„ fonologin. Senare studier har Ă€ven influerats av musik, matematik, kaosteori, cybernetik med mera. âEn sann vetenskaplig analys mĂ„ste vara verklighetsförankrad, förenklad och förklarandeâ skriver han i Anthropologie structurale. Fonologiska studier avslöjar samband som alla kan kĂ€nna igen och förhĂ„lla sig till. Samtidigt Ă€r fonem en abstraktion av ett sprĂ„k, inte ljud, utan kategorier av ljud som definieras genom hur det skiljer sig frĂ„n andra ljud. Summan av alla ljudstrukturer i ett sprĂ„k kan menar LĂ©vi-Strauss, frambringas frĂ„n ett mycket litet antal regler. Det var detta system han tog efter och överförde till antropologin. + +I sitt studium av likartade system var hans första uppgift att finna en förklaring, vilket han fann i fonologin, och dĂ€refter kunde han skapa en omfattande organisation av data som delvis hade ordnats av andra forskare. Det övergripande mĂ„let var att finna svaret pĂ„ varför familjekonstellationer skilde sig Ă„t för olika kulturer i Sydamerika. I vissa kulturer kunde fadern ha en uttalat överordnad roll över sin son med förankring i tabun. I andra kulturer var det i stĂ€llet sonens morbror som hade denna roll. LĂ©vi-Strauss beskrev fenomenet genom att utreda de strukturella likheterna i sĂ„dana relationer, och fann att den underliggande strukturen var en cirkulation av kvinnor genom vilket olika klaner behöll fredliga förbindelser. De viktiga relationerna var i hans studier ett kluster av broder, syster, fader, son. Andra kluster, som syster, systers broder, broders hustru, dotter, fanns inga verkliga exempel pĂ„ att de nĂ„gonsin spelade nĂ„gon roll. + +Syftet med strukturalistisk förklaring Ă€r att organisera data frĂ„n verkligheten pĂ„ det enklaste och mest effektiva sĂ€ttet. All vetenskap, menade LĂ©vi-Strauss, Ă€r antingen strukturalistisk eller reduktionistisk. Genom att stĂ€llas inför sĂ„dana fenomen som incesttabu, stĂ€lls man inför en objektiv grĂ€ns för vad det mĂ€nskliga intellektet hittills kunnat acceptera. Det Ă€r möjligt att spekulera om de underliggande biologiska orsakerna till dessa slags tabun men för socialvetenskapen Ă€r det fakta som inte kan reduceras. I stĂ€llet mĂ„ste de studera de uttryck som emanerar ur sĂ„dana axiom. + +Senare verk Ă€r mer kontroversiella eftersom han utgick frĂ„n att de strukturer han funnit bland de sydamerikanska indianernas kulturer kunde överföras pĂ„ andra vetenskaper. Han var av uppfattningen att all historia och det moderna samhĂ€llet byggde pĂ„ desamma kategorier och transformationer. Han jĂ€mför dĂ€rför i till exempel Mythologiques antropologi med musikaliska serier och försvarar sin filosofiska stĂ„ndpunkt. Vidare har han kritiserat tidigare forskning för att förneka de skriftlösa folken en historia. I vissa avseenden pĂ„minner hans senare teorier om Fernand Braudel. + +Institutioner + I Paris, dĂ€r Paul Broca, utbildaren av den moderna antropologiska metoden, 1859 stiftat ett antropologiskt samfund, inrĂ€ttades 1876 "Ăcole d'anthropologie" (numera med 10 lĂ€rostolar). + Redan 1855 hade i Paris upprĂ€ttats en antropologisk professur, vid naturhistoriska museet; + andra professurer i Ă€mnet finnas i Florens, Budapest, MĂŒnchen och Rom, och i Amerika lĂ€mna mer Ă€n trettio högskolor undervisning dĂ€ri. + I Sverige ges undervisning i antropologi vid flera universitet och högskolor och antropologiska institutioner finns vid Stockholms universitet (socialantropologi) och Uppsala universitet (kulturantropologi); + 1870 stiftades ett stort tyskt vandringssamfund för antropologi, etnologi och urhistoria (med mĂ„nga lokala föreningar), 1871 i London "Anthropological institute". Dylika sĂ€llskap finnas nu i mĂ„nga lĂ€nder; + Sverige har ett sĂ„dant i "Svenska sĂ€llskapet för antropologi och geografi". + +Tidskrifter + +Bland antropologiska tidskrifter mĂ€rks: + L'antropologie (i Paris, sedan 1890), + Archiv fĂŒr Anthropologie (i Braunschweig, sedan 1861; red. af J. Ranke), + Zeitschrift fĂŒr Ethnologie (i Berlin, sedan 1869), + Man (i London), + The American Anthropologist (sedan 1888), + A Journal of American Ethnology and ArchĂŠology (sedan 1892) och + Reports of the Government Bureau of Ethnology (i Washington), + Archivio per l'antropologia e la etnologia (i Florens, sedan 1871) samt i övrigt de brittiska och franska samfundens publikationer. + Svenska SĂ€llskapet för Antropologi och geografi startade utgivningen av tidskriften Ymer 1880. + +KĂ€nda antropologer + + Lewis Henry Morgan (1818â1881) + Adolf Bastian (1826â1905) + Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) + Lucien LĂ©vy-Bruhl (1857â1939) + Franz Boas (1858-1942) + Edvard Westermarck (1862â1939) + Marcel Mauss (1872â1950) + Alfred Kroeber (1876â1960) + Knud Rasmussen (1879â1933) + Ruth Benedict (1887-1948) + Sigurd Erixon (1888-1968) + Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955) + BronisĆaw Malinowski (1884-1942) + Margaret Mead (1901-1978) + Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard (1902-1973) + Louis Leakey (1903-1972) + Gregory Bateson (1904-1980) + Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss (1908-2009) + Ă ke Hultkrantz (1920-2006) + Mary Douglas (1921-2007) + Bengt Danielsson (1921-1997) + Clifford Geertz (1926â2006) + Nils-Arvid BringĂ©us (1926- ) + Marvin Harris(en) (1927-2001) + Ă ke Daun (1936-2017) + Ulf Hannerz (1942- ) + Karl-Olov Arnstberg (1943- ) + Gösta Arvastson (1943- ) + Kirsten Hastrup (1948- ) +David Graeber (1961-2020) + Thomas Hylland Eriksen (1962- ) + +Se Ă€ven + Arkeologi + Beteendevetenskap + Etnologi + Etnografi + Feministisk antropologi + Kulturantropologi + Kulturvetenskap + Medicinsk antropologi + Paleoantropologi + SamhĂ€llsvetenskap + Socialantropologi + Sociologi + +KĂ€llor + + Nationalencyklopedin. + +Noter +AnvĂ€ndbarhet Ă€r en svensk term för usability, och Ă€r en önskvĂ€rd egenskap hos datorer, program, anvĂ€ndargrĂ€nssnitt och andra verktyg och föremĂ„l. + +Definition +AnvĂ€ndbarhet definieras enligt ISO-normen 9241-11 som följande: + +Den grad i vilken anvĂ€ndare i ett givet sammanhang kan bruka en produkt för att uppnĂ„ specifika mĂ„l pĂ„ ett Ă€ndamĂ„lsenligt, effektivt och för anvĂ€ndaren tillfredsstĂ€llande sĂ€tt. + +I en bredare bemĂ€rkelse anvĂ€nds begreppet ocksĂ„ för de metoder och tekniker som tas i bruk för att nĂ„ en hög grad av anvĂ€ndbarhet ("Jag har pluggat anvĂ€ndbarhet"). I denna mening överlappar anvĂ€ndbarhet i hög grad begrepp som mĂ€nniskaâdatorinteraktion, ergonomi eller interaktionsdesign. + +AnvĂ€ndbarhet respektive AnvĂ€ndarvĂ€nlighet +Det förekommer att det nĂ€rliggande ordet AnvĂ€ndarvĂ€nlighet anvĂ€nds pĂ„ ett liknande sĂ€tt som AnvĂ€ndbarhet, men ComputerSwedens IT-ordlista rekommenderar ordet AnvĂ€ndbarhet inom beskrivning av mĂ€nniska-datorinteraktion. TAM3 (Technology Acceptance Model 3) anger följande definitioner: + + Uppfattad anvĂ€ndbarhet â till vilken grad en person tror att systemet kommer vara till nytta. + Uppfattad anvĂ€ndarvĂ€nlighet â till vilken grad en person tror att anvĂ€ndningen av systemet kommer att nyttjas utan anstrĂ€ngning. + +TillĂ€mpningsomrĂ„den +Ăven om anvĂ€ndbarhet i princip gĂ€ller vilken produkt som helst, har begreppet till stor del kommit att förknippas med digitala system och produkter, till exempel webbtjĂ€nster eller datorprogram. + +I synnerhet inom IT Ă€r den tredje betydelsen av ordet vanlig. Inom andra omrĂ„den, till exempel framstĂ€llning av hus eller möbler, finns sĂ€llan nĂ„gon specifik "anvĂ€ndbarhets-specialist"; att efterstrĂ€va hög anvĂ€ndbarhet ligger normalt i arkitektens eller designerns yrkesroll. + +AnvĂ€ndbarhetens delar +En del forskare har velat vĂ€ga in andra kvaliteter i anvĂ€ndbarhets-begreppet Ă€n de tre i ISO-definitionen. Utöver Ă€ndamĂ„lsenlighet och den personliga tillfredsstĂ€llelsen har Jakob Nielsen och Shneidermann föreslagit ytterligare tre: + Hur lĂ€tt det Ă€r att lĂ€ra sig anvĂ€nda (eng. learnability) för en nybörjare + Hur lĂ€tt det Ă€r att minnas hur man gjorde (eng. memorability): om man gör ett uppehĂ„ll och dĂ€refter börjar anvĂ€nda produkten igen, Ă€r det dĂ„ lĂ€tt att komma man ihĂ„g hur man gjorde? + Hur mĂ„nga eller fĂ„ fel som anvĂ€ndarna gör. + +SĂ€rskilt nĂ€r det gĂ€ller webbplatser och informationssystem har en del velat lyfta fram "hittbarhet" (eng findability) - det vill sĂ€ga hur lĂ€tt eller svĂ„rt det Ă€r att hitta information - som en vĂ€sentlig del i anvĂ€ndbarhet, eller som ett komplement. + +AnvĂ€ndbarhetens metoder +En rad metoder och tekniker Ă€r associerade med begreppet anvĂ€ndbarhet. + +En del av dessa rör design och utveckling av produkter eller tjĂ€nster. HĂ€r anvĂ€nds till exempel tekniker och metoder som personor, scenarios, contextual inquiry, interaktionsdesign, med flera. Dessa och mĂ„nga andra tekniker kan sammanfattas under rubriken anvĂ€ndarcentrerad design. + +En annan grupp tekniker rör tester eller utvĂ€rderingar, dĂ€r det gĂ€ller att se hur anvĂ€ndbart ett system eller en produkt Ă€r. HĂ€r finns metoder som think-aloud protocol, expertgranskning, med flera. Dessa beskrivs under uppslagsordet anvĂ€ndningstest. + +Det finns Ă€ven utmaningar att fĂ„ in anvĂ€ndbarhet i utvecklingsprocessen. NĂ„gra av orsakerna Ă€r ett fokus pĂ„ de tekniska aspekterna av ett IT-system och inte dess anvĂ€ndbarhet, att begreppet ses som luddigt och svĂ„rt att förstĂ„, att anvĂ€ndbarhet inte gĂ„r att mĂ€ta och pĂ„ att projekt inte uppfattar att de har tid att arbeta med anvĂ€ndbarhet. MĂ„nga systemutvecklare har aldrig heller sett de system de utvecklar anvĂ€ndas i sitt sammanhang + +VĂ€rldsanvĂ€ndbarhetsdagen +Sedan 2005 uppmĂ€rksammas VĂ€rldsanvĂ€ndbarhetsdagen, World Usability Day, den andra torsdagen i november. Internationellt arrangeras den av Usability Professionals Association. I Sverige stĂ„r STIMDI för arrangemanget. Under dagen försöker man genom öppna förelĂ€sningar, seminarier och andra arrangemang öka intresset för anvĂ€ndbarhet hos företag, myndigheter och allmĂ€nhet. + +Se Ă€ven + AnvĂ€ndbarhetstestning + LĂ€sbarhet + MĂ€nniskaâdatorinteraktion + +Referenser + +Noter + +Externa lĂ€nkar + ISO 9241-11, Standarden för anvĂ€ndbarhet + +Standarder och konventioner +MĂ€nniska-datorinteraktion +Aristoteles (grekiska: áŒÏÎčÏÏÎżÏÎληÏ, AristotĂ©lÄs), född 384 f.Kr. i Stageira pĂ„ halvön Chalkidike, död Ă„r 322 f.Kr. i Chalkis, var en grekisk filosof och astronom. + +Hans far Nicomachus avled nĂ€r Aristoteles var liten och han fick dĂ„ Proxenus av Atarneus som förmyndare. Vid 18 Ă„rs Ă„lder började Aristoteles vid Platons akademi, dĂ€r han stannade i nĂ€ra tjugo Ă„r. Aristoteles skrifter omfattar mĂ„nga Ă€mnen: fysik, biologi, zoologi, metafysik, logik, etik, estetik, poetik, skĂ„despeleri, musik, retorik, lingvistik, politik och styrande, och utgör den vĂ€sterlĂ€ndska filosofins första genomgripande utlĂ€ggning. Kort efter Platons död 348 f.Kr. lĂ€mnade Aristoteles Aten för att pĂ„ begĂ€ran av Filip II av Makedonien bli privatlĂ€rare Ă„t dennes son Alexander. + +Tillsammans med Platon och Sokrates Ă€r Aristoteles en av de viktigaste figurerna inom vĂ€sterlĂ€ndsk filosofi. Aristoteles syn pĂ„ fysik strĂ€ckte sig lĂ„ngt in pĂ„ renĂ€ssansen och övergavs först pĂ„ 1600-talet. Inom biologin rĂ€ttades hans observationer först pĂ„ 1800-talet. Hans verk innehĂ„ller den tidigast kĂ€nda formella studien av logik, vilket inlemmades under sent 1800-tal inom formell logik. Aristotelisk metafysik utövade under medeltiden ett stort inflytande pĂ„ filosofi inom islam och judendom och fortsĂ€tter Ă€n idag att pĂ„verka kristen teologi, sĂ€rskilt östortodox teologi och den skolastiska traditionen inom Romersk-katolska kyrkan. Alla aspekter av Aristoteles filosofi fortsĂ€tter att studeras i den akademiska vĂ€rlden Ă€n idag. + +Ăven om Aristoteles skrev mĂ„nga eleganta dialoger och annat, tros majoriteten av hans verk vara förlorade och bara ungefĂ€r en tredjedel av de ursprungliga verken har överlevt. Dessa var avsedda att anvĂ€ndas i undervisningen vid Aristoteles akademi Lykeion, varför de ocksĂ„ anses sakna den eleganta stil som utmĂ€rkte hans övriga produktion. + +Nedslagskratern Aristoteles pĂ„ mĂ„nen och asteroiden 6123 Aristoteles Ă€r uppkallade efter honom. + +Biografi + +Aristoteles föddes i Stageira pĂ„ halvön Chalkidike Ă„r 384 f.Kr., cirka 55 km öster om dagens Thessaloniki. Hans far, Nikomachos var livlĂ€kare till Amyntas III av Makedonien. Aristoteles trĂ€nades och utbildades som en medlem av aristokratin. Runt arton Ă„rs Ă„lder reste han till Aten för att fortsĂ€tta sin utbildning vid Platons akademi. Aristoteles blev kvar vid akademin i nĂ€stan tjugo Ă„r, och lĂ€mnade den inte förrĂ€n vid Platons död Ă„r 348 f.Kr. Han reste dĂ„ med Xenokrates till sin vĂ€n Hermias av Atarneus i Mindre Asien. Under sin tid i Asien reste Aristoteles med sin vĂ€n Teofrastos till ön Lesbos dĂ€r de tillsammans forskade i botanik och zoologi pĂ„ ön. Aristoteles gifte sig med Hermias adoptivdotter Pythias, med vilken han fick en dotter som de döpte till Pythias. Strax efter Hermias död bjöds Aristoteles in av Filip II av Makedonien för att bli lĂ€rare till Alexander den store. + +Efter att ha Ă€gnat flera Ă„r Ă„t att vara lĂ€rare Ă„t den unge Alexander Ă„tervĂ€nde Aristoteles till Aten. Ă r 335 f.Kr. etablerade han, vid helgedomen Lykeion, sin egen skola, den sĂ„ kallade peripatetiska skolan dĂ€r han undervisade i tjugo Ă„r. Medan han var i Aten dog hans fru Pythias, och Aristoteles blev involverad med Herpyllis frĂ„n Stageira, som gav honom en son som han döpte efter sin far, till Nikomachos. Enligt Suda hade han ocksĂ„ en eromenos, Palaefatos frĂ„n Abydus. + +Det Ă€r under sin period i Aten som Aristoteles tros ha skrivit mĂ„nga av sina verk. Aristoteles skrev mĂ„nga dialoger, av vilka bara fragment finns kvar. Verken som har överlevt var oftast i avhandlingsformat och var inte, till den största delen, tĂ€nkta för spridning utan som hjĂ€lp till hans studenter. + +Aristoteles studerade inte bara nĂ€stan varje möjligt Ă€mne under denna tid, utan gjorde ocksĂ„ stora bidrag till de flesta. Inom de fysiska vetenskaperna studerade Aristoteles anatomi, astronomi, ekonomi, embryologi, geografi, geologi, meteorologi, fysik och zoologi. Inom filosofin skrev han om estetik, etik, metafysik, politik, psykologi, retorik och teologi. Han studerade ocksĂ„ utbildning, frĂ€mmande seder, litteratur och poesi. Hans kombinerade verk uppvisar en hel encyklopedi av grekiskt vetande. Det har sagts att Aristoteles antagligen var den sista personen att veta allt som kunde vetas i sin egen tid. +Efter Alexanders död flammade antimakedonska rörelser upp Ă€n en gĂ„ng i Aten. Eurymedon avvisade Aristoteles för att inte Ă€ra gudarna. Aristoteles flydde till sin mors familjebostad i Chalkidike, förklarande: "Jag tĂ€nker inte lĂ„ta atenarna synda tvĂ„ gĂ„nger mot filosofin". Detta uttalandet syftar Atens tidigare avrĂ€ttning av Sokrates, lĂ€raren till Platon. Han dog dock av naturliga orsaker inom ett Ă„r (322 f.Kr.). Aristoteles lĂ€mnade ett testamente till sin student Antipater, i vilket han bad om att bli begravd bredvid sin fru. Det har ocksĂ„ föreslagits att Aristoteles bannlysning och död resulterade frĂ„n möjligheten att han var involverad i Alexanders död. + +Aristoteles idĂ©er + +Logik +Aristoteles studium av korrekta respektive inkorrekta slutledningar brukar ses som logikens ursprung, som vetenskap betraktat. Aristoteles sex verk om logik samlades under titeln Organon. Aristoteles tankar kom i hög grad att pĂ„verka den lĂ€rda medeltida vĂ€rlden. + +Filosofi +Aristoteles ansĂ„g att mĂ€nniskor av naturen Ă€r politiska varelser, av ordet "polis", stad. Det betydde att mĂ€nniskor Ă€r sociala varelser och att varje förstĂ„else av mĂ€nskligt beteende och behov mĂ„ste inkludera sociala övervĂ€ganden. Han analyserade ocksĂ„ vĂ€rdet av olika politiska system, beskrev deras för- och nackdelar och klassificerade dem som monarki, oligarki, tyranni, demokrati och republik. Aristoteles tankar ligger till grund för maktfördelningslĂ€ran, som fick en central betydelse pĂ„ 1700-talet med Montesquieus klassiska verk "Om lagarnas anda" frĂ„n 1748 som var en viktig kĂ€lla till inspiration för de amerikanska grundlagsfĂ€derna. + +Naturvetenskap +Aristoteles fysik var för sin tid mycket nyskapande och Ă€r ett vidare begrepp Ă€n det vi idag kallar fysik. Aristoteles definition av rörelse innefattar till exempel nĂ€stan alla former av förĂ€ndring, alltsĂ„ Ă€ven tillvĂ€xt, Ă„ldrande m.m. VĂ€rldsalltet sades bestĂ„ av fem element och var indelat i Ă„tta sfĂ€rer. Fyra av elementen finns i den innersta sfĂ€ren, det vill sĂ€ga pĂ„, runt och i jorden. Dessa element Ă€r jord, luft, eld och vatten. LĂ€ngst ut lĂ„g fixstjĂ€rnesfĂ€ren följt av tomrummet, primum mobile (visas ej i bild). + +Jorden Ă€r tyngst och har en naturlig rörelse som strĂ€var nedĂ„t. Elden Ă€r lĂ€tt och har en naturlig rörelse som strĂ€var uppĂ„t. Vatten Ă€r "ganska tungt" och luft Ă€r "ganska lĂ€tt". Dessa bĂ„da rör sig normalt i sidled (som floder, havsvĂ„gor och vindar), utom i förhĂ„llande till varandra. Den innersta sfĂ€ren Ă€r uppbyggd av de fyra elementen, enligt Empedokles lĂ€ra. De fyra elementen i den inre sfĂ€ren sades ha en naturligt rĂ€tlinjig rörelse. Samtliga dessa element strĂ€var efter att uppnĂ„ ett vilolĂ€ge efter att de satts i rörelse. Vila Ă€r alltsĂ„ enligt Aristoteles det naturliga tillstĂ„ndet för all materia pĂ„ jorden - en Ă„sikt som hölls för sann i nĂ€stan 2000 Ă„r, tills Galilei, Descartes och Newton formulerade den moderna teorin om trögheten. + +Himlakropparna antogs bestĂ„ av ett femte element, vars rörelse av naturen Ă€r cirkulĂ€r och som inte strĂ€var efter att uppnĂ„ vilolĂ€ge. HimlasfĂ€rerna Ă€r de skikt i vilka himlakropparna rör sig. I den innersta ligger mĂ„nen, sedan följer solen och de pĂ„ den tiden kĂ€nda planeterna. I den yttersta sfĂ€ren finns stjĂ€rnorna. Aristoteles trodde att jorden var ett klot, detta kom han fram till genom att han visste att mĂ„nförmörkelser berodde pĂ„ att jorden skymde mĂ„nen för solljuset. Oavsett i vilken vinkel mĂ„nen stod pĂ„ himlen var skuggan av jorden alltid rund. Hade jorden varit en platt skiva eller haft nĂ„gon annan form skulle denna form ha pĂ„verkat skuggans form vid vissa vinklar. + +För att förklara oregelbundenheterna i planeternas synbara rörelser vidareutvecklade Aristoteles Eudoxos modell med 27 koncentriska fiktiva sfĂ€rer. Aristoteles kunde inte godta sfĂ€rerna enbart som matematiska konstruktioner. För honom mĂ„ste de vara verkliga och dĂ„ kom pythagorĂ©ernas genomskinliga kristallsfĂ€rer vĂ€l till pass. PĂ„tagliga sfĂ€rer komplicerade dock modellen, som redan förfinats av Kallippos till 33 sfĂ€rer. SfĂ€rerna var innĂ€stlade i varandra med inre sfĂ€rers axlar lagrade pĂ„ yttre i olika vinklar. För att kompensera för de yttre sfĂ€rernas rörelser blev Aristoteles tvungen att arbeta med totalt 55 sfĂ€rer. Otympligt och komplicerat menade Hipparchos som skulle ta nĂ€sta steg i denna kedja med sin epicykelteori. + +I ett berömt experiment lĂ€t Aristoteles 20 Ă€gg ruvas av hönor. Sedan öppnade han ett Ă€gg varje dag och följde utvecklingen frĂ„n blodflĂ€ck i Ă€ggulan till fĂ€rdig kyckling. + +Teaterkonstens poesi +Aristoteles poetik Om diktkonsten har varit av mycket stor betydelse för litteraturvetenskapen och för förstĂ„elsen för den dramatiska tragedins funktion. Begreppet katarsis, en sorts sjĂ€lslig eller kĂ€nslomĂ€ssig rening genom grĂ„t och sorg, hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n hans tankar kring den offentliga teaterkonstens gestaltning av mĂ€nniskors hybris i förhĂ„llande till gudar. + +Etik +Aristoteles var först med att anvĂ€nda termen etik för att namnge en studieinriktning utvecklad av hans föregĂ„ngare Sokrates och Platon. Filosofisk etik Ă€r ett försök att komma med ett rationellt svar till frĂ„gan om hur mĂ€nniskan bĂ€st bör leva. Aristoteles betraktade etik och politik som tvĂ„ relaterade men separata studieinriktningar dĂ„ etik undersökte det goda i individen, medan politik undersökte det goda i staden/samhĂ€llet. + +Aristoteles ansĂ„g att etik var ett praktiskt snarare Ă€n ett teoretiskt kunskapsomrĂ„de, d.v.s. mĂ„let Ă€r att bli god och göra gott snarare Ă€n att veta bara för sakens skull. Han skrev flera avhandlingar om etik, vilket i synnerhet inkluderar Den nikomachiska etiken. + +Han lĂ€rde ut att dygd hade att göra med uppgiften eller arbetet (ergon) av en sak. Ett öga Ă€r bara ett gott öga sĂ„ lĂ€nge det kan se eftersom funktionen av ögat Ă€r syn. Aristoteles resonerade att mĂ€nniskor mĂ„ste ha en funktion specifikt för mĂ€nniskan, och att denna funktion mĂ„ste vara en aktivitet av sjĂ€len i enlighet med förnuftet (logos). Aristoteles identifierade att en sĂ„dan optimal aktivitet (den dygdiga vĂ€gen, emellan den ackompanjerade synden av överflöd eller brister) av sjĂ€len som Ă€ndamĂ„let för all mĂ€nsklig avsiktlig handling, eudaimonia, i regel översatt som âlyckaâ eller ibland âvĂ€lmĂ„endeâ. Att ha potentialen att uppnĂ„ lycka pĂ„ det hĂ€r sĂ€ttet krĂ€ver ovillkorligen god karaktĂ€r (arete), ofta översatt till dygd. + +Aristoteles undervisade att för att uppnĂ„ en dygdig och potentiellt lycklig karaktĂ€r krĂ€vs det i första hand att man vĂ€njer sig stegvis, inte medvetet, utan genom lĂ€rare och erfarenhet, som leder fram till ett senare skede dĂ€r man medvetet vĂ€ljer att göra vad som Ă€r bĂ€st. NĂ€r de bĂ€sta mĂ€nniskorna lever livet pĂ„ sĂ„dant vis kan deras praktiska vishet och deras intellekt (nous) utvecklas tillsammans mot den högsta möjliga mĂ€nskliga dygden, vishet av en fullĂ€ndad teoretisk eller spekulativ tĂ€nkare, eller med andra ord, en filosof. + +Han trodde att etisk kunskap inte bara Ă€r en teoretisk kunskap, utan snarare att en person mĂ„ste ha âerfarenhet av livetâ och har âvĂ€xt upp med goda vanorâ för att bli god. För att en person ska bli dygdig, kan den helt enkelt inte bara studera vad dygd Ă€r, utan mĂ„ste faktiskt göra dygdiga saker. + +âVi studerar inte för att veta vad dygd Ă€r, utan för att bli goda, för annars skulle det inte finnas nĂ„got syfte med det.â + +Retorik +Aristoteles anses vara den viktigaste tĂ€nkaren inom den retoriska traditionen och ville göra retoriken till en vetenskap. Han menade att retoriken Ă€r en konst, techne, i betydelsen hantverksmĂ€ssigt/konstnĂ€rligt kunnande och att dess principer kunde studeras och lĂ€ras ut. Begreppet konst skall dock inte blandas ihop med det filosofiska begreppet av ordet dĂ€r man avser mĂ„lningar, skulpturer etc. Aristoteles funderade mycket över vad det Ă€r som gör att mĂ€nniskor övertygas och började hĂ„lla förelĂ€sningar i Ă€mnet. Han kritiserade sofisterna som han ansĂ„g anvĂ€nde retoriken till att övertala och manipulera andra genom att anvĂ€nda kĂ€nslor och osakliga argument. Retorik för Aristoteles var istĂ€llet konsten att vad det Ă€n gĂ€ller finna det som Ă€r bĂ€st Ă€gnat att övertyga. Han ansĂ„g att publiken sjĂ€lva ville ha ett ansvar för vad som sker i mötet med en annans ord, att talaren mĂ„ste vara lyhörd för publikens kĂ€nslor och att man mĂ„ste rĂ€tta sitt tal efter dem. PĂ„ sĂ„ sĂ€tt arbetar talaren med sin publik istĂ€llet för mot dem. + +Aristoteles började systematisera retoriken och kom fram till att mĂ€nniskor fattar beslut utifrĂ„n tre grunder: ethos, pathos och logos. Dessa brukar kallas för retoriska bevismedel (pisteis entechnoi) och spelar en central roll i den klassiska retoriken. Ethos Ă€r talarens karaktĂ€r vilken ska övertyga genom att skapa förtroende, pathos Ă€r de kĂ€nslor talet vĂ€cker hos lyssnarna och logos Ă€r orden, de sakskĂ€l talaren framhĂ„ller. Aristoteles skiljer mellan retoriska och icke-retoriska bevismedel. De icke-retoriska bevismedlen (pisteis atechnoi) Ă€r vittnen, bevismedel, lagar, kontrakt och tortyr, alltsĂ„ sĂ„dana pisteis som talaren inte finner med hjĂ€lp av retoriken. + +En annan viktig del i Aristoteles retorik Ă€r topiklĂ€ran. Ordet topik, som kommer av det grekiska ordet topos (plural topoi), betyder plats eller sökstĂ€llen och syftar pĂ„ de stĂ€llen, synpunkter och intellektuella utsiktsplatser man kan söka upp för att finna stoff till sitt tal. + +Aristoteles delade in talen i tre olika genrer. Den första genren Ă€r genus judiciale (ÎłÎÎœÎżÏ ÎŽÎčÎșαΜÎčÎșÏΜ), det juridiska talet. Det Ă€r tal som framförs i domstol, alltsĂ„ anklagelsetal eller försvarstal, och handlar om vad som skett i det förflutna. Den andra genren kallas genus deliberativum (ÎłÎÎœÎżÏ ÏÏ ÎŒÎČÎżÏ Î»Î”Ï ÏÎčÎșÏΜ), det politiska talet, vilken innebĂ€r tal om t.ex. vilka lagar som borde stiftas. De politiska talen handlar om framtiden, om sĂ„dant som bör eller inte bör göras, och det huvudsakliga syftet Ă€r att avrĂ„da eller tillrĂ„da. Den tredje genren Ă€r genus demonstrativum (ÎłÎÎœÎżÏ áŒÏÎčΎΔÎčÎșÏÎčÎșÏΜ) och dĂ€r hör det hyllande eller klandrande talet hemma. Oftast innebĂ€r det ceremoniella tal till t.ex. bröllop eller begravning men det kan ocksĂ„ vara rena smĂ€delsetal. Dessa tal handlar i regel om nuet men tidsaspekten Ă€r inte lika framtrĂ€dande som hos de andra tvĂ„ genrerna. + +Enligt Aristoteles kan retoriska argumentationer se ut pĂ„ tvĂ„ olika sĂ€tt. Antingen Ă€r de entymemiska och utgĂ„r frĂ„n generella pĂ„stĂ„enden eller paradigmatiska vilka utgĂ„r frĂ„n enskilda exempel. Paradigmatiska resonemang kan vara svaga i sin logik men har stark kĂ€nslomĂ€ssig effekt. Entymemiska Ă€r istĂ€llet starkt logiska men svagare kĂ€nslomĂ€ssigt. Det mest effektiva Ă€r att kombinera de bĂ„da argumentationssorterna. + +Aristoteles frĂ€msta verk inom retoriken Ă€r boken Retorik. Boken Ă€r dock inte skriven med Aristoteles egna ord, utan bestĂ„r av nedtecknade skrifter frĂ„n hans lĂ€rjungar. Första delen utvecklades mellan 376 f.Kr. och 347 f.Kr. nĂ€r han var elev hos Platon och den andra mellan 335 f.Kr. och 322 f.Kr. nĂ€r han drev sin egen skola, Lyceum. + +Aristoteles inflytande + +Historiskt inflytande + +Delar av Aristoteles skrifter, bland annat Metafysiken, översattes till arabiska vid Al Mansurs hov i Bagdad. I det spanska kalifatet Cordoba stod dessa översĂ€ttningar i centrum för framstĂ„ende judiska och arabiska lĂ€rdes arbete, bland dem Maimonides, Avicenna och AverroĂ«s. Den ökande kunskapen om Aristoteles ledde till att ledande skolastiker under 1100- och 1200-talet förband hans spekulativa etik och logik med den kristna teologin. Thomas av Aquino, Albertus Magnus och Johannes Duns Scotus utnyttjade alla Aristoteles filosofi men omvandlade den ibland, delvis under platonskt inflytande. Ăven Ayn Rand inspirerades av Aristoteles. + +Aristoteles aktualitet idag + +Hela det moderna tĂ€nkandet bygger i hög grad pĂ„ den aristoteliska indelningen av vetandet (fysik, metafysik, logik och etik) och de frĂ„gestĂ€llningar och sĂ€tt att nĂ€rma sig verkligheten som ligger i denna. Lika grundlĂ€ggande för vĂ„rt sĂ€tt att tĂ€nka Ă€r den aristoteliska logiken. I sprĂ„ken fortlever de aristoteliska begreppen, uttryck som primus motor, kvintessens, sjunde himlen, eter, substans och energi kan liksom aktualitet och potentialitet hĂ€rledas till Aristoteles. + +Svenska översĂ€ttningar + Aristoteles: den grekiska antikens mĂ„ngsidigaste forskare: ur hans historiska och statsvetenskapliga skrifter (en essay och en tolkning af Richard Nordin, Bonnier, 1906) + Om sjĂ€len (översĂ€ttning Johannes Gabrielsson, Björck & Börjesson, 1925) + Om diktkonsten (Peri poietikes) (översĂ€ttning Wilhelm Norlind, Gleerup förlag 1927 samt av Jan Stolpe, Anamma, 1994) + Om djurens delar (Peri zĆĆn moriĆn) (översĂ€ttning Ingemar DĂŒring, K. Rydin, T. Wikström, Göteborg, 1941) + Om diktkonsten: jĂ€mte den anonyma skriften Om den stora stilen (Peri poiÄtikÄs och Peri hypsous) (översĂ€ttning Jan Stolpe, Natur och Kultur, 1961) + Den nikomachiska etiken (översĂ€ttning och kommentarer av MĂ„rten Ringbom, Natur och kultur, 1967) + Politiken (ΠολÎčÏÎčÎșÎŹ, PolitikĂĄ, översĂ€ttning med inledning och kommentar av Karin Blomqvist, Ă ström, 1993) + Tre böcker om sjĂ€len (översĂ€ttning Kimmo JĂ€rvinen, Daidalos, 1999) + De interpretatione; Om sofistiska vederlĂ€ggningar (De interpretatione och Sophistici elenchi) (översĂ€ttning och noter: Börje BydĂ©n, Thales, 2000) + Aristoteles och Pseudo-Xenofon om Atenarnas statsförfattning = Athenaion politeia (med översĂ€ttning och noter av Staffan Wahlgren, Ă ström, 2001) + Retoriken (översĂ€ttning, inledning och noter av Johanna AkujĂ€rvi, Retorikförlaget, 2012) + Fysik (Ă€ven kĂ€nd som Fysiken, översĂ€ttning och inledning av Charlotte Weigelt, Thales, 2017) +Första analytiken (översĂ€ttning, inledning och kommentarer Per-Erik MalmnĂ€s, Thales, 2020) + +Se Ă€ven + Den nikomachiska etiken + Aristoteles fysik + Areopagen + Realism + Aristoteles överlevande verk kallas Corpus Aristotelicum + +Referenser + +Noter + +KĂ€llor + Andersen, Ăivind, (2009): I retorikkens hage. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. + Hellspong, Lennart, 2004: Konsten att tala. Lund: Studentlitteratur. + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + + + +Födda 384 f.Kr. +Avlidna 322 f.Kr. +Antikens grekiska filosofer +Antikens vetenskapsmĂ€n +MĂ€n +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +Retoriker +Grekiska teaterteoretiker +Naturfilosofer +Logiker +Mononymt kĂ€nda personer +Retorik +Ontologer +Astronomi ( ; bokstavligen "stjĂ€rnonas lag") Ă€r vetenskapen om himlakropparna och universum. Den innefattar kosmologin, som försöker utveckla en helhetsbeskrivning av kosmos och dess uppkomst, utveckling och storskaliga struktur. Vidare Ă€r astronomin ett av de absolut Ă€ldsta vetenskapsfĂ€lten och kan spĂ„ras Ă€nda tillbaka till de tidigaste kĂ€nda civilisationerna. Det var dock först nĂ€r teleskopet uppfanns i början av 1600-talet som Ă€mnet utvecklades till en modern vetenskap. Trots sin Ă„lder utvecklas astronomin idag snabbt och ny kunskap kommer fram i snabb takt. + +Astronomi skall inte blandas ihop med astrologi, Ă€ven om tidiga astronomer ofta Ă€ven var vad vi idag skulle kalla astrologer. Ămnena Ă€r dock numera strikt skilda frĂ„n varandra. DĂ€remot Ă€r astrofysik nĂ€ra relaterat och termen anvĂ€nds ibland synonymt med modern astronomi. + +Sedan 1900-talet har astronomin i praktiken delats upp i tvĂ„ huvudsakliga fĂ€lt, observationell astronomi och teoretisk astronomi. Observationell astronomi fokuserar pĂ„ att hĂ€mta och analysera data medan teoretisk astronomi försöker förklara företeelser och göra förutsĂ€gelser om olika fenomen i universum. De bĂ„da fĂ€lten kompletterar varandra vĂ€l dĂ„ teoretisk astronomi försöker förklara observationer medan observationer i sin tur anvĂ€nds för att bekrĂ€fta teoretiska modeller. Astronomi Ă€r ett av fĂ„ vetenskapliga fĂ€lt dĂ€r amatörer fortfarande spelar en aktiv roll, framför allt inom upptĂ€ckt och observation av tillfĂ€lliga fenomen som kometer och supernovor. Samtidigt förekommer inom astronomi utrustning som Ă€r bland de mest kostsamma och avancerade som över huvud taget förekommer inom vetenskap. + +Lexikologi + +Ordet astronomi betyder ordagrant "stjĂ€rnornas lag" (eller "stjĂ€rnornas kultur" beroende pĂ„ översĂ€ttning) och hĂ€rleds frĂ„n det grekiska áŒÏÏÏÎżÎœÎżÎŒÎŻÎ±, astronomia frĂ„n orden ÎŹÏÏÏÎżÎœ (astron, "stjĂ€rna") och ΜÏÎŒÎżÏ (nomos, "lagar eller kulturer") + +Termerna "astronomi" â "astrofysik" + +Generellt sett kan antingen termen "astronomi" eller "astrofysik" anvĂ€ndas för att beskriva Ă€mnet, men mer specifikt Ă€r astrofysik en omfattande gren av astronomin. "Astronomi" kan sĂ€gas avse "studien av objekt och materia utanför jordens atmosfĂ€r samt deras fysikaliska och kemiska egenskaper" medan "astrofysik" behandlar "beteendet, fysikaliska egenskaper och dynamiska processer hos astronomiska objekt och fenomen". I vissa fall anvĂ€nds "astronomi" för att beskriva de kvalitativa studierna av Ă€mnet medan "astrofysik" anvĂ€nds för att beskriva den fysik-orienterade delen av Ă€mnet. Men eftersom en stor del av modern astronomisk forskning idag behandlar Ă€mnen relaterade till fysik anvĂ€nds astrofysik ofta som en generell benĂ€mning för astronomi. + +Historia + +Forntiden + +LĂ„ngt tillbaka i historien bestod astronomin enbart av observationer och förutsĂ€gelser av hur objekt som Ă€r synliga för det mĂ€nskliga ögat skulle röra sig. PĂ„ vissa platser, som Stonehenge, har tidiga kulturer rest stora monument som sannolikt hade nĂ„gon form av astronomisk anvĂ€ndning. Förutom deras ceremoniella betydelse kunde dessa primitiva observatorier anvĂ€ndas för att tidsbestĂ€mma Ă„rstiderna, nĂ„got som var viktigt sĂ„vĂ€l för att veta nĂ€r man skulle plantera grödor som för att förstĂ„ hur lĂ„ngt Ă„ret Ă€r. + +Allt eftersom de tidiga civilisationerna utvecklades, framförallt i Mesopotamien, antikens Grekland, forntida Egypten, Persiska riket, Mayakulturen, Indien och Kina, byggdes tidiga observatorier och universum började utforskas. Den största delen av den tidiga astronomin bestod i att kartlĂ€gga positionerna hos stjĂ€rnorna och planeterna, en vetenskap som nu kallas astrometri. FrĂ„n dessa observationer skapades tidiga teorier om vad planeternas rörelser berodde pĂ„, vad solen, mĂ„nen och jorden var i förhĂ„llande till universum. Jorden ansĂ„gs vara centrum i universum med solen, mĂ„nen och stjĂ€rnorna roterande runt den. Detta Ă€r kĂ€nt som den geocentriska modellen av universum. + +Flera anmĂ€rkningsvĂ€rda astronomiska upptĂ€ckter gjordes före teleskopens tid. Vinkeln pĂ„ jordens axellutning, vilken Ă€r orsaken till Ă„rstiderna, berĂ€knades i Kina sĂ„ tidigt som omkring Ă„r 1000 f.Kr.. NĂ„gra Ă„rhundraden senare upptĂ€ckte KaldĂ©erna i Mesopotamien att mĂ„nförmörkelser upptrĂ€dde i en Ă„terkommande cykel kallad saroscykeln. Under 100-talet f.Kr. uppskattades mĂ„nens storlek och avstĂ„nd till jorden av Hipparchus. + +Medeltiden + +Under medeltiden hĂ€nde inte mycket inom astronomin i Europa, Ă„tminstone inte förrĂ€n till omkring 1200-talet dĂ„ de "Alfonsinska tabellerna" togs fram. Samtidigt blomstrade dock astronomin i den islamiska vĂ€rlden och andra delar av vĂ€rlden. NĂ„gra av de framstĂ„ende muslimska astronomer som gjorde viktiga bidrag till vetenskapen var Abu Rayhan Biruni, Al-Battani och Thabit ibn Kurrah. Astronomer under den tiden gav mĂ„nga stjĂ€rnor arabiska namn som i flertalet fall anvĂ€nds Ă€n idag, till exempel Altair och Aldebaran, vars namn kan hĂ€rledas till de arabiska orden för flygaren respektive följeslagaren. + +Under 900-talets senare del byggdes ett enormt observatorium nĂ€ra Teheran av astronomen Al-Khujandi, som ocksĂ„ berĂ€knade jordaxelns lutning i förhĂ„llande till solen. I Persien sammanstĂ€llde Omar KhayyĂĄm en rad tabeller och reformerade kalendern, vilket gjorde den mer exakt Ă€n den julianska kalendern och snarlik den gregorianska kalendern. Hans berĂ€kning av Ă„rets lĂ€ngd till 365,24219858156 dagar var anmĂ€rkningsvĂ€rt korrekt; det stora antalet decimaler anses ha visat pĂ„ stort sjĂ€lvförtroende i berĂ€kningarna. Idag vet man att vĂ€rdet Ă€ndras pĂ„ sjĂ€tte decimalen under en mĂ€nniskas livslĂ€ngd, vid slutet pĂ„ 1800-talet var vĂ€rdet 365,242196 medan det nu gĂ„r 365,242190 dagar pĂ„ ett Ă„r. + +Den vetenskapliga revolutionen + +Under renĂ€ssansen föreslog Nicolaus Copernicus i sin bok "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" en heliocentrisk modell av solsystemet, dĂ€r solen istĂ€llet för jorden ansĂ„gs vara i centrum. Hans arbete försvarades, utvecklades och korrigerades av Johannes Kepler och Galileo Galilei. Galileo revolutionerade astronomin genom att anvĂ€nda teleskop för att förbĂ€ttra sina observationer. Han upptĂ€ckte med hjĂ€lp av detta bland annat Jupiters fyra största mĂ„nar, som idag kallas Galileiska mĂ„narna till hans Ă€ra, och sĂ„g att planeten Venus uppvisade faser precis som jordens mĂ„ne. BĂ„da dessa observationer stĂ€rkte bevisningen för den heliocentriska teorin. + +Kepler var den första att utveckla ett system som korrekt beskriver detaljerna hos planeternas rörelser runt solen, nĂ„got han gjorde med hjĂ€lp av Tycho Brahes minutiöst noggranna observationer. Men Kepler lyckades inte formulera en teori bakom de lagar han skrev ner. Detta gjorde istĂ€llet Isaac Newton med sin upptĂ€ckt av rörelselagarna och gravitationslagen för att slutligen förklara planeternas rörelser. Newton utvecklade ocksĂ„ spegelteleskopet. + +Vidare upptĂ€ckter följde i takt med att storleken och kvaliteten pĂ„ teleskopen utvecklades. Mer omfattande kataloger över stjĂ€rnor skapades av Lacaille. Astronomen Herschel Ă„ sin sida skapade en detaljerad tabell över nebulosor och stjĂ€rnhopar, och upptĂ€ckte Ă€ven planeten Uranus. AvstĂ„ndet till en annan stjĂ€rna berĂ€knades första gĂ„ngen Ă„r 1838 nĂ€r Friedrich Bessel mĂ€tte upp den skenbara förflyttningen av 61 Cygni mot avlĂ€gsna bakgrundsstjĂ€rnor nĂ€r jorden rör sig runt solen. Det vill sĂ€ga, nĂ€r jorden rör sig runt solen ser vi mĂ€tstjĂ€rnan i nĂ„got olika vinklar mot bakgrunden. Denna vinkel kallas parallax och Ă€r direkt relaterad till avstĂ„ndet till stjĂ€rnan. + +Under 1800-talet lade astronomer som Euler, Clairaut och D'Alembert ner stor möda pĂ„ trekropparsproblemet, vilket ledde till mer noggranna förutsĂ€gelser av mĂ„nens och planeternas rörelser. Detta arbete förfinades ytterligare av Lagrange och Laplace som bestĂ€mde planeternas och mĂ„narnas massor med hjĂ€lp av perturbationer, störningar i deras banrörelser. + +Modern astronomi + +Stora framsteg inom astronomin har gjorts i samband med introduktion av ny teknologi, inte minst spektroskopet och fotografin. Vid studier av solens spektrum upptĂ€ckte Fraunhofer under Ă„ren 1814â1815 ungefĂ€r 600 emissionslinjer. Att dessa hĂ€rstammade frĂ„n nĂ€rvaron av olika Ă€mnen upptĂ€cktes av Kirchhoff 1859. StjĂ€rnorna kunde med denna information bevisas vara liknande vĂ„r egen sol, men med en stor variation av temperatur, massa och storlek. + +Att den galax som jorden tillhör, Vintergatan, Ă€r en separat samling stjĂ€rnor bevisades inte förrĂ€n under 1920-talet. Samtidigt bevisades existensen av andra galaxer och snart dĂ€refter kom man fram till att universum expanderade, eftersom samtliga avlĂ€gsna galaxer var pĂ„ vĂ€g bort frĂ„n oss â ju lĂ€ngre bort de var desto snabbare rörde de sig bortĂ„t. Modern astronomi har ocksĂ„ upptĂ€ckt mĂ„nga exotiska objekt som kvasarer, pulsarer, blazarer och radiogalaxer. Dessa observationer har anvĂ€nts för att utveckla teorier för att beskriva vissa av dessa objekt i termer av lika exotiska objekt som svarta hĂ„l och neutronstjĂ€rnor. Kosmologin gjorde enorma framsteg under 1900-talet, med modellen av big bang vĂ€l understödd av bevis frĂ„n astronomin och fysiken, till exempel kosmisk bakgrundsstrĂ„lning, Hubbles lag och proportioner av olika Ă€mnen i rymden. + +Observationell astronomi + +Inom astronomin samlas information frĂ€mst in genom mottagning och analys av synligt ljus och andra typer av elektromagnetisk strĂ„lning. Observationell astronomi kan delas in i olika delar av det elektromagnetiska spektrumet. Vissa delar av spektrumet kan observeras frĂ„n jordens yta, medan andra bara kan observeras antingen frĂ„n höga altituder eller Ă€nnu hellre frĂ„n rymden. Specifik information om en del underfĂ€lt följer nedan. + +Radioastronomi + +Radioastronomi studerar strĂ„lning frĂ„n rymden med vĂ„glĂ€ngder större Ă€n ungefĂ€r en millimeter. Radioastronomi skiljer sig frĂ„n de flesta andra omrĂ„dena av observationell astronomi genom att de observerade radiovĂ„gorna kan behandlas som vĂ„gor snarare Ă€n enskilda fotoner. Det Ă€r dĂ€rför relativt lĂ€tt att mĂ€ta bĂ„de amplituden och fasen hos radiovĂ„gor, nĂ„got som inte görs lika enkelt för kortare vĂ„glĂ€ngder. + +Ăven om vissa radiovĂ„gor skapas av astronomiska objekt i form av termisk strĂ„lning sĂ„ Ă€r den största delen av de observerade radiovĂ„gorna i form av synkrotronstrĂ„lning. Denna bildas av elektroner som accelererats till extremt höga (ultrarelativistiska) hastigheter och fĂ€rdas genom magnetfĂ€lt som böjer deras bana. DĂ€rutöver skapas ett antal spektrallinjer frĂ„n interstellĂ€r gas, framförallt vĂ€te-linjen vid 21 cm, som Ă€r synlig vid radiovĂ„glĂ€ngder. + +En stor mĂ€ngd astronomiska objekt Ă€r observerbara vid radiovĂ„glĂ€ngder, inklusive supernovor, interstellĂ€r gas, pulsarer och aktiva galaxkĂ€rnor. + +Infraröd astronomi + +Infraröd astronomi behandlar strĂ„lning frĂ„n rymden inom det infraröda spektrumet (vĂ„glĂ€ngder lĂ€ngre Ă€n rött ljus). Förutom vid vĂ„glĂ€ngder nĂ€ra synligt ljus absorberas den infraröda strĂ„lningen avsevĂ€rt av atmosfĂ€ren och denna skapar ocksĂ„ i sin tur betydande mĂ€ngder infraröd strĂ„lning. Som en följd av detta placeras observatorier för infraröd astronomi pĂ„ höga och torra platser eller om möjligt i rymden. Infraröd astronomi Ă€r sĂ€rskilt anvĂ€ndbart för observationer av galaktiska regioner som Ă€r dolda av rymdstoft, samt för studier av molekylĂ€ra gaser. + +Visuell astronomi + +Visuell astronomi, Ă€ven kallat optisk astronomi, Ă€r den Ă€ldsta formen av astronomi och behandlar observationer och analyser av synligt ljus. Optiska bilder ritades ursprungligen för hand. Under slutet av 1800-talet började man efterhand istĂ€llet anvĂ€nda fotografisk utrustning allt eftersom teknologin utvecklades. Moderna bilder tas med hjĂ€lp av digitala sensorer, speciellt sĂ„dana som anvĂ€nder CCD. Medan synligt ljus har vĂ„glĂ€ngder mellan ungefĂ€r 4000 Ă och 7000 Ă (400 nm till 700 nm) sĂ„ kan utrustning för optiskt ljus Ă€ven anvĂ€ndas för att observera vissa extrema vĂ„glĂ€ngder av ultraviolett och infrarött ljus. + +Ultraviolett astronomi + +Ultraviolett astronomi avser observationer gjorda vid ultravioletta vĂ„glĂ€ngder, mellan ungefĂ€r 100 och 3200 Ă . Ljus vid dessa vĂ„glĂ€ngder absorberas mycket starkt av jordens atmosfĂ€r, observationer av ultraviolett strĂ„lning mĂ„ste dĂ€rför göras frĂ„n den övre atmosfĂ€ren eller frĂ„n rymden. Dessa observationer Ă€r framförallt anvĂ€ndbara för att studera termisk strĂ„lning och spektrallinjer frĂ„n heta blĂ„ stjĂ€rnor (O-stjĂ€rnor och B-stjĂ€rnor, se spektraltyp) som Ă€r vĂ€ldigt ljusa vid dessa vĂ„glĂ€ngder. Detta inkluderar blĂ„ stjĂ€rnor i andra galaxer som har varit mĂ„let för flera ultravioletta studier. Andra objekt som ofta studeras i ultraviolett ljus Ă€r planetariska nebulosor, supernovarester och aktiva galaxkĂ€rnor. Men ultraviolett strĂ„lning absorberas lĂ€tt av interstellĂ€rt stoft och mĂ€tningar i ultraviolett ljus mĂ„ste korrigeras för denna sĂ„ kallade extinktion, eller utslĂ€ckning, av ljuset. + +Röntgenastronomi + +Röntgenastronomin studerar astronomiska objekt vid röntgenvĂ„glĂ€ngder. Vanligen sĂ€nder objekt ut röntgenstrĂ„lning som synkrotronstrĂ„lning, det vill sĂ€ga termisk strĂ„lning frĂ„n tunna gaser (bromsstrĂ„lning) som Ă€r upphettade till över 10 miljoner Kelvin, samt termisk strĂ„lning frĂ„n tĂ€ta gaser (svartkroppsstrĂ„lning) med samma temperatur. Eftersom röntgenstrĂ„lning absorberas av jordens atmosfĂ€r görs alla observationer vid dessa vĂ„glĂ€ngder frĂ„n den övre atmosfĂ€ren eller frĂ„n rymden. Betydande kĂ€llor till röntgenstrĂ„lning i rymden Ă€r röntgendubbelstjĂ€rnor, pulsarer, supernovarester, elliptiska galaxer, galaxhopar och aktiva galaxkĂ€rnor. + +Gammaastronomi + +Gammaastronomin behandlar studier av astronomiska objekt vid de kortaste vĂ„glĂ€ngderna av det elektromagnetiska spektrumet, gammastrĂ„lning. Dessa kan observeras direkt av satelliter som Compton Gamma Ray Observatory eller med hjĂ€lp av specialiserade teleskop kallade atmosfĂ€riska Cherenkovteleskop. Cherenkovteleskop detekterar egentligen inte gammastrĂ„lning direkt utan istĂ€llet de blixtar av synligt ljus som skapas nĂ€r gammastrĂ„lar absorberas av jordens atmosfĂ€r. + +De kraftigaste kĂ€nda kĂ€llorna till gammastrĂ„lning i rymden, sĂ„ kallade gammablixtar, sĂ€nder ut gammastrĂ„lning under en kort period pĂ„ mellan ett par millisekunder till ett par tusen sekunder innan de försvinner. Endast 10 procent av kĂ€llorna till gammastrĂ„lning Ă€r konstanta. Till dessa kĂ€llor hör pulsarer, neutronstjĂ€rnor och omgivningen till troliga svarta hĂ„l. + +Andra observationskĂ€llor + +Förutom via fotoner finns nĂ„gra ytterligare sĂ€tt att hĂ€mta information om avlĂ€gsna astronomiska objekt. + + Inom neutrinoastronomin som krĂ€ver störningsfri miljö har man anvĂ€nt sig av underjordiska anlĂ€ggningar, som SAGE och GALLEX. DĂ€r Ă€r KamiokaNDE II/III och IceCube de nu mest avancerade för att detektera det fĂ„tal neutriner som kan fĂ„ngas in. Dessa kommer frĂ€mst frĂ„n solen, men neutriner Ă€r Ă€ven supernovornas frĂ€msta yttring. + + Kosmisk strĂ„lning bestĂ„r av partiklar med vĂ€ldigt hög energi. De fĂ€rdas med nĂ€ra ljusets hastighet och har i mĂ„nga fall oförklarligt hög kinetisk energi (upp över 1020 eV), betydligt högre Ă€n vad som kan Ă„stadkommas i partikelacceleratorer (omkring 1012 till 1013 eV). Framtida neutrinodetektorer berĂ€knas kunna hitta neutriner som skapas nĂ€r kosmiska partiklar trĂ€ffar jordens atmosfĂ€r. + + Gravitationsastronomi Ă€r ett tentativt nytt fönster med gravitationsvĂ„gor som budbĂ€rare. Ett fĂ„tal gravitationsvĂ„gsdetektorer har byggts för att registrera dessa mycket smĂ„ störningar i rumtiden. Dessa Ă€r dock oerhört svĂ„ra att upptĂ€cka och den största anlĂ€ggningens LIGO internationella samarbete LSC sysslar Ă€n sĂ„ lĂ€nge med indirekta observationer. + + För objekt inom solsystemet har direkt undersökning av utomjordiskt material som transporterats till jorden kunnat genomföras. Materialet har antingen förts till jorden med hjĂ€lp av rymdfarkoster som de stenar Apolloprogrammet hĂ€mtade frĂ„n mĂ„nen, eller i form av meteoriter som har slagit ner pĂ„ jorden. Man har Ă€ven genomfört undersökningar pĂ„ plats med hjĂ€lp av robotar, till exempel Spirit, Opportunity och Phoenix pĂ„ Mars. + +Astrometri och celest mekanik + +Ett av de Ă€ldsta fĂ€lten inom astronomi, och inom vetenskap över huvud taget, Ă€r mĂ€tningar av positionerna hos objekt pĂ„ himlen. Genom historien har tillförlitlig kunskap om positionerna hos solen, mĂ„nen, planeterna och stjĂ€rnorna varit avgörande för astronomisk navigation. + +Noggranna mĂ€tningar av planeternas positioner och rörelser har lett till en gedigen förstĂ„else för gravitationella perturbationer (störningar av planeters och andra objekts omloppsbanor) och en förmĂ„ga att förutspĂ„ gĂ„ngna och framtida positioner hos planeterna med stor precision, ett underfĂ€lt som kallas celest mekanik. I modern tid görs sĂ„dana berĂ€kningar ofta för att förutspĂ„ eventuella kollisioner mellan jorden och sĂ„ kallade jordnĂ€ra objekt, det vill sĂ€ga asteroider, kometer och stora meteoroider vars bana för objektet farligt nĂ€ra jorden. + +UppmĂ€tningar av parallax, en metod dĂ€r man observerar ett föremĂ„l frĂ„n olika vinklar för att berĂ€kna avstĂ„ndet till föremĂ„let, hos nĂ€rliggande stjĂ€rnor har skapat en god grund för att förstĂ„ de kosmiska avstĂ„nden i universum. Genom dessa mĂ€tningar av nĂ€rliggande stjĂ€rnor kan man sedan avgöra avstĂ„nden Ă€ven till mer avlĂ€gsna stjĂ€rnor eftersom deras egenskaper kan jĂ€mföras. MĂ€tningar av radialhastighet och egenrörelse visar rörelserna hos dessa stjĂ€rnsystem i Vintergatan. Astrometriska resultat anvĂ€nds ocksĂ„ för att studera hur mörk materia, den mystiska form av materia som dominerar massan i universum, Ă€r fördelad i galaxen. + +Med början under 1990-talet anvĂ€ndes astrometriska tekniker för att upptĂ€cka exoplaneter runt nĂ€rliggande stjĂ€rnor. Idag har flera hundra sĂ„dana planeter upptĂ€ckts med hjĂ€lp av astrometrin. + +Teoretisk astronomi + +Den teoretiska astronomin har sina egna verktyg som anvĂ€nds i forskningen, bland annat analytiska modeller och numeriska simuleringar, för att till exempel skapa en modell över hur en stjĂ€rna utvecklas. Var och en har sina fördelar. Analytiska modeller av en process Ă€r generellt sett bĂ€ttre för att fĂ„ insikt i kĂ€rnan av vad som hĂ€nder. Numeriska modeller kan avslöja existensen av fenomen och effekter som annars inte skulle ha setts. + +Teoretiker inom astronomin strĂ€var efter att skapa teoretiska modeller och förutse de observationella konsekvenserna av dessa. Detta hjĂ€lper observatörerna inom den observationella astronomin att leta efter data som kan stödja eller avfĂ€rda de olika modellerna. Teoretikerna försöker ocksĂ„ modifiera modeller för att ta hĂ€nsyn till ny data. I de fall de upptĂ€cker en avvikelse försöker man generellt sett göra sĂ„ smĂ„ Ă€ndringar som möjligt pĂ„ modellen för att fĂ„ den att passa de nya data man har fĂ„tt. I vissa fall kan en större mĂ€ngd avvikande data leda till att en modell helt avfĂ€rdas och överges. + +Ămnen som studeras av teoretiska astronomer inkluderar olika aspekter av astrofysik och plasmafysik: stellĂ€r dynamik och utveckling; hur galaxer skapas och utvecklas; universums storskaliga struktur (fördelningen av materia i universum); ursprunget till kosmisk strĂ„lning; allmĂ€n relativitetsteori och kosmologi, inklusive strĂ€ngkosmologi och astropartikelfysik. + +Till vĂ€l accepterade och studerade teorier inom astronomin hör big bang, kosmisk inflation, mörk materia och grundlĂ€ggande teorier inom fysiken (se Ă€ven Lambda-CDM-modellen). + +Underavdelningar â olika objektomrĂ„den + +Solfysik + +Solfysiken behandlar solen som av förklarliga skĂ€l Ă€r den mest vĂ€lstuderade stjĂ€rnan. Den Ă€r en typisk huvudsekvensstjĂ€rna av spektraltyp G2V med en Ă„lder av ungefĂ€r 4,6 miljarder Ă„r. Solen anses inte vara en variabel stjĂ€rna, men den uppvisar Ă€ndĂ„ ett visst periodiskt beteende, den tydligaste av dessa Ă€r solflĂ€ckscykeln som Ă€r en 11-Ă„rig variation av antalet solflĂ€ckar. SolflĂ€ckar Ă€r regioner med en lĂ€gre Ă€n genomsnittlig temperatur och hör samman med intensiv magnetisk aktivitet. + +Solen har kontinuerligt ökat sin ljusstyrka under dess livstid, totalt sett med ungefĂ€r 40 procent sedan den bildades som en huvudsekvensstjĂ€rna. Solen genomgĂ„r ocksĂ„ periodiska förĂ€ndringar i luminositet som kan ha stor betydelse för jorden. Maunders minimum till exempel, en period mellan ungefĂ€r 1645 och 1715 med nĂ€stan inga solflĂ€ckar, anses vara en trolig orsak till den lilla istiden. + +Den synliga ytregionen av solen kallas fotosfĂ€ren. Ăver detta lager finns en tunn region kallad kromosfĂ€ren. Utanför denna finns en övergĂ„ngsregion av snabbt ökande temperatur ut till den extremt varma koronan. + +I solens mitt finns kĂ€rnregionen, ett omrĂ„de med tillrĂ€ckligt hög temperatur och tryck för att fusion ska ske. Utanför kĂ€rnan befinner sig strĂ„lningszonen, dĂ€r plasma transporterar energin ut mot ytan med hjĂ€lp av strĂ„lning. De yttersta lagren bildar en konvektionszon dĂ€r gasliknande material transporterar energin frĂ€mst genom fysisk förflyttning av gasen. Det anses att denna konvektion orsakar den starka magnetiska aktiviteten som ligger bakom solflĂ€ckarna. + +En solvind av plasmapartiklar strömmar konstant ut frĂ„n solen och fortsĂ€tter ut i rymden tills att den nĂ„r heliopausen. Denna solvind samverkar med jordens magnetosfĂ€r och skapar Van Allen-bĂ€ltena och Ă€ven polarsken dĂ€r linjerna hos jordens magnetfĂ€lt fĂ€rdas ner genom atmosfĂ€ren. + +PlanetĂ€r astronomi + +Det astronomiska fĂ€ltet planetĂ€r astronomi undersöker planeter, mĂ„nar, dvĂ€rgplaneter, kometer, asteroider och andra objekt som befinner sig i en bana runt solen, sĂ„vĂ€l som exoplaneter. Solsystemet har undersökts relativt vĂ€l, först med hjĂ€lp av allt mer avancerade teleskop och sedan frĂ€mst med hjĂ€lp av rymdsonder. Detta har gett oss en tĂ€mligen god förstĂ„else för hur solsystemet skapades och utvecklades, men mĂ„nga nya upptĂ€ckter görs stadigt och det finns stora frĂ„getecken kvar. + +Solsystemet delas ofta upp i de inre planeterna, asteroidbĂ€ltet och de yttre planeterna. De inre jordlika planeterna bestĂ„r av Merkurius, Venus, jorden och Mars. De yttre gasjĂ€ttarna Ă€r Jupiter, Saturnus, Uranus och Neptunus. Bortom Neptunus ligger KuiperbĂ€ltet och slutligen Oorts moln, vilket misstĂ€nks strĂ€cka sig sĂ„ lĂ„ngt ut som ett ljusĂ„r frĂ„n solen. + +Planeterna skapades ur en protoplanetĂ€r skiva som omringade den tidiga solen. Genom en process som inkluderade gravitation, kollisioner och ackretion bildade disken klumpar av materia som, efterhand, utvecklades vidare till protoplaneter. StrĂ„lningstrycket frĂ„n solvinden tryckte sedan bort större delen av den materia som Ă€nnu inte samlats upp och bara de största planeterna lyckades behĂ„lla sina stora gasatmosfĂ€rer som de samlat pĂ„ sig. Planeterna fortsatte att samla upp, eller kasta ivĂ€g, kvarvarande materia under en mycket intensiv period med talrika kollisioner, vilket man Ă€n idag kan se spĂ„r av i form av nedslagskratrar pĂ„ vissa objekt i solsystemet. Under denna period kolliderade en del av protoplaneterna med varandra vilket bland annat tros ha skapat mĂ„nen i en kollision mellan jorden och den hypotetiska planeten Theia. + +NĂ€r en planet har uppnĂ„tt tillrĂ€ckligt stor massa pĂ„börjas en process i dess inre som segregerar material beroende pĂ„ densitet, nĂ„got som kallas planetĂ€r differentiering. Denna process kan bilda en sten- eller metallrik kĂ€rna omringad av en mantel och en yttre yta. KĂ€rnan kan innehĂ„lla bĂ„de fasta och flytande regioner och vissa planetkĂ€rnor, till exempel jordens, orsakar ett eget magnetfĂ€lt som skyddar dess atmosfĂ€r frĂ„n solvinden. + +En planets eller mĂ„nes interna vĂ€rme skapades frĂ„n de kollisioner som bildade himlakroppen, radioaktiva Ă€mnen som uran och torium samt genom tidvattenkrafter. Vissa planeter och mĂ„nar har tillrĂ€ckligt hög inre temperatur för att driva geologiska processer som vulkanism och tektonik. De som bildar eller behĂ„ller en atmosfĂ€r kan ocksĂ„ genomgĂ„ erosion pĂ„ dess yta frĂ„n vind eller vatten. Mindre himlakroppar, utan tidvattenkrafter, kyls ner relativt snabbt och deras geologiska aktiviteter begrĂ€nsas till nedslag av andra objekt. + +StjĂ€rnfysik + +Studier av stjĂ€rnor och dess utveckling Ă€r grundlĂ€ggande för att vi ska förstĂ„ universum. Astrofysiken hos stjĂ€rnorna har kartlagts genom observationer och teoretiska modeller, samt datorsimuleringar av dess inre. Solfysiken (se ovan) kan anses vara en del av stjĂ€rnfysiken. + +StjĂ€rnor bildas i omrĂ„den med förhĂ„llandevis stora tĂ€theter av gas och rymdstoft, kallade mörka nebulosor. NĂ€r dessa moln av ett eller annat skĂ€l störs kan delar av molnen förlora sin stabilitet och kollapsa pĂ„ grund av gravitationen och bilda en protostjĂ€rna. I den tĂ€ta och varma kĂ€rnregionen pĂ„börjas fusion och pĂ„ sĂ„ sĂ€tt har en huvudsekvensstjĂ€rna bildats. + +Det som avgör typen av stjĂ€rna Ă€r frĂ€mst dess massa. En stjĂ€rna med hög massa har motsvarande högre luminositet (ljusstyrka) och snabbare förbrukning av vĂ€tet i kĂ€rnan vilket fĂ„r den att Ă„ldras snabbare. Efterhand har allt vĂ€te i kĂ€rnan omvandlats till helium och stjĂ€rnan övergĂ„r till nĂ€sta fas, fusion av helium. Detta krĂ€ver en högre temperatur och fĂ„r stjĂ€rnan att öka i storlek och kĂ€rnan i densitet. StjĂ€rnan kallas nu en röd jĂ€tte som endast överlever en kort period innan Ă€ven heliumet Ă€r slut. VĂ€ldigt massiva stjĂ€rnor kan fortsĂ€tta fusionera allt tyngre Ă€mnen Ă€nda fram till att en massiv jĂ€rnkĂ€rna har bildats. Vidare fusion Ă€r endotermisk vilket innebĂ€r att den krĂ€ver energi istĂ€llet för att frigöra energi och processen kan dĂ€rmed inte fortsĂ€tta. + +Det slutgiltiga ödet hos stjĂ€rnan beror Ă€ven det pĂ„ dess massa. Mindre stjĂ€rnor bildar planetĂ€ra nebulosor och utvecklas till vita dvĂ€rgar. För stjĂ€rnor med större Ă€n ungefĂ€r Ă„tta gĂ„nger solens massa kommer dess kĂ€rna att kollapsa nĂ€r brĂ€nslet Ă€r slut vilket orsakar en supernovaexplosion. Restprodukten av en sĂ„dan explosion Ă€r en neutronstjĂ€rna, eller om stjĂ€rnan hade en massa pĂ„ över omkring 20 solmassor, ett svart hĂ„l. I dessa explosioner bildas Ă€ven de Ă€mnen som Ă€r tyngre Ă€n jĂ€rn. + +NĂ€rliggande dubbelstjĂ€rnor kan följa ett mer komplicerat utvecklingsmönster, som överföring av materia till en vit dvĂ€rg vilket ibland kan orsaka en supernova typ Ia. PlanetĂ€ra nebulosor och supernovor Ă€r nödvĂ€ndiga för skapandet och spridningen av metaller och andra tyngre Ă€mnen till den interstellĂ€ra rymden. Utan denna process skulle alla nya stjĂ€rnor, och deras planetsystem, helt bestĂ„ av vĂ€te och helium (samt mindre mĂ€ngder litium), de Ă€mnen som funnits sedan big bang. + +Galaktisk astronomi +Galaktisk astronomi handlar om Vintergatan, den galax som solsystemet befinner sig i. Vintergatan Ă€r en stavgalax och en av de framtrĂ€dande medlemmarna av den Lokala galaxhopen. En galax Ă€r en enorm roterande massa av gas, stoft, stjĂ€rnor och andra objekt som hĂ„lls samman av en gemensam gravitationskraft. Eftersom jorden befinner sig i de stoftrika yttre armarna Ă€r stora delar av Vintergatan dold för observationer. + +I Vintergatans centrum finns en kĂ€rna, en stavformad bula som tros ha ett supermassivt svart hĂ„l i mitten. Denna kĂ€rna omges av fyra stora armar som gĂ„r ut som en spiral frĂ„n detta centrum. I dessa regioner bildas stora mĂ€ngder stjĂ€rnor och de innehĂ„ller mĂ„nga yngre population I-stjĂ€rnor. Disken omges av en halo med Ă€ldre population II-stjĂ€rnor sĂ„vĂ€l som större mĂ€ngder av relativt tĂ€ta koncentrationer av stjĂ€rnor, sĂ„ kallade stjĂ€rnhopar. + +Mellan stjĂ€rnorna finns det interstellĂ€ra mediet, en region med sparsamma mĂ€ngder materia. I de tĂ€taste regionerna kan molekylmoln av vĂ€te och andra Ă€mnen bilda omrĂ„den dĂ€r nya stjĂ€rnor kan bildas. Dessa börjar som en oregelbunden mörk nebulosa som koncentreras och kollapsar (i volymer som avgörs av Jeans-lĂ€ngden) och bildar kompakta protostjĂ€rnor. + +Allt eftersom fler massiva stjĂ€rnor bildas omvandlar de molnet till en H II-region av glödande gas och plasma. StjĂ€rnvinden och supernovaexplosioner frĂ„n dessa stjĂ€rnor kommer till slut att skingra molnet vilket lĂ€mnar bakom sig en eller flera unga öppna stjĂ€rnhopar av stjĂ€rnor. Dessa hopar skingrar sig med tiden och stjĂ€rnorna sprids ut bland alla andra stjĂ€rnor i Vintergatan. + +Kinematiska studier av materian i Vintergatan och andra galaxer har visat att det finns mer massa Ă€n vad den synliga materian kan stĂ„ för. En halo med mörk materia tycks dominera massan, men vad denna massa bestĂ„r av Ă€r Ă€nnu okĂ€nt. + +Utomgalaktisk astronomi + +Studier av objekt utanför vĂ„r egen galax Ă€r en gren av astronomin som behandlar hur galaxer bildas, deras morfologi och klassificering, undersökningar av aktiva galaxer samt galaxhopar. Detta Ă€r viktigt för att förstĂ„ universums storskaliga struktur. + +De flesta galaxerna delas in efter distinkta former i ett klassifikationssystem. De vanligaste Ă€r spiralgalaxer, elliptiska och oregelbundna galaxer. + +Som namnet antyder har en elliptisk galax formen av en ellips. StjĂ€rnorna rör sig lĂ€ngs med slumpmĂ€ssiga banor utan nĂ„gon dominerande riktning. Dessa galaxer innehĂ„ller förhĂ„llandevis lite interstellĂ€rt stoft, fĂ„ regioner dĂ€r stjĂ€rnor fortfarande bildas och generellt sett mest Ă€ldre stjĂ€rnor. Elliptiska galaxer finns oftast i kĂ€rnan av galaxhopar och tros bildas genom sammanslagningar av andra galaxer. + +En spiralgalax Ă€r en galax med en platt roterande disk, vanligen med en bula eller stav i mitten, och efterslĂ€pande spiralarmar utĂ„t. Dessa armar Ă€r stoftrika regioner dĂ€r stora unga stjĂ€rnor ger omrĂ„det en blĂ„aktig ton. Spiralgalaxer Ă€r vanligen omgivna av en halo med Ă€ldre stjĂ€rnor. SĂ„vĂ€l Vintergatan som Andromedagalaxen Ă€r spiralgalaxer. + +Oregelbundna galaxer har ett kaotiskt utseende och Ă€r vare sig spiralformade eller elliptiska. UngefĂ€r en fjĂ€rdedel av alla galaxer Ă€r oregelbundna och dessa former kan vara orsakade av gravitationell pĂ„verkan mellan olika galaxer. + +En aktiv galax sĂ€nder ut en betydande andel av sin energi frĂ„n andra kĂ€llor Ă€n stjĂ€rnor, stoft och gas. De drivs av en kompakt region i kĂ€rnan, vanligen ansedd centrerad kring ett supermassivt svart hĂ„l som sĂ€nder ut strĂ„lning frĂ„n infallande material. + +Kosmologi + +Kosmologi (frĂ„n grekiskans ÎșÎżÏÎŒÎżÏ "vĂ€rld, universum" och Î»ÎżÎłÎżÏ "ord, studie") kan anses vara studien av universum som en helhet. + +Observationer av storskaliga strukturer hos universum har lett till att man tror sig veta ungefĂ€r hur universum har utvecklats och hur det kan ha skapats. GrundlĂ€ggande i modern kosmologi Ă€r den vĂ€l accepterade teorin om big bang, dĂ€r universum uppstod frĂ„n en enskild punkt i tiden och dĂ€refter expanderade över 13,7 miljarder Ă„r till det universum vi ser idag. Tanken bakom big bang hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n upptĂ€ckten av den kosmiska bakgrundsstrĂ„lningen 1965. + +Under denna expansion anser man sig kunna identifiera flera evolutionĂ€ra steg och den moderna kosmologiska standardmodellen har döpts till Lambda-CDM-modellen. I dess tidigaste ögonblick tros universum ha expanderat extremt snabbt genom en kosmisk inflation, vilken homogeniserade startförhĂ„llandena. DĂ€refter skapade nukleosyntes det tidiga universumets första lĂ€tta grundĂ€mnen. NĂ€r de första atomerna skapats blev rymden genomskinlig för elektromagnetisk strĂ„lning, vilket frigjorde den energi som idag kan ses som bakgrundsstrĂ„lning. Det expanderande universumet genomgick nu en Mörk tid pĂ„ grund av avsaknaden av stjĂ€rnor. + +FrĂ„n extremt smĂ„ skillnader i tĂ€theter av materia samlades massa efterhand ihop och bildade moln av gas, ur vilka de första stjĂ€rnorna bildades. Dessa supertunga stjĂ€rnor orsakade en Ă„terjoniseringsprocess och tros ha bildat mĂ„nga av de tyngre Ă€mnena i det tidiga universumet. Efterhand samlades dessa materiahopar i filament, med tom rymd emellan. Gradvis organiserades gas och stoft och bildade de första primitiva galaxerna. Genom historien har dessa samlat pĂ„ sig mer materia och ofta i sin tur förts ihop till galaxhopar som samlas i storskaliga superkluster. + +GrundlĂ€ggande för universums struktur Ă€r existensen av mörk materia och mörk energi. Dessa anses numera vara de dominerande komponenterna i universum och stĂ„ för 96 procent av all densitet. Av den anledningen lĂ€ggs mycket möda ner pĂ„ att förstĂ„ dessa komponenters fysik, Ă€n sĂ„ lĂ€nge med fĂ„ avgörande resultat. Denna och andra oklarheter i standardmodellen gör att ett fĂ„tal forskare fortfarande söker utveckla alternativa modeller, sĂ„vĂ€l mer kompletta som oftare behandlande enstaka företeelser, sĂ„ kallade ad hoc-modeller. Bland de senare har en av de mer kĂ€nda fĂ„tt namnet MOND (MOdified Newtonian Dynamics), som istĂ€llet menar att gravitationen i vissa situationer inte fungerar som vi förvĂ€ntar oss. + +Rymdfart + +Rymdfart Ă€r tillĂ€mpandet av astronomi och rymdteknologi för att utforska rymden. Fysisk utforskning av rymden genomförs bĂ„de med bemannade rymdfĂ€rder och av obemannade rymdsonder. + +Observationer av objekt i rymden har pĂ„gĂ„tt lĂ€ngre Ă€n den nedskrivna historien. Det var dock först under 1900-talet dĂ„ stora raketmotorer utvecklades som det blev möjligt att skicka objekt och mĂ€nniskor utanför jordens atmosfĂ€r. Motiveringen till att nĂ„ ut i rymden har varit utvecklandet av vetenskapen, enande av olika lĂ€nder, att försĂ€kra mĂ€nniskans överlevnad och att utveckla militĂ€ra fördelar över andra lĂ€nder. Vanlig kritik mot rymdfarten Ă€r att kostnaderna Ă€r höga och sĂ€kerheten lĂ„g. + +Rymdfarten anvĂ€ndes under kalla kriget som en arena för USA och Sovjetunionen att visa upp sin styrka och tekniska kunnande. Denna period anses har börjat med uppskjutningen av den sovjetiska satelliten Sputnik 1 den 4 oktober 1957, och slutat med den första mĂ„nlandningen av amerikanska Apollo 11 den 20 juli 1969. Det sovjetiska rymdprogrammet nĂ„dde mĂ„nga av dess stora triumfer under ledning av Sergej Koroljov och Kerim Kerimov, inklusive uppskjutningen av den första mĂ€nniskan i rymden (Jurij Gagarin ombord Vostok 1) Ă„r 1961, den första rymdpromenaden (av Aleksej Leonov) Ă„r 1965 och konstruktionen av den första rymdstationen (Saljut 1) Ă„r 1971. De första föremĂ„len konstruerade av mĂ€nniskan att nĂ„ rymden var dock Nazitysklands V2-raketer, vilket de gjorde redan under andra vĂ€rldskriget. Efter kalla krigets slut har rymdfarten varit mera inriktad pĂ„ samarbete mellan lĂ€nder, till exempel med den internationella rymdstationen, men pĂ„ senare tid har lĂ€nder som Indien och Kina visat en ökad vilja att sjĂ€lva demonstrera sitt tekniska kunnande genom att utföra uppdrag i rymden. + +Vetenskapligt sett har de obemannade rymdsonderna, robotarna och satelliterna gett astronomin ovĂ€rderliga data, vilket snabbt utvecklat kunskaperna om universum och framförallt solsystemet. Samtliga planeter i solsystemet har fĂ„tt besök av rymdsonder. KĂ€nda uppdrag ut i solsystemet Ă€r till exempel de sovjetiska Venerasonderna som kartlade Venus, de amerikanska tvillingrobotarna Spirit och Opportunity som har undersökt Mars yta lĂ€ngre Ă€n nĂ„gon trodde att de skulle överleva, europeiska Cassini-Huygens som gett oss omfattande kunskap om Saturnus och dess mĂ„nar, samt inte minst de berömda Voyagersonderna som har tagit bilder pĂ„ de yttre planeterna och nu Ă€r pĂ„ vĂ€g att lĂ€mna solsystemet. Satelliter som har placerats i en bana runt jorden har Ă€ven dessa bidragit mycket, inte minst har sĂ„ kallade jordresurssatelliter gett oss stora kunskaper om sjĂ€lva jorden, men Ă€ven de mest avlĂ€gsna delarna av universum kartlĂ€ggs frĂ„n jordbundna satelliter, den mest kĂ€nda Ă€r förstĂ„s Rymdteleskopet Hubble. + +InterdisciplinĂ€ra Ă€mnen +Astronomi och astrofysik har utvecklat flera betydande interdisciplinĂ€ra studier som sammankopplar astronomi med andra stora vetenskapliga fĂ€lt. Till dessa hör: + + Astrobiologi: LĂ€ran om uppkomsten och utvecklingen av biologiska system i universum. + Arkeoastronomi: LĂ€ran om historisk eller traditionell astronomi i dess kulturella sammanhang, vilken anvĂ€nder sig av arkeologiska och antropologiska bevis. + Astrokemi: LĂ€ran om de kemiska Ă€mnena som finns i rymden, vanligen i molekylmoln, och dess skapelse, samverkan och förstörelse. + Astrofysik: LĂ€ran om fysikaliska Ă€mnena. + Kosmokemi: LĂ€ran om de kemiska Ă€mnena som finns inom solsystemet, inkluderande dess ursprung och variationer av mĂ€ngden hos olika isotoper. + +Amatörastronomi + +Amatörastronomer observerar en stor mĂ€ngd objekt och fenomen pĂ„ himlen, ibland med utrustning de sjĂ€lva har konstruerat. Vanliga mĂ„l för amatörastronomer Ă€r mĂ„nen, planeter, kometer, meteorskurar, stjĂ€rnor, stjĂ€rnhopar, galaxer och nebulosor. En gren av amatörastronomin, amatörastrofotografi, handlar om att ta bilder av natthimlen. MĂ„nga amatörer tycker om att specialisera sig pĂ„ specifika objekt, typer av objekt eller typer av hĂ€ndelser som intresserar dem. + +De flesta amatörer arbetar med synliga vĂ„glĂ€ngder, men ett mindre antal experimenterar med vĂ„glĂ€ngder utanför det synliga spektrumet. Det kan till exempel handla om infraröda filter pĂ„ vanliga teleskop och Ă€ven bruket av radioteleskop. PionjĂ€ren bland amatörradioastronomerna var Karl Jansky som började observera himlen vid radiovĂ„glĂ€ngder under 1930-talet. Amatörastronomer anvĂ€nder antingen hemmagjorda radioteleskop eller sĂ„dana som ursprungligen konstruerades för forskning, men som nu Ă€r tillgĂ€ngliga för allmĂ€nheten (till exempel One-Mile Telescope). + +Amatörastronomerna fortsĂ€tter Ă€n idag att göra viktiga vetenskapliga bidrag till astronomin. Det Ă€r en av fĂ„ vetenskapliga discipliner dĂ€r amatörer fortfarande kan bidra i större omfattning. En vanlig uppgift som amatörastronomer tar pĂ„ sig Ă€r att spana efter okĂ€nda kometer och asteroider samt att genomföra regelbundna studier av variabla stjĂ€rnor. + +Astronomins olösta frĂ„gor +Ăven om astronomin har gjort enorma framsteg med förstĂ„elsen av universum och dess innehĂ„ll sĂ„ kvarstĂ„r vissa viktiga olösta frĂ„gor. För att svara pĂ„ dessa kan det krĂ€vas konstruktion av nya mark- eller rymdbaserade instrument och nya framsteg inom teoretisk och experimentell fysik. + Hur uppstod universum? Vilka processer var det som gav upphov till Big Bang? + Vilken Ă€r orsaken till stjĂ€rnornas masspektrum? Det vill sĂ€ga, varför observeras samma fördelning av stjĂ€rnors massa var man Ă€n observerar, till synes oavsett startförhĂ„llandena? En djupare förstĂ„else för hur stjĂ€rnor och planeter bildas behövs. + Finns det utomjordiskt liv i universum? Framförallt, finns det annat intelligent liv? Existensen av liv utanför jorden Ă€r av avgörande vetenskaplig och filosofisk betydelse. + Vad Ă€r egentligen mörk materia och mörk energi? Dessa dominerar universums utveckling och öde, men vi vet fortfarande inte vad det Ă€r. + Varför har de fysikaliska konstanterna de vĂ€rden de har? Finns det oĂ€ndligt mĂ„nga universum med oĂ€ndligt mĂ„nga uppsĂ€ttningar konstanter och vi bara rĂ„kar finnas i ett som tillĂ„ter liv och dĂ€rför kan fundera pĂ„ frĂ„gan? Vad orsakade den kosmiska inflationen som skapade vĂ„rt homogena universum? + Vad Ă€r universums slutgiltiga öde? + +Se Ă€ven + +Referenser + +Oldid: Kapitel: Observationell astronomi, teoretisk astronomi, underfĂ€lt av astronomin för specifika astronomiska objekt, interdisciplinĂ€ra studier, amatörastronomi, Kapitel: Astronomins historia Kapitel: Lexikologi, astronomins olösta frĂ„gor + +Oldid: Kapitel: Rymdfart + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Astronomy Picture of the Day + Stockholms Observatorium - Astronomiska termer + Uppsala Astronomical Observatory + Astronomy Notes + + +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +Asien Ă€r jordens största och mest folkrika vĂ€rldsdel. Sedan 1700-talet har grĂ€nsen mellan Europa och Asien vanligen ansetts gĂ„ genom Uralbergen, Uralfloden, Kaspiska havet, Kaukasus, Svarta havet, Bosporen, Marmarasjön och Dardanellerna. GrĂ€nsen mellan Asien och Afrika anses normalt vara SueznĂ€set och Röda havet. Omkring 62 procent av vĂ€rldens befolkning bor i Asien, varav enbart kring 3 procent bor i norra och innersta delen, det vill sĂ€ga Mongoliet, de centralasiatiska lĂ€nderna Kazakstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kirgizistan och Tadzjikistan, de kinesiska provinserna Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai och ryska Sibirien. + +DĂ„ vĂ€rldsdelar delvis definieras genom kulturgeografi, det vill sĂ€ga pĂ„ grundval av kulturell samhörighet, och inte genom geologi, rĂ„der det en skillnad mellan Asien som vĂ€rldsdel och som geografisk kontinent. Asien och Europa befinner sig pĂ„ samma kontinent och denna heter Eurasien. VĂ€rldsdelen Asien omfattar en del av den Eurasiatiska kontinenten, nĂ€rmare bestĂ€mt ett omrĂ„de frĂ„n Sinaihalvön, Turkiet och Uralbergen i vĂ€ster till Berings Sund, Japan, Taiwan, Filippinerna och Indonesien i öster. + +IdĂ©n om att den gamla vĂ€rlden har tre kontinenter gĂ„r tillbaka till antiken. Namnet Asien hĂ€rleds frĂ„n de urĂ„ldriga civilisationerna i Mellanöstern. Asien var under Romarriket benĂ€mning pĂ„ en romersk provins som lĂ„g i dagens Turkiet. Betydelsen för namnet Asien har senare kommit att utstrĂ€ckas till att omfatta hela omrĂ„det frĂ„n Sinaihalvön, Turkiet och Uralbergen i vĂ€ster till Berings sund, Japan, Taiwan, Filippinerna och Indonesien i öster. + +Etymologi +Ordet Asien kommer via latin frĂ„n den antika grekiskans ÎÏία, ett namn som för första gĂ„ngen nedtecknades cirka 440 f.Kr. av Herodotos. Under Antiken refererade Asien till Mindre Asien (varav en del utgjorde den romerska provinsen Asia) eller för att beskriva Persiska riket. Ăven tidigare kĂ€nde Homeros till en trojansk allierad vid namn Asios Hyrtakides, som var son till Hyrtacus, som var en regent över flera stĂ€der. Homeros beskriver Ă€ven ett trĂ€sk vid namn αÏÎčÎżÏ i Iliaden. Den grekiska termen Ă€r möjligen tagen frĂ„n Assuwa, som var en konfederation av stater i vĂ€stra Anatolien under 1300-talet f.Kr. Det hettitiska prefixet assu- (bra) spelade förmodligen in dĂ€r. + +En annan teori Ă€r att ordet kommer frĂ„n det akkadiska ordet (w)aáčŁĂ»(m), beslĂ€ktat med hebreiska ŚŚŠŚ, som betyder "att gĂ„ ut", eller "att stiga", som refererar till solens riktning vid soluppgĂ„ng, vilket kan kontrasteras till den liknande etymologin för Europa, dĂ€r det semitiska ordet erÄbu, som innebĂ€r solens nedgĂ„ng. Dessa etymologier förutsĂ€tter ett Mellanöstern-perspektiv. + +En tredje teori Ă€r det assyriska ordet "asu", som betyder öst, till skillnad frĂ„n det feniciska ordet "ereb" för Europa. + +Först frĂ„n omkring 1800 kom ordet att anvĂ€ndas för hela kontinenten, inklusive Kina och Sibirien â det var ocksĂ„ först frĂ„n mitten av 1700-talet som europĂ©erna fĂ„tt en klarare uppfattning om de viktigaste dragen i vĂ€rldsdelens geografi, till exempel kusterna i norr, de större floderna och klimatet pĂ„ olika hĂ„ll. Före denna tid anvĂ€ndes "Indien" som en allmĂ€n beteckning pĂ„ hela omrĂ„det frĂ„n Indus till Filippinerna, och lĂ€nderna norr dĂ€rom â Kina, Japan, Tibet och Mongoliet â var i praktiken helt stĂ€ngda för europĂ©erna. + +Geografi + +Natur +Asien Ă€r till ytan vĂ€rldens största vĂ€rldsdel, och upptar tvĂ„ tredjedelar av superkontinenten Eurasien, som förutom Asien Ă€ven bestĂ„r av Europa. GrĂ€nsen mellan vĂ€rldsdelarna gĂ„r frĂ„n Uralbergen och utmed Kaspiska havets kust, förbi Kaukasusbergen och genom Bosporensundet i Turkiet. + +Asien inrymmer en stor geografisk mĂ„ngfald. De norra delarna, frĂ€mst Sibirien, visar flera sĂ„vĂ€l geografiska som geologiska likheter med Nordamerika och norra Europa, och utgörs av tundra, myrar, barrskogar (taigan), sjöar och bergskedjor, och den lĂ„nga kusten mot Norra ishavet i norr Ă€r starkt pĂ„verkad av den arktiska inlandsisen, som bildat trĂ„nga vikar, fjordar, skĂ€rgĂ„rdar och myrmarker. + +Söder om taigan finns den eurasiska stĂ€ppen, ett stort slĂ€ttland med inlandsklimat, grĂ€s- och buskvegetation och sparsamt med trĂ€d. + +VĂ€rldens högsta bergskedja, Himalaya, bildades genom att den indiska subkontinenten fördes norrut av kontinentaldriften och kolliderade med den eurasiska kontinenten. + +Sjöar +VĂ€rldens största insjö, Kaspiska havet Ă€r endorheisk (har inga utflöden) och Ă€r belĂ€gen pĂ„ grĂ€nsen mellan Asien och Europa, mellan lĂ€nderna Iran, Azerbajdzjan, Ryssland, Kazakstan och Turkmenistan. Maxdjupet i sjön Ă€r cirka 1 025 meter. Dess vatten Ă€r brĂ€ckt med en salthalt pĂ„ ungefĂ€r en tredjedel av den hos havsvatten. +Kaspiska havet Ă€r jordens största insjö, med en yta pĂ„ 374 000 kvadratkilometer och en volym pĂ„ 78 200 kubikkilometer. + +Bajkalsjön i södra Sibirien Ă€r Eurasiens nĂ€st största sjö och vĂ€rldens djupaste insjö med ett största djup pĂ„ 1642 meter. Den innehĂ„ller sötvatten och tack vare sitt djup Ă€r den vĂ€rldens största sötvattensjö sett till volymen. Den innehĂ„ller runt 20 procent av vĂ€rldens sötvatten som Ă€r tillgĂ€ngligt som ytvatten. Bajkalsjön ligger pĂ„ en höjd av 455 meter över havet. Den finns pĂ„ Unescos lista över vĂ€rldsarv sedan 1996 pĂ„ grund av sin rika och delvis endemiska flora och fauna. + +Asiens tredje största sjö Ă€r Balchashsjön i Kazakstan. Aralsjön mellan Kazakstan och Uzbekistan var tidigare Asiens andra och jordens fjĂ€rde största insjö men har till stor del torkat ut. + +Floder +FrĂ„n Himalaya och den tibetanska högplatĂ„n rinner stora floder i alla riktningar. Yangtze i Kina Ă€r Asiens lĂ€ngsta flod och rinner ut i Ăstkinesiska havet nĂ€ra Shanghai. Gula floden rinner genom norra Kina och mynnar ut i Bohaihavet. Mekong rinner söderut genom en rad lĂ€nder och mynnar ut i Sydkinesiska havet söder om Ho Chi Minh-staden i Vietnam. Indus, Ganges och Bramaputra rinner upp mycket nĂ€ra varandra och tar olika vĂ€gar genom den indiska subkontinenten ut i olika delar av Indiska oceanen. + +FrĂ„n bergen i norra Mongoliet rinner Ob, Irtysj, och Jenisej och frĂ„n Bajkalssjön Lena norrut genom Sibirien mot Norra ishavet. Amur rinner österut i grĂ€nslandet mellan Sibirien och norra Kina. + +Berg +Jordens tre högsta bergstoppar finns i bergskedjan Himalaya: Mount Everest (8 848 meter över havet) pĂ„ grĂ€nsen mellan Kina och Nepal, K2 i Kashmir (8 611 meter över havet) och Kangchenjunga (8 586 meter över havet) pĂ„ grĂ€nsen mellan Indien och Nepal. + +Bildexempel pĂ„ naturtyper: + +OmrĂ„den + +Norra Asien + +Denna term Ă€r ovanlig hos geografer men refererar oftast till Rysslands asiatiska del, som Ă€r mer kĂ€nd som Sibirien. Ibland inkluderas Ă€ven norra delar av andra asiatiska lĂ€nder, sĂ„som Kazakstan, i norra Asien. + +Centralasien + +Det finns ingen absolut definition pĂ„ hur denna term ska anvĂ€ndas. Generellt syftar Centralasien pĂ„: + de forna sovjetiska centralasiatiska staterna, det vill sĂ€ga Kazakstan (förutom delen av landet som ligger i Europa), Uzbekistan, Tadzjikistan, Turkmenistan och Kirgizistan. + Mongoliet, Inre Mongoliet, Xinjiang och Tibet i vĂ€stra Kina. + Afghanistan inkluderas ibland. + före detta sovjetstater i asiatiska Kaukasien (inkluderas sĂ€llan). + Iran inkluderas ibland. + Pakistan inkluderas sĂ€llan. + +Ăstasien + +OmrĂ„det kallas Ă€ven FjĂ€rran östern. Detta omrĂ„de inkluderar: + Ănationerna Taiwan och Japan i Stilla havet. + Nord- och Sydkorea pĂ„ Koreahalvön. + Kina men ibland enbart dess östra delar (se ovan). + +Ibland inkluderas Ă€ven Mongoliet och Vietnam i Ăstasien. I mer informella sammanhang inkluderas Ă€ven ibland Sydostasien i begreppet Ăstasien. + +Sydostasien + +Denna region inkluderar Malackahalvön, Indokina samt öar i Indiska oceanen och Stilla havet. Staterna regionen inkluderar Ă€r: + I Indokina; Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Kambodja och Vietnam. + Malaysia, Brunei, Filippinerna, Singapore, Indonesien och Ăsttimor. Staten Malaysia delas i tvĂ„ av Sydkinesiska havet, och har dĂ€rmed bĂ„de en del pĂ„ fastlandet och en ödel (pĂ„ Borneo). + +Sydasien (eller Indiska halvön) + +Sydasien kallas ibland Indiska halvön. Regionen inkluderar: + staterna runt Himalaya, nĂ€mligen Indien, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan och Bangladesh. + östaterna i Indiska oceanen, Sri Lanka och Maldiverna. +Afghanistan inkluderas ibland. + +SydvĂ€stasien (eller VĂ€stra Asien) +Denna region kallas Ă€ven Mellanöstern, som Ă€r en vanligare term i Europa och Amerika. SydvĂ€stasien inkluderar: + Anatolien (Mindre Asien), som utgörs av Turkiet. + Irak. + Levanten, som inkluderar Syrien, Libanon, Israel, Palestina och Jordanien. + Ăstaten Cypern i Medelhavet. + Sinaihalvön, den asiatiska delen av Egypten. + Arabiska halvön, som inkluderar Saudiarabien, Kuwait, Förenade Arabemiraten, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman och Jemen. + Kaukasusregionen, som inkluderar Armenien, en liten bit av Ryssland, och nĂ€stan hela Azerbajdzjan. + Iranska platĂ„n, som inkluderar Iran och delar av andra stater. +Afghanistan inkluderas ibland. + +Historia + +Asien var den andra kontinent som nĂ„ddes av mĂ€nniskan, som hade sitt ursprung i Afrika. Det var ocksĂ„ i Asien de första stadskulturerna uppstod - i Mesopotamien, Indusdalen, Persien och Kina. + +Ekonomi + +RĂ€knat efter köpkraftsbaserad BNP Ă€r Asiens största ekonomi Japan. Efter Ă„r 2000 har Japans, Kinas och Indiens ekonomier varit stadda i kraftig tillvĂ€xt, och alla tre har ofta noterat en Ă„rlig tillvĂ€xt pĂ„ över 6 procent. Ă r 2020 var Kina efter USA vĂ€rldens största ekonomi, följt av Japan, Tyskland och Indien som vĂ€rldens tredje, fjĂ€rde och femte största ekonomier. RĂ€knat efter nominell BNP Ă€r Kina Asiens största nationella ekonomi och vĂ€rldens nĂ€st största. + +Ekonomisk tillvĂ€xt i Asien mellan slutet av andra vĂ€rldskriget och 1990-talet var koncentrerad till lĂ€nderna kring Stilla havet samt oljelĂ€nderna i sydvĂ€st, och det Ă€r först pĂ„ senare Ă„r stark tillvĂ€xt spridits Ă€ven till andra regioner. Under slutet av 1980-talet och det tidiga 1990-talet var Japans ekonomi nĂ€stan lika stor som resten av kontinentens tillsammans. 1995 var Japans ekonomi (dvs dess inhemska omsĂ€ttning av pengar och dess produktion) nĂ€stan i nivĂ„ med USA:s, efter att den japanska valutan stigit till sitt högsta vĂ€rde nĂ„gonsin. Sedan dess har dock Japans valuta stabiliserats och Kina har vuxit till att bli Asiens största ekonomi, följt av Japan och sedan antingen Sydkorea eller Indien pĂ„ tredje plats, beroende av vilken kĂ€lla som anvĂ€nds. + +Asiens sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndiga stater i alfabetisk ordning +Enligt Förenta Nationernas indelning tillhör följande stater Asien: + +SĂ€rskilda omrĂ„den + KRG - Kurdistans regionala regering i södra Kurdistan (Norra Irak) + Brittiska territoriet i Indiska oceanen + Hongkong + Macao + Palestinska myndigheten + Nordcypern + +Stater tillhörande vissa europeiska politiska organisationer + Armenien: medlem av EuroparĂ„det + Azerbajdzjan: medlem av EuroparĂ„det + Cypern: medlem av EU + Turkiet: medlem av EuroparĂ„det + +Europeiska stater med yta i Asien + Ryssland: asiatiska Ryssland + Storbritannien: Akrotiri och Dhekelia och Brittiska territoriet i Indiska oceanen inklusive ön Diego Garcia + +Se Ă€ven + Mindre Asien + Eurasien + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +Agnosticism Ă€r en filosofisk riktning som förnekar att kunskap om tillvarons yttersta grunder Ă€r möjlig, sĂ€rskilt kunskap om Guds existens. En person som bekĂ€nner sig till agnosticismen kallas agnostiker. + +Historia + +Ordet agnosticism myntades ursprungligen av Thomas Henry Huxley kring 1868 men anses vanligen ha börjat anvĂ€ndas av andra Ă„r 1889 dĂ„ Huxley publicerade en enorm artikel med samma namn. DĂ€rför anger en del uppslagsverk 1888 som Ă„ret dĂ„ termen myntades. Ordet hĂ€rrör frĂ„n , a-gnostikismĂłsa, "icke-gnosticism" eller "icke-gnosis", ungefĂ€r "icke-kunnig", "icke-vetande". + +Huxleys ursprungliga definition skiljer sig nĂ„got frĂ„n den som stĂ„r i inledningen av denna artikel. Vad Huxley avsĂ„g med sin definition var att man inte kunde uttala sig om det ovetbara eller tillvarons yttersta grunder. Han kom senare att bli försiktigare med att anvĂ€nda begreppet "det ovetbara", och menade att vad andra vet eller inte vet ocksĂ„ Ă€r nĂ„got som lĂ„g utanför hans egen horisont: + +Men det betyder sjĂ€lvklart inte att begreppet det ovetbara inte Ă€r filosofiskt anvĂ€ndbart. Det Ă€r bara svĂ„rt att veta vad som uppfyller ovetbarheten. + +Betydelser + +Det finns mĂ„nga betydelser av ordet agnosticism. PopulĂ€rt menar man oftast att man inte Ă€r sĂ€ker pĂ„ om det finns en Gud eller inte, eller att man inte har tagit stĂ€llning. Andra menar att man inte tror pĂ„ Gud men att man inte Ă€r sĂ€ker. Andra avser ett förhĂ„llningssĂ€tt som ligger nĂ€ra positivismen, i det att man inte antar nĂ„got som inte kan bevisas. Ett alternativt agnostiskt förhĂ„llningssĂ€tt ligger nĂ€ra skepticismen, att tvivla pĂ„ allt utom det absolut sĂ€kra, om man ens tror att nĂ„gonting Ă€r sĂ€kert - "Det enda jag med sĂ€kerhet vet Ă€r att jag ingenting med sĂ€kerhet vet". + +Somliga agnostiker kallar sig ibland Ă€ven ateister. Det kan bĂ„de provocera och ge upphov till debatt som vĂ€rderas, och det kan Ă€ven klargöra att de i grunden anser det vara viktigare att klargöra att det inte finns skĂ€l att tro att Gud finns, Ă€n att det Ă€r omöjligt att veta. De tror inte att Gud finns men de kan inte bevisa att det inte finns nĂ„gra Gudar. MĂ„nga bĂ„de troende och agnostiker menar att man inte kan vara ateist och agnostiker samtidigt, eftersom ateism innebĂ€r ett Gudsförnekande. NĂ„gra hĂ€vdar Ă€ven att ateism betyder en övertygelse att man kan bevisa att det inte finns nĂ„gon Gud. Detta Ă€r dock felaktigt dĂ„ ordet ateism endast innebĂ€r avsaknad av eller avstĂ„ndstagande frĂ„n tro pĂ„ nĂ„gon Gud, Gudar och högre makter. Ett Gudsförnekande helt enkelt, men inte att man anser att det gĂ„r att bevisa. + +Inom religionssociologin pratar man Ă€ven om agnostisk teism, det vill sĂ€ga en Gudstro som sĂ€ger att Gud Ă€r sĂ„ stor att denne ligger utanför det mĂ€nskliga förstĂ„ndet, eller att Gud lever i en övernaturlig vĂ€rld som vi inte kan förstĂ„. + +Nationalencyklopedins Ordbok (NEO) definierar agnosticism som en "filosofisk riktning som förnekar att kunskap om tillvarons yttersta grunder Ă€r möjlig". Det Ă€r en definition som kan kritiseras för att ordet "möjlig" borde bytas ut mot "tillgĂ€nglig". + +För att bĂ€ttre förstĂ„ agnosticismen Ă€r det Ă€ven nödvĂ€ndigt att relatera begreppet till det begrepp det tar avstĂ„nd ifrĂ„n, nĂ€mligen gnosticismer. AlltsĂ„ lĂ€ror, vissa av dem med flertusenĂ„riga anor, som ansĂ„g det finnas antingen en inre kunskap i varje mĂ€nniska, eller yttre, som t.ex. astrologi och numerologi, som Ă€r vĂ€gen till Gud och/eller till att förstĂ„ vĂ€rlden. En av de tidigare gnostiska lĂ€rorna var en dĂ€r anhĂ€ngarna kallade sin religion för gnosis, frĂ„n 100-talet efter Kristus. De flesta gnostiker byggde sina lĂ€ror pĂ„ antingen judendomen eller kristendomen. + +Se Ă€ven + Ateism + Apateism + Ignosticism + Liberalteologi + Religion + Religiös skepticism + SekulĂ€r humanism + Teologi + +Vidare lĂ€sning + Bill Young, The Origin of the Word Agnostic + The Huxley File + Agnosticism (1889) + Agnosticism and Christianity (1889) + T.H. Huxley, Agnosticism and Christianity and other essays () + Agnosticism 101 + Agnosticism (Internet Infidels) + +Referenser + +Rörelser inom kunskapsteori +Gudsuppfattningar +Apokryfer, frĂ„n grekiskans (apokryfos) som betyder gömd, fördold, svĂ„rbegriplig, Ă€r texter som Ă€r ungefĂ€r samtida med Bibelns böcker och som ofta blivit lĂ€sta och anvĂ€nda i samma kretsar som anvĂ€nt Bibeln. Men av olika orsaker har de antingen inte fĂ„tt samma kanoniska status som bibelböckerna eller rentav blivit förklarade som heretiska av den tidiga kyrkan. + +Generellt kan sĂ€gas att de apokryfer som hör till tiden för det Gamla Testamentets böcker erhöll en högre status inom den tidiga kyrkan (se deuterokanoniska böcker) medan de apokryfer som tillhör tiden för Nya Testamentet oftast blev förklarade som heretiska dĂ„ de anvĂ€ndes inom andra (idag försvunna) trosriktningar som till exempel gnosticism och uttrycker lĂ€ror som inte var förenliga med den tidiga kyrkans tro. (Se nytestamentliga apokryfer) + +Texternas anvĂ€ndning + +De första grekisktalande kristna anvĂ€nde dĂ„tidens grekiska översĂ€ttning av judarnas heliga skrifter, Septuaginta. Denna koinegrekiska översĂ€ttning skiljer sig frĂ„n den hebreiska bibeln. För en jĂ€mförelse se Gamla Testamentets kanon. + +Martin Luther menade dĂ€remot att dessa böcker visserligen var bibelböcker och god och nyttig lĂ€sning, men inte sĂ„dan "helig Skrift" med vilken bindande kyrkolĂ€ra kan fastslĂ„s. De innehöll dock i hans ögon moraliska föredömen. BĂ„de lutheraner och anglikaner lĂ€ser apokryferna i den offentliga gudstjĂ€nsten. De senare menar att syftet med apokryferna Ă€r att undervisa i etik, men inte att fastslĂ„ bindande kyrkolĂ€ra. Jean Calvin avvisade dessa skrifter helt. + +Inom olika kyrkor + +Evangelisk-lutherska apokryfer +I Martin Luthers kyrkobibel frĂ„n 1534 ingick det deuterokanoniska böcker, men ocksĂ„ Manasses bön, som ingick i den latinska bibelöversĂ€ttningen Vulgata. Den romersk-katolska och den ortodoxa Bibeln rĂ€knar inte Manasses bön till de deuterokanoniska skrifterna. Svenska kyrkobiblar har följt Luthers omfattning av apokryferna, eftersom Svenska kyrkan Ă€r en evangelisk-luthersk kyrka. + +Anglikanska apokryfer +I anglikanska kyrkobiblar ingĂ„r alla ovanstĂ„ende skrifter, dessutom Tredje Esra och FjĂ€rde Esra, vilka ocksĂ„ ingick i den latinska bibelöversĂ€ttningen Vulgata. Den romersk-katolska kyrkan rĂ€knar inte dessa till de deuterokanoniska skrifterna. + +Pseudepigrafer +Utöver de omtvistade skrifterna i Septuaginta finns ytterligare ett antal skrifter som brukar kallas pseudepigrafer av protestanter, och apokryfer av katoliker. NĂ„gra av dessa ingĂ„r i den Etiopisk-ortodoxa kyrkans kanon. Exempel pĂ„ nĂ„gra gammaltestamentliga pseudepigrafer Ă€r: + + Aristeasbrevet + Henoksböckerna + Jesajas himmelsfĂ€rd + Jubileerboken + Tredje Mackabeerboken + FjĂ€rde Mackabeerboken + Psalm 151 + Salomos psalmer + +Gamla och nya testamentets apokryfer + +Gamla Testamentet +De apokryfiska tillĂ€ggen Gamla Testamentet betraktas olika inom olika kristna kyrkor. Ortodoxa kyrkor betraktar dessa skrifter som kanoniska, romersk-katolska kyrkan betraktar dem som deuterokanoniska, lutherska kyrkor rĂ€knar dem som "god och nyttig lĂ€sning" och reformerta kyrkor rĂ€knar dem inte till Bibeln överhuvudtaget. De ingĂ„r i bibelöversĂ€ttningen Bibel 2000, men inte i Svenska Folkbibeln. + + Tobit + Judit + Ester enligt den grekiska texten + Första Mackabeerboken + Andra Mackabeerboken + Salomos vishet + Jesus Syraks vishet + Baruk + Jeremias brev + TillĂ€gg till Daniel + Manasses bön + +Nytestamentliga apokryfer + +Nytestamentliga apokryfer Ă€r kristna skrifter, ibland gnostiskt inspirerade, som inte rĂ€knas som kanoniska inom de kristna kyrkorna. De Ă€r skrivna frĂ„n mitten av 100-talet och framĂ„t. Vissa nytestamentliga apokryfer bevarades som legendlĂ€sning eller nöjeslĂ€sning i den medeltida vĂ€stkyrkan eller bland östortodoxt kristna. SĂ„ Ă€r exempelvis fallet med Jakobs protevangelium, Petrusakterna och Thomas barndomsevangelium. + +Skrifter av detta slag som inte hade ett ortodoxt innehĂ„ll kopierades dĂ€remot inte. I Egypten grĂ€vdes nĂ„gra av dem ner i ökensanden, dĂ€r de bevarades till eftervĂ€rlden. NĂ„gra av dessa avskrifter, Codex Brucianus, Codex Askewianus och Papyrus Berolinensis/Akhmim-codexen, hittades pĂ„ 1700- och 1800-talen. Andra upptĂ€cktes först pĂ„ 1900-talet, exempelvis böckerna i Nag Hammadi-biblioteket som Ă„terfanns Ă„r 1945. Dessa fynd har dramatiskt ökat vĂ„r kunskap om dessa skrifter. + +Se Ă€ven + Abrahamsapokalypsen + Apologeterna + De apostoliska fĂ€derna + Hagiografi + Pseudepigraf + Gamla Testamentets kanon + +KĂ€llor + +Bibeln + * +Antarktis Ă€r land- och havsomrĂ„dena kring Sydpolen. Antarktis, som Ă€ven Ă€r en egen djurgeografisk region (antarktiska regionen), Ă€r till skillnad frĂ„n Arktis en riktig kontinent med en landmassa som ligger ovanför havsytan. Det Ă€r den enda kontinent som saknar bofast mĂ€nsklig befolkning, men det finns fler eller fĂ€rre tillfĂ€lliga boende. + +Etymologi + +Namnet Antarktis Ă€r en latinisering av det grekiska sammansatta ordet áŒÎœÏαÏÎșÏÎčÎșÎź, antarktikĂ©, femininum av áŒÎœÏαÏÎșÏÎčÎșÏÏ, antarktikĂłs, som betyder "motsatsen till Arktis, det vill sĂ€ga "motsatsen till norr". + +Aristoteles skrev i sitt verk om meteorologi, ÎΔÏΔÏÏολογÎčÎșÎŹ, om en Antarktisk region, cirka 350 f.Kr. Den grekiske eller feniciske kartografen Marinus frĂ„n Tyros ska ha anvĂ€nt namnet i sin vĂ€rldskarta frĂ„n 100-talet e.Kr., som inte finns bevarad. De romerska skriftstĂ€llarna Gaius Julius Hyginus och Lucius Apuleius anvĂ€nde under första och andra Ă„rhundradet e.Kr. det latiniserade begreppet frĂ„n grekiskan, polus antarcticus. FrĂ„n detta hĂ€rrör fornfranska pole antarktike (1270 e.Kr.), som i modern tappning blivit pĂŽle antarctique. Det lĂ„nades vidare till medelengelskans pol antarktik i en teknisk avhandling 1391 av den engelske poeten och diplomaten Geoffrey Chaucer och har i modern form blivit Antarctic Pole. + +Innan namnet fick sin nuvarande geografiska konnotation anvĂ€ndes begreppet ocksĂ„ för andra platser som kunde beskrivas som "motsatsen till norr". Den franska kolonin i Brasilien pĂ„ 1500-talet, Franska Antarktis (1555â1567), fick sitt namn utifrĂ„n detta tĂ€nkande. + +Det första formella omnĂ€mnandet av kontinenten som "Antarktis" dokumenterar sig till 1890-talet och den skotske kartografen John George Bartholomew. I det svenska sprĂ„ket finns Antarktis dokumenterat i geografisk betydelse sedan 1837. + +Historia + +Antarktis uppkomst +Jorden har inte alltid sett likadan ut som den gör i dag. För ungefĂ€r 250 miljoner Ă„r sedan var vĂ€rldens alla kontinenter samlade i en enda superkontinent, Pangaea. Vid den hĂ€r tiden tillhörde Antarktis den södra kontinenten Gondwanaland tillsammans med andra kontinenter som Sydamerika, Afrika, Indien och Arabiska halvön. Denna superkontinent lĂ„g inte vid Sydpolen, vilket gjorde att Antarktis inte var det islandskap som det Ă€r nu, utan en varm och tropisk kontinent med riklig vĂ€xtlighet bebodd av massor av olika djurarter, dĂ€ribland dinosaurier. + +För ungefĂ€r 100 miljoner Ă„r sedan kom jordens alla kontinenter att sakta röra sig ifrĂ„n varandra. Detta gav upphov till att kraftiga bergskedjor som Himalaya bildades, samt stora klimatförĂ€ndringar. Antarktis skulle frigöras frĂ„n Australien och fĂ€rdas sakta ner mot Sydpolen. Detta gjorde att Antarktis fick ett allt kallare klimat och stora ismassor vĂ€xte till. + +Kontinenten upptĂ€cks + +Med hĂ€nsyn till Antarktis geografiska lĂ€ge tog det lĂ„ng tid innan kontinenten upptĂ€cktes. Geografer och forskare hade dock i Ă„rhundraden haft teorier om att en stor sydkontinent skulle existera. Detta antagande kallades för Terra Australis (Incognita), âdet (okĂ€nda) södra landetâ, och fanns pĂ„ europeiska kartor frĂ„n medeltiden Ă€nda till in pĂ„ 1800-talet. Teorin fördes fram av den grekiske filosofen Aristoteles, men det var först under 100-talet som teorin utvidgades och uppmĂ€rksammades av geografen Klaudios Ptolemaios. Denne var övertygad om att en stor sydlig kontinent tĂ€ckte stora delar av Indiska oceanen. Tanken om ett stort landomrĂ„de nere i syd vĂ€ckte stort intresse hos dĂ„tida upptĂ€cktsresande. Den brittiske upptĂ€cktsresanden James Cook försökte redan 1773 att nĂ„ Terra Australis med sitt fartyg HMS Resolution. Cook nĂ„dde aldrig Antarktis, ty han sökte nĂ„ den frĂ„n Stilla Havet dĂ€r Antarktis kust ligger sydligare och hindrades av den tjocka packisen. + +Flera försök att nĂ„ Antarktis gjordes efter Cook men man hindrades av det kalla stormiga havet. Ă r 1820 var det den brittiske sjömannen Edward Bransfields tur att försöka nĂ„ kontinentens fastland. Bransfield har noterat i sina anteckningar att man skymtade ett is- och snötĂ€ckt land. Bransfield och hans följeslagare landsteg dock inte pĂ„ fastlandet, utan förde istĂ€llet utförliga kartanteckningar över omrĂ„det. Ryssen Fabian von Bellingshausen var Ă€ven han under samma period som Bransfield pĂ„ expedition runt Antarktis kuster. Han fann ett flertal öar och delar av Antarktis, bland annat har havet Bellingshausenhavet uppkallats efter honom. Den tredje i raden av upptĂ€cktsresande pĂ„ 1820-talet var segelfartygskaptenen Nathaniel Brown Palmer. Hans syfte med resan till Antarktis var, liksom för mĂ„nga andra resenĂ€rer, till största delen den stora efterfrĂ„gan pĂ„ sĂ€lskinn. Palmer reste med fartyget Hero och utforskade frĂ€mst södra delen av Antarktiska halvön 1820â1822. Han blev, tillsammans med sina medresenĂ€rer, de första amerikanerna att upptĂ€cka Antarktiska halvön. Deras expedition blev lyckad dĂ„ de fann ett flertal öar lĂ€ngs kusterna, bland annat Palmer Land, vilken upptĂ€cktes den 16 november 1820 och uppkallades efter Nathaniel Palmer. I februari 1823 upptĂ€ckte britten James Weddell Weddellhavet efter att ha seglat med sitt valfĂ„ngstfartyg pĂ„ Antarktiska oceanen. + +Antarktis hade nu upptĂ€ckts av bĂ„de val- och sĂ€ljĂ€gare. Den första iakttagelsen av fastlandet Antarktis kan inte exakt tillskrivas en enda person. KĂ€nt Ă€r att en amerikansk sĂ€ljĂ€gare gjorde den första kĂ€nda landstigningen pĂ„ kontinenten 1821. Rykten och rapporter började sedan, pĂ„ 1830-talet, att sprida sig bland vĂ€rldens lĂ€nder att en stor kontinent var belĂ€gen vid Sydpolen. Detta medförde att flera lĂ€nder skickade ivĂ€g forskningsexpeditioner med förhoppningen att upptĂ€cka nya landomrĂ„den. Bland dessa kan James Clark Ross, Charles Wilkes och Jules Dumont dâUrville nĂ€mnas. De fann en rad betydelsefulla öar och kustomrĂ„den. Ross pĂ„började sin resa till Sydpolen den 29 september 1839 med tvĂ„ fartyg. Han namngav ett flertal landomrĂ„den vid Antarktis som han sjĂ€lv hade upptĂ€ckt. Han upptĂ€ckte Rosshavet och gjorde en stor utforskning av Victoria Land. Han fann Ă€ven tvĂ„ vulkaner pĂ„ Rossön, Mount Terror och Mount Erebus, vilka han namngav efter sina bĂ„da fartyg. + +Geografi + +Den antarktiska kontinenten ligger till den största delen inom södra polcirkeln (cirka 66:e breddgraden). Med ungefĂ€r 14 miljoner kmÂČ Ă€r Antarktis större Ă€n Europa. En exakt storlek Ă€r svĂ„r att faststĂ€lla. Landmassor och angrĂ€nsande havsomrĂ„den ligger under isen som kontinuerligt Ă€ndrar storlek. Den vĂ€xer efter snöfall och blir mindre nĂ€r isberg bryts loss. + +De Transantarktiska bergen delar kontinenten i en mindre vĂ€stlig och en betydligt större östlig del. Den högsta bergskedjan Ă€r Vinsonmassivet med berget Mount Vinson som Ă€r 4 897 meter högt. Djupaste punkten som Ă€r tĂ€ckt med is ligger 2 538 meter under havsytan. Runt om Antarktis strĂ€cker sig den Antarktiska oceanen, vilken bestĂ„r av allt hav söder om 60:e sydliga breddgraden. Den nĂ€rmast liggande punkten pĂ„ en annan kontinent Ă€r sydspetsen av Sydamerika, Kap Horn, som ligger ungefĂ€r pĂ„ 55:e sydliga breddgraden, eller omkring 1000 km frĂ„n nordspetsen av antarktiska halvön, ungefĂ€r pĂ„ samma avstĂ„nd som fĂ„gelvĂ€gen mellan Malmö och UmeĂ„. + +Indelning +Indelningen av Antarktis sker i stora omrĂ„den, hav och shelfis: + +OmrĂ„den: + + Antarktiska halvön + Adelie Land + Coats land + Dronning Maud Land + Enderby land + George V Land + Marie Byrd Land + Neuschwabenland + Wilkes Land + +Hav: (randhav till Antarktiska oceanen) + Scotiahavet + Weddellhavet + Rosshavet + Amundsenhavet + Bellingshausenhavet + +ShelfisomrĂ„den: + Ross shelfis + Riiser-Larsens shelfis + Filchner-RĂžnnes shelfis + Larsens shelfis + +Isen + +Inlandsisen +Speciellt för Antarktis Ă€r att kontinenten Ă€r nĂ€stan helt tĂ€ckt av is. Den antarktiska inlandsisen som Ă€r upp till 4 500 meter tjock innehĂ„ller omkring 90 procent av vĂ€rldens is och 60 procent av vĂ€rldens sötvattenreserver. Bara 280 000 kmÂČ (2 procent) av kontinentens yta Ă€r isfri, och bestĂ„r av omrĂ„den med lĂ„g nederbörd eller bergskedjor som sticker upp genom isen. + +Isberg +DĂ„ och dĂ„ lossnar stora tillplattade isberg frĂ„n shelfisen som flyter nĂ„gra tusen kilometer ut i havet. Det tar ibland mĂ„nga Ă„r tills ett stort isberg smĂ€lter helt. Ofta bryts ett isberg i mĂ„nga mindre delar under sin tid pĂ„ havet. Den 30 april 1894 siktade man ett isberg i Sydatlanten vid , vilket Ă€r den nordligaste positionen som ett isberg frĂ„n Antarktis har siktats pĂ„. + +Klimat + +VĂ€dret pĂ„ Antarktis skiljer sig pĂ„ mĂ„nga sĂ€tt frĂ„n klimat pĂ„ andra kontinenter. Kontinenten Ă€r: + + den kallaste (I kontinentens mitt Ă€r medeltemperaturen â55 °C. Vid kusterna ligger temperaturen under vintern (juni) omkring â18 °C och under sommaren (januari) nĂ„got över noll. Den 10 december 2013 presenterades ett nytt vĂ€rlds-köldrekord uppmĂ€tt med satellit, vid den norska delen Valkyriedomen pĂ„ â94,7 °C, och innan dess stod sig det föregĂ„ende rekordet pĂ„ â89,2 °C vid den sovjetiska forskningsstationen Vostok sedan den 21 juli 1983. + den nederbördsfattigaste (vanligtvis faller nederbörd i Antarktis som snö). I kontinentens mitt ligger det Ă„rliga genomsnittet vid 40 liter per kvadratmeter (40 millimeter). Enligt definitionen Ă€r sĂ„dana omrĂ„den att beteckna som öken. Den lĂ„ga temperaturen hĂ„ller avdunstningen nere. Vid kusterna Ă€r nederbörden betydligt större.) och + den blĂ„sigaste (I juli 1972 mĂ€ttes vid den franska stationen Dumont dâUrville en vindhastighet pĂ„ 327 kilometer i timmen, det vill sĂ€ga 91 meter per sekund.) + +Klimatet pĂ„ Antarktis Ă€r betydligt kallare Ă€n klimatet pĂ„ motsvarande breddgrader pĂ„ det norra halvklotet. Detta beror till stor del pĂ„ att det inte finns nĂ„gon varm havsström liknande Nordatlantiska strömmen som ger ett varmare klimat, men ocksĂ„ pĂ„ att Antarktis Ă€r en kontinent. Detta innebĂ€r att de inre delarna klimatmĂ€ssigt blir mer isolerade frĂ„n omvĂ€rlden Ă€n motsvarande delar av Arktis. + +Som jĂ€mförelse Ă€r Ă„rsmedeltemperaturen lĂ€ngst norrut pĂ„ den antarktiska halvön jĂ€mförbar med den pĂ„ Svalbard, och dĂ„ Ă€r de nordligaste delarna av antarktiska halvön belĂ€gna ungefĂ€r pĂ„ samma breddgrad som till exempel UmeĂ„ Ă€r pĂ„ det norra halvklotet, och dĂ„ har UmeĂ„ dessutom en betydligt högre Ă„rsmedeltemperatur Ă€n mĂ„nga stĂ€der i sydligaste Sydamerika. + +I Antarktis mitt blir det aldrig plusgrader och den allra högsta temperaturen som hittills uppmĂ€tts pĂ„ den geografiska sydpolen, vid AmundsenâScott-basen, Ă€r cirka â13 °C. + +Antarktis Ă€r Ă€ven den enda kontinenten pĂ„ hela jorden som har en av mĂ€nniskan sĂ„ gott som orörd natur, vilken Ă€ven skyddas av Antarktisfördraget. Trots klimatet Ă€r Antarktis ett populĂ€rt turistmĂ„l under sommarsĂ€songen, bland annat tack vare den orörda naturen. Dock Ă€r det förhĂ„llandevis dyrt att resa hit, mycket pĂ„ grund av all logistik och alla förberedelser som krĂ€vs. + +Flora och fauna + +I havet runt Antarktis lever ett stort antal krill (Euphausia superba) och annat zooplankton som bildar basen i matkedjan för fiskar, blĂ€ckfiskar, pingviner, valar och sĂ€lar. + +CirkumpolĂ€rt utefter kusten hĂ€ckar tvĂ„ pingvinarter, kejsarpingvinen och adeliepingvinen. Den sydgeorgiska piplĂ€rkan, Anthus antarcticus, Ă€r endemisk för Antarktis och förekommer enbart i grĂ€smarker i Sydgeorgien. Men det finns 18 andra fĂ„gelarter som hĂ€ckar pĂ„ Antarktis. Deras bon ligger pĂ„ nunataker, isfria berg som sticker upp ur isen. PĂ„ sommaren kommer mer Ă€n 100 miljoner flyttfĂ„glar till omrĂ„det och de lever pĂ„ isflaken och pĂ„ de nĂ€rliggande öarna. SĂ€larter i Antarktis Ă€r till exempel weddellsĂ€len, krabbĂ€tarsĂ€len och sjöleoparden. Runt kontinenten lever nĂ„gra av de största valarterna. + +I motsats till det rika livet i oceanen Ă€r kontinentens mitt nĂ€stan tomt pĂ„ organismer. PĂ„ isfria omrĂ„den som kallas antarktiska oaser vĂ€xer mossor och lavar. Antarktis hyser endast tvĂ„ blomvĂ€xter, Colobanthus quitensis och Deschampsia antarctica. Det största landdjuret som lever permanent pĂ„ Antarktis Ă€r en 6 millimeter stor fjĂ€dermygga (Belgica antarctica) som saknar vingar. + +Styre och politik + +Territoriella ansprĂ„k + +Flera stater stĂ€llde under 1900-talet territoriella ansprĂ„k pĂ„ Antarktis. Efter Antarktisfördraget saknar dessa ansprĂ„k praktiskt betydelse. + +Argentina: Argentinska Antarktis (25â74° V), utropat 1943. +Australien: Australiska Antarktis (160â142° Ă samt 136â45° Ă), proklamerat 1933. +Brasilien: intressezon 28â53° V, utropad 1986. +Chile: Chilenska Antarktis (53â90° V), utropat 1940. +Frankrike: Franska sydterritorierna (142â136° Ă), utropade 1924. +Norge: Norska Antarktis (45° Ăâ20° V), proklamerat 1939. +Nya Zeeland: Ross Dependency (150°Vâ160° Ă), utropat 1923. +Storbritannien: Falkland Islands Dependencies, utropat 1908. Brittiska Antarktis (20â80° V), utropat 1962. + +Lagar +Eftersom Antarktis inte har nĂ„gon egen lagstiftande församling och inte tillhör nĂ„got land, kan man tro att inga lagar och inga domstolar finns. Men i praktiken gĂ€ller lagar frĂ„n de olika basernas hemlĂ€nder, ungefĂ€r som pĂ„ fartyg till sjöss. MĂ„nga lĂ€nder med baser har ocksĂ„ lagar som uttryckligen skyddar naturen i Antarktis. Antarktisfördraget innehĂ„ller sĂ„dana skyddsregler. + +Ekonomi +PĂ„ Antarktis har man hittat ett stort antal naturrikedomar, till exempel jĂ€rn, krom, koppar, guld och platina. HĂ€r finns dessutom kol, petroleum och naturgas, men i Antarktisfördraget Ă€r fastlagt att ingen fĂ„r utvinna nĂ„got av detta. + +Fiskebolag hade 1998/1999 en officiell fĂ„ngst frĂ„n 120 000 ton i Antarktiska oceanen. Tillsammans med den illegala fĂ„ngsten Ă€r mĂ€ngden troligtvis flera gĂ„nger större. + +Turism till Antarktis fĂ„r en allt större omfattning. PĂ„ grund av de stora förberedelser och höga kostnader (upp emot 40 000 kronor) som krĂ€vs Ă€r det mestadels vĂ€lbestĂ€llda personer som kan resa hit. ĂndĂ„ ökade antalet turister med 13 000 personer frĂ„n sĂ€songen 1990/1991 till sĂ€songen 2002/2003. Kryssningsfartyg föredrar Antarktiska halvön, som har höga berg. Detta omrĂ„de ligger dessutom nĂ€rmast de permanent bebodda platserna i sydligaste Sydamerika, dĂ€ribland staden Ushuaia, dĂ€r det finns en stor hamn och en internationell flygplats. + +Kommunikationer +PĂ„ Antarktis fastland finns inga permanenta flygfĂ€lt och de enda tre fasta flygfĂ€lt som förekommer ligger pĂ„ King George Island (se Teniente R. Marsh Airport), pĂ„ Seymourön (vid Marambiobasen) samt pĂ„ Adelaide Island (vid stationen Rothera). Flygplan med skidor istĂ€llet för hjul kan landa pĂ„ utvalda platser pĂ„ inlandsisen. Endast en procent av fastlandets is- och snöytor Ă€r lĂ€mpliga för mindre vanliga flygplan med hjul. + +Demografi + +Antarktis har inga permanenta invĂ„nare, pĂ„ de olika forskningsstationerna lever dĂ€remot varje sommar mer Ă€n 4 000 och Ă„ret runt omkring 1 000 personer. Fram till 2009 hade elva barn fötts pĂ„ kontinenten. + +Emilio Marcos Palma, född 7 januari 1978 pĂ„ Esperanzabasen i argentinska territoriet pĂ„ Antarktis, Ă€r den först dokumenterade person som blivit född pĂ„ kontinenten. 1986â1987 föddes en pojke och en flicka pĂ„ den chilenska stationen. + +I omrĂ„det söder om den sextionde breddgraden pĂ„ södra halvklotet finns idag 82 forskningsstationer, dĂ€ribland 37 stationer som anvĂ€nds hela Ă„ret och 36 stationer som bara bedrivs under sommaren. Den största stationen Ă€r McMurdo (USA) som liknar en stad. Mycket kĂ€nd Ă€r ocksĂ„ AmundsenâScott-basen (USA) som ligger direkt pĂ„ den geografiska Sydpolen. Den japanska permanenta forskningsstationen Syowa Ă€r kĂ€nd genom populĂ€rkulturen. Sverige har tvĂ„ stationer pĂ„ Antarktis som heter Wasa och Svea och som Ă€r belĂ€gna i den sektor Norge gör ansprĂ„k pĂ„, Drottning Mauds land. Stationen Wasa ligger bara nĂ„gra hundra meter frĂ„n den finlĂ€ndska forskningsstationen Aboa. De svenska stationerna förvaltas av Polarforskningssekretariatet. + +Framtid och risker + +Antarktis framtid +I förhĂ„llande till övriga kontinenter Ă€r Antarktis miljö god, vilket beror pĂ„ dess isolerade lĂ€ge. Sedan Antarktisfördraget undertecknades den 1 december 1959 har totalförbud för kommersiell exploatering fastslagits. Trots detta har kontinenten till viss del skadats av mĂ€nsklig pĂ„verkan. Forskare och upptĂ€cktsresande har under Ă„ren varit tvungna att bygga olika former av bostĂ€der och forskningsstationer. Detta har gjort att landskapet utsatts för avfall som kan vara skadligt för bĂ„de djur och natur. + +Ozonlagrets uttunning Ă€r ett allvarligt hot mot Antarktis miljö, som beror pĂ„ mĂ€nsklig pĂ„verkan av att anvĂ€nda freoner. Detta stör Ă€ven djurlivet pĂ„ Antarktis dĂ„ tillgĂ„ngen pĂ„ föda minskar. + +Effekten pĂ„ den globala uppvĂ€rmningen + +En del av Antarktis har vĂ€rmts upp; sĂ€rskilt stark uppvĂ€rmning har noterats pĂ„ Antarktishalvön. En studie av Eric Steig som publicerades 2009 konstaterade för första gĂ„ngen att den kontinentbredda genomsnittliga yttemperaturtrenden i Antarktis Ă€r nĂ„got positiv vid >0,05 °C per decennium frĂ„n 1957 till 2006. Denna studie noterade ocksĂ„ att vĂ€stra Antarktis har vĂ€rmts med mer Ă€n 0,1 °C per decennium under de senaste 50 Ă„ren, och denna uppvĂ€rmning Ă€r starkast pĂ„ vintern och vĂ„ren. Detta kompenseras delvis av höstkylning i östra Antarktis. Det finns bevis frĂ„n en studie om att Antarktis vĂ€rms upp som ett resultat av mĂ€nskliga koldioxidutslĂ€pp, men detta förblir tvetydigt. MĂ€ngden ytvĂ€rmning i VĂ€stantarktis, Ă€ven om den Ă€r stor, har inte lett till nĂ„gon mĂ€rkbar smĂ€ltning vid ytan och pĂ„verkar inte den vĂ€stantarktiska inlandsisens bidrag till havsnivĂ„n. IstĂ€llet tros de senaste ökningarna av glaciĂ€rutflödet bero pĂ„ ett inflöde av varmt vatten frĂ„n djuphavet, precis utanför kontinentalsockeln. Nettobidraget till havsnivĂ„n frĂ„n Antarktishalvön Ă€r mer troligtvis ett direkt resultat av den mycket större atmosfĂ€riska uppvĂ€rmningen dĂ€r. + +2002 kollapsade Antarktishalvöns Larsens shelfis. Mellan 28 februari och 8 mars 2008 kollapsade cirka 570 km2 is frĂ„n Wilkins shelfis pĂ„ den sydvĂ€stra delen av halvön, vilket sĂ€tter de Ă„terstĂ„ende 15 000 km2 av shelfisen i riskzonen. Isen hölls tillbaka av en cirka 6 km bred "trĂ„d" av is, innan den kollapsade den 5 april 2009. Enligt NASA intrĂ€ffade den mest utbredda ytsmĂ€ltningen i Antarktis under de senaste 30 Ă„ren 2005, dĂ„ ett omrĂ„de med is som Ă€r jĂ€mförbart i storlek till Kalifornien kort smĂ€lt och fryst; detta kan ha resulterat i temperaturer som stiger till sĂ„ högt som 5 °C. + +En studie publicerad i Nature Geoscience 2013 (online i december 2012) identifierade centrala vĂ€stra Antarktis som en av de snabbast uppvĂ€rmande regionerna pĂ„ jorden. Forskarna presenterade kompletta temperaturdata frĂ„n Byrd Station och hĂ€vdar att dessa "avslöjar en linjĂ€r ökning av den Ă„rliga temperaturen mellan 1958 och 2010 pĂ„ 2,4 ± 1,2 °C". + +OzonhĂ„l + +Det finns ett stort omrĂ„de med lĂ„g ozonkoncentration eller "ozonhĂ„l" över Antarktis. Detta hĂ„l tĂ€cker nĂ€stan hela kontinenten och var som störst i september 2008. HĂ„let upptĂ€cktes av forskare 1985 och har tenderat att öka under observationsĂ„ren. OzonhĂ„let tillskrivs utslĂ€pp av klorfluorkolvĂ€ten eller klorfluorkarboner i atmosfĂ€ren, som sönderdelar ozonet i andra gaser. + +Vissa vetenskapliga studier tyder pĂ„ att ozonnedbrytning kan ha en dominerande roll för att reglera klimatförĂ€ndringar i Antarktis (och ett bredare omrĂ„de pĂ„ södra halvklotet). Ozon absorberar stora mĂ€ngder ultraviolett strĂ„lning i stratosfĂ€ren. Ozonnedbrytning över Antarktis kan orsaka en kylning av cirka 6 ° C i den lokala stratosfĂ€ren. Denna kylning har effekten att intensifiera de vĂ€stliga vindarna som flyter runt kontinenten (den polĂ€ra virveln) och förhindrar sĂ„ledes utströmning av den kalla luften nĂ€ra Sydpolen. Som ett resultat hĂ„lls den kontinentala massan av den öst-antarktiska isarken vid lĂ€gre temperaturer, och de perifera omrĂ„dena pĂ„ Antarktis, sĂ€rskilt den Antarktiska halvön, utsĂ€tts för högre temperaturer, vilket frĂ€mjar snabbare smĂ€ltning. Modeller antyder ocksĂ„ att ozonnedbrytningen/den förbĂ€ttrade polĂ€ra virveleffekten ocksĂ„ stĂ„r för den senaste tidens ökning av havsis strax utanför kontinentens kust. + +Se Ă€ven + + :Kategori:FĂ„glar i antarktiska regionen + Sydpolen + Arktis + Antarktisfördraget + 2404 Antarctica + +Referenser + +Noter + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + Antarktisfördragets sekretariat + + +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +Abul-Abbas var den första elefanten pĂ„ nordeuropeisk jord efter romartid, en vit asiatisk elefant som tidigare tillhört en indisk raja. Kalifen av Bagdad, Harun al-Rashid, gav denna elefant i gĂ„va till kejsar Karl den store av Frankerriket 801 e.Kr. + +Abul-Abbas resa till Europa började med skepp över Medelhavet som i oktober 801 landade i Porto Venere vid La Spezia med elefantens skötare, en judisk nordafrikan som hette Isak. Efter att ha tillbringat vintern i staden Vercelli pĂ„börjades den lĂ„nga marschen över Alperna nĂ€r snön smĂ€lt. Kejsarens residens i Aachen nĂ„ddes i juli Ă„r 802. Troligen blev han en uppskattad gĂ„va. Abul-Abbas medverkade vid en del imponerande hovceremonier men skickades av nĂ„gon anledning senare till staden Augsburg i det sydligare, nuvarande Bayern. + +804 gjorde kung Godfred av Danmark revolt mot kejsaren. Han överföll en slavisk handelsplats nĂ€ra Danmark och tvĂ„ngsförflyttade allt folk till sin nybyggda marknadsplats i Hedeby för att dĂ€rigenom försĂ€kra sig om handelstullar och ge Danmark större inblandning i nordisk handel. Kejsaren skickade genast en hĂ€r mot kung Godfred och kallade in sin elefant till krigstjĂ€nstgöring. Abul-Abbas var vid denna tid omkring fyrtio Ă„r och sĂ€kert inte i bĂ€sta hĂ€lsa, samt icke fullt acklimatiserad till europeiskt klimat. Han avled i lunginflammation efter att, förmodligen simmande, ha korsat Rhen. + +KĂ€llor + +Berömda elefanter +Karl den store +Asiatisk elefant (Ă€ven indisk elefant, Elephas maximus) Ă€r ett dĂ€ggdjur i familjen elefanter och idag den enda arten i sitt slĂ€kte. Den har en kroppslĂ€ngd upp till 6,5 meter och nĂ„r en vikt upp till 5,4 ton. Arten förekommer i flera frĂ„n varandra skilda populationer frĂ„n norra Indien till Sri Lanka och österut till Sydostasien. Den asiatiska elefanten Ă€r nĂ€rmare slĂ€kt med de utdöda mammutarna Ă€n med de afrikanska elefanterna. + +Individer av honkön (kor) bildar större hjordar tillsammans med sina ungar (kalvar), medan hannar (tjurar) lever i mindre ungkarlsgrupper eller helt ensamma. Tjurar jagades tidigare hĂ„rt för elfenbenets skull, idag Ă€r det största hotet levnadsomrĂ„dets omvandling till jordbruksmark och boplatser. MĂ„nga asiatiska elefanter arbetar i mĂ€nniskans tjĂ€nst som rid- eller lastdjur. + +KĂ€nnetecken + +Den asiatiska elefanten Ă€r nĂ„got mindre Ă€n de afrikanska arterna och har mindre öron. Arten nĂ„r en mankhöjd mellan 2 och 3,4 meter samt en vikt mellan 2 000 och 5 400 kilogram. Ryggen Ă€r i motsats till ryggen hos de afrikanska arterna böjd uppĂ„t. Vid snabelns spets finns en utvĂ€xt som pĂ„minner om ett finger (hos afrikanska elefanter finns tvĂ„). Asiatisk elefant har 5 tĂ„r vid de frĂ€mre extremiteterna och 4 till 5 vid de bakre extremiteterna. LĂ„nga, fullt utvecklade betar förekommer bara hos tjurarna, kor har endast rudimentĂ€ra betar eller inga alls. Hos underarten Elephas maximus maximus som förekommer pĂ„ Sri Lanka har bara var tionde hane betar. + +Individerna nĂ„r en kroppslĂ€ngd upp till 6,5 meter, och dĂ€rtill kommer en cirka 150 centimeter lĂ„ng svans som har 33 svanskotor. + +Utbredning och underarter + +AllmĂ€nt +Vilda individer av den asiatiska elefanten förekommer pĂ„ grĂ€smarker, i tropiska regnskogar, i skogar som slĂ€pper löv samt i buskmarker. Tre underarter Ă€r godkĂ€nda. + + Lankesisk elefant (Ă€ven ceylonelefant, Elephas maximus maximus) lever pĂ„ Sri Lanka. + Sumatraelefant (Elephas maximus sumatrensis) förekommer pĂ„ Sumatra och Borneo. +Not. Denna Ă€r Ă€ven kĂ€nd som pygmĂ©elefant. Den bornesiska gruppen betraktas ibland som en egen underart med namnet Elephas maximus borneensis â borneoelefant. + Indisk elefant (Ă€ven egentlig indisk elefant, Elephas maximus indicus) lever pĂ„ det asiatiska fastlandet â Indien, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, södra Kina (Yunnan), Kambodja, Laos och Vietnam. + +I Kina finns arten endast i de sydligaste delarna av Yunnan kvar, i Bangladesh finns bara en isolerad population pĂ„ Chittagong-kullarna. I Indien Ă€r den vilda populationen frĂ€mst begrĂ€nsade pĂ„ fyra isolerade omrĂ„den: + + Den första i nordvĂ€stra Indien (delstaterna Uttarakhand och Uttar Pradesh) lever nĂ„gra glest fördelade hjordar i bergstrakter söder om Himalaya som under vandringar nĂ„r Nepal. + Den andra finns öster om Nepal, frĂ„n norra VĂ€stbengalen över Assam till östra Arunachal Pradesh och Nagaland, vidare Ă„t söder till Meghalaya och Brahmaputras slĂ€ttland. + Den tredje lever i östra Centralindien i delstaterna Odisha och Jharkhand samt södra VĂ€stbengalen. + I södra Indien förekommer arten glest fördelad över delstaterna Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu och södra Andhra Pradesh. + +Forskningshistoria +Den asiatiska elefanten beskrevs av Carl von LinnĂ© efter vad han trodde var en individ frĂ„n Ceylon (idag Sri Lanka), vilken senare har visat sig vara en afrikansk elefant. I Systema Naturae fick denna afrikanska elefant 1758 det vetenskapliga namnet Elephas maximus. Den indiska populationen beskrevs 1798 av Georges Cuvier som en sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig art med namnet Elephas indicus. Ăven populationen pĂ„ Sumatra och andra sydostasiatiska öar ansĂ„gs i början som en sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig art, Coenraad Jacob Temminck gav den 1847 det vetenskapliga namnet Elephas sumatranus. Frederick Nutter Chasen klassificerade 1940 alla tre populationer som underarter till en enda art. + +Populationen pĂ„ Borneo beskrevs 1950 av Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala som den fjĂ€rde underarten, E. m. borneensis. Aktuella taxonomiska avhandlingar betraktar underarten tills vidare identisk med E. m. sumatranus, trots allt förekommer den i flera publikationer som sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig underart. + +Ytterligare tvĂ„ utdöda underarter blev beskrivna, E. m. asurus och E. m. rubridens. + +LevnadssĂ€tt + +Den asiatiska elefanten Ă€r frĂ€mst aktiv mellan skymningen och gryningen, under dagens hetaste timmar vilar djuret. För att komma Ă„t födan som utgörs av grĂ€s, löv, kvistar och trĂ€dens bark utför arten lĂ„nga vandringar. Vanligen gĂ„r de lĂ„ngsamma med 6,5 km/h men nĂ€r de kĂ€nner sig hotade kan de springa med 48 km/h. Ibland uppsöker asiatiska elefanter odlingsmark dĂ€r de Ă€ter ris, sockerrör eller bananer. VĂ€xtdelarna plockas med hjĂ€lp av snabeln och förs till munnen. En vuxen asiatisk elefant Ă€ter per dag omkring 150 kg föda. Dessutom uppsöker de minst en gĂ„ng per dag en vattenansamling. + +Kor och ungdjur lever i hjordar som bildas vanligen av 8 till 30 individer. Fram till 1800-talet observerades hjordar med upp till 100 individer. Alla individer i hjorden Ă€r slĂ€kt med varandra, de Ă€r alltsĂ„ mödrar, systrar, döttrar och söner (fram till 8 Ă„rs Ă„lder). Den Ă€ldsta kon vaktar över flocken sĂ„ att ingen individ kommer för lĂ„ngt bort. Kommunikationen sker genom trumpetande med hjĂ€lp av snabeln. Ăldre tjurar lever frĂ€mst ensamma och unga könsmogna tjurar bildar smĂ„ flockar. NĂ€r korna Ă€r parningsberedda söker tjurarna i flera mĂ„nader anslutning till en hjord med kor. Det finns inga sĂ€rskilda parningstider och dĂ€rför finns i 40 procent av hjordarna minst en tjur. Tjurarna Ă€r inte aggressiva mot varandra och det förekommer ofta flera tjurar i samma hjord, vanligen har bara den dominerande tjuren rĂ€tten att para sig. + +DrĂ€ktigheten varar i genomsnitt 640 dagar (18 till 22 mĂ„nader) och sedan föds vanligen en enda kalv. Att en ko Ă€r drĂ€ktig syns vanligen först kort före födelsen. Kalven vĂ€ger vid födelsen cirka 100 kg, har en lĂ€ngd omkring 80 cm och Ă€r tĂ€ckt med en pĂ€ls av bruna hĂ„r. Kort efter födelsen kan kalven gĂ„ pĂ„ sina egna ben. Ungdjuret diar inte bara sin egen mor utan försöker fĂ„ mjölk frĂ„n olika kor i hjorden. NĂ€r kalven diar anvĂ€nds munnen, inte snabeln. Efter ungefĂ€r 6 mĂ„nader börjar kalven med fast föda men den avvĂ€njs vanligen under andra levnadsĂ„ret. Tjurar mĂ„ste lĂ€mna sin hjord nĂ€r de Ă€r sju eller Ă„tta Ă„r gamla. De letar sedan efter anslutning till en flock med unga tjurar eller till en ensam vuxen tjur. Kor stannar hela livet i samma hjord. Sin fulla storlek nĂ„r asiatiska elefanter efter 15 till 17 Ă„r. Tjurar parar sig ungefĂ€r efter tjugo Ă„r för första gĂ„ngen, kor fĂ„r sin första kalv efter fjorton Ă„r (tidigast efter nio Ă„r). Den kortaste tiden mellan tvĂ„ födslar Ă€r 2,5 Ă„r och den lĂ€ngsta 8 Ă„r. + +LivslĂ€ngden i naturen Ă€r vanligen 60 Ă„r, under goda förhĂ„llanden upp till 80 Ă„r. Den Ă€ldsta kĂ€nda individen levde i Taipeis zoo och blev 86 Ă„r gammal. + +Utvecklingshistoria + +Enligt de aktuella forskningsrönen utgör slĂ€ktet Elephas systergruppen till mammutarna (Mammuthus). Den asiatiska elefanten Ă€r alltsĂ„ nĂ€rmare slĂ€kt med mammutar Ă€n med de afrikanska elefanterna (Loxodonta). Elephas och Mammuthus sammanfattas i en slĂ€ktgrupp (tribus) Elephantini som utgör systergruppen till slĂ€ktet Loxodonta. + +Tidiga medlemmar av slĂ€ktet Elephas som till exempel Elephas ekorensis levde under pliocen i Afrika. Genom arten Elephas hysudricus som vandrade till Asien utvecklades den moderna asiatiska elefanten (Elephas maximus). Ibland listas flera utdöda arter av slĂ€ktet Elephas i underslĂ€ktet Palaeoloxodon som av vissa zoologer fĂ„r status som ett sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigt slĂ€kte. + +Vid slutet av pleistocen hade den asiatiska elefanten ett utbredningsomrĂ„de som strĂ€ckte sig frĂ„n Iran över Sydasien till Sydostasien och Kina. Fossil hittades Ă€ven i Irak och Syrien men de tillhör kanske en utdöd art. Denna utbredning blev ungefĂ€r konstant fram till nĂ„gra hundra Ă„r före Kristus, sedan började artens tillbakagĂ„ng. I Kina utrotades de flesta populationerna mellan 1100-talet och 1600-talet. + +Asiatisk elefant och mĂ€nniskor + +Asiatiska elefanter i mĂ€nniskans tjĂ€nst + +De tidigaste tecken om försök att domesticera asiatiska elefanter Ă€r ristningar pĂ„ sigill som hittades i Indus dalgĂ„ng och som daterades till 3000 före Kristus. Flera klassiska avhandlingar som Rig Veda frĂ„n 2000 till 1500 före Kristus, Upanishaderna frĂ„n 900 till 600 före Kristus och Gajasastra (sanskrit för elefantlĂ€ran) frĂ„n 600 till 500 före Kristus berĂ€ttar hur elefanter fĂ„ngas och skolas. Individerna anvĂ€ndes bland annat för att fĂ€lla trĂ€d och för att bĂ€ra timmerstockarna genom skogen. + +I det mytologiska eposet Mahabharata nĂ€mns för första gĂ„ngen asiatiska stridselefanter, Ă€ven om det Ă€r en tvivelaktig historisk kĂ€lla. DĂ€r berĂ€ttas om bröderna Pandavas som 1100 före Kristus strider mot sina kusiner frĂ„n elefanternas rygg. Dokumenterade Ă€r dĂ€remot att fursten Poros anvĂ€nde sig av en falang stridselefanter mot Alexander den store under slaget vid floden Jhelum. Slaget Ă€gde rum 326 före Kristus och vanns av Alexander. + +Senare brukades asiatiska elefanter utanför sitt ursprungliga utbredningsomrĂ„de, till exempel kring Medelhavet. Hannibals stridselefanter var dĂ€remot nĂ€stan uteslutande afrikanska elefanter, bara för hans egen elefant antas att det var en asiatisk elefant. + +Under 1500-talet importerades mĂ„nga asiatiska elefanter av portugisiska kungar som hade kolonier i sydöstra Asien. Elefanterna anvĂ€ndes bland annat för att imponera pĂ„ andra europeiska monarker och som diplomatiska gĂ„vor. En av de mer kĂ€nda individerna var elefanten Hanno som skĂ€nktes till pĂ„ven Leo X. En annan var Abul-Abbas, den första elefanten i medeltida Nordeuropa som gavs som gĂ„va till Karl den store av Franken Ă„r 802. Den första asiatiska elefanten som kom till Sverige 1804 blev orsak till upploppet i SkĂ€nninge. + +Ăven i Asien har "avel" i egentlig mening börjat först under 1960-talet och sĂ„ledes kan man inte anvĂ€nda begreppet domesticerad pĂ„ elefanter, vilket ibland felaktigt förekommer i litteraturen. Begreppet domesticering förutsĂ€tter en av mĂ€nniskor kontrollerad avel och urval av avelsdjur under sĂ„ lĂ„ng tid, att mĂ€nniskan förmĂ„r Ă€ndra fysiska och psykiska karaktĂ€rer efter sitt behov, med andra ord för en art som elefant tar det hundratals Ă„r, och de nuvarande tĂ€mjda elefanterna har man som mest förökat i fem generationer. + +Hot och skyddsĂ„tgĂ€rder + +Liksom de afrikanska arterna jagades den asiatiska elefanten tidigare intensivt för elfenbenets skull. Idag Ă€r dĂ€remot levnadsomrĂ„dets omvandling till jordbruksmark och boplatser det största hotet mot arten. I vissa regioner Ă€ter domesticerade vattenbufflar hela grĂ€stĂ€cket sĂ„ att inget blir kvar för elefanterna. + +Baserat pĂ„ en uppskattning frĂ„n 2003 berĂ€knar IUCN att hela bestĂ„ndet av individer mellan 41 000 - 52 000 vilda individer men tillĂ€gger att det enbart Ă€r en grov gissning. TĂ€t vegetation och olika typer av metoder för att göra observationer bidrar till svĂ„righeten att uppskatta antalet vilda elefanter. Cirka 50 procent av populationen förekommer pĂ„ den indiska subkontinenten och ytterligare 40 procent pĂ„ andra delar av det sydostasiatiska fastlandet, resten lever pĂ„ Sri Lanka och andra öar i Sydostasien. DĂ„ populationen fortfarande minskar listas arten som starkt hotad (endangered). + +Antalet tĂ€mjda individer i Asien lĂ„g under 1990-talet pĂ„ strax över 16 000 individer. I Thailand fanns omkring 1900 cirka 100 000 asiatiska elefanter i tjĂ€nst eller fĂ„ngenskap, antalet lĂ„g 2007 pĂ„ runt 3 500 tama och ungefĂ€r 1 000 vilda elefanter. I Myanmar idag berĂ€knas det finnas ungefĂ€r 5 000 tĂ€mjda elefanter. De anvĂ€nder tĂ€mjda elefanter bl.a. inom skogsindustrin, runt millennieskiftet var det över 3 000 elefanter som arbetade med att hĂ€mta timmer. + +Den asiatiska elefanten listas i appendix I av CITES. Handel och transfer av levande individer eller av kroppsdelar Ă€r förbjuden om det inte finns tillstĂ„nd av de ansvariga nationella myndigheterna. + +Referenser + +Noter + +Ăvriga kĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Fakta om tama och vilda elefanter + +Elefanter +Husdjur +DĂ€ggdjur i orientaliska regionen +Afrikanska elefanter (Loxodonta) Ă€r ett slĂ€kte i familjen elefanter. + +SlĂ€ktet indelas enligt Mammal Species of the World i tvĂ„ nu levande arter: +Savannelefant, Loxodonta africana +Skogselefant, Loxodonta cyclotis + +Den senare godkĂ€nns inte av IUCN. DĂ€r listas L. africana och L. cyclotis som synonymer. + +De bĂ„da nu levande arterna uppvisar en rad anatomiska skillnader, bland annat har skogselefanten (i likhet med den asiatiska elefanten) 5 tĂ„naglar pĂ„ framfoten och fyra tĂ„naglar pĂ„ bakfoten, medan stĂ€ppelefanten har fyra tĂ„naglar pĂ„ sina framfötter och tre pĂ„ sina bakfötter. I grĂ€nstrakterna mellan regnskog och savann finns ocksĂ„ blandade sĂ„ kallade intermediĂ€rformer som uppvisar heterogena karaktĂ€rer. + +Enligt IUCN som infogar alla afrikanska elefanter i en art lever tvĂ„ tredjedelar av hela bestĂ„ndet i östra och södra Afrika. I dessa regioner ökar populationen med cirka 4 procent per Ă„r. Det motsvarade Ă„ret 2006 cirka exemplar. Samtidigt kan nĂ„gra populationer i centrala och vĂ€stra Afrika vara pĂ„ tillbakagĂ„ng men inte lika klar som ökningen i östra och södra Afrika. + +En av de mest kĂ€nda afrikanska elefanterna nĂ„gonsin var Jumbo. + +Utöver savannelefant och skogselefant blev flera smĂ„vĂ€xta populationer frĂ„n norra Afrika beskrivna som arter, bland annat Nordafrikansk elefant, Loxodonta pharaohensis. Resultaten av senare taxonomiska undersökningar gav ingen anledning att godkĂ€nna dessa populationer som arter och de vetenskapliga namnen listas som synonymer till Loxodonta africana. + +Referenser +systematik + +Noter + +Elefanter +Akvariefiskar Ă€r de fiskar, som i avseende till storlek, hĂ€rdighet och förökningssĂ€tt klarar sig bra i akvarier. Viss betydelse har sĂ€kert ocksĂ„ vackra fĂ€rger och ett i övrigt intressant yttre. I allmĂ€nhet rör det sig om tropiska arter som kan odlas i stort antal till lĂ„g kostnad. Innan de tropiska arterna dök upp pĂ„ den europeiska marknaden fĂ„ngade akvaristerna ofta sjĂ€lva mindre, hĂ€rdiga arter som spigg, elritsa, bitterling och dammruda som de höll med mer eller mindre framgĂ„ng i sĂ„ kallade vivarier eller (ofta hemgjorda och ganska spartanska) akvarier. Den första tropiska akvariefisken som importerades till Europa var makropoden eller paradisfisken (en labyrintfisk) som började odlas av Pierre Carbonnier i Frankrike och Paul Matte i Tyskland i slutet av 1800-talet. (Den centralasiatiska guldfisken som kom tidigare rĂ€knas inte som tropisk.) I Asien finns en betydligt lĂ€ngre tradition av att hĂ„lla bland annat guldfisk och kampfisk. + +LĂ€mpliga akvariefiskar + +Det finns i egentlig mening inga naturliga "akvariefiskar". Akvaristen avgör ju sjĂ€lv vilka fiskar och andra djur denne vill ha i sitt akvarium. Det vanligaste Ă€r idag att man har tropiska sötvattenlevande arter, detta dĂ„ utbudet av sĂ„dana Ă€r stort i de zoologiska affĂ€rerna men Ă€ven tropiska saltvattenlevande arter förekommer. + +Akvariefisk, matfisk, eller sportfisk? +Det förekommer idag i den zoologiska handeln fiskarter som kan vara bĂ„de akvariefisk, matfisk eller till och med en god sportfisk i sina hemvatten. Hit hör arter av olika stora ciklider sĂ„som tilapia. Men Ă€ven mindre arter av störar, mindre rockor och vissa större arter av guramier saluförs som akvariefisk, och fungerar bra som sĂ„dan om akvariets storlek Ă€r tillrĂ€cklig. Pirayorna Ă€r medlemmar av en fiskfamilj varav nĂ„gra arter saluförs som akvariefisk. Flertalet av arterna Ă€r fruktĂ€tare. Vanligtvis passar dessa bra som akvariefiskar i ett specialakvarium, men pirayor Ă€ts och sportfiskas i sina hemmavatten. Det förekommer Ă€ven att arapaiman hĂ„lls som akvariefisk, liksom större arter av olika malar. Dessa senare Ă€r i de flesta fall olĂ€mpliga som invĂ„nare i privatĂ€gda akvarier dĂ„ de blir vĂ€ldigt stora, men kan hĂ„llas i större publika akvarieanlĂ€ggningar som har resurser att ge dessa arter rĂ€tt förutsĂ€ttningar. + +Import +Elektricitet, konstbelysning och bĂ€ttre transportmöjligheter har ökat antalet fiskarter som Ă€r möjliga att hĂ„lla i akvarium. Flygtransporterna sedan 1960-talet har ocksĂ„ sĂ€nkt priserna, dock mindre Ă€n vĂ€ntat. De vildfĂ„ngade arterna kommer mest frĂ„n Sydamerika. Fiskarna transporteras i plastpĂ„sar som fylls med vatten, luft och syrgas i polystyrenförpackningar som hĂ„ller temperaturen konstant under flera dygn. Normalt hĂ„lls sedan fiskarna hos en grossist i karantĂ€n i nĂ„gra veckor innan de sĂ€ljs till zooaffĂ€ren. Det hĂ€nder att de under denna tid behandlas med antibiotika sĂ„ att sjukdomssymptom (till exempel sĂ„ kallade ektoparasiter) hĂ„lls tillbaka och blommar upp först nĂ€r fisken Ă€r hemma hos kunden. Ett sĂ€tt att minska denna risk Ă€r att minska stressen för fiskarna, och att inte belasta dem för mycket med avkylning, för snabba vattenbyten eller liknande. + +Odling av akvariefiskar +Inom den akvaristiska litteraturen samt pĂ„ Internet finns det mĂ„nga odlingsbeskrivningar som rör sĂ„vĂ€l fiskar som vattenvĂ€xter. + +Odling av hotade arter +I nĂ„gra fall har odlingen av akvariefiskar rĂ€ddat arter frĂ„n utrotning. Det gĂ€ller till exempel en del arter frĂ„n Victoriasjön i Afrika, dĂ€r man utplanterade icke ursprungliga karpar samt nilabborre. Dessa trĂ€ngde ut de ursprungliga arterna, vilka dock tidigare exporterats till Europa och dĂ€rför existerar utanför sin ursprungsort, i vĂ€ntan pĂ„ framtida utplantering. + +Odling av tropiska arter i Sverige +Inom de svenska akvarieföreningarna och riksföreningen Sveriges Akvarieföreningars Riksförbund (SARF) vill man att landets akvarister odlar fisk och vĂ€xter för landets akvariemarknad sjĂ€lva i större utstrĂ€ckning Ă€n som görs idag. Man ser allvarligt pĂ„ de miljökonsekvenser som lĂ„nga flygfrakter orsakar (flera tropiska fiskarter som förekommer i svenska zooaffĂ€rer kan till exempel vara odlade i Sydostasien, framför allt i Singapore) och man vill att mer av den professionella odlingen för den svenska akvariemarknaden, i den mĂ„n det Ă€r möjligt, flyttas nĂ€rmare Sverige. MĂ„nga av de fiskarter som hĂ„lls i akvarium Ă€r lĂ€ttodlade, och dĂ„ finns det ingen anledning att importera sĂ„dana frĂ„n en annan vĂ€rldsdel. Lokalt odlade fiskar och vĂ€xter brukar dessutom vara bĂ€ttre anpassade till den lokala akvariekulturen. SARF ordnar odlingstĂ€vlingar varje Ă„r dit landets akvarieföreningars medlemmar inlĂ€mnar rapporter pĂ„ sina hemmaodlingar. SĂ„vĂ€l enskilda medlemmar som hela föreningen belönas för de bĂ€sta eller mest omfattade odlingarna. Det hĂ€nder ocksĂ„ att man inom föreningarna odlar fiskar och vĂ€xter som i naturen Ă€r hotade eller rent av utrotade. + +Forskningsobjekt + +Akvariefiskar har varit vĂ€rdefulla forskningsobjekt. Konrad Lorenz gjorde studier av aggression hos storspigg. Den vĂ€lkĂ€nda guppyn har lĂ€rt oss mycket om genetik och nedĂ€rvning av fĂ€rger, och sebrafisken Ă€r vanlig Ă€n idag inom till exempel sĂ„dan experimentell genetisk forskning som syftar till att öka vikten pĂ„ fiskarter i tredje vĂ€rlden. + +Externa lĂ€nkar +SARF Sveriges akvarieföreningars riksförbund +Fisksjukdomar och behandling. +Abborrartade fiskar (Perciformes) Ă€r den artrikaste ordningen bland ryggradsdjuren, och utgör en mĂ„ngsidig och heterogen grupp fiskar. De abborrartade fiskarna utmĂ€rks av taggiga fenstrĂ„lar, tvĂ„ ryggfenor, att de saknar fettfena, har simblĂ„sa, och att stjĂ€rtens fenstrĂ„lar aldrig Ă€r flera Ă€n 17. + +De flesta arterna lever i saltvatten utefter tempererade och tropiska havskuster. De övriga lever pelagiskt i oceaner eller Ă€r sötvattenfiskar: omkring 2 200 av de arter som normalt förekommer i sötvatten lever dock i saltvatten under Ă„tminstone en del av sitt liv. + +Av de mĂ„nga familjerna Ă€r smörbultarna (Gobiidae) artrikast med minst 1 875 arter, följd av cikliderna (Cichlidae) med 1 300 arter och lĂ€ppfiskarna (Labridae) med 500 arter. + +Systematik + +Ordningen omfattar 19 underordningar, 156 familjer, cirka 1 500 slĂ€kten och mer Ă€n 10 000 arter. + +Underordningar + Kirurgfisklika fiskar â Acanthuroidei + Labyrintfiskar â Anabantoidei + Slemfisklika fiskar â Blennioidei + Sjökockslika fiskar â Callionymoidei + Ormhuvudfiskar â Channoidei (monotypiskt) + Elassomatoidei (monotypiskt) + Dubbelsugarfiskar â Gobiesocidei (monotypiskt) + Smörbultslika fiskar â Gobioidei + Icosteoidei (monotypiskt) + Krokhuvudfiskar â Kurtoidei (monotypiskt) + LĂ€ppfisklika fiskar â Labroidei + Notothenioider â Notothenioidei + Abborrlika fiskar â Percoidei + Pholidichthyoidei + Makrillika fiskar â Scombroidei + Scombrolabracoidei (monotypiskt) + Smörfisklika fiskar â Stromateoidei + FjĂ€rsinglika fiskar â Trachinoidei + TĂ„nglakelika fiskar â Zoarcoidei + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar +AmigaOS Ă€r det operativsystem som normalt sett anvĂ€nds i Amiga-datorer. Operativsystemet bygger pĂ„ anvĂ€ndandet av en mikrokĂ€rna kallad Exec som klarar av att hantera tidsdelad multikörning. + +Komponenter i AmigaOS +Fram till version 3.5 levererades AmigaOS alltid i tvĂ„ delar, Kickstart och Workbench. + +Kickstart Ă€r bootstrap-ROM:en. Förutom koden för att starta datorn innehĂ„ller Kickstart Ă€ven stora delar av operativsystemet, sĂ„som Intuition (Amigans bibliotek för det grafiska grĂ€nssnittet) och Exec (mikrokĂ€rnan). + +Workbench Ă€r det grafiska skalet i AmigaOS. Som namnet antyder anvĂ€nds en arbetsbĂ€nk som metafor till skillnad frĂ„n den vanligare skrivbordsmetaforen. DĂ€rför anvĂ€nds ocksĂ„ âlĂ„dorâ istĂ€llet för âmapparâ och âverktygâ som en metafor för program. + +Varje version av Kickstart Ă€r bunden till en viss version av operativsystemet, sĂ„ anvĂ€ndare bör alltid starta Workbench 2.0 pĂ„ en dator med Kickstart 2.0. Det Ă€r möjligt att starta inkorrekta versioner men med vissa problem. Undantaget Ă€r Workbench 2.1, som fungerar med Kickstart 2.04. Version 3.5 och 3.9 anvĂ€nder Kickstart 3.1 och laddar in ROM-uppdateringar vid uppstarten. + +Versioner av AmigaOS +AmigaOS har tvĂ„ parallella system för versionsnummer: ett för slutanvĂ€ndaren som Ă€r uppdelat i större och mindre revisioner Ă„tskilda av en eller flera punkter (ex: 1.3.1) samt ett löpande system som anvĂ€nds frĂ€mst av programmerare. Version 1.3 heter dĂ€rmed ocksĂ„ V37, medan OS 2.0 benĂ€mns V38. + +Kickstart/Workbench 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 + +1.x-versionerna Ă€r originalimplementationen av AmigaOS. De har, i grundinstĂ€llningen, ett distinkt blĂ„tt och orange fĂ€rgschema som var designat för att ge hög kontrast Ă€ven pĂ„ dĂ„liga TV-skĂ€rmar. 1.1 bestĂ„r mestadels av buggfixar. Version 1.0 och 1.1 distribuerades enbart pĂ„ disketter för Amiga 1000. + +Version 1.2 och 1.3 Ă€r de första som sattes in i ROM men var Ă€ven tillgĂ€ngligt pĂ„ diskett för Amiga 1000-anvĂ€ndare. Dessa versioner distribuerades i ROM för A500, A1500, CDTV (enbart 1.3) och A2000. Version 1.2 av Kickstart korrigerade mĂ„nga buggar vilket förbĂ€ttrade stabiliteten, och lade till stöd för AutoConfig för automatisk konfiguration av expansionskort. Version 1.3 har bland annat ett snabbare filsystem för hĂ„rddiskar, förbĂ€ttrad kommandotolk och fler extraprogram. Version 1.3 har Ă€ven stöd för att starta pĂ„ andra enheter Ă€n diskett, till exempel hĂ„rddisk och RAD-disk. + +Kickstart/Workbench 1.4 + +Kickstart/Workbench 1.4 Ă€r egentligen inget annat Ă€n en funktion för att ladda en ROM-fil pĂ„ hĂ„rddisken till RAM-minnet pĂ„ tidiga A3000 som inte hade nĂ„gon ROM-krets pĂ„ moderkortet. Mycket praktiskt dĂ„ man lĂ€tt kan byta ROM-filen pĂ„ hĂ„rddisken istĂ€llet för att byta sjĂ€lva ROM-kretsen. +Levererades med Kickstart/Workbench 2.04 eller 3.1 (se nedan). + +Kickstart/Workbench 2.0, 2.05, 2.1 + +Kickstart/Workbench 2.0 introducerade mĂ„nga stora framsteg i operativsystemet. Workbench har ett grĂ„tt och ljusblĂ„tt fĂ€rgschema istĂ€llet för det blĂ„a och orangea fĂ€rgschemat frĂ„n tidigare versioner, och Ă€r inte lĂ€ngre bundet till upplösningarna 640*256 (PAL) och 640*200 (NTSC). Stora delar av systemet förbĂ€ttrades för att göra framtida expansioner enklare. + +2.x sĂ„ldes ihop med A500+ (2.04), A600 (2.05), A3000 och A3000T. Workbench 2.1 Ă€r sista versionen i serien, och slĂ€pptes enbart som en mjukvaruuppgradering. Eftersom 2.1 enbart uppgraderar mjukvaran finns det ingen Kickstart 2.1 ROM. + +Kickstart/Workbench 3.0, 3.1 + +3.x Ă€r Ă€nnu en stor uppdatering. + +3.x inkluderar bland annat ett universalt datasystem, kallat datatyper, som gör att program kan ladda bilder, ljud och text i format de inte förstĂ„r direkt sjĂ€lva genom standardplugins. + +3.0 levererades ihop med A1200, A4000 och A4000T, och fungerade bara pĂ„ dessa. Senare levererades dessa med version 3.1, som Ă€ven sĂ„ldes som uppgradering till tidigare modeller. CD32 Ă€r ett specialfall som innehĂ„ller mycket av Commodores senaste kod och specialanpassningar för CD-ROM. + +AmigaOS 3.5/3.9 + +Efter att Commodore gĂ„tt i konkurs, och rĂ€ttigheterna för varumĂ€rket Amiga gĂ„tt till ett annat företag, sĂ„lde detta företag en licens till Haage & Partner för att lĂ„ta dem uppdatera operativsystemet. Med uppdateringen började operativsystemet benĂ€mnas AmigaOS istĂ€llet för de separata delarna Kickstart och Workbench. + +Uppdateringarna inkluderar: + Cd-filsystemsstöd som standard. + Distribution pĂ„ cd istĂ€llet för diskett. + TCP/IP-stack, webblĂ€sare och epostklient. + Stöd för hĂ„rddiskar som Ă€r större Ă€n 4 gigabyte. + +AmigaOS 4 + +AmigaOS 4 Ă€r det operativsystem som normalt sett körs pĂ„ AmigaOne. Det anvĂ€nder precis som tidigare versioner av AmigaOS en mikrokĂ€rna. AmigaOS 4 Ă€r utvecklat av det belgisk-tyska företaget Hyperion Entertainment VOF under licens frĂ„n Amiga Inc. Det Ă€r den första officiella uppdateringen sedan AmigaOS 3.9, och slĂ€pptes 24 december 2006. Den nya versionen gjordes tillgĂ€nglig för AmigaOne-hĂ„rdvara som dĂ€remot inte lĂ€ngre tillverkades vid denna tidpunkt. Vid slĂ€ppet meddelade Hyperion dock att ytterligare information bör komma tidigt 2007 frĂ„n tredjepartstillverkare om lĂ€mplig PowerPC-hĂ„rdvara för att köra AmigaOS 4. + +InnehĂ„ller bland annat: + Virtuellt minne + CD/DVD-brĂ€nnarstöd + FörbĂ€ttrat TCP/IP-stöd + +AmigaOS 3.1.4 och 3.2 + +Dessa uppdateringar utvecklades likt AmigaOS 4 av Hyperion Entertainment och slĂ€pptes Ă„r 2018-2023, det vill sĂ€ga trots lĂ€gre versionnummer efter AmigaOS 4. Anledningen till detta Ă€r att dessa uppdateringar inte bygger pĂ„ AmigaOS 4 Ă€ven om de innehĂ„ller mĂ„nga tekniker och lĂ€rdomar dĂ€rifrĂ„n. De Ă€r istĂ€llet omstarter direkt pĂ„ kodbasen Kickstart 3.1 av Commodore och fungerar dĂ€rför till skillnad frĂ„n AmigaOS 4 pĂ„ samma system som Kickstart 3.1, alltsĂ„ samtliga fr.o.m. Amiga 1000. Minneskravet Ă€r dĂ€remot 2 MB som en summa av Chip RAM och Fast RAM. I mĂ„nga fall Ă€r det möjligt att kombinera komponenter frĂ„n AmigaOS 3.9 med dessa releaser. Bland de frĂ€msta uppdateringarna Ă€r att dessa releaser stödjer hĂ„rddiskvolymer större Ă€n 4 GB, Motorola-processorer upp till och med MC68060, och mĂ„nga buggfixar genom systemet. + +Operativsystem +Amiga-mjukvara +Denna artikel handlar om guden Apollon. Se Ă€ven Apollon F1. + +Apollon Ă€r en viktig gud i grekisk mytologi, liksom i romersk mytologi, dĂ€r han kallas Apollo och ibland Ă€ven Apollo Musagetes i egenskap av musernas ledare; dĂ„ avbildad med en lyra i handen. Han betraktas som ljusets och konsternas gud. Han framstĂ€lls vanligen som en ung man med vackra anletsdrag och hans kĂ€nnetecken Ă€r lager, lyra, delfin och korp. Han var son till Zeus och Leto. Apollon Ă€r en utmĂ€rkt bĂ„gskytt. + +Funktioner +Apollon hade flera funktioner varav den viktigaste var som orakel. Den rollen kan spĂ„ras tillbaka till gudinnekulten i Delfi, men Apollon var ocksĂ„ jĂ€gare, lĂ€kare och musiker. Han föddes tillsammans med sin tvillingsyster Artemis pĂ„ ön Delos dit hans mor hade flytt undan Heras vrede. Apollon stod i konflikt med gudarna Dionysos, Pan och Hermes som alla hade anknytning till djurhĂ„llning. Detta har tolkats som ett spĂ„r av rivalitet mellan olika nomadiserande herdefolk. Ursprungligen tros Apollon ha varit en solgud. + +Apollons tvĂ„ dygder +Apollon stĂ„r för tvĂ„ dygder som han ville att grekerna skulle följa. + +KĂ€nn dig sjĂ€lv. + +Apollon menar att mĂ€nniskan skulle inse att hon inte har nĂ„gon större makt, inte ens att forma sitt eget öde. + +Var alltid mĂ„ttfull. + +Apollons andra dygd, att vara mĂ„ttfull, Ă€r en allmĂ€nt accepterad stöttepelare i den grekiska mytologin. Att vara mĂ„ttfull betydde att inte drabbas av övermod â hybris. Den som bröt mot denna regel drabbades av nemesis. Detta var gudarnas samlade vrede. Nemesis slog dessutom mot hela slĂ€kten till personen som fĂ„tt hybris och kunde endast Ă„tgĂ€rdas genom att övermodet gottgjordes och att den drabbade personen lĂ€rde sig dygden mĂ„ttfullhet och visade sig ha förstĂ„tt hela innebörden av den. + +Samtidigt bröt Apollon mot sina egna regler. Till exempel slutade hans seger i musiktĂ€vlingen mot faunen Marsyas med att han lĂ€t Marsyas flĂ„s levande, en scen som portrĂ€tterats av Tizian i Marsyas straff. + +KĂ€rleksĂ€ventyr +Som de andra gudarna i den grekiska mytologin sĂ„ har Ă€ven Apollon mĂ€nskliga Ă€lskare. En av dessa heter Klymene, och med henne har han en son som heter Faethon. Med nymfen Kalliope fick Apollon sonen Orfeus. Han sĂ€gs Ă€ven fĂ„tt flera barn tillsammans med kung Minos dotter Akakallis. + +Apollon hade Ă€ven en manlig Ă€lskare som hette Kyparissos. NĂ€r denne av misstag hade dödat sin Ă€lsklingshjort blev han sĂ„ förtvivlad att han av Apollon förvandlades till ett trĂ€d, cypressen. Legenden berĂ€ttas av Ovidius. Apollon hade Ă€ven en kĂ€rleksaffĂ€r med den spartanske kungasonen Hyakinthos. + +Apollon i konstnĂ€rliga verk +Inte minst som konsternas gudom Ă„terfinns Apollon i ett antal (frĂ€mst Ă€ldre) konstnĂ€rliga verk; poesi, skĂ„despel i antik teater med mera. Han Ă€r bland annat huvudperson i Hjalmar Gullbergs dikt FörklĂ€dd gud (1933), sedermera vĂ€lkĂ€nd Ă€ven som musikverk av Lars-Erik Larsson (1940), dĂ€r han enligt legenden dömdes att leva som mĂ€nniska pĂ„ jorden ett Ă„r i tjĂ€nst som drĂ€ng hos kung Admetos i Thessalien (enligt Euripides drama om Alkestis). + +Apollo eller Apollo Musagete (1928) Ă€r en balett med musik och libretto av Igor Stravinskij och koreografi av George Balanchine. + +SlĂ€ktskap + +Se Ă€ven + Mytologi: Jakten + Apollonisk och dionysisk + Abaris: fick en pil av Apollon + Apollo kitharoidos + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Gudar i grekisk mytologi +Gudar i romersk mytologi +Solgudar +HBTQ-mytologi +Athena eller Pallas Athena var vishetens och krigets gudinna i grekisk mytologi. Hennes attribut var sköld, lans, olivtrĂ€d och uggla. Ett alternativt namn till Athena var Tritonia. Pallas, flodguden Tritons dotter, var gudinnan Athenas vĂ€n och fostersyster. Under en duell pĂ„ lek, rĂ„kade Athena av misstag döda sin vĂ€ninna; för att hedra hennes minne, antog Athena dĂ„ namnet Pallas Athena. + +Beskrivning + +Myter +De flesta myter berĂ€ttar ingenting om Athenas mor, och sĂ€ger endast att Athena var Zeus mest Ă€lskade dotter och hade fötts ur hans huvud. Enligt Hesiodos Theogoni var dock Metis hennes mor. + +Zeus ville ha Metis och jagade henne runt hela tiden. Metis förvandlade sig till olika djur för att lura honom men han var stĂ€ndigt efter henne. En dag fĂ„r Zeus reda pĂ„ av ett orakel att Metis första barn skulle vara en dotter och sedan en son som skulle ta ner honom frĂ„n tronen. För att förhindra detta smickrade han Metis tills hon sĂ€nkte garden, sedan Ă„t han upp henne. + +Vad Zeus inte visste var att Metis redan var gravid och efter att han slukat henne tillverkade hon en rustning Ă„t sin kommande dotter. Hamrandet gjorde att Zeus fick en kraftig huvudvĂ€rk. Han skrek sĂ„ det hördes överallt. Hermes förstod att det var nĂ„got pĂ„ tok och bestĂ€mde att man skulle öppna hans huvud. Han sade till Hefaistos (andra förekommer, beroende pĂ„ kĂ€llan) som slog honom med en hammare och öppnade hans skalle. Ur hans huvud kom Athena upp fullvuxen och i rustning. + +Aten var huvudort för hennes dyrkan, forskarna Ă€r osĂ€kra om staden fĂ„tt sitt namn efter henne eller tvĂ€rtom, namnet förekommer dock redan under mykensk tid. Enligt en legend vann hon herravĂ€ldet över Aten efter en tĂ€vling med Poseidon, dĂ€r hennes gĂ„va, det första olivtrĂ€det visar sig vara till mer nytta för staden Ă€n den saltkĂ€lla Poseidon lĂ„ter springa fram pĂ„ Akropolis. + +Personlighet +Athena var hĂ„rd och modig i strider som var till för att försvara hem frĂ„n fiender. Hon var gudinnan över stĂ€der, hantverk, olivtrĂ€det och visheten. Hon uppfann trumpeten, flöjten, vagnen, skeppsbyggarkonsten, plogen och mycket annat som blev till nytta för mĂ€nskligheten och civilisationen. Hennes eviga följeslagare var en uggla. Athenas stĂ„ende epitet Ă€r glaukopis, vilket tolkats som âuggleögdâ eller âstrĂ„lögdâ. + +Attribut och varianter +Athena upptrĂ€dde med olika attribut vid olika tillfĂ€llen: + NĂ€r hon upptrĂ€dde som hantverkarnas och konstnĂ€rernas beskyddare kallades hon Athena Ergane. + Det var som Athena Parthenos, Jungfrun Athena, hon tillbads vid templet Parthenon pĂ„ Akropolisklippan. + Hon upptrĂ€dde som stridens gudinna under namnet Athena Promacho. + Som Athena Polias, stadens Athena, var hon staden Atens och Akropolis-templets skyddsgudinna. + Hette Minerva i den romerska mytologin. + +SlĂ€ktskap + +Se Ă€ven +Arachne + +Referenser + +Skyddsgudar +Krigsgudar +Gudinnor i grekisk mytologi +Asatro Ă€r en modern beteckning pĂ„ de religiösa traditioner och seder som utövades av invĂ„narna i Skandinavien frĂ„n folkvandringstiden och under vikingatiden fram till religionsskiftet. Kunskapen om asatron bygger huvudsakligen pĂ„ nedteckningar frĂ„n kristen medeltid, men som förutsĂ€tts spegla en Ă€ldre muntlig tradition. Svenska akademiens ordbok definierar asatro som âen nordisk naturreligion dĂ€r polyteism och naturvĂ€sen Ă€r centrala inslag utbredd i nord-germanska lĂ€nder innan kristendomens införandeâ. + +Begreppet asatro +Begreppet asatro myntades under 1800-talet, dĂ„ den nationalromantiska, samnordiska synen pĂ„ vikingatiden skapades, och ett stort intresse för förkristen mytologi vĂ€cktes ocksĂ„ i Tyskland (med Richard Wagners operasvit som frĂ€msta exempel). SAOB:s första belĂ€gg för begreppet Ă€r frĂ„n 1820. +Under medeltiden anvĂ€ndes benĂ€mningen fornsed (medeltida stavning: forn siðr eller fornum sid) â â för att beskriva tron och sederna innan kristendomen. + +Som synonym för asatro anvĂ€nds ofta fornnordisk religion, men detta begrepp omfattar Ă€ven andra förkristna nordiska religioner, sĂ„som samisk religion, finsk religion och Nerthuskult. En del svenska akademiker har dĂ€rför börjat anvĂ€nda begreppet fornskandinavisk religion som synonym till asatro för att avgrĂ€nsa mot just samisk och finsk religion. Asatro avser religionen som fanns i perioden precis innan kristendomens införande, medan de förkristna religiösa uttrycken som fanns under bronsĂ„lder och stenĂ„lder i Norden skiljde sig frĂ„n asatron. + +Skriftliga och arkeologiska kĂ€llor + +Det som Ă€r kĂ€nt om asatrons trosuppfattningar kommer frĂ€mst frĂ„n kristna kĂ€llor, antingen islĂ€ndska sagor nedtecknade efter kristnandet genomförts pĂ„ Island, eller frĂ„n kristna grannar som verkat samtidigt som asatron varit levande i Skandinavien, till exempel Adam av Bremen. Ăven Cornelius Tacitus skrev om germanerna och deras trosuppfattningar. De viktigaste kĂ€llorna till nordisk mytologi Ă€r den poetiska Eddan och Snorres Edda frĂ„n 1200-talet. + +Det finns Ă€ven arkeologiska kĂ€llor som ger oss ledtrĂ„dar till hur och var asatron utövas. Ortnamn ger ofta vĂ€gledning om vilka gudar och gudinnor som dyrkades pĂ„ en viss plats och sambandet mellan dessa. I nordiska ortnamn ingĂ„r följande gudars namn: Tor, Njord, Ull, Frö, Oden, Ti (Tyr), Frigg, Fröja, med binamnet HĂ€rn (islĂ€ndska "Hörn"), Vrind (islĂ€ndska Rind), möjligen ocksĂ„ Vidar, Balder, Höder och Skade. Av gudomlighetsnamn anvĂ€nds gud, as, dis, troligen ocksĂ„ van, medan det i personnamnen ingĂ„r Tor, Frö, Oden, möjligen ocksĂ„ Ti, liksom gud, as, ragn (gudamakt), dis, alv samt benĂ€mningar pĂ„ valkyrior. Guden Ull har efterlĂ€mnat spĂ„r i ett stort antal svenska ortnamn som UllerĂ„ker och Ullevi. SĂ„ trots att Ull har en undantrĂ€ngd roll i Eddorna, sĂ„ tycks han haft en viktig roll i de lokala offerkulterna. + +Bakgrund +Asatron utgjorde aldrig ett sammanhĂ€ngande religiöst system, varför man kan sĂ€ga att Snorre Sturlasson med sin Edda var den som först sammanförde berĂ€ttelserna till en helhet. Den förkristna nordiska asatron var alltsĂ„ aldrig nĂ„gon enhetlig religion i modern bemĂ€rkelse utan var snarare en etnisk religion eller naturreligion, som saknade grundare och faststĂ€llda lĂ€rosatser. Mytologin fungerade troligen som en sorts teoretisk överbyggnad till kulten, som hade mycket lite att göra med tro och mer med handlande, traditioner och vĂ€rderingar i samband med naturen, vĂ€dret, Ă„rstiderna och mĂ€nsklig verksamhet. + +Asatro tillhör de polyteistiska religionerna, och förutom gudar tror man Ă€ven pĂ„ olika naturvĂ€sen. Asatron Ă€r en del av en större familj av indoeuropeiska religioner dĂ€r man Ă€ven finner grekisk, romersk och slavisk fornreligion. Det finns Ă€ven motsvarigheter till asatrons panteon i den indiska hinduismen. En teori hĂ€vdar att olika indoeuropeiska stammar (indier, greker, italiker, kelter, slaver, germaner) har ett gemensamt ursprung, möjligen frĂ„n omrĂ„den i nĂ€rheten av Svarta Havet och att dessa sedan utvandrat till övriga Europa samt Asien. Detta Ă€r en förklaring till likheten i religion och sprĂ„k mellan dessa olika lĂ€nder. Se urindoeuropĂ©er. + +Religionshistorikern Georges DumĂ©zil menade att det urindoeuropeiska samhĂ€llet varit uppdelat i tre delar, liknande det indiska kastsystemet. Detta kallade han trefunktionalitetssystemet. Detta tretal menade han Ă€ven gestaltade sig i de indoeuropeiska gudsuppfattningen; de indoeuropeiska religionerna, menade han, hade alltid tre gudar som motsvarade den romerska mytologins Jupiter (övergud), Mars (krigsgud) och Quirinus (samhĂ€llsbeskyddaren och jordbruksgud). Han utvecklade sedan resonemanget med att uppstĂ€lla ett schema över tretalens respektive egenskaper: +Den första stod för suverĂ€nitet, intelligens och helighet, och fungerade fredsbevarande. +Det andra för kraft och styrka, sĂ€rskilt avseende krig, och fungerade som rĂ€ttvisans princip. +Det tredje för tillgivenhet, samhĂ€llets bevarande, odling och jordbruk. +I âDe nordiska gudarna: en undersökning av den skandinaviska religionenâ (1939) överförde han tretalssystemet till Eddan, och menade att det motsvarade Oden, Tor och Frej i den nordiska mytologin dĂ€r Frej motsvarade jordbruket, Oden överguden och Tor var en krigsgud. + +Under folkvandringstiden, efter Roms fall, vĂ€llde de germanska folken in över den europeiska kontinenten. De hade inte undgĂ„tt pĂ„verkan frĂ„n medelhavskulturerna men sin gamla tro tog de med sig och med dem spred den sig över Europa. Omkring Ă„r 500â750 ersattes denna tro gradvis av kristendomen i anglosaxarnas England och merovingernas Frankrike, och liksom senare i Skandinavien verkade de bĂ„da trossystemen parallellt med varandra under den tiden. Under denna period, alltsĂ„ strax innan vikingatiden inletts, hade asatron sin största utbredning: Samma eller likartade gudar dyrkades över hela norra och vĂ€stra Europa. +Dock försökte aldrig anhĂ€ngarna till asatron att omvĂ€nda de kristna och det var dömt att bli en tidsfrĂ„ga innan de konverterade till kristendomen. I Norden dröjde kristnandet dock omkring 500 Ă„r lĂ€ngre Ă€n pĂ„ kontinenten: Först kristnades Norge (900â1000), sedan Island (Ă„r 1000, enligt sagorna genom ett alltingsbeslut), Danmark, och sist Sverige av alla germanska omrĂ„den; Ă€ven om kristnandet framskred i olika takt i olika delar av lĂ€nderna. Att nordborna blev kristna tolkas som ett tecken pĂ„ deras integrering i det europeiska vĂ€rdesystemet: Ă€ven om den personliga övertygelsen lĂ€t vĂ€nta pĂ„ sig underlĂ€ttade det handeln att lĂ„ta döpa sig. + +Under seklerna som följde kristnandet, innan den kristna undervisningen hunnit etablera den kristna andan, levde dessutom skaldekonsten fortfarande vid hoven. Skalder kunde anvĂ€nda kenningar, hĂ€nsyftningar till den nordiska mytologin, och veta att han blev omedelbart förstĂ„dd; "dvĂ€rgarnas skepp" var skaldekonsten; "Fröjas tĂ„rar" var guldet; "valkyriornas eld" svĂ€rdet, "korpens öl" blodet, etc. + +Asatron har karaktĂ€r av ursprunglig nordeuropeisk religion som dominerade större delen av Nordeuropa, alltsĂ„ Skandinavien, England, Tyskland, NederlĂ€nderna och Belgien, bland andra. Det mesta vi vet om denna tro hĂ€rstammar dock frĂ„n Norden och i synnerhet Island. Det Ă€r inte sĂ€kert att övriga germanska folk omfattade exakt samma trosförestĂ€llningar som de forntida nordborna. Troligen varierade asatrons sedvĂ€njor och myter avsevĂ€rt mellan de olika germanska folken och över tid. Att de religiösa förestĂ€llningarna i hela Skandinavien dock varit vĂ€sentligen desamma finns det dock mycket som tyder pĂ„. Skandinavien kristnades dessutom bortĂ„t 500 Ă„r senare Ă€n exempelvis Tyskland och England. Mest hĂ„rdnackade i den gamla tron var folken i Sverige, som höll fast vid den "forna seden" Ă€nda in pĂ„ 1100-talet, och det finns till och med vittnesmĂ„l om att mĂ€nniskor Ă„kallade asarna sĂ„ sent som pĂ„ 1500-talet i SmĂ„land. + +Kosmologi + +I eddadikten Valans spĂ„dom, VöluspĂĄ, Ă„terges, via en völva (spĂ„kvinna), myter om skapelsen, konflikterna i vĂ€rlden och vĂ€rldsundergĂ„ngen. Forskningen har diskuterat om Snorres text ger uttryck för en cyklisk vĂ€rldshistoria eller om den med ett definitivt vĂ€rldsslut Ă€r pĂ„verkad av kristendomen. Völvan berĂ€ttar om den ursprungliga tomheten, Ginnungagap, om universums tillkomst (kosmogoni) och skapelsen av Ask och Embla, de första mĂ€nniskorna (antropogoni), samt om striderna mellan gudar och jĂ€ttar som leder fram till undergĂ„ngen, Ragnarök. Snorres Edda beskriver att vĂ€rlden uppstod i Ginnungagap, ett svalg dĂ€r hetta och frost smĂ€lte samman till jĂ€tten Ymer och kon Audhumbla. Audhumbla slickade sedan fram mannen Bure ur isen. Bures sonsöner Oden, Vile och Ve drĂ€pte dĂ€refter Ymer och skapade vĂ€rlden av hans kropp. + +Den övergripande mytologiska berĂ€ttelsen handlar om en kosmisk maktkamp mellan gudarna och kaoskrafter. Gudarna representerade den ordnade vĂ€rlden, kulturen och civilisationen, som stĂ€ndigt hotades av naturens krafter, representerade av jĂ€ttarna och kaosmonster (till exempel Fenrisulven och MidgĂ„rdsormen). Men minst lika viktigt Ă€r AsgĂ„rds beroende av den hemliga kunskap som jĂ€ttar och andra demoniska vĂ€sen besitter och de allianser, och Ă€ktenskap, som knyts mellan dessa tvĂ„ vĂ€rldar. + +Snorre ger i sin Edda detaljerade upplysningar om hur universums Ă€r beskaffat: MidgĂ„rd kallas mĂ€nniskornas vĂ€rld, iâAsgĂ„rd lever gudarna. UtgĂ„rd kallas den utanförvĂ€rld dĂ€r de demoniska vĂ€sendena hĂ„ller till och dĂ€r Jotunheim finns. Runt jorden ringlar sig MidgĂ„rdsormen, och utanför detta vidunder finns det personifierade vĂ€rldshavet, Ăgir. IâvĂ€rldens mitt stĂ„r trĂ€det Yggdrasil. Det symboliserar strukturen i kosmos med sina rötter i Hels underjord och grenar som strĂ€cker sig lĂ„ngt upp till gudarna. Vid trĂ€dets fot ligger jĂ€tten Mimers brunn, vars vatten förmedlar kunskap om det som varit och det som komma skall. De tre nornorna Urd (det förflutna), Verdandi (det nuvarande) och Skuld (det som komma skall) och spinner ödestrĂ„darna. Hel Ă€r namnet bĂ„de pĂ„ det underjordiska dödsriket och pĂ„ dess hĂ€rskarinna. De som fallit i strid hĂ€mtas av valkyrior och kommer till Odens Valhall eller till Freja Folkvang. I det sista slaget, Ragnarök, kommer de hĂ€rskande gudarna att falla och vĂ€rlden kommer att gĂ„ under i en eld, varefter en ny och bĂ€ttre vĂ€rld kommer att uppstĂ„ ur den gamla. + +Kultplatser + +Kulten under jĂ€rnĂ„ldern verkar mestadels ha utövats i hemmen, men skriftliga kĂ€llor, bland annat Adam av Bremen, nĂ€mner att det skall ha funnits tempelbyggnader i Norden under vikingatiden, i alla fall i Uppsala. Vid utgrĂ€vningar i UppĂ„kra strax söder om Lund har man funnit rester efter ett tempel som stĂ„tt hĂ€r i flera hundra Ă„r före nedlĂ€ggningen i slutet av 900-talet. DĂ„ hela byggnadens yta kunnat grĂ€vas fram och dĂ„ platsen Ă€r oskadad frĂ„n senare nedgrĂ€vningar har för första gĂ„ngen ett fornnordiskt tempel kunnat studeras i sin helhet rent arkeologiskt. +Mycket vanligare var de sĂ„ kallade "vina", heliga platser utomhus. Detta Ă„terspeglas bland annat i mĂ„nga av de ortnamn som innehĂ„ller efterledet -vi, som till exempel Ullevi. 2007 undersöktes ett vi frĂ„n vendeltid i Lilla Ullevi fullstĂ€ndigt. Viet i Lilla Ullevi bestod av olika lĂ€mningar, naturliga sĂ„vĂ€l som mĂ€nniskoskapade; centralt fanns den sĂ„ kallade hargen, en stenkonstruktion som ligger pĂ„ viets högsta punkt. I hargen lĂ„g en plattform som antagligen fungerat som altare. Plattformen har efterlĂ€mnat spĂ„r i form av fyra kraftiga stolphĂ„l. Söder om stenkonstruktionen fanns ett stort antal stolphĂ„l, och arkeologerna antar att det kan ha varit en offerplats pĂ„ grund av de mĂ„nga fynd av amulettringar som man gjort dĂ€r. Ringar förekom Ă€ven i hargen, dĂ€r man funnit nĂ€rmare 70 stycken jĂ€rnringar, mĂ„nga med mindre ringar hĂ€ngande i den största ringen. Ringar antas ocksĂ„ ha betytt mycket i den nordiska kulten dĂ„ de fungerat som dörringar pĂ„ kultbyggnader, vilket man sett i templet i UppĂ„kra, och som ocksĂ„ Ă€r avbildat pĂ„ Sparlösastenen. Det islĂ€ndska sagomaterialet bekrĂ€ftar ocksĂ„ ringarnas betydelse i kulten. + +Blot + +Blot Ă€r ett offer i nordisk religion som syftar till att vinna gudars eller alvers vĂ€lvilja sĂ„ att de uppfyller dess önskemĂ„l, som genomför blotet. Ordet Ă€r slĂ€kt med gotiskans blĂŽtan i meningen "dyrka, tillbedja", och forntyskans bluozan, i betydelsen "offra" och "stĂ€rka". Troligen har ordet ursprungsbetydelsen "Ă„kalla med besvĂ€rjelse eller offer". Religionsprofessor Britt-Mari NĂ€sström hĂ€rleder ordet till en indoeuropeisk rot *bhle som betyder âsvĂ€lla, vara svullenâ och i överförd bemĂ€rkelse âtillta, ökaâ. Det betyder att offret i sig ökar den offrandes egendom. +Offerritualerna verkar ha skett pĂ„ tvĂ„ sĂ€tt; antingen frambar man offret till gudarna eller sĂ„ tog man del av offergĂ„van genom att förtĂ€ra den offrade maten och drycken. Det finns flera berĂ€ttelser frĂ„n norra Europa om stora offerfester med mat och dryck. + +De islĂ€ndska sagorna talar om tre Ă„rliga blot: höstblot, midvinterblot och vĂ„rblot. + +Namngivna blothögtider + Disablot (början av februari) + Segerblot (vĂ„rdagjĂ€mningen) + Midsommarblot (midsommar) + Skördeblot (augustiâseptember) + Höstblot (mitten av oktober) + Alvablot (november/allhelgona) + Midvinterblot (januari) + +Asatron efter kristnandet + +Sedan Nordeuropa kristnats och asatron förbjudits, allra sist i Sverige, levde en del av dess trosuppfattningar vidare i folktro och i folksagor, "Prins Hatt under jorden" Ă€r till exempel ursprungligen berĂ€ttelser om guden Höder. En dikt frĂ„n Trollkyrka i Tiveden redogör Ă€ven för hur ett hemligt offer utfördes. +Men det finns ocksĂ„ indikationer att asatron levde kvar lĂ€nge i hemlighet; under digerdödens hĂ€rjningar pĂ„ 1300-talet berĂ€ttas det att flera omrĂ„den Ă„tergick till hedendomen i försök att hejda pestens hĂ€rjningar, och det finns kĂ€tterimĂ„l frĂ„n 1500-talet mot svenskar som dyrkat Oden. Myten om Odens jakt, liksom förestĂ€llningar om Tor, Fröja (Freja), Locke (Loke), Frigg och sĂ„ vidare visar att allmogen lĂ„ngt fram pĂ„ 1800- och början av 1900-talet hade kunskaper om den forna religionen. Man har ocksĂ„ visat att sĂ„ kallade Ă€lvkvarnar anvĂ€nts för offer lĂ„ngt in pĂ„ 1800-talet. + +Andra sedvĂ€njor som kan tolkas som rester av asatro, Ă€r till exempel riten rörande Kornguden i VĂ„nga, som var en helgonbild i Norra VĂ„nga i VĂ€stergötland. Helgonbilden togs ut till Ă„krarna för att sĂ€kerstĂ€lla att skörden blev god. 1826 försökte stiftet förhindra denna sed genom att undanskaffa helgonbilden men enligt VĂ€stgöta-Bengtsson sĂ„ ska VĂ„ngaborna ha gjort sig en ny Korngud. Det Ă€r dock inget ovanligt att kristen helgondyrkan tett sig pĂ„ detta vis, och flera exempel finns frĂ„n kontinenten varför det inte med sjĂ€lvklarhet gĂ„r att göra kopplingen till asatron. +Ebbe Schön skriver i sin bok Asa-Tors hammare om hur rester av asatron levde kvar i folksagor Ă€nnu i början av 1900-talet. + +Ăven om de högre gudarna i asatron sĂ„ smĂ„ningom försvann, sĂ„ levde dess mindre vĂ€sen vidare i folktrons förestĂ€llningar om Ă€lvor, vĂ€ttar, och tomtar och i tron pĂ„ skogsrĂ„et, nĂ€cken, havsfrun med flera in i vĂ„ra dagar och gör sĂ„ alltjĂ€mt pĂ„ sina stĂ€llen. NĂ€r bonden satte ut en skĂ„l gröt till tomten pĂ„ julnatten för att denne skulle se till djuren pĂ„ gĂ„rden, sĂ„ utförde han en rit med urgamla anor, det som pĂ„ vikingatid och tidig medeltid kallades blot. + +Folktrons förestĂ€llningar om avlidnas sjĂ€lar och naturföreteelsernas andar Ă„terfinns i liknande skepnad hos mĂ„nga folk, och att de hos nordbor och övriga germaner varit vĂ€sentligen de samma intygas dels av överensstĂ€mmande folktro frĂ„n yngre tid, dels av de gemensamma benĂ€mningarna för Ă€lva, mara, huldra, dvĂ€rg och nĂ€ck. Om de germanska folkens gudatro finns nĂ„gra underrĂ€ttelser Ă€nda frĂ„n vĂ„r tiderĂ€knings början, och ett för dessa gemensamt drag Ă€r att utom trĂ€d, floder och berg vanligen tre, ibland fyra gudar uppges ha dyrkats: Caesar anger solen, Vulcanus (elden) och mĂ„nen, Tacitus anger Mercurius, Hercules och Mars. I det saxiska doplöftet frĂ„n 800-talet avsvĂ€rjs "Thuner och Woden och Saxnot och alla de onda makter, som Ă€r i deras sĂ€llskap". + +Modern asatro + +I slutet av 1800-talet blommade Ă„terigen ett intresse för asatron upp. En andra vĂ„g kom pĂ„ 1920-talet, och en tredje kom i samband med det ökande intresset för naturreligioner under 1960-talet. I dag finns det flera organisationer som sprider kunskap om mytologin, religionen och religiösa sammankomster, huvudsakligen i Skandinavien, England och USA. Det islĂ€ndska ordet ĂĄsatrĂș har blivit det vanligaste ordet internationellt men Ă€ven Odinism (efter det islĂ€ndska/fornnordiska namnet pĂ„ Oden) förekommer. Nordiska Asasamfundet (NAS), det största samfundet för Asatro i Sverige anvĂ€nder beteckningen asatro för religionen. I Skandinavien anvĂ€nds ibland Ă€ven beteckningen forn sed för denna religion av Samfundet Forn Sed Sverige. + +Forskningshistoria kring asatro +Friedrich Max MĂŒller (1823â1900) var en tysk sprĂ„kforskare som var intresserad av möjliga förbindelse mellan sprĂ„k, religion och mytologi. MĂŒller menade att naturfenomen blev till gudar genom en missuppfattning av naturlagarna. MĂŒllers resonemang kan spĂ„ras i flera verk frĂ„n 1800-talets slut, dĂ€r de nordiska gudarna kom att förklaras som naturfenomen. Inom mytforskning kallas detta för den naturmytologiska skolan. FrĂ„n 1800-talets slut fick den naturmytologiska skolan kritik. Norske Sophus Bugge (1833â1907) och tyske Eugen Mogk kom att representera en ny kĂ€llkritisk riktning i forskningen och menade att de nordiska myterna först och frĂ€mst var en produkt Nordens möte med kristendomen. I Bugges huvudverk, De nordiske Gude- og Heltesagns Oprindelse, menade han att den nordiska mytologin hade skapats i möte med kristendomens texter och litterĂ€ra traditioner. Han menade vidare att asatron hade inspirerats av keltiska och anglosaxiska traditioner med lĂ„n frĂ„n grekisk och romersk mytologi. PĂ„ 2000-talet har Bugges teori ingen stark stĂ€llning. Gro Steinsland menar dock att Bugges forskning "banade vĂ€g för den kĂ€llkritiska debatten som uppstod och som fortfarande förs". Bugges kommenterade utgĂ„va av Den eldre Edda (1867) betraktas fortfarande som ett standardverk för de som arbetar kĂ€llkritiskt med eddadikterna. + +KĂ€lltexter +Följande texter och föremĂ„l utgör historiska kĂ€llor till kunskap om den nordiska mytologins innehĂ„ll, som de i olika utstrĂ€ckning nĂ€mner och behandlar: + + Tacitus: Germania (ca 98 e.kr.) + Snorre Sturlason: + Codex Regius (âKungliga bokenâ) eller Poetiska Eddan (ca 800 e.kr.) + Prosaiska Eddan (ca 1200 e.kr.) + Saxo Grammaticus: Gesta Danorum (ca 1200 e.kr.) + Runstenar + BeowulfskvĂ€det + Tjodolf av Hvin: + Ynglingasagan + Haustlong + Eilif Gudrunarson: ThĂłrsdrĂĄpa + Adam av Bremen: Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum + +Referenser +Andra vĂ€rldskriget var en vĂ€pnad konflikt som pĂ„gick frĂ„n hösten 1939 till hösten 1945, med inledande konflikter redan 1938 och tidigare, och involverade de flesta av vĂ€rldens nationer, inklusive alla stormakter, vilka till slut bildade tvĂ„ motsatta militĂ€rallianser: de allierade, ledda av Storbritannien, vilka stod mot axelmakterna, ledda av Nazityskland. Det var det mest utbredda kriget i historien med mer Ă€n 100 miljoner mĂ€nniskor som tjĂ€nstgjorde i militĂ€ra enheter. I ett tillstĂ„nd av "totalt krig" stĂ€llde de stora deltagarna hela sin ekonomiska, industriella och vetenskapliga kapacitet till förfogande för krigsanstrĂ€ngningen och raderade dĂ€rmed ut skillnaden mellan civila och militĂ€ra resurser. Genom att involvera massdöd av civila, dĂ€ribland förintelsen i koncentrationslĂ€ger, strategiska bombningar och de första anvĂ€ndningarna av kĂ€rnvapen i krig ledde kriget till att mellan 50 och 85 miljoner mĂ€nniskor dödades. Detta gör andra vĂ€rldskriget till den i sĂ€rklass blodigaste konflikten under hela mĂ€nsklighetens historia. + +Ăven om Japan redan hade varit i krig med Republiken Kina sedan 1937, sĂ€gs i allmĂ€nhet andra vĂ€rldskriget ha startat den 1 september 1939 med den tyska invasionen av Polen. Tyskland föresatte sig att inrĂ€tta ett stort imperium i Europa och ta revansch för förlusten i det första vĂ€rldskriget, nĂ„got som Hitler gjorde till en propagandasak. FrĂ„n slutet av 1939 till början av 1941 erövrade eller kontrollerade Tyskland genom en rad fĂ€lttĂ„g och fördrag mycket av den europeiska kontinenten. Baserat pĂ„ MolotovâRibbentrop-pakten mellan Tyskland och Sovjetunionen (frĂ„n augusti 1939) invaderade, ockuperade eller annekterade Sovjetunionen helt eller delvis sex europeiska grannars territorier, dĂ€ribland Polen. Storbritannien och andra samvĂ€ldeslĂ€nder bidrog med de enda större allierade styrkor som fortsatte kampen mot axelmakterna, med strider i Nordafrika och det lĂ„ngvariga slaget om Atlanten. I juni 1941 inledde de europeiska axelmakterna en invasion av Sovjetunionen vilket öppnade den största landskrigsskĂ„deplatsen i historien och kom att sysselsĂ€tta huvuddelen av deras militĂ€ra styrkor under resten av kriget. I september 1940 anslöt sig Japan till axelmakterna, dĂ€remot var Japan inte i krig med andra allierade nationer Ă€n Kina fram tills december 1941, dĂ„ Japan attackerade amerikanska och europeiska territorier i stillahavsomrĂ„det av vilket mycket av den vĂ€stra delen erövrades. + +Axelmakternas frammarsch stoppades 1942 sedan Japan förlorat en rad sjöslag och de europeiska axelmakternas trupper besegrats i Nordafrika och vid Stalingrad. Ă r 1943 förlorade axelmakterna initiativet till följd av flera tyska nederlag i Ăsteuropa, de allierades invasion av Sicilien och Italien och amerikanska segrar i Stilla havet, och inledde retrĂ€tter pĂ„ alla fronter. Ă r 1944 invaderade de vĂ€stallierade Frankrike samtidigt som Sovjetunionen Ă„tertog alla sina territoriella förluster, invaderade Tyskland och ockuperade Ăsteuropa. Kriget i Europa tog sitt slut genom att sovjetiska och polska trupper erövrade Berlin och vĂ€stallierade trupper erövrat större delarna av vĂ€stra och södra Tyskland vilket ledde fram till den efterföljande, ovillkorliga tyska kapitulationen den 8 maj 1945. Under 1944 och 1945 besegrade USA den japanska flottan, erövrade öarna i vĂ€stra Stilla havet och fĂ€llde atombomber över landet samtidigt som man förberedde en invasion och Ă€ven Sovjetunionen förklarade krig mot Japan och invaderade Manchuriet. Kriget i Asien avslutades den 15 augusti 1945 dĂ„ Kejsardömet Japan kapitulerade. + +De allierades totala seger över axelmakterna Ă„r 1945 avslutade konflikten. Andra vĂ€rldskriget förĂ€ndrade den politiska inriktningen och sociala strukturen i vĂ€rlden. Förenta nationerna (FN) bildades för att frĂ€mja internationellt samarbete och förhindra framtida konflikter. Stormakterna som gick segrande ur kriget, USA, Sovjetunionen, Kina, Storbritannien och Frankrike, blev de permanenta medlemmarna av FN:s sĂ€kerhetsrĂ„d. RĂ€ttegĂ„ngar hölls i NĂŒrnberg efter kriget dĂ€r man dömde nazister som gjort sig skyldiga till brott mot GenĂšvekonventionen, folkmord som Förintelsen och andra grova brott, och nazismen förbjöds i Tyskland. Judarna som blivit förföljda i de flesta av Europas lĂ€nder fick till slut sitt eget land, Israel. + +Sovjetunionen och USA framstod efter kriget som rivaliserande supermakter, vilket banade vĂ€g för det Kalla kriget under de kommande 46 Ă„ren. Sovjet försökte blockera VĂ€stberlin men för att inte upprepa misstaget frĂ„n Versaillesfördraget, inrĂ€ttade vĂ€stmakterna Marshallplanen som ett stöd för Ă„teruppbyggnaden av Tyskland och andra krigsdrabbade lĂ€nder. Samtidigt började de europeiska stormakternas inflytande att minska genom att Asien och Afrika avkoloniserades. De flesta lĂ€nder vars industrier skadats gick mot ekonomisk Ă„terhĂ€mtning. Initiativ till politisk integration, sĂ€rskilt i Europa, togs som ett försök att stabilisera relationerna efter kriget. + +Krigets benĂ€mningar och etymologi +Under konfliktens tidiga skede hade kriget Ă€nnu inte hunnit bli ett fullkomligt "vĂ€rldskrig", med strider vĂ€rlden runt. Begreppet "vĂ€rldskrig" var fortfarande starkt associerat med första vĂ€rldskriget, vilket Ă€ven in pĂ„ sent 1930-tal kallades "vĂ€rldskriget" i svensk facklitteratur. Av detta kom konflikten initialt att benĂ€mnas "stormaktskriget" i Sverige. Efter attacken mot Pearl Harbor 7 december 1941, som början av stillahavskriget, var detta dock inte lĂ€ngre fallet, varvid "vĂ€rldskriget", det vill sĂ€ga första vĂ€rldskriget, började kallas "förra vĂ€rldskriget". + +Förkortningen "VK2" (samt stavningarna: "VK 2", "VK II", "VKII", etc) förekommer i viss utstrĂ€ckning om andra vĂ€rldskriget ("VK2" = "vĂ€rldskrig 2"), möjligtvis en svensk översĂ€ttning av ("World War II") ursprungligen. I samma utstrĂ€ckning förekommer VK1 för första vĂ€rldskriget. + +Bakgrund + +Första vĂ€rldskrigets följder + +Under den ryska revolutionen 1917 kollapsade armĂ©n och tyska styrkor trĂ€ngde djupt in landet. I freden i Brest-Litovsk den 3 mars 1918 gav Ryssland upp Finland, Polen, Ukraina, Vitryssland och Baltikum, motsvarande hĂ€lften av sina europeiska territorier och med detta cirka 75 % av sina tunga industrier. Transkaukasus, nuvarande Armenien, Azerbajdzjan och Georgien tillföll Osmanska riket. + +Det ryska tillbakadragandet skapade ett maktvakuum som lokala ledare försökte fylla bland annat i det finska inbördeskriget. + +Bara nĂ„gra mĂ„nader senare gjorde de allierades handelsblockad att Tyskland och Ăsterrike-Ungern var tvungna att kapitulera. Detta gav upphov till dolkstötslegenden, det vill sĂ€ga att orsaken till förlusten var att soldaterna som "höll pĂ„ att segra" blivit svikna av politikerna pĂ„ hemmaplan. +Vid fredskonferensen i Versailles i januari 1919 hĂ€vdade segrarmakterna att Tyskland var ansvarigt för kriget och utkrĂ€vde ett stort krigsskadestĂ„nd. Fredsavtalet stipulerade att Tysklands försvarsmakt inte fick ha militĂ€rflygplan och stridsvagnar, att flottan begrĂ€nsades, att armĂ©n fick uppgĂ„ till maximalt 100 000 man och dessutom att Rhenlandet skulle demilitariseras. En av dem som framförde konspirationsteorier om politikernas förrĂ€deri var Adolf Hitler, som 1921 blev ledare för Nationalsocialistiska tyska arbetarepartiet (NSDAP). + +De tyska styrkorna evakuerade Ăsteuropa, varefter Polen och Sovjet delade upp den tyskskapade Ukrainska staten mellan sig. + +Ă r 1923 drabbades Tyskland av extrem inflation, som ruinerade mĂ„nga mĂ€nniskor, vilket mĂ„nga sĂ„g som en direkt följd av krigsskadestĂ„ndet. Den verkliga anledningen var dock mer komplex: efter fransk-tyska kriget 1870â1871 hade Tyskland fĂ„tt ett stort krigsskadestĂ„nd av Frankrike och vid första vĂ€rldskrigets början bestĂ€mde den tyska regeringen att kriget inte skulle finansieras med skatter utan genom att fĂ„ befolkningen att teckna krigsobligationer, som skulle betalas tillbaka med ett förutskickat krigsskadestĂ„nd efter en tysk seger. Tillsammans med de allierades handelsblockad skapade detta kraftiga prisstegringar redan under kriget, men hur mycket Reichsmarkens egentliga vĂ€rde sjunkit blev inte uppenbart förrĂ€n Tyskland skulle betala krigsskadestĂ„ndet i de allierades valutor eller i rĂ„varor. + +Arbetslösheten steg och fattigdomen blev utbredd. Till och med den franske generalen Ferdinand Foch, som var med om att driva igenom de hĂ„rda villkoren, uttryckte sig sĂ„ hĂ€r: "Detta Ă€r inte fred utan 20 Ă„rs vapenvilaâ. Han visade sig ha rĂ€tt - Tyskland anföll Polen 20 Ă„r och 64 dagar senare. + +Den andra stora förloraren i första vĂ€rldskriget, Tsarryssland hotades av kommunister och de allierade och Japan försökte ingripa. Efter att stora japanska styrkor ryckt fram till Bajkalsjön men inte lĂ€ngre blev de allierade dock misstĂ€nksamma om Japan vilie stödja Vita armĂ©n eller erövra land. Följden blev att amerikanska och kanadensiska styrkor stannade i Sibirien för att hĂ„lla koll pĂ„ japanerna istĂ€llet för att trĂ€nga fram till det vĂ€stra befolkade Ryssland dĂ€r striderna mellan kommunister och tsartrogna pĂ„gick. + +Efter kommunisternas seger 1922 drog de allierade och Japan bort sina trupper. I det nya landet Sovjet fanns en stark fientlighet mot de allierade och det första land som erkĂ€nde Sovjet blev Tyskland. Vid Genuakonferensen fick Tyskland och Sovjet inga gehör för sina Ă„sikter och det blev naturligt att de sökte sig till varandra. +För att komma runt Versaillesfredens förbud mot tyskt flygvapen började Luftwaffes piloter i smyg utbildas i Sovjet. + +1924â1925 fick Tyskland ordning pĂ„ ekonomin och mot slutet av 1920-talet fungerade den unga demokratin relativt bra. USA hjĂ€lpte till med lĂ„n och stora investeringar. Levnadsstandarden steg och stödet för NSDAP var ganska lĂ„gt. + +Men förutsĂ€ttningarna skulle snart bli annorlunda och Hitler ges möjlighet att vinna stöd frĂ„n breda befolkningslager. + +Depressionen + +Den ekonomiska depressionen i början av 1930-talet medförde att Tyskland drabbades av massarbetslöshet. Krisen ledde till ett allmĂ€nt politikerförakt, tron pĂ„ demokratin sjönk till bottennivĂ„er och mĂ„nga fruktade en kommunistrevolution. MĂ„nga sĂ„g Hitlers och dennes nazistparti som rĂ€ddningen: en stark man som visste vad han ville och inte bara Ă€gnade sig Ă„t politiskt "kĂ€bbel" skulle kunna stoppa kommunisterna. Hitler lovade att utplĂ„na arbetslösheten och att fĂ„ Tyskland pĂ„ fötter igen, utlovade sociala reformer och vĂ€lfĂ€rd Ă„t de tyska arbetarna och begrĂ€nsade rĂ€ttigheter för icke-tyskar. I riksdagsvalet 1932 blev Nationalsocialistiska tyska arbetarepartiet (NSDAP) största partiet med 33,1 % av rösterna. I januari 1933 utsĂ„gs Hitler till rikskansler (regeringschef) av president Hindenburg. + +En utbredd myt Ă€r att det var speciella grupper som röstade pĂ„ Hitler, det var dock mĂ€nniskor frĂ„n alla samhĂ€llsklasser som röstade pĂ„ Nationalsocialisterna. Dock fanns det grupper som var överrepresenterade, t.ex. egenföretagare, bönder och pensionĂ€rer. Ăven mĂ€nniskor pĂ„ landsbygden var överrepresenterade. De som röstade pĂ„ nazisterna i storstĂ€derna bodde i första hand i de vĂ€lbĂ€rgade stadsdelarna. De arbetslösa röstade snarare pĂ„ kommunisterna (KPD). + +En del sĂ„g i Hitler en "rĂ€ddande Ă€ngel" som skulle Ă„terupprĂ€tta Tysklands Ă€ra samtidigt som han lovade en god ekonomisk framtid. Ăver- och medelklassmĂ€nniskor sĂ„g Hitlers nationella socialism som att bĂ€ttre alternativ Ă€n Sovjets och militĂ€ren ville ha Ă„terupprĂ€ttelse. Till och med judar gick till en början med i nazistpartiet, trots att det var den "judiska kapitalismen" som beskylldes för de ekonomiska problem som drabbat tyskarna. + +Hitler vid makten + +UtnĂ€mnd till rikskansler 1933 förbjöd Hitler snabbt alla partier utom NSDAP och gjorde sig sjĂ€lv till diktator. FrĂ„n och med Paul von Hindenburgs bortgĂ„ng 1934 var han bĂ„de regeringschef och statschef (FĂŒhrer). Under Ă„ren som följde inleddes ett arbete för att Ă„terta de omrĂ„den som förlorats i Versaillesfreden. En Ă„terupprustning inleddes och allmĂ€n vĂ€rnplikt Ă„terinfördes (vilka bĂ„da stred mot Versaillesfredens diktat). Sedan vĂ€lstĂ„ndet ökat och kommunismen hĂ„llits borta frĂ„n inflytande i Tyskland blev Hitler omĂ„ttligt populĂ€r i och utanför landet och inspirerade mĂ„nga politiker och andra. Han anvĂ€nde sin popularitet och retoriska förmĂ„ga till att mobilisera en massiv tysk folkarmĂ© med moderna vapen. + +1938â1939 marscherade tyska soldater in i Ăsterrike samtidigt som österrikiska soldater marscherade in i Berlin. Detta för att visa att det inte var nĂ„got tvĂ„ng för Ăsterrike att ansluta sig till Tyskland (Anschluss) och det i Versailles-freden konstruerade Tjeckoslovakien upplöstes. De tjeckiska delarna (Böhmen och MĂ€hren och tjeckiska Schlesien) delades mellan Tyskland, Polen och det av Tyskland beroende Protektoratet Böhmen-MĂ€hren (se Nazityskland), medan Slovakien blev sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigt, med tyskvĂ€nlig regim. OmrĂ„den med ungersk befolkningsmajoritet Ă„terfördes till Ungern. + +VĂ€stmakterna protesterade (grĂ€nserna efter första vĂ€rldskriget var ju deras skapelse) men ville inte ha ett nytt storkrig. Inte heller Nationernas förbund (NF), FN:s föregĂ„ngare, fungerade som det var tĂ€nkt (att bevara status quo). Det berodde delvis pĂ„ att USA, trots huvudarkitekten och dĂ„varande presidenten Woodrow Wilsons önskan, aldrig gĂ„tt med i organisationen utan dragit sig tillbaka. Hitler uppfattade vĂ€stmakternas brist pĂ„ agerande som ett svaghetstecken och fortsatte förberedelserna för krig, Ă€ven om han inte ville att det skulle börja för tidigt eftersom man Ă€nnu var otillrĂ€ckligt rustad för storkrig. + +Japan +Ă r 1927 bildades ett nytt parti Rikken MinseitĆ genom sammanslagningar av mindre partier som förordnade demilitarisering, kvinnlig röstrĂ€tt och att mer makt skulle gĂ„ till det folkvalda parlamentet. +NĂ€r premiĂ€rminister Tanaka Giichi upptĂ€ckte att det var den japanska militĂ€ren som mördat den kinesiske ledaren Zhang Zuolin krĂ€vde han att de skyldiga skulle bestraffas. MilitĂ€ren tvingade dĂ„ honom att avgĂ„ och Osachi Hamaguchi frĂ„n ett av de partier som bildat Rikken MinseitĆ blev ny premiĂ€rminister. + +Inför valet 1931 blev Osachi Hamaguchi skjuten och Ă„terfick aldrig hĂ€lsan. Rikken MinseitĆ blev största parti, och Hamaguchi ville att Japan skulle skriva pĂ„ Londonfördraget om nedrustning. Vid mötet dĂ€r detta skulle diskuteras krĂ€vde oppositionen hans nĂ€rvaro, men han var för sjuk för att kunna delta, och nĂ€r hans ersĂ€ttare fĂ€llde en negativ kommentar om kejsar Hirohito blev det skandal. Efter en mĂ„nad som premiĂ€rminister avgick Hamaguchi och dog senare samma Ă„r. + +Hans eftertrĂ€dare Wakatsuki ReijirĆ kunde heller inte kontrollera militĂ€ren som i september iscensatte Mukdenincidenten som ledde till Kina avtrĂ€dde Manchuriet som blev en japansk lydstat frĂ„n och med 1932. Lydstaten kom att kallas Manchukuo. 1937 invaderade japanska trupper resten av Kina och inledde dĂ€rmed andra sino-japanska kriget vilket sĂ„ smĂ„ningom blev en del av andra vĂ€rldskriget. Ăven hĂ€r stod NF maktlöst. + +Italien +Abessinien (nuvarande Etiopien) och Liberia var de enda lĂ€nderna i Afrika som inte blivit koloniserade av europeiska stormakter. Den 3 oktober 1935 anföll Italien Abessinien utan krigsförklaring, och officiellt avslutades kriget den 9 maj 1936 nĂ€r det fascistiska Italien proklamerade annekteringen av landet. +Nationernas Förbund införde vissa restriktioner mot de aggressiva staterna men de rĂ€ckte inte för att förhindra en eskalerande utveckling. Den 1 juni 1936 förenades landet till italienska Somaliland och bildade kolonin italienska Ăstafrika. Eftersom de italienska ockupanterna aldrig kunde kontrollera landet helt sĂ„ ser vissa det som att kriget pĂ„gick till 1941 nĂ€r landet befriades av brittiska trupper och den abessinska gerillan. Uppdelningen av italienska Ăstafrika Ă€r fortfarande en kĂ€lla till konflikt mellan Etiopien, Eritrea och Somalia. + +1936â1939 rasade spanska inbördeskriget med inblandning frĂ„n bĂ„de Tyskland och Italien, pĂ„ Francos sida och frĂ„n Sovjet pĂ„ republikanernas sida. OcksĂ„ Albanien invaderades och ockuperades av Italien. + +Den tyska utrikespolitiken + +En av orsakerna till andra vĂ€rldskrigets utbrott var den aggressiva tyska utrikespolitiken under Hitlers ledning, först med anslutning av etniskt tyska regioner, sedan med bland annat planer pĂ„ utökat tyskt territorium, sĂ„ kallat Lebensraum (tyska "livsutrymme"). Den utlösande faktorn var emellertid den tyska invasionen av Polen den 1 september varpĂ„ Storbritannien och Frankrike förklarade krig mot Tyskland i enlighet med tidigare givna löften till Polen. Orsaken till invasionen var Tysklands krav pĂ„ en "passage" mellan tyska Ostpreussen och Stortyskland i vĂ€st. Ostpreussen var nĂ€mligen helt avskuret av den sĂ„ kallade "polska korridoren", ett landomrĂ„de som hade tilldelats det Ă„terskapade Polen efter första vĂ€rldskriget för att landet skulle ha tilltrĂ€de till Ăstersjön. + +Vid sidan av den aggressiva tyska utrikespolitiken bör Ă€ven nĂ€mnas Japans imperialistiska ambitioner som pĂ„ allvar inleddes med invasionen av Manchuriet. Ăven hĂ€r drevs militĂ€ren (Japan var i praktiken en militĂ€rdiktatur frĂ„n slutet av 1920-talet) av nationalistiska mĂ„l för sin politik. Japan hade redan 1936 nĂ€rmat sig Tyskland med antikominternpakten och 1940 slöts ocksĂ„ en militĂ€r allians mellan Japan och Tyskland. NĂ€r Japans ambitioner att skapa ett imperium i Ăstasien till slut kolliderade med de vĂ€sterlĂ€ndska staterna som hade kolonier dĂ€r var kriget oundvikligt. Det finns en del som menar att andra vĂ€rldskriget inleddes redan med det andra sino-japanska kriget nĂ€r Japan invaderade det egentliga Kina 1937. + +Till skillnad frĂ„n första vĂ€rldskriget dĂ„ alla Europas stormakter var indragna redan efter en vecka, utvecklades andra vĂ€rldskriget successivt till en global konflikt dĂ€r nĂ€stan samtliga stater i vĂ€rlden var involverade. Precis som i första vĂ€rldskriget stĂ€llde sig Italien till en början utanför kriget trots att man 1939 ingĂ„tt stĂ„lpakten med Tyskland. Först nĂ€r Japan attackerade USA den 7 december 1941 och Tyskland och Italien förklarade krig mot USA fyra dagar senare blev kriget verkligen en global konflikt. Japans krig mot Kina, dess krig mot USA och de europeiska kolonialmakterna och kriget i Europa vĂ€vdes nu samman. + +Krigets gĂ„ng + +Kriget bryter ut i Europa (1939â40) + +Den 1 september 1939 inledde den tyska armĂ©n ett anfall mot Polen. Dessförinnan hade Tyskland mobiliserat och Hitler lĂ€t tillkĂ€nnage i radio samma dag att "Tyskland svarade pĂ„ den polska beskjutningen av tyska trupper i gryningen" medan Polen endast pĂ„börjat sin mobilisering för att inte provocera Tyskland. DĂ€rmed hade andra vĂ€rldskriget inletts â enligt de vĂ€stliga allierade. Enligt Sovjetunionen började dock det stora, "fosterlĂ€ndska" kriget först i juni 1941, dĂ„ de sjĂ€lva anfölls av Nazityskland. Den 3 september förklarade Frankrike och Storbritannien krig mot Tyskland och Europa hade Ă„terigen drabbats av ett storkrig som skulle bli mycket mer omfattande, och blodigare, Ă€n det första vĂ€rldskriget. Efter att Polen förlorat kriget mot Tyskland i vĂ€st, inledde den 17 september av Sovjetunionen i öst helt i enligt Molotov-Ribbentroppakten sitt intrĂ€de i Polen fram till Curzon-linjen. Detta för att skydda den i huvudsak ryska befolkningen dĂ€r sedan denna del av Polen hade tillhört Ryssland fram till 1920. Efter ungefĂ€r fyra veckor var det polska militĂ€ra motstĂ„ndet brutet sedan den tyska Wehrmacht anvĂ€nt Blixtkrig-taktik mot polackernas underlĂ€gsna försvar. Delar av vĂ€stra delen av Polen annekterades av Tyskland eller och delar av det bildade Generalguvernementet under tyskt styre. Snart började stora utrensningar bland annat i Operation Tannenberg och senare skulle Polens judar samlas ihop i ghetton inför det sista steget i Förintelsen, som till stor del skedde pĂ„ mordanlĂ€ggningar inom Polens grĂ€nser. Ăven ryssarna gjorde ocksĂ„ utrensningar som Katynmassakern. En sjĂ€ttedel av Polens befolkning, varav tre miljoner polacker och ett okĂ€nt antal judar miste livet. + +Baltikum och Finland +NĂ€sta fas i kriget blev Sovjetunionens annektering av Litauen, Lettland och Estland den 3 oktober enligt tidigare nĂ€mnda överenskommelse mellan Josef Stalin och Adolf Hitler vid Ribbentrops besök i Moskva den 27 september. Stalin framstĂ€llde ocksĂ„ territoriella krav pĂ„ Finland vilka tillbakavisades. DĂ€refter inleddes, den 30 november 1939, det finska vinterkriget under vilket Sovjetunionen försökte annektera Finland. Inför övermakten blev dock Finland till slut tvunget att acceptera de sovjetiska villkoren och freden undertecknades 13 mars 1940 i Moskva. Finland tvingades avtrĂ€da stora delar av Karelen till Sovjetunionen men till skillnad frĂ„n de baltiska staterna och Polen lyckades det vĂ€rja sig tillrĂ€ckligt bra för att behĂ„lla sin sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet och förhindra invasion. Samtidigt kom Ungern, RumĂ€nien och Bulgarien att sluta pakt med Tyskland. Sovjetunionen förklarade sig neutralt gentemot Storbritannien och Frankrike men var knutet till axelmakterna genom Molotov-Ribbentroppakten och tillhörande handelsavtal. I praktiken var dock Sovjetunionen militĂ€rt helt neutralt dĂ„ den rysk-tyska pakten inte innebar att landet skulle stödja Tyskland militĂ€rt i hĂ€ndelse av krig mot en tredje makt. + +Efter igĂ„ngsĂ€ttningen av Operation Barbarossa 1941 slöt Finland upp pĂ„ Tysklands sida för att fĂ„ tillbaka de omrĂ„den som förlorats i vinterkriget 1939-1940 och tillĂ€t tyska trupper att anfalla Sovjetunionen frĂ„n finskt territorium. Efter sovjetiska luftattacker förklarade Finland sig i krig och gick till offensiv mot Sovjetunionen i Finska fortsĂ€ttningskriget. Kriget pĂ„gick i över tre Ă„r och den finska armĂ©n ockuperade ett betydande, delvis finsksprĂ„kigt omrĂ„de i Ryssland (bland annat Petroskoi som fick det finska namnet ĂĂ€nislinna = Onegaborg), men gjorde stora förluster pĂ„ slutet och landet tvingades den 19 september 1944 sluta vapenstillestĂ„nd pĂ„ mycket hĂ„rda villkor. Det slutliga fredsavtalet tecknades i Paris 1947. Finland hade trots allt lyckats behĂ„lla sin sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet. + +"LĂ„tsaskriget" +Under tiden stod vĂ€stfronten stilla (LĂ„tsaskriget pĂ„ tyska kallat Sitz-krieg och pĂ„ engelska The Phony War) medan de allierade förlitade sig pĂ„ blockadvapnet som hade varit sĂ„ framgĂ„ngsrikt under första vĂ€rldskriget. Det förekom en del sjöbataljer och utanför Montevideo sĂ€nktes fickslagskeppet Graf Spee av sin egen besĂ€ttning efter ett sjöslag mot tre brittiska fartyg. Efter en kort fransk invasion av det tyska grĂ€nslandet i SaaromrĂ„det, som dock inte ledde till tyska trupprörelser bort frĂ„n invasionen av Polen, Ă„tervĂ€nde den franska armĂ©n till sina baracker och intog en defensiv strategi bakom Maginotlinjen. + +Invasionen av Danmark och Norge +Den 9 april 1940 invaderade tyskarna Danmark och Norge för att sĂ€kerstĂ€lla att jĂ€rnmalmstransporterna frĂ„n Sverige inte upphörde. Tyskarna förekom dĂ€rmed med nöd och nĂ€ppe en brittisk landstigning (Operation R4) och etablerade samtidigt fördelaktiga flottbaser lĂ€ngs norska kusten. De bĂ„da nordiska lĂ€nderna ockuperades och administrerades av samarbetande regering, i Norge av nazisten Quisling. "Operation WeserĂŒbung" blev en tysk framgĂ„ng trots att man förlorade en stor del av sin flotta lĂ€ngs Norges vĂ€stkust dĂ€r bland annat den tunga kryssaren BlĂŒcher sĂ€nktes av norskt kustartilleri. Norge hade i Rjukan Ă€ven den enda tillgĂ€ngliga kĂ€llan till tungt vatten som behövdes för utveckling av kĂ€rnvapen. + +Slaget om Frankrike + +Hitler lĂ€t sina trupper överskrida BeneluxlĂ€ndernas grĂ€nser i maj 1940 (jĂ€mför med Schlieffenplanen frĂ„n första vĂ€rldskriget). De allierade trupperna gick dĂ€refter in i Belgien för att ta upp kampen pĂ„ belgiskt territorium, varpĂ„ tyskarna intog delar av NederlĂ€nderna genom överraskande luftlandsĂ€ttning men satte in sitt huvudanfall genom Ardennerna, ut mot Engelska kanalen. Frankrike hade inte mycket försvar dĂ„ de inte hade uppgraderat sina vapen och kanoner ordentligt efter första vĂ€rldskriget utan mycket förlitade sig pĂ„ Maginotlinjen. Anfallet splittrade de allierade armĂ©erna, som tvingades evakuera den europeiska kontinenten vid Dunkerque. NĂ€r de drog sig ut ur Belgien, gick Tyskland in frĂ„n öst. Frankrike stod inom kort besegrat. I detta lĂ€ge, den 10 juni, hade Mussolinis Italien gĂ„tt med i kriget pĂ„ axelmakternas sida och gick nu till anfall mot Frankrike. Inför Frankrikes fall gick Storbritannien till attack och sĂ€nkte delar av den franska flottan för att fartygen inte skulle hamna i tyska hĂ€nder. + +Det militĂ€ra sammanbrottet ledde Ă€ven till ett politiskt. Tredje franska republiken upplöstes och ersattes av den tyskvĂ€nliga Vichyregimen under PĂ©tain, medan generalen Charles de Gaulle flydde till England dĂ€r han bildade organisationen det Fria Frankrike. De franska kolonierna kom att uppdelas mellan dessa tvĂ„. + +Slaget om Storbritannien + +Efter Frankrikes fall försökte Tyskland tvinga Storbritannien till fred genom terrorbombning. Den nye brittiske premiĂ€rministern Winston Churchill fortsatte dock kampen och Storbritannien uthĂ€rdade ett fruktansvĂ€rt tyskt luftkrig mot öarna. Under slaget om Storbritannien lyckades brittiska RAF, Royal Air Force, stĂ„ emot Hermann Görings Luftwaffe. Med hjĂ€lp av ny förbĂ€ttrad radarteknik kunde det brittiska flygvapnet sĂ€tta in sina numerĂ€rt underlĂ€gsna flygplan vid de stĂ€llen de verkligen behövdes. Dessutom gjorde Göring ett taktiskt misstag genom att lĂ€mna militĂ€rflygfĂ€lten ifred och bomba storstĂ€der, vilket ledde till oerhörda förluster av bombflyg. Detta ledde till att Hitler tvingades skjuta upp den planerade invasionen av Storbritannien (Operation Sjölejon) pĂ„ obestĂ€md tid, dĂ„ ett sĂ„dant företag bedömdes vara alltför riskfyllt utan absolut tyskt luftherravĂ€lde över Engelska kanalen och södra Storbritannien. + +Mellan juni 1940 och juni 1941 sĂ„g det ytligt sett mörkt ut för de allierade. Polen, Danmark, Norge, Luxemburg, Frankrike, Belgien, NederlĂ€nderna, Tjeckoslovakien, Grekland och Jugoslavien hade besegrats av axelmakterna. Till sjöss hade den tyska flottan (Kriegsmarine) övertaget med en stor mĂ€ngd sĂ€nkt handelstonnage. Sovjetunionen, USA och Japan stod fortfarande utanför kriget. Mot Tysklands imperium stod Storbritannien med samvĂ€ldeslĂ€nderna ensamma, bortsett frĂ„n liten hjĂ€lp av de Gaulles fria franska styrkor. + +Strategiskt sett var dock utgĂ„ngen av slaget om Storbritannien av avgörande betydelse. Den brittiska örlogsblockaden bestod och strĂ€ckte sig frĂ„n Grönland till Alexandria och Suezkanalen. Inga importvaror kunde nĂ„ Tyskland över haven. FrĂ„n baser pĂ„ Brittiska öarna kunde det brittiska bombflyget nĂ„ hela Tyskland. + +Avgörandets tid: Tyskland anfaller Sovjet och USA dras in i kriget + +Utan att ha lyckats besegra Storbritannien vĂ€nde Nazityskland nu krigsmaskinen österut. Ett anfall pĂ„ Sovjetunionen hade förberetts till 15 maj 1941 men de tyska armĂ©erna var först tvungna att besĂ€tta Jugoslavien och Grekland. Den tyska och italienska ockupationen av Jugoslavien bottnade i att den för axelmakterna vĂ€nliga, sittande regeringen hade avsatts. Grekland befann sig sedan hösten 1940 redan i krig med Italien, nu öppnades en ny front efter att tyska trupper tillĂ„tits utnyttja bulgariskt territorium. Det har hĂ€vdats att dessa offensiver blev orsaken till att Operation Barbarossa sköts upp frĂ„n 15 maj till 22 juni. + +Operation Barbarossa + +Den 22 juni 1941 satte Adolf Hitler igĂ„ng Operation Barbarossa, det storskaliga anfallet pĂ„ Sovjetunionen. Samtidigt anföll Finland Sovjetunionen i sitt sĂ„ kallade fortsĂ€ttningskrig (efter att Sovjet hade bombat ett antal finska stĂ€der). Kriget pĂ„ östfronten hade börjat och Josef Stalin blev överraskad av anfallet. Trots flera underrĂ€ttelserapporter om tysk uppladdning vĂ€grade han tro att Hitler skulle bryta icke-angreppspakten och under flera dagar rĂ„dde handlingsförlamning i Kreml. Trots att Sovjet var numerĂ€rt överlĂ€gset hade överraskningen i kombination med Stalins tidigare utrensningar bland de militĂ€ra befĂ€len en negativ effekt. + +Den tyska belĂ€gringen av Leningrad pĂ„börjades den 21 augusti 1941 och var ocksĂ„ en slutpunkt för den tyska offensiven pĂ„ den norra delen av fronten. Efter fem mĂ„nader stod tyskarna utanför Moskva. Offensiven var till en början framgĂ„ngsrik. Sedan 2/3 miljoner ryssar kapitulerat i dubbelslaget vid Brjansk och Vjazma i mitten av oktober och Kalinin fallit i ryska hĂ€nder, föranledde Moskvas utsatta lĂ€ge regeringen att tillfĂ€lligt flytta till Kujbysjev. FrĂ„n tyskt hĂ„ll hĂ€vdades, att den ryska krigsmakten var likviderad och att endast rensningsoperationer Ă„terstod. HĂ€r kom krigets första vĂ€ndpunkt. Sovjet lyckades stoppa tyskarna framför sin huvudstad och de tyska trupperna körde fast i den begynnande ryska vintern. Förbindelselinjerna var uttĂ€njda till bristningsgrĂ€nsen och talrika sovjetiska förstĂ€rkningar anlĂ€nde alltjĂ€mt till fronten. + +Slaget om Atlanten + +Redan vid krigsutbrottet Ă„r 1939 hade de krigförande upprĂ€ttat sjöblockader för att störa eller hindra fiendens handel. För Tysklands del skedde detta huvudsakligen genom organiserat ubĂ„tskrig. Sedan Tysklands flygvapen förlorat slaget om Storbritannien, lĂ„g det blockerade Tysklands enda möjlighet till seger i att svĂ€lta ut invĂ„narna pĂ„ Brittiska öarna. + +Efter tyskarnas inledande framgĂ„ngar vid invasionen av Sovjetunionen Ă„r 1941, var behovet stort att ersĂ€tta de materiella förlusterna. Slaget om Atlanten kom dĂ€rför att utvidgas Ă€ven till Norra ishavet genom att stora mĂ€ngder krigsmateriel och övriga förnödenheter skickades till Sovjetunionens hamnar i Murmansk och Archangelsk. + +Sedan 1942/43 översteg nybyggnaden av fartyg förlusterna samtidigt som u-bĂ„tsförlusterna skenade. SenvĂ„ren 1943 hade tyskarna i praktiken förlorat slaget om Atlanten. Viktiga faktorer bakom tyskarnas nederlag var konvojsystemet, de allierades luftövervakning samt tekniska innovationer som radar och dekryptering av de tyska kommunikationsmetoderna baserade pĂ„ Enigma. + +Pearl Harbor + +Den 7 december 1941 anföll Japan överraskande den amerikanska flottbasen vid Pearl Harbor pĂ„ Hawaii. 2403 personer dog och 1178 skadades vid attacken. Fyra dygn efter anfallet förklarade Tyskland och Italien krig mot USA. PĂ„ detta sĂ€tt drogs Ă€ven USA in i kriget pĂ„ de allierades sida. + +Nordafrika + +I den nordafrikanska öknen kĂ€mpade italienarna tillsammans med Erwin Rommel mot britterna under en serie av generaler, och var pĂ„ vĂ€g att frĂ„n Libyen erövra kontrollen över Suezkanalen. Men 1942 lyckades Bernard Law Montgomery slutligen tillfoga Rommel och dennes italienska allierade ett avgörande nederlag vid el-Alamein i Egypten. Efter amerikanska och brittiska landstigningar 1943 i de Vichy-trogna kolonierna Marocko och Algeriet, tvingades de tyska och italienska styrkorna i Nordafrika att kapitulera slutgiltigt efter att med viss framgĂ„ng ha försvarat sig i Tunisien. + +Stalingrad och vĂ€ndpunkten + +I slutet av 1942 ryckte framskjutna tyska trupper in i Stalingrad men blev slutligen omringade dĂ€r efter en sovjetisk motoffensiv. Staden var strategiskt betydelsefull för tillgĂ„ngen till petroleum, trafiken pĂ„ Volga och som symbol för Stalin. Trots fĂ€ltmarskalk Erich von Mansteins försök att bryta belĂ€gringen av Stalingrad, hölls tyskarna under befĂ€l av fĂ€ltmarskalk Paulus alltjĂ€mt instĂ€ngda dĂ€r. Den 2 februari 1943 kapitulerade tyskarna i Stalingrad, vilket blev Ă€nnu en vĂ€ndpunkt i kriget. Paulus, som hade blivit befordrad till fĂ€ltmarskalk en kort tid före kapitulationen, förvĂ€ntades att begĂ„ sjĂ€lvmord av Hitler men gav sig istĂ€llet till ryssarna och visades senare upp som en trofĂ©. Slaget om Stalingrad blev krigets blodigaste batalj, med bortĂ„t 2 miljoner döda i strider, sjukdom, kyla och undernĂ€ring. + +Slutfas: Axelmakternas nederlag + + +1943 utkĂ€mpades ocksĂ„ vĂ€rldens största pansarslag, slaget vid Kursk, med över tvĂ„ miljoner soldater och 6 000 stridsvagnar inblandade. Detta var den sista större offensiven frĂ„n axelmakternas sida. Nu skulle ett nytt mönster formas, ett av konstant retrĂ€tt pĂ„ östfronten. Efter Kursk var axelmakterna alltid i retrĂ€tt pĂ„ östfronten. Och genom hela kriget förbĂ€ttrade Röda armĂ©n sina strategier, taktiker och strukturer. + +PĂ„ sommaren 1944 genomförde ryssarna Operation Bagration (uppkallad efter Pjotr Bagration), dĂ€r tyskarna blev totalt överraskade (de hade vĂ€ntat en operation mot Ukraina) och kördes ut ur Vitryssland. Röda ArmĂ©n kom fram till Warszawas portar pĂ„ bara nĂ„gon mĂ„nad. + +Ă r 1943 hade slutligen slaget om Atlanten avgjorts och stora mĂ€ngder amerikanska förstĂ€rkningar och materiel transporterades över till Storbritannien. Terrorbombningarna av Tyskland kom Ă€ven igĂ„ng pĂ„ allvar. De allierade invaderade Italien och Benito Mussolini tvingades avgĂ„. + +Den 6 juni 1944 â "Dagen D" â landsteg de allierade i Normandie och öppnade dĂ€rmed en andra front mot Tyskland. Tyskarna drevs under sommaren ut ur Frankrike och framĂ„t hösten var sĂ„ gott som hela landet befriat. Vid slutet av 1944 genomförde den tyska armĂ©n sin sista stora motoffensiv mot de vĂ€stallierade, den sĂ„ kallade Ardenneroffensiven. Men Tysklands dagar var rĂ€knade, man kunde helt enkelt inte ersĂ€tta förlorad materiel och manskap lika mycket som de allierade kunde. Det visade sig ocksĂ„ i slaget om Berlin dĂ„ Tysklands resurser inte rĂ€ckte till för att försvara sig mot Sovjetunionen. + +I Stilla havet hade hĂ„rda strider rasat under hela kriget men nu stod de allierade och knackade pĂ„ Tokyos dörr. USA:s president Franklin D. Roosevelt dog före krigsslutet och den nye presidenten, Harry S. Truman, gav order om att det nya vapnet, atombomben, skulle fĂ€llas över Japan, ca 200 000 mĂ€nniskor dog de nĂ€rmsta timmarna och mellan 150 000 och 200 000 ytterligare dog av svĂ€lt, törst och brĂ€nnskador, frĂ€mst kvinnor och barn. Efter atombombningarna av stĂ€derna Hiroshima och Nagasaki samt Sovjetunionens krigsförklaring och snabba erövringar av japanska besittningar i Kina och Korea kapitulerade Ă€ven Japan inför övermakten, den 15 augusti 1945 men kapitulationen skrevs pĂ„ först 2 september av den japanske generalen Umezu. + +Det andra vĂ€rldskriget var den mĂ€nskliga historiens största konflikt. Det har berĂ€knats att 50-60 miljoner mĂ€nniskoliv gick förlorade, dĂ€ribland alla de som dog pĂ„ grund av terrorn (koncentrationslĂ€ger, terrorbombningar och andra krigshandlingar). Förenta nationerna bildades den 24 oktober 1945 som följd av en konferens i San Francisco under perioden aprilâjuni. + +Andra vĂ€rldskriget avlöstes av kalla kriget, konflikten och maktkampen mellan frĂ€mst USA och Sovjetunionen under den senare halvan av 1900-talet. + +Ăversikt + +Allierat samarbete + +Storbritannien och Frankrike hade gĂ„tt ut i krig mot Nazityskland tvĂ„ dagar efter att Nazityskland invaderade Polen 1 september 1939. Men efter att Frankrike besegrats av Tyskland 1940 stod Storbritannien i princip ensamt i kampen mot Tyskland. USA stod Ă€nnu sĂ„ lĂ€nge utanför kriget och Ă€ven om oron i USA blev större efter Frankrikes fall var motstĂ„ndet hos den amerikanska befolkningen stort mot att gĂ„ med i kriget. USA stödde Ă€ndĂ„ Storbritannien genom vapenförsĂ€ljning. FrĂ„n och med vĂ„ren 1941 fick britterna hjĂ€lp med bland annat vapen genom Lend-Lease Act. NĂ€r USA slutligen blev indraget i kriget i december 1941 utstrĂ€cktes denna hjĂ€lp till samtliga krigförande stater pĂ„ den allierade sidan. + +Den 9â12 augusti 1941 möttes USA:s president Franklin D. Roosevelt och Storbritanniens premiĂ€rminister Winston Churchill första gĂ„ngen. DĂ€r utfĂ€rdade de den sĂ„ kallade Atlantdeklarationen som talade om alla folks rĂ€tt till sjĂ€lvbestĂ€mmande, en framtid dĂ€r konflikter skulle lösas utan vĂ„ld samt den nazistiska statens totala oskadliggörande. + +En följd av alliansen med Sovjetunionen blev att Stalin gick med pĂ„ att lĂ„ta 10 000 polska, svĂ€ltfödda GULAG-slavarbetare och krigsfĂ„ngar utvandra i mars 1942 över Persien/Iran och mellanöstern, för att senare i Montgomerys 8:e armĂ© sĂ€ttas i krig vid Tobruk (1943), Monte Cassino (1944) och slaget om Bologna (1945). FrĂ„n den Ă„terstĂ„ende stora mĂ€ngden polska GULAG- och krigsfĂ„ngar i Sovjetunionen lyckades ytterligare ca 70 000 ta sig ut ur landet och av resten bildades senare tvĂ„ polska folkarmĂ©er understĂ€llda rysk kommando. Vid vĂ€stfronten hade Polen 228 000 soldater 1945. + +Churchill ogillade egentligen Stalin och den politik han stod för men efter att Nazityskland angripit Sovjetunionen 1941 inleddes ett nĂ€ra samarbete mellan britter och ryssar. BĂ„da parter förband sig att inte sluta separatfred, utan tillsammans besegra den gemensamma fienden. USA:s roll kan trots att landet formellt var neutralt fram till anfallet pĂ„ Pearl Harbor sĂ€gas vara allierad eftersom de försĂ„g de andra allierade med stora kvantiteter vapen, rĂ„varor och livsförnödenheter. Strax efter nyĂ„r 1942 utformade amerikaner och britter den strategi som skulle besegra axelmakterna. Tyskland, som ansĂ„gs vara den farligaste motstĂ„ndaren, skulle besegras först. Största resurserna skulle sĂ„ledes lĂ€ggas pĂ„ att besegra Hitler innan alla resurser riktades mot Japan. En rad andra lĂ€nder (vid sidan om de tre stora plus Kina) Ă„tog sig nu att gĂ„ i krig mot axelmakterna. Det slutliga mĂ„let med kriget var axelmakternas villkorslösa kapitulation. + +Sovjetunionen som redan innan USA:s intrĂ€de i kriget tagit emot omfattande hjĂ€lp frĂ„n USA fick nu Ă€nnu mer hjĂ€lp frĂ„n amerikanarna med bĂ„de vapen och livsmedel. Visserligen var inte vapenbistĂ„ndet i nĂ€rheten av de enorma volymer som den ryska industrin producerade frĂ„n och med 1943 men anses Ă€ndĂ„ ha bidragit starkt till den ryska krigsinsatsen. Av Ă€nnu större betydelse var leveranserna av rĂ„varor, livsmedel, lastbilar och lokomotiv som amerikanarna sĂ€nde. + +Churchill besökte Stalin i Moskva sommaren 1942 för att förankra de vĂ€stallierades strategi för att vinna kriget. Stalin var inte nöjd och krĂ€vde att en vĂ€stfront skulle upprĂ€ttas sĂ„ fort som möjligt genom en invasion i Frankrike. Det var krav som han envist reste resten av 1942 och 1943. De vĂ€stallierades svar var att de inte var redo för ett sĂ„ stort företag Ă€n. Viss tillfredsstĂ€llelse fick Stalin sommaren 1943 dĂ„ amerikaner och britter invaderade Sicilien och södra Italien och dĂ€rigenom skapade en europeisk sydfront. Sovjetunionens diktator var Ă€ndĂ„ inte nöjd dĂ„ den stora majoriteten av den tyska krigsmakten fortfarande opererade i Sovjetunionen. + +Storbritanniens, USA:s och Sovjetunionens utrikesministrar beslutade vid Moskvakonferensen i oktober 1943 att tillsĂ€tta European Advisory Commission (EAC), en kommission som bland annat fick i uppgift att utarbeta en gemensam plan för segrarmakternas inbördes uppdelning av Efterkrigstyskland i ockupationszoner, vilken kom att kallas Londonprotokollet. + +Roosevelt, Stalin och Churchill möttes alla tre första gĂ„ngen i Irans huvudstad Teheran 28 november â 1 december i Teherankonferensen. DĂ€r fick Stalin löfte om att en vĂ€stfront skulle upprĂ€ttas i maj följande Ă„r Operation Overlord. Landstigning skulle ske Ă€ven i Sydfrankrike och ryssarna skulle ungefĂ€r samtidigt inleda stora offensiver pĂ„ Ăstfronten. Stalin blev ocksĂ„ lovad att Sovjetunionens grĂ€ns efter kriget skulle flyttas lĂ€ngre vĂ€sterut. Detta gick ut över Polen som i sin tur skulle kompenseras med att fĂ„ tidigare tyska omrĂ„den lĂ€ngre vĂ€sterut. Relationen mellan Stalin och Churchill var spĂ€nd, dĂ€remot kom diktatorn bra överens med Roosevelt som Stalin hade stor respekt för. Stalin sjĂ€lv blev under kriget mycket populĂ€r i USA och kallades av amerikanarna för "Uncle Joe". + +NĂ„got möte mellan de tre stora förekom inte under 1944. DĂ€remot drogs under Ă„ret planerna upp för den nya internationella fredsorganisation som efter kriget skulle ersĂ€tta Nationernas Förbund. VĂ€rldsbanken och Internationella valutafonden grundades ocksĂ„. + +Den 4â11 februari 1945 möttes Roosevelt, Stalin och Churchill igen under Jaltakonferensen. Tyskland var i praktiken besegrat och förhandlingarna gĂ€llde nu hur efterkrigstidens Europa skulle se ut. De enades om att Tyskland efter kriget skulle delas i ockupationszoner sĂ„som utarbetats i Londonprotokollet, nu dock med tillĂ€gget att Frankrike skulle ansluta som en fjĂ€rde ockupationsmakt. Stalin krĂ€vde att det besegrade Tyskland skulle demilitariseras och betala ett enormt krigsskadestĂ„nd. NĂ„gon enighet nĂ„ddes inte hĂ€r utan frĂ„gorna sköts pĂ„ framtiden. De enades dock om att Sovjetunionen skulle gĂ„ med i kriget mot Japan 3 mĂ„nader efter att Tyskland kapitulerat. Sovjetunionen lovade ocksĂ„ att bli medlem i FN som grundades i San Francisco i slutet av april 1945. + +NĂ€sta stora möte var Potsdamkonferensen 17 juli â 2 augusti. Kriget i Europa var över men fortfarande hade inte Japan kapitulerat. Roosevelt hade avlidit och eftertrĂ€tts av Harry S. Truman. Ăven Churchill var borta efter att ha förlorat parlamentsvalet. Ny brittisk premiĂ€rminister var labourledaren Attlee. FrĂ„gorna var densamma men nĂ„gon enighet om en lĂ„ngsiktig lösning pĂ„ TysklandsfrĂ„gan kom inte, nĂ„got fredsavtal blev det inte heller. De tre allierade enades dock om att rĂ€ttegĂ„ngar skulle hĂ„llas mot ledande nazistiska krigsförbrytare (NĂŒrnbergprocessen). Som avtalats redan i Jalta, förklarade Sovjetunionen krig mot Japan 8 augusti, exakt 3 mĂ„nader efter att Tyskland kapitulerat. Japan kapitulerade 15 augusti (kapitulationen undertecknades 2 september) efter att Hiroshima och Nagasaki förstörts av atombomber. Japan blev efter kapitulationen ockuperat av de allierade. Ett gemensamt allierat rĂ„d skulle styra landet men i praktiken var det USA och general Douglas MacArthur som styrde landet och Japan Ă„terfick sin sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet först 1951. Ăven hĂ€r hölls rĂ€ttegĂ„ngar mot de frĂ€msta krigsförbrytarna. + +För USA:s del avslutades andra vĂ€rldskriget först klockan 12.30 (lokal tid) den 28 april 1952, i samband med att USA:s utrikesminister Dean Acheson överlĂ€mnade ratifikationsurkunderna till det japanska fredsfördraget, som dĂ„ trĂ€dde i kraft. DĂ€rmed upphörde det formella krigstillstĂ„ndet mellan USA och Japan. Ă r 1943 gick Italien över till de allierades sida. + +De neutrala staternas situation +NĂ€r kriget inleddes i början av september 1939 var bara fyra stater direkt inblandade i kriget, förutom Tyskland och Polen Ă€ven Storbritannien och Frankrike. Merparten av vĂ€rldens stater förklarade sig vara neutrala, inklusive USA som efter första vĂ€rldskriget bedrivit en isolationistisk politik. Sovjetunionen var fram till sommaren 1941 neutralt mot vĂ€stmakterna men angrep Polen (se Molotov-Ribbentroppakten) i slutet av september 1939 och senare pĂ„ hösten Finland â finska vinterkriget. Gentemot Japan skulle Sovjetunionen förbli neutrala fram till början av augusti 1945. + +Andra vĂ€rldskriget skulle visa sig orsaka mycket stora problem för de mindre lĂ€nderna. BĂ„da parter i kriget visade sig hysa obefintlig respekt för att mindre stater ville stĂ„ utanför kriget. Europeiska lĂ€nder som Sverige, Finland, Danmark, Norge, Jugoslavien, NederlĂ€nderna, Luxemburg, Belgien, Spanien, Portugal och Schweiz förklarade sig neutrala i krigets inledning. Samtliga stater utom Portugal, Spanien, Sverige och Schweiz blev indragna i kriget. Ăven de baltiska staterna blev indragna. I samtliga fall beroende pĂ„ att nĂ€mnda lĂ€nder blev angripna. I Sveriges fall kan landets roll under finska vinterkriget beskrivas som "icke krigförande". (se vidare Sverige under andra vĂ€rldskriget) + +USA hade förklarat sig neutralt men gav trots detta som nĂ€mnts omfattande militĂ€rt bistĂ„nd till Storbritannien frĂ„n och med 1940 och frĂ„n hösten 1941 Ă€ven till Sovjetunionen. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ansĂ„g att landet mĂ„ste gĂ„ med i kriget men hade svĂ„rt att Ă€ndra det amerikanska folkets instĂ€llning till kriget. Först efter det japanska anfallet mot Pearl Harbor den 7 december 1941 vĂ€nde opinionen. Huruvida USA skulle engagera sig i bĂ„de det asiatiska och europeiska kriget "löstes" 11 december dĂ„ Tyskland och Italien förklarade krig mot USA. + +Sovjetunionen var alltsĂ„ neutralt i kriget Ă€ven om man exporterade stora mĂ€ngder olja, legeringsmetaller, gummi (importerat för Ă€ndamĂ„let) och spannmĂ„l till Tyskland under krigets första tvĂ„ Ă„r. VĂ€stmakterna tog Stalins invasion av Polen, som var vĂ€sts allierad, och Finland som en förtĂ€ckt allians med Hitler och planerade ett tag till och med att gĂ„ i krig med Sovjetunionen. Man umgicks med planer pĂ„ att bomba Baku och skicka en armĂ© till Skandinavien för att hjĂ€lpa Finland. Först efter att Tyskland invaderade Sovjetunionen 22 juni 1941 slöts en allians med britterna och efter USA:s intrĂ€de Ă€ven med amerikanarna. De latinamerikanska staterna var frĂ„n början neutrala men med nĂ„gra fĂ„ undantag engagerade de sig sĂ„ smĂ„ningom i kriget pĂ„ de allierades sida. + +Spanien och Portugal förblev neutrala hela kriget. Det kan tyckas överraskande att de inte stĂ€llde upp för Tyskland dĂ„ landets regimer ideologiskt stod mycket nĂ€rmare Nazityskland Ă€n de vĂ€sterlĂ€ndska demokratierna. I Spaniens fall kan det emellertid sannolikt förklaras av att landet var "utmattat" efter tre Ă„rs blodigt inbördeskrig. I Portugals fall var landet traditionellt allierat med Storbritannien och kom senare att stöda allierade anstrĂ€ngningar genom att tillĂ„ta militĂ€rbaser pĂ„ Azorerna. + +Schweiz neutralitet var visserligen garanterad av alla stormakter men det torde knappast ha hindrat Hitler att invadera landet om han ansett det nödvĂ€ndigt. + +Turkiet förklarade sig neutralt och förblev sĂ„ under nĂ€stan hela kriget. + +Iran var i princip neutralt tills det blev ockuperat sensommaren 1941 av Sovjetunionen och Storbritannien som bĂ„da var intresserade av att sĂ€kra transportvĂ€gen över Kaukasus för att skicka Lend-lease till den förra. 1943 förklarade Iran krig mot Tyskland och gick dĂ€rmed in i Andra vĂ€rldskriget pĂ„ de allierades sida. + +Gerillaaktiviteter +PĂ„ mĂ„nga stĂ€llen bakom fronten och pĂ„ alla sidor fanns bevĂ€pnade irreguljĂ€ra enheter, gerilla eller partisaner. Till dem kopplas störningen av en ockupation av en segerrik armĂ© men ocksĂ„ mĂ„nga grymheter och brott mot krigets lagar. + +PĂ„ den allierade sidan finns mĂ„nga vĂ€lkĂ€nda exempel: +Den aktiva motstĂ„ndsrörelsen i Danmark var till exempel anledningen till att Danmark av de allierade vĂ„ren 1945 erkĂ€ndes som stridande part mot Nazityskland. I Norge utfördes ett lyckat attentat i Rjukan dĂ€r tyskarna framstĂ€llde tungt vatten för att kunna bygga atombomber. + +De mest kĂ€nda Ă€r Titos partisaner i Jugoslavien och partisanerna i Sovjetunionen. I bĂ„da fallen band de upp stora tyska truppstyrkor. Äetnici var en annan motstĂ„ndsrörelse som utgjordes av serbiska nationalister som dock periodvis krigade Ă€ven mot Titos styrkor. + +I Polen har partisanförband verkat under hela kriget. Warszawaupproret 1943 i Warszawas ghetto och Warszawaupproret 1944 fick bĂ„da en mycket blodig upplösning, det sista med att stora delar av staden lades i ruiner och upp till 200 000 civila dödsoffer. + +I Frankrike fanns det olika motstĂ„ndsrörelser, bland annat en kommunistisk, som dock alla samlades under gemensam ledning understĂ€llda det Fria Frankrike frĂ„n 1943. MotstĂ„ndsrörelsen i vĂ€stlĂ€nderna fick efterhand stöd pĂ„ olika sĂ€tt frĂ„n de allierade styrkorna. + +Men Ă€ven pĂ„ andra sidan fanns motstĂ„ndsrörelser Ă€ven om de Ă€r mindre kĂ€nda â som i Baltikum och Ukraina mot Sovjet eller i Tyskland (Werwolf) under de allierades ockupation. + +Dessa aktiviteter bekĂ€mpades skoningslöst pĂ„ alla sidor, med avrĂ€ttningar och hĂ€mnd pĂ„ civilbefolkningen. + +Civilbefolkningen +I alla stora internationella konflikter före andra vĂ€rldskriget hade antalet stupade soldater alltid varit större Ă€n antalet civila offer. I andra vĂ€rldskriget var förhĂ„llandet det motsatta och det Ă€r ett mönster som upprepats sedan dess, i alla konflikter, och har till och med förstĂ€rkts ytterligare. Av cirka 60 miljoner dödsoffer (möjligen sĂ„ mĂ„nga som 70 miljoner) var cirka 19 miljoner stupade soldater (döda krigsfĂ„ngar orĂ€knade). Resten var civila. Massbombningar mot stĂ€der, tortyr, slavarbete, vĂ„ldtĂ€kter, svĂ€lt, massavrĂ€ttningar och ren utrotning orsakade ett ofattbart lidande för civilbefolkningen i de drabbade lĂ€nderna. + +1940â41 regnade bomberna ner över de engelska stĂ€derna under Blitzen och tiotusentals mĂ€nniskor omkom. FrĂ„n och med 1943 var förhĂ„llandet det omvĂ€nda. Nu angrep allierat flyg tyska stĂ€der i en bomboffensiv utan motstycke, i slutet av kriget var samtliga tyska storstĂ€der helt sönderbombade och hundratusentals civila hade dödats. Ăver Japan var situationen liknande. Terrorbombningarna mot de japanska stĂ€derna kulminerade först med atombombningarna av Hiroshima och Nagasaki. "Little Boy" och "Fat man", bomberna som slĂ€pptes över Hiroshima och Nagasaki dödade tillsammans omedelbart 130 000â150 000 mĂ€nniskor. Senare skulle hundratusentals mĂ€nniskor avlida av brĂ€nnskador och olika strĂ„lningsrelaterade skador och sjukdomar. Ăn idag sĂ„ föds det barn med utvecklingsstörning/missbildningar pĂ„ grund av atombomberna. (se vidare atombomberna över Hiroshima och Nagasaki.) + +Medan de tyska ockupanterna var relativt Ă„terhĂ„llsamma i VĂ€steuropa, inklusive Norden, förutom mot den som rĂ„kade vara jude, rom eller tillhörde motstĂ„ndsrörelsen, var förhĂ„llandet det rakt motsatta i Ăsteuropa. Förutom den nĂ€rapĂ„ totala utrotningen av Europas judar, romer och aktiva kommunister, planerade Hitler och hans hantlangare ocksĂ„ en drastisk minskning av de slaviska befolkningsgrupperna i Ăsteuropa. I Polen och Sovjetunionen skulle den civila befolkningen (judar och romer orĂ€knade) antingen förslavas, deporteras bortom Uralbergen eller masslikvideras. Medan Sovjetunionen var det land som hade de allra högsta totala dödstalen var Polen Ă€nnu hĂ„rdare drabbat i förhĂ„llande till folkmĂ€ngden. Av cirka 35 miljoner invĂ„nare dog cirka 6 miljoner, nĂ€stan var sjĂ€tte invĂ„nare. Av dessa var cirka 3 miljoner judar, nĂ€stan 90 % av Polens judiska befolkning. + +Ăven i Ostasien och Stilla havet innebar kriget fruktansvĂ€rda umbĂ€randen för civilbefolkningen. NĂ„gon motsvarighet till Hitlers "Endlösung" (förintelsen) fanns inte (Ă„tminstone inte lika systematisk) men den japanska krigföringen var Ă€ndĂ„ oerhört brutal och tog föga hĂ€nsyn till GenĂšvekonventioner. VĂ€rst drabbades Kina dĂ€r 10 miljoner civila föll offer för japansk terrorkrigföring, svĂ€lt, med mera. + +Tabell över antalet döda i respektive land + +Andra vĂ€rldskriget Ă€r det blodigaste kriget i historien. Totalt berĂ€knas kriget ha krĂ€vt 50â65 miljoner liv â att bedömningarna skiljer sig Ă„t sĂ„ pass mycket beror pĂ„ att osĂ€kerheten Ă€r stor över hur mĂ„nga civila kineser som dog. En del anser att det kan vara sĂ„ mĂ„nga som 20 milj. Dessutom skedde omfattande systematisk utrensning av olika grupper under Josef Stalins regim som av förklarliga skĂ€l saknar tillrĂ€cklig dokumentation, och otaliga dog efter kriget i sovjetisk fĂ„ngenskap. De flesta berĂ€kningarna idag anger antalet döda totalt till 56â60 miljoner. Andra vĂ€rldskriget var den första riktigt stora internationella konflikten dĂ€r antalet civila dödsoffer var mycket större Ă€n antalet stupade soldater. + +Tabellen nedan upptar de stater som hade de största förlusterna. NĂ€r det gĂ€ller antalet stupade tyska soldater uppgĂ„r antalet till cirka 5,3 miljoner om österrikare, och döda krigsfĂ„ngar rĂ€knas in. DĂ€rtill tillkommer Ă„tminstone 1 miljon frivilliga, tvĂ„ngskommenderade med flera. Ett mindre antal civila amerikaner dog i kriget, de flesta vid den japanska attacken mot Pearl Harbor. + + Cirka 6 000 000 judar â ingĂ„r i mycket stor utstrĂ€ckning i ovanstĂ„ende siffror. + AnmĂ€rkning: OvanstĂ„ende siffror angĂ„ende antalet döda tyskar inkluderar inte de civila som dödades eller dog nĂ€r de flydde undan den framryckande Röda armĂ©n. Siffror varierar frĂ„n 200 000 Ă€nda upp till tvĂ„ miljoner. + +Frederna + +Decenniet som följde efter andra vĂ€rldskrigets slut slöts efterhand fred med de lĂ€nder som krigat mot de allierade (undantaget Japan och Sovjetunionen). + +I freden i Paris 1947 slöts fred med Italien, Finland, Ungern och RumĂ€nien. De berörda lĂ€nderna fick avtrĂ€da landomrĂ„den. Italien fick Ă€ven avtrĂ€da sina kolonier. Finland fick acceptera grĂ€nserna frĂ„n freden efter FortsĂ€ttningskriget och förbjöds Ă€ven att inneha vissa vapensystem, till exempel u-bĂ„tar. + +Ăsterrike Ă„terfick sin sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet först 1955 med nĂ„gra inskrĂ€nkningar. Landet mĂ„ste lova att aldrig ingĂ„ i nĂ„gon militĂ€rallians och att aldrig ansluta sig till Tyskland igen. Dessutom förbjöds Ăsterrike att inneha vissa vapensystem. + +Med Tyskland slöts dĂ€remot aldrig nĂ„gon permanent fred. Först i och med kalla krigets slut, Sovjetunionens upplösning och Tysklands Ă„terförening intrĂ€dde kunde ett fredsfördrag undertecknas, i samband med vilket Tyskland formellt accepterade de Allierades annektering av den östra fjĂ€rdedelen av Tyskland. Ă r 1949 hade USA modifierat krigstillstĂ„ndet med Tyskland men avskaffade det ej dĂ„ man ville bibehĂ„lla legala rĂ€ttigheter att ha trupper i Tyskland. USA och flera andra lĂ€nder avskaffade formellt krigstillstĂ„ndet med Tyskland 1951 som substitut för ett formellt fredsfördrag, Sovjetunionen gjorde likaledes 1955. + +Först Ă„r 1990 slöts det sĂ„ kallade tvĂ„ plus fyra-fördraget mellan de tyska staterna och de fyra segrarmakterna som slutgiltigt reglerade förhĂ„llandena mellan dessa stater efter andra vĂ€rldskriget. + +Japan och de vĂ€stallierade slöt fred 1951 och samtidigt Ă„terfick landet sin sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet. Japan fick bland annat avtrĂ€da Formosa till Chiang Kai-sheks nationalistregim pĂ„ ön (som USA dĂ„ betraktade som Kinas legitima regim). Ăgrupperna Kurilerna och ön Sachalin fick Japan avtrĂ€da till Sovjetunionen. Fortfarande har emellertid inget fredsfördrag undertecknats mellan Japan och Ryssland. + +Krigets följder + +Andra vĂ€rldskriget började som ett europeiskt krig som utvidgades vartefter, och frĂ„n och med december 1941 var det ett globalt krig i och med USA:s intĂ„g i kriget. I krigets efterdyningar följde flera stora förĂ€ndringar pĂ„ den vĂ€rldspolitiska scenen. +Före kriget hade Storbritannien med sitt jĂ€ttelika kolonialimperium varit den ledande stormakten men trots att det tillhörde de ledande segrarmakterna hade kriget tĂ€rt hĂ„rt pĂ„ dess resurser. Frankrike hade före kriget rĂ€knats som Europas ledande militĂ€rmakt men denna uppfattning hade tyskarna Ă€ndrat pĂ„ redan i början av kriget. + +Efter krigets slut framtrĂ€dde istĂ€llet tvĂ„ supermakter i en klass för sig, USA och Sovjetunionen. Den amerikanska industrin var oskadad och stod nu för halva vĂ€rldens BNP. Den nyvunna positionen som vĂ€rldens mĂ€ktigaste stat innebar att USA:s roll i vĂ€rldspolitiken blev helt annorlunda Ă€n innan. Sovjetunionen hade bara 20 Ă„r tidigare varit ett utfattigt jordbruksland men hade ocksĂ„ till följd av kriget uppnĂ„tt status som supermakt. Det förfogade över vĂ€rldens största armĂ© och kontrollerade hela Ăsteuropa. FramgĂ„ngen hade dock skett till ett oerhört högt pris i mĂ€nskligt lidande. + +Polen fick sitt territorium starkt reducerat med en folkomflyttning frĂ„n de östra regionerna som togs över av Sovjetunionen till nya vĂ€stra och norra omrĂ„den som togs över frĂ„n Tyskland, som följd, samtidigt som den tyska befolkningen fördrevs. De omrĂ„den som förlorades av Polen till Sovjetunionen hade till stor del erövrats av Polen under Polsk-sovjetiska kriget 1919â1921 och beboddes till övervĂ€gande del av ukrainare och vitryssar men Ă€ven av upp till 4 miljoner polacker. Fram till 1950 hade 2,1 miljoner av dessa polacker bosatt sig i de före detta tyska omrĂ„dena inom Tysklands 1937 Ă„rs grĂ€nser, dĂ€r upp till 10 miljoner tyskar hade bott innan deras fördrivning vĂ€sterut under Ă„ren 1944â1950. FrĂ„n polsk sida anser man att de vĂ€stallierade svek Polen genom att överlĂ„ta grĂ€nsdragningen till Stalin â PolenfrĂ„gan avhandlades bakom ryggen pĂ„ den polska regeringen och fick bara liten uppmĂ€rksamhet av USA och Storbritannien vid Teheran och Jalta. Sovjet fick fria hĂ€nder och styrkeförhĂ„llandena vid krigets slut skulle bestĂ€mma grĂ€nserna för den sovjetiska kontrollen. Slutligen faststĂ€lldes landets nya grĂ€nser vid Potsdamkonferensen. PĂ„ liknande sĂ€tt blev Ă€ven de andra lĂ€nderna i det blivande östblocket hanterade med ett antal folkrĂ€ttsliga frĂ„getecken dĂ„ alla beslut togs utan att lĂ€nderna ens tillfrĂ„gades. Tjeckoslovakien överlĂ€ts till Hitler vid MĂŒnchenöverenskommelsen och sedan efter kriget till Stalin. Den officiella avsikten hos de vĂ€stallierade att lĂ„ta demokratiska fria val avgöra de öst- och centraleuropeiska lĂ€ndernas politiska framtid fullföljdes inte. RĂ€ttslig uppgörelse med nazisternas brott fick en klar punkt pĂ„ efterkrigsagendan, bĂ„de inom öst- och vĂ€stblocket, medan brott begĂ„ngna av den sovjetiska makten och de östeuropeiska lydstaterna under lĂ„ng tid var tabu, till exempel Katynmassakern, massdeporteringar till Gulag och terror av NKVD och dess understĂ€llda nationella sĂ€kerhetsstyrkor. + +Tyskland förlorade cirka 25 % av sitt förkrigsterritorium, varifrĂ„n miljontals fördrevs, de flesta kvinnor och barn. Vid ett möte i Potsdam sommaren 1945 delade USA, Frankrike, Storbritannien och Sovjetunionen upp Tyskland i ockupationszoner. Sovjetunionen överlĂ€mnade riksdelarna öster om Oder till Polen och lade sjĂ€lvt beslag pĂ„ omrĂ„det runt Königsberg. Riksdelen Ostmark blev Ă„ter Ăsterrike som Ă„terupprĂ€ttades som sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig stat 1955. Delvis som en konsekvens av Morgenthauplanen och delvis som en konsekvens av fransk önskan om ett svagt Tyskland genomfördes omfattande nedmontering av tung industri. RuhromrĂ„det stĂ€lldes under internationell kontroll, Elsass-Lothringen togs över av Frankrike och det kolrika Saarland bröts loss frĂ„n Tyskland och gjordes till ett franskt protektorat. Visserligen hĂ€vdade de vĂ€stallierade att den slutliga grĂ€nsdragningen skulle vĂ€nta tills ett fredsavtal kunde trĂ€ffas med Tyskland men i praktiken fick man acceptera fait accompli i och med att 12â14 miljoner tyskar fördrevs frĂ„n östra delen av Tyskland med omnejd. Antalet döda som en konsekvens av fördrivningen, möjligtvis den största etniska rensningen i modern historia, Ă€r svĂ„rt att uppskatta men anges vanligtvis till mellan 0,5 och 2 miljoner. + +Storbritannien blev i efterhand nĂ„got av en förlorare, trots att landet förklarat krig mot Nazityskland bara tvĂ„ dagar efter invasionen i Polen 1939 och tillsammans med USA och Sovjetunionen kunde diktera Tysklands kapitulationsvillkor vid krigets slut. De kommande decennierna avvecklades nĂ€stan hela kolonialvĂ€ldet och eran som jordens mĂ€ktigaste stat var över. Ăver huvud taget bidrog kriget starkt till att samtliga stormakters kolonialvĂ€lden i Afrika och Asien efterhand avvecklades. + +Den stora koalitionen mellan USA, Sovjetunionen och Storbritannien bröts snabbt efter kriget, dĂ„ Nazityskland inte lĂ€ngre fanns som en gemensam fiende för Sovjetunionen och de vĂ€stallierade. Inom nĂ„gra Ă„r hade det sĂ„ kallade kalla kriget inletts och Europa delats politiskt, inklusive Tyskland: ett block nĂ€ra allierade med USA och ett annat block med sovjetiska lydstater i Ăsteuropa. Det kalla kriget ledde till en vĂ„ldsam kapprustning mellan de tvĂ„ supermakterna och gav upphov till mĂ€ngder med andra konflikter globalt sett, som till exempel Koreakriget, Vietnamkriget och kriget i Afghanistan 1979-1989. Kalla kriget upphörde först med de europeiska kommunistregimernas fall i slutet av 1980-talet. + +Viktiga inslag + Nazityskland â Ekonomisk depression, judeförföljelser, upprustning + Massakern vid Babij Jar + Danmark under andra vĂ€rldskriget â tysk invasion + Norge under andra vĂ€rldskriget â tysk invasion, Vidkun Quisling, kungen i London + Katynmassakern + Nanjing-massakern + Maginotlinjen + Operation BlĂ„ + Operation Husky â Invasionen av Sicilien; upprĂ€ttandet av en Europeisk sydfront + Operation Seelöwe + Operation WeserĂŒbung + Blitzen + Förintelsen + Operation Overlord + Pearl Harbor â USA gĂ„r med i kriget + Enigma â kryptering + Manhattanprojektet + Hiwi â kollaboratörer som hjĂ€lpte Nazityskland + Trinitytestet â vĂ€rldens första kĂ€rnvapentest + MotstĂ„ndsrörelser under andra vĂ€rldskriget + Operation Market Garden + Warszawaupproret 1943 â det judiska upproret + Warszawaupproret 1944 + Jaltakonferensen + Kriget i luften â under kriget kom flygvapnet att ha stor betydelse + Bombningarna av Tokyo 9-10 mars 1945 + WisĆa-Oder-operationen + Slaget vid el-Alamein + Slaget om Guadalcanal + Slaget vid Iwo Jima + Slaget vid Königsberg â Tysklands östra utpost i dĂ„varande Ostpreussen. Viktigt för Sovjet i slaget om Ostpreussen + Slaget vid Kursk â av Tyskland ocksĂ„ omnĂ€mnd Operation Zitadelle + Slaget om Nordkalotten + Slaget om Monte Cassino + Slaget om Okinawa + Slaget vid Rzjev 1942-1943 En av Röda armens segrar under kriget + Slaget om Saipan + Slaget vid Stalingrad + Slaget vid Suomussalmi + Enhet 731 â japanska krigsförbrytelser + Lista över personer i andra vĂ€rldskriget + Pansarvapnet under andra vĂ€rldskriget + SĂ€nkningen av Wilhelm Gustloff + Atombomberna över Hiroshima och Nagasaki + +Se Ă€ven + Första vĂ€rldskriget + Röda armĂ©n + Schutzstaffeln â ofta förkortat SS + Teherankonferensen + Jaltakonferensen + Potsdamkonferensen + VĂ€stfronten under andra vĂ€rldskriget + Ăstfronten under andra vĂ€rldskriget + MotstĂ„ndsrörelser under andra vĂ€rldskriget + Danmark under andra vĂ€rldskriget + Finland under andra vĂ€rldskriget: + 1939â1940 â Vinterkriget + 1941â1944 â FortsĂ€ttningskriget + Frankrike under andra vĂ€rldskriget + Irankrisen 1946 + Italien under andra vĂ€rldskriget + Japan under andra vĂ€rldskriget + Norge under andra vĂ€rldskriget + Polen under andra vĂ€rldskriget + Sverige under andra vĂ€rldskriget + Operation Foxley + Tidsaxel över andra vĂ€rldskriget + Andra vĂ€rldskriget i Europa + Nazitysklands kollaps + Stillahavskriget + +AnmĂ€rkningar + +Referenser + +Noter + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + HĂ€ndelser man minns â en krönika 1920â1969, fil dr Harald Schiller 1970 + Nationalencyklopedin, 2007 + Nyström H, Nyström Ă, Perspektiv pĂ„ historien A; 2001 + +Externa lĂ€nkar + Andra vĂ€rldskriget sĂ„ man förstĂ„r av Christer Bergström + Tomas Andersson OdĂ©n, Massmedia under mellankrigstiden och andra vĂ€rldskriget, 14:e nordiska konferensen för medie- och kommunikationsforskning + Stort arbete om andra vĂ€rldskriget pĂ„ Krigsforum + www.worldwar-2.net â En stor samling av resurser med bland annat dag för dag information för alla fronter + + +VĂ€rldskrig +KrigsĂ„ret 1939 +KrigsĂ„ret 1940 +KrigsĂ„ret 1941 +KrigsĂ„ret 1942 +KrigsĂ„ret 1943 +KrigsĂ„ret 1944 +KrigsĂ„ret 1945 +Algeriet (arabiska: ۧÙŰŹŰČۧۊ۱, al-JazÄÊŸir; berber: , Dzayer, franska AlgĂ©rie), formellt Demokratiska folkrepubliken Algeriet, Ă€r Afrikas till ytan största land och vĂ€rldens tionde största. Det grĂ€nsar till Tunisien i nordöst, Libyen i öster, Niger i sydöst, Mali och Mauretanien i sydvĂ€st, och Marocko och VĂ€stsahara i vĂ€ster. I norr har Algeriet kust mot Medelhavet, och dĂ€rmed havsgrĂ€ns mot Spanien. Algeriet tillhör det kulturella omrĂ„det Maghreb. + +Algeriet Ă€r medlem av Förenta nationerna, Afrikanska unionen, Arabförbundet och Opec. Det deltog ocksĂ„ i bildandet av Arabiska Maghrebunionen. Konstitutionellt betecknas Algeriet som en islamisk, arabisk och amazighisk (berbersk) stat. + +Historia +De tre nordafrikanska staterna Algeriet, Tunisien och Marocko tillhör alla ett omrĂ„de kallat Maghreb â "landet i vĂ€st". Det var det namn de arabiska erövrarna gav omrĂ„det sedan de hade lagt under sig den nordvĂ€stliga kustregionen omkring Ă„r 1050. Dessförinnan hade Nordafrika tillhört en medelhavscivilisation styrd av fenicier och romare. Den Ă€ldsta kunskapen om det som i dag Ă€r Algeriet kommer frĂ„n antikens Numidien. Det var ett samhĂ€lle som under ledning av Masinissa utvecklade jordbruk och handel, och etablerade en politisk statsbildning. BĂ„de vid kusten och i inlandet grundades stĂ€der, och Numidien var en framgĂ„ngsrik stat fram till Masinissas död Ă„r 149 f.Kr. + +Romersk kolonialism + +Med början Ă„r 146 f.Kr., efter det tredje puniska kriget och med inrĂ€ttandet av provinsen Africa (nuvarande Tunisien), inlemmades Nordafrika i romarnas imperium. Romerska rikets nedgĂ„ngsperiod drabbade Ă€ven Maghreb, och Ă„r 429 e.Kr. kom en germansk folkstam, vandalerna, över Gibraltar sund och erövrade en stor del av Nordafrika. Med början Ă„r 534 blev omrĂ„det Ă„tererövrat, och Maghreb lades under bysantinskt styre, en period som prĂ€glades av mĂ„nga uppror frĂ„n de lokala berberstammarna. + +Arabisk kolonialism + +Den arabiska invasionen, som pĂ„ 700-talet nĂ„dde Ă€nda in i Spanien, lade under sig Numidiens kustomrĂ„den, men Ă€nnu inte bergsomrĂ„dena i inlandet. Omkring 935 grundade en arabisk furste, Zeiri, den nuvarande staden Alger. Araberna blandade sig med berberna, och i hela omrĂ„det fick det arabiska sprĂ„ket och den arabiska kulturen allt större betydelse. Kalifen i Kairo sĂ€nde pĂ„ 1000-talet tvĂ„ arabiska stammar för att knĂ€cka upproriska krafter i Maghreb, och hela omrĂ„det lades till sist under arabiskt styre. Mellan 1152 och 1269 erövrade almohaderna hela landet. DĂ„ almohadernas dynasti upplöstes i mitten av 1200-talet fick Maghreb-regionen den tredelning som existerar Ă€n i dag, med staterna Marocko, Tunisien och Algeriet. + +Sjöröveri och osmansk kolonialism + +FrĂ„n slutet av 1400-talet blev Algeriet en hĂ€rd för sjöröveri. I europĂ©ernas strid mot sjörövarna hade Ferdinand II av Aragonien nĂ„gra framgĂ„ngar, men redan i början av 1500-talet fördrevs spanjorerna med Osmanska rikets hjĂ€lp av Khair ed-Din Barbarossa. Denne stĂ€llde sitt rike Alger under osmansk överhöghet Ă„r 1520. Han grundade militĂ€rdespotismen i Algeriet och organiserade dess sjörövarvĂ€sende. + +DĂ„ den sista islamiska fĂ€stningen i Spanien föll för kristna styrkor 1492 sökte de spanska morerna sin tillflykt i Algeriet â den tredje arabiska invasionen av landet. De kristna i Spanien förföljde de flyende morerna, och erövrade flera fĂ€stningar och stĂ€der. Osmanska styrkor kom till undsĂ€ttning, med det resultatet att Algeriet lades under den osmanske sultanen. Hela Algeriet hade vid den hĂ€r tiden kommit in i den arabiska och islamiska kulturkretsen; bara i nĂ„gra delar av landet levde isolerade folkstammar, som kabylerna och tuaregerna, utanför den nya samhĂ€llsordningen. + +Ă r 1600 fick janitsjarerna rĂ€tt att utse en dej, vilken sĂ„som deras befĂ€lhavare skulle stĂ„ vid paschans sida. I början av 1700-talet gjorde sig dejen oberoende av Höga porten. DĂ€refter bildade Algeriet en militĂ€rrepublik med den av janitsjarerna valde dejen till överhuvud. Alla försök att stoppa sjöröveriet var lĂ€nge fruktlösa. Expeditioner mot Algeriet företogs av Karl V 1541, av engelsmĂ€nnen 1670, av engelsmĂ€n och hollĂ€ndare gemensamt 1669 och 1670, av Ludvig XIV 1682, av spanjorerna 1775; men alla misslyckades mer eller mindre. Först 1815 segrade USA över Algeriets flotta genom en seger vid Cartagena. Följande Ă„r bombarderades staden Alger av engelsmĂ€nnen under lord Exmouth, och dejen tvingades dĂ€rigenom till flera eftergifter. Men 1817 började algeriska sjörövare Ă„ter uppbringa fartyg som tillhörde de makter som inte gav dem tribut. + +Fransk kolonialism + +Algeriet som nationalstat, med de geografiska grĂ€nser som landet har i dag, kom till först under det franska koloniala vĂ€ldet. Den franska erövringen av Algeriet började 1830, dĂ„ mycket av kusten ockuperades. Mot en invasionsstyrka pĂ„ cirka 38 000 man organiserades motstĂ„nd under ledning av Abd el-Kader. Han ledde omkring 12 000 man i kamp mot fransmĂ€nnen i vĂ€stra Algeriet Ă„r 1832, och mĂ„nga algerier ser honom i dag som den symboliska grundaren av deras nation. Under Abd el-Kaders ledning bildades en algerisk stat, relativt sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig frĂ„n det osmanska riket, som omfattade merparten av vĂ€stra och centrala Algeriet. Ă r 1839 förklarade han jihad, heligt krig, mot de vantrogna inkrĂ€ktarna, nĂ„got som innebar början till slutet pĂ„ Abd el-Kaders militĂ€ra framgĂ„ng. FransmĂ€nnen svarade med att sĂ€nda 100 000 soldater över Medelhavet, och Abd el-Kader tvingades 1847 att ge upp motstĂ„ndet. Ett nytt uppror pĂ„ 1870-talet, lett av Abd el-Kaders son, slogs ocksĂ„ ner. + +PĂ„ samma sĂ€tt som de brittiska besittningarna Kenya och Sydrhodesia, de portugisiska kolonierna Angola och Moçambique, och Sydafrika, blev Algeriet en nybyggarkoloni. Inte i nĂ„gon annan koloni i Afrika slog sig sĂ„ mĂ„nga europĂ©er ner som i Algeriet. Ă r 1850 var omkring 130 000 fransmĂ€n bosatta i landet, och vid slutet av 1800-talet över en halv miljon. DĂ„ hade Algeriet blivit en fransk provins, och nybyggarna fick rĂ€tt att vĂ€lja sina egna deputerade till Frankrikes nationalförsamling i Paris. Den stora majoriteten av alla algerier blev Frankrikes undersĂ„tar och utsattes för omfattande diskriminering utan nĂ„gra politiska rĂ€ttigheter. + +Befrielsekriget + +Avkoloniseringen av Algeriet blev ett av de blodigaste kapitlen i afrikansk kolonialhistoria. PĂ„ 1950-talet blev bĂ„de Marocko och Tunisien sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndiga stater, men Frankrike ville inte slĂ€ppa Algeriet, som hade stora naturresurser och var tĂ€tt sammanknuten med den franska ekonomin. Underkuvandet ledde till att motstĂ„ndsrörelsen 1954 gick samman i Front de LibĂ©ration Nationale (FLN), och började föra gerillakrig för att befria landet. TvĂ„ Ă„r senare hade befrielserörelsen etablerat frigjorda zoner som de kunde operera ifrĂ„n. Vid denna tid kunde befrielserörelsen mönstra omkring 15 000 soldater, medan fransmĂ€nnen hade satt in 200 000. Som mest hade Frankrike en halv miljon soldater i Algeriet, och satte in alla resurser pĂ„ att vinna kriget efter det smĂ€rtsamma nederlaget i Indokina. Sedan fransmĂ€nnen satt upp ett elektriskt stĂ€ngsel vid grĂ€nsen till Tunisien och lagt ut 900 000 landminor i grĂ€nsomrĂ„dena, hade FLN svĂ„rt att försörja trupperna. FransmĂ€nnen förflyttade Ă€ven mellan en och tvĂ„ miljoner algerier frĂ„n sina hem till "koncentrationscenter" för att avskĂ€ra kontakten mellan civilbefolkningen och gerillan. FLN-ledningen hade i utlandet etablerat en provisorisk regering, gouvernement provisoire de la rĂ©publique algerienne (GPRA), och börjat bygga upp en reguljĂ€r armĂ©. + +Frankrike fick emellertid det militĂ€ra övertaget och drev gerillan pĂ„ retrĂ€tt. Den militĂ€ra framgĂ„ngen till trots vĂ€xte motstĂ„ndet mot kriget i Frankrike, och i Algeriet fick FLN allt större uppslutning. Sedan general Charles de Gaulle blivit fransk president 1958 började han söka ett sĂ€tt att komma undan kriget. Ă r 1961 gjorde den europeiska minoriteten i Algeriet ett kuppförsök understött av franska generaler, men detta slogs ner. Förhandlingar om vapenvila i Schweiz tog vid i april 1961. De var svĂ„ra och avbröts flera gĂ„nger, men ledde till slut fram till ett fredsavtal som bekrĂ€ftades genom en folkomröstning i Frankrike, dĂ€r 90,7 % av rösterna lades pĂ„ de Gaulles politik. Kriget kostade mellan 300 000 och 1,5 miljoner algerier livet. 8 000 byar lĂ„g i ruiner, stora omrĂ„den lĂ„g brĂ€nda och hĂ€rjade, och över tvĂ„ miljoner mĂ€nniskor hade blivit hemlösa. + +Kvinnors betydelse under befrielsekriget +Kriget utvecklade sig inte likadant för de algeriska kvinnorna som för mĂ€nnen. För det första hade kvinnorna andra motiv Ă€n mĂ€nnen: att slippa det dubbla förtrycket frĂ„n bĂ„de kolonialmakten och patriarkala strukturen i det algeriska samhĂ€llet. För det andra riktade sig nĂ„gra av krigets propagandastrategier (frĂ€mst i form av samhĂ€llsreformer) direkt till kvinnorna. PĂ„ sĂ„ vis hade kriget en genusdimension, vilken ofta har ignorerats i den traditionella historiebeskrivningen. + +Enligt officiella algeriska berĂ€kningar deltog 10 949 kvinnor pĂ„ FLN:s sida i kriget. Denna andel, vilken ofta anses vara grovt underskattad, Ă€r lika stor som europeiska kvinnors deltagande i andra vĂ€rldskriget. Kvinnorna deltog i FLN-organisationens alla led. Vissa var "fidaĂŻyya", militanta frihetskĂ€mpar i de urbana omrĂ„dena, andra var sjuksystrar som vĂ„rdade skadade soldater. TvĂ„ tredjedelar deltog i FLN:s civila motstĂ„nd dĂ€r de ansvarade för flera av de mest funktionella rollerna, de delade ut mat till motstĂ„ndsstyrkorna pĂ„ landsbygden, spred politisk information, ansvarade för lĂ€kemedel samt stöttade den kvinnliga befolkningen med medicinsk rĂ„dgivning. + +Deras deltagande var sĂ„ledes mĂ„ngfacetterat och mer betydelsefullt Ă€n vad som oftast Ă€r beskrivet i media och i filmatiseringar av kriget. (I den klassiska filmatiseringen Slaget om Alger (Gillo Pontecorvo, 1966) tycks kvinnorna endast agera som militanta soldater, vilket numera av historiker anses missvisande.) + +Propagandastrategier - reformer riktade mot kvinnor +I det propagandakrig som fördes mellan den franska kolonialmakten och FLN spelade kvinnorna en central roll. Reformerna för kvinnlig emancipation fick en stor betydelse, eftersom kvinnorna sĂ„gs som symboler för religiös, social och kulturell identitet. Genom att övertyga dem att fortsĂ€tta stödja det franska Algeriet, skulle Frankrike kunna vinna kriget. Denna analys vill visa att effekterna av kolonialpolitiken under kriget pĂ„verkades starkt av situationen som föregick den vĂ€pnade konflikten med FLN. Reformerna kom för sent och var för ytliga. Genom att integrera befolkningen i det Franska Algeriet skulle Frankrike pacificera kvinnorna, försvaga FLN och behĂ„lla sin politiska dominans. + +Parallellt med att allt fler kvinnor frĂ„n Algeriets olika samhĂ€llsskikt tog vĂ€rvning i FLN, lanserade den franska förvaltningen sociala och politiska reformer (1957-62) som riktade sig specifikt till kvinnor. Ă r 1957, tre Ă„r efter starten pĂ„ revolten och under en tid som FLN var tillfĂ€lligt försvagade, började sĂ„ledes förĂ€ndringar i kolonialpolitiken ske. Det innebar en omsvĂ€ngning av kolonialpolitiken som bestod av bĂ„de propaganda och reella politiska förĂ€ndringar; Ă„r 1958 kunde röstrĂ€tten för kvinnliga algerier tillĂ€mpas för första gĂ„ngen, och 1959 reformerades Ă€ven den Statut Personnel som reglerade familjelagarna och giftermĂ„len. För kvinnorna innebar det slutet pĂ„ en laglig diskriminering och att alla sĂ„ kallade muslimska fransmĂ€n officiellt fick jĂ€mlik politisk status med de franska medborgarna. Kvinnorna uppmuntrades Ă€ven att utbilda sig, delta mer i det offentliga samtalet och de skulle prioriteras i skolsystemet. + +Denna plötsliga förĂ€ndring i kolonialpolitiken tycks ha syftat till en positiv samhĂ€llsförĂ€ndring. En nyckel för att kunna förstĂ„ denna förĂ€ndring Ă€r just hĂ€ndelsen i maj 1958 som beskrevs i inledningen, dĂ„ slöjan demonstrativt âavskaffadesâ. HĂ€ndelsen Ă€r ytterst problematisk, eftersom demonstranterna var urbana vĂ€lutbildade algeriska kvinnor som egentligen endast representerade en liten minoritet av algerierna. Demonstrationen var dessutom orkestrerad av den franskvĂ€nliga algeriska militĂ€ren. + +För fransmĂ€nnen symboliserade slöjan den största vattendelaren mellan den kristna och muslimska befolkningen. Slöjan hade blivit symbolen för kvinnornas underlĂ€gsenhet och enligt dem det största hindret för kvinnornas frigörelse frĂ„n ett patriarkalt muslimskt system. DĂ€rför legitimerade hĂ€ndelserna i maj 1958 fransmĂ€nnen att intervenera i kvinnors status och villkor och för första gĂ„ngen lĂ€gga sig i deras privat- och familjeliv. Det officiella motivet var sĂ„ledes att frigöra algeriska kvinnor frĂ„n kulturellt och samhĂ€lleligt förtryck, de appellerade till Frankrikes vĂ€rderingar om kvinnliga rĂ€ttigheter, frihet och demokrati. + +Resultaten av reformerna var dock magra eller rentav omvĂ€nda, av flera anledningar. HĂ€r Ă€r kontexten som omgav reformerna central. Enligt Seferdjeli (2007) hindrades reformerna av den fortsatt utbredda djupa fattigdomen pĂ„ landsbygden och i stĂ€dernas muslimska kvarter. Majoriteten av befolkningen hade mycket lite information om förĂ€ndringarna. + +Kvinnors utbildningsnivĂ„er ökade förvisso lite men inte lĂ„ngvarigt eller substantiellt, inte heller försvagades FLN:s styrkor eller deras stöd. DĂ€rutöver ignorerades giftermĂ„lsreformen i stort av den muslimska befolkningen. Denna âcharmoffensivâ genomfördes dessutom mitt under ett brinnande krig, dĂ„ Frankrike engagerade sig i brutal krigföring, tortyr och vĂ„ldtĂ€kter. Reformerna genomskĂ„dades dĂ€rmed som ytliga och rentav falska, dĂ„ det faktiska motivet tycks ha varit att vinna kvinnornas stöd för ett fortsatt franskt styre. Det verkar idag inte rĂ„da nĂ„gra tvivel om att reformerna sĂ„ledes var en del av Frankrikes krigsstrategi att försonas med (den kvinnliga) befolkningen. + +SjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigheten + +Den 1 juli 1962 folkomröstade algerierna om sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet, och den 3 juli 1962 blev Algeriet sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigt efter mer Ă€n sju Ă„rs krig. Vid krigets slut bodde omkring 800 000 europĂ©er i landet, varav fyra femtedelar flydde i all hast dĂ„ den formella sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigheten trĂ€dde i kraft. Bland dem fanns en stor del av landets tekniker, administratörer och lĂ€rare; fĂ„ algerier hade fĂ„tt nĂ„gon högre utbildning. + +Nationaliströrelsen splittrades snart. Sommaren 1962 blev klyftan allt större mellan exilregeringens premiĂ€rminister Benyousef Ben Khedda och vice premiĂ€rminister Ahmed Ben Bella. Efter valet till Algeriets första nationalförsamling i september 1962 blev Ben Bella godkĂ€nd som premiĂ€rminister. 1963 gjordes FLN till den enda politiska organisationen. Samma Ă„r valdes Ben Bella till president, men han avsattes i en oblodig kupp i juni 1965. Försvarsministern, överste Houari BoumĂ©diĂšnne, tog över, och nationalförsamlingen upplöstes. 1976 utsĂ„gs BoumediĂšnne formellt till president, efter att ha blivit vald som den enda kandidaten. I december 1978 dog BoumediĂšnne, och hans efterföljare utsĂ„gs pĂ„ FLN-kongressen i januari 1979. Det blev en kompromisskandidat, vald efter starka pĂ„tryckningar frĂ„n militĂ€ren: Benjedid Chadli. Han blev generalsekreterare i partiet och valdes till president samma Ă„r. Under BoumediĂšnne hade Algeriet framstĂ„tt som ett socialistiskt land, men under Chadli slog man in pĂ„ en linje med större moderation och pragmatism. Samma Ă„r han valdes slĂ€ppte han flera politiska fĂ„ngar fria, bland dem den tidigare presidenten Ben Bella. + +Chadlis politiska liberalisering ledde till att enpartistyret upphĂ€vdes 1989. Nationalförsamlingen som valdes 1987 satte i gĂ„ng den liberaliseringsprocess som fick vittgĂ„ende betydelse bĂ„de inom det politiska och det ekonomiska livet. För första gĂ„ngen sedan sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigheten 1962 höll Algeriet i juni 1990 fria lokala och regionala val med deltagande av mer Ă€n ett parti. Denna demokratiska utveckling i Algeriet var den mest lĂ„ngtgĂ„ende i den arabiska vĂ€rlden, och följdes noga av andra stater i Mellanöstern och Nordafrika, inte minst i Algeriets bĂ„da grannlĂ€nder Marocko och Tunisien. En av orsakerna till det stora intresset för det algeriska valet var den starka position som radikala islamiska krafter hade vunnit i det krisdrabbade algeriska samhĂ€llet. 11 partier stĂ€llde upp vid lokalvalen 1990, och Front islamique du salut (FIS), den islamiska frĂ€lsningsfronten, tog makten i de flesta kommuner och regioner. FIS fick 55 % av rösterna och blev största parti i 853 av sammanlagt 1 500 lokala rĂ„d, medan FLN bara nĂ„dde 32 % av rösterna. + +Det vĂ„ldsamma decenniet +Det första fria valet till nationalförsamlingen skulle ha hĂ„llits i juni 1991, men stĂ€lldes in efter en rad vĂ„ldsamma sammanstötningar mellan polis och FIS-anhĂ€ngare. President Chadli satte in armĂ©n för att Ă„terupprĂ€tta lag och ordning, införde undantagstillstĂ„nd och sköt upp valet till december. I valets första omgĂ„ng vann FIS en klar seger framför Front des forces socialistes (FFS) och FLN. FIS fick 188 platser i den 450 platser stora nationalförsamlingen mot bara 16 för FLN och 26 för FFS. Sammanlagt 49 partier deltog i valet, som var tudelat, och inför den andra omgĂ„ngen, i januari 1992, var utgĂ„ngspunkten av FIS bara behövde 28 mandat till för att fĂ„ egen majoritet. Utsikterna till ett Algeriet styrt som en teokrati av fundamentalistiska muslimer, och deras plan om att införa islamsk lagstiftning, fick armĂ©n och FLN:s inre kĂ€rna att gripa in före den andra valomgĂ„ngen. I januari 1992 kungjorde president Chadli, efter press frĂ„n försvarets ledning, att han avgick. DĂ€refter avgick regeringen och grundlagen upphĂ€vdes. Nationalförsamlingen hade redan upplösts. Till att styra landet sattes ett sĂ€kerhetsrĂ„d, som avlyste den andra valomgĂ„ngen och satte in ett rĂ„d att styra landet, lett av Mohamed Boudiaf. I juni 1992 blev han mördad, och eftertrĂ€ddes av Ali Kafi som ledare för rĂ„det. 1994 utnĂ€mndes försvarsministern, general Liamine Zeroual, till ny president. Samma Ă„r satte militĂ€rrĂ„det in ett Nationellt övergĂ„ngsrĂ„d, som skulle fungera som nationalförsamling; det bojkottades emellertid av de största partierna, inklusive FIS och FLN. + +FIS var i grunden ett icke-vĂ„ldsamt parti, men det fick stöd frĂ„n en rad olika grupperingar, bland annat militanta islamiska organisationer. Flera sĂ„dana grupper stod pĂ„ 1990-talet för vĂ„ldshandlingar som kan ha krĂ€vt sĂ„ mĂ„nga som 100 000 mĂ€nniskoliv. VĂ„ldsaktionerna frĂ„n islamistiska grupper var sĂ€rskilt utbredda i mitten av 1990-talet och avtog mot slutet av Ă„rtiondet och efter sekelskiftet. Flera vĂ€pnade grupperingar lĂ„g bakom vĂ„ldskampanjen, som först riktades mot utlĂ€ndska medborgare, algeriska intellektuella och offentliga tjĂ€nstemĂ€n, efter hand i tilltagande grad Ă€ven mot andra medborgare. Men ocksĂ„ statens maktapparat â framför allt sĂ€kerhetsstyrkorna â anklagades för vĂ„ldsdĂ„d, bland annat ska de ha varit ansvariga för ett betydande antal mĂ€nniskors försvinnande. FramvĂ€xten av det vĂ€pnade islamistiska motstĂ„ndet mot Algeriets sekulĂ€ra regim kan spĂ„ras tillbaka till den militĂ€ra traditionen frĂ„n befrielsekriget pĂ„ 1950-talet. De första, smĂ„ grupperna sĂ„g dagens ljus tidigt pĂ„ 1980-talet, men det var först efter islamisternas valseger 1990 och det instĂ€llda parlamentsvalet Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ som den vĂ€pnade oppositionen vĂ€xte fram. Till en början manifesterades motstĂ„ndet mot regeringen genom omfattande demonstrationer i storstĂ€derna. Regeringens övergrepp mot FIS och andra islamiska grupper började pĂ„ allvar med arresteringar i januariâmars 1991 av en rad centrala FIS-ledare â dĂ€ribland valda ordförande och medlemmar av parlamentet â samt dessutom omkring tio tusen partimedlemmar. Partiet förbjöds den 3 mars 1991. Myndigheterna förde en politik som ocksĂ„ pĂ„ andra omrĂ„den begrĂ€nsade de medborgerliga rĂ€ttigheterna, bland annat i form av inskrĂ€nkt press- och organisationsfrihet. + +General Zeroual försökte en nĂ„got mer försonande politik nĂ€r han tog över efter Kafi 1994, men han behöll som försvarsminister kontrollen över de vĂ€pnade styrkorna, och makten koncentrerades hos en liten grupp militĂ€ra ledare. Zerouals politiska linje â militĂ€r upptrappning av konflikten kombinerat med försök till dialog â ledde till en snabb upptrappning av vĂ„ldshandlingarna, Ă€ven frĂ„n regeringens sida. Medan de islamistiska grupperna opererade i smĂ„ grupper och angrep enskilda personer, smĂ„ grupper och byar, tog myndigheterna till omfattande operationer, Ă€ven genom anvĂ€ndning av bombflyg. I juli 1995 gav Zeroual upp försöken till dialog, och vĂ„ldshandlingarna fortsatte. Terrorn frĂ„n den islamiska milisen riktades sĂ„vĂ€l mot civila som mot den offentliga maktapparaten, och vĂ„ldsmĂ€nnen blev ökĂ€nda för sin brutalitet. + +Vid presidentvalet i november 1995 valdes Zeroual om mot tvĂ„ motkandidater, med 64,5 % av rösterna. Ett Ă„r senare antogs en ny grundlag genom folkomröstning; islam gjordes till statsreligion, men inga partier tillĂ€ts bygga pĂ„ en religiös plattform. Till parlamentsvalet i juni 1997 stĂ€llde kandidater frĂ„n sammanlagt 39 partier upp, liksom nĂ„gra oberoende. President Zerouals nya parti Rassemblement national pour la dĂ©mocratie (RND) fick 38,1 % av rösterna, medan det islamistiska Mouvement de la sociĂ©tĂ© pour la paix (MSP) och det tidigare statsbĂ€rande FLN fick 16,7 % respektive 16,1 %. De tre, som sammanlagt fick 287 av 380 direktvalda medlemmar av parlamentet, bildade tillsammans regering. FIS var enligt lag förbjudet och kunde inte delta i valet. Sedan Zeroual avgĂ„tt i september 1998 och de övriga sex kandidaterna bojkottade presidentvalet i april 1999 blev den tidigare utrikesministern Abdelaziz Bouteflika vald med 73,8 % av rösterna. Bouteflika höll i september 1999 en folkomröstning dĂ€r 98,6 % stödde presidentens freds- och försoningsplan bland annat genom amnesti. Algeriet höll Ă„r 2002 val till en ny nationalförsamling, med ett resultat som sĂ€krade FLN egen majoritet. 23 partier deltog i valet, och 129 oberoende listor stĂ€llde ocksĂ„ upp. + +Flera vĂ€pnade islamistiska grupperingar vĂ€xte fram frĂ„n det tidiga 1990-talet; de tvĂ„ viktigaste var Groupe islamique armĂ©e (GIA), som bestod av flera mindre grupper, samt den vĂ€pnade grenen av FIS, ArmĂ©e islamique du salut (AIS). I oktober 1997 förklarade AIS vapenvila, och vĂ„ldet avtog nĂ„got. Omkring 5 000 fĂ„ngar slĂ€pptes i en amnesti, dĂ€ribland islamistiska gerillasoldater. En utbrytargrupp frĂ„n GIA, Groupe salafiste pour la prĂ©diction et le combat (GSPC), grundades 1998 och vĂ€grade lĂ€gga ner vapnen. GSPC riktade sina angrepp vĂ€sentligen mot sĂ€kerhetsstyrkorna. Ă r 2000 gav mĂ„nga gerillasoldater sig till myndigheterna mot erbjudande om amnesti, men vĂ„ldet fortsatte, bĂ„de frĂ„n gerillan och frĂ„n myndigheterna. VĂ„ldsamheterna har krĂ€vt minst 100 000 mĂ€nniskoliv, en siffra som myndigheterna tillstod 1999. + +Ă ren 2000â2001 greps medlemmar av GSPC i Tyskland, Frankrike, Italien och Spanien â celler misstĂ€nkta för att tillhöra det internationella terrornĂ€tverket kring al-Qaida. Undersökningar i Italien tydde pĂ„ att organisationen, med medlemmar ocksĂ„ frĂ„n Tunisien och Marocko, bistod al-Qaida och planerade terroraktioner i Europa Ă„ deras vĂ€gnar. Flera av soldaterna i GIA och GSPC har bakgrund frĂ„n strider mot Sovjetunionen i Afghanistan tillsammans med talibanerna och al-Qaida. FrĂ„n det att GIA grundades 1993 riktade gruppen flera terrorangrepp mot franska mĂ„l i Algeriet och Frankrike. + +Oro i Kabylien + +Parallellt med den politisk-religiösa konflikten har Algeriet ocksĂ„ en etnisk konflikt mellan berber-befolkningen och den arabiska majoriteten, sĂ€rskilt knuten till berbernas kĂ€rnomrĂ„de, Kabylien. Berberna, som utgör omkring en tredjedel av Algeriets befolkning och Ă€r omrĂ„dets ursprungsinvĂ„nare, fick Ă„r 2002 genomslag för sitt frĂ€msta krav dĂ„ deras sprĂ„k tamazight erkĂ€ndes som officiellt, likstĂ€llt med arabiska. De har ocksĂ„ stĂ€llt krav pĂ„, och lovats, ökad insats för social och ekonomisk utveckling i Kabylien. OcksĂ„ i denna del av landet har militanta grupper varit verksamma, och 2001 var det omfattande uppror i flera delar av regionen. De sociala spĂ€nningarna i Algeriet förstĂ€rks ytterligare av den ekonomiska situationen, med hög arbetslöshet, sĂ€rskilt bland ungdomen. + +Aktioner som av algeriska myndigheter betecknas som terroristattacker förekommer frĂ€mst i Kabylien samt Ă€ven mot grĂ€nsen till Tunisien och i SaharabĂ€ltet mot grĂ€nsen till Libyen, Mali och Mauretanien. DĂ„den riktar sig framför allt mot militĂ€rförlĂ€ggningar och polisstationer, men Ă€ven civila har drabbats. Ett förhöjt sĂ€kerhetslĂ€ge rĂ„der i grĂ€nsomrĂ„det mot Tunisien och Libyen. + +Efter Bouteflika 2019- +I april 2019 avgick president Abdelaziz Bouteflika efter nĂ€stan exakt 20 Ă„r vid makten. I december 2019 blev Abdelmadjid Tebboune, tidigare premiĂ€rminister under Algeriets auktoritĂ€re president Abdelaziz Bouteflika, ny president, men regimens kritiker sĂ„g det inte som ett verkligt maktskifte. + +Geografi + +Topografi + LĂ€gsta punkt: Chott Melrhir (40 meter under havet) + Högsta punkt: Tahat (3 003 meter) + +Hydrografi + LĂ€ngsta flod: Chelif Oued (700 kilometer) + +Klimat +Södra Algeriet har kontinentalt klimat medan omrĂ„det kring Tell-Atlas har medelhavsklimat. Kring Tell-Atlas Ă€r nederbörden 400-800 mm per Ă„r med en regnperiod under december till mars. Sahara har mycket varierande temperaturer, dygnsvariationen sommartid Ă€r runt 20â° C, och nĂ„r dĂ„ mycket höga temperaturer. + +Naturskydd +Algeriets största miljöproblem per Ă„r 2022 var luftföroreningar i landets större stĂ€der, att överbetning och andra dĂ„liga jordbruksmetoder lett till jorderosion och ökenspridning. Dessutom har floder och kustvatten, i synnerhet Medelhavet, blivit förorenat av att rĂ„avloppsvatten dumpats liksom avfall frĂ„n petroleumraffinering och andra industriella avloppsvatten. Det rĂ„der ocksĂ„ brist pĂ„ dricksvatten. + +Enligt uppgifter frĂ„n Ă„r 2010 fanns 12 nationalparker och Ă„tta större natur- eller jaktreservat i Algeriet. De största nationalparkerna var klippökenomrĂ„dena Ahaggar och Tassili nâAjjer i landets sydöstra delar. I Tassili nâAjjer finns ocksĂ„ förhistoriska klippmĂ„lningar. + +Styre och politik + +Administrativ indelning + +Algeriet Ă€r indelat i 48 provinser (wilayas): Adrar, Ain Defla, Ain Temouchent, Alger, Annaba, Batna, Bechar, BĂ©jaĂŻa, Biskra, Blida, Bordj Bou Arreridj, Bouira, Boumerdes, Chlef, Constantine, Djelfa, El Bayadh, El Oued, El Tarf, Ghardaia, Guelma, Illizi, Jijel, Khenchela, Laghouat, Muaskar, Medea, Mila, Mostaganem, M'Sila, Naama, Oran, Ouargla, Oum el Bouaghi, Relizane, Saida, Setif, Sidi Bel-AbbĂ©s, Skikda, Souk Ahras, Tamanrasset, Tebessa, Tiaret, Tindouf, Tipaza, Tissemsilt, Tizi Ouzou och Tlemcen. + +Provinserna Ă€r delade i Baladiyah (kommun). Det finns över 1500 baladiyah. + +Försvar +Algeriet har skrivit pĂ„, men inte ratificerat avtal om förbud mot kĂ€rnvapenprov. + +Algeriet har ett samarbete med Nato genom Mediterranean Dialogue, MD, sedan Ă„r 2000. Detta Ă€r ett forum för att skapa goda relationer i regionen och skapa en stabil sĂ€kerhetssituation. Förutom Natomedlemmarna deltar Ă€ven Israel, Mauretanien, Egypten, Tunisien samt Jordanien och Marocko i samtalen. + +Ekonomi och infrastruktur +Algeriet var en planekonomi under en lĂ„ng tid. Men ekonomiska problem tvingade landet till liberalisering under 1980- och 1990-talen. Algeriets BNP ökade dĂ€refter kraftigt frĂ„n Ă„r 2000 till Ă„r 2014, frĂ„n 54,79 miljarder dollar till 213,81 miljarder dollar. En ökning pĂ„ ungefĂ€r 400 procent. Ungdomsarbetslösheten var dock hög, Ă„r 2014 var den 25,3 %. NĂ€stan dubbelt sĂ„ hög bland unga kvinnor, 41,4 %, som bland unga mĂ€n, 22,1 %. Som en följd av lĂ€gre priser pĂ„ olja och gas i mitten av 2010-talet minskade ocksĂ„ landets ekonomiska tillvĂ€xt. Efter Ă„r 2014 rĂ„dde ekonomisk nedgĂ„ng och Ă„r 2020 var BNP nere pĂ„ 145 miljarder dollar. Olje- och gasproduktionen har varit landets enskilt viktigaste nĂ€ringsgren Ă€nda sedan sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigheten och har utgjort ungefĂ€r hĂ€lften av landets BNP likvĂ€l som statens inkomster. + +NĂ€ringsliv + +Energi och rĂ„varor +Ă r 2019 uppskattades 99,4 procent av befolkningen ha tillgĂ„ng till elektricitet. Skillnaderna mellan landsbygd och urbana omrĂ„den, i frĂ„ga om tillgĂ„ng till elektricitet, var smĂ„. 96 % av elektriciteten berĂ€knades i mitten av 2010-talet produceras med hjĂ€lp av fossila brĂ€nslen. Resterande andel producerades med hjĂ€lp av vattenkraft eller annan förnybar energikĂ€lla. + +Landet har naturtillgĂ„ngar i form av petroleum, naturgas, jĂ€rnmalm, fosfater, uran, bly och zink. + +Infrastruktur + +Utbildning och forskning + +Analfabetism: 19,8 % (2015) +Hos mĂ€n: 12,8 % +Hos kvinnor: 26,9 % + +Befolkning + +Demografi + +Statistik + +Befolkningens medianĂ„lder Ă„r 2016 var 27,8 Ă„r. +Ă ldersstruktur (2016): + 0-14 Ă„r: 29,06 % + 15-24 Ă„r: 15,95 % + 25-54 Ă„r: 42,88 % + 55-64 Ă„r: 6,61 % + 65 Ă„r och Ă€ldre: 5,50 % + +Urbanisering +Ă r 2022 berĂ€knades 74,8 procent av befolkningen vara bosatt i urbana omrĂ„den. Majoriteten Ă€r bosatta lĂ€ngs Medelhavskusten i landets norra delar. De största stĂ€derna, enligt uppgifter frĂ„n Ă„r 2010 var Alger, med 2,2 miljoner invĂ„nare, Oran, med 678â300 invĂ„nare samt Constantine med 460â100 invĂ„nare. Staten har pĂ„skyndat program för att stĂ€rka jordbruksekonomin i syfte att motverka att bönder flyttar in till stĂ€derna. + +Minoriteter + +Enligt uppgifter frĂ„n Ă„r 2022 var ungefĂ€r 99 procent av alla algerier av arab-berbiskt ursprung. Den resterande procenten var europĂ©er. Trots att nĂ€stan alla algerier har berbiskt ursprung, och inte arabiskt, var det bara omkring 15 % av befolkningen som identifierade sig som berber. Dessa var företrĂ€desvis bosatta i den bergiga regionen Kabylie öster om Alger och flera andra samhĂ€llen. Liksom araberna Ă€r berberna ocksĂ„ muslimer, men identifierar sig inte med det arabiska kulturarvet. Berberna har lĂ€nge verkat för autonomi. + +Migration + +SprĂ„k +Officiella sprĂ„k Ă€r arabiska och tamazight. Franska anvĂ€nds som lingua franca. Tamazight Ă€r splittrat i flera olika dialekter. DĂ€ribland Kabyle Berber (Taqbaylit), Shawiya Berber (Tacawit), Mzab Berber och Tuareg Berber (Tamahaq). + +Religion + +Islam Ă€r den dominerande religionen. Mer Ă€n 90 procent av befolkningen Ă€r anhĂ€ngare till religionen, det vill sĂ€ga av de som har fötts i familjer av muslimskt ursprung . Officiellt Ă€r nĂ€stan 100 procent av Algeriets befolkning muslimer, men ateister och andra sorters icke-troende rĂ€knas inte in i statistiken. NĂ€stan alla algerier Ă€r sunnimuslimer, förutom 200 000 ibadi i regionen GhardaĂŻa. + +Det finns runt 150 000 kristna i landet, inklusive runt 10 000 tillhörande romersk-katolska kyrkan och 80 till 130 000 evangeliska protestanter. Trots att mĂ„nga judar frĂ„ntogs sitt medborgarskap efter landets sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet finns det nĂ„gra fĂ„ judar kvar. Algerisk kultur har influerats mycket av islam, huvudreligionen. + +HĂ€lsa +Enligt VĂ€rldshĂ€lsoorganisationen var de vanligaste dödsorsakerna Ă„r 2019 Ischemisk hjĂ€rtsjukdom följt av stroke och neonatala tillstĂ„nd. + +Ăvriga befolkningsdata +Den senaste folkrĂ€kningen hölls den 16 april 2008 och avsĂ„g den befintliga (de facto) bosatta befolkningen i Algeriet, som uppgick till 34 452 759 invĂ„nare (varav 17 428 050 mĂ€n och 17 024 259 kvinnor). + +Kultur + +Konstarter + +Musik och dans +En musikstil som kommer frĂ„n Algeriet Ă€r raĂŻ. Cheb Khaled och Cheb Mami Ă€r tvĂ„ av de mest kĂ€nda raĂŻartisterna. + +Litteratur +Dagens algeriska litteratur, skriven huvudsakligen pĂ„ arabiska och franska, har starkt influerats av landets moderna historia. KĂ€nda algeriska författare under 1900-talet Ă€r bland andra Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, Kateb Yacine och Assia Djebar har översatts till mĂ„nga sprĂ„k. Bland de mer viktiga författarna under 1980-talet kan Rachid Mimouni, senare vice-president för Amnesty International, och Tahar Djaout, mördad av en islamistisk grupp 1993, nĂ€mnas. + +Film + +Algeriets filmhistoria börjar under kampen för sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigheten dĂ„ FLN genom filmproduktionen sökte Ă„skĂ„dliggöra motstĂ„ndet. Ăven efter avkolonialisering fortsatte frihetskampen vara det dominerande temat inom filmen. Ett exempel Ă€r filmen "Slaget om Alger" som fick stor symbolisk betydelse nĂ€r den kom Ă„r 1965 trots att den bĂ„de skrevs och regisserades av italienaren Gillo Pontecorvo. Den finansierades dock av algeriska staten, spelades in i Algeriet och rekonstruerade verkliga hĂ€ndelser. + +Efter sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigheten utvecklades filmkulturen. I Alger inrĂ€ttades ett cinematek och senare fick denna filialer i andra stĂ€der. Ă r 1967 förstatligades filmproduktionen och filmdistributionen vilket resulterade i att populĂ€rfilmer frĂ„n Europa, USA, Indien och Egypten begrĂ€nsades. + +Filmproduktionen minskade efter de politiska oroligheterna under 1990-talet, men fram till mitten av 1980-talet hade landet producerat omkring 40 lĂ„ngfilmer. NĂ€mnvĂ€rt Ă€r ocksĂ„ de algeriska filmarna som Ă€r verksamma i Frankrike. I mĂ„nga filmer skildrar de invandrarna och hur det Ă€r att leva mellan tvĂ„ kulturer. + +Traditioner + +Matkultur + +Idrott + +De mest populĂ€ra sporterna i landet Ă€r fotboll, friidrott och handboll. En av landets största sporthĂ€ndelser var nĂ€r man slog VĂ€sttysklands herrlandslag i fotboll 1982 genom ett mĂ„l av Lakhdar Belloumi. Men pĂ„ grund av konflikter och dĂ„liga förhĂ„llanden i Algeriet under 1900-talet, fortfarande pĂ„gĂ„ende i nĂ„gra omrĂ„den i landet, har nu mĂ„nga idrottare lĂ€mnat landet till lĂ€nder som de kan tjĂ€na mer i, vanligtvis Frankrike. Zinedine Zidane, Karim Benzema och Samir Nasri Ă€r av algeriskt ursprung men födda och uppvuxna i Frankrike. I friidrott har Algeriet fĂ„tt fram flera vĂ€rldsmĂ€stare, dĂ€ribland Noureddine Morceli, Hassiba Boulmerka, Jabir-Said Guerni och Benida Berrah. + +Internationella rankningar + +Se Ă€ven + Algeriets historia + Algeriskt broderi + Algerietrevolten + Censur i Algeriet + 1213 Algeria + +Referenser + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Afrikas lĂ€nder +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +ArabisksprĂ„kiga lĂ€nder och territorier +Adolf Hitler (), född 20 april 1889 i Braunau am Inn, Ăsterrike-Ungern (i nuvarande Ăsterrike), död 30 april 1945 i Berlin, Tyskland (sjĂ€lvmord), var en österrikisk-tysk politiker och ordförande i Nationalsocialistiska tyska arbetarepartiet (, NSDAP), allmĂ€nt kĂ€nt som Nazistpartiet, frĂ„n 1921 till 1945. Hitler var Tysklands rikskansler 1933â1945 och Tysklands ledare (FĂŒhrer) och diktator 1934â1945. + +Hitler, som hade stridit i första vĂ€rldskriget, anslöt sig 1919 till DAP, blev partiets ledare tvĂ„ Ă„r senare och bytte partiets namn till NSDAP. I november 1923 genomförde Hitler och hans anhĂ€ngare ölkĂ€llarkuppen i MĂŒnchen som misslyckades och slutade med att Hitler dömdes till fĂ€ngelse. Under fĂ€ngelsetiden dikterade han Mein Kampf, som sammanfattade hans politiska mĂ„l och vĂ€rldsĂ„skĂ„dning. Efter att ha frislĂ€ppts i december 1924 inledde han en flerĂ„rig framgĂ„ngsrik agitation för nationalism, antisemitism och antikommunism, som gjorde NSDAP till Tysklands största parti 1932. Den 30 januari 1933 utnĂ€mndes Hitler till rikskansler för en koalitionsregering och inledde omvandlingen av Tyskland till en totalitĂ€r diktatur. + +Hitlers pangermanska politik med syfte att utvidga Tysklands "livsrum" (Lebensraum) genom annekteringen (Anschluss) av Ăsterrike och av Sudetenlandet 1938, ockupationen av Tjeckoslovakien och anfallet mot Polen 1 september 1939 ledde till andra vĂ€rldskrigets utbrott. Nazismens antisemitiska, rasistiska politik formulerades konkret i NĂŒrnberglagarna 1935 och kulminerade, efter anfallet pĂ„ Sovjetunionen den 22 juni 1941 â som Hitler sĂ„g som bĂ„lverket för en judisk-bolsjevikisk konspiration mot den ariska rasen â i ett organiserat folkmord pĂ„ sex miljoner judar, miljontals krigsfĂ„ngar och hundratusentals romer, parallellt med massinterneringar och mord pĂ„ homosexuella, utvecklingsstörda och politiska motstĂ„ndare, huvudsakligen kommunister och socialdemokrater. + +Ambitionen med Hitlers expansionspolitik var att grunda ett tusenĂ„rigt rike likt det Tysk-romerska riket och upprĂ€tta tysk hegemoni frĂ„n Atlanten till Ural. Krigslyckan vĂ€nde för Tyskland frĂ„n vintern 1941 och kulminerade 1943 i en lĂ„ngvarig motoffensiv, följt av allierade invasioner genom Italien och Frankrike. Tysklands hotande nederlag ledde till att en grupp bestĂ„ende av officerare och konservativ-nationalistiska politiker planerade och genomförde 20 juli-kuppen, ett attentat mot Hitler som denne dock överlevde. Efter attentatet intensifierades utrensningar av alla interna fiender. I och med Tredje Rikets kollaps förföll Ă€ven Hitlers omdöme och psykiska hĂ€lsa, och under slutkampen om Berlin i april 1945 begick han sjĂ€lvmord i sin bunker i Berlin. + +UppvĂ€xt + +Hem- och familjeförhĂ„llanden + +Adolf Hitler föddes den 20 april 1889 i den österrikiska grĂ€nsstaden Braunau am Inn vid floden Inn till Tyskland, som son till tullinspektören Alois Hitler i hans tredje Ă€ktenskap med Klara Pölzl. Hitler och hans yngre syster, Paula, var de enda av sammanlagt sex barn som nĂ„dde vuxen Ă„lder. Till familjen rĂ€knades ocksĂ„ de Ă€ldre barnen Alois och Angela, frĂ„n faderns tidigare Ă€ktenskap. + +Vem som var Hitlers farfar Ă€r höljt i dunkel dĂ„ Alois var utomĂ€ktenskaplig son till den ogifta pigan Maria Anna Schicklgruber. DĂ„ hon senare gifte sig med mjölnargesĂ€llen Johann Georg Hiedler överfördes Alois i dennes Ă€ldre brors, bonden Johann Nepomuk HĂŒttlers, vĂ„rd. Först vid nĂ€ra fyrtio Ă„rs Ă„lder, efter sin mors bortgĂ„ng och pĂ„ initiativ av fosterfadern, antog han namnet Hitler. Namnet, i olika varianter, kan i trakterna spĂ„ras tillbaka till medeltiden och bars under seklerna av fattiga smĂ„bönder. Möjligen har det tjeckiskt ursprung (Hidlar, Hidlarcek) frĂ„n det nĂ€rliggande Böhmen. + +I takt med att fadern befordrades flyttade familjen vidare till nya orter. Under sin uppvĂ€xt hann Hitler bo i Braunau (1889â1892), Passau (1892â1895), Linz (1895â1896), Fischlham (1896â1898), Leonding (1898â1905) och Ă„nyo i Linz (1905â1907). Fadern avled nĂ€r Adolf var 13 Ă„r gammal, i januari 1903, och modern dog knappt fem Ă„r senare, i december 1907. FrĂ„n Hitlers hemmiljö kan noteras att fadern inte var antisemit, och betraktade antisemitism som ett uttryck för kulturell efterblivenhet. + +SkolgĂ„ng +I smĂ„skolan gjorde den unge Hitler bra ifrĂ„n sig och skall ha varit en begĂ„vad elev, Ă€ven om drag av bekvĂ€mlighet och en envishet att syssla med enbart det han hade lust med var framtrĂ€dande, dĂ€r man frĂ„n ett berömt klassfoto taget 1899 kan man se honom posera med ett bestĂ€mt drag kring munnen och armarna i kors. Men dĂ„ han senare av sina förĂ€ldrar skickades till realskolan i provinshuvudstaden Linz gick det sĂ€mre. Hans flit bedömdes som oregelbunden och enbart i uppförande, gymnastik samt Ă€lsklingsĂ€mnet teckning gavs omdömet "tillfredsstĂ€llande". Detta har förklarats med att landsortssonen Hitler dĂ€r inte kĂ€nde nĂ„gon och dĂ€rför genom sin personlighet kom att isoleras frĂ„n andra. Inte heller nĂ€r han av sin mor som nybliven Ă€nka 1904 skickades till realskolan i Steyer gick det bĂ€ttre. Betyget var sĂ„ dĂ„ligt att Hitler efter en "blöt" kvĂ€ll anvĂ€nde det som toalettpapper. Den unge Adolf avlade aldrig studentexamen, och han fick en djupgĂ„ende aversion mot allt vad skola hette. IstĂ€llet tog dagdrömmarna om ett framtida konstnĂ€rskap överhanden. + +Ă ren i Linz och Wien +Efter faderns bortgĂ„ng sĂ„lde modern hemmet i Leonding och flyttade till Linz. Tillsammans med den pension hon erhöll efter sin avlidne make innebar det att hon kunde leva pĂ„ tĂ€mligen god fot i en vĂ„ning i staden. Inneboende var Ă€ven sonen Adolf, som efter sina havererade studier Ă€ndĂ„ levde nĂ„got av en dagdrönartillvaro. Att skaffa sig ett "brödyrke", som han kallade det, var honom fjĂ€rran. Ofta kunde man se honom flanera i och kring Linz, och han fantiserade om hur han en dag skulle omgestalta staden med nya byggnadsverk sprungna ur hans geni. MĂ„n om sin klasstillhörighet, fadern hade som tulltjĂ€nsteman varit i kejserlig tjĂ€nst, och dĂ„ han ansĂ„g konsten och konstnĂ€rskapet frĂ€mst vara en angelĂ€genhet för samhĂ€llets eliter (dĂ€rur ringaktandet av den konventionella borgerligheten) klĂ€dde han sig propert, ibland i hög hatt. Dessutom införskaffade han en elegant promenadkĂ€pp med elfenbensinfattningar. Vanligen gick han pĂ„ teater och opera pĂ„ kvĂ€llarna, dĂ€r han helst lyssnade till Richard Wagners operor som han beundrade. Rienzi, om den italienske "folktribunen" Cola di Rienzo, kom att fĂ„ sĂ€rskild betydelse för Hitler. PĂ„ Linzoperan trĂ€ffade han den ett Ă„r Ă€ldre August Kubizek som delade hans musikintresse, och de blev under de nĂ€stföljande Ă„ren oskiljaktiga vĂ€nner. PĂ„ 1950-talet skulle denne, i Adolf Hitler, mein Jugendfreund, Ă„terberĂ€tta sina minnen och intryck av Hitler. + +I Linz började, enligt Kubizek, Hitlers politiska intresse att vĂ€ckas. Han var som de flesta andra pĂ„verkad av de tysknationella stĂ€mningarna som behĂ€rskade staden (vilket bland annat manifesterades genom hĂ€lsningsfrasen Heil! sympatisörerna emellan). Hans senare utvecklade antisemitism kan, om man fĂ„r tro Kubizek, likasĂ„ spĂ„ras tillbaka till denna period i Linz. DĂ„ Hitler i grunden kĂ€nde sig motarbetad av en oförstĂ„ende omvĂ€rld har Kubizek beskrivit hur han emellanĂ„t kunde drabbas av hatiska och furiösa utbrott mot allt och alla. BĂ„da förĂ€lskade sig ocksĂ„ i samma flicka, Stefanie, men som Hitler, tunn och blek, aldrig vĂ„gade nĂ€rma sig. + +1907 flyttade Hitler till Wien och sökte in pĂ„ konstakademin detta och följande Ă„r men blev ej antagen, samtidigt som hans vĂ€n och rumskamrat August Kubizek antogs som elev vid musikkonservatoriet (Kubizek skulle senare inleda en karriĂ€r som dirigent men som tvĂ€rt bröts genom krigsutbrottet 1914). 1907 dog ocksĂ„ hans mor, vilket tog Hitler mycket hĂ„rt; "jag har aldrig sett nĂ„gon sĂ„ förkrossad av sorg" har moderns lĂ€kare, Eduard Bloch, berĂ€ttat. (Trots att Bloch var av judisk hĂ€rkomst skulle Hitler se till att Gestapo höll en skyddande hand över honom, efter Ăsterrikes anslutning till Tyskland 1938; 1940 emigrerade Bloch till USA.) + +DĂ„ han ej blev antagen som konststuderande levde han Ă„ren som följde ett kringflackande liv i Wien och tjĂ€nade, enligt vad han sjĂ€lv uppgett, sitt uppehĂ€lle som murare och mĂ„lare. LĂ„nga perioder saknade han helt fast inkomst. Under dessa Ă„r kom han i kontakt med starka antisemitiska och nationalistiska strömningar som var vanliga i den österrikiska huvudstaden med sina stora minoriteter av bland annat judar. Detta kom möjligen att senare forma hans Ă„sikter; bortsett frĂ„n Hitlers egna uppgifter i propagandaskriften Mein Kampf finns mycket begrĂ€nsat stöd för att Hitler var antisemit före 1919. Det finns Ă€ven hĂ„llpunkter för att Hitler inte skulle ha var antisemit före eller under första vĂ€rldskriget. Under tiden i Linz var hans favoritskĂ„despelare nĂ€stan undantagslöst judar och under tiden i Wien hade han judiska bekanta, och de wienska "vykort" han mĂ„lade för att försörja sig sĂ„ldes huvudsakligen till judiska handlare. DĂ€rutöver finns bilder pĂ„ hur Hitler 1919 följer Kurt Eisner, den mördade judiske ministerpresidenten i den bayerska rĂ„dsrepubliken, till hans sista vila (mer nedan). + +I Wien kom Hitler i personlig kontakt med Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels teorier om germanerna som den ariska herrerasen. I Wien levde ocksĂ„ under tjugo Ă„r filosofen Houston Stewart Chamberlain som propagerade för pangermanism, och Hitler lĂ€ste med förkĂ€rlek sin stora idols, Richard Wagners, politiska skrifter. I huvudstaden bevittnade Hitler ocksĂ„ debatterna i parlamentet, som ibland slutade i kaos nĂ€r ledamöterna talade sina modersmĂ„l, och hans förakt, inte bara mot den mĂ„ngnationella Habsburg-monarkin, utan den parlamentariska demokratin som sĂ„dan stegrades. Hitler tog ocksĂ„ intryck av den radikale nationalisten Georg von Schönerer och den kristligt sociale borgmĂ€staren Karl Luegers retorik. Till denna hörde Ă€ven antisemitismen. Enligt August Kubizek gick Hitler med i en antisemitisk förening, och Ă„terkom stĂ€ndigt till fraser om "revolutionens storm", "riket" och den "ideala staten". + +För att undgĂ„ militĂ€rtjĂ€nstgöring i den österrikiska armĂ©n flyttade Hitler 1913 till Bayern och MĂŒnchen. + +Första vĂ€rldskriget och mellankrigstiden + +Vid första vĂ€rldskrigets utbrott 1914 blev Hitler, sitt österrikiska medborgarskap till trots, krigsfrivillig i den tyska armĂ©n, dĂ€r han kĂ€mpade vid vĂ€stfronten under nĂ€stan hela kriget utan att nĂ„ högre grad Ă€n Gefreiter (ungefĂ€r vicekorpral). IntressevĂ€ckande i sammanhanget Ă€r att Hitlers befĂ€lhavare inte ansĂ„g att Hitler hade det som krĂ€vdes av en ledare. Han erhöll dock fem olika utmĂ€rkelser under kriget, frĂ€mst av dem JĂ€rnkorset av 2:a graden 1914 för tapperhet i fĂ€lt samt 1918 ett jĂ€rnkors av 1:a graden. + +Hitler blev lindrigt skadad i lĂ„ret av en artillerigranat vid Le Barque 1916. Efter att ha vĂ„rdats som gassjuk i Pasewalk i november 1918 och dĂ€r meddelats nyheten om den tyska kapitulationen Ă„tervĂ€nde Hitler till kasernerna i MĂŒnchen. Han var mycket besviken pĂ„ den nya regimen ("novemberförbrytarna" som de kom att kallas) som han ansĂ„g hade förhindrat Tysklands militĂ€ra seger i kriget. Han var övertygad om att den sĂ„ kallade dolkstötslegenden var sann, det vill sĂ€ga tanken att politikerna pĂ„ hemmaplan hade svikit soldaterna genom att sluta fred med fienden trots att den tyska armĂ©n egentligen var "obesegrad i fĂ€lt" under kriget och hade blivit tvingad att kapitulera. + +Trots att den omedelbara följden av krigsnederlaget blev kejsardömets fall och utropandet av den demokratiska republiken skall han enligt en uppgift daterad 1939, lĂ€mnad av hans militĂ€ra överordnade, Hans Mend, i slutet av 1918 ha yttrat: "Tack gode Gud att kungarnas kronor har fallit frĂ„n trĂ€det, nu har vi proletĂ€rer ocksĂ„ nĂ„got att sĂ€ga till om". Mends trovĂ€rdighet som kĂ€lla har dock betvivlats, dĂ„ han ocksĂ„, i det sĂ„ kallade Mend-protokollet, anklagade Hitler, tillsammans med sin "manliga hora", för homosexuella aktiviteter under kriget 1915. Uppgifterna har bl.a. av den svenske populĂ€rhistorikern Bengt Liljegren avfĂ€rdats som varande av allmĂ€nt tendentiös natur och sakna bevisvĂ€rde. DĂ€rtill kommer att de var tĂ€nkta att anvĂ€ndas mot Hitler efter en planerad statskupp 1939. + +Efter kriget + +Hitler stannade kvar inom det militĂ€ra och valdes till "Vertrauensmann" ("Förtroendeman") inom sitt förband, en uppgift som bland annat innebar att han skulle förmedla propaganda till soldaterna för att sĂ€kra deras lojalitet till den nya socialistiska regimen i Bayern. Enligt den judiske revolutionĂ€ren Ernst Toller skulle han ha betecknat sig som socialdemokrat; "PĂ„ den tiden var alla socialdemokrater", förklarade Hitler 1921. Hitler deltog inte heller i det militĂ€ra nedkĂ€mpandet av den bayerska rĂ„ds/sovjet-republiken vĂ„ren 1919, trots att dess ledning inte bara hade ett framtrĂ€dande judiskt, utan Ă€ven ett tydligt kommunistiskt inslag. En av Hitlers frĂ€msta biografer, den internationellt erkĂ€nde Joachim Fest, har förklarat detta med hur svagt utvecklat Hitlers politiska medvetande var vid denna tid: "Hans politiska indolens var starkare Ă€n den krĂ€nkande kĂ€nslan att vara soldat i vĂ€rldsrevolutionens maktsfĂ€r. Han hade Ă„ andra sidan inga reella valmöjligheter. Den militĂ€ra vĂ€rlden var det enda sociala system dĂ€r han kĂ€nde sig trygg. Ett beslut att lĂ€mna soldatlivet skulle ha varit detsamma som att Ă„tervĂ€nda till den anonyma vĂ€rld han kom ifrĂ„n." + +Inledningen pĂ„ en politisk karriĂ€r + +Oaktat sina komprometterande kontakter med den "röda" regimen lyckades Hitler efter kontrarevolutionen hĂ„lla sig kvar inom armĂ©n och rĂ€ddades ur rannsakningshĂ€kte tack vare ingripande frĂ„n nĂ„gra officerare. Han antog ett erbjudande om att bli politisk agent för riksvĂ€rnet men innan han antrĂ€dde sin tjĂ€nst genomgick han en "antibolsjevikisk skolning", ledd av högerradikala professorer vid MĂŒnchens universitet. Hitler skickades i början av september att granska en grupp vid namn Deutsche Arbeiterpartei DAP. Han deltog i debatten och imponerade pĂ„ Ă„hörare och blev, utan att ha blivit tillfrĂ„gad och utan att vara medlem i DAP, invald i arbetsutskottet. Det var Ă€ven hĂ€r han upptĂ€ckte sin retoriska talang som han för första gĂ„ngen visade pĂ„ ett massmöte den 24 februari 1920. Historikern Sebastian Haffner menar att Hitlers tal började trevande, hade en ologisk struktur och ett oklart innehĂ„ll, men att hans framgĂ„ng berodde pĂ„ att han hade "hypnotisk förmĂ„ga" som kunde forma massorna. Haffner menar att detta ocksĂ„ pĂ„verkade Hitler sjĂ€lv som genom insikten att kunna pĂ„verka andra mĂ€nniskor fattade beslutet att bli "FĂŒhrern". NĂ€r han vĂ€l hade uppnĂ„tt en ledande stĂ€llning inom DAP Ă€ndrade han namnet till Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP). + +I MĂŒnchen lĂ€rde Hitler kĂ€nna personer födda i Kejsardömet Ryssland och med personlig erfarenhet av Sovjetunionen, bland andra Alfred Rosenberg, Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter och Fjodor Vinberg. Nazistpartiets blivande chefsideolog Alfred Rosenberg hade avlagt examen i arkitektur vid ett sovjetiskt universitet 1918. Rosenberg ansĂ„g att kĂ€rnan i bolsjevikernas taktik var att fysiskt förinta sina fiender, en taktik som han uppfattade som effektiv, Ă€ven om han vid denna tid fördömde den. von Scheubner-Richter var Hitlers utrikespolitiske rĂ„dgivare och ledde en organisation, vars mĂ„l var att störta sovjetregimen och som kanaliserade finansiellt stöd frĂ„n exilryssar till nazistpartiet. Fedor Vinberg var en nĂ€ra personlig vĂ€n till den mördade tsarinnan och bibringade Hitler uppfattningen, att Sovjetunionen var en judisk diktatur. + +Efter ett misslyckat försök till statskupp i MĂŒnchen, 1923 (ölkĂ€llarkuppen) varvid von Scheubner-Richter blev skjuten, dömdes Hitler den 1 april 1924 till fem Ă„rs fĂ€ngelse i LandsbergfĂ€ngelset. Under denna fĂ€ngelsevistelse författade han första delen av boken Mein Kampf (troligen dikterad inför bland andra Rudolf Hess). Andra delen skrev han efter sin frigivning 1925. Böckerna Ă€r dels en tĂ€mligen utlĂ€mnande sjĂ€lvbiografi, dels ett slags idĂ©program för nationalsocialismen samt ett slags handbok i propaganda. Hitler fann en del av sin ideologiska inspiration hos Kristligt-sociala partiet i Ăsterrike vars borgmĂ€stare i Wien, Karl Lueger, kombinerat antisemitiska och socialkonservativa ideal i sin politiska gĂ€rning. + +Mein Kampf prĂ€glas av ett rasistiskt elittĂ€nkande och en vĂ„ldsam kritik mot villkoren i Versaillesfreden efter första vĂ€rldskriget. Hitler lanserade hĂ€r de viktigaste punkterna för sitt program â nĂ€mligen upphĂ€vandet av Versaillesfreden, revansch mot Frankrike samt skapande av Lebensraum (âlivsrumâ) för det tyska folket österut. Livsrummet skulle skapas genom att krossa bolsjevismen (kommunismen) som i Hitlers ögon nĂ€st efter judendomen var det tyska folkets vĂ€rsta fiende. Hitler avtjĂ€nade bara en liten del av sitt fĂ€ngelsestraff och frislĂ€pptes redan den 20 december 1924. + +Det beslöts efter detta att Nationalsocialistiska tyska arbetarepartiet skulle erövra regeringsmakten med parlamentariska medel. Perioden 1925â1930 Ă€gnade Hitler frĂ€mst Ă„t att agitera och bygga ut partiapparaten med sig sjĂ€lv som envĂ€ldig FĂŒhrer. Den stora depressionen i början av 1930-talet ledde till massarbetslöshet i Tyskland, som i kombination med utbrett politikerförakt och missnöje med Versaillesfreden gav Hitler den hjĂ€lp han behövde för att vinna stöd frĂ„n de breda folklagren. Vid riksdagsvalet 1930 gick NSDAP frĂ„n 2,8 procent Ă„r 1928 till att bli det nĂ€st största partiet efter socialdemokraterna med 18,3 procent av rösterna. Under de nĂ€rmaste tvĂ„ Ă„ren gjorde han sig berömd genom att resa landet runt med flygplan i mycket stor omfattning till olika arrangerade massmöten dĂ€r han med mycket stor prakt spred ut sitt program och vann gehör för sitt budskap. I juli 1932 blev Nationalsocialisterna Tysklands största parti med drygt 37,3 procent av rösterna. + +Hitler, som varit statslös sedan han avsagt sig sitt österrikiska medborgarskap 1925, erhöll tyskt medborgarskap genom en politisk manöver i februari 1932, dĂ„ den nazistiske inrikesministern i Braunschweig utnĂ€mnde Hitler till attachĂ© vid Braunschweigs legation i Berlin. Detta innebar att Hitler automatiskt blev tysk medborgare och dĂ€rför kunde stĂ€lla upp i presidentvalet samma Ă„r men förlorade mot den sittande presidenten Paul von Hindenburg med drygt 30 procent. I november samma Ă„r backade nazisterna till 33 procent â till största del till kommunistpartiets förmĂ„n â men förblev det största partiet med fler mandat Ă€n socialdemokratiska SPD. + +VĂ€gen till kriget + +Sedan den parlamentariska krisen efter valresultaten 1932 förvĂ€rrats vintern 1932/33 presenterade f d rikskansler Franz von Papen en lösning för president Hindenburg; en "nationell koncentrationsregering" skulle utses med Hitler som rikskansler men med von Papen som vicekansler och med övervĂ€gande icke-nazistiska ministrar frĂ„n den sittande Schleicherregeringen. Efter misslyckade försök att ena socialdemokrater och konservativa till en koalition insvors Hitler den 30 januari 1933 till rikskansler av president Hindenburg. Förutom NSDAP med tvĂ„ ministerposter (Wilhelm Frick som inrikesminister och Hermann Göring som minister utan portfölj) ingick Tysknationella folkpartiet i regeringen med Alfred Hugenberg som minister med ansvar för livsmedel. De flesta tunga poster, frĂ€mst utrikesminister Konstantin von Neurath, justitieminister Franz GĂŒrtner och finansminister Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk kvarstod pĂ„ sina poster i enlighet med avtalet. Med endast ett departement under nazistisk kontroll och Franz von Papens löften om att hĂ„lla Hitler i schack i kontroversiella frĂ„gor var tillrĂ€ckligt för att Hindenburg skulle godta förslaget och ge den nya regeringen en chans. + +En knapp mĂ„nad senare, den 27 februari brĂ€ndes riksdagshuset ner, vilket skylldes pĂ„ kommunisterna och dĂ€rmed inte stĂ€rkte deras stĂ€llning. Med stöd av detta och genom att öppet anklaga kommunisterna för mordbranden drevs Hindenburg till att underteckna nya lagar som innebar inskrĂ€nkningar i de medborgerliga rĂ€ttigheterna (Riksdagsbrandförordningen). Samtidigt lĂ€t Hitler arrestera och fĂ€ngsla kommunistpartiets ledamöter, och den 5 mars 1933 hölls pĂ„ rikskansler Hitlers begĂ€ran nyval. Efter en massiv och energisk valkampanj och hoppet om en stabil regering med radikala Ă„tgĂ€rder Ă„t inflation, arbetslöshet och kaos gav nationalsocialisterna 288 mandat och vann dĂ€rmed i samverkan med koalitionspartnern tysknationalisterna (52 mandat) en absolut majoritet om 340 av 647 mandat i riksdagen. DĂ€rmed var Hitlers stĂ€llning som regeringschef sĂ€krad. + +Efter riksdagsbranden var redan upprördheten i landet stor, och efter ett avtal med samtliga riksdagspartier utom socialdemokraterna â som vĂ€grade foga sig â drev Hitler den 23 mars igenom den sĂ„ kallade Fullmaktslagen (ErmĂ€chtigungsgesetz), som gav regeringen lagstiftande rĂ€tt i fyra Ă„r â i praktiken diktatorisk makt, eftersom den nazistiska regeringen dĂ€rmed kunde lagstifta bort sina politiska fiender. För att uppnĂ„ de 432 mandat som krĂ€vdes för att genomdriva lagen hade Hitler genom skicklig retorik och löften lyckats fĂ„ Ă€ven de neutrala partierna pĂ„ sin sida med löften om att anvĂ€nda lagen sparsamt. Kommunistiska KPD fick inte delta i omröstningen eftersom deras 81 mandat hade ogiltigförklarats efter riksdagsbranden (se ovan). Hitlers löften skulle snart visa sig utebli. I juni 1933 förbjöds socialdemokratiska partiet, övriga partier utom nazisterna uppmanades till att upplösa sig sjĂ€lva och judar, romer, kommunister, socialister samt andra som vĂ€grade att inordna sig började att förföljas av den nazifierade poliskĂ„ren och SA-trupperna. MĂ„nga sattes i de koncentrationslĂ€ger som börjat öppnas. + +Hitler var en skicklig talare med demagogisk rutin och han hade en enastĂ„ende förmĂ„ga att piska upp en nĂ€st intill hysterisk stĂ€mning under sina synnerligen vĂ€lregisserade tal. MĂ„nga tyskar beskriver det som att de blev "trollbundna" av att höra hans politiska tal. MĂ„nga sĂ„g i Hitler en "rĂ€ddande Ă€ngel" som kunde fĂ„ landet pĂ„ fötter igen och rĂ€dda Tyskland frĂ„n det kaos som rĂ„tt under hyperinflationen 1923. + +I augusti 1934 avled president Paul von Hindenburg, och den lagstiftande regeringen lĂ€t överföra den döde statschefens befogenheter till Hitler, som tog sig titeln FĂŒhrer und Reichskanzler. I praktiken hade han redan varit diktator sedan 23 mars föregĂ„ende Ă„r, dĂ„ han med diktatorisk auktoritet inom det nazistiska partiet, som helt kontrollerade regeringen och med majoritet i riksdagen, och tillrĂ€ckligt stort folkligt stöd kunde driva igenom vilka lagar han ville. Den 30 juni 1934 hade stora delar av SA:s ledarskikt, Gregor Strasser samt Hitlers företrĂ€dare Kurt von Schleicher mördats pĂ„ Hitlers order (se LĂ„nga knivarnas natt). Ăven vicekansler von Papen skulle ha mördats men satt vid tillfĂ€llet i trygghet i husarrest. VerkstĂ€llandet stod Heinrich Himmlers SS för. Orsaken var att det inom SA:s ledning med högste chefen Ernst Röhm i spetsen fanns starka socialistiska strömningar som praktiskt taget ville avskaffa kapitalismen. För att fĂ„ det stöd han behövde frĂ„n militĂ€ren och industrin beslutade Hitler att oskadliggöra SA:s ledning. Dessutom var Hitler orolig för att Röhm sjĂ€lv hade för stora maktambitioner och planerade att störta honom genom en kupp. I ett tal till tyska riksdagen den 13 juli 1934 rĂ€ttfĂ€rdigade han sitt handlande i denna "Tysklands ödestimma". + +Hitler hade kommit till makten frĂ€mst tack vare sina löften att utplĂ„na arbetslösheten (som var cirka 40 procent 1932) och upprĂ€tta landets "heder" genom att befria tyskarna frĂ„n de enligt honom helt oacceptabla villkoren i Versaillesfreden. Tre Ă„r efter att NSDAP fĂ„tt makten var arbetslösheten sĂ„ gott som utraderad. Detta hade blivit möjligt dels genom en intensiv militĂ€r upprustning och jĂ€ttelika offentliga byggnadsprojekt, inte minst motorvĂ€gsbyggen (Autobahn) och dels genom att kvinnor uppmuntrades att stanna hemma. Detta gjorde att Hitler Ă€ven efter maktövertagandet behöll sin popularitet hos befolkningen. Upprustningen och nybyggena finansierades till stor del av valutamanipulation men de negativa effekterna kom att skjutas upp tills Tyskland kunde tömma erövrade nationers guldreserver. + +Adolf Hitler var frĂ„n och med Hindenburgs död 1934 helt envĂ€ldig. I den nazistiska staten fanns ingen skriven författning som inskrĂ€nkte stats- och regeringschefens makt. I realiteten innebar det att inget viktigt beslut över huvud taget kunde fattas mot FĂŒhrerns (det vill sĂ€ga Hitlers) vilja, och det fanns följaktligen inga legala möjligheter att kontrollera eller avsĂ€tta honom. Systemet gjorde att Hitler och den nazistiska staten smĂ€lte samman till ett. FĂŒhrerns ord var lag, och det innebar förrĂ€deri att pĂ„ allvar motsĂ€tta sig Hitlers vilja. För att lĂ€gga mesta kraften pĂ„ det som intresserade honom mest, utrikespolitiken (i stort sett liktydigt med planeringen inför andra vĂ€rldskriget) delegerade han mĂ„nga befogenheter till de ministrar som ansvarade för inrikespolitiken. Hitler kunde dock (om han sĂ„ önskade) Ă„terkalla dessa befogenheter och avsĂ€tta eller till och med lĂ„ta mörda sina ministrar om de inte ansĂ„gs pĂ„litliga. + +Propagandaministeriet som leddes av Joseph Goebbels hade en viktig uppgift i att sprida propaganda om den nazistiska statens överlĂ€gsenhet och dess ofelbare ledares förtrĂ€fflighet. NĂ„gon riktig personkult hann inte vĂ€xa fram innan andra vĂ€rldskriget startade men det fanns lĂ„ngt gĂ„ngna planer pĂ„ att införa en "nazistisk religion" dĂ€r Hitler fick en gudaliknande status (se Ă€ven kejsarkult och personkult). En rad spektakulĂ€ra monument till Hitlers och nazistatens Ă€ra planerades ocksĂ„. + +I strid mot villkoren i Versaillesfreden efter första vĂ€rldskriget Ă„terinförde Hitler allmĂ€n vĂ€rnplikt 1935 och inledde en kraftig upprustning av flottan och flygvapnet (Luftwaffe), Ă„ret efter besattes Ă€ven det demilitariserade Rhenlandet, och man lĂ€mnade Ă€ven Nationernas förbund. Ăven detta var uppenbara brott mot Versaillesfreden. DĂ„ vĂ€stmakterna nöjde sig med att protestera tolkade Hitler det som ett svaghetstecken hos framför allt britter och fransmĂ€n och fortsatte sina planer att skapa Lebensraum för sitt tusenĂ„riga "tredje rike". Ăsteuropa skulle erövras, Sovjetunionen krossas och judarna utrotas tillsammans med andra folk som enligt nazisterna saknade existensberĂ€ttigande. Den slaviska befolkningen skulle förslavas, deporteras bortom Uralbergen eller likvideras. + +Parallellt med den kraftiga upprustningen av armĂ©n sökte Hitler allierade inför ett framtida storkrig. Det ledde 1936 till ett nĂ€rmande till det fascistiska Italien som styrdes av Benito Mussolini. Han inledde ocksĂ„ ett samarbete med Japan som sedan början av 1930-talet bedrev en mycket aggressiv utrikespolitik. Detta samarbete ledde 1940 fram till en försvarspakt med japanerna. + +NĂ€sta steg för att förverkliga sina planer blev att 1938 ansluta Ăsterrike (Ostmark) och delar av Tjeckoslovakien (Sudetenland) till Tyskland, som dĂ„ kom att kallas Stortyskland. Ă terigen nöjde sig Storbritannien och Frankrike med att protestera, man ville till varje pris undvika ett nytt storkrig. I en berömd konferens i MĂŒnchen i september samma Ă„r gick Storbritanniens premiĂ€rminister Neville Chamberlain med pĂ„ en försĂ€kran frĂ„n Hitler att denne inte skulle göra ansprĂ„k pĂ„ fler landomrĂ„den i Europa (sĂ„ kallad eftergiftstaktik). + +Hitler visade sig frustrerad efter MĂŒnchenavtalet eftersom han hade hoppats pĂ„ ett begrĂ€nsat krig som skulle ha möjliggjort en större succĂ©, men denna Ă„sikt delades varken av hans omgivning eller det tyska folket som befarade att Tyskland skulle förlora ett krig. DĂ€rför reagerade den tyska offentligheten med stor lĂ€ttnad nĂ€r MĂŒnchenkrisen inte ledde till ett nytt krig. Efter annekteringen av Sudetenland hölls ett val den 5 december 1938 dĂ€r annekteringen (enligt officiella siffror) fick stöd av 97,3 procent av vĂ€ljarna. VĂ„ren 1939 införlivades emellertid Ă€ven resten av Tjeckoslovakien (Böhmen-MĂ€hren) och nĂ€r Hitler sommaren 1939 kom med nya krav, denna gĂ„ng pĂ„ Polen, förklarade britterna och fransmĂ€nnen att de skulle förklara krig mot Tyskland om Hitler beslutade sig för att angripa Polen. + +Ăven om revansch mot Frankrike var en av huvudpunkterna i Hitlers program önskade han troligen aldrig nĂ„got krig mot Storbritannien. DĂ„ fransmĂ€n och britter sade sig vara beredda att förklara krig mot Tyskland i hĂ€ndelse av att man anföll Polen accepterade Hitler inviten frĂ„n Sovjetunionen som 23 augusti 1939 resulterade i MolotovâRibbentrop-pakten. Nyheten om pakten mellan Tyskland och Sovjetunionen vĂ€ckte oerhörd hĂ€pnad i Europa. Hitler Ă„ sin sida ville till varje pris undvika ett nytt tvĂ„frontskrig vilket var fallet i första vĂ€rldskriget. Med överenskommelsen med Sovjetunionen torde han ha rĂ€knat med att vĂ€stmakterna skulle avstĂ„ frĂ„n att förklara krig nĂ€r han inledde det planerade angreppet mot Polen. Stalin skulle lĂ„ta honom hĂ„llas nĂ€r anfallet mot Frankrike inleddes. NĂ€r fransmĂ€nnen var besegrade skulle han med ryggen fri kunna inleda "korstĂ„get mot bolsjevismen", det vill sĂ€ga kriget mot Sovjetunionen. Analysen att vĂ€stmakterna skulle förbli passiva visade sig vara felaktig. + +Andra vĂ€rldskriget + +Erövringarna (1939-1941) +Att Hitler ville föra krig var ingen hemlighet, utan tvĂ€rtom nĂ„got som han hade annonserat genom hela sin politiska karriĂ€r. Revanschen mot Frankrike var en viktig punkt pĂ„ Hitlers agenda, likasĂ„ att ta tillbaka de förlorade omrĂ„den efter första vĂ€rldskriget. IdĂ©n att erövra Sovjetunionen dök upp för första gĂ„ngen i april 1924, nĂ„got som han Ă€ven skrev i Mein Kampf som kom ut 1925. DĂ€remot sĂ„g han England mer som en framtida bundsförvant. Som lĂ„ngsiktigt mĂ„l formulerade FĂŒhrern att skapa ett tyskt rike som skulle dela vĂ€rlden med tre andra stormakter: Storbritannien, USA och Japan. Sina krigsplaner uppenbarade Hitler första gĂ„ngen inför sin nĂ€rmaste politiska och militĂ€ra krets den 5 november 1937, vilket dokumenterats i HoĂbachprotokollet. Enligt Martin Bormanns anteckningar frĂ„n februari 1945 ville Hitler slĂ„ loss under MĂŒnchenkrisen 1938, men att han inte kunde börja kriget eftersom Frankrike och Storbritannien gick med pĂ„ alla krav. Inför chefredaktörerna för de tyska tidningarna i November 1938 erkĂ€nde han att alla tal om fred de föregĂ„ende Ă„ren hade som syfte att dölja den upprustning som hade pĂ„gĂ„tt samtidigt. + +Andra vĂ€rldskriget började med det tyska överfallet mot Polen. Efter första vĂ€rldskriget hade Danzig fĂ„tt statusen "fristaden Danzig" och hade fĂ„tt Nationernas förbunds skydd. Staden lĂ„g mellan de tyska provinserna Pommern och Ostpreussen vilket ledde till det tyska kravet att Danzig skulle "heim ins Reich" ("hem till riket"). Redan i maj 1939 hade Hitler förklarat för sina generaler att Danzig inte var ett mĂ„l i sig utan att det var en etapp mot en utvidgning av Tyskland österut. Hitlers ultimatum till den polska regeringen att fĂ„ den polska korridoren och Danzig avböjdes eftersom man rĂ€knade med Frankrikes och Storbritanniens stöd. Ett annat viktigt skĂ€l var att Hitlers krav, om de hade gĂ„tt igenom, hade lett till att Polen hade förlorat stora landomrĂ„den vilket i sin tur hade gjort det omöjligt att försvara landet mot framtida angrepp. Den polska regeringens agerande passade Hitler utmĂ€rkt som lĂ€ngtade efter att börja kriget. + +För att undvika ett tvĂ„frontskrig hade Nazityskland slutit ett avtal med Josef Stalins kommunistiska Sovjetunionen den 23 augusti 1939. Denna icke angreppspakt fick namnet MolotovâRibbentrop-pakten (efter Sovjetunionens och Tysklands utrikesministrar). För Hitler var mĂ„let dock enbart att skapa sig en bĂ€ttre utgĂ„ngsposition för tillfĂ€llet. Redan i början av augusti hade han sagt till NF-kommissionĂ€ren Carl Burckhardt att han skulle anfalla Sovjetunionen sĂ„ fort vĂ€stmakterna var besegrade. Till detta fanns ett hemligt protokoll om en uppdelning av nordöstra Europa mellan Tyskland och Sovjetunionen. Tyskland skulle fĂ„ större delen av Polen i utbyte för att Sovjetunionen fick Polens östliga delar, de tre baltiska lĂ€nderna samt Finland. Nu behövde Hitler inte bekymra sig om Sovjetunionen (för tillfĂ€llet), och troligen hoppades han att vĂ€stmakterna (och Italien, som Ă€nnu inte var en pĂ„litlig bundsförvant) skulle lĂ„ta honom fĂ„ som han ville igen. + +Den 31 augusti 1939 berĂ€ttade tysk radio om ett förslag frĂ„n Hitler för att lösa Polenkrisen. Senare erkĂ€nde han gentemot sin diplomatiske tolk Dr. Schmidt att radiosĂ€ndningen var ett alibi för att ge sken av att han hade försökt att bevara freden i Europa. Bakom kulisserna dock hade Hitler tillintetgjort varje medlingsförsök; han var rĂ€dd för att "nĂ„gon fĂ€hund i sista ögonblick skulle lĂ€gga fram en medlingsplan". + +För att ge tyskarna ett svepskĂ€l för att angripa Polen fick SS order om att iscensĂ€tta provokationer. En grupp SS-soldater tog pĂ„ sig polska uniformer och överföll den tyska radiostationen Gleiwitz som befann sig nĂ€ra den tysk-polska grĂ€nsen. NĂ€r Tyskland anföll Polen den 1 september förklarade Hitler inför riksdagen: "Sedan kl. 5.45 imorse skjuter vi nu tillbaka". Till skillnad frĂ„n augusti 1914 fanns det dock inga större patriotiska kĂ€nsloyttringar den hĂ€r gĂ„ngen, den tyska befolkningen förhöll sig mestadels passiv. Den tyska offentligheten tyckte att den polska korridoren skulle bli en del av Tyskland, men utan krig. Hitler sjĂ€lv hade varit medveten om tyskarnas olust att föra krig igen och hade inför journalister i november 1938 förklarat att han var tvungen att hela tiden prata om fred för att i hemlighet kunna förbereda landet för ett nytt krig. + +NĂ€r Storbritannien (tillsammans med Frankrike) förklarade krig mot Tyskland den 3 september var Hitler besviken eftersom han inte sĂ„g landet som en fiende att slĂ„ss emot samt att han var orolig över att ett krig mot Storbritannien skulle leda till Tysklands nederlag. Oron minskade dock nĂ€r vĂ€stmakterna förblev helt passiva under denna fas av kriget samtidigt som Polen besegrades snabbt. NĂ€r Polen hade erövrats började ocksĂ„ tyskarnas ockupationspolitik vars mĂ„l var att utrota bĂ„de de judiska polackerna och den polska eliten. Det finns ingen skriftlig order frĂ„n Hitler om detta, men det finns andra kĂ€llor som belĂ€gger vad han hade i Ă„syfte. Exempelvis Ă„beropade Heydrich i juli 1940 en "utomordentligt radikal specialbefallning av FĂŒhrern" för att genomföra utrotningen och det finns Ă€ven ett memorandum av Himmler frĂ„n maj 1940 dĂ€r han pratar om att eliminera delar av den polska befolkningen och att förslava dem som inte hade utrotats. Enligt historikern Sebastian Haffner Ă€r Himmlers memorandum ett tydligt tecken pĂ„ vad Hitler ville eftersom han menar att Himmler var Hitlers högra hand och sprĂ„krör nĂ€r det gĂ€llde regimens förbrytelser. I Polen dog under kriget ungefĂ€r var sjĂ€tte invĂ„nare, 6 miljoner mĂ€nniskor. + +Den 9 april 1940 inleddes invasionen av Danmark och Norge, i maj började anfallet mot Frankrike. Under erövringen av Polen och Danmark respektive Norge hade Hitler lyssnat pĂ„ sina militĂ€ra experter. NĂ€r fĂ€lttĂ„get mot vĂ€st inleddes intog han en mer ledande roll. Enligt Sebastian Haffner var Hitler en drivande kraft bakom fĂ€lttĂ„get mot Frankrike och Hitler var Ă€ven den som gav stöd till von Mansteins plan som ledde till erövringen av Frankrike. Enligt Haffner mĂ„ste Hitlers betydelse understrykas eftersom det fanns ett stort motstĂ„nd mot hans idĂ©er. Generalstabschefen Halder motsatte sig planen och en del generaler var till och med beredda att genomföra en kupp mot Hitler eftersom de befarade att ett krig mot Frankrike skulle leda till en liknande utgĂ„ng som under första vĂ€rldskriget nĂ€r offensiven fastnade i ett skyttegravskrig. NĂ€r Frankrike hade besegrats efter sex veckor bestĂ€mde sig Hitler för att genomföra kapitulationsförhandlingarna i samma tĂ„gvagn dĂ€r tyskarna hade kapitulerat 1918. NĂ„gra dagar efter kapitulationen Ă„kte Hitler till Paris för att titta pĂ„ nĂ„gra av stadens sevĂ€rdheter. Den 6 juli anordnades en segerparad till Hitlers Ă€ra. Enligt Bengt Liljegren ökade Hitlers popularitet avsevĂ€rt efter segern över Frankrike. Enligt historikern Götz Aly mĂ„ste detta dock sĂ€ttas in sitt rĂ€tta sammanhang. Han menar att tyskarna hade ett enormt förtroende för Hitler fram till sommaren 1939, men nĂ€r kriget började minskade populariteten stadigt. Aly pĂ„pekar dock ocksĂ„ att Hitlers popularitet fick ett litet uppsving efter segern mot Frankrike, men enligt Aly ska detta uppsving inte överskattas. + +Efter erövringen av Frankrike övervĂ€gde Hitler att invadera Storbritannien under kodnamnet "Operation Seelöwe" ("sjölejon") men eftersom han bedömde det som för riskabelt ville han istĂ€llet tvinga landet till ett fredsslut genom kontinuerliga bombrĂ€der mot storstĂ€derna ("slaget om Storbritannien") vilket dock misslyckades. Trots denna motgĂ„ng satte Hitler igĂ„ng med sin plan att överfalla Sovjetunionen, han hoppades att en snabb seger mot det stora landet i öster skulle binda USA i StillahavsomrĂ„det samtidigt som Storbritannien dĂ„ inte kunde rĂ€kna med hjĂ€lp frĂ„n Förenta Staterna. Hitlers anfallsplaner föranledde Hitlers stĂ€llföretrĂ€dare Rudolf Hess att pĂ„ eget bevĂ„g flyga till England i en Messerschmidt 110 för att mĂ€kla fred med Storbritannien. Hess önskemĂ„l gick inte i uppfyllelse, istĂ€llet arresterades han. Hitler förklarade hĂ€ndelsen officiellt med att Hess hade fĂ„tt ett nervsammanbrott. Ett annat problem för Hitler var att Italien hade betydande problem att erövra balkanhalvön vilket ledde till att Hitler sĂ€nde trupper dit för att hjĂ€lpa sin bundsförvant. DĂ€rmed fördröjdes angreppet mot Sovjetunionen. Dessutom kunde Hitler genom skicklig diplomati liera Ungerns MiklĂłs Horthy, RumĂ€niens Ion Antonescu samt Bulgariens Bogdan Filov till Tyskland. + +PĂ„ vĂ„ren 1941 förberedde Hitler invasionen mot Sovjetunionen. Tanken var att erövra och att utplundra landet vilket skulle ge Tredje riket en avgörande fördel i det fortsatta kriget. Tyska Wehrmacht skulle försörjas via de livsmedel som fanns i Sovjetunionen. Enligt berĂ€kningar frĂ„n lantbruksministeriet skulle denna strategi leda till 20-30 miljoner hungerdöda, Ă€ven ryska krigsfĂ„ngna planerades att svĂ€lta ihjĂ€l. "Detta Ă€r ett utrotningskrig" deklarerade Hitler inför sina generaler den 30 mars 1941. Enligt kommissarieordern (6 juni 1941) skulle sovjetiska politiska officerare, kommunister, sabotörer och judar betraktas som partisaner och skjutas. Förutom det ideologiska mĂ„let, att utrota den "judiska bolsjevismen", ville Tyskland dessutom fĂ„ kontroll över spannmĂ„l i Ukraina samt oljan i Kaukasus. Det konkreta beslutet att överfalla fattade Hitler redan den 31 juli 1940: en blockad mot Storbritannien och en seger mot Sovjetunionen skulle öka Englands beredskap för att sluta fred med Tyskland. NĂ€r överfallet började den 22 juni 1941 lĂ€ste propagandaminister Goebbels upp ett tal av Hitler kl. 5.30 pĂ„ morgonen. I talet erkĂ€nde Hitler att icke-angreppspakten frĂ„n augusti 1939 hade varit en taktisk manöver och han framstĂ€llde överfallet som en reaktion pĂ„ sovjetisk provokation. Kl. 3.15 pĂ„ morgonen den 22 juni 1941 inleddes "Operation Barbarossa" med tungt artillerield som följdes av att Wehrmachtförband korsade grĂ€nsen. Den röda armĂ©n överrumplades helt och hĂ„llet av anfallet och led stora förluster i denna inledande fas av kriget. NĂ€r överfallet började var Hitler mer dĂ€mpad, men han blev mer optimistisk efter de stora framryckningarna under de första mĂ„naderna. Offensiven fastnade dock under regnperioden pĂ„ hösten och nĂ€r vintern kom började den röda armĂ©n med sin motoffensiv som slog angriparna tillbaka utanför Moskva. Hitler var utom sig och förbjöd sina trupper att dra sig tillbaka. + +Hitler hade redan innan kriget mot Sovjetunionen inleddes förklarat att detta skulle bli ett krig dĂ€r ingen hĂ€nsyn skulle tas till krigets lagar. MĂ„let var enkelt men extremt brutalt. Sovjetunionen skulle krossas till varje pris, och hela omrĂ„det fram till Uralbergen skulle tas i besittning. Judar, kommunister och alla andra som pĂ„stods hota det tyska folkets existens skulle utrotas, 14 miljoner slaver skulle bli arbetsslavar, uppemot 40 miljoner skulle avrĂ€ttas och lika mĂ„nga deporteras. Kriget pĂ„ östfronten var ett masskrig som saknar motstycke i storlek och brutalitet. Kriget berĂ€knas ha kostat 27 miljoner ryssar livet, varav 17 miljoner var civila. I siffran ingĂ„r ocksĂ„ minst 3 miljoner soldater som dog som krigsfĂ„ngar. De dog av svĂ€lt, sjukdomar, misshandel eller blev helt enkelt massavrĂ€ttade. + +NĂ€r japanerna attackerade Pearl Harbor den 7 december 1941 kom detta som en total överraskning för tyskarna. Fyra dagar senare förklarade Hitler krig mot USA, vilket han offentliggjorde i ett tal inför riksdagen pĂ„ eftermiddagen den 11 december. I ett lĂ€ge dĂ€r Tysklands trupper precis hade lidit sitt första stora nederlag utanför Moskva Ă€r skĂ€let till Hitlers krigsförklaring fortfarande nĂ„got som historikerna diskuterar. Historikern Antony Beevor ser orsakerna i att Hitler ville ge tyska ubĂ„tar möjligheten att intensifiera sjökriget i Atlanten och att Hitler sĂ„g USA som ett land dominerat av judarna vilket i Hitlers ögon Ă€ndĂ„ skulle leda till krig med Tyskland förr eller senare. Historikern Sebastian Haffner förklarar Hitlers beslut utifrĂ„n nederlaget utanför Moskva. Haffner menar att det misslyckade fĂ€lttĂ„get i Ryssland visade Hitler att han inte lĂ€ngre kunde vinna kriget mot Sovjetunionen. Och om segern inte lĂ€ngre var inom rĂ€ckhĂ„ll sĂ„ kunde heller inte England övertalas till ett fredsslut och dĂ€rmed kunde Hitler likagĂ€rna förklara krig mot USA. Haffner menar dessutom att det inte Ă€r en slump att krigsförklaringen mot USA den 11 december och Wannseekonferensen den 20 januari ligger sĂ„ nĂ€ra inpĂ„ varandra. Eftersom kriget inte lĂ€ngre gick att vinna struntade Hitler i en militĂ€r seger och fokuserade istĂ€llet helt och hĂ„llet pĂ„ att utrota judarna. Detta förklarar enligt Haffner ocksĂ„ varför Hitlers strategi under krigets andra hĂ€lft gick ut pĂ„ att försvara alla ockuperade omrĂ„den sĂ„ lĂ„ngt som möjligt: för att kunna mörda sĂ„ mĂ„nga judar som möjligt. + +Förintelsen (fr.o.m. 1941) + +"AvlĂ€gsnandet av judarna" var en av de mest centrala punkterna i Hitlers och nationalsocialismens politik. Redan i Mein Kampf skrev Hitler att om Tyskland "lĂ„tit tolv eller femton tusen av dessa hebreiska folkfördĂ€rvare smaka giftgasen sĂ„ som hundratusen av vĂ„ra allra bĂ€sta tyska arbetare frĂ„n alla skikt och yrken mĂ„ste pĂ„ slagfĂ€ltet, dĂ„ skulle inte miljonoffret pĂ„ fronten ha varit förgĂ€ves". Denna politik mot judarna sattes igĂ„ng genast efter maktövertagandet 1933 varvid nĂ„gra centrala punkter var bojkotten mot judiska affĂ€rer i april 1933, NĂŒrnberglagarna i september 1935 och Kristallnatten 1938. Enligt Goebbels dagboksanteckningar bestĂ€mde Hitler att polisen skulle dra sig tillbaka under Kristallnatten sĂ„ att vĂ„ldsamheterna mot judarna inte skulle hindras. + +FrĂ„n 1937 hade sĂ€kerhetstjĂ€nsten under Reinhard Heydrich fĂ„tt en allt mer central roll i judepolitiken som utvecklade planer pĂ„ att fördriva judarna frĂ„n Tyskland. NĂ€r andra vĂ€rldskriget började radikaliserades politiken gentemot judarna vilket visade sig i allt fler förbud mot dessa. Samtidigt utvecklades planer pĂ„ att deportera judarna till reservat i utkanten av Tysklands maktomrĂ„de, ett pilotprojekt under ledning av Adolf Eichmann som godkĂ€ndes av Hitler personligen. En annan tanke bestod i "Madagaskarplanen" dĂ€r alla judar inom det av Tyskland ockuperade omrĂ„det skulle avlĂ€gsnas till Madagaskar. Tanken med dessa planer var att judarna skulle utplĂ„nas lĂ„ngsiktigt genom dĂ„liga levnadsförhĂ„llanden, lĂ„ga födelsetal och bestraffningar. + +NĂ€r "Madagaskarplanen" inte gick att genomföra eftersom ön lĂ„g utanför Tysklands maktsfĂ€r fick Heydrich i början av 1941 i uppdrag av Hitler att utarbeta en plan för den slutgiltiga lösningen av judefrĂ„gan. Detta resulterade i Heydrichs förslag att deportera judarna till Sovjetunionen efter att landet hade besegrats. Kriget mot Sovjetunionen inleddes den 22 juni 1941 och redan innan fĂ€lttĂ„get började hade Hitler varit tydlig med att detta krig hade som syfte att förinta bĂ„de kommunismen och judarna. Riktlinjerna som "FĂŒhrern" tillkĂ€nnagav vĂ„ren 1941 gjorde att tyska soldater i princip inte lĂ€ngre kunde Ă„talas för krigsbrott. Utöver det bildades "specialenheter" ("Einsatzgruppen") (under ledning av SS-chefen Heinrich Himmler) som fick i uppdrag att skjuta judar. MassavrĂ€ttningar av judar i Sovjetunionen övergick snabbt i att mörda Sovjetunionens civilbefolkning i stor skala. HĂ€rvid försĂ€krade sig Himmler alltjĂ€mt om att han hade Hitlers stöd. + +Under sensommaren 1941 trappades politiken mot judarna upp och i september hade Hitler bestĂ€mt sig för att deportera alla judar inom det tyska riket och protektoratet vilket under hösten utvidgades till att gĂ€lla alla judar inom hela tyska maktomrĂ„det. Samtidigt skedde en propagandistisk upptrappning mot judarna. Redan i ett riksdagstal i januari 1939 menade Hitler att ett nytt vĂ€rldskrig skulle innebĂ€ra "en utrotning av den judiska rasen i Europa". Vid ett möte med Tredje Rikets ledande nazister den 12 december 1941 upprepade Hitler sitt budskap frĂ„n januari 1939 (se ovan). Goebbels noterade i sin dagbok efterĂ„t: "AngĂ„ende judefrĂ„gan Ă€r FĂŒhrern fast besluten att göra rent bord. Han har förkunnat profetian om judarna, att om de Ă€nnu en gĂ„ng skulle Ă„stadkomma ett vĂ€rldskrig skulle de fĂ„ uppleva sin egen förintelse [...] VĂ€rldskriget Ă€r hĂ€r, judarnas förintelse mĂ„ste bli den nödvĂ€ndiga konsekvensen". Efter ett samtal med Hitler den 18 december 1941 noterade Himmler: "JudefrĂ„ga/utrota som partisaner". + +En central hĂ€ndelse i massmordet pĂ„ Europas judar var Wannseekonferensen den 20 januari 1942 dĂ€r man tog det formella beslutet av nazibyrĂ„kratin att verkstĂ€lla den "slutgiltiga lösningen av judefrĂ„gan", det vill sĂ€ga den avsiktliga och totala utrotningen av Europas judiska befolkning. NĂ€r Reinhard Heydrich bjöd in till Wannseekonferensen den 20 januari 1942 hade redan hundratusentals judar mördats. Genom att bjuda in till ett sĂ„dant möte ville Heydrich informera den ledande byrĂ„kratin och göra den medansvarig genom att berĂ€tta om detaljerna i Förintelsen. Innan konferensen fanns det tvĂ„ konkurrerande planer: Heydrich ville deportera Europas 11 miljoner judar till utkanterna av det tyska riket dĂ€r judarna skulle utplĂ„nas lĂ„ngsiktigt pĂ„ grund av dĂ„liga livsvillkor, hĂ„rt tvĂ„ngsarbete och direkta mordaktioner. Heinrich Himmler dĂ€remot ville pĂ„skynda folkmordet utan en heltĂ€ckande plan. Under Wannseekonferensen var det Himmlers linje som fick stöd, bland annat eftersom det hade utvecklats möjligheten att massmörda mĂ€nniskor genom att gasa ihjĂ€l dem. + + +För att genomföra massmordet byggdes sĂ„ kallade förintelselĂ€ger, dĂ€r Auschwitz i Polen var ett av de största och mest beryktade. I dessa lĂ€ger tros cirka 9 miljoner mĂ€nniskor ha mördats. Offren utgjordes av judar, romer, homosexuella, handikappade, prostituerade, politiskt oliktĂ€nkande (sĂ€rskilt kommunister) samt fyra miljoner etniska polacker. InrĂ€ttandet av förintelselĂ€gren var ett resultat av att det var mycket svĂ„rt att dölja massmord i en sĂ„dan ofattbar skala. I dödsfabrikerna gick "processen" mycket snabbare och var lĂ€ttare att dölja. Hitler besökte aldrig sjĂ€lv Auschwitz eller nĂ„got annat koncentrationslĂ€ger utan överlĂ€t hela planeringen och genomförandet av folkmorden pĂ„ Schutzstaffel som leddes av Heinrich Himmler. Andra centrala personer i planeringen var Himmlers högra hand Reinhard Heydrich och Adolf Eichmann. +Vissa har genom Ă„ren hĂ€vdat att Förintelsen skedde utan att Hitler kĂ€nde till den. Detta eftersom det inte finns nĂ„got bevarat dokument dĂ€r Hitler direkt beordrade Förintelsen. En övervĂ€ldigande majoritet av historiker och andra forskare menar dock att detta pĂ„stĂ„ende saknar grund. Historikern Bengt Liljegren rĂ€knar upp nĂ„gra bevis pĂ„ Hitlers centrala roll i Förintelsen som t.ex. riksdagstalet frĂ„n januari 1939 dĂ€r han pratar om utrotningen av den judiska rasen. Det finns Ă€ven flera vittnesmĂ„l om att Hitler sedan 1941 flera gĂ„nger pratade om att antingen lĂ„ta judarna jobba ihjĂ€l sig eller att utrota dem och jĂ€mförde Förintelsen med Louis Pasteurs och Robert Kochs kamp mot sjukdomar. Sommaren 1941 berĂ€ttade Reinhard Heydrich för Adolf Eichmann: "FĂŒhrern har beordrat fysisk utplĂ„ning". LikasĂ„ var Albert Speer helt sĂ€ker pĂ„ att det var otĂ€nkbart att ett viktigt beslut fattades utan att Hitler hade godkĂ€nt det. Att det inte finns nĂ„gon central order frĂ„n Hitler om att utrota judarna beror enligt historikern Hans Mommsen pĂ„ att Hitler praktiserade ett "polykratiskt regerande", dvs. att lĂ„ta saker och ting gĂ„ och att enbart ingripa om olika intressen rĂ„kade i konflikt med varandra. Hitler signalerade sin vilja som de lĂ€gre befĂ€len sedan verkstĂ€llde pĂ„ eget initiativ. + +Slutet pĂ„ expansionen och retrĂ€tt (1942-1944) +1942 inledde tyskarna en ny offensiv mot oljefĂ€lten i Kaukasusregionen. Till en början marscherade trupperna framĂ„t men under hösten 1942 gick operationen i stĂ„. Hitler insisterade pĂ„ att erövra staden Stalingrad (idag: Volgograd) vid floden Volga, nĂ„got som stötte pĂ„ motstĂ„nd hos generalstabschefen Franz Halder som tyckte att armĂ©n borde koncentreras mot oljefĂ€lten istĂ€llet. Sammandrabbningen mellan tyska Wehrmacht och den röda armĂ©n slutade med att Tysklands sjĂ€tte armĂ© omringades i Stalingrad i november 1942. Utbrytningsförsök förbjöds av Hitler och den 2 februari 1943 gick 137 000 tyska soldater i fĂ„ngenskap. Slaget vid Stalingrad och de allierade framgĂ„ngarna i Nordafrika markerade vĂ€ndpunkten i andra vĂ€rldskriget vilket enligt Bengt Liljegren Ă€ven pĂ„verkade Hitler som fick en allt dystrare sinnesstĂ€mning, Albert Speer ansĂ„g till och med att diktatorn var deprimerad. Hitler slutade titta pĂ„ film, lyssnade inte lĂ€ngre pĂ„ musik och minskade antalet offentliga tal. Varje dag i Wolfsschanze följde ett fast schema dĂ€r militĂ€ra genomgĂ„ngarna varvades med fasta mĂ„ltider dĂ€r Hitler och hans sĂ€llskap pratade om mĂ„nga olika Ă€mnen, kriget berördes dĂ„ vĂ€ldigt sĂ€llan. NĂ€r diktatorns humör försĂ€mrades efter nederlagen infördes testunder som skulle förbĂ€ttra hans sinnesstĂ€mning. Ăven Berghof blev en allt viktigare tillflyktsort för Hitler. + +Krigets slut (1944â1945) +NĂ€r kriget gick allt sĂ€mre samlades konservativa krafter inom armĂ©n som ville undanröja Hitler. I slutet av 1943 fanns det fĂ€rdiga planer pĂ„ att genomföra en statskupp, men ett svĂ„rare problem var hur man kunde komma Ă„t Hitler, flera attentatsförsök mellan 1943 och 1944 misslyckades. Greve Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg var den som slutligen fick i uppdrag att genomföra attentatet. Som stabschef hos chefen för reservarmĂ©n hade han nĂ€ra tillgĂ„ng till Hitler och placerade en bomb nĂ€ra Hitler under en lĂ€gesrapport den 20 juli 1944. Bomben detonerade men Hitler överlevde med lĂ€ttare skador, antagligen eftersom han just vid explosionen lutade över ett tungt bord som skyddade honom frĂ„n bomben. Stauffenberg och 200 andra inblandade avrĂ€ttades, 5 000 personer arresterades. Bilderna frĂ„n avrĂ€ttningarna transporterades till Wolfsschanze och visades för Hitler som tittade pĂ„ dem med tillfredsstĂ€llelse. + +Efter attentatet den 20 juli beskrevs Hitler som sjuk av sin nĂ€rmaste omgivning, nĂ„got som bekymrade Martin Bormann. Hitlers personlige lĂ€kare Theodor Morell verkade dock hittat en behandling som hjĂ€lpte diktatorn att tillfriskna. Morell anvĂ€nde en blandning av olika preparat som huvudsakligen bestod av hormoner, druvsocker och vitaminer. Ăven om vissa inslag av droger förekom (ögondroppar med kokain exempelvis) var Hitler inte drogberoende, Ă€ven om han enligt Bengt Liljegren var psykiskt beroende av Morells medicin. Att Hitler mĂ„dde bĂ€ttre visade sig ocksĂ„ i att hans livskraft vĂ€cktes pĂ„ nytt under sensommaren 1944. Situationen som Tyskland befann sig i dĂ„ var jĂ€mförbar med lĂ€get hösten 1918, strax före första vĂ€rldskrigets slut, nĂ€r den tyska militĂ€ra ledningen hade dragit slutsatsen att kriget var förlorat och borde avslutas. Men till skillnad frĂ„n september 1918 bestĂ€mde sig Hitler för att fortsĂ€tta kampen in i det sista. För att sĂ€kerstĂ€lla detta och förhindra en kapitulation i förtid lĂ€t han genomföra "Aktion ovĂ€der" den 22 augusti 1944 dĂ€r f.d. ministrar, borgmĂ€stare, parlamentsledamöter, partifunktionĂ€rer, mm. arresterades. Dessutom lyckades Hitler att stabilisera den militĂ€ra situationen genom att organisera "Folkstormen (Volkssturm)" (dĂ€r alla mĂ€n frĂ„n 16 till 60 Ă„r ingick) samtidigt som han ökade kampviljan genom stĂ€ndigt prat om " ett undervapen" som skulle vĂ€nda krigslyckan. + +Den 20 november lĂ€mnade diktatorn "Wolfsschanze" för sista gĂ„ngen för att bege sig till FĂŒhrerbunkern i Berlin. Den 16 januari 1945 anlĂ€nde Hitler till Berlin och inrĂ€ttade sitt högkvarter i rikskansliet pĂ„ Wilhelmstrasse. Den 16 december beordrade Hitler Ardenneroffensiven, den sista offensiven pĂ„ vĂ€stfronten som trots nĂ„gra inledande framgĂ„ngar snabbt kom av sig. Generalstabschefen Guderian hade varnat Hitler att anfallet var meningslöst men "FĂŒhrern" hade insisterat att det skulle genomföras Ă€ndĂ„. Genom anfallet i vĂ€st blottades östfronten dĂ€r den röda armĂ©n började sin offensiv den 12 januari 1945. Historikern Sebastian Haffner menar att Hitlers kalkyl kan ha varit att just försvaga östfronten för att underlĂ€tta en sovjetisk offensiv som möjligtvis skulle leda till att de vĂ€stallierade i ett sĂ„dant lĂ€ge skulle vilja förhandla med Tyskland. Mer troligt Ă€r enligt Haffner dock att Hitler hade börjat vĂ€nda sig mot det tyska folket som inte delade Hitlers vilja att fortsĂ€tta till det totala nederlaget utan som istĂ€llet hoppades pĂ„ att kriget skulle ta slut sĂ„ snabbt och skonsamt som möjligt, helst i ett scenario dĂ€r Tyskland ockuperades av vĂ€stmakterna istĂ€llet för Sovjetunionen. Att tyskarna inte var beredda att fortsĂ€tta kriget in i det sista fĂ„r ett visst stöd i Götz Alys forskning som har tittat pĂ„ exempelvis hur mĂ„nga nyfödda barn som fick namnet Adolf och ifall dödsannonserna för stupade soldater innehöll frasen "Stupad för FĂŒhrer, folk och fosterland" eller om man bara skrev "Stupad för folk och fosterland". UtifrĂ„n det konstruerade Aly och hans medarbetare den s k "Adolfkurvan" som enligt dem visar att stödet för nationalsocialismen hade sjunkit kontinuerligt fram till 1944. Haffner tolkar Ardenneroffensiven som ett medvetet drag att försvaga östfronten och för att pĂ„ sĂ„ sĂ€tt hĂ€mnas mot tyskarna som inte lĂ€ngre tĂ€nkte som diktatorn. + +Viljan att undanröja möjligheten till ett drĂ€gligt liv för civilbefolkningen manifesterades ocksĂ„ i "Nero-ordern" som Hitler gav den 19 mars 1945 och som gick ut pĂ„ att förstöra alla materiella tillgĂ„ngar i Tyskland. Hitler kommenterade denna order med orden: "Om kriget förloras, Ă€r ocksĂ„ folket förlorat. Det Ă€r inte nödvĂ€ndigt att ta nĂ„gon hĂ€nsyn till det som det tyska folket mĂ„ste ha för att fĂ„ det primitivaste sĂ€tt att leva vidare." PĂ„ ett liknande vis hade Hitler redan yttrat sig i november 1941 nĂ€r den tyska offensiven hade fastnat i Sovjetunionen. Sebastian Haffner ser Ă€ven hĂ€r Hitlers huvudsakliga motivation i att förgöra det egna folket som inte ville fortsĂ€tta kriget. De mest fanatiska SS- och partimedlemmarna genomförde ordern som den var tĂ€nkt vilket ledde till att civilbefolkningen nu hamnade i klĂ€m mellan bĂ„de de fientliga trupperna och de egna. Dock var det ocksĂ„ mĂ„nga som inte följde ordern, i Berlin exempelvis förstördes endast ca 10% av alla broar. Det mest kĂ€nda exemplet av dem som motsatte sig var rustningsminister Albert Speer som vĂ€grade att genomföra ordern. NĂ€r Hitler fick reda pĂ„ detta kallade han Speer till sig, men denna episod fick inga allvarliga konsekvenser för Speer. + +Den tyska armĂ©n skulle kĂ€mpa till det bittra slutet och det tyska folket skulle om det var "nödvĂ€ndigt" gĂ„ sin undergĂ„ng till mötes dĂ„ det enligt Hitler inte visat sig "starkt nog" att vinna kriget. Under senvintern 1945 gav Hitler order om total fysisk ödelĂ€ggelse av Tyskland men denna order följdes inte av flertalet underlydande. + +Den 15 april lĂ€mnade Hitler och hans följe rikskansliet för att bege sig in i bunkern som lĂ„g tolv meter under marken. Hela skyddsrumskomplexet hade plats för 1 000 personer, sjĂ€lva FĂŒhrerbunkern utgjorde bara en del av det. Adolf Hitler och Eva Braun hade var sitt rum och intill deras sovrum befann sig konferensrummet pĂ„ 14 kvadratmeter. NĂ€r Hitler fyllde 56 den 20 april samlades nazisttopparna en sista gĂ„ng och försökte övertala honom om att fly till Obersalzberg vilket denne dock avböjde och menade att avgörandet skulle ske i Berlin. Hitlers hĂ€lsa försĂ€mrades nu pĂ„tagligt, han vĂ€nde pĂ„ dygnet och enligt sekreteraren Christa Schröder började han vrĂ€ka i sig mĂ€ngder av kakor. Hitler beskrivs under hans sista tid i livet som lĂ€ttretlig, vilket förstĂ€rktes av att han lade sig klockan Ă„tta pĂ„ morgonen och gick upp klockan elva. Den 21 april hade Hitler gett order om att SS-generalen Felix Steiner skulle leda ett undsĂ€ttningsanfall mot Berlin. Vid en lĂ€gesrapport den 22 april meddelade hans generaler att detta anfall inte hade skett vilket föranledde ett raseriutbrott av Hitler som varade i en halv timme. Efter utbrottet sa Hitler: "Mina herrar, det Ă€r slut. Jag stannar hĂ€r i Berlin och kommer att skjuta mig nĂ€r tiden Ă€r inne. Den som vill kan gĂ„, det stĂ„r var och en fritt." Ett sista samtal mellan Hitler och Speer Ă€gde rum pĂ„ kvĂ€llen den 23 april. Under samtalet bekrĂ€ftade FĂŒhrern sitt beslut att ta livet av sig. StĂ€mningen bland dem som var kvar i bunkern pendlade nu mellan vansinne och desperation, ett vanligt samtalsĂ€mne var hur man pĂ„ bĂ€sta sĂ€tt kunde ta livet av sig. Att Hitler helt hade tappat kontakt med verkligheten visade sig Ă€nnu en gĂ„ng den 27 april nĂ€r han pratade om att Ă„tererövra oljefĂ€lten, medan den röda armĂ©n stod nĂ„gra kilometer frĂ„n bunkern. NĂ€r Hitler den 28 april fick reda pĂ„ att Himmler hade försökt att föra kapitulationsförhandlingar med de vĂ€stallierade ville han lĂ„ta avrĂ€tta Himmler. Men eftersom detta inte gick lĂ€t han skjuta Himmlers adjutant och Eva Brauns svĂ„ger SS-generalen Hermann Fegelein istĂ€llet. + +JĂ€mte honom Ă„terfanns flickvĂ€nnen Eva Braun och nĂ€ra medarbetare som Martin Bormann och propagandaministern Joseph Goebbels. SS-chefen Heinrich Himmler som i praktiken varit rikets nĂ€st mĂ€ktigaste man i Ă„ratal blev dock frĂ„ntagen alla maktbefogenheter sedan Hitler nĂ„gra dagar före sitt sjĂ€lvmord fĂ„tt vetskap om Himmlers försök att mĂ€kla fred med vĂ€stmakterna genom förmedling av Folke Bernadotte frĂ„n Röda Korset. Hitler fortsatte att utfĂ€rda hĂ€nsynslösa order in i det sista; till exempel skulle alla soldater som retirerade eller gav upp omedelbart avrĂ€ttas nĂ€r ryssarna nĂ€rmade sig Berlin. + +Hitlers död (april 1945) +Hitler hade sedan 1932 haft ett hemligt förhĂ„llande med Eva Braun och de gifte sig kort efter midnatt den 29 april 1945. I och med giftermĂ„let antog Eva Braun lagligen efternamnet Hitler. + +Omkring klockan 04.00 dikterade Hitler sitt politiska och personliga testamente för sekreteraren Traudl Junge dĂ€r han utnĂ€mnde storamiral Karl Dönitz till sin eftertrĂ€dare som Tysklands statsöverhuvud och Joseph Goebbels till rikskansler. Testamentet innehöll hĂ€tska utfall mot sĂ„vĂ€l judarna som det tyska folket som inte visat tillrĂ€cklig "offervilja" för att vinna kriget. Den 29 april hade Hitler fĂ„tt kĂ€nnedom om tvĂ„ hĂ€ndelser som fick honom att bestĂ€mma sig för att begĂ„ sjĂ€lvmord den 30 april. Den 28 april hade Italiens forne diktator Benito Mussolini och dennes Ă€lskarinna Clara Petacci arkebuserats och dĂ€refter hĂ€ngts upp i fötterna i en sönderbombad bensinstation i centrala Milano. Hitler ville till varje pris undvika att bli tillfĂ„ngatagen levande eller att hans kropp skulle skĂ€ndas pĂ„ liknande sĂ€tt. I slutet av april hade Heinrich Himmler försökt fredsförhandla med amerikanerna; detta gjorde Hitler rasande och han talade om det slutgiltiga sveket. + +PĂ„ förmiddagen den 30 april, dĂ„ Röda armĂ©n befann sig endast cirka 500 meter frĂ„n bunkern, hade Hitler ett möte med general Helmuth Weidling, befĂ€lhavare för Berlins försvar. Denne informerade Hitler om att de styrkor som försvarade Berlins centrala delar snart skulle stĂ„ utan ammunition. Weidling fick Hitlers tillĂ„telse att göra ett utbrytningsförsök. + +Enligt Hitlers sekreterare Traudl Junge Ă„t Hitler och hans personal en sista lunch den 30 april, innan diktatorn tog avsked frĂ„n dem. Omkring klockan 14.30 drog sig Hitler och hans hustru Eva tillbaka till Hitlers personliga arbetsrum. UngefĂ€r en timme senare, vid klockan 15.30, begick de sjĂ€lvmord. Exakt hur Hitler begick sjĂ€lvmord Ă€r omtvistat. Ăgonvittnen har berĂ€ttat att han först bet sönder en cyanidampull och dĂ€refter sköt sig i munnen eller tinningen. Andra ögonvittnen menar att han inte alls anvĂ€nde sig av gift. De ryska rĂ€ttslĂ€kare som obducerade Hitlers förkolnade kvarlevor och i synnerhet hans kranium hĂ€vdade att man funnit glassplitter mellan Hitlers tĂ€nder. Historikern Anton Joachimsthaler motsĂ€tter sig denna version och menar att Hitler sköt sig med en pistol i huvudet utan att ta gift. Detta grundar sig pĂ„ flera ögonvittnen, bland andra SS-adjutant Otto GĂŒnsche. Det Ă€r dock stĂ€llt bortom allt tvivel att Eva Braun svalde gift. Hitlers betjĂ€nt Heinz Linge hade tillsammans med Martin Bormann och GĂŒnsche gĂ„tt in i Hitlers vardagsrum strax efter att denne hade tagit livet av sig. Kropparna bars ut i rikskansliets trĂ€dgĂ„rd dĂ€r de brĂ€ndes. Kremeringen ombesörjdes av Hitlers chaufför Erich Kempka och Otto GĂŒnsche. Traudl Junge berĂ€ttar att hon hade satt sig vid trappan som ledde mot FĂŒhrerbunkerns utgĂ„ng och att GĂŒnsche kom uppför trappan och hade satt sig bredvid henne nĂ„gon gĂ„ng efter klockan tre pĂ„ eftermiddagen. Enligt henne luktade han bensin och yttrade orden: "Jag har utfört FĂŒhrerns sista order...hans lik Ă€r brĂ€nt". + +Hitler dödförklarades officiellt 1956; först dĂ„ fanns det möjlighet att förhöra nyckelpersoner som befann sig i Hitlers nĂ€rhet nĂ€r han begick sjĂ€lvmord. Bland dessa nyckelvittnen befann sig Hitlers betjĂ€nt Heinz Linge som under ed berĂ€ttade det han sĂ„g. + +Efter kriget florerade emellertid rykten om att Hitler överlevt och flytt till Sydamerika eller gĂ„tt under jorden i Europa. En dokumentĂ€r som sĂ€ndes pĂ„ "History Channel" 2015 försökte att bevisa att Hitler hade flytt till Sydamerika. Denna typ av rykten har funnits sedan krigets slut men avfĂ€rdas av seriösa historiker. SĂ€rskilt efter jĂ€rnridĂ„ns fall som öppnade upp tidigare slutna sovjetiska arkiv. Stalin visade sig vara mycket intresserad av att fĂ„ veta om Hitler verkligen var död och sovjetisk militĂ€r kartlade platsen och de sista dygnens förlopp minutiöst. + +Hitler som person + +Hitlers sekreterare under flera Ă„r, Traudl Junge, har beskrivit honom som vĂ€nlig mot sina underordnade. Hitler var Ă€ven hundvĂ€n och hade en schĂ€fer vid namn Blondi. Men Hitlers mentala tillstĂ„nd, sĂ€rskilt under krigets sista Ă„r, har blivit föremĂ„l för mĂ„nga undersökningar och spekulationer. MĂ„nga mĂ€nniskor som trĂ€ffat Hitler personligen har beskrivit honom som artig, trevlig och nĂ€st intill blyg. Albert Speer har beskrivit hans karisma som en "magnetisk eller hypnotisk egenskap" och uppger att han blev sĂ„ tagen efter att första gĂ„ngen ha hört Hitler tala att han var tvungen att ta en lĂ„ng promenad i skogen för att samla sig. Men han skriver ocksĂ„ att andra gĂ„ngen han mötte Hitler fick intrycket av en "obehĂ€rskad, grĂ€lsjuk person" och tillĂ€gger: "Denne Hitler var mycket olik den lugne och civiliserade man som jag hade upplevt tillsammans med studenterna." + +Hitler som talare kunde konsten att piska upp kĂ€nslor genom att bĂ„de egga och beveka Ă„hörarna med "en fullt avsiktlig blandning av ursinne och förnuft". + +Hitler var förĂ€lskad i systerdottern Geli Raubal, som tog sitt liv med Hitlers pistol efter ett grĂ€l med honom den 18 september 1931. Efter det talade Hitler, uppskakad av det intrĂ€ffade, om att lĂ€mna politiken, tankar som han inom kort dock skrinlade. + +FrĂ„n och med 1941 visade sig Hitler alltmer sĂ€llan offentligt och sista levnadsĂ„ret gjorde han knappt nĂ„gra offentliga framtrĂ€danden alls. Propagandaministeriet under ledning av Goebbels försĂ„g emellertid tyska folket med stĂ€ndiga hyllningar av deras FĂŒhrer. Hitler hade senare delen av sitt liv kroniska magproblem och höll sig frĂ„n 1931 till en vegetariskt inspirerad diet. De allt större motgĂ„ngarna pĂ„ slagfĂ€lten frĂ„n och med vintern 1942/1943 pĂ„verkade hans psykiska hĂ€lsa mycket negativt med symptom som pĂ„minde om Parkinsons sjukdom. Det finns dock inte nĂ„gra bevis för att han verkligen led av Parkinsons sjukdom. Han plĂ„gades tidvis ocksĂ„ av allvarliga sömnproblem, hade dĂ„lig aptit och visade total likgiltighet Ă€ven inför det egna folkets lidande. + +FrĂ„n 1933 bodde Hitler i Haus Wachenfeld pĂ„ sluttningen av berget Obersalzberg, 12 mil sydöst om MĂŒnchen. En omfattande ombyggnation fram till 1935 resulterade i residenset Berghof. Byggnaden bombades svĂ„rt av de allierade den 25 april 1945, fem dagar före Hitlers sjĂ€lvmord i Berlin. Den 30 april 1952, pĂ„ Ă„rsdagen av Hitlers död, beslöt Bayerns regering att sprĂ€nga allt som fanns kvar av byggnaden. Idag Ă€r omrĂ„det jĂ€mnat med marken och igenschaktat, det enda som Ă„terstĂ„r att se Ă€r en del av en stödmur. + +SlĂ€kttrĂ€d + +Se Ă€ven + Heigelkopf, berg som bar namnet Hitler-Berg mellan 1933 och 1945 + Blondi, Hitlers schĂ€fer som han avlivade före sitt sjĂ€lvmord + ĂrnnĂ€stet (plats), nĂ„gra av Hitlers bostĂ€der eller ledningscentraler + Gröfaz, ironiskt samtida öknamn för Adolf Hitler + KoncentrationslĂ€ger i Nazityskland + +Kommentarer + +KĂ€llor + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Biografisk + + Bethge, Hermann, Der FĂŒhrer und sein Werk, 4 vol., Berlin 1939. + Buchheim, Hans, Eucken-Erdsiek, Edith, Buchheit, Gert, och Adler, H.G., Der FĂŒhrer ins Nichts; eine Diagnose Adolf Hitlers. Hitler als Politiker, Ideologe, Soldat und Persönlichkeit, Rastatt/Baden, 1960. + Bullock, Alan, Hitler. En studie i tyranni. Stockholm: Tiden 1960. + + Fest, Joachim C., Hitler. Malmö: Bergh 1974. + Fest, Joachim C., UndergĂ„ngen: Hitler och slutet pĂ„ Tredje riket. Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand 2004. + Gierynski, Jan, Taki jest Hitler, Warszawa 1939. + Görlitz, Walter, och Quint, Herbert A., Adolf Hitler - eine Biographie, Stuttgart 1952. + Hanfstaengel, Ernst, Hitler - The Missing Years, London 1957. + Heiden, Konrad, Adolf Hitler - Das Zeitalter der Verantwortungslosigkeit, 2 vol., ZĂŒrich 1936. + Jenks, William A., Vienna and the young Hitler, New York 1960. + Jetzinger, Franz, Hitlers Jugend, Wien 1956. + Kershaw, Ian, Hitler. 1889â1936. New York: W.W. Norton 2000. + Kershaw, Ian, Hitler. 1936â1945. New York: W.W. Norton 2000. + Kershaw, Ian, Death in the bunker. London: Penguin Books 2005. + Kubizek, August, Adolf Hitler- Mein Jugendfreund, Graz/Göttingen 1953. + Liljegren, Bengt, Adolf Hitler. Lund: Historiska Media 2008. + Linge, Heinz, Med Hitler till slutet, Stockholm 2010: Lindqvist Publishing. + Ragnar, Per, Hitler. Stockholm: Legus 1994. + von Schmidt-Paul, Edgar, Hitlers Kampf um die Macht, Berlin 1933. + Strasser, Otto, Hitler et moi, Paris 1940. + SĂ„ta vĂ€nner, Intima brev Hitler - Mussolini, Stockholm 1945. + +Hitlers egen produktion +KĂ€lla: Deutscher Literatur-Katalog 1940, Verlag von Koehler & Volckmar, Leipzig. + FrĂ„n vanmakt till vĂ€rldsmakt. Malmö 1942. + Mein Kampf, i ett flertal översĂ€ttningar, bl.a. av Anders Quiding resp. N.P. Sigvard Lind (2 band, ibland sammanbunden). Tyskt förlag -1945 F. Eher Nf. + Warum musste ein 8. November kommen? (broschyr), utgiven pĂ„ förlag J.F. Lehmann. + Das Antlitz des FĂŒhrers, utgivare: Heinrich Hoffmann, pĂ„ förlag Zeitgeschicte VB. + Das ist der FĂŒhrer!", utgivare: Heinrich Hoffmann, pĂ„ förlag Zeitgeschichte VB. + Deutschland will Frieden und Gleichberechtigung. Die Friedensreden unseres Volkskanzlers Adolf Hitler., utgivare: Erich Unger, pĂ„ förlag J. Beltz. + Der FĂŒhrer vor dem ersten Reichstag Grossdeutschlands. Reichtagsrede am 30. Januar 1939. Förlag: F. Eher Nf. + FĂŒhrerbotschaft an Volk und Welt. Reichtagsrede vom 20. Februar 1938. Förlag: F. Eher Nf. + Des FĂŒhrers Kampf um den Weltfrieden. Historische Reichtagsrede vom 7. MĂ€rz, sowie die anschliess. Wahlreden u. das Memorandum der Reichsregierung. Förlag: F. Eher Nf. + Adolf Hitler an seine Jugend. Förlag: F. Eher Nf. + Die Rede des FĂŒhrers Adolf Hitler am 30. Januar 1934. Förlag: Ph. Reclam. + Reden. Utgivare: E. Boepple, pĂ„ förlag F. Eher Nf. + Reden des FĂŒhrers am Parteitag der Arbeit 1937. Förlag: F. Eher Nf. + Reden des FĂŒhrers am Parteitag der Ehre 1936. Förlag: F. Eher Nf. + Reden des FĂŒhrers am Parteitag Grossdeutschland 1938. Förlag: F. Eher Nf. + Hitler-Worte. Citat ur Mein Kampf och olika tal hĂ„llna av Hitler. Utgivare: B. Welser pĂ„ förlag F. Hirt. + +Filmer + UndergĂ„ngens arkitektur, dokumentĂ€rfilm av Peter Cohen, Sverige 1989 + +Externa lĂ€nkar + Hitlers biografi (engelska) + Deutsches Historisches Museum â Adolf Hitler + + + Pontus Dahlman, Böckerna som prĂ€glade Hitler, DN, lĂ€st 100510 + + + +Politiker i Nazityskland +Politiska teoretiker +Tysklands regeringschefer +Ledare av SA +Antikommunister +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +Ăsterrikare verksamma i Tyskland +Adolf +Politiker som begĂ„tt sjĂ€lvmord +Tyska brottslingar +Ăsterrikiska brottslingar +Personer i Tyskland under andra vĂ€rldskriget +Personer frĂ„n Braunau am Inn +Födda 1889 +Avlidna 1945 +MĂ€n +Wikipedia:Projekt neutralitet +Mottagare av SĂ„radmĂ€rket i svart +al-Qaida (arabiska: ۧÙÙۧŰčŰŻŰ©, 'basen'; Ă€ven al-Qaeda, al-Qa'ida, eller el-Qaida) Ă€r en radikal militant islamistisk rörelse vars mest kĂ€nde företrĂ€dare var Usama bin Ladin. Rent organisatoriskt Ă€r al-Qaida inte ett nĂ€tverk med band till ett flertal lĂ€nder, som det har beskrivits i vĂ€sterlĂ€ndsk media. Rörelsen Ă€r terroriststĂ€mplad av bland andra Förenta nationerna, Europeiska unionen och USA. och har tillskrivits en rad uppmĂ€rksammade terroristdĂ„d. Liksom andra jihadistiska rörelser (Islamiska staten och Boko Haram) har rörelsens grundare i huvudsak skolats i eller inspirerats av den salafistiska wahabismens tolkning av Islam och dess politiska argument. Den islamistiska tĂ€nkaren Sayyid Qutbs senare verk har inspirerat den ideologi som al-Qaida bygger pĂ„, och egyptiern Ayman az-Zawahiri brukar rĂ€knas som rörelsens viktigast ideolog och ledare under senare Ă„r. + +Ăversikt +Grunderna till cellen al-Qaida lades 1988 av bland andra Usama bin Ladin i kampen mot den sovjetiska ockupationen av Afghanistan. Prins Turki Al Faisal av Saudiarabien har pekats ut som den som valde Bin Ladin som operatör i Afghanistan. Pakistanska ISI hade ocksĂ„ en avgörande roll i att rekrytera âkrigareâ med arabiskt ursprung. CIA var ocksĂ„ inblandade frĂ„n första början. De hade nĂ€ra kontakt med bland annat Pakistanska ISI. William Casey som var CIA:s chef pĂ„ 1980-talet, besökte afghanska trĂ€ningslĂ€ger för mujaheddinerna 1984. Casey jobbade för att sprida vĂ„ldsaktioner in pĂ„ Sovjetiskt territorium. Al-Qaida utvecklades ur en organisation som kallades Makhtab al-Khidamat och som till en början enbart finansierade, vĂ€rvade och trĂ€nade gerillasoldater (sĂ„ kallade mujaheddin). Usama bin Ladin finansierade till viss del verksamheten sjĂ€lv men mujaheddin fick Ă€ven bidrag frĂ„n islamistiska lĂ€nder och USA. + +Al-Qaida har sin religiösa grund i Wahhabi-rörelsen och det slutgiltiga mĂ„let för al-Qaida Ă€r att införa denna variant av politisk islam i hela den islamiska vĂ€rlden. + +Namnet al-Qaida har inte brukats av dem sjĂ€lva som grupp (före 11 september) utan kommer frĂ„n en text den gett ut dĂ€r den refererar till sig sjĂ€lv som qaida-al-jihad, vilket betyder grunden för jihad. +Detta namn myntades först inom amerikanskt rĂ€ttsvĂ€sende för att kunna koppla Usama bin Ladin (och Ă„tala denne i sin frĂ„nvaro) för ett tidigare terroristdĂ„d riktat mot amerikanska ambassader i Nairobi. Av samma anledning valde man hĂ€r att kalla Usama och andra företrĂ€dare för en organisation - vilket de, per definition, inte kunde kallas, dĂ„ de saknade hierarki och annat samband Ă€n ideologiskt utbyte. Bevisen för ett terrornĂ€tverk före 11 september-attackerna bygger pĂ„ mer eller mindre trovĂ€rdiga vittnesmĂ„l frĂ„n bin Ladins tidigare kompanjon sudanesen Jamal al-Fadl som lĂ€mnat uppgifter till amerikanska myndigheter i utbyte mot reducerade straff för andra brott han Ă„talats för.. +Dessa uppgifter har rĂ€knats frĂ„n vissa hĂ„ll som icke tillförlitliga. I samband med en utfrĂ„gning av Khalfan Khamis Muhamed, som hade en koppling till Bin Ladin, faller vittnesmĂ„let frĂ„n al-Fadl ytterligare. Khalfan Khamis Muhamed hade aldrig hört talas om en grupp eller nĂ€tverk med namnet Al-Qaida. +Det globala terroristnĂ€tverket som amerikanska regeringen anvĂ€nt som murbrĂ€cka för att bl.a. genomföra stora lagĂ€ndringar som Patriot Act bygger alltsĂ„ ovedersĂ€gligt helt eller delvis pĂ„ antaganden. + +Historia +Al-Qaida vĂ€xte fram ur gerillaorganisationen Makhtab al-Khidamat (MAK) som verkade under Sovjetunionens ockupation av Afghanistan pĂ„ 1980-talet. Usama bin Ladin var en av grundarna av MAK tillsammans med palestiniern Abdullah Azzam. NĂ€r Sovjet drog sig ur Afghanistan var det mĂ„nga i MAK som ville utvidga sin verksamhet för att befria Ă€ven andra islamiska lĂ€nder. SmĂ„ konstellationer av individer, i nĂ€tverk, började byggas upp för att kunna hantera denna utvidgning. + +En av dessa konstellationer var den som senare skulle komma att kallas al-Qaida. Konstellationen grundades 1988 av Usama bin Ladin. Namnet al-Qaida lanserades av USA:s underrĂ€ttelsetjĂ€nst och kommer frĂ„n ett elektroniskt dokument dĂ€r bin Ladin refererar till en lista över medlemmar som qaida al-jihad, vilket betyder grunden för jihad. + +Usama bin Ladin ville med al-Qaida Ă€ven föra kampen pĂ„ en icke-militĂ€r nivĂ„, dĂ„ de flesta lĂ€nder inte Ă€r lika instabila som Afghanistan och det dĂ€rför Ă€r svĂ„rt att föra ett gerillakrig i dessa. Abdullah Azzam motsatte sig dock detta och ville fortsĂ€tta kampen enbart pĂ„ en militĂ€r nivĂ„. Efter Azzams död 1989 splittrades MAK och de flesta medlemmarna gick över till bin Ladins organisation. + +TrĂ€ningen började nu inrikta sig mer pĂ„ terrorism och efter Sovjetunionens tillbakadragande Ă„tervĂ€nde Usama bin Ladin för en tid till sitt hemland Saudiarabien. Under Kuwaitkriget kritiserade han hĂ„rt den saudiska regeringens stöd till den USA-ledda FN-operationen, varpĂ„ regeringen bad honom lĂ€mna landet. 1991 flyttade bin Ladin till Sudan dĂ€r landets islamiska regering var indragen i ett inbördeskrig. Al-Qaida hade nu byggt upp ett nĂ€tverk av falska vĂ€lgörenhetsorganisationer, varav mĂ„nga kontrollerades av bin Ladins svĂ„ger Mohammed Jamal Khalifa, för att finansiera sin verksamhet och pengarna började nu strömma in. + +1996 utvisades bin Ladin frĂ„n Sudan, dĂ„ han anklagades för delaktighet i mordförsöket pĂ„ Egyptens president Hosni Mubarak 1994. Usama bin Ladin Ă„tervĂ€nde nu till Afghanistan, med en del sympatisörer, frĂ„n Sudan. + +Al-Qaidas trĂ€ningslĂ€ger drillade nu 1000-tals personer frĂ„n hela vĂ€rlden. Soldater trĂ€nades för bland annat konflikterna i Algeriet, Tjetjenien, Filippinerna, Egypten, Indonesien, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Tadzjikistan, Somalia, Jemen, och Bosnien. Genom att umgĂ„s i trĂ€ningslĂ€gren kom dessa personer med vitt skilda ursprung att se sina egna kamper som en del av en större gemensam kamp. Till skillnad frĂ„n den gĂ€ngse rĂ„dande mediabilden strĂ€cker sig alltsĂ„ al-Qaidamedlemmarnas etnicitet utanför den enbart arabiska. + +I januari 2000 höll organisationen en stor konferens i Malaysias huvudstad Kuala Lumpur. Den malaysiska underrĂ€ttelsetjĂ€nsten som fĂ„tt reda pĂ„ konferensen i förvĂ€g videoövervakade den i hemlighet. Flera av flygplanskaparna i 11 september-attacken medverkade pĂ„ konferensen men dĂ„ man inte gjorde nĂ„gon ljudupptagning visste man inte vad som diskuterades pĂ„ konferensen. + +Efter 11 september-attacken började vĂ€rldens regeringar att bannlysa de falska vĂ€lgörenhetsorganisationer som anvĂ€ndes för att dra in pengar till al-Qaida. + +2004 hĂ€vdade USA:s regering att tvĂ„ tredjedelar av al-Qaidas ledare var fĂ„ngade eller dödade. + +Blairs Utrikesminister Robin Cook avgick frĂ„n sina poster den 17 mars 2003 i protest mot Tony Blairs Irak-krig. Inte ens efter bombattentaten i London, den 7 juli 2005, Ă€ndrade han sin kritiska instĂ€llning till premiĂ€rministerns "krig mot terrorismen" - för som han skrev i The Guardian dagen dĂ€rpĂ„: +"...bin Ladin var resultatet av en enorm felbedömning frĂ„n de vĂ€sterlĂ€ndska sĂ€kerhetstjĂ€nsternas sida. Under hela 80-talet bevĂ€pnades han av CIA och finansierades av saudierna för att bedriva jihad mot den ryska ockupationen av Afghanistan. Al-Qaida, som bokstavligen betyder 'databasen', var frĂ„n början en datafil över de tusentals mujahediner som rekryterades och trĂ€nades av CIA för att besegra ryssarna. Oförklarligt nog, och med katastrofala följder, verkar det aldrig ha fallit Washington in att bin Ladins organisation skulle börja intressera sig för VĂ€st sĂ„ fort Ryssland var ur vĂ€gen." + +Den 1 maj 2011 amerikansk tid (GMT -05:00) bekrĂ€ftade Barack Obama i ett TV-sĂ€nt tal att ledaren Usama bin Laden dödats av en amerikansk insatsstyrka utanför Pakistans huvudstad Islamabad. + +MĂ„l + +I februari 1998 gav bin Ladin och Ayman al-Zawahiri ut ett meddelande undertecknat Den islamiska fronten för jihad mot judar och korsriddare. I meddelandet sade de att det var varje muslims plikt att âdöda amerikaner och deras allierade â civila och militĂ€ra â i alla lĂ€nder dĂ€r detta Ă€r möjligt, i syfte att befria al-AqsamoskĂ©n och den heliga moskĂ©n ur deras grepp, och i syfte att fĂ„ deras armĂ©er att lĂ€mna islams lĂ€nder, besegrade och ur kraft att hota nĂ„gon muslimâ. + +NĂ€ttidningen Inspire +Al-Qaidas Jemenbaserade avdelning startade 1 juli 2010 den engelsksprĂ„kiga tidskriften Inspire pĂ„ terrornĂ€tverkets sajt och har sedan dess publicerat "goda rĂ„d" om hur lĂ€saren kan utföra olika typer av terrordĂ„d som att bygga bomber hemma i köket eller, som nu, hur man arrangerar trafikolyckor genom att hĂ€lla olja pĂ„ vĂ€gbanan eller sprĂ€nger en parkerad bil i luften. I början av 2013 publicerades en lista pĂ„ elva personer som legitima mĂ„l för mord pĂ„ grund av brott mot islam. Namnen var: Molly Norris, Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Flemming Rose, Morris Swadiq, Salman Rushdie, Geert Wilders, Lars Vilks, Stephane Charbonnie, Carsten Luste, Terry Jones och Kurt Westergaard. + +Terroristaktioner som tros ha utförts av al-Qaida +Al-Qaidas första attack anses vara tre bombdĂ„d mot amerikanska soldater i Jemen december 1992, vilka resulterade i tvĂ„ döda. En var en australisk turist och en var hotellarbetare. + +Organisationen sjĂ€lv hĂ€vdar att den sköt ner en amerikansk helikopter och dödade dess besĂ€ttning i Somalia 1993. +Enligt den före detta presidenten Bill Clinton hade Al-Qaida ingenting med nerskjutningen i Somalia att göra, den ansvarige för det var en somalisk krigsherre vid namn Mohamed Aidid. +Ingen visste att Al-Qaida existerade vid 1993 enligt Bill Clinton, som hade en mycket aggressivare instĂ€llning till Bin Ladin Ă€n Bushadministrationen före 11 september 2001. + +Det Ă€r troligt att al-Qaida lĂ„g bakom bombningen av World Trade Center 1993. Ramzi Yousef och Khalid Sheikh Mohammed anses vara hjĂ€rnorna bakom det bombdĂ„det och alltsĂ„ inte Usama bin Ladin. + +1995 planerade de att mörda pĂ„ven Johannes Paulus II vid ett besök i Filippinernas huvudstad Manila, placera sprĂ€ngĂ€mnen pĂ„ ett stort antal flygplan pĂ„ vĂ€g till USA samt störta ett flygplan i CIA:s högkvarter. Operationen som i planeringsdokumenten refererades till som Operation Bojinka avslöjades dock pĂ„ förhand efter en lĂ€genhetsbrand, som startades nĂ€r de byggde bomber för attentaten i den lĂ€genhet som de bodde i, och operationen kunde dĂ€rmed stoppas. Ramzi Yousef arresterades medan Khalid Sheik Mohammed lyckades fly ur landet. + +Al-Qaida tros ligga bakom tvĂ„ bombdĂ„d mot amerikanska militĂ€rbaser i Saudiarabien 1995 och 1996, dĂ„ ett antal mĂ€nniskor dog. + +Usama Bin Ladin verkar inte ha ansetts (av USA) att ha nĂ„got med terrordĂ„d tidigare Ă€n 1996 att göra. FrĂ€mst pĂ„ grund av motiveringen de gav dĂ„ Sudan var beredda att lĂ€mna ut Bin Ladin till USA. Motiveringen av USA var att de inte ville ha honom dĂ„ de inte hade tillrĂ€ckligt med bevis för att anklaga honom för nĂ„got brott. Ăven den sĂ„ kallade andre mannen av al-Qaida Ayman al-Zawahiri verkar inte ha varit sĂ€rskilt efterspanad före 1996. Han kunde nĂ€mligen utan problem resa in till USA för att samla in pengar till sina Ă€ndamĂ„l. Han fick hjĂ€lp av dubbelagenten Ali Mohamed. Den sistnĂ€mnde hade kopplingar till bĂ„de sĂ„ kallade terrorister och till CIA. + +I augusti 1998 utfördes ett sprĂ€ngdĂ„d mot USA:s ambassader i Kenyas huvudstad Nairobi och Dar es-Salaam i Tanzania. I dĂ„det dog mer Ă€n 300 mĂ€nniskor och över 5000 skadades. Attacken tillskrivs al-Qaida. + +Inför firandet av millennieskiftet planerades flera aktioner, vilka alla dock stoppades eller misslyckades pĂ„ annat sĂ€tt. + +Det sĂ„ kallade al-Qaida misstĂ€nks av USA ligga bakom attentatet mot i oktober 2000, dĂ€r 17 soldater dog och 39 andra skadades men Jemens sĂ€kerhetstjĂ€nster har haft sina egna misstĂ€nkta. De motsatte sig inblandningen av FBI och amerikanska intressen, vilket gjorde att de aldrig vĂ€xlade bevismaterial. + +Den 11 september 2001 Ă€r allmĂ€nt kĂ€nd som al-Qaidas hittills mest omfattande och mest spektakulĂ€ra attack, dĂ„ fyra flygplan kapades i USA. TvĂ„ av planen, styrda av saudiska kapare flögs in i World Trade Center i New York och ett i försvarshögkvarteret Pentagon. Det fjĂ€rde planet havererade utan nĂ„gon förstörelse pĂ„ marken efter att passagerarna pĂ„ planet försökt stoppa kapningen. Attacken försvarades av al-Qaidas talesman Sulaiman Abu Ghaith i en videofilm frĂ„n 2001. AnmĂ€rkningsvĂ€rt Ă€r att varken Usama bin Ladin eller al-Qaida har tagit pĂ„ sig dĂ„det, vilket Ă€r mycket ovanligt vid terroristattacker. + +FBI hĂ„ller Usama Bin Ladin skyldig till en mĂ€ngd brott men inte för 11 septemberattackerna. Deras motivering Ă€r att det helt enkelt inte finns nĂ„gra bevis som binder honom till attentaten. + +En mĂ€ngd attacker och försök till attacker sedan 11 september 2001 har tillskrivits al-Qaida, eller grupper med kopplingar till al-Qaidas ideologi. Bland de mer omfattande kan nĂ€mnas: + Den sĂ„ kallade âSkobombarenâ Richard Reids försök att sprĂ€nga ett flygplan pĂ„ vĂ€g till USA över Atlanten. + Bilbombningen av en nattklubb 2002 i Balis turistomrĂ„de, dĂ€r 202 mĂ€nniskor dog och 209 skadades. + Bombningen av ett bostadsomrĂ„de för utlĂ€ndska arbetare i Saudiarabiens huvudstad Riyadh med 26 dödsoffer och 161 skadade. + Bomberna i den turkiska staden Istanbul 2003 med 27 döda och över 300 skadade. + +Sedan Saddamregimens fall vid den USA-ledda invasionen vĂ„ren 2003 har al-Qaida Ă€ven tillskrivits ett flertal spektakulĂ€ra bombdĂ„d i Irak med 100-tals dödsoffer. Dokument har Ă€ven hittats som pĂ„stĂ„s bevisa att mĂ„let med attackerna Ă€r att skapa ett inbördeskrig mellan de olika befolkningsgrupperna i Irak. + +TerrordĂ„det i Madrid som utfördes den 11 mars 2004 visade sig - efter att först ETA hade pekats ut som ansvariga - ha utförts av en grupp marockaner med anknytning till al-Qaida. Enligt vissa bedömare pĂ„verkade dĂ„det utgĂ„ngen i valet, som hölls ett par dagar senare. Socialistpartiet, som vann valet, hade gĂ„tt till val med löften om att Spanien skulle dra tillbaka sina trupper frĂ„n Irak. + +Al-Qaida och pakistanska ISI +Det finns mĂ„nga bevis för starka kopplingar mellan det sĂ„ kallade Al-Qaida och ISI (pakistanska militĂ€ra underrĂ€ttelsetjĂ€nsten). I amerikansk och europeisk media har man inte följt upp nyheter om stödet frĂ„n ISI, utan istĂ€llet koncentrerat sig pĂ„ enbart Usama Bin Ladin eller pĂ„ krigsherrar i Afghanistan. +Den före detta ledaren för ISI Hamid Gul, sĂ€ger sig ha trĂ€ffat Usama Bin Ladin och hans vapendragare. Hamid Gul sĂ€ger sig inte tro att Usama Bin Ladin Ă€r skyldig till attentaten den 11 september 2001. Han sĂ€ger ocksĂ„ att Usama Bin Ladin sagt sig vara oskyldig till attentaten i Tanzania och Kenya. +Hamid Gul har ocksĂ„ blivit angklagad för att ha hjĂ€lpt Bin Ladin att fly frĂ„n ett amerikanskt missilangrepp den 20 augusti 1998. Den som pĂ„stod detta var den förre "terroristtsaren" Richard Clarke, som tjĂ€nstgjorde under bĂ„de Bill Clinton och George W Bush. +Usama Bin Ladin har ocksĂ„ rapporterats fĂ„tt militĂ€r eskort av ISI. Bland annat nĂ€r han led av dĂ„liga njurar. MilitĂ€r vaktade vid sjukhuset i Rawalpindi nĂ€r han fick sin behandling. Detta skulle ha varit den 10 september 2001. + +Norra alliansens afghanske ledare Ahmed Shah Massoud dödades den 9 september 2001. Dagen efter uttalade Norra alliansen att de som utfört attentatet var pakistanska ISI och Usama Bin Ladin. + +Journalisten Daniel Pearl dödades i Pakistan 2002. Pearl jobbade för Wall street journal och hade skrivit en artikel om sambandet mellan ISI, organisationen Ummah Tameer-e-Nau och deras samarbete med Bin Ladin angĂ„ende kĂ€rnvapenfrĂ„gor före 11 september 2001. +Pearl undersökte ocksĂ„ lĂ€nken mellan skobombaren Richard Reid och Pakistanska militanter och hittade samband till ISI. +Det ryktades ocksĂ„ att Pearl ville undersöka samband mellan USA och ISI eftersom de haft samröre mot Sovjetunionen i slutet av 1980-talet. +Den som grips för kidnappningen av Daniel Pearl Ă€r Saeed Sheikh som tillhörde ISI. Saeed Sheikh Ă€r i sin tur anklagad av Indisk sĂ€kerhetstjĂ€nst för att ha fört över 100 000 dollar till Mohammed Atta, sjĂ€lvmordspiloten som flög in det första planet i World Trade Centers norra torn. Den som skulle ha beordrat Sheikh att överföra pengarna var den högste inom ISI General Mahmood Ahmed. Indisk sĂ€kerhetstjĂ€nst hĂ€vdade att FBI bekrĂ€ftade uppgifterna. Mahmood Ahmed avgick som chef för ISI i oktober 2001. +Samtidigt som 11 september attackerna skedde satt Mahmood Ahmed i möte med senator Bob Graham, Porter Goss och senator Jon Kyl i Washington. + +Daniel Ellsberg som Ă€r kĂ€nd för att ha lĂ€mnat ut "Pentagondokumenten" under Nixons presidentperiod uttalade sig om Pakistans möjliga roll i 11 septemberattackerna. Han sa bland annat att det verkar mycket möjligt att Pakistan var mycket involverade i 11 september. Han jĂ€mförde ocksĂ„ Pakistan och CIA med argumentet att det Ă€r svĂ„rt att pĂ„stĂ„ att ISI visste nĂ„got som CIA inte visste. + +Att Usama Bin Ladin rapporterats ha varit boende i flera Ă„r för att sedan dödas pĂ„ samma plats 2011, alldeles i nĂ€rheten av en militĂ€r akademi i Abbottabad, minskar naturligtvis inte misstankarna mot pakistanska ISI och dess allierade. Salman Rushdie skrev att detta var ett skĂ€l till att stĂ€mpla Pakistan som en terroriststat. + +Metoder + +Metoder omfattar mord, bombningar (framförallt bilbomber), kapning, kidnappning, sjĂ€lvmordsattacker, med flera. Bilbomber och sjĂ€lvmordsbombningar Ă€r al-Qaidas âsignaturâ-attentat. MĂ„nga rapporter och öppna bin Ladin-tillkĂ€nnagivelser visar stark önskan om att skaffa och anvĂ€nda biologiska vapen, kemiska vapen och kĂ€rnvapen. MĂ„len brukar vara framtrĂ€dande symboler som offentliga byggnader, ambassader och militĂ€ra byggnader med personal, i USA och dess allierade, och moderata muslimska regeringar. Enligt den tidigare CIA-chefen George J. Tenet; "Usama bin Ladins organisation och andra terroristgrupper lĂ€gger större vikt pĂ„ att utveckla ersĂ€ttningar för att utföra attacker, i ett försök att undvika upptĂ€ckt. Till exempel den egyptiska Islamiska Jihad (EIJ) Ă€r nĂ€ra knuten till Bin Ladins organisation (de Ă€r sedan 2001 sammanslagna) och har samarbeten belĂ€gna runt om i vĂ€rlden, Ă€ven i Europa, Jemen, Pakistan, Libanon och Afghanistan. Det finns nu ett nĂ€t av allianser mellan sunnimuslimska extremister vĂ€rlden över, inklusive nordafrikaner, radikala palestinier, pakistanier och centralasiater. Vissa av dessa terrorister Ă€r aktivt sponsrade av de nationella regeringarna som har stark motvilja mot USA." + +Organisatorisk uppbyggnad +Mycket lite Ă€r kĂ€nt om hur cellerna kring al-Qaida Ă€r eller har varit uppbyggda. Det vanligaste sĂ€ttet att se pĂ„ al-Qaida i dag Ă€r som ett nĂ€tverk av sinsemellan olika organisationer och celler som delar samma ideologi och som tidvis samverkar med varandra. En del experter menar att al-Qaida sedan Afghanistankriget 2001 frĂ€mst har fungerat som ett "varumĂ€rke" för militanta islamistiska grupper. + +Al-Qaida pĂ„ den Arabiska halvön Ă€r en Jemenbaserad avdelning av al-Qaida som bildades 2009 med mĂ„l att etablera en islamisk stat pĂ„ den Arabiska halvön och som ses av USA:s regering som al-Qaidas farligaste gren. + +Enligt terrorexperten Magnus Norell, finns det helt enkelt ingen al-Qaida organisation som styr och stĂ€ller, som planerar och utför terrordĂ„d över hela vĂ€rlden, kontrollerade av en liten klick "onda" mĂ€n i en grotta. Men namnet Ă€r sĂ„ gĂ„ngbart att det hela tiden dyker upp grupper/individer som kallar sig al-Qaida för att se större och starkare ut. Och det fungerar. Detta Ă€r de globala islamisternas stora seger; detta att de fĂ„tt genomslag för ett namn vars blotta nĂ€mnande gör att alla frĂ„n Vita huset och nerĂ„t kĂ€nner sig föranlĂ„tna att reagera sĂ„ fort det kommer ett uttalande. + +FrĂ„n att i början ha finansierats frĂ€mst av rika bidragsgivare finansieras al-Qaida sedan en tid tillbaka pĂ„ sĂ€tt som inte Ă€r lika lĂ€tta att spĂ„ra. Anledningen Ă€r de framgĂ„ngsrika insatserna för att frysa nĂ€tverkets ekonomiska tillgĂ„ngar. + +Den beskrivning av al-Qaidas struktur som tidigare varit kĂ€nd hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n det vittnesmĂ„l som lĂ€mnades till amerikanska myndigheter av Usama bin Ladins tidigare medarbetare Jamal al-Fadl. Fadl lĂ€mnade bin Ladins organisation 1996, och sanningshalten i hans vittnesmĂ„l har ifrĂ„gasatts. Fadl beskrev organisationens ledarskikt som traditionellt uppbyggt, med Usama bin Ladin som emir och operativ ledare för organisationen. Hans andreman Ă€r Ayman az-Zawahiri, som Ă€r ordförande i ShurarĂ„det. ShurarĂ„det bestĂ„r i sin tur av 30 medlemmar, och dess uppgift Ă€r att dra upp generella riktlinjer och göra strategiska beslut. + +ShurarĂ„det Ă€r uppdelat i tre kommittĂ©er: + + Den militĂ€ra kommittĂ©n som Ă€r ansvarig för trĂ€ning av soldater, framskaffande av vapen och planering av attacker. + Den monetĂ€ra kommittĂ©n som ansvarar för att finansiera verksamheten, skaffa falska visum och pass, ordna resor och uppehĂ€lle för medlemmar vid operationer och liknande. + Den islamiska studiekommittĂ©n, som utfĂ€rdar fatwahs för att stödja al-Qaidas kamp. + +Förr fanns det Ă€ven en mediakommittĂ© som bland annat gav ut den nu nedlagda tidningen Newscast och utfĂ€rdade pressmeddelanden. Idag finns mediaorganisationen Al-Sahab som producerar videor för al-Qaida. + +Utöver det ledande skiktet av medlemmar Ă€r alltsĂ„ organisationen extremt löst sammanfogad, och var grĂ€nsen gĂ„r mellan al-Qaida och andra grupper som man samarbetar med Ă€r mycket diffus. Denna uppbyggnad anses vara bĂ„de svagheten och styrkan hos al-Qaida. Den decentraliserade strukturen gör det möjligt för al-Qaida att verka i hela vĂ€rlden utan att vĂ€rldens samlade staters polisiĂ€ra och militĂ€ra myndigheter kan göra mycket Ă„t det. Men samtidigt gör den att stora operationer tar mycket lĂ„ng tid att planera, och att de kontakter som dĂ„ mĂ„ste göras mellan olika celler lĂ€tt kan uppmĂ€rksammas av nĂ„gon stats underrĂ€ttelsetjĂ€nst. USA:s krig mot terrorismen tros ha haft en viss effekt pĂ„ just al-Qaidas förmĂ„ga att kommunicera mellan olika celler, dĂ„ al-Qaidas attacker sedan dess varit mindre sofistikerade. + +Lokala organisationer +Al-Qaida i Irak - (AQI); ombildad till Islamiska staten i Irak och Levanten - (ISIS) +Al-Qaida i Jemen - Al-Qaida pĂ„ den Arabiska halvön (AQAP) +Al-Qaida i Nordafrika - Al-Qaida i Islamiska Maghreb (AQIM) +al-Qaida i Syrien - Jabhat al-Nusra + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Islamistiska organisationer +Islamistisk extremism +Arbetarmakt i Sverige Ă€r en revolutionĂ€rt socialistisk trotskistisk organisation som Ă€r medlem i den internationella organisationen Förbundet för femte internationalen. Politiskt stĂ„r man för antistalinistisk marxism och man ser sig som aktiv i den politiska traditionen efter Vladimir Lenin, Lev Trotskij och FjĂ€rde internationalen. + +Bland aktiviteterna ingĂ„r torgmöten, facklig kamp, tidningsutgivning (tidningen Arbetarmakt, teoretiska tidskriften Marxistiskt Perspektiv och nyhetsbrevet), antifascistisk aktivitet, teoretisk skolning och sĂ„ vidare. Lokalgrupp finns i Stockholm och medlemmar Ă€ven i andra delar av Sverige. Under 2007 arbetade Arbetarmakt mycket med arbetet mot den borgerliga alliansen, Septemberalliansen, Europas Sociala Forum, och man engagerar sig ocksĂ„ i arbete mot ockupationen av Irak. + +Arbetarmakt hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n den sĂ„ kallade Mot Strömmen-tendensen som existerade i Socialistiska partiet. Arbetarmakt bildades 1994 nĂ€r man bröt sig ur Socialistiska partiet. Lite drygt tvĂ„ Ă„r senare bröt sig gruppen Marxistisk vĂ€nster, efter en tids oppositionellt arbete, ur Arbetarförbundet Offensiv (numera RĂ€ttvisepartiet Socialisterna). Efter förhandlingar beslutade Mot Strömmen-tendensen och Marxistisk vĂ€nster sig för att gĂ„ samman och tillsammans bilda Arbetarmakt, som kom att bli en del av Förbundet för en revolutionĂ€r kommunistisk international (FRKI, sedermera FFI â Förbundet för Femte Internationalen). + +Arbetarmakt har ett oberoende organiserat ungdomsförbund som kallar sig Revolution, som stĂ„r i politisk solidaritet med Arbetarmakt. De ska dock inte förvĂ€xlas med den Internationella Marxistiska Tendensens svenska sektion som bĂ€r samma namn. + +Sommaren 2006 uteslöts omkring 30 procent av FFI:s medlemmar, de flesta frĂ„n den engelska sektionen men ocksĂ„ samtliga i Australien och en medlem i Sverige. Dessa kom att bilda Permanent Revolution. + +Tidigare var Arbetarmakt namnet pĂ„ en rĂ„dssocialistisk grupp: Förbundet Arbetarmakt. Organisationen var verksam Ă„ren 1972â1979 med bland annat förlagsverksamhet, och finns inte lĂ€ngre i dag. + +Externa lĂ€nkar +Revolution (officiell webbplats) +Arbetarmakt (officiell webbplats) +Arbetarmakts publikationer â arkiv för Arbetarmakts olika publikationer +League for the Fifth International â Förbundet för Femte Internationalen, officiell webbplats +Förbundet Arbetarmakt â 1970-talets Arbetarmakt, rĂ„dssocialister + +Socialism i Sverige +Politiska organisationer i Sverige +Trotskism +Atari () Ă€r ett företag som grundades 1972 av Nolan Bushnell och Ted Dabney som skapade spelautomaten Pong. Namnet 'Atari' Ă€r en japansk term frĂ„n brĂ€dspelet Go (se Atari (go)) som kan beskrivas som schacktermen 'schack' för vilken pjĂ€s, eller grupp av pjĂ€ser, som helst. Bushnell hade Go som favoritspel och tyckte att Atari var ett bra namn pĂ„ ett företag. + +Den första Pong-automaten installerades mot Ă€garens vilja pĂ„ en bar vid namn Andy Capps efter att Bushnell lyckats övertala Ă€garen. Senare samma dag ringde Ă€garen Bushnell för att felanmĂ€la automaten. Felet berodde pĂ„ att maskinen direkt blivit sĂ„ populĂ€r att myntboxen blivit full. SuccĂ©n var ett faktum och automaterna började serietillverkas. + +Atari var lĂ€nge nummer ett som speltillverkare med succĂ©er som Breakout, Asteroids, Tempest, Gauntlet och mĂ„nga fler. Atari tillverkade Ă€ven spelkonsoler och hemdatorer. + +Historia +Nolan Bushnell och Ted Dabney grundade 1972 företaget Syzygy. De upptĂ€ckte samma Ă„r att namnet redan var taget och döpte om företaget till Atari. + +1976 sĂ„lde Nolan Bushnell Atari till Warner Communications för 28 miljoner dollar. PĂ„ grund av meningsskiljaktigheter med Warner, tvingades Bushnell tvĂ„ Ă„r senare bort frĂ„n Atari. + +1984 splittrades Atari Inc. och arkaddivisionen döptes om till Atari Games Inc. Atari Games behöll rĂ€ttigheterna att anvĂ€nda logotypen och namnet Atari Games pĂ„ arkadmaskiner, samt rĂ€ttigheterna till all arkadspelshĂ„rdvara som tillverkats 1972â1984. RĂ€ttigheterna för Ataris division för konsumentelektronik sĂ„ldes till Jack Tramiels företag Tramel Technology Ltd., som döptes om till Atari Corporation. 1996 slogs Atari Corporation samman med hĂ„rddisktillverkaren JT Storage (JTS), och blev en enhet inom detta företag. + +1998 köpte leksakstillverkaren Hasbro rĂ€ttigheterna till namnet Atari och dess spelserier. 2001 köptes Hasbro Interactive upp av Infogrames och den 7 maj tillkĂ€nnagav Infogrames att man officiellt byter namn till Atari. + +Nya konsoler + +NĂ„gra spel har givits ut pĂ„ nytt i skepnad av retrodesign. Det finns bland annat en handkontroll som Ă€r tillverkad av Jakks Pacific som innehĂ„ller ett flertal inbyggda spel. Förutom allt-i-ett-lösningen frĂ„n Jakks Pacific finns Ă€ven konsolerna Atari Flashback och Atari Flashback 2. De har ocksĂ„ gjort en helt ny konsol som ska heta Ataribox senare kallad Atari VCS. + +Spelkonsoler och hemdatorer av Atari +Atari har under Ă„ren skapat mĂ„nga maskiner: + +Spelkonsoler + Pong (1972) + Hockey Pong (1973) + Atari 2600 (1977) + Atari 2700 (prototyp) + Atari 3200 (prototyp) + Atari 5200 (1982) + Atari 7800 (1984, 1986) + Atari XEGS (1987) + Atari Lynx (1989) + Atari Jaguar (1993) + +Datorer + Atari 400, Atari 800 + Atari 600XL, Atari 800XL, Atari 1200XL + Atari 65XE, Atari 130XE, Atari 800XE + Atari ST, Atari STE, Atari STFM + Atari MEGA ST, Atari MEGA STE + Atari TT + Atari Falcon + Atari Transputer Workstation (prototyp) + Atari Portfolio (handdator) + STacy + STbook + +Se Ă€ven +Atari ST User + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + Atari + SAK + + 8-Bit Atari FAQ + + +Företag bildade 1972 +Amerikanska datorföretag +Franska datorföretag +En A-traktor Ă€r en modifierad bil som har registrerats som traktor, efter att vĂ€xlarna spĂ€rrats och maxhastigheten begrĂ€nsats. + +Bakgrund + +Ă r 1963 införde TrafiksĂ€kerhetsverket möjligheten att bygga om och registrera en bil eller lastbil till A-traktor som ett alternativ till EPA-traktor. NĂ€r TrafiksĂ€kerhetsverket i mitten av 1970-talet skulle avskaffa möjligheten att nyregistrera en EPA-traktor, samt att de redan existerande skulle fĂ„ finnas kvar i en treĂ„rsperiod innan de mĂ„ste skrotas, blev det protester som gjorde att verket tvingades tĂ€nka om. Nyregistrering av EPA-traktorer förbjöds 31 mars 1975 men i stĂ€llet tog A-traktorreglerna över helt, och en Ă„rlig besiktning infördes för de kvarvarande EPA-traktorerna. Förkortningen "A" stĂ„r för traktor klass A (vĂ€gtraktor (numera klass I)), (klass B Ă€r jordbrukstraktor (numera klass II)), som numera fĂ„r köras frĂ„n 15 Ă„rs Ă„lder (med AM-körkort). + +Den principiella skillnaden mellan EPA-traktorn och A-traktorn Ă€r att A-traktorn mĂ„ste vara konstruerad för en maxhastighet av 30 km/h +/- 10%, medan EPA-traktorn skulle vara konstruerad med ett visst utvĂ€xlingsförhĂ„llande (10:1). Bilen ska vara ombyggd sĂ„ att det Ă€r uppenbart att den inte lĂ€ngre Ă€r avsedd för person- eller godstransport. Ett sĂ€te för en eller tvĂ„ passagerare bredvid föraren fĂ„r dock finnas. Bilens ursprungliga kupĂ© och karosseri ska behĂ„llas, men mĂ„ste i förekommande fall kortas av sĂ„ att utrymmet bakom framsĂ€tena inte kan rymma passagerare eller gods. Denna typ av fordon kallas fortfarande i folkmun för EPA-traktor. + +I augusti 1978 infördes det en frivillig varningsskylt för LĂ„ngsamt gĂ„ende fordon (LGF) för A-traktorer, men frĂ„n och med den 1 januari 1982 Ă€r det krav att ha en sĂ„dan skylt baktill pĂ„ fordonet. + +SĂ€kerhet +Kravet pĂ„ förarhytt eller störtbĂ„ge infördes för A-traktorn den 1 juli 1970, och pĂ„ 1990-talet infördes hĂ„rdare krav pĂ„ hĂ„llfasthet. +Förarhytten mĂ„ste Ă€ven efter eventuell ombyggnad ha stabila vĂ€ggar och tak. +Saknas förarhytt kan en skyddsbĂ„ge godtas, men den ska dĂ„ förses med bland annat vĂ€ggar, tak, vĂ€rme och defroster. SkyddsbĂ„gen skall kunna motstĂ„ statisk belastning motsvarande dubbla tjĂ€nstevikten. + +Regler + +Besiktningsplikt pĂ„ A-traktor gĂ€ller sedan 20 maj 2018. Första besiktningen ska göras inom fyra Ă„r frĂ„n att fordonet togs i bruk. DĂ€refter ska fordonet besiktigas inom tvĂ„ Ă„r efter föregĂ„ende besiktning. + +Fordonet ska vara tydligt avsett som dragfordon, vilket gör att det krĂ€vs dragkrok. Fordonet rĂ€knas som lĂ€mpligt som dragfordon om: + + fordonets tjĂ€nstevikt Ă€r 2 000 kg eller högre, eller + ursprungsfordonet Ă€r konstruerat för en slĂ€pvagnsvikt av minst 1 000 kg. + +Vidare skulle det inte vara avsett för transport av gods eller "personbefordran", varvid det maximalt fick finnas plats för en passagerare (exkl förare). Ăven flakets storlek var begrĂ€nsat. Kravet pĂ„ ram togs bort och dĂ€rför kan A-traktorer Ă€ven byggas pĂ„ modernare bilar. FjĂ€dring fĂ„r finnas, men eftersom kravet pĂ„ lĂ„g utvĂ€xling utökades ytterligare Ă€r A-traktorn i praktiken nĂ€stan omöjlig att köra med i besiktningsdugligt skick (med rusande motor pĂ„ runt 4500-5000 varv/minut fĂ€rdas man i kanske 30 km/h...) + +Kravet pĂ„ A-traktorn som kom 1975 gick ut pĂ„ att den skulle kunna köras med det varvtal, som enligt motorfabrikanten gav det högsta vridmomentet, Ă€ndĂ„ skulle fordonet inte kunna framföras fortare Ă€n 30 km/h. Lösningen blev i de flesta fall att kardanaxeln kapades av och att man placerade Ă€nnu en vĂ€xellĂ„da under bilen, vari man hade lagt i ettans vĂ€xel. DĂ€rutöver kunde man behöva spĂ€rra nĂ„gon av vĂ€xlarna pĂ„ den frĂ€mre vĂ€xellĂ„dan, samt strypa motorns insugskanaler sĂ„ att den blev omöjlig att varva sĂ„ mycket att den gick fortare Ă€n 30 km/h. PĂ„ de svenska bilskrotarna fanns riklig tillgĂ„ng pĂ„ vĂ€xellĂ„dor av M40-modellen vilka satt i Duett, PV, Amazon samt hela Volvo 140-serien. MĂ„nga vĂ€xellĂ„dor gick Ă„t nĂ€r ungdomarna hade en "besiktningslĂ„da" vari man svetsat och / eller förstört vissa drev pĂ„ ett seriöst sĂ€tt för att hindra anvĂ€ndande av vissa vĂ€xlar. I dagligt bruk hade man sedan en annan vĂ€xellĂ„da vari man gjort en finurlig anordning sĂ„ att man kunde anvĂ€nda alla vĂ€xlar men genom olika manöver snabbt fĂ„ vĂ€xellĂ„dans 3:e och 4:e vĂ€xel spĂ€rrad ifall man blev kontrollerad av polisen. Ofta har den bakre vĂ€xellĂ„dan fyrans vĂ€xel i eftersom ettans dĂ„ blir omöjlig att köra pĂ„. A-traktorn har ingen begrĂ€nsning i antalet vĂ€xlar, men pĂ„ lĂ€gsta vĂ€xeln skall den göra högst 10km/h +/-10% samt pĂ„ högsta 30km/h +/- 10%. Men det gĂ„r att fĂ„ dispens pĂ„ kravet om högsta hastighet pĂ„ lĂ€gsta vĂ€xeln. + +Kravet "KonstruktionsmĂ€ssigt max 10 km/h vid 2/3 av det varvtal dĂ€r motorn lĂ€mnar maxeffekt pĂ„ lĂ€gsta vĂ€xeln" togs bort med ikrafttrĂ€dande 15/7 2020 och gĂ€ller fordon som instĂ€lls för registreringsbesiktning efter detta datum. Fordon som godkĂ€nts tidigare i ett visst utförande och utvĂ€xlingsförhĂ„llande behöver instĂ€llas för ny registreringsbesiktning och bedömning om det registrerade utförandet Ă€ndras. Om A-traktorn Ă€r registrerad med dubbla vĂ€xellĂ„dor och hastighetsregulator sĂ„ behövs ingen registreringsbesiktning för att ta bort ena vĂ€xellĂ„dan. + +Numera Ă€r det möjligt att registreringsbesiktiga en A-traktor med enkel vĂ€xellĂ„da med hastighetsregulator, till exempel Ă€ldre fordon som Volvo 740/940. Moderna fordon kan fĂ„ sin hastighetsbegrĂ€nsning genom omprogrammering av motorns styrdon (till exempel ECU). + +De "Ă€kta EPA-traktorerna" Ă€r ett uttryck som syftar pĂ„ de Ă€ldre som registreringsbesiktigats före den 31 mars 1975. De gĂ„r inte att registrera idag men Ă€r möjliga att anvĂ€nda i besiktningsdugligt skick. Den som blir ertappad med att ha fuskat med utvĂ€xlingen pĂ„ en sĂ„dan traktor fĂ„r instĂ€lla sig till registreringsbesiktning och dĂ„ ombyggd som A-traktor, vilket kraftigt försĂ€mrar vĂ€rdet pĂ„ traktorn, dĂ„ det blir en A-traktor utan fjĂ€dring. + +Statistik +Högst A-traktortĂ€thet har Dalarnas lĂ€n, dĂ€r antalet A-traktorer uppgĂ„r till 92 per 10 000 invĂ„nare. Flest A-traktorer till antalet har VĂ€stra Götalands lĂ€n med 5 344. + +Se Ă€ven + Traktor + EPA-traktor + Mopedbil + Motorredskap klass II + +Referenser + +Bilar efter typ +Bilar efter klass +Traktorer +Ombyggda fordon +Alkemi (arabiska ۧÙÙÙ Ùۧۥ al-kimia, âkeminâ) kallas den Ă€ldre tidens vetenskap som var förstadium, en protovetenskap, ur vilket den moderna vetenskapliga kemin vĂ€xte fram. Bland de Ă€ldsta bevarade skrifterna om alkemi finns Stockholmpapyrusen och Leiden X papyrusen. De som höll pĂ„ med alkemi kallades "alkemister". I dag betraktas alkemi som en pseudovetenskap, och praktiseras inte av nĂ„gra meriterade kemister, men förekommer i esoteriska kretsar, samt som symbolsprĂ„k inom till exempel den teoretiska psykologin. + +Etymologi +Ordet alkemi kommer frĂ„n det fornfranska ordet alquemie, alkimie, som anvĂ€nds i medeltida latin som alchymia. Detta namn kom frĂ„n det arabiska ordet al-kÄ«miyÄ (ۧÙÙÙÙ Ùۧۥ eller ۧÙŰźÙÙ Ùۧۥ) som bestĂ„r av tvĂ„ delar: den sena grekiska termen khÄmeĂa (ÏÎ·ÎŒÎ”ÎŻÎ±), khÄmĂa (ÏÎ·ÎŒÎŻÎ±), vilket betyder "att smĂ€lta eller gjuta en metall", och den arabiska bestĂ€mda artikeln al- (ۧÙÙ), som betyder "den". Tillsammans kan denna förening tolkas som "processen för transmutation för att fusionera eller Ă„terförenas med den gudomliga eller ursprungliga formen". Dess rötter kan spĂ„ras till det egyptiska ordet kÄme, vilket betyder "svart jord" som refererar till den bördiga och guldhaltiga jorden i Nildalen, i motsats till röd ökensand. + +Enligt egyptologen Ernest Alfred Wallis Budge betyder det arabiska ordet al-kÄ«miyaÊŸ faktiskt "den egyptiska [vetenskapen]" och lĂ„nar frĂ„n det koptiska ordet för "Egypten", kÄme (eller motsvarande i den medeltida bohairiska dialekten av koptiska, khÄme). Detta koptiska ord hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n demotiska kmá», sjĂ€lv frĂ„n forntida egyptiska kmt. Det forntida egyptiska ordet hĂ€nvisade till bĂ„de landet och fĂ€rgen "svart" (Egypten var det "svarta landet", i motsats till "det röda landet", den omgivande öknen); sĂ„ denna etymologi kunde ocksĂ„ förklara smeknamnet "Egyptian black arts". Men enligt Carl August Friedrich Mahn kan denna teori vara ett exempel pĂ„ folketymologi. Om man antar ett egyptiskt ursprung definieras kemi enligt följande: + +Kemi, frĂ„n det forntida egyptiska ordet "khÄmia" som betyder transmutation av jorden, Ă€r vetenskapen om materia i atom till molekylĂ€r skala, som frĂ€mst handlar om samlingar av atomer, sĂ„som molekyler, kristaller och metaller. + +SĂ„ledes, enligt Budge och andra, hĂ€rstammar kemi frĂ„n det egyptiska ordet khemein eller khÄmia, "beredning av svart pulver", slutligen hĂ€rrörande frĂ„n namnet khem, Egypten. Ett dekret av Diocletianus, skriven omkring 300 e.Kr. pĂ„ grekiska, talar mot "de forntida skrifterna av egyptierna, som behandlar khÄmias transmutation av guld och silver". + +Den medeltida latinska formen pĂ„verkades av det grekiska ordet chymeia (ÏÏ ÎŒÎ”ÎŻÎ±) som betyder 'blandning' och hĂ€nvisade till lĂ€kemedelskemi. + +Medeltidens alkemi +Alkemisterna under medeltiden sysselsatte sig till en del Ă€ven med att försöka framstĂ€lla guld och ett livselixir som skulle bota alla sjukdomar och förlĂ€nga livet. För detta Ă€ndamĂ„l sökte de efter ett urĂ€mne som alla andra Ă€mnen skapades ifrĂ„n och som kom att kallas bland annat "de vises sten" (det fullĂ€ndade Ă€mnet). Tankarna om att man skulle kunna framstĂ€lla redan kĂ€nda Ă€mnen, till exempel guld, genom att blanda andra Ă€mnen grundar sig pĂ„ Aristoteles teori om att alla Ă€mnen i sin tur Ă€r uppbyggda av de fyra elementen i olika blandningar. Genom att blanda olika Ă€mnen i rĂ€tt proportioner skulle man kunna fĂ„ fram vilket annat Ă€mne som helst. Namnet pĂ„ alkohol Ă€r ett arv frĂ„n alkemisternas tid. Deras tankesystem byggde pĂ„ olika mĂ€ngder av magi, platonism, gnosticism och andra numera i mĂ„ngt och mycket bortglömda lĂ€ror som sammankopplade den materiella och andliga vĂ€rlden. + +En segdragen förestĂ€llning var till exempel att vĂ€rme var ett slags vĂ€tska som fanns inuti materien, och att Ă€mnen som kunde brinna innehöll ett speciellt "eldĂ€mne" kallat "flogiston". Trots dessa felaktiga antaganden gjorde alkemister mĂ„nga viktiga tekniska uppfinningar, till exempel destillation, och de upptĂ€ckte och isolerade Ă€mnen som kvicksilver. + +Kinesisk alkemi +Kinesisk alkemi förknippas framför allt med daoism och visar mĂ„nga likheter med europeisk alkemi. Den delas upp i inre och yttre alkemi (Neidan och Weidan). +Praktiserande av Neidan fokuserar pĂ„ att kultivera och stĂ€rka resurser som redan finns inom den mĂ€nskliga kroppen. Weidan utförs med hjĂ€lp av framstĂ€llda elixir, extrakt och mediciner som hĂ€rrör utanför kroppen. Den kinesiska alkemin byggde pĂ„ lĂ€ran om de fem elementen och mĂ„let var ofta att framstĂ€lla livselixir, vanligen baserat pĂ„ cinnober (röd kvicksilversulfid), som skulle skĂ€nka odödlighet till den som intog det. MĂ„nga kejsare ska ha dött efter sĂ„dana kurer, men alkemisterna gjorde ocksĂ„ viktiga vetenskapliga upptĂ€ckter under sina experiment. + +1800-talets alkemi +Alkemi har alltid varit populĂ€rt i ockulta kretsar. Den pseudovetenskapliga alkemin nĂ„dde en kulmen pĂ„ 1800-talet, dĂ„ bland annat August Strindberg Ă€gnade sig Ă„t detta under starkt inflytande av Emanuel Swedenborgs tankar. Under ett experiment lyckades han framstĂ€lla kattguld av jĂ€rn och svavel och trodde sig ha framstĂ€llt riktigt guld. Tanken upptogs av Carl Gustav Jung som skrev om individuationsprocessen med alkemin som symbolsprĂ„k och teori om all utvecklings givna ordning. Under Jungs pĂ„verkan har sedan alkemin under 1900-talet influerat den nyandliga rörelsen, men Ă€ven forskare i olika kulturvetenskaper. + +Inom mysticismen stĂ„r alkemin inte för att materiellt förvandla olika material till guld, utan att mĂ€nniskan ska förvandla sitt inre, symboliska liv till ett andligt tillstĂ„nd, rent och Ă€delt och lysande som guld. AlltsĂ„ handlar alkemi inom de flesta esoteriska skolor om att utveckla sitt inre, vilket kan liknas vid en kemisk process, att brĂ€nna bort alla dĂ„liga egenskaper o.s.v. och kultivera de bĂ€ttre, sĂ„ att det som förr fanns transformeras till ett högre tillstĂ„nd. + +Dagens "alkemi" +PĂ„ senare tid har nĂ„gra av alkemins mĂ„l blivit uppfyllda, men genom anvĂ€ndning av vetenskap och forskning i stĂ€llet för de klassiska alkemiska tillvĂ€gagĂ„ngssĂ€tten. + +1919 lyckades Ernest Rutherford omvandla kvĂ€ve till syre genom att bombardera atomkĂ€rnan med alfastrĂ„lning tills den gick sönder. 1980 transmuterade Glenn Seaborg vismut till guld i mikroskopiska mĂ€ngder men till alldeles för stor energikostnad för att nĂ„gon ekonomisk vinst skulle existera. Varken Ernest Rutherford eller Glenn Seaborg var alkemister, men utfallet frĂ„n deras fysikaliska experiment rĂ„kade sammanfalla med alkemiska spekulationer och önskemĂ„l. + +Alkemi i kultur + +Alkemi har gestaltats inom konst, litteratur, musik och spel i allt frĂ„n Shakespeare till Harry Potter. + +Se Ă€ven + Alkemiska symboler + Bolos av Mendes + Carl Gustav Jung + Chrysopoeia + De vises sten + Fullmetal Alchemist + Hennig Brand + Hermes Trismegistos och hermetismen + Klassiska element + Maria frĂ„n Alexandria + Max Magnus Norman + Nicholas Flamel + Rosencreuzarna + Stockholm papyrusen + Transmutation + Zosimos av Panopolis + +KĂ€llor + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Alkemi En artikel pĂ„ svenska om alkemin och dess andliga aspekter + Virtual Alchemy library + Alchemical writings + +Kemins historia +Pseudovetenskap +Ateism innebĂ€r avsaknad av eller avstĂ„ndstagande frĂ„n tro pĂ„ nĂ„gon gud, gudar och högre makter. + +Begreppet ateism spĂ€nner frĂ„n avsaknad av tro pĂ„ nĂ„gon eller nĂ„gra gudar (eller högre makter), till aktivt avvisande av sĂ„dana (se antiteism). Ett par vĂ€lkĂ€nda engelsksprĂ„kiga uppslagsverk anger bĂ„da definitionerna samt preciseringar som ligger mellan dessa. Den svenska Nationalencyklopedins korta webbversion beskriver ateism som "Ă„sikten att det inte finns nĂ„gon gud", medan Ă€ven definitioner som "ateismens mera exakta innebörd kan vara t.ex. att satsen "det finns en gud" Ă€r falsk, eller att "satser om Gud Ă€r meningslösa" redovisas i den lĂ„nga versionen i bokbandet och pĂ„ Internet (prenumerationsalternativet). + +Ateism Ă€r sĂ€rskilt utbredd i starkt sekulariserade lĂ€nder, exempelvis i vĂ€steuropeiska lĂ€nder med hög utbildningsnivĂ„ samt i kommunistiska lĂ€nder som har tillĂ€mpat statsateism. + +Etymologi + +Ordet ateism Ă€r lĂ„nat, troligen via tyska Atheismus, frĂ„n franska athĂ©isme, ism-formen av athĂ©e, âateist, gudlös personâ. Det Ă€r ytterst ett lĂ„n frĂ„n klassisk grekiska áŒÎžÎ”ÎżÏ (atheos), âutan gud, gudlösâ, av α- (a-), âutan, icke-â, och ΞΔο (theo"), âgudâ. + +I den tidiga antika grekiskan infördes adjektivet atheos ursprungligen som en befolkningsstatistisk term som ungefĂ€rligt stod för "otrogen" eller "ogudaktig". Under 400-talet före Kristus började ordet att indikera en mer intentionell, aktiv gudlöshet i betydelsen att "klippa banden till gudarna" eller "förneka gudarna", i stĂ€llet för den tidigare meningen "gudlös". + +PĂ„ engelska finns begreppet belagt sedan Ă„tminstone 1577, dit ordet hade införts via franska athĂ©isme. Under 1500- och 1600-talen anvĂ€ndes ordet endast som förolĂ€mpning; ingen kallade sig sjĂ€lv för ateist. PĂ„ svenska finns ordet ateism belagt sedan 1600-talet och det anvĂ€ndes först i latiniserad form med latinsk böjning. 1654 nĂ€mns begreppet i kung Karl X Gustavs konungaförsĂ€kran: "Den sigh til vppenbar ogudachtigheet och förargeligh Atheismum slĂ„r." + +I upplysningens Europa under det sena 1700-talet började ordet Ă„terigen anvĂ€ndas för att beskriva den egna trosuppfattningen. VĂ€lkĂ€nda ateister sĂ„som Baron d'Holbach (1770), Richard Carlile (1826), Charles Southwell (1842), Charles Bradlaugh (1876) och Annie Besant (1877) anvĂ€nde ordet ateism i betydelsen avsaknad av tro pĂ„ Gud. Sedan dess har ateistiska tĂ€nkare och religionsfilosofer anvĂ€nt ordet i den betydelsen. + + Definitioner Oxford English Dictionary (OED), Second Edition definierar ateism pĂ„ följande sĂ€tt: + +(KĂ€nna) misstro mot eller förnekande av existensen av en gud ("Disbelief in, or denial of, the existence of a god.") + +Oxford English Dictionary försöker sedan definiera begreppen "misstro" (disbelief) och "förnekande" (denial):Misstro (disbelief): att inte tro eller erkĂ€nna; att vĂ€gra ha tilltro till: en utsago eller ett (pĂ„stĂ„tt) faktum; att avvisa sanning eller sakförhĂ„llande.Förnekande (denial): +1. Bestrida eller motsĂ€ga (nĂ„got förklarat eller pĂ„stĂ„tt), att förklara det som osant eller ohĂ„llbart, eller inte vara vad det uppges vara. +2. Logiskt. Motsatsen till att bekrĂ€fta, att peka pĂ„ det motsĂ€gelsefulla (i ett förslag). +3. Att vĂ€gra att erkĂ€nna sanningen (betrĂ€ffande en doktrin eller princip), att tillbakavisa nĂ„got som osant eller ogrundat, motsatsen till hĂ€vda eller bedyra. +4. Att vĂ€gra erkĂ€nna eller kĂ€nnas vid (en person eller sak) om den/det skulle ha en viss egenskap eller legitima ansprĂ„k; att förneka, att förkasta, att bestrida, att avstĂ„. + +I samtliga fallen ovan krĂ€vs en viljeyttring eller ett stĂ€llningstagande frĂ„n ateisten, som kĂ€nner till att religionen finns och att anhĂ€ngarna dĂ€r strĂ€var efter ett nĂ€rmande till en gud. Ateisten mĂ„ste förhĂ„lla sig till den existerande religionen pĂ„ nĂ„got sĂ€tt. Den som helt avstĂ„r frĂ„n att tycka nĂ„gonting alls, som i punkt fyra ovan, ligger nĂ€rmast den definition av ateism som varken medför tror eller inte tro. Ontario Consultans on Religious Tolerance har utvecklat detta nĂ€r de hĂ€vdar att den Ă€kta ateisten Ă€r en person som helt enkelt Ă€r omedveten om guden. Han kan vara ett litet barn eller en mentalt efterbliven person som fullstĂ€ndigt saknar kunskap i denna frĂ„ga. MĂ„nga ateister brukar dĂ€rför sĂ€ga att det inte finns nĂ„gon gudom att tro pĂ„ snarare Ă€n att de sĂ€ger sig sakna tro pĂ„ att gudomen existerar. + +Begreppet ateism Ă€r delvis skilt frĂ„n agnosticism, som Ă€r uppfattningen att det inte gĂ„r att veta om det finns nĂ„gon gud eller att fĂ„ nĂ„gon kunskap om densamma. Vissa inriktningar av sĂ„ kallad svag ateism kan dock sĂ€gas vara nĂ€rbeslĂ€ktade med agnosticism. En del ateister menar att mĂ„nga av dem som kallar sig agnostiker i sjĂ€lva verket per definition Ă€r ateister, dĂ„ de inte tror pĂ„ gud, medan dessa agnostiker inte vill kalla sig ateister för att de inte kan motbevisa guds existens. + +I Thomas Henry Huxleys ursprungliga, moderna definition av agnosticism betydde begreppet att förneka kunskap om tillvarons yttersta grunder. Historiskt har ordet ateist ofta anvĂ€nts Ă€ven om dem som inte tillhört den dominerande religionen; exempelvis har judar i det kristna Europa definierats som ateister, och de muslimer korstĂ„gsfararna drog ut för att "befria" det heliga landet ifrĂ„n skĂ€lldes ömsom för att vara hedningar, ömsom för att vara ateister. Romarna kallade följaktligen Ă€ven de kristna för ateister under de första Ă„rhundradena e.Kr. eftersom de inte trodde pĂ„ gudarna i det polyteistiska Rom.Elaine Pagels "Christian Apologists and 'The Fall of the Angels': An Attack on Roman Imperial Power?" The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 78, No. 3/4 (Jul. - Oct., 1985), pp. 301-325 + +Numera Ă€r det en vanlig uppfattning bland filosofer och religionsforskare att ateism Ă€r detsamma som svag ateism. I mĂ„nga sammanhang anvĂ€nds begreppet ateism för att beteckna avsaknad av tro pĂ„ gudar, till exempel den kristna Gud, guden Baal eller guden Shiva. + + Indelning + + Stark och svag ateism + +I sammanhang dĂ„ distinktioner mellan olika tolkningar av ordet ateism behöver göras brukar man dela upp ateismen i svag respektive stark ateism. Svag ateism kallas ibland för agnostisk ateism, negativ ateism eller implicit ateism. Stark ateism kallas ibland positiv ateism eller explicit ateism. + +Svag ateism innebĂ€r avsaknad av tro pĂ„ existensen av gudar. Stark ateism innebĂ€r att man har uppfattningen att gudar inte existerar och hĂ€vdar eventuellt att det Ă€ven Ă€r ytterst osannolikt att det finns gudar, eller att det till och med finns bevis för att gudar inte existerar. Det innebĂ€r att en stark ateist samtidigt alltid Ă€r en svag ateist. MĂ„nga ateister menar att det inte gĂ„r att bevisa icke-existensen av gudar och att bevisbördan dĂ€rför ligger hos dem som tror att gudar existerar. + +Sammanfattningsvis anvĂ€nds tvĂ„ begrepp: stark ateism och svag ateism. Svag ateism Ă€r en avsaknad av tro pĂ„ en eller flera gudar. Stark ateism Ă€r en övertygelse om att det inte finns nĂ„gra gudar. + +Svag ateism: saknar tro pĂ„ att gudar finns +Stark ateism: tror att gudar inte finns + + AllmĂ€n och specifik ateism + +Ateism kan ocksĂ„ delas in i ateism i allmĂ€n mening och ateism i specifik mening. Ateism i allmĂ€n mening innebĂ€r att man tar stĂ€llning till alla gudar medan ateism i specifik mening tar stĂ€llning till en personlig gud som Ă€r allvetande, allsmĂ€ktig, god och skapare av himmel och jord. Ateism i allmĂ€n respektive specifik mening finns bĂ„de i en negativ och en positiv form. Exempelvis Ă€r en negativ ateist i specifik mening en person som inte tror pĂ„ en personlig gud av det slag som just beskrivits. En panteist Ă€r ett exempel pĂ„ en sĂ„dan ateist, trots att det inte Ă€r sĂ€kert att nĂ„gon panteist skulle acceptera etiketten ateist om sig sjĂ€lv. Cartesius och Spinoza trodde samtliga pĂ„ tesen att gud och universum Ă€r samma sak, och beskrev var och en för sig i vilken mening de ansĂ„g sig vara religiösa. Ingen av dem beskrev sig sjĂ€lv som ateist. + + Icke-kognitivistisk ateism + +Icke-kognitivism Ă€r Ă„sikten att ordet "Gud" Ă€r sprĂ„kligt meningslöst. Charles Bradlaugh beskrev ateistisk icke-kognitivism: "The [non-cognitivist] Atheist does not say 'There is no God', but he says: 'I know not what you mean by God; I am without the idea of God; the word "God" is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation'". För en icke-kognitivistisk ateist Ă€r pĂ„stĂ„enden som "Gud existerar" eller "Gud existerar inte" meningslösa. DĂ€rför kan en sĂ„dan ateist inte rĂ€knas som en stark ateist men dĂ€remot som en svag ateist. Ytterligare en aspekt Ă€r att en person kan ha olika typer av ateistiska uppfattningar i förhĂ„llande till olika gudsbegrepp. + + Ateism och agnosticism + +Liksom för ordet ateism finns flera olika tolkningar av begreppet agnosticism. En vanlig uppfattning Ă€r att en agnostiker Ă€r en person som varken tror eller inte tror att Gud existerar. SĂ„dan agnosticism Ă€r kompatibel med svag ateism, det vill sĂ€ga att det ligger ingen motsĂ€gelse i att vara bĂ„de agnostiker i denna betydelse och svag ateist samtidigt. + +Ordet agnosticism introducerades av T.H. Huxley som enkelt uttryckt menade att man inte vet om man kan veta nĂ„got om Guds existens. Denna innebörd kan kallas för agnosticism i egentlig mening. En agnostiker i den meningen kan Ă€ven vara ateist eller teist. Agnosticism i den meningen handlar alltsĂ„ inte om att tro eller inte tro pĂ„ Gud utan Ă€r enbart ett stĂ€llningstagande till möjligheten att veta nĂ„gonting om Guds existens. + +Vissa agnostiker anser dock att ordet agnosticism innebĂ€r mer Ă€n detta, nĂ€mligen att en agnostiker dessutom varken tror eller inte tror att Gud eller gudar existerar eftersom man menar att gudars existens inte kan bevisas eller motbevisas pĂ„ rationella grunder. Den betydelsen av ordet Ă€r kompatibel med svag ateism. + + Förekomst och opinioner + + Ateism och religiositet i Sverige och vĂ€rlden + +Andelarna religiösa och icke-troende skiljer sig starkt mellan olika delar av vĂ€rlden. Generellt sett Ă€r andelen icke-troende högre ju rikare ett land Ă€r och ju högre den genomsnittliga utbildningsnivĂ„n Ă€r. Sverige Ă€r enligt en rad studier ett av vĂ€rldens minst religiösa och mest ateistiska lĂ€nder. En religionssociologisk studie visar att 17% av Sveriges befolkning kallar sig ateister, och mellan 46 och 85% av Sveriges befolkning kan kategoriseras som ateistisk, agnostisk eller icke troende pĂ„ en personlig gud. +Enligt en Gallup-undersökning frĂ„n 2009, sĂ„ var Sverige vĂ€rldens nĂ€st minst religiösa land, efter Estland. I Sverige höll endast 17% med om att "religionen Ă€r en viktig del i mitt dagliga liv". De lĂ€gsta vĂ€rdena i övrigt fanns i Norden, Ăstasien och Europa. De högsta vĂ€rdena, dĂ€r uppemot 100% av befolkningen svarade att religion var viktigt i det dagliga livet, Ă„terfanns i Mellanöstern, Centralafrika och Sydasien. + +FĂ„ mĂ€nniskor identifierar dock sig sjĂ€lva som ateister; för Sverige gĂ€ller det enligt tvĂ„ olika undersökningar 6,7% eller 17% av befolkningen. De allra flesta individer befinner sig nĂ„gonstans mellan bokstavstrogen religiositet och ateism. Det kan innebĂ€ra att de antingen Ă€r agnostiker eller liberala kristna, vilka ofta tenderar att se Bibelns ord som bildliga snarare Ă€n bokstavliga. I Sverige uppger dock 28% respektive 31% att de saknar gudstro i tvĂ„ SIFO-undersökningar som utförts pĂ„ uppdrag av den kristna tidningen Dagen.SIFO Research International: Din egen livsĂ„skĂ„dning + +Hur mĂ„nga som Ă€r ateister, icke-troende eller religiösa mĂ€ts oftast genom att frĂ„ga enskilda om de Ă€r troende, om de beskriver sig sjĂ€lva som ateister eller liknande. Att mĂ€ta andelen troende och icke-troende i olika samhĂ€llen genom att stĂ€lla frĂ„gor kan dock vara svĂ„rt, dels för att begrepp som Gud, religiös eller ateist inte har samma innebörd i alla kulturer, dels för att svaren pĂ„verkas av bĂ„de sociala, kulturella och politiska konventioner. En annan metod för att avgöra vad individer verkligen tror pĂ„ Ă€r att studera hur de handlar snarare Ă€n vad de sĂ€ger. Detta sĂ€tt att bedöma mĂ€nniskors tro och vĂ€rderingar pĂ„ kallas för avslöjad preferens. + +En undersökning gjord Ă„r 2016 av SOM-institutet fann att 23% av Sveriges befolkning Ă€r positiva till ateism, med skillnader mellan Ă„ldersgrupper: 39% av gruppen 15-29-Ă„ringar Ă€r positiva till ateism och 14% för 65-85-Ă„ringar. + + Sekularisering och ökad förekomst av ateism + +Med tiden har religion blivit en privatsak, kyrka och stat skilts och de religiösa inslagen i det officiella samhĂ€llet minskat i mĂ„nga lĂ€nder, en process som kallas för sekularisering. Sekularisering ska inte sammanblandas med minskad religiositet; dock karakteriseras sekulariserade lĂ€nder av avtagande religiositet, en process som har pĂ„gĂ„tt sedan flera hundra Ă„r framför allt i lĂ€nder med hög utbildningsnivĂ„, progressiva vĂ€rderingar och hög ekonomisk trygghet, men Ă€ven i totalitĂ€ra kommunistiska lĂ€nder dĂ€r religionsutövande förföljts och hindrats straffrĂ€ttsligt. Sekulariseringsprocessen kan mĂ€tas sĂ„vĂ€l i hur mĂ„nga som anger sig vara ateister eller religiösa, i mĂ€nniskors attityder pĂ„ andra omrĂ„den, i politiska reformer, liksom i förĂ€ndringar av individernas beteende. Sekulariseringen fortgĂ„r sett i en lĂ€ngre tidsskala men processen har periodvis gĂ„tt i motsatt riktning eller gĂ„tt lĂ„ngsammare Ă€n vad flera tidigare bedömningar gjorde gĂ€llande. + + Statsateism och ateistiskt motiverad religionsförföljelse + +Statsateism infördes en kort period i samband med franska revolutionen samt i kommunistiska lĂ€nder, bland annat Sovjetunionen, Socialistiska folkrepubliken Albanien och Kina. Statsateism har ofta inneburit begrĂ€nsad religionsfrihet, religionsförföljelse, stĂ€ngning av kyrkor och moskĂ©er, förbud mot religiösa symboler, och förbud mot religiös mission, i synnerhet riktad till barn.Frankrikes avkristnande Ă€r en vanlig beteckning pĂ„ politiska kampanjer mot katolska kyrkan som genomfördes av olika regeringar i Frankrike frĂ„n franska revolutionens inledning 1789 fram till Konkordatet av 1801 (en överenskommelse mellan Napoleon och pĂ„ven). MĂ„l med avkristnandet var förstörelse av katolsk religionsutövning och religionen sjĂ€lv, och/eller att eliminera allt som uppfattades som symboler för monarkin och det gamla samhĂ€llet. Exempel pĂ„ Ă„tgĂ€rder som genomfördes var avrĂ€ttning och deportering av prĂ€ster; belĂ€ggande av skyddande av prĂ€ster med dödsstraff; storskalig förstörelse av religiösa monument; brĂ€nning, plundring och stĂ€ngning av kyrkor; kriminalisering av offentlig och privat religionsutövning och religiös utbildning; tvĂ„ngsĂ€ktenskap för prĂ€ster; samt tvĂ„ngsavsvĂ€rjande av prĂ€sterskapet.SPIELVOGEL, Jackson Western Civilization: Combined Volume p. 549, 2005 +Thomson Wadsworth Det har förekommit en omfattande vetenskaplig debatt om huruvida rörelsen hade folkligt stöd eller var pĂ„tvingad pĂ„ medborgarna av makthavare. Konkordatet lĂ„g till grund för den senare och mindre radikala LaĂŻcitĂ©rörelsen, och förbud mot religiösa symboler i det offentliga Ă€n idag i Frankrike, exempelvis dagens slöjförbud. + +I Folkrepubliken Albanien var all religionsutövning förbjuden. Bland annat kunde albaner i skolor och pĂ„ arbetsplatser tvingas Ă€ta t.ex. griskött för att bevisa att man inte utövade islam, som Ă€r den största religionen i landet. + + Dödsstraff för ateism +Ateism Ă€r belagt med dödsstraff enligt sharialagar i tretton lĂ€nder. De Ă€r: + Afghanistan + Iran + Jemen + Malaysia + Maldiverna + Mauretanien + Nigeria + Pakistan + Qatar + Saudiarabien + Somalia + Sudan + Förenade Arabemiraten + +Dödsstraffet tillĂ€mpas inte i alla dessa lĂ€nder, men det förekommer att religiösa extremister mördar ateister och humanister. + + Organiserad ateism och humanism +I Sverige organiserade sig lĂ€nge ateister och agnostiker i Human-etiska förbundet. Idag har Human-etiska förbundet bytt namn till Humanisterna. Humanisterna har ökat i medlemstal och synlighet de senaste Ă„ren. Ăven i mĂ„nga andra lĂ€nder verkar humanistiska eller andra rörelser som föresprĂ„kar sekularisering. Norge Ă€r ett land med mycket höga medlemskap i humanistiska organisationer. Internationellt finns en paraplyorganisation som heter International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) och som bildades av Unescos dĂ„varande generalsekreterare Julian Huxley. + +IHEU har bevakningsstatus i Unesco och flera andra av FN:s församlingar. I mĂ„nga lĂ€nder dĂ€r religionen fortfarande har stort inflytande över politiken Ă€r ateistiska eller sekulĂ€rt föresprĂ„kande sammanslutningar betydligt mer politiska och radikala. I vissa muslimska lĂ€nder Ă€r medlemskap i ateistiska sammanslutningar i praktiken förbjudet och kan resultera i förföljelser. Ăven i vissa starkt religiösa omrĂ„den i USA utsĂ€tts ateister för trakasserier och har svĂ„rt att fĂ„ jĂ€mlik tillgĂ„ng till politisk representation. + + Logisk grund + +Den mest basala uppdelningen av de bakomliggande skĂ€len för ateism gĂ„r mellan praktisk och teoretisk ateism. + + Praktisk ateism + +Inom praktisk eller pragmatisk ateism, Ă€ven kĂ€nd som apateism, lever individer sĂ„som inga gudar existerar och förklarar fenomen i vĂ€rlden utan att hĂ€nvisa till övernaturliga krafter. Den möjliga existensen av gudar avvisas inte men kan betraktas som onödig eller oanvĂ€ndbar; gudar tillför ingen mening till livet, inte heller pĂ„verkar de det vardagliga livet, enligt denna uppfattning. + +En form av praktisk ateism med implikationer för forskning och vetenskap Ă€r metodologisk naturalism - "den inom den vetenskapliga metoden icke uttalade utgĂ„ngspunkten av metafysisk naturalism vare sig denna utgĂ„ngspunkt erkĂ€nns fullt ut eller ej". + +Praktisk ateism kan anta flera former: + FrĂ„nvaro av religiös motivation - gudstro krĂ€vs inte för att motivera moraliskt handlande; + Aktiv exklusion av problem med gudar och religion vad gĂ€ller intellektuell förkovran och praktiskt handlande; + Likgiltighet - frĂ„nvaro av intresse för gudar och religion, eller filosofiska problem med dessa; + Okunskap om gudar som koncept eller fenomen + + Teoretisk ateism + +Teoretisk ateism Ă€r ateism som grundar sig pĂ„ uttalade argument mot existensen av gudar. De teoretiska skĂ€len för att förkasta gudar Ă€r mĂ„nga och antar olika former. NĂ„gra av de vanligaste typerna av argument Ă€r logiska, ontologiska, epistemologiska, psykologiska och sociologiska argument. + + Ontologiska och epistemologiska argument +Epistemologisk ateism argumenterar för att mĂ€nniskor inte kan veta nĂ„got om gudar eller att gudarnas existens inte gĂ„r att veta nĂ„got om. + +Grunden för epistemologisk ateism Ă€r agnosticism, vilken antar flera former. Inom den filosofiriktning som diskuterar immanens, betraktas gudomlighet som oskiljbart frĂ„n vĂ€rlden i sig, inklusive en persons psyke. Varje persons medvetande Ă€r instĂ€ngt i Subjektet. Enligt denna form av agnosticism förhindrar personens begrĂ€nsade perspektiv alla objektiva slutledningar: frĂ„n och med tro pĂ„ gudar till pĂ„stĂ„endena om deras existens. + +Inom den rationalistiska agnosticism som företrĂ€ddes av Immanuel Kant accepteras endast sĂ„dan kunskap som erhĂ„llits med det mĂ€nskliga förnuftet. Denna form av ateism framhĂ„ller att gudar rent principiellt inte kan urskiljas och att det dĂ€rför inte gĂ„r att veta om de existerar. Den skepticism som bygger pĂ„ David Hume framhĂ„ller vidare att absolut kunskap inte Ă€r möjlig, och att det dĂ€rför inte gĂ„r att veta nĂ„got om Guds eventuella existens. Att pĂ„ detta sĂ€tt betrakta agnosticismen som en delmĂ€ngd av ateism Ă€r kontroversiellt, agnosticism kan Ă€ven betraktas som en sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig, grundlĂ€ggande trosuppfattning. + +Andra argument för ateism som kan klassas som epistemologiska eller ontologiska, inklusive logisk positivism och ignosticism, framhĂ„ller det meningslösa eller obegripliga hos grundlĂ€ggande termer som "gud". PĂ„stĂ„enden som "gud Ă€r allsmĂ€ktig" betraktas som betydelselösa. Inriktningen teologisk icke-kognitivism menar att satsen "Gud existerar" inte uttrycker ett giltigt pĂ„stĂ„ende om nĂ„got. SĂ„dana satser Ă€r istĂ€llet kognitivt meningslösa. Det har argumenterats bĂ„de för och emot att denna och liknande filosofiska inriktningar ska klassificeras som ateistiska sĂ„dana.Ayer, A. J. (1946). Language, Truth and Logic. Dover. pp. 115â116. In a footnote, Ayer attributes this view to "Professor H. H. Price". + + Metafysiska argument +En skribent beskriver metafysisk ateism sĂ„ hĂ€r: +"Metafysisk ateism... inkluderar alla uppfattningar som grundar sig i metafysisk monism (verklighetens homogenitet). Metafysisk ateism kan vara antingen: + a) absolut - ett explicit förnekande av gudars existens som associeras med materialistisk monism (detta omfattar alla materialistiska trendriktningar, bĂ„de antika och moderna); + b) relativ - det implicita förnekandet av gudar inom alla filosofier som, medan dessa erkĂ€nner existensen hos nĂ„got absolut, tĂ€nker de sig det absoluta sĂ„som utan de attribut som tillhör en gud: transcendens, en personlig karaktĂ€r eller koherens. Relativ ateism hĂ€nger samman med idealistisk monism (panteism, panenteism, deism)." + + Logiska argument +Logisk ateism framhĂ„ller bland annat de sinsemellan olika förestĂ€llningarna om gudar samt att gudarna besitter logiskt inkonsekventa kvaliteter. SĂ„dana ateister grundar sig sĂ„lunda pĂ„ deduktiva argument mot existensen av gudar. De framhĂ„ller hur gudarnas mĂ„nga tillskrivna egenskaper Ă€r omöjliga att kombinera, exempelvis egenskaper sĂ„som perfektion, skapare-status, immutabilitet, fullstĂ€ndig kunskap, allsmĂ€ktighet, absolut godhet, transcendens, personskap och barmhĂ€rtighet. + + Kritik av ateism + +Man kan dela in argument mot ateism i ett antal kategorier: argument som pekar pĂ„ negativa konsekvenser för individen och samhĂ€llet av avsaknaden av tro, inklusive argument som pekar pĂ„ skillnader mellan ateisters och teisters moral och handlingar och konsekvenser av materialistiska ideologier; argument för att ateism enbart Ă€r en trosuppfattning utanför vetenskapens domĂ€n; argument för Guds existens (se Gudsbevis); samt motargument mot ateisters religionskritik. + +Kritiker mot ateism beskriver ibland den moderna sekulĂ€ra mĂ€nniskan som mer olycklig Ă€n mĂ€nniskor i andra delar av vĂ€rlden eller i andra tider, trots god fysisk hĂ€lsa och materiell standard. Litteraturprofessorn Torsten Pettersson menar till exempel att barn, sjuka och Ă€ldre kommer i klĂ€m i det sekulariserade samhĂ€llet, eftersom den vuxna individens behov sĂ€tts i centrum, samhĂ€llet sexualiseras, skilsmĂ€ssor Ă€r vanligare och omsorg överlĂ„ts pĂ„ institutioner istĂ€llet för familjen samt kriminalitet och drogmissbruk ökar. Dock har till exempel Richard Dawkins pĂ„pekat att oavsett hur tilltalande eller motbjudande tanken pĂ„ en guds existens Ă€r sĂ„ Ă€r det inget hĂ„llbart argument för eller mot en guds existens eftersom det i sig inte pĂ„verkar sannolikheten för en guds existens. Dawkins hĂ€vdar Ă€ven i sin bok Illusionen om Gud (The God Delusion) att moral och etik inte har kopplingar till religioner och ideologier, och att moral och etik inte baseras pĂ„ Ă€kta altruism (psykologisk altruism) utan enbart pĂ„ reciprok altruism som gynnar individens gener. Moral Ă€r enligt Dawkins istĂ€llet nĂ„gonting vi alla har inom oss oberoende av trosuppfattning. Som exempel tar han upp i Illusionen om Gud att de mest religiösa staterna i USA Ă€r de som toppar statistiken nĂ€r det gĂ€ller mord, vĂ„ldtĂ€kter etc. + +Det faktum att det har funnits totalitĂ€ra och auktoritĂ€ra stater som har varit officiellt ateistiska, som till exempel Albanien under Enver Hoxha, anvĂ€nds av en del debattörer som ett argument mot ateismen. Motkritiken Ă€r dock att dessa stater visserligen har varit ateistiska, men att ateismen inte har nĂ„got med det faktum att de var totalitĂ€ra. och Richard Dawkins menar att Hitlers och Stalins regimers brott grundar sig i en politisk dogmatism (som enligt Harris liknar religion, det vill sĂ€ga en sorts teokratier), inte i att de var motstĂ„ndare till religion. + +En utbredd uppfattning bland teister och agnostiker men som Ă€ven förekommer bland ateister, Ă€r att frĂ„gan om Guds (eller gudars) existens aldrig konklusivt kan betraktas som avgjord genom filosofiska eller vetenskapliga argument. Ămnet befinner sig enligt dessa utanför vetenskapens domĂ€n (se demarkationsproblemet). Ateismen beskrivs dĂ€rför av vissa som en hĂ„llning grundad pĂ„ antaganden i samma grad som religioner bygger pĂ„ tro. Andra menar att denna kritik missförstĂ„r att ateism i grund och botten Ă€r avsaknad av tro eller att man inte behöver bevisa att Gud inte finns, eftersom bevisbördan ligger hos den troende (se Probatio Diabolica och Russells tekanna). Det finns ocksĂ„ ateister sĂ„som Richard Dawkins och Victor J. Stenger som menar att vetenskapen kan ge belĂ€gg för eller mot Guds existens, under förutsĂ€ttning att Gud har effekter i den fysiska verkligheten.Victor J. Stenger Has Science Found God, Ateism Ă€r heller inte samma sak som materialism eller sekularism, Ă€ven om dessa begrepp kan förenas. + +Det teleologiska argumentet för guds existens innebĂ€r att livet eller universum Ă€r sĂ„ komplext och Ă€ndamĂ„lsenligt att det mĂ„ste vara skapat. Exempelvis menar den före detta ateistiske tĂ€nkaren Antony Flew att det avgörande argumentet för hans omvĂ€ndelse till deism var att DNA-molekylens och livets uppkomst fortfarande inte har fĂ„tt en tillfredsstĂ€llande naturvetenskaplig förklaring. Han hĂ€vdade tidigare att man bör förutsĂ€tta ateism sĂ„ lĂ€nge bevis pĂ„ en Gud saknas. Han stĂ„r fortfarande bakom denna evidensbaserade hĂ„llning, Ă€ven om han pĂ„ senare Ă„r har blivit övertygad om att sĂ„dana bevis existerar. Detta Ă€r en variant av urmakaranalogin. Richard Dawkins menar att hur osannolikt, komplext och Ă€ndamĂ„lsenligt universum och livet Ă€n verkar sĂ„ mĂ„ste en skapare av allt detta vara mer osannolik och komplex Ă€n sin skapelse och dĂ€rför mycket mindre sannolik. Detta argument kallas den ultimata Boeing 747:an och leder via frĂ„gan "Vem eller vad skapade skaparen?" till ett cirkelargument om oĂ€ndlig regress. + + Se Ă€ven + Antiteism - Agnosticism - Deism - Teism - Ignosticism + Empirism + Existentialism + Religionskritik + Kristen ateism + Nyateism + Religion - Polyteism - Monoteism + Statsateism + Teologi + Vetenskap + UAAR + + Referenser + + Vidare lĂ€sning + + Baggini, J, Atheism: A Very Short Introduction Carrier, R, Sense & Goodness Without God: A Defense of Metaphysical Naturalism Dawkins, R, The God Delusion, 2006, + Harbour, D, An Intelligent Person's Guide to Atheism Harris, S, The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason Harris, S, Letter to a Christian Nation Hitchens, C, god is not Great: How Religion Poisions Everything Johnson, B.C, The Atheist Debater's Handbook Krueger, D.E, What is Atheism? A Short Introduction Martin, M The Improbability of God, 2006, + Mills, D, The Atheist Universe, 2004, + Nielsen, K, Atheism and philosophy, 2005, + Onfray, Michel, Handbok för ateister, Bokförlaget Nya Doxa, 2006, + Paulos, J.A, Irreligion Smith, G.H, Atheism - The Case Against God Smith, G.H, Why Atheism? Stenger, V.J, God - The Failed Hypothesis'' + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Ateism.se â en informationssida om ateismen + Ateismen - Det finns ingen gud! + The Secular Web - a drop of reason in a pool of confusion + StrongAtheism.net + Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns Av religionssociologen Phil Zuckerman + Ironchariots.org â en webbplats om ateismens motargument till apologetik och apologetismens argument + + +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +Animism Ă€r ett begrepp inom teologin som betecknar en religiös uppfattning enligt vilken naturen Ă€r besjĂ€lad. Man tror exempelvis att det finns en ande i varje trĂ€d eller vattendrag. Totem-begreppet hos vissa nordamerikanska folk handlar om animism, och bĂ„de shintoismen och samisk religion har inslag av animism. Ett relaterat fenomen Ă€r shamanism. + +Begreppet kommer frĂ„n grekiska áŒÎœÎ”ÎŒÎżÏ "vind, andedrĂ€kt", och det latinska animus. + +Religion +Det finns inte nĂ„gon enskild religion som kallas animism, utan det som presenterar sig som en religion (animism) Ă€r ett antal regler för byggandet av social kultur liksom en prerationell förklaring av vĂ€rlden i varje kultur. + +Det kan anses att religionen som fanns i Sverige, asatron, ursprungligen till stor del var animistisk, liksom folkreligionen i Grekland och Romarriket antagligen ocksĂ„ var det. Shintoismen, samisk religion och shamanism har alla inslag av animism. + +Varje sten, varje vĂ€xt, varje djur och varje mĂ€nniska utvecklas, följande naturliga regler. I animism Ă€r sĂ€rskilt slĂ„ende: + + Avsaknad av nĂ„gon form av allsmĂ€ktiga gudar, eller en idĂ© om det gudomliga (Ă€ven om vanligen ett "högsta vĂ€sende" existerar) + Naturen Ă€r direkt, har sjĂ€lv en sjĂ€l, och genom naturliga hĂ€ndelser uttrycker den sig, och kommunicerar direkt med mĂ€nniskor + Avsaknaden av religiösa kultbyggnader + Förekomsten av religiösa men Ă€ven vardagliga regler som uppkommer vid omedelbar naturupplevelse + +Animism förutsĂ€tter nĂ„gon form av sjĂ€lslĂ€ra, eftersom man besjĂ€lar naturen. Logiskt mĂ„ste man Ă€ven acceptera att Ă€ven icke-mĂ€nniskor har sjĂ€lar - nĂ„got som inte förekommer i till exempel kristendomen. Animismen Ă€r teologiskt beslĂ€ktad med panteismen. + +Godartade andar med hög status finns i nĂ€stan alla former av religion. Det kan röra sig om sĂ„ kallade högsta vĂ€sen. Det högsta vĂ€sendet har ibland skapat vĂ€rlden och levde dĂ„ en tid tillsammans med folket, för att sedan dra sig tillbaka pĂ„ grund av nĂ„got. Ibland finns en kontakt till detta högsta andliga vĂ€sen. Det vördas av folket som dock inte behöver offra och inte ens be till honom/henne. + +Inom animism utförs ritualer för att upprĂ€tthĂ„lla relationer mellan mĂ€nniskor och andar. Ursprungsbefolkningar utför ofta dessa ritualer för att blidka andarna och begĂ€r deras hjĂ€lp under aktiviteter som jakt och helande. I den arktiska regionen Ă€r vissa ritualer vanliga före jakten som ett sĂ€tt att visa respekt för djurens andar. + +Ăven idag anser religionsteoretiker att animism Ă€r i början av den kulturella utvecklingen av religioner. Enligt denna evolutionĂ€ra teori kan en evolutionĂ€r vĂ€g, frĂ„n animistiska trosuppfattningar till "moderna" monoteistiska religioner ses. Etnologen Wilhelm Schmidt föreslog emellertid att det omvĂ€nda gĂ€ller, nĂ€mligen att tron pĂ„ en monoteistisk Gud var ursprunglig men att denna tro förĂ€ndrades till polyteism, för att sĂ„ smĂ„ningom övergĂ„ till animism. Idag anvĂ€nds begreppet animism, för att hĂ€nvisa till den ursprungliga karaktĂ€ren hos religionerna i jĂ€gare-samlare kulturer. De flesta religionsforskare idag anvĂ€nder termen "animism" som Tylor i boken Primitive Culture frĂ„n 1871. + +Enhetlig eller dualistisk vĂ€rldsbild +I animistiska trosförestĂ€llningar blir hela universum uppdelat i tvĂ„: en materiell vĂ€rld och en andevĂ€rld (som för övrigt liknar den kristna, i förstĂ„elsen av efterlivet). En strikt skillnad mellan det naturliga och det övernaturliga saknas dock, varför allt som finns och hĂ€nder i kosmos upplevs som naturligt. I animism har mĂ€nniskan en kropp och minst en sjĂ€l som finns i en viss sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndighet frĂ„n andra. Det kan finnas ett alter ego av mĂ€nniskan, i den andliga vĂ€rlden. SĂ„ mĂ€nniskan lever dĂ„ samtidigt i tvĂ„ vĂ€rldar, och efter kroppens död endast i vĂ€rlden hinsides. Dessa vĂ€rldar kan Ă€ven pĂ„verka varandra under livet, vilket anvĂ€nds som förklaring till exempelvis sjukdom. Det gör att man kan se den animistiska vĂ€rlden som en. + +Döden +En vanlig animistisk förestĂ€llning Ă€r idĂ©n om relationen mellan sjĂ€len och familjen. Levande slĂ€ktingar till en avliden person fĂ„r ett ansvar för sjĂ€len till den avlidne. SĂ„ lĂ€nge de kommer ihĂ„g en person sĂ„ finns personens sjĂ€l. De fĂ„r inte glömma den avlidne eftersom sjĂ€len hos en avliden person befinner sig i ett tillstĂ„nd av personlig odödlighet. DĂ€rigenom har familjen i animistiska kulturer hög prioritet. En annan tanke som förekommer Ă€r att den dödes sjĂ€l gĂ„r igen jĂ€mför gengĂ„ngare. FörfĂ€dersdyrkan och kult av gravar Ă€r förekommande. Ibland finns förestĂ€llningar om att det gĂ„r att komma i kontakt med döda eller andar, dĂ„ ofta via ett medium eller shaman. + +Idag +Animism finns idag som del av islam, dĂ€r det motsvarar det man kallar "populĂ€rislam", som del av kristendomen, dĂ€r det Ă€r förekommande i en smĂ„tt vidskeplig "folkkatolicism". +Ăven svensk folktro, som Ă€r en slags levande rest av asatron Ă€r animistisk. Bland bergsfolken i östra Asien Ă€r animism den vanligaste religionsformen. Bland Akha, Hmong (Meo), Lahu, Laova, Lisu, Palaung/Padaung och Thin finns övervĂ€gande andel animister. Bland Karen-folket har kristendomen ökat i popularitet och omkring 50% bekĂ€nner sig nu till den kristna tron. MĂ„nga frĂ„n Yaofolket, som hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n södra Kina, Ă€r taoister, och utövar en form av taoism som var kĂ€nd i Kina för 600 Ă„r sedan, vilken har animistiska drag. + +Etymologi +Ordet animism kommer av latinets anima, som betyder "ande". I Oxford English Dictionary (OED) blir termens ursprung tillskrivet Georg Ernst Stahl som 1720 skrev om anima mundi, men sjĂ€lva ordet kom inte i bruk förrĂ€n pĂ„ 1800-talet. Enligt OED var detta 1832. + +I socialantropologin togs termen i bruk av den brittiske antropologen Edward Burnett Tylor i boken Primitive Culture. + +Se Ă€ven +Folktro +Andehus +Naturande +Schamanism + +Referenser +Akhenaton, innan sitt femte regeringsĂ„r Amenhotep IV, Ă€ven Echnaton samt varianter som slutar med -aten; pĂ„ engelska vanligen Akhenaten, var en egyptisk farao under den 18:e dynastin Ă„r 1351â1334 f.Kr. Han föddes nĂ„gon gĂ„ng mellan 1369 och 1362 f.Kr. och var sannolikt runt 35 Ă„r nĂ€r han dog. Följaktligen var han mellan 10 och 17 Ă„r vid trontilltrĂ€det. + +Han Ă€r kĂ€nd för att ha förbjudit den egyptiska polyteismen och istĂ€llet infört monoteismen vilket innebar dyrkan av Aton. DĂ€rmed avskaffades Amon-Ra som huvudgud i det forntida Egypten. Akhenaton anlade huvudstaden "Atons horisont", det nuvarande Amarna, som dominerades av fyra Atontempel. + +Efter hans död Ă„tergick landet till den gamla religionsordningen och rasande Amon-prĂ€ster avlĂ€gsnade alla spĂ„r av Akhenaton, med stöd sĂ€rskilt under farao Horemheb. + +GemĂ„l +Akhenatons gemĂ„l var Nefertiti (1380â1331 f.Kr.), som kan ha varit medregent och möjligen dessutom ha regerat som hĂ€rskare under ett par Ă„r efter sin makes död. + +Nefertiti anses vara en av de vackraste kvinnorna nĂ„gonsin, vilket pĂ„visas genom att mĂ„lningar, fresker och byster uppvisar en strĂ„lande skönhet vid en tidpunkt dĂ„ den egyptiska konsten, den "groteska stilen" (Amarnastilen) avbildade mĂ€nniskor exakt som de sĂ„g ut, utan nĂ„gra försköningar. Hennes make och konung, Akhenaton, har till exempel avbildats sĂ„ att en tĂ€nkbar förklaring under en tid var att han led av Marfans syndrom. + +Begravningsplats + +Den kungliga familjen frĂ„n denna tid begravdes i Amarna, men flyttades senare till Konungarnas dal. I grav KV55 fann man 1907 en kunglig kista med mumie. Namnet hade hackats bort pĂ„ den förgyllda trĂ€kistan. Efter CT-skanning 2010, DNA-tester, och blodgruppsanalyser, anses denna mumie vara kung Akhenaton. Tydligt ser man slĂ€ktskapet med Tutankhamon, son till Akhenaton. De har bĂ„da flera Ă€rftliga anatomiska missbildningar, bland annat gomspalt och skolios. + +Biografi + +Utbildning i solteologi +Akhenaton var son till Amenhotep III och Teje. Han hade en Ă€ldre bror, Thutmose (Djhutmose), som uppfostrades till att bli Egyptens nĂ€ste farao. Den blivande Akhenaton hade en ganska behaglig barndom, och fick frĂ„n Ă„tta eller nio Ă„rs Ă„lder prĂ€stutbildning i On, Heliopolis, som Ă€ven lĂ€rde ut mysterierna i solteologin. Thutmose tros ha hunnit samregera med sin far, Amenhotep III. Thutmose avled dock före sin far, och dĂ„ stod den blivande Akhenaton nĂ€st i tur enligt successionsordningen. Han besteg tronen efter sin far och blev Amenhotep IV. Han gifte sig med Nefertiti, som han efter nĂ„gra Ă„r lĂ€t upphöja till medregent, vilket var mycket ovanligt. Amenhotep IV Ă€ndrade sitt namn under sitt sjĂ€tte regeringsĂ„r till Akhenaton och skapade en kult kring solguden Aton (Atun, Aten), ett namn pĂ„ en dittills mindre solgud som ordagrant betyder "skiva", och som syftade pĂ„ solskivan. Under sitt 17-Ă„riga styre lyfte han fram guden Atons betydelse framför den tidigare mer betydande Amun-Re. Han förbjöd dyrkan av de gamla gudarna och införde en form av monoteism. Aton, som var namnet pĂ„ solguden, blev under hans regim den frĂ€mste och enda gudomen i Egypten. Det var ur dyrkan av Aton som Amenhotep IV under sitt femte Ă„r som farao kom att anta namnet Akhenaton, som betyder Han som tjĂ€nar Aton. + +Akhenatons beslut fick vittgĂ„ende konsekvenser. De höga prĂ€ster som tjĂ€nat Amun-Re hade successivt skaffat sig allt mer makt. Under Akhenatons fars regeringstid hade de i princip blivit mĂ€ktigare Ă€n faraon. Akhenaton anvĂ€nde nu armĂ©n till att stĂ€nga Amun-templen och en ansenlig del av prĂ€sterskapets markegendomar beslagtogs och förstatligades och mark delades ut till de jordlösa i Atons namn. En omtvistad frĂ„ga Ă€r huruvida Akhenaton delade sina första regeringsĂ„r (upp till sitt tolfte regeringsĂ„r) tillsammans med sin far. I sĂ„ fall mĂ„ste Amenhotep III ha godkĂ€nt en del av sin sons politik, och sonen mĂ„ste ha lĂ€rt av sin far Amenhotep III att prĂ€sterna gradvis hade tillskansat sig sĂ„ mycket makt att balansen i Egypten hotades, och att farao höll pĂ„ att göras till en marionett som utförde sina religiösa plikter enbart för syns skull. Tolkningen av Akhenaton har de senaste 100 Ă„ren varierat frĂ„n att vara en religiös idealist till en kallhamrad realpolitiker. + +En kort tid efter Akhenatons död avskaffade hans son Tutankhamon (ursprungligen Tutankhaton) monoteismen, förmodligen under inflytande av Ă€ldre rĂ„dgivare, installerade de gamla gudarna och flyttade landets huvudstad tillbaka till Thebe. + +De kungliga namnen + +Litteratur + + Aldred, Cyril: Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1988) + Echnaton och Nefertiti (Nationalmuseum, 1975) [utstĂ€llningskatalog] + Redford, Donald B.: Akhenaten, the Heretic King (Princeton University Press, 1984) + +PĂ„ svenska + + Echnatons hymner till solen: liturgi och böner frĂ„n farao Amenhotep IV och hans trogna: frĂ„n 1300-talet före Kristus (tolkade och kommenterade av Ă ke Ohlmarks, Eden, 1963) + +Referenser + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Faraoner +Födda okĂ€nt Ă„r +Avlidna 1300-talet f.Kr. +MĂ€n +Religionsstiftare +Personer i Egypten under 1300-talet f.Kr. +Art Ă€r ett begrepp inom biologi. I biologisk systematik delar man in nĂ€rbeslĂ€ktade organismerna i grupper, sĂ„ kallade taxa, i en hierarki. Art Ă€r den grupp som i betydelse ligger nĂ€rmast vardagssprĂ„kets för djursort. Som exempel Ă€r lejon, tiger och katt bĂ„de olika djur i vardagssprĂ„ket och olika arter i vetenskaplig mening. NĂ€rbeslĂ€ktade organismer som pĂ„ olika sĂ€tt Ă€r sĂ„ lika varandra att artgrĂ€nsen mellan dem blir oklar omnĂ€mnas som ett artkomplex. SĂ„dana grupper förekommer bland alla typer av organismer och att dra upp distinkta grĂ€nser mellan arter kan ibland nĂ€stan vara omöjligt. + +Historik +LĂ€nge ansĂ„gs artbegreppet som den sjĂ€lvklara grundlĂ€ggande (minsta) enheten inom systematiken, men hur man definierar en art har debatterats i flera Ă„rhundraden och det finns över tjugo olika sĂ€tt att definiera en art - och nĂ„gon enighet kring definitionen av vad en art Ă€r har ej kunnat uppnĂ„s. Den klassiska definitionen, som brukar kallas det biologiska artbegreppet, myntades av Ernst Mayr som sĂ€ger att en art Ă€r en grupp av naturliga populationer som reproducerar sig mellan populationerna eller Ă„tminstone skulle kunna göra det, och som Ă€r reproduktionsmĂ€ssigt isolerade frĂ„n andra sĂ„dana grupper. En annan vanlig definition som kallas det fylogenetiska artbegreppet grundar sig pĂ„ att en art omfattar alla individer som har en gemensam evolutionĂ€r anfader. + +Genom historien har man haft olika krav pĂ„ hur stora skillnaderna ska vara mellan populationer för att de ska rĂ€knas som en god art. NĂ€r forskare under upplysningstiden började samla in stora mĂ€ngder biologiskt material runt omkring i vĂ€rlden, blev det nĂ„got av en jakt pĂ„ nya arter, vilket resulterade i att den allra minsta subtila avvikelse i storlek, mönster eller fĂ€rg fick till följd att individen utropades till att vara en del av en egen art. Senare har mĂ„nga av dessa arter mist sin artstatus och ses i dag istĂ€llet som exempel pĂ„ naturliga fluktuationer inom populationen eller ocksĂ„ klassificeras de som en underart. Denna "jakt" pĂ„ nya arter resulterar Ă€ven i dag till förslag om att en specifik population bör klassificeras som en egen art. + +Sedan 1990-talet, bland annat pĂ„ grund av nya rön genom DNA-analyser, har uppfattningarna om hur artbegreppet ska definieras varit sĂ„ mĂ„nga och skilda att man oroats för en total upplösning - med resultat att olika forskare skulle anvĂ€nda sig av olika artbegrepp - vilket i sin tur skulle leda till stora svĂ„righeter i forskningsvĂ€rlden. Detta har lett till att man försökt skapa nya riktlinjer för att avgöra artstatus. + +I dag skiljer taxonomer mellan artbegrepp, som definierar vad som Ă€r en art, och vad som Ă€r artkriterier, dĂ€r det senare kan omfatta flera av de tidigare metoderna för att definiera vad som Ă€r en art. Detta har lett till större konsensus kring artbegreppet, som dĂ„ definieras som en hypotes om en unik utvecklingslinje som kan pĂ„visas genom flera olika beviskriterier. Denna metodik kallas för den integrerade taxonomin. + +Alla arter definieras utifrĂ„n en typ, vilket Ă€r en unik individ av en organism som fungerar som referens. Det Ă€r utifrĂ„n denna typ som arten har beskrivits. + +Artbegreppet +Evolutionen och artbildningen Ă€r en stĂ€ndigt pĂ„gĂ„ende process och mĂ€nniskans försök att urskilja nĂ€r tvĂ„ populationer glidit isĂ€r tillrĂ€ckligt mycket för att skillnaderna ska ligga till grund för att se pĂ„ de bĂ„da populationerna som tvĂ„ olika arter Ă€r i grunden en konstgjord grĂ€nsdragning. Inget artbegrepp Ă€r dĂ€rför helt objektivt. + +Man skiljer pĂ„ tre olika artbegrepp: det morfologiska, det biologiska och det fylogenetiska artbegreppet. + Det morfologiska artbegreppet skapades av Carl von LinnĂ© och anvĂ€ndes fram till början av 1900-talet. Det morfologiska artbegreppet menar att individer med gemensamma yttre karaktĂ€rer förs samman till en art - oavsett om de har en gemensam evolutionĂ€r historia. Detta kan te sig konstigt men inte för LinnĂ© eftersom han inte hade kĂ€nnedom om evolution. + Det biologiska artbegreppet började anvĂ€ndas pĂ„ 1930-talet och Ă€r fortfarande den hos allmĂ€nheten vanligaste begreppet nĂ€r det gĂ€ller art. Den sĂ€ger att grupper av individer som under naturliga omstĂ€ndigheter kan fortplanta sig med andra, producera en fertil avkomma och som Ă€r reproduktivt isolerade frĂ„n andra grupper tillhör samma art. Enligt detta artbegrepp kan individer som teoretiskt skulle kunna fĂ„ fertil avkomma tillsammans klassas som olika arter, om detta Ă€r exempelvis geografiskt eller fysiologiskt omöjligt. Det finns mĂ„nga problem med detta artbegrepp, exempelvis hur definieras en art nĂ€r det gĂ€ller könlös fortplantning eller en art som Ă€r fossil. + Det fylogenetiska artbegreppet infördes pĂ„ 1960-talet och Ă€r det som idag vanligtvis anvĂ€nds inom vetenskapen och innebĂ€r att man utgĂ„r ifrĂ„n en fylogenetisk analys. Det fylogenetiska artbegreppet menar att en grupp individer bestĂ„ende av minsta möjliga antal individer med EN gemensam förfader skall klassas som art. Individerna skall ha en eller flera nedĂ€rvda karaktĂ€rer som de inte delar med nĂ„gra andra grupper av djur, sĂ„ kallade synapomorfier eller synapmorfa karaktĂ€rer. + +Andra krav som stĂ€lls inom det fylogenetiska artbegreppet för att tvĂ„ populationer ska klassificeras som tvĂ„ arter Ă€r: + + Detta taxon mĂ„ste vara diagnosticerbart. Detta innebĂ€r till exempel att individer av ett kön, en viss fas eller en Ă„lderklass gĂ„r att urskilja frĂ„n alla andra taxa av samma kön, fas eller Ă„lderklass, genom en kombination av tvĂ„ eller tre funktionella oberoende karaktĂ€rer. SĂ„dana karaktĂ€rer kan exempelvis vara en kombination av olika utseendekaraktĂ€rer och Mitokondriellt DNA-haplotyp. + Detta taxon mĂ„ste vara reproduktivt skild frĂ„n andra taxa. Det vill sĂ€ga att ingen, eller bara ett minimum av hybridisering förekommer. + Det Ă€r troligt att dessa taxa i framtiden kommer att behĂ„lla sin genetiska och fenotypiska integritet. + Deras reproduktiva isolering beror pĂ„ att populationen har utvecklat ett speciellt parningsbeteende eller signaler och inte reagerar pĂ„ parningssignaler frĂ„n individer ur andra taxa. (Detta krav gĂ€ller inom zoologin) + +Ett illustrativt exempel pĂ„ dessa olika begrepp Ă€r den amerikanska och europeiska jĂ€rven. Enligt det morfologiska artbegreppet tillhör de samma art eftersom de utseendemĂ€ssigt Ă€r lika. Enligt det biologiska artbegreppet Ă€r de olika arter eftersom de Ă€r geografiskt avskilda (reproduktivt isolerade) frĂ„n varandra. Enligt det fylogenetiska artbegreppet Ă€r de samma art eftersom de har en gemensam förfader. + +Diskussionerna kring dessa olika artbegrepp, som skulle kunna leda till att olika forskningsfĂ€lt arbetar utifrĂ„n olika system, har lett till försök att skapa en större samsyn kring artbegreppet. Resultatet har kallats för en Integrerad taxonomi vilket Ă€r en hypotes dĂ€r flera tidigare artbegrepp anvĂ€nds som artkriterier för att utröna vad som Ă€r en separat utvecklingslinje. Denna metodik har vunnit stort genomslag bland taxonomer och det rĂ„der idag större konsensus kring artbegreppet Ă€n pĂ„ mycket lĂ€nge. + +Konstruktionen av vetenskapliga namn + +Man konstruerar det vetenskapliga namnet pĂ„ en art genom att anvĂ€nda sig av dels ett slĂ€ktnamn, samt dels ett beskrivande sĂ„ kallat art-epitet. Att namnge en art med bĂ„de ett slĂ€ktnamn och ett artepitet kallas binĂ€rnomenklatur. Inom binĂ€rnomeklatur skrivs slĂ€ktnamn och artepitet alltid med kursiv stil. SlĂ€ktnamnet skrivs alltid med stor bokstav och artepitetet skrivs alltid med liten bokstav; till exempel Homo sapiens. + +Ett tydligt och korrekt sprĂ„kbruk Ă€r alltsĂ„ att reservera ordet "artnamn" för hela det tvĂ„ledade vetenskapliga namnet. Artnamnet "Homo sapiens" bestĂ„r enligt detta sprĂ„kbruk av slĂ€ktnamnet Homo (gemensamt för alla arter som tillhör eller har tillhört slĂ€ktet Homo) och artepitetet sapiens. Artepitet Ă€r, till skillnad frĂ„n slĂ€ktnamn, inget egentligt namn som kan stĂ„ för sig sjĂ€lv, utan Ă€r ett beskrivande ord, till exempel ett adjektiv, som tillsammans med slĂ€ktnamnet definierar den specifika arten (artnamnet). Vissa artepitet finns sĂ„ledes i mĂ„nga artnamn, till exempel vulgaris (= âvanligâ). + +Ett mindre korrekt men inte helt ovanligt sprĂ„kbruk Ă€r att kalla artepitetet ett âartnamnâ. + +Alla arter tillhör ett slĂ€kte, alla slĂ€kten tillhör en familj, alla familjer tillhör en ordning, alla ordningar tillhör en klass, alla klasser tillhör en stam, och alla stammar tillhör ett rike, exempelvis djurriket eller vĂ€xtriket. Det finns ocksĂ„ mĂ„nga mellangrupper. Akronymen skofsa anvĂ€nds ibland för att minnas ordningen pĂ„ systemet: Stam, Klass, Ordning, Familj, SlĂ€kte, Art. + +Species, förkortat sp., efter slĂ€ktnamnet indikerar att hela slĂ€ktet avses, utan nĂ€rmare precisering av ev. arter och underarter. + +Underarter + +En art kan delas in i flera underarter, om dessa skiljer sig markant frĂ„n varandra, och korsningen Ă€r fertil. Underarterna Ă€r oftast geografiskt eller ekologiskt skilda. NĂ€r man kategoriserar utdöda organismgrupper kan underarter ocksĂ„ vara stratigrafiskt Ă„tskilda i tiden. + +Antal arter + +Det finns flera svĂ„righeter att uppskatta hur mĂ„nga arter det finns pĂ„ jorden. Med tanke pĂ„ problematiken kring kategorisering av arter skiljer sig uppskattningarna kring hur mĂ„nga arter vĂ€ldigt mycket mellan de olika artbegreppen. Exempelvis ansĂ„gs det finnas 19 000 fĂ„gelarter i början av 1900-talet. Sedan slogs mĂ„nga av dessa arter samman i olika underarter varför artantalet hade sjunkit till 8 500 i början av 1950-talet. I och med DNA-studier och fylogenetiska studier, tillsammans med den integrerade taxonomin finns det nu uppskattningar som pekar pĂ„ att det finns mellan 15 000-20 000 fĂ„gelarter i vĂ€rlden. DĂ€rför kan följande uppskattning frĂ„n 2010 av artantal snarare ses som en indikation pĂ„ hur arter fördelar sig proportionellt mellan de stora artgrupperna: + +Total antal arter har uppskattats till 8,7 miljoner men har varit föremĂ„l för skattningar mellan 2 och 100 miljoner arter: + 5â10 miljoner bakterier + okĂ€nt antal arkĂ©er - uppskattas till 20% av biomassan. + 1,7 miljoner eukaryoter + 62 000 ryggradsdjur + 1,3 miljoner ryggradslösa djur + 320 000 vĂ€xter + 50 000 övriga (inkl. svampar och brunalger) + +Se Ă€ven + Carl von LinnĂ© + Biotop + Organism + Ras + Underart + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar + Wikispecies + +Systematik +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +Biologi +Populationsgenetik +SlĂ€ktet Australopithecus Ă€r en grupp utdöda hominider som Ă€r nĂ€rbeslĂ€ktade med mĂ€nniskan och levde för 5,25â1,98 miljoner Ă„r sedan. Namnet betyder sydapa. + +A. afarensis och A. africanus Ă€r de arter inom slĂ€ktet som vi har bĂ€st fossil av. A. africanus ansĂ„gs tidigare som förfader till slĂ€ktet Homo (speciellt dĂ„ Homo habilis). Nyare fossil frĂ„n slĂ€ktet Homo har hittats som Ă€r Ă€ldre Ă€n A. africanus, vilket betyder att Homo antingen formats frĂ„n en utvecklingsgren av slĂ€ktet Australopithecus vid ett tidigare tillfĂ€lle (det vill sĂ€ga den sista gemensamma anfadern Ă€r A. afarensis eller en tidigare art). eller sĂ„ har bĂ„da utvecklats oberoende av varandra frĂ„n en Ă€nnu okĂ€nd gemensam förfader. + +SlĂ€ktet Australopithecus kan ha uppstĂ„tt för omkring 4,2 miljoner Ă„r sedan, sannolikt ur Ardipithecus. + +Fossila exemplar av slĂ€ktet Australopithecus, ett kranium som döptes till "Barnet frĂ„n Taung", hittades första gĂ„ngen Ă„r 1924 i ett stenbrott i Transvaal i Sydafrika. Upphittaren Raymond Dart gav dem namnet Australopithecus africanus, vilket Ă€r en kombination av austral 'sydlig', pithecin 'apa' och 'afrikansk'. + +Referenser + +FörmĂ€nniskor +Australopithecus +ĂvergĂ„ngsformer +Sir Arthur Keith, född 5 februari 1866 i Persley i Aberdeenshire, död 7 januari 1955 i Downe i Bromley (i dĂ„varande Kent), var en brittisk antropolog och professor i anatomi vid Londons universitet. + +Keith blev professor vid Royal College 1908 och president vid Royal Anthropological Institute 1913. Han erhöll KnightvĂ€rdighet 1921. + +Keith utgav flera vĂ€rdefulla jĂ€mförande framstĂ€llningar av mĂ€nniskans och de högre dĂ€ggdjurens kroppsbyggnad, sĂ„som Introduction to the study of the anthropoid apes (1896), Human embryology and morphology (1901), Antiquity of man (1914) med flera. + +Han motsatte sig tillsammans med sin kollega Grafton Elliot Smith sin lĂ€rjunge Raymond Darts Ă„sikt, att dennes fynd, barnet frĂ„n Taung, skulle vara en mĂ€nsklig apa; en sĂ„dan kunde enligt Keiths Ă„sikt inte ha existerat i Afrika. + +Men Dart hade rĂ€tt, vilket bevisades av anatomen Wilford Le Gros Clark. Keith tvingades skriva en offentlig ursĂ€kt. DĂ„ hade 23 Ă„r passerat, som i viss mĂ„n gjort Darts strĂ€vanden att intressera vĂ€rlden för Afrika och Sydafrika som bra fyndlokal för fossil nĂ€stan om intet, om han inte varit sĂ„ envis. + +KĂ€llor + +Noter + +Brittiska antropologer +Brittiska professorer +Personer verksamma vid universitetet i London +Brittiska forskare under 1900-talet +Personer frĂ„n Aberdeenshire +Födda 1866 +Avlidna 1955 +MĂ€n +Ugglan +Ledamöter av Royal Society +Australopithecus afarensis var en sydapa och möjlig förmĂ€nniska frĂ„n Afrika, som levde för cirka 3,7 till 2,9 miljoner Ă„r sedan. Trolig förfader till mĂ€nniskan. Kallas populĂ€rt Lucy eftersom man spelade The Beatles sĂ„ng Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds under utgrĂ€vningen i Hadar i Afar-regionen i Etiopien hösten 1974, dĂ„ Donald Johanson hittade de tre miljoner Ă„r gamla skelettresterna av vĂ€rldens mest berömda förmĂ€nniska och den viktigaste referenspunkten för dagens evolutionsforskning. Arten kallades Ă„ren 1950-1970 , med stöd av betydligt mindre vĂ€lbevarade skelettrester, för "Megantropus africanus". + +Beskrivning +A. afarensis var en könsdimorfistisk upprĂ€ttgĂ„ende förmĂ€nniska som möjligen levde nĂ€ra sjöar, havsstrĂ€nder och vattendrag dĂ€r den hittade föda. Den klĂ€ttrade ocksĂ„ utmĂ€rkt och hade inga problem med att springa pĂ„ alla fyra. + +MĂ„tt + lĂ€ngd: cirka 1,50 meter + vikt: 30-70 kg, + hjĂ€rnvolym: 400-500 cmÂł. + +Fynd (Cirka 120 individer) + Ă r 1939, hittade Ludwig Kohl-Larsen fossil i Laetoli i Tanzania. Detta slumpfynd kallades 1950 Megantropus africanus och bytte namn först i slutet av 1970-talet. + Mary Leakey hittade i LaetoliomrĂ„det (Tanzania) fotspĂ„r av tvĂ„ upprĂ€ttgĂ„ende individer av A. afarensis i 3,5 miljoner Ă„r gammal vulkanaska som förstenats. + Ett fynd av en familj, 13 individer, som man först trodde hade överraskats vid nĂ„gon typ av katastrof. Senare har dock de forskare som gjorde fynden sagt att individerna mycket vĂ€l kan ha dött vid olika tillfĂ€llen. + Resterna efter en tvĂ„bent varelse som levde för 4 miljoner Ă„r sedan har pĂ„trĂ€ffats i Afar-regionen, ungefĂ€r sex mil frĂ„n den plats dĂ€r man 1974 hittade Lucy. Bruce Latimer, chef för det naturhistoriska museet i Ohio, höll tillsammans med sin kollega Yohannes Haile-Selassie, Addis Abeba, en presskonferens 5 mars 2005 i Addis Abeba, Etiopien, dĂ€r man berĂ€ttade om fynden, som har mycket god kvalitet och bland annat utgörs av ett helt skenben, delar av ett lĂ„rben, revben, delar av ryggraden, ett nyckelben, bĂ€ckenbenet och ett helt skulderblad. Den hĂ€r individen var större Ă€n Lucy och har lĂ€ngre ben, trots att den Ă€r cirka en miljon Ă„r Ă€ldre. Detta Ă€r revolutionerande uppgifter och kommer att hjĂ€lpa paleontologerna förstĂ„ utvecklingen frĂ„n hominider till homo sapiens. Totalt har man vid dessa utgrĂ€vningar hittat fossila rester efter tolv hominider. + +Referenser + +FörmĂ€nniskor +1974 i Etiopien +VetenskapsĂ„ret 1974 +Fornfynd i Etiopien +Australopithecus +Australopithecus anamensis (eller Praeanthropus anamensis) Ă€r en utdöd mĂ€nnisko-art som levde för cirka fyra miljoner Ă„r sedan. NĂ€stan hundra fossiler Ă€r kĂ€nda frĂ„n Kenya och Etiopien, frĂ„n över 20 personer. +Det Ă€r accepterat att A. anamensis Ă€r förfĂ€der till A. afarensis och fortsatte utvecklingen av den slĂ€ktlinjen. + +Fossila bevis gör gĂ€llande att Australopithecus anamensis Ă€r den tidigaste hominida arten i Turkana Basin-omrĂ„det. PĂ„ grund av att det inte gĂ„r att hitta en tillrĂ€cklig mĂ€ngd fossil kan forskare inte kan göra sĂ„ noggranna observationer att det gĂ„r att sĂ€rskilja mĂ„nga av de tidiga hominiderna. + +UpptĂ€ckten +Det första fossiliserade exemplaret av arten, var ett enda fragment av humerus (armben) funnet i en Pliocen-strata i Kanapoi-regionen av vĂ€stra Lake Turkana av ett forskningsteam frĂ„n Harvard University 1965. Exemplaret fördes tillfĂ€lligt till samma tidsĂ„lder som Australopithecus och daterades till ungefĂ€r fyra miljoner Ă„r gammalt. En metod för att avgöra Ă„ldern pĂ„ fossilerna frĂ„n Kanapoi bestod av jĂ€mförelser mellan benbitar (faunal correlation), vilket gav ett spann mellan 4,0 och 4,5 miljoner Ă„r gamla. Lite ytterligare information kom fram förrĂ€n 1987, dĂ„ den kanadensiske arkeologen Allan Morton (vid Harvard University's Koobi Fora Field School) upptĂ€ckte fragment av ett prov som stack ut frĂ„n en delvis eroderad sida av en kulle öst om Allia Bay, nĂ€ra Lake Turkana, Kenya. + +1994 exkaverade paleoantropologen Meave Leakey och arkeologen Alan Walker fyndplatsen vid Allia Bay och upptĂ€ckte flera ytterligare fragment av hominiden, inklusive en komplett underkĂ€ke som Ă€r mycket lik schimpansens (Pan troglodytes) men vars tĂ€nder Ă€r mer lika mĂ€nniskans. Baserat pĂ„ de begrĂ€nsade bevisen frĂ„n annat Ă€n skalldelar verkar A. anamensis vanligtvis ha varit upprĂ€ttgĂ„ende, fast den behöll nĂ„gra primitiva drag pĂ„ de övre lemmarna. + +1995 noterade Meave Leakey och hennes kollegor skillnaderna mellan Australopithecus afarensis och de nya fynden, och bedömde dem vara frĂ„n en ny art, A. anamensis, frĂ„n Turkana-sprĂ„kets ord anam, som betyder "lake". Leakey fann att den hĂ€r arten var sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig frĂ„n mĂ„nga andra. Den representerar inte en mellanart. + +Trots att utgrĂ€vningarna inte hittade nĂ„gra höftben, fötter eller ben, tror Meave Leakey att Australopithecus anamensis ofta klĂ€ttrade i trĂ€d. TrĂ€dklĂ€ttraring var ett beteende hos tidiga hominider fram till de första Homo-arterna framtrĂ€dde för ungefĂ€r 2,5 miljoner Ă„r sedan. A. anamensis delar mĂ„nga drag med Australopithecus afarensis och kan mycket vĂ€l vara dess direkta föregĂ„ngare. + +Fossilerna (totalt tjugoen stycken) omfattar över- och underkĂ€kar, kraniefragment, och de övre och nedre delarna av ett ben (tibia). Dessutom har det tidigare nĂ€mnda fragmentet av en humerus som hittades i Kanapoi nu ocksĂ„ befunnits tillhöra denna art. + +2006 presenterades ett nytt fynd av A. anamensis, vilketutökade A. anamensis omrĂ„de in i nordöstra Etiopien. Mer precist handlar det om en fyndplats, kallad Asa Issie, dĂ€r det hittats 30 A. anamensis fossiler. Dessa nya fossiler, som kommer frĂ„n ett skogsomrĂ„de, omfattar den största hominida hörntanden till dags dato och det tidigaste upphittade femurbenet frĂ„n Australopithecus. Fyndet kom frĂ„n ett omrĂ„det som kallas Middle Awash, dĂ€r man gjort flera andra nutida fynd av Australopithecus och bara 9,7 kilometer frĂ„n platsen dĂ€r Ardipithecus ramidus, den mest moderna arten av Ardipithecus Ă€n upptĂ€cktes. Ardipithecus var en mer primitiv hominid, och anses ligga strax under Australopithecus pĂ„ det evolutionĂ€ra trĂ€det. A. anamensis-fyndet har daterats till ungefĂ€r 4,2 miljoner Ă„r sedan, medan Ar. ramidus-fyndet daterats till 4,4 miljoner Ă„r sedan, vilket betyder att det bara Ă€r 200 000 Ă„r mellan de tvĂ„ arterna, nĂ„got som fyller i Ă€nnu en lucka i tidslinjen för hominiderna innan Australopithecus-hominiderna. + +Referenser + +Noter + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Human Timeline (Interactive) â Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016). + +FörmĂ€nniskor +Australopithecus +Australopithecus africanus Ă€r en förhistorisk art av sydapa, en förmĂ€nniska frĂ„n Afrika. Dessa levde för cirka 2-3 miljoner Ă„r sedan. + +Beskrivning +Australopithecus africanus var cirka 1,40 meter lĂ„ng och vĂ€gde 30â60 kg. Under sin tvĂ„ miljoner lĂ„nga utveckling förĂ€ndrades knappt hjĂ€rnvolymen, som var omkring 400â500 cmÂł. + +Fynd +left|thumb|Australopithecus africanus +Ă r 1924 upptĂ€cktes "Barnet frĂ„n Taung", beskrivet som Australopithecus africanus, av anatomen Raymond Dart, som efter 73 dagars grĂ€vande och putsande lyckades frilĂ€gga ett kranium i grottan Makapan Cave i ett stenbrott i Taung i Sydafrika. Den lilla babyn hade uppenbarligen blivit offer för nĂ„gon stor rovfĂ„gel eftersom kraniet uppvisar spĂ„r efter klor. Dart, med sina anatomikunskaper, förstod att denna apa/förmĂ€nniska kunde gĂ„tt upprĂ€tt, eftersom översta ryggkotan balanserade pĂ„ ryggraden, och han trodde ocksĂ„ att den anvĂ€nt de "verktyg" av ben han hittat i grottan. + +Vid denna tid var tanken utesluten att det mĂ€nskliga slĂ€ktet skulle hĂ€rstamma frĂ„n Afrika. Darts tidigare lĂ€rare Grafton Elliot Smith och Arthur Keith talade emot dessa teorier, och hĂ€vdade att det mĂ„ste vara en apa, och Dart blev bitter och nedstĂ€md över vĂ€rldens reaktioner. Han drog sig tillbaka men gav inte upp sin Ă„sikt. Men andra, som Robert Broom trodde pĂ„ honom och hittade fler fossiler. + +Brooms fynd ledde till att andra antropologer Ă„kte dit, och Ă„r 1947 konstaterade anatomen Wilford Le Gros Clark att Dart haft rĂ€tt. Keith fick be om ursĂ€kt. Efter 23 Ă„rs vĂ€ntan gavs nu Ă€ntligen Dart Ă€ran för att ha hittat ett fynd av ett mĂ€nskligt fossil. + +FörmĂ€nniskor +Australopithecus +VetenskapsĂ„ret 1924 +Paranthropus/Australopithecus boisei Ă€r en fossil förmĂ€nniska frĂ„n Afrika. Tidigare kĂ€nd som Zinjanthropus boisei, eller mera populĂ€rt "Zinj". Forskare Ă€r ej eniga om ifall arten bör placeras i slĂ€ktet Australopithecus eller tillsammans med arterna aethiopicus och robustus i slĂ€ktet Paranthropus. Karaketeristiskt för boisei Ă€r de mycket kraftiga kindtĂ€nderna, och de stora tuggmusklerna fĂ€sta i en benkam pĂ„ hjĂ€ssan. Dessa drag tyder pĂ„ att den var anpassad för en mycket hĂ„rdtuggad diet, kanske hĂ„rda frön och rötter, och har givit den populĂ€rnamnet "nötknĂ€ckarmĂ€nniskan". PĂ„ senare Ă„r har detta dock ifrĂ„gasatts och man tror att de stora platta kindtĂ€nderna snarare var till för att Ă€ta grĂ€s. + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +FörmĂ€nniskor +Paranthropus +Astralkroppen (av latin astralis, stjĂ€rna) Ă€r enligt nyplatonikerna, Paracelsus och andra teosofer en osynlig organism som Ă€r den nĂ€rmaste och omedelbaraste bĂ€raren av mĂ€nniskosjĂ€len. Astralkroppen tĂ€nks dĂ„ som en utstrĂ„lning frĂ„n stjĂ€rnorna och anses finnas kvar nĂ„gon tid efter en mĂ€nniskas död. + +Se Ă€ven + Antroposofi + Aura + +KĂ€llor + +New Age +Paranormalt +Pseudovetenskap +Denna artikel handlar om det teosofiska och alternativmedicinska begreppet aura. Se ocksĂ„ Aura (olika betydelser). + +Aura Ă€r en sorts energifĂ€lt som teosofin och alternativmedicinen anser finns runt allt levande, och ibland Ă€ven födoĂ€mnen och vatten. Eventuellt kommer begreppet ursprungligen frĂ„n den Ă€ldre teosofins begrepp astralkropp. + +Den beskrevs i tvĂ„ av teosofins ordböcker, The Theosophical Glossary frĂ„n 1892 som brukar attribueras grundaren av teosofin, Helena Blavatsky, postumt och i Encyclopedic Theosophical Glossary av teosofiledaren Gottfried de Purucker pĂ„ 1930-talet, som "En subtil, osynlig substans eller ett fluidum som emanerar frĂ„n mĂ€nnisko- och djurkroppar och Ă€ven frĂ„n ting." + +I början av 1900-talet menade spiritualister att de vid seanser kunde se deltagarnas auror som ett ljusfenomen runt deras kroppar, senare har personer inom spiritualismen och andra mediala pĂ„stĂ„tt att de kan se auran Ă€ven i dagsljus. I Encyclopedic Theosophical Glossary'' Ă€r det ocksĂ„ tillagt att den kan ses av klĂ€rvoajanta och att alla mĂ€nniskor pĂ„verkar, och pĂ„verkas av, auran. DĂ€r beskrivs ocksĂ„ att auran kan ha olika fĂ€rger. + +I slutet av 1930-talet upptĂ€ckte den ryske elektronikingenjören Semjon Davidovitj Kirlian att föremĂ„l som utsattes för högfrekvent spĂ€nning och var placerade pĂ„ fotografisk film sĂ„ avbildades ett ljusfenomen runt och alldeles nĂ€ra föremĂ„len pĂ„ filmen. Han tolkade det som att det var auran som avbildades. Han presenterade metoden i slutet av 1950-talet och den kallas kirlianfotografering efter honom. PĂ„ 1960-talet och 1970-talet började vĂ€stvĂ€rldens New Age-kultur att intressera sig för kirlianfotografering. Senare kom enklare metoder, genom att en person placerar en eller tvĂ„ hĂ€nder pĂ„ plattor, och möjligen baserat pĂ„ potentialskillnader i hĂ€nderna eller möjligen genom spĂ€nningssĂ€tta hĂ€nderna och ha sensorer/elektroder runt personen, sĂ„ pĂ„stĂ„s en avbildning av auran kunna presenteras pĂ„ ett fotografi eller digital bild av personen. PĂ„ sĂ„dana aurafotografier, som ocksĂ„ ibland kallas kirlianfotografier, har auran stor utbredning och olika fĂ€rger. FĂ€rgerna och lystern pĂ„stĂ„s kunna visa saker som personens hĂ€lsotillstĂ„nd men Ă€ven om personlighet och framtid. SĂ„dana bilder skapas, sĂ€ljs och analyseras av mediala personer, spiritualister och spĂ„damer. + +Se Ă€ven + Gloria (symbol) + New Age + UtstrĂ„lning + +KĂ€llor + +New Age +Paranormalt +Astrologi (stjĂ€rnlĂ€ra eller stjĂ€rntydningskonst) Ă€r den förmenta konsten att av himlakropparnas rörelser och inbördes stĂ€llningar dra slutsatser om mĂ€nniskors öden. Astrologin som har flertusenĂ„riga rötter, syftar till att finna samband mellan placeringar och hĂ€ndelser mellan solsystemets himlakroppar, och karaktĂ€rer och hĂ€ndelser i mĂ€nniskors liv. Ordet "astrologi" kommer frĂ„n grekiskans αÏÏÏολογία, frĂ„n ÎŹÏÏÏÎżÎœ, astron, ("stjĂ€rna") och λÏÎłÎżÏ (logos), som har flera översĂ€ttningar, vanligtvis relaterade till "systematisk tanke eller tal". Astrologi Ă€r en pseudovetenskap. + +Astrologins historia +Astrologin hĂ€rrör frĂ„n Babylonien och utvecklades i Egypten och Persien. Den var under antiken till in i början av nyare tiden en ansedd vetenskap och samma disciplin som astronomin, uppbyggd av vidskepelse samt matematisk-astronomiska kunskaper. LĂ€ran omtalas bland annat i Bibeln (se Matt 2) dĂ€r det talas om stjĂ€rntydare (sĂ„ kallade mager) frĂ„n Persien som besöker Jesu födelseplats. I stort sett alla mytologier har haft Ă„skĂ„dningar av stjĂ€rnhimlen, det vill sĂ€ga kunskap om jorden och dess nĂ€rplaneter. Bland annat kunde man sĂ€rskilja mellan exempelvis meteoroider och kometer. Persern Nizami Aruzi behandlar astrologins grunder och berĂ€ttar om sin samtids berömda utövare av yrket i det tredje kapitlet i sitt verk Fyra skrifter. + +Astrologins tankegĂ„ngar +Den grundlĂ€ggande tanken bakom astrologin Ă€r vanligen nĂ„gon av följande: + + Ădet/Gud har bestĂ€mt vĂ„ra liv och skrivit om det i stjĂ€rnorna, i form av avstĂ„nd, vinklar och liknande. + VĂ„ra liv speglas rent fysiskt av himlakropparnas lĂ€gen som, till exempel mĂ„nen, och speglar Ă€ven vĂ„ra karaktĂ€rer. + VĂ„ra liv och himlakropparnas lĂ€gen vĂ€xelverkar med varandra, allt levande pĂ„verkas av samma naturliga krafter. + Att mĂ€nniskan - mikrokosmos - Ă€r en spegelbild av vĂ€rldsalltet - makrokosmos. Det som finns i det ena mĂ„ste ocksĂ„ finnas i det andra. + Inom tidningsastrologi och beslĂ€ktade idĂ©er kopplar man ihop personers egenskaper med det som man associerar deras födelseperiod med. Till exempel stjĂ€rnbilden Lejonet heter det för att stjĂ€rnorna bildar en figur som liknar det. StjĂ€rnbilden associeras med perioden 23 juli-22 augusti, eftersom solen stod i Lejonets stjĂ€rnbild under dessa dagar under antiken. Likadant placerar man resten av Solsystemets planeter och asteroider i ett horoskop för en given tidpunkt. + +Astrologi spelade en central roll inom magi och alkemi under antiken och lĂ„ngt in i modern tid. Man har under lĂ„ng tid anvĂ€nt sig av solens och stjĂ€rnornas plats pĂ„ himlen för att tolka det som sker pĂ„ Jorden. Speciellt solen har dyrkats i nĂ€rpĂ„ alla religioner och filosofier vĂ€rlden över. Man kopplar konceptet "Gud" till tidigare Soldyrkan. + +Astrologer +Det var vanligt att astronomer Ă€ven var astrologer en bit in pĂ„ 1600-talet. Till exempel var bĂ„de Tycho Brahe och Johannes Kepler sĂ„vĂ€l hovmatematiker, -astronomer och -astrologer i Prag och var dĂ€rmed skyldiga att stĂ€lla horoskop inför viktiga beslut. + +Kepler grubblade över tĂ€nkbara förklaringsmodeller men drog sig för att postulera en strikt kausal pĂ„verkan frĂ„n planeterna pĂ„ de jordiska skeendena. Allt han kunde konstatera var att saker pĂ„ jorden skedde i enlighet med att himlakropparna intog de olika, redan i senantiken utforskade interplanetĂ€ra aspekterna. Till dessa tillade han efter egna studier solekliptikans (zodiakens) delning pĂ„ 5 och 7, de sĂ„ kallade kvintil- och septilaspekterna. + +En av vĂ€rldens mest kĂ€nda astrologer Ă€r den franske siaren Nostradamus. Bland berömda sentida vetenskapsmĂ€n som engagerat sig i astrologi mĂ€rks framför allt C.G. Jung. + +Eftersom sideriska tabeller med planeternas positioner finns behöver en astrolog idag inte vara astronom. LikasĂ„ behöver dagens astrologer inte vara matematiker dĂ„ dataprogram övertagit de mödosamma utrĂ€kningarna. + +I modern tid sett har tvĂ„ franska matematiker/statistiker engagerat sig i frĂ„gan om astrologin hĂ„ller för en modern, naturvetenskaplig prövning, Paul Choisnard, Ă€ven kĂ€nd under pseudonymen Flambart, samt Michel Gauquelin. Den senare vann ryktbarhet genom sin upptĂ€ckt av "marseffekten", som pĂ„stĂ„s visa ett samband mellan Mars position pĂ„ himlen och framgĂ„ng inom vissa yrken (speciellt inom sport). Marseffekten har dock visat sig bero pĂ„ metodfel hos Gauqelin se Ă€ven + +Astrologiska skolor +Vid sidan av den vĂ€sterlĂ€ndska astrologisystemet mĂ€rks den vediska astrologin som kommer frĂ„n Indien och den kinesiska astrologin. + +Astrologer pĂ„stĂ„r sig kunna ge en karaktĂ€rstolkning av en mĂ€nniska med utgĂ„ngspunkt i hur relevanta himlakroppar stod vid födelseögonblicket, dock saknas en vederhĂ€ftig förklaring till hur stjĂ€rnor och planeter position pĂ„verkar en mĂ€nniskas personlighet. Astrologer anvĂ€nder Ă€ven sin konst för spĂ„dom. + +Astrologisk utrĂ€kning + +Ett horoskop Ă€r en beskrivning av en person, som utgĂ„r frĂ„n vilka stjĂ€rntecken Solen, MĂ„nen och planeterna Merkurius, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturnus samt berĂ€knade punkter som Ascendenten, Medium coeli och mĂ„nknutarna ligger i vid födelseögonblicket, och dels vilka vinkelförhĂ„llanden himlakropparna i detta ögonblick stod i förhĂ„llande till varandra. De vanligaste vinkelförhĂ„llanderna Ă€r konjunktion (0°), sextil (30°), kvadratur (90°) och opposition (180°). I modernare tid har Ă€ven Uranus, Neptunus, Pluto, Chiron samt ibland ett antal mindre betydande asteroider och dvĂ€rgplaneter kommit att inkluderas. Horoskopet Ă€r indelat i de tolv tecknen och varje tecken Ă€r 30 grader. Man rĂ€knar ocksĂ„ ut vinklar mellan planeter och punkter sĂ„ som stjĂ€rnhimlen sĂ„g ut vid födelseögonblicket. Man delar ocksĂ„ in horoskopet i 12 delar som kallas hus. Varje planetposition och konstellation betyder och har alltid betytt samma sak och oberoende av vilken astrolog som rĂ€knar ut horoskopet blir resultatet alltid detsamma. Ett undantag Ă€r husindelningen som varierar beroende pĂ„ vilket hussystem man anvĂ€nder, och i det hĂ€nseendet finns det mĂ„nga olika skolor. + +Ăven om den grundlĂ€ggande betydelsen Ă€r den samma för tecknen, planeterna, aspekterna och husen, varierar tolkningarna ofta avsevĂ€rt. Att till exempel Jupiter, vars grundlĂ€ggande betydelse Ă€r expansion, kan uttryckas pĂ„ vĂ€ldigt mĂ„nga olika sĂ€tt, dels beroende pĂ„ samverkan med övriga faktorer i horoskopet och dels beroende pĂ„ vad det Ă€r för individ och dennes kön, genetiska arv, uppvĂ€xtmiljö, Ă„lder, mognad, kultur etc Ă€r egentligen sjĂ€lvklart för alla som arbetat seriöst med astrologi. Det finns alltsĂ„ vĂ€ldigt olika sĂ€tt som en viss planetposition kan manifestera sig pĂ„. Man kan dĂ€rför bara tala om vad som Ă€r mer eller mindre sannolikt för hur en enskild persons liv kan komma att gestalta sig, med hĂ€nsyn till ovan nĂ€mnda faktorer. + +Kritik av astrologin som helhet + +Ur ett vetenskapshistoriskt perspektiv kan astrologi - innan astronomins framvĂ€xt som ett separat vetenskapligt fĂ€lt under 1600-talet - betraktas som en protovetenskap. Inom det moderna vetenskapliga samfundet betraktas dock astrologin som en pseudovetenskap. Bland annat kritiseras denna för att empiriska bevis saknas, att astrologer sinsemellan inte kan enas kring nĂ„gon teoretisk bas, och att de pĂ„stĂ„dda astrologiska effekterna frĂ„n olika himlakroppar Ă€r sĂ„ subtila och komplext samverkande att svĂ„righeterna behĂ€ftade med att utarbeta ett astrologiskt system Ă€r orimligt stora. + +UtifrĂ„n de hundratals empiriska studier som genomförts kan ocksĂ„ konstateras att astrologin saknar vetenskapliga meriter. Till de mer kĂ€nda studierna hör Rob Nanningas sĂ„ kallade astrotest, vilket genomfördes 1994. 50 astrologer, som sjĂ€lva deltagit under testets utformande, anmodades att para ihop födelsedata frĂ„n sju anonyma testpersoner med frĂ„geformulĂ€r ifyllda av dessa subjekt. Resultatet visade inte pĂ„ nĂ„gra signifikanta avvikelser frĂ„n slumpen, och gav inte heller stöd för att nĂ„gra skillnader i skicklighet mellan mer oerfarna och professionella astrologer existerar. + +Vetenskapliga tester av astrologin har genomförts av bland andra Gauquelin. Den engelske psykologen Hans JĂŒrgen Eysenck har gett ut ett arbete om astrologi: Astrologi - vetenskap eller vidskepelse? (av H J Eysenck och D K B Nias, 1984) . + +Kritik mot tidningsastrologi + tidningshoroskop skrivs sĂ„ vagt att det kan betyda i stort sett vad som helst, och dĂ€rmed kan passa in pĂ„ vem som helst + mĂ„nga nybörjarjournalister inom dags- och veckopressen har jobbat med att skriva horoskop utan utbildning, genom att bara skriva slumpmĂ€ssiga rĂ„d + man kan omöjligt sortera upp jordens hela befolkning i 12 sinsemellan klart skilda personlighetsgrupper + olika tidningars horoskop skiljer sig alltid Ă„t nĂ€r de rent logiskt borde ge exakt samma tips och rĂ„d om de bara skulle vara baserade pĂ„ fakta. + +Se Ă€ven + Kinesisk astrologi + Astrobotanik + Astronomi + StjĂ€rntecken + Vattumannens tidsĂ„lder + New Age + Horoskop + SpĂ„domar + Profetior + Barnumuttalande + +KĂ€llhĂ€nvisningar + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + "Astrologi" i James Randis uppslagsverk över pseudovetenskapliga fenomen + International Astronomical Unions förteckning av mindre planeter i solsystemet + Astrologins historia + Svenskt forum för astrologi, bĂ„de traditionell och esoterisk +Alternativmedicin, Ă€ven kallad komplementĂ€rmedicin, Ă€r ett samlingsbegrepp för behandlingar av Ă„kommor och sjukdomstillstĂ„nd som inte har prövats vetenskapligt enligt de regler som gĂ€ller behandlingar i den etablerade hĂ€lso- och sjukvĂ„rden, eller som har prövats vetenskapligt och fastslagits vara overksamma (samma grad av verkan som placebo). + +Begreppet alternativmedicin introducerades i mitten av 1970-talet i Sverige som en samlande beteckning för behandlingar som bland annat tidigare gick under beteckningen kvacksalveri, bland annat naprapati, och terapeutiska kulter vid namn naturlĂ€kemedel samt akupunktur, kiropraktik. + +Reglering av alternativmedicin + +Sverige +Alternativmedicinska behandlingar godkĂ€nns inte i det svenska sjukvĂ„rdssystemet som skall bedrivas "enligt vetenskap och beprövad erfarenhetâ, och det finns inga statligt subventionerade utbildningar. Branschorganisationen KAM har under ett antal Ă„r arbetat med frivillig certifiering av utbildningar för terapeuter och har som lĂ„ngsiktigt mĂ„l att fĂ„ dessa godkĂ€nda av myndigheterna. + +VĂ„rdpersonal Ă€r inte tillĂ„tna enligt PatientsĂ€kerhetslagen att erbjuda alternativmedicinska behandlingar. Det finns flera exempel dĂ€r legitimerad vĂ„rdpersonal som efter anvĂ€nt alternativmedicinska metoder förlorat sina legitimationer eller blivit varnade. DĂ€remot kan metoder som i vetenskapliga studier visat sig verksamma inlemmas i sjukvĂ„rden efter vederbörligt godkĂ€nnande. UtlĂ€ndska utbildningar som Ă€r godkĂ€nda av myndigheterna i andra EU-lĂ€nder accepteras inte heller i Sverige. + +Europa +Inom EU finns det olika sĂ€tt att reglera sektorn pĂ„. I exempelvis Frankrike Ă€r flera alternativmedicinska terapier godkĂ€nda av myndigheterna, men det Ă€r enbart lĂ€kare som fĂ„r utöva dessa. I England har skolmedicinsk sjukvĂ„rdspersonal rĂ€tt att utföra alternativmedicinska behandlingar. + +Patienter +MĂ„nga som anvĂ€nder alternativmedicin saknar tilltro till skolmedicinen, eller ser alternativmedicin som ett komplement. Detta innebĂ€r att patienterna sjĂ€lva mĂ„ste bedöma behandlingen i varje enskilt fall dĂ„ det saknas myndighetskontroll. Det finns inga garantier vare sig för att behandlingen faktiskt Ă€r verksam eller att den inte gör skada (direkt eller indirekt genom utebliven, verksam behandling). + +Forskning +Under senare Ă„r har en del alternativmedicinska metoder undersökts, dĂ€ribland vid Karolinska Institutet i Sverige. Det finns ett antal vetenskapliga studier som ger visst stöd för somliga effekter av exempelvis akupunktur och meditation. Vissa av dessa studier har senare blivit kritiserade, bland annat för att de inte till fullo tagit hĂ€nsyn till placeboeffekten. Inom en del medicinska omrĂ„den har den statliga myndigheten SBU granskat den samlade vetenskapliga grunden för olika metoder och redovisat vilka forskningsstudier som har publicerats. Det gĂ€ller positiva och negativa effekter av sĂ„vĂ€l konventionella (sĂ„ kallade skolmedicinska) metoder som av komplementĂ€rmedicinska metoder. + +AlternativmedicinkommittĂ©n (1989) +Den sĂ„ kallade AlternativmedicinkommittĂ©n överlĂ€mnade 1989 sitt huvudbetĂ€nkande SOU 1989:60. Till betĂ€nkandet hör Ă€ven bilagorna HĂ€lsohem SOU 1989:61, Alternativa terapier i Sverige SOU 1989:62, samt VĂ€rdering av alternativmedicinska teknologier SOU 1989:63. + +KAM-utredningen (2019) +Kjell Asplund fick 2017 ett utredningsuppdrag gĂ€llande sĂ„ kallad KomplementĂ€r och alternativ medicin som kommit att kallas KAM-utredningen (S 2017:05). I utredningsuppdraget talas det om ökat patientinflytande och patientsĂ€kerhet inom annan vĂ„rd och behandling Ă€n den som bedrivs inom den etablerade vĂ„rden. SOU 2019:28 + +I ett delbetĂ€nkande anges att det behövs större kunskap kring KAM inom den konventionella vĂ„rden och bland patienterna. + +Ett slutbetĂ€nkande publicerades som SOU 2019:28 , och föreslĂ„r bl.a. en ny lag om begrĂ€nsningar i rĂ€tten att yrkesmĂ€ssigt utföra vĂ„rd, ett generellt förbud mot att utreda och behandla allvarlig sjukdom, smittsamma sjukdomar, sjukdom hos barn och ungdomar eller i samband med graviditet, men symtomlindrande Ă„tgĂ€rder vara tillĂ„tna, dock inte kirurgi eller invasiva Ă„tgĂ€rder. + +Alternativmedicinska metoder + + Akupressur + Akupunktur + Alexander-tekniken + Analytisk trilogi + Antroposofisk medicin + Aromaterapi + Aston-massage + Auriculoterapi ("öronakupunktur") + Autogen trĂ€ning + AvspĂ€nning + Ayurveda + Bachs blomstermedicin + Bildterapi + BindvĂ€vsmassage + Bioenergiterapi + + Biologisk medicin + Biopati + Elektroterapi + Enderlein-metoden + Feldenkrais-metoden + Folkmedicin + Frigörande andning + FĂ€rgterapi + Homeopati + HĂ„ranalys + Irisdiagnostik + Kerstin Lindes rörelsetrĂ€ning + Ki-trĂ€ning + Kinesisk diagnostik + Kirlianfotografi + Kiropraktik + + Klassisk massage + Kneippkur + KomplementĂ€rmedicinsk kinesiologi + Koppning + Kraniosakralterapi + Laserterapi + Makrobiotik + Meditation + Mensendieck-trĂ€ning + Moxibustion + Musikterapi + Muskulering + Naprapati + Osteopati + Primalterapi + + Pulsdiagnostik + Qigong + Radiestesi + Healing + Reconnective Healing + Reiki + Rolfing + Rosen-metoden + Shiatsu + SpĂ€dbarnsmassage + Tarmsköljning + Tibetansk medicin + Traditionell kinesisk medicin + Skrattyoga + Zonterapi + Ărtmedicin + +Referenser + +Noter + +KĂ€llor + +Vidare lĂ€sning + Rose Shapiro: Suckers. How alternative medicine makes fools of us all. + Edzard Ernst & Simon Singh: Trick or Treatment? Alternative Medicine on Trial. + +Externa lĂ€nkar + http://www.notisum.se/rnp/sls/sfs/20100659.pdf http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/12603/a/153666 + Whats the harm? +Hans Albin Agaton Amelin, född den 25 januari 1902 i Chicago, död den 8 februari 1975 i Barrevik pĂ„ Orust, var en svensk mĂ„lare. + +Biografi +Amelin började 1915 arbeta som typografelev och studerade vid Tekniska skolan i Stockholm 1919â1921 samt pĂ„ egen hand i Paris. Han debuterade 1929 och var en av grundarna av FĂ€rg och Form 1932. Han var en politiskt medveten mĂ„lare och hans motiv Ă€r mĂ„nga gĂ„nger socialt betonade, ofta med kroppsarbetare, som till exempel i Fanor över bron (1936). Ăven landskap tillhör dock motivkretsen, liksom blomsterstilleben i expressionistisk stil. Amelin anslöt sig 1929 till Sveriges kommunistiska parti. + +Amelin mĂ„lade kraftigt med mustiga fĂ€rger, grova konturer och tjockt med fĂ€rg och Ă€r kĂ€nd för sitt temperament. Han Ă€r representerad pĂ„ Nationalmuseum, Moderna Museet, Göteborgs konstmuseum, Norrköpings konstmuseum, BohuslĂ€ns museum, Kalmar Konstmuseum, Ărebro lĂ€ns museum, Ărebro lĂ€ns landsting, Malmö museum, Konstmuseet i Skövde och Cassels donation i GrĂ€ngesberg. + +I samband med Internationella arbetsorganisationens 50-Ă„rsjubileum 1969 gav svenska Postverket ut ett frimĂ€rke med motivet Arbetarhuvud av Amelin. Han Ă€r gravsatt pĂ„ Bromma kyrkogĂ„rd. + +Offentliga verk i urval + En arbetsdag i Götaverken, fresk, Göteborgs kommunala mellanskola, 1950 +FristĂ€lld, fresk, 1944, i BurgĂ„rdens utbildningscentrum i Göteborg +Fresk, LĂ€rarhögskolan i Stockholm, Konradsberg + +KĂ€llor + +Noter + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Anders Thuresson: Verkstadsklubben som vĂ€rnar om konsten - HĂ€r finns flest Amelin pĂ„ Zenits webbplats + +Albin Amelin, Litografiska Museet. +Albin Amelin, Göteborgs konstmuseum. + +Representerade vid Nationalmuseum +Representerade vid Göteborgs konstmuseum +Svenska landskapsmĂ„lare +Svenska genremĂ„lare +StillebenmĂ„lare +Expressionister +Svenska mĂ„lare under 1900-talet +Gravsatta pĂ„ Bromma kyrkogĂ„rd +Födda 1902 +Avlidna 1975 +MĂ€n +Personer frĂ„n Chicago +Representerade vid Moderna museet +Representerade vid Norrköpings konstmuseum +Albert Laurentius Johannes Engström, född 12 maj 1869 i BĂ€ckefall i Lönneberga församling, Kalmar lĂ€n, död 16 november 1940 pĂ„ S:t Görans sjukhus i Stockholm (begravd i Hult), var en svensk tecknare, mĂ„lare och författare. + +Biografi +Albert Engström föddes i BĂ€ckefall i Lönneberga socken men redan 1873 flyttade familjen till Mariannelund och dĂ€rifrĂ„n nĂ€r han var nio Ă„r gammal flyttade familjen till Hult, ett litet stationssamhĂ€lle i nĂ€rheten av Eksjö, dĂ€r hans far blev stationsinspektor. + +Albert Engström kom in i fjĂ€rde klassen pĂ„ Norrköpings högre allmĂ€nna lĂ€roverk 1882, dĂ€r han var sekreterare i den litterĂ€ra elevföreningen FosterlĂ€ndska förbundet. Han tog studentexamen den 11 juni 1888, varefter han skrev vers och prosa i Eksjötidningen och SmĂ„lands Allehanda. PĂ„ hösten 1888 svarade han pĂ„ en tidningsannons och fick plats som informator hos familjen Norström i Mullsjö. I september 1889 kom Engström till Uppsala för studier i latin och grekiska vid Uppsala universitet, och skrev dĂ„ in sig i Ăstgöta nation. Under studietiden blev han god vĂ€n med Bruno Liljefors. Efter fyra terminer slutade han sina studier i Uppsala och reste pĂ„ vĂ„ren 1891 hem till Hult. Tiden i Uppsala Ă€gnade han Ă„t nationslivet, dĂ€r han blev bĂ„de klubbmĂ€stare och Rolighetsminister i Ăstgöta nation. Den 21 maj 1890 inkallades Engström till exercisen pĂ„ Hultsfreds slĂ€tt i Södra Vedbo kompani vid Kalmar regemente, vilken varade till 14 juni. I mitten av mars 1892 började Engström som frielev hos Carl Larsson pĂ„ Valands konstskola i Göteborg. Han stannade dĂ€r fram till vĂ„rterminens slut den 6 maj 1893. Ă r 1895 gick Engström pĂ„ Konstakademins etsarskola och tog lektioner för professor Axel Tallberg. Samma Ă„r blev han Ă€ven medlem i Publicistklubben i Stockholm. + +I augusti 1893 Ă„tervĂ€nde Engström till Göteborg, dĂ€r han bodde i sin gamla bostad Ullstorp vid ĂrgrytevĂ€gen. Han pĂ„började en bestĂ€llning han fĂ„tt pĂ„ rekommendation av Carl Larsson, att för Ălhallen Weise mĂ„la en fris med grotesker, som skulle bli en meter hög och 40 meter lĂ„ng. Redan 24 augusti kunde han meddela Carl Larsson, att han fullbordat mĂ„lningen och fĂ„tt 500 kronor i arvode. + +Engström var en mycket skicklig tecknare, och hans skĂ€mtteckningar med figurer som Kolingen och Bobban publicerades i tidningar som Söndags-Nisse och sedermera den egna tidningen Strix, och blev pĂ„ detta vis mycket kĂ€nda. Han gjorde mĂ„nga karikatyrer av dĂ„tidens överheter â prĂ€ster, borgare och officerare. Man kan dĂ€r se ett tydligt slĂ€ktskap med Döderhultarn. Som författare debuterade han 1905 med En bok. Ă r 1925 blev han tillförordnad professor i teckning vid Konsthögskolan och fungerade dĂ€r till Ă„r 1935. Han var engagerad i Folkomröstningen om rusdrycksförbud i Sverige 1922. Hans sympatier lĂ„g hos nej-sidan, ett engagemang som resulterade i affischen KrĂ€ftor krĂ€va dessa drycker!. Engström intrĂ€dde i Svea Orden 1917 och stannade som broder resten av livet. + +I samband med hans 60-Ă„rsdag öppnades en jubileumsutstĂ€llning i Konstakademien med teckningar och akvareller. Med anledning av firandet gav han ut en berĂ€ttelsesamling, "Vid en milstolpe". + +Engström tillbringade under nĂ„gra Ă„r mycket tid pĂ„ Gotska Sandön, och han har skrivit ett av de mest omfattande verken om ön. Han har Ă€ven gjort mĂ„nga akvareller och teckningar frĂ„n Roslagen, dĂ€r han hade en ateljĂ© pĂ„ en klippa i Grisslehamn. PĂ„ vĂ„ren 1938 försĂ€mrades Engströms syn sĂ„ starkt att han successivt tvingades sluta arbeta. + +I samband med hundraĂ„rsdagen av Engströms födelse gav Postverket ut tvĂ„ frimĂ€rken med ett sjĂ€lvportrĂ€tt av honom. + +Engström var Ă€ven syssling till Astrid Lindgrens far Samuel August Ericsson. + +Albert Engström museer + Albert Engström-samlingarna i Eksjö, som inĂ„r i Eksjö museums samlingar + Albert Engström-museet, författar- och konstnĂ€rsmuseum som var hans hem, i Grisslehamn. Museet i Grisslehamn drivs av Albert Engström-sĂ€llskapet och ansvarar för Albert Engströms ateljĂ©. + +Representerad +Engström Ă€r representerad vid bland annat Kalmar konstmuseum, Norrköpings konstmuseum, Nationalmuseum, Ateneum. + +Familj +Engström var son till lantbrukaren Laurentius (Lars) Erhard Engström (född 1841 i VĂ„nga, Ăstergötlands lĂ€n, död 1926 i Hult, Jönköpings lĂ€n) och Antigonia Margareta (Gonny) Lindner (född 1843 i Vena, Kalmar lĂ€n, död 1924 i Hult). Fadern blev sedermera tjĂ€nsteman vid TĂ€ndsticksfabriken i Mariannelund och senare stationsinspektor vid NĂ€ssjö-Oskarshamns jĂ€rnvĂ€g, först i Bohult och dĂ€refter i Hult frĂ„n 1878 och fram till sin död. + +Albert Engströms syskon: Fredrik Laurentius född 1871 i Lönneberga, död 1962 i Stockholm, Antigonia Maria Hildegard, född 1873 i HĂ€ssleby, Jönköpings lĂ€n, död 1959 i Stockholm, Signe Antigonia Eleonora, född 1879 i Hult, Jönköpings lĂ€n, död 1922 i Falun, samt Torbjörn Lars Einar, född 1887 i Hult, död 1930 i Vetlanda. + +Albert Engström trĂ€ffade Sigrid Sparre (1868-1944) i slutet av februari 1892, förlovade sig med henne samma Ă„r och de gifte sig 23 september 1894. Barn: Malin (1897â1967), Lisa (1901â1982) och Lars-Bruno (1910â1972). Malin var under Ă„ren 1916â1918 förlovad med Evert Taube. + +Albert Engström begravdes söndagen den 24 november 1940 pĂ„ Hults kyrkogĂ„rd bredvid sina förĂ€ldrar. JordfĂ€stningen förrĂ€ttades av hans gamle vĂ€n, hovpredikanten Gustaf Malmberg, som bland annat sade: "I denna bygd har hans vagga stĂ„tt. Nu kommer han Ă„ter frĂ„n det skiftande livet för att gĂ„ till vila vid fars och mors sida. Ett mĂ€nniskoliv Ă€r avslutat, rikt och sĂ€llsamt som en saga, underbarare Ă€n den, som spĂ€nde sin skimrande himmel över den lille lĂ€sande gossen i stationshuset...". + +Av sin bekant, mĂ„lare Albert Edelfelt beskrevs Albert Engström till följande: En af de roligaste jag mött hĂ€r Ă€r Albert Engström, karrikatyrtecknaren frĂ„n Söndagsnisse. En glad Upsalastudent och filolog (Kan utmĂ€rkt bra hebreiska, grekiska och latin och bland andra sprĂ„k ocksĂ„ finska) och en hjertans qvick menniska. Han sjunger sina visor sĂ„ urkomiskt att jag aldrig tror Jag skrattat sĂ„. + +UtmĂ€rkelser +Engström intogs 1901 i stockholmslogen Carl Michael av Samfundet SHT, dĂ€r han fick namnet Strix. Ă r 1908 utsĂ„gs han till ordensskald för sĂ€llskapet Pelarorden i Stockholms skĂ€rgĂ„rd. Han invaldes i Konstakademien 1919 och var ledamot av Svenska Akademien frĂ„n 1922, dĂ„ han ersatte Oscar Montelius pĂ„ stol nr 18. Han invaldes 1926 i SĂ€llskapet FebruariGubbarna, stiftat 1852, ett sĂ€llskap med "kulturella intressen i angenĂ€m och kamratlig samvaro". + +Engström blev filosofie hedersdoktor i Uppsala 1927, tillsammans med Bruno Liljefors. + +Asteroiden 7548 Engström Ă€r uppkallad efter honom. + +Albert Engström-sĂ€llskapet + +SĂ€llskapet bildades 1981 med syftet att sprida kunskap om Albert Engström och hans konstnĂ€rliga verksamhet, och att genom olika aktiviteter visa hans verk samt hĂ„lla hans författarskap och konstnĂ€rskap levande. I Grisslehamn förvaltar och bedriver sĂ€llskapet museiverksamhet vid EngströmgĂ„rden och AteljĂ©n. SĂ€llskapet delar Ă„rligen ut Albert Engström-priset. + +SĂ€llskapet Ă€r ett av de största litterĂ€ra sĂ€llskapen i Sverige med över 1700 medlemmar och har sitt sĂ€te i Grisslehamn, men har Ă€ven en smĂ„landssektion med sĂ€te i Eksjö. + +Galleri + +Bibliografi + + VĂ€nner och bekanta uppsnappade i förbifarten 1896. + Pyttans AâB och CâD-lĂ€ra 1896. + En gyldenne Book. 1897. + + MedmĂ€nniskor. 1899. + Bland kolingar, bönder och herremĂ€n. 1900. + + Bladnegrer och annat folk. En samling vidriga fysionomier, kĂ€rleksfullt Ă„tergifna. 1901. + Tokar, kloka som folk Ă€r mest. Teckningar med text. 1901. + Ăfver ett halfttjog vackra smĂ„landsvisor och en vals. Med teckningar och musik av Albert Engström och Nalle HalldĂ©n. 1902. + TrĂ„kmĂ„nsar och gyckelbockar. Teckningar med text. 1904. + En bok. 1905. + Riksdagsgubbar. 1906, 1915. + Mitt lif och leverne. Stockholm, Ljus, 1907. + Ăventyr och hugskott. 1908. + Ett tjog teckningar ur Albert Engströms portfölj. 1908. + En bok till. 1909. + VĂ€ggprydnader och bordsdekorationer. 1909 + + Grandet och bjĂ€lken. Teckningar 1910. + Genom mina guldbĂ„gade glasögon. Stockholm, Lundquist, 1911. + Kryss och landkĂ€nning. 1912. + Ă t HĂ€cklefjĂ€ll. 1913. + BlĂ€ck och saltvatten. Stockholm, E. Lundquist, 1914. + Riksdagsgubbar. Med hexameter. 1915. + Hemma och pĂ„ luffen. 1916. + Medan det jĂ€ser. 1918. + Tio teckningar. 1919. + Min 12: te bok. 1919 + En gyldenne Book, 1919. Andra upplagan i format 22 gĂ„nger 29 cm, med Företal av AE. + RĂ€nningehus. 1920. + HemspĂ„nad och taggtrĂ„d. 1921. + Adel, prĂ€ster, smugglare, bönder. 1923, 1935. + Xylografen. Ett portrĂ€tt i 10 litografier. 1923. + August Strindberg och jag. 1923. NyutgĂ„va 1986. + Moskoviter. 1924. + Agnarna och vetet.1925. + En konstig blandning. 1925. + Gotska Sandön. 1926. + Med penna och tallpipa. 1927. NyutgĂ„va 1953. + Anders Zorn. 1928. + Ur mina memoarer. Stockholm, Bonnier, 1927 + Ur mina memoarer och annat. 1929. + SmĂ„landshistorier. 1929. + Vid en milstolpe. 1929. + Bouppteckning. 1930. + Mot aftonglöden. 1932. + Naket o.s.v. 1934. + Med Kaaparen till Afrika. 1937. + LĂ€sebok för svenska folket. 1938. + +Postum utgivning + SjĂ€lvdeklaration. 1944. + RoslagsberĂ€ttelser. 1942. + SmĂ„landsberĂ€ttelser. 1942. + Lukas Mosak, Albert Engströms första bok. Med ett förord av Ernst Malmberg.1944. + Pyttans A-B och C-D-lĂ€ra eller Antibarbarus diktad i augusti 1896 av farbror Acke, farbror Albert, farbror Verner⊠Med teckningar av Albert Engström. 1946. + Siktat och sammalet. Redigerad av Helmer LĂ„ng. 1952. + +Skrifter +Skrifter (28 delar, 1939-1941; flera nya upplagor de följande Ă„ren) +1. Mitt liv och leverne +2. En bok +3. Ăventyr och hugskott +4. En bok till +5. Min 5:e bok : berĂ€ttelser och stĂ€mningar +6. [http://runeberg.org/guldglas/ Genom mina guldbĂ„gade glasögon] +7. Kryss och landkĂ€nning +8. BlĂ€ck och saltvatten +9-10. Ă t HĂ€cklefjĂ€ll +11. Hemma och pĂ„ luffen +12. Medan det jĂ€ser +13. Min 12:te bok +14. HemspĂ„nad och taggtrĂ„d +15. RĂ€nningehus +16. Adel, prĂ€ster, smugglare, bönder +17. En konstig blandning +18. Moskoviter +19. Ur mina memoarer och annat +20. Med penna och tallpipa +21. Vid en milstolpe +22. Bouppteckning +23. Mot aftonglöden +24. Naket o. s. v. +25. Med Kaaparen till Afrika +26. LĂ€sebok för svenska folket +27. Gotska Sandön +28. Anders Zorn (första upplagan 1928) + +Referenser + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + +Schiller, Harald (1970). HĂ€ndelser man minns - en krönika 1920â1969 + +WebbkĂ€llor + Albert Engström SĂ€llskapet + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Albert Engström SĂ€llskapet +Albert Engström pĂ„ Projekt Runeberg +Albert Engström pĂ„ Eksjö museum + + + + +Födda 1869 +Avlidna 1940 +Ledamöter av Svenska Akademien +Svenska humorister +Karikatyrtecknare +Hedersdoktorer vid Uppsala universitet +Södermalmsprofiler +Svenska skĂ€mttecknare +Svenska satirtecknare +Svenska serieskapare +SBH +Hedersledamöter vid Ăstgöta nation i Uppsala +Svenska illustratörer +Personer frĂ„n Lönneberga socken +MĂ€n +Roslagen i kulturen +Representerade vid Nationalmuseum +Representerade vid Ateneum +Representerade vid Norrköpings konstmuseum +Svenska mĂ„lare under 1900-talet +Svenska tecknare under 1900-talet +Svenska författare under 1900-talet +Svenska affischkonstnĂ€rer +SmĂ„lĂ€ndska författare +Ledamöter av Konstakademien +Erik Alvar Jansson, född 30 november 1922 i Kiruna, död 11 januari 1991 i Stockholm, var en svensk mĂ„lare och konstpedagog. + +Alvar Jansson vĂ€xte upp i en gruvarbetarfamilj i Kiruna och om man var gruvarbeteson dĂ€ruppe, hade man, enligt honom sjĂ€lv, endast tvĂ„ arbetsplatser att vĂ€lja pĂ„ gruvan eller jĂ€rnvĂ€gen. Alvar valde jĂ€rnvĂ€gen men han stannade endast ett Ă„r. Hans stora intresse var att teckna och mĂ„la och under nĂ„gra semesterdagar i december 1941 reste han till Stockholm, tog kontakt med Isaac GrĂŒnewald, (det var den konstnĂ€r som han kĂ€nde till i Stockholm), för att fĂ„ rĂ„d av honom ifall hans anlag och talang var tillrĂ€ckligt stora för att Ă€gna sig Ă„t konstnĂ€rskallet. GrĂŒnewald tyckte att hans kvaliteter dög och skrev ett rekommendationsbrev om 6 mĂ„naders tjĂ€nstledighet. Detta beviljades dock inte och Alvar sa upp sig och började pĂ„ GrĂŒnewalds mĂ„larskola januari 1942, nĂ€stan tjugo Ă„r gammal. + +Efter kriget 1947 började han pĂ„ Konstakademien dĂ€r han bland annat fick Ragnar Sandberg som lĂ€rare. Redan vid denna tid hade Alvar Jansson en klar uppfattning om att inte lĂ„ta sig pĂ„verkas och styras av trender och tidsanda. PĂ„ sina första utstĂ€llningar i Stockholm 1955, 1957 och 1960, blev han betraktad som en enstöring, som mĂ„lade tvĂ€rtemot alla rĂ„dande konstriktningar. Han skildrade realistiskt och i dĂ€mpade fĂ€rger mĂ€nniskor, djur och natur. De Ă€mnen han dĂ„ valde, Ă„terkom i hans motivval under hela hans liv. Ofta var det hemmiljön i Kiruna, gruvarbetare pĂ„ hemvĂ€g frĂ„n arbetet, gruvarbetarnas omklĂ€dningsrum med gamla och helt unga arbetare, en skadad arbetare som bĂ€rs ivĂ€g av sin arbetskamrater. Men Ă€ven intrĂ€ngande portrĂ€tt och sensuella modellmĂ„lningar utgör en viktig del av hans produktion. + +Alvar Janssons mĂ„leri kan kallas realistiskt, ett klassiskt mĂ„leri med inspiration och idĂ©er frĂ„n de stora mĂ€starna Tizian, El Greco, Chardin, Francisco de Goya eller Munch, med vilka han ocksĂ„ kĂ€nde sig beslĂ€ktad och han hĂ€vdade: "Nej, jag har inte upptĂ€ckt nĂ„got nytt - men jag har upptĂ€ckt nĂ„got gammalt". Han avfĂ€rdade den nya konsten som spekulativ, för att den sneglar mot Ă„skĂ„daren och krĂ€ver dess medverkan istĂ€llet för att vara sig sjĂ€lv nog. "MĂ„leri", sa han "har mer att göra med en slags psykisk geometri och mekanik i ett ogripbart rum dĂ€r en kĂ„lrot inte Ă€r en rund form, inte en fĂ€rgyta, inte en volym, inte ens en kĂ„lrot - utan nĂ„got sĂ„ konstigt som en mĂ„lad kĂ„lrot". Det som var drivkraften för Alvar Jansson var glĂ€djen att se, lusten att Ă„terge det sedda. + +Ă ren 1974â1976 var Jansson förestĂ„ndare för Valands konstskola i Göteborg och 1978â1984 var han professor i mĂ„leri vid Konsthögskolan i Stockholm. Alvar Jansson Ă€r begravd pĂ„ Norra begravningsplatsen utanför Stockholm. + +Representerad +Moderna museet +Statens portrĂ€ttsamling +Göteborgs konstmuseum +BorĂ„s konstmuseum +Norrköpings konstmuseum +Konstmuseet i Skövde +Sundsvalls museum +Bonniers portrĂ€ttsamling + +KĂ€llor + +Svenska professorer i mĂ„leri +Professorer vid Kungliga Konsthögskolan +Svenska konstpedagoger +Svenska mĂ„lare under 1900-talet +Representerade vid Göteborgs konstmuseum +Representerade vid Bonnierska PortrĂ€ttsamlingen +Representerade vid Moderna museet +Personer frĂ„n Kiruna +Gravsatta pĂ„ Norra begravningsplatsen i Stockholm +Födda 1922 +Avlidna 1991 +MĂ€n +Ett anvĂ€ndarnamn, (ibland login-namn eller bara login) Ă€r i datorsammanhang det namn som ger en person eller en grupp av personer en anvĂ€ndaridentitet för en dator i nĂ„got sammanhang. Ofta mĂ„ste Ă€ven ett lösenord anges för att sĂ€kerstĂ€lla identiteten. Vanligen Ă€r anvĂ€ndarnamnet knutet till ett anvĂ€ndarkonto. AnvĂ€ndarnamn och lösenord utgör tillsammans en anvĂ€ndares inloggningsuppgifter. + +AnvĂ€ndarnamnet fungerar i vissa fall Ă€ven som en pseudonym, till exempel pĂ„ en nĂ€tgemenskap. + +Se Ă€ven + AnvĂ€ndare + Administratör + +DatasĂ€kerhet +Axel Nilsson kan syfta pĂ„: + + Axel Nilsson (BanĂ©r) (1513â1554), adelsman och godsĂ€gare + Axel Nilsson (museiman) (1872â1924), museiman och kulturhistoriker + Axel Nilsson (skĂ„despelare) (1876â1953), skĂ„despelare + Axel Nilsson (politiker) (1882â1961), lantbrukare, politiker och riksdagsledamot för Folkpartiet + Axel Nilsson (konstnĂ€r) (1889â1980), konstnĂ€r + Axel Nilsson (ishockeyspelare) (1904â1978), ishockeyspelare + Axel Nilsson (tecknare) (1909â2005), tecknare och mĂ„lare +Anders Isaksson, död efter 1445 (tidigast, levde Ă€nnu 18 januari 1445), vĂ€pnare, Svenskt riksrĂ„d och innehavare av ĂstanĂ„ sĂ€teri pĂ„ 1430-talet. Anders Isaksson var son till hĂ€radshövdingen Isak Björnsson (BanĂ©r) och Gertrud Andersdotter, dotter till den upplĂ€ndske frĂ€lsemannen Anders Tomasson i Lisa. + +Anders Isaksson var medlem av riksrĂ„det och deltog i Kalmar möte 9 juli 1438. Han stod pĂ„ riksdrotsen Krister Nilssons sida under dennes konflikt med Karl Knutsson. + +Barn +Anders Isaksson var gift med IngegĂ€rd Svensdotter (Pik), dotter till vĂ€pnaren Sven Pik, och de hade flera barn, bland dem: + +Isak Andersson. Levde 1460. +Jakob Andersson (BanĂ©r) till ĂstanĂ„ +Erik Andersson Ericus AndrĂŠ, död 7 maj 1504, inskriven vid Leipzigs universitet 1442, domprost i Uppsala 26 januari 1463-1504. Begravd pĂ„ stora gĂ„ngen i Uppsala domkyrka. +Peder Andersson till ĂstanĂ„ + +KĂ€llor + +Svenska vĂ€pnare +Ătten BanĂ©r +MĂ€n +Födda 1300-talet +Avlidna 1400-talet +Personer i Sverige under 1400-talet +Axel Nilsson (BanĂ©r), död 2 mars 1554 i Jönköping, var en svensk riddare och riksrĂ„d. Ăgde bland annat godset Djursholm dit Ă€ven Lidingön hörde fram till 1774. + +Biografi +Hans förĂ€ldrar var Nils Eskilsson (BanĂ©r) och Ingeborg Larsdotter Tott. Axel Nilsson uppfostrades 1529-1534 hos den danske riksmarsken Mogens GĂžye och blev riksrĂ„d, troligen redan 1540 och anvĂ€ndes av Gustav Vasa i ett flertal uppdrag. Han avled kort efter Ă„terkomsten frĂ„n en beskickning till Tyskland under 1553. + +Han blev 4 oktober 1544 slottsloven pĂ„ Stockholms slott och 1550 hövitsman i Jönköping. Axel Nilsson avled 1554 i Jönköping och begravdes i Danderyds kyrka. + +Axel Nilsson Ă€gde godsen Djursholms slott i Danderyds socken, EkenĂ€s slott i Ărtomta socken och HĂ€ndelö gĂ„rd i Sankt Johannes socken. + +Familj +Axel Nilsson gifte sig 3 mars 1538 i Söderköping med Margareta Pedersdotter Bielke (1510-1557). Hon var dotter till riddaren och riksrĂ„det Peder Turesson (Bielke) och Carin Nilsdotter till Wik. De fick tillsammans barnen Nils Axelsson BanĂ©r (1539â1559), underamiralen Peder Axelsson BanĂ©r (1540â1565), Lars BanĂ©r (död före 1551), Erik BanĂ©r (död före 1551), Ingeborg BanĂ©r (1541â1541), Anna BanĂ©r (1541â1541), lagmannen Sten Axelsson BanĂ©r (1546â1600) och riddaren Gustaf BanĂ©r (1547â1600). Barnen tog efternamnet BanĂ©r. Sönerna Sten och Gustav avrĂ€ttades Ă„r 1600 vid Linköpings blodbad. + +KĂ€llor + +Noter + +Svenska riddare +MĂ€n +Födda okĂ€nt Ă„r +Avlidna 1554 +Svenska riksrĂ„d under 1500-talet +Personer under Ă€ldre vasatiden +Ătten BanĂ©r +Abborrfiskar (Percidae) Ă€r en familj i ordningen abborrartade fiskar som lever i sött och brĂ€ckt vatten pĂ„ norra halvklotet. + +Kroppen Ă€r hoptryckt frĂ„n sidorna och beklĂ€dd med hĂ„rda kamfjĂ€ll. TĂ€nderna Ă€r starka och spetsiga. De har tvĂ„ ryggfenor som kan vara förenade, dock med en tydlig grĂ€ns. Bukfenorna Ă€r belĂ€gna under bröstfenorna. Familjen omfattar 10 slĂ€kten med omkring 200 arter, av vilka abborre, gĂ€rs och gös förekommer i Sverige. + +Stora arter kan nĂ„ en lĂ€ngd upp till 100 cm. Det vetenskapliga namnet Ă€r bildat av det grekiska ordet för abborre (perkĂ©). + +SlĂ€kten + sanddarterslĂ€ktet (Ammocrypta) Jordan, 1877. 5 arter + kristalldarterslĂ€ktet (Crystallaria) Jordan och Gilbert in Jordan, 1885. 1 art + slĂ€tbuksdarterslĂ€ktet (Etheostoma) Rafinesque, 1819. 135 arter + gĂ€rsslĂ€ktet (Gymnocephalus) Bloch, 1793. 4 arter + abborrslĂ€ktet (Perca) LinnĂ©, 1758. 3 arter + percarinaslĂ€ktet (Percarina) Nordmann, 1840. 1 art + strĂ€vbuksdarterslĂ€ktet (Percina) Haldeman, 1842. 38 arter + aspreteslĂ€ktet (Romanichthys) Dumitrescu, Banarescu och Stoica, 1957. 1 art + gösslĂ€ktet (Sander) Oken, 1817. 5 arter + streberslĂ€ktet (Zingel) Cloquet, 1817. 4 arter + +Referenser + +Abborrartade fiskar +Abraham Eriksson Leijonhufvud kan syfta pĂ„: + + Abraham Eriksson Leijonhufvud den Ă€ldre (död 1556), riddare + Abraham Eriksson Leijonhufvud den yngre (död 1618), friherre +Abraham Kristiernsson (Leijonhufvud), död 1499, var ett svenskt riksrĂ„d. + +Biografi +Abraham Kristiernsson (Leijonhufvud) var son till vĂ€pnaren och fogden Kristiern Gregersson (Leijonhufvud) och MĂ€rta Pedersdotter. Han nĂ€mns som riksrĂ„d 20 juni 1491. 1496 gav han tillsammans med sin hustru en gĂ„rd i Arboga till grĂ„brödraklostret i Arboga. 16 februari 1499 deltog han i förlikningen mellan Sten Sture och de svenska riksrĂ„den, och utfĂ€ste tillsammans med riksrĂ„den drottning Kristinas morgongĂ„va 20 februari, men uppges 31 oktober samma Ă„r vara död. Abraham Kristiernsson begravdes i Arboga kloster. + +Omtalas första gĂ„ngen 1462 i samband med att han sĂ„lde sin andel i sin mors gĂ„rd BĂ„rarp till Ă ke Axelsson Tott och förde dĂ„ vapen, han var alltsĂ„ vuxen. 1471 ger han i stĂ€llet för en tidigare morgongĂ„va pĂ„ 600 mark sin hustru Birgitta MĂ„nsdotter (Natt och Dag), gĂ„rden i Brunsberg och tvĂ„ andra gĂ„rdar. 1472 fick Abraham Kristiernsson som tack för tjĂ€nster till Sten Sture den Ă€ldre försĂ€kran pĂ„ att behĂ„lla de gods som Broder Svensson och Klas Niklisson köpt Ă„t honom. + +24 februari 1479 fick han Ellholmen och bytte 1492 till sig Ekeberg av sin hustrus systerson Jöns Jönsson (vingat svĂ€rd). 1491 och 1493 omtalas han som riksrĂ„d dĂ„ han i Telge stadfĂ€ste den 1488 i Reval ingĂ„ngna förlikningen med livlĂ€ndska orden. 1 + +Egendom +Abraham Kristiernsson Ă€gde Brunsberg i Ytterselö socken, Elleholm i Arboga landsförsamling, Ekeberg i Lillkyrka socken, Kvicksta i Toresunds socken, BĂ€rarp i Revinge socken. + +Familj +Abraham Kristiernsson gifte sig före 1 juli 1471 med Birgitta MĂ„nsdotter (Natt och Dag), dotter till MĂ„ns Bengtsson (Natt och Dag) och MĂ€rta Klausdotter Plata. De fick tillsammans barnen riksrĂ„det Erik Abrahamsson (Leijonhufvud) (död 1520) och riddaren Sten Abrahamsson (död efter 1515). Efter Abraham Kristiernssons död gifte Birgitta MĂ„nsdotter om sig med vĂ€pnaren Anders Persson (vingat svĂ€rd). + +Referenser + +Noter + +Svenska riksrĂ„d under 1400-talet +Leijonhufvud +MĂ€n +Födda 1400-talet +Avlidna 1499 +Abraham Pedersson Brahe, född 25 mars 1569, död 16 mars 1630, var en svensk greve och riksrĂ„d, son till Per Brahe den Ă€ldre och Beata Gustavsdotter Stenbock. + +Abraham Brahe föddes pĂ„ Rydboholms slott som den yngste av den mĂ€ktige Per Brahes söner. Som sina bröder vacklade han i början i lojalitet mellan Sigismund och hertig Karl. Han deltog i krigstĂ„get 1598 pĂ„ Sigismunds sida. Han försonade sig dock dĂ€refter med hertigen och satt med i domstolen i Linköping 1600. 1602 utnĂ€mndes han till hovrĂ„d och dĂ€refter till riksrĂ„d. Han blev dĂ€refter lagman i VĂ€stmanlands och Dalarnas lagsaga, samtidigt som han fick behĂ„lla det tidigare stĂ„thĂ„llarskapet över GĂ€vle slott och Norrland. Brahe var Ă€ven 1607â1622 Uppsala universitets kansler och blev 1614 bisittare i Svea hovrĂ€tt. Trots sina mĂ„nga uppdrag levde han mest pĂ„ sin gĂ„rd Rydboholm och var en driftig hushĂ„llare. + +Abraham Brahe Ă€r kĂ€nd som författare av Abraham Brahes Tidebok, en slags dagboksanteckningar som trots sina ganska korthuggna formuleringar utgör en viktig kĂ€lla för kĂ€nnedomen och bakgrunden till 1500-talets svenska politiska liv. + +Gift 1599 med Elsa Gyllenstierna (1577â1650) dotter till Nils Gyllenstierna (1526â1601) av den friherrliga Ă€tten Gyllenstierna af Lundholm. + +Barn: + Ebba Abrahamsdotter Brahe (1600â1638) + Per Brahe den yngre (1602â1680) + Margareta Brahe (1603â1667) + Nils Brahe den Ă€ldre (1604â1632) + Christina Brahe (1609â1681) + +KĂ€llor + + Svensk uppslagsbok. Malmö 1939. + + +Svenska grevar +LagmĂ€n i VĂ€stmanlands och Dalarnas lagsaga +Svenska riksrĂ„d under 1600-talet +Universitetskanslerer i Sverige +Svenska stĂ„thĂ„llare +Abraham Pedersson +Personer under Ă€ldre vasatiden +Födda 1569 +Avlidna 1630 +MĂ€n +Svensk uppslagsbok +SBH +Absalon kan avse: + + Absalom â son till kung David enligt Gamla testamentet + Absalon, fili mi â musikaliskt verk av Josquin des Prez (1440â1521) + HDMS Absalon (L16) â danskt örlogsfartyg av Absalon-klass + Absalon (företag) â ett tidigare danskt försĂ€kringsbolag + +Personer + Absalon Hvide (cirka 1128â1201) â dansk Ă€rkebiskop och statsman + Julien Absalon (född 1980) â fransk mountainbikecyklist +Spricklavar, Acarospora Ă€r ett slĂ€kte av lavar som beskrevs av Abramo Bartolommeo Massalongo. Acarospora ingĂ„r i familjen Acarosporaceae, ordningen Acarosporales, klassen Lecanoromycetes, divisionen sporsĂ€cksvampar, och riket svampar. + +Lavarna utmĂ€rks bland annat av mĂ„ngcelliga sporsĂ€ckar, sĂ„ kallade asci, med runda sporer. Det finns cirka 40 arter i Sverige. + +SlĂ€ktet Acarospora indelas i följande arter + Acarospora admissa + Acarospora affinis + Acarospora anomala +Acarospora argillacea (Arnold) Hue +Acarospora assimulans Vain. +Acarospora atrata Hue +Acarospora badiofusca (Nyl.) Th. Fr. +Acarospora bella (Nyl.) Jatta +Acarospora bohlinii H. Magn. +Acarospora boliviana H. Magn. +Acarospora boulderensis H. Magn. + Acarospora brattiae +Acarospora brevilobata H. Magn. + Acarospora brouardii + Acarospora brunneola +Acarospora bullata Anzi + Acarospora bylii + Acarospora calcarea +Acarospora caesiofusca (MĂŒll.Arg.) H. Magn. +Acarospora carnegiei Zahlbr. +Acarospora cervina A. Massal. +Acarospora cervinoides H. Magn. +Acarospora charidema +Acarospora chrysops (Tuck.) H. Magn. +Acarospora commixta H. Magn. + Acarospora contigua + Acarospora contraria +Acarospora convoluta Darb. +Acarospora crozalsii de Lesd. +Acarospora depressa H. Magn. +Acarospora discreta (Ach.) Arnold + Acarospora dispersa +Acarospora dissipata H. Magn. + Acarospora elevata + Acarospora epilutescens +Acarospora epithallina H. Magn. + Acarospora erythrophora +Acarospora euganea + Acarospora fennica +Acarospora franconica H. Magn. +Acarospora friesii H. Magn. +Acarospora fuscata (Schrad.) Th. Fr. (Svenska: Brun spricklav) +Acarospora gallica H. Magn. +Acarospora geophila H. Magn. +Acarospora glaucocarpa (Wahlenb. ex Ach.) Körb. +Acarospora glypholecioides H. Magn. +Acarospora gobiensis H. Magn. +Acarospora gwynnii Dodge & Rudolph + Acarospora hassei +Acarospora helvetica H. Magn. +Acarospora heppii (NĂ€geli ex Hepp) NĂ€geli in Körb. +Acarospora heufleriana Körb. +Acarospora hilaris (Dufour) Hue +Acarospora hospitans H. Magn. + Acarospora hultingii +Acarospora immersa Fink ex Hedr. +Acarospora impressula Th. Fr. + Acarospora insignis +Acarospora insolata H. Magn. +Acarospora intermedia H. Magn. +Acarospora interrupta +Acarospora interspersa H. Magn. +Acarospora invadens H. Magn. +Acarospora irregularis H. Magn. +Acarospora jenisejensis H. Magn. +Acarospora laqueata Stizenb. +Acarospora lorentzii (MĂŒll. Arg.) Hue +Acarospora macrospora (Hepp) Bagl. +Acarospora malmeana H. Magn. +Acarospora marciiv H. Magn. +Acarospora maroccana de Lesd. +Acarospora massiliensis (Harm.) H. Magn. +Acarospora mendozana H. Magn. +Acarospora mexicana +Acarospora microcarpa (Nyl.) Wedd. +Acarospora modensis H. Magn. + Acarospora moenium +Acarospora molybdina (Wahlenb.) A. Massal. +Acarospora mongolica H. Magn. +Acarospora moraviae H. Magn. +Acarospora murorum + Acarospora nevadensis +Acarospora nitida H. Magn. +Acarospora nitrophila H. Magn. +Acarospora nodulosa (Dufour) Hue + Acarospora novomexicana + Acarospora obnubila +Acarospora obpallens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. +Acarospora oligospora (Nyl.) Arnold + Acarospora oligyrophorica + Acarospora oreophila +Acarospora oxytona (Ach.) A. Massal. +Acarospora paupera H. Magn. +Acarospora peliscypha Th. Fr. +Acarospora perpulchra +Acarospora persimilis H. Magn. +Acarospora pitardi +Acarospora placodiiformis H. Magn. +Acarospora pleistospora +Acarospora praeruptarum H. Magn. + Acarospora pseudofuscata +Acarospora pulvinata H. Magn. +Acarospora pyrenopsoides H. Magn. +Acarospora radicans H. Magn. +Acarospora reagens Zahlbr. +Acarospora rehmii H. Magn. + Acarospora rhabarbarina +Acarospora rhagadiza (Nyl.) Hue + Acarospora rhizobola + Acarospora robiniae +Acarospora rosulata (Th. Fr.) H. Magn. + Acarospora rouxii +Acarospora rugulosa Körb. +Acarospora sandwicensis H. Magn. +Acarospora sarcogynoides H. Magn. +Acarospora scabrida Hedl. ex H. Magn. +Acarospora schleicheri (Ach.) A. Massal. +Acarospora scotica Hue +Acarospora scrobiculata H. Magn. +Acarospora scyphulifera Vain. +Acarospora similis +Acarospora sinopica (Wahlenb.) Körb. (Svenska: Rostspricklav) +Acarospora smaragdula (Wahlenb. in Ach.) A. Massal. + Acarospora socialis +Acarospora solitaria H. Magn. +Acarospora sp. indet. +Acarospora sparsa H. Magn. +Acarospora sphaerospora H. Magn. +Acarospora stapfiana (MĂŒll. Arg.) Hue +Acarospora strigata (Nyl.) Jatta +Acarospora subcontigua H. Magn. + Acarospora subrufula + Acarospora succedens +Acarospora sulphurata (Arnold) Arnold +Acarospora superans H. Magn. +Acarospora suprasedens H. Magn. +Acarospora suzai H. Magn. +Acarospora tenebrica H. Magn. +Acarospora terrestris (Nyl.) H. Magn. +Acarospora terricola H. Magn. + Acarospora thamnina +Acarospora thelococcoides (Nyl.) Zahlbr. + Acarospora tongletii +Acarospora tuberculata H. Magn. +Acarospora tuberculifera H. Magn. + Acarospora tuckerae +Acarospora tyroliensis H. Magn. +Acarospora umbilicata Bagl. +Acarospora umbrina H. Magn. +Acarospora variegata H. Magn. +Acarospora veronensis A. Massal. +Acarospora verruciformis H. Magn. +Acarospora verruculosa H. Magn. +Acarospora versicolor Bagl. & Carestia +Acarospora wahlenbergii H. Magn. + Acarospora wetmorei +Acarospora xanthophana (Nyl.) Jatta + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Lavar +SporsĂ€cksvampar +Acer kan syfta pĂ„; + + Acer â ett slĂ€kte i familjen kinestrĂ€dsvĂ€xter, se LönnslĂ€ktet + Acer Inc. â en datortillverkare. + Acer (motortillverkare) â motorer till formel 1-stallet Prost Grand Prix 2001 + ACER (EU-byrĂ„) - EU-byrĂ„ för samarbete mellan energitillsynsmyndigheter med sĂ€te i Ljubljana, Slovenien +Adalvard kan syfta pĂ„: +Adalvard den Ă€ldre, biskop i Skara Ă„r 1060â1064 +Adalvard den yngre, biskop i Sigtuna 1060 och i Skara under perioden ca 1066â1068 +Adam av Bremen (ty. Adam von Bremen, lat. Adamus Bremensis), död före 1095, var en författare och historiker verksam pĂ„ 1000-talet i Bremen. Adam var sannolikt frĂ„n södra Tyskland, möjligen Bamberg. Han kom till Bremen 1066, alternativt 1067, möjligen för att verka som lĂ€rare (kallas 1069 magister scolarum) vid domskolan dĂ€r, i Ă€rkebiskop Adalberts tjĂ€nst. + +Adam skrev en bok om Ă€rkestiftet Hamburgs historia, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum ("De hamburgska Ă€rkebiskoparnas stora gĂ€rningar"). UtifrĂ„n muntliga meddelanden och gamla handskrifter framstĂ€llde han Ă€rkestiftet Hamburgs historia frĂ„n 788 till Ă€rkebiskop Adalberts död, 1072. Boken innehĂ„ller ocksĂ„ mĂ„nga upplysningar om livet i Skandinavien. Den danske kungen Sven Estridsson, en för sin tid lĂ€rd herre, lĂ€mnade vĂ€rdefulla bidrag till detta arbete avseende de danska, de svenska och de norska förhĂ„llandena. Vid publiceringen i tryck 1595 benĂ€mndes hans verk De situ Daniae et reliquarum quĂŠ trans Daniam sunt regionum natura. + +Adam av Bremen om nordborna +Danskarna hade enligt Adam samlat pĂ„ sig mycket guld genom sjöröveri. De danska vikingarna betalade skatt till danernas kung för rĂ€tten att ta byte av barbarerna omkring det Norska havet. De missbrukade dock ofta denna rĂ€tt och angrep sina egna landsmĂ€n. "Och sĂ„ snart nĂ„gon har tillfĂ„ngatagit sin granne sĂ€ljer han honom obarmhĂ€rtigt som trĂ€l till antingen vĂ€n eller frĂ€mmande". Adam berĂ€ttar vidare: "Kvinnor sĂ€ljs genast om de bedrivit otukt, men om mĂ€nnen anklagas för majestĂ€tsbrott eller tas pĂ„ bar gĂ€rning med nĂ„got annat olagligt, sĂ„ vill de hellre halshuggas Ă€n piskas". + +"De kĂ€nner inte till andra straff Ă€n yxa och trĂ€ldom och Ă€ven nĂ€r en man Ă€r dömd anses det som en heder att vara glad, för tĂ„rar, klagan och andra tecken pĂ„ Ă„nger, som vi anser rĂ€tt, avskyr danskarna till den grad att det inte ens Ă€r tillĂ„tet för nĂ„gon att grĂ„ta över sina synder eller över sina kĂ€ra avlidna". + +"Svenskarna saknar inget med undantag av det högmod som vi Ă€lskar eller rĂ€ttare tillber. Allt som bara har med tom fĂ„fĂ€nglighet att göra, sĂ„som guld, silver, prĂ€ktiga hĂ€star, bĂ€ver- och mĂ„rdskinn, saker som vi beundrar till vanvett, rĂ€knar de som ingenting: Det Ă€r bara i frĂ„ga om kvinnor som de inte kĂ€nner nĂ„gon mĂ„tta: var och en har allt efter möjligheter tvĂ„ eller tre hustrur samtidigt, men de som Ă€r rika eller hövdingar har otaliga". + +"De söner som de fĂ„r rĂ€knas som Ă€ktfödda. Med döden straffas dĂ€remot den som har samlag med nĂ€stas hustru eller vĂ„ldtar en jungfru eller plundrar grannens egendom eller gör honom orĂ€tt. Ăven om nordbor utmĂ€rker sig för gĂ€stfrihet, ligger svenskarna ett steg före. De rĂ€knar det som den vĂ€rsta skam att neka resande gĂ€stvĂ€nskap, ja, det hĂ€rskar en ivrig kapplöpning om vem som anses vĂ€rdig att mottaga gĂ€sten. DĂ€r visas denna all möjlig vĂ€nlighet och sĂ„ lĂ€nge han önskar stanna förs han hem till den ena efter den andra av vĂ€rdens vĂ€nner. SĂ„dana vackra drag finns det bland deras sedvĂ€njor". + +"Svenskarna bestĂ„r av mĂ„nga stammar som utmĂ€rker sig i sĂ„vĂ€l i styrka som i bevĂ€pning, förutom att de Ă€r lika framstĂ„ende krigare till hĂ€st som till sjöss. DĂ€rför ser man att de har makt att hĂ„lla ordning pĂ„ de andra nordiska folken. De har kungar av gammal slĂ€kt, men deras makt begrĂ€nsas av folkens vilja. Vad alla gemensamt bestĂ€mt det skall kungen stadfĂ€sta, sĂ„vida inte hans uppfattning verkar bĂ€ttre, dĂ„ kan de stundom, om Ă€n ogĂ€rna, följa den. I fredstid passar det dem utmĂ€rkt att pĂ„ detta sĂ€tt vara jĂ€mlika, men i krig lyder de blint konungen eller den som han sĂ€tter över dem som den dugligaste". + +"Kommer de i nöd under striden anropar de en av sina mĂ„nga gudar och efter segern Ă€r de sedan guden tillgivna och föredrar honom". + +Om norrmĂ€nnen meddelar Adam bland annat följande: "De klarar sig med det de fĂ„r frĂ„n sin boskap, i det att de anvĂ€nder dess mjölk till föda och ullen till klĂ€der. DĂ€rför fostrar landet mycket tappra krigare som oftare angriper Ă€n sjĂ€lva blir angripna, för de har inte förvekligats genom rikliga skördar. De lever pĂ„ god fot med svenskarna, men ibland angrips de, dock inte ostraffat, av danskarna, som Ă€r lika fattiga som de sjĂ€lva. De Ă€r ocksĂ„ mest förnöjsamma och sĂ€tter största vĂ€rde pĂ„ enkelhet och mĂ„tta i bĂ„de mat och seder". + +"PĂ„ mĂ„nga hĂ„ll i Norge och Sverige anses boskapsherdarna som mycket förnĂ€ma personer som lever pĂ„ patriarkers sĂ€tt och av sina hĂ€nders arbete". + +Finland har i hans verk fĂ„tt benĂ€mningen Terra feminarum, latin för "kvinnornas land", sannolikt en misstolkning av KvĂ€nland. Detta har utgjort grund för tolkningen "amasonernas land", men Ă€r egentligen en felöversĂ€ttning av kvĂ€nernas land. + +Bibliografi + - Försvenskad av Johan Fredrik Peringskiöld. Texten finns Ă€ven pĂ„ Wikisource. + +Referenser + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + + Alkarp, Magnus, - Analys av Gesta. + Hyenstrand, Ă ke, - Recension och diskussion. + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Personer i Tyskland under 1000-talet +Tyska krönikeskrivare +MĂ€n +Födda 1000-talet +Avlidna 1000-talet +PrĂ€ster under 1000-talet +Johan Allan Edwall, född 25 augusti 1924 i Hissmofors, Rödöns församling, JĂ€mtlands lĂ€n, död 7 februari 1997 i Hedvig Eleonora församling i Stockholm +, var en svensk skĂ„despelare, regissör, teaterdirektör, författare, visdiktare och barnboksupplĂ€sare samt teaterpedagog vid Statens scenskola. + +Biografi +Edwall vĂ€xte upp i det jĂ€mtlĂ€ndska brukssamhĂ€llet Hissmofors som son till Karl Edvall och Magdalena Jonsson av slĂ€kten Tangen. Han gick pĂ„ Dramatens elevskola 1949â1952, bland skol- och klasskamraterna kan nĂ€mnas Jan-Olof Strandberg, Margaretha Krook, Max von Sydow och Jan Malmsjö. Edwall var verksam vid Dramaten 1952â1955, 1958â1962 och 1963â1971. Han var frilans 1955â1957 och frĂ„n 1972. Edwall var verksam inom TV-teatern frĂ„n 1962 och vid Marionetteatern 1964. + +SkĂ„despelaren + +Edwall var en skĂ„despelare med mycket personlig framtoning, och fick sitt stora folkliga genombrott i och med tv-dramatiseringen av August Strindbergs Hemsöborna (1966), dĂ€r han spelade den tragikomiske drĂ€ngen Carlsson. Han spelade ocksĂ„ bildhuggaren Olle Montanus i Röda rummet (1970). PĂ„ film gjorde han flera bemĂ€rkta roller, bland annat som familjefadern och teaterdirektören Oscar Ekdahl i Fanny och Alexander (1982) och som den frikyrklige bonden Danjel i Utvandrarna-filmerna. + +Edwall var med i alla lĂ„ngfilmer som under Ă„ren 1971â1984 gjordes efter Astrid Lindgrens böcker, med undantag för VĂ€rldens bĂ€sta Karlsson. För barnen Ă€r Edwall dĂ€rför mest kĂ€nd som Anton, pappan till Emil i Lönneberga (1971), farfar till Elvis i Maria Gripes Elvis! Elvis! (1977), Skorpan LejonhjĂ€rtas lĂ„tsasfarfar Mattias i Bröderna LejonhjĂ€rta (1977), Madickens granne farbror Nilsson i Du Ă€r inte klok, Madicken (1979) och Madicken pĂ„ Junibacken (1980), luffaren Paradis-Oskar i Rasmus pĂ„ luffen (1981) samt gammelrövaren Skalle-Per i Ronja Rövardotter (1984). + +Regissören +SjĂ€lv skrev Edwall manus till och regisserade flera lĂ„ngfilmer, bland annat Ă ke och hans vĂ€rld (1984) och MĂ€larpirater (1987). PĂ„ Kungliga Dramatiska Teatern och Stockholms stadsteater, dit han var knuten i flera omgĂ„ngar, regisserade han pjĂ€ser som han skrivit sjĂ€lv. Ă r 1986 startade han en egen teater i Stockholm, Teater Brunnsgatan Fyra, dĂ€r han Ă€gnade sig Ă„t allt ifrĂ„n biljettförsĂ€ljning till skĂ„despeleri. Vid denna teater inledde han ett samarbete med Kristina Lugn, som tog över som konstnĂ€rlig ledare 1997. Sedan 2011 Ă€r det Lugns dotter Martina Montelius som driver teatern. + +Musikern +Edwall skrev egna visor, bĂ„de text och musik. Musiken pĂ„minner om folkmusik, med inslag av fiol och dragspel, ofta i moll. Texterna vittnar om ett starkt samhĂ€llsengagemang med sympati för de fattiga och utsatta. Edwall sjöng in sina visor pĂ„ sina skivor Grovdoppa (1979), FĂ€rdknĂ€pp (1981), GnĂ€llspik (1982), Ramsor om dom och oss (1982), Vetahuteri (1984) och postuma Aftonro (2005). En del av dessa tolkas av Stefan Sundström pĂ„ cd:n Sundström spelar Allan (2002). NĂ„gra av hans mest kĂ€nda visor Ă€r "Den Lilla BĂ€cken", "Förhoppning" och "Ă rstider". Rent stilistiskt var Edwalls visor ofta blandningar av lyriska formuleringar och burleskt folkliga uttryck, ofta med dialektala inslag. Enstaka visor sjöng han Ă€ven pĂ„ sin hembygds jĂ€mtska. JĂ€mte sympatier för samhĂ€llets svaga Ă€r miljöförstöring, kritik mot kapitalismen och tillbakablickar pĂ„ livet sĂ„som det blev vanliga teman i Edwalls visor. + +Det nystartade skivbolaget National tog 2002 hand om Allan Edwalls lĂ„tskatt och slĂ€ppte hösten 2002 samlingen Den lilla bĂ€cken â Allans bĂ€sta, som sĂ„lde mer Ă€n 24 500 exemplar, och har sedan Ă„terutgivit Allans samtliga skivor pĂ„ cd och gjort hans musik tillgĂ€nglig pĂ„ nytt till gammal och ny publik. + +Ă r 2006 vann Edwall en grammis (postumt) i den öppna kategorin för sina visor och CD-boxen Alla Allans visor. Motivering löd "PĂ„ Alla Allans visor trĂ€der en trĂ€ffsĂ€ker hopknĂ„pare av texter och melodier fram. Egensinniga beskrivningar av personligheter i den pĂ„stĂ„dda periferin". + +Hans vĂ€n och motspelare Erland Josephson skrev om Edwall efter hans bortgĂ„ng: "Han var udda. Men han lyckades ta mig fan vara udda pĂ„ ett universellt sĂ€tt!" + +Ăvrigt +Edwall skrev fyra romaner: Protokoll (1954), Ljuva lĂ€ge (1967), Engeln (1974) och Limpan (1977). TvĂ„ av romanerna har blivit film â Engeln (TV-film 1974 och uppföljare 1976) och Limpan (1983). + +Edwall var aktiv i VĂ€nsterpartiet. I boken DĂ„ kan man lika gĂ€rna kittla varandra. En bok om Allan Edwall sĂ„ lyfts det fram att han deltagit i och stött ett flertal fackliga strejker, demonstrerat ivrigt under sitt liv och Ă€ven hĂ„llit tal. + +Edwall var vĂ€rd för Sommar i P1 den 29 juli 1989. + +Familj +Allan Edwall var 1957â1965 gift med journalisten Britt Edwall och fick med henne tre barn: Mattias, MĂ„ns och Malin. Han har Ă€ven sonen Michael frĂ„n ett tidigare Ă€ktenskap. Allan Edwall avled 72 Ă„r gammal i prostatacancer den 7 februari 1997. + +UtmĂ€rkelser + 1960 â Svenska Dagbladets Thaliapris + 1970 â Gösta Ekman-stipendiet + 1971 â Svenska teaterkritikers förenings Teaterpris + 1974 â Guldbaggen för bĂ€sta manliga huvudroll i Emil och griseknoen + 1975 â Teaterförbundets guldmedalj för "utomordentlig konstnĂ€rlig gĂ€rning" + 1980 â O'Neill-stipendiet + 1981 â Litteris et Artibus + 1983 â Svenska Akademiens teaterpris + 1985 â Hedersledamot vid Norrlands nation i Uppsala + 1987 â Filosofie hedersdoktor vid UmeĂ„ universitet + 1988 â Ture Nerman-priset + 1990 â Natur & Kulturs kulturpris + 1990 â Expressens teaterpris + 1993 â Evert Taube-stipendiet + 1996 â Piratenpriset + 2005 â Grammis för samlingsboxen Alla Allans visor i "Ă rets öppen kategori" (postumt) + +Edwall har en gata uppkallad efter sig i Ărnsberg inom Stockholms kommun. + +Allan Edwall-stipendiet delas sedan 1990 ut varje trettondedag jul pĂ„ Folkets hus i Hissmofors till hans minne. + +Filmografi + +Filmroller + + (berĂ€ttarröst) + + (berĂ€ttarröst) + + (berĂ€ttarröst) + + (berĂ€ttarröst) + + (röst) + +TV-roller + +1958 â Hughie (Charlie Hughes) +1959 â Lilith (teaterregissör) +1961 â Mr Ernest (doktor Chasuble) +1962 â Stolarna (gammal man) +1962 â Kvartetten som sprĂ€ngdes (Fogel) +1963 â Misantropen (Acaste) +1963 â Topaze (Albert Topaze) +1963 â Ett drömspel + (Enkel) +1965 â Janus (Denny) +1965 â ThĂ©rĂšse Raquin (Camille) +1965 â En florentinsk tragedi (Simone) +1965 â Gustav Vasa (Engelbrekt) +1965 â Hans nĂ„ds testamente (Vickberg) +1966 â Hemsöborna (Carlsson) + (Magnus Eriksson) + (Montanus) +(Mats Larsson) +1972 â Spöksonaten (den gamle mannen) +1972 â Barnen i höjden (professor) +1973 â Vem Ă€lskar Yngve Frej (Gustafsson) +1974 â Engeln (Engeln) +1976 â Engeln II (Engeln) + (Aldo Samuel) +1978 â Bröllopsfesten + +1983 â Hustruskolan (Arnolphe) +1990 â I morgon var en dröm (Markus) + (den gamla pojkvĂ€nnen) + +Regi + +1984 â Svenska folkets sex och snusk (TV) +1986 â Den nervöse mannen (TV) + +Filmmanus + +1974 â Engeln (TV) +1976 â Engeln II (TV) + +1984 â Svenska folkets sex och snusk (TV) +1985 â Det Ă€r mĂ€nskligt att fela (TV) +1986 â Den nervöse mannen (TV) + +Teater + +Roller + +Regi + +Radioteater + +Roller + +Bibliografi + +Diskografi + +Postumt utgivet + +Musiktryck + (Göteborg: Ejeby) + +Referenser + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + NorrlĂ€ndsk uppslagsbok, Band 1, 1993 + +WebbkĂ€llor + + + + + Allan Edwall pĂ„ Malmö stadsteater + Allan Edwall pĂ„ Stiftelsen Ingmar Bergmans hemsida + Allan Edwall pĂ„ Discogs (diskografi) + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Allan Edwall pĂ„ Svensk mediedatabas + + +Svenska skĂ„despelare under 1900-talet +Alumner frĂ„n Dramatens elevskola +Svenska viskompositörer +Hedersdoktorer vid UmeĂ„ universitet +Hedersledamöter vid Norrlands nation +Födda 1924 +Avlidna 1997 +Personer frĂ„n Rödöns socken +MĂ€n +Guldbaggen för bĂ€sta manliga huvudroll +Grammis-vinnare +Mottagare av Litteris et Artibus +Författare frĂ„n JĂ€mtland +SommarvĂ€rdar 1989 +Adel (adelskap, ridderskap, frĂ€lsemĂ€n) Ă€r en av börd överordnad samhĂ€llsgrupp. Oftast syftar ordet pĂ„ en grupp som av frĂ€mst militĂ€ra skĂ€l uppstod i feodalsamhĂ€llet och som (vanligen av en kung) beviljades lagstadgade, vanligen Ă€rftliga privilegier förenade med titlar och sĂ€rskilda heraldiska rangtecken. Ordet adel kan Ă€ven anvĂ€ndas för en bördsaristokrati i samhĂ€llen som inte Ă€r feodala, till exempel antikens Rom. Adelsprivilegierna var av ekonomisk, politisk, organisatorisk och social karaktĂ€r. De kunde vara mycket betydande och innebĂ€ra till exempel skattefrihet ("frĂ€lst" frĂ„n beskattning) och företrĂ€de till statliga Ă€mbeten, men ocksĂ„ försvarsplikt i krigstider eller nĂ€r kungen kallade. I Sverige och mĂ„nga andra moderna samhĂ€llen har adelskap inte lĂ€ngre nĂ„gon större praktisk betydelse. + +En adelsman (Ă€dling) Ă€r en man som antingen blivit adlad eller som genom börd tillhör adeln. Motsvarigheten pĂ„ damsidan Ă€r en adelsdam. Adelsdam Ă€r den kvinna som Ă€r född i en adlig familj, som genom giftermĂ„l blivit upptagen i en adelsĂ€tt eller sjĂ€lv blivit adlad. + +Etymologi +Ordet adel kommer frĂ„n lĂ„gtyskan och betydde 'hĂ€rkomst', 'börd' för 1000 Ă„r sedan. I det avsevĂ€rt Ă€ldre urindoeuropeiska sprĂ„ket, för mer Ă€n 7000 Ă„r sedan, kan ad ha betytt "frĂ„n" eller "av", men ocksĂ„ nĂ„gon annan preposition som "till" eller "pĂ„". I svenska sprĂ„ket kom det in som lĂ„nord för drygt 500 Ă„r sedan, dvs mot slutet av 1400-talet. I samtida dokument förekommer omvĂ€xlande termerna "frĂ€lsemĂ€n", "frĂ€lset", "adeln" och "ridderskapet". FrĂ€lse syftar hĂ€r pĂ„ det privilegium som en gĂ„ng gav upphov till adeln som en sĂ€rskild samhĂ€llsklass genom att den enskilde som Ă„tog sig att fullgöra vapentjĂ€nst i gengĂ€ld gavs frihet (= frĂ€lse) frĂ„n att erlĂ€gga skatt. Liknande skattefrihet Ă„tnjöt Ă€ven kyrkans mĂ€n och kvinnor. Personer som inte tillhörde nĂ„gon av dessa grupper kallades för ofrĂ€lse. + +Historia + +Antiken +Olika slags adelskap har funnits inom de flesta kulturer Ă€nda sedan de gamla egyptierna. Redan under arkaisk tid fanns det i de grekiska stadsstaterna grupper i samhĂ€llet som hade högre status Ă€n övriga medborgare; i Aten behĂ€rskade de sĂ„ kallade eupatriderna det politiska maskineriet suverĂ€nt före tyrannernas maktövertagande och demokratins införande. I det gamla Rom utgjordes adeln av patricierna, de enda invĂ„narna i den tidiga republiken som hade full medborgarrĂ€tt. Senare, dĂ„ de högsta Ă€mbetena som en följd av stĂ„ndsstriderna öppnats för plebejer, framvĂ€xte med tiden en ny patricisk-plebejisk adel, nobilitas, vars medlemmare benĂ€mndes nobiles. Senrepublikens politiska gruppering optimates, som bekĂ€mpade de sĂ„ kallade populares, dominerades av denna Ă€mbetsaristokrati. + +Medeltiden +PĂ„ 800-talet under den europeiska medeltiden vĂ€xte feodalstater fram i Europa. I början handlade det mest om att förlĂ€ningar av jord delades till riddare. Riddaren var sen oftast skyldig att stĂ€lla upp med soldater nĂ€r fursten behövde det. NĂ€r det frankiska riket uppstod under ledning av ett allt mĂ€ktigare kungadöme fick kungens tjĂ€nare snart en ansedd och upphöjd stĂ€llning och bildade sĂ„ en tjĂ€nsteadel som sammansmĂ€lte med den gamla bördsadeln. Inom andra europeiska lĂ€nder gjordes pĂ„ samma sĂ€tt. LĂ€ngre fram fanns lĂ€nsvĂ€sendet, det vill sĂ€ga en form av avlöning för krigstjĂ€nsten till hĂ€st, vilket utbredde sig till hela adeln. + +FörhĂ„llanden +Adeln slapp ursprungligen att betala statlig skatt mot att man satte upp beridet krigsfolk Ă„t kungen (staten). I vissa fall kunde adeln ocksĂ„ sjĂ€lv driva in skatt till olika lokala Ă€ndamĂ„l. Adeln hade Ă€ven andra privilegier. Tidvis var det bara adliga som kunde bli officerare i krigsmakten, varför förtjĂ€nta underofficerare som skulle höjas upp till officerare adlades till exempel Silfverlood pĂ„ VĂ€stgöta Ryttare eller Erik Dahlbergh. Adeln hade lĂ€nge ensamrĂ€tt pĂ„ jakt och fiske, nĂ„got som kung Gustaf III Ă€ndrade pĂ„. I vissa byar sĂ„ kunde bara adeln Ă€ga en kvarn som andra fick betala avgift för nĂ€r de ville anvĂ€nda. + +FörĂ€ndring +Adelns betydelse och inflytande Ă€ndrades successivt med början under den senare delen av medeltiden. Det första steget var under den sĂ„ kallade militĂ€ra revolutionen. Adelns skyldighet att stĂ€lla upp med trupper försvann successivt nĂ€r stater började skapa egna armĂ©er. Med de ekonomiska förĂ€ndringarna under renĂ€ssansen och framvĂ€xten av rika handelsmĂ€n och borgare förĂ€ndrades adelns inflytande ytterligare, vilket fortsatte och förstĂ€rktes av den industriella revolutionen. De adelsfamiljer som tog del i den nya tidens former för ekonomisk tillvĂ€xt behöll och rent av förstĂ€rkte sin sĂ€rstĂ€llning i staten. + +Nutid +De flesta av rĂ€ttigheterna i de svenska adelsprivilegierna har sedan lĂ€nge utstrĂ€ckts till alla Sveriges medborgare, till exempel rĂ€tten att bedriva handel utanför stĂ€derna eller rĂ€tten att resa utomlands. De flesta Ă„terstĂ„ende privilegier upphörde den 1 juli 2003. Samtidigt avskaffades Riddarhusets offentligrĂ€ttsliga stĂ€llning vilket gör att denna sammanslutning sedan dess Ă€r en vanlig ideell förening juridiskt sett. Att bilda adelsliknande efternamn med prefix (von, af, de, etc.) Ă€r inte möjligt i Sverige, men detta beror pĂ„ allmĂ€nna rĂ€ttsliga regler för efternamn och inte sĂ€rskilda adliga privilegier. + +I Europa förekommer Ă€nnu nyadlande i Danmark, Belgien, Luxemburg, NederlĂ€nderna, Spanien och Storbritannien. I Sverige avskaffades formellt kungens nobiliteringsrĂ€tt i samband med antagandet av 1974 Ă„rs regeringsform. Den siste att adlas blev Sven Hedin 1902. + +Se Ă€ven + Adeln i Sverige + Adeln i Finland + Adeln i Danmark + Adeln i Norge + Adeln i Frankrike + Adeln i Ryssland + Adeln i Europa + Adelstitlar + AdelsĂ€tter + FeodalsamhĂ€lle + StĂ„nd + PĂ€rsvĂ€rdighet + Reduktion (historia) + +KĂ€llor + +Noter + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Adliga och kungliga titlar pĂ„ olika sprĂ„k + Regeringens proposition 2002/03:34 om adelns offentligrĂ€ttsliga status + Riddarhuset +Adelaide av Ungern eller Adelaide Arpad, född omkring 1039, död 27 januari 1062 i Prag, var en hertiginna av Böhmen. Hon gifte sig med Wratislav II av Böhmen Ă„r 1057. + +Biografi +Hon föddes i Ungern som dotter till Andreas I av Ungern och Anastasia av Kiev. + +Wratislav hade sökt stöd av hennes far och levde i landsflykt vid dennes hov under en konflikt med sin regerande bror Spytihnev II av Böhmen, och Ă€ktenskapet arrangerades som en allians mellan Ungern och Wratislav, som 1061 Ă„tervĂ€nde till Böhmen och eftertrĂ€dde sin bror Spytihnev som dess monark. + +Adelaide var Wratislavs andra maka; hans första hustru, en okĂ€nd adelsdam, hade blivit kvar i Böhmen, dĂ€r hon fĂ€ngslats av Wratislavs bror och dött i fĂ€ngelse. Adelaide avled troligen av de försĂ€mrade hĂ€lsa hon fick av sina tĂ€ta graviditeter och förlossningar. + +Barn + Judith av Böhmen + Bretislav II av Böhmen + Ludmila + Vratislav (död i barndomen) + +KĂ€llor + + +Ungerns kungligheter +Födda 1039 +Avlidna 1062 +Huset ĂrpĂĄd +Kvinnor +Hertiginnor +Personer i Böhmen under 1000-talet +AdĂšle av Flandern, född 1064 eller 1065, död 1115, var Danmarks drottning som gift med Knut den helige, och sedan hertiginna av Apulien och Kalabrien som gift med Roger Borsa. Hon var regent i Apulien och Kalabrien under sin son Vilhelms minderĂ„righet mellan 1111 och 1114. + +I Danmark kallades hon ocksĂ„ Edel, och till minne av henne har Edel namnsdag 10 mars i Danmark och Norge. + +Biografi + +Hon var dotter till Robert I av Flandern och Gertrud av Sachsen. + +Drottning av Danmark +Adele gifte sig första gĂ„ngen 1080/1081 med kung Knut den helige av Danmark (drĂ€pt 1086). Knut hade besökt Flandern Ă„r 1075 efter ett misslyckat tĂ„g mot England. Ăktenskapet arrangerades möjligen för att ge hennes far en allierad mot fienden England med arvsansprĂ„k pĂ„ den engelska tronen (vilket Knut hade), och för att förse Knut med arvingar beslĂ€ktade med Karl den store, vilket ytterligare skulle legitimera deras kungliga börd och arvsrĂ€tt till den danska tronen. + +Paret fick följande barn: + +Karl I av Flandern (1083/1085-1127), greve av Flandern +Cecilia Knutsdotter av Danmark (ca 1085-efter 1131), gift med Erik jarl (död efter 1145) +IngegĂ€rd Knutsdotter av Danmark (född 1081/1086), gift med svensken Folke den tjocke. + +Knut förde en kyrkvĂ€nlig linje i sin politik. Inte mycket Ă€r kĂ€nt om Adeles liv som drottning. Hennes make mördades Skt. Albani Kirke i Odense 1086. Enligt Saxo Grammaticus flydde Adele tillbaka till Flandern efter mordet pĂ„ maken, och tog med sig sin son Karl men lĂ€mnade sina döttrar Cecilia och IngegĂ€rd kvar i Danmark. Hon överlĂ€mnade dem troligen till sin svĂ„ger, makens halvbror Erik, som tog dem med sig till Sverige. + +Kalabrien och Apulien +Adele levde sedan vid faderns och broderns hov fram till sin andra vigsel. Hon gav 1090 en donation till katedralen i Reims för sin mördade makes sjĂ€l. Adele gifte sig andra gĂ„ngen Ă„r 1092 med hertig Roger I "Borsa" av Apulien och Kalabrien (död 1111). + +Paret fick följande barn: +Ludvig (död 1094) +Vilhelm II av Apulien-Calabrien (1095/1097-1127), hertig av Apulien och Kalabrien. +Guiscard. + +Inför sin avresa till Italien lĂ€mnade hon kvar sin son Karl i Flandern (han eftertrĂ€dde 1111 hennes bror som greve av Flandern). NĂ€r hennes förste make Ă„r 1100 förklarades för helgon sĂ€nde hon dyrbara gĂ„vor för att pryda hans helgonskrin. Hennes andre make avled 1111 och eftertrĂ€ddes av deras son, som Ă€nnu var omyndig. Hon blev som sin sons förmyndare regent i Apulien och Kalabrien. Hon beskrivs som en handlingskraftig regent. Hon regerade i tre Ă„r, fram till att sonen Ă„r 1114 myndigförklarades vid omkring arton Ă„rs Ă„lder och gifte sig. Hon avled Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„. + +Referenser + + + Dansk Kvindebiografisk leksikon + +Kvinnliga regenter under 1100-talet +Danmarks drottningar +Födda 1060-talet +Avlidna 1115 +Kvinnor +Personer i Danmark under 1000-talet +Adlercreutz (), Ă€r en svensk och finlĂ€ndsk adelsĂ€tt. Kungliga rĂ€ntmĂ€staren Tomas Teuterström frĂ„n Tötar i Lojo (Nyland) adlades 26 september 1700 och introducerades 1703 under nr 1386. Ătten immatrikulerades i Finland 1818. Ătten fortlever Ă€ven i Sverige, dĂ€r Ă€ttemĂ€n upphöjts till friherre och greve. Originalsköldebrevet finns i riddarhusarkivet. + +Personer med efternamnet Adlercreutz + Anders Adlercreutz (född 1970), finlĂ€ndsk politiker + Axel Adlercreutz (1821â1880), svensk politiker och Ă€mbetsman + Axel Adlercreutz (professor) (1917â2013), svensk professor i handelsrĂ€tt + Carl Adlercreutz (1866â1937), svensk lĂ€kare + Carl Johan Adlercreutz (1757â1815), svensk militĂ€r + Carlos Adlercreutz (1890â1963), svensk militĂ€r + Eric Adlercreutz (född 1935), finlĂ€ndsk arkitekt + Erik Adlercreutz (1899â1989), finlĂ€ndsk lĂ€kare + Fredrik Adlercreutz (1793â1852), svensk militĂ€r + Gregor Adlercreutz (1898â1944), svensk dressyrryttare + Gunnel Adlercreutz (född 1941), finlĂ€ndsk arkitekt + Herman Adlercreutz (1932â2014), finlĂ€ndsk lĂ€kare + Magnus Adlercreutz (1868â1923), svensk militĂ€r + Maria Adlercreutz (1936â2014), svensk konstnĂ€r + Marie-Louise Adlercreutz (aktiv 1894), svensk ryttare + Maud Adlercreutz (1907â2000), svensk journalist + Nils Adlercreutz (1866â1955), svensk militĂ€r och ryttare + Patrick Adlercreutz (1871â1955), svensk diplomat + Thomas Adlercreutz (1891â1980), svensk kammarherre och kanslirĂ„d + Tomas Adlercreutz (1643-1710), finlĂ€ndsk rĂ€ntemĂ€stare och godsĂ€gare + +Kronologiskt ordnade + Tomas Adlercreutz (1643-1710), rĂ€ntemĂ€stare, godsĂ€gare + Carl Johan Adlercreutz (1757â1815), militĂ€r + Fredrik Adlercreutz (1793â1852), militĂ€r + Axel Adlercreutz (1821â1880), politiker och Ă€mbetsman + Carl Adlercreutz (1866â1937), lĂ€kare + Nils Adlercreutz (1866â1955), militĂ€r och ryttare + Magnus Adlercreutz (1868â1923), militĂ€r + Patrick Adlercreutz (1871â1955), diplomat + Carlos Adlercreutz (1890â1963), militĂ€r + Thomas Adlercreutz (1891â1980), svensk kammarherre och kanslirĂ„d + Gregor Adlercreutz (1898â1944), dressyrryttare + Erik Adlercreutz (1899â1989), finlĂ€ndsk lĂ€kare + Maud Adlercreutz (1907â2000), journalist + Axel Adlercreutz (professor) (1917â2013), jurist + Herman Adlercreutz (1932â2014), finlĂ€ndsk lĂ€kare + Eric Adlercreutz (född 1935), arkitekt + Maria Adlercreutz (1936â2014), konstnĂ€r + Gunnel Adlercreutz (född 1941), finlĂ€ndsk arkitekt + Anders Adlercreutz (född 1970), finlĂ€ndsk politiker + +Se Ă€ven + Adlercreutz (dikt) â dikt av Johan Ludvig Runeberg i FĂ€nrik StĂ„ls sĂ€gner, andra samlingen (1860) + Adlercreutz regemente â vĂ€rvat infanteriregemente i Finland 1803â1808 + Finlands nationalbiografi + +KĂ€llor +Svensk adelskalender för Ă„r 1900, Karl K:son Leijonhufvud, P A Norstedt & Söner, Stockholm 1899 sidan 4 + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Svenska adelsĂ€tter +Svenska grevliga Ă€tter +Svenska friherrliga Ă€tter +Finlands nationalbiografi +Adolf av Holstein-Gottorp, född 25 januari 1526, död 1 oktober 1586, var hertig av Holstein-Gottorp. + +Biografi +Han var yngre son till kung Fredrik I av Danmark, och Sofia av Pommern samt stamfader för Holstein-Gottorpska Ă€tten. + +NĂ€r Adolfs halvbror Kristian III av Danmark, som sedan faderns död ensam förde regeringen över hertigdömena, 1544 gjorde skifte pĂ„ lantdagen i Rendsborg mellan sig och sina bröder, erhöll Adolf Gottorps slott med södra delen av SĂžnderjylland; efter brodern Fredriks död satte han sig i besittning av dennes omrĂ„de, Slesvigs biskopsdöme, och vid brodern Hans död 1580 ökades hans besittningar med bl. a. TĂžnder amt och en sjĂ€ttedel av Ditmarsken. Adolf var en duglig men strĂ€ng regent. Han deltog med iver i striderna mot protestantismen i Tyska riket men höll i sina egna lĂ€nder pĂ„ den lutherska lĂ€ran. Gentemot Danmark upptrĂ€dde han alltid lojalt, genom förlikningen i Odense 1579 mottog han SĂžnderjylland och Femern som danska lĂ€n. + +Familj +Han var gift med Kristina av Hessen. + + Fredrik II av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1568, död 1587. + Sofie av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1569, död 1634, gift med hertig Johan V av Mecklenburg. + Philip av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1570, död 1590. + Kristina av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1573, död 1625, gift med Karl IX av Sverige. + Johan Adolf av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1575, död 1616. + Anna av Holstein-Gottorp, född 1575, död 1610, gift med Enno III av Ostfriesland. + Agnes av Holstein-Gottorp, född 20 december 1578, död 13 april 1627, ogift (gravsatt i Riddarholmskyrkan) + +Se Ă€ven + Holstein-Gottorpska Ă€tten + +Referenser + +Noter + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Huset Oldenburg +Huset Holstein-Gottorp +Hertigar av Schleswig +Hertigar av Holstein +Födda 1526 +Avlidna 1586 +MĂ€n +Nils Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, född 18 november 1832 i Helsingfors, Finland, död 12 augusti 1901 pĂ„ Dalbyö i VĂ€sterljungs socken, Södermanland, var en finlandssvensk adelsman i slĂ€kten Nordenskiöld upphöjd till friherre i Sverige, geolog, mineralog, polarfarare, upptĂ€cktsresande, ledamot av Svenska Akademien samt Ă€ven ledamot av Sveriges riksdag. + +Biografi +Nordenskiöld var son till Nils Gustaf Nordenskiöld och Margaretha Sophia Haartman, dotter till Lars Gabriel von Haartman och Fredrika Fock. Han gifte sig 1863 med friherrinnan Anna Maria Mannerheim, och var sĂ„ledes ingift farbror till Gustaf Mannerheim. Han ligger begravd pĂ„ VĂ€sterljungs kyrkogĂ„rd. Han var farbror till Erik Nordenskiöld. + +Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld föddes i Finland, och efter studentexamen 1849 bĂ„de studerade och tog han sin doktorsgrad vid universitetet i Helsingfors. Disputationen gick av stapeln vĂ„ren 1857. KarriĂ€ren i Finland fick ett abrupt slut sedan Nordenskiöld hĂ„llit ett festtal som upprörde de ryska myndigheterna. Nordenskiöld var bĂ„de liberal och finsk nationalist. Han hoppades att Finland skulle kunna göra sig fritt frĂ„n Ryssland vilket knappast var populĂ€rt hos den ryska överheten. Redan innan hade han av Friedrich Wilhelm Rembert von Berg tilldelats ett disciplinĂ€rt straff för att tillsammans med vĂ€nner ha uttryckt missnöje över att Sverige inte försökt befria Finland medan Ryssland var upptaget av Krimkriget, och efter detta nya tal dömdes han till att göra offentlig avbön eller landsförvisas. Han valde dĂ„ det senare och bosatte sig 1858 i Stockholm. + +Efter att ha kommit till Sverige blev Nordenskiöld 1858 professor vid Naturhistoriska riksmuseets mineralogiska avdelning. Försök gjordes 1867 och 1874 att Ă„tervĂ€rva Nordenskiöld som professor till Finland, men han avböjde. 1860â1878 var han Ă€ven lĂ€rare i geologi och mineralogi vid Teknologiska institutet. + +Nordenskiöld styrde fem forskningsresor till Svalbard mellan Ă„ren 1858 och 1873 och en expedition till VĂ€stgrönland 1870. Hans tvĂ„ första expeditioner skedde under ledning av Otto Torell, men de senare ledde han sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigt. Bland hans tidiga arbeten mĂ€rks Geografisk och geognostisk beskrifning öfver ö. delarna af Spetsbergen och Hinlopen strait (1863), Utkast till Spetsbergens geologi (1866) samt nĂ„gra tillsammans med Nils DunĂ©r författade arbeten. + +DĂ„ Nordenskiöld planerade sin tredje Svalbardsexpedition, Svenska Spetsbergenexpeditionen 1868, visade sig att inga statliga medel stod till buds. Han vĂ€nde sig dĂ€rför till dĂ„varande landshövdingen i Göteborg Albert EhrensvĂ€rd som lyckades intressera Oscar Dickson för saken, och dĂ€rigenom inleddes ett frikostigt och sĂ€llsynt mecenatskapsförhĂ„llande mellan Dickson och Nordenskiöld, som kom att finansiera flertalet av Nordenskiölds fortsatta expeditioner. Under Nordenskiölds Grönlandsexpedition 1870, som företogs i huvudsaklig avsikt att studera inlandsisen, pĂ„trĂ€ffades vid Ovifak pĂ„ Diskoön 15 block av nickelhaltigt jĂ€rn. Det största blocket som vĂ€gde omkring 22 ton finns numera pĂ„ Naturhistoriska riksmuseet. TvĂ„ mindre, vĂ€gande 6,5 respektive 4 ton överlĂ€mnades till Köpenhamns och Helsingfors universitet. Ett ytterligare litet block finns pĂ„ Göteborgs naturhistoriska museum. Man trodde ursprungligen att dessa block var meteoriter. Man hade dock redan vid undersökningen konstaterat att basalten pĂ„ ön innehöll mindre mĂ€ngder gediget jĂ€rn. Nya undersökningar av Knud Steenstrup bekrĂ€ftade detta, och efter förnyade metallografiska undersökningar av Carl Benedicks 1910 har blockens ursprung i den ovanliga berggrunden bekrĂ€ftats. + +Under Spetsbergenxpeditionen 1872, för vars vetenskapliga resultat Nordenskiöld redogjorde i Utkast till Isfjordens och Belsounds geologi (1874â1875) hade han rĂ€knat med möjligheten att nĂ„ Nordpolen men hindrades av is. Tidigt hade Nordenskiöld intresserat sig för Willem Barents teorier om att det pĂ„ grund av de mĂ„nga strömmande floderna med förhĂ„llandevis varmt vatten som frĂ„n Europa och Asien faller ut i Ishavet borde finnas en isfri rĂ€nna lĂ€ngs kusten. Nordenskiöld upptog denna teori med tillĂ€gg om att jordens rotation borde skapa en östgĂ„ende ström som stĂ€rkte denna ström. Han lĂ€t under denna expedition bygga Svenskhuset, som var avsett som en första del av en investering i fosfatutvinning vid Isfjorden. + +Ă r 1875 startade man med ett litet fiskefartyg frĂ„n Tromsö till Novaja Zemlja och nĂ„dde över det arktiska Karahavet till Jenisejs mynning. Fartyget dirigerades runt Novaja Zemlja men kunde inte genomföra fĂ€rden utan Ă„tervĂ€nde hem. SjĂ€lv företog han en bĂ„tfĂ€rd uppför Jenisej och fann att Sibirien inte i sin helhet Ă€r ett öde tundraland, vilket dĂ„ var den vanliga förestĂ€llningen, utan delvis ytterst vĂ€rdefullt ur kommersiell synpunkt. Efter att ha Ă„tervĂ€nt landvĂ€gen lade han fram sina slutsatser, men möttes med mycken skepsis. + +För att bemöta kritiken gjorde han Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ en ny expedition till samma omrĂ„den och hemförde en last av saluvaror pĂ„ sitt expeditionsfartyg. Genom sina resor kunde Nordenskiöld pĂ„visa möjligheten för varutransporter frĂ„n Jenisej och Obs mynningar. + +Hans frĂ€msta mĂ„l förblev dock att finna nordostpassagen, och det blev Vegaexpeditionen, resan med skeppet Vega frĂ„n 1878 till 1880, dĂ„ han fann denna passage, nĂ„got som kom att bli den gĂ€rning han blev mest kĂ€nd för. + +Nordostpassagen + +Efter en tid upphörde det statliga stödet till Nordenskiölds Ă€ventyr men denne fann dĂ„ den privata mecenaten Oscar Dickson, som var grosshandlare. Med Dicksons ekonomiska bistĂ„nd fortsatte Nordenskiöld att göra flera expeditioner till det arktiska omrĂ„det. Han bar lĂ€nge pĂ„ ett intresse för att utforska möjligheten att fĂ€rdas frĂ„n Atlanten till Stilla havet genom att segla norr om Sibirien, den sĂ„ kallade Nordostpassagen. Först 1878 fanns möjligheterna att göra slag i saken. JĂ€mte Dickson stod kung Oscar II och Aleksandr Sibirjakov som finansiĂ€rer för vĂ„gspelet. Till sitt förfogande hade han ett ombyggt valfĂ„ngstfartyg som hette Vega under befĂ€l av löjtnant Louis Palander. + +Fartyget Vega stĂ€vade ut frĂ„n TromsĂž den 21 juli 1878 och passerade Kap Tjeljuskin den 19 augusti, sĂ„ lĂ„ngt allting vĂ€l. Men den 26 september frös det fast och sĂ„vĂ€l Nordenskiöld som hans fartyg blev sittande i tio mĂ„nader i packisen. Tiden utnyttjades till forskning, frĂ€mst etnologisk sĂ„dan. Man studerade tjuktjerna, ett isolerat folkslag man kom i kontakt med. + +Till slut Ă€ndade Ă€ventyret Ă€ndĂ„ i triumf, dĂ„ fartyget 18 juli 1879 kom loss och kunde segla de sista 100 sjömilen till Berings sund och fullborda sin resa till Stilla havet med alla resenĂ€rer i behĂ„ll. 20 juli passerade man Ăstkap och 2 september kunde man telegrafera frĂ„n Yokohama om den lyckade fĂ€rden. + +Ryktet om bragden att ha funnit Nordostpassagen spred sig över vĂ€rlden och hemresan blev en triumffĂ€rd runt Asien och Medelhavet med slutstation i Stockholm den 24 april 1880. Hela Stockholm var i festyra dĂ„ Vega anlĂ€nde. PĂ„ kungens order skulle Nordenskiöld inte gĂ„ i land pĂ„ svensk mark förrĂ€n vid slottet. DĂ€r stod expeditionsmedlemmarnas initialer skrivna i eldskrift. Den nöjde finansiĂ€ren och kungen, Oscar II, upphöjde Nordenskiöld till friherre och adlade Palander (som tog namnet Palander af Vega) för deras bedrifter. En skriftlig redogörelse för expeditionens öden, Ă€ventyr och rön gavs sedermera ut i fem band. + +Syftet med att forcera nordostpassagen var att öppna den som handelsvĂ€g. Detta var innan transsibiriska jĂ€rnvĂ€gen fanns. Drömmen gick dock aldrig i uppfyllelse. VegafĂ€rden visade att den var omöjlig. Det som ansĂ„gs vara det bestĂ„ende vĂ€rdet av fĂ€rden var istĂ€llet de vetenskapliga undersökningar man gjorde â vilka egentligen inte var syftet, utan en konsekvens av fastfrysningen. Ett monument över det som blev kĂ€nt som Vegaexpeditionen, bekostat genom en insamling till 50-Ă„rsminnet, stĂ„r vid Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet i Stockholm och Nordenskiöld erhöll 1881 den första Vegamedaljen för denna bedrift. + +Nordenskiöld var ledamot av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien frĂ„n 1861 och hedersledamot av Finska Vetenskaps-Societeten frĂ„n Ă„r 1876. Han var kommendör av NordstjĂ€rneordens storkors med briljanter. + +Ăvriga expeditioner och verk + +Redan under VegafĂ€rden uppgjorde Nordenskiöld planer pĂ„ en ny expedition, Svenska Grönlandsexpeditionen 1883. Expeditionen genomfördes 1883 och resultaten publicerades 1885. + +Resan gick till Grönlands inland, dĂ€r Nordenskiöld hoppades finna isfri mark pĂ„ andra sidan av inlandsisen. Det kunde han ju tyvĂ€rr inte göra eftersom det inte fanns nĂ„gon sĂ„dan, sĂ„ den fullstĂ€ndiga succĂ©n uteblev denna gĂ„ng. + +Nordenskiöld gjorde totalt tio polarexpeditioner, av vilka han sjĂ€lv ledde Ă„tta. De tvĂ„ första expeditionerna Ă€gde rum 1858 och 1861 under Torells ledning. Nordenskiöld besökte fem gĂ„nger Spetsbergen/Svalbard (1858, 1861, 1864, 1868, 1872â73 med övervintring), tvĂ„ gĂ„nger Grönland (1870, 1883), tvĂ„ gĂ„nger Jenisej (1875, 1876). Ă r 1868 nĂ„dde Nordenskiölds expedition 81°42m, den nordligaste breddgrad ett fartyg dittills hade nĂ„tt. + +NĂ€r Nordenskiöld inte Ă€gnade sig Ă„t upptĂ€cktsresande och författande av resebeskrivningar, fördjupade han sig bland annat i mineralogi och i kartografins historia. 1870 publicerades Meteorstensfallet vid Hessle (om Hesslemeteoriten), 1877 publicerade han en artikel i "Nature" (om StĂ€lldalenmeteoriten). 1889 gav han ut Facsimile atlas till kartografiens Ă€ldsta historia och 1897 Periplus, utkast till sjökortens och sjöböckernas Ă€ldsta historia. Han tilldelades Murchisonmedaljen 1900. Hans samling som efter hans död inköptes av Universitetsbiblioteket i Helsingfors blev 1997 klassificerat som ett vĂ€rldsminne. + +Politisk karriĂ€r +Nordenskiöld var ledamot av Sveriges riksdag i flera omgĂ„ngar. Han var riksdagsledamot för ridderskapet och adeln vid 1862/63 samt 1865/66 Ă„rs riksdagar och var dĂ€refter ledamot i andra kammaren för Stockholms stads valkrets Ă„ren 1870â1872, 1881â1887 samt 1891â1893. Ă ren 1870â1871 tillhörde han Nyliberala partiet men efter dess upplösning övergick han 1872 till Ministeriella partiet. Under 1880- och 90-talen tillhörde han inte nĂ„gon partigrupp i riksdagen. I riksdagen var han bland annat vice ordförande i konstitutionsutskottet 1884â1885 samt vice ordförande i sĂ€rskilda utskottet 1886 och 1891. Som riksdagspolitiker engagerade han sig frĂ€mst i frĂ„gor om forskning och högre utbildning. + +UtmĂ€rkelser och ordnar + Kommendör med stora korset av NordstjĂ€rneorden. + Vegamedaljen i guld â 24 april 1881 + Vegamedaljen i silver â 1880 + Asteroiden 2464 Nordenskiöld Ă€r uppkallad efter honom. +Nordenskiöldsgatan, som löper frĂ„n Bortre Tölö till Alphyddan och Böle i Helsingfors, Ă€r ocksĂ„ uppkallad efter honom. + +Bibliografi över digitaliserade verk + â InnehĂ„ll: Svenska expeditionen till Spetsbergen Ă„r 1864 om bord pĂ„ Axel Thordsen. + + â 5 volymer. + +Se Ă€ven +UpptĂ€cktsresanden A.E. Nordenskiöld + +KĂ€llor + +Noter + +Litteratur +Oscar II och hans tid â 1872â1907, Erik Lindorm Ă„r 1936 +Svenska krönikan, Ă ke Ohlmarks/Nils Erik Baehrendtz Ă„r 1981 + TvĂ„kammarriksdagen 1867â1970, band 1 (Almqvist & Wiksell International 1988), band 1, s. 149â150 +Nationalencyklopedin + Vegas fĂ€rd kring Asien och Europa, 2 band, Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, F. & G. Beijers Förlag, Stockholm, 1880. + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Vegas fĂ€rd kring Asien och Europa i fulltext 2007, S Zenker. + + + +Ridderskapet och adelns riksdagsledamöter +Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdags andra kammare för Nyliberala partiet +Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdags andra kammare för Ministeriella partiet +Professorer vid Naturhistoriska riksmuseet +Ledamöter av Svenska Akademien +FinlĂ€ndska upptĂ€cktsresande +Svenska upptĂ€cktsresande +Svenska polarforskare (Arktis) +VĂ€rldsminnen +Ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien +Mottagare av Murchisonmedaljen +Kommendörer med stora korset av NordstjĂ€rneorden +Svenska friherrar +BureĂ€tten +Sverigefinlandssvenskar +Finlandssvenska upptĂ€cktsresande +Personer frĂ„n Helsingfors +Födda 1832 +Avlidna 1901 +MĂ€n +Adolf Erik +Adolf Fredrik (), född 14 maj (enl. n.s.) 1710 pĂ„ slottet Gottorp i Holstein-Gottorp (nuvarande Schleswig-Holstein) i Tyskland, död 12 februari 1771 pĂ„ Stockholms slott, var furstbiskop av LĂŒbeck 1727â1743 och kung av Sverige frĂ„n 1751. Han utsĂ„gs 1743 till svensk kronprins efter hattarnas ryska krig under pĂ„tryckning frĂ„n tsarinnan Elisabet. Han gifte sig Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ med Lovisa Ulrika av Preussen, syster till Fredrik den store. Han hade vĂ€ldigt liten personlig makt, Ă€ven om personer i hans omgivning försökte ge honom större. Han var son till hertig Kristian August av Holstein-Gottorp (furstbiskopen av LĂŒbeck) och Albertina Frederika av Baden-Durlach, sĂ„ledes morbror till Katarina II av Ryssland. Adolf Fredrik Ă„terinförde furstehuset Oldenburg i Sverige och grundlade dess holstein-gottorpska gren som svensk kungaĂ€tt. + +Adolf Fredrik som svensk tronföljare +Adolf Fredrik föddes pĂ„ slottet Gottorp 4 maj (enligt s.s.; 3 maj enligt g.s. och 14 maj enligt n.s.) 1710 som son till hertigen av Holstein-Gottorp tillika furstbiskopen av LĂŒbeck, Kristian August (yngre bror till Karl XII:s svĂ„ger hertig Fredrik IV av Holstein-Gottorp) och Albertina Fredrika av Baden-Durlach, dottersons dotter till Karl IX:s dotter Katarina. Bland hans syskon mĂ€rks kejsarinnan Katarina II:s av Ryssland mor Johanna Elisabet. Vid hans dop skickade Karl XII, som inbjudits till fadderskapet, honom en fullmakt pĂ„ en officersplats i den svenska hĂ€ren. Ă r 1727, dĂ„ hans Ă€ldre bror, som eftertrĂ€tt sin fader som furstbiskop, avled, lyckades hans mor, vars ekonomiska omstĂ€ndigheter var smĂ„, utverka att furstbiskopsstiftet övergick till den sjuttonĂ„rige Adolf Fredrik. FastĂ€n hans kusin Karl Fredrik, Karl XII:s systerson, ville förbigĂ„ honom vid valet av förmyndare för sin son Karl Peter Ulrik, fick Adolf Fredrik Ă€ndĂ„ vid Karl Fredriks död 1739 detta förmyndarskap och blev för nĂ„gra Ă„r administrator av Holstein-Gottorp. + +DĂ„ Karl Peter Ulriks moster, den ryska prinsessan Elisabet, genom en palatsrevolution, 1741, bemĂ€ktigat sig den ryska tronen och behövde sin systersons arvsrĂ€tt till stöd för sin egen, gynnade Adolf Fredrik hennes planer och sĂ€nde sin unge myndling till Ryssland, i hopp om att sjĂ€lv dĂ€rigenom Ă€rva hans utsikter till den svenska tronen. Ur de stormiga partistriderna 1743 framgick Ă€ven 23 juni, genom rysk inverkan, Adolf Fredriks val till svensk tronföljare. Han tilltrĂ€dde regeringen 25 mars 1751 och kröntes 26 november samma Ă„r. + +Kunglig titel + +Adolf Fredriks fullstĂ€ndiga titel pĂ„ svenska löd: + +Adolf Fredrik med Guds NĂ„de, Sveriges, Götes och Vendes Konung, etc.etc.etc. Arvinge till Norge, Hertig till Schleswig, Holstein, Stormarn och Dithmarschen, Greve till Oldenburg och Delmenhorst, etc.etc. + +Adolf Fredrik som kung + +Under pĂ„tryckning frĂ„n Rysslands tsarinna Elisabet utsĂ„gs Adolf Fredrik till svensk kronprins 1743 efter hattarnas misslyckade ryska krig. Adolf Fredrik blev likvĂ€l inte ett verktyg för Ryssland. Han bröt snart med Elisabet. Precis som hans val hade varit en partisak, sĂ„ blev han sjĂ€lv som kung en lekboll i partiernas och sin gemĂ„ls hĂ€nder. Adolf Fredrik betydelse i Sveriges historia blev ringa, fastĂ€n hans gemĂ„l, Lovisa Ulrika av Preussen, genom sina försök att höja kungens makt gav anledning till Ă„tskilliga partistrider. Först slöt sig det unga tronföljarparet till hattpartiet, dĂ€rtill förmĂ„tt av förespeglingen om utvidgad makt och av vĂ€nskap för nĂ„gra av partiets ledande mĂ€n, bland vilka sĂ€rskilt Carl Gustaf Tessin stod tronföljaren och hans gemĂ„l nĂ€ra och blev sjĂ€len i det glada umgĂ€ngesliv som omgav dem. Men nĂ€r hattarna segrat över mössorna vid 1746â1747 Ă„rs riksdag varken kunde eller ville de infria sina löften. De till och med tvingade Adolf Fredrik att till Danmark göra medgivanden som sĂ„rade hans kĂ€nslor sĂ„som medlem av holsteinska hertighuset och biföll en förlovning mellan den unge prins Gustaf och den danska prinsessan Sofia Magdalena. I och med detta upplöstes förbundet mellan hovet och hattpartiet och efter Adolf Fredriks tronbestigning intrĂ€dde en öppen fiendskap dem emellan. +Ett nytt parti, det sĂ„ kallade hovpartiet, uppstod kring kungaparet för att stödja dess numera öppet framtrĂ€dande strĂ€van efter utvidgad makt. För att vinna popularitet företog Adolf Fredrik resor i landsorten och gjorde dĂ€rvid Ă€ven ett besök i Finland, varifrĂ„n han tog Ă„tervĂ€gen runt om Bottniska viken. Mellan rĂ„det och kungen uppstod hĂ€ftiga strider angĂ„ende grĂ€nserna för kungens personliga inflytande pĂ„ regeringen och denna konflikt gick slutligen dĂ€rhĂ€n att den hotade att förlama hela riksstyrelsen. Vid riksdagen 1755â1756 vĂ€nde sig bĂ„de kung och rĂ„d till stĂ€nderna med sina klagomĂ„l. DĂ„ fick rĂ„det rĂ€tt att, nĂ€r kungen vĂ€grade underskriva dess beslut, nyttja en kunglig namnstĂ€mpel. Utan hĂ€nsyn till kungaparets önskan utbyttes guvernör, kavaljerer och lĂ€rare för de unga prinsarna och för att komma Ă„t drottningen anbefalldes en undersökning om kronjuvelerna, av vilka drottningen misstĂ€nktes ha pantsatt en del för att fĂ„ medel till sina revolutionsplaner. Allt detta drev hovets anhĂ€ngare till det illa planlagda och ledda revolutionsförsöket i juni 1756, vilket slutade med att föra flera av kungaparets vĂ€nner och verktyg till schavotten och föranledde ytterligare inskrĂ€nkningar av kungens makt. Kungaparet tvingades under förnedring lyssna till en akt med ett ultimatum, vilket innebar att de skulle antingen göra avbön eller skiljas frĂ„n kronan. + +Den 26 maj 1756 beslutade riksdagen att kung Adolf Fredrik skulle signera regeringsbeslut med en kunglig namnstĂ€mpel, eftersom kungen ansĂ„gs vara ointresserad av att regera och hellre stod vid sin Ă€lskade svarvstol och tillverkade snusdosor. Av det skĂ€let samlades dĂ€rför ofta Ă€renden pĂ„ hög utan att skrivas under inom rimlig tid. NamnstĂ€mpeln fick anvĂ€ndas i de fall dĂ„ kungen efter minst tvĂ„ tillsĂ€gelser vĂ€grat underteckna regeringsakter eller dĂ„ kungen till följd av ovilja nekade underteckna de utnĂ€mningsĂ€renden vilka gĂ„tt hans personliga vilja emot. + +Snart kom emellertid för hattpartiet vedergĂ€llningens stund. Redan 1760 kunde hovet Ă„nyo upptrĂ€da och spela en politisk roll i förbund med de yngre mössorna. DĂ„ dessa 1765 kom till makten visade det sig att hovets planer fann lika avgjorda motstĂ„ndare hos dem som förut hos hattarna. Hovet nĂ€rmade sig hattpartiet, och avtalade med detsamma en plan att gemensamt störta mössorna och genomföra reformer i författningen. För att tvinga rĂ„det att sammankalla riksdag förmĂ„ddes Adolf Fredrik 1768 att lĂ€gga ner regeringen och sedan riket i sex dagar varit utan regerande kung under Decemberkrisen 1768 mĂ„ste rĂ„det ge efter, varpĂ„ kungen Ă„tertog styrelsen. PĂ„ den följande riksdagen (1769) störtades mössregeringen, och en ny rĂ„dkammare, sammansatt av hattpartiets och hovpartiet i förening, kom till makten. + +Adolf Fredriks död +Adolf Fredrik hade under en period i början av 1771 vistats pĂ„ hĂ€lsohem. Efter Ă„terkomsten till Stockholm drabbades han efter en riklig mĂ„ltid den 12 februari 1771 av magkramp och yrsel, fick ett slaganfall, och avled. + +I bulletinen om kungens död stĂ„r följande att lĂ€sa: "Hans Maj:ts dödsfall har skett av indigestion av hetvĂ€gg, surkĂ„l, kött med rofvor, hummer, kaviar och champagnevin." + +"Det Ă€r ej att omkomma pĂ„ det mest lysande sĂ€tt, utan att dö en prostdöd" skriver den samtida greve Johan Gabriel Oxenstierna. + +Bilder + +Barn + Barn av okĂ€nt kön och namn (dödfött 1745) + Gustav III (1746â1792), kung av Sverige 1771â1792 + Karl XIII (1748â1818), kung av Sverige 1809â1818 + Fredrik Adolf (1750â1803) + Sofia Albertina (1753â1829) +Kung Adolf Fredrik anges ocksĂ„ ha fĂ„tt Adolf Fredriksson med Marie Jeanne Dulondel, Frederici Fredriksson med Marguerite Dulondel och Lolotte Forssberg med Ulla von Liewen. + +AnfĂ€der + +KĂ€llor + Ny svensk historia - en bokfilm 1771-1810, Riksbiblioteket/Erik Lindorm 1979 s.12 + Nationalencyklopedin, 2007 + +Noter + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Vidare lĂ€sning + + + + +Artiklar med slĂ€kttrĂ€d +Personer under frihetstiden +Huset Oldenburg +Huset Holstein-Gottorp +Födda 1710 +Avlidna 1771 +MĂ€n +Sveriges regenter +Universitetskanslerer i Sverige +Riddare och kommendör av Kungl. Maj:ts Orden +Mottagare av Serafimerorden +Gravsatta i Riddarholmskyrkan +Personer frĂ„n Schleswig-Holstein +Adolf Göran Mörner af Morlanda, född 27 juli 1773 i Esplunda, NĂ€rke, död 30 januari 1838, var en svensk greve, en av rikets herrar, statsrĂ„d, utrikesstatsminister och en av de aderton i Svenska Akademien. + +Biografi +Adolf Göran Mörner var son till Carl Gabriel Mörner och Lovisa Ulrika Horn af Rantzien. Han inskrevs nio Ă„r gammal som fĂ€nrik vid Svea livgarde, och utnĂ€mndes Ă„ret dĂ€refter till kammarjunkare hos konungen. Ă r 1788 begav han sig till Uppsala, dĂ€r han tre Ă„r senare avlade kansliexamen, och genast blev anstĂ€lld vid kungliga kansliet. Han befordrades Ă„r 1793 till kopist i kammarexpeditionen. Ă ret dĂ€refter, Ă„r 1794, följde han som ambassadkavaljer med friherre von Nolcken till Wien, och förestod nĂ„gon tid beskickningen dĂ€r. + +Efter sin Ă„terkomst till Sverige Ă„r 1795 utnĂ€mndes han till andre sekreterare i kabinettet för utrikes korrespondens, tog Ă„ret dĂ€refter avsked frĂ„n gardet och anstĂ€lldes som kavaljer hos hertiginnan av Södermanland. Trots sina goda förbindelser med hovet upptrĂ€dde han vid riksdagen i Norrköping Ă„r 1800 som en av de ivrigaste oppositionsmĂ€nnen och hade sĂ€kert följt mĂ„nga andras exempel och avsagt sig adelskapet, om han inte förhindrats av sin far. Följden blev emellertid, att han entledigades frĂ„n sina bestĂ€llningar bĂ„de inom hovet och kabinettet. Han drog sig dĂ„ tillbaka till sin egendom Espelunda i NĂ€rke, Ă€gnande sin tid Ă„t lanthushĂ„llning, studier samt författandet av mindre tidningsartiklar i finansiella och statsekonomiska Ă€mnen. + +StatsvĂ€lvningen Ă„r 1809 förde honom Ă„ter in i det offentliga livet dĂ€r han bl.a. som ledamot av konstitutionsutskottet upptrĂ€dde vid riksdagen sĂ„som en nitisk och verksam medlem av det Mannerheimska partiet, som i första rummet har Ă€ran av 1809 Ă„rs verk. Hans stora kunskaper och parlamentariska vĂ€ltalighet fĂ„ngade snart tronföljarens uppmĂ€rksamhet. + +I november Ă„r 1812, kort efter det Mörner bevistat riksdagen i Ărebro, dĂ€r han var medlem av hemliga utskottet, utsĂ„gs han till statssekreterare vid handels- och finansexpeditionen. UtnĂ€mnd till statsrĂ„d efter Adlerbeth Ă„r 1815, slöt han tillsammans med utrikesstatsminister greve Lars von Engeström Ă„r 1817 ett handelstraktat med Nordamerikas förenade stater. + +Han utnĂ€mndes Ă„r 1818 till riddare av Kungl. Maj:ts Orden. Han var Ă€ven kommendör av NordstjĂ€rneorden och Ă„r 1821 blev han efter Edelcrantz direktör i Lantbruksakademien. Ă r 1822 blev han en av rikets herrar. Ă r 1837 utnĂ€mndes han vid vakansen efter greve Gustaf af Wetterstedt till tillförordnad utrikes statsminister. + +Ă r 1818 valdes han in som ledamot i Svenska Akademien, och var dĂ€rtill ledamot av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien (1819) samt ledamot av Kungliga Musikaliska Akademien. Den 21 februari 1826 blev Mörner hedersledamot av Kungliga Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien. + +I augusti 1803 friade Mörner till Malla Silfverstolpe, men hon sa nej. + +Han gifte sig Ă„r 1806 med Katarina Ulrika Heijkensköld, dotter till Detlof Heijkenskjöld d.y. och Ulrica Lovisa Victorin. Hans barn inkluderade Carl Göran Mörner, f. 1808, Hampus Stellan Mörner, f. 1815, Julius Oscar Mörner, f. 1816, och Axel (Edward Knut) Mörner, f. 1824. + +Referenser + Gabriel Anrep, Svenska adelns Ăttar-taflor + +Noter + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Ridderskapet och adelns riksdagsledamöter +En av rikets herrar +Ledamöter av Svenska Akademien +Svenska Ă€mbetsmĂ€n under 1800-talet +Sveriges utrikesministrar +Svenska grevar +Svenska diplomater under 1800-talet +Riddare och kommendör av Kungl. Maj:ts Orden +Kommendörer av NordstjĂ€rneorden +Ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien +Ledamöter av Kungliga Musikaliska Akademien +Alumner frĂ„n Uppsala universitet +Personer frĂ„n Rinkaby socken, NĂ€rke +Födda 1773 +Avlidna 1838 +MĂ€n +Personer under gustavianska tiden +Mottagare av Serafimerorden +Mottagare av Svenska Akademiens stora pris +Adolf Göran +Adolf Johan av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, född 11 oktober 1629 pĂ„ slottet Stegeborg i Ăstergötland (nu i Söderköpings kommun), död dĂ€r 14 oktober 1689 var en svensk riksmarsk, riksmarskalk och generalissimus. Adolf Johan var ocksĂ„ pfalzgreve och tysk-romersk hertig, och han blev Ă€ven prins av Sverige som bror till kung Karl X Gustaf. + +Biografi +Adolf Johan av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken var yngste son till pfalzgreven Johan Kasimir av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, hertig av Pfalz-Kleeburg, och den svenske kungen Karl IX:s dotter Katarina Vasa (som dog nĂ€r Adolf Johan var nio Ă„r gammal), var innehavare av titeln pfalzgreve vid Rhen, som arvtagare till hertigdömet Kleeburg. Hans far Johan Kasimir hade Ă„r 1604 Ă€rvt Pfalzgrevskapet Kleeburg i Elsass (Alsace) efter sin far, Johan I av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, bestĂ„ende av tvĂ„ slott, en köping och ett tiotal byar. Det var i denna egenskap han bar titeln pfalzgreve. Pfalzgreve var en tysk furstlig titel. Adolf Johans far Johan Kasimir var stamfar till den sĂ„ kallade Pfalziska Ă€tten pĂ„ Sveriges tron, en gren av furstehuset Wittelsbach. Ă r 1651 erhöll fadern Stegeborg som underhĂ„llslĂ€n för den uteblivna brudskatten frĂ„n sitt giftermĂ„l med Gustav II Adolf:s syster Katarina Vasa. + +Adolf Johan var sĂ„ledes bror till den svenske kungen Karl X Gustav och Adolf Johan begravdes vid sin död först i Riddarholmskyrkan, men flyttades senare till StrĂ€ngnĂ€s. + +Adolf Johans uppvĂ€xt +Adolf Johan var bror till Christina Magdalena (1616â1662), som var gift med markgreve Fredrik VI av Baden-Durlach, Karl X Gustav (1622â1660), som blev kung av Sverige, Maria Eufrosyne (1625â1687), som var gift med greve, riksmarskalk, riksdrots, rikskansler Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie och Eleonora Katarina (1626â1692), gift med lantgreve Fredrik av Hessen-Eschwege. Av hans syskon föddes pĂ„ Nyköpingshus systern Christina Magdalena 1616 och brodern Karl Gustav 1622. PĂ„ Stegeborgs slott föddes systrarna Maria Eufrosyne 1625 och Eleonora Katarina 1626. Adolf Johan föddes ocksĂ„ pĂ„ Stegeborgs slott och han var den yngste i syskonskaran. Tre av hans syskon födda 1618, 1619 och 1628 avled som barn. + +Adolf Johans morfar Karl IX (1550â1611) var gift tvĂ„ gĂ„nger. Med sin första hustru Maria av Pfalz (1561â1589) hade han dottern Katarina Karlsdotter Vasa (1584â1638), som 1615 gifte sig med pfalzgreven Johan Kasimir av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken. Med sin andra hustru, Kristina av Holstein-Gottorp (1573â1625), hade han bland annat sonen Gustav Adolf (1594â1632). Katarina Karlsdotter Vasa och Gustav II Adolf var alltsĂ„ halvsyskon. Prinsessan Katarina Karlsdotter Vasa gifte sig med den tyske smĂ„fursten Johan Kasimir, pfalzgreve och hertig till Kleeburg. TrettioĂ„riga kriget tvingade furstefamiljen att lĂ€mna Kleeburg. Av Gustav II Adolf fick Johan Kasimir och Katarina dĂ„ Stegeborg i Ăstergötland som förlĂ€ning och flyttade dit med sina tvĂ„ söner Karl Gustav, sedermera Karl X Gustav, född 1622 och Adolf Johan, född 1629. + +Efter Gustav II Adolfs död 1632 uppfostrades kungens dotter Kristina, Karl Gustav och Adolf Johan som en syskonkull pĂ„ slottet Tre Kronor i Stockholm med pojkarnas mor Katarina Karlsdotter Vasa som fostermor. AngĂ„ende familjens stĂ€llning och om arvsrĂ€tten till Stegeborg kom familjen efter Gustav II Adolfs död 1632 i konflikt med Kristinas förmyndarregering. DĂ„ fadern Johan Kasimir bröt med rĂ„det 1633 lĂ€mnade Ă€ven modern Katarina hovet och drog sig tillbaka till Stegeborg. Modern Katarina tycks sjĂ€lv inte ha varit intresserad av att delta i politiken eller diplomatin. DĂ„ Adolf Johan var 7 Ă„r gammal, Ă„r 1636, fick hon officiellt vĂ„rdnaden om sin brorsdotter, drottning Kristina och ansvaret för hennes uppfostran. Hon utnĂ€mndes pĂ„ riksrĂ„det Axel Oxenstiernas önskan, och ska ha accepterat uppdraget vid hovet med viss ovilja. Denna utnĂ€mning förstörde hennes relation till Maria Eleonora, som var mor till Kristina. Kristina sjĂ€lv skulle senare beskriva Ă„ren som Katarinas fosterbarn som lyckliga. Adolf Johans mor Katarina Karlsdotter Vasa dog i december 1638 nĂ€r Adolf Johan var 9 Ă„r, men han var kvar och uppfostrades vid hovet, som Kristinas bortskĂ€mde lillebror. + +Först pĂ„ sommaren 1633 var det dags för kung Gustav II Adolfs likfĂ€rd mot Sverige. DĂ„ förde en sorgeprocession den döde kungen ner till vattnet. Processionen bestod av personer frĂ„n Sverige och de nĂ€rliggande omrĂ„dena. Fanor frĂ„n alla grevskap och furstendömen, blodsfanan och huvudbaneret framfördes och som symboler för den döde fanns kyrisset (rustningen), svĂ€rdet och livhĂ€sten. Ănkan, Maria Eleonora, deltog i vagn, men Gustav Adolfs unga dotter Kristina var inte med. + +I processionen mot Stockholm fördes Ă„tta krigstrofĂ©er frĂ„n LĂŒtzen och flera leipzigska trofĂ©fanor som markerade Sveriges status som stormakt. Fem svartklĂ€dda riksĂ€mbetsmĂ€n bar regalierna, men riksrĂ„det Axel Oxenstierna deltog inte. RiksĂ€mbetsmĂ€nnen gick framför det kungliga liket som lĂ„g pĂ„ en bĂ„r smyckad med svart tyg. Alldeles bakom likbĂ„ren kom kungens svĂ„ger pfalzgreve Johan Kasimir, med sina söner Karl Gustav och Adolf Johan. Denna gĂ„ng deltog bĂ„de den sörjande Ă€nkedrottningen Maria Eleonora och den sjuĂ„riga dottern Kristina. Den sorgesamma processionen drog landsvĂ€gen fram genom riket mot huvudstaden. Ett Ă„r senare begravdes Gustav II Adolf den 22 juni 1634 i Riddarholmskyrkan i Stockholm. + +Titel +Adolf Johans titlar har ofta varierat i historisk litteratur men den korrekt som anvĂ€ndes i hans samtid var: + +Pfalzgreve vid Rhen, Hertig till JĂŒlich, Kleve och Berg, greve av Valdens, Spanheim, Mark och Ravensburg och Herre till Ravenstein + +Dock kontrollerade inte Adolf Johan dessa omrĂ„den, utan det skall ses som ansprĂ„k som han hade arvsrĂ€tt till. Det omrĂ„den han i verkligheten kontrollerade var Neukastel samt Kleeburg. + +Det Ă€r heller inte korrekt att Adolf Johan eller hans far Johan Kasimir skulle vara Hertigar av Stegeborg utan detta var endast ett Ă€rftligt pantlĂ€n som förlĂ€nats fadern som pant för den uteblivna brudskatten för Adolf Johans mor. + +Ă rtal i korthet + +Adolf Johan uppfostrades vid det svenska hovet. Tillsammans med sin kusin drottning Kristina och sin bror, den blivande Karl X Gustav fick han sin grundutbildning. Han fick en vĂ„rdad uppfostran som fullbordades genom resor till Paris 1646 med Magnus Gabriel De la Gardies franska ambassad och i Frankrike, Italien och Tyskland 1647â1648. Vid knappt 22 Ă„rs Ă„lder tilltrĂ€dde han generalguvernörsĂ€mbetet över VĂ€stergötland med VĂ€rmland, Dalsland och Halland. + + 1649 â UtnĂ€mnd till överkammarherre. + 1651â1654 â Generalguvernör över VĂ€stergötland med VĂ€rmland, Dalsland och Halland (utnĂ€mnd 10 juni 1651). + 1653â1654 â Riksmarskalk, med titeln grand-maĂźtre (liktydigt med högmĂ€stare eller stormĂ€stare), "tillika grand-maĂźtre vid hovet och riksmarskalk 16 juni 1653". + 1656 â generalissimus över svenska armĂ©erna i Polen och Preussen 3 jan. 1656. + 1657 â tillika generaldirektör över VĂ€stpreussen mars och juni 1657. + 1657â1659 â Ăverdirektör över generalguvernementet Preussen. + 1657 â utnĂ€mnd till riksmarsk 12 februari 1660, men kom icke i besittning av detta Ă€mbete. + 1660 â I kungens testamente Ă„terutnĂ€mnd till riksmarskalk samt medlem av förmyndarregeringen, dĂ€r han skulle vara ersĂ€ttare för Ă€nkedrottningen. UtnĂ€mningen godtogs dock inte av riksrĂ„det och Adolf Johan fick trĂ€da tillbaka. + +Preussen och polska kriget + +DĂ„ det polska kriget kom hade Karl X Gustav blivit kung och han tog dĂ„ brodern Adolf Johan med sig och gav honom högt befĂ€l. Redan efter ett Ă„r var han generalissimus (högste befĂ€lhavare för landets stridskrafter) över armĂ©erna i Polen och Preussen, dĂ„ kungen tĂ„gade mot Danmark. + +Karl X Gustavs polska krig pĂ„ 1650-talet var ett krig som varade Ă„ren 1655â1660 och som frĂ€mst var mellan Sverige och Polen-Litauen. Kriget slutade utan tydlig segrare. Kriget startades av Sverige, men segrare blev Polen. Sverige hade mĂ„nga framgĂ„ngar i början av kriget. + +Högste befĂ€lhavare i slaget vid Gnesen 1656 +Under Karl X Gustavs polska krig pĂ„ 1650-talet ledde Adolf Johan de svenska trupperna till seger i slaget vid Gnesen den 27 april 1656. FĂ€ltslaget vid Gnesen (Gniezno, pĂ„ tyska: ) utspelades 1656 under Karl X Gustavs polska krig, mellan Sverige och Polen-Litauen. Staden Gniezno ligger i Storpolens vojvodskap i vĂ€stra Polen, belĂ€gen 50 kilometer nordost om PoznaĆ. Slaget rĂ€knas som oavgjort dĂ„ de polsk-litauiska styrkorna lĂ€mnade slagfĂ€ltet. Resultatet blev en svensk seger. De svenska befĂ€lhavarna var Adolf Johan av Pfalz och Carl Gustaf Wrangel och den polsk-litauiska befĂ€lhavaren var Stefan Czarniecki. + +Förde befĂ€let vid slaget vid Kcynia 1656 +Slaget vid Kcynia Ă€gde rum den 1 juni 1656 under Karl X Gustavs polska krig. De svenska trupperna, under befĂ€l av kung Karl X Gustav och Adolf Johan av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, besegrade Stefan Czarnieckis polsk-litauiska trupper. + +Tredagarsslaget vid Warszawa + + +Tredagarsslaget vid Warszawa var det största slaget under Karl X Gustavs polska krig och utkĂ€mpades 18â20 juli 1656 mellan Ă„ ena sidan Sverige och Brandenburg och Ă„ andra sidan Polen. I slutet av maj 1656 fick Adolf Johan ett nytt uppdrag. Uppdraget gĂ€llde att i samrĂ„d med hĂ€rens generaler om möjligt undsĂ€tta den svenska garnisonen i Warszawa. Hertigen sĂ„g sig dock ur stĂ„nd att lösa denna uppgift. Fienden var för stark, och Adolf Johan fann sin framskjutna stĂ€llning vid Nowy DwĂłr i Polen sĂ„ vĂ„dlig, att han till och med satte i frĂ„ga ett Ă„tertĂ„g till ToruĆ (staden hette tidigare pĂ„ svenska Thorn) i mellersta Polen, 180 km nordvĂ€st om Warszawa. Staden ToruĆ hölls ockuperad av Sverige 1655â1658. Men hĂ€ndelserna tog en annan vĂ€ndning, nĂ€r Karl Gustav blivit ense med Fredrik Vilhelm av Brandenburg och i förening med honom ryckte fram mot den polska huvudstaden. I slaget vid Warszawa kĂ€mpade Adolf Johan pĂ„ högra flygeln vid konungens sida. SĂ€rskilt omtalas, hur han pĂ„ slaktningens andra dag, 19 juli 1656, i spetsen för fyra skvadroner som kastade tillbaka ett tatariskt anfall i svenska hĂ€rens rygg. Under striderna som följde var Karl X Gustav nĂ€ra att mista livet dĂ„ en polsk husar vid namn Jakub Kowaliski trĂ€ffade kungen i bröstet med sin lans. Kungens harnesk skyddade honom frĂ„n att genomborras av spetsen och en livknekt kunde snabbt skjuta husaren. PĂ„ eftermiddagen drog sig polackerna tillbaka, dĂ„ anfallen gav föga resultat. NĂ€r mörkret föll beslöt ledningen för den allierade armĂ©n att man skulle dra sig tillbaka. Det var denna afton betydligt lugnare bland officerarna vid det allierade lĂ€gret vid BrĂłdno, ett omrĂ„de som grĂ€nsar till Warszawa. + +Den 20 juli stod delar av det polska infanteriet ordnat mellan sandkullarna och floden. NĂ€r de allierade besköt dem med artilleri gav de upp. De allierade befĂ€lhavarna blev oense om vad de skulle göra med dem. Fredrik Vilhelm av Brandenburg ville att man skulle gĂ„ till attack mot dem, men Karl X Gustavs bror Adolf Johan ville avsluta eldgivningen mot dem. De polska infanteriförbanden fick ett andrum nĂ€r svenskarna inte kunde besluta sig för vad de skulle göra och kunde fly frĂ„n slagfĂ€ltet. + +Allierade trupper marscherade in i staden den 24 juli 1656 och stannade vid Warszawa Ă€nda till slutet av juli. Trots segern blev slaget början till slutet för framgĂ„ngarna i Karl X Gustavs polska krig. Allt mörknade dĂ€refter för svenskarna, sĂ„vĂ€l militĂ€rt som diplomatiskt. Man fick trots det en acceptabel fred i Oliwa 1660 utan nĂ„gra större skillnader. + +Freden i Oliwa +Freden i Oliwa slöts 1660 och fredsavtalet undertecknades i klostret i Oliwa den 3 maj 1660. Johan II Kasimir av Polen, Polen-Litauens kung, avsade sig alla ansprĂ„k pĂ„ Sveriges krona. Polen erkĂ€nde Sveriges innehav av Estland, Ăsel och Livland. Freden i Oliwa slöts 1660, och avslutade Karl X Gustavs polska krig som dĂ„ pĂ„gĂ„tt i fyra Ă„r och nio mĂ„nader mellan Sverige pĂ„ ena sidan och Polen, Tysk-romerska riket samt Brandenburg pĂ„ den andra. + +General över trupper som lĂ€mnades kvar i Preussen +Efter kungens avtĂ„g frĂ„n Preussen mot Danmark Ă„r 1657, utnĂ€mndes Adolf Johan till general över de trupper, som lĂ€mnades kvar i Preussen, vilket ledde till tvister. De svenska trupperna kom i trĂ„ngmĂ„l, och kungen ogillade Adolf Johans Ă„tgĂ€rder. Detta ledde till, att han blev sĂ„ upprörd, att han reste hem 1659. + +Karl X Gustavs första danska krig var ett krig som pĂ„gick Ă„ren 1657â1658 mellan Sverige och Danmark med Holstein som allierad pĂ„ svensk sida. NĂ€r kriget bröt ut 1657 var Sverige redan inblandat i ett krig i Polen samt ett krig mot Ryssland. Karl X Gustavs andra danska krig var det krig som utspelade sig kort efter Karl X Gustavs första danska krig under tiden 5 augusti 1658 â 26 maj 1660. Kriget slutade med att Sverige fick Ă„terlĂ€mna Bornholm och Trondheims lĂ€n. + +Karl X Gustavs död +Karl X Gustav dog 13 februari 1660 under en riksdag i Göteborg. DĂ„ var det meningen att Adolf Johan skulle ingĂ„ i tronföljaren Karl XI:s förmyndarregering tillsammans med Ă€nkedrottning Hedvig Eleonora och rikets rĂ„d. Direkt efter kungens dödsfall hade man beslutat att Göteborgs stadsportar skulle stĂ€ngas och Adolf Johan lĂ€t dĂ€rför tillkalla Göteborgs kommendant Carl Sjöblad, samt befallde honom att överlĂ€mna nycklarna. NĂ€r denne vĂ€grade och först bad att fĂ„ tala med drottningen och rĂ„det, drog hertigen sin vĂ€rja mot Sjöblad, som snabbt gjorde detsamma, varpĂ„ hertigen lugnade ner sig. + +1 mars 1660 justerades ett tidigare riksdagsbeslut och nu erkĂ€ndes arvprinsen Karl XI som Sveriges kung och hertig Adolf Johan uteslöts ur förmyndarregeringen. DĂ€refter fick han inga fler offentliga uppdrag. + +EftermĂ€le +Adolf Johans eftermĂ€le Ă€r fĂ€rgat av att han drev ett stort antal tvistemĂ„l i sĂ„vĂ€l Sverige som Tyskland, till och med mot sina egna barn, vilka 1688 sĂ„g sig nödsakade att söka kungligt beskydd. G. Wittrock skriver i Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (SBL) om Adolf Johan följande: "Hela Adolf Johans bana vittnar, att det icke var nĂ„gon stor förmĂ„ga, som genom 1660 Ă„rs beslut sattes ur verksamhet. Tydligt Ă€r dock, att Karl X Gustavs broder jĂ€mte allvarliga lyten Ă€gde kunskaper och en viss begĂ„vning lika vĂ€l som personligt mod, och otvivelaktigt hade han under gynnsammare yttre förhĂ„llanden kunnat under sin mannaĂ„lder utrĂ€tta mera till gagn och mindre till skada." + +GiftermĂ„l och barn + Adolf Johan gifte sig första gĂ„ngen vid 20 Ă„rs Ă„lder den 19 juni 1649 med den likaledes 20-Ă„riga grevinnan Elsa Beata Persdotter Brahe (31 augusti 1629 â 4 april 1653). Hon var dotter till greve Per Brahe den yngre och Kristina Katarina Stenbock. Elsa Beata Brahe dog dock redan efter fyra Ă„rs Ă€ktenskap.I det första Ă€ktenskapet fick Adolf Johan endast sonen Gustav Adolf (född och död 1652). + + Adolf Johan gifte sig andra gĂ„ngen i februari 1661 med sin första makas kusin Elsa Elisabeth Nilsdotter Brahe (29 januari 1632 â 24 februari 1689). Bröllopet hölls pĂ„ Tidö slott. Hon var dotter till greve Nils Brahe den Ă€ldre av Visingsborg och friherrinnan Anna Margareta Bielke och hon hade tidigare varit gift med rikskansler greve Erik Axelsson Oxenstierna (1624â1656). Elsa Elisabeth Brahe blev i det första Ă€ktenskapet Ă€nka 1656 med fem barn. Adolf Johan friade till Erik Oxenstiernas Ă€nka Elsa Brahe, men drottningen och andra avrĂ„dde henne, men "hon tjusades av tanken att bli kunglig person" och hon hoppades sĂ€kert ocksĂ„ att fĂ„ byta sin Ă€nketillvaro mot ett furstligt hovliv. De fem barnen fick dĂ„ tas om hand av andra, flickorna var dĂ„ 11, 10 och 6 Ă„r och pojkarna var 9 och 5 Ă„r gamla. Hon rustade för ett stĂ„ndsmĂ€ssigt bröllop. Bröllopet hölls pĂ„ Tidö slott, men hertig Adolf Johan var nu en avsatt marsk och vice regent och hertigparet drog sig undan till Stegeborg och senare flyttade hertigfamiljen utomlands till sina tyska gods. + +I det andra Ă€ktenskapet föddes sammanlagt nio barn varav fyra uppnĂ„dde vuxen Ă„lder: + Katarina, född 30 november 1661, död 6 maj 1720, gift 1696 med Kristoffer Gyllenstierna. + Maria Elisabet, född 1663, död 1748, gift med G. von Gerstorff. + Adolf Johan d.y., född 13 augusti 1666, död 25 februari 1701, pfalzgreve vid Rhen, kejserlig armĂ©officer, ogift. + Gustav Samuel Leopold, född 1670, död 1731, hertig av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken. Han blev katolik 1696 och regerande pfalz-greve av ZweibrĂŒcken 1718 vid Karl XII:s död, han avled barnlös 1731. + +SĂ€tesgĂ„rden GörvĂ€ln i JĂ€rfĂ€lla + +I början av 1600-talet Ă€gdes GörvĂ€ln i JĂ€rfĂ€lla socken av riksrĂ„det och rikskanslern, friherre Svante Bielke. Han sĂ€gs vara den som byggt den första sĂ€tesgĂ„rden pĂ„ GörvĂ€ln. Adolf Johans hustru Elsa Elisabet Brahes far Nils Brahe den Ă€ldre hade den 16 april 1628 gift sig pĂ„ slottet Tre Kronor med friherrinnan Anna Margareta Bielke (1603â1643), dotter till Svante Bielke. Anna Margareta Bielke fick vid arvskiftet bland annat Ă€rva GörvĂ€lngodset dĂ„ hennes bror, Sten Bielke (1598â1638), avled 1638. Genom arv hamnade sĂ„ smĂ„ningom GörvĂ€ln hos Svante Bielkes dotterdotter Elsa Elisabeth Brahe, som Ă„r 1661 gifte sig med hertig Adolf Johan. Elsa Elisabeth Brahe och hennes bror Nils Brahe den yngre föddes i Tyskland. Elsa Elisabeth Brahe Ă€gde GörvĂ€ln Ă„ren 1643â1689. Det var under hennes tid som den nuvarande huvudbyggnaden och flyglarna uppfördes Ă„ren 1659â1661. Nicodemus Tessin den Ă€ldre och Jean de la VallĂ©e anvĂ€ndes omvĂ€xlande som arkitekter. Men GörvĂ€ln blev inte nĂ„got kungligt slott. Ganska snart blev Adolf Johan utmanövrerad frĂ„n förmyndarregeringen för brorsonen Karl XI och efter en massa kontroverser flyttade han och hustrun till Stegeborgs slott i Ăstergötland. + +I början av 1660-talet vistades greve Adolf Johan och hans maka Elsa Elisabeth pĂ„ GörvĂ€ln under sommartid. Ett brev, daterat pĂ„ GörvĂ€ln 1662, Ă€r av Adolf Johans hand. Paret bodde permanent pĂ„ Stegeborgs slott i Ăstergötland och de bĂ„da avled 1689. + +De fyra barn som Ă€rvde GörvĂ€ln var Katarina av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, Maria Elisabet, Adolf Johan den yngre och Gustav Samuel Leopold (1670â1731). Ekonomin var sĂ„ hopplös, att barnen mĂ„ste begĂ€ra urarava konkurs. Stegeborg indrogs till kronan. GörvĂ€ln kunde dĂ€remot behĂ„llas, eftersom det varit Elsa Brahes enskilda egendom. Hennes barn med Erik Oxenstierna hade förut lösts ut. Adolf Johans barn Ă€gde GörvĂ€ln Ă„ren 1689â1716. + +Noter + +KĂ€llor + Lange, Ulrich: Adolf Johan. Stormaktstidens enfant terrible. Medströms. Stockholm. 2019. + + Svensk uppslagsbok (1947â1955) + StarbĂ€ck, Carl Georg & BĂ€ckström, Per Olof: BerĂ€ttelser ur den svenska historien, Stockholm 1885â86 + Sjögren, Otto: Sveriges historia, Malmö 1938 + Carlsson, Sten & RosĂ©n, Jerker (red.): Den svenska historien, Stockholm 1966â68 (senare upplaga finns) + Henrikson, Alf: Svensk historia, Stockholm 1966, (senaste upplagan 2004) + Ă berg, Alf: VĂ„r svenska historia, Lund 1978, (senare upplagor finns) + + Rundqvist, Agne: "Kronologiska anteckningar om viktigare hĂ€ndelser i Göteborg 1619-1982", i Göteborg förr och nu, Göteborgs hembygdsförbunds skriftserie nr 17, Göteborg 1982 + +Se Ă€ven + + Sveriges hertigdömen + +Svenska riksmarskalkar +Svenska generalguvernörer +Svenska prinsar +Huset Wittelsbach +Födda 1629 +Avlidna 1689 +MĂ€n +Personer under stormaktstiden +Deltagare i tredagarsslaget vid Warszawa +Personer frĂ„n SkĂ€llviks socken +Svenska marskar +Adolf Mörner af Morlanda, född 1 januari 1705 pĂ„ Grönlund i Ă sbo socken, Ăstergötland, död 31 augusti 1766 pĂ„ Esplunda i Rinkaby socken, NĂ€rke, var en svensk greve och Ă€mbetsman. + +Biografi +Adolf Mörner blev student i Uppsala 1717. Han fick anstĂ€llning som auskultant i Göta hovrĂ€tt 1721 och i Svea hovrĂ€tt 1727, blev extra ordinarie kammarjunkare i Kammarkollegium 1728, krigskommissarie i Krigskollegium 1732 och krigsrĂ„d 1737. Han var landshövding i Stockholms lĂ€n 1750â1751, i Ălvsborgs lĂ€n 1751â1756, i NĂ€rkes och VĂ€rmlands lĂ€n 1756â1766 och i Kopparbergs lĂ€n 1766. Det sistnĂ€mnda Ă€mbetet kom han dock aldrig att tilltrĂ€da, dĂ„ han dog av ett slaganfall i augusti samma Ă„r. + +Adolf Mörner var son till friherre Carl Gustaf Mörner och Katarina Margareta Bonde. Modern tycks ha dött i barnsĂ€ng 1705, och fadern gifte om sig med grevinnan Kristina Anna Bielke. Den 26 september 1734 gifte sig Adolf Mörner med sin sysslings dotter Agneta Christina Gabrielsdotter Ribbing af Zernava (1715â1776), dotter till Gabriel Leonardsson Ribbing av Zernava och Ulrika Eleonora Oxenstierna av Korsholm och Vasa. Han var far till Carl Gabriel Mörner. + +UtmĂ€rkelser + + Riddare av NordstjĂ€rneorden, 26 september 1748. + Kommendör av NordstjĂ€rneorden, 4 december 1751 (vid Adolf Fredriks kröning) + +Referenser + +Noter + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + + + +Adolf +Landshövdingar i Stockholms lĂ€n +Landshövdingar i Kopparbergs lĂ€n +Landshövdingar i Ălvsborgs lĂ€n +Landshövdingar i NĂ€rke och VĂ€rmlands lĂ€n +Alumner frĂ„n Uppsala universitet +Personer frĂ„n Ă sbo socken +Födda 1705 +Avlidna 1766 +MĂ€n +Personer under frihetstiden +Svenska grevar +Kommendörer av NordstjĂ€rneorden +KrigsrĂ„d +Allsvenskan, allsvenska serien, Ă€r namnet pĂ„ flera divisioner i olika sporter som vanligtvis tĂ€cker hela Sverige. För fotboll Ă€r allsvenskan fortfarande den högsta serien i Sverige. I övriga sporter Ă€r allsvenskan numera oftast den nĂ€st högsta serien eller en etapp pĂ„ vĂ€gen till en högre serie under sĂ€songen. PĂ„ juniornivĂ„ finns ofta juniorallsvenskan och för pojkar pojkallsvenskan. + +Allsvenska serier + Allsvenskan (bandy) för herrar + Allsvenskan (fotboll) för herrar + Damallsvenskan i fotboll + Allsvenskan i bandy för damer + Allsvenskan i handboll för damer + Allsvenskan i handboll för herrar + Allsvenskan i innebandy för herrar + Allsvenskan i innebandy för damer + Allsvenskan i landhockey + Allsvenskan i segling + Allsvenskan i speedway + Allsvenskan i vattenpolo + Damallsvenskan + Hockeyallsvenskan + Juniorallsvenskan (bandy) + Juniorallsvenskan (fotboll) + Juniorallsvenskan (innebandy) + Pojkallsvenskan (fotboll) + Ridsportallsvenskan + Schackallsvenskan + Superallsvenskan i bandy + Superallsvenskan i ishockey + +Se Ă€ven + Elitserien (olika betydelser) +Analog eller analogue kan syfta pĂ„: + + Analog signal â variabla signaler med kontinuitet i tid och amplitud + Analog signalbehandling â signalbehandling av analoga signaler som sker med analoga medel + Analog elektronik â den delen av elektrotekniken som behandlar tidskontinuerliga signaler + Analog summator â en elektronisk krets som adderar ett antal spĂ€nningssignaler sĂ„ att utgĂ„ngsspĂ€nningen blir summan av ingĂ„ngsspĂ€nningarna + Analog synthesizer â ett elektroniskt musikinstrument + Analog television â utsĂ€ndningen av en TV-kanal sker i analog form + Analogimaskin â ett hjĂ€lpmedel vid komplicerade tekniska berĂ€kningar + Analog Science Fiction and Fact â en amerikansk science fiction-tidskrift + Analog Devices â ett amerikanskt företag som tillverkar halvledarkretsar + Analog Worms Attack â den franska artisten Mr. Oizos debutalbum, utgivet 1999 + +Analogue + Analogue: A Hate Story â ett datorspel + +Se Ă€ven + Analogi â flera + Digital +AllmĂ€nna Idrottsklubben (förkortat AIK) Ă€r en svensk idrottsförening som grundades pĂ„ Norrmalm i centrala Stockholm. AIK Ă€r en av Sveriges största idrottsföreningar med över 18 000 medlemmar i februari 2014. Föreningen bildades den 15 februari 1891 pĂ„ Biblioteksgatan 8, och dess första ordförande var initiativtagaren Isidor Behrens. Namnet AllmĂ€nna Idrottsklubben valdes för att man hade kommit överens om att alla upptĂ€nkliga idrotter skulle utövas. AIK har sedan 1937, dĂ„ RĂ„sunda fotbollsstadion byggdes, sitt sĂ€te i Solna. + +En rad olika sporter har utövats i AIK. De i dag mest kĂ€nda sporterna som utövas inom AIK Ă€r fotboll och ishockey, i vilka klubben har nĂ„tt stora framgĂ„ngar â bland annat tolv svenska mĂ€stare-titlar i fotboll och sju i ishockey. Andra sporter föreningen har nĂ„tt stora SM-framgĂ„ngar i Ă€r bandy och innebandy. + +Historik + +AllmĂ€nna Idrottsklubben bildades den 15 februari 1891 pĂ„ Biblioteksgatan 8 pĂ„ Norrmalm i Stockholm (se fastigheten RĂ€nnilen 11), hemma hos familjen Behrens. DĂ€r var, förutom initiativtagaren Isidor Behrens och hans bror Emanuel Behrens, Henrik Staberg, W. Pettersson, K. Björck, Robin Holm och F. Karlsson. Namnet, AllmĂ€nna Idrottsklubben, valdes för att man hade kommit överens om att alla upptĂ€nkliga idrotter skulle utövas. En vecka efter det hĂ€r mötet valdes den första styrelsen med Behrens som ordförande. Under det första Ă„ret hade AIK 43 aktiva medlemmar och gick med en ekonomisk vinst med 3 kronor och 68 öre. + +Redan första Ă„ret Ă€gnade man sig Ă„t sĂ„ vitt skilda idrotter som friidrott, gymnastik, skridsko, skidor, backhoppning och sparkstöttningsĂ„kning. Redan sommaren 1891 tillkom brottning, tyngdlyftning, cykel, dragkamp, simning och skytte. Klubbens första mĂ€rke skapades av styrelseledamoten Henrik Staberg lagom till idrottsfesten i maj 1891. MĂ€rket som ville Ă„terspegla klubbens breda verksamhet med symboler för olika idrotter fick dock kritik för att det mer liknade skylten till en sportaffĂ€r och ersattes 1898 av nuvarande mĂ€rke. + +AIK:s första inriktning var friidrott, eller allmĂ€n idrott som det hette tidigare, vilket spelade roll för namnvalet. Denna allmĂ€nna idrott hade ett par inslag av gymnastik, vilket dĂ€rför ofta misstolkas som att AIK ocksĂ„ hade en gymnastiksektion vid bildandet. Senare Ă€ndrades dock inriktningarna och huvudsektionen kom att bli AIK Fotboll, som togs upp pĂ„ programmet 1896. AIK spelade frĂ„n början sina matcher pĂ„ LadugĂ„rdsgĂ€rdet pĂ„ Ăstermalm. 1912 blev det nybyggda Stockholms stadion AIK:s hemmaarena. Ă r 1937 flyttade fotbollssektionen till RĂ„sunda fotbollsstadion i nuvarande Solna kommun och klubbens administration och ledning flyttade med. + +Klubben blev snabbt en av de ledande klubbarna i Sverige, och har sedan dess varit framstĂ„ende inom fotbollssporten. 1990-talet var en framgĂ„ngsrik period, dĂ„ AIK sammanlagt tog tvĂ„ SM-guld, sju medaljplatser, gick till fem cupfinaler dĂ€r man vann en cup och spelade i Champions League. Klubben Ă„kte Ă„r 2004 ut ur Allsvenskan för andra gĂ„ngen sedan 1979. 2006 blev en bra sĂ€song för AIK Fotboll, klubben slutade pĂ„ andra plats, endast en poĂ€ng efter IF Elfsborg. + +Ă r 2009 vann AIK "Dubbeln", det vill sĂ€ga bĂ„de Allsvenskan och Svenska Cupen i fotboll. Allsvenskan vann man efter en ren finalmatch pĂ„ bortaplan mot IFK Göteborg, det avgörande mĂ„let gjordes av AntĂŽnio FlĂĄvio 1â1 dĂ„ en kvittering var allt AIK behövde för att bĂ€rga hem SM-vinsten. Dock fick trotjĂ€naren Daniel Tjernström som dĂ„ spelat i AIK elva sĂ€songer spika matchen (sĂ€kra segern) nĂ€r nĂ„gra fĂ„ minuter Ă„terstod av matchen. Matchen, som AIK vann med 2â1, blev historisk. Första laget i Allsvenskans Ă„rgĂ„ng 2009 att besegra IFK Göteborg pĂ„ Gamla Ullevi och i en direkt avgörande final. Svenska Cupen vanns en vecka senare med 2â0 hemma pĂ„ RĂ„sundastadion. Ăven den mot IFK Göteborg. + +Smeknamnet och klubbmĂ€rke + +Klubbens mest kĂ€nda smeknamn, Gnaget, tillkom pĂ„ 1920-talet. AIK var dĂ„ en fattig klubb (30â40 medlemmar, dĂ„ snart sagt endast aktiva spelare och funktionĂ€rer erbjöds medlemskap). Klubbens svarta tröjor tvĂ€ttades Ă„tskilliga gĂ„nger innan man fick rĂ„d att köpa nya. Den svarta fĂ€rgen blev grĂ„are och grĂ„are. Till slut var tröjorna mer rĂ„ttfĂ€rgade Ă€n svarta. AIK-mĂ€rket skapades av Fritz Carlsson-Carling. I skölden finns en sol, som ofta blir felaktigt hopkopplad med den sol som Ă„terfinns i Solna kommunvapen. IstĂ€llet syftar solen till Sol Invictus, en gud under antikens Rom vars namn översĂ€tts till "Den oövervinnerliga solen". + +En del andra hĂ€ndelser gav ytterligare nĂ€ring till smeknamnet: Under sĂ€songen 1928/1929 talade man om att AIK Fotboll âgnagdeâ sig till den ena poĂ€ngen efter den andra och klarade sig till slut kvar i Allsvenskan pĂ„ det. Efter 1929 började AIK Fotboll vĂ€rva spelare frĂ„n andra klubbar, bland andra Karlbergs BK. Karlbergsfantasten Axel Hamberg skapade AIK-hatets vĂ€nner i vars klubbmĂ€rke ingick den lilla AIK-rĂ„ttan som alltsĂ„ ytterligare spĂ€dde pĂ„ uttrycket Gnaget. + +Smeknamnet kan dock vara Ă€ldre Ă€n sĂ„: i idrottstidningen Nordiskt Idrottslif kallas AIK för âgnagarneâ Ă„r 1914. + +Styrelseordförande + + 1891â1892 â Isidor Behrens + 1892â1896 â Richard Tengborg + 1896â1901 â Sigfrid Stenberg + 1902â1905 â Elis Juhlin + 1905â1909 â Eric Frick + 1909â1910 â Nils David Edlund + 1911â1919 â Elis Juhlin + 1919â1922 â Magnus Cleve + 1923â1927 â Inget Ă„rsmöte hölls och ingen styrelse valdes. + 1928â1939 â Ulrich Salchow + 1940â1944 â Roy HĂ€nel + 1945â1953 â Rudolf "Putte" Kock + 1954â1958 â Gunnar Galin + 1959â1960 â Karl-Erik FĂŒrst + 1961â1962 â Tore Nilsson + 1963â1966 â Gösta Ellhammar + 1967â1980 â Lennart Johansson + 1981â1985 â Carl Erik Hedlund + 1986â1992 â Stig R. Humlin + 1993â1999 â Ulf Fredrikson + 2000â2002 â Ingemar Ingevik + 2003â2004 â K.G. Svenson + 2004â2006 â Klas Gustafsson + 2006â2008 â Stefan Widenholm + 2008â2010 â Johan Strömberg + 2010â2014 â Lars Rekke + 2014â2016 â Andres Muld + 2016â2018 â Tommy Lindqvist +2018â2020 â Cecilia Giertta +2020ânu â Cecilia Wahlman + +Sektioner + +Aktiva sektioner +Fotboll â AIK Fotboll och AIK Fotboll Damer +Ishockey â AIK Ishockey och AIK Ishockey Damer +Handboll â AIK Handboll och AIK Handboll Damer +Innebandy â AIK Innebandy och AIK Innebandy Damer +Bandy â AIK Bandy och AIK Bandy Damer +Bowling â AIK Bowling och AIK Bowling Damer +Friidrott - AIK Friidrott +Golf â AIK Golf +Boule â AIK Boule +Basket â AIK Basket +Boxning â AIK Boxning Stockholm +Brottning â AIK Brottning +Amerikansk fotboll â AIK Amerikansk fotboll + +Nedlagda sektioner +AIK Badminton: Verksam frĂ„n 1945 till 1966. Initiativtagare: Tage Wissnell med utövare +Svenska mĂ€stare: +SM-trofĂ©n: 1951, 1953, 1964 +Herrar, singel: 1948, 1949, 1952, 1953 +Herrar, dubbel: 1946, 1947, 1948, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956 +Damer, singel: 1963 +Damer, dubbel: 1951, 1953, 1963, 1964 +Mixdubbel: 1946, 1947, 1953, 1965 +AIK Bordtennis: Verksam frĂ„n 1933 till 1977. Initiativtagare: Tore Nilsson, Ragnar Hallsten, Folke Petterson och Hilmer Nilsson +Svenska mĂ€stare: +Herrar, lag: 1945, 1946, 1959 +Herrar, singel: 1935, 1943 +Herrar, dubbel: 1959 +AIK Brottning: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1893. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare var A. Sköld. Sektionen nystartade 2017 av Leon Kessidis och andra brottare frĂ„n Huddinge BK. +AIK Curling: Verksam frĂ„n 1946 till 1973. Initiativtagare: Einar Kallström, Gustaf Svensson, Olle Wirling, Herbert Ohlsson och Birger Karlsson. +Svenska mĂ€stare: +Herrar, lag: 1966 +Herrar, individuellt: 1960 +AIK Cykel: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1897. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: O. Lindegren. +AIK Dragkamp: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1893. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner. +AIK Friidrott: Verksam frĂ„n 1891 till 1916. Nystart har 2012 godkĂ€nts av Huvudstyrelsen. +AIK KonstĂ„kning: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1897. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner första gĂ„ngen. Nystart 1947, men lades Ă„ter ned 1952. Initiativtagare: Gunnar Stenberg (1897), Herman Carlsson (1947). +Svenska mĂ€stare: +Herrar: 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952 +Par: 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952 +Nordiska MĂ€stare: +Par: 1950, 1951 +AIK Orientering: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1901. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: Sigfrid Stenberg. +AIK Rodd: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1893. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner. +AIK Simning: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1894. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: Magnus Fires. +AIK Skidor: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1892. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner. +Svenska mĂ€stare: +Herrar, backhoppning: 1912 +Nordisk kombination: 1912 +Störtlopp: 1973 +AIK Skridsko: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1892. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: Isidor Behrens. +Svenska mĂ€stare: +Herrar, 500 meter: 1902, 1908 +Herrar, 1 500 meter: 1902, 1908 +Herrar, 10 000 meter: 1904 +Herrar, sammanlagt: 1902, 1908 +AIK Skytte: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1894. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: Sigfrid Stenberg. +Sparkstötting - AIK Sparkstötting +AIK Tennis: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1932 till 1978. Initiativtagare: Wilhelm Engdal och John Söderström. +Svenska mĂ€stare: +Herrar, singel (inomhus): 1950, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962. +Herrar, singel (utomhus): 1950, 1951, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960 +Herrar, dubbel (inomhus): 1934, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960 +Herrar, dubbel (utomhus): 1949, 1951, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961 +AIK Tyngdlyftning: Verksam frĂ„n och med 1893. Det Ă€r oklart nĂ€r sektionen lades ner. Initiativtagare: A Sköld. + +Media + +Som första idrottsklubb utanför USA lanserade AIK sin officiella webbplats 1995 och som första klubb i Norden startade AIK 2004 en webbradiostation med dagliga sĂ€ndningar; AIK Webbradio benĂ€mndes av Dagens Nyheter 2006 som âlandets bĂ€staâ. + +Supportrar + +Supporterföreningar +Under 1980-talet och början av 1990-talet drog Black Army land och rike runt i Sverige och skapade tidningsrubriker. Den 15 februari 2000 bildades AllmĂ€nna Supporterklubben som ett alternativ till Black Army (2002 bytte AllmĂ€nna Supporterklubben namn till Smokinglirarna). Vidare bildades Ultras Nord pĂ„ hösten 2002 och den 2 december 2004 ocksĂ„ Sol Invictus. Dessa fyra föreningar utgör, tillsammans med AIK-Tifo, AIK-Alliansen. + +Utanför Stockholm finns en rad fristĂ„ende supporterförgreningar; de arrangerar resor till AIK:s matcher: Branschen, som bildades 1991 i GĂ€vle, och Dalagnagarna, som förenar AIK:are i Dalarna bildades 2005 och anrika Laholmsgnagarna sedan 2000. Sedan finns nĂ€tverk Ă€ven i VĂ€xjö, Eskilstuna, Ăstergötland, UmeĂ„ och pĂ„ vĂ€stkusten. + +AIK har dessutom en förening för utlandsboende supportrar, nĂ€mligen Exilgnagare, som skapades 2001. I september 2006 har föreningen över 250 medlemmar, i 50 lĂ€nder och cirka 140 stĂ€der vĂ€rlden över. Utöver det finns ett nĂ€tverk av AIK-supportrar i Helsingfors, dĂ€r AIK av tradition Ă€r en populĂ€r klubb. + +Klubbens kanske mest ökĂ€nda supportrar Ă€r de sĂ„ kallade kategori C-supportrarna som gĂ„r under namnet Firman Boys med undergruppen AIK:s yngsta (AY). Firman Boys, som föresprĂ„kar vĂ„ld i klubbens namn, har flera gĂ„nger uppmĂ€rksammats medialt med anledning av vĂ„ldsamheter pĂ„ och utanför lĂ€ktarna. + +Sedan vintern 2013 har Ă€ven AIK:s olika damavdelningar en egen supporterförening vid namn Black Ladies. Black Ladies vĂ€lkomnar, trots namnet, bĂ„de mĂ€n och kvinnor i sin förening men Ă€r inriktade pĂ„ att stötta damidrotten. De Ă€r ett uppskattat inslag pĂ„ bland annat damfotbollens hemmaarena Skytteholm likvĂ€l som pĂ„ arenor runt om i Sverige dĂ€r AIK:s damer spelar. Sedan 25 oktober 2017 finns ytterligare en supporterklubb till damsektionerna, Gnaget Gentlemen. Denna supporterklubb har som riktlinje att frĂ€mja ett jĂ€mlikt AIK i olika idrotter och sektioner. + +KĂ€nda supportrar +Kung Gustaf VI Adolf Ă„tog sig redan som kronprins 1907 att vara âAIK:s beskyddare och förste hedersledamotâ och förblev detta fram till sin död 1973. Carl XVI Gustaf Ă€rvde 1974 titeln som förste hedersledamot och AIK:s beskyddare. Kronprinsessan Victoria, Prinsessan Madeleine och Prins Daniel Ă€r kĂ€nda supportrar frĂ„n kungafamiljen. + +Referenser + +Se Ă€ven + AIK Trubaduren + AIK Media + Ă vi e AIK (album) + AIK-resultat genom tiderna i fotboll + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Officiell webbplats +Facebook + +AIK +Sportklubbar bildade 1891 +Carl XVI Gustafs beskydd +Sportklubbar i Stockholms kommun +Akronymer +Alliansföreningar i Sverige +Johan Axel Fridell, född 6 november 1894 i Falun, död 26 maj 1935 i Stockholm, var en svensk konstnĂ€r. + +Biografi +Axel Fridell var son till möbelsnickaren Per Johan Fridell och dennes hustru Johanna Karolina Söderberg. Han arbetade först som springpojke och senare i Falu koppargruva. Under tiden vid gruvan började han studera konst vid aftonskola, och fick som kurskamrater bland andra Hans Norsbo och Bertil Bull Hedlund. + +FrĂ„n 1909 började han pĂ„ egen hand utbilda sig till konstnĂ€r. Tidigt fick han stöd frĂ„n Anshelm Schultzberg och Gustaf Ankarcrona. Fridell var en stor beundrare av Ankarcrona och besökte honom flera gĂ„nger. 1913 flyttade Fridell till Stockholm dĂ€r han studerade vid Wilhelmsons mĂ„larskola. PĂ„ inrĂ„dan av Schultzberg sökte han till Konsthögskolan dĂ€r Axel Tallberg kom att bli hans lĂ€rare i grafik, och inspirera Fridell sjĂ€lv att börja arbeta inom grafikens rĂ„r. + +Under sitt första Ă„r i Stockholm bodde han tillsammans med Helge ZandĂ©n, 1914 Ă„terupptog han hĂ€r kontakten med Bertil Bull Hedlund och David TĂ€gtström, som studerat i Paris men tvingats hem sedan första vĂ€rldskriget utbrutit. I sĂ€llskap med Bertil Bull Hedlund började han nu att försumma studierna för uteliv i Stockholm pĂ„ Novilla, Berns och Hamburger Börs. Det ledde till att Bertil Bull Hedlund och Axel Fridell 1916 relegerades frĂ„n Konsthögskolan. Genom sina kontakter med Axel Tallberg fick han dock möjlighet att fortsĂ€tta trycka grafiska blad vid konsthögskolan. + +Sin första utstĂ€llning hade Axel Fridell 1914 tillsammans med Bertil Bull Hedlund i en bokhandel i Falun julen 1914. Den innebar ingen större framgĂ„ng. VĂ„ren 1915 hölls en utstĂ€llning pĂ„ biblioteksgatan i Stockholm med verk av Fridell, Hilding Linnqvist, Axel Nilsson och David TĂ€gtström. 1917 stĂ€llde han ut tillsammans med Ruben Nordström i en lokal i Birger Jarlspassagen varvid han uppmĂ€rksammades av August Brunius. Det innebar att efterfrĂ„gan pĂ„ Fridells grafik ökade, sĂ€rskilt hans torrnĂ„lsgravyrer. 1918 deltog han tillsammans med TĂ€gtström och Eric Detthow i en utstĂ€llning pĂ„ Konstakademin. + +Under de följande Ă„ren minskade hans produktivitet i takt med att utelivet upptog allt mer av hans tid. 1921 reste Fridell till Italien, dĂ€r han sĂ€rskilt besökte Florens, San Gimignano och Venedig. Efter Ă„terkomsten till Sverige bosatte sig Fridell i Falun. 1923 reste han dock Ă„ter utomlands och slog sig ned i Paris, dĂ€r han stannade till 1925. Efter Ă„terkomsten till Sverige slog han sig pĂ„ nytt ned i Stockholm. Samma Ă„r lĂ€rde han kĂ€nna Thorsten Laurin, vilken kom att influera Fridell genom att intressera honom för den engelska grafiken. + +Förutom grafik mĂ„lade han Ă€ven i olja, bland annat sjĂ€lvportrĂ€tt, interiörer med figurer samt landskap med motiv frĂ„n Stockholmstrakten eller Falun, ofta lĂ€tt och luftigt hĂ„llna och i en blond och ljus kolorit. + +NĂ€r Fridell dog hade han pĂ„ knappt tvĂ„ decennier hunnit nĂ„ samma konstnĂ€rliga höjder som det tagit till exempel Anders Zorn en hel mansĂ„lder att nĂ„. Dödsorsaken var spridd lungcancer. Han dog pĂ„ S:t Eriks sjukhus i Stockholm pĂ„ söndagseftermiddagen den 26 maj 1935 och Ă€r begravd pĂ„ Norslunds kyrkogĂ„rd i Falun. + +PĂ„ Dalarnas museum i Falun finns stora samlingar av Fridells verk och han finns representerad vid Nationalmuseum i Stockholm, VĂ€rmlands museum, Kalmar konstmuseum, Norrköpings konstmuseum och Göteborgs konstmuseum. + +Grafikern +Det var som grafiker Fridell gjorde sin viktigaste insats och han rĂ€knas till en av vĂ„ra frĂ€msta grafiker. Han arbetade vanligen i torrnĂ„l men Ă€ven med etsning. Hans stora lĂ€romĂ€stare pĂ„ detta omrĂ„de var Rembrandt, James McNeill Whistler, Charles MĂ©ryon och Seymour Haden. + +Under de tidiga Ă„ren, kring 1917, arbetade Fridell i en ganska luftig grafikteknik med kraftiga draggningar, tunna torrnĂ„lslinjer och effekter med fĂ€rgplumpar. Denna teknik syns bĂ„de i portrĂ€tten och landskapsbilderna frĂ„n denna tid. + +I mitten av 1920-talet anlade Fridell en ny stil, med mera genomarbetade plĂ„tar. Flera av stockholmsbilderna frĂ„n denna tid, till exempel Stadshuset i Stockholm II (1926, Haskel 223), hör till denna kategori. + +Den första englandsresan Ă€gde rum under Ă„ren 1926â1928, och under denna tid fann Fridell sin mogna stil. De engelska dimmorna och stĂ€mningarna i London för övrigt gjorde att bilderna fick ett hemlighetsfullt skimmer över sig. LikvĂ€l Ă€r bilderna genomarbetade och detaljerade. Speciellt intresserade sig Fridell för motiv kring Themsen och de stora parkerna. Ett av de mest storartade bladen frĂ„n detta londonbesök Ă€r Old studio (1927, Haskel 253). + +Fridell lĂ€ngtade utomlands igen. NĂ€sta resa under 1930 stĂ€lldes framför allt till NederlĂ€nderna och Frankrike. Ăven i Paris fann Fridell stĂ€mningen vid floden, i detta fall Seine, spĂ€nnande. Flera stora blad kommer frĂ„n denna resa, till exempel det mörka Quai de Montebello I (1930, Haskel 300), dĂ€r Fridell avbildat kajernas mĂ€nniskor pĂ„ ett dystert sĂ€tt. Bladet Flickan i fönstret II (1930â1932, Haskel 308), pĂ„börjades Ă€ven i Rotterdam under denna resa. + +Ă ter i Stockholm producerar Fridell fina blad frĂ„n sin ateljĂ© vid StadsgĂ„rden, till exempel torrnĂ„len StadsgĂ„rden (1931, Haskel 330), dĂ€r han kanske försöker men inte till fullo uppnĂ„r stĂ€mningarna frĂ„n London. + +Den sista utlandsresan gĂ„r till London 1933 och Paris 1934. Nu tillkommer Fridells kĂ€ndaste blad, Mr Simmons (TidningslĂ€saren) (1933, Haskel 365), som gavs ut pĂ„ frimĂ€rke 1974 nĂ€r Publicistklubben firade sitt 100-Ă„rsjubileum. Bladet Glebe Place (Haskel 364), med en skum och mystisk förgrund, hĂ€rstammar ocksĂ„ frĂ„n londonbesöket 1933. FrĂ„n parisbesöket 1934 kommer nĂ„gra fina studier av broar, bland annat Le Pont Marie (Haskel 371). + +I Fridells grafiska produktion ska Ă€ven nĂ€mnas de mĂ„nga portrĂ€tt han utförde, bland annat av Selma Lagerlöf, Gustaf V, hustrun Ingrid och ett antal sjĂ€lvportrĂ€tt. Ett av de bĂ€sta portrĂ€tten Ă€r av konstnĂ€rskollegan Olof Hjort (Dalmasen, 1933, Haskel 350). + +Fridell Ă€r den konstnĂ€r som fĂ„tt flest grafiska blad (26 st.) utgivna i Föreningen för Grafisk Konsts Ă„rliga grafikportföljer, mellan Ă„ren 1915 och 1962. + +MinnesutstĂ€llning +En minnesutstĂ€llning över Axel Fridell hölls pĂ„ Nationalmuseum under hösten 1936. Den flyttade till Falun efter nyĂ„ret 1937. + +Referenser + +Tryckta kĂ€llor +Karl Asplund: Axel Fridell. Nordstedts 1947. +Karl Haskel: Axel Fridell - Bilder I-II. Föreningen för Grafisk Konst 1986 och 1989. Del I innehĂ„ller en förteckning över Fridells grafiska verk. + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +FridellsĂ€llskapet + + + +Svenska grafiker under 1900-talet +Svenska mĂ„lare under 1900-talet +Falugrafikerna +Representerade vid Nationalmuseum +Representerade vid Göteborgs konstmuseum +Representerade vid Norrköpings konstmuseum +KonstnĂ€rer frĂ„n Falun +Födda 1894 +Avlidna 1935 +MĂ€n +Arbetarbladet Ă€r en sjudagars morgontidning som sedan 1902 ges ut i GĂ€vle samt nĂ€rliggande kommuner. MĂ„lgruppen Ă€r lĂ€sare i GĂ€strikland och Norduppland. Ledarsidan Ă€r socialdemokratisk. Tidningen ingĂ„r i Bonnier News Local som i sin tur Ă€r en del av Bonnierkoncernen, och delar av det redaktionella materialet Ă€r detsamma som i Gefle Dagblad. Sportsidorna produceras av en gemensam sportredaktion. + +Arbetarbladet Ă€r andratidning i GĂ€vle och mottar presstöd för att finansiera utgivningen. + +Historia +Tidningen startade 1901 som mĂ„nadstidning, med namnet Gefle Arbetarblad. 1902 antogs namnet Arbetarbladet och kom ut som veckotidning, senare varannan dag och 1905 som daglig eftermiddagstidning. + +I september 2023 meddelade tidningen att man planerade att flytta huvudredaktionen frĂ„n GĂ€vle till Sandviken. + +Kontroverser +Under valĂ„ret 2014 vĂ€ckte Arbetarbladet debatt nĂ€r de pĂ„ nyhetsplats började omnĂ€mna Sverigedemokraterna som "rasistiska Sverigedemokraterna". DĂ„varande chefredaktören Daniel Nordström försvarade benĂ€mningen med att Sverigedemokraterna Ă€r ett parti med rötter i rörelsen Bevara Sverige Svenskt. Trots försök att tvĂ€tta bort historien visar texter av partiets företrĂ€dare att partiet i grunden stĂ„r för samma Ă„sikter som nĂ€r det startade, menade Nordström. + +Se Ă€ven + Uppsalademokraten â tidning Ă€gd 1980â1985 av Arbetarbladet + Lista över socialdemokratiska tidningar i Sverige + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +A-Pressen +Dagstidningar startade 1902 +Företag i GĂ€vle +Svenska dagstidningar +Adolf Fredrik Munck af Fulkila, född 29 april 1749 i S:t Michel i Finland, död 18 juli 1831 i Massa i Italien, var en svensk greve och hovman. + +Biografi +Adolf Fredrik Munck var son till överstelöjtnanten Anders Erik Munck af Fulkila och Hedvig Juliana Wright, vars mor hette Sophia Halenius född i slĂ€kten Halenius och vars bröder adlades med namnet von Wright. Han föddes pĂ„ fĂ€nriksbostĂ€llet Tarkia i RantakylĂ€ i S:t Michels socken. + +Han antogs som page vid hovet 1765. 1767 blev han kammarpage hos Adolf Fredrik, och övergick till samma tjĂ€nst hos Gustav III 1769. 1771 utnĂ€mnd till kornett vid livdragonerna, och tvĂ„ mĂ„nder före statskuppen utnĂ€mndes han till förste kammarpage. Han berĂ€ttade för kungen pĂ„ dagen innan kuppen att mössorna tĂ€nkte fĂ€ngsla honom. UtnĂ€mningen till hovstallmĂ€stare 1772 var ett tack för dessa tjĂ€nster, 1773 blev han Ă€ven förste hovstallmĂ€stare. För hans förhĂ„llande till kungen var det ocksĂ„ viktigt att Munck hade höga grader i tidens hemliga ordenssĂ€llskap. Muncks bibliotek innehöll mĂ„nga esoteriska verk och som stormĂ€stare i sĂ€llskapet Metatron förfogade han enligt hertig Karl över en universalmedicin. + +NĂ€r Gustav III första gĂ„ngen skulle ha samlag med sin fru 1775 förefaller han haft uppenbara problem. I en av "Muncken" noga dokumenterad rapport (och av drabanter intygad hĂ€ndelse) uppges hur kungen kallade in honom i sitt sovrum och bad honom om hjĂ€lp "att hitta hĂ„let" och fysiskt hjĂ€lpa till under denna akt som gĂ„tt till historien. Munck fick personligen mottaga en magnifik gĂ„va av drottningen; ett briljanterat ur med hennes portrĂ€tt som tack för sina insatser. GĂ„vorna frĂ„n drottningen under de nĂ€rmast pĂ„följande Ă„ren kom att slutligen uppgĂ„ till nĂ€rmare 20 miljoner kronor i dagens vĂ€rde. + +Rapporten och ett antal oberoende indicier har gett upphov till ryktet att "Muncken" i sjĂ€lva verket skulle varit far till kronprinsen Gustav IV Adolf. SjĂ€lv förnekade Munck lĂ€nge alla sĂ„dana rykten, Ă€ven efter sitt fall ur kungens gunst. men kom att frĂ„n landsflykten i Italien att efter det svenska försöket att kidnappa honom att hĂ€vda faderskapet. Ett opublicerat brev frĂ„n drottningen till greve Munck innehĂ„ller ocksĂ„ en kĂ€rleksförklaring som kan te sig mĂ€rklig om hans roll hade begrĂ€nsats till blott sexualundervisning. + +Klart Ă€r att Muncks karriĂ€r fick en nytĂ€ndning efter episoden: frĂ„n att ha varit hovstallmĂ€stare steg han snabbt i graderna och blev 1776 major vid Adelsfaneregementet, 1778 friherre, 1781 stĂ„thĂ„llare pĂ„ Drottningholms slott, 1782 överstelöjtnant, 1786 stĂ„thĂ„llare och landshövding i Drottningholms och Svartsjö lĂ€n. Vid den tiden hade han ocksĂ„ ett nĂ€ra förhĂ„llande med operasĂ„ngerskan Giovanna Bassi och hade med henne dottern Johanna Bassi. + +Under slutet av 1780-talet tillhörde Munck i samband med brytningarna inom Gustaf III:s nĂ€rmaste krets den av Johan Christopher Toll ledda gruppen som rivaliserade med Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt om kungens gunst, och Muncks inflytande undantrĂ€ngdes alltmer av Armfelts. 1787 mĂ„ste han mot sin vilja lĂ€mna hovstallmĂ€starbefattningen till en annan kungagunstling, Hans Henric von Essen. Tolls fall 1788 gjorde hans situation Ă€nnu osĂ€krare, och i hertig Karl hade han en svuren fiende. Under krigsĂ„ren erhöll han dock betydelsefulla uppdrag, blev ledamot i utredningskommissionen för krigsrustningarna, president i Kammarrevisionen 1788, ordförande i kommissionen för örlogsflottans utredande 1789 och ledamot av regeringen under Gustaf III:s vistelse i Finland. Som president i Kammarrevisionen Ă€r han den ende myndighetschefen som nĂ„gonsin rekommenderat avskaffande av sin egen myndighet. Detta gjorde han övertygad om att tjĂ€nsterna kunde tillhandahĂ„llas till mindre kostnad för stat och skattebetalare pĂ„ annat sĂ€tt. + +PĂ„ alla dessa poster skötte han sitt arbete med stora förtjĂ€nster, med det intrigerades hĂ€ftigt mot honom, och hans förhĂ„llande till kungen blev allt sĂ€mre, i synnerhet sedan han efter att ha varit tillförordnad överstĂ„thĂ„llare vĂ„ren 1789 begĂ€rde avsked pĂ„ grund av sitt ogillande av Förenings- och sĂ€kerhetsakten. Ănnu 1791 erhöll han dock den högsta utmĂ€rkelse som Gustaf III tilldelade nĂ„gon under sin livstid, nĂ€mligen Serafimerorden med rĂ€tt att bĂ€ra dess insignier i briljanter. + +Hans fall blev affĂ€ren med de falska fahnehielmarna. De Ă€kta fahnehielmarna var sedlar, formellt anvisningar pĂ„ fĂ€ltkassan, som trycktes i Finland under kriget mot Ryssland 1788â1790. Munck hade pĂ„ kungens order med hjĂ€lp av mekanicus Charles Appelkvist 1790â1791 trots att fred slutits mellan Sverige och Ryssland pĂ„ kungens order tillverkat falska rubelsedlar pĂ„ Drottningholmsmalmen i avsikt att prĂ„nglas ut pĂ„ den ryska marknaden i avsikt att skapa finansiell oro och samtidigt tjĂ€na en slant pĂ„ projektet. I augusti 1791 gav Munck pĂ„ Gustaf III:s begĂ€ran order om att avbryta tillverkningen av rubelsedlar och i stĂ€llet börja tillverka förfalskade "fahnehielmare" eftersom riksdagen vid den tiden inte ville bevilja kungen ett generösare apanage. + +NĂ€r projektet med Fahnehielmarna upptĂ€cktes vĂ„ren 1792 gav kungen den 12 mars order om att tryckeriet skulle förstöras. Kungen var nu rĂ€dd att Munck skulle lĂ€cka nĂ„got om förfalskningarna, och hade för avsikt att lĂ„ta spĂ€rra in honom pĂ„ Marstrands fĂ€stning. ĂndĂ„ varnade Munck kungen om planer pĂ„ att mörda honom som kungen avfĂ€rdade. Efter mordet pĂ„ maskeradbalen valde hertig Karl att landsförvisa Munck. 26 april 1792 avsĂ€ndes han under bevakning frĂ„n Stockholm till Italien. + +Han hamnade slutligen i den lilla italienska staden Massa nĂ€ra Pisa dĂ€r han under en lĂ€ngre tid sammanlevde med Elisabetta del Medico, en oĂ€kta dotter till MedicĂ©erna. Hans ekonomi blev allt sĂ€mre och Ă„r 1828 tvingades han sĂ€lja Villa Massoni i Massa nĂ€r han var 79 Ă„r gammal. NĂ€r han efter nĂ€ra 30 Ă„rs landsflykt avled som gĂ€st i grevinnan Elisabettas palats, mĂ„ste han begravas pĂ„ stadens begravningsplats för medellösa. + +Bilder + +KĂ€llor + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + + + + + + +Munck af Fulkila, Adolf Fredrik +Landshövdingar i Uppsala lĂ€n +Svenska stĂ„thĂ„llare +ĂverstĂ„thĂ„llare +Finlandssvenskar +Personer frĂ„n Rantasalmi +Födda 1749 +Avlidna 1831 +Gunstlingar vid svenska hov +Riddare och kommendör av Kungl. Maj:ts Orden +Mottagare av Serafimerorden +Personer under gustavianska tiden +SBH +Svenska hovstallmĂ€stare +BureĂ€tten +MĂ€n +Gustav III:s hov +Adolf Fredrik +Jonas Arthur Engberg, född 1 januari 1888 i Hassela församling i HĂ€lsingland, GĂ€vleborgs lĂ€n, död 27 mars 1944 i HĂ€rnösand, var en svensk socialdemokratisk politiker och tidningsman. Han var riksdagsledamot (andra kammaren) Ă„ren 1917â1940 och ecklesiastikminister september 1932 till juni 1936 och hösten 1936 till 1939. Ă r 1940 blev han landshövding i VĂ€sternorrlands lĂ€n. + +Biografi +Arthur Engberg vĂ€xte upp i Hassela som son till en ganska vĂ€lbĂ€rgad bonde, Anders Engberg, och hans hustru Brita Kristina Danielsdotter. Fadern var borgerlig vĂ€nsterman i landstinget. + +Efter mogenhetsexamen vid Hudiksvalls högre allmĂ€nna lĂ€roverk inskrevs Arthur Engberg vid Uppsala universitet 1908, dĂ€r han blev fil. kand. 1913. FrĂ„n 1914 studerade han vid Jenas universitet och Strasbourgs universitet i Tyskland. + +Efter hemkomsten till Sverige studerade han för Axel HĂ€gerström, som kom att utöva ett stort inflytande pĂ„ Engberg; Engberg rĂ€knas som en av HĂ€gerströms största beundrare. För HĂ€gerström skulle han lĂ€gga fram en avhandling om Herakleitos men arbetet slutfördes aldrig. Vid sidan av sina studier engagerade sig Engström i nykterhetsrörelsen och var medlem i den socialdemokraternas studentföreningen Laboremus vid Uppsala universitet. + +SamhĂ€llsdebatt + +Engberg blev efterhand en uppmĂ€rksammad debattör i tal och skrift. 1917 valdes han in i riksdagens andra kammare och socialdemokraternas partistyrelse. Vid det laget hade han gjort sig kĂ€nd som skribent i olika socialdemokratiska tidningar och tidskrifter. Hans tidiga debattinlĂ€gg kĂ€nnetecknades av citat frĂ„n antikens grekiska filosofer och strĂ€ng stilmedvetenhet, och angrepp pĂ„ meningsmotstĂ„ndarnas logik. + +Anklagelser om antisemitism +Arthur Engberg var en av de frĂ€msta föresprĂ„karna för inrĂ€ttandet av det Rasbiologiska institutet 1921. Samma Ă„r sade Engberg i Andra Kammaren âVi hava ju lyckan att Ă€ga en ras som Ă€nnu Ă€r ganska oförstörd, en ras som Ă€r bĂ€rare av mycket höga och mycket goda egenskaper. Men det underliga Ă€r ju att, medan vi Ă€r ytterst angelĂ€gna om att ha stamtavlor över vĂ„ra hundar och hĂ€star, sĂ„ Ă€ro vi inte alls angelĂ€gna att se till huru vi skola bevara och skydda vĂ„r egna, svenska folkstock. Det Ă€r verkligen pĂ„ tiden att detta sker.â + +FramtrĂ€dande var Ă€ven hans antisemitiskt fĂ€rgade och rasbiologiska tankegĂ„ngar, nĂ„got som under senare Ă„r allt mera uppmĂ€rksammats, till exempel i HĂ„kan Blomqvists bok Socialdemokrat och antisemit? (2001) och doktorsavhandling Nation, ras och civilisation i svensk arbetarrörelse före nazismen (2006). Som skribent, sĂ„vĂ€l i Tiden som Arbetet och Social-Demokraten, skrev Engberg en rad antisemitiska artiklar, som: + +"Ty judendomen har i sĂ€llspord grad varit parasitĂ€r. Den Ă€r lik dessa underliga vĂ€xter, som icke ha sina rötter i jorden utan i andra vĂ€xter, vilkas must och saft utgöra deras nĂ€ring. Judendomen har varit och Ă€r den indoariska folkstammens mistel. Den krĂ€ver en Ă€del ras som nĂ€ringskĂ€lla, och det vore orĂ€ttvist att förneka, att den har klar blick för det bĂ€sta och livsdugligaste. SĂ„ har den judiska rasen blivit historiens förnĂ€msta exploatör", vilket citerades av nazister under andra vĂ€rldskriget. + +Talande Ă€r bland annat hans kritik 1914 av kung Gustaf V:s borggĂ„rdstal, genom anspelningar pĂ„ dess författares, Sven Hedins, judiska pĂ„brĂ„, samt hans senare fraser om "semitisk storfinans" med mera. PĂ„ 1920-talet anklagades Engberg ocksĂ„ offentligt för antisemitism, samtidigt som han sjĂ€lv ville fjĂ€rma sig frĂ„n detta, dĂ„ han betraktade den organiserade antisemitismen som utslag av mĂ€nsklig dumhet. + +AvstĂ„ndstagande frĂ„n antisemitism +Engbergs antisemitiska yttranden kom sĂ„ smĂ„ningom att helt upphöra â Ă„ret 1927 kan anses som en skiljevĂ€g. Tillsammans med socialdemokraternas ledare Per Albin Hansson och Gustav Möller var Engberg som riksdagsman detta Ă„r engagerad mot den frisinnade regeringen Ekmans och högerns krav om skĂ€rpta invandringslagar. Bland de motiv som anfördes för denna lagstiftning var rĂ€dslan för judisk "invasion" frĂ„n "Ost-Europas ghetton", som andrakammarhögerns ledare Otto JĂ€rte formulerade det. Engberg vĂ€nde sig mot att de borgerliga, som han menade, ville göra blodet och rasen till utgĂ„ngspunkt för svensk lagstiftning, och i polemik med JĂ€rte - som gladdes över att det i Sverige i och med lagen skulle bedrivas socialpolitik "med rasbiologisk betoning" - anklagade han denne för att vara anhĂ€ngare av tysk rasfilosofi. + +Marxism +Som socialdemokratins andra generation i riksdagen kom Arthur Engberg att âbetraktas som socialdemokratins âkulturgestaltâ och en av dess teoretikerâ Han skrev flera kortare skrifter om marxismen och menade att denna mĂ„ste förbĂ€ttras. + +Engberg var en av dem som 1919 motsatte sig ett fortsatt samarbete med liberalerna. 1931 dömdes han till tre mĂ„naders fĂ€ngelse, böter och skadestĂ„nd för sina artiklar om Ă dalshĂ€ndelserna men beviljades av regeringen nĂ„d. + +Patriotism +Det tal Arthur Engberg höll tio Ă„r senare, som statsrĂ„d och ecklesiastikminister pĂ„ Sveriges nationaldag 1937, kan ses som ett koncentrat av den "svenskhet" och patriotism Engberg kom att utveckla, nĂ€rmast i anslutning till den sĂ„ kallade folkhemsideologin: + +I den ovan nĂ€mnda Socialdemokrat och antisemit? (2001), drar historikern HĂ„kan Blomqvist, som nĂ€ra studerat Engbergs utveckling, slutsatsen att: + +<blockquote>"... utifrĂ„n undersökningsmaterialet ligger det nĂ€ra till hands att den nationella folkhemstanken i Engbergs tappning inte frĂ€mst blev ett verktyg för frĂ€mlingsrĂ€dsla och utsortering - en aktuell kritik mot den socialdemokratiska folkhemsidĂ©n - utan för humanisering och mĂ€nniskovĂ€rde, Ă€ven gentemot en förestĂ€llningsvĂ€rld som varit hans egen. Bland försvararna av den demokratiska folkhemstanken mot nazismen minskade utrymmet för diskriminerande rastĂ€nkande och antisemitism."</blockquote> + +Arthur Engberg tog under 1930-talet tydlig stĂ€llning mot Nazityskland och vad han kallade "rashatets blods- och jordsreligion". I sin analys av Adolf Hitler och nationalsocialismen ("Hitlerska knölpĂ„ksrörelsen i Bajern") menade han att det inte var den förstnĂ€mnde som hade skapat denna ideologi, det var "tvĂ€rtom denna ideologi som skapat honom" ; nazismen hade sina rötter i den tyska historien. Stridsskriften Mein Kampf betraktade Engberg sĂ„ledes inte först och frĂ€mst som Hitlers verk, utan som "en resumĂ© av förestĂ€llningar, som sedan ett halvt sekel tillbaka sipprat in i och fĂ„tt en allt starkare makt över sjĂ€larna" i Tyskland. Dit hörde ocksĂ„ tankarna om övermĂ€nniskan (Ăbermensch) - "den ariska mĂ€nniskan i tysk skepelse" Den nazistiska idĂ©vĂ€rlden var menade Engberg, "filosofiskt förberedd i den romantiska traditionen, kompletterad genom Gobineau, Schopenhauer och Nietzsche", dĂ€rtill "vulgariserad av H.S. Chamberlain". Denna "germanska anda" byggde pĂ„ arvet frĂ„n Fichte, naturfilosofen Schelling och Hegel, som i sin tur befruktats med rasteoretikernas program: "Wagners dunkla mystik löstes ut ur diktens och tonernas vĂ€rld och blev till blod och jĂ€rn.". DĂ€rmed hade - över Schopenhauers avvisande av den gammaltestamentliga, personliga, guden ("non-judaism") - "steget tagits ut till en religion utan Gud, en mysticism utan hopp, en tillvaro utan den fria viljan". Liten sattes till Ledaren och Ădet. + +Efter andra vĂ€rldskrigets utbrott och i samband med samlingsregeringens bildande fick Engberg lĂ€mna regeringen och blev istĂ€llet utsedd till landshövding i VĂ€sternorrlands lĂ€n. DĂ€r han kom att bli en kritiker av regeringens gentemot Tyskland undfallande tryckfrihetspolitik. Engberg reagerade Ă€ven mot de nazistiska judeförföljelserna i Europa ("den slutgiltiga lösningen"), och i sin Ă„terkommande spalt i Vecko-Journalen skev han 1943: "De grĂ€sliga blodsdĂ„den mot judarna, deras systematiska utrotning och nedslaktning ropa till himlen. + + StatsrĂ„d +Den 24 september 1932 tilltrĂ€dde Engberg som ecklesiastikminister. PĂ„ den posten genomförde han en ny lĂ€roverksstadga, förstatligade de flesta folkskolorna och all dövstumundervisning. Det var hans förslag att införa engelska som obligatoriskt andrasprĂ„k, vilket dock genomdrevs först efter hans tid i regeringen. Mest kĂ€nd torde han vara för att ha infört en sjuĂ„rig folkskola. + +Religion +Relationen mellan stat och kyrka var central för Engberg, som kallade sig âhedningâ. Han var en av de första politikerna i Sverige som fick större uppmĂ€rksamhet för sin kamp mot en statsreligion, och hans namn Ă€r förknippat med folkkyrkotanken. 1922 skrev han att kyrkan skulle kunna avskaffa sig sjĂ€lv om den frĂ„ntogs sitt sjĂ€lvstyre och makten över sin utbildning. Detta ledde till att socialdemokraterna slutade ivra för en sekularisering, och att Engberg Ă€ndrade sig och menade att en statlig kontroll var nödvĂ€ndig tills vidare. NĂ„got senare bildade nazisterna en tysk folkkyrka, och 1937 anklagades Engberg för att ha skapat en kyrka pĂ„ samma grundval som den nazistiska folkkyrkan. Engberg mildrade dock sin antisemitism, och han beskrivs som en ombytlig man som med Ă„ren blev försvarsvĂ€n för att rĂ€dda demokratin mot totalitĂ€ra regimer som kommunism och nazism. + + Landshövding +Engberg var initiativtagare till byggandet av Hassela skola som stod klar för invigning den 1 september 1939. Han fick aldrig hĂ„lla sitt invigningstal utan blev samma dag nedkallad till Stockholm för regeringssammantrĂ€de med anledning av andra vĂ€rldskrigets utbrott. Hans politiska karriĂ€r var nu över, i den efterföljande samlingsregeringen fanns ingen plats för stridbara och kompromisslösa viljor. Han utnĂ€mndes till landshövding i VĂ€sternorrlands lĂ€n 1940. + +Familj + +Engberg gifte sig 1923 med Lydia Carlsson, född 19 juli 1900, dotter till grosshandlaren Gustaf Carlsson och Christina Mathilda Johannison. + +Arthur Engberg ligger begravd pĂ„ Hassela kyrkogĂ„rd i HĂ€lsingland. + + Författarskap +Arthur Engberg Ă€r författare till HĂ€lsinglands landskapssĂ„ng SĂ„g du det landet. Han skrev Ă€ven. + + UtmĂ€rkelser + 1936 promoverades Arthur Engberg till hedersdoktor vid Uppsala universitet. Engberg sĂ€gs vara orsaken till att man vid doktorspromotioner i Sverige upphörde med bruket att latinisera namnet pĂ„ promovendi. Engbergs namn blir nĂ€mligen pĂ„ latin Pratmons, vilket givetvis i Engbergs fall, med hans kĂ€nda talförmĂ„ga, föreföll extra lustigt. + + Arthur Engbergsskolan i Hassela Ă€r uppkallad efter honom. + +Bibliografi + - 3 volymer. + + Referenser + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Ewert, Per (2022), Landet som glömde Gud. Hur Sverige under 1900-talet formades till vĂ€rldens mest sekulariserade land''. . + +The dawn of the secular state? Heritage and identity in Swedish church and state debates 1920 1939 + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + + +Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdags andra kammare för Socialdemokraterna +Sveriges ecklesiastikministrar +Landshövdingar i VĂ€sternorrlands lĂ€n +Alumner frĂ„n Uppsala universitet +Svenska rasteoretiker +Antisemitism i Sverige +Palmstiernas klubb +Personer frĂ„n Hassela socken +Födda 1888 +Avlidna 1944 +MĂ€n +Hedersdoktorer vid Uppsala universitet +af Ugglas Ă€r en svensk friherrlig och grevlig adelsĂ€tt. + +Historik +Ătten kommer frĂ„n bergsmansgĂ„rden Uggelviken i Falun och rĂ€knar sina anor frĂ„n Per Uggla, som omtalas i Gustav Vasas historia. Ăttens Ă€ldste kĂ€nde stamfader Ă€r Samuel Danielsson (död 1677) som var bergsman och bosatt pĂ„ Uggelviken i Stora Kopparbergs socken. Ăttlingar var huvudsakligen verksamma i Falun som bergsmĂ€n. En Ă€ttling, Samuel Ugla var kronobefallningsman i SĂ€ter och gift med en dotter till den pommerske befallningsmannen i Uppland, Per Zachariasson. Deras son Petrus Uggla var teologie doktor och kontraktsprost i Hedemora, och gift med Helena Norrström, vars far Olof Norrström var kontraktsprost och modern en Troilia, syster till Ă€rkebiskop Samuel Troilius, och vars slĂ€kt pĂ„ fĂ€dernet lĂ€nge varit kyrkoherdar i Dalarna, samt var Ă€ttlingar till Stormor i Dalom och BureĂ€tten. + +Samuel Ugla gjorde sin bana i kungliga kansliet, sekreteraren i lagkommissionen sedermera landshövdingen i Stockholms lĂ€n och överstĂ„thĂ„llaren i Stockholm, presidenten i kammarkollegium och en av rikets herrar. Han adlades den 22 september, Ă„r 1772 pĂ„ Stockholms slott av Gustav III under namnet af Ugglas och upptogs valsprĂ„ket "Etiam in tutis vigil" pĂ„ latin och har svenska översĂ€ttningen till "Ăfven under tryggaste lugn vaksam". Han introducerades den 15 maj, Ă„r 1777 med nummer 2111 och uppflyttades sĂ„som varande kommendör av NordstjĂ€rneorden den 11 november, Ă„r 1790 till kommendörsĂ€tt i dĂ„varande andra klassen, riddarklassen, under nummer 2111 A, varvid den adliga Ă€tten utgick. Han upphöjdes vidare den 18 november 1796 till friherrlig av Gustav IV Adolf pĂ„ nummer 311 och introducerades i denna egenskap den 20 januari, Ă„r 1797 varvid kommendörsĂ€tten utgick. Han upphöjdes tydligare den 16 november, Ă„r 1799 till grevlig vĂ€rdighet pĂ„ Stockholms slott och introducerades 21 december samma Ă„r med nummer 105 pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus. Den grevliga Ă€tten adlades med primogenitur, varigenom endast Ă€ldste sonen till förutvarande greve innehar grevevĂ€rdigheten. Ăvriga barn Ă€r friherrliga. Ă r 1782 köpte Samuel Forsmarks bruk som Ă€gdes inom familjen fram till 1975. Samuel af Ugglas hustru var Carolina Wittfoth vars far var brukspatron pĂ„ Gysinge bruk. Dottern Helena Charlotta gifte sig med statsrĂ„det Gustaf Fredric Ă kerhielm af Margaretelund och Ă€tten fortlevde pĂ„ svĂ€rdssidan genom sonen Pehr Gustaf af Ugglas varifrĂ„n de nuvarande medlemmarna hĂ€rstammar. Han köpte HarnĂ€s bruk samt flera andra jĂ€rnverk, och Ă€ttlingar var vid sidan av deras offentliga karriĂ€rer brukspatroner pĂ„ flera bruk. + +Den 31 december var 77 personer med efternamnet af Ugglas bosatta i Sverige. + +af Ugglas vapen + +NĂ€r Greve Samuel af Ugglas upptog friherrlig och sedan grevlig rang blev det Gustaf III:s namnskiffer i första fĂ€ltet och i den högra hjĂ€lmprydnaden, att det tredje fĂ€ltet borde syfta pĂ„ slĂ€ktens rötter i Dalarna (dalapilarna), eftersom motsvarar landskapsvapnet med förĂ€ndrade tinkturer och att armen som sticker upp ur kronan pĂ„ den vĂ€nstra hjĂ€lmen nog syftar pĂ„ hans uppdrag som riksrĂ„d (hermelinbrĂ€mad karmosinröd Ă€rm) och president i Kammarkollegiet (nyckeln). Korset i lejonets tassar i det fjĂ€rde fĂ€ltet kan möjligen syfta pĂ„ alla de kyrkoherdar af Ugglas som fanns bakĂ„t i slĂ€kten. I mitten ser vi kattugglan. + +Personer ur Ă€tten af Ugglas + +Alfabetiskt ordnade + + Bertil af Ugglas (1934â1977), civilekonom, politiker, moderat + Caroline af Ugglas (född 1972), konstnĂ€r, sĂ„ngerska och körledare + Gustaf af Ugglas (1820â1895), finansminister, överstĂ„thĂ„llare + Ludvig af Ugglas (1814â1880), kabinettskammarherre, politiker + Ludvig Gustaf Joachim af Ugglas (1856â1922), militĂ€r, företagsledare och hovman + Margaretha af Ugglas, född Stenbeck (född 1939), utrikesminister + Oscar af Ugglas (1901â1984), sjöofficer, kammarherre + Peder af Ugglas (född 1962), gitarrist och producent + Pehr Gustaf af Ugglas (1784â1853), bruksĂ€gare och politiker + Samuel af Ugglas (1750â1812) överstĂ„thĂ„llare, president i kammarkollegium + Theresia af Ugglas (1793â1836), mĂ„lare och tecknare + Theresia Ulrika Elisabet Wilhelmina af Ugglas (1829â1881), tecknare och mĂ„lare + Yvonne af Ugglas (född 1946), sĂ„ngpedagog och sĂ„ngerska + +Kronologiskt ordnade + + Samuel af Ugglas (1750â1812) överstĂ„thĂ„llare, president i kammarkollegium + Pehr Gustaf af Ugglas (1784â1853), bruksĂ€gare och politiker + Theresia af Ugglas (1793â1836), mĂ„lare och tecknare + Ludvig af Ugglas (1814â1880), kabinettskammarherre, politikerGustaf af Ugglas (1820â1895), finansminister, överstĂ„thĂ„llare + Theresia Ulrika Elisabet Wilhelmina af Ugglas (1829â1881), tecknare och mĂ„lare + Ludvig Gustaf Joachim af Ugglas (1856â1922), militĂ€r, företagsledare och hovman + Oscar af Ugglas (1901â1984), sjöofficer, kammarherre + Bertil af Ugglas (1934â1977), civilekonom, politiker, moderat + Margaretha af Ugglas, född Stenbeck (född 1939), utrikesminister + Yvonne af Ugglas (född 1946), sĂ„ngpedagog och sĂ„ngerska + Peder af Ugglas (född 1962), gitarrist och producent + Caroline af Ugglas (född 1972), konstnĂ€r, sĂ„ngerska och körledare + +Referenser + +Noter + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + Gabriel Anrep, Svenska adelns Ăttar-taflor, volym 4 + + +Svenska friherrliga Ă€tter +Svenska grevliga Ă€tter +Agda Persdotter, Ă€ven kĂ€nd som "Agda i porten", med okĂ€nda födelse- och dödsĂ„r, var Erik XIV:s frilla 1558â61 och möjligen 1563â65. + +Biografi +Hennes födelseĂ„r Ă€r okĂ€nt. Agda har uppgivits vara dotter till rĂ„dmannen Peder Klemetsson i S:t Nicolai port i Stockholm, en uppgift som dock hittills har varit omöjlig att verifiera. Fadern ska dock ha varit en rĂ„dman och vĂ€lbĂ€rgad handelsman i Stockholm, med ursprung i Finland. Agda kallades "Caritas" (Latin: tillgivenhet, kĂ€rlek) för sin skönhets skull. + +Frilla +Agda Persdotter var Eriks första frilla. Det Ă€r okĂ€nt nĂ€r de inledde sin förbindelse, men den pĂ„börjades troligen i Stockholm. Hon bekrĂ€ftas som kronprins Eriks frilla efter dennes flytt till Kalmar 1558, dĂ€r hon fick sitt eget rum i hans residens kallat "Agdas kammare". Rummet lĂ„g intill Eriks mottagningsrum. Att relationen pĂ„börjades redan i Stockholm illustreras av det faktum att parets dotter Virginia föddes 1 januari 1559, sju mĂ„nader efter att Agda anlĂ€nt till Kalmar i maj 1558. Erik ska inte ha haft nĂ„gon annan frilla under denna tid. + +Agda Persdotter hade Ă„tminstone tvĂ„ döttrar med Erik XIV, Virginia och Constantia: + +Virginia Eriksdotter (1559â1633), gift med landshövdingen HĂ„kan Knutsson (Hand). +Constantia Eriksdotter (1560â1649), gift med hĂ€radshövdingen Henrik Frankelin (död 1610), kĂ€nd för sina lĂ„nga resor i östra Europa. + +Erik uppstĂ€llde sjĂ€lv ett horoskop över bĂ„de Virginia och Constantia. En tredje utomĂ€ktenskaplig dotter till Erik XIV, Lucretia (född 1564), har förmodats vara dotter till Agda men det finns inga belĂ€gg för detta. Lucretia uppges i en kĂ€lla ha varit gift med en Daniel Zelow. + +Hösten 1560 planerade Erik en resa till England för att fria till drottning Elisabet, och dĂ€rmed förvĂ€ntades han göra sig av med sin frilla, sĂ„ som var sed dĂ„ en prins ingick Ă€ktenskap. Han förde med sig Agda till Stockholm, dĂ€r hon 13 juni födde parets andra dotter Constantia. Den 25 augusti 1560 förlĂ€nades Agda godset Eknaholms gĂ„rd, vilket betraktas som hennes pension. I september blev dock Erik kung och hans resa till England fick instĂ€llas. Det Ă€r okĂ€nt om Agda blev kvar som Eriks frilla under denna tid, men det anses troligt. I september 1561 planerade Erik att Ă„teruppta resan till England. Resan fick instĂ€llas igen, men Agda upphörde Ă€ndĂ„ att vara Eriks frilla. + +Senare liv +Den 24 september 1561 överlĂ€t Erik vĂ„rdnaden om sina döttrar med Agda till sin syster Cecilia. Han ger ocksĂ„ Cecilia tillstĂ„nd att anvĂ€nda vĂ„ld och alla medel hon anser nödvĂ€ndiga för att överta barnen frĂ„n Agda. Agda gifte sig i september 1561 med Eriks kammarherre, adelsmannen Joakim Eriksson Fleming (1534â1563), bror till Finlands hövitsman Clas Eriksson Fleming. Ăktenskapet hade arrangerats innan Eriks resa till England, med tanken att den var nödvĂ€ndig om Erik ingick Ă€ktenskap, men blev av trots att resan stĂ€lldes in. Vid bröllopet mottog hon förutom den tidigare bestĂ€mda Eknaholm i SmĂ„land ocksĂ„ flera skattefria egendomar i Södermanland. Med Fleming fick Agda dottern Anna (född 1562). + +Ă r 1563 blev hon Ă€nka, och det Ă€r möjligt att hon dĂ„ blev frilla Ă„t Erik pĂ„ nytt. Ă r 1565 ersattes i varje fall alla Eriks favoriter med Karin MĂ„nsdotter. Agda Persdotters vidare liv Ă€r okĂ€nt, men det finns uppgifter om att hon ska ha gift sig med Christoffer Olofsson StrĂ„le av Sjöared, kunglig befallningsman och kommendant pĂ„ Stegeholms slott och Söderköpings slott. Hennes dödsĂ„r Ă€r okĂ€nt. + +Se Ă€ven +Frillohopen + +KĂ€llor + +Hans Gillingstam, "Agda Persdotter, hennes slĂ€kt och Erik XIV:s dotter Lucretia. En kĂ€llkritisk studie", SlĂ€kt och HĂ€vd 2001:2-3, s. 156-160. + Gadd, Pia: Frillor, fruar och herrar - en okĂ€nd kvinnohistoria Falun 2009 + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Svenska mĂ€tresser +Erik XIV:s hov +Födda 1500-talet +Kvinnor +Avlidna okĂ€nt Ă„r +Gustav Vasas hov +Alnön (Ă€ven kallad Alnö) Ă€r en 65 kmÂČ stor ö utanför Sundsvall. Ăn, som Ă€r Sveriges 16:e största och Norrlands nĂ€st största, Ă€r 15 km lĂ„ng och 6 km bred pĂ„ bredaste stĂ€llet. + +Ăn Alnön ingĂ„r i kommundelen, postorten, distriktet, församlingen och socknen Alnö, som Ă€ven omfattar Rödön med flera mindre öar. Fast befolkning finns idag endast pĂ„ Alnön, och uppgĂ„r till 8 832 (per den 2019-12-31). Sommartid mer Ă€n fördubblas antalet boende pĂ„ ön. + +Bebyggelsen Ă€r utspridd, men har sin största koncentration lĂ€ngs Alnösundet, sĂ€rskilt nĂ€ra brofĂ€stet i Vi eller Alnö centrum (6 876 invĂ„nare per 2020-12-31), dĂ€r samhĂ€llsservice i form av bland annat butiker, restauranger, bensinmackar, gym, bibliotek, apotek, tandvĂ„rd, sjukvĂ„rd och veterinĂ€r finns. Ăvriga tĂ€torter och smĂ„orter Ă€r Ankarsvik (956 invĂ„nare), Hartungviken (507 inv.), Gustavsberg (254 inv.), Hovid (218 inv.), Röde och BĂ„rĂ€ng (196 inv.) samt Hörningsholm (157 inv.). + +Alnön Ă€r kĂ€nd för sin jakt pĂ„ vilt dĂ„ det Ă€r gott om vilda djur. Den 31 augusti 2009 sköts en björn i SĂ€ter pĂ„ norra delen av ön. + +Alnöbron, invigd 1964, var med sina 1 042 meter Sveriges lĂ€ngsta bro fram till 1972 dĂ„ Ălandsbron byggdes. Det tog en arbetsstyrka pĂ„ 40-55 man 3,5 Ă„r att bygga den 9,4 meter breda bron över Alnösundet. Den Ă€r cirka 42 meter hög och har cirka 40 meter fri segelhöjd. Bron ersatte tidigare fĂ€rjetrafik, och möjliggör att en stor del av Alnöns befolkning arbetar i Sundsvall. + +SevĂ€rdheter + +Norra Alnön +PĂ„ norra Alnön, 2,5 km norr om Alnöbron, stĂ„r Alnö gamla kyrka (frĂ„n 1100-talet) och Alnö kyrka (byggd 1893) sida vid sida. Alnö gamla kyrka Ă€r en populĂ€r bröllopskyrka. I Alnö nya kyrka finns Alnöfunten, en unik dopfunt i trĂ€ frĂ„n 1100-talet. Dopfuntens yttre ornamentering innehĂ„ller en blandning av sĂ„vĂ€l fornnordisk som kristen symbolik. I anslutning till kyrkorna, pĂ„ Kyrktunet (eller Tunet), ligger ocksĂ„ Alnö hembygdsgĂ„rd med SĂ„gverksmuseet och CafĂ© Tunet. HĂ€r anordnar Ă€ven Alnö hembygdsförening ett vĂ€lbesökt midsommarfirande varje Ă„r. + +Vid StornĂ€set ligger ett av öns tre naturreservat samt StornĂ€sets vandrarhem. Projektet att bygga en golfbana vid StornĂ€set har pĂ„gĂ„tt i mĂ„nga Ă„r. NĂ„gra kilometer lĂ€ngre norrut, vid Hörningsholm, hittar man byggnadsminnet Tors lokal, Sveriges första Folkets Hus pĂ„ landsbygden. PĂ„ norra delen av ön finns flera fornlĂ€mningar, som gravkullar. PĂ„ norra delen av östra sidan finns det en fin badvik, SlĂ€daviken. + +Ăns högst belĂ€gna gĂ„rd, SmedsgĂ„rden, har anor frĂ„n 1600-talet. GĂ„rden ligger vackert med utsikt över kulturskyddad mark med fornlĂ€mningar och en rik flora. DĂ€r finns Ă€ven en nĂ€rbelĂ€gen geologisk lokal med fynd av den för ön unika bergarten alnöit. + +PĂ„ norra Alnön finns bĂ„de ett riksintresse för naturvĂ„rd och ett riksintresse för kulturmiljövĂ„rden (kallat Norra Alnön Y11), det senare inrĂ€ttat med följande motivering: +Odlingslandskap med lĂ„ng bebyggelsekontinuitet och dĂ€ri insprĂ€ngda industrimiljöer som speglar sĂ„gverksepoken och industrialismens genombrott vid 1800-talets senare del dĂ„ Alnö var "de sexton sĂ„garnas ö".(Kyrkomiljö). + +Följande uttryck för riksintresset angavs i samband med motiveringen: +VĂ€lbevarade bymiljöer, gravfĂ€lt och storhögar frĂ„n jĂ€rnĂ„lder samt strategiskt lokaliserad tidigmedeltida kyrka och eventuell kastallĂ€mning. Omedelbart intill ligger monumental 1890-talskyrka, ritad av Ferdinand Boberg. I norra delen av miljön vittnar bl.a. bebyggelsen i Hörningsholm, Nacka, Erikdal, Hovid och Johannesvik om den koncentration av sĂ„gverk som uppstod i omrĂ„det under 1800-talets senare del. Landets första föreningslokal Folkets hus pĂ„ landsbygden byggdes hĂ€r 1896, Tors lokal i Hörningsholm. + +Södra Alnön +PĂ„ södra Alnön finner man flera fina badvikar som BĂ€nkĂ„sviken, Tranviken, Havstoviken, Hartungviken och Grönviken. Sommaridyllen Spikarna, ett fiskelĂ€ge med sjöbodar, fiskestugor, kapell och kafĂ©, Ă€r belĂ€get pĂ„ södra delen av ön. Alnön har Ă€ven ett inomhusbad, Alnöbadet, belĂ€get i Vi. + +Spikarö Kapell, byggt 1958, drivs av Spikarö kapellförening och har gudstjĂ€nster och musikkvĂ€llar under sommaren. Kapellet Ă€r ocksĂ„ populĂ€rt för bröllop och barndop. Restaurang Piren inryms i ett av Alnöns 19 före detta sĂ„gverk, belĂ€get i Karlsvik. Restauranger finns ocksĂ„ i Tranviken och i Vindhem, som Ă€ven har en av Alnöns fyra smĂ„bĂ„tshamnar. + +SĂ„gverksmonumentet, minnet över sĂ„gverkstiden Ă„r 1860 till Ă„r 1963, Ă€r placerat pĂ„ Hötorget i Alnö centrum i Vi. + +I Gustavsberg pĂ„ södra Alnön finns SchymbergsgĂ„rden. Denna gĂ„rd Ă€r sĂ„ngerskan Hjördis Schymbergs (1909-2008) barndomshem och donerades till stiftelsen 1999 med syftet att Ă„ter fylla den med sĂ„ng, musik och kulturellt liv. + +Sundsvalls SegelsĂ€llskaps hamn ligger i Vindhem pĂ„ Alnöns sydvĂ€stspets. Norrlands kappseglingscentrum. HĂ€r finns ocksĂ„ Restaurang Vindhem som har haft omnĂ€mnande i White Guide 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 samt 2016. + +Kommunal service +Skolorna pĂ„ Alnön Ă€r Uslands skola F-6 strax söder om Vi, Ankarsviks skola F-3 pĂ„ södra Alnön och Vibackeskolan F-9 i Vi. Utöver dessa finns friskolan Kunskapsakademin F-9. Flera förskolor finns: Fyrens förskola, LillbĂ€ckens förskola, Rönnbackens förskola, SagogĂ„rdens förskola, Vibacke förskola, Ăngens förskola, Ăppellunda förskola, Lanternans förskola och ĂgĂ„rdens förskola. Samtliga förskolor ligger i eller kring Vi, förutom Rönnbackens förskola som ligger pĂ„ norra Alnön och Lanternans förskola som ligger i Ankarsvik pĂ„ södra Alnö. I anslutning till Vibackeskolan finns Alnö fritidsgĂ„rd. PĂ„ Alnön finns Ă€ven Ă€ldreboende, servicehus och gruppboenden. + +Etymologi +Namnet omnĂ€mns i HĂ€lsingelagen i början av 1300-talet som AlnĂž. + +En Ă€ldre muntlig tradition Ă€r att namnet sĂ€gs vara taget av den myckna alskog som vĂ€xer hĂ€r, varför ocksĂ„ sockensigillet visar en al. Enligt en tidig ortnamnstolkning har socknen uppkallats efter byn Alla (omnĂ€mnd 1543) eller Malla (1545), som dĂ„ tillhörde socknen, och Ă€r identisk med dagens Ala i HĂ€ssjö socken norr om ön. En senare tolkning Ă€r att namnet Ă€r slĂ€kt med dialektordet ala, 'vĂ€xa', och kan betyda 'den uppsvĂ€llda ön' med syftning pĂ„ öns branta strĂ€nder. + +Alnö eller Alnön +Alnön Ă„syftar i kartor och officiell statistik ön, medan Alnö avser orten, distriktet, församlingen och socknen inklusive grannöarna. Denna distinktion efterföljs dock inte helt konsekvent i Ă€ldre och icke-officiella kĂ€llor. Ordet Alnö Ă€r och har Ă„tminstone sedan slutet av 1800-talet varit vanligare Ă€n Alnön i svenskt skriftsprĂ„k. MĂ„nga i lokalbefolkningen sĂ€ger emellertid att man bor pĂ„ Alnön enligt LantmĂ€teriets ortnamnsutredning 2015, och i Alnö församling. NĂ„gra Ă„r tidigare byttes vissa trafikskyltar frĂ„n Alnön till Alnö, dock inte alla. Baserat pĂ„ ortnamnsutredningen 2015 avser Trafikverket att skylta om tillbaka till Alnön nĂ€r skyltarna Ă€r utslitna, nĂ„got som Ă€nnu (2018) inte Ă€r genomfört. + +Genitivformen Alnö anvĂ€nds i Ă€ldre fasta uttryck, exempelvis Alnö centrum, medan man i lösare sprĂ„kliga konstruktioner anvĂ€nder genitivformerna Alnös och Alnöns, exempelvis i "Alnös skĂ€rgĂ„rd", "Alnöns nordslinga" eller "Alnöns befolkning". + +Historia + +Geologisk historia +Alnön bildades för cirka 570 miljoner Ă„r sedan genom vulkanisk verksamhet i omrĂ„det. PĂ„ grund av dess vulkaniska historia innehĂ„ller norra Alnöns berggrund sĂ€llsynta mineral, bland annat de vĂ€rldsunika bergarterna alnöit och borengit. Brytning av jĂ€rnmalm frĂ„n tvĂ„ mindre gruvor för förĂ€dling i Galtströms bruk skedde under 1800-talet, med utlastning frĂ„n Ă s brygga. Under andra vĂ€rldskriget bröts baryt för anvĂ€ndning som rĂ„vara för mĂ„larfĂ€rg i en gruva i PottĂ€ng. Boliden AB provbröt omkring 1950 en fyndighet med juvit vid NĂ€set av Boliden för aluminiumframstĂ€llning. + +FornlĂ€mningar +FrĂ„n bronsĂ„ldern har antrĂ€ffats ett tiotal kuströsen och frĂ„n jĂ€rnĂ„ldern mindre gravfĂ€lt och spridda gravhögar samt en storhög vid Röde. + +SĂ„gverkstiden + +Alnön har ett idealiskt lĂ€ge mellan IndalsĂ€lven och Ljungan och med perfekta hamnar i Alnösundet. HĂ€r byggdes sĂ„gverken tĂ€tt. Som mest var 16 sĂ„gar i gĂ„ng samtidigt. NĂ€r Elias Sehlstedt blickade ut över Alnön frĂ„n Sundsvall inspirerades han till den berömda frasen "Och hela hamnen som en spegel lĂ„g. Och sĂ„g vid sĂ„g jag sĂ„g, hvarthelst jag sĂ„g" (1852). + +Alnöns storhetstid började med sĂ„gen pĂ„ Eriksdal pĂ„ 1860-talet. Ăven om sĂ„gverken pĂ„ ön inte var de största innebar lokaliseringen av de 18 sĂ„gverken en stor omvĂ€lvning för ön. 1850 hade ön 950 invĂ„nare, 1900 var innevĂ„narantalet 6 841. Kring varje sĂ„gverk vĂ€xte det upp ett litet samhĂ€lle, dit arbetarna kom frĂ„n olika hĂ„ll i Sverige och Norden. Det byggdes i rask takt upp arbetarbaracker av mer eller mindre undermĂ„lig kvalitet. Hygienen var ofta under all kritik pĂ„ grund av trĂ„ngboddhet. + +Nykterhetsrörelsen och frikyrkorna fick ett starkt fĂ€ste pĂ„ ön. Bland öns första baptister hĂ€nde att de förlorade sina arbeten efter att ha lĂ„tit sig vuxendöpas. SĂ„gverkspatronerna hade emellertid i allmĂ€nhet inget emot att deras arbetare engagerade sig för kyrka och nykterhet, men det blev stridigheter dĂ„ de frikyrkliga var drivande för att organisera Sundsvallsstrejken. Ytterligare motsĂ€ttningar uppstod dĂ„ det blev tal om att arbetarna ville ha föreningsrĂ€tt att organisera sig fackligt. 1896 bildades en avdelning av Svenska sĂ„gverksindustriarbetareförbundet vid Hörningsholms sĂ„gverk, vilket var den första avdelningen i Sundsvallsdistriktet. 1897 invigdes landets 3:e Folkets hus belĂ€get just pĂ„ Hörningsholm, Tors lokal. + +Platsen Ă€r föremĂ„l för ett saneringsprogram. + +Sveriges industrialisering inleddes enligt vissa historiker med att Ă„ngsĂ„gar byggdes lĂ€ngs Norrlandskusten, varav den första startades i Tunadal 1849, vars sĂ„gverk ligger vid Alnösundet men pĂ„ fastlandet. Ett fyrtiotal rektangulĂ€ra prĂ„mar (sĂ„ kallade lĂ€ktare), har pĂ„ senare tid Ă„terfunnits pĂ„ Alnösundets botten, i Fillaviken utanför Tunadal. Den Ă€ldsta Ă€r byggd av virke frĂ„n nĂ„gon gĂ„ng under perioden 1788â1828, och finns pĂ„ en karta frĂ„n 1871. PrĂ„marna har bland annat anvĂ€nts för lĂ€ktring (lastning eller lossning) av fartyg uppankrade pĂ„ redden, innan betongkajer anlades vid mitten av 1900-talet. + +Sport + +Profiler +Aston Forsberg, konstnĂ€r +Helen Sjöholm, sĂ„ngerska +Andreas Yngvesson, fotboll +Lennart Uhlin, professor i arkitektur +Tina Nordlund, fotboll +Hjördis Schymberg, operasĂ„ngerska +Gunnar Hellström, regissör, skĂ„despelare +Anna Norberg, skĂ„despelare +Tore Lindwall, skĂ„despelare +Beata GĂ„rdeler, regissör +Anton Karlsson, lĂ€ngdskidor +Sanna Martinez-Matz, sĂ„ngerska +Karl Ăstman, författare +Henrik Zetterberg, hockey +Emil Forsberg, fotboll + +Referenser + +Noter + +KĂ€llor + Statistiska CentralbyrĂ„n, SCB (uppgifterna om befolkningen) + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar +Norra Alnön â ett riksintresse, utgiven av LĂ€nsstyrelsen i VĂ€sternorrlands lĂ€n, LĂ€nsmuseets smĂ„skriftsserie nr 10, 2012 + alno.nu + +Alnön +Stadsdelar i Sundsvall +Vulkaner i Sverige +En akvarieförening Ă€r en sammanslutning av akvarister som tillsammans driver en förening, i Sverige alltid med uteslutande ideell verksamhet. Förutom vanligen mĂ„natliga medlemsmöten och publicering av medlemsorgan och informationsblad, har akvarieföreningar ofta en hyrd lokal dĂ€r medlemmarna tillsammans anordnar tillfĂ€lliga akvarieutstĂ€llningar för allmĂ€nheten, eller hyr en lokal dĂ€r de gemensamt hĂ„ller akvarium med akvariefiskar och vĂ€xter, ofta för odling. + +Typer av akvarieföreningar +Det finns tvĂ„ huvudtyper av akvarieföreningar. Vanligast Ă€r olika lokal- eller regionalföreningar. De inriktar sig inte mot nĂ„gon sĂ€rskild gren inom akvaristiken, men har sin verksamhet knuten till ett visst geografiskt omrĂ„de â i Sverige oftast en kommun. Ett exempel pĂ„ en sĂ„dan förening Ă€r den numera nedlagda Göteborgs akvarieförening. I Sverige finns drygt 30 sĂ„dana akvarieföreningar, och i vissa stĂ€der till och med fler Ă€n en. En övervĂ€gande majoritet av dessa akvarieföreningar Ă€r i sin tur anslutna till Sveriges Akvarieföreningars Riksförbund (SARF), som sedan 1946 Ă€r en samordnande paraplyorganisation till stöd för Sveriges akvarieföreningar och -klubbar. + +Den andra typen utgörs av föreningar som Ă€r verksamma inom ett specifikt intresseomrĂ„de inom akvaristiken, men som dĂ€remot inte primĂ€rt vĂ€nder sig till medlemmar inom ett i sammanhanget litet geografiskt omrĂ„de. Det akvaristiska specialintresset kan till exempel röra sig om en viss typ av fiskar, en specifik biotop, en sĂ€rskild form av odling, eller liknande. Till denna typ av föreningar hör exempelvis Skandinaviska KillisĂ€llskapet, som vĂ€nder sig till akvarister intresserade av sĂ„ kallade killifiskar, det vill sĂ€ga Ă€gglĂ€ggande tandkarpar, och Aquatic Gardeners Association, vars syfte Ă€r att sprida information om och studera samt förbĂ€ttra metoder för odling av vĂ€xter avsedda för akvarier och dammar. En del av dessa föreningar har underavdelningar i form av lokalgrupper, för att förenkla mötet mellan delar av medlemmarna. + +Stockholms Akvarieförening Ă€r tillsammans med Malmö Akvarieförening Sveriges, och en av vĂ€rldens Ă€ldsta akvarieföreningar, bĂ„da grundade Ă„r 1926. + +Referenser + +Akvarier +Akvarieorganisationer +Arkitekt Ă€r en titel pĂ„ en upphovsperson till arkitektur. Personen kan ha akademisk examen i arkitektur, landskapsarkitektur, inredningsarkitektur eller fysisk planering eller vara autodidakt, som t ex Le Corbusier eller Tadao Ando. Arkitekter planerar och/eller gestaltar stadsmiljöer, byggnader samt inomhus- och utemiljöer. + +Etymologi + +Ordet arkitekt kommer av latinska architectus eller grekiska arkhitekton. Ordet Ă€r alltsĂ„ en sammanslagning av de grekiska orden archos och tekton. Archos Ă€r ett förled som kan utlĂ€sas mĂ€stare eller överordnad (samma ordled som i Ă€rkebiskop och Ă€rkefiende) och tekton kan betyda snickare eller byggare. SĂ„ledes kan man sĂ€ga att arkitekt betyder mĂ€stare i byggnadskonst eller överbyggmĂ€stare. + +Yrkesroll +En arkitekt arbetar med planering av byggnader och byggda miljöer, dĂ€r mĂ„let Ă€r att anpassa byggnaden bĂ„de konstnĂ€rligt och funktionellt till den omgivning den Ă€r placerad i, samt skapa en bra planlösning inomhus. För att uppnĂ„ detta mĂ„ste en arkitekt förstĂ„ en byggnads uppbyggnad och konstruktion, dess anknytning till platsen, undersöka hur mĂ€nniskor anvĂ€nder sig av byggda miljöer och det samband som finns dĂ€remellan. + +De verktyg som en arkitekt anvĂ€nder sig av för att skapa en byggnad innefattar skissande, modellbyggande, ritningar i planer och snitt och 2D- och 3D-modellering. Det mesta arbetet sker idag via datorer. + +Arkitekter kan ocksĂ„ arbeta med möbelformgivning, samhĂ€llsplanering, stadsplanering, landskapsarkitektur, landskapsplanering, byggnadskonstruktion, design, miljökonsekvensutredningar och som kontrollansvarig enligt plan och bygglagen, bygglovsgranskare med mera. Det handlar sĂ„ledes om en yrkeskĂ„r med stora möjligheter till specialisering. + +Titel +I de flesta EU-lĂ€nder Ă€r arkitektyrket reglerat; bĂ„de titeln âarkitektâ och rĂ€tten att utöva arkitektyrket Ă€r lagskyddade och kopplade till en arkitektutbildning. I mĂ„nga EU-lĂ€nder finns ocksĂ„ nĂ„gon form av registreringsordning. + +I antikens Grekland avsĂ„g titeln den person som ansvarade för bĂ„de formgivningen och genomförandet av viktiga byggnader â denne person var bevandrad sĂ„vĂ€l inom estetik som konstruktion, dirigerade arbetet pĂ„ byggarbetsplatsen och skötte leveranser av byggmaterial med mera. SĂ„ har det mer eller mindre förhĂ„llit sig fram till modern tid dĂ„ konstruktionslĂ€ran utvecklade sig till en egen disciplin och arkitekten alltmer arbetade med den övergripande planeringen. + +Sverige + +Sverige Ă€r ett av fĂ„ EU-lĂ€nder dĂ€r arkitekttiteln inte Ă€r skyddad. I Sverige Ă€r det dock vanligt att arkitekter med fullgjord arkitektexamen (som uppfyller EU:s kvalifikationsdirektiv) och minst tvĂ„ Ă„rs arbetserfarenhet beviljas anvĂ€nda den skyddade titeln arkitekt SAR/MSA. +Yrkestiteln arkitekt SAR/MSA utfĂ€rdas av och refererar till medlemskap i fack- och branschorganisationen Sveriges Arkitekter. Den fungerar som en kvalitetsgaranti för arkitekter. Den betydligt mindre, yrkesideella föreningen Arkitekter I Sverige utfĂ€rdar titeln arkitekt AIS. + +Sveriges Arkitekter utfĂ€rdar ocksĂ„ yrkestitlarna LAR/MSA för landskapsarkitekt, SIR/MSA för inredningsarkitekt och FPR/MSA för planeringsarkitekt. + +Utbildning + +Sverige + +Utbildningar med arkitektexamen +Arkitektutbildningen innehĂ„ller kurser i att planera, utforma, förvalta och förnya byggnader och bebyggelsemiljöer. I Sverige har fyra universitet har rĂ€tt att examinera arkitekter: Chalmers tekniska högskola, Kungliga Tekniska högskolan, Lunds tekniska högskola vid Lunds universitet och UmeĂ„ universitet. + +Examina +Arkitektexamen Ă€r en yrkesexamen pĂ„ avancerad nivĂ„ som erhĂ„lls nĂ€r akademiska examina pĂ„ grundnivĂ„ kandidatexamen och pĂ„ avancerad nivĂ„ masterexamen har avklarats. Kandidatexamen erfordrar 180 högskolepoĂ€ng och masterexamen 120 högskolepoĂ€ng, vilket tillsammans motsvarar fem Ă„rs heltidsstudier. Liksom yrkesexamina finns för de akademiska examina olika inriktningar beroende pĂ„ fakultet (se examen). Till exempel, för arkitektprogrammet pĂ„ Chalmers Tekniska Högskola utfĂ€rdas teknologie kandidatexamen (tekn.kand. eller B.Sc.) och teknologie masterexamen (M.Sc. med valt Ă€mnesomrĂ„de). + +Direktiv + +Genom EU:s direktiv 2005/36/EG om erkĂ€nnande av yrkeskvalifikationer (kvalifikationsdirektivet) faststĂ€lls vilka krav som ska stĂ€llas pĂ„ en arkitektutbildning och annan behörighet för att erkĂ€nnas i ett annat EU-land eller EFTA-land. Arkitektexamen Ă€r reglerad av högskoleförordningens bilaga 2 och följer kvalitetskraven i EU:s kvalifikationsdirektiv enligt ovan. OcksĂ„ den Ă€ldre arkitektexamen uppfyller det europeiska arkitektdirektivet. Detta innebĂ€r att en svenskutbildad arkitekt har samma behörighet i annat ESS land. + +Den nya arkitektexamen erhĂ„ller dem som pĂ„börjat utbildningen efter 1 juli 2007. Den gamla arkitektexamen omfattar 270 hp (4,5 Ă„rs studier) för dem som pĂ„börjat utbildningen före 1 juli 2007. + +Behörighet +För att kvalificera sig till arkitekturprogrammen behövs förutom grundlĂ€ggande behörighet Ă€ven sĂ€rskild behörighet i omrĂ„desbehörighet A3, vilket för sökande med gymnasieexamen (Gy11) innebĂ€r Matematik 3b eller 3c, Naturkunskap 2 (Fysik 1a alternativt Fysik 1b1 + Fysik 1b2 samt Kemi 1 kan ersĂ€tta Naturkunskap 2) och SamhĂ€llskunskap 1b (alternativt 1a1 + 1a2). För sökande med Slutbetyg krĂ€vs motsvarande kurser, dvs. Matematik C, Naturkunskap B (Fysik A samt Kemi A kan ersĂ€tta Naturkunskap B) och SamhĂ€llskunskap A. För sökande till Chalmers arkitektutbildningar krĂ€vs Ă€ven Engelska 6 (motsvarande Engelska B). + +Man kan ta sig in pĂ„ tre olika sĂ€tt (urvalsgrupper): BI, BII (betygspoĂ€ng gymnasiet), HP (poĂ€ng högskoleprovet) och AU (poĂ€ng arkitektprovet). AntagningspoĂ€ng frĂ„n gymnasiebetyg ligger mellan 20,5 och 22 medan poĂ€ngen för Högskoleprovet ligger mellan 1,4 och 1,8 poĂ€ng. AntagningspoĂ€ngen varierar frĂ„n Ă„r till Ă„r och frĂ„n skola till skola men ligger generellt pĂ„ dessa nivĂ„er. + +Ăvriga utbildningar +Sedan 1800-talet gör man ibland en distinktion mellan "konstnĂ€rliga" arkitekter och det som dĂ„ kallades "fortifikationsingenjörer". Denna distinktion kan fortfarande skönjas i det faktum att det i Stockholm faktiskt finns tvĂ„ arkitekturskolor: KTH och Kungliga konsthögskolans arkitekturskola Mejan Arc (som inte har examinationsrĂ€tt för arkitektexamen men erbjuder fortbildning). + +Vid Arkitekturskolan pĂ„ KTH inrĂ€ttades 2002 magisterprogrammet Design och Byggande pĂ„ 60 poĂ€ng. För att söka till programmet krĂ€vdes en kandidatexamen pĂ„ 120 poĂ€ng frĂ„n en byggnadsingenjörs- eller arkitektutbildning. En slutförd magisterexamen i Design och Byggande omfattade sĂ„ledes 180 poĂ€ng med möjlighet att arbeta som arkitekt och/eller ingenjör. + +Vid LuleĂ„ tekniska universitet inrĂ€ttades Ă„r 2005 en civilingenjörsutbildning i arkitektur. Denna utbildning innehĂ„ller dock en mindre del arkitektur, och kan inte ses som en skolning till arkitekt i dess traditionella bemĂ€rkelse. Denna utbildning leder till en civilingenjörsexamen, ej till arkitektexamen. + +FrĂ„n hösten 2006 finns en ny utbildning som ger möjlighet till dubbel examen som bĂ„de arkitekt och civilingenjör pĂ„ Chalmers. Utbildningen heter Arkitektur och teknik och Ă€r pĂ„ 300 till 360 högskolepoĂ€ng. + +Sveriges första diplomerade, kvinnliga arkitekt var Brita Snellman. Vid fackskolan för arkitektur pĂ„ Tekniska högskolan 1920 var hon extra elev. Ă ret efter blev det lagstadgat att kvinnor fick bli ordinarie elever. Hon praktiserade som murare 1922 i Hedemora och avlade arkitektexamen 1924. Hon anstĂ€lldes i augusti samma Ă„r pĂ„ byggnadsrĂ„det Hjorts arkitektkontor. + +Ăverförd betydelse +Ordet "arkitekt" anvĂ€nds ofta i överförd betydelse för andra yrkesgrupper, till exempel IT-arkitekt som arbetar med utveckling av IT-system. Det kan ocksĂ„ anvĂ€ndas i betydelsen "upphovsperson" för idĂ©byggen, lagförslag och liknande. + +Se Ă€ven + Arkitektkontor + Arkitektur + Arkitektyrkets historia i Sverige + Byggherre + Civilingenjör + Inredningsarkitekt + JĂ€rnvĂ€gsarkitekt + Kasper Salinpriset + Landskapsarkitekt + Lista pĂ„ betydelsefulla arkitekter + Lista över svenska arkitekter + LĂ€nsarkitekt + Möbelarkitekt + Planeringsarkitekt + SamhĂ€llsplanerare + Stadsarkitekt + Stadsplanering + Systemarkitekt + TrĂ€dgĂ„rdsarkitekt + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + Sveriges Arkitekter + AIS Arkitekter i Sverige + +Yrkesexamina + +Yrken inom arkitektur +KonstnĂ€rliga yrken +Titlar +Adolf Wilhelm EdelsvĂ€rd, född 28 juni 1824 i Ăstersund, död 15 oktober 1919 i Stockholm, var en svensk arkitekt och officer (major) samt fortifikationsingenjör. Han var son till militĂ€ren Wilhelm EdelsvĂ€rd och far till kammarherre Wilhelm EdelsvĂ€rd. + +Biografi +Adolf Wilhelm EdelswĂ€rd var son till Fredrik Wilhelm EdelsvĂ€rd, som var militĂ€r, ingenjör och Ă€ven intresserad av utveckling inom lantbruket. Adolf Wilhelm gick samma vĂ€g som sin far och blev 1844 antagen sĂ„som underlöjtnant vid Dalregementet, men tog Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ transport till IngenjörkĂ„ren och tjĂ€nstgjorde sedan i flera Ă„r vid fortifikationsarbetena pĂ„ rikets fĂ€stningar. Han studerade Ă€ven civil arkitektur, sĂ„vĂ€l i hemlandet som pĂ„ kontinenten och i England. + +Privatpraktiserande arkitekt i Göteborg + +Efter de tolv utbildningsĂ„ren kunde EdelsvĂ€rd starta sin verksamhet som projekterande arkitekt med eget kontor i Göteborg. Under hans tio Ă„r i staden â frĂ„n 1850 till 1860 â kĂ€nnetecknas hans yrkesutövning av en komplex kombination av officersplikter, expanderande privat verksamhet och ett omfattande engagemang i husbyggandet vid de statliga jĂ€rnvĂ€garna. Den unge arkitekten EdelsvĂ€rd fick uppdrag av de mest skilda slag; barnhus, bibliotek, bostadshus, cafĂ©paviljong, fabriker, fattighus, konstutstĂ€llningar, kyrkor, ladugĂ„rd, museum, orangeri, skolhus och inte minst stationshus. Invigningen 1859 av Hagakyrkan blev ett glansfullt krön pĂ„ EdelsvĂ€rds verksamhet i Göteborg. + +Bland övriga uppdrag i Göteborg kan sĂ€rskilt nĂ€mnas; TrĂ€dgĂ„rdsmĂ€starebostad vid ĂverĂ„s (1852), Wijkska huset (1853), Villa Odinslund (cirka 1855), Barnhuset pĂ„ Stampen (1857), Engelska kyrkan (1857), Stationshus och banhall (1858), Bostadshus vid Klippan (1858), Sankta Birgittas kapell (1858), Skolhus vid Klippan (1859), Hagakyrkan (1859) Dicksonska stiftelsens hus (1860) och Navigationsskolan (1862). + +Vid Kungliga JĂ€rnvĂ€gsstyrelsen +Adolf W. EdelsvĂ€rd anstĂ€lldes 1855 som SJ:s chefsarkitekt, detta var ett Ă„r innan de första banstrĂ€ckorna öppnades. Under hans 40 Ă„r i ledningen för Statens JĂ€rnvĂ€gars arkitektkontor uppfördes inte mindre Ă€n 5 725 byggnader vid de av staten byggda huvudlinjerna, dĂ€rav 297 stationshus. EdelsvĂ€rd lade stor vikt vid stationshusets stil och funktion â alltifrĂ„n de stora centralstationerna i Stockholm, Göteborg och Malmö till linjestationernas smĂ„ stationshus, som ofta utfördes efter standardmodeller: +Boxholmsmodellen +Byskemodellen +Gnestamodellen +Habomodellen +HĂ€llnĂ€smodellen +Jonseredsmodellen +Katrineholmsmodellen +Partilledsmodellen +Sparreholmsmodellen +VĂ€nnĂ€smodellen + +DĂ„ stationsplatsen var utsedd ankom det pĂ„ EdelsvĂ€rd att utplacera och utforma de olika till en station hörande byggnader. Han nöjde sig dock inte med att enbart studera byggnadernas utformning utan ansĂ„g att de borde ses i ett större sammanhang och han hade dĂ€rför Ă€ven tankar och idĂ©er angĂ„ende stadsplaneringen i samband med byggandet av det svenska jĂ€rnvĂ€gsnĂ€tet. Han angav ett par punkter som han ansĂ„g borde följas vid planlĂ€ggandet av landsortsstĂ€der eller förstĂ€der. Staden skulle bl a förses med torg, öppna platser och planteringar, vidare skulle den delas i tvĂ„ hĂ€lfter av parallella huvudgator (se Katrineholm) Ă„tskilda av en park med allĂ©er. + +Det skulle avsĂ€ttas vĂ€lbelĂ€gna tomter för publika byggnader. Med "vĂ€lbelĂ€gna" avsĂ„g EdelsvĂ€rd, att de borde placeras i stadens centralaxel, vars poler skulle utgöras av stationshuset och kyrkan. HĂ€r skulle Ă€ven stationsbyggnaden fĂ„ en "monumental tyngd" dĂ„ den bildade fond i ett centralt stadsparti. Idag kan man se spĂ„r av hans tankar och idĂ©er i stĂ€der som NĂ€ssjö dĂ€r stationsbyggnaden var ortens första offentliga byggnad och fick utgöra utgĂ„ngspunkten i stadsplanen och dĂ€r en esplanad leder frĂ„n stationsbyggnaden till Stortorget och i HĂ€ssleholm dĂ€r stationsbyggnaden och kyrkan ligger i respektive Ă€ndpunkt av stadens huvudgata. + +MĂ„nga av EdelsvĂ€rds stationshus finns kvar, sĂ€rskilt vid de större stationerna: Stockholm C, Göteborg C, Malmö C, Norrköping C, Uppsala C, Linköping C och Ărebro C, men av de mindre â dĂ€r tĂ„gen inte lĂ€ngre stannar â har Ă„tskilliga numera tagits bort. Vid VĂ€stra stambanan finns tre likartade stationshus i AlingsĂ„s, Skövde C och Töreboda. + +Vid sidan av sin verksamhet som jĂ€rnvĂ€gsarkitekt ritade EdelsvĂ€rd Ă€ven andra byggnader och bland hans kyrkobyggnader mĂ„ste nĂ€mnas: Hagakyrkan, Engelska kyrkan och S:ta Birgittas kapell alla i Göteborg samt TrollhĂ€ttans kyrka tillika Jonsereds kyrka, Taxinge kyrka och Sandarne kyrka. I Uddevalla uppfördes Kampenhofs bomullsspinneri pĂ„ 1850-talet, rivet 1982. Thorburnska huset vid Kungstorget i samma stad finns kvar. För StockholmsutstĂ€llningen 1866 ritade han utstĂ€llningshallen i KungstrĂ€dgĂ„rden. EdelsvĂ€rd Ă€r begravd pĂ„ Solna kyrkogĂ„rd. + +Ledamotskap +Kungliga Lantbruksakademien +Akademien för de fria konsterna + +Bildgalleri + +UtmĂ€rkelser +Riddare av Vasaorden - 4 november 1862 +Riddare av NordstjĂ€rneorden - 23 juli 1866 +Riddare av Sankt Olavs Orden - 22 juli 1882 +Kommendör av Vasaorden 1kl - 1 december 1888 + +Se Ă€ven + JĂ€rnvĂ€g + MuseijĂ€rnvĂ€g + Riddarhuset + Tomteboda station + +Referenser + +Noter + +WebbkĂ€llor + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Byggnader i vĂ€stra Sverige ritade av Adolf W. EdelsvĂ€rd + + +Svenska arkitekter under 1800-talet +Födda 1824 +Avlidna 1919 +MĂ€n +Svenska militĂ€rer under 1800-talet +Svenska fortifikationsofficerare +Riddare av NordstjĂ€rneorden +Ledamöter av Lantbruksakademien +Ledamöter av Konstakademien +Gravsatta pĂ„ Solna kyrkogĂ„rd +Personer frĂ„n Ăstersund +MilitĂ€rer frĂ„n Ăstersund +Akvaristik, konsten att sköta akvarier, akvariehobby, akvariehĂ„llning, betecknar sysselsĂ€tting med akvarier, i synnerhet som fritidssyssla. Hobbyuttövare kallas akvarist eller akvarievĂ€n. Personal i yrkesverksamhet benĂ€mns akvarieskötare. + +I akvarium hĂ„lls som regel levande akvatiska djur och/eller vĂ€xter, som dekoration, eller för förökning, studier, och vetenskaplig forskning. + +ĂndamĂ„let med ett akvarium varierar och skötseln dĂ€refter. I ett hemakvarium med vĂ€xter och fiskar ingĂ„r i djurskötseln daglig eller glesare utfodring, samt kontroll av hĂ€lsotillstĂ„nd och eventuell gallring. VĂ€xter kontrolleras dagligen med avseende pĂ„ skador och glesas ut vid behov. DĂ€rutöver sugs slam och matrester ut och döda djur och vĂ€xter avlĂ€gsnas. I frekvent skötsel ingĂ„r sĂ€rskilt ocksĂ„ kontroll av vattenparametrar sĂ„som temperatur, surhetsgrad och hĂ„rdhet. + +Referenser + +Se Ă€ven + Portal:Akvariefiskar + Projekt akvariefiskar + +Akvarier +Ett akvarium Ă€r en vattenbehĂ„llare som Ă€r avsedd att hysa fiskar eller andra i vattenlevande djur och/eller vĂ€xter för prydnad, odling eller forskning. + +Etymologi +Ordet akvarium Ă€r lĂ„nat frĂ„n latinets aquarium, med betydelsen plats dĂ€r vatten finns. Ordet Ă€r en sammanslagning av adjektivformen aquarius av aqua (vatten) och Ă€ndelsen -arium som betyder plats för. + +En person som Ă€gnar sig Ă„t akvarium och akvariefiskar som hobby kallas för akvarist och hobbyn kallas akvaristik. Skötsel av vattenlevande prydnadsdjur regleras i Jordbruksverkets föreskrifter. + +Typer + +Akvarier indelas i hemmaakvarier och de stora vattenanlĂ€ggningar som har som syfte att verka som djurpark. + +Akvarier indelas ocksĂ„ i söt- och saltvattensakvarier. Skillnaden Ă€r vilken biotop inredningen och invĂ„narna i akvariet Ă€r hĂ€mtad ifrĂ„n. Ytterligare en indelning syftar till att skilja ut akvaterrarier, det vill sĂ€ga akvarier med landdel. Dessa Ă€r till för amfibiska djur som salamandrar, vattensköldpaddor och andra sĂ„ kallade herptiler. Ett Ă€ldre ord för akvaterrarium som dock ibland fortfarande anvĂ€nds inom facklitteraturen Ă€r paludarium. + +En typ av akvarium Ă€r vĂ€xtakvarium dĂ€r fokus ligger pĂ„ att skapa ett vackert akvarium med mycket vĂ€xter. En annan typ av akvarium Ă€r nano-akvarium. nano-akvarium Ă€r akvarium med vĂ€ldigt liten vattenvolym. + +En liknande behĂ„llare helt utan vattendel, slutligen, kallas terrarium. + +Hemmaakvarium + +Det klassiska hemmaakvariet Ă€r ett rĂ€tblock med vĂ€ggar av glas. Normalt Ă€r höjden nĂ„got lĂ€gre Ă€n djupet. Med djupet menas avstĂ„ndet frĂ„n framsida till baksida. LĂ€ngden pĂ„ akvariet Ă€r ofta ungefĂ€r dubbelt sĂ„ lĂ„ngt som djupet. Anledningen till formatet Ă€r att man vill ha en stor framsida och i regel en stor yt- och bottenarea. Eftersom vattnet till största delen syresĂ€tts via vattenytan Ă€r det fördelaktigt om vattenytan Ă€r sĂ„ stor som möjligt i förhĂ„llande till den sammanlagda volymen, och en botten tĂ€ckt med grus kan agera som substrat för mikrobiologiska processer nödvĂ€ndiga för ett biologiskt kretslopp, samt hĂ„lla fast rötterna hos eventuella vattenvĂ€xter. + +Glasskivorna Ă€r numera nĂ€stan alltid sammanfogade av silikon. Att sammanfoga glasen med kitt förekommer numera ytterst sĂ€llan. NĂ€r silikonet introducerades som lim och fogmassa revolutionerade detta samtidigt akvariehobbyn, det var nu betydligt lĂ€ttare att bygga egna akvarier och framför allt hĂ„lla dem tĂ€ta. Akvarier har Ă€ndĂ„ ofta en ram av trĂ€ eller metall, frĂ€mst av estetiska skĂ€l. Moderna akvarier har ofta aluminiumram. + +Vattentrycket mot glasrutorna beror pĂ„ höjden pĂ„ akvariet â den sĂ„ kallade tryckhöjden â och Ă€ven i viss mĂ„n volymen. DĂ€rför har större akvarier tjockare glas. Vanliga tjocklekar Ă€r 4â6 mm. Riktigt stora akvarier kan ha mer Ă€n 10 mm i glastjocklek. + +NĂ€r man berĂ€knar volymen hos ett akvarium sĂ„ rĂ€knar man pĂ„ innermĂ„tten, det vill sĂ€ga hur mycket vatten det rymmer men oftast ser man berĂ€kningar pĂ„ yttermĂ„tten nĂ€r det gĂ€ller stora akvarier och skillnaden mellan inner- och yttermĂ„tt Ă€r liten. + +De vanligaste volymerna ligger i omrĂ„det 50 till 540 liter. Större akvarier Ă€r ofta specialbyggen. GlasskĂ„lar kan fungera för mindre fiskar men sedan juni 2005 Ă€r det olagligt i Sverige att hĂ„lla större fiskar som exempelvis guldfiskar i glasskĂ„l. + +Sötvattensakvarium +Sötvattensakvarium brukar delas in i nĂ„gra olika underkategorier. + + SĂ€llskapsakvarium, dĂ€r olika arter av fiskar och vĂ€xter frĂ„n ett eller flera olika geografiska omrĂ„den trivs tillsammans. + VĂ€xtakvarium, dĂ€r tonvikten lĂ€ggs pĂ„ olika vattenvĂ€xter. VĂ€xtakvarium inreds ofta med en botten av jord, torv, grus, brĂ€nd lera eller en kombination av dessa samt olika vattenvĂ€xter och inredning i form av stenar och trĂ€drötter, typiskt mangrove. + Biotopakvarium, dĂ€r man vill efterlikna en speciell del av naturen, exempelvis en del av Malawisjöns eller Tanganyikasjöns klippstrĂ€nder. Klippstrandsakvarium som har dessa typer av biotoper brukar inredas med bottengrus och olika stenar. + Artakvarium, ett akvarium dĂ€r man hĂ„ller en speciell art, exempelvis pirayor, som sĂ€llan kan hĂ„llas med andra fiskarter. + Kallvattensakvarium, som namnet sĂ€ger ett akvarium med kallare vatten, exempelvis inhemska fiskarter som id, elritsa, abborre eller andra arter frĂ„n nĂ„got vattendrag i Sverige. Ăven guldfisk kan med fördel hĂ„llas i ett lite kallare akvarium. Ăven fiskar som sommartid bor i trĂ€dgĂ„rdsdammar kan behöva övervintra inomhus i ett kallvattensakvarium. + Specialakvarium som kan vara exempelvis en strid bĂ€ck med kraftigt vattenflöde, en av tidvatten pĂ„verkad strandremsa eller liknande. Hit rĂ€knas ocksĂ„ karantĂ€nsakvarium, yngelakvarium, lekakvarium m.m. + +Kombinationer Ă€r inte ovanliga, dĂ„ grĂ€nserna mellan olika typer inte Ă€r absoluta. SĂ€llskaps- och vĂ€xtakvarier brukar ofta vara kombinerade. Ett sĂ€llskapsakvarium kan ocksĂ„ vara ett saltvattensakvarium. +Ett utprĂ€glat malawiakvarium med en biotopriktig inredning och ett begrĂ€nsat antal arter av fiskar frĂ„n Malawisjön kan vara bĂ„de ett biotop- och ett artakvarium. Har man det placerat som blickfĂ„ng i sitt vardagsrum Ă€r det inte heller fel att benĂ€mna det som ett sĂ€llskapsakvarium. Detta exempel visar att de olika kategorierna Ă€r ganska ungefĂ€rliga. + +Saltvattensakvarium + +Ett saltvattensakvarium Ă€r nĂ„got svĂ„rare och framför allt dyrare att sköta och bygga upp Ă€n ett sötvattensakvarium. Orsaken till detta Ă€r de ofta innehĂ„ller arter frĂ„n korallrev och korallrev i naturen hĂ„ller mycket konstanta vĂ€rden dĂ„ de ligger vid ekvatorn (nĂ€stan Ă„rstidsfritt) och har gott om utbytesvatten (oceanvis) i jĂ€mförelse med sjöar och floder som ofta Ă€r smutsiga, Ă„rstidsberoende och har i högsta grad varierande förhĂ„llanden. DĂ„ ett större akvarium Ă€r lĂ€ttare att hĂ„lla stabilt Ă€n ett mindre brukar ett vanligt rekommenderat minimivĂ€rde pĂ„ volym vara cirka 200 liter. Det Ă€r dock fullt möjligt med sĂ„ kallade mini-reef eller till och med nano-reef. Saltvattensensakvaristerer brukar dock anse det vara vĂ€rt mödan och pengarna med det annorlunda akvarium som korallerna och de fĂ€rgrika fiskarna ger. +Ett saltvattensakvarium kan ocksĂ„ innehĂ„lla inhemska fiskar och andra djur. Akvarister i BohuslĂ€n hĂ„ller exempelvis smörbult, berggylta och andra mindre inhemska arter. Ăven vissa arter av skaldjur kan med framgĂ„ng hĂ„llas i akvarium. + +Utrustning + +Till akvariet hör utrustning sĂ„som doppvĂ€rmare, akvariefilter, termometer, akvariebelysning, bakgrund, algskrapa och andra verktyg för att göra rent akvariet. Ăvrig teknik omfattar bland annat proteinskummare, ytavrinning och kraftig halogenbelysning. + +Inredning + +Typisk inredning i ett akvarium bestĂ„r av: + Bottensubstrat. Substratet tjĂ€nar flera syften utöver det rent dekorativa. I de undre lagren bildas med tiden bakterier som bidrar i förmultningsprocessen av döda vĂ€xtdelar, fiskbajs och annat som annars skulle försĂ€mra vattenkvaliteten. VĂ€xters rötter vĂ€xer i bottensubstratet och kan utvinna nĂ€ringsĂ€mnen ur den mulm som bildas. Bottensubstratet har Ă€ven en viktig funktion för vissa fiskar och andra invĂ„nare som anvĂ€nder det till att grĂ€va ett bo, gömma sig i eller leta efter mat. Grus, smĂ„sten, sand, jord, brĂ€nd lera, eller en kombination av dessa Ă€r vanligt förekommande. Yngelakvarium, lekakvarium, akvarium som anvĂ€nds som karantĂ€n och andra specialakvarier har ofta inget bottensubstrat alls, eller ett bestĂ„ende av glaskulor. Detta för att underlĂ€tta att hĂ„lla en mer steril miljö eller för att underlĂ€tta klĂ€ckning av Ă€gg frĂ„n romspridande fiskarter. Bottensubstratet kan Ă€ven innehĂ„lla pH-justerande innehĂ„ll, som t.ex. kalksten eller torv. + VĂ€xter. Vattenlevande vĂ€xter, sumpvĂ€xter eller flytvĂ€xter Ă€r möjliga att ha i ett akvarium. I akvariehandeln förekommer det Ă€ven vĂ€xter som bara klarar av att vara nedsĂ€nkta under vatten en begrĂ€nsad tid. Det Ă€r fĂ„ vĂ€xter som enbart kan överleva under vattenytan, utan merparten har en undervattensform som Ă€r anpassad efter de betingelser som rĂ„der under vattenytan. TvĂ„ typiska anpassningar som undervattensformen kan ta Ă€r en anpassning till de lĂ€gre nivĂ„er av koldioxid, och anpassning av bladen till att nĂ€ring finns tillgĂ€ngligt löst i vattnet. + TrĂ€drötter. Vanligt förekommande Ă€r mangrove och red moor. Mangroverötter har vĂ€xt under vatten under hela sin vĂ€xttid. De kommer frĂ„n trĂ€sk. De avger inga farliga Ă€mnen, och emedan de har mycket tĂ€tvĂ€xande ved med dĂ„lig förmĂ„ga att binda gaser, flyter de inte upp till ytan. Akvaristen efterstrĂ€var att anvĂ€nda trĂ€slag med en tĂ€tvĂ€xande ved för att minska trĂ€ets flytförmĂ„ga och för trĂ€et inte ska förmultna alltför snabbt i akvariet. TrĂ€drötter Ă€r mestadels för dekorativa syften, men Ă€r nödvĂ€ndiga för att hĂ„lla vissa arter (t.ex. Plecostomus). + Stenar. AnvĂ€nds för dekorativa syften, för att efterlikna invĂ„narnas naturliga habitat eller för att skapa hĂ„lor och gömmor för invĂ„narnas trivsel. + Artificiell inredning. I handeln förekommer det moduler av plast som efterliknar en biotop och som anvĂ€nds nedsĂ€nkt i akvariet som bakgrund. Det Ă€r Ă€ven vanligt förekommande med egna hemmabyggen av sĂ„dana moduler. Annan artificiell inredning, som t.ex. krukor, glasflaskor, dekorativa leksaker Ă€r ocksĂ„ vanligt förekommande. + +VĂ€rmare +En doppvĂ€rmare Ă€r ett rör med vĂ€rmetrĂ„dar som verkar som ett temperaturstyrt element. Den hĂ„ller vattentemperaturen över en viss nivĂ„ som oftast gĂ„r att stĂ€lla in med hjĂ€lp av en inbyggd termostat. För att kontrollera vattentemperaturen skall alla akvarier ha en termometer. + +Filtrering och vattencirkulation +Det behövs ett filter för att hĂ„lla bra vĂ€rden i akvarievattnet. Normala vĂ€rden Ă€r 6â8 i pH-vĂ€rde och mjukt till medelhĂ„rt vatten, beroende pĂ„ vilka fiskar det gĂ€ller. Ăven halten av ammoniak och ammonium bör akvaristen kontrollera. Ofta Ă€r det ett nedsĂ€nkt filter dĂ€r vattencirkulationen ombesörjs av en invĂ€ndig elmotor, eller en luftpump som sitter utanför akvariet. Det finns Ă€ven ett alternativ med ett externt filter som suger in vatten genom en slang och lĂ€mnar tillbaka det renat genom en annan slang. Ett tredje alternativ Ă€r att suga ner vattnet genom bottengruset och upp genom ett rör till ytan igen â ett sĂ„ kallat bottenfilter. Bottenfilter Ă€r numera mindre vanliga och anses av mĂ„nga akvarister som svĂ„rskötta (se nedan). IdĂ©n med filtrering Ă€r att driva vattnet genom ett filtermaterial som skumgummi eller vadd, för att fĂ„nga upp makroskopisk smuts och ge plats för mikroskopiska nedbrytningsprocesser som renar vattnet. Det förekommer ocksĂ„ filtrering med aktivt kol, vilket tar bort vissa gifter eller missfĂ€rgningar i vattnet. Noteras ska dock att nĂ€r man filtrerar med aktivt kol sĂ„ Ă€r det under begrĂ€nsad tid eftersom man ocksĂ„ tar bort nyttiga delar, sĂ„ som nĂ€ring till vĂ€xterna. Smutsen kommer oftast frĂ„n döda vĂ€xtrester, avföring frĂ„n fiskarna samt överblivet foder. + +Idag sĂ„ anvĂ€nder de flesta akvaristerna ett sĂ„ kallat "innerfilter" alltsĂ„ en motordriven pump med skumgummipatron som sitter helt inne i akvariet. Det sĂ„ kallade "ytterfiltret" som dĂ„ befinner sig utanför akvariet med slangar till och frĂ„n det samma förekommer ocksĂ„ men dĂ„ mest i större akvarium. Risken med lĂ€ckage ökar med ett ytterfilter dĂ„ slangar med anslutningar kan utgöra en riskfaktor. +Fördelen med ytterfiltret Ă€r annars att man kan fylla detta med olika slags filtermaterial, bĂ„de biologiska som rent mekaniska. +Bottenfiltret Ă€r idag sĂ€llsynt, man resonerar som sĂ„ att det Ă€r lĂ€ttare att göra rent och hĂ„lla efter ett filtermaterial i ett inner- eller ytterfilter Ă€n att göra rent akvariets bottenmaterial. Det har ocksĂ„ visat sig vara svĂ„rt att göda akvarievĂ€xterna dĂ„ man har ett bottenfilter. + +Fluidiserad sandbĂ€dd Ă€r ett biologiskt filter vid rening av dricksvatten men anvĂ€nds numera ocksĂ„ av akvarister. Principen Ă€r ett kraftigt vattenflöde genom vanligtvis sand som dĂ„ blir fluidiserad och beter sig som vĂ€tska dĂ„ sandkornen blir separerade av vatten â som i kvicksand eller likvifaktion vid jordbĂ€vningar. Den sammanlagda ytan pĂ„ sandkornen Ă€r mĂ„ngdubbelt större Ă€n i andra biologiska filter och blir tillgĂ€nglig för kolonisation med gynnsamma bakterier. + +Belysning +Som belysning anvĂ€nds oftast en lysrörsramp, gĂ€rna med vĂ€l valda ljusspektra pĂ„ lysrören för att gynna vattenvĂ€xterna. + +Bland andra typer av lĂ€mpliga belysningar kan nĂ€mnas metallhalogenlampor, kvicksilverlampor samt vanliga glödlampor. Halogenlamporna Ă€r billiga i inköp, ger mycket ljus per inmatad effekt men dĂ„ dessa Ă€r pĂ„ hög effekt drar de ocksĂ„ mycket ström. Vanligtvis anvĂ€nder akvaristerna byggstrĂ„lkastare dĂ„ de vill ha halogenljus. Kvicksilverlampor Ă€r dyra i inköp men gĂ„r att fĂ„ i rĂ€tt fĂ€rgtemperaturer, och de hĂ„ller lĂ€nge. Glödlamporna Ă€r billiga och ger ett relativt bra ljus men Ă€r tyvĂ€rr för ljussvaga för att anvĂ€ndas till annat Ă€n ganska smĂ„ akvarier. Dessutom avges en stor del av glödlampors energi i form av vĂ€rme snarare Ă€n ljus, vilket kan göra det svĂ„rt att erhĂ„lla en jĂ€mn vattentemperatur i akvariet. +PĂ„ senare tid har det kommit ut lĂ„genergilampor pĂ„ marknaden med fördelaktig fĂ€rgtemperatur, dessa kan med fördel ersĂ€tta glödlampor i mindre akvarier, lĂ„genergilamporna ger mer ljus och mindre vĂ€rme i förhĂ„llande till inmatad effekt. +PĂ„ senare tid har ju lysdioderna gjort sitt intĂ„g i hemmen, Ă€ven inom akvaristiken â det finns idag högintensiva lysdioder som kan lĂ€mpa sig till akvariebelysning, eller kompletterande belysning. Inom en snar framtid kan vi nog rĂ€ka med att tekniken utvecklas, inte minst i energisparsyfte. +TĂ€ckglas förhindrar att det uppstĂ„r kontakt mellan det elektriska i belysningen och vattnet, vilket Ă€ven begrĂ€nsar avdunstningen och hindrar fiskarna frĂ„n att kunna hoppa ut. Det finns numera belysningsarmaturer för akvarier med kapslingsklassning (IP-klassning), som tĂ„l fukt, varför tĂ€ckglas kan uteslutas men dĂ„ bör man tĂ€nka pĂ„ hoppande fiskar och avdunstningen. +Dagens akvarier Ă€r ingalunda energisnĂ„la, och dĂ„ utvecklingen gĂ„r mot att spara energi i hemmen blir det spĂ€nnande att se vad akvarieindustrin kommer att erbjuda akvaristerna i fortsĂ€ttningen. + +Skötsel +För att göra rent akvariet behövs förutom en algskrapa/algmagnet en slang. En hink eller tvĂ„ Ă€r ocksĂ„ bra att ha. Akvaristen anvĂ€nder slangen som hĂ€vert för att suga upp smuts ur bottengruset och för att tömma ut vatten ur akvariet. Med vattenbytet tar man ocksĂ„ bort urin och avföringsrester. + +Traditionellt rekommenderas sĂ„ kallade delvattenbyten i akvariet, och en bra regel för ett vanligt akvarium Ă€r att byta maximalt en tredjedel av vattnet varje vecka. Detta för att fiskar och vĂ€xter mĂ„r inte bra av fluktuerande vattenvĂ€rden. Men inom vĂ€xtakvaristiken förekommer det att man byter hĂ€lften av vattnet regelbundet varje vecka, samt att man vid varje vattenbyte tillsĂ€tter samma mĂ€ngd gödningsmedel. Detta syftar till att fĂ„ stabila och förutsĂ€gbara vattenvĂ€rden och gödningsnivĂ„er. Metoden brukar förkortas EI efter engelskans Estimative Index. TĂ€tare byten kan behövas ifall det Ă€r ett mindre akvarium med kĂ€nsliga fiskar. Alla fiskar omges av ett slemskikt som fungerar ungefĂ€r som hornlagret i mĂ€nniskans hud, och alltsĂ„ skyddar mot bakterier, parasiter och kemikalier. Vid varje vattenbyte Ă€r det dĂ€rför viktigt att anvĂ€nda avkloreringsmedel sĂ„ att vattenbyten inte gör att fiskarna tappar detta slemskikt, och förlorar följaktligen en stor del av sitt immunförsvar. Hos friska fiskar Ă„terstĂ€lls visserligen slemskiktet inom ett par veckor men intill dess Ă€r de relativt oskyddade mot infektioner och parasiter. Det Ă€r alltid bĂ€ttre att byta en liten del av vattenvolymen ofta, Ă€n att byta en större del mer sĂ€llan. + +Fiskar + +Akvariefiskar Ă€r de fiskar, som genom sin storlek, hĂ€rdighet, och förökningssĂ€tt klarar sig bra i akvarier. Viss betydelse har sĂ€kert ocksĂ„ vackra fĂ€rger och ett i övrigt intressant yttre. I allmĂ€nhet rör det sig om tropiska arter vilka kan odlas i stora antal till lĂ„g kostnad. Innan de tropiska arterna dök upp pĂ„ den europeiska marknaden fĂ„ngade akvaristerna ofta sjĂ€lva mindre och hĂ€rdiga arter som spigg, elritsa, bitterling och dammruda som de höll med mer eller mindre framgĂ„ng i sĂ„ kallade vivarier eller (ofta hemgjorda och ganska spartanska) akvarier. Den första tropiska akvariefisken som importerades till Europa var makropoden eller paradisfisken (en labyrintfisk) som började odlas av Paul Matte i Tyskland i början av 1800-talet. (Den centralasiatiska guldfisken som kom tidigare rĂ€knas inte som tropisk.) + +Andra djur +I sĂ„vĂ€l sötvatten som saltvattensakvariet kan man ha andra djur utöver fiskarna. Det kan röra sig om olika mindre skaldjur sĂ„som rĂ€kor, krabbor och mindre arter av krĂ€ftor. Sniglar och snĂ€ckor brukar man fĂ„ in i akvariet ofrivilligt men det finns större arter av snĂ€ckor som Ă€r önskvĂ€rda av vissa akvarister. I sötvattensakvarier ser man emellanĂ„t olika mindre grodarter men hĂ€r gĂ€ller det att se till att dessa fĂ„r en liten bit "land" att vila pĂ„. Saltvattensakvarister med intresse för korallrev ser ju naturligtvis till att ha olika koralldjur i sitt akvarium. Men som tidigare nĂ€mnts, det gĂ€ller ju att se till att olika djur och fiskar trivs tillsammans. + +Artspridning + +AkvarieĂ€gandet har alltid pĂ„verkat miljön pĂ„ olika sĂ€tt. Under 1930-talet slĂ€ppte en tysk akvarist ut vattenpest i sjövatten och idag har denna mellanamerikanska/nordamerikanska vĂ€xt spritt sig Ă€nda upp till vattnen runt UmeĂ„. Tropiska fiskar klarar i allmĂ€nhet inte av en nordisk vinter utomhus i dammar och liknande, men det finns exempel pĂ„ övervintrande koi-karp pĂ„ en ö utanför Göteborg, samt andra biotopfrĂ€mmande karpar pĂ„ olika platser i Sverige. + +I flera delstater i USA Ă€r det förbjudet att ha pirayor i utomhusdammar, dĂ„ man Ă€r rĂ€dd att de kan sprida sig till naturliga vattendrag, dĂ€r de skulle kunna överleva. + +Se Ă€ven + Terrarium + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Saltvattensguiden â Forum och bildgalleri kring saltvattensakvaristik. + SARF â Sveriges Akvarieföreningars Riksförbund. + Nordiska CiklidsĂ€llskapet â Specialförening kring den familj av fiskar som kallas ciklider. + Zoopet â Internetsida om akvaristik med artbeskrivningar av fler Ă€n 1 000 olika akvariefiskar och vĂ€xter. +Anders Gustaf Dalman (Ă€ven Dahlman), född 17 februari 1848 i Ăstanmossa i Norbergs socken i VĂ€stmanland, död 30 juli 1920 i Stockholm, var Sveriges riksskarprĂ€ttare och sista bödel. + +Biografi +Dalman var son till Per Erik Norman och Greta Gustava Söderberg. Efter att ha varit stamanstĂ€lld korpral vid VĂ€stmanlands regemente blev han i konkurrens med 16 andra sökande utsedd till Stockholms lĂ€ns skarprĂ€ttare 5 augusti 1885. Under Ă„ren 1885-1891 antogs Dalman som skarprĂ€ttare i ytterligare sex lĂ€n. Ă r 1901 utsĂ„gs han till riksskarprĂ€ttare för hela Sverige. Bödelsyrket var emellertid inte Dalmans huvudsakliga yrke utan utgjorde en bisyssla. Till vardags var han vicevĂ€rd och förestod flera fastigheter i Stockholm. Ă r 1883 var Ă„rslönen för en skarprĂ€ttare 300 kr, vilket fortfarande var fallet för Dalman Ă„r 1909. + +Dalman flyttade till Stockholm redan 1884 och bodde först pĂ„ Stora Bastugatan 5, flyttade 1886 till Tulegatan 9, dĂ€refter till Sankt Eriksgatan 22 (sedan omnumrerat till 44). Han gifte sig 1869 med Emma Sofia Westlander och fick med henne 12 barn varav fyra uppnĂ„dde vuxen Ă„lder. Ăktenskapet varade i 40 Ă„r till hustruns död 1909. Dalman bodde pĂ„ Sankt Eriksgatan tills han 1918 flyttade till sin son pĂ„ Lilla Essingen. Efter att ha blivit pĂ„körd av en spĂ„rvagn Ă„terfick Dalman aldrig hĂ€lsan och dog sent i juli 1920. Han begravdes pĂ„ Norra begravningsplatsen. + +Delinkventer +Under sina 25 Ă„r som skarprĂ€ttare avrĂ€ttade Dalman sex delinkventer. Fem avrĂ€ttades med handbila och den sista med giljotin. + + Dalmans första avrĂ€ttning var den av Anna MĂ„nsdotter, Ă€ven kĂ€nd som Yngsjömörderskan, den 7 augusti 1890 pĂ„ Kristianstads lĂ€nsfĂ€ngelse. + DĂ€refter dröjde det tre Ă„r innan nĂ€sta avrĂ€ttning kunde utföras av Dalman. DĂ„ avrĂ€ttades Per Johan Pettersson, den sĂ„ kallade Alftamördaren. AvrĂ€ttningen skedde pĂ„ GĂ€vle lĂ€nsfĂ€ngelse den 17 mars 1893. + Den tredje avrĂ€ttningen Dalman utförde var den 5 juli 1900, dĂ„ Theodor Sallrot, Ă€ven kallad Johannishusmördaren, avrĂ€ttades pĂ„ fĂ€ngelsegĂ„rden i Karlskrona. + Den fjĂ€rde avrĂ€ttningen skedde den 23 augusti 1900 klockan 06.45 pĂ„ Malmö lĂ€nsfĂ€ngelse, dĂ„ den sĂ„ kallade Löderupsmördaren Lars Nilsson avrĂ€ttades. + Den femte avrĂ€ttningen och den sista med handbila fick Dalman utföra pĂ„ VĂ€sterĂ„s lĂ€nsfĂ€ngelse den 10 december 1900, pĂ„ MĂ€larmördaren eller som han ocksĂ„ kallades Svarte Filip, John Filip Nordlund. + Den sista avrĂ€ttningen Dalman utförde, skedde onsdagen den 23 november 1910 pĂ„ LĂ„ngholmens centralfĂ€ngelse. Detta var den sista avrĂ€ttningen i Sverige och den enda med giljotin. Den som avrĂ€ttades var Johan Alfred Andersson-Ander. + +Referenser + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Stockholmare +Svenska skarprĂ€ttare +Födda 1848 +Avlidna 1920 +MĂ€n +Personer frĂ„n Norberg +Gravsatta pĂ„ Norra begravningsplatsen i Stockholm +Johan Alfred Andersson Ander, född 27 november 1873 i Ljusterö socken, död 23 november 1910 pĂ„ LĂ„ngholmens centralfĂ€ngelse i Stockholm (avrĂ€ttad), var en svensk kypare, vĂ€rdshusvĂ€rd, spĂ„rvagnsförare och tillika den sista personen att avrĂ€ttas i Sverige dĂ„ han dömts för ett brutalt rĂ„nmord. Han var den förste och den ende som avrĂ€ttats sedan giljotin införts som avrĂ€ttningsmetod i Sverige. + +VĂ€rdshusvĂ€rden Ander +Ă r 1893-1894 gjorde Ander vĂ€rnplikten vid Vaxholms artillerikĂ„r. Under större delen av sin levnad förde Ander dĂ€refter ett kringflackande liv med ett flertal misslyckade restaurangrörelser bakom sig. Tillsammans med sin fru drev han sedan 1894 rörelser i bland annat StrĂ€ngnĂ€s (1898), Helsingfors (1903) och Rimforsa (1906). I de kĂ€llor som finns skylls de mĂ„nga misslyckandena framför allt pĂ„ att Ander hade ett allt annat Ă€n mĂ„ttligt intag av alkohol. Efter Ă„r 1900 hĂ€ktades Ander Ă€ven flera gĂ„nger för diverse smĂ„brott och befann sig under en period pĂ„ rymmen. Ă r 1909 flyttade han med sin fru till förĂ€ldrarna i Karlsudd. Hans fru, Julia Charlotta Ander, kom senare att vittna om att han ett flertal gĂ„nger misshandlat henne nĂ€r han var berusad och att hon varit rĂ€dd för att han skulle döda henne. + +Brottet +Den 5 januari 1910 rĂ„nade Ander Gerells vĂ€xelkontor pĂ„ Malmtorgsgatan 2 i Stockholm, ett brott som han aldrig kom att erkĂ€nna. Under sjĂ€lva rĂ„net misshandlade han kassörskan Viktoria Hellsten sĂ„ illa att hon avled. Vid rĂ„net kom Ander över och 27 öre som senare kom att anvĂ€ndas som bevis mot honom dĂ„ en del av pengarna var nerblodade. Mordvapnet, ett besman, knöts ocksĂ„ till Ander. Vid halvelvatiden kom en kolutkörare till ett nu nedslĂ€ckt kontor och fann Hellsten pĂ„ golvet blödande frĂ„n ett krossĂ„r i huvudet och bredvid henne pĂ„ bordet lĂ„g en smörgĂ„s som det hade tagits tvĂ„ bett av. Hon var inte vid medvetande och en timme senare avled hon pĂ„ sjukhuset. En koffert som Ander lĂ€mnat kvar pĂ„ hotell Temperance innehöll delar av rĂ„nbytet, blod och Alfreds fotografi samt personbevis. + +RĂ€ttegĂ„ng och avrĂ€ttning + +Makarna Ander greps av polis vid Anders fars stuga pĂ„ Karlsudds brygga dĂ€r de lĂ„g nakna i en sĂ€ng pĂ„ kvĂ€llen efter mordet. Frun slĂ€pptes pĂ„ förmiddagen nĂ€sta dag, befriad frĂ„n varje misstanke om delaktighet i brottet. Den 14 maj 1910 dömdes Ander till döden för begĂ„nget mord (och tredje resan stöld), en dom som han överklagade i alla instanser. Samtliga instanser upp till Högsta domstolen gav dock Ander avslag pĂ„ överklagan och avrĂ€ttningsdatumet faststĂ€lldes till den 23 november 1910 klockan 08:00 pĂ„ morgonen. Han blev den sista mĂ€nniskan att avrĂ€ttas i Sverige dĂ„ dödsdomen verkstĂ€lldes av skarprĂ€ttare Anders Gustaf Dahlman klockan 08:06, med hjĂ€lp av den fallbila (giljotin) som införskaffats Ă„r 1903 frĂ„n Frankrike för 3 586 franc. Giljotinen var 4,42 meter hög och 2,38 meter bred. Det sĂ€gs att Ander vĂ€grade tala med fĂ€ngelseprĂ€sten före avrĂ€ttningen och att hans sista ord var en förfrĂ„gan till Dahlmans assistent om han fick sĂ€ga nĂ„got före avrĂ€ttningen, vilket emellertid ignorerades. Giljotinen fungerade som vĂ€ntat och sedan halshuggningen genomförts överlĂ€mnades Anders kropp till lĂ€kare som kunde konstatera att han lidit av tuberkulos och att han före avrĂ€ttningen svalt en större porslinsskĂ€rva, troligen i ett sjĂ€lvmordsförsök. + +Efter Anders död hamnade ett stycke av hans kranium i Anatomiska institutet i Uppsalas samlingar, och tillhör idag Gustavianum. + +Ur samtida press + +"Mördaren-J. Ander har hĂ€ktats." + +Stockholm den 6 Jan. 1910 + +IgĂ„r förövades ett mord pĂ„ Gerells vĂ€xelkontor i hotell Rydbergs fastighet. Kassörskan blev överfallen av en mansperson och dödad, varefter kassan lĂ€nsades. Mördaren tog dĂ€refter till flykten. Polisen fick dock snart upp ett spĂ„r och han infĂ„ngades. RĂ„nmördaren befanns vara en man vid namn J. Ander. + +"Anders afrĂ€ttning" (Aftonbladet 23 november 1910) + +Exekutionen försiggick i morse Ă„ LĂ„ngholmen + +Giljotinen för första gĂ„ng i verksamhet + +Ingen bekĂ€nnelse! + +Den för det ruskiga rĂ„nmordet i Gerellska vĂ€xelkontoret hĂ€ktade och dödsdömde Alfred Andersson Ander har idag sonat sitt brott med döden. AfrĂ€ttningen försiggick i morse strax efter kl. 8 Ă„ den halvcirkelformiga fĂ€ngelsegĂ„rden Ă„ LĂ„ngholmen i nĂ€rvaro af de officiellt utsedda representanterna... + +Referenser + +Noter + +Tidningar +Aftonbladet 23 november 1910, Anders afrĂ€ttning + Dalpilen 1910-01-11, Det ohyggliga rĂ„nmordet i Stockholm + +Litteratur + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Om Ander + - Giljotinen Ander avrĂ€ttades i. + +MĂ€n +Födda 1873 +Avlidna 1910 +Svenska mördare +Personer som blivit avrĂ€ttade med giljotin +Personer som blivit avrĂ€ttade av Sverige under 1900-talet +Personer frĂ„n Ljusterö socken +Albert av Sachsen, född 23 april 1828 i Dresden, död 19 juni 1902 pĂ„ slottet Sibyllenort, son till Johan I av Sachsen och Amalia Augusta av Bayern. Han var kung av Sachsen 1873â1902. Han gifte sig 1853 i Dresden med prinsessan Carola Wasa, dotter till prins Gustav Gustavsson av Wasa (son till Gustav IV Adolf av Sverige) och Luise av Baden. Ăktenskapet blev barnlöst. + +Albert av Sachsen deltog som kapten i kriget mot Danmark 1849, och anförde som general den sachsiska kĂ„ren mot preussarna under 1866 Ă„rs tyska krig. Sedan Sachsen efter freden sistnĂ€mnda Ă„r slutit sig till Nordtyska förbundet, fick Albert, som dĂ„ var kronprins, befĂ€let över den 12:e nordtyska armĂ©kĂ„ren, vilken var bildad av sachsiska trupper. Med uppmĂ€rkelse deltog han i fransk-tyska kriget 1870â1871, och efter fredsslutet utnĂ€mndes han till tysk generalfĂ€ltmarskalk. Den 29 oktober 1873 eftertrĂ€dde han sin far som kung av Sachsen. + +KĂ€llor + Gernandts konversationslexikon, Stockholm 1895 + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Huset Wettin +Sachsens regenter +Riddare och kommendör av Kungl. Maj:ts Orden +Mottagare av Serafimerorden +Alumner frĂ„n Bonns universitet +Födda 1828 +Avlidna 1902 +MĂ€n +Albrekt av Mecklenburg (), född cirka 1338 i Mecklenburg, död 1 april 1412 i Doberan i Mecklenburg, var kung av Sverige mellan 1364 och 1389 och hertig av Mecklenburg-Schwerin mellan 1379 och 1412. Han var son till hertig Albrekt II och den svenska prinsessan Eufemia Eriksdotter och med honom infördes obotrithövdingen Niklots furstehus (Ă€ven kallat Mecklenburgska Ă€tten) i den svenska regentlĂ€ngden. + +Albrekt var kung av Sverige 1363/1364 till 1389 dĂ„ han avsattes (han abdikerade formellt först 1405). Han var Ă€ven hertig av Mecklenburg som medregent frĂ„n 1379 dĂ„ fadern dog och som regent frĂ„n 1384 efter brodern Henriks död. Först 1395, dĂ„ Albrekt frigivits ur drottning Margaretas fĂ„ngenskap, kunde han personligen Ă„tervĂ€nda till Mecklenburg och ta upp styret dĂ€r. Som herre av Mecklenburg Ă€r hans korrekta benĂ€mning furst Albrekt III av Mecklenburg och hertig Albrekt II av Mecklenburg och Schwerin. + +Blir till svensk kung + +Albrekt var andre sonen till hertig Albrekt den store av Mecklenburg och den svenske kungen Magnus Erikssons syster Eufemia. Albrekt stod sĂ„ att sĂ€ga i tur som arvtagare av Sveriges krona om kung Magnus och hans son HĂ„kan Magnusson skulle dö. Dessutom kan hertigarna av Mecklenburg enligt vissa kĂ€llor, med vaga grunder, ha hĂ€rstammat frĂ„n Sverkerska Ă€tten via Kristina av Mecklenburg, som i sĂ„ fall skulle varit dotter till Sverker den yngre. + +Bakgrunden till upproret mot Magnus Eriksson Ă€r en snĂ„rig historia. I korthet kan nĂ€mnas att Magnus son HĂ„kan Magnusson, kung av Norge, helt sonika lĂ€t fĂ€ngsla sin far beroende pĂ„ att Magnus inte ville acceptera fredsfördraget vid Greifswald 1361, dĂ„ Magnus menade att de svenska sĂ€ndebuden överskridit sina befogenheter. I februari 1362 blev HĂ„kan formellt vald till svensk kung vid Mora sten men kort dĂ€refter förlikades far och son och de samregerade Sverige, dĂ€r HĂ„kan fick sin del av Sverige (omrĂ„det för Skara stift). Under tiden fördes ett kort krig mot Danmark och Valdemar Atterdag men fredsförhandlingar pĂ„börjades hösten 1362. Under dessa förhandlingar valde HĂ„kan att Ă€kta Valdemars dotter Margareta. En anledning till detta kan ha varit för att Ă„terfĂ„ SkĂ„ne. Dock hade de svenska stormĂ€nnen Ă„ HĂ„kans vĂ€gnar redan ingĂ„tt en förlovning med Elisabet av Holstein, en förlovning som nu bröts. Protester utbröt bland stormĂ€nnen, och situationen eskalerade till ett mer eller mindre öppet uppror. Ăven den Heliga Birgitta gav luft Ă„t sitt missnöje med Magnus. Till följd hĂ€rav drevs flera av de ledande stormĂ€nnen i landsflykt 1363 av kung Magnus. + +De förvisade stormĂ€nnen, med drotsen Bo Jonsson (Grip) i spetsen, drog till norra Tyskland, vĂ€nde sig dĂ€r till hertig Albrekt den store av Mecklenburg och erbjöd den svenska kronan Ă„t dennes son Albrekt d. y. Albrekt d. Ă€. gick till slut med pĂ„ att lĂ„ta rĂ„dsaristokratin sitta med vid styret om de stödde hans maktövertagande i Sverige. Tyskarna landsteg i Sverige med 1 600 man, riddare, vĂ€pnare och svenner. De vandrade norrut utan att möta större motstĂ„nd och de tyskvĂ€nliga stĂ€derna Stockholm och Kalmar gav sig utan större blodsspillan. I november 1363 hyllades Albrekt d. y. i Stockholm. Magnus avsattes och flydde till Norge, och den 18 februari 1364 valdes Albrekt formellt till svensk kung vid Mora stenar. De av Magnus landsförvisade stormĂ€nnen belönades och gavs olika högre poster av Albrekt. + +Albrekt av Mecklenburg var den förste kungen att anvĂ€nda tre kronor som riksvapen. Han ansĂ„g att han inte kunde anvĂ€nda den tidigare riksymbolen, den avsatte folkungens lejon, men inte heller sitt fĂ€dernevapen, ett krönt svart tjurhuvud eftersom detta fördes av hans far som var regerande hertig av Mecklenburg. FrĂ„gan mĂ„ste ha varit brĂ€nnande: kungens vapen skulle inte bara vara rikets samlande symbol och officiella besittningsmĂ€rke; dess förekomst i sigill hade dessutom en avgörande juridisk betydelse, eftersom en utfĂ€rdad urkunds rĂ€ttsliga verkan berodde pĂ„ dess sigillering. Sigillet i sig kan inte förmedla vilka fĂ€rger som Albrekt valde till sitt nya vapen. Först i en rimkrönika, som Ernst von Kirschberg pĂ„började 1378, syns att kronorna var i guld, stĂ€llda i ett blĂ„tt fĂ€lt med röda smaragder (dvs de Mecklenburgska fĂ€rgerna rött, blĂ„tt och gult). Med dessa fĂ€rger Ă€r vapnet alltjĂ€mt i bruk. I gĂ€llande lag om rikets vapen kallas det lilla riksvapnet. + +1365 Ă„tervĂ€nde Magnus jĂ€mte sonen HĂ„kan Magnusson till Sverige med en norsk hĂ€r samt en styrka med Magnus-trogna svenskar. Vid Gata skog i nĂ€rheten av Enköping blev Magnus och HĂ„kan besegrade av tyskarna, varvid Magnus tillfĂ„ngatogs av Albrekt. + +Kung Albrekt stöddes förutom av sin far Ă€ven av flera nordtyska furstar samt av hansestĂ€derna. PĂ„ kung HĂ„kans sida slöt nu danske kung Valdemar Atterdag upp. Mecklenburgarna fick Ă€ven en svĂ„r fiende i den svenska allmogen som ogillade det tyska inflytandet. Delar av allmogen reste sig och understödde HĂ„kan, och för Albrekt blev lĂ€get kritiskt sedan HĂ„kan med en hĂ€r lĂ€grat sig pĂ„ Norrmalm vid Stockholm 1371. Men med de svenska stormĂ€nnens hjĂ€lp lyckades Albrekt försvara sin stĂ€llning, sedan stormĂ€nnen först avtvingat honom en kungaförsĂ€kran som ökade deras inflytande och kraftigt reducerade Albrekts egen makt. PĂ„ detta sĂ€tt kom en fred till stĂ„nd, genom vilken Magnus frigavs mot att en dryg lösesumma utbetalades till Albrekt. + +Den kungaförsĂ€kran Albrekt blev tvungen att avlĂ€gga innebar att han skulle följa rĂ„dets beslut i alla viktiga frĂ„gor. NĂ€r en plats i rĂ„det blev ledig skulle de andra rĂ„dsherrarna vĂ€lja en eftertrĂ€dare bland infödda svenska mĂ€n. Svenska mĂ€n skulle ocksĂ„ utnĂ€mnas som fogdar pĂ„ rikets slott. + +Nu var det svenska riket delat. RiksrĂ„den hade Ă„r 1371 slutit fred med kung HĂ„kan. HĂ„kan fick hela Skara stift, resten stod sedan Ă„r 1374 under drotsen Bo Jonsson (Grip)s Ă€gande. Albrekt var fortfarande formellt sett kung av Sverige men i praktiken styrde han endast över Stockholm och nĂ„gra kungsgĂ„rdar. + +Albrekt tvingades stĂ€ndigt ge efter för adelns vilja, och förödmjukelsen förvĂ€rrades genom hĂ„nfulla pĂ„minnelser frĂ„n adeln om den kĂ€rlek som Sveriges folk hade visat honom genom att vĂ€lja honom till kung. I en ny försĂ€kran som Albrekt tvingades avge Ă„r 1383 fick han tala om hur han "ur sitt hjĂ€rta avlĂ€gsnat all osĂ€mja, misstro och tvedrĂ€ktsanda mellan Oss och VĂ„ra rĂ„dgivare, sĂ€rskilt mellan Oss och Oss Ă€lskelige Bo Jonsson". Med "obegrĂ€nsad tilltro" tyr sig Hans Maj:t till sitt rikes rĂ„d och "vill i alla Ă€renden följa dess vilja och mening". + +Avsatt som svensk kung + +Albrekt var numera totalt beroende av rĂ„det och dess mĂ€ktigaste man, drotsen Bo Jonsson (Grip), och Albrekts olika försök att sĂ€tta en grĂ€ns för stormĂ€nnens expansion och vĂ€xande inflytande över makten i Sverige omintetgjordes. + +Efter drotsen Bo Jonssons död 1386 gjorde kungen likvĂ€l ett försök att Ă„terstĂ€lla kungamakten. Han ville göra sig till förmyndare för Bo Jonssons barn och Ă€nka Margareta Dume samt sĂ€gs ha övervĂ€gt en reducering, indragning, av adelns gods. MĂ„nga stormĂ€n började kĂ€nna sig hotade av Albrekts ambitioner att begrĂ€nsa adelns makt. I Vadstenaklostrets diarium för Ă„r 1365 finns antecknat: "DĂ„ kom rovfĂ„glarna och slog sig ner pĂ„ bergstopparna, ty tyskarna tyranniserade landet i mĂ„nga Ă„r". + +För att hindra Albrekts reduktion av gods vĂ€nde sig de stormĂ€n som Bo Jonsson hade utnĂ€mnt till verkstĂ€llare av hans testamente, till drottning Margareta i Danmark med bön om hjĂ€lp. Albrekt for över till Tyskland och hĂ€mtade en tysk hĂ€r medan Margareta lĂ€t danskar landstiga i Sverige. Enligt sĂ€gnen skulle Albrekt ha ansett det nĂ€stan under sin vĂ€rdighet att slĂ„ss med "Kung byxlös", som han kallade Margareta. Han pĂ„stĂ„s ha skickat till henne en alnslĂ„ng brynsten med hĂ€lsningen att hon borde vĂ€ssa sina nĂ„lar och saxar i stĂ€llet för att regera. I slaget vid Ă sle i februari 1389 i nĂ€rheten av Falköping besegrades och tillfĂ„ngatogs Albrekt jĂ€mte sin son Erik av Margaretas trupper. Margareta ska nu, enligt sĂ€gnen, ha hĂ€mnats Albrekts tidigare hĂ„n. Hon pĂ„stĂ„s ha lĂ„tit klĂ€ honom i en narrkĂ„pa, som var 15 alnar i vidd, samt pryda hans huvud med en hĂ€tta försedd med ett 19 alnar lĂ„ngt slĂ€p. Och som pĂ„minnelse om att han en gĂ„ng begĂ€rt henne till gemĂ„l lĂ€r hon ha lagt honom i sin sĂ€ng â men bunden till hĂ€nder och fötter. + +I Stockholm fortsatte dock de tyska borgarna â som stöttade Albrekt â med ett envist motstĂ„nd, och slöt sig samman till ett sĂ€llskap som kallade sig hĂ€ttebröder som ska ha trakasserat svenskarna i staden. Albrekts vĂ€nner bland furstarna och stĂ€derna i Mecklenburg ansatte ocksĂ„ hans tidigare svenska undersĂ„tar sĂ„ lĂ€nge han satt fĂ„ngen. De utrustade en mĂ€ngd kapare som undsatte deras landsmĂ€n i Stockholm med livsmedel, försökte befria Albrekt ur fĂ„ngenskapen, hemsökte Nordens kuster och bedrev sjöröveri. + +Far och son frislĂ€pptes 1395 mot villkor att efter tre Ă„r antingen betala en dryg penningsumma eller överlĂ€mna Stockholm till Margareta. Till följd av detta fördrag tog Margareta Stockholm i besittning 1398. NĂ„gra Ă„r dĂ€refter upphörde ocksĂ„ de tyska sjörövarnas hĂ€rjningar. + +Kung Albrekt tillbringade drygt sex Ă„r i Margaretas fĂ„ngenskap, frĂ„n 24 februari 1389 till 26 september 1395. VĂ€l fri begav sig Albrekt till Mecklenburg, dĂ€r han 1384 eftertrĂ€tt sin Ă€ldre bror Henrik sĂ„som hertig men hans anhĂ€ngare, de sĂ„ kallade vitalianerna, intog Gotland och höll sig kvar dĂ€r till 1398, dĂ„ ön intogs av Tyska orden. Mot penningersĂ€ttning förmĂ„ddes Albrekt och Tyska orden att avstĂ„ ön, och ön överlĂ€mnades 1408 till den nordiska unionskungen Erik av Pommern. Albrekt dog 1412 och begravdes i klosterkyrkan i Doberan i Mecklenburg. + +Ăktenskap och barn + +Albrekt gifte sig 1359 med Rikardis av Schwerin (död 1377), ett Ă€ktenskap vars kontrakt upprĂ€ttats i Wismar redan 12 oktober 1352. Paret fick följande barn: + + Erik (omkring 1365â1397), svensk kronprins och herre av Gotland + Rikardis Katarina (omkring 1370/1372â1400), gift i Prag 1388 med kejsarens yngre son Johan av Böhmen (1370â1396), markgreve av MĂ€hren och hertig av Görlitz (Lausitz) + +Albrekt gifte om sig i Schwerin 12â13 februari 1396 med Agnes av Braunschweig-LĂŒneburg (död 1430/1434). Paret fick följande barn: + + Albrekt V av Mecklenburg (död 1423), hertig av Mecklenburg och Schwerin + +Se Ă€ven + + BjĂ€lboĂ€tten + Upproret mot Magnus Eriksson + +Referenser + +Fotnoter + +AllmĂ€nna + + Den svenska historien: Medeltid 1319-1520. Bonniers (1966), sid. 74â83. + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Födda 1300-talet +Avlidna 1412 +Hertigar av Mecklenburg +Huset Mecklenburg +Personer i Tyskland under 1300-talet +MĂ€n +Sveriges regenter +Avsatta regenter +Hertig Albrekt "den store" av Mecklenburg och Schwerin, Albrekt d. Ă€., tyska Albrecht "der Grosse", ibland Albert, född 1318, död 18 februari 1379 i Schwerin, begravd i klosterkyrkan i Doberan, var den förste hertig av Mecklenburg och Schwerin. + +Albrekt "den store" var son till furst Henrik II av Mecklenburg (död 1329) och Anna av Sachsen-Wittenberg (död 1327). Vid faderns död eftertrĂ€dde han denne 1329 som furst Albrekt II av Mecklenburg. 1348 erhöll Albrekt hertigtitel, och 1358 blev han Ă€ven hertig av Schwerin. Till följd av detta kallas han Ă€ven för hertig Albrekt I av Mecklenburg och Schwerin. Han styrde sina bĂ„da hertigdömen intill sin död 1379. + +Biografi + +NĂ€r Albrekt eftertrĂ€dde sin 1329 döde fader som furste i Mecklenburg fick han stĂ„ under förmyndarskap till 1336. Den 8 juli 1348 upphöjdes Albrekt av kejsar Karl IV till hertig och intrĂ€dde dĂ€rmed i riksfurstestĂ„ndet. + +Liksom kejsar Karl IV understödde Albrekt till en början Valdemar "den falske" i Mark Brandenburg men försonades 1350 med markgreve Ludvig. + +Efter greve Otto I av Schwerins död 1357 köpte Albrekt 1358 för 20 000 silvermark de grevliga rĂ€ttigheterna i Schwerin av dennes bror och arvtagare Nikolaus. Albrekt kunde dĂ€refter se sig som herre av tvĂ„ hertigdömen, Mecklenburg och Schwerin. + +Albrekt strĂ€vade efter att öka Mecklenburgs inflytande i Norden; hans Ă€ldste son Henrik fick gifta sig med en dotter till Valdemar Atterdag, och han försökte bland annat vinna den danska kronan Ă„t sonsonen. SjĂ€lv hade han gift sig med svenske kungens syster, Eufemia Eriksdotter. NĂ€r hans andre son, Albrekt d. y., kallades till Sverige 1363 följde Albrekt d. Ă€. med, och han var i sjĂ€lva verket den drivande kraften i sonens politik. + +Ăktenskap och barn + +Albrekt gifte sig i Rostock den 10 april 1336 med svenska prinsessan Eufemia Eriksdotter (1317-1363/1370), ett Ă€ktenskap vars kontrakt upprĂ€ttades i Bohus fĂ€stning redan den 24 juli 1321. Paret fick följande barn: + +Henrik Bödeln av Mecklenburg (1337/1338-1383), hertig av Mecklenburg och Schwerin +Albrekt av Mecklenburg (1338/1340-1412), kung av Sverige +Ingeborg av Mecklenburg (omkring 1340-1395), gift 1. med hertig Ludvig VI av Bayern (död 1365), gift 2. med greve Henrik II av Holstein (död 1381/1389) +Magnus I av Mecklenburg (omkring 1345-1385), hertig av Mecklenburg och Schwerin +Anna av Mecklenburg (död 1415), gift med greve Adolf IX av Holstein (död 1390) + +Albrekt gifte om sig före 4 mars 1378 med Adelheid av Honstein (död 1405 eller senare). + +Referenser + + Eberhard Holz / Wolfgang Huschner (Hrsg.): Deutsche FĂŒrsten des Mittelalters. Edition Leipzig, Leipzig 1995, + Allgemeinen Deutschen Biographie (ADB), band 1, sida 271 + +Hertigar av Mecklenburg +Personer i Tyskland under 1300-talet +Födda 1318 +Avlidna 1379 +MĂ€n +Alexander III, född Rolando Bandinelli cirka 1100 i Siena, Italien, död 30 augusti 1181, var pĂ„ve frĂ„n den 7 september 1159 till sin död den 30 augusti 1181. + +Biografi +Rolando Bandinelli föddes i en framstĂ„ende slĂ€kt frĂ„n Siena. Han blev professor vid universitetet i Bologna, dĂ€r han utmĂ€rkte sig som kanonist nĂ€r han utgav kommentarer till Gratianus Decretum, vilka i folkmun fick titeln Summa Magistri Rolandi. Ă r 1150 kallades han till Rom av pĂ„ve Eugenius III, och han gjorde snabb karriĂ€r i kyrkan. Han upphöjdes till kardinaldiakon av Santi Cosma e Damiano och Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ till kardinalprĂ€st av San Marco, och sedan pĂ„vlig kansler. PĂ„ve Hadrianus IV utnĂ€mnde Bandinelli till sin rĂ„dgivare, och han tillhörde navet i den grupp kardinaler som försökte bryta förbindelserna med Tyskland genom att ingĂ„ allianser med Neapel och normanderna. Till Fredrik I Barbarossa sade kardinal Bandinelli i Besançon (1157) att kejsarkronan var ett pĂ„vligt beneficium och dĂ€refter hade han skaffat sig fiender för livet hos de tyska furstarna. + +Vid den konklav av 22 kardinaler som sammantrĂ€dde efter Hadrianus död röstade samtliga utom tre pĂ„ Rolando Bandinelli; detta trots att nio var öppet lojala mot kejsaren. Han antog pĂ„venamnet Alexander men det kejserliga partiet utsĂ„g en motpĂ„ve, Victor IV. Trots tumult kröntes Alexander till pĂ„ve den 20 september 1159. + +Det Ă„lĂ„g kejsaren att bilĂ€gga schismen och han sammankallade till möte i Pavia. Genom att tilltala motpĂ„ven som Victor IV och pĂ„ven som kardinal Rolando, försade han sig och visade pĂ„ sin partiskhet. PĂ„ven hĂ€vdade dĂ€rför att rĂ€ttegĂ„ngen var ogiltig, och att han vĂ€grade lĂ€gga sin lagliga rĂ€tt i hĂ€nderna pĂ„ en sĂ„dan. Kejsaren kom som vĂ€ntat fram till att motpĂ„ven skulle vara den giltige pĂ„ven. NĂ€r Alexander mottog domen, befann han sig i Anagni, och dĂ€r exkommunicerade han kejsaren samt frigjorde sig frĂ„n sina trohetsband. Schismen fortfor i 17 Ă„r, och fick inte ett slut förrĂ€n Barbarossa besegrats vid slaget vid Legnano 1176. + +Under schismen levde Alexander i landsflykt i Frankrike, vilket fick till följd att pĂ„vens makt och katolicismen stĂ€rktes dĂ€r. Henrik II av England var en annan han fick tillfĂ€lle att möta, nĂ€r denne gick i strid mot Thomas Becket, dĂ€r Alexander hĂ€vdade kyrkans rĂ€tt mot kungen. Efter att Becket mördats 1170 lyckades Alexander förmĂ„ kungen till att erkĂ€nna de rĂ€ttigheter som han nekat kyrkan genom Becket. Vidare gjorde sig Alexander kĂ€nd som en motstĂ„ndare till slaveriet. + +Alexander III vigde 1164 den förste svenske Ă€rkebiskopen, Stefan, som hade sitt sĂ€te i Uppsala. Ă r 1179 presiderade Alexander vid Tredje Laterankonciliet. Han uppmuntrade den akademiska strömningen som genomsyrade Europa och som ledde till att flera universitet grundades. + +Han avled i Civita Castellana och begravdes i Laterankyrkan. + +Bilder + +KĂ€llor + +Noter + +WebbkĂ€llor + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +PĂ„var +Italienska kanonister +Födda 1100 +Avlidna 1181 +MĂ€n +Personer i Kyrkostaten under 1100-talet +Gravsatta i San Giovanni in Laterano +Personer frĂ„n Siena +Alexanderparakit (Psittacula eupatria) Ă€r en papegoja som lever i södra och sydöstra Asien. + +Utseende +Alexanderparakiten Ă€r med en kroppslĂ€ngd pĂ„ 50â62 centimeter en mycket stor papegoja som i stort Ă€r en jĂ€tteversion av den nĂ€ra beslĂ€ktade halsbandsparakiten (Psittacula krameri). Likt denna Ă€r alexanderparakiten i stort sett helgrön med smala vingar och mycket lĂ„ng smal stjĂ€rt. Den skiljer sig genom den mycket grövre röda nĂ€bben samt den rödaktiga inre framvingen som pĂ„ sittande fĂ„gel ger den en rödbrun skulderflĂ€ck. + +Utbredning och systematik +Alexanderparakit delas in i fem underarter med följande utbredning: + Psittacula eupatria nipalensis â östra Afghanistan till Pakistan, norra Indien och Bangladesh + Psittacula eupatria eupatria â södra Indien och Sri Lanka + Psittacula eupatria magnirostris â Andamanerna och Nikobarerna + Psittacula eupatria avensis â norra Myanmar och nĂ€rliggande nordöstra Indien + Psittacula eupatria siamensis â Thailand till Laos, Kambodja och Vietnam + +SmĂ„ populationer finns Ă€ven i Belgien, NederlĂ€nderna, Tyskland och i Istanbul i Turkiet som hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n burfĂ„glar som rymt, likasĂ„ Ă€ven i Mellanöstern i Iran, Förenade Arabemiraten och Qatar. + +LevnadssĂ€tt +Alexanderparakiten hittas i skogar, lundar, jordbruksomrĂ„den och mangrovetrĂ€sk frĂ„n havsnivĂ„n upp till 900 meters höjd. Den lever av olika sorters frön, sĂ€d, knoppar, blommor, frukt och nötter. FĂ„geln ses vanligtvis i smĂ„ flockar men kan bilda stora grupper i omrĂ„den med stor födotillgĂ„ng eller nĂ€r den tar nattkvist. + +HĂ€ckning +Alexanderparakiten hĂ€ckar frĂ„n november till april och bygger vanligen sitt bo i anvĂ€nda trĂ€dhĂ„l, men kan ibland hĂ€cka i en spricka i en byggnad eller grĂ€va ut ett hĂ„l i ett trĂ€d pĂ„ egen hand. Honan lĂ€gger tvĂ„ till fyra vita Ă€gg som ruvas i genomsnitt i 24 dagar. Ungarna Ă€r flygga vid sju veckors Ă„lder och Ă€r beroende av sina förĂ€ldrar tills de Ă€r tre till fyra mĂ„nade gamla. + +Status och hot +Arten har ett stort utbredningsomrĂ„de men minskar relativt krafigt i antal till följd av förföljelse, habitatförlust och fĂ„ngst för vidare försĂ€ljning som burfĂ„glar. Internationella naturvĂ„rdsunionen IUCN kategoriserar dĂ€rför arten som nĂ€ra hotad. + +Namn +FĂ„gelns svenska namn syftar pĂ„ Alexander den store som sĂ€gs ha exporterat stora antal frĂ„n Punjab till europeiska lĂ€nder dĂ€r de ansĂ„gs vara statusföremĂ„l för adel, kungligheter och krigsherrar. + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + LĂ€ten pĂ„ xeno-canto.org + +Referenser + +Ăstpapegojor +FĂ„glar i orientaliska regionen +Hornuggla (Asio otus) Ă€r en fĂ„gel tillhörande familjen ugglor. Den har en ovanligt vid utbredning och hĂ€ckar i Europa, Asien och Nordamerika. Till största delen Ă€r den flyttfĂ„gel. Globalt anses bestĂ„ndet vara livskraftigt. I Sverige har den dock minskat i antal och kategoriseras numera som nĂ€ra hotad. + +KĂ€nnetecken + +Utseende + +Hornugglan Ă€r en medelstor uggla som mĂ€ter 31â37 cm, har ett vingspann pĂ„ 86â98 cm och vĂ€ger 245â400 gram. Den har lĂ„nga örontofsar som kan resas och riktas uppĂ„t. Honan Ă€r större Ă€n hanen och har mörkare fjĂ€derdrĂ€kt. Hornugglans brunaktiga fjĂ€drar Ă€r vertikalt streckade. FĂ„geln Ă€r sprĂ€cklig och vattrad i svartbrunt, rostgult och vitt pĂ„ ovansidan. Bröst och buk Ă€r rostgula och vita med svartbruna lĂ€ngsflĂ€ckar. Tarsen och tĂ„rna Ă€r helt fjĂ€derklĂ€dda. PĂ„ den sittande fĂ„geln nĂ„r vingen nedanför stjĂ€rten. Den andra handpennan Ă€r inskuren i det yttre fanet, den första i det inre. Ett kĂ€nnetecken Ă€r ocksĂ„ dess orangefĂ€rgade lysande iris. + +Hornugglan Ă€r svĂ„rsedd dagtid dĂ„ den kamouflerar sig genom att sitta pĂ„ en trĂ€dgren tĂ€tt intill stammen. Den drar dĂ„ ihop fjĂ€derdrĂ€kten och kroppen vilket ger den ett mycket smalt och avlĂ„ngt utseende. Under flyttningen kan den vara lĂ€ttare att observera dĂ„ den strĂ€cker över land och nĂ€ra kusten. + +LĂ€ten +Gamla hornugglor Ă€r relativt tystlĂ„tna, med ett svagt och nasalt "peh-Ă€v" frĂ„n honan och sĂ„ngen frĂ„n hanen ett djupt "oh" som upprepas var 2,5 sekund. Desto ljudligare Ă€r ungarnas tigglĂ€te, ett tvĂ„stavigt, klagande "pii-eh" som kan höras över en kilometer. + +Utbredning och taxonomi +Hornuggla pĂ„trĂ€ffas över stora delar av Palearktis, i norra Afrika, Europa och i norra Asien sĂ„ lĂ„ngt österut som till Kina och Japan, samt i söder till nordvĂ€stra Indien. Den förekommer Ă€ven över stora delar av Nordamerika sĂ„ lĂ„ngt söderut som norra Mexiko. De populationer som hĂ€ckar i nordligare regioner Ă€r flyttfĂ„glar eller upptrĂ€der nomadiskt under dĂ„liga sorkĂ„r. De sydligare populationerna Ă€r stannfĂ„glar. + + +Hornugglan delas in i fyra underarter med följande utbredning + Asio otus tuftsi â förekommer frĂ„n vĂ€stra Kanada till nordvĂ€stra Baja California, i södra Texas och norra Mexiko. + Asio otus wilsonianus â förekommer frĂ„n södra centrala, och sydöstra Kanada till södra centrala USA + Asio otus otus â förekommer i Europa, Asien och Nordafrika + Asio otus canariensis â endemisk för Kanarieöarna + +Tidigare behandlades afrikansk hornuggla (Asio abyssinicus) med sina tvĂ„ underarter abyssinicus och graueri som underarter till hornuggla. + +Förekomst i Sverige +Hornugglan Ă€r ganska vanlig i södra och mellersta Sverige, upp till ungefĂ€r 62° nordlig bredd. Större delen av den svenska stammen flyttar söderut pĂ„ hösten men nĂ„gra övervintrar i södra Sverige, frĂ€mst i SkĂ„ne. + +Ekologi + +Hornugglan undviker starkt ljus och tillbringar ofta dagen sovande i trĂ€d, som exempelvis tall. I skymningen flyger den ut för att söka efter föda, som framför allt bestĂ„r av mindre dĂ€ggdjur som sork men Ă€ven insekter. + +HĂ€ckningssĂ€songen infaller i Europa vanligtvis mellan februari och juli och i Nordamerika frĂ„n mars till maj. Den placerar sitt rede i övergivna bon efter andra fĂ„glar, exempelvis av krĂ„kfĂ„glar eller hökar och allra oftast i barrtrĂ€d. Den lĂ€gger i snitt tre till fem Ă€gg som ruvas av honan i 25â30 dagar. Ungarna tas om hand av bĂ„da förĂ€ldrarna. + +Hornugglan och mĂ€nniskan + +Status och hot +Hornugglan har ett mycket stort hĂ€ckningsomrĂ„de och den har en stor global population. Den europeiska populationen uppskattas till 304 000â776 000 par vilket innebĂ€r 609 000â1 550 000 adulta individer. Eftersom Europa utgör cirka 28 procent av det globala utbredningsomrĂ„det Ă€r en uppskattning att den globala populationen bestĂ„r av 2 180 000â5 540 000 adulta individer, men detta Ă€r osĂ€kra siffror. + +Den amerikanska populationen har genomgĂ„tt en svag minskning under de senaste 40 Ă„ren medan den europeiska utvecklingstrenden Ă€r stabil. IUCN bedömer dock hornugglan som ohotad och kategoriserar arten som livskraftig. + +Status i Sverige +Hornugglan har minskat i antal under de senaste Ă„ren. I 2020 Ă„rs rödlista listar Artdatabanken dĂ€rför den som nĂ€ra hotad (NT). Det svenska bestĂ„ndet uppskattas till 12 000 hĂ€ckande individer. + +Namn +Ett Ă€ldre namn Ă€r skogsuv. Dialektalt har hornuggla i trakten kring AbbekĂ„s kallats kuderusk. I trakten av Kullen betyder dock kuderusk istĂ€llet skĂ€ggsimpa. + +Referenser + +Noter + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + Sveriges Radio: P2-fĂ„geln - Hornuggla + Dansk ornitologisk forening + + + LĂ€ten pĂ„ xeno-canto.org + +FĂ„glar i palearktiska regionen +FĂ„glar i nearktiska regionen +FĂ„glar i orientaliska regionen +Ugglor +TvĂ„ runinskrifter Ă€r kĂ€nda frĂ„n Hagia Sofias balustrader. De antas av forskningen vara ristade av vĂ€ringagardet i Konstantinopel (dagens Istanbul) nĂ„gon gĂ„ng under 1000-talet, som ett slags dĂ„tida "klotter". + +Den första runinskriften upptĂ€cktes 1964 pĂ„ en balustrad i södra galleriets översta vĂ„ning. Fyndet publicerades av Elisabeth SvĂ€rdström i FornvĂ€nnen 65 1970. Av inskriptionen Ă€r bara delar av förnamnet Halvdan lĂ€sligt '-alftan'. VĂ€ringarnas vanligaste inskription var "NN ristade dessa runor" och det Ă€r möjligt att inskriften i Hagia Sofia följt den formen. + +I samma balustrad upptĂ€ckte Folke Högberg 1975 ytterligare en runinskription. Inskriptionen Ă„terupptĂ€cktes 1988 av Mats G. Larsson som publicerade dem i FornvĂ€nnen 84 följande Ă„r. Han bedömde inskriften som ofullstĂ€ndig och lĂ€ste 'ari:k'. Enligt Larsson var detta början pĂ„ "Are (gjorde dessa runor)". Högberg gjorde ursprungligen en annan uttolkning och fick 1997 stöd av Svein Indrelid som istĂ€llet tolkade inskriptionen som "Ărni", det vill sĂ€ga Arne, en enkel signatur. Denna uttolkning bedöms idag som mer sannolik Ă€n Larssons. + +Se Ă€ven + Alfabetisk lista över runinskrifter + Pireuslejonet + Graffiti + +Referenser + James E. Knirk, Runer i Hagia Sofia i Istanbul, Nytt om runer 14 (1999), 26-27 + Relics Of The Varangians - Graffiti in Hagia Sophia (med bilder) + +Noter + +Runinskrifter i Turkiet +Bysantinska riket under 1000-talet +Anders Per-Arne Björck (i riksdagen kallad Björck i NĂ€ssjö), född 19 september 1944 i NĂ€ssjö i Jönköpings lĂ€n, Ă€r en svensk politiker (moderat) och Ă€mbetsman. Han var riksdagsledamot 1969â2002, försvarsminister 1991â1994 samt landshövding i Uppsala lĂ€n 2003â2009. + +Biografi + +UppvĂ€xt och utbildning +Björck Ă€r son till lagerchef Arne Björk och hĂ„rfrisörskan Ann-Marie Svensson. Han gick pĂ„ Centralskolan i NĂ€ssjö och tog studentexamen 1966 vid NĂ€ssjö högre allmĂ€nna lĂ€roverk. + +Politik + +Ungdomspolitik +Björck inledde sin politiska karriĂ€r som bland annat riksordförande i Konservativ skolungdom 1963â1965, 1964 satt han i SECOs styrelse och i Högerns ungdomsförbund respektive Moderata Ungdomsförbundet 1966â1971. Björck var president för Nordisk Ungkonservativ Union 1968-1970. + +Invald i riksdagen +Ă r 1969 valdes han in i riksdagen. Björck var vicepresident i The Conservative and Christian Democratic Youth Community of Europe 1970â1972 och tillhörde konstitutionsutskottet 1974â1991. Han var ledamot av EuroparĂ„dets parlamentariska församling 1976â1992, vice president dĂ€r 1980â1981, 1984â1985 och 1988â1989. Björck var styrelseledamot av Moderata samlingspartiet frĂ„n 1981. Ă r 1989 valdes han som förste svensk till president i EuroparĂ„dets parlamentariska församling. Han var ordförande i European Democratic Group 1985â1989, Sveriges Television AB 1978â1991, Sveriges Radio 1979â1991 och var ledamot av presstödsnĂ€mnden 1978â1991. Björck var vice ordförande i konstitutionsutskottet 1982â1991. + +Björck har medverkat i flera offentliga utredningar rörande författnings- och massmediefrĂ„gor och har varit moderaternas talesman inom dessa omrĂ„den. + +Försvarsminister +Björck var försvarsminister i Regeringen Carl Bildt 1991â1994. + +Förste vice talman +1994 valdes Björck till att bli riksdagens förste vice talman, vilket han var till och med 2002. + +NĂ€r Björck lĂ€mnade riksdagen efter mĂ„nga decennier skrev han en debattartikel dĂ€r han beskrev hur riksdagen nĂ€r han började var startpunkten för politiska processer, men nĂ€r han slutade var riksdagen Ă€ndstationen. Startpunkten var dĂ„ istĂ€llet medierna. + +Senare Ă„r, övriga aktiviteter +FrĂ„n Ă„rsskiftet 2002/2003 till 2009 var Anders Björck landshövding i Uppsala lĂ€n. Björck arbetar sedan 2009 som pr-konsult Ă„t JKL. + +Anders Björck Ă€r medlem i Svenska Frimurare Orden, Odd Fellow Orden och ledamot av och ordförande i styrelsen för herrklubben SĂ€llskapet. Han utsĂ„gs till "Ă rets smĂ„lĂ€nning" under prisets debutĂ„r 1988. + +Björck var ordförande i International Foundation of Airline Passengers 1986-1989. + +Anders Björck var förbundsordförande i Svenska pistolskytteförbundet 2003â2009. + +Familj +Björck gifte sig 1975 med Py-Lotte von Zweigbergk (född 1948), dotter till direktör Sverker von Zweigbergk och Astrid Sigström. Tillsammans har de dottern Anne Björck. + +I populĂ€rkulturen +Lasse Tennander har gjort en lĂ„t pĂ„ plattan Nu som heter "Försvarsminister Anders Björck". + +Björck omnĂ€mns flera gĂ„nger i Galenskaparnas lĂ„t "Den offentliga sektorns rap". + +I Jan Guillous Hamilton-böcker förekommer Anders Björck lĂ€tt maskerad som den moderate försvarsministern Anders Lönnh. + +I Cirkus Miramars lĂ„t "Oolong & Lucky Strike" förekommer Anders Björck i första textraden, "sĂ„ fĂ€ller björken sina löv den sĂ€ger hellre död Ă€n röd men vad vet en björk om vĂ€rlden den relativa vĂ€rlden". + +I dokumentĂ€ren H:r Landshövding följde filmaren MĂ„ns MĂ„nsson Anders Björck under LinnéÄret 2007. Filmen blev Guldbaggenominerad i kategorin BĂ€sta dokumentĂ€rfilm. + +Citat +Anders Björck brukar tillskrivas citatet: "För det första har jag aldrig sagt det, för det andra Ă€r jag felciterad och för det tredje skulle det aldrig ha kommit ut" vilket han fĂ€llde i TV-programmet Snacka om nyheter den 15 november 1998. + +Uppdrag i riksdagen + Förste vice talman 1994â2002 + Suppleant i försvarsutskottet 1971â1973 och 1994â2002 + Ledamot (1974â1991 och 1994â1998), vice ordförande (1982â1991) och suppleant (1998â2002) i konstitutionsutskottet + Ledamot i socialförsĂ€kringsutskottet 1971â1973 + Ledamot (1982â1991 och 1994â2002), ordförande (1982â1983) och vice ordförande (1983â1991 och 1994â2002) i EuroparĂ„dets svenska delegation + Ledamot i krigsdelegationen 1979â1991 och 1993â2002 + Ledamot i riksdagsstyrelsen + Suppleant i utrikesnĂ€mnden 1985 och 1994â2002 + Ledamot i valberedningen 1982â1991 + 3:e vice ordförande i moderata förtroenderĂ„det + +Priser och utmĂ€rkelser + H. M. Konungens medalj i guld av 12:e storleken med Serafimerordens band, Kon:sGM12mserafb (2003) + Storkors av andra klassen av Förbundsrepubliken Tysklands förtjĂ€nstorden, StkTyskRFO2kl (1996) + +Se Ă€ven + Ebbe Carlsson-affĂ€ren + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Landshövdingar i Uppsala lĂ€n +Sveriges försvarsministrar +Vice talmĂ€n i Sveriges riksdag +Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdags andra kammare för högern +Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdag för Moderaterna +Sveriges riksdags Ă„lderspresidenter +Mottagare av Hans MajestĂ€t Konungens medalj +Svenska politiker under 1900-talet +Personer frĂ„n NĂ€ssjö +Födda 1944 +Levande personer +MĂ€n +Förbundsordförande för Moderata ungdomsförbundet +Sidor som anvĂ€nder mallen iriksdagenkallad +Regeringen Carl Bildt +Algot Brynolfsson, född cirka 1228 (möjligen tidigare, knappast senare), död nĂ„gon gĂ„ng under Ă„ren 1298â1302, var svenskt riksrĂ„d och lagman i VĂ€stergötland. Algot rĂ€knas som stamfar till Algotssönernas Ă€tt. Sigillvapen: först ros i fyrstyckad sköld, senare ett stort A. + +Första gĂ„ngen Algot Brynolfsson omnĂ€mns i kĂ€llorna Ă€r 1260, dĂ„ han var gift med en i övrigt okĂ€nd Margareta Petersdotter (död senast 1374), som möjligen var dotter till Algots företrĂ€dare i lagmansĂ€mbetet, Peter NĂ€f (Lejon). + +Algot Brynolfsson blev lagman senast 1270 och var det fortfarande 1288, dĂ„ en av hans söner, Folke Algotsson, gjorde sig skyldig till brudrov och flydde med bruden till Norge. Till följd av sonens tilltag tvingade han avgĂ„ som lagman. Han och en annan av hans söner, Rörik, tillbringade en tid i fĂ„ngenskap men bĂ„da frigavs 1289. + +Brynolf Algotsson Biskop i Skara. +Magnus Algotsson frigiven ur fĂ€ngelse 1298 +Karl Algotsson följde med till Norge, greps och avrĂ€ttades vid Ă„terkomst till Sverige frĂ„n Norge Ă„r 1289 +Folke Algotsson bortförde Ă„r 1288 Ingrid Svantepolksdotter. Död i Norge. +Bengt Algotsson, följde med till Norge +Rörik Algotsson fĂ€ngslades +Peter Algotsson, var kunglig kansler under Magnus LadulĂ„s. +? Nils Algotsson + +KĂ€llor +Ăldre svenska frĂ€lseslĂ€kter, vol I:1 s + +Noter + +Vidare lĂ€sning + + +LagmĂ€n i VĂ€stergötland +Födda 1228 +MĂ€n +Avlidna okĂ€nt Ă„r +Personer i Sverige under 1200-talet +Algotssönernas Ă€tt +Svenska riksrĂ„d under 1200-talet +Alice av Storbritannien, född 25 april 1843, död 14 december 1878 i Darmstadt av difteri, brittisk prinsessa, storhertiginna av Hessen. Dotter till prins Albert av Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha och Viktoria I av Storbritannien. Gift 1862 med storhertig Ludvig IV av Hessen. Hon var 1861â1862, tillsammans med systern Louise, sekreterare Ă„t sin mor, drottning Viktoria. + +Biografi + +Tidigt liv + +Prinsessan Alice föddes 25 april 1843 pĂ„ Buckingham Palace i London och var tredje barnet till drottning Viktoria av Storbritannien och prins Albert av Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha. Som andra dotter mottogs hennes kön med blandade kĂ€nslor, och till och med KronrĂ„det sĂ€nde sina "gratulationer och beklagande" till hennes förĂ€ldrar. Hon döptes den 2 juni 1843 med namnen Alice Maud Mary i private kapellet i Buckingham Palace av Ă€rkebiskopen av Canterbury William Howley. Alice fick sitt namn för att hedra Victorias första premiĂ€rminister, Lord Melbourne, som en gĂ„ng sagt till Victoria att Alice var hans kvinnliga favoritnamn. Vid hennes födsel flyttade familjen tillfĂ€lligt frĂ„n Buckingham Palace till Osborne House pĂ„ Isle of Wight (1844). + +Hennes uppfostran övervakades av fadern och dennes vĂ€n baron Stockmar och hon fick liksom sina syskon lĂ€ra sig praktiska saker som hushĂ„llsarbete, laga mat och snickra. Familjen levde privat ett enkelt liv, bar "medelklassklĂ€der" och sov i dĂ„ligt uppvĂ€rmda och enkelt möblerade rum. Alice beskrivs som kĂ€nslosam, lĂ€ttrörd, men med ett hetsigt temperament. 1854, under krimkriget, besökte hon sĂ„rade soldater pĂ„ sjukhus med sin mor och Ă€ldre syster, och hon besökte Ă€ven arrendatorer pĂ„ de kungliga godsen och var nyfiken pĂ„ hur icke kungliga levde. + +Alice hade ett nĂ€ra förhĂ„llande till sin Ă€ldsta syster Viktoria och sin Ă€ldsta bror Edvard, senare Edvard VII av Storbritannien. Hon skötte sin mormor vid dennas död i mars 1861, och var sedan den som var till störst tröst för modern vid faderns död senare samma Ă„r. Vid faderns död underrĂ€ttade hon sin bror mot moderns vilja, dĂ„ modern förebrĂ„dde sin Ă€ldste son för faderns död. Vid denna tid blev hon, assisterad av sin syster Louise, moderns privatsekreterare och skötte kontakten mellan regeringen och drottningen. + +GiftermĂ„l +Ă r 1860 gav drottningen sin Ă€ldsta dotter, Preussens kronprinsessa, i uppdrag att leta reda pĂ„ lĂ€mpliga kandidater för ett Ă€ktenskap med Alice. Victoria ville egentligen att hennes barn skulle gifta sig av kĂ€rlek men realiteten var annorlunda. Prins Vilhelm av Oranien och prins Albert av Preussen föreslogs, samt Ă€ven prins Ludvig av Hessen, som 1860 inbjöds med sin bror Henrik till Windsor Castle, officiellt för att titta pĂ„ Ascot-tĂ€vlingarna men egentligen för att inspekteras. DĂ„ bröderna reste hem förklarade Alice att hon var attraherad av Ludvig, och paret förlovades Ă„r 1861. Alice gifte sig 1862 pĂ„ Osborne House. Bröllopet beskrivs som det sorgligaste bröllopet i kungahuset, dĂ„ bĂ„de Alices mor och bror Alfred grĂ€t under ceremonin. Under smekmĂ„naden i S:t Claire ska Victoria ha blivit avundsjuk pĂ„ dotterns lycka. + +Livet i Hessen +Alice vĂ€lkomnades med entusiasm vid ankomsten till Darmstadt i Hessen. Det rĂ„dde dock missnöje med kravet pĂ„ att ett palats skulle byggas Ă„t Alice, sĂ„ paret fick av monarken ett enkelt hus vid gatan som bostad, vilket Alice dock trivdes med. NĂ„gra Ă„r senare reglerades dock det hela och ett nytt palats, Neues Palais, kunde byggas i Darmstadt. + +Alice besökte England vid broderns bröllop 1863 men Ă„tervĂ€nde snart. Drottning Victoria tyckte illa om Alices lyckliga relation med Ludvig, eftersom detta innebar att Alice sĂ€llan besökte England, vilket ledde till en spĂ€nd relation mellan Alice och modern. + +Under kriget med Preussen 1866 kom Alice och hennes syster, Preussens kronprinsessa, pĂ„ motsatta sidor av konflikten. Hon skickade sina barn till England och arbetade i sjukhusen i Hessen, trots att hon dĂ„ var gravid. Hon var bekant med Florence Nightingale, och införde ventilation och hygien pĂ„ sjukhusen efter dennas rĂ„d. DĂ„ preussiska trupper stod utanför staden uppmanade hon sin makes farbror, Ludvig III av Hessen-Darmstadt, att ge efter för Preussens krav, vilket upprörde en del. Preussen intog snart dĂ€refter staden. + +Alice skrev till modern om Preussens plundring av Hessen, och modern skrev till Alices Ă€ldre syster, Preussens kronprinsessa, som dock sade sig oförmögen att förhindra det; att Hessens och Preussens kronprinsessor var syskon antas dock ha inverkat pĂ„ det faktum att Preussens tillĂ€t Hessens monark att behĂ„lla sin tron. + +Alice var vĂ€n med teologen David Friedrich Strauss; hon delade hans kritik av kristendomen, gjorde honom till sin förelĂ€sare och presenterade honom för Preussens kronprinspar. Alice och Ludvig besökte England 1871, dĂ€r hon av en slump kom att ha huvudansvaret för vĂ„rden av prinsen av Wales under hans svĂ„ra tyfoidfeber. + +Drottning Victoria ogillade att Alice ammade sina barn, tyckte att hennes intresse för gynekologi och fysik var chockerande, hennes pengaproblem pinsamma och hennes sĂ€tt att kritisera moderns livslĂ„nga sorgeperiod oförskĂ€md. Alice tog sin son Fritz död 1873 mycket hĂ„rt. Hon brevvĂ€xlade med socialreformatorn Octavia Hill. 1877 besteg maken tronen i Hessen, och Alice blev storhertiginna. Hon försökte som sĂ„dan driva igenom sociala reformer i Hessen men plĂ„gades av sin impopularitet och sina plikter som storhertiginna. + +Hon besökte England pĂ„ semester 1878. Vid sin Ă„terkomst till Hessen blev hon, efter att sjĂ€lv ha vĂ„rdat flera sjuka i familjen, sjĂ€lv sjuk i difteri och dog. + +Familj + +Gift 1862 pĂ„ Osborne House, Isle of Wight, med sedermera storhertig Ludvig IV av Hessen (1837â1892). + +Barn: + Viktoria av Hessen (1863â1950), mor till Louise Mountbatten, Louis Mountbatten och Alice av Battenberg. + Elisabeth av Hessen (1864â1918), gift med Sergej Alexandrovitj av Ryssland (1857â1905). + Irene av Hessen (1866â1953), gift med Henrik av Preussen. + Ernst Ludvig av Hessen (1868â1937), Hessens siste storhertig. + Friedrich av Hessen (1870â1873), dog av blödarsjuka. + Alexandra av Hessen (Alix) (1872â1918), gift med tsar Nikolaj II av Ryssland (bĂ„da avrĂ€ttade vid ryska revolutionen 1918). + Marie av Hessen (1874â1878), dog av difteri. + +Galleri + +Referenser + + + Packard, Jerrold M., "Victoria's Daughters" , St Martin's Press, New York, USA 1998 + +Fotnoter + +Huset Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha +Brittiska prinsessor +Tyska hertiginnor +Födda 1843 +Avlidna 1878 +Kvinnor +Mottagare av Sankta Katarinas orden +Additiv fĂ€rgblandning, eller optisk fĂ€rgblandning, Ă€r blandning av ljus med olika fĂ€rg. PrimĂ€rfĂ€rgerna som anvĂ€nds Ă€r oftast rött, grönt och blĂ„tt, och i RGB-systemet som anvĂ€nds i bildskĂ€rmar blandas strĂ„lning med tre specificerade vĂ„glĂ€ngder. + +Rött och grönt ger gult, rött och blĂ„tt ger magenta, blĂ„tt och grönt ger cyan. Gult, magenta och cyan kallas i detta sammanhang sekundĂ€rfĂ€rger. Med balanserad styrka av ljus med de tre primĂ€rfĂ€rgerna fĂ„r man fram vitt, och genom att reglera styrkan av de olika ljuskĂ€llorna kan man fĂ„ fram alla uppfattbara kulörtoner. + +I det mest renodlade exemplet, som pĂ„ bilden, skapas blandningen genom att ljus frĂ„n olika fĂ€rgade ljuskĂ€llor belyser en och samma yta. PĂ„ bildskĂ€rmar anvĂ€nds i stĂ€llet smĂ„ lysande punkter med de tre primĂ€rfĂ€rgerna, och blandningen sker i betraktarens öga. Samma sak gĂ€ller det ljus som reflekteras frĂ„n smĂ„ punkter i fĂ€rgtryck eller i den konstmĂ„lningsteknik som kallas pointillism. + +Se Ă€ven +Subtraktiv fĂ€rgblandning +FĂ€rgsystem + +KĂ€llor + Valberg, Arne: A guide to light and colour demonstrations 2015. Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Sid 11-13. + +FĂ€rglĂ€ra +Axel Tallberg, född 23 september 1860 i GĂ€vle, död 8 januari 1928 i Solna, var en svensk grafiker, mĂ„lare och skriftstĂ€llare. + +Biografi +Han var son till gjutmĂ€staren Carl Erik Tallberg och Kristina Johansson och frĂ„n 1900 gift med Greta Kristina Katarina Santonsson och far till Lizzie Tallberg. Han vĂ€xte upp i Falun och efter avslutad skolgĂ„ng studerade han vid Konstakademien 1879â1882 dĂ€r Albert Theodor Gellerstedt undervisning i etsningskonsten gav honom ett livslĂ„ngt intresse. De följande tolv Ă„ren vistades han utomlands med nĂ„got enstaka kortare besök i Sverige. Han reste runt i Italien Frankrike, Spanien, Nordafrika och Tyskland 1883â1885. Under resorna utförde han landskapsmĂ„lningar i akvarell och studerade etsningar. Hans önskan att lĂ€ra sig etsningskonsten frĂ„n grunden resulterade i att han studerade vid konstakademien i DĂŒsseldorf 1885 och i England 1889â1895 för att dĂ€r ytterligare förfina sina kunskaper om etsteknik. Det var emellertid besvĂ€rligt att vid den tiden lĂ€ra sig etsningskonstens alla kemiska och tekniska metoder dĂ„ de utövande konstnĂ€rerna var ovilliga att dela med sig av nĂ„gra kunskaper. Det var en instĂ€llning som Tallberg avskydde och sjĂ€lv kom han aldrig att dölja nĂ„got för blivande konstnĂ€rer. I London fick han kontakt med Axel Herman HĂ€gg och utförde pĂ„ dennes uppmaning ett portrĂ€tt i etsning. Under sin vistelse i England bodde han största delen i Burnham vid Windsor och var tidvis verksam som konstlĂ€rare. FrĂ„n London skrev han ett brev till Konstakademien 1893 dĂ€r han motionerade om upprĂ€ttande av en frikurs i etsning och dĂ€rmed förbundna gravyrmetoder för Akademiens elever. Resultatet blev att den sĂ„ kallade Tallbergska kursen startade i Konstakademien nya lokaler 1895. Den första Ă„rskursen finansierades till stor del av bidrag frĂ„n Konstakademien, Föreningen för grafisk konst och Generalstabens litografiska anstalt. Efter den lyckosamma kursen 1895 blev anslagen frĂ„n Konstakademien sporadiska och de kunde inte heller upplĂ„ta lokaler till Tallberg och hans kursverksamhet sĂ„ hans undervisning i etsning de följande Ă„ren förde en tillfĂ€llighetsbetonad och osĂ€ker tillvaro i olika lokaler. Han fortsatte dock sin undervisning och fick ett stort antal elever till sina kurser huvudsakligen frĂ„n konstakademien dĂ€ribland Carl Larsson, Albert Engström, Ferdinand Boberg, prins Eugen och Anders Zorn. Han gav 1901 en kurs i etsning för medlemmarna i KonstnĂ€rsförbundet och Ă„tskilliga senare namnkunniga svenska konstnĂ€rer sökte upp honom under dessa Ă„r för att lĂ€ra sig etsningstekniker. Riksdagen beslöt 1908 att tillskjuta medel till en statlig etsnings- och gravyrskola vid Konstakademien och i mars 1909 startade den första etsningskursen med Tallberg som lĂ€rare och förestĂ„ndare för verksamheten. Han utnĂ€mndes till vice professor 1910 och kvarstod i denna tjĂ€nst fram till sin avgĂ„ng 1926. Tallberg var praktiskt taget ensam lĂ€rare för en hel generation svenska grafiker. + +Tallberg var Falugrafikernas förebild och i viss mĂ„n lĂ€romĂ€stare. Han anses ha stor del i att grafiken fick högre status i Sverige. Hans egna blad Ă€r oftast etsningar och frĂ€mst Ă€r han kĂ€nd för sina portrĂ€tt, av bland andra Oscar II, Lev Tolstoj och Theodore Roosevelt. Dessutom finns det ett femtiotal blad med motiv frĂ„n Gamla stan, Stockholm. Tallberg arbetade i flera olika etstekniker, som linjeetsning, crayonetsning, mezzotint, aquatint och nĂ„gon gĂ„ng i torrnĂ„lsradering. Han medverkade sparsamt i utstĂ€llningar men var representerad vid Grafiska sĂ€llskapets retrospektiva utstĂ€llning pĂ„ Konstakademien 1911â1912 och samma förenings utstĂ€llning pĂ„ Malmö museum 1912 och han deltog med tio grafiska blad i Föreningen för Grafisk Konsts portföljer. + +Tallberg verkade som illustratör för bĂ„de i svenska och utlĂ€ndska tidskrifter och grundade 1895 veckotidskriften FörgĂ€t-mig-ej. Som skriftstĂ€llare utgav han nĂ„gra lĂ€roböcker bland annat NĂ„gra ord om etsning 1912 som senare tryckes i nya utgĂ„vor under andra titlar och Tallbergska kursen samt konstnĂ€rsmonografier över Knut Ander 1913 och Anders Zorn 1919. Han medverkade Ă€ven som journalist och illustratör i tidningspressen samt korrespondent för den engelska tidningen The Studio. Som konstkritiker medverkade han i Nya Dagligt Allehanda och nĂ„gra mindre landsortstidningar. + +Han var ledamot av Royal Society of Painter-Etchers samt av Royal Archaeological Institute, bĂ„da med sĂ€te i London. Tallberg Ă€r representerad vid bland annat Nationalmuseum i Stockholm, Göteborgs museum och VĂ€sterĂ„s konstförenings galleri. + +Han tilldelades medaljen Litteris et Artibus 1896. Axel Tallberg Ă€r begravd pĂ„ Norra begravningsplatsen utanför Stockholm. + +Verk i urval +LiktĂ„g Ă„ romerska Campagnan 1884 +Vietri 1884 +Utsikt vid Prestnibble 1886 +Slottet Doune i Skottland 1887 +Engelsk landskyrka 1888 +Afton 1889 +PortrĂ€tt av A. H. HĂ€gg 1889 +Skymning i bokskogen 1890 +Gammal man 1892â93 +En landsstrykare 1892â93 +Joe 1892â93 +En skoflickare 1892â93 +Ălprovet 1892 +Andante cantabile 1893 +En concrisseur 1893 +portrĂ€tt av Hertiginnan av York 1894 +Ett sockenrĂ„d 1895 +portrĂ€tt av Oscar II +C. F. Adlercreutz 1897 +Topelius 1901 +Tolstoy 1901 +Bellman 1901 +Ibsen 1901 +slottet Bamborough i Northumberland 1905 +Presidenten Roosevelt 1906. + +KĂ€llor +Svenskt konstnĂ€rslexikon del V, sid 389-390, Allhems Förlag, Malmö. + +Noter + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Svenska grafiker under 1800-talet +Svenska grafiker under 1900-talet +Svenska mĂ„lare under 1800-talet +Svenska mĂ„lare under 1900-talet +Svenska konstkritiker +Representerade vid Nationalmuseum +Mottagare av Litteris et Artibus +KonstnĂ€rer frĂ„n GĂ€vle +Gravsatta pĂ„ Norra begravningsplatsen i Stockholm +Födda 1860 +Avlidna 1928 +MĂ€n +SBH +Akleja (Aquilegia vulgaris) eller akvileja Ă€r en vĂ€xtart i familjen ranunkelvĂ€xter. + +Förekomst +Akleja finns i nĂ€stan hela Europa samt i Kaukasien och Sibirien. + +Den vilda formen av akleja Ă€r sĂ€llsynt i Sverige (den finns i södra Finland, södra och mellersta Sverige upp till Dalarna, södra och mellersta Norge upp till Trondheim). Den Ă€r som vild vanlig endast kring gamla gĂ„rdar och kloster, i parker och liknande miljöer och har dĂ„ antagligen förvildat sig, eftersom den lĂ€nge varit en omtyckt flerĂ„rig trĂ€dgĂ„rdsvĂ€xt och lĂ€tt sjĂ€lvsĂ„r sig med stora massor av frön och ratas av rĂ„djur. DĂ€remot Ă€r den sĂ€rskilt omtyckt av humlor, som Ă€r de enda som har en tillrĂ€ckligt lĂ„ng tunga, för att nĂ„ nektarn i den djupa sporren dit bin och andra pollinerande insekter inte nĂ„r. + +Munkar införde arten till Sverige frĂ„n tyska klostertrĂ€dgĂ„rdar, dĂ€r den odlades som medicinalvĂ€xt. + +Utseende +Liksom hos smörboll Ă€r hyllets bĂ„da kransar av ungefĂ€r samma fĂ€rg (mörkblĂ„, sĂ€llan ljusröda eller vita) men dĂ€remot olika till formen, sĂ„ att man kan att anse de fem yttre för foderblad, de fem inre för kronblad. De senare har var sitt nektarium i form av en lĂ„ng sporre med krökt spets. I blomman kan man vidare se att de innersta stĂ„ndarna Ă€r ombildade till tunna fjĂ€ll (staminodier) som skyddande omsluter de spĂ€da fruktanlagen. Aklejans blomma ger endast fem smĂ„frukter (fröhus), som sitter i en enkel krets. Ărten igenkĂ€nnes dessutom pĂ„ sina dubbelt trefingrade rosettblad. + +Folkmedicin +Aklejan anses inom folkmedicinen kunna anvĂ€ndas för utvĂ€rtes sĂ„rbehandling. Dess innehĂ„ll av glykosider (blĂ„syra), fetter, enzymer och vitamin C, har adstringerande och antiseptisk verkan. AnvĂ€nda delar av vĂ€xten Ă€r frö, blommor, blad och rötter. Aklejans frön fĂ„r inte anvĂ€ndas för invĂ€rtes bruk eftersom de kan avge blĂ„syra. VĂ€xtens blad och blommor kan anvĂ€ndas, men endast nĂ„gra per dag, dĂ„ större doser kan ge diarrĂ©er, yrsel och andnöd. + +SprĂ„kligt +De svenska namnen akleja eller akvileja Ă€r försvenskningar av det vetenskapliga namnet för slĂ€ktet, Aquilegia. Detta tolkas i sin tur av vissa kĂ€llor som en sammandragning av aquila legia, som Ă€r latin och betyder ungefĂ€r "en samling örnar". Blommans baksida ser ut som fem fĂ„glar som sitter i ring med nĂ€bbarna inĂ„t. En folklig variant av detta Ă€r duvblomma p.g.a. likhet med flygande duvor. Andra namn Ă€r "duva drar vagn" och Ă€lvahandske. Folkliga benĂ€mningar â ibland obscena â pĂ„ olika sprĂ„k har tydliga beröringspunkter, se nedan. + +Andra menar att namnet ska hĂ€rledas till aqua, vatten, eller den antika staden Aquileia. Vulgaris betyder vanlig, vilket Ă„syftar den vanligaste sorten. Andra Ă€ldre svenska namnformer Ă€r Ă„kerleja och tyska klockor + +NĂ„gra utlĂ€ndska folkliga namn + Engelska: Granny's bonnet (Mormors/farmors huva) + Franska: Gants de Notre Dame (VĂ„r Frus, â d.v.s. Jungfru Marias â handskar) + Tyska: Taubenblume, Tauberln, FĂŒnf Vögerln zusamm, Elfenhandshuh, Frauenhandschuh, KapuzinerhĂŒtli, Pfaffenapfel, Venuswagen, Schlotterhose + +Synonyma vetenskapliga namn + Aquilegia aggericola Jord. + Aquilegia arbascensis Timb.-Lagr. + Aquilegia collina Jord. + Aquilegia cornuta Gilib. nom. invalid. + Aquilegia cyclophylla Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr. + Aquilegia glaucophylla Steud. + Aquilegia longisepala Zimmeter + Aquilegia mollis Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr. + Aquilegia nemoralis Jord. + Aquilegia platysepala Rchb. + Aquilegia praecox Jord. + Aquilegia ruscinonensis Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr. + Aquilegia silvestris Neck. + Aquilegia speciosa Timb.-Lagr. + Aquilegia subalpina Boreau + Aquilegia versicolor Salisb. nom. illeg. + Aquilegia vulgaris proles aggericola (Jord.) Rouy & Foucaud + Aquilegia vulgaris proles arbascensis (Timb.-Lagr.) Rouy & Foucaud + Aquilegia vulgaris proles collina (Jord.) Rouy & Foucaud + Aquilegia vulgaris proles cyclophylla (Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.) Rouy & Foucaud + Aquilegia vulgaris proles mollis (Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.) Rouy & Foucaud + Aquilegia vulgaris proles nemoralis (Jord.) Rouy & Foucaud + Aquilegia vulgaris proles praecox (Jord.) Rouy & Foucaud + Aquilegia vulgaris proles ruscinonensis (Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.) Rouy & Foucaud + Aquilegia vulgaris proles subalpina (Boreau) Rouy & Foucaud + Aquilegia vulgaris subsp. arbascensis (Timb.-Lagr.) Nyman + Aquilegia vulgaris subsp. hispanica (Willk.) Heywood + Aquilegia vulgaris var. cyclophylla (Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.) Gaut. + Aquilegia vulgaris var. nemoralis (Jord.) P.Fourn. + Aquilegia vulgaris var. platysepala (Rchb.) Steud. + Aquilegia vulgaris var. praecox (Jord.) P.Fourn. + Aquilegia vulgaris var. pratensis Kitt. + Aquilegia vulgaris var. ruscinonensis (Jeanb. & Timb.-Lagr.) Timb.-Lagr. + Aquilegia vulgaris var. speciosa W.T.Aiton + Aquilegia vulgaris var. subalpina (Boreau) Zimmeter + Aquilina vulgaris (L.) Bubani + +Akleja i litteraturen +Akleja, i formen akvileja, Ă€r en av flera vĂ€xter som rĂ€knas upp i folkvisan Uti vĂ„r hage, egentligen som del i en kĂ€rleksdryck. + +Underarter och sorter + +Hallonakleja +Hallonakleja (Aquilegia vulgaris flora plena) Ă€r en underart till akleja som Ă€r populĂ€r bland odlare för sina tĂ€tt fyllda blommor. Den finns i flera fĂ€rger frĂ„n vit via rosavit, rosa, ljusblĂ„ till mörkblĂ„. + +Klematisakleja +Klematisakleja (Aquilegia vulgaris 'Clematiflora') Ă€r en sort av akleja som har den speciella egenheten att dess blommor Ă€r stĂ„ende, till skillnad frĂ„n andra aklejor, som har hĂ€ngande blommor. + +KĂ€llor + +Se Ă€ven + Afrodisiakum + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Den virtuella floran + + IPNI âą International Plant Names Index + VĂ€xters latinska namn (pdf) Raoul Iseborg, Botaniska sĂ€llskapet i Stockholm + +Aklejor +Ak VĂ€xtindex +Ann-Cathrine Haglund, född 24 augusti 1937, Ă€r en tidigare svensk adjunkt och politiker (moderat). + +Haglund var riksdagsledamot 1979â1993, invald i Ărebro lĂ€ns valkrets. Hon var ledamot i utbildningsutskottet frĂ„n 1988 och dess ordförande 1991â1993. Hon var ordförande i EuroparĂ„dets svenska delegation 1992â1993 samt ledamot av interparlamentariska delegationen och krigsdelegationen. + +Haglund var Ă€ven ordförande i Moderata Kvinnoförbundet 1981â1990, landshövding i Malmöhus lĂ€n 1993â1996 och landshövding i Uppsala lĂ€n 1997â2002. + +Haglund var ordförande i Samfundet SverigeâIsraels riksorganisation mellan 1989 och 1994. + +Ann-Cathrine Haglund Ă€r ordförande i SĂ€llskapet för moderata kvinnors historia. + +KĂ€llor + +Riksdagens webbplats + +Vidare lĂ€sning + Intervju med Ann-Cathrine Haglund av Elisabeth Precht + +Se Ă€ven +LĂ€nsstyrelsen i Uppsala lĂ€n + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdag för Moderaterna +Landshövdingar i Malmöhus lĂ€n +Landshövdingar i Uppsala lĂ€n +Hedersledamöter vid Södermanlands-Nerikes nation +Svenska politiker under 1900-talet +Födda 1937 +Levande personer +Kvinnor +Runa Anita Elisabet BrĂ„kenhielm, född Ohlander 1 mars 1937 i Lannaskede församling i Jönköpings lĂ€n, Ă€r en svensk lĂ€kare, politiker och Ă€mbetsman. + +Biografi +Hon avlade medicine licentiatexamen vid Lunds universitet 1963 och blev legitimerad lĂ€kare samma Ă„r. DĂ€refter var hon underlĂ€kare vid Linköpings lasarett 1964, vid Kalmar lasarett 1965â1966 och vid Eksjö lasarett 1967â1970. Hon uppnĂ„dde specialistkompetens i gynekologi och obstetrik 1970, varpĂ„ hon var överlĂ€kare vid Vetlanda sjukhus 1970â1989. Ă ren 1979â1988 var hon moderat riksdagsledamot för Jönköpings lĂ€ns valkrets. BrĂ„kenhielm var landshövding i Kristianstads lĂ€n 1990â1996 och i Kalmar lĂ€n 1996â2002. Under hennes tid som landshövding blev Kalmar lĂ€n ett försökslĂ€n och fick ett regionförbund. LĂ€nsstyrelsens styrelse ersattes av landshövdingens rĂ„d. Södra Ălands odlingslandskap blev ett vĂ€rldsarv. + +BrĂ„kenhielm var dessutom ledamot av Jönköpings lĂ€ns landsting 1976â1982, ordförande i 1980 Ă„rs abortkommittĂ© 1980â1983, ordförande i Riksförbundet Sveriges lottakĂ„rer 1986â1992, ordförande i styrelsen för Riksarkivet 1990â1996, ledamot av styrelsen för Statens rĂ€ddningsverk 1990â1998, ledamot av styrelsen för Statens arbetsgivarverk 1992â1998, ledamot av styrelsen för SIDA 1995â2000, ledamot av styrelsen för Fiskeriverket 1996â2002, ledamot av styrelsen för Drottning Victorias vilohem sedan 1996, ledamot av styrelsen för Ăverstyrelsen för civil beredskap 1998â2001, ordförande i styrelsen för Sophiahemmet Högskola 1999â2001, ordförande i Caremas etiska rĂ„d sedan 2000, ledamot av styrelsen för Stiftelsen Silviahemmet sedan 2000 och ordförande i Sophiahemmet ideell förening sedan 2001. Hon mottog 2004 Hans MajestĂ€t Konungens medalj av 12:e storleken i Serafimerordens band. + +Hon Ă€r dotter till prosten Suno Ohlander och lĂ€roverksadjunkten Runa Svensson. Hon var gift 1965â1982 med skogsinspektorn och jordbrukaren Peder BrĂ„kenhielm. De fick barnen Anna (född 1966) och Per (född 1968). Anita BrĂ„kenhielm gifte senare om sig med tandlĂ€karen Leif Dahlman. Hon Ă€r syster till Ann-Sofie Ohlander. + +Referenser + +Kvinnor +Födda 1937 +Levande personer +Anita +Personer frĂ„n Lannaskede socken +Alumner frĂ„n Lunds universitet +Svenska lĂ€kare under 1900-talet +Svenska lĂ€kare inom obstetrik och gynekologi +Ledamöter av Sveriges riksdag för Moderaterna +Svenska Ă€mbetsmĂ€n under 1900-talet +Svenska Ă€mbetsmĂ€n under 2000-talet +Landshövdingar i Kalmar lĂ€n +Landshövdingar i Kristianstads lĂ€n +Mottagare av Hans MajestĂ€t Konungens medalj +Elsie Anna-Lena Lodenius, född 30 juni 1958 i NorrtĂ€lje, Stockholms lĂ€n, Ă€r en svensk journalist, författare och förelĂ€sare, frĂ€mst kĂ€nd för sina studier av autonoma och extremnationalistiska rörelser. Hon har publicerat artiklar i bland annat Expressen, Aftonbladet, Svenska Dagbladet, Dagens Nyheter, Ordfront, MĂ„nadsjournalen och Arena. + +Anna-Lena Lodenius har varit knuten som researcher och reporter för samhĂ€llsprogrammen TV4:s Kalla fakta och SVT:s Striptease samt medverkat i en rad TV- och radioprogram exempelvis Mosaik och UR:s UR-akademin. + +Ă ren 2003â2004 arbetade hon vid Olof Palmes Internationella Centrum med ett informationsprojekt kallat "Global Respekt", som bland annat bestod av en studiecirkel pĂ„ Internet + +Fick Vilhelm Moberg-stipendiet 1993 (delas ut av tidningen Arbetaren). För sin envisa bevakning av högerextremistiska grupper i Sverige fick Lodenius hösten 2022 motta Pennskaftspriset. + +Bibliografi +1988 â Operation högervridning (med Sven Ove Hansson). Stockholm: Tiden. . +1991 â Extremhögern (med Stieg Larsson), Stockholm: Tiden. . . Reviderad upplaga 1994: . +1997 â Nazist, rasist eller bara patriot? En bok om den rasistiska ungdomskulturen och frĂ€mlingsfientligt orienterad brottslighet (med Per Wikström). Stockholm: Rikspolisstyrelsen. . . +1998 â Vit makt och blĂ„gula drömmar: Rasism och nazism i dagens Sverige (med Per Wikström), Stockholm: Natur & Kultur. +1999 â +2002 â +2004 â Global respekt â grundkurs i globalisering och mĂ€nskliga rĂ€ttigheter (redaktör). Stockholm: Premiss förlag. ISBN 9185343013 Nya reviderade upplagor 2006 och 2013, ISBN 9789186743246. Engelsk översĂ€ttning 2005 och arabisk 2016. +2005 â Ăr det vĂ€rt det? â om handel och mĂ€nskliga rĂ€ttigheter (redaktör). Stockholm: RĂ€ttvisemĂ€rkt och Rena klĂ€der. Ny reviderad utgĂ„va 2011 ISBN 9789163383533 +2006 â Gatans parlament â om politiska vĂ„ldsverkare i Sverige. Stockholm: Ordfront. (inb) (inb.) +2008 â Migrantarbetare â grundkurs om rörlighet, rĂ€ttigheter och globalisering (med Mats Wingborg), Stockholm: Premiss förlag. +2009 â Slaget om svenskheten â ta debatten med Sverigedemokraterna (med Mats Wingborg), Stockholm: Premiss förlag / Arena IdĂ©. . +2011 â Krutdurk Europa (med Mats Wingborg), Stockholm: Bilda förlag. +2012 â Alla kan göra nĂ„got, allas lika vĂ€rde och lika rĂ€tt (med Mats Wingborg och Thord Ingesson), (LO) +2012 â Att bygga en demokrati i skolan. Stockholm: Ordfront. +2015 â Vi sĂ€ger vad du tĂ€nker: högerpopulismen i Europa. Stockholm: Bokförlaget Atlas. +2017 â Vi mĂ„ste förbereda oss pĂ„ död: i huvudet pĂ„ en terrorist2021 â Frigjorda tider: NĂ€r porren blev kultur och kulturen blev porr (med Martin Kristenson och Fredrik af Trampe). Stockholm: Klubb Super-8 och Serieslussen. +2021 â +2022 - Svart pĂ„ vitt - om Sverigedemokraterna, Stockholm, Atlas förlag. ISBN 9789174450408 +2023 - Spionjakt i folkhemmet - ett halvsekel med IB-affĂ€ren'', Lund, Historiska media. ISBN 9789180503358 + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Anna-Lena Lodenius hemsida och blogg + Lodenius - författarpresentation + +Födda 1958 +Svenska författare under 1900-talet +Svenska journalister under 1900-talet +SvensksprĂ„kiga författare +Kvinnor +Levande personer +Personer frĂ„n NorrtĂ€lje +Svenska författare under 2000-talet +Anarkism, vanligen av grekiskans áŒÎœ (utan) + áŒÏÏΔÎčΜ (att styra) + ÎčÏÎŒÏÏ (frĂ„n stammen -ÎčζΔÎčΜ), "an archos", "utan hĂ€rskare/herrar"), Ă€r en idĂ©strömning med syfte att skapa ett samhĂ€lle fritt frĂ„n stat, kapitalism och alla andra hierarkiska system och auktoritĂ€ra strukturer. Det finns mĂ„nga olika varianter av anarkism â bl.a. med utgĂ„ngspunkt i vad som ses som huvudfienden: Staten, Ă€ven eventuellt staten som kapital och kapitalismen eller bĂ„da. + +Förenklat kan man sĂ€ga att anarkisterna vill att samhĂ€llet organiseras horisontellt, inte vertikalt, med allas jĂ€mlika medverkan i ett samhĂ€lle som styrs genom direkt demokrati och dĂ€r upprĂ€tthĂ„llandet av samhĂ€llet sköts pĂ„ lokal nivĂ„, snarare Ă€n genom privategendom eller ett kapitalsamhĂ€lle med en byrĂ„kratisk modell av realsocialistiskt snitt. + +Det finns mĂ„nga olika teorier för hur denna övergĂ„ng skulle ske. Vissa föresprĂ„kar en mer eller mindre omedelbar förĂ€ndring genom en social revolution, andra tror att "smarta lösningar" som alternativa valutasystem, kooperativt och idealistisk verksamhet, och spridande av kunskap och medel vilka ska underminera och helt enkelt bygga bort staten, kapitalet och ibland Ă€ven politiken. Det som Ă€r gemensamt för all anarkism Ă€r att förĂ€ndringen ska komma nerifrĂ„n och inte Ă€r nĂ„got som kan vĂ€xa fram genom gradvisa reformer (reformsocialism) eller genom att ett parti tar monopol pĂ„ statsmakten och dĂ€rmed vĂ„ldet, för att under en lĂ€ngre övergĂ„ngsperiod tvinga fram förĂ€ndrade (politiska) förhĂ„llanden, attityder och dygder (proletariatets diktatur, föresprĂ„kas inom Marxismâleninism). PĂ„ fackföreningssidan har anarkismen en nĂ€ra slĂ€kting i syndikalismen. + +Kortfattat brukar anarkismen delas i social anarkism, som stĂ„r den ursprungliga utopiska socialismen nĂ€ra och söker en icke-auktoritĂ€r övergĂ„ng till ett statslöst och klasslöst samhĂ€lle, och individualanarkism, som betonar individens egenvĂ€rde och okrĂ€nkbarhet och delar mĂ„nga filosofiska punkter med klassisk liberalism. Inom den senare tankeskolan Ă€r Max Stirner en central figur. BĂ„da formerna mĂ€rker emellertid ut sig frĂ„n de gĂ€ngse politiska teorierna socialism och liberalism genom att föresprĂ„ka statens ovillkorliga och fullstĂ€ndiga avskaffande. Se Ă€ven anarkokommunism eller frihetlig socialism. + +Ăversikt +I regel vill anarkister avskaffa all myndighet och ge mĂ€nniskan fullstĂ€ndig frihet över sina handlingar. Den grekiske filosofen Zenon (333â264 f.Kr.) anses ha varit den förste som systematiserade den anarkistiska teorin. Det gjorde han i opposition till Platons bok Staten med kraft hĂ€vdade den fria kommunen utan privategendom, regering, pengar, tempel, lagar och poliser i sitt arbete ΠολÎčÏΔία. Förnuft och kĂ€rlek och könens lika rĂ€ttigheter Ă€r fundamentet och de enda gĂ€llande lagarna Ă€r enligt Zenon naturlagarna. HĂ€r formuleras för första gĂ„ngen ett utkast till en frihetlig utopi mĂ„nga Ă„rhundraden innan vare sig liberalism eller socialism var pĂ„tĂ€nkta. Frasen: "an archos" (utan hĂ€rskare) hittades vid flera tillfĂ€llen i arbetet ΠολÎčÏΔία. Arbetet har dessvĂ€rre inte överlevt tidens gĂ„ng men har nĂ€mnts av flera stoiska filosofer. Anarkismens idĂ©historiska grunder har av flera inflytelserika anarkister, som Noam Chomsky, Rudolf Rocker och Max Nettlau, angetts vara upplysningens idĂ©er och den klassiska liberalismen. Nettlau talar om anarkismen som en del av den "liberala humaniseringsprocess" som inleddes under 1700-talet. Man tar dock starkt avstĂ„nd frĂ„n dagens vĂ€sterlĂ€ndska liberalism. Som politisk rörelse kom anarkismen att spela en viss politisk roll i Syd- och Ăsteuropa mellan 1850 och första vĂ€rldskriget. Under 1900-talets senare del Ă€r Spanien 1936-39 den viktigaste perioden, följd av det uppsving för anarkismens idĂ©er som föddes ur majrevolten 1968. I dag Ă€r rörelsen bĂ„de större och bredare. + +Anarkism Ă€r en bred rörelse med flera underliggande teorier. +Trots sitt namn Ă€r inte anarki och anarkism samma sak som kaos. IstĂ€llet Ă€r anarkister ofta inriktade pĂ„ lokal direktdemokrati som Ă€ven skall gĂ€lla över ekonomin. +Ordet "anarkism" hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n grekiskans an archos vilket betyder "utan hĂ€rskare" Anarkism i politisk betydelse Ă€r sĂ„ledes inte synonymt med kaos (anarki). TvĂ€rtom menar anarkisterna att begreppet "anarki" och "anarkism" medvetet anvĂ€nds av maktens mĂ€n och kvinnor för att chikanera anarkismen, vilket skedde första gĂ„ngen under franska revolutionen 1789-1793, dĂ„ högern kallade den ultraradikala gruppen Les EnragĂ©s för anarkister + +Anarkister vĂ€nder sig emot etablissemanget och vill att samhĂ€llet ska existera utan formella hierarkiska institutioner sĂ„som staten och politiska partier. +Anarkismen betraktar parlamentariskt arbete som oförmöget att Ă„stadkomma ett klasslöst samhĂ€lle. +Införandet av direktdemokrati och sjĂ€lvförvaltning genom federerade arbetarrĂ„d med nĂ€r som helst Ă„terkallbara delegater ses som ett av mĂ„len för den sociala revolutionen; eller sĂ„ kan detta ske genom kooperativa organisationer representerade av individerna. +SamhĂ€llssynen genomsyras av en lĂ€ngtan till det enkla och okomplicerade livet, vilket per automatik gör rörelsen motstĂ„ndare till centralism, byrĂ„krati, stordrift och tvĂ„ngskollektivisering. +I dagslĂ€get finns flera riktningar som gör ansprĂ„k pĂ„ att vara anarkistiska och konflikter i synsĂ€tt Ă€r oundvikliga. + +Anarkismen anses vara en del av den frihetliga socialismen tillsammans med syndikalismen. DĂ€rmed Ă€r anarkismen en sjĂ€lvskriven motstĂ„ndare till leninismen och till kapitalismen; bĂ€gge betraktas som system som förutsĂ€tter klassamhĂ€llen sĂ„vĂ€l som ett kapitalistiskt produktionssĂ€tt. + +Historia + +Anarkism som modern samhĂ€llsrörelse uppkom i och med den industriella revolutionen och den gryende arbetarrörelsens framvĂ€xt. FrĂ„n att först ha varit ett filosofiskt system med (Godwin) under den samtida franska revolutionen, övergick anarkismen till att bli en praktisk rörelse under 1820-talet i USA (Warren). NĂ„got senare i Frankrike, teoretiseras anarkismen med Pierre Joseph Proudhons verk Vad Ă€r egendom? (1840) dĂ„ den politiska ekonomin kritiserades. Efter att ha suttit i parlamentet en tid tog Proudhon avstĂ„nd frĂ„n parlamentarismen, dĂ€rur uppkom rörelsens motstĂ„nd mot parlamentarismen och partiverksamhet. Anarkister var delaktiga i skapandet av den första internationella arbetarrörelsen, första internationalen men uteslöts efter motsĂ€ttningar mellan frĂ€mst Marx och Bakunin; + +Merparten av anarkisterna gick över till en planekonomisk inriktning efter att en av Prouhdons lĂ€rjungar, Joseph DĂ©jacque, vĂ€nt sig emot marknadsekonomin i ett brev till Proudhon. DĂ€refter, under 1880-talet utvecklades anarkokommunismen (Kropotkin). Under tidigt 1900-tal utvecklas den kristna anarkismen (Tolstoj) och den feministiska anarkismen (Goldman). Kulmen i den anarkistiska rörelsen före andra vĂ€rldskriget nĂ„ddes med Spanska inbördeskriget dĂ€r anarkister lyckades genomföra en revolution. + + +Efter andra vĂ€rldskriget och med den nyupptĂ€ckta miljöproblematiken fick den anarkistiska rörelsen ny nĂ€ring (Murray Bookchin). Misstron mot det moderna samhĂ€llet och dess oförmĂ„ga att frigöra mĂ€nniskan resulterade i uppkomsten av en ny gren under 1970-talen och 1980-talen (Grön anarkism). Ungdomskulturens utveckling under sena 1900-talet har i mycket anammat anarkistiska ideal i protesterna mot etablissemanget. + +Sedan slutet av 1960-talet har anarkismens intima sammankoppling med arbetarrörelsen förĂ€ndrats i Sverige och delar av sociala rörelser som kvinnorörelsen, miljörörelsen och sĂ„ vidare gjort ansprĂ„k pĂ„ att dela den anarkistiska rörelsens mĂ„l, eller arbetat utifrĂ„n horisontella och deltagande metoder vilket har skapat ett brett anvĂ€ndande av begreppet anarkism. + +Under Ă„rtiondena nĂ€rmast före första vĂ€rldskriget begicks ett antal attentat av anarkister. Mellan Ă„ren 1894 och 1901 dödades presidenten i Frankrike , kungen av Italien och Ăsterrikes kejsarinna, nĂ„got som felaktigt stĂ€mplat rörelsen som vĂ„ldsromantisk. NĂ„gra hĂ€ndelser dĂ€r anarkistiska idĂ©er och handlingar spelat stor roll Ă€r Pariskommunen 1871, Haymarketmassakern 1886, Petrogradkommunen 1905, Machnoviternas sovjetrevolution i Ukraina 1918-19, fabriksockupationerna i Turin 1920, Kronstadtupproret 1921, Spanska inbördeskriget 1936-39 zapatisternas uppror i Chiapas 1994 och Rojava i norra Syrien frĂ„n 2013. Andra uppror dĂ€r anarkister förekommit men haft en mindre roll Ă€r den mexikanska revolutionen 1910, Tyska novemberrevolutionen 1918, Ungernrevolten 1956, majrevolten i Paris 1968 och nejlikerevolutionen i Portugal 1974 och revolutionen i Rojava 2013. Om Portugal,se: Britta Gröndahl: Herre i eget hus. SjĂ€lvförvaltning i Spanien och Portugal. Federativs 1983. + +Anarkismens huvudgrenar + +Individualanarkism + +Individualanarkismen företrĂ€ds av bland andra William Godwins, Max Stirners, Pierre-Joseph Proudhons, Josiah Warrens och den nutida Kevin A. Carsons teorier. Denna rörelse sĂ€tter alltid den fria individens rĂ€ttigheter och förmĂ„ga före alla gruppers rĂ€ttigheter, med betoning pĂ„ faran för de krĂ€nkningar av individens rĂ€ttigheter som obönhörligen uppstĂ„r nĂ€r gruppen tillskrivs ett eget, högre vĂ€rde. Proudhons och Warrens idĂ©er om fri antikapitalistisk marknadsekonomi utan profit, immateriell rĂ€tt och privilegier Ă€r en central tanke inom rörelsen. Individualanarkismen byggs dĂ€rmed oftast pĂ„ en mutualistisk marknadsekonomi, som enligt individualanarkister kontrasteras av sin motsats; kapitalismen. De flesta anser att skapandet av en alternativ social institution inom ekonomi, en sĂ„ kallad kontraekonomi, Ă€r bĂ€sta sĂ€ttet att förĂ€ndra samhĂ€llet, vilket Ă€r en form av gradualism. +Individualanarkister motsĂ€tter sig inte kollektiv samverkan men idealiserar inte kollektivet som organiserande bas. Man förordar spontan organisering för undvikandet av byrĂ„krati och elitism. +Enligt individualanarkismen skall större samhĂ€llsdrift styras av frivilligt organiserade kooperativ, en idĂ© som tillsammans med federalistiska tankar ligger till grund för bĂ„de social- och individualanarkism. +Fackföreningsrörelse, civil olydnad, bojkott Ă€r andra verktyg mot makten. En del anser att sjĂ€lvförsörjning i varierande grad och byteshandel Ă€r ett bĂ€ttre alternativ Ă€n reguljĂ€r valutaekonomi. Riktningen har tvĂ„ ursprungliga huvudfĂ„ror, Stirners egoism/existentialism och Proudhon/Warrens mutualism. + +Social anarkism + + +Social anarkism, frihetlig socialism eller anarkokommunism företrĂ€ds frĂ€mst av Michail Bakunins och Pjotr Kropotkins arvtagare och Ă€r i huvudsak det som idag kallas frihetlig socialism. Dess anhĂ€ngare tenderar att framhĂ€va gruppgemenskap i form av direktdemokratiska lokalorganisationer. Den sociala anarkismen delas in i tvĂ„ huvudfĂ„ror. Michail Bakunin företrĂ€der sĂ„ kallad kollektivistisk anarkism medan Pjotr Kropotkin företrĂ€der sĂ„ kallad kommunistisk anarkism. Social anarkism har, precis som de andra huvudinriktningarna, Proudhon som anfader. Precis som sina föregĂ„ngare, kritiserade Bakunin Marx för, vad han kallade, dennes centralistiska och auktoritĂ€ra ideologi. Vid den sociala revolutionen skall den kapitalistiska staten inte erövras utan avskaffas â genom en radikal decentralisering av beslutsrĂ€tten som sedan stannar kvar i de minsta enheterna genom utövandet av direktdemokrati. Bakunin bidrog, genom sin omfattande aktivism och smittande talekonst, till att anarkismen spreds över hela vĂ€rlden. Han gĂ€stade ocksĂ„ Sverige Ă„r 1863-64. + +Under den senare delen av 1800-talet utvecklades en facklig variant av anarkismen, syndikalismen, vilken historiskt rĂ€knas till den anarkistiska rörelsen. Syndikalismen kan idag ses som en organiseringsform snarare Ă€n en ideologi och inom syndikalismen finns bĂ„de anarkister och icke-anarkister. Största syndikalistiska organisation i Sverige idag Ă€r SAC, Sveriges Arbetares Centralorganisation som organiserar ungefĂ€r 5 500 personer. + +Anarkafeminism + +Anarkafeminismen Ă€r en term som kom att skapas pĂ„ 60-talet under den sĂ„ kallade "andra vĂ„gens feminism". De flesta anarkafeminister ser patriarkatet som den största förtryckande kraften i samhĂ€llet. Detta ger enligt anarkafeminister resultat i mannens överordning och kvinnans underordning. DĂ„ anarkafeminister Ă€r emot alla former av hierarkier i samhĂ€llet sĂ„ motsĂ€tter de sig ocksĂ„ staten och kapitalismen. Under det spanska inbördeskriget fanns en anarkistisk feministgrupp (Mujeres Libres) som organiserade sig för att försvara de anarkistiska idĂ©erna, dĂ„ givetvis med vad vi idag kallar en viss feministisk touch. Idag kallar sig mĂ„nga anarkister för feminister och naturnödvĂ€ndigt finns det sĂ„dana som hĂ€vdar att de anarkafeministiska idĂ©erna genomströmmar övriga anarkistiska strömningar. Louise Michel (1830-1905), Emma Goldman (1869-1940) och Voltairine de Cleyre (1866-1912) Ă€r tidiga exempel pĂ„ anarkafeminister. Se Ă€ven: Mujeres Creando, Rote Zora. + +Grön anarkism + +Grön anarkism har sin grund i bĂ„de social- och individualanarkism och till viss del i anarkafeminismen men Ă€r en vidareutveckling med rötter bland annat i djupekologin. Grön anarkism Ă€r en bred rörelse som brukar delas upp frĂ€mst i de till socialanarkismen nĂ€rstĂ„ende teknologioptimistska eko-anarkismen/socialekologin, och den till individualanarkismen eventuellt mer nĂ€rstĂ„ende grönanarkismen som föresprĂ„kar grön anarki (utan Ă€ndelsen -ism) som ibland ocksĂ„ kallas anarko-primitivism. + +De teknologioptimistiska gröna anarkisterna stĂ„r den klassiska socialanarkismen nĂ€rmare men har ibland vissa influenser frĂ„n teknokratin. Man anser att det gröna samhĂ€llet endast kan uppnĂ„s genom en utveckling mot avancerad grön teknik och man lĂ„nar organisatoriska principer frĂ„n bland andra Kropotkin. I denna grupp har Murray Bookchin en framskjuten roll som frĂ€msta ideolog. Hans ideologi socialekologi Ă€r egentligen inget annat Ă€n en grön variant av klassisk anarkokommunism med analyser frĂ„n andra halvan av 1900-talet.Bookchin har varit en viktig inspirationskĂ€lla för PKK:s Abdullah Ăzcalan och den frihetliga samhĂ€llsbildningen i Rojava. + +De teknologikritiska gröna anarkisterna utmĂ€rker sig frĂ€mst genom civilisationskritik mot industrisamhĂ€llet, nĂ„got som ocksĂ„ förekommer i de ursprungliga anarkistiska riktningarna, speciellt inom Kropotkins polemik. Dock förekommer Ă€ven vĂ„ldsamma attentat, i maj 2012 sköts en kĂ€rnkraftingenjör i Genua av en grupp som kallar sig The Olga Cell. Civilisationskritiken har dock hos de teknologikritiska i princip ersatt bĂ„de kritik mot stat och klassamhĂ€lle, vilket skiljer ut dem gentemot de ursprungliga riktningarna. Man anser att det inte rĂ€cker (eller kanske ens Ă€r möjligt) att bara bekĂ€mpa specifika förtrycksformer sĂ„som klassamhĂ€llet, patriarkatet eller rasismen, eftersom dessa alla Ă€r produkter av civilisationen. DĂ€rför kan riktigt oberoende och jĂ€mlikhet endast uppnĂ„s utanför civilisationen. Teknologikritiken hĂ€mtar mĂ„nga av sina slutsatser frĂ„n studier i antropologi av hur icke-civiliserade ursprungsfolk lever. FrĂ„n den teknologikritiska gröna anarkismen har anarko-primitivismen utvecklats. + +Till skillnad frĂ„n föregĂ„ngarna förkastar anarko-primitivisterna all typ av civilisation. John Zerzan och John Moore anses vara nĂ„got av portalfigurer för anarko-primitivisterna. Anarko-primitivismen Ă€r pĂ„ grund av sin kompromisslösa hĂ„llning gentemot alla former av institutionaliserad maktutövning kontroversiell Ă€ven inom det frihetliga fĂ€ltet. + +Anarkopacifism + +Anarkopacifism, ibland icke-vĂ„lds-anarkism eller pacifistisk anarkism, Ă€r en form av anarkism som menar att alla former av vĂ„ld, sĂ„vĂ€l statligt som revolutionĂ€rt, med nödvĂ€ndighet mĂ„ste förkastas. Icke-vĂ„ld har varit en stĂ€ndigt nĂ€rvarande uppfattning inom den anarkistiska rörelsen. En av de tidiga, mest vĂ€lkĂ€nda föresprĂ„karna för icke-vĂ„ldsligt motstĂ„nd mot stat och kapital var den ryska författaren Lev Tolstoj. En av hans föregĂ„ngare var den amerikanske författaren och filosofen Henry David Thoreau. + +Kristen anarkism + +Kristen anarkism, ett begrepp som myntades 1894 i en recension av Lev Tolstojs bok Guds rike finns inom dig (1894), Ă€r tron pĂ„ att Gud Ă€r den enda auktoritet som kristna Ă€r understĂ€llda och tvungna att lyda. Den kristna anarkismen stĂ„r nĂ€rmare anarkokommunismen Ă€n individualanarkismen och knyts till den pacifistiska traditionen genom tĂ€nkare som Henry David Thoreau, Lev Tolstoj, Dorothy Day och Jacques Ellul. Den Ă€r sĂ„ledes nĂ€rbeslĂ€ktad med anarkopacifismen. + +Ăvrig anarkism +Plattformism, strömning inom socialanarkismen. Utvecklades av exil-ryska anarkister som författade "De frihetliga kommunisternas organisationsplattform" 1926. Plattformen reflekterar författarnas syn pĂ„ varför anarkismen marginaliseras och formulerar en organisationspositiv anarkism i en frihetlig kommunistisk tradition. Plattformen refereras till som ett inspirerande dokument bland annat i nordamerikanska organisationer som Nothern Eastern Federation for Anarcho-communists och irlĂ€ndska Workers Solidarity Movement. + +Den insurrektionella anarkismen Ă€r en strömning inom anarkiströrelsen som föresprĂ„kar en permanent motsĂ€ttning och konflikt ("permanent konfliktualitet") med kapitalet och staten, och en politisk verksamhet som syftar till att skapa insurrektioner. Insurrektionella anarkister tenderar att ofta anvĂ€nda sig av direkt aktion och agitation som lĂ€tt kan kopieras för att uppmuntra till en mer generell revolt. Anledningen till detta beteende varierar ofta bland anarkister. MĂ„nga söker avsluta kapitalismen medan andra motsĂ€tter sig civilisationen (se primitivism). + +RĂ„dskommunismen (Anton Pannekoek, Herman Gorter och Paul Mattick) och den autonoma marxismen (Cornelius Castoriadis, Mario Tronti, Martin Glaberman och Antonio Negri) har mottagit inflytande frĂ„n bĂ„de marxism och anarkism. Dessa rörelser befinner sig teoretiskt sett utanför den anarkistiska traditionen dĂ„ man i huvudsak arbetar utifrĂ„n andra principer Ă€n de anarkistiska. De har dock i praktiken mycket gemensamt med den frihetliga socialismen. Situationisterna (Guy Debord, Raoul Vaneigem med flera), en annan marxistisk grupp, mĂ„ste dock betraktas ur ett annat perspektiv. De kom frĂ„n en konstnĂ€rlig rörelse, Situationistiska Internationalen. Föga förvĂ„nansvĂ€rt Ă€r ocksĂ„ situationisternas kritik av det moderna samhĂ€llet lĂ„ngt radikalare Ă€n de gamla rĂ„dskommunisternas och de autonoma marxisternas. + +Anarkokapitalister Ă€r enligt An Anarchiist FAQ inte anarkister annat Ă€n till namnet utan i praktiken nyliberaler. + +Symboler + +SĂ„som inom de flesta politiska rörelser har den anarkistiska rörelsen olika symboler. De mest kĂ€nda Ă€r den svarta respektive den rödsvarta fanan och det omringade A:et. + +Det omringade A:et + +Den kanske mest kĂ€nda symbol som associeras med anarkismen Ă€r det sĂ„ kallade "omringade A:et" (se ovan). Symbolen hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n Proudhons maxim "anarki Ă€r ordning" (A för anarki, inskrivet i O för ordning) och förekom redan under det spanska inbördeskriget pĂ„ 1930-talet och pĂ„ 1950-talet som den franska organisationen Alliance OuvriĂšre Anarchistes symbol. Organisationen Jeunesses Libertaires (frihetlig ungdom) i Frankrike har ibland ansetts som symbolens uppfinnare dĂ„ de 1964 började anvĂ€nda den i sin bulletin. Symbolen populariserades i Storbritannien pĂ„ 1970- och 1980-talen av Crass, i samband med punkrörelsen. Idag anvĂ€nds den ofta pĂ„ flaggor av anarkokommunister som inte vill bli förvĂ€xlade med syndikalister, dĂ„ oftast i rött eller vitt pĂ„ svart bakgrund. Svart pĂ„ röd bakgrund förekommer dock ibland. + +Den svarta fanan och den rödsvarta fanan + +Anarkismens svarta fana var frĂ„n början en sorgefana. I en demonstration som hyllade de stupade kommunardernas minne och som gav sig ut i Paris 1883 för att expropriera bagerier, upptĂ€ckte man att en fana skulle behövas. Det berĂ€ttas dĂ„ att f. kommunarden Louise Michel tog av sin svarta sidenunderkjol och hĂ€ngde den pĂ„ ett kvastskaft â och sĂ„ hade anarkismen fĂ„tt sin egen flagga. I Spanien 1936 manifesterade anarkisterna i FAI och syndikalisterna i CNT sitt samarbete genom en fana som delades diagonalt i ett svart fĂ€lt för FAI och ett rött fĂ€lt för CNT. BĂ€gge dessa fanor anvĂ€nds Ă€n i dag. + +Anarkism i vĂ€rlden + + IWW Industrial Workers of the World (syndikalistisk fackförening, USA) + Crimethinc ex-workers collective + CNT ConfederaciĂłn Nacional del Trabajo, Spansk syndikalistisk fackförening + Class War Federation (UK) + Spanska revolutionen + Voluntary Cooperation Movement Ă€r ett mutualistiskt nĂ€tverk verkande i Storbritannien, Kanada och Argentina för individer som vill verka kooperativt. +Fria Territoriet + EZLN ZapatistarmĂ©n för nationell befrielse +Anarkismen i Rojava + +Anarkismen i Sverige +I Sverige har anarkismen i vissa sammanhang varit en inflytelserik rörelse, och den anarkistiska tidningen Brand har utkommit med varierande innehĂ„ll i mer Ă€n hundra Ă„r. + +Den viktigaste anarkistinfluerade organisationen Ă€r den syndikalistiska fackföreningen SAC, som rĂ€knar sitt ursprung till ungsocialisterna, vilka en gĂ„ng rymdes inom det ursprungliga socialdemokratiska ungdomsförbundet. Ungsocialisterna bröt sig dock loss ur socialdemokraterna 1908 efter interna stridigheter. 1910, efter storstrejken stod till största delen skĂ„neavdelningen inom ungsocialisterna (Lunda-kommittĂ©n med Gustav Sjöström) bakom bildandet av ett syndikalistiskt fackförbund, SAC. SAC har de senaste Ă„ren genomgĂ„tt en facklig reorganisering och radikalisering. Tidningen heter Arbetaren och förlaget Federativs. Trubaduren och IWW:aren Joe Hills förĂ€ldrahem i gamla Gefle Ă€r nu bĂ„de museum och SAC:s industrisekretariat i GĂ€vle, och kallas Joe Hill-gĂ„rden. + +Syndikalistiska Ungdomsförbundet, SUF, har anor frĂ„n 1930-talet och Ă€r sedan 1993 en viktig aktör i den moderna anarkiströrelsen. Nutidens SUF skiljer sig avsevĂ€rt frĂ„n 30-talets. SUF och SAC samarbetar men SUF Ă€r fristĂ„ende och alltsĂ„ inte fackföreningen SAC:s ungdomsförbund vilket ofta misstolkats. NĂ€mnas bör att under 1960-talet fyllde Syndikalistiska Grupprörelsen tomrummet efter SUF med utgĂ„vor av bland annat tidskriften "Zenit" och översĂ€ttningar av till exempel situationistiskt material. Under sextiotalets slut uppstod mĂ„nga nya grupper, som Provie (efter mönster frĂ„n hollĂ€ndska Provorörelsen) och lokala anarkistgrupper med tillhörande Fri Press. + +Husockupation blev under flera decennier nĂ„got av en frihetlig kampform och Punk-rörelsen hade anarkistiska tendenser Ă€ven i Sverige. Ytterligare en organisation som bör nĂ€mnas Ă€r fĂ„ngkampsgruppen Anarkistiska Svarta Hammaren (Anarchist Black Cross - Sweden). Det antirasistiska arbetet kom som en reaktion pĂ„ det nynazistiska uppsvinget under tidigt 1990-tal. Under inledningen av 2000-talet har de svenska anarkisterna exempelvis utmĂ€rkt sig via aktioner genom Antifascistisk Aktion (AFA). AFA anser sig sjĂ€lva inte vara nĂ„gon anarkistisk organisation, utan Ă€r baserade pĂ„ en bred plattform som tĂ€cker in mĂ„nga strömningar. Man har ocksĂ„ jobbat pĂ„ att anvĂ€nda internet vilket nĂ€tzinet anarkism.info Ă€r exempel pĂ„. MĂ„nga grupper och organisationer kan sĂ€gas bedriva anarkistisk kamp utan att de för den skull sjĂ€lva kallar sig anarkister, exempelvis Ingen MĂ€nniska Ăr Illegal, svenska RTS - Reclaim the Streets eller sjĂ€lvorganiseringskampanjen Osynliga Partiet samt Förbundet allt Ă„t alla (AĂ„A). + +Den Ă€ldre svenska rörelsens förmodligen viktigaste förgrundsfigurer var Hinke Bergegren och Albert Jensen, den förre frĂ€mst agitator, den senare ideologisk förnyare av betydelse, bĂ„da tidvis redaktörer för den anarkistiska tidningen Brand. Bland andra kĂ€nda frihetliga socialister kan författarna Eyvind Johnson, Stig Dagerman, Moa Martinson och Folke Fridell nĂ€mnas, liksom Spanien-veteranen Nisse LĂ€tt och 68-aktivisten Klas Hellborg. Bland böcker pĂ„ svenska om anarkismen kan nĂ€mnas Anarkismens Ă terkomst av Staffan Jacobson (2006), Anarkisterna i klasskampen av Bengt Ericson och Ingemar Johansson (1969), Anarkismen - frĂ„n lĂ€ra till handling av Daniel GuĂ©rin (1964) samt Anarkismen av George Woodcock (1962). + +Se Ă€ven + Anarki + Anarkister + Anarkistisk ekonomi + Antipolitik +Individualanarkism +Syndikalism + Anarko-primitivism + ArbetarrĂ„d + Autonom vĂ€nster + Direkt demokrati + Grön anarki + Infoanarkism + Kommunalism + Ledarlöst motstĂ„nd + Revolution + SjĂ€lvförvaltning + +Referenser + +Vidare lĂ€sning + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Wikipedia:Basartiklar +Politisk kultur +Alexander Ă€r ett manligt förnamn av grekiskt ursprung, ÎλÎΟαΜΎÏÎżÏ (AlĂ©xandros), bildat av tvĂ„ ord som betyder 'försvarare' och 'man', det vill sĂ€ga ungefĂ€r mĂ€nnens försvarare. +Sedan början av 1990-talet har Alexander hört till de tio vanligaste svenska pojknamnen. Den 31 december 2008 fanns det totalt 66 495 personer i Sverige med namnet, varav 30 465 med det som tilltalsnamn. Under 2008 fick 838 pojkar namnet som tilltalsnamn. + +Namnsdagen Ă€r 12 december tillsammans med Alexis. Alex hade namnsdag denna dag mellan 1993 och 2001 och mellan 1886 och 1992 den 17 juli. Andra former pĂ„ namnet Ă€r Ale, Alle och Alex. + +Personer + +Förnamn + Alexander I, flera hĂ€rskare och en pĂ„ve + Alexander II, flera hĂ€rskare och en pĂ„ve + Alexander III, flera hĂ€rskare och en pĂ„ve + Alexander IV, flera hĂ€rskare och en pĂ„ve + Alexander V, motpĂ„ve 1409â1410 + Alexander VI, pĂ„ve 1492â1503 + Alexander VII, pĂ„ve 1655â1667 + Alexander VIII, pĂ„ve 1689â1691 + Alexander den store, makedonisk kung 336-323 f.Kr. (356-323 f.Kr.) + Alexander, Herodes son + Alexander frĂ„n Afrodisias, grekisk filosof + Alexander av Hales, franciskanermunk + Alexander av Hessen-Darmstadt (1823-1888) + Alexander av Pfalz-ZweibrĂŒcken, (1462â1514) + Alexander Severus, romersk kejsare + Alexander, svensk prins (född 2016) + Alexander, kronprins av Jugoslavien (född 1945) + Alexander frĂ„n Antiochia, grekisk skulptör + Alexander Polyhistor, grekisk filosof, geograf och historiker. + Alexander frĂ„n Tralles, grekisk lĂ€kare + Alexander Ahndoril, svensk författare (född 1967) + Aleksandr Alechin, rysk schackspelare (1892-1946) + + Alexander (Alec) Baldwin amerikansk skĂ„despelare (född 1958) + Alexander Bard, debattör, artist (född 1961) + Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, tysk filosof (1714â1762) + Alexander Graham Bell, brittisk-amerikansk uppfinnare (1847-1922) + Alexander Van der Bellen, österrikisk nationalekonom och politiker, förbundspresident 2017- + Aleksandr Blok, rysk poet + Aleksandr Borodin, rysk kompositör (1833-1887) + Alexander (Alec) Douglas-Home, brittisk premiĂ€rminister (1903â1995) + Alexander DubÄek, tjeckosloviakisk politiker (1921â1992) + Alexandre Dumas den Ă€ldre, fransk författare (1802â1870) + Alexander Fleming, brittisk bakteriolog, penicillinets upptĂ€ckare, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin 1945 (1881-1955) + Alexander Gustafsson, "The Mauler", svensk idrottsman (MMA) (född 1987) + Alexander Hamilton, amerikansk statsman (1755 eller 1757â1804) + Alexander Hamilton, amerikansk statsman (1755 eller 1757â1804) + Alexander Herr, tysk backhoppare + Alexander von Humboldt, tysk forskare och upptĂ€cktsresande (1769-1859) +Alexander Isak, svensk fotbollsspelare + Aleksandr Jakusjev, sovjetisk ishockeyspelare (född 1947) + Alexander JĂ€rnefelt, finlĂ€ndsk officer, topograf och guvernör + Aleksandr Karelin, rysk brottare (född 1967) + Alex Karp, amerikansk affĂ€rsman (född 1967) + Aleksandr Kerenskij, rysk politiker (1881â1970) + Alexander Kielland, norsk författare (1849-1906) + Aleksandr Lebed, rysk politiker (1950-2002) + Alexander Leslie, skotsk-svensk fĂ€ltmarskalk (1580-1661) + Alexander (Alex) Lindman, svensk idrottsledare (1862â1939) + Aleksandr Lukasjenko, Vitrysslands nuvarande president (diktator) (född 1954) + Aleksandr Maltsev, sovjetisk ishockeyspelare (född 1949) + Aleksandr Mensjikov, rysk fĂ€ltmarskalk (1673â1729) + Alex Metreveli, sovjetisk (georgisk) tennisspelare (född 1944) + Alexandre Millerand, fransk president (1859-1943) + Alexander MiloĆĄeviÄ, svensk fotbollsspelare + Aleksandr Pusjkin, rysk författare (1799â1837) + Aleksandr Ragulin, sovjetisk ishockeyspelare (1941-2004) + John Alexander Reina Newlands, engelsk kemist (1838â1898) + Alexandre de Rhodes, fransk missionĂ€r (1591â1660) + Alexander Roslin, svensk konstnĂ€r (1718â1793) + Alexander Roos, svensk konstnĂ€r (1895â1973) + Alexander Rybak, norsk artist (född 1986) + Alexander SkarsgĂ„rd, svensk skĂ„despelare (född 1976) + Aleksandr Solzjenitsyn, rysk författare, mottagare av Nobelpriset i litteratur 1970 (född 1918) + Alexander Stubb, finlĂ€ndsk politiker, f.d. utrikesminister och statsminister + Mattias Alexander von Ungern-Sternberg, svensk lantmarskalk (1689-1763) + Alexander Karol Vasa, (1614â1634) + Alexander Wennberg, ishockeyspelare + Alexander Ăberg, svensk regissör (född 1968) + +Efternamn + Albert Victor Alexander (1885-1965), brittisk politiker + Christopher Alexander (född 1936), brittisk arkitekt + David Alexander (1907-1973), amerikansk författare och journalist + Franz Alexander (1891-1964), amerikansk psykoanalytiker + George Alexander (1858-1918), brittisk skĂ„despelare och teaterledare + Harold Alexander (1891-1969), brittisk fĂ€ltmarskalk + James Edward Alexander (1805-1885), brittisk general och forskningsresande + Joey Alexander (född 2003), indonesisk jazzpianist + Kwon Alexander (född 1994), amerikansk utövare av amerikansk fotboll + Lloyd Alexander (1924-2007), amerikansk författare och översĂ€ttare + Samuel Alexander (1859-1938), australisk-brittisk filosof + +Varianter och smeknamn + Albanska - Aleksandri, AleksandĂ«r, LekĂ«, SkĂ«nder, Skender, Aleks, SandĂ«r + Amhariska - Eskender + Arabiska - Iskandar, Skandar, Skender + Bosniska - Aleksandar, Aco, SaĆĄa, Aleksa, Sandro + Bulgariska - ĐĐ»eĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽŃp (Aleksander), ХаŃĐŸ (Sasjo) + Danska - Aleksander, Alexander + Engelska - Alexander, Alec, Alex, Lex, Xander, Sandy, Andy, Alexis, Alexa, Alexandria, Alexandra, Sandra, Al, Sasha, Ali, Lexxi, Zander, Xander, Sashi, Eck + Estniska - Aleksander, Sander + Finska - Aleksanteri, Aleksi, Santeri, Ali + Franska - Alexandre, Alexis, Alex + Galiciska - Alexandre, Ălex + Georgiska - áááá„áĄáááá á (Aleksandre) + Grekiska - ÎλÎΟαΜΎÏÎżÏ (Alexandros), Alexis, Alekos/Aleka, Aki + Hebreiska - ŚŚŚŚĄŚ ŚŚš (Alexander) + Hindi - Hindustani - Sikandar + IslĂ€ndska - Alexander + Italienska - Alessandro, Leandro, Ale, Sandro, Alessio + Jiddish - ŚĄŚąŚ ŚŚąŚš - Sender, Senderl + Katalanska - Alexandre, Ălex, Xandre + Kazakiska - ĐŃĐșĐ”ĐœĐŽiŃ + Kroatiska - Aleksandar, Aco, Acika, SaĆĄa, Sale + Kurdiska - Askander, Eskander, ĂskenderĂȘ + Litauiska - Aleksandras + Makedonska - ĐлДĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽĐ°Ń, ĐŃĐ” + Malajiska - Iskandar + Malayalam - àŽàŽŸàŽŁà”àŽàŽż (Chandy) + Maltesiska - Lixandru + NederlĂ€ndska - Alexander, Alexandra, Alex, Alexia, Lex, Sander, Sanne, Sandra, Xander + Norska - Alexander, Aleksander + Persiska - Eskandar + Polska - Aleks, Aleksander, Olek + Portugisiska - Alexandre, Alexandro (rare), Alexandra, Xana (feminine), Xano, Alex, Xande, Xanocas + RumĂ€nska - Alexandru, Alec, Alex, Alle, Alecu, Sandu + Ryska - ĐлДĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽp (Aleksandr), ĐлОĐș (Alik), ХаŃа (Sasja), ĐĄĐ°ĐœŃ (Sanja), ĐĄĐ°ĐœŃĐș (Sanjok), ĐšŃŃа (Sjura), ĐšŃŃĐžĐș (Sjurik) + Sanskrit - Alekchendra + Gaeliska - Alasdair, Alastair, Alistair, Alisdair + Serbiska - ĐлДĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽĐ°Ń, ĐŃа, ХаŃа, ĐлДĐșŃa - Aleksandar, Aca, SaĆĄa, Aleksa + Slovenska - AleĆĄ, Sandi, Sanja, Sandra, SaĆĄa, SaĆĄo + Spanska - Alejandro, Alex, Ale, Alejo + Svenska - Alexander, Alex , Ale, Alle + Syrianska - Iskandar, Skandar, (Alex eller Alexander för ungdomar) + Turkiska - İskender + Tyska - Alexander (short: Alex, Ali, Akki), Sascha + Ungerska - SĂĄndor + Ukrainska - ĐлДĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽŃ (Oleksandr), ХаŃĐșĐŸ (Sasjko), ĐлДлŃĐșĐŸ (Olelko, rare) + Urdu - Hindustan - Sikandar + Urdu - Pakistan - Sikander ("Sikander-e-Azam" Ă€r "Alexander den store") + Uzbekiska - Iskandar + Vitryska - ĐĐ»ŃĐșŃĐ°ĐœĐŽp (Aljaksandr), ĐĐ»eŃŃ (Ales'), ĐлДлŃĐșа (Aljel'ka) + +Referenser + +Mansnamn +Svenska förnamn +Svenska mansnamn +Amyntas III (II) (grekiska: ÎÎŒÏΜÏÎ±Ï ÎÎ) var kung av Makedonien och gift med Eurydike I av Makedonien. + +Amyntas var son till Filip som var bror till Perdikkas II. Han intog tronen efter mordet pĂ„ Pausanias 393 f.Kr. En kort tid efter trontilltrĂ€det blev han fördriven av Pausanias son Argaios men lyckades Ă„tertaga sitt kungarike tvĂ„ Ă„r senare. + +Amyntas hade en dotter och tre söner: + Eurynoe av Makedonien, gift med Ptolemaios av Aloros + Alexander II av Makedonien + Perdikkas III av Makedonien + Filip II av Makedonien + +Referenser + +A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Volym 1 sid.154 av William Smith + +Makedoniens monarker +MĂ€n +Födda 400-talet f.Kr. +Avlidna 300-talet f.Kr. +Personer under 300-talet f.Kr. +ABC 80 var en persondator frĂ„n svenska elektroniktillverkaren Luxor AB. Den lanserades 1978 och sĂ„ldes till mitten av 1980-talet av Luxor â inledningsvis Ă€ven av Scandia Metric â nĂ€r persondatorrevolutionen precis kommit igĂ„ng med andra persondatorer som Commodore PET, Apple II och TRS-80. SjĂ€lva datorkonstruktionen gjordes av Dataindustrier AB med hölje, tangentbord och skĂ€rm frĂ„n Luxor. + +ABC 80 uppfattades inte vare sig av företaget eller anvĂ€ndarna som en hemdator, eftersom denna beteckning nĂ€r den dök upp runt 1982 betecknade datorer utan skĂ€rm och kringutrustning som kunde anslutas till en vanlig TV. ABC 80 med sin avancerade 4680-buss och specialbyggda monitor rĂ€knades inte dit. + +ABC 80 slutade tillverkas i slutet av 1985. + +Uppbyggnad +Namnet ska utlĂ€sas âAdvanced Basic Computer for the 1980sâ. â80â relaterar Ă€ven till processornamnet â den byggde pĂ„ 8-bits mikroprocessorn Zilog Z80 frĂ„n Zilog och hade RAM samt ROM, vilket rymde en tolk för en egen dialekt av programsprĂ„ket BASIC. +Program och datafiler kunde sparas pĂ„ kassettbandspelare och senare pĂ„ diskettstation. För hantering av diskettenheten anvĂ€ndes ett eget diskoperativsystem, ABC-DOS, och senare Ă€ven CP/M. Datorns operativsystem var integrerat med BASIC-interpretatorn. Förutom i BASIC kunde programmering ske indirekt i maskinkod i form av datalistor i BASIC som kunde lagras och exekveras. + +Monitorn var en svart-vit TV som modifierats för Ă€ndamĂ„let och visade vit text pĂ„ svart bakgrund. PĂ„ 80-talet försökte man lansera som en hemdator utan monitor men med en adapterlĂ„da som gjorde att man kunde koppla in en vanlig TV. SkĂ€rmupplösningen var samma som till Text-TV och Teledata â och Högupplösande grafik saknades, men nĂ€r man skrev ut ett speciellt kontrolltecken visades resten av raden i grafiskt lĂ€ge, dĂ€r sex pixlar per tecken kunde styras (2 pĂ„ bredden, 3 pĂ„ höjden). Eftersom kontrolltecknet tog upp en teckenplats per rad gav detta en maximal grafikupplösning pĂ„ Detta grafiklĂ€ge stöddes Ă€ven av speciella Basic-kommandon, SETDOT och CLRDOT, som gjorde att anvĂ€ndaren kunde arbeta med grafiken pixelvis. Ăven denna grafik var tagen frĂ„n Text-TV/Teledata-standarden. + +Ljudet genererades av ett Texas Instruments SN76477-chip. De instĂ€llningar man kunde göra programmatiskt för att styra ljudet var mycket fĂ„, vilket i praktiken begrĂ€nsade ljudet till ett litet antal ljudeffekter. + +För anslutning av kringutrustning sĂ„som skrivare, fanns en RS-232-port. ABC 80 byggde pĂ„ Dataindustriers datorbuss 4680 och kunde dĂ€rför anslutas till alla de styr- och mĂ€tkort som utvecklats för deras tidigare produkt DataBoard 4680. DĂ€rigenom blev ABC 80 och dess efterföljare ofta en komponent i industriella styrsystem inom fabrik och processindustri. + +Utvecklingen av ABC 80 +Karl-Johan Börjesson pĂ„ Scandia Metric var den som fick idĂ©n att tillverka en svensk hemdator. Börjesson hade varit i USA Ă„r 1969 pĂ„ en IEEE-konferens och sett mikrodatorteknikens potential, och man började snart att importera och sĂ€lja datorn Alpha LSI som tillverkades av Computer Automation i USA. Scandia Metric sĂ„lde cirka 1 000 av dessa datorer i Sverige speciellt till skolor för utbildning i datateknik, delvis som en OEM-produkt Ă„t Facit, Cybernetic, Elektronlund och Datasaab. + +Ă r 1977 hade Scandia Metric ett stort behov av en ny eftertrĂ€dare till skoldatorn Alpha LSI. Börjesson Ă„kte dĂ„ Ă„ter till USA och köpte en Tandy TRS-80 men tyckte att datorn inte passade de tillĂ€mpningar han sĂ„g, och han kunde heller inte garantera de volymer Tandy krĂ€vde för att exportera datorn: Scandia Metric skulle vara tvungna att förbinda sig att köpa minst 5 000 datorer för att fĂ„ agentur för TRS-80. Han kontaktade dĂ„ Lars Karlsson pĂ„ Dataindustrier AB (DIAB) som han visste hade konstruerat datorerna DataBoard 4680 och Seven S. Dataindustrier var ocksĂ„ företagets största kund pĂ„ mikroprocessorer eftersom Scandia Metric importerade och sĂ„lde CPU:n Z80. Gunnar Markesjö som var lektor pĂ„ KTH visade ocksĂ„ stort intresse: han hade Ă„r 1976 författat en lĂ€robok om Alpha LSI i samarbete med Scandia Metric. Scandia Metric och DIAB ansĂ„g sig ha kompetensen att konstruera datorn men saknade tillverkningskapaciteten. + +Förutom sjĂ€lva tillverkningskapaciteten för elektronik kunde Scandia Metric och Dataindustrier inte tillverka bildskĂ€rmar. Man sökte en samarbetspartner och hade att vĂ€lja mellan Facit, Philips och Luxor. Facit fick inte tillverka datorer pĂ„ grund av en antikonkurrensklausul i kontraktet med Datasaab efter att de sĂ„lt utvecklingen av minidatorn D12/D15, och Philips ansĂ„gs vara ett för stort och lĂ„ngsamt företag. Till följd av detta kom Luxor in i bilden och fick senare huvudrollen. Luxor tillverkade sedan tidigare bildskĂ€rmar Ă„t Stansaabs terminal Alfaskop. Bengt Lönnqvist och Nils GrĂ€ndĂ„s frĂ„n Luxor besökte Scandia Metric den 2 februari 1978 för att diskutera tillverkning av en terminalskĂ€rm, men mötet kom att handla om tillverkningen av hela datorn. + +Den 16 februari hölls ett uppföljande möte dĂ€r samtliga verkstĂ€llande direktörer för inblandade företag deltog. Man beslutade vid detta första projektmöte att 5â10 prototyper skulle vara klara i mitten av maj och leveranser av den fĂ€rdiga produkten skulle börja ske i början av november, till ett pris under 5 000 kr. Dataindustrier skulle stĂ„ för alla utvecklingskostnader av sjĂ€lva datordelen i utbyte mot 200 kr per sĂ„ld maskin för sin del av arbetet. Man köpte ocksĂ„ in Apple II, Commodore PET och Tandy TRS-80 för utvĂ€rdering. Den 27 februari bildades en styrgrupp för projektet "hemdator-80" HD-80 med Börjesson, Karlsson och Alf Björklund, och Bengt Lönnqvist tillsattes som projektledare. I mars bildades en projektgrupp med 10 personer pĂ„ Luxor under Bengt Lönnqvist. Vid en omröstning i projektgruppen byttes projektnamnet till ABC 80. Andra namnförslag var PC-80 (personal computer 80), PD-80 (persondator 80), Elvira, Swea, Pearl och Ideal. + +I slutet av juli hade man producerat tre prototyper som fanns pĂ„ Scandia Metric, Luxor och hos lektor Gunnar Markesjö som fĂ„tt i uppdrag att skriva en lĂ€robok för datorn. Dessa prototyper tycktes fungera bra. + +I augusti skrev Scandia Metric och Luxor ett avtal som gick ut pĂ„ att Luxor skulle leda projektet och ansvara för formgivning, produktion och underhĂ„ll av produkten, liksom för framtida vidareutveckling. Scandia Metric skulle producera dokumentation, handböcker, diskettenhet och skrivare, samt programmera en rad olika demonstrationsprogram. + +Utvecklingen av ABC 80 tog 6 000 mantimmar (c:a 4 manĂ„r) och kostade totalt 1,2 miljoner kronor i dĂ„tidens penningvĂ€rde. + +Utvecklingen av kringutrustning och konflikter mellan företagen +NĂ€r ABC 80 lanserades fanns ingen kringutrustning att köpa. Datorn bestod av tangentbord med mikrodatorn inuti samt Luxors specialutvecklade bildskĂ€rm. Först under 1979 blev den specialutvecklade kassettbandspelaren klar: tidigare fick kunderna helt enkelt anvĂ€nda vanliga musikbandspelare. + +Utvecklingen av kringutrustning sĂ„ som diskettenhet och skrivare med mera fördröjdes under 1979 och ledde till samarbetssvĂ„righeter mellan företagen. Scandia Metric hade svĂ„rt att utveckla diskettenheten FD-2 pĂ„ grund av överhettning och i maj fick Dataindustrier istĂ€llet leverera DataDisc 80, som tillverkades av Sattco. DataDisc 80 kunde initialt lagra 80 KB per skiva, och Sattco planerade flera uppföljare i konkurrens med Scandia Metric. Den skrivare (P 40) som Scandia Metric tagit fram var sĂ„ dĂ„lig att Luxor valde att anpassa en Centronicsskrivare till ABC 80 men Ă€ven dessa hade för lĂ„g kvalitet. + +PĂ„ grund av problemen med kringutrustning slutade samarbetet mellan Scandia Metric och Luxor att fungera. Andra faktorer som knĂ€ckte samarbetet var att Luxor började utveckla programvara trots att detta enligt avtalet skulle utföras av Scandia Metric, och att Luxors försĂ€ljare började göra intrĂ„ng pĂ„ den marknad som enligt avtalet mellan företagen tillhörde Scandia Metric, exempelvis skolor och större företag. Scandia Metric började ocksĂ„ exportera ABC 80 till det tyska företaget Techno-Term som utvecklat ett kortsystem med teknik som konkurrerade med DataBoard 4680, vilket ledde till att samarbetet mellan Scandia Metric och Dataindustrier sprack. + +Luxor hade Ă€ven samarbetsproblem med Dataindustrier, framför allt pĂ„ grund av att Gunnar Wedell valts in i Luxors styrelse. Wedell var VD för Datasaab och ansĂ„g att ABC 80 var sĂ„ lik Seven S, som nu sĂ„lts till Datasaab, att det sĂ„g ut som att Dataindustrier sĂ„lt samma dator tvĂ„ gĂ„nger: en gĂ„ng till Datasaab och en gĂ„ng till Luxor och Scandia Metric. Detta löste sig dĂ„ det visade sig att Datasaab var helt ointresserade av att sĂ€lja eller vidareutveckla Seven S samtidigt som det fanns en klausul i avtalet mellan Dataindustrier och Datasaab som tillĂ€t att Dataindustrier utvecklade en bildskĂ€rm till DataBoard 4680, vilket i princip var ABC 80. Samarbetet mellan Luxor och Dataindustrier fortsatte, men bĂ„de Luxor och Dataindustrier hade fjĂ€rmat sig frĂ„n initiativtagaren Scandia Metric. + +Prestanda +För att jĂ€mföra ABC 80 med andra samtida persondatorer gjorde Mikrodatorn Ă„r 1982 ett prestandatest med hjĂ€lp av Ă„tta korta BASIC-program med namnen BM1 till BM8 frĂ„n den amerikanska tidningen Kilobaud Magazine som Ă€ven anvĂ€ndes för test i den brittiska tidningen Personal Computer World för test av nya datorer. Resultatet var att ABC 80:s semikompilerande BASIC-interpretator visade sig snabbare Ă€n de flesta andra BASIC-dialekter i andra populĂ€ra datorer, i synnherhet vid heltalsaritmetik. JĂ€mförelsen mellan ABC 80 och andra populĂ€ra maskiner följer nedan (tidangivelsen Ă€r i sekunder: ju lĂ€gre desto bĂ€ttre): + +Tabellen illustrerar att ABC 80 var upp till 4,7 gĂ„nger snabbare Ă€n IBM PC vid heltalsaritmetik och upp till 2,5 gĂ„nger snabbare vid flyttalsaritmetik. PĂ„ grund av en begrĂ€nsning i exponentialfunktioner var ABC 80 lĂ„ngsam i testprogrammet BM8. (Bristen Ă„tgĂ€rdades i ABC 800.) JĂ€mfört med den billigare Sinclair ZX81 var ABC 80 15 gĂ„nger snabbare pĂ„ att exekvera BM1, trots att ZX81 körde i "snabb mod" med grafiken avstĂ€ngd. + +Kringutrustning +Under 1979 kom kassettbandspelaren och den första diskettenheten till ABC 80, och under 1980 följdes dessa av mera kringutrustning, delvis utvecklad av oberoende tillverkare utanför Luxor och Dataindustrier. De viktigaste var: + + Bandstation + FristĂ„ende 4680-bussexpansion med kortplatser, senare kallad ABC 890 + Diskettenheter (samtliga anvĂ€nde 4680-bussen): + FD2 (2 Ă 80 KB, 5 1/4") frĂ„n Scandia Metric (1979) samt efterföljaren FD2D (2 Ă 160 KB, 5 1/4") + DataDisc 80 (DD 80, 2 Ă 80 KB, 5 1/4") frĂ„n Dataindustrier AB (1979) som Ă€ven hade plats för fem expansionskort av 4680-typ +DataDisc 82 och 84, identiska med DD 80 men högre diskettkapacitet (2 Ă 160 KB respektive 2 Ă 320 KB, 5 1/4") (1980) + MX2 2 Ă 160 KB 5 1/4" Dataindustrier AB (1980) + DataDisc 86 frĂ„n Dataindustrier AB (DD 86, 2 Ă 500 KB, 8") (1980) + DataDisc 88 frĂ„n Dataindustrier AB (DD 88, 2 Ă 1 MB, 8") (1980) + Minnesexpansion + 32KB expansion direkt pĂ„ maskinen (MyAB) + Grafik + 80-teckensexpansion (CAT ingenjörsbyrĂ„) + FĂ€rggrafik + DatornĂ€tverk: +CAT-net (CAT ingenjörsbyrĂ„) med stöd för upp till 32 datorer, 16 skivminnen och 4 skrivare + CP/M-expansionskort (MyAB) + +Marknadsföring +Den 24 augusti 1978 visades datorn upp för pressen pĂ„ Industrihuset i Stockholm. Uppvisningen filmades av Sveriges television och kom med i nyhetssĂ€ndningen den kvĂ€llen, och datorns lansering noterades Ă€ven i Dagens industri, Automation och Modern Elektronik. + +För att sĂ€lja datorerna förlitade sig bĂ„de Luxor och Scandia Metric pĂ„ sina etablerade försĂ€ljningskanaler: Luxor hade ett 50-tal radio- och TV-handlare i hela landet som skulle sĂ€lja till privatpersoner och mindre företag, varav ett 30-tal visade intresse att ta in produkten. Scandia Metric sĂ„lde direkt till skolor och stora industriföretag samt ELFA AB som man redan hade en etablerad relation med. Redan innan slutet av 1978 hade 200 ABC 80-datorer levererats. + +Luxor AB hamnade i finansiella svĂ„righeter under 1979 och hade dĂ€rför svĂ„rt att leverera sĂ„ mĂ„nga datorer som bestĂ€llts, och man lĂ„g flera mĂ„nader efter med bestĂ€llningarna. I slutet av februari hade man levererat 900 ABC 80, 1 000 fanns i order och 2 000 förfrĂ„gningar. Mot sommaren 1979 nĂ„dde man slutligen en punkt dĂ€r man kunde lĂ€gga maskiner pĂ„ lager istĂ€llet för att direkt skicka alla exemplar vidare till kunder. Tillverkningskostnaden per dator var drygt 2 000 kr och priset frĂ„n Luxor till Ă„terförsĂ€ljare var 4 600 kr utom till Scandia Metric som köpte datorerna för 3 200 kr, dĂ€rtill behövde Ă„terförsĂ€ljarna betala 200 kr per maskin till Dataindustrier i Royalty. I slutet av december 1979 hade man sĂ„lt 6 300 ABC 80 vilket var 140 % av budgeten. + +Gunnar Markesjö och andra författare hade publicerat tre böcker om hur ABC 80 skulle anvĂ€ndas: Bruksanvisning till ABC 80, Mikrodatorns ABC, och ABC om BASIC. För att skapa förtroende och öka efterfrĂ„gan pĂ„ datorerna var det viktigt att det fanns mjukvara och kompetens pĂ„ att anvĂ€nda ABC 80 i Sverige. Luxor annonserade dĂ€rför efter datakonsulter som kunde hjĂ€lpa företag att anpassa ABC 80 bĂ„de med hĂ„rdvara och mjukvara för att lösa olika praktiska tillĂ€mpningar, och skapade en aktiv kommunikation med utvecklarna. I slutet av 1979 fanns det c:a 100 oberoende mjukvaruleverantörer och 10 hĂ„rdvaruleverantörer som arbetade med ABC 80. Luxor satsade 10 % av marknadsföringsbudgeten pĂ„ annonser och sponsrade Ă„terförsĂ€ljare med halva annonskostnaden nĂ€r dessa annonserade om ABC 80. Man tog Ă€ven aktiv roll i att koppla samman Ă„terförsĂ€ljare och utvecklingskonsulter. + +I slutet av 1979 var ABC 80 den populĂ€raste svenska persondatorn, med betydligt större marknadsandel Ă€n Commodore PET, Apple II eller Tandy TRS-80. Det har uppskattats att Luxor vid detta tillfĂ€lle behĂ€rskade 70â80 % av den svenska marknaden för persondatorer. + +Inflytande +Som svensk dator med svensk programvara erövrade ABC80 snabbt en stor del av datormarknaden i Sverige, pĂ„ arbetsplatser och anvĂ€ndes ofta som skoldator. Den hamnade Ă€ven i mĂ„nga hem, eftersom priset, under var överkomligt. Programmering för anvĂ€ndbara applikationer blev sĂ„ enkelt för vanliga anvĂ€ndare att massor av program spreds. +ABC-klubben sĂ€nde via nĂ€rradio i StockholmsomrĂ„det ut smĂ„ program. Det var bara att spela in pĂ„ band, stoppa in i bandspelaren till sin dator och sedan köra. + +Volymer +Tabellen visar antalet sĂ„lda ABC 80 per Ă„r frĂ„n 1978 till slutet av 1985. DĂ€refter lade Luxor ned produktionen av ABC 80 eftersom den inte lĂ€ngre lönade sig. Totalt sĂ„ldes alltsĂ„ cirka 33 000 ABC 80 mellan 1978 och 1985. + +Efterföljare + +Redan frĂ„n början stod det klart att ABC 80 behövde utvecklas till en förbĂ€ttrad modell för kontorsbruk, under arbetsnamnet X2. Projektledare för X2 var Bengt Lönnquist pĂ„ Luxor. Denna var ursprungligen planerad att introducerats under 1980 med 40-teckens bildskĂ€rm och fĂ€rggrafik. Utvecklingen av X2 slĂ€pade efter och Dataindustrier hade redan 1979 introducerat Ă€nnu en efterföljare kallad X3, och internt pĂ„ Luxor fanns Ă€ven planer pĂ„ en skolprodukt LĂ€xor avsedd för skolor. X2 kom att bli ABC 800 och X3 som skulle haft produktnamnet ABC 900 blev aldrig klar innan Luxors Ă€gare Nokia Data lade ner ABC-serien. ABC 800 utvecklades i samarbete med Dataindustrier, men Scandia Metric vad vid det hĂ€r laget reducerade till en försĂ€ljningpartner för ABC 80. + +ABC 800 introducerades i april 1981 vid en pressvisning pĂ„ Hotell Sheraton i Stockholm, med högre prestanda för kontorsĂ€ndamĂ„l, 80-kolumners skĂ€rm, och fĂ€rggrafik. + +Böcker om ABC 80 +För studium av elektroniken i en ABC 80 finns boken Mikrodatorns ABC av Gunnar Markesjö. Den innehĂ„ller kopplingsscheman för hela datorn med funktionsbeskrivningar in i minsta detalj och förklaringar till varför olika lösningar valdes. + +Program och spel för ABC 80 +MĂ„nga av datorns program finns bevarade i ABC-klubbens mjukvaruarkiv, med kĂ€llkod skriven i BASIC. + Ariadne â labyrintspel. Hitta vĂ€gen genom varuhuset IrBeMa. + Boccia â textbaserat + Break Out + Dot Race â bilspel, upp till fyra deltagare (pĂ„ samma tangentbord). + Gambit + Glipp â en Pac Man-klon. + Grottan + HĂ€ng Meâ + Masken â blir lĂ€ngre för varje sockerbit. + MĂ„nlanda + "MĂ„nsson" â ett populĂ€rt men primitivt flipperspel. + Othello + Schack + Stickan â 21 stickor, dra 1-3 varje gĂ„ng, den som tvingas ta sista stickan förlorar. + Teddy â avancerad ordbehandlare som sĂ„ldes av Liber som insticksmodul. + Tic-Tac-Toe â Tre i rad + Uppsjö + +Se Ă€ven + ABC 800 + ABC 1600 + ABC-klubben + Datorns historia + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar + ABC 80-emulatorer för bl.a. Linux med SDL samt e-postlista + Luxor ABC arkivet! En stor samling med dokumentation och mjukvara + ABC 80-emulator för PC + ABC 80-emulator för X Window System och Amiga + Hogias PC-museum + Sida dedikerad till ABC80 + http://www.idg.se/2.10186/1.339871/legenden-bakom-abc-80 + http://www.idg.se/2.10186/1.29486/datorn-som-forandrade-sverige + +Hemdatorer +Persondatorer +Datorer +Sveriges datorhistoria +Produkter lanserade 1978 +A Ă€r den första bokstaven i det moderna latinska alfabetet. + +Betydelser + +Versalt A + förkortning för ampere, enheten för strömstyrka i Internationella mĂ„ttenhetssystemet. + symbol för talet 10 i det hexadecimala talsystemet. + beteckning för artilleriregemente. + beteckning för attackflygplan. + nationalitetsbeteckning för motorfordon frĂ„n Ăsterrike. + stora A stod för âBerömligâ (högsta betyg) i en Ă€ldre betygsskala i Sverige. Ăven högsta betyget i nuvarande system. + i kemi en beteckning för masstal. + inom bibliotekens klassifikationssystem SAB beteckning för 'bok- och biblioteksvĂ€sen', se A (SAB). + den sjĂ€tte tonen i C-durskalan, se a (ton). + beteckning för area inom matematiken. + beteckning för en typ av pappersformat, A-format. + beteckning för det kemiska Ă€mnet adenin. + beteckning för Arbeiderpartiet, de norska socialdemokraterna. + fram till 1968 beteckning för Stockholms överstĂ„thĂ„llarskap. + förkortning för Arbetsmarknadsdepartementet + internationell beteckning för trĂ€ngfartyg. + en nivĂ„ av farmarligor i nordamerikansk baseboll, se Minor League Baseball#A. + trafikplatssignatur för AlingsĂ„s och Anten. + Betecknar 1-klassvagn i det svenska litterasystemet för jĂ€rnvĂ€gsfordon. + influensavirus typ A + ett musikalbum, se A (musikalbum) + Söndagsbokstav för normalĂ„r som börjar en söndag + en megayacht, se A (megayacht). + en segelyacht, se A (segelyacht). + en megayacht, se A+. + +Gement a + förkortning för acceleration. + beteckning för SI-prefixet atto (10â18) + förkortning för areaenheten ar, se ar (ytmĂ„tt). + förkortning för den brittiska och amerikanska areaenheten acre, se acre (mĂ„ttenhet). + förkortning för anno, latin för Ă„r. T.ex. ad betyder anno domino = efter Kristus + litet a, med utmĂ€rkt beröm godkĂ€nd, nĂ€st högsta betygsgraden i Sverige innan sifferbetyg infördes, se Skolbetyg i Sverige. + förkortning för artĂ€r (arteria) i anatomiska angivelser. + +En- och tvĂ„vĂ„nings-a + +Det gemena a:et finns utformat i tvĂ„ versioner (allografer): det sĂ„ kallade envĂ„nings-a:et med en "vĂ„ning" (É) och det sĂ„ kallade tvĂ„vĂ„nings-a:et med tvĂ„ "vĂ„ningar" (a). EnvĂ„nings-a Ă€r frĂ€mst vanliga i flertalet teckensnitts kursiva varianter, i skripter och i kalligrafistilar (exempelvis Monotype Corsiva), samt i handstil, medan tvĂ„vĂ„nings-a:na frĂ€mst Ă€r vanliga i den raka varianten av flera teckensnitt. Vissa teckensnitt, sĂ„ som Century Gothic, har envĂ„nings-a bĂ„de i den raka och i den kursiva varianten, medan exempelvis teckensnitten Verdana och Arial i stĂ€llet anvĂ€nder tvĂ„vĂ„nings-a i bĂ„da varianterna. + +Historia + +Till det latinska alfabetet kom bokstaven A frĂ„n den grekiska bokstaven "alfa", som i sin tur hĂ€rstammade frĂ„n den feniciska bokstaven alef, vilken i sin protosinaitiska förlaga varit en bild av ett oxhuvud. Oxe hette i de sprĂ„ken alef. Symbolen hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n en egyptisk hieroglyf med liknande utseende, dock annan betydelse och uttal. A anvĂ€nds i olika skrifter som kyrilliska alfabetet (Đ), arabiska alfabetet Alif (ïș), hebreiska alfabetet alef (Ś). + +Datateknik +I datorer lagras A samt förkomponerade bokstĂ€ver med A som bas och vissa andra varianter av A med följande kodpunkter: + +I ASCII-baserade kodningar lagras A med vĂ€rdet 0x41 (hexadecimalt), a med vĂ€rdet 0x61 (hexadecimalt) och (utom för vissa nationella varianter av ISO/IEC 646) @ med vĂ€rdet 0x60 (hexadecimalt). +I EBCDIC-baserade kodningar lagras A med vĂ€rdet 0xC1 (hexadecimalt), a med vĂ€rdet 0x81 (hexadecimalt) och @ med vĂ€rdet 0x7C (hexadecimalt). +Ăvriga varianter av A lagras med olika vĂ€rden beroende pĂ„ vilken kodning som anvĂ€nds, om de alls kan representeras. + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Latinska alfabetet +Amerikaner syftar vanligtvis â pĂ„ svenska â pĂ„ personer som Ă€r medborgare i USA, i andra hand pĂ„ personer som bor pĂ„ kontinenten Nordamerika eller vĂ€rldsdelen Amerika som helhet. För mer precision angĂ„ende personer frĂ„n Nord- eller Sydamerika, anvĂ€nds begreppen nordamerikaner och sydamerikaner. Syftningen skiftar i andra sprĂ„k och sammanhang. I till exempel Spanien, Italien och Portugal Ă€r ordningen den omvĂ€nda: I första hand syftar "americano" pĂ„ en invĂ„nare i Syd- eller Nordamerika. För fransmĂ€nnen Ă€r det kontexten som avgör. Nordamerikaner med engelska som modersmĂ„l kallas angloamerikaner och deras land kallas Angloamerika. + +Se Ă€ven +Afroamerikaner +Svenskamerikaner +Amerikaner i Sverige +Latinamerika +USA:s demografi + +Referenser + +Noter + + +Etniska grupper i Nordamerika +Etniska grupper i Sydamerika +13 april Ă€r den 103:e dagen pĂ„ Ă„ret i den gregorianska kalendern (104:e under skottĂ„r). Det Ă„terstĂ„r 262 dagar av Ă„ret. + +Ă terkommande bemĂ€rkelsedagar + +Helgdagar + PĂ„skdagen firas i vĂ€sterlĂ€ndsk kristendom för att högtidlighĂ„lla Jesu Ă„teruppstĂ„ndelse efter korsfĂ€stelsen, Ă„ren 1800, 1873, 1879, 1884, 1941, 1952, 2031, 2036. + +Namnsdagar + +I den svenska almanackan + Nuvarande â Artur och Douglas + FöregĂ„ende i bokstavsordning + Aldor â Namnet infördes pĂ„ dagens datum 1986 men utgick 1993. + Artur â Namnet infördes pĂ„ dagens datum 1901 och har funnits dĂ€r sedan dess. + Atle â Namnet infördes pĂ„ dagens datum 1986 men utgick 1993. + Douglas â Namnet infördes 1986 pĂ„ 27 september. 1993 flyttades det till dagens datum och har funnits dĂ€r sedan dess. + Justinus â Namnet fanns, till minne av en filosof i Palestina, som halshöggs i Rom pĂ„ 160-talet, pĂ„ dagens datum före 1901, dĂ„ det utgick. + FöregĂ„ende i kronologisk ordning + Före 1901 â Justinus + 1901â1985 â Artur + 1986â1992 â Artur, Aldor och Atle + 1993â2000 â Artur och Douglas + FrĂ„n 2001 â Artur och Douglas + KĂ€llor + Brylla, Eva (red.): NamnlĂ€ngdsboken, Norstedts ordbok, Stockholm, 2000. + af Klintberg, Bengt: Namnen i almanackan, Norstedts ordbok, Stockholm, 2001. + +I den finlandssvenska almanackan + + Nuvarande (revidering 2020) â Etel + + I föregĂ„ende i revideringar +1929 â Etel +1950 â Etel +1964 â Etel +1973 â Etel +1989 â Etel +1995 â Etel +2000 â Etel +2005 â Etel +2010 â Etel +2015 â Etel +2020 â Etel + +HĂ€ndelser + 1055 â Sedan pĂ„vestolen har stĂ„tt tom i ett Ă„r vĂ€ljs Gebhard av Dollnstein-Hirschberg till pĂ„ve och tar namnet Viktor II, men avlider tvĂ„ Ă„r senare. + 1523 â Sedan den dansk-norske kungen Kristian II har blivit avsatt den 20 januari samma Ă„r tvingas han denna dag lĂ€mna Danmark och gĂ„r i exil till NederlĂ€nderna. Tio Ă„r senare gör han ett försök att Ă„terta de nordiska tronerna (inklusive den svenska) under det danska inbördeskriget Grevefejden, men blir dĂ„ tillfĂ„ngatagen och fĂ„r tillbringa resten av sitt liv (till 1559) i fĂ€ngelse. + 1598 â Den franske kungen Henrik IV utfĂ€rdar ediktet i Nantes, som stadgar att katolicismen ska vara Frankrikes statsreligion och förhindrar protestantismens vidare utbredning i landet. De franska protestanterna, som kallas hugenotter, blir dock garanterade trosfrihet, medborgerliga rĂ€ttigheter och fri religionsutövning. Ediktet gör dĂ€rmed slut pĂ„ de franska religionskrigen, som frĂ„n och till har varat sedan 1562. 1685 upphĂ€ver dock den dĂ„varande kungen Ludvig XIV ediktet, vilket leder till en stor utvandringsvĂ„g av franska protestanter. + 1714 â Den svenska staden VĂ€sterĂ„s drabbas av en stor stadsbrand. NĂ€r staden Ă„teruppbyggs fĂ„r den tyske trĂ€dgĂ„rdsmĂ€staren Bernhard Johan Bohnsack i uppdrag att anlĂ€gga en ny stadstrĂ€dgĂ„rd, vilket han gör pĂ„ Munkholmen. DĂ€r börjar han odla de gurkor, som sedermera blir karaktĂ€ristiska för staden och ger den smeknamnet Gurkstaden. + 1742 â Den tysk-brittiske tonsĂ€ttaren Georg Friedrich HĂ€ndels oratorium Messias uruppförs vid en vĂ€lgörenhetskonsert i den irlĂ€ndska huvudstaden Dublin. Det blir omedelbart en stor framgĂ„ng och HĂ€ndel uppför det varje Ă„r vid pĂ„sk fram till sin död 1759. + 1812 â En urtima riksdag öppnas i Ărebro i Sverige och pĂ„gĂ„r fram till 18 augusti. De viktigaste hĂ€ndelserna under denna riksdag, som blir den sista som hĂ„lls utanför Stockholm, Ă€r att man inrĂ€ttar Sveriges första vĂ€rnplikt, den sĂ„ kallade bevĂ€ringen, och att man under sommaren sluter fred i det krig mot Storbritannien, som har varat sedan 1810. + 1919 â Brittiska trupper dödar hundratals fredliga demonstranter i den indiska staden Amritsar, dĂ„ general Reginald Dyer beordrar soldaterna att beskjuta folkmassan, som demonstrerar mot det brittiska styret i Indien. Enligt officiella uppgifter uppgĂ„r antalet döda till 379 och sĂ„rade till 1 100, men dessa uppgifter har ifrĂ„gasatts och antalet döda kan uppgĂ„ till sĂ„ mĂ„nga som 1 526. General Dyer fĂ„r, pĂ„ grund av hĂ€ndelsen, sedermera öknamnet Slaktaren i Amritsar. + 1975 â En grupp ur Kaetabmilisen dödar 27 palestinier genom ett överfall pĂ„ deras buss i den libanesiska staden Ain El Remmeneh. Detta blir den tĂ€ndande gnistan till det libanesiska inbördeskrig, som kommer att vara till 1990. + 1985 â NĂ€r det nynazistiska Nordiska rikspartiet hĂ„ller en demonstration pĂ„ torget i VĂ€xjö i Sverige utbryter ett omfattande slagsmĂ„l, nĂ€r de blir ivĂ€gkörda av uppretade VĂ€xjöbor och tio av nynazisterna tar sin tillflykt till stadens jĂ€rnvĂ€gsstation, dĂ€r de lĂ„ser in sig pĂ„ toaletterna. + 1990 â Efter 50 Ă„r erkĂ€nner Sovjetunionen officiellt den sĂ„ kallade Katynmassakern, dĂ€r medlemmar ur den sovjetiska sĂ€kerhetstjĂ€nsten NKVD pĂ„ vĂ„ren 1940 avrĂ€ttade totalt 21 857 polska medborgare i skogarna vid Katyn utanför Smolensk i vĂ€stra Ryssland. + 2008 â 42-Ă„rige Per Anders Eklund, som Ă€r misstĂ€nkt för bortförandet och mordet pĂ„ flickan Engla Juncosa Höglund vid StjĂ€rnsund i Dalarna i Sverige en vecka tidigare, erkĂ€nner sig skyldig till dĂ„det och visar polisen var han har gömt Englas kropp. Till sommaren Ă„talas Eklund för mordet och för ett annat mord i Falun 2000 samt ett vĂ„ldtĂ€ktsförsök 2006 och till hösten döms han till livstids fĂ€ngelse. + 2017 â USA flygbombar med den hittills största icke-nukleĂ€ra bomben kallat Massive Ordnance Air Blast (MOAB). Bomben slĂ€pptes pĂ„ Achindistriktet i Nangarharprovinsen i östra Afghanistan, dĂ€r mĂ„let var att förstöra ett tunnelkomplex som terrormilisen Islamiska staten (förkortat IS, ISIS eller ISIL) anvĂ€nde sig av. Bomben dödade 94 IS-soldater, varav fyra kommendörkaptener. + +Födda + 1506 â Pierre Favre, fransk jesuit och teolog + 1519 â Katarina av Medici, Frankrikes drottning 1547â1559 (gift med Henrik II) och förmyndarregent för sin son Karl IX 1560â1562 + 1593 â Thomas Wentworth, engelsk statsman, rĂ„dgivare till kung Karl I + 1732 â Frederick North, brittisk politiker, parlamentsledamot 1754â1790, Storbritanniens finansminister 1767â1782, premiĂ€rminister 1770â1782 och inrikesminister 1783 + 1743 â Thomas Jefferson, amerikansk demokratisk-republikansk statsman och ambassadör, USA:s utrikesminister 1789â1793, vicepresident 1797â1801 och president 1801â1809 + 1753 â Frederick Frelinghuysen, amerikansk general och federalistisk politiker, senator för New Jersey 1793â1796 + 1769 â Thomas Lawrence, brittisk portrĂ€ttmĂ„lare + 1771 â Richard Trevithick, brittisk ingenjör, uppfinnare av vĂ€rldens första Ă„nglok 1804 + 1793 â Rinaldo Rinaldi, italiensk skulptör + 1808 â Antonio Meucci, italiensk-amerikansk uppfinnare + 1811 - Paulus Genberg, biskop, ledamot av Svenska Akademien + 1852 â F.W. Woolworth, amerikansk affĂ€rsman + 1866 â Robert Leroy Parker, amerikansk tĂ„g- och bankrĂ„nare med artistnamnet Butch Cassidy, ledare för Wild BunchgĂ€nget + 1876 â Are Waerland, finlandssvensk författare och hĂ€lsoideolog + 1877 â Arvid Thorberg, politiker och fackföreningsman, LO:s ordförande 1920-1930 + 1879 â Redfield Proctor, Jr., amerikansk republikansk politiker, guvernör i Vermont 1923â1925 + 1882 â Bertil Brusewitz, svensk skĂ„despelare + 1884 â Anders Ăsterling, svensk poet och översĂ€ttare, ledamot av Svenska Akademien 1919-1981 + 1885 â Georg LukĂĄcs, ungersk kommunistisk politiker, filosof, författare och litteraturkritiker + 1890 + Eric Abrahamsson, svensk skĂ„despelare, mest kĂ€nd i rollen som Pessimisten i radioserien Optimisten och Pessimisten + Frank Murphy, amerikansk demokratisk politiker och jurist, guvernör i Michigan 1937â1939, USA:s justitieminister 1939â1940 + 1892 â Arthur Travers Harris, brittisk fĂ€ltmarskalk och flygmarskalk + 1896 â Sigrun Otto, norsk skĂ„despelare + 1901 â Sven RĂŒno, svensk kompositör, textförfattare, pianist och kapellmĂ€stare + 1905 â Harry Apelqvist, svensk verkmĂ€stare och socialdemokratisk politiker + 1906 â Samuel Beckett, irlĂ€ndsk-fransk författare och dramatiker, mottagare av Nobelpriset i litteratur 1969 + 1907 â Harold Stassen, amerikansk militĂ€r och republikansk politiker, guvernör i Minnesota 1939â1943 + 1908 + Yngve Nordwall, svensk skĂ„despelare och regissör + Hanser Lina Göransson, svensk operasĂ„ngerska + 1916 â Karin Lannby, svensk skĂ„despelare, journalist och översĂ€ttare + 1919 â Howard Keel, amerikansk skĂ„despelare och musikalartist + 1923 â Barbro Nordin, svensk skĂ„despelare + 1924 â Stanley Donen, amerikansk filmregissör + 1931 â Beverley Cross, brittisk pjĂ€s- och manusförfattare + 1932 â Orlando Letelier, chilensk politiker och diplomat + 1933 â Ben Nighthorse Campbell, amerikansk politiker, senator för Colorado 1993â2005 +1934 â Karl-Erik Bender, svensk affĂ€rsman och entreprenör, grundade företaget Benders och Stall & Stuteri Palema + 1937 â Edward Fox, brittisk skĂ„despelare + 1939 + Seamus Heaney, irlĂ€ndsk författare, mottagare av Nobelpriset i litteratur 1995 + Paul Sorvino, amerikansk skĂ„despelare + 1940 â Jean-Marie Gustave Le ClĂ©zio, fransk-mauritisk författare, mottagare av Nobelpriset i litteratur 2008 + 1941 â Michael S. Brown, amerikansk genetiker, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin 1985 + 1942 â Bill Conti, amerikansk filmmusikkompositör + 1944 â Jack Casady, amerikansk musiker, basist i gruppen Jefferson Airplane + 1946 â Al Green, amerikansk gospel- och soulsĂ„ngare + 1949 + Frank Doran, brittisk labourpolitiker, parlamentsledamot 1987â1992 och 1997â2017 + Maria Hedborg, svensk skĂ„despelare + Cia Löwgren, svensk skĂ„despelare + 1950 â Ron Perlman, amerikansk skĂ„despelare + 1951 + Peabo Bryson, amerikansk sĂ„ngare + Joachim Streich, östtysk fotbollsspelare + 1952 â Jim Costa, amerikansk demokratisk politiker, kongressledamot 2005â + 1953 â Stephen Byers, brittisk labourpolitiker, parlamentsledamot 1992â2010, Storbritanniens bitrĂ€dande finansminister 1998, handels- och industriminister 1998â2001 samt transport- och regionminister 2001â2002 + 1954 â Lars Ă by Hermansen, svensk scenchef, scenbyggare och skĂ„despelare + 1956 â Kent Johansson, svensk ishockeyspelare och -trĂ€nare + 1960 â Rudi Völler, vĂ€sttysk fotbollsspelare, förbundskapten för Tysklands herrlandslag i fotboll 2000â2004 + 1962 + Hillel Slovak, israelisk-amerikansk gitarrist, medlem i gruppen Red Hot Chili Peppers frĂ„n 1983 + Jonas BjerkĂ©n, svensk operasĂ„ngare och musikalartist + 1963 â Garri Kasparov, armenisk-rysk schackspelare + 1964 â Davis Love III, amerikansk golfspelare + 1969 â Christine Skou, dansk skĂ„despelare och sĂ„ngare + 1974 + Sergej Gontjar, rysk ishockeyspelare + Johan Linander, svensk centerpartistisk politiker, riksdagsledamot 2002â2014 + Ruben Ăstlund (regissör), svensk filmregissör + 1976 + Robert BiedroĆ, polsk politiker + Jonathan Brandis, amerikansk skĂ„despelare + Patrik EliĂĄĆĄ, tjeckisk ishockeyspelare + 1978 â Carles Puyol, spansk fotbollsspelare + 2000 â Rasmus Dahlin, svensk ishockeyspelare + +Avlidna + 862 â Donald I, 50, kung av Skottland sedan 858 (född 812) + 1597 â Clas Eriksson Fleming, omkring 67, svensk friherre och riksrĂ„d, Sveriges riksamiral 1571â1595 och riksmarsk sedan 1590 (född omkring 1530) + 1605 â Boris Godunov, omkring 53 eller 54, tsar av Ryssland sedan 1598 (född 1551 eller 1552) + 1695 â Jean de La Fontaine, 73, fransk författare + 1804 â Frederick Frelinghuysen, 51, amerikansk general och federalistisk politiker, senator för New Jersey 1793â1796 + 1826 â Carl Birger Rutström, 67, svensk numismatiker och riksantikvarie, ledamot av Svenska Akademien sedan 1812 + 1853 â James Iredell, Jr., 64, amerikansk politiker, guvernör i North Carolina 1827â1828, senator för samma delstat 1828â1831 + 1886 â Anna Louisa Geertruida Bosboom-Toussaint, 73, nederlĂ€ndsk författare + 1909 â Henrik Tore Cedergren, 55, svensk telefontekniker, grundare av telefonföretaget Stockholms AllmĂ€nna Telefon AB (hjĂ€rtĂ„komma) + 1929 â Joseph Weldon Bailey, 66, amerikansk demokratisk politiker, senator för Texas 1901â1913 + 1930 â Agnes Branting, 68, svensk textilkonstnĂ€r och författare + 1934 â Richard P. Ernst, 76, amerikansk republikansk politiker, senator för Kentucky 1921â1927 + 1941 â MĂ€rta MÄÄs-Fjetterström, 67, svensk textilkonstnĂ€r + 1956 â Emil Nolde, 88, tysk mĂ„lare inom expressionismen + 1966 + Carlo CarrĂ , 85, italiensk mĂ„lare inom futurismen + Georges Duhamel, 81, fransk författare + 1993 â Sten Ardenstam, 72, svensk skĂ„despelare + 1996 â James Burke, 64, irlĂ€ndsk-amerikansk gangster, kĂ€nd som Jimmy the Gent eller The Irish Guinea (lungcancer) + 2001 â Jimmy Logan, 73, brittisk skĂ„despelare + 2008 â John Wheeler, 96, amerikansk fysiker + 2009 â Björn Borg, 89, svensk simmare, bragdmedaljör + 2012 + Inge BrĂ„ten, 63, norsk lĂ€ngdskidĂ„kningstrĂ€nare + Erland Cullberg, 81, svensk konstnĂ€r + 2013 + Hilmar Myhra, 97, norsk backhoppare + Chi Cheng, 42, amerikansk basist i gruppen Deftones + 2014 â Ernesto Laclau, 78, argentinsk postmarxistisk politisk teoretiker och statsvetare + 2015 + Bruce Alger, 96, amerikansk republikansk politiker + GĂŒnter Grass, 87, tysk författare och konstnĂ€r, mottagare av Nobelpriset i litteratur 1999 + Eduardo Galeano, 74, uruguayansk författare + 2018 â MiloĆĄ Forman, 86, tjeckisk-amerikansk filmregissör + 2019 â Paul Greengard, 93, amerikansk biolog, mottagare av Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin 2000 + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar +Anders Celsius, född 27 november 1701 i Uppsala, död 25 april 1744 i Uppsala, var en svensk vetenskapsman och astronom, i tjĂ€nst som professor i astronomi vid Uppsala universitet. Han Ă€r idag mest kĂ€nd för Celsiusskalan, den hundragradiga termometerskalan. En enhet för temperatur Ă€r dĂ€rför uppkallad efter honom och betecknas med ett stort C: °C. + +Biografi + +UppvĂ€xt och verksamhet + +SlĂ€kten Celsius hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n prĂ€stgĂ„rden Högen ("Höjen") i OvanĂ„ker, HĂ€lsingland. Anders Celsius var son till astronomen Nils Celsius (1658â1724) och Gunilla Spole (1672â1756), dotter till professorn i astronomi Anders Spole. Ăven Celsius farfar Magnus Celsius var en framstĂ„ende forskare inom astronomi och matematik, och farbrodern Olof Celsius d.Ă€. var en framstĂ„ende filolog. + +Anders Celsius var elev till Eric Burman, som i sin tur varit elev och eftertrĂ€dare till Anders Celsius far som professor i "högre matematik" (astronomi). NĂ€r Burman avled valdes Celsius enhĂ€lligt 1730 till hans eftertrĂ€dare som professor. TvĂ„ Ă„r dĂ€refter företog han en resa utanför Sverige, som varade i fem Ă„r. HuvudĂ€ndamĂ„let var att grundligt studera mera framstĂ„ende observatorier i Europa. Ă r 1730 publicerade han Nova Methodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi (En ny metod för att bestĂ€mma avstĂ„ndet mellan solen och jorden). + + +Utomlands vĂ€ckte han först uppseende genom sina i NĂŒrnberg (1733) utgivna Observationes de lumine boreali ab A. MDCCXVI ad A. MDCCXXXII partim a se, partim ab aliis, in Suecia habitas (Iakttagelser över norrsken i Sverige frĂ„n 1716 till 1732, dels av författaren sjĂ€lv, dels av andra). I Rom, dĂ€r pĂ„ven upplĂ€t sitt stora galleri pĂ„ Monte Cavallo Ă„t honom, gjorde han optiska experiment och fann bland annat, att mĂ„nens sken i nedan Ă€r 8 gĂ„nger svagare Ă€n fullmĂ„nens, att solen har ett 320 000 gĂ„nger starkare sken Ă€n mĂ„nen och att den pĂ„ sin middagshöjd skiner med ett 130 gĂ„nger starkare ljus Ă€n vid synranden. + +Celsius stödde skapandet av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien 1739, Ă€ven om han inte var en av de ursprungliga sex grundarna, och var den som föreslog namnet Vetenskapsakademi, snarare Ă€n de första förslagen Ekonomisk vetenskapssocitet eller vetenskapsgille. Celsius och Samuel Klingenstierna blev de första invalda ledamöterna av akademien. 1730 valdes han in som ledamot i Kungliga Vetenskaps-Societeten i Uppsala. + +Parisprojektet + +I Paris deltog Celsius i en dĂ„ intensiv vetenskaplig tvist angĂ„ende jordens form. Somliga trodde som Newton, att jorden var tillplattad vid polerna, medan andra med Cassini tĂ€nkte sig den som en citron eller ett Ă€gg. Astronomiska mĂ€tningar av en grad pĂ„ en meridianbĂ„ge inom Frankrikes grĂ€nser som var gjorda av Picard 1670, var inte tillrĂ€ckligt noggranna för att avgöra tvisten. För att lösa problemet behövde man tvĂ„ gradmĂ€tningar, den ena nĂ€rmare ekvatorn, den andra nĂ€rmare polen. + +Franska vetenskapsakademin bestĂ€mde sig för att bekosta sĂ„dana mĂ€tningar. En expedition under Bouguer sĂ€ndes 1735 till Peru (dagens Ecuador) och var borta i sju Ă„r. PĂ„ Celsius förslag (efter en idĂ© av Polhem) valde man att sĂ€nda en andra expedition under ledning av Maupertuis till Tornedalen 1736â37. I expeditionen deltog Ă€ven Celsius, Anders Hellant och Jonas Meldercreutz. + +Observationerna var förenade med anstrĂ€ngande strapatser. Inga vĂ€gar fanns, och det gĂ€llde inte bara att i mĂ„nader leva ute i vildmarken utan ocksĂ„ att frakta fina och dyrbara instrument genom skogar och myrar upp till svĂ„rtillgĂ€ngliga fjĂ€lltoppar. Ett detachement av nĂ€rmaste finska regemente kommenderades till hjĂ€lp. Soldaterna fĂ€llde skogen pĂ„ Ă„tta bergstoppar, och sedan uppsattes koniska signaler av barkade trĂ€dstammar. Resultaten frĂ„n expeditionerna visade att en breddgrad Ă€r lĂ€ngre vid den lapska Ă€n vid den peruanska gradmĂ€tningen, vilket överensstĂ€mde med Newtons förutsĂ€gelser. + +Under vistelsen i TorneĂ„ ordnade Celsius en meteorologisk station dĂ€r, vars journaler för tiden 1737â49 Ă€nnu finns bevarade. + +Uppsala observatorium + +Efter sin Ă„terkomst till Uppsala yrkade Celsius pĂ„ uppbyggandet av ett observatorium dĂ€r. Medel anslogs, och Uppsala astronomiska observatorium, det första i Sverige, blev fĂ€rdigt 1741. Celsius fortsatte nu med iver sina observationer, genom vilka han spridde nytt ljus över lĂ€ran om planeternas gĂ„ng, kometerna, stjĂ€rnornas aberration, ljusets brytning i atmosfĂ€ren med mera. Celsius bidrog Ă€ven till att hĂ€va Sveriges tveksamhet med att slutligen övergĂ„ till den gregorianska kalendern. + +Celsius var övertygad om orimligheten i den gĂ€ngse Ă„sikten att vĂ€derleken skulle bero pĂ„ planeternas stĂ€llning. Genom lĂ€ttlĂ€sta skrifter försökte han utrota all den vidskepelse som sĂ€rskilt betrĂ€ffande himlakropparna och deras rörelser fanns inrotad hos allmogen. I populĂ€ra skrifter lĂ€t han folk pĂ„ ett enkelt och lĂ€ttfattligt sĂ€tt fĂ„ kĂ€nnedom om vad vetenskapsmĂ€nnen utforskat. + +Han gjorde omkring 6 000 iakttagelser över kompassens missvisning, dennas dagliga förĂ€ndring, och den sĂ„ kallade inklinationen. Tillsammans med sin svĂ„ger Olof Hjorter upptĂ€ckte han norrskenets inverkan pĂ„ magnetnĂ„len. Genom samtidiga observationer av Celsius i Uppsala samt Canton och Graham i London konstaterades, att de stora magnetiska störningarna intrĂ€ffar samtidigt pĂ„ lĂ„ngt frĂ„n varandra belĂ€gna orter. + +FrĂ„n och med 1729 publicerade han meteorologiska observationer frĂ„n Uppsala. Tyngdaccelerationens skillnad med latituden mellan Uppsala och London bestĂ€mde han genom ett av Graham i London förfĂ€rdigat pendelur. Celsius utförde mĂ„nga mĂ€tningar inför skapandet av den Svenska generalkartan. Han var Ă€ven en av de första som fĂ€ste uppmĂ€rksamheten pĂ„ att Skandinavien lĂ„ngsamt höjer sig ovan havet, en process som pĂ„gĂ„tt sedan isavsmĂ€ltningen efter istiden. Denna landhöjning kallades pĂ„ Celsius tid för vattuminskningen. Som förklaring föreslog Celsius den felaktiga hypotesen att vattuminskningen berodde pĂ„ en över Ă„ren tilltagande avdunstning. + +Celsius som person + +Anders Celsius var en pionjĂ€r i Sverige för internationellt samarbete inom vetenskapen och hade ett rikt kontaktnĂ€t utomlands. Han hade ocksĂ„, enligt samtida vittnen, en vinnande personlighet som gjorde att han fick vĂ€nner vart han Ă€n kom. Utomlands mindes man honom lĂ€nge i de stĂ€der han besökt under sin lĂ„nga resa, och sĂ„ sent som under 1770-talet trĂ€ffade andra svenska resenĂ€rer pĂ„ mĂ„nga dĂ€r som mindes honom med glĂ€dje och beundran. Han beskrevs som "alltid glad och munter". Ăven om han var överhopad med arbete tycktes han aldrig ha brĂ„ttom men gjorde Ă€ndĂ„ sina uppgifter hastigt. Han hade enligt samtiden Ă€ven ett rikt mĂ„tt av humor, som ibland kunde dra mot sarkasm. + +Celsius avled Ă„r 1744 vid 42 Ă„rs Ă„lder till följd av tuberkulos, och Ă€r begravd i Gamla Uppsala kyrka. + +Celsius temperaturskala + +Idag Ă€r Celsius namn mest förknippat med den 100-gradiga Celsius-skalan, som han föreslog, och som bland annat anvĂ€nds i internationella enhetssystemet. Celsius satte först nollpunkten vid vattnets kokpunkt, och satte fryspunkten vid 100 grader pĂ„ skalan. Efter Celsius död vĂ€ndes skalan om, sĂ„ att fryspunkten intrĂ€ffar vid noll grader och kokpunkten vid 100 grader. Hans noggranna termometerstudier visade hur fixpunkten vid vattnets kokpunkt Ă€r beroende av lufttrycket. Detta mĂ„ste tas hĂ€nsyn till nĂ€r en termometer ska graderas vid tillverkningen. + +Publikationer +Celsius publicerade över hundratalet vetenskapliga och relaterade skrifter, bland annat 34 "avhandlingar" â dissertatio. De viktigaste av de mĂ„nga verken Ă€r: + Arithmetica eller rĂ€knekonst (1727) + Iakttagelser över norrsken i Sverige (1733) + Nova methodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi (en ny metod att avgöra avstĂ„ndet emellan solen och jorden) (1730) + Tankar om kometernes igenkomst (1735) + Bref om jordens figur (1736) + Memorial om calendarii förbĂ€ttrande hvad pĂ„skens rĂ€tta firande angĂ„r (1738). + Observationer om tvĂ€nne bestĂ€ndiga grader pĂ„ en thermometer. (1742) +Dessutom utgav han almanackor för Ă„ren 1728â45. + +Hedersbetygelser + +Namngivning + +Förutom temperaturskalan och dess tillhörande enhet har Anders Celsius fĂ„tt en mĂ„nkrater uppkallad efter sig, liksom asteroiden 4169 Celsius. MĂ„nkratern heter Celsius och namngavs 1935 av Internationella astronomiska unionen. + +Det rymduppdrag som den svenske astronauten Christer Fuglesangs deltog i för ESA kallades för The Celsius Mission. Ett flertal gator i Sverige Ă€r uppkallade efter Celsius, bland annat i Stockholm, Göteborg, Malmö och Uppsala. Ăven försvarskoncernen Celsius AB var uppkallad efter Anders Celsius. + +FrimĂ€rken +Anders Celsius finns pĂ„ svenska frimĂ€rken. I hĂ€ftet "Europa 82" frĂ„n 1982 finns han avbildad tillsammans med en termometer. + +Referenser + +Noter + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + + + Anders Celsius i Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (Band 8, 1929) + +Litteratur + sid. 145â[172]. + +Se Ă€ven + Celsius (slĂ€kt) + Grad Celsius + Celsiushuset + Uppsala astronomiska observatorium +GrannĂ€s +4169 Celsius + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + Uppsala universitet â Anders Celsius + Olof Beckman (2001). Anders Celsius â ur tidskriften Elementa + GradmĂ€tningsexpeditionen till Tornedalen 1736â37 + + + +Svenska professorer i astronomi +Svenska meteorologer +Personer verksamma vid Uppsala universitet +Uppsaliensare +Alumner frĂ„n Uppsala universitet +Ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien +Ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskaps-Societeten i Uppsala +Ledamöter av Royal Society +Svenska eponymer +Personer under frihetstiden +Svenska astronomer under 1700-talet +Meteorologer under 1700-talet +Svenska fysiker under 1700-talet +Svenska uppfinnare under 1700-talet +Forskare frĂ„n Uppsala +Gravsatta pĂ„ Gamla Uppsala kyrkogĂ„rd +Födda 1701 +Avlidna 1744 +MĂ€n +Ugglan +SBH +Den australiska ökenskovelfotspaddan (Notaden nichollsi) lever större delen av sitt liv nedgrĂ€vd i marken i ökenomrĂ„den. Enbart vid kraftiga regn kommer den fram för att fortplanta sig. Den har rund kropp och korta ben, och nĂ€r den ligger i dvala omsluts den av ett kokongliknande hölje av flera lager ömsat skinn, vilket minimerar avdunstning. + +UtbredningsomrĂ„det strĂ€cker sig frĂ„n Western Australia över södra Northern Territory och norra South Australia till vĂ€stra Queensland. Arten lever i lĂ„glandet upp till 100 meter över havet. Den vistas i halvöknar, i grĂ€smarker, i buskskogar och i trĂ€skmarker. Arten grĂ€ver till ett djup av en meter för att gömma sig. Fortplantningen sker efter regnfall. Honan lĂ€gger upp till 1000 Ă€gg som fĂ€stas vid vĂ€xter. Grodynglens metamorfos varar i tvĂ„ veckor. + +För bestĂ„ndet Ă€r inga hot kĂ€nda. Hela populationen anses vara stabil. IUCN listar arten som livskraftig (LC). + +Referenser + +Australtandpaddor +Groddjur i australiska regionen +Svenska adelsĂ€tter har funnits sedan medeltiden och har registrerats pĂ„ riddarhuset sedan 1600-talet. + +Historia +PĂ„ Alsnö möte skrevs Ă„r 1280 i Alsnö stadga att den tjĂ€nstemannaklass som gjorde vapentjĂ€nst till hĂ€st skulle Ă„tnjuta frĂ€lse, det vill sĂ€ga skattefrihet. Dessa var föregĂ„ngare till adeln men hade inte samma privilegier. + +För att en slĂ€kt ska rĂ€knas som svensk adel ska den ha erhĂ„llit svensk adelsvĂ€rdighet av den svenske regenten genom ett adelsbrev. För att vara representerad vid stĂ„ndsriksdagen krĂ€vdes att Ă€tten var introducerad pĂ„ Riddarhuset. + +NĂ€r den siste mannen i en adelsĂ€tt dött Ă€r den utslocknad: om kvinnliga medlemmar av adelsĂ€tten fortfarande lever kallas adelsĂ€tten utgĂ„ngen pĂ„ svĂ€rdssidan. "NĂ€r den sista medlemmen dör stryks Ă€tten i adelskalendern och i förteckningen över samtliga Ă€tter i registret tar man bort markeringen som tyder pĂ„ att Ă€tten har levande medlemmar och skriver ett kors + samt Ă„rtalet nĂ€r den dog ut pĂ„ svĂ€rdssidan och nĂ„got mera sker inte." (Riddarhusets kommentar) + +Sedan riddarhuset under 1600-talet instiftades att organisera och katalogisera Sveriges adel har 2 962 Ă€tter introducerats. Omkring 80% av dessa Ă€r utslocknade. NĂ„gra har ocksĂ„ strukits fast de fortlever, till exempel friherrliga Ă€tter som von Albedyhl, von Segerbaden och Wadenstierna. (Ătten har bott utomlands i över 100 Ă„r och har dĂ€rmed förlorat sĂ€te och stĂ€mma pĂ„ riddarhuset. Dock kan den adliga, kommendörsĂ€tten eller grevliga Ă€tten vara representerad i riddarhuset.) + +Observera att alla Ă€tterna först i vĂ„r tid har kallats vid "namn". Natt och Dag till exempel (kanske Sveriges Ă€ldsta riddarslĂ€kt) förde redan under tidig medeltid en delad sköld i svart och vitt men de kallade sig inte Natt och Dag för det. I sjĂ€lva verket tvingades sentida Ă€ttlingar att börja anvĂ€nda detta familjenamn under 1700-talet. Medeltida Ă€tter kallas dĂ€rför efter vad skölden liknar, och inom parentes: till exempel (rosor under stjĂ€rna), eller (tillbakaseende ulv). Andra, som Ă€tten Trolle, skrivs Trolle utan parentes men först nĂ€r de sjĂ€lva börjar kalla sig det i nĂ„got brev e.d. + +Högsta klassen av adelsmĂ€n (förutom kungen) under medeltid i Sverige Ă€r jarl, en uppenbarligen Ă€rftlig vĂ€rdighet. Jarlarna kommenderade över riddarna i riksrĂ„det, som stod över de vanliga riddarna. Steget under var sven av vapen, (de förde alltsĂ„ egen sköld) och sedan svenner, i allmĂ€nhet unga adelsmĂ€n som Ă€nnu inte dubbats till riddare. + +Idag finns obetitlad och betitlad adel. De betitlade adelsĂ€tterna Ă€r grevliga, och friherrliga Ă€tter. Begreppet lĂ„gadel och högadel anvĂ€nds inte av Riddarhuset men sammanfattningsvis kan sĂ€gas att högadeln utgjordes av de grevliga och de friherrliga Ă€tterna jĂ€mte riddarklassen frĂ„n och med 1778 inklusive de 300 Ă€ldsta adelsĂ€tterna och de sĂ„ kallade kommendörsĂ€tterna ("obetitlad högadel"), medan lĂ„gadeln utgjordes av de resterande obetitlade Ă€tterna. + +PĂ„ Sveriges riddarhus har de olika introducerade Ă€tterna ett nummer, dĂ€r grevar, friherrar och obetitlad adel numreras Ă„tskilt var för sig. I regel gĂ€ller att ju lĂ€gre numret Ă€r, desto tidigare har Ă€tten introducerats i Sverige (utom för de 100 lĂ€gsta numren som lottades vid Riddarhusets instiftande). Nr 1 bland grevar, BraheĂ€tten, Ă€r dock utslocknad sedan 1930. Det finns dock exempel pĂ„ att Ă€tter har introducerats pĂ„ en utslocknad Ă€tts nummer. + + Obs! Listan nedan Ă€r de medeltida namnen men inte komplett. En del Ă€r inte namn utan anger sĂ€tesgĂ„rd eller -by. Senare namnbildningar hade oftare prefix och/eller tvĂ„staviga kombinationer av typ Silfverhielm eller TornĂ©rhielm. Ju enklare namnet lĂ„ter, i synnerhet om det lĂ„ter som nĂ„got man snabbt kan mĂ„la pĂ„ en sköld, desto högre Ă„lder, alltsĂ„ mellan 1000-tal och 1500-tal. + +MedeltidsĂ€tter och Ă€tter adlade under 1500-talet +Algotssönerna +Ama +And +AspenĂ€sĂ€tten +Bagge av Botorp +BanĂ©r +Bengt Hafridssons Ă€tt +Bengt Bossons Ă€tt +Bengt MĂ„rtenssons Ă€tt +Bese +Berndes kom till Sverige 1554 frĂ„n Brandeburg, Johan Berndes d.Ă€. adlad 1574, utslocknad 1657. +Bexton +Bielke +Bille skĂ„nsk hög och uradelsslĂ€kt +BjĂ€lboĂ€tten +BlĂ„ +Boberg +Bonde +Brahe Grevlig Nr 1, Utslocknad Ă„r 1930 med greve Magnus Per Brahe, slottsherre till Rydboholms slott. +Bröms +Buth +BÄÄt +Carpelan +Creutz +EkaĂ€tten, utslocknad före 1553 +EketrĂ€ +Erikska Ă€tten, utslocknad Ă„r 1250, nĂ€r Erik den lĂ€spe och halte avled. +Fargalt +Fleming +Frille +FĂ„nöÀtten +Geete +Grip +Gumsehuvud +Gyllencreutz +Gyllenstierna (friherrliga Ă€tten G till UleĂ„borg utslocknade med Erik G. som dödades i slaget vid Poltava Ă„r 1709. Han hade tvĂ„ bröder dĂ€r den ena var dödfödd Ă„r 1671, och den andre, fĂ€nriken vid livgardet Ludvig G. blev ihjĂ€lstucken Ă„r 1698 i Stockholm.) +GĂ€dda +Hierta (Uradel, nĂ€mnd 1579) +Hiort af OrnĂ€s +HjortĂ€tten +Horn +HĂ„lbonĂ€sĂ€tten +HĂ„rd af Segerstad +HĂ€stehufvud +JĂ€gerhorn af Spurila +JĂ€gerhorn af Storby, utslocknad +Krumme +Kurck +KurjalaslĂ€kten, utslocknad +KĂ„se +KĂ€rling +Lejonansikte, Bengt Nilssons Ă€tt +Lejonansikte, Hemming Ădgislessons Ă€tt +Lejonbalk +Leijonhufvud Svensk uradel frĂ„n Södermanland, med bland de fem Ă€ldsta Ă€nnu levande adelsĂ€tterna av rent svenskt ursprung +Le moine (Lemoine eller Lemon) +Lilliehöök af GĂ€lared & KolbĂ€ck Svensk uradel frĂ„n VĂ€stergötland +Lilliehöök af FĂ„rdala nr.1 RiksrĂ„dsgrenen. Samma ursprung som adliga Ă€tten Lilliehöök af GĂ€lared & KolbĂ€ck. Sedermera utgrenad i den Friherrliga Ă€tten Lilliehöök nr.13 +Marsvin, utslocknad +Munck af Fulkila +MuurlaslĂ€kten, utslocknad +Mörner (tysk adel, ej medeltida svensk frĂ€lse) +Natt och Dag (började skriva sig Natt och Dag pĂ„ 1700-talet) +Odygd, utslocknad +Oxehufwud +Oxenstierna +Oxpanna +Porse +Posse +Prytz +Ribbing +Rosenhane +RosenstrĂ„le +RĂ„lamb +Silfversparre +Siöblad +Slatte +Somme +Sparre +Stake Utslocknad med ogifte Harald Gustav Johansson Stake död 1795. (Andra uppgifter menar att Ă€tten Stake utslocknade pĂ„ svĂ€rdssidan den 31 augusti 1763 med majoren och riddaren Karl Magnus Stake) +Stenbock +StjĂ€rnkors, utslocknad +Stolpe, utslocknad +StĂ„lhandske adlad 1579 +StĂ„larm, utslocknad +StĂ„ng +Sture, Flera Ă€tter med oklart slĂ€ktskap, eller slĂ€ktskap pĂ„ kvinnolinjer, bar detta namn. Alla Ă€r utslocknade. +Svinhufvud af Qvalstad +Svinhufvud i Westergötland +Sverkerska Ă€tten Utslocknad Ă„r 1222. Siste representant: Johan Sverkersson. +Tanne +Tavast +Tigerstedt +Tott, utslocknad +Tre rutor af Slestad +Tre rosor Grevlig, utslocknad +Trolle +Ulfsparre +UlvĂ€tten +UpplĂ€nning +VasaĂ€tten +VinstorpaĂ€tten +Ărnfot [utslocknad pĂ„ svĂ€rdssidan pĂ„ 1470-talet, pĂ„ spinnsidan mellan Ă„r 1505 och Ă„r 1511 +Ărnsparre + +Adlade under 1600-talet + +SilfverlÄÄs Adlad 1647-03-18 (introd. s. Ă„. under nr 377). +Aminoff. Rysk medeltida bojarĂ€tt frĂ„n Novgorod. Svenskt sköldebrev 1618-09-24. Adlig Ă€tt nr. 456. En gren lever i Finland och tillhör detta lands adel. +Björnberg Svensk slĂ€kt frĂ„n VĂ€stergötland. Adlad 1646. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1647, som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 359. +Armfelt, SlĂ€kt som hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n JĂ€mtland. Adlad 1648. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1650 som adlig Ă€tt nummer 458. +Bohm. Adlad 1651-07-17. Introducerad 1652 som adlig slĂ€kt nr 540. +Planting-Bergloo, ursprungligen frĂ„n Tyskland. Anders Planting, född 1619, död 1682. Adlad 1655, introducerad som nr 628. +Johan Lange, nobil Palmström, nr 867, född 19 juni 1621 i Rewhal (Reval). Död 1 januari 1686 Stockholm. Begraven i S:t Jacobs kyrka dĂ€r hans vapen uppsattes. Adlades 16 december 1674 och introducerades pĂ„ Riddarhuset 1675. Ătten anses utgĂ„ngen pĂ„ manssidan 17 maj 1746. Johan Palmström kom att tjĂ€na under drottning Kristina. Han Ă€r med all sannolikhet sekreterare vid drottningens kröning den 20 oktober 1650. +Anckarström. Utslocknad med kungamördaren Johan Jakob Anckarström som dömdes att förlora "liv, Ă€ra och adelskap". (Termen lyder oftast: "miste Ă€ra, liv och gods). Ătten fick inte lĂ€ngre heta Anckarström utan bytte namn till Löwenström efter mördarens frus flicknamn Löwen. Ătten Löwenström utdog 1863. +Ulf Melcher Axelsson adlades Ă„r 1620 men hade en enda son som var sinnessjuk. Ătten utslocknade med sonen. +De Geer, Louis, adlad 1641. Ursprung Belgien och NederlĂ€nderna (vallon). Tre grenar, introducerade i slutet av 1700-t. +GyllensvĂ€rd Per Joensson GyllensvĂ€rd adlades 1632. Introducerades 1638, som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 240. +Gyllenpistol Utslocknad - Henrik Gyllenpistol adlades Ă„r 1646. Ătten introducerades 1647, som adlig slĂ€kt nr 347. Ătten utgĂ„ngen pĂ„ svĂ€rdssidan 1692. +von Witten af Stensjö - Casper Witte adlades Ă„r 1649. +Klingstedt - Nils Jonsson adlades Ă„r 1660. +Wijnbladh - Johan Winblad adlades Ă„r 1649. +von Mentzer - SlĂ€kt som hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n Meissen, Sachsen, Tyskland. Liborius kom i svensk tjĂ€nst 1620 och adlades 1663 som adlig slĂ€kt nr 720. +StĂ„lhammar. Per Jönsson Hammar adlades Ă„r 1650. Ătten introducerades som nummer 476 men detta Ă€ndrades sedan till 496. +Prytz. +Breitholtz - Claes Breitholtz fick svensk adelskap 1650 och introducerades (nr 484) pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus samma Ă„r. Hans bror Mauritz Breitholtz i Livland adlades 1653 men tog ej introduktion. Ătten tillhörde 1624 Livlands ridderskap. +Crafoord- Skotsk slĂ€kt frĂ„n Aberdeenshire. Hette tidigare Craufurd of Fedderate och kom till Sverige sannolikt under Karl IX:s regeringsĂ„r. Introducerades i Riddarhuset 1668, som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 743. +Belfrage, SlĂ€kt som hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n Skottland med Giulielm Belfrage till Pennington och Tulliochie vid grevskapet i Kinross som Ă€ldste angivne stamfader. Introducerades i Riddarhuset 1668, som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 782. +Leijonancker Adlig Ă€tt no.778 Nobilit den 18 augusti 1666 - Introducerad i Riddarhuset 1668. Den frĂ„n Skottland bördige Daniel Young (1627-1688) kom till Sverige pĂ„ 1650-talet och adlades Ă„r 1666 till namnet Leijonancker av Konung Karl den XI för sina förtjĂ€nster som underleverantör till den kungliga svenska armĂ©n. +Gyllenhaal, adlad 1652 samt introducerades pĂ„ Riddarhuset 1672 under nr 814. +Stierncrantz, adlad 15 februari 1674 samt introducerades pĂ„ Riddarhuset 1675 under nr 854. Utslocknad. +Schönström Adlig Ă€tt no 1056. SlĂ€kten kom ursprungligen frĂ„n Dalarna. Assessorn i Bergskollegiet, Peter Svedberg adlades Schönström 1683. Introducerades i Riddarhuset 1686. SlĂ€kten utslocknad pĂ„ svĂ€rdssidan 1848.Se Ă€ven Stierna, Stiernhielm och Swedenborg. +Spens. Friherrlig Ă€tt no 9, sedermera upphöjd i grevligt stĂ„nd. Den frĂ„n Skottland bördige Sir James Spens upphöjdes 1628 till friherre av konung Gustav II Adolf med Orreholmen som förlĂ€ning. +JĂ€gerskiöld - Claes JĂ€gerhorn adlades 1686 och introducerades 1689 pĂ„ nummer 1100. Claes JĂ€gerhorn bytte i samband med introduktionen sitt namn till JĂ€gerskiöld till Ă„tskillnad frĂ„n Ă€tterna JĂ€gerhorn. Vissa medlemmar av Ă€tten skriver sig Ă€ven Jegerschöld. +HiĂ€rne - Urban HiĂ€rne adlades 1689 och introducerades pĂ„ nummer 1149 samma Ă„r. Vissa medlemmar av Ă€tten skriver sig Ă€ven HjĂ€rne. +Bongenhielm Svensk slĂ€kt frĂ„n Södermanland. Hette förut Bonge. Adlad 1694. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1699, som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 1352. +Walkendorff - Tysk och dansk uradel frĂ„n Bayern eller Tyrolen. Kom till Sverige via Danmark dĂ€r den tillhörde högadeln, frĂ€mst företrĂ€dd av rikets andre man efter kungen, righofsmester Christopher Valkendorff (1525-1601). En annan framstĂ„ende medlem av Ă€tten var hans farbror Ă€rkebiskopen i Nidaros Erik Valkendorf (1465-1522). Ătten naturaliserades genom kunglig resolution given den 7 juni 1664 i Stockholm av konung Karl XI:s förmyndarregering, de introducerades i riddarklassen samma Ă„r den 30 juni, som Ă€tt nr 25 i Riddarhuset, genom guvernören i Landskrona sedermera vice landsdomaren i SkĂ„ne Christopher Walkendorff till Ellinge (1621-1690). +Crusebjörn - Svensk adel dĂ€r Peter Kruse och Jesper Crusebjörn ingĂ„r. +Ă kerfelt, adlig Ă€tt, hĂ€rstammande frĂ„n Johan Olofsson, vilken 1646 adlades och dĂ„ fick namnet Ă kerfelt och introducerades pĂ„ Riddarhuset under nr 387. SlĂ€ktnamnet har Ă€ven skrivits Ackerfelt, von Ackerfelt och Ă kerfeldt. Den pĂ„ svenska riddarhuset introducerade Ă€tten utslocknade 1836, enligt Riddarhusets förteckning + Du Rietz - GrĂ©goire François Du Rietz naturaliserade som svensk adel 1651. Ătten introducerades 1660, som adlig Ă€tt nr. 666. + Planting-Bergloo, 1682. MichaĂ«l Planting adlad med samma namn och sköld som sin farbror Anders. Introducerad som nummer 1016. + Freidenfelt, svensk adlig Ă€tt adlad av konung Karl XI Ă„r 1686, introducerad pĂ„ Riddarhuset Ă„r 1689 som adlig Ă€tt nummer 1102. + Hellenstierna - Johan Heller, adlad Hellenstierna Adlad 1694-12-22 (introd. 1697 under nr 1321). + Ekehielm, adlad 1647 som adlig Ă€tt nummer 380. Utdöd 1751-02-06. + Leijonhielm, adlad 1667 som adlig Ă€tt nummer 784. Ăttens sist levande manliga medlem upphöjd i friherrlig vĂ€rdighet. +Von Porat, adlad 1699 som adlig Ă€tt nummer 1381. + +Adlade under 1700-talet + + Stenfelt adlades Ă„r 1719. Ătten introducerades Ă„r 1743 som adelsfamilj nummer 1867. + + Adlerbielke adlades Ă„r 1719. Ătten introducerades Ă„r 1720 som adelsfamilj nummer 1675. + + Heijkenskjöld adlades Ă„r 1761. Ătten introducerades Ă„r 1774 som adelsfamilj nummer 1983. + + Hiort af OrnĂ€s slĂ€kten adlades Ă„r 1768 och introducerades pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1774 i Sveriges riddarhus, som adelsfamilj nr. 2012. + + von Bahr SlĂ€kten Ă€r en Pommersk slĂ€kt frĂ„n Stralsund och adlades Ă„r 1719 och introducerades Ă„r 1720 i Sveriges riddarhus, som adelsfamilj nr. 1648. + +Adlerberg Johan Aron A. adlades Ă„r 1776 men dog redan Ă„r 1785 av att ha Ă€tit gift. familjen bytte dock senar namn till Lindberg + + Montgomery. Urgammal engelsk-skotsk slĂ€kt. Ursprungligen frĂ„n Normandie. Inkom till Sverige kring 1720. Naturaliserad 1736, en ytterligare slĂ€kt med samma namn adopterad Ă„r 1774 och introducerad med samma nummer. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1776, som adlig slĂ€kt nr 1960 + + Munck af Rosenschöld. Dansk slĂ€kt. Hette förut Munck. Adlad 1799. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1799, som adlig slĂ€kt nr: 2160. + + von Wachenfeldt. Tysk slĂ€kt Hannover, Mecklenburg. Hette förut Wachenhausen. Adlad 1688. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1723 som adlig slĂ€kt nr: 1743. Medlemmar av slĂ€kten skriver sig von Wachenfeldt, vissa Ă€ven von Wachenfelt. + + Wadenstierna. Svensk slĂ€kt frĂ„n Uppland. Hette förut Wadensteen. Adlad 1702. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1703. Som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 1387. Upphöjdes 1766 i friherrligt stĂ„nd men har inte för denna vĂ€rdighet tagit introduktion pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus. Ăr introducerad som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 98 pĂ„ Finlands Riddarhus samt som Baroni i Baltikum. + + Swedenborg Svensk slĂ€kt frĂ„n Dalarna. Ăttlingar till Jesper Svedberg. Adlad 1719. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1720 som adlig slĂ€kt nr. 1598. Se Ă€ven Stierna, Stiernhielm och Schönström. + + af Wetterstedt. Svensk slĂ€kt frĂ„n VĂ€stergötland. Hette förut Wetterstedt. Samma slĂ€kt som adliga slĂ€kten med samma namn. Adlad 1772. Friherrlig 1806. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1776 som friherrlig slĂ€kt nr: 327. Endast huvudmannen har friherrlig vĂ€rdighet. + + MannerstrĂ„le. Finsk slĂ€kt frĂ„n Ingermanland. Hette förut NeĂŒman. Adlad 1759. Introducerad pĂ„ Sveriges Riddarhus Ă„r 1776, som adlig slĂ€kt nr: 2069. + von SchĂ©ele. Pommersk slĂ€kt adlades Ă„r 1768 och introducerades Ă„r 1776 i Sveriges riddarhus, som adelsfamilj nr. 2059. + + Seton. Skotsk uradel kĂ€nd sedan 1000-talet, ursprungligen flamlĂ€ndsk. Introducerades pĂ„ Sveriges riddarhus Ă„r 1785, som adlig Ă€tt nr. 2139. + +Adlade under 1800-talet + Dardel, schweizisk Ă€tt, kaptenen i engelsk tjĂ€nst Georges-Alexandre Dardel kom till Sverige 1808 och adlades hĂ€r 1810 med namnet Dardel, slĂ€ktmedlemmarna skriver sig de Dardel, eller von Dardel. + +von Koch, majoren Nils Koch adlades Ă„r 1815. +Reventlow, den danske författaren och juristen Einar Carl Detlef Reventlow flyttade frĂ„n Danmark till Sverige och blev svensk adelsman (naturaliserades) 1860. Han introducerades 1861 pĂ„ nummer 2335 och var sonsonson till den danske greven tillika generalen Christian Ditlev Reventlow. + +Adlade under 1900-talet +Hedin UpptĂ€cktsresanden Sven Hedin adlades Ă„r 1902 av kung Oscar II, och blev den sist adlade i Sverige. Konungen miste rĂ€tten att adla Ă„r 1974 nĂ€r den nya regeringsformen trĂ€dde i kraft. + +Andra utslocknade Ă€tter +Adelheim Utslocknad. Brukspatronen Carl Fredrik A. avsade sig sitt adelskap och kallade sig Borgström. Han tog en överdos opium Ă„r 1806 och slĂ€ckte dĂ€rmed sin Ă€tt. +Bergenskjöld - löjtnanten vid NĂ€rkes regemente John B. var sĂ„ deprimerad pĂ„ grund av dĂ„liga affĂ€rer och en alltmer belastad ekonomi att han 1867 tog sitt eget liv och dĂ€rmed avslutade sin Ă€tt. +Ehrenskiöld - Carl Gustaf E. var ute och red nĂ€r hans hĂ€st kastade av sin ryttare, som avled och dĂ€rmed avslutade sin Ă€tt. +von Flygarell - Kornetten och vaktmĂ€staren vid livgardet till hĂ€st, Carl Fredrik F., avled 1834 i kolera och slöt dĂ€rmed sin Ă€tt. +Kanterberg - Johan Fredrik K. var löjtnant vid livdragonerna pĂ„ Drottningholm. Han dog 1787 i en duell och slöt sin Ă€tt. +Plantenstedt - HovrĂ€ttsassessorn Olof P. dog 1721 efter att ha blivit överkörd pĂ„ gatan och fĂ„tt bĂ„da benen krossade. Med honom dog Ă€tten ut. +Stegman - Utslockande med översten Jakob S. som drunknade nĂ€r skeppet Regalskeppet Stora Kronan sjönk 1676. + +Referenser + +Se Ă€ven +Adel i Sverige +Svensk uradel +Alfabetisk lista över pĂ„ Riddarhuset introducerade svenska adelsĂ€tter +Kronologisk lista över pĂ„ Riddarhuset introducerade svenska Ă€tter +Genealogi för svensk adel + + +Genealogi i Sverige +Alseda (uttalas all-seda) Ă€r kyrkby i Alseda socken i Vetlanda kommun i Jönköpings lĂ€n belĂ€gen cirka 12 kilometer frĂ„n Vetlanda i EmĂ„dalen lĂ€ngs landsvĂ€gen mot MĂ„lilla. Vid smĂ„ortsavgrĂ€nsningen 1995 hade folkmĂ€ngden ökat tillrĂ€ckligt sĂ„ att en smĂ„ort kunde avgrĂ€nsas inom omrĂ„det. Vid nĂ€sta avgrĂ€nsning Ă„r 2000 hade folkmĂ€ngden minskat igen och smĂ„orten upphörde. + +Den 23 maj 1741 besöktes orten av Carl von LinnĂ©. + +KĂ€llor + +Orter i Vetlanda kommun +Tidigare smĂ„orter i Sverige +Alseda socken +Arlanda Express Ă€r det produktnamn under vilket A-Train AB med tĂ„g trafikerar strĂ€ckan mellan Stockholm C och Arlanda flygplats, över Ostkustbanan och Arlandabanan utan mellanliggande stopp. Förbindelsen Arlanda Express invigdes den 24 november 1999. Restiden frĂ„n Stockholm C till Arlanda, eller omvĂ€nt, Ă€r generellt 20 minuter, dock förekommer enstaka avgĂ„ngar i morgon- och eftermiddagsrusning med nĂ„got lĂ€ngre gĂ„ngtid. Under högtrafik gĂ„r tĂ„gen upp till var tionde minut, övrig tid var 15:e eller 30:e minut, utom nattetid. + +Stationer +Vid ankomsten till flygplatsen stannar Arlanda Express först vid stationen Arlanda Södra, som betjĂ€nar terminalerna 2, 3 och 4, dĂ€refter fortsĂ€tter tĂ„get till slutstationen Arlanda Norra, som betjĂ€nar terminal 5 och Sky City. AvstĂ„ndet mellan de tvĂ„ underjordiska stationerna Ă€r ca 400 meter. Vid Arlanda har det Ă€ven byggts genomgĂ„ende tunnelspĂ„r för andra tĂ„g, med stationen Arlanda C som nĂ„s frĂ„n Sky City. Arlanda Express trafikerar dock inte den stationen utan endast Arlanda Södra och Arlanda Norra. + +Sky City Ă€r en byggnad mellan terminal 4 och 5 dĂ€r Ă€ven vidare information om fjĂ€rrtrafiken kan fĂ„s och biljetter köpas. + +Vid Stockholm C trafikerar Arlanda Express spĂ„r 1â2, med biljettkontor och taxiangöring vid Vasaplan, ca 100 meter norr om Centralhallen. + +Fordon + +Arlanda Express anvĂ€nder tĂ„gsĂ€tten X3 tillverkade av Alstom. Högsta hastighet för tĂ„gsĂ€tten Ă€r 200 km/h. Endast ett litet antal tĂ„gsĂ€tt, 7 stycken, har tillverkats. X3 Ă€r ett fyrvagnars motorvagnstĂ„gsĂ€tt som Ă€r permanent sammankopplat. Totalt Ă€r tĂ„gsĂ€ttet 93,4 m lĂ„ngt och har en tomvikt av 193,2 ton, motsvarande 1,015 ton per sittplats. Vagnskorgarna (karosserna) Ă€r byggda av stĂ„lplĂ„t. Totalt har tĂ„gsĂ€ttet 16 axlar, varav hĂ€lften Ă€r drivna. X3 har totalt 190 sittplatser, i genomsnitt cirka 48 platser per vagn. + +Inverkan pĂ„ resemarknaden +Under 2017 reste 3,7 miljoner passagerare med Arlanda Express, enligt ett pressmeddelande frĂ„n maj 2018 (i genomsnitt cirka 10 000 resenĂ€rer per dag). +Arlandabanan, som ocksĂ„ trafikeras av fjĂ€rr- och pendeltĂ„g hade samtidigt 5,8 miljoner resande. + +Samtidigt hade Arlanda runt 18,1 miljoner resenĂ€rer (7 % fler Ă€n 2005), varav mĂ„nga byter mellan flyg. Marknadsandelen av markbundna resor till/frĂ„n Arlanda (inklusive bil) Ă€r cirka 30-40 %. Det vanligaste resesĂ€ttet till Arlanda lĂ€ngs marken Ă€r med bil (som oftast parkeras; mindre ofta hĂ€mtas/lĂ€mnas resenĂ€ren). Av de anstĂ€llda pĂ„ Arlanda Ă„kte runt 5 % med tĂ„get Ă„r 2004. + +För resenĂ€rer mellan Göteborg och Stockholm Ă€r tĂ„g och flyg konkurrenter. + +ĂgarförhĂ„llanden + +Företaget som driver Arlanda Express heter A-Train AB, och har fram till 2050 ensamrĂ€tt pĂ„ trafiken (en avtalsenlig förlĂ€ngning med tio Ă„r gjordes hösten 2019). A-Train AB Ă€gdes frĂ„n och med januari 2004 till 100 % av australiska Macquarie Group, efter att tidigare ha Ă€gts av det konsortium som byggde Arlandabanan. + +Sedan 2014 Ă€gs A-Train av ett konsortium bestĂ„ende av State Super, Sunsuper och SAFE. STC Pooled Fund (State Super) Ă€r en australiensisk pensionsfond som förvaltar pensionstillgĂ„ngar för offentligt anstĂ€llda. State Super Ă€ger 37,5 % av aktierna. Sunsuper Pooled Superannuation Trust (Sunsuper) Ă€r en av Australiens största pensionsfonder. Sunsuper Ă€ger 25 % av aktierna. State Administration of Foreign Exchange (SAFE) Ă€r ett underdepartement till kinesiska regeringen med ansvar för kinesiska statens utlandsplaceringar. SAFE kontrolleras av kinesiska centralbanken, som har uppdragit Ă„t SAFE att förvalta dess utlĂ€ndska placeringar. Vid investeringar i fastigheter och infrastruktur i Europa företrĂ€ds SAFE av det engelska dotterbolaget Ginko Tree Investment Ltd (GTIL). SAFE/GTIL Ă€ger 37,5 % av aktierna. + +Ekonomi +Bolaget subventioneras av svenska staten och har fĂ„tt 260 miljoner i subventioner. + +NĂ€r Macquarie Group köpte Arlanda Express lĂ„nade de nya Ă€garna ut 450 miljoner kronor till Arlanda Express till en rĂ€nta pĂ„ 13 procent. DĂ€rigenom stiger dotterbolagets finansiella kostnader, vinsten minskar och dĂ€rmed betalar Arlanda Express ingen skatt i Sverige. RĂ€nteutgifterna gĂ„r till moderbolaget i Luxemburg dĂ€r aktieutdelning beskattas lĂ„gt. Genom detta arrangemang betalade Arlanda Express ingen skatt mellan 2004 och 2011, utan fick i stĂ€llet 76 miljoner tillbaka ifrĂ„n Skatteverket. + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + LĂ€s mer om X3 pĂ„ jĂ€rnvĂ€g.net + Arlanda Express + +Svenska jĂ€rnvĂ€gsbolag +JĂ€rnvĂ€g i Stockholms lĂ€n +Arlanda +Bildanden 1999 +SnabbtĂ„g +Vitamin C omdirigerar hit. För artisten med detta namn, se Colleen Fitzpatrick. + +Askorbinsyra, mer kĂ€nt som C-vitamin, Ă€r en organisk syra och antioxidant. + +Askorbinsyra kan syntetiseras ur glukos av de flesta vĂ€xter och djur. MĂ€nniskor, vissa apor, marsvin och nĂ„gra fĂ„ andra djurarter har emellertid en enzymdefekt som gör att dessa saknar förmĂ„gan att producera eget C-vitamin. IstĂ€llet mĂ„ste dĂ„ detta intas via kosten. FödoĂ€mnen som innehĂ„ller höga halter av C-vitamin Ă€r till exempel potatis, grönsaker, citrusfrukter, sura bĂ€r, paprika, nypon, svarta vinbĂ€r, röda vinbĂ€r, jordgubbar samt en del inĂ€lvsmat sĂ„som lever och binjurar. + +Askorbinsyra Ă€r vĂ€rmekĂ€nslig. Vid den lĂ„ngvariga varmhĂ„llning och upprepade uppvĂ€rmning som kan förekomma dĂ„ mat distribueras frĂ„n centralkök, bryts efterhand askorbinsyran ned. Matens vĂ€rde som C-vitaminkĂ€lla minskar dĂ„. + +1937 fick Norman Haworth Nobelpriset i kemi för sitt arbete med att utreda askorbinsyrans struktur (det delades med Paul Karrer som fick pris för sitt arbete med vitaminer). Medicinpriset det Ă„ret gick till Albert Szent-Györgyi för hans studier av askorbinsyrans biologiska funktioner. + +Askorbinsyra Ă€r vattenlöslig. Salter och estrar av askorbinsyra fĂ„r Ă€ndelsen -at och kallas askorbater. + +Askorbinsyra finns i livsmedelsbutikers kryddhylla och en pĂ„se pĂ„ 15 g motsvarar 200 dagsdoser ĂĄ 75 mg. Som tillsats (antioxidationsmedel) i livsmedel har det E-nummer . + +Askorbinsyra namngavs pĂ„ 1920-talet av Albert von Szent Györgyi och Norman Haworth som tog fasta pĂ„ dess egenskap att motverka skörbjugg, eng. anti-scorbutic (scorbutic = nĂ„got som har att göra med skörbjugg). Namnet Vitamin C Ă€r nĂ„got Ă€ldre och hĂ€rrör frĂ„n en lista upprĂ€ttad av Kazimierz Funk över nĂ€ringsĂ€mnen, kallade vitaminer, som orsakade sjukdom hos mĂ€nniskor som hade brist pĂ„ dem. De fick sedan olika bokstĂ€ver som beteckning eftersom man inte visste deras struktur. + +Funktion i mĂ€nniskokroppen +C-vitamin Ă€r nödvĂ€ndigt för bland annat bindvĂ€vens Ă€mnesomsĂ€ttning. Det underlĂ€ttar jĂ€rnupptagningen i magen (överför metalljonerna till enzymerna). Dess benĂ€genhet att oxideras ger askorbinsyran en antioxidativ effekt pĂ„ andra Ă€mnen i kroppen. + +Rekommenderat dagligt intag (RDI) för vuxna Ă€r enligt svenska normer 75 mg/dag (85/100 mg för gravida/ammande). Det rĂ€cker dock med 10 mg/dag för att undvika skörbjugg. Se vidare RDI-tabell. + +Lindrig brist kan ge blödningar i tandköttet (vilket kan leda till tandlossning), försĂ€mrad sĂ„rlĂ€kning, trötthet, muskelsvaghet, ökad risk för infektioner. Allvarlig brist av askorbinsyra ger skörbjugg. + +Askorbinsyra Ă€r vattenlösligt, vilket gör att ett eventuellt överskott försvinner ur kroppen med urinen. Det finns exempel pĂ„ att personer med benĂ€genhet att bilda njursten fĂ„r just njursten om de intar kroniskt stora mĂ€ngder av askorbinsyra. + +Forskning har inte kunnat visa nĂ„got samband mellan att inta antioxidanter sĂ„som askorbinsyra och minskad förekomst av sjukdom. Antioxidanter i piller och kapslar har inte visat sig ha positiva effekter, utan kan vara skadliga i höga doser. Askorbinsyra tycks dock ha en viss effekt pĂ„ sjukdomsförloppet vid förkylning. + +AnvĂ€ndning i hudvĂ„rd +C-vitamin har exploderat i popularitet och anvĂ€nds idag i mĂ€ngder av olika hudvĂ„rdsprodukter sĂ„som i ansiktskrĂ€mer, masker och serum. MĂ€ngder av fördelar, med tveksamt vetenskapligt stöd, attribueras till C-vitamin, i form av askorbinsyra, i husvĂ„rd som t.ex. + + Skydda huden mot pĂ„verkan frĂ„n solen , föroreningar och fria radikaler. + Motverka pigmentering i huden som ex. Ă€rrbildning och melasma. + SĂ€gs jĂ€mna till hudtonen. + SĂ€gs frĂ€mja kollagenproduktionen m.m. + +Statistik avseende intag av C-vitamin i Sverige +I Riksmaten - 2010-11 (en undersökning av kostvanor i den svenska befolkningen genomförd av Livsmedelsverket mellan 2010 och 2011) var det rapporterade genomsnittliga intaget av C-vitamin per dag genom kosten (kosttillskott ej inrĂ€knade) 96 mg för kvinnor, 93 mg för mĂ€n och 95 mg för hela vuxna befolkningsgruppen i undersökningen. I samma undersökning uppgav ocksĂ„ 21 procent att de intog kosttillskott i nĂ„gon form, varav 9 procent uppgav att de intog C-vitamin-preparat. + +Reaktion i livsmedel +Under vĂ„ren 2006 fick allmĂ€nheten reda pĂ„ att man upptĂ€ckt att en kemisk reaktion med en farlig produkt kan ske i livsmedel som innehĂ„ller askorbinsyra och natriumbensoat (E 211), typiskt lĂ€sk. NĂ€r dessa tvĂ„ reagerar under vĂ€rme med varandra bildas det mycket carcinogena Ă€mnet bensen. Det förekommer dock mycket diskussion om huruvida de bensenhalter som uppstĂ„r i dessa reaktioner Ă€r relevanta ur risksynpunkt eller ej, eftersom inga mĂ€tbara mĂ€ngder förekommer i mĂ„nga undersökta lĂ€sker och det finns andra, större bensenkĂ€llor sĂ„som trafik. + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +Antioxidationsmedel +Organiska syror +Sockersyror +Vitaminer +Dihydrofuraner +Furanoner +Apelsin (CiÊčtrus Ă auraÊčntium Sinensis-gruppen (synonym CiÊčtrus Ă sineÊčnsis)) Ă€r ett litet trĂ€d med vita blommor inom citrusslĂ€ktet. TrĂ€det har 5 till drygt 10 cm stora frukter med orangefĂ€rgat skal och saftigt sötsyrligt fruktkött. Apelsiner Ă€ts oftast fĂ€rska, som juice och som marmelad. +Dagens citrusvĂ€xter hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n ett tiotal vilda förfĂ€der. Dessa har ofta korsat sig med varandra ute i det vilda, vilket gör att citrusfrukternas historia Ă€r dunkel. + +Historik +Apelsinen Ă€r en kulturprodukt som hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n södra Asien och spred sig till Europa med hjĂ€lp av spanjorer under 1400- eller 1500-talet. Frukten blev snabbt eftertraktad i förmögnare kretsar dĂ€r sĂ€rskilda hus för apelsiner, orangerier, byggdes vid slott och herrgĂ„rdar. + +Etymologi + +Den Ă€ldsta benĂ€mningen hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n Indien pĂ„ sanskrit: nÄraáč ga (à€šà€Ÿà€°à€à„à€ ). PĂ„ persiska heter apelsinen nÄrang (Ùۧ۱ÙÚŻ )och arabiska nÄranj (Ùۧ۱ÙŰŹ ). PĂ„ engelska och franska har namnet utvecklats till orange som ocksĂ„ Ă€r namnet pĂ„ fĂ€rgen orange. PĂ„ engelska anvĂ€nds bĂ„de orange och sweet orange, medan orange ocksĂ„ kan anvĂ€ndas nĂ€rbeslĂ€ktade frukter (som mandarin och pomerans). + +Andra sprĂ„k speglar uppfattningen att det var portugiserna som förde apelsinen till Europa, albanskans portokall, grekiskans portokali och turkiskans portakal (ÏÎżÏÏÎżÎșΏλÎč). Svenskan fick kontakt med ordet via hollĂ€ndare och tyskar som skapat ett namn som syftade pĂ„ fruktens förmodade ursprung: "KinaĂ€pple", som heter Apfelsine pĂ„ lĂ„gtyska, varav svenskans apelsin. + +Odling +Apelsinen odlas nĂ€stan uteslutande i omrĂ„den med medelhavsklimat, till exempel i lĂ€nderna runt Medelhavet, i Australien, Sydafrika och södra USA samt i Syd- och Mellanamerika. Apelsin föredrar ett subtropiskt, frostfritt klimat med temperaturer frĂ„n 25â35 °C och vĂ€ldrĂ€nerade jordar. För kommersiell odling förökas apelsinen genom ympning pĂ„ en grundstam av till exempel citron, citrontörne eller apelsin. Omkring 6â9 mĂ„nader efter blomning Ă€r frukten mogen för skörd. Det dröjer 10âĂ„r innan trĂ€den uppnĂ„r full skörd, det vill sĂ€ga cirka 90â130âkg frukt per Ă„r. + +Man man skiljer mellan blonda apelsiner med ljust, gulorange fruktkött, blodapelsiner, som har rött fruktkött, och navelapelsiner, med blont fruktkött med en liten krans av extra klyftor överst pĂ„ frukten. Vanliga sorter band blonda apelsiner Ă€r âValenciaâ, âShamoutiâ, âCadeneraâ och âBernaâ. Till blodapelsinerna hör âSanguinelloâ, âDoblefinaâ, âMoroâ och âSpanish Sanguinelliâ. Navelapelsinsorter Ă€r âWashingtonâ, âNavelinaâ och âNewhallâ. + +Produktion + +Import +2009 importerades 77 866 ton apelsiner till Sverige, inklusive pomeranser. Dessutom importerades 76 339 ton övriga citrusfrukter. + +Se Ă€ven + Blodapelsin (sĂ€ljs Ă€ven som röd apelsin) + +KĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + +VinrutevĂ€xter +Citrusfrukter +Ap VĂ€xtindex +Alsike Ă€r en tĂ€tort i Knivsta kommun i Alsike socken. Orten uppstod som ett stationssamhĂ€lle vid Alsike station mellan Stockholm och Uppsala. Den har efter millennieskiftet vuxit kraftigt, dĂ„ kommunen förlagt merparten av Knivstas nybebyggelse dit. + +Alsike Ă€r belĂ€get i Knivsta kommun, vid Ostkustbanan cirka 4 km norr om centralorten Knivsta dĂ€r nĂ€rmaste jĂ€rnvĂ€gsstation finns. Ăven Alsike kommer att fĂ„ en station efter spĂ„rutbyggnader. Söder om Alsike ansluter riksvĂ€g 77 frĂ„n NorrtĂ€lje. + +Alsike kyrka vid MĂ€laren (Ekoln) ligger cirka 6 km vĂ€ster om Alsike. + +Befolkningsutveckling + +SamhĂ€llet +Orten vĂ€xer öster om jĂ€rnvĂ€gen, mot motorvĂ€gen E4. I Alsike finns skolorna Adolfsbergsskolan 5-9, Alsike skola F-6, BrĂ€nnkĂ€rrsskolan F-4 och S:ta Maria skola F-4. I Alsike finns livsmedelsbutik, pizzeria, nĂ€rlivs, gym och bank. I omrĂ„det finns mest villor och radhus men det finns Ă€ven lĂ€genheter. + +Alsikeklöver +Alsike har givit namn Ă„t vĂ€xten Alsikeklöver, vars första fynduppgift Ă„terfinns i Carl von LinnĂ©s Swenskt Höfrö (Kongliga Swenska Wetenskapsacademiens handlingar 1742). + +KĂ€nda personer frĂ„n Alsike +Allan Ryding + +Referenser + +Externa lĂ€nkar +Alsikeklöver + +Orter i Knivsta kommun +TĂ€torter i Sverige +Alsnö stadga Ă€r en stadga som utfĂ€rdades av kung Magnus LadulĂ„s pĂ„ Alsnö hus, troligen den 27 september 1280, i anslutning till ett möte med stormĂ€n dĂ€r stadgans innehĂ„ll diskuterats. + +Alsnö stadga har av Ă€ldre forskning setts som det dokument som konstituerar ett vĂ€rldsligt frĂ€lse i Sverige. En nyare forskningsinriktning hĂ€vdar dĂ€remot att stadgan snarare ytterligare formaliserar och skriftfĂ€ster ett redan existerande system. + +Stadgans form och innehĂ„ll + +Alsnö stadga Ă€r utformat som ett öppet kungligt brev, det vill sĂ€ga riktat till "allum ĂŸem mannum ĂŠr ĂŸettĂŠ breff se och hĂžrĂŠ" ("alla som tar del av brevet genom att lĂ€sa det eller fĂ„ det upplĂ€st för sig"). Det ursprungliga brevet Ă€r inte bevarat. Stadgan Ă€r kĂ€nd genom tvĂ„ avskrifter pĂ„ fornsvenska frĂ„n 1300-talets första hĂ€lft. BĂ„da texterna kommer frĂ„n handskrifter dĂ€r de utgjort bilagor till VĂ€stgötalagen. Den Ă€ldre, frĂ„n omkring 1325, har tillhört den sĂ„ kallade VidhemsprĂ€sten. + +Stadgans uppstĂ€llning Ă€r standardmĂ€ssig för ett medeltida latinsksprĂ„kigt diplom frĂ„n 1200-talets slut. Den svensksprĂ„kiga förlaga som de bevarade texterna kopierats frĂ„n var sannolikt en samtida översĂ€ttning av ett latinsprĂ„kigt original. + +Stadgan Ă€r indelad i fyra artiklar. Artikel 1 Ă€r mycket utförlig, mer Ă€n tio gĂ„nger lĂ€ngre Ă€n nĂ„gon av de övriga, och kan dĂ€rför anses som stadgans huvudartikel. Den brukar ibland betecknas som "gĂ€stningsartikeln". Artikel 2 handlar om konungs edsöre, artikel 3 Ă€r den som ansetts konstituera eller Ă„tminstone formalisera det vĂ€rldsliga frĂ€lset och dĂ€rför ofta kallas "frĂ€lseartikeln". Artikel 4 handlar om kungliga Ă€mbetsmĂ€ns olaga skatteuttag frĂ„n bönderna. + +Artikel 1 +GĂ€stningsartikeln inleds med en problembeskrivning. Den kungör att det under en lĂ€ngre tid förekommit en âosedâ, nĂ€mligen att resande stormĂ€n med sina följen vĂ„ldgĂ€star bönder utan att göra rĂ€tt för sig. Enligt stadgan tömmer de böndernas lador men aldrigh ĂŠru ĂŸer swa rikir et ĂŸer willia eigh gistĂŠ fatĂžkrĂŠ mannĂŠ hus oc allĂŠn sin cost hawĂŠ vtĂŠn pĂŠningĂŠ, oc nĂžtĂŠ ĂŸet vp enĂŠ littlĂŠ stunð ĂŠr hin fatĂžke hawir lĂŠngi arwuĂ°ĂŸĂŠt fore (ungefĂ€r: "aldrig Ă€r de sĂ„ rika att de drar sig för att gĂ€sta en fattig mans hus och ta sig mat utan att betala och Ă€ter pĂ„ en liten stund upp det som den fattige lĂ€nge fĂ„tt arbeta för"). Stadgan inskĂ€rper dĂ€rför de bestĂ€mmelser som gĂ€ller för vĂ€gfarandes skyldigheter gentemot bönderna. + +Artikeln stadgar att det i varje hĂ€rad ska finnas en rĂ€ttare som anvisar de vĂ€gfarande ett övernattningsstĂ€lle hos nĂ„gon bonde som ska erhĂ„lla ekonomisk kompensation för gĂ€stningen. Bötesbelopp faststĂ€lls för den som tredskar mot rĂ€ttarens beslut. Om en bonde vĂ€grar att ta emot en gĂ€st ska han böta tre mark penningar, av vilka kungen och den resande fĂ„r vardera en mark, hĂ€radet 16 örtug och rĂ€ttaren 8 örtug penningar. Om rĂ€ttaren inte kan anvisa en lĂ€mplig övernattningsplats döms han att betala sex mark, tvĂ„ till den resande, tvĂ„ till kungen och tvĂ„ till hĂ€radet. Om en vĂ€gfarande vĂ„ldgĂ€star en bonde och inte betalar för sig rĂ€knas det som rĂ„n. Den skyldige har dĂ„ en mĂ„nad pĂ„ sig att erlĂ€gga 40 mark i böter, annars döms han fredlös ("uthlĂŠgĂŠr") i hela riket. AllmĂ€nt klargörs att gĂ€stning innebĂ€r en skyldighet frĂ„n vilken endast undantas kungen och biskoparnas egna gĂ„rdar samt de gĂ„rdar som Ă€gs av riddare och vĂ€pnare som Ă€r i kungens tjĂ€nst. + +Artikel 2 +Stadgans edsöresartikel innehĂ„ller ett bekrĂ€ftande av Birger jarls tidigare, numera försvunna, stadgor om edsöresbrott. Den första bestĂ€mmelsen gĂ€ller straffet för den som drĂ€per nĂ„gon i annans gĂ„rd, offrets egen eller tredje parts. En sĂ„dan drĂ„psman döms "vtlaghðer" vilket innebĂ€r landsförvisning. Han mister all sin egendom ovan jord och döms "biltog" (fredlös) över hela riket, vilket innebĂ€r att han saklöst kan dödas av vem som helst om han pĂ„trĂ€ffas inom rikets grĂ€nser. Egendomen delas i tre lika stora delar som gĂ„r till mĂ„lsĂ€garen, kungen och hĂ€radet. MĂ„lsĂ€garen kan dock, om förlikning ingĂ„tts, begĂ€ra hos kungen att förövaren fĂ„r lösa sin biltoghet mot en avgift om 40 mark penningar som gĂ„r till kungen. + +Artikeln stadgar "samu hĂŠmð" (samma pĂ„följd) fĂ„r den som drĂ€per eller sĂ„rar nĂ„gon i kyrka eller pĂ„ tinget, som bryter ingĂ„ngen förlikning, lemlĂ€star eller vĂ„ldtar nĂ„gon eller griper en man för annan mans gĂ€rning. + +Artikel 3 + +Stadgans tredje artikel Ă€r den omdiskuterade sĂ„ kallade "frĂ€lseartikeln". Den meddelar att: +"âŠger vi alla vĂ„ra mĂ€n och vĂ„r kĂ€re bror Bengts mĂ€n och alla deras brytar och landbor och alla dem som i deras gods finns, fria frĂ„n all kunglig rĂ€tt. Dessutom alla Ă€rkebiskopens svenner och alla biskoparnas svenner. Vi vill ocksĂ„ att alla mĂ€n som tjĂ€nar till hĂ€st att de skall ha samma frihetâŠ" + +Det som diskuterats av forskningen Ă€r vad som ska innefattas i "kunglig rĂ€tt". Den vanligaste tolkningen har varit att uttrycket Ă„tminstone tĂ€cker in de ordinarie ledungsskatterna och gengĂ€rden (den kungliga gĂ€stningsrĂ€tten). + +Ett annat problem Ă€r slutet pĂ„ den mening som handlar om 'alla som tjĂ€nar till hĂ€st'. Den slutar nĂ€mligen: "âŠhwem sum ĂŸem ĂŸianaĂŠ hĂŠlst" ("vem de Ă€n tjĂ€nar"). De historiker som vĂ€nt sig mot tanken att Alsnö stadga konstituerar frĂ€lset i Sverige har hĂ€vdat att det endast Ă€r denna detalj som var en nyhet vid stadgans utfĂ€rdande. De menar att en frihet frĂ„n kungliga skatter och pĂ„lagor redan flera Ă„rtionden tidigare genomförts för de mĂ€n som stod i direkt tjĂ€nsteförhĂ„llande till kungen. Alsnö stadga utvidgar enligt denna tolkning en redan befintlig frĂ€lsefrihet till att gĂ€lla Ă€ven de lĂ€gre frĂ€lseskikten; de som tjĂ€nade kungens mĂ€n innefattas nu ocksĂ„ av stadgan i just begreppet "kungens mĂ€n". FrĂ€lsets framvĂ€xt ses i denna tolkning som en lĂ„ngvarig flerstegsprocess dĂ€r Alsnö stadga snarare bekrĂ€ftar redan existerande förhĂ„llanden Ă€n skapar en ny samhĂ€llsklass. + +Artikel 4 +Den sista artikeln förbjuder innehavare av förlĂ€ningar att sjĂ€lvsvĂ„ldigt pĂ„lĂ€gga bönderna nĂ„got slags utgifter eller prestationer utöver de ordinarie. Extra gĂ€stning eller skjutsningar fĂ„r inte förekomma utan att bönderna inom förlĂ€ningen medger sĂ„dana genom beslut vid tingen. Om bestĂ€mmelsen inte följs resulterar det i förlust av förlĂ€ningen och skyldighet att erlĂ€gga ekonomisk ersĂ€ttning till de drabbade bönderna. + +Artikel 5 + +Dateringsproblemet +Forskare noterade tidigt att de bevarade stadgetexternas sjĂ€lvdatering till 1285 inte kunde vara riktig, eftersom det bland de nĂ€rvarande vittnen som nĂ€mns i brevet finns tvĂ„ personer som dog redan 1281. ĂrkedjĂ€knen Bengt i Uppsala dog 9 september detta Ă„r och 25 oktober avled Ă€rkebiskop Jakob Israelsson. Stadgan Ă€r högst troligt utfĂ€rdad före 9 september 1281. Det tidigaste möjliga datumet ges av stadgans inledning (intitulatio) dĂ€r Magnus LadulĂ„s tituleras "sweĂŠ konungĂŠr oc gĂžtĂŠ", en titel som togs i bruk nĂ„gon gĂ„ng mellan 15 maj och 9 juni 1279. + +Det dateringsförslag som fĂ„tt stöd av de flesta forskare presenterades 1948 av Hans JĂ€gerstad och bygger pĂ„ antagandet att översĂ€ttaren har missförstĂ„tt den sannolika latinska dateringsfrasen MCCLXXX quinto Kal. oct. och lĂ€st den "MCCLXXX quinto Kalendis octobris" och felaktigt lagt ordet "quinto" till Ă„rtalet. DĂ€rmed har översĂ€ttaren enligt JĂ€gerstad lagt fem Ă„r till det riktiga Ă„rtalet 1280 och fĂ„tt dateringen 1 oktober 1285. + +Enligt JĂ€gerstad mĂ„ste originalets dateringsfras med korrekt upplösta förkortningar ha varit "MCCLXXX quinto Kalendas octobris", vilket ger 27 september 1280. Dateringen fĂ„r starkt stöd av ett bevarat originalbrev som visar att kung Magnus var pĂ„ Alsnö 26 september. Ett stormannamöte dĂ€r vid den tidpunkten passar ocksĂ„ in i det politiska hĂ€ndelseförloppet med avrĂ€ttningen av upprorsledarna i Stockholm en mĂ„nad tidigare (20 augusti). JĂ€gerstads dateringsförslag har accepterats som det mest sannolika av bland andra Jerker RosĂ©n, Hugo Yrwing och Herman SchĂŒck. Ăven Erland HjĂ€rne och Carl Göran AndrĂŠ har accepterat den som trolig Ă€ven om de framhĂ„llit andra möjligheter. + +Det enda alternativa förslag som fĂ„tt starkt stöd av framstĂ„ende forskare Ă€r andra halvan av maj mĂ„nad 1279. För denna datering framfördes 1911 en detaljerad argumentation av Sven Tunberg som 1951 i en debatt med JĂ€gerstad vidhöll sin uppfattning. Det starkaste stödet har Tunberg fĂ„tt genom att Jan Liedgren, som tidigare stött JĂ€gerstad, 1985 Ă€ndrade sin uppfattning pĂ„ grund av det sĂ„ kallade VĂ€xjöprotokollet. + +Detta protokoll, daterat 15 februari 1280, handlar om de flera grova brott ("uariis et multis criminibus") som begĂ„tts av VĂ€xjöbiskopen Ascer, en av Alsnö stadgas namngivna vittnen. Liedgrens Ă€ndrade stĂ„ndpunkt bygger pĂ„ antagandet att Ascer knappast kan ha medverkat i ett sammanhang som Alsnö möte bara ett halvĂ„r efter det han befunnits skyldig till simoni och sexuellt umgĂ€nge med fyra kvinnor, av vilka tvĂ„ var gifta. Eftersom Ascer bevisligen var biskop Ă€nnu 1286 mĂ„ste han ha dĂ„ fĂ„tt absolution av pĂ„ven. Ett bevarat brev utfĂ€rdat av Ascer 24 juni 1283 i Orvieto under Martin IV:s pontifikat antyder att han sjĂ€lv reste till pĂ„ven för att lĂ€gga fram sin sak. + +Liedgren menar att sĂ„ tidigt som i september 1280 kan Ascer Ă€nnu inte ha fĂ„tt absolution. Enligt gĂ€llande bestĂ€mmelser mĂ„ste han ha legat under "lilla bannet" ("interdictio ingressus ecclesie") och dĂ€rför kan Ascer inte ha medverkat i ett officiellt sammanhang pĂ„ högsta riksnivĂ„ eftersom han inte tillĂ€ts utöva biskopsĂ€mbetet. Resonemanget stĂ„r och faller med hur bokstavstroget den kanoniska rĂ€ttens bestĂ€mmelser följdes i 1200-talets Sverige, en frĂ„ga som aldrig kommer att kunna besvaras. + +KĂ€llor +Hans JĂ€gerstad, Hovdag och rĂ„d under Ă€ldre medeltid. Den statsrĂ€ttsliga utvecklingen i Sverige frĂ„n Karl Sverkerssons regering till Magnus Erikssons regeringstilltrĂ€de (1160-1331) (Stockholm 1948) +Gabriela Bjarne Larsson, Stadgelagstiftning i senmedeltidens Sverige (Stockholm 1994) +Jan Liedgren, "Alsnö stadgas sprĂ„k och datering" i RĂ€ttshistoriska studier band XI (1985) +Herman SchĂŒck Kyrka och rike - frĂ„n folkungatid till vasatid (Stockholm 2005). +Hugo Yrwing, Maktkampen mellan Valdemar och Magnus Birgersson 1275-1281 (Lund 1952) + +Noter + +1280 +Sverige under 1200-talet +Svenska historiska lagtexter +Svensk adel +Edsöre +AdelsrĂ€tt +Adelsö +Alungarvning, ocksĂ„ kallad vitgarvning, Ă€r en garvningsmetod dĂ€r huden behandlas med kalialun och koksalt. Metoden ger ett smidigt och töjbart lĂ€der. Dess bestĂ€ndighet Ă€r dĂ€remot inte sĂ„ god och metoden kan ses som lite av en konservering. I vatten löses de garvande Ă€mnena ut. Vid behov kan dock lĂ€dret bĂ€ttras pĂ„ genom en omgarvning. Alungarvning har ofta kombinerats med andra metoder, till exempel med fett, för att fĂ„ bĂ€ttre hĂ„llbarhet. En populĂ€r svensk specialitet var det sĂ„ kallade SvensklĂ€dret som kombinationgarvades med alun och vegetabiliska garvĂ€mnen. Alungarvade produkter har ytterligare en nackdel. De Ă€r kĂ€nsliga för vĂ€rme och tĂ„l det till och med sĂ€mre Ă€n rĂ„ hud. + +Referenser + +Se Ă€ven + garvning + garvare + +Skinn +Alvastra () Ă€r en ort i Ădeshögs kommun i Ăstergötland, Ăstergötlands lĂ€n. + +Beskrivning +Orten Ă€r belĂ€gen vid södra foten av Omberg och landskapet domineras av Ă„kerbruk pĂ„ den bördiga ĂstgötaslĂ€tten. + +Historik +PĂ„ ett antal platser i Alvastra har arkeologiska utgrĂ€vningar förekommit. Alvastra har varit bebott sedan stenĂ„ldern, vilket Alvastra pĂ„lbyggnad vittnar om. Under vikingatiden fanns en större hallbyggnad dĂ€r sedermera Alvastra kungsgĂ„rd byggdes. Under medeltiden dominerades trakten av Alvastra kloster. Efter reformationen stĂ€ngde klostret och idag Ă„terstĂ„r endast en ruin pĂ„ platsen. DĂ€r uppförs Alvastra krönikespel varje Ă„r. De sĂ„ kallade SverkersgĂ„rden och Sverkerskapellet Ă€r ruiner efter medeltida byggnader som i senare skede fĂ„tt namn efter Sveriges kung Sverker den Ă€ldre, som mördades i nĂ€rheten av Alvastra Ă„r 1156. + +Ă r 1888 stod jĂ€rnvĂ€gen mellan Ădeshög och Vadstena klar och i samband med detta uppfördes Ombergs turisthotell 1892. Hotellet brann 1912, men Ă„teruppbyggdes och invigdes tvĂ„ Ă„r senare. JĂ€rnvĂ€gens stationsbyggnad med vĂ€ntsal och expedition lades öster om klosterruinen, invid dagens riksvĂ€g 50. JĂ€rnvĂ€gen lades ner i mitten av 1900-talet. + +1910 lĂ€t författaren Ellen Key bygga sig ett hem vid Strand pĂ„ Ombergs sydsluttning. + +Namnet +Den Ă€ldsta kĂ€nda namnformen för klostret Ă€r (in) Alvastro frĂ„n 1208. Namnet innehĂ„ller ett fornsvenskt *vazter âfiskeplatsâ. Förleden Ă€r att sammanhĂ„lla med förleden i Ă l(e)bĂ€cken, namnet pĂ„ en bĂ€ck som genom Alvastra rinner ut i VĂ€ttern. Al-/Ă l- innehĂ„ller sannolikt en motsvarighet till fvn. ĂĄll ârĂ€nnaâ, med syftning pĂ„ den djupt nerskurna bĂ€ckfĂ„ran. Tidigare publicerade tolkningar utgĂ„r frĂ„n att namnet Ă€r en sammansĂ€ttning av trĂ€dnamnet al och det fornsvenska ordet vastr (plural vastra, vastrar), som hör samman med verbet vada, och syftar pĂ„ albevuxna vadstĂ€llen över Dags mosses södra utlöpare. eller att al stĂ„r för en religiös byggnad och att Alvastra betyder "kulthuset vid vadstĂ€llena". + +Galleri + +Fotnoter + +Orter i Ădeshögs kommun +Atari ST var en av de populĂ€raste hemdatorerna under andra hĂ€lften av 1980-talet och första hĂ€lften av 1990-talet. Baserad pĂ„ en Motorola 68000 CPU pĂ„ 8 MHz var dess frĂ€msta konkurrent Amiga 500 frĂ„n Commodore. Atari ST utkom i flera olika modeller. + +Datorns operativsystem, TOS (âThe Operating Systemâ), baseras pĂ„ GEMDOS och det grafiska anvĂ€ndargrĂ€nssnittet GEM (Graphic Environment Manager), bĂ„da utvecklade av Digital Research. Tack vare dess inbyggda MIDI-portar var den Ă€ven mycket populĂ€r bland musiker. Den första modellen i Sverige var Atari 520 ST som slĂ€pptes 1985, strax innan Commodore lanserade sin första Amiga-modell, Amiga 1000. + +ST-modeller + Atari 130ST - 128 KiB RAM. Prototyp som visades upp första gĂ„ngen 1985 pĂ„ Winter Las Vegas Consumer Electronics Show. + Atari 260ST - 512 KiB RAM, varav operativsystemet som lĂ€stes in i RAM frĂ„n disk upptog nĂ€stan hĂ€lften och lĂ€mnade inte mycket mer Ă€n 256 KiB ledigt minne, dĂ€rav namnet 260 ST. + Atari 520ST - 512 KiB RAM. + Atari 520ST+ - 1024 KiB RAM. Ersattes snabbt av Atari 1040STF. + Atari 520STF - 512 KiB RAM. + Atari 520STM - 512 KiB RAM. + Atari 520STFM - 512 KiB RAM. + Atari 1040STF - 1024 KiB RAM. + Atari 1040STFM - 1024 KiB RAM. + Atari MEGA ST - 1 MiB RAM. + Atari MEGA ST2 - 2 MiB RAM. + Atari MEGA ST4 - 4 MiB RAM. + + Atari 520STe - 512 KiB RAM. + Atari 1040STe - 1024 KiB RAM + Atari 4160STe - 4096 KiB RAM. + Atari MEGA STe - Motorola 68000 CPU pĂ„ 16 MHz. 1, 2, eller 4 MiB RAM. + + Atari STacy - En portabel Atari ST med en inbyggd monokrom bildskĂ€rm. + Atari ST Book - ErsĂ€ttaren till Atari STacy. + +ST stĂ„r för sixteen thirtytwo vilket Ă€r databussens bredd i bit (16) respektive processorns interna registerstorlek i bit (32). Atari TT har 32 bitars databuss och processorn 32 bitars register. F stĂ„r för inbyggd diskettstation och M stĂ„r för inbyggd RF-modulator, vilket gjorde det möjligt att ansluta datorn direkt till en TV-apparats antenningĂ„ng. ST- och STM-modellerna levererades Ă€ven med extern nĂ€tdel, medan den i övriga modeller Ă€r intern. + +E stĂ„r för enhanced, en förbĂ€ttrad serie med en 12 bitars palett (4096 fĂ€rger), blitterkrets för snabbare grafik och DMA-ljud som skulle bli en âAmiga-dödareâ dĂ„ frĂ€mst vĂ€rsta konkurrenten Amiga500, dock slĂ€pptes den för sent för att hota Amigans försprĂ„ng i rykte och anvĂ€ndning. Ăven MEGA ST2 och MEGA ST4 Ă€r utrustad med en blitterkrets. + +Ăvriga modeller i serien + + Atari TT - Motorola 68030 CPU pĂ„ 32 MHz. + Atari Falcon030 - Motorola 68030 CPU pĂ„ 16 MHz, 1, 2, 4, eller 14 MiB RAM. + +Klonsystem +Utöver de officiella modellerna frĂ„n Atari fanns Ă€ven ett antal kloner: + Medusa Hades040/060 + Milan040/060 + DirecTT + Eagle + Medusa T40 + Medusa FireBee + +Specifikationer +Samtliga modeller har: + Inbyggda MIDI-portar. + ACSI-port (ett SCSI-liknande grĂ€nssnitt) för hĂ„rddisk, tapestreamer och liknande. + 192 KiB ROM dĂ€r TOS och GEM ligger lagrat (frĂ„n 520ST. Tidigare lĂ„g operativsystemet pĂ„ disk och laddades vid start av systemets BIOS). + RS232-grĂ€nssnitt. + Centronics-kompatibel skrivarport. + Tre olika grafiklĂ€gen: 320 Ă 200 i 16 fĂ€rger (50/60 Hz), 640 Ă 200 i 4 fĂ€rger (50/60 Hz) och 640 Ă 400 (72 Hz) i 2 fĂ€rger (monokrom). FĂ€rgerna Ă€r valbara frĂ„n en 9 bitars fĂ€rgpalett (512 fĂ€rger) pĂ„ ST. FrĂ„n och med STe-modellerna utökades paletten till 12 bitar (4096 fĂ€rger) eller mer. +De tidiga modellernas ljudkrets Ă€r en YM2149F frĂ„n Yamaha. + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + +Hemdatorer +St +16-bitarsdatorer +Abba (av musikgruppen skrivet ABBA och som logotyp AáșBA, med det första B:et spegelvĂ€nt) Ă€r en svensk popgrupp, som var aktiv under en tioĂ„rsperiod mellan 1972 och 1982 samt inför lansering av sitt sista studioalbum, utgivet 2021. + +Gruppen bestĂ„r av de tvĂ„ före detta Ă€kta paren Björn Ulvaeus och Agnetha FĂ€ltskog samt Benny Andersson och Anni-Frid "Frida" Lyngstad. Gruppnamnet bildades utifrĂ„n initialbokstĂ€verna i medlemmarnas förnamn. Under hela gruppens karriĂ€r skrevs musik och text av Andersson och Ulvaeus, och fram till 1977 ibland tillsammans med gruppens manager, Stikkan Anderson. + +Gruppens första album var Ring ring 1973. Det stora internationella genombrottet kom i Eurovision Song Contest 1974, dĂ€r gruppen framförde det vinnande bidraget "Waterloo". + +Medlemmarnas Ă€ktenskap upplöstes 1979 respektive 1981, och efter en inspelningssession hösten 1982 Ă€gnade sig gruppmedlemmarna Ă„t andra projekt. Gruppen splittrades inte formellt, men "uppehĂ„llet" drog ut pĂ„ tiden och efter nĂ„gra Ă„r var en Ă„terförening inte lĂ€ngre aktuell. UppehĂ„llet varade Ă€nda fram tills att arbetet med deras nionde studioalbum, Voyage, inleddes. Albumet utgavs 2021 â 40 Ă„r efter deras förra studioalbum. Vid endast ett tillfĂ€lle under uppehĂ„llet samlades gruppen framför tv-kameror; i Lasse Holmqvists program HĂ€r Ă€r ditt liv med Stikkan Anderson 1986. + +Gruppen rĂ€knas som en av de största i musikhistorien och Ă€r en av fĂ„ som vunnit framgĂ„ng över jordens samtliga kontinenter. I mitten av 1970-talet var de försĂ€ljningsmĂ€ssigt vĂ€rldens mest framgĂ„ngsrika popgrupp. Abba har nĂ€rmare 70 singlar som listettor över hela vĂ€rlden och över 60 albumettor. I Storbritannien hade de 18 raka topp 10-singlar, nio singelettor samt nio album som nr. 1 pĂ„ den brittiska topplistan varav Ă„tta i följd (1975â82). Ă r 2014 hade gruppen sĂ„lt 400 miljoner skivor och Ă€r dĂ€rmed Sveriges mest framgĂ„ngsrika musikexport genom tiderna. Abba blev den första popgruppen frĂ„n Kontinentaleuropa/Norden att under en lĂ€ngre tid nĂ„ stora framgĂ„ngar i den engelsksprĂ„kiga vĂ€rlden. + +Abba Ă€r invalda i Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Ă„r 2010 och Swedish Music Hall of Fame Ă„r 2014. + +Historik + +Gruppen bildas (1969â1972) +Gruppmedlemmarna hade redan under 1960-talet haft musikaliska framgĂ„ngar pĂ„ varsitt hĂ„ll; Benny Andersson med Hep Stars, Björn Ulvaeus med Hootenanny Singers och Agnetha FĂ€ltskog och Anni-Frid Lyngstad som soloartister. Andersson och Ulvaeus arbetade tillsammans som musikproducenter och lĂ„tskrivare vid Stikkan Andersons skivbolag Polar Music före Abba-tiden, bland annat för Ted GĂ€rdestad och Hootenanny Singers. + +Ă r 1970 gav Andersson och Ulvaeus ut sin första gemensamma singel "She's My Kind of Girl" under artistnamnet Björn & Benny. Musiken hade de skrivit till filmen NĂ„gon att Ă€lska. Deras första gemensamma lĂ„tar skapade de redan 1966; "Isn't It Easy to Say" och "A Flower in My Garden", vilka bĂ„da spelades in av Hep Stars. Vidare skrev de i slutet av 1960-talet och början av 1970-talet lĂ„tar till bla Brita Borg, Lill-Babs, Lena Andersson och Anni-Frid Lyngstad. + +Ulvaeus och FĂ€ltskog samt Andersson och Lyngstad trĂ€ffades vid ungefĂ€r samma tid och blev tvĂ„ par. Musikproducenterna och lĂ„tskrivarna Ulvaeus/Andersson tog med sina sjungande flickvĂ€nner till studioinspelningar för Björn & Benny-inspelningar samt för andra artister. Den första inspelning som det Ă€r sĂ€kerstĂ€llt att samtliga fyra personer medverkar pĂ„ Ă€r Björn & Benny-singeln "Hej gamle man!" 1970, som lĂ„g tio veckor pĂ„ Svensktoppen. +De tvĂ„ paren upptrĂ€dde pĂ„ scen första gĂ„ngen tillsammans den 1 november 1970 pĂ„ Restaurang TrĂ€dgĂ„rn i Göteborg under namnet Festfolket. Den 13 december 1970 syntes kvartetten i TV-programmet Five Minutes Saloon, dĂ€r de framförde sin version av "California, Here I Come" frĂ„n 1921. + +Ă r 1972 kom de första singelskivorna dĂ€r alla samtliga fyra Abba-medlemmar medverkade pĂ„ skivomslaget under gruppnamnet Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Frida. Den första singel som slĂ€pptes under detta namn var "People Need Love". I USA lanserades gruppens tre första singlar av Playboy Records under namnet Björn & Benny (with Svenska flicka). + +Genombrottet (1973â1975) + +Gruppen deltog under namnet Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Frida i Melodifestivalen 1973 med tĂ€vlingsbidraget "Ring ring (bara du slog en signal)". LĂ„ten slutade pĂ„ en tredjeplats, men detta hindrade inte gruppen frĂ„n att fĂ„ sin första större försĂ€ljningsframgĂ„ng. De svensk- och engelsksprĂ„kiga versionerna gavs ut som varsin singel och placerade sig ganska snart efter tĂ€vlingen pĂ„ första och andra plats pĂ„ KvĂ€llstoppen. BĂ€gge singlarna hade i slutet av mars 1973 sĂ„lts i 100 000 exemplar i Sverige. PĂ„ Svensktoppen lĂ„g den svenska versionen sammanlagt i 17 veckor under perioden 11 mars-1 juli 1973, och de nio första veckorna lĂ„g den etta. + +Eftersom Agnetha FĂ€ltskog födde barn strax efter Melodifestivalen i februari ersattes hon tillfĂ€lligt av Inger Brundin - bland annat under en promotionsturnĂ© i VĂ€sttyskland, Ăsterrike, NederlĂ€nderna och Belgien. Singeln blev etta i Sverige och Belgien och lĂ„g dessutom inom topp fem i Ăsterrike, NederlĂ€nderna, Norge och Sydafrika. + +En Ă€nnu större framgĂ„ng skulle komma Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ dĂ„ gruppen, med det förkortade namnet Abba, framförde "Waterloo" i Melodifestivalen lördag 9 februari 1974. Efter omröstningen stod bidraget som vinnare med 302 poĂ€ng, medan andraplacerade "Min kĂ€rlekssĂ„ng till dig" med Lasse Berghagen fick 211 poĂ€ng. "Waterloo" blev dĂ€rmed Sveriges bidrag i Eurovision Song Contest 1974, vilken avgjordes i The Dome i Brighton, Storbritannien, lördag 6 april 1974. "Waterloo" var inte Abbas sjĂ€lvklara val för Melodifestivalen, dĂ„ de en tid valde mellan "Waterloo" och "Hasta Mañana", men bestĂ€mde sig slutligen för att framföra den förstnĂ€mnda. + +"Waterloo" vann Eurovision Song Contest med 24 poĂ€ng, före Italiens "Si" med Gigliola Cinquetti, som slutade pĂ„ 18 poĂ€ng. Efter sĂ€ndningen intervjuades textförfattaren Stikkan Anderson i svensk TV:s nyheter och fick dĂ„ frĂ„gan varför han skrivit en text om ett slag dĂ€r tiotusentals mĂ€nniskor dog. Anderson svarade att frĂ„gan var cyniskt stĂ€lld och att "Waterloo" anvĂ€nds i symbolisk mening i texten. + +"Waterloo" blev, förutom i Sverige, listetta i flera europeiska lĂ€nder. LĂ„ten blev Ă€ven en hit i USA dĂ€r den som bĂ€st klĂ€ttrade till sjĂ€tteplatsen pĂ„ Billboardlistan. + +Samtidigt som gruppen började fĂ„ internationell framgĂ„ng arbetade Anni-Frid Lyngstad och Agnetha FĂ€ltskog Ă€ven med sina respektive soloalbum och Andersson och Ulvaeus producerade andra artisters inspelningar, dĂ€ribland Ted GĂ€rdestad och Hootenanny Singers. DĂ€rtill skulle gruppen göra promotion för sina egna singlar, med besök runtom i Europa och Nordamerika. NĂ€r de inte hann med att besöka alla platser de önskade, valde de att spela in promotionvideor dĂ€r gruppen framför sina nya lĂ„tar, en slags tidig musikvideo. Det var nĂ€r videorna till "Mamma Mia", "SOS" och "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" visades i Australien som singlarna började klĂ€ttra pĂ„ försĂ€ljningslistan dĂ€r. + +Efter "Waterloo" dröjde det ett och ett halvt Ă„r till nĂ€sta framgĂ„ng i Storbritannien, dĂ„ gruppen fick en hit med "SOS". LĂ„ten lĂ„g som bĂ€st pĂ„ sjĂ€tte plats pĂ„ den brittiska listan, och pĂ„ femtonde plats i USA. En version med svensk text gjordes Ă„ret dĂ€rpĂ„ till Agnetha FĂ€ltskogs soloskiva Elva kvinnor i ett hus. Innan "SOS" hade gruppen slĂ€ppt en rad singlar som inte nĂ„dde nĂ„gon större framgĂ„ng pĂ„ hitlistorna i Storbritannien och USA, men som klĂ€ttrade pĂ„ listor i andra lĂ€nder; "Honey, Honey" (2:a i VĂ€sttyskland), "So Long" (3:a i Ăsterrike) och "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" (1:a i Australien och Nya Zeeland). De tvĂ„ förstnĂ€mnda singlarna klĂ€ttrade pĂ„ listorna i samband med gruppens första EuropaturnĂ© 1974-75. Efter "SOS" slĂ€pptes singeln "Mamma Mia" som lyckades klĂ€ttra till förstaplatsen i Storbritannien, vilket stĂ€rkte gruppens status dĂ€r. + +I slutet av 1975 gavs gruppens första samlingsalbum ut - Greatest Hits. Albumet rĂ€knas som ett av Abbas bĂ€st sĂ€ljande album nĂ„gonsin, mycket tack vare försĂ€ljningsframgĂ„ngarna i Storbritannien och USA. Albumet blev gruppens första etta pĂ„ albumlistan i Storbritannien, dĂ€r det blev det första av Ă„tta Abba-album i rad att nĂ„ förstaplatsen. I Storbritannien kom albumet att bli det andra mest sĂ„lda albumet under hela 1970-talet, endast Simon & Garfunkels Bridge over Troubled Water hade större framgĂ„ngar under decenniet. + +VĂ€rldsturnĂ©er och försĂ€ljningsframgĂ„ngar (1976â1979) + +Mellan 1974 och 1980 kom gruppen att ha nio singelettor pĂ„ Englandslistan och en i USA. Abba var pĂ„ toppen av sin karriĂ€r vid en tid dĂ„ europeisk popmusik skattades högt i USA. Intresset för Abba kulminerade i USA samtidigt som punk och new wave ökade i popularitet i Europa. Gruppen var ocksĂ„ populĂ€r i östra Europa trots den kommunistiska diktaturen. Abba gĂ€stade tv-shower i sĂ„vĂ€l Polen som Ăsttyskland. +Med koreografi av Graham Tainton och scenklĂ€der av Owe Sandström lyckades gruppen skaffa sig uppmĂ€rksamhet inte bara för musiken. + +Ă r 1976 var Abba en av vĂ€rldens mest populĂ€ra musikgrupper, med lĂ„tar som "Fernando", "Knowing Me, Knowing You", "Money, Money, Money" och "Dancing Queen". Den sistnĂ€mnda blev gruppens tredje raka etta pĂ„ brittiska UK Singles Chart dĂ€r den toppade listan sex veckor i följd september-oktober 1976. LĂ„ten lyckades Ă€ven klĂ€ttra till förstaplatsen pĂ„ Billboardlistan i USA vĂ„ren 1977. + +"Dancing Queen" hade framförts första gĂ„ngen i en tysk TV-show vĂ„ren 1976 och den 18 juni framförde gruppen lĂ„ten vid en TV-sĂ€nd gala frĂ„n Kungliga operan i Stockholm, tillĂ€gnad Sveriges kung Carl XVI Gustaf och Silvia Sommerlath, som dagen efter skulle gifta sig i Storkyrkan i Stockholm. "Dancing Queen" hade inte skrivits till kungabröllopet med drottning Silvia som inspiration; gruppen valde att framföra den nya lĂ„ten vid TV-galan eftersom titeln och "drottningtemat" passade just dĂ„. + +Gruppens första vĂ€rldsturnĂ© tog dem genom Europa och Australien 1977 och dokumenterades i Lasse Hallströms lĂ„ngfilm Abba â the Movie, som fick biopremiĂ€r i december samma Ă„r. NĂ€r turnĂ©n kom till London, genomfördes tvĂ„ utsĂ„lda konserter i Royal Albert Hall, 13 och 14 februari 1977. Biljettköp var endast möjligt genom postansökning och efter konserterna redovisades siffror pĂ„ 3,5 miljoner biljettansökningar. Detta hade rĂ€ckt till att fylla arenan 580 gĂ„nger. + +Den första konserten i Australien, pĂ„ Sydney Showgrounds med 20 000 personer i publiken, drabbades av hĂ„rt regn och trots riskerna med all elektrisk utrustning pĂ„ scenen genomfördes konserten. Det enda missöde som intrĂ€ffade var att Anni-Frid Lyngstad i ett dansnummer halkade pĂ„ scenen. TurnĂ©n avslutades i Perth den 12 mars och under sina elva konserter i Australien hade gruppen upptrĂ€tt för 160 000 personer. + +Hysterin kring gruppen i samband med turnĂ©n i Australien fĂ„ngades i Hallströms film och har pĂ„ senare tid kommenterats av Agnetha FĂ€ltskog i hennes sjĂ€lvbiografi som en stressfylld upplevelse; "Det var feber. Det var hysteri. Det var ovationer. Det var svettiga, besatta folkmassor. Ibland var det otĂ€ckt. Jag kĂ€nde det som om man skulle suga tag i mig sĂ„ att jag aldrig skulle komma loss." + +Det tog lĂ„ng tid för gruppen att fĂ€rdigstĂ€lla nĂ€sta studioalbum, det som skulle komma att bli Voulez-Vous. Inspelningarna till det nya albumet hade börjat vĂ„ren 1978 och flertalet melodier ratades lĂ€ngs vĂ€gen, vilket resulterade i att utgivningsdatumet sköts fram till vĂ„ren 1979, istĂ€llet för hösten/vintern 1978, som först var planerat. Parallellt med studioarbetet gjorde gruppen en promotionsturnĂ© i Europa och USA, under vilken singeln "Take a Chance on Me" klĂ€ttrade till tredje plats pĂ„ den amerikanska listan. I Storbritannien hade den toppat singellistan tre veckor i följd som deras pĂ„ nytt tredje raka listetta efter "Knowing Me, Knowing You" och "The Name of the Game" 1977. Hösten 1978 slĂ€ppte gruppen den discoorienterade lĂ„ten "Summer Night City" och Andersson och Ulvaeus bekrĂ€ftade influenser av Bee Gees framgĂ„ngar med soundtracket till lĂ„ngfilmen Saturday Night Fever inför produktionen av det kommande albumet. Till Voulez-Vous koncentrerade de sig Ă€ven pĂ„ att göra raka poplĂ„tar mer Ă€n att visa upp variation och mĂ„ngsidighet, vilket gjorts pĂ„ gruppens tidigare album. + +Eftersom medlemmarna hade svĂ„rt att förena karriĂ€ren med privatlivet, upplevde gruppen en hel del slitningar. Ulvaeus och FĂ€ltskog ansökte om skilsmĂ€ssa i början av 1979. + +Hösten 1979 turnerade gruppen i Europa, USA och Kanada. VĂ„ren 1980 fortsatte turnĂ©n till Japan, vilket skulle bli deras sista konsertturnĂ©. Konserterna i London, Storbritannien, i november 1979 filmades av Sveriges Television och sammanstĂ€lldes i TV-specialen Abba in Concert och flertalet ljudinspelningar frĂ„n dessa konserter har senare givits ut. + +De sista Ă„ren (1980â1983) +Under 1980 slĂ€pptes tvĂ„ singlar som blev gruppens sista ettor pĂ„ brittiska singellistan: "The Winner Takes It All" och "Super Trouper". + +Gruppens Ă„ttonde studioalbum, The Visitors, utgavs i slutet av 1981. Det var det första albumet i vĂ€rlden som trycktes pĂ„ CD-format, men Billy Joels 52nd Street fick förtur ut till skivhandeln. + +Anledningen till albumets mörka texter och dystra sound förklarar Anni-Frid Lyngstad i Carl-Magnus Palms bok Abba - mĂ€nniskorna och musiken: "NĂ€r man har gĂ„tt igenom en separation, som vi ju allihop hade gjort dĂ„, sĂ„ pĂ„verkar det förstĂ„s atmosfĂ€ren i studion. [...] Den glĂ€dje som alltid fanns i vĂ„ra sĂ„nger, Ă€ven om sĂ„ngen i sig sjĂ€lv var sorgsen, var borta. Vi hade glidit ifrĂ„n varandra som mĂ€nniskor, och den samhörighet som alltid hade varit en del av vĂ„ra inspelningar fanns inte kvar lĂ€ngre." +Ăven skivomslaget Ă€r mörkt och dystert. Fotografiet togs i Julius Kronbergs ateljĂ© pĂ„ Skansen i Stockholm efter att albumdesignern Rune Söderqvist fĂ„tt idĂ©n om att skivtitelns besökare kunde vara Ă€nglar samt att lĂ„ten Like an Angel Passing Through My Room skulle finnas med pĂ„ albumet. Han kom att tĂ€nka pĂ„ Kronbergs mĂ„nga Ă€nglamotiv och bestĂ€mde att fotot skulle tas i Kronbergs ateljĂ©. Fotografiet domineras av Kronbergs tavla förestĂ€llande Eros. Fotografiet togs sent pĂ„ hösten 1981 och ateljĂ©n var ouppvĂ€rmd. + +Under första halvan av 1982 var gruppens inriktning att spela in ytterligare ett album och tre lĂ„tar spelades in: "I am the City" (utgiven 1993, pĂ„ samlingsalbumet More Abba Gold â More Abba Hits), "You Owe Me One" (B-sida pĂ„ sista singeln) och "Just Like That" (Ă€n idag outgiven i sin helhet). Arbetet med albumet stoppades för att i stĂ€llet inriktas pĂ„ att slĂ€ppa ett samlingsalbum, The Singles: The First Ten Years, med de mest sĂ€ljande singlarna de senaste tio Ă„ren, plus tvĂ„ nya lĂ„tar som slĂ€pptes som singlar: "The Day Before You Came" och "Under Attack". + +Sista gĂ„ngen Abba upptrĂ€dde tillsammans var den 11 december 1982, dĂ„ de medverkade i det brittiska TV-programmet Late, Late Breakfast Show via satellit frĂ„n Stockholm. I början av 1983 slĂ€pptes singeln "Under Attack", men vid detta tillfĂ€lle var inte gruppen verksam lĂ€ngre. Gruppen upplöstes inte formellt â istĂ€llet togs en oannonserad paus för att arbeta med andra projekt och "pausen" blev lĂ€ngre Ă€n vad nĂ„gon kunnat ana - de Ă„tervĂ€nde till inspelningsstudion för att spela in ny musik som slĂ€pptes 2021. + +Projekt efter Abba + +Efter att gruppen slutade spela in sĂ„nger tillsammans har Benny Andersson och Björn Ulvaeus skapat musikalerna Chess (tillsammans med Tim Rice) och Kristina frĂ„n DuvemĂ„la. De var ocksĂ„ delaktiga i arbetet med musikalen Mamma Mia!, baserad pĂ„ gruppens musik. Andersson har Ă€ven arbetat som lĂ„tskrivare och musikproducent för bland annat Gemini, Orsa spelmĂ€n, Ainbusk Singers och Josefin Nilsson. Sedan Ă„r 2000 har han haft stora framgĂ„ngar i Sverige med Benny Anderssons orkester. + +Anni-Frid Lyngstad har slĂ€ppt tre soloalbum: Something's Going On 1982, Shine 1984, och Djupa andetag 1996. Hon har Ă€ven sjungit duett med exempelvis Phil Collins, Ratata, Marie Fredriksson och Filippa Giordani. + +Agnetha FĂ€ltskog har givit ut fem egna soloalbum, 1983, 1985, 1988, 2004 och 2013. Hon har Ă€ven medverkat som skĂ„despelare i lĂ„ngfilmen Raskenstam frĂ„n 1982. Hon har sjungit duett med bland annat Peter Cetera, Tomas Ledin, Ola HĂ„kansson och Gary Barlow. + +NypremiĂ€r +Intresset för Abba Ă„teruppvĂ€cktes i början av 1990-talet. Ă r 1992 gav synthpopgruppen Erasure ut en EP med covers pĂ„ fyra AbbalĂ„tar, Abba-esque, och i London startades en discorevivalklubb som spelade en av gruppens lĂ„tar varje timme. Samlingsalbumet Abba Gold â Greatest Hits gavs ut strax dĂ€refter, och den kom att bli det mest sĂ„lda albumet i Storbritannien under 1990-talet. Skivan, och dess uppföljare More Abba Gold â More Abba Hits, sĂ„lde i stora upplagor i hela vĂ€rlden. I slutet av 1990-talet kom samtliga gruppens album Ă„ter ut i CD-format med ljudet restaurerat under ledning av Michael B. Tretow. Han satte Ă€ven ihop medleyt Undeleted till utgivningen av CD-boxen Thank You for the Music 1994. + +Ă r 2005 slĂ€ppte Madonna sin lĂ„t "Hung Up" dĂ€r hon har samplat gruppens lĂ„t "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" frĂ„n 1979. LĂ„ten blev en stor internationell framgĂ„ng och toppade listorna i över 20 lĂ€nder. Det Ă€r, jĂ€mte hiphopgruppen The Fugees "Rumble in the Jungle", enda gĂ„ngen som lĂ„tskrivarna Andersson/Ulvaeus givit tillstĂ„nd att sampla en Abba-inspelning. + +Musikalen Mamma Mia! hade premiĂ€r pĂ„ Prince Edwards Theatre i Londons West End den 6 april 1999, 25 Ă„r efter gruppens seger i Eurovision Song Contest. Musikalen har manus av Catherine Johnson och baseras pĂ„ gruppens lĂ„tar och har sedan dess spelats över hela vĂ€rlden och översatts till flera sprĂ„k. Andersson och Ulvaeus har varit inblandade i arbetet med musikalen. Filmen Mamma Mia! baseras pĂ„ musikalen och sattes upp pĂ„ biografer 2008. + +I maj 2013 öppnades Abbamuseet pĂ„ DjurgĂ„rden i Stockholm. Sexton mĂ„nader senare hade museet besökts av en halv miljon besökare. I januari 2016 togs nĂ€sta steg i Mamma Mia!-historien, dĂ„ Mamma Mia! The Party öppnade pĂ„ Gröna Lund i Stockholm. + +Ă terförening +Gruppen gjorde en tillfĂ€llig Ă„terförening i januari 1986 för att inför tv-kameror sjunga "Tivedshambo" i SVT:s program HĂ€r Ă€r ditt liv. ĂnskemĂ„l och rykten om tillfĂ€lliga comebacker har sedan dess avvisats av samtliga medlemmar. Ă r 2000 tackade gruppmedlemmarna nej till ett erbjudande om en miljard dollar för en Ă„terföreningsturnĂ©. Gruppmedlemmarna har endast vid ett fĂ„tal tillfĂ€llen visat sig tillsammans vid offentliga tillstĂ€llningar, som exempelvis vid den svenska galapremiĂ€ren av spelfilmen Mamma Mia! pĂ„ biografen Rival den 4 juli 2008 samt vid invigningen av Mamma Mia! The Party i januari 2016. + +Den 5 juni 2016 arrangerade Andersson och Ulvaeus en privat fest pĂ„ Berns salonger i Stockholm för att fira att det var 50 Ă„r sedan som de trĂ€ffats för första gĂ„ngen, den 5 juni 1966. Vid ett tillfĂ€lle under festen stod hela Abba-kvartetten samtidigt pĂ„ scen och sjöng "The Way Old Friends Do". + +Den 27 april 2018 meddelade gruppen i ett pressmeddelande att de samlats i inspelningsstudion och spelat in tvĂ„ nya lĂ„tar; "I Still Have Faith in You" och "Don't Shut Me Down". Vid en livesĂ€ndning pĂ„ Youtube 2 september 2021 meddelade Björn Ulvaeus och Benny Andersson att ett helt album med 10 nya lĂ„tar spelats in och att albumet med titeln Voyage slĂ€pps den 5 november 2021. I samband med livesĂ€ndningen presenterades de tvĂ„ lĂ„tarna "I Still Have Faith in You" och "Don't Shut Me Down" digitalt och som en fysisk dubbel-singel. Efter mĂ„nga Ă„rs förberedande arbete presenterades samtidigt att konsertupplevelsen Abba Voyage planerades ha premiĂ€r i början av juni 2022, i en specialbyggd arena i London, kallad Abba Arena. Konserten bestĂ„r av en liveorkester dĂ€r popgruppen nĂ€rvarar som hologram av sig sjĂ€lva som gruppen sĂ„g ut 1977 och materialet bestĂ„r av klassiska Abba-lĂ„tar frĂ„n gruppens karriĂ€r, men ocksĂ„ tvĂ„ nyinspelade lĂ„tar. + +Abba-soundet + +Ănda frĂ„n början uppmĂ€rksammades Abba för musikens speciella ljudbild. Arkitekten bakom detta sound var ljudteknikern Michael B. Tretow, som hade hĂ€mtat inspiration frĂ„n Phil Spectors inspelningsteknik. Soundet utvecklades under lĂ„nga studiosessioner. Enligt Tretow bestod en del av processen att lĂ€gga mĂ„nga likadana spĂ„r, till exempel FĂ€ltskogs och Lyngstads sĂ„ng, bredvid varandra i mixen med varierande tidsförskjutning. Detta gav enligt Tretow en fyllig, "glittrande" upplevelse. Tretow var ljudtekniker pĂ„ samtliga av gruppens inspelningar under 1970- och 1980-talen. + +Ytterligare en viktig aspekt var de musiker som arbetade med gruppen. Andersson och Ulvaeus anvĂ€nde i stor utrĂ€ckning samma studiomusiker under hela Abbatiden, dĂ€ribland gitarristerna Lasse Wellander och Janne Schaffer, basisten Rutger Gunnarsson samt trummisen Ola Brunkert. PĂ„ grund av de komplicerade ljudbilder som Andersson, Ulvaeus och Tretow efterstrĂ€vade blev studiosessionerna slitsamma för musikerna. Studiomusikerna medföljde Ă€ven gruppen pĂ„ flertalet turnĂ©er dĂ€r de Ă„terskapade mycket av studiosoundet. + +Ă r 1978 byggdes Polar Studios pĂ„ Kungsholmen i Stockholm, dĂ€r gruppen kom att göra alla sina resterande inspelningar fram till 1982, med undantaget för bakgrundsmusiken till "Voulez-Vous" som delvis spelades in i Miami, USA 1979. Innan dess hade gruppen bokat in sig i olika studior över skilda delar av Stockholm och undantagsvis utanför huvudstadsregionen. + +Kritiken mot Abba + +Gruppens genombrott kom under den svenska musikrörelsens (proggens) storhetstid, dĂ„ det i medier och kulturliv fanns en utbredd misstro mot den typ av musik som Abba spelade, vilken ansĂ„gs vara alltför kommersiellt inriktad. NĂ€r Sverige 1975 skulle arrangera Eurovision Song Contest bildades dĂ€rför en sĂ„ kallad "antikommersiell folkfront" med stöd av bland annat KulturrĂ„det, kulturnĂ€mnden i Stockholms stad, producentföreningen pĂ„ Sveriges Radio och olika musikerorganisationer. + +Abbas glammiga image stod i djup kontrast till den musikvĂ„g som var tongivande inom antikommersiella kretsar i Sverige och i Ulf Dagebys lĂ„t "Doin' the omoralisk schlagerfestival" frĂ„n 1975 kritiseras gruppen bland annat för sina plastklĂ€der. + +Filmer + +Musikvideor + +Abba var en av pionjĂ€rerna nĂ€r det gĂ€ller musikvideor. De gjorde sina första videor lĂ„ngt före MTVs tid (MTV startade 1981 i USA). + +"Waterloo" var den första musikvideon gruppen gjorde. Detta skedde i samarbete med regissör Lasse Hallström. Videon filmades i juli 1974 och samtidigt filmade man Ă€ven en video till "Ring ring". Hallström var ett naturligt val för gruppen dĂ„ han redan pĂ„ 1960-talet hade filmat musikarrangemang för SVT. Samarbetet med Hallström fortsatte och han regisserade alla utom de tvĂ„ sista av Abbas musikvideor ("The Day Before You Came" och "Under Attack", vilka regisserades av Kjell Sundvall och Kjell-Ă ke Andersson). + +Lasse Hallströms sĂ€tt att göra musikvideor kom att bli stilbildande; hans filmning av nĂ€rbilder av medlemmarna i profil och en face anvĂ€ndes i flertalet av gruppens musikvideor. + +Gruppen anvĂ€nde sĂ€llan skĂ„despelare i sina musikvideor, men tvĂ„ undantag Ă€r "When I Kissed the Teacher" dĂ€r Magnus HĂ€renstam figurerar som lĂ€rare och "The Day Before You Came" dĂ€r Jonas Bergström spelar Agnetha FĂ€ltskogs förĂ€lskelse. + +Spelfilmer +Lasse Hallström regisserade Abba â the Movie 1977 som en semi-dokumentĂ€r dĂ€r tittaren ges en inblick i gruppens turnĂ© i Australien tidigare samma Ă„r. I filmatiseringen av musikalen Mamma Mia! frĂ„n 2008 syns Andersson och Ulvaeus som statister. LikasĂ„ i den 2004 producerade kortfilmen The Last Video Ever medverkar alla fyra gruppmedlemmar som statister, medan gruppens musik framförs av dockor. Bland skĂ„despelarna mĂ€rks Loa Falkman, Rik Mayall, Sissela Kyle och Robert Gustafsson. + +Flertalet av gruppens lĂ„tar förekommer i de australiska filmerna Muriels bröllop och Priscilla â öknens drottning (bĂ€gge frĂ„n 1994). Gruppens musik har Ă€ven förekommit i flera svenska och utlĂ€ndska lĂ„ngfilmer; Tillsammans (2000) av Lukas Moodysson och Spike Lees Summer of Sam (1999) Ă€r tvĂ„ exempel. I ĂnglagĂ„rd av Colin Nutley hörs lĂ„ten "Mamma Mia" i en bilstereo, "Does Your Mother Know" spelas i Johnny English dĂ€r Rowan Atkinson mimar till sĂ„ngen. Ăven i filmen Morgan PĂ„lsson - vĂ€rldsreporter anvĂ€nds gruppens musik och Abba nĂ€mns ofta i filmen. I Göta kanal frĂ„n 1981 lyssnar kronofogden pĂ„ "Money, Money, Money". I The Martian frĂ„n 2015 med Matt Damon spelas "Waterloo" vid ett avgörande tillfĂ€lle i filmen. + +Priser och utmĂ€rkelser +1974- Vinner Eurovision Song Contest +1979 â Svenska grammofonpriset för Voulez-Vous +1981 â Svenska grammofonpriset för Super Trouper +1982 â Spelmannen +1993 â Grammisgalans hederspris +1999 â Rockbjörnen som "Ă rhundradets svenska grupp/artist" +2005 â Grammis för Ă„rets musik-dvd: Abba â the Movie +2010 â Invalda i Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum +2014 â Invalda i Swedish Music Hall of Fame + +Ă ret 2023 uppkallades ett slĂ€kte hjulspindlar med arten Abba transversa efter popgruppen. + +Abba-museet + +Abbamuseet (formellt engelska: ABBA The Museum) Ă€r ett museum över Abba belĂ€get vid DjurgĂ„rdsvĂ€gen 68 pĂ„ DjurgĂ„rden i Stockholm. Huset började uppföras vĂ„ren 2012 efter ritningar av Johan Celsing Arkitektkontor. NĂ€rheten till Liljevalchs konsthall frĂ„n 1916 stĂ€llde höga krav pĂ„ utformningen. + +I samma byggnad ligger ett hotell som öppnade i april 2013 och museet den 7 maj 2013. + +PĂ„ museet finns en rekonstruktion av Polarstudion, dĂ€r Abba spelade in sina lĂ„tar frĂ„n 1978. Det finns ett piano som Ă€r sammankopplat med ett piano i Benny Anderssons studio. NĂ€r Andersson spelar i sin studio, börjar museets piano att sjĂ€lvspela. + +PĂ„ museet finns Ă€ven en samling originalföremĂ„l frĂ„n vinsten i Eurovision Song Contest 1974 och vidare genom gruppens hela karriĂ€r. + +Diskografi + +Studioalbum + +Filmografi + 1977 â Abba â the Movie + 1980 â Abba in Concert + 1992 â Abba Gold (musikvideosamling) + 1993 â More Abba Gold (musikvideosamling) + 2004 â The Definitive Collection (musikvideosamling) + 2004 â Abba â The Last Video Ever (kortfilm) + 2008 â Mamma Mia! + 2018 â Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again + +Inspelningar pĂ„ flera sprĂ„k +Abba har gjort inspelningar pĂ„ andra sprĂ„k Ă€n engelska, för att nĂ„ framgĂ„ngar i olika sprĂ„kterritorier. Det frĂ€msta exemplet Ă€r albumet Gracias Por La MĂșsica frĂ„n 1980, dĂ„ FĂ€ltskog och Lyngstad tillsammans med ljudtekniker Michael B. Tretow Ă„tervĂ€nde till gruppens Ă€ldre inspelningar för att lĂ€gga pĂ„ ny sĂ„ng med spansk text. Samtliga inspelningar som listas nedan Ă€r av Abba. + +Förutom de ovan nĂ€mnda inspelningarna av gruppen sjĂ€lva, har följande översĂ€ttningar gjorts och spelats in av andra artister. Vid nĂ„gra av dessa inspelningar/översĂ€ttningar har en eller flera gruppmedlemmar varit involverade. + +1 av Frida, album: Frida ensam +2 av Agnetha FĂ€ltskog, album: Elva kvinnor i ett hus +3 av Streaplers, album: Du mĂ„ste skynda dig, text: Ingela "Pling" Forsman +4 i musikalen Mamma Mia!, text: Niklas Strömstedt +5 av Birgitta WollgĂ„rd & Salut +6 av Schytts, album: HĂ„lligĂ„ng 5 +7 av Vikingarna, album: Kramgoa lĂ„tar 2 +8 av Schytts, album: HĂ„lligĂ„ng 2 +9 av Lena Andersson +10 av Kimmik +11 av Mireille Mathieu + +Se Ă€ven + Abba:s outgivna lĂ„tar + Abbamuseet + Abba â The Tribute + +Referenser + +Noter + +Tryckta kĂ€llor + +Externa lĂ€nkar + + ABBA â the Site â officiell webbplats + Diskografi och Abba pĂ„ topplistor i Sverige + + Benny före ABBA + + +Artister som vunnit i Eurovision Song Contest +Artister som representerat Sverige i Eurovision Song Contest +Grammis-vinnare +Deltagare i Melodifestivalen 1973 +Deltagare i Melodifestivalen 1974 +Deltagare i Eurovision Song Contest 1974 +Rock and Roll Hall of Fame +Palindromer +Musikgrupper bildade 1972 +De agglutinerande sprĂ„ken Ă€r en undertyp av de syntetiska sprĂ„ken, det vill sĂ€ga sprĂ„k dĂ€r enskilda ord Ă€ndrar form för att kunna anvĂ€ndas i olika grammatiska sammanhang. I agglutinerande sprĂ„k fogas (agglutineras) en mĂ€ngd affix till en ordstam, och varje enskilt affix kan vanligtvis associeras med en enskild grammatisk funktion, till skillnad frĂ„n exempelvis flekterande sprĂ„k (som arabiska) dĂ€r en mĂ€ngd relaterade ordformer (paradigm) anvĂ€nds för att uttrycka grammatiska roller men dĂ€r varje given form representerar ett helt komplex av grammatiska sĂ€rdrag (som numerus, genus och sĂ„ vidare). + +Begreppet hĂ€rrör frĂ„n det latinska verbet agglutinare, som betyder "att klistra ihop" eller "att sĂ€tta samman". Termen anvĂ€ndes först av Wilhelm von Humboldt och August Wilhelm Schlegel i deras morfologiska indelning av olika sprĂ„k. + +NĂ„gra exempel pĂ„ sprĂ„k som Ă€r agglutinerande Ă€r finska, ungerska, baskiska, nahuatl, japanska, turkiska, swahili, zulu, maltesiska, esperanto, somaliska och forntidens sumeriska. + +Exempel frĂ„n finskan: "taloissansakin" = "Ă€ven i sina hus" +Exempel frĂ„n turkiskan: "AvrupalılaĆtıramadıÄımızdanmısınız" = "Ă€r du en av dem som inte kunde europeisera?" + +Indelningen av sprĂ„ken hĂ€nger samman med den sĂ„ kallade agglutationsteorin, enligt vilken avlednings- och böjningselementen en gĂ„ng varit sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndiga ord, i motsats till exempelvis adaptionsteorin, som hĂ€vdar att Ă€ndelserna frĂ„n början ej haft nĂ„gon sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndig betydelse. Den förstnĂ€mnda Ă€ger den största allmĂ€ngiltigheten, men förklarar inte ensam avlednings- och böjningselementens uppkomst. Ăver huvud taget har dessa indelningar spelat en större roll inom sprĂ„kvetenskapen förr Ă€n i vĂ„ra dagar. Som medel för att bestĂ€mma sprĂ„kens inbördes slĂ€ktskap Ă€r de i alla hĂ€ndelser otillfredsstĂ€llande. + +KĂ€llor + Svensk Uppslagsbok, Band 1, 1947-1955. (spalt 326) +Afrikaans Ă€r ett vĂ€stgermanskt sprĂ„k som talas frĂ€mst av de vita afrikanderna och de fĂ€rgade i Sydafrika och Namibia. Afrikanderna hĂ€rstammar frĂ„n invandrare som frĂ€mst kom frĂ„n NederlĂ€nderna under 1600-talet. SprĂ„ket afrikaans bygger dĂ€rför i grunden pĂ„ nederlĂ€ndska och utmĂ€rks bland annat av delvis förenklad grammatik och ett flertal iögonfallande sprĂ„klĂ„n frĂ„n bland annat malajiska, bantusprĂ„k, khoisan och portugisiska. OrdförrĂ„det överensstĂ€mmer dock till mer Ă€n 96 procent med nederlĂ€ndskans, Ă€ven om vissa förskjutningar i stavning och betydelse har skett. Tidigare kallades afrikaans pĂ„ engelska ofta Cape Dutch eftersom boerna ursprungligen bodde endast i Kapprovinsen. Mer skĂ€mtsamt kallades sprĂ„ket ocksĂ„ baby Dutch. + +Afrikaans skrevs under en period pĂ„ 1800-talet med arabisk skrift bland malajerna som levde frĂ€mst i Kapstaden, som ett religiöst sprĂ„k. + +Flera framstĂ„ende och internationellt kĂ€nda författare skriver pĂ„ afrikaans, till exempel AndrĂ© Brink, Breyten Breytenbach, Etienne Leroux, Marlene van Niekerk, Karel Schoeman och Etienne van Heerden. Den första roman som översattes direkt frĂ„n afrikaans till svenska var Magersfontein, O Magersfontein av Etienne Leroux (2007). + +Klassificering + +Indoeuropeiska sprĂ„k +Germanska sprĂ„k +VĂ€stgermanska sprĂ„k +LĂ„gtyska-nederlĂ€ndska sprĂ„k +NederlĂ€ndska sprĂ„k + Afrikaans (sprĂ„kkod af) +FlamlĂ€ndska +NederlĂ€ndska + +Afrikaans tillhör sin egen subgrupp av de vĂ€stgermanska sprĂ„ken. Dess nĂ€rmaste sprĂ„kslĂ€kting Ă€r det ömsesidigt begripliga modersprĂ„ket, nederlĂ€ndska. Andra vĂ€stgermanska sprĂ„k i slĂ€ktskap med afrikaans Ă€r tyska, engelska, frisiska och de icke-standardiserade sprĂ„ken lĂ„gtyska och jiddisch. + +Afrikaans och nederlĂ€ndska +Uppskattningsvis 90 till 95 procent av afrikaans ordförrĂ„d hĂ€rrör frĂ„n nederlĂ€ndskan, och det existerar endast ett fĂ„tal lexikaliska skillnader mellan de tvĂ„ sprĂ„ken. Afrikaans har en betydligt mer regelbunden morfologi, grammatik och stavning. Det rĂ„der en viss grad av ömsesidig begriplighet sprĂ„ken emellan, framförallt i skriftlig form. + +Afrikaans har dock erhĂ„llit en del lexikala och syntaktiska lĂ„n frĂ„n ett flertal andra sprĂ„k sĂ„som malajiska sprĂ„k, khoisansprĂ„ken, portugisiska och bantusprĂ„ken, samtidigt som afrikaans pĂ„verkats pĂ„tagligt Ă€ven av sydafrikansk engelska. Talare av nederlĂ€ndska konfronteras av fĂ€rre icke-kognater nĂ€r man lyssnar pĂ„ afrikaans Ă€n nĂ€r en talare av afrikaans lyssnar pĂ„ nederlĂ€ndska. Den ömsesidiga förstĂ„elsen tenderar sĂ„ledes att vara nĂ„got asymmetrisk dĂ„ det Ă€r lĂ€ttare för talare av nederlĂ€ndska att förstĂ„ afrikaans Ă€n för en talare av afrikaans att förstĂ„ nederlĂ€ndska. + +Ăverlag sĂ„ kan det Ă€ndĂ„ sĂ€gas att den ömsesidiga förstĂ„elsen mellan nederlĂ€ndska och afrikaans Ă€r bĂ€ttre Ă€n den mellan nederlĂ€ndska och vĂ€stfrisiska eller den mellan danska och svenska. Den sydafrikanske poeten och författaren Breyten Breytenbach sade i försök att beskriva distinktionen att skillnaden mellan standardnederlĂ€ndska och afrikaans kan jĂ€mföras med den mellan tvĂ„ dialekter. + +Historia + +Ursprung +Afrikaans uppstod i omrĂ„det kring nederlĂ€ndska Kapkolonin genom en gradvis avvikelse frĂ„n de europeiska nederlĂ€ndska dialekterna under 1700-talet. SĂ„ tidigt som vid mitten av 1700-talet tills sĂ„ nyligen som vid mitten av 1900-talet kallades afrikaans i standardnederlĂ€ndskan för kökssprĂ„ket () vilket visade pĂ„ den bristande prestigen som sprĂ„ket hade och Ă€ven inom utbildningsvĂ€sendet i Afrika. Andra namn för det nederlĂ€ndska sprĂ„ket som talades i Kapkolonin var (Kap-hollĂ€ndska) och andra mer nedsĂ€ttande termer innefattade , och (stympad/bruten/ociviliserad hollĂ€ndska) precis som (inkorrekt nederlĂ€ndska). + +Hans den Besten skriver att modern afrikaans kan hĂ€rledas frĂ„n tvĂ„ kĂ€llor: +NederlĂ€ndskan som talades i kapkolonin, direkttransplantation av europeisk nederlĂ€ndska till Sydafrika +Hottentott-hollĂ€ndska, ett pidginsprĂ„k med ursprung i det blandsprĂ„k som uppstod mellan de nederlĂ€ndska kolonisatörerna och Khoikhoi-folket. + +Med detta synsĂ€tt kan det sĂ„ledes sĂ€gas att afrikaans varken Ă€r ett kreolsprĂ„k eller en direkt Ă€ttling till den europeiska nederlĂ€ndskan, utan en fusion av dessa tungomĂ„l. + +Utveckling + +Afrikaans kan hĂ€rledas till en grupp av nederlĂ€ndare som slog sig ner vid Godahoppsudden Ă„r 1652. Denna minikoloni fungerade som en proviantstation för de skepp som seglade förbi pĂ„ sin vĂ€g till Ostindien. Dessa nederlĂ€ndare talade diverse dialekter med varandra med ett huvudtryck pĂ„ tungomĂ„let frĂ„n Zuid-Holland. Under loppet av en kort tid utvecklade sig afrikaans kraftigt, och redan under mitten av 1700-talet var afrikaans att se som ett sjĂ€lvstĂ€ndigt sprĂ„k. + +SprĂ„kutvecklingen + +Ănnu idag har forskare inte kunnat enas om vad som Ă€r grunden till den vĂ€ldiga sprĂ„kutveckling som pĂ„ kort tid pĂ„verkade afrikaans. NĂ„gra kallar sprĂ„ket för avancerad kreol, och menar att den nederlĂ€ndska minoriteten var tvungen att anpassa sig efter en mĂ„ngsprĂ„kig befolkning som vid tiden bestod av handelsmĂ€n och slavar. Denna teori bygger pĂ„ den snabba förenklingen av nederlĂ€ndska som resulterade i ett pidgin-lingua-franca, som anvĂ€ndes som det enda gemensamma sprĂ„ket som talades av invĂ„narna i Kapkolonin â nederlĂ€ndare, malajer, portugiser, hottentotter och franska hugenotter. Andra experter, speciellt bland afrikander, menar att afrikaans Ă€r nederlĂ€ndska som genomgĂ„tt en helt naturlig utveckling och hĂ€nvisar likasĂ„ till hur engelskan förĂ€ndrats under tidigare Ă„rhundraden. Detta Ă€r dock ett osĂ€kert argument dĂ„ nederlĂ€ndska utvecklade sig till afrikaans under loppet av nĂ„gra fĂ„ generationer. + +I vilket fall Ă€r det sĂ€kert att afrikaa \ No newline at end of file -- GitLab